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DEVOTED  TO  THE  GENERATION  AND 
TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER 


ISSUED  WEEKLY 


VOLUME  XLVII 


January  1  to  June  30,  1918 


McGRAW-HILL  COMPANY,  INC. 

lOTH  AVE.  AT  36TH  ST. 
NEW  YORK 


POWER 


U7 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME  XLVII 


January  1  to  June  30,  1918 


EXPLANATORY    \OTIS 

Illustrated  articles  are  marked  with  au  an- 
tertsk  (•),  Ujuk  notitcs  with  a  dagger  i+j  iu- 
Qiuries  With  a  double  dag-grer  (t).  The  cross 
references  coiidense  the  material  and  assist  ths 
reader,  but  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  complete  or 
conclusiye.  Bo,  if  there  were  a  reference  from 
Bol  er  to  "Power  plant,"  and  if  the  searcher 
tailed  to  hud  the  required  article  under  the  latter 
word,  he  should  look  through  the  ••Boiler"  en- 
tries, or  others  that  the  topic  might  suggest,  as 
he  would  have  done  had  there  been  do  cross- 
reference.  Letters  are  indexed  under  title  or 
subject,  general  articles  under  writer's  name  as 
well.  jNot  all  articles  relating  to  a  given  tonic 
oecessaril)-  appear  under  the  same  entries. 

Following    is    a    list    of    the    pages    included    in 
the  several  numbers  of  the  volume,  by  date; 
■'°?-       I Pages  1-3S 

O ••  -Jo  -■, 

..      \?., '•  73-lU(i 

.,       ,o ••         107-14U 

*^^?-     ,% ■•         173-208 

,,       \i ■•         208-246 

,.       i^ "         247-280 

Mar        5 "  281-316 

..-     .% •'  317-852 

..       \i, "  353-388 

i" "  388-424 

'■^l-       ' •'  458  486 

..       ,? •'  487-534 

is ■■  635-570 

,.      it "  571-606 

Uav        7 "  607-644 

""*      ,\ ■'  645-680 

.,      i? •'  681-718 

.,      ;i "  719-752 

,„„„     ■'? "  753-786 

■""P.^     ,f "  787-822 

..       \i "  823-860 

..      ,,? •'  861-888 

■"• "  899-934 

A 

Aan.ns.      Possible  saving  in  avoiding  leaks  In 

boiler   setting    g^j. 

Absorption.      See   'Refrigeration." 

Abstracts  from  au  engineer's  letters 144 

Accident   to   turbo-alternator 'ee* 

Accidents — Our   greatest   enemy...  "  '  4.... 

Accidents.    Publicity    about    turbine — c'orre'c- 

tlOn       go 

Accidents — Safety    guard    prevents    injury '.'.'. '•521 

Accidents,    Turbine    3^4 

Addressing     rorrespondencc     to     McGraw-Hill 

papers     '  ^^g 

Adiabatic     and     isothei-mal     exuansion     and 

compression    ±779 

Adjusting  marine-engine  bearings.  McRobert  *120 
Administration  bill.  Early  action  expected  on 
the  103,  The  Administration's  water-power 
k'  I  ^»?V  f*"'  ^''^-  Secretary  Lane  supports 
bill  514.  io  incorporate  all  features  of  the 
Administration  bill  in  the  Shields  bill  532 
Special  Joint  Committee  hearing  641  In- 
terview with  Secretary  Lane '         »fi92 

Advertisers,  A  suggestion  to 667 

Aeronautics,    Ancient     ]  *  '  '    305 

Air-bound   steam    traps.      Sailer.  .!!.'[]!.'.*'    tgYo 

Alr-compres.sor  cylinders.    Lubrication   of 417 

Air  compressor,    BtTect  of  clearance  on...    "}707 
Air  compressor.    Helping  out  a   worn  411 

Alr-compressor-jacket    water.    Air    lift    system 

for *588 

Air-compressor   troubles.      Bailey •912 

Air  compressors.   Volumetric  eBiclency  of .  !  !        744 

Air  control   for  tube  cleaner \\'  •129 

Air.   Disadvantage    of    excess ^  !'.'.!*.!' ±341 

Air  for  cleaning  motors.    Compressed.   Shearer. 

•369    66!^ 
Air-gap    gaging    In    induction    motors     Neces- 
sity of    g,. 

Air,  Heat  required  to  raise  temperature  nf     "■' ±813 
Air  hose.  Record  made 'by  Peerless  No.  4810..   859 

Air  in  ducts.   Velocity  of   .' 223 

Air   lift    for   compressor-jacket   water. !".'.'.'' 'Bga 

Air  line.  Trapping  water  from •2.32 

Air  receiver   eliminates^  moisture .'.'   •gg 

Alabama   Power  Co.,    Warrior  steam    plant  of 

the.     West .300 

Alarm,    High-   and   low-water    •:!.37:    Another 

•7O8 

Alarm,    High-tcniperature.      Brand •769 

Alarm.^  Tank-overflcnv.      Nash •l.ejl 

Alaska's  coal    '.'..'    102 

Alcohol.  A  solid  MKitor  wanted  that  will  ii-se!!      58 
Aldrcd     lectures    on     '•EnglneeriiiK    Practice  " 

'I'lie    .T.     E.     tin.-,.     139.    The    coal    nroblei;,. 

Hailcy    .!(«.    Stemii-electrlc    power-plant    de- 

sii:n.        I,.dzcinix      ,,01 

Alc\iiniler,    M..    Fieath   of j^j 

Alien  employee  and   the   lalmr  turnover    "The        446 
Allen.      What    we    do    and    don't    know    about 

heating     035 

Ally.    The  greatest.      Strohm  ........* .' *\h% 

Alt.      CiiJlnenition    of    public-service    and    tVo'- 

lated    plants   7(., 

Alternatinc-.currenf      .Tutomntic      starters    '  for 

squirrel-cure  inducti..n   motors.      Patterson      'Xf^n 
Alternator.     ^'ertical-'■■Imft    WMtcrwlic"!        .cjtV- 

Pbens •.'i7j 

America's    new    shins.     Training    engine-room 

crews    for.       Howard     •435 


Page 


780 
•22 
829 


243 

243 


.278 


•282 


31S 

898 


4S4 


American  Association  of  Engineers  35,  Grant 
cd  charter  138,  The  engineer's  public  duty. 
Perkins  168,  New  Chapter  in  Philadelphia 
171,  The  American  engineer.  Krom  243, 
Purpose  of  A.  A.  B.  267,  Why  support  the 
A.     A.    E.  ?    308,     New    York    Chapter    643, 

National   coiiperative   convention 

American  blowing  engine  in   Italy 

American  Boiler  Mfrs'.  convention '. 

American   electrical    goods,    Ecuador    and    Peru 

lavor     

.\nierican  engineer.    The .'.'.'.'.'.' .  ." .'  .* .'  .* .'  .* 

American   Engineering      Service      Committed 

iijugineers   in   Gov't  service , 

American  Gas  &  Electric  t;o. — Windsor  power 
station    '210,    50.000    sq.    ft.    condenser    at 

station      

Aniericau  Inst.  Elec.  Engrs.  *262,  246,  Paper 
310,  Midwinter  convention  312,  Boston  meet- 
ing 31o,  Paper  345,  New  York  meeting  603, 
Boston  Engineers'  dinner  643,  675,  Chicago 
Section    675,    Annual    convention    677,    New 

York  meeting  819,  Paper Q32 

American  Institute  of  Steam  Boiler  Inspec- 
tors   

American  Order  of  Steam  Engrs.  .........'.  ' .' 

American  Soc.  Heating  and  Ventilating  Engrs. 
203,    Paper    238,     Charts    by    Breckenridge 

•241,    Paper    

American  Soc.  Mech.  Eng.     See  "Engineers. 
American  Soc.   Hefrig.   Engrs. — The  engineer's 
public  duty.     Perkins  168,  New  York  Section  315 

American,  The  opinion  of  an 774 

Ammeters    were   reversed 93 

.\mmonia,    Adiabatic  compression   of ....!.'.'!  .1273 

Ammonia  and   coal.    Saving 703 

Ammonia  and  ice.  Pood  Administration  on....   348 
Ammonia-compressor    diiyjrams    for    discussion 

•95,    Discussion    339 

Ammonia  compressor — Engine-room  manage- 
ment in  the  ice  plant.     Friedman 68 

.\mmonia    in    brine.    Testing   for    90 

Ammonia,     Latent     heat     of     vaporization     of. 

Osborne.    Van   Duseu    •632 

Ammonia    oil   separator   explodes V.'.'.W.    674 

Ammonia    situation.    The 228 

Ancient   Aeronautics    \\',    890 

.\ncient   conception  of  heat 582 

.Anderson    fuel-oil    burner !  •614 

Anniversary  of  George  Henry  Corliss,  The  one 

hundredth.      Mueller    ^682 

.\nthraeite.   Burning  Rhode   Island 618 

.\nti-waste    exhibit,     \    traveling •3.14 

-Vpparatus,  "      ■     ■ 

-Argentina, 

Armature 

course 
Armatures 
white     . 
Arrowood. 
Art,    Science  or 
Artistic    license 


Handy  home-made •igo 

Use  of  bran  for  fuel  in 856 

constructiim.      D.-c. — Elec.      study 

'87 

Rewinding  direct-current.     Thlstle- 

^325 

Refrigeration +643 

Taylor    +421 

197 

As  it  is  in  Holland.     Brouwers 738 

.\sh-conveyor   improvements.    Suggested   steam- 
Jet     •923 

-X.'^h  conveyors.   Selection  of  coal  and.     Birch.    ♦82 
Ash-handling  sysrtem.   Buying  an.     Birch   186. 

Explanation  of  criticism 408.   628 

Ash    hopper.    Brick-lined .'•847 

Ash    in    coal.    Composition    of t779 

Ash  Inspector,   Why  not  have  an?  267,  There 

should    l>e    one 430,   520 

Ashes  in  conical   pile.  Weight  of .'•812 

Ashes.    Mono-rail    hoist    handling ^544 

Aslimead.      Future    location    of   central    power 

stations      •661,    665 

Association    of    Iron    and    Steel    "Elec.    Engrs. 
•202.    Announcement  of  meetings   279,    605, 

Paper      .(J39 

As.sociation  of  Ohio  Technh-al   Societies 279 

Atlas    .Selling    Agency — Four-in-one    cartridge 

fuse     ^222 

Atmosphere   a    sulistltute   for   fuel.    Heat  from 

the     559 

Atmofrphere    from    height    of  barometer.    Pres- 
sure   of    , t8l3 

.\tmosTilieric    vapor-absorptloD    system.      Derry  801 
Augustine  rotary  two-cycle  super-induction  gas 

engine ^828 

Australia     and     New     Zealand,     Hvdro-electrlc 

power    development     In.       Schmidt 465     479 

Auto  lock    switch.    Krantz •86S 

Automatic   control    for  belt-driven    nump •.S4r 

Automatic    damper    regulation.      Morris ^183 

Automatii-    Reclosing   Circuit-Breaker   Co. — Re- 
verse-current   rela.vs     ^738 

Automatic   s-tarters    for   squirrel-cage    Induction 

motors.     A.-c..       Patterson •ISO 

Auxiliary    equipment — Tear's    progress    in    the 

power    field     ♦o 

Azhc.     Economy  of  refrigerating  power  plants 

•414.    445 


nnbbift    nlloTs.    Some   characteristics   of 865 

P.nliliitt     Steam     Speclaltv    Co. — Improved    rim 

for  chnln-opernted  valve •R6S 

Bfililiitt   templet   for   thread   size •9« 

Babel.    Modern    towers    of 85g 

Baden     St.-itlon.     Remodeling     the     St.     Louis'. 

Toensfeldt    •8(12 

Baltc-wall    construction.     Turni^r .'  .' .  •fioo 

Biilev.    E.    O.      The   coal    problem 37S 

PtIIcv.    R,    .T,      Alr-romnrcwsor    troubles •012 

r^n"ou,    Kenerson       How    fuel   mar  be   saved..    30ft 
BnItlmore--A   talk  to  firemen   on   savlnir  coal 
Bromley I4fi.  107.  409.  741 


p.andar-log  or   bee  5 ^Ann 

^SX^^y  f.'""'"^  "'  """  P'aV'skVed'k;."  "  Tia 
tora     .."""'    "■"■"'"'»■>    of    d.-c.    genera.  "' 

S^IJf  ^K~^''/  '""■'''"'e '  'iV '  cells  :::::.'::.""•  .*??? 

■^oTa  m''odcHr."':'.'""."'.  .'-.'r^'™'''  '■■'''"'•■'-». 

Beader,    Morris    improved    tube!!! *?o? 

H^bm'    .  -^"•'""""K       "'arineengine.' ■  "mc'- 

u.Ti'P'  ]i'^^"  or   clearance  of  large nl2 

S!^*''i'^-.°''?"'**°K   '»  =°   engine ."'.|s 

Bee,    Bander-log   or'/  .x2 

Belgian  coal  and   coke   indust'ry', '-rh'e'. '.'. Vl 

Be  lows  for  removing  drill  chips .447 

Belt,   Length   of  open ,V^L 

Belts    Lengths  of  splices   for   lea'ther ! .'.'."' "ngi 

Bench   clamp   for   handhole   plates...    "r? 

Bentley       Sight  feed  for  oil  cups! !  !    .gSJ 

k!^?'    «   "Tf  F'""'"   "'■   """lern    ships.!!!'"   672 

Berry  flexible  Joint '^ j!„ 

Bertrande.      Toola   for   splicinif"wir'e" '•'i  ix^ 
rrom    an    enjineer's    notebook    •361, '   •379; 

"'biiaH'n'*"  .'"'•-''."■""e  oil  or  tar  'iu"ci?,i-'"' 
Dination    with    coai...  •oct 

Betson  Plastic  Fire  Brick  Co.— Plastic  "r'e-  " 
fractory    boiler    baffles riasuc    re- 

Bill   reads    "Power,"    Why.  ?»? 

Binder   for    detached    pages ....!!! ..'fl 

•  82  R,?'-^"°°  °'  ^.'""  "■"'  '"'''  co'nv'e'y'o'rs 
'82  Buying  an  ash-haudling  system  186 
Explanation  of  criticism.....     ^  Joo'  ,500 

S'"'^.   ^-7   frown-sheet   flrehox    l»,iler'.  "        ••tS? 

Backstone's    Roll    of    Honor .^sg    i,ii 

■^'Sa'iS^-tr   Trill-:^'.".^^'    ^™"'    -"-'■'-''-  :  ' 

Blocks  cause  racing,  Worn  latch! ! ! fSJ 

Blowers,    .Soot   and   soot ..'.'•'8'24"  844 

BOILER 

See  also  "Power  plant."  "Pump,"  "Water  " 
•Stoker,"    ••Gage,"    "Gas,   flue,"    etc 

—About   preventable   boiler-room    losses •873 

—.Abstracts   from   an   engineer's    letter.^  ili 

^'lH'^Ini"^''  o*„  inclosing  heating  returns! !!  !l523 
— Ar-space  walls   for   boiler   settings ±671 

^    wil'tt    ?    '*''"'''    P'-es-oi'-e    for    stay-bolted 

water  leg ±4R(; 

—American   Boiler   Mfrs.'    convention ola 

"tors'"''   '"''"""'■  "f  '"'■°"'   Boiler 'insp'ec- 

^'^■„''?;.*''  ,'S'„  '^''W'T— 'n'erpretations  'by  'Coili'- 
mittee  136    Tube  thickness  considered  at 

Mass.  hearing 714 

-A.sli^handllng    system      Buying    an.  "  "Birch 

ISb,   Explanation  ..f  criticism  408    6''S 

—Automatic    damper    regulation.       Morris         '•181 

—Bench   clamp    for   handhole  plates tci 

—Blistering  of  boiler  shell '  "  t=as 

— Blowoff    pipe    .scaled JoJg 

—Boiler   capacity   depends ?i| 

— Boiler  firebox  improved  ....  »i]  o 

-Boiler  inspectiu-'s  work.   The.    'Glein!  ! ! .' ! ."  620 
—Boiler    Room    Economics.      Potter,    Sinimer- 

ihg t340 

— Boiler-room   efficiencies.      Weaton....      * ' '  '     98 
—Boiler-room   gage   and    control   board !  '  !  •KOR 

—Boiler  settings.     Bromley  •760,  Chain  gr'a'te 

stokers    .ijg    j,^„ 

— Bonus      plan      for     Iioller-plant     operatives! 

0  Nelll    ,4(57     gjg 

— Bonus    s.vstem    for    liremen   pay.    Does  a'      '  480 
—Burning  natural  gas  under  boilers.  ''    g06 

-Burning  of  dean  water  tubes "tisi 

—Cleaning    water-leg   of   vertical    boiler  'tB'?l 
—College    of    the    City    of    New    York    giving 
lioiler-ronm    course    311.    Course    In    ship- 
building and   navigation 597 

— Combustion    in    l>oIler    hreechlngs.    .'448'    744 
—Combustion    of    North    Dakota    lignites   wltli 
suggestions  for  design  of  furnaces.     Krel- 

slnger    •60S.    625.    Discussion g09 

— Compound  mixing  and  feeding  tank. .  .  ! ! '  '  "•02ft 

— Concrete   lioilers   next \\\   gog 

—Cracks   in   brick   settings.    Closing.!!! ±41.1 

— Cross-sectloual  area  of  smoke  uptake.  .  ! ! !      J779 
—Damage    from    handhole    cover    dropped    in 

water-leg tSfil 

— Diameters  of  fire  tubes  of  hollers.  .!!!!!'  '  t!?77 
—Drilling  and    reaming  boiler   rivet   holes  ±451 

—Dry    crown-sheet    firebox   boiler.      Black      .    ^732 

-Dry  pipe  preferable  to   steam   dome ±745 

-Economizers.    Increasing  the   life  of •438 

-Effect   of   feed-water    temperature    and    rate 

of  injection  upon  steam   flow,     Philo.    •.01. -j 
-Efficiency  by  CO,  analyses  and  fiue  tempera- 
tures.   Determining.      CNeill.  ......  .•.'^2,      58 

-  Efficiency  of  quadruple-riveted  boiler  joint  .'♦f025 
-Electric  welding  stops  leaks  in  girth   seams 

^  "r''^     402 

Efiuipment  on  small  ItoIIers.   Unusual •271 

Ernst   safet.v    gage-glass    •40fi 

-  Explosion   at   .\bordeen.   Wash !    20S 

— ETvplosion  at  Delaware.   Ohio 139 

—Explosion  at  East  Chicago  kills  seven     31.1 

•.■!S2.  KBtl 

--ExplotHon    at   Ennls.    Texas 717 

-  Explosion   at   Tx>nncoulng     Md 897 

-Explosion   at  Metuchen.   N.   .T 139 

-^Hxploslon  at  Muskegon.  Jllch 897 

—Explosion  at   New   Gall'eo.    Pa 10!i 

—Explosion  at    Onnwnv,    Afich ROT 

-Explosion   at   Peterboro     Out 24.'> 

-Explosion  at  Plum  townsliin.  Pa 42.^1 

-Explosion  at   Providence     R     T.      'K'nowUon. 

:\9.-7.    *\m.   4Tn.    R4.'i 


Jaiuua-y  1  to  June  30,  11)18 


171 


llOlLKiv — CcMitimioa 

— Uxplusioll  111    St.   UwH'SC    S.    _ 

— llJxplosUm  lit   slu'llUniko,    MU'U S»' 

— UxpluNii'ii  lit  SwiiiiM-a,    111 IJl 

— EiplosU'ii  ill  Kstill  t-'v.,  Ky... 
— ExploHLoli   lu  l.u\vi\'in.'e  Co.,   III. 

— ij3xiik>sU'ii    ill   I'fol-ia,    Hi 

— WxpU'isloii  m-iir  liii&trop.  I.a  ■  •  • 
— Mxpiosii'ii  iii'iii'  Clulitou.  AlU.. 
— Kxplosluii   near  Mvl-' 


G77 
.  27U 
.  S87 
.  SM 
.  SS7 
.    24S 


— Iflxiilostuu  of   ei-ulluiiiiZLT   ami    lii'tiL-r   at    .Nuw 

Urleuus,    la .•,'■■."■,■ 

Bxploslou  of     fiii-uui-i;    iKillLT    ut    Moutiunl, 

Cuuaila    ■,;■■■,* 

Bxplosion  of  lioiiiouiaUu  boiler,  tatal 

— Kxulosiou  west  of  Wiisliliittuu,  I'a 

Kxi)lo8lou  wiiiks     tiaiii     uear     JUUUk-lniry. 

Yt 171 

— Ksploslons  uwn-  Conway,   S.   O ••   897 

Favorable     iiuifoniiauco     ol'     liigh     settiug.^ 

StroUB     ,!!V„ 

— Feed-water  beater  and  inter aiu 

Pewl   waters,    Seaie-loriulng   mipuritics   in.  .JiUT 

— Figuring   fiinnue-grate   area    .............   7j« 

Fiuding     and     Stoiiping     Waste     in     Modern 

Boiler    Uooins.       Harrison    Safety    Boiler 

Works     '''"" 

Firebox   boilers,    Some  old.      MeNnniara '045 

—Firing   bituminous   eoal    In    heating   boilers. 

Flagg    '     ,  , 

— 'Fitting  new  seetions  to  a  warped  bviiler . .  .  .  *9;i2 

— Flue  blew  out  at  Little  Falls,  N.   1 139 

Foieiug  boiler.   Best  tblckness  of  tire  for...  1305 

— Furuaee  boiler  exploded  at  BuITalo,    N.   Y..    20o 

— Urate  area  and   tbe  underfeed  stoker 373 

• — Head  blew  off  in  beating  system  at  Colum- 


U33 

7  SB 
5U1 
245 


bus,    Ohio 


171 


— Heating  surface   and   grate  area   lor  steam- 
beating  boiler   ■  •;  •  ■  •  ■  ■  ■  •**°'' 

— Heigbt    of    settings    of    return-tubular    boil- 

ers     T— o 

— Hoisting  boilers    to   second   floor *229 

—Holding   damper    in    position ol» 

Holding  up   tbe  curtain  wall  of  a  stoker. .. '447 

Hydrostatic    test   of    boiler.    Holding   safely 

valves    during     JJ;3 

— Iniprovenient   In  boiler  economy «d» 

— Induced-draft    fan    puzzle b47 

— Injector  will  not  feed  boiler ?''» 

— Injury  by   defectively   repaired   boiler 713 

— Kerosene  as  boiler-scale  remover |451 

— Laying    up    beating   boiler 4S4» 

Leaks   In  boiler   setting.    Possible  saving   1° 

avoiding.     Aarous    •• :  ■  •  ■ ' 

— Locomotive  boiler  exploded  at   Marmet,    \V. 

Va       1"^ 

—Locomotive    boiler    exploded    near    Williard, 

N.    Mex ,■ !*''■* 

— ^Loconiotlve-boller   Inspection.    Annual    report 

104 

442 


Massachusetts  Boiler  Inspection  Department, 

Work  of   the ■.•■■; r„-> 

—Material   for  dump-plate   bearing   bar o'J3 

— Morris  improved   tube  beader i^- 

New  Jersev  boiler  code.  Public  bearing  on..      71 

New  Jersey  boiler  inspection  bureau 41» 

New  method  of  increasing  the  evaporation  in 

boilers.      Hering    ■•■■•■•■ '^"'.rqr 

— Plastic  refractory  boiler  baffles.  .  ... »3» 

— Plates    in    service.    Failure   of.      Wolff lOft 

— Pseudc    data     • '"* 

— Rating  boiler  size  on  heating  surface tlbs 

— Reflnlte  water  softener •  •  ■   <'^' 

— Reminiscences    of    a    boiler    inspector.      Mc- 

Namara     91B 

— Replacing    tube    headers S^ 

— Rerolllng    of    taller    tubes  ■■■■■■■ J ' '  J 

— "Resisto"   furnac'C  paint  and  putty .."7&» 

-Restriction    as    to    operation    of    boilers    in 

Pennsylvania    ■  • • "oB 

—Safety  latch  for  furnace  door.  Howard.  ...  •»«& 
— Scale  at  girth  scam  over  Are.  Deposit  of..ti41 
—Scale  formation.  Why  ^gf  "'I'o^' pol'^^T^Ii'siO 
Screwed  pipe  connections.  Minimum  number 

threads    for     |-^ 

— Second-hand  boilers   in  bad  shape TOd 

— Setting     lioilers     in     battery     at     different^ 

levels    +^7o 

— Single  shear  and  double  shear •.■„V..''2I1 

—Soot   and   soot   blowers ...•824,  S44 

Stacks  for  h.   r.   t.  boilers.   Independent tlb» 

— Steam-boiler  management.   Points  in.      Stro- 


POWER 

i'ago 
WHLEK — Uolili  lined 

---Wisconsin    uiodllica    «eeond  hand    boiler    rul- 
ing       «03 

-   Vear'8  progress   In   the  power   held '2 

Bolting  a   rivet   hole  under  water •S58 

Itouds    on   account    of    war.    Fall   and    rise    of 

Uov't    ^•'■* 

Bonus  for  power-plant  employees.      Lewis. 43S),    44(1 
lUiiiUK  plan  for  boUerplant  operatives,  O'Neill. 

*4tt7,   518 

Bonus  system   for   llremcn  pay,    Does  aV 480 

r.oiius    system,    Llolllds   Mfg.    Co.'s 35 

l'.,,ston  station,  A  35,000-kw.  turbine  Is 
wrecked  In  34»,   •300,  407,  Discussion.  .5U4,   (12!) 

F.ostou,  The  I'lant  Engineers'  Club  of 410 

I'.iiys  who  swing  (he  shovels  down  below,   'i'he, 

Iliinkley    '73,    I'rltlelsm 197 

'  nialey.      Tile   secret    »247,    He   also    serves,  .. '081 

r.ian  lor  iuel  in  Argentina,  Use  of 85(i 

I'.ruud.      High-temperature   alarm •7UU 

LU-eekcliriilge.  I'roductlon  and  uses  of  coal  lu 
the  U.  S.  •241,  I'lant  records  and  the  Im- 
portance of  keeping  them  711,  Future  of 
water  and  steam  power  S57,  Heating  values 

of    fuels    80S 

Bielstord.        Interpreting     steam-turbine     test 

curves     , •SCO 

I'.rennan.  (ias-eiiglne  troubles  and  remedies 
140,  'I'roubles  and  their  remedies  in  gas- 
engine    ignition    s-ystems 200,  775 

r.rlggs.  Lighting  circuit  caused  water-pipe 
joint  to  corrode  '180,  Alternating  current 
cannot    cause    corrosion.       Welghtman    501, 

Spliced   conductors   in   conduits '281 

Biiue,  Testing  for  ammonia  In 91) 

Briquets,    I'roductlon   of    fuel o3|- 

Brltain,    Petroleum    lu o31 

British    thermal    unit   rhyme ot'J 

British  thermal  unit,  The  ultimate 5Sa 

Bromlev.  Relief  for  New  Bnghind  coal  situa- 
tion "•49,  A  talk  to  liremen  on  saviug  coal 
146,  107,  40U,  741.  Tamarack  iMlUs  power 
plant  ^420,  Operating  cost  548,  Correction 
on  price  of  oil  504,  Some  notes  on  turbine 
bearings  and  their  lubrication  7:)4.  Boiler 
settings  •700,  Chain  grate  stokers  '788,  808, 

The  war's  benediction 899 

Brosius.      Condensers   with   70-ft.    water    level^ 

variation    ij- 

Brouwcrs.      As   it   Is   In  Holland '38 

Brushes,    Sandpapering    •  •  •  ■    131 

Bryant.     Steam  to  heat  water  for  house  heat-^ 

ing    ' ^''^ 

Buckeye     Engine     Co. — Emergency     Fleet     e"-, 

gines *  "^ 

Buffalo     General     Elec.     Co. — Handling     feed 

water  at  River  Station 228 

r>ill   ring.    Poorly   designed 94 

Bureau  of  Mines — Deterioration  in  heating 
value  of  coal  durlug  storage  101,  Firing 
Bituminous  Coal  in  Heating  Boilers.  Flagg 
t'^44  Directions  for  Sampling  Coal  for  Ship- 
ment or  Delivery.  Pope  t279,  Determina- 
tion of  Moisture  In  Coke.  Fieldner.  Selvig 
t279.  Methods  for  Increasing  the  Recovery 
of  Oil  Sands.  Lewis  t315.  How  to  sample 
coal  with  a  shovel,  tamper  and  blanket  •476. 
Points  about  storing  coal  530,  Combustion  of 
Coal  and  Design  of  Furnaces  •590,  590. 
Ckimbnstion  of  North  Dakota  lignites  with 
suggestions    for    design    of    furnaces.      Krei- 

singer    -.-■-•  ■ '"08.  O-o 

Bureau  of  Standards — Determination  of  Ab- 
solute Viscosity  by  Short-Tube  Vlscosimeters 
tl39,  Testing  Current  Transformers  t349. 
Combined  Table  of  Sizes  in  the  Principal 
Wire  Gages.  t423.  Bureau's  new  building 
423,  Latent  Heat  of  Vaporization  of  Am- 
monia.     O.«boruc.    Van   Dusen t632 

Burner,    Anderson    fuel-oil ol4 

Burner.    J.   R.    S.   low-grade   fuel 'IM 

Iiiirner,    Johnson    crude    oil 5(8 

Burner,   Lindsay  low-pressure  oil 804 

Burners.    Reducer    for    gas 94 

Burners,   Regulating  fuel  oil 2.» 

Burning    fuel    oil ,•.■■■•.'•■•  :;u  ""  r  ".ic? 

Burning  oil  or  tar  In  comhination  with  coal..^2bl 
Burning    slack    containing    excessive    moisture. 

McCall  ^472,   Erratum  741.   DLscussion 744 

Business   editors   at  Washington 20.     S- 

Buslncss    temporarily   disrupted    in    St.    Louis, 

^'" ■ ;;::::;::::;:::::-.209 


504 
836 


meyer   •,:"•-,■''  .. 

—Steam  dome.   Advantages  and  disadvantages 

of    J165 

— Stets  boiler-feed    controller    ...•800 

-Stoker    capacity    vs.    boiler    forcing    rates. 

Foster    ;  •';•,:•.;■ ' 

— Suggestions  on   the   management   of  boilers. 

Hoffman   .-  ■ 

Superheat    in    forced-draft    stoker    installa- 
tions.     Greene    ■  ■  -  • 

—Supporting    effect    of    boiler    hcad.s.      Mac- 

donald  733,  Discussion   ............ 9-4 

. Trapping  returns   discharged  below  holler,  .tfo^ 

— Tube  blew  out  at  Connellsville.  Pa........    -O-' 

-Tube  blew  out  at  Philadelphia  Navy  Yard..    105 

— Tube  blew   out   at    Sioux   City.    Iowa 34J 

— Tube   cleaner.    Air   control    for l-." 

— Tube    failure   in    water-tube    boilers ^.1.' 

—Tube  thickness  considered  at  Mass.   hearing  il4 

Tubes  Bwav  from  heat.  Deflection  of  water..    t2B 

—Tubes,   rollapsinc  vs.   bursting  pressure  of..}I3.'! 

— Tubes,   Overheating  of  clean   water ifi.T 

— Turner  batTlp-wall   construction ■    02- 

— Unprcventable     losses     In     coal     combustion 

under    boilers.       O'Neill *502 

—Vanishing   factor.    The :;;•;,••;■•    ®'" 

— Ventilated   side   walls.      Caton    •43,    Pr"*'"''-  .„„ 

tlon    of    furnace    walls.      Goder ••.•■!-2x„ 

—Ventilating  the  side  wall  was  unsuccessful.  .•592 
—Water  .it   River   Station,    nandliug  feed....    226 

— ■n'ater  from  a  hnntilig  boiler.   Losing 268 

— Wnter-level    ludicntor    In    c.Tgc-clns-s '27- 

Water   too  low.    Indications   of  carrying. ..  .1631 

^JWhere    does    the    bent    go? '805 

—Wight    elcctri'-nl    lifdler-level    recorder 'IS 


■Buttoning   a    key" 


Ciibles,  Arrangement  of — Operation  and  main- 
tenance  of    elevators.      Whitehead ^704 

Cables  under  concrete  floor.  Installing  electric. 
Shearer     ■  •  ■  '*223 

Calculating  the  contents  of  oil  tanks.    Strohm 

Calderwood.      Moyer.        Purchasing     Coal     by 

Specification    and    Methods   of    Sampling.  ...  t71B 
California-Oregon   Power  Co.   dam.  The  big.... 533 

C.ilorifie  Power  of  Fuels.  The.      Poole t349 

Calorimeter.    Explanation    of    formula    for   use 

with    throttling     l233 

Camouflaged   by   eoal   conservation 919 

Camp  Dix  Military  Cantonment  near  Wrights- 

town.  N.  J '**■   /'^ 

l':iiup  Funston.    Steam   heating  at 4.i4 

Candid     chat- The    engineer    and    his    position. 

l.arkin      ;,'  ' 

Ciipitnlization  value  of  steam  leaks,     von  fa- 

hriee   "''" 

"Carbocoal,"    A    new    fnel 278.712 

CarlKin  dioxide  analyses  and  flue  temperatures. 

Determining,  boiler    efficiency    by.       O'Neill 

Carbon   dioxide.   Mercury  column   indicates ^254 

Carbon    dioxide    rhyme "87 

Caillon    in    steel 3"» 

Carbon-monoxide    gas    poisoning ,■,"■" 

Carbondale    Machine    Co.— Absorption    'roMgOT- 

ating  machines.      Spaugler WW'    .sll 

Carelessness    Knglne  troubles  due  to.     Oakley.  "^aiJ 


i'uge 

Carelessness  wrecks  gasoline  iilalil •404 

Carman.     Collapse  of  Short  'ililu  'lubes t279 

Carpenter.     MeLiioil  01  siiuar.nK  niixeil   iiiini- 

bera   and  extracnii.;    siiliaie   lools 87^ 

Cartoons — 'I'aklng  out  the  elliikcrs  'SI,  Uis 
sliiire  •102.  'llieic  are  others  '157,  Shad- 
owed! ♦201,  'llie  thinker  "237.  Fuel  short- 
age   in    iuidus    •2;;7.    Looked    worse    than    it 

lasted    •237 

Cai'tridge   luse^    i<'oiir-iii-one ^222 

Cast-iron   llywneeis.    Safe   speed   for •236 

Cathode.     ICemeiiilKUiiig    which    ternilnal    of    a 

device  Is  the 61 

(.'atoll.      Venlilatid    side   walls    •43,    Protection 

of    furuace    walls.      Goder •520 

Central  Cold  Storage  Co.,  Multi-stage  com- 
pression plant  of ^74 

Central    power    stations.    Future    location    of. 

Ashniead    •OOl,   605 

Central-station   heating   in   Detroit.      Walker.. •64fi 
Central    Station    vs.    Isolated    I'lant: 
-  Abuudouing  Isulateil  plants  in  favor  of  cen- 
tral-station   power    380,    Continuation    of 
controversy  474,  512,  508,  Fuel  conserva- 
tion  by   olf-peak    rates   for    isolated  plants 

747,    Correction    855 

— Camoullaged   by   eoal   conservation 91t) 

— Central      or      Independent      power      service. 

Keuuey    524 

— t'ompulsory    coiiperation    of    central    station 

and   Isolated   plant.      Sague 870 

— Cooperation    of    public-service    and    isolated 

plants.      Evans    583,    Alt    703 

— Forcible    shutting    down    of    isolated    power 

plants.    1  he.      .Moses 443 

— Fuel  ecouoniy  In  private  generating  plants..   17U 
— New    Weston    liotcl — Electric   current   with- 
out  cost   during   heating   season 549 

— Shutting  down  the  l.solated  plant 371 

—Ultimate    B.t.ii.,    The 589 

— Uncertainty    of    fuel    supply    causes   Isolated 

plants  to  use   "street  service" 207 

Central  Stations.     Croft t245 

Centrifugal   puiiiii.      See    "Pump." 

"Cbalngrip"    pipe   vise.    Portable *328 

Charles'    law    of   gases t849 

Chart — Annual     loss    from    steam    leaks,    etc. 

von    Fabrlce    *657 

Chart     to     determine     bonus     for     boiler-plant 

operatives.      O'Neill    *471,  518 

Chart,        Typical        temperature        fluctuation. 

Ehrlieh     •332,     ^922 

Charts,     Filing     record      '777 

Charts — Production    and    uses    of   coal    in    the 

U.    S.      Breckenridge •241 

Charts  showing  various   losses  In  steam-boiler 

furnaces.      O'Neill      •52,  68 

Chicago    &    Cartervllle    Coal    Co. — Mine    plant 

saves   45    tons   of   coal   per   day    •292 

Chicago   Cold    Storage   Co. — Ammonia   oil   sep- 
arator   explodes     674 

Chicago   kills    seven.    Boiler    explosion    at   East 

315,    *382,   560 

Chicago  Wlreles-s  Institute   897 

Chicago's  technical    men   unite  for  war  work.   893 

Childs,    M.    M.,    Death   of    533 

Chile,   Coal  trade  of  Southern    896 

Chile,    Steam    and    water    packing   and    rubber 

■  for     8S6 

Chimney.     See  also   "Smoke." 

Chimney  draft.  Estimate  of 1341 

Chimney  draft,   Sutadency  of    tl65 

Chimney,    Heat    carried   by    the    flue   gases    to 

the     395 

(_'hininey — Velo.-lty  of  air  in  ducts   223 

Chiiunev    wrecks    part    of    New    England    fac- 
tory.    Falling     •368 

Chimneys,   Controlling  smoking   •130 

Chimneys,    Some    tall    56;    Tallest    chimney   in 

the    world    ^340 

Chips  by   vacuum.    Removing  drill ^447,    703 

Church.     Small  weights  on  big  scales ^405 

Cinders,    Power    plant    burns    locomotive,    13; 

Another    338 

Circuits,     Determining     of     load     centers     of. 

Croft    '698 

Civil    service    examinations.     Municipal 569 

Clamp   for  I-beam.    Hanger    '376 

(_':iark.    A.    V.     Tar   oils    for    use    in    internal- 
combustion    engines    855 

Clark.     F.     G.       Pipe-line     transportation     of 

coal      666,   835 

Clark.    Santry.     Increasing   the   life   of   econo- 
mizers      •436 

Cleaner,   Air  control  for  tube •129 

(Cleaner,    GrlRin    condenser   tube   •ISS,    Clorrec- 

tion   309 

Cleaning     a     condenser     with     muriatic     acid, 

McKeehan    504,   811 

Cleaning  turbo-alternators    'ISS. 

Clem,   F.,    Death  of    42.1 

Cleveland  Electric  Illuminating  Co..  Unit  costs 

of    the    513 

Clifford.  Wm..  &  .Sons  Co. — "Re-sisto"  furnace 

paint  and  putty    *75fl 

Climbing    a    smokestack    24.  409 

Clinker    trouble     t849 

Clinkers.  Taking  out   the    181 

CO.     See  "Carbon  monoxide.'* 

COa.      See   "Carbon  dioxide."    "Gas,   flue." 

Coal    1 2« 

Coal — A  new  fuel.    "Carbocoal      2ia 

Coal     A   talk   to   firemen  on   saving.      Bromley 

146,    167.   409,   741 
Coal — Abandoning   isolated  plants  in  favor  of 
central    station    power.    .'tSli:    Coiitiiniation 
of  controversy,   471.   513,   r>fi,S;   Ftiel   con- 
servation   by    off-peak    rates    for    isolated 

plants.    747;   Correction S.fjr. 

Coal.    Alaska's    '92 

(Val.   Analyses  of  No.  2  buckwheat 884 

Coal  and  ash  conveyors.   Selection  of.     Birch.    '82 

Coal    and    coke    Industry,    Belgian 421 

Coal    and    coke    prices    fixed    by    Netherlands 

(5overniueut      ^89 

Coal    and    design    of    furnaces.    Combustion    of 


Coal    as   a   Fuel.    Powdered. 


•596.    590 
Herlngton t423 


POWER 


Volume  47 


Page 

Dual  as  fuel,  Culm  aud  bituiuinuus 347 

Cual    Association,     ileetiut;    of    NalJoual    b'Jl, 

Program    to    increatie    output 933 

Coal,   Burning  oil  or  lar  iu  eoiubiuati'^u   witli.'^til 
(Joal — iiuruiiig  slack  cuiuiiming  exctrssive  mois- 
ture.    AlcCall  •472,  IJnaium  i4l,  liibcussion  744 
Coal    by    SpeciJicatiou    and    Metbods    of    Saui- 

piiug,    Purcbasing     t710 

Coal-car    situation    seriuus 042 

Coal — Cumbustion  of  Nurtb  Dakota  lignites 
wilb    suggestions    lor    design    of    furnaces. 

Kreisinger     "tiUS,     bl^O,     Discussion S09 

Coal    Combustion    under    builers,    uupreventable 

losses    in.      O'Neill    '502 

Coal,  Comparative  costs  of  beating  by  elec- 
tricity,  gas  and 457 

Coal,    Complaints  of   excessive  prices   for  soft.    422 

Coal   Conference,   National    S17 

Coal  conservation,  CamouUaged  by bl9 

Coal — Conservation    of    fuel 91 

Coal    consumption,    Bituminous 895 

Coal — Cooperation    of    public-service    and    iso- 
lated plants.     Evans  5ba,  Alt 763 

Coal — Dr.  Garbeld  on  tbe  fuel  situation 32,  20 

Coal   during    storage,    Deterioration    in   beating 

value  of   101 

Coal,   Effect  of  ash  on  steaming  value  of...    t031 
Coal — Electricity  to  solve  tbe  fuel  and  trans- 
portation   problems.      liice 310 

Coal — "Employ  Your  Local  Consulting  En- 
gineer"          171 

Coal — Enemies    within    308 

Coai — Exhaust    steam    waste 57 

Coal    (V)    fifty-five   cents   a    ton! 204 

Coal — First  shipment   from  Alaskan  Englneer- 

•     ing    Commission's    mine 785 

Coal,  Five  powerless  days  saved 313 

Coal    for    live-steam    beating    plant •y22 

Coal   for  Shipment  or   Delivery,   Directions   for 

Sampling.       Pope     t27d 

Coai,  Foreign  substances  in ^438 

Coal — Forestalling  a  fuel  famine 555 

Coal    from    lignite,    Anthracite.      Norton 398 

Coal — Fuel  Administration  mandate  191,  Car- 
toons '237,  Fuel  Administratiou  wants  uni- 
form regulation  244,  Object  of  ilonday  clos- 
ing orders  3U0,  Cost  of  suspended  industry 
in  February  300,  Criticism  372,  Fuel-oil 
rules  528,  Keeping  down  cost  of  coal  556, 
Zone  sj'stem  for  tbe  distribution  of  coal 
530,  590,  (map  insert)  68s,  702,  Coal-car 
situation  serious  642,  Coal  situation  665, 
Modidcations  of  coal  prices  074,  Regulations 
as  to  clean  coal  712,  Coals  of  the  U.  S. 
728,  884.  Deliveries  promised  through  sum- 
mer 740,  Record  coal  production  747, 
Changes  in  coal-zoning  plan  74S,  Maximum 
production  with  minimum  waste  749,  Boiler 
settings.  Bromley  •760,  "Coal  Week"  from 
June  3  to  8  783,  Boiler  settings — Chain 
grate  stokers.  Bromley  *7SS,  808,  Federal 
inspection  of  power  plants  806,  807,  Na- 
tional Coal  Conference  817,  Price  of  bitumi- 
nous coal  reduced  818,  Organizing  a  divi- 
sion of  inspection  to  insure  clean  coal  818. 
Questionnaire  for  power  plants  840,  J.  P. 
White  as  Labor  Advisor  859,   Warns  against 

unnecessary  lighting    898 

Coal — Fuel  consumption  control  by  the  Gov- 
ernment.     Henderson    *115 

Coal — Fuel  Economy  in  the  Operation  of  Hand- 
Fired    Power    Plants t933 

Coal — Fuel-saving  "don'ts"    334 

Goal — Fuel-saving  suggestions   129 

Coal — Future  location  of  central  power  sta- 
tions.     Ashraead    •661,   665 

Coal — Fyrox     moving    West 360 

Coal,   Grate  openings   fur   smaller  size  of....J233 

Coal — I-lis    share    •102 

Coal — How  about   next   winter? 701 

Coal — How    do   you    mix   your   fuel? 192 

Coal — How  fuel  may  be  saved.     Kenerson,  Bal- 

lou     306 

Coal,   How   to  save 102 

Coal — -iTiipruve   iilant  elficiency 300 

Coal    in    lieating    boilers,    Firing    bituminous. 

Flagg      1244 

Coal    in   storage,    Mixing.      Zinimer *344 

Coal     in     the     home,     Save 19,   58 

Coal     in    the    IJ.     S..     Preventable    waste    of. 

Myers     64 

Coal    in    the    U.    S.,    Production   and    uses   of..*241 
Coal — Insufficient  supply  of  labor  for  mining.    602 

Coal,   Keeping  down  the  cost  of 556 

Coal — Lightless    nights    and    nonessentials.  ...      20 

Coal     men     indicted 300,  458 

Coal  mines,  The  use  of  electric  hoists  at 61 

Coal,   New  Jersey  plants  closed  from  lack  of.   299 
Coal — New    York    N.    A.    S.    E.    offers    aid    to 

Fuel  Administrator    278 

Coal,     Northwestern    industries    will    have    to 

change    to    785 

Coal  on  plant  efficiency.   Effect  of  poor 420 

Coal,    Organizing   a    division    of    inspection    to 

insure    clean     818 

Coal.    Output   of   bituminous. .  .  : 677 

Coal   per   day.    Mine   plant    saves  45    tons   of..*292 
Coal    per    1000    cu.    ft.    of    steam    generated. 

Cost     of     t23:i 

Goal,    Pipe-line   transportation   of 666,   83."> 

Coal    piracy    under    ban 300 

Coal-pit-mouth   electric   generation 501 

Coal-pit-mouth    power    plants.      Shearer 256 

Coal,    Points   about   storing 530 

Coal — Possible    saving    in    avoiding    leaks    in 

boiler    setting.      Aarons     365 

Conl-price  regulation,   Government 372 

ConI    prices,    Morlificatinns   of 674 

Coal   problem.    The.      Baili'y 378 

Coal  production  and  value  nf  priuhiction  in  the 
textile  clothinp  trade  por  person   compared. 

U.    S.    and    Great    Britain's 529 

Cnnl   production   highest    tbis   year 896 

Coal   production  slightly  inrreased 81f» 

Coal,    Pulverized — Trlnls    of    marine    fuels...    772 

Coal    qualify.    Price-fixing    nnd 277 

Coal   reduced.    Price   of  bituminous 818 


Page 
Coal,  Rhode  Island  267,  Effect  of  poor  coal  on 
plant  efliciency  420,   Suggested  caution  war- 
ranted  479,    Burning   K.    I.    anthracite 618 

Coal — Save    by    cutting    out    needless    burning 

of   lamps    58 

"Coal   Savers"    In  Great   Britain 70 

Coal,    Saving    ammonia    and 703 

Coal,    Saving   by  burning  slack.      Guldner....    260 
Coal  saving  by   lighting  curtailment.      Millar. '452 

Coal-saving     nostrums      626,  659 

Coal — Self-contained  portable  scoop  conveyors.  * 226 

Coal— Shadowed  !    '201 

Coal    shortage    and    tbe    Southern    power-plant 

operator    194,   557.   881 

Coal    shortage   continue.    Will    the? 626 

Coal  shortage,   North  Jer.sey  severely  suffering 

from    70 

Coal   shortage.    Some   why's   of  the 288 

Coal  situation   in  France,   Tbe 564 

Coal     situation.      Relief     for     New     England. 
Bromley  ^49,  Coal  shortage  in  New  England 

still    serious    202 

Coal    situation,    The 665 

Coal,    Space  occupied   by J  233 

Coal,     Spontaneous     ignition     of     bituminous. 

Springer      •536 

Coal,    Storage    and    weathering    of.      Stucken- 

berg    and    Kohout    234 

Coal,   Struggling  with  poor.      Wood 491 

Coal  supply  and   the  railroads 26S 

Coal  supply,  The ^SS? 

Coal — The   conservation   of  fuel 408 

Coal,   The  cost  of 552 

Coal — The   forcible   shutting  down   of  isolated 

power  plants.     Moses 443 

Coal,    The    Oxidation    of.      Katz,    Porter tl71 

Coal:     The  Resource  and  Its  Full  Utilization.  t643 
Coal,  The  storage  of  bituminous.     Stock. 814,  t897 

Coal — The    ultimate    B.    t.    u 589 

Coal  to   be   mined   clean  or  sold   at   less   than 

fixed    price,    Bituminous 419 

Coal    together.    Burning   wood   and t778 

Coal  trade  of  Southern  Chile 896 

Coal  transportation,  Continued  failure  of 933 

Coal — Waste  of  fuel  and   the  remedies.      Har- 
rington         314 

Coal,    Wetting  down    fine J595 

Coal,  What  are  you  doing  with  your? 879 

Coal — Where   does    the   heat   go? •805 

Coal — 'While    the    Idle    millions    shiver    "178, 

192,  193,  •209.  227 
Coal,  Why  New  York  has  no.. 192,  193.  •209,  227 
Coal — Why   not   have   an    ash    inspector  ?   267 . 

There  should   be  one 480.   520 

Coal  with  a  shovel,   tamper  and  blanket.  How 

to    sample    "476 

Coal — Work  of  the  New  Orleans  Fuel  Admin- 
istration    Committee.       Weil 156 

Coal — Year's  progre.'^s  in  tbe  power  field.  ...  *7 
Coal,  Zone  distribution  for  bituminous  530. 
590,  Zone  system  imap  insert)  fiSfi.  702, 
Coals  of  the  U.  S.  72.S.  884.  Changes  in 
coal-zoning  plan  74.S.  Boiler  settings.  Brom- 
ley ♦760.  Boiler  settings— Chain  grate  stok 

ers.       Bromley     •788,    808 

Coals  of  the  United  States    728 

Coals,    Thermal    values    of    soft 715 

Coils    sometimes    fail    to    beat.    Why 622 

Coke    breeze    for    eteani    raising 419 

Coke,    Determination   of   Moisture    in.      Fleld- 

ner,     Selvig     1279 

Coke.    Heat    value   of t273 

Coke  in'Sustry,   The  Belgian  rnal  and 421 

College  of  the  City  of  New   York  giving  boiler- 
room  course  311,   Course  in  sbipbuilding  anil 

navigation    897 

Columbus  Railway,  Power  and  Light  Co..  Wal- 
nut    plant     *318 

Combustion — Controlling  smoking  chimneys  ... 'ISO 
Combustion — Fuel   consumption  control  by  thp 

Gov't.      Henderson     '115 

Combustion  in  boiler  breecbings 44S.   744 

Combustion    of    coal    and    design    of    furnar'es 

•596.   590 
Combustion  of  North  Dakota  lignites  with  sug- 
gestions  for  design  of  furnaces.     Kreisinger 

•608.   625,   Discussion 808 

Combustion — Power     plant     burns     locomotive 

cinders    13,    Another 338 

Commonwealth    Edison    Co — 95.000    kw.    addi- 
tion   to    Northwest    Station •354 

Commutation — Elec.    study    course '362 

Commutator  construction — Eler.   study  course  •  219 

Commutator     resurfacer,     "Ideal" '154 

Commutntor    was    strained.      Parham 878 

Commutators,    Cutting    mica    for *164 

Compensation   Act  applied 716 

Competition,    Poster    205.    Some   of    the    prize- 
winning    posters    *565,     Smokelessness    and 

fuel   saving    775 

Compound    mixing    and    feeding    tank •029 

Compression.       See    "Ammonia."     "Refrigera- 
tion." 
Compressor.    Air.      See    "Air." 
Concrete  floor.  Installing  electric  cables  undor. 

Shearer     •223 

Concrete  ships 605 

C-ondensatlon   meter,   Tyler   'le.   Correction...    118 

CONDENSER.    AMMONIA 
See  also   "Refrigeration." 

— Ammonia    condensers,    The    selertinn    of.      Sai- 
ler          359 

^Condenser  was  full  of  ammonia.     Orover.  ,  .  *702 

CONDENSER,   STE.\M 

■ — Cleaning    a    condenser    with    muriatic    aoid. 

McKeehan    504.    811 

— Condenser.       Largest      single-shell — Connors 

Creek  plant,   Detroit  Edison  Co 255 

—Condenser  of  Windsor  power  station.  50.000 

sq.   ft •283 

— Condensers  with  70-ft.  water  level  variation. 

Brosius     '142 

■ — Griffin  condenser-tube  cleaner   *183.   Correc- 
tion         309 

— Height    of    barometric    condenser J025 

— Interior    surface    defects    as    cause    of    con- 
denser-tube corrosion.     Webster 676 


Paee 
CONDENSERS,   STEAM — Continued 
— Leblanc  condenser.   Change  in   water  supply 

for   air  pump  of 24.    101,    li^ti,  302 

— Steam  Tables  for  Condenser  Work t568 

— Sucking  from  a  condenser lu4,    •482 

Conduit   and   wire   sizes   for  two-wire   feeders. 

Nash      'iss 

Confidence   in   employers.      Halvey •S61 

Conical  pile,    Weight  of  ashes   in *812 

Connely.      Training   power-plant    men    for    the 

Navy     •390 

Connors  Creek  turbines.  The  fifty-thousand 
kilovolt-ampere.       Hirshfeld     255,   ,  Connors 

Creek  48-in.   relief  valve •285 

Conservation  of  fuel 81 

Conserving  waste  heat 177 

Constants    for   heat    transmission 858 

Contracts  go  begging.    When 446 

Controlling    smoking    chimneys "ISO 

Conversion   multipliers,    Useful 366 

Converter  hunting.  Rotary t413 

Conveyor    improvements,     Suggested    steam-jet 

ash    •  923 

Conveyors,  Selection  of  coal  and  ash.     Birch..    •82 
Conveyors,    Self-contained    portable    scoop.  ..  .•226 

Cook,     A.,    Death    of 887 

Cooke,    Lieut.    Gordon  D.,    Death   of 205 

Cooperation  an  essential  element  in  the  win- 
ning of  the  war.     Rice 346 

Copper,  Eleven  ohms  the  resistance  of  a  cir- 
cular-mil-foot   of.       Nash 291 

Copper,    Resistivity   of 412 

Corliss    engine   frame   repaired '558 

Corliss,   The   "one   hundredth"    anniversary   of 

George  Henry.     Mueller •682 

Corrosion,   Interior  surface  defects  as  cause  of 

condenser-tube.      Webster    676 

Cost  of  coal,  Keeping  down  tbe 656 

Cost  of  coal,   The > 652 

Cost  of  electric  service,  Effects  of  war  con- 
ditions   on     134 

Cost   plus   a   fair    (?)    profit 238 

Costs   of   electric   elevators,    Operating.      Nay- 

lor     "las 

Costs  of  heating  by  electricity,  gas  and  coal, 

Comparative     457 

Costs   of    tbe    Cleveland    Electric    Illuminating 

Co.,     Unit     513 

Cotter-pin.      Reusing  a ^706 

Court  decisions.  Street  70,  103.  244.  278, 
314,    343,    364,    0^4,     713,    715,    716.    749, 

827,    858,   903 
Crane  Co. — Model   of   superdreadnaught    "New 

York' '     *281 

Crane     Packing    Co.' — "John     Crane"     flexible 

metallic    packing    •698 

Crank  arm,   Advantage   of  spiral   form  of.... $273 
Crank  job.  Illustrated  •264,  Fastening  a  loose 

crank    •668 

Crankshaft   from    guides.    Lining    up }779 

Credence  to  rumors,  Giving 82 

Croft.  Suspended  templets  and  their  applica- 
tion •78,  Central  Stations  t245.  Determin- 
ing of  load  centers  of  circuits *696 

Crosshead.   Repairing  a  broken '24 

Crude  oil   burner,   Johnson ^578 

Crude    oil    consumption 868 

Culm   an<l   bituminous   coal   as   fuel 347 

Current-transformer  connections.  Woodward. 'eie 
Current    Transformers,     Testing.       Bureau    of 

Standards     1349 

Curtain  wall  of  a  stoker,  Holding  up  the •447 

Curves.        Interpreting       steam-turbine       test. 

Brelsford    •866 

Cutler-Hammer  Mfg.  Co. — Steel-Jacketed  elec- 
tric    beater     •124 

Cutter,    A    handy    packing.      Lucas ^262 

Cutter,    An   ea.'^ily    made  gasket •271 

Cutter  for  large-sized   wire •448 

Cutter    for    round    gaskets •411 

Cutting   mica    for   commutators •164 

Cylinder-draining    system     •743 

Cylinders.   Shaft  out   of  line   with $561 

D 

Daily    grind.    The 518 

Dale.      Fooling   one's   self 141 

Damage  heavy  marhinery,  Inexperienced  dray- 
men         291 

r)ami>er  in   pi>sition.   Holding •Sid 

Damper    regulation,     Automatic.       Morris •ISS 

Dam's    effeft    on    subsurface    waters 244 

Danger,    Warning    of    Impending 131 

Data.     Pseudo     701 

Davis    Regulator   Co..    G.    M. — A   48-in.    relief 

valve     •285 

Davis  system  of  multi-stage  compression.  New 

D.    I ^74 

Davison,  N.  C,   Gas  Burner  &  Welding  Co. — 

Anderson     fuel-oil    burner ^614 

Day  of  tbe   recording  Instrument,   The 191 

Daylight  saving  advocated  by  U.  S.  Chamber 
of  Commerce  418.  Davliglit  saving  the  vrar 
around  517.  626.  Settlnir  the  clock  back 
again  741,  Millions  saved  by  daylight....  0:j:', 
Dead  weight  pressure  gage.  Moss  •286,  Cor- 
rection          .  .   484 

Delany.    Sibley.      Elements    of   Fuel    Oil    and 

Steam    Engineering    t716 

Derry.  Atmospheric  vapor-absorptlon  system.  801 
Designs  for  centrifugal  machinery.  Suggejited.  .  21 
Deterioration   In  heating  value  of  coal   during 

storage     lOl 

Determination  of  Absolute  Viscosity  by  Short- 
Tube   Viscoslmeters    +139 

Detroit.    Central-station   heating   in.      W.Tlker.*646 
Detroit  Edison   Co.*s  doors  open  to   Ingitlmate 
inquirers    58.     Tbe    fifty  thousand     kilovolt- 
ampere    Connors    Creek    turbinos,      Tllr'^hfeld 
255.    Connors    Creek    4S-in.    relief    v.nlvc.  , .  .•285 
Detroit  Engineering  Societies'    loint    meeting.  .    715 
Developing    the    water    power    125.    1.^5,    266, 

Not    developing   the    water    powers 336 

Developments     in     air-pump     design,     Recent. 

•Tones     •26 

Diagrams  for  disrussion.  Ammonia-compres- 
sor •95.  Discussion    339 


January  1  to  June  30,  1018 

Page 
DlvHol  eogluea,   NoIwji  ou  tlio  operation  of  sub- 
marine.      Slicnnau     708 

Dlfsel   fUgim-s   umior  aitllculltcs.    Stnrtlug.  . .  .   375 
Diesel-type     oU     eiiKlnes     for     murine     work, 

Ueuvjrduty    'H* 

Direi't-t'urrfUt     aniiuture     const  met  ton-  -Elee. 

Btudy  course    •  •    *87 

Dlrecl-i'urrent    nnimtures,     Kewlmliug.      Thls- 

tlewblte     '325 

Direct-current     mncblnery,     Losses     lu — Elec. 

study    course     *8(G 

Direct-Current  Machinery,  Theory  and  Opera- 
tion of.      Jansky    t423 

Distant-load    ludiciitor    •55h 

Dock.    What  power  did  for  a  dry 131) 

Dog    as    power-plant    adjunct 314 

"Don'ts,"    Fuel-saving 334 

Draft   In  square  and   in    round   flues,    Relative 

loss  of    J§n? 

Drafting,    Essentials    of.      Svensen T785 

Draining   system.    Cylinder    '743 

Drawings,   Check  marks  on Tl-i3 

Droymen  damage  heavy  machinery.  Inexperi- 
enced      ■ 201 

Drllliug  metal  by   hand   puwer 'WJ 

Drilling   vise,    Home-made   pipe   and •i04 

Drying     out     QmMlcd     power-plant     equipment, 

Methods   of.      Rea Mfi 

Dvicts,     Velocity    of    air    in 223 

Dudley.       Reconnecting    induction    motors. .  .  .  •49S 
Dnukley.      The    boys    who    swing    the   shovels 

dnwu  below  *73.  Criticism    197 

Duty,  The  engineer's  public 108 

Dwigbt  Mfg.  Co. — Mercury  column  CO2  indi- 
cator      '254 

Dvnamo.      Roe   also    "Electricity." 
Dvnamo,    Elementary    siujrle  coil — Elec.    study 
course    •14.    Commercial    type *294 

K 

East   Chicago   kills  seven,    Boiler   explosion  at 

31o.    •382.   560 
Eccentric,  Lap,  lead  and  angular  advance  of..t561 

Eccentric.   Slippage  and   readjustment  of t341 

Economics,  Boiler  Room.     Potter,   Simmering.  t349 

Economizer  explosion  at   Renwick,    N.    Y 349 

Economizer   explosion    kills    one    man 13H 

Economizers,    Increasing   tlie    life   of *48G 

Ecuador    and    Peru    favor    American    electrical 

goods     243 

Edison  Medal.  Colonel  Carty  receives  677,  774.  782 
Education,    Effect  of  the   war  on   engineering. 

Mann    217,    228 

Education.   Federal   funds   for   vocational 204 

Educational    institutions,    Mt.bilizing    the 313 

EfGciency    of    pumping    plant,    Over-all t925 

Efficient    management   be   the  «iost   expensive, 

Must  ?      ^'i 

Effort   can  do,    What   real 645 

Ehrll<h.  To  determine  heating  requirements 
•223.  Average  and  maximum  heating  de- 
mand     *332    •922 

ELECTRICITY 

See  also  "Rate,"  "Power  plant"  and  cross 
references  from  it,  etc.  For  bydro-elec- 
trlc  plants  see   "Water  power." 

— Accident    to    turbo-alternator    *669 

— Alternating  current  cannot  cause  corrosion.  .501 
—American  Inst.  Elec.  Engrs.  *202,  245. 
Paper  310.  Midwinter  convention  312, 
Boston  meeting  315,  Paper  345.  New  York 
meeting  603.  Boston  Engineers'  dinner 
643,  675.  Chicago  Section  675.  Annual 
convention   677.    New   York   meeting    819. 

Paper    932 

— Ammeters    were    reversed    93 

—Association  of   Iron  and   Steel  Elec.   Engrs. 
*202,  Announcement  of  meetings  279.  605, 

Paper    *639 

—Brushes,    Sandpapering    131 

- — Cables  under  concrete  floor.    Installing  elec- 
tric.     Shearer    '223 

— Care  of  electrical  equipment  in  cold  weather  447 
— Cathode.   Remembering  which   terminal  of  a 

device    is    the 61 

— Central    Stations.       Croft t245 

— Changing    direct-mrront    motor's  voltage.  .  .t745 
— Circular-mil-foot.     Eleven    ohms    the    resist- 
ance of  a.      Nash 291 

— Coal-plt-mniith    electric    generation 501 

— Commutator   was    strained.      Parham 878 

—Commutators,      Cutting;     mica     for *164 

— Comnressed  air  for  cleaning  motors.  Shearer 

•3R9,   668 
— Conditions  In  the  power  Industry.      Schmidt 

329.    802.   907 
— Conductors  for   two-phase  motor.    Size  of...    163 
— Conduit   and    wire   sizes    for   two-wire   feed- 
ers,     Nash       *1H9, 

— Copper,  Resistivity  of 413 

— Cflst  of  electric  service.  Effects  of  war  con- 
ditions on    134 

— Costs    of    hentincr    by    electricity,     gas    and 

coal.    Comparative    457 

— Current-transformer  conneetions.  Woodward.  •61ft 

— Cutter    for    lame-sized    wire •448 

— Delta-CMiinefted    transformer  banks   connect- 
ed   in    parallel     t707 

— Denmark     looking     to     Sweden     for     electric 

power      9^ 

— Detprmining    of    load    centers    of    circuits. 

Croft     . •«9rt 

— niBtant-load   Indicator    •K5fl 

—Dynamo   driven    from    n    friction   pulley *16S 

— Ecuador  and  Peru  favor  American  electrical 

goods     243 

— Edison   Medal.    Colonel    Carty   receives    677, 

774.  782 
. — Elect ric    current    without   coprt    during   heat- 
ing season    ^^^ 

— Electric  hoists  at   (-(.al   mines.   The  use  of..      61 

—Electric    service    for    Cnmn    Perry 569 

—  E'petric    Weldlnp    Manual t7ie 

—Electric  welding  stops  leaks  In  girth  seams. 

Grls4     *0* 

— Electrical    energy    from    the   Volterra    "Sof- 

flonl"     •881 


POWER 

Page 
Kl.ECTRlClTV — Continued 
'    Electrical  phenomenon.   An  •232,  Discussion 

594    I  Erratum   030) 921 

-Electricity  as  applied   In   the   U.   S.   Nuvy..*248 
Electricity  to  solve  the  fuel  and  transporta- 
tion   problems.      Itlce 310 

Elevator  drum   shaft  broke •770 

Elevators,    Care   of   hydraulic 103 

-  -Elevators,  Operating  costs  of  electric.     Nay- 

lor    'ISS,    Maintenance 403 

-  Elevators,    Operation   and    maintenance  of— 

Winding  drum  machines.  Whitehead  '40. 
Arrangement  of  cables  '764,  Care  and 
lubrication  •833,  Geared  traction  ma- 
chines      *900 

— Elusive     ground.     An '304 

— England,   Proposed  linking  up  of  stations  in  530 

— Fleld-poIe     polarity,     Testing •522 

— FIreroom  load  telegraph    ^840 

—Fires  In  turbo-generators.     Walker  119.  705, 

879.  883 
—Flooded   power-plant   equipment.   Methods  of 

drying    out.       Ilea '46 

—Four-in-one    cartridge    fuse    '222 

— ^Puse  blown  on  3-phase  circuit 'tSSS 

— Future    location    of   central    power   .stations. 

Asbmead    *661,    665 

—Generators,    Vibration   effects  on   the  opera- 
tion of  electric.      Long 263 

—Gov't  control  of  water  power  and  electrical 

distribution   abroad.      Schmidt 505,   517 

'  — Heater,     Steel-Jacketed     electric •124 

— High-temperature    alarm.       Brand *769 

— Home-made    wire    straightener •190 

-  Induction  motor  heated 96 

-  Induction-motor    winding    comiections 1595 

-  Induction    motor    would    not   operate   on    di- 

rect   current    303 

-  Induction     motors     at     reduced     frequency, 

Operating     521 

— Induction  motors.    Necessity  of  air-gap  gag- 
ing   in    fi2 

— Induction     motors,     Reconnecting.        Dudley. 

For  changes   in   number  of  poles ♦498 

-  Industrial     plant     furnishes     street     railway 

power    406 

— John  Coats  takes  a  bath .  .^ 854 

--Kilovolt-amperes   and   kilowatts    t595 

-Kilowatt    output    of    alternator tgS 

-  Lamp,    Adjustable    exten-.iion ^374 

— Lamp    bank    as   a    rheostat •270 

— Lamp   cord.    Handy   extension *591 

-  T.amp    test    Indicated    a    grovind ^94 

-  Lamps    burning    out.     Preventing 132 

—Lighting   circuit   caused   water-pipe   Joint   to 

corrode.       Brlggs     •IRS,     Alternating    cur- 
rent  cannot  cause  corrosion.      Weightnian  591 

—Lighting    switch.     An    emergency *197 

—Lights    for   small    plants.    Electric *163 

— Lineman      survived      although      6600      volts 

pasrsed  through  his  body 717 

—Link-Belt    mono-rail    hoist ^544 

— Merger    of    electrical    plants 205 

—Mill   sells   surplus   electric   power    to   city..    884 

— Motor   below    rated    capacity.    Use   of t273 

— Motor,   Size  of  conductors  for  a  d.-c t305 

-  Motor  sparked  when   starting 18 

--Motor  used  In  constant-speed  service.  Vari- 
able-speed.      Parham '285 

— Motors.    Drying   out    electric *630 

-  Motors  for  ammonia  compressor  drive.  Elec- 

tric        ^^° 

--Motors   on  the  same  load.   Two   induction.  .t485 

-  Motors     single-phase.     Operating     *^""^''^^^»  ,01 

*162,    •4R1 

—National    Blec.    Lt.     Asso 677,   853.    92R 

— Negligence   In   protecting   switchboard 103 

— Neutral   wire  for   a   three-wire   system.    Size 

of,      Nash    lis 

— New   power  development    in    Pennsylvania..   «03 

— New  York  City  electric  rates 888 

— Parallel  operation  of  d.-o.  generator.s.  Bar- 
ton     ■  ■  *»•*» 

— Power-factor    correction.    Rome    fundamental 

considerations   of.      McCarty '"SS 

— Power   for   the  Nitro   Powder   Plant 713 

— Power  rate  tor  electrically  driven  ice  plants. 

Joyce    - \f^ 

--Protest    power    company    rule -^"i 

— Providing   stand-hy    service    -"O- 

— Rates.  Increase  in  electric  372.  385,  58  com- 
panies propose  to  advance  rates  457, 
Suggestion   to   commissions  556,   All   after 

higher    rates     JJJ 

Hccharging   dry    cells    77' 

-  Repairing    an    open-cireuit    in    a    field    rheo- 

Stat  ;"? 

Reverse-current   relays    ■    '•>» 

-  -Rewinding    direct-current    armatures.      This- 

tlewhite    •  ■  ■  -'J^J 

-Richmond,    Va.,    to   save   electric   current,..   78d 

— 'Safety-flrst    knife    switch *80 

— Screw-tvpe    wire    cutter     *n;2 

--Secret.    The.      Braley    ■.••;2il 

-  Single-phase  motor  would  not  carry  its  loan  743 

-  -Single-phase     operation     caused     low     power 

factor      *  '    4ol. 

-Slin-ring    Insniatlon     repair 'SSJ 

-  Spliced   conductors   in   conduits.      Briggs  .  .  .  .  •2fil 
Square    D    motor-starting    switches '736 

-  -Squirrel-cage    induction    motors.    .\.-c.    auto- 

matic   starters    for.      Patterson •  •  V  *1»? 

-  Starting   synchronous    motors    37«.   finS 

Static     cle'ctririty     from     gasoline 130.    5fl^ 

-  Study      course.      RIec. — Elementary      single- 

coil  dvnamo  "M.  P.-e.  armature  construc- 
tion '87.  Forms  of  field  magnets  •ir.2. 
fommiitator  construction  'OIO.  The  dy- 
namo '204.  rommutation  •302.  Shunt- 
conncclcd  generators  "500.  Serles-con- 
necled  generators  •SSO,  Compound-wound 
generators  •R53.  rharacteristie  curves  of 
shunt  and  series  generators  ^730.  Chflr- 
■  cferistlc   ciirvs    of   compound    generatoFB 

•700     T.osses    in    d.-c.    machinery •87ft 

Siirnliis     electrical     energy     for     generatlnic 
steam.   TTtllliine.     TToehn J" 

-  -.Synehronoscope  needle  stuck    27i 


Page 
laLECTHlClTY — Uoiitiiiued 

— SynchroaoKcope  operated  sluggishly 627 

—lest   electric   welding   for  ships 857 

--Testing    Current    Tiaustormers,      Bureau    of 

Standards     t349 

— Thawing  frozen   water  pipes  by  electricity. . '449 
— Theory   and    Operation  of   D.-C.    Machinery. 

Jansky    t483 

— Three  motors  heated    '289 

— Transformer,      Short-circuit      secondary      of 

current   t63 

— Tran.sforniers,    A    novel    method   of   shipping 

large     *25H 

— Transformers.    I-arge    single-phase 'oSi 

— Turbo-alternators,   tJleaning    •132 

— Unit  costs  erf  the  Cleveland  Electric  Illumi- 
nating   C 513 

— U.   s.  requisitions   power  plants  at  Niagara 

Falls     ^105 

— Value   of   twci    alternating   currents 1745 

— Vertical-shaft    wateiwheel    alternator.      Ste- 
phens       '572 

— Wight  electrical  boiler  level  recorder '18 

— Wire-tightening     tool     '340 

— Wires,    Relative    properties    of   copper,    iron 

and    zinc    t25 

— Wiring    trouble,    A    peculiar •628 

—Wooden   pliers    for    replacing    fuses •SSI 

— Year's  progress  In   the  power   field *2 

Elevator    drum    shaft    broke •776 

Elevators,  Care  of  hydraulic   163 

Elevators,    Operating   costs  of   electric.      Nay- 

lor    'ISS,    Maintenance    403 

Elevators,  Operation  and  maintenance  of — 
Winding-drum  machines.  Whitehead  *40, 
Arrangement  of  cables  •7G4,  Care  and  lubri- 
cation   'H'J'.l.   Geaieil   traction   machines. ..  *B00 

Emergency,    Meeting    the    50 

Employees,     Bonus     for     power-plant.       Lewis 

439,  448 

Employers,    Confldence    in.      Uaivey *861 

Employers — Putting  their  bouses  In  order....   371 

Enemies   within    308 

Enemy,    Our    greatest ■   422 

Energy,   Free — Oarabed  :     Boon  or  buncombe? 

'221,   313,   336,   590,   713,    808.   880 
Energy   in   revolving   llywheel 256 

ENGINE.    INTERNAL-COMBUSTION 

— American  blowing  engine  in  Italy.  ; '22 

— Augustine    rotary    two-cycle    super-induction 

gas    engine    ♦828 

— Blast-furnace  gas  engines.  From  superheat- 
ed  steam    to.      Fritz 615 

— Diesel  engines  under  difficulties.  Starting...    3i5 
— Diesel-type    oil    engines    for    marine    work. 

Heavy-duty    •  ■    JIJ 

— Engine  using  oxygen  in  place  of  gas  or  oil.   61 -i 
— Exhaust    pits    for    low-compression    oil    en- 
gines.     Morrison     586 

— Pish  oil  as  fuel  for  Diesel  engines 85 1 

— Fuel  consumption  of  low-compression  oil  en- 
gines.     Morrison     367 

— Gas-engine  cycle  indicator    884 

— Gas-engine    ignition    systems.    Troubles    ana 

their    remedies    in.      Brennan 259,   775 

Gas-engine  troubles  and   remedies.      Brennan   149 

— Gas-engine-valve    problems.       Mueneh  .  .  .  .  .  .    911 

— Gas   engines   of   former   times 164,   519 

—Grouting  in  an   engine  bedplate 95 

—Guarantee  test  ..f  "il  engine Jb71 

—Hot   gas-engine-liearing   remedy „),■,■    oAi 

— Internal-combustion    economy     555,843 

— Internal-combustion  engine  lulincation.  Os- 
borne     .••■■<;;• 

— Internal-Combustlon-Engine  Manual.  Ster- 
ling      : I  <"■ 

— License     internal-combustion     engine     oper- 

jjf^l-g      oo8 

—Lyons  Alias   heavy-oil   engine '658 

—National    Gas   Engine    Asso »'' 

Remedying    leaks    in    engine    casings....^.    04!> 

—Submarine    Diesel     engines.     Notes    on    the 

operation   of.      Slierman    ■  •  •  •.•  •   7"» 

Taking  gas  or  oil-engine  suction-stroke  dia- 
grams      .;■•■.'■,"■■■ 

Tap  nil  for  Diesels  on  account  of  petroleum 

scarcity,    etc :  '  '  :, 

Tar  oils  for  use  in  internal -combustion  en- 
gines.     Clark     •■■■ 8" 

— Year's  progress   in   the  power   field ^ 

Engine-room    erews    for    America's   new   ships.  ^ 
Training.      Howard    'jo 

Engine-room     design     •.    '   A' '  '  •' "  ' '.^iV-V 

Engine-room     management     in     the    ice    plant. 
Friedman    ■ ,.- 

Engine-room    rules    

ENGINE.    STEAM  .        _ _, 

See   also    "Oil,"    "Valve."    "Piston.         Ply- 
wbpcl  '     etc. 
Adjusting   marine-engine   bearings.      McBoh-^ 

—Breakdown  aboard  ship.     Melville    659 

—Broken  oast  piston   repaired avi 

Bull    ring.    Poorly    designed »J 

-Centennial  engine  al  the  Pullman  Wks •687 

-Corliss    engine    frame    repaired  ........••■  ■    009 

—Corliss    engine.    Latest    cutoff    of    slngle-ec- 

pontric     J0£0 

Corliss.    The    "one    hundredth"    anniversary 

of  George  Henry,      Mueller ........   R8J 

—Cutoff.    Actual,    apparent   and    equivalent ...    I.n 

-Cylinder   counterhorcs.    Advantages   or I-'-J 

-CVlinder-dralning    system     JJJ 

Cvtlnder.    Noise    in    ends    of »i*'i 

--Determining   advantage   of   speeding  up   «""  _^ 

»ine     , JIJ; 

— D.ternilning  rylinderelearance   volume I»« 

—Emergency  Fleet  engines    . '« 

—Engine   as  a    reducing   valve.   The ^»o» 

—Engine  broke  weilge  bolts -  ■  ■  ■  -   *J« 

— Bnglne-olllng   system    •««•     •>*• 

— Engine    troubles    due    to    carclessneOT,      O'""   „^ 

ley     I'Si 

—Engine  turning   winch    '«» 


ENGINE,    STEAM— Continued  ^'^^'^ 

— Engine  wreck  from  unusual  cause 000 

— Equalizing  cutoff  of  single-valve  engine.  ..  1305 
— Equalizing  cutoff  without  indicating  engine,  toai 

— railuire  oi  Corliss  engine-governor  belt {401 

— Fitting  a  new  piston  valve 743 

— Governors,    Inspection  of    •710 

— Grouting  in  an  engine  bedplate '90 

— Indicator  diagram,  yuicit  rise  of  compression 

line  of   tJiTi 

— Keeping    engine    bearings    cool '.  '777 

— 1-atcli   blocks  cause  racing,   AVorn 101 

— Marine  engineer  and  his  work,   The 50:i 

— Meeting    the    emergency ow 

— Movement  of  luaTn  bearing  on  bedstone.  ...  t031 
— Objections  to  high  initial  pressure  with  light 

load     jy7 

— Pislon  iiacking  burns  out  12U,  Answers  .'isn, 

Uemedy    gleaned    from    answers 378 

. — Piston,    striking   head,    wrecks-   engine *4,'i0 

— Placing  new   piston  rod   in  engine J071 

— Plugged   holes   in   piston    81Q 

— Power  of  compound  engine,  Coni])uting J133 

— Remedying    leaks    in    engine   casings 54.-, 

— Removing    ninin-bearing    quarter    blocks.  ..  .•608 

— Removing    piston-rod    jiacking 840 

— Repairing  a  bi-oken  crosshead *24 

— Repairing    worn    valve    stems- '230,  484 

■ — Securing   gland   nuts #338 

— Setting  valve  of  single-valve  automatic  en- 

Klne     J451 

— Shaft-governor    pointers,    Some "150 

— Shortening  regulator  rod  after  cam   toe  has 

worn    down    ^417 

—Shrinking  the   "eye"  of  a  rod •304 

— Superheated   steam   to  blast-furnace  gas   en- 
gines,   Prom.      Fritz    010 

— Testing    steam    consumption    of   engine ;f84J» 

— Use  of  piston  valves  on  compound  engines.  J707 
— Valve   gear  broken   by   "blocked"   valve.  .  .  .    *23 

— -Water- jacketed    pillow-block    cap "303 

— Year's  progi-ess  in  tlie  power  field '2 

Engineer  and  his  position.  The.     Larkin •281 

Engineer  and   his   work.   The   marine 50" 

Engineer   and   the   union,    The 22.   070 

Engineer.    Artistic    representation    of    an.  ."iOO 

Engineer  coming  Into  his  own,   The 774 

Engineer  Co. — Turner  baffle-wall  construction.  •022 

Engineer.    The    American 243 

Engineering  Council — Engineers  In  Gov't  serv- 
ice 278,  Pirijt  annual  meeting  340,  The  en- 
gineer  coming   into  his  own 774 

Engineering  education,    Effect  of  the   war  on. 

Mann    217     ^^h 

Engineering,  Elements  of  Fuel  Oil  aiid  Steam' 

Sihley.    Delany    j71l) 

Bngineering  Experiment  Station  (Ill.)^-Puel 
Economy    in    the    Operation    of    Iland-Pired 

Power  Plants    ^i*:vi 

Engineering       Matlienmtics,       Handbook       of 

Wynne,    Sprarngen    t718 

"Engineering  Practice,"  The  J.  B.  Aldred  lec- 
tures on  tlor,,  130.  The  coal  problem. 
Bailey  378.  Steam-electric  power-plant  de- 
sign.     Loizeanx     601 

Engineering  societies,  Secretary  for  joint  ac- 
tivities  of    t^i 

Engineering   societies — Year's   progre.TO   in    the 

power   field    •o 

Engineering.  Steam  Power  Plant.  Gebhariit !  t387 
I'iUgineering,  Women  studying  electrical....  207 
Engineer's    letters.    Abstracts    from    an  144 

Bngineei's     notebook.     Prom     an.       Bertrande 
„      ,  ,  ^  .  '361,    'MO,    •010,    •OlS 

Engineer's    public    duty,    The 108 

Engineers.     .See  also  "American,"  "National  " 

"As-.soeiatlon,"  "Illuminating." 
Engineers.  Amer.  Soc.  Mech. — Paper  04,  Bust 
of  .\<imiral  Ishcrwood  presented  to  -V  S 
M.  B.  ^104,  Interpretations  by  Boiler  Code 
Committee  130,  Lecture  to  flrenien  of  Balti- 
more. Bromley  140,  107,  400,  741,  Boston 
welcomes  President  Main  204.  Boston  Sec- 
tion 310,  Cliicago  Section  discusses  coal 
Bitiiatlon  384,  Boston  Engineers'  dinner 
043.  075,  Chicago  Section  075,  Detroit 
meeting  715,  Spring  meeting  at  Won'cster 
il7.  •754,  •RSO,  ,Toint  meeting  of  Chicago 
Section   and    W.    S.    E.   RI8,   Boston   Section 

meeting  850,   Paper    033 

Engineers  and   tltelr   wages '.]'.'.'      61 

Engineers,  Elementary  Mechanics  for.  Mills' +710 
Engineers,     Establish     II.     R.     service    clearing 

linnse    for     gr^o 

Engineers   for  the  new   merchant  marine!!!!!   201 

Engineers    in    Government   service 07,^ 

Kngineers  of  New  England,  Distinguished'  '  '  ^431 
Engineers.  Urges  higher  compensation  for...  349 
Engineers'   license  law.   A   national...  10 

England    out    of    gasolene? '    lo.'; 

Equipment  on  small  boilers,   Unusual., ^271 

Ernst    safety    gage-glass    '•400 

Essex  power  plant   shut   down "    '      34 

Essex  station.  Public  Service  Blec.  Co.,  New- 
ark,   N.   .7.,   as   it  will   look  when  eomfileted    ♦lOO 

Ethics  of  sales   engineering.      Stephan Ol.'j 

Evans.     Coiiperation  of  iwblic-servlce  and  Iso- 

l.nted   plants  583,    .Mt 7O3 

Evaporation  from  and  a;    212  deg.  P      EniiVya- 

Icnt      +377 

Evap<.rallon  In  boilers,  New  metiind'of  "incre'a's'- 

Ing   the.      Ilering    •iq    19 

Evaporator   for   distilling   sea    water,    Uniisnal ' 

design  of    .  .  _ •300 

Rvertlte    "Rta-I.ok"    nut    !!!!!'    •804 

Exhaust.      See    "Steam." 

Exhaust   pits   for   low-compression  oil   engines 

Morrison     •580 

Exhildt.  A  traveling  anti-waste.  ...!.'.!!!!  !*334 
Exhibit    of   evening   work    at   Pratt    Institute, 

-Annual      g^g 

E\  Marine  Engineer,     The  marine  engineer  anii 

his    work    ,*;fl2 

Expansion.    Tnadcquate  provision   for !!'    268 

Kxpnrslnn,    Rntio    of     {745 

Expensive,  Must  efficient  mnnngement  be  the 
moBt  ?    93 


POWER 


rage 
Kxpliisiou.     See  also  "Boiler."   "Economizer," 
"Flywheel,"    "Piping,"    "Turbine,    eteani," 
"Gas,"    "Engine,    steam,"    "Refrigeration." 
Esiilo.sion  in  engine  room  at  Diibmine,  Iowa.  .  .    42S 

Kxplosion,     Syracuse     garbage-digester '^>29 

Express    shipment,    Marking  packages    for. .  .  -    f>32 

Extension    lamp,     Adjustable *'MA 

Extension    oil-can    spout '23 

Extracting   square    routs,    Method   of   squaring 

mixed    numbers    and.      Carpenter 872 

"Eye"    of    a    rod.    Shrinking    the *\i04 

F 

JPamhio.    Forestalling    a    fuel 555 

Fjui    puzzl**,    Induced-draft 847 

Federal    funds    for    vooatlnnnl   education 204 

Feed.      See   "Water,"    "Boiler." 

Fellows   who  know,  The.      Strohm 787 

Fellowships,     Kesenrch     170 

Field  magnets.  Forms  of — Elec.  study  rourRC.*152 
Fieldner,     Selvlg,     Determination    of    Moisture 

in    Coke    t27» 

Filing   record   charts ♦777 

Filter.     Feed-water    beater    and '810 

Filter  for  large  plants,   Nugent  gravity *13 

Filter    for    used    oil.    Sand •023 

Fire,    Dry   materials    for    extinguishing tlOS 

Fire  policy   was   avoided,   Why  a 314 

Fire-retarding   mixture.    Whitewash    and 014 

Firebrick,   Melting  point  of t813 

Firemen  on  saving  coal,   A  talk  to.     Bromley, 

146.    107,   409.    741 

Firemen  pay.  Does  a  bonus  system  for? 480 

Fires    in    turbo-generators.     Walker    119,    705. 

879,   883 

Fires,    Sand   for  extinguishing 776 

Ping    Day.     Celebrate 843 

Flag,   U.    S.    Navy   service *13l 

Fla^'g.       Firing     bituminous     coal     In     lien  ting 

boilers     1244 

Flash  test  of  oil,  Tnpor  for 411 

Flinn.   A.  D. — Secretary  for  joint  activities  of 

engineering    societies    •SI 

Flowaee    richts,    I^oss    of 827 

Flyball-governor   gu.ird    •528 

Flywheel    accident.    A    jieculiar 669 

Flywlieel.    Energy   in    revolving 236 

Flywheel   explosion   at   Clay  Center.   Kan 897 

Flywheel    explosion    at    nawarden,    Iowa 139 

Flywheel   explosinn   at    Minot.   N.    D *330 

Flywheel       explosion — Warning      of       impending' 

danger     131 

Flywheel,    Insufflcicnt   protection  around 99 

Flywheel    of   stoker    engine    burst 245 

Flywheels.   Safe  speed   for  cast-Irnn *235 

Fnod    Administration    on   ammonia    and    Ice.  .  .  .    34S 

Fooling    one's    self.       Dale 141 

Foreign    substances    in    coal *433 

Forestalling  a  fuel  famine 555 

Forewords  *1.  *30.  ^73  (Criticism  197).  *in7, 
141.  •173.  •209.  •247.  •281,  317.  353.  389, 
•425.  •459  fSee  also  477).  •497.  535.  •571. 
•607.   G45.    •fiSI.   719,    *753.  787.   823,   'Sei.   899 

Forge.    A    smokeless    portable ♦338 

Forseille.      Causes   of  vacuum  trouble ♦909 

Foster,       Stoker    capacity    vs.    boiler    forcing 

rates    •576 

Foundations — Suspended  templets  and  their  np- 

plicatlon.      Croft     •78 

Four-in-one    cartridge   fuse .♦222 

France.    The  coal    situation  in 564 

Franr-is  turbine.  Larsest  liigll-heHd.  Pfan....*174 
Freight  engine  blew  up  near  Cerro  Gordo,  111.  423 
Frey.  Culm  and  bituminous  coal  as  f nel .  .  . .  347 
Friedman.       Engine-room    management    In     the 

ice  plant    68 

Fritz.  From  superheated  steam  to  blast  fur- 
nace   eas    engines fll5 

Fuel.      See  also  "Coal,"   "Oil."   "Wood,"   etc. 

Fuel,    A    new — "CarbocoaV 278 

F*uel — A  talk  to  firemen  on  savinc  coal.  Brom- 
ley     14fi.    167.    409,    741 

Fuel    Administration    Committee.    Work    of    the 

New    Orleans.      Weil 156 

Fuel  Administration — Mandate  191.  Cartoons 
•237.  Wants  uniform  regulation  244.  Object 
of  Monday  closine  ordfrs  300.  Cost  of  sus- 
pended industry  in  February  300.  Criticism 
372,  Fuel-oil  rules  528.  Keeping  down  rost 
of  coal  556,  Zone  system  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  coal  5.10.  590  fniap  insert)  688.  702, 
Coal-car  sltnntiou  serious  642,  Coal  situation 
665.  Modilications  of  coal  prices  674,  Retru- 
lations  as  to  clean  coal  712,  Coals  of  the 
U.  S.  728.  884.  Deliveries  promised  thrnneh 
summer  740,  Record  coal  production  747. 
Chances  In  coal -zoning  plan  748.  Maximum 
production  with  minimum  waste  749,  Bnller 
settinprs.  Bronilfv  •7<>0.  "Conl  Week"  from 
June  3  to  8  7S3,  Boiler  settings— Chain 
grate  stokers,  Bromley  •788.  808.  Federal 
Inspection  of  power  plants  806.  807,  Na- 
tional Coal  Conference  817,  Prlr^e  of  b)tu-- 
nilnous  coal  rediiced  818  Organizing  n  di- 
vision of  inspection  to  Insure  clean  coal  818, 
Ouestionnalre  for  power  plnnti  840,  .7.  P. 
White  as  Labor  ,\dvisor  859,   W^arns  against 

nnncressary    llgbtine     896 

Fuel  and  the  remedies;.  Waste  of.  TTarrlneton  314 
Fuel    and    transportation    problems,    Electricity 

to    solve    the.       Ri.-e ".    310 

Fuel — Anthr.nrite  roal  from  lignite,  Norton .  398 
Fuel — Bituminous    coal    to    be    mined    clean    or 

sold   at   le*;s   than    flved   price .    419 

Fuel     briquets.     Production    of 532 

Fuel    burner.    .T.    R.    S.    low-grade *1S4 

Fuel — Coal    126 

Fuel — "Coal    Savers"    In    Great   Britain 70 

Fuel — Conl-snving   nostrums    626.    659 

Fuel — Combustion  of  North  Dakota  llenltes 
with     siigBC'Jtlon'j     for    desfcns    of    furnaces. 

KreUinger    •60R.    fi25.    Discussion 809 

Fuel--ComplaInts   of   excessive   jirii'es    for   soft 

coal      422 

t^uel    conservation — New   power  development   In 

Pennsylvania    $nn 

Fuel.    Conservation   of 91 


Volume  47 

Paj?e 
Fuel  consumption  control  by   the  Government. 

Henderson    ♦115 

Fuel  consumption  of  low-compression  oil  en- 
gines.      Morrison     3137 

Fuel.      Culm    and    bituminuus    cual    as 347 

Fuel   economy    in   private   generating   plants...    170 
Fuel  Economy  in  the  Operation  of  liand-Fired 

Power    Plants    |U3.'J 

Fuel — Enemies    within 308 

Fuel  famine.   Forestalling  a 555 

Fuel— Five  powerless  days   saved  coal 313 

Fuel  for  power  generation,  Pitch  as  a.  Ker- 
shaw          904 

Fuel — Pyros    moving   West 300 

Fuel — Government    cual-price    regulation 372 

Fuel.    lieat   from    the  atmosphere  a   substitute 

for 5.^;i 

Fuel,   How  do  you  mix  your? 192 

Fuel^ — ^How   to  save  coal ]02 

Fuel    in    Egypt,   Cottonseed   oil   cake  as 782 

Fuel  may  be  saved.   How.     Kenerson,  Ballou..    300 
Fuid-— New   Jersey    plants   closed    from    lack    of 

coal 299 

Fuel — North  Jersey  severely  suffering  from  coal 

shortage 70 

Fuel  Oil  and  Steam  Engineering,  Elements  of. 

Sibley.    Delany    t7lo 

Fuel-oil   burner,    Anderson    •614 

Fuel-oil    burners.    Regulating 229 

Fuel    oil,     Burning 704 

l-'uel   oil,    Government   control   of 245.   266 

Fuel  oil  reserve,  Government  will  open  up....   714 

Fuel-oil   supply.    Our    Xi't 

Fuel.  Powdered  Coal  as  a.     Herlngton t42S 

Fuel — Preventable  waste  of  coal  in  the  U.   S. 

Myers    ^  .  .  . .      64 

Fuel — Relief  for  New  England  coal  situation. 
Bromley  •49.  Coal  shortage  In  New  England 

still  serious    202 

Fuel — Save  coal  in  the  home 10,  59 

Fuel    saving    "don'ts" 334 

P'ucl   saving.   Smukelessness   and 775 

Fuel-saving    suggestions     129 

Fuel    shortage    in    Hades •237 

Fuel    situation.    Dr.    Garfield    on    the 20,   32 

Fuel  — Some   why's  of  the  coal   shortage 289 

Fuel-supply    meeting.    Western    Society    holds.,    88'J 

Fuel,  The  conservation   of 409 

Fuel— While  the  idle  millions  shiver  ^178,  192. 

19,'!     •yoO    227 

Fuels,    Heating  values   of ' !    858 

Fuels,   The  Calorific   Power  of,      Poole t349 

Fuels.    Trials   of  marine 772 

Fuels.  TT,   S.   S.    "Gem"   used  for  testing •8G9 

Furnace,      See   also    "Boiler." 

Furnace-grate    area.    Figuring *756 

Furnace — J.    R.    S.    low-grade  fuel  burner ^184 

Furnace    paint    and    putty.    "Resisto" '759 

Furnaces,    Condmstion    of   coal    and   design  of. 

590.    ^596 
Furnaces,  Combustion  of  North  Dakota  lignites 
with    suggestions    for    design    of.     Kreisinger 

•608.   625.    Discussion 809 

Fuse.    Four-in-one   cartridge ^222 

Fuses,  Wooden  pliers  for  replacing ^881 

Fyrox  moving  West 360 

G 

Gage   and   control   board.    Boiler-room •SOS 

Gage.  Dead-weight  pressure.  Moss  •286,  Cor- 
rection         484 

Gage-Klass,    IHscliarge   from   broken 1451 

Gage-glass.    Ernst    safety •400 

Gage-glass.    Water-level    Indicator    In *272 

Gages.  Combined  Table  of  Sizes  in  the  Prin- 
cipal   Wire     t423 

Garabed :  Boon  or  buncombe?  *221.  President 
Wilson  signs  Garabed  bill  313.  Commission 
appointed  330,  Engineering  world  waiting  for 
committee's  report  590,  Commission  headed 
by  Professor  Moyer  713,  Latest  advices  from 

Boston     808,    880 

Garbage-digester    explosion.     Syracuse ^529 

Garfield    on    the   fuel    situation.    Dr 20.   33 

Gas  and  eoal.  Comparative  costs  of  heating  by 

electricity     457 

Gas  and  liquid  systems.  Pressure  governor  for. •737 

Gas    burners.    Reducer   for •94 

Gas    engine.       See    "Engine.     Internal-combus- 
tion." 
Gas  explosion.    Building  wrecked   by ^404 

GAS.   FLUB 

— CO2    analyses    and    flue    temperatures.     De- 
termining boiler  emciency  by.    O'Neill.  .*52.  58 

— COo,    Mercnr,v    column    indicates *254 

— COn,    Theon'tii'.-illy   maximum   percentage  f>f,,tl33 
— Heat  carried  to  the  chimney  by  the  flue  gases  395 

Gas — Fuel  consumption  control  by  the  Govern- 
ment.     Henderson    *115 

Gas,    Heating    houses    with 67 

Gas.  Natural,  under  boilers.  Burning.    Jablow.   806 

Gas  poisoning.  Carbon  monoxide 218 

Gas    Register    1917-1918,    The    Petroleum    and 

Natural      t493 

Gas,   Toluol   from  city 421 

Gases,    V.    S.    Steel   Corporation's  Methods  for 

Sampling  and  Analyzing t716 

Gasket   cutter.    An    easily    made •271 

Gaskets.    Cutter   for   round •411 

Gaskets.    Sarco   metallic ^473 

Gaskets.      The    use   of   metallic.      Ilaynes 906 

Gasolene.    Kncland    out    of? 105 

Gasoline   a    dream,   Cent-a-gallon 844.  85t 

Gasoline    plant.    Carelessness    wrecks •404 

Gasoline.    Static   electricity   from 130.   592 

Gasoline  substitute  full  of  "pep" 627 

Gate    lock.    Handy ♦oo 

Gear.    Speed  reduction     '400 

Gear  wheel.    Repairs   to  broken •881 

Geared  traction  machines — Operation  and  main- 

tcnnnre  of  elevators.      Whitehead 'OOO 

Gebhard).      Steam    Power    Plant   Engineering. .  t3R7 

"Gem"   used   for  testing  fuels.   TT.    S     S •869 

General  Electric  Co. — Dead-weight  pressure- 
trage  tester.  Moss  •286,  Correction  484, 
Pressure  governor  for  gas  and  liquid  evs- 
tems     •737 


January   1  to  June  30,  1918 

(fpufi-ntor.     See   ulso    ■ 'Elect ricity." 
Generators,   Cluiractrrlstlc  curves  of  compound 

— Kleo.    stiuly   course •7i)'i 

Gencrntors.  Chiii-ncteristlc  curves  of  sluint  and 

series-     KIcc.    study    course *73i) 

Qeuernturs,      Coiuimuiul-wounU  -  -  Elec.      titudy 

course   *ti.ia 

Generators,  rnniHel  operiition  of  d.c.     BBrtou.  "O'lO 
Generators,        Series-coniit-cted  —  Klec.        study 

courso    •GSO 

Generfltors,      Shunt-connected  —  Elec.     study 

course   *  f509 

ficrinan  husiucss   men.    Message  to 138 

Cernian  ships     KuUur  niit  sledKehaninier.  *430,  002 
Gerolo    Ml'g.    Cu.^rurtable    "Cluilngrip"    pipe 

vise   *32» 

GlrHgossinn.  linraliecl :  Boon  or  buncombe? 
•221.  Trosidcnt  Wilson  sit;ns  Gnrniied  bill 
313,  Commission  appointed  330,  Engineering 
world  wnitinp  for  committee's  report  590. 
Commission  headed  by  Professor  Moyer  713, 

Latest  ndvires   from   Boston SOW,   880 

Gland    nuts,    S«M'urlng ".*!■''< 

Glass   clear.    Keeping    lubricator 231 

Glenn.     The  boiler  inspector's  work 620 

Goudie.     Steam  Turbines t7l« 

Goulds  Mfg.  Co.'s  lionus  system 38 

Government  bonds  on  account  of  war,  Fall  and 

rise   ()f    554 

Government  coal-prlce  regnbition 372 

Government   control    of   fuel    oil 24n,   2fifl 

Government   control    of  water  power  and  elec- 
trical distribution   abroad.     Schmidt ...  .505.   5-17 
(iovernment,  Fuel  consumption  control  by  the. 

Henderson    *nn 

Governor.   Rrealxnge  of  spring  of  shaft ttj-tl 

Governor,  Parabolic    J831 

Governor  pointers.  Some  shaft •ISO 

Governors,  Greater  sensitiveness  of  loaded.  .  .  .t34l 

Governors,  Inspection  of •71it 

Graphics.      Spangler    tC43 

Grate  area  and  the  underfeed  stoker 373 

Grate    area,    Figuring   furnace •75'; 

Great    Britain,    "Ctuil    Savers"    in 70 

Greene.  Superheat  in  forced-draft  stoker  in- 
stallations         83tl 

Griffin  condenser-tube  cleaner  'ISS,   Correction  309 
Griffin.     How  Engineer  Tim  got  a  raise  of  pay 

and  promotion   *10l 

Grind.   The-  daily    . 518 

Grisf-.      Electric   welding   stops   leaks   in  girth 

seams    402 

Ground.    An   elusive '304 

Grouting  in    an  engine  bedplate •;•  • 

Grover,   Condenser  was  full  of  ammonia •7!12 

Guard.     A     thermometer •SOS 

Guard,    Flyball-govei'uor    •S^fl 

Guard  prevents  injury,  Safety ♦521 

Guldner,      Saving  by   burnfng  slack   coal 260 

H 

Hades,    Fuel    shortage   in ^237 

Halvey.      Confidence   in   employers "861 

Hand   power.   Drilling  metal   by •i*3 

Handhole  plates,   Bench  clamp  for '61 

Hanger-clamp    for    I-beam *370 

Harrington.     Waste  of  fuel  and  the  remedies.   314 
Harrison    Safety    Boiler    Works.      Finding    and 

Stopping  Waste  in   Modern   Boiler   Rooms.  t^OS 

Hartman.     Machine  Shop  Practice t423 

Harvard    Coal    Meter    awarded     Certifi'-ate    of 

Merit     717 

Haynes.     The  use  of  metallic  gaskets 90il 

He    also    serves.       Braley ♦681 

Heat,    A   new   principle   in   the   flow  of....*10,    19 

Heat,    Ancient    conception    of 582 

Heat  carried  to  the  chimney  by  the  flue  gases  395 
Heat    from    the    atmosphere    a    substitute    for 

fuel     559 

Heat  go,    WTiere  does    the? •805 

Heat   lost   in   chimney   gases t849 

Heat     transfer      575 

Heat    transmission.    Constants   for 858 

Heat  value  from  moisture  in  coal.  Loss  of...t779 
Heat    value   of    fuel    and    theoretical    evapora- 
tion       t97 

Heater.     See  also  "Water." 

Heater,    Steel-Jacketed    electric *124 

HEATING   AND    VENTILATION 
— American     Soc.        Hen  ting     and     Ventilating 
Engrs.    203.    Paper  2:!S.   Charts  by  Breek- 

enridge    ^241,    Paper    454 

— Average     and     maximntn     heating     demand. 

Bhrlich    ^332,    *022 

— Central-station  heating  In  Detroit.    Walkar.^04d 

■ — Coal    for    Mve-Rte;im    heating    plant ♦022 

— Conserving    waste    heat 177 

— Costs    of    heatintr    by    electricity,    gas    and 

coal.    Comparative    457 

— Electric  current  without  cost  during  heating 

season      649 

— -Exhaust-steani    heating    with    hack -pressure 

valve   open    t451 

^Exhaust    steam    waste    57 

— Expansion  tank  fur  Imt-watpr  beating t745 

— Tleatlng   buildings   witti    sprinkler   systems..      70 

-— IToating    houses    with    gas 67 

— Ilea  ting    requirements.    To    determine.      Bhr- 
lich       •22S 

— Hen  ting    system    returns    connected    wrong. 

Reynolds     •91T 

—Heating,  What  we  do  and  don't  know  about. 

Allen     238 

— Tladiator    ronnertions     •BlJi 

■ — Radiator,    Tronblesnnie    tl33 

— Steam  heating  at  Camp  Funston 454 

— Steam-heating  snrfaccs.    Advantages  of  sub- 
divided     tl33 

— Steam    to    heat    water    for    bouse    heating. 

Bryant      ^471 

— TTnderground   slenm  mains,      TTubbnrd   •400,    ^540 
■ — Ventilation   is  r)f  prime   importance  In  dense- 
ly   filled    rcumi.    etc 240 

— Ventilation    of   paper-machine   room    t377 

—Wasting    live    wtcam     when    used    with    ex- 
haust      • tS41 

—Water  from   u   heating  boiler,   loosing 268 

^Why  colls  sometimes  fall   to  heat 622 


POWER 


lU-atiiiB  niulns,  Mutiliulf  lu-atis  Tor 31^ 

Ilcutlug   BUifuicB,    Uelutlvc    cUlclency   of   cop- 
per   uud    Iron     tl!33 

IlL'atlnt;  vnliie  of  uunl  durlu);  »torug©,  Dctcdo- 

nitlou    ill     101 

Ili-ntiiig    values    of    fuels 85H 

liulp   yciurwlf.      Sti'obui    353 

Helpful    lilnta     •»» 

llentli'i'sou.      Fuel   coiiHUmiHloD  coutrol  by   tUo 

Gov't     '115 

Ilerlii);.     New  uiclbod  of  liicreuslng  tiie  evapo- 
ration   iu   bollei-H    '10,   19 

Ucrlngtou.      Powdered  Conl  as  a  Ifucl t4^3 

High  pressures  witli  dead   weight,   Measuring. 

Moss   •280.   Correction    484 

Higbtcniperature    alarm.       Hraud 'TUB 

(Urslifeld.     The   flftythousaud  lillovolt-ampere 

Connors   Creek    turbines    255 

His    share    'lOS 

Hoehn.       Utilizing    surplus     electrical     energy 

for  generating   steam    07 

lloil'man.      Suggestions  on   tlu-   managem^'nt  of 

boilers     604 

Hoist    handling   ashes,    Mono-rail '544 

Hoisting    boilers    to    second    floor •220 

Hoisting   ring   for   cables '412 

Hoists  at  coal  mines,  The  use  of  electric....      61 

Hole   under    water,    Bolting   a    rivet •SSS 

Holland,    As    it    Is    In.      Bronwers 738 

Home-made    apparatus.    Handy •190 

Home-maile   wire   stralglltcuer •lOe 

Honor    roll    for    year    1917 '2 

Home.      Low-pressure    turbines    for    lineshaft 

drive   *550 

Horsepower  for  increase  of  r.p.m.   and  m.e.p.. 

Indicated    ^^n^ 

Horseshoe    magnet    a    handy    tool 703 

Hot-water  heating.      See   "Heating  and   Venti- 
lation."   "Water." 

Houses  in  order.    Tutting   their    371 

How    Engitieer    Tim    got    a    raise   of    pay    and 

promotiiul.        Orlflin      *107 

Howard,  C.  W..  Safety  latch  for  furnace  door.  •865 
Howard.    II.    Training    engine-room    crews    for 
Anu-rica's  new  ships  *4:!.'i.  Manning  the  new 

nierchant    tuarine    034 

Ilubbard.      Underground  steam  mains.  ..  •460,   •540 

Hutton.    F.    U.,    Death    of '750 

T'ydraullc    elevators.    Care  of 163 

r'ydro-electric.      See  "Water  power." 


I-lHam.     Hanger-clamp     for •376 

Ice,  Control  of   784 

Ice,   Food   Administration  on  ammonia   and...    348 
Ice    plant.    Engine-room    management    in    the. 

Friedman    68 

"Ideal"     commutator     resurfacer •154 

Idle  millions  shiver,  While  tlie  '178.  192,  193, 

•209,    227 
Ignition     of     bituminous     coal,     Sp<jntaneous. 

Springer      *538 

Ignition  systems.   Troubles  and   their  remedies 

in    gas-cnginr-.      Brenimn 259,   775 

Illuuiinating    lOngineers    hold    special    meeting 

:!09,    Paper    ^452 

Index    to     Pnwer 20 

Indexing    trade    literature 557 

Indiiatcir.    Distant-load     *558 

Indicator,   Gas-engine  cycle    •884 

Indicator,    Mercury    column    CO2 *254 

Indicator  reducing  motion.  Testing  out  correct- 
ness   of    1485 

Induction  motor.      See  "Electricity." 

Industrial  management — Watch  your  step!....    670 

Injector.   Penlterthy    819 

Injury  in  horse-play.   Responsibility  for 715 

Insolvency's    effect    on    power    contracts 70 

Inspector.    Why  not  have  an  ash't  267.   There 

should   be  one    480,  520 

Instrument.  The  day  of  the  recording 191 

Instruments    improve  plant   economy *&H2 

Instruments.   Power-plant  measuring.     Taylor.    539 

Insulation  repair.    Slip-ring    •SOS 

Insurance,    Soldiers'    and    sailors' 170 

Interpretations  by  Boiler  Code  Committee. .  .  .    136 

Investing    in    liberty 445 

Iron   Clad  Joint  Co. — Berry   flexible  joint "48 

Isherwood.    A.    S.   M.    B.    presented    with   bust 

of    Admiral    '104 

Isothermal    expansitm   and    compression,    Adla- 

batlc    and    - t'^^0 

Italy.    American  blowing  engine   in ^22 

J 

J.    R.    S.    low-gra(Te    fuel    burner ^184 

Jahlow.   Burning  natural   gas   under  boilers...    800 
Jansky.      Tlieory    and    Operation   of   D.-O.    Ma- 
chinery       *!?« 

Jenkins.   Charles.   Death  of      •676 

Jernsalem.  American  pipe  line  was  instrumen- 
tal  In   the  capture  of 104 

"Jcdin    Crane"    flexible   metallic   packing "OgS 

Johns  Hopkins  University — The  J.  E.  Aldred 
lectures  on  "Engineering  Practice"  tl05, 
139.  The  coal  problem.  Bailey  378,  Steam- 
electric   power-plant    design.      T,oIzeaUT 601 

Johnson   crude  oil  burner    •578 

Joint.     Berry     flexible ^48 

Joint.     Tuxcda     swing... •834 

Joints   In    Steel   Plates.    Testa  of  Oxyaeetylene- 

wcodcd    tion 

Joints.    Tests    of    welded 09 

Jollet   plant.    New   high-pressure •108,  127 

Jones.  Recent  developments  in  air-pump  de- 
sign       'S* 

Joyce       Power   rate    for    ele<'trically-driven    Ice 

plants     13T 

K 

Katz,  Porter.     The  Oxidation  of  Coal tlTI 

Kenerson,   Ballon.      I'ow   fuel   may   he  saved..    306 
Kennev       Central    or    Independent    power    serv- 
ice ■ 524 


Pago 
Kershaw.     I'ltcli  as  a  fuel  for  power  gcDcra- 

tlim 904 

•Key,    Buttoning    a" ^269 

lu'y     not,    Uemoviiig  a 230 

KInks    for   engineers,    Useful.      UllMams 837 

Kinks  worth  knowing  •81.  •.'iOH,  iTaiuiy  home- 
nmde  apparatus  'lOO,  Illustrated  crank  job 
•204,     ^009,    From    an    engineer's    noteiiook 

•3111,  •rj7u,  ♦iii9,  'am 

Klein,    C.    J.,    Dealli   of 35 

Kuil'c'   Bwilch,    SalVty-Brst 'SO 

Knowltou.  Team  work  in  the  plant  •ao.  On 
being  a  good   loser  317,    Boiler  explosion  at 

Providence,    R.    I •403,   479,   845 

Kohout,    Stuckenberg.      Storage    ami    weatiier- 

Ing   of    coal 234 

Krantz    auto-loek    switch    •808 

Krelslnger.  Conduistion  of  North  Dakota  lig- 
nites with  s-uggcstions  for  design  of  fur- 
naces  'OOS,   «2fi.   Discussion 800 

Kultur   mlt    sledgehammer •430 


Labor    divisions    of    war    administration    co  - 

Ordinatcd,     Work    of    the 240 

Lalmr  in  its  relation  to  nati<mal  ethciency . .  . .   240 
Labor  I'olicy  Board  authorized.  National .  .245, 

349,   528 

Labor — Putting  their  hotises  iu  order 371 

Labor  situation.    What  of   the? 298 

l.alajr  turnover,   The  alien   emidoyee  and  the..    440 

Lalwu-   unrest.    What   is '; 299 

Lafayette,    Radio    engineering   at 315 

Lamp,    Adjustable    extensicui ^374 

Lamp  bank  as  a  rheostat ^270 

Lamp   conl.    Handy   extension *591 

Lamp   test   iudieated  a   grouml ^94 

Lamps  burning  out.  Preventing 132 

Language,    The   universal.      Strnhm '571 

Larkin.     The  engineer  ami  bis  position •2KI 

Latch  blocks  cause  racing.   Worn. 161 

Latch  for  furnace  door.    Safety,      lloivanl .  .  .  .•Sti.j 

Latent  heat  of  steam.  The 038 

Latent  heat  of  vaporization  of  ammonia.     Os- 

borne.    Van   Duseu ^032 

Law,   A   national  engineer's  license 19 

Law    allows     expansion    of    nnmieipal    power 

plants.    Proposed    204 

Law— Court    decisions.      Street    70,    103,    244, 

278,  314,  343,  364,  604,  713,  715,  710,   749, 

S27,    858,   903 
Leaks,     Capitalization    value    of    steam.       von 

Pabrice     *G5e 

Leblane    condenser.    Change    in    water    supply 

for  air   pump  of 24,    101,    190,  302 

Lectures  on  "Engineering  Practice,"  The  J.  E. 

Aldred  tlOo,  139.  The  coal  problem.     Bailey 

378.      Steam-electric      power-plant      design. 

Loizeaux     ■■ 601 

Legislation  affecting  power  interests.  New  York 

State 453 

Legislation,  In  re  proposed  water  power..  135,  125 
Legislation — Year's  progress  in  the  power  field 

Letters,    Alistracts   from   an   engineer's 144 

Levalley,   C.   W.,    Death  of    138 

Lewis.  J.  O.  Methods  for  Increasing  the  Re- 
covery of  Oil    Sands t315 

Lewis,  W.  B.  Bonus  for  power-plant  em- 
ployees      439,     440 

Liability    for   defective   condition 70 

Liberty'  Bell,   Repair  the 630 

Liberty.    Investing    in 445 

Liberty  Loan,  Third — The  war  and  tlie  indi- 
vidual      160 

License,    Artistic    197 

License   internal-combustion   engine  operators.   668 

License  law,   A   national  engineers' 19 

License  law.   Does  Rhode  Island  need  a?  479, 

Texas  also  needs  a   license   law 845 

Lighting  circuit  caused  water-pipe  joint  to  cor- 
rode. Briggs  ^185.  Alternating  current  can- 
not cause  corrosion.     Weiglitman 591 

Lighting  eurtalbnent.  Coal  saving  by.   Millar..  ^452 

Lighting  switch.    An  emergency ^197 

Lightless  nights   and   nonessentials 20 

Lights  for   small   plants.   Electric 'lOS 

Lignite,    Anthracite   coal    from.      Norton 398 

Lignites  with  suggestions  for  design  of  fur- 
naces, CombusH.m  of  North  Daitota.  Krel- 
slnger   •eOS.    025,    Discussion 809 

Lillle   sea-water   evaporator *366 

Lime  as   a   protection  for  steel 48.^ 

Lindsay  low-pressure  oil  burner '804 

Lineshaft    drive.     Low-pressure    turbines    for. 

Home    'SoO 

Link-Belt    mono-rail    hoist ...  '044 

Linker.       Purifying    water    for    sealing    steam 

turbine   glands    *TT2 

Liquid    systems.     Pressure    governor    for    gas 

and    -,  • ; •  •   "»^ 

TiOad     centers     of    circuits.     Determining    of. 

Croft 'S' 

Load   indicator.    Distant 'BBS 

T.ccnnx'tive.      See   also    "Roller-" 

Locomotive    clndi'i-s.    Power    Plant    burns    13; 

Another     ;;  •.; '  '  •  '°® 

T,i"ioootive  Valves  and  Valve  Rears,   Modern. 

McSbaue     '89' 

Lof.    Rusbmore.      Ilydro-F.lcctrlc    Power    Sta- 

tlons   •  ■      ■  t^J 

T,oiz«aux.      Stpflmelectrlc  power-pl«nt  design.  .    •PI 
London    General    Omnibus    Co.— Rag    washing 

and    oil     reclaindng ;  ■  '  '  ■  ;     " 

Long.   Vibration     effects    on    the    operation    of 

electric  generators    .aot 

I.ooked   worse   tlian  It   tastefl 2ST 

Txioklng    ahead     702 

T.i>ser.   On  being  a  good.     Knowltou .   317 

Losses    In    coal    comluisllou   under  boilers.    Tin- 

preventaliie.      O'Neill    *B02 

Ti.'t    opimrtunltv.      Odell J35 

Lubricating   methods,    Faolty.      Oakley •158 

Lubrication.    Care    and-  Operation    and    "">'"• 

tenance   of  elevators.      Whitehead 'BSS 

Lubrication  economy,  'Wartime 15» 


,    ,    .  Paffe 
Lubrication,     Interual-combustion-engine.       Os- 
borne         342 

Lubrication   of  air-compressor   cylinders 417 

Lubrication  of  steam   turbines •ISS 

Lubrication,    Some    notes   on    turbine   bearings 

and    their.       Bromley 734 

Lubricator  glass   clear.    Keeping 231 

Lucas.      A    handy   packing   cutter ♦262 

Luitwieler  single-plunger   double-acting   punip.*652 
Lynn,   Mass. — Falling  chiiuney   wrecks  part   of 

New   England   factory '368 

Lyons   Atlas   heavy-oil  engine •658 

»I 

McCabe,   J.   C. — Personal   mention 278 

McCalJ.      Burning    slack    containing    excessive 

moisture  •472,  Erratum  741,  Discussion...  744 
McCarty.      Some   fundamental    consideration   of 

power-factor    correction     "639 

Mcintosh      &      Seymour      <^>rp.— Heavy-duty, 

Diesel-type  oil  engines   for   marine  work.. .•114 
McKeehan.      Cleaning  a   condenser   with  muri- 
atic  acid    504,   811 

McMurtrle.  Duty  of  the  employer  in  recon- 
struction  of   the   crippled   soldier 880,   890 

McNamara.      Some    old    firebox    boilers    •546, 

Reminiscences  of  a  boiler  inspector .'   9ie 

McRobert.     Adjusting  marine-engine  bearings.  •120 
McKhane.       Modern    Locomotive     Valves     and 

Vaive  Gears    t89T 

Macdonald.     Supporting  effect  of  boiler  heads 

733,  Discussion 924 

Machine   Design,   Elements   of.      Nachmun.  .  .  .t897 

Machine  Shop  Practice.     Hartraan 1423 

Machinery,      Inexperienced     draymen     damage 

heavy    291 

Machinery,  Suggested  designs  for  centrifugal .  .      21 
Machinery,     Theory    and    Operation    of    D.-C. 

Jansky    1423 

Machines    and    Instruments.    Mechanical    Labo- 
ratory Methods  of  Testing.      Smallwood. .  .  .  t897 
Machines,  Winding-drum — Operation  and  main- 
tenance of  elevators.     Whitehead •40 

RLignesia.    A    correction    regarding    the    use   of 

8.'>   per   cent.    *484,    Erratum 560 

"Magnesia    Defend    Your    Steam,    Let    85    Per 

Cent."     423 

Magnet  a   handy   tool,    Horseshoe 703 

Magnets,  Forms  of  field — E!ec.  study  course..  •152 

Mains,  Manhole  heads  for  heating 313 

Management     be     the    most     expensive.     Must 

efl3clent  ? 92 

Management,    Industrial — Watch   your   step!..    670 

Manhole  heads  for  heating  mains 313 

Mann.  Effect  of  the  war  on  engineering  edu- 
cation      217.  228 

Manufacturing    Opportunities    in    the    State    of 

Washington      t897 

Marine-enfilno  bearings.  Adjusting.     McRobert.  ^120 

Marine  engineer  and  his  work.  The 562 

Marine   fuels.    Trials   of 770 

Marine  work.  Heavy-duty,  Diesel-type  oil  en- 
gines  for    ♦114 

Marking  packages  for  express  shipment 532 

Martin.   P..    Death   of 35 

Mass,  The  miracle  of  the 407 

Massachusetts    Boiler    Inspection    Department, 

Work  of  the 442 

Mass.  hearing.  Tube  thickness  considered  at!!   714 

M.   I.  T.   a  military  camp 148 

Mathematicf^,       Handbook       of       Engineering. 

Wynne.    Spiaragen    1716 

Measures    in    Venezuela,    Weights    and 816 

Measuring    high    pressures    with    dead    weight. 

Moss    ^286,    Correction    484 

Measuring  instruments.    Power-plant.     Taylor.    539 
Mechanical     Laboratory     Mcthnds     nf     Testing 

Machines  and  Instruments.  Smallwood  ....  tfi!>7 
Mechanics  for  Rnffineers,  Elementary.  Mills.. 1710 
Mech.Tnicville     Specialty     Supply     Mfg.     Co. — 

J.    R.    S.    low-grade   fuel    burner ♦184 

Meeting  the  e niertrency 59 

Meier,  E.  C,  Death  of 717 

Melting   points    of    different    metals 715 

Melville.      A   breakdown    aboard   ship 6.50 

Merchant  marine,  Entrineeis  for  the  new  201. 
Drug  stores  recruiting  agents  245,  Confer- 
ence at  Boston  420,  Manning  the  new  mer- 
chant  marine.      Howard    634 

Mercury   column   indicates    COr, ^254 

Message   to    German    business    hien 138 

Metal  by  hand  power.  Drilling •QS 

Metal   of   lead    and    antimony.    Soft   bearing.  ..  t273 

Metallic  gaskets,   Sarco .  .  •473 

Metallic  gaskets.   The  use   of.      Haviies 906 

Metallic   packing.    "John    Crnne"    flexible •608 

Metals,    Melting   points   of  different 715 

Meter,  Tyler  condensation   ♦16,   Correction....    118 
Metric  system — Weights  and  measures  In  Vene- 
zuela          816 

Metric  unite,  Uruguay  requires  use  of 712 

Mica    for    commutators.    Cutting *164 

Mica  on  commutators,   Ondereulting  the 151 

Military  onmp.  M.  T.  T.   a  148 

Military  cantonment  near   Wrisrhtstown.   N.   J., 

Camp  DIx    •44,      58 

Military    road    building.      White •25R 

Millar.     Coal  saving  by  litrhting  curtailment.  .•452 
Miller.      Oil    lantern    jammed    on    piston    rod 
•660,  A  day  with  the  refrigerating  trouble- 
man     708 

Millions  shiver,  WTiile  the  idle  •178.  102.  193. 

•200.    227 
Mills.      Elementary  Mechanics  for  Engineers.  .  1716 
Mine    and    Smelter    Supply    Co. — Lindsay    low- 
pressure    oil     burner '. *a04 

Mine-mouth    generation    of    power 665  *r6i 

Mine    plnnt.    Centrnitzed.      Muldner ♦.?7n 

Mine  plant  saves  45   tons  of  coal  per  day.  .  .  .•202 

Mine    service.    Centrifugal     iiimtP'j    for 6.^6 

Minot.    N.    D..    Flywheel    explosion    at '^no 

Mlra<'le   of  the   mass.    The 407 

Mixed    numbers    and    extracting    square    roots. 

Method    of    squarlne.      Cnmentpr 872 

Mohlllxlng    the    educational    Institutions 313 

Moisture,    Air   receiver   eliminates •96 


POWER 


Pai-^e 
Moisture,    Burning  slack  containing  excessive. 

McCall  •472,  Erratum  741,  Discussion 744 

Moisture    in    Coke,    Determination    of.      Field- 

ner,    Selvig    f 270 

Mono-rail     hoist     handling    ashes ^544 

Morris.      Automatic  damper  regulation •ISS 

Morris   improved   tube  Iti^ader •122 

Morrison.      Fuel   consumptiun   of    low-compres- 

fiion  oil  engines  3C7,  Exhaust  pits •586 

Moses.      Fuel    economy    in    private    generating 

plants    170,    The   forcible   shutting   down   of 

isolated   power  plants 44  3 

Moss.      Measuring    high    pressures    with    dead 

weight   •286,   Correction 484 

Motor.      See    "Electricity." 

Moyer,  Calderwood.     Purchasing  Coal  by  Specl- 

flcatlon  and  Methods  of  Sampling tTlQ 

Mueller.     The  "one  hundredth  anniversary"  of 

George   Henry   Corliss- •682 

Muench,       Gas-engine-valve    problems 911 

Muldner.      Centralized  mine   plant •370 

Multipliers,    Useful    conversion 360 

Multi-stage  compression  plant  of  Central  Cold 

Storage    Co "74 

Municipal.      See    "Power   plant." 

Munro.     Why  I  buy  Liberty  Bonds 513 

Muriatic    acid.     Cleaning    a     condenser     with. 

McKeehan     504.   811 

Myers.     Preventable  waste  of  coal  in  the  U.  S.     64 


\ 


Nachman.      Elements   of    Machine    Design t897 

Names !     Names !     Names !     300.     Forty-seven 

coal    dealers    Indicted 456 

Nash.  Size  of  neutral  wire  for  a  three-wire 
eystero  113,  Tank-overflow  alarm  •151,  Cou- 
dult  and  wire  sizes  for  two-wire  feeders 
•188,   Eleven  ohma   the  resistance  of  a  cir- 

cnlar-mil-foot     291 

National  and  state  conventions 642 

National  Asso.  Stationary  Engrs. — New  York 
N.  A.  S.  B.  offers  aid  to  Fuel  Administra- 
tor 278.  Waste  of  fu<-l  and  the  remedies. 
Harrington  314,  Nati'tnal  and  state  conven 
tions  642,  Steam  turbines  and  auxiliary  ap- 
paratus. Forde  613,  Model  state  license  law 
819.  New  Jer.sey  State  convention  •888, 
Illinois  State  convention  •894.  New  York 
State  convention  •928,  Iowa  State  conven- 
tion   tgao 

National    Coal    Association,     Meeting    of    891, 

Program  to  Increase  coal  output 033 

National  Elec.  Lt.   Asso 677,   853,   026 

National    Gas   Engine   Asso '  677 

National  Labor  Policy  Board  authorized .  .245,   340 
National  Marine  Engineers'  Beneficial  Associa- 
tion         20? 

National   Safety  Council— Safe   Practices. .!!.  t;il 5 

National    shibboleth.    The.      Strohm *425 

Navy,  Electricity  as  applied  in  the  U.  S '248 

Navy  service  flag,    U.    S •ISl 

Navy,     Training     power-pI;inf     men     for     the. 

Connely •SOG 

Naylor.      Operating   costs   of   electric    elevators 

*188,    Maintenance    403 

N'e.Tr.      Three    roads •7.".,"' 

Necrology — Year's  progress  in   the  power  field     •? 

Needle  stuck,    Synchronosrope 271 

Neutral  wire  for  a  three-wire  system.  Size  of. 

Nash   113 

Nevada-California   Power  Co..   The 533 

New  England  coal  situation.  Relief  for.  Brom- 
ley   ^49,     Coal    shortage    in    New^    England 

still  serious   202 

New  England.   Distinguished  encineers  of •431 

New  England  factory,  Falling  chimney  wrecks 

part    of     •368 

New   England's   shipping   needs 386 

New   England's   water  power 434 

New  .Jersey  boiler  code,   Public  bearing  on .  .  .  .      71 

New  Jersey  boiler  inspection  bureau 418 

New  .Jersey   plants   closed   from    lack   nf  cnnl..    209 
New    Orleans    Fuel    Administration    Committee 

Work  of  the.     Well 1 5« 

New    Weston    Hotel — Electric    current    without 

ro^t   during  heating  season 549 

New  York  has  no  coal.   Why.  .102.   103     *200.    227 
"New    York."    Model   of   superdrendnausrht .  .  .  .  *201 
New  York  State  legislation  affecting  power  in- 
terests         4rs3 

New    Zealand,     Hydro-electric    power    develon- 

nient  in   Australia  and.     Schmidt 465    iTQ 

Newhall.  C.  H..  Death  of 171 

News.  The  great.     Mann 228     217 

Nitrate,  etc..  Waterfalls  in  Norway  to  be  used 

for   manufacture  of 714 

?*onessentIa]s,   Llghtless  nlchts  nnd 20 

North  Dakota  lignites  with  suggestions  for 
design    of    furnaces.    Combustion    of.       Kroi- 

sinjrer  •60S,   625,   Discussion    809 

North     Jersey     severely     suffering     from     cnnl 

shortage    70 

Northwest    Station,    05  OOO-kw.    addition    to...  •354 

Norton.      Anthracite  coal   from   lignite 309 

Nostrums,    Coal-saving     626.  659 

Notebook,     From     an     englneeT-'s,       Rertrande 

•361.    •579,    •610.    *01S 

Nugent  gravity  filter  for  large  plants •IS 

Kut,     Rvertite    "Sta-Lok" ^804 

Nnt-Iock    plntp    'rftS 

Nuts.    Securing    gland '338 


O 


Oikley.       Faulty     lubricatiui:     methods     'ISa. 

Engine     troubles    due     ti^    carelessness ♦206 

Odell.      T><>st    opportunity 535 

on.      See   also   "Lubrication."    "Engine,    Inter- 
nal-combustion," 
on  and   Steam   Fncineering.   Elements  of  Fuel. 

Sibley,    Delany    t7t6 

Oil   bijrner,    .Anderson    fuel *614 

Oil  burner,  Johnson  crude •578 

Oil  burner,   Lindsay   low-pressure ♦804 


Volume  47 

Oil   burners,    Regulating  fuel 229 

uil,    burning    fuel .'   704 

Oil-burning  plant,  Tamarack  Mills.  Bromley 
•426,  Operating  cost  548.  Correction  on  price 

of    oil     594 

Oil-can   spout,    Extension ••^•^ 

Oil-circulating    system,     Self-contained. ...'.'.  .'•19a 

on   cups.    Sight   feed    for.      Bentley •H'SZ 

Oil  fields.  Decision  on  ownership  of  California  785 

Oil   filter,    Air   gathered   in   feed-water tl65 

Oil  for  Journal  bearings  of  steam  dry  cans..?813 

Oil,   Fuel — Cost  plus  a  fair   (V)    profit 230 

Oil  fuel  in   New   England  power  plants ♦886 

Oil,  Government  control  of  fuel 245,  266 

Oil  lantern  jammed  on  piston  rod.  Miller.  .  .  .•660 
Oil — Nugent  gravity  filter  for  large  plauls...  •IZ 
Oil  or  tar  in  combination  with  coal,   Burning.  •261 

Oil  out  of  feed  pump.   Keeping •630,   ^742 

Oil  prices  steady,  Must  keep $19 

Oil  reclaiming.   Rag  washing  and 578 

Oil    reserve.    Gov't   will   open    up   fuel 714 

Oil  rules,   Fuel   Administration'a  fuel 528 

Oil,    Sand  filter  for  used •923 

Oil  Sands,  Methods  for  Increasing  the  Recov- 
ery of.     Lewis t315 

Oil,   Steam  required  for  atomization  of  fuel..   t63 

Oil  stored  on  Pacific  Coast,   etc 785 

Oil  supply.   Our  fuel 335 

Oil  tanks,  Calculating  the  contents  of.  Strohm 

•123     •482 

Oil,  Taper  for  flash  test  of .'.   411 

Oil  Trade  Journal.  The  Petroleum  and  Nat- 
ural Gas  Register  1917-1918 t493 

Oil — Year's  progress  in  the  power  field *2 

Oiler  discussion,  Telescopic '522 

Oilers,    Improvement    in    ring .-••231 

Oiling  system,  Engine '60,   ♦847 

"Old     Hickory" — Largest      smokeless      powder 

plant  in  the  U.   S 893 

Oliver     Iron     Mining     Co. — Centralized     mine 

plant.     Muldner    •370 

On  being  a  good  loser.     Knowlton 317 

O'Neill.  Determining  b<»iler  etficiency  by  CO2 
analyses  and  flue  temperatures  *52.  58, 
Bonus  plan  for  boiler-plant  operatives  •467, 
518,  Dnpreventable  losses  in  coal  combus- 
tion   under   boilers •502 

Operating  costs  of  electric   elevators.      Naylor 

•188 

Opinion   of  an   American,    The 774 

Opportunity,    Lost.      Odell 535 

Order,   Putting  their  houses   In 371 

Ordnance  Dept.  wants  one  hundred  draftsmen 
35,  Needs  civilian  workers  169,  422,  Ap- 
pointment  of    Ortlnance   draftsmen 239 

Osborne,   N.   S.  and  M.  F.   Van  Dusen.     Latent 

heat  of  vaporization  of  ammonia •632 

Osborne,     W.    F.       Internal-combustion    engine 

lubrication   842 

Overflow    alarm.    Tank.       Nash ♦ISl 

Oxidation  of  Coal,   The.      Katz,    Porter flTl 

Oxyacetylene- Welded  Joints  in  Steel  Plates. 
Tests    of    flOB 


Packages    for   express   shipment,    Marking...,   532 

Packing — An  easily  made  gasket  cutter ^271 

Packing    and    rubber    for    Chile,     Steam    and 

water    856 

Packing  burns  out.    Piston    129,    Answers  339. 

Remedy  gleaned  from  answers ■. .   376 

Packing    conditions    overcome.    Bad 23 

Packing  cutter,  A  handy.     Lucas ^262 

Packing,    "John  Crane"   flexible  metallic •698 

Pages,    Binder    for    detached •410 

Parham.       Motor    sparkeil    when    starting    18, 

Turbine  speed  decreased  56,  Induction  motor 

heated     96,     Three     nioturs     heated      •269, 

Variable-speed  motor  used  in  constant-speed 

service   •285,   Commutator   was   strained.  .  .  .    878 
Pasadena.    City    of,    and    Southern    California 

Edison    Co 785 

Pat  saved  a   barge  by  sinking  it.   How 742 

Patterson.     A.-c.  automatic  starters  for  squlr- 

rel-cage    induction    motors •180 

Pawtucket,  R.  I. — Tamarack  Mills  power  plant. 

Bromley    ♦426 

Peat    production    in     Norway,     Denmark     and 

Sweden,    etc 104 

Peat.    Would    utilize 243 

"Perpetual      motion" — Power     without     cost? 

♦154.    Garabed   ♦221,  313.  336.  590,  713.  808,  880 

Personal  mention    278 

Perth   Amboy,    N.   J. — While  the  idle  millions 

shiver    *178,    192,    193.    •209,   227 

Peru  favor  American  electrical  goods,  Ecuador 

and    243 

Petroleum  administrator.   Western  States 315 

Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas  Register  1917-1918 

t4d3 

Petroleum  in    Britain    532 

Petroleum  industry,   War  service  of  the 586 

Pfau.     Largest  high-head  Francis  turbine. ...  •174 
Philo.      EfTeet  of  feed-water   temperature   and 

rate  of  injection  upon  steam   flow •915 

Pig-iron  output,   U.   S.  steel  and 457 

Pillow-block    cap,    Water-Jacketed     ♦SOS 

PIPING 

— .\merk'!in  pipe  line  was  instrumental  In  the 

capture   of  Jerusalem    

— ^Borry  flexible  Joint .' 

— Blowoff    pipe    scaled ' 

— Blowoff  pipiug.  Arrangement  of 

— Charged    steam    pipe 

— C.miblnation    pipe    Joint ' 

— Cut  pipe  troubles 

— Distinguishing   iron    from   steel   pipe 

— Drain  pipes.    How  not   to  connect ' 

■ — Easily    made    pipe    covering    •742,    Criticism 


— Expansion.    Inadequate   provision   for 

— Explosion  at  Onialia.  Neb..  Steam  pipe  broke 

causing     

— Flow    of    steam    through    6-in.    pipe    t377, 

Erratum    


104 

•48 
►878 

132 

921 

'197 

56 

375 
'411 

924 

268 

206 
401 


January   1  to  Juno  ;U),  1918 


POWER 


Pag** 
IMIMNt,; — CuiilinutHl 

-  <ircate.s|  rx|»iinslun  at  tenit>eraturc  of  frees- 

lutf     1305 

— llRmllHM.k  un  i'iplug.     SveiiKcii t785 

— Hwiiie  nmih-    pipe   nin\    drillliiK   vise •704 

— llot-wuter   pipes   pit,    Why   ;t01,    Lime   as   a 

prote*^tlon    tor    stei-l -ISS 

—  Iron   from  steel  pipe,   How   to  (listinpiitsli .  .    194 

—Lead   pipe.    Tbli-kuess   and    weiglit    of t377 

— Long    pump-Kuotioa    pipes    objectionable..  .  .^341 

— Peeiilug  pipe  in  Its  Unuges 220 

—Pipe-line    trunsiK>rtHlion   ot   conl 6CC,  835 

— Pipe-threadiug  liints.  Some ♦6B 

— Pipe    wrench    for    many    slaes .  .  -' •413 

— Pitometer    for    determining    How     in    pipes 

•195.  520.   •021 

— Portable  "I'haingrlp"   pipe  vise •328 

— Relative     dimensions     of     extra-heavy     and 

standard  pipe    t523 

—Repair  s-teani  pipes  which  are  under  pres- 
sure,    Never     •716 

— Hepair   to  copper  circulating  pipe •376 

— Screwed  pipe  connections.    Minimum  number 

threads   for    t^6 

— Steam-carrying  capacity  of  pipes.     Thies...   545 

— Steam  header,   Required  size  of t596 

— Steam   pipe  exploded   at    Slurtevant   Blower 

Wks 751 

^Strainer  for  pipe  lines '269 

— Thawing  frozen  water  pipes  by  electricity ..  •449 
— Underground  steam  mains.     Hubbard.  *460,   •540 

— Water  delivered   by  4-in.    pipe t97 

— Water-pipe  joint  to  corrode,  Lighting  circuit 
caused.  Briggs  •1S5.  AlterniUing  cur- 
rent cannot   cause  corn>sion.      Weightman 

591 

Piston   clearance    to   cylinder   clearance,    Rela- 
tion of    J^73 

Piston   packing  burns  out    129,    Answers   339, 

Remedy  gleaned   from  answers 37G 

Piston  repaired.  Broken  cast *5Q'2 

Piston  rod.  Obtaining  reiiuired  length  of....t501 
Piston  rod,  Oil  lantern  jminncd  on.  Miller.  .  •6C0 
Piston-rod  packing  cutter,  A  handy.     Lucas... '262 

Piston,    striking   head,    wrecks    engine '450 

Pitch   as   a   fuel   for   power   generation.      Ker- 
shaw          ^04 

Pitch   required   to   retain   given   percentage  of 

plate   t561 

Pilot  tube.  Modification  of  the 163 

Pitot  tube.  Using  a *195.  520,   '921 

Planimeter,       Compensating      variation      from 

scale  of    J671 

Plant  Engineers'  Club  of  Boston,  The.. 416,  G43 
Poetry   '73.  Criticism    lit?.    "173.    *2i7.   353. 

•425,   •571.    •681,   737,   787 

Pointers  to  success.     Willey 719 

Poisoning,   Carbon-monoxide  gas      218 

Poles,   For  changes   in  number  of — Reconnect- 
ing induction  motors.      DGdley •498 

Poole    Eng'ring    and    Machine    Co. — Speed-re- 
duction gear    '400 

Poole.     The  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 1349 

Pooling  of  power.   The 159 

Pope.     Directions  for  Sampling  Coal  for  Ship- 
ment or  Delivery t279 

Portable    Machinery    Co. — Self-contained    port- 
able   scoop    conveyors *226 

Porter,   Katz.     The  Oxidation  of  Coal tl71 

Position.  The  engineer  and  his.     Larkin *281 

Poster    competition    205.     S'-me    of    the    prize- 
winning    posters    •SeS.     Smokelessness    and 

fuel    saving    775 

Potomac   Light    &   Power   Co 717 

Potter.    Simmering.      Boiler    Room    Economics 

t349 

Powdered  Coal  as  a  Fuel.     Herington t423 

Power  companies.  Control  over 749 

Power  company    rule.    Protest 501 

Power  contracts.    Insolvency '-^  effect  on 70 

Power  did  for  a  dry  dock.   What 139 

Power-factor     correction ,     Some     fundamental 

considerations  of.      McCarty *o39 

Power  field.  The  year's  progress  in  the *2 

Power  generation.  Pitch  as  a  fuel  for.     Ker- 

srhaw   ^^^ 

Power   industry,    Conditions   in   the.      Schmidt 

329.   802,   907 
Power    interests.    New    York    State    legislation 

affecting     453 

Power   loss  In  waterwheel  pit.      Shearer *793 

Power,  Mine-mouth  generation  of 665.   •661 


POWER  PLANT 

See  also    "Water   power,"    "Central  station."    etc. 
— Atmospheric  vapor-absorption  system.    Derry 

801 
— Bonus    for    power-plant    employees.      Lewis 

439.  446 
— Central  power  stations,   Future  location  of. 

Ashmead   •661.   665 

— Central-station  heating  in  Detroit.      Walker 

•646 

^Centralized  mine  plant.     Mnldner •370 

— Chances  for  promotion   in  power  plants....     91 

— Cleveland    plants    interconnected 785 

—Coal-pit  mouth   power  plants.      Shearer....   256 
—Coal  shortage  and  the  Southern  power-plant 

operator   194.  557.   881 

—Connors    Creek    turbines.    The   fifty-thou.sand 

kllovolt-ampere.      Ilir.^hfeld    255 

— Economy     of     refrigerating     power     plants. 

Azbe      '■ *414,   445 

^Efficiency.   Effect  of  poor  conl  on  plant....   420 

— Essex  fiower   plant    shut    down 34 

—Essex     Station,     Public     Service     Elec.     Co.. 

Newark.  N.  J.,  as  it  will  look  when  com 

pleted    •155 

— Fedcrnl    Inspectifm   of   power   plants ...  .806.    807 
— Flooded    power-plant  equipment.    Methods   of 

drving    out.       Ren '40 

^F'.rril.lp    shutting    down    of    Isolated    power 

plants.  The.     M..ses 443 

—■Francis    turbine,    T>argoRt   high-hend.      Pfnu.*174 
— FupI    Erc.nomy    In    the    Operation    of    Hand- 

Piri'd    Power    Plants  t933 


Paffo 
POWER  PLANT— Coiilinuod 

— Ideal    power-plant    location 270 

— Improve   plant   etlU-lcncy -% 300 

—  Industrial     plant     furnlslics    street     railway 

power    406 

-Instruments    Improve  plant   economy •882 

--interconnected  power  systems  of  the  South.  *720 

-  -Juliet    plant.    New    high-press-ure *108,    127 

— Largest  smokeless  powder  plunt  In  the  U.  S.  893 

— Ivocking  gate  for  power  plant ♦90 

— -Mass.    tenches    powcr-phuit    economics 205 

— Measuring  Instruments,  Power-plant.    Taylor 

530 
— Mine  plant  saves  45  tons  of  coal  per  day..*292 
— ^Municipal  power  plants.  Proposed  law  allows 

expansion  of    204 

— New  power  house  extensiiui 245 

— Nitro  Powder  Plant,   Power  for  the 713 

—Northwest  Station.  95,oao-kw.  addition  to.. •354 
— Plant   records   and    the    importance   of  keep- 
lug  them    711 

— Power    house    and    niacliinery    destroyed    by 

tire    139 

-Power   plant  burns   locomotive  cinders,    13 ; 

Another    338 

— Power-plant    courses    in    Wisconsin 205 

— Power  plants  of  modern  ships.     Berg 672 

— Purchasing    power-plant    equipment •875 

— Questionnaire  for  power  plants 840 

— Remodeling    the    St.    Louis    Baden    Station. 

Toensfeldt    *862 

— River   Station.    Handling   feed  water  at....    226 

— Something    to    be    proud    of 627 

— Steam-electric    power    plant    design.      Loiz- 

eaux    601 

—Steam   Power  Plant  Engineering.     Gebhardt 

t387 

— Steam  power  plants  close  to  save  oil 493 

— Tamarack  Mills  power  plant.  Bromley  •426, 

Operating    cost    548.    Correction    on    price 

of    oil     594 

— Team    work    in    the   plant.      Knowlton •39 

— To   enlarge   electric   power   plants 933 

— Training    power-plant    men    for    the    Navy. 

Connely    •396 

— Unsatisfactory    plant    conditions 130 

— Walnut  plant,   Columbus  Railway,   Power  & 

Light    Co •318 

— Warrior  steam  plant  of  the  Alabama  Power 

Co.       West     •aOO 

— Windsor  power  station  •210,   50,000  sq.  ft. 

condenser  at  station '282 

— Year's  progress  in  the  power  field *2 

Power  rate   for  electrically   driven   ice  plants. 

Joyce    137 

Power  systems  of  the  South,    Interconnected.  .  ^720 

Power,    The   pooling  of 159 

Power   to   rehabilitate   the   railways.    Use   sur- 
plus   productive     335 

"Power,"    Why   Bill  reads 737 

Power    without    cost? *154 

Practices,   Safe.     National  Safety  Council.  ..  .t>*15 
Pratt    Institute,     Annual    exhibit    of    evening 

work  at   348 

Precision     Instrument    Co.— Boiler-room     gage 

and   control   board *508 

Pressure   equivalent   to    zero   inches  vacuum.  .t523 
Pressure  governor  for  gas  and  liquid  systems. . '7c;7 
Pressure,   Mean  forward  and  mean  effective. .  t451 
Pressures  for  pipe,   valves  and  fittings.   Work- 
ing         t97 

Pressures,     Higher — Year's     progress     in     the 

power   fieid    *2 

Pressures    with   dead   weight.    Measuring  high. 

Moss    *2S6.    Correction    484 

Price-fixing  and  coal  quality 277 

Promotion  in  power  plants.   Chances   for 91 

Protection   around    flywheel,    Insufficient 95 

Protest  power  company  rule 501 

Pseudo  data 701 

Public   duty.    The  engineer's 168 

Public   Service   Co.'s   new  high-pressure   Joliet 

plant    'lOS,   127 

Public   Service   Elec.    Co.,    Newark,    N.    J.,    as 
it  will  look  when  completed,  Essex  Station. 

•155 

Public   utilities  corporations — Rate  fixing. 372.   385 

Publicity  about  turbine  accidents — Correction.      93 

Puget   Sound   Traction,   Light   &   Power   Co. — 

Largest  high-head  Francis   turbine.     Pfau..^l74 

Pulley,  Location  for  tightener-idler t341 

Pulley,  Power  absorbed  by  idler J925 

Pulley.  Why  twist  the? ^230 

Pulleys,   Diameters  of  mating  cone t885 

Pulverized  Rhode  Island  anthracite.  Burning..   618 

PUMP 

—Air  pump,    Change  of  water  supply  for  24, 

161,  196.  302 
- — Air-pump    design,    Recent    developments    in. 

Jones    *26 

—Automatic   control  for  belt-driven   pump.... •846 

— Auxiliary  valve  on  single  steam  pump t413 

— Break    in   boiler-feed    line   from   stoppage   of 

pump     t925 

— Centrifugal   brine  pumps  and   brine   coolers, 

etc '77 

— Centrifugal  mnchinery.  Suggested  designs  for     21 

— Centrifugal  pumps  for  mine  service 636 

— Centrifugal    punii)s.    Priming •272 

— Duplex  boilcrffcd  pumps.   Required  size  of.t413 

— Duplex  piimp.    Cusliioning  of t377 

— Duplex    puinp.    Setting   steam    vnlvcs   of....    tG3 
— Duplex    pump.     Steam     cylinders    for    com- 
pound     tl65 

—Emergency    pump    rejialr.    An •194 

— Entering  leather  pump  cups *848 

—Estimating  height  of  su.-tlon   lift t885 

— Peed  pump.  W'ater  too  hot  for 24 

— Feed   jiumps.    Regulation  of 132 

-   Fire  pumps,  Requirements  and  appointments 

of     ' t413 

—Fluctuation  of  electric  pump-pressure   regu- 
lator        t97 

— Gr<^inning  steam   pump,    A 231 


I'agc 
PUMP — CoiitiiuuMi 

— Height   of    pumjiing    water t671 

— Keeping  oil  out  of   feed   pump •030.   •742 

— Luitwieler  single-plunger  double-acting  pump 

•652 

• — Meeting  an    emergency 667 

— Packing  the  water  end  of  a   feeil   pump.... ♦BIO 

— Packing  water-pistons  of  pumps 004 

— Philadelphia     operated     first     steaiii-puraped 

water  system,   etc 80 

—Pump  fails  to  empty  receiver JSOB 

— Pump-piston  speeds  and   relative  capacities. {631 

- — Pump   strokes    Irregular 706 

— Pump-valvc-seat  wrench    •GIO 

— Radojct   air   pump •770 

— Scoville    pump    valve •369 

— Suifting    valve.    Improved •410,  668 

^Something    about    pumps •612 

-  -Testing   boller-fecil    pump t813 

— Vacuum   pump,   Variation  of  power  required 

for     tl33 

— Valve  opening  against   pressure 412 

— Valve   repairs.    Some  emergt-ncy 'Sll 

— Vapor   relief  on    pump   suction •376 

— Water-hammer  in  pump  suction  line J707 

— Water   handled    by   pump t885 

— Year's  progress  in  the  power  field *2 

Purchasing  Coal  by  Specification  and  Methods 

of    Sampling t716 

Putting  their  houses  In  order 371 

Pyrometer,    Iron    ball XSVi 

Q 

Quarter  blocks.   Removing  main-bearing 'OOS 

Questiounaire   for   iwwer   plants 840 


Racing,    Worn    latch   blocks  cause 161 

Radiator    connections     "812 

Rag  washing  and  oil  reclaiming 578 

Railroads,  Coal  supply  and  the 265 

Railway     power,     Industrial     plant     furnishes 

street    406 

Railways,  Use  surplus  productve  power  to  re- 
habilitate the    335 

Raise  of  pay  and  promotion,  How  Engineer  Tim 

got    a.       Griffin *107 

Rate  fixing  372,  385,  38  companies  propose 
to  advance  Vates  457,  Suggestion  to  com- 
missions 556,    All   after  higher   rates 568 

Rate  for  electrically  driven  ice  plants.  Power. 

Joyce     137 

Rea.  Methods  of  drying  out  flooded  power- 
plant    equipment    *46 

Reason  there  is  no  coal.  The.  .192.   193,   •209.    227 

Receiver  eliminates  moisture *96 

Reconnecting  induction  motors.     Dudley.     For 

changes   in  number  of  poles *498 

Record    charts.    Filing *777 

Recording  instrument,  The  day  of  the 191 

Records  and  the  importance  of  keeping  them, 

Plant    711 

Red  Cross  Fund,  American  695,  What  your 
Red  Cross  dollars  do  700.  737,  This  time  it 

is  give,    not   lend    739,   758 

Red  Cross  wants  tracing  cloth 205 

Reducer   for   gas  burners ^94 

Refinite    water    softener ^839 

REFRIGERATION 

— Absorption  refrigerating  machines.    Spangler 

— American     Soc.     Refrig.     Engrs. — The     engi- 
neer's   public    duty.      Perkins    108,    New 

York    Section    315 

— Ammonia  and  ice.  Food  Administration  on..   348 
— Ammonia-compressor    diagrams     for    discus- 
sion  '95,   Discussion    339 

— Ammonia-compressor   drive,    Electric    motors 

for 168 

—Ammonia     condensers,     The     selection     of. 

Sailer      359 

— Ammonia  consumption  for  munitions.  Saving 

in     600 

— Ammonia   in  brin_e.   Testing  for 90 

— Ammonia    oil    separator   explodes 674 

— Ammonia    situation.    The 228 

— C^indenser    was    full    of    ammonia.      Grnver.^792 
— Day     with     the     refrigerating     troubleman. 

Miller    798 

— Economy    of    refrigerating    power    plants. 

Azbe    *414.  445 

— Ice  plant.   Engine-room  management  in   the. 

Friedman    68 

— Ice     plants.     Power     rate    for    electrically 

driven.       Joyce     1S7 

—Latent    heat    of    vaporization    of    ammonia. 

Osborne.   Van  Dusen '632 

— Multi-stage    fompression    plant    of    Central 

Cold    Storage    Co ♦TJ 

— Oil  lantern  jammed  on  piston  rod.    Miller.. •660 

— Refriseratlon.       Arrowood     t643 

— Russian    refrigerating    industries,    Qualifica- 
tions  of   employees   in 277 

— Saving  ammonia  and  coal 703 

— Year's  progress   iu   the  power   field *2 

Rciavs.    Reverse-current    'TSS 

Ucuiington.   N.   Y. ^Economizer  explosion  kills 

I'tie    man     138 

llcpalr.    An    emergency    pump ♦104 

Ri'pnir   to  copper  circulating  pipe •37.'i 

Repaired.    A    wooden    tank 164,  447 

Ropniring  a  broken  crosshead *24 

Repairing  a   steel   stnclc 450 

Repairing  an  open-circuit  In  n  field  rhcosint .  . '375 

Repnirinsr  worn   valve  sleins *'2^0_    4R4.    ^778 

Repairs.  Providing  spnce  to  make.     Sailer ...  .•842 

Rppnirs  to  broken  cear  wheel *BS\ 

Republic   Iron   mid  Steel  Co. — Boiler  explosion 

;it  East  riiir-ngo  kills  povcn  .  .  .  .  315.  •382.  RflO 
Requn.     War  service  of  the  petroleum  Industry.   566 


10 


Pa^e 

Research   fellowships 170 

"Resisto"   furnace  paint  and  putty •759 

Resurfacer,    "Ideal"    commutator •154 

Reusing   a   cutter-pin '706 

Reverse-current  relays •738 

Rewinding  direct-current  armatures.  Thistle- 
white   •325 

Reynolds.  Success — On  things  in  general,  per- 
sonal   and    otherwise    S2'S,    Heating    system 

returns    connected    wroiit *Qn 

Rheostat,    Lamp    hunk   as-  a '270 

Rheostat,  Repairing  an  open-circuit  in  a  field. *37B 
Hhode   Island  coal   2i'>7,   Effect  of  poor  cual  on 
plant  efficiency   420.   Suggested  caution  war- 
ranted   479,    Burning    R.    I.    anthracite 618 

Rhode  Island   need  a   license  law.    Does?   479, 

Texas  also  needs  a   license  law 846 

Rice.      Electricity   to  solve  the  fuel  and  trans- 
portation   problems   310,    Cooperation  an   es- 
sential element  in  the  winning  of  the  war..  .    345 
Richey.    Air  lift  for  compressor-jacket  water.  '588 

Ring   for   hoisting  wire •412 

Ring  oilers.    Improvement   In •231 

Ring,  Poorly  designed  bull '94 

River  Station,   Handling  feed  water  at 226 

Road   building.    Military.      White *25a 

Roads,   Three.      Near •763 

Rod,  Shrinking  the  "eye"  of  a '^04 

Rollins,  F.  G.,  Death  of 349 

Rope,    Strength   of   Manila t233 

"Royal"  family  of  waste •543 

Rule,   Protest   power  company 501 

Rules,   Engine-room    417 

Rumors,  Giving'  credence  to 92 

Rushmore,  Lof.  Hydro-Electric  Power  Sta- 
tions     1279 

Russian    refricierating  industries,    Qualifications 

of  employees  in 277 

Rusting,  Mixture  to  keep  polished  iron  or  steel 
from    278 

S 

Safe  Practices.      National  Safety  Council t315 

Safe  speed  for  cast-iron   flywheels ^235 

Safety-first  knife  switch •80 

Safety   gage-glass.   Ernst •406 

Safety  guard  prevents  injury •521 

Safety  latch  for  furnace  door,     Howard •865 

Safety — Never    repair    steam    pipes    which    are 

under   pressure    •715 

Safety,  Queer  notion  of  factor  of 857 

Safety,  The  vanishing  factor  of 919 

Sague.    Compulsory  roiipeintion  of  central  sta- 

tioD   and   isolated   plant    870 

St.     Louis     Baden     Station,     Remodeling    the. 

Toensfeldt    •862 

Sales   engineering.    Ethics   of.      Stephan 913 

Sailer.  The  selection  of  ammonia  condensers 
S59,    Providing  ample  clearance   spa<'e   '842, 

Air-bound    steam     traps ^872 

Sample  coal  with  a  shovel,  tamper  and  blan- 
ket,   How    to     ^476 

Sand    filter   for   used   oil •923 

Sand   for  extinguishing  fires 776 

Sandpapering    brushes     _133 

Santry.  Clark.  Increasing  the  life  of  econo- 
mizers      '436 

Sarco     metallic     gaskets ^473 

Saving   by    burning   slack    coal.      GuUlner.  .  .  .    260 
Saving    in    avoiding    leaks    in    boiler    setting, 

Possible.       Aarons     365 

Scale    formation.    Why    a    different    rnte    of? 

2:U.    521.    559,    778,    810 

SrnlcR.    Small    weitrhts   on   big.      Church *405 

Schmidt.  Conditions  in  the  power  industry 
329,  802,  907,  Uydro-Pleftric  power  de- 
velopment in  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
465.     479,     Gov't     contmi     of     water    power 

and   electriial   distribution   abvoiid 505,    517 

*'Schreckliclikeit"  did  to  un  interned  Ger- 
man   steamer    in    Brazil.    What    •430,    Those 

damaged    German    ships 602 

Science    or    Art.       Taylor t421 

Scoop    conveyors.    Self-contained    portable.  ...  *226 

Scoville   pump   valve •SOQ 

Screws  into  hard  timber,   Putting  wood 244 

Sea    water,    TJniisual   design   of   evaporator   for 

distilling     '366 

Secret.    Thp.      Bra»ey '247 

Secretary    for    joint    activities    of    engineering 

societies       '31 

Selvig.    Fioldner.      Determination    of   Moisture 

in     Coke     t279 

Sepnrafiir.    Obstruction    in    steam 776 

Shadowed  !      ^201 

Shaft-governor     pointers.     Some •ISO 

Shafting.    Determining  benefits  of  aligning. ..  t561 

Shafts,    Spanner    wrench   for   finished •132 

Share,    His    '102 

Shearer.  Installing  electric  cables  under  con- 
crete floor  •223,  Coal-pit  mouth  power 
plants  256.  Compressed  air  for  cleaning 
motors  •369.  668,  Power  loss  in  water- 
wheel    pit     •793 

Sherman.  Notes  on  the  operation  of  subma- 
rine   Diesel    engines 708 

Shibboleth,    The    national.      Strohm ^425 

Ship,    Launch    big    concrete 4.'i7 

Shipping   Board    Kchools 170 

Shipping    needs.    New    England's 386 

Ships,    Concrete    605 

Ships,   Power  plants  of  modern.      Berg 672 

Ships,    ships,    and    more   ships ♦346 

Ships.  Training  engine-room  crews  for  Ameri- 
ca's  new.      Howard    '435 

Shipyard  work,  Men  wanted  for 243 

Shipyards,    Workers    for    tlie 312 

Shovels  down  below.   The  boys  who  swing  the. 

Dunkley    •73.    Criticism 107 

Shutting  down  of  isolated  power  plants.     The 

forcible.      Moses     443 

Sibley,    Delany.      Elements    of    Fuel    Oil    and 

Steam    Engineering    t7t6 

Sight  feed   for  oil  cups.     Bentley *^^1 

Simmering.    Potter.      Boiler  Room   Economics.  t349 
Black  containing  excessive  moisture.   Burning. 
McCall  •472,  Erratum  741,  Discussion 744 


POWER 


Page 

Sledgehammer,    Kultur    mit *'*^^ 

Slip-ring  insulation  repair •51*3 

Bmallwood.       Mechanical    Laboratory    Methods 

of    Testing    Machines    and     Instruments.  ..  .t8y7 
Smoke     and     Dust     Ahatenieut     Liajiue— Poster 
competition   2U5,    Some   of   the   piize-winuing 
posters   "GtiO,   Smokele-ssnu-ss  anil  fuel  saving   7io 
Smoke — Year's   progress    in   the   [jower   field. .      *- 

Smokeless    portable    forge,    A ■3.i?' 

Smokeless  i»owder  plant  in  the  U.   S..  Largest  bV'3 

Smokelessness    and    fuel    saving 775 

Smoke-stack,    Climbing    a 24,  4uy 

Smoke-stack,    Repairing   a    steel 4ijU 

Smoking  chimneys,   Controlling '1^0 

Society    for    Electrical    Development,     luc 7ol 

Society,    What  do  1  get  out  of  my.' ^^\ 

Socket     wrench,     Handy *7T0 

Soot    and    soot    blowers •824,   844 

South.   Interconnected  power  systems  of  the..*T-0 
Southern    power-plant    operator,    Woal    shortage 

and    the 19i,    ijoi,    881 

Space    to    make    repairs,    Providing.      Saner ...  ♦84z 
Spangler,      h\      C.        Absorption      refrigerating 

machines     ^274 

Kpangier,    ii.     \\ .      Grapuics t^43 

Spanner    wrench    lor    nmsUed    suaits 'i6ii 

Sparks,   Power  plant  liurus  locuiuodve '6'6b 

Sparrow,    J.    P..    Death   of 4u(,    "490 

bpeed-reducljou  gear    •4#U 

Spliced    conductors    in    conduits.       isriggs *2U1 

Splicing    wire,    Tools    for.      liertranile •158 

bpiague     Box     Co. — Failing     chimney     wrecks 

part   of    New    Knglaud    iiietory. '308 

Spraragen,    Wynne.      naudbooK  ol  Kngineermg 

Mathematics    7710 

Spray    head,     Yarway    adjustable "tflO 

springer,      spontaneous   ignition   of   bituminous 

coal     ^5^0 

Sprinkler  systems,  Ueatiug  buildiug.s  with....      YU 

Square    D    uiutor-sturting    switches •730 

Square  roots,   Method  ol  squaring  mixed   uum- 

uers    and    extracting.      Carpenter 872 

Squirrel-cage     induL-tiou     motors,     A.-c.     auto- 
matic   starters    for.      Pattersou *180 

Stack.      See  "Smoke." 

Stackhouse,    J.,    Death    of 315 

"Sta-Lok"    nut,    Evertite.  .^ '804 

Steam .        See      also      *  "Kugiue, ' '      "  "Turbine, ' ' 
"Boiler,"     "Condenser, ""      ■Pump,"     "I'ower 
plant,"     "Piping,"     "ileatiug    and     ventila- 
tion, '     "Valve, ' '    "Trap." 
Steam,    Adding  heat   to  constant   volume  of...Jbl3 

Steam,    Advantages   of    throttling   wet J8h5 

Steam    after   passing    through    reducing    valve. 

Temperature    of    }485 

Steam-carrying    capacity    of   pipes.      Thies. .  .  .    045 
Steam  consumption  and   weight  of  feed  water.  J2o:i 

Steam,    Cost    of    leakage    of t25 

Steam,    Density   and  volume  of J5y5 

Steam  Engineering,  Elements  of  Fuel  Oil  and. 

Sibley,     Delany     t716 

Steam,    Factor   of   evaporation   generating   su- 
perheated      t-"'^ 

Steam   flow,    Eflect  of   feed-water   temperature 

and  rate  of  injection   upon.      Philo •915 

Steam  increases  its  volume,  How  superheating  25S 

Steam,    Intrinsic   or   internal   energy   of 1707 

Steam- jet     ash-conveyor     improvements,     Sug- 
gested      -. *^'2'i 

Steam    leaks,     Capitalization    value    of.       von 

Fabrice     *C5G 

Steam   loop,    Something  about   the •7ti7 

Steam   mains.    Uuderground.      Hubbard    •460,   '540 
Steam    Motor— Suggested    designs    for    centrif- 
ugal machinery    21 

Steam  power,    Future  of  water  and 857 

Steam    raising.    Coke    breeze    for 419 

Steam   separator.    Obstruction   in 776 

Steam  shown  by  calorimeter  test.  Quality  of.jS41> 

Steam    Tables    for   Condenser    Work t509 

Steam,    The   latent   heat  of 038 

Steam     to     heat     water     for     house     heating. 

Bryant    *471 

Steam,    Utilizing  s-urpl«s  electrical  energy  for 

generating.     Hoehn    67 

Steam    waste,    Exhaust    57 

Steel   and   pig-iron   output,    U.   S 4o7 

Steel,    Carbon    in 309 

Steel.    Electrolytic    corrosion   of 313 

Steel- jacketed     electric     heater •124 

Steel,    Lime  as  a  protection   for 483 

Steel    Plates,     Tests    of    Osy acetylene- Welded^ 

Joints   in    l},2^ 

Steel  shafting.  Transmissive  capacity  of I071 

Stephan.     Ethics  of  sales  engineering 013 

Stephens.       Vertical-shaft     waterwlieel     alter- 

n& tor • oii. 

Sterling.   Internal-Combustion  Engine  Manual .  t^H'.t 

Stets    boiler-feed     controller "800 

Stevens  Tech..   Free  class   for  radio  operators 
at   71,    Commencement   exercises   457,    Navy 

engineers   to    train   at    Stevens 492 

Stoek.      The   storage   of  bituminous   coal   814,    1^97 

Stoker — Brick-lined   ash    hopper '847 

Stoker  capacity  vs.  boiler  forcing  rates.     Fos- 
ter          •*7t) 

Stoker—Figuring    furnace-grate    arejt.. •T^G 

Stoker,    Grate    area    and    the    underfeed.. jii-i 

Stoker,    Holding    up   the   curtain    wall   of   a..  ^447 
Stoker     installations.      Superheat     in     forced- 
draft.       Greene 836 

Stoker— Material  for  dump  plate  bearing  bar.    o93 
Stoker— Ventilated     side     walls.       Caton     '43. 

Protection    of    furnace    walls.       Goder &^U 

Stoker— Ventilating   the  side   wall   was   unsuc- 
cessful  ■ °^- 

Stokers.   Chain  grate— Boiler  settings.      Brom- 

Igy       "700.       00» 

Stokers— Year's    progress   in   the   power   (i.-ld .  .      '2 
Storage  and  weathering  of  coal.     Stuckenberg 

and    Knhout    ,*^J 

Storage.    Mixing   coal    in.      Zimmer ^" 

Straightener,     Home-made     wire i^o 

Strain  on  studs.  Relieving  side ^  «» 

Strainer    for    pipe    lines • -^» 

Stream,    Discharging   warm    water   In ^(o 

Rtreiims,     Pollution    of ^"^ 


Volume  47 


Pa^e 
Street.       Court    decisions    70,    103,    244.    278, 
314,    343,    304,    004,    713,    715,    710,    749, 

S27,    b58,    903 

Strohm.      Calculating  the  contents  of  oil  tanka 

•123,    ^4^2.    The    greatest    ally    *173,    Help 

yourself   353.    The   national   shibboleth    •425, 

The    universal    language    •571,    The    fellows 

who     know     787 

Stroiueyt-r.  Points  in  steam-boiler  manage- 
ment          242 

Strong.  Favorable  performance  of  high  set- 
ting      •699 

Stuckenberg.  Kohout.  Storage  and  weather- 
ing   of     coal 234 

Studebakor    Corporation — Hoisting    boilers    to 

second  floor    *22» 

Studs,  Relieving  side  strain  on ^95 

Study  course,  Elec. — Elementary  siugle-coil 
dynamo  •14,  D.-c.  armature  construction 
•87,  Forms  of  field  magnets  •152,  Com- 
mutator construction  •219,  The  dynamo 
•294,  Commutation  *302,  Shun  t-counec  ted 
generators  •SOO,  Series-connected  generators 
•580,  Compouqd- wound  generators  •653, 
Characteristic  curves  of  shunt  and  series 
generators  •730,  Characteristic  curves  of 
compound    generators    "796,    Losses    in   d.-c. 

machinery    •876 

Submarine  Diesel  engines.  Notes  on  the  opera- 
tion   of.       Sherman 708 

Success — On    things    in    general,    personal    and 

otherwise.      Reynolds    823 

Success,    Pointers    to.      Willey 719 

Sucking  from   a   condenser 164,   '482 

Suggestion     to    advertisers,     A 6G7 

Superdreadnaught    "New    York,"    Model   of... •291 
Superheat  in  forced-draft  stoker  installations. 

Greene    » 836 

Superheated  steam.      See  also   "Steam."      "^ 
Superheated    steam    to    blast-furnace    gas    en- 
gines,   From.      Fritz 615 

Svensen.  Essentials  of  Drafting  1785,  Hand- 
book  on    Piping    t785 

Switch,    An    emergency    lighting •IS'T 

Switch,      Krautz     auto-lock •868 

Switch,    Safety-first    knife •80 

Switches,    Square    D    motor-starting •730 

Synchronoscope    needle    stuck    271 

Synehronoscope    operated    t?higgisbly 627 

Syracufee    garbage-digester    explosion •520 


Table  of   Sizes   in    the    Principal   Wire   Gages, 

Combined      t423 

Tacoma.      Wash. — Tallest      chimney      in      the 

world     ^340 

Talk   to   firemen  on   saving  coal.    A.      Bromley 

146,    167,   409,   741 
Tamanic-li   Mills   power  plant.      Bromley    •426. 
Operating    cost    548,    Correction    on   price   of 

oil     594 

Tank,    Compound   mixing  and   feeding •629 

Tank,    Lowering    a    heavy •231 

Tank-overflow    alarm.       Nash •ISl 

Tank    repaired,     A    wooden 164.  447 

Tanks,      Calculating      the      contents     of      oil. 

Strohm    •123,    •482 

Taper  for  flash  test  of  oil 411 

Tar  in  combination  with  coal.  Burning  oil  or.^261 
Tar    oils    for    use    in    internal-combustion    en- 
gines.     Clark    855 

Tasted.    Looked    worse    than    it *237 

Taylor,     11.       Power-plant    measuring    instru- 
ments         539 

Taylor.    H.    G.      Science  or   Art t421 

Team  work  in  the  plant.     Knowlton •ZQ 

Telegraph,     Fireroom     load ♦846 

Telescopic-oiler    discussion ^522 

Temperature    alarm.     High.       Brand •709 

Temperature  and  rate  of  injection  upon  steam 

flow,  Effect  of  fee.l  water.     Philo '915 

Temperatures,    Determining  boiler  efficiency  by 

COo  analyses  and  flue.     O'Neill '52,   58 

Templet   for    thread   size.    Babbitt •96 

Templets    and     their    application.     Suspended. 

Croft     ^78 

Test   of  oil.    Taper    for    flash 411 

Tester,      Dead- weight      pressure -gage.        Moss 

•286,    Correction     484 

Testing     Current     Transformers.        Bureau     of 

Standards     t349 

Testing    for    ammonia     in    brine 90 

Testing  Machines  and  Instruments.  Mechanical 

Laboratory    Methods   of.      SmnllwtHul t897 

Tests   of   Osyacetvlene-Welded    Joints   in   Steel 

Plates     tl05 

Tests    of    welded    joints 69 

Texas    also   needs   a    license    law 845 

Texas  Co. — Lubrication  of  steam  turbines.  .•198 
Thawing  frozen  water  pipes  by  electricity.  .♦449 
Theory    and    Operation    of    D.-l~^.    Machinery. 

Jansky    +423 

There  are  others ♦157 

Thermal    values   of    soft    coals 715 

Thermometer  guard,   A •303 

Thies.      Steam-carrying  capacity  of  pipes 545 

Thinker,    The     ♦237 

Thistlewhitc.      Rewinding  direct-current  arma- 
tures       •325 

Thread   size.   Babbitt   templet   for •SO 

Threading   hints.    Some    pipe •SO 

Three  roads.      Near    •753 

Tim    gnt    a    raise   nf   pay   and    promotion.    How 

Engineer.      Crlflin     •107 

Toensfeldt.      Remodeling  the   St.   T^uls  Baden 

Station      •862 

Toluol    from    city    gas 421 

Tool,    Wire-tightenine    ^340 

Toolholder.    Easily    attached •667 

Tools    for    !?plicinff   wire.      Bertrande •IRR 

Trade    literature.    Indexing    537 

Transformer  connections.    Current.  Woodward  .  ^616 
Transformers,     .\    novel    method    of    shipping 
large     *258 


January  1  to  June  30,  1918 

rr«u»(oriuer8,    Luibo    slugloi'Uaso. .'OST 

rrauMuiu.cr»,    TistiiiK    Ouriout.      Bureau    "« 

SuiuJaras    1  •?;» 

ITlusuiisaiou  llUf,  New •  ■ ■  •    "" 

ir'usw.natlou   i.iobU'Uis.    Electricity    tu   solve 

tUe    fuel   uuil.      Rice...... f^^Y, 

Tmi'l'luB    «-'"ei'    from    all-    I  no -a- 

Tral's,    Alr-liouuil    stcaui.       Mallei- BT^ 

TroWliuB    aullwaste   exhibit,    A '334 

Trials  o£   nmrluo  fuels •,•■■••, ,',  .■,' 

Tiwubleiiian,  Day  with  the  retrlgeratliig.     Mil-  _^^ 

Tnfuble's'  aud  'reu'iedlcs,'    UnscuBlne.      Urennau   14a 
■rceubles    aua     their    ren.c.llcs     In     gaseugine       _ 

Igultlou  systems,     lircmian.  .  .  .  . .  .  ..Jul).    T7j 

Xtuublcs  due  to  carelessness.  Kuglue.     Oakley. '^90 

Tube    Boiler.     See   "Boiler.' 

Tube  cleauer,   Grlllln  condenser    MSS,    Correc- 

'.'"".ModVnciiron'  of'  t'lie  'p'ltot  .•••;•■•■  ■  ■  •  '  "  ,lyn 

Ising  a  pilot •1U5.  5JU,   •U-U 

s,  CJoUapse  of  Short  Thin.     Carman T-i« 

IlllUl.NE,    STEAM 

—Accidents,    Turbine    S74 

—Big    turbine    for    N.    Y.    O »ia 

—Capacity  of  a  turbine.   What  is  the  (...408,  0S)4 
—Connors     Creek     turbines,     The     lifty-tliou- 

sand   kilOTOltamperc.      lUrshfeld -oo 

High  speed  of  steam  turbines -1,  l-» 

-Interpreting      steam-turbine      test      curves. 

Brelsford      ■ =»V 

—Large    Providence   turbine   started lUJ 

—Low-pressure    turbines    for    lineshaft    drive. 

Ilorne   -. :5j» 

— Lubrication    of    steam    turbines i»» 


POWER 


— Meeting    the    emergency. 


59 


Page 

— Itttdlal    valve    gear t^Sp 

^  Ueducing  valve.  The  engine  as  u »«» 

-  Kelict    valve,    A    f"rty-elBht-liich.  .........    '8.. 

-  Itepuirlng  woru  vnlve  stems •230,  4B4,   •(!» 

-  Safely    valve,    Uead-welghled t41;J 

-Sufelv  valves.   Limitation  of  size  of t413 

— Scoville    iiump    valve |?;'8 

— Setting   common   U-sUde    valve jo^.i 

—Small  bypass  around  mulu  stop  valve.  ....JbO-^ 
—Shift lug   valve.    Improved '410,  bus 

-  \'nlve  gear  broken  by    "blocked"    valve....    'J.i 
Valve    opening    against    pressure 41. 

--Valve    repairs.    Some    emergency on 

—Valve   travel   uualTecled   by   diameter  of  ec- 
centric     *59'J 

Van    Iiusen,    Osborne.      Latent   heat   of   yapor- 

Izatbm    of    ammonia    . ,. °»J 

Vanishing  factor,  The »i» 

Vapor  absorption    system.    Atmospheric.    Derry   801 

Veloiity  of  air   In   ducts ^fj? 

Venezuela.    Weights   and   measures   In »io 

Ventlhited    side    walls,       Cnton     •43.     P™'"''^-  ,.„„ 

tioii  of  furnace   walls.      Goder o-ii 

Vibratlcm   effects   on    the   opei-ation  of  electric 

gem-rntors.       L<ing     •'J* 

Victory    line.    The ■  ■  •        ' 

Visx'ositv    hv     Short-Tube    Viscosiineters.     "e- 

teniiiniitlon    of    Alwolnte TL^-' 

Vise,    Portable    "Chaingrip"    pipe.... '_J^8 

Vocati.-nal  education.  Federal  funds  f "^ ■■■:,■  ■%%*. 
Volteriii  "snffioni,"  Blectricnl  energy  from  the.'531 

Volumetric   efficiency   of  air  compressors 744 

von    F.ibrlce.      Capitalization    value    of    steam 

i„nk«  "^" 

"Vulcan"    l^'l 


—New  turbine  to  be  installed  at  Easton,  Penn.  677 

Operated    turbine    with    stripped    blading...   883 

Publicity    about    turbine    accidents — Correc- 
tion     :••,■-■■     ^ 

Purifying    water    for   sealing    steam    turbine  ___^ 

glands.      Linker •77- 

— Ring  oilers,   Iniprc.vement  In ...    -m- 

Some    notes    on    turbine    bearings   and    their 

lubrication.      Hromley    734 

—Steam  Turbines,     (biudie   -. t'lO 

—Suggested  designs   for   centrifugal   machinery      21 
Turbine    is    wrecked    in    Bostt)n    station,    A 

S5,OO0-kw.     348,     '390.     407,     Discussion 

594,   629 

— Turbine    speed    decreased 50 

—Turbine  units  of  Windsor  power  station,  30,- 

OOO-kw -lO 

-Water  supply  for  air  pump  of  Leblanc  con- 

denser.    Change    in 161.     24.     196,  302 

— -Year's    progress    in    the   power    field ^ 

Turbine.    Water.      See     "Water   power." 

Turbo-alternator.     Accident     to 'bb^S 

Turbo-alternators,    Cleaning     '13- 

I'urbo-Gear.      Poole    Engineering   and   Machine 

Od **0* 

Turbo-generators,   Fires  in.     Walker  119.  705, 

879,    883 
Turbo-generators- 95,U00-kw.         addition         to 

Northwest  Station    '.3o4 

Turner    batfle-'vaU    construction '^2z 

Tuxeda    swing    joint '834 

Twist    the    pulley.    Why? '230 

"Twister" — Spanner      wrench       for       0nished 

shafts    '132 

Tyler  condensation  meter   '16,   Correction....    118 

U 

Uehling.     Heat  carried  to  the  chimney  by  the 

flue   gases    395 

I'ltimate    B.    t.    u..    The 589 

Vncspected,    The.      Willey    389 

I'liion — Engineers  and  their  wages 61 

Vnion   Gas  and  Electric  Co. — Condensers  with 

70-ft.  water  level  variation.     Brosius *142 

Union.  The  engineer  and  the 22,   670 

United  Engiueering  Society — Hydro-electrle  de- 
velopment   23C.    Meeting    of    Trustees    245,   819 
United    States.    Production    and    uses    of    coal 

in    the    *241 

U.    S,    service    clearing    house    for    engineers, 

E.stablish    932 

U.    S.    Steel    Corporation's    Methods    for    Sam- 
pling and   Analyzing  Gases t716 

Universal    language.    The.      Strohm '571 

University    of    Illinois,    Summer    Session 819 

Uruguay   requires  use  of  metric   units 712 


Vacuum  gage.   Testing  accuracy  of t631 

Vacuum   readings  to  standard  barometer,   Con- 
version of    t8S5 

Vacuum,     Removing    drill    chips    by •447,   703 

Vacuum    trouble.    Causes    of.      Forseille ^909 

VALVE 

— Angle   of   advance   with    negative   lap t071 

— Beveling   of    safety-valve    seat    at    angle    of 

45    deg }97 

— Chattering    of    pressure-reducing   valve t849 

Chattering  of  spring-loaded   safety   valve... i305 
''orliss   st'jjim   valves,    Reason    fur  lap   on...  1377 

-Draining    valve.     .Vn    easily    made •811 

-  Effect  of  rocker  out  of  plumb $595 

-Excessive   compression    lifted   valve 845 

— Exhaust  lap  of  a   valve t305 

-  .Pitting  a  now  jilston  valve 743 

— Improved   rlni   for  chain-operated  valve *S68 

Leakage,   Effect   of  sniicrhcnting  on  valve.. t745 

f.iff  of  valve  to  obtain  full  opening }25 

Lubricating  Corliss  valves 61 

Modern  Locomotive  Valves  and  Valve  Gears. 
MrShane     t897 

-  Xcgntlve    exhaust    lap t631 

-  Operating  overhnnd   valves •Ol 

— Operation   of  blowoff   valves   In   series t779 

-  -Pump-valve  scat   wrench    *519 


W 

Wagc-^,   Engineers  and  their 61 

Walk.r  J.  H.  Central-station  hoatnig  in  De- 
troit      ■ ;"V,o 

Walker,  M.  A.  Fires  In  turbo-generators  119. 
705.  879,  883,  Lamp  hank  as  a  rheostat '.270 

Wallace  Mfg.  Co. — Morris  Improved  tube 
header i^- 

Walls,  Ventilated  side.  Caton  ^43.  Protection 
of   furnace  walls.     Goder •   5-0 

Walnut  plant.  Columbus  Railway,  Power  and 
Light  Co ^'■^ 

WAR   TOPICS 

— A  good  suggestion  for  all ■•  .  ■   »o? 

— Alien  employee  and  the  labor  turnover.  The.   44b 

— America   calls    to    Americans 479 

— American   engineer,    The •  •  •  • 24.* 

— American  Red   Cross   Fund   695.    What  your 
lied   Cross   dollars  do  700,   737.   This  time 

it  is  give,   not  lend 739,   75S 

— Ammonia  situation.   The --^ 

— .-Vntliracite   coal    from    lignite.     Norton 39'^ 

— Army  engineers,  How  to  join  the 4.-in 

— Army  Ordnance.   High-grade  men  wanted  for  784 

— As  it  is  In  Holland.    Bronwers ".jS 

—Ash  inspector.  Why  not  have  an?  267,  There 

should  be  one .480.  520 

— Aviation  Section.  Signal  Corps,  needs  skilled 

workers     ^°^ 

— Aviation   service.    Men   for -05 

— Battleships  In  the  world.  Largest 706 

— Bituminous   coal    to  he  mined   clean   or  sold 

nf  less  than  fixed  price 419 

— Blackstone's   Roll    of  Honor '588.    i74 

— Buying   line   over   here  helps   the  firing  line 

over    there.     The •459,   477 

— Camp      Dix       Military      Cantonment      near 

Wrightstown,    N.    J '**' o?! 

— Celebrate    Flag    Day ■    843 

— Chlcasio's  technical  men  unite  for  war  work.    89.. 

—Coal     ■■■■ ■■■    12« 

— Coal.  Complaints  of  excessive  prices  for  soft.    4J_ 

— Coal   exports.   Regulation  of 139 

— Coal,    Five  powerless   days   saved 31.. 

— Coal    problem.    The.     Bailey 37S 

— Coal  saving  by  lighting  curtailment.    Millar.  •4"'i2 

— Coal   shortage  continue.   Will   the? 626 

— Coal   shortage.   Some  why's  of  the 289 

— Coal  supply  and  the  railroads 265 

— Coal,  What  are  you  doing  with  your? 879 

^Concrete    ships     "05 

— Conditions  in  the  power  industry.     Schmidt. 

329.   802.   907 

— Conservation    of   fuel ■  .  .  ■      1^1 

— Consolidation  of  power  companies  proposed .    673 
— Coiiperation  an  essential  element  In  the  win- 
nine  of  the   war.     Rice 345 

— Copt  of  electric  service.   Effects  of  war  con- 
ditions   on    134 

— Counter-offensive   by    buying   Liberty   Bonds. 

Help    the    556 

— Courses    for    training    mechanics    and    tech- 
nicians   for    the    array 675 

— Dnvliglit  saving  advocated  by  U.  S.  Cham- 
l'»r  of  Commerce  418.  Daylight  saving  the 
T.-ar  around  517.  626.  Setting  the  clock 
back  again  741.  Millions  saved  bv  daylight  93r. 
-De  Havlland  Pour  with  Liberty  Motor  fast- 
est flying  machine 774 

— Iir.    Garfield   on    the   fuel    situation 32.    20 

— Dutv    of   the   employer    In    reconstruction   of 

flie  crippled    soldier.     McMurtrle 880,  890 

— Electric   service   for   Camp  Perry 500 

—Electricity  as  applied   In   the   V.    S.   Navy...^24S 

—  Electricity  to  solve  the  fuel  and  transporta- 

tion   pf.ihlcms.       Rice 310 

—  Emergency    Fleet    engines •794 

— Emergency    war   training 673 

— Enemies    within     308 

— Engineering  education.  Effect  of  the  war  on. 

Mann 217,   228 

— Engineers    In    Government   service 2TH 

. — Engineers    wanted   for    the  army 892 

— Exlumst    steam    waste B7 

—  Fall    and    rise   of   Government   bonds   on    ac- 

count   of    war 554 

— Federal   Inspection   nf  power  plants 806,    807 

— Financing  the  second  year  of  the  war.  .621,   62.'. 


11 


Pago 
,-AK  Tones — ^('iniliiiUL-tl 
-Food   AdmlnlKtrutlon  on  ammonia   and   Ice.,    348 

-For  thp  duniUon  of  the  war 843 

Fuel  AdiiunlstriUion — Mandate  101,  Cartoons 
*:;;{7,  Wmils  nnir'nni  n-nuliitlun  '^44.  Ob- 
ject of  Monday  closing  orders  300,  Cost 
of  suspended  iiiduBlry  In  February  300, 
Criticism  372,  Fuel-oil  rules  5:iS,  Keeping 
down  cost  of  coal  556,  Zone  system  for 
the  distribution  of  ooai  Tj-'IO.  5*j(I,  imap 
Insert)  088,  702.  Coal  car  situation  seri- 
ous 042,  Coal  situation  GCH,  Modifications 
of  coal  prices  674.  Regulations  as  to  clean 
fonl  712.  <;onIs  of  the  U.  S.  728,  884, 
Deliveries  promised  through  summer  740, 
Iti'cord  coal  production  747,  Changes  in 
coal-zoninff  plan  748,  Maximum  produc- 
tion with  minimum  waste  749.  Boiler  set- 
tings. Bromley  •760,  "Coal  Week'*  from 
June  3  to  8  783,  Boiler  settinRS — Chain 
prate  stokers.  Bromley  *788,  808,  Fed- 
eral Inspection  of  power  plants  806,  807, 
National  Coal  Conference  817.  Price  of 
bituminous  coal  reduced  818,  Organizing 
a  division  of  inspection  to  insure  clean 
coal  818,  Questionnaire  for  power  plant?! 
840.    J.    P.    White   as    Labor    Advisor    859, 

Warns  against  unnecessary  lighting 896 

— Fuel    consumption    control    by    the    Govern- 
ment.     Henderson     'llS 

—Fuel  may  be  saved.  How.    Kenerson,  Ballou  306 

—Fuel    oil,    Gnvernment   control    of 266 

— Fuel    saving    "don'ts" 334 

— Fuel   shortage   in   Hades *237 

— Fuel,   The  conservation   of 409 

— Germany,    if    not    crushed,    will    decay    like 

Rome      »20 

— Giving  credence  to  rumors 92 

— Good  suggestions  for  home  use  also 896 

— Government  calls  for  thousands  of  technical 

men   856 

— Government   coal-price   regulation 372 

— Government    control    of    fuel    <iil 245,   266 

—Government    power    dam    at    Muscle    Shoals, 

Ala 349 

— Government  wants  business  diplomats 748 

— Government  will  open  up  fuel  oil  reserve...  714 
—Guns.  Heavy  machine  tools  needed  for  mak- 
ing        127 

— He   also  serves.     Braley •eSl 

—Hi.s  share *102 

— ITome    army    must    supply    power 666 

— House  Naval  Appropriation  Bill 6or) 

—How    about   next   winter? 701 

— How   to    save    coal 102 

— Improve  plant   efficiency 300 

—Invest  to  destroy  autocracy 517 

— Investing  in  liberty 445 

— Jerusalem.    American  pipe  line  instrumental 

in  the  capture  of 104 

Kultur  mit  sledgehammer  •430,  Those  dam- 
aged   German    ships 602 

—Labor  divisions  of  war  administration  co- 
ordinated.   Work    of    the 240 

—Labor  in  its  relation  to  national  efficiency..   240 

—Labor  situation.   What  of  the? 298 

—Labor   unrest.    What    is? 1 290 

—Launch  a  blow  in  defense  of  liberty 589 

— Let's    "can"    the    bellyache 842 

— Liberty  Bonds.   Why  I  buy.    Munro 51fi 

—Liberty  Loan.  Third  *425.  445,  450.  '459, 
475,  477.  470.  484.  -Sie.  517.  556,  568. 
575.    578,    582.    -588   and   774.    589.    •607. 

618,    623.    666.    751 

— Lightless  nights  and  nonessentials 20 

— Looked   worse   than  it   tasted *237 

— Looking    ahead     702 

— M.  I.  T.  a  military  camp 148 

— Materials    Division,    Quartermasters'    Corps.    171 

—Men  for  new  ships.  To  train  50.000 35 

^Men    of    engineering    experience    wanted    by 

Army   and    Navy    Staff  Depts 71 

— Men  wanted  for  submarine  duty 8.i6 

^Merchant  marine.  Engineers  for  the  new  201. 
Drug  stores  recruiting  agents  245,  Confer- 
ence   at    Boston    420.    Manning    the    new 

merchant    marine.      Howard 634 

—Message  to  German  lius'ness  men 138 

-Military    road    building.     White •SSO 

—Miracle    of    the   mass,    The 407 

— Mobilizing   the    educntional    institutions 313 

— National   appreciation   of   terhnioal   men....   346 
— National    Coal    Association.    Meeting  of   S91. 

Program    to    increase    coal    output 033 

—National    Coal   Conference 817 

— National    engineers'    license   law,    A 10 

—National  Labor  Policy  Board  authorized  245. 

349.   52S 

—  National    shibboleth.    The.     Strohm •425 

— National    War    Savings    Committee    of    New 

York      347 

—Navy  needs  at  once  one  thousand  gas-engine 

men    853 

—Navy   soi-vice  (lag.   United   States 'ISl 

— New  England  coal  situation.  Relief  for. 
Bromley  •49.  Coal  shortage  in  New  Eng- 
land   still     serious 202 

— New    England's    shipping    needs 386 

—New  Jersey   plants  closed  from  lack  of  coal.    200 

—  New    Orleans    Fuel    Administration    Commit- 

tee.   Work   of   the.     Weil 156 

—  New    power    development    In    Pennsylvania..    603 
^Ncw  York  has  no  coal.  Why  192.  103.   ^200. 

227 
—New   York    N.    A.    S.    F.    offers    aid    to    Fuel 

Administrator     ■ 27S 

— No  strikes  or  lockouts  during  the  war 528 

— North    Jersey    severely    suffering    from    conl 

shortage    .-  ■  •  •      ^0 

—Oil.    Stenm  power  plants  close  to  save 40" 

— Oppo-^ing  ITun  force  with  engineering  In- 
telligence       T40 

— Ordniinre  Dept.  wants  one  hundred  drafts- 
men  .S5.    Npeds  elvlllnn   workers   160.   422. 

Ar'nointnient    of   Ordnnnce   draftsmen 230 

— Our    fuel-oU    supply 33f^ 

'Our  tonnace  and  shipbuilding  ways SSO 

-  Part   srience   and    enirineering   take  In    war..    4.^10 
--   Pelrnleum    admlnktrntor.    Western    States.,    315 

—  Petroleum   Industry,   War  service  of  the....   668 


12 


Pa&e 
WAR  TOPICS — Cuiitimied 
— Pleasure  yacbts  may  be  deprived  of  fuel...   853 

— Pooling  of  power,   The 159 

• — President  Wilsou's  taking  over  of  the  rail- 
roads           20 

— Preventable    waste    of    coal    in    the    U.    S. 

Myers 64 

— Progress    in    raising    army    and    in    shipyard 

output     808 

— Putting  tbejr  houses  in  order 371 

— Radio   eugiueeriug   at   Lafayette 316 

— Railways,    U^e   surplus   productive   power  to 

rehabilitate     the 335 

— Red  Cross  wants  tracing  cloth 20r> 

— Repair  the  Liberty  Bell 630 

— Research  fellowships    170 

— Save  coal  by  cutting  out  needless  burning  of 

lamps     58 

— Save  coal   in   the  home.... 19.    58 

— Schiitte    &    Koerting    Co.,    an    alien    concern 

349,  387 
—Service   to   your   country,    Perhaps  you   can 

render   valuable 713 

— Shadowed  !    •201 

— Shall    the    civilization    of    the    Ages    vanish 

before  the  devilization   of  the  Hun? '497 

— Ship,  Laiiucb   big  concrete T.   457 

—Shipping    Buard    schools 170 

— Ships,   ships,    aud   more  ships *3-lQ 

— Shipyard  work.   Men  wanted  for 243 

— Shipyards,    Workers    for    the 3l:i 

— Shutting  down  the  Isolated  plant 871 

— Signal    C'jrps    \Miiits    elci-trieal    men 457 

— SItilled  enlisted  men  to  be  returned  to  neces- 
sary   Industries 852 

— Soldiers'    and   sailors'    insurance 170 

— Some  ben^jfits  of  the  war 773 

— Stevens  Tech.,  Free  class  for  radio  operators 
at  71,  Commencement  exercises  457,  Navy 

engineers   to  train  at  Stevens 492 

—Storage   and    weathering   of    coal.     Stucken- 

berg,   Kohout    234 

— Students    of    engineering    not    exempt    from 

draft     372 

— Students  to  have  military  standing 784 

— Submarine  engineer  offlcers  wanted 670 

— Taking  out  the  clinkers *5l 

— Talk  to  firemen  on  saving  coal,  A.  Brom- 
ley     146,    167,    409,    741 

— Technical   troops   for  France 71 

— Thinker,  The   •237 

— This  time  it  is  give,  not  lend 739 

• — Those    devil-hounds    (Insert) 920 

—Thrift-stamp  day  advanced  to  May  6  643, 
785,   There  should  be  no  letup  during  the 

summer    months    y32 

— Trained   engineers   for   naval   service 748 

— Training    engine-room    crews    for    America's 

new    ships.     Howard '435 

— Training    power-plant    men    for     the    Navy. 

Connely     "SSS 

— Turbine    propelling   units    wanted 492 

— U.  S.   Navy   Steam  Engineering  School 748 

— U.    S.   reouisitious  power  plants  at  Niagara 

Falls    .    105 

— Victory   lue.    Tlie •! 

— Volunteers   wanted   in  Ordnance   Corps 71 

— War  and  the  individual,  The 160 

— "War    Convention"    of    the    machinery,    tool 

and    SI  pply    industry 603 

— War  Industries  Board  moves  to  obtain  capi- 
tal for  power  plants 931 

— "War-Savings  Stamps'*  58,  124,  314,  340, 
347,    406,    412.    531,    602.    604.    633,    643, 

652,    664,    666,    693,   785,   914,    932 

— War's  benediction.  The.    Bromley.  .  . ., 899 

— Waste  of  fuel  and  the  remedies.  Harrington  314 
— Watervliet  Arsenal   in  need   of  machinists..   717 

— "We'll   stand   fast" 66'i 

— Wentworth  Institute,  Seventh  exhibition  at  493 
— What  is  my  share  of  the  cost  of  the  war? 

624,   625 

— Which   will  you  choose? 666 

— While    the    idle    millions    shiver    *nS,    192, 

193,    •209.   227 
— Woman's  Committee  for  Engineer  Soldiers..      35 

— Women  for  the  drafting  room 784 

— WorB   or  figh  t 807 

— Zone  distribution  for  bituminous  coal  530, 
590,  Zone  system  (map  Insert)  688,  702. 
Coals  of  the  U.  S.  728,  884,  Changes  In 
coul-zoning  plan  748,  Boiler  settings. 
Bromley  •760,  Boiler  settings— Cliain 
grate   stokers.     Bromley *788,    808 

Warning   of    Impending   danger 131 

Warrior    steam    plant    of    the    Alabama    Power 

Co.     West    •399 

Wartime    lubrication    economy 139 

Washing  and  oil   reclaiming.   Rag 578 

Washington.    Business   editors  at 20,   32 

Washington.     Manufacturing    opportunities     in 

the    State  of t897 

Waste — A   traveling  anti-waste  exhibit •334 

Waste  from  water  leakage 604 

Waste   heat.    Conserving 177 

Waste.    "Royal"    family   of ^543 

Watch    your   step ! 670 

Water.    Air    lift    for    compressor-Jacket •583 

Water  alarm.  High-  and  low-  •337;  Another.  "706 
Water   nt    expense   of   back    pressure.    Heating 

feed   t63 


POWER 


Page 
Water  at  expense  of  heating  capacity,  Hotter 

feed     t485 

Water  at  River  Station,  Handling  feed 226 

Water,   Boiler  horsepower  and  coal  required  to 

heut     t305 

Water,  Bolting  a  rivet  hole  under •SSS 

Water  claims,  Couhicting 604 

Water     for    house     heating.     Steam     to     heat. 

Bryant    ^471 

Water  for  sealing  steam  turbine  glands,   Purl- 
lying.      Linker *772 

Water  from  a  heating  boiler,  Losing 268 

Water  from   air   line,   Trapping *232 

Water  heater  and  filter.  Feed 'SIO 

Water-heating  system    848 

Water  in  stream,   Discharging  warm 278 

Water-jacketed     pillow-block     cap •303 

Water  leakage,    Waste  from 604 

Water-level   indicator   In  gage-glass •272 

Water-levei   recorder,    Wight  electric "18 

Water   level    Tariation,    Condensers  with   70-ft. 

Broslus      ,....•142 

Water,    light    and    power    Industry    shows    In- 
Lrense  in  iiuiuuer  ol  employees  ami  wages  430 

Water   metering,    Apparentt,     excessive J561 

Water  pipes  pit.  Why  hot  301,  Lime  as  a  pro- 
tection   for    steel 483 

WATER  POWER 

—Administration  bill.  Early  action  expected 
on  tke  103,  The  Administration's  water- 
power  bill  337,  486,  478,  Secretary  Lane 
supports  bill  514,  To  incorporate  all  fea- 
tures of  the  Administration  bill  in  the 
Shields  bill  532,  Special  Joint  Committee 
hearing    ,''*l,     Interview    with     Secretary 

Lane •692 

—Applications    for   water    appropriations 855 

— Canada,   Water  jwwer  resources  In 254 

— Consolidation  of  power  companies  proposed.   673 

—Cost    of    turbines 315 

-  -Developing   the  water  power  125,    135,  266, 

Not   developing    the   water   powers 336 

— Feather    River   development 933 

— Francis    turbine.    Largest    high-head.     Pfau.*174 

— Future  of  water  and  steam  power 857 

— Government    and    the    water    powers,    The — 

Interview    with    Secretary    Lane •1182 

— Government  control  of  water  power  and  Alec- 

trical  distribution  abroad.     Schmidt.  .506,  &17 
— Government    power    dam    at    Muscle    Shoala, 

Ala 349 

— How  is  this  for  red  tape? 695 

— Itjdru-electric  development 236 

— Hydro-electric  plant,  Builds  small 465 

— Hydroelectric    power    development    in    Aus* 

tralia  and   New  Zealand.     Schmidt. .  .495»  479 
— Hydro-Electric  Power  Stations.     Lof.   Bush- 
more    t279 

— Interconnected  power  systems  of  the  Sotttb.^720 

—Italy,    White  power   in 687 

— Little   Miami    Kiver   district.    Hydro  electric 

system    in    85 

— National  Chamber  of  Commerce  vote  on  the 

water   powers    492 

— New  England's   water  power 434 

— New  power  site   reserve 71 

— Norway,    Consolidation    and    development   of 

small   waterfalls  In 714 

— ^Potomac    River    power    project.     Committee 

studying 819 

— Power  loss  in  waterwheel  pit.    Shearer ^793 

— Proposed    water    power    legislation,     In    re, 

135.  125 
— Puget  Sound  Traction,  Light  and  Power  Co.   605 

— Skagit    River    development 853 

— Test  of  world's  largest  turbine  a  success...   603 

^$20,000,000   power   extensions   urged 567 

— Two  applications   for   permits 605 

— Vertical-shaft  waterwheel  alternator.  Steph- 
ens      •673 

—Washington  &  Idaho  Water  Power  Co.  Talu- 

ation     746 

— West    Virginia    water    power   IpgislaTi.m 785 

— Will    tie-In    three   electric   companies 856 

— Year's  progress  in  the  power  field *2 

Water  pressure.   Inches  of J451 

Water  pumpage  reduced  in  Buffalo 834 

Water    softener.    Refinite ^839 

Water.     Steam     consumption     and     weight    of 

feed     J233 

Water    supply    for    air    pump.    Change   of,    24, 

161,  196.   302 
Water    supply    in    conjunction    with    hot-water 

heating,    But    t413 

Water  temperature  and  rate  of  Injection  open 

steam    flow.    EtlVr-t  of  feed.      Philn •OlS 

Water  temperature.  Saving  by  increase  of  feed  J97 

Water  too  hot  for  feed  pump 24 

Water,    Unusual  design   of  evaporator  for  dis- 
tilling  sea    •366 

Water — Yarway  adjustable  spray  head 'giO 

Waterproofing    porous    material 622 

Waters.    Dam's   etfect   on   subsurface 244 

Waters  of  streams,  Rights  In 604 

Waterwheel   alternator,   Vertical-shaft.     Steph- 
ens      ^572 

Waterwheel  pit.  Power  loss  In.    Shearer •793 

Waterwheel   to  ligbt   the  dugouts  of  a  French 

battery,   Improvised    '642 

Weathering    of    coal,     Storage    and.     Stucken- 
berg   and   Kohout 234 


Volume  47 


Ps 

Weaton.    Boiler-room  efficiencies 

Webster.     Interior  surface  defects  as  cause  of 

condenser-tube   corrosion    ( 

Weights  and  measures  in  Venezuela "g 

Weights  on   big  scales.   Small.    Church •4 

Weil.    Work  of  the  New  Orleans  Fuel  Admin 

istration   Committee    

Welded   joints.    Tests  of [[ 

Welding,     Electric,    Manual 17 

Welding  for  ships.   Test  electric 8 

Welding  stops   leaks   in   girth  seams,   Electric. 

Grlse      4 

Wells  with  70-ft.  water  level  variation.  Con- 
denser.    Brosius    •! 

West,    Fyrox  moving ',]]   a 

West  Penn  Power  Co. — Windsor  power  station 

•210,   50,000   sq.  ft.   condenser  at  station..' 

West.     Warrior   steam    plant   of    the   Alabama 

Power  Co ■ 

Western  Society  holds  fuel-supply  meeting  889, 
Paper — Improving    plant    eihciency    at    both 

ends  of  the  steam  cycle 

Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co. — Safety-first 
knife  switch  "80,  A.-c.  automatic  startera 
for  squirrel-cage  induction  motors.  Patter- 
son •ISO,  A  novel  method  of  shipping  large 
transformers  •258,  A  traveling  antl-waate 
exhibit  '334,  Industrial  plant  furnishes 
street  railway  power  406,  Vertical-shaft 
waterwheel  alternator,  Stephens  •572,  Large 
single-phase  transformers  *687,  Krantz  auto- 
lock   switch    »Si 

What  do  I  get  out  of  my  society? t 

What  real  effort  can  do 6^ 

Wheeler,  C.  H.,  Mfg.  Co.— Radojet  air  pump. '71 
Wheeler  Condenser  and  Engineering  Co. — LlUie 
sea-water  evaporator  "366,  Steam  Tables  for 

Condenser    Work     t5( 

While  the  idle  millions  shiver  •17*,^  192,  193, 

'209,  2: 

White.      Military    road    building '23 

Wiiltehead.  Operation  and  maintenance  of  ele- 
vators— Winding-drum  machines  '40,  Ar- 
rangement of  cables  *7C4,  Care  and  lubrica- 
tion   '833,    Geared   traction   machines '90 

Whitewash  and  tire-retarding  mixture 61 

Why  Bill  reads  "Power" 73 

Why  New  York  has  no  coal... 192,  198,  '209,  22 

Wight  electrical  boiler-level  recorder "1 

Willey.  The  Unexpected  389,  Pointers  to  suc- 
cess      71 

Williams,  F.   R.    Useful  kinks  for  engineers..   83 

Williams,   Franklin.    Tuxeda   swing  Joint '83 

Williams  Gauge  Co. — Stets  boiler-feed  control- 
ler     •80 

Wilson  Welder  &  Metals  Co. — Electric  Weld- 
ing Manual    171 

Winch,    Engine-turning    •I4i 

Winding-drum   machines — Operation   and  main 

tenance  of   elevators.     Whitehead •4i 

Windings,    Whole-coil   and   half -coil *t52: 

Windsor    power    station    •210,    50,000    sq.    ft. 

condenser  at   station •28! 

Wire,    Cutter   for   large-sized ^441 

Wire    cutter.    Screw-type '84^ 

Wire  for  a  three-wire  system.   Size  of  neutral. 

Nash   11* 

Wire  Gages,    Combined   Table   of   Sizes   in    the 

Principal    t42; 

Wire,    Ring   for    hoisting '41: 

Wire  sizes  for  two-wire  feeders,   Conduit  and. 

Nash    •  188 

Wire   stralghtener.    Home-made •  19€ 

Wire- tightening    tool    •34( 

Wire,  Tools  for  splicing.    Bertrande *15t 

Wiring  trouble,  A  peculiar '02^ 

Wisconsin    modifies    second-hand   boiler   ruling.   893 

Wolff.    Failure  of  boiler  plates  in  service 16C 

Wood  and  coal  together.  Burning tT7ii 

Wood  for  pipe  covering  dangerous 924 

Wood.      Struggling  with  poor  coal 491 

Wood  to  save  coal.  Burning 557.  881 

Wooden  tank   repaired,   A 164,  44" 

Woodward.     Current-transformer    connections. .  '610 
Wreck  caused  by  piston  striking  cylinder  head. '450 

W'rench   tor   finislied   shafts.    SpaTiuer 'l.'fi 

Wrench  for  many  sizes.    Pipe '412 

Wrench,    Handy   socket '776 

Wrench,    Pump-valve-seat    '519 

Wrlghtstown,   N.   J.,   Camp  DIi  Military  Can- 

tnnini'iit     near     •44,     58 

Wynne,  Spraragen,  Handbook  of  Engineering 
Mathematics     t716 


Tarnall-Waring  Co. — Tarway  adjustable  spray 

head     'giO 

Year's  progress  In  the  power  field *2 


Zimnier.    Mixing  coal  in  storage ^344 

Zone  distribution  for  bituminous  coal  530,  590, 
Zi>ne  system  ( mni»  insert)  fiSs,  702,  Coals 
flf  the  U.  S.  728,  884.  Changes  In  coal- 
roning  plan  748,  Boiler  settings,  Bromley 
•760,  Boiler  settlnga — Chain  grate  stokers. 
Bromley    *788.    80S 


POWER 


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Vol  47  NEW  YORK,  JANUARY  1,  1918  No.  1 

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POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


The  Year's  Progress  in  The  Power  Field 


DURING  the  last  year  war  has  been  the  one  great 
factor  influencing  the  power  field.  In  certain 
branches  it  has  brought  forth  intensive  develop- 
ment (the  "Liberty"  motor,  for  example),  but  for  the 
most  part  progress  has  been  delayed.  In  the  face  of 
readjustment  of  labor  due  to  the  call  of  the  army, 
shortage  of  coal  and  raw  materials  and  inadequate 
transportation  facilities,  maximum  production  has  ab- 
sorbed largely  the  energy  of  the  mechanical  industrj'- 
There  have  been  enormous  demands  for  boilers,  prime 
movers  and  auxiliary  equipment  for  the  numerous  boats 
now  building.  To  keep  pace  with  the  great  output 
from  the  shops,  power-plant  capacity  has  been  increased 
with  a  decided  tendency  toward  the  use  of  larger  units. 
Comparatively  small  plants  that  not  long  ago  considered 
machines  of  5000-kw.  capacity  large,  are  now  installing 
10,000-kw.  turbo-generators  with  the  idea  of  larger  ma- 
chines on  the  next  order.  This  has  led  to  the  use  of 
larger  boilers,  stokers  and  condensers.  Over  a  period 
of  years  there  has  been  steady  progress  in  this  direction 
and  a  trend  toward  higher  pressures  accompanied  by 
superheat  of  increasing  degree.  Back  of  this  has  been 
the  demand  for  higher  efficiencies,  due  to  the  rising 
price  of  fuel.  For  the  same  reason  the  economizer  is 
no  longer  a  doubtful  investment,  and  impetus  has  been 
given  toward  improving  the  economy  of  all  auxiliaries. 

The   Trend   Toward   Higher   Pressures 

With  proper  selection  of  available  equipment  and 
close  attention  to  air  leakage  it  is  now  possible  to  main- 
tain a  vacuum  97  per  cent,  perfect,  leaving  little  to 
gain.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  thermal  cycle  the  op- 
portunity for  improvement  is  greater.  With  present 
materials  and  designs  a  maximum  initial  temperature 
of  700  deg.  is  considered  the  practical  limit.  Made  up 
in  the  proper  proportions  by  pressure  and  superheat, 
there  is  a  possible  10  to  12  per  cent,  gain  in  economy 
over  present  results.  Increase  of  friction  with  the 
density  of  the  steam,  the  greater  expansion  and  con- 
traction and  other  practical  difficulties  detract  from 
the  previous  theoretical  estimate,  but  even  a  portion 
of  the  gain  mentioned  is  worth  striving  for.  Turbine 
builders  see  no  insurmountable  difficulties  in  perfecting 
their  machines  for  the  higher  pressures.  However, 
radical  changes  in  boiler  and  valve  design  will  be  neces- 
sary. The  pressure  limit  for  the  standard  boiler  has 
been  placed  at  350  lb.,  whereas  500  to  600  lb.  is 
anticipated.  Experimental  work  to  develop  boilers  for 
these  pressures  is  now  in  process.  At  the  present  time 
pressures  up  to  250  lb.  are  common,  and  during  the  last 
year  a  number  of  installations  were  made  or  planned 
in  which  the  pressures  will  be  higher. 

Notable  Steam  Plants 

At  Joliet,  the  Public  Ser\'ice  Company  of  Northern 
Illinois  has  cross-drum  boilers  designed  for  350  lb. 
pressure  and  225  deg.  of  superheat.  This  is  the  highest 
pressure  used  in  a  central-station  plant  in  this  country, 
and  it  is  generally  conceded  that  it  is  about  the  limit 
for  boilers  of  the  present  standard  design.  In  the  same 
plant  an  innovation  is  the  use  of  a  horizontal  all-steel 
individual  economizer  placed  above  and   integral  with 


the  boiler,  the  whole  being  inclosed  by  a  steel  casing 
Although  careful  tests  have  not  been  made  as  yet,  the 
boilers  have  been  in  operation  long  enough  to  indicate 
that  they  will  develop  exceptionally  high  capacities  and 
that  the  efficiency  may  exceed  80  per  cent. 

To  withstand  the  high  pressure  the  plates  of  the 
boiler  drum  are  l^j,  in.  thick  and  the  longitudinal 
seam  is  a  quadruple-riveted  butt  joint  with  double 
cover  straps.  The  boiler  tubes  are  of  lower  gage  than 
in  boilers  designed  for  250  lb.  pressure,  and  the  metal 
in  the  economizer  tubes  is  one-quarter  inch  thick. 
Valves  that  had  been  previously  designed  for  the  pres- 
sure were  available,  the  piping  is  extra  heavy  and  the 
joints  are  of  the  bolted  type  having  a  welded  seal  com- 
monly employed  by  Sargent  &  Lundy  for  high  pressures. 
With  smooth  metal-to-metal  joints,  the  difficulties  that 
gaskets  would  cause  are  eliminated.  At  normal  load  a 
steam  velocity  of  7200  ft.  per  min.  in  the  turbine  leads 
is  employed.  This  permits  piping  of  comparatively 
small  diameters,  so  that  the  initial  cost  is  very  little 
more  than  for  pressures  of  250  pounds. 

Extensions  to  many  plants  have  been  made,  and  a 
number  of  new  stations  have  been  placed  in  operation 
during  the  year.  Perhaps  the  most  notable  is  the  new 
steam  station  of  the  Buffalo  General  Electric  Co.  de- 
signed for  275  lb.  pressure  and  275  deg.  of  superheat, 
giving  a  total  steam  temperature  of  689  deg.  The 
station  was  planned  for  a  capacity  of  200,000  kw.,  but 
the  initial  installation  was  60,000  kw.  in  three  units. 
The  boilers  are  of  the  cross-drum  type  having  11,400 
sq.ft.  of  steam-making  surface  each.  They  are  fired 
at  both  ends  by  two  15-retort  underfeed  stokers.  This 
duplex  stoker  setting,  measuring  at  the  grate  level 
nearly  24  ft.  wide  by  17A  ft.  deep,  is  the  largest  ever 
built,  and  the  ratio  of  grate  area  to  heating  surface, 
1  to  27.3.  is  probably  the  most  liberal  employed  in 
power-plant  practice.  At  normal  rating  a  trifle  less 
than  two  tons  of  coal  per  hour  is  fed  to  each  boiler. 
The  stokers  are  capable  of  supplying  15  tons  per  boiler 
per  hour,  and  when  feeding  10^  tons  per  hour  per 
boiler,  which  is  well  within  easy  operation,  the  rate  of 
combustion  is  about  50  lb.  per  sq.ft.  of  grate  and  the 
evaporation  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  is  14.4 
lb.  When  this  is  compared  to  three  pounds,  which  is 
considered  a  fair  figure  for  normal  operation,  it  is 
evident  the  plant  has  been  designed  to  carrj'  overloads 
that  would  have  been  considered  impossible  a  few  years 
ago.  To  avoid  difficulties  with  scale  the  makeup  water 
is  distilled.  Valves  in  the  high-pressure  lines  are  of 
steel  and  of  the  gate  t^-pe.  In  line  with  modem  tenden- 
cies, duplex  exciter  units,  with  a  motor  on  one  end  and 
a  turbine  on  the  other,  are  employed.  An  innovation 
tending  to  collect  some  of  the  stray  heat  units  is  the 
circulation  of  condensate  for  cooling  the  main  turbine 
bearings. 

Steam-Tukbine  Development 

In  the  review  last  year  was  given  a  list  of  large 
turbines  on  order.  Some  of  these  were  the  50,000-kv.-a. 
turbo-generator  for  Connors  Creek,  the  60,000-kw. 
three-cylinder  unit  for  the  Interborough,  a  45,000-kw. 
turbine  for  the  Narragansett  Electric  Lighting  Co.,  of 


January  1.  1018 


POWER 


Providence,  and  five  30,000-  and  35,000-kw.  machines 
for  the  Commonwealth-Edison  Co.  One  of  the  35,000- 
kw.  units  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  turbine  is  of  the 
two-cylinder  tandem-compound  type,  with  the  high- 
pressure  element  single-flow  and  the  low-pressure 
element  double-flow.  To  this  list  may  be  added  a  45,000- 
kw.  two-cylinder  compound  unit  and  a  70,000-kw. 
three-cylinder  machine,  the  largest  ever  made,  for  the 
Duquesne  Light  Co.,  of  Pittsburgh.    Some  of  these  ma- 


FIG.    1.      WESTINGHOUSE    35,000-KW.    TURBO-GENERATOR 

chines  have  been  installed  and  the  others  are  still  in 
the  making.  A  close  observance  of  their  operation 
should  go  a  long  way  in  determining  the  status  of  the 
large  turbine.  Data  will  be  collected  that  should  decide 
the  features  of  the  various  designs  to  be  retained  or 
modified,  the  best  arrangement  of  the  unit  and  the 
economical  limitations. 

Opinion  has  been  expressed  that  the  mammoth  unit 
is  perhaps  after  all  a  mistake.  At  least  development 
should  first  come  in  designs  for  high  pressure  and  in- 
teiTnediate  heating  of  the  steam  to  raise  the  average 
temperature.  The  various  makers  of  turbines  are  work- 
ing along  different  lines.  Some  are  perfecting  the 
impulse  turbine  and  leaning  toward  a  single-cylinder 
machine  even  in  the  largest  sizes.  Opposed  to  this  is 
the  reaction  turbine  with  two  and,  in  the  largest  ma- 
chines, three  cylinders.  The  present  year  should  be 
significant  in  turbine  development,  as  many  great  ma- 
chines of  either  type  will  be  placed  in  operation  and 
there  should  be  abundant  data  to  point  the  way. 

In  the  impulse  turbine  there  is  a  noticeable  tendency 
toward  symmetrical  cone-shaped  construction,  the 
elimination  of  angles  and  the  production  of  a  straight 
path  for  the  steam.  The  early  stages  are  becoming 
smaller  in  diameter  and  fewer  to  minimize  the  friction 
and  leakage,  which  increase  with  the  density  and  pres- 
sure of  the  steam,  and  better  metals  are  being  employed 
so  that  a  high  velocity  of  the  blading  may  be  main- 
tained. The  numerous  control  valves  regulating  the 
quantity  of  steam  to  the  turbine  have  been  replaced 
by  a  single  throttle  valve  that  for  loads  below  noiTnal 
lowers  the  pressure.  This  reduces  the  density  of  the 
steam  and  lessens  the  aforementioned  losses  without 
diminishing  the  heat  content  per  pound.  At  the  low 
end  the  stages  are  increasing  in  diameter  to  reduce  the 
leaving  loss  to  a  minimum.  In  many  of  the  late  ma- 
chines the  length  from  the  first  to  the  last  stage  is  less 
than  the  short  diameter  of  the  exhaust  opening. 

In  the  smaller  units  it  may  be  stated  that  the  turbine 
is  rapidly  replacing  the  reciprocating  engine,  even  in- 
vading the  small  office-building  plant.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  in  the  West.  It  requires  comparatively  small 
space  and  little  attendance.  There  is  no  oil  in  the  ex- 
haust steam  and  reduction  gearing  permits  economical 


speeds  in  different  classes  of  work  for  both  the  prime 
mover  and  the  driven  machine.  The  turbine  is  even 
proposed  for  locomotive  drive  where  with  its  high  speed 
more  power  can  be  concentrated  in  the  limited  .space 
available.  The  small  turbine  for  auxiliary  drive  has  been 
perfected  and  its  economy  improved.  To  make  a  com- 
bined pump  or  blower  unit  with  less  cost,  weight  and 
dimensions,  a  one-bearing  turbine  has  been  brought 
forth.  It  is  incomplete  in  itself,  but  becomes  an  integral 
part  of  the  over-all  equipment. 

Reciprocating  Engines 

Developments  in  the  reciprocating  engine  have  re- 
mained practically  unchanged.  However,  the  demand 
for  marine  engines  has  tended  to  accelerate  the  con- 
struction of  this  type.  What  is  probably  the  most 
powerful  rolling-mill  reversing  engine  in  existence  was 
put  in  service  during  the  year.  Its  cylinder  sizes  are 
36  in.  and  70  in.,  with  a  60-in.  stroke.  The  engine  is 
geared  and  when  running  at  its  maximum  speed  is 
capable  of  developing  more  than  30,000  hp.  if  maximum 
torque  occurs  at  the  same  time.    However,  they  do  not 


Kia.      -A.       WORTHINGTON     SURFACE     CONDENSER,     70,000 
SQ.FT.    OF   ACTIVE   TUBE   SURFACE 

occur  at  the  same  time  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
engine  will  ever  be  called  on  to  develop  more  than  11,000 
hp.     The  approximate  weight  is  1,350,000  pounds. 

Auxiliary  Equipment 

To  take  advantage  of  the  low  steam  rates  of  the 
large  turbines,  the  trend  toward  electric-driven  aux- 
iliaries has  continued,  steam  drives,  principally  turbines, 
being  maintained  in  lesser  number  to  insure  continuity 
of  service  and  to  maintain  a  proper  heat  balance.  In 
some  few  cases  this  movement  has  been  carried  to  the 
point  of  bleeding  the  main  turbine  to  supplement  the 
supply  of  exhaust  steam  to  the  heater.  The  lack  of 
exhaust  steam  for  feed-water  heating  due  to  the  above 


4 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


practice  has  brought  about  almost  universal  adoption  of 
the  economizer  in  new  plants. 

Manufacturers  report  orders  for  geared  units  as 
opposed  to  the  direct-connected  turbine  in  the  ratio  of 
three  to  one.  In  operation  the  gears  are  standing  up 
well  and  have  been  perfected  to  such  a  point  that  they 
make  little  noise.  An  interesting  development  is  the 
use  of  large  geared  units  for  excitation,  these  machines 
being  built  in  capacities  up  to  1000  kw.  In  these  de- 
signs the  turbine  may  operate  at  its  most  economical 
speed  and  the  generator  at  the  low  speed  necessary  to 
insure  perfect  commutation. 

Surface  condensers  are  naturally  following  the  tur- 
bine and  getting  larger  each  year.  Up  to  date  70,000 
sq.ft.  of  active  tube  surface  in  a  single  shell  is  the 
laigest  (Fig.  2),  but  there  appears  to  be  no  good  reason 
why  this  enormous  capacity  could  not  be  increased. 
Condensing  equipments  for  the  60,000-  to  70,000-kw. 
turbines  for  the  Interborough  and  the  Duquesne  Light 
Co.  plants  are  to  contain  100,000  sq.ft.  of  surface,  but 
it  is  to  be  disposed  in  four  shells.  Among  large  jet 
condensers  the  installation  at  Providence  serving  a 
45,000-kw.  turbine  still  holds  the  record.  The  outstand- 
ing feature  of  the  year  in  all  condensing  equipment  has 
been  the  unprecedented  volume  of  business.  In  surface 
condensers  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  increase  the 
water  pumped  per  pound  of  steam.  It  is  also  becoming 
apparent  that,  although  the  highest  vacuum  obtainable 
is  to  be  desired,  it  should  not  be  produced  with  an 
accompanying  drop  in  the  temperature  of  the  con- 
densate below  that  called  for  by  the  vacuum. 

Some  interesting  developments  in  air  pumps  have 
been  made.  Maurice  Leblanc,  inventor  of  the  hydraulic 
air  pump  quite  universally  used  for  turbines,  has  im- 
proved upon  this  centrifugal  type  by  bringing  forth 
the  multijector.  No  revolving  parts  are  employed, 
vacuum  being  produced  by  steam  passed  through  a 
number  of  nozzles  to  give  injector  effect.  As  expected, 
this  type  takes  up  much  less  room  than  the  well-known 
Leblanc  air  pump  for  like  capacities.  An  interesting 
description  of  the  multijector,  together  with  recent 
air-pump-design  progress,  will  appear  in  an  early  issue 
of  Power. 

Larger  Steam  Boilers 

War  demands  have  so  overloaded  the  boiler  manufac- 
turers as  to  hinder  and  for  the  time  being  practically 
stop  development.  For  the  last  few  years  there  has 
been  a  gradual  increase  in  unit  size,  but  the  growth 
has  not  kept  pace  with  that  of  the  turbine.  In  the 
last  year,  however,  a  boiler  unit  commensurate  in  size 
with  the  larger  turbines  has  been  developed.  It  is 
known  as  the  Stevens-Pratt  boiler,  and  is  made  up 
in  four  sections,  each  being  a  complete  Babcock  & 
Wilcox  cross-drum  boiler  in  itself,  with  its  own  super- 
heater economizer  and  forced-  and  induced-draft  fans. 
There  are  two  sections  on  either  side,  the  boilers  being 
placed  back  to  back.  One  stack  serves  the  unit,  and 
the  coal-  and  ash-handling  equipment  is  common  to 
the  two  sections  on  the  same  side  of  the  unit.  If 
desired,  any  one  or  more  of  the  sections  may  be  oper- 
ated independently.  The  sections  are  made  in  sizes 
ranging  from  5000  to  14,500  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface. 
Four  of  the  largest  sections  operating  at  400  per  cent, 
of   rating  will   carry   58,000   kw.     This   is   equivalent 


to  carrying  one  kilowatt  on  one  square  foot  of  steam- 
making  surface  as  compared  to  four  square  feet  at 
normal  rating.  That  this  arrangement  is  compact  is 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  unit  occupies  7632  sq.ft. 
of  floor  space.  It  avoids  an  elaborate  boiler-room  build- 
ing, as,  with  the  exception  of  the  coal  bunkers,  the 
unit  is  complete  in  itself. 

Stokers  and  Pumps 

Shortage  of  fuel  and  its  increased  cost  has  resulted 
in  the  use  of  coal  heretofore  considered  unfit  for 
burning.  Anthracite  screenings  and  coke  breeze,  fre- 
quently mixed  with  bituminous  coal,  have  presented 
new  problems  in  connection  with  the  underfeed  stoker. 
Naturally,  the  chief  difficulty  is  to  dispose  of  the  large 
amounts  of  refuse  when  forcing  the  boilers  to  high 
capacity.  Improved  ash  dumps  are  proving  a  solution, 
some  operated  by  power  and  others  by  hand,  but  all  de- 
signed to  handle  greater  quantities.  In  addition,  the 
underfeed  stoker  is  being  adapted  to  burn  the  high-ash 
Middle  West  coals  and  lignite.  Some  installations  have 
already  made  their  appearance  and  have  been  giving 
good  results. 

To  burn  great  quantities  of  anthracite  the  duplex 
stoker  is  becoming  more  common.  With  no  bridge-wall 
and  an  adjustable  opening  between  the  stokers  the  con- 
tinuous discharge  of  ashes  is  readily  accomplished. 
With  coal  fed  slowly  through  the  retorts  and  a  great 
quantity  carried  in  the  furnace,  conditions  are  favor- 
able for  high  combustion  eflSciency.  To  burn  more  fuel 
from  one  side  of  the  setting  and  obtain  the  high  boiler 
ratings  now  in  vogue,  increasing  the  size  of  the  retort 
is  another  alternative.  Designs  are  now  ready  in  which 
the  retort  area  has  been  enlarged  50  per  cent,  over 
present  standards. 

On  the  part  of  several  builders  there  have  been  per- 
sistent attempts  to  apply  forced  draft  to  a  chain  grate. 
With  a  moving  stoker,  subject  to  the  varying  density 
of  fuel  bed  common  with  bituminous  coal,  the  problem 
has  proved  difficult  and  its  solution  so  far  unsatis- 
factory. With  anthracite  more  headway  has  been  made, 
as  evidenced  by  the  Cox  chain  grate,  which  shows 
considerable  promise. 

In  boiler-feed  pumps  an  interesting  development  in 
the  direction  of  compactness  and  simplicity  is  the  plac- 
ing of  a  two-stage  centrifugal  pump  in  one  casing  and 
on  a  common  shaft  with  a  velocity-stage  turbine.  The 
unit  will  serve  3000  boiler  horsepower,  and  with  one- 
tenth  the  weight  occupies  about  one-eighth  the  floor 
space  required  by  a  duplex  reciprocating  pump  of  the 
same  capacity. 

Another  interesting  development  given  publicity 
during  the  year  is  the  use  of  two  centrifugal  pumps 
driven  by  one  turbine  for  economizer  service.  Or- 
dinarily, the  pressure  in  the  economizer  is  slightly 
greater  than  in  the  boiler,  and  with  the  pressures  in- 
creasing as  they  have  recently,  it  places  a  serious 
burden  on  the  economizer.  This  may  be  relieved  by 
using  two  pumps,  one  taking  the  feed  from  the  heater 
and  passing  it  through  the  economizer  at  comparatively 
low  pressure,  the  other  taking  the  water  under  pressure 
from  the  economizer  and  forcing  it  into  the  boiler. 
Under  such  conditions  even  old  economizers  could  be 
used  with  safety  in  conjunction  with  high  pressures. 


Jjuuuuy  1.  lyia 


POWER 


As  the  luiiler  pressure  troes  up  steam  velocities  have 
been  increasing.  At  the  Joliet  plant  the  velocity  at 
normal  load  in  the  turbine  leads  is  7200  ft.  per  min. 
There  are  instances  in  vk'hich  this  velocity  has  been 
exceeded  and  velocities  50  per  cent,  greater  have  been 
proposed.  Such  practice  tends  to  reduce  pipe  diameters 
and  minimize  the  cost  of  pipe-line  construction.  As 
the  density  of  the  steam  increases,  friction  becomes 
greater  and  there  is  considerable  pressure  drop  in  the 
pipe  line,  which  in  turn  reduces  the  capacity  of  the 
prime  mover.  When  these  two  factors  have  been  prop- 
erly correlated,  it  may  be  found  advisable  to  spend  more 
money  for  larger  pipes  and  fittings. 

The  increasing  cost  of  coal  and  the  concentration  of 
power  in  larger  units  has  resulted  in  more  extensive 
use  of  instruments,  particularly  those  of  the  recording 
type,  in  the  boiler  room.  New  instruments  and  com- 
binations of  older  types  are  constantly  making  their 
appearance,  so  that  the  fireman  in  these  days  has  the 
advantage  the  engineer  has  enjoyed  for  years. 

Internal-Combustion  Engines 

Opinion  seems  prevalent  that  there  is  little  or  no 
activity  in  the  gas-engine  field.  In  smaller  sizes  of 
engine  this  is  undoubtedly  true,  but  there  are  now  in 
course  of  construction  a  considerable  number  of  large 


FIG.  3.     MESTA  TWIN-TANDEM  GA.S  BLOWING  ENGINE 

gas  engines  for  at  least  four  of  the  largest  steel  mills 
in  the  country.  Some  of  these  engines  will  exceed  4000 
hp.  and  will  be  used  for  blowing  and  for  driving  elec- 
tric generators.  Fig.  3,  although  not  as  large  as  some 
of  the  blowing  engines  now  under  construction,  is  a 
fair  example  of  what  is  being  done.  The  dimensions 
of  this  engine  are  84  x  60  in.  on  the  air  end  and  46  x 
60  in.  on  the  gas  end.  It  would  look  as  though  this 
type  of  prime  mover  is  not  ready  to  be  forced  into 
oblivion,  although  the  steam  turbine  is  now  pushing 
it  hard  and,  owing  to  its  economy  over  a  wide  range 
of  load,  may  eventually  be  the  favorite  for  steel-mill 
work. 

Manufacturers  of  Diesel  and  other  types  of  oil  engines 
are  working  to  the  limit  of  shop  capacity.  Because  of 
the  high  cost  of  fuel  and  the  need  for  power  by  the 
industries,  a  surprising  number  of  Diesel  engines  have 
been  installed,  some  of  them  having  capacities  of  1000 
hp.  Demands  for  these  engines  in  the  South  and  South- 
west still  continue  at  an  increasing  rate,  and  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  the  marine  field  is  apparently  flourishing. 
Several  firms  that  heretofore  have  built  only  stationary 
engines   have   lately   brought   out   marine   types.      The 


entire  output  of  at  lea.st  two  of  our  largest  Diesel 
engine  builders  has  bqen  devoted  to  Government  orders 
(for  submarines)  since  the  United  States  entered  the 
war.  A  new  design  of  high-compre.ssion  four-cycle 
heavy-oil  engine  has  been  brought  forth,  and  details  of 
existing  engines   have   been   perfected. 

Large  numbers  of  gasoline  and  kerosene  engines  are 
being  u.sed  by  our  forces  in  France  for  searchlights, 
portable  lighting  outfits,  for  driving  compressors,  for 
small  repair  outfits,  etc.  These  are  of  the  carburetor 
type,  but  are  designed  to  use  either  gasoline  or  kerosene. 
For  airplane  service  the  "Liberty"  motor  has  been  one 
of  the   great  accomplishments   of  the  year. 

Power-Plant  Legislation 

Legislation  relative  to  power  plants  has  been  active 
throughout  the  year  despite  the  war.  The  Boiler  Code 
of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  is 
now  in  force  or  about  to  be  enforced  in  the  following 
states:  California,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, Indiana,  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  New  Jersey. 
Many  other  state  legislatures  favorably  regard  the  Code ; 
but  other  more  pressing  legislation  or  lack  of  financial 
resources  prevented  the  adoption  of  the  Code  in  these 
states. 

The  Municipal  Regulations  Committee  of  the  Amer- 
ican Society  of  Refrigerating  Engineers  has  made 
favorable  progress  in  the  formulation  of  a  safety  code 
for  refrigerating  plants  and  by  December,  1918,  will 
likely  hand  to  the  society  a  finished  code.  The  City 
of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  now  enforces  a  code  drawTi  up  with  the 
assistance  of  this  committee. 

There  has  been  little  activity  in  the  enactment  of 
engineers'  and  firemen's  license  laws.  The  rules  of  the 
Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors  of  Steam  Vessels  have 
been  modified  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the 
entrance  of  men  into  marine  service,  particularly  under 
the  Shipping  Board,  though  there  are,  it  seems,  ob- 
structionist forces  at  work  to  wholly  or  partly  defeat 
the  purpose.  Some  interesting  water-power  legislation 
may  come  during  the  present  Congress. 

Coal,  Oil  Fuel  and  Smoke 

Up  to  the  end  of  September  the  bituminous-coal 
production  for  the  country  exceeded  that  for  a  corre-  • 
sponding  period  in  1916  by  10.5  per  cent.  This  increase 
has  been  approximately  maintained  up  to  the  end  of 
the  year,  and  it  means  about  50  million  tons  in  excess 
of  the  500  million  produced  in  the  previous  j'ear.  More 
anthracite  also  has  been  mined,  but  notwithstanding 
this  immense  production  there  has  been  a  decided  short- 
age of  fuel.  Its  delivery,  depending  upon  congested 
railway  facilities,  was  irregular,  and  to  shorten  the  haul 
many  users  were  obliged  to  accept  the  coal  nearest  at 
hand.  Owing  to  the  higher  prices  attempts  were  made 
to  use  in  part  inferior  grades  of  fuel,  such  as  culm, 
coke  breeze  and  lignites,  with  varying  degrees  of  suc- 
cess. The  uncertain  conditions  caused  many  fuel  users 
to  consider  storage,  laying  up  a  supply  during  the  sum- 
mer months  when  the  demand  is  lightest  and  trans- 
portation at  its  best,  to  tide  them  over  irregular  de- 
liveries during  the  heating  season.  In  the  last  year, 
then,  more  than  ordinary  attention  has  been  given  to 
coal-handling    apparatus,    storage   and    the    weathering 


6 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


of  coal.  Federal  fuel  administrators  are  doing  every- 
thing in  their  power  to  encourage  economy.  It  is 
realized  that  up-to-date  firing  methods  and  general 
improvement  in  operating  conditions  will  save  millions 
of  tons  of  coal  per  year. 

Oil  fuel  for  power  plants  has  come  into  extensive  use 
even  in  New  England,  where  under  ordinary  conditions 
it  would  not  be  considered.  This  has  been  due  to  the 
upsetting  of  transportation  by  rail  and  by  water,  the 
excessive  cost  of  coal  and  its  actual  scarcity.  In  the 
year  just  closed  the  production  was  considerably  in 
excess  of  that  of  1916,  which  was  292,300,000  bbl.,  the 
greatest  record  in  the  history  of  petroleum. 

Smoke  abatement  has  been  set  back  temporarily.  The 
smoke  in  Chicago  was  never  worse.  New  York  is  re- 
ceiving its  baptism  of  soot  and  ash  from  the  burning 
of  soft  coal  in  furnaces  designed  for  anthracite.  Boston 
is  in  much  the  same  situation,  and  even  in  Pittsburgh, 
where  smokeless  history  has  been  made  in  recent  years, 
conditions  are  not  up  to  standard.  Naturally,  this  is 
due  to  changes  of  fuel,  the  burning  of  inferior  grades 
and  the  calling  into  service  of  boilers  that  have  not 
been  remodeled  for  smokeless  operation.  With  the 
gradual  readjustments  that  economy  will  demand  the 
smoke  situation  will   undoubtedly    improve. 

The  Refrigeration  Field 

Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  progress  in  the  re- 
frigeration field  during  the  year  is  the  wide  adoption 
of  the  high-speed  compressor,  using  the  thin-plate 
valve,  or  feather  valve.  One  large  and  oldest  company 
manufacturing  refrigerating  machinery  has  been  turn- 
ing out  many  high-speed  compressors,  not  an  order  for 
a  slow-speed  machine  having  been  received  during  the 
first  half  of  its  fiscal  year.  Other  manufacturers  are 
experiencing  similar  business  orders  in  relation  to  the 
high-speed  compressor. 

Electric  drive,  particularly  for  compressors  used  for 
ice  making,  is  receiving  ever-widening  application, 
especially  in  Chicago  and  New  York. 

The  new  refrigerating  plant  of  the  Merchants  Re- 
frigerating Co.,  New  York,  is  of  unusual  interest.  The 
compressors  are  of  the  York,  three-cylinder,  single-act- 
ing, piston  valve,  inclosed  type,  driven  by  synchronous 
motors  of  special  design.  The  efficiency  of  these  motors 
is  stated  to  be  90  to  94  per  cent.,  the  starting  torque 
35  per  cent,  and  the  "pull-in"  torque  30  per  cent. 

The  installation  has  four  units,  a  50-ton  (234  r.p.m.), 
a  100-ton  and  two  200-ton,  the  three  latter  running  at 
209  r.p.m.  They  are  to  be  operated  at  3  lb.  back 
pressure  and  155  lb.  condenser  pressure.  They  will 
operate  compounded;  that  is,  two  cylinders  of  each 
machine  will  take  in  low-pressure  gas  and  the  other 
cylinder  of  the  compressor  will  take  this  gas  and  boost 
it  to  the  condenser  pressure.  After  leaving  the  receivers, 
the  liquid  will  go  to  a  double-pipe  cooler,  where  water 
will  take  out  the  sensible  heat  to  within  1  deg.  F.  of 
the  initial  water  temperature.  The  liquid  then  will 
go  to  accumulators,  where  its  temperature  will  be  re- 
duced to  the  boiling  point  at  the  intermediate  ammonia 
pressure.  The  vapor  will  be  taken  directly  into  the 
high-pressure  cylinder.  The  piping  is  so  arranged  as 
to  permit  of  operating  either  single  or  compound  com- 
pression. All  shells,  including  those  of  brine  coolers, 
shell   condensers,    etc.,    arei   autogenous    (oxyactylene) 


welded.  A  more  complete  description  of  the  plant  will. 
it  is  hoped,  soon  appear  in  Power. 

The  booster  compressor  is  exciting  much  comment, 
and  the  Ninth  Street  Terminal,  Chicago,  is  a  new  and 
interesting  installation.  The  plant  has  but  recently 
been  started,  and  performance  data  are  not  yet  avail- 
able. The  new  installation  at  the  Consumers  Ice  Co., 
Chicago,  is  one  of  the  fii-st  of  the  D.  I.  Davis  low- 
temperature  compression  systems.  A  description  of  this 
plant  is  now  ready  for  appearance  in  Power. 

Welding,  of  course,  continues  to  be  of  keen  interest 
to  refrigerating  engineei-s,  and  it  is  cheering  that  all 
the  various  interests  have  formed  the  National  Welding 
Council,  which  so  far  has  displayed  a  most  sincere  and 
unprejudiced  attitude  in  its  aim  to  make  autogenous 
welding  safe  for  pressure  vessels. 

The  first  section  of  the  American  Society  of  Refriger- 
ating Engineers  has  been  instituted  in  New  York  City, 
and  its  success  will  probably  lead  to  the  organization 
of  other  sections  in  the  large  cities. 

The  Water-Power  Situation 

Although  the  unfortunate  condition  of  water-power 
legislation  still  remains  unsettled,  there  has  been  con- 
siderable activity  in  the  construction  of  new  plants 
and  extensions  to  existing  installations.     The   Copco, 


PIG.    4. 


.S.    MoiaiAN   .SMITH    PIT    LI.\KR  A.\"D   SCROLL  FOR 
16,500-HP.   VERTICAL-.SHAFT   TURBINE 


California,  plant  for  the  Southern  Pacific  is  nearing 
completion.  It  will  have  an  initial  capacity  of  25,000 
hp.,  which  later  will  be  increased  to  50,000  hp.  by  a 
subsidiary  station.  The  Southern  California  Edison 
Co.  has  announced  that  it  will  shortly  add  42,500  hp. 
to  its  capacity  at  Big  Creek  and  make  further  additions 
to  the  plants  served  by  Huntington  Lake. 

The  Puget  Sound  T»-action,  Light  and  Power  Co.,  is  in- 
stalling 25,000  hp.  additional  capacity  in  its  White  River 
Power  Plant  near  Sumner,  Wash.  The  Montana  Power 
Co.  is  installing  four  16,500-hp.  single-runner  vertical- 
shaft  Francis  type  turbines  in  its  Holter  plant.  The  steel- 
plate  scroll,  the  intake  diameter  of  which  is  12  ft.,  and 
cast-iron  pit  liner  for  one  of  these  units  are  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  These  machines  will  operate  under  a  working 
head  of  109  ft.  and  run  at  150  revolutions  per  minute. 

Work  has  continued  on  the  31,000-hp.  single-runner 
vertical  turbines  for  the  Yadkin  River  development  in 


Januaiy  1,  1918 


POWER 


^1 1 ,1! 

* 

I 

-  M" 

Pbw^ 

f 

■ 

"ij^HBi 

FIG.   5. 


GENERAL,  ELECTRIC   6825-KW.    25-CYCLE  ROTARY 
CONVERTER 


North  Carolina,  and  numerous  other  large  installations 
might  be  mentioned.  Owing  to  the  great  power  de- 
mands and  the  higher  cost  of  fuel,  several  hundred 
thousand  horsepower  has  been  added  to  "white-coal" 
capacity  during  the  year.  In  the  way  of  improvements 
may  be  mentioned  simplification  and  standardization 
of  governors,  development  in  runner  design  and  reduc- 
tion of  hydraulic  losses  in  intake  and  draft  tubes. 

Acquisition  of  the  properties  of  the  Ontario  Power 
Co.  by  the  Hydro-Electric  Commission  of  Ontario  was 
a  significant  step  toward  governmental  participation 
in  developing  natural  resources.  When  the  Chippewa 
Creek-Queenstown  Heights  developments  are  completed, 
the  commission  will  be  the  largest  producer  of  water 
power  in  the  world.  Its  work  will  be  watched  with  i  iter- 
est  in  this  country,  as  the  adoption  of  a  similar  plan  may 
be  the  solution  for  the  existing  controversy  in  this 
field. 

Electrical  Development 

During  the  last  year  there  has  not  been  any  marked 
change  in  the  electrical  industry  over  that  of  1916. 
The  manufacturers  have  been  practically  overwhelmed 
in  trying  to  meet  the  demands  on  the  industry  for 
standard  equipment,  consequently  the  development  of 
new  types  of  machinery  has  been  subordinated  to  these 
demands.  However,  a  number  of  the  large  machines 
that  were  projected  in  1916  were  built  and  installed 
during  1917.  Others  again  are  still  in  the  construction 
stage,  as  pointed  out  in  the  foregoing,  in  reference  to 
the  large  turbine  unit. 

During  the  year  25-cycle  rotary  converters  up  to 
6825-kw.  capacity.  Fig.  5,  have  been  put  in  operation. 


and  60-cycle  machines  up  to  5800  kw.  in  size  have  been 
installed.  These  machines  are  the  largest  of  either  type 
that  have  so  far  been  built.  One  of  the  most  important 
advances  in  the  construction  of  self-controlled  induction 
feeder  voltage  regulators  is  the  600-kv.-a.  three-phase 
60-cycle  13,200-volt  unit.  Fig.  6,  installed  by  the  South- 
ern Power  Co.,  to  be  connected  to  the  low-voltage  side 
of  a  6000-kv.-a.  bank  of  44,000-  to  13,200-volt  trans- 
formers. This  unit  is  equipped  with  radiators  on  the 
tank  for  cooling  purposes  similar  to  those  used  on 
self-cooled  transformers. 

The  most  interesting  transformer  unit  of  the  year  is 
probably  the  44,000-volt  to  6000-volt,  8000-kv.-a.  oil- 
insulated  self-cooled  unit.  Fig.  7,  six  of  which  were  built 
for  the  Carnegie  Steel  Co.  The  radiators  are  con- 
structed of  a  number  of  vertical  flattened  tubes  welded 
into  headers,  which  are  flanged  and  bolted  to  the  tank. 
The  24  radiators  on  each  tank  give  an  effective  cooling 
surface  of  approximately  1,000,000  sq.in.  Oil-insulated 
water-cooled  units  of  over  three  times  the  foregoing 
capacity  are  under  construction  or  being  installed. 

The  Pacific  Light  and  Power  Co.  has  installed  in  its 
Eagle  Rock  substation  at  the  end  of  a  transmission 
line  241  miles  long,  a  ]  5,000-kv.-a.  synchronous  con- 
denser. Fig.  8.  This  is  used  to  maintain  constant  volt- 
age at  the  receiving  end  of  this  long  transmission  line, 
which  is  operated  at  135,000  volts  with  grounded  neutral 
at  the  power-house  end.  Before  the  condenser  was 
installed,  the  no-load  voltage  at  the  receiving  end  was 
211,000  volts.  With  the  condenser  in  service  the  voltage 
at  the  receiving  end  of  the  transmission  line  is  held 
practically  constant  under  all  conditions  of  load. 


mf 

4         » 

^ 

1, 

1 

I^^H 

^-3»*^ 

-«i 

PIG.    6. 


WESTINOHOUSE    ROO-KV.-A,    3-PHASE    INDUCTION 
KI'il'iDKH   N'OLTAill!;   llEUUL.\TOR 


8 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


In  the  steel  industry'  the  application  of  electricity 
ha.s  continued  to  make  rapid  advances.  Two  of  the 
chief  applications  are  of  reversing  motors  for  rolling- 
mill  main-roll  drives  and  the  electric  furnace.  There 
is  in  use  at  the  present  time  approximately  690,000  hp. 
of  main-roll  drives  in  the  United  States,  an  Increase 
of  400  per  cent,  during  the  la-st  five  year.s.  These 
drives  require  very  large  motors.  The  reversing  bloom- 
ing-mill unit  showTi  in  Fig.  9  is  one  of  the  largest 
direct-current  single-unit  motors  that  has  so  far  been 
built.  It  has  a  momentary  rating  of  10,000  hp.  at  40 
r.p.m.  The  machine  is  fully  compensated  and  is  shunt- 
wound.  In  spite  of  its  great  size,  it  can  be  accelerated 
at  the  rate  of  50  revolutions  per  second.  The  motor  is 
supplied  with  power  from  a  flywheel  motor-generator  set, 
consisting  of  a  2000-kw.,  500-volt  generator,  driven  by 
a  2200-volt  2000-hp.  induction  motor.  The  flywheel 
weighs  100,000  pounds. 

The  vast  increase  in  the  use  of  electrical  furnaces  is 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  in  this  countr>%  Jan.  1,  1916, 
there  were  36  furnaces  in  use,  having  a  capacity  of 
191  net  tons,  and  requiring  90,000  kv.-a.  At  the  present 
time  the  capacity  has  increased  to  approximately  1000 
net  tons  requiring  about  230,000  kilovolt-amperes. 

The  250,000-kw.  totalizing  graphic  meter.  Fig.  10, 
built  for  the  Keokuk  plant  of  the  Mississippi  River 
Power  Co.,  is  the  largest  meter  ever  constructed.  The 
instrument  will  give  a  graphic  record  of  the  output  of 
the  thirty  3-phase,  7500-kw.  generators  to  be  in- 
stalled ultimately  in  this  plant.  To  accomplish  this 
thirty  polyphase-meter  elements,  each  made  up  of  two 
single-phase  units   are   used.     The   induction   type   of 


PIG.   7. 


GENERAL    ELECTRIC    GOOO-KV.-A.    OIL-INSULATED 
SELF-COOLED   TRANSFORMER 


meter  element  is  employed.  The  moving  element  con- 
sists of  six  aluminum  vanes,  all  supported  on  a  single 
shaft.  All  connections  are  carried  to  the  top  of  the 
instrument  to  a  circular  terminal  board  having  240 
binding  posts.  The  chart  is  12 i  in.  wide  and  printed 
in  12-hour  sections  and  feeds  at  the  rate  of  3  in.  per 
hour. 


Owing  to  the  expansion  of  our  industries,  much  of 
which  came  suddenly  and  is  considered  more  or  less 
temporary,  there  has  been  a  great  increase  in  the  de- 
mand for  power.  Generating  equipment,  except  on  long 
deliveries,  was  almost  impossible  to  get,  with  the  result 
that  the  central  station  has  been  swamped  in  trying 
to  supply  a  considerable  portion  of  the  excess  power 
requirements.  With  the  manufacturer  it  has  not  been 
so  much  a  question  of  cost  as  obtaining  quickly  the 
power  he  needed  to  turn  out  war  products.     There  is 


PIG.    8. 


WESTINGHOUSE    15.000-KV.-A.     SYNCHRONOUS 
CONDENSER 


still  a  great  deficiency  in  prime-mover  capacity,  and 
to  improve  this  condition  it  has  been  suggested  that 
private  plants  tie  in  with  the  central  station,  helping 
it  out  on  the  peak  load  and  in  turn  taking  current  from 
it  in  the  valleys,  but  standing  by  as  reserve  capacity 
needed  in  case  of  breakdown. 

Shortage  of  coal  has  aggravated  the  situation.  It 
has  instigated  a  great  campaign  for  saving.  By  state 
fuel  administrators,  committees  have  been  appointed  to 
investigate  the  possibilities  and  to  interest  owoiers  of 
private  plants  in  this  movement.  The  fireman  is  being 
flooded  with  instructions,  and  publicity  committees  are 
arranging  for  space  in  the  press  and  competent  lecturers, 
preferably  engineers,  to  point  out  the  many  possibilities 
of  saving  in  the  private  plant  and  the  home. 

Increase  in  the  price  of  coal  tends  to  enforce  better 
economy  in  all  stations,  private  and  central.  To  meet 
the  great  demand  for  power  and  for  economy  in  the  use 
of  coal  it  would  appear  that  the  time  is  ripe  for  re- 
adjustment. There  is  many  a  private  plant  taken  over 
by  the  central  station  that  could  be  operated  more  eco- 
nomically on  its  own  basis.  It  could  produce  the  power, 
light  and  heat  needed  with  an  expenditure  of  coal  less 
than  the  independent  electric  and  heating  services  now 
require.  There  are  some  private  plants  of  which  the 
reverse  is  true.  The  exigencies  demand  careful,  un- 
biased analyses  to  determine  in  each  case  what  is  best 
for  the  common  good. 

Engineering  Societies 

The  campaign  that  has  been  conducted  for  the  last 
few  years  showing  the  need  and  the  desirability  of 
cooperation  among  engineers  is  at  last  bearing  fruit. 
The  demands  of  the  war  have  hastened  the  movement. 
The  Engineering  Council  of  the  United  Engineering 
Society  has  recently  come  into  being  as  a  medium  of 
cooperation  between  the  four  big  national  engineering 
societies.  It  is  ma'de  up  of  five  members  from  each 
body    and    four    from    the   parent    organization.      The 


January  1,  1918 


POWER 


council  has  authority  to  speak  on  all  questions  of  con- 
cern to  engineers.  Realizing  that  at  present  the  big 
thing  is  war  work,  the  council  has  organized  a  "War 
Committee  of  Technical  Societies,"  which  has  been 
cooperating  in  every  way  possible  with  the  Government. 
The  American  Boiler  Manufacturers'  Association  has 
appointed  a  war-service  committee  to  act  as  a  point  of 
contact  between  the  industry  and  the  Government,  and 
practically  every  engineering  association  in  the  country 
has  oflfered  its  services  in  one  way  or  another. 

Cooperation  between  the  local  sections  of  the  various 
societies  is  also  improving.  Joint  meetings,  dinners 
and  entertainments  are  becoming  the  rule.  In  this  con- 
nection it  might  be  added  that  plans  are  on  foot  for 
a  building  to  house  all  engineering  societies  in  Chicago. 
This  in  reality  is  to  be  an  engineering  headquarters 
second  only  to  New  York. 

The  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  con- 
tinues to  conduct  work  of  inestimable  value  to  the  field. 
The  Boiler  Code,  now  adopted  by  nine  states  and  four 
cities,  is  being  perfected  and  interpretations  are  sent 
monthly.  The  safety-valve  regulations  are  in  process 
of  revamping,  and  the  question  of  welding  is  receiving 
attention.  In  its  visit  to  the  Chicago  section,  the  Council 
has  initiated  a  practice  contributing  toward  the  na- 
tionalization of  the  society  by  eradicating  the  too- 
prevalent  idea  that  much  of  the  benefit  of  membership 
centers  in  New  York.  These  visits  are  worth  con- 
tinuing. 

A  progressive  step  by  the  National  Association  of 
Stationary  Engineers  at  its  last  annual  convention  was 
the  setting  aside  of  definite  periods  for  welfare  talks 
by  the  delegates  dealing  with  their  work  and  improve- 
ment of  the  organization.  The  society  is  devoted 
primarily   to  education,   but   heretofore   much   of   the 


FIG.  9.     GENERAL  ELECTRIC  10,000-HP.  DIRECT-CURRENT, 
REVERSING   BLOOMING-MILL  MOTOR 

national  convention  has  been  taken  up  by  routine  busi- 
ness. The  innovation  was  heartily  approved,  and  it  is 
safe  to  predict  that  each  year  will  see  more  of  the 
time  of  the  convention  given  over  to  the  watchword  of 
the  association. 

The  Honor  Roll  for  1917 

For  1917  the  honor  roll  is  long  and  it  is  made  up 
mostly  by  engineers  engaged  in  the  war,  some  in  im- 
porta.^t  work  at  home  and  others  at  the  front.  Of 
the  latter  many  have  already  shown  that  they  deserve 


high  places  in  the  list.  For  engineering  achievement 
in  private  work  mention  should  be  made  of  Nikola 
Tesia,  awarded  the  Edison  Medal  for  original  work  in 
polyphase  and  high-frequency  electric  currents.  Dr. 
Henry  Marion  Howe  received  the  John  Fritz  medal 
for  his  investigations  in  metallurgy,  especially  in  the 
metallography  of  iron  and  steel.  Five  gold  medals  were 
awarded  by  the  American  Museum  of  Safety  for  note- 
worthy achievement  in  the  realm  of  safety. 

Engineering  societies  closely  related  to  the  field 
honored  the  following  men  by  election  to  the  presiden- 
cies: Charles  Thomas  Main,  American  Society  of  Me- 
chanical Engineers;  E.  W. 
Rice,  Jr.,  American  Institute 
of  Electrical  Engineers;  J. 
W.  Lieb,  National  Electric 
Light  Association;  John  A. 
Wickert,  National  Associa- 
tion of  Stationary  Engi- 
neers ;  Ezra  Frick,  American 
Society  of  Refrigerating  En- 
gineers; Irwine  J.  Lyle, 
American  Society  of  Heating 
and  Ventilating  Engineers; 
G.  W.  Martin,  National  Dis- 
trict Heating  Association. 

Necrology 


PIG.     10.       ESTERLINB 
TOTALIZING  GRAPHIC 

METER 


It  is  pleasing  to  report  that 
men  of  prominence  in  the 
field  who  passed  away  during 
the  year  were  few  in  num- 
ber.    The  columns  of  Poiver 

record  the  following:  Alfred  Blunt  Jenkins,  of  Jenkins 
Brothers ;  Henry  Gordon  Stott,  superintendent  of  motive 
power  of  the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Co.;  George 
Ross,  president  of  the  Ross  Valve  Manufacturing  Co.; 
James  Terry,  president  of  the  Terry  Steam  Turbine  Co. ; 
Frank  Lewis  Bigelow,  president  of  the  Bigelow  Co.; 
William  G.  Bee,  vice  president  and  general  sales  man- 
ager of  the  Edison  Storage  Battery  Co.;  James  Fulton 
Cummings,  an  electrical  engineer  of  international  repu- 
tation; Albert  F.  Ganz,  professor  of  electrical  engi- 
neering at  Stevens  Institute  of  Technologj';  Arthur 
Kneisel,  treasurer  of  the  American  Association  of 
Engineers;  Royal  C.  Peabody,  president  of  the  Com- 
bustion Engineering  Co.;  William  P.  Hancock,  super- 
intendent of  the  generating  department  of  the  Edison 
Electric  Illuminating  Co.  of  Boston;  James  F.  Meagher, 
former  president  of  the  People's  Gas,  Light  and  Coke 
Co.,  of  Chicago;  George  Harrison  Klumph,  late  West- 
ern manager  of  the  Green  Fuel  Economizer  Co. ;  Wil- 
liam D.  Kearfott,  president  of  the  Kearfott  Engineering 
Co.;  Benjamin  Murray  Plumber,  president  of  the  Main 
Belting  Company;  Joseph  F.  Chuse,  founder  and  mana- 
ger of  the  Chuse  Engine  and  Manufacturing  Co.; 
Thomas  Eugene  Byrne,  vice  president  and  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  Kings  County  Lighting  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


Petroleum  residual  oil  as  fuel  for  Diesel  engines  is 
so  scarce  in  the  British  Isles  that  users  have  had  to 
adopt  tar  oil.  They  were  just  getting  along  nicely 
when  the  Minister  of  Munitions  up  and  restricted  the 
use  of  tar  and  other  oils.  And  yet  the  "business  as 
usual"  howlers  say  there  is  plenty  of  fuel  of  all  kinds. 


10 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


New  Method  of  Increasing  the  Evaporation 

in  Boilers 


By  carl  HERING 


A  new  thermal  principle  in  the  boiling  of  water 
is  described.  The  thin  film  of  gas  on  the  flame 
side  of  a  ivater-boiling  vessel  offers  an  enor- 
mously high  resistance  to  the  flow  of  heat.  By 
means  of  lugs  on  the  flame  side  of  surface  an 
artificial  thermal  resistance  is  established,  which 
greatly  increases  the  flow  of  heat,  provided  these 
lugs  are  properly  proportioned. 

IT  IS  well  known  that  water  may  be  boiled  in  a 
cup  made  of  ordinary  paper;  also  that  a  postage 
stamp  may  be  pasted  on  the  flame  side  of  a  metallic 
vessel  in  which  water  is  being  boiled  and  although  the 
flame  plays  directly  upon  this  stamp  it  will  not  be 
charred.  It  is  perhaps  less  well  known  that  when  a 
second  or  third  stamp  is  pasted  over  the  first  one,  the 
outer  ones  will  char.  If  there  is  a  blister  in  a  single 
thickness  of  the  paper,  that  blister  will  char. 

Gas  Film  on  Flame  Side  of  Vessel 
The  interpretation  of  this  is  that  when  very  hot  gases, 
like  those  of  a  flame,  impinge  upon  the  outside  sur- 
face of  any  water-boiling  vessel,  which  is  constantly 
maintained  at  a  far  lower  temperature  by  the  water 
on  the  other  side  of  it,  a  thin  film  of  gas  forms  on  the 
flame  side  of  the  surface  which  off'ers  an  enormously 
high  resistance  to  the  passage  of  heat  through  it;  its 
specific  resistance  appears  to  be  far  greater  than  that 
of  thermal  insulators,  yet  all  the  heat  which  flows  use- 
fully from  the  flame  to  the  water  must  traverse  it ;  this 
film  is  therefore  a  very  great  obstruction  to  the  flow 
of  heat,  and  this  method  of  heating  is  a  very  irrational 
one,  although  it  is  the  usual  way.  The  thermal  re- 
sistance of  the  metallic  walls  of  the  vessel  is  so  small 
in  comparison  that  there  is  no  appreciable  gain  in  the 
heat  flow  by  using  copper  tubes  in  a  boiler  in  place 
of  iron  ones,  even  though  copper  conducts  heat  much 
better  than  iron. 

If  the  temperature  of  the  flame  is  taken  at  about 
1350  deg.  C.  (2462  deg.  F.)  and  that  of  the  water  is 
100  deg.  C.  (212  deg.  F.),  there  is  a  fall  of  temperature 
of  about  1250  deg.  C.  through  this  film,  which  appears 
to  be  only  about  0.005  in.  thick ;  this  means  an  extremely 
high  thermal  resistance,  so  high  that  it  is  a  question 
whether  it  is  a  true  resistance;  but  as  it  certainly  acts 
like  one,  it  may  at  least  be  here  referred  to  by  this 
term. 

If  this  high-resistance  film  could  be  broken  down,  the 
heat  would  flow  more  rapidly  from  the  flame  to  the 
water,  which  means  that  the  water  could  be  boiled 
faster  or  that  the  boiling  vessels,  like  steam  boilers, 
could  be  made  smaller  for  the  same  steaming  capacity; 
also  that  the  losses  of  heat  would  be  reduced,  for  if 
a  given  quantity  of  water  could  be  boiled  twice  as  fast, 
for  instance,  with  the  same  flame,  the  heat  losses  will 
be  reduced  to  a  half,  as  they  take  place  during  only 
half  the  time. 


One  way  to  reduce  the  resistance  of  this  film  is  to 
use  a  blast  flame,  which  seems  to  mechanically  carry 
away  part  of  the  film;  a  strong  blast  flame  directed 
against  the  aforementioned  postage  stamp  will  char  it; 
but  this  method  is  not  generally  practicable.  The  usual 
way  is  to  increase  the  surface  exposed  to  the  flame,  but 
doubling  or  trebling  this  surface  while  using  the  same 
flame  does  not  necessarily  double  or  treble  the  heat  flow; 
if  the  volume  of  the  flame  is  then  also  doubled  or  trebled, 
the  amount  of  boiling  will,  of  course,  be  increased  pro- 
portionately, but  this  simply  means  doubling  or  trebling 
the  whole  boiler;  this  increases  the  quantity  of  heat 
transmitted  but  not  the  rate;  nor  does  it  increase  the 
efficiency  very  much. 

By  studying  the  nature  and  properties  of  this  high- 
resistance  film  the  writer  found  that  its  resistance  di- 
minishes very  rapidly  when  there  is  less  difference  of 
temperature  between  its  two  sides ;  namely,  between  the 
flame  and  the  metal.  In  boiling  molten  zinc,  for  instance 
(about  950  deg.  C),  instead  of  water,  the  resistance  of 
this  film  would  be  very  greatly  reduced.  It  is  probably 
also  very  slightly  less  in  high-pressure  boilers  in  which 
the  temperature  of  the  water  is  higher. 

It  .seems  to  be  analogous  to  the  case  in  mechanics  in 
which  a  heavy  weight  struck  by  a  sharp  blow  will  move 
only  slightly,  but  when  the  same  energy  is  exerted 
on  it  less  violently,  the  body  will  be  moved  more  freely 
by  it;  the  resistance  of  the  body  against  being  moved 
(due  to  its  inertia)  becomes  greater  as  the  suddenness 
of  the  blow  increases.  Our  present  method  of  heating 
water  may  be  said  to  be  analogous  to  moving  a  heavy 
car  by  applying  sharp  hammer  blows  at  the  rear,  in 
which  case  its  inertia  acts  like  a  high  resistance;  this 
analogy,  however,  is  only  approximate. 

Establishing  Artificial  Thermal  Resistance 

As  the  temperature  of  the  flame  is  fixed,  and  it  would 
be  inadvisable  to  reduce  it,  and  that  of  the  water  can- 
not be  raised,  there  remains  only  increasing  the  tem- 
perature of  the  flame  side  of  the  vessel  or  boiler  tube. 
This  can  best  be  done  by  interposing  a  thermal  re- 
sistance between  the  flame  side  of  the  vessel  and  the 
water  side,  such  that  the  flame  side  may  become  far 
hotter  than  the  water  side,  say  a  red  heat.  The  writer's 
researches  have  shown  that  when  the  usual  flame  im- 
pinges on  a  surface  that  is  artificially  maintained  at 
a  very  much  higher  temperature  than  boiling  water, 
say  a  dull-red  heat,  the  resistance  of  this  film  is  very 
greatly  reduced ;  and  that  the  artificially  added  resist- 
ance required  to  do  this  is  far  less  than  that  of  the  film 
was,  hence  there  is  a  great  reduction  in  the  total  re- 
sistance and  therefore  a  great  gain  in  the  flow  of  heat. 
It  is  a  curious  case  in  which  the  adding  of  still  more 
thermal  resistance  in  the  path  of  the  flow  of  heat 
diminishes  the  total  resistance  greatly.  In  mechanics  a 
spring  may  in  some  respects  be  likened  to  a  resistance 
to  an  opposing  force,  yet  the  addition  of  a  spring  be- 
tween a  violent  push  and  a  heavy  body  helps  to  overcome 


January  1.  ID  18 


P  0  W  E  K 


11 


that  ertect  of  the  inertia  by  which  it  acts  like  a  high 
resistance. 

These  thermal  relations  are  illustrated  diagram- 
niatically  in  Fig.  1.  Let  the  vertical  distances  repre- 
sent the  thermal  resistances  in  the  path  of  the  current 
of  heat  from  flame  to  water,  and  the  horizontal  dis- 
tances the  temperatures  of  that  side  of  the  vessel  which 
is  exposed  to  the  flame;  that  is,  the  side  on  which  this 
film  forms.  The  curve  a  then  shows  appro.ximately  how 
tlie  resistance  of  the  film  diminishes  as  the  temperature 
of  that  surface  is  increased. 

To  produce  this  increasing  temperature  on  the  flame 
surface,  the  added  artificial  resistance  must  be  in- 
creased, as  the  water  side  always  has  the  same  tem- 


Temperature     of      Surface 

FIG.   1 

FIG.    1.       RELATION.S    OF    THKRMAL    RESISTANCES 

perature.  The  curve  b  represents  approximately  the 
respective  artificial  resistances  which  must  be  introduced 
to  produce  these  increased  temperatures.  The  total  resist- 
ance, which  is  what  governs  the  resulting  flow  of  heat, 
will  then  be  the  sum  of  the  ordinates  of  these  two 
curves,  giving  a  curve  approximately  like  c;  this  curve 
shows  that  as  more  artificial  resistance  is  introduced 
the  total  resistance  falls,  at  first  very  rapidly,  then 
reaches  a  minimum  point  and  then  rises  again.  The 
flow  of  heat  will  therefore  first  increase  rapidly,  reach 
a  maximum,  then  fall  again,  showing  that  there  is  a 
point  at  which  it  is  no  longer  advantageous  to  further 
increase  this  artificial  resistance.  The  present  re- 
searches indicate  that  this  point  seems  to  be  reached 
when  the  temperature  of  that  surface  is  about  midway 
between  that  of  the  flame  and  that  of  the  water;  hence 
for  water  boiling  this  would  be  about  725  deg.  C,  which 
means  a  dull-red  heat.  This  condition  means  that  the 
drop  of  temperature  in  the  artificial  resistance  is  then 
equal  to  that  in  the  film. 

A  practical  way  to  introduce  this  artificial  resistance 
is  by  means  of  lugs  on  the  flame  side  of  the  surface, 
which  have  such  a  length  and  diameter  that  the  heat 
flow  through  them  will  maintain  their  hot  ends  at  about 
a  dull-red  heat.  In  the  writer's  tests  with  lugs  of  the 
same  diameter  and  increasing  lengths,  the  flow  of  heat 
through  them  at  first  increased  as  they  were  made 
longer,  and  then  diminished  again  after  a  certain  length 
had  been  exceeded,  thus  corresponding  to  the  curve  c. 
When  too  long,  their  ends  were  at  a  bright-red  heat. 

It   is  an    interesting  and    instructive  experiment   to 


solder  some  small  nails  or  tacks  with  their  heads  against 
fhe  outside  of  the  bottom  of  a  tin  cup,  then  apply  a 
large  bunsen  flame  and  notice  how  quickly  and  violently 
the  water  will  boil  directly  over  those  nails  as  com- 
pared with  the  boiling  over  the  rest  of  the  surface  of  the 
cup.  These  lugs  may  be  said  to  be  a  means  for  piercing 
this  high-resisting  film,  allowing  the  heat  to  rush  rapidly 
through  these  thermal  openings. 

The  same  thermal  resistance  may  be  produced  by  a 
long  thick  lug  or  by  a  shorter  but  thinner  one,  provided 
the  ratio  of  the  length  to  the  cross-section  is  the  same ; 
and  the  quantity  of  heat  flowing  through  each  lug  will 
of  course  diminish  with  its  cross-section.  Theoretically, 
therefore,  the  best  condition  would  appear  to  be  one 
lug  of  the  diameter  of  the  bottom  surface  of  the  vessel, 
or  in  other  words,  a  very  thick  bottom,  or  very  thick- 
walled  boiler  tubes.  But  it  will  be  found  that  this 
thickness  (corresponding  to  the  length  of  the  lug)  would 
then  have  to  be  several  feet,  making  this  form  of  the 
resistance  absurdly  impracticable.  The  other  extreme 
would  be  to  have  innumerable  very  thin  short  lugs,  close 
together;  this  is  impracticable  on  account  of  the  expense, 
the  frailty  of  such  thin  lugs,  and  the  fact  that  when 
maintained  at  such  a  high  temperature  they  gradually 
burn  up.  Between  these  extremes  there  are  mean  pro- 
portions which  give  the  best  results,  considering  the 
practical  conditions. 

Effects  of  Varying  Spacing  and  Shape  of  Lugs 

Other  effects  are  also  involved.  By  spacing  the  same 
size  lugs  farther  apart,  the  greater  freedom  of  the 
circulation  of  the  hot  gases  between  them  was  found 
to  increase  the  flow  of  heat  through  each  lug,  but  as 
there  were  then  less  lugs  per  square  inch  of  surface, 
the  total  heat  flow  in  the  vessel  as  a  whole  was  less. 
It  appears  that  the  film  is  destroyed,  or  at  least  reduced, 
along  the  lateral  surfaces  of  these  lugs  also,  as  the 
gases  reaching  the  cooler  parts  are  themselves  cooler; 
hence  the  lateral  surfaces  take  a  more  important  part 
than  a  mere  increase  of  surface.  And  the  lugs  may 
be  made  slightly  conical  so  that  their  bases  cover  prac- 
tically the  whole  surface,  while  their  thinner  ends  are 
far  enough  apart  to  permit  the  free  circulation  of  the 
hot  gases.  When  placed  radially  on  the  outside  of  the 
tubes  of  a  water-tube  boiler,  they  may  be  cylindrical 
yet  have  their  cooler  ends  close  together  and  their  hot 
ends  farther  apart. 

Many  comparative  tests  in  which  the  time  was  noted 
for  evaporating  the  same  quantity  of  water  over  iden- 
tical flames  and  in  identical  open  cups,  differing  only 
in  the  size,  number  and  shape  of  the  lugs,  showed 
that  there  were  some  best  proportions  at  which  the 
heat  flow  was  greatest,  as  varying  the  proportions  in 
either  direction  gave  less  good  results.  These  tests 
also  showed  very  decidedly  that  the  view  generally 
held  that  a  gain  by  the  use  of  lugs  was  due  to  the 
increase  of  surface  is  entirely  wrong,  which  no  doubt 
e.xplains  why  the  frequently  suggested  addition  of  lugs 
and  similar  surface-increasing  devices  has  not  come 
into  general  use;  the  principle  was  not  the  correct  one. 
It  is  of  course  true  that  a  greater  heat-receiving  sur- 
face is  a  good  feature,  but  it  will  amount  to  little  or 
no  gain  in  the  rate  unless  the  thermal  resistance  of 
the  lugs  is  properly  proportioned.  In  one  test  the 
lugs   were  made  of  the  same  length   and   total   cross- 


12 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


section,  but  had  greatly  differing  surfaces  by  making 
one  set  veiy  flat  and  the  others  round;  those  having 
the  lesser  surface  actually  gave  decidedly  the  better 
results.  The  results  in  many  tests  were  absolutely  out 
of  proportion  to  the  surfaces,  showing  how  greatly 
in  error  our  former  views  were. 

The  desired  condition  is  to  have  such  a  thermal 
resistance  that  when  the  flow  of  heat  through  it  has 
become  steady,  the  hot  ends  will  be  maintained  at  such 
a  high  temperature  that  the  film  resistance  is  greatly 
reduced.  With  the  same  resistance  the  difference  of 
temperature  at  the  two  ends  will  therefore  also  depend 
on  the  flow  of  heat  through  it,  as  a  large  flow  of  heat 
through  a  low  resistance  may  produce  the  same  differ- 
ence of  temperature  between  the  ends  as  a  small  flow 
through  a  high  resistance;  it  is  quite  parallel  to  the 
electrical  analogy.  The  proportions,  moreover,  are  dif- 
ferent for  iron  and  for  copper  lugs.  It  is  therefore  not 
only  a  question  of  the  resistance  alone,  but  also  of 
the  resulting  flow  of  heat;  the  problem  of  finding  the 
best  proportions  is  therefore  not  as  simple  as  might  at 
first  appear,  and  the  conclusions  drawn  from  experi- 
ments must  be  carefully  interpreted  or  they  may 
mislead. 

For  instance,  a  thin  coating  of  enamel  or  of  some 
asbestos  compound  might  be  used  as  the  artificial  ther- 
mal resistance,  but  owing  to  its  high  specific  resistance 
a  very  small  heat  flow  through  it  would  suffice  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  outside  high  enough  to  break 
down  the  film  resistance;  but  as  it  is  a  large  heat 
flow  that  is  wanted,  the  artificial  resistance  should  be 
made  of  as  good  a  conductor  as  possible  in  order  that 
it  may  require  as  large  a  flow  of  heat  as  possible  to 
bring  about  this  film-breaking  temperature;  the  larger 
this  heat  flow,  the  lower  need  this  artificial  resistance  be. 

Results  op  Tests  by  Others 

During  the  earlier  stages  of  the  writer's  researches 
some  disinterested  parties  conducted  some  carefully 
made  tests  in  which  water  was  heated  by  the  gas  flames 
of  ordinary  cooking  stoves  in  open  vessels  with  various 
Jcinds  of  lugs,  the  amount  of  gas  and  its  calorific  value 
being  determined;  their  best  results  were  that  the 
same  quantity  of  water  could  thus  be  heated  about  twice 
as  fast  with  about  half  the  gas;  since  then  the  writer 
has  obtained  considerably  better  results. 

Referring  to  Fig.  2,  with  lugs  of  the  same  diameter 
and  of  different  lengths,  as  2,  3  and  4,  regularly  spaced, 
the  relative  flows  of  heat  through  a  lug  were  approxi- 
mately those  indicated  by  the  vertical  lines  above  them, 
that  for  1  being  the  flow  through  an  equal  area  of  the 
bottom  without  any  lug,  therefore  representing  the  nor- 
mal practice  of  today.  It  will  be  noticed  that  for  the 
greatest  length,  4,  the  flow  again  became  less,  showing 
that  the  best  length  had  been  exceeded. 

In  Fig.  3  the  lengths  of  all  the  lugs  are  the  same, 
but  their  diameters  are  diminished.  The  vertical  lines 
in  this  case  represent  the  relative  heat  flows  per  unit 
cross-section  of  the  lugs;  lug  4  was  the  same  as  3  in 
Fig.  2.  Here  again  the  last  one,  6,  showed  that  the 
best  proportions  had  been  passed. 

In  ordinary  boiler  practice  the  normal  heat  flow  is 
generally  given  as  three  pounds  evaporated  per  square 
foot  of  heating  surface  per  hour,  though  this  is  some- 
times exceeded,  being  said  to  be  as  high  as  16  in  some 


locomotive  boilers,  though  probably  at  a  considerable 
sacrifice  of  thermal  efficiency. 

The  writer's  researches  were  made  in  open,  flat- 
bottomed  tin  cups,  each  having  on  its  bottom  a  set 
of  regularly  spaced  equal  lugs,  the  proportions  of  the 
lugs  being  different  for  each  cup,  the  one  without  any 
lugs  being  taken  as  the  zero  of  reference.  The  same 
quantity  of  water  was  evaporated  in  each,  with  the 
same  large  though  quiet  bunsen  flame,  and  the  time  was 
noted.  Reduced  to  pounds  per  square  foot  per  hour, 
some  of  the  many  results  were  as  follows: 

In  the  cup  without  lugs  the  heat  flow  corresponded 
to  the  evaporaton  of  about  17  lb.  per  sq.ft.  per  hour. 
This  and  not  three  pounds  should  be  taken  as  the  basis 
of  the  comparison  with  the  lugs. 

This  rate  being  allowed  for  the  portion  of  the  bottom 
which  is  between  the  lugs,  the  rate  through  the  lugs 
themselves  was  as  high  as  467  lb.  per  sq.ft.  per  hour, 
showing  how  the  heat  rushes  through  the  thermal  open- 
ings in  this  film  made  by  the  lugs  when  they  are  prop- 
erly proportioned;  this  rate  is  about  27  times  that  for 


1 

^^^^^^^^ 

-  -  -  ^^^  :=--^3_;-^^rr_^  =-_  -:^_^-=r  = 

2 

3 

-4 

1 

2 

3 

A 

5 

FIG.  2 

FIG 

.  3 

6 

PIG.     2.       SAJIE    DIAMETER    AND    DIFFERENT    LENGTHS. 

PIG.  3.     SAME  LENGTHS  AND  DIFFERENT  DIAMETERS  ; 

PLOW   PER    SQUARE    INCH    SECTION 

the  cup  without  lugs,  hence  surprisingly  great;  the 
spheroidal  state,  which  limits  this  rate,  was  not  yet 
reached.  The  film  resistance  had  then  been  reduced  in 
effect- to  about  two  per  cent,  of  what  it  was  originally. 
This  shows  how  very  much  greater  the  heat  flow 
through  the  properly  proportioned  lugs  is  as  compared 
with  the  flow  through  an  equal  surface  without  lugs, 
and  therefore  how  very  greatly  the  resistance  of  this 
film  in  ordinary  practice  cuts  down  the  transference 
of  the  heat  to  the  water.  In  that  particular  test  the 
lugs  were  spaced  rather  far  apart,  in  order  to  find 
out  what  might  be  expected  per  lug  when  the  hot  gases 
have  free  circulation  around  them,  and  it  is  therefore 
of  interest  only  in  showing  the  possibilities  and  the 
correctness  of  the  principle.  This  extremely  high  rate 
might  perhaps  be  approached,  say  half  way,  in  prac- 
tice in  the  case  of  small-diameter  boiler  tubes  in  which 
the  cooler  ends  of  the  lugs  are  as  close  together  as 
possible  and  the  hot  ends  far  apart;  but  these  lugs 
were  rather  too  slender  and  numerous  for  practical 
purposes,  except  perhaps  for  very  small  boilers  or  water 
heaters. 


January  1,  1918 


P  0  vV  E  R 


13 


With  the  same  size  lugs  but  spaced  much  closer  to- 
gether, thus  getting  less  flow  of  heat  per  lug  but  more 
per  square  inch  of  total  surface  of  the  whole  bottom, 
the  result  was  about  60  lb.  per  sq.ft.  per  hour  for  the 
total  bottom  of  the  cup,  which  is  still  about  31  times 
as  great  as  for  the  cup  without   lugs. 

These  lugs  were  perhaps  too  slender  and  numerous 
for  large  boilers  in  regular  practice,  though  perhaps 
not  so  for  cooking  utensils.  Making  the  lugs  four  times 
as  large  in  cross-section  and  using  less  than  a  third 
as  many,  the  result  was  about  55  lb.,  hence  only  slightly 
less  and  still  about  3]  times  that  for  the  ordinary  sur- 
face. 

These  results,  surprising  as  they  are,  could  no  doubt 
be  still  further  improved  by  further  researches  in  this 
direction.  There  are  other  factors  which  also  increase 
the  heat  flow,  such  as  ending  the  lugs  in  points  or  edges, 
making  them  conical,  etc. ;  moreover,  heat  seems  to  flow 
more  readily  from  copper  to  iron  than  the  reverse 
or  than  from  iron  to  iron,  hence  copper  lugs  on  iron 
vessels  may  give  improved  results;  a  moderate  blast 
against  the  lugs  also  seems  to  have  a  greater  effect  than 
against  a  plane  surface. 

But  even  if  in  boiler  practice  and  for  cooking  utensils, 
hot-water  heaters,  etc.,  the  present  rate  could  be  only 
doubled,  it  would  still  mean  that  the  same  size  of  boiler 
would  generate  steam  twice  as  fast  and  probably  with 
even  a  slight  gain  in  heat  efficiency,  and  for  household 
cooking  utensils  used  with  gas  stoves  it  would  mean 
heating  twice  as  fast  with  half  the  gas.  The  bottom 
of  the  cooking  utensils  can  be  cast  with  the  lugs,  and 
in  steam  boilers  the  lugs  can  be  electrically  welded  to 
the  tubes,  hence  neither  involve  anything  impracticable 
or  costly. 

Nugent  Gravity  Filter  for  Large  Plants 

In  designing  this  oil  filter  accessibility  and  efficiency 
were  the  leading  aims.  Any  part  of  the  filter  may 
be  opened  quickly  for  inspection,  cleaning  or  repairs. 
The  principle  of  operation  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
circular  filter  described  in  the  Mar.  30,  1915,  issue 
of  Power.  The  new  filter,  which  is  square  in  section, 
is  for  large  work,  and  can  be  made  in  capacities  to 
filter  100  gal.  per  hour  up  to  any  size  required. 

Oil  to  be  filtered  enters  through  the  inlet  A,  or  it 
may  be  poured  in  by  hand  by  lifting  the  lid  to  the 
screen  chamber  K.  The  oil  flows  through  the  special 
filtering  material  located  between  two  vertical  screens  R 


in  the  top  chamber  and  down  through  the  pipes  L 
into  the  settling  and  water-separating  chamber.  The 
latter  is  fitted  with  a  steam-heating  coil  G,  which  runs 
around  all  four  sides,  also  with  lids  to  provide  for 
inspection  and  cleaning  while  filtering  is   in  process. 

From  this  chamber  the  water  flows  up  through  a 
baflle  box  0  and  finally  out  through  the  discharge  pipe 
E,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows.  This  pipe  is  fitted  with 
the  observation  fixture  shown  in  either  view.  The  oil 
rises  in  the  settling  chamber  and  overflows  into  the 
pipe  N,  passing  down  to  the  distributing  header  P, 
from  which  it  is  fed  through  .stop-cocks  to  the  filter 
bags.  The  header  has  caps  at  each  end  outside  the 
filter,  their  removal  facilitating  inspection  or  cleaning. 

The  filter  bags  are  oval  in  shape  and  are  hung  side 
by  side  on  racks.  Any  set  may  be  lifted  out  through 
the  front  door  without  disturbing  the  others.  The  bags 
are  made  of  special  filtering  cloth.  They  cannot  touch 
each  other  when  full,  nor  can  the  contents  overflow  into 
the  clean  oil  below,  any  excess  being  discharged  into 
the  outside  troughs.  Incandescent  lamps  placed  at  H 
illuminate  the  bag  chamber. 

The  clean  oil  is  drawn  off  at  B,  dirty  oil  and  water 
at  C  and  the  clean  oil  overflows  at  D.  Outlet  F  drains 
the  settling  chamber  when  repairs  are  necessary.  The 
capacity  of  the  filter  shown  is  500  gal.  per  hour,  but, 
as  previously  stated,  any  size  can  be  furnished  from 
100  gal.  per  hour  up.  William  W.  Nugent  &  Co.,  Chica- 
go, 111.,  are  the  makers. 

Power  Plant  Burns  Locomotive  Cinders 

The  new  power  house  of  the  large  railroad  station 
that  has  just  been  completed  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main, 
Germany,  despite  the  difficulties  due  to  the  scarcity  of 
labor  and  material,  is  the  first  large  railroad  power  sta- 
tion in  the  world  to  be  operated  entirely  on  the  cinders 
taken  from  the  locomotive.  These  cinders,  according  to 
the  Frankfurter  Zeitung,  are  piled  in  heaps  from  which 
an  electric  traveling  crane  runs  directly  to  the  boiler 
room. 

Three  boilers  of  250  sq.m.  (2691  sq.ft.)  heating  sur- 
face are  fired  by  automatic  underfeed  stokers.  Cinders 
alone  or  mixed  with  coal  dust  are  used  with  a  value  of 
about_  13,800  B.t.u.  The  steam  is  used  to  drive  two  tur- 
bines of  2000  hp.  each,  which  generate  current  for  the 
entire  lighting  and  power  equipment  of  the  station.  The 
foundation  for  a  third  turbine  of  the  same  capacity  has 
been  put  in  for  future  expansion. 


KRONT  AND   KND  VIKW  OK  liUAVlTY    FIL,TEK    h'oli   I.AUi'.K    POWKR    PI,.\XTS 


14 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — Elementary 

Single -Coil  Dynamo 


It  is  shoivn  in  this  lesson  how,  when  a  coil  of 
wire  is  revolved  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet, 
it  has  an  alternating  electromotive  force  induced 
in  it  and  hoiv  this  alternating  voltage  may  be 
changed  into  a  direct  potential  in  the  external  cir- 
cuit by  means  of  a  divided  ring. 

THE  windings  on  the  armature  of  a  generator  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  loops  or  coils  grouped  in  vari- 
ous ways,  depending  upon  the  type  of  machine, 
voltage,  etc.  The  simplest  form  would  be  one  loop  ar- 
ranged to  revolve  between  the  north  and  the  south  pole 
of  the  magnet,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  ends  of  the  loop 
connect  to  the  rings  iJ,  and  /?,,  with  brushes  B^  and  B,, 
resting  on  the  latter  to  form  a  rubbing  contact  between 
the  revolving  loop  and  the  stationary  external  circuit  C. 
Considering  the  loop  to  revolve  in  a  clockwise  direction, 
as  indicated  by  the  curved  arrow,  the  side  of  the  loop 
under  the  N  pole  will  be  moving  downward  while  the 
side  under  the  S  pole  will  be  moving  upward.  The  lines 
of  force  are  from  the  N  to  the  S  pole ;  therefore,  by  ap- 
plying the  rule  for  the  direction  of  the  electromotive 
force  generated  in  a  conductor  cutting  lines  of  force, 
it  will  be  found  to  be  as  given  by  the  arrows  on  the 
two  sides  of  the  loop,  which  is  away  from  the  reader 
under  the  N  pole  and  toward  the  reader  under  the  S 
pole.  This  is  just  as  it  should  be,  since  the  lines  of 
force  are  in  the  same  direction  under  each  pole,  but  the 
direction  of  the  conductor  under  one  pole  is  opposite  to 
that  under  the  other. 

Factors  Governing  Valxje  of  the  Voltage 

By  tracing  around  through  the  loop  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  e.m.f.  generated  in  the  side  under  one  pole  is 
added  to  that  under  the  other  pole.  Or,  in  other  words, 
we  have  the  same  condition  as  when  two  voltaic  cells 
are  connected  in  series,  and  if  two  volts  are  generated 
in  one  conductor,  the  two  conductors  in  series  will  gen- 
erate four  volts.  Hence,  it  is  seen  that  one  of  the  fac- 
tors which  govern  the  voltage  of  a  given  generator 
would  be  the  number  of  conductors  connected  in  series. 
For  example,  if  instead  of  only  one  turn  in  the  coil, 
as  in  Fig.  1,  we  have  two  turns  in  series,  as  in  Fig.  2, 
and  if  the  coil  is  revolved  at  the  same  rate  and  the 
magnetic  density  the  same  in  both  cases,  then  each  con- 
ductor under  a  pole  will  have  equal  voltage  generated 
in  it.  Again,  by  tracing  through  the  coil,  it  will  be 
seen  that  four  conductors  are  in  series;  consequently, 
the  voltage  generated  in  the  coil  will  be  four  times 
that  in  one  conductor,  or  in  other  words  the  voltage  in- 
creases as  the  number  of  turns  in  the  coil  is  increased. 

Another  way  to  increase  the  voltage  would  be  to  in- 
crease the  speed  of  the  coil;  that  is,  if  the  number  of 
revolutions  per  minute  made  by  the  coil  was  doubled, 
the  number  of  lines  of  force  cut  by  each  conductor  would 
be  dpubled.  Consequently,  the  voltage  would  be  in- 
creased by  tAt).  A  third  way  that  the  voltage  generated 
in  the  coil  may  be  varied  is  by  changing  the  number 


of  lines  of  force  in  the  magnetic  field.  If  the  speed 
of  the  coil  remains  constant,  but  the  strength  of  the 
magnetic  field  is  doubled,  then  double  the  number  of 
lines  of  force  will  be  cut  in  a  given  time.  The  latter 
is  the  one  way  usually  employed  for  varying  the  voltage 
of  all  modern  generators  and  will  be  treated  in  a  future 
lesson. 

Current  Reverses  in  External  Circuit 

In  Fig.  1  the  flow  of  the  current  is  from  conductor  a 
to  ring  R.  and  brush  S,  through  the  external  circuit  C 
and  back  to  brush  5,  and  ring  R^  and  back  into  conduc- 
tor b,  thus  completing  the  circuit.  When  the  coil  has 
made  one-half  revolution,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  conductor 
a  will  be  under  the  N  pole  and  conductor  b  under  the  S 
pole,  as  shown,  with  the  result  that  the  direction  of  the 
voltage  generated  in  the  two  conductors  is  reversed. 
The  direction  of  the  e.m.f.  in  conductor  a,  Fig.  1,  is 
toward  the  reader,  but  in  Fig.  3  it  is  away;  in  b,  Fig. 
1,  the  direction  is  away  from,  while  in  Fig.  3  it  is 
toward  the  reader.  The  result  of  this  change  in  direc- 
tion of  the  voltage  in  the  coil  is  a  change  in  direction 
of  the  current  in  the  external  circuit,  as  indicated  by 
the  arrowheads.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  on  one- 
half  of  the  revolution  the  current  is  flowing  through  the 
circuit  in  an  opposite  direction  to  that  on  the  other 
half  of  the  revolution ;  that  is,  the  current  is  caused  to 
flow  back  and  forced  through  the  circuit.  If  the  voltage 
in  the  armature  conductors  change  in  direction  as  they 
pass  alternate  north  and  south  poles  there  must  be  some 
position  where  the  voltage  is  zero;  this  is  indicated  in 
Fig.  4.  - 

When  the  coil  is  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  4,  it 
is  moving  parallel  with  the  lines  of  force  and  is  there- 
fore not  cutting  them,  and  consequently  not  producing 
any  voltage.  From  this  point  the  voltage  increases 
until  the  conductors  are  at  the  center  of  the  polepieces, 
where  they  are  moving  at  right  angles  to  the  lines  of 
force  and  are  therefore  cutting  the  flux  at  a  maximum 
rate,  consequently  producing  a  maximum  pressure.  For 
the  next  quarter  of  a  revolution  the  voltage  decreases 
to  zero. 

Electromotive  Force  or  CtFRRENT  Curve 

The  series  of  values  that  the  voltage  or  current 
passes  through  in  the  coil  during  one  revolution  may  be 
expressed  in  the  form  of  a  curve,  Fig.  7.  The  distance 
along  the  straight  line  between  the  two  zero  points  of 
one  curve  represents  the  time  required  by  the  coil  to 
pass  the  pole  faces,  or  in  Figs.  1  to  4,  to  make  one- 
half  revolution.  The  vertical  distance  between  the 
line  and  the  curve  at  any  point  represents  the  value  of 
the  voltage  or  current  in  the  coil  at  that  instance.  The 
curve  above  the  line  represents  current  or  voltage  in 
one  direction,  while  the  curve  below  the  line  represents 
current  or  voltage  in  the  opposite  direction.  A  current 
or  electromotive  force  that  changes  in  direction  in  the 
circuit  as  shown  in  the  foregoing  is  called  an  alternat- 
ing current  or  electromotive  force. 

The  voltage  generated  in  the  armature  of  all  commer- 


January  1,  1918 


POWER 


15 


cial  types  of  generators  is  alternating,  no  matter 
whether  the  current  in  the  external  circuit  flows  in  one 
direction  or  is  alternating  back  and  forth.  If  we  want 
the  current  to  flow  in  one  direction  in  the  external  cir- 
cuit, or,  as  it  is  usually  called,  a  direct  current  or 
continuous  current,  some  means  must  be  provided  to 
change  the  alternating  voltage  generated  in  the  arma- 


revolution  as  in  Fig.  6,  brush  B,  is  resting  on  segment 
S,,  and  although  the  current  has  reversed  in  the  coil 
from  that  in  Fig.  5,  it  is  maintained  in  the  same  direc- 
tion in  the  external  circuit,  as  indicated  by  the  arrow- 
heads. 

Although  the  voltage  is  applied  in  one  direction  to 
the  external  circuit,  the  current  will  not  be  of  a  constant 


FIG.  5  -X..^  FIG.  6 

FIGS.    1    TO   B,      ELEMENTARY   ELECTRIC  GENERATOR.   CONSISTING    OF    ONE    COIL    AND    HORSESHOE    MAGNET 


ture  coil  to  one  that  is  always  in  the  same  direction 
in  the  external  circuit. 

In  Fig.  5  is  shown  a  scheme  that  will  maintain  the 
voltage  in  one  direction  in  the  external  circuit.  Instead 
of  the  ends  of  the  coils  connecting  to  two  rings,  as  in 
Figs.  1  to  4,  they  connect  to  the  two  halves  of  a  divided 
ring.  In  the  coil  position  shown,  brush  B,  rest  on  seg- 
ment S,  and  the  current  in  the  external  circuit  is  in  the 
direction  indicated.    When  the  coil  has  revolved  a  half- 


value  on  account  of  the  varying  value  of  the  voltage. 
What  will  be  obtained  is  a  current  that  flows  in  waves, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  8  and  is  knovra  as  a  pulsating  current. 
To  obtain  a  constant  current  for  a  given  value  of  re- 
sistance in  the  external  circuit,  or,  as  it  is  usually  called, 
a  direct  current,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  number  of  coils 
on  the  armature  and  the  ring  divided  into  as  many  sec- 
tions as  there  are  coils.  This  will  form  the  subject  of 
a  future  lesson. 


16 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


Fig.  9  shows  the  layout  of  the  study  problem  given 
in  the  last  lesson.  The  conductors  from  the  source  of 
power  will  have  to  be  large  enough  to  transmit  a  current 
/  =  /,  -f  /^  =  150  +  125  =:  275  amperes.  Referring 
to  the  wire  table,  it  will  be  found  that  a  300,000-cir.mil, 
rubber-covered  conductor  is  required  for  275-amp. 
load.  Between  the  first  and  second  load,  the  conductors 
need  only  be  large  enough  to  take  care  of  125  amperes 


Max/mum  lvalue 


FIG.  7 

Maximum  Va/ue 


Maximum  Vaii/e 


Maximum  Vaiue 


FIGS.    7   AND    8.      VOLTAOE   OR   CURRENT   CURVES 

and  according  to  the  wire  cable,  a  No.  0  wire  may  be 
used.  The  resistance  of  the  circuit  from  the  source  of 
power  to  the  first  load  is  that  of  700  ft.  of  300,000- 
cir.mil  conductor,  which  is  /?  =  4^:1^  =  10-7  >  700 

cvr.mils         300,000 
=  0.025  ohm.    Volts  drop  in  this  part  of  the  circuit  is 
Ed  =RI  =  0.025  X  275  =  6.875  volts,  and  the  voltage 
available  at  this  load  is  £•„  ^  E  —  E,i  =  240  —  6.875 


FIG.IO 
PIGS.    9   AND    10.      COMPLEX    CIRCUITS 

=  233.125.    The  resistance  R,  of  the  circuit  between  the 
two  loads  is  that  of  550  ft.  of  No.  0  conductor,  or  R,  ^ 
_10.7L    _  10.7  X  550        „  „        , 
cir.mils  ~     105  500~  "^  0-056  ohm.    Volts  drop  in  this 

part  of  the  circuit  is  E'd  =  R,L_  =  0.056  X  125  =  7  volts, 
and  the  available  voltage  at  the  load  is  £"„  =  £■„  — 
E:i  =  233.125  —  7  =  226.125.  The  watts  loss  in  the 
first  section  of  the  circuit  is  W'l   =   Edl   =  6.875  X 


275  =  1890.625.  In  the  second  section  the  watts  loss 
in  the  line  is  W"i=  E'dh  =  7  X  125  =  875,  and  the  total 
watts  loss  W,  =  W'l  +  W",  =  1890.625  +  875  =  2765.625. 
The  watts  supplied  to  the  first  load  is  W'a  =  E  I  = 
233.125  X  150  =  34,968.750,  watts  supplied  to  the  sec- 
ond load  is  W"„  =  E'„L_  =  226.125  X  125  =  28,265.625, 
and  the  total  watts  supplied  to  the  two  loads  is  W„  ~ 
W'a  +  W"a  =  34,968.750  -f  28,265.625  =  63,234.375. 
The  total  watts  supplied  to  the  system  is  W  =  Wi  4- 
Wa  =  2765.625  +  63,234.375  =  66,000.  The  total 
watts  IS  also  W'  =  £•/  =  240  X  275  =  66,000,  which 
checks  up  with  the  foregoing  value. 

In  Fig.  10,  r.  and  r,  refer  to  the  resistance  of  the  two 
line  wires  the  arrows  point  to.  In  addition  to  finding 
the  values  indicated  by  the  interrogation  marks,  find 
the  total  watts,  kilowatts  and  electrical  horsepower  sup- 
plied to  the  system. 


Taylor  Condensation  Meter 

The  desirable  feature  of  a  meter  is  accuracy  and  de- 
pendability for  long  periods  of  service.  A  meter  that 
seems  to  possess  these  with  other  desirable  characteris- 
tics has  been  designed  by  the  Taylor  Underground 
Heating  System,  Pittsburgh,  Penn. 

This  meter  (Fig.  3)  contains,  within  a  metal  case 
four  copper  and  brass  buckets  (Fig.  1)  attached  to  an 
anti-rust  shaft  which  revolves  in  an  anti-friction  self- 
lubricating  bearing.  The  turning  movement  of  the 
buckets  and  the  shaft  is  so  sensitive  that  the  addition 
of  one-quarter  ounce  of  water  will  move  the  full  bucket 
when  it  is  ready  to  dump.  The  buckets  are  held  in  the 
filling  position  by  a  locking  device  in  the  dial  box  of 
the  meter  until  the  proper  amount  of  water  has  been 
delivered  to  the  bucket  being  filled.  Then  the  full 
bucket  moves  to  the  dumping  position ;  the  next  bucket 
cuts  in  when  the  full  bucket  moves  Jg  inch. 

The  locking  device  is  shovra  in  Fig.  2.  Each  bucket 
is  provided  with  a  cam,  the  surface  of  which  gradually 
increases  in  radius  in  the  direction  of  the  rotation  of 
the  buckets  and  terminates  at  its  highest  end  in  a  stop 
projection  A,  the  outer  edge  of  which  projects  beyond 
the  peripheral  surface  of  the  cam  portion.  A  camwheel 
B  revolves  on  a  pin  in  the  arm  C  and  runs  on  the 
surface  of  the  camwheel.  This  arm  is  fulcrumed  at  D, 
and  the  other  end  of  the  arm  engages,  by  means  of  a 
slot,  with  the  pin  E,  which  is  carried  by  the  cylinder  F, 
which  telescopes  over  a  plunger  G  pivoted  to  the  metal 
case. 

The  dashpot  plunger  is  made  with  an  air-inlet  port  /, 
which  is  controlled  by  a  check  valve  J.  An  escapement 
port  K  is  provided,  the  lower  portion  of  which  is  de- 
signed to  be  moved  into  and  out  of  register  with  the 
opening  L. 

The  operation  is  as  follows:  Water  of  condensation 
enters  the  meter  at  one  end  of  the  storage  chamber, 
where  it  .strikes  a  baffle  plate.  From  the  storage  cham- 
ber the  liquid  flows  through  an  opening  (Fig.  1)  and  is 
deflected  by  the  curved  bottom  of  the  vertical  bucket 
into  the  bucket  to  be  filled,  which  is  held  in  its  filling 
position  by  the  engagement  of  the  roller  B  (Fig.  2)  with 
the  stop  A.  When  the  bucket  becomes  filled  with  a  pre- 
determined weight  of  liquid,  which  is  regulated  by  the 


January  1,  1918 


P  O  W  K  R 


17 


adjustment  of  the  weight  0,  the  resistance  of  the  roller 
against  the  stop  is  overcome  and  the  shaft  and  the 
bucket  will  revolve  one-(|uarter  turn,  until  the  next 
bucket  is  in  the  filling  position  and  the  full  bucket  is 
discharging.  It  is  evident  that  as  soon  as  the  full 
bucket  begins  to  rotate,  the  following  one  ceases  to 
divert  the  liquid  into  it,  and  the  empty  bucket  will  be 


the  slot  in  the  end  engages  the  pin  E,  when  the  cylinder 
F  is  forced  dowr  a  short  distance,  quickly  compressing 
the  air  until  the  roller  is  brought  to  a  rest  by  engaging 
one  of  the  stops. 

The  purpose  of  the  dashpot  is  to  act  as  a  controlling 
device  so  that  the  meter  will  not  trip  until  the  prede- 
termined weight  of  liquid  has  been  collected  in  each 


FIGS.    1    TO    4.       DETAIIjS    OF   THK    TAYLOR    CONDKNSATIOX    MKTER 

Fig.  Imposition  of  buclsets  wlien  filling       l''ig.  2 — Details  of   lociiing  device.    Fig.  3 — Meter  box  and  connections.    Fig.  4 — Meter 

counting  mechanism 


brought  into  position  to  receive  the  discharge  from  the 
receiving  chamber. 

After  the  roller  passes  over  this  stop  to  the  position 
shown  at  the  right  of  Fig.  2,  the  shaft  revolves  through 
90  deg.  to  bring  the  next  bucket  into  the  filling  position. 
In  this  position  the  dashpot  cylinder  has  been  pulled 
upward  so  that  the  ports  K  and  L  are  out  of  register. 
During  the  next  90-deg.  movement  of  the  shaft  the  cyl- 
inder will  be  moved  downward  as  the  roller  rides  up  on 
the  cam.  When  the  roller  reaches  the  position  shown  at 
the  left  of  Fig.  2,  the  arm  has  moved  downward  until 


bucket.  It  also  guards  against  possible  spinning  of 
the  bucket  shaft  after  it  has  been  released  and  insures 
the  stopping  of  the  next  bucket  at  the  correct  filling 
position.  The  air  that  is  trapped  in  the  dashpot  cylinder 
acts  as  a  brake  upon  the  camwheel  until  such  time  as 
the  cylinder  moves  to  a  position  to  bring  the  ports  K 
and  L  into  register. 

As  the  buckets  and  shaft  make  a  complete  revolution, 
there  is  no  possibility  of  the  shaft  wearing  flat,  and 
the  turning  movement  also  eliminates  the  deposits  of 
sediment  in  the  bucket. 


18 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


All  outlets  are  in  the  base  of  the  meter,  and  therefore 
water  will  not  remain  in  the  bottom  when  the  meter  is 
not  in  operation.  The  count  mechanism.  Fig.  4,  is  in- 
closed in  a  damp-  and  dust-proof  dial  box  to  prevent 
corrosion.  The  meter  reads  direct;  that  is,  if  the  dial 
shows  5000  it  means  that  5000  lb.  of  water  has  passed 
through  the  meter. 

The  meter  is  made  in  capacities  from  400  lb.  of 
liquid  per  hour  to  200,000  lb.  and  is  guaranteed  to 
measure  accurately  to  within  one-half  of  one  per  cent. 


Wight  Electrical  Boiler-Level  Recorder 

It  is  common  to  hear  either  the  high-  or  the  low- 
water  alarm  sounding  in  boiler  plants.  Water  should 
not  bo  allowed  to  drop  too  low  because  of  the  danger 
of  burning  the  boiler,  and  when  the  water  is  carried 
too  high  there  is  the  danger  of  priming  and  of  slugs 


The  operation  of  the  recorder  is  about  as  follows: 
Assume  that  the  water  level  is  at  the  middle  gage  of 
the  water  column,  the  float  contact  will  make  con 
nection  with  the  contact  .4,  which  is  connected  to  a 
corresponding  pen  arm  of  the  recorder.  At  extreme 
high-water  contact  is  made  with  the  connection  B 
and  with  connection  C  at  the  low-water  level;  likewise 
with  the  remaining  connections  as  the  water  may  vary 
up  or  down.  By  this  instrument  a  record  of  the  water 
level  carried  during  the  24-hour  period  covered  by  each 
chart  is  shown  and  at  what  time  it  was  at  any  particu- 
lar level. 

The  recording  dial  can  be  placed  at  any  convenient 
point  about  the  establishment,  and  the  instrument  can 
be  used  for  a  number  of  purposes,  such  as  recording 
the  trips  of  an  elevator,  skip  hoist,  mine  skip  or  any 
other  machine  where  a  record  of  what  it  is  doing  is 
required. 


ELECTRIC  WATER-LEVEL  RECORDER 

of  water  going  over  into  the  engine  cylinder.  Then 
there  is  the  economic  advantage  in  keeping  the  water 
level  constant  in  that  the  feed  water  is  put  into  the 
boiler  only  as  fast  as  it  is  evaporated.  Such  regularity 
in  pumping  feed  water  also  allows  the  maximum  amount 
of  ■heat  transfer  from  the  exhaust  steam  to  the  feed 
water  in  passing  through  the  heater. 

An  instrument  that  has  been  designed  to  record  the 
water  level  in  a  boiler,  making  a  continuous  record  of 
extreme  low,  high  and  all  intermediate  levels,  is  manu- 
factured by  the  Wight  Electric  Recorder  Co.,  Cleveland, 
Ohio.  This  instrument  consists  of  multi-recording  pen 
arms  and  is  equipped  with  both  high-  and  low-level 
alarms.  On  the  top  of  the  water  column  is  a  contact 
chamber  in  which  contact  is  made  at  the  various 
terminals  as  the  water  level  in  the  boiler  changes.  The 
contact  mechanism  is  actuated  by  a  noncollapsible  float 
which  is  filled  with  gas,  at  approximately  boiler  pres- 
sure, which  increases  and  decreases  as  the  pressure 
on  the  outside  of  the  float  fluctuates. 


Motor  Sparked  When  Starting 

By  E.  C.  Pakham 

An  armature  coil  that  is  short-circuited,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, by  two  of  the  commutator  bars  being  metallic- 
ally bridged,  will  soon  be  burned  out,  because  the  volt- 
age of  the  coil  when  in  an  active  part  of  the  field  is  con- 
siderable, while  the  resistance  of  the  short-circuit  is 
almost  negligible.  An  armature  coil  that  is  open-cir- 
cuited as,  for  example,  by  a  broken  or  burned-off  lead, 
will  cause  a  spark  to  travel  around  with  the  commutator, 
the  spark  being  maintained  across  the  bars  that  include 
"the  open-circuit.  Short-circuited  coils  are  of  compara- 
tively frequent  occurrence  and  so  are  open-circuited 
coils,  but  probably  it  is  rarely  that  both  conditions 
occur  in  the  same  coil,  as  they  did  in  the  following 
instance : 

In  regard  to  a  15-hp.  500-volt  direct-current  motor 
which  was  sparking,  an  inspector  was  informed  that  for 
more  than  a  year  the  motor  had  been  acting-  just  as  it 
was  then.  The  commutator  would  show  a  traveling 
spark  when  the  motor  was  being  started,  but  as  soon 
as  the  armature  reached  about  half-speed,  the  spark- 
ing would  cease.  Inspection  disclosed  that  one  coil  of 
the  armature  was  entirely  burned  out  as  far  as  the 
course  of  the  coil  could  be  followed.  Since  the  machine 
was  taking  only  about  one-third  full-load  current,  and 
it  was  apparent  that  the  motor  would  continue  to  run 
for  some  time  as  it  had  been  running,  and  as  it  was 
essential  that  the  machine  be  kept  in  operation,  a  new 
armature  was  ordered  and  the  old  one  kept  in  service 
in  the  meantime. 

When  the  new  armature  was  installed,  it  was  found 
that  in  the  old  one  the  ends  of  the  affected  coil  were 
connected  to  adjacent  commutator  bars,  the  leads  of 
which  in  some  waj'  became  crossed,  first  short-circuit- 
ing the  coil,  then  open-circuiting  it.  The  open-circuit 
occurred  in  such  a  way  that  the  two  stubs  that  led  to 
the  commutator  were  apart  as  long  as  the  armature  re- 
mained at  rest  or  did  not  exceed  a  certain  speed.  Above 
this  speed,  however,  the  stubs  were  forced  against  each 
other  by  centrifugal  force,  thereby  bridging  the  bars 
that  included  the  break  and  thus  eliminating  the  travel- 
ing spark.  A  loose  connection  in  the  commutator  fre- 
quently produces  the  foregoing  eff'ect. 


January  1.  1918  POWER  19 

'^IIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIMI^  I llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllimilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMiiiiiiiiiiiu 


Editorials 


^iiiiiiiiiJiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiii iiiiir iiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


A  National  Engineers'  License  Law 

A  FEDERAL  law  providing  for  the  examination  and 
licensing  of  power-plant  engineers  in  the  same  way 
that  marine  engineers  are  examined  and  licensed  by 
the  United  States  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors  of 
Steam  Vessels  has  been  regarded  as  an  impossibility 
under  our  Constitution  upon  the  ground  that  it  would 
be  an  unwarranted  interference  by  the  central  Govern- 
ment with  the  internal  affairs  of  the  forty-odd  sovereign- 
ties of  which  the  Union  is  composed.  So  long  as  the 
preservation  of  the  public  safety  was  the  only  ground 
for  such  legislation,  this  contention  was  unanswerable, 
and  it  has  been  generally  conceded  that,  in  spite  of  the 
desirability  of  nation-wide  and  uniform  requirements 
and  practice,  any  regulation  of  this  kind  must  be  under- 
taken by  the  individual  states. 

But  in  these  days  when  a  common  danger  has  em- 
phasized the  significance  of  common  interests  and  the 
importance  of  general,  over-all,  inclusive  efficiency,  it 
is  becoming  apparent  that  there  is  a  broader  ground  for 
inquiring  into  the  operation  of  power  plants  in  the  com- 
munal interest.  The  immediately  apparent  motive  for 
legislation  against  the  use  of  unsafe  boilers  or  the  un- 
safe use  of  any  boiler  is  the  avoidance  of  killing  and 
maiming  people  and  destroying  property  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood.  But  the  effect  of  a  boiler  explo- 
sion reaches  much  farther  than  this.  In  its  reduction 
of  man  power,  its  interruption  of  production,  its  destruc- 
tion of  the  fruits  of  labor,  its  addition  to  the  burden 
of  the  community  in  caring  for  the  injured  and  their 
dependents,  it  adds  indirectly  and  in  devious  ways  to 
the  common  cost  of  living.  It  is  a  defeat,  a  setback 
in  the  eternal  conflict  of  man  against  the  forces  of  na- 
ture; an  impairment  of  his  fighting  force,  a  disaster 
with  much  more  than  a  local  significance. 

The  loss  to  the  community,  to  the  nation,  from  an 
occasional  boiler  explosion,  considerable  and  desirable 
of  prevention  as  it  is,  is  insignificant  as  compared  with 
the  avoidable  waste  that  is  continually  going  on.  Every 
ton  of  coal  wastefully  burned  is  an  unnecessary  impair- 
ment of  the  national  resources  and  makes  every  other 
ton  of  coal  and  every  unit  of  the  product  which  it  is 
burned  to  manufacture  cost  more. 

The  coal  burned  in  the  power  plant  of  a  shoe  factory 
is  an  item  in  the  cost  of  the  product.  If  the  product 
is  sold  at  cost  plus  a  fair  profit,  every  purchaser  of 
shoes  has  a  monetary  interest  in  the  efficiency  of  the 
shoe  manufacturer's  power  plant.  In  a  time  like  this, 
when  a  shortage  in  the  national  coal  bin  is  of  such  far- 
reaching,  obvious  and  vital  importance,  the  right  of 
the  nation  to  insist  upon  the  economical  use  of  fuel  is 
practically  unquestioned.  Sixty-seven  per  cent,  of  the 
coal  mined  in  this  country  is  shoveled  under  boilers  by 
about  a  quarter  of  a  million  firemen.  It  is  claimed  by 
those  who  have  made  a  specialty  of  the  subject  that 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  this  could  be  saved  by  the  exer- 


cise of  a  reasonable  amount  of  care  and  an  easily  at- 
tainable amount  of  skill  on  the  part  of  this  quarter  of  a 
million  men.  Is  it  not  conceivable  that  the  people  of 
the  country  in  their  collective  capacity — that  is,  through 
the  Federal  Government — may  insist  that  the  steam 
plants  of  the  country  be  operated  efficiently  as  well  as 
safely;  and  inasmuch  as  the  effects  involved  are  not 
confined  by  political  boundaries  but  are  nation-wide, 
that  the  supervision  necessary  to  bring  this  about  is  a 
legitimate  function  of  the  Federal  Government? 

Save  Coal  in  the  Home 

OF  THE  six  hundred  million  tons  of  coal  produced 
last  year  in  this  country,  twenty  per  cent,  was  used 
for  domestic  purposes,  and  about  fifteen  million  people 
shoveled  this  coal  into  their  respective  furnaces  or 
stoves.  The  ordinary  scoop  shovel  will  hold  about  ten 
pounds  of  coal.  At  the  prevailing  market  prices  the 
small  consumer  had  to  pay  five  cents  per  shovelful  for 
anthracite  and  for  the  same  sum  obtained  double  this 
amount  of  bituminous  coal. 

Such  a  small  saving  as  one  shovelful  per  day  by  each 
user  would  amount  to  seventy-five  thousand  tons,  which 
for  six  months  of  the  heating  season,  one  hundred 
eighty  days,  increases  to  thirteen  and  one-half  million 
tons. 

The  saving  by  each  consumer  is  infinitesimal  when 
compared  to  the  total  coal  mined,  but  the  aggregate 
saving  is  large.  It  is  entirely  possible  to  effect.  More 
careful  firing  methods  and  overhauling  of  the  furnaces 
to  put  them  in  first-class  condition  would  do  it.  This 
particular  case  is  only  one  of  the  many  illustrations  of 
what  may  be  done  when  efficiency  is  the  keynote  and 
waste  a  crime.  Under  the  circumstances  it  is  the  duty 
of  every  householder  to  reduce  his  coal  requirements. 
One  shovelful  per  day  will  work  no  hardship.  It  is  a 
service   that   Uncle   Sam   will   appreciate. 

A  New  Principle  in  the  Flow  of  Heat 

IN  AN  article  entitled  "A  New  Method  of  Increasing 
the  Evaporation  in  Boilers,"  on  page  10,  Dr.  Carl 
Hering  describes  what  might  really  be  called  a  new 
principle  in  the  flow  of  heat.  The  value  of  the  legs  of 
a  pot  as  heating  surface  is  one  of  the  perennial  subjects 
of  discussion,  and  the  use  of  knobs,  projections  and  fins 
for  increasing  the  absorption  and  radiation  of  heat  is 
common,  but  Dr.  Hering  shows  for  the  first  time,  to  our 
knowledge,  the  imderlying  principle  upon  which  such 
extensions  should  apparently  be  based,  and  by  which 
their  effectiveness  may  be  greatly  increased.  When 
a  flame  plays  against  a  relatively  much  cooler  body, 
as  that  of  an  alcohol  lamp  against  a  beaker  of  water, 
there  is  formed  a  film  of  extinguished  gas  between  the 
flame  and  the  beaker,  which  cannot  get  away  before  it 
gets  so  cool  that  it  will  not  char  paper.     The  common 


20 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


experiment  of  sticking  a  postage  stamp  to  the  bottom 
of  a  tin  dipper  and  boiling  water  in  it  without  charring 
the  stamp  is  a  demonstration  of  this  fact. 

The  author  of  the  article  in  question  found  that  the 
resistance  of  this  film  to  the  passage  of  heat  diminishes 
rapidly  with  the  difference  in  temperature  between  its 
confining  surfaces;  that  is,  between  the  hot  surface  of 
the  beaker  on  one  side  of  this  film  and  the  flame  on 
the  other  side  of  it.  The  temperature  of  the  flame  is 
fixed,  but  that  of  the  receiving  surface  can  be  increased 
by  inteiTJOsing  a  certain  amount  of  thermal  resistance 
between  it  and  the  relatively  cool  fluid.  This,  in  effect, 
is  what  he  says  the  "pot  legs"  should  be  made  to  do, 
and  when  they  are  proportioned  in  accordance  with  the 
principle  described  and  the  values  obtained  by  Dr.  Her- 
ing,  they  seem  to  add  in  a  remarkable  degree  to  the 
activity  of  the  heat  transfer.  He  maintains  that  his  re- 
searches also  show  the  older  idea  of  increased  surface  to 
be  false  and  misleading,  which,  if  true,  would  show  why 
others  had  been  groping  in  the  dark  with  but  small  gains. 
• 

Lightless  Nights  and  Nonessentials 

THE  original  Fuel  Administration  order  on  the  dim- 
ming of  electric  signs,  which  was  intended  to  re- 
strict the  use  of  fuel-consuming  signs  to  the  period 
between  7:45  a.m.  and  11  p.m.,  has  failed  in  producing 
the  coal-saving  results  that  were  expected.  There  may 
be  two  reasons  for  this — that  the  users  of  the  electric 
signs  deliberately  ignored  the  order  regarding  their 
use  or  that  they  continued  to  use  them  with  the  belief 
that  no  one  else  would  obey  the  order  and  that  the  coal 
situation  was  not  so  serious  as  has  been  claimed. 

It  would  seem  that  anyone  at  all  interested  in  the 
fuel  question  would  have  come  to  the  conclusion  long 
before  this  that  there  is  a  fuel  shortage,  regardless  of 
whether  it  is  the  fault  of  the  mine  producers  or  that  of 
transportation.  With  factories  shutting  down  in  Pitts- 
burgh, Cleveland  and  other  cities  because  of  a  lack  of 
coal  sufficient  to  generate  steam  for  power  purposes,  the 
fact  of  a  coal  shortage  is  being  brought  home  in  a 
manner  that  cannot  be  gainsaid,  and  coal  users  are  "be- 
ginning to  realize  that  the  coal  question  is  a  serious  one 
throughout  the  country. 

As  a  result  of  the  noncompliance  with  the  original 
order  of  the  Fuel  Administration,  a  new  order  has  been 
issued  and  was  put  into  effect  on  Sunday  night,  Decem- 
ber sixteenth,  when  Broadway  and  other  "white  ways" 
throughout  the  country  were  made  lightless.  Under 
the  new  order  two  nights  each  week  will  be  lightless 
nights,  and  these  are  designated  as  Sunday  and  Thurs- 
day. Under  the  new  order  the  "white  ways"  of  our 
cities  are  to  disappear  absolutely  on  the  nights  desig- 
nated. The  burning  of  lights  contrary  to  the  wording 
and  spirit  of  the  order  will  constitute  a  violation  of 
the  law,  and  steps  will  be  taken  by  the  Fuel  Administra- 
tion to  mete  out  punishment  to  offenders. 

The  coal  shortage  has  caused  considerable  unrest 
among  the  manufacturers  of  nonessentials,  and  perhaps 
the  first  city  to  bear  the  burden  of  the  power  shortage 
is  Pittsburgh,  under  an  order  issued  by  Robert  J.  Bulk- 
ley  on  the  authority  of  the  Priorities  Board. 

Mr.  Bulkley  investigated  the  industries  of  Pittsburgh 
using  eloctric  power,  and  the  new  order  as  arranged 


will  go  into  effect  as  soon  as  it  is  possible  to  get  instruc- 
tions from  Washington  designating  the  concerns  that 
are  making  nonessentials,  a  list  of  which  has  already 
been  compiled.  The  procedure,  it  is  understood,  will  be 
merely  to  forward  this  list  to  the  power  companies  and 
depend  upon  them  to  cut  out  electricity  from  these  con- 
cerns, but  the  list  may  be  revised  from  time  to  time. 
Munition  plants  will  be  given  every  privilege,  and  no 
further  curtailment  of  their  operation  will  be  permitted. 
To  just  what  extent  this  measure  of  conserving  coal 
for  the  necessary  industries  engaged  in  munition  work 
will  operate,  cannot  be  foretold,  and  it  is  doubtful  if 
the  Government  will  favor  arbitrary  limitation  of  any 
industries  except  as  a  last  resort,  in  the  event  of  an 
acute  shortage  of  coal.  It  stands  to  reason  that  when 
for  any  reason  the  coal  situation  in  the  country  gets  to 
a  point  where  war  interests  are  threatened  with  closing 
down,  the  nonessential  producer  will  be  obliged  to  sus- 
pend operations. 

Business  Editors  at  Washington 

THE  business  press  of  the  country  talks  to  a  large 
constituency  in  the  language  that  its  readers  best 
understand  and  from  the  vantage  point  of  an  exponent 
of  their  interests.  The  esteem  in  which  it  is  held  by 
those  in  authority  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  such 
people  as  F.  W.  Taussig,  Chairman  U.  S.  Tariff  Board ; 
Eliot  Wadsworth,  Vice  Chairman  American  Red  Cross ; 
J.  D.  A.  Morrow,  Secretary  National  Coal  Association; 
Harry  A.  Garfield,  Fuel  Administrator;  Food  Adminis- 
trator M.  L.  Requa;  Frederic  A.  Delano,  Member  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Board;  Senator  Francis  G.  Newlands, 
Chairman  Joint  Congressional  Committee  on  Interstate 
Commerce;  E.  N.  Hurley,  Chairman  of  Shipping  Board; 
Senator  Atlee  Pomerene,  Member  of  Committees  on 
Banking  and  Currency,  Foreign  Relations,  and  Manu- 
factures; Dan  C.  Roper,  Commissioner  in  Charge  of 
Collection  of  Excess  Profits;  A.  W.  Shaw,  Chairman 
Commercial  Economy  Committee,  Council  of  Na- 
tional Defense;  Dr.  Anna  Howard  Shaw,  Chairman 
Woman's  Committee,  Council  of  National  Defense;  and 
C.  A.  Richards,  Chief  Bureau  of  Exports,  agreed  to  meet 
a  delegation  of  some  seventy-five  editors  of  American 
business  papers  and  give  them  in  short  addresses  the 
high  points  in  the  work  which  they  are  doing.  J.  D.  A. 
Morrow,  Secretary  of  the  National  Coal  Association, 
appeared  in  the  place  left  vacant  upon  the  program  by 
the  failure  of  Secretary  Lane  to  appear,  and  M.  L.  Requa 
represented  Mr.  Hoover,  who  was  unable  to  be  present. 
Dr.  Garfield's  remarks  on  the  coal  situation  will  be  found 
in  another  column. 


President  Wilson's  taking  over  of  the  railroads  will 
be  generally  approved.  The  transportation  system  of 
the  country  should  be  an  entity  operated  at  maximum 
eflSciency,  not  as  measured  by  the  ratio  of  dividends  to 
investment  but  by  the  ratio  of  service  to  cost.  It  may 
be  that  somebody's  remark  about  unscrambling  eggs 
may  come  home  to  roost. 


The  index  to  Volume  46  (the  last  six  months  of  1917) 
will  be  ready  shortly  and  will  be  sent  to  all  whose  names 
are  on  the  index  mailing  list.  Any  others  who  wish  will 
be  put  on  the  list.    A  post-card  request  is  sufficient. 


January  1.  1918                                                            POWER  21 

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Correspondence 


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High  Speed  of  Steam  Turbines 

In  connection  with  the  question  of  steam-turbine  fail- 
ures, which  is  discussed  in  recent  issues  of  Poiver,  a 
statement  of  our  practice  and  experience  might  be  of 
interest  to  your  readers. 

The  safe  speed  for  our  standard  noncondensing  wheel 
is  so  far  in  excess  of  the  usual  operating  speed  that  we 
do  not  as  a  regular  practice  find  it  necessary  to  run  any 
special  overspeed  test  unless  the  turbine  is  to  operate 
regularly  at  an  unusually  high  velocity.  The  regular 
overspeed  run  which  we  make  for  the  Government  is 
25  per  cent,  over  the  normal  rating.  The  maximum 
test  speed  at  which  we  can  operate  our  different  rotors 
is  so  far  above  this  value,  however,  that  we  seldom  ap- 
proach it.  These  maximum  test  speeds  vary  from  4000 
to  7000  r.p.m.,  depending  on  the  diameter  of  the  wheel. 

When  it  is  considered  that  for  condenser-auxiliary 
drive,  boiler-feed  or  boiler-draft  service  operating 
speeds  for  direct-connected  units  seldom  exceed  2500 
r.p.m.  and  for  60-cycle  alternator  speeds,  3600  r.p.m., 
such  high-test  speeds  allow  a  wide  margin  of  safety.  * 

It  is  possible  to  injure  any  wheel  by  sufficiently  over- 
speeding  it,  and  it  is  highly  important  that  the  design 
of  a  wheel  be  such  that  if  it  is  accidentally  run  to  this 
speed  as  little  damage  as  possible  will  result.  To  insure 
maximum  strength,  the  Terry  rotor  is  cut  from  solid 
steel,  even  the  buckets  being  milled  from  the  solid  steel. 
The  semicircular  notch  in  the  center  of  the  bucket  inci- 
dental to  manufacturing  proves  a  further  source  of 
strength  and  safety,  due  to  a  reduction  in  blade  weight 
and  stresses.  When  the  speed  is  approaching  the  danger 
point,  the  corners  of  the  bucket  next  to  the  semicircular 
slot  begin  to  bend  upward.  These  will  strike  on  the 
edges  of  the  reversing  chambers  and  will  usually  give 
warning  before  anything  very  serious  occurs.  The  web 
is  made  much  stronger  than  the  blades,  so  that  should 
the  turbine  overspeed  for  any  reason  whatsoever,  the 
individual  blades  would  shear  out,  resulting  in  decreased 
speed  before  reaching  the  danger  point  for  the  web. 
The  blades  are  very  light,  therefore  the  worst  they  can 
do  is  to  injure  the  nozzles  and  reversing  chambers.  We 
have  actually  run  machines  to  destruction  for  experi- 
mental purposes,  and  found  that  when  this  occurs  no 
part  of  the  turbine  rotor  will  come  through  the  casing. 
Although  we  have  more  than  4000  turbines  running,  we 
know  of  only  one  case  in  which  anyone  has  been  injured 
by  a  wheel  bursting  and  that  by  a  type  we  no  longer 
build. 

Some  time  ago,  while  making  tests  on  our  multi-stage 
condensing  machines,  we  took  a  wheel  which  was  then 
standard  and  ran  it  to  destruction.  The  blades  were 
one-third  longer  than  any  blade  of  equal  shape  we  are 
now  using.  The  wheel  disk,  was,  however,  of  the  same 
type  as  now  used.  At  approximately  5200  r.p.m.  the 
buckets  came  out  of  their  fastening.  Since  that  time 
improvements  in  the  strength  of  our  blade  fastening 


have  made  it  three  times  as  strong  as  at  the  time  of  the 
test.  We  are  using  no  blades  as  heavy  as  the  ones  that 
were  in  the  first  wheel  and  are  limiting  the  speeds  on 
this  particular  diameter  of  wheel  to  4000  r.p.m.  in  the 
multi-stage  machine.  As  constructed  now,  these  wheels 
will  safely  stand  a  test  speed  of  approximately  6000 
revolutions  per  minute. 

In  addition  to  having  a  high  factor  of  safety  for  the 
wheel,  in  the  standard  noncondensing  turbine  there  are 
no  close  side  clearances  to  be  maintained  and  there  can 
be  no  fouling  of  the  blades  due  to  a  slight  axial  wear  or 
misadjustment.  Even  if  the  bearings  wear  down,  the 
moving  blades  cannot  strike  on  the  stationary  blades,  as 
they  are  protected  by  a  substantial  rim  that  projects 
beyond  the  blade.  The  only  thing  that  can  strip  the 
blades  is  serious  overspeeding  or  the  presence  of  some 
foreign  substance.  J.  Bbeslav.,  Sales  Eng., 

Hartford,  Conn.  Terry  Steam  Turbine  Co. 

Suggested  Designs  for  Centrifugal 
Machinery 

I  was  interested  in  reading  C.  E.  Pratt's  letter  on 
"Suggested  Designs  for  Centrifugal  Machinery"  and 
his  comments  on  the  steam  motor  in  the  Nov.  20  issue 
of  Power,  page  704. 

Mr.  Pratt  suggests  going  a  step  farther  with  the 
design  than  suggested  by  the  Steam  Motors  Co.,  by 
doing  away  with  the  bedplate  and  having  the  pump 
and  turbine  bolted  together  by  vertical  flanges.  This 
design  is  quite  feasible  and  has  been  already  adopted 
by  one  or  two  manufacturers.  But  when  we  attempt 
to  make  a  rabbeted  fit  at  this  point,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  this  is  not  so  easy  as  it  looks  for  the 
reason  that  these  two  flanges  will  be  machined  in  sep- 
arate shops,  which  is  a  different  proposition  to  machin- 
ing both  flanges  to  one  set  of  gages. 

Again,  this  arrangement  necessitates  a  special  pump, 
whereas  with  the  design  suggested  in  the  steam  motor 
a  standard  pump  is  used  without  any  change  in  exist- 
ing patterns. 

I  do  not  quite  understand  Mr.  Pratt's  reference  to 
a  third  bearing,  in  the  second  paragraph  of  his  letter. 
He  asks:  "Why  not  do  away  with  the  third  bearing, 
leaving  in  this  instance  the  prime  mover  entirely  over- 
hung?" This  is  exactly  the  way  the  steam  motor  is 
designed,  and  there  are  only  two  bearings  in  the  steam 
motor  combination,  as  he  will  note  if  he  looks  over 
t"he  original  article. 

Regarding  the  question  raised  by  Mr.  Pratt  as  to 
why  more  manufacturers  do  not  build  both  ends  of  the 
unit,  the  answer  is  that  this  is  an  age  of  specializa- 
tion and  a  concern  which  devotes  all  its  energies  to 
manufacturing  one  particular  line  of  apparatus  is  in 
a  better  position  to  perfect  that  than  if  it  built  several 
different   lines.     Mr.   Pratt   goes   on   to   say   that   this 


22 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


would,  in  most  cases,  solve  the  problem  of  assembling 
two  machines,  in  addition  to  having  only  two  bearings 
for  the  complete  unit.  As  already  mentioned,  this  is 
what  we  have  with  the  design  of  the  steam  motor. 
We  do  not  assemble  two  machines  together  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  word,  as  the  steam  motor  automatically 
becomes  part  of  the  equipment  to  which  it  is  attached 
and  has  the  advantage,  which  Mr.  Pratt  feels  is  very 
important,  of  having  only  two  bearings  for  the  complete 

outfit. 

I  am  entirely  in  sympathy  with  Mr.  Pratt's  ideas 
regarding  standardization,  and  he  will  find  a  paper  de- 
voted in  a  great  measure  to  this  subject,  presented 
before  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 
at  its  annual  meeting  in  December,  1917.  [This  paper 
will  soon  appear  in  Power. — Editor.] 

W.  J.  A.  London,  Engineer, 

Springfield,  Mass.  The  Steam  Motors  Co. 

American  Blowing  Engine  in  Italy 

One  of  the  remarkable  events  taking  place  in  Italy  to- 
day is  the  supplanting  of  German  machinery  by  Amer- 
ican products.  The  war  is  teaching  Italy  that  an  ex- 
change of  her  surplus  products  for  American  goods  is 
preferable  to  the  pre-war  dumping  system. 

Throughout  the  country  one  meets  American  engi- 
neers assembling  or  erecting  American  machinery.  In 
Turin  over  one  hundred  Baldwin  locomotives  have  been 
delivered  recently,  and  in  Brindisi  more  locomotives  are 
being  assembled,  and  the  chain  is  complete  from  the 
Alps  to  the  southern  Adriatic.  An  American  engineer, 
Henry  Louis  Hammerle,  is  erecting  for  the  Mesta  Ma- 
chine Co.,  of  Pittsburgh,  a  monster  blowing  engine  at 
the  Ilva  steel  works  in  Bagnoli,  near  Naples.  This 
blower,  the  largest  in  Italy,  is  designed  to  deliver  37,100 
cu.ft.  of  air  per  min.  to  the  blast  furnaces  where  Elba 
Island  iron  ore  is  reduced.  The  bedplate  alone  weighs 
160,000  lb.  and  is  larger  than  any  other  casting  ever 
imported  into  or  manufactured  in  Italy.     It  was  with 


FIG.   1. 


UNLOADING   THE    ENGINE   BEDPLATE   AT 
THE  PLANT 


much  difficulty  that  the  engine  was  stowed  for  ship- 
ment aboard  a  tramp  steamer,  and  it  was  then  buried 
under  a  load  of  coal.  Its  total  weight,  including  the 
flywheel,  is  1,200,000  lb.  The  flywheel  is  24  ft.  in  diam- 
eter and  weighs  160,000  lb.  The  cylinder  is  46  in. 
diameter  and  60-in.  stroke. 

The  Italian  buyers  are  pleased  with  the  complete  oil- 
ing system  of  the  engine,  since  it  saves  75  per  cent,  of 
the  oil,  a  matter  of  great  importance  in   Italy.     The 


foundations  beneath  their  other  engines  are  saturated 
with  wasted  oil.  Italy  produces  no  lubricating  oil  or 
coal,  and  very  little  iron,  and  Italian  manufacturers  are 
forced  to  look  to  other  countries  for  these  materials. 
Nearly  all  the  oil  and  steel  now  come  from  the  United 
States.  One  firm  has  used  300,000  tons  of  American 
steel  since  the   war  began,   and   another,  a   munitions 


CR.\NKSH.A.FT  .\ND  HUB   OF  FLYWHEEL 

plant,  is  using  2400  tons  a  month.  About  two-  thirds  of 
Italy's  coal  comes  from  England  and  the  remainder  from 
America.  The  present  price  of  coal  is  one  thousand 
lira  ($130)  per  ton.  American  products  find  a  wel- 
come in  Italy  even  under  the  present  almost  prohibitive 
freight  rates. 

The  illustrations  show  the  bedplate  and  crankshaft  of 
the  blowing  engine  referred  to  in  the  foregoing. 

Paris,  France.  A.  R.  Decker. 

The  Engineer  and  the  Union 

Referring  to  the  letters  that  have  recently  appeared 
concerning  the  engineer  and  the  union,  I  think  the 
unions  are  good  enough  in  their  way,  but  are  lacking 
in  one  important  respect;  namely,  almost  anyone  can 
call  himself  an  engineer  and  join  the  union.  The  unions 
should  have  an  examination  as  strict  as  that  of  the 
license  examiners,  so  that  the  employer  can  have  no 
justification  in  objecting  to  the  higher  wages  demanded, 
considering  both  the  safety  of  his  plant  and  his  pocket- 
book.  So  many  employers  have  been  stung  that  one  can 
hardly  blame  them  for  their  objection  to  employing 
uncertified  men. 

But  another  unfortunate  side  of  the  question  is,  that 
with  the  present  scale  of  wages  there  is  not  much  en- 
couragement for  a  young  man  to  keep  plugging  for  a 
higher  position  with  the  responsibilities  and  cares  of  the 
chief  engineer.  We  can't  all  be  bosses,  so  all  we  can  do 
is  to  train  for  the  position  and  be  ready  when  the 
opportunity  arrives.  In  the  meantime  we  should  have 
a  wage  sufficient  to  maintain  ourselves,  with  a  few  of 
the  good  things  of  life  on  the  side. 

These  are  views  I  have  heard  expressed  by  engineers 
in  different  parts  of  the  countiy.  Something  should  be 
done,  and  the  greater  the  publicity  the  subject  can 
be  given  the  better.  I  would  like  to  see  conditions 
changed,  but  it  will  probably  take  a  long  time. 

Emmett,  Idaho.  George  R.  Dye. 


Januiiry  l,  iai8 


POWER 


23 


Extension  Oil-Can  Spout 

In  the  issue  of  Oct.  30,  page  603,  Mr.  Forray  shows 
an  extension  for  an  oil  can  for  oiling  parts  above  reach 
without  climbing  a  ladder.  A  convenient  way  to  oil 
parts  below  reach  when  no  long-spout  oil  can  is  at  hand 


WIRE   EXTENSION  ON   OIL-CAX    SPOUT 

is  by  attaching  a  stiff  iron  or  copper  wire  to  the  spout 
of  an  ordinary  oil  can  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  As 
the  oil  comes  out  of  the  spout  it  will  follow  the  wire 
to  the  point  intended.  D.  R.  HiBBS. 

New  York   City. 

Bad  Packing  Conditions  Overcome 

I  experienced  a  lot  of  difficulty  trying  to  hold  the 
piston-rod  packing  in  an  engine  under  my  charge.  I 
cast  two  rings  of  babbitt  to  fit  the  rod  closely  and  go 
into  the  stuffing-box.  One  of  these  was  put  in  the 
bottom  or  back  end  of  the  stuffing-box,  then  soft  packing 
and  last  the  second  ring  of  babbitt. 

With  the  gland  tightened  up  only  moderately,  the 
packing  does  not  leak  and  the  engine  runs  splendidly. 

Altman,  W.  Va.  John  French. 

Valve  Gear  Broken  by  "Blocked" 
Valve 

One  unit  of  a  large  power  plant  is  a  700-hp.  simple 
Corliss  engine.  One  noon  hour,  after  most  of  the  plant 
crew  had  finished  lunch  and  were  sprawled  around  the 
engine  room  waiting  for  the  starting  whistle,  a  blood- 
curdling racket,  described  as  a  cross  between  a  cat 
serenade  and  a  hog-killing  squeal,  started  in  a  corner 
of  the  room.  The  lights  danced  and  the  brushes  on  the 
generator  flashed  and  squealed ;  so  the  men  "scooted" 
out  by  the  shortest  route  through  doors  and  windows 
and,  after  reaching  what  they  considered  a  safe  dis- 
tance, turned  to  see  if  the  whole  power  house  was 
following. 

The  chief,  one  assistant  and  one  oiler  were  the  only 
ones   who   .stood   their   ground,    though    in   truth    they 


were  all  shaky  in  the  knees,  and  they  began  a  cautious 
investigation  to  determine  where  the  unearthly  sounds 
originated.  They  seemed  to  come  from  the  corner  where 
the  feed-water  heater  was  located,  and  while  they  were 
gathered  around  the  heater  for  a  moment  there  was  a 
howl  at  the  commutator  of  the  large  engine  unit  run- 
ning in  parallel  with  two  smaller  ones,  followed  by 
several  flashes,  and  the  circuit-breaker  "kicked"  out. 
The  chief  shut  off  the  throttle  and  noticed  that  the 
dashpot  rod  was  broken  at  .4,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion, and  that  the  steam  arm  was  gone — -had  dropped 
into  the  oil  pan  under  the  valve  gear  so  that  the  bare 
valve  stem  was  staring  him  in  the  face. 

The  steam  arm  had  been  broken  across  the  hub,  as 
indicated  by  X  in  the  sketch.  In  attempting  to  turn 
the  valve  closed,  it  was  found  impossible  to  do  so,  but 
it  moved  freely  in  the  reverse  direction,  and  when  the 
bonnet  and  valve  were  removed  it  was  found  that  a 
piece  of  the  threaded  end  of  a  pipe  had  dropped  into 
the  steam  chest  and  worked  into  the  port  when  the 
valve  opened,  and  prevented  it  from  closing,  and  of 
course  something  had  to  let  go;  in  this  case  it  was 
the  steam  arm. 

The  explanation  of  the  noise  was  then  simple,  for 
the  steam  valve  being  wide  open,  every  time  the  ex- 
haust valve  opened,  the  steam  at  full  boiler  pressure 
rushed  into  the  exhaust  line  that  ran  under  the  floor 
as  far  as  the  heater,  where  a  tee  connected  it  with  the 
vertical  riser  to  the  back-pressure  valve.  Evidently, 
considerable  water  had  accumulated  in  this  tee  during 
the  light  load  period  at  the  lunch  hour,  so  that  when 
the  live   steam   rushed  through,   it  caused   the  terrific 


STEAM    ARM    AND    DASHl'dT    KOD    BROKPIN 

racket  and  the  engine  could  work  only  on  one  end,  so 
the  governor  was  unable  to  control  the  speed  and  volt- 
age and  the  circuit-breaker  went  out  with  the  usual 
fireworks.  A  new  dashpot  rod  was  made  and  the  broken 
steam  arm  was  oxyacetylene  welded  and  rebored,  after 
which  it  served  the  purpose  as  well  as  ever.  The  re- 
pairs were  made  and  the  engine  was  ready  to  run  in 
three  hours  after  the  accident.  E.  W.  MlLLEK. 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 


24 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


Repairing  a  Broken  Crosshead 

The  wristpin  of  a  Corliss  engine  (18x42)  was  worn, 
so  we  placed  the  crosshead  in  a  wheel  press  to  remove 
the  pin,  as  it  had  been  pressed  in,  but  in  doing  so  the 
crosshead  was  cracked  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in 
the  illustration.  The  crosshead  was  clamped  firmly, 
chucked  in  the  lathe  and  the  side  turned  off,  leaving 
a  half-inch  boss,  or  shoulder,  around  the  eye.     Then  a 


FLANGE  SHRUNK  ON  A  BROKKN  CROS.'^HE.A  P 

piece  of  i-in.  boiler  plate  was  shaped,  as  shown,  with 
the  hole  in  the  center  a  little  smaller  than  the  boss 
on  the  crosshead.  After  being  heated  in  a  forge,  it  was 
placed  on  the  crosshead  and  hammered  to  a  good  fit. 
When  cold,  it  had  drawn  the  parts  together  so  closely 
that  the  cracks  could  hardly  be  noticed.  Holes  were 
then  drilled  around  the  patch  and  tapped  out  for  cap- 
screws,  making  the  job  entirely  secure. 

Braemar,  Tenn.  J.  W.  Stanley. 

Change  of  Water  Supply  for  Air  Pump 

In  answer  to  L.  F.  Forseille's  request,  page  703  of 
Power,  Nov.  20,  relative  to  changing  injection  piping 
to  air  pump,  I  offer  the  following:  I  take  it  that  the  in- 
crease of  75  deg.  F.  of  the  injection  water  referred  to 
by  Mr.  Forseille  is  the  range  between  the  cold  water  of 
winter  and  the  warmer  water  of  the  summer  months. 

In  designing  the  air-pump  runner  the  builder  would 
figure  on  capacity  with  the  warmest  water  it  was  to 
handle  in  operation,  which  would  be  in  the  summer,  and 
as  a  drop  in  temperature  in  the  colder  seasons  would  in- 
crease the  air-runner  capacity,  the  manufacturer  would 
not  worry  about  that.  When  the  air  runner  is  handling 
water  of  a  given  temperature,  it  discharges  it  with  a 
certain  velocity,  assuming  the  runner  to  have  a  fixed 
peripheral  speed. 

At  this  temperature,  volume,  weight  and  velocity  the 
slugs  of  water  exert  a  certain  velocity  head,  which  is 
transformed  into  pressure  head  in  the  diffusion  nozzle 
upon  leaving  the  runner  and  so  overcomes  the  discharge 
head  the  runner  works  against. 

Now,  if  we  consider  that  the  air  runner  is  designed 
to  discharge  a  certain  amount  of  air  in  the  summer 
months  with  water  at  80  deg.  F.,  and  we  increase  the 
temperature  to  110  or  11.5  deg.,  as  the  suggested  in- 
crease would  do,  we  necessarily  increase  the  volume  of 
the  water  for  a  given  weight,  and  this  lighter  water  by 
volume  limits  the  ability  of  the  runner  to  store  enough 
kinetic  energy  in  the  slugs  of  water  to  overcome  the 
forces  acting  against  the  water. 

In  concluding  I  would  suggest  increasing  the  pump 
speed,  as  a  small  increase  in  speed  will  probably  se- 
cure the  desired  results.  R.  B.  GOOLD. 

Leadville,  Colo. 


Water  Too  Hot  for  Feed  Pump 

At  one  time  it  was  my  good  fortune  to  act  as  watch 
engineer  in  a  small  modem  central  station  situated  on 
one  of  the  Great  Lakes.  There  were  four  vertical  water- 
tube  boilers  of  5000  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface  each,  often 
worked  to  300  per  cent,  rating.  The  engine  room  con- 
tained two  1000-  and  one  2500-kw.  turbo-generators, 
exhausting  into  jet  condensers  when  desired,  but  in 
winter  the  exhaust  was  used  to  supply  a  district  heating 
system.  There  was  one  motor-driven  three-stage  cen- 
trifugal boiler-feed  pump,  with  a  rated  capacity  of 
200  gal.  per  min.  and  also  a  turbine-driven  pump  of 
the  same  size  and  capacity,  but  the  turbine  was  unable 
to  drive  the  pump  fast  enough  even  with  the  governor 
cut  out  of  service,  so  it  was  little  used.  There  was  one 
other  pump  of  the  duplex  type,  used  for  general  service, 
which  could  be  used  as  a  boiler  feeder,  but  was  of  a 
light  pattern   and   not  suitable   for  such   hard   wark. 

One  morning  in  midwinter  when  the  mercury  was 
at  zero,  I  went  on  watch  at  8  o'clock  and  found  every- 
thing going  at  top  capacity,  but  pretty  soon  things  be- 
gan to  happen  in  rapid  order  in  the  boiler  room — the 
feed  pump  failed  to  supply  enough  water,  and  it  went 
out  of  sight  in  all  four  gage-glasses.  You  can  imagine 
my  feelings  at  finding  this  condition  and  all  the  pumps 
working.  I  recalled  that  the  chief  once  remarked  in  a 
casual  way  that  an  engineer  was  expected  to  keep  the 
plant  running  and  not  to  see  how  quick  he  could  shut  it 
down. 

Fortunately,  I  remembered  in  time  that  the  delivery 
of  a  centrifugal  pump  falls  off  rapidly  with  a  rise  in 
temperature  of  its  feed  water,  and  finding  that  the  wa- 
ter in  the  open  heater  was  unusually  hot,  I  lost  no  time 
in  opening  the  bypass  on  the  heater  and  sent  cold  water 
to  the  pumps.  Then  I  went  into  the  boiler  room  to 
watch  results,  which  were  not  long  in  coming,  for  the 
water  bobbed  up  in  one  glass  after  the  other  and  the  ex- 
citement was  over.  This  was  my  first  experience  with 
a  centrifugal  boiler-feed  pump,  and  I  knew  all  the  time 
that  the  capacity  of  a  centrifugal  pump  changed  with  a 
change  in  temperature— but  I  didn't  think,  which  is  the 
trouble  with  a  lot  of  us.  R.  B.  GoOLD. 

Leadville,  Colo. 


Climbing  a  Smoke-Stack 

I  saw  three  fellows  climb  a  stack  that  had  no  ladder 
on  it  in  a  way  that  seemed  to  me  far  from  safe.  They 
passed  a  rope  four  times  round  the  stack,  then  hooked 
three  pullies  on,  at  equal  distances  apart  and  each 
pulley  on  a  different  turn  of  the  rope.  Next,  they 
pushed  the  ropes  up  the  stack  by  means  of  long  poles. 
When  they  had  them  up  as  far  as  they  could  reach, 
they  were  drawn  up  to  the  pulleys  in  "bos'n  chairs" 
by  other  men  on  the  ground.  They  then  pushed  an- 
other set  of  ropes  up  in  the  same  way  after  making 
themselves  secure  to  the  first  set.  By  repeating  this 
process  several  times  they  reached  the  top  of  the  stack. 

Of  course  the  coming-down  part  was  easy  as  they 
were  let  down  by  the  men  below  from  a  pulley  on  some 
kind  of  a  grappling  hook  on  the  top  of  the  stack  like 
painters  use  on  a  house,  and  after  they  got  down  this 
was  thrown  off  the  stack.  D.  R.  HiBBS. 

New  York  City. 


January  1.  1918  POWER  25 

Sjiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiimiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  f 


^ iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii mil iiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiii I Miiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


Relative    Properties   of   Copper.    Iron    and    Zinc    Wires — 

What  are  the  i-e!ative  properties  of  copper,  iron  and   zinc 
wires  for  use  as  electrical  conductors?  M.  L. 

The  relative  electrical  conductivities  for  equal  cross- 
section  are  as  100  for  copper,  17.4  for  iron  and  27.2  for  zinc 
wire.  The  relative  specific  gravities  are  as  8.93  for  copper, 
7.86  for  iron  and  7.15  for  zinc.  The  tensile  strength  per 
square  inch  of  cross-section  of  copper  wire  is  about  .50,000 
lb.,  of  iron  wire  about  100,000  lb.,  and  of  zinc  wire  about 
18,000  pounds. 

Deflection  of  Water  Tubes  Away  from  Heat — What  causes 
tubes  of  water-tube  boilers  to  become  bent  awav  from  the 
fire?  "j.  A.  S. 

The  most  plausible  reason  given  for  deflection  from  the 
fire  is  that  greater  temperature  attained  by  the  fire  side  of 
the  tube  causes  a  greater  expansion  of  length,  and  having 
elongation  of  the  tube  resisted  by  the  headers,  greater 
expansion  on  one  side  causes  the  tube  to  act  like  a  strut  or 
column  that  is  eccentrically  loaded,  resulting  in  deflection 
of  the  tube  away  from  the  side  that,  from  greater  elonga- 
tion, receives  the  greatest  stress  of  longitudinal  compres- 
sion. 

Cost  of  Leakage  of  Steam — What  would  be  the  daily  loss 
from  continuous  leakage  of  steam  at  100  lb.  boiler  pressure 
through  an  aperture  of  0.1  of  1  square  inch  for  10  hours  per 
day,  where  under  actual  conditions  the  evaporative  economy 
of  the  boiler  is  7  lb.  of  water  generated  into  steam  at  100 
lb.  gage  pressure  per  pound  of  coal  and  the  cost  of  coal 
$6  per  ton  of  2000  lb.?  P.  H. 

Napier's  approximate  rule  for  the  flow  of  steam  into  a 
pressure  less  than  58  per  cent,  of  the  initial  absolute  pres- 
sure is:  Flow  in  pounds  per  second  =  absolute  pressure  x 
area  of  aperture  in  square  inches  -^  70.  Accordingly,  the 
discharge  would  be  approximately  (100  +  15)  x  0.1  -i- 
70  =  0.1643  lb.  of  steam  per  second,  and  the  loss  would 
amount  to 

0.1643  X  60  X  60  X  10         $6 

X  =  $2.53  per  dav. 

7  2000 

Height  of  Settings  of  Return-Tubular  Boilers — What  are 
the  advantages  of  high  boiler  settings  over  low  settings  for 
horizontal  retum-tubular  boilers,  and  what  considerations 
detemiine  the  limit  of  height?  H.  C. 

With  higher  settings  the  gaseous  products  of  cumbustion 
and  volatile  matter  liberated  from  the  fuel  are  not  cooled 
so  immediately  after  rising  from  the  fuel  bed  by  coming  in 
contact  with  the  boiler  heating  surfaces  that  are  much  lower 
in  temperature.  Consequently,  there  may  be  more  perfect 
combustion  of  the  gases  attended  by  higher  temperature.  In 
addition  to  the  extra  cost  of  higher  settings,  considerations 
that  limit  the  height  of  the  boiler  are  that  the  higher  the 
boiler  the  less  heat  will  be  received  from  the  fire  by  direct 
radiation,  and  although  the  heat  of  the  fire  which  is  not 
directly  absorbed  by  the  boiler  is  beneficial  in  improvement 
of  combustion  and  in  increasing  the  temperature  of  the 
gaseous  products  of  combustion,  for  the  same  amount  and 
condition  of  boiler-heating  surface  there  will  be  higher  tem- 
perature and  therefore  more  waste  of  heat  in  the  chimney 
gases.  Hence  the  height  of  boiler  most  beneficial  to  economy 
of  fuel  will  depend  on  the  dimension  of  the  boiler,  kind  of 
fuel,  force  of  draft  and  rate  of  firing. 

Actual,  Apparent  and  Equivalent  Cutoff — What  is  the 
difference  between  actual,  apparent  and  equivalent  point  of 
cutoff  of  a  steam  engine  ?  F.  N.  C. 

In  the  operation  of  the  engine,  the  actual  point  of  cutting 
off  is  the  point  that  marks  the  fractional  part  of  the  stroke 
which  has  been  comnleted  at  the  instant  when  the  admission 


valve  in  closing  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  steam  has  just  cov- 
ered the  port.  The  apparent  point  of  cutoff  may  be  the 
point  that  appears  to  be  the  actual  point  of  cutoff  from 
observation  of  the  operation  of  the  engine  or  from  measure- 
ments and  known  relative  adjustments  of  different  parts 
of  the  valve  gear;  or  the  fraction  of  stroke  that  is  assumed 
to  be  completed  at  the  beginning  of  the  expansion  line  on 
an  indicator  diagram.  Equivalent  point  of  cutoff  is  the 
earlier  point  in  the  stroke  where  actual  cutoff  would  take 
place  so  as  to  cause  the  expansion  line  of  an  indicator 
diagram  to  pass  through  the  point  of  beginning  of  the 
actual  diagram,  or  practically  coincide  with  the  expansion 
line  of  the  actual  diagram,  provided  there  had  been  no  re- 
duction of  the  initial  pressure  during  admission,  and  cutoff 
had  occurred  instantaneously  or,  in  other  words,  assuming 
theoretically  perfect  admission  and  cutoff. 

Minimum  Number  Threads  for  Screwed  Pipe  Connections 

— What  number  of  threads  of  a  pipe  or  nipple  should  screw 
into  a  fitting  or  a  threaded  pipe  connection  of  a  boiler  ? 

G.  M. 
Screwed  connections  should  have  the  minimum  number  of 
standard  pipe  threads  required  by  the  A.   S.  M.  E.   Boiler 
Code   for   threaded   openings    in    boilers   for    1-in.    pipe   or 
larger,  as  per  the  following  table: 

MINIMUM  NUMBER  OF  PIPE  THREADS  FOR  CONNECTIONS 
TO  BOILERS 


Size  of  pipe  connection.  In.    I  &  1; 
Number  of  tJireads  per  in .  II A 

Minimum  number  of  tilreads 

required  in  opening. .  4 

Minimum  thickness  of  ma-  ] 

terial    required    to    give  I  0.34 

above  number  of  threads,  f  =  H  -h     =  iV 

in I 

If  the  thickness  of  the  material  of  a  boiler  is  not  sufficient 
to  give  the  designated  number  of  standard  pipe  threads, 
there  should  be  a  pressed-steel  flange  or  steel  plate  properly 
constructed  and  riveted  to  the  boiler  so  as  to  give  the  re- 
quired number  of  threads. 

Lift  of  Valve  To  Obtain  Full  Opening — How  much  must 
the  disk  of  a  globe  valve  be  raised  off  the  seat  to  obtain 
full  opening  or  the  same  cross-section  of  valve  opening  as 
the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  diaphragm  opening? 

J.  D. 

When  the  valve  disk  has  a  flat  seat  for  covering  a  square- 
edged  opening  of  the  diaphragm,  the  area  of  the  valve 
opening  =  circumference  of  the  diaphragm  x  rise  of  the 
valve.  Calling  d  =  diameter  of  the  diaphragm  opening  and 
I  =  lift  of  the  valve,  the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  valve 
opening  would  be  t  x  d  X  '.  As  the  cross-sectional  area  of 
the  diaphragm  opening  would  be  %  t  d",  then  for  equality  of 
areas,  i^dl  —  Vi  tt  d',  or  I  =  %rf;  that  is,  for  equal  areas  the 
lift  must  be  equal  to  one-quarter  of  the  diameter  of  dia- 
phragm opening.  When  the  valve  seat  is  beveled  to  an  angle 
of  45  deg.,  for  equality  of  areas  the  lift  of  the  valve  must 
be  about  36  per  cent,  of  the  diameter  of  diaphragm  opening. 
It  is  not  to  be  assumed,  however,  that  equal  projected  areas 
in  the  different  forms  of  valve  seat  will  give  the  same  co- 
efficient of  discharge,  for  that  is  influenced  by  the  direction 
of  flow  of  the  gas,  vapor  or  liquid  in  passing  through  the 
valve  and  also  by  the  size,  roughness  and  form  of  the  shell 
or  globe  and  the  form  and  finish  of  the  disk  and  its  seat. 


25  to  4  4i  to  6 

15  &  2 

1  I; 

inclu- 
sive 
8 

mclu- 
sive 
8 

7&  8 
8 

9&  10 
8 

12 

8 

5 

7 

8 

10 

12 

13 

0  435 

0  875 

1 

1   25 

15 

1  625 

=  it— 

=  « 

=  1 

=  1! 

=  1! 

=  li 

[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention. — 
Editor.] 


26 


POWER 


V'oi.  47,  No.  1 


Recent  Developments  in  Air-Pump  Design 


By  E.  p.  JONES 


Reviews  the  chief  progress  in  the  design  of  air 
pumps  from  the  Edwards  reciprocating  type  to 
the  newest  multijector  pump  of  Maurice  Le- 
blanc,  ivhich  has  many  advantages  over  the  ivell- 
known  Lehlayic  hydraulic  air  pump.  The  paper 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  yet  presented  on  this 
auxiliary  so  important  to  turbine  economy. 


WITH  the  earliest  types  of  surface-condensing  equip- 
ment it  was  usual  to  employ  one  pump  foi-  removing 
both  the  condensate  and  air  from  the  condenser. 
This  pump  was  known  as  a  "wet"  air  pump,  and  a  good 
example  of  this  type  is  the  Edwards  air  pump,  one  of  the 
most  efficient  of  its   class.     The   chief  advantages   of  this 


arate  pump  to  remove  the  condensate.  The  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  this  system  are  the  same  as  for  the 
Edwards  air  pump,  but  the  efficiency  is  rather  better. 

Previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  steam  turbine  con- 
densing-plant  equipments  were  furnished  with  air  pumps 
of  one  or  other  of  the  types  mentioned,  but  as  soon  as  the 
turbine  became  a  commercial  proposition  it  was  necessary 
to  look  for  a  type  of  pump  having  features  specially  adapted 
to  its  requirements.  With  turbine  installations  it  is  essen- 
tial to  use  a  high  vacuum  in  the  condenser,  whereas  with 
steam  engines  of  the  reciprocating  type  a  vacuum  of  more 
than  26  Vi  in.  was  seldom  required.  In  fact,  it  is  question- 
able whether  using  a  vacuum  higher  than  26  V2  in.  would  not 
be  considered  a  disadvantage.  With  the  turbine,  however, 
a  vacuum  less  than  27  in.  is  rarely  asked  for,  and  sometimes 
the  specified  figure  is  as  high  as  29.25  in.  vdth  the  standard 
barometer  reading  of  30  in.  In  considering  these  figures, 
due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  altitude  of  the  jJlace. 
The    most    economical    vacuum    for    a    turbine    installation 


FIG    I 


.'"    /•!    •  i      ^-J  ./ 


FIG   3 


FIGS.    1    TO    3. 
Fig.    1 — The  Leblanc  air  pump.      Fig. 


FIG.  2 

TYPES   OF  AIR   PUMPS   AND   THEIR    CONNECTIOXS 
1 — Worthington  ejector  air   pump.     Fig.  3 — French  type  of  ejectair  air  pump 


type  of  pump  are:  (1)  Low  power  required  for  driving;  (2) 
positive  action  and  consequent  stability;  (3)  ability  to  cope 
with  excessive  air  leakages.  While  the  Edwards  pump  is 
still  an  excellent  pump  for  units  up  to,  say,  from  3000  to 
4000  kw.,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  with  the  ever-growing 
size  of  power  units,  its  disadvantages  should  be  kept  in 
view.  For  large  units  with  Edwards  pumps  it  is  necessary 
that  they  should  run  at  a  very  low  speed,  and  consequently 
they  are  very  cumbersome  and  take  up  a  large  amount  of 
floor  space. 

With  jet  plants  the  Edwards  pump  is  sometimes  used  as 
a  dry  air  pump.  It  is  necessary,  of  course,  to  provide  a 
small  quantity  of  water  for  sealing  pui-poses.  Volumetric 
efficiency  in  this  pump  varies  considerably  with  the  degree 
of  vacuum  required  and  decreases  as  the  vacuum  increases 
from  about  50  per  cent,  at  3%  in.  absolute  pressure  to  18 
per  cent,  at  1  in.  absolute  pressure.  Another  system  is 
that  in  which  a  dry  air  pump  of  the  reciprocating  type  is 
used  to  remove  the  air  and  uncondensed  gases  and  a  sep- 


•From  a  paper  before  the  Institution  of  Engineers  and  Ship- 
builders, Scotland,  reported  in  "Engineering"  (London).  Sept.  7 
ax"1    '•'. 


depends   on  a  variety   of  things,  and  each  case  has   to  be 
considered  on  its  merits. 

On  reference  to  steam  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  an  in- 
crease in  vacuum  from  27  in.  to,  say,  29  in.,  other  condi- 
tions, as  air  leakage,  remaining  the  same,  necessitates  an 
increase  in  the  capacity  of  the  air  pumps  from  1.00  to  3.25, 
which  for  a  large  installation  with  Edwards  or  recipro- 
cating dry  air  pumps  is  a  very  serious  matter.  Therefore 
various  types  of  rotary  pumps,  which  are  specially  suitable 
for  dealing  with  large  volumes  of  air  at  low  tension,  have 
been  designed  since  the  adoption  of  the  steam  turbine, 
several  of  which  have  proved  very  successful.  The  general 
design  of  these  pumps  is  much  the  same,  in  so  far  as  they 
use  a  certain  quantity  of  what  is  termed  "operating  water," 
for  which  various  devices  have  been  invented  to  cause  this 
water  to  move  in  such  a  manner  as  to  entrain  the  air  from 
the  condenser  and  discharge  it  to  the  atmosphere.  Perhaps 
one  of  the  best-known  rotary  dry  air  pumps  is  the  one 
invented  by  Prof.  Maurice  Leblanc.  It  has  been  used  to  a 
large  extent  all  over  the  world,  and  its  action  is  shown  by 
Fig.  1.  This  pump  is  capable  of  maintaining  a  very  high 
vacuum,  and  for  this  reason,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  it 


January  1,  nn& 


r  u  w  £i  rt 


27 


is  very  simple  in  constiuetion  and  not  likely  to  eet  out  of 
order,  it  has  been  largely  used  for  turbine  installations. 
It  cannot  be  claimed  for  this  pump — or,  indeed,  for  any 
type  of  rotary  air  pump — that  it  can  successfully  deal 
with  an  excessive  air  leakage,  but  consideration  will  show 
that  this  quality  is  not  essential  in  the  case  of  turbine 
installations  where  air  leakage  is  reduced  to  a  minimum 
by  the  adoption  of  steam-  or  water-sealed  glands  where  the 
shaft  passes  out  of  the  turbine  casing-.  With  a  surface- 
condensing  plant  it  is  only  possible  for  air  to  be  brought 
into  the  system  by  the  feed  water  and  carried  over  with  the 
steam,  or  by  leaking  in  at  the  joints.  With  jet  plants,  the 
air  brought  in  with  the  injection  water  has  to  be  allowed 
for  in  addition  to  the  above,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that 
the  air  pump  on  a  jet  plant  requires  to  be  larger  than  that 
for  a  surface-condensing  plant  doing  the  same  steam  duty. 
The  power  required  to  drive  these  pumps  is  rather  higher 
than  that  required  for  an  Edwards  or  other  good  type  of 
reciprocating  air  pump,  and  consequently  a  good  deal  of 
attention  has  been  paid  recently  to  another  type  of  pump 
which  would  incorporate  the  simplicity  and  compactness  of 
the  rotary  pump  and  the  low-power  consumption  of  the 
Edwards  and  other  reciprocating  pumps.  The  general  trend 
of  thought  seems  to  have  been  in  one  direction,  and  there 
are  now  on  the  market  and  in  commercial  use  air  pumps 
operating  on  the  ejector  principle.  Nearly  all  the  leading 
condenser  manufacturers  now  construct  air  pumps  of  tiiis 
description. 

The  New  Ejector  Air  Pump 

The  Worthington  Pump  Co.,  Ltd.,  London  and  Newark, 
manufacture  a  patent  hydraulic  vacuum  pump  on  tha 
ejector  principle,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  2,  which  consists  of: 
(1)  The  injection  head,  (2)  the  air-suction  chamber,  (3)  the 
rotary  wheel,  (4)  the  throat  and  tail  pipes.  The  operating 
water  passes  between  two  nozzle  rings,  and  the  cone  of 
water  passes  between  the  body  of  the  wheel  and  the  outer 
sleeve,  impinging  on  the  inclined  surfaces  of  the  vanes,  thus 
imparting  a  rotary  motion  to  the  wheel.  To  operate  the 
pump  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  certain  amount  of  sealing 
water,  which  is  supplied  from  a  tank  situated  as  conve- 
niently as  possible  to  the  pump.  The  sealing  water  takes  up 
a  certain  amount  of  heat  from  the  air  and  water  vapors 
withdrawn  by  the  air  pump,  and  a  piping  arrangement  is 
provided  for  withdrawing  a  certain  amount  of  this  water 
by  means  of  a  bypass  connection  on  the  operating  pump 
discharge,  this  bypass  being  fitted  with  a  controlling  reflux 
valve.  The  quantity  of  water  withdrawn  in  this  manner 
is  replaced  by  makeup  water  drawn  from  the  circulating 
inlet-piping  or  an  independent  supply,  thus  cooling  the 
water  used  in  the  cycle  of  operation.  This  apparatus  is 
doing  regular  service  on  one  of  the  turbo-alternator  groups 
at  the  Glasgow  Corporation  Power  Station  at  St.  Andrew's 
Cross.  A  number  of  installations  have  also  been  supplied 
to  other  concerns. 

Willans  &  Robinson,  of  Rugby,  manufacture  the  Willans- 
Muller  ejector  air  pump,  which  is  operated  by  the  circulat- 
ing water,  either  on  the  series  or  shunt  system.  With  the 
series  system  the  whole  of  the  circulating  water  passes 
through  the  ejector  before  entering  the  condenser.  With 
the  shunt  system  only  a  p:rtion  of  the  cooling  water  passes 
through  the  ejector,  and,  after  use,  is  returned  to  the  pump 
suction  or  the  source  of  supply.  A  third  method  of  operat- 
ing this  ejector  is  by  the  separate-pump  system,  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  described  in  referring  to  the  Worthing- 
ton pump.  The  whole  plant  is  very  sin.ilar  to  that  made  by 
the  Worthington  Pump  Co.  The  Glasgow  Corporation  has 
»  set  of  this  apparatus  at  work  at  Pinkston  Power  Station, 
and  good  results  have  been  obtained,  and  a  second  set  is 
just  being  installed  at  St.  Andrew's  Cross. 

Another  type  of  ejector  air  pump  is  that  manufactured 
by  Hick,  Hargreaves  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Bolton,  under  license  from 
the  Mason  Breguet,  Paris.  This  is  really  two  ejectors 
working  in  series,  with  an  auxiliary  condenser  placed 
between  the  first  and  second  stage  of  the  ejectors.  A  num- 
ber of  these  air  pumps,  termed  "ejectairs,"  have  been 
supplied  to,  or  are  under  construction  for,  the  French  Navy. 
Referring  to  Fig.  3,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  primary 
ejector  A  is  placed  in  direct  communication  with  the  main 


condenser  C,  and  extracts  the  aerated  vapor,  being  operated 
by  a  single  steam  jet  or  nozzle  )■■;.  The  mixture  of  steam  and 
partly  compressed  vapor  is  then  discharged  to  the  auxiliary 
condenser  D,  and  the  water  returned  to  the  main  condenser 
to  be  dealt  with  by  the  extraction  pump.  The  second-stage 
ejector  E  is  coupled  up  to  the  auxiliary  condenser,  and  draws 
the  air  away,  discharging  it  to  the  feed  tank.  An  automatic 
air-inlet  valve  is  fitted  to  the  auxiliary  condenser,  to  regulate 
the  absolute  pressure  therein.  It  is  claimed  that  taking  air 
from  the  atmosphere  in  this  manner  materially  assi.sts  the 
stability  of  the  plant,  and  also  renders  it  more  flexible. 
These  ejectairs  are  designed  tor  working  with  steam  pres- 
sures at  55  lb.  per  sq.in.  or  above,  and  with  a  special 
arrangement  of  nozzles  lower  pressures  can  be  used  in  the 
primary  ejector,  although  the  advantage  of  this  is  not 
apparent  if  it  is  impossible  to  work  the  other  ejector  under 
the  same  conditions,  neither  is  it  clear  whether  this  can  be 
accomplished  or  not. 
The  curves.  Fig.  4,  show  the  performance  of  an  ejectair. 
Steam  to  the  ejectors  had  an  absolute  pressure  of  125  lb. 
per  sq.in.,  and  the  steam  consumption  is  given  as  194  lb. 
per  hour,  of  which  129  lb.  is  i-ecoverable.  The  apparatus 
worked  in  conjunction  with  a  small  jet  condenser,  dealing 
with  94  gal.  of  injection  water  per  minute.     Curve  1  gives 


\  Z  3 

Diame+er  of    Nozzle   in    MiUime+er 
0     I    2    3    4.    5    6    7    6    9    TO    U    12    B   14-   15    16  17    18   19  JO 

Pounds    of  Air   dealf  wifh   per  Hour 

FIG.     4.       PRRFORMANCE    OF    AN    EJECTAIR 

the  vacuums  obtained  with  water  leaving  the  condenser  at  a 
temperature  of  91.4  deg.  F.  (33  deg.  C),  and  the  auxiliary 
condenser  out  of  action;  curve  2  the  volume  of  air  deaU 
with  in  cubic  feet  per  hour;  curve  3  the  vacuums  obtained 
with  given  air  leaks,  and  the  water  leaving  the  main  con- 
denser as  for  curve  1,  but  with  the  auxiliary  condenser 
supplied  with  cooling  water  at  66.2  deg.  F.  (18  deg.  C.)  ; 
and  curve  4  the  volumes  of  air  dealt  with  under  the  same 
conditions.  It  was  calculated  that  the  air  coming  in  with 
the  injection  water  and  at  leaky  joints  amounted  to  1.102  lb. 
per  hour  (0.5  kg.). 

The  British  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing 
Co.,  Ltd.,  Manchester,  and  the  Mirrlees  Watson  Co.,  Ltd., 
Glasgow,  manufacture  an  ejector  air  pump,  under  license 
from  the  Societe  Anonyme  Westinghouse,  Paris  and  Le 
Havre,  which  is  another  invention  of  Maurice  Leblanc.  It 
is  the  outcome  of  many  months  of  arduous  r.-soarch  work, 
during  which  time  innumerable  difficulties  were  surmounted 
by  the  inventor,  with  the  result  that  a  really  first-class 
ejector  air  pump  has  been  evolved.  Figs.  5  and  G  show 
the  general  arrangement  of  this  apparatus.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  pump  is  arranged  to  work  in  two  stages, 
and  the  steam  is  admitted  to  the  second  stage  of  the  ejector 
'by  opening  the  stop  valve  C.  Immediately  C  is  opened, 
steam  fills  the  annular  space  bohind  the  nozzle  plate,  and 
finds  its  way  into  the  throats  of  the  group  of  nozzles  Y 
attached  to  this  plate;  it  then  passes  along  the  steam  pipe 
which    supplies  the   first-stagre  nozzles  A',   which   are   also 


28 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


attached  to  a  nozzle  plate.  The  supply  of  steam  in  this 
set  of  nozzles  is  controlled  by  the  stop  valve  on  the  steam- 
supply  pipe.  The  pump  is  connected  to  the  condenser  at  the 
branch  D,  which  is  the  air-inlet  branch.  At  the  entrance 
to  each  of  the  steam  spaces  fine  wire-gauze  strainers  are 
fitted  to  prevent  any  foreign  matter,  which  may  have 
primed  over  with  the  steam  from  the  boilers,  from  entering 
the  nozzles,  thereby  intercepting  any  stoppage  in  the  nozzle 
throats,  and  consequently  a  loss  of  vacuum.  These  nozzles 
are  securely  locked  to  the  nozzle  plates.  The  mixture  of 
air  and  steam  is  discharged  at  the  mouth'  of  the  cone 
Y  and  led  away  to  the  boiler-feed  tank,  so  that  the  heat 
units  contained  in  the  operating  steam  can  be  reclaimed 
by  heating  the  feed  water.  To  start  the  pump  to  work,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  open  up  the  steam  valve  C,  and  the 
vacuum  will  at  once  begin  to  increase  in  the  condenser  or 
other  vessel  to  be  evacuated.  When  the  vacuum  gage 
becomes  stationary,  the  first-stage  steam-inlet  valve  is 
opened   up  to  bring  the  vacuum  to  a  maximum.     A   very 


ejector,  which  might  be  considered  negligible.  Beyond  this, 
the  whole  of  the  heat  in  the  steam  can  be  utilized  to  heat  up 
the  boiler-feed  water,  and  in  order  to  obtain  full  benefit 
from  the  apparatus  it  is  highly  desirable  to  use  the  dis- 
charge from  the  ejector  for  heating  purposes  of  some 
description.  Thus  both  the  steam  and  air  can  be  made  to 
do  useful  work.  In  view  of  this  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  when  an  ejector  of  this  type  is  specified  as  requiring  so 
many  pounds  of  operating  steam  per  hour,  this  is  only  the 
apparent  quantity;  the  actual  quantity  is  really  far  less, 
since  the  great  majority  of  heat  units  in  the  steam  are  still 
available  for  further  work.  The  actual  heat  units  recovered 
can  easily  be  calculated  from  steam  tables,  since  it  is 
known  that  the  steam  and  air  leave  the  ejector  at  a  pressure 
of  from  10  lb.  to  12  lb.  per  sq.in.  by  gage.  It  will  be 
observed  that  with  a  Leblanc  multijector  an  auxiliary  con- 
denser is  not  required,  and  in  this  respect  it  differs  mate- 
rially from  the  "Berguet"  ejectair.  The  employment  of  an 
auxiliary   condenser   has   the   disadvantage    that   the   total 


FIG. a 


FIG.  6 


FIGS.  .'->  TO  8.    M.\URICE  LEBUANC'S  LATEST  MULTIJECTOR   AIR    PUMP    AS    MADE   BY   THE    BRITISH    WESTINGHOUSE 

ELECTRIC    AND    IVLA^NUPACTURING   CO. 


Pigrs.    5    and    6- 


-Tvvo    forms    of    the    Leblanc    ejector.      Fig.    7 — Behavior  of  flow  from  the  nozzle.      Fig.    8 — Showing  comparative 
sizes  of  Edwards,  Leblanc  rotary  and  the  multijector  types  of  air  pumps  for  a  given  capacity 


important  feature  in  this  pump  is  the  absence  of  moving 
parts.  The  simplicity  of  the  apparatus  is  even  more 
remarkable  than  that  of  the  Leblanc  rotary  pump. 

The  advantages  claimed  are  as  follow:  (1)  Extreme  sim- 
plicity; (2)  the  small  amount  of  energy  required  for  oper- 
ating purposes;  (3)  the  high  efficiency  obtained;  (4)  ease 
with  which  starting  can  be  effected,  and  the  small  amount 
of  attention  required  while  at  work;  (5)  ability  to  produce 
the  highest  possible  vacuums;  (6)  stability.  In  scanning 
these  claims  we  can  pass  over  the  first,  which  as  already 
mentioned,  is  obvious;  there  are  simply  two  steam  valves  to 
open.  The  second  deserves  some  consideration.  The  oper- 
ating steam  in  passing  through  the  nozzles  decreases  in 
pressure,  and  consequently  in  temperature,  and  also,  after 
passing  through  the  nozzles,  does  work  in  accelerating  the 
velocity  of  the  air,  increasing  its  temperature  and  com- 
pressing it.  There  is  also  a  small  amount  of  heat  lost  due 
to  friction  in  passing  through  the  diffuser  portion  of  the 


heat  units  of  the  steam  used  in  the  first-stage  ejector,  which 
amount  to  an  appreciable  percentage  of  the  total  heat 
units  used  on  the  whole  apparatus,  are  dissipated  and  lost. 
The  makers  give  this  percentage  as  about  33.  Another 
reason  for  dispensing  with  the  auxiliary  condenser  will  be 
apparent  from  the  following.  In  all  steam-operated 
ejectors  one  of  the  difficulties  that  have  to  be  contended 
with  is  the  fact  that  the  steam  leaves  the  nozzles  at  a 
velocity  varying  from  about  3000  to  3600  ft.  per  sec,  while 
the  velocity  of  the  fluid  to  be  entrained  is  practically  nil. 
This  is  the  cause  of  considerable  loss  of  efficiency  in  any 
ejector,  but  if  an  auxiliary  condenser  be  used  the  defect  is 
doubled,  because  the  velocity  of  the  fluid  to  be  entrained, 
which  has  been  imparted  to  it  by  the  operating  steam 
during  its  passage  through  the  first-stag&  ejector,  is  dissi- 
pated and  lost  as  soon  as  it  enters  the  condenser.  The 
cooling  water  used  on  the  auxiliary  condenser  has  to  be 
dealt  with   by  the  condensate  pump,   thus   increasing  the 


January  1,  1018 


r  u  w  11,  n 


29 


power  absorbed  by  the  plant.  When  working  with  surface 
eondensers,  this  water  must  be  of  Kood  quality,  as  it  has  to 
be  returned  to  the  boilers. 

The  third  claim  relates  to  efficiency.  It  is  well  known 
that  ordinary  single-stage  ejectors  only  work  well  when 
the  compression  ratio  is  as  1 :  7,  and  it  is  partly  for  this 
reason  that  the  Breguet  Co.  has  introduced  the  auxiliary 
condenser,  so  that  the  vacuum  obtaining  in  this  condenser 
is  about  25.6  in.  with  the  barometer  at  30  in.,  the  compres- 
sion being  approximately  as  11:  76,  or,  roughly,  1:  7.  The 
over-all  efficiency  of  this  plant  is,  therefore,  apparently 
still  further  reduced,  because  air  is  admitted  from  the 
atmosphere  into  the  auxiliary  condenser,  which  is  under  a 
vacuum  of  25.6  in.,  and  this,  together  with  the  air  from  the 
condenser,  has  also  to  be  ejected  by  the  secondary  ejector 
to  the  atmosphei-e. 

When  Professor  Leblanc  set  out  to  design  his  ejector  he 
foresaw  the  possibility  of  using  an  intermediate  condenser, 


number  of  nozzles  is  30,  and  those  have  a  throat  diameter 
of  5.2  mm.  when  using  operating  steam  at  90  lb.  per  square 
inch. 

Professor  Leblanc,  in  his  paper  of  1911  to  L'Association 
Technique  Maritime,  says  that  "the  operating  steam 
entrains  the  air  by  friction.  During  entrainment  it  is  the 
velocity  of  the  steam  which  is  utilized,  and  not  its  kinetic 
energy." 

Calling  M  the  weight  of  operating  steam  used  per  second, 
r  its  velocit.v  at  the  outlet  of  the  nozzles,  m  the  weight  of 
air  drawn  in  per  second,  and  W  the  velocity  of  the  mixture 
of  air  and  steam,  then 

MV  =    (M  4-  -m)   W 

m  W- 
The  ratio  of  the  kinetic  energy,  — ^ — ,   of  the  air  drawn 

MV- 
in  to  the  kinetic  energy,      -^  -,  contained  in  the  operating 


0 

05 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
40 
4.5 
5.0 


3__»si 1^ 


12345  67  8  9 

Diameter  of  Nozzle  in  'P^ 

0        10       20        50      40       60      ftO       70       60       90       100      110     120 

Pounds  of"  Air  deal1"  wi+h  per   Hour 


o 

c 


E 

D 
u 


26 
26 

^ 

^ 

^ 

Y 

/ 

22 
20 
IS 
16 
14 
12 
10 
6 
6 
4 

</ 

r 

J 

/ 

/ 

.■^y 

A 

0< 

t? 

/ 

u 

.£ 

/f 

,v7 

A 

& 

? 

/ 

t^' 

^/ 

¥ 

/ 

/^ 

< 

// 

■? 

// 

0 

L 

2     3     4      5      6      7 
Ti  me      i  n 


6     9     10    II    12    13    14   15 
Minu+es 


PIG.  9. 


CAPACITIES   OP  VARIOUS   SIZES    OF 
MULTIJECTOR  PUMPS 


FIG.    10.      TIME   REQUIRED   TO    START   HICK-BREGUET 
EJECTAIR  AND  MIRRLEES-LEBL.\NC  MULTIJECTOR 


but  he  also  appreciated  its  disadvantages  and  decided  to  do 
without  it  if  at  all  possible.  At  the  same  time  he  knew 
that  it  was  essential  to  use  two  stages  in  order  to  get  a 
stable  and  efficient  ejector.  With  this  end  in  view,  certain 
steam  nozzles  were  designed  on  the  lines  of  the  formulas 
of  Professor  Rateau,  and  the  action  of  the  steam  issuing 
from  these  nozzles  when  under  high  vacuum  was  directly 
observed.  The  result  is  shown  by  Fig.  7.  The  steam  issuing 
from  the  mouth  of  the  nozzle  expands  and  contracts  alter- 
nately, ultimately  assuming  a  section  of  constant  area.  It 
was  found  that  a  number  of  these  nozzles  grouped  together 
gave  far  better  results  than  a  single  nozzle  of  the  same 
throat  area  as  the  group  of  nozzles.  The  reason  for  this  is 
to  a  large  extent  due  to  the  fact  that  the  alternate  increas- 
ing and  decreasing  of  the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  steam 
stream  is  minimized  by  the  contact  of  one  steam  stream 
with  the  next,  when  groups  of  nozzles  are  employed,  and 
this  helps  considerably  to  increase  the  surface  available  for 
the  entrainment  of  the  air  and  gases.  This  entrainment  is 
carried  on  mainly  by  friction,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  if  an 
appreciable  amount  of  gas  has  to  be  dealt  with,  the  fric- 
tional  surface  exposed  to  the  gas  has  to  be  as  large  as 
possible.  It  is  also  inversely  proportional  to  the  density  of 
the  gas  or  fluid. 

The  number  and  size  of  the  nozzles  depends  entirely  on 
the  space  available  in  the  diffuser,  and  keeping  within  the 
limits  of  workshop  practice.  The  smallest  number  employed 
by  the  Mirrlees  Watson  Co.  is  three,  each  of  which  has  a 
throat  diameter  of  1  mm.  These  are  first-stage  nozzles. 
On  the  largest  size  of  pump,  and  in  the  second  stage,  the 


steam    as   it   comes   out   of    the   nozzles   can    therefore    be 
stated  as 


mM 


(M  -h  m)' 


so  that  when 


M 


=      1 


mM 


-=  0.25,  0.222,  0.187,  0.160,  0.139 


This  shows  that  if  the  utilization  of  the  kinetic  energy  is 
to  be  the  basis  of  the  design,  then  for  maximum  efficiency 

,    .         ,  .  air   dealt   with 

it  IS  necessary  to  bring  the  ratio  ^pirating  steam   used    ^' 

near  to  unity  as  possible. 

M.  Leblanc  continues:  "We  tried  to  diminish  the  loss  of 
kinetic  energy  by  producing  at  the  entrance  of  the  diffuser 
a  higher  vacuum  than  was  necessary,  so  that  the  fluid 
drawn  in  came  in  contact  with  the  operating  stoam  with  a 
considerable  velocity.  If  the  efficiency  of  the  diffuser  could 
be  brought  almost  to  unity,  we  could  add  considerably  to  the 
over-all  efficiency,  but  this  has  been  found  to  be  impractic- 
able. Following  on  this,  it  was  sug.gc.sted  to  use  puffs  of 
steam  after  the  manner  of  steam  coming  out  of  locomotive 
chimneys,  but  the  complications  involved  in  making  arrange- 
ments ifor  stopping  the  inlet  of  air  during  each  puft"  were 
such  that  it  would  have  been  easier  to  use  a  centrifugal 
compressor.  Afterward  we  tried  to  compensate  for  the  bad 
efficiency  due  to  frictional  entrainment  by  transforming 
heat  into  kinetic  energy  in  the  nozzles.     Superheating  the 


30 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


operating  steam,  although  so  useful  for  turbine  work,  is, 
however,  not  good  for  an  ejector,  because  it  is  more  difficult 
to  effect  compression  in  the  diffuser,  which  outweighs  the 
advantages  oljtained  in  the  nozzles.  The  next  scheme  was 
to  use  hot  water  in  the  nozzles,  but  this  also  proved  unsuc- 
cessful." 

After  numerous  other  trials  it  was  decided  that  fentrain- 
ment  by  friction  was  most  economical,  and  various  types  of 
diffusers  and  different  groupings  of  nozzles  were  experi- 
mented with,  until  the  present  ejector,  as  shown  in  Figs.  5 
and  6,  was  decided  to  be  the  most  suited  for  condenser  work. 
To  go  through  the  various  stages  in  detail  which  led  up  to 
this  design  would  take  up  too  much  time.  With  the  form 
of  ejector  adopted  it  has  been  found  that  the  efficiency  of 
the  nozzle  is  on  an  average  85  per  cent.,  while  that  of  the 
diffuser  is  70  per  cent.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  ejector 
agrees  very  well  with  the  ideal  ejector  which  Professor 
Leblanc  had  in  his  mind.  The  first  stage,  which  consists  of 
a  small  group  of  nozzles,  serves  a  triple  purpose,  inasmuch 


HANDWMEEL^ 


?^ 


v/y//////////////////////////>///////////////y>/////////////////y 


FIG.     11. 


MULTIJECTORS    AT     SCOTTISH    CENTRAL   ELECTRIC 
POWER  CO.,  BONNYBRIDGE 


as  it  effects  a  certain  amount  of  compression,  heats  up  the 
entrained  air,  and  gives  it  considerable  velocity,  and  con- 
sequently an  increase  in  momentum.  The  second  stage  has 
a  larger  number  of  nozzles,  and  it  is  here  where  the  major 
portion  of  the  work  is  done,  the  air  being  compressed  from 
approximately  26  in.  vacuum  up  to  something  more  than 
atmospheric  pressure.  To  be  more  accurate,  the  steam  used 
in  the  first  stage  is  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  total. 

In  support  of  the  fourth  advantage  which  this  air  pump 
is  supposed  to  possess,  the  following  figures  were  obtained 


on  the  French  torpedo-destroyer  "Boutefeu."  The  turbines 
were  stopped,  but  steam  was  on  the  glands.  The  volume 
to  be  evacuated  was  about  635  cu.ft.  After  1  min.  the 
vacuum  was  6i;;  in.,  2  min.  15  in.,  3  min.  221*  in.,  4  min. 
25i's  in.,  5  min.  26%  in.,  and  6  min.  27i's  in.  The  theoretical 
vacuum  corresponding  to  the  temperature  of  the  water,  67.1 
deg.  F,;  namely,  28^/4  in.,  was  attained  in  11  min.  It  was 
also  arranged  later  to  allow  certain  known  air  leakages  to 
enter  the  condenser.  With  a  5-mm.  nozzle,  which  passes 
36.2  lb.  of  free  air  per  hour,  the  vacuum  dropped  only  %  in. 
With  a  15-mm.  nozzle,  which  is  equivalent  to  326  lb.  of 
air  per  hour,  the  vacuum  was  21  Vi  in.  With  an  inch 
cock  full  open  it  took  11  min.  for  the  vacuum  to  fall 
to  12  V4  in.,  at  which  figure  the  mercury  column  remained 
steady.  On  closing  the  regulating  valve  below  the  nozzle, 
the  vacuum  at  once  rose  and  attained  the  maximum  almost 
immediately.  There  is  a  central  station  near  Glasgow 
where  this  type  of  apparatus  is  at  work  with  a  multijet 
condenser.      Sometimes   when   changing   machines   there   is 

liability  partially  to  lose  the 
water  for  a  minute  or  so,  but 
none  of  the  staff  ever  have  to 
trouble  about  the  ejectors, 
and  as  soon  as  the  water 
comes  back  again  the  vacuum 
at  once  builds  up,  and  the  set 
is  never  shut  down  through 
failure  of  the  air  pumps.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  case 
above  stated,  it  is  highly  prob- 
able that  during  the  period 
that  the  water  supply  to  the 
condenser  is  very  small  there 
is  an  air  passage  between  the 
water  spaces  of  the  other 
condensers  in  the  station  and 
the  multijet  plant  which 
would  allow  of  a  vei-y  exces- 
sive quantity  of  air  getting 
into  the  condenser  on  load. 
This  also  shows  that  stability, 
the  sixth  claim,  is  another 
salient  point.  That  high 
vacuum  can  be  obtained  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  this 
apparatus  is  now  being  used 
in  the  French  Navy  and 
mei'cantile  marine,  as  well  as 
on  some  land  installations  for 
refrigerating  purposes,  and  in- 
stallations are  at  work  where 
the  maximum  vacuum  obtained  is  within  1  mm.  of  the 
barometer.  For  condensers  the  best  results  yet  obtained 
by  the  French  Westinghouse  company  ai-e  within  5  mm. 
of    the    barometer. 

From  the  foregoing  it  would  appear  that  this  type  of  air 
pump  is  ideal  for  use  on  board  ship,  and  particularly  in 
the  navy,  where  space  is  so  valuable  and  weight  of  such 
consideration,  and  to  illustrate  this  point  Fig.  8  has  been 
produced,  and  represents  to  the  same  scale  an  Edwards 
air   pump,   Leblanc   rotary   air   pump,   and   Leblanc   multi- 


T.\BLE  I      OFFICI.\L  TEST  OF  Nt).  18  M    J   CONDE.N'SING  PL.WT  WITH  .MOTOR-DRIVEN  WATER-EXTRACTIN'G  PU.MP.  I-SIZE 
"G"  AND  1-SIZE  "I"  MVLTI.IECTOR  AIR  PUMP  I.NSTALLED  AT  THE  SCOTTISH  CENTRAL  ELECTRIC  POWER  COMPANY. 

LIMITED,  BONNYBRIDGE 

Duty — 50,000  lb.  steam  per  hour. 

Vacuum — 28. 5  in.  (barometer  30  in.). 

Injection  water — 3.800  gallons  per  minute,  temperature  63  deg.  F. 

Air  pump  capacity — 84  lb.  air  per  hour  with  guaranteed  vacuum  and  water  temperature. 

Large  ejector  to  operate  condenser  alone  on  loads  over  one-third  and  up  to  two-thirds  full  load. 

Small  ejector  to  work  alone  on  loads  of  one-third  full  load  and  under. 

Both  ejectors  to  work  on  loads  over  two-thirds  full  load. 


< 

Steam  Press. 

Injection 

Ejeeto 

Steam 

Time 

Baro- 

Press, on 

Press, 

Volts 

Amps        P.F 

Kw 

Turh.i 

Condr. 

meter 

"G" 

"I" 

Turbine  Inlet 

Outlet 

Gage 

.\mps. 

Volts 

R.P.M 

8.45  p.m. 

6,350 

130         0  75 

1.070 

28    1 

28  2 

29  8 

120 

Shut 
off 
130 

152 

5 

58/60 

440 

480 

6.350 

266         0  7 

2.000 

28   5 

28.5 

29  66 

122 

152 

43 

70  0 

4 

60 

440 

480 

12.0    m..    . 

6.350 

280         0  7 

2.152 

28  6 

28  5 

29  63 

122 

125 

152 

43 

70  0 

41 

59 

440 

480 

12.5    p.ni 

6.400 

270         0  7 

2,090 

28  2 

29.63 

Shut 

125 

152 

43 

70  0 

v. 

59 

440 

480 

2.15  p.m 

6,400 

325         0  75 

2,700 

28  2 

28  25 

29  59 

125 

150 

150 

43 

72  5 

5 

62i 

440 

480 

2.45  p.m 

6,450 

345          0   76 

2,V70 

28  2 

28  3 

29  59 

125 

157 

157 

43 

72  5 

5 

62i 

440 

480 

6.500 

280         0  74 

2.330 

28  2 

28  4 

29  6 

I22S 

160 

153 

43 

65  5 

4 

62! 

440 

480 

3.30  p.m 

6,500 

230         0  7 

1.182 

28  5 

28  5 

29  6 

120 

150 

154 

43 

65  5 

2 

23 

440 

480 

Januiuy  1,  1918 


POWER 


31 


jcotor  for  a  steam  duty  on  a  surface  condenser  of  40,000  lb. 
per  hour,  water  at  60  detr.  F.,  vacuum  28 '/2  In-,  and  barom- 
eter 30  in.  The  weights  arc  approximately  20,832  lb.,  4480 
lb.,  and  97  lb.,  respectively.  For  land  work  it  is  equally 
suitable,  and  will  soon  supersede  the  rotary  pump  in  many 
power  stations.  For  sufrar  refineries,  chemical  and  other 
allied  works  it  should  prove  exceptionally  attractive  and 
take  the  place  of  many  reciprocating  dry  air  pumps. 

It  may  be  advisable  to  point  out  here  that  this  pump  is 
purely  a  dry  air  pump,  so  that  for  surface  condensers  an 
additional  water  or  condensate  pump  is  still  required,  and 
for  jet  plants  the  usual  extraction  pump. 

Fig.  9  shows  the  air-dealing  capacity  of  various  sizes  of 
multijector  pumps  taken  from  the  actual  tests.  The  maxi- 
mum vacuum  in  each  case  is  equivalent  to  the  theoretical, 
the  slight  difference  at  the  origin  of  the  curves  being  due 
to  the  different  test  conditions. 

The  table  of  tests,  I,  is  taken  from  a  plant  installed  at 
the  Scottish  Central  Power  Station  at  Bonnybridge  at  a 
date  six  months  after  the  plant  was  put  on  commercial  load. 
This  company  has  just  decided  to  order  another  plant,  and 
has  specified  Mirrlees-Leblanc  multijector  air  pumps. 

Fig.  10  shows  the  time  taken  to  start  up  a  Hick-Breguet 
ejectair  and  a  Mirrlees-Leblanc  multijector. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  considerable  improvements  have 
been  effected  in  air-pump  design  during  the  last  few  years, 
nevertheless  there  is  still  room  for  further  progress,  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  when  the  British  engineer  has  time 
once  again  for  research  work  we  shall  have  to  drop  all  our 
present-day  notions  of  efficient  air  pumps  for  a  type  which 
will  render  all  others  obsolete. 

Fig.  11  shows  installation  of  multijector  air  pumps  at 
Scottish  Central  Electric  Power  Co.,  Bonnybridge. 


Secretary  for  Joint  Activities  of 
Engineering  Societies 

For  economy  of  administration  and  the  furtherance  of 
cooperation  among  organizations  representing  the  profes- 
sion, the  United  Engineering  Society,  the  Engineering 
Foundation  and  the  Engineering  Council  recently  decided 
to  join  in  one  suite  of  offices  in  the  Engineering  Societies' 
Building  and  engage  a  joint  secretary.  For  this  position 
the  engineer  selected  is  Alfred  Douglas  Flinn,  now  deputy 
chief  engineer  of  the  Board  of  Water-Supply  of  the  City  of 
New  York. 

The  United  Engineering  Society  was  formed  some  years 
ago  by  the  National  Societies  of  Civil,  Mining,  Mechanical 
and  Electrical  Engineers  to  coordinate  joint  activities  and 
provide  for  holding  property  in  common.  This  body  acts 
as  the  holding  company  for  the  four  founder  societies  and 
is  landlord  of  the  Engineering  Societies'  Building  in  New 
York,  in  which  the  founder  societies  have  headquarters.  In 
it  also  is  vested  the  title  to  the  library  housed  in  the  same 
building,  which,  with  the  recent  addition  of  the  collection 
of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  is  now  the 
most  important  engineering  library  in  the  country. 

The  Engineering  Foundation  Board  was  created,  as  a 
department  of  the  United  Engineering  Society,  to  adminis- 
ter the  endowment  made  by  Ambrose  Swasey  three  years 
ago  for  the  support  of  engineering  research  for  the  benefit 
of  the  profession  and  of  humanity.  The  large  sum  of  money 
he  gave  will  form,  it  is  hoped,  the  nucleus  to  which  other 
gifts  will  be  added. 

The  last  of  the  three  organizations  which  are  to  have  a 
joint  secretary  is  the  Engineering  Council.  For  years  it 
has  been  recognized  that  there  were  certain  activities  affect- 
ing engineers  which  could  not  be  properly  handled  by  any 
one  of  the  individual  engineering  professional  societies.  To 
meet  this  need  there  was  created  during  the  past  summer 
the  Engineering  Council  "for  the  proper  consideration  of 
questions  of  general  interest  to  engineers  and  to  th»  public, 
and  to  provide  the  means  for  united  action  upon  questions 
of  common  concern  to  engineers." 

Mr.  Flinn  was  born  in  New  Berlin,  Penn.,  in  18G9,  and 
was  graduated  from  Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute  in 
1893.     In  August,  1895,  he  became  a  member  of  the  eng^i- 


neering  staff  of  the  Metropolitan  Water-Works,  Boston,  and 
remained  with  that  organization  until  1902.  He  rose 
steadily  until  he  became  principal  office  assistant  under  the 
chief  engineer,  Frederic  P.  Stearns,  in  charge  of  designs 
of  the  Wachusett  Dam  and  other  structures  coming  under 
the  authority  of  the  Metropolitan  system.  During  the  latter 
years  with  this  organization  he  also  lectured  on  water-works 
and  sewerage  in  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. 

On  leaving  the  Metropolitan  Water-Works  Commission, 
he  became  managing  editor  of  the  Engineering  Record,  and 
continued  in  that  capacity  until  August,  1904,  when  he  was 
appointed  general  inspector  of  the  Croton  Aqueduct  Com- 
missioners. About  a  year  later,  upon  the  organization  of 
the  Board  of  Water-Supply  of  the  City  of  New  York,  which 
was  established  to  build  the  new  Catskill  Aqueduct  and  its 
appurtenant  structures,  he  became  department  engineer  in 
charge  of  the  headquarters  department.     He  continued  as 


ALFRED  DOUGLAS  FLIN'N 

department  engineer  until  August,  1914,  when  he  was  made 
deputy  chief  engineer.  He  has  continued  in  that  capacity 
until  his  election  to  the  secretaryship  referred  to  in  this 
article. 

Mr.  Flinn  brings  to  his  new  position  a  broad  executive 
and  organizing  experience.  He  is  a  member  of  the  board  of 
direction  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  and 
chairman  of  its  committee  on  publications. 


In  relation  to  modern  engineering  no  one  man  can  be 
expected  to  possess  a  working  familiarity  with  the  whole. 
In  a  particular  sense  all  engineers  are  specialists,  though 
many  have  a  more  comprehensive  grasp  than  others.  To 
produce  the  best  it  is  above  all  things  essential  that  our 
knowledge  exceeds  the  demands  of  the  task  in  hand.  It  is 
therefore  urged  that  the  most  effective  method  by  which  to 
acquire  the  needed  broadening  of  knowledge  is  by  continual 
eading  and  study;  otherwise — notwithstanding  individual 
attainments — the  best  become  "outsiders"  and  back  numbers. 


32 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


Dr.  Garfield  on  the  Fuel  Situation 


I  shall  be  duly  appreciative,  gentlemen,  if  I  may  be 
privileged  to  answer  questions,  as  far  as  I  am  able,  rather 
than  to  undertake  to  set  forth  to  you  matters  concerning 
the    Fuel    Administration. 

The  United  States  Fuel  Administration  was  appointed 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  an  act  of  Congress  known  as  the  Lever 
Act.  Food  and  Fuel  were  provided  for  by  that  same  act. 
In  the  25th  Section  of  that  act,  provision  was  made  for 
the  Fuel  Administrator.  The  President  has  given  the 
Fuel  Administrator  all  the  power  that  he  himself  pos- 
sesses under  the  act. 

In  setting  up  an  organization,  the  difficulty  was  one 
that  you  gentlemen  will  appreciate,  who  have  at  any  time 
engaged  in  projecting  an  organization  to  carry  out  some 
large  purpose,  especially  if  the  carrying  out  of  that  pur- 
pose has  run  with  the  period,  or  run  with  the  activity  of 
organization.  To  build  your  house  and  live  in  it  at  the 
same  time  is  no  easy  task.  We  were  compelled  to  adopt 
a  working  hypothesis  to  govern  us  in  our  organization 
and  to  proceed  upon  that  hypothesis,  in  the  hope  that  our 
plan  would  be  a  workable  one. 

Organization   Scheme 

Briefly,  we  set  up  the  Federal  control  here  in  Wash- 
ington, appointed  the  State  Fuel  Administrators  in  each 
of  the  states  of  the  United  States  and  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  requested  each  one  of  those  fuel  administra- 
tors in  turn  to  appoint  county  and  municipal  adminis- 
trators, vested  in  the  state  fuel  administrators  full  power 
to  distribute  the  coal  within  the  state,  made  it  clear 
that  so  far  as  the  county  and  municipal  administrators 
and  their  committees  were  concerned,  the  administration 
here  at  Washington  delegated  full  power,  both  in  appoint- 
ment and  in  conti'ol  to  the  state  fuel  administrators.  It 
was,  you  see,  in  a  measure,  a  United  States — there  was 
the  Federal,  the  state,  the  county  and  the  municipal  ad- 
ministration. 

I  am  the  more  impressed  with  the  significance  of  this 
organization  just  at  the  present  time,  because  in  my 
native  state  (Ohio)  there  has  been  some  difficulty  re- 
flected in  the  morning  papers,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
Governor  Cox,  with  an  admirable  zeal  for  distributing  coal 
to  the  people  and  institutions  of  Ohio,  has  crossed  the 
lines  of  the  Federal  Fuel  Administrator,  Mr.  Johnson, 
thinking  thereby  to  accomplish  a  good  purpose.  But  it  is 
very  easy  to  see  that  if  coal  upon  the  tracks  consigned  in 
one  direction  is  taken,  as  it  may  be,  under  the  law,  by 
the  I'epresentative  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Adminis- 
trator and  diverted  to  an  immediate  need,  it  is  impossible 
that  there  shall  be  anything  other  than  confusion,  if 
some  other  authority  runs  across  that  plan  and  undertakes 
also   to   divert   coal. 

Let  me  touch  upon  one  policy  that  is  reflected  in  the 
organization,  and,  at  the  same  time,  has  intimately  to  do 
with  meeting  the  problem  presented.  The  United  States 
Fuel  Administration  isn't  responsible  for  the  way  coal  is 
deposited  in  the  eai'th.  If  we  take  the  right  view  of  it,  I 
think  we  will  admit  that  mankind  is  there  beholden,  as  in 
all  other  things,  to  the  Creator  of  the  Universe.  The  coal 
is  deposited  throughout  the  United  States  in  various  re- 
gions, and  obviously  to  allow  our  State  Administrators  to 
draw  upon  that  coal  and  limit  them,  won't  do,  because  in 
a  place  like  Ohio,  for  instance,  where  there  is  coal  in 
abundance,  the  State  Administrator  would  be  able  to  sup- 
ply the  people  of  Ohio  abundantly,  and  might,  if  he  were 
selfishly  disposed,  neglect  those  who  were  in  states  in 
which  no  coal  was  deposited.  Therefore,  from  the  begin- 
ning, I  have  pursued  the  plan  that  in  governing  produc- 
tion and  distribution  from  the  mines,  the  Federal,  that  is, 
the  United  States  Fuel  Administrator,  must  be  the  di- 
rector. On  the  other  hand,  when  it  comes  to  distributing 
the  coal  within  the  borders  of  the  state,  that  is  a  matter 
much  better  left  to  the  State  Fuel  Administrator. 


•Address  delivered  before  the  Editorial  Conference,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Thursday,  Dec.   13.  1917. 


Speaking  of  bituminous  coal,  we  are  this  year  produc- 
ing something  like  50,000,000  tons  more  coal  than  we 
produced  last  year,  and  last  year  was  a  recoi-d  year.  Some 
of  you  vdll  then  say:  "Why  is  there  a  shortage?"  Be- 
cause we  needed  100,000,000  tons  more  than  last  year. 
The  extra  50,000,000  tons  which  we  needed,  but  have 
not  had,  amount  to  the  same  thing  as  if  there  were  a 
shortage  of  supply.  The  extra  demand,  as  you  will  ap- 
preciate, comes  from  the  fact  that  the  United  States  is 
at  war,  that  our  manufacturing  enterprises  must  be  sup- 
plied with  coal,  that  the  railroads  of  the  country,  taxed 
beyond  their  powers,  must  have  more  coal  to  operate  as 
they  are  now  operating,  to  say  nothing  of  the  normal  in- 
crease in  the  call  for  domestic  coal. 

There  are  three  factors  entering  into  the  production — 
first,  the  operators,  then  the  mine  employees,  and  third, 
the  railroads.  Unless  each  one  of  those  is  working  at  effi- 
ciency, we  will   not  have  maximum   results   in   output. 

About  the  time  the  Federal  Fuel  Administrator  was 
appointed,  the  bituminous  interests  of  the  country  got  to- 
gether and  formed  a  national  organization.  Undoubtedly 
that  organization  has  desired  things  which  the  Federal 
Fuel  Administrator  hasn't  been  able  to  furnish;  possibly 
that  organization  may  entertain  ideals  of  policy  that  do 
not  appear  in  the  same  light  to  the  Federal  Fuel  Adminis- 
trator, but  if  that  latter  is  true,  I  haven't  yet  discovered  it. 

A  large  part  of  my  time  was  spent  during  the  first 
two  months,  and  indeed  much  of  my  time  is  still  occu- 
pied, with  bringing  together  operators  and  representa- 
tives of  labor,  who,  in  certain  fields  of  the  country,  are  not 
able  quickly  to  adjust  their  diflFerences,  and  I  have  just 
one  theme  that  I  always  present  to  those  gentlemen  when 
they  come  together,  and  it  is  this:  Whatever  our  contro- 
versy, wherever  the  right  lies,  make  sure  that  production 
continues  and  be  not  interrupted  by  reason  of  your  dis- 
pute.    That  theme  cannot  be  overemphasized. 

Labor  Has  Done  Its  Part 

I  also  wish  here  to  pay  tribute  to  labor,  because  the 
leaders,  the  conservative  element  in  labor,  has  caught  the 
idea  not  because  it  was  enunciated  by  me  (because  I  was 
only  one  voice  saying  the  same  thing) ,  but  because  it  is 
the  spirit  of  our  people  at  the  present  time  that  in  prose- 
cuting this  great  war,  in  meeting  the  emergency  which 
we  are  called  upon  to  meet  because  of  it,  labor,  realizing 
these  facts,  has  come  forward  in  the  very  best  of  spirit, 
saying  that  it  will  not  permit  labor  to  cease  to  do  its  part. 
Wherever  there  is  a  failure  in  that  program,  it  is  because 
of  the  inevitable  radical  element  that  we  find  in  every 
business   in   every   country. 

Now,  I  am  very  far  from  saying  that  no  good  comes  ou', 
of  radicalism.  Human  nature  is  so  constituted  that  there 
are  always  some  at  the  extreme  right  and  some  at  the  ex- 
treme left  of  every  proposition;  but  in  a  time  of  emer- 
gency, when  action  is  necessary,  when  we  must  spend  less 
time  in  deliberation,  when  it  is  not  feasible  to  educate 
everybody,  as  it  is  in  times  of  ordinary  conduct  of  affairs, 
it  is  perfectly  obvious  that  the  extremes  must  be  brought 
together  and  action  taken,  even  though  the  conservative 
thinks  that  we  are  going  to  wreck  and  ruin,  and  even  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  radical  believes  we  are  not 
going  nearly  far  enough.  So  then,  the  radical  element  in 
the  whole  field  has  been  a  disturbing  element,  but  it  has 
been  held  in  check  by  the  great  mass  of  the  workingmen 
in  the  coal  fields,  and  with  relatively  slight  interruptions 
production    has   gone    forward. 

Now,  it  is  a  significant  fact,  speaking  of  the  anthra- 
cite field,  that  with  the  total  amount  of  labor  in  normal 
times,  something  like  175,000  men  and  boys  at  the  mines 
were  reduced  by  25,000  because  of  the  draft  and  because 
of  the  fact  that  employment  elsewhere  has  appeared  more 
attractive.  But  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  are  only 
150,000  men  and  boys  laboring  in  the  anthracite  field  this 
year,  against  the  175,000  normally,  the  anthracite  mines 
have  produced  something  like  20  to  22  per  cent,  move 
coal   than   they   produced   a   year   ago.     That  plainly   is   s 


Jaiuiarv   1,   1018 


POWER 


33 


tiibuto    both    to    labor    and    to    those    who    are    conducting 
the  mines. 

Tliere  is  an  element  in  human  nature  that  we  ouRht  not 
to  lose  sight  of,  and  though  it  is  painful  to  comment  upon 
it,  gentlemen,  it  is  necessary  to  comment  upon  it;  the  sel- 
fishness of  human  nature,  the  disposition,  to  use  a  com- 
mon phrase,  to  hog  things.  Now,  there  has  been  a  great 
deal  of  that  sort  of  tiling  this  year.  It  has  extended  into 
the  households,  people  buying  more  coal  than  they  quite 
needed;  it  lias  found  its  way  more  naturally  into  the  fac- 
tories, anticipating  an  increase  of  business,  and  the  re- 
sult is  that  some,  many  indeed,  have  more  coal  than  usual, 
some  have  more  coal  than  they  need  for  the  entire  year, 
and  some  less  provident,  possibly  because  they  could  not 
provide    the    store    ahead,    are    without    coal. 

Diso;;ssioN 

J.  Chase:  Are  our  rivers  being  used  to  their  fullest 
extent  in  the  shipment  of  coal  at  the  present  time? 

Dr.  Garfield :  The  rivers  are  not  being  used  to  their 
fullest  extent;  one  may  say  the  same  thing  as  to  the 
railroads,  but  in  the  case  of  the  rivers,  the  accustomed 
channels  for  the  distribution  of  coal  had  been  provided 
otherwise.  Now,  whether  the  railroads  have  in  times  past, 
by  the  law  of  pi'Otection,  gotten  more  than  their  due  share 
of  the  coal  transportation,  I  am  not  prepared  to  say.  I 
know  that  when  it  came  to  the  question  of  using  the 
rivers  we  were  not  equipped  to  make  the  maximum  use  of 
them  that  should  have  been  made.  And,  of  course,  there 
was  no  time  to  provide  the  extra  equipment.  That  is 
being   provided   for   more   and   more,   however,   now. 

Mr.  Frost:  Why  is  it  that  coastwise  towns  like  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  have  to  pay  more  for  coal  than  interior  towns 
like   Worcester   and    Springfield? 

Dr.  Garfield:  Because  the  freights  by  water  have  gone 
up  largely  because  of  the  fact  that  the  ocean-going  tugs 
have  been   requisitioned  by   the   navy. 

May  I  say  in  that  connection  that  the  Governor  was  in 
my  office  and  I  gave  him  the  information  (Governor  Mc- 
Call,  I  refer  to),  that  I  have  just  arranged  within  a 
few  days  with  the  Secretary  of  War  and  with  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy  cooperating,  and  with  E.  N.  Hurley,  of 
the  Shipping  Board,  that  we  shall  have  the  supply  of 
ships   necessary   to   transport   our   coal   by   water. 

The  Secretary  of  War  stated  to  me  that  if  it  became 
necessary  to  do  so,  he  would  detail  mine  layers,  too  good 
for  the  operation,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  but  nevertheless 
quite  sufficient,  to  pull  the  barges  around  from  the  tide- 
water ports  here  to  New  England.  Also  Mr.  Hurley  is  di- 
recting that  certain  boats  brought  down  from  Montreal 
shall  be  put  into  the  New  England  trade;  and  further  than 
that,  I  am  making  a  request  (this  looks  foi'ward  to  an- 
other season)  that  the  new  shipbuilding  corporation  shall 
build  for  us  tugs  that  will  be  ready  for  service  by  the  time 
next    season    comes    around. 

Mr.  Williams:  Regarding  the  matter  of  utilities,  I  under- 
stand that  they  are  put  in  a  priority  class  for  consumption 
and  not  for  storage.  I  read  in  the  paper  this  morning  that 
two  plants  operating  in  large  industrial  centers  are  with- 
out a  sufficient  supply  of  coal  and  have  asked  industries  to 
close  down.  What  will  the  Fuel  Administration  do  with 
utilities  in  that  matter,  and  to  what  extent  will  this  supply 
be  for  current  use? 

Dr.  Garfield :  The  moment  we  receive  the  information 
that  a  public  utility  is  out  of  coal,  or  in  danger  of  being 
out  of  coal  within  a  few  days,  we  issue  the  orders  to  send 
coal  to  that  utility. 

Mr.  Williams:  Well,  the  Washington  papers  stated  that 
in  the  Baltimore  and  Pittsburgh  sections  the  Government 
had  to  request  industries  to  close  down — industries  using 
electrical  power — because  of  the  shortage  of  coal.  I  know 
that  the  priority  order  puts  the  utilities  in  a  class  where 
they  can  get  coal  for  current  consumption  (that  was  issued 
by  the  Food  Administration,  I  believe)  ;  now,  the  point 
I'd  like  to  ask  is  how  soon  can  these  companies  get  coal 
and  to  what  extent  will  they  be  kept  in  a  supply  of  coal, 
so  that  such  an  emergency  will  not  arise  and  so  the  ship- 
yards will  not  be  closed  down? 

Dr.  Garfield:  Any  utility  that  will  inform  us  of  its  im- 


pending lack  will  receive  supplies  of  coal;  that  is,  we  will 
issue  the  orders  right  off  to  divert  to  those  utilities  enough 
coal  to  keep  them  going. 

Now,  a  severe  spell  of  weather,  such  as  we  have  just 
had,  may  defeat  the  arrival  of  that  coal  in  time,  but  all 
we  can  say  about  that  is  that  that  is  liable  to  happen  any 
season,  and  furthermore  that  the  utility  should  speak 
far  enough  ahead  and  speak  in  the  right  form. 

A  mistake  is  made  by  not  coming  to  the  right  place.  If 
the  utility  will  let  the  State  Fuel  Administrator  know  the 
necessity,  and  the  State  Fuel  Administrator  will  there- 
upon inform  this  office  here,  immediately  orders  will  be 
sent  out  to  certain  specified  mines. 

A.  L.  Pindley:  May  I  ask.  Dr.  Garfield,  as  to  the  status 
of  the  proposal  to  pool  quantities  of  the  mines? 

Dr.  Garfield:  The  Ohio  pool  is  the  one  that  has,  so  to 
speak,  the  best  stock.  Homer  Johnson,  the  Fuel  Adminis- 
trator for  Ohio,  brought  the  suggestion  to  me  (whether  it 
originated  with  him  or  with  the  operators  in  Ohio,  I  can't 
say),  about  the  Ohio  pool.  It  is  a  terminal  pool,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  pool  at  the  center.  It  is  working  out, 
so  far  as  I  can  learn,  well.  It  is  only  in  the  early  days  of 
its  organization. 

Mr.  Pindley:  I  wondered  whether  a  manufacturer  who 
had  a  partial  supply  of  fuel  for  his  gas  producers,  for 
example,  and  for  his  byproduct  too,  and  ordinarily  bought 
a  supply  of  coal  in  the  market,  whether  his  own  supply 
of  coal  would  go  into  a  pool  supply  in  case  there  was  a 
pooling,  or  whether  the  pooling  of  the  coal  would  be  a 
pooling  of  the  merchant  supply,  or  whether  the  mine  or  his 
company  would  have  to  throw  supply  of  coal  into  the  pool. 

Dr.  Garfield :  The  whole  supply  would  go  from  the  ship- 
per; that  is,  the  operator,  the  mine  would  go  into  the  pool. 

Mr.  Pindley:  If  you  were  a  producing  consumer  of  coal 
your  own  coal  would  go  into  the  general  pool  and  you  would 
only  get  perhaps  a  part  of  the  coal  that  you  yourself 
produced;   that  is,  your  normal   supply  might  be   reduced? 

Dr.  Garfield:  I  am  not  informed  whether  those  who  are 
producing  coal  entirely,  exclusively  for  their  own  use,  have 
consented  to  go  into  the  pool  or  not.  Perhaps  Mr.  Morrow, 
knows.     Have  you  any  such,  Mr.  Morrow,  in  the  pool? 

Mr.  Morrow:  1  can't  answer  that  specifically,  but  the 
point  of  his  question,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  byproduct 
coal,  may  be  answered  in  this  way:  Byproduct  coal  needed 
in  any  plant  will  not  be  moved.  'That  coal  ordinarily  moves 
in  solid  trainloads,  and  will  not  be  interfered  with.  That 
refers  to  companies  who  have  their  own  mines.  They  are 
not  included  in  the  pools  now,  but  later  on  may  be  included. 

W.  C.  Baker:  Mr.  Morrow  in  his  address  to  us  emphasized 
the  effect  of  car  shortage  in  reducing  the  output  of  the 
mines,  and  the  questiofi  was  being  discussed  as  you  came  in, 
to  what  extent  various  causes  were  operating  to  produce 
that  car  shortage.  I'd  like  to  inquire  to  what  extent  there 
is  congestion  in  the  tidewater  and  other  important  ter- 
minals. Is  it  not  a  fact  that  a  large  amount  of  freight  is 
tied  up  in  the  terminal  yards  and  makes  it  very  difficult 
to  have  coal  cars  promptly  and  ties  them  up  too  long  a 
time  in  their  shipment,  so  that  they  are  slower  getting  back 
to   the   mine? 

Dr.  Garfield:  Undoubtedly  that  contributes  to  it.  When 
a  crowd  of  vehicles  and  cars  are  tied  up  at  a  street  corner, 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  which  car  or  vehicle  is  producing 
the  trouble — they  are  all  producing  it.  And  yet,  it  is  true 
that  the  congestion  at  the  terminals  is  one  large  contributing 
factor,  perhaps  the  largest  of  any. 

Mr.  'Taylor:  To  what  extent  does  the  authority  of  the 
Fuel  Administration  extend  in  ordering  a  mine  to  ship 
coal  to   the  transportation   company? 

Dr.  Garfield :  I  think  it  extends  a  good  deal  further  than 
some  other.  The  reading  of  the  act  is  that  the  Fuel  Ad- 
ministration has  control  of  the  apportionment  and  shipping 
of  coal — I  haven't  hesitated,  therefore,  but  another  section 
states  that  all  the  agencies  of  the  Government  shall  per- 
form such  service  as  the  Fuel  Administrator  may  require 
of  them.  If  the  railroads  were  controlled  by  the  Govern- 
ment, the  task  would  be  simple,  I  could  then  issue  the 
order.  Railroads  being  in  private  hands,  I  can  ask  for 
priority  orders  and  make  requests  of  them,  but  I  haven't 
any  power  to  force  the  railroads  to  do  a  thing  asked  for. 


34 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


M.  C.  Robbins:  Mr.  Morrow  expressed  the  opinion  that 
the  reason  for  the  coal  shortage  is  the  lack  of  cars  by  the 
railroads.  You  mentioned  an  important  reason  for  the 
coal  shortage:  the  demand  for  50,000,000  tons  of  coal  to  be 
produced.  From  other  sources,  it  has  been  said  that  the 
fixing  of  the  low  price  for  bituminous  coal  has  discouraged 
the  output  of  a  great  many  mines.  I'd  like  to  ask  if  all 
three  of  these  things  are  the  cause,  or  if  there  is  any  differ- 
ence  in   importance   in   these   three   things. 

Dr.  Garfield:  Undoubtedly  the  fixing  of  a  lower  price 
than  the  operators  had  hoped  would  be  fixed,  played  its 
part,  and  yet  I  can't  prove  it.  It  looks  as  if  the  proof 
went  the  other  way.  The  President's  order  went  out 
on  Aug.  21,  and  the  second  order  on  Aug.  23.  The 
reports  of  production  for  the  weeks  beginning  with,  I 
think,  the  18th  and  straight  along  for  the  next  few 
weeks,  increased  each  week;  there  was  a  larger  production 
each  week  than  the  preceding  week,  and  a  larger  produc- 
tion than  the  year  before.  So  it  is  difficult  to  say  that 
the  appearance  of  the  President's  order  fixing  the  price 
halted  production.  In  fact,  only  in  one  week  since  the 
President's  order  has  come  out,  was  there  a  drop  that  was 
materially  below  the  production  of  last  year,  and  the  aver- 
age is  considerably  above. 

Mr.  Frost:  I  am  in  some  way  connected  with  the  public 
schools  of  our  city.  Tomorrow  we  have  to  determine 
whether  or  not  we  shall  declare  a  vacation  for  the  winter 
for  the  purpose  of  conserving  coal.  I'd  like  to  know  what 
Dr.  Garfield's  opinion  is  on  that  important  matter. 

Dr.  Garfield:  My  judgment  about  that  is  that  it  is  very 
poor  economy,  unless  we  are  actually  forced  to  do  it,  in  a 
community  to  shut  down  schools. 

R.  Sherman :  Can  you  tell  us  anything  about  how  much 
coal  is  saved  by  cutting  out  electric  illumination  at  night? 

Dr.  Garfield:  I  wish  I  could  give  you  accurate  figures.  I 
am  disappointed  in  the  results.  I  think  the  result  was  less 
productive  of  saving  than  we  expected  it  would  be,  and  I 
shall  change  the  order;  but  I  don't  propose  by  any  means 
to  give  up  the  idea  of  saving  in  the  United  States  on  signs 
and  white  ways.  We  want  to  interfere  less  with  business 
and  accomplish  better  results. 

Mr.  Baldwin:  Dr.  Garfield,  I'd  like  to  present  this  matter, 
where  an  industry  depends  upon  its  own  power  for  this 
service,  but  has  difficulty  in  obtaining  its  coal,  and  the 
proposition  is  made  by  the  public  service  corporation  for 
shutting  down  its  plant;  are  the  chances  better  for  the 
company  to  unite  with  the  public-service  corporation  en- 
gaged in  furnishing  electricity  for  power  than  to  depend 
upon  the  Fuel  Administrator  for  the  necessary  coal  to  keep 
the  plant  running,  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  same  coal 
could  be  burnt  in  either   instance? 

Dr.  Garfield:  I  doubt  if  one  could  answer  that  clearly, 
except  in  a  specific  case.  I  should  say,  nevertheless,  at- 
tempting to  answer  it  generally,  that  there  is  more  economy 
in  working  through  public  utilities;  but  if,  on  the  other 
hand,  your  public  utility  is  already  overloaded,  obviously 
you  have  got  to  resort  to  some  other  way.  If  your  public 
utility  is  so  located  that  it  has  peculiar  difficulty  in  getting 
its  coal  supply,  one  would  answer  the  question  otherwise, 
so  that  while  I  would  answer  it  in  that  way  in  general,  I 
would  have  to  recognize  the  existence  of  several  exceptions. 

Mr.  Tipples:  I'd  like  to  ask  if  the  price  had  been  higher 
and  production  at  the  mines  greater,  would  it  be  of  any 
value,  under  present  conditions,  or  are  we  producing  all 
the  coal  that  we  can  handle? 

Dr.  Garfield:  That  question  is  a  very  pertinent  one,  be- 
cause it  is  obviously  true  that  if  the  roads  are  now  clogged 
and  can't  deliver  what  we  have  on  the  rail,  how  much  worse 
position  would  they  have  been  in  if  we  had  produced  more 
coal  from  the  mines.  I  think  that  the  transportation  sys- 
tem of  the  country,  as  it  stands  today,  is  not  able  to  take 
care  of  more  than  is  now  being  produced.  I  think  it  may 
be  possible  to  transport  more  under  the  arrangements  which 
are  now  in  the  making. 

Mr.  Stone:  Is  a  comprehensive  plan  in  the  making  pro- 
viding a  release  of  ocean  tugs  for  coastwise  and  Lake  traffic 
to  meet  conditions  next  fall  and  winter? 

Dr.  Garfield:   Yes,  it  is. 

Mr.  Black:   To  what  extent  have  the  public-service  com- 


missions been  willing  to  cooperate  with  plans  of  your  de- 
partment in  regard  to  the  economy  suggested  by  you  for 
public  utilities? 

Dr.  Garfield:  No  sufficient  return  has  been  received  yet 
to  answer  that.  So  far  as  I  know,  there  is  no  disposition 
to  do  other  than  cooperate. 

Mr.  Lockwood:  Has  anything  been  done  to  increase  the 
production  of  power  for  industries  by  use  of  v.-ater  power? 

Dr.  Garfield:  No  efforts  are  being  put  forth  to  introduce 
any  substitutions  of  that  kind,  because  they  won't  meet 
with  the  present  emergency.  Where  there  are  hydro- 
electric operations,  however,  the  request,  of  course,  is  that 
they  depend  as  far  as  possible  upon  the  water  power,  and 
indeed  they  would  do  it  without  our  asking,  because  it 
is  a  cheaper  way.  There  are  many  good  plans  of  various 
kinds  that  could  be  introduced  if  we  had  time  to  introduce 
them.  I  want  to  say  in  that  connection  that  report  came 
to  me  last  week  that  a  good  many  of  the  hydro-electric 
operations  in  the  country  (this  person  happened  to  have 
come  from  the  South)  have  stocked  up  with  more  coal  than 
they  need  under  the  circumstances,  so  I  suspect  that  that 
is  one  of  the  places  where  coal  has  been  taken  on  in  larger 
quantities  than  it  need  be. 

A.  I.  Findley:  Do  you  consider  the  coal  shortage  more 
difficult  than  the  fuel-oil  shortage  just  now,  whether  you  are 
considering  substituting  fuel  oil  for  coal  in  industry. 

Dr.  Garfield :  I  should  say  that  fuel  oil  is  in  the  long  run 
less  serious;  the  coal  is  more  serious  because  it  happens 
that  our  large  munitions  factories  are  depending  upon  coal, 
not  for  fuel  oil — that  is,  in  larger  proportion. 

Essex  Power  Plant  Shut  Down 

At  5:30  Wednesday  morning,  Dec.  19,  one  of  the  instru- 
ment potential  transformers  on  one  of  the  25,000-kv.-a. 
units  (No.  1  unit)  in  the  Essex  Power  Plant  of  the  Public 
Service  Electric  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J.,  broke  down  and  caused 
a  very  destructive  burnout  of  the  generator  cables  between 
the  machine  and  oil  switch.  Although  the  trouble  amounted 
to  practically  a  short-circuit  of  the  generator  terminals,  the 
unit  was  not  injured.  Nevertheless,  the  nature  of  the  burn- 
out made  it  impossible  to  get  the  machine  back  into  service. 

At  the  time  of  the  trouble  the  two  25,000-kv.-a.  units, 
which  are  at  present  installed  in  this  station,  were  in  service 
and  carrying  a  load  of  36,000  kv.-a.  When  No.  2  unit  picked 
up  the  overload,  its  turbine  developed  a  knock  that  was 
considered  serious  enough  to  shut  the  machine  down  so  as 
to  investigate  the  trouble  rather  than  take  a  chance  of  more 
serious  developments.  This  left  the  station  dead  and  com- 
pelled the  company  to  reduce  its  system's  load  by  25,000 
kw.,  which  could  not  be  taken  care  of  by  the  other  plants  on 
the  system.  By  putting  jumpers  from  No.  1  unit  to  the 
switches  on  No.  2,  No.  1  machine  was  back  into  service  by 
2:30  in  the  afternoon,  and  by  4:30  the  next  day  the  trouble 
was  cleared  up  and  both  machines  back  into  service,  which  is 
a  remarkably  short  time  to  make  repairs  of  this  magnitude. 

When  No.  2  turbine  was  opened,  what  appeared  to  have 
been  a  rub  on  one  of  the  wheels  was  the  only  indication  of 
what  had  caused  the  knock.  This  was  remedied  and  the 
turbine  put  back  into  service  without  further  developments. 

The  next  morning  after  the  accident  at  the  Essex  Plant, 
the  company  had  to  curtail  its  service  for  a  short  period  at 
its  Marion  plant,  owing  to  low  steam  pressure,  on  account 
of  the  heavy  overload  this  plant  was  carrying  during  the 
peak  period  and  the  poor  quality  of  coal  that  they  have  been 
forced  to  use. 

The  company,  like  many  other  central  stations  in  this 
country,  has  all  its  spare  capacity  contracted  for,  in  an  en- 
deavor to  meet  the  heavy  demands  placed  upon  it  by  the 
many  new  industries  that  have  grown  up  to  supply  the  war 
needs  of  the  nation.  This,  combined  with  the  difficulties  of 
obtaining  deliveries  of  new  equipment  and  an  adequate  coal 
supply,  has  brought  about  anything  but  an  assuring  condi- 
tion in  many  cases. 

At  the  present  time  a  35,000-kv.-a.  unit  is  being  installed 
at  Essex  and  will  be  in  service  in  a  few  weeks.  This  will 
give  the  company  reserve  capacity  for  some  time  to  come 
and  guarantee  against  a  recurrence  of  the  recent  embarrass- 
ment. 


January  1,  1918 


POWER 


S6 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


Obituary 


ClutrlvN  il.  Klein,  deslpnins  eneinoer  fur 
the  Cutler-HniniiuT  Co..  and  a  prominent 
olooti'ioal  invt'Mtor,  died  suddenly  at  his 
home  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  on  Sunday  night, 
Dec.  It!.  Ml".  Klein  was  born  in  Is'ew  York 
Cltv  55  years  ago  atid  went  to  Milwaukee 
from  the  New  York  office  of  the  Cutler- 
Hammer  Co.  In  1908.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  and  co-worker  of  Thomas  Edison  for 
many  years.  He  is  survived  by  a  son  aJid 
a  sister, 

Frank  Martin,  well-known  as  an  engineer 
and  contributor  to  "Power,"  died  on  Christ- 
mas Eve  of  pneumonia  after  an  illness  of 
two  weeks.  As  an  operating  engineer,  Mr. 
Martin  had  a  full  experience.  He  was  a 
master  electrician  in  the  United  States 
Navy,  having  been  stationed  at  the  Brook- 
lyn Navy  Y'ard.  For  a  number  of  j'eai-s 
lie  was  chief  engineer  of  the  Hard  Rubber 
Co.,  College  Point,  N.  Y..  and  served  for  a 
period  as  master  mech.anie  of  the  Aineriean 
Thread  Co.,  Wiilimantic.  Conn.  A  few 
years  ago  Mr.  Martin  went  to  Honolulu 
as  chief  turbine  engineer  for  the  Marconi 
Wii-eless  Telegraph  Co.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  about  two  years  ago,  after 
which  he  took  a  needed  rest.  At  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  fli-st  assistant  chief 
engineer  for  the  New  Y'ork  Steam  Co.  He 
also  held  the  rank  of  chief  machinist's 
mate  in  the  Naval  Militia  when  he  died. 
Mr.  Martin  was  an  honorary  member  of 
Brooklyn  No.  8.  N.  A.  S.  B..  and  a  Master 
Mason,  Oceanic  Lodge,  Honolulu.  He  is 
survived  by  his  wife.  Death  came  while 
Mr.  Martin  was  in  the  New  Y'ork  Hospital. 
Services  were  held  Friday,  Dec.  28,  at 
Stephen  Merritt  Chapel,  Eighth  Ave.,  New 
Y'ork   City. 


Personals 


ItllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 


W.  R.  Jennison  has  been  appointed 
Southeastern  representative  of  the  Hoppes 
Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Springfield,  Ohio, 
with  offices  at  407  Bisbee  Building.  Jack- 
sonville, Florida. 

Robert  E,  Dillon,  who  has  been  in  charge 
of  the  steam-testing  division  of  the  stand- 
ardizing and  testing  department  of  the 
Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Co.,  of  Bos- 
ton, has  been  appointed  assistant  superin- 
tendent of  tlie   generating   department. 

Fred  Greanoff,  formerly  assistant  super- 
intendent at  the  Duluth  Boiler  Works,  has 
resigned  to  engage  in  a  similar  business  of 
his  own  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  Before  leaving, 
Mr.  Greanoff  was  presented  \vith  a  gold 
watch  and  chain  and  stickpin  by  the  em- 
ployees of  the  Duluth  Boiler  Works. 

J.  C.  Bannister  has  been  made  a  vice 
president  of  the  Walworth  Manufacturing 
Co.,  of  Boston,  Mass.  He  was  successively 
foreman  in  the  tapping  department  of  the 
Haxton  Steam  Heater  Co.,  at  Kewanee, 
superintendent  of  the  pipe-finishing  mill 
and  chief  engineer ;  superintendent  of  the 
Kewanee  Boiler  Co.  and  later  manager  of 
the  Kewanee  works. 

D.  J.  Angus,  who  recently  purchased  an 
interest  in,  and  associated  himself  with,  the 
Esterline  Co.,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  as  treas- 
urer, has  taken  over  the  responsibility  of 
the  engineering  department  and  of  the  de- 
sign and  development  of  new  lines  of  in- 
struments and  apparatus.  Prior  to  his 
connection  with  the  Esterline  Co.,  he  was 
associated  with  J.  W.  Esterline  in  consult- 
ing-engineering work. 

e.  H,  Andrews,  assistant  to  president 
and  chief  engineer  of  the  North  Carolina 
Public  Service  Co.,  Greensboro.  N.  C,  ha-; 
been  appointed  general  superintendent  of 
the  Southern  Utilities  Co.,  which  corpora- 
tion operates  electric,  gas  and  ice  proper- 
ties throughout  Florida,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  .1.  G.  White  Management  Cor- 
poration, New  York  City.  He  will  assume 
his  new  duties  on  Jan.  1. 

1,.  i.  Hebberd,  for  the  last  four  years 
associated  with  the  consulting  engineering 
firm  of  Y'.aughn  &  Meyer,  of  Milwaukee. 
Wis.,  in  charge  of  the  mechanical-engineer- 
ing department,  is  now  with  the  Consoli- 
dated Water  Power  and  Paper  Co.  as  me- 
chanical engineer  and  superintendent  of 
steam  power.  His  headquarters  at  present 
are  at  the  Tnterlake  Pulp  and  Paper  Co., 
an  affiliated  company,  at  Appleton.  Wis- 
consin. 


Engineering  Affairs 


The  Soeiely  of  .Viitonuitive  KnsineerH  will 
hold  a  meeting  in  New  York  on  Jan.  10  and 
one  in  Chicago  on  Feb.  1.  Four  engineering 
authorities  on  aviation — Maj.  Jesse  G.  Vin- 
cent, father  of  the  Liberty  engine ;  Col. 
Clarke,  Capt.  Howard  Marmon  and  H.  M. 
Ci-ane — will  handle  that  p.art  of  the  sub- 
ject at  the  New  York  meeting.  The  Chi- 
cago meeting,  which  will  be  held  at  the 
Hotel  Sherman,  will  be  devoted  entirely  to 
farm-tractor  subjects,  and  the  war  dinner 
will  be  held  the  same  evening  at  the  New 
Morrison  Hotel. 

The  KnRlneerinB    Sofiet.v   of  York,   Penn., 

elected  the  following  oHicers  for  the  ensu- 
ing year  at  its  recent  annual  meeting: 
President,  James  Rudisill  ;  vice  president. 
Chauncey  D.  Bond :  secretary,  M.  Halli^r 
Frey ;  treasurer,  Harold  A.  Russell ;  direc- 
tors", George  A.  Jessop,  Charles  L.  Berger 
and  Howard  J.  Longenecker.  The  annual 
reports  .'-•how  that  considerable  progress  has 
been  made  during  the  past  year  and  there 
has  been  a  considerable  increase  in  the 
membership  of  the  organization. 

The   KveninB   Students  Assoeiation  of  the 

Polytechnic  Institute,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
held  its  third  annual  smoker  on  Saturday, 
Dec.  22,  in  the  gymnasium  of  the  institute. 
There  were  fully  three  hundred  in  attend- 
ance. Chairman  Price,  of  the  enfortain- 
ment  committee,  outlined  the  pui-poses  of 
the  association.  Prof.  Charles  A.  Green, 
director,  welcomed  the  audience  in  a  brief 
speech.  The  entertainment  included  boxing, 
wrestling,  tumbling  and  humorous  ad- 
dresses hv  John  Rogers,  Doctor  Foy  and 
Jack  Armour,  of  "Power."  Fred  Bucholtz 
was  the  master  of  ceremonies.  Refresh- 
ments were  ser\'ed. 

The    American    Association    of    Engineers 

held  a  meeting  at  Washington  on  Dec.  14.  the 
object  being  to  form  a  cooperaf  ive  movementi 
to  assist  the  Government  to  secure  desirable 
and  qualified  technical  engineers.  Among 
those  present  were:  Admiral  F.  R.  Harris. 
Admiral  Baird.  Major  Zimmerman,  of  the 
Engineers'  Depot,  and  Major  HarriKon^ 
Capt.  D.  S.  Hays,  of  the  U.  S.  Engineer 
Corps,  described  how  the  organization  rose 
from  a  small  beginning  to  its  present  size. 
The  following  were  elected  officers  of  the 
Washington  Chapter:  President.  F.  R. 
Weller ;  first  vice  president,  A.  S.  Gross- 
berg ;  second  vice  president,  Harry  Stev- 
ens ;  secretary.  Capt.  D.  S  H.ays ;  tr-^as- 
urer,  O.  M.  Sutherland.  The  association 
is  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
of  the  U.  S.  A.,  and  is  cooperating  with 
all  the  chambers  of  commerce  throughout 
the  country. 

The  Society  of  .Automotive  Engineers  will 
hold  a  special  meeting  on  the  afternoon 
and  evening  of  Jan.  25.  The  afternoon 
session  will  he  held  at  the  society's  head- 
quarters, 29  West  39th  St.,  New  Y'ork,  and 
the  dinner  and  evening  session  will  lie*  held 
at  the  Automobile  Club  of  America,  247 
West  54th  St.  The  afternoon  session  will 
he  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  engines 
for  motor  boats ;  one  of  the  subjects  will 
deal  with  the  Diesel  engine  and  tiie  other 
with  engine  design  for  suljmarine  chasers, 
etc.  James  Craig,  of  the  Craig  Engineer- 
ing Co.,  will  speak  on  "Developments  and 
Improvements  in  the  Diesel  I'^ngine  in  the 
United  States."  E.  A.  Riotte,  of  the 
Standard  Motor  Construction  Co..  will  give 
an  address  on  "Engineering  Fundamentals 
in  Low-Speed  Engines  for  Motor  Boats." 
In  the  evening  Erwin  Chase,  engineer  of 
the  Submarine  Boat  Corporation,  will 
speak  on  "Equipping  Our  Transports  with 
Motor  Boats."  Henry  R.  Sutphen,  of  the 
Submarine  Boat  Corporation,  will  give  a 
talk  on  standardization  in  boat  construc- 
tion. It  is  planned  to  have  a  special  movie 
film  prepared  for  tile  evening,  showing 
submarine  chasers,  coast  patrols  and  other 
boats  which  use  the  explosion-type  engine. 


Miscellaneous  News 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I 


Ordnance  I>epartnient  Wants  One  Hun- 
dred Draftsmen  to  fill  positions  paying 
from  $800  to  $1800  per  year.  Ci\il-service 
examinations  for  these  positions  will  be 
held  in  Chicago,  ,Ian.  8.  it  and  10.  Positions 
will  be  permanent.  .Applications  should  he 
filed  with  Milward  -Adams,  Secretary  Ci\'il- 
ian  Personnel  Committee,  Ordnance  De- 
partment, offices  State  Council  of  Defense, 
Chicago,  Illinois. 


The  Goulds  Manufarfiiring  Co.,  Seneca 
Falls.  N,  >'  .  h.as  put  into  eflect,  beginning 
Jan.  1,  1918,  a  bonus  system  whereby  all 
hourly,  piecework  and  salaried  employees 
rated  at  $40  a  week  or  under,  will  receive 
quarterl,v  a  bonns  of  10  per  cent,  on  their 
total  salary  for  the  previous  three  months. 
This  bonus  is  contingent  upon  a  stipulated 
amount  of  time  being  put  in  at  actual  work 
during  the  year,  and  is  aimed  to  encourage 
full-time  work. 

The  IJttle  Miami  T.,li;ht,  Heat  and  Power 
Co.,  of  Cincinnati.  Ohio,  lias  instituted  con- 
demnation proceedings  under  the  right  of 
eminent  domain  for  rights  for  a  $1,500,000 
hydro-electric  system  in  the  Little  Miami 
River  district  between  Plainville  and  Mor- 
row. It  intends  to  build  fifteen  dams  on 
the  Little  Miami  River.  There  will  be  no 
lock  system  in  connection  with  these,  the 
only  openings  to  be  fish  chutes.  The  cor- 
poration expects  to  develop  lO.OOO  hp,. 
which  will  be  used  outside  of  the  City  of 
Cincinnati  proper.  It  also  proposes  to  de- 
velop other  territory  bordering  along  the 
river,  a  distance  of  30  miles. 

The  Woman's  Committee  for  Engineer 
Soldiers  has  been  formed  in  Washington. 
D.  C.  Mrs.  William  M.  Black,  wife  of 
General  Black,  Chief  of  Engineers,  is  presi- 
dent ;  Mrs.  Charles  Keller,  vice  president 
and  chairman ;  Mrs.  W.  W  Harts,  secre- 
tary ;  Mrs.  Ulysses  Grant,  3rd,  treasurer. 
The  object  of  the  Woman's  Committee  is 
to  see  that  no  engineer  soldier  leaves  this 
country  without  the  proper  knitted  gar- 
ments and  to  send  garments  to  those  al- 
ready "over  there."  The  National  Commit- 
tee in  Washington  is  to  be  headquarters 
for  units  all  over  the  country  and  by  pur- 
chasing yarn  in  large  wholesale  quantities 
should  be  able  to  get  better  prices  and  de- 
liveries. The  dues  are  $1  a  year,  and  a 
very  earnest  appeal  is  made  to  every  man 
and  woman  interested  in  the  engineers  of 
the  Regular  Army,  National  Army,  the 
Railroad,  Forestry,  Camouflage,  or  Labor 
regiments,  to  join  this  organization  or  to 
send  contributions  of  money  for  wool  or 
finished  knitted  garments,  to  supply  these 
hundred  thou.sand  men.  Addre.ss  Mrs.  Wil- 
liam M.  Black,  1730  I  St.,  N.W.,  or  Mrs. 
Ulysses  Grant,  3rd,  2204  R  St.,  N.W.. 
Washington.   D.   C. 

To    Train    50,000    Men    for    New    Ships — 

The  "Gov.  Dlngley,"  a  coastwise  passenger 
steamer  until  recently  in  the  Boston-Y'ar- 
mouth,  N.  S.,  service,  has  been  chartered 
by  the  United  States  Shipping  Board  Re- 
cruiting Service,  of  which  Henry  Howard 
is  director,  with  national  headquarters  at 
the  Boston  Custom  House,  for  a  training 
ship  for  crews  for  the  new  merchant  ma- 
rine. She  is  the  second  training  ship  char- 
tered here,  the  first  one  being  the  "Calvin 
Austin,"  which  recently  went  to  Halifax 
as  a  relief  ship  as  her  first  mission  for  the 
Shipping  Board  Recruiting  Ser\ice.  Like 
the  "Calvin  Austin,"  the  "Gov.  Dingley" 
will  have  her  base  at  the  new  Federal 
Wharf  at  East  Boston.  She  will  accommo- 
date a  "class"  of  500  seamen,  firemen,  oil- 
ers, water  tenders,  cooks  and  stewards, 
who  will  he  given  intensive  instruction  by 
experts  to  fit  them  for  places  in  the  new- 
merchant  marine.  The  training  of  50,000 
men  on  training  ships  during  the  next  year 
will  be  directed  by  the  new  Sea  Training 
Bureau,  with  headquartei-s  at  the  Boston 
Custom  House,  and  with  Capt.  Eugene  E. 
O'Donnell.  super\-ising  inspector.  Fifth  Dis- 
trict. XJ.  S.  Steamboat  Inspection  Service, 
as  supeiwisor.  Capt.  James  P.  Stevenson, 
until  recently  marine  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  transport  service,  is  execu- 
tive head  under  Captain  O'Donnell.  Head- 
quarters of  Mr.  Howard,  at  the  Boston  Cus- 
tom House,  are  being  flooded  with  appli- 
cants for  enrollment  on  the  new  training 
ships. 


Trade  Catalogs 


Esterline    Graphic   EHiciency   Instrnments. 

The  Esterline  Co..  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Booklet  No.  370.  Pp.  12;  6x9  in.;  illus- 
trated. 

Safety      Switrhes      and      Cut-Outs,        The 

Palmer  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co., 
Boston,  Mass.  Bulletins  M13  and  M17  ;  pp, 
4  ;     6x9    in.  ;    Illustrated. 

New  Clutch  Drive  Roeliester  Automatic 
Lubrlrutor.  Greene,  Tweed  &  Co.,  109 
Duane  St.,  New  Y'ork.  Booklet  showing 
different   installations  of  this  lubricator. 

Class  "Y-C-K"  Duplex  Direct  Connected 
Elertrieall.'t-  Driven  .Air  <'ompress«rs.  Nagle 
Corliss  Engine  Works,  Erie.  Pcnn.  Bulle- 
tin No.  30.     Pp.  12  ;  6  X  9  in. :  Illustrated. 


36 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


IIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIII 


llllllllllllllllllll 


Boston — Current   quotations  per  gross  ton   delivered   alongside 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follow.s: 


ANTHRACITE 


Dec.  -28,  lfll7 
Buckwheat    .  .         $4.60 

Bice    4.10 

Boiler    3.00 

Barley 3.G0 


One  Year  Ago 

$2.05 — 3.20 

2.50 — 2.65 


Dec.  28 

$7.10- 

(!.6j- 


-  Individual ' % 

1H17  One  Year  Ago 
-7:.35  83.25 — 3.50 
-e.90  2.70 — 2.85 


20 — 2.35 


6.15 — 6.40 


2.35 — 2.60 


BITUMINOUS 


Bituminous  not   on  market. 

-F.o.b.  Mines* 


1917      One  Year  Af?o 
$3.00 


Dec. 


.  Alongside  Bostont s 

38.1917      One  Year  Ago 
$4.2.5 — 5.00 


4.60 — 5.40 


Dec.  28. 
Clearfields.  .  .  . 
Cambrias  and 

Somersets 3.10 — 3.85 

Pocahonlas  and  New  River,  f  o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  $4.  as  compared 
with  $2.85 — 2.9(/   a  year  ago. 

•All-rail  rate  to  Boston  is  $2.60.  tWater  coal. 

New  Tork — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 


ANTHRACITE 


Pea    

Buckwheat 
Rice  .  -  -  - 
Barley 


Dec.  28.  1917 

$5.05 
4.30 — 5.00 
3.75 — 3.95 
3.25 — 3.50 


-  Circulai 


Boiler    .'.'..!.'      3!fl0 — 3.75 


One  Year  Ago 
$4.0(1 

2.20 
1.95 
2.20 


Dec.  28.  191' 
$5.80 
5.75 — 6.00 
4.75 — 5.00 
:i.70 — 3.95 
4.00 1.50 


-  Individual  ^ 


One  Year 

$5.50 — , 

4.75 — . 

3,00 — 

2.25 


Ago 
5.60 
5.00 
3.25 
3.50 


Bituminous  smithing  coal.   $4.50 — 5.25   f.o.b. 
Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c.  higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.  Harbor     Mine 

Pennsylvania     ^o*^-  ^'I'lin 

Mar.vland     3£j  -.00 

West   Virginia    (short   rate) J. bo  --■"" 

Based   on   Government   price   of    $2   per  ton   at   mine. 

•The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport.  Port  Johnson.  Port  Reading. 
Perth  Amboy  and  South  Amboy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty 
Hoboken  Weehawken.  Edgewater  or  Cliffside  and  Guttenberg.  St.  George 
'.s  in  between  and  sometimes  a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bitumi- 
nous is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  oc.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows  : 

Line .  ,. Tide ^    Independent 

Dee  38.  1917     One  Year  Ago     Dee.  38.  1917  One  Year  Ago 

Buckwheat  ...    $3.15-3.75     $2.00  $3.75            $2.90  $4.1.5 

Rice     3.65-3.65        1.25  3.65               3.15  3.3o 

Boiler    3.45-3.85        1.10  3.55               3.00  

Barlev    2.15-2.40        1.00  2.40               1.90  2.33 

Pea    '. 3.75                   2.80  4.65               3.70  

Culm     l'-» 


Ark.,  Marianna — The  Citizens  Service  Co.  has  applied  for  per- 
mission to  build  an   electric-lighting   and  power  plant  here. 

Ky.,  Whitesburg — W.  C.  Daniels  &  Son  are  having  plans  pre- 
liared  for  the  erection  of  a  transmission  line  from  here  to 
Mayking. 

Mo.,  Applet^n — City  plan.s  election  in  January  to  vote  on  a 
$15,000  bond  issue  to  improve  its  electric-lighting  plant.  W.  B. 
Rollins  &  Co.,  209  Railway  Exch.,  Kansa.=  City,   Engrs. 

N.  .1.,  Bloonifield — The  Power  Specialty  Co..  Ill  Bway,  New 
York  City,  has  had  plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  new  plant 
on  Locust  Ave.,  here.     Estimated  cost,  ?31.000. 

N.  J.,  .Jersey  City — Swift  &  Co.,  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago, 
has  had  plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  50  x  50-ft.  addition 
to  its  power  house  on  9th  St.,  here. 

N.  J.,  Pertli  Amboy — City  plans  to  extend  its  street-lighting 
system  for  which  $25,000  has  already  been  appropriated. 

Oliio,  Cleveland — The  Municipal  Electric  Light  Co.  plans  to 
improve  its  plant  including  the  installation  of  new  equipment 
involving  a  switchboard,  generator,  boilers  and  engines.  About 
$700,000  will  be  expended.      R.   Hoffman,   City   Engr. 

Ohio,  Columbus — The  Columbus  Railway,  Power  and  Light  Co. 
has  petitioned  the  Public  Utilities  Commisison  ror  permission  to 
issue  $1,276,000  in  capital  stock  and  bonds:  the  proceeds  will  b- 
used  in  additions  and  imijrovements  in  connection  with  its  new- 
plant.     H.  W.  Clapp,  Gen.   Supt. 

Ohio,  Salineville — City  voted  $25,000  bond  is.sue  for  the  erection 
of  an  electric-lighting  plant. 

Okla.,  Commerce — The  Triangle  Mines  Co.  plans  to  install  an 
electric-lighting  and  power  plant.     N.   C.  Barry,  Pres. 

Peiin.,  Hazleton — The  Harwood  Electric  Co.  is  having  plans 
prepared  for  the  erection  of  extensions  to   its  plant. 

Penn.,  Plilladelpliia — Wallace  &  Co.  plans  to  build  a  28  x  95- 
ft.  power  house  on  81st  St.  and  Island  Rd.  Estimated  cost, 
$10,000. 

Penn.,  Somerset — The  Johnstown  &  Somerset  Ry.  plans  to 
install  new  equipment  in  its  300-kw.  substation.  U.  S.  Houck, 
Supt. 

Tex.,  Ft.  Worth — The  Fort  Worth  Power  and  Light  Co.  has 
increased  its  capital  stock  from  $3,860,000  to  $4,360,000  and 
plans  to  install  new  equipment  in  its  power  plant  including  a 
new   23,000-hp.  steam  turbine  generator.     A.   H.   Duncan,  Mgr. 

Va.,  LynohbiirB — The  Retail  Merchants'  Association  plans  to 
install  an  electric-lighting  plant. 

Va.,  Petersburg — The  Petersburg  &  Appomattox  Electric  R.R, 
Sycamore  St.,  is  having  plans  prepared  by  F.  A.  Bishop.  Arch.,  for 
the  erection  of  a  1-story  central  heating  plant  at  Lakemont,  near 
here,     J.  A.  Baird.  Supt. 


Chicago- — Steam    coal    prices    f.o.b.    mines: 

Illinois  Coals  Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

Prepared  sizes    $2.6.'i — 2.80  *2i9 — 3-?i; 

Mine-run      2.40— ,.:.._>  2.85—3.00 

Screenings     2.1-) — 3-30  2.60— 3.7o 

So.  Illinois.  Pocahontas,  Hocking. 

Pennsylvania  East  Kentucky  and 

Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia      West  Virginia  Splint 

Prepared   sizes    $2.60-2.80  $3.05—3.35 

Mine-run     2.40— 3.(i0  3.40—3.60 

Screenings    2.10—3.30  2.10— 3.:i0 

St.  L,ouis — Prices  pet  net  ton  f.o.b.   mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared with  today  are  as  follows : 

Williamson  and  Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  and  Staunton          / Standard % 

Dec.  31.          One  Dec.  31.          One  Dec.  31.          One 

1917      Year  Ago  1917      Year  Ago  1917      Year  Ago 

6-in     lump..    $3.80          $3.00  $3.80         $2.60  $2.80      $2.35-2.50 

2-in.    lump..      3.80            2. SO           3.80        3,00-3.35 

Steam   egg...      3.80             3.00  3.80           3.80        3.00-3  25 

Mine-run    ...       2.55              2.75  3.55            2.60  2.55         2.00-3.35 

No    1   nut...      3.80             3.00  3.80           2.50  3.80        2.00-3.35 

3-in.    screen.      3.30             2.75  2.S0           2.50  2.30        2.00-2.25 

No.  5  washed      2.30            3.75  3..30           2.75  2.30       2.00-2.25 

WilUamson-Franklin  rate  St.  Louis.  87  %c.;  other  rates,  72  %c. 


Birmineham- 

tollows : 


-Current,    pricf.s   per 
Mine-Run 


net    ton    f.o.b.    mines    are    as 


Lump  and  Nut 
$3.15 
3.40 
3.65 


Slack  and  Screenings 

$1,65 

1.90 

2.15 


Big  Seam   $1.90 

Pratt.  Jagger.  Corona.  .  .  .         2.15 
Black   Creek.   Cahaba    .  .  .        2.40 

Government  figures. 

'Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
eencrally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  fixed  according 
to  &  regular  schedule. 


Wash.,  Everett — City  is  having  plans  prepared  by  Burn  & 
McDonnell,  Engrs..  400  Inter-State  Bldg.,  Kansas  City.  Mo.,  for 
the  erection  of  a  power  plant.  Estimated  cost.  $800,000.  Noted 
()ct.   2. 

Wash.,  Kalama — The  Kalama  Lumber  and  Shingle  Co.  plans 
to  iminove  its  plant,  including  the  installation  of  a  new  boiler 
plant  and  other  machinery. 

Wash.,  PuBct  Sound — -(Bremerton  P.  O.)  —  (Offlcia!) — Bureau 
of  Supplies  and  Accounts,  Na\'y  Dept.,  Wash.,  will  soon  receive 
bids  for  furnishing  at  Na\'y  Yard,  Puget  Sound,  under  Schedule 
No.  1638;  1000  ft.  rubber-insulate(j  interior  communcation  cable: 
1000  ft.  lighting  and  power  wire;  10,000  ft.  single-conductor  light- 
ing and  i>ow"er  wire ;  5000  ft.  two-conductor  igliting  and  power 
wire. 

Wash.,  Seattle — Skinner  &  Eddy,  150  Massachu.setts  .St.,  has 
been  granted  a  permit  to  erect  a  power  plant.  Estimated  cost, 
$3000. 

Wash.,  Shelton — The  Shelton  Light  and  Power  Co.  has  peti- 
tioned the  County  Commissioners  for  a  franchise  to  build  and 
operate  a  transmission  line  from  its  plant  at  Ooldsborough  Creek 
over  the  county  roads. 

W.  Va.,  Fairmont — The  Oreater  Fairmont  Investment  Co.  is 
considering  plans  for  the  erection  of  a  10,(i00-kw.  generating 
station. 

Wis.,  De  Pere — The  Western  Manufacturing  Co.  of  De  Pere 
plans  to  build  a  boiler  house.   Estimated  cost,   $45,000. 

Wis.,  (.resliam — City  plans  to  install  an  electric-lighting  plant 
and  water-works  system. 

Wis.,  .lanesville — The  Janesville  Electric  Co.  plans  to  build  an 
addition  to  its  power  house. 

Wis.,  Madison — City  is  having  plans  prepared  for  the  erection 
of  a  substation  on  Sprague  St.,  in  the  Wingra  Sewer  District. 
E.  E.  Parker,  City  Engr. 


.hviuiary  1,  1918  POWER  37 

g'liiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii  iig 

I  Prices — Materials  and  Supplies  | 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiillliiliiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiimiiiiiiimiiuiu 

These     lire     prieeH     to     the     power     plant     by     Jobbert4    in    the    lurKer    buying    centers    euRt    of    the 
Mississippi.    KIsewliere  the  priees  will  he  luodifled  by  increased  freight  charges  and  by  local  conditions. 


60  Amp.        100  Amp.   200  Amp 


ELECTRICAL  SUPPLIES 

KNIFE  SWITCHES — Following  are  net  prices  each  In  cities 
named  for  Ifnife  switoiies  mounted  on  slate  base,  front  connected, 
punched  clip  type,  250  volts: 

30  Amp. 

D.  P.   S.  T.   f useless 90.VZ 

D.  P.  S.  T.   fused 81 

D.   P.   D.  T.   f useless 88 

D.  P.  D.  T.   fused l.tiT 

T.   P.   S.  T.   f useless 78 

T.  P.   S.  T    .fused 1.22 

T.    P.    D.   T.    f useless 1.37 

T.  P.  D.  T.   fused 2.08 

Lots  $25  and  more.  list. 


tO.93 

$1.90 

$3.42 

1.37 

2.70 

5.14 

1..-J2 

3.42 

5.70 

2.58 

5.fi3 

9.88 

1.40 

2.86 

5.14 

3.05 

4.18 

7.70 

3.35 

5.34 

8.82 

4.13 

8.99 

15.80 

RUBRKR-CnVRBKI)  I'OPI'KR  WIRE — Per  1000  ft.  in  New  Yorii : 

Solid.  Solid.  Stranded. 
No.                                     Single  Braid     Double  Braid     Double  Braid     Duplex 

14  $10.50  $12.50  $16.00            $24.00 

12  ', 15,50  17.88  21.00                35. IB 

10  21.75  24.50  27.50               48.50 

N  30.60  33.75  38.25               67.00 

ti  58.76                 ... 

5 ....  69.30 

4  ...  83.10 

."<  .  .  1  10.00 

2  .  ]  ',1.35                   .     . 

1  .  .  1    8.75 

0 .  .  ]  11.60 

00 ....  S  (3.75  .... 

001)  ....  286.00                  ... 

0000  ...  349.50                 .... 


FUSES — Following    are    net    prices    of    250-volt    inclosed    fuses 
each,  in  standaid  pacltages,  in  cities  named; 

0-30   amperes    $0.11  "4    each    110-200    amperes    $0.90  each 

31-60    amperes 15%   each    225-400   amperes    1.62  each 

01-100    amperes 40       each 


0-30  amperes. 
0.30  amperes. 


FUSE  PLUGS    (MICA  CAP)   PER  100 

4e.  each  in  standard  package  quantities    (500) 

5c.  each  for  less  than  standard  package  quantities    (500) 


SOCKETS,  B.  B,  FINISH — Following  are  net  prices  in   cents  eaoli   in 
standaid  packages; 

%-IN.   OR   PENDANT  CAP  %-IN.  CAP 

Key  Keyless  Pull  Key  Keyless  Pull 

22.10c.  31.00c.  4,3.00c.  37.30c.  36.20e.  46.20c. 

Note — Less    than    standai'd    package    quantities.    15  7o    off    list. 


CUT-OUTS — Following  are  net  prices  each  in  standard-package  quan- 
tities ; 


CUT-OUTS,    PLUG 


S.   P.   M.  L..  . 
D.   P.   M.  L..  .  . 

T.  P.  M.  L 

D.    P.    S.    B 

D.  P.    D.   B 


$0.11    T.  P.  to  D.  P.  S.  B. 
.18    T.  P.  to  D.  P.  T.  B. 

P.    S    B 

P.   D.   B 


.26  T. 
.19  T. 
.37 


$0.34 
.38 
.33 
.54 


CUT-OUTS,    N.    E.   C.    FUSE 


0-30  Amp.  31-60  Amp.         60-100  Amp. 


D.    P.  M.  L $0.33 

T.    P.  M.  L 48 

D.    P.  S.  B 43 

T     .P.  S.  B 81 

D.    P.  D.  B 78 

T.    P.  D.  B 1.35 

T.    P.  to   D.   P.    D.   B 90 


$0.84 
1.20 
1.05 
1.80 
3.10 
3.60 
3.53 


$1.68 
2.40 


ATTACHMENT   PLUGS — Price   each,   in    standard   packages: 


Hubbell    porcelain     $0.21 

Hubbell    composition    .13 

Benjamin    swivel     .13 

Current  taps    .35 


Standard  Package 
350 
50 


CHRIST5I.\S  TREE  LIGHT  OUTFITS — For  llOvolt   lighting  circuits 
the  price  is  as  follows: 

Per  Set 

8-light   outfit    with  colored   lamps  complete $3.00 

16-Ught    outfit  with   colored   lamps  complete. 4  00 

34-light   outfit    with  colored   lamps  complete 6.00 

.32-light   outfit   with  colored  lamps  complete 8.00 

For  3  Vi  -volt  battery  circuits : 

S-light   outfit   with   colored   lamps  complete 1.50 

FLEXIBLE  CORD — Price  per  1000  ft.  in  coils  of  350  ft.  : 

No.   IS  cotton  twisted «21 .50 

No.   16  cotton   twisted 30. 00 

No.   IS  cotton   parallel 24.00 

No.    16   cotton   parallel 36.00 

No.    18   cotton   reinforced  heavy 38  50 

No.   16   cotton    reinforced  h*',Tvy .3^.40 

No.    18  cotton   reinforced   light.  .  .     24.00 

No.    16  cotton   reinforced   light 33.00 

Ni>     18   cotton   Canvasite   cord 21.75 

No.    16  cotton  Canvasite  cord 32.00 


COPPER    WIRE — Prices    per    1000    ft.    for    rubber-eov'ered    wire    in 
following    cities; 


No. 

14 

10 

8 
« 

4 

1 

0 

00 
000 
0000 


.. Denver 

Single  Double 
Braid     Braid 

$11.40  $14.' 


33.30 
.33.10 


6.50 

36.70 

56.30 

80.-1-) 

130. .10 

156. '^^ 

187. 0-> 

252.65 

309.35 

376.75 


VsiijO      .35.00 


^ St.  Louis ^    ,. Birmingham . 

Single    Double  Single    Double 

Duplex    Braid     Brai-:!  Duplex    Braid     Braid    Duplex 

$38.90   S13.50   $16.00  $26.00   $11.50   $17.90    $36.40 

"'"      36.00      29.00  ....       30.80      .34.30      67.60 

40.50  .  .  ,  ,       43.85 

65.35  ....       69.60 

03.65  ...       101.75 

140.50  ...    156.50 

182.50 

341,00 

294.50  ....    317.00 

361.50  417.00 


439.50 


46.85 

74.10 

106.05 

16300 

201,00    209.50 

276.00   285.00 

3.30.00 

438.50 

508.00   516.00 


CONDUITS.    ET.BOWS    AND    COUPLINGS — Following    are    warehouse 
net  prices  per  1000  ft.  for  conduit  and  per  unit  for  elbows  and  couplings: 


-Conduit— 


1 

1% 
1% 

O 

31/2 
3 

3V4 
4 

ft. 


Enameled  Galvanized 
$60.70 
93  on 
1.36  00 


■  Elbows  - 


-Couplings- 


Enameled  Galvanized   Enamcl'^d  Galvanized 


1S4.00 
330,00 
306  00 
468  00 
613.00 
763.60 
930,50 

Standard  lengths  rigid.   10 
Standard  lengths  flexible. 


$74, SO 
08  no 
146,30 
197.80 
336,50 
3'S  30 
503.10 
657.90 
818.80 
991.90 


$0.1  673 

!3;256 
.4185 
.558 
1  033 
1.674 
4.464 
9.86 
11.39 
ft 


$0,0616 
,088 

1144 
.1581 

1953 
.3604 
.373 
.558 
.744 
.93 
Standard  lengths   flexibis. 


$0.1786 
.335 
.3478 
.4496 
.5994 
110 
1.80 
4,79 
1059 
13.33 


%   to  3  in..  50  ft. 


$0.0658 
.094 

JOOO 

4698 
.3098 
,2797 
.3996 
.5994 
.7992 
.999 
in.,   100 


rOCKNUTS    .iND 

packages,  which  are : 


BUSHINGS — Following  are  net   priees  in   standard 
Vi-in.,  1000;    %■  to  IViln..  100;   l^i-  to  2-in„  50: 


Flexible  Conduit 

3ushings 

Box  Connections 

Per  100 

Per  100 

$1.68 

$5.63 

4.00 

7.13 

6.15 

10.50 

8.20 

15.00 

10.35 

22.50 

16,40 

30.00 

24.60 

67.50 

Lockntits 
Per  100 

Vj     $1.02 

%     1.75 

1         3.00 

I'i     5.00 

Hi      7.50 

2  10  00 

2%     12.30 


ARMORFD    r.XBTES    AND    BOX     CONNECTOR.S — Following    are    net 

prices  i>er  1000   ft,  cable  and  standard  package  of  100  box  connectors  in 
-single  and  double  strip: 

^ — Twin  Conductor — ^  . — Three  Conductor — . 

Wire  Gage                                 Cable        Connectors  Cable       Connectors 

14    .  .                    :  .  .      $70.00              $4.50  $103.50           $4.50 

13 101.25               4.50  137.50            4.50 

10    .  ,                1.38.75                4,75  176.35              4.75 

8 176.30               5.75  247.50             6.00 

6 377.50               6.25  362.40             7.50 

4 431.25  7.50  


J  AMP.S— Bel 

ow   arc  present   quotations  in   less  than 

standard 

package 

quantities: 

Straight-Side    Bulbs 

Pear-Shape    Bulbs 

Mazda    B — 

No.  in           Mazda   C — 

No.  in 

Watts 

Plain 

Frosted 

Package    Watts        Clear 

Frosted 

Package 

10 

$0.37 

$0.30 

100               75          $0.65 

$070 

15 

27 

.30 

100             100            1.00 

1.05 

24 

25 

.37 

.30 

1 00            :«)0            3.00 

3.10 

34 

40 

.27 

.30 

100            500            4.50 

4.65 

13 

50 

.27 

.30 

100            750            6.00 

6.35 

8 

60 

.36 

.40 

100          1000            7.00 

7.25 

8 

Star 

dard    pa< 

kage    quantities    are    10';     from    above    prices. 

Yearly 

contracts  ranging  from  $150  ui)  allow  a  di.scount  of  17Cii   from  list. 


LOOM — Price  per  100  ft.,  in  coils 

Ft.  in  Coil 

%    350  $2.35 

%    3-.0  3.50 

Vj    -OO  4.50 

*                                       -AX)  5.75 


Ft.  in  Coil 

%    150  $7,00 

1         1 00  10  00 

1  '/4    100  13.00 

1 V4    100  15.00 


WIKING  SUPPLIES — New  York  prices  for  tape  and  solder  are 
as  follows ; 

Friction    tape,     %  -lb,    rolls 35e,  per  lb 

Rubber  tape.    Vj  -lb    rolls. .  ■ 45c,  per  lb 

Wire   solder,    50-lb,    pools 45c,  per  lb. 

Soldering  paste,    lib,   cans...  50c.  per  lb 


38 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1 


MISCELLANEOUS 

HOSE — 

Fire 

50-Ft.  Lengths 

Underwriters'    2% -in 70c.  per  ft. 

Common.    2  ¥2  -in .      40-10  % 

Air 
First  Grade     Second  Grade     Third  Grade 

%-in.  per  ft $0.5.5  $0,:J0  $0.25 

Steam — Discounts  from  Ust 
First  grade...    30%      Second  g-rade.  .  .    30-5%      Third  grade...    40-10% 

Rl'BHKR  BKLTING — The  following  discounts   from  list  apply- 
to  transmission  rubber  and  duck  belting : 

Competition    50-10%    Best  grade 25% 

Standard    40  % 

LEATHER  BELTING — Present  discounts  from  list  in  the  fol- 
lowing cities  are  as  follows: 

Medium  Grade 

New    York    40  %, 

St.   Louis    45  % 

Chicago    30  +  10  7*> 

Birmingham     35  % 

Denver    40  %. 

RAWHIDE  LACING — 40%. 

PACKING — Prices    per    pound: 
Hubber  and  duck  for  low-pressure  steam 


Heavy  Grade 
35% 
40% 
40  +  5% 
35% 
35% 


Asbestos  for  high-pressure  steam. 

Duck   and    rubber   for   piston    packing 

Flax,    regular     

Flax,    waterproofed     

Compressed    asbestos    sheet 

Wire    insertion    asbestos    sheet 

Hubber    sheet     

Rubber   sheet,    wire   insertion 

Rubber  sheet,   duck   insertion 

Rubber  sheet,   cloth  insertion 

Asbestos  packing,   twisted   or  braided,   and  graphited,    for  valve 

stems    and    stuffing    boxes 

Asbestos   wick.    Vj  -   and   1-lb.  balls 


$0.77 

1.54 

.88 

.66 

.99 

.99 

1.31 

.SS 

.44 

■■-** 

1.10 

5  to  .70 

PIPE    .AND    liOH.ER    (■OVERlN<i — Below    are   discounts    and    part    of 
standai'd  list^:: 


PIPE    COVERING 


BLOCKS    AND    SHEETS 


Standard  Thickness 


Pipe  Size 

Per  Lin.Ft 

Thickness 

lin. 

$0.37 

'/2-iii. 

•2-in. 

.36 

1      -in. 

6-in. 

.80 

1  %  -in. 

4-in. 

.60 

2     -in. 

3-in. 

.45 

2% -in. 

8-in. 

1.10 

3      -in. 

10-in. 

1.30 

3  %  -in. 

Price 

per  Sq.Ft. 

S037 

.30 

.4.5 

.60 

.75 

.90 

1.05 


85%    magnesia  high  pressure. 


15</1-  off 

f  4-ply .  .  .  58%  off 

For  low-pressure  heatin^r  and  return  lines  ^  3-ply 60%  off 

I  3-pl.v 63%  off 

GRE.ASE.'i — Prices  are  as  follows  in  the  followinp:  cities  in  cents 
per  pound  for  barrel  lots: 


ChieaffO 

Cup     5  Vi 

Fiber   or   sponge 6 

Transmission     6 

Axle     4 

Gear     4  Vj 

Car  journal    3K> 


St.  Louis    Birmingham    Denver 

.".6  8V-  10 1/2 

5.9  15  15 

5.9  10  15 

3.3  3  5 

6  5  Vi  5  V2 

3.75  5  5 


COTTON  WASTE — The  following  prices  are  in  cent.s  per  pound  : 


-  New  York  - 


Dec.  JS.  1917      One  Year  Atto     Cleveland  Chicago 

White    11.00  to  13.00      10.00  to  13.00        16.00        14.00  to  15.00 

Colored    mixed.       8.50  to  13.00       7.00  to    9.00       14.00        10.00  to  13.00 

WIPING  CLOTHS — In  Cleveland  the  jobbers'  price  per  1000  is 
as  follows: 
13',4xl3i4     $35.00        131/4x20^4     $45.00 

In  Chicago  they  sell   at  $30rg'33  per  1000. 

liINSEED    OIL — These   prices   are   per    gallon : 

, —  New  York  — .      , Cleveland- — ^ 

Dec.  38      1  Year    Dec.  38.     1  Year 
1917  Ac-o  1917  Ago 

Haw  in  barrels $1.38        fO.'Ki         Sfl.35        $1.01) 

5-gal.    cans    1.38  1.00  l.in  l.Ki 


, Chicago s 

Dec.  38.   1  Year 
1917         Ago 
$1 .1)3 
1.13 


$1.35 
1 .35 


WHITE    AND    REP    LE.4D    in    BOO-lb.    lots   .sell    as    follows    in 
cents  per  pound: 

, Red ,    . White , 

Dec.  3S,  1917        1  Year  Ago  Dec.  38.  1917   1  Yr.  Ago 

Dry  Dry 

Dry       In  Oil        Dry       In  Oil      and  In  Oil     and  In  Oil 
35-    and    50-Ib.    kegs   11.50      ll.HO      10.50      11.00  10  50  10.50 

13V.-lb.    keg     11.75      11.35      10.75      1].25  10.75  10.75 

100-lb.    keg     11.35      11.50      11.00      11,50  11.00  11.00 

1-    to    5-lb.    cans...    13|35      13.00      13.50      13.50  13.00  13.50 

RIVETS — The   following  quotations   are  allowed   for  fair-sized   orders 
from  warehouse: 

New  York     Cleveland  Chicago 

''teel  A  and  smaller 30  %  30  %  40  %  • 

Tinned 30  %  30 ';!  40  %  < 

•For  less  than  keg  lots  the  discount  is  35%. 

Button  heads.    %     %.  1  in.  diameter  by  3  in.  to  5  in.  sell  as  follows 
per  100  lb.: 

New   York    $7.00     Cleveland    $0.85     Chicago    $5.50 

Coneheads,    same   ^iz'-s: 
New   York    $7.10     Cleveland    $6.95      Chicago    $5.60 


AMMONIA — Below  are  prices  per  lb.   in  cities  named: 

New  York    Chicago    St.  Louis 

36-deg.  U.S.P.  carboys  of  l;)0  lb 16c  13c 

36-deg.  U.S.P.  drums  of   1000  lb 14c.  10c.  13l'. 

Anhydrous  ammonia  in  100-!b.  eyUnders  costs  30c.  per  lb.  in  St. 
Louis.  Chicago   and  New    Vork. 

FIRE  BRICK — Quotations  on  the  different  kinds  in  the  cities  named 
are  as  follows,   f.o.b.  works: 

New  York  Chicago 

Sihea  brick,   per   1000 $50.00  to    55.00  $50.00 

Fire  clay  brick,  per  1000.  No.  1 45/)0  to    55.00  

Magnesite  brick,    per   net   ton 135.00  to  145.00  

Chrome   brick,    per    net    ton 135.00  .... 

Deadburned  magnesite  brick,  per  net  ton      S5.00  to    90.00 .  .  . 

Special  furnace  chrome  brick,  per  net  ton     60.00  to    70.00  liO.OO  to  80.00 

Standard  size  Are  brick.  9  x  4  '•{.  x  3  %  in.  The  second  quality  is  $4 
to  $5   cheaper  per  1000. 

St.  Louis — High  grade.  $55  to  $65;  St.  Louis  grade.  $40  to  S50. 
Birmingham — Fire   clay.    $35    to   $30;    Denver.    $33,    per    1000. 
Chicago — Second  qualit.v.   ^'I't    tier   ton. 

Ft'EL  OIL — Price  variable,  depending  upon  stock.  New  York  quota 
tions  not  available  owing  to  this  fact.  In  Chicago  and  St,  Louis  the 
following  prices  are  quoted: 

Chicago  St.  Louis 

Domestic  Ught.  33-26  Baume S'^c  4u,-4%(. 

Mexican   heavy.    13-14    Baume 7e.  ^  " 

Note — There  is  practically  no  fuel  oil  in  Chicago  at  present  time. 


SWEDISH     (NORWAY)     IRON- 

ton  lots,  is: 


-The    average    price    per    100    lb.. 


New    York 
Cleveland    . 
Chicago    .  . 


Deo.  38.  1917 

One  Year  A 

$15.00 
15.30 
15.00 

$7.50 
7.50 
5.75 

In   coils   an   advance   of   50c.    usuall.v   is   charged. 
Note — Stock   very  scarce  generally. 

POLES — Prices  on  Western  red  cedar  poles: 


6  in.  by  30  ft $ 


8  in. 


by  30  ft. 

by  35  ft. 

by  35  ft. 

by  40  ft. 

by  40  ft. 

by  45  ft. 


New  York 

Chicago 

St.  Louis 

Denver 

$5.59 

$1.94 

$4.94 

$4..3- 

7.40 

6.60 

fi  60 

5.80 

10.70 

9.(10 

9.60 

8.55 

13.30 

10  90 

10.90 

9.65 

13.35 

11.00 

11  00 

9.75 

13.75 

13.15 

13.15 

10.65 

18.30 

16.30 

16.30 

14.30 

21.85 

19.45 

19.45 

17.15 

8  In.  by  50  ft 21.85 

lOe*  higher  freight  rates  on   accoimt  of  double  loads. 

For  plain  pine  poles,  delivered  New  York,  the  price  is  as  follows: 


tops, 
lops. 


10-in,  butts,  5-in. 

13-in.  butts.  6-in. 

13-in.  butts.  6-in.   tops. 

14-in.  butts.  6-in.   tops. 

14-in.  butts,  6-in.  tops. 


length   30-30   ft $6.00 

lenglh    .30-411    ft 8  50 

length   41-50    ft 9  5') 

length    51-00    ft 17  00 

length   61-71    ft 18.50 

PIPE — The  following  discounts  are  tor  carload  lots  f.o.b.  Pittsburgh- 
basing  card  of  Nov.  6,   1917,  for  steel  p;pe  and  for  iron  pipe: 


BTTTT    WELD 


Steel 

Inches                     Black  Galvanized 

%,    i/i    and    %  .  .      44%  17% 

Vi.     48%.  3314%. 

%   to  3 51%,  37V.  % 


Inches 
I    to  1  %  , 


Iron 

Black  Galvanized 
.  .      33%  17%^ 


3     44% 

3 14     to    6 47  %, 

BUTT  WELD. 

% .    'i    and    %  .  .  40  % 

14     45%, 

%    to  1  H 49  %o 


31  Vi  % 
34  Vi  % 


LAP  WELD 
2 


26% 

3  i4   to  4 28  %. 

4'/..     to    6,  .  .  .'.  .  28%, 

EXTRA    STRONG   PLAIN  ENDS 

3314  %        %    to  IV2 33%. 

36  V.  % 
36  1.'.  % 


LAP   WELD.      EXTRA    STRONG   PLAIN    ENDS 


2V2    to  4. 
414   to  6. 


43% 
45% 
44%. 


30  Vi  % 
33  Vj  % 
32  Vj  % 


3     27%, 

2  'i     to    4 29  % 

4  %     to    6 38  %. 


12% 
15% 
15% 


18%- 


14%. 
17% 
16%. 


Note — National  Tube  Co.  quotes  on  basing  cai-d  dated  Apr.   1. 

From   warehouses   at   the   places  named   the    following   discounts  hold 
for  steel  pipe : 

-Black- 


New  York 

%   to  3  in.  butt  wcided 38 %r 

3  %  to  6  in.  lap  welded 18  % 


New  York 


%   to  3  in.  butt  welded .  .  . 
31/.    to  8  in.  butt   welded. 


33  % 
List 


Chicago 
43.8% 
38.8% 

-G-alvanizcd- 
Chicago 

27.8%. 
34.8% 


St .  Louis 
40.1% 
36.1% 


St.  Louis 
25.1  %. 
22.1  %. 


Malleable   fittings.   Class   B   and   C.    from   New  York  stock  sell    at   list 
price.      Cast   iron,   standard   sizes.    15   and  5%. 

BOILER  TlBE.s — The  following  are  the  prices  for  carload  lots  fob 


Pittsburgh,    announced    Nov 
the  Government : 

Lap   Welded   Steel 

3V,    to  4  %    in 

214   to  3H   in 


l;l.    as   agreed   upon   b.v   manufacturers    and 


34 

34 

nv, 

1%    to  3  in 13 


Charcoal  Iron 
3V4  to  4>4  in. 


13" 


3  to  3M   in +   5 

2 Ml   to  -1%   in.  '     -- 

to  3  Vi   in. 


-4-    7Vj 
-I- 32  Ml 


l-li    to  1  ',t   in -f  35 

Standard  Commercial  Seamless — Cold   drawn    or  hot   rolled: 

Per  Net  Ton  Per  Net  Ton 

1    in $.340     1  %    in $230 

1  H    in 380    3  to  2  Ml   in 190 

IX    in 370    3  ■■<4    to  3  »4    in 180 

H4    in 230    4   in 200 

4M.   to  5  in 220 

The.    prices    do    not    apply    to    special    specifications    for    loeomotiv 
tubes  nor  to   special   specifications    for  tubes    for   the   Navy   Department, 
which   will  be  subject  to  special   negotiation. 


POWER 


iimiiuiiuiiiiiiiiiiiuiuiii 


Vol.   47 


iiiiiiiiUJiiuiuiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiu 


NiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiPiiMtitiitiiiiiiiin 


NEW  YORK,  JANUARY  8,  1918 


lUllinillllMIIIIIIIUIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIII 


iiiimiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiii 


iMiiiiiiiiJiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitirriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiNNiiii utrim 


No.    2 


IIIIIIIIIIINIIDIIIIIIIItlllll 


L  F  F 


I 


T 


Team  Work  in  the  Plant 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


The     tendency     toward        iniiniinniiiiniii iiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniii 

specialization  has  pene- 
trated the  power  plant 
rio  less  than  every  other 
establishment  devoted 
to  productive  service. 
.•\s  organizations  are  per- 
fected, the  duties  of  in- 
dividuals are  often  re- 
stricted as  to  responsi- 
bility, and  where  this 
policy  is  carried  to  ex- 
tremes, men  are  some- 
times tempted  to  lose 
interest  in  each  other's 
work.  The  larger  effi- 
ciency of  the  service 
suffers  accordingly,  and 

can  only  be  restored'  by  team  play.  Upon  the  per- 
sonality of  the  chief  engineer  much  depends  in  this 
connection. 

No  plant  can  be  organized  solely  like  a  machine  and 
achieve  the  best  results.  Conditions  are  different 
from  those  in  the  mill  or  shop,  where  a  tangible  pro- 
duct is  passed  rapidly  through  the  establishment,  seen 
of  men  as  it  goes  from  step  to  step,  ponderable  and 
real.  We  cannot  operate  a  power  plant  on  the  piece- 
work basis.  Between  certain  periods  a  measure  of 
relief  comes  to  the  staff  on  duty;  at  other  times  the 
pressure  rises  and  puts  a  heavy  strain  on  part  of  the 
force.  When  these  strains  are  noncoincident  a  little 
extra  help   may   accomplish   wonders. 

Just  because  a  fire  wall  separates  the  engine  and  boiler 
rooms  shall  the  men  on  either  side  of  the  brickwork 
assume  that  they  have  little  in  common?  There  is 
no  more  reason  for  insularity  here  than  for  hostility 
between  engineer  and  fireman  on  the  locomotive  or 
for  cross-purposes  between  the  army  and  the  navy. 

If  a  turbine  breaks  down  at  a  critical  period  of  the 
•load,  necessitating  the  immediate  attention  of  the 
turbine-room  force,  and  additional  assistance  is 
needed  from  the  fireroom,  no  matter  for  what  pur- 
pose, let  it  be  cheerfully  rendered.     "I  wasn't  hired  to 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


do  this!"  is  one  of  the 
most  miserable  points 
of  view  that  a  human  be- 
ing can  take  in  facing 
an  emergency  call  on 
his  services.  It  is  as 
good  a  recipe  for  stay- 
ing in  the  mediocre  class 
as  can  be  quoted,  and 
puts  a  man  in  a  group 
of  which  he  should  be 
ashamed  to  be  a  member. 

Diametrically      opposed 
to   this   attitude   is   the 
cooperative  spirit  shown 
by  the  chief  when,  in  a 
critical  time,  he  strips  off 
his  coat  and  vest  and  "mobilizes"  every  ounce  of  ability 
and  strength  he  possesses  at  the  scene  of  trouble;    of 
the  construction  superintendent  who  doesn't  hesitate 
to  go  into  a  manhole  with  a  dress  suit  on  in  order  to 
clear  up  trouble  for  which  he  is  ultimately  responsible 
and  which  is  costing  his  company  a  month's  salary 
every  hour  that  service  is  interrupted;  and  of  the  as- 
sistant engineer  who  doesn't  balk  at  coal  passing  for 
a  quarter-hour  in  case  the  regular  force  is  overloaded 
through  the  sudden  illness  of  one  of  its  members  on 
the  job. 

The  operating  records  and  the  atmosphere  of  friendly 
collective  effort  in  many  plants  bear  witness  to  the 
team  work  therein.  Much  of  this  cooperation  never 
gets  into  the  log  sheet  and  is  known  to  only  two  or 
three  men  most  immediately  affected.  It  counts  on 
the  unit  costs,  however;  and  important  as  it  is  to 
define  the  responsibilities  of  individuals,  it  is  wise  not 
to  attempt  to  limit  their  range  of  mutual  helpfulness. 

The  smaller  the  station,  the  more  give  and  take  there 
naturally  is  between  the  operating  men  on  duty;  but 
even  in  the  larger  plants  there  is  room  for  the  practice 
of  a  personal  "readiiiess-to-serve,"  wiiich  goes  a  long 
way  toward  maintaining  good  records  in  station 
performance. 


iilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllliuillllllllllliulllllllllllllllllllllllliuuilllllllllliu 


•  Contrihuled  liy   H.  S.  KNOWI.TON,  Cambridge.  Mass 

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40 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  2 


Operation  and  Maintenance  of  Elevators- 
Winding-Drum  Machines 


By  R.  H.  whitehead 


The  various  parts  of  a  modern  winding-drum- 
type  elevator  machine  and  their  function  are  de- 
scribed. Two  classes  of  machines  are  considered; 
namely,  those  located  overhead  and  those  installed 
in  the  basement  or  on  a  lower  floor. 


A  COMPLETE  installation,  using  the  winding- 
drum  type  of  elevator  machine,  is  shown  in  Figs. 
1  and  2.  In  Fig.  1  the  machine  is  set  on  over- 
head beams  at  the  top  of  the  hoistway ;  in  Fig.  2  on  a 
conci-ete  foundation  in  the  basement  or  lower  floor.  The 
particular  feature  that  characterizes  this  type  of  in- 
stallation is  the  spirally  grooved  drum  D  which  winds 
or  unwinds  the  ropes  to  the  car  C  and  to  the  drum 
counterweight  DW.  When  raising  the  car,  the  car 
ropes  are  wound  up  on  the  drum  and  at  the  same  time 
the  ropes  to  the  drum  counterweight  unwind,  thus  lower- 
ing the  latter.  In  this  manner  the  weight  of  the  car 
and  the  load  in  the  car  are  partly  counterbalanced  by 
the  drum  counterweight. 

Besides  the  foregoing  method  of  counterbalancing,  in 
some  cases,  as  in  the  illustrations,  a  car  counterweight 
CW  is  provided,  the  ropes  for  which  lead  directly  from 
the  car  to  an  overhead  sheave  S  or  sheaves,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  thence  to  this  separate  counterweight.  This, 
of  course,  takes  a  certain  amount  of  load  from  the  car 
ropes  leading  to  the  drum  and  thereby  makes  it  possible 
to  handle  a  heavier  load  than  would  be  the  case  other- 
wise. The  amount  of  counterbalancing  and  its  distribu- 
tion between  the  car  counterweight  and  the  drum  coun- 
terweight depend  on  the  speed,  load  and  service  of  the 
elevator.  The  counterweights  are  carefully  adjusted  by 
the  elevator  manufacturers  to  secure  the  most  econom- 
ical results  for  the  particular  condition,  when  the  in- 
stallation is  first  made.  However,  the  car  counterweight 
under  any  condition  must  be  less  than  the  weight  of 
the  empty  car,  and  the  total  amount  of  counterweight  is 
generally  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  car  plus  25  to  40 
per  cent,  of  the  speed  load. 

Arrangement  of  Counterweights 

As  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  the  car  counterweights 
and  drum  counterweights  both  run  in  the  same  set  of 
hoistway  guide  rails  HG.  They  are  entirely  independ- 
ent, however,  the  weights  for  each  being  contained  in 
separate  frames.  It  is  necessary  to  slot  or  recess  the 
weights  in  the  top  or  car-counterweight  frame  so  as  to 
permit  the  passage  of  the  ropes  to  the  bottom  or  drum- 
counterweight  frame  and  to  slot  the  ends  of  the  top  and 
bottom  frame  weights  in  each  frame  to  engage  the  guide 
rails.  The  drum  counterweights  are  placed  in  the  bot- 
tom frames  and  the  car  counterweights  in  the  top,  and 
the  ropes  are  adjusted  so  that  the  frames  are  about  six 
inches  apart.  This  arrangement  is  necessary  in  order 
to  prevent  the  addition  of  the  drum  counterweight  to 
the  car  counterweight  in  the  event  of  the  possible  break- 


ing of  the  drum-counterweight  ropes,  as  under  this  con- 
dition the  car  with  a  light  load  would  be  seriously  over- 
balanced. 

Where  the  drum-counterweight  ropes  pass  through 
the  car  counterweight,  they  are  inclosed  in  steel  tubes  to 
prevent  abrasion  as  there  is  a  small  difference  in  the 
relative  movement  of  the  two  sets  of  counterweights 
when  starting  and  stopping  the  car.  An  adjustment  of 
the  rope  lengths  should  always  be  maintained  so  that 
the  weights  bottom  before  the  car  strikes  the  overhead 
work  and  so  that  the  car  fully  compresses  the  spring 
bumpers  B  shown  in  the  pit  at  the  bottom  of  the  hatch- 
way, Fig.  1,  before  the  counterweights  come  in  contact 
with  the  overhead  work.  Allowances  should  be  made  for 
a  sufficient  margin  of  overtravel  to  take  care  of  the 
inertia  of  the  machine  and  weights. 

Counterweight  Compensation 

In  Fig.  1  a  chain  H  is  shown  attached  to  the  bottom 
of  the  car  and  the  drum-counterweight  frame.  As  the 
car  rises  in  the  hoistway,  the  ropes  to  the  overhead  work 
become  shorter  and  the  ropes  from  the  overhead  work 
to  the  weights  become  longer,  with  the  result  that  the 
weight  of  the  ropes  on  the  car  side  becomes  less  and 
increases  on  the  counterweight  side.  This  produces  a 
constantly  changing  amount  of  counterbalance  for  which 
it  may  be  advisable  to  provide  compensation.  Where 
the  rise  is  less  than  150  ft.,  the  unbalancing  of  the  ropes 
makes  little  difference,  but  for  higher  rises  it  is  advis- 
able to  provide  a  chain  counterbalance,  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  which  neutralizes  this  shifting  of  the  rope  weight 
and  keeps  the  counterbalance  constant,  thus  saving  in 
the  power  consumption  of  the  elevator.  Where  chain 
counterbalance  is  provided,  the  links  of  the  chain  are 
generally  interwoven  with  sash  cord  to  eliminate  noise. 

The  elevator  cab  shown  is  set  in  a  steel  frame  or 
"sling."  This  sling  consists  of  top  channels  F  forming 
a  crosshead,  two  bottom  channels  forming  the  safety 
plank  P,  upright  channels  U,  called  stiles,  connecting  the 
crosshead  and  safety  plank  with  a  platform  mounted  on 
the  latter  and  braced  to  the  stiles  with  tension  braces 
TB.  Gusset-plate  bracing  G  is  shown  between  the  cross- 
head  and  stiles.  The  car  and  car-counterweight  ropes 
connect  by  thimbles  to  the  center  of  the  crosshead.  At 
the  ends  of  the  crosshead  channels  and  safety  plank  are 
the  adjustable-spring  guide  shoes  A,  which  are  slotted 
and  fitted  with  gibs  to  engage  the  main  guide  rails  M 
in  the  hoistway.  The  guide  shoes  are  each  attached  to 
a  stem  inserted  in  a  holder  and  held  by  a  bracket  on  the 
crosshead  and  .safety  plank.  The  shoes  are  arranged  so 
as  to  have  limited  movement,  backed  by  spring  pressure 
which  keeps  them  securely  against  the  rails. 

Figs.  1  and  2  both  show  a  ball  governor  E  located 
overhead.  The  rope  operating  this  governor  passes 
around  a  tension  sheave  N  at  the  bottom  of  the  hoist- 
way, Fig.  2,  and  is  connected  to  a  device  J  on  the  car 
that  actuates  the  safety.  If  the  car  overspeeds  when 
moving  in  a  downward  direction,  as  would  occur  if  the 


Januarj'  8,  1918 


POWER 


41 


Pia.    1.      WINDING-DRUM-TTPE    ELEVATOR  FIG.    2.      WINDING-DRUM-TTPE   ELEVATOR   MACHINE; 

MACHINE;   OVERHEAD   IXSTALL.^TION  BASEMENT   INSTALLuVTION 


42 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


car  ropes  parted,  the  balls  on  the  governor  spi-ead  suffi- 
ciently to  throw  the  governor  jaws  and  hold  the  gov- 
ernor rope  fast.  This  operation  sets  the  car  safety  grip- 
ping device  against  the  main  guide  rails  and  stops  the 
car.  A  later  article  will  describe  in  detail  the  various 
types  of  safeties  and  their  operation. 

Each  of  the  installations  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2  is 
of  the  car-switch-control,  single-speed  type.    The  flexible 


PIG.   3.      DOUBLE-SCREW  ELEVATOR  MACHINE 

cables  containing  the  wires  of  the  control  circuits  lead 
from  the  bottom  of  the  car  to  the  junction  boxes  K  in 
the  hoistway  and  are  used  for  the  operation  of  the  con- 
troller by  the  car  switch,  for  the  light  in  the  car  and 
for  the  floor-signal  system.     The  controllers  L  shown 
are  arranged   for  direct   current.     Later  articles   will 
deal  with  various  types  of  both  alternating-  and  direct- 
current  elevator  controllers.     In  the  present  case  each 
controller  has  a  main-line  or  potential  switch,  "up"  and 
"down"  direction  switches  and  an  accelerating  switch 
which  brings  the  motor  automatically  up  to  full  speed 
at  a  rate  depending  upon  the  load.     A  movement  of  the 
car-controlling  switch  toward  the  car-door  opening  ener- 
gizes the  magnet  of  the  down-direction  switch.     This 
magnet  closes  the  switch,  which  simultaneously  lifts  the 
l)rake  shoes  and  connects  the  motor  to  the  line  so  that 
it  rotates  in  the  proper  direction  to  lower  the  car.    Simi- 
larly, a  movement  of  the  car  switch  away  from  the  door 
opening  energizes  the  magnet  of  the  up-direction  switch. 
In  the  car  a   safety   switch    is   provided   which,   when 
opened  in  case  of  emergency,  interrupts  the  circuit  of 
the  potential-switch  magnet,  and  this  in  turn  interrupts 
the  current  to  the  direction  switches  and  stops  the  car. 
Hoistway  limit  switches   V  are  provided  at  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  hoistway.    A  cam  mounted  on  the  side 
of  the  car  engages  these  limit  .switches  after  the  car 
overruns  the  top-  or  bottom-terminal  landing.    This  also 
causes  the  potential  switch  on  the  controller  to  open.    A 
slack-rope  switch  is  provided  which  opens  the  potentia 
switch  when  the  hoisting  ropes  become  slack  for  any 
reason.    In  the  case  of  an  overhead  machine  this  switch 
is  mounted  on  the  car  crosshead  and  connected  to  the 
car  ropes.     For  a  machine  in  the  basement  or  on  the 
lower  floor,  the  slack-rope  switch  is  located  on  the  bed- 
plate under  the  hoisting  drum.     In  either  case,  when 


the  ropes  become  slack,  as  they  would  when  the  cai 
safety  operates  or  when  the  car  runs  down  onto  the 
bumpers  in  the  pit,  the  amount  of  slack  is  prevented 
from  increasing  by  stopping  the  motor.  The  slack  must 
be  removed  and  the  ropes  properly  placed  on  the  drum 
before  the  car  is  again  started. 

The  hoisting  machines  are  provided  with  an  automatic 
switch  W,  shown  in  the  figures  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  each  machine.  This  switch  is  adjustable  and  is  set 
so  that  the  car  will  run  only  a  short  distance  past  the 
top  and  bottom  landings,  if  the  elevator  operator  neg- 
lects to  center  the  car-controlling  switch.  The  automatic 
switch  first  causes  the  direction  switch  on  the  controller 
to  open,  corresponding  to  the  direction  of  car  travel,  and 
the  brake  to  set;  a  further  movement  of  the  car  opens 
the  hoistway  limit  switch  V.  and  a  still  further  move- 
ment causes  the  automatic  switch  W  to  open  the  main- 
line circuit  to  the  motor. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  machine  has  attached^  a 
sheave,  S  Fig.  1  and  .Y  Fig.  2,  arranged  to  move  along 
a  shaft  parallel  with  the  drum.  This  sheave  is  known 
as  an  "attached  vibrator,"  the  sheave  moving  or  vibrat- 
ing back  and  forth  along  the  shaft  so  as  to  maintain  a 
proper  lead  on  the  ropes  as  they  wind  or  unwind  on  the 
drum.  Frequently,  vibrator  sheaves  and  shafts  are  de- 
tached from  the  machines  and  they  are  then  termed 
"detached  vibrators."  In  the  case  of  a  machine  located 
in  the  basement  or  lower  floors,  as  in  Fig.  2,  the  attached 
vibrator  is  used  for  the  drum-counterweight  ropes  and 
the  vibrator  sheave  must  move  along  the  shaft  as  the 
ropes  wind  and  unwind  on  the  drum.  For  machines 
located  overhead,  as  in  Fig.  1,  the  attached  vibrator  i.s 
used  for  the  car-counterweight  ropes  and  does  not  move 


PIG.    4.      SINGLE   WORM    AND    GEAR.    SHOWING    BALL- 
THRUST   BEARINGS 

along  the  shaft  although  it  is  still  called  an  "attached 
vibrator."  Frequently  two  or  three  vibrator  sheaves 
rotate  on  the  same  shaft,  depending  on  the  particular 
characteristics  of  the  layout. 

The  sheaves  shown  overhead  in  Fig.  2  are  termed  the 
"overhead  sheaves."  Where  there  are  two  in  the  same 
horizontal  plane  for  one  set  of  ropes,  as  shown  at  Z. 
they  are  called  "tandem  sheaves."     Sheaves  Z,  Fig.  2. 


January' 8,' -r»18 


P-^O-WKR 


48 


FIG.    5.   THRUST-BEARING 
BALL    PLATE 


are  used  for  the  druni-oounterweiKht  ropes  and  sheave 
Y  for  the  car-hoist in<?  ropes. 

The  drum  and  worm-wheel  spiders  of  the  machine  are 
keyed  to  the  drum  shaft.  This  shaft  is  provided  with 
marine  or  collared  bearings  mounted  in  the  outboard- 
end  stand  and  in  the  woiniwheel  casing.  This  type  of 
bearing  is  required  so  as  to  resist  the  side  thrust  of  the 
wormwheel.  The  worm  shaft  is  provided  with  an  out- 
board bearing  B  in  the  gear 
case  and  passes  through  a 
stuffing-box  SB  on  the  in- 
board bearing  of  the  case, 
Figs.  3  and  4.  The  motor 
shaft  and  worm  shaft  are 
connected  with  a  coupling 
which  is  also  used  for  the 
brake  drum.  The  brake  A, 
Fig.  3,  is  operated  with  an 
electric  solenoid  ES  which, 
when  energized,  pulls  the 
solenoid  cores  together.  The 
cores  C  are  attached  to  a  link 
motion  L,  which  lifts  the  brake  shoes  off  the  brake  drum, 
the  lifting  being  opposed  by  springs  at  S.  When  the 
circuit  of  the  solenoid  is  open,  these  springs  apply  the 
shoes  to  the  brake  drum,  and  if  properly  adjusted,  the 
car  is  smoothly  brought  to  rest  at  all  loads.  This 
stopping  distance  is  called  the  slide  and  varies  with  the 
car  speed  and  load.- 

The  outboard  drum-bearing  stand,  gear  case,  brake 
stand  and  motor  are  all  bolted  to  a  cast-iron  bedplate. 
This  bedplate  must  be  rigidly  supported  in  place  and  the 
alignment  of  the  motor  shaft  and  worm  shaft  care- 
fully checked  after  the  load  of  the  car  and  counterweight 
are  on  the  drum  before  coupling  them  together. 

Drum-winding  machines  are  either  of  the  single- 
screw  type,  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  or  the  double-screw 
type,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  In  the  single-screw  type,  the 
thrust  between  the  worm  and  wheel  is  taken  on  a  ball 
thrust  bearing.  The  details  of  the  worm  and  wheel, 
thrust  and  worm  shaft  bearings  are  clearly  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  Fig.  5  shows  a  thrust-bearing  ball  plate;  note 
the  spiral  arrangement  of  the  balls  to  evenly  distribute 
the  wear.  In  the  double-screw  type  of  machine.  Fig.  3, 
no  thrust  bearings  for  the  worm  shaft  are  required  as 
a  right  and  a  left  worm  on  the  same  shaft  as  part  of 
the  same  forging  engage  a  right  and  a  left  wormwheel, 
which  in  turn  are  also  cut  to  mesh  together  as  spiral 
gears,  thus  giving  a  three-point  drive.  The  outboard 
wormwheel  is  attached  to  the  drum  shaft.  The  worms 
may  be  single,  double  or  triple  threaded  in  either  single- 
or  double-screw  machines,  depending  on  the  car  speed 
desired. 

Ventilated  Side  Walls 

By  William  R.  Caton 

One  source  of  annoyance  to  all  stoker  operators  is 
the  tendency  of  clinkers  to  stick  to  the  side-walls,  cut- 
ting down  the  available  grate  area  and  badly  injuring 
the  brick  when  cleaning  fires.  By  the  constant  break- 
ing away  of  brick  that  are  melted  into  clinkers,  the 
side-walls  need  frequent  repairs.  After  a  number  of 
years  of  repairing  brickwork  in  furnaces,  Ernest 
Bernitz  tried  the  method  of  ventilating  the  side-  and 


bridge-walls  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations. 
Fig.  1  shows  the  furnace  walls  with  Riley  stoker. 
A  hole  five  oi  six  inches  square  is  built  in  the  wall 
below  the  grate  and  connecting  air  chamber  under  the 
grate  with  the    lU  or  2-in.  pocket  built  in  the  side- 

COMMON    B/»C/<u 


Taper-  Air 
Chamber- 


FIR£   BRKH 

Section    A-A 


Leave  Space    X  \ 

bet^ween  Sides      Section    B-B 
of  Brick 

- 9'-?' — -^- 

Outline  of  Air  Space 
in  Side  Wall, 


Top  of 
'i—       ^     ^Orates-.  <— !? 


'iZl*E!__4:!im L 


Section  C-C 


FIG.    1.      SIDE-WALL    AIR    OPENINGS.    RILEY    STOKERS 

wall.  Above  the  grates  for  three,  four  or  five  courses, 
depending  on  what  capacity  boiler  is  to  be  worked, 
headers  are  laid  without  fireclay  between  side  joints, 
which  allows  air  from  the  air  chamber  to  go  to  the 
side-wall  pocket,  then  through  the  narrow  apertures 
between  the  brick,  keeping  the  brick  cool  and  prevent- 
ing clinker  sticking  to  them.  Fig.  2  shows  the  side- 
wall    built    with    Taylor    stokers.      The    brickwork    or 


'*-    l3t~  t^^"*)!  WIND 


FIG.   2.      SIDE-WALL  AIR   oi'E.N'lNGS   AS    AHI'LIIOI>   TO 
TAYLOR  STOKER 

setting  with  Taylor  stoker  is  similar  to  that  with  the 
Riley,  but  to  connect  it  for  ventilation  necessitates 
cutting  a  V-shaped  hole  through  the  cast-iron  wind-box 
under  the  tuyere  irons. 

This  scheme  of  ventilating  was  tried  with  hand  fires 
and  natural  draft  many  years  ago,  but  never  proved 
successful  enough  to  warrant  a  patent  on  it.  With 
forced  draft  it  is  a  success,  either  with  stokers  or  hand 
fires. 


Delivery  of  equipment  these  days  is  as  slow  as  that 
lack  of  speed  expressed  by  the  English  cabby  to  his 
American  charge  who  protested  at  the  cockney's  delay. 
'"S  all  right;  .vou  kept  us  waitin'  three  years." 


44 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


.-# 


=SUA:. 


y-Ji.  teft. 


'Sissi^.i 


'^  1, 


Camp  Dix  Military  Cantonment 


THE  photographs  reproduced  show  in  a  general 
way  the  progress  made  in  preparation  for  the 
mobilization  of  the  new  American  Army  at  Camp 
Dix  during  the  period  from  July  17,  when  the  picture 
at  the  top  of  the  page  was  taken,  to  Oct.  13,  when  tha 
one  next  below  was  taken.  The  artillery  section  may  be 
seen  in  the  distance  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of 
this  picture.  The  picture  at  the  bottom  of  the  opposite 
page  gives  a  better  view  of  some  of  the  officers'  quarters 
and  a  part  of  one  of  the  drill  grounds. 

The  building  construction  almost  throughout  is  of 
the  double-siding  and  double-floor  type,  with  felt  or 
tar  paper  between  and  tar-felt  roofing,  making  at  once 
inexpensive,  easily  built  and  waiTn  buildings.  Hand 
labor  in  all  operations  was  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Semi- 
portable  sawi;ables,  driven  by  small  gasoline  engines 
mounted  beneath,  were  much  in  evidence. 

Road  building  constitutes  an  important  element  in 
all  military  operations  and  is  one  of  the  first  engineering 
enterprises  of  any  camp.  Clamshell  buckets  were  used 
for  unloading  road-making  and  like  material  from  the 
railway  cars  wherever  possible,  and  self-dumping  motor 
trucks  were  used  for  distribution  within  the  grounds. 

The  barracks  generally  are  two-story  frame  buildings 
43  ft.  wide  by  140  ft.  long,  with  a  one-story  "cook  shop" 
it  one  end,  and  each  is  designed  as  sleeping  quarters 
^nd  mess  for  about  175  men.  They  are  heated  by  two 
large  heaters  on  each  floor.  The  officers'  quarters  are 
-?mall  one-story  buildings,  20  ft.  wide  with  an  average 
length  of  112  ft.  divided  into  living  quarters,  offices 
and  kitchen,  so  that  heating  by  stoves  is  not  practicable. 


A  small  cast-iron  sectional  steam  boiler  is  located  in  a 
pit  at  the  rear  of  the  building,  and  a  loop  of  piping  runs 
under  the  floor  with  short  risers  through  the  floor  to 
the  radiators — an  arrangement  at  once  as  simple  and 
"foolproof"  as  seems  possible  to  design.  The  camp  is 
provided  with  a  complete  system  of  roads,  sewerage, 
water  supply  and  fire  protection,  telephone  communica- 
tion and  electric  service.  Standardization  in  design  is 
thoroughly  carried  out. 

The  base  hospital  group  of  buildings  is  located  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  barracks.  This  is  the 
only  group  supplied  by  a  central  heating  plant.  The 
boiler  plant  consists  of  a  battery  of  eight  boilers  rated 
at  150  hp.  each,  seven  of  which  are  to  operate  at  low 
pressure  for  heating  direct  and  one  at  high  pressure 
for  the  kitchen  and  other  uses  where  a  continuous  high- 
pressure  steam  service  is  needed.  Hot  water  is  sup- 
plied through  a  2A-in.  flow  and  return  line  from  a  large 
storage  tank  containing  a  steam  coil.  The  low-pressure 
boilers  are  fed  by  the  "sei-vice  main"  pressure  and  the 
high-pressure  by  means  of  a  feed  pump.  The  boilers 
are  hand-fired  and  each  has  an  independent  stack  3j  in. 
diameter.  The  piping  system  is  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions, but  cross  connections  are  provided  at  several 
points  for  use  in  case  of  emergency,  expansion  bends 
and  loops  are  used  on  the  10-  and  8-in.  lines  and  slip 
expansion  joints  on  all  smaller  sizes.  The  wards  are 
piped  independently  with  the  "drainage  slope"  toward 
the  extreme  end  where  the  condensate  is  discharged 
through  a  trap.  The  total  radiation  in  the  hospital 
group  is  upward  cf  90,000  sq.ft.    The  main  distributing 


.lamiary  8.  1918 


POWER 


45 


Near  Wrightstown,  New  Jersey 


lines  are  of  approximately  the  following  size  and 
lengths:  1150  ft.  of  10-in.,  1300  ft.  8-in.,  1600  ft.  6-in., 
1800  ft.  4-in.  and  2200  ft.  of  3-in.  pipe. 

The  camp  is  supplied  with  ice  from  an  electrically 
driven  ice  plant  in  a  section  of  the  grounds  convenient 
to  the  railway,  where  meats  and  other  perishable  com- 


missary supplies  are  received  and  distributed.  By 
courtesy  of  Capt.  H.  A.  Gilbert  access  to  all  proper  data 
was  given  to  a  representative  of  Power.  The  photo- 
graphs were  supplied  by  W.  N.  Jennings,  1305  Arch  St., 
Philadelphia,  Penn.,  the  official  photographer  for  the 
contractors,  Ii-win  &  Leighton. 


OFFICERS'  QUARTERS  AND  PART  OF  ONE  OF  THE  PRILL  GROUNDS 


46 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


Methods  of  Drying  Out  Flooded  Power 

Plant  Equipment 


Various  schemes  that  may  be  employed  for  dry- 
ing out  electrical  equipment  after  a  power  plant 
has  been  flooded  are  discussed.  The  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  the  various  methods  are 
pointed  out. 


FLOODS  are  no  respecters  of  power  houses,  and  the 
majority  of  troublemen  have  to  clean  up  the  mess 
left  by  one  of  them  sooner  or  later.  Of  course 
the  old  adage,  "Many  men  of  many  minds,"  applies  in 
this  work  as  in  everything  else,  and  countless  schemes 
have  been  tried  with  all  degrees  of  success.  In  fact, 
some  of  the  schemes  hava  mads  matters  worse  instead 
of  better.  Possibly  a  brief  outline  of  a  few  good  ways 
and  a  caution  regarding  some  of  the  bad  ones  may  be 
of  assistance  to  some  brother  in  distress. 

A  power  house  after  a  flood  is  a  sorry  sight — oil  and 
river  silt  smeared  over  everything  and  unlimited  drift- 
wood and  sand  everywhere.  The  first  thing  of  course, 
is  a  thorough  cleaning,  and  this  should  be  started  im- 
mediately and  carried  on  while  stock  is  being  taken  of 
the  local  facilities  and  a  plan  of  campaign  laid  out. 
The  machines  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  water 
under  pressure  (a  fire  hose  works  very  nicely),  and  all 
bright  parts  dried  and  oiled  to  prevent  rusting.  The 
bearings  should  also  have  immediate  attention  to  pre- 
vent rusting.  They  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  of  all 
dirt  and  grit,  dried  and  oiled  before  rust  gets  a  foot- 
hold. 

Run  Machine  To  Assist  in  the  Drying 

Just  as  soon  as  the  machines  can  be  turned  over,  they 
should  be  brought  up  to  speed  and  run  without  field  as 
the  windage  will  assist  materially  in  the  drying.  The 
building  should  also  be  cleaned  and  heated  to  drive  out 
the  dampness.  This  heating  will  also  assist  consider- 
ably in  drying  the  machines.  Special  care  should  be 
taken  to  ventilate  the  power  station  so  that  the  damp 
warm  air  may  be  replaced  by  dry  air. 

In  an  alternating-current  station  the  exciters  should, 
of  course,  have  the  first  attention,  although  the  alter- 
nators should  be  run  on  windage  while  the  exciters  are 
drying.  Small  exciters  have  been  dried  out  by  windage 
and  a  plumber's  furnace  under  the  commutator.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  get  the  commutator  too  hot. 

The  machines  may  also  be  baked  in  a  temporary  oven 
or  hot  air  blown  through  them.  One  must  remember, 
however,  that  heat  alone  will  not  do  the  trick.  The 
moisture  must  be  removed,  and  nothing  else  will  carry 
away  moisture  like  hot,  diy  air. 

In  many  cases  machines  have  been  surrounded  with 
steam  radiators  and  carefully  covered  with  several 
thicknesses  of  tarpaulins.  After  several  days  of  this 
"drying,"  those  in  charge  of  the  job  were  greatly  sur- 
prised  to   find  the   insulation    resistance   considerably 


By  NORMAN  L.  REA 

Construction  Engineer,  General  Electric  Co. 

'     lower  than  when  the  work  was  started.     Steaming  is 

all  right  for  clams,  but  is  poor  treatment  for  water- 
soaked  insulation.  A  little  planning  and  a  few  bafflers 
will  usually  cause  the  hot  air  from  the  radiators  to  flow 
through  the  machine  by  its  natural  draft.  Hot  air  may 
be  forced  through  the  machine  by  a  blower  when  power 
is  available.  The  foregoing  methods  are  good  when  it 
is  impossible  to  run  the  machines  owing  to  lack  of  me- 
chanical power,  or  in  the  case  of  synchronous  motors. 
It  is  especially  applicable  to  exciters.  Of  course  the 
machine  should  be  ^un  if  at  all  possibla,  and  the  heating 
arranged  so  that  th  >  natural  windage  will  assist  the  hot- 
air  circulation.  The  heat  may  be  supplied  by  steam 
radiators,  hot-air  furnaces,  stoves,  electric  heaters  or 
lamp  banks. 

No  two  jobs  are  alike,  and  there  is  an  excellent  chance 
for  a  man  to  show  his  ingenuity  and  skill  in  the  best 
use  of  local  resources.  An  open  flame  should  not  be 
used.     In  one  case  where  coke  fires  were  used  with  a 


FIG. 


1.      COXNECTIONS  FOR  SHORT-CIRCUIT  HEAT  RUN 
ON  ALTERXATI.HG-CURRENT  GENERATORS 


blower,  the  coke  dust,  ashes  and  fumes  were  blown  into 
the  windings.  After  several  days'  treatment,  the  wind- 
ings showed  a  lower  insulation  resistance  than  when 
the  drying  was  started.  This  was  apparently  due  to 
the  dust  lodging  in  the  windings,  and  the  fumes  may 
have  caused  copper  corrosion. 

The  temperature  of  the  hot  air  with  any  arrange- 
ment should  not  be  Ligher  than  100  deg.  C,  and  80 
deg.  C.  is  a  safer  ten.perature,  because  some  insulating 
compounds  change  ai  fairly  low  temperatures.  The 
fire  risk  must  always  be  kept  in  mind  and  excessive 
temperatures  avoided. 

As  soon  as  an  excitar  is  dry  enough  or  dii-ect  current 
is  available  from  any  source,  all  the  alternating-current 
generators  should  be  put  on  a  short-circuit  heat  run. 
This  is  done  by  sho/t-circuiting  all  phases  through  the 
proper  size  current  transformers  and  ammeter,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1,  and  a  »plying  a  weak  field,  which  is  in- 
creased slowly  until  t'.e  armature  winding  is  carrying 
full-load  current.  Generators  with  an  overload  rating 
may  be  run  with  t)  is  overload  current.  However, 
many  machines  are  n'  w  given  a  maximum  rating,  and 
any  current  in  excess  of  this  rating  may  damage  the 
windings.  The  short-circuit  of  the  generators  should 
be  made  between  the  generator  and  the  oil  switch  as 
in  the  figure,  or  the  oil  switch  blocked  in  the  closed 


.lanuary  8.  191^ 


POWER 


47 


position  and  the  load  handled  by  the  field  current  ex- 
clusively, because  openintr  the  armature  circuit  during 
the  short-circuit  run  is  quite  likely  to  puncture  the  wet 
insulation. 

The  short-circuit  heat  run  should  be  continued  until 
the  insulation  resistance  reaches  a  proper  value.  This 
resistance  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  size  of  the  ma- 


To  Source  of  DC.   Power 


Windings  o^\   "' 

Machine  whose  

Insulation  Resistance 
is  under  Test 


FIG. 


INSUL.XTION'-TEST    CONNECTIONS 


R  = 


where  R  equals  the  insulation  re- 


chine,  kind  of  insulation,  voltage,  etc.  In  general  the 
insulation  resistance  indicates  little  more  than  the  con- 
dition of  the  insulation  as  regards  moisture.  The  rate 
of  change  of  the  resistance  as  the  heat  run  progresses 
is,  perhaps,  the  best  indication  as  to  when  the  drying 
has  been  carried  far  enough.  The  drier  the  insulation 
becomes  the  slower  the  insulation  resistance  will  in- 
crease. Judgment  must  be  used  in  deciding  when  it  is 
safe  to  stop  the  short-circuit  nan. 

In  many  cases  a  Wheatstone  bridge  or  megger  is  not 
available  for  measuring  the  insulation  resistance.  The 
following  method  will  give  results  accurate  enough  for 
general  use:  Connect  one  side  of  a  direct-current  cir- 
cuit to  the  windings  to  be  tested,  connect  the  other  side 
of  this  circuit  to  a  portable  voltmeter,  and  then  read 
the  voltage  when  the  free  side  of  the  voltmeter  is  con- 
nected to  the  circuit  where  it  is  attached  to  the  wind- 
ings, as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line,  Fig.  2.  Call  this 
reading  E.  Then  connect  the  free  side  of  the  voltmeter 
to  to  the  frame  of  the  machine,  as  shown  in  full  lines 
In  the  figure,  being  careful  to  get  a  good  contact,  and 
call  this  reading  £■,.  Then  the  insulation  resistance 
RAE  -  g.) 
E, 

sistance  and  /2,  the  resistance  of  the  voltmeter;  the 
latter  value  is  usually  given  inside  the  meter  cover. 

Before  using  any  commercial  circuit  for  insulation 
testing,  voltmeter  tests  must  be  made  to  determine  if 
the  circuit  is  grounded.  One  side  of  the  circuit  must 
be  free  from  grounds,  and  the  ungrounded  side  used  in 
series  with  the  voltmeter  when  testing.  Failure  to  test 
for  grounds  has  led  to  short-circuits  and  personal  in- 
juries. 

After  the  short-circuit  test  is  ended,  the  machines 
should  be  brought  up  to  normal  voltage  slowly  and 
should  be  inspected  very  carefully  while  the  voltage  is 
building  up.  Incipient  breakdowns  can  usually  be  seen, 
heard  or  smelled  and  the  field  circuit  opened  before  the 
windings  or  punchings  are  materially  damaged.  One 
man  should  stand  by  the  field  switch  to  open  it  in- 
stantly on  signal  from  the  men  watching  the  machines. 

The  machine  should  be  run  several  hours  at  normal 
voltage  or  10  per  cent,  above  normal  to  heat  the  iron 
thoroughly  before  going  into  regular  service.  It  is 
advisable  to  continue  the  drying  of  very  large  genera- 
tors 24  hours  longer  as  follows:  Two  hours  at  full-load 
current  on  short-circuit,  then  two  hours  10  per  cent, 
above  normal  voltage  open-circuit.     These  alternating 


runs  heat  both  the  iron  and  the  windings  thoroughly 
and  drive  out  any  remaining  moisture. 

There  is  always  a  tendency  to  hurry  the  machines  into 
service,  and  great  pressure  is  usually  brought  to  bear 
on  the  man  in  charge  of  the  drying.  It  is  imperative 
to  "make  haste  slowly,"  as  a  day  or  two  longer  drying 
is  a  lot  better  than  a  burned-out  machine  with  the  con- 
sequent delay  and  expense. 

Large  direct-current  machines  that  have  been  sub- 
merged usually  give  the  most  trouble  in  the  commutator, 
especially  if  the  machines  are  flooded  when  hot.  Ap- 
parently the  sudden  cooling  causes  a  partial  vacuum 
under  the  commutator  bars  and  some  water  is  drawn 
into  this  space.  The  heating  of  the  commutator  causes 
expansion  which  traps  this  water.  Consequently,  the 
machine  responds  very  slowly  to  direct  heat  on  the 
commutator  or  short-circuit  heat  runs,  unless  some  exit 
is  provided  for  the  moisture.  The  following  scheme 
has  produced  excellent  results  on  several  occasions. 

Every  other  bolt  is  removed  from  the  outside  clamp- 
ing flange  of  the  commutator.  Then  some  small  bent 
funnels  were  made,  shaped  like  a  ship's  ventilator  hood, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  3  at  A.  One  of  these  air  scoops  was 
fastened  in  every  other  hole  and  faced  in  the  direction 
of  rotation  as  in  the  figure.  The  ventilating  funnels 
were  made  up  by  a  local  tinsmith  and  twisted  into  the 
holes,  after  which  no  trouble  was  experienced  by  their 
coming  out.  Of  course  all  of  them  were  used  on  fairly 
slow-speed  machines,  and  as  the  funnels  were  down 
near  the  shaft,  they  did  not  move  very  fast.  The  ma- 
chine must  be  run  at  reduced  speed,  to  prevent  injury 
to  the  commutator.  The  scoops  force  air  through  the 
space  under  the  commutator  bars  and  out  the  other  holes, 
materially  hastening  the  drying.  In  some  cases  one 
can  actually  see  the  vapor  coming  from  the  open  holes. 

There  are  several  ways  of  heating  direct-current  ma- 
chines. The  various  methods  of  drying  with  hot  air, 
previously  outlined,  can,  of  course,  be  applied  when  the 
machine  cannot  be  run  or  there  is  no  outside  power 


PIG.  3.     AIR  SCOOPS  FOR  VENTILATING  COMMUTATOR 

available.  The  simplest,  when  the  machine  can  be  run 
and  direct  current  is  available,  is  a  short-circuited  heat 
run.  The  series  field  should  be  reversed  to  buck  the 
shunt  coils  and  the  armature  short-circuited  through  an 
ammeter  and  a  circuit-breaker  or  fuse. 

Then  a  very  small  current  is  sent  through  the  shunt 
field  and  gradually  increased  until  full-load  current  flows 
through  the  short-circuit.  E.xtreme  care  must  be  used 
in  first  throwing  on  the  short-circuit,  for  unless  the 
series-field  windings  are  bucking  the  shunt,  the  machine 
will  pick  up  as  a  series  generator  on  short-circuit,  with 


48 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


surprising  and  .sometimes  disastrous  results.  Unless 
the  circuit-breaker  can  be  set  very  low,  it  is  advisable 
to  connect  a  small  fuse  in  the  circuit  for  the  first  trial. 
In  some  cases  the  brushes  may  need  shifting  forward 
from  the  regular  running  positions  so  that  the  resulting 
sparking  will  increase  the  heating  of  the  commutator,     the  commutator. 


is  unnecessary  to  alternate  the  open  and  short-circuit 
runs. 

The  insulation  resistance  is  usually  considerably 
lower  than  the  alternators,  but  the  drj-ing  takes  about 
the  same  length  of  time,  especially  if  water  gets  into 


'Circuit 
Breaker 

FIG.    4.      CONNECTIONS   FOR  HEAT   RUN   ON   TWO   COM- 
POUND-WOUND   DIRECT-CURRENT    GENERATORS 


This  should  not  be  carried  far  enough  to  spoil  the  com- 
mutator's surface  and  make  turning  or  grinding  neces- 
sary. 

Where  no  exciting  current  was  available  on  a  job  in- 
volving two  large  engine-driven  machines — after  con- 
siderable study  the  following  scheme  was  used  with  ex- 
cellent results:  The  series  field  of  one  machine  was 
bucked  so  that  it  opposed  the  tendency  to  pick  up 
as  a  series  generator,  then  the  two  machines  were  con- 
nected in  series  through  an  ammeter  shunt  and  circuit- 
breaker.  Both  machines  were  equipped  with  air  scoops 
on  the  commutator  end  flange.  The  machine  with  the 
bucked  field  was  brought  up  to  half-speed.  Then  the 
other  machine  was  turned  over  slowly  and  the  speed 
gradually  increased  until  full-load  current  was  flowing 
through  the  combination.  This  required  about  20  per 
cent,  of  normal  speed  for  the  generator.  Fig.  4  shows 
the  scheme  of  connections  used.  Both  shunt-field  wind- 
ings were  left  open,  as  there  was  no  way  of  exciting 
them. 

Sometimes  the  commutator  heating  can  be  materials- 
assisted  by  one  or  two  plumber's  furnaces  turned  low 
and  placed  with  their  tops  a  foot  or  two  below  the  com- 
mutator. Care  should  be  taken  not  to  heat  the  commu- 
tator too  quickly  or  too  hot.  Most  commutators  are 
pressed  on  an  extension  of  the  armature  spider  hub, 
and  the  pressing  fit  allowance  is  usually  small.  Too 
rapid  heating  may,  therefore,  expand  the  commutator 
enough  to  loosen  it  on  the  shaft.  In  fact,  this  was  first 
discovered  by  a  commutator  starting  to  walk  off  its 
seat.  Fortunately,  this  was  noticed  before  any  damage 
resulted,  and  the  heat  run  was  discontinued  while  it  was 
jacked  back  to  its  proper  place.  The  windings  should 
not  be  heated  over  100  deg.  C,  although  the  commutator 
will  safely  stand  temperatures  above  100  deg.  C.  "It 
is  better,  however,  to  be  safe  than  sorry,"  therefore, 
use  80  deg.  C.  as  a  maximum  on  the  windings  and  100 
deg.  on  the  commutator.  These  values  are  actual  tem- 
peratures and  not  a  rise  above  the  room  temperature. 

The  drying  should  be  continued  until  the  insulation 
resistance  reaches  a  safe  value  and  the  machine  then 
brought  up  to  normal  voltage  very  slowly.  The  re- 
marks under  alternating-current  generator  drying  apply 
equally  well  to  direct-current  machines,  except  that  it 


Berry  Flexible  Joint 

Various  arrangements  are  used  in  pipe-line  construc- 
tion to  provide  for  expansion  and  contraction  and  to 
release  the  pipes  from  strain,  jarring  and  vibration. 
Expansion  bends,  swing  joints,  unions  and  sundry  types 
of  flexible  joints  are  used  for  this  purpose.  Included 
in  the  line  of  flexible  connections  is  the  new  Berry- 
flexible  joint,  manufactured  by  the  Iron  Clad  Joint  Co., 
400  Godchaux  Building,  New  Orleans,  La.  It  is  arranged 
for  use  with  steam,  air  or  water,  and  is  illustrated 
herewith. 

This  is  not  a  metal-ball  joint,  but  it  has  the  action 
of  one,  and  it  is  designed  to  take  care  of  vibration, 
expansion  and  contraction.  It  is  so  flexible  that  it  can 
be  swung  automatically  in  any  direction  and  always 
leave  a  full  and  unobstructed  area  to  the  flow  of  liquid 
or  gas. 

The  device  consists  of  six  parts,  as  shown.  The  shell, 
or  bell  end,  A  is  threaded  on  the  inside  for  a  bearing 


SEMI-SBCTIONAL  VIEW   OF  THE   FLEXIBLE  .JOINT 

ring.  The  pipe  C,  forming  the  other  pipe  connection, 
is  made  with  a  flange  D  with  a  machined  curved  sur- 
face on  the  side  that  has  a  bearing  with  the  ring  B. 
The  flange  is  made  flat  on  the  opposite  side,  so  that 
the  cup-shaped  flexible  member  E  has  a  flat  surface 
against  which  it  is  firmly  pressed  by  the  ring  F  when 
screwed  up  on  the  thread  on  the  inner  end  of  the  con- 
nection C. 

With  the  pressure  entering  the  joint  in  the  direction 
of  the  arrows,  the  flexible  member  E  is  forced  out 
against  the  inside  surface  of  the  body  A,  making  a 
steam-tight  joint  regardless  of  the  angle  in  which  the 
connection  C  may  be. 


The  Salt  Lake  Tribune  recently  published  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Consent  was  voted  yesterday  morninK  by  the  City  Com- 
mission for  the  Utah  Power  and  Light  Co.  to  drain  con- 
densed water  from  its  heating  system  into  the  sewer.  It 
was  explained  to  the  commission  that  distilled  water  that 
returns  from  the  steam  pipes  is  injurious  to  the  boilers  if 
returned  to  them  because  of  its  activity  as  a  solvent. 

Nothing  like  reading  the  newspapers  for  getting  valu- 
able engineering  information— some  engineers  don't 
know  about  this.— W^.  E.  Jacob. 


.Inniinrv'  8.   1918 


POWER 


49 


Relief  for  New  England  Coal  Situation 


By  CHARLES  H.  BROMLEY 


Governor  McCall  of  Massachusetts,  together  %vith 
Fuel  Administrator  Storrow  and  other  governors 
and  senators  from  New  England,  visit  Washing- 
ton to  force  relief  for  coal  situation.  Railroads 
and  trolley-car  service  reduced  to  avoid  imme- 
diate depletion  of  supply.  Navy  responsible  for 
serious  withdrawal  of  large-towing  capacity. 
New  England  short  nearly  8,000,000  tons  of 
bituminous  coal  on  January  First. 

NEW  England's  coal  situation  was  never  more 
acute.  And  there  is  the  devil  to  pay  about  it,  as 
Washington  learned  last  week.  Fuel  Adminis- 
trator Storrow  and  Governor  McCall  of  Massachusetts, 
accompanied  by  other  governors  and  senators  from  New 
England,  visited  the  capital  to  force  immediate  action  to 
relieve  the  grave  fuel  condition  of  the  six  Northeastern 
States.  The  outlook  therefore  is  brighter,  though  it 
should  be  understood  by  fuel  users  that  a  shortage  of 
the  most  severe  kind  cannot  now  be  avoided;  neverthe- 
less it  will  be  of  shorter  duration  than  it  would  have 
been  but  for  the  impressive  visit  of  the  New  England 
delegation  to  Mr.  Garfield  at  Washington.  Governor 
McCall  was  not  sparing  in  his  condemnation  of  those 
responsible  for  New  England's  plight.  The  Navy  De- 
partment particularly  was  censured  by  the  Governor  for 
its  too  wholesale  commandeering  of  ocean  tugs,  leaving 
a  shortage  of  power  craft  to  tow  loaded  coal  barges  from 
Hampton  Roads  to  New  England  ports.  This  is  what 
the  Governor  had  to  say :  "The  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
is  said  to  have  proudly  declared  before  a  committee  of 


Congress  the  other  day  that  we  have  a  thousand  ships 
in  the  Navy;  but  if  those  ships,  according  to  tonnage, 
could  begin  to  inflict  the  damage  on  the  Germans  that 
the  withdrawal  of  coal  tugs,  according  to  their  tonnage, 
has  inflicted  on  the  northeastern  part  of  our  own  coun- 
try, it  is  doubtful  if  the  Germans  would  last  a  week." 

One  effect  of  the  Governor's  visit  will,  it  is  promised, 
be  the  stopping  of  cross-hauling;  that  is,  no  coal  trains 
shall  pass  each  other  running  in  opposite  directions. 
The  Chesipaake  &  Ohio  R.R.  is  to  haul  coal  from  the 
mines  to  Hampton  Roads  for  New  England  delivery. 

It  is  charged  that  while  coal  shortage  is  due  to  rail- 
transportation  difliculties  chiefly,  the  roads  would  have 
three-thousand  locomotives  for  coal  hauling  if  the  loco- 
motive shops  had  not  been  commandeered  for  the  build- 
ing of  locomotives  for  Russia  and  France. 

Capt.  Arthur  Crowley,  who  is  the  marine  representa- 
tive of  the  New  England  Fuel  Administration,  is  confi- 
dant of  improvement  in  towing  capacity  for  barges  to 
New  England  ports.  The  Navy  took  one-fourth  of  the 
towing  capacity  of  the  Reading  road  used  in  the  New 
England  trade,  and  the  ten  tugs  taken  from  the  towing 
service  between  Hampton  Roads  and  New  England  have 
left  a  shortage  of  such  capacity  amounting  to  many 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  tons  per  year.  Much  of  this 
will  likely  be  restored  as  the  result  of  the  efforts  of 
Fuel  Administrator  Storrow. 

There  is  serious  congestion  at  Hampton  Roads.  The 
Boston  Elevated  Railroad  Co.'s  chartered  steamer 
"Everett"  has  been,  at  this  writing,  riding  at  anchor 
for  eight  days  awaiting  opportunity  to  load,  which  she 
can  do  in  eight  hours.  Her  capacity  is  7200  tons.  To 
facilitate  coal  leaving  Hampton  Roads,  ships  may  now 


50 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  2 


pass  in  and  out  of  the  harbor  at  any  time,  day  or  night. 
The  Boston  &  Maine  R.R.,  according  to  President 
Hustis,  requires  5000  tons  of  coal  per  day  for  its  loco- 
motives; but  for  the  last  thirty  days  only  2000  tons  per 
day  was  received.  The  Boston  Elevated  system  and  the 
Bay  State  railways  also  must  greatly  decrease  service 
to  make  the  coal  supply  go  far  enough  to  meet  the  urgent 
transportation  demands.  Service  on  many  of  the  subur- 
ban lines  will  be  stopped  except  for  a  few  hours  morn- 
ing and  evening.  The  illustration  shows  the  coal  stor 
age  plant  of  the  Boston  Elevated  Railway  Co.'s  South 
Boston  station. 

Though  Thursday  and  Sunday  nights  are  the  "light- 
less"  ones  in  Boston,  there  is  a  very  noticeable  absence 
of  non-essential  illumination  every  night  of  the  week. 
Boston  certainly  responds  much  better  to  the  pleas  of 
the  Fuel  Administrator  than  does  New  York  and  Chi- 
cago, particularly. 

The  following  data,  chiefly  from  the  ottice  of  the  New 
England  Fuel  Administrator,  show  the  coal  situation 
as  it  is: 


RECEIPTS  OF   KI'IIMIMHS  CliAI,  FIK: 


iT    l'E\    .\I(i,\TlI»,    1917 

Net  Tons 
9,267.925 
11,376.519 


20,644,444 
32.574,902 


24,773.332 


All  liiil  I  for  roiiinieiTi:il  and  i-aihoad  use)      

Tidewater  tfnr  enniiiiereial  and  railroad  use) 

Total 

Ueciuirenients  lor  1917 

If  receipts  for  remainder  of  the  year  eontinued  at  same  rate  a;,  jriven 
aboveifor  first  ten  months,  the  total  receipts  for  New  EnRlsnil  for 
year  1918  will  be 

OnJan.  1,  1918,  the  .New  Englaudshortage  of  bituminous  will  thus  be.      7.801,570 

NEW  ENfil.AND  RECEIPTS  OF  BITUMINoVS  COM.,  NET  TONS, 
FOR  THE  FIRST  TEN  MONTHS,    1917 

Company  Coal: 
I'lrst  10  months  actual,  llirce  big  roads. . 

First  10  months  actual.  Central  Vermont     . 

First  10  months  actual,|Rutland 

Total  company   

Conmiercial  coal; 

First  1 0  months  actual,  three  big  roads     

ii"irst  1 0  months  actual.  Central  Wrmont 
First  10  months  actual,  Rutland 

Total  commercial      


3,168.124 

5.629 

60,447 

3.234,200 


6.011.748 

54.715 

203,262 

6,269.725 


3,234,200 


6,269,725 


Total  company  and  commercial 
T.eas  exports  to  Canada  (Sept.  and  Oct.  '-st.) 

Net  total 
Tidewater  receipts  10  months 

Grand  total,  10  months     

Rcfjuirements  for  1917  as  previously  estiniated 

If  receipts  for  last  two  months  should  e((ual  1  ,'5  of  first 

10  months  theyjwould  equal 
Plus  10  months'  receipts     

Total     . 
Short.age  ,Tan.  I,  1918,  would  thus  be 

NEW  ENGLAND  BITUMINOUS  COAL  CONSUMPTION  IN    1916, 

NET  TONS" 

Tidewater  ,oal  15.665,499 

.Ill-rail  coal      10,230,253 


4,128,888 
20,644,444 


24,773.332 


20.644,444 
32,574,902 


24,773,332 
7,801,570 


25,895,752 
Depletion  of  reser\'e5      1,250,000 

27,145,752 

*  These  tidewater  figures  were  obtained  from  statistics  gathered  with  great 
care  at  each  New  England  port  by  the  Boston  Chamber  of  Commerce.  The 
all-rail  figures  were  reported  directly  to  the  New  England  Coal  Committee  by 
the  New  England  railroads.  The  coal  used  by  the  New  England  raih-oads  was 
5,916,789,  and  is  included  in  all-rail  and  tidewater  figures. 


REQUIREMENTS  FOR    1917 


Consumption,  P16 
.\dd  20  per  cenl 


27,145,752 
5,429,150 


32,574,902 

Twenty  per  cent,  increase  for  1917  over  1916  is  prob- 
ably low  for  soft  coal,  as  the  New  England  industries 
are  working  this  year  under  the  most  intensive  pressure 
ever  known  and  probably  to  a  greater  extent  than  any 
other  section  of  the  country,  except  perhaps  the  steel- 
making  districts. 

New  England  normally  carries  two-thirds  of  its  soft 
coal  by  water  and  one-third  by  rail.    Owing  to  war  con- 


ditions many  of  the  New  England  coal-carrying  bot- 
toms have  gone  off  the  coast  and  these  cannot  be  re- 
placed. The  already  overloaded  railroads  of  New  Eng- 
land cannot  assume  added  burdens.  Indeed,  owing  to 
lack  of  motive  power  the  capacity  of  these  railroads  will 
soon  be  cut  down  at  least  25  per  cent,  by  winter  storms 
and  cold  weather.  The  capacity  of  the  coal-carrying 
fleet  will  likewise  be  cut  down  at  least  25  per  cent,  by 
winter  weather.  New  England's  coal  problem  is  quite 
as  much  one  of  transportation  as  of  securing  the  coal. 
If  New  England  goes  into  January  7,500,000  tons  of 
coal  short,  as  the  figures  given  indicate,  this  not  only 
cannot  possibly  be  made  up,  but  will  inevitably  rapidly 
grow  worse  owing  to  lack  of  transportation  facilities. 

The  following  is  from  the  report  of  the  Federal  Trade 
Commission,  June  20,  1917,  Senate  Document  No.  50: 
"The  situation  in  New  England  is  made  acute  because 
of  the  disruption  and  disorganization  of  barge,  trans- 
portation. The  cost  of  the  water  haul  from  New  York 
to  Boston  has  been  increased  from  50c.  a  ton  to  as  high 
as  $3  a  ton.  From  Newport  News  bituminous  coal  is 
paying  $3.50  to  $4  per  net  ton  instead  of  the  normal  of 
70  to  90c.  to  New  England." 

New  England  a  Spot  Soft-Coal  Market 

By  long  custom  of  the  trade,  New  England  has  been 
preeminently  a  spot-coal  market.  The  mines  have  been 
glad  to  sell  their  coal  for  cash  to  New  England  con- 
sumers during  the  summer  months  while  other  localities 
were  less  ready  to  buy.  New  England  manufacturers 
and  householders  have  learned  the  necessity  of  accumu- 
lating a  supply  of  coal  during  the  summer  months  owing 
to  the  inability  of  the  rail-  and  water-transportation 
facilities  to  carry  coal  as  fast  as  it  must  be  burned  dur- 
ing the  winter  months.  Owing  to  its  greater  distance 
from  the  mines.  New  England  is  considered  a  less  de- 
sirable market,  and  at  times  consumers  have  been 
obliged,  in  order  to  divert  coal  in  their  direction,  to  bid 
higher  prices  than  other  localities. 

The  situation  in  New  England  in  regard  to  spot  coal 
became  acute  as  soon  as  the  $3  tentative  maximum  price 
was  put  into  effect  by  the  Coal  Production  Committee, 
because  consumers  were  prevented  from  bidding  higher 
than  other  localities  for  the  coal  they  needed,  and  the 
mines  and  originating  railroads  at  the  same  price  pre- 
ferred to  impi-ove  their  inadequate  car  supply  by  selling 
coal  nearer  the  mines  and  so  getting  their  cars  back 
sooner. 

Now  that  the  $2  price  has  gone  into  effect,  the  situa- 
tion has  grown,  if  possible,  worse.  A  very  large  number 
of  the  New  England  manufacturers  who  are  depending 
upon  buying  spot  coal  for  their  own  use  have  been  com- 
pletely shut  off.  Most  of  the  coal  is  going  to  fill  con- 
tracts at  higher  prices,  and  if  there  is  any  balance  of 
free  coal  it  is  being  sold  nearer  the  mines  and  New 
England  today  cannot  buy  a  car  of  spot  coal.  This  is 
the  situation  that  needs  immediate  attention. 

Shortage  of  Anthracite  Coal 

On  the  first  of  May  shipments  of  anthracite  were 
300,000  tons  short  of  a  year  ago.  By  the  first  of  July 
shipments  had  increased  so  that  the  total  for  the  six 
months  was  nearly  equal  to  a  year  ago.  This  had  not 
wholly  relieved  the  situation  because  no  coal  was  pro- 
vided for  the  normal  growth  of  5  or  6  per  cent.,  and 


Jiimiary  8.   1918 


JM)  W  K  1< 


51 


moreover,  the  percentage  of  domestic  or  household  sizes 
had  dropped  substantially  so  that  household  coal  was 
shorter  than  the  jrross  figures  would  indicate;  but  dur- 
ing July  and  August  shipments  of  anthracite  continued 
to  show  gains  over  last  year. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  anthracite  situation  in 
New  England  needs  immediate  attention,  or  at  least 
that  it  is  as  grave  as  the  soft-coal  situation.  Anthra- 
cite shipments  to  New  England  for  the  first  ten  months 
of  1917  were  10,227,010  tons;  for  the  first  ten  months  of 
1916,  9,220,760  tons. 

The  industrial  centers  of  New  England  are  being  as- 
sisted in  fuel  conservation  as  related  to  boiler  rooms.  In 
inspectors  from  the  offices  of  the  fuel  administrations 
and  by  the  cooperation  of  the  local  associations  and  sec- 
tions of  the  engineering  societies.  These  representa- 
tives are  versed  in  firing  methods  and  go  into  the  boiler 
rooms  to  assist,  if  possible,  in  teaching  firemen  how  to 
get  the  most  out  of  the  coal. 

The  President  has  now  taken  over  the  railroads  and 
the  steamship  lines  operated  by  the  roads.  The  Fuel 
Administrator  seriously  contemplates  "complete  control 
of  coal  if  the  war  lasts  for  a  long  while."  The  pity  is 
that  men  in  such  high  office  do  not  see  that  it  will. 
Likely  Dr.  Garfield  will  assume  complete  control,  and 
along  lines  suggested  in  Power  for  Dec.  18,  1917,  page 
832,  sooner  than  he  at  this  writing  seems  to  contemplate. 
With  the  roads  now  fully  under  Government  control  and 
with  the  more  complete  supervision  of  the  coal  industry 
by  the  Fuel  Administrator,  New  England  should  get 
relief  as  soon  as  it  is  physically  possible  to  do  so ;  that  is, 
there  do  not  now  exist  any  real  reasons  for  Govern- 
ment failure — e.xcept  the  uncertain  link,  labor,  which 
everyone  hopes,  will  hold. 

New  England  Hurt  by  Long  Hauls 

It  seems  certain  that  before  relief  can  come  to  many 
producers  of  steam  and  power  now  crying  for  coal,  the 
Fuel  Administration  must  abrogate  all  contracts  now 
existing  between  dealers,  consumers  and  coal-mine  oper- 
ators. The  present  panicky  situation  is  conducive  to 
hoarding,  and  operators  will  not,  of  course,  put  out  any 
free  coal  while  there  is  opportunity  for  it  to  bring 
higher  than  Government  prescribed  prices.  The  New 
England  Fuel  Administrator  truly  tells  how  price  fixing 
by  the  Government  has  operated  to  the  serious  disad- 
vantage of  the  Northeastern  States.  New  England,  by 
reason  of  its  geographical  position,  necessitates  com- 
paratively longer  hauls  at  a  time  of  extreme  car  short- 
age, which  has  made  coal  operators  reluctant  to  accept 
New  England's  trade.  But  these  are  propitious  times, 
and  therefore  this  disadvantageous  period  is  likely  to  be 
of  .short  duration.  Its  very  severity  compels  immediate 
alleviation  to  the  limit  of  physical  possibilities. 

With  indu.stries  vital  to  the  war  subject  to  interrup- 
tions on  account  of  lack  of  fuel,  with  the  railroads  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  train  after  train  from  service  for  the 
same  cause,  with  scores  of  ships,  ships  so  very  vital  to 
the  success  of  our  arms  and  those  of  our  Allies,  detained 
for  days  at  their  ports  because  of  empty  hunkers,  to  say 
nothing  of  domestic  suffering,  who  now  dares  to  belittle 
the  fuel  shortage  as  did  tha  exploiters  such  a  short  time 
ago  who  at  the  time  knew  full  well  the  gravity  of  the 
impending  crisis? 

The  severe  effect  of  car  shortage  on  loss  of  coal  output 


at  the  mines  is  shown  by  the  (Geological  Survey  report 
for  Dec.  29,  from  which  the  following  table,  condensed, 
is  taken : 


Iu.IImii;. 

Illilo 

Penns.vlvuniix: 
Westi-rn  Penns.vlvuniii 

li  will  Cms 

Cciitnil  !'r'iiiif.vlv!iiiia 

SoiiierHct  C'n      

WcHt  N'irKiiiia: 
WindinK  Gulf 
I'liiihiiiifU.' 

Pocahontas  and  New  Hi\'i 
Hiah  Vclatilc  'J  S.  W.  \m 
.luuior — IMiilippi 


Fiiir 


(.III 


("uiiiberluinl 

Kentucky  ■ 

Hazard  Field 


Picdninnl 


J 


Pereentaae  (jf  l-'ull- 

Tinie  Output   l.nst 

Week 

On  Account  ol 

Kndcd 

Car  .Short  ajre 

Dee.     8 

f    1 

Dee.    15 

17   0 

Dee.     8 

5  4 

Dee.    li 

18   4 

Dee.     8 

31    7 

Dee.    15 

57   1 

Dee.     8 

12  6 

Dee.    15 

35  6 

Dec.      8 

14  3 

Dec.    15 

28.3 

Dec.     8 

14   1 

Dec.    15 

28  3 

Dee.      8 

36  2 

Dec.    15 

52  5 

Dec,      8 

25  8 

Dee.    15 

41   9 

Dec.      8 

20  0 

Dee.    15 

24  2 

Dee.      8 

34  0 

Dee.    15 

46  4 

Dee.      8 

56  9 

De.v    15 

59  9 

Dec.      8 

35  6 

Dec.    15 

35   7 

Dec       8 

31   6 

Dee     15 

40  8 

Dec.      8 

13  7 

Dec     15 

34  9 

Dee.      8 

35   4 

Dec     15 

65   5 

Dc.'       8 

38  4 

Dec.    15 

60  9 

Dec.      8 

31   4 

Dee.    15 

40  2 

Dee.     8 

12  0 

Dec.    15 

18.8 

Dec.     8 

3  0 

Dee.    15 

8  2 

N'ortheastern  Ken*  uck.\ 
Western  Kentuck.v 
.Southern  .\ppalachian 
Southwestern  \'ircinia 

Notice  that  Ohio  lost  .57  per  cent,  of  its  full-time 
output  due  to  car  shortage;  Somerset  County,  Penn., 
52.5  per  cent. ;  Western  Pennsylvania,  33  per  cent. ;  the 
important  fields  of  West  Virginia  42,  24,  46,  60,  35  and 
40  per  cent.,  respectively,  while  the  Cumberland  and 
Kentucky  fields  suffered  similarly. 


— Ity  Morns,  in  the  New  York    ■Evenint'  Mail 
TAKTNtT    CHIT    THK    CLINKERS 


52 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


Determining  Boiler  Efficiency  by  C02  Analyses 

and  Flue  Temperatures 


By  HAYLETT  O'NEILL 


The  author  gives  several  charts  with  the  aid  of 
which  the  boiler  efficiency  may  be  closely  approxi- 
mated when  the  CO,  and  flue  temperatures  are 
knoivn.  The  purpose  of  the  article  is  to  enable 
the  engineer  to  obtain  valuable  operating  data 
for  practical  use  by  means  of  simple  and  cheap 
instruments. 


TO  INVESTIGATE  the  cost  of  its  product,  a  cer- 
tain power  company  spends  thousands  of  dollars 
a  year  experimenting  in  boiler-furnace  operation. 
Some  tests  cost  over  a  hundred  dollars  each.  The  re- 
sulting profits  are  manyfold  to  a  large  company  because 
the  expense  of  experimenting  is  shared  by  a  hundred 


coal  and  the  calculated  losses  by  the  heating  value  of 
the  coal. 

In  calculating  the  total  losses,  certain  operating  con- 
ditions and  accompanying  losses  actually  variable,  are 
assumed  constant  and  there  is  necessarily  an  error  in 
the  computed  efficiency.  However,  where  Eastern  coals 
are  burned,  such  error  is  usually  less  than  2.5  per  cent., 
sufficiently  precise  for  comparative  results.  It  is  well 
to  note  conditions  under  which  ?uch  assumed  losses 
may  vary.  For  example,  the  refuse  loss  here,  is  assumed 
constant,  while  it  actually  varies  according  to  the  coal 
and  the  design  and  the  operation  of  the  grates,.  The 
radiation  loss  is  assumed  equal  to  4  per  cent,  of  the 
boiler  output  at  builder's  rating.  In  very  large  units, 
the  loss  is  probably  nearer  2  per  cent.  A  boiler  in  a 
cold   climate,   other  things  being   equal,   cannot   be   so 


o  70 

z 


60 


4-'' 40 

o 
U  30 


B.'f.u'perLb.  Diy\Coa/=/4SlX  Combustible=90% 
f/yi/maen'5%,Moi5fure ^e°ii  Air  Temfx^60°^ 
CO=al%Slaim  Pressure  ^150 Lb,  Rel Humidity=65^ 
I 


300     400     500     600 
I  ue     Temperature, 

FIG.    1 

FIGS. 


700     800     900 
Deg.     Fahr 


'  0    e    4    6    8    10  12   14  16  18  20  22  24 
Hydrogen,  Per  Cenf,  of  Combustible 

FIG.  2 


Ql  0.2  03  04  0.5  06  07  08  0.9  LO    1 1    1.2    13  14  1.5  1.6  17   1.6 
Per    Cent,     CO    in    Flue      Gas 


FI0.3 


1  TO  3.     CH.A.RTS  SHOWING  VARIOUS  LOSSES  I.X   STEAM-BOILER   FURNACES 


Fig. 


1 — Combined  boiler  efTiciency  indicated   by 
amounts  of  hydrogen   in  fuel.      Fig. 


COa  and   fluetemperature.      Fig.   2 — EfCecl  of  excess  air  on  CO2  in  gas  varyiiig 
3— Furnace  loss  on  account   of  incomplete  combustion  of  carbon 


large  units,  and  the  gross  returns  ai-e  multiplied  accord- 
ingly. But  the  average  industrial  plant  cannot  afford 
special  coal  and  water  scales,  special  measuring  instru- 
ments and  piping  and  the  technical  help  for  complete 
plant  tests.  The  large  power  producers  must  do  most 
of  the  pioneer  work  in  boiler-plant  design  and  opera- 
tion. Easy  experimental  methods  would  undoubtedly 
lead  to  radical  developments  in  industrial  power-plant 
methods. 

The  object  of  this  writing  is  to  point  out  the  signifi- 
cance of  a  simple  and  cheap  method  for  determining 
evaporative  boiler  efficiency.  This  method  is  to  measure 
the  average  temperature  of  the  flue  gas  where  the  gas 
leaves  the  boiler-heating  surface,  to  analyze  for  CO, 
content  an  average  sample  of  flue  gas  from  the  same 
source,  and  to  apply  these  two  determinations  to  the 
efficiency  chart.  Fig.  1.  Thus,  flue-gas  temperature  and 
CO,  percentage  are  assumed  to  be  the  only  variable 
factors  of  boiler  efficiency.  This  is  computed  by  divid- 
ing  the   difference   between   the  heating  value   of   the 


commercially  efficient  as  one  surrounded  by  air  aver- 
aging 90  deg.  But  the  error  from  the  foregoing  as- 
sumption will,  upon  close  analyses  of  the  charts,  be 
negligible  compared  to  the  losses  accurately  measured 
by  the  flue-gas  temperature  and  the  percentage  of  CO,. 

Heat  losses  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  Those 
measured  by  CO^  and  flue  temperature,  and  those  meas- 
ured by  flue  temperature  only. 

Loss  in  Dry  Flue  Gas — By  itself,  the  percentage  of 
CO,  does  not  even  measure  boiler  efficiency.  In  simple 
language  it  indicates  the  weight  ratio  of  air  to  fuel 
when  the  proximate  analysis  of  the  coal  is  known.  A 
CO.,  content  in  flue  gas,  formed  from  pure  carbon 
burned  in  air,  indicates  one  proportion  of  air  to  fuel, 
the  same  percentage  CO,  from  the  combustion  of 
natural  gas  or  soft  coal  indicates  another.  This  differ- 
ence is  due  largely  to  the  varied  proportions  of  hydro'3:en 
in  the  fuel  hydrocarbons  or  the  volatile  combustible 
matter.  Thus  8  per  cent.  CO,  from  a  natural-gas 
burner  may  mean  just  as  good  an  air  ratio  as  12  per 


January  8,   1918 


POWER 


5;i 


t'ent  from  a  soft-coal  furnace.  Hydrogen  burns  to 
water  vapor,  condenses  in  the  gas-analyzing  apparatus 
and  thus  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  and  gases  insoluble 
in  the  Orsat  chemicals  is  increased.  The  greater  the 
percentage  of  hydrogen  the  less  will  he  the  possible 
CO,  percentage.  Fig.  2  indicates  a  possibility  of  20.9 
per  cent.  CO,  from  the  burning  of  pure  carbon  and 
an  impossibility  of  greater  than  18.5  to  19  per  cent. 
CO.  for  soft  coal  containing  4  or  5  per  cent,  hydrogen. 

In  hand  firing,  where  heaps  of  green  coal  are  gen- 
erally quickly  thrown  upon  the  grates,  volatile  matter 
therein  is  distilled  and  burned  first  in  greater  propor- 
tions than  the  fixed  carbon.  Low  CO,  at  first  results, 
incorrectly  indicating  an  excessive  air  supply.  After 
most  of  the  volatile  matter  is  distilled,  the  higher  CO., 
follows,  indicating  a  lower  than  actual  air  ratio.  A 
stoker  feeding  coal  at  a  uniform  rate  produces  CO,  more 
nearly  indicative  of  the  actual  air  mixture. 

In  any  event,  snap  analyses  of  flue  gas  are  worthless 
as  clues  to  the  problem  of  producing  the  lower  fuel 
cost  per  unit  of  manufactured  product.  A  recording 
analyzer  helps  in  the  study  of  transient  furnace  condi- 


carbon  when  the  flue  gas  is  3  per  cent.  CO,,  but  a  loss 
of  only  70  units  when  the  CO.,  is  14  per  cent.;  that  is, 
the  less  the  excess  air  the  less  the  proportionate  loss 
from  incomplete  combustion  of  coal.  CO  indicates  a 
shortage  of  air  required  for  complete  combu.stion  either 
locally  or  generally,  and  usually  results  from  too  heavy 
a  fire  for  a  given  draft,  stratification  of  gas  on  account 
of  an  uneven  fire,  or  from  the  passage  of  hot  CO, 
over  soot-laden  tubes  where  it  combines  with  enough 
carbon  to  form  CO.  Thus,  CO,  plus  CO  ^  2C0.  Most 
furnaces  get  too  much  air  rather  than  too  little,  and 
generally  CO  is  absent.  In  the  calculated  efficiency 
chart,  CO  is  assumed  at  0.1  per  cent. 

Loss  on  Account  of  Moisture  in  the  Air  Supplied  for 
Combustion — All  air  contains  moisture  indicated  in 
definite  proportions  by  the  wet-  and  dry-bulb  tempera- 
tures as  illustrated  in  Fig.  4.  These  temperatures,  to- 
gether with  the  percentage  of  CO  ,  measure  the  ratio 
of  moisture  in  air  per  pound  of  fuel.  The  loss  from 
superheating  this  moisture  to  flue  temperature  is  usual- 
ly inconsiderable.  In  the  efficiency  chart  it  is  calcu- 
lated at  about  12  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  coal  burned. 


■ 

- 

y 

/^ 

/ 

y 

c 

^ 

'   - 

^ 

y 

.A 

f 

\*^ 

[^ 

y^ 

u^ 

'  f 

i 

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%, 

> 

f-- 

> 

" 
~ 

= 

^ 

^ 

> 

^ 

w 

^ 

iL,^ 

S^ 

j^ 

-,,ji 

K- 

a-- 

■^ 

— 

1  ^.^:^ 

p^ 

f  — 

>»„ 

::« 

g 

ci 

:^ 

\ 

300     'WO     500     600     700     800 
PI  ue    Temperature,  FoHr 

FIG.  4 


2   4    6   6  10  12  14  16  18  20  ZZ  ?4  86  EB  30  3?  34  36  38 
t^er  Cent.  Fixed    Carbon     ir    Ash    Refuse 


FIG.  5 


in  140 
SI30 
-1 120 

3„o 

olOO 
^90 

^8o 

°70 

-'so 

^40 
■^30 
3  20 
+^  10 
CD  0 


;    1    1    1    1    1    1    1    1    i    '    .                   1^-^ 

SPIOAL  HUT  R[nSC=01     \                            ^<^     1 

— 

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'  1  . ,  rS 

1-- 

^-i^ASi 

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^ 

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£ 

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— 

— f— 

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— 

— 

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1 

t    4 
Per 


6   8   10 
Cent-. 


12  14  16  IB  20  22  24  26  28  30  32  34  36  38 
Fixed   Carbon    m   Ash   Refuse 


Fie.  6 


FIi;«.    4    T<l    i;       CHARTS    SHOWING    VARIOUS    HJSSES    IN    STEAM-BOILER  FURNACE.'-^ 
Fig.    4 — Lo.=s  oil   account  of  hyrtrosen   in   rnal       Fig    S — Heat   loss    to  ashpit  from  unbumed  carhon.      Fisr.   R — Sensible  heat  loss 

to   nsbpit 


tions,  but  records  of  individual  analyses  are  open,  in 
some  degree,  to  the  foregoing  objection.  Then  too,  the 
boiler  must  be  large  to  acquire  a  profit  from  an  in.stru- 
ment    costing    $250    to    $300. 

A  plain  Orsat  CO,  analysis  of  an  average  tank  sample 
of  gas  collected  over  a  given  period  shows  all  the  flue 
gas  analytical  data  of  interest  to  the  average  plant 
superintendent.  A  sampling  tank  i^o.sts  about  one-tenth 
the  price  of  a  recorder. 

The  heat  loss  in  dry  gas  at  flue  temperature  is  calcu- 
lated as  follows: 

Heat  Loss  (R.f.n.  jwr  Ih.  of  drii  coal)  =  WS(Tf  —  Ta) 
where 

W  =  Pounds  of  flue  gas  per  pound  of  coal  deter- 
mined from  proximate  analysis  of  coal  and 
Fig.  1; 
S  =  Specific  heat  of  flue  gas,   assumed   constant 
for  all  temperatures; 
Ta  =  Temperature  of  the  air  assumed  at  80  deg.  F. ; 
Tf  =  Temperature  of  flue  gas. 
Loss  Indicated  by  Presence  of  CO  in  Flue  Gas — ("arbon 
monoxide  (CO)  is  a  result  of  the  incomplete  combustion 
of  carbon  and  oxygen,  and   while  the  loss   from   it    is 
not  strictly   measured   by   the  percentage  of  CO.,   it   is 
affected   thereby.     For  example,    from    Fig.   :},   0.1    per 
cent.  CO  shows  a  loss  of  S20  heat  units  per  pound  of 


Loss  on  Account  of  Refuse — Soft-coal  refuse  usually 
contains  both  volatile  and  fixed  carbon ;  but  generally 
the  volatile  is  negligible.  Fig.  5  shows  the  loss  from 
unburned  combustible  calculated  on  the  fixed-carbon 
basis.  This  loss  depends  not  only  upon  the  percentage 
of  combustible  in  the  refuse,  but  also  upon  the  per- 
centage of  ash  in  the  coal.  The  poorer  the  coal  with 
respect  to  ash  the  higher  will  be  the  refuse  loss.  The 
iiuality  of  the  coal  and  the  design  and  operation  of 
the  furnace  are  factors  in  boiler  efficiency.  The  loss 
due  to  sensible  heat  of  the  refuse  shown  in  Fig.  6  is 
small. 

Loss  on  Account  of  Moisture  in  the  Fuel — Moisture 
fed  to  the  furnace  with  the  coal,  evaporated  and  super- 
heated to  the  flue  temperature,  carries  heat  up  the 
chimney.  Ordinarily,  as  shown  'n  Fig.  7,  this  is  a 
minute  loss. 

Loss  on  Account  of  Hydrogen  in  the  Fuel — When 
1  lb.  of  hydrogen  is  burned,  9  11).  of  water  vapor  is 
formed.  Consequently,  when  a  pound  of  coal  contain- 
ing 5  per  cent,  hydrogen  is  burned,  0.45  U).  water  vapor 
is  formed  and  this  as  superheated  steam  carries  about 
550  heat  units  to  the  chimney.  It  will  appear  from 
Fig.  7  that  this  loss,  in  the  case  of  fuel  oils  and  natural 
gas  high  ill  hydrogen,  may  l)e  very  high. 

Since  the  boml)  calorimeter,  meas'iring  the  heat  vaUic. 


54 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


of  coal,  is  jacketed  by  cold  water,  to  absorb  the  latent 
heat  in  the  water  vapor  burned  hydrogen,  the  coal  is 
credited  with  the  550  heat  units  which  must  be  lost  in 
the  flue.  That  is,  water  vapor  under  atmospheric  pres- 
sure will  not  condense  at  temperatures  above  212  deg. 
F. ;   and   since  the   flue  temperature   is   a'.A'ays   higher 

TABLE  I.     TEST  ON  SPECIAL  2365-HP.  STIRLING  BOILER  AT 

DELRAY  STATION,  DETROIT,   MICH  ,  BY  D.  S.  JACOBS, 

1910,  JOURNAL  A.S.M.E. 

Flue 

Temperature, 

Deg.  F. 

Observed 

480 

483 

576 

670 

636 

487 

493 

575 

647 

651 


Efficiencv 

CO.  per 

by 

Efficiencv 

Efficiency 

Cent. 

Regular 

by 

per  Cent- 

Observed 

Method 

Chart 

Error   of  Chart 

14  33 

79   88 

79   0 

—0  88 

14  40 

81    15 

79  0 

—2  15 

11   95 

77  84 

74   0 

—3  84 

14  74 

75  78 

75   0 

— C  78 

14  69 

76  73 

75   5 

—  1   23 

11   86 

77  90 

75   5 

—2  45 

13  69 

80  29 

77  5 

—2  78 

14  00 

77  07 

76  0 

—  1   07 

14  20 

76  42 

75  0 

—  1  42 

15  45 

75  84 

75  5 

—0  34 

combustible  in  refuse,  29  per  cent.  With  these  as- 
sumptions Figs.  8  and  9  respectively  show  heat  losses 
measured  by  CO,  percentage  and  flue-gas  temperature 
and  those  measured  only  by  flue-gas  temperature.  The 
combined  losses  are  shown  in  Fig.  10. 

Except  for  the  radiation  losses,  the  total  heat  losses 
are  accurately  determined  and  the  error  in  radiation 
loss  is  practically  negligible  at  flue  temperatures  above 
475  deg.  F.  Little  interest  is  attached  to  points  of 
lower  temperatures. 

It  appeal's  that  for  any  percentage  of  CO,  there  is 
a  certain  flue  temperature  at  which  the  total  heat  losses 
per  pound  of  fuel  is  a  minimum,  and  this  is  the  point 
of  maximum  efficiency. 

To  compute  the  efficiencies  in  Fig.  12,  200  B.t.u.  were 
added  to  the  losses  to  account  for  undetermined  losses. 


300    dOO     500     bOO     700 
Flue    Temperature 

FIG.  7 


800     90C' 
Fa  ht^ 


o 
ib3 


ODq 


Carlu!hUf=90%  CO  =01% 

/^rvgen=  51  Stear  fiESitr?=l50  tb 

Mxhjrt  =  ?%  HpI  Htm/afy=b5i 
Airlmp--80° 

A  =  Lass  fivm  Mastvre  i/r  Coaf 
5  *    "     "    IfyJrogen  "    "    - 

C  -    "     rn    Refi^     

D'    '•    frvn  RadiatiOR 


31 


300    -400     500    eoo 
Flue  Tempera+ur-e, 

FIG.  e 


700 
Deg. 


800 
Fahr 


900 


300    400     500     600     700    800 
Flue  Temperature,  Deg.  Fahr 

FIG.  9 


900 


f^Canbislibk-SOl  tlydrmen  =  5K 
_3|  Mosture  -  Z%  Air  Temp  -80° 
Vi  CO  '01%  S/amfhuin'SOlt 

-lOs/  Mi/mdify-e}^ 


SO 


400     500"    600     700    800     900 
Flue  Temperature,  Deg  Fahr 

FIG  10 


- 

■■ 

^ 

- 

A 

' 

/ 

^A 

/ 

- 

i^ 

^ 

-1 

joi 

M 

/ 

!>' 

7 

/ 

.,v 

■/ 

^ 

y 

1*1^ 

y 

y 

seM 

;>■ 

i^ 

•r. 

^'  .n%\ 

--^i 

. 

Jl, 

^ 

-^ 

■^X-- 

"^^^-^""^ 

— 

500     600     700     800     900 
Flue  Temperature,  Deg.  Fahr 

FIG.  11 


FIGS.    7   TO    11.      CHARTS   SHOWING   VARIOUS   LOSSES  IX    STEAM-BOILER  FURNACES 
Fig.   7 — Heat  loss  due  to  moi-sture   in  coal.      Fig.    S — Furnace    losses  measured  by  flue  temperatures  independent  of  COj.    Fig.  9 — 
Furnace  losses  measured  by  CM)o  and  flue  temperature.      Fig    10 — Furnace  losses  measured  by  flue  temperature,  with  and  independ- 
ent of  CO;.     Fig.   11 — Relation  between  CO;  and  Hue  temperatures   for  constant  boiler  efliciency. 


than  this,  the  latent  heat  in  the  flue-gas  vapor  cannot 
be   reclaimed   to   produce   steam. 

Loss  on  Account  of  Boiler  Radiation — Depending 
upon  the  design  of  the  setting,  the  i-adiation  loss  is 
about  4  per  cent,  of  the  rated  boiler  output.  That 
is,  from  a  500-hp.  boiler,  the  radiation  loss  is  about 
0.04  X  500  X  33,479  =  669,580  B.t.u.  per  hour.  The 
loss  per  unit  of  output  will  vary  inversely  as  the  out- 
put; that  is,  it  may  be  infinity  at  zero  output,  and  it 
approaches  zero  as  the  output  indefinitely  increases. 
The  maximum  flue-gas  temperature  at  zero  is  that  of 
boiler  water.  Its  rise  above  boiler-water  temperature 
varies  almost  directly  with  the  load.  Consequently,  the 
radiation  loss  per  unit  of  output  and  per  pound  of  coal 
fired  varies  inversely  as  the  rise  in  flue  temperature 
above  the  steam  temperature.  This  is  illustrated  by 
the  hjT)erbolic  curve  of  radiation  loss  per  pound  of 
fuel  in  Fig.  8. 

Total  Heat  Losses — The  general  conditions  assumed 
constant  to  calculate  the  efficiency  and  heat-loss  curves 
are  as  follows :  Combustible  in  coal,  90  per  cent. ;  hy- 
drogen in  coal.  5  per  cent. ;  moisture  in  coal,  2  per  cent. ; 
air  temperature,  80°  F. ;  CO,  0.1  per  cent.;  steam  pres- 
sure,   150    lb.    gage;    relative   humidity,    65   per   cent.: 


Tables  I  and  II  illustrate  the  close  practical  accuracy 
of  the  curves. 

More  clearly  in  Fig.  11  are  shown  the  relative  values 
of  CO.  percentage  and  flue  temperatures  in  the  deter- 
mination of  boiler  eflSciency.     Suppose  a  boiler  at  70 

TABLE  II.     TEST  OX  650-H  P.   BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILER  AT 

WATER.SIDE  ST.-VTION".   \;»V  YORK  CI  FV,  Bi'  THE 

NEW  YORK  EDLSON  CO.,    1911 


Flue 

EfBeiency 

Temperature. 

CO, 

per 

by 

Efficiency 

Efliciency 

Deg.  F. 

Cent. 

Regular 

by 

per  Cent. 

Observed 

Observed 

method 

Chart 

Error  of  Chart 

523 

12 

4 

74  3 

75 

4 

-1-11 

533 

11 

7 

75  9 

74 

7 

—  12 

541 

11 

4 

75  2 

74 

1 

—  1    1 

497 

13 

7 

75  5 

77 

2 

+  1   7 

505 

11 

8 

77  0 

75 

4 

—  16 

509 

11 

1 

76  5 

74 

6 

-1.9 

491 

11 

2 

75  1 

74 

8 

—0  3 

512 

12 

2 

76  9 

75 

5 

—  1.4 

574 

11 

2 

72  9 

72 

8 

—  1    1 

571 

16 

5 

73.2 

77 

5 

+4  3 

665 

695 

503 

10 

5 

75   1 

73 

8 

—  i   3 

595 

14 

3 

73  4 

76 

0 

+2  6 

555 

13 

0 

76  8 

75 

4 

—  1   4 

571 

11 

9 

74  5 

73 

8 

—0  7 

507 

13 

4 

80   1 

76 

8 

—3  3 

per  cent,  efficiency  shows  10  per  cent.  CO,  and  610  deg. 
F.  flue  temperature.  Let  the  air  leakage  of  the  boiler 
setting  be  eliminated  and  the  firing  be  improved  so  that 
the  CO,  is  raised  to  12  per  cent.,  but  at  the  same  time 
let  the  baffles  deteriorate  and  allow  the  soot  to  build 


Jaiumry  8,   1918 


POWER 


55 


on  the  tubes  until  the  flue  temperature  rises  to  710  deg. 
F.  Then  the  etiiciency  will  still  be  about  70  per  cent., 
and  all  the  good  operating  work  will  be  nullified  by  the 
slovenly  maintenance.     It  is  a  great  thing  to  key  up 


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Total   Drafl-  in   Inches  W.  G. 


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Furnace    Draft  ^n   Inches  W.  G- 


FIG.  12.  EASTERN  SOFT  COAL    PIG.  13.   COMBUSTION  RATES 
COMBUSTION   RATES  ON  WITH  NATURAL  DRAFT. 

DIFFERENT    STOKERS  HAND  FIRING 

the  firemen,  but  it  is  just  as  important  to  key  up  the 
repair  gang  and  have  proper  machinery.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  vast  amount  of  literature  showing  the  value  of 
flue-gas  analysis  in  boiler  operation,  good  soot  blowers 
and  a  good  repair  boss  are  the  most  certain  elements 
in  producing  boiler-room  results  with  given  apparatus. 

A  draft  gage  used  in  connection  with  Figs.  12  and 
13  shows  data  necessarj^  to  determine  approximately 
the  rate  of  combustion,  and  from  this  and  the  efficiency 
determination  the  boiler  output  may  be  closely  estimated. 

Thus,  valuable  boiler-operating  data  can  be  obtained 
for  practical*  use,  through  simple  and  cheap  instru- 
ments, and  except  where  extreme  accuracy  is  essential, 
elaborate  boiler  tests  are  neither  necessary  nor  ad- 
visable. 


Some  Pipe-Threading  Hints 

Did  you  ever  hear  of  W.  J.  Willis?  Probably  not,  be- 
cause he  was  only  an  engineer  in  a  small  New  England 
manufacturing  city  and  the  worst  that  could  be  said 
about  him  was  that  his  wife  never  knew  when  to  have 
his  evening  meal  prepared,  because  she  never  knew  when 
he  would  be  home  to  eat  it. 

The  real  trouble  was  that  Willis  liked  to  talk  shop, 
and  he  probably  knew  more  engineers  in  the  town  than 
there  were  dead  cats  to  the  credit  of  his  pet  bulldog, 
which  was  going  some.  Because  of  his  wide  acquaint- 
ance it  was  as  difficult  for  him  to  pass  an  engine  room 
without  stopping  as  it  would  be  for  a  fully  developed 
souse  to  pass  a  barroom  without  wanting  a  drink. 
•  One  evening  on  his  way  home  he  stepped  into  the  en- 
gine room  of  a  small  plant,  where  he  found  young  Stet- 
son busily  engaged  in  cutting  threads  on  a  length  of 
pipe. 

"Caught  you  right  in  the  act,  didn't  I?"  was  Willis' 
greeting.  "What  are  you  doing?  Making  a  lot  of  poor 
threads  on  that  pipe  end?" 

"Yep,"  answered  young  Stetson,  "but  I  guess  they 
will  answer  so  long  as  I  can  get  the  joint  tight  when  it's 


made  up.  The  threads  are  pretty  ragged,  but  I'll  put  a 
lot  of  dope  on  them  when  they  are  screwed  into  the 
fitting." 

"You  have  the  same  fal.se  notion  that  so  many  engi- 
neers and  some  pipefitters  have;  that  is,  that  any  kind 
of  a  thread  will  an.^wer  so  long  as  it  can  be  made  tight 
at  the  first  go-off.  You  ought  to  know,  and  you  prob- 
ably do  know,  that  there  is  a  standard  thread  embrac- 
ing pitch,  depth  and  length  of  cut,  when  it  comes  to  cut- 
ting a  thread,  and  at  a  steam  plant  almost  any  departure 
from  the  standard  can  be  expected.  Some  of  the  threads 
are  cut  small  and  do  not  fit  in  the  fittings,  some  are 


FIG.    1. 


"WH>VT    .\RE    YOl"    DOING? 
POOR  THREADS? 


MAKING    A    LOT    OF 


stripped  and  others  do  not  have  the  proper  taper.  Often 
it  will  be  found  that  purchased  pipes  have  threaded  ends 
that  do  not  conform  to  the  standard." 

"Well,  what's  the  odds  so  long  as  a  fellow  can  make 
a  tight  joint?  Let  the  other  fellow  won-y  after  the 
job  is  up." 

"Young  feller,"  replied  Willis,  as  he  examined  the 
stripped  threads  Stetson  had  just  cut,  "when  making  a 
pipe  connection  that  is  to  be  under  steam  pressure,  one 
should  remember  that  with  the  failure  of  such  a  joint 


BkOniN  Jtif/tAOS' 


FIG.   2.      STRIPPED 
THREADS 


FIG.   3.      .4.  POOR   PIPE 
JOINT 


there  is  the  possibility  of  injuring  or  killing  one  or  more 
workmen.  There  is  no  excuse  for  making  a  faulty  jiiint 
as  one  can  easily  determine  when  screwing  up  the  joint 
whether  it  i.s  going  together  properly  or  not.  Now  there 
ain't  any  sense  in  making  up  a  joint  with  the  threads 
stripped  like  these  are."    See  Fig.  2. 

"Say,  Willis,  what  makes  these  threads  strip  so?  Of 
course,  I  don't  pretend  to  know  mych  about  pipe  work, 
and  if  you  can  give  me  a  pointer  it  will  be  all  to  the 
good,  and  perhaps  it  will  save  a  little  extra  work  on  my 
part;  this  die  does  go  hard." 


56 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


"The  reason  your  threads  are  stripped  in  the  cutting 
is  because  you  did  not  use  enough  oil  on  the  dies,  or  be- 
cause the  die  is  so  dull  it  wouldn't  cut  musty  cheese. 
Under  such  conditions  when  you  begin  to  cut  a  thread, 
the  chips  pack  in  the  die  and  the  threads  are  stripped 
just  as  you  have  them  here.  A  little  care  on  your  part 
will  prevent  that  kind  of  work. 

"Now  .iust  you  take  this  hint,  Stetson.  After  you 
have  the  die  started,  don't  think  that  the  diestock  has 
got  to  be  revolved  like  a  windmill.  Instead  of  making 
a  complete  turn  and  bracing  your  foot  against  the  bench 
in  order  to  turn  the  die  as  you  were  doing  when  I  came 
in,  just  try  turning  it  a  partial  revolution,  then  back  the 
die  off  and  go  ahead  again,  using  plenty  of  lard  oil.  If 
you  will  try  that  way  of  cutting  a  thread,  you  won't 
have  any  trouble  even  with  a  dull  die.  Oil  and  backing 
the  die  are  what  count.  Furthermore,  don't  be  afraid 
of  making  the  threaded  end  of  the  pipe  long  enough  to 
screw  well  into  the  fitting." 

"What's  the  difference?"  asked  Stetson,  as  he  care- 
lessly wiped  his  hands  on  a  dirty  piece  of  waste.  "What's 
the  difference  so  long  as  you  get  enough  threads  in  the 
fitting  to  hoW?    Cutting  threads  is  no  cinch." 

"For  one  thing,  cutting  a  short  thread  is  inexcusable 
and  represents  carelessness  on  your  part,  a  trait  that 
is  dangerous  for  anyone  to  develop,  especially  an  engi- 
neer. For  another  thing,  it  is  almost  criminal  to  make 
up  a  joint  with  but  two  or  three  threads  engaging  in  the 
fittings.  You  can't  make  a  joint  that  is  to  withstand 
steam  pressure  any  too  strong  for  safety,  and  there  is 
the  danger  of  a  faulty  joint  pulling  apart." 

"Gee!  I  hadn't  thought  of  that.  One  thing  you  said 
when  you  first  came  in  I  can't  quite  get  through  my 
noodle.  How  are  you  going  to  get  a  pipe  thread  so  small 
that  it  won't  fit  tightly  in  a  fitting?" 

"That  is  the  easiest  thing  in  the  world  with  certain 
kinds  of  thread  dies.  With  the  solid  dies  there  is  not 
the  danger  of  making  small  threaded  ends,  but  with 
the  adjustable  type  of  dies  they  can  be  so  set  that  the 
pipe  end  is  cut  small,  although  the  threads  may  appear 
to  be  perfect.  Such  a  thread  will  not  fit  snugly  in  the 
fitting,  and  the  joint  is  made  tight  only  by  screwing  the 
pipe  into  it  so  far  that  the  butt  end  of  the  thread  is 
forced  in  against  the  outer  end  of  the  fitting."  See 
Fig.  3. 

"Such  a  joint,  although  it  may  hold  for  a  time,  will 
eventually  begin  to  leak.  This  action  is  hastened  where 
water  is  used  that  is  of  a  character  to  rapidly  corrode 
wrought  iron  or  steel  piping,  because  it  has  a  chance 
to  get  in  between  the  threads  and  act  upon  them.  As 
the  pipe  is  comparatively  thin  at  the  bottom  of  the 
threads,  it  does  not  take  long  for  the  metal  to  waste  to  a 
thin  skin.  Of  course,  the  corroding  action  will  be  slower 
when  the  pipe  carries  steam,  but  the  pipe  joint  will  fail 
much  sooner  than  if  it  were  properly  made. 

"Now  take  my  advice,  cut  the  end  off  that  piece  of 
pipe  and  then  use  plenty  of  lard  oil;  and  don't  neglect 
to  back  off  that  die  in  making  a  new  thread.  While  you 
are  doing  that,  I'll  toddle  along  home  where  I  belong." 


In  cutting  pipe  it  frequently  happens  that  the  cutters 
depress  the  pipe,  reduce  the  area  and  leave  ragged  edges 
on  which  foreign  substances  gather.  Do  not  use  a 
nipple  or  piece  of  pipe  without  looking  through  it  for 
blisters  and  obstructions,  as  this  may  save  trouble  later. 


Turbine  Speed  Decreased 

By  E.  C.  Parham 

A  characteristic  feature  of  all  automatic  governing 
devices  is  that  a  change  must  take  place  in  the  quantity 
governed  before  the  governor  can  act  to  check  the 
change  and  restore  the  governed  quantity  approximately 
to  its  original  value.  If  speed  is  the  quantity  that  is 
being  governed,  the  speed  actually  must  change  a  little 
in  order  to  start  the  governor  on  its  cycle  of  constant- 
speed  maintenance.  The  governing  device  that  most 
promptly  responds  to  slight  variations  and  prevents 
them  from  becoming  heavy  variations,  either  temporary 
or  permanent,  is  the  device  to  be  desired. 

The  connections  were  checked,  and  found  to  be  all 
right,  of  two  50-kw.  250-volt  compound-wound  direct- 
current  generators,  driven  directly  from  two  water- 
wheels,  preparatory  to  paralleling  them  for  the-, first 
time.  The  machines  were  brought  up  to  speed  and  volt- 
age, and  as  a  final  check  on  the  polarities,  the  switch  and 
breaker  of  one  machine  and  the  breaker  of  the  other  ma- 
chine were  closed,  then  the  voltages  above  and  below  and 
across  the  remaining  switch  were  measured  with  a  volt- 
meter. As  the  voltages  above  and  below  the  switch  were 
equal  and  the  voltage  across  the  switch  was  zero,  the 
proper  condition  for  paralleling  was  insured.  A  moder- 
ate load  then  was  put  on  one  machine  and  the  switch  of 
the  other  machine  closed,  thereby  placing  the  machines 
in  parallel.  They  divided  the  load  fairly  well  at  first,  but 
there  soon  appeared  a  tendency  of  first  one  machine 
and  then  the  other  to  take  most  of  the  load.  Speed 
variations  of  the  turbines  was  evident,  and  on  throwing 
on  a  much  heavier  load,  the  speeds  dropped  way  down 
and  the  governors  tripped  out  the  turbines. 

Investigation  disclosed  that  the  oil  system  of  the 
governors  was  full  of  bits  of  thin  paper  that  clogged 
the  governor  parts  so  that  they  could  not  function 
properly.  Before  satisfactory  operation  could  be  se- 
cured, the  whole  oil-piping  system  had  to  be  discon- 
nected and  cleared  of  the  paper  that  came  from  no 
one  knew  where. 

Some  Tall  Chimneys 

What  is  claimed  to  be  the  tallest  chimney  in  the 
world,  at  Sagonoseki,  Japan,  is  made  of  concrete  and 
is  570  ft.  tall  and  is  on  a  hill  430  ft.  high.  It  is  26i 
ft.  inside  diameter  at  the  top  and  42  ft.  at  the  base. 
The  foundation  is  95  ft.  in  diameter  and  contains 
2700  cu.yd.  of  concrete.  For  150  ft.  the  chimney  is 
reinforced  by  a  concrete  lining,  separated  from  the 
outer  concrete  shell  by  a  5-ft.  air  space.  In  the  con- 
struction of  the  chimney  400  tons  of  steel  was  used. 
The  one  next  highest  is  in  Montana,  506  ft.  Others 
are  as  follows:  At  Port  Dundee,  Scotland,  488  ft.; 
Townsend,  Glasgow,  Scotland,  454  ft.;  Freiburg,  Sax- 
ony, 453  ft.,  on  hill  259  ft.;  Mechernich  Lead  Mining 
Co.,  440*  ft.;  Tennant  &  Co.,  Glasgow,  Scotland,  434 
ft.;  Crossley's,  Halifax,  England,  381  ft.;  Metropolitan 
Street  Ry.  Co.,  New  York  City,  353  ft.;  Omaha  & 
Grand  Smelting  Works,  Denver,  Colo.,  350  ft.;  Fall 
River  Iron  Co.,  350  ft.  The  American  Smelting  and 
Refining  Co.  is  constructing  a  chimney  at  Tacoma, 
Wash.,  that  will  be  420  ft.  high. 


.laiuiary  S,    i;il8  1' ()  \V  K  \l  57 

^IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUnillJIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIII 


Editorials 


=nilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIII|ilMIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Ill mil Illl nillllll Illllllllllllllll Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllliiiiiliu iniiiu miiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiimiiiiiiiiiiii 1=: 


Exhaust  Steam  Waste 

CONSERVATION,  the  keynote  these  days,  looms  up 
morning,  noon  and  night.  It  is  conserve  this,  that 
and  the  other  thing,  all  of  which  is  the  proper  procedure 
in  every  field  of  labor  and  endeavor.  No  doubt  about  it. 
This  war  will  do  for  the  American  people  what  noth- 
ing else  would  have  accomplished,  and  that  is,  they  will 
be  brought  to  the  realization  that  they  can  easily  do  with- 
out many  things  that  have  been  deemed  actual  necessi- 
ties. It  will  also  bring  out  the  fact  that  they  have  left 
undone  many  things  that  they  could  have  done  and  that 
they  have  allowed  waste  to  go  on  unchecked  just  because 
no  one  took  the  initiative. 

For  weeks  past  the  newspapers  have  published  articles 
dealing  with  the  coal  shortage  and  the  necessity  of  sav- 
ing fuel.  Other  items  have  urged  the  immediate 
development  of  water  power,  to  be  under  Governme  t 
control,  in  order  to  reduce  consumption  of  coal  for  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  purposes.  Although  more  coal 
was  mined  in  1917  than  in  1916,  there  is  not  enough 
to  meet  the  demand,  because  of  car  shortage  and  other 
reasons'.  To  overcome  this  shortage,  manufacturers  and 
householders  have  been  and  are  being  urged  to  econo- 
mize in  fuel  in  every  way. 

Has  it  ever  occurred  to  the  Fuel  Conservation  Com- 
mission that  the  coal  consumption  of  the  country  could 
be  cut  down  thousands  of  tons  each  year  by  simply 
employing  a  little  engineering  ability,  whereby  the 
steam-plant  owner  and  the  householder  could  be  of 
mutual  benefit  to  one  another,  and  at  the  same  time 
make  a  saving  in  fuel  that  would  be  astonishing? 

About  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  heat  value  in  every 
pound  of  coal  consumed  in  a  power-boiler  furnace  is 
allowed  to  go  to  waste  through  the  engine  exhaust  to 
the  atmosphere.  In  all  cities  there  are  hundreds  of  these 
exhaust  pipes  discharging  to  the  air,  after  passing 
through  a  steam  engine,  steam  which  could  be  used  to 
advantage  in  the  adjoining  buildings  that  are  equipped 
only  with  a  heating  boiler.  It  would  require  but  slight 
pipe  extensions  in  most  cases  to  connect  these  hundreds 
and  thousands  of  noncondensing  engines  to  the  heating 
systems  of  adjoining  properties,  thus  supplying  their 
heat  requirements  with  steam  that  is  now  going  to 
waste.  This  would  enable  thousands  of  heating  boilers 
to  be  shut  down,  and  the  coal  that  they  burned  would  be 
saved  and  could  be  delivered  to  such  plants  as  are  in 
urgent  need  of  it  for  power  purposes. 

This  journal  has  and  does  favor  what  is  termed  the 
isolated-block  central  station  for  just  the  very  reasons 
that  now  confront  this  country  as  a  whole — the  cheaper 
production  of  power,  light  and  heat.  This  idea  has  been 
developed  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  larger  cities,  but  not 
by  any  means  on  such  an  extended  line  as  conditions 
warrant  and  the  present  time  demands. 

In  support  of  this  contention  there  are  steam  plants 
that  generate  steam  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  supply 
heat  to  properties  not  as  a  byproduct,  but  as  a  com- 


mercial business  pure  and  simple.  With  the  outlay  for 
underground  piping  and  upkeep  there  is  a  good  profit 
in  carrying  on  the  business,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  demand  for  steam  heat  during  the  summer 
months  is  practically  cut  out,  the  requirement  being 
mostly  for  units  using  steam  for  power  purposes  only. 
We  have  in  mind  one  large  central  station  in  which  the 
reciprocating  and  turbine  units  were  operated  noncon- 
densing and  exhaust  steam  sold  to  customers  who  did 
away  with  or  had  not  put  in  heating  boilers. 

These  instances  go  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  exhaust 
steam  is  valuable  as  a  heating  medium,  and  there  is  no 
dodging  the  fact  that  the  lack  of  action  to  prevent  the 
continued  waste  of  steam  is  responsible  for  the  unneces- 
sary burning  of  thousands  of  tons  of  coal. 

Not  only  would  there  be  a  saving  of  fuel  by  the  steam 
consumer  and  producer  getting  together  on  the  heating 
question,  but  both  could  make  money  by  so  doing.  The 
steam  producer  would  by  such  an  arrangement  get  his 
power  for  practically  nothing,  and  the  consumer  would 
obtain  his  heat  cheaper  than  he  could  produce  it  himself. 
More  than  that,  there  would  be  men  released  from  these 
isolated  heating  plants  who  are  needed  in  other  channels 
of  labor. 

Why  not  work  along  more  practical  lines,  and  if  there 
are  any  regulations  that  stand  in  the  way  of  utilizing 
waste  steam,  as  should  be  done,  the  Government  surely 
has  the  power,  as  a  war  measure,  to  set  these  regulations 
aside  for  the  common  good  of  all. 

What   Do   I   Get  Out  of  My  Society? 

THIS  is  a  question  which  is  often  asked,  especially 
by  the  isolated  member.  He  sees  others  rise  to 
positions  of  preferment  and  distinction  in  the  society 
and  the  vocation  or  profession  which  it  serves  and  is 
prone  to  conclude  that  he  is  contributing  to  the  emolu- 
ment of  a  few,  favored  by  location  or  influence. 

It  may  seem  to  be  an  irritant  to  his  discontent  to  tell 
him  that  the  most  valuable  privilege  that  his  member- 
ship in  a  vocational  or  professional  society  offers  him 
is  an  opportunity  to  give,  but  it  is  a  thought  the  con- 
sideration of  which  may  lead  to  a  solution  of  his  dis- 
satisfaction. 

Such  a  society  is,  in  effect,  a  massing  of  the  means 
and  endeavors  of  its  members  for  the  uplift  of  the  group, 
for  the  doing  of  those  things  which  can  better  be  done 
collectively  than  individually.  If  the  society  is  truly 
representative,  if  it  includes  the  best  and  accepts  only 
reputable  and  recognized  practitioners,  his  acceptance 
into  it  is  in  itself  a  mark  of  standing  and  of  recognition 
not  without  value.  The  greater  the  society  becomes  in 
influence,  in  achievement,  in  usefulness  to  the  niembers 
and  sei-vice  to  the  public,  in  the  professional  and  general 
estimation,  the  greater  the  value  of  his  membership  in 
it  from  this  point  of  view;  and  it  is  as  much  his  duty 
and  privilege  to  aid  in  making  it  great  as  it  is  that  of 


58 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


any  other  member.  If  everybody's  interest  and  effort 
ended  with  the  payment  of  his  dues,  the  society  would 
die  from  inertia. 

But  to  the  man  whose  professional  interest  is  not 
bounded  by  his  individual  practice,  membership  in  a 
live  society  offers  the  avenue  for  participation  in  the 
wider  activities  and  identification  with  the  achievements 
of  the  profession;  and  he  will  find  that  the  dividends 
that  he  receives  upon  his  membership  will  increase  in 
proportion  with  his  own  share  in  the  common  effort. 
Attendance  at  the  meetings,  joining  in  the  discussions, 
by  correspondence  if  presence  is  impossible,  the  pres- 
entation of  papers,  correspondence  with  their  authors, 
exchange  of  views  and  information  with  fellow-members, 
willingness  to  do  committee  work,  activity  in  enlisting 
desirable  new  members  will  lead  to  an  extension  of 
one's  acquaintanceship,  to  a  recognition  of  his  attain- 
ments, to  a  knowledge  of  his  specialties,  and  to  a  stand- 
ing in  the  society  and  profession  commensurate  with 
his  true  worth.  A  society  that  is  seeking  to  do  things 
is  always  scanning  its  membership  list  for  those  who 
can  be  made  use  of  in  accomplishing  its  purposes;  and 
those  who  come  forward,  not  in  a  spirit  of  self-seeking 
but  of  sincere  interest,  and  take  an  intelligent  part  in 
the  work  are  the  ones  to  whom  the  opportunities  come 
for  greater  usefulness  and  through  it  to  preference  and 
emolument. 

Determination  of  Boiler  Efficiency  by 
CO2  Analyses  and  Flue  Temperatures 

ELSEWHERE  in  this  issue  appears  an  article  show- 
ing many  curves,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  boiler 
efficiency  may  be  closely  approximated  without  the  use 
of  the  usual  large  number  of  instruments  and  without 
lengthy  calculations.  The  method  is  to  measure  the 
average  temperature  of  the  flue  gas  where  the  gas 
leaves  the  boiler-heating  surface,  to  analyze  for  00^ 
content  an  average  sample  of  gas  from  the  same  source, 
and  apply  these  two  determinations  to  a  chart.  The 
flue-gas  temperature  and  the  CO,  percentage  are  as- 
sumed to  be  the  only  two  variable  factors  of  boiler 
efficiency. 

Mr.  O'Neill,  the  author  of  the  article,  is  well  known 
to  the  readers  of  Power.  It  is  hoped  that  the  curves 
presented  by  him  will  be  of  especial  value  at  this  time, 
when  fuel  economy  in  the  boiler  room  is  so  important 
to  the  national  welfare. 

The  New  Military  Cantonments 

THE  magnitude  of  the  task  of  building  and  equip- 
ping sixteen  cities,  each  to  house  from  thirty-five 
to  forty-five  thousand  men,  is  not  fully  realized  by 
many,  and  the  panoramic  views  on  another  page  cannot 
even  show  the  entire  extent  of  one  of  them,  but  are  in- 
tended to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  appearance  of  an 
army  cantonment.  Criticism  of  the  speed  and  execution 
of  the  work  seems  entirely  out  of  place  when  one  of  the 
finished  cities  is  viewed.  One  camp,  for  example,  has 
about  eighteen  hundred  Government  buildings,  which 
required  for  their  construction  some  fifty  million  feet 
of  lumber.  The  military  reservation  is  nineteen  thou- 
sand acres  in  extent,  with  ten  miles  of  crushed-stone 
road,  thirty  miles  of  earth  road  and  ten  miles  of  rail- 


road, thirty-five  miles  of  water  mains  and  thirty  miles 
of  sewerage  system  discharging  two  miles  from  camp. 
Material  was  unloaded  at  the  rate  of  one  carload  every 
six  minutes,  day  and  night,  for  several  weeks.  At  one 
time  the  contractors  had  a  force  of  over  fourteen  thou- 
sand men  employed,  and  the  weekly  payroll  was  approx- 
imately four  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars. 

In  view  of  the  staggering  undertaking  of  converting 
a  peace-loving  country  and  people  into  a  huge  military 
camp  and  machine,  the  showing  made  in  the  short  pe- 
riod of  time  is  truly  marvelous  and  utterly  discredits 
the  rabid  croakers  whose  chief  business  seems  to  be 
giving  comfort  to  the  enemy  by  charging  ineificiency 
and  lack  of  speed  in  the  execution  of  the  work.  The  only 
error  appears  to  have  been  in  the  estimated  time  of  com- 
pletion. In  other  words,  the  work  has  been  done  as 
rapidly  as  was  humanly  possible,  all  things  considered; 
therefore  there  can  be  no  criticism  of  efficiency  in  do- 
ing, but  simply  that  insufficient  allowance  was  made  in 
the  estimate  for  inevitable  delays  and  shortage  of  man- 
power, which  could  not  possibly  have  been  estimated 
with  any  degree  of  accuracy. 


It  takes  a  pound  of  coal  to  keep  about  twenty-five  of 
the  small  ten-watt  lamps  that  are  used  in  electric-sign 
work  running  for  an  hour.  It  would  run  only  ten  of  the 
ordinary  twenty-five-watt  tungstens,  or  seven  of  the 
forty-watt  lights  often  used  in  residences.  Of  the  best  of 
the  sixteen-candle  carbon  lamps  it  would  supply  only 
about  five.  The  two  hundred  to  seven  hundred  and  fifty- 
watt  incandescent  street  lamps  take  from  eight-tenths 
to  three  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  each.  Count  up  the 
lamps  that  you  see  burning  needlessly  in  lighting  up 
streets  before  sunset,  in  running  Great  White  Ways,  in 
decorating  store  windows,  or  carelessly  left  burning  in 
your  own  home,  and  see  if  a  substantial  saving  could  not 
be  made  by  suppression  and  repression,  which  would 
cause  no  suffering  and  little,  if  any,  inconvenience. 


"The  doors  of  the  Edison  Company  in  Detroit  are 
wide  open  to  anybody  coming  with  a  legitimate  inquiry. 
Come  and  see  us.  We  will  tell  you  all  we  know  and 
show  you  anything  we  have,"  said  President  Dow,  of 
the  Detroit  Edison  Company,  to  the  Electro-Chemical 
Society  at  its  recent  meeting.  This  is  the  spirit  that 
has  wiped  plagues  from  the  earth,  educated  the  lowly, 
built  the  United  States  and  which  gets  the  world  nearer 
that  material  and  spiritual  ideal  that  big  men  know 
must  come. 


Savings-bank  deposits  pay  four  per  cent,  interest  or 
less  and  are  subject  to  taxation.  Banks  sometimes  sus- 
pend payment  and  fail.  War  Savings  Certificates  pay 
four  per  cent,  and  are  not  subject  to  United  States, 
state  or  local  taxation,  netting  therefore  more  than  the 
usual  savings-bank  interest.  They  are  the  safest  invest- 
ment in  the  world  and  the  best  paying  for  anything  like 
the  same  degree  of  security.    Subscribe  today. 


The  Alcohol  Fuel  Committee  of  Australia,  St.  James 
Street,  London,  Eng.,  is  looking  for  a  good  motor  that 
will  use  that  combustible.  Got  one?  And  this  follows 
on  the  heels  of  the  Prohibition  movement ! 


Januai-y  8.  1918  POWER  59 

Jinimiiiiiiimiiuiiiuiiiiiiiiiuiiuiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiini iiiiiiiin iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuig 


Correspondence 


I iiiiiiiii Ill lllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIII I Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illllllllllll Illllllllllll IIIIIMIIIIIIIMIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIinillllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIII Illll li 


Saving  Coal  in  the  Home 

The  editorial  appearing  in  the  Jan.  1  issue  of 
Power  is  of  interest  to  every  reader,  not  because  he 
uses  coal  in  one  way  or  another  in  producing  power, 
but  because  it  applies  to  the  management  of  his  home 
furnace.  The  idea  expressed  is  commendable,  but  many 
of  us  would  like  to  know  how  the  one  shovelful  is  to 
be  saved  each  day  with  the  grade  of  coal  that  is  being 
sold  at  a  higher  price  than  one  could  buy  good  coal 
for  one  or  two  years  ago. 

Take  my  own  case,  for  instance.  Before  the  heating 
season  began,  the  steam-heating  boiler  in  my  house 
was  thoroughly  cleaned,  all  leaks  were  stopped  up,  and 
everything  was  put  in  first-class  order  for  heating  the 
lower  floors  and  the  bathroom  on  the  second  floor  of 
the  house.  Excepting  in  very  cold  weather,  one  radiator 
and  a  kitchen  hot-water  tank,  the  water  in  which  is 
heated  by  running  a  circulating  pipe  through  the  boiler 
furnace,  will  comfortably  heat  four  downstairs  rooms. 

There  is  no  use  in  carrying  a  fire  so  low  that  steam 
will  not  be  generated;  if  so,  the  fire  is  practically  banked 
and  the  fuel  is  being  burned  without  heating  the  house. 
Therefore  it  is  necessary  to  carry  a  fuel  bed  thick 
enough  to  maintain  a  steam  pressure,  and  with  auto- 
matically controlled  dampers  the  steam  pressure  is  kept 
practically  constant.  Coal  is  put  on  the  fire  morning 
and  night  and  at  no  other  time,  excepting  in  very  cold 
weather. 

Shaking  down  is  stopped  as  soon  as  a  spark  of  live 
coal  drops  into  the  ashpit,  so  very  little  coal  gets  into 
the  ashes.  However,  it  is  taking  more  coal  to  heat 
the  house  this  winter  than  it  has  before,  and  there  is 
a  reason.  Judging  from  the  coal  that  I  have  been  able 
to  get,  the  slate  pickers  at  the  mines  have  either  struck, 
gone  to  war  or  are  asleep  on  the  job.  Nobody  but  a 
blind  man  would  allow  the  amount  of  slate  to  get  by 
that  I  have  bought,  unless  it  was  purposely  done.  More 
than  that,  the  coal  contains  an  excessive  amount  of 
ash,  which,  together  with  its  slate  content,  reduces 
its  heating  value  to  a  low  standard. 

If  manufacturing  and  power  plants  are  getting  as 
low  a  grade  of  coal  at  a  price  equal  to  or  higher  than 
they  have  been  paying,  and  if  it  contains  an  increase 
of  ash  and  slate  over  former  coals  in  proporton  to 
the  increased  refuse  in  the  coal  I  am  burning  in  my 
house  boiler,  it  is  no  wonder  that  there  is  a  shortage 
of  cars  for  its  transportation  from  the  mines.  In  my 
own  case  it  will  probably  require  between  one  and  two 
tons  more  coal  to  heat  the  house  this  year  than  it 
has  previously,  and  if  this  holds  good  in  every  case,  of 
house  heating,  then  there  will  be  required  (using  the 
figures  in  the  editorial)  between  15,000,000  and  30,000,- 
000  tons  more  of  coal  to  do  the  same  heating  of  homes 
than  it  did  in  former  years  with  good  coal. 

I  wonder  if  it  is  not  a  fact  that  the  mine  operators 
are  mining  coal  this  year  that  they  could  not  find  a 


market  for  in  other  years  when  there  was  not  such  a 
lack  of  transportation  and  a  demand  for  coal  of  any 
kind.  There  is  not  much  economy  in  any  direction  in 
transporting  coal  to  market  containing  from  30  to  40 
per  cent,  ash  when  the  same  cars  could  be  used  to  carry 
coal  low  in  ash,  not  any  harder  to  mine  and  costing 
the  same  to  buy  as  the  trash  that  is  now  being  sold  as 
coal.  F.  G.  HiGGiNS. 

New  York  City. 

Meeting  the  Emergency 

I  have  read  with  interest  the  article  by  E.  W.  Miller 
on  page  764  of  the  Dec.  4  issue,  entitled  "Meeting  the 
Emergency,"  and  give  herewith  my  experiences  while  in 
central-station  work,  where  the  planning  in  detail  what 
to  do  in  case  of  an  emergency  came  in  good  service. 

The  station  is  of  about  45,000-kw.  capacity  and  sup- 
plied all  of  the  electrical  power  in  one  of  the  large  cities 
in  the  East.  As  is  usual,  three  classes  of  service  wer? 
carried:  The  alternating-current  incandescent  and 
power  circuits,  direct-current  incandescent  and  power 
circuits  through  motor-generator  sets,  and  the  city 
street-arc  lighting. 

Some  time  ago  one  of  my  articles  was  published  (page 
739,  Nov.  19,  1912),  outlining  in  detail  a  method  of 
cleaning  vertical  turbine  blades  of  boiler  scale  by  pump- 
ing kerosene  oil  into  the  throttle  while  the  machine  was 
being  run  noncondensing.  In  order  to  save  this  oil  in- 
stead of  letting  it  go  to  waste  through  the  hotwell,  the 
exhaust  was  turned  into  an  old  feed-water  heater  to  try 
to  recover  the  oil.  On  the  first  trial  this  worked  all 
right,  the  turbine  being  washed  for  about  an  hour  and  a 
quarter,  using  nearly  seven  barrels  of  kerosene.  The 
machine  had  been  shut  down,  when  there  was  an  explo- 
sion in  the  feed-water  heater,  due  no  doubt  to  the  igni- 
tion of  kerosene  from  spontaneous  combustion,  the  force 
blowing  one  of  the  cast-iron  heads  off.  In  flying  across 
the  room,  this  hit  the  gravity  lubricating-oil  feed  from 
the  storage  tanks,  on  the  third  floor,  to  the  accumulator 
pumps.  This  line  was  located  in  the  boiler-feed  room 
under  the  boilers.  The  oil  thus  liberated  spurted  up 
under  the  30-  or  40-lb.  pressure  to  the  under  side  of 
the  mechanical  stokers,  igniting  and  starting  a  blaze 
that  soon  got  beyond  control  and  drove  the  stoker  at- 
tendants—in fact,  all  the  help — from  the  boiler  rooms. 

The  engine  room  was  separated  from  the  boiler  rooms 
by  a  fire-wall,  and  at  the  time  of  the  explosion  we  were 
operating  a  machine  in  the  middle  of  the  engine  room. 
I  was  on  the  switchboard  in  charge  of  the  load  and 
was  notified  by  the  floor  engineers  at  4 :  20  a.m.  that  the 
engine  room  was  on  fire  and  it  would  be  necessaiy  to 
change  the  load  from  No.  3  turbine  to  No.  1  engine,  as 
No.  3  was  dangerously  close  to  the  seat  of  the  fire,  and  a 
reciprocating  engine  would  have  to  be  put  on  the  line 
because  the  accumulator  was  rapidly  going  to  the  length 


60 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  2 


of  its  stroke  and  there  was  danger  of  burning  the  .step 
of  the  turbine.  The  reciprocating  alternator  was  imme- 
diately brought  up  to  speed,  thrown  on  the  line  and  a 
load  of  about  5000  kw.  transferred  to  the  reciprocating 
engine  at  4 :  46. 

In  the  meantime  two  of  our  substations  which  carried 
auxiliary  steam  units  had  been  notified  to  bring  their 
machines  to  full  speed  and  be  prepared  to  take  the  maxi- 
mum load  that  their  unit.s  could  carry.  By  this  time  the 
oil  supply  had  been  entirely  lost  and  we  were  operating 
the  reciprocating  units  simply  with  splash  oil,  endeavor- 
ing to  keep  them  cool  with  increased  water  circulation 
on  the  bearing  jackets. 

We  immediately  split  up  the  remaining  load,  cutting 
over  all  the  direct-current  district  onto  one  of  the  sub- 
stations, thus  reducing  the  load  on  the  main  station. 
This  was  accomplished  without  a  hitch  at  4:  50.  At 
5:  17  a.m.  the  engineer  on  the  floor  notified  me  that 
the  reciprocating  alternator  must  come  off  the  line  as  the 
oil  on  the  governor  had  been  lost  and  the  bearings  were 
heating  up.  This  necessitated  cutting  out  all  the  street- 
lighting  load  and  transferring  the  remaining  alternat- 
ing-current incandescent  load  to  another  substation.  The 
reciprocating  alternator  was  pulled  off  the  line  imme- 
diately, thus  shutting  dowTi  the  station. 

In  the  meantime  the  engine  room  had  become  so 
clouded  with  smoke  that  all  the  oilers  and  engine  tend- 
ers were  compelled  to  go  outside  the  building.  The 
switchboard-operating  room  was  inclosed  in  a  glass  cage, 
which  proved  to  be  smoke-proof,  and  I  with  my  assistant 
was  able  to  stick  on  the  job,  we  having  ready  a  rope  as  a 
means  of  sliding  down  to  the  street  level  from  the  win- 
dow should  the  operating  room  become  untenable. 

At  5 :  28  all  the  load  had  been  safely  transferred,  with 
the  exception  of  the  street  arc  lighting,  to  the  substa- 
tion, and  things  were  running  along  smoothly.  By  G 
o'clock  the  direct-current  load  began  to  pick  up  and  the 
current  began  to  rise  to  a  dangerous  point  on  our  ma- 
chine, which  we  took  care  of  by  raising  the  voltage  four 
volts  on  the  substation  steam  sets,  thus  reducing  the 
current,  and  in  this  way  we  were  able  to  carry  the  entire 
direct-current  load  without  interruption. 

When  the  alternating-current  load  began  to  pick  up,  it 
was  simply  a  question  of  dumping  one  circuit  after 
another,  thus  keeping  down  the  load  to  a  safe  limit,  we 
having  arranged,  months  before,  just  which  circuits 
were  to  be  pulled  first  should  such  an  emergency  arise. 

In  the  meantime  a  fire  alarm  had  been  sounded  and 
the  engines  from  the  city  fire  department  responding 
had  been  able  to  finally  extinguish  a  rather  stubborn 
blaze,  which  lasted  until  about  8 :  30.  The  oil  lost  was 
replaced  by  an  emergency  call  sent  to  a  large  local  oil 
retailer,  who  loaded  up  several  thousand  gallons  of  en- 
gine and  cylinder  oils  and  sent  them  around  on  trucks. 
These  were  pumped  off  into  the  storage  tanks,  and  at 
S :  55  the  reciprocating  alternator  had  been  put  on  the 
li:i5,  and  all  the  load  was  back  on  the  station  in  normal 
ri;nning  condition  at  9:  33,  just  five  hours  and  13  min- 
utes from  the  time  the  alarm  of  fire  was  first  given. 

An  idea  of  the  intensity  of  the  heat  can  be  gained 
from  the  condition  of  the  concrete  floor  slab  of  the  boiler 
room  directly  over  the  spot  where  the  fire  occurred.  This 
was  warped  up  and  cracked  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was 
unsafe  to  walk  across  it  until  sufficient  reinforcing 
planks  had  been  laid  to  insure  absolute  safety. 


Altogether  there  was  a  loss  of  5000  gal.  of  lubricat- 
ing oil,  both  cylinder  and  engine,  besides  a  temporary 
shutdown  on  part  of  the  system  of  five  hours  or  less. 

Needless  to  say,  the  practice  of  recovering  kerosene 
by  this  method  was  abandoned  from  that  time  on,  as 
we  preferred  to  let  it  go  to  waste  rather  than  run  the 
chance  of  a  second  similar  experience. 

Philadelphia,  Penn.  Morgan  G.  Johns. 

Engine  Oiling  System 

Engineers  sometimes  fail  to  take  advantage  of  the 
opportunities  they  have  and  complain  that  the  man- 
agement is  unwilling  to  purchase  needed  apparatus. 
Yet  they  could,  if  they  would,  do  much  to  make  up  for 
the  lack  of  equipment. 

In  a  certain  plant  where  the  engineer  is  a  "live  wire," 
even  though  operating  a  plant  of  less  than  a  hundred 
horsepower,  the  engine  is  not  of  the  best,  having  given 
a  lot  of  trouble  because  of  hot  bearings,  etc. ;  but  it  is 
now  doing  first-rate,  since  the  engineer  rigged  up  a 
home-made  oiling  system  for  it. 

The  owner  refused  to  purchase  any  new  oiling  de- 
vices, as  in  his  estimation  the  power  plant  was  only  a 


CONTIXUOUS    OILIXG    SYSTEM    .\PPI.IED   TO    OLD   ENGINE 

necessary  evil,  so  the  engineer  set  about  contriving  a 
system  of  stream  lubrication  from  odds  and  ends  about 
the  plant. 

For  an  oil  reservoir  he  used  a  ten-gallon  can,  with  a 
cloth  bag  in  it,  tied  to  the  end  of  the  return  pipe  to 
filter  the  return  oil.  By  removing  this  bag  and  sub- 
stituting a  clean  one  occasionally,  the  circulating  oil  is 
kept  reasonably  clean.  For  a  pump  he  used  the  gaso- 
line pump  taken  from  an  old  gasoline  engine.  This 
pump  was  driven  by  a  bracket  bolted  to  the  rocker-arm 
as  shown. 

The  elevated  tank  is  made  of  8-in.  pipe  and  a  reducer 
and  is  fastened  to  the  engine  frame  with  a  2-in.  nipple 
and  flange. 

The  pressure-feed  lines  are  l-in.^  iron  pipe,  and 
worn-out  valves  that  would  not  hold  steam  pressure 
are  good  enough  to  regulate  the  flow  of  oil  with.  A 
neat  guard  was  fitted  over  the  engine  crank  and  did 
not  allow  the  oil  to  splash  over  the  floor. 

It  is  an  excellent  example  of  what  can  be  done  with 
little  to  do  with.  E.  S.  Morrison. 

Dallas,  Tex. 


Januai-y  8,  1918 


POWER 


61 


Operating  Overhead  Valves 

A  simple  and  easily  mado  device  for  operating  valves 
I  hat  are  out  of  reach  is  shown  in  the  inmt  ration,  and 
no  other  explanation  seems  necessary,     if  the  valve  is 


Lubricating  Corliss  Valves 


HOOK  FOR  OPKRATIxr,  VALVES 

somewhat  "stuck"  or  is  to  be  closed  "tight,"  the  end 
.1  is  used  but  in  many  cases  the  simple  hook  on  end 
B  will  do  the  work.  James  E.  Noble. 

Portsmouth,  Ont.,  Canada. 

Remembering  Which  Terminal  of  a 
Device  is  the  Cathode 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  remember  which  is  the 
cathode  or  anode  of  an  electrochemical  device  or  recti- 
fier; that  is,  where  the  current  enters  or  where  it  leaves 
the  device.  A  professor,  in  a  talk  sometime  ago,  gave 
an  example  that  is  very  easy  to  remember. 

He  had  a  cat  that  could  open  a  screen  door  and  go  out, 
but  could  not  open  it  to  enter.  By  thinking  of  "cat- 
hole,"  the  cat  going  out,  it  was  easy  to  remember 
"cathode,"  the  terminal  at  which  the  current  left  the 
device.  Of  course,  if  this  is  the  cathode,  the  other 
terminal  must  be  the  anode.  I  have  found  it  very 
easy  to  remember  the  difference  between  the  cathode 
and  anode  since  hearing  this  illustration. 

Philadelphia,  Penn.  W.  H.  Nostan. 

Engineers  and  Their  Wages 

I  must  say  "A  Union  Engineer,  Somewhere  in  Con- 
necticut" on  page  638  in  the  issue  of  Nov.  6,  has  learned 
the  same  lesson  that  I  have;  namely,  that  while  the 
union  scale  is  not  fair  to  all,  it  is  a  good  thing  for 
the  large  majority.  We  cannot  all  get  chiefs'  jobs 
and  their  pay,  but  we  can  get  lots  of  jobs  requiring 
intelligent  operators  and  through  the  union  can  get 
good  pay.  In  the  plant  where  I  am  we  get  $4.75  per 
day  of  eight  hours  and  the  firemen  get  $4.25  for  eight 
hours.  In  the  other  plants  outside  of  the  union  they 
work  ten  hours  for  $3.50  and   .$2.75   respectively. 

Somewhere  in  Washington.         A  Union  Engineer. 


A  Corliss  engine  "groaned"  and  the  valves  would  sticl^ 
so  badly  at  times  that  the  dashpots  could  not  pull  them 
shut,  although  the  amount  of  oil  that  was  fed  was  "out- 
rageous." 

The  oil  pump  was  piped  to  feed  over  the  ends  of  the 
valves  in  the  usual  way,  but  after  changing  the  piping 
to  feed  into  the  steam  pipe  just  above  the  throttle, 
there  was  no  further  trouble  and  the  amount  of  oil 
required  was  greatly  reduced.  N.  C.  Gleason. 

Northport,  Wa.sh. 

The  Use  of  Electric  Hoists 
at  Coal  Mines 

I  would  like  to  hear  from  readers  of  Power  who 
have  had  experience  with  electric  hoists  at  coal  mines 
in  Illinois,  as  to  their  reliability  and  economy  over 
steam  hoists,  and  under  what  conditions  it  is  better  to 
install  an  electric  hoist  in  preference  to  a  steam  hoist. 

It  would  also  be  of  interest  to  know  why  one  type 
of  hoist  is  preferred  over  another,  from  the  operating 
engineer's  standpoint.  W.  F.  Decker. 

La  Salle,  Ind. 

Bench  Clamp  for  Handhole  Plates 

It  has  been  customary  when  cleaning  our  B.  I:  W. 
boilers  to  have  a  couple  of  men  run  dies  over  the 
studs  of  the  handhole  plates,  because  when  replacing 
the  plates,  if  a  nut  is  not  easily  screwed  home,  the 
plate  will  be  thrown  out  of  position  and  the  gasket 
misplaced ;  so  it  is  desirable  that  the  nuts  work  freely. 


BENCH  clamp  FOR  HANDHOLE  PLATES 

Oi-dinarily,  two  bench  vises  wei-e  kept  busy  for  this 
work,  and  often  someone  wanted  to  use  one  of  the 
vises,  and  the  work  was  temporarily  stopped.  The  illus- 
tration shows  a  special  vise,  the  use  of  which  has  re- 
duced the  time  on  the  2000  plates  for  two  boilers  from 
twelve  hours  to  nine  hours. 

Perhaps  this  kink  may  be  of  assistance  to  some 
other  fellow  who  has  a  lot  of  handhole  plates  to  take 
care  of.  CHARLES  H.  WiLLEY. 

Concord,  N.  II. 


62 


P  0-W  E  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


Necessity  of  Air-Gap  Gaging 
in  Induction  Motors 

Most  of  the  troubles  arising  in  the  use  of  induction 
motors  are  caused  primarily  by  the  failure  of  the  oper- 
ator to  keep  the  air  gap  between  the  rotor  and  stator 
uniform.  Consequently,  if  this  point  is  carefully  at- 
tended to,  many  delays  and  considerable  rewinding  ex- 
pense will  be  avoided. 

At  the  time  an  induction  motor  is  placed  in  opera- 
tion there  is  usually  furnished  a  thin  steel  gage  which 
should  pass  freely  between  the  rotor  and  stator  at  any 
point.  The  gage  is  used  during  the  installation  and 
then  probably  lost  or  thrown  away.  After  months  or 
even  years  of  operation  the  motor  begins  to  heat ;  later, 
if  not  given  proper  attention,  it  may  begin  to  smoke 
and  if  not  attended  to  promptly  will  burn  out  the  wind- 
ings or  otherwise  be  seriously  injured. 

When  the  air  gap  becomes  uneven,  owing  to  the  bear- 
ings wearing  down  in  an  induction  motor,  the  current 
consumption  increases,  the  starting  torque  is  decreased 
and  the  machine  begins  to  heat.  If  these  conditions  are 
noted  and  properly  diagnosed,  the  bearings  will  be  re- 
placed or  adjusted  and  the  motor  becomes  as  good 
as  ever;  but  if  not,  the  condition  grows  worse  until  a 
shutdown  results. 

It  is  obvious  that  all  repairs  should  be  made  before 
they  are  absolutely  necessary;  in  other  words,  when 
they  can  be  made  at  the  convenience  of  the  operator. 
Therefore  it  is  good  practice  to  use  an  air-gap  gage 
periodically  to  determine  the  clearance  between  the 
rotor  and  stator.  If  this  is  done,  the  necessity  of  new 
bearings  or  adjustments  becomes  apparent  before  the 
motor  efficiency  is  seriously  impaired  or  abnormal  cur- 
rent flow  has  injured  the  windings.  By  following  this 
method  the  gain  in  efficiency  of  operation  and  in  econ- 
omy of  repairs  will  much  more  than  offset  the  cost  of 
the  additional  bearings  that  may  be  necessary. 

Johnson  City,  Tenn.  D.  R.  Shearer. 

Replacing  Boiler-Tube  Headers 

We  have  at  our  mine  several  B.  &  W.  boilers  with 
cast-iron  headers,  and  after  a  boiler  has  been  shut 
down  for  cleaning,  on  starting  it  up  again  we  sometimes 
find  a  cracked  header.  This  we  think  is  due  to  unequal 
contraction  or  possibly  expansion,  as  we  have  never 
had  a  header  fail  while  under  pressure.  In  the  iron 
mines,  as  a  rule,  the  boiler  plant  is  worked  to  its  full 
capacity  with  no  spare  boilers,  every  one  being  in  use: 
so  when  a  cracked  header  is  found,  it  means  a  "hurry-up 
job"  to  get  it  back  in  service. 

After  making  a  great  many  different  kinds  of  tools 
to  remove  a  broken  header  without  removing  the  tubes, 
we  have  adopted  the  set  shown  in  the  illustration  and 
proceed  as  follows: 

All  the  caps  are  removed  from  the  header,  then  the 
header  breaker  is  put  in  and  the  tapered  drifter  pin 
driven  in  the  square  hole  in  its  center  until  the  header 
breaks,  the  operation  being  repeated  at  each  handhole. 
Then  with  the  long  chisel  any  pieces  that  cannot  be 
drawn  over  the  end  of  the  tube  are  broken  up.  The 
next  operation  is  swaging  the  flared  end  of  the  tube 
back  to  its  original  size,  which  is  done  in  the  following 


manner:  The  flue  heater  is  heated  in  a  portable  black- 
smith's forge,  or  it  may  be  heated  in  the  furnace  of 
another  boiler.  When  hot,  it  is  placed  on  the  inside  of 
the  tube  end  and  to  increase  the  heating  effect  the 
rheet-iron  funnel  filled  with  burning  oil-saturated  waste 
is  hung  on  it,  and  the  tube  will  soon  be  brought  to  a 
red  heat.  The  tuba-shrinking  ring  is  then  placed  over 
the  tube  and  the  mandrel  used  to  force  the  ring  on  by 


SHRINKINO  ffINO 


TOOL.S  FOR  RE.MOVIXG  BROKEX  TUBE  HEADER 

striking  it  lightly  with  a  hammer;  this  quickly  reduces 
the  tube  to  its  original  size.  Then  wood  blocks  are 
placed  between  the  tubes  to  keep  them  the  right  distance 
apart,  and  all  is  ready  to  put  in  the  new  header.  If 
the  job  is  done  in  this  way,  no  new  tubes  are  re- 
quired. Thomas  J.  Pascoe. 
Norway,  Mich. 


It  would  help  the  fuel  situation  a  bit  if  the  street 
lamps  in  American  cities  were  turned  on  when  it  grows 
dark  enough  to  need  them  and  not  three-quarters  of  an 
hour  before  that  time  each  day. 


Januan-  8.  1918 


POWER 


68 


!>iuiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniirnnniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 

I  I 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  f 


siinimiuuiuiii iiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiijiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii;. 


Steam  Required  for  Atomization  of  Fuel  Oil — For  atom- 
ization  of  fuel  oil,  what  quantity  of  steam  is  required  per 
pound  of  oil  atomized?  B.  H.  D. 

The  steam  required  to  atomize  the  oil  varies  from  0.3  to 
0.7  lb.  per  pound  of  oil.  The  average  consumption  is  about 
0.5  pound. 

Overheating  of  Clean  Water  Tubes — What  causes  burn- 
ing', bagging'  or  blistering  of  tubes  of  water-tube  boiler.^ 
below  the  water  line  when  the  tubes  are  made  of  good 
material  and  clean  of  oil  and  scale?  J.  T.  M. 

A  water  tube  may  become  burnt,  bagged  or  blistered 
when,  from  forced  firing  or  poor  circulation,  the  water  of 
the  boiler  is  driven  or  held  away  from  the  tube  sui-face  by 
the  steam  thr.t  is  generated,  thus  permitting  the  tube  to 
become  overheated. 

Setting  Steam  Valves  of  Duplex  Pump — What  is  the  sim- 
plest method  of  setting  the  steam  valves  on  a  duplex  pump  ? 

W.  N. 

Place  both  pistons  in  the  center  of  their  travel ;  the 
rocker  amis  will  then  be  plumb.  Remove  the  steam-chest 
cover  and  place  each  steam  valve  centrally  over  the  ports, 
and  adjust  lost  motion  equally  on  each  side  of  the  collars 
or  nuts  that  move  the  valves.  Before  replacing  the  steam- 
chest  cover,  move  one  of  the  valves  so  as  to  open  a  steam 
port  and  thus  enable  the  pump  to  start  up  when  steam  is 
admitted  to  the  steam  chest. 

Holding  Safety  Valves  During  Hydrostatic  Test  of  Boiler 

— The  pop  safety  valve  of  a  boiler  is  set  to  blow  off  at  100 
lb.  pressure.  What  should  be  done  to  the  valve  so  as  to 
obtain  a  test  pressure  on  the  boiler  of  150  lb.  per  square 
inch?  B.  B.  T. 

During  a  hydrostatic  test  the  safety  valve  or  valves  of  a 
boiler  should  be  removed  with  the  connection  temporarily 
blanked  off,  or  each  valve  disk  should  be  held  to  its  seat  by 
means  of  a  testing  clamp.  Most  manufacturers  of  spring 
pop  safety  valves  furnish  a  special  testing  clamp,  or  "gag," 
for  the  purpose.  The  valve  should  not  be  held  closed  by 
screwing  down  the  compression  screw  upon  the  spring,  as 
that  would  be  likely  to  injure  the  spring. 

Kilowatt  Output  of  Alternator — What  is  the  actual  kilo- 
watt output  on  an  alternator  when  the  ammeter  reads  300; 
power-factor  meter,  0.82;  and  the  indicating  kilowatt  meter, 
1360?  W.  C.  C. 

The  ammeter  reading  and  the  power  factor  are  not  nec- 
essary to  be  taken  into  account,  as  the  kilowatt  output  of 
the  machine  is  that  registered  by  the  kilowatt  meter;  namely, 
1360.  If  the  number  of  phases  and  voltage  were  given,  it 
would  be  possible  to  check  the  correctness  of  the  meter 
readings.  For  a  two-phase  machine  the  kilowatt  output  is 
equal  to  volts  per  phase  x  amperes  per  terminal  x  2  X 
power  factor  -=-  1000;  and  for  a  three-phase  machine  the 
output  would  be  volts  per  phase  X  amperes  per  terminal  X 
1.732   X   power  factor  ^   1000. 

Size  of  Conductors  for  Two-Phase   Motor — How  is   the 

size  of  the  conductors,  200  ft.  long,  detemiined  for  a  two- 
phase  four-wire  .50-hp.  220-vo't  motor?  I.  C.  B. 

The  full-load  current  i-equirod  per  terminal  by  the  motor 
is  generally  given  on  the  name-plate,  but  can  be  determined 
approximately  by  the  express'on,  hp.  x  1000  -h  volts  X  2, 
in  this  case  amperes  =  50  x  1000  -=-  220  X  2  —  114.  The 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters'  Code  states  that  the 
carrying  capacity  of  conductors  for  alternating-current  mo- 
tors requiring  over  100  amp.  per  terminal  must  be  150  per 
fpnt.  of  the  normal  full-load  current  rating  of  the  motor; 
in  this  problem,  114  x  1.50  =  171  amp.  For  a  rubber- 
covered  conductor  the  wire  table  gives  a  No.  000  B.  &  S. 
as  the  correct  size.  This  size  conductor  for  alternating- 
current  motors  can  be  fused  up  to  the  rating  for  other  in- 


sulations or  275  amp.  The  resistance  of  400  ft.  of  No.  000 
copper  wire  is  0.025  ohms,  and  the  volts  drop  in  the  line  at 
50  per  cent,  overload  is,  current  X  resistance  =  171  x  0.025 
=  4.3  volts,  which  is  well  within  good  operating  practice. 

Short-Circuit   Secondary    of   Current    Transformer — Why 

is  it  necessary  to  short-circuit  the  secondary  terminals  of  a 
current  transformer  when  they  are  disconnected  from  the 
device  the  transforaier  is  sei"ving?  E.  K.  P. 

The  iron  core  of  a  current  transformer  under  normal 
conditions  is  worked  at  a  very  low  magnetic  density,  conse- 
quently the  flux  will  build  up  very  rapidly  as  the  ampere 
tuvns  increase,  if  their  effect  is  not  neutralized  in  some  way. 
When  a  current  transformer  is  under  normal  load,  the 
ampere  tunis  in  the  secondai'y  are  almost  equal  to  those  of 
the  primary,  therefore  the  effective  ampere  turns,  and  like- 
wise the  flux  and  voltage,  are  at  a  low  value.  However,  if 
the  secondary  circuit  is  opened,  when  the  transformer  is 
loaded,  the  total  primary  ampere  turns  are  effective  in  set- 
ting up  a  flux,  which  reaches  a  high  value,  likewise  the 
voltage  in  the  winding.  The  latter  in  many  cases  become  of 
a  value  that  will  break  down  the  insulation  and  destroy  the 
transformer.  A  current  transformer  operating  with  its 
secondary  open-circuited  also  acts  as  a  choke  coil  in  the  line. 
By  short-circuiting  the  secondary  terminals,  when  they  are 
disconnected  normal  conditions  are  maintained  in  the  trans- 
former. 

Heating  Feed-Water  at  Expense  of  Back  Pressure — In  a 

steam  plant  operated  at  100  lb.  boiler  pi-essure,  a  closed 
type  of  exhaust-steam  feed-water  heater  delivers  the  boiler- 
feed  water  at  205  deg.  F.  with  2  lb.  back  pressure  on  the 
exhaust  of  the  engine.  Would  it  not  be  more  economical  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water  to  212  deg.  F.  by 
increasing  the  back  pressure  on  the  engine?  W.  C.  C. 

If  the  only  heat  recovered  out  of  the  exhaust  is  that 
utilized  by  the  heater  in  raising  the  temperature  of  water 
required  for  generation  of  steam  supplied  to  the  engine, 
then  it  would  be  detrimental  to  economy  to  increase  the  tem- 
perature of  the  feed  water  at  the  expense  of  increasing  the 
back  pressure.  The  temperature  of  the  exhaust  at  2  lb. 
back  pressure  above  the  atmosphere  is  about  219  deg.  F., 
and  to  increase  the  feed-water  temperature  to  212  deg.  F. 
or  7  deg.  higher  would  require  the  exhaust  to  be  at  a  tem- 
pei-ature  of  about  226  deg.  F.  corresponding  wth  about 
4.5  lb.  per  sq.in.  above  the  atmosphere,  or  an  increase  of 
2.5  lb.  back  pi-essure;  and  with  the  same  load  the  consump- 
tion of  steam  by  the  engine  will  be  incr'eased  practically  as 
though  the  load  had  been  increased  to  require  2.5  lb.  addi- 
tional m.e.p.  Allowing  the  required  m.e.p.  to  be  50  lb.  per 
sq.in.,  the  increased  steam  consumption  would  be  about  5 
per  cent.  A  pound  of  steam  at  100  lb.  gage,  or  115  lb.  abso- 
lute, contains  1188.8  B.t.u.  above  32  deg.  F.  and  generated 
from  feed  water  at  200  deg.  F.  requires  1188.8  -f-  32  —  200 
=  1020.8  B.t.u.  With  the  feed  water  at  a  temperature  of 
212  deg.  F.  obtained  with  4.5  lb.  back  pressure,  each  pound 
of  steam  generated  would  require  1188.8  -f  32  —  212  =: 
1008.8  B.t.u.;  but  1.05  times,  or  1008.8  X  1.05  =  1059.2 
B.t.u.  would  be  required  for  performance  of  the  same  work 
as  obtained  from  a  pound  of  .steam  with  only  2  lb.  back 
pressure,  so  that  increasing  the  back  pressure  to  I'aise  the 
feed-water  temperature  from  200  to  212  deg.  F.  would  bo 
attended  by  requirement  of  (1059.2  —  1008  81  v  TOO  — 
1008.8  :=  4.9,  or  practically  5  per  cent,  more  fuel  for  devel- 
oping the  same  power. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention. — 
RniTOR.] 


64 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


Preventable  Waste  of  Coal  in  the  United  States* 

By  DAVID  MOFFAT  MYERS+ 

~~~"^ — — • There  is  no  doubt  that  very  important  economies  in  the 

_,  ,  .  .  ,,.,.,  "^®  °^  f°°''  have  already  been  effected  by  educational  cam- 
Si/  employing  proper  operating  methods  in  boiler  paigns.  These  economies  are  largely  the  result  of  educat- 
plants  it  is  easily  possible,  according  to  the  author,  ing  the  ultimate  consumer.  The  requisite  propaganda  does 
to  save  at  least  10  per  cent,  of  the  coal  now  burned  not  attempt  to  teach  the  intricacies  of  food  chemistry  or 
for  steam-making  purposes.    Such  a  saving  ivould  the  complex  action  of  the  gastric  juices 

,  J.         ;,  .  .     ,      .  J^he  object  of  this  paper  is  to  open  a  discussion  which,  it 

release  cars  for  other  service  equivalent,  say,  to  jg  hoped,  will  ultimately  lead  to  the  formulation  of  definite 

the   coal-carrying   capacity   of   the   Pennsylvania  fuel     conservation     recommendations,     to     forward     these 

Railroad   lines   east   of   Pittsburgh,   equal   to   1,-  recommendations   to  the   proper   govemmental   authorities 

000,000  fifty-ton  carloads  per  year,  and  the  direct  ^^  t"  °^"°-^  communication  of  this  society,  and  to  offer 

,,,.,,.  ,j,  J  to  the  Government  the  services  of  the  society  for  the  orga- 

money  saving  to  the  industries  would  be  around  ^i.^^j^^^  furthering  and,  as  far  as  possible,  the  execution 

a  quarter  of  a  billion  dollars,  figuring  the  coal  of  the  plan  which  may  as  a  consequence  be  adopted. 
at  $5  a  ton.    Discussion  on  the  paper  appears  in  There  are,   I  think,  two  plans  of  operation  worthy  of 

this  article.  consideration.      The    one   might   be   termed    the    autocratic 

method.     This  would  involve  the  use  of  authority  to  com- 

— — — — ^^^^^^^^^^^^^— ^^^— ^^^— ^— ^^— ^— -^  pel  coal  consumers  to  execute  such  measures   of  economy 

AS  a  means  of  far-reaching  economy  the  Government  as   the   proper   authorities   might   prescribe   for   any   given 

of  the  United  States  should  at  this  time  apply  intel-  case,  limits  to  be  set  as  to  expense  to  the  user.     Such  limits 

ligent  and  direct-acting  efforts  to  the  conservation  of  might  be  in  terms  of  a  percentage  of  his  present  yearly 

fuel  at  the  industrial  plants  which  are  responsible  for  its  ^oal  bill.     Alterations  should  be  directed  chiefly,  as  previ- 

greatest  consumption.  ously    implied,   to   purely   operating   improvements.     Many 

The  mining  and  distribution  of  the  coal  have  been  placed  objections  would  probably  be  made  by  consumers  against 

under  the  supervision  of  the  War  Coal  Board  in  order  more  this  plan,  but  once  in  effect  the  majority  would  no  doubt 

nearly  to  meet  the  crying  needs  in  these  directions,  to  use  realize    its    pecuniary   advantage    to    themselves.      But    its 

the  railroad  facilities  more  efficiently  so  that  the  present  tendency    may    be    too    strongly    opposed    to    democratic 

car  shortage  may  be  minimized  and  to  apportion  the  coal  principles, 
in  quantity  and  to  uses  deemed  most  expedient.  The  other  plan  would  be  largely  an  educational  one,  in 

While  this  organized  effort  to  bring  about  efficiency  in  which  patriotism   and   efficiency  would  furnish   the  motive 

the  production  and  distribution  of  coal  is  being  made,  no  forces  required.     The  teaching  must  be  accomplished  with 

parallel    measures    have    been    adopted    to    bring    about    a  the  utmost  simplicity  and  directness.     Above  all  it  must  be 

normal  and  practicable  efficiency  in  its  use.     The  hundreds  i"  such  form  as  to  be  readily  comprehended  and  applied, 
of  large  plants   which   are   consuming  fuel   wastefully,   in  The   requisite   information    must  reach    the    owners    and 

many    cases    more    wastefully    and    carelessly    than  "ever  managers  of  industries,  and  there  must  be  simple  instruc- 

before,  are  directly  and  needlessly  causing  a  large  fraction  tion    sheets    for    the    engineers    and    firemen.      The    vital 

of  the  existing  car  shortage.  importance   of  daily   accurate  records   of  coal   and   water 

_  „,  _  must  be  taught  and  information  given  rearai'ding  practical 

Preventable  Waste  of  Fuel  appliances  for  automatic  measurements  of  both. 

The  preventable  waste  of  fuel  in  the  boiler  furnace  of  one  Blank  forms  might  be  sent  in  advance  to  plant  owners  in 

steel  mill  which  I  investigated  amounted  to  40,000  tons  per  order  to  be  advised  by  them,  first,  whether  they  would  be 

year,  which  at  $.5  a  ton  would  cost  $200,000.     This  was  a  willing    to    cooperate    with    a    governmental    organization 

comparatively  modern  plant.     The  efficiency  of  boilers  and  offering  to  assist  them  in  reducing  their  coal  consumption, 

furnaces  in  a  14-day  test  was  55  per  cent.     The  load  factor  and  second,  to  obtain  such  data  as  to  size,  type,  equipment, 

was  unusually  favorable  to  high  efficiency  and  could  readily  operation   and   fuel   consumption   of  the   plants   as   would 

be  raised  to  70  per  cent,  or  over.    This  is  only  one  example,  enable    a    classification    that   would    permit    a    government 

and  there  are  many  more  extreme  cases.    In  one  hand-fired  board  of  experts  to  send  such  instructions  as  would  include 

plant  the  evaporation  was  raised  from  6  to  9  lb.  in  a  few  the  information  needed  for  any  one  class  of  plants, 
days    of   instruction    and    continuously    kept   close    to    this  This   work  would   be   very   greatly  aided   by   a   staff   of 

higher  mark  with  the  help  of  coal  and  water  measurements  experts  ready  to  visit  plants  when  so  requested  by  owners, 

which  were  inaugurated.     The  saving  was  due  exclusively  and    make    investigations    and    recommendations    and    keep 

to  insti-uction  and  consequent  better  operation.  in  touch  with  the  progress  of  economies.     Included  in  such 

The  saving  or  wasting  of  one-fourth  of  the  coal  consump-  a    staff    must   be    men    intimately   familiar   with    practical 

tion  of  any  industrial  plant  depends  entirely  upon  the  effi-  operating  economies,  whose  duties  would  be  the  delivering 

ciency   of   its   operating   management.     Let  me   emphasize  of  lectures  or  talks  which  should  be  planned  so  as  to  reach 

that  this  fraction  of  the  consumption  relates  exclusively  to  directly  not  only  managers  and  ownei-s  of  the  industries, 

the  boiler  plants,  that  is,  the  production  of  steam,  and  does  but   also   the  chief   engineers   and   firemen   of   the   boiler 

not  include  the  large  economies  possible  in  connection  with  plants. 

its  distribution  and  use.  ,       ,     .,  ,  „.  .,  table  L    TOTAL  COAL  PRODUCTIOX,  BITUMINOUS,  LIGNITE  AND 

For  well-known  reasons  the  boiler  plant  offers  the  more  anthracite,  year  I915 

lucrative  field  for  producing  economies,  and  these  with  a  Not  Tons        Per  Cent, 

minimum  of  alteration  in  physical  equipment.  l.    Bituminous  and  lignite 443,452.509  85  2 

Under  present  conditions  a  plant  which  carelessly  oper-  ^-    Anthracite 7b.90(,.4i\  \4  8 

ates  at  an  efficiency  of  40  to  50  per  cent,  receives  from  the  3.    Total 520,358,940         lOO  o 

Government  the  same  consideration  in  the  delivery  of  coal  mi      tt   -^  j    c^  ^       r>  r  ht-         i.       r  u 

"    ,  ,  cc  .  •     r,n   4     nr  4.      TV  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines  has  for  a  number 

as  the  one  whose  efficiency  is   70   to   75   per  cent.     This  ,  j  ■       ut.  ■  ■  j  j-      ™-     *.•  •     t-c 

^  .       ,     .  ,  .  J         '    -  ,  of  years  engaged  in  obtaining  and  disseminating  scientific 

obviously  IS  unfair  and  wasteful.  .  ,■'        ^-  j,-       j.,         ■   ■  j  ..■         i        ^ 

„,      A  i  I.      J  onnnnn  4.  *        1  infoiTnation  regarding  the  mining  and  consumption  of  coal, 

The  Government  hands  over,  say,  200,000  tons  of  coal  a  ,   ^,  i^       ^  xf  i    i.         v.  r  ,.       i       ^ 

,^  U4.1J  ,f  and  the  results  of  the  work  have  been  of  great  value  to 

year   to    a    plant   owner,   but   asks    for   no    accounting    as  ^     ,     .     ,  .  ,  ui     j.  j         i     -i 

'         ,    ■.      ^  4.-  4.-  4.    4.i,„  t  technical  engineers  who  are  able  to  use  and  apply  it. 

regards  its  consumption,  nor  any  questions  as  to  the  amount         g.^  ^^^^^^^  ^^.„.^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^,  ^^^  ^.^^^^  .^  ^^^  ^^.^^^ 

of^am  It  IS  made  to  produce.  g^^^^^  ,^^^.  ^^^^     j^  .^  predicted  that  700.000,000  tons  will 

.„         .  o     .   .V,  , ,n„„    T^^»™l,«,    10,1    „»  .;,»  be  mined  this  year,  and  next  year's  production  will  likely 

•Presented    at    the    annual    meeting.    December.    1917,    of    the  ,         ,.„  ,  A/.    .,  ■  i-^  •       4.  1      /.r, 

American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  New  York.  be   still   greater.      Of  this    quantity   approximately   67   per 

tConsulting  engineer,  New  York  City.  cent.,  or  469,000,000  tons,  will  be  bumed  for  steam-making 


Januan'  8,  1918 


POWER 


65 


purposes  on  land,  assuming  the  same  percentage  consump- 
tion for  steam  production  as  existed  in  the  year  1910. 

The  saving  or  wasting  of  one-quarter  of  this  coal,  that 
is,  over  117,000,000  tons,  depends  on  the  efficiency  with 
which  we  operate  our  boiler  furnaces.  If  we  actually  saved 
by  proper  methods  only  50,000,000  tons  per  year,  this  econ- 

TABLE   II.      rEKCKNT.XGlO   DLSTlUiU  riON   OK  HITr.MIXOUS  COAL 
AND  LIGNITK  PRODUCED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
AND  I.MI'OHTED  IN    1915.  BY  USES 

Per  Cent 

1.  Uailrcmd  fuel     28  0 

2.  Steamship  buoker  fuel — tidewater 2  0 

3.  Steamship  bunker  fuel — Great  Lakes 0  3 

4.  Manufacture  of  beehive  poke    ■ 9  3 

5.  Manufaeture  of  byproduct  coke   4.3 

6.  Manufacture  of  coal  gas     I   0 

7..  Domestic  and  small  sti'iim  trade 16  0 

8.  Industrial  steam  trade    33  0 

9.  Exported 4  0 

10.  .^team  and  heat  at  mince 2  0 

1 1 .  Special  uses 0   1 

12.  Total  bituminous  and  liRnite..  100.0 

NOTE. — Imports  were  only  a  little  over  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  and  are 

therefore     neglected. 

No  information  is  available  for  complete  classification  of  the  distribution  of 
the  anthracite,  but  it  is  estimated  in  report  on  "Coal  in  1915"*  from  which 
Tables  I  and  II  are  made,  that  50,000,000  ni't  tons  of  anthracite  were  used  in  1915 
for  "heatinK  households,  apartment  houses,  hotels,  and  office,  school  and  other 
buildinRS."  This  leaves  about  27,000.000  net  tons  or  35  per  cent,  for  indastrial 
uses,  principally  steam  makinc-  If  we  eliminate  households  we  may  assume  that 
25,000,000  tons  ot  the  50,000.000  tons  are  used  lor  making  steam,  bo  that  of  the 
total  77,000,000  tons  of  anthracite  we  may  say  that  52,000,000  tons,  or  67.5  per 
cent,  are  used  for  steam  production. 

*  "Coal  in  1915,"  by  C.  E.  Lesher,  published  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey; 
Part  A  on  production,  Part  B  on  distribution. 

omy  would  result  in  freeing  for  other  important  service  the 
use  of  1,000,000  fifty-ton  freight  cars  per  year.  The  sig- 
nificance of  such  an  economy  may  be  realized  when  it  is 
stated  that  the  number  of  cars  thus  released  for  other 
service  would  be  equivalent  to  15  per  cent,  more  than  the 
combined  yearly  coal-carrying  capacity  of  the  Baltimore  & 
Ohio  and  Southern  Railway  systems;  approximately  equal 
to  that  of  the  Pennsylvania  R.R.  system  on  lines  east  of 
Pittsburgh,  or  Is  times  the  number  of  coal  cars  hauled  by 
the  Norfolk  &  Western.  The  direct  saving  to  our  industries 
would  be  $250,000,000  worth  of  coal  per  year,  if  figured  at 
$5  per  ton. 

TU-  •  ^AU      50,000,000  ,„-^  ^      ,  ^, 

This  saving  would  be  ydq^r^r^^  r^f.  =  10.65  per  cent,  of  the 

coal  now  burned  for  steam  production.  It  is  impossible  to 
state  the  present  average  efficiency  of  boilers  and  furnaces, 
but  I  have  personally  spent  sixteen  years  of  concentrated 
study  in  the  investigation  and  impi'ovement  of  steam  and 
fuel  conditions  in  factory  power  plants,  and  I  have  never 
visited  a  plant  of  this  class  where  a  saving  in  coal  of  at 
least  10  to  12  per  cent,  could  not  easily  be  made.  The 
poorer  the  conditions  found  the  easier  it  is  to  make  an 
attractive  saving  in  fuel. 

Table  IV  shows  to  what  point  the  efficiency  of  a  plant  must 
be  raised  to  obtain  the  saving  of  10.65  per  cent,  upon  which 
these  economies  are  based.  The  poorly  run  boilers  would 
of  course  be  susceptible  to  the  greatest  improvements. 
Hundreds  of  boiler  plants  operate  at  no  greater  than  58.07 

TABLE  III.       COAL  USED  ON  LAND  FOR  STEAM  PRODUCTION  IN 
PERCENTAGE  OF  TOTAL  PRODUCTION 

Per  Cent 
Bituminous: 

1.  Railroads,  item  I,  Table  II   .    .  28  0 

2.  Domestic  and  steam  trade,  assume  only  one-quarter  of  item   7, 

Table  II 4  0 

3.  Industrial  steam  trade,  item  8,  Table  II  33  0 

4.  Steam  and  heat  at  mines,  item  10,  Table  II  2  0 

5.  Total  bituminous  ....  67  0 

Anthracite: 

6.  To  steam  making  .....  67  5 

Hence  it  may  be  assumed  that  67  per  cent,  of  all  the  coal  produced  is  used  for 
making  steam  on  land. 

To  save  10.7  per  cent,  of  the  coal  consumption  necessitates  the  raising  of  any 
combined  efficiency  of  boiler  and  furnace  from  that  shown  under  Old  Efficiency 
in  Table  IV  to  the  corresponding  value  under  New  Efficiency  in  the  same  table 

per  cent,  efficiency,  and  it  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter 
to  bring  them  up  to  an  efficiency  of  70  per  cent,  or  higher. 
The  latter  would  result  in  a  saving  of  over  17  per  cent,  of 
the  coal. 

If  we  do  not  limit  our  action  to  coal  used  for  steam 
generation,  but  extend  it  to  include  economy  with  which 
the  steam  itself  is  utilized  and  applied,  the  predicted  saving 
could  be  doubled,  so  that  we  might  save  2,000,000  fifty-ton 
carloads  of  coal  per  year.     There  is,  for  instance,  wide- 


spread ignorance  to  a  surprising  degree  in  regard  to  the 
value  of  exhaust  steam  in  heating  and  process  work.  The 
coal-consuming  public  should  be  taught  that  a  heating  sys- 
tem which  requires  100  boiler  horsepower  may  insert  a 
steam  engine  between  boiler  and  heating  main  and  obtain 
nearly  100  mechanical  or  electrical  horsepower  in  addition 

TABLE  IV      INCREASES  IN  CO.MHINED  EFFICIENCIES  OF  BOILER 
AND  FURNACE  NECIOSSARY  TO  EFFECT  A  10.7  PER  CENT. 
SAVING  IN  COAL 

Old  Efficiency,         New  Efficiency, 
Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

44  67  50 

49  14  55 

53  60  60 

58  07  65 

.Saving  of  coal  with  same  output  of  steam 

New  Efficiency  —  Old  Efficiency 


Old    Efficiency, 
Per  Cent. 

New  Efficiency, 
Per  Cent. 

62  54 
67  00 
71.47 

70 
75 
80 

and  New  Efficiency 

Increase  of  steam  production  for  same  coal 

New  Efficiency  —  Old  Efficiency 

Old  Efficii.ney 

to  the  required  heating  for  about  the  same  consumption 
of  fuel. 

Steam  plants  are  under  the  immediate  management  o£ 
chief  operating  engineers.  The  examination  requirements 
for  licenses  in  this  profession  call  for  practically  no  knowl- 
edge of  steam  and  fuel  economics.  These  examinations 
deal  chiefly  with  matters  of  safety,  repair  and  maintenance 
of  equipment  and  neglect  almost  entirely  the  subject  of  coal 
economy.  This  is  a  very  serious  defect  in  our  present  sys- 
tem and  is  directly  responsible  for  a  large  preventable 
waste  of  fuel. 

The  mining  and  distribution  of  our  coal  supply,  the  regu- 
lation of  prices  and  the  adjustment  of  financial  and  labor 
problems  have  already  been  placed  under  official  adminis- 
trative attention.  But  no  parallel  measures  have  been 
adopted  looking  toward  reduction  of  waste  in  connection 
with  the  utilization  of  this  coal. 

Discussion  of  the  Paper 

Walter  N.  Polakov:  The  invitation  to  discuss  the  means 
and  methods  for  reducing  waste  of  coal  Is  very  welcome 
since  all  that  has  been  said  and  done  so  far  has  failed  to 
produce  tangible  results. 

Last  April  I  brou.ght  out  the  impending  danger  of  a  fuel 
famine  and  soon  afterward  the  movement  was  on  the  way 
affecting  at  that  stage  only  coal  production,  transportation 
and  prices. 

Being  limited  in  its  scope  and  nature,  it  did  not  embrace 
at  that  time  the  third  group  of  my  original  recommenda- 
tions concerning  the  use  of  fuel.  My  editorial  in  Coal  Age 
of  July  14  and  articles  in  other  magazines'  emphasized  this 
paramount  task  "to  start  at  once  the  movement  for  the 
efficient  utilization  of  every  available  supply  of  fue'." 

A  couple  of  months  later  Mr.  Garfield  publicly  admitted 
that  the  principal  hope  for  a  solution  of  the  coal  problem 
lies  with  the  people  themselves:  "They  must  save  every 
possible  bit  of  fuel." 

Saving  may  be  carried  out  along  two  lines — either  on  the 
principle  of  German  "Spar  Kasse,"  inevitably  limiting  the 
industrial  productivity  and  impairing  the  health  of  the 
people,  or  on  the  principle  of  more  efficient  utilization  of 
fuel,  producing  more  power  and  heat  with  less  coal.  Only 
this  latter  means  of  saving  is  to  be  considered. 

The  inauguration  of  efficient  management  of  power  plants 
cannot  be  accomplished  overnight.  It  requires  study  in 
each  plant  of  its  peculiar  conditions.  It  requires  careful 
training  of  firemen  and  other  employees.  It  necessitates  an 
adequate  stimulation  of  employees  to  continually  maintain 
the  highest  degree  of  efficiency.  To  do  it  no  capital  invest- 
ment is  needed.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  better  furnaces,  of 
mechanical  stokers,  or  other  cures  preached  by  salesmen. 
It  is  a  matter  of  knowledge  and  method. 

There  are  already  many  plants  that  have  reduced  their 
coal  consumption  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  for  the  same 
output,  by  better  organization  of  power-plant  work.  There 
is  no  need  to  here  describe  these  principles  and  their  results. 
"Task  Setting  for  Firemen,"  a  paper  presented  before  this 

•"Iiulu.strial  Manag^ement."  May,  1917,  September,  1917;  "Lit- 
erary Digest,"  June  15,  11117;  "Utilities  Magazine,  September, 
1917. 


66 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


society  in  1913,  "Planning'  the  Power  Plant  Work,"  a  paper 
delivered  before  the  Taylor  Society,  and  numerous  other 
contributions  describe  the  nature  of  my  work  and  funda- 
mental principles  more  or  less  at  length.  Van  H.  Manning, 
Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  recently  took  the  view 
advocated  by  me  for  years.  Said  he:  "The  immediate 
problem  is  a  difficult  one.  We  cannot  Ecrap  all  out-of-date 
power  plants.  We  must  start  by  doing  the  best  with  what 
we  have.  We  must  begin  saving  coal  at  once.  The  prob- 
lem is  a  personal  one.  It  deals  with  the  human  elements. 
We  must  reach  the  man  with  the  shovel." 

Mr.  Myers  presents  for  discussion  two  plans.  The  first 
one  is  unfortunately  worded  so  as  to  create  prejudice 
against  it.  It  reads  ".  .  .  .  the  use  of  authority  to 
compel  coal  consumers  to  execute  such  measures  of  econ- 
omy as  the  proper  authority  might  prescribe  in  any  given 
case."  It  sounds  Prussian.  But  is  it?  Does  it  mean 
imperialistic,  arbitrai-y  authority  or  an  authority  of  an 
expert  based  on  scientific  knowledge  of  facts,  similar  to 
the  authority  of  a  doctor  prescribing  treatment? 

The  strength  of  England,  France  and  even  the  Central 
Powers  is  due  to  the  cooperation  in  industries.  Those  who 
fail  to  render  the  service  to  the  common  cause  are  denied 
the  privilege  to  mismanage  their  plants.  True  enough, 
tliis  cooperation  is  regulated  by  the  state  and  at  times 
compulsory  as  is  conscription  or  commandeering  cf  produc- 
tive facilities  or  commodities.  The  voluntary  cooperation 
for  which  we  long  will  come  only  after  the  war  as  a  result 
of  new  social  readjustments.  But  we  cannot  wait.  The 
problem  is  of  today.     Tomorrow  may  be  too  late. 

In  other  words  we  must  create  conditions  stimulating 
voluntary  cooperation  even  under  individualistic  regime. 

The  plan  therefore  means  the  abolition  of  privilege  to 
waste  fuel  in  inefficiently  conducted  plants,  by  giving  prior- 
ity in  coal  deliveries  to  those  who  prove  that  they  do  not 
use  it  efficiently. 

At  present  a  wasteful  plant  gets  an  excessive  amount  of 
coal,  while  the  highly  economical  one  stands  an  equal  risk 
of  being  shut  down  for  the  lack  of  coal.  If  the  efficiency  is 
protected  by  priority,  it  will  work  aho  as  a  stimulus  for 
the  wasteful  ones  to  find  means  to  improve  their  methods 
and  then  ask  for  a  new  rating. 

Such  encouragement  of  efficient  plants,  rendering  good 
sei-vice  to  the  country  and  stimulating  the  inefficient  to 
seek  their  salvation  through  the  means  beneficial  to  the 
country  can  be  accomplished  along  the  following  lines: 

Rating  by  experts  (nominated  by  the  national  engineering 
societies  and  supported  by  public  opinion  and  Government) 
of  plants  in  the  indispensable  industries  who  are  entitled, 
because  of  coal-saving  methods  in  use,  to  the  priority  in 
coal  supply. 

Receiving  of  applications  by  the  special  service  bureau  of 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  from  the  low- 
rated  plants  for  assigning  the  expert  help. 

Serving  the  needs  of  such  inefficient  plants  by  offering 
services  of  recognized  experts  in  power-plant  management 
for  direction  of  the  work. 

Organizing  a  staff  of  steam,  electrical  and  combustion 
engineers,  whose  members  will  be  assigned  to  cai-ry  out 
the  work  in  the  plants  of  the  applicants  under  the  direction 
and  supervision  of  experts. 

Charging  for  such  services  an  adequate  compensation  to 
cover  the  expenses  involved  (salaries,  traveling  and  office) 
but  no  profit. 

Mr.  Myers'  second  plan,  "an  educational  one,  in  which 
patriotism  and  efficiency  would  furnish  the  motive  forces 
required,"  is  in  my  opinion  doomed  to  failure  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons: 

Teaching  efficiency  by  a  correspondence-school  method 
will  accomplish  little  good,  is  incompatible  with  the  profes- 
sional dignity  of  this  society  and  lacks  the  personal  touch. 

Endless  variety  of  equipment,  grades  of  fual  available, 
personality  of  men,  nature  of  load,  climatic  conditions,  etc., 
make  the  preparation  of  "simple  instruction  sheets  for 
engineers  and  firemen"  impossible  and  if  made  they  ar^e 
so  general  as  to  be  useless.  Failure  of  the  Massachusetts 
fuel  board  in  such  an  attempt  is  a  joke  among  power-plant 
men  in  that  section. 

No  instructions  of  real  value  could  be  given  unless  exam- 
ination of  the  plant  was  made.     Selling  patent  medicines 


curing  all  diseases  ranks  with  fake  only  too  often  not  to 
make  one  careful. 

Keeping  records,  logs,  etc.,  necessitates  instnament  equip- 
ment and  measuring  devices;  all  of  this  is  good  only  when 
the  data  are  used  and  interpreted  by  a  trained  man  and 
this  is  done  continually.  Too  many  plants  have  no  instru- 
ments at  all;  most  of  those  that  have,  keep  them  as  orna- 
ments owing  to  the  lack  of  proper  organization. 

If  the  regular  employees  failed  to  secure  high  efficiency 
it  is  not  because  of  the  lack  of  "circularized  education"  but 
chiefly  on  account  of  lack  of  time  to  carry  on  investigations 
and  tests  all  the  time  being  absorbed  by  routine  duties; 
absence  of  insti-uments,  facilities  or  encouragement;  lack 
of  experience  in  this  highly  specialized  line  of  research 
work. 

The  education  must  begin  with  o\vners  and  managers,  not 
with  the  firemen. 

The  very  principle  of  "teaching"  and  "instructions"  given 
to  manufacturers  and  plant  owners  by  the  society  is  un- 
democratic and  unamerican.  They  do  not  want  or  need 
"to  get  something  for  nothing."  Producing  for  the  country 
but  not  without  profit  they  can  prefer  to  pay  for  what  they 
get  if  the  benefit  is  commensurate  with  the  expenses. , 

"Educational"  talks  and.  circulars  usually  degenera'^e 
rapidly  into  debating  societies,  wasting  time  needed  for 
deeds. 

Any  half-measures  with  good  intentions  falling  short 
of  accomplishing  valuable  results  are  dangerous  as  they 
chloroform  the  public  conscience,  creating  a  belief  that 
something  real  is  being  done  while  there  is  little  behind  the 
words  that  make  all  concent. 

To  sum  UT,  the  problem  is  to  be  solved  by  groups  and 
individuals  availing  through  this  society  to  the  sei-vices  of 
those  who  know  how  more  power  can  be  gotten  out  of  a 
pound  of  coal.  There  is  no  necessity  to  compel  plant  owners 
to  improve  their  methods  since  in  such  a  step  lies  the'r 
self-preservation.  But  there  is  an  urgent  nece:sity  from 
the  national  viewpoint  to  conserve  the  fuel  by  preventing 
its  waste  by  ignorance  or  indifference.  The  valuation  of 
plant  methods  to  establish  ratings  for  priority  in  coal 
deliveries  is  therefore  recommended. 

Albert  A.  Cary:  Mr.  Myers  endeavors  to  focus  our  minds 
upon  this  panacea  in  the  statement  that  "the  saving  or 
wasting  of  one-fourth  of  the  coal  consumntion  of  anv  indus- 
trial plant  depends  entirely  upon  the  efficiency  of  its  oper- 
ating management,"  and  this  seems  to  be  the  text  upon 
which  the  balance  of  his  paper  is  founded. 

To  secure  the  desired  conservation  of  fuels  in  such  plants, 
Mr.  Myers  advises  the  services  of  the  expert  in  operating 
management.  Provided  he  understands  his  business,  su?h 
an  expert  can  undoubtedly  secure  desirable  fuel  savings; 
but  results  depend  largely  upon  the  cooperation  he  receives 
from  the  plant  owners  and  their  employees,  as  well  as  their 
willingness  to  equip  plants  with  the  needed  apparatus  and 
to  use  them  continuously  after  the  expert  concludes  his 
work. 

To  illusti'ate,  I  will  refer  to  the  plant  of  one  of  my 
clients,  the  Tennessee  Copper  Co.  By  redesigning  the  fur- 
naces in  this  plant  and  adapting  them  to  the  fuel  used  and 
by  substituting  mach'ne-fired  grates,  they  have  since  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  the  same  amount  of  steam  with  but  64 
per  cent,  of  the  Jellico  coal  formerly  used.  This  plant, 
when  completed,  was  turned  back  to  the  same  management 
that  it  had  before  with  no  further  instructions.  There  were 
installed  facilities  for  continuously  determ'ning  fhe  weight 
of  the  coal,  ash  and  water  used  as  well  as  the  analysis  of 
the  furnace  gases. 

In  another  large  industrial  plant  a  similar  saving  in  coal 
was  effected.  This  plant  has  an  aggregate  capacity  of  over 
7000  nominal  boiler  horsepower,  divided  into  22  units.  It 
was  formerly  operated  with  hand-fired  shaking  grates  for 
which  machine-fired  grates  were  substituted  with  properly 
designed  furnaces.  The  plant  is  now  being  operated  con- 
tinuously at  150  per  cent,  rating  and  is  using  no  more  fuel 
than  it  formerly  did  when  bein?  operated  at  two-thirds  of 
its  present  output.  The  boiler-room  force  required  to 
operate  this  altei-ed  plant  is  less  than  half  of  the  number 
of  men  fonnerly  required.  No  change  has  been  made  in 
the  management  of  this  plant. 

Proper  furnace  design  and  construction,  flue  and  c!rrf;- 


January  8.  1918 


POWER 


67 


producing  equipment  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  particular 
kind  or  qu:ility  of  fuel  used  is  the  keynote  of  the  question 
of  fuel  conservation. 

Furnish  the  mason  with  complete  instructions  for  "laying 
up"  the  brickwork  and  properly  bondins;  the  interior  and 
exterior  walls  of  the  furnace  so  that  the  large  difference 
in  temperature  between  the  two  sides  will  not,  by  unequal 
expansion  and  contraction,  rapidly  destroy  these  furnace 
inclosures  and  so  waste  fuel  by  infiltration  of  air. 

The  selection  of  material  used  and  its  method  of  erection 
should  never  be  left  to  the  mason,  as  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
fully  90  per  cent,  of  the  masons  erecting  furnace  settings 
are  hopelessly  unqualified  to  produce  a  proper  setting. 
After  equipping  the  plant  with  proper  furnace  settings 
which  are  adapted  to  produce  the  highest  possible  efficiency 
with  the  particular  fuel  available,  the  expert  in  operating 
management  can  come  into  the  plant  to  instruct  tha  men. 

To  meet  the  present  emergency,  I  propose  that  the  War 
Coal  Board  bring  all  the  firemen  in  this  country  under  its 
control  by  requiring  them  to  take  out  United  States  licenses. 
The  various  state,  county  or  municipal  governments  c.in 
assist  them  in  this  woi-k.  The  applicants  for  these  licsnses 
must  show  some  qualifications  that  would  entitle  them  to 
hold  such  privileges,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  would  bs 
possible,  at  the  beginning,  to  have  all  these  applicants 
examined  before  qualified  examination  boards. 

Future  applicants  should  be  required  to  pass  an  examina- 
tion before  such  boards  and  qualify  in  a  satisfactory  man- 
ner before  receiving  their  licenses.  Any  operator  of  a 
coal-buming  plant  (domestic  plants,  of  course,  excepted) 
who  operates  his  equipment  without  a  licensed  fireman 
should  be  liable,  first  to  fines  and  finally  to  more  severe 
penalties. 

Each  license  should  be  issued  for  the  applicant  to  operate 
in  a  definite,  described  plant  and  nowhere  else.  Should 
the  fireman  leave  this  plant  for  any  good  reason,  rather 
than  for  incompetence,  he  can  take  his  license  to  the  proper 
authorities  and  have  it  ti-ansfeiTed  to  another  plant  where 
he  has  found  reemployment. 

Should  the  fireman  be  found  to  be  incompetent,  his  license 
should  be  revoked  and  future  applications  be  denied. 

Inspectors  appointed  by  the  War  Coal  Board  might  visit 
from  time  to  time  the  various  coal-buming  plants,  and 
should  they  find  any  of  them  using  fuel  wastefully,  a  notice 
should  be  served  upon  the  owner.  If  this  is  not  followed 
by  prompt  action  to  reduce  or  stop  the  waste,  the  fireman's 
license  should  be  revoked. 

The  foregoing  is  proposed  as  a  war  measure. 

Professor  L.  P.  Breckinridge  told  of  the  methods  used  in 
Connecticut  to  conserve  coal,  stating  that  meetings  were 
held  to  which  the  public  was  invited,  to  be  told  how  to 
bum  coal  economically  in  house  and  power-plant  boilerj. 
Norman  Reinicker  believed  that  fuel  economy  was  much 
more  a  matter  of  design  than  education  of  firemen.  E.  N. 
Trump  emphasized  the  value  of  bonuses  to  fii'emen  to  give 
incentive  for  economical  use  of  coal. 

Utilizing  Surplus  Electrical  Energy 
for  Generating  Steam* 

By  F.  Hoehn 

An  interesting  test  was  conducted  by  the  Swiss  Society 
of  Steam  Boiler  Owners  to  determine  the  commercial  possi- 
bilities of  generating  steam  for  heating  purposes  by  elec- 
tricity. The  plan  proposes  the  heating  and  storing  of  the 
proper  volume  of  water  under  pressure,  from  which  the 
steam  was  to  be  generated  by  expansion  to  a  lower  pressure 
on  the  principle  of  the  fireless  locomotive. 

A  small  model  tubular  boiler  24  in.  in  diameter  and  50  in. 
long  containing  tliirty-eight  IVi-in.  steel  tubes  was  used  for 
the  test.  Glass-insulated  microhm  heating  coils  having  a 
resistance  of  1.1  ohms  were  inserted  in  34  of  the  tubes 
and  so  connected  that  the  latter  were  divided  into  thrre 
groups  of  18,  9  and  7  respectively,  any  of  which  could  be 
cut  out  of  service.  Direct  current  at  225  volts  obtained 
from  a  hydro-electric  plant  on  the  premises  was  applied. 

•Translated   from   "Schwelzerlsche   Bauzeitung." 


No.  1 

Teat  No.  2 

7  6 

7  0 

225  8 

225  6 

142  4 

148  8 

32  2 

33  6 

25  0 

29  4 

51  8 

50  0 

,150  0 

1,163  4 

85.5 

89.7 

2  7 

2.85 


2  42 

2  68 


2  76 

2  62 

2  65 

2  67 

3,415  0 

3,415  0 

3,074  0 

3,106  3 

90  0 

90  9 

The  following  table  gives  the  results  of  two  tests: 

Test 

Duration,  hours 

D.C  voltage 

Av(  rat;c  ampen-H 

Av(  ra;e  kilowatts 

Avera>?e  pressure,  lb.  per  sq.in.  aljs   ... 

Average  temperature,  cleg.  F      

Total  heat  in  one  pound  of  steam,  B.t.u I 

Total  evaporation,  lb.  per  hour 

Evaporation  in  pounds  per  square  foot  of  heating  sur- 
face at  minimum  demand 

Evaporation  in  pounds  per  square  foot  of  heating  sur- 
face at  maxinium  demand    .... 

Evaporation  in  pounds  per  square  foot  of  heating  sur- 
face at  average  demand    

Total  pounds  steam  generated  per  kw.-hr 

Theor..'tical  heat  in  B.t.u.  per  kw.-hr 

Actual  heat  obtained  in  B.t.u.  per  kw.-hr .  . 

Efficiency,  per  cent 

The  efficiency  of  90  per  cent,  might  have  been  improved 
by  better  lagging,  as  most  of  the  losses  were  due  to  radi- 
ation. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  evaporation  per  square 
foot  of  heating  surface  was  greatest  at  minimum  demand, 
owing  to  the  better  heat  transfer  to  the  water  when  the 
latter  was  not  filled  with  steam  bubbles.  For  practical 
purposes  it  is  fair  to  assume  a  mean  evaporation  of  2.46  lb. 
per  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface. 

The  first  requisite  for  steam  generation  by  electricity  is 
a  cheap  source  of  power.  In  order  that  such  a  system  may 
compete  with  a  coal-fired  plant,  with  coal  selling  at  $8.75 
per  ton  in  Switzerland  and  an  average  evaporation  of  7 
to  8  lb.,  the  author  computes  that  the  cost  of  current  cannot 
exceed  0.16c.  per  kilowatt-hour. 

Such  low-cost  current  is  rarely  obtainable.  However, 
cases  may  arise  where  an  otherwise  partly  idle  hydro- 
electric plant  can  be  used  to  furnish  the  necessary  current 
on  nights,  Sundays  and  holidays.  If,  then,  sufficient  heat 
can  be  stored  in  the  water  to  furnish  steam  by  regeneration 
for  the  entire  week,  the  practical  application  of  this  method 
takes  on  an  entirely  different  aspect. 

The  author  derives  a  number  of  equations  for  computing 
the  heating  surface  and  the  storage  space  required  for  fur- 
nishing the  maximum  amount  of  steam  for  heating  purposes 
at  a  reduced  pressure  of  22  lb.  ab.solute,  with  an  available 
power  supply  of  883  kw.  for  12  hours. 

Given  a  feed  temperature  of  59  deg.  F.,  the  total  steam 
obtained  at  a  mean  pressure  of  99  lb.  is  shown  to  be  2244 
lb.,  which  would  require  about  80  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface. 
The  total  amount  of  water  necessary  amounts  to  20,661  lb. 
and  would  require  a  storage  space,  making  due  allowance 
for  extra  steam  space  of  some  400  cubic  feet. 

Placing  the  radiation  losses  at  6  per  cent.,  the  total 
amount  of  steam  reduces  to  2109  pounds. 

With  an  evaporation  of  7.5  lb.  and  coal  at  $8.75  per  ton, 
this  represents  an  equivalent  fuel  cost  of  $1.23  per  day,  or 
$369  per  year  of  300  v/orking  days,  an  amount  which  the 
author  believes  sufficient  to  cover  the  interest  and  depre- 
ciation of  the  simple  equipment  required. 

The  system  offers  the  advantage  of  high  efficiency  in 
transforming  the  surplus  electrical  energy  into  heat  with 
only  slight  storage  losses  and  to  give  up  this  heat  at  any 
rate  desired  while  requiring  only  nominal  attention.  It  may 
also  become  the  means  for  improving"  the  load  factor  of  the 
plant  by  cutting  in  the  heating  coils  as  the  load  decreases. 


Heating  Houses  with  Gas 

As  a  producer  of  heat  units  on  the  generous  scale  for 
such  service  as  house  heating,  manufactured  city  gas  has 
not  been  able  to  compete  with  coal,  says  E.  D.  Milener,  in 
American  Gas  Engineering  Jounia!.  Even  with  gas  at  35c. 
a  thousand  cubic  feet  and  coal  at  $8.50  a  ton,  the  average 
fuel  cost  of  heating  an  entire  house  with  gas  will  be  at 
least  25  per  cent,  more  than  with  coal,  and  to  keep  this 
difference  from  being  gi-eater  it  is  necessary  that  the  best 
equipment  only  be  used  and  proper  attention  given  to  its 
operation.  A  three-story  cottage  equipped  with  a  gas-fired 
steam-heating  system  consumed,  during  the  eight  months 
from  October  to  May,  465,800  cu.ft.  of  gas.  The  lowest 
monthly  consumption,  during  October,  was  23,700  cu.ft., 
and  the  highest,  during  February,  was  88,700  cubic  feet. 


68 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


Engine-Room  Management  in  the  Ice  Plant' 


By  EDWARD  N.  FRIEDMAN+ 


The  author  does  not  condemn  the  high-speed  am- 
monia compressor;  but  believes  more  accurate 
performance  data  and  more  knoivledg-e  of  how 
these  machines  "stayid  up"  under  everyday  serv- 
ice are  needed  to- warrant  their  wide  and  rapid 
adoption.  Several  hints  on  engine-room  manage- 
ment folloiv. 


WE  HAVE  not  exactly  been  told,  but  it  has  been 
intimated,  that  anybody  not  using  the  new  high-speed 
compressors  and  electrical  drive  or  uniflovv  engine  is 
a  back  number;  that  this  or  that  certain  system  of  raw- 
water  ice  with  or  without  core-suckers  is  the  only  system  to 
use;  that  only  synchronous  motors  with  direct  drive  show 
that  a  plant  is  up  to  date;  that  this  or  that  filtering  system 
does  away  with  water  softening;  that  this  or  that  water 
softener  does  away  with  Alters,  etc.,  etc. 

There  are  scarcely  any  reliable  test  data  available  as  to 
the  actual  performance,  and  particularly  as  to  the  lasting- 
qualities,  of  the  high-speed  compressor  under  various  con- 
ditions. They  have  not  been  in  use  long  enough  to  judge 
whether  the  claims  for  them  are  justified.  I  am  as  much  in 
favor  of  progress  as  anybody,  but  I  feel  that  far  more  in- 
formation about  actual  performances  must  be  gathered.  I 
know  that  a  number  of  plants  have  been  installed,  but  not 
enough  data  have  been  established  yet  to  remove  all  doubt 
that  the  slow-speed  compressor  must  go.  Two  reasons  for 
favoring  the  high-speed  compressors  against  the  old-time 
slow-speed  are  usually  given ;  namely,  the  smaller  space  re- 
quired and  the  cheaper  first  cost.  I  find,  however,  that  the 
second  reason  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  facts.  Some  of 
the  new  high-speed  compressors  cost  moi'e  than  the  slow- 
speed  of  the  same  capacity,  and  I  cannot  see  why. 

Separate  Cooling  of  Liquid  Ammonia  and  Water 

One  thing,  however,  has  been  done  lately  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  before,  and  that  is  the  separating  of  the  cooling 
of  the  liquid  ammonia  and  the  water  from  the  general  sys- 
tem, using  a  separate  compressor  running  under  higher  back 
pressure,  which  means  higher  economy,  as  I  shall  try  to 
explain  later.  This,  of  course,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
high-speed  compressor  or  the  uniflow  engine,  but  is  the  out- 
come of  the  installation  of  the  raw  water  system,  since  with- 
out that  system  the  question  of  economy  is  mainly  a  question 
of  the  boiler-plant  economy. 

This  also  refers  to  the  question  of  superheaters  for  the 
steam.  Since,  however,  we  all  are  not  ready  to  put  in  new 
machinery  and  since  we  have  to  get  along  with  what  we  have, 
let  us  see  how  we  can  arrange  things  to  get  the  best  re- 
sults out  of  our  present  plants. 

Any  ordinary  ice  plant  consists  of  boiler  plant,  engine- 
room  equipment,  condenser  floor  and  ice-tank  storage  room. 
Each  of  these  things  is  important  and  essential  to  the  plant, 
but  the  main  question  is  whether  these  different  parts  are 
built  of  sizes  or  capacities  to  work  with  the  other  parts  to 
the  greatest  advantage  for  the  final  purpose.  There  must 
be  a  certain  relationship  as  to  the  size  of  compressors,  the 
number  of  cans  and  amount  of  piping  in  the  tanks,  the  size 
and  amount  of  piping  in  the  water  forecooling  tank  and  the 
size  of  the  ice-storage  room.  Any  mistake  in  sizes  and  ar- 
rangement of  any  one  of  these  items  means  a  drawback  and 
lack  of  economy. 

If,  for  instance,  the  size  of  the  distilled-water  storage 
tank  is  too  small,  it  means  losses  of  water  during  lunch 
hours.  If  the  amount  of  piping  in  tanks  is  too  small,  it 
means  lower  back  pressures  to  obtain  lower  temperatures, 
a  decidedly  uneconomical  feature;  if  there  are  not  sufficient 


cans,  the  same  argument  holds  good;  if  the  condenser  ca 
pacity  is  too  small,  it  means  higher  condenser  pressure  and 
higher  power  consumption  per  unit  of  output,  whether  stsam, 
electrical  or  any  other  kind. 

If  the  storage  room  is  too  small,  it  means  ti'ouble  during 
the  hot  season  and  the  danger  of  being  induced  to  draw  ice 
ahead  to  meet  the  Saturday  demand  and  then  have  no  ice 
for  Monday,  which  may  be  a  hotter  day  than  Saturday.  It 
would  take  too  much  time  to  go  into  every  detail  of  ice-plant 
construction.  I  must  confine  myself  to  the  management  c  f 
the  plant,  which  may  be  assumed  to  be  reasonably  wjU 
constructed  and  proportioned,  and  here  again  I  must  confine 
myself  to  the  engine  room,  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of 
the  committee  in  charge  of  the  program. 

You  will  notice  that  when  a  test  has  to  be  made  of  the 
capacity  and  economy  of  the  plant,  the  thing  that  invariably 
happens  is  the  surprising  number  of  data  that  have  to  be 
carefully  recorded.  Evidently,  it  is  needed  to  establish  the 
best  way  of  running,  and  it  is  also  remarkable  that  the 
employees,  knowing  that  these  data  are  being  taken,  sud- 
denly seem  to  realize  that  they  must  try  to  be  more  I'egular, 
even  pay  more  attention  to  oiling,  pumps,  etc.,  feeling  that 
if  something  goes  wrong,  the  professors  making  the  test 
will  find  it  out  somehow  and  quickly,  and  there  will  be  the 
deuce  to  pay. 

Tuning  Up  the  Machines  for  the  Test 
Before  the  tests  start,  the  machines  are  "tuned  up,"  minor 
repairs  are  made  and  the  condensers  are  cleaned;  in  other 
words,  the  plant  is  put  in  proper  condition  for  the  test, 
with  the  expectation  that  this  will  produce  better  results 
and  save  the  men  from  being  accused  by  the  party  making 
the  test  of  being  careless  or  incompetent.  Since  a  test  is 
made  to  prove  the  best  results,  it  must  logically  be  the  aim 
of  the  owner  to  produce  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  re- 
sults all  the  time.  Therefore,  if  the  keeping  of  data  tends 
toward  better  results,  why  not  keep  the  same  data  and 
i-ecords  all  the  time?  I  do  not  mean  that  readings  should 
be  made  and  entered  every  half-hour,  as  during  a  test,  but 
say  every  two  hours,  or  even  every  four  hours.  The  mere 
fact  that  such  data  as  condenser  pressure,  back  pressure, 
water  and  brine  temperatures  must  be  entered  at  certain 
hours  makes  it  necessary  to  pay  more  attention  to  these 
matters,  with  consequent  better  handling.  Furthermore, 
it  shows  the  night  man  the  condition  the  plant  was  in  when 
turned  over  to  him. 

I  have  found  that  on  the  average  log  the  only  things  re- 
corded are  the  number  of  cans  of  ice  pulled  and  the  temper- 
atui'e  of  the  brine  in  the  freezing  tanks.  Since  it  is,  as  a 
rule,  rather  difficult  to  read  thermometers  correctly,  consid- 
ering that  in  many  cases  the  instrument  has  to  be  pulled 
out  of  the  brine  to  get  sufficient  light,  I  have  always  advo- 
cated the  installation  of  recording  thermometers.  I  cannot 
make  the  point  too  strong  that  I  believe  it  is  impossible  to 
run  a  compressor  in  the  best  manner  without  the  use  of 
thermometers;  that  is,  without  having  a-  thermometer  in 
both  the  suction  and  the  discharge  line.  One  might  as  well 
tell  the  engineer  to  maintain  100  lb.  steam  pressure,  yet 
give  him  no  steam  gage.  The  object  of  thermometers  is 
particularly  to  prevent  too  much  liquid  entering  the  com- 
pressor, since  that  liquid  has  circulated  without  doing  any 
useful  work.  I  cannot  go  into  further  details,  but  would 
suggest  giving  the  engineer  a  table  such  as  the  following  to 
guide  him  in  handling  the  gas: 


Temperature  at  Whicl 

Suction  Ga.s 

Gage   Pressure, 

Boiling  Puint, 

Enters  Compressor, 

Lb. 

Deg.  F 

Deg.  F. 

12  2S 

—3 

+3 

15  67 

0 

+7 

19  46 

+  5 

-t-II 

23  64 

10 

-1-16 

28  24 

IS 

-1-20 

33  25 

20 

-1-25 

38  73 

25 

-1-28 

44  72 

30 

+  33 

•From   a   paper    before    the    Ea.stern    Ice    Association,    Atlantic 
City,   November,  1917. 

tC«nsulting  engineer.  90  West  St..  New  York  City. 


If,  for  instance,  the  gage  shows  20  lb.  back  pressure,  then 
the  thermometer  in  the  suction  line  should  show  about  -|-1] 


January  8,  1918 


POWER 


69 


dcg.  F.  Then  little  or  no  liquid  will  go  into  the  compressor. 
If  the  suction  gas  is  handled  rightly,  the  discharge  gas  will 
take  care  of  itself.  At  the  same  time  it  might  be  well  to 
give  them  also  a  short  table  as  a  hint  how  these  temper- 
atures usually  run.     This  table  is  based  on  tests: 


li.xck   Pri-ssure, 
Lb. 


25 


Siuglo-.\ctinB  Compressor,  DuublL'-.\i'ling   Compressor, 

Deg.  I'.  Ucg.  I''. 

260  295 

240  287 

213  253 


This  is  assuming  cooling  water  of  60  deg.  F.  initial  tem- 
perature. If  temperature  is  higher,  add  the  difference  to 
figure  given;  for  lower  temperature  deduct,  etc.  I  have 
found,  and  quite  naturally  so,  that  the  average  engineer  has 
not  been  told  enough  by  the  contractors  furnishing  the  out- 
tit,  therefore  even  as  small  a  table  as  the  one  given  will 
help  him. 

It  is  also  advisable  to  provide  an  indicator  for  the  engi- 
neer and  make  sure  that  he  uses  it  on  the  steam  engines  as 
well  as  on  the  compressors.  Diagrams  should  be  taken  at 
regular  intervals,  say  every  two  weeks,  even  if  everything 
is  apparently  working  all  right. 

I  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  method,  in  many  plants,  of 
using  the  return  gas  from  the  freezing  tanks  to  cool  the 
water  in  the  forecooler.  This,  in  my  opinion,  is  not  econom- 
ical, since  it  usually  results  in  superheating  the  gas  return- 
ing to  the  compressor,  diminishing  the  capacity  of  the  com- 
pressor by  allowing  less  weight  of  gas  to  enter  than  would 
otherwise  enter. 

Keep  in  mind  that  refrigeration  is  based  on  the  iveight  of 
ammonia  evaporated — the  lighter  the  gas  returning  to  the 
compressor  the  more  revolutions  the  machine  has  to  make 
to  handle  the  same  weight  of  gas. 

The  use  of  thermometers  will  show  at  what  temperature 
the  gas  returns,  and  any  ammonia  table  will  then  show  how 
many  cubic  feet  of  gas  at  that  particular  temperature  are 
required  to  weigh  a  pound.  If,  for  instance,  the  back  pres- 
sure is  15.67  lb.,  the  temperature  of  the  ammonia  would  be 
0  deg.  F.,  and  it  would  take  9  cu.ft.  to  make  one  pound. 
Now  assuming  that  the  thermometer  shows  31  deg.  F.,  or 
31  deg.  superheat,  it  would  take  9.682  cu.ft.  to  make  a  pound, 
or  about  8  per  cent.  loss.  This  also  shows  how  important  it 
is  to  have  the  ammonia  return  pipes  covered.  Many  owners 
look  on  the  pips  covering  as  an  unnecessary  expense;  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  is  absolutely  justified  and  pays  for  itself 
in  a  short  time.  This  refers  also  to  distilled  or  cooled-water 
lines  to  can  fillers. 

Loss  OF  Ammonia  a  Source  of  Complaint 
One  of  the  usual  complaints  is  the  loss  of  ammonia,  and 
this  is  always  a  serious  matter.  You  can  read  any  number 
of  articles  about  the  deterioration  of  ammonia,  yet  if  you 
talk  to  an  ammonia  salesman  representing  a  concern  whose 
goods  you  are  not  using,  he  will  tell  you  in  a  minute  that  all 
you  have  to  do  is  to  buy  his  ammonia  and  that  will  settle  the 
whole  question.  I  can  truthfully  say  that  I  have  never  found 
any  appreciable  difference  in  the  ammonias  made  by  several 
reputable  concerns.  When  there  seem  to  be  no  leaks  it  is 
most  perplexing  to  tell  where  the  ammonia  disappears  to, 
and  again,  in  other  plants  of  similar  construction,  the  leak- 
age losses  are  really  insignificant.  The  two  places  where  the 
chances  for  losing  the  ammonia  are  the  greatest  are  in  the 
stuffing-boxes  and  the  condensers.  It  is  important  not  to 
allow  the  stuffing-boxes  to  leak,  and  to  regulate  the  return 
gas  so  that  it  will  have,  if  possible,  the  same  temperature 
continuously  to  avoid  heavy  back  frost,  which  invariably 
causes  leaks  around  stuffing-boxes.  If  the  engineer  then 
tightens  the  stuffing-box  to  prevent  this  temporary  leak, 
the  chances  are  that  later  the  piston  rods  will  run  hot  or 
even  cause  the  gland  bolts  to  break,  as  I  have  seen  happen 
several  times. 

As  far  as  the  condensers  are  concerned,  it  is  natural  that 
the  danger  of  leaks  is  greater. there  on  account  of  the  high 
pressure  as  well  as  the  fact  that  the  water  running  over 
them  will  absorb  the  ammonia,  so  that  numerous  small 
leaks  may  exist  for  a  long  time  without  being  found.  When 
there  is  a  perplexing  loss  of  ammonia,  I  think  it  would  be 
well  to  shut  off  the  water  over  one  or  two  condenser  coils 
at  a  time,  and  go  over  them  carefully.  The  possibilitv  of 
leaks  in  the  brine-tank  coils  makes  it  desirable  to  periodically 


examine  the  brine  by  means  of  Nessler's  or  any  other  suit- 
able reagent.     Peculiarly,  leaks  are  often  near  the  bottom 
f  the  tank  and  in  an  inaccessible  place. 

If  the  leak  is  not  very  strong,  although  it  is  a  matter  of 
fine  judgment  to  determine  that,  it  may  be  advisable  to  let 
it  go  until  the  cool  season,  since  the  operation  of  emptying 
the  brine  tanks,  removing  the  ice  cans,  refilling,  etc.,  is  one 
of  the  worst  things  that  can  happen  in  an  ice  plant  and 
emphasizes  the  importance  of  having  only  the  best  steel  or 
malleable  fittings  and  flanges  and  wrought-iron  piping  and 
thorough  tests  under  pi-essure  before  the  brine  is  put  in.  In 
many  plants  this  is  not  done  thoroughly  enough  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  contractor  often  is  late  with  his  work 
and  does  not  take  the  proper  time  to  test  after  the  plant  is 
installed.  That  is  wrong,  since  it  is  better  to  finish  the 
work  a  few  days  later  than  to  have  to  interrupt  the  whole 
plant  or  at  least  one  tank  during  the  warm  season  for  never 
less  than  a  week  and  sometimes  even  more. 

Leaks  are  started  by  the  cans  being  dropped  on  the  pipes, 
and  sometimes  on  account  of  the  brine  being  allowed  to  get 
weak,  the  cans  freeze  in  the  brine  and  the  coils  are  bent  by 
using  crowbars  to  get  the  cans  loose.  Weak  brine  may 
freeze  into  the  coils,  forming  an  insulation,  retarding  the 
freezing  action  and  cutting  down  the  capacity.  In  addition, 
as  previously  stated,  it  may  cause  the  more  serious  trouble 
of  ammonia  leaks.  See  to  it  that  the  brine  agitators  are  run 
at  the  right  speed.  Unfortunately,  the  machines  driving 
them  are  often  of  a  cheap  and  poor  make  and  require  con- 
stant attention.  Insufficient  agitation  means  lower  efficiency 
of  tank. 

One  point  that  usually  received  very  little  attention  is 
the  water  jacket  of  the  compressors.  I  have  inquired  from 
several  operating  engineers  what  instructions  they  had 
received  from  the  contractor's  engineer.  In  no  case  had 
they  received  any  direct  instruction,  and  the  handling  of 
the  water  jacket  was  left  to  their  own  judgment.  Generally, 
the  water  jacket  should  have  as  large  and  as  cold  a  water- 
supply  as  one  can  manage  to  give  it.  Whatever  heat  is 
removed  by  the  water  in  the  jacket  reduces  the  amount  of 
power  required  to  drive  the  compressor.  I  have  seen  the 
water  in  jackets  frozen  solid,  caused  by  liquid  being  allowed 
to  return  to  the  compressor  in  sufficient  quantity  to  freeze 
the  water. 

Tests  of  Welded  Joints 

A  series  of  tests  of  the  strength  of  oxyacetylene-welded 
joints  in  mild-steel  plates  has  been  completed  by  the  Engi- 
neering Experiment  Station  of  the  University  of  Illinois 
under  the  direction  of  H.  F.  Moore,  research  professor  of 
engineering  materials.  Specimens  were  supplied  by  the 
Oxweld  Acetylene  Co.,  of  Chicago,  and  tests  were  made  in 
the  laboratories  of  the  station  at  Urbana  under  three  condi- 
tions of  loading:  (a)  Static  load  in  tension  (in  a  testing- 
machine),  (b)  repeated  load  (bending),  and  (c)  impact  in 
tension  (in  a  drop  testing  machine). 

For  joints  made  with  no  subsequent  treatment  after  weld- 
ing, the  joint  efficiency  for  static  tension  was  found  to  be 
about  100  per  cent,  for  plates  one-half  inch  in  thickness  or 
less,  and  to  decrease  for  thicker  plates.  For  static  tension 
tests,  the  efficiency  of  the  material  in  the  joints  welded  with 
no  subsequent  treatment  was  found  to  be  not  greater  than 
75  per  cent.  The  joints  wrere  strengthened  by  working  the 
metal  after  welding  and  were  weakened  by  annealing  at 
800  deg.  C.  (1472  deg.  F.)  For  static  tests  and  for  repeated 
stress  tests  the  joint  efficiency  sometimes  reaches  100  per 
cent.;  the  efficiency  of  the  material  in  the  joint  is  always 
less.  This  indicates  the  necessity  of  building  up  the  weld 
to  a  thickness  greater  than  that  of  the  plate.  The  impact 
tests  show  that  oxacetylene-wclded  joints  are  decidedly 
weaker  under  shock  than  is  the  original  material;  for  joints 
welded  with  no  subsequent  treatment  the  strength  under 
impact  seems  to  be  about  half  that  of  the  material. 

In  general  the  test  results  tend  to  increase  confidence  in 
the  static  strength  and  in  the  strength  under  repeated 
stress  of  carefully  made  oxyacetylene-velded  joints  in  mild- 
steel  plates.  The  results  of  these  tests  have  been  published 
as  Bulletin  No.  98  of  the  En';ineering  Experiment  Station, 
copies  of  which  mav  be  obtained  without  cost  by  addressing 
C.  R.  Richards,  Dircctv^r,  Urbana,  Illinois. 


70 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  2 


North  Jersey  Severely  Suffering  from 
Coal  Shortage 

The  industries  and  homes  of  Northern  New  Jersey  arc 
in  the  grip  of  a  most  severe  coal  shortage  as  this  jroes  tn 
press.  The  two  large  stations  of  the  Public  Service  Electric 
Co.,  Marion  and  Essex,  which  supply  much  of  North  Jersey 
with  electricity  for  industries,  railways  and  homes,  are 
hobbling  along  with  but  one  turbo-generator  running  in 
each  plant.  These  stations  consume  1200  tons  of  coal  per 
day  of  the  pooled  coal  which  they  have  been  getting,  but  no- 
where near  this  amount  is  coming  in.  All  the  company's 
coal  reserve  is  used  up,  and  though  according  to  the  Fuel 
Administrator's  books  the  company  still  has  400  tons  in 
the  pooled  coal  pile,  there  is  no  pile.  Some  one  has  over- 
dra\vn  his  account,  evidently. 

The  Public  Service  has  reached  the  point  where  its  of- 
ficials have  given  up  in  despair.  Seeing  the  shortage  com- 
ing, it  paid  out  a  million  dollars  bonus  to  get  coal;  but  before 
it  reached  the  company's  yai'ds  it  was  pooled  or  directed 
elsewhere.  It  has  put  the  situation  up  to  Fuel  Adminis- 
trator Jenkinson,  who  has  one  of  his  best  men  at  work  try- 
ing to  keep  the  Public  Service  supplied  with  enough  coal  so 
that  further  cui-tailment  of  service  will  not  be  necessary. 
Many  carloads  of  coal  were  on  the  way  to  the  company's 
yards;  but  word  came  (Wednesday,  Jan.  2)  that  these  had 
been  directed  to  other  more  urgent  uses  by  the  Government. 

Wednesday,  Jan.  2,  the  circuit-breakers  were  pulled  and 
most  of  the  industries  using  the  company's  service  cut  off. 
This  came  after  urgent  appeals  to  consumers  to  reduce 
consumption  had  failed  to  get  results.  Many  of  the  engi- 
neering staff  sat  in  the  offices  at  the  Terminal  Building, 
Newark,  Wednesday  night  and  directed  the  load  dispatcher 
in  an  effort  to  effect  the  most  equitable  distribution  of  cur- 
i-ent.  The  electric  street  lights  were  not  turned  on  until 
7:  30  p.m.  to  make  available  enough  current  to  carry  the 
trolley  service  over  the  i-ush-hour  period. 

Among  the  industries  affected  by  the  Public  Service  coal 
shortage  are  munition  factories  and  others  engaged  in  re- 
lated work.  Many  of  those  consumers  who  have  their  own 
plants,  but  use  in  addition  purchased  current,  ai'e  shut 
down  only  in  those  departments  supplied  with  purchased 
current,  though  several  factories  are  without  coal  for  theii 
ovni  plants.  What  little  coal  there  is  at  Perth  Amboy,  the 
distribution  center  for  New  York  City  and  this  section  of 
New  Jersey,  is  frozen  into  lumps,  each  lump  filling  a  car. 

This  period  of  "short  rations"  will  last  at  least  a  week. 
say  the  Public  Service  officials,  and  how  much  longer  they 
do  not  know.  Hoboken  at  this  writing  has  no  water,  elec- 
tricity, gas  or  coal.  The  locomotives  in  the  Jersey  City  yards 
have  no  water  and  power  plants  are  down.  The  great  Edi- 
son plant  at  West  Orange,  the  Westinghouse  Lamp  Works, 
Newark,  part  of  the  General  Electric  Co.'s  Harrison  plant, 
and  the  American  Shell  Co.,  Paterson,  are  closed. 

The  whole  of  North  Jersey  is  not  only  hobbling  along 
on  a  very  greatly  reduced  electrical  supply,  but  trolley  serv- 
ice is  seriously  inadequate  and  the  gas  supply  has  been  shut 
off  from  whole  counties. 

Heating  Buildings  With  Sprinkler 
Systems 

The  increasing  use  of  automatic  sprinklers  in  modern 
commercial  industrial  buildings  has  led  to  the  development 
of  the  sprinkler  system  for  heating  purposes,  according  to 
E.  S.  Densmore,  in  the  Quarterly  of  the  National  Fire  Pro- 
tection Association.  As  is  well  known,  the  sprinkler  system 
consists  in  general  of  a  series  of  pipes  which  cover  uniformly 
the  ceilings.  If  the  water  which  is  maintained  in  the  system 
can  be  heated  and  circulated,  evidently  the  sprinkler  pipin^r 
can  be  used  for  heating.  One  fundamental  objection  is  that 
the  sprinkler  head  which  is  in  ordinary  use  will  melt  at  the 
temperature  necessary  for  the  water  to  be  used  for  heating 
purposes.  This  melting  of  the  sprinkler  head  is  prevented 
by  a  U-connection  through  which  the  hot  water  cannot 
circulate.  In  practice  it  has  been  found  that  a  bend  in  the 
horizantal  nipple  carrying  at  the  end  the  upright  sprinkler 
head  will  prevent  the  head  from  melting. 


The  connections  of  the  hot-water  heating  system  with  the 
sprinkler  piping  are  exceedingly  simple  and  need  not  change 
the  sprinkler  piping  in  any  way.  The  hot-water  heater  may 
be  located  in  any  convenient  place.  From  the  hot-water 
heater  a  hot-water  supply  pipe  is  run  and  connected  to  the 
foot  of  the  sprinkler  riser  inside  the  sprinkler  alarm  valve. 
It  is  advisable  to  provide  an  ordinary  stop  valve  at  this 
point  so  that  the  hot-water  supply  may  be  entirely  shut  off 
from  the  sprinklers  when  necessary.  Between  the  hot-water 
connection  to  the  riser  and  the  sprinkler  heads  no  changes 
are  made,  the  riser,  laterals  and  distributing  pipes  being 
installed  in  the  usual  way.  Many  successful  installations 
have  been  made,  and  apparently  no  fundamental  difficulties 
have  been  encountered  over  a  period  of  several  years  in 
operation. 

Insolvency's  Effect  on  Power  Contracts 

When  a  power  company  becomes  insolvent  and  its  affairs 
are  entrusted  to  a  receiver,  who  continues  to  operate  the 
property  for  the  benefit  of  the  company's  creditors,  he  is 
not  bound  to  carry  out  a  preexisting  contract  of  the  com]3any 
to  furnish  power  to  a  particular  customer.  It  is  left  to 
the  receiver's  judgment,  acting  under  control  of  the  court, 
whether  he  will  adopt  such  a  contract  or  repudiate  it  ac- 
cording to  what  is  deemed  to  be  for  the  best  interests  of 
the  estate.  In  the  absence  of  indication  of  his  election  to 
the  contrary,  the  contract  becomes  automatically  dissolved 
on  the  i-eceiver's  appointment.  But  in  this  case  it  is  decided 
that  the  receiver  of  an  electric-power  company,  who  agreed 
to  supply  power  to  a  manufacturer,  under  an  independent 
contract  entered  into  by  him,  should  not  be  permitted  to 
recover  a  fixed  charge  for  keeping  power  in  readiness  for 
service  whether  needed  or  not,  in  the  absence  of  proof  that 
he  had  agreed  to  and  did  keep  the  amount  of  power  supplied, 
whether  used  or  not.  (Iowa  Supreme  Court,  Maxwell  vs. 
Missouri  Valley  Ice  and  Cold  Storage  Co.,  164  Northwestern 
Reporter,  329.) 


Liabilitv  for  Defective  Condition 

Since  it  is  a  genei-al  principle  of  law  that  one  is  not 
liable  for  injury  sustained  by  another  on  account  of  a 
defective  condition  of  premises,  unless  the  defect  had  been 
previously  known  to  the  former,  or  had  existed  so  long 
as  to  fairly  charge  him  with  constructive  knowledge  of 
the  conditions,  and  ample  time  had  elapsed  in  which  the 
defect  might  have  been  repaired,  the  owner  of  a  steam- 
power  plant  is  not  liable  for  injury  to  a  pedestrian,  caused 
by  a  break  in  a  steam  pipe  line  under  a  pathway  used 
by  the  public  where  it  appears  that  the  break  must  have 
occurred  between  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  and  11  o'clock 
that  night,  and  that  those  in  chai'ge  of  the  plant  had  no 
notice  of  the  break  before  the  accident  to  the  pedestrian 
occurred.  (Truschine  vs.  Fayette  Manufacturing  Co.,  63 
Pennsylvania  Superior  Court  Reports,  124.) 

"Coal  Savers"  in  Great  Britain 

From  the  following  it  is  evident  that  the  United  States 
is  not  the  only  territory  that  has  been  invaded  by  the  so- 
called  "Coal  Saver."  Power  has  published  a  number  of 
articles  dealing  with  compounds  that  are  supposed  to  in- 
crease the  heat  value  of  coals  if  sprinkled  upon  them  or 
when  sprayed  over  ashes,  and  various  preparations  are 
extensively  advertised  in  Great  Britain  at  present  which 
are  presumed  to  contribute  considerably  to  the  heating 
power  of  coal  when  applied  in  the  prescribed  process. 

The  Director  of  Fuel  Research,  in  answer  to  an  inquiry 
as  to  the  value  of  these  preparations,  states  that  these 
proprietary  substances  have  been  in  the  market  a  long 
time,  but  that  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  genuine 
scientific  evidence  in  support  of  the  claim  of  their  manu- 
facturers. He  concludes:  "The  nature  of  the  substances 
makes  it  highly  improbable  that  they  have  any  effects  what- 
ever on  the  combustion  of  coal  or  other  fuels  when  they  are 
used  in  the  quantities  prescribed." 


January  8,  1918 


POWER 


71 


ZJKIIIimilllllllinilllllMIIDIIIDMnMI ItlimUtHIM IIDMIIIMIIIIItllMIIIIIMMIIIII^ 

I  Personals  1 

SlIIIIIIIIUIIIHI Illllllllll Illll IMU ttlUllllltllMI.1IIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIItllll1ll(3 

O.  I..  Kiile.v.  tornierly  with  the  Union 
Traction  Co.,  of  Indiana,  is  now  superin- 
tendent of  the  Portland  Municipal  plant,  at 
Portland,    Ind. 

E.  M.  WttlkiT.  formerly  manager  of  the 
Dubuciue  (Iowa)  Electric  Co..  Is  now  gen- 
eral nianaBvr  of  T.  H.  1.  &  E.  Traction  Co.. 
at  Terre  Haute,   Ind. 

GeorK*-  >V.  Scliinidt,  formerly  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  Duhmiue  (Iowa)  ElectHc  Co., 
Is  now  chief  engineer  at  T.  H.  I.  &  B. 
Traction  Co.,  Terre  Haute,  Ind. 

M.  H.  Owens,  formerly  manager  of  Ho- 
bai-t  CItv  plant,  Hobart,  Ind..  is  now  man- 
ager of  the  Inter-SUite  Public  Service  Co., 
for  Columbus  and  Seymour.  Ind. 

H.  E.  >Siiilth,  formerly  chief  engineer  at 
T.  H.  I.  i.>c  E.  Ti'action  Co.,  Ten'e  Haute, 
Ind..  is  now  chief  engineer  of  the  Indian- 
apolis (Ind.)  Light  and  Heat  Co.'s  Mill 
Street  plant. 

Charlea  H.  Parker,  who  has  been  with 
the  Edison  Electric  Illuniinating  Co.,  of 
Boston,  for  the  last  22  years,  has  been 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  generating 
department,  of  which  he  has  been  assistant 
superintendent  for  17  years. 

Mllfon  Kraemer,  consulting  engineer,  of 
San  Francisco,  has  undertaken  an  investi- 
gation into  the  utilization  oi  coals,  mined 
in  California  and  neighlK>ring  states,  for 
use  as  fuel  in  a  pulverized  form  This  will 
be  a  Continuation  of  a  study  m;ide  in  1916 
and  the  early  part  of  1917.  for  some  of  the 
large  California  ijower  companies. 

Frank  W.  Hall  has  been  appointed  com- 
mercial manager  of  the  Spi-ague  Electric 
Works  of  General  Electric  Co.  With  the 
exception  of  a  sh  rt  period.  Mr.  Hall  has 
been  connected  with  the  Sprague  Works 
continuously  for  22  years  in  various  engi- 
neering and  sales  capacities,  and  for  the 
three  years  prior  to  his  present  appointment 
occupied  the  position  of  sales  manager.  He 
succeeds  D.  C.  Durland.  former  executive 
head  of  the  Sprague  Electric  Works,  who 
rcpigned  to  accept  the  presidency  of  the 
Mitchell  Motors  Company,   Inc. 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


iitiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


Business  Items  I 

:  ? 

'•Ullllllllliiltlllilllllltlllltt Dlllllllllllllllllilllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII, I, IIIIIIUlT 

Ganneatad  &  Jacobsen,  engineers,  of 
Pittsburgh.  Penn  .  have  removed  from  the 
Benc.dunvTrees  Building  to  Suite  1103-1106, 
B.  F,  Jones  Building,  where  they  have 
more  spacious  quarters  to  talie  oare  of  in- 
creasing business. 

null Illtllllllll IIIIIIIIIIII,IIIIIIIIII,JIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIU 

Engineering  Affairs     A 


"iiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


iiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiT 


Fuel  Conservation  in  Boiler  Rooms  is  the 

subject  of  a  meeting  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Baltimore  Section.  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  tile  Engineers'  Club 
of  Baltimore  and  the  City  Club  at  the 
rooms  of  the  last,  Thursday  evening,  Jan. 
10,  Efforts  are  beinf  made  to  have  a  large 
attendance  of  flre.nen,  among  others. 
Charles  H.  Br-^mley,  associate  editor  of 
"Power,"  will  give  the  main  address  of  the 
evening,  followed  by  W.  L,.  DeBaufre.  of 
the  United  States  Naval  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. Annapolis,  Md.,  and  others.  The 
meeting  will  be  the  first  of  a  number  to 
arouse  more  general  interest  in  fuel  econ- 
om,\'   in    lioiler   plants. 


f|IIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII)llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllltlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllU| 

I       Miscellaneous  News       I 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIUII 


lllllllllllllllllllllllllllMllllllllllllllllllllllllllMllllllllllr 


Public  Hearing  on  New  .lersey  Boiler 
Code — Before  the  code  formulated  by  the 
State  Board  of  Boiler  Rules  is  .adopted 
finally,  a  public  hearing  will  be  held  at 
which  minor  changes  will  be  discussed. 
This  was  the  decision  of  the  hoard  at  a 
conference  recently  held,  presided  over  bv 
.1.  F.  Scott,  chief  of  the  License  Board  of 
the  Bureau  of   Engineers. 

According    to    the    November    Itiilledn    of 

the  New  Yorlt  State  Department  of  Labor, 
the  metals,  machinery  and  conveyances 
group  had  an  addition  of  more  than  1  per 
cent,  to  the  number  of  employees,  and  paid 
'I  ])er  cent,  more  wages  in  November  than 
In    October.      The    water,    light   and    power 


group  in  November  had  more  than  1  per 
cent,  additional  employees,  and  a  slightly 
greater  payroll  than  in  October.  As  com- 
pared with  tlie  corresponding  month  of  last 
year,  Xovember  reported  gains  of  4  per 
cent.  In  the  number  of  employees  and  19 
per  cent,  in  the  wage  volume. 

New  Power  Site  Reserve — The  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  recently  recommended,  and 
the  Pi'esident  has  approved,  the  inclusion 
within  a  power-site  reserve  of  about  196 
acres  of  public  land  in  the  Big  Sandy  lyver 
Basin.  Oregon,  in  order  that  this  land  may 
lie  used  in  connection  with  the  development 
of  power,  but  not  for  other  purposes.  Big 
Sandy  River  has  its  source  on  the  western 
slope  of  the  Cascade  Range,  and  its  prin- 
cipal tributaries  are  fed  by  tiie  glaciers  of 
Mount  Hood.  The  land  recommended  for 
withdrawal  is  located  near  or  adjacent  to 
Big  Sandy  River  below  the  mouth  of  Sal- 
mon  River. 

The  withdrawal  for  power-site  purposes 
of  a  tract  within  the  Eldorado  National 
Forest,  Cal.,  has  also  been  recommendea 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  ap- 
proved by  the   President. 

Free  Class  for  Radio  Operators  at  Stevens 
Tech. — A  free  evening  class  to  train  men 
as  radio  operators  for  the  Signal  Corps 
will  soon  be  started  by  the  Stevens  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  at  Hol)oken.  Those  w-ho 
actually  expect  to  be  called  to  the  colors 
will  be  admitted  into  the  class  If  prompt 
application  Is  made  to  Prof.  L.  A.  Hazeltlne, 
htad  of  the  Department  of  Electrical  En- 
gineering, under  whose  supervision  the 
course  will  be  conducted.  The  definite  ob- 
ject of  the  course  wliich  will  require  four 
evenings  each  week,  is  to  develop  radio  or 
buzzer  operators  so  as  to  be  able  to  send 
a  minimum  of  20  words  per  minute.  Upon 
finishing  the  course,  wliich  requires  about 
200  iiours,  less  for  some  and  more  for 
others,  a  certificate  of  attainment  will  lie 
given.  The  course  is  offered  specifically 
for  tliose  who  desire  to  enter  a  cantonment 
trained  and  ready  to  do  a  specific  job.  The 
authorities  at  Washington  state  "that 
drafted  men  who  attain  the  required  pro- 
ficiency are  practically  certain  of  rapid 
promotion  and  increased  pay  in  the  Army. 
The  rank  of  corporal  and  sergeant  with  a 
wage  of  from  $36  to  $51  a  month  awaits 
the  majority  of  men  thus  trained,  and  In 
proportion  as  a  man  so  instructed  shows 
liis  ability  and  interest,  promotion  lies 
aliead  of  him  to  the  position  of  Master 
Signal  Electrician,  with  a  wage  of  $81  a 
month. 

The    Army   and    Navy    Staff   Departments 

continue  to  demand  men  of  engineering  ex- 
perience, especially'  in  industrial  lines.  At 
present  the  outlook  is  that  this  demand 
will  continue  throughout  the  period  of  the 
war.  In  calling  attention  to  this,  the 
United  States  Public  Service  Reser\-e. 
Washington.  D.  C.  (where  records  of  men 
willing  to  serve  when  called  will  be  kept 
on  file),  points  out  tliat  a  man  of  engineer- 
ing experience  lias  a  rare  combination  of 
opportunities  open  to  liim.  which  are  not 
open  to  the  average  patriotic  American,  as 
follows:  (1)  To  serve  the  country  in  his 
most  effective  capacity;  (2)  to  keep  in 
touch  with  his  own  profession,  with  the 
result  that  his  patriotic  service  will  rot 
have  caused  him  to  become  rusty  by  the 
time  peace  returns;  (3)  to  become  a  com- 
missioned officer  and  receive  mucli  better 
pay  than  the  average  man  who  has  wholly 
subordinated  personal  interests  and  now 
works  for  the  national  good;  (4)  to  per- 
form his  service  usually  without  leaving 
the    United    States 

Technical  Troops  for  France — Skilled  en- 
gineers and  "handy  men"  wanted,  18  to  21 
or  31  to  40.  Jerseymen.  volunteer  before 
these  regiments  are  filled  from  other  states. 
There  are  now  being  organized  and  enlist- 
ments are  invited  for  (N.  A):  20th  Engi- 
neers (Forestry).  23rd  Engineers  (High- 
way), 24th  Engineers  (Shoi>  and  Supply), 
25th  Engineers  (Construction),  26tli  Engi- 
neers (Water  S'upply).  27th  Engineerw 
(Mining).  28th  Engineers  (Quarry),  30th 
Engineers  (Ga.s  and  Flame),  37th  Engi- 
neers, 3Sth  Engineers  (Crane  Operators),* 
Engineers  Unassigned,  Washington,  D.  C. 
.\ll  applicants  are  enlisted  as  privates;  but 
may  soon  advance  as  corj)orais  and  ser- 
geants when  found  qualified.  Applicants 
must  have  the  same  ph>-slcal  examination 
as  an.v  other  recruits.  .\  technical  worker 
or  handy  man  in  any  of  the  mechanical 
industries  will  find  in  the  above  field  of 
enlistment  a  rare  oppoi*tunity.  If  of  di'aft 
age  no  man  can  volunteer.  Enlistment  la 
for  the  period  of  the  war  only.  No  cards 
from  Engineer  Officers  are  required  except 
for  37th  and  3Rth  Engineers  (N.  A.)  The 
enlisted  personnel  of  the  Engineers  N.  A. 
(Crane  Operators)  will  be  api)tx)xinia(ely  as 


follows:  200  locomotive  crane  operators 
(operation  of  railway  constructing  derricita, 
cargo-handling  machinery  on  lake,  ore  and 
r.mil  docks  and  first-class  steam  shovel 
runners),  32  Rotaxy  Tenders,  16  Armature 
Winders,  16  Electrical  Foremen,  16  Storage 
B.attery  Charcing  Men,  16  High  Tension 
VViremen,  144  Journeymen  Electricians,  8 
(I'ooks.  It  is  proposed  to  limit  enlistments 
in  the  37th  and  38th  Engineers  N.  A.,  to 
tliose  men  whose  vocational  training  has 
been  examined  and  approved  by  officers 
reiiresenting  the  Engineer  Department.  Ap- 
plications for  enlistment  in  the  37th  Engi- 
neers should  be  addressed  to  Chief  of  Engi- 
neers, Washington,  D.  C,  and  in  the  38th 
Engineers  *o  same  or  to  the  Director  Gen- 
eral of  Railways,  Washington,  D.  C.  For 
the  other  Engineer  Regiments  (N.  A.)  aii- 
ply  direct  to  an.v  recruiting  office.  The 
above  regiments  are  National  Army.  In  ad- 
dition, men  are  accepted  for  the  Engineers, 
regular  army.  Recruiting  stations:  Main 
olHce,  86  Park  Place,  Newark.  N.  J.,  near 
McAdoo  Terminal;  Paterson.  269  Main  St.; 
Passaic.  215  Main  Ave.  ;  Elizabeth,  55  Broad 
St.  ;  Trenton.  103  E.  State  St.;  New  Bruns- 
wick, Post  Office  Bldg. ;  Atlantic  City,  1536 
Atlantic  Ave.  ;  Perth  Ambov,  130  Smith  St.  ; 
Camden,    540   Federal   St. 


Volunteers    Wanted   in   Ordnance   Corps — • 

For  every  man  on  the  firing  line  there  are 
skilled  men  back  of  the  line  upon  whose 
help  and  cooperation  he  depends.  The  en- 
listed Ordnance  Corps  of  the  National 
Army,  into  which  the  Ordnance  Enlisted 
Reserve  Corps  has  been  merged,  is  that 
army  behind  the  army  which  the  great 
war  has  made  more  important  than  ever 
before.  Unless  the  fighting  man  in  the 
front-line  trenches  has  the  help  and  skilled 
cooperation  of  specialists  behind  him,  his 
work  is  seriously  hampered  This  is  a 
war  of  specialists,  and  a  man  can  serve  his 
country  efficiently  by  applying  the  result 
of  his  civilian  experience  to  the  w^ork  of 
the  army.  In  the  Enlisted  Ordnance  Corps, 
the  skilled  man  continues  the  same  type  of 
work  he  pursues  in  civil  life.  The  accept- 
ance or  card  from  an  ordnance  officer  is  no 
longer  needed.  The  chief  of  ordnance  is 
charged  with  the  supply,  maintenance,  and 
repair  of  all  cannon  and  artillery  vehicles 
and  equipment ;  all  machines  for  the  serv- 
ice and  maneuver  of  artillery ;  all  small 
arms,  ammunition,  harness,  motor  trucks, 
motor  cycles,  railroad  cars,  and  also  every 
device  for  the  mechanical  service  of  the 
front-line'  army.  There  is  a  definite  place 
in  the  ordnance  corps  for  the  skilled  man 
in  almost  every  line  of  trade:  Machinists, 
mechanics,  plumbers,  painters,  tinsmiths, 
carpenters,  auto  mechanics,  saddlers,  black- 
smiths, and  wheelwrights  are  especially 
needed  at  this  time.  Military  training, 
while  desirable,  is  not  essential,  as  men  will 
continue  the  type  of  work  they  pursue  in 
civil  life,  thus  saving  the  Governme<nt  a 
long,  period  of  instruction,  and  also  great- 
ly improving  their  own  chances  for  ad- 
vancement. If  you  are  a  skilled  artisan, 
join,  the  army  behind  the  army.  If  handy 
with  tools,  perfect  yourself  with  these  tech- 
nical troops.  If  accepted  for  enlistment, 
men  will  ordinarily  be  sent  to  an  arsenal 
for  a  short  period  of  instniction.  upon  com- 
pletion of  which  they  will  be  assigned  to  de- 
tachments, units,  or  organizations,  witli 
ultimate  service  abroad.  Applicants  must 
be  between  18  and  21  or  31  and  40  years, 
and  must  be  able  to  pass  a  physical  exami- 
nation conforming  to  that  prescribed  for 
the  regular  army.  Registrants  are  not 
eligible  for  voluntary  enlistment.  In  view 
of  the  work  of  the  Enlisted  Ordnance  Corps, 
National  Army,  and  the  fact  that  the  men 
in  the  first-line  trenches  depend  upon  their 
help  and  cooperation,  a  large  number  of 
men  will  be  promoted  as  noncommissioned 
officers.  Pay  ranges  from  $30  to  $61.20  a 
month,  depending  upon  demonstrated  abil- 
ity and  place  of  service.  Enlistment  is  for 
the  duration  of  the  war  only.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  regular  pay.  free  quarters, 
rations,  clothing,  bedding,  medical  and 
dental  attention  are  provided  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  20%  increase  while  on  for- 
eign service.  There  are  also  vacancies  in 
other  branches  of  technical  troops:  .\via- 
tlon  ;  Quarterma.ster  Corps ;  Engineers ; 
Sanitation.  Hospital  Con>s ;  Heavy  Artil- 
lery. Field  Artillery.  Also  in  the  line: 
Infantry.  Cavalry,  U.  S.  Guard,  etc. 

How  to  enlist:  If  you  are  a  mechanic 
or  have  a  trade,  call  either  at  the  Main 
Annv  Recruiting  Station  for  New  Jersey, 
at  86  Park  Place,  Newark,  N,  J.  (near  the 
Mc.Vdoo  Tube  Terminal),  or  at  any  of  the 
following  braiiches:  540  Federal  St.,  Cam- 
den: 130  Smith  St.,  Perth  Amboy ;  103  E. 
State  St.,  Trenton:  55  Broad  St..  Elizabeth; 
209  Jlaln  St..  Paterson;  215  Main  .\ve., 
Passaic  :  Post  Office  Bldg..  New  Brunswick  ; 
1536  Atlantic  .\ve..  Atlantic  City. 

If  working  during  the  day,  call  until  9 
P,M.  tor  Infoniiation, 


72 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2 


.llllllltlHIIIIIIIIIIIIItIM 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


Boston — Current   quotations  per  gross  ton   delivered   alongside 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 


Buckwheat 

Rice    

Bi,iler    .  .  .  . 
Barley   .  . .  . 


ANTHEACITE 


Jan.  3,  1918 

S4.60 

4.10 

3.90 

3.60 


One  Year  Ag-o 

82.05 — 3.20 

3.50 — 2.65 


2.20 — 3.35 


Jan.  3,  1918 

SI  .10 — 7.35 

6.65 — 6.90 


-  Individual  *- 


One  Year  Ago 

S3.25 — 3.50 

2.70 — 2.95 


6.15 — 6.40 


3.35 — 2.60 


Ala.,  Mobile — The  Mobile  Electric  Co.  plans  to  build  a  5-mi. 
transmission  line  to  the  Chickasaw  Shipbuilding  plant  now  under 
constructon.      T.   K,  Jackson,  Mgr. 

Ark.,  Stuftgart— S.  R.  Morgan  &  Co.,  Little  Rock,  has  been 
granted  a  franchise  to  build  and  operate  an  electric-lighting  and 
power  plant.     Estimated  cost,  $100,000.         ... 

Calif.,  Palo  Alto — The  City  Council  plans  an  election  soon  to 
vote  on  $6C00  bonds  for  the  installation  of  a  Diesel  engine  and 
an  electric  generator  for  the  power  plant. 


BITUMINOUS 

Bituminous  not  on  market. 

F  o  b  Mines* ^    ,. Alongside  Bostont ^ 

Jan,  3   1918       One  Year  Ago  Jan.  3.  1918       One  Year  Ago 

Clearfields 83.00  54.25— 5.00 

Cambrias   and                                            ,.,„„_  a  an      -   in 

Somersets 3.10—3.85  4.60— j.40 

Pocahontas  and  New  Biver.  f.o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  84,  as  compared 

with  $2.85 — 2.yc  a  year  ago. „  ,„ 

•All-rail  rate  to  Boston  is  $3.89.  twater  coal. 

New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 

,. Circular' ,    , Individual  ' . 

JM  3.  1918       OneY'earAgo  Jan.  .3.  1918       One  Year  Ago 

p..                          Sj05                              84.00  85.80                      86.00- 7.00 

!&--                izi-g?                   |.75  5,05-5.75           5.50-6.0. 

Bituminous  smithing  coal.  $4.30 — 3^5  f.o.b. 
Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  oc.  mgtier. 


BITUMINOUS 


Fob.  N.  T.  Harbor 

$3.63 

3.65 

3.65 


Mine 

82.00 

2.00 

2.00 


Pennsylvania     

Maryland     ■ 

West  Virginia    (short   rate) 

Based  on  Government  price  of  82  per  ton  at  mine. 
>The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethnort.  Port  Johnson.  Port  Reading. 
Perth  Amboy  and  South  Amboy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty 
Hoboken  Weehawken.  Edgewater  or.Cliflside  and  Guttenberg  St.  Georg.e 
s  in  between  and  sometimes  a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bitumj- 
nous  is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  3e.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 


^ Line- 
Jan.  3.  1918 
Buckwheat...    $3.15-3.75 

Rice     2.6.5-3.6J 

Boiler    2.45-2.85 

Barley   2.1J-3.40 

Pea    3.75 

Culm    


-Tide- 


1  Yr.  Ago 
2.00 
1.35 
1.10 
1.00 
3.80 


Jan.  3.  1918 
$3.75 
3.65 
•3.53 
2.40 
4.65 


— V  Independent 

1  Yr.  Ago  One  Year  Ago 

82.90  $4.15 

2.15  3.35 

3.00  .... 

1.90  2.33 

3.70  

1.23 


Chicago — Steam    coal    prices    f.o.b.    mines: 

Illinois  Coals  Southern  Illinois        Northern   Illinois 

P,-pna red    sizes  82.65—2.80  S.Sin- 3,25 

Piepareo  sizes    «■„       .-,  g- — ,,  (,q 

Mine-run     .-\fi'     ^ZZ  S  Kn     -^  --, 

Screenings     2.1o— 2..30  _.60— .. ,  j 

So  Illinois.  Pocahontas.  Hocking. 

Pennsylvania  East  Kentucky  and 

Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia      West  Virginia  Splint 

^^-- ;::::;:   *l:IS=ilS  'I'^^M 

Sc\°en?ngs  •.-.•.■    .:.■.■.. 2.10-2.30  2.10-2.30 

St.  Louis — Prices  pet  net  ton  f.o.b.   mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared' with  today  are  as  follows : 

Williamson  and                     Mt.  Olive  „.      ,     j 

Franklin  Counties  and  Staunton         , Standard , 

Jan  3             One  Jan.  3.             One  Jan.  3.          One 

1918        Year  Ago        1918        Y'ear  Ago  1918       Year  Aso 

6-in.    lump..S2.65-3.80      83.50     $2.63-2.80     $3.50  S2«}-:^|;'        M-^O 

"in      Inmti       "  65-'^  80          ...  2.6)-2.80        ....  3.6)-2.80           3.o0 

Steam   eg'        3'65-2'80        .3..56  3.65-2.80        3,30  3.63-2.80          3.50 

MinTrun           2  40-2  35        3.50  2.40-2.55        3.50  2.40-2.55          3.50 

No    1  nut"    265-3'80        3.50  2.65-3.80        3.30  3.65-2.80          3..50 

:3-ta.    s??<Ln.  3;i5-2.30       3,50       'IV^-H^n       ^'^^       §1^30         ^"^^ 
No.  Swashed  2.15-2.30       3.2.)       2.1o-2..30       ....        2.1o-2.30 

Williamson-Franklin  rate  St.  Louis.  87V2C.:  other  rates,  72  Vic. 

per   net   ton    fob.    mines    are   as 


Lump  and  Nut 
S2.15 
2.40 
2.65 


Slack  and  Screenines 

$1.63 

1.90 

2.10 


Birmingham — Current,    prices 

follows :  ,.      „ 

Mine-Run 

Big  Seam   $1.90 

Pratt.  Jagger.  Corona.  .  .  .         2.1o 
Black  Creek.   Cahaba    .  .  .        2.40 

Government  figures. 

"Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irresoective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
penerally  the  same  al  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  fixed  according 
to  a  regular  schedule. 


Colo.,  galida — The  Colorado  Power  Co.  plans  to  double  the 
capacity  of  its  local  steam  plant  in  order  to  supply  the  Rawley 
mine  with  electricity.     W.   E.   Robertson,  Mgr. 

Ga.,  Atlanta — City  plans  to  install  an  electric  generating  plant 
at  the  city  incinerating  station.     A.  Turner,  City  Electrician. 

Idaho,  Shelley — City  plans  to  install  an  electric-lighting  system. 

111.,   Joliet — The   Chicago    &   Joliet    Electric  Ry.    Co.    plans   to 

build  2  substations,  1  at  Osgood  and  St.  Louis  Stj.  and  the  othir 

at  Delwood  Park.     Estimated  cost,  $50,000.     J.  R.  BlackhaU.,  Gen. 
Mgr. 

Iowa,  Marshalltown — The  City  Council  plans  to  build  a  new 
electric-lighting  plant  and  install  new  machinery  and  equip.iient. 
W.  H.  Steiner,  Engr. 

Kan.,  Burns — City  plans  to  install  an  electric-lighting  plant. 
Estimated  cost,    $10,000,      C.   A.   Beebe,   City  Clk. 

Md.,  Mt.  Savage — The  United  Big  Vein  Coal  Co.  plans  to  install 
electrical  mining  machinery  and  completely  electrify  its  plant. 

N.  J.,  HightBtown — Grover  Bros  .  Broad  St..  plans  to  install 
an  electric-lighting  plant  in  connection  with  its  works. 

N.  T.,  New  York — (Borough  of  Brooklyn) — The  Transit  Devel- 
opment Co.,  subsidiary  of  the  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Co  ,  hss 
had  plans  prepared  for  the  erect'on  of  an  addition  to  it'^  generat- 
ing power  station  on  Kent  and  Div's'.on  Ave.  Estimated  cost. 
$500,000.     H.  A.  Robbins,  85  Clinton  St.,  Supt.  of  Power. 

Ohio,  Cleveland — City  is  having  plans  prepared  by  F,  H.  Betz, 
Arch..  Citv  Hall,  for  the  erection  of  a  4-story,  80  x  250-ft.  addi- 
tion to  its  electric-lighting  plant  on  53rd  St.  Estimated  cost, 
$1,750,000.      Noted  Sept.    25. 

Oh:o,  Cleveland — The  New  Tork  Central  R  R.  p'ans  to  bu'li 
a  40  X  79-ft.  power  house  and  install  new  electrical  equipment, 
generators,  motors,  etc.,  here.  J.  W.  Kittredge,  New  Tork  City, 
Ch.  Engr. 

Okla..  Durant — The  Consumers'  Light  and  Power  Co.  plans  to 
rebuild  and  equip  its  electric-lighting  plant  which  was  damag-d 
by  fire.  W.  H.  VFilliams,   Engr. 

Okla.,  Miami — The  Bilharz  Mining  Co.  plans  to  build  a  cen- 
tral electric  generating  plant  to  supply  power  for  plants  1.  2 
and   3. 

Ont  Perth — The  Hvdro-Electric  Commission  p'ans  to  build 
a  2G,406-volt  transmission  line  between  Perth  and   Smith's  FalU. 

Ont.  Wiarton — The  Hydro-Klectnc  Power  Co.,  Ontario,  is 
having  plans  prepared  for  an  electric-light  and  power  plant  to  be 
erected  here. 

Ont.  Windsor — The  City  Conim's^iioners  plan  to  install  2  new 
electrically  driven  pumps  in   its  pumping  plant. 

Penn.  Coaldale — The  Panther  Creek  Valley  Hospital  is  having 
pla-s  prepared  by  L.  Stockton,  Arch..  35  West  39th  St.,  New-  'i  o:k 
City    for  the  erection  of  a  1-story  power  house.     Estimated  cost, 

$8000. 

Que.  Vallevfleld— The  Montreal  Cotton  Co.  plans  to  rebuild 
its  power  plant  which  was  recently  destroyed  by  fire.  Lo.:s. 
$100,000. 

S    D      Fresho O    E.   Helgerson  has  been   granted  a  franchise 

for  the  'installation  of  an  electric-lighting  system. 

Tex  Marfa— The  Marfa  Electric  and  Ice  Co.  plans  to  install 
additional  machinery  in  its  electric-lighting  and  power  p.ant. 

Wash..  Glacier— The  Lone  Jack  Milling  Co.  P'ans  to  i:f  aU  a. 
power  plant  at  its  works  on  Silesia  Creek.    Estimated  cost,  $20,000. 

Wash      Seattle The  Puget  Sound  Machinery   Depot   is  having 

pla"s  prepared  fSTtheefecUon  of  a  160  x  240-ft.   boiler  shop  and 
will   install   new  machinery  and  equipment  in  same. 

W  Va.  Ansted— The  Mill  Creek  Colliery  Co.  plans  to  rebuild 
its  piwer' plant  which  was  recently  destroyed  by  fire.  Loss. 
$40,000. 

Wis.,  Kaukauna- The  Kaukauna  Electric  Light  Co.  PlajL^  t° 
extend  its  transmis.sion  line  to  Falr^^ew  Height.s.  ^V .  B.  Mont- 
gomery,   Mgr. 


1^ 


POWER 


iiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 
Vol.  47  NEW  YORK,  JANUARY  15,  1918  No.  3 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininiiinniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiNiiiii^^ 


j^znvjCxjEY' 


IN  THESE  DAYS  of  high  excitement,  when  all  eyes  are    on  our 
fleet, 
And  much  homage  on  our  sailors  we  bestow. 
Let  us  not  forget  to  honor  and  to  give  due  share  of  praise 
To  the  boys  who  swing  the  shovels  down  below. 

1  HEIR  DEEDS  may  lack  the  glitter  of  the  men  above  the  deck. 

As  they  toil  and  sweat  deep  down  within  the  hold, 
But  their  courage  is  as  noble  and  their  service  is  as  great. 
Though  the  valor  which  they  show  is  seldom  told. 

They  do  not  shoot  torpedoes  and  they  do  not  work  the  guns. 
But  they  fit  as  much  into  the  general  scheme, 

For  you  cannot  fight  a  battle  and  you  cannot  chase  the  foe 
Unless  you  have  a  good  supply  of  steam. 

VV  HILE,  ABOVE,  the  battle  rages,  you  will  find  them  on  the  job, 

Sweating  blood  and  grimly  hanging  to  their  task; 
And  if  the  good  ship  founders,  then  their  hope  of  life  is  small. 
But  the  chance  to  serve  their  country's  all  they  ask. 

OO  IN  VICTORY  or  disaster  give  these  boys  their  honor  due, 
Count  them  heroes  in  a  land  where  heroes  grow ; 

And  remember  that  our  Navy  has  no  braver  names  enrolled 
Than  the  boys  who  swing  the  shovels  down  below. 


Htn  u    u 


uuniuu  H  mmm 


74 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


Multi-Stage  Compression  Plant  of  Central 

Cold  Storage  Co. 


Modern  two-unit  ammonia  plant  of  500  tons  re- 
frigerating capacity  employs  neiv  D.  I.  Davis 
system  of  multi-stage  compression  icifh  cooling 
of  vapor  betiveen  stages.  It  is  expected  to  save  in 
power  25  per  cent,  over  the  standard  simple  com- 
pressor and  to  develop  one  ton  of  refrigeration  on 
less  than  25  lb.  of  steam  per  hour. 

FOR  low-temperature  work  where  brine  tempera- 
tures running  below  zero  are  required,  the  stand- 
ard compression  plant  has  not  been  looked  upon 
with  favor.  Boosters  have  been  employed  to  increase 
the  capacity  of  the  compressor,  but  more  often  this  class 
of  work  has  been  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  absorp- 


For  example,  with  a  suction  pressure  of  zero,  one  pound 
of  ammonia  would  occupy  about  17.6  cu.ft. ;  with  a  30- 
Ib.  suction  pressure,  only  4.5  cu.ft.  For  these  reasons 
the  standard  single-cylinder  compressor  was  both  un- 
economical and  expensive  for  low  temperatures. 

In  the  development  of  the  compression  system'  devised 
by  D.  I.  Davis,  of  Chicago,  and  perfected  commercially 
by  the  Vilter  Manufacturing  Co.,  the  above  objections 
have  been  eliminated  and  extremely  low  temperatures 
can  be  economically  produced.  The  outstanding  features 
of  the  new  sy.stem  are  multi-stage  compressors  and  the 
cooling  of  the  vapor  between  stages  by  the  refrigerant 
to  a  temperature  corresponding  to  the  saturation  point 
for  the  intermediate  pressure.  The  use  of  two  cylinders 
decreases  the  temperature  range  per  cylinder  with  the 
attending  advantages,  and  reduces  the  heat  of  compres- 


■^*sto.^.'ia 

■■**'*i*i-«^. 

k 

.-  .ateiii^  .^^- .  7^i:fe:iaj  m. 

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4."-        rpf^       .     ;%'-- 

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;    '                     "^,     ^    «fc    '   ^        ^^^^--'^                           ;^ 

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KIG     1.      STE.'XM    l':i\'L)    UF    ONK    OF    THE    i5n-T(  iN    ( •(  ).\IPRRS.S()11.S 


tion  plant.  The  poor  economy  of  the  compression  sys- 
tem in  this  work  is  due  to  several  factors,  developing 
\s  a  direct  result  of  the  low  suction  pressures  cor- 
responding to. the  low  temperatures  in  the  refrigerator. 
As  the  suction  pressure  is  reduced,  there  is  a  rapid 
falling  off  in  the  capacity  of  the  compressor  without 
a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  power  required.  At 
lower  suction  pressures  the  ammonia  vapor  occupies 
more   space   and   the   volumetric    efficiency    is   reduced. 


sion.  The  cooling  between  stage.s  permits  of  making  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  smaller  and  keeps  down  the  tem- 
perature of  the  discharge  to  the  condenser. 

A  two-unit  500-ton  plant  of  this  type  has  been  in- 
stalled recently  by  the  Central  Cold  Storage  Co.,  Dear- 
born and  Kinzie  Sts.,  Chicago.  The  building  is  a  14- 
story  structure  of  steel  and  reinforced  concrete  faced 
with   brick.      It   is   adjacent   to  the    Chicago   &   North 


'See  "Power."    Dec.   19,   IHlfi.  p.   844. 


.lamiarv   15.  1918 


POWER 


75 


Western  R.R.  tracks,  has  excellent  facilities  for  teamins? 
and  is  a  short  distance  from  the  Chicajio  River,  from 
which  feed  water  for  the  boilers  and  condenser  coolinj? 
water  is  obtained.  The  building  contains  over  9  acres 
of  floor  area  and  3,500,000  cu.ft.  of  cold  storage. 

The  first  floor  is  given  over  to  receiving  and  shipping. 
Cooling  rooms  in  which  the  temperature  i-anges  from 
30  to  40  deg.,  depending  upo!i  the  product  stored,  occupy 
the  second  to  the  eighth  floors  inclusive,  and  from  the 
ninth  to  the  fourteenth  floors  are  freezers  with  tem- 
peratures of  10  deg.  below  zero  maintained  by  brine  cir- 
culated at  temperatures  ranging  from  18  to  22  deg. 
below  zero. 

The  building  has  a  total  of  .39  refrigerated  rooms. 
It    is    divided    into    six    independent    sections    and    is 


The  first  layer  of  cork  was  bonded  to  the  brick  surfaces 
of  the  walls  by  a  i-in.  bed  of  portland-cement  mortar. 
The  second  layer  of  cork  was  then  erected  against  the 
first  in  a  bed  of  hot  asphalt  and  held  in  place  by  hickory 
dowel  pins.  All  joints  of  the  second  course  were  broken, 
with  respect  to  those  of  the  first,  and  sealed  with  hot 
asphalt.  All  exposed  surfaces  throughout  the  building 
were  finished  with  two  coats  of  portland-cement  plaster 
to  a  thickness  of  i;  inch. 

All  exposed  wall  areas  from  the  second  to  the  ninth 
stories  were  insulated  with  5  in.  of  cork  and  wall  sur- 
faces abutting  adjoining  buildings  with  4  in.  of  cork. 
From  the  ninth  story  to  the  roof  where  the  freezers  are 
located,  6  in.  of  cork,  composed  of  two  layers  of  3  in. 
each,  is  used.     Two  partitions  running  from  the  second 


-ZSSM 


PIG.    2.      L,AYC)liT   iiV   lOQUIPMENT,   CIONTK.AI.   I'OlJi   STOR.\GE  CO..  CHICAGO.   WAu. 


equipped  with  60  miles  of  2-in.  piping  for  circulating 
the  brine.  In  each  room  the  coils  are  divided  into  sec- 
tions, and  only  as  many  sections  as  are  needed  to  give 
the  desired  temperature  are  used.  Temperature  regula- 
tion is  effected  in  this  way  rather  than  by  varying  the 
temperature  or  circulation  of  the  brine. 

To  insulate  the  building  required  more  than  1,500,000 
board  feet  of  corkboard.  The  insulation  runs  continu- 
ously from  the  second  floor  to  the  top  of  the  roof  slab. 


floor  to  the  roof  and  dividing  the  building  into  three  dis- 
tinct sections,  also  have  6  in.  of  cork.  The  entire  sec- 
ond floor  was  insulated  with  4  in.  of  cork  in  two  layers, 
and  the  third-floor  ceilin.g  over  the  offices  and  display 
rooms  has  5  in.  of  cork  insulation  laid  in  concrete  forms 
and  suspended  from  the  under-ceiling  slab.  The  ninth 
floor  is  insulated  also  with  5  in.  of  cork  in  3-in.  and 
2-in.  layers  laid  in  concrete  forms,  bound  together  with 
\   in.  of  Portland  cement  and  adhered  to  the  concrete 


76 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  3 


slab  when  it  was  originally  poured.  The  roof  area  was 
insulated  with  two  layer.s  of  corkboard.  one  4-in.  and 
one  3-in.,  laid  in  hot  asphalt  and  covered  with  seven-ply 
built-up  roofing.  The  building  columns  from  the  foot- 
ings in  the  sub-basement  to  the  third-floor  slab.s  are  cov- 
ered with  two  2-in.  layers  of  cork.  Forms  were  then 
placed  around  the  insulated  steel  columns  and  a  layer 
of  concrete  poured  over  the  cork. 

In  the  sub-basement  of  the  building  is  the  refrigerat- 
ing plant,  the  general  layout,  with  the  exception  of  the 


■ 

X. 

■'■. 

FIG.    3.      DOUBLE-PIPR    CONDENSERS 

boiler  room,  being  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  compressors 
are  of  the  double-acting  cross-compound  type.  The  low- 
pressure  cylinder,  or  the  first  stage  of  the  compressor, 
is  28-in.  diameter  by  48-in.  stroke,  while  the  diameter 
of  the  high-pressure  cylinder  is  20-1  in.  The  compressor 
is  directly  connected  to  a  cross-compound  condensing  en- 
gine, 20  and  42  by  48  in.,  the  high-pressure  cylinder 
being  of  the  poppet-valve  type  designed  for  superheated 
steam  and  the  low-pressure  cylinder  equipped  with 
standard  Corliss  valve  gear.  The  speed  is  60  r.p.m. 
The  flywheel  is  18  ft.  diameter  and  weighs  approximate- 
ly 28,000  lb.,  as  compared  to  300,000  lb.  for  the  entire 
unit.  The  floor  space  occupied  by  each  unit  is  approxi- 
mately 18  X  46  ==  828  s(i.ft.,  or  3.3  sci.ft.  per  ton  of 
refrigerating  capacity. 

Both  compressors  and  engines  are  equipped  with  a 
central  oiling  system  with  telescopic  oilers  on  crank  and 
crosshead  pins  and  sight  feeds  on  other  bearings.  The 
oil  is  supplied  by  gravity  from  an  overhead  tank.  The 
.surplus  from  the  bearings  is  drained  to  a  tank  below 
the  floor  level  and  pumped  back  through  a  filter  to  the 
overhead  tank.  There  are  also  force-feed  pumps  for 
cylinder  lubrication  and  sight-feed  oilers  for  the  ex- 
haust-valve levers  of  the  high-pressure  steam  cylinders. 

The  steam  end  of  each  unit  is  supplied  with  a  baro- 
metric condenser,  giving  about  271  in.  of  vacuum,  and 
the  compressor  end  has  a  double-pipe  ammonia  con- 
denser. The  latter  has  12  sections  12  pipes  high,  made 
up  of  2-  and  11 -in.  pipes  20  ft.  6;':  in.  long.  The  con- 
denser is  divided  to  give  satisfactory  distribution  of 
the  water,  which  is  drawn  from  the  river  by  any  one 
of  three  circulating  pumps.  Two  are  centrifugal  pumps, 
one  for  each  unit,  each  having  a  capacity  of  1000  gal. 
per  min.  and  driven  by  a  40-hp.  motor,  while  the  third 
is  a  direct-acting  16  and  20  by  20-in.  simplex  steam 
pump.  Under  normal  conditions,  each  condenser  re- 
quires about  635  gal.  of  water  per  minute.  After  the 
water  has  passed  through  the  ammonia  condensers,  part 


of  it  passes  to  a  large  tank  between  the  second  and  third 
floors  for  boiler  feeding  and  the  balance  through  the 
barometric  condensers  back  to  the  river. 

Calcium-chloride  brine  of  density  1.260  is  used.  Its 
temperature  is  lowered  to  22  deg.  F.  below  zero  in  four 
brine  coolers  of  the  horizontal  shell  type,  two  being  pro- 
vided for  each  compressor.  Each  cooler  has  twelve  sec- 
tions and  a  capacity  to  care  for  150  tons  of  refrigera- 
;i  n  The  brine  is  circulated  through  the  house  and 
discharged  into  an  open  tank  on  the  top  floor,  returning 
thence  to  the  pumps  and  again  passing  through  the 
same  cycle.  The  system  is  thus  practically  balanced, 
with  only  a  20-lb.  friction  head  to  overcome.  In  type, 
capacity  and  number,  the  brine  pumps  are  the  same  as 
those  used  to  circulate  the  condenser  water,  with  the 
exception  that  the  centrifugals  are  driven  by  30~hp. 
motors. 

Steam  is  supplied  to  the  plant  by  two  400-hp.  Stirling 
boilers  generating  steam  at  175  lb.  pressure  and  103,deg. 
superheat.  The  boilers  are  served  by  chain  grates  and 
natural  draft  is  supplied  by  a  steel  stack  6  ft.  4  in. 
diameter  and  195  ft.  4  in.  high  above  the  boiler-room 
floor.  Coal  comes  in  on  the  railway  tracks  serving  the 
building  and  is  dumped  directly  into  the  coal  bunker 
underneath  and  is  wheeled  to  the  boilers.  From  pits 
under  the  stokers  the  ashes  are  shoveled  into  the  boot 
of  a  bucket  elevator  discharging  into  a  concrete  tank 
on  the  second  floor,  with  a  chute  leading  to  the  railway 
cars. 

As  previously  stated,  feed  water  comes  originally  from 
the  river,  first  passing  through  the  ammonia  condenser. 


FIG.    4.      BRINE   AND    W.\TER    CIRCULATING    PUMPS 

then  to  a  large  storage  tank  and  finally  under  float  con- 
trol to  an  800-hp.  open  heater.  Duplicate  simplex  feed 
pumps,  10  and  6  by  12  in.  take  the  water  from  the 
heater  and  feed  it  to  the  boilers.  At  each  boiler  is  a 
manifold,  from  which  the  feed  may  be  supplied  to  the 
boiler  through  a  :J-,  1-  or  ll-in.  valve,  the  choice  of 
valve  depending  upon  the  rate  at  which  the  boiler  is 
being  driven.  In  this  way  the  demand  for  water  can 
be  followed  closely  and  the  pump  maintained  in  con- 
stant operation,  with  little  need  for  regulation. 


January  15.  1918 


POWER 


77 


To  supply  electric  lijjrht  and  power  to  the  six  electric 
elevators  serving  the  huildin.u:  and  to  the  motors  driving 
the  pumps,  fans  and  ash  hoist,  two  100-kw.  direct-cur- 
rent generating  units  have  been  installed.  The  am- 
monia-compressor engines  are  of  the  uniflow  type,  15  x 
17  in.  At  the  time  of  the  writer's  visit,  one  of  the 
barometric  condensers  was  serving  a  compressor  en- 
gine and  the  two  lighting  units.  The  vacuum  approxi- 
mated 27'   in.     The  generators  are  directly  connected 


to  the  high-preasure  cylinder  and  is  further  compressed 
to  a  condenser  pressure  of  165  lb.  It  is  necessary  to  cool 
the  liquid  ammonia  coming  from  the  conden.ser  to  a 
temperature  corresponding  to  its  evaporation  point  be- 
fore it  can  do  useful  work.  Instead  of  doing  all  thi.s 
in  the  refrigerator,  or  in  this  case  the  brine  coolers, 
the  liquid  is  passed  through  the  liquid  ammonia  cooler, 
previously  referred  to,  located  between  the  condensers 
and  the  brine  coolers.     Ammonia  from  the  liquid  re- 


PlG.  5. 


CENTRIFUGAL   BRINE  PUMPS   AND 
BRINE  COOLERS 


FIG.   6. 


ONE  OP  THE   100-KW.    ELECTRIC 
GBNERATI.NG   SETS 


and  are  rated  to  deliver  400  amp.  at  240  volts.  The 
load  runs  as  high  as  700  amp.,  so  that  the  two  units  are 
frequently  required. 

Having  reviewed  the  equipment  of  the  plant,  the  am- 
monia^ cycle  may  be  followed  more  clearly.  Ammonia 
vapor,  from  the  brine  coolers  is  drawn  to  the  low-pres- 
sure cylinder  of  the  compressor  at  a  pressure  of  1  to  4 
lb.  From  the  low-pressure  cylinder  it  is  passed  to  an 
intermediate  drum  having  a  pressure  of  25  to  30  lb. 
The  vapor  heated  by  this  compression  is  cooled  by  wet 
vapor  coming  from  a  liquid  cooler  located  between  the 
condensers  and  the  brine  coolers.  There  is  also  means 
of  introducing  liquid  ammonia  into  this  drum  if  re- 
quired and  a  trap  to  return  excess  liquid  to  the  liquid 
cooler.  The  vapor  cooled  to  the  temperature  correspond- 
ing to  the  saturated  point  at  this  pressure  then  passes 


ceiver  at  the  condenser  is  expanded  into  the  cooler  and 
is  returned  to  the  high-pressure  cylinder  through  the 
intermediate  drum  as  previously  explained.  Coming 
from  the  condenser  the  liquid  ammonia  has  a  tempera- 
ture of  90  deg.  F.,  and  when  leaving  the  heat  exchanger 
or  liquid  cooler,  its  temperature  is  reduced  to  17.5  deg. 
F.  This  drop  in  temperature  of  72.5  deg.  is  effected 
with  a  suction  pressure  of  25  to  30  lb.  instead  of  the 
1  to  4  lb.  for  the  low-pressure  cylinder.  In  the  brine 
coolers  the  liquid  must  be  cooled  to  its  evaporating  tem- 
perature, a  comparatively  small  range.  It  is  apparent 
that  considerably  less  vapor  than  in  the  usual'  compres- 
sion system  must  be  handled  by  the  low-pressure  cylin- 
der. It  can  therefore  be  made  smaller  and  the  power 
required  per  ton  of  refrigeration  will  be  less. 

Unfortunately,  no  complete  te.st  data  are  as  yet  avail- 


PHINCIPAL  EQUIPMKNT  OF  CENTRAL  COLD-STORAGE   REFRIGERATING   PLANT 


No.   Equipment  Kimi 

2  Conprpssors.     Two-ytage  . 
2  Engine.s Cross-oomiDovind  . 

2  Condensers..     Barometric. 


2  Pumps .  - 
2. Condensers. 


Vaeuuni 
Double-pipe. 


4,  .Brine  coolers.   Shell-type. . 
2  Punips Centrifugal. 


Simplex.  . . . 
Centrifugal. 


1  Pump 

2  PunipK 


1  Pump Simplex 

2  Engines.  .. ...   Uniflow. 

2  Generators. .      Direet-eurrent . 


2  Boilers     .  Stirling   . . 

2  Stokers ....  Chain-grate . 

2  Superheaters .  B.  &  W 

1  Stack     Steel,  lined. . 


Size  Use 

20ix28x48-in,   Compress  ammonia  vapor. 
20x42x48-in...   Drive  compressors 


9,00011).  steam 

per  hr 

6ixl0xl2-in... 
1 2  sections,  12 

high 

1  50  tons  ref . . 
1.000  gal.  per 

niin 

16x20x20-in... 
1,000  gal.  per 

min 

16x20x20-iii... 
I5xl7-in,  ,  . 
100  kw    .. 

400  li)i, 
80s(|,fl 


Serve  compressor  engines- 
Serve  steam  condensers 

Serve  ammonia  cplnpressurs 
Codl  bi'iHc  ■  .    -  -  ' 


Circulate  brine. 
Circulate  brine. 


Operating  Conditions 
Suction  press..  I  to  481b.:  discharge.  165  lb  . 
Steam  press..  173  lb.,    103  deg.  superheat,   60 
r.p.ni.  

27-  in.  vacuum 


165  lb.  pressure 

Oulgoing  temp..  22  deg.,  incoming,  16deg. 


Driven  by  30-hp.  Croeker-Whccicr  D.C.  m()tor. 


2  Pumps   Simplex. 

1  Heater ......   Open ... . 

1  Pump Simplex. 

1  Pump ,  .   Simplex . 


6     ft.     4 
diatn,,     195 
ft.  hiiih ,    , 

10x6xl2-in   . 

800  h]) 

7\41xl0-in. 

4x4.\8-iri .... 


River  Water  to  \m.  eond 
Rivei- wiiter  to  Am.  coiul 
Drive  generators. . . 
Generate  electric  current 

Generate  steam 

Serve  boilers 
Serve  boilers 


Driven  by  40-hp.  Crocker-Wheeler  D.C.  motor 


Serve  boilers 
Boih-r  feed      .... 

Heat  feed  water 

House  pump   .  .      . 
Vaeuuni  pump  for  office  heat- 
ing       


Condensing,  200  r.p.m    

240-voll,;,  400 amp.,  200 r.p.m 

175  1b  ()ress  .  I  0}  ilcg.  superheat 

101  (leg.  superheat 


ICxhaust  steam  from  auxiliaries 


Maker 
Viher  Mfg.  Co. 

Viltcr  .Mfg.  Co. 

Vilter  Mfg.  Co. 
Union  Steam  Pump  Co. 

Vilter  .Mfg.  Co. 
Vilter  Mfg.  Co. 

.\.  S.  Cameron  Steam  Pump  \V^.rk> 
.\merican  Steam  Pump  Co. 

A.  S.  Cameron  Steam  Pump  Work> 
American  Steam  Pump  Co 
Chuse  Engine' &  Mf? Co 
(Western    l^lec'ric)    (Jeneral    Elee- 

Iric  Co. 
Rabcock  i  WileoxCo, 
liabcoek  &  Wilcox  Co, 
Babcoek  &  Wileox  Co. 


.\mei'icnn  Bridge  Co 
.\tiieiican  Steam  Pump  Works 
Plat  I  Iron  Works 
.\merican  Steam  Pump  Works 

.American  Steam  Pump  Works 


Insulation.  "Crescent"  enrkboard  installed  by  United  Cork  Conipanifs:  Nugent  Central  oiling  system  and  filler  for  compressor  units:  Riehardson-Phenix  force- 
feed  lubricators  for  e.vlinders;  Powell  sight-feed  lubrieattirs  for  exhaust  valve  levers  (»f  high-i)rcssure  steam  cylindi  rs;  Ilills-McCanna  force-feed  lubricators  for  uniflow 
cylinders;  .Jenkins  steam  valves;  .Jenkins  water  valves;  New  Bedforrl  stop  and  check  valves:  Gato  blow-olT  v,alves;  Crosby  safety  valves;  ,\mcrican  steam  traps; 
Vilter  refrigerating  valves  and  piping. 


78 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


able.  For  three  months  previous  to  the  present  writing 
the  plant  had  been  in  operation,  carrying  at  least  3,- 
000,000  cu.ft.  of  storage  space.  This  load  has  never  re- 
quired more  than  one  machine,  and  the  usual  practice  is 
to  run  this  one  machine  about  16  hours  out  of  the  24. 
If  the  compressor  is  developing  its  rated  capacity,  12,000 
cu.ft.  of  space  is  being  refrigerated  per  ton  of  refrigera- 
tion, with  the  compressor  running  two-thirds  of  the  time 
and  approximately  one-half  the  space  for  low-tempera- 
ture work,  10  deg.  below  zero  in  the  freezers  and  brine 
at  — 18  to  — 22  deg.  F.  The  temperature  of  the  re- 
turning brine  ranges  from  — 12  to  — 16  deg.  F.,  giving 
a  rise  of  6  deg.  F.  through  the  house.  The  average  daily 
coal  consumption  for  lighting,  power  and  refrigeration 
has  been  as  follows:  July,  12.2  tons;  August,  12  tons; 
September,  10  tons.  On  a  basis  of  11.4  tons  per  day, 
the  average  for  the  three  months,  950  lb.  of  coal  would 
be  burned  per  hour.     Of  this  it  is  estimated  that  240 


lb.  is  required  by  the  generating  units,  leaving  710  lb. 
of  coal  per  hour  for  the  compressors,  air  pumps  serving 
the  condensers  and  the  brine  and  water  circulating 
steam  pumps.  This  reduces  to  2.84  lb.  of  coal  per  hour 
per  ton  of  refrigeration,  or  with  an  evaporation  of  8  lb. 
of  water  per  pound  of  coal,  22.7  lb.  of  steam.  From 
previous  test  data  it  is  expected  that  the  steam  require- 
ment per  hour  per  ton  of  refrigeration  will  be  held  close 
to  20  pounds. 

While  the  figures  given  are  only  approximate,  it  is 
evident  that  exceptional  efficiency  is  being  obtained  not 
only  from  the  refrigerating  plant,  but  from  the  insula- 
tion as  well.  Test  data,  to  be  available  soon,  will  be  re- 
ceived with  interest. 

D.  I.  Davis  and  Co.,  architects  and  engineers,  designed 
the  plant  and  the  refrigerating  equipment  was  installed 
by  the  Vilter  Manufacturing  Co.  L.  E.  Gibbons  is  chief 
engineer  in  charge  of  operation. 


Suspended  Templets  and  Their  Application 


By  TERRELL  CROFT 


Something  about  suspended  templets  for  use 
ivhere  large  foundations  are  to  be  constructed. 
Their  advantages  are  pointed  out,  and  various 
methods  of  suspending  them  are  shown. 

A  SUSPENDED  templet  may  be  defined  as  one  that 
is  supported  over  and  at  a  considerable  distance 
above  the  foundation  for  which  it  is  to  locate  the 
anchor-bolt  positions.  Fig.  1  gives  ■\  graphic  definition, 
wherein  A  is  the  suspended  templet  hung  from  the  roof- 
truss  chords  over  the  foundation  excavation  immediately 
below  it.  The  applications  for  which  suspended  templets 
are  desirable  are  those  where  a  very  large  foundation 
or  one  that  will  contain  a  considerable  number  of  anchor 
bolts  is  to  be  constructed.  A  templet  of  this  character 
may,  where  the  excavating  is  to  be  done  by,  and  the 
foundation  material  to  be  handled  with  cranes,  insure 
more  economical  construction.  The  reason  is  that  the 
templet  is  supported  in  such  a  position  that  the  move- 
ment of  the  material  will  not  displace  it  or  displace 
the  foundation-bolt  locations  which  it  determines.  Fur- 
thermore, it  cannot  be  displaced  by  careless  workmen 
or  by  material  dumped  from  the  cranes.  The  disad- 
vantage of  the  suspended  templet  is  that  it  is  more 
expensive  to  erect  than  is  one  which  is  supported  direct- 
ly over  and  by  the  forms  for  the  foundation. 

The  method  of  locating  anchor-bolt  positions  with 
a  suspended  templet  may  be  understood  by  a  considera- 
tion of  Fig.  1.  The  templet.  A,  has  a  small  hole  bored 
through  it  over  each  of  the  anchor-bolt  locations.  When 
it  is  desired  to  locate  an  anchor-bolt  position  in  the 
foundation  under  construction,  a  plumb-bob  is  fastened 
successively  to  each  of  the  cords  D,  which  are  dropped 
through  the  hole  in  the  templet  above;  thus  the  pocket 
B,  which  is  to  be  provided  under  each  anchor  bolt,  is 
located.  The  form  for  the  pocket  is  constructed  in 
its  proper  location  on  the  foundation  footing,  and  the 
anchor  plate,  if  it  is  to  be  built  into  the  foundation. 


•Copyrig-hted.   IIIIS,  liy  Terrell  Croft, 


is  placed  in  position.  The  forms  for  the  pockets  may 
be  of  either  brick  or  wood.  Each  anchor  plate  is 
centered  on  the  top  of  the  pocket  under  the  plumb-bob 
E  suspended  from  above. 

The  forms  are  then  constructed  and  the  anchor-bolt 
casings  C  are  placed  to  provide  holes  through  the 
foundation  for  the  anchor  bolts.  The  anchor  bolts  are 
not  inserted  until  after  the  foundation  has  been  com- 
pleted and  the  machinery  which  is  to  be  mounted  on 
it  has  been  set  in  position.  The  anchor-bolt  casings 
are  supported  at  their  bottoms  by  the  anchor  plates  or 
by  the  upper  faces  of  the  pocket  forms.  At  its  top 
each  anchor-bolt  casing  is  braced  to  the  top  of  the 
foundation  form.  The  location  of  the  top  of  each  casing 
is,  after  it  has  been  erected,  checked  again  by  plumbing 
dovra  from  the  templet  above.  When  the  drop-lines 
from  the  templets  are  not  in  use,  they  are  tied  up  high 
enough  to  be  out  of  the  way.  When  the  crane  is  to 
be  used,  all  the  drop-lines  must,  of  course,  be  pulled 
clear  up  above  the  templet  so  that  they  will  not  interfere 
with  the  movement  of  the  crane.  The  plumb-bobs  on 
the  drop-lines  are  used  only  for  transferring  the  points 
down  from  the  templet  to  the  foundation  while  the 
forms  are  being  erected  and  to  check  the  accuracy  of 
the  locations  as  the  installation  progresses. 

In  constructing  templets  for  suspension,  practically 
the  same  methods  are  followed  as  are  used  in  assembling 
the  templet  for  any  large  foundation.  Ordinarily,  the 
templet  is  made  of  planed  l-'m.  planks  fastened  together 
with  screws.  It  is  first  laid  out  and  assembled  either 
completely  or  in  sections  in  the  carpenter  shop.  Then 
it  is  carried  to  the  building  where  it  is  to  be  suspended 
and  either  put  together  on  the  floor  to  form  a  com- 
plete unit  and  raised  to  its  position  under  the  roof 
trusses,  or  it  may  be  raised  in  sections  and  then  assem- 
bled on  the  timbers  provided  for  its  support  just  under 
the   roof-truss   bottom   chords. 

In  locating  the  templet  in  its  position  under  the 
roof-truss  chord,  the  principal  center  lines  are,  by 
means  of  a  transit,  transferred  from  some  reference 
point,  either  on  a  roof  truss,  side  wall  or  column,  to 


January  15,  1918 


FOWEK 


79 


FIGS.    1    TO    X,      AIM'I-ICATION    OF    SlTSPENDED   THMPLKTS 


80 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


the  templet  itself,  which  must  then  be  shifted  on  the 
timbers  which  hold  it  on  the  trusses  until  the  templet 
has  been  accurately  located  in  its  position.  A  transit 
should  be  used,  as  just  described,  to  center  the  templet 
both  longitudinally  and  transversely.  At  the  same  time 
the  principal  center  lines  should  be  marked  on  some 
permanent  member,  such  as  a  roof  truss  or  wall,  near 
the  suspended  templet  so  that  the  position  of  the  sus- 
pended templet  can,  in  the  future,  be  checked  for  ac- 
curacy if  necessary. 

How  templets  are  supported  from  the  roof  trusses 
is  shown  in  Figs.  2,  3,  4  and  5.  The  planks  upon  which 
the  templet  rests  (Fig.  3)  are  called  templet-supporting- 
timbers.  These  have  been  shown  shaded  in  the  diagram 
of  Fig.  2  so  that  they  may  readily  be  distinguished  from 
the  templet  itself.  These  timbers  are  hung  from  the 
roof  truss  chords  (Figs.  3,  4  and  5)  and  are  braced 
in  all  directions  so  that  they  cannot  shift  after  the 
templet  has  once  been  located  in  position  and  pinned  to 
them  with  nails.  For  hangers,  either  portions  of 
planks,  bolts  or  iron  rods  threaded  cm  both  ends  may  be 
used. 

Wooden  hangers  for  templet-supporting  timbers  are 
assembled  so  that  they  form  a  yoke  or  tie  over  the  roof- 
truss  lower  chords,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  assembly 
of  Fig.  3  shows  a  templet-supporting  timber  sustained 
from  each  of  two  truss  chords  with  wooden  hangers. 
The  braces  provided  to  prevent  longitudinal  movement 
are   also   indicated   in  this   illustration. 

Hanger  Bolts  for  Supporting  Timbers 

Bolt  hangers  for  templet-supporting  timbers  may  be 
employed  as  detailed  in  Fig.  5.  The  bolts  thus  used 
are  available  for  other  services  after  the  foundation 
has  been  completed;  !;-in.  rods  threaded  and  provided 
with  nuts  on  both  ends  constitute  good  tension  rods  for 
fhis  service.  Where  hanger  bolts  are  employed,  two 
sticks  with  wooden  separators  between  them  are  used 
to  make  up  each  girder.  The  bolt  then  passes  through 
the  space  between  the  two  timbers.  A  thorough  system 
of  bracing  must  be  used  to  prevent  any  possibility  of 
the  shifting  of  the  templet-supporting  timbers.  In 
Fig.  5  the  position  which  the  templet  would  occupy 
has  been  shown  by  dotted  lines. 

The  best  material  for  the  drop-lines  is  a  medium- 
weight  linen  fishline.  Brown  manila  twine  is  probably 
next  best.  Ordinaiy  white  cotton  twine  is  not  satis- 
factory because  it  is  not  sufficiently  strong. 

The  method  of  attaching  the  drop-lines  to  the  templet 
is  detailed  in  Fig.  6.  F  is  a  hole  .[[f  or  i  in.  diameter 
through  which  the  drop-  or  plumb-line  is  passed  to  the 
foundation  below.  Into  the  templet  near  each  hole 
a  nail  G  is  driven,  to  which  the  upper  end  of  the 
plumb-line  can  be  tied. 

The  drop-lines  should  be  weighted  at  their  lower  ends 
to  prevent  them  from  becoming  tangled  with  one  an- 
other. Punched  washers  of  sheet  steel  constitute  ex- 
cellent weights  for  this  purpose.  A  washer  H  (Fig.  7) 
may  be  tied  on  the  lower  end  of  each  drop-line  /,  as 
shown.  The  washers  may  be  located  at  such  a  distance 
J  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  that  they  can  be 
readily  reached;  that  is,  it  is  not  necessary  or  desirable 
to  have  the  drop-line  extend  for  the  entire  distance  to 
the  bottom  of  the  foundation  excavation.  When  an 
anchor-bolt  location  is  to  be  determined,  the  plumb-bob 


line,  which  is  provided  with  a  hook  K  (Fig.  8),  can 
Be  hung  on  the  end  of  the  main  drop-line  until  the 
bolt  location  has  been  fixed.  Then  the  plumb-bob  line 
can  be  unhooked  and  carried  to  the  next  bolt  location. 

Safety-First  Knife  Switch 

In  all  places  employing  men  with  practically  no  knowl- 
edge of  electricity  and  its  attendant  risks,  an  absolutely 
safe  switch  has  become  a  necessity.  The  real  safe 
switch  is  one  so  constructed  that  all  live  parts  are  totally 
inclosed  and  inaccessible.  Means  should  also  be  pro- 
vided for  preventing  operation  by  unauthorized  persons. 

The  switch  shown  in  the  figures,  brought  out  by  the 
Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  East 
Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  meets  the  foregoing  conditions.  The 
complete  device  consists  of  an  ordinary  single-throw 
knife  switch  and  inclosed  fuse  holders  mounted  in  a 
cast-iron  box,  with  an  operating  handle  outside  the  hous- 
ing. The  box  is  designed  for  conduit  connection  and  has 
a  partition  separating  the  switch  blades  from  the  fuse 
holders. 

The  upper,  or  switch,  compartment  can  be  opened  only 
by  removing  two  machine  screws  and  should  be  opened 


CLOSED    AND    OPEN    VIEWS    OF    SWITCH 

only  when  making  connections  or  in  case  of  inspection 
or  repairs,  as  the  switch  is  opened  and  closed  by  the 
operating  handle,  from  the  outside. 

The  lower,  or  fuse,  compartment,  containing  the  fuses 
and  fuse  holders,  is  the  only  part  of  the  switch  that  need 
be  opened,  and  then  only  to  replace  blown  fuses.  The 
door  of  this  compartment  is  so  interlocked  with  the 
switch  that  it  can  be  opened  only  when  the  operating 
handle  is  in  the  off  position  and  the  circuit  broken. 
Furthermore,  with  the  door  of  this  compartment  open 
it  is  impossible  to  close  the  switch.  The  operating 
handle  can  also  be  locked  with  the  switch  in  the  open 
position,  preventing  tampering  by  unauthorized  persons. 


The  City  of  Philadelphia  has  the  distinction  of  hav- 
ing operated  the  first  steam-pumped  water  system  in  the 
United  States  and  also  of  operating  the  largest  pumping 
plant  in  the  world  at  present. 


January   15,  1918 


POWER 


81 


Kinks  Worth   Knowing 


THE  VERNIER  CALIPERS  AS  A  "DEPTH  GAGE  "      I    ^  THE  VERNIER  CALIPERS  AS  A  HEIGHT  GAGE 


i^ 


IT  WILL  REMOVE  THE  MOST  STUBBORN  GAGE  POINTER 


SAFETY  FIRST 


AN  EASILY-MADE  WRENCH  FOR  LARGE  PIPES 


82 


P  U  W  E  K 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


Selection  of  Coal  and  Ash  Conveyors 


In  selecting  the  equipment  one  slioidd  strike  the 
best  balance  of  operation,  maintenance,  invest- 
ment and  adaptability.  Roller  flight .  conveyor 
a  desirable  type.  Flights  over  2h  in.  should  have 
two  chain.'i.  Scraper  conveyors  limited  to  about 
300  ft.  length.  Relative  advantages  of  bucket 
and  belt  conveyors  arc  considered. 


^■"AHERE  are  four  items  which  should  control  the 
I  selection  of  coal-  and  ash-handling  equipment; 
A  namely,  co.st  of  operation,  maintenance,  interest 
on  the  investment  and  adaptability.  These  four  are 
the  constituent  of  the  "0-M-I-A"  formula,  which  should 
be  applied  in  all  cases  to  the  bidders'  competitive  de- 
signs, to  secure  a  well-balanced  plant.  A  saving  of 
several  hundred  dollars  a  year  on  power  may  warrant 
the  investment  in  a  more  elaborate  plant,  but  possibly 
this  is  offset  by  the  greater  depreciation  factor  or  by 
the  greater  cost  for  labor  required  to  operate  it.  All 
these  items  should  be  tabulated  and  a  careful  com- 
parison made  between  the  designs  offered.  The  writer 
knows  of  one  management  corporation  where  the 
financial  department  makes  the  final  selection  after  the 
engineers  have  secured  all  bids. 

The  benefits  accruing  through  the  installation  of 
coal-  and  ash-handling  equipment  are  many,  the  greatest 
probably  being  the  saving  effected  in  the  wages.     But 


By   H.   E.  birch 

structural  and   .Mechani' .il    Engineer.   Philadelphia.  Penn. 

at  a  loss  as  to  the  type  of  equipment  to  install;  and 

it  is  here  that  the  first  most  serious  mistakes  are  made. 

It  is  desirable  then,  at  this  stage,  to  get  the  un- 
prejudiced engineering  advice  of  a  coal-handling  expert, 
to  avoid  building  a  monument  of  carelessness  which  will 
be  costly  to  operate  and  maintain. 

Realizing  the  need  for  service  of  this  nature,  several 
firms  of  contracting  engineers  have  specialized  in  this 
branch,  and  at  least  one  of  them  further  attempts  to 
build  only  coal-  and  ash-handling  equipment  for  boiler 
and  gas  houses.  To  secure  the  most  efficient  plant  it 
is  often  necessary  to  combine  the  wares  of  several 
manufacturers,  but  to  successfully  accomplish  the  de- 
sired result  it  is  essential  that  the  builder  shall  know 


KIG.    1.      TR.\("K   roAL   IIOPPKP.   A.VD   CRUSHER 

this  is  not  the  only  feature.  There  is  the  greater 
freedom  from  labor  troubles,  and  the  ease  with  which 
machinery  can  be  managed,  as  compared  with  the  man- 
agement of  unskilled  workers.  The  unreliability  of  a 
large  force  of  poorly  paid  and  unskilled  passers  and 
ash  men  cannot  be  compared  with  the  reliability  of  a 
few  intelligent  workmen  operating  well-designed  and 
selected  equipment. 

Many   boiler   houses  have  been   equipped   with   coal- 
and  ash-handling  machinery,  but  many  a  man  is  often 


1  ?«t*.?,<*«l^''*n 


'>'//'//////ry///"/»/"y>"^/>w"'/f>"//'/">fw/"w/''»f»///'/^/' 
FIO.   L'.      BLEVATIXfi  POAT,  TO  THK  ("RUSHER 

thoroughly  the  uses  and  limitations  of  every  standard 
device  on  the  market.  The  result  one  is  .striving  for 
is  not  necessarily  the  lowest  first  cost,  but  the  proper 
balancing  of  the  four  factors — operation,  maintenance, 
investment  and  adaptability. 

There  are  two  general  ways  of  applying  coal-  and 
ash-handling  equipment  to  a  plant,  one  being  to  use 
one  device  for  conveying  both  the  coal  and  ashes,  the 
other  by  providing  separate  machines  for  each  duty. 

The  latter  method  is  commonly  referred  to  as  the 
divorced  system  and  is  in  use  in  nearly  all  the  large 
Eastern  power  plants.  The  handling  of  ashes  is  usually 
considered  as  the  severe.st  duty  that  any  conveyor  may 
perform.  The  machinery  must  resist  the  destructive 
effect  of  the  ashes  in  the  chain  joints,  which  cause 
rapid  deterioration,  and  resist  the  distortion  produced 
by  hot  ashes.  Granting  that  the  machine  must  be 
extra  heavy  and  expensive  to  accomplish  this  re.sult, 
it  is  unwise  to  use  it  for  handling  the  coal,  for  although 
the  ashes  handled  comprise  but  one-eighth  to  one-tenth 
of  the  total  volume  conveyed,  the  destructive  action 
of  the  grit  in  the  joints  is  in  effect  as  long  as  the 
machine  is  in  operation.  For  this  reason  chiefly  the 
large  stations  years  ago  made  the  coal-handling  ma- 
chinery independent  of  that  for  handling  ashes.  When 
independent,  one  does  not  interfere  with  the  operation 
of  the  other. 

Let  us  assume  the  ideal  condition  of  boiler-house 
location — that  is,  with  the  railroad  track  paralleling 
either  the  side  or  the  end  of  the  boiler  house — and 
divide  our  study  into  three  parts,  as  follows:  (1) 
Unloading  and  crushing  the  coal;  (2)  elevating  the 
coal   vertically;    (3)    conveying  the  coal   horizontally. 

With  the  railroad  track  on  the  ground,  a  receiving 
hopper  must  be  provided.  One  10  ft.  wide  by  12  ft. 
long   will   be   sufficient   to    receive   the   discharge   from 


Jamiarv   ir>,   li)18 


()  W  10  It 


both  doors  of  a  standard  50-ton  gondola.  The  outlet 
to  this  hopper  is  usually  fitted  with  a  reciprocating 
feeder  which  delivers  to  a  double-roll  crusher.  The 
arrangement  of  this  group  is  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  or  desirable  to  elevate  the 
coal  while  feeding  it  to  the  crusher,  when  an  apron 
feeder,  Fig.  2,  must  be  used.  This  arrangement  is 
from  two  to  three  times  as  e.xpensive  as  a  reciprocating 
feeder,  principally  because  the  apron  feeder  should  not 
be  inclined  more  than  22:5  deg.,  although  the  writer 
has  seen  one  or  two  operating  at  30  deg.  This  makes 
it  a  very  expensive  elevating  device,  and  therefore 
it  should  not  be  used  unless  unavoidable. 

Part  2  contains  few  machines  to  discuss.  The  leading 
devices  used  to  directly  elevate  coal  at  boiler  houses 
are  all  chain-and-bucket  machines,  varying  in  construc- 
tion according  to  the  use  to  which  they  are  put.  The 
oldest  coal  elevator  consists  simply  of  a  single  strand 
of  short-pitch  chain,  having  malleable-iron  or  steel 
buckets  of  cup-like  form  attached  to  it  at  suitable  in- 
tervals, the  size  and  spacing  depending  on  the  capacity 
desired,  except  that  when  they  are  too  close,  they  will 
not  dredge  the  coal  properly.  The  discharge  is  effected 
by  the  speed  at  which  the  elevator  runs,  the  centrifugal 
effect  causing  the  material  to  leave  the  bucket.  This 
machine  is  shown  by  Fig.  3.  It  is  not  used  for  first- 
class  work  or  where  the  material  is  elevated  very  high, 
but  for  small  capacities,  20  to  25  tons  per  hour,  and 
where  the  conveyor  does  not  work  more  than  a  few 
hours  a  day,  it  is  economical  and  is  to  be  recommended. 

A  far  better  type  of  machine  for  elevating  the  coal 
is  the  V-bucket  elevator  conveyor,  Fig.  4.  As  built 
by  Beaumont,  it  consists  of  two  strands  of  steel  chain 
with  steel  V-shaped  buckets  spaced  at  frequent  intervals 
between  the  chains,  the  discharge  being  effected  by 
gravity.  To  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  change  the  path 
from  the  vertical  to  the  horizontal,  the  usual  methods 
of  accomplishing  this  being  shown  diagrammatically 
in  Fig.  4.  The  numerous  paths  through  which  this 
machine  may  operate,  permit  of  its  use  in  varied  ways. 
Diagram  A  is  the  most  common  path,  the  horizontal 
run  either  extending  for  the  full  length  of  the  bunker, 
if  it  is  not  too  great,  or  arranging  it  to  discharge  into 
a  scraper  or  belt  conveyor  immediately  upon  its  as- 
suming the  horizontal  path,  as  at  C.  The  arrangement 
shown  at  B  is  often  seen  where  this  machine  is  hand- 
ling coal  for  ground  storage,  the  upper  horizontal  run 
discharging  to  a  pile  on  the  ground,  while  the  lower 
run  operates  in  a  tunnel  under  the  pile  and  reclaims 
the  coal.  This  system  was  applied  at  the  boiler  house 
of  the  American  Railways  Co.,  Dayton,  0.,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  5.  Here,  the  V-bucket  elevator  conveyor  serves 
both  the  boiler  house  and  the  ground  storage,  by  add- 
ing the  horizontal  run  of  path  A  to  path  B.  A  cross- 
feeder  is  used  to  deliver  the  coal  from  the  railroad 
cars  to  the  lower  run  of  the  conveyor,  first  passing  it 
through  a  double-roll  crusher. 

While  the  V-bucket  elevator  conveyor  is  undoubtedly 
the  best  elevating  medium  to  use,  it  can  be  skimped, 
like  any  other  good  conveyor,  until  it  is  so  cheaply 
built  that  good  service  is  impossible.  The  chains  are 
its  "backbone,"  and  these  must  be  of  steel  for  several 
reasons.  If  malleable-iron  chains  are  used  (as  they 
sometimes  are),  the  elevator  will  be  subject  to  dis- 
astrous wrecks,  for  a  casting  is  a  casting  and  is  liable 


m 


to  fail  through  various  flaws  to  which  castings  are 
subject.  A  casting  in  tension  is  not  the  best  thing 
in  the  world  to  depend  upon.  The  connection  of  the 
bucket  to  malleable  chains  makes  a  weak  point,  for 
the  connection  holes  are  but  a  scant  few  inches  apart 
and  the  buckets  are  liable  to  twist  off  when  dredging 
the  coal  out  of  the  feeding  boot.  Steel  roller  chains 
are  not  subject  to  any  of  these  faults.  Neither  are 
the  bucket  connections  weak,  for  they  are  attached  to 
the  pins  at  the  chain  joints.  These  pins  should  be 
large  in  diameter,  say  I  in.,  and  of  0.30  to  0.40  carbon 
steel.  They  .should  be  unbushed  and  not  attached  to 
the  chain  side  bars;  the  pin 
is  then  a  floating  pin,  free 
to  turn  easily,  thus  distribut- 
ing the  wear  over  the  entire 
surface.  Cast-iron  rollers 
are  used  at  each  chain  joint, 
these  coming  into  play  on  the 
horizontal  runs  and  at  turns 
in  direction,  where  they  are 
engaged  by  the  sprocket 
wheels. 

The  buckets  may  be  made 
of  No.  10  plate  as  the  coal 
does  not  wear  them  rapidly. 
The  trough  is  rectangular 
in  cross-section,  usually  con- 
structed of  steel,  with  angle 
sides  and  a  bottom  plate  at 
least  y',;  in.  thick.  The  upper 
flanges  of  the  angles  should 
have  renewable  wearing 
strips  I  in.  thick,  for  the 
roller  chains  to  travel  on. 

The  vertical  runs  are  usu- 
ally inclosed  in  steel-plate 
casings.  No.  12  gage,  and 
having  corner  angles  to 
stiffen,  besides  connecting 
the  plates.  Sometimes  the 
plates  are  flanged,  but  if  this 
is  done,  look  with  suspicion 
on  the  rest  of  the  equipment. 
The  capacity  of  a  V-bucket 
elevator  conveyor  can  easily  be  determined  by  simple 
arithmetic,  but  to  avoid  going  through  all  these  figures 
a  good,  conservative  rule  is:  The  cubic  contents  of  the 
bucket  in  inches  (water  capacity)  divided  by  12  gives 
the  tons  (2000  lb.)  per  hour  for  a  speed  of  100  ft.  per 
minute,  the  buckets  being  12  in.  apart.  Other  speeds 
and  spacings  are  easily  determined  from  this. 

All  sprocket  wheels  should  have  at  least  eight  teeth, 
and  shafts  should  be  designed  for  both  torsion  and 
bending,  allowing  a  working  unit  stress  of  not  over  11,- 
000  pounds. 

A  modification  of  the  V-bucket  machine  is  the  con- 
tinuous bucket  elevator,  which  will  operate  in  a  vertical 
path  and  discharge  directly  over  the  head  wheel,  thus 
obviating  the  necessity  of  running  horizontally  to  effect 
a  discharge.  This  machine  will  also  operate  on  an 
incline  at  any  angle  between  about  45  deg.  and  the 
vertical.  When  discharging  from  the  vertical  position 
each  bucket  utilizes  the  back  of  the  bucket  in  advance, 
as  a   chute,   to  deflect  the  material  to  the  permanent 


FTG. 


3.       SIMPLE     BUCKET 
CONVEYOR    FOR    LIFTS 
UP  TO   40   FEETT 


84 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


chute  delivering  to  the  conveyor.  Fig.  6  .shows  this 
machine  in  detail.  The  remarks  concerning  the  V- 
bucket  apply  to  this  machine  also,  except,  of  course, 
there  is  no  trough  to  convey  horizontally.  The  last 
two  machines  are  without  doubt  the  best  elevating 
mediums  to  use,  regardless  of  to  what  they  deliver. 

The  centrifugal  discharge  elevator  should  not  be  used 
except  for  small  lifts  at  low  capacity  and  where  the 
machine  does  not  work  often. 

Conveyors  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes — 
flight  conveyors,  and  belt  or  pan  conveyors.  The  first 
class  is  by  far  the  commonest  and  is  further  divided 
into  four  types — the  single-strand  chain-scraper  flight 
conveyor,   the   single-strand   roller-flight   conveyor,   the 


strand  roller-flight  conveyor,  in  which  the  chain  and 
flights  are  supported  above  the  trough  by  cross 
spindles  and  rollers  which  travel  on  the  channel 
sides  of  the  trough.  These  rollers  reduce  the  friction 
and  the  noise  made  by  the  scraper  conveyor  and  such 
conveyors  have  greater  capacity.  The  scraper-flight  con- 
veyor has  malleable-iron  flights  with  beveled  corners  to 
carry  them  over  the  gate  openings  in  the  trough  and 
uses  a  single  strand  of  malleable-iron  chain. 

The  roller-flight  conveyor  uses  a  much  stronger  and 
more  reliable  steel  chain  and  has  steel-plate  flights. 
The  scraper  flight  is  u.'^ually  5  in.  deep  and  either  12 
or  15  in.  wide,  depending  on  capacity,  while  the  roller 
type  of  conveyor  has  flights  8  in.  deep  by  16  in.  wide 


•"* D 


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B 

D- 

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€7 


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fk;.  4.     \'-Hri'i<K'i'  CI  iwi'ni  IK  axu   its  Af'i'i.icA'no.NS 


double-strand  roller-flight  conveyor,  and  the  screw  con- 
veyor. Figs.  7,  8  and  9  show  the  first  three  in  the 
order  named.  The  scraper-flight  conveyor  is  much 
used  for  handling  anthracite  coal  in  retail  yards,  where 
breakage  is  a  serious  factor.  It  does  not  cause  breakage 
because  it  is  slow-moving  and  discharges  easily  through 
openings  in  the  trough  and  also  because  the  flight 
scrapes  directly  on  the  trough  plate,  avoiding  the  grind- 
ing of  coal  between  the  flight  and  the  trough,  which 
would  happen  with  any  of  the  other  three  types. 
It  has  been  much  used  in  boiler-house  work  on  ac- 
count of  its  simplicity  and  low  cost,  but  it  has  lately 
been    superseded    on    first-class    work    by    the    single- 


as  a  mininuim,  with  10  x  20-in.  and  10x24-in.  flights 
for  greater  capacities.  F'lights  wider  than  this  should 
not  be  used  on  a  single-strand  chain,  for  they  will 
wobble. 

Neither  of  the  foregoing  conveyors  will  handle  run- 
of-mine  coal,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  getting  the 
large  lumps  in  the  trough,  which  is  obstructed  by  the 
chain  in  the  center.  For  this  reason  the  double-strand 
chain-roller  flight  conveyor  is  used  for  this  purpose, 
and  also  when  the  conveyor  is  so  long  or  so  large  that 
two  chains  are  neces.sarj"  to  properly  take  the  stress. 
Flights  over  24 "in.  wide  should  have  two  chains,  as 
already  mentioned. 


.laiuiary    15.   li)18 


F  O  VV  K  K 


85 


A  double  stniiid  of  chain  is  used  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  bend  the  conveyor  from  an  inclined  run 
to  a  horizontal  one,  making  a  "hump."  With  a  single- 
strand  roller-flight  conveyor,  the  stress  imparted  to  the 
cross-spindles  by  the  chain  would  probably  bend  them, 
although  under  small  stress  the  resulting  bending  move- 
ment on  the  cross-spindle  would  be  almost  negligible. 
A  scraper  conveyor,  where  the  flights  scrape  directly 
on  the  trough,  could  not  be  used  this  way,  but  would 
have  to  be  broken,  the  conveyor  on  the  incline  dis- 
charging the  coal  into  the  horizontal  conveyor. 

Screw  Conveyor  Unsuited  to  Coal 

Troughs  for  these  conveyors  should  be  at  least  ,-\t 
in.  thick  and  should  be  bolted  to  the  supporting  chan- 
nels to  facilitate  renewals.  The  remarks  concern- 
ing chains,  sprockets  and  shafts,  previously  made,  apply 
here.  The  fourth  type,  the  screw,  mentioned  for  the 
sake  of  completeness,  is  not  much  used  for  conveying 
coal,  being  mostly  used  for  grain  and  cement.  The 
usual  application  to  a  boiler  house  is  where  pulverized 
coal  is  used.  They  consist  of  a  blade  wound  spirally 
around  a  central  shaft,  the  whole  revolving  in  a  U- 
shaped  trough.  The  frictional  losses  are  so  large  and 
the  danger  of  breaks  due  to  foreign  material  .iam- 
ming  at  the  shaft  hangers  are  their  bad  features.  They 
are  very  cheap,  however,  and  this  perhaps  is  the  reason 
they  are  seen  in  boiler  houses. 

As  to  the  second  main  class  of  conveyors,  belts  and 
pan  arrangements,  the  former  is  by  far  the  most  popu- 
lar; the  latter  can,  in  fact,  be  dismissed  from  coal 
handling  at  boiler  houses,  except  for  short  feeders  carry- 
ing run-of-mine  coal  to  the  crusher. 

As  a  conveyor,  it  has  two  difficulties,  one  being  the 
high  cost  and  the  other  the  impossibility  of  securing 
a  discharge,  except  over  the  end  of  the  conveyor. 

The  rubber  belt  has  three  advantages,  but  only  two 
apply  to  boiler-house  outfits.  The  first  is  lower  power 
consumption    and    the    second    quietness    of    operation. 


PIG.    B.      CONTINUOUS   BUCKET   ELEV.ATOR 

The  third  is  that  they  convey  materials  1000  ft.  or 
more,  while  scraper  conveyors  are  limited  by  good 
practice  to  about  300  ft.  Manifestly  the  length  of  the 
average  boiler  house  does  not  exceed  the  maximum 
length  of  the  flight  conveyor. 

A  belt-conveyor  installation  has  several  disadvantages 
which  perhaps  outweigh  the  few  advantages.  It  is 
not   easy  to   load  and   requires  a   ponderous   device  to 


FIG.    5.      BUCKET    CONVEYOR    AT    THE    AMERICAN    RAILWAYS  CO..   DAYTON.   OHIO 


86 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


effect  a  discharge.  It  is  hard  to  load  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  delivering  the  coal  to  the  belt  at  the  same 
speed  and  in  the  same  direction  as  the  belt  is  running. 
This   requires   side   guard   plates   extending   along   the 


Fig. 


FIQJ 

FIGS.    7  TO 
-Thick  edg-e  flight. 


boiler    house    of    the    Norton    Co.,"    Worcester,    Mass. 

As   to   the   first   cost   of   the   belt    conveyor   compared 

with  the  flight  type,  this  varies  according  to  the  length. 

A  belt  conveyor  without  the  tripper  is  more  costly  than 

the  bevel-scraper  flight  type 
but  cheaper  than  the  roller 
types,  but  when  the  tripper 
is  added  (it  is  necessary") 
the  belt  is  the  most  expen- 
sive one  to  use.  If  the  length 
of  the  short  conveyor  is 
doubled,  the  cost  is  not,  for 
one  does  not  need  another 
expensive  tripper  and  then 
the  belt  is  cheaper  than  the 
flight  conveyor,  but  only 
slightly. 

It  is  always  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that  low  first  cost  often 
means  high  maintenance 
charges,  as  pointed  out  pre- 
viously. The  wear  and  tear 
on  coal  and  ash  conveyors 
is  especiallj'  severe,  and  care 
in  their  selection  is  para- 
mount. 


F)a9 

TYPES  OF  SCRAPERS  FOR  FLIGHT  CONVEYORS 
Fig.   8 — Square-corner  roller  fight.    Fig.    9 — Double-strand   roller  flight 


=John  A.  Stevens,  engineer ;  R. 
H.  Beaumont  Co..  contractors  for 
coal-handling   machinery. 


length  of  the  belt  for  a  distance  of  four  or  five  feet, 
as  the  differenc^e  between  the  speed  of  the  coal  and  the 
belt  at  the  point  of  impact  causes  a  great  deal  of 
splashing.  This  loading  condition  is  aggravated  by  the 
necessity  of  depressing  the  end  of  the  belt  conveyor, 
until  it  operates  on  an  angle  of  18  to  20  deg.  This 
is  due  to  the  belt  tripper,  for  when  this  device  is  at 
the  loading  end  of  the  conveyor,  the  belt  would  rise 
directly  from  the  end  pulley  if  the  belt  was  not  de- 
pressed, and  would  be  cut  to  pieces  by  the  previously 
mentioned  side  guards.  This  is  avoided  by  depressing 
the  belt,  but  the  danger  of  the  guards  sagging  and 
cutting  the  belt  is  always  present. 

Should  the  belt  be  ruined  suddenly  in  this  manner, 
it  means  a  long  wait  until  a  new  one  can  be  secured, 
for  it  is  expensive  to  keep  a  new  belt  in  stock  and  even 
then  run  the  chance  that  it  will  harden  before  it  is 
needed. 

Wear  on  Rubber  Belts 

Belt  conveyors  require  more  attention  than  flight  con- 
veyors. The  idlers  are  rather  delicate  mechanisms  and 
require  constant  attention,  otherwise  they  will  not  turn 
and  the  belt  simply  scrubs  over  them,  wearing  it  out 
and  consuming  more  power.  Also,  when  the  run  is  short, 
they  wear  out  quickly,  the  wear  being  due  to  the  impact 
of  the  coal  on  the  belt  at  the  loading  point.  It  is  obvious 
that  in  a  conveyor  twice  the  length  the  impact  is  dis- 
tributed over  twice  the  belt  area  of  the  shorter  one  for  a 
given  quantity  of  coal  handled.  Remember  that  a  flight 
conveyor  can  be  wrecked  badly  and  put  in  service  again 
by  a  local  blacksmith,  but  a  belt  conveyor  is  dependent 
on  the  factory   for  repairs. 

A  typical  belt  conveyor  installation  is  shown  by  Fig. 
10,   this   being   a   view   over  the   coal  bunker   at   the 


PIG.  10— BELT  CONVEYOR,  NORTON  CO.,  WORCESTER, 
MASS. 


.laiiLiar.v    15,   1918 


P  O  W  E  K 


87 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — Direct-Current 

Armature  Construction 


The  development  of  the  direct-current  armature 
core  is  brieflij  deacrihed,  and  some  of  the  defects 
in  the  earlier  ti/pes  are  pointed  out. 


DIRECT-CURRENT  armatures  may  be  classed 
under  two  general  types — ring  and  drum.  Both 
types  get  their  name  from  the  shape  of  the  core. 
The  core  of  the  ring  type  consists  of  an  iron  ring  about 
which  the  coils  are  wound,  as  shown  in  section  in  Fig. 
1.     In  the  earlier  type  of  machines  the  ring-armature 


Coi/  Leodii- 


FIO.    1        SECTION    THROUGH    RING    ARMATURE 

construction  was  used  to  considerable  extent,  but  it  has 
since  been  practically  abandoned.  Some  of  the  ob- 
jections to  this  type  of  construction  are  that  only 
one  side  of  the  coil  is  effective  in  generating  voltage. 
Why  this  is  so  is  explained  in  Fig.  2,  where  a  ring  arma- 
ture is  shown  between  the  poles  of  a  two-pole  frame.  It 
will  be  seen  that  all  the  lines  of  force  are  only  cut  by  the 
conductors  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  core.  Therefore, 
only  these  parts  of  the  coils  are  effective  in  generating 
voltage. 

There  is  always  a  leak  across  the  space  in  the  center 
of  the  ring;  that  is,  a  small  percentage  of  the  lines  of 
force,  instead  of  flowing  around  through  the  core,  take 
the  path  across  the  space  in  the  center  of  the  ring,  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  2.  The  conductors  on  the  inside  of 
the  ring  cut  the  lines  of  force  that  leak  across  from  one 
side  of  the  ring  to  the  other,  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  conductors  on  the  outside  of  the  core.  Consequently, 
a  voltage  will  be  induced,  in  the  same  direction,  in  the 
side  of  the  coil  on  the  inner  periphery  of  the  ring,  as  in 
that  on  the  outer. 

In  Fig.  2,  consider  the  ring  revolving  in  the  direction 
of  the  curved  arrow;  then  under  the  N  pole  the  volt- 
age in  both  sides  of  the  coils  is  up  through  the  plane 
of  the  paper,  and  under  the  S  pole  it  is  away  from  the 
reader.  In  either  case  it  is  evident  that  the  voltages 
generated  in  the  conductors  on  the  outside  and  inside  of 
the  ring  oppose  each  other.  Since  only  a  small  percent- 
age of  the  flux  leaks  across  the  ring,  only  this  percent- 
age will  be  cut  by  the  conductors  on  the  inner  periphery. 


and  the  voltage  generated  in  these  conductors  will  be 
only  a  small  percentage  of  that  in  the  outside,  the  dif- 
ference between  the  two  being  the  effective  voltage  in 
the  coil.  The  foregoing  is  another  objection  to  the  use 
of  a  ring  armature. 

Another  difficulty  is  in  winding  the  coils  on  the  core, 
they  have  to  be  wound  in  place  by  hand.  On  account 
of  having  to  thread  the  coils  through  the  center  of  the 
core,  the  placing  of  the  winding  is  a  somewhat  long  and 
tedious  job.  These  and  other  structural  and  electrical 
defects  have  caused  this  type  of  construction  to  be  prac- 
tically abandoned  in  favor  of  the  drum  type  of  arma- 
ture. 

The  core  of  the  early  types  of  drum  armatures  con- 
sisted of  a  cast-iron  cylinder  keyed  on  a  shaft,  as  in  Fig. 

3.  Pieces  of  fiber  were  placed  in  small  slots  in  the  corner 
of  the  core,  as  shown,  to  facilitate  the  spacing  of  the 
coils  around  the  periphery.  One  of  the  serious  objec- 
tions to  the  use  of  solid  cast-iron  cores  was  that  they 
had  heavy  current  generated  in  them,  which  not  only 
greatly  increased  the  temperature  for  a  given  load,  but 
also  loaded  up  the  machine. 

The  foregoing  will  be  understood  by  considering  Fig. 

4,  which  shows  an  iron  core  between  the  N  and  S  poles 
of  a  magnet.  If  the  cylinder  is  revolved  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  curved  arrow,  then  the  side  of  the  core 
under  the  N  pole  will  be  cutting  lines  of  force  in  a  right- 
hand  direction  and  will  have  a  voltage  induced  in  it  that 


FIG.   2.     MAGNF/I'    l''M'X    IN    KING    ARMATURK 

will  tend  to  cause  a  current  to  flow  toward  the  reader. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  side  of  the  cylinder  under  the  S 
pole  is  cutting  the  flux  entering  the  pole  in  a  left-hand 
direction,  and  consequently  has  a  voltage  induced  in 
it  that  will  tend  to  cause  current  to  flow  away  from  the 
reader.  This  is  just  what  we  found  out  about  a  loop  of 
wire  revolved  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet  in  the 
last  lesson. 


88 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


The  c3ndition  in  Fig.  4  is  such  that  the  voltage  gen- 
erated in  one  side  of  the  core  is  assisting  that  in  the 
other  side.  Consequently,  a  current  will  flow  around  in 
the  core,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  loop  and  arrowheads. 
This  current  is  entirely  independent  of  the  winding  on 
the  armature  and  external  circuit,  and  just  as  long  as 
the  field  poles  are  excited  and  the  armature  revolved,  a 
current  will  circulate  or  eddy  around  in  the  core.  Since 
these  currents  circulate  or  eddy  around  in.  the  core  as 
water  in  a  whirlpool,  they  are  called  eddy  currents. 

These  eddy  currents  represent  a  distinct  loss,  not  only 
in  capacity,  but  also  in  the  power  used  to  drive  the  gen- 


of  carrying  a  useful  load  that  will  increase  the  tem- 
perature from  100  to  212  deg.  F.,  or  112  deg.  Conse- 
quently, the  useful  capacity  of  the  machine  under  the 
latter  conditions  will  be  reduced. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  amount  of  load 
that  can  be  carried  by  any  electrical  machine  is  limited 
by  the  heating  effect  of  the  load.  For  a  machine  in- 
sulated with  fibrous  material  this  temperature  must  be 
limited  to  about  212  deg.  F. 

Another  effect  of  eddy  currents  in  the  armature 
is  to  increase  the  power  necessary  to  drive  the  machine. 
This  will  be  understood  by  referring  to  Fig.  4.    Here  the 


Fig.6 


Fig.  10 


PIGS.    3   TO    10.     DIFFERENT   TYPES    OF  DRUM-.'iRMATT'RE    CONSTKl'CTION 


erator  or  motor.  Eddy  currents  increase  the  tem- 
perature of  the  machine,  consequently  reduce  the  use- 
ful temperature  range.  For  example,  if  the  normal  no- 
load  temperature  of  the  armature,  if  eddy  currents  did 
not  exi.st,  is  80  deg.  F.,  and  the  maximum  temperature 
that  the  machine  can  be  operated  at  is  212  deg.  F..  then 
the  machine  can  be  loaded  to  the  e.xtent  that  would  in- 
crease the  temperature  from  80  to  212  deg.  F.,  or  132 
deg.  But  on  the  other  hand,  suppose  that  the  no-load 
temperature  of  the  armature,  due  to  eddy  (currents,  is  in- 
creased to  100  deg.  F. ;  then  the  machine  is  only  capable 


generated  current  due  to  the  core  revolving,  in  the  di- 
rection indicated  by  the  curved  arrow,  in  the  magnetic 
field  is  indicated  by  the  dotted  loop  and  arrowhead  in  the 
core.  Current  flowing  in  the  magnetic  field  will  cause  a 
pull  to  be  exerted  upon  the  core,  just  as  explained  for  a 
single  conductor  carrying  a  current  in  a  magnetic  field 
in  the  lesson  in  the  Dec.  4  issue. 

The  direction  of  the  pull  on  the  core  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  rule  for  the  direction  of  a  motor,  or,  in 
Fig.  4,  it  will  be  found  that  the  eddy  currents  in  the 
core  will  produce  a  pull  against  the  direction  of  rotation. 


January   15,  1918 


POWER 


89 


In  other  words,  we  assume  that  the  core  is  revolving  in 
the  direction  of  the  curved  arrow,  but  the  direction  of 
the  eddy  currents  in  the  armature  core  produces  a  pull 
in  the  opposite  direction.  Consequently,  the  source 
from  which  the  armature  is  driven  will  have  to  develop 
power  enough  not  only  to  drive  the  armature  to  supply 
its  useful  load,  but  also  to  overcome  the  effect  of  the 
eddy  currents  in  the  core. 

Kliminating  Eddy  Currents 

From  what  we  have  just  seen,  it  is  apparent  that,  if 
possible,  these  eddy  currents  should  be  eliminated.  This 
is  done  to  a  very  large  degree  by  building  up  the  arma- 
ture core  of  thin  sheets  of  soft  iron  or  steel,  as  in  Fig. 
5.  These  sheets  are  from  0.01  to  0.03  in.  in  thickness. 
In  the  early  type  of  machines  the  oxide  on  the  surface 
of  the  sheets  was  very  largely  depended  on  to  insulate 
one  from  the  other.  Although  this  did  not  completely 
insulate  the  disks  from  each  other,  it  offered  consider- 
able resistance  to  the  flow  of  the  current  in  the  core 
parallel  with  the  shaft.  In  the  modern  machines  the 
iron  sheets  that  the  core  is  made  of  are  given  a  very 
thin  coat  of  insulating  varnish  on  one  side,  which  prac- 
tically entirely  eliminates  the  effect  of  eddy  current. 

On  account  of  the  insulation  the  core  has  to  be  made 
slightly  longer  than  a  solid  core  would  be,  in  order  to 
get  in  the  same  volume  of  metal.  Armature  cores  that 
are  built  up  of  thin  sheets  of  iron  are  said  to  be  lami- 
nated, and  the  sheets  are  frequently  referred  to  as  the 
laminae.  The  cores  of  small-sized  armatures  are  keyed 
to  the  shaft  and  held  between  cast-iron  shrouds,  or  re- 
taining plates,  which  are  held  in  place  by  a  nut  threaded 
on  the  shaft,  as  in  Fig.  5,  or  by  bolts  run  through  the 
core. 

Objection  to  Smooth-Core  Armatures 

With  these  smooth-core  armatures,  the  winding  had 
to  be  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  core.  There  were 
several  objections  to  this,  such  as  the  coils,  being  on  the 
surface  of  the  core,  were  exposed  to  mechanical  injury; 
sufficient  space  must  be  allowed  between  the  armature 
core  and  polepieces  for  the  winding.  On  account  of  the 
comparatively  long  space  between  the  armature  core  and 
polepieces,  considerably  more  power  is  required  to  be 
expended  in  the  field  coils  to  cause  the  line  of  force  to 
flow  from  the  latter  to  the  former,  or  vice  versa,  than  if 
the  core  was  as  near  the  field  poles  as  would  be  con- 
sistent with  good  mechanical  construction. 

Another  serious  objection  is  that  the  coils  are  wound 
on  the  core  by  hand,  one  coil  at  a  time.  Consequently, 
the  coils  can  only  be  removed  the  reverse  of  the  way 
they  are  put  on.  Therefore,  if  two  or  three  coils  are 
injured  in  the  winding,  it  generally  means  that  the 
whole  winding  must  be  removed  and  a  new  one  put  in 
its  place,  whereas,  if  the  coils  are  made  up  separately, 
as  in  modern  machines,  the  injured  coils  can  generally 
be  removed  and  replaced  by  new  ones,  by  removing  only 
a  small  part  of  the  total  winding. 

All  the  difficulties  cited  are  practically  eliminated  by 
slotting  the  core  as  in  Fig.  6.  The  core  is  built  up  of 
thin  sheets  as  in  Fig.  5,  but  instead  of  the  outer  periph- 
ery of  the  disk  being  smooth  as  in  Fig.  5,  it  has  slots 
cut  in  it.  These  slots  take  different  forms,  some  of 
which  are  shown  in  Figs.  7  to  9.  However,  when  the 
coils  are  made  up  and  insulated  before  they  are  put  on 


the  core,  the  slots  in  the  core  must  be  open  at  the 
top,  as  in  Fig.  8  or  9.  Where  the  coils  are  made  up 
separately  and  insulated  before  placing  on  the  arma- 
ture, it  is  evident  that  the  winding  is  not  only  more 
easily  put  in  place,  but  can  be  better  insulated. 

The  placing  of  the  coils  in  slots  in  ffhe  armature  core 
protects  them  from  mechanical  injury  in  case  the  bear- 
ings wear  and  allows  the  armature. to  rub  on  the  pole- 
pieces  ;  it  also  allows  the  space  between  the  core  and  the 
field  poles  to  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  consistent  with 
good  mechanical  construction.  Consequently,  the  mag- 
netic field  is  set  up  with  a  minimum  power  expenditure 
in  the  field  coils.     In  the  larger-sized  armatures  a  cast- 


/-? 


~^ 


f 

Rx?-.' 

o 

o 

o 

H'^?."> 

Ea'.? 

T-' 

FTG.   11.     COMPLEX  CrRCUIT 

iron  spider,  as  it  is  called,  is  keyed  to  the  shaft  and  the 
laminated  core  built  upon  the  spider,  as  in  Fig.  10. 

The  layout  of  the  study  problem  is  given  in  Fig.  11. 
The  resistance  from  a  at  iJ,  around  through  R  to  h  at 
R,  is  R"  =  r,  -I-  /?^  =  0.1  +  4.9  =  5  ohms.  This  re- 
sistance of  5  ohms  is  in  parallel  with  iJ,  =  15  ohms,  and 
the  joint  resistance  of  R"  and  /?,  is 
1  1 

11 
5  '   15 


R-  = 


1 


R       R\ 


1  15       .,  ^^    , 

o  T~T  =  r  =  3.75  oh'ms 


15 


The  total  resistance  of  the  circuit  is  K  =  r,  -f  iJ'  = 

0.25  -f-  3.75  =  4  ohms.     Then  7=1  =  ^'^^=  62.5 

R  4 

amperes.  To  cause  a  current  7  to  flow  from  the  arma- 
ture through  the  resistance  of  the  two  conductors  c, 
will  require  a  voltage  £„  =  r^  7  =  0.25  X  62.5  =  15.625. 
Therefore,  only  a  voltage  E„  =  £■  —  Ea  —  250  — 
15.625  =  234.375  volts  is  available  at  72,  to  cause  a  cur- 
rent to  .flow  through  the  circuit.     The  current  that  will 

flow  through  72,  is  7,  =  ^  =  '^^^  ^  15.625  amperes, 

leaving  a  current  of  L  ^  I  —  7,  =  62.5  —  15.625  = 

46.875  amperes  flowing  through  7?,.    To  cause  a  current 

=  \,  to  flow  through  the  connecting  wires  between  72, 

and  72,  will  require  a  voltage  of  Ed  —  rj.  =  0.1  X  46.875 

=  4.6875.    Hence,  E'„  =  E„  —  E,i  =  234.375  —  4.6875 

=  229.6875  volts.     The  current  flowing  through  72,  is 

,       ,  E\,  229.6875 

also  7„  =    o^    =    — 49  ^    =  46.875  amperes,  which 

checks   with   the   other   calculation,   showing  that  the 

work  is  correct.     The  total  watts  W  =  £■/  =rr  250  X 

W  15,625   _ 

1000    '^     1000     " 

W 
15.625;  and  the  total  electrical  horsepower  = 


62.5  =  15,625;   total  kilowatts 


746 


15,625 
746 


20.9  horsepower. 


A  load  consisting  of  37.5  hp.  of  motors,  allow  3.8 
amperes  per  horsepower,  and  sixty-four  75-watt  lamps 
is  supplied  over  a  two-wire  feeder,  475  ft.  long.    If  the 


90 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


voltage  is  240  at  the  source,  what  size  will  the  conduc- 
tors have  to  be  to  maintain  235  volts  at  the  load  end  of 
the  feeder  when  transmitting  the  total  load?  If  the 
load  is  used  on  an  average  of  6.5  hours  per  day  for  26 
days,  find  the  cost  of  power  at  7.5c.  for  the  first  800 
kw.-hr.,  6c.  per  kw.-hr.  for  the  ne.xt  1000  kw.hr.  and  4.5c. 
for  the  remaining  kw-hr.  consumption.  The  kilowatt- 
hour  meter  is  located  at  the  load  end  of  the  feeder. 

Testing  for  Ammonia  in  Brine 

Leaks  in  coils  carrying  ammonia  and  surrounded  by 
brine  or  water  are  diflficult  to  detect  and  usually  con- 
tinue until  the  brine  or  water  has  the  odor  of  ammonia. 
If  one  suspects  that  coils  are  leaking,  a  sample  of  the 
brine  may  be  drawn  into  a  test  tube  or  other  receptacle 
(glass  preferred)  and  a  few  drops  of  Nessler's  reagent 
added.  If  the  brine  contains  a  little  ammonia,  it  will 
take  on  a  yellow  shade;  if  there  is  much,  the  brine  will 
turn  brown  when  the  reagent  is  added. 

Nessler's  reagent  may  be  made  as  follows:  Dissolve 
17  grams  of  mercuric  chloride  in  300  c.c.  (approximately 
10.6  oz.)  of  distilled  water.  Next  dissolve  35  grams  of 
potassium  iodide  in  100  c.c.  (about  3.5  oz.)  of  distilled 
water.  Add  the  potassium-iodide  solution  to  the  mer- 
curic chloride  and  stir  until  a  red  precipitate  is  formed. 
Now  add  120  grams  of  potassium  hydrate  dissolved  in 
200  c.c.  (about  7  oz.)  of  water.  As  the  solution  will  get 
hot  when  the  potassium  is  added,  it  .'hould  be  allowed  to 
cool  before  being  stirred.  When  cool,  pour  in  distilled 
water  until  there  is  1  liter  (about  1  qt.)  of  solution. 
Next  add  more  mercuric  chloride  until  a  permanent 
precipitate  again  forms. 

The  liquid  should  stand  until  the  precipitate  has  set- 
tled and  left  the  solution  clear,  after  "'hich  pour  it  into 
a  dark-brown  or  blue  glass-stoppered  bottle,  and  keep  it 
in  a  dark  place. 

Handy  Gate  Lock 

It  is  frequently  advisable  to  prevent  visitors  to  power 
plants  from  having  free  entrance  to  the  operating  floor. 
An  engineer  may  be  busily  engaged  on  work  that  re- 
quires his   undivided  attention  only  to  be  interrupted 


PIG.   1.      LOCKING  GATE  FOR  POWER  PLANT 

by  the  presence  of  some  intruder  who  has  wandered 
into  the  plant,  there  being  nothing  to  prevent  him 
from  roaming  at  will  about  the  premises.  It  does  not 
cost  much  to   erect   a  pipe   railing  covered  with   wire 


netting  at  the  inside  entrance  of  the  plant,  with  a  gate 
which  is  fastened  by  a  lock  that  can  be  operated  only 
by  an  attendant  from  the  inside. 

Such  an  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  illustration. 
The  locking  point  is  at  A,  Fig.  1,  and  the  lock  can  be 
operated  only  by  turning  the  handwheel  at  the  end  of 


PIG.    2.      DETAILS    OP   THK    l^(  X'KI.VG    DRVlrK 

extension  B.  Details  of  the  locking  device  are  shown 
in  Fig.  2.  The  latch  D  slides  in  the  pipe  connection 
and  the  end  enters  an  opening  in  the  joint  at  the  top 
of  the  gate  frame.  The  bolt  is  fitted  with  a  pin  E  and 
is  kept  in  the  locked  position  by  the  spring  F.  Engaging 
with  the  pin  E  is  a  slotted  block  G,  which  is  secured 
to  the  rod  H  and  is  fitted  with  a  handwheel  B.  When 
it  is  desired  to  admit  passage  through  the  gate,  the 
handwheel  B  is  turned  toward  the  left;  this  will  move 
the  pin  D  from  the  gate  and  permit  of  its  being  opened. 
Spring  hinges  are  used  on  the  gate,  and  after  it  has 
been  opened  it  will  spring  shut  and  automatically  lock, 
the  bolt  end  acting  the  same  as  the  catch  on  an  ordinary 
house  door,  the  end  being  made  at  an  angle  so  as  to 
slide  over  the  end  of  the  gate  when  it  is  closing. 


The  shortage  of  fuel  of  all  kinds  in  Denmark  has  kep' 
the  large  users  of  power  anxiously  looking  toward 
Sweden  for  electric  power,  which  at  times  they  have  in 
abundance.  According  to  Commerce  Reports  the  water 
power  now  developed  in  Sweden  seems  not  to  furnish 
any  surplus  power  beyond  the  country's  own  needs  dur- 
ing dry  seasons,  but  during  about  half  of  the  year  there 
is  generally  a  considerable  exportable  surplus.  The  vil- 
lages in  the  northern  part  of  Sjaelland  have  been  obtain- 
ing some  small  quantities  of  electricity  by  cable  across 
the  sound,  and  occasionally  some  of  it  has  been  used  in 
Copenhagen.  Now  arrangements  are  being  made  to 
lay  additional  cables  across  the  sound,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  furnishing  the  street-car  service  of  Copenhagen 
and  Frederiksberg  with  a  large  amount  of  power.  The 
difficulty  in  obtaining  copper  cables  and  electric  trans- 
formers is  delaying  this  work.  It  is  expected  that  most 
of  the  power  will  come  from  the  Laga  Lakes  and  the 
Trollhattan  Falls  in  Sweden. 


Industries  making  war  materials  and  supplies  will  of 
course  get  coal  even  if  those  producing  luxuries  get 
none.  We  have  the  paradox  of  the  engineer  engaged 
in  war  worrying  less  than  he  of  the  antique  furniture 
factory. 


January  15,   1918  P  O  VV  K  R  91 

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Editorials 


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Chances  for  Promotion  in  Power  Plants 

rr  IS  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  there  never  was  a 
time  in  the  history  of  power-plant  service  when  the 
prospects  of  promotion  were  better  than  they  are  today. 
There  are  many  reasons  for  this,  but  among  the  most 
important  are  the  vital  necessity  power  has  become  for 
war  and  peace  tasks  alike  and  the  sure  and  sustained 
demand  for  low-cost  energy  which  will  be  felt  in  many 
parts  of  the.  world  after  hostilities  have  ceased.  To 
overlook  present  difficulties  in  power-plant  operation 
would  be  a  mfstake;  conditions  are  very  trying  with  re- 
gard to  fuel  supply,  prices  of  all  materials  and  of  labor 
in  a  great  number  of  stations.  In  a  number  of  cases 
central  stations  have  taken  over  the  service  of  independ- 
ent plants,  but  it  by  no  means  follows  that  even  a  major 
share  of  these  plants  will  always  find  purchased  energy 
cheaper  than  their  own  production.  Costs  are  rising 
iii  the  central  station  itself,  and  it  is  a  daring  company 
indeed  today  which  will  make  a  new  power  contract 
without  a  coal  clause  in  its  heart  which  in  a  measure 
seeks  to  offset  increasing  fuel  prices  by  additions  to  the 
unit  energy  rate,  and  vice  versa. 

The  great  majority  of  our  productive  industries  must 
continue  to  function,  war  or  no  war.  "Business  must  go 
on"  is  a  true  e.xpression  of  the  situation.  The  war,  it 
is  obvious,  brings  many  changes  to  industry.  No  small 
number  of  engineers  are  serving  their  country  at  the 
front  or  in  immediate  preparation  for  active  military 
or  naval  duty,  but  thousands  upon  thousands  are  quietly 
doing  their  bit  at  the  old  stand,  working  hard  to  over- 
come the  handicaps  the  present  supply  prices  and  short- 
ages impose  and  striving  to  prepare  themselves  for 
larger  responsibilities.  The  duties  of  civil  life  must  be 
performed,  and  the  work  behind  the  firing  lines  could 
not  continue  without  the  loyal  service  of  the  coal  passer, 
the  engineer,  the  switchboard  operator,  pumpman,  fe- 
pairer  and  all  the  rest  of  the  staff  upon  which  continu- 
ous and  efficient  production  of  high-class  energy  de- 
pends. Now  the  changes  which  the  war  brings  ca  rry  into 
the  industrial  world  in  countless  places  and  in  unex- 
pected ways.  The  war  must  be  won,  no  matter  what  the 
cost  to  ourselves  and  our  allies.  Shifts  from  one  plant 
to  another  take  place ;  sometimes  the  engineer  is  obliged 
to  lose  his  hold  upon  a  most  satisfactory  position;  but 
in  the  long  run,  in  fact  almost  in  the  short  run,  things 
will  work  out  to  his  interest  if  he  makes  the  most  of 
his  opportunities.  The  world  cannot  lie  back  and  simply 
refuse  to  take  advantage  of  all  skilled  and  highly  trained 
men  in  the  engineering  field  not  called  to  direct  military 
service;  it  must  utilize  such  men  to  the  full,  even  if  a 
period  of  readjustment  accompanies  the  change  from 
one  service  or  post  to  another. 

This  is  a  time  when  it  is  good  to  realize  the  vast 
amount  of  work  which  lies  ahead  of  us  all — not  only 
now  but  during  the  reconstruction  period  to  follow  the 
war,  for  it  is  inconceivable  that  such  a  period  will  not 
come.     The  peculiar  talents  of  the  engineer  will  be  in 


demand  indefinitely,  so  far  as  we  can  see.  Now  is  the 
time,  then,  to  realize  the  sound  fundamental  conditions 
of  the  power-production  industry  as  related  to  the 
allied  world's  economic  needs,  and  to  make  personal 
devotion  to  the  cause  of  world  efficiency  one's  watch- 
word. Specific  opportunities  for  promotion  may  be  out 
of  present  vision,  but  we  are  now  in  a  great  transition 
period  and  those  opportunities  are  bound  to  come  to  h'm 
who  is  prepared  to  meet  the  new  professional  standards, 
or  at  least  who  holds  the  larger  outlook  and  deeper 
training  for  the  coming  years. 


Conservation  of  Fuel 

THE  Government  has  asked  that  every  true  Ameri- 
can conserve  as  much  as  possible  the  fuel  which 
is  so  necessary  to  the  effective  conduct  of  the  war.  It 
should  be  considered  the  patriotic  duty  of  every  engi- 
neer and  fireman  to  see  that  the  last  elusive  B.t.u.  in 
the  coal  he  burns,  is  harnessed  and  made  to  do  its 
share  of  the  work  his  plant  is  engaged  in. 

There  is  little  doubt  but  that  many  seekers  after 
personal  gain  will  attempt  to  use  this  plea  of  the  Gov- 
ernment to  further  their  own  selfish   interests. 

We  may  expect  a  revival  of  ash-burning  schemes  and 
similar  fakes,  as  well  as  a  greater  effort  on  the  part 
of  those  who  sell  more  legitimate  apparatus,  intended 
to  economize  fuel,  to  increase  their  sales. 

While  every  device  and  improvement  that  will  re- 
duce coal  consumption  is  exceptionally  desirable  at  this 
time,  production  is  hampered  by  lack  of  man-power, 
transportation  is  clogged,  and  the  engineer  should 
realize  that  the  saving  he  can  make  without  the  outlay 
of  money  is  the  kind  that  counts  most. 

If  your  employer's  money  is  spent  without  a  very 
considerable  return  in  the  way  of  fuel  saving,  the 
ends  of  the  Government  are  more  certainly  defeated 
than  if  no  change  was  made.  Every  cent  saved  in 
the  purchase  of  nonessentials  and  applied  to  the  pur- 
chase of  necessary  things  makes  a  balance  of  two  cents 
on  the  right  side  of  your  plant  account.  This  is  the 
kind  of  saving  that  will  do  the  Government,  as  well  as 
the  "Boss,"  the  most  good  at  this  time.  Such  saving 
may  be  made  by  the  proper  use  of  the  tools  at  hand. 
The  common  ways  that  fuel  is  wasted  in  the  boiler  room 
are  by  improper  firing  methods,  dirty  boilers  and  leaky 
settings  and  piping.  These  wasteful  defects  may  all 
be  corrected  in  the  average  plant  without  any  con- 
siderable outlay  in  money.  Generally,  where  two  or 
more  boilers  are  used,  the  failure  to  balance  the  draft 
properly   between  them   is   a  serious   source  of  waste. 

It  is  a  simple  matter  to  see  that  the  dampers  are 
adjusted  so  that  the  proper  amount  of  fuel  is  burned 
under  each  boiler  to  make  it  do  its  share  of  the  work 
in  accordance  with  its  size.  In  connection  with  the 
efficient  operation  of  boilers  it  should  be  remembei-ed 
that  while  it  is  necessaiy  that  the  boilers  be  kept  clean 


92 


P  0  W  E  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


internally — and  that  this  is  also  necessary  from  the 
standpoint  of  safety — the  greatest  returns  in  fuel 
saving  are  secured  from  the  careful  cleaning  of  the 
surfaces  in  contact  with  the  gases.  This  is  especially 
so  with  those  surfaces  in  contact  with  gases  of  lower 
temperature,  such  as  the  tube  surfaces  in  the  horizontal- 
tubular  boiler.  Soot  is  liable  to  collect  on  such  sur- 
faces, and  there  are  probably  few  substances  that  are 
better  nonconductors  of  heat  than  soot.  Clean  the 
tubes  out  at  least  once  every  day  and  watch  results  at 
the  coal  pile.  This  is  hard,  dirty  work,  but  you  will 
derive  satisfaction  from  the  fact  that  you  are  perform- 
ing a  patriotic  duty  in  saving  fuel  without  an  outlay  of 
money,  which  counts  at  both  ends.  Tell  the  "Chief"  of 
your  patriotic  ambition  to  save  fuel  in  this  time  of  need, 
and  he  will  no  doubt  cooperate  with  you  and  see  that 
you  are  given  necessary  assistance. 


Must  Efficient  Managerr  ent  Be 
the  Most  Expens've? 

IN  A  recent  hearing  before  one  of  the  public-utility 
commissions  of  New  England  the  opponents  of  a  rate 
increase  urged  that  a  more  efficient  and  less  expensive 
administration  would  solve  many  of  the  problems  under 
consideration. 

The  relation  between  efficiency  and  cost  of  manage- 
ment is  a  question  of  much  interest.  It  comes  directly 
home  to  the  operating  executive  of  the  power  plant,  and 
many  an  engineer  knows  that  his  employer's  ideas  on 
this  subject  are  in  need  of  revision. 

In  a  nutshell,  the  issue  raised  is  whether  the  cheapest 
service  is  the  best.  Translated  into  power-plant  en- 
gineering, it  is  simply  a  question  of  getting  service  out 
of  the  station  of  lowest  cost  and  out  of  the  poorest-paid 
staff,  and  deluding  oneself  that  the  combination  repre- 
sents maximum  efficiency.  There  are  low-paid  station 
organizations  accomplishing  wonders  with  equipment 
that  represents  anything  but  the  most  modern  designs, 
it  is  true.  There  are  also  administrations  that  may  well 
be  looked  upon  as  extravagant  by  the  less  fortunately 
circumstanced.  Admit  all  this,  and  still  the  fact  re- 
mains that  A-1,  first-class,  top-notch  service  costs  real 
money.  Here  is  the  point:  That  service  is  the  best 
which  costs  least  per  unit,  taking  all  the  factors  into 
account — not  merely  operating  expenses,  but  fixed 
charges,  and  in  addition  to  these,  quality  of  output  with 
respect  to  regularity  and  reliability. 

Now,  management  is  only  one  factor,  though  a  most 
important  one,  in  this  total  cost,  in  this  minimum  unit 
cost  which  represents  the  best  performance  of  the  in- 
vestment and  its  personnel.  In  a  narrow  sense  efficient 
management  costs  more  than  cheap  administration;  in 
the  long  run  and  in  a  broad  sense  it  costs  far  less.  It 
all  comes  down  to  "making  good."  If  by  paying  higher 
salaries  and  wages  the  cost  of  production,  taking  all 
items  into  account,  decreases  per  unit  of  output,  there 
can  be  but  one  answer  to  the  question  at  the  head  of 
this  article,  and  that  answer  is  "No."  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  unit  cost  of  output  is  found  in  a  given  case 
to  be  higher  in  toto  with  a  poorly  paid  staff  and  cor- 
respondingly lower  total  payroll,  the  answer  is:  "Pay 
enough  to  secure  and  maintain  an  efficient  administra- 


tion ;  measure  results  not  by  total  outlay  but  by  cost  per 
unit,  and  everyone  will  be  better  off."  Maximum  ef- 
ficiency, of  course,  is  costly,  but  if  the  conditions  de- 
mand maximum  efficiency  or  the  nearest  approach  to  it 
that  can  be  realized,  anything  less  may  be  utter  extrava- 
gance, or  money  thrown  away. 


Giving  Credence  to  Rumors 

RUMORS  are  rife  these  days  regarding  mismanage- 
ment in  this,  that  and  the  other  thing,  all  of  which 
are  detrimental  to  the  country  as  a  whole  regardless  of 
whether  they  are  true  or  not. 

In  the  Eastern  States  the  public  recently  indulged  in 
excitement  because  of  the  rumor  of  a  salt  shortage, 
which  does  not  exist.  The  real  shortage  of  sugar,  the 
cause  of  which  is  debatable,  has  given  the  rumormonger 
an  opportunity  to  howl  calamity  and  foster  in  a  small 
measure  discontent  in  the  minds  of  many  householders; 
the  coal  shortage  has  produced  a  state  of  mind  in  others 
bordering  on  a  panic;  and  so  it  goes. 

There  will  doubtless  be  other  real  and  imaginary 
shortages  that  the  American  public  will  experience  be- 
fore the  war  is  over,  and  it  is  about  time  that  we  be- 
gan to  realize  that  our  manner  of  living  must  be 
changed  to  meet  the  conditions  brought  about  by  our 
country  entering  into  war  against  Germany.  What  can- 
not be  cured  must  be  endured  in  this  country,  as  it  is 
in  others  that  are  not  so  well  off  as  ourselves. 

An  American  just  returned  from  France,  after  serv- 
ing with  the  French  at  the  front,  said  that  he  had  heard 
more  grumbling  over  a  little  sugar  shortage  since  re- 
turning to  America  than  he  had  heard  regarding  con- 
ditions in  general  during  his  entire  service  in  France. 
That  the  American  people  are  gullible  in  some  respects 
is  well  known,  and  they  are  prone  to  swallow  almost 
anything  that  is  put  before  them  without  waiting  for 
the  proof  of  the  pudding. 

For  instance,  public  statements  have  been  made  to  the 
effect  that  anthracite  coal,  of  which  there  has  been  a  real 
shortage  in  New  York  and  other  cities,  has  been  de- 
livered to  the  army  cantonments  in  excessive  supplies 
and  that  it  is  being  wasted.  As  a  result  of  these  reports 
the  Anthracite  Operators'  Committee  has  made  an  in- 
vestigation through  its  secretary,  E.  W.  Parker,  who 
visited  Camps  Merritt,  Dix  and  Upton,  and  his  findings 
are  given  in  a  statement  signed  by  F.  W.  Warringer, 
Chairman  of  the  Operators'  Committee,  as  follows: 

Referring  to  reported  waste  of  anthracite,  Mr.  Parker 
says  that  the  quantity  of  coal  wasted  has  been  negligible, 
and  where  it  has  been  scattered  some  distance  from  the 
car,  care  has  been  taken  to  gather  it  up  and  reshovel  it 
into  the  piles. 

Mr.  Parker  reports  that  only  on  one  occasion  at  any  of 
the  camps,  and  then  owing  to  a  washout  on  the  spur  track 
leading  to  the  cantonment,  was  there  any  congestion  in  the 
delivery  of  anthracite  or  the  return  of  empty  cars.  His 
judgment  is  that  anthracite  is  being  delivered  at  the  can- 
tonments in  no  greater  amounts  than  is  necessary  nor 
faster  than  it  should  be  to  keep  a  safe  forward  supply,  also 
that  it  is  being  received  witli  regularity. 

The  probabilities  are  that  many  such  rumors  will, 
when  investigated,  prove  to  be  without  foundation,  and 
all  Americans  should  give  scant  attention  to  them,  as 
they  are  doubtless  started  with  a  purpose  on  the  part 
of  someone  who  is  interested  in  creating  discontert  in 
the  minds  of  the  people. 


.lanuarv   15.  1918  POWER  93 

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Correspondence 


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KXD  VIEW   OF  TWIST 
DRITJ, 


Drilling  Metal  by   Hand   Power 

Occasions  frequently  arise  in  the  course  of  an  engi- 
neer's duties  when  holes  must  be  drilled  by  hand  for  all 
sorts  of  purposes,  from  an  air  vent  in  a  pipe  or  radiator 
to  drilling  out  a  broken  stud.  The  job  can  often  be 
finished  with  a  breast  drill  or  an  ordinary  bit  brace 
before  the  conventional  ratchet  and  "old  man"  equip- 
ment can  be  rigged  up — and  without  any  great  physical 
effort.  The  one  thing  necessary  is  to  drill  a  small  hole 
first,  followed  with  the  large  drill  and  if  necessary  with 
intermediate  sizes  until  the  finishing  size  can  be  oper- 
ated easily.    The  philosophy  of  the  thing  is  simply  that 

the  center  or  flat  part  of  a 
drill  cannot  cut  the  metal;  it 
only  scrapes  it  off  when  great 
pressure  is  exerted  to  force  it 
down  and  the  larger  the  drill 
the  wider  this  flat  point  is. 
Therefore  if  a  hole  is  first 
drilled  that  is  equal  in  diam- 
eter to  the  width  of  the  "nose" 
of  the  larger  drill,  the  pres- 
sure required  to  make  the 
drill  "bite"  will  be  compara- 
tively little.  Try  it  and  see. 
Another  advantage  of  drill- 
ing a  small  hole  first  is  the 
fact  that  a  drill  cannot  cut 
"oversize"  when  not  ground  evenly,  as  it  otherwise  will. 
As  to  the  reason  for  choosing  a  brace  against  a  geared 
breast  drill,  the  latter  is  usually  geared  for  speed  and 
the  drill  cuttings  are  necessarily  thin — mere  scrapings 
— because  the  turning  power  is  limited,  but  with  a  long- 
sweep  brace  the  leverage  is  greater  and  heavier  chips 
can  be  cut  out.  In  other  words,  it  takes  more  strength 
to  remove  the  metal  in  pulverized  form  than  in  chips  of 
reasonable  size.  In  using  a  ratchet  drill  about  one- 
third  of  the  time  and  eflfort  is  lost  on  the  return  or  non- 
cutting  stroke.  A  geared  drill — geared  down — is  a  whole 
lot  better  because  the  full  sweep  is  utilized.  A  small 
blacksmith  drill  press  can  often  be  utilized  if  bolted 
to  a  light  timber  of  convenient  length  to  block  in  place. 
Frequently  an  old  flat  drill  is  considered  good  enough 
for  use  in  a  ratchet,  while  twist  drills  are  cheap  and  so 
much  better  that  they  should  be  procured  if  possible 
— at  least  up  to  a  reasonable  size — and  the  flat  drill  used 
only  for  large  or  odd-sized  jobs.  J.  Lewis. 

New  York  City. 


Ammeters  Were  Reversed 

Indicating  ammeters  and  voltmeters  of  the  perma- 
nent-magnet type  will  indicate  the  polarity  of  the  volt- 
age that  is  applied  to  them.  This  is  because  a  reversal 
of  the  external  polarity  reverses  the  flux  of  the  mov- 
able coil,  but  does  not  reverse  that  of  the  permanent 


magnet.  Therefore  a  reversal  of  the  polarity  of  the 
source  reverses  the  throw  of  the  needle  for  the  same  rea- 
son that  interchanging  the  field  or  the  armature  con- 
nections of  a  direct-current  motor  reverses  the  direction 
of  rotation  of  the  armature.  Meters  of  other  than  the 
foregoing  type  will  not  indicate  the  reversal  of  the  polar- 
ity of  the  source  to  which  they  are  connected,  for  such 
changes  reverse  the  fluxes  of  both  the  controlling  and 
the  deflecting  fields,  leaving  the  polarity  relations  of 
the  two  fluxes  the  same  as  they  were  before  the  reversal, 
for  the  same  reason  that  reversing  the  line  connections 
of  a  d.c.  motor  does  not  affect  its  direction  of  rotation. 

If  a  direct-current  generator  in  normal  operation 
has  imposed  upon  it  suddenly  sufficient  overload  to 
greatly  reduce  the  speed  of  its  prime  mover,  the  polarity 
of  the  generator  may  become  reversed.  The  reason  for 
the  reversal  is  that  at  low  speed  and  heavy  current,  the 
voltage  on  the  shunt  field  is  low,  which  decreases  the 
flux  from  the  field  poles  where  the  reaction  of  the  heavy 
armature  current  is  able  to  reverse  the  magnetism  of 
the  polepieces,  before  the  circuit-breaker  acts  to  relieve 
the  situation. 

An  operator  complained  that  the  two  ammeters  used 
with  two  generators  that  were  operated  in  parallel  had 
reversed,  although  the  voltmeter  used  for  paralleling 
the  machines  had  not.  An  inspector  investigated  and 
found  that  the  voltmeter  was  of  the  separately  excited 
type  while  the  ammeters  were  of  the  permanent-magnet 
type;  therefore  what  had  happened  was  to  be  expected 
under  the  circumstances,  which  were  as  follows:  A 
few  days  previous  the  generators  had  been  subjected  to 
an  overload  so  heavy  that  the  governors  had  tripped  out 
the  waterwheels  driving  the  generators.  It  was  then 
that  the  polarity  of  the  generators  had  been  reversed 
and  for  the  reasons  just  given.  As  there  was  no  ob- 
jection to  the  reversed  polarity,  the  ammeter  leads  were 
reversed  on  the  instrument  shunts  in  order  to  make  the 
needles  deflect  in  the  proper  direction. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  E.  C.  Parham. 

[Where  the  polarity  of  a  direct-current  generator 
is  reversed  when  a  heavy  short-circuit  occurs,  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  the  reversed  polarity  is  due  to 
armature  reactance  alone.  When  a  generator  slows 
down,  which  is  supplying  a  motor  load  that  has  consid- 
erable inertia,  the  mechanical  load  drives  the  motors 
as  dynamos,  and  they  in  turn  supply  a  reversed  current 
through  the  series-field  windings  of  the  generator, 
which  in  many  cases  is  heavy  enough  to  reverse  the 
polarity  of  the  latter. — Editor.  | 

Publicity  About  Turbine  Accidents 

Referring  to  the  article  by  C.  H.  Camp  regarding  tur- 
bine accidents,  published  in  Poioer  for  Nov.  20,  1917,  I 
wish  to  state  that  he  has  been  misinformed  about  the 
Port  Huron  Electric  Co.  No  such  accident  ever  occurred 
to  my  knowledge,  and  1  have  been  here  for  some  time. 

Port  Huron.  Mich.  D.  J.  Richards. 


94 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  '6 


Poorly  Designed  Bull  Ring 

It  was  recently  necessary  to  put  a  new  bull  ring 
in  an  engine,  and  when  it  arrived  it  was  found  to  be 
made  about  as  shown  in  the  sketch  A.  The  skeleton 
form  was  designed  for  lightness  and  was  made  with 
cross-bridges  to  support  the  keys  and  to  strengthen 
and  stiffen  the  ring.  It  will  be  seen  that  between  the 
bridges  pockets  are  formed  which  extend  under  the  top 
of  the  bridge  about  ';  in.,  thus  making  a  receptacle  for 
scale  and  core  sand,  which  is  difficult  to  remove.  Al- 
though care  was  taken  to  clean  out  these  pockets  by 
means  of  chisel,  scrapers,  brushes  and  air  blast,  trouble 


TWO  DESIGNS  OF  BULL  RINGS 

developed  soon  after  the  engine  was  started,  and  upon 
the  ring  being  removed,  it  was  found  that  a  small 
amount  of  grit  had  been  loosened  by  the  action  of 
heat  and  cylinder  oil,  thus  causing  the  cylinder  to  be 
badly  cut  and  scored. 

Had  the  ring  been  constructed  as  shown  at  B,  all 
particles  of  sand  or  grit  could  have  been  scraped  out 
easily  and  considerable  time  and  expense  saved.  The 
ring  would  have  been  but  little  heavier,  and  it  would 
have  been  easier  to  mold.  Charles  W.  Oakley. 

Passaic,  N.  J. 

Lamp  Test  Indicated  a  Ground 

Each  of  the  three  conductors  of  a  three-phase  three- 
wire  service  involves  two  of  the  phases  of  the  circuit, 
and  an  open-circuit  in  any  one  of  the  three  wires  will 
interrupt  two  of  the  phases.  With  only  one  phase  ac- 
tive, there  will  be  no  phase  rotation,  therefore  a  three- 
phase  motor  will  be  unable  to  start  if  connected  to  the 
circuit. 

The  figure  shows  the  line  circuit  for  a  220-volt  three- 
phase  motor,  which  was  complained  of  because  it  could 
not  be  started.  The  two  sets  of  fuses  shown  were  active 
on  both  positions  of  the  starting  compensatoi-.  A  test 
with  a  220-volt  lamp  showed  that  the  middle  fuse  lo- 
cated at  the  transformers  about  200  ft.  away  from  the 
motor,  was  blown.  The  test  lamp  would  light  when  ap- 
plied across  lines  1  and  3,  but  would  only  glow  dimly 
when  applied  to  1  and  2  or  to  2  and  3.  The  motor 
trouble  was  a  plain  case  of  single-phase  operation  which 
was  remedied  by  replacing  the  blown  fuse.  The  fuses 
at  A  and  B  were  all  of  60-amp.  capacity  and  a  fuse  was 
as  liable  to  blow  at  B,  which  was  inaccessible,  as  at  A, 
which  was  immediately  above  the  motor.  In  order  to 
insure  that  the  next  fuse  would  blow  in  a  convenient 
place,  45-amp.  fuses  were  substituted  for  the  60-amp. 
fuses  at  A. 


As  pointed  out  in  the  foregoing,  when  testing  for 
voltage  the  lamp  showed  an  appreciable  glow  when  held 
across  conductors  1  and  2  or  2  and  3 ;  this  suggested  the 
existence  of  a  leak  to  ground.    The  operator  spent  some 


fuses 


Fuses 


THREE-PHASE-MOTOR  LINE  CIRCUIT 

time  in  trying  to  locate  a  ground,  when  he  happened  to 
think  of  the  watt-hour  nieter,  the  connections  of  the 
potential  coils  of  which  are  indicated  at  P.     On  dis- 
connecting the  potential  coils,  all  wires  tested  clear. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  E.  C.  Parham. 

Reducer    for   Gas   Burners 

In  a  boiler  plant  using  natural  gas  as  fuel  it  some- 
times becomes  necessary  to  turn  the  gas  very  low,  often 
resulting  in  the  gas  firing  back  into  the  burners,  or 
to  run  with  one  burner  nearly  full  on.  which  is  un- 
desirable and  likely  to  deposit  sediment  in  a  form  that 
causes  blistering  or  bagging.  To  overcome  this  I  hit 
upon  the  idea  of  reducing  the  nozzle  of  the  burners 
from  5  to  3  in.  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. 

No.  20  gage  galvanized  iron  was  used  to  form 
a  funnel-shaped  reducer  to  fit  into  the  regular  burner 


NOZZLE  OF  iJAS  BURNER  REDUCED 

with  three  or  four  strips  ^  in.  wide  riveted  on  in  the 
manner  shown,  to  center  the  small  end.  A  handle  is 
also  provided  to  insert  and  remove  the  reducer.  By 
using  these  reducers,  it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  gas 
so  that  three  burners  can  be  kept  going  in  place  of 
one,  giving  a  better  distribution  of  heat  and  a  more 
economical  mixture  than  could  be  obtained  with  the 
large  burner  burning  low  without  the  reducer. 
Calgary,  Alta.,  Canada.  W.  H.  Dance. 


.(aiuiary   15.  1018 


POWER 


95 


Relievinjy  Side  Strain  on  Studs 

To  keep  studs  or  gland  bolts  from  breaking  from  side 
strain,  I  make  a  washer  a  loose  fit  over  the  bolt  and  flat 
on  one  side  but  concave  on  the  other.  The  nut  is  then 
made  convex  to  fit  the  hollow  side  of  the  washer,  form- 


NUT    AXD    WASHER    FORM    A    BALT> 
AND    SOCKET    JOINT 


ing  a  ball  joint.  The  washer  will  slide  one  way  or  the 
other  and  adjust  itself  to  the  pull  so  that  the  stud  does 
not  bend  repeatedly  and  finally  break.  The  illustration 
shows  the  shape  of  the  nut  and  special  washer  as  de- 
scribed. R.  A.  Davidson. 
Colton,  Calif. 

Ammonia-Compressor  Diagrams  for 
Discussion 

The  indicator  diagrams  shown   in   Figs.    1   to  4  are 
from  a  10-ton  Wolf-Linde  ammonia  compressor,  9i  x  15 


Grouting  in  an  Engine  Bedplate 

Sometimes  the  hollow  bedplates  of  machinery  will 
move  slightly  on  the  foundation  if  insufficiently  grouted, 
and  cases  of  this  kind  are  aggravating  and  difficult  to 
correct.  The  usual  cause  is  that  the  grout  was  not 
forced  into  all  the  interstices  under  the  heavy  casting, 


SHole   'Mff 


^^'^^z^^i'f^^^^^i^^^^^^^^^^M^^^^^^ 


"^A 


7^  y^/w> 

OROIIT    POITRED    INSIDE    Op    HOLLOW    BEDPLATE 

consequently  there  is  not  sufficient  bearing  surface.  One 
way  to  correct  such  a  defect  is  to  drill  a  hole,  about 
two  inches  diameter,  in  the  top  of  the  bed  and  another 
for  an  air  vent  and  pour  in  grout  enough  to  fill  the 
inside  of  the  bedplate  to  a  depth  of  several  inches.  This 
will  usually  stop  any  motion  of  the  frame  on  the  founda- 
tion. D.  R.  Shearer. 
Johnson  City,  Tenn. 

Insufficient  Protection  Around 
Flywheel 

In  a  station  that  I  visited  recently,  there  was  an 
immense  flywheel  in  motion  just  at  the  end  of  a  run- 
way, about  six  inches  from  the  end  of  the  walk,   the 


CRANK  END 


rlO.l 


CRANK   END 


no.3 


H£AD  PKSSUPe=  aoib-  0A6C 
dACK  •  =    16  ■■       ■■ 

TCMPCRAWK  AT  SUCTION  or    ca'f 
COMPRESSOR  ANDATMACmm' 


HEADPPESSURC'lJBIb  OAiT 
dACK         ■•        -  24  ■•     •■ 
TrnPCPATURC  AT  SUCTION  OF 
COMPESSOP  ANDATMACHIW 


MEAD  END 


ricn4 

FIGS.  1  TO  4.     .VMMONIA-COMPRESSOR  DIAGR.V.MS  FOR    DISCUSSION 


in.,   running  at  80  r.p.m.   normally,  and  motor-driven. 

1   shall   be  pleased  to  have   readers   of   Power  discuss 
the  diagrams.  J.  c.  Harrison. 

El  Campo,   Tex. 


floor  being  about  level  with  the  hub  of  the  wheel.    There 

was  a  single  wooden  handrail  around  it,  nailed  to  the 

top  of  posts,  leaving  the  whole  space  below  unguarded. 

The  engineer  in  charge  said  that  one  man  had  slipped 


96 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


into  this  wheel,  but  no  better  protection  had  been  placed 
there  to  prevent  anyone  else  from  meeting  with  a  similar 
accident.  Failure  to  improve  conditions  after  one  such 
accident  seems  like  gross  negligence. 

Philadelphia,  Penn.  W.  H.  Nostan. 


Babbitt  Templet  for  Thread  Size 

Following  is  a  .shop  kink  that  may  be  of  interest  to 
readers  of  Poiuer.  1  recently  bought  a  set  of  new  f-in. 
studs  for  the  water  valves  of  a  duplex  pump,  but  the 
threads  had   not  been  cut  deep  enough  to   screw   into 


TEMPLET  MADE  BY  POURING  BABBITT 
AROUND  OLD  STUD 

the  seats  properly  and  as  they  were  special  threads  it 
was  necessary  to  "chase"  them  in  a  lathe.  The  pump 
could  not  be  spared  from  service  long,  and  the  question 
arose  as  to  how  we  would  know  when  they  were  "chased" 
to  the  proper  depth.  This  was  solved  by  boring  a  li-in. 
hole  in  a  wood  block  to  the  depth  of  the  threaded  por- 
tion of  the  studs.  The  threaded  portion  of  an  old  stud 
was  then  set  in  the  hole  in  the  block  and  melted  babbitt 
poured  around  it.  When  it  had  cooled,  the  stud  was 
backed  out,  leaving  a  templet  of  the  thread  in  the  metal, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  new  threads,  cut 
to  fit  this  templet,  fit  perfectly  in  the  valve  seats. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.  C.  B.  Hudson. 

Induction  Motor  Heated 

When  a  three-phase  induction  motor  of  standard  de- 
sign has  trouble  that  causes  abnormal  heating  even 
when  the  motor  apparently  is  operating  without  any 
connected  load,  the  source  of  disturbance  very  likely  will 
be  unbalanced  voltage,  which  may  be  determined  by  con- 
necting a  voltmeter  across  the  different  phases,  or  an 
ammeter  is  successively  connected  into  the  different  sup- 
ply wires.  If  under  such  conditions  the  readings  prove 
to  be  balanced,  the  motor  either  is  not  what  the  name- 
plate  calls  for  or  the  seat  of  trouble  is  elsewhere. 

The  operator  of  a  motor-generator  set  which  consisted 
of  a  three-phase  induction  motor  coupled  to  a  shunt- 
wound  dii-ect-current  generator,  complained  that  the 
motor  got  so  hot  as  to  smoke  even  when  the  generator 
was  carrying  no  load.  An  inspector  was  sent  to  in- 
vestigate and  by  means  of  an  ammeter  and  a  voltmeter 
determined  that  there  was  nothing  the  matter  with  the 
motor  as  far  as  the  meter  readings  would  indicate. 
*^  During  the  taking  of  the  no-load  readings  of  the 
motor,   the   generator   was   entirely    disconnected    elec- 


trically and  therefore  could  not  even  excite  its  field 
poles.  In  order  to  determine  whether  the  proposed  field 
connections  were  correct  for  the  given  direction  of  ro- 
tation, the  inspector  held  the  free  field  terminal  to  one 
of  the  armature  terminals.  Almost  immediately  the 
character  of  the  noise  that  was  emitted  by  the  set 
changed,  and  it  was  evident  from  the  drop  in  the  speed 
that  the  motor  was  heavily  overloaded.  Shutting  down 
the  set  and  feeling  of  the  generator's  armature  disclosed 
that  it  was  very  hot.  Inspection  revealed  that  the  gen- 
erator-bearing lining  on  the  commutator  end  was  melted 
and  had  been  for  some  time.  As  long  as  the  generator 
was  not  excited,  the  bolted  coupling  was  able  to  hold  the 
armature  free  from  the  polepieces;  on  exciting  the  field 
coils,  however,  the  armature  was  pulled  against  the 
polepieces,  thereby  creating  a  most  efficient  brake,  which 
overloaded  the  motor.  E.  C.  Parham. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Receiver  Eliminates  Moisture 

The  illustration  shows  a  home-made  air  receiver, 
connected  to  a  Westinghouse  air  compressor,  which  has 
been  found  efficient  in  separating  the  moisture  from 
the  air.  No  moisture  is  perceptible  on  the  hand  held 
within  four  inches  of  the  end  of  the  service  pipe  with 
the  valve  wide  open.  The  headers  were  originally  used 
on  an  ammonia  pipe  system  and  are  made  of  2j-in. 
pipe  with  lugs  or  saddles  for  11  pipe  attached.  The 
size  is  of  no  great  importance  except  that  the  air 
velocity  through  the  connecting  pipes  should  be  low. 
The  construction  may  be  easily  understood  by  referring 
to  the  illustration.  The  air  from  this  compressor  is 
used  in  four  "dry"  sprinkler  systems  and  one  "wet" 
system  and  also  for  '"blowing  out"  the  generators,  so 


Service  Line 


Drain 


AHl    RECEIVER   MADE   PROM   OLD   AMMONIA    PIPINO 

it  is  highly  desirable  that  the  air  be  as  free  from  mois- 
ture as  possible.  The  result  has  been  so  satisfactory 
that  I  want  to  pass  the  suggestion  along. 

Quincy,  111.  C.  L.  BOYLE. 


Have  you  been  appointed  supervisor  of  illumination 
in  your  mill  or  building?  Maybe  you  have  not  advised 
the  boss  that  one  is  necessary,  though  your  observation 
of  the  charts  and  meters  tell  you  there  is. 


January  15,  1918  POWER  97 

gjiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim 

Inquiries  of  General  Interest  I 


illlllllll I Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illllllll I IMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMUIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllllllllllllinil MIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIMIIlllll MIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIII^ 


Working  Pressures  for  Pipe.  Valves  and  P'ittings — What 
is  the  safe  workiiiK  steam  pressure  for  standard  and  extra- 
heavy  pipe,  valves  and  fittings  ?  S.  E. 

'"Stiindard"  pipe,  valves  and  fittings  are  assumed  to  be 
suitable  for  working  steam  pressures  not  in  excess  of  125 
lb.  per  sq.in.  and  "extra  heavy"  pipe,  valves  and  fittings 
are  assumed  to  be  suitable  for  working  steam  pressures  to 
250  lb.  per  square  inch. 

Fluctuation   of    Electric    Pump-Pressure    Regulator — The 

operation  of  an  electrically  driven  pump  is  very  irregular 
on  account  of  hammering  of  the  pump  that  causes  continual 
fluctuations  of  the  pressure  regulator  and  making  and 
bi-eaking  of  the  electric  circuit.    How  can  this  be  remedied  ? 

E.  E.  F. 
The  pump  discharge  should  be  provided  with  an  air  cham- 
ber for   equalizing   the   discharge   pi-essure,   and   the   pres- 
sure connection  to  the  regulator  should  be  throttled  so  as 
to  dampen  the  pulsations. 

Beveling   of   Safety-Valve    Seat   at    Angle   of   45    Deg. — 

Why  is  a  safety  valve  beveled  at  an  angle  of  45  deg.  ? 

C.  \.  S. 
Valve  seats  are  straight-beveled  or  rounded,  to  afford 
better  facilities  for  grinding  the  valve  to  its  seat.  Beveling 
at  approximately  45  deg.  gives  a  good  fomi  for  a  beveled 
seat  and  that  angle  probably  is  easier  than  any  other  for 
manufacturers  to  obtain  and  duplicate.  The  adoption  of 
45  deg.  as  a  standard  is  purely  conventional.  Any  other 
bevel  might  be  taken  as  a  standard  for  safety  valves,  pro- 
vided the  rated  discharge  capacities  of  diffei-ent  diameters 
are  based  upon  a  specified  lift  and  angle  of  beveling. 

Saving    by    Increase    of    Feed-Water    Temperature — For 

generation  of  the  same  amount  of  steam  at  100  lb.  per  sq.in. 
boiler  pressure,  what  per  cent,  of  coal  should  be  saved  by 
increasing  the  temperature  of  the  boiler-feed  water  from 
50  deg.  F.  to  150  deg.  F.  ?  F.  B. 

Each  pound  of  the  steam  genei-ated  at  100  lb.  boiler 
pressure,  or  115  lb.  per  sq.in.  absolute,  would  contain  1188.8 
B.t.u.  above  32  deg.  F.,  and  conversion  of  each  pound  of  the 
feed  water  from  50  deg.  F.  into  steam  at  the  pressure  would 
require  1188.8  -f  32  —  50  =  1170.8  B.t.u.  With  the  feed 
water  at  150  deg.  F.  each  pound  of  the  feed  water  would  con- 
tain 100  B.t.u.  more  than  when  the  temperature  of  feed 
water  is  50  deg.  F.  Hence  for  each  pound  of  the  feed 
water  at  150  deg.  F.  generated  into  steam,  there  would  be 
a  saving  of  100  -=-  1170.8  =  0.0853,  or  about  SVz  per  cent. 

Objections  to  High   Initial   Pressure  with   Light   Load — 

What  are  the  objections  to  operating  a  noncondensing  Cor- 
liss engine  with  high  initial  pressure  for  caiTying  a  light 
load  with  very  short  cutoff?  W.  H.  C. 

For  given  variations  of  load  the  required  range  of  gov- 
ernor action  will  be  less  and  there  will  be  greater  hunting- 
action  of  the  governor,  accompanied  by  less  regularity  of 
speed,  and  for  derangement  of  the  valve  gear  the  engine 
is  more  likely  to  race  from  a  high  than  from  a  low  initial 
pressure  with  a  light  load.  There  also  will  be  less  uni- 
formity of  rotation  during  one  i-evolution.  Unless  com- 
pression is  adapted  to  the  conditions,  the  percentage  of 
clearance  waste  will  be  higher,  because  there  will  be  the 
same  volume  of  clearance  space  steam  of  greater  density. 
When  the  initial  pressure  is  high,  with  cutoff  so  short  that 
expansion  occurs  down  to  or  below  atmospheric  pressure, 
the  rush  of  air  into  the  cylinder  when  the  exhaust  opens 
results  in  cylinder  cooling  that  is  detrimental  to  economy 
and  usually  is  accompanied  by  clattering  of  the  exhaust 
valves  and  injury  to  the  exhaust  valves  and  their  seats. 


Heat  Value  of  Fuel  and  Theoretical  Evaporation — What 
is  meant  by  the  heat  value  of  a  fuel  and  the  theoretical 
evaporation  per  pound  of  the  fuel  ?  J.  H.  H. 

The  heat  value  of  the  fuel  is  the  number  of  British  ther- 
mal units  that  would  be  realized  by  theoretically  com- 
plete combustion  of  a  pound  of  the  fuel,  a  British  thermal 
unit  (usually  designated  by  the  abbreviation  B.t.u.)  being 
'/i«„  of  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  lb.  of  water 
from  32  deg.  F.  to  212  deg.  P.,  though  in  most  practical 
computations  1  B.t.u.  is  roughly  taken  as  equal  to  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  required  to  raise  1  lb.  of  water  1  deg.  F  When 
no  other  conditions  are  stated,  evaporation  is  understood  to 
refer  to  evaporation  from  water  at  212  deg.  F.  and  at 
atmospheric  pressure,  commonly  expressed  as  "evaporation 
from  and  at  212  deg.  F."  Evaporation  of  1  lb.  of  water 
from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  requires  the  latent  heat  of  evap- 
oration, or  970.4  B.t.u.  If  a  fuel  has  a  heat  value  of  14,000 
B.t.u.  per  pound,  the  theoretical  evaporation  from  and  at 
212  deg.  F.  would  be  14,000  ^  970.4  =  14.42  lb.  of  water 
per  pound  of  the  fuel.  On  account  of  losses  of  the  fuel 
through  the  grates,  imperfect  combustion,  losses  of  heat  by 
ladiation  and  heat  wasted  in  the  chimney  gases,  the  actual 
evaporation,  or  evaporative  efficiency  of  boilers,  is  only 
50  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical,  depending  on  the  type 
of  boiler  and  other  conditions. 

Water  Delivered  by  4-In.  Pipe — What  number  of  gallons 
per  hour  will  pass  through  a  4-in.  pipe  about  1  mile  long 
with  the  pressure  at  the  entrance  90  lb.  per  sq.in.  and  with 
discharge  taking  place  against  a  pressure  of  45  lb.  per 
sq.in.;  and  what  would  be  the  velocity  in  feet  per  minute? 

D.  T. 

The  velocity  of  flow  will  depend  on  the  i-oughness  of  the 
interior  pipe  surface  from  construction,  corrosion  and  in- 
crustation. Darcy's  formula  for  loss  of  head  in  new  cast- 
iron  pipe  reduced   to   English  measures  is 


»  =  (..:s.+»«»-)lx| 


2g 

in  which 

/(  =  Loss  of  head  due  to  friction,  in  feet; 
d  =  Internal  diameter  of  pipe  in  feet; 
V  =  Velocity  per  second  in  feet; 
/  =  Length  of  pipe  in  feet; 
2g  =  64.32. 
In  the  problem,  the  loss  of  head  due  to  friction  is  90  — 
45   =   45  lb.,  or  45    X    2.309    -   about   104  ft.;   d   =    K  ft. 
and  I  =  5280  ft.    The  velocity  is  to  be  found  by  substituting 
the  given  values  of  d  and  /,  and,  by  assuming  different  ve- 
locities, determining  the  value  for  v  which  will  most  nearly 
satisfy  the  equation.     In  the  example  the  nearest  velocity 
will  be  about  4.09  ft.  per  sec.  or  245.4  ft.  per  min.     As  the 
cross-sectional  area  of  4-in.  pipe  is  12.566  sq.in.,  the  flow 
4  X  4  X  0.7854  x  245.4  x  12  X  60 

per    hour    would    be = 

231 
9611  gal.  for  new  4-in.  cast-iron  pipe. 

For  pipes  that  have  been  in  use  under  average  condi- 
tions h  in  the  formula  is  to  be  multiplied  by  about  1.25  for 
5  years'  service,  by  about  1.5  for  10  years'  service  and  by 
about  1.75  for  25  years'  service 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  witli  full  names  and  post  oflice  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention. — 
Editor.] 


98 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


Boiler-Room  Efficiencies' 


By  GEORGE  F.  WEATONf 


Labor  conditions  make  high  efficiency  more  diffi- 
cult than  ordinarily  and  increase  very  consider- 
ably the  operating  costs.  Suggested  -equipment 
for  a  1000-hp.  plant.  Judging  combustion  by 
observation  of  flame  through  violet  glass.  Results 
in  the  boiler  room  of  a  typical  manufacturing 
plant.    Discussion  on  the  paper. 


SO  MUCH  does  design  influence  the  efficiency  possible 
in  the  boiler  plant  that  it  is  desirable  to  review  what 
is  wanted  as  to  equipment.  Though  a  few  years  ago 
a  plant  could  be  operated  at  the  then  standard  of  economy 
with  simple  equipment,  this  is  no  longer  true.  Labor  was 
obtainable  at  such  a  wage  that  the  installation  of  much 
mechanical  apparatus  was  questionable  in  plants  of  fairly 
large  proportions;  plants  of  1000  hp.  and  over  were  seldom 
provided  stokers,  coal-  and  ash-conveying  machinery,  fuel 
economizers,  mechanical  draft,  etc.  However,  the  change 
in  labor  has  been  so  radical,  coupled  with  its  scarcity  and 
high  wage,  and  the  difficulties  of  maintaining  discipline  and 
organization  in  a  plant  of  moderate  capacity  so  extreme, 
that  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  plant  of,  say,  1000  hp.,  should 
be  without  boiler  units  of  as  large  a  unit  capacity  as  can 
be  installed  after  considering  lay-offs  for  cleaning,  repairs, 
etc.  I  should  suggest  three  3.50-hp.  boilers,  fuel  economizers, 
underfeed  stokers,  coal  and  ash  conveyors  and  overhead  coal 
storage.  Two  men  could  economically  operate  such  a  plant; 
there  is  boiler  capacity  sufficient  to  lay  off  a  boiler  for 
repairs  and  cleaning,  stoker  and  draft  apparatus  are  suffi- 
cient to  operate  economically  above  rating  and  carry  the 
load  on  the  remaining  two  boilers.  The  returns  on  such  an 
investment,  although  not  so  much  as  on  a  larger  plant,  will 
be  greater  than  for  a  smaller  investment  for  a  more  simple 
plant. 

On.  Versu.s  Coal  as  a  Fuel 

Oil  as  a  fuel  at  the  present  here  in  New  England  appears 
as  a  more  or  less  vigorous  competitor  of  coal.  In  this 
section  its  use  will  be  limited  to  a  few  plants.  Oil  presents 
many  qualities  that  make  it  an  ideal  fuel,  such  as  large 
overload  capacities,  cleanliness,  no  ashes  or  other  bulky 
material  to  handle;  the  handling  apparatus  is  not  subject 
to  such  rapid  deterioration  as  is  coal-handling  apparatus; 
ease  of  regulating  the  air  supply  to  the  exact  amount  re- 
quired for  most  efficient  combustion  and  small  labor  re- 
quirements. 

It  appears  that  oil  might  be  seriously  considered  in  plants 
of  moderate  capacity;  but  the  considerations  must  extend 
much  farther  than  a  tidewater  storage  for  a  large  plant. 
Every  precaution  must  be  taken  against  the  possibility  of 
cutting  off  the  fuel  supply.  That  a  large  oil  company  has 
storage  supply  normally  of  thousands  of  gallons  at  tide- 
water is  not  sufficient  guarantee  of  unbroken  supply  to  a 
large  consumer.  Oil-field  labor  is  mostly  turbulent,  al- 
though not  so  much  might  be  published  about  their  doings 
as  the  coal  miners'  troubles,  oil  being  of  lesser  importance 
than  coal  as  a  fuel.  Transport  by  sea  is  subject  to  Govern- 
ment requirements,  and  transport  by  rail  may  make  oil 
prohibitive  in  price.  Oil  as  a  marine  fuel  is  used  in  in- 
creasing quantities,  and  it  appears  that  oil  will  be  the 
marine  fuel  of  the  near  future.  It  will  not  supplant  coal 
either  in  quantity  or  in  price  as  a  land  fuel  unless  new  and 
extraordinary  fields  are  discovered.  Coal  must  receive  the 
most  consideration  by  engineers. 

Economy  in  the  use  of  fuel  is  now  being  preached  as 
never   before.      While   the   sermon    is   highly   commendable. 


•A  paper  before   the   Providence    (R.    I  )    EngrineeriiiB   Society. 
Dee.   14,   1917. 

tChief  engineer,  The  .1.   cS:   P.  Coats  Co.,   Providence.  R.   I. 


economy  should  be  practiced  at  all  times,  not  as  a  war  meas- 
ure only;  if  it  can  be  done  in  war  time,  it  can  be  done  dur- 
ing peace.  If  this  war  will  cause  the  more  general  practice 
of  economy,  not  only  in  fuel  but  also  in  many  of  our  vital 
resources,  the  ill  wind  will  blow  some  good. 

Of  first  importance  in  the  burning  of  coal  is  control  of 
combustion;  second,  the  condition  of  the  boiler  in  respect 
to  cleanliness  and  repair;  third,  the  condition  of  the  setting 
in  relation  to  the  loss  by  radiation  and  the  dilution  of  the 
gases  and  cooling  of  heating  surfaces  by  air  leakage. 

First,  it  must  be  understood  that  the  combustion  of  fuel 
is  distinctively  a  chemical  process  consisting  of  the  rapid 
oxidation  of  whatever  is  combustible,  before  combustion  can 
take  place.  The  combustible  must  be  brought  up  to  a  tem- 
perature where  chemical  union  with  oxygen  will  take  place; 
these  temperatures  vary  for  different  fuels. 

Second,  there  must  be  available  a  sufficient  and  not  ex- 
cessive supply  of  oxygen  heated  to  the  proper  temperature, 
or  good  results  will  not  be  had.  Each  pound  of  carbon  by 
theory  requires  21  lb.  of  oxygen,  but  in  practice  it  is  usually 
calculated  that  an  excess  of  40  per  cent,  is  required.  In 
late  plants  of  good  design  this  excess  requirement  has  been 
made  as  low  as  20  per  cent.,  and  the  boiler  efficiency  obtained 
is  82  per  cent. 

Third,  the  gases  from  the  fuel  and  oxygen  must  be 
brought  into  intimate  physical  contact. 

The  construction  of  the  furnace  must  be  such  that  these 
conditions  are  fulfilled  and  combustion  aided  or  skill  cannot 
get  good  I'esults. 

The  Control  of  Combustion 

In  the  ideal  plant  the  control  of  combustion  would  be  as 
automatic  as  it  would  be  possible  to  make  it.  This  requires 
stokers  where  the  air  supply  would  be  controlled  by  the  rate 
of  coal  feed,  which  is  in  turn  controlled  by  the  demand  for 
steam.  The  coal  would  be  uniform  in  size  and  in  moisture 
content.  This  requires  coal  crushers  and  overhead  sheltered 
storage  of  a  supply  sufficient  for  a  number  of  days.  The 
draft  should  be  so  regulated  that  there  would  be  a  prac- 
tically balanced  pressure  in  the  setting  and  out  to  minimize 
air  leakage  in  through  the  setting  and  escape  of  gases  from 
the  setting.  Next,  the  fireman  or  m.an  in  control  of  the 
fires  should  be  among  the  most  intelligent  of  the  plant,  and 
should  receive  the  highest  wage  of  anyone  in  the  plant 
except  the  man  in  charge.  He  could  and  would  save  many 
times  his  wage  in  the  average  large  plant.  The  great 
majority  of  firemen  are  totally  ignorant  of  the  principles 
of  combustion. 

Provided  we  have  a  well-designed  furnace,  we  can  check 
results  by  at  least  four  ways;  three  of  these  may  be  termed 
indicating  and  one  recording.  Of  the  three  indicative 
methods,  that  of  gas  analysis  is  the  simplest  and  the  most 
reliable.  Every  plant  should  have  at  least  an  Orsat  or 
similar  hand  apparatus  for  the  determination  of  the  CO2, 
CO  and  0;  content  of  the  gases.  While  samples  of  gas  are 
being  drawn,  the  temperature  of  the  gases  should  be  taken. 
Carbon-dioxide  recorders  are  desirable  but  not  necessary, 
as  conditions  can  be  fixed  and  followed  from  time  to  time 
by  the  hand  apparatus,  which  has  the  advantage  over  the 
CO:  recorder  inasmuch  as  its  gives  the  CO:,  CO  and  Oj, 
which  the  recorder  does  not  do. 

Another  method  is  by  judging  the  colors  of  the  products 
of  combustion  in  the  furnace.  Men  who  have  had  experi- 
ence together  with  the  study  of  the  principles  of  combustion 
can  judge  a  fire  very  accurately.  For  this  purpose  peep- 
holes are  built  into  the  furnace  walls  and  dense  violet-blue 
glasses  are  used,  as  it  is  impossible  to  observe  the  color 
changes  with  the  naked  eye.  The  natural  color  of  the 
gases  when  combustion  is  perfect  is  a  bright  red  or  white- 
red;  it  is  a  haze.  After  fuel  has  been  thrown  on,  the 
gases  rising  are  streaked  with  a  dun-colored  opaque  gas, 
indicating  that  all  the  combustible  gases  have  not  been 
ignited.  This  gas,  upon  entering  the  combustion  chamber, 
should  become  transparent  as  before.    These  changes  cannot 


January  15,  1918 


r  0  W  E  K 


99 


be  observed  with  the  naked  eye  unless  the  furnace  temper- 
ature is  too  low  to  give  eftitient  thermal  results. 

When  using  glasses,  the  color  changes  can  be  observed 
closely.  Imperfect  combustion  is  indicated  by  dark  streaks 
obscuring  the  opposite  sides  of  the  furnace;  perfect  com- 
bustion by  a  clear  lavender-gray  color.  Red  and  yellow 
flames,  which  interfere  with  the  naked-eye  vision,  are  cut 
out  by  the  glass  and  these  rays,  when  passing  adjacent  cool 
surfaces,  possess  little  light  that  is  capable  of  passing 
through  blue  glass.  Therefore,  perfect  combustion  takes 
place  at  a  temperature  that  will  produce  light  powerful 
enough  to  penetrate  blue  glass,  indicating  a  high  actinic 
power  and  intense  chemical  action.  The  dun-colored  gases 
rising  from  the  fuel  bed  should,  upon  entering  the  zone  of 
perfect  combustion,  disappear,  leaving  the  clear  lavender- 
gray  color. 

The  third  method  is  by  means  of  the  temperature  of  the 
furnace.  With  a  room  temperature  of  60  deg.  F.,  burning 
one  pound  of  carbon  to  complete  COs  will  produce  a  tem- 
perature of  5002  deg.  F.  This  in  practice  is  impossible. 
For  good  practical  results  the  furnace  temperature  is  from 
2800  to  3000  deg.  Fahrenheit. 

While  these  checks  are  indispensable  in  obtaining  good 
results,  the  most  reliable  check  is  the  actual  results  secured. 
These  can  be  obtained  only  by  means  of  metering  the  feed 
water  fed  to  the  boiler  and  making  allowance  for  all  water 
blown  out  of  the  boiler  or  used  for  other  purposes  if  drawn 
between  the  meter  and  the  boiler,  by  accurately  weighing 
the  fuel  and  by  periodic  temperature  readings  of  the  steam, 
feed  water,  flue  gas,  etc.,  also  steam-pressure  observa- 
tions. No  plant  should  be  without  these  valuable  adjuncts 
that  give  such  information,  and  any  plant  not  so  equipped, 
unless  it  be  very  small,  will  waste  enough  in  a  surprisingly 
short  time  to  pay  for  the  outfit  required.  Unless  results  are 
checked  daily  and  conditions  kept  at  their  best  by  the  lessons 
taught  instruments  are  useless. 

Boilers  should  be  cleaned  periodically,  internally  and  ex- 
ternally. Cleaning  should  not  be  put  off  until  someone 
thinks  it  is  needed,  as  the  judgment  of  man  is  too  erratic 
to  be  efficient.  There  have  been  developed  a  few  good  soot 
blowers,  and  their  installation  is  desirable.  I  have  yet  to 
find  the  man  that  will  blow  tubes  with  the  steam  hose  and 
do  it  properly  unless  the  ax  is  held  by  a  thread  over  his 
head. 

Keep  the  setting  air-tight  and  well  insulated.  Brick  set- 
tings are  never  tight,  and  painting  will  not  make  them 
tight,  as  the  paint  dries  out  so  rapidly  that  the  expansion 
and  contraction  cause  it  to  develop  miniature  cracks,  which, 
upon  close  examination,  will  be  found  to  be  caused  by  like 
cracks  in  the  setting.  If  the  hand  is  carefully  passed  over 
the  setting,  the  temperature  changes  felt  will  show  air 
leakage  in  a  setting  thought  to  be  tight.  There  are  some 
good  elastic  cements  with  which  settings  may  be  plastered 
and  which  do  not  harden  and  will  maintain  a  tight  setting. 
Doors  set  in  masonry  will  be  found  probably  the  worst 
offenders  if  mortar  is  depended  upon  for  the  joint.  Painters' 
putty  applied  about  the  joint  and  then  painted  will  keep 
them  tight  for  a  long  time.  These  remarks  apply  likewise 
to  the  flues,  economizers  and  chimney — air  leaks  anywhere 
cost  money. 

The  Efficiency  of  Labor  Has  Fallen 

Three  years  ago  it  was  possible  with  study  and  patience 
to  weld  labor  into  an  efficient  organization.  Today  it  is 
rather  the  other  way — labor  draws  the  heat.  The  "effi- 
ciency" of  boiler-house  labor  has  in  three  years  fallen  easily 
30  per  cent.  Three  years  ago  our  boiler  plant  had  a  manual 
eflSciency,  based  on  time  studies,  of  60  per  cent.,  and  on 
some  operations  as  high  as  70  per  cent.  All  have  fallen 
some,  the  most  decided  slump  being  on  the  part  of  the  fire- 
men. Coal  handlers  give  the  most  trouble  as  to  the  steadi- 
ness of  the  workers.  In  the  last  few  months  it  has  been 
irksome  to  keep  them  on  the  job,  and  the  prospects  of  hold- 
ing the  efficiency  are  poor  indeed  notwithstanding  that  over 
32c.  per  hour  is  paid.  When  it  comes  to  a  choice  between 
fuel  efficiency  and  labor  efficiency,  the  labor  efficiency  must 
be  sacrificed  to  keep  down  operating  costs. 

The  following  describes  the  operation  of  passing  coal  in 
the  plant  I  have  in  mind.     Coal  is  dumped  alongside  the 


boilei-  house  on  a  level  with  the  floor.  From  here  it  must 
be  wheeled  from  50  to  150  ft.,  t.ien  lifted  8  ft.  to  the  stoker 
hoppers.  Two-wheeled  balanced  barrows  are  used  with  a 
nominal  capacity  of  500  lb.;  the  average  load  will  be  about 
530  lb.  We  have  had  men  who  by  skillful  loading  would 
carry  700  lb.  to  the  tri]).  Loading  is  done  with  a  No.  5 
scoop.  If  the  coal  is  lumpy,  the  passer  must  break  it  to 
lumps  not  larger  than  his  fist  to  avoid  clogging  the  stoker 
hopper. 

The  operator  handled  on  an  average  for  the  day  679.32 
lb.  per  trip.  This  is  higher  than  the  average.  The  distance 
wheeled  was  more  than  20  ft.  o"er  granite-block  paving,  15 
ft.  over  brick,  up  on  an  elevator  and  then  on  80  ft.  of  steel 
plate,  from  which  the  coal  was  dumped  into  the  stoker  hop- 
per. The  time-study  efficiency  was  70.26  per  cent.;  fifty- 
nine  trips  were  made,  the  average  time  per  trip  including 
all  operations  being  7.17  min.;  the  total  coal  handled  was 
40,080  lb.  At  present  five  men  handle  approximately  190,000 
lb.  in  24  hours,  an  average  of  38,000  lb.  each,  which  gives 
a  cost  for  handling  of  about  21.5c.  per  gross  ton.  I  do  not 
believe  that  this  figure  can  be  reduced  under  the  conditions. 

Our  operation  for  the  boiler  plant  is  as  follows:  One 
boiler  is  operated  Sundays,  five  additional  boilers  are  fired 
anew  each  Sunday  night,  so  six  boilers  ai-e  operated  days 
during  the  week  and  four  are  operated  at  night  excepting 
Saturday  and  Sunday  nights.  The  fires  in  the  five  boilers 
are  allowed  to  burn  out  Saturday  afternoon. 

For  general  plant-operating  economy  the  results  of  the 
week  ending  Nov.  10  may  be  taken  as  typical: 

Total  coal  consumed  (includes  coal  used  for  hankiiiK  and  starting),  lb- .  1,11  3,670 

Total  net  evaporation,  lb 10.435,050 

Live  steam  to  mill  heating,  per  cent.  8.45,  lb     . ,  883, 1  50 

Live  steam  to  mill  processing,  per  rent  22.9.               2,389,800 

Live  steam  to  mill  power  generation,  per  tent.  68.65,1b                     ...  7,162,110 

.\ctual  net  evaporation  per  pound  of  coal,  lb 9  37 

Eiiuiv,alent  ev.aportation  from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  per  pound  rninbus- 

tible,  lb     13   1 

Kilowatt-hours  generated 586,730 

Kilowatt-hours,  output 354,600 

Power  coal  per  kw.-hr.  generated,  lb 1 .  98 

Total  coal  per  kw.-hr.  generated,  lb                  .  .  2  89 

The  boiler-house  percentage  charges  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1915,  with  a  boiler  load  factor  of  33.45  per  cent., 
were  as  follows: 

Fixed  charges   

Management 

Water,  lubricants^  tools  and  miscellaneous 

Labor 

Carting  ashea  and  refuse 

Fuel 

Supplies 

Repairs ^  

Total  cost  of  1,000  boiler  horsepower-hours,  dollars. 
Cost  of  1,000  \h.  of  steam  from  and  at  212  deg.  F.,  cents 


19  45 

3  70 

0  35 

7  17 
I  14 
62  9 

0  52 

4  77 

10  58 

30  67 
Eliminating  the  item  of  fixed  charges,  fuel  cost  was  78. 25  per  cent  of  the  operating 
expense. 

Actual  net  evaporation  per  pound  of  coal,  lb _ .  9  215 

Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  per  lb.  combustible, 

(includes  the  economizers) ,  lb 12   45 

Kilowatt  hour  output      1 0, 1 06,750 

Coal  per  kw.-hr.,  lb        2.  165 

The  cost  of  1 ,  000  lb.  of  steam  at  2 1 2  deg.  F.,  including  all  charges  is  approximately 
49c.  at  present. 

Discussion 

H.  A,  Wilcox:  I  believe  that  this  lack  of  equipment  which 
Mr.  Weaton  mentions  is  due  to  lack  of  education  on  the 
part  of  ovmers  and  managers  as  to  what  could  be  done  in 
the  way  of  boiler-plant  economy.  It  may  safely  be  stated 
that  managers  were  and  are  today  unwilling  to  spend  a 
cent  on  the  nonproducing  part  of  their  plants  and  the  boiler 
plant  has,  until  late  years,  been  considered  a  necessary  evil 
rather  than  the  heart  of  the  plant.  This  feeling  has  gi-ad- 
ually  undergone  a  change,  due  to  the  entrance  of  highly 
trained  efficiency  engineers  into  the  field  and  to  the  retain- 
ing of  expert  engineers  by  the  manufacturers  of  boiler-plant 
accessories.  These  men  are  capable  of  bringing  clearly  into 
the  understanding  of  managers  the  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  the  installation  of  their  equipment  and  therefore  the 
use  of  stokers,  coal  conveyors,  etc.,  has  grown  apace.  Mr. 
Weaton  ascribes  this  to  the  present  high  wages  paid  for 
labor,  but  I  cannot  agree  entirely  with  him,  as  the  price  of 
the  finished  product  has  advanced  correspondingly,  leaving 
as  large  a  margin  of  profit  as  in  previous  years. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  for  a  plant  of  1000  hp.  three 
350-hp.  boilers,  economizers,  underfeed  stokers,  etc.,  should 
be  used.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  this  statement  is 
rather  broad.    The  nature  of  the  industry  to  be  sei-ved  must 


100 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


be  considered,  such  as:  (1)  Is  24  hours  of  operation  at 
1000  hp.  required  every  day  in  the  week?  (2)  Will  there 
be  exhaust  steam  available  for  heating  the  feed  water  and 
can  exhaust  steam  be  used  in  process  work?  (3)  Do  the 
summer  and  winter  loads  vary  greatly?  (4)  What  provision 
must  be  made  for  future  expansion?  (5)  Is  the  location 
of  the  plant  such  that  it  will  be  able  to  receive  fuel  deliv- 
eries by  rail  or  by  water?  (6)  Finally,  commercial  effi- 
ciency, based  upon  the  foregoing  considerations,  will  deter- 
mine the  equipment  desirable  for  the  plant.  By  commercial 
tfficiency  is  meant  thermal  efficiency  properly  modified  by 
monetary  values.  In  other  words,  owing  to  plant  location, 
nature  of  the  product  oi  like  considerations,  a  plant  may 
be  equipped  to  burn  a  high  grade  of  bituminous  coal  of 
14,500  B.t.u.  and  costing  $4  per  short  ton,  at  7.5  per  cent, 
thermal  efficiency.  This  should  produce  1000  lb.  of  steam 
at  a  fuel  cost  of  17.85c.  If  thei-e  is  in  the  same  market  a 
poorer  grade  of  coal  having  12,000  B.t.u.  per  lb.  and  costing 
$2  per  short  ton,  this  same  plant,  should  operate  at  only 
(58  per  cent,  thermal  efficiency,  but  would  develop  1000  lb.  of 
steam  for  11.9c.,  which  shows  a  fuel-cost  saving  of  about 
33a  per  cent.  Considering  commercial  efficiency,  it  would 
therefore  seem  that  a  decision  for  underfeed  stokers  is 
somewhat  premature  before  it  has  been  determined  whether 
bituminous  or  anthracite  coal  will  be  used,  because  under- 
feed stokers  will  burn  bituminous  coal  at  very  high  effi- 
ciency, while  to  obtain  68  per  cent,  efficiency  with  clear 
anthracite,  such  as  buckwheat,  culm  and  barley,  chain  or 
traveling  grates  are  a  necessity. 

Assume  that  these  items  have  all  been  considered  and  that 
the  equipment,  as  outlined  previously,  has  been  found  most 
desirable.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  whether  two  men 
could  operate  such  a  plant  economically.  I  believe  that  one 
man  would  be  needed  to  run  the  stokers,  tend  the  water, 
etc.;  one  man  to  operate  and  look  after  the  maintenance  of 
the  coal-  and  ash-handling  machinery;  and  one  man  for 
cleaning  economizers,  cleaning  and  repairing  each  boiler 
as  it  is  laid  off,  and  doing  general  odd  jobs  which  would 
naturally  develop  in  a  plant  of  this  size.  In  a  plant  of 
several  thousand  horsepower  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  an 
allowance  of  two  men  per  1000  hp.  would  be  ample.  In  a 
plant  equipped  with  stokers,  however,  I  think  that  a  plant 
of  only  1000  hp.  would  require  the  force  enumerated  in 
addition  to  the  chief  engineer.  I  also  believe  that  the  in- 
stallation of  stokers,  if  of  the  proper^  type,  will  materially 
improve  plant  efficiency  and  cut  down  the  payroll  as  com- 
pared with  hand-firing. 

Use  of  Oil  To  Increa.se 

I  heartily  indorse  the  opinion  that  oil  appears  to  be  a 
vigorous  competitor  of  coal,  but  disagree  with  the  state- 
ment that  its  use  in  this  section  will  be  limited  to  a  very 
few  plants.  A  few  installations  in  this  vicinity  named  from 
a  long  list  will  serve  to  illustrate.  These  plants  are  not 
especially  selected,  but  as  you  will  note,  vary  considerably 
in  size:  The  Shepard  Co.,  tne  Boston  Store,  the  Atlantic 
Mills,  Providence;  the  Lorraine  Manufacturing  Co.,  Slater 
Manufacturing  Co.,  D.  Goff  &  Sons,  the  Memorial  Hospital, 
Pawtucket;  the  Rivei  Spinning  Co.,  the  Nourse  Mill,  the 
Social  Mill,  Woonsocket;  and  the  largest  New  England 
mills  of  the  American  Woolen  Co.  are  either  already 
equipped  to  use  oil  fuel  or  have  contracted  for  its  immediate 
installation.  The  "Meypet"  list  comprised  of  their  New 
England  customers  contains  the  names  of  47  plants.  I  am 
informed  that  the  oil  fields  which  supply  the  plants  named 
are  located  in  Mexico  and  are  worked  by  native  laborers 
who  are  paid  much  higher  wages  than  they  would  receive 
at  their  ordinary  occupations.  It  is  probably  due  to  these 
facts  that  these  oil  fields  have  remained  entirely  unmolested 
during  the  recent  upheavals  in  that  country.  A  glance  at 
any  reliable  newspaper  is  sufficient  evidence  as  to  labor 
conditions  in  the  coal  regions.  •  As  to  transportation,  all 
are  aware  of  the  rapid  movement  of  all  kinds  of  rail  ship- 
ments. Present  activity  in  shipbuilding  indicates  that 
transportation  by  water,  which  is  the  only  economical 
method  of  supplying  fuel  oil  to  the  northern- and  eastern 
sections  of  this  country, 'should  be  facilitated  rather  than 
retarded.  If  this  reasoning  is  correct,  we  can  only  assume 
that  shipping  facilities  from  all  these  fields  will  grow  in 


direct  proportion  to  their  development.  So  it  is  likely  that 
after  the  present  emergency  oil  will  be  an  even  greater  com- 
petitor of  coal.  I  therefore  believe  that  the  use  of  oil  as  a 
fuel  will  largely  increase  during  the  next  few  years  in  this 
section  as  well  as  in  others. 

A  source  of  considerable  waste,  which  has  not  been  men- 
tioned, is  the  loss  of  combustible  through  the  grates  and  in 
cleaning  fires.  A  glance  at  the  ash  pile  or  an  analysis  of 
the  ash  of  many  plants  now  in  operation  will  clearly  reveal 
this  loss. 

Having  determined  what  factors  are  of  prime  importance 
toward  attaining  maximum  fuel  economy,  the  question 
arises  as  to  how  we  shall  know  when  we  have  reached  and 
are  maintaing  the  highest  possible  standard  of  economy. 
The  answer  is  simple:  Periodic,  frequent  layoffs  and  ex- 
aminations externally  and  internally  will  demonstrate  the 
state  of  cleanliness  and  repair  of  boilers,  stokers,  econ- 
omizers, etc.,  and  a  frequent  analysis  of  the  ash  will  deter- 
mine the  loss  of  combustible  through  the  grate.  This  ex- 
amination is  such  an  important  factor  in  the  maintenance 
of  fuel  economy  that  it  should  not  be  beneath  the  dignity  of 
the  chief  engineer  to  make  sure  that  it  is  properly  cjjrried 
out  even  if  it  becomes  necessary  for  him  to  make  a  personal 
investigation. 

Importance  of  Gas  Analyses 

I  am  inclined  to  think  that  inspection  of  the  fire  through 
violet  glasses,  as  outlined  by  Mr.  Weaton,  is  not  a  very 
reliable  indication,  by  reason  of  the  liability  to  error  in 
human  judgment.  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  that  his 
examination  is  without  any  value,  as  the  general  condition 
of  the  fuel  bed  with  respect  to  holes,  clinker,  etc.,  may  be 
absolutely  detei'mined  in  this  way. 

Fortunately  we  have  an  exact  means  of  controlling  com- 
bustion, called  by  Mr.  Weaton  "Indicating."  I  believe  that 
a  CO2  recorder  and  an  Orsat  are  both  requisite.  There  are 
too  many  variables  entering  into  combustion  to  permit  of 
fixing  conditions  which  can  be  followed  for  any  length  of 
time.  Therefore,  a  recorder  or  a  sampling  tank  capable  of 
drawing  a  sample  of  flue  gas  over  a  long  period  of  time  is 
essential;  it  gives  the  average  operation  for  any  period  of 
time,  and  any  deviation  from  good  practice  is  at  once  notice- 
able. Of  course,  in  the  installation  of  automatic  apparatus 
for  the  analysis  of  flue  gas  it  is  vitally  important  that  it 
be  so  located  and  arranged  that  the  record  of  conditions  at 
any  one  time  is  made  within  the  least  possible  interval  of 
time  from  the  occurrence  of  the  conditions.  This  is  to 
simplify  the  determination  of  the  causes  of  any  change  that 
may  occur.  An  Orsat  should  be  used  from  time  to  time  as  a 
check  upon  the  recorder  and  to  determine  the  location  of 
trouble  arising  from  a  deficiency  or  excess  of  air,  etc.  I 
believe,  with  Mr.  Weaton,  that  recording  instiniments  giving 
flue  temperatures,  drafts,  amount  of  feed  water,  weight  of 
coal  fire,  etc.,  are  indispensable  aids  to  fuel  economy. 

Recommends  Heat  Balance 

These  instruments  are  all  valueless  unless  their  indica- 
tions are  intelligently  interpreted.  An  exact  interpretation 
is  possible  by  the  use  of  the  heat  balance.  By  the  use  of 
the  recording  instruments  mentioned,  a  heat  balance,  cov- 
ering any  period  of  time,  may  be  made  and  the  exact  extent 
and  location  of  any  preventable  losses  readily  determined. 
Steps  may  then  be  taken  to  minimize  these  losses,  a  new 
heat  balance  made  and  the  result  of  changes  or  the  amount 
of  improvement  will  be  seen. 

The  human  factor  is  at  least  equal  to  design  in  import- 
ance. By  human  factor  I  mean  not  only  the  fireman, 
but  the  management  also.  Given  a  plant  such  as  described 
in  Mr.  Weatoh's .  paper,  I  consider  that  the  following 
additional  conditions  must  exist  to  develop  the  highest  plant 
efficiency  attainable:  _ 

■  First,  the  management  must  be  of  a  type  which  will  take 
an  interestin- maintaining  the  highest  boiler  efficiency  by 
an  intelligent  scrutiny  of  the  daily  records  and  a  systematic 
method 'of  keeping  after  the  man  on  the  job;  second,  the 
manron  the  job  or  chief  engineer  must  be  an  intelligent  and 
highly  paid  man — a  man  who  has  familiarized  himself  with 
the  theory  and  practice  of  combustion  and  its  control. 

May  I  suggest  that  a  paper  by  a  member  of  the  society 


January  15,  11)18 


1'  O  W  E  R 


101 


on  the  s;'>-'neval  nietliods  of  iiivestijiatinR-  and  overcoming 
preventable  wastes  in  existing  boiler  plants  would  be  val- 
uable? 

Following  Mr.  Wilcox,  F.  N.  Connet,  chief  engineer. 
Builders  Iron  Foundry  Co.,  Providence,  described  the  instal- 
lation and  operation  of  the  vcnturi  meter.  He  emphasized 
the  need  of  freedom  from  vibration  and  the  desirability  of 
nonpulsating  flow  for  accurate  measurement  by  the  meter. 
This,  he  said,  was  given  by  the  centrifugal  feed  pump.  Mr. 
Connet  also  mentioned  the  good  effects  of  feeding  water  to 
the  boilers  so  as  to  anticipate  coming  loads.  He  showed 
several  cliarts,  both  from  the  venturi  meter  (quantity  fed) 
and  from  recording  thermometers  recording  feed  temper- 
atures, to  reveal  how  the  average  feed  temperature  was 
much  more  constant  when  steam  demands  were  anticipated 
by  raising  the  water  level  during  periods  of  light  steam 
demands  and  closing  off  the  feed-control  valve  during  heavy 
demands.  It  was  interesting,  he  mentioned,  that  for  years 
design  of  feed-water  regulators  had  been  to  give  continuous 
feed,  while  now  design  was  tending  to  give  periodic  feed, 
with  the  aim  of  anticipating  demands. 

Henry  Ballou,  of  Jenks  &  Ballou,  consulting  engineers. 
Providence,  agreed  that  the  many  instruments  and  appar- 
atus mentioned  by  Mr.  Weaton  and  Mr.  Wilcox  wei-e  desir- 
able, but  said  it  was  his  observation  that  98  out  of  every  100 
average  plants  did  not  have  them.  He  spoke  of  the  Man- 
ning boiler  as  one  in  which  air  leaks  were  nil  on  account  of 
the  enclosed  firebox.  Mr.  Ballou  said  that  the  use  of  oil  was 
influenced  more  by  the  freedom  from  labor  troubles  conse- 
quent to  its  use  than  by  questions  of  economical  combustion. 
He  spoke  of  the  oil-burning  plant  of  the  Tamarack  Mills, 
Pavrtucket,  R.  I.,  which  recently  went  into  service  and 
which  was  designed  exclusively  for  oil.  [See  Power,  Mar. 
27,  1917,  for  brief  description  of  this  plant.  A  full  de- 
scription is  now  in  preparation  for  an  early  issue  of  Poiver.l 

Charles  H.  Bromley,  associate  editor  of  Power,  presented 
many  data  on  the  coal  and  freight  (rail  and  marine)  sit- 
uation, and  read  a  communication  from  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
calling  attention  to  current  coal  containing  from  50  to  200 
per  cent,  more  ash  than  in  normal  times.  He  dwelt  on  the 
futility  of  getting  large  returns  by  attempting  to  educate 
the  fireman,  something  that  had  for  years  been  tried  and 
proved  a  failure.  General  adoption  of  approved  furnace 
design  and  the  employment  of  highly  competent  supervision 
for  the  boiler-room  force  were  the  requirements  that  held 
forth  the  great  and  only  promise  in  fuel  conservation  on  a 
large  scale. 

W.  B.  Lewis  presided.  The  next  paper  in  the  Power 
Section  was  "From  the  Coal  Pile  to  the  Lamp,"  by  Jesse  E. 
Gray,  chief  engineer,  Narragansett  Electric  Light  and 
Power  Co.,  Providence,  read  Dec.  21. 


Deterioration  in  Heating  Value  of  Coal 
During  Storage 

There  is  a  marked  agreement  in  the  conclusions  reached 
by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines,  as  published  in 
Bulletin  136,  and  the  Engineering  Experiment  Station  of 
the  University  of  Illinois,  Bulletin  97,  in  regard  to  the  effect 
of  storage  upon  the  heating  value  of  coal.  The  tests  show 
that  the  deterioration  of  coal  in  heating  value  during  storage 
has  commonly  been  overestimated.  Except  for  the  sub- 
bituminous  Wyoming  coal,  no  loss  was  observed  in  outdoor 
weathering  greater  than  1.2  per  cent,  in  the  first  year,  or 
2.1  per  cent,  in  two  years,  but  the  Wyoming  coal  suffered 
somewhat  more  loss — 2  to  3  per  cent,  in  the  first  year  and 
as  much  as  5.5  per  cent,  in  three  years. 

In  general  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  the  tests  by 
the  Bureau  of  Mines  on  New  River  coal  is  that  under  severe 
conditions  of  outdoor  exposure  to  the  weather  it  deteriorates 
in  heating  value  approximately  1  per  cent,  in  the  first  year, 
2  per  cent,  in  the  first  two  years,  and  not  over  3  per  cent,  in 
five  years.  Storage  under  water  prevents  practically  all 
deterioration  during  one  year,  and  no  more  than  0.5  per 
cent,  has  been  found  in  any  test  for  two  years  or  less.  Salt 
water  possesses  no  advantage  over  fresh  water  in  preventing 
deterioration.     Intermittent  exposure  and  partial  drying  of 


the  submerged  coal  probably  causes  deterioration  in  some 
degree,  although  very  small,  therefore  submergence  storage 
of  New  River  coal  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  the  sake  of 
preventing  deterioration  in  heat  value — its  advantage  lies 
only  in  insuring  against  spontaneous  combustion. 

The  amount  of  deterioration  of  coal  from  the  Pittsburgh 
beds  in  one  year's  open-air  storage  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  was  practically  negligible,  even  in  the  upper  six 
inches  of  the  exposed  coal.  During  the  second,  third,  fourth 
and  fifth  years  the  deterioration  proceeded  very  slowly  and 
did  not  reach  an  amount  greater  than  1.1  per  cent,  in  five 
years.  The  submerged  portions  may  be  said  to  have  suffered 
practically  no  loss  measurable  by  the  degree  of  accuracy 
used. 

Tests  of  Pocahontas  coal  at  Panama  show  that  during  one 
year's  outdoor  exposure  it  deteriorated  very  slightly  (less 
than  0.4  per  cent.)  in  heating  value,  and  that  the  deteriora- 
tion took  place  entirely  during  the  first  six  months  (June  15 
to  Dec.  15).  There  was  a  further  deterioration  of  0.4  per 
cent,  during  the  second  year. 

Exposure  Increases  Weight  of  Coal 

Laboratory  experiments  have  shown  that  coal  ordinarily 
increases  slightly  in  weight  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is 
possible,  therefore,  that  the  net  losses  in  heating  value  may 
be  slightly  less  than  reported,  since  the  actual  weight  of 
fuel  substance  present  may  be  somewhat  greater,  although 
its  heat  value  per  pound  is  less  than  when  the  coal  was 
stored. 

In  the  storage  of  Sheridan  (Wyo.)  coal  for  more  than 
three  months,  covering  the  bins  is  not  as  advantageous  as 
the  use  of  air-tight  bottoms  and  sides  (of  concrete,  for 
example)  and  the  accumulation  of  a  protecting  layer  of  fine 
slack  on  the  surface.  The  deterioration  of  Sheridan  coal 
in  heat  value  can  probably  in  this  manner  be  kept  below 
3  per  cent,  in  one  year,  and  will  probably  not  increase  to 
more  than  4  per  cent,  in  two  or  three  years  if  the  coal 
remains  undisturbed.  Physical  deterioration  (slacking)  is 
also  largely  prevented  in  the  under  portions  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  closely  packed  layer  of  slack,  at  least  12  inches 
thick  on  the  surface. 

Although  no  indications  of  spontaneous  heating  were  noted 
in  the  tests  described,  it  is  found  in  practice  to  be  dangerous, 
on  account  of  heating,  to  store  Sheridan  coal  in  piles  greater 
than  about  ten  feet  in  depth  or  width.  In  large  masses  of 
coal  radiation  of  spontaneously  developed  heat  is  restricted, 
to  a  dangerous  degree.  Submergence  under  water  would 
probably  prove  particularly  advantageous  as  a  means  of 
safely  storing  sub-bituminous  coal  of  this  type. 

Summary  of  University  of  Illinois  Experiments 

The  facts  established  by  the  investigations  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  Engineering  Experiment  Station  may  be 
summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Freshly  mined  coal  is  chemically  very  active.  Certain 
constituents  have  a  marked  affinity  for  oxygen,  with  which 
they  enter  into  combination  at  ordinary  temperatures. 
While  the  extent  of  this  reaction  depends  upon  the  variety 
of  the  coal  and  the  amount  of  these  active  constituents,  an 
important  factor  is  the  fineness  of  division,  or  the  sum  total 
of  the  superficial  areas  of  the  particles,  and  the  accessibility 
of  oxygen  to  the  mass. 

2.  The  actual  loss  of  heat  value  resulting  from  storage 
is  small.  It  is  evident  that  upon  mining  out  the  coal  from 
the  bed  certain  volatile  constituents  of  the  marsh-gas 
variety  are  set  free.  The  heat  values  represented  by  such 
exudations  are  not  great.  The  tendency  to  absorb  oxygen 
from  the  air  is  also  a  marked  characteristic  of  freshly  mined 
coal.  This  is  in  reality  a  chemical  process,  and  is  accom- 
panied by  the  generation  of  a  small  amount  of  heat,  but 
these  heat  losses,  compared  with  the  total  heat  available 
in  the  coal,  are  insignificant.  Indeed,  it  may  be  fairly 
questioned  whether  the  heat  losses  are  not  more  apparent 
than  real,  since  there  is  an  inci-ease  of  weight  due  to  the 
absorption  of  oxygen.  Such  increase  will  in  itself  lower  to 
a  corresponding  degree  the  indicated  heat  value  per  pound 
of  coal. 

3.  There  is  an  increase  of  "fines"  or  slack  resulting  from 
storage,  greater  with  some  coals  than  with  others.     This, 


102 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


together  with  the  saturation  of  the  free-burning  constituent 
with  oxygen,  slows  up  the  fire  and  gives  the  appearance  of 
being  lacking  in  heat  value.  However,  with  an  increase  of 
draft  and  a  correct  understanding  of  the  combustion  condi- 
tions to  be  maintained,  a  most  excellent  over-all  efficiency 
can  be  secured  even^  from  coals  that  have  been  in  storage 
for  long  periods. 

4.  Bituminous  coal  can  be  stocked  without  appreciable 
loss  of  heat  values  provided  the  temperature  is  not  allowed 
to  rise  above  180  deg.  F.  Any  method  of  storage,  to  be 
successful,  must  either  check  or  prevent  the  absoi-ption  of 
oxygen  to  such  an  extent  that  the  generation  of  heat  shall 
not  proceed  faster  than  the  dissipation  and  loss  of  heat  due 
to  absorption  or  radiation. 

5.  Under-water  storage  prevents  loss  of  heat  values  and 
is  not  accompanied  by  deterioration  in  physical  properties, 
such  as  slacking.  The  water  retained  by  the  coal  upon  re- 
moval is  substantially  only  that  held  by  adhesion  or  capil- 
larity. 

6.  Dry  storage  is  safer  and  more  satisfactory  if  the  fine 
material  is  screened  out  at  the  storage  yard  and  lumps  only, 
preferably  sized,  are  stocked. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  summary  that  the  most  serious 
part  of  the  problem  relates  to  the  matter  of  spontaneous 
heating,  and  probably  the  least  serious  phase  relates  to 
deterioration  and  actual  loss  of  heat  values.  It  is  certain 
that  at  the  present  time  a  better  understanding  of  these 
difficulties  has  been  reached,  and  there  is  reason  for  believ- 
ing tliat  this  better  understanding  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples involved  will  lead  to  some  practicable  and  safe  pro- 
cedure for  the  stocking  of  bituminous  coal. 

The  general  summary  covering  the  behavior  of  the  coal 
in  steam  generation  after  six  years  of  storage,  as  set  forth 
in  Bulletin  78  of  the  University  of  Illinois  Engineering  Ex- 
periment Station,  is  as  follows:  <1)  Burning  weathered  coal 
is  largely  a  question  of  correct  handling  and  ignition.  Under 
these  circumstances  it  gives  as  good  results  as  fresh  screen- 
ings. (2)  Weathered  coal  requires  a  little  thinner  fire  and 
more  draft  than  fresh  screenings.  (3)  When  using  weath- 
ered coal,  the  fuel  bed  should  not  approach  any  nearer  to 
the  water-back  than  from  four  to  six  inches,  otherwise  trou- 
ble with  clinker  is  experienced.  (4)  Practically  as  high 
capacity  was  obtained  with  weathered  coal  as  with  the  other 
coals  used,  and,  if  anything,  the  fuel  bed  requires  less 
attention. 

Actual  Heat  Loss  Is  Small 

In  this  connection  attention  is  called  further  to  the  fact 
that  the  results  obtained  and  the  conclusions  presented  are 
based  on  the  heat  values  in  the  coal  as  fired  and  do  not  take 
into  account  the  matter  of  deterioration.  But  it  has  been 
pointed  out  that  the  deterioration  is  largely  apparent  in  a 
physical  change  and  that  the  actual  loss  of  heat  value  is 
small.  Hence,  the  efficiency  factors  developed  in  the  tests 
may  be  accepted  as  fairly  representing  results  obtainable 
on  weathered  coal  in  which  the  heat  loss  resulting  from 
weathei-ing  is  practically  negligible. 

The  facts  presented  in  the  bulletin  justify  the  following 
conclusions:  (1)  Bituminous  coal  can  be  stocked  without 
appreciable  loss  of  heat  values  provided  the  temperature  is 
not  allowed  to  rise  above  180  deg.  F.  In  fact,  there  is  no 
appreciable  evolution  of  CO,  at  temperatures  below  260 
deg.  F.  (2)  The  indicated  heat  loss  per  pound  of  coal  is 
due  more  largely  to  an  increase  in  weight  of  a  unit  mass  of 
coal  resulting  from  the  absorption  of  oxygen  than  to  an 
actual  deterioration  or  loss  of  heat  units.  (3)  Freshly 
mined  coal  has  a  large  capacity  for  absorbing  oxygen,  which 
combines  chemically  with  both  the  organic  combustible  and 
the  iron  pyrites  present.  (4)  The  combination  of  oxygen 
with  coal  at  ordinary  temperatures  generates  a  small  incre- 
ment of  heat.  (5)  The  rapidity  with  which  oxygen  is 
absorbed  depends  upon  the  temperature  of  the  mass  and 
the  extent  of  the  superficial  area  exposed;  that  is,  the  fine- 
ness of  division  of  the  coal.  (6)  If  heat  is  generated  by 
this  slow  process  of  oxidation  more  rapidly  than  it  is  lost 
by  radiation,  the  acceleration  of  the  reaction  causes  a  rise 
in  temperature  which  quickly  brings  the  mass  up  to  the 
danger  point.  A  temperature  of  180  deg.  F.  is  named  as 
the  danger  point  because,  if  the  coal  reaches  that  temper- 


ature, practically  all  the  free  moisture  is  vaporized  and  the 
further  rise  in  temperature  will  be  very  rapid.  (7)  Any 
method  of  storage  to  be  successful  must  either  check  or 
prevent  the  absorption  of  oxygen  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
generation  of  heat  shall  not  proceed  so  rapidly  as  to  exceed 
natural  heat  losses  due  to  radiation.  (8)  Under-water 
storage  prevents  loss  of  heat  values  and  is  not  accompanied 
by  deterioration  in  physical  properties,  such  as  slacking. 
(9)  Dry  storage  is  far  more  safely  undertaken  if  the  fine 
material  is  screened  out  at  the  storage  yard  and  the  lumps 
only,  preferably  sized,  are  stocked. 

How  To  Save  Coal 

The  Bureau  of  Mines,  Department  of  the  Interior,  re- 
cently asked  the  advice  of  a  number  of  prominent  fuel  en- 
gineers as  to  the  best  way  to  conserve  in  the  use  of  coal 
Martin  A.  Rooney,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  has  the  following  to 
say: 

In  every  trainload  of  coal  hauled  from  the  mines  to  our 
coal  bms,  one  carload  out  of  every  five  is  going  nowhere 
and  worse.  In  a  train  of  40  cars  the  last  eight  are  dead 
load  that  might  better  have  been  left  in  the  bowels  of  the 
earth. 

Evei-y  fifth  shovelful  of  coal  that  the  average  fireman 
throws  into  his  furnace  serves  no  more  useful  purpose  than 
to  decorate  the  atmosphere  with  a  long  black  stream  of 
precious  soot.  These  are  not  meaningless  statistics  nor  a 
goblin  story,  but  cold  facts  on  a  warm  subject.  At  best 
one-fifth  of  all  our  coal  is  wasted.  And  it  is  shamelessly 
and  needlessly  wasted.  Instruments  and  machinery  for 
getting  out  all  of  the  heat  there  is  in  it  are  not  nearly  so 
complicated  nor  expensive  as  the  cash  register  which  you 
use  to  keep  tab  on  your  cash  receipts  or  the  truck  which 
you  operate  to  clip  a  few  cents  off  of  your  delivery  costs 
Carbon-dioxide  temperature  and  draft  are  easier  subject^ 
to  comprehend  than  bank  discount  or  freight  rates 

The  moral  is,  Mr.  Coal  Dealer,  get  busy  and  learn  what 
they  are  and  how  to  use  them.  The  time  is  coming  when 
the  Government  is  going  to  limit  the  amount  of  our  coal 
that  is  dumped  down  your  chute  and  in  the  name  of  fair- 
ness, when  we  must  deny  fuel  to  some  manufacturer,  let 
it  be  to  him  who  cannot  show  that  he  is  going  to  use  it 
efficiently.  In  the  name  of  fairness  to  the  miner  who  digs 
it,  to  the  heavily  burdened  railroad  which  transports  it,  to 
a  number  of  our  people  whose  very  existence  and  whose 
future  happiness  depend  absolutely  on  the  use  we  make  of 
this  most  precious  of  our  resources,  let  us  make  efficiency 
the  criterion  to  judge  by  when  we  come  to  determine  which 
shall  survive. 

And  in  fairness  to  the  manufacturer  who  is  patriotically 
operating  his  properties  at  nearly  to  the  breaking  speed 
and  who  is  giving  up  a  large  part  of  his  profits  for  the 
general  good,  let  the  Government  show  him  how  to  con- 
serve this  most  important  of  his  raw  materials.  Let  us 
send  into  our  furnace  and  boiler  rooms  men  who  can  show 
our  engineers  and  firemen  how  to  burn  their  fuel  with  t':e 
least  waste,  as  we  have  sent  them  among  our  fields  and 
orchards  to  show  the  farmer  how  to  increase  the  produc- 
tivity of  his  soil. 


-By  Cotfman  in  New  York  American,  with  amplification  by  Weil 
HIS   SHARE 


January  15,  1918 


POWER 


103 


Early  Action  Expected  on  the  Adminis- 
tration's New  Water-Power  Bill 

On  the  nisht  of  Jan.  4,  1918,  President  Wilson  held  a  con- 
ference at  the  White  House  with  members  of  various  com- 
mittees of  the  House  of  Representatives  for  the  purpose  of 
speeding  up  action  in  the  House  on  the  passage  of  water- 
power  les'islation.  The  Pi'esident  committed  to  the  care  of 
Representative  Pou,  chairman  of  the  House  Rules  Com- 
mittee and  a  member  of  the  delegation  whose  members 
conferred  with  him,  a  copy  of  a  new  water-power  bill,  to 
be  known  as  the  Administration  Bill,  which  attempts  to 
coordinate  water-power  legislation  proposed  for  several 
years  past  in  both  Houses  of  Congress,  not  only  on  the 
public  domain,  but  in  navigable  streams;  and  it  is  expected 
that  the  i-esult  of  the  White  House  conference  will  be  that 
the  House  Rules  Committee  will  bring  in  a  rule  peremp- 
torily requiring  the  House  of  Representatives  to  vote  on 
and  pass  water-power  legislation  at  an  early  date. 

What  is  to  take  place  in  regard  to  water-power  legisla- 
tion in  the  Senate  is  not  yet  known,  as  that  body  passed 
the  Shields  bill,  and  there  is  a  difference  between  the  pro- 
visions of  that  measure  and  those  of  the  Administration 
measure.  The  Shields  measure,  in  fact,  is  by  way  of 
amendment  to  the  Act  of  1906  to  regulate  the  construction 
of  dams  across  navigable  waters  and  does  not  deal  with 
wat;er  powers  on  public  lands,  which  are  dealt  with  by  a 
different  Senate  committee  from  the  Committee  on  Com- 
merce, which  favorably  reported  the  Shields  bill.  To  the 
fact  that  there  have  been  so  many  committees  of  both  the 
House  and  the  Senate  dealing  with  so  many  different  phases 
of  proposed  water-power  legislation  has  been  due,  more 
than  to  anything  else,  the  delay  in  passing  water-power 
legislation  which  was  promised  the  country  among  the  so- 
called  "Administration  Conservation  Measures"  when  Presi- 
dent Wilson  took  office  five  years  ago.  In  the  House  the 
red  tape  which  has  caused  this  delay  seems  in  a  fair  way 
to  be  cut  by  the  Presidential  conference  of  Jan.  4;  for  the 
President,  who  has  had  many  conferences  with  members 
of  the  House  and  Senate  and  their  differing  committees, 
without  obtaining  legislation,  committed  the  new  Adminis- 
ti'ation  bill  not  to  the  chairmen  of  any  of  the  House  com- 
mittees dealing  with  water-power  matters,  but  to  the  chair- 
man of  the  Rules  Committee.  The  President  is  reported 
by  those  who  attended  the  conference  to  have  explained 
with  the  greatest  tact  to  the  committee  chairmen  that  he 
did  not  know  which  committee  among  the  water-power 
committees  to  entrust  with  the  bill,  in  view  of  their  differ- 
ences, and  that  he  would  solve  the  problem  by  giving  it  to 
the  Rules  Committee,  which,  as  official  Washington  views 
it,  carried  with  it  the  plain  implication:  "Pass  the  bill!" 

Senators  Expect  White  House   Conferences 

Senators  in  charge  of  water-power  legislation  in  the 
Upper  House  are  also  expecting  to  have  White  House  con- 
ferences; it  is  certain  that  the  Administration  bill  will  be 
inti'oduced  in  the  Senate  or  that  its  provisions  will  come 
before  a  Senate  committee  in  some  form,  so  that  when  the 
House  passes  the  Administration  bill  there  may  be  a  con- 
ference between  the  House  and  the  Senate,  giving  oppor- 
tunity to  mold  the  differences  between  the  Administration 
bill,  the  Shields  bill  already  passed  by  the  Senate,  and  the 
provisions  of  any  measure  relating  to  the  public  lands 
which  may  come  from  the  Lands  Committee  of  the  Senate, 
in  case  there  is  no  agreement  in  the  Senate  to  substitute 
the  Administration  bill  for  the  Shields  bill.  It  is  not  at 
all  certain  that  Senators  will  accept  the  Administration 
bill,  and  there  are  some  who  will  not  fail  to  exercise  the 
"I  object"  made  famous  by  "senatorial  courtesy,"  unless 
they  can  be  made  to  see  that  the  safety  of  the  country  im- 
peratively demands  the  passage  of  water-power  legislation 
at  once  because  of  the  shortage  of  coal  and  consequently 
of  power,  which  was  President  Wilson's  impelling  motive  in 
committing  the  new  Administi'ation  bill  to  the  House  Rules 
Committee. 

Although  most  of  the  water-power  legislation  delay  has 
been  due  to  Congress,  some  of  it  has  been  due  to  opposing 
views  held  by  members  of  the  Cabinet.     These  views  have 


now  been  reconciled  in  the  new  Administration  bill,  which 
provides  for  a  water-power  commission  to  be  composed  of 
three  Cabinet  officers — the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  the  Secretary  of  War.  It 
provides  for  an  executive  officer  of  the  commission,  who 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  President  for  a  term  of  five  years. 
It  provides  for  the  payment  of  rentals,  a  feature  to  which 
there  has  never  been  objection  of  consequence  by  any  in- 
terest, and  it  grants  licensA  for  water  power  on  public 
lands  as  well  as  public  streams  for  a  term  of  50  years.  At 
the  end  of  the  license  period  the  licensee  will  be  allowed  to 
renew  the  license  and  i-emain  in  undisturbed  possession 
until  the  proposed  commission  shall  have  done  one  of  three 
things:  First,  issue  new  licenses  under  laws  at  that  time 
applicable;  second,  give  licenses  to  new  licensees  who  shall 
pay  for  the  fair  value  of  the  property;  third,  take  the  prop- 
erty over  upon  paying  a  fair  value,  the  fair  value  defined  to 
include  all  work  and  main  transmission  lines  plus  severance 
damages  for  all  property  not  taken  over  and  damaged  by 
reason  of  severance. 

Enhancement  of  Values  Not  Provided  For 
The  new  Administration  measure  does  not  include  any 
allowance  for  enhancement  of  values  on  land,  or  water 
rights,  or  for  any  good  will  for  a  going  concern,  etc.  It 
provides  for  alteration,  amendment  or  repeal  by  Congress, 
Congress  expressly  reserving  such  rights;  but  in  case  of 
alteration,  amendment  or  repeal,  such  shall  not  extend  to 
the  licensees  who  have  exercised  rights  or  spent  money 
under  the  bill. 

The  bill  was  drawn  by  General  Black  and  Colonel  Keller, 
of  the  Army  Engineer  Corps,  representing  the  War  Depart- 
ment; Edward  C.  Finney,  water-power  expert  for  Secretary 
Lane;  former  Representative  Lathrop  Brown,  of  New  York, 
now  a  special  assistant  to  Secretary  Lane,  representing  the 
Interior  Department;  and  0.  C.  Merrill,  chief  inspector  of 
the  Forest  Service,  representing  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment, who  several  years  ago  compiled  a  mammoth  report 
on  water-power  companies,  their  banking  affiliations,  etc. 
Present  at  the  White  House  conference  on  the  night  of  Jan. 
4  were  Thetus  W.  Sims,  chairman  ot  the  House  Committee 
on  Interstate  and  Foreign  Commerce,  who  has  recently  suc- 
ceeded Judge  Adamson  in  that  position;  Scott  Ferris,  of 
Oklahoma,  chairman  of  the  House  Public  Lands  Committee; 
Asbury  F.  Lever,  of  South  Cai-olina,  chairman  of  the  House 
Agricultural  Committee;  Edv/ard  W.  Pou,  of  North  Caro- 
lina, chairman  of  the  House  Rules  Committee;  and  Finis 
J.  Garrett,  the  ranking  member  of  the  House  Rules  Com- 
mittee. Representative  Garrett  and  Representative  Sims, 
as  well  as  Senator  Shields,  are  Tennesseeans,  so  that  Ten- 
nessee will  have  much  to  say,  it  so  falls  out,  as  to  the  pas- 
sage of  water-power  legislation  by  the  present  Congress. 

At  the  Presidential  conference  it  was  agreed  that  a  com- 
mittee of  five  members  each  from  the  House  Committee  on 
Inteistate  and  Foreign  Commerce,  Agriculture  and  Public 
Lands,  or  fifteen  in  all,  should  be  created  to  compose  differ- 
ences as  to  the  various  bills  which  have  been  under  consid- 
eration heretofore  in  the  House  and  to  bring  together  such 
radical  views  as  have  been  expressed  by  Representative 
Ferris  during  public  debate  on  water  powers  with  the  more 
moderate  views  as  to  vater-power  development  expressed 
by  others.  The  committee  of  fifteen,  it  is  felt  in  Washing- 
ton, will  be  materially  aided  in  its  labors  by  the  fact  that 
after  mature  deliberation,  advice  and  conference.  President 
Wilson  himself  has  presented  a  bill  upon  which  he  believes 
all  can  agree. 


It  is  gross  negligence  for  the  operator  of  an  ei^.^ trie- 
power  plant  to  permit  a  switchboard  carrying  a  dangerous 
voltage  to  remain  exposed  near  a  passageway  used  by  em- 
ployees, rendering  him  liable  for  resulting  injury  to  or  death 
of  such  an  employee.  The  fact  that  an  employee  killed 
under  such  circumstances  had  been  warned  against  the  dan- 
ger of  coming  in  contact  with  the  appliances  did  not  neces- 
sarily charge  him  with  contributory  negligence  where  he  in- 
advertently came  in  contact  with  the  switchboard  while  step- 
ping aside  to  avoid  another  employee  who  was  passing  with 
tools  on  his  shoulder.  (Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Court  of  Appeals, 
Lightner  vs.  Dunham,  195  Southwestern  Reporter,   1055.) 


104 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


A.  S.  M.  E.  Presented  with  Bust  of 
Admiral  Isherwood 

At  its  annual  meeting  in  December,  1917,  the  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Eng-ineers  was  presented  with  a 
portrait  bust  of  Admiral  Benjamin  Franklin  Ishei-wood, 
who  was  for  many  years,  up  tfi  the  time  of  his  death,  an 
honorary  member  of  the  society.  The  bust  was  a  gift  from 
a  number  of  the  friends  and  admirers  of  the  admiral.  The 
presentation  address  was  to  have  been  made  by  Commodore 
George  W.  Magee,  U.  S.  Navy,  who  had  been  an  old  friend 
and  assistant  of  Admiral  Ishei-wood;  unfortunately,  how- 
ever. Commodore  Magee  was  taken  ill,  and  that  pleasant 
duty  devolved  upon  W.  M.  McFarland. 

Mr.  McFarland  pointed  out  that  the  special  glory  of 
Admiral  Ishei-wood's  work  was  that  he  helped  to  establish 
a  number  of  the  important  basic  principles  of  the  science 


BUST  OF  .\DMTRAL  I.SHERWOOD 

of  engineering.  He  stated  that  the  first  reproduction  of 
actual  indicator  cards  from  a  marine  engine  published  in 
any  book  was  in  Isherwood's  work  on  "Engineering  Prece- 
dents," published  about  1856.     He  said  further: 

His  reports  of  experiments  are  models  of  what  such 
reports  should  be.  They  include  a  complete  description  of 
the  apparatus;  and  the  log  of  the  experiment,  in  each  case, 
gives  all  the  data  which  could  be  observed,  whether  they 
were  immediately  applicable  to  the  purpose  of  the  experi- 
ment or  not.  The  result  of  this  is  that  these  reports  con- 
stitute a  mine  of  valuable  information;  and  other  engineers, 
many  years  after,  seeking  information  on  an  entirely  diifer- 
ent  line  fi'om  that  for  which  the  experiment  was  conducted, 
find  in  the  complete  and  careful  record  just  the  information 
they  want,  and  which  often  can  be  found  nowhere  else. 

The  written  address  of  Commodore  Magee,  which  was 
read  by  Mr.  McFarland,  referred  to  the  great  value  of 
Ishei-wood's  experimental  work  on  such  subjects  as  the 
expansive  working  of  steam,  screw  propellers,  the  use  of 
superheated  steam  and  the  use  of  forced  draft.  Commo- 
dore Magee  characterized  Admiral  Isherwood  as  "the  great- 


est marine  engineer  who  has  thus  far  appeared  in  our 
country,"  and  "not  only  a  great  engineer,  but  a  great  ad- 
ministrator and  executive." 

Dr.  Hollis,  president  of  the  A.  S.  M.  E..  in  accepting  the 
bust  on  behalf  of  the  society,  spoke  of  his  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  Admiral  Ishei-wood  at  the  Naval  Academy  and 
said  he  considered  his  service  for  the  admiral  as  perhaps 
the  proudest  of  his  life.     Continuing,  he  said: 

I  think  of  him  as  perhaps  the  father  of  our  great  research 
laboratories  in  engineering,  as  his  investigations  in  con- 
nection with  steam  engines  and  with  boilers  preceded  all 
of  our  schools  of  mechanical  engineering.  I  think  of  him 
also  as  the  father  of  high  speed  on  the  sea.  Few  people 
realize  that  it  was  Benjamin  F.  Isherwood  who  during  the 
Civil  War  planned  and  carried  to  its  completion  the  first 
ocean  greyhound,  a  ship  which  went  outside  along  the 
Jersey  coast  and  made  four  hundred  miles  in  one  day  with 
ease,  something  that  was  not  equaled  again  for  twenty 
years. 

Annual  Report  on  Locomotive-Boiler 
Inspection 

The  annual  report  of  the  chief  inspector  of  locomotive 
boilers  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1917,  shows  a  con- 
siderable increase  over  the  previous  year  in  the  number 
of  accidents,  injui-ies  and  casualties  due  to  locomotive- 
boiler  defects  and  explosions.  Much  of  this  increase  is 
e.xplainable  on  the  grounds  of  the  unusual  operating  condi- 
tions, and  the  shortage  of  labor  and  material  for  suitable 
repairs.  On  the  other  hand,  some  carriers  appeared  to  con- 
sider the  use  of  defective  locomotives  excusable  because  of 
the  congestion  of  traffic.  The  number  of  locomotives  in- 
spected during  the  year  was  47,4.52,  which  is  considerably 
fewer  than  the  year  before;  and  of  those  inspected,  54.5 
per  cent,  were  found  defective,  an'  increase  of  7.5  per  cent, 
over  the  previous  year.  The  number  of  locomotives  ordered 
out  of  service  was  3294.  Crown-sheet  failures  due  to  low 
water  were  responsible  for  almost  three-fourths  of  the  62 
fatalities  during  the  year,  and  as  might  naturally  be  ex- 
pected, engineers  and  firemen  were  the  chief  sufferers.  Of 
the  defects  discovered  by  inspection,  broken  stay-bolts, 
faulty  injectors  and  connections,  and  defective  brake  equip- 
ment headed  the  list.  The  report  forms  another  strong 
argument  in  favor  of  the  efficient  periodic  inspection  of 
high-pressure  boilers. 


An  American  pipe  line  played  an  important  part  in  the 
recent  capture  of  Jerusalem  according  to  the  statement  of 
Maj.  Gen.  F.  B.  Maurice,  chief  director  of  military  opera- 
tions at  the  British  war  office.  The  campaign  which  led 
to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  was  carried  out  mainly  by  British 
territorial  troops  supported  by  small  bodies  of  Australian 
and  New  Zealand  mounted  men  and  British  yeomanry. 
"In  the  campaign  as  a  whole,"  he  said,  "the  great  accom- 
plishment has  been  not  the  defeat  of  the  Turks,  but  the 
conquest  of  the  Sinai  Desert.  The  troops  who  fought  at 
Gaza  drank  water  from  Egypt  pumped  through  an  Ameri- 
can pipe  line  and  were  supplied  over  broad-gage  railroad 
laid  across  the  150  miles  of  the  Sinai  Desert,  which  has 
defeated  almost  everybody  who  tried  to  conquer  Egypt  for 
centuries.  Evei-y  ounce  of  material  for  the  pipe  line,  the 
railroad  and  the  other  works  came  either  from  Great 
Britain  or  from  the  United  States.  The  fall  of  Jerusalem 
was  made  possible  by  industry,  organization  and  by  the 
help  of  material  from  the  United   States." 


Peat  production  in  Norway  in  1914  was  12,000  tons,  and 
22,000  tons  in  1916,  but  the  production  in  1917,  it  is  said, 
will  probably  go  up  to  100,000  tons.  In  Denmark,  in  1915, 
the  production  was  90,000  tons,  in  1916  200,000  tons,  and 
in  1917  it  is  hoped  to  produce  500,000  tons.  Sweden  pro- 
duced 100,000  tons  in  1916.  There  are  216  peat  machines 
now  working  in  Norway,  as  compai-ed  with  55  in  1916  and 
36  in  1914.  Among  the  machines  in  use  are  two  automatics; 
these  cost  £2700  apiece,  and  can  each  be  handled  by  two 
jmen,  the  daily  output  per  machine  being  30  to  40  tons  of 
I  jpeat. — Gas  and  Oil  Power. 


January  15,  1918 


POWER 


105 


New  Pviblications 


lltllltl.  <IM1IIHIIIIIII 


IIIMIIMIMIIIIIMllll 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIII 


TESTS  l)K  tJXYAC-blTYl.l'lXK-WKLDKi-) 
JOINTS  IN  STEKL.  PLATKS 
Bullftiii  No.  98  of  the  Univoi-.sity  of  Illi- 
nois lOnsiiH'oring'  Kxperinieiit  Stalioii,  by 
Horbt'it  K.  Miioiv,  lesearoh  protVssur  of  en- 
Kiiieoi'iiiK  materials,  treats  of  tests  of  oxy- 
acetvk'iie-wekled  joints  in  steel  plates  from 
(1.11  In.  (No.  10  gase)  to  1  in.  in  thickness. 
Welds  made  liy  skilled  workmen  in  a  plant 
espeeially  eiiuipped  for  o.-iyaoetylene  weld- 
ing were  tested  for  their  resistance  to  ten- 
sile, bending  and  impact  stre.sses.  For 
joints  made  with  no  treatment  after  weld- 
ing, elticiency  for  static  tension  was  found 
to  be  about  10(1  per  cent,  for  plates  one- 
half  inch  in  thickness  or  less  and  to  de- 
crease for  thicker  plates.  When  account 
was  taken  of  the  additional  thickness  at 
the  point  of  fracture — that  is.  when  the  et- 
ticiency  was  computed  uiion  the  cross-sec- 
tional 'area  of  the  metal  ruptured — the  ef- 
ficiency was  not  greater  than  75  per  cent. 
The  joints  were  strengthened  by  working 
the  metal  after  welding  and  were  weakened 
by  annealing  at  800  deg.  C.  tabout  140(1 
P.).  Practically  the  same  is  true  of  the 
bending  or  repeated-stre.ss  test.  The  impact 
tests  show  that  oxyacetylene-welded  joints 
are  decidedly  weaker  under  shock  than  is 
the  original'  material.  For  joints  welded 
with  no  sub.sequent  treatment  the  strength 
under  impact  seems  to  be  about  half  that 
of  the  material.  If  the  welded  joint  is 
worked  while  hot.  the  impact-resisting 
qualities  are  slightly  improyed  though  this 
does  not  make  the  joint  equal  to  the  orig- 
inal material  in  impact-resisting  quality, 
which  is  little  affected  by  annealing  from 
800  deg.  C.  In  general  the  test  results 
tend  to  increase  confidence  in  the  static 
strength  and  in  the  strength  under  re- 
peated stress  of  carefully  made  oxyacety- 
lene-welded   joints    in    mild-steel    plates. 

THE   J.    E.    ALDRED    I>ECTURES    ON 
ENGINEERING  PRACTICE 

A  course  of  lectures  on  "Engineering 
Practice"  was  established  about  a  year  ago 
at  Johns  Hopkins  I'niversity  through  the 
generosity  of  J.  E.  .Aldred,  and  the  first 
series,  giyen  by  prominent  practicing  and 
operating  engineers,  has  recently  been  pub- 
lished. These  lectures,  nine  in  number, 
present  the  essential  features  of  planning, 
construction  and  operation  of  modern  engi- 
neering projects  and.  being  open  to  the 
public,  were  well  attended  by  the  engineers 
of  Baltimore. 

The  subjects  in  the  order  in  which  the 
lectures  were  delivered,  from  Mar.  16  to 
Apr.  20  inclusive,  are  as  follows:  The  Oper- 
ation of  a  Hydro-Electric  Plant,  by  A.  E. 
Bauhan.  station  superintendent.  Pennsyl- 
vania Water  and  Power  Co..  Holtwood. 
Penn.  ;  Some  Things  Engineers  Should 
Know  Concerning  the  Rudiments  of  Cor- 
porate Finance.  Ralph  D.  Mershon,  consult- 
ing engineer.  New  York  ;  The  Development 
of  Power  from  the  Standpoint  of  the  Boiler 
Room.  C.  F.  Hirshfield.  chief  of  research 
department.  Detroit  Edison  Co..  Detroit. 
Mich.  ;  Power  and  Service  in  Industrial 
Plants.  R.  J.  S.  Pigott.  superintendent  of 
motive  power.  Remington  .^rms  Co..  Bridge- 
port, Conn.  ;  Gas  Manufacture,  Construc- 
tion and  Operation,  George  P.  Marrow, 
assistant  engineer,  in  charge  of  Gas  Manu- 
facture, Consolidated  tJas.  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Co..  Baltimore  ;  Rapid  Transit 
Problems  in  American  Cities.  George  Staples 
Rice,  engineer  of  the  Sixth  Division  of  the 
Public  Service  Commission.  New  York; 
Some  Practical  Problems  Met  With  in  the 
Design  and  Con.struction  of  Bridges  and 
Similar  Structures.  W.  W.  F'agon  consult- 
ing engineer.  Baltimore :  Experimental  En- 
gineering. Particularly  the  Construction  of 
Testing  Stations  on  Water  and  Sewerage 
Problems.  Langdon  Pearse,  division  engi- 
neer. Sanitary  District  of  Chicago;  Public 
Utility  Engineering  and  Finance,  Herbert 
A.  Wagner,  president.  Consolidated  Gas. 
Electric  Light   and   Power  Co.,   Baltimore. 

A  limited  number  of  paper-bound  copies 
of  this  cour.se  of  lectures,  about  250  pages 
6x9  in.,  including  numerous  illustrations 
with  additional  folders  of  chart.s.  maps  and 
diagrams  inserted,  can  be  obtained  from 
the  Johns  Hopkins  Press  (Baltimore.  Md.l 
for  $1   each. 


Titusville  plants  of  the  Philadelphia  Rub- 
ber Co.,  being  promoted  to  this  position 
from  that  of  mechanical  engineer.  He  is 
a.  gradiKite  of  Cohnnbia. 

lOdward  11.  Teiiney  has  been  iiromoted 
from  assistant  chief  engineer  to  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  Union  Electric  Light  and  Power 
Co..  of  St.  Louis,  succeeding  .lohn  Hunter, 
who  is  in  charge  of  the  Government  emer- 
gency ship  construction  of  the  New  Jersey 
district. 

.lohn  Hayes  .><mitli.  I'onsulting  engineer  of 
Milwaukee,  has  accepted  a  position  as  as- 
sistant engineer  to  the  Public  Service  Com- 
mission of  Pennsylvania.  Mr.  Smith  be- 
came associated  with  the  Westinghouse 
Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.  .shortly  af- 
ter graduation  from  Columbia  University, 
remaining  in  their  employ  about  six  years. 
He  was  the  first  manager  of  the  "Electric 
Journal,"  Pittsburgh,  and  later  became 
editor  of  the  "F^lectrical  Age,"  New  York. 
He  was  with  the  Milwaukee  Electric  Rail- 
way and  Light  Co.   for  two  years. 

I       Engineering  Affairs       [ 


Personal 


motor  busses  carrying  .lO  people  run  a  mile 
on  60  cu.ft.  Compression  of  gas  has  been 
suggested,  but  this  means  special  machin- 
ery and  special  cylinders  to  support  the 
increased  pressure.  The  co.st  of  charging 
varies  according  to  the  district.  To  take 
Birniingham  as  an  example,  the  minimum 
fee  is  Is.  (25c.).  this  being  the  cost  of  250 
cu.ft.  of  gas."  It  seems  likely,  therefore, 
that  gasoline  engines,  whether  for  automty- 
biles.  stationary,  electric-generating  or 
pumping  sets,  are  now  compelled  to  use 
gas. 


<'.  1'.  Colemim  was  ele<'ted  president  of 
till-  Wi>rthiiigton  Pump  and  Machinery 
Cnilioration  at  a  meeting  of  the  Board  ot 
Directors    held    on    Det;.    31. 

K.  H.  Mel.eod  has  been  appointed  general 
superintendent     of     the     IMiiladelphia      and 


The    Phnadelphin    Section   of   tlie    A.   S.   M. 

K.  will  hold  a  meeting  on  Feb.  26.  at  which 
Carl  G.  Baith  will  present  a  supplement 
to   "Taylor's  Art  of  Cutting  Metals." 

American  .Assoeintion  of  EngineerM — Ed- 
mund F.  Perkins,  consulting  engineer,  Chi- 
cago, and  president  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation of  Engineers,  will  address  the  New 
York  Chapter  of  the  a.ssociation  at  the 
Hotel  McAlpin.  on  Tuesday.  Jan.  15.  8  p.m.. 
on  the  subject  of  "National  Association 
Service  for  Engineers."  All  interested  are 
cordially    invited. 


Miscellaneous  News 


.\  Four-Inch  Tube  in  a  boiler  at  the 
Philadelphia  Navy  Yard  blew  out  on  Jan. 
1.  killing  two  men.  injuring  six  severely 
and  one  slightly.  It  is  believed  the  ex- 
plosion  was  due  to   a  defective  tube. 

The  Boiler  of  a  Freicbt  Locomotive  on 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  R.R.  exploded  at 
Marmet.  W.  Va.,  on  Dec.  22,  killing  the 
fireman  and  injuring  the  engineer.  The 
cause  of  the  explosion  is  not  known. 

A  Boiler  Exploded  at  the  plant  of  the 
Beaver  Clay  Co.,  at  New  Galilee,  Penn,, 
on  Dec.  26,  causing  considerable  damage  to 
the  boiler  room  and  surrounding  structure 
and  severely  injuring  a  workman  who  was 
near  the  boiler  when  it  let  go.  The  cause 
of  the  explosion  is  not  known.  The  dam- 
age done  was  estimated  at  $2000.  Because 
of  a  partial  suspension  of  work  during  the 
Christmas  period  many  of  the  employes 
were  not  in  service,  which  fortunately  ac- 
counts for  lack  of  casualties  perhaps. 

Large  Providence  Turbine  Started — The 
45,000-kw.  Westinghouse  cross-compound 
turbine  at  the  South  Street  Station  of  the 
Narragansett  Electric  Lighting  Co..  Provi- 
dence. R.  I.,  was  started  for  the  first  time 
Wednesday  morning,  Jan.  9.  The  turbine 
is  perhaps  the  largest  in  the  world  in  point 
of  dimensions,  although  the  two-cylinder 
turbine  at  the  Duquesne  plant,  Pittsburgh, 
is  of  the  same  capacity.  The  Providence 
turbine  has  a  double-jet  Leblanc  condenser, 
which  "Power"  will  describe  after  it  has 
been  in  service  long  enough  to  determine 
what   performance    it    will   give. 

I'  S.  Reguisitionw  Power  Plants  at 
Niagara  Falls — In  order  to  assure  an  ade- 
quate supply  of  i)ower  for  establishments 
engaged  in  war  work  at  Niagara  Falls  and 
Buffalo,  the  Government  has  requisitioned 
the  electric  power  produced,  imported  anu 
distributed  by  the  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Co..  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  of  Niagara 
Falls  and  the  Cliff  Electrical  Distributing 
Co.  Canadian  demands  that  approximately 
100.000  hp.  of  current  imported  from  the 
Canadian  side  be  applied  exclusively  to 
war  work  were  said  to  have  been  a  deter- 
mining factor  in  the  Government's  decision 
to  requisition  all  power.  About  110  facto- 
ries not  working  directly  on  war  contracts 
will  be  obliged  to  curtail  their  power  some- 
what and  use  it  at  times  when  munition 
factories  are  making  their  smallest  de- 
mand. They  will  also  substitute  steam  for 
eleclricity  as  much  as  possible. 

England  Out  of  (iasoleiie? — Our  I-ondon 
correspondent  writes:  "Apparently  while 
vou  are  not  short  of  jietrol.  we  in  England 
are.  Instead  we  use  gas.  a  hag  to  contain 
a  charge  being  placed  on  top  of  the  lorry, 
omnibus  or  other  vehicle.  Depending  on 
the  (hernial  value  of  the  gas.  the  e(|uiva- 
lent  is  about  250  cu.ft.  to  the  gallon  of 
petrol.  Some  busses  have  gas  bags  to 
hold    about     700     cu.ft.       In    one    instance. 


■iiMniiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiii 


Business  Items 


TIiP  Ridffway  I>>  namo  and  Knsrint*  Co., 
of  Ridgway.  Penn..  has  appointed  the  Blake 
Electric  Manufacturing  Co.,  1  Rowes  Wharf. 
Boston,  Mass..  as  its  sales  representative 
for    the    New    England    States. 

The  Little  <»iaiit  Truck  Co.  is  the  name 
of  what  was  formerly  the  motor-truck  de- 
partment of  the  Chicago  Pneumatic  Tool 
Co.,  which  on  account  of  its  growing  pro- 
portions has  branched  off  as  a  separate 
organization.  The  new  company  is  owned 
and  controlled  by  the  Chicago  Pneumatic 
Tool    Co. 

Albany  Grease  is  celebrating  its  fiftieth 
annivei'sary.  In  1868  the  Albany  Lubricat- 
ing Compound  and  Cup  Co.  was  founded  at 
Albany,  N.  Y..  by  Adam  Cook.  The  name 
Albany  Grease  was  given  to  Albany  Lubri- 
cating Compound  by  the  engineers  of  the 
country,  who  quickly  gave  it  a  name  of 
their  own  make.  In  four  years  the  small 
plant  at  Albany  became  too  small  to  take 
care  of  the  business,  and  in  1872  larger 
quarters  were  secured  along  the  river  front 
at  231  West  St..  New  York  City.  Nine 
years  later  the  business  was  moved  to  still 
larger  quarters  at  313  West  St.  Still  the 
business  grew,  until,  by  the  purchase  of 
neighboring  warehouses,  the  Albany  plant 
extended  clear  through  the  block  from  West 
to  Washington  St.  After  a  stay  of  30 
years  the  West  and  Washington  St.  plant 
was  abandoned,  and  the  modern  commodi- 
ous plant  at  708-10  Washington  St.  was 
placed  in  service.  Many  satisfied  cus- 
tomers unite  in  wishing  Albany  Grease 
many   happy  returns  of  the  day. 


Trade  Catalogs 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


Files  Hand  Stoker.  The  Files  Engineer- 
ing Co..  Inc.  Providence..  R.  I.  Catalog- 
Fp.    8  ;    6  X  9    in.  ;    illustrated. 

Kllison  Draft  Gages.  Lewis  M.  Ellison, 
214  Kinzie  St..  Chicago.  III.  Pamphlet. 
Pp.    36;    .■!*  X  6    in.;    illustrated. 

Westinghouse  Motors  and  <ienerators  for 
Direct-Current  Circuits.  Westinghouse  Elec- 
tric and  Manufacturing  Co..  E.  Pittsburgh. 
Penn.  Catalog  No.  30.  Pp.  78  ;  Six  11  in.  ; 
illustrated. 

Getting  Maximum  Pulley  Efficiency.  The 
American  Pulley  Co..  Philadelphia.  Penn. 
A  pamphlet  containing  data  and  informa- 
tion compiled  by  this  company  relating  to 
belt  pulleys.      Pp.  3S  ;   6  x   9  in.  ;  illustrated. 

Falls  .\utomati<'  Engine  Slop.  Falls  Ma- 
chine Co.,  .Sheboygan  Falls,  Wis.  Catalog. 
Pp,  24  ;  6x9  in.  ;  illustrated.  This  con- 
tains information  regarding  the  operating 
of  overspeeding  engines  and  shows  applica- 
tion   of    engine    stops, 

Reverse-Phase  Circuit  Breakers.  The 
Palmer  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.. 
Boston,  Mass.  Bulletin  Ml  ;  pp.  4  ;  6x9 
in.  ;  illustrated.  Describes  circuit-breakers 
for  protection  of  polyphase  motors  against 
single-phase    and    reverse-phase    operation. 

.lust  .\bout  Boilers  is  the  title  of  a  pam- 
phlet issued  by  the  Badenhausen  Co..  1425 
Chestnut  St,.  Philadelphia.  Penn.,  which 
gives  comparisons  of  principles  of  current 
boiler  designs  and  details  of  construction 
of  the  Badcnhau.sen  boiler.  Pp.  32  ;  81  x 
11    in,  ;    illustrated. 

Electric  Welding,  The  Wilson  Welder 
and  Metals  (^o,.  52  Vanderliilt  Ave,.  New 
York  Catalog  .No  2  Pp  64;  6x9  in.; 
illustrateii.  This  describes  in  detail  the 
Wilson  electric  welding  system  and  specially 
prepared  metals.  Blueprints  showing  lay- 
out of  complete  equipment  are   included, 

.\iitoniittic  I*iimps  and  Receivers.  Wortil- 
ington  Pump  and  Machinery  Corp..  115 
Broadway.  New  York.  Bulletin  D-1301. 
Pp  12;  6  X  9  in.;  illustrated.  Describes 
a  number  of  types  of  apparatus  manufac- 
tured bv  the  Deane  Works  of  the  Wortn- 
ington  corporation  for  maintaining  free 
and  unobstructed  circulation  of  steam  in 
heating  systems  and  maclilnery  using 
steam. 


106 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  3 


iiiiHnnitiniiiii 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


Boston 

Boston  poin 


Buckwht-at 

Riie    

Buiier    .  .  .  . 
B;iiley    .  . .  . 


Cur 
ts 


rent    ouotations   per   gross   ton    delivered   alongside 
compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows; 


ANTHRACITE 


.  m.  1H18 

S-i.liO 

4.10 

3. HO 

3.80 


-  Circular 


One  Year  Ago 

;-.2.o.'> — 3.-.;o 
:;.r)0 — •i.m 

•2.;:0— 3.3.5 


Jan. 10 

S7.10 — 7.3.J 

6.65 — 6.00 


-  Individual  ' ^ 

1018      One  Year  Ago 


6.1.5 — 6.40 


y.i.-z:, — :!..")0 
;.70— ■;.!i:. 

!.3r>'— :;.66 


■i/..,    Kingman — The    Desert    Power    and    Water   Co.    plans    to 
e.xtend    its   transmission    line  to   the   Haokberry    Consolidated    Mill, 
cost.    $Hi1.nOrt.      A    new    line    will    also    be    extended    to 
"'  '      "         F.   A.   Wilde,   Jr..    Mgr. 


At 

rl    its   trans 

K.stimated    cost.    SHil.OOn.      .^ 
the  Cyclopic.    near   Chloride. 


Calif.,    I.os    Ang:elo» — City    has    plans    ....„,.     ^„ «^.„ — 

the  erection   ot   power   plant    No.    2    in    .San    Francisquita    Canyon, 
W.  llulholland,  Ch.  Engr.     Estimated  cost,   '^  =  "  """ 


BITUMINOUS 

Bituminous  not  on  market. 

Til  n  V,  ATines* .    ^ Alongside  Bostont  —- — , 

Jan    10,  1918       One  Year  Ago      Jan.  10,  1018      One  Year  Ago 

Clearfield^ S^i-OO  S4....-...00 

Canilii-.a-i    and  •,  in_'is-)  •■  -iM — -'J.-tO 

Somersets ■'  1" — '  ".J  

Pocahontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  SI,  as  compared 
""'i^r:Sr^i^t^   Sof  ?s   SC,60.  tWater   coal. 

New  York-current  quotations  per  gross  ton  1°^^.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows. 

ANTHRACITE 

firf.n1ai> ,     ^ Individual  \ — . 

J^^TuH-oS-^'-^lie  Year  Ago  J-^l«.l»l«      ^^.l-^T^ 

Pea     «J.0J                               SfO'l  *;;?,\_,i,00           5,50—6.00 

Bu,-kwUeat   ..       4.30- ijO"                   :;-,',g  4.50-5.00           S.OO— ...oO 

Boiler   3.:.0 — 3...>  -•'" 

Bituminous  smithing  coal.  «*•■">"-— •''^;'/?,?- higher 
Quotations  al  the  upper  ports  are  about  oe.  nigner. 

BITUMINOUS  ^  ,,. 

p  ob  N.  Y.  Harbor     Mine 

$3.65  $2.00 

Pennsylvania     3£5  3.00 

Maryland     •.■•■,••,•;    J  ■.i; 3.65  3.00 

West   Virginia    (short  rate) •  ■ •  •  •  • 

Based  on   Government   price  of   $3   per  ton   at   mine. 

f-nif  lower    ports    ,. re:    E,,.abethpo,.t^Por,    Johnson^^  P^ort^  Re^adin. 

4is  !s"sh!;oerf™rPorT^Li^er\r"Th'e°1rel|w  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  r.c    higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

Philadelphia— Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
sh.inne'a  and  f  o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

,  i„p ,    , Tide ,    Independent 

'"j;:;no:i918   lYr.A^o  Jan.  10.  1918   lYrAgo  1  Year  Ago 
Buckwheat...    53.15-375      83.00  S3  n  S3.90  S4.1. 

pf-:---   i5tlJ1^    ISS        i:«       x%l        3.35 
Pe"f^::::::   3:^5"*"    \.^o        4.05       3.70        .^... 

Culm     ■  ■  ■  ■  ■  ■  ■  ■ 

il.i.aKo- Steam    coal    prices    t.o.b.    minest 
ini„„i=  Cnals  Southern   Illinois       Northern  Illinois 

Illinois  Coal.  S.:.6;,_C.80  S3.10-3.35 

Pi-e-iKired    sizes    ■»„  40— 3  55  2.8.5 — 3.00 

Mine-run      .j,  - ..-gg  .1.60 — 3.75 

Screenings     

So  Illinois.  Pocahontas,  Hocking, 

Pennsvlvania  East  Kentucky  and 

Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia      West  Virginia  Splint 

Prepared   sizes    *•'; •'t'tJZ-T IS  3:2o=3:eii 

Mine-run      •:  10— 3.30  3.10— 3..30 

Screenings    


St    I.ouis — Prices  pet  net   ton   fob. 
pared   with  today  are  as  follows: 


mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 


e-in.  Ur 


Steam  •■"-  i 
Mine  rui. 
No,   1    nu> 
3-iii. screen. 
No. 5  washeti 
Williamsi 


Williamson  and 
Franklin  Counties 
Jan,  10,  One 

1918        Year  Ago 
t3 .6.3-3.80      S3. 50 

3.65-3.80        

?  6.5-iJ.80 
'  iO-3.55 
.•,0.-3.80 
!!.-::  .30 
l.>  •■•30 
Fran, vim  rate  St 


3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.35 
.5.35 


Mt.  Olive 

and  Staunton  , Standard , 

Jan.  10.           One  Jan.  10,  One 

1918       Year  Ago  1918  Year  Ago 

••^  65-3,80     »3,50  83,6,5-3,80  »3,50 

3,65-3,80  3.35-3,50 

3,50  3,6.5-3,80  3.35-3,50 

3,35  3.40-3.55  3.00-3.35 

3.50  3.0,5-3.80  3.50 

3.35  3.15-3.30  3.00-3.35 

3.00  3.15-3..30  3.00 


-3.80 
-3.80 


3.65- 

3.65- 

3.40-3  .oi) 

3.6.5-3.80 

3.15-3.30 

3.1.5-3.30 

Louis,  87' 


f.o. 


other  rates,  73i,je. 


Birminc^iam 

follows: 


Mine-Run 
\iL  90 
3,15 
3,40 


Lump  and  Nut 
$3,15 
2,40 
a,65 


1,90 
:,15 


under    consideration    for 

.TCiSf 

S750,OUO, 


Calif.,  Mare  Island — (Vallejo  P.  O,)  —  (Official) — The  Bureau 
of  Supplies  and  .Accounts,  Xa\->-  Dept,.  Wash.,  will  soon  receive 
bids  to  deliver  at  Navy  Yard.  Mare  Island,  under  Schedule  No. 
1639,  400.000  ft.  plain  bell  wire. 

Iowa,  Ertd.vville — City  plans  an  election  soon  to  vote  on  $7000 
or  $8000  bond  issue  for  improvements  to  the  electric-lighting 
system. 

Mass.,  ISoston — (Oflicial) — The  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Ac- 
counts. Xavv  Dept..  Wash,,  will  soon  receive  bids  for  delivering 
at  Navy  Yard.  Bo.ston.  under  Schedule  .\'o.  11140.  brass  gate 
valves,    flanged   gate   valves  and   globe   angle   Hanged   valves. 

Mass.,  Ipswich — The  Xewburyport  Gas  and  Klectric  Co.  plans 
to  build  a  transmission  line  through  certain  streets  in  the  city. 
C.  S.   Spauiding.  Xewburyport.  Supt. 

N.  C,  firaphiteville — The  General  Graphite  Co..  Birmingham, 
.\la.,  plans  to  build  a  hvdro-electric  plant  here.  Estimated  cost. 
$75,000. 

X.  .1..  .lerse.v  City — The  American  Sugar  Refining  Co,.  117  Wall 
St.,  Xew  York  City,  is  having  plans  prepared  for  the  extension  and 
alteration  of  its  power  house  on  Washington  St.      Estimated  cost. 

$10,000. 


-Current   pricfs   per   net   ton   f.o.b.    mines   are   as 

Slack  and  Screenings 
$1.65 


Big  Seam    

Pratt.  Jagger,  Coron;< . 
,  'fck   Creek    Cahar.: 
Government  figur.^s. 

'Individual  nrices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
re-'lar  customers  rresnective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
een,  -ally  the  same  h.  h"  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  fixed  according 
to  a     cgular  schedule 


X.  .1..  Newark — The  Butterworth-Judson  Co.,  Roanoke  Ave., 
plans  to  build  a  1-story,  87  x  94-ft,  boiler  house.     Estimated  cost, 

$18,000, 

N.  Y.,  .^ndover — City  has  plans  under  consideration  for  the 
election  of  an  electric-lighting  plant. 

X.  C,  Tuxedo — The  Blue  Ridge  Power  Co.  plans  to  build  a 
hydro-electric  plant  on  the  Green  River.      Estimated  cost,  between 

$800,000  and   $900,000. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — Shane  Bros.  Sc  Wilson,  Bourse  Bldg,,  is 
having  jilans  prepared  by  J,  M.  Whitham,  ."Xrch,,  for  the  erection 
of  a  new  1 -story.  35  x  40-ft.  jiower  house  in  connection  with  its 
plant   on   63rd  and   Market   Sts. 

Penn.,  Pottsville — The  Eastern  Pennsylvania  Light.  Heat  and 
Power  Co.  has  petitioned  the  Public  .Service  Commission  for  per- 
mission to  issue  $10,500  in  bonds;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  in 
improvements   to   its  system.      W.    B.    Rockwell,    Mgr. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  United  States  Government  plans  to 
build  a   l-stor>'  po\^■er  house  at  the  Frani\ford  Arsenal. 

Penn.,  Reading — The  Reading  Transit  and  Light  Co.  has  been 
granted  permission  to  issue  an  appropriation  of  $150,000;  the 
proceeds  will  be  used  in  extensions  and  improvements  to  its 
system.      W.    S.   Barstow,   Mgr, 

Penn..  West  Chester — The  Philadelphia  Suburban  Gas  and 
Electric  Co,  plans  to  build  a  transmission  line  from  its  electric 
plant  on  the  .Schuylkill  River  at  Crombie  to  Coates\'ille.  J.  D. 
Shattuck,    Philadelphia,    Mgr, 

Penn..  While  Haven — The  Wilmot  Engineering  Co,.  Hazleton, 
plans  to  build  several  additions  to  its  plant  including  new  power 
stations. 

Tex.,  Mc.Allen — The  Rio  Grande  Public  Service  Corporation 
plans  to  install  new  machinery  and  equipment  in  its  electric- 
lighting  and   power  plant.      Estimated   cost,    $4",0{io, 

Tex.,  San  Benito — The  Commonwealth  Electric  Light  and 
Water  Co,  plans  to  enlarge  its  power  house  and  install  new 
equipment  including  a  new  lOO-hp,  engine  in  its  electric-light  and 
power  plant  here. 

Wash..  I'uKel  Sound — (Bremerton  P.  O.)  —  (Official) — The 
Bureau  of  Supplies  and  .'\ccounts.  Navy  Dept.,  Wash,,  will  soon 
receive  bids  for  delivering  at  Xa\->-  Yard,  Puget  Sound,  under 
Schedule  No.  1641,  low  pressure,  iron,  steam  and  water  unions 
and  brass  composition,  steam  and   water  unions, 

B.  C,  Trail — The  West  Kootenay  Power  and  Light  Co,  plans 
to  extend  its  tran.smission  line  to  the  plant  of  the  Canada  Copper 
Co,,  Princeton,  about  110  miles,  J,  B.  McDonald.  Rossland.  Gen. 
Supt. 

Ont.,  Barfonville — Barton  Township  plans  to  purchase  elec- 
trical  equipment,      lOstimated   cost,    $55,000. 

Ont.,  London— The  Board  of  Utilities  plans  to  build  a  bilck 
and  steel  addition  to  its  hydro  sub-.station  Estunated  cost,  ^ib.- 
nOO       R    V    Buchanan.   City   Hall.  Gen.   Mgr. 


POWER 


101 


Vol.  47 


l«« ■■■■■ lllllllllllNltlll I IIIIIIIIIIIDI I IIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItirillllllllllllllMMIIIIIIIIIIIUIIUIII 

NEW  YORK,  JANUARY  22,  1918  No.  4 


iiitiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


iiiiiimMiiDiiiiHiMiiiiiitiiiiiiitiiii 


iiiiiniiiiiiMiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiii 


How  Engineer  Tim  Got  a  Raise  of  Pay  and  Promotion 


TIM   had   been  chief  operating 
engineer  in  a  cotton  mill  for 
fifteen  years,  and  during  that 
time  had  received  only  one  raise  of 
pay,   and   that   mainly   because   of 
his  heroic  work  during  a  fire. 

Some  time  ago  he  decided  to  ask 
for  a  raise.     Nerving  himself  for 
the  ordeal,  he  finally  had  courage 
enough    to    go    to    the    manager's 
office    and    in    a     straightforward 
way  stated  his  case.    The  manager 
answered    that    the     firm     always 
recognized  him  as  a  good,  faithful, 
conscientious     engineer     and     felt 
proud  of  the  care  he  took  of  the 
power  plant,  but  owing  to  the  in- 
creased cost  of  material  and  generally 
high  running  expenses,  it  was  not  pos- 
sible to  raise  his  pay,  at  least  at  that 
time, 

Tim  returned  to  the  engine  room 
somewhat  dovioihearted,  but  he  knew 
that  it  would  be  useless  for  him  to  ti-y 
for  a  job  elsewhere,  as  the  pay  would 
not  be  greater  and  he  would  have  to 
start  in  on  a  new  job  with  machinery 
perhaps  new  to  him,  whereas  he  knew 
all  about  his  present  power  equipment 

TIME  AND  AGAIN  he  asked  him- 
self the  question:  "Hotv  can  I 
make  myself  tnore  valuable  to  viy 
employers  and  in  turn  get  more  pay 
for  increased  efficiency?"  He  had  been 
reading  many  articles  on  how  engineers 
increased  the  efficiency  of  their  plants 
and  decided  that  perhaps  it  was  possible 
for  him  to  do  likewise.  It  was  true  that 
his  engines  always  ran  well  and  none 
had  better  care,  the  firm  often  remark- 
ing on  the  low  cost  of  repairs. 

The  power  plant  consisted  of  one 
600-hp.  cross-compound  Corliss  engine 
and  a  250-hp.  single-cylinder  Corliss, 
each  noncondensing  and  belted  to  sep- 
arate lineshafts.  There  was  also  a 
600-ft.  steam-driven  air  compressor  of 
old  design,  which  was  always  consid- 
ered a  "steam  hog."  Air  pressure  was 
80  lb.  and  steam  pressure  on  boilers 
125  lb.  gage. 

Tim  purchased  a  book  on  engine 
testing  and  learned  how  to  figure  steam 
consumption  from  indicator  cards,  be- 
cause he  wished  to  make  a  test  and 
ascertain  if  his  plant  was  as  efficient 
as  it  should  be. 

He  had  no  means  of  measuring  steam 
because  his  plant  was  noncondensing 
and  to  "rig  up"  would  cost  too  much  for 
equipment — more,  he  knew,  than  his 
firm  would  allow — therefore  steam  con- 
sumption from  indicator  cards  was  the 
nearest  he  could  approach  true  condi- 
tions. 

While  he  was  making  elaborate  prep- 
arations   for    indicating    the    different 


Contributed   by  M.    E.    GRIFFIN 

units,  he  became  so  enthusiastic  that 
he  even  gave  the  office  boy  a  package  of 
cigarettes  for  spreading  the  news 
around  the  office  that  great  "doings" 
for  increased  efficiency  were  going  on 
in  the  power  plant. 


THE  CARDS  from  the  cross-com- 
pound were  very  good,  showing 
good  distribution  of  steam  and 
figured  20%  lb.  of  steam  per  indicated 
horsepower-hour,  which  was  relatively 
close  to  the  engine  builder's  guarantee. 

The  single-cylinder  engine's  cards, 
while  showing  good  valve  setting,  fig- 
ured 29  lb.  of  steam  per  i.hp.-hr.,  which 
was  very  much  higher  than  builder's 
guarantee.  This  was  accounted  for  by 
the  early  cutoff  shovirn  on  the  cards, 
proving  that  this  engine  was  consider- 
ably underloaded  and  therefore  waste- 
ful accordingly. 

The  air-compressor  cards  figured  an 
average  of  37  lb.  steam  per  i.hp.-hr. 
and  showed  a  cutoff  of  about  75  per 
cent,  of  the  stroke,  which  meant  that 
the  work  done  by  the  expansion  of 
steam  was  practically  nothing. 

Summing  up  the  steam  consumption 
for  the  three  units,  20 V2  lb.  +  29  lb.  + 
37  lb.  =  SGVa  lb.  of  steam  per  i.hp.-hr., 
and  as  the  coal  had  an  evaporation 
value  of  one  pound  of  coal  per  IV2  lb. 
of  steam,  it  was  no  wonder  the  finn 
was  complaining  about  the  monthly 
coal  cost. 

This  convinced  Tim  that,  while  for 
fifteen  years  he  thought  he  had  an 
economical  plant,  he  was  only  fooling 
himself  and  incidentally  throwing  his 
firm's  money  into  the  boilers,  as  he 
termed  it. 

After  a  couple  of  days'  thought, 
he  asked  permission  to  make  a  few 
changes  that  he  believed  would  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  the  power  plant 
with  very  small  expenditure  of  money, 
stating  that  he  could  do  the  work  him- 
self at  "odd"  times.  The  superintend- 
ent gave  him  permission  to  do  anything 


within    reason    that    would    reduce 
the  coal  consumption. 

I^IM  REASONED  THUS:  "The 
cross-compound  is  the  only 
economical  unit,  and  I'll  leave 
it  alone;  the  single-cylinder  is 
underloaded,  and  I'll  have  to  build 
up  a  load  somehow;  the  air  com- 
pressor is  overloaded  and  playing 
h —  with  the  coal  pile." 

On  the  air  compressor  there 
were  two  balance  wheels,  each 
wide  enough  for  a  belt  to  drive  it 
and  so  located  that  it  could  easily 
be  belted  to  the  lineshaft 
driven  by  the  single-cylinder  engine. 
This  seemed  like  an  inspiration. 
He  took  the  steam  piston  out  of  the  air 
compressor  and  tunied  it  down  with  a 
groove  to  hold  babbitt  and  babbitted 
the  lower  circumference  one-third  the 
way  around  so  as  to  act  as  a  tail-rod 
crosshead,  using  the  steam  cylinder 
with  heads  removed  as  a  tail-rod  guide. 
He  then  procured  a  pulley  of  suitable 
size  and  mounted  it  on  the  lineshaft 
driven  by  single-cylinder  engine,  belted 
up  the  air  compressor  and  shut  off  its 
steam  line,  letting  the  single-cylinder 
Corliss  drive  the  belted  air  compressor. 

His  new  set  of  indicator  cards  from 
the  single-cylinder  unit,  while  showing 
a  slight  overload,  figured  a  fairly  eco- 
nomical steam  consumption  and  good 
distribution  of  steam  and  the  37  lb.  per 
i.hp.-hr.  of  the  air  compressor  was  a 
thing  of  ancient  history.  Tim  was  the 
happiest  man  in  North  Carolina.    Why? 

ABOUT  A  WEEK  after  the  change 
l\  was  completed,  the  manager  sent 
for  him.  Tim  was  surprised  at 
his  offering  him  a  cigar,  and  more  so 
when  he  showed  him  a  chart  of  coal 
consumption,  week  by  week,  covering 
year  after  year,  and  what  the  saving 
had  been  during  the  past  week. 

"Tim,"  said  he,  "you  asked  for  a 
raise  of  pay  a  while  ago,  and  we  could 
not  afford  it,  although  we  would  wil- 
lingly have  granted  it  if  conditions  war- 
ranted it.  We  have  been  keenly  inter- 
ested in  what  you  have  been  doing 
since,  and  the  results  are  a  revelation 
to  us.  You  have  initiative  and  can 
think  for  yourself.  We  are  not  going 
to  give  you  a  raise  of  pay  as  chief 
engineer."  Tim  began  to  feel  sick  at 
heart.  After  all  his  trouble,  no  raise! 
"No,  not  as  chief  engineer.  At  a  di- 
rectors' meeting  this  afternoon  we  ap- 
pointed you  general  superintendent  of 
this  plant,  your  duties  to  begin  at  once, 
and  you  have  free  rein  to  use  your  best 
judgment  in  increasing  the  efficiency  of 
any  and  every  department  according  to 
your  own  ideas.  You  are  the  efficiency 
expert  we  have  been  advertising  for 
and  could  not  locate." 


108 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


^"^^"^»R^^;;t:?fr^.?^»w«'ii'".»''-  —  ' 


^jETP^r  HIGH'PRESSURE 
iJOLIETm  rPLANT 


Boilers  designed  for  350  lb.  pressure  will  deliver 
steam  to  the  turbines  at  300  lb.  gage  and  225 
deg.  F.  of  superheat.  An  all-steel  horizontal-tube 
economizer  is  placed  above  and  integral  tvith  each 
boiler.  Extra-heavy  piping,  special  ivelded  joints 
and  steel  fittings  are  employed.  First  10,000-kw. 
unit  is  now  in  operation  and  second  under  erec- 
tion. 


TO  CARE  for  a  rapidly  increasing  load  in  a 
territory  covering  thirteen  counties,  the  Public 
Service  Co.  of  Northern  Illinois  is  adding  the 
new  Joliet  plant,  shown  in  the  headpiece,  to  its  list 
of  generating  stations.  It  is  situated  about  three  miles 
south  of  the  city  on  the  Des  Plaines  River,  on  40  acres 
of  land  between  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  and 
the  Chicago  &  Alton  railroads.  This  location  is  adjacent 
to  two  railroads  tapping  the  coal  fields  of  Illinois  and 
has  at  hand  an  abundant  supply  of  water.  A  property 
plat  is  shovra  in  Fig.  1.  The  initial  portion  of  the 
station  is  to  contain  two  10,000-kw.  generating  units. 
Later,  as  the  load  demands,  the  building  will  be  ex- 
tended to  accommodate  additional  and  larger  units. 
In  the  new  plant  the  outstanding  feature  is  the 
high  steam  pressure — 300  lb.  at  the  turbine  and  ap- 
proximately 325  lb.  at  the  boiler,  superheated  225  deg. 


This  is  about  75  lb.  higher  than  common  in  modern 
stationary  practice  and  is  a  notable  step  in  the  recent 
movement  to  improve  economy  by  raising  the  upper 
limits  of  the  cycle.  It  seems  generally  agreed  that  in 
the  condenser  there  is  little  more  to  be  gained.  Higher 
steam  temperatures  to  widen  the  operating  range  up 
to  the  limitations  of  the  metal  employed  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  equipment  offer  the  greater  opportunity. 

Although  the  boilers  are  of  the  standard  Babcock  & 
Wilcox  cross-drum  type,  they  are  built  heavy  to  with- 
stand the  high  pressure.  The  plates  in  the  boiler  drum 
are  1{\,  in.  thick,  the  longitudinal  seam  being  a  butt 
and  double  cover  strap  quadruple-riveted  joint.  The 
heads  are  secured  by  two  rows  of  rivets.  Tubes  of  No. 
7  gage,  as  compared  to  No.  10  for  200-lb.  pressure, 
are  used.  All  high-pressure  steam  piping  is  extra- 
heavy  and  of  relatively  small  diameter  owing  to  the 
density  of  the  steam.  With  steam  at  a  temperature  of 
(550  deg.  rigid  construction  was  avoided.  The  length 
of  straight  runs  has  been  limited,  and  numerous  long- 
radius  bends  are  employed  to  provide  for  expansion. 
All  fittings  are  of  steel,  the  manifolds  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  boiler  leads  having  been  cast  and 
the  smaller  fittings  forged.  On  pipes  above  4-in.  diam- 
eter a  special  bolted  joint  with  a  welded  seal  at  the 
periphery   is   used. 

A  notable  feature  is  the  installation  of  individual 
all-steel  horizontal-tube  economizers,  the  first  of  their 


January  22,  1918 


POWER 


109 


kind  in  this  country.  The  economizer  is  placed  above 
and  integral  with  the  boiler.  The  economizer  tubes 
have  a  5-deg.  slope.  With  no  dampers  between,  so 
tha^  the  pases  pass  directly  from  one  to  the  other,  it 
is  really  one  stage  of  the  boiler  unit.  See  Fig.  ."?. 
Furnace  gases  pass  from  the  economizer  at  such  low 


boo' 


FIG.  1.    PKOl'EKTY  PLAT,  JGLIET  STATION 

temperatures  as  to  permit  unlined  steel  stacks,  the 
latter  being  coated  with  an  asphaltic  paint  adapted  to 
high  temperatures. 

Another  feature  of  the  plant  is  a  basement  entirely 
above  ground,  the  main  operating  floor  being  the  second 
story  of  the  building.  A  solid  rock  footing  was  al- 
ready available  and  excavation  would  have  been  costly. 


in  the  station.  All  pumps  are  of  the  centrifugal  type 
and  motor-driven  with  the  exception  of  the  boiler-feed 
and  one  service  pump  operated  by  turbines.  With  little 
exhaust  steam  available  to  heat  the  feed  water,  provision 
is  made  to  bleed  steam  under  thermostatic  control  from 
the  fourth  stage  of  the  main  turbine,  where  the  pres- 
sure is  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  Another  feature  is 
to  utilize  the  condenser  for  drawing  boiler  makeup  from 
the  fresh- water  reservoir.  The  water  enters  the  con- 
denser and  with  the  aid  of  the  condensate  pump  is 
passed  in  the  usual  way  to  the  heater. 

With  the  compact  arrangement  of  boiler  and  econ- 
omizer and  the  .steel  casing  over  all,  radiation  and  air 
leakage  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  An  excep- 
tionally high  boiler  efficiency  should  be  maintained. 

Architecturally,  the  building  is  substantial  and  of 
pleasing  design,  as  the  headpiece  of  this  article  shows. 
A  skeleton  steel  frame  supports  walls  of  vitrified  brick 
resting  on  concrete  base  walls.  Floors  are  of  reinforced 
concrete.  In  the  turbine  room  the  walls  are  lined  with 
white  glazed  tile  with  a  5-ft.  dado  of  dark-green  tile. 
In  plan  the  building  is  irregular  with  maximum  dimen- 
sions of  134x244  ft.  As  the  entire  plant  is  above 
the  ground  level,  the  height  is  greater  than  usual.  The 
basement  floor  is  about  six  inches  above  ground  level, 
the  boiler-room  floor  is  28  ft.  higher  and  to  the  top 
of  the  monitor  roof  an  additional  60  ft.  Under  the 
turbine  room  is  a  22-ft.  basement.  The  height  from 
the  main  floor  to  the  crane  rail  is  30  ft.,  and  the  clear 


FIG.   2.     GENERAL  PLAN  OF  STATION 


Besides,  the  construction  gives  headroom  for  the  coal 
and  ash  cars  operating  at  the  ground  level  and  elimi- 
nates ash  conveyors.  There  is  gravity  flow  from  the 
overhead  coal  bunker  to  the  stokers,  and  the  ashes  are 
delivered  directly  from  the  hoppers  under  the  stokers 
to  railway  cars. 

Outside  of  the  small  .stoker  engines  held  as  reserves 
for  motor  drives,  there  is  no  reciprocating  machinery 


space  to  the  bottom  of  the  roof  girders  measures  40  ft. 
At  one  end  of  the  building  are  temporary  walls  so 
that  the  station  may  be  extended  easily  for  additional 
equipment. 

The  station  is  arranged  on  the  unit  plan.  For  each 
10,000-kw.  generating  unit  there  will  be  two  cross-drum 
water-tube  boilers,  each  having  9919  sq.ft.  of  steam- 
making  surface,  a  built-in  superheater  with  3100  sq.ft. 


110 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


and  an  economizer  containing  6730  sq.ft.  of  surface. 
There  are  now  three  boilers  in  the  plant,  but  when 
the  second  generating  unit  is  installed,  a  fourth  boiler 
will  be  added.  Under  ordinary  conditions  when  a  good 
grade  of  Illinois  coal  is  available,  it  is  the  intention 
to  use  three  boilers  to  carry  the  two  generating  units, 
leaving  one  boiler  in  reserve.  With  inferior  coal  the 
four  boilers  will  probably  be  needed. 

With  three  boilers  serving  two  generators  there  will 
be  1.49  sq.ft.  of  active  steam-making  surface  per  kilo- 
watt of  generating  capacity,  or  on  the  basis  of  10  sq.ft., 
one  boiler-horsepower  will  serve  7.67  kw.  This  does 
not  take  into  account  the  economizer.  Each  boiler, 
with  its  steel  casing,  masonry  setting  and  retreating 
back,  covers  at  the  floor  line  an  area  of  294  sq.ft.,  or 
0.296  sq.ft.  per  horsepower  (10  sq.ft.)  of  rating.  In- 
cluding the  overhang  the  area  increases  to  0.472  sq.ft. 
per  horsepower,  and  to  the  stoker  fronts  the  floor  space 


an  asphaltic  paint  on  the  interior  surface  protecting 
the  metal. 

Being  the  first  of  its  kind  in  this  country,  the  econ- 
omizer is  of  special  interest.  The  construction  is  similar 
to  that  of  a  B.  &  W.  type  boiler  without  the  drum. 
The  headers  are  of  wrought  steel  and  the  tubes,  which 
are  4  in.  diameter  and  16  ft.  long,  of  drawn  steel  i 
in.  thick.  As  low  temperatures  are  expected,  the  tubes 
are  galvanized  inside  and  out  to  guard  against  cor- 
rosion. The  economizer  is  vertically  baffled  for  three 
passes,  the  gases  from  the  boiler  entering  at  the  front 
and  from  the  third  pass  rising  vertically  through  the 
induced-draft  fan  to  the  stack.  The  fan  has  capacity 
to  handle  75,000  cu.ft.  per  min.  of  gas  at  350  deg.  F. 
At  this  rating  the  power  required  is  94  hp.  To  give 
plenty  of  reserve  capacity  for  contingencies  and  to 
reduce  upkeep  to  a  minimum,  a  150-hp.  motor  was  in- 
stalled.     In    general    this   policy    of    using   motors    of 


■Sfactf. 
TDiam. 


n 


StacJr, 
7'Diam. 


Dfsconnecfrna 
.§w,fch 


iChokeCoif 


A  -  ^ijmbinect  Fuse  anc/ 

nisconnec-f-inq  SwUth 
B-  ''3.000/IIOV.Kfen-Hal 

'^rvnsfbrmer 
C  ■  ^-K.v.  Oil  SMftch 

D  -  ^reserrf-  Main  td-tf.v.  Oil 

iwi-fdJ  :ine/  Bus 
E  "  ^'fure  Reserve  'd-t<.v.  Oil 

jtvficn  ana  Bus 


-v^  injecffon 
.Junnei 


FIG.    3.      SECTIONAL    ELEVATION    THROUGH    PLANT 


1  f-  300-K.v.A 

imo-y/'m-v. 

^u%  iransfyrmer 
Q-WOO-ZTkA 

ll,a>0-V./33,000-V. 
Transformer 


covered  is  585  sq.ft.,  or  0.59  sq.ft.  per  horsepower. 
From  the  boiler-room  floor  to  the  center  of  the  cross- 
drum  the  height  is  26  ft.  6  in.,  and  42  ft.  from  the 
floor  to   the  top   of  the   economizer. 

A  very  interesting  feature  is  the  stoker  installation. 
Two  chain  grates  are  placed  side  by  side  in  a  common 
furnace,  each  being  8  ft.  wide,  14  ft.  6  in.  long  and 
containing  116  sq.ft.  of  active  grate  area.  Double  this 
area  bears  a  ratio  to  the  steam-making  surface  in  the 
boiler  of  1  to  43.  The  stokers  are  motor-driven  through 
reduction  gears  and  belt,  with  vertical  engines  in  re- 
serve. The  general  design  of  the  setting  and  the 
positions  of  the  economizer  and  induced-draft  motor- 
driven  fan  are  shown  in  Fig.  3.  Rising  65  ft.  above 
the  fan,  or  125  ft.  above  the  grate,  is  an  individual 
self-supporting  steel  stack  of  7  ft.  diameter.  Owing 
to  the  low  temperature  of  the  flue  gasos  leaving  the 
economizer  (probably  350  deg.  F.),  the  stack  is  unlined, 


liberal  capacity  for  the  work  has  been  adopted  all 
through  the  station.  Water  to  the  economizer  enters 
at  the  bottom  of  the  rear  header  and  passes  through 
396  four-inch  tubes  to  leave  at  the  top  of  the  front 
heater.  The  relative  flow  of  gas  and  water  is  thus 
counter-current. 

Reviewing  the  foregoing  data,  it  will  be  seen  that 
each  1000  sq.ft.  of  boiler-heating  surface  has  23.4  sq.ft. 
of  grate,  313  sq.ft.  of  superheating  surface,  678  sq.ft. 
of  economizer  and  3.88  sq.ft.   of  stack. 

Feed  water  for  the  boilers  is  mainly  condensate  which 
has  been  delivered  through  a  preheater  at  the  top  of 
the  condenser,  containing  1000  sq.ft.  of  surface  to  the 
heater  by  either  one  of  two  motor-driven  condensate 
pumps,  the  duplication  tending  to  insure  continuity  of 
service.  The  heater  is  of  the  open  type,  having  capacity 
to  serve  the  two  boilers  of  the  unit.  Either  of  two 
four-stage  turbine-driven  centrifugal  pumps   designed 


January  22.  1918 


POWER 


111 


! 

FIG.    4.      TURBO-GENERATOR   NOW    IN   OPERATION 

to  deliver  300  gal.  per  min.  against  a  head  of  375 
to  400  lb.,  feeds  the  water  to  the  boilers.  The  turbines 
are  rated  at  126  hp.  and  operate  under  full  boiler 
pressure,  their  output  being  controlled  by  pressure- 
regulating  valves.  The  water  passes  through  the  econ- 
omizer and  enters  the  boiler  at  both  ends  of  the 
cross-drum. 

The  makeup  water  comes  from  a  fresh-water  reser- 
voir which  collects  the  steam-header  drips,  heater  over 


M^ 


FINISHED  SMOOTH 
PIP£        FITTIN5 


probably  range  from  100  to  120  deg.  F.  To  maintain 
the  temperature  within  this  range  a  bleeder  connection 
under  thermostatic  control  has  been  made  to  the  fourth 
stage  of  the  turbine. 

(^oal  for  the  plant,  Illinois  lump  and  screenings,  is 
brought  in  over  the  company's  siding  from  the  Chicago 
&  Alton  tracks  at  Plaines,  about  three-quarters  of  a 
mile  distant.  The  company  has  its  own  locomotive  and 
coal  cars  and  at  the  plant  a  yard  containing  five  tracks. 
No.  1  is  a  storage  track  running  past  the  south  side 
of  the  building,  Nos.  2  and  4  are  ash  tracks  serving  the 
two  rows  of  boilers,  No.  3  is  the  coal  track,  and  No.  5 
serves  the  turbine  room.  Between  these  tracks  there 
is  space  to  store  about  10,000  tons  of  coal.  Track  No. 
3,  centering  on  the  firing  aisle,  leads  into  the  boiler- 
room  basement  over  a  concrete  pit  capable  of  storing 
800  tons  of  coal.  By  a  four-motor  traveling  crane  with 
a  2-yd.  grab  bucket  the  coal  is  unloaded  into  a  four-roll 
traveling  crusher,  driven  by  a  50-hp.  induction  motor, 
which  discharges  to  a  bucket  conveyor  delivering  into 
the  overhead  bunker.  The  latter  has  capacity  to  hold 
450  tons,  or  112  tons  per  boiler.  The  bunker  is  made 
up  of  steel  plates,  concrete  lined,  and  is  divided  up 
into  four  compartments  with  double  chutes  from  each 
leading  to  the  two  stokers  under  their  respective  boiler. 

Screenings  are  handled  in  the  same  way  with  the 
exception  that  the  rolls  of  the  crusher  are  spread  to 
allow  the  coal  to  pass  through  to  the  conveyor.  On 
both  sides  of  the  crusher  are  bypass  chutes  to  the  stor- 
age pit.  The  coal  may  be  unloaded  into  the  pit  or 
into  the  outdoor  storage  space.  In  the  latter  case  a 
locomotive  crane  unloads  the  coal  and  loads   it   again 

I  when  it  is  desired  to  remove  it  to  the  plant. 
Under  each  boiler  furnace  are  ash  and  fine-coal 
hoppers.  The  former  is  brick  lined  and  is  equipped 
with  a  sprinkling  system  to  wet  down  the  ashes. 
Through  a  sliding  gate  operated  by  a  handwheel,  the 
ashes  are  passed  directly  to  railway  cars,  thus  obviating 
the  need  of  ash-handling  apparatus,  always  hard  to 
maintain.  Farther  forward,  under  the  stoker,  is  the 
fine-coal  hopper,  which  delivers  its  contents  to  the  con- 


PIG.    5.      CONSTRUCTION    OF    SPECIAIj   WKLOED    JOINT 

flow  and  other  other  available  condensation.  Under 
float  control  it  is  also  supplied  with  filtered  service 
water.  The  house-service  water  supply  is  drawn  from 
the  condenser  intake  tunnel  by  two  600-gal.  pumps, 
one  driven  by  a  turbine  and  the  other  by  a  motor.  It 
is  delivered  to  a  service  tank  on  the  roof.  From  the 
pump  discharge  line  several  taps  are  taken  off  for 
transformer  cooling  and  for  various  services  where  raw 
water  can  be  used.  Return  water  from  the  tank  passes 
through  duplicate  pressure  filters,  each  of  which  has 
capacity  to  filter  150  gal.  per  min.  Upon  leaving  the 
filter  the  water  supply  divides,  part  going  to  cool  bear- 
ings and  to  the  lavatory  system,  and  the  balance  as 
needed  to  the  hot-water  reservoir.  The  vacuum  on  the 
main  unit  is  utilized  to  draw  the  makeup  water  from 
the  reservoir  into  the  condenser,  the  amount  being 
regulated  by  a  float  in  the  heater.  It  is  removed  by 
the  condensate  pump  in  the  usual  way  and  delivered  to 
the  heater. 

With  the  exhaust  steam  available  the  water  temper- 
ature in  the  heater  under  average  load  conditions  will 


FIG.    C.      TRAVELING    SCREENS 

I.MTAKK 


FOR    COOLING-WATER 


112 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


Crete  storage  pit.     The  outlet  is  controlled  by  a  sliding 
gate  operated  from  the  boiler-room  floor. 

As  previously  explained,  all  high-pressure  piping  is 
extra-heavy,  with  fittings  of  cast  or  forged  steel.  On 
pipes  above  4  in.  diameter  the  special-welded  joint 
shown  in  Fig.  5,  is  used.  The  pipe  is  extended  throu:;h 
the  flange  and  is  belled  out  to  form  the  face  of  the 
joint.  The  face  is  finished  smooth,  and  the  edge  beveled 
off'  to  form  a  V-shaped  groove  to  receive  the  welding 
metal.  On  fittings  a  facing  boss  of  extra  thickness  to 
form  a  welding  surface  similar  to  that  on  the  pipe 
flange  is  provided.  The  weld  is  intended  only  to  seal 
the  joint,  the  bolts  through  the  flange  taking  the  stress. 
In  the  plan  view.  Fig.  2,  the  numerous  bends  in  the 


FIG.    7,      OIL    SWITCHKS   AND    BUS   COMPARTMENT 

piping  to  care  for  expansion  may  be  noticed.  From 
each  end  of  the  superheater  there  is  a  steam  outlet,  the 
leads  from  the  superheater  being  joined  by  special  steel 
manifolds  at  the  boiler-room  wall.  Two  boilers  per 
turbine  will  be  provided,  but  there  are  cross-connections 
between  the  two  units  so  that  three  boilers  may  be 
used  to  carry  the  two  10,000-kw.  machines.  The  fourth 
boiler  provides  a  reserve  needed  at  times  of  cleaning 
or   inspection. 

The  main  generating  units  of  the  present  installa- 
tion are  rated  at  10,000  kw.  at  80  per  cent,  power  factor. 
One  of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  At  the  turbine  the 
working  pressure  is  300-lb.  gage.  The  speed  is  1800 
r.p.m.  The  generators  are  three-phase  60-cycle  ma- 
chines delivering  current  at  12,000  volts,  which  is 
standard  in  the  company's  newer  plants.  In  the  elec- 
trical end  of  the  plant  no  radical  departures  from 
standard  practice  have  been  made.  Distribution  will 
be  at  12,000  and  33,000  volts.  A  double  bus  system 
is  employed  throughout  the  station.  Each  generator 
may  feed  through  either  of  two  oil  switches  to  a  set 
of  sectionalized  12,000-volt  double  busses.  From  these 
busses  two  kinds  of  leads  are  taken  off;  one  class  being 
the  12,000-volt  feeders  and  the  other  leading  to  the  low- 
tension  side  of  water-cooled  transformers,  stepping  up 


the  voltage  to  33,000.  Fig.  7  shows  oil  switches  and  the 
bus  compartment. 

Control  of  all  electrical  equipment  except  auxiliary 
power  is  efi'ected  from  an  operating  room  in  the  switch- 
house  located  on  the  turbine-room  floor  and  separated 
from  it  by  a  glass  partition.  Generator  control  is 
centered  in  a  benchboard,  and  outgoing  feeders  are 
controlled  by  vertical  boards  arranged  with  the  bench- 
board in  the  form  of  a  hollow  square.  Auxiliary  440- 
volt  power  has  remote  mechanical  control  from  a  vertical 
board  in  the  turbine  room.  The  generator  circuits  are 
equipped  with  overload  relays,  ordinarily  connected  in 
circuit  only  during  synchronizing,  and  each  outgoing 
line  has  a  polyphase  watt-hour  meter.  Of  the  latter 
liberal  use  has  been  made  throughout  the  station.  Ex- 
citation is  effected  by  100-kw.  250-volt  shunt-wound 
exciters  mounted  on  the  generator  shafts  and  a  100-kw. 
turbine-driven  reserve  exciter. 

Over  all  the  main  unit  is  33  ft.  6  in.  long  and  13,  ft. 
3  in.  wide,  requiring  a  floor  space  of  444  sq.ft.,  or 
0.0444  sq.ft.  per  kilowatt  of  rating.  The  height  of  the 
unit  Ts  12  ft.  above  the  floor  line.  The  turbine  is  served 
by  a  two-pass  condenser  containing  in  3600  one-inch 
tubes  20,000  sq.ft.  of  surface.  From  the  foregoing 
figures  there  is  2  sq.ft.  of  surface  per  kilowatt  of  gen- 
erating rating. 

Circulating  water  is  supplied  by  a  centrifugal  pump 
having  capacity  to  deliver  18,000  gal.  per  min.  In 
conjunction  with  the  Leblanc  air  pump  it  is  driven 
by  a  200-hp.  slip-ring  induction  motor.  Duplicate  con- 
densate pumps  are  used,  each  rated  to  care  for  360 
gal.  of  condensate  per  minute  and  driven  by  a  25-hp. 
motor. 

Cooling  water  for  the  condensers  is  drawn  from  the 
Des  Plaines  River  through  a  concrete  tunnel,  the  intake 
being  .570  ft.  distant  from  the  center  line  of  the  tunnel 
in  the  turbine  room.  In  its  course  to  the  plant  the  tun- 
nel passes  under  the  Santa  Fe  tracks  to  the  screenhouse, 
its  dimensions  to  the  river  side  of  the  railway  being  10  ft. 
wide  by  8  ft.  high.  From  this  point  on  to  the  plant  it  is  8 
X  8  ft.  in  section.  Water  from  the  tunnel  enters  the  fore- 
bay  in  the  screenhouse.  Fig.  6,  where  it  first  passes 
through  an  iron  grid  of  ]  x  4-in.  bars  designed  to  keep 
back  driftwood  which  may  have  escaped  the  log  boom  at 
the  intake.  Revolving  screens  are  then  encountered, 
which  measure  26  ft.  9  in.  between  centers  of  the  driv- 
ing sprockets  and  5  ft.  2  in.  wide  between  roller  centers. 
Through  reduction  gearing  each  screen  is  driven  by  a 
5-hp.  induction  motor.  Provision  is  made  to  swing  the 
screens  to  a  horizontal  position  for  inspection  or  re- 
pairs. Cleaning  is  done  during  operation.  Water  from 
slotted  pipes  is  forced  at  high  velocity  through  the 
mesh,  discharging  against  splashboards  and  draining 
down  into  a  trough  leading  to  the  discharge  tunnel. 

Back  of  the  traveling  screens  are  double  sets  of  sta- 
tionary screens  having  i-in.  mesh  to  catch  fibrous  mate- 
rial, small  fish  or  debris  of  any  character  remaining 
in  the  water.  These  screens  are  made  up  in  sections 
5  ft.  10  in.  wide  by  4  ft.  6  in.  high.  For  cleaning  they 
are  removed  by  a  hand-operated  beam  trolley.  The  dis- 
charge tunnel,  8x8  ft.  in  section,  travels  on  top  of 
the  injection  tunnel  as  far  as  the  river  side  of  the 
railway.  Here  it  turns  downstream  and  discharges  into 
a  swampy  tract  bordering  on  the  river.     At  the  turn 


January  22.  1918 


POWER 


113 


a  2-ft.  8-in.  by  3-ft.  8-in.  tunnel  leads  from  the  main 
discharge  to  the  intake,  where  during  the  winter  season 
the  warm  water  will  keep  down  the  ice.  A  sluice-gate 
valve  determines  the  amount  of  water  drawn  off  for  this 
purpose. 

Safety  of  the  employees  and  congenial  surroundings 
were  features  given  special  prominence  in  the  design 
of  the  station.  The  engineer  has  a  large  roomy  office, 
shower  baths  and  locker  rooms  were  provided  for  the 
help  and  excellent  drinking  water  is  piped  from  a  near- 
by spring.  In  addition  to  the  usual  equipment,  the 
station  contains  a  machine  shop,  storeroom  and  a  fuel 
engineer's  office  in  which  coal,  the  big  factor  in  power- 
plant  operation,  will  receive  close  attention.  The  sta- 
tion was  designed  by  Sargent  &  Lundy,  consulting 
engineers,  and  Von  Hoist  &  Fyfe  were  employed  as 
architects.  Of  the  operating  company  Samuel  Insull  is 
president;  F.  J.  Baker,  vice  president  in  charge  of 
operation  and  construction;  George  H.  Lukes,  general 
superintendent,  and  J.  L.  Hecht,  mechanical  engineer. 

IMPOHTANT  DATA  OF  JOLIET  STATION 
Boiler  Room 

Type  of  boiler 

S3tting 

Nuiiiber'now  installed 

Steam-making  surface,  sq.ft 

Sieam-making  surface  in-tulled  per  k\v.,  s<i.ft 

i^ress  ir?  for  which  boil  is  arc  designed,  lb.  per  sq.in 

Op  r  I  ting  pressure,  lb.  per  s;.i.in 

Superheat,  deg.  F 

S'eam  temperature,  deg.  F  

Number  of  boilers  per  unit  ... 

NuTibi  r  of  tubes  per  boiler  

Length  of  tubes,  ft  

Dia  nettr  of  tubes,  in  

Length  of  drum,  ft.-in  

Dia  neter  of  drum,  ft  '. . 

Stj^ers  p^r  boiler  

lype  of  stoker  

Active  area  of  two  stokers,  sq.ft  

Ratio  grate  area  to  boilcr-hcating  svirface     

Superheater  surface  (B,  &  W),  sq.ft  

Floor  space  occupied  by  boih  r,  sq.ft 

Floor  space  per  10  sq.ft.  heating  surface 

Floor  space  by  boili-r  and  stoker  

Floor  space  per  10  sq.ft,  of  heating  surface 

Height  of  boiler  from  floor  to  center  line  of  drum,  ft. 
Height  of  boiler  from  floor  to  top  of  economizer,  ft 

Cap:i'"ity  boiler,  normal,  lb.  steam  per  hr     

Capa -ity  boiler,  maximum,  lb.  steam  per  hr 

Per  1.000  sq.ft.  boiler-heating  surface: 

Connected  grate  area,  sq.ft , 

Stack  area,  sq  .f t  

Economizer  surface,  sq.ft 

Superheating  surface,  sq.ft 


B.  &  W.  <'ross-drum  water-tube 

Masonrv    and    steel    casing 

3 

9,919 

2 

350 

325 
225 

650 

2 

429 

20 

4 

23-10 

....  5 

2 

.B.  &  W.  chain-grate 

232 

I  to  43 

3,100 

468 

0  472 

585 

0  59 

26.5 

42 

60,000 

94,000 


23  4 

.  3  88 

, , ,  678 

313 

Economizer  All-steel  B.  &  W.  horizontal 

Number  of  economizers   One  per  boiler 

Number  of  tubes  -    .  396 

Length  of  tubes,  ft  16 

Diameter  of  tubes,  in  - .         4 

Economizer  surface,  sq.ft  . 6,730 

Induced-draft  fan  ,.  ,  Sturtevant  multivane 

Capacity  of  fan,  cuft.  gas  per  min,         ,    75,000 

Horsepower  of  motor  .  .    .  150 

Stack  ...  .  Unlined  steel,  one  per  boiler 

Stack  diameter,  ft 7 

Height  stack  above  fan,  ft  65 

Height  stack  above  grate,  ft  ...  1 25 

Coal Illinois  run-of-mine  and  screenings 

Coal  bunker  Steel,  concrete  lined 

Capacity  bunker,  tons -. 450 

Concrete  pit  storage,  tons 800 

Yard  storage,  tons  10,003 

Locjmotive  crane    .  .  . Browning 

Traveling  crane Whiting,  2-yd.  bucket,    150  tons  per  hour 

Traveling  crusher Orton  &  Stcinbrenner 

Crusher  capacity,  tons  per  hour ...  125 

Coal  conveyor      ....  Link-Belt    continuous-bucket 

Conveyor  capacity  at  45  ft.  per  min.,  tons  per  hour 1  20 

Boiler-feed    pumps Worthington    4-stage,    3-in.    centrifugal 

Number    of    pumps  Two   per    unit 

Horsepower  of  turbine  drive  1 26 

Pump  capacity,  gal.  per  min  .  300 

Pump  speed,  r.p.m 2,550 

Feed- water  heater   Warren  Webster  open  type 

Heater  capacity,  lb.  per  hour 150, 000 

Number  of  heaters _ One  per  unit 

Pressure  filters      2  per  unit,  New  York  "Jewel" 

Capacity  each  filter,  gal.  per  min 150 

Service  pumps,  two,  one  turbine,  one  motor-driven,  gal.  per  min.,  each.  600 

Turbine* 

Maker - General    Electric    Co. 

Type Horizontal   Curtis 

Capacity,  kw 10,000 

R.p.m        1.800 

Steam  pressure,  lb.  gage 300 

Superheat,  deg.  F    -        225 

Floor  space  covered  by  unit,  sq.ft  444 

rijor  space  per  kilowatt,  sq.ft  0  0444 


Condenser 

Maker  

Number  of  tubes   

Size  of  tubes,  in,  O.D 

Surface  in  condensers,  sri.ft 

Surface  per  kw,  gen.  rut  ing,  sci.ft      

Prcheater  top  of  condenser,  aurfacc,  sq.ft. 


Wostinghouae 

3.600 

I 

20,000 

2 

1,000 


Circulating  pump   Westinghouse  centrifugal 

Capacity  circulating  pump,  jgal.  per  min 18,000 

Speed,  r.p,m 690 

Drive,  induction-motor,  hp 200 

Air  pump Leblanc,  driven  by  circ.  pump  motor 

Condensate  pumps Motor-driven    eutrifugal 

Number      2  per  condenser 

Capacity,  gal.  per  min 360 

Motor  drive,  hp   25 

Screens  2  sets  stationary  and  2  traveling  per  unit 

Traveling  screens   Link-Belt  Co. 

Length,  c.  to  c.  of  driving  sprockets,  ft.-in 26-9 

Width  c.  to  {'.  of  Tellers,  ft.-m  ^2i 

Drive,  G.E.  induction  motor,  hp  5 

Generator 
Maker 

Capacity,  80  per  cent,  power  factor,  kw 
Voltage 
Cycles 
Phases 

Field  pol-s  

Speed,  r.p.m  .  ,    . 

Exciter  mounted  on  shaft 

Exciter,  turbine-driven,  reserve  unit,  kw. . 

Crane,  turbine  room.  Whiting,  tons 


General  Electric  Co. 

10,000 

12.000 

60 

3 

4 

1,800 

,  250  volt 

100 

75 


100  kw 


Eiectrical 


Oil   switch   equipment,    12,000   volt 
Oil  switch  equipment,  33,000  volt 

Switchboard  

Lightning  arresters 


General  Electric 
Westinghouse 
Westinghouse 

General  Electric 


Size  of  Neutral  Wire  for  a 
Three-Wire  System 

By  T.  a.  Nash 

While  it  is  the  practice  in  some  localities  to  invariably 
make  the  neutral  of  a  three-wire  system  the  same  cross- 
sectional  area  as  the  outside  wires,  this  procedure  is 
not  always  followed.  Where  there  is  likely  at  periods 
to  be  excessive  unbalance  on  the  three-wire  system — 
that  is,  where  practically  all  the  load  will  come  on  one 
side  of  the  system  with  no  load  on  the  other  side — the 
neutral  wire  then  carries  the  same  current  as  the  out- 
side wire.  Hence  if  the  condition  just  outlined  is  likely 
to  occur,  the  neutral  wire  should  be  made  the  same 
size  as  either  one  of  the  outside  wires. 

Some  engineers  specify  that  where  outside  wires  are 
No.  6  or  smaller,  the  neutral  wire  shall  be  of  the  same 
cross-sectional  area  as  the  outside  wires,  but  when  the 
outside  wires  are  larger  than  No.  6,  the  neutral  may 
have  two-thirds  of  the  cross-sectional  area  of  either  of 
the  outside  wires.  In  some  cases  it  is  permissible  to 
make  the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  neutral  one-half 
that  of  either  of  the  outside  wires. 

Obviously,  when  the  neutral  is  of  smaller  cross-sec- 
tional area  than  the  outside  wires,  it  must  be  protected 
by  a  fuse  of  correspondingly  small  capacity,  in  which 
case  if  the  unbalance  of  the  load  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
circuit  becomes  excessive,  the  fuse  is  likely  to  melt  and 
thereby  all  the  lights,  assuming  that  the  load  is  all  on 
one  side  of  the  circuit,  will  be  extinguished.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  some  engineers  adhere  to  the  practice 
of  specifying  the  neutral  of  the  same  cross-sectional 
area  as  the  outside  wires.  There  is  no  reason,  however, 
why  the  neutral,  provided  it  is  properly  fused,  should 
not  be  smaller  than  the  outside  conductors. 


One  of  the  tendencies  of  today  is  to  overdo  the  stop- 
watch and  the  watch-dog  method.  Efficiency  of  product 
does  not  lie  in  that  direction.  It  is  not  right  to  imagine 
that  the  men  have  no  other  interest  in  the  success  of  the 
work  than  to  watch  the  hands  of  the  clock  go  round. 


114 


POWEK 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


Heavy-Duty,  Diesel-Type  Oil  Engines 
for  Marine  Work 

The  Mcintosh  &  Seymour  Corp.,  of  Auburn,  N.  Y., 
has  built  a  number  of  500-hp.  heavy-duty,  marine-type 
Diesel  oil  engines,  for  use  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  one 
of   which   is   .shown   in   the   illustrations.      The   engine 


FIG.   1. 


ASSEMBLY  OF  ENGINE  SHOWING  CYLINDERS 
AND  OVERHUNG   FLYW'HEEL 


has  six  cylinders  and  is  of  the  four-cycle  type,  single- 
acting  and   is   directly   reversible. 

The  air  for  atomizing  the  fuel  for  the  working 
cylinders,  also  that  required  for  maneuvering,  is 
furnished  by  a  three-stage  compressor  located  at  the 
forward  end  of  the  engine  and  directly  driven  from 
the  engine.  The  compressor  is  built  with  intercoolers 
and  aftercoolers.  The  valves  and  cages  are  all  ac- 
cessible and  removable  as  a  unit,  making  their  removal 
and  renewal  a  simple  matter. 

The  thrust  bearing,  which  may  be  of  either  the 
standard  horseshoe-marine  or  Kingsbury  type,  is 
carried  in  a  base  bolted  securely  and  doweled  to  the 
engine  base,  and  contains  a  large  bearing  at  its  after 
end,  making  it  possible  to  carry  the  flywheel  over- 
hung, as  indicated  in  Fig.  1.  The  main  working 
cylinders  are  bolted  to  the  top  of  the  engine  frame 
and  are  of  a  simple  design  provided  with  removable 
liners.  The  heads  are  separate  from  the  cylinders, 
each  containing  an  inlet,  an  exhaust,  a  fuel  and  a 
starting  valve.  The  gear  for  operating  these  valves  is 
clearly  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

The  camshaft,  as  can  readily  be  seen,  is  carried  in 
the  housing  bolted  to  the  engine  frame,  and  is  driven 
by  spur  gears  from  the  end  of  the  crankshaft.  From 
the  forward  end  of  the  crankshaft  a  fuel  pump  and 
speed-limiting   governor   are   driven. 

The  maneuvering  gear,  as  can  be  seen,  is  at  the 
forward  end  of  the  engine.  The  maneuvering  is  done 
in  the  proper  sequence  due  to  the  interlocking  feature 
of  this  device,  thereby  preventing  the  operator  from 
damaging  the  equipment  through  a  misunderstanding 
of  its  functions.  The  supply  of  oil,  and  consequently 
the  control  of  the  ship,  is  accomplished  by  one  single 
lever.  There  is  arranged  a  control  lever  within  easy 
reach  of  the  operator,  which  is  devised  to  relieve  the 
cylinder  of  any  pressure,  and  when  brought  into  oper- 
ation, it  automatically  shuts  off  the  atomizing  air  when 
tlie  release  valves  are  open. 
^  The  lubrication  for  the  working  cylinders,  piston  pins 


and  compressor  is  effected  by  the  use  of  a  Richardson- 
Phenix  force-feed  lubricator  driven  by  gears  and  suit- 
ably timed,  so  that  the  lubricating  oil  is  delivered 
to  the  various  parts  during  that  portion  of  the  cycle 
that  is  most  beneficial.  The  oil  for  the  crankpins, 
main  bearings  and  other  journals  is  supplied  from  a 
gravity  system  through  gang  oilers  conveniently  located. 
As  the  engine  is  entirely  inclosed,  the  base  having  a 
bottom  casting,  the  oil  is  all  collected  in  the  base  from 
where  it  is  pumped  through  a  filter  and  then  returned  by 
gravity  to  the  bearings.  A  small  pump  driven  from  the 
camshaft  is  arranged  to  automatically  handle  the  oil  and 
return  it  to  the  system. 

The  cooling  system  of  this  engine  is  so  arranged 
that  salt  water  can  be  used  for  cooling  purposes  without 
coming  in  contact  with  the  steel  studs  or  any  part 
likely  to  be  affected  by  it.  It  has  the  same  effective 
cooling,  however,  as  on  stationary  engines  and  the  same 
even  flow  and  proper  circulation  through  the  cylinder 
heads. 

The  average  time  consumed  from  full-speed  ahead 
to  full-speed  astern  for  fifty  maneuvers  was  eight  sec- 
onds. Very  likely  this  time  can  be  somewhat  reduced 
when  the  engines  have  become  fairly  limbered  up  and 
the  operators  are  perfectly  skilled  in  handling  the 
equipment. 

The  fuel  consumption  of  these  engines  is  slightly 
over  0.4  lb.  of  fuel  oil  per  horsepower-hour  when  oper- 


FIG.    2.      ASSEMBLY    OF    ENGINE    SHOWING    VALVE    GEAR 

ated  at  rated  speed  and  load.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
that  these  engines  are  capable  of  a  reduction  in  speed 
of  60  per  cent.  The  air  tanks  supplied  with  the  engine, 
which  carry  300-lb.  pressure,  are  of  sufficient  size  to 
start  the  engine  44  times,  the  minimum  starting  pres- 
sure being  80  lb. 


January  22,  1918 


POWER 


116 


Fuel  Consumption  Control  by  the 

Government 


Chief. 


The  author  proposes  that  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment  assume  absolute  control  not  only  of  coal  and 
its  distribution,  but  of  its  consumption  so  as  to 
conserve  the  supply.  He  believes  the  stoker 
should  be  adopted  by  most  plants  that  the  lower 
grades  of  coal  may  be  burned.  The  Fuel  Admiiv- 
istration  should  be  continued  after  the  war,  and 
the  Bureau  of  Mines  act  as  engineer  for  it. 
Specific  cases  of  saving  by  better  combustion 
methods  are  cited. 


THE  materials  embraced  by  the  term  "Fuel"  ip 
this  article  are:  Coal  and  its  byproducts;  wood 
and  its  distillates ;  oil ;  gas.  The  possible  savings 
are  conservatively  estimated  at  $1,000,000,000  annually. 
The  purpose  is  to  offer  evidence  and  argument  in 
support  of  a  recommendation  that  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment extend  its  work  of  conservation  to  include  fuel 
consumption  control  and  smoke  regulation,  and  to 
suggest  how  this  may  be  done.  The  proposition  is  that 
the  Government  shall  go  one  step  farther  than  is  the 
case  at  present.  It  now  regulates  the  production,  dis- 
tribution and  price  of  fuel.  There  is  equal  or  greater 
necessity  for  regulation  of  the  methods  of  consumption. 
The  results  of  this  work  under  Governmental  control 
will  be  such  as  to  (1)  save  fuel  and  (2)  release  men 
from  nonproductive  labor  for  productive  effort;  (3) 
increase  the  number  of  men  available  for  war  activities 
without  interference  with  production  in  the  industries; 
(4)  increase  the  available  freight-car  tonnage  without 
adding  to  the  number  of  cars;  (5)  establish  standards 
for  fuel  usage  according  to  quality  and  applicability; 

(6)  develop  the  coal-tar  and  other  byproduct  industries ; 

(7)  provide  gas  to  replace  the  natural-gas  shortage; 

(8)  add  to  the  supply  of  fuel  for  internal-combustion 
engines;  (9)  promote  the  production  of  fruits  and 
vegetables;  (10)  protect  the  material  welfare  of  the 
people;  (11)  conserve  the  health  of  the  people. 

All  these  things  are  possible  and  their  attainment 
practicable  and  within  the  sphere  of  the  powers  of 
the  Federal  Government.  In  fact,  no  other  authority 
in  this  country  is  available  for  undertaking  this  task 
with  the  consistency  and  permanency  called  for  by  the 
conditions.  This  is  true  in  peace  times  as  well  as  dur- 
ing the  war.  The  reader's  attention  is  called  to  quota- 
tions from  a  recent  opinion  of  a  Supreme  Court  Justice 
and  a  message  to  Congress  of  a  former  President  as 
follows : 

The  Adamson  Case,  Wilson  vs.  New:  Justice  Mc- 
Kenna,  concurring.  "And  submission  to  regulation  is 
the  condition  which  attaches  to  one  who  enters  into  or 
accepts  employment  in  a  business  in  which  the  public 
has  an  interest." 

Special  Message  of  President  Roosevelt,  Jan.  22, 
1909 :  "The  conservation  of  our  resources  is  the  f unda- 


BY  J.  W.  HENDERSON 

Bureau  Smoke  Regulation,  Pittsburgh.  Penn. 

——^^—^  mental  question  before  this  nation,  and  that  our  first 
and  greatest  task  is  to  set  our  house  in  order  and  begin 
to  live  within  our  means.  I  do  urge,  where  the  facts 
are  knowTi,  where  the  public  interest  is  clear,  that 
neither  indifference  and  inertia,  nor  adverse  private 
interests,  shall  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
public  good.  The  freedom  of  the  individual  should  be 
limited  only  by  the  present  and  future  rights,  interests 
and  needs  of  the  other  individuals  who  make  up  the 
community.  When  necessary,  the  private  right  must 
yield,  under  due  process  of  law  and  with  proper  com- 
pensation, to  the  welfare  of  the  commonwealth.  All 
this  is  simply  good  common  sense.  The  underlying 
principle  of  conservation  has  been  described  as  the 
application  of  common  sense  to  common  problems  for 
the  common  good." 

At  this  time  not  only  the  success  of  the  war,  but 
also  the  "permanent  welfare  of  the  people,"  is  at  stake. 
The  "facts  are  known";  the  "public  interest  is  clear"; 
"adverse  private  interests"  are  ready  and  wilhng  to 
yield  to  the  necessities  created  by  the  war  in  which 
the  country  is  involved;  there  is  an  awakened  public 
consciousness  to  the  need  of  conservation,  and  there 
is  at  hand  the  machinery  of  government  capable  of 
accomplishing  the  results  outlined  in  the  eleven  items 
mentioned  above. 


1.  Save  Fuel 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  in  which  fuel  saving 
can  be  promoted.  Upon  the  extent  of  fuel-consumption 
control  and  smoke  regulation  and  the  methods  employed, 
will  depend  the  accomplishing  of  the  other  items  in  the 
list  of  results.  The  work  can  be  started  immediately 
by  compelling  temporary  changes  to  furnaces,  pending 
further  changes  of  fuel  and  equipment  for  permanent 
efficiency. 

Emission  of  black  smoke  from  stacks  is  a  sure  in- 
dication of  waste.  Prohibiting  this  smoke  will  result 
in  proper  firing  methods,  which  alone  will  reduce  the 
waste  of  fuel.  The  demand  should  be  to  stop  hand- 
firing  of  boiler  furnaces  and  other  furnaces  where 
capacity  is  beyond  one-man-power.  Mechanical  ap- 
pliances should  be  ordered  at  once,  especially  where  the 
waste  of  fuel  is  most  flagrant.  Some  governmental 
authority  should  also  insist  upon  their  proper  use. 

Smoke  regulation  and  fuel-consumption  control  cannot 
be  separated.  Properly  conducted,  both  lead  to  con- 
servation in  its  broadest  sense.  A  wider  application 
of  the  term  "smoke"  would  include  zinc  dust,  ore  dust 
and  other  destructive  and  wasteful  materials  now  being 
emitted  from  stacks  country-wide. 

A  mandate  from  the  proper  Government  source  hav- 
ing absolute  power  of  control  can  cut  the  waste  as 
indicated  by  "smoke"  fully  50  per  cent,  almost  imme- 
diately. This  is  a  safe  assertion  because  it  merely 
requires  personal  attention  with  more  frequent  firing 
of  small  quantities  of  fuel  to  secure  this  result.  Later, 
this  dependence  upon  the  man  can  be  minimized  by 


116 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


mechanical  means  with  still  greater  economies  and  an 
increase  of  output  from  furnaces  and  mills. 

Laboring  men  and  their  organizations  need  not  fear 
the  displacement  of  labor  by  mechanical  appliances; 
first,  because  the  great  war  is  causing  a  shortage  of 
labor  and,  second,  following  the  recommendations  out- 
lined in  this  paper  will  mean  raising  the  standard  of 
laboring  men  and  training  them  along  lines  that  will 
mean  increased  rates  of  wages. 

Proof  of  these  claims  will  be  found  in  the  experi- 
ences referred  to  later  where  specific  cases  are  cited 
showing  only  partially  what  has  been  accomplished  and 
what  may  be  expected  under  the  plan  herein  proposed. 

Some  of  the  more  important  things  that  can  be  done 
almost  at  the  outset,  to  save  fuel  by  mandate  of  the 

1912 


1913 


64 

DAYS 


-4" 
0AY5 

DENSE  SMOKE 
LIGHT  SMOKE 


1914 


50 
DAYS 


1915 


1910 


46 
DAYS 


41 
PAYS 


1917 

m 

DAYS 


44 

DAYS 


SMOKE-ABATEMENT    PROGRESS    IN'    PITTSBURGH 

Government    in    control    of    fuel    consumption,    are    as 
follows : 

a.  Use  bone  coal  in  place  of  commercial  bituminous 
and  anthracite  coals.  This  will  be  equivalent  to  in- 
creasing the  visible  coal  supply  by  bringing  into  the 
market  the  millions  of  tons  of  bone  coal  piled  nearly 
mountain  high  in  the  mining  districts. 

b.  Use  anthracite  culm  to  replace  commercial  anthra- 
cite or  bituminous  coals.  Remarks  under  (a)  apply 
here. 

c.  Use  coke  breeze  under  boiler  furnaces,  thus  apply- 
ing what  has  heretofore  been  considered  only  fit  for 
yard  filling  around  manufacturing  plants.  A  further 
saving  of  standard  commercial  coal. 

Note:  There  are  stokers  now  on  the  market  and 
applied  to   furnaces   efficiently   burning   these   fuels. 

d.  Secure  more  complete  combustion  of  all  fuel,  thus 
stopping  waste  in  the  processes  of  consumption. 

Note:  Examples  are  cited  among  the  cases  listed  on 
another  page. 

e.  Restrict  the  production  of  beehive  coke,  replacing 
it  with  byproduct  coke. 


f.  Compel  the  application  of  waste-heat  boilers  to 
openhearth  and  other  large  furnaces. 

g.  Establish  standards  for  fuel  usage  as  outlined 
later. 

h.  Promote  the  development  and  use  of  substitutes 
for  coal,  coke  and  oil. 

i.  Maintain  the  gas  supply  for  private  residences 
where  coal  cannot  be  burned  economically. 

j.  Increase  the  supply  of  fuel  for  internal-combustion 
engines.     This  may  be  accomplished  as  stated  later. 

k.  Reduce  the  demand  for  artificial  light  by  adoption 
of  the  daylight-saving  plan,  which  has  proven  suc- 
cessful in  Europe  and  as  proposed  to  Congress  by  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States. 

Results  No.  2  and  No.  3 

Release  men  from  nonproductive  labor  for  productive 
effort,  or  increase  the  number  of  men  available  for  war 
activities  without  interfering  with  production  in  the 
industries. 

Hand-firing  of  furnaces  is  generally  cons'dered  non- 
productive labor.  There  are  many  cases  where  the 
application  of  mechanical  devices  for  doing  such  work 
not  only  accomplishes  fuel  saving  and  increased  output 
of  better  product,  but  does  away  with  keeping  men  at 
such  employment.  These  results  will  be  further  pro- 
moted by  other  labor-saving  equipment  such  as  install- 
ing ash-handling  appliances  in  connection  with  furnaces 
now  requiring  several  men   for  this  work. 

Instances  are  mentioned  among  the  list  of  cases  cited 
later  in  this  paper.  Most  of  them  have  been  the  result 
of  an  effort  to  comply  with  the  laws  regulating  the 
production  and  emission  of  smoke  from  stacks.  Under 
Government  control  of  fuel  consumption  and  of  smoke 
regulation,  the  results  can  be  multiplied  almost  imme- 
diately and  continuously  and  kept  up  to  whatever  stand- 
ard may  be  set  by  the  Government. 

4.  Increase  the  Available  Freight-Car  Tonnage 

Without  Adding  to  the  Number  of  Cars 

This  will  be  brought  about  by  reducing  the  quantity 
of  coal  I'equired  in  the  industries,  for  the  same  or 
greater  output,  and  thereby  relieve  the  railroads  from 
the  necessity  of  furnishing  the  equivalent  tonnage  for 
coal   transportation. 

A  quotation  on  another  page  gives  a  concise  statement 
of  this  phase  of  the  problem. 

5.  Establish  Standards  for  Fuel  Usage  According 

to  Quality  and  Applicability 

This  heading  carries  its  own  argument.  The  country 
might  be  divided  into  fuel  zones.  Anthracite  coal  and 
natural  gas  should  be  saved  to  the  people  for  use  in 
the  homes.  Anthracite  coal  should  not  be  permitted  as 
fuel  for  boiler  or  other  furnaces  wherever  other  fuel, 
except  natural  gas,  is  available  at  the  same  cost  or  less, 
per  unit  of  output.  Such  requirement  might  also  be 
applied  to  the  gas  from  byproduct  coke  ovens. 

Low-volatile  bituminous  coals  should  be  conserved  for 
special  uses  where  other  bituminous  coals  cannot  be 
used  without  excessive  smoke,  but  where  for  other 
reasons,  such  as  furnace  construction,  bituminous  coals 
are  the  logical  fuel.  These  include  locomotives  at  ter- 
minals and  in  switching  service,  vertical  and  stationary 
boilers  of  the  locomotive  type. 


Janujiiy  22,  lt)18 


'  U  W  b:  1< 


m 


It  just  happens  that  the  experience  with  low-volatile 
bituminous  coal  in  locomotive  practice  has  been  found 
more  economical  in  the  way  of  fuel  saving  for  the 
same  service,  as  compared  with  high-volatile  bituminous 
coal. 

6.  Develop  the  Coal-Tar  and  Other  Byproduct 

Industries 

Here  is  opportunity  for  launching  new  industries 
which  need  fostering  in  this  country.  These  industries 
are  directly  related  not  only  to  fuel  saving,  but  also 
to  all  the  results  enumerated  in  the  first  part  of  this 
paper.  If  restrictions  are  placed  upon  the  waste  of  coal 
in  coke  production,  the  industries  incidental  to  the  by- 
product-coke processes  will  be  placed  on  a  footing  to 
compete  with  foreign  countries. 

The  coal  tar  that  will  be  recovered  from  byproduct 
coke  making  and  wood  distillation  can  be  used  as  a 
substitute  for  coal,  oil  and  gas,  in  many  types  of  fur- 
naces. A  wide  range  of  products  may  be  produced  by 
these  processes,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  gas, 
paraffin,  tar,  resin,  benzol,  creosote,  ammonium  sul- 
phate, alcohol,  charcoal,  pyroligneous  acid,  toluol. 

As  an  example  of  how  these  products  run  into  values 
in  dollars  and  cents,  figure  on  the  possibilities  in  regard 
to  gas  from  byproduct  coke.  Available  statistics  show 
coke  produced  during  1916,  in  the  following  amounts, 
in  tons:  Total  coke,  51,544,447;  beehive  coke,  35,464,- 
224;  byproduct  coke,  16,080,223.  Allowing  8000  cu.ft. 
of  gas  per  ton  of  coke  produced,  if  the  beehive  coke 
had  been  made  by  the  byproduct  process,  it  would 
have  amounted  to  283,713,792,000  cu.ft.  of  gas.  On  the 
basis  of  one-half  the  heat  value  of  natural  gas,  this  is 
equivalent  to  141,856,896,000  cu.ft.  The  commercial 
value  figured  on  the  consumers'  rate  (net)  for  natural 
gas  in  the  United  States  is :  141,856,896,000  X  28.63c. 
per  1000  cu.ft.  =  $40,613,629. 

Reference  is  made  merely  to  the  gas  that  might  have 
been  recovered  should  the  quantity  of  beehive-oven 
coke  have  been  made  in  byproduct  ovens  and  without 
considering  the  gas  that  may  have  resulted  from  the 
coke  produced  in  1916  by  this  latter  process.  The 
283,713,792,000  cu.ft.  of  byproduct  oven  gas  as  esti- 
mated according  to  its  equivalent  heat  value  in  terms  of 
natural  gas,  and  based  on  the  natural-gas  consumption 
in  the  United  States,  would  supply  the  demand  for 
residence  uses  to  the  extent  of  1,420,000  homes,  satis- 
fying the  needs  of  about  10,000,000  people. 

If  it  were  used  in  melting  steel  by  the  openhearth 
process,  the  output  from  such  furnaces  would  be  in 
excess  of  7,000,000  tons. 

So  much  for  the  gas  from  the  source  indicated.  The 
other  products  are  of  equal  value  in  many  ways.  In- 
cidental to  the  proposed  discarding  of  beehive  ovens  is 
the  elimination  of  smoke  from  such  ovens  and  its  ill- 
effects  upon  health  and  property. 

7.  Provide  Gas  To  Replace  the  Nai'ural-Gas 

Shortage 

This  is  one  of  the  incidental  possibilities  from  coke 
making  by  the  byproduct  process.  It  should  not  neces- 
sarily follow  that  all  the  gas  recovered  in  coke  making 
shall  be  diverted  to  private-residence  purposes,  but  this 
may  be  done  where  such  use  of  it  will  be  of  more  value 
to  the  country  than  when  otherwise  consumed. 


[f  the  total  coke  production  for  1916,  of  51,544,417 
tons,  had  been  from  byproduct  ovens,  the  gas  that  might 
have  been  recovered  would  have  been  equal  in  heat  value 
to  about  27i  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  of  natural 
gas  consumed  in  the  United  States  that  year. 

Byproduct  ovens  can  be  operated  primarily  for  gas 
production  and  at  the  same  time  give  a  soft  coke  com- 
paratively high  in  volatile,  suitable  for  private-residence 
furnaces,  and  produce  the  valuable  chemicals  already 
mentioned. 

8.  Add  to  the  Supply  of  Fuel  for  Internal- 
Combustion  Engines 

Referring  to  the  materials  resulting  from  byproduct 
coke  making,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  benzol  is  among 
the  number.  As  to  the  possibilities  of  accomplishing 
the  purpose  mentioned  here,  the  reader  is  to  note  the 
following: 

Commercial  alcohol  and  gasoline  are  not  miscible.  Al- 
cohol and  benzol  are  miscible  and  make  a  most  efficient 
fuel,  and  further,  after  the  addition  of  benzol  to  alcohol, 
the  mixture  will  carry  a  high  proportion  of  gasoline.  The 
future  may  see  benzol  as  the  tie  between  gasoline  and  alco- 
hol, permitting'  a  piecing  out  of  the  gasoline  supply  and  an 
introduction  of  alcohol  as  a  commercial  motor  fuel. — Jour- 
nal of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  June, 
1917,  p.  U97. 

As  smoke  and  its  evil  effects  cannot  be  confined 
within  political  boundary  lines  set  up  by  government, 
and  as  its  prevention  saves  fuel  and  labor,  improves 
products  and  increases  output,  and  for  other  reasons 
which  naturally  follow,  smoke  regulation  should  be  in 
the  hands  of  the  Federal  Government. 

In  the  following,  Dr.  Arthur  A.  Hamerschlag,  direc- 
tor, Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  Pittsburgh, 
Penn.,  voices  the  opinion  of  many  men : 

The  Government  has  undertaken,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
nation,  to  regulate  and  fix  the  price  of  fuel.  It  has  also 
been  interested  in  distribution,  governing  the  car  supply 
and  determining  the  volume  of  fuel  to  be  shipped  to  various 
centers.  But  it  has  neglected  what  is  an  equally  essential 
element  in  fuel  conservation,  the  consumption  of  fuel  in 
efficient  appliances.  This  has  been  left  to  the  individual 
industry  and  consumer.  It  ought  to  be  under  the  super- 
vision and  control  of  a  centralized  government  agency,  co- 
operating through  state  and  municipal  agents,  that  would 
compel  the  elimination  of  waste  by  demanding  more  efficient 
methods  of  securing  heat  from  fuel. 

Until  the  Government  recognizes  this  element  of  the  sit- 
uation, at  least  25  per  cent,  more  fuel  will  have  to  be  pro- 
duced at  the  mines  than  is  needed  in  order  to  develop  the 
energy  required  for  the  service  of  the  nation. 

If  we  could  increase  the  car  supply  25  per  cent.,  the 
labor  supply  25  per  cent.,  the  output  from  the  mines  25  per 
cent.,  or  reduce  the  price  of  fuel  to  the  consumer  25  per 
cent.,  we  would  consider  that  a  great  economic  and  pa- 
triotic movement  was  in  progress. 

Since  it  seems  impossible  to  increase  in  this  ratio  either 
the  labor  or  car  supply,  why  not  attack  the  problem  from 
the  other  end,  accomplishing  an  equally  satisfactory  result? 

This  brings  us  to  the  "Cases"  referred  to  several 
times  in  the  preceding  pages.  What  has  been  done 
in  most  of  these  instances  has  been  brought  about 
through  pressure  incident  to  enforcing  the  ordinances 
regulating  the  production  and  emission  of  smoke  from 
stacks  in  cities. 

From  a  Large  Steel  Corporation,  Pittsburgh  Plant: 
"To  do  away  with  the  smoke  evil,  to  save  labor  and 
make  the  fuel  consumption  more  effective,  we  have 
endeavored  to  put  into  use  such  mechanical  devices 
as  will  produce  the  best  steam  economies.  Here  we 
have  scrapped  an  old  plant  of  55  boilers  located  on 
valuable  land  leased  by  your  company  for  many  years, 


118 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


in  which  boilers  the  insurance  companies  would  allow 
a  pressure  of  but  85  lb.  and  have  replaced  them  with 
eight  600-hp.  units,  having  double  the  steam  pressure 
of  the  old  boilers,  and  with  mechanical  stokers.  These 
eight  boilers  cost,  with  boiler  house,  coal-  and  ash- 
handling  apparatus,  including  every  mechanism  known 
to  produce  an  up-to-date  plant,  but  $130,000.  This 
new  installation  is  saving  $1500  per  month  in  payroll 
and  .$3500  per  month  in  coal,  equal  to  $60,000  per 
annum,  or  6  per  cent,  on  $1,000,000.  In  addition,  it 
has  increased  the  capacity  of  the  whole  mill  through 
a  greater  steam  supply." 

An  Office  Building  in  Pittsburgh:  "In  the  winter  of 
1903  we  installed  four  stokers  under  four  200-hp. 
boilers  at  a  cost  of  between  $4000  and  $5000,  including 
automatic  control,  air  piping,  blower  engine  and  blower. 
Our  average  cost  of  upkeep  to  and  including  December, 
1914,  covering  all  repairs  and  replacements  in  connec- 
tion with  the  stoking  system,  has  been  2.79  per  cent, 
on  the  original  cost  of  installation.  During  the  fiscal 
year  preceding  the  installation  of  our  stokers,  our  coal 
consumption  was  171,010  bu.,  while  in  the  year  follow- 
ing, with  the  same  steam  requirements,  it  was  141,901 
bu.,  a  saving  of  1106  tons,  or  17  per  cent." 

A  Bank  Building  in  Pittsburgh:  "We  installed 
stokers,  and  the  cost  of  coal  and  labor  incident  there- 
with was  $6082.53.  Assuming  that  we  would  have 
burned  gas  in  that  year,  at  the  new  rates  the  cost 
would  have  been  $9254.25.  Comparing  these  figures 
with  those  of  the  coal  consumption,  we  have  saved 
$3171.72,  or  practically  more  than  the  cost  of  the 
stokers." 

An  Independent  Steel  Company,  Pittsburgh:  "The 
boiler  plant  has  17  boiler  furnaces.  When  stokers  were 
applied  to  9  boilers,  they  were  producing  as  much  power 
as  they  had  been  getting  from  the  17  boilers  and  re- 
placed 23  men  who  had  been  used  as  firemen.  This 
installation  was  made  during  the  great  demand  on  the 
plant  for  output  and  within  a  year  beginning  November, 
1915." 

A  Manufacturing  Company,  Ohio:  "After  having 
stokers  under  three  150-hp.  boilers  for  the  past  twenty 
months,  I  can  issue  the  following  information  from 
practical  experience:  They  have  reduced  our  fuel  bill  30 
per  cent,  and  a  saving  of  $998  on  labor  for  one  year  has 
been   noticed." 

A  Manufacturing  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. :  "The 
four  stokers  installed  have  given  the  best  of  satis- 
faction, having  done  better  than  the  guarantee.  The 
saving  in  coal  is  equal  to  16  per  cent.,  and  maintenance 
has  been  only  an  average  of  0.01  V  per  cent,  of  the 
investment.  The  operation  is  vory  satisfactory,  and 
boiler  output  can  be  controlled  to  the  greatest  possible 
economy." 

A  Tin-Plate  Company,  West  Virginia:  "The  applica- 
tion of  stokers  to  hot  mill  furnaces  shows  two  things: 
First,  that  the  coal  consumption  is  reduced  20  per  cent, 
to  25  per  cent,  and  maybe  more  in  some  instances: 
second,  because  the  air  necessary  to  burn  the  coal  is 
under  control  this  gives  absolute  control  of  the  flame 
and  heat,  which  in  turn  enables  the  operator  to  heat 
his  iron  without  scale.  This,  we  find,  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage to  hot  mill  furnace  work,  and  unless  gas  is 
obtainable  at  a  very  low  price,  the  stoker-fired  furnaces 
would   be   much   more   preferable.     We   have,    in    fact. 


installed  in  another  of  our  plants  stoker-fired  furnaces 
to  replace  gas-fired." 

A  Foundry  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.:  This  refers  to 
a  powdered-coal  installation.  "We  have  just  completed 
dumping  the  castings  in  our  >Jo.  4  oven,  and  I  have 
never  seen  iron  in  quality  and  uniformity  to  equal  it. 
Every  piece  has  been  perfectly  annealed,  and  they  are 
25  per  cent,  tougher  than  anything  we  have  ever  had 
from  our  other  furnaces  equipped  with  the  old  burners. 
The  saving  in  coal  will  be  around  30  per  cent.  Just  as 
soon  as  we  have  run  through  two  more  ovens  under 
favorable  conditions,  I  will  give  you  the  exact  figures 
showing  number  of  pounds  of  coal  per  ton  of  castings." 

The  case  mentioned  as  having  experienced  the  great- 
est economies  has  not  reached  its  maximum  in  this 
direction.  Even  this  case  is  not  as  exceptional  as  some 
might  imagine.  All  those  shown  herein  indicate  the 
possibilities  for  savings  in  the  use  of  coal. 

What  the  plants  were  doing  previous  to  the  chan,ges 
leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  necessity  for  taking  action 
toward  more  efficient  operation.  Further  economies  in 
this  direction,  and  in  other  ways  as  indicated  in  this 
paper,  depend  upon  action  by  the  Federal  Government. 

Van.  H.  Manning  places  the  loss  last  year  at  $500,- 
000,000,  due  to  ineflicient  use  of  coal.  Intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  plant  operations,  as  a  result  of  being 
connected  with  the  Bureau  of  Smoke  Regulation, 
Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  makes  it  possible  to  testify  that 
Mr.  Manning's  total  figure  is  a  conservative  one. 

The  Working  Plan  Outlined 

The  machinery  of  government  at  hand  is  in  the  Fuel 
Administration  and  the  Bureau  of  Mines.  The  founda- 
tion is  already  laid.  It  only  remains  for  the  Fuel 
Administration  to  broaden  the  scope  of  its  activities 
and  continue  its  existence  and  aims  after  peace  shall 
be  declared.  The  function  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
should  be  to  furnish  information  to  be  used  as  the  basis 
for  action  on   the  part   of  the   Fuel   Administrator. 

Example:  The  Fuel  Administrator  might  desire  data 
in  regard  to  the  practices  and  methods  of  a  certain 
concern.  Upon  advice  to  this  effect,  the  Bureau  of 
Mines  would  make  a  thorough  survey  and  report  the 
results  to  the  Fuel  Administrator  for  such  action  as 
the  conditions  might  warrant.  For  instance,  if  the 
concern  should  be  using,  say,  1000  tons  of  coal  a  day 
for  a  given  production  when  a  competitor  is  using 
but  750  tons  per  day  for  the  same  amount  of  output, 
the  former  may  be  compelled  to  take  action  leading  to 
the  efficiency  of  the  latter. 

It  must  be  conceded  that  everything  points  to  the 
plan  proposed  being  feasible  and  practical  and  in  line 
with  a  statement  of  the  President  in  an  address  to 
Congress,  Apr.  8,  1913,  as  follows:  "We  must  .  .  . 
put  our  business  men  and  producers  under  the  stimula- 
tion of  a  constant  necessity  to  be  efficient,  economical 
and  enterprising,  masters  of  competitive  supremacy, 
better  workers  and  merchants  than  any  in  the  world." 


Attention  is  called  to  an  error  in  the  article  published 
on  page  16  of  the  Jan.  1,  1918,  issue  of  Power  wherein 
the  title  should  have  read  Tyler  Condensation  Meter 
instead  of  Taylor,  and  the  manufacturer's  name  should 
have  read  Tyler  Underground  Heating  System  instead 
of  Taylor,  as  published. — Editor. 


.lanuary  22,  1918 


PO  WEK 


119 


Fires  in  Turbo-Generators 


By  M.  a.  walker 


The  possibilities  of  fires  in  large  turbine-driven 
alternatiny-current  generators  are  discussed  and 
some  of  the  possible  means  of  combating  these 
fires,  should  they  happen  to  start,  are  suggested. 

IN  LARGE  power-stations  two  goals  are  sought — one, 
economy  of  operation ;  the  other,  I'eliability  of  serv- 
ice. For  large  turbo-generators  the  former  is  accom- 
plished by  operating  them  at  high  load  factors.  Re- 
liability is  obtained  by  first-class  construction  methods 
and  ample  precautions.  These  generators  are  rarely 
if  ever  tied  in  to  the  station  bus  by  automatic  circuit- 
breakers,  but  instead  must  be  disconnected  by  hand. 
Generator  reactances,  may,  however,  be  installed  to  limit 
the  current  from  or  to  the  individual  generators.  Bus- 
tie  reactances  are  likewise  often  employed  for  sectional- 
izing  busses  and  limiting  the  energy  transfer  from  one 
section  to  another.  Many  generators  are  controlled 
automatically,  however,  by  means  of  balanced  relays, 
so  that  the  generator  may  be  automatically  disconnected 
from  the  station  bus  when  it  short-circuits  internally, 
thus  isolating  the  machine  and  preventing  the  flow  of 
current  from  the  station  into  the  machine  in  trouble. 
This  is  a  very  necessary  precaution  because  of  the 
enormous  magnetic  stresses  and  heating  involved,  due 
to  the  current  delivered  into  the  defective  machine 
from  other  units  on  the  system.  The  modern  turbo- 
generator may  be  capable  of  generating  a  current  as 
high  as  twenty  times  normal  on  short-circuit  and  for  the 
first  few  cycles. 

Combustible  Materials  in  Turbo-Generators 

It  is  often  stated  that  the  modern  turbo-generator 
contains  nothing  that  will  burn  or  support  combustion. 
Practice  refutes  this,  however.  The  cambric  insulation 
impregnated  with  varnish  makes  an  inflammable  ma- 
terial, combustible  in  still  air  and  quick-burning  in  an 
air  current,  such  as  the  cooling  air  passing  through  the 
turbo-generator.  The  various  tapes  and  cording  on  the 
end  turns  are  likewise  inflammable.  The  wooden  wedges 
and  spacers  are  also  combustible,  though  some  makers 
employ  fiber  wedges  and  spacers,  a  practice  thought  in- 
advisable since  fiber  warps  and  shrinks  and  absorbs 
moisture  and  oil.  Other  manufacturers  employ  wedges 
of  brass,  which  is  perhaps  the  best  practice  of  all.  Dust 
and  dirt  become  embedded  in  the  stator  windings  and 
likewise  in  the  rotor,  in  an  intensely  dry  condition,  al- 
though portions  are  oil  and  grease  soaked.  It  is  possible 
that  when  an  all-mica  insulation  is  used,  with  noncom- 
bustible  spacers  and  wedges  and  nothing  to  give  off  in- 
flammable gas,  the  turbo-generator  may  be  claimed  to 
be  fireproof.  Even  where  air  filters  and  washers  are 
employed,  as  they  are  for  the  largest  machines,  dirt  and 
dust  gradually  collect  and  make  conditions  favorable 
for  fire. 

The  amount  of  air  used  by  turbo-generators  for  cool- 
ing purposes  depends  on  the  efiiciency  of  the  machine. 
For  a  unit  of  about  25,000  kw.  an  average  value  would 
be  about  2.5  cu.ft.  per  kilowatt,  or  a  total  of  around 


60,000  cu.ft.  per  minute.  As  the  air  ducts  through  the 
core  and  windings  are  restricted,  t!iis  enormous  quan- 
tity of  air  passes  through  the  machine  at  a  high  veloc- 
ity, probably  between  5000  and  10,000  ft.  per  minute. 
If,  now,  a  flame  or  arc  .starts,  it  is  obvious  that  this 
high-velocity  air  fans  the  flame  into  an  intense  heat, 
burning  very  much  like  a  blow-torch,  which  destroys 
everything  within  its  reach — copper  conductors,  iron 
laminations  and  everything  else.  This  high-velocity  air 
thus  causes  not  only  more  intense  damage,  but  likewise 
more  extensive,  instead  of  somewhat  localized  as  might 
be  expected  to  be  the  case  where  the  air  is  stagnant. 

Most  Favorable  Place  for  a  Fire 

The  most  favorable  place  for  a  fire  to  start  seems  to 
be  around  the  end  of  the  winding  and  usually  close  to 
where  the  coils  emerge  from  the  slots.  It  is  here  that 
coil  movement  is  most  likely  to  occur,  also  the  dielec- 
tric strains  are  the  greatest  and  the  accumulation  of 
dust  and  dirt  finds  a  ready  resting  place. 

A  fire  started  in  varnish-impregnated  cambric  with  a 
rapid  supply  of  oxygen  from  the  air  may  persist  for  an 
hour  or  more,  although  voltage  and  current  no  longer 
exist.  Apart  from  the  amount  of  combustible  material, 
its  combustibility  is  increased  by  the  formation  of  gases 
from  the  impregnating  compounds  employed.  The  diffi- 
culties of  fighting  the  fire  are  very  real — it  is  out  of 
sight  and  difficult  to  get  at.  Usually  the  casing  of 
the  generator  has  become  so  hot  before  help  arrives 
that  the  covers  cannot  be  touched  for  removal,  while 
smoke  and  the  noise  from  within  do  their  part  to  in- 
terfere. In  a  severe  fire  the  generator  cannot  be  opened 
until  the  fire  has  burnt  itself  out  and  the  outer  casing 
has  been  cooled  off  with  water.  Perhaps  this  is  really 
just  as  well,  for  combustion  cannot  exist  without  air, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  fire  extinguishes  itself  more 
rapidly  by  being  inclosed  than  if  the  burning  parts  were 
thrown  open  to  the  air. 

Extinguishing  Fires  in  Turbo-Gener.\tors 

As  scientific  methods  are  employed  in  the  design,  in- 
stallation, operation  and  maintenance  of  a  turbo-gen- 
erator, it  would  seem  that  such  might  well  be  extended 
to  fire  fighting  should  the  emergency  arrive.  Flooding 
the  interior  with  water  in  a  haphazard  way  will  prob- 
ably do  more  harm  than  good.  To  fight  a  fire  scientific- 
ally in  the  present  instance,  it  must  be  fought  by  meth- 
ods thought  of  before  the  emergency  happens  and  not  by 
Hny  or  all  methods  that  suggest  themselves  at  the  time. 
To  the  writer  it  appears,  for  the  same  reasons  advanced 
in  the  article  entitled  "Transformer  Fires,"  which  ap- 
peared in  the  issue  of  Poicer  of  Sept.  18,  that  no  effort 
should  be  made  to  open  the  cover  of  the  generator.  To 
do  so  permits  the  ingress  of  air  and  the  escape  of  the 
gases  of  combustion,  which,  if  confined,  assist  in  ex- 
tinguishing the  fire. 

To  extinguish  a  fire  rapidly,  safely  and  with  a  mini- 
mum of  damage  the  following  precautions  appear  to 
warrant  consideration:  (1)  When  an  internal  short- 
circuit  occurs  in  a  generator,  whether  between  phases  or 
from  one  phase  to  ground,  the  automatic  control  should 


120 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


disconnect  the  generator  from  the  system  and  thus  pre- 
vent the  rush  of  current  from  the  station  bus  into  the 
fault.  In  addition  to  this — which  is  being  done  quite 
widely — the  excitation  of  the  generator  should  be  killed 
simultaneously,  by  control  from  the  same  source  as  the 
main  circuit-breakers.  (2)  Simultaneously  with  isola- 
tion of  the  defective  generator  the  air  supply  should  be 
shut  off.  The  air  inlet  and  outlets  should  have  doors, 
normally  open,  but  arranged  to  close  by  gravity,  held 
open  by  a  solenoid-controlled  or  motor-operated  latch, 
in  turn  controlled  by  the  balanced-relay  protective  cir- 
cuit. Thus  when  an  internal  short-circuit  occurs,  which, 
as  already  pointed  out,  may  be  followed  by  a  fire,  not 
only  would  the  generator  be  isolated  from  the  system, 
but  its  voltage  is  killed  and  the  supply  of  forced  air  for 
fanning  the  flame  is  cut  off.  The  confinement  of  the 
gases  of  combustion  within  the  machine  will  assist  in 
extinguishing  the  fire.  Should  a  fire  start,  there  is  less 
chance  of  its  obtaining  headway,  while  its  effect  should 
be  local  instead  of  distributed.  (3)  The  shutting  off 
of  air  is  a  radical  and  effective  step  toward  preventing 
and  limiting  the  fire.  However,  more  heroic  steps  need 
be  taken  in  quenching  a  fire  once  it  starts.  Therefore 
why  not,  as  part  of  the  installation,  connect  at  two  or 
more  different  locations  of  the  generator  casing  inlets 
for  fire-fighting  fluid,  so  arranged  that  a  fire  in  any 
portion  of  the  windings  can  be  reached?  These  inlets 
may  be  connected  to  water  hydrants,  storage  tanks  con- 
taining water,  carbon  tetrachloride  or  even  carbon  di- 
oxide. The  behavior  and  disadvantages  of  water  are 
well  known;  it  is,  however,  the  most  inexpensive.  Car- 
bon tetrachloride  and  carbon  dioxide  are  both  powerful 
fire  extinguishers.  They  probably  would  smother  a  fire 
more  rapidly  than  water,  especially  when  used  in  the 
gaseous  form.  Carbon  tetrachloride  is  an  efficient  solv- 
ent for  rubber,  which  is,  however,  little  used  in  modern 
generators,  cambric  and  mica  having  taken  its  place. 
Tetrachloride  is  a  rather  rapid  anaesthetic  when  ad- 
mixed with  air,  while  carbon  dioxide  is  poisonous.  Both 
these  hazards  should  be  borne  in  mind,  although  in  sta- 
tions where  ventilation  is  good  and  the  roofs  high  the 
danger  is  small.  Where  inlets  are  installed  in  the  gen- 
erator casing,  the  valves  controlling  them  should  not,  as 
with  the  other  safeguards,  be  automatic,  since  every 
short-circuit  does  not  necessarily  cause  a  fire,  therefore 
does  not  require  turning  on  the  fire  extinguisher. 

Objections  to  the  Different  Methods 

There  are  objections  to  all  the  foregoing  suggestions : 
An  automatically  closing  air  inlet  and  outlet  may  close 
accidentally  and  thus  cause  overheating  by  interrupting 
the  ventilation.  Killing  the  excitation  when  the  ma- 
chine protective  circuit  operates  accidentally,  as  it  some- 
times does  for  unexplained  reasons,  makes  for  delay  in 
placing  the  machine  back  on  the  system.  Every  com- 
plication adds  to  the  possibility  of  service  interruptions. 
All  precautions  cost  money,  and  in  the  present  case  are 
taken  against  a  contingency  that  admittedly  may  never 
occur.  Perhaps  the  cheapest  precaution  and  the  one 
that  is  least  likely  to  cause  trouble  is  that  of  installing 
inlets  into  the  generator  for  water  or  other  fire-ex- 
tinguishing agency. 

It  must  be  realized  that  when  turbo-generators  of 
70,000  kw.  come  into  use,  with  boilers  and  auxiliaries,  an 
integral  part  of  the  whole,  taking  one  out  of  service 


means  a  big  loss  in  capacity  and  also  in  the  station's 
earnings,  for  the  interest  upon  the  investment  still 
goes  on. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  cover  the  matter  of  gen- 
erator fires  fully  in  any  one  respect.  Rather  has  effort 
been  made  to  show  that  fires  may  occur;  that  the  ven- 
tilating air  adds  much  to  the  havoc  wrought  by  the  fire, 
and  may  even  be  the  only  means  of  permitting  it  to 
persist;  and  possible  ways  of  extinguishing  a  fire  as 
quickly  as  possible.  What  every  operating  engineer 
should  realize  is  that  a  turbo-generator  is  not  fireproof, 
that  a  fire  may  start  and  persist  with  great  tenacity 
under  the  influence  of  the  ventilating  air  drawn  in  by 
the  machine  as  long  as  it  revolves.  Moreover,  once  fully 
started,  a  fire  is  rarely  quenched  until  it  has  burned 
itself  out,  by  which  time  the  electrical  end  is  practically 
destroyed.  With  the  increasing  use  of  turbo-generators 
and  with  increasing  capacities,  this  subject  is  becom- 
ing of  more  and  more  importance.  Experience  is-  the 
best  teacher,  but  it  is  preferable  to  gain  experience  of 
this  sort  second-hand.  It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  this 
article  in  surveying  conditions  as  the  writer  has  found 
them  may  tempt  others  to  enter  the  discussion  and  thus 
make  available  their  ideas  and  the  interchange  of  ex- 
periences. 

Adjusting  Marine-Engine  Bearings 

By  William  M.  McRobert 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  many  duties  of  a 
marine  engineer  is  the  adjustment  of  the  main  engine 
bearings.  To  engineers  who  have  operated  on  lake  or 
river  steamers  it  might  be  said  that  running  an  engine 
on  the  ocean  is  a  little  different  from  operating  on  in- 
land waters,  for  it  is  the  practice  on  fresh  water  to  allow 
a  stream  of  water  to  flow  continuously  on  most  of  the 
bearings  to  avoid  overheating  and  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  lubricating  oil  used.  This  cannot  be  done  at  sea,  as 
the  salt  and  other  solid  matter  in  the  water  would 
ruin  the  bearing  in  a  short  time,  so  that  dependence 
is  on  oil  alone. 

When  an  engineer  joins  a  ship  with  which  he  is  un- 
familiar, he  should,  in  order  to  avoid  trouble  while  on  a 
voyage,  examine  and  adjust  all  the  main  bearings  and 
the  crank  and  crosshead  brasses.  When  proceeding  to 
adjust  a  bearing  and  before  taking  off  the  nuts,  they 
should  be  marked  so  that  their  respective  positions  may 
be  known  and  the  amount,  if  any,  taken  up  in  adjust- 
ment determined.  To  make  the  nuts  readily  dis- 
tinguishable, they  should  be  typed  P  for  port  and  S 
for  starboard,  together  with  the  number  of  the  par- 
ticular bearing  to  which  they  belong.  The  nuts  on  No. 
1  bearing  would  therefore  be  designated  as,  PI  SI,  for 
when  looking  toward  the  bow  of  the  vessel  the  side  to 
the  left  is  known  as  port  and  to  the  right  is  star- 
board. 

A  simple  and  permanent  method  of  marking  the  nuts 
so  that  mistakes  in  adjustments  are  practically  elimi- 
nated is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  Prior  to  slackening  back  a 
nut,  cut  an  arrow  on  the  bolt  vdth  a  thin,  sharp  chisel 
and  make  a  light  mark  on  the  nut  to  coincide  with  it. 
Next  remove  the  nut  to  the  vise  and  graduate  off  some- 
what as  shown,  using  the  mark  already  made  for  the 
zero  or  starting  point.    A  piece  of  wood  is  necessary  as 


January  22,  1918 


POWER 


121 


a  center  for  the  nut  when  laying  off  the  graduations 
with  a  pair  of  compasses  and  a  sharp  Hat  chisel. 

The  arrow  on  the  bolt  will  be  used  as  the  base  from 
which  all  readings  are  taken,  and  a  record  of  the  posi- 


FIG.    1.      NUT   MARKED   TO    FACILITATE   ADJUSTMENT 

lion  of  each  nut  should  be  kept  for  reference  in  a  man- 
ner similar  to  the  following: 


s.  s  , 

At  Port  of     Date 

MAIN  BEARINGS 

No.  1 
No.  2 
No  3 
No.  4 
No.  5 
No.  6 
All 

Before  Adjustment  4J 
Before  Adjustment  5 
Before  Adjustment  6 
Before  Adjustment   IJ 
Before  Adjustment  31 
Before  Adjustment  2-1 
bearing-R    including 

After  4| 
After  5| 
After  61 
After  l| 
After  3| 
After  2i 
the    crank 

Before  Adjustment  6J      After  6J 
Before  Adjustment  2^      After  3 
Before  Adjustment  3J      After  4 
Before  Adjustment  51      After  5 
Before  Adjustment  4J      After  5 
Before  Adjustment  6i      After  7 
bearings    should    have    the 

same  kind  of  record. 

Having  marked  and  removed  the  nuts  from  the  bolts 
on  one  of  the  main  bearings,  for  example,  the  engineer 
lifts  the  cap  clear  of  the  journal,  by  means  of  a  chain  or 
rope  block,  then  lifts  off  the  liners,  noting  down  their 
number  and  description  so  as  to  replace  them  after 
cleaning  thoroughly.  In  marine  work  soft  lead  wire  is 
generally  used  to  ascertain  the  clearance  between  the 
wearing  surfaces.  To  do  this,  take  two  pieces  of  wire 
and  place  one,  circumferentially,  on  each  end  of  the  jour- 
nal within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  ends  of  the  bearing 
surface.  On  a  large  engine  three  "leads"  should  be  used, 
the  additional  one  at  the  center  of  the  bearing.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  wire  is  a  little  shorter  than  the 
exposed  part  of  the  shaft  or  the  ends  will  get  on  top  of 
the  liners  when  the  cap  is  put  on.  Making  sure  the  leads 
are  in  their  proper  positions  (a  little  soap  or  grease 
will  keep  them  in  place),  lower  the  bearing  cap,  put  the 
nuts  on  and  tighten  them  simultaneously  until  they 
are  at  their  respective  marks  or  perhaps  a  little  past 
them,  until  the  cap  is  "solid"  on  its  liners.  Notice  par- 
ticularly whether  the  cap  is  solidly  down  on  the  liners; 
if  not,  insert  an  extra  liner  to  make  it  so.  Again  mark 
and  slack  off  the  nuts  and  lift  the  bearing  cap  and 
gage  the  leads  for  thickness  and  the  uniformity  to 
which  they  are  squeezed  out.  Any  desired  adjustments 
may  be  made  by  removing  or  adding  liners  as  occasion 
demands.  Next  comes  the  connecting-rod  alignment 
and  the  adjustment  of  crank  and  crosshead  bearings,  re- 
ferring to  Fig.  2. 


Every  steamship  engine  is  equipped  with  either  a 
steam-  or  hand-operated  turning  engine  for  the  pur- 
pose of  setting  the  engine  in  any  required  position  to 
effect  repairs.  Prior  to  moving  the  engine,  take  a 
look  over  the  stern  of  the  ship  to  see  that  there  are 
no  boats  or  ropes  near  the  propeller,  and  also  be  sure 
that  the  engine  itself  is  clear  of  obstructions;  then  by 
means  of  the  turning  engine  put  the  high-pressure 
crank  on  the  top  center.  On  the  face  of  the  crosshead- 
shoe  guide  will  be  found  two  tapped  holes,  to  which  a 
piece  of  plate  or  a  casting  may  be  attached  to  support 
the  piston  and  connecting-rod  when  the  rod  is  discon- 
nected from  its  crankpin.  After  this  "guide  plate," 
as  it  is  called,  is  securely  bolted  in  place,  attach  to  each 
side  of  the  crosshead  a  differential  chain  block.  Mark 
the  position  of  the  crank-bolt  nuts,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  main  bearings,  then  slacken  them  back  after  screw- 
ing an  eye-bolt  firmly  into  the  threaded  holes  in  the  ends 
of  each  of  the  connecting-rod  bolts  and  pulling  up 
slightly  with  the  two  chain  blocks;  next  lower  the  bot- 
tom half  of  the  bearing  gently  on  both  tackles  until  it 
rests  in  the  crank  pit.  The  eye-bolts  and  also  the  hooks 
on  the  chain  block  are  small  enough  to  pass  through  the 
bolt  holes  so  the  lower  half  can  be  lowered  into  the  crank 
pit,  or  in  case  of  small  engines  a  rope  sling  may  be  used 
from  the  eye-bolt  to  the  hook.  A  rope  sling  is  sometimes 
used  in  place  of  the  eyebolts  to  support  the  chain  blocks 
at  the  crosshead.  With  the  turning  engine,  turn  the 
crank  slightly  ahead   until   the  crankpin   is  just  clear 


Kir..    2.      UNSHIPPING    A    CRANKPIN    BEARING 

of  the  top  half  of  the  bearing,  first  making  sure  that  the 
latter  is  held  in  place  with  a  capscrew  passed  through 
each  of  the  flanges.  Keep  the  bearing  off  the  crankpin, 
and  with  a  pair  of  inside  calipers  measure  to  see  if  the 
end  of  the  connecting-rod  is  hanging  central  between 
the  webs  of  the  crank.  In  order  to  obtain  smooth  run- 
ning, this  condition  must  be  realized. 


122 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


Should  the  connecting-rod  be  out  of  alignment,  it  may 
be  corrected  by  inserting  a  thin  liner  between  the  lower 
crosshead  brass  and  the  top  end  of  the  connecting-rod. 
Pounding  might  be  overcome  in  many  engines  if  the 
rods  were  put  in  line.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
scrape  the  babbitt  metal  of  the  bearings  in  order  to  get 
a  true  alignment,  but  no  matter  what  is  called  for,  the 
engineer  can  rest  assured  that  continual  trouble  will 
ensue  as  long  as  the  conneting-rod  is  out  of  alignment. 

On  a  12,000-hp.  quadruple-expansion  engine  the 
writer  sailed  with,  he  spent  many  a  hard  day  in  tropical 
climates  scraping  the  bearings  to  put  the  high-pressure 
rod  in  line;  in  fact,  on  every  available  opportunity  the 
chief  had  him  on  this  job,  but  eventually  success  and 
comfort  were  the  reward. 

If  the  rod  is  found  to  be  in  line,  turn  the  engine  back 
until  the  crank  is  on  its  exact  top  center  and  take  off 
the  guide  plate  and  remove  the  cap  bolts  from  the 
top  half  of  the  connecting-rod  bearing,  then  raise  the 
lower  bearing  out  of  the  crank  pit  until  the  bolts 
have  just  entered  the  holes,  then  carefully  place  two  or 
three  pieces  of  lead  wire  circumferentially  at  equal 
intervals  along  the  surface  as  described  for  the  main 
bearing,  then  pull  the  bearing  or  cap  up  into  position 
and  tighten  the  nuts  to  their  previously  located  marks. 
Again  slacken  back  the  nuts  and  lower  the  bottom  half 
of  the  bearing  just  so  the  leads  can  be  removed.  If 
they  are  the  right  thickness,  clean  the  bearing  thor- 
oughly and  pour  a  little  clean  oil  on  the  surface,  then 
heave  up  and  pull  the  nuts  solidly  up  to  their  marks, 
using  a  hammer  on  the  wrench  and  being  certain 
as  before  that  the  bearing  is  up  solid  on  the  liners. 
The  intermediate-pressure  and  low-pressure  engines  are 
adjusted  in  turn  in  the  same  manner  as  described. 

The  foregoing  is  intended  as  a  mere  outline  on  the 
subject  of  the  adju.stment  of  marine-engine  bearings, 
all  of  which  is  familiar  to  seagoing  engineers,  but  there 
are  three  important  points  to  be  remembered,  which 
should  be  emphasized;  namely,  before  turning  the  en- 
gine, see  that  the  propeller  is  clear,  that  the  guide 
plate  is  off  and  that  all  other  obstructions  are  removed. 


Morris  Improved  Tube  Deader 

To  properly  expand  and  bead  a  boiler  tube  requires 
considerable  experience  and  expertness  when  the  com- 
mon expander  and  beading  tool  are  employed.  An  in- 
experienced workman  is  more  than  likely  to  thin  the 
tube  end  by  excessive  rolling,  as  in  Fig.  1,  thus  re- 
ducing its  strength  where  it  is  needed.    In  beading  the 


P"^ 


PIG.    1.      RESULT    OP   EXCESSIVE    ROLLING 

tube  ends  by  the  hand  tool  they  may  be  bulged,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  thus  forming  a  pocket  between  the 
tube  and  the  tube  head,  which  would  increase  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  tube  burning  out  at  that  point. 


A  machine  that  has  been  designed  to  strike  a  blow 
on  the  beading  tool  at  the  right  position  and  to  expand 
and  bead  a  boiler  tube  at  one  operation,  at  the  same 
time  eliminating  the  defective  results  shown  in  Figs.  1 
and  2,  has  been  developed  by  the  Wallace  Manufactur- 
ing Co.,  1319  West  42nd  St.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.  This 
device.  Fig.  3,  known  as  the  Morris  beading  tool,  con- 


FIG.  2.  BULGED  TUBE  IN  TUBE  SHEET 

sists  of  a  lever-operated  6-lb.  hammer  A,  the  striking 
blow  of  which  is  governed  by  the  propelling  springs 
B,  the  strength  of  which  is  adjustable  by  the  bolt  C. 

A  beading  tool  D,  which  beads  and  expands  a  tube 
in  one  operation,  is  at  one  end  of  the  frame  holding 
the  hammer.  It  is  rotated  in  the  tube  by  a  ratchet 
movement  E  actuated  by  the  hand  lever  F  which  oper- 
ates a  camwheel  G  which  is  rotated  by  the  two  pawls 
H  to  lift  the  hammer  and  trip  it  into  action.  The  tool 
is  held  in  place  at  a  boiler  head  by  an  adjustable  sup- 
porting block  /  containing  wedge  bolts,  which  are  ex- 
panded after  the  supporting  block  is  placed  in  a  tube. 


PIG.   3.     MORRIS  TUBE  BEADER 

by  the  bolt  J.  A  head  block  K  holds  and  guides  the 
beading  tool  in  place,  and  the  dotted  line  L  shows  the 
angle  the  tool  is  driven  on  for  expansion  of  the  tube. 
The  application  and  operation  of  the  tool  are  simple 
and  it  can  as  easily  be  worked  at  one  part  of  the  tube 
sheet  as  at  another.  When  about  to  use,  the  head  block 
of  the  beading  tool  is  placed  in  the  tube  to  be  secured 
in  the  tube  sheet,  the  supporting  block  being  placed  in 


January  22.  1918 


POWER 


123 


any  other  tube  already  in  place,  within  the  scope  of 
the  tool.  With  the  tool  in  place  the  operator  pulls  or 
pushes  the  lever  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  M.  This 
movement  rotates  the  camwheel  G  to  the  right,  and  as 
the  roller  N  reaches  the  edge  of  the  camwheel,  the 
weight  of  the  hammer  A  and  the  tension  of  the  springs 


FIG.    4.      HOW   THE   HEADER    PITS    IX   THE   TUBE 

B  produce  a  sharp  blow  on  the  head  block  0.  Each 
fimo  the  lever  is  operated  for  a  hammer  stroke,  the 
ratchet  is  rotated  two  notches.  Fig.  4  shows  how  the 
beader  enters  a  tube  and  also  the  kind  of  joint  it  pro- 
duces between  the  tube  and  the  head,  there  being  no 
thinning  of  the  tube  end  or  forming  of  a  pocket  between 
the  tube  and  the  head. 

Calculating  the  Contents  of  Oil  Tanks 

By  R.  T.  Strohm 

The  increasing  use  of  liquid  fuels  has  brought  about 
the  storage  of  large  quantities  of  oil,  gasoline  and 
similar  products.  The  usual  type  of  storage  tank  is 
a  cylindrical  steel  shell  with  bumped  heads,  placed 
in  a  horizontal  position  and  ordinarily  buried  in  the 
earth  as  a  matter  of  safety.  The  calculation  of  the 
amount  of  oil  in  a  tank  of  this  kind,  when  the  oil 
stands  at  a  certain  level,  is  a  problem  that  seems  to 
cause  operating  engineers  considerable  difficulty,  large- 
ly because  of  the  use  of  bumped  heads.  If  the  heads 
were  flat,  the  problem  would  be  greatly  simplified. 

The  depth  of  the  oil  is  commonly  measured  in  inches 
above  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  this  distance  being 
determined  by  a  measuring  rod  inserted  through  the 
manhole  or  by  some  form  of  registering  gage.  The 
known  data,  therefore,  are  the  length  and  diameter 
of  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  tank,  the  radius  of  curva- 
ture of  the  heads,  and  the  depth  of  oil  in  the  tank, 
and  from  these  the  quantity  of  oil  must  be  calculated. 

Since  the  amount  of  oil  on  hand  at  any  given  time 
is  information  that  must  be  quickly  available  when- 
ever it  is  called  for,  the  best  thing  the  engineer  can 
do  is  to  make  up  a  table  showing  the  cubic  contents 
of  the  tank  for  every  inch  of  depth.     Then,  by  measur- 


ing the  depth  of  oil,  he  can  quickly  refer  to  the  table 
and  so  determine  the  quantity  of  oil  on  hand. 

If  a  reliable  meter  is  available,  the  quickest  way 
to  compile  the  table  is  to  use  the  arrangement  shown 
in  Fig.  I.  Connect  the  meter  a  to  the  filling  pipe  b 
and  have  a  shutoff"  cock  c  in  the  oil-supply  pipe  d. 
Insert  a  measuring  rod  e,  graduated  in  inches  from  the 
bottom  end,  through  the  open  manhole.  Then  run  oil 
into  the  tank  until  the  measuring  rod  shows  a  depth 
of  one  inch,  and  read  the  meter.  The  quantity  of  oil 
run  in  will  be  the  quantity  corresponding  to  a  depth 
of  one  inch.  Mark  this  down  in  the  table,  run  in  oil 
until  the  depth  is  two  inches  as  indicated  by  the  rod 
e,  and  read  the  meter  again.  If  the  meter  is  set  at 
zero  at  the  start,  the  second  reading  will  be  the  quantity 
of  oil  at  a  depth  of  two  inches,  and  so  on  for  each 
additional  inch. 

If  no  meter  is  available  and  no  similar  method  of 
measuring  the  quantity  of  oil  run  in  for  each  inch  of 
depth  can  be  used  conveniently,  the  table  may  be  com- 
piled by  a  series  of  calculations  that  are  not  difficult 
to  make,  though  they  are  numerous  and  therefore  apt 
to  be  tedious. 

Assume,  for  example,  that  the  tank  in  question  is 
28  ft.  long  and  8  ft.  in  diameter  and  that  the  ends 
are  parts  of  spherical  surfaces,  with  a  rise  of  10  in. 
at  the  center  line  of  the  shell.  Make  a  scale  drawing 
of  the  tank,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  using  as  large  a  scale 
as  possible,  to  obtain  accuracy.  On  the  center  line  ab 
find  by  trial  a  center  c  for  a  circle  that  Vfill  pass  through 


FI6.  A- 

METHODS    OF    OBTAININn     ME.\SUREMENTS 

the  points  d,  e  and  /,  and  draw  the  circle  defg,  which 

will  represent  the  sphere  of  which  the  bumped  head 

is  a  part.     The  small  circle  xyz  is  a  cross-section  of 
the  cylindrical  shell. 


124 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


Beginning  at  the  bottom  of  the  shell,  draw  lines 
parallel  to  the  axis  ab  and  one  inch  apart.  These  will 
divide  the  entire  tank  into  96  layers,  each  one  inch 
thick,  and  the  problem  then  resolves  itself  into  finding 
the  cubic  contents  of  each  layer.  To  illustrate  the 
method  to  be  followed,  let  the  layer  between  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  inches  be  taken. 

First,  draw  two  lines  hi  and  jk  at  these  two  points. 
The  lower  surface  of  the  layer  will  then  have  the  shape 
and  dimensions  showTi  in  Fig.  3  and  the  upper  surface 
the  shape  and  dimensions  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  sizes 
of  both  these  sections  are  obtained  directly  from  Fig. 
2,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  corresponding  dimensions. 
As  both  sections  are  drawn  to  scale,  the  rise  of  the 
segmental  end  can  be  scaled.  It  will  be  found  to  be 
practically  5  in.  in  each  case. 

The  area  of  the  section  in  Fig.  3  consists  of  a 
rectangle  62*  x  336  in.  and  two  segments  whose  diam- 
eter is  2  X  llOi  in-  and  whose  rise  is  5  in.  The  area 
of  a  segment  is  found  by  the  formula, 


A  =  iH-y.   ^-  0.608 

in  which  A  is  the  area  in  square  inches,  H  the  height 
of  the  segment  in  inches  and  D  the  diameter  of  the 
circle  of  which  the  segment  is  a  part.  In  this  particular 
case 


A  =  I  X  25*  ( 


221 
5 


0.608  =  220  sq.in. 


and  the  area  of  both  segments  is  440  sq.in.  The 
rectangular  part  has  an  area  of  336  X  624  =  21,000 
sq.in.  and  so  the  total  area  of  the  section  is  21,440 
square  inches. 

By  a  similar  procedure,  the  area  of  the  segmental 
end  in  Fig.  4  is  found  to  be  220  sq.in. — the  difference 
between  this  and  the  end  in  Fig.  3  is  so  slight  as  to 
make  no  appreciable  change  in  the  area.  The  total 
area  of  the  section  in  Fig.  4  is  therefore  336  X  64 
-j-  440  ^  21,944  sq.in.  Now,  with  sufficient  accuracy 
for  all  practical  purposes,  the  volume  of  the  layer  be- 
tween hi  and  jk,  Fig.  2,  may  be  taken  as  the  average 
of  the  areas  of  the  upper  and  lower  faces  multiplied 
by  the  thickness  of  the  layer,  which  is  one  inch;  hence, 
the  volume  of  the  layer  is  i  (21,440  +  21,944)  X  1 
=  21,692  cu.in.,  or  about  94  gallons. 

The  volume  of  each  layer  from  the  bottom  to  the 
center  line  should  be  calculated  in  this  way.  Since 
the  layers  between  the  center  line  and  the  top  are  of 
exactly  the  same  size  and  shape  ai>  those  between 
the  bottom  and  the  center  line,  but  in  the  reverse  order, 
the  calculations  will  need  to  be  made  for  only  48  dif- 
ferent layers. 

In  calculating  the  volume  of  the  first  layer  at  the 
bottom — which  is  the  same  as  the  first  one  at  the  top — 
the  area  of  one  surface  is  zero;  hence,  the  average 
area  of  the  two  faces  of  the  layer  is  simply  half  of 
the  area  of  the  one  surface  whose  area  is  calculated. 

In  making  these  calculations,  extreme  accuracy  is 
a  waste  of  time.  If  the  areas  are  determined  to  the 
nearest  ten  square  inches,  the  table  will  be  quite  ac- 
curate enough,  for  the  diameter  of  the  tank  is  not 
the  same  throughout  because  of  overlapping  plates  and 
the  graduated  measuring  rod  cannot  be  read  to  small 
fractions  of  an  inch.     If  the  table  values  are  worked 


out  to  the  nearest  five  gallons,  they  will  meet  all  or- 
dinary demands. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  volume  added  by  the 
bumped  heads  is  440  cu.in.,  while  the  total  volume 
included  by  the  layer  is  21,692  cu.in.  Thus  the  bumped 
heads  contain  440  -^-  21,692  =  0.02,  or  practically  2 
per  cent,  of  the  total  volume;  in  other  words,  if  the 
heads  were  neglected  altogether  and  considered  to  be 
flat,  the  error  would  be  only  2  per  cent,  at  the  section 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  At  the  level  of  the  center  line  of  the 
tank,  where  the  head  has  its  greatest  projection,  the 
error  is  still  within  4  per  cent,  of  the  total  volume. 

Steel-Jacketed  Electric  Heater 

The  steel- jacketed  electric  heater  unit  indicated  by 
the  arrow  in  the  figure  has  been  put  to  innumerable 
uses  in  all  kinds  of  industrial  plants.  Besides  such 
applications  as  in  crane  cabs,  valve,  pump  and  meter 
houses,  there  have  been  scores  of  miscellaneous  appli- 


HEATER    INSTALLED    IN    GAS-V.\LVE    HOUSE 

cations.  The  ease  of  conducting  electric  current  to 
remote  corners,  to  moving-crane  cabs,  etc.,  makes  the 
use  of  electric  heaters  simpler  than  any  other.  The 
heater  unit  shown  is  of  500-watt  capacity,  can  be 
connected  in  multiple  to  any  alternating-  or  direct- 
current  circuit  where  the  voltage  is  not  in  excess  of 
250.  Only  as  many  as  are  actually  required  need  be 
installed,  and  additions  made  when  required  as  easily 
as  adding  electric  lamps.  Just  as  lamps  are  placed 
singly  or  in  groups  in  locations  where  light  is  needed, 
so  also  are  these  units  mounted  singly  or  in  groups 
in  places  where  heat  is  required. 

The  units  are  flat  like  an  ordinary  meter,  the  dimen- 
sions being  -,-\.  x  1 J  x  23,'  in.  AH  parts  are  inclosed, 
and  no  porcelain,  cement,  asbestos  or  molded  insulation 
material  used.  The  installation  in  the  figure  shows  one 
of  these  units  installed  in  a  gas-valve  house.  These 
heaters  are  designed  and  manufactured  by  the  Cutler- 
Hammer  Manufacturing  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. 


In  offering  "War-Savings  Stamps"  to  the  public  the 
Government  has  made  immediately  available  for  every 
man,  woman  and  child  in  the  country  a  profitable,  sim- 
ple, and  secure  investment. 


,);muaiy  2:i,   1918  1' U  W  K  K  1^5 

yiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 


Editorials 


oiMiiJMiiiiiMiMiJiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiirMiiiiiiiiiiijriiiiiuiiiiiiiMiiinjiiiJiiiiJiunrin 


Developing  the  Water  Power 

THE  agitation  for  the  development  of  the  water  pow- 
ers has  culminated  in  the  submission  to  the  Presi- 
dent by  the  Secretaries  of  War,  Interior  and  Agricul- 
ture, jointly,  the  draft  of  a  proposed  bill  which  embodies 
the  fundamental  principles  of  several  bills  now  pending 
in  Conjj-ress  and  seeks  to  avoid  or  cure  their  defects. 
The  letter  of  transmittal,  which  will  be  found  on  page 
135,  outlines  its  principal  features.  A  commission  com- 
posed of  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  and  having 
an  e.xecutive  officer  who  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
President,  is  to  make  investigations  and  to  collect  and 
record  data  concerning  the  power  industry  and  its  re- 
lation to  other  industries,  and  concerning  the  location, 
capacity,  development,  cost  and  relation  to  markets  of 
power  sites ;  to  make  public  from  time  to  time  such  por- 
tions of  the  information  secured  as  it  shall  deem  expe- 
dient in  the  public  interest,  and  to  issue  licenses  to 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  to  any  association  of 
such  citizens,  or  to  any  coi-poration,  state  or  munici- 
pality, for  the  purpose  of  constructing,  operating  and 
maintaining  dams,  water  conduits,  reservoirs,  power 
houses,  transmission  lines  or  other  project  work  neces- 
sary or  convenient  for  the  development  and  improve- 
ment of  navigation  and  for  the  development,  transmis- 
sion and  utilization  of  power.  The  licenses  are  to  be 
granted  for  definite  periods  not  exceeding  fifty  years, 
and  are  irrevocable  inside  of  that  period,  except  for 
cause.  Upon  or  after  the  expiration  of  the  lease  the 
United  States  shall  have  the  right,  upon  not  less  than 
two  years'  notice,  to  take  over  any  project  covered  in 
whole  or  in  part  by  the  license,  upon  paying  a  fair  value, 
not  to  exceed  the  actual  cost  of  the  property  taken,  plus 
such  reasonable  severance  damages,  if  any,  as  may  be 
caused  by  the  separation  of  said  property  from  prop- 
erty valuable,  serviceable  and  dependent  not  taken. 

It  would  seem  that  under  such  a  provision  the  Gov- 
ernment would  be  powerless  to  exercise  the  right  of 
eminent  domain,  no  matter  how  badly  the  property 
might  be  needed,  within  the  term  of  the  lease,  although 
there  is  provision  that  the  Government  may  comman- 
deer the  plant  temporarily  in  case  the  safety  of  the 
United  States  demands,  for  the  purpose  of  manufactur- 
ing nitrates,  explosives  or  munitions  of  war,  or  for  any 
other  purpose  involving  the  safety  of  the  United  States, 
paying  to  the  party,  or  parties,  entitled  thereto  such 
just  and  fair  compen.sation  for  the  use  of  the  property 
as  may  be  fixed  by  the  commission,  on  the  basis  of  a 
reasonable  profit  in  time  of  peace.  It  is  not  clear  who 
shall  exercise  the  right  of  recapture  at  the  end  of  license 
period,  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  or  who  shall  ques- 
tion or  decide  whether  such  recapture  is  advisable. 

Inasmuch  as  the  fifty-year  license  is  insisted  upon, 
in  order  that  the  licensee  may  get  back  his  investment 
within  the  term  of  the  license,  it  is  not  fair  that  the 
Government,  at  the  time  of   recapture,   should   be  ex- 


pected to  pay  anything  like  the  full  cost  of  the  project. 
A  "fair  value"  is  an  indefinite  and  indeterminable  quan- 
tity. It  would  be  much  preferable  to  retain  the  right 
to  recapture  at  any  time  upon  the  restitution  to  the 
licensee  of  all  that  had  been  expended  upon  the  prop- 
erty, less  what  had  been  retired  in  depreciation  and  dis- 
charged indebtedness. 

The  regulation  of  the  issue  of  securities,  the  control 
of  expenditures,  and  the  fixing  of  rates,  are  left  alto- 
gether to  the  public  utilities  commissions  of  such  states 
as  have  such  bodies,  the  newly  created  commission  hav- 
ing the  right  to  exercise  these  functions  in  states  where 
no  such  bodies  exist,  but  being  obliged  to  surrender  them 
to  such  bodies  when  created.  We  should  have  preferred 
to  see  such  control  unified  and  systematized  in  the  Fed- 
eral Commission,  and  to  see,  as  one  of  the  terms  of  the 
license,  that  the  price  of  current  should  be  fixed  at  cost 
plus  a  fair  and  stipulated  profit.  The  commission  may, 
in  its  discretion,  give  preference  to  applications  for 
licenses  by  states  and  municipalities  for  developing 
power  "for  state  and  municipal  purposes,"  but  apparent- 
ly not  for  the  general  use  of  its  inhabitants. 

An  annual  rental  of  not  less  than  ten  cents  per  horse- 
power is  to  be  charged.  Fifty  per  cent,  of  the  charges 
arising  from  licenses  for  the  occupancy  and  use  of  na- 
tional forests  is  to  be  expended  in  the  survey,  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  roads  and  trails  within  such  na- 
tional forests.  Fifty  per  cent,  of  the  charges  arising 
from  licenses  for  the  occupancy  and  use  of  public  lands, 
national  parks,  national  monuments  and  power  sites  re- 
served outside  of  national  forests  shall  be  paid  into  the 
Reclamation  Fund.  All  proceeds  from  any  Indian  reser- 
vation shall  be  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  Indians  on 
such  reservations,  and  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  charges  aris- 
ing from  all  other  licenses  is  reserved  as  a  special  fund 
to  be  expended  in  the  maintenance  and  operation  of 
dams  and  other  navigation  structures  owned  by  the 
United  States,  or  in  the  construction,  maintenance  or 
operation  of  headwater  improvements  on  navigable  riv- 
ers of  the  United  States.  This  rental  will,  of  course, 
be  an  item  in  the  rate-fixing  charges  and  the  users  of 
the  current  will  thus  be  taxed  for  the  purposes  named. 

The  licensee  is  required  to  furnish,  free  of  cost  to  the 
United  States,  power  for  the  operation  of  navigation 
facilities  connected  with  the  project,  whether  con- 
structed by  the  licensee  or  by  the  United  States.  The 
licensee  must  commence  the  construction  of  the  project 
work  within  the  time  fixed  in  the  license,  thereafter  in 
good  faith  and  with  due  diligence  prosecute  such  con- 
struction and,  within  the  time  fixed  in  the  license,  com- 
plete and  put  into  operation  such  part  of  the  ultimate 
development  as  the  commission  shall  deem  necessary  to 
supply  the  reasonable  needs  of  the  then  available  mar- 
ket. Should  he  fail  to  do  so,  the  Attorney  General,  upon 
the  request  of  the  commission,  shall  institute  proceed- 
ings in  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for 
the  district  in  which  any  part  of  the  project  is  situ- 
ated, for  the  revocation  of  such  license,  the  sale  of  the 


126 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


works  constructed  and  such  other  equitable  relief  as  the 
case  may  demand. 

The  time  to  fix  definite  terms  is  when  one  is  making 
a  bargain.  The  terms  of  the  proposed  license  do  not 
enable  one  to  judge  with  sufficient  accuracy  how  the 
price  of  the  service  rendered  by  the  licensee  is  likely  to 
compare  with  what  it  would  cost  if  rendered  by  the 
Government  itself. 

The  first  step  toward  the  passage  of  the  foregoing 
bill  was  taken  by  the  House  of  Representatives  on  Jan- 
uary eleventh,  by  the  adoption  of  a  resolution  providing 
for  the  appointment  of  a  special  committee  of  eighteen 
members  to  which  shall  be  referred  all  bills  and  resolu- 
tions introduced  during  the  Sixty-fifth  Congress  (except 
those  touching  foreign  affairs),  which  deal  with  water- 
power  matters.  The  committee,  which  will  be  named  by 
the  Speaker,  will  serve  only  during  the  present  Congress. 

The  adoption  of  this  resolution  discharges  the  com- 
mittee on  Interstate  and  Foreign  Commerce  and  the 
committee  on  Public  Lands  from  further  consideration 
of  the  various  bills  that  have  been  before  the  House  for 
some  years,  and  these  bills  are  to  go  to  the  new  com- 
mittee. The  proposed  legislation  in  regard  to  water 
power  at  Niagara  Falls  is  left  in  the  hands  of  the  House 
Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs. 

A  bill  introduced  in  the  House  on  January  ninth  is 
intended  to  give  the  President  power  to  take  posession 
and  assume  control  of  any  water-power  projects  using 
the  waters  of  Niagara  River  for  manufacturing  pur- 
poses. The  bill  further  empowers  the  President  to  re- 
tain possession,  management  and  control  of  these 
projects  for  such  time  as  may  appear  necessary  to  him 
during  the  period  of  the  war,  and  then  to  restore  them 
to  their  original  owners,  who  are  to  be  paid  a  fair  and 
jusf  compensation  for  the  use  of  their  property,  as  de- 
termined by  an  impartial  agency.  The  basis  of  this 
compensation  is  a  reasonable  profit  in  times  of  peace, 
to  which  must  be  added  the  cost  of  restoring  the  prop- 
erty to  as  good  condition  as  existed  at  the  time  it  was 
taken  over,  less  the  value  of  improvements  made  thereto 
by  the  United  States  during  its  tenure. 

In  connection  with  the  question  of  Government  con- 
trol of  water  powers,  it  is  significant  to  note  that  Gov- 
ernor Whitman,  of  New  York,  in  his  message  to  the 
Legislature,  advocated  the  idea  that  the  state  should 
undertake  to  develop  some  of  its  unused  water  power, 
a  large  amount  of  which  has  been  created  by  the  con- 
struction of  the  new  barge  canal.  After  developing  the 
projects,  the  state  might  either  operate  them  itself 
or  lease  the  plants  to  others. 

The  present  activity  in  regard  to  water-power  utiliza- 
tion indicates  an  acute  appreciation  of  the  urgent  need 
of  tapping  sources  of  power  as  yet  untouched,  to  relieve 
the  pressure  on  the  fuel  industries  and  the  transpor- 
tation systems;  and  under  the  spur  of  necessity  it  is 
probable  that  the  long  delay  will  be  succeeded  by  prompt, 
equitable  and  conclusive  action. 

Coal 

COAL  continues  to  be  the  principal  concern  of  the 
power-plant  owner  and  engineer.  To  the  extra 
quantity  required  to  meet  the  normal  growth  of  the 
country  has  been  added  that  required  by  the  speeding 
up  of  industry  and  the  increased  activity  of  the  rail- 
roads.    Even  if  the  mines  could  produce  the  additional 


quantity  needed,  the  railroads  cannot  transport  it,  and 
the  demand,  the  difficulty  of  transportation  and  the 
suffering  due  to  the  lack  of  fuel  have  been  enhanced 
by  unusually  long  periods  of  exceptionally  cold  weather. 

Industries  have  been  shut  down,  hotels  and  hospitals 
and  homes  without  coal,  street-car  lines  stopped,  pub- 
lic utilities  hampered,  commutation  service  deranged, 
and  all  the  habits  and  activities  of  the  people  overset 
because  of  the  shortage  of  fuel. 

All  this  has  resulted  in  a  wild  scramble  for  coal,  not 
only  on  the  part  of  individuals,  but  of  localities.  Local 
officials  and  administrators  have  commandeered  coal 
passing  through  their  territories  en  route  to  other  sec- 
tions. New  England  and  New  York  are  contesting  for 
priority.  There  is  not  coal  enough  for  all.  Some  must 
get  along  without — but  who? 

Obviously,  provision  mu.st  first  be  made  for  the  ab- 
solute essentials.  Homes,  hospitals,  hotels  and  places 
where  people  are  obliged  to  work  must  be  kept  Warm, 
the  people  must  be  transported  to  and  from  their  work, 
food  must  be  prepared,  distributed  and  cooked.  There 
are  many  things  for  which  coal  is  burned  that  might 
be  spared  temporarily,  and  there  has  been  much  talk 
of  cutting  off  the  fuel  supply  to  nonessential  industries, 
but  this  would  throw  thousands  out  of  employment  and 
be  productive  of  widespread  suffering. 

The  United  States  Fuel  Administration  made  public 
on  January  eighth  its  "budget  plan"  of  allotting  the 
available  coal  supply. 

Committees  representing  the  large  industries  not  en- 
gaged in  war  work — more  than  one  hundred  in  all — will 
be  called  into  conference  with  the  ofliicials  of  the  Fuel 
Administration.  They  will  be  shown  the  amount  of 
coal  available  for  all  purposes,  the  amount  required  for 
war  purposes  and  domestic  consumers  and  the  total  cur- 
tailment of  the  use  of  coal  which  must  be  effected  to 
satisfy  these  demands. 

They  will  be  asked  on  patriotic  grounds  as  well  as  for 
their  own  future  interests  to  volunteer  in  behalf  of  their 
industry  a  reduction  of  the  coal  consumption  for  the 
year  1918.  They  will  be  asked  to  show  the  Fuel  Ad- 
ministration the  best  method  of  accomplishing  this  cur- 
tailment. They  will  also  be  asked  to  advise  the  Fuel 
Administration  as  to  how  to  arrange  these  restrictions 
so  as  to  affect  only  the  less  essential  portions  of  their 
own  business  if  possible. 

When  an  agreement  is  thus  reached  as  to  the  quan- 
tity of  coal  to  be  conserved  in  each  industry,  the  Fuel 
Administration  order  will  be  issued,  making  this  agree- 
ment effective  as  regards  the  total  industry   involved. 

The  voluntary  annual  saving  shown  by  the  first  dozen 
industries  called  into  conference  promises  to  be  between 
fifteen  and  twenty  million  tons.  The  total  offering, 
from  all  nonwar  industries  will  be  between  thirty-six 
and  fifty  million  tons  for  the  year  1918. 

Fuel  needed  in  1918  for  Army  and  Navy  purposes, 
for  munition  works,  for  public  utilities,  for  domestic 
consumers,  and  for  factories  working  on  war  material 
is  scheduled  in  the  budget  for  one  hundred  per  cent,  ful- 
fillment. With  this  figure  and  the  estimated  production 
of  coal  during  1918  as  a  basis,  a  subtraction  shows  the 
amount  of  fuel  left  for  nonwar  industries. 

All  the  large  American  industries  which  have  so  far 
met  with  the  Fuel  Administration  have  shown  a  willing- 
ness to  go  voluntarily  just  as  far  as  necessary  in  cur- 
tailing their  activity.     The  Fuel  Administration  asks 


Jjiiuutry 


li)18 


1'  0  W  E  K 


127 


that  other  industries  affected  pet  in  touch  with  Wash- 
ington without  waiting  for  formal  notice. 

In  the  meantime  the  situation  has  become  so  acute 
that  Fuel  Administrator  (Jarfield  has  ordered  all  manu- 
facturing plants  to  shut  down  immediately  for  five  days, 
and  thereafter  on  every  Monday  up  to  and  including 
March  twenty-fifth.  Certain  exceptions  are  made  in 
favor  of  plants  that  must  be  operated  continuously  seven 
days  a  week,  those  engaged  in  manufacturing  perishable 
foods,  and  printers  and  publishers  of  papers  and  peri- 
odicals ;  also,  fuel  may  be  burned  on  Mondays  to  prevent 
damage  to  property  from  freezing.  The  situation  will 
continue  acute  until  a  sufficient  spell  of  moderate 
weather  uncripples  transportation,  and  the  congestion 
which  hampers  the  movement  of  freight  can  be  relieved. 
All  that  the  individual  can  do  is  to  put  up  good-natured- 
ly with  disarranged  service,  and  save,  save,  SAVE.  Save 
fuel  directly  in  every  possible  way — save  it  by  burning 
fewer  lights,  by  heating  fewer  rooms;  save  it  indirectly 
and  lessen  the  burden  upon  the  transportation  facilities 
by  traveling  as  little  as  possible  and  buying  nothing  that 
you  can  get  along  without ;  for  there  is  nothing  that  does 
not  require  coal  and  transportation  in  its  production 
and  delivery  to  you. 

The  Joliet  Plant 

ON  OTHER  pages  of  this  issue  is  a  description  of  the 
new  Joliet  plant  of  the  Public  Service  Company  of 
northern  Illinois.  Among  stationary  plants  in  this  country 
it  i3  one  of  the»first  to  reach  an  operating  stebm  tempera- 
ture of  six  hundred  and  fifty  degrees.  At  the  Bufi'alo 
General  Electric  plant  recently  placed  in  operation  th« 
steam  temperature  is  six  hundred  and  eighty-nine 
degrees,  obtained  from  a  steam  pressure  of  two  hundred 
and  seventy-five  degrees.  In  the  present  case  the  super- 
heat is  less  by  fifty  degrees  but  the  pressure  is  greater, 
being  three  hundred  pounds  at  the  turbine  and  enough 
higher  at  the  boiler,  to  insure  the  above  density.  It 
is  probable  that  the  boiler  pressure  will  approximate 
three  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds,  the  design  still 
allowing  an  additional  twenty-five  pounds. 

There  appears  to  be  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  choice  of  pressure  or  superheat  in  making  up  the 
total  steam  temperature.  Theoretically,  the  advantage 
is  on  the  side  of  higher  pressures,  but  here  mechanical 
difficulties  place  restrictions.  To  obtain  a  temperature 
range  such  as  exists  in  the  plant  under  discussion,  a 
compromise  is  necessary.  Pressure  up  to  the  present 
mechanical  limits  is  employed  and  c,hen  superheat  to 
increase  the  initial  temperature  and  add  to  the  eflSciency. 
Other  factors  influencing  the  degree  of  superheat  are 
steam  density  and  condensation  during  expansion. 
Superheat  reduces  the  density  and  lessens  friction.  It 
also  tends  to  prevent  liquefaction  in  the  turbine  and 
should  increase  with  the  pressure.  It  is  evident,  then, 
that  pressure  and  superheat  must  go  hand  in  hand,  the 
ratio  to  be  determined  by  existing  conditions  and  the 
results  obtained  from  practice. 

While  little  trouble  is  expected  in  the  turbine,  as 
up  to  a  certain  point  it  is  merely  a  case  of  using 
heavier  construction  at  the  first  stage  and  perhaps 
additional  stages  to  cover  the  wider  range,  it  is  differ- 
ent with  boilers  and  fittings.  At  Joliet  the  limit  in 
pressure  has  been  reached  for  the  standard  design  of 
large  boiler.      Experimental   work    is   being   conducted 


to  develop  boilers  for  the  higher  pressures,  but  some 
time  must  naturally  elapse  before  any  new  design  is 
ready  for  practical  application. 

While  the  arrangement  of  boiler  and  economizer  at 
Joliet  has  been  used  for  several  years  in  some  of  the 
leading  stations  in  Europe,  it  is  new  to  this  country, 
as  is  the  use  of  the  all-steel  horizontal  economizer.  To 
withstand  the  high  pressure,  steel  is  more  reliable  than 
cast  iron,  but  it  is  more  subject  to  corrosion  from  low- 
temperature  Hue  gases.  Galvanizing  the  tubes  should 
neutralize   this    action. 

The  design  of  the  unit  calls  for  height  in  the  building, 
but  not  so  much  as  for  the  individual  detached  vertical- 
tube  economizer  placed  in  the  same  location.  The  above- 
ground  basement  is  another  factor  adding  to  the  height, 
but  this  is  counterbalanced  to  some  extent  by  small 
overhead  bunker  capacity  calling  for  no  additional 
height  and  minimizing  the  steel  requirements.  One 
great  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  the  elimination 
of  ash-handling  equipment.  Another  feature  is  the 
economical  use  of  floor  space.  With  backs  retreating 
to  the  rear  of  the  bridge-wall,  the  boilers  require  less 
than  three-tenths  square  foot  per  nominal  horsepower 
based  on  ten  square  feet  of  heating  surface.  The 
figure  given  omits  the  overhang  at  the  rear. 

No  comprehensive  tests  have  been  conducted  at  the 
plant,  so  that  the  increase  in  efficiency  over  average 
present  practice  is  open  only  to  estimate.  Owing  to 
the  favorable  conditions  it  is  quite  probable  that  the 
over-all  boiler  eflficiency  may  exceed  eighty  per  cent., 
a  gain  of,  say,  five  per  cent,  over  good  average  prac- 
tice. Theoretically,  the  one  hundred  pounds  pressure 
additional  to  that  commonly  employed  in  the  larger 
plants  makes  possible  a  gain  of  between  six  and  seven 
per  cent,  in  the  turbine,  giving  a  steam  consumption 
that  will  compare  favorably  with  the  best  from  the 
largest  units.  It  would  not  be  unreasonable  to  expect 
a  net  production  of  one  kilowatt-hour  on  eighteen  to 
nineteen  thousand  British  thermal  units. 

Against  this  increase  in  economy  must  be  charged 
the  additional  investment.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
boilers  for  this  high  pressure  cost  about  twenty  per 
cent,  more  than  those  designed  for  pressures  close 
to  two  hundred  pounds.  The  piping,  valves  and  fittings 
are  also  more  expensive,  but  small  diameters  help  limit 
the  cost.  An  analysis  of  actual  figures  should  show  a 
net  advantage  to  the  plant  well  worth  while. 


An  appeal  has  been  made  by  the  Machine  Tool  Sec- 
tion of  the  War  Industries  Board,  Council  of  National 
Defense,  to  the  machine-building  industry  to  relinquish 
a  large  number  of  heavy  machine  tools  which  are 
urgently  and  immediately  needed  for  making  heavy 
guns.  There  is  no  time  to  have  them  built.  They  must 
be  taken  from  shops  that  already  have  them  in  use.  To 
their  owners  is  given  the  opportunity  of  doing  some- 
thing for  the  service  of  mankind — something  that  will 
save  thousands  of  lives  and  prevent  hundreds  from  being- 
crippled.  In  modern  warfare  big  guns  are  a  paramount 
necessity.  Without  heavy  artillery  to  clear  the  way,  the 
lo/is  of  life  in  assaulting  columns  runs  up  to  forty  and 
sixty  per  cent.  With  adequate  artillery  preparation  the 
loss  is  reduced  to  three  to  five  per  cent.  The  sacrifice 
asked  is  small  compared  with  that  of  the  thousands  of 
boys  over  there  who  are  making  the  supreme  sacrifice — 
all  they've  got. 


128                                                                                   POWER                                                                Vol.  47,  No.  4 
^iimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimii:iiliiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiniiiiiiuimiiiuiuiJiri iiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiii i i iinu i i iiiiimiiiiiiiujg 


Correspondence 


^IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlnUIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlillllllllllllllllllllllllllll^ 


High  Speed  of  Steam  Turbines 

In  the  Oct.  2  issue  of  Poiver  W.  F.  Shaphorst  dis- 
cusses the  subject  of  high  speed  of  steam  turbines.  I 
have  also  noticed  C.  H.  Watson's  comments  on  the  same 
subject  in  the  issue  of  Nov.  6. 

Mr.  Watson  points  out  that  an  80  per  cent,  overspeed 
test  will  be  highly  objectionable  from  the  designer's 
point  of  view.  In  this  he  is,  of  course,  entirely  correct. 
For  a  given  power  not  only  would  a  more  expensive  and 
a  less  efficient  machine  result,  but  turbines  of  as  high 
power  rating  as  are  now  manufactured  could  hardly  be 
produced  with  any  materials  available  at  the  present 
time. 

Neither  of  the  writers,  however,  seems  to  have  con- 
sidered that  an  80  per  cent,  overspeed  test,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  would  be  far  from  conclusive  evi- 
dence that  the  various  parts  would  be  able  to  withstand 
the  stresses  occasioned  by  such  overspeed  as  the  tur- 
bine may  be  put  to  as  a  result  of  the  failure  of  its 
safety  appliances  to  perform  their  functions.  I  believe 
it  can  safely  be  said  that  75  per  cent,  of  all  the  tur- 
bines manufactured  in  the  United  States  today,  if  un- 
leashed from  the  reins  of  their  speed  regulators  and 
unloaded,  would  assume  a  speed  in  excess  of  180  per 
cent,  of  the  operating  speed. 

As  is  commonly  known,  the  speed  that  a  certain  tur- 
bine will  assume  under  these  conditions  depends  upon 
several  factors.  The  main  factor  is  the  relation  be- 
tween the  steam  and  blade  velocities.  In  the  Rateau 
turbine  this  relation  is,  for  the  best  efficiencies,  com- 
monly taken  as  2.3,  while  the  theoretical  figure  for  small 
nozzle  angles  is  2.  If  the  windage  losses  in  the  turbine 
were  entirely  neglected  and  the  theoretical  figure  used, 
when  the  blade  velocity  had  increased  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  equal  the  steam  velocity  there  would  no  longer  be 
a  force  component  in  the  direction  of  rotation,  and  con- 
sequently the  speed  of  the  turbine  would  be  twice  the 
normal  operating  speed. 

Using  the  practical  figure  of  2.3  and  still  neglecting 
the  windage  losses,  the  overspeed  to  which  the  turbine 
would  be  theoretically  put  would  be  130  per  cent.  How- 
ever, if  the  turbine  has  a  low  horsepower  rating,  the 
windage  losses  for  this  overspeed  will  amount  to  so 
much  that  the  machine  will  be  self-loading  before  it 
reaches  this  point.  It  is  true  that  the  steam  would  im- 
pinge on  the  back  of  the  blades  long  before  this  point 
was  reached,  but  the  blade  losses  as  a  result  of  this 
would  be  only  about  twice  as  great  as  if  the  angle  of 
entrance  into  the  blade  row  were  the  same  number  of 
degrees  smaller  than  the  blade-inlet  angle,  as  it  is 
greater  in  the  present  instance. 

Furthermore,  a  well-designed  Rateau  turbine  has  a 
bucket-entrance  angle  sufficiently  wide  to  take  care  of  a 
steam  velocity  corresponding,  approximately,  to  70  per 
cent,  load,  rather  than  full  load,  without  shock  on  the 
back  of  the  blades.    For  a  Curtis  turbine  with  two  rows 


of  moving  blades,  the  ratio  between  steam  velocity  and 
blade  velocity  would  be  about  4.5,  practically,  and  as  a 
consequence,  the  theoretical  speed  at  which  a  turbine  of 
this  kind  would  be  self-loading  would  be  350  per  cent, 
above  normal.  The  Parsons  turbine  would  theoretically 
become  self-loading  at  100  per  cent,  overspeed.  Here, 
as  well  as  for  the  straight  Rateau  turbine,  it  is  true 
that  windage  and  blade  losses  would  make  the  turbines 
of  ideal  condition  self-loading  long  before  reaching  the 
theoretical  point. 

While  the  foregoing  figures  are  those  for  the  ideal 
conditions,  a  very  small  percentage  of  turbines  are 
manufactured,  in  which  such  relations  between  steam 
and  blade  velocities  actually  exist.  The  figures  are  al- 
most always  greater.  The  reason  for  this,  as  is  easily 
understood,  is  the  fact  that  the  frames  required  to  make 
turbines  commercial  for  small  capacities  will  ordinarily 
be  smaller  than  the  frames  at  which  they  would  give 
their  best  steam  rate. 

While  high  speed  for  steam  turbines  of  larger  type  is 
a  relatively  new  practice,  as  Mr.  Shaphorst  points  out, 
in  the  field  of  small  turbines,  on  the  contrary,  the  last 
decade  has  shown  a  falling  off  in  popularity  of  extreme- 
ly high  speeds.  Instead  of  using  single-stage  units  of 
30,000  to  40,000  r.p.m.,  we  are  now  generally  employing 
5000-  to  7000-r.p.m.  geared  machines,  and  from  1000- 
to  4000-r.p.m.  direct-connected. 

There  is  no  reason  why  a  well-designed  and  intelli- 
gently operated  high-speed  turbine  should  not  be  as 
safe  as  a  lower-speed  machine.  In  some  instances  the 
drive  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  render  unnecessary  any 
governor  or  overspeed  device.  For  instance,  in  case 
of  a  blower  or  fan  the  additional  resistance  experienced 
for  ovenspeeds  is  so  great  as  to  keep  the  unit  from  in- 
creasing its  speed  unless  the  runner  on  the  fan  should 
break  for  some  reason  or  other.  It  would,  therefore, 
generally  be  safe  to  leave  off  all  governor  mechanisms 
for  a  blower  unit. 

With  the  centrifugal  pump  it  is  generally  considered 
allowable  to  leave  off  the  governor  and  run  the  turbine 
with  an  emergency  governor  alone.  This  is  also  true  of 
turbines  used  for  ship  propulsion. 

For  a  generator  unit,  as  Mr.  Watson  points  out,  there 
are  always  supplied  the  main  governor  and  an  emer- 
gency trip  governor,  these  two  safety  devices  being  en- 
tirely independent  of  each  other.  The  main  governor  is 
sometimes  operating  the  steam-admission  valve  directly 
through  a  lever  or  a  linkage,  and  in  some  instances  the 
valve  is  handled  by  oil  or  steam  pressure,  regulated  by 
a  pilot  actuated  by  the  governor.  The  design  of  linkage 
and  pilot-valve  arrangement  offers  opportunities  to 
guard  against  accidents.  For  instance,  if  any  part  of 
a  properly  designed  governor  mechanism  should  break, 
the  valve  should  always  close.  If  the  pilot  spindle  should 
unscrew  or  be  broken  off,  its  motion  should  always  be 
such  as  to  admit  oil  or  steam  on  the  side  of  the  operat- 
ing piston,  which  would  make  the  valve  close.     Further- 


January  22,  1918 


POWER 


129 


more,  a  spring  or  a  small  steam  cylinder  should  be  ar- 
ranged over  the  valve  so  that  in  case  the  oil  pressure 
failed  the  turbine  would  shut  down.  On  low-pressure 
turbines,  operated  at,  say,  2  lb.  back  pressure  and  28  in. 
vacuum,  it  is  generally  considered  good  practice  to  in- 
stall a  vacuum  breaker  actuated  by  an  emergency  gov- 
ernor, in  addition  to  the  trip  valve  in  the  inlet  of  the 
turbine.  In  fact,  the  trip  valve  is  often  left  off  entire- 
ly and  the  vacuum  breaker  depended  on  to  keep  the 
turbine  from  running  away,  and  this  is  generally  safe. 

In  high-speed  turbines  there  are  certain  character- 
istics that  may  give  rise  to  trouble  if  design  is  not 
properly  made.  The  one  most  commonly  talked  of  is  the 
flexibility  of  the  shaft.  As  Mr.  Watson  says,  impulse- 
type  turbines  are  generally  made  to  run  somewhat  above 
their  first  critical  speed.  This  is  also,  I  believe,  a  good 
practice.  A  turbine  rotor  will  generally  run  with  less 
vibration  after  it  has  gone  through  its  first  critical  speed 
than  before  this  point  has  been  passed.  This  is  a  fact 
commonly  known  and  recognized  by  all  turbine  builders, 
and  contraiy  to  Mr.  Watson's  supposition,  the  larger 
of  the  reaction  turbines  for  land  work  also  have  flexible 
spindles  and  run  through  their  first  critical  speed  be- 
fore coming  up  to  operating  speed.  For  marine  tur- 
bines this  condition  is,  of  course,  not  allowable,  since  a 
marine  turbine  will  be  called  upon  to  operate  at  any 
speed  below  its  maximum  running  speed. 

A  turbine  of  any  kind  can  generally  be  made  to 
operate  the  best  between  the  first  and  second  critical 
speeds,  but  if  the  shaft  is  so  flexible  that  the  turbine  is 
allowed  to  pass  through  the  second  critical  speed  before 
reaching  the  operating  speed,  if  these  critical  speeds  do 
not  come  more  than  3000  r.p.m.  apart,  and  unless  the 
turbine  is  in  perfect  balance,  it  is  often  difficult  to  ob- 
tain smooth  running  at  operating  speed. 

The  bearings  for  high-speed  turbines  have  occasioned 
a  certain  amount  of  difficulty  in  the  past,  when  the 
theory  regarding  the  proper  way  of  admitting  the  lu- 
bricant to  the  bearing  was  still  obscure.  The  more  re- 
cent practice  for  high-speed  bearings  is  to  use  only  a 
part  of  the  available  bearing  surface  at  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  bearing  and  use  the  remaining  space  to 
build  up  the  oil  film  under  the  journal.  Bearings  made 
in  this  manner  generally  permit  of  the  use  of  far  higher 
surface  speeds  and  pressure  intensities  than  those  of 
the  older  type.  J.  Y.  Dahlstrand, 

Wellsville,  N.  Y.  Chief  Eng.,  Kerr  Turbine  Co. 

Piston  Packing  Burns  Out 

I  am  up  against  a  puzzling  problem.  We  have  two 
Ideal  engines  9  x  10  in.,  making  205  r.p.m.  with  100 
lb  steam  pressure  and  direct-connected  to  generators. 
They  sometimes  run  for  several  weeks  without  giving 
trouble,  then,  presto !  the  piston  rod  gets  so  hot  that  the 
packing  in  the  box  is  burned  out.  We  use  a  good  grade 
of  cylinder  oil  fed  by  automatic  force-feed  pumps.  The 
packing  is  of  a  good  grade,  costing  $1.50  per  pound, 
and  is  kept  in  A-1  condition.  Sometimes  the  heating 
occurs  shortly  after  repacking  and  at  other  times  not 
for  some  weeks. 

I  have  asked  different  engineers,  including  the  ex- 
perts from  the  engine  shop,  and  no  one  seems  able  to 
explain  the  cause.  Recently,  we  spent  $1000  having 
the  engines  overhauled  and  put  into  good  condition  by 


the  makers,  but  still  the  rod  will  occa.sionally  heat  and 
burn  the  packing.  The  piston  and  rod  are  properly 
centered,  and  the  load  is  never  excessive.  I  have  never 
heard  of  a  similar  case,  but  some  readers  may  have 
been  troubled  in  this  way  and  solved  the  problem. 
Portsmouth,  Ont.,  Canada.  Jamks  E.  Noble. 

Air  Control  for  Tube  Cleaner 

In  removing  scale  from  a  fire-tube  boiler,  we  use 
a  compressed-air  tube  cleaner  that  is  attached  to  a 
14-ft.  length  of  1-in.  pipe.  In  operating  this  cleaner 
it  required  one  man  to  open  and  close  the  air  valve 
every  time  the  cleaner  was  changed  from  one  tube  to 
another.  I  found  an  old  whistle  valve  and  screwed  it 
to  one  end  of  the  tube  cleaner,  attached  the  pipe  to 


Boiler 
Tube 


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■Whisfle 


ifle  Yalve / 


/  Air  Pipe 


■l!.'r,,rn,„,f//rf,^,,T^ 


s 


WHT.STIjK  AAI>VE  ATTArHED  TO  TITBR  CLEANER 

the  valve  and  left  the  valve  on  the  air  line  open.  When 
the  cleaner  enters  the  boiler  tube,  the  lever  on  the 
whistle  bears  against  the  tube  and  opens  the  valve,  thus 
admitting  air  to  the  cleaner.  When  the  cleaner  is 
withdrawn  from  the  tube,  the  spring  closes  the  valve. 
This  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
sketch  and  is  repeated  each  time  the  cleaner  is  pushed 
into  the  tube.  Joseph   McCumber. 

Grinnell,  Iowa. 

Fuel-Saving  Suggestions 

In  Power  of  Dec.  11,  Mr.  Bromley  gives  directions  for 
saving  coal  in  power  plants.  The  article  is  very  good, 
and  with  a  comment  on  the  method  advocated  of  clean- 
ing fires  I  would  give  it  approval.  "Jumping"  ash  and 
clinkers  over  clean  fuel  is  impractical  and  results  after 
hard  work  in  only  half-clean  fires.  It  is  not  done  so  "in 
our  set  this  season."  I  also  believe  Mr.  Bromley  over- 
looked the  great  advantages  of  shaking  grates  in  fur- 
naces. Now,  above  all  times,  it  is  opportune  to  recom- 
mend the  shaking  grate,  as  it  is  without  doubt  a  valuable 
asset  to  fuel  saving. 

The  shaking  grate  is  not  new.  It  was  introduced 
many  years  ago,  and  the  principle  was  recognized  at 
once  as  sound  and  logical.  The  very  desirability  of  some 
such  device  induced  many  makers  to  go  into  the  business 
of  turning  shaking  grates  out  as  fast  as  possible. 

The  result  was  that  many  of  the  grates  were  not 
strong  enough  for  the  hard  usage  encountered  in  many 
of  the  installations,  and  the  shaking  grate  got  a  "black 
eye"  from  which  it  has  not  yet  recovered,  notwithstand- 
ing the  great  improvements  made. 

In  every  instance  where  a  stationary  grate  is  used,  a 
large  saving  of  fuel  would  be  made  if  a  shaking  grate 
were  substituted,  and  I  believe  Mr.  Bromley  will  agree 
that  every  effort  should  be  made  to  induce  engineers  to 
use  all  their  influence  to  have  this  style  installed,  in- 
stead of  the  original  and  old-fashioned  stationary  grate. 

Somerville,  Mass.  John  M.  Coleman. 

["Jumping"  the  fire  was  considered  because  of  the 
very  extensive  use  of  the  stationary  grate.  The  shaking 
grate  is  desirable. — Editor.  | 


130 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


Static  Electricity  from  Gasoline 

The  following  experiment  will  show  that  gasoline  will 
create  enough  electricity  in  flowing  from  a  spigot  to 
ignite  itself.  Insulate  a  can  from  the  ground  and  draw 
gasoline  into  it  from  a  spigot  near  to  but  not  touching 
the  can,  and  the  composition  of  the  gasoline  is  such  that 
it  will  create  static  electricity  in  the  can  and  discharge 
in  sparks  when  it  gets  up  to  the  neck  of  the  can,  so  that 
it  can  jump  across  and  an  explosion  will  occur.  This 
has  happened  in  several  instances,  and  even  if  the  spigot 
is  grounded,  electricity  will  still  be  generated  in  the 
can.  The  only  way  to  prevent  the  explosion  is  to  ground 
the  can  to  carry  it  off. 

This  is  a  new  one  on  me,  and  it  seems  to  be  the  compo- 
sition of  the  gasoline  that  causes  it,  as  other  liquids 
have  been  tried  with  no  such  results.  D.  R.  HiBBS. 

New  York  City. 


Controlling  Smoking  Chimneys 

The  smoke-preventing  system  described  on  page  718 
of  the  Nov.  27  issue  of  Power  is  very  good  for  a  large 
power  plant,  but  it  would  be  rather  expensive  for  a 
small  one.  Following  are  a  couple  of  methods  that 
may  be  employed  to  watch  the  smoke  and  assist  in 
keeping  it  down  to  the  proper  density  and  that  can 
be  used  by  almost  any  plant,  no  matter  how  small. 
Some  of  the  small  plants  have  more  trouble  with  smoke 


& 


^?;;i>>'' 


FIG.    1.     SMOKE  OBSERVATIO.N'    MIRROR    IN   THE   YARD 

than  the  large  ones,  as  they  do  not  have  as  efficient 
methods  of  operation ;  and  there  is  more  complaint  in  a 
small  place,  as  many  of  the  homes  are  owned  by  the 
tenants. 

One  method  of  smoke  observation  is  to  place  a  post 
in  the  boiler-house  yard  with  a  mirror  attached  to  it 
and  set  at  such  an  angle  as  will  enable  the  boiler 
attendant  when  standing  in  the  doorway  (see  Fig.  1) 
to  easily  observe  whether  his  chimney  is  smoking  or 
not.     If  it  is,  he  can  remedy  the  cause. 


The  other  method  can  be  used  only  in  boiler  plants 
in  which  the  chimney  rests  on  the  top  of  the  boiler. 
A  2-in.  pipe  is  put  through  the  stack  at  such  an  angle 
that  the  fireman  can  see  through  it  from  the  floor. 
The  pipe  has  several  large  holes  drilled  through  it 
to  admit  the  smoke,  but  not  large  enough  to  affect  the 


.  ¥^l  ^      -'Urn    >  '""'i 

FIG.   J.     SMOKE  OB.SERV.VTION   PIPE   IN   .STACK 

draft.  An  electric  light  is  hung  at  the  top  end  of 
the  pipe,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  When  the  fireman  looks 
through  the  pipe,  he  can  see  at  a  glance  whether  the 
light  is  clearly  visible  or  not.  The  clearness  with  which 
the  light  can  be  seen,  of  course,  indicates  the  smoke 
condition.  D.  R.   HiBBS. 

New  York  City. 

Unsatisfactory  Plant  Conditions 

When  1  took  charge  of  this  plant,  which  comprises 
three  generating  units  of  medium  size,  I  found  that  the 
governors  on  two  of  them  were  so  badly  corroded  and 
sticky  that  with  the  least  fluctuation  of  steam  pressure 
or  load  they  would  race  badly  or  slow  down.  The  gov- 
ernors were  immediately  cleaned  and  put  in  order,  and 
no  further  trouble  has  ever  developed.  The  smallest 
of  the  three  engines  would  remind  one  more  of  a  trip- 
hammer than  a  steam  engine.  The  former  chief  in- 
formed me  that  the  knock  was  born  in  the  small  unit 
and  that  no  means  could  be  found  to  remove  it,  but  I 
can  truthfully  say  now  that  I  never  saw  a  more  quiet 
running  engine,  and  a  coin  will  stand  on  edge  on  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  engine  and  bedplate. 

A  great  deal  has  been  said  on  the  coal  question,  and 
most  writers  hold  to  the  point  that  the  engineers  are 
the  ones  charged  with  the  saving  of  coal.  To  a  certain 
extent  this  may  be  true,  but  assuming  that  one  has  done 
all  in  one's  power  to  cut  down  on  coal,  such  as  cleaning 
boilers,  stopping  leaks  in  boiler  walls  and  cleaning 
stacks,  and  is  getting  the  best  results  possible  under 
existing  conditions,  but  is  still  burning  more  coal  than 
should  be  consumed,  with  black  smoke  belching  from  the 
chimney  continuously,  and  after  satisfying  oneself  that 


I  a  nil  a  ry  J- 


l!tl8 


I'  ()  W  K  K 


131 


an  investment  of  a  few  hundred  dollars  would  cut  that 
coal  bill,  the  owner  should  refuse  to  make  the  invest- 
ment, what  should  one  do?  I  think  I  know  the  answer 
most  engineers  would  make.  M.  E.  Webber. 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Sandpapering  Brushes 

In  sandpapering  the  brushes  of  modern  motors,  I  have 
found  that,  where  the  brushes  fit  well  in  the  holders, 
it  does  not  make  much  difference  whether  the  sandpaper 
IS  drawn  in  one  direction  only  or  back  and  forth.  In 
up-to-date  machines  the  brushes  usually  make  a  good  fit 
in  the  brush-holders.  In  the  older  machines  the  brushes 
often  fitted  loosely  in  the  holders,  and  then  difficulty  was 
likely  to  be  encountered  unle.»s  the  sandpaper  was  pulled 
only  in  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  machine.  How- 
ever, it  is  safe  always  to  pull  the  sandpaper  in  one  di- 
rection; that  is,  in  the  direction  of  the  rotation  of  the 
machine.  T.  A.  Nash. 

New  York  City. 

Warning  of  Impending  Danger 

Some  readers  of  Power  no  doubt  have  had  experience 
with  flywheel  explosions  and  are  "alive  to  tell  of  them." 
There  surely  must  have  been  some  warning  or  a  series 
of  warning  incidents,  if  properly  interpreted,  preced- 
ing the  explosion.  From  experience  we  recognize  the 
sound  when  valves  "grind"  for  want  of  better  lubrica- 
tion or  when  water  is  heard  in  the  cylinders.  If  all 
strange  sounds  are  immediately  investigated,  there  is  a 
remedy  for  such  things  if  applied  in  time.  While  alone 
on  watch,  I  have  often  wondered  what  incident  would 
occur?  What  sound  would  be  heard  which  would  be  a 
sign  of  impending  disaster — that  the  flywheel  was  on 
the  point  of  rupture?  How  many  readers  could  de- 
scribe the  series  of  events  leading  up  to  a  flywheel  ex- 
plosion? Would  not  such  a  discussion  be  of  great 
value? 

A  young  man  walked  into  our  station  one  night,  in- 
troduced himself  as  an  engineer  and  asked  to  look 
around.  I  showed  him  around,  answering  his  questions 
and  in  turn  asking  some.  We  stopped  in  front  of  the 
300-kw.  unit  which  was  running  at  the  time,  and  he 
asked  if  I  had  had  any  experience  with  flywheel  explo- 
sions. My  answer  was  in  the  negative,  but  in  reply 
to  the  same  question  to  him,  he  said  that  he  had  and 
told  the  following: 

Several  years  previously  he  was  working  in  a  cer- 
tain manufacturing  plant  as  a  sort  of  wiper  and 
making  himself  generally  useful  about  the  place.  There 
were  two  units,  duplicates.  The  flywheel  of  each 
weighed  approximately  14  tons  and  operated  at  100 
r.p.m.  One  day  toward  noon  he  walked  into  the  engine 
room  to  help  fill  cups,  etc.,  during  the  shutdown.  Sud- 
denly a  "whistling"  sound  came  from  the  flywheel — 
something  that  had  never  been  heard  before.  An  old 
timer  at  engineering  urged  an  immediate  shutdown  of 
the  engine  as  a  flywheel  explosion  was  impending.  The 
whistling  increased  while  the  throttle  was  being  closed, 
and  the  men  "scattered  for  the  open  air."  The  whistling 
continued  as  the  engine  gradually  slowed  down,  then 
the  flywheel  suddenly  went  to  pieces;  but  the  damage 


was  comparatively  slight,  for  which  everyone  felt  grate- 
ful to  the  old  timer. 

According  to  the  young  man's  narrative,  then,  if  an 
engineer  heard  a  whistling  or  other  unusual  noise  com- 
ing from  a  revolving  flywheel,  he  would  be  justified  in 
shutting  down  and  investigating.  Anyway,  by  so  doing 
he  would  be  playing  on  the  safe  side.  I  hope  there  will 
be  a  di-scussion  that  will  give  a  clue  in  regard  to  such 
explosions,  and  surely  there  are  many  engineers  who 
will  appreciate  it.  Thomas  M.  Gray. 

Middletown,  N.  Y. 


United  States  Navy  Service  Flag 

With  the  usual  service  flag  there  is  no  way  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  particular  branch  of  service  represented. 
Being  in  the  Naval  service,  I  took  occasion  to  make 
a  service  flag  for  my  own  home  and  decided  that  any- 
body who  should  see  it  would  recognize  the  branch 
of  service  represented.  I  took  a  white  line  and  made 
some  of  the  most  attractive  navy  knots  and  placed  the 
cord  in  a  continuous  line  around  the  white  panel.     A- 


HERVICB  flag  TO   DESIGNATE  THE   SERVICE 

the  top  and  bottom  there  is  a  double  Carrick  bend  and 
on  each  side,  at  equal  intervals,  a  figure-of-eight  and 
a  square  knot.  Since  sending  the  flag  home,  I  have 
heard  that  it  is  considered  not  only  attractive,  but  leaves 
no  doubt  as  to  which  branch  of  the  service  I  am  in. 
New  York  City.  M.  M.  Clkment. 


132 


POWEK 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


Cleaning  Turbo-Alternators 

The  importance  of  keeping  the  windings  and  air 
passages  of  turbo-alternators  free  from  dirt  is  well 
known  and  cannot  be  overstated,  and  it  is  not  a  difficult 
job  with  some  types  of  generators  at  least.  We  use 
compressed  air  through  a  1-in.  iron  pipe,  bent  as  shown 
in  the  illustration,  for  blowing  out  5000-kw.  generators. 


BLOWriPK  FOR   ri.R.W'INi;   CKXRRATOR.'^    AXD    MOTORS 

The  lance  is  long  enough  to  reach  halfway  through  the 
generator,  and  from  the  long-radius  bend  to  the  hose 
connection  is  about  two  feet ;  this  serves  as  a  handle, 
and  it  aLso  indicates  the  direction  of  the  blast  when 
the  lance  is  in  the  generator.  With  the  end  shields 
off  the  generator  the  lance  may  be  inserted  between 
the  field  and  armature,  and  the  powerful  blast  of  air, 
issuing  at  right  angles  to  the  pipe,  blows  through  the 
windings  and  laminations,  effectually  removing  the 
accumulated  dirt.  It  takes  four  men  from  eight  to  ten 
hours  to  do  the  whole  job  and  get  the  machine  ready 
for  service  again.  H.  W.  Morreall. 

Utica,   N.   Y. 

Preventing  Lamps  Burning  Out 

Recently,  1  had  several  flood  lights  to  install  on  a 
220-volt  circuit,  therefore  the  lamps  were  wired  two  in 
series.  After  the  lights  were  put  in  service,  consider- 
able trouble  was  experienced  with  the  lamps  burning 
out,  owing  to  voltage  surges  in  the  line  serving  the 
property. 

I  have  been  able  to  reduce  our  lamp  loss  from  this 
cause  by  connecting,  in  series  in  the  line,  about  a 
thousand  feet  of  No.  8  wire,  leaving  the  wire  in  the  form 
of  a  coil,  which  seems  to  act  as  a  choke  coil.  Since 
doing-  this  I  have  lost  only  two  lamps  in  two  weeks. 
Previous  to  the  installation  of  the  coil  the  loss  was 
two  or  more  every  night.  C.  W.  Young. 

Tulsa,  Okla. 

[The  experience  related  is  no  doubt  a  case  of  oper- 
ating the  lamp  on  too  high  a  voltage.  This  could  have 
been  remedied  by  finding  out  the  correct  voltage  and 
installing  the  proper  lamps. — Editor.] 


Regulation  of  Feed  Pumps 

A  large  number  of  plants  using  steam  heating  or 
drying  coils,  and  draining  the  condensate  and  drips 
back  to  an  open  heater  to  save  the  heat  as  well  as 
the  water  itself,  lose  a  large  part  of  the  returns  through 


the  heater  overflow  because  of  the  limited  storage  space 
and  improper  operation  of  the  feed  pump. 

Frequently,  the  pump  is  speeded  up  and  the  boilers 
filled  with  water  during  times  when  the  volume  of 
returns  is  not  sufficient  to  make  up  the  feed  supply 
and  cold  water  is  automatically  supplied.  The  pump 
is  then  shut  down,  and  the  returns  fill  the  storage  space 
of  the  heater  and  overflow,  cariying  away  valuable 
heat.  The  pump  should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  deliver  the 
return  water  continuously  to  the  boiler  at  the  rate  at 
which  it  is  coming  back,  and  as  a  result  none  will 
be  wasted   at  the   overflow. 

Such  regulation  of  the  feed  pump  in  one  plant  cut 
down  the  use  of  makeup  water  by  one-third  and  gave 
an  even   feed  temperature  of  210  deg.   F. 

Philadelphia,  Penn.  M.  A.  Saller. 

Spanner  Wrench  for  Finished  Shafts 

The  illustration  shows  a  spanner  wrench  for  shafts, 
which  has  proved  so  useful  that  I  want  others  to  know 
of  it.  It  is  made  of  1  x  Uin.  steel,  and  the  same  wrench 
can  be  used  on  shafts  from  one  to  six  inches  in  diameter 
without  damaging  the  keyway.  The  shape  of  the  tool 
is  the  result  of  something  like  two  years'  evolution.  It 
is  christened  the  "Twister"  and  is  used  for  rotating 


WRRNTH  TO  ROT.ATK  A  SHAFT 

(by  hand)  armatures  and  the  like  during  the  process 
of  erection,  repairing  and  inspection,  and  of  course  it 
works  equally  well  on  other  similar  things.  The  need 
of  something  of  the  kind  is  shown  by  the  condition  of 
keyways  on  shafts  so  frequently  found  damaged  by 
the  use  of  monkey  wrenches  and  pipe  wrenches. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  A.  J.  Cahen. 


A  point  about  the  arrangement  of  blowoff'  piping, 
which  is  often  overlooked  and  may  lead  to  a  serious  ac- 
cident, is  failure  to  see  that  the  pipe  system  drains  thor- 
oughly by  gravity  to  the  discharge  point.  A  pipe  that 
remains  partly  filled  with  water,  that  becomes  cold  be- 
tween the  times,  is  likely  to  cause  severe  water-hammer 
that  may  break  the  fittings  and  may  scald  the  operator. 


January  22.  1918                                                          POWER  133 

siiiiiiiiiiiimiimiiimiiiiiiiiiuiiiJiiiiiiiii miiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiimi iiii ii i iiiiiiiiiiiimiiii iiiiiiiiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiii i iiiiiiiiiiiii miiriiiiiiiiiiiiii imiiiiiiiiiiiuuuilililiimiiniiliiii!^ 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  | 

liiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiimiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiMiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiniiiiliiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiriiiuriiiiriiiiiii iirMiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiuiiuiiiiiiiii iiii iiiriiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiriiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMidiiiiiiiiiiiiruiliriiiriiilliiiiii 


Collapsing  vs.  Bursting  Pressure  of  Tubes — Will  a  flue  or 
tube  of  a  boiler  resist  a  greater  internal  or  external  pres- 
sure ?  L.  L.  S. 

On  account  of  the  impossibility  of  consti-ucting  flues  or 
tubes  of  true  circular  form,  or  of  their  maintaining  circular 
form  when  subjected  to  external  pressure,  they  fail  by 
collapsing  from  less  pressure  applied  externally  than  the 
internally  applied  pressure  required  for  bursting  them. 

Theoretically  Maximum  Percentage  of  CO. — What  is  the 
theoretically  maximum  percentage  of  CO.  in  boiler-flue 
gases  resulting  from  complete  combustion  of  a  pound  of 
carbon?  J-  H.  K. 

With  complete  combustion,  and  only  enough  air  present 
to  bum  the  carbon,  the  flue  gas  would  show  only  COa  and 
N.  as  all  of  the  oxygen  would  be  combined  with  the  carbon. 
As  air  consists  by  volume  of  oxygen  0.207  part  and  nitrogen 
0.793  part,  the  flue  gas  would  show  20.7  per  cent,  of  COi 
and  79.3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  because  CO^  occupies  the 
same  volume  as  the  oxygen  from  which  it  is  formed. 

Advantages  of  Subdivided  Steam-Heating  Surfaces — For 

warming  a  room  by  steam  heat,  what  advantages  are  to  be 
obtained  by  employing  two  direct  radiators  in  place  of  one? 

C.  C.  P. 
For  the  same  amount  of  heat  given  out  there  will  be  the 
same  amount  of  steam  required,  but  when  appropriately  lo- 
cated, two  or  more  radiators  may  be  so  placed  as  to  give  more 
uniform  distribution  of  the  heat  throughout  the  space  that 
is  to  be  warmed  and  thereby  elfect  a  saving  by  not  requiring 
overheating  of  a  portion  of  the  space  to  obtain  sufficient 
warmth  throughout  the  whole  space.  Another  advantage 
is  that  with  the  heating  surface  divided  the  amount  of  sur- 
face used  can  be  better  adapted  to  requirements  of  weather. 

Troublesome  Radiator — In  a  low-pressure  two-pipe 
gravity-return  steam-heating  apparatus  fitted  with  direct 
radiators,  one  of  the  radiators  fills  up  with  water  and  will 
not  circulate  properly.     What  would  remedy  the  trouble? 

A.  W.  F. 

The  radiator  may  not  have  large  enough  steam  supply  to 
maintain  sufficient  pressure  for  discharging  the  water 
against  the  pressure  in  the  return  main.  This  trouble  is 
likely  to  occur  when  drips  or  other  radiators  at  a  higher 
level  or  more  active  radiators  on  the  same  level  are  con- 
nected into  the  same  dry  return  line.  If  the  troublesome 
radiator  has  ample  steam  supply,  it  should  be  made  to  re- 
turn as  well  as  others  on  the  same  level  by  giving  it  a 
separate  return  connected  to  the  return  main  well  below 
the  water  line  of  the  boiler. 

Variation  of  I'ower  Required  for  Vacuum  Pump — Is  moi'e 
power  required  for  driving  a  vacuum  pump  with  a  high  or 
a  low  vacuum  ?  T.  C.  E. 

The  energy  required  depends  on, the  net  pressure  or  dif- 
ference of  pressure  on  each  side  of  the  piston.  Hence  with 
a  single-acting  air  pump  or  any  type  of  vacuum  pump  work- 
ing at  constant  speed  against  atmospheric  pressure,  the 
higher  the  vacuum  the  greater  the  power  required  for  its 
operation.  But  with  a  double-acting  vacuum  pump,  oper- 
ated at  constant  speed,  the  higher  the  vacuum  the  less  the 
power  required,  as  the  average  pressure  on  the  discharging 
side  becomes  less  the  higher  the  vacuum  in  the  condenser. 
With  a  perfect  vacuum  the  difference  of  pressure  would  be 
0  and  the  power  required  for  operation  of  the  pump  would 
be  only  that  required  for  overcoming  friction. 

"Lead"  cr  Clearance  of  Large  Bearings — What  is  a  prac- 
tical method  of  determining  the  setting  that  .diould  be  given 
to  the  boxes  of  a  large  crankshaft?  P.  M.  P. 

For  stationary  engines  the  amount  of  "lead."  or  radial 
clearance,  is  commonly  adjusted  by  setting  the  capscrews 


or  nuts  down  hard  and  then  backing  them  off  such  a  fi'ac- 
tion  of  one  turn  as  to  permit  a  clearance  between  the 
journal  and  bearing  that  has  been  determined  to  be  suitable 
for  the  special  conditions.  For  large  bearings  having  good 
working  surfaces,  radial  clearance  of  0.008  to  about  0.014 
in.  usually  will  be  found  satisfactory.  The  actual  amount 
of  clearance  obtained  by  "setting  down  hard  and  backing 
ofl"'  may  be  approximately  estimated  by  multiplying  the 
pitch  of  the  screw  threads  by  the  fi-action  of  a  complete 
turn  backed  off";  thus  with  screws  having  7  threads  per  inch, 
backed  off  "one-half  of  one  flat"  of  a  hexagonal  nut  or  bolt 
head,  or  Vu  of  a  complete  turn,  the  approximate  clearance 
would  be  '/,  X   Vn  =   '/«,,  or  about  0.012  in. 

Check  Marks  on  Drawings — What  are  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  leaving  check  marks  on  mechanical  draw- 
ings? J.  A.  P. 

The  purposes  of  mechanical  drawings  are  better  served 
by  omission  of  any  lines  or  markings  that  do  not  add  to  ex- 
actness of  interpretation.  There  can  be  no  objection,  how- 
ever, in  leaving  check  marks  on  private  copies  of  drawings 
m  hands  of  the  makers  as  information  for  what  it  may  be 
worth,  to  indicate  that  the  dimensions  or  other  features 
check-mai-ked  have  been  criticized  or  have  received  special 
consideration.  But  the  presence  of  such  marks  detracts 
from  general  clearness  of  representation  and  from  concen- 
tration of  the  reader,  and  it  is  better  to  omit  them  from 
drawings  intended  only  to  impart  infomiation  of  design  or 
construction,  unless  the  marks  are  used  sparingly  and  for 
attracting  special  attention. 

Computing  Power  of  Compound  Engine — What  is  the 
formula  for  computing  the  indicated  horsepower  of  a  com- 
pound engine?  R.  D.  B. 

The  power  developed  in  each  cylinder  may  be  estimated 
separately  as  a  simple  engine  bv  the  usual  formula 

PLAN 

'.hp.  = 

33,000 
in  which 

P  ■--  Mean  effective  pressure,  lb.  per  square  inch; 
L  =  Length  of  stroke,  in  feet; 
A  =  Area  of  piston  in  square  inches; 
N  =  Number  of  single  strokes  per  minute. 
Then,  adding  together  the  number  of  indicated  horsepower 
for  each  cylinder  gives  the  total  power  developed. 

When,  as  is  generally  the  case,  there  is  the  same  length  and 
number  of  strokes  in  each  cylinder,  a  more  convenient  meth- 
od of  computing  the  gross  power  of  the  engine  is  to  assume 
that  the  m.e.p.  of  both  cylinders  are  combined  and  referred 
to  one  of  the  cylinders  (as  the  low-pressure  cylinder)  and 
assume  that  the  whole  power  is  developed  in  the  cylinder 
thus  referred  to.  If  d  =  diameter  of  the  high-pressure 
cylinder.  D  =  diameter  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder.  M  = 
m.e.p.  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  m  =  m.e.p.  of  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder,  then  the  m.e.p.  of  the  high-pressure  cyl- 
inder referred  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  would  be  M  X 
d"  -=-   D';  the  combined  m.e.p.  referred  to  the  low-pressure 

cylinder  would  be  — — •   -f-    »i,  and  the  gross  power  of  the 

engine  would  be  given  by  the  formula 

/Md- 

,1.           ^  D" 
I.hp.  =    


-l-w  )  X  L  X  0.7854D=  X  N 


.33.000 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  oflice  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention. — 
Editor.l 


134 


FU  W  EK 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


Effects  of  War  Conditions  on  Cost 
of  Electric  Service 

Owing  to  the  number  of  requests  for  regular  institute 
meetings  by  the  different  sections  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Electrical  Engineers,  it  was  decided  to  hold  intersectional 
meetings,  in  which  nearly  simultaneous  sessions  are  held  in 
two  or  more  cities,  to  consider  the  same  papers.  In  accoi-d- 
ance  with  this  plan  the  336th  meeting  of  the  institute  was 
held  in  Boston,  Jan.  8;  in  New  York  City,  at  the  Engineering 
Societies  Building,  Jan.  11,  and  in  Chicago,  Jan.  14.  The 
same  paper  was  presented  and  discussed  at  all  three  places. 

The  success  of  these  meetings,  especially  at  this  time, 
when  the  engineers  of  the  country  are  ovei-taxed  with  the 
duties  involved  as  an  outcome  of  the  war,  thoroughly  justi- 
fies these  intersectional  meetings.  A  record  number  was  in 
attendance  at  all  three  meetings.  One  paper,  "Effects  of 
War  Conditions  on  Cost  and  Quality  of  Electric  Service," 
by  Lynn  S.  Goodman  and  William  B.  Jackson,  was  pre- 
sented at  all  three  meetings.  Mr.  Jackson  presented  the 
paper  at  Boston  and  New  York.  I.  M.  Cushing,  secretary 
of  the  Boston  section,  presided  at  the  Boston  meeting,  and 
President  E.  W.  Rice  at  New  York  City. 

Mr.  Jackson,  as  an  introductory  to  the  presentation  of 
the  paper  in  New  York,  gave  a  brief  outline  of  the  war  sit- 
uation for  the  past  year,  pointing  out  that  when  viewed  in 
a  nan-ow  way  the  outlook  was  not  very  promising,  but 
viewed  with  a  broad  range  of  vision  the  outlook  for  the 
United  States  and  her  allies  could  be  nothing  else  but  op- 
timistic, and  that  the  outcome  would  be  of  material  benefit 
to  this  country.  Likewise  in  the  power  industry,  when 
viewed  in  a  small  way,  the  outlook  creates  pessimism,  but 
when  considered  from  the  larger  angle  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  the  situation  will  be  successfully  met. 

The  paper  deals  more  particularly  with  the  effect  of  war 
conditions  upon  electric-light  and  power  service,  but  the 
principles  relate  in  their  broad  application  to  every  kind  of 
public-utility  service. 

Directions  in  Which  the  Effects  Appear 

The  principal  directions  in  which  the  effects  of  war  condi- 
tions on  electric  sei-vice  appear  are: 

1.  In  relation  to  operating:  (a)  In  increased  salaries  and 
wages  paid  for  operating;  (b)  in  diificulty  of  retaining 
trained  operatives  and,  conversely,  the  need  to  operate  with 
partly  trained  forces;  (c)  in  increased  cost  and  difficulty 
of  obtaining  fuel  and  in  reduction  of  its  uniformity  and 
quality;  (d)  in  increased  cost  of  other  supplies  and  materials 
for  operation  and  maintenance;  (e)  in  the  need  for  protect- 
ing the  properties  against  enemy  agents;  (f)  in  increased 
taxes;  (g)  in  possible  decrease  of  consumption  of  electric 
power  by  ordinai-y  customers;  (h)  in  possible  changes  of 
load  factor. 

2.  In  relation  to  extensions  of  plant:  (a)  In  the  necessity 
in  many  cases  for  quickly  caring  for  large  accessions  of 
permanent  and  temporary  business;  (b)  in  increased  cost 
over  noiTiial  for  plant  required  to  care  for  additional  bus- 
iness; (c)  in  high  cost  for  money  and  difficulty  of  obtaining 
it  at  any  rate  considered  reasonable  in  normal  times;  (d) 
in  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  equipment  in  reasonable  times 
of  delivery. 

The  effects  of  the  war  conditions  are  being  manifested 
not  only  in  the  matter  of  heavy  increases  in  operating  costs, 
but  also  in  the  matter  of  extraordinary  increases  in  cost  for 
new  plant  required  to  care  for  added  business.  These  con- 
ditions have  already  increased  the  operating  expenses  of 
the  electric  companies  of  this  country  to  the  extent  of  over 
$116,000,000  per  year,  as  hereafter  shown.  This  points  to 
the  necessity  of  readjustment  to  the  new  conditions  without 
delay,  while  at  the  same  time  requiring  readjustment  to 
abnormal  labor  conditions. 

An  analysis  of  the  United  States  Census  statistics  shows 
that  the  increase  in  the  average  wages  paid  per  employee 
(exclusive  of  general  officers,  managers  and  superintend- 
ents) during  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1912  was  11  per 
cent.  During  the  war  period  thus  far,  salaries  of  officers, 
managers  and  general  superintendents  have  in  general  not 
greatly  increased,  but  Increases  In  wages  in  the  operating 


departments  have  ranged  from  15  to  50  per  cent.,  and  it  is 
the  opinion  that  25  per  cent,  may  be  taken  as  the  average 
increase  thus  far  occasioned  by  the  war. 

Under  normal  grovrth  from  1912,  at  the  rate  indicated  by 
the  growth  during  the  previous  ten  years,  we  find  that  the 
salary  and  wage  disbursements  of  electric  companies  in  the 
year  1917,  had  there  been  no  unusual  disturbance,  should 
have  amounted  to  $90,000,000,  of  which  one-seventh  would 
have  been  for  general  officers',  managers'  and  superintend- 
ents' salaries  and  six-sevenths  for  wages.  From  this  it  is 
seen  that  the  increase  in  wages  of  25  per  cent,  means  an 
outlay  on  the  part  of  the  electric  companies  of  $19,000,000 
for  the  year. 

Increased  Fuel  Cost  to  Electric  Companies 

Estimates  based  upon  the  United  States  Census  reports 
show  that  the  fuel  cost  for  all  the  electric  companies  in  the 
United  States  would  have  reached  $50,000,000  for  the  year 
1917,  under  normal  conditions  of  the  country,  and  would 
have  amounted  to  about  60  to  65  per  cent,  of  the  normal 
generating  expense.  Definite  information  as  to  the  amount 
of  increase  in  fuel  cost  for  the  whole  counti'y  is  not  avail- 
able, but  from  infonnation  obtained  from  various  sections 
of  the  country  the  conclusion  is  an-ived  at  that  the  average 
cost  per  ton  of  coal  to  electric  companies  has  increased  a 
little  more  than  100  per  cent,  on  account  of  war  conditions, 
and  that  100  per  cent,  is  not  far  from  correct.  On  this  basis 
the  increase  in  total  cost  due  to  the  enhanced  price  per  ton 
of  fuel  is  $50,000,000.  A  consei-vative  figure  for  the  in- 
crease in  tonnage  due  to  lower  quality  and  non-uniformity 
of  grade  is  10  per  cent.,  which  i..eans  an  added  increase  of 
$10,000,000,  making'  the  total  increase  $60,000,000. 

An  estimate  of  the  output  from  steam-driven  electric 
central  stations  which  might  have  been  expected  for  1917 
under  normal  conditions  shows  13,000,000,000  kw.-hr.,  and 
an  average  requirement  of  three  pounds  of  coal  per  kilo- 
watt-hour of  output  shows  that  the  fuel  requirements 
would  amount  to  not  over  20,000,000  net  tons,  which  is  ap- 
proximately 3  per  cent,  of  the  estimated  output  from  the 
mines  for  1917.  It  is  thus  seen  that  a  relatively  large 
resei-ve  supply  of  coal  in  the  hands  of  every  electric  com- 
pany would  tie  up  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  coal  supply 
of  the  country  and  this  supply  would  be  widely  distributed 
and  to  a  certain  extent  would  be  in  proportion  to  the  popu- 
lations and  industrial  impoi-tance  of  the  several  sections  of 
the  country. 

The  indications  are  that  the  cost  of  materials  and  sup- 
plies other  than  fuel,  which  is  estimated  as  a  little  over  15 
per  cent,  of  the  total  operating  expense,  has  increased  as 
much  as  75  per  cent.  Such  an  advance  in  this  expense 
means  an  increase  in  expenditures  in  the  neighborhood  of 
$30,000,000. 

Increased  Taxes  Paid  by  Electric  Companies 
Estimates  based  on  the  United  States  Census  retunis  in- 
dicate that  the  1917  taxes  paid  by  electric  companies  might 
noi-mally  have  reached  $25,000,000.  The  proportion  of 
gross  revenue  required  for  taxes  has  apparently  been  in- 
creasing year  by  year,  having  been  slightly  over  3  per  cent, 
in  1902,  a  little  over  3.5  per  cent,  in  1907,  and  nearly  4.5 
per  cent,  in  1912.  An  estimate  of  the  amount  of  the  ex- 
pense which  may  be  expected  to  be  added  to  the  cost  of 
electric  sei-vice  throughout  the  counti-y  from  increased 
taxes  is  difficult  of  determination,  but  we  may  hazard  a 
guess  that  the  increase  over  noniial  expense  will  lie  between 
$5,000,000  and  $10,000,000  for  the  year  1917. 

Summing  up  the  foregoing  amounts  shows  that  the  extra 
expenses  now  imposed  on  the  electric  companies  on  account 
of  war  conditions  amounts  to  the  immense  aggregate  per 
year,  as  follows: 

Increased  salai-ie.'<  and  wages  chargeable  to  operating  $19.00U.OOI) 

Increased  cost  of  fuel 60,000.000 

Increased  cost  of  other  materials  and  supplies 30.000.000 

Increased  taxes   7„^00,000 

$116,500,000 

This  amounts  to  a  quarter  of  the  normal  estimated  gross 
revenue  for  1917  of  all  the  electric  companies,  and  it  wipes 
out  two-thirds  of  the  sum  that  would  have  been  available 
for   interest,   dividends   and    surplus.      It  doc   not  include 


Januao'  22.  1918 


135 


additional  expenses  caused  by  the  difficulty  of  retaininir 
trained  operatives  ami  the  cost  of  protecting  the  properties 
against  malicious  interference,  the  maRnitude  of  which  we 
are  unable  to  estimate.  It  puts  the  electric  companies  in  a 
critical  position,  which  is  rendered  more  ominous  by  the 
impossibility  of  foretelling  how  much  larger  these  extra 
expenses  may  become  in  future  months. 

Effect  of  War  Prices  on  Power  Industry 

The  effect  of  war  prices  on  the  electric-liKht  and  power 
business  may  be  shown  in  the  aK'K'"6,i^ate.  The  United  States 
Census  of  central  stations  shows  that  the  total  revenue 
received  from  operation  and  other  sources  by  all  central 
electric-Iifjht  and  power  systems  (including  both  hydraulic 
and  steam  stations)  in  1912  was  in  round  fiKures  $302,000,- 
000  and  the  total  operating  expenses,  includin.g  taxes  and 
renewals  and  replacement  expense,  but  not  including  in- 
terest on  debt,  was  $184, .500,000.  leaving  a  total  income  of 
$117,500,000.  The  reported  cost  of  construction  and  equip- 
ment was  $2,176,000,000.  Extension  of  these  totals  to  the 
year  1917  shows  that  under  normal  growth  the  total  rev- 
enues in  1917  would  have  reached  $475,000,000  and  the 
operating  expenses,  including  taxes  and  renewals  and  re- 
placement expense,  would  have  reached  $290,000,000,  mak- 
ing the  total  income  before  deducting  interest  on  debt, 
$185,000,000.  Estimating  the  reported  cost  for  construction 
and  equipment  would  have  grown  to  $3,500,000,000,  an 
increase  of  60  per  cent,  in  five  years,  the  income  mentioned 
would  represent  5.3  per  cent,  of  this  cost  of  construction 
and  equipment.  If  no  other  factors  entered  into  the  prob- 
lem besides  increases  in  cost  of  operation,  and  assuming 
these  increases  effective  over  the  whole  year,  the  fuel  ex- 
pense, as  before  pointed  out,  would  increase  $60,000,000  for 
1917,  other  supplies  $30,000,000,  labor  expense  $19,000,000 
and  taxes  $7,500,000,  representing  an  aggregate  increase  of 
operating  expenses  for  these  items  of  $116,500,000.  This  is 
an  increase  of  40  per  cent,  in  operating  expenses,  and  it 
reduces  the  divisible  income  to  $68,500,000,  which  amount 
is  equivalent  to  less  than  2  per  cent,  on  the  cost  of  con- 
struction and  equipment.  This  percentage  is  still  lower  in 
the  case  of  the  steam-electric  systems  of  the  country  taken 
alone,  and  additional  expenses  for  training  new  employees 
and  the  lowered  efficiency  of  such  employees,  the  cost  of 
special  policing,  etc.,  reduce  the  amount  still  further. 

What  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  foregoing  regarding  the 
effect  of  war  conditions  on  'centi-al-station  electric  service 
is  also  applicable  to  the  cost  of  power  produced  by  private 
power  plants.  The  immensity  of  this  field  is  seen  by  refer- 
ence to  the  United  States  Census  of  Manufacturers  for 
1914,  in  which  the  total  primary  power  reported  as  used  in 
this  field  aggregated  22,500,000  hp.  (exclusive  of  isolated 
electric  plants  for  office  buildings,  hotels,  etc.),  of  which 
15,700,000  hp.  was  comprised  of  steam-driven  equipment 
and  only  3,900,000  hp.  was  in  the  form  of  purchased  electric 
power.  The  central-station  steam  and  water-driven  electric 
generating  capacity  in  1912  was  only  7,500,000  hp.,  with  a 
probable  9,000,000  hp.  in   1914. 

Powins  Output  of  Industrial  Plants 

Considering  the  output  of  power  by  the  industrial  plants 
using  steam  power,  which  do  not  now  purchase  electric 
current,  estimated  on  the  basis  of  the  capacity  of  equipment 
as  reported  for  1914,  operating  at  the  equivalent  of  full  load 
for  a  sixth  of  the  time,  the  total  horsepower  output  would 
amount  to  23,000,000,000  hp.-hr.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  at 
least  three-quarters  of  this  is  such  that  the  exhaust  steam 
cannot  be  effectively  used  for  heating  purposes  and  there 
would  be  a  possible  saving  of  at  least  1.5  lb.  of  coal  per 
horsepower-hour  through  service  of  this  three-quarters  from 
central  steam-driven  electric  stations,  making  a  total  saving 
in  fuel  of  13,000,000  tons  of  coal  per  year  under  the  indus- 
trial plant  output  for  the  year  1914.  The  saving  would  be 
much  gi-eater  when  considering  only  the  more  modem  and 
economical  central  stations.  The  same  considerations  apply 
to  the  field  of  isolated  building  and  hotel  electric  plants 
where  conservation  of  coal  amounting  to  millions  of  tons 
could  unquestionably  be  effected. 

The  result  of  the  increased  cost  of  producing  electric 
power    in    England,    and    also    the    curtailment    of    certain 


classes  of  service  not  yet  experienced  in  this  country,  has 
been  quite  a  universal  increase  in  rates,  in  some  cases  flat 
percentage  increases  of  the  same  amount  for  light  and 
power,  in  other  cases  differing  percentage  increases  for 
light  and  power,  and  in  still  others  increases  depending  upon 
changes  in  cost  of  fuel.  These  flat  percentage  increases 
have  varied  from  less  than  10  per  cent,  to  as  high  as  50 
per  cent,  over  the  rates  in  effect  prior  to  the  war,  Londor. 
rates  having  been  increased  50  per  cent.,  according  to  the 
London  Electrical  Review. 

The  authors  in  the  paper  also  point  out  that  the  eco- 
nomical central  power-generating  station  is  the  proper 
medium  for  the  supply  of  the  large-power  requirements 
arising  on  account  of  the  war,  and  the  many  advantages 
of  this  means  of  producing  and  distributing  power.  These 
advantages,  they  say,  are  so  large  that  it  is  advisable  for 
the  Government  to  use  every  reasonable  means  to  encourage 
the  central-station  companies  and  discourage  individual 
power  plants  during  the  period  of  the  war.  Certain  oper- 
ating economies  and  changes  which  might  be  adopted  by 
the  central-station  companies,  if  forced  to  it  by  war  condi- 
tions, are  also  considered. 

The  paper  brought  forth  a  vast  amount  of  discussion. 
Among  the  opinions  expressed  was  that  when  the  exhaust 
steam  could  be  used  for  heating  and  manufacturing  pur- 
poses, power  could  be  produced  just  as  cheaply,  in  the  iso- 
lated plant,  if  not  at  less  cost,  as  in  the  central  station. 

H.  M.  Hobart,  who  had  recently  returned  from  England, 
called  attention  to  the  50  per  cent,  increase  in  the  rates  for 
electric  service  in  London  being  an  exceptional  case,  as  it 
was  doubtful  if  there  had  been  any  increase  in  the  rates  in 
many  localities  in  that  country.  He  also  pointed  out  that 
the  increased  cost  of  each  item  entering  into  the  production 
of  power  should  not  be  considered  as  directly  affecting  the 
cost  of  power,  since  the  output  of  the  central  station  has 
also  greatly  increased. 

The  pooling  of  power  of  both  central  and  private  plants, 
and  if  necessary  the  commandeering  of  private  plants,  was 
suggested  as  a  means  to  help  supply  power  to  the  essenti- 
industries  for  caiTying  on  the  war. 

In  Re  Proposed  Water-Power 
Legislation 

"Joint  letter"  from  the  Secretary  ot  War,  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  and  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  addre.s.sed  to  the  President, 
rpKarding  the  proposed  water-power  bill. 

My  Dear  Mr.  President:  We  transmit  herewith  for  your 
consideration  draft  of  a  proposed  bill  for  the  development 
of  the  water  powers  of  the  United  States  upon  navigable 
streams,  pubhc  lands  and  national  forests.  The  measure 
was  prepared  under  our  direction  by  members  of  our  depart- 
ments who  have  had  most  to  do  with  the  water-power 
problem,  and  we  believe  it  will  be  likely  to  secure  extensive 
development  of  this  resource,  with  due  regard  to  the  public 
interests  as  well  as  those  of  the  developers. 

It  embodies  the  fundamental  principles  of  several  bills 
now  pending  in  Congress,  and  an  effoi-t  has  been  made  to 
avoid  or  cure  their  defects.  The  principal  features  of  the 
proposed  bill  are  as  follows: 

Administration 

By  a  commission  composed  of  the  Secretaries  of  War. 
Interior  and  Agriculture. 

The  Shields  bill  (navigable  waters),  bv  the  Secretary  of 
War. 

The  Ferris  bill  (public  lands),  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior. 

Period  of  Lease 

The  bill  proposes  to  lease  the  water-power  privilege  for 
a  period  of  not  exceeding  50  years.  At  the  end  of  that 
time  the  project  may  be  (a)  taken  over  by  the  United 
States;  (b)  re-leased  to  the  original  lessee;  (c)  leased  to  a 
new  lessee. 

The  Ferris  and  Shields  bills  also  provide  for  leasehold 
periods  of  not  exceeding  50  yeai'S. 

The  attached  bill  proposes  that  at  the  end  of  the  leasehold 
period  the  project  may  be  taken  over  as  follows:  All  prop- 


136 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


erty  owned  and  held  by  the  licensee  then  valuable  and  sei-v- 
iceable  in  the  development  or  distribution  of  power,  together 
with  any  locks  or  other  aids  to  navigation  constructed  by 
the  lessee,  upon  payment  of  "the  fair  value,  not  to  exceed 
actual  cost  of  the  property  taken,  plus  such  reasonable  sev- 
erance damages,  if  any,  as  may  be  caused  by  the  separation 
of  said  property  from  property  valuable,  serviceable  and 
dependent  as  above  set  forth,  but  not  taken,"  such  value 
not  to  include  any  rights  granted  by  the  United  States, 
good  will,  going  value  or  prospective  revenues.  Further, 
the  values  allowed  are  not  to  exceed  the  actual  reasonable 
cost  of  the  property  at  the  date  of  its  acquisition  by  the 
lessee. 

The  Ferris  bill  provides  that  the  United  States  may  take 
over  at  the  end  of  the  leasehold  period  all  property  in  the 
project  to  the  point  of  distribution,  upon  payment  of  actual 
cost  of  water  rights,  lands  and  interests  therein,  and  the 
reasonable  value  of  all  other  property  taken  over,  but  not 
including  franchise  value,  good  will  or  other  intangible 
elements. 

The  Shields  bill  provides  that  the  United  States  may  take 
over  all  the  property  of  the  grantee  which  constitutes  part 
of  the  plant  or  is  dependent  in  whole  or  in  part  upon  it, 
upon  paying  to  the  grantee  just  compensation  for  said  prop- 
erty, together  with  the  cost  to  the  grantee  of  the  locks  or 
other  aids  to  navigation,  no  value  being  allowed  for  the 
rights  granted  by  the  United  States  for  good  will  or  antici- 
pated profits. 

Regulation  of  Service  and  Charges 

The  attached  bill  provides  for  regulation  by  the  Federal 
Water-Power  Commission  of  interstate  power;  also  of  power 
in  any  states  where  no  state  regulation  is  had.  Intrastate 
power  is  to  be  regulated  by  state  utility  commissions,  where 
same  exist. 

The   Ferris   bill   provides   for   regulation   of   service   and 
charges  and  of  stock  and  bond  issues  where  there  is  inter- 
"  state  transmission  or  in  states   having   no  commission   by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

The  Shields  bill  provides  for  the  regulation  of  interstate 
power  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  other  power 
developed  to  be  regulated  by  the  state  in  which  the  service 
is  rendered.  No  provision  is  made  for  control  m  those 
states  where  there  is  no  public-service  commissio 

Charges 

The  bill  proposes  that  the  lessee  must  pay  the  United 
States  reasonable  annual  charges,  to  be  fixed  by  the  water- 
power  commission  and  specified  in  the  lease,  in  no  case  to 
be  less  than  10  cents  per  horsepower  per  annum.  No  maxi- 
mum is  fixed.  Where  the  lessee  builds,  maintains  and 
operates  locks  or  other  aids  to  navigation,  the  commission 
may  take  that  fact  into  consideration  in  fixing  charges,  also 
assessing  against  the  lessee  any  benefits  he  may  obtain 
from  the  construction,  operation  and  maintenance  by  the 
United  States  of  headwater  improvements  or  navigation 
structures. 

The  FeiTis  bill  provides  that  annual  charges,  measm-ed 
by  the  power  developed,  shall  be  collected. 

The  Shields  bill  provides  that  payment  shall  be  made  for 
any  lands  of  the  United  States  used  or  occupied  by  the 
lessee,  the  charges  to  be  based  on  the  value  of  the  lands  as 
fixed  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  his  discretion  being  limited 
by  the  requirement  that  the  value  must  be  ascertained  by 
the  rules  in  force  in  the  state  where  the  lands  are  located 
in  proceedings  where  private  property  is  sought  to  be  taken 
for  a  public  use.  It  also  requires  that  the  grantee  shall  pay 
the  United  States  reasonable  charges  in  consideration  of 
the  construction,  operation  and  maintenance  by  the  United 
States  of  headwater  improvements. 

Disposition  of  Receipts 
The  attached  bill  provides  that  all  receipts  shall  be  placed 
in  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States;  that  50  per  cent,  of 
the  proceeds  from  national  forests  be  expended  in  construc- 
tion of  roads  therein;  that  50  per  cent,  of  receipts  from 
public  lands  be  placed  in  the  reclamation  fund;  that  50  per 
cent,  of  receipts  from  navigable  streams  be  expended  in  the 
maintenance  and  operation  of  dams  and  other  navigation 
structures  of  the  United  States;  and  that  all  proceeds  from 


Indian   reservations    shall   be   placed   to   the   credit   of   the 
Indians. 

The  Ferris  bill  provides  that  all  receipts  from  publu 
lands  shall  be  placed  in  the  reclamation  fund,  and  upon 
return  to  that  fund,  be  divided  equally  between  the  United 
States  and  the  states  in  which  the  development  occurred. 

The  Shields  bill  provides  that  proceeds  shall  be  set  aside 
as  a  special  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  dams  and  head- 
water improvements. 

We  believe  that  some  such  legislation  as  is  here  proposed, 
if  enacted,  would  mean  the  early  development  of  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  our  water-power  resources,  with  a  result- 
ant saving  in  fuel  and  a  considerable  lessening  of  the  present 
demand  on  our  transportation  facilities  caused  by  the 
moving  of  coal  and  other  heavy  fuels. 
Cordially  yours, 

Newton  D.  Baker. 
Franklin  K.  Lane. 
D.  F.  Houston. 
The  President, 

The  White  House. 

Interpretations  oy  the  Boiler  Code 
Committee 

Following  are  the  most  recent  intei-pretations  by  the 
Boiler  Code  Committee: 

Case  No.  177 — Inquiry:  Is  the  type  of  removable  dome 
as  shown  in  Fig.  13  of  the  Code  for  use  on  horizontal 
return-tubular  boilers  permissible  under  the  i-ules  of  the 
Boiler  Code,  or  is  it  necessary  that  this  dome  be  attached 
direct  to  the  shell  with  a  double-riveted  flange  for  pres- 
sures over   100  lb.  ? 

Reply:  The  construction  shown  in  Fig.  13  is  considered 
as  a  steam-boiler  dram  and  not  a  boiler  dome,  and  there- 
fore does  not  come  under  Par.  194  of  the  Boiler  Code. 

Case  No.  178 — Inquiry:  An  interpretation  is  requested 
of  the  application  of  Par.  253  to  the  drilling  of  rivet  holes 
in  crowfoot  braces.  Is  it  permissible  to  punch  holes  in 
the  shell  full  size  where  the  brace  is  fastened  thereto? 

Reply:  It  has  been  proposed  to  revise  Par.  253  to  read 
as  follows: 

253.  Drilling  of  Holes.  All  rivet  and  stay-bolt  holes, 
and  holes  in  braces  and  lugs,  shall  be  drilled  full  size  or 
they  may  be  punched  not  to  exceeed  M  in.  less  than  full 
diameter  for  material  over  i'.  in.  in  thickness,  and  Vs  in. 
less  than  full  diameter  for  material  not  exceeding  li  in.  in 
thickness,  and  then  drilled  or  reamed  to  full  diameter. 

Case  No.  179 — Inquii-y:  In  the  use  of  steel  castings  for 
the  construction  of  locomotive  boilers,  what  class  of  cast- 
ings shall  be  used  under  the  specifications  for  steel  cast- 
ings given  in  the  Boiler  Code? 

Reply:  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  committee  that  unless 
the  Code  specifically  distinguishes  between  Class  A  and 
Class  B,  either  class  is  permissible. 

Case  No.  180 — Inquiry:  Is  it  pemiissible  when  calculat- 
ing the  maximum  allowable  pressure  on  a  furnace  of  a 
vertical  tubular  boiler,  that  is  stay-bolted  and  less  than 
38  in.  in  diameter,  to  determine  the  pressure  that  would 
be  allowed  under  Par.  239  for  a  plain  furnace,  then  add 
the  pressure  which  would  be  allowed  according  to  Par.  199 
for  the  supporting  value  of  stay-bolts  ? 

Reply:  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  committee  that  individual 
cases  and  specific  diameters  of  furnaces  could  be  calcu- 
lated either  by  Par.  199  or  Par.  239;  that  is,  the  maximum 
allowable  working  pressure  cannot  be  determined  by  a 
combination  of  the  two  paragraphs. 

The  A.  S.  M.  E.  Boiler  Code  is  at  present  under  revision 
and  the  committee  will  be  glad  to  consider  any  construc- 
tive suggestions. 

The  following  is  from  a  reply  to  a  communication  from 
the  Erie  City  Iron  Works  requesting  the  approval  of  the 
committee  of  a  design  of  148-hp.  horizontal  water-tube 
boiler: 

Your  inquiry  of  the  6th  requesting  the  opinion  of  the 
Boiler  Code  Committee  regarding  your  new  148-hp.  hori- 
zontal water-tube  boiler  has  been  referred  to  the  com- 
mittee, and  in  reply  I  am  directed  to  advise  you  that  it 


aiuiiiry  22,   1918 


P  O  W  K  K 


J  37 


has  bet'ii  ii  ruliiiK  of  the  committee  for  some  time  past 
that  it  will  not  express  opinions  on  types  of  boilers,  and 
it  will  therefore  be  impossible  to  comply  with  your  request 
for  an  opinion.     Yours  truly,  Calvin  W.  Rice,  secretary. 

Power  Rate  For  Electrically  Driven 
Ice  Plants* 

By  Harry  B.  JoYCEt 

The  increase  in  the  operating  cost  of  ice-manufactur- 
ing; plants,  particularly  in  the  last  year,  caused  by  the 
continually  rising;  fuel  prices,  the  uncertainty  of  get- 
ting fuel  at  any  price,  together  with  unstable  and  unsatis- 
factory labor  conditions,  has  forced  a  number  of  manufac- 
turers to  seek  a  cheaper  source  of  adequate  power  and  a 
method  of  eliminating,  at  least  in  part,  some  of  their  labor 
troubles.  As  electrical  power  supplied  from  centi'al  stations 
logically  meets  both  of  these  conditions,  a  discussion  of  the 
various  electrical  i-ates  in  force  in  this  section  of  the  coun- 
try, for  the  operation  of  these  plants,  seems  opportune. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  this  paper  to  go  into  the  details 
of  or  explain  the  many  advantages  of  electric  drive  for  ice- 
manufacturing  plants,  but  rather  to  attempt  to  present 
clearly  the  general  principles  and  conditions  of  the  power 
rates  available. 

Plant  Must  Be  Operated  To  Fit  the  Rate 

To  secure  the  best  or  even  a  fair  rate  per  kilowatt-hour 
for  electrical  power  in  most  cases,  it  is  impossible  to  operate 
the  rate  to  fit  the  plant;  the  plant  must  be  operated  to  fit 
the  rate. 

When  an  ice-plant  owTier  or  operator  asks,  "What  is  the 
rate  for  electrical  power?"  what  he  i-eally  wants  to  know 
is  the  rate  per  kilowatt-hour  or  the  power  cost  per  ton  of 
ice.  This  question  in  the  majority  of  cases  can  best  be 
answered  by  "The  best  rate  you  can  earn."  This  depends 
first  on  the  way  one  can  or  will  operate  the  plant;  and 
secondly,  on  the  kilowatt-hour  consumption  per  ton  of  ice 
in  the  particular  plant.  Both  of  these  items  must  be  deter- 
mined from  the  size  or  sizes  of  the  compressors,  the  number 
of  cans  per  ton,  feet  of  pipe  per  ton,  number  and  size  of 
condensers,  temperature  of  the  condensing  water,  etc. 

That  it  is  possible  to  operate  a  plant  so  as  to  earn  an 
adequate  electrical  rate  per  kilowatt-hour  is  proved  by  the 
many  plants  now  operated  by  electricity. 

Practically  all  the  so-called  refrigeration  and  ice-making 
rates  are  what  is  known  as  "high-tension,  high-load  factor, 
off-peak  demand  rates."  That  is,  the  power  supplied  is 
alternating  current  in  excess  of  2200  volts,  the  load  factor 
is  maintained  above  a  certain  definite  value,  only  a 
limited  amount  of  power  can  be  demanded  during  certain 
hours  of  a  day  over  a  period  of  a  year,  and  the  cost  is 
based  either  in  part  or  wholly  on  the  demand  for  power 
and  not  on  the  amount  of  power  consumed.  Let  us 
therefore  take  up  singly  these  various  items  and  discuss 
principally  the  maximum  demand  and  the  electrical  load 
factor,  on  which  the  cost  of  cui-rrent  per  kilowatt-hour  de- 
pends practically  entirely  when  operating  under  this  class 
of   rate. 

The  United  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.  defines  the 
maximum  demand,  as  do  some  of  the  other  central  stations 
operating  in  Greater  New  York,  as  the  maximum  fifteen- 
minute  average  demand  measured  during  a  period  of  one 
week  from  12  o'clock  midnight  Saturday  to  12  o'clock  mid- 
night the  Saturday  succeeding;  that  is,  the  average  power 
demand  is  recorded  every  fifteen  minutes,  and  the  highest 
of  these  demands  so  recorded  occurring  in  any  week  is  the 
maximum  demand  for  that  week  and  on  which  the  bill  is 
rendered. 

In  other  cities  different  methods  of  determining  the  max- 
imum demand  are  in  use,  as  are  the  periods  of  time  over 
which  the  demands  are  effective.  Buffalo,  for  instance,  uses 
the  highest  average  demand  for  two  consecutive  minutes  to 
apply  for  a  period  of  one  month.    In  Chicago  the  maximum 

•I'apei-  read  before  the   lOastorn  Ice  Association,  Atlantic  City 
November,  1917. 

tPower  engineer.   United   Rlectric  Liglit  and  Power   Co..   New 
Tork  City. 


demand  used  is  the  highest  thirty  minutes'  average  demand 
for  the  off-peak  rate  and  the  highest  three-minute  average 
demand  for  the  on-peak  rate,  both  of  these  demands  apply- 
ing for  a  period  of  one  month.  This  contract  (Chicago),  in 
addition  to  the  demand  charge,  makes  an  energy  charge  of 
so  much  per  kilowatt-hour  consumed.  It  provides,  however, 
that  if  the  customer  will  operate  his  plant  so  as  to  maintain 
at  least  a  50  per  cent,  load  factor  (which  will  be  defined 
later)  at  not  less  than  a  200-kw.  maximum  demand,  the 
cost  of  the  current  will  not  exceed  one  cent  per  kilowatt- 
hour. 

The  Public  Service  Electric  Co.  of  New  Jersey  determines 
the  maximum  demand  from  inspection  and  defines  it  as 
either  70  per  cent.,  fiO  per  cent,  or  .50  per  cent,  of  the  con- 
nected load,  depending  on  whether  this  connected  load  is  all 
in  one  motor,  more  than  one  motor  under  50  hp.,  or  more 
than  one  motor  over  50  hp.  Here,  also,  there  is  a  service 
charge  for  each  kilowatt-hour  consumed  and  a  deduction 
of  5  per  cent,  if  the  customer  takes  sei-vice  at  a  voltage  of 
2400  volts  or  higher. 

Determining  Maximum  Demand  by  Demand  Factor 

This  method  of  determining  the  maximum  demand  by 
what  is  known  as  the  demand  factor,  or  the  ratio  of  the 
maximum  demand  to  the  connected  load,  is  greatly  to  the  ice 
manufacturer's  advantage,  as  the  demand  charged  is  based 
on  50  per  cent,  of  the  connected  load,  while  the  actual  max- 
imum demand  is  usually  greater  than  80  per  cent,  of  the 
connected  load.  I  know  of  one  plant  where,  during  the 
hottest  months  of  the  year,  this  demand  factor  was  as  high 
as  135  per  cent.,  which  incidentally  proves  clearly  the  de- 
pendabilit.v  of  the  electric  motor  to  carry  heavy  overloads. 

Time  will  not  permit  of  discussing  more  of  these  electrical 
rates  in  detail;  but  practically  all  rates  that  apply  to  this 
class  of  service  are  similar  in  that  they  contain  practically 
the  same  provisions  and  conditions. 

The  electrical  load  factor,  which  actually  determines  th 
cost  of  current  per  kilowatt-hour  under  the  demand  i-at( 
should  not  be  confused  with  the  yearly  ice-load  factor.    Th.' 
electrical  load  factor  is  the  ratio  of  the  actual  kilowatt-hour; 
consumed  during  the  period  of  time  over  which  the  max 
imum  demand  is  measured,  to  the  kilowatt-hours  the  cor 
sumer  would  have  used  had  this  maximum  demand  been  use 
continually  during  this  period.     That  is,  since  the  charg. 
based  on  the  maximum  demand  is  the  same  whether  or  not 
this    maximum    demand    is    used    continually,    it    is    readily 
seen  that  the  longer  this  demand  is  maintained  during  the 
period,  the  greater  will  be  the  consumption  of  current  at 
the  same  cost  and  consequently  the  cheaper  the  current  per 
kilowatt-hour;  in  other  words,  the  higher  the  electrical  load 
factor  the   less  the  cost  of  current  per  kilowatt-hour  and 
consequently  the  cheaper  the  ice. 

I  might  also  mention  that  the  shorter  the  period  of  time 
over  which  the  maximum  demand  is  measui-ed,  the  more  it 
is  possible  to  maintain  this  higher  electrical  load  factor.  It 
is  much  easier  to  maintain  a  constant  or  nearly  constant 
load,  and  consequently  load  factor,  for  a  week  than  it  is  for 
a  month,  and  it  is  easier  to  do  this  for  a  month  than  for 
a  year.  Central-station  records  show  that  in  a  properly 
designed  and  operated  plant,  a  weekly  load  factor  of  from 
85  to  93  per  cent,  is  easily  maintained;  also  that  a  monthly 
load  factor  of  from  80  to  90  per  cent,  can  be  maintained 
during  the  summer  months  and  from  60  to  80  per  cent, 
during  the  winter  months,  while  the  yearly  load  factor  will 
vary  from  35  to  60  per  cent. 

Some  of  the  central-station  companies,  in  addition  to  the 
demand  charge  for  this  class  of  service,  make  an  addition  or 
I'eduction  to  adjust  the  primary  rate  according  to  the  price 
of  coal.  For  instance,  the  companies  operating  in  Greater 
New  York  now  make  an  additional  charge  or  deduction  of 
0.035c.  for  each  10  per  cent,  increase  or  decrease  in  the 
price  of  coal  above  or  below  $3  per  long  ton  f.o.b.  New  York 
Harbor.  This  additional  coal  charge,  however,  as  far  as  I 
can  learn,  is  made  only  by  the  companies  who  base  thei  • 
rates  entirely  on  the  maximum  demand  and  make  no  addi- 
tional charge  for  the  enei'gy  consumed. 

By  the  term  "off-peak"  as  related  to  rates  is  meant  that 
the  rates  are  made  with  the  provision  that  only  a  limited 
amount  of  power  will  be  demanded  during  certain  hours  of 


138 


F  u  w  Hi  it 


vol.    tl,    INO.    <* 


the  day,  over  that  portion  of  the  year  when  the  central 
stations  are  carrying  their  greatest  load.  This  is  usually 
either  from  4  p.m.  to  8  p.m.  or  from  4:30  p.m.  to  8:30  p.m. 
during'  the  months  of  November,  December,  January  and 
February.  The  power  demand  during'  this  time  is  limited 
usually  to  from  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  highest  previous 
maximum  demand  of  the  year.  These  values,  it  has  been 
found,  are  sufficiently  high  to  permit  the  operation  of  the 
lights  and  auxiliaries,  and  even  to  provide  the  operation  of 
a  small  compressor  while  the  large  machines  are  shut  down. 

Should  this  specified  demand  be  exceeded  dui'ing  these 
hours,  a  penalty  charge  is  made  for  each  kilowatt  of  demand 
in  excess  of  that  specified  or  a  special  rate  is  put  into 
effect. 

As  far  as  I  can  learn,  all  these  rates,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Chicago  rates,  are  high-tension  rates;  that  is.  the 
power  is  supplied  at  a  voltage  of  2200  or  higher,  and  the 
customer  must  furnish  his  own  transformers  where  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  lower  voltage  for  the  operation  of  any 
or  all  of  his  motors  and,  of  course,  for  his  light. 

Some  of  the  central-station  companies  have  incorporated 
in  their  contracts  such  provisions  as  a  guaranteed  load 
factor,  a  guaranteed  demand  factor,  etc.,  while  others  make 
an  addition  or  deduction  if  the  line  power  factor  is  below  or 
above  a  certain  definite  value.  I  think  it  has  been  shown 
that  it  works  no  hardship,  but  that  the  ice  manufacturer 
must  maintain  as  high  an  electrical  load  factor  and  demand 
factor  as  is  possible  to  earn  a  reasonable  rate.  As  for  a 
reduction  in  rate  for  maintaining  a  high  power  factor,  this 
can  easily  be  done  by  the  use  of  synchronous  motors  on  the 
compressors,  which  will  permit  of  maintaining  practically 
any  power  factor  desired. 

Summary 

Let  me  summarize  what  I  believe  to  be  the  safest  and 
most  accurate  way  to  predeteiTiiine  or  estimate  the  power 
cost  per  ton  of  ice  when  it  is  decided  to  change  to  electric 
drive.  First  determine  the  number  of  kilowatt-hours  neces- 
sary per  ton  of  ice  and  what  changes  will  be  necessary  to 
operate  your  plant  at  a  constant  or  nearly  constant  load  for 
the  time  over  which  the  maximum  demand  will  be  measured. 
Then  have  the  central-station  representative  of  the  district 
advise  what  the  average  load  factor  is  for  similar  pl-r.nts 
operating  in  the  neighborhood,  also  the  cost  of  current  per 
kilowatt-hour  at  this  load  factor  under  the  rate  according 
to  which  your  plant  will  operate. 

I  believe  that  many,  particularly  those  who  are  operating 
plants  in  the  larger  cities  where  central-station  electric 
power  is  available,  will  be  figuring  on  this  question  within 
the  next  year  or  two.  At  this  time  last  year,  there  was  not 
an  electrically  operated  ice-manufacturing  plant  on  Man- 
hattan Island.  Today  there  is  one  in  operation,  five  plants 
being  changed  over  from  either  steam-  or  oil-engine  drive, 
and  one  new  plant  in  the  course  of  erection. 

If  it  is  my  privilege  to  attend  this  convention  next  year, 
I  hope  to  be  able  to  present  some  very  interesting  figures 
on  the  operation  of  these  plants,  all  of  which  are  different 
not  only  in  capacity,  but  also  in  the  number  of  cans  used 
per  ton,  feet  of  pipe  per  ton,  size  and  number  of  condensers, 
some  using  cooling  towers,  some  wells,  and  others  river 
water.  I  hope  at  that  time  to  be  able  to  show  that  although 
all  these  factors  affect  in  one  way  or  another  the  necessary 
kilowatt-hours  per  ton  of  ice,  a  high  load  factor  and  conse- 
quent low  cost  of  cun-ent  per  kilowatt-hour  can  be  main- 
tained, under  all  of  the  foregoing  conditions,  if  the  plants 
are  properly  operated. 

Message  to  German  Business  Men 

The  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States  has  sent 
to  its  members  a  referendum  which  is  designed  to  ascertain 
whether  American  business  men  desire  to  notify  German 
business  men  that  they  will  not  trade  with  them  after  the 
war  unless  the  German  government  is  niade  responsible  to 
the  German  people.  The  National  Chamber  announces  that 
500,000  American  business  men  are  now  voting  on  this 
i|uestion  through  national  commercial  organizations  that 
are  members  of  the  National  Chamber. 

The  referendum  is  the  suggestion  of  the  Boston  Chamber 


of  Commerce,  and  if  it  is  adopted  by  the  members  of  the 
National  Chamber,  it  is  hoped  to  communicate  its  result  to 
German  business  men  through  international  chambers  of 
commei'ce  and  through  German  business  men  who  are  now 
visiting  Switzerland,  Holland,  Denmark,  Sweden  and  other 
neutral  countries.  Announcement  by  the  National  Chamber 
in  regard  to  the  referendum  says:  "The  message  cannot 
fail  of  its  purposes,  as  Gemiany  cannot  hope  for  years  to 
come  to  reestablish  satisfactory  trade  relations  with  Great 
Britain,  Italy  or  France." 

The  message  on  which  the  vote  is  being  taken  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Whereas,  The  size  of  Germany's  present  armament  and 
her  militaristic  attitude  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  her 
government  is  a  military  autocracy,  not  responsible  to  the 
German  people;  and 

Whereas,  The  size  of  the  Gei-man  armament  after  the 
war  will  be  the  measure  of  the  greatness  of  the  annament 
forced  on  all  nations;  and 

Whereas,  Careful  analysis  of  economic  conditions  shows 
that  the  size  of  Germany's  future  r.-mament  will  funda- 
mentally depend  on  her  after-war  receipts  of  raw  materials 
and  profits  from  her  foreign  trade;  and 

Whereas,  in  our  opinion  the  American  people  for  tH.e  pur- 
pose of  preventing  an  excessive  annament  will  assuredly 
enter  an  economic  combination  against  Germany  if  govern- 
mental conditions  in  Germany  make  it  necessary  for  self- 
defense;  and 

Whei-eas,  We  believe  the  American  people  will  not  join  in 
discrimination  against  German  goods  after  the  war  if  the 
danger  rf  excessive  armament  has  been  removed  by  the 
fact  that  the  German  government  has  in  reality  become  a 
responsible  instrument  controlled  by  the  German  people; 
therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  That  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United 
States  of  America  earnestly  calls  the  attention  of  the  busi- 
ness men  of  Germany  to  these  conditions  and  urges  them 
also  to  study  this  situation  and  to  cooperate  to  the  end 
that  a  disastrous  economic  war  may  be  averted  and  that  a 
lasting  peace  may  be  made  more  certain. 

Economizer  Explosion  Kills  One  Man 

By  the  explosion  of  an  economizer  at  the  Remington, 
N.  Y.,  "Short  Line"  power  plant,  one  man  was  killed  and 
the  electric  power  and  lighting  circuits  supplied  by  the  plant 
were  put  out  of  sei-vice.  The  accident  occurred  a  little  after 
10  o'clock  on  the  night  of  Dec.  28.  According  to  the  news- 
paper account,  the  cause  of  the  explosion  is  not  known.  It 
is  stated,  however,  that  earlier  in  the  evening  the  power  was 
shut  off  at  the  plant  for  more  than  an  hour  because  of  a 
leak  in  a  valve  on  the  economizer.  That  was  repaired  and 
electric  service  was  resumed,  when  shortly  aftei-wai'd  the 
economizer  exploded. 

The  man  who  was  killed  was  a  water  tender,  and  it  is 
assumed  from  the  position  in  which  he  was  found  that  he 
was  quite  close  to  the  economizer  when  the  explosion  oc- 
curred, as  he  was  buried  beneath  the  wreckage.  One  of  the 
firemen  in  the  boiler  room  was  taken  to  the  hospital. 

Two  of  the  seven  boilers  were  damaged.  These  boilers 
were  housed  in  a  wooden  frame  building,  the  end  of  which 
was  blown  out  and  the  boiler  house  more  or  less  wTecked. 
Details  of  the  accident  will  be  published  as  soon  as  the  facts 
can  be  obtained. 

Christopher  W.  Levalley 

Christopher  W.  Levalley,  founder  and  chairman  of  the 
board  of  directors  of  the  Chain  Belt  Co.,  died  suddenly  of 
heart  failure  at  his  home  in  Milwaukee,  on  Friday,  Jan.  4. 
He  was  bom  at  Manchester,  Conn.,  in  April,  183.5,  receiving 
his  education  in  the  schools  there.  When  14  years  old  he 
moved  to  Hartford,  Conn.,  where  he  served  an  apprentice- 
ship in  a  machine  shop.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  enlisted  in  the  army.  Following  the  war  he  went  to  St. 
Paul  as  superintendent  of  the  St.  Paul  Harvester  Co.,  later 
becoming  general  manager.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  saw 
the  necessity  of  a  positive  drive  for  haiwesting  inaehinery, 
and  in  1891  he  moved  to  Milwaukee,  where  he  established 
the  Chain  Belt  Co.  In  1907  Mr.  Levalley  conceived  the  idea 
of  driving  a  concrete  mixer  with  a  steel  chain  and  using  a 


■aiuiary  22,  1918 


POWER 


139 


cast  semisteel  di-um.  These  ideas  were  incorporated  in  what 
was  known  then  as  the  Chain  Belt  Mixer,  but  which  name 
has  since  been  chan^red  to  Rex  Mixer. 

Mr.  Levalley  would  have  been  83  years  old  in  April  had 
he  lived.  From  1891  until  1916  he  was  president  and  gen- 
eral manager  of  the  Chain  Belt  Co.  In  191G  he  was  elected 
chairman  of  the  board  of  directors  and  held  this  position 
up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  was  also  interested  in  the 
C.  O.  Bartlett  &  Snow  Co.,  of  Cleveland,  and  the  Federal 
Malleable  Co.,  of  Milwaukee.  He  was  a  donor  of  many 
gifts  to  charitable  institutions  and  only  within  the  past 
year  gave  $100,000  to  the  Milwaukee  Foundation. 

Wartime  Lubrication  Economy 

An  example  of  lubrication  economy  is  that  of  a  large, 
well-equipped  and  well-managed  plant  in  Boston.  During 
the  year  preceding  an  investigation  to  cut  the  costs,  the 
plant  used  18,500  gal.  of  various  oils  with  a  total  lubrication 
cost  of  $4425.  Under  the  system  used  barrels  of  oil  were 
distributed  through   the  plant,  and   several  were  found  to 


be  leaking.  The  remedy  was  the  construction  of  a  central 
oilhouse  containing  metal  tanks  provided  with  key  faucets. 
Much  loss  was  also  due  to  wiping  up  of  engine  frames  and 
floors  with  waste,  then  thrown  away  or  burned.  To  check 
this  loss,  an  oil-  and  waste-saving  machine  was  installed. 
This  reclaimed  considerable  oil,  and  the  waste  could  be 
reused  many  times.  Cost  of  lubrication  dropped  from  $4425 
to  $2570  within  one  year,  a  saving  of  almost  42  per  cent. — 
The  Wall  Street  Journal  Straws. 

What  Power  Did  for  a  Dry  Dock 

To  operate  the  dock  of  the  New  Orleans  Dry  Dock  and 
Shipbuilding  Co.  by  hand  required  the  services  of  64  men 
at  an  average  cost  of  25c.  per  hour  per  man,  and  the  best 
time  made  was  two  hours  for  a  small  vessel.  The  dock  has 
just  been  equipped  by  S.  J.  Stewart  with  eight  motors, 
which  make  use  of  the  old-style  sucker  pumps  fonnerly 
operated  by  hand,  by  the  use  of  which  they  are  now  able  to 
make  a  lift  in  half  an  hour  with  the  consumption  of  about 
$3  worth  of  current. 


:iiiMiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiMiiiniiiiiiiitiii 


II iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii- 


New  Publications 


THE    DETKRMINATION    OF    ABSOLUTE 
VISCOSITY     BY     SHORT-TUBE     VIS- 
COSIMETERS.         Technologic       paper, 
No.    100.      Published   by   the   Bureau   of 
Standards,     Washington.     D.     C.       Size. 
7x10   in.  -.    55   pages. 
This    publication    reviews    briefly    the    lit- 
erature   relating    to    the    determination    of 
viscosity   and   gives   the   results   of   further 
experimental     work     that     has    been     done. 
The    conclusion    is    reached    that    water    is 
not   a  suitable   liquid   to   use   in   finding   the 
relation  between  the  viscosity  and  the  time 
of    discharge    for    short-tube    viscosimeters. 
and  that  Ubbelohde's  equation  and  all  oth- 
ers based  on  it  are  .seriously  in  error.  The 
paper    is    now    ready    for    distribution,    and 
those  interested  may  obtain  a  copy  by  ad- 
dressing a  request  to  the  Bureau. 


Miscellaneous  News       | 

IMI IDIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIU? 


Personals 


Regnlation  of  Coal  Kxports  during  1918 
announced  by  the  Fuel  Administration 
limits  shipments  strictly  to  war  uses. 

A  Boiler  Flue  Blew  Out  at  the  Barnet 
leather  plant,  at  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  on  Dec. 
31.  severely  scalding  two  men  who  were  in 
the  boiler  room  at  the  time  of  the  accident. 

The  Boiler  of  a  Pennsylvania  R.R.  en- 
gine attached  to  a  freight  car  exploded  at 
Metuchen,  N.  J.,  on  Jan.  8.  seriously  injur- 
ing two  men,  one  of  whom  died  a  few  hours 
later  in  a  hospital. 

The  Power  House  and  Machinery  of  the 
municipal  light  and  water  plant  at  Marling- 
ton,  W.  Va.,  were  destroyed  by  fire  on  Jan. 
8.  The  fire  was  discovered  over  the  boiler 
room.      The   cause   is   unknown. 

A  Bailer  Explosion  wrecked  the  Home 
Laundry  at  Delaware.  Ohio,  on  Jan.  8  and 
decapitated  the  proprietor,  T.  E.  Fox.  The 
explosion  occurred  when  Fox  turned  cold 
water  into  the  empty  tubes  of  the  boiler, 
under  which   a  hot    fire   was   burning. 

Fl.vwheel  Explosion  at  Hawarden,  Iowa 
— Operation  of  the  Hawarden,  Iowa,  mu- 
nicipal electric  plant  was  interrupted  for 
a  time  when  the  flywheel  of  one  of  the 
engines  driving  a  generator  exploded  on 
the  night  of  Jan.  2.  Damage  to  the  build- 
ing was  confined  mostly  to  the  walls  oppo- 
site the  flywheel  and  to  the  roof  above  it. 
It  will  cost  about  $4000  to  repair  the  dam- 
age done  to  the  engine  and  buildings.  Tem- 
porary service  was  obtained  from  a  reserve 
engine  as  soon  as  it  could  be  put  in  run- 
ning order.  Fortunately,  no  one  was 
Injured. 


Obituary 


""a 


Maloolm  Alexaniler,  formerly  auperinr 
tendent  of  the  old  Brooklyn  Union  Gas  Co  . 
with  which  he  was  connected  for  thirty 
years,  and  later  in  the  harbor  transporta- 
tion business,  died  at  his  home  In  Brooklyn 
on  Jan.  11,  at  the  age  of  88  years.  He  was 
a  native  of  Glasgow,  Scotland. 


«iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii'in 

E.  B.  Craft,  W.  F.  Hendry  and  E.  H. 
Colpitis  have  been  appointed  assistant  en- 
gineers of  the  Western  Electric  Co. 

Franklin  T.  Chapman,  fonnerly  con- 
nected with  the  Olympian  Motors  Co.,  of 
Pontiac.  Mich.,  is  now  assistant  general 
sales  manager  of  E.  F.  Houghton  &  Co.. 
Philadelphia,    Penn. 

Harry  V.  Hunt  has  resigned  as  superin- 
tendent of  the  Hooven.  Owens,  Rentschler 
Co..  at  Hamilton,  Ohio,  to  accept  the  posi- 
tion of  general  superintendent  of  the  Con- 
solidated Press  Co.,  at  Hastings,  Michigan. 

.1.  S.  Pandiani,  formerly  manager  of  the 
meter  and  supply  department  of  the  Italian 
Wcstinghouse  Co.,  is  now  the  Italian  trade 
representative  of  the  Esterline  Co.,  of  In- 
dianapolis, Ind.,  with  headquarters  at  Via 
Mario   Pagano    27,    Milano. 

Ruhsell  T.  Gray,  formerly  advertising 
manager  of  the  Haynes  Automobile  Co., 
and  more  recently  secretary  of  the  Shuman 
Advertising  Co.,  has  opened  an  office  in  the 
First  National  Bank  Building,  Chicago,  as 
an  advertising  engineer.  Advertising  serv- 
ice will  be  rendered  a  limited  number  of 
clients  in  the  technical  field.  Technical 
advertising  in  trade  papers  and  magazines 
as  well  as  all  forms  of  engineering  catalogs 
and  direct-by-mail  advertising  will  be 
handled. 


Engineering  Affairs 


The    National    Association    of    Stationary 

Engineers,  No.  9,  of  Atlantic  City,  will 
hold  its  sixth  annual  banquet  and  enter- 
tainment at  the  Wiltshire  Hotel,  on  Satur- 
day evening,  Jan.  26. 

The    Boston    .Section    of   the    A.    S.    M.    E. 

will  give  .1,  reception  to  Charles  T.  Main, 
the  new  president  of  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers  at  the  Engineers' 
Club,  Boston,  Mass.,  Tuesday  evening.  Jan. 
22.  This  will  be  one  of  the  big  events  of 
the  Boston  Section  this  season.  Prof. 
Lionel  S.  Marks  will  speak  briefly  on  the 
career  of  Mr.  Main.  H.  C.  Balch,  of  the 
Boston  "Transcript,"  just  back  from 
France,  will  speak  on  "Engineering  at  the 
Front,"  as  he  saw  it. 

The  Association  of  Iron  and  Steel  Elec- 
trical Eneineers  has  announced  the  follow- 
ing meetings;  The  Cleveland  Section  on 
Jan.  26.  subject  not  yet  announced.  The 
Philadelphia  Section  on  Feb.  2,  at  which 
H.  G.  Steele,  of  the  Pittsburgh  Tran.s- 
former  Co..  will  speak  on  "Mill  Type  Trans- 
formers." The  Pittsburgh  Section  will 
meet  on  Feb.  16  at  the  Hotel  Chatham,  at 
which  David  L.  Lindquist,  chief  engineer 
of  the  Otis  Elevator  Co.,  will  present  a 
paper  on  "A.  C.  and  D.  C.  Skip  by  Hoists." 

The  Aldred  liPctures  at  .lohns  Hopkins 
Iiniverslt.v — Through  the  generosity  of  J. 
E.  Aldred  there  has  been  founded  in  the 
Department  of  Engineering  of  Johns  Hop- 
liins  University,  of  Baltimore,  <a  course  of 
lectures  on  "Engineering  Practice."  The 
lectures  will  deal  with  the  practical  phases 


of  engineering  problems,  rather  than  with 
theory,  and  will  consist  of  three  lecturea 
each  on  general  subjects  in  civil,  electrical 
and  mechanical  engineering.  They  are 
given  on  Wednesday  evenings  at  8  o'clock. 
in  the  auditorium  of  the  Civil  Engineering 
Building.  Those  of  particular  interest  to 
"Power"  readers  are  "Steam-Electric 
Power  Plant  Design,"  given  on  Jan.  16  by 
A.  S.  Loizeaux.  electrical  engineer  of  the 
Consolidated  Gas,  Electric  Light  and 
Power  Co.,  of  Baltimore ;  and  "Coal  and 
Its  Combustion  in  Boiler  Furnaces,"  by  E. 
G.  Bailey,  president  of  the  Bailey  Meter 
Co.,  Boston,  to  be  given  Mar.  13.  The  lec- 
tures are  open   to  the  public. 

New    York    Engineers    Granted    Charter' — 

The  New  Y'ork  Chapter  of  the  American 
Association  of  Engineers  was  established 
on  Wednesday  evening.  Jan.  16,  at  the 
Hotel  McAlpin,  when  the  charter  granted 
by  the  national  organization  was  formall.v 
presented  by  President  Edmund  T.  Perkins. 
The  keynote  of  the  meeting  was  sounded 
by  Mr.  Perkins,  the  principal  speaker,  with 
the  subject,  "The  Engineer's  Relation  to 
Society."  He  urged  the  men  to  broaden 
their  .social  and  civic  activities  and  to  pay 
more  attention  to  the  human  equation  n 
engineering.  Alexander  Potter  compli- 
mented the  association  on  its  national  suc- 
cess with  the  problems  relating  to  the  hu- 
man and  business  side  of  the  engineering 
profession.  A.  H.  Krom.  general  secretary 
of  the  A.  A.  E..  gave  a  summary  of  the 
activities  of  the  national  organization  and 
urged  the  members  to  promote  the  work 
and  cooperate  with  all  technical  societies 
as  well  as  to  acquaint  engineers  with  the 
fact  that  this  is  a  business  organization  in 
a  field  of  its  own  and  which  conflicts  with 
none.  E.  J.  Mehren,  editor  of  the  Engi- 
neering News-Record ;  S.  J.  Stone.  A.  C. 
Davis  and  others  put  forward  valuable 
suggestions  during  the  discussion.  The 
New  Y'ork  office  is  at  220  West  42nd  St.. 
and  the  officers  are:  R.  H.  Vanderbrook, 
chairman  ;   I.  L.  Birne,  secretary. 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiir 


Trade  Catalogs 


Link-Belt  Silent  Chain  for  Rubber  Mill 
Machinery.  Link-Belt  Co..  39th  St..  Stew- 
art Ave.,  Chicago.  III.  Book  No.  299.  Pp. 
24  ;    6   X    9    in.  ;    illustrated. 

"Hydro"  Gas  Meters.  Bachai-ach  Instru- 
ment Co.,  Pittsburgli,  Penn.  Catalog  E. 
Pp.  12;  6  X  9  in.;  illustrated.  This  con- 
tains information  on  the  various  methods 
employed  in  the  measuring  of  gases  and 
shows  the  application  of  these  meters  to 
producer  plants,  gas  works,  etc. 

How  Anyone  Can  Make  a  .lointless,  Oas- 
tieht  Furnace  Lininic  is  the  title  of  a  book- 
let issued  bv  the  Betson  Plastic  Fire  Brick 
Co.,  Rome,  N.  Y.,  showing  how  "plaslic 
fire-brick"  made  by  this  concern  is  used  in 
forming  one-piece  linings  for  steel  boiler 
furnaces.     Pp.  16  ;  3J  x  6  In. ;  illustrated. 

Smooth-On      Instruction      Book      No.      IB. 

Smooth-On  Manufacturing  Co.,  Jersey  City, 
N.  J.  Pp.  16;  3J  X  C  in  ;  illustrated.  This 
describes  v.arious  cements  tor  repairing 
breaks  or  leaks  In  iron  pipes,  castings,  etc.. 
and  contains  the  standard  sizes  of  Smooth- 
On  coated  corrugated  gaskets  for  flanged 
pipes  from  2   in.  up  to  26  inches. 


140 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  4 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


Boston— Current    quotations   per  gross   ton   delivered   along-side 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 


ANTHRACITE 


Buckwheat 

Rice    

Bciier    .  .  .  . 
Barley   .  .  . . 


Jan.  17.  Ifllh 

S4.tjll 

1.10 

3J)0 

3.60 


One  Year  Ago 

»-i.O.'. — 3.20 

•;..=)  0 — 2.65 

2.'20— •i.S.S 


Jan.  17,  191K 

»-.10— 7..!.-. 

6.65 — li.OO 

6.'l5-^6.40 


-  Individual  ^ 


One  Year  Apo 
3.25 — 3.50 
2.70 — 2.Hr, 


!.33 — 2.60 


BITUMIKODS 


Bituminous  not  on  market. 


Jan. I' 


-F.o.b.  Mines* , 

.  1918     One  Year  Ago 
S3.00 

3.10 — 3.85 


.. Alongside  Boston! ^ 

Jan.  17.  1918      One  Year  Ago 

S4.2.") — 5.00 


4.60 — 5.40 
54.  as  compared 


Clearlields . 
Cambrias  and 
Somersets.. 

Pocahontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hampton  Roads, 
with  $2.85 — 2.9^  a  year  ago. 

•All-rail  rate  to  Boston  is  $2.(v)  tWater  coal. 

New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports'  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  a.^  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 

r Circular' ^     . Individual' . 

Jan.  17   1918  One  Yeai- .\go  Jan.  17.  1918  One  Year  Ago 

Pea                         f")  0">  $4.00  $5.80  $7.00 — 7.25 

Buckwheat     ,       4.30 — 5.00  2.75  5.50 — U.OO  6.50 — 7.00 

Rice                         3.75 — 3.95  2.20  4.50 — 5.00  4.50 — 5.00 

Barley     .                 3  25—3.50  1.95                  3.50 1.00  3.2.5 — 3.30 

Boiler   3.50 — 3.73  2.30                    

Bituminous  smithing  coal.   $4.50 — 5.25   f.o.b. 
Quotations  at   the  upper  ports  are  about  5c.  higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.  Harbor     Mine 

Pennsylvania    $3.65  $2.00 

Maryland    3£a  2.00 

West  Virginia    (short  rate) 3.H.T  2.00 

Based  on  Government  price  of  $2  per  ton  at  mine. 
•The  lower  port^  are:  Elizabethport.  Port  Jolmson.  Port  Reading 
Perth  Amboy  and  South  Amboy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty 
Hoboken.  Weehawken.  Edeewater  or  Cliffside  and  Guttenberg.  St.  George 
s  in  between  and  sometimes  a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bitumi 
nous  is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports, 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  ^oss  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows : 

^ Liin . Tide Indenenden' 

Jan.  17,  1918  One  Year  Ago     Jan,  17.  1918  One  Tear  Ago 

Buckwheat...    $3,l.%-3.75  $2.00  S3.?5              $2.9tl  84,15 

Kice      2.6.5-3.65  1.25  3.65                2.15  3.35 

Boiler    2.4.5-2.85  1.10  3.55               2.00  .... 

Barley    2.1.5-2  40  1.00  2.40               1.90  '       2.35 

Pea    3.75  2  80  4.65                3.70  

Culm    .                       1.23 

Chicago — Steam    coal    prices    f.o.b.    mines: 

Illinois  Coals  Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

Prepared   sizes    $2.6..— 2.80  S3. 10— 3.25 

Mine-run      2.40—2.35  2.85 — 3.00 

Screenings     3.15—2.30  2.60—2.75 

So.  Illinois.  Pocahontas.  Ho'^Uing. 

Pennsylvania  East  Kenluck.v  and 

Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia       West  Virginia  SpUnt 

Prepared   sizes    $2.60 — 2.80  $3.0.5—3.25 

Mine-run      2  40-2.00  2.40—2.60 

.«crcenirii;s     2  10 — 2.30  2.10 — 2. .30 

St.   Louis — Prices  pet   net  ton   f.o.b.   mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared  with  today  are  as  follows: 


Willi  amson  and 

Mt. 

Olive 

PraiiUU 

1  Counties 

and  Staunton 



-Standard 

Jan,  17, 

One 

Jan. 

17. 

One 

Jan,  1 

7. 

One 

1918 

Year  Ago 

1918       ■■ 

'ear  Ago 

191S 

Yeai 

Ago 

Gin. 

lump .  .  S 

2,6.5-2.80  $3.2.5-3.50  $2.65 

-2.80  $.3-3.25 

$2.65-2 

.80  $2.30- 

-2.75 

lump.  . 

2.6.5-2.80 

..65- 

-2.80 

2.65-2 

.80 

2.25- 

-2  30 

Steam  egg 

2.6.5-2.80 

2,65 

-2.80 

3-3.25 

2.65-2 

80 

-2  30 

Mine-run. 

2,40-2.55 

3.00-3.35 

2,40 

-2. .55 

3-3.25 

2.40-2 

35 

2.23- 

■"  50 

No,  1  nut. 

3.6.5-2.80 

2.6.5- 

-2.80 

2.6.5-2 

80 

2-in.  sci-eoi 



3.00-3.23 

2.1.3-2.30 

2.1.5-2 

30 

2  23- 

-"  50 

No,  3 

washed 

2. 1.3-2  .30 

3.00 

2.13 

-3.30 

2.73 

2.1.3-2 

..30 

Williamson-Franklin  rate  St.  Louis,  SVV^f.:  other  rates.  T'^U'" 

Birmingham — Curren*:  pricf.-^  per  net  ton  fob  mines  are  as 
follows : 

Mine-Run 

Bi?  Seam    SI  .90 

Pratt.  Jag^ser.  Corona.  .  .  .         2.15 
Black  Creek.   Cahaba    .  .  .         2.40 

Government  figrures. 

'Tndividual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
(renerall.v  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  fixed  accordine 
to  a  regular  schedule. 


Ltimp  and  Nut 

Slack  and  Screenings 

J2.15 
3.40 
2.63 

SI  .65 
1.90 
2.15 

<'alif.,  Los  .AnBcles — The  Nevada-Calif.  Power  Co..  Riverside, 
plans  to  build  about  300  miles  of  voltage  line,  Atout  $300,00(1, 
<'.   (;,    Poole,    Riverside,   Ch.    Engr. 

D.  C,  Wash. — The  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  .\ccounts,  Navy 
Kept.,  Wash.,  will  soon  receive  bids  for  furnishing  at  various 
-Navy  Yards  under  Schedule  No.  1653.  30  sets  of  motor  generators. 

<ia.,  Wa.vnesboro — City  plans  extensive  improvements  to  its 
electrio-lighting  plant,  including  the  installation  of  one  2iiO-hp. 
boiler,  and  one  li.iO-kw,,  3-phase.  60-eycle.  2300-volt  generating  unit 
directly  connected  with  a  switchboard,  complete,  J.  C.  .\ndrew.^. 
Supt, 

111.,  Chicago — The  Lincoln  Park  Commissionei-s  plan  to  install 
a  500-kw.,  3-phase.  2300-4000-volt  turbo-generator  for  heating 
system.    C.   H,    Shepherd,    Electrical    Engr, 

Iowa,  EmmetsburR — The  Northern  Iowa  Gas  and  Electric  Co. 
plans  to  extend  its  electric  transmission  line  from  here  to  Dickens. 
R.    J,   Mullins.   Mgr. 

Kan.,  Sabetha — The  City  Council  plans  to  charge  the  equip- 
ment of  the  entire  electric-lighting  plant  from  single  to  3-phase 
system,      C,  A,   Darby.  City  Engr. 

K.V.,  Guthrie — The  South  Kentucky  Power  Co.  plans  to  build 
an  electric  transmission  line  fi'om  here  to  Lebanon.  Tenn.  A.  F. 
Trimble,    Mgr, 

La.,  Kenner — City  plans  to  issue  $10,000  bonds  for  improve- 
ments to  its  electric-lighting  plant,     P,   Felix.  Mayor, 

.Md.,  Rising  Sun — City  has  sold  $8000  bonds  and  plans  to 
improve   its   electric-lighting  plant   with   the   proceeds. 

Mass.,  Canibrilge — The  Cambridge  Electric  Light  Co.  plans 
extensive  improvements  including  the  installation  of  a  12. 500-kw. 
turbine,  two  600-hp.  boilers,  an  ash-handlihg  system  and  the  ex- 
tension of  its  switchboard.      W.    E.   Holmes.   Newton,  Gen.    Mgr. 

Mass..  Gardiner — The  Gardner  Electric  Light  Co.  plans  to 
install  an  additional  1 500-kw  bank  of  transformers.  C.  .\.  Wai'e. 
Mgr. 

Mass.,  Hudson — The  Town  plans  to  install  a  new  600-kw.  tur- 
bine with  a  condenser  and  an  additional  boiler  in  its  electric-light- 
ing plant,     n.  h.   Brothers.  Mgr. 

.Mass.,  Pittsfleld — The  Pittsfleld  Electric  Co.  plans  to  in.stall  a 
2500-kw.  General  F:iectric  turbo-generator  and  two  520-hp.  Bab- 
cock  &  Wilcox  boilers,     W.  A.  Whittlesey,  Supt. 

Mich.,  Sturgis — The  Board  of  Public  Works  plans  to  install  a 
500-kw.  auxiliary  generating  unit.     J.  S,  Flanders,  Mgr, 

•Mo.,  Cameron — The  City  Council  plans  to  improve  its  electric- 
lighting   plant. 

N.  Y.,'  New  York — The  Electric  Reduction  Co..  50  East  41st 
St.,  has  increased  its  capital  stock  from  ,$100,000  to  $200,000;  the 
proceeds  will  be  used  for  additions  and  improvements, 

N.  C,  Southern  Pines — J,  T.  Patrick  is  in  the  market  for 
second-hand  electrical  machinery  in  good  condition,  from  about 
25   to   50  hp.,  for  water-power  development. 

Okla..  Chandler — The  Chandler  Electric  Co,  plans  to  build  a 
new  power  house  and  install  equipment.  H.  G.  Stettmund.  Jr.. 
Mgr. 

Okla.,  Hooker — City  plans  to  issue  bonds  for  the  erection  of  an 

electric-lighting    plant    to    replace    the    one    which    was    destroyed 
by  fire.     Lo.ss.  $22,000. 

Wash.  Seattle — The  Citv  Council  plans  to  build  a  substation 
for  the  Light  nepartment  on  B  16fi.  Oilman  Park  addition.  About 
$20.0110.      -A.   H.  Dimoek.  City   Engr. 

Wis.  Amherst — The  Amherst  Electric  Ser\'lce  Co.  recently  in- 
corporated plans  to  build  an  electric-lighting  plant.  B.  E.  Dwin- 
nell.    interested. 

Wis.,  ShebovBen— The  Badger  State  Tanning  Co.  is  having 
plans  prepared  by  Juul  &  Sixta.  .\rch..  805  North  8th  St..  for  the 
ei-ection  of  an  addition  to  its  power  house. 

Wis  stebbinsville — The  Porter  Electric  Line  Co.  recently 
incorporated  plans  to  develop  the  water  power  and  furnish  elec- 
tricity to  the  rural  district  hei'e.     F.   Miller.   Pres. 

Ont.  Port  Colborne — A.  E.  Augustine.  Box  IIC.  is  in  the  market 
for  a  IS-hp.   electric  motor  with  starter. 

Ont..  Toronto — The  Swift  Canadian  Co..  Keele  St.,  is  in  the 
market   for  a   SO-hp.   locomotive-type  boiler. 

Ont  Trenton — The  Hvdro-Electric  Power  Commission.  To- 
ronto plans  to  build  a  transmisison  line  through  the  towns  of 
Picton  Wellington  and  Bloomfidd  in  Prince  Edward  County:  also 
a  400n-volt  transmission  line  from  Bloomfleld  to  VVelhngton.  for 
which  2  substations  will  be  built.     F.  A.  Jaby.  Ch.  Engr. 

Ont.  Windsor — The  City  Commissioners  plan  to  install  2  new 
electrically  driven  ))umps  in   its   pumping  plant. 

Que  Vallevfleld — The  Montreal  Cotton  Co.  plans  to  rebuild 
its  power  plant  which  was  recently  destroyed  by  fire  Loss 
$100,000. 


POWER 


IM 


\  ol.  47 

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM 


NEW  \ORK,  JANUAR\  29,  1918  No   ■) 

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illllllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIINIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIW  Illlllllllllllllllll 


Fooling  One's  Self 


Contributed  by  R.  B.  DALE 


THE  EASIEST  PERSON  in  the  world  to  fool 
is  one's  self.  There  is  a  very  good,  logical 
reason  for  this.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  of  us 
believe  just  what  we  want  to  believe.  The  engi- 
neer, of  all  men,  because  of  his  training  and 
experience,  should  be  more  proof  against  this 
mistake  than  others.  The  engineer  learns  to  base 
his  decision  on  facts.  Business  life  today  pre- 
sents some  very  unpleasant  awakenings  for  the 
man  who  bases  his  convictions  on  impressions 
rather  than  on  facts  and  principles.  The  engineer 
marshals  the  facts  together,  estimates  their  value 
and  reasons  logically  therefrom.  Such  a  man  is 
not  likely  to  be  in  the  wrong  very  often. 

The  Irishman  who  took  off  his  coat,  rolled  up 
his  sleeves  and  stated  that  he  would  like  to  see 
the  man  who  could  convince  him  that  he  was 
wrong,  evidently  was  not  very  anxious  to  be  con- 
vinced. Fooling  one's  self  is  a  popular  game.  The 
man  who  really  wants  to  know  whether  or  not  he 
is  fooling  himself  uses  every  possible  means  to 
test  his  ideas.  He  who  could  lick  the  big  Irish- 
man would  not  necessarily  prove  that  the  Irish- 
man was  in  the  wrong,  but  the  premise  would  be 
in  that  direction.  Because  the  expert  scorns 
your  favorite  idea,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow 
that  you  are  entirely  wrong,  but  it  does  mean 
that  you  must  put  it  to  the  most  rigid  test. 

THE  OTHER  DAY  a  man  put  a  little  white 
powder  in  a  pail  of  water  and  then  threw  the 
water  on  some  coal  that  he  put  in  the  furnace. 
He  wanted  the  dope  to  make  good.  He  wanted 
it  so  badly  that  he  did  everything  in  his  power  to 
create  favorable  conditions.  He  had  a  better  fire. 
He  made  less  smoke.  He  made  more  steam  with 
less  coal.  He  thought  it  was  the  dope  that  caused 
the  improvement.  As  long  as  the  white  powder 
lasted  that  fireman  had  wonderful  results,  but 
as  soon  as  it  was  gone  he  unconsciously  went  back 
to  his  old,  slipshod  methods  of  firing.    That  man 


was  fooling  himself.  He  would  have  done  even 
better  without  the  dope  had  he  taken  the  trouble 
to  improve  his  methods. 

Another  man  had  an  idea  that  he  could  get  re- 
markable efficiency  out  of  a  boiler  plant  by  pre- 
heating the  feed  water  in  a  separately  fired 
heater.  He  wanted  his  scheme  to  succeed,  an 
therefore  he  used  every  means  in  his  power  to 
make  it  succeed.  He  created  favorable  furnace 
conditions.  He  watched  the  apparatus  with  great 
care  and  directed  its  entire  operation.  He  got 
increased  efficiency,  but  he  did  not  stop  to  con- 
sider where  it  came  from.  Experts  told  him  that 
if  he  had  used  the  same  careful  methods,  he 
would  have  gotten  similar  results,  heater  or  no 
heater.    He  was  fooling  himself. 

DO  YOU  BELIEVE  the  methods  in  your  plant 
cannot  be  improved  upon?  Do  you  think 
that  you  cannot  get  more  power  with  less  coal 
than  your  records  now  show?  That's  where  you 
fool  yourself.  There  are  no  methods  so  good  that 
they  cannot  be  made  better.  It  has  been  asserted 
that  about  one-quarter  of  the  coal  burned  is 
wasted.  How  much  do  you  contribute  to  that 
waste  ? 

Are  you  doing  the  best  that  can  possibly  be 
done  with  the  facilities  and  equipment  at  hand? 
Of  course  you  think  you  are  and  that  is  fine,  but 
how  about  improving  the  equipment?  The  "old 
man"  won't  be  convinced.  That's  where  you  fool 
yourself.  Business  men  were  never  so  eager  to 
install  coal-saving  and  money-saving  equipment 
as  they  are  today.  Have  you  tried  to  put  the 
matter  before  him  in  a  clear-cut,  logical  way,  and 
have  you  proved  to  him  what  savings  might  be 
made  with  the  new  facilities? 

Are  you  fooling  yourself? 

Turn  the  searchlight  of  investigation  on  your 
own  methods.    It  will  pay. 


142 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


Condensers  with  Seventy-Foot  Water 

Level  Variation 


By  F.  R.  BROSIUS 


These  condenser  wells  are  five  i.-i  number.  The 
intake  well  is  80  ft.  deep  and  60  ft.  diameter. 
Tioo  condenser  wells  tvill  contain  all  the  condens- 
ing equipment;  each  is  SU  ft.  deep  and  68  ft. 
diameter.  The  two  discharge  wells  are  17  ft. 
diameter.  These  wells  are  necessarily  deep  oiving 
to  the  fiuctitating  water  in  the  Ohio  River,  which 
is  about  TO  ft.  between  extreme  low-  and  extreme 
high-water  levels. 

THE  most  interesting  and  unusual  feature  of  the 
West  End  Power  Station  of  the  Union  Gas  and 
Electric  Co.,  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  which  is  now 
Hearing  completion  under  the  supervision  of  Sargent 
&  Lundy,  is  the  tj^je  of  substructure  construction 
adopted  to  assure  a  satisfactory  supply  of  condensing 
water  under  unfavorable  conditions  and  to  support  the 
great  weight  of  the  building  and  equipment  on  unstable 
ground. 

The  site  chosen  for  the  station  was  the  location  of 
the  company's  old  artificial  gas  plant,  which  was  aban- 
doned when  natural  gas  was  brought  to  Cincinnati  and 
which  had  to  be  torn  down  before  the  new  station  could 
be  built.  This  location  is  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Ohio  River,  which  at  this  point  fluctuates  in  level  about 
70  ft.,  due  to  spring  floods  in  the  valley  above  Cin- 
cinnati. At  the  extreme  high-water  mark,  the  gas- 
works tract  was  covered  with  six  to  eight  feet  of  water. 
The  ground  consists  of  a  fill  of  cinders,  slag,  etc.,  about 
fifty  feet  deep,  resting  on   native  sand  and   gravel  at 


PIG.  1.     OOXriKNSKl;  WKLT.S  BET.OW  TT^RBTNK  ROOur 

an  elevation  of  approximately  440  ft. — making  the  sur- 
face approximately  490  ft.  above  sea  level. 

Obviously,  under  such  conditions  the  conventional 
arrangement  of  the  turbine-room  equipment  would  not 
be  feasible,  because  of  the  excessive  lift  of  condensing 
water  that  would  be  required  under  normal  operating 
conditions — that    is,   at   all   times   except    during   flood 


stage  of  the  river — if  the  equipment  were  placed  high 
enough  to  be  safe  from  water  at  all  times.  To  over- 
come this  obstacle,  the  construction  described  in  the 
following  paragraphs  was  used. 

The  building  is  constructed  with  a  river  wall  tangent 
to  a  chord  of  the  harbor  line  drawn  to  the  property 


K\7urbine  Room 
Floor  £1  510 


Ibo/  Lei^t 

ft  44 1.  ^ 


fxtreme 

L  WE! 
4il7 


FIG.  2.     CROSS-SECTIO.\'  OF  THK  WE.ST  COXnENSER  WRI^L 

line,  the  harbor  line  at  this  point  being  an  arc  of  a 
circle  of  4077.56  ft.  radius.  The  turbine  room  is  on 
the  river  side  of  the  building,  with  its  basement  floor 
at  an  elevation  of  502  ft.  15  in.  above  sea  level 
and  the  main  turbine-room  floor  at  an  elevation  of  516 
ft.  The  boiler  room  is  north  of  the  turbine  room,  with 
the  basement  floor  504  ft.  and  the  main  floor  522  ft. 
above  sea  level. 

To  provide  for  water,  five  wells  were  sunk  below  the 
turbine  I'oom,  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  center 
one  is  the  intake  well ;  on  either  side  of  it  is  a  con- 
denser well,  and  between  each  condenser  well  and  the 
intake  well  there  is  a  discharge  well.  Fig.  3.  Tunnels 
run  from  the  river  into  the  intake  well  and  from  the 
discharge   wells    into   the   river   bed. 

The  intake  well  is  86  ft.  deep  from  the  basement 
floor  to  the  well  floor  and  is  60  ft.  inside  diameter. 
This  depth  brings  *:he  bottom  of  the  well  to  a  level 
approximately  16  ft.  lower  than  the  extreme  low -water 
mark,  assuring  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  under  all 


.hiiuuiry 


mii* 


I'  O  W  R  R 


143 


river  coiulitions.  It  has  solid  reinforced-concrete  walla, 
(i  It.  thick,  from  the  bottom  of  the  well  to  the  base- 
tnent  Hoor.  This  well  contains  a  heavy  bar-iron  ^rill 
to  remove  the  coarser  debris  floatinK  in  the  river,  and 
behind  the  grill  traveling  screens  remove  any  rubbish 
not  caught  by  the  grill.  A  set  of  stationary  screens 
is  also  provided  to  supplement  the  traveling  screens 
when  necessary.  The  intake  tunnel  leads  into  the  bot- 
tom of  this  well.  It  is  163  ft.  long  from  the  river 
bed  to  the  wall  of  the  well  and  is  25  ft.  high  by  10  ft. 
wide  inside,  with  reinforced-concrete  walls  2  ft.  (5  in. 
thick.     The  mouth  of  this  tunnel  opens  into  the  river 


west  condenser  well  only  is  used  for  the  initial  installa- 
tion of  two  25,000-kw.  turbo-generators,  Fig.  2,  the 
east  well  being  reserved  for  a  future  increase  in  the 
capacity  of  the  plant.  This  well  contains  all  the  con- 
densing equipment  for  the  two  turbines,  which  exhaust 
through  pipes  13  ft.  in  diameter  and  62  ft.  long  into 
vertical  condensers,  each  with  52,000  sq.ft.  of  cooling 
surface.  These  condensers  and  all  auxiliaries  and  sump 
pumps  are  placed  on  the  floor  of  the  well,  which  is 
68  ft.  below  extreme  high  water. 

The  discharge  wells  are  17  ft.  inside  diameter,  with 
walls  3  ft.  thick.    As  with  the  condenser  wells,  only  the 


[in  [IZ]  LH]  [rU  LU^ill]  123  L 


Rear  Urn    of  Boilers-^  BOILEU  ROOM 


'-Future    Boilers 


■    >^l9-6%\ 


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--^ 


■DISCHARaC     W£LL. 
PLAN    OF  TURBINE    ROOM 


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20' 

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40' 


60'       80'       100' 
_l I — ~ 1 


extreme  fl.  W.  D 

500.9 

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txtrs/TK  High  -,       , 
Water  CI  Sm9\<J°„ 


Section   A -A 
FU;.  3.     PLAN  AXn  SIOCTION'  OF  ( -nNM HOiVSIOK  A.\'l>  l.VTAKK  WEILL.S 


DISCHARGE    TUNNEL 

Section    B-B 


on  the  slope  of  the  harbor  line,  avoiding  any  projec- 
tion into  the  river,  and  is  supported  on  piling  to  prevent 
any  damage  due  to  undercutting  by  the  river.  The 
river  bed  for  a  radius  of  25  ft.  from  the  tunnel  mouth 
is  riprapped  to  prevent  erosion. 

The  condenser  wells  are  each  68  ft.  inside  diameter 
and  84  ft.  deep  from  the  basement  floor,  and  are  water- 
tight to  a  point  above  the  flood  stage  of  the  river. 
The  floors  of  these  wells  are  of  solid  concrete  16  ft. 
thick  at  the  walls  and  30  ft.  thick  in  the  center,  and 
the  walls  are  of  reinforced  concrete  8   ft.  thick      The 


west  discharge  well  is  used  for  the  first  installation. 
Two  discharge  pipes  from  the  west  condenser  well  enter 
the  discharge  well  at  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  con- 
densers and  drop  to  the  bottom  of  the  well,  where  they 
are  sealed  into  the  end  of  the  west  branch  of  the 
di.scharge  tunnel.  Two  tunnels,  6x10  ft.  inside,  one 
from  each  discharge  well,  meet  at  a  point  south  of  the 
intake  well  and  below  and  west  of  the  intake  tunnel, 
and  form  a  single  discharge  tunnel  10x10  ft.  inside, 
with  walls  2  ft.  6  in.  thick,  which  extends  214  ft.  in 
a  downstream  direction  from  the  intei-section,  into  th^ 


144 


Tj  r\  Txr  IT  Tj 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


river.  The  construction  of  the  mouth  of  this  tunnel  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  intake  tunnel. 

In  the  operation  of  the  plant  condensing  water  will 
be  drawn  through  the  intake  tunnel  into  the  intake 
well,  where  all  foreign  matter  will  be  removed  from 
the  water  by  a  grill  and  screens.  It  will  then  pass 
through  54-in.  suction  pipes  extending  from  the  intake 
well  through  the  floor  of  the  condenser  well  to  the 
circulating  pumps,  then  through  the  condensers  and  in 
54-in.  discharge  pipes  to  the  discharge  well,  and  back 
into  the  river  through  the  discharge  tunnel.  The  entire 
water  system  from  the  point  where  the  water  enters 
the  suction  pipes  in  the  intake  well  to  where  it  leaves 
the  discharge  tunnel  in  the  river  is  a  closed  siphon, 
thus  making  any  lift  of  water  by  the  circulating  pumps 
unnecessary  and  making  their  only  duty  that  of  over- 
coming friction  in  the  piping  and  condenser  tubes. 

The  method  used  for  sinking  the  three  larger  wells 
is  of  interest  in  itself.  An  excavation  about  ten  feet 
deep  and  with  a  diameter  greater  than  that  of  the  well 
was  made  on  the  site  of  the  well,  and  a  circular  steel 
shoe,  or  cutting  edge,  made  of  12-in  channels  laid  flat 
with  plates  riveted  to  the  outer  flange,  with  its  outside 
diameter  the  same  as  that  of  the  well  to  be  sunk,  was 
set  up  on  the  bottom  of  the  excavation.  Concrete  forms 
were  then  set  up  on  the  shoe,  arranged  for  concrete  the 
width  of  the  shoe  at  the  bottom  and  then  by  12-in. 
steps  reaching  the  full  thickness  of  the  wall.  Concrete 
was  then  poured  in  to  make  a  ring  12  ft.  high.  When 
this  had  set,  the  forms  were  removed  and  the  excava- 
tion continued  inside  the  ring,  allowing  the  ring  to  sink 
of  its  own  weight.  By  continuing  this  process  of  alter- 
nately building  the  ring  higher  and  then  excavating 
and  allowing  it  to  settle,  the  well  was  sunk  to  the 
desired    depth.     When    this   had    been    reached,    water 


FTfi.   4.     INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  OXE  OF  THE  WEl.l.S 

was  let  in  the  well  and  the  inverted  dome-shaped  bot- 
tom concreted  under  water  by  the  use  of  a  submarine 
bucket.  Then,  when  this  had  set  thoroughly,  the  water 
was  pumped  out  and  the  remainder  of  the  concrete 
bottom  put  in.  The  discharge  wells  were  started  in  the 
same  way  as  the  larger  wells,  but  were  finished  as 
closed  caissons  under  air  pressure.  Figs.  4  and  5  are 
views  of  the  interior  and  exterior  of  the  wells  respec- 
tively. 

Part  of  the  weight  of  the  turbine  room  rests  on  these 


wells.  The  rest  of  the  weight  of  the  building  and  equip- 
ment is  supported  by  nine  rows  of  concrete  piers,  which 
were  sunk  to  firm  native  bed  gravel,  at  depths  varying 
from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
filled  ground. 

In  this  article  only  a  description  of  the  system  of 
wells   has   been  attempted,  as  a  detailed  story   of  the 


FIG.  5.     EXTERIOR  OF  WELLS.  SHOWING  FORMS  IN 
POSITION 

entire  plant  will  be  published  when  it  reaches  comple- 
tion. The  writer  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  the 
engineers  of  Sargent  &  Lundy,  who  planned  the  station, 
and  of  the  Foundation  Co.,  who  built  the  plant,  for 
their  cooperation  and  assistance  in  preparing  this 
article,  and  to  C.  R.  McKay,  consulting  engineer  for 
the  Union  Gas  and  Electric  Co.,  for  the  photographs 
reproduced  herewith. 

Abstracts  from  an  Engineer's   Letters 

Dear  Friend — Replying  to  your  inquiry  as  to  whether 
"the  design  of  a  boiler  joint  can  be  brought  out  so 
a  common,  everyday  engineer  and  fireman  can  make 
it  out  without  the  use  of  so  many  letters  and  combina- 
tions of  letters  that  the  whole  matter  is  befogged," 
I  will  say  of  course  it  can,  but  the  use  of  letters  is 
more  convenient  when  you  get  accustomed  to  them. 
In  justification  of  the  use  of  letters  and  their  com- 
bination into  groups,  it  may  be  said  that  almost  every 
engineer  or  fireman  does  exactly  the  same  thing  in 
his  daily  conversation,  where  no  effort  is  expended  in 
writing  it  out  and  no  valuable  space  is  used  up  on  a 
printed  page.  It  is  simply  a  short  mode  of  expression. 
He  hails  his  mate  as  "Bill"  instead  of  Mr.  William 
Muldowney,  for  example.  The  only  thing  necessaiy  is 
a  mutual  understanding  of  just  who  is  meant  when 
"Bill"  is  called;  for  if  there  are  others  of  the  same 
name,  there  must  be  some  other  distinguishing  name 
or  letter  and  in  many  places  the  true  initials  are  used, 
as  "Hello,  B.  M." 


January  29.  1918 


P  0  W  E  R 


145 


One  of  the  first  expressions  met  with  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  boiler  and  boiler  joint  is  the  "tensile 
strength"  of  the  plates  or  the  material  entering  into 
boiler  construction  subjected  to  tension.  If.  however, 
the  expression  is  to  be  frequently  used,  the  initial  T 
(sometimes  TS)  is  used  instead  of  the  full  name,  as 
in  the  case  of  "Bill."  Of  course  it  must  be  known 
what  the  term  tensile  strength  (T)  means  or  stands  for, 
l)ut  that  is  easy.  If  a  bar  of  any  material  of  convenient 
length  is  stressed  (pulled)  in  the  direction  of  its  length 
with  sufficient  force,  it  will  of  course  pull  apart,  and 
with  means  of  measuring  the  extent  of  the  force  applied 
(pounds  pull)  the  total  force  is  known.  An  ordinarj' 
spring  balance  may  be  used  to  test  the  force  necessary 
to  break  a  small  cotton  cord  and  be  satisfactory  for 
that  particular  cord,  but  for  comparison  with  cord  of 
another  material  the  size  (thickness)  of  each  must  be 
known,  so  in  testing  the  "T"  of  iron  and  steel  the 
standard  unit  of  one  square  inch  has  been  adopted. 

Therefore  T  is  understood  to  represent  the  stress  in 
pounds  required  to  pull  apart  a  bar  of  one  inch  square 
section,  or  its  equivalent,  which  may  be  a  bar  one-half 
inch  thick  and  two  inches  wide  or  any  such  combina- 
tion of  dimensions.  Furthermore,  the  test  piece  does 
not  necessarily  have  to  be  equal  to  one  square  inch 
so  long  as  its  actual  measurement  is  known,  for  if  it 
equals  one-half  a  square  inch  (not,  however,  one-half 
inch  square,  or  measuring  one-half  inch  on  each  face, 
which  would  be  only  one-fourth  of  a  square  inch)  and 
withstands  one-half  the  strain  that  a  bar  one  inch 
square  does,  their  T  is  the  same.  If  the  plates  from 
which  a  boiler  is  made  are  not  good  (low  T),  evidently 
its  ability  to  resist  the  steam  pressure  which  tends  to 
pull  the  fibers  apart  will  be  correspondingly  less. 

Taking,  for  an  experiment  in  the  design  of  a  riveted 
joint,  a  couple  of  strips  of  plate  10  in.  wide  and  j  in. 
thick  and  stamped  T  60,000,  the  solid  plate  would  be 
expected  to  pull  apart  at  60,000  X  10  X  -i  =  300,000 
lb.,  since  there  are  5  sq.in.  area  times  (T)  60,000.  But 
since  it  is  necessary  to  drill  holes  in  the  ends  to  joint 
the  pieces  together,  it  is  obvious  that  the  total  strength 
of  the  sample  will  be  correspondingly  less.  The  ques- 
tion then  arises.  How  many  holes  will  it  be  necessary 
to  drill  and  what  size?  If  five  1-in.  holes  are  drilled 
in  a  line,  then  one-half  of  the  width  of  the  sample  is 
cut  away  and  the  "net  section  of  the  plate"  is  only  50 
per  cent,  of  the  original,  and  therefore  the  joint  at  best 
can  only  be  one-half,  or  50  per  cent.,  as  strong  as  the 
plate.  Besides  that.  How  about  the  rivets?  Suppose 
rivets  made  of  lead  are  used,  the  joint  will  not  stand 
much  of  a  pull  because  the  lead  will  shear  off  easily. 
A  ruality,  then,  that  the  rivet  material  should  possess 
is  resistance  to  shearing  action.  This  is  designated 
as  S  (just  another  fellow's  initial),  so  S  =  shearing 
strength  and  its  value  is  anywhere  from  35,000  to  about 
42,000  lb.  per  sq.in.  cross-sectional  area  as  before,  only 
the  strain  is  across  the  bar  instead  of  endwise.  Suppose, 
then,  that  the  rivets  used  are  square  and  each  is  one 
inch  square  and  S  =  37,500,  how  many  will  be  required 
to  equal  the  strength  of  the  sample  already  drilled  with 
five  holes?  Answer:  300,000  -:-  37,500  -^  8  rivets. 
If  the  8  are  put  in  a  row  there  will  be  a  loss  of  ,■;, 
of  the  original  width  of  the  sample,  so  they  must  be 
placed  in  two  or  more  rows  or  other  means  used  to  im- 
prove conditions,  and  this  leads  a  step  farther. 


A  joint  made  by  lapping  one  edge  of  the  plate  over 
the  other  serves  well  erough  for  some  purposes,  but  the 
strain  tends  to  kink  the  plates  at  the  weakest  point, 
which  is  at  the  rivet  holes,  therefore  it  is  best  to  bring 
the  plates  edge  to  edge  and  to  use  a  narrow  "strap" 
to  join  them,  and  it  is  also  advantageous  to  use  such 
a  strap  on  both  sides  of  the  plates  so  that  the  rivets 
will  extend  through  both  straps  and  the  plate  between. 
This  is  termed  a  "double  butt-strap  joint,"  and  incor- 
porating the  statement  of  the  type  and  number  of  rows 
of  rivets  gives  a  full  description  of  the  joint,  such  as 
"triple-riveted  double-strap  joint,"  etc. 

When  double-butt  straps  are  used,  the  rivet  will  tend 
to  shear  at  two  points  of  its  length  instead  of  one, 
therefore  it  will  withstand  a  greater  strain,  and  this 
has  been  variously  stated  as  1,'  to  2  times  the  single 
shear.  The  A.  S.  M.  E.  Boiler  Code  Committee  ha.s 
adopted  the  value  as  twice  S  (stated  as  2S  or  SS  by 
different  writers)  for  rivets  in  single  shear,  and  this 
is  being  generally  adopted. 

To  get  back  to  the  experimental  joint,  then,  four 
rivets  in  double  shear  will  do  as  well  as  the  eight  in 
single  shear  or  will  equal  the  T  of  the  sample,  but  this 
.still  leaves  the  joint  strength  only  60  per  cent.  •  To 
increase  the  efficiency,  then,  the  holes  must  be  smaller 
and  spaced  farther  apart;  that  is,  less  of  the  plate  cut 
away  in  a  line  across  the  plate  in  drilling  rivet  holes. 
This  is  accomplished  by  increasing  the  pitch  in  any  row 
(pitch  is  abbreviated  to  P),  spacing  the  rivets  farther 
apart,  always  measured  from  center  to  center,  and  put- 
ting in  as  many  rows  as  may  be  needed  to  get  the 
desired  shearing  .strength.  There  are  limitations  to 
pitch  on  account  of  calking  the  joint  .steam-tight. 

Another  term  met  with  is  "crushing  strength"  (called 
C  for  short)  which  means  that  the  part  of  the  plate 
directly  in  front  of  the  rivet  may  crush,  the  same  as  a 
bar  of  flat  iron,  if  set  up  edgewise  and  subjected  to 
extreme  pressure,  would  crush.  This  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  tearing  out  of  the  rivets  through  the 
edge  of  the  plate.  The  crushing  strength  (C)  of  boiler 
plate,  as  indicated  by  numerous  tests,  is  about  95,000 
per  sq.in.  section,  so  that  value  is  generally  accepted 
as  the  value  to  use  in  all  calculations;  but  since  C  is 
such  a  high  value,  it  does  not  demand  serious  attention, 
for  the  joint  is  more  likely  to  fail  otherwise  before 
the  limit  of  C  is  reached.  The  thickness  of  the  plate 
is  shortened  to  f  and  the  thickness  of  the  butt  straps 
to  t,  or  these  may  be  varied  by  different  writers,  but 
a  list  of  abbreviations  is,  or  should  always  be,  given 
so  there  need  be  no  confusion  in  a  given  case. 

As  suggested  before,  the  net  section  of  the  sheet  be- 
tween the  rivc^-.  is  the  part  that  is  left  to  resist  the 
strain  (this  is  called  the  ligament),  and  the  same  applies 
to  the  slant  distance  between  adjacent  rows;  so  the 
rows  must  not  be  too  close  together,  for  the  plate  may 
fail  in  a  zigzag  line  from  a  rivet  in  one  row  to  an 
adjacent  one  in  the  next  row  and  hack,  even  though 
the  pitch  of  a  given  row  be  sufficient.  This  is  not 
likely  to  happen  if  consideration  is  given  to  the  manu- 
facturing process,  for  space  must  be  allowed  for  the 
"dolly"  used  in  riveting. 

I  think  you  and  your  friends  will  have  a  lot  of  fun 
designing  joints  (on  paper)  and  testing  them  out  by 
critical  analysis  and  incidentally  become  familiar  with 
the  "nicknames"  used. 


146 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  5 


A  Talk  to  Firemen  on  Saving  Coal' 


By  CHARLES  H.  BROMLEYf 


A  simple,  straight-from-the-shoulder  talk  to 
firemen,  giving  in  one  lecture  the  most  important 
things  to  do  to  get  the  most  out  of  coal  with  the 
hope  that  firemen  and  their  employers  will  be- 
come interested  enough  to  further  study  fuel 
economy  as  the  problem  confronts  them. 

FIRING  is  an  art  that  cannot  be  learned  from  books. 
Experience  alone  is  teacher.  But  one  becomes  a 
much  better  fireman  in  a  given  time  by  studying 
and  by  hearing  what  those  who  have  studied  the  sub- 
ject have  to  say.  That  is  why  your  good  friends  in 
Baltimore  have  arranged  this  meeting  for  you. 

Of  course  it  is  impossible  in  one  lecture  to  tell  you 
all  I  want  to  tell  you;  but  I  will  touch  the  most  im- 
portant points,  hoping  you  and  your  employers  will 
become  interested  enough  to  take  up  the  subject  and 
each  study  his  individual  needs. 

Employers  Need  Education 

So  much  is  at  present  said  about  how  firemen  waste 
coal  and  how  necessary  it  is  to  educate  them,  that  I  am 
impelled  to  say  that  the  employers  of  firemen  need 
more  education  on  the  use  of  fuel  than  do  the  firemen 
themselves.  The  most  skilled  and  technically  competent 
fireman  cannot  burn  coal  economically  unless  the  boiler 
and  furnace  are,  first,  suitably  designed  for  the  coal 
used  and,  second,  properly  maintained  in  repair  and 
cleanliness.  In  the  average  plant  the  fireman  has 
nothing  to  do  with  design  and  little  to  do  with  repair 
and  upkeep.  The  engineer  or  superintendent  is  properly 
responsible  for  these.  The  fireman  is  shown  the  boilers, 
given  the  most  ragged-edged  scoop  (the  older  fellows 
on  the  job  have  grabbed  the  best  ones)  and  put  to 
work.  Firing  is  hard  and  dirty  work,  and  the  class 
of  men  in  boiler  rooms  becomes  less  congenial  every 
year.    These  are  the  conditions. 

The  employer  should  learn  that  he  must  furnish  the 
most  suitably  designed  furnace  and  apparatus  if  he 
expects  good  results  from  his  boiler  room  day  in  and 
day  out. 

The  days  of  hand-firing  are  numbered.  The  great 
variety  of  mechanical  stokers  put  on  the  market  in 
the  last  few  years  adapts  the  stoker  to  almo.st  any 
coal  and  any  size  or  number  of  boilers.  There  is  every 
physical  and  labor  reason  why  the  commercially  un- 
avoidable waste  of  coal  by  hand-firing  should  cease. 
Firemen,  therefore,  should  visit  stoker-fii'ed  plants  and 
study  the  construction  and  operation  of  the  many  type.^ 
of  stokers.  Ask  your  employers  to  send  for  the  various 
stoker  catalogs  and  give  them  to  you.  But  do  not  use 
them  to  set  the  coffee  pot  on. 

The  more  the  fireman  knows  about  the  fuel  he  bums, 
and  how  and  why  it  burns, -the  better  he  can  burn  it. 
The  fireman's  job  is  to  put  into  the  water  in  the  boiler 


•From  a  lecture  to  the  fliemen  of  Baltimore.  Md.,  at  the 
Baltimore  City  Club.  Jan.  9.  under  the  au.spices  of  the  Baltimore 
Engineers'  Club,  the  Baltimore  Section  of  the' American  .Society 
of  Mechanical   Engineers  and  the   City  Club. 

tAssociate  editor.   "Power." 


all  he  can  of  the  heat  in  the  coal.  To  successfully  burn 
most  soft  coal,  the  combustion  chamber  must  be  of 
large  volume  and,  for  some  types  of  boilers,  have  arches 
and  wing  walls  to  thoroughly  mix  the  gases  rising  from 
the  coal.  The  hand-fired  horizontal  return-tubular  boiler 
and  most  hand-fired  water-tube  boilers  should  be  set 
so  that  the  heating  surface  nearest  the  fire  is  60  to  72 
in.  above  or  away  from  the  fire.  The  distance  for 
stoker-fired  boilers  should  never  be  less  than  60  in.  If 
the  settings  leak,  find  the  cracks  by  passing  a  lighted 
candle  over  and  near  the  brickwork  or  by  passing  the 
hand  over  the  setting.  Fill  the  cracks  with  a  mixture 
of  old  asbestos  from  disc^irded  pipe  covering  and  fireclay 
or  cement,  or  with  some  one  of  the  several  preparations 
on  the  market. 

It  is  to  be  assumed  that  the  baffling  is  tight  so  that 
the  gases  do  not  go  to  the  stack  without  passing  over 
the  heating  surface. 

The  following  refers  to  soft  coal:  Coal  is  composed 
of  carbon,  tarry  substances  in  solid  form  and  refuse. 
The  more  tarry  substances  the  coal  contains  the  more 
smoky  it  is.  When  heated,  the  tarry  substances 
vaporize,  like  ice  melts,  then  vaporizes,  if  throvni  on 
the  stove.  The  vapors  from  many  coals  begin  to  be 
driven  off  at  temperatures  as  low  as  400  deg.  F.  The 
usual  furnace  temperature  of  a  hand-fired  boiler  is  1800 
deg.  or  higher.  This  explains  why  soft  coal  smokes 
when  thrown  on  a  hot  fire — the  vapors  are  driven  off 
so  rapidly  and  are  so  dense  and  the  furnace  temper- 
ature so  reduced  by  blanketing  the  fire  that  smoke  or 
vapor  instead  of  gas  forms. 

Hints  on  the  Care  of  Fires 

The  following  instructions  apply  particularly  to  soft 
coal,  hand-fired,  but  are  true  in  general  for  hard  coal. 

Starting  the  Fire:  Cover  the  grate  with  about  three 
inches  of  lumpy  coal.  On  top  of  this  throw  wood 
enough  to  start  the  fire;  ignite  the  wood  with  oily  waste. 
The  coal  will  catch  fire  from  the  top  down  and  will 
not  smoke  disagreeably.  For  hard  coal  and  coal  having 
less  tlian  20  per  cent,  volatile,  like  the  New  River, 
Pocahontas,  Clearfield  and  others,  the  fire  will  start 
better  by  throwing  the  coal  on  top  of  the  wood.  Do  not 
try  to  make  a  thick  fire  at  the  start:  keep  it  thin  and 
hot  by  putting  on  the  forced  draft,  if  provided,  except 
in  a  Scotch  boiler  or  a  newly  set  boiler.  The  reason  is 
that  the  brickwork  is  cold  and  good  combustion  cannot 
be  had  until  the  brickwork,  especially  the  arches,  if 
there  are  any,  is  very  hot.  With  most  boiler  furnaces, 
letting  air  in  at  the  fire-doors  after  firing  will  prevent 
the  formation  of  black  smoke.  If  steam  jets  to  blow  air 
in  over  the  fire  are  provided,  use  them  for  a  minute  or 
so  after  coaling  the  fire. 

Holding  the  Fire :  Do  not  carry  the  fire  more  than  12 
in.  thick.  Cover  it  by  coaling  the  fuel  bed  first  on 
the  front  half;  when  this  has  burned  through,  cover 
the  back  half.  If  this  method  is  not  desirable,  coke 
the  coal  by  piling  it  at  the  dead  plate.  When  coked  as 
much  as  the  condition  of  the  fire  gives  time  for,  push 
the  coking  coal  onto  the  fire.  Cover  the  fire  only  where 
it  bums  away;  that  is,  in  the  "holes." 


January  29,  1918 


POWER 


147 


Use  the  slice  bar  seldom  and  be  careful  not  to  turn 
over  the  fire  so  that  ashes  or  clinkers  tret  on  top  of 
the  live  coals.  If  they  get  there,  they  will  melt,  run 
through  the  fuel  bed  and  harden  at  the  grate,  plugging 
the  air  spaces.  A  very  thick  fire  may  have  the  same 
effect,  except  that  the  grate  bars  may  become  overheated 
and  warp  enough  to  ruin  them.  Run  the  slice  bar 
between  the  grate  and  the  fuel  bed  and  raise  the  clinker 
enough  to  break  it  and  let  air  through  to  the  coal  above. 

With  ordinary  coal,  if  the  ash  and  clinker  give  fre- 
quent trouble  by  melting,  the  cause  is  likely  too  high 
furnace  temperature.  This  may  be  reduced  by  cooling 
the  furnace  arch  over  the  fire,  removing  it  altogether, 
exposing  the  bottom  row  of  tubes  if  covered  with  tile 
baffling  by  putting  the  tile  on  the  row  above,  or  by 
bricking  off  part  of  the  grate  if  the  highest  load  can 
be  carried  with  less  grate  area.  The  ash-fusing  tem- 
peratures of  Pocahontas,  New  River,  Clearfield  and 
Georges  Creek  coal  are  between  2400  deg.  F.  for  the 
first  to  2900  to  3000  deg.  F.  for  the  last.  Most  of 
the  Pittsburgh  and  Kentucky  coals  have  ash  that  melts 
at  as  high  and  few  at  lower  temperatures  than  these. 

Cleaning  the  Fires 

The  following  directions  are  applicable  to  a  station- 
ary grate.  Have  plenty  of  live  coal  before  beginning 
to  clean.  Push  the  live  coal  on  the  front  half  of  the 
grate  onto  the  back  half;  pull  out  the  ashes,  cover 
the  bare  grate  with  a  thin  layer  of  green  coal  and 
pull  all  live  coal  at  the  back  of  the  grate  forward  onto 
the  front  half.  "Jump"  the  ash  from  the  rear  over  the 
fire  and  out  the  door.    Cover  the  grate  as  before. 

Some  prefer  cleaning  one  side  half  and  then  the 
other.  The  method  is  the  same  except  that  the  live 
coal  is  pushed  or  "winged"  over  to  one  side,  the  grate 
cleaned  of  ash,  covered  with  green  coal  and  the  live 
coal  pushed  back.  The  same  is  done  with  the  other 
side  of  the  fuel  bed. 

With  shaking  grates  the  ash  is  shaken  into  the 
ashpit;  but  if  large,  heavy  and  hard  clinkers  foi'm, 
they  should  be  pulled  out  of  the  fire.  Shake  frequently 
enough  to  keep  the  fire  about  eight  inches  thick  and 
push  the  slice  bar  over  the  grate  and  under  the  clinker, 
lifting  it  enough  to  crack  it.  If  the  coal  crusts  over 
on  top,  break  the  crust  with  the  rake  frequently 

A  Few  Hints  on  the  Stokers 

With  most  stokers  cleaning  is  done  automatically;  but 
if  large  clinkers  form,  they  must  be  broken  so  the  air  can 
get  through  to  burn  the  coal  fed  to  the  fire.  The  coal 
now  being  delivered  in  most  localities  contains  half 
again  to  three  times  as  much  ash  as  that  supplied  be- 
fore the  war,  and  more  serious  clinker  trouble  results. 
No  rigid  directions  can  be  given  for  getting  clinker  off 
the  side  walls  without  too  quickly  destroying  the  wall. 
Experience  with  the  particular  coal  and  brick  in  the 
wall  must  govern  the  operator.  Be  careful  to  break 
the  clinker  so  as  to  burn  the  carbon  out  of  it  before 
the  clinker  gets  on  the  dump  plate,  otherwise  it  will 
continue  to  burn  there  and  in  some  stokers  will  burn 
out  the  plate.  Break  the  clinker  that  piles  up  near 
the  dump-plate  so  the  air  can  get  through  it  to  burn  out 
the  carbon. 

If  the  stoker  has  a  clinker  grinder  and  air  may  be 
admitted  to  the  clinker  on  the  grinder,  be  careful  not 


to  let  in  so  much  air  as  to  overbalance  what  may  be 
gained  by  burning  the  carbon  out  of  the  clinker.  Ex- 
perience gained  by  checking  up  with  analyses  of  the 
gases  and  experience  with  the  particular  coal  must 
govern  the  burning  of  carbon  from  the  clinker.  This  is 
true  whether  the  clinker  grinder  is  run  continuously 
or  the  clinker  accumulated,  ground  and  the  carbon 
burned  out  periodically. 

The  more  coal  you  attempt  to  burn  the  more  carbon 
there  will  be  in  the  ash,  other  conditions  unchanged. 

It  will  be  found  that  for  nearly  every  particular  coal 
and  type  of  setting  there  is  a  certain  combustion  rate 
above  which  it  is  uneconomical  to  go.  For  peak-load 
periods  this  rate  is  usually  exceeded.  The  engineer 
must  find  this  rate  and  instruct  you  accordingly. 

Do  not  regulate  the  draft  solely  by  the  ashpit  doors; 
use  the  back  damper,  which  should  be  operated  from 
the  boiler  front  where  the  draft  gage  should  be  located. 

Some  General  Hints 

Keep  the  coal  swept  back  away  from  the  boiler  front. 

If  you  find  you  cannot  help  coal  dropping  off  the 
shovel  and  going  into  the  ashpit,  tell  the  engineer  so 
and  let  him  put  screens  of  1-in.  mesh  at  the  ashpit-door 
openings. 

Pull  the  ash  from  the  ashpit  immediately  after  cleaning 
the  fire,  especially  if  the  ashpit  is  shallow.  This  avoids 
warping  the  grate  bars  and  prevents  the  formation  of 
clinker.     Keep  water  in  the  ashpit  if  it  is  very  shallow. 

Do  not  let  the  clinker  form  at  the  side  walls  so  badly 
as  to  interfere  with  the  feeding  of  the  coal  or  enough 
to  "arch"  over  the  fire. 

Never  crawl  under  a  fire  to  replace  a  grate  bar  that 
has  jumped  its  bearing.  It  is  too  dangerous  for  you 
and  too  costly  for  the  employer  if  you  are  badly  injured. 

Keep  the  business  end  of  your  scoop  trimmed  evenly. 
It  won't  spread  coal  rightly  if  it  has  a  raveled  edge. 

If  steam  jets  are  used  to  create  pressure  draft  under 
the  grate,  keep  the  jet  openings  free  of  the  lime 
or  other  solids  that  come  over  with  the  steam  and  plug 
the  tips. 

If  the  fine  anthracite  is  dry,  wet  it  before  firing, 
provided  it  cannot  freeze  before  you  want  to  shovel  it. 
If  it  blows  away  at  the  dead-plate,  clear  the  place  and 
put  lumps  of  coal  or  clinker  over  the  slit  from  which 
the  coal  blows  away. 

Feeding  water  to  the  boiler  is,  perhaps,  more  import- 
ant than  feeding  coal  to  the  furnace.  The  feed  water 
should  be  as  hot  as  exhaust  steam  and  live  steam  can 
make  it,  and  there  should  be  a  thermometer  in  the 
feed  line.  Aim  to  feed  water  when  the  load  is  light 
and  have  a  shade  more  than  two  gages  full  when  the 
heavy  load  comes  on,  so  that  you  can  shut  the  feed 
valve  almost  entirely  during  the  heavy  load.  When 
down  to  a  little  above  the  first  gage-cock,  open  the 
feed  valve  just  enough  to  keep  the  water  going  into 
the  boiler  as  fast  as  it  goes  out  in  the  form  of  steam. 
But  make  sure  the  injector  or  spare  feed  pump  is  ready 
for  business  in  case  the  feed  pump  breaks  down.  If 
the  water  is  such  that  it  foams  badly  at  heavj'  loads, 
keep  it  low  and  feed  it  continuously;  that  is.  don't 
try  to  fill  up  the  boiler  and  then  shut  off  the  feed  when 
the  heavy  load  comes  on.  Practice  will  tell  how  high  a 
water  level  you  may  have  before  you  get  foaming  trouble 
Clean  the  fires  during  the  lightest  load  periods  only. 


148 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


If  the  engineer  neglects  to  keep  in  working  order 
the  dampers,  damper  regulator,  the  balanced  draft  ap- 
paratus, the  feed  valves,  the  feed-water  regulator  or 
anything  important  to  the  boilers'  operation,  pester 
him  until  he  does  act.  If  he  is  still  negligent,  every 
man  jack  in  the  boiler  room  report  the  conditions  to 
the  chief. 

If  stoker-fired,  keep  the  stoker-coal  hoppers  full  all 
the  time  and  see  that  lumpy  coal  does  not  segregate 
at  one  side  or  both  and  fine  coal  in  the  middle  of  the 
hopper;  otherwise  you  cannot  keep  a  fire  free  of  holes. 
The  more  uniform  the  size  of  the  coal  fed  to  the  stokers 
the  better  fire  you  can  maintain. 

Never  allow  the  wooden  ladder  to  be  taken  from  the 
boiler  room,  even  by  the  chief  himself. 

It  is  foolish  to  try  and  cheat  the  CO,  recorder  or  the 
gas-sampling  tank.  You  can  do  it,  of  course,  but  you 
are  the  one  who  suffers.  Play  square  with  these  watch- 
men, who,  after  all,  are  your  best  friends. 

If  the  other  fellow  makes  a  better  firing  record  than 
you  do,  don't  get  sore — learn  from  him.  But  if  he 
cheats  by  shutting  off  the  blowers  on  his  boilers  and 
makes  yours  do  most  of  the  work — well,  use  your  own 
judgment. 

I  cannot  say  too  strongly  that  opportunities  for 
bright,  studious  boiler-room  men  are  great  now  and 
will  be  greater  as  time  goes  on.  There  is  always  a 
good  job,  at  good  pay,  for  the  man  who  knows  the 
boiler  room  and  how  to  get  the  most  out  of  it. 

M.  I.  T.  a  Military  Camp 

The  remarkable  registration  of  the  Massachusetts  In- 
--titute  of  Technology,  which  has  today  88  per  cent,  of  the 
Students  who  were  there  in  June  at  the  close  of  the  last 
tchool  year,  is  due  to  two  important  factors:  First, 
there  was  the  plain  statement  by  a  student  committee  to 
its  fellows  that  their  patriotic  duty  was  to  "sit  tight" 
and  finish  their  studies,  when  they  would  be  of  much 
greater  benefit  to  the  country;  and  second,  there  were 
the  summer  military  camps. 

Two  camps  were  established — one  for  sophomores 
(200  registered)  at  East  Machias,  Me.,  and  one  for 
juniors  in  Cambridge,  Mass.  The  Institute  has,  on  Gard- 
ner Pond,  Me.,  a  summer  engineering  camp  ground  of 
about  600  acres.  Attendance  there  is  obligatory  upon 
sophomores  in  the  civil-engineering  courses.  It  was  de- 
cided to  utilize  the  facilities  for  a  larger  sophomore 
camp  whose  studies  would  be  engineering  as  well  as 
military. 

Twelve  weeks  in  uniform  with  military  regime  was  the 
course,  and  to  assure  it  to  students  to  whom  the  uni- 
form,  transportation  and  camp  costs  would  be  a  burden 
yet  who  were  patriotic  in  wishing  to  undertake  it,  the 
expenses  up  to  $2.5,000  were  underwritten  by  Mrs.  Ed- 
ward Cunningham,  widow  of  a  former  member  of  the  In- 
stitute Corporation,  through  a  memorial  fund  to  her 
husband. 

The  work  at  East  Machias  included  all  kinds  of  engi- 
neering. Situated  on  the  lower  one  of  three  large  ponds, 
with  considerable  flowing  streams  at  hand,  hydraulics 
was  an  important  topic.  Railroad  engineering  was  also 
taken  up  under  natural  conditions  surrounding  such 
work,  and  trenches  were  laid  out  and  excavated.  The 
summer  was  passed  in  this  way,  and  the  students  were 


all  the  while  engaged  in  the  study  of  military  science 
and  evolutions  and  manual  with  considerable  artillery 
practice.  These  students  almost  to  a  man  returned  to 
the  M.  I.  T.  for  their  junior  year. 

At  the  same  time  the  junior  camp  was  established  at 
the  Institute  in  Cambridge.  This  was  a  camp  of  nearly 
200  students  in  khaki  uniform,  officered  and  taking 
calisthenics  and  military  work.  Students  who  wished  to 
attend  this  camp  but  whose  circumstances  would  ordi- 
narily have  caused  them  to  seek  positions  during  vaca- 
tion had  the  benefits  of  the  Cunningham  memorial  fund. 
There  students  with  a  long  day,  lasting  till  5 :  30  p.m., 
not  only  had  military  training,  but  were  anticipating  the 
studies  of  the  senior  year  so  that  they  will  actually  re- 
ceive their  degrees  a  month  hence  and  be  able  to  go  at 
once  into  that  technical  service  which  the  country  so 
much  needs. 

Institute  men  to  the  number  of  1200  are  already  in 
khaki  in  positions  of  responsibility  in  all  branche's  of 
military  and  naval  service,  while  a  larger  body,  more 
than  2000,  are  in  the  equally  necessary  supporting  in- 
dustries allied  to  war. 


Engine-Turning  Winch 

Many  devices  have  been  used  in  power  plants  for 
turning  engines  off  the  dead-center.  These  are  gen- 
erally bars  of  one  kind  or  another  by  which  the  engine 
is  pried  over,  the  bar  gripping,  or  engaging  in  holes 
or  notches  in,  the  flywheel  rim. 

A  different  method  of  doing  this  work  was  recently 
seen  in  operation  in  a  steam  plant.  The  engine  was 
a  center-crank  with  flywheel  governor.  In  the  rim 
of  the  flywheel  were  holes  for  changing  the  governor 
for    reverse    running.      On   the   floor    in    front   of   the 


WINCH  FOR  TURXI.VG   ENGINE 

flywheel  was  a  winch  over  the  drum  of  which  a  wire 
rope  was  wound,  the  loose  end  having  a  hook.  This  hook 
is  placed  in  one  of  the  holes  in  the  flywheel  rim.  On 
the  extension  of  the  winch  shaft  a  ratchet  is  attached 
to  which  is  fitted  a  handle. 

With  the  hook  in  the  hole  of  the  flywheel  the  ratchet 
is  operated,  thus  winding  up  the  wire  rope  and  turn- 
ing the  engine  to  the  desired  position.  The  winding 
.spool  is  prevented  from  turning  backward  by  a  dog 
engaging  with  the  gear  teeth. 


January  20.  1018 


POWER 


149 


Gas-Enmne  Troubles  and  Remedies 


By  a.  L.  BRENNAN,  JR. 


AlthoHuh  daiiii;/  tlii'  jjust  few  ijeam  inter, lal- 
combiistion  engines  have  reached  a  high  degree 
of  perfection,  they  are  still  subject  to  manij  of 
their  former  troubles.  How  these  troubles  may 
be  quickly  and  intelligently  diagnosed  is  told  in 
the  folloiving. 


THE  troubles  in  gas  eiiKines  can  in  the  most  part 
be  avoided  by  careful  attention,  but  at  the  same 
time  they  are  liable  to  take  place,  even  if  an 
engine  is  in  charge  of  an  expert.  It  must  not  be 
understood  from  this  that  gas  engines  are  not  entirely 
dependable,  for  the  service  they  are  giving  in  all  motive- 
power  applications  should  be  sufficient  to  convince  even 
the  most  skeptical  of  their  reliability. 

Considering  the  fact  that  the  functions  of  gas  engines 
are  partly  performed  by  combustion,  partly  mechanical 
and  partly  electrical,  it  is  not  surprising  that  they 
cause  trouble  at  times.  When  a  gas  engine  refuses  to 
start,  it  may  be  due  to  any  one  or  more  of  three  general 
causes — mechanical,  fuel  or  electrical. 

Mechanical  troubles  are: 

1.  Lack  of  compression. 

a.  Inlet  valves  stuck  (automatic). 

b.  Inlet  valves  out  of  time    (mechanical). 

c.  Broken,  scored  or  worn  piston  rings. 

d.  Dry  or  worn  cylinder. 

e.  Leaky  gaskets  or  compression  valves,  etc. 

f.  Faulty  exhaust  valves. 

2.  Excessive  friction. 

a.  Poor  quality  or  insufficient  lubrication. 

b.  Load  not  disengaged,  or  clutch  sticking. 
Fuel  troubles  are: 

a.  Insufficient  volume  of  gas  allowed  to  cylinders. 

b.  Improper  gas  mixture. 

c.  Water  in  cylinders. 

d.  Water  in  carburetor. 

e.  Needle  valve  of  carburetor  clogged  up. 

f.  Pipe  line  clogged  up. 

g.  Gasoline   supply    exhausted    or   tank   air-locked. 
h.  Throttle  not  opened  wide  enough. 

Electrical  troubles  are: 

a.  Open  circuit  due  to  switch  not  in  contact. 

b.  Open  circuit  due  to  loose  or  broken  wire. 

c.  Short-circuit  due  to  broken-down  insulation  on 

wires. 

d.  Igniters  hung  up  (mechanical  make-and-break). 

e.  Weak  or  depleted  batteries. 

f.  Poor  contacts  at  timer. 

g.  Vibrator  contact  points  dirty  or  out  of  adjust- 

ment, 
h.  Dirty  or  defective  spark  plugs.  * 

Although  there  are  many  minor  troubles  that  might 
be  listed  here,  they  would  in  general  only  tend  to  con- 
fuse the  operator.  The  leading  troubles,  as  outlined  in 
the  foregoing,  should  prove  of  benefit  to  the  average 
engineer  in  helping  him  to  quickly  decide  upon  and 
locate  an  existing  fault. 


As  a  first  step  toward  locating  trouble  in  a  gas  engine 
the  mechanical  features  of  the  motor  should  be  tested 
by  trying  the  compression.  That  is,  crank  the  motor 
over  with  all  relief  valves  and  cocks  closed;  if  con- 
siderable resistance  is  encountered  on  the  compression 
.stroke  without  any  indication  of  binding,  it  is  evident 
tiiat  the  compression  is  good  and  that  the  valves  and 
other  actuating  parts  that  control  the  compression  are 
in  good  order.  It  must  be  remembered  that  each  cylin- 
der should  undergo  this  test  and  if  the  compression 
is  not  satisfactory,  the  cause  should  be  ascertained  and 
remedied.  No  internal-combustion  motor  can  develop 
its  maximum  power  without  good  compression,  although 
it  may  be  able  to  operate  in  a  fairly  satisfactory  way. 

Also,  if  the  compression  is  good,  the  features  affect- 
ing the  combustible  are  in  all  probability  in  good  order 
as  well.  These  have  to  do  with  the  factors  that  control 
efficient  carburization.  Carburetors  are  an  auxiliary 
feature  of  a  gas  engine  for  converting  the  liquid  fuel 
into  a  gas,  but  at  the  same  time  carburization  is  largely 
dependent  upon  the  condition  of  the  motor.  Therefore, 
any  troubles  that  interfere  with  good  compression,  such 
as  a  badly  pitted  exhaust  valve,  for  instance,  also  oper- 
ate against  efficient  carburization,  and,  as  already 
stated,  this  point  is  brought  out  by  testing  the  com- 
pression. Therefore  the  first  thing  for  an  operator  to 
do  when  confronted  with  difficulty  to  start  is  to  tr>- 
the  compression;  if  this  is  good,  the  trouble  is  in  the 
carburetor  or  the  ignition. 

When  Motor  Fails  To  Pick  Up 

Assume  that  the  ignition  is  known  to  be  in  good 
order,  and  an  attempt  to  start  the  motor  is  made  but 
ft  fails  to  pick  up,  and  each  cylinder  is  primed  and  the 
motor  again  cranked  over.  If,  now,  the  engine  starts 
and  runs  in  a  regular  manner,  it  shows  that  there  was 
nothing  much  at  fault  to  begin  with  and  that  the  motor 
failed  to  start  owing  to  lack  of  fuel  in  the  cylinders 
when  finst  cranked  over.  But  on  the  other  hand,  sup- 
pose that  after  priming  and  cranking  the  engine  it 
fired  the  priming  charges  and  stopped,  accompanied  by 
sharp  backfiring  in  the  intake  manifold  or  carburetor 
on  four-cycle  motors,  or  in  the  base  or  carburetor  on 
two-cycle  motors.  Backfiring  of  this  nature  indicates 
a  weak  mixture,  but  does  not  necessarily  show  that 
the  needle  or  air-valve  adjustments  are  at  fault,  for  the 
trouble  may  be  due  to  the  needle  valve  in  the  carburetor 
being  clogged  up  or  the  flow  of  gasoline  in  the  pipe 
line  may  be  impaired  by  sediment  or  the  tank  may  be 
airbound,  etc.  If,  after  priming  and  cranking  the 
engine,  no  explosions  took  place,  this  would  indicate 
that  the  motor  is  flooded.  Therefore  the  next  thing  to 
do  is  to  get  rid  of  the  extra  gas,  by  closing  the  throttle, 
opening  the  relief  cocks  and  cranking  the  engine  over 
several  times.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  the  switch  on 
during  this  cranking,  for  then  when  the  gas  is  thinned 
down  sufficiently,  firing  will  take  place  and  the  motor 
will  start.  Just  as  soon  as  the  motor  picks  up  its 
cycle,  open  the  throttle  a  little  and  close  the  relief  valves 
or  cock  and  then  advance  the  spark. 


150 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


Remember  that  failure  to  start  is  not  due  to  a  re- 
tarded spark,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  the 
spark  be  advanced  before  the  engine  is  operating  under 
its  own  power.  Failure  on  the  part  of  the  operator  to 
fully  retard  the  spark  before  cranking  has  resulted  in 
many  serious  accidents.  When  a  motor  is  started  either 
with  or  without  being  primed  and  runs  in  a  powerful 
manner  for  two  or  three  cycles,  but  slows  down  or 
stops  sluggishly,  it  is  in  nearly  every  case  a  positive 
indication  of  an  over-rich  mixture,  consequently  steps 
should  be  taken  to  reduce  the  amount  of  gasoline  allowed 
or  increase  the  volume  of  air. 

On  the  other  hand,  suppose  it  appears  that  the  igni- 
tion is  at  fault.  The  best  way  to  see  if  the  entire  system 
is  all  right  is  to  test  the  spark  plugs,  if  the  motor  is 
equipped  with  high-tension  coils.  To  test  the  plugs 
they  should  be  removed  from  the  cylinders,  the  high- 
tension  wires  reconnected  and  the  threaded  portion  of 
the  plugs  rested  upon  the  cylinder,  care  being  taken  to 
keep  the  top  of  plug  and  terminal  from  contact  or 
near  the  cylinder.  Then  place  the  switch  in  position 
and  crank  the  engine  over  to  the  several  firing  points — 
that  is,  to  the  firing  point  of  each  cylinder — and  note 
if  a  spark  takes  place  between  the  points  of  the  plugs. 
If  a  good  spark  appears  at  each  plug,  evidently  the 
ignition  is  good,  but  this  should  not  be  taken  as  final 
for  the  reason  that  a  weak  battery  or  poorly  adjusted 
coil  can  produce  a  spark  under  natural  conditions,  but 
the  same  potential  will  prove  inadequate  to  induce  an 
electric  arc  in  the  high  pressure  inside  the  cylinder. 
Therefore  this  fact  should  be  kept  in  mind,  and  unless 
an  exposed  plug  shows  a  good,  fat  spark,  steps  should 
be  taken  to  make  up  this  discrepancy  by  adjusting  the 
coil  or  using  new  batteries. 

Another  point  to  remember  in  connection  with  spark 
plugs  is  that  the  porcelain  part  is  liable  to  crack  and 
cause  them  to  fail  in  their  function,  owing  to  the 
cui;rent  leaking  throujh  the  cracked  porcelain  and 
grounding. 

If,  when  the  motor  was  turned  over  to  the  firing 
point,  no  spark  appeared  at  any  one  or  r^orc  plugs,  but 
the  vibrators  worked  all  right,  this  would  show  that  the 
existing  trouble  is  either  in  the  secondary  windings  of 
the  coil,  in  the  high-tension  wires  or  in  the  spark  plugs. 
It  is  very  rare  that  an  operator  is  troubled  by  a  defective 
coil,  therefore  the  trouble  is  probably  due  to  a  loose 
high-tension  wire  or  to  a  defective  spark  plug,  and  so 
the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  change  the  spark  plug  of  the 
faulty  cylinder  to  one  that  is  known  to  be  in  good  work- 
ing order. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  motor  was  turned  over  to 
the  firing  point  of  each  cylinder  and  each  vibrator  failed 
to  buzz,  it  would  indicate  a  weak  or  depleted  battery, 
loose  or  broken  wire  in  the  primary  circuit,  poor  con- 
tacts at  timer  or  vibrator  contact  points  dirty,  pitted 
or  out  of  adjustment. 

Some  Shaft-Governor  Pointers 

One  evening  as  Willis  was  passing  the  plant  of  the 
Davis  Machine  Co.,  where  a  young  fellow  named  Arnold 
was  in  charge  of  a  couple  of  shaft-governed  cross- 
compound  engines,  he  noticed  that  Arnold  was  putting 
in  some  overtime,  and  as  the  latter  usually  made  it 
a   point  to   get   away   from   the  plant    about   as   soon 


as  the  ofiice  boy,  Willis  stepped  in  to  see  if  he  could 
be   of  any   help. 

"What's  the  trouble?"  he  'sked,  as  Arnold  stuck  his 
head  up  by  the  governor  whsel.  "I  thought  you  would 
be  at  the  movies  by  this  time." 

"Movies  nothing,"  growled  Arnold.  "I  have  all  the 
movies  that  I  want  right  here  with  the  blasted  governor 
of  this  engine." 

"What  seems  to  be  the  trouble?  Perhaps  I  can  help 
a  little." 

"Racing,  that's  all.  You'd  thin'v  Uiat  the  blamed 
engine  was  going  to  its  first  circus  if  the  speed  were 
anything  to  go  by." 

"Well,  let's  see  if  we  can't  r-et  down  to  brass  tacks 
before  you  take  that  governor   down.     What   receiver 


IT'S    Kl.XI)    OF    FrX.VV    YOUR    KNGINE    SHOULD    ST.VKT    To 
R.ACE    ALL    OF    A    .SUDDEN 

pressure  have  you  been  getting  since  this  trouble 
began?" 

"Oh,  around  45  to  50  lb.  Of  course  that  is  high, 
but  what  can  a  fellow  do?  The  plant  has  to  run,  racing 
or  no  racing." 

"Sure,  sure.  But  it's  kind  of  funny  that  your  engine 
should  start  to  race  all  of  a  sudden,  when  it  was  runnim: 
all  right  only  a  couple  of  weeks  ago.  Do  anything  to 
her  since  then?" 

"Nothing  to  speak  of,"  answered  Arnold.  "I  did  a 
little  valve  setting  about  a  week  and  a  half  ago,  but 
that  hasn't  had  anything  to  do  with  the  racing.  Hov.- 
could  it?" 

"Now  let  us  reason  together,  as  so"ieon°  hns  said. 
You  carry  about  115  lb.  of  steam  at  the  throttle  and 
get  between  45  and  50  lb.  receiver  pressure.  It  looks 
to  me  as  if  there  was  something  the  matter  with  the 
valve  setting.  I'll  bet  your  fireman  will  swear  that  you 
are  eating  up  steam  faster  than  you  used  to." 

"He  has  kicked  a  little,  lut  I  told  him  it  was  his 
imagination.    I  don't  see  how  it  could  be  anything  else." 

"If  I  were  you,  Arnold,  I  would  look  at  the  valves  just 
the  same.  Suppose  we  take  off  the  bonnets  and  see 
what  we  shall  see.  I  have  an  idea  that  you  are  blowing 
live  steam  right  into  the  receiver  from  the  high- 
pressure  cylinder." 

"I  don't  believe  it,  but  just  to  show  you  that  you 
are  wrong  we  will  look  into  things  and  see." 

"There  you  are,"  exclaimed  Willis  when  the  valvn 
were  exposed  to  view.     "Just  what   I   thought.     You 


January  29,  1918 


P  O  V\  K  R 


151 


have  given  the  steam  valve  about  ,\-in.  negative  lead, 
and  your  piston  will  be  at  about  i;  of  its  stroke  when 
the  valve  opens  and  keeps  open  until  near  the  end 
of  the  stroke.  At  the  same  time  the  exhaust  valve 
on  that  end  of  the  cylinder  is  open  and  the  steam  doesn't 
do  a  thing  but  rush  right  out  through  the  exhaust  port 
to  the  receiver.  Can't  you  see  that  you  are  working 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  at  a  pretty  high  pressure'.' 
It's  no  wonder  that  the  engine  races.  Let's  set  these 
valves  as  they  should  be  and  see  what  happens  when 
you  start  up. 

"Another  thing  for  you  to  consider  is  that  with  this 
valve  setting  an  excessive  back  pressure  is  set  up  in 
the  high-pressure  cylinder  and  of  course  that  reduces 
the  power  developed  by  that  cylinder.  With  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder  doing  the  most  of  the  work,  it  is  out 
of  the  control  of  the  governor  and  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  engine  wouldn't  race.  Now  with  these  valves 
set  properly,  according  to  my  notions,  I'll  bet  a  plugged 
ten-cent  piece  that  your  engine  will  govern  all  right." 

When  Arnold  started  up  for  a  tryout,  he  found  that 
the  tendency  to  race  had  disappeared. 

"Well,  I'll  be  blown!"  he  exclaimed.  "I  wouldn't  have 
believed  I  had  set  those  valves  so  as  to  knock  out  that 
governor.     I'll  be  more  careful  the  next  time." 

"That  is  a  good  resolution  to  make,  but  every  engi- 
neer should  be  so  familiar  with  his  engine  that  he 
knows  just  what  he  is  doing  when  changes  are  made. 
And  that  applies  to  the  governor.  Many  times  poor 
regulation  is  due  to  a  faulty  governor — not  so  much 
in  the  design  as  to  the  wear  of  parts,  which  will  fre- 
quently cause  them  to  bind.  A  governor  should  be 
knowTi  to  be  in  balance  as  to  weights  and  friction." 

"I  don't  get  you,"  said  Arnold  as  he  seated  himself 
on  the  edge  of  his  desk.  "How  are  you  going  to  find 
out  whether  the  weights  and  friction  balance,  what- 
ever that  is?" 

"That's  easy  enough.  All  you  have  to  do  is  to  detach 
the  springs  from  the  weight  arms  and  move  the  weights 
out  to  their  full  travel  and  back  again  with  a  free 
movement.  If  the  governor  binds,  it  is  well  in  tes^'ng 
out  to  remove  the  eccentric  rod  so  as  to  give  the  gov- 
ernor free  action  without  having  to  drag  the  valve  gear. 
Working  the  weight  arm  from  one  position  to  another 
will  give  a  good  idea  as  to  whether  there  is  binding 
in  the  parts  or  not.  If  there  is  a  feeling  of  sticking, 
you  won't  have  to  guess  very  much  as  to  where  the 
trouble   is." 

"Suppose  you  do  feel  a  sticking  when  working  the 
weight  arms,  what  are  you  going  to  do  about  it,  and 
where  would  you  look  for  the  cause?" 

"The  first  thing  I  would  do  would  be  to  examine 
the  pins  and  bearings  to  see  if  they  were  getting  enough 
oil,  or  for  caps  binding  on  the  end  of  the  pins.  If 
you  feel  a  sticking  of  the  movement,  you  can  be  pretty 
sure  that  the  trouble  is  in  some  of  the  governor  bear- 
ings or  pins.  Naturally,  if  after  testing  out  the  gov- 
ernor it  is  found  to  be  all  right,  you  will  turn  your 
attention  to  the  valve  gear.  It  may  be  that  a  pressure 
plate  is  binding,  or  the  valve  stem  may  bind  in  the 
stuffing-box.  Flat  pins  can  bring  about  a  lot  of  trouble." 
"I  don't  see  why  that  should  be,"  said  Arnold  as 
he  started  to  remove  his  overalls  ami  jumper  prepara- 
tory to  getting  ready  to  go  home. 

"That's  easy  to  explain.     When  an  engine  runs  day 


after  day  with  practically  the  same  load,  the  bushings 
and  pins  will  wear  out  of  true,  because  the  governor 
arms  assume  practically  the  same  position  during  the 
run.  Naturally,  the  pins  and  arm  bearings  wearing 
together  have  a  free  motion,  but  if  the  load  changes 
to  any  great  extent  so  that  the  weight  arms  take  a 
new  position,  the  bearing  between  the  ai-ms  and  the 
pins  do  not  fit  properly  and  exce.ssive  friction  is  set 
up,  often  so  great  that  the  governor  sticks,  the  result 
being  that  the  engine  will  race." 

"I  guess  there  is  considerable  in  what  you  have  said," 
answered  Arnold.  "One  thing  is  sure  and  that  is  that 
poor  valve  setting  will  cause  an  engine  to  race,  but  for 
the  'love  of  Mike'  don't  go  away  from  here  and  tell 
the  bunch  what  a  mess  I  made  of  setting  those  valves." 

"I  won't,"  replied  Willis,  as  he  buttoned  up  his  over- 
coat. "I've  been  guilty  of  pulling  off  just  such  fool 
stunts  myself" ;  and  with  this  he  left  Arnold  to  wash 
up,  while  he  hurried  home  to  another  belated  supper. 

Tank-Overflow  Alarm 

By  T.  a.  Nash 

An  effective  tank-overflow  alarm  circuit  is  detailed  in 
the  figure.  When  the  tank  becomes  so  full  that  water 
flows  through  the  discharge  pipe,  the  water  impinges 


PIPE 


^— f  I'liMini^ 

M\aa\\  1  niM 

,  WATCR  STOPAM  TANK 


IMPINOINO  ■■ 
PLATC  •■ 


LAYOUT  OF  TAXK  AND  ALARM  CIRCUIT 

on  a  block  mounted  on  the  end  of  a  lever  as  shown.  This 
forces  the  contact  point  P  of  the  lever  against  the  metal 
contact  B  and  completes  the  signal  circuit,  causing  the 
bell  to  ring. 


Experience  has  shown  that  undercutting  the  mica  is 
desirable  on  most  commutators  having  peripheral  speeds 
exceeding  1500  ft.  per  min.  In  the  case  of  very  low 
speeds,  slight  undercutting,  possibly  one  sixty-fourth 
inch,  may  be  desirable.  Nonabrasive  brushes  should 
always  be  used  with  undercut  mica,  because  where  there 
is  little  wear  on  either  brush  or  commutator,  there  will 
be  practically  no  grinding  off  of  either  copper  or  carbon, 
hence  no  fine  material  to  fill  the  grooves.  In  general, 
undercutting  is  entirely  satisfactory  for  any  machine 
operating  at  engine-type  or  higher  speeds. 


152 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — Forms  of 

Field  Magnets 


Some  of  the  earlier  and  the  modern  types  of 
field- frame  structures  used  for  direct-current 
machines   are    described. 


THE  function  of  the  field  magnet.s  in  an  electric 
generator  or  motor  is  to  furni.sh  the  magnetic 
field,  which  in  a  generator  is  cut  by  the  armature 
conductors  to  generate  voltage,  and  in  a  motor  reacts 
upon  the  current  flowing  in  the  armature  conductors 
to  produce  rotation.  In  the  development  of  the  dynamo- 
electric  machine  the  field  magnets  have  taken  on  a 
multiplicity  of  forms.  The  field  magnets  of  the  earlier 
types  of  dynamos  were  permanent  horseshoe  magnets, 
similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  1.  Even  today  this  type 
of  field  pole  is  used,  in  some  cases,  on  small  magnetos 
for  ignition,  signaling  and  other  purposes.  However, 
this  form  of  magnet  was  never  used  on  machines  of 
any  considerable  size,  chiefly  because  the  magnets  would 
have  to  be  very  large;  the  strength  of  the  magnets  de- 
creases when  in  use,  owing  to  the  vibration  of  the 
machine  and  the  effects  of  the  magnetic  field  set  up 
by  the  current  in  the  armature  winding;  also  because 
there  is  no  way  of  controlling  the  strength  of  the  field, 
which  is  the  chief  means  usually  employed  for  con- 
trolling the  voltage  of  the  generator  or  the  speed  of  an 
adjustable-speed  motor.  These  defects  soon  led  to  the 
adoption  of  electromagnets ;  that  is,  coils  of  wire  placed 
on  polepiece  of  soft  iron  and  excited  from  some  source 
of  electric  current. 

Early  Types  of  Field  Magnets 

Since  the  permanent-magnet  field  poles  were  of  the 
horseshoe  shape,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  most  all  of 
the  earlier  electromagnets  used  for  field  poles  were  of 
this  form.  Fig.  2  shows  one  of  the  early  types  of 
Edi.son  two-pole  machine,  and  Fig.  .3  is  a  somewhat  later 
and  improved  type  of  the  same  machine.  In  this 
arrangement  of  poles,  if  they  were  mounted  on  an  iron 
base  it  would  short-circuit  the  magnetic  field;  that  is, 
instead  of  the  lines  of  force  passing  from  the  N  pole 
across  the  air  gap,  and  through  the  armature  core  into 
the  S  pole,  they  would  take  the  easier  path  around 
through  the  iron  base.  To  overcome  this  defect,  a  non- 
magnetic plate  of  brass  or  zinc  was  placed  between  the 
polepieces  and  the  baseplate,  as  indicated.  To  prevent 
the  lines  of  force  from  leaking  out  along  the  armature 
shaft  down  through  the  bearing  pedestals  into  the  base 
of  the  machine  and  back  into  the  polepieces,  the 
pedestals  were  usually   made  of  brass. 

To  get  away  from  the  nonmagnetic  bearing  pedestal 
and  bedplate,  the  polepieces  were  turned  upside  dovra 
with  the  armature  placed  in  the  top,  as  in  Fig.  4.  With 
this  arrangement  the  field  magnetism  passes  from  the 
N  pole  into  the  armature  through  the  armature  core 
into  the  S  pole,  and  down  around  through  the  base- 
plate. Another  fomi  of  field  magnet  is  that  in  Fig.  5. 
This  type  was  usually  mounted  on  a  wooden  base,  for 


the  same  reason  that  the  nonmagnetic  plate  was  used 
in  Figs.  2  and  3 

In  all  the  foregoing  schsmes  the  flux  from  the  pole- 
pieces  passes  directly  from  one  field  pole  into  the 
armature,  and  then  to  the  opposite  pole  and  around 
through  the  field  structure.  Such  an  arrangement  is 
called  a  salient-pole  machine. 

Consequent-Pole  Type  Machine 

Another  type  of  field  pole  used  in  the  development 
of  the  electric  machine  is  given  in  Fig.  6.  In  this 
construction  if  the  top  of  one  field  coil  is  made  north 
and  the  other  south,  the  lines  of  force  will  flow  from 
the  N  pole  around  to  the  S  pole  without  ever  passing 
through  the  armature  at  all,  To  overcome  this  difficulty 
the  top  ends  of  both  coils  are  made  the  same  polarity ; 
therefore  the  bottom  ends  must  also  be  the  same 
polarity,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  In  this  arrangement 
the  two  N  poles  oppose  each  other,  and  the  lines  of 
force  must  take  the  next  easiest  path,  which  is  down 
through  the  armature  to  the  S  pole.  A  machine  having 
a  field  frame  in  which  like  poles  oppose  each  other,  so 
as  to  cause  the  flux  to  pass  through  the  armature,  is 
called  a  consequent-pole  machine.  One  of  the  serious 
objections  to  this  type  is  that  the  opposing  poles  cause 
a  heavy  magnetic  leak  around  through  the  air  from 
the  N  to  the  S  pole;  that  is,  instead  of  all  of  thr  flux 
passing  from  the  N  pole  into  the  armature  and  then 
to  the  S  pole,  a  large  number  of  the  lines  fly  out  in 
all  directions  into  the  air  and  around  to  the  S  pole. 
This  leak  constitutes  a  direct  loss.  In  all  types  of 
machines  there  is  always  a  certain  amount  of  magnetic 
leakage,  but  it  is  much  more  pronounced  in  the  conse- 
quent-pole machine  than  in  the  salient-pole  type. 

Motors  or  generators  with  only  two  poles  are  called 
bipole  machines;  those  having  more  than  two  poles, 
that  is,  four,  six,  eight,  etc.,  are  called  multipolar 
machines.  None  of  the  types  of  field  frames  so  far 
considered  lend  themselves  readily  to  multipole  con- 
struction, consequently  very  few  of  these  types  were 
developed    into   multipole   designs. 

Materials  Used  in  Field  Poles 

The  arrangements  of  poles  in  the  field  frame  that 
have  been  exploited  could  be  carried  out  almost  indefi- 
nitely, but  the  one  design  that  is  now  used  almost 
exclusively  is  the  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  7.  This 
construction  is  of  the  salient-pole  type;  that  is,  there 
are  no  opposing  poles.  This  design  can  be  used  as 
readily  for  bipole  as  for  multipole  construction. 

All  of  the  earlier  field  frames  and  polepieces  were 
constructed  of  cast  iron  or  steel.  In  some  of  the  mod- 
ern types  the  whole  field  structure  is  laminated;  that 
is,  built  up  of  thin  sheets  of  iron  or  steel.  Others 
again  have  a  cast-iron  yoke  to  which  laminated  pole- 
pieces  are  bolted.  The  yoke  is  the  circular  portion  in 
Fig.  7.  Other  types  have  cast-iron  polepieces  with 
laminated  poleshoes.  The  poleshoe  is  indicated  in  Fig. 
7.     This   part   is   built   up   of   thin    sheets    of    iron    or 


.liiiuiary  2i).  1!)18 


POWER 


153 


steel  and  bolteil  to  the  cast-iron  polepiece.  This  sul).iect 
will  be  given  a  more  detailed  study  in  future  lessons. 
FiK.  8  shows  the  layout  of  the  study  problem  given 
in  the  last  lesson.  The  current  reciuired  by  the  motors 
is  equal  to  total  horsepower  X  current  per  horsepower 
=  37.5  X  3-8  =  142.5  amperes;  the  current  consump- 
tion of  the  lamps  equals  the  watts  required  per  lamp 
X  the  number  of  lamps  -:-  volts  =  75  X  64  ^ 
235  —  20.4  amperes;  and  the  total  current  is  the  sum 
of   that   required   by  the   motors   and    lamps,   or    142.5 


f  a 

tw 

:  g 

f  s 

■     =: 

(0 

;     =;s 

■      ^ 

^ 

"    -^ 

— z- 

~=: 

= 

^ 

s 

= 

-= 

— - 

^  ^-^ 

mm\\\' 

FIQ. 


FIG.  2 


since  the  National  Hoard  of  Fire  Underwriters  allow 
it  to  be  loaded  up  to  300  amperes.  Total  watts  = 
volts  X  total  current,  or  JV  =  EJ  =  235  X  162.9  =^ 

,  ,  .,        ..  ^  38,281.5        ooooic 

38,281.5;  total  kilowatts  =   ^^j^^^   -       1000^  ^  38.2315. 

The  total  time  during  which  the  power  was  used  is 
hours  per  day  X  number  of  days.  In  this  problem 
6.5  X  26  =  169  hours.  Then  kilowatt-hours  = 
kilowatts  X  hours  =  28.2815  X  169  =  6470.  The  cost 
of  the  first  800  kw.-hr.  at  7.5c.  per  kilowatt-hour  is  800 


POLEPIECE-H 


FIQ.  e 

FIGS.    1    To    7.      niFFKUKNT   TYPES   OP   FIELD-POLES    FOR    I  >IKECT-CURRENT   MACHINES 


-f  20.4  =  162.9  amperes.  The  volts  drop  in  the  line 
\s  Ed=  £"  —  E„  =  240  —  235  =  5.  Then  the  size 
of  the  conductor  required  is 

21.4^7      21.4  \  475  X  162.9 

FJ,i     ~  5 


CIr.wllK. 


331,176 


or  the  nearest  larger  size  standard  conductor  is  350,- 
000  cir.mils.,  which  is  the  size  that  will  have  to  be 
used.    This  size  rubber-covered  conductor  can  be  used. 


X  7.5  =  $60.  The  next  1000  kw.-hr.,  at  6c.  per 
kilowatt-hour,  cost  1000  X  6  =^  $60.  The  rjmainins 
kilowatt-hours  =  6470  —  1800  =  4670,  and  the  cost, 
at  4.5c.  per  kilowatt-hour,  is  4670  X  4.5  -  ,$210.15, 
and  the  total  cost  is  60  +  60  +  210.15  =  $330.15. 

1.  What  will  be  the  voltage  drop  per  foot  of  copper 
wire  18,750  cir.mils.  in  cross-section,  when  transmitting 
a  current  of  35  amperes? 


154 


POWER. 


2.  Three  lamps  having  a  resistance  of  45,  90  and  180 
ohms  respectively,  are  connected  in  parallel  at  the  end 
of  a  75-ft.  circuit,  the  conductors  of  which  have  a  cross- 


WATTMETER 


E'240 


-475- 


FIG.    8.      FEEDER    AND    BRANCH    CIRCUTTS 

section  of  6530  cir.mils.  If  135  volts  are  applied  to  the 
power-plant  end  of  the  circuit,  what  current  will  flow 
through  the  lamps?  Also  the  current  taken  by  each 
lamp? 


Power  Without  Cost? 

The  Paterson  (N.  J.)  Morning  Call  of  a  recent  date 
contains  the  description  a  "near  perpetual  motion" 
discovered  by  a  local  inventor  who,  it  is  said,  has  been 
granted  a  patent  on  the  device,  which  is  expected  to 
develop  unlimited  power  by  the  upward  rush  of  air 
through  a  conical  stack  or  tower  containing  a  vertical 
shaft  on  which  are  several  propefler-shaped  blades. 
"The   apparatus   may   permit    mills    to    discard    coal." 


APPARATUS    FOR    DEVELOPINO    POWER 

"Model  develops  325  r.p.m."  (doing  no  work  except — 
overcoming  its  own  friction  presumably).  The  inventor 
"is  too  modest  to  permit  the  use  of  his  name."  "He 
does  not  wish  his  apparatus  to  be  confused  with  so- 
called  perpetual-motion  machines."  The  reporter,  how- 
ever, suggests  that  "if  the  machine  is  as  successful 
as  he  claims  it  will  be,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should 


not  be  perpetual,  as  the  air  currents  are  continually 
mounting  skyward."  "It  is  not  expected  that  one  of 
these  towers  will  furnish  enough  power  for  ordinary 
manufacturing  purposes,  but  a  whole  battery  of  towers 
can  be  put  in  use  at  the  same  time,"  and  "it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  use  any  kind  of  manufactured  drafts 
or  currents." 

Engineers  will  recognize  the  fallacy  of  the  reasoning 
in  the  foregoing,  in  that  there  can  be  no  upward  flow 
of  air  except  when  the  air  inside  a  chimney  is  at  a 
higher  temperature,  therefore  lighter.  A  chimney  is 
the  simplest  form  of  heat  engine  and  at  the  same  time 
probably  the  most  inefficient.  It  costs  something  to 
"stir  up  a  breeze"  in  any  case,  and  even  if  it  costs 
nothing  to  produce,  it  might  easily  cost  more  than  it 
is  worth  to  get  any  useful  work  out  of  it. 

"Ideal"  Commutator  Resurfacer 

A  commutator  resurfacer  made  of  abrasive  nonmetal- 
lic  material  has  been  perfected  recently  by  the  Ideal 
Commutator  Dresser  Co.,  8  South  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago. 


APPLICATION  OF  RESURFACER  TO  A  COMMUTATOR 

The  resurfacers  are  made  in  various  sizes  to' fit  any 
condition  of  service.  They  are  secured  to  permanent 
handles,  giving  the  operator  easy  control  of  the  device 
while  on  the  commutator.  The  resurfacer  is  designed 
to  do  what  would  be  accomplished  by  putting  the  com- 
mutator in  a  lathe  and  turning  it  down.  There  are  two 
grades,  known  as  coarse  and  fine.  The  former  is  rec- 
ommended for  bad  commutators;  the  latter  for  a  com- 
mutator in  fair  condition.  Both  cut  down  high  mica, 
high  bars  and  smooth  out  low  spots,  ridges  and  grooves. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  abrasive  material  of  the  resurfacer 
does  not  collect  copper  dust  nor  wear  smooth.  Conse- 
quently there  should  be  no  short-circuiting,  so  that  the 
device  may  be  applied  to  a  commutator  or  to  collector 
rings  while  the  machine  is  in  operation.  The  illustration 
shows  one  of  several  designs  of  resurfacer  with  handle, 
made  by  the  company. 


January  29,  1918 


POWER 


155 


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■^^;,,: f M~ ;=„.,.if:::r:ri, ' ■-'' " '   1  ]  }  0  J*  ■!/ 


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156 


p  ri  w  h'  p 


Vc!.  47,  No.  5 


Work  of  the  New  Orleans  Fuel 
Administration  Committee 


By  LEO  S.  WEIL 


This  article  describes  the  work  being  done  by  the 
New  Orleans  Committee  of  the  United  States 
Fuel  Administration  to  conserve  the  supply  of 
coal  in  that  city  under  the  direction  of  the 
writer,  who  is  actijic/  as  Advisory  Engineer  to 
the  committee.  Considerable  saving  of  coal  has 
already  been  effected. 


THE  Fuel  Administrator  has  appointed  state 
administrators  with  advisory  committees,  whose 
duties  are  (1)  to  stimulate  production,  (2)  to 
regulate  prices,  (3)  to  control  the  distribution,  and 
(4)  to  conserve  the  supply  of  coal.  While  these  duties 
are  all  important,  those  which  deserve  the  greatest 
attention  at  the  present  time  are  stimulating  the  pro- 
duction and  conserving  the  supply.  If  these  two  aims 
can  be  carried  out  successfully,  there  will  be  sufficient 
coal  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  all.  The  New  Orleans 
Committee  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration 
has  inaugurated  an  energetic  campaign  for  fuel  con- 
servation, and  an  outHne  of  the  work  being  done  will 
probably  be  of  interest  to  other  communities. 

After  a  careful  study  of  the  situation,  the  committee 
decided  that  coal  could  be  saved  in  three  ways:  (1) 
By  the  substitution  of  other  fuel  where  available,  (2) 
by  shutting  down  unnecessary  plants  and  lightening  the 
loads  on  plant.';  that  must  run  and  (3)  by  improving 
operating  conilitions.  Steps  were  first  taken  to  find 
a  substitute  for  coal,  and  to  this  end  a  letter  was  sent 
to  all  woodworking  plants  in  New  Orleans  and  vicinity 
asking  for  a  report  on  the  amount  of  wood  waste  they 
had  in  excess  of  their  own  requirements,  with  the  idea 
of  using  this  excess  instead  of  coal  wherever  it  was 
commercially  practical.  To  obtain  this  information 
"General  Letter  No.  4"  was  sent  out. 

Unnecessary  Plants  Shut  Down 

Investigation  showed  that  the  ice  plants  of  the  city 
operate  in  the  winter  months  at  about  one-third  of 
their  normal  capacity,  and  an  arrangement  was  there- 
fore made  whereby  a  large  number  of  these  plants  were 
shut  down  and  the  remainder  run  at  nearly  normal 
capacity  supplying  ice  to  those  which  were  shut  down. 
Cooperation  to  the  same  end  has  been  received  from 
other  industries  such  as  the  laundries  and  the  New 
Orleans  Railway  and  Light  Co.,  which  have  dispensed 
with  all  unnecessary  loads.  The  greatest  possibility 
of  saving  exists,  however,  in  improving  plant-operating 
conditions,  and  to  this  the  committee  is  devoting  much 
of  its  effort.  The  Government  has  appealed  to  mine 
workers  to  speed  up  the  production  of  coal  in  order 
to  take  care  of  the  increased  demand,  and  it  was  thought 
that  a  similar  plea  could  well  be  made  to  power-plant 
owners,  their  engineers  and  firemen  not  to  waste  coal, 
because  any  amount  of  coal  saved  would  be  of  even 
more  benefit  than  a  corre.sponding  increase  in  produc- 


tion, as  it  would  release  freight  cars  for  other  service. 
A  meeting  of  the  industrial-plant  managers  was  there- 
fore called,  at  which  the  necessity  of  fuel  conservation 
and  the  individual  duties  of  owners,  engineers  and  fire- 
men were  impressed  on  those  present.  It  was  pointed 
out  to  the  managers  of  the  plants  that  one  of  the 
principal  reasons  that  they  did  not  receive  the  most 
eflficient  cooperation  from  their  operating  forces  was 
because  suggestions  from  the  latter  were  not  given 
proper  consideration  when  these  suggestions  called  for 
improvements  entailing  a  small  expenditure.  They  were 
advised  to  encourage  suggestions  from  their  engineers 
even  if  they  did  not  always  adopt  them,  because 
nothing  stimulates  the  interest  of  a  man  in  his  job  so 
much  as  the  realization  that  his  opinion  is  valued  and 
that  any  improvement  in  results  that  he  obtains  will 
not  pass  unnoticed.  The  plant  owners  were  given  to 
understand  that  they  would  not  be  expected  to  make 
large  investments  to  improve  operating  conditions,  but 
that  they  would  be  expected  to  keep  their  present 
equipment  in  good  condition  and  to  utilize  this  equip- 
ment to  the  best  advantage.  "General  Letter  No.  6" 
was  distributed,  pointing  out  where  most  of  the  easily 
preventable  wastes  occur  in  steam  plants,  and  it  was 
requested  that  the  various  suggestions  on  this  sheet 
be  checked  up  to  see  that  these  wastes  were  cut  to  a 
minimum. 

Committee  of  Owners  Formed 

The  necessity  of  cooperation  on  the  part  of  both 
owners  and  engineers  was  strongly  urged,  and  it  was 
decided  to  form  a  committee  of  owners  and  also  an 
organization  of  engineers  to  assist  in  this  work.  In 
pursuance  of  this  policy  "Circular  Letter  No.  8"  was 
sent  to  all  industrial  plants  in  the  city,  and  it  is  gratify- 
ing to  state  that  pledges  of  cooperation  and  support  were 
received  from  all  these  plants.  A  committee  of  five  in- 
dustrial-plant owners  has  been  appointed  to  confer  with 
the  advisory  engineer  and  to  help  direct  this  work. 
"Questionnaire  No.  9-A"  has  been  mailed  to  the  engi- 
neer of  every  plant  in  the  city.  The  information  called 
for  on  this  questionnaire  will  indicate  whether  the  re- 
sults being  obtained  are  as  good  as  they  should  be  and 
will  help  to  show  why  they  are  not  good  if  the  efficiency 
is  low.  A  committee  of  operating  engineers  will  also 
be  appointed  to  assist  the  advisory  engineer  in  analyzing 
these  reports,  and  suggestions  will  be  made  to  each  plant 
on  the  best  method  of  improving  its  operating  condi- 
tions. This  same  staff  of  engineers  will  also  visit  the 
various  plants  to  study  conditions  and;  after  consulting 
with  the  engineer  of  that  plant,  will  report  to  the  owner 
on  possible  savings  that  can  be  effected.  A  similar  ques- 
tionnaire will  be  sent  out  each  month,  and  the  replies 
received  will  show  what  saving  is  being  made.  Posters 
that  have  been  prepared  by  the  United  States  Fuel 
Administration  (General  Letter  No.  6)  will  be  placed 
in  every  boiler  room  and  an  appeal  made  to  the  firemen 
to  show  their  patriotism  by  following  directions  on  these 
posters. 


.Tanuarv  20,  1018 


POWER 


157 


Both  engineers  and  plant  managers  have  shown  every 
inclination  to  help  the  work  alon^,  and  a  considerable 
saving  has  already  been  effected,  which  will  be  in- 
creased as  time  goes  on,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  results 
obtained  will  fully  justify  the  effort  made. 

General  Letter  No.  4 
To  the  Woodworking  Plants  of  New  Orleans. 

Gentlemen:  As  an  aid  in  the  work  of  fuel  conservation,  the 
New  Orleans  Committee  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Admin- 
istration request  that  you  g'ive  them  the  following-  infor- 
mation: 

1.  What  kind  of  power  do  you  use  to  operate  your  plant? 

2.  Do  you  make  any  use  of  the  wood  waste  obtained  in  man- 

ufacturin.!2r  your  product? 

3.  Does  this  waste  exceed  your  own  requirements,  and  what 

disposition  do  you  make  of  the  excess  ? 

4.  State  the  amount  of  this  excess  and  advise  whether  you 

are  willing  to  dispose  of  it  to  other  steam   plants   in 
your  vicinity. 

5.  Give  the  names  of  the  plants  in  your  neighborhood  that 

might  be  able  to  use  this  wood  waste  as  a  t^ubstitute 

for  other  fuel. 

If  further  information  is  needed  by  you  in  order  to  answer 

these    questions,    you    will    please    communicate    with    the 

advisory  engineer  of  the  board,  Leo  S.  Weil,  303  Whitney- 

Centi'al  Building. 

Your  prompt  cooperation  will  be  of  great  assistance  to 
the  committee,  and  is  earnestly  requested. 
Yours  very  truly, 

Harold  W.  Newman,  Chairman. 

General  Letter  No.  6 
To  the  Users  of  Industrial  Coal  in  New  Orleans. 
Subject:  How  To  Reduce  Coal  Wa-tc. 

1.  Keep  the  heating  surfaces  of  the  boilers  free  from  soot, 
scale  and  oil. 

2.  See  that  the  baffling  is  in  good  condition  and  that  the 
gases  follow  the  proper  path. 

3.  Be  sure  that  the  boiler  settings  are  tight  and  free  from 
air  leaks. 

4.  Work  your  boilers  up  to  their  rated  capacity.  Do  not 
have  more  boilers  in  operation  than  are  necessary  to  caiTy 
the  load. 

5.  Do  not  have  too  much  grate  surface  for  the  size  of 
the  boiler. 

6.  Do  not  have  openings  in  grates  so  large  as  to  lose  a 
large  amount  of  combustible  with  the  ash. 

7.  Fire  light  and  often,  spreading  the  coal  over  the  thin 
spots  in  the  fire. 

8.  Keep  the  fires  level  and  free  from  holes. 

9.  Use  the  dampers  to  regulate  the  draft;  not  the  ashpit 
doors. 

10.  Do  not  can-y  the  fires  so  thin  or  have  so  much  draft  as 
to  draw  a  lot  of  excess  air  through. 

11.  Do  not  carry  the  fires  so  thick  or  cut  down  the  draft 
so  much  as  to  have  incomplete  combustion  of  the  coal. 

12.  Admit  some  air  over  the  fire  to  complete  combustion. 

13.  Do  not  soak  the  coal  with  water  before  firing. 

14.  Be  sure  the  blowoff  valves  do  not  leak. 

15.  Do  not  have  the  safety  valve  popping  off'  continually. 

16.  Use  your  exhaust  steam  to  heat  the  feed  water;  do 
not  waste  it. 

17.  Have  the  valves  on  your  engines  properly  set. 

18.  Minimize  I'adiation  losses  by  covering  steam  pipes. 

19.  Do  not  allow  the  waste  of  steam  through  leaky  traps, 
valves,  etc. 

20.  Never  use  live  steam  where  exhaust  is  available  and 
can  be  used  as  well. 

21.  Do  not  have  belts  too  tight  or  so  loose  that  they  slip; 
keep  all  shafting  in  line. 

Circular  Letter  No.  8 

To  the  Managers  of  the  Industrial  Plants  of  New  Orleans. 

In  accordance  with  the  suggestions  presented  at  the 
meeting  last  Thursday  night,  it  has  been  decided  to  form 
an  organization  of  owners  of  industrial  plants  in  this  city 
to  cooperate  in  the  efforts  for  the  conservation  of  fuel.  All 
coal  users  in  New  Orleans  will  be  expected  to  join  this 
organization,  and  a  committee  will  be  appointed  from  the 
members  to  cooperate  with  the  New  Orleans  committee  of 
the  United  States  Fuel  Administration. 

The  members  of  the  organization  will  pledge  themselvej 
to  use  every  eff"ort  to  save  coal;  to  follow  sug,gestions  ap- 
proved by  the  local  committee  to  this  end;  to  provide  the 
necessary  instruments  for  ascertaining  their  operating 
conditions;  and  to  keep  records  of  these  conditions,  which 
will  be  submitted  periodically  to  the  Fuel  Administration. 


The  local  committee  is  confident  that  the  patriotism  of 
all  steam  users  here  will  prompt  them  to  join  in  this  work. 
You  are  requested  to  signify  your  intention  of  cooperating 
by  filing  your  membership  pledge  with  the  committee  not 
later  than  Dec.  21. 

The  engineers  of  the  local  industrial  plants  will  also  be 
organized  for  the  same  purpose,  and  you  are  requested  to 
bring  this  matter  to  the  attention  of  your  engineer  and  ask 
him  to  pledge  himself  to  the  work,  at  the  same  time. 

A  meeting  of  the  operating  engineers  will  be  called  to 
discuss  ways  and  means  of  conserving  coal,  as  soon  as  the 
replies  are  received. 

We  urge  upon  you  the  necessity  of  this  fuel  conservation 
work,  and  feel  that  we  may  count  upon  your  cooperation. 
Yours  very  truly, 
Harold  W.  Newman,  Chairman, 

New  Orleans  Committee   Federal   Fuel  Administration 
for  Louisiana. 


December  .....  1917. 
Kindly  enroll  the  undersigned  in  the  conservation  cam- 
paign of  the  United   States  Fuel  Administration  as  above 
indicated. 


Name  of  engineer  employed: 


After  signing  the  above,  and  furnishing  the  information 
requested,  kindly  return  to  the  New  Orleans  Committee, 
Federal  Fuel  Administration,  402  Canal  Bank  Annex. 

Questionnaire  of  the  Power  Plant,  No.  9-A 

(Date) 

Name  of  plant Manager Engineer 

No.  of  boilers  in  plant make size 

grate  surface 

Plant  runs.  .  .  .hr.  per  day.  .  .  .days  per  mo mos.  per  year 

Daily  output  of  plant  in  per  cent,  of  maximum 

No.  of  boilers  operated method  of  firing 

Kind  of  fuel  used Amount  per  day Heating 

value B.t.u. 

*  Water  evaporated  per  day per  lb.  of  fuel 

*Temperature  of  feed  water 

*  Average  stack  temperature 

*  Average  per  cent.  CO2 

*Draft  in  furnace in  uptake (usual) . 

Usual  thickness  of  fires 

Do  the  firemen  keep  fires  level  and  free  from  holes? 

Are  the  boiler  walls  cracked  or  leaky  ? 

Is  the  baflling  in  good  condition  ? 

Is  the  heating  surface  clean  from  soot  and  scale? 

How  often  are  the  tubes  blown  ? System  of 

blowing 

Do  the  blowoff  valves  on  the  boiler  leak  ? 

Ai*e  the  valves  on  your  engine  properly  set  ? 

When  indicated  last 

Is  steam  pipe  covered  ? 

Live  steam  used  for 

Exhaust  steam  used  for 

Can  you  suggest  any  way  of  reducing  the  fuel  consumption 

of  your   plant,  and   how   much   do   you  estimate   can   be 

saved  ? 

■Mf  yon  Int'k  in.strument.^  to   tnensuT-e  tliese.  SMy  so. 


THKHIO   AUlO   (1T11I':U.>^ 


158 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


Faulty  Lubricating  Methods 

By  Charles  W.  Oakley 

The  brasses  of  the  eccentric  rods  on  a  large  engine 
are  of  the  marine  type.  An  oil  hole  drilled  through  the 
end  of  the  brass  and  an  oil  cup  mounted  on  a  pipe  con- 
nection, as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  were  to  provide  the  means 


_^ 


FIG.   1.      OIL  CUP  SHOULD 
BE  AT  A 


FIG. 


Fig.  1,  gives  a  clear  idea  of  what  may  be  done  to  over- 
come the  difficulty.  A  f\j-in.  hole  is  drilled  in  the  soft 
part  of  one  jaw  of  the  pliers.  Then  by  inserting  the 
end  of  the  wire  to  be  wound  and  rotating  the  plier, 
a  perfect  tight  joint  is  obtained. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  wire-splicing  tool  that  makes  an  ex- 
cellent joint.     It  winds  the  joint  tight  up  to  the  very 


^ 


0 


iQi      ^ 


J 


1 


STRAP    SHOULD   BE 
OILED   AT   C 


KIO.    3.      SUGGESTED    RINGS 
SHOULD    BE    AT    D 


of  lubrication.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  lubrica- 
tion should  be  by  way  of  the  oil  hole  A  in  the  top  of  the 
brasses,  the  cup  being  of  little  value  because  the  oil 
fed  from  it  flows  to  the  bottom  of  the  brasses  and  away 
from  the'  pin,  which  has  its  principal  bearing  at  the 
top.  If  the  pin  made  an  entire  revolution  instead  of  a 
slight  rotating  movement,  the  oil  from  the  cup  would  do 
some  good,  but  in  any  event  the  cup  should  have  been 
mounted  on  top  of  the  brasses  with  an  oil  hole  leading 
down  through  the  rod  end  and  brasses  to  the  pin. 

Another  case  of  poor  design  in  applying  lubrication 
is  found  on  the  eccentric  strap  of  the  same  engine,  where 
the  oil  is  introduced  through  the  strap  at  B,  Fig.  2.  As 
the  direction  of  rotation  is  toward  B,  as  shown  by  the 
arrow,  most  of  the  oil  is  carried  down  and  lost  at  the 
slack  side  or  bottom  of  the  eccentric  strap.  If  the  oil 
cup  were  mounted  at  C,  the  oil  would  be  carried  im- 
mediately to  the  top  of  the  eccentric  where  the  weight 
of  the  .strap  and  rod  are  supported,  and  the  lubrication 
would  be  accomplished  with  less  oil. 

In  the  same  plant  a  pair  of  jackshaft  bearings  carry  a 
6i-in.  shaft,  the  journal  being  about  26  in.  long  and 
constructed  about  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  They  are  of  the 
ring-oiling  type  with  a  single  ring  in  the  middle  of  the 
bearing,  covered  and  hidden  from  view  by  the  cap  and 
yoke.  This  single  split  ring  is  not  only  insufficient  to 
carry  oil  enough  to  properly  lubricate  the  bearing,  but 
in  case  of  the  ring  stopping  or  coming  apart,  which  has 
happened,  there  is  no  way  of  detecting  it  until  the  bear- 
ing is  overheated.  A  pair  of  oil  rings  placed  at  D,  D, 
with  an  opening  over  each  for  observation,  would  give 
better  results  and  insure  against  a  possible  shutdown 
from  a  hot  bearing. 

Tools  for  splicing  Wire 

By  M.  p.  Bertrande 
Everyone  knows  what  a  difficult  job  it  is  to  splice 
solid  hard-drawn  copper  or  iron  wire  without  suitable 
tools.  In  order  to  obtain  a  perfect  joint,  tension  must 
be  exerted  on  the  wire  ends  while  winding  the  splice, 
and  this  cannot  very  easily  be  done  with  the  common 
type  of  cutting  pliers.    The  self-explanatory  illustration, 


end  of  the  wire,  something  impossible  with  any  kind 
of  pliers.  While  the  joint  is  being  made,  tho  other 
end  of  the  wire  is  held  by  a  pair  of  pliers.  The  tool 
consists  of  a  piece  of  machine  steel  B,  Fig.  3,  to  which 
a  right-angle  extension  C  is  riveted.  Three  holes  for 
the  different  sizes  of  wire  are  drilled,  for  holding  the 


Fin.S     1    T(P    4,      SPLICING    TOOLS.    P.^RTS    .\N'n    .\SSEMBLY 

ends  of  the  wire  to  be  wound  on  the  splice,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  4.  The  holes  for  the  wire  should  be  well 
rounded,  as  shown  at  E,  Fig.  3,  so  as  to  give  the  wire 
a  good  sliding  surface. 


January  29.  1918  PCfWKR  159 

gjllliiiiiiiilililiiiiiilllllllllllliiiiiiiiillllllllliiillllllllillliiiillllllilllllllllilllilllillliililiiiiiliiiiiiiiiliiiiiililililiilllliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiili iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii;iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiit^ 


Editorials 


aiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiMiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iimiimMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin; 


The  Pooling  of  Power 

AT  THE  meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of  Elec- 
trical Engineers  held  in  New  York  on  January 
eleventh,  there  was  read  and  discussed  a  very  timely 
I)aper,  "The  Effect  of  War  Conditions  on  the  Cost  and 
Quality  of  Electric  Service,"  by  L.  S.  Goodman  and  W.  B. 
Jackson.  Toward  the  close  of  the  discussion,  W.  N.  Smith 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  the  large  manu- 
facturing districts  in  and  about  New  York  and  other 
large  cities  there  are,  among  the  larger  factories,  many 
steam-power  electric-generating  plants  which  could  be 
made  available  as  auxiliaries  to  the  central  stations  in 
times  of  emergency  by  commandeering  them  into  a  pool- 
ing system  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Federal  or  state 
authority,  which  could  be  exercised  through  public-util- 
ity commissions  or  boards  of  engineers  appointed  for 
the  purpose.  While  such  auxiliary  stations  could  not 
generate  with  as  little  fuel  per  kilowatt  as  the  large 
central  station,  their  load  factors  would  probably  be 
benefited.  These  distributed  facilities  and  fuel  sup- 
plies already  existing  would,  in  times  of  shortage,  be- 
come immediately  available  for  the  needs  of  the  com- 
munity without  having  to  wait  longer  than  it  would 
take  to  switch  the  auxiliary  equipment  to  the  existing 
systems  of  distribution. 

The  application  to  public  use,  on  an  extended  scale,  of 
such  stand-by  auxiliaries,  would,  of  course,  have  to  be 
carefully  worked  out  by  competent  engineers,  but  it  is 
perfectly  feasible  of  accomplishment,  both  as  to  appa- 
ratus and  circuit  connections. 

With  a  system  of  private  plants  pooled  under  con- 
trol of  public  authority,  it  would  become  possible  to 
enforce  greater  fuel  economy  than  now  exists  in  many 
of  the  factory  plants  available  for  commandeering,  since 
they  would  be  supervised  by  engineers  who  would  be  in 
a  position  to  enforce  the  most  economical  methods  of 
operation  under  the  circumstances.  It  is  an  unfortunate 
fact  that  the  average  factory  plant,  in  which  the  expense 
for  fuel  and  power  is  small  in  comparison  with  the  total 
manufacturing  cost,  is  not  run  as  economically  as  a  sim- 
ilar plant  owned  by  a  public-service  corporation  or  a 
manufacturer  whose  principal  expense  is  for  steam 
power.  The  manager  of  a  plant  of  the  former  type 
pays  little  attention  to  the  manner  in  which  his  steam 
is  generated  or  used,  provided  he  gets  it  when  and 
where  he  wants  it.  In  such  cases  boiler  efficiency  is  as 
likely  to  be  forty  per  cent,  as  seventy  per  cent.  But 
with  the  system  proposed,  there  could  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  commandeered  private  plants  some  authori- 
tative pressure  from  without,  which  is  about  the  only 
method  left  to  persuade  an  inefficient  factory  superin- 
tendent that  it  is  better  for  him  to  improve  his  boiler 
and  engine  efficiency  than  to  have  his  fuel  supply  for 
factory  purposes  reduced  or  cut  off  as  a  penalty  for 
wasting  it.  Another  advantage  to  the  commandeered 
factory  plant  would  be  the  increased  certainty  of  its 
fuel  supply  upon  becoming  an  auxiliary  public  utility. 


In  localities  where  war  activities  have  put  extra  pres- 
sure upon  all  sorts  of  industry  requiring  fuel,  it  is  time 
to  apply  to  the  central-station  interests  the  same  prin- 
ciples of  cooperative  pooling  as  are  now  being  applied 
to  the  steam  railroads  by  the  highest  public  authority, 
to  the  great  advantage  of  the  public  interest.  It  does 
not  require  much  imagination  to  perceive  both  the 
ready-to-hand  possibilities  of  helping  out  the  central 
stations  and  of  aiding  in  fuel  conservation  at  factory 
plants  used  as  auxiliaries,  which  would  result  from  the 
institution  of  a  system  such  as  that  outlined,  of  pool- 
ing central  stations  and  private  plants  in  the  public  in- 
terest. 

The  nonarrival  of  a  single  bargeload  of  coal,  pre- 
vented by  an  ice  blockade  from  reaching  a  central  sta- 
tion, would  not  then  be  a  matter  of  such  moment  to  the 
community  as  it  is  now,  when  without  warning,  any 
part  of  the  load  on  a  large  central  station  or  import- 
ant substation  may  be  "pulled"  by  the  load  dispatcher 
and  some  sections  of  the  community  deprived  of  trans- 
portation or  of  the  means  of  factory  operation,  or 
plunged  into  darkness. 

We  take  occasion  to  remind  the  engineering  profes- 
sion and  the  general  public  of  some  of  the  methods  of 
electric-power  generation  and  distribution  that  were 
commonly  practiced  in  the  largest  cities  twenty-five  or 
thirty  years  ago,  in  the  early  days  of  the  electric-light- 
ing industry,  before  the  advent  of  the  modern  central 
station.  At  that  period  responsible  central-station  com- 
panies operated  not  only  central  stations  of  a  few  thou- 
sand horsepower  capacity,  but  also  had  tied  in  with  them 
or  operating  on  separate  circuits  little  isolated  stations 
with  a  few  small  belted  units  in  each,  stuck  around  town 
in  basements  or  in  rented  space  adjacent  to  convenient 
boiler  rooms;  or  else  bought  the  output  of  small  units 
operated  by  owners  of  factory  plants  at  wholesale  rates 
and  resold  the  distributed  output  for  both  public  and 
private  lighting  and  power.  To  be  sure,  rates  were 
higher  then  than  now  and  fuel  and  wages  were  cheaper ; 
but  the  point  is  that  the  public  actually  received  pretty 
fair  electric  service  from  these  heterogeneous,  disjointed 
outfits  operated  in  private  isolated  plants  that  were 
auxiliaries  to  the  small  central  stations  of  that  day. 
An  emergency  service  from  an  auxiliary  system  of  com- 
mandeered factory  plants  would  certainly  be  better  than 
no  service  at  all  from  a  large  central  station. 

If  this  whole  matter  were  taken  up  under  public 
authority  in  any  industrial  district  by  the  utilities  com- 
mission having  jurisdiction  or  by  a  board  of  engineers 
appointed  for  the  purpose,  it  would  be  a  simple  matter  to 
prepare  an  inventory  of  available  isolated  plants,  with 
all  necessary  data  as  to  their  present  duty,  hours  of 
service,  usual  fuel  supply  and  storage  capacity,  cost  of 
operation  and  the  equipment  and  connections  necessary 
to  harness  them  to  the  existing  distribution  systems. 
With  this  information  at  hand  and  with  the  organization 
for  utilizing  it  in  the  public  interest,  the  central  stations 
could  be  effectively  supplemented  and  reinforced  in  their 


160 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


important  functions.  The  public  would  then  have  ad- 
ditional protection  against  the  sudden  crippling  of  a  big 
steam-turbine  unit  or  against  a  blockade  on  the  fuel 
supply  of  some  important  central  station,  both  of  which 
causes  have  recently  operated  to  curtail  electric  service 
in  the  New  York  district. 

If  the  attitude  of  the  central  stations  is  one  of  help- 
lessness in  a  difficult  situation,  for  which  they  are  not 
responsible,  they  should  be  willing  to  be  helped  by  public 
authority  in  the  interest  of  the  public  whose  creatures 
they  are  and  whom  it  is  their  main  business  to  serve. 
No  one,  least  of  all  a  private  manufacturing  concern, 
wants  to  subtract  anything  from  the  legitimate  business 
of  a  central  station  or  any  other  public  utility;  but  if 
the  public  interest  in  the  present  vital  emergency  re- 
quires more  perfect  continuity  of  service  than  the  cen- 
tral stations  can  give  it  unaided,  it  would  seem  that  a 
concrete,  practical  remedy  is  not  nearly  so  remote  as  the 
pessimistic  statement  of  the  problem  would  lead  us  to 
believe. 

By  utilizing  the  auxiliary  steam-plant  resources  now 
available,  the  public  will  be  better  served,  the  strain 
on  man-power  and  on  financial  credit  will  be  to  a  large 
extent  relieved,  the  available  fuel  will  be  more  intelli- 
gently used  than  it  is  at  present,  the  private  power-plant 
owner  will  be  stimulated  into  realizing  his  public  ob- 
ligations and  will  be  incidentally  rewarded  by  greater 
certainty  of  his  fuel  supply ;  and  while  the  central-sta- 
tion interests  will  not  be  permitted  to  assume  that  their 
electric-supply  facilities  are  the  only  ones  available  in 
a  grave  public  emergency,  they  will,  on  the  other  hand, 
not  be  expected  to  perform  the  impossible. 

While  it  is  perfectly  reasonable  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances to  consider  that  a  central-station  electric- 
supply  system  is  best  administered  as  a  monopoly,  the 
status  of  the  central  station,  being  primarily  just  as 
dependent  on  the  fuel  supply  as  the  isolated  plant,  takes 
away  its  apparent  independence,  after  all,  and  makes 
it  really  a  competitor  of  the  isolated  plants,  so  that  in 
its  economic  relation  to  the  community  it  becomes  sub- 
ject to  the  principle  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  railroads, 
the  public  interest  is  better  served  by  cooperation  than 
by  competition. 

The  War  and  the  Individual 

IT  IS  highly  probable  that  the  Third  Liberty  Loan 
will  be  launched  about  March  first;  but  this  much  is 
certain — it  will  not  only  exceed  in  amount  the  two  that 
have  preceded  it,  but  it  will  be  the  largest  single  war 
loan  ever  offered  by  any  nation. 

The  prompt  and  complete  absorption  of  so  vast  a  sum 
— and  no  right-thinking  person  has  any  misgivings  as  to 
the  successful  accomplishment  of  that  end — will  require 
the  whole-hearted  support  of  every  loyal  citizen.  It 
will  mean  sacrifices  greater  than  those  that  have  been 
made;  it  will  involve  self-denial  to  an  extent  which 
neither  necessity  nor  inclination  have  yet  been  able  to 
enforce;  and  it  will  demand  of  the  individual  the  giving 
up  of  purely  personal  pleasures  and  conveniences  to  con- 
tribute to  the  benefit  and  well-being  of  all.  But  the  true 
American  stands  ready  to  undergo  all  these  discomforts 
when  he  realizes  that  by  so  doing  he  is  strengthening 
our  fighting  arm  and  thus  bringing  the  end  of  the  war 
nearer. 


There  has  been  an  unfortunate  tendency  on  the  part 
of  some  individuals  to  view  the  war  as  a  thing  remote 
and  detached.  They  agree  that  conservation  policies  are 
needed  to  prevent  waste,  but  they  have  done  little  them- 
selves to  carry  out  such  policies.  They  continue  to  in- 
dulge in  luxuries  and  extravagances  to  which  they  were 
accustomed  in  peaceful  times,  and  by  that  very  act  ttiey 
divert  to  the  production  of  nonessentials  a  part  of  the 
labor  and  materials  which  should  be  devoted  to  the  one 
great,  overwhelming  purpose  of  the  present — the  win- 
ning of  the  war. 

It  is  charitable  to  explain  away  such  action  on  the 
ground  of  thoughtlessness;  but  to  admit  that  excuse  is 
to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  wider  publicity  concern- 
ing the  relation  of  the  individual  to  the  present  conflict. 
We  must  get  away  from  the  bald  statement  that  the 
nation  is  at  war  and  realize  that  we  ourselves  are  in  the 
war;  for,  after  all,  the  nation  is  but  the  aggregate  of 
individuals.  The  responsibilities  and  the  hardships 
must  rest  upon  us  in  equal  measure,  just  as  we  expect 
to  share  in  equal  measure  the  fruits  of  victory. 

The  scarcity  of  foodstuffs  and  the  shortage  of  fuel 
have  done  much  to  impress  upon  the  individual  how 
close  the  war  comes  to  his  own  doorstep.  He  is  at  last 
awaking  to  the  fact  that  his  habits  of  living  must  be 
readjusted  to  meet  the  greatly  altered  conditions,  and 
to  prevent  the  rapid  recurrence  of  such  stringencies  as 
have  already  been  experienced.  The  lesson  has  been 
taught  severely,  but  the  truth  is  wholesome. 

From  this  time  forward  there  will  be  a  closer  watch 
kept  on  individual  expenditures,  greater  economy  in  the 
consumption  of  necessities,  and  a  growing  willingness 
to  do  for  oneself  the  things  that  were  formerly  left  to 
others,  all  of  which  will  result  in  making  available  addi- 
tional wealth  and  energy  for  carrying  on  the  war.  The 
Third  Liberty  Loan  will  be  oversubscribed,  exactly  as 
the  two  that  have  preceded;  but  it  will  be  done  by  the 
dollars  of  those  who  put  necessities  before  nonessen- 
tials, service  in  place  of  self-gratification,  and  patriotic 
devotion  above  all  else. 

Yet  it  is  not  enough  that  the  loan  be  fully  subscribed ; 
it  should  be  absorbed  quickly.  The  rapidity  and  spon- 
taneity with  which  our  people  answer  the  appeal  of  the 
Government  for  funds  will  be  an  unmistakable  indica- 
tion of  their  interest  in  the  war  and  their  willingness 
to  assume  its  burdens.  The  effect  produced  on  the 
minds  of  German  militarists  by  the  swift  raising  of  the 
whole  amount  of  the  loan  is  an  advantage  not  to  be  re- 
garded lightly. 

The  cost  of  running  the  thousands  of  lights  which 
are  burned  unnecessarily  may  be  insignificant,  but  the 
cost  to  the  average  householder  of  running  a  few  extra 
bulbs  overtime  makes  a  very  significant  difference  in 
the  monthly  account  rendered.  We  are  glad  to  see  that 
Fuel  Administrator  Garfield  has  made  a  positive  move 
toward  restricting  this  waste,  and  hope  his  order  will 
be  complied  with  without  disparaging  criticism. 


We  have  often  wondered  why  some  philanthropists 
and  conservationists  have  not  endowed  a  fund  to  put  a 
few  convincing  talkers  on  the  road  to  show  power-plant 
owmers  how  much  their  engineers  may  save  with  the 
aid  of  a  water  meter,  coal  scale,  Orsat  and  a  few 
thermometers.  Gifford  Pinchot,  Andrew  Carnegie  and 
the  Rockefeller  Foundation  please  take  notice. 


Jaiumrv  2!),   1!)I8 


P  O  W  K  R 


161 


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I 
I 


Correspondence 


I 


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'iiiiiiliiillllllliiiiiiiiii iiiiiii 


Change  in  Water  Supply  for  Air  Pump 
of  Leblanc  Condenser 

In  Poiver  of  Nov.  20  Mr.  Forseille  brings  up  some  in- 
teresting points  on  the  subject  of  the  change  in  water 
supply  for  air  pump  of  Leblanc  condenser.  The  two  prob- 
lems as  stated  in  his  query  are:  First,  that  of  furnishing 
a  Leblanc  condenser  with  enough  water  to  get  a  good 
vacuum;  second,  that  of  getting  rid  of  slush  ice  on 
strainers  in  the  water-supply  line  to  the  air  pump. 

The  first  is  by  far  the  most  serious  as  it  causes  a 
loss  during  the  whole  year.  In  Table  I  is  given  a  com- 
parison of  the  conditions  as  stated  by  Mr.  Forseille 
with  those  that  would  obtain  with  larger  amounts  of 
condensing  water.  Water  rates  of  32  (Mr.  Forseille's 
stated  rate),  45  and  60  lb.  per  pound  of  condensed 
steam  are  shown  as  representative  of  the  range  of  pos- 
sible improvement.  For  intermediate  points  curves  can 
be  drawn  or  reference  can  be  had  to  tables  of  vapor  ten- 
sion, and  this  tabulation  can  be  augmented  to  cover  any 
comparisons  required.  In  this  table  it  is  assumed  that 
the  exhaust  steam  discharged  to  the  condenser  contains 
950  B.t.u.  per  pound.  Under  each  of  the  three  water 
rates  are  tabulated  the  conditions  for  cooling-water 
temperatures  of  32,  60  and  100  deg.  F.,  which  nearly 
cover  the  range  Mr.  Forseille  says  he  has  to  operate  on. 

T.\BLE  I.     A  COMPARISON  OF  REPRESENT.\TIVF,  CONDENSER 
CO.NDITIONS 

Lb.  Water  per  Lb. 

Steam  32  45  50 

Cooling- water  tem- 
perature, deg.  F.       32 

Ri.se  in  tempera- 
ture, deg.  F .. .  30         30 

Discharge  tempera- 
ture, deg.  F.    .  62  90  ISO         53  81  121         48  76  lib 

\'apor  tension  at 
above  discharge 
temperature,  lb        0   56      I    41      4   52      0   40      1    06      3    52      0   33      0  90      3   05 

Corresponding  vac- 
uum with  30  in 

barometer.  29  44  28  59  25  48  29  60  28  94  26  48  29  67  29   10  25  95 

Actual  vacuum  is  likely  tn  he  from  0  3  to  0  4  in    niercurv  lower  than  these 

:'alues. 

A  rearrangement  of  the  above  vapor  tensions  and 
vacuums  to  make  the  comparisons  more  clear  is  shown 
in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II.     SUMMARY  OF  VAPOR  TENSIONS  AND  VACUUMS 
ARRIVED  .A.T  IN  TABLE  I 


60    100    32    60    100    32    60     00 

30    21     21     21    16     16     16 


CoolinK 

Water 

Temperat 
60 

ures, 

Deg 

.  F. 

Water  per  Lb.; 

'^tcLni 

Lb 

32 

ipo 

32 

0  55 

29  44 

1   41 
28.59 

4  52 
25  48 

45 

0  40 
29   50 

1   C5 
:8  94 

3  52 
26  48 

60 

0  33 
29  67 

0  90 
29  10 

3  05 
25  95 

Referring  to  the  tables,  it  is  seen  that  increasing  the 
condensing  water  from  32  lb.  to  60  lb.  will  improve  the 
vacuum  about  I  in.  when  cooling  water  is  at  32  deg.. 
about  I  in.  at  60  deg.,  and  1'  in.  when  water  is  at  100 
deg.  The  result  of  improvement  in  vacuum  in  terms  of 
cash  value  is  brought  out  forcibly  in  Mr.  Baker's  article 
in  the  Dec.  4  issue  of  Power. 

If  the  pump  turbine  in  this  case  is  now  working  to 
the  absolute  limit  of  its  capacity,  little  can  be  done  but 
to  replace  it  with  a  turbine  or  motor  big  enough  for  the 


job;  but  if  it  is  capable  of  being  speeded  up  by  overhaul- 
ing or  readjustments,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  would 
pay. 

I  notice  that  Mr.  Forseille  says  that  the  air-pump  sup- 
ply valve  is  kept  at  a  constant  setting  under  all  con- 
ditions. This  suggests  to  me  that  it  may  be  taking  more 
water  than  necessary  and,  if  so,  is  giving  the  turbine 
extra  work  to  do  from  which  there  is  no  return. 

The  vapor  tension  values  used  above  are  from  a  table 
given  by  the  Westinghouse  Machine  Co.  in  its  instruc- 
tion book  WM  102. 

The  second  problem  is  that  of  preventing  ice  forma- 
tion on  the  strainers  in  the  supply  lines  to  the  air  pump. 
One  point  involved  here  is  that  of  vapor  tension  of  the 
hurling  water.  As  this  water  is  depended  on  to  con- 
dense any  condensable  vapors  that  may  reach  the  pump, 
and  as  it  passes  through  a  region  of  vacuum  after  it 
passes  through  the  blades  of  the  impeller,  the  vacuum 
produced  is  controlled  by  the  temperature  of  this  water 
and  its  corresponding  vapor  tension.     See  the  tables. 

Another  factor  of  importance  is  the  air  discharged, 
entrained  with  the  water,  through  the  main  discharge 
pipe.  There  is  always  some  air  passing  out  of  the  con- 
denser in  this  way,  the  amount  probably  varying  with 
the  depth  of  submergence  of  the  pumps;  but  if  the 
pumps  are  run  fast  enough  to  lower  the  water  level  to 
the  suction  opening  of  the  pumps,  additional  air  will  be 
trapped  and  carried  out  with  the  water.  To  use  this 
water  in  the  air  pump  would  add  to  the  free  air  in 
the  condenser.  It  would  also  be  likely  to  interfere  with 
proper  working  of  the  air  pump  by  breaking  up  the  "wa- 
ter pistons"  as  they  leave  the  impeller  blades. 

If  Mr.  Forseille  had  given  more  details  as  to  eleva- 
tions and  the  vacuum  gage  readings  on  suction  or  injec- 
tion lines,  more  might  be  said  about  how  operating  con- 
ditions could  be  improved. 

For  preventing  ice  forming  on  the  screens  I  suggest 
tapping  in  a  jet  of  steam  or  hot  water  just  below  where 
the  air-pump  line  leaves  the  main  line  or  a  jet  just  ahead 
of  each  screen. 

The  above  discussion  was  written  before  reading  Mr. 
Johnson's  contribution  in  the  Dec.  18  issue,  and  from  the 
start  it  was  assumed  that  it  was  impossible  to  follow 
the  scheme  Mr.  Forseille  suggests.  C.  W.  Bell. 

Hauto,  Penn. 

Worn  Latch  Blocks  Cause  Racing 

When  I  took  charge  of  this  plant,  which  is  equipped 
with  Laidlaw-Dunn-Gordon-Hamilton  gear  pumping 
engines,  I  had  a  great  deal  of  trouble  with  the  latch 
blocks  wearing  and  the  engines  racing,  caused  by  the 
head  end  letting  go  too  early  and  the  crank  end  going 
in  full  gear  or  not  unhooking  at  all.  I  did  not  know 
what  the  matter  was;  neither  did  the  builders  nor  those 
who  did  the  erecting.  The  crank  end  would  go  in 
full   gear   about   eveiy   third    or    fourth    revolution,   so 


162 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


you  can  imagine  what  a  time  I  was  having.  I  had 
been  a  marine  engineer  and  had  had  no  experience  with 
Corliss  engines,  but  it  occurred  to  me  that  possibly 
the  blocks  were  unlatching  too  soon ;  so  I  put  my  thumbs 
on  the  springs  to  help  the  tension  of  the  springs,  and 
to  my  surprise  the  engine  stopped  racing.  I  then  got 
wise  and  turned  the  blocks  around  so  that  new  edges 
or  sides  came  together.  That  was  all  right  so  far, 
but  all  the  service  I  could  get  out  of  the  new  edges 
was  about  15  days,  after  which  they  would  begin  to 
cause  racing  again. 

One  day  when  Power  came,  I  sat  down  to  read  it, 
and  under  the  head  of  "Correspondence"  I  came  across 
a  letter  by  an  engineer  who  had  been  having  the 
same  kind  of  trouble  that  I  was  having.  He  said  that 
he  had  had  blocks  made  out  of  No.  00  steel  and  it 
cured  the  trouble.  I  made  up  my  mind  that  if  it  was 
a  good  thing  in  his  case,  it  would  be  good  in  mine; 
so  I  had  similar  blocks  made  and  put  a  set  on  one 
engine  Aug.  3,  1911,  and  on  another  Sept.  30,  1911. 
I  have  not  had  a  bolt  out  of  one  of  them  since. 

If  there  is  anything  in  this  that  you  think  worth 
publishing,  do  so,  but  do  not  send  me  anything  for  it, 
for  I  do  not  want  it  and  will  surely  send  it  back  if 
you  do,  as  it  is  written  in  gratitude  for  the  "pointer" 
received  from  Power  several  years  ago.  I  hope  this 
may  do  someone  some  good.  R.  A.  Davidson. 

Colton,  Calif. 

Operating  Two-Phase  Motors 
Single-Phase 

A  number  of  years  ago,  when  the  plant  in  which  I  am 
employed  was  built,  two-phase  alternating-current  equip- 
ment was  selected,  consisting  of  one  50-kw.  and  one  75- 
kw.  generator,  with  exciters,  supplying  twenty  5-hp.  in- 
duction motors  of  the  squirrel-cage  type,  some  fifty 
inclosed  arc  lamps  for  general  illumination  and  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  16-cp.  carbon  lamps  for  local 
lighting.  The  motors  were  220  volts  as  well  as  the  car- 
bon lamps.  The  arc  lamps  were  of  the  multiple  type,  and 
groups  of  four  were  served  by  compensators  or  balance 
coils,  furnishing  110  volts.  Shortly  after  the  plant  was 
put  in  service,  business  became  dull,  and  as  a  result 
many  of  the  machines  were  shut  down ;  consequently  a 
number  of  the  motors  were  running  considerably  under 
full  load,  causing  the  power  factor  of  the  plant  to  be 
low. 

A  test  was  made,  and  the  load  conditions  of  the  plant 
at  that  time  were  about  as  follows :  Apparent  kilowatts 
as  shown  by  the  ammeters  and  voltmeters,  47.4;  true 
kilowatts  as  shown  by  direct-reading  wattmeters,  19.6; 
power  factor  at  switchboard,  equal  true  kilowatts  -> 
apparent  kilowatts  =  19.6  -:-  47.4  =  0.41. 

As  the  50-kw.  generator,  which  was  supplying  the 
load  at  that  time,  was  heating  considerably,  it  was  de- 
cided if  possible  to  improve  the  power  factor.  After 
considering  several  plans,  I  fell  upon  the  idea  of  operat- 
ing the  two-phase  motors  single-phase,  starting  on  two- 
phase  and  then  cutting  one  phase  out  when  the  machines 
were  up  to  running  speed.  This  would  give  the  single- 
phase  in  use  nearly  full  load  and  perhaps  correct  the 
power  factor.  I  also  discovered  that  by  removing  two 
contact  blocks  I  and  II,  shown  in  the  figure,  from  the 


drum  of  the  auto-starter,  one  phase  could  be  cut  out 
when  in  the  running  position.  Since  with  this  type  of 
compensator  the  drum  always  turns  in  one  direction,  the 
section  with  the  two  contacts  removed  would  be  in 
phase  A  at  one  time  when  starting  and  the  next  time 
in  phase  B.  The  motors  were  started  and  stopped  twice 
per  day,  consequently  if  phase  A  was  in  service  in  the 
morning,  phase  B  would  be  in  use  in  the  afternoon,  so 
that  both  sets  of  windings  of  the  stator  would  be  in 
use  during  alternate  halves  of  the  day.    However,  if  for 

7&  Tivo  •  Phase  Line 


^-,    .      n      FINGER  CONTACTS 


To  Two  Phase  Motor 


Bl 


DIAGRAM   OP   COMPENSATOR   CONNECTIONS 

any  reason  any  of  the  motors  were  stopped  during  the 
day,  the  handle  of  the  starter  would  have  to  be  thrown 
over  twice  to  maintain  the  load  balance  in  the  phases. 
Two  ammeters  on  the  main  distribution-panel  box  cir- 
cuit indicated  the  load  in  each  phase,  therefore  making 
it  possible  to  see  that  the  system  was  kept  as  nearly 
balanced  as  possible. 

One  motor  was  at  first  arranged  to  run  single-phase 
as  planned,  and  operated  for  a  week  with  no  trouble. 
The  manufacturers  of  electrical  equipment  were  then 
consulted  as  to  what  would  result  from  the  change.  They 
replied  that  under  the  circumstances  there  would  be  a 
slight  improvement  and  that  no  harm  could  come  to  the 
apparatus  operating  under  such  conditions.  Eight 
motors  were  run  on  that  plan  during  slack  seasons, 
which  occurred  during  every  summer  and  recently  both 
summer  and  winter;  but  I  had  never  known,  owing  to 
the  lack  of  proper  instruments,  how  much  improvement 
the  change  had  produced  until  in  October,  1916,  when, 
owing  to  the  high  price  of  coal  and  the  difficulty  in 
obtaining  it,  the  manager  was  persuaded  by  a  central- 
station  company  to  permit  a  test  to  be  made  by  their 
expert.  The  result  of  the  test  was  as  follows:  Ap- 
parent load,  37.125  kw. ;  true  load,  19.4  kw. ;  power  fac- 
tor =  true  load  -:-  apparent  load  =  19.4  -^-  37.125  = 
0:52.  It  will  be  seen  that  although  the  true  load  in  both 
tests  was  nearly  the  same,  the  apparent  load  was  much 
less  with  part  of  the  motors  running  single-phase. 

During  recent  years  the  tungsten  incandescent  lamps 
have  been  substituted  for  the  arc  lamps,  and  in  order 
to  permit  the  use  of  the  110-volt  current  necessary,  the 
old  balance  coils  of  the  arc  lamp  were  employed  with 
satisfactory  results,  3000  watts  or  less  being  carried 
by  each  without  difficulty  and  with  very  little  heating. 
These  coils  are  arranged  on  the  roof  trusses,  ofte  in  the 
center  of  each  group  of  lamps.  When  the  incandescent 
lamps  are  burning,  they  have  practically  100  per  cent, 
power  factor,  and  the  power  factor  on  the  whole  circuit 
is  76.8  per  cent.,  the  power  factor  of  the  motor  load  be- 


January  29,  1918 


POWER 


163 


ing  as  stated.  With  evei-y  machine  in  the  factory  run- 
ning and  all  motors  operating  two-phase,  the  motor-load 
power  factor  was  66  per  cent.  With  this  motor  load  and 
the  lights  all  on,  the  power  factor  was  77.4  per  cent. 
These  are  the  central-station  company's  own  figures. 

Weehawken,  N.  J.  F.  W.  Plumb. 

[Operating  polyphase  motors  single-phase  is  a  prac- 
tice that  in  general  is  advised  against,  but  under  the 
conditions  it  would  seem  to  have  some  advantages. 
Power  invites  the  opinion  and  experience  of  interested 
readers  on  the  foregoing  subject  for  publication. — 
Editor.] 


Modification  of  the  Pitot  Tube 

It  would  appear  that  the  modified  Pitot  tube  depicted 
on  page  876  in  the  issue  of  Dec.  25,  1917,  is  not  fully 
described  or  else  is  entirely  erroneous.  The  static  pres- 
sure within  the  pipe  would  cause  a  full-caliber  flow 
through  the  valve  even  if  there  was  little  or  no  flow 
in  the  main,  therefore  the  slight  velocity  head  added 
in  any  case  would  make  little  difference. 

It  is  possible  that  the  intention  is  to  calibrate  or 
measure  the  flow  through  a  restricted  orifice  under  a 
given  pressure  at  no  flow,  then  measure  the  flow  under 
the  combined  influence  of  the  static  and  velocity  head 
and  calculate  the  velocity  from  the  increased  delivery. 
At  any  rate  the  contrivance  does  not  seem  to  be  logical 
as  presented.  J.  Lewis. 

New  York  City. 


Electric  Lights  for  Small  Plants 

When  on  an  automobile  trip  recently,  I  stopped  at 
the  pumping  station  of  a  Massachusetts  town.  I  was 
cordially  greeted  by  the  engineer  who,  among  other 
things,  took  pride  in  his  lighting  set  inasmuch  as  it 
was  original  and,  as  he  thought,  cheap  to  operate. 
Fig.  1  shows  the  set,  which  consists  of  a  small  Pelton 
waterwheel  direct-connected  to  two  small  direct-current 


two  long  screws  E  were  secured  to  them  on  which  two 
bearings  C  could  be  raised  or  lowered  at  will  to  bring 
the  leather-covered  pulley  B  in  contact  with  the  flywheel. 


FIG.   1.     TWO  GENKRATORS  DRIVEN  BY  A  WATERWHEEL 

generators.  The  wheel's  water  supply,  at  180-lb.  pres- 
sure, is  through  a  2-in.  pipe  connected  with  the  pressure 
pipe  of  pumping  engine,  and  the  discharge  from  the 
wheel  is  connected  to  the  pump  suction.  The  engineer 
claimed  that  the  cost  of  current  was  considerably  less 
than  two  cents  per  kilowatt-hour. 

In  another  plant  visited,  the  generator  was  driven 
as  shovra  in  Fig.  2.  Two  heavy  iron  columns  D  were 
erected  near  the  flywheel  of  the  pumping  engine,  and 


FIG.   i.      UYNAMU   DRIVKX   FROM  A   FRICTION   PULLE'X 

By  this  means  the  station  was  electrically  lighted,  other- 
wise oil  lamps  would  have  to  be  used. 

Methuen,  Mass.  P.    E.    Merriam. 

Care  of  Hydraulic  Elevators 

Hydraulic  elevators  require  more  attention  than  elec- 
tric, and  where  there  are  a  great  many  cars  in  service 
they  should  be  placed  under  the  management  of  a 
competent  elevator  man. 

On  high-pressure  systems  the  pilot  valves  will  most 
frequently  require  attention,  as  they  become  clogged 
with  dirt  and  particles  of  packing  carried  through  the 
pipes,  and  must  be  blown  out.  Next  comes  the  packing 
of  operating  valves  with  leather  cups,  which  either  blow 
out  if  end  cups  or  blow  through  if  inside,  either  of 
which  will  cause  the  car  to  creep  or  settle.  Motor 
valves,  operating  the  pilots,  should  also  be  inspected 
and  the  flax  packing  rings  renewed  if  necessary. 

Each  morning  the  water  that  has  accumulated  in  the 
lunger  pans  should  be  removed  and  the  plungers  oiled 
(while  running)  with  lard  oil,  as  this  is  best  where 
there  is  water.  When  the  glands  are  within  a  half- 
inch  of  all  the  way  in,  the  stuffing-box  should  be  refilled 
with  flax  packing. 

Hoisting  cables  will  need  to  be  shortened  occasionally 
as  they  lengthen  with  wear.  This  will  be  determined 
by  running  the  car  to  the  upper  floor  and  observing 
whether  it  comes  flush  with  the  floor  or  falls  short. 
Cutout,  operating  (or  tiller)  and  governor  ropes  should 
be  inspected  weekly,  because  much  damage  can  be  caused 
by  the  failure  of  any  one  of  them.  The  practice  of 
relying  on  the  insurance  inspections,  occurring  as  they 
do  about  once  in  three  months,  is  very  bad. 

Phosphor-bronze  is  the  best  material  for  the  main 
operating  valve,  as  a  soft  brass  one  will  soon  wear  to 
a  shoulder  from  the  constant  rubbing  back  and  forth, 
and  these  valves  should  be  purchased  as  unfinished 
castings  so  that  the  small  holes  can  be  drilled  in  as 
desired.     The  brass  bushings   in  the  pilot  valves  will 


164 


POWEK 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


require  to  be  renewed  occasionally  and  of  course  must 
be  made  a  driving  fit. 

Of  the  safety  devices  on  elevators,  there  is  one  that 
I  believe  should  be  especially  mentioned,  and  that  is 
the  valve  lock  that  prevents  the  car  from  being  moved 
if  any  gate  in  the  shaft  is  open  even  a  fraction  of  an 
inch.  Many  accidents  occur  at  the  gates,  as  the  operator 
is  prone  to  start  the  car  first  and  shut  the  gate  after- 
ward, but  with  this  device  in  operation  the  car  remains 
stationary  until  the  gate  is  closed.  It  will  not,  however, 
prevent  a  car  from  settling  or  creeping,  as  that  is 
caused  by  defects  before  mentioned,  but  it  does  prevent 
the  operator  from  starting  the  car  before  closing  the 
gate. 

The  surge  tank  will  need  a  thorough  cleaning  out 
about  once  a  year  to  keep  the  system  clear  of  dirt, 
etc ,  that  may  lodge  in  the  pilot  valves  and  cause  serious 
trouble.  W.  T.  OSBORN. 

Newark,  N.  J. 

Cutting  Mica  for  Commutators 

The  following  may  help  someone  in  a  small  shop,  who 
has  the  job  of  cutting  mica  for  refilling  an  old  commu- 
tator. In  a  good  many  shops  the  practice  is  to  take  one 
of  the  bart,  lay  it  on  a  single  piece  of  mica,  mark  it  off 


MICA    SHBKTS    CLAMPED    FOR    FIXAL    SHAPINC 

with  a  scriber  and  then  cut  it  out  with  a  pair  of  shears. 
A  much  quicker  and  more  accurate  way  is  to  cut  the 
mica  in  pieces  slightly  larger  than  the  bars,  then  clamp 
about  a  dozen  of  these  sheets  between  two  of  the  bars 
in  a  vise  and  saw  out  to  approximately  the  shape  with 
a  hacksaw  and  finish  the  dressing  with  a  file. 

Stone,  Ky.  J.  E.  May. 

A  Wooden  Tank  Repaired 

A  woodtn  water  tank  on  the  roof  began  to  leak,  and 
it  was  found  that  some  of  the  planking  was  decayed  at 
the  tongu€-and-groove  joints. 

It  seemed  that  the  old  tank  had  seen  its  day  and  would 
have  to  be  replaced,  but  one  of  the  maintenance  men 
suggested  that  it  be  emptied,  cleaned,  dried  out  and 
lined  with  portland  cement.     Lathing  nails  were  driven 


all  over  the  :nside  walls  at  about  six-inch  intervals, 
leaving  each  nail  head  projecting  about  one-quarter 
inch,  after  which  the  whole  interior  was  plastered  over, 
about  three-eighths  inch  thick,  and  when  set,  the  sur- 
face was  washed  over  with  a  thin  coating  of  clear  cement 
a  couple  of  times. 

The  result  was  gratifying,  for  the  tank  is  tight,  and 
there  are  no  signs  of  further  deterioration. 

Concord.  N.  H.  CHARLES  H.  WiLLEY. 

Gas  Engines  of  Former  Times 

In  going  over  our  data  file  recently,  I  found  a  letter 
from  a  man  in  Pennsylvania  who  was  using  a  gas 
engine,  and  I  am  sending  you  an  exact  copy,  thinking 
it  may  be  of  interest,  as  indicating  the  status  of  gas 
engines  at  that  time,  the  kind  of  service  to  which  some 
were  put,  etc.  Seventeen  years  have  shown  remarjcable 
development   in   equipment   of  this   kind. 

Newark,  N.  J.  N.    A.    CARLE. 

Opera  House 

Pa.,  July  30,  1900. 

To  united  Electric  Company  of  New  Jersey 

Gentle  Men  Yours  of  July  27  received  In  i-egard  to  Gas 
Engines  I  have  used  automatic  Gas  Engine  for  ininning 
Dimo  to  Light  my  Opera  house  last  winter  25  horse  Power 
I  got  300  lights  I  got  1.5  Kilowatt  Dimo  I  had  good  steady 
light  Engine  run  from  full  load  to  no  load  you  now  Opera 
house  Lighting  To  hard  on  Engine  we  go  so  many  dark 
eein  we  would  have  on  300  lights  and  then  we  would  have 
nothin.  I  use  natral  Gas  Cost  me  20  cents  Per  thousand 
avi-ige  cost  Per  night  of  I'un  of  10  hours  27  cents  Hepairs 
on  Engine  for  7  months  $5.67  all  the  Engine  want  is  care 
no  experimenting  with  It  and  It  will  work  all  right  I  con- 
sider the  Engine  as  a  hole  a  r:ood  one 

Now  for  Its  disinantiges  It  Is  hard  Engine  to  Start  I 
have  been  starting  mine  with  Powder  and  It  Is  dangerous 
and  leavs  a  bad  smell  In  house  your  Electric  Spark  must 
be  Perfect  and  your  Storige  battry  must  be  all  right  the 
battries  I  got  with  Engine  Is  now  Plaid  out  there  was  4 
cells  I  wish  you  would  send  Me  the  adress  of  some  good 
firm  I  will  have  to  have  Storige  battries  before  I  star  up 
again  I  am  goaning  to  Put  In  a  air  Pump  &  Tank  and 
Start  It  with  air  this  season  the  Engine  cannot  be  started 
By  hand  there  Is  a  saving  to  Me  of  about  60  Dollar  Per 
month  I  consider  the  Engine  wll  Pay  for  It  self  In  3  years 
we  run  the  Engine  280  revelutions  Per  minut  we  get 
Explosing  Every  time  If  you  want  to  now  any  other  Point 
about  It  let  me  now  and  I  will  Ti-y  and  Explane  It  as  well 
as  I  can 

Yours  Truly, 

Sucking  from  a  Condenser 

In  reply  to  Mr.  Baer's  request,  on  page  807  in  the 
issue  of  Dec.  11,  for  a  sketch  and  description  of  how  an 
engine  could  suck  up  a  cylinderful  of  water  from  the 
condenser,  I  will  say  that  I  cannot  furnish  a  sketch  of 
the  piping  as  I  have  been  away  from  the  plant  for  some 
time  and  cannot  get  a  correct  sketch  of  it.  Maybe  I  was 
in  error  in  saying  the  engine  sucked  up  a  cylinderful  of 
water,  for  the  least  little  bit  over  clearance  volume  is 
enough  to  wreck  the  engine  as  water  is  practically  in- 
compressible. 

The  condenser  was  an  old-time  Conover  with  vertical 
pumps  working  on  the  same  shaft.  The  circulating  wa- 
ter also  sealed  the  condenser,  and  when  the  latter  was 
shut  down  and  the  circulating  water  not  shut  off,  the 
steam  could  not  exhaust  and  was  condensed,  and  when 
the  engine  made  a  return  stroke  the  water  was  sucked 
back,  or  a  portion  of  it,  owing  to  the  vacuum  not  being 
entirely  gone.  W.  H.  Nostan. 

Philadelphia,  Penn. 


January  29,  1918  POWER  165 

giiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiji 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  I 


siiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiniiiiniiiiniiiniiiniiiiniiiiiiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 


Dry  Materials  for  Extinguishing  Fire — What  material 
could  be  used  in  dry  powdered  form  for  extinguishing  fire  ? 

L.  S.  E. 

I*ulverized  bicarbonate  of  soda  (baking  soda)  or  pulver- 
ized salt  is  a  good  material  for  extinguishing  fire.  Dry 
sand  is  a  good  material  for  smothering  small  oil  fires. 

Lengths  of  Splices  for  Leather  Belts — What  is  the  rule 
for  the  length  of  splices  for  leather  belting?  W.  R.  K. 

For  belts  up  to  10  in.  wide,  make  the  splices  10  in.  long. 
Belts  that  are  10  to  18  in.  wide  should  have  the  splices  as 
long  as  the  belts  are  wide.  Eighteen  inches  is  the  greatest 
length  required  for  the  splice  of  a  double  belt. 

Steam  Cylinders  for  Compound  Duplex  Pump — A  com- 
pound duplex  steam  pump  of  12-in.  stroke  and  having 
8% -in.  water  cylinders  is  to  work  against  a  discharge 
pressure  of  180  lb.  per  sq.in.  What  should  be  the  sizes  of 
the  high-  and  low-pressure  steam  cylinders  if  exhaust 
takes  place  against  2  lb.  pressure  above  the  atmosphere? 

G.  R.  W. 

With  ordinary  clearance  and  other  proportions  of  design, 
each  side  of  the  pump  should  have  a  9-in.  diameter  high- 
pressure  and   15%-in.  low-pressure  steam  cylinder. 

Rating  Boiler  Size  on  Heating  Surface — In  rating  boiler 
horsepower  according  to  the  number  of  square  feet  of 
heating  surface,  is  not  superheating  surface  to  be  included  ? 

L.  G. 

The  horsepower  rating  according  to  heating  surface  is 
purely  commercial.  Water-heating  surface,  or  surface  in 
contact  with  fire  or  hot  gases  on  one  side  and  water  on 
the  other,  is  very  effective  in  transmitting  heat,  and  this 
is  the  principal  kind  of  heating  surface  in  nearly  all  types 
of  boilers  and  in  most  boilers  it  is  the  onjy  kind.  The  heat 
transmission  through  superheating  surface  which  has  fire 
or  hot  gases  on  one  side  and  steam  on  the  other  side  is 
very  slow,  and  it  is  not  customary  to  count  in  this  kind  of 
heating  surface  in  rating  the  nominal  or  manufacturer's 
horsepower  of  a  boiler.  The  superheating  surface  should 
be  separately  stated  as  such. 

Air  Gathered  in  Feed-Water  Oil  Filter — The  returns  of 
a  vacuum  steam-heating  apparatus  are  delivered  to  an  air- 
separating  tank  and  thence  discharged  to  a  receiver  and 
boiler-feed  pump.  After  being  discharged  by  the  pump, 
the  return  water,  on  its  way  to  the  boiler,  is  passed  through 
a  cloth-bag  filter  for  removal  of  the  oil.  Air  collects  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  filter.  What  is  the  cause  and  remedy 
for  removal  of  the  air  gathered  in  the  filter?         G.  G.  W. 

It  is  probable  that  the  "air"  complained  of  consists  of  oil 
vapor  and  air  liberated  out  of  the  water  when  the  pressure 
of  the  water  is  suddenly  reduced,  after  being  subjected 
to  the  greater  pressure  necessary  for  forcing  the  water 
through  the  filter.  If  it  is  permissible  to  have  a  small 
air  space  in  the  top  of  the  filter,  the  air  or  vapor  can  be 
relieved  automatically  by  connecting  a  float  type  of  radiator 
air  valve  with  the  upper  part  of  the  filter  chamber,  or  with 
an  appropriate  enlargement  of  that  space  by  employing 
a  small  air  chamber  made  of  pipe  and  fittings. 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Steam  Dome — What 
are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  providing  a  hori- 
zontal return-tubular  boiler  with  a  steam  dome?  L.  D. 

The  advantage  of  a  steam  dome  on  a  boiler  is  that  it 
increases  the  volume  of  the  steam  space  and  allows  the 
steam  to  be  taken  from  the  boiler  at  a  point  somewhat 
removed  from  the  surface  of  the  water,  thereby  insuring 
a  supply  of  drier  steam  than  if  the  supply  were  taken 
directly  from  the  shell.  The  leading  disadvantages  are  the 
added  expense,  difficulty  of  making  and  maintaining  safe 


and  tight  connections  of  the  dome  with  the  shell  and  the 
uncertain  weakening  eff"ect  of  the  dome  opening  on  the 
shell.  The  advantage  of  obtaining  drier  steam  can  be  met, 
however,  by  a  good  form  of  dry  pipe  or  separator  placed 
within  the  shell  or  by  employment  of  an  exterior  steam 
drum.  A  steam  drum  with  nozzle  connection  to  the  shell  is 
usually  less  expensive  than  a  dome,  and  besides  affording 
the  opportunity  for  much  safer  construction  has  all  the 
advantages  without  any  of  the  disadvantages  of  a  dome, 
excepting  the  requirement  of  practically  the  same  if  not 
less  headroom. 

Independent  Stacks  for  Horizontal  Return-Tubular  Boil- 
ers— For  a  suburban  factory  power  plant,  begun  with  the 
installation  of  two  horizontal  return-tubular  boilers  that 
probably  will  be  duplicated  within  a  year,  would  it  be 
better  to  supply  each  boiler  with  a  separate  steel  stack 
set  over  the  uptake,  or  provide  a  steel  stack  that  will  be 
adequate  for  all  boilers  ?  J.  B.  N. 

The  best  draft  control  would  be  obtained  by  furnishing 
each  boiler  with  a  separate  stack,  but  placing  the  stacks 
directly  over  the  boiler  uptakes  is  objectionable  on  account 
of  the  expense  of  providing  supports  suitably  independent 
of  the  boiler  settings  and  trouble  will  be  experienced  from 
soot  and  scale  dropping  from  the  inside  of  the  stacks  into 
the  uptakes  of  the  boi'er.  The  arrangement  also  would 
b"^  likely  to  give  trouble  from  rain  water  running  dov/n 
the  sides  of  the  stacks  and  finding  its  way  to  the  boilen 
settings.  These  disadvantages  can  be  obviated  and  nearly 
the  same  draft  advantages  of  independent  stacks  can  be 
secured  by  setting  the  stacks  at  the  sid?s  of  the  settings 
or  to  the  rear  of  the  firing  spaces,  and  providing  the  con- 
nections from  the  uptakes  to  the  seoarate  stacks  vidth  easy 
bends.  For  most  situations  the  independent  stack  supports 
and  connections  should  cost  no  more  than  proper  provision 
for  independently  supporting  the  stacks  directly  over  the 
uptakes  of  the  boilers. 

Sufficiency  of  Chimney  Draft — Trouble  is  experienced  in 
burning  sufficient  coal  and  keeping  up  steam  in  two  return- 
tubular  boilers  each  72  in.  in  diameter  and  containing  92 
tubes  3y2  in.  diameter  by  18  ft.  and  with  breechings  con- 
nected to  a  brick  stack  48  in.  in  diameter  at  the  smallest 
part  and  80  ft.  high.  Is  the  chimney  size  at  fault,  or  if  not, 
what  may  be  the  cause  of  the  trouble?  W.  K.  C. 

The  rated  size  of  each  boiler  is  about  150  boiler  horse- 
power. Allowing  for  combustion  of  5  lb.  of  coal  per  boiler 
horsepower,  ordinary  form  of  breeching  and  other  smoke 
connections,  a  fair  quality  of  fuel  and  proper  firing,  the 
chimney  should  be  adequate  for  about  310  boiler  horsepower 
or  ample  for  the  boilers.  It  may  be  that  the  draft  is  im- 
paired by  proximity  of  high  hills,  or  that  air  enters  cracks 
or  opening  in  the  chimney  flue  or  connections.  The  size 
and  form  of  the  connections  from  the  boilers  may  be  at 
fault  for  realizing  the  draft  effect  of  the  chimney.  The 
uptake  from  each  boiler  should  have  an  unobstructed  cross- 
sectional  area  of  not  less  than  775  sq.in.  The  cross-sectional 
area  of  the  breeching  and  connections  to  the  chimney 
should  be  not  less  than  1600  sq.in.;  the  breeching  should  be 
provided  with  a  baffle  for  carrying  the  smoke  of  the  boiler 
farther  away  from  the  chimney  over  or  around  the  uptake 
of  the  boiler  nearer  the  chimney ,and  the  breeching  connec- 
tions, especially  the  junction  with  the  chimney  flue,  should 
be  beveled  or  curved  to  admit  of  easy  passage  of  the  gases. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention. — 
Editor.] 


16G 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


The  Failure  of  Boiler  Plates  In  Service 


By  E.  B.  WOLFFt 


The  author's  investigations  show  that  peculiar 
cracks  in  boiler  plate  occur  at  the  riveted  joints 
in  all  boilers  examined.  These  cracks  are  found 
on  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  rivet  holes  or  on  the 
surfaces  of  the  plates  where  they  are  held  to- 
gether.    The  cracks  are  due  to  fatigue. 


THIS  research  was  undertaken  with  the  view  of  finding 
the  causes  of  the  craekinjj  of  boiler  plates  over  the 
riveted  seams. 
The  boilers  were  of  the  single-ended  ordinary  marine  type, 
with  three  flues.  The  shell  plates  and  the  rivets  were  gen- 
erally approximately  32  mm.  (1  in.)  thick,  made  some  from 
basic  and  some  from  acid  openhearth  ?oft  steel  with  an 
ultimate  tensile  strength  of  42-48  kg.  per  square 
millimeter  (59,700  to  68,000  lb.  per  sq.in)  and  an 
elongation  of  23  per  cent,  to  20  per  cent,  on  10  diameters. 
The  phosphorus  and  sulphur  contents  had  to  be  under 
0.05  per  cent.  Most  of  the  boilers  with  the  ci'acked 
plates  belonged  to  steamship  companies,  the  boats  of 
which  made  voyages  with  a  great  many  stops,  so  that 
the  fires  were  frequently  extinguished  and  relighted.  Most 
of  the  boilers  being  oil-fired,  this  could  be  done  very  easily. 
The  plates  of  coal-fired  boilers,  however,  cracked  in  the 
same  manner.  Boilers  made  of  the  same  material  for 
other  companies,  the  boats  of  which  had  only  long  nonstop 
runs,  did  not  fail. 

Cracks  at  First  of  Microscopical  Dimensions 
All  the  cracks  found  are,  in  the  beginning,  defects  of 
microscopical  dimensions.  After  having  increased  in  length 
and  breadth,  they  could  be  detected.  It  would  occur  that  a 
boiler,  the  side  seam  of  which  had  failed,  would  be  sent  back 
to  the  boiler  shop  to  be  fitted  with  a  new  shell  plate.  After 
detaching  the  front  plates,  nothing  abnormal  would  be  seen, 
and  it  would  be  decided  to  make  use  of  the  old  front  plates 
and  fit  new  shell  plates  to  them.  The  shell  plates  were  bent 
with  great  care  to  the  radius  of  the  front  plates  and  bored 
in  position.  When  the  first  rivet  joining  the  front  and  shell 
plates  was  put  in,  cracks  appeared  in  some  of  the  old  rivet 
holes  of  the  front  plate.  By  a  renewed  examination  of  the 
other  rivet  holes,  after  cleaning  the  metal  by  scraping  it 
carefully  and  later  etching  it,  minute  cracks  were  detected. 
The  etching  of  the  front  plate,  in  the  manner  presently  to 
be  described,  disclosed  a  great  many  miniature  cracks,  so 
that  it  was  impossible  to  use  it  any  more. 

As  already  stated,  the  cracks  were  found  in  the  butt 
joints  as  well  as  in  the  lap  joints,  but  in  all  cases  they 
started  either  from  the  inside  of  the  holes,  in  two  places, 
where  the  highest  tensile  stress  occurred,  or  at  the  surfaces 
of  the  plates,  where  they  were  pressed  on  the  surfaces  of 
other  plates.  The  fact  that  cracks  start  frequently  on  the 
inner  surfaces  of  boiler  plates  has  been  mentioned  by  several 
investigators,'  but  a  good  indication  of  the  causes  has  not 
been  given. 

The  cracks  cover  a  certain  part  of  the  surface,  depending 
on  the  direction  of  the  stresses  that  acted  on  that  part. 
Where  they  are  found  in  the  rivet  holes  of  the  plates,  they 
occur  generally  on  two  sides  of  the  holes;  in  the  case  of  the 
pipe  holes  of  the  tubular  boiler,  they  spread  from  the  top 
of  the  hole  inwai-d.    When  they  occur  on  the  surface  of  the 


♦From   report   in   "Engineering-."   London.   Sept.   28.   1917.  of  a 
paper  read  before  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  September.  1917. 
tBu.ssum,  Holland. 

'C  Sulzer.  "Warmespannungen  und  Ritzbildungen."  "Zeitschrift 
lies  A'ereins  deutscher  Ingenieure.  1907.  Report  by  the  National 
Physical  Laboratory  of  an  inve.stigation  of  .some  unusual  defects 
in  the  plates  of  two  combustion  chambers  on  board  a  foreign-going 
passenger  steamship,  and  note  hy  the  engineer-surveyor-in-cbief  : 
"The  cracks  themselves  were  unusual,  as  the>''  appear  to  have 
started  at  the  inner  surfaces,  where  the  plates  were  laid  togetlier 
for  riveting,  and  were  invisible  until  extended  through  the  plates." 
— "Engineer."  1910 


plate,  it  is  in  general  mostly  around  the  rivet  holes,  but  also 
in  other  places. 

As  mentioned,  the  cracks  start  as  miniature  surface  cracks 
of  microscopical  dimensions;  it  appears  that  every  little 
crack  has  been  formed  by  itself,  without  the  slightest  ref- 
erence to  its  neighbors.  A  polished  and  etched  section 
through  these  cracks  shows  that  the  crystallites  in  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood  have  not  been  deformed.  The  struc- 
ture of  the  material  has  in  most  of  the  cases  been  found 
quite  normal,  no  free  cementite  being  present.  Afterward 
the  cracks  grow  in  length  and  depth,  and  unite  in  longer 
ones,  forming  a  peculiar  stepped  line. 

Peculiar  Destruction  of  Surface  Layers 

.'Ml  evidence  points  to  a  peculiar  fonn  of  destniction  of 
the  surface  layers  of  othei'wise  very  plastic  metal.  As  the 
cracks  always  started  at  the  surface  of  the  metals  and  in 
the  holes  over  the  entire  thickness  of  the  plate,  phosphorus 
or  sulphur  segregations,  if  these  had  occurred,  could  have 
had  no  influence.  No  segregations  of  impoi-tance  were, 
however,  found  in  most  of  the  cracked  plates.  At  first  it 
was  thought  that  the  deformation  of  the  material  in  the 
rivet  holes  made  by  the  boring  of  these  holes  might  have 
Viad  a  great  influence.  As  it  was  not  possible  to  produce 
similar  cracks  in  holes  that  were  bored  with  a  blunt  drill, 
and  as  pieces  cut  out  of  such  a  hole  and  bent  open  till  the 
deformed  surface  broke  showed  sufficient  deformation  before 
breaking,  it  was  concluded  that  if  the  deformation  had  been 
one  of  the  causes,  it  could  only  have  been  a  secondary  one. 
As  hand-riveted  joints  cracked  in  exactly  the  same  mannei- 
as  joints  where  the  rivets  had  been  pressed  in  by  the  hy- 
draulic riveting  machine,  the  pressure  of  this  machine  on 
the  plate  also  cannot  be  the  cause  of  the  cracking. 

Parts  of  the  cracked  plates,  where  iio  cracks  occurred, 
were  tested  by  joining  them  by  rivets,  driven  in  with  the 
maximum  pressure  the  press  could  give.  Afterward  the 
rivets  were  taken  out  and  the  plates  examined  and  bent. 
Here  a  great  deformation  of  the  surface  also  preceded  the 
rupture. 

To  reveal  the  miniature  cracks  it  was  found  necessary 
to  etch  the  metal  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (1  :  10)  during 
twenty-four  hours  or  more.  Before  this  etching  the  cracks 
were  covered  by  the  surface  oxides,  and  they  could  not  even 
be  detected  after  scraping  the  plates  thoroughly.  It  was 
necessary  to  ascertain  that  this  etching  did  not  cause  sim- 
ilar cracks.  It  was  found  that  in  no  case  of  deformation 
could  cracks  be  seen  after  etching,  not  even  if  the  metal 
were  left  in  the  etching  solution  for  an  abnormally  long 
time.  The  deformed  places  were  corroded  in  most  of  the 
tests  before  the  rest  of  the  metal,  but  this  coiTosion  never 
caused  sharply  defined  cracks.  By  an  abnoraially  long 
immersion  the  deformed  places  could  not  be  differentiated 
from  the  neighboring  metal;  the  cracks,  however,  showed 
very  clearly.  Microscopical  sections  through  nonetched  parts 
showed  that  the  cracks  were  clearly  to  be  seen  without  the 
aid  of  an  etching  solution. 

Some  parts  of  plates  from  other  seams  of  the  cracked 
boilers  did  not  even  show  cracks  after  prolonged  etching. 

Etching  an  Aid  in  Detecting  Bad  Plates 

The  etching  with  sulphuric  acid  has  been  of  .great  aid  in 
detecting  the  bad  plates  from  those  that  could  be  used  again. 
It  dissolves  the  metal  quite  regularly  and  discloses  even  the 
finest  cracks.  The  only  phenomenon  known  where  cracks  of 
the  kind  described  have  been  observed  in  plastic  material 
is  that  known  as  "fatigue."  The  beautiful  researches  of 
Ewing  and  Humfrey  have  disclosed  the  mechanism  of  the 
formation  of  these  very  local  hair-cracks  in  plastic  metal. 
A  case  of  the  formation  of  similar  cracks  in  a  large  shaft, 
where  overloading  in  service  could  be  proved,  showed  quite 
the  same  kind  of  cracks  after  etching  with  diluted  sulphuric 
acid. 

Photomicrographs  show  that  the  crystallites  in  the  .mme 
diate  neighborhood  of  the  crack  were  not  deformed.     Thii 


•lamiury  2'.).  I'.tlH 


I'  ()  W  K  R 


167 


was  also  the  case  with  the  boiler-plate  cracks.  These  parts 
in  the  boilers  beinj;  subjected  to  stresses  of  such  magnitude, 
it  may  be  asked  how  it  is  that  the  few  alternations  during 
the  lifetime  of  a  boiler  can  cause  these  cracks.  It  may  be 
observed,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  ships  with  boilers  that 
have  cracked  made  relatively  short  voyases  along-  the  coast, 
and  that  in  the  beninninR-  no  care  was  taken  to  avoid  changes 
in  the  steam  pi-essure.  When,  later,  care  was  taken  to 
maintain  the  steam  at  a  regular  pressure,  the  cracking- 
diminished,  but  did  not  stop  altogether.  The  first  boilers 
were  oil-tired  and  were  made  of  basic  openhearth  material; 
afterward  boilers,  both  oil-  and  coal-fired,  made  of  first- 
quality  Scottish  acid  steel,  cracked  in  the  same  manner. 
Notwithstanding-  the  severe  conditions  of  the  service,  the 
number  of  the  alternations  is,  however,  only  few  when  com- 
pared with  that  required  to  produce  ordinary  fatigue  breaks. 
Only  when  it  can  be  proved  that  at  the  places  where  the 
cracks  are  found  abnormally  high  stresses  can  occur,  may 
we  accept  "fatigue", as  the  cause  of  these  cracks.  It  was 
necessary,  therefore,  to  start  an  investigation  of  the  stresses 
occumngr  in  these  parts  of  a  boiler. 

It  is  known  from  the  theory  of  Kirsch  and  Leon  and  the 
tests  by  Preuss  that  the  tensile  tension  at  the  edges  of  a 
hole  in  a  bar  loaded  in  the  direction  of  its  axis  may  amount 
to  three  times  the  average  tension  calculated  for  that  bar. 
When  it  can  be  pi-oved  that  the  holes  of  a  riveted  joint  can 
behave  as  in  ordinary  bars,  we  have  an  explanation  for  the 
fact  that  the  tension  at  the  edges  of  the  holes  can  reach 
a  very  high  value.  The  average  tensional  stress  in  the 
cracked  plates  was  approximately  11  kg.  per  mm.  When 
this  value  is  trebled  we  reach  such  a  high  stress  in  these 
places  that  very  few  alternations  will  suffice  to  cause  a 
crack.  It  is  thus  necessary  to  prove  that  the  friction  be- 
tween the  plates  will  not  be  sufficient  to  counteract  the  de- 
formation of  the  sides  of  the  holes. 

Using  Special  Type  of  Extensometehj 

With  a  view  of  testing  this,  and  to  learn  the  values  of  the 
local  stretch  in  different  places  of  the  surfaces  of  the  plates 
that  are  pressed  against  each  other,  the  author  has  made 
use  of  a  special  type  of  extensometer,  designed  by  Mr. 
Okhuizen. 

It  consists  of  two  knife-edges  that  are  pressed  to  the  sur- 
face where  it  is  sought  to  ascertain  the  elongation  as  a 
measure  of  the  stress.  The  change  in  the  distance  between 
these  edges,  one  of  which  belongs  to  the  fixed  part,  the 
other  to  a  movable  one,  can  be  read  from  a  scale  by  means 
of  a  simple  arrangement  of  levers. 

The  Lap  Joint — It  can  be  clearly  seen  that  although  the 
plates  are  pressed  together  by  the  rivets,  the  material  of 
both  plates  shows  a  similar  elongation  only  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  rivets.  In  all  other  places  the  elonga- 
tion is  different,  so  that  the  surfaces  move  along  each  other. 

It  can  be  seen  that  the  load  is  more  or  less  gradually 
taken  over  from  the  shell  plate  by  the  cover  plates;  the 
gradual  change  will  be  different  for  every  vertical  section 
through  the  joint,  depending  on  the  position  of  the  neighbor- 
ing rivets  in  relation  to  the  section  and  on  the  pi-essure  of 
these  rivets  on  the  plates. 

Photomicrographs  of  the  separation  line  of  the  two  plates 
disclose  that  in  those  cases  where  the  plates  have  been 
cleaned  before  riveting  by  scraping  them  with  a  stiff  brush, 
as  in  normal  practice,  the  metallic  parts  do  not  come  to- 
gether, but  are  separated  by  a  very  compact  layer  of  some 
sort  of  oxide.  This  layer  has  irregular  breadth,  the  surface 
of  the  plate  being  very  irregular  under  this  magnification. 
When  elastic  displacements  of  the  plates  occur  of  the  mag- 
nitude demonstrated,  we  can  easily  accept  the  supposition 
that  stresses  will  hereby  be  caused  high  enough  to  explain 
the  cracking  of  the  plates. 

P.  D.  Merica'  has  published  the  results  of  an  investigation 
on  the  embrittling  action  of  sodium  hydroxide  on  tnild  steel 
and  its  possible  relation  to  seam  failures  of  boiler  plate. 
The  conclusion  drawn  is  that  the  influence  of  alkali  on  steel 
can  be  detected  principally  by  means  of  the  alternate  bend- 
ing test,  the  number  of  altei-nations  bein-  some  20  per  cent, 
lower  for  the  metal  treated  by  the  a'  ali  than  the  values 
for  the  untreated  metal.     A  recovery   jf  the  material  occurs 

^"Metallurgical  and   Cheniioal   Kngii  jeritiK.  "   May.   11117. 


after  a   week's   time   of  treatment   at   the    temperature    of 
180  deg.  C.   (3.5(5  deg.  F.). 

I  should  like  to  observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  same 
kind  of  cracks  mentioned  in  the  present  paper  was  found  by 
Mr.  Merica  in  different  kinds  of  boilers;  that  the  cracks 
described  by  me  have  occurred  not  only  in  the  water  space, 
but  also  in  the  steam  space  of  boilers;  that  the  cracks  being 
extremely  local,  in  most  cases  no  leakage  was  observed  and 
no  boiler  scale  was  found  between  the  plates;  that  as  the 
boilers  crack  after  having-  been  in  service  for  one  or  more 
years,  recovery  of  the  material  from  the  effect  of  the  alkali, 
mentioned  by  the  author,  should  have  taken  place  long  be- 
fore the  cracks  started. 

Baltimore  Encourages  Fuel  Economy 

Baltimore,  despite  its  proximity  to  the  coal  fields,  and 
that  it  is  a  great  coal-distribution  center,  suffers  in  common 
with  other  Atlantic  coast  cities  from  shortage  of  coal.  The 
water  power  available,  chiefly  from  the  large  station  at 
McCalls  Ferry  on  the  Susquehanna  River,  has  prevented 
such  extended  interruptions  of  service  as  more  northern 
localities  have  experienced. 

Recognizing  the  need  not  only  of  interesting  the  indus 
tries  in  fuel  economy,  but  of  discussing  specific  measures 
to  achieve  it,  the  Baltimore  Section  of  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers,  the  Engineers'  Club  and  the  City 
Club  held  the  first  of  a  number  of  large  meetings  at  the 
City  Club,  Thursday  evening,  Jan.  10.  The  meeting  was 
made  possible  chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  Prof.  A.  G. 
Christie,  of  the  engineering  department  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  Harry  D.  Bush,  president  of  the  Engineers' 
Club,  presided.  Besides  many  plant  owners  and  managers 
and  professional  engineers,  there  was  the  largest  gathering 
of  operating  engineers  and  firemen  that  ever  came  together 
in  a  local  meeting,  it  was  said. 

The  main  address  was  made  by  Chr.rles  H.  Bromley, 
associate  editor  of  Porver,  and  that  part  of  it  directed  par- 
ticularly to  firemen  and  the  operating  men  appears  on  page 
146  of  this  issue. 

Mr.  Bromley  said  that  while  the  many  efforts  made  to 
educate  the  fireman  would  doubtless  do  good,  it  was  his 
opinion  that  because  of  the  urgency  of  coal  saving,  the  best 
way  to  meet  the  situation  was  the  payment  of  bonuses  to 
the  boiler-  and  engine-room  crews  for  coal  saved.  The  most 
suitable  method  of  bonus  is  not  to  be  expected  at  first,  but 
some  form  may  be  used  in  the  beginning  and  perfection 
developed  as  the  result  of  experience  gained.  The  speaker 
regretted  that  it  was  not  possible  to  give  more  than  the 
fundamentals  on  which  to  base  a  bonus  system,  declaring 
that  an  equitable  bonus  for  a  particular  plant  required 
particular  study.  The  fundamentals,  he  said,  were,  first, 
the  ease  with  which  saving  could  be  effected ;  second,  the 
magnitude  of  the  saving;  and  third,  the  number  of  persons 
to  participate  in  the  bonus.  In  conversation  subsequent 
to  the  meeting  Mr.  Bromley  said  he  believed  the  rate  of 
payment  in  bonus  should  be  based  either  upon  the  weight 
of  coal  saved  per  unit  of  output  or  upon  the  price  per  unit 
weight  of  coal  saved  per  unit  of  output. 

The  speaker  urged  manufacturers  and  plant  owners  to 
inquire  into  the  equity  and  adequacy  of  the  wages  paid 
their  power-plant  employees,  declaring  that  there  is  no 
small  measure  of  unrest  among  engineers  and  firemen.  It 
would  be  well,  he  said,  to  inquire  if  it  would  not  be  well 
to  anticipate  organized  effort  on  their  part  to  secure  fairer 
remuneration.  Engineers,  on  the  whole,  have  not  organized 
in  a  labor  way,  having  faith  in  the  "learn  more,  earn  more" 
slogan.  The  employer  would  do  well  to  strengthen  this 
faith  rather  than  weaken  it. 

The  fuel  crisis  has  lent  great  impetus,  Mr.  Bromley  said, 
to  the  use  of  the  lower  grades  of  coal,  and  although  the 
engineers  and  firemen  of  Baltimore  scorned  hard  coal,  it  is 
likely  that  they,  in  common  with  men  of  other  sections  of 
the  country,  must  learn  to  burn  mixtures  of  the  Somerset 
semibituminous,  widely  used  in   Baltimore,  and  culm. 

It  is  the  speaker's  opinion  that  the  advantages  of  oper- 
ating engines  and  turbines  on  a  coniproniise  back  pressure 
are  not  widely   enough   known  or  thought  of  by   those   in- 


168 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


stalling  power  plants  for  mills,  buildings,  etc.  With  com- 
promise back  pressure  the  engine  or  turbine  is  operated 
condensing,  the  condenser  being  "hooked  up"  to  the  return 
of  the  heating  system,  while  the  steam  supply  to  the  heating 
system  is  taken  off  the  main  exhaust  steam  line  between 
the  unit  and  the  condenser,  with  a  valve  to  control  the 
steam  flow.  The  back  pressure  on  the  engine  is  varied 
from  the  most  economical  vacuum,  say  26%  in.  in  summer 
to,  say,  1  lb.  gage  during  extremely  cold  weather.  Mr. 
Bromley  referred  to  the  Mar.  27,  1917,  issue  of  Power,  in 
which  he  described,  with  drawings,  an  installation  of  this 
kind  at  the  Lynn  (Mass.)  Realty  Co.'s  buildings.  The 
extraction  turbine  offered  similar  possibilities,  said  the 
speaker. 

Following  Mr.  Bromley,  George  Goodwin,  engineer  at  the 
Sheppard-Pratt  Institute,  representing  the  American  Asso- 
ciation of  Steam  Engineers,  spoke  on  coal  saving  by  care 
in  ventilating  buildings.  John  Powell,  of  the  International 
Association  of  Steam  Engineers,  encouraged  the  use  of 
combustion  and  other  appliances  for  saving  coal.  Charles 
L.  Mintien,  of  the  National  Association  of  Stationary  Engi- 
neers, advised  the  consolidation  of  the  various  engineers' 
organizations  that  better  educational  and  conservation 
measures  might  be  made  possible  to  the  engineers  of  Balti- 
more. John  Milne,  inspector,  United  States  Steamboat 
Inspection  Service,  encouraged  saving  in  the  small  boats 
that  ply  the  shore  and  harbor.  Robert  Mugford,  chief 
engineer.  Monumental  Brewing  Co.,  pointed  out  how 
licensing  and  examining  of  engineers  would  promote  econ- 
omy in  power-plant  operation.  Philip  Kirkwood,  of  Sharpe 
&  Dohne,  spoke  on  firing  methods. 

Prof.  A.  G.  Christie,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University  and 
secretary  of  the  Baltimore  section  of  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers,  through  whose  efforts,  chiefly, 
the  meeting  was  brought  about,  spoke  briefly,  saying  that 
if  Baltimore  could  save  15  per  cent,  of  its  usual  consump- 
tion of  coal,  it  would  amount  to  over  $2,000,000  per  year. 

Captain  Webster,  of  the  Ordnance  Department,  gave  a 
few  rousing  remarks,  in  which  he  said  that  it  required 
about  four  pounds  of  coal  to  get  one  pound  of  steel  in  the 
form  of  shells  to  where  it  would  do  the  most  damage  to 
the  Germans. 


The  Engineer's  Public  Duty 

In  the  course  of  an  address  before  the  New  York 
Chapter  recently.  President  Edmund  T.  Perkins,  of  the 
American  Asosciation  of  Engineers,  said: 

There  are  56,000  engineers  enrolled  on  the  membership 
lists  of  the  various  engineering  societies  of  the  United 
States.  This  easily  indicates  a  total  of  100,000  engineers 
in  active  practice  throughout  the  United  States.  The 
profession  has  existed  and  been  recognized  for  centuries 
and  shows  a  remarkable  growth  in  numbers  engaged  there- 
in, but  unfortunately  does  not  show  an  equal  growth  in  po- 
sition and  standing  in  the  community,  for  the  engineer 
has  been  too  much  engaged  with  the  complex  problems  that 
arise  in  his  daily  labors,  to  reflect  on  the  part  he  has  actu- 
ally played  or  should  play  in  society. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  engineer  is  all  head  and  no 
heart.  This  may  be  true  of  the  composite  head  and  heart 
of  the  engineering  profession,  but  there  is  no  more  com- 
panionable, congenial,  lovable  man  among  his  familiar 
associates   than   the   engineer. 

Now,  while  the  engineer  himself  is  to  blame  for  his 
present  position,  a  greater  amount  of  blame  can  be  at- 
tached to  our  engineering  organizations  and  societies.  For 
with  the  exception  of  the  American  Association  of  Engi- 
neers, there  has  not  been  one  engineering  organization 
or  association  which  deals  with  the  human  side  of  the 
engineer.  This  one  exception  has  awakened  to  the  fact 
that  engineers  are  not  occupying  their  rightful  position 
of  usefulness.  Engineers  have  considered  politics  as  un- 
dignified and  corrupting.  It  is  true  that  there  are  corrupt 
politics,  but  this  is  so  because  men  who  should  have  kept 
them  righteous  have  stood  aside.  There  is  no  class  of 
educated  people  more  bound  to  traditions  than  the  engi- 
neer.    No   one   has   made   slower   progress   toward   collec- 


tive efliciency.  We  must  join  together,  we  must  cooperate 
in  working  out  reforms.  A  technical  education  never  made 
a  real  engineer;  40  per  cent,  of  his  work  has  to  do  directly 
wath  humanity  rather  than  with  technicalities. 

In  the  past  the  trouble  has  been  too  much  modesty — 
too  little  public  interest;  too  much  independence — too  little 
cooperation;  too  much  technicality — too  little  humanity;  too 
much  aloofness — too  little  goodfellowship. 

The  engineer  of  tomorrow,  if  he  is  to  assume  and  main- 
tain the  position  in  society  that  his  past  achievements  en- 
title him  to,  must  become  a  man  of  larger  sympathies  and 
wider  visions.  He  must  play  more  and  work  less  by  him- 
self. He  must  aspire  to  hold  the  honorable  offices  of  the 
state,  that  he  may  administer  them  for  the  public  welfare. 
He  must  be  an  arbiter,  not  an  advocate,  and  he  must  have 
for  his  watchwords.  Service  and  Cooperation. 

Electric  Motors  for  Ammonia 
Compressor  Drive 

The  largest  meeting  yet  held  by  the  New  York  Seetion 
of  the  American  Society  of  Refrigerating  Engineers 
occurred  Tuesday  evening,  Jan.  15,  at  the  Machinery  Club, 
50  Church  St.,  New  York  City.  About  sixty  were  present. 
The  section  has  forty  members,  all  of  whom  are  members 
of  the  American  Society  of  Refrigerating  Engineers,  the 
parent  body.  At  the  yearly  meeting  of  the  parent  society 
in  December,  changes  to  the  constitution  were  proposed  to 
allow  local  sections  to  have  affiliated  members  who  are  not 
members  of  the  parent  society.  This  amendment  will  likely 
pa^s  at  the  next  yearly  meeting,  and  in  the  meantime  the 
New  York  Section  will  take  in  affiliated  members,  refund- 
ing their  dues  of  $6  per  year  if  adverse  action  is  taken  on 
the  amendment  at  the  parent  society's  meeting  next 
December. 

The  question  of  a  suitable  emblem  for  affiliated  members 
came  up  for  considerable  discussion,  but  was  left  open. 

A  committee  of  three  vnW  be  appointed  by  the  pi-esident 
to  assist  the  A.  S.  R.  E.  Subcommittee  on  Refrigeration  in 
the  Council  of  National  Defense.  F.  E.  Matthews  and  Henry 
Torrance  are  the  members  of  the  parent  society  serving  on 
this  subcommittee. 

The  nominating  committee,  consisting  of  F.  E.  Matthews, 
William  Ross  and  Karl  Zesterdahl,  nominated  L.  Howard 
Jenks,  New  York  manager  of  the  Frick  Co.,  president  of 
the  section  to  succeed  John  E.  Starr,  whose  term  expires. 
Mr.  Jenks  has  been  acting  president  during  nearly  the 
whole  year,  Mr.  Starr  having  been  and  still  being  ill.  Mr. 
Jenks  was  elected.  The  secretaryship  was  left  open  on  the 
expiration  of  the  term  of  Van  R.  H.  Green.  Charles  Herter, 
who  has  been  acting  secretary  during  most  of  the  year, 
was  requested  to  continue  as  such.  Mr.  Herter  is  respon- 
sible for  much  of  the  success  of  the  section's  meetings. 

Without  attempting  to  criticize.  President  Jenks  em- 
phasized the  need  of  greater  thoroughness  in  drawing  up 
specifications  for  refrigerating  apparatus  specified  by  the 
Government  for  various  purposes.  The  sixteen  specifica- 
tions now  circulated  show  the  need  of  the  application  of 
engineering  attention,  suggested  Mr.  Jenks. 

W.  J.  Moore,  of  the  New  York  office  of  the  General  Elec- 
tric Co.,  requested  that  some  disinterested  member  check 
over  test  results  of  and  examine  some  small  refrigerating 
machines  about  to  be  shipped  to  France  for  the  Red  Cross 
hospitals  and  food  bases.  The  Red  Cross  has  asked  some 
of  its  members  connected  with  the  New  York  office  of  the 
General  Electric  Co.  to  ship  these  machines.  The  examina- 
tion would,  of  course,  have  to  be  gratis.  President  Jenka 
appointed  Fred  Ophuls  to  give  his  services,  which  Mr. 
Ophuls  expressed  himself  as  most  willing  to  do. 

Suggesting  papers  desirable  for  presentation  before  the 
section,  Mr.  Herter  reminded  President  Jenks  that  Adolph 
Koenig  promised  a  paper  on  brine-circulating  systems;  that 
Harry  B.  Joycp,  of  the  United  Electric  Light  and  Power 
Co.,  New  York,  promised  one  on  electric  drive  for  ice 
plants;  F.  L.  Fai  banks,  one  on  high-speed  compressor 
valves.  Mr.  Herter  ..  id  that  Mr.  Dickerman,  of  the  De  La 
Vergne  Machine  Co.,  ould  be  pleased  to  present  a  paper 
on  ice  storage. 


January  29,  1918 


I'  O  W  K  R 


169 


F.  J.  Bartlett,  of  the  Eleoti-ic  Machinery  Co.,  Kil  Devon- 
shire St.,  Boston,  Mass.,  read  a  paper  on  the  synchronous 
motor  for  ammonia  compressor  drive.  Followin(2r  are  the 
chief  points  brought  out  by  Mr.  Bartlett. 

Compressor  design  has  followed  closely  the  development 
of  the  compressor  prime  mover.  The  very  slow  macliines 
of  years  ago  were  driven  by  long-stroke  engines;  the  Cor- 
liss engine  increased  speeds  somewhat,  while  a  marked 
increase  in  speed  has  been  brought  about  by  direct  motor 
drive,  aided  by  the  introduction  of  the  high-speed  plate 
valve  of  low  lift  for  the  compressor.  The  plate  valve  is 
good  for  speeds  up  to  240  r.p.m.  About  40  per  cent,  is 
saved  in  floor  space  and  headroom  by  use  of  the  high-speed, 
motor-driven  compressor.  While  direct  di'ive  i.s  usually 
desired,  Mr.  Bartlett  recognized  that  belted  motors  are 
sometimes  necessary. 

The  speaker  aimed  to  show  that  for  motors  of  similar 
horsepower  and  speed,  the  full  load  efficiency  of  the  syn- 
chi-onous  motor  was  appreciably  higher  than  that  of  the 
induction  motor  by  5  to  10  per  cent.,  although  he  gave  a 
general  statement  of  15  per  cent,  difference  credited,  he 
said,  to  a  handbook  distributed  by  the  Condit  Electrical 
Manufacturing  Co.,  of  South  Boston.  Mr.  Moore  said  such 
a  difference  was  vei-y  much  too  high  and  was  not  true  of 
average  standard  motors  of  both  types.  Mr.  Bartlett 
agreed  with  Mr.  Moore.  , 

In  the  past  objection  has  been  raised  to  the  synchronous 
motor  because  of  the  separate  excitation  required,  .\dvance 
in  design  has  eliminated  this  objection,  said  Mr.  Bartlett, 
and  experience  has  shown  that  exciter  troubles  are  not 
even  serious  enough  to  be  a  factor. 

Air  compressors  are  now  without  flywheel  effect  other 
than  that  given  by  the  rotor  of  the  motors  driving  them. 
This  does  not  mean  that  ammonia-compressor  builders  should 
strive  to  eliminate  the  flywheel;  but  it  is  likely  that  thsy 
will  find  it  advantageous  to  cut  down  the  weight  of  flywheel 
used.  The  reason  for  lightness  of  flywheel  is  to  reduce 
the  starting  torque. 

The  air  gap  in  the  induction  motor  is  smaller  than  for 
the  synchronous  motor;  therefore  wear  of  the  bearings  may 
be  greater  without  fear  of  mechanical  and  magnetic 
troubles. 

The  central  station  more  and  more  demands  that  its  dis- 
tribution lines  be  working  at  high  power  factor.  Because 
the  synchronous  motor  gives  unity  power  factor,  its  use  is 
highly  desirable  from  the  central-station  standpoint.  Con- 
siderable emphasis  was  laid  on  this  point  by  those  dis- 
cussing the  paper,  the  substance  of  their  remarks  being 
given  farther  on  in  this  report. 

Mr.  Bartlett  hoped  that  there  would  be  the  closest  co- 
operation between  the  manufacturers  of  motors  and  the 
builders  of  ammonia  compressors. 

Discussion 

J.  W.  Moore,  General  Electric  Co.,  New  York  City:  Rela- 
tive to  the  efficiencies  of  the  two  types  of  motors  a  syn- 
chronous motor  of  600  r.p.m.  and  200  hp.  had  an  efficiency 
of  94  to  94%  per  cent.,  and  a  slip-ring  induction  motor  of 
the  same  speed  and  capacity  would  have  an  efficiency  of 
89  per  cent.  This  represented  the  difference  in  efficiency 
to  be  expected  usually. 

./.  C.  Carpenter:  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the 
power  factor  would  have  to  be  considerably  sacrificed  to 
design  an  induction  motor  which  would  have  character- 
istics similar  to  a  synchronous  for  the  same  purpose. 

Air-compressor  builders  have  gone  through  the  experi- 
ence of  induction  and  synchronous  motor  drive,  and  they 
have  widely  adopted  the  latter  type  of  motor.  For  air- 
compressor  drive  the  synchronous  motor  requires,  to  give 
a  broad  figure,  about  30  per  cent,  with  about  ir-,  per  cent. 
pull  in.  It  is  not  certain  that  the  ammonia  compressor  will 
take  as  much.  Mr.  Carpenter  also  urged  the  motor  manu- 
facturers and  builders  of  ammonia  compi'essors  to  come 
together. 

Charles  D.  Neeson  suggested  that  the  section  seek  a 
paper  dealing  with  results  found  in  experimental  work 
to  be  done  by  the  motor  and  compressor  builders  some 
time  during  the  year.  He  urged  that  the  central  sta- 
tion   present    its    suggestions    and    claims    in    the    same 


paper.  The  matter  was  left  open  other  than  that  Presi- 
dent Jenks  appointed  Mr.  Neeson  to  get  such  a  paper 
before  the  section. 

J.  W.  Moore:  Four  years  ago  the  first  electrically 
driven  ice  plant  in  this  section  was  installed  on  the  plant 
of  the  Syracuse  Ice  Co.  Much  had  been  learned  from 
this  installation,  and  the  chief  thing  it  taught,  Mr.  Moore 
believed,  was  that  the  best  plant  is  one  that  can  use 
standard  apparatus  "taken  from  the  shelf."  The  belted  in- 
duction motor  was  the  only  logical  motor  at  the  time 
the   Syracuse  plant  was  built. 

As  showing  the  growth  of  the  synchronous  motor  for 
air  and  ammonia  compressor  drive,  he  said  that  during 
1917  motors  to  the  number  of  177,  aggi-egating  more 
than  6.5,000  hp.,  had  been  sold  by  his  company. 

It  is  Mr.  Moore's  belief  that  a  compressor  of  speeds 
up  to  .500  r.p.m.  is  yet  to  come,  and  will  come,  and  that 
when  it  does,  the  induction  motor  will  be  more  suitable 
as  the  prime  mover  than  the  synchronous  motor.  Be- 
tween 350  and  500  r.p.m.  the  controversy  as  to  which 
motor  is  most  suitable  is  chiefly  one  around  the  questions 
of  simplicity  and  efficiency. 

Harry  Joyce  (United  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co., 
New  York  City)  :  It  is  customary  in  this  locality  for  the 
consumer  to  pay  for  the  transformer  losses.  These  are 
so  very  much  greater  with  the  induction  motor  than  with 
the  synchronous  that  it  is  of  vital  concern  to  the  consumer. 
The  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the  central  station  must 
compel  the  consumer  to  ?tand  the  costs  occasioned  by  low 
power  factor. 

Mr.  Hill,  of  Ophuls,  McCreery  &  Hill,  consulting  en- 
gineers, New  York,  pointed  out  that  for  the  same  service 
an  induction  would  cost  more  than  the  synchronous 
motor.  He  also  laid  emphasis  upon  high  power  factor  as 
desirable  to  central  station  and  consumer,  stating  that 
a  line  loaded  to  80  per  cent,  power  factor  gave  20  per 
cent,  less  return  on  the  investment  than  was  true  for  unity 
power  factor,  meaning  return  to  the  company  selling 
power. 

The  section  requested  Charles  H.  Bromley,  associate 
editor.  Power,  to  give  a  paper  on  "Specific  Fuel  Wastes 
and  Their  Reduction,"  at  the  ne.xt  meeting,  Mar.  19.  Mr. 
Bromley  will  give  such  a  paper. 

Ordnance    Department   Needs   Civilian 
Workers 

The  Ordnance  Department  urgently  needs  several  thou- 
sand civilian  workers  to  serve  in  the  United  States.  The 
Civil  Service  Commission  is  conducting  an  extensive  cam- 
paign to  obtain  this  needed  help.  Among  the  positions  to 
be  filled  are  the  following: 

Clerical  Positions:  2000  stenographers  and  typewriters, 
men  and  women,  $1100  to  $1200  a  year;  2000  typewriter 
operators,  men  and  women,  $1100  to  $1200  a  year;  2000 
general  clerks,  men  and  women,  $1100  a  year;  500  index 
and  catalog  clerks,  men  and  women,  $1100  to  $1200  a  year; 
200  clerks  qualified  in  business  administration,  $1200  to 
$1500  a  year;  300  schedule  clerks,  men  and  women,  $1400 
to  $1600  a  year;  300  production  clerks,  not  more  than  $1500 
a  year;  200  clerks  qualified  in  statistics  or  accounting, 
$1100  to  $1800  a  year;  100  statisticians,  $1800  a  year;  100 
multigraph  operators,  men  and  women,  $1000  to  $1200  a 
year. 

Testing  Positions:  200  engineers  of  tests  of  ordnance 
material,  $1500  to  $2400  a  year;  200  assistant  engineers 
of  tests  of  ordnance  material,  $1000  to  $1500  a  year. 

Mechanical  Trades  Positions:  2500  machinists,  $4  a  day; 
500  machine  operators,  $2.75  a  day;  200  drop  forgers,  $5.75 
a  day  (piecework);  300  tool  makers,  $4.50  a  day;  large 
numbei's  in  practically  all  other  trades. 

Drafting  Positions:  500  mechanical  draftsmen,  $800  to 
$1800  a  year;  50  gage  designers,  $2000  to  $3000  a  year;  100 
apprentice    draftsmen,    $480    a    year. 

Inspection  Positions:  300  inspectors  of  small-arms  am- 
munition, $1500  to  $2400  a  year;  100  inspectors  of  artil- 
lery ammunition  (high-explosive  shell  loading).  $1500  to 
$2400    a    year;     100    inspectors    of    artillery    ammunition 


170 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


(forgings),  $1500  to  $2400  a  year;  100  inspectors  of  artil- 
lery ammunition  (ballistics),  $1500  to  $2400  a  year;  300  in- 
spectors of  field  artillery  ammunition  steel,  $1,500  to  $2400 
a  year;  300  assistant  inspectors  of  field  artillery  ammu- 
nition steel,  $3.50  to  $5  a  day;  500  inspectors  of  small  arms, 
$1500  to  $2400  a  year;  100  inspectors  of  material  for  small 
arms,  $1000  to  $1800  a  year;  100  assistant  inspectors  of 
cannon  forgings,  $1500  to  $2400  a  year;  100  assistant  in- 
spectors of  finished  machine  parts,  $1500  to  $2400  a  year; 
100  assistant  inspectors  of  gunfire-control  instruments, 
$1200  to  $1500  a  year;  50  assistant  inspectors  of  steel  hel- 
mets, $1000  to  $1800  a  year;  50  assistant  inspectors  of 
cleaning  and  preserving  materials,  $1000  to  $1800  a  year; 
400  inspectors  and  assistant  inspectors  of  powder  and 
explosives,  $1400  to  $2400  a  year. 

Salaries  named  are  the  usual  salaries  at  entrance.  Higher 
or  lower  initial  salaries  may  be  paid  in  exceptional  cases. 
Positions  paying  salaries  higher  than  those  named  are 
usually  filled  through  promotion. 

Men   only,   unless  otherwise   specified. 

For  further  information  apply  to  the  representative  of 
the  United  States  Civil  Service  Commission  at  the  post  of- 
fice or  custom  house  in  any  city,  or  to  the  Civil  Service 
Commission  in  Washington,  D.  C.  Except  for  the  positions 
of  stenographer  and  typewriter,  typewriter  operator,  mul- 
tigraph  operator,  and  general  clerk,  applicants  are  not 
assembled  for  a  vn-itten  examination,  but  are  rated  prin- 
cipally upon  their  education,  training,  and  experience,  as 
shown  by  their  applications  and  corroborative  evidence. 

Fuel   Economy   in   Private   Generating 
Plants 

Engineering  Offices 

PERCIVAL    ROBERT    MOSES,    E.    E. 

366   Fifth  Avenue 

New  York,  Jan.  15,  1918. 
Mr.  Albert  H.  Wiggin, 
State  Fuel  Administrator, 
61  Broadway,  New  York  City. 

Dear  Sir — My  attention  has  been  called  to  your  circular 
letter,  addressed  to  owners  and  operators  of  private  elec- 
tric  generating   plants. 

I  do  not  think  it  is  possible  that  my  letters  on  this  sub- 
ject have  misled  you,  because  I  have  tried  to  be  very  clear 
in  bringing  out  the  fact  that  fuel  economy  can  be  ob- 
tained by  operating  the  private  plants  to  their  limit  during 
such  part  of  the  year  as  their  exhaust  steam  can  be 
used  for  heating. 

If  you  will  call  up  any  one  of  fifty  private-plant  owners 
in  your  immediate  vicinity,  you  will  find  that  practical  ex- 
perience has  shown  them  that  they  will  use  no  more  coal 
during  the  months  of  January,  February  and  March,  and 
in  many  cases  also  in  April,  for  supplying  their  total 
requirements  of  heating  and  electricity  than  they  would 
for  supplying  their  requirements  of  heat  alone.  This  is 
such  a  well-known  fact  that  it  is  hardly  disputed  by  un- 
biased engineers. 

Mr.  Bion  J.  Arnold,  the  great  exponent  of  central  plants, 
who  is  now  a  major  in  the  United  States  Army,  stated 
the  other  night  at  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical 
Engineers  that  there  could  be  no  question  that  the  private 
generating  plant  using  its  exhaust  steam  was  the  most 
efficient  method  of  producing  electricity. 

I  would  suggest  that  you  call  up  Mr.  Harris  A.  Dunn, 
of  the  Columbia  Trust  Co.,  whom  you  probably  know,  and 
ask  him  for  his  experience.  In  that  building,  the  actual 
coal  used  in  two  successive  years — one  buying  Edison  cur- 
rent, and  the  other  making  the  current — was  less  when 
the  current  was  made  than  it  was  when  the  current  was 
bought. 

The  same  thing  was  true  in  a  test  we  made  in  the 
Mutual  Insurance  Co.'s  building  in  Richmond,  and  you  will 
find  that  this  is  the  universal  experience. 

I  would  like  very  much  to  come  down  and  have  a  talk 
with  you  about  this  matter,  and  explain  exactly  what  I 
did  mean  in  my  previous  letters. 

Yours  very  truly, 
P.  R.  Moses. 


Research  Fellowships 

At  the  end  of  the  academic  year  there  will  be  12  vacan- 
cies in  the  14  research  fellowships  maintained  by  the 
University  of  Illinois.  Two  other  such  fellowships  have 
been  established  under  the  patronage  of  the  Illinois  Gas 
Association.  These  fellowships,  for  each  of  which  there 
is  an  annual  stipend  of  $500,  aie  open  to  graduates  of  ap- 
proved American  and  foreign  Universities  and  technical 
schools.  Appointments  are  made  and  must  be  accepted 
for  two  consecutive  collegiate  years,  at  the  expiration  of 
which  period,  if  all  requirements  have  been  met,  the  de 
gree  of  Master  of  Science  will  be  conferred.  Not  more 
than  half  of  the  time  of  the  research  fellows  is  required  in 
connection  with  the  work  of  the  department  to  which  they 
are  assigned,  the  remainder  being  available  for  graduate 
study.  Nominations  to  these  fellowships,  accompanied  by 
assignments  to  special  departments  of  the  Engineering 
Experiment  Station,  are  made  from  applications  received 
by  the  director  of  the  station  each  year  not  later  than  the 
first  day  of  February.  Appointments  are  made  in  the 
spring  and  take  effect  the  first  of  the  following  Septeniber. 

As  to  the  attitude  of  the  War  Department  toward  gradu- 
ate students  in  engineering,  the  office  of  the  Chief  of  En- 
gineers has  ruled  that  resident  graduate  students  in  engi- 
neering who  are  candidates  for  an  advanced  engineeiing 
degree  may  avail  themselves  of  the  privileges  provided  by 
the  new  regulations,  under  which  engineering  students  may 
be  enrolled  in  the  Enlisted  Reserve  Corps  of  the  Engineer 
Department  and  placed  on  the  inactive  list  until  they  have 
completed    their    educational    training. 

Shipping  Board  Schools 

Official  announcement  was  made  Jan.  19  by  Henry  How- 
ard, Director  of  Recruiting  for  the  United  States  Shipping 
Board,  that  under  a  recently  issued  regulation  of  the 
Provost  Marshal  General's  department  all  students  enter- 
ing Shipping  Board  schools  for  deck  officers  or  engineers 
will  be  exempted  from  military  duty  and  will  remain  ex- 
empted so  long  as  they  pursue  the  calling  for  which  the 
school  fits  them.  This  affects  six  hundred  or  more  stu- 
dents now  in  Shipping  Board  schools  and  will  apply  to 
students  enrolled  in  the  future. 

There  are  now  thirty  of  these  schools  training  deck  of- 
ficers for  the  merchant  marine  and  eight  training  engi- 
neers. Only  men  who  have  had  two  years'  seafaring  ex- 
perience are  admitted  to  the  schools.  On  graduation  a 
student  is  either  sent  to  sea  for  further  training  as  a  re- 
serve officer  in  the  merchant  marine  or  is  licensed  at  once 
for  the  grade  in  which  he  is  eligible. 

About  four  thousand  new  officers  for  the  merchant  ma- 
rine have  been  licensed  since  the  United  States  entered  the 
war.  The  Shipping  Board  schools  will  continue  to  receive 
a  limited  number  of  students  monthly,  the  course  being  one 
month  in  the  engineering  schools  and  six  weeks  in  naviga- 
tion schools. 

Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Insurance 

The  Treasury  Department  is  making  every  effort  to 
have  each  member  of  America's  fighting  forces  take 
advantage  of  the  Government-insurance  plan,  which  Secre- 
tary McAdoo  asserts  to  be  "the  most  just  and  humane 
provision  ever  made  by  any  nation  for  its  soldiers  and 
sailors." 

The  purpose  is  rapidly  being  achieved,  the  insurance 
having  passed  the  third  billion  mark  in  the  total  of  policies 
written,  and  there  are  many  military  units  in  which  every 
member  has  taken  insurance. 

The  automatic  insurance  provided  by  the  law  is  only 
partial  and  limited  protection,  payable  only  to  wife,  child, 
or  widowed  mother  and  ceases  after  Feb.  12,  1918.  It  is 
important,  therefore,  not  only  to  the  soldiers  and  sailors 
of  the  country,  but  to  their  families  and  dependents,  that 
before  that  date  they  avail  themselves  of  the  full  Govern- 
ment protection,  which  can  go  as  high  as  $10,000  and  is 
payable  to  a  wife,  husband,  child,  grandchild,  parent, 
brother  or  sister. 


January  29,  1918 


POWER 


171 


Materials  Division,  Quartermasters' 
Corps 

The  following  is  the  report  of  the  Quartermaster's 
Corps,  U.  S.  Army,  Materials  Division,  ITith  and  M  Sts., 
Washington,  D.  C: 

Major  J.  N.  Willcutt  in  charge.  Purchasing:  Capt.  O.  F. 
Noss,  assistants  N.  A.  Lufburrow,  J.  C.  McCubbin,  C.  G. 
Graves  and  R.  T.  Vaughn,  buying  plumbing,  tanic  heaters 
and  hot-water  tanks;  J.  H.  Prentiss,  buying  refrigerating 
machinery;  M.  0.  Pinkham,  buying  hydrants,  storage  tanks, 
valves,  wood  pipe,  steel  pipe,  cast-iron  pipe  and  pipe  fit- 
tings; E.  W.  Case,  assistants  A.  F.  Knibiehly  and  L.  W. 
McCrea,  buying  ash  hoists  and  conveying  machinery;  Lieut. 
A.  C.  Nell,  assistant  H.  H.  Easterly,  buying  pumping 
equipment,  air  compressors,  rail  and  track  materials,  lo- 
comotive cranes,  sprinkler  systems,  water  meters,  record- 
ing apparatus,  coal  and  engines;  Capt.  W.  H.  Riblet,  as- 
sistants S.  W.  Newcomb  and  H.  Goodkind,  buying  heating 
equipment,    heating    boilers,    heating    pipe,    heating    tanks, 


feed-water  heaters,  boiler-feed  pumps,  insulating  material, 
valves,  fittings,  traps,  regulators  and  radiation;  .J.  E.  Erick- 
son,  assistants  M.  S.  Donally  and  M.  A.  Closs,  buying 
motors,  power  transformers,  oil  switches,  switchboards, 
lightning  arresters,  series  regulators,  wire,  electric  sup- 
plies, battery-charging  equipment  and  storage-battei-y 
trucks. 


Considerable  speculation  has  been  occasioned  by  an  ad- 
vertisement which  appeared  on  the  front  page  of  the 
New  York  Tribune  daily  for  a  couple  of  weeks,  which 
read,  "Employ  Your  Local  Consulting  Engineer,"  but  was 
signed  by  John  A.  Stevens,  of  Lowell,  Mass.  It  seems  that 
the  wide-awake  chairman  of  the  Boiler  Code  Committee  got 
to  thinking  of  all  the  coal  that  could  be  saved  if  everybody 
would  follow  the  advice  of  a  competent  mechanical  engi- 
neer, and  so  he  ran  the  advertisement,  hoping  that  it 
might  lead  to  an  improvement  in  the  fuel  condition  by 
the  employment,  by  those  who  might  see  it,  of  the  near- 
est or  most  available  consulting  engineer. 


■IIIIIIIIH IIMII MIMnilllllllllllMtllllllMIIII 


New  Publications 


Personal 


IIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItllMIIII 


lltlMlltlllllltl Ill' 


"VULCAN" 

The  December.  1917,  issue  of  "Vulcan," 
which  is  tlie  house  organ  of  the  Vulcan  Steel 
Products  Co,  120  Broadway.  New  York, 
appears  in  an  attractive  and  seasonable 
cover.  The  history  of  steel  making,  an- 
other installment  of  which  is  given  in  this 
issue,  is  doubly  interesting  because  of  the 
reproduction  of  woodcuts  illustrating  early 
steel-working  machinery.  Articles  on  ex- 
port business  and  a  profusion  of  halftone.'! 
round  out  an  excellent  number  of  this 
well-edited  journal.  Copies  may  be  ob- 
tained free  on  application  to  the  publishers. 

THE    OXIDATION  OF  COAL 

Bureau  of  Mines  Technical  Paper  98.  by 
S.  H.  Katz  and  H.  C.  Porter,  under  the 
title  of  "Effect  of  Low-Temperature  Oxi- 
dation on  the  Hydrogen  in  Coal  and  the 
Change  in  Weight  of  Coal  on  Drying," 
gives  the  following  as  the  results  of  the 
investigation ; 

The  temperature  basis  of  nearly  al'  the 
recorded  work  of  previous  investigators  of 
the  oxidation  of  coal  as  related  to  the  hy- 
drogen of  the  coal  substance  was  at  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water  and  above, 
and  water  was  invariably  produced  in  read- 
ily determined  quantities,  but  three  dif- 
ferent investigators  have  studied  the  sub- 
ject with  regard  to  changes  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  The  results  obtained  by 
these  investigators  varj'  widely — from  the 
statement  that  "quite  a  large  amount  of 
water  is  produced  in  oxidation"  to  those  of 
the  authors  who  can  find  no  water  pro- 
duced by  their  method  of  experiment.  The 
third  investigator  found  that  in  some  cases 
very  small  amounts  of  water  were  pro- 
duced and  in  others  none  whatever.  The 
authors  of  this  paper  conclude  that  at  or- 
dinary temperatures  coal  undergoing  oxi- 
dation produces  no  water.  They  have  also 
determined  that  the  change  in  weight  of 
the  coal  is  less  than  that  of  the  water  re- 
moved from  the  coal  when  drying  takes 
place  in  an  inert  atmosphere.  Others  have 
noted  this  discrepancy.  A  possible  explana- 
tion is  that  the  discrepancy  results  from 
the  absorption  of  gas  by  the  coal  on  dry- 
ing. 

The  conclusions  are:  (1)  There  is  a  lacli 
of  agreement  between  the  weight  of  water 
evolved  by  coal  and  the  loss  of  weight  when 
dried  in  an  inert  atmosphere ;  the  excess 
weight  of  the  coal  may  be  due  to  ab- 
sorption of  gas.  (2)  A  study  of  the  vapor 
tension  of  water  in  coal,  as  indicated  b" 
the  water  removed  by  a  regulated  current 
of  dry  nitrogen  and  air  used  alternately. 
shows  no  production  of  water  by  the  oxi- 
dation of  coal   at  ordinary  temperatures. 


Obituary 


C.  H.  Newhall,  chief  engineer  and  build- 
ing superintendent  of  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce of  Minneapolis,  died  .Ian.  7.  1918.  of 
pneumonia.  Mr.  Newhall  wa-'^  well  known 
among  the  engineers  of  Minneapolis.  He 
came  from  Chicago  in  1909  to  take  the  posi- 
tion he  held  until  his  death. 


Prof.  A.  N.  Talbot,  of  the  University  of 
Illinois,  has  been  elected  president  of  the 
.American   Society  of  Civil    Engineers. 

Guy  E.  Tripp,  who  was  chairman  of  the 
board  of  directors  of  the  Westinghouse 
Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  has  been 
placed  in  charge  of  the  Production  Divi- 
sion  of   the   Ordnance    Department. 

John  D.  .stout  has  been  appointed  Chi- 
cago representative  for  The  Terrj-  Steam 
Turbine  Co.  Mr.  Stout  was  at  one  time 
assistant  engineer  of  the  company  and  was 
recently  transferred  from  the  New  York 
office,  where  he  was  assistant   manager. 

Milton  Rupert  was  recently  elected  vice 
president  and  assistant  treasurer  of  the 
R  D.  Nuttall  Co.,  of  Pittsburgh,  Penn.  He 
has  been  with  the  Nuttall  Co.  since  March. 
1893,  holding:  various  positions.  In  1903 
he  was  appointed  head  of  the  general  of- 
fices. During  the  latter  part  of  this  period 
he  was  assistant  to  the  president  and  gen- 
eral manager.  In  his  new  position  Mr. 
Rupert  will  have  charge  of  sales  and  manu- 
facturing  activities. 


Engineering  Affairs 


American  Institute  of  Steam  Boiler  In- 
spectors will  hold  its  regular  meeting' 
Thursday  evening.  Jan.  31,  in  Engineering 
Societies  Building,  29  West  39th  St..  New 
York  City.  The  annual  election  of  officers 
will  take  place  and  business  in  connection 
with  the  annual  dinner  will  be  taken  up. 

New  Chapter  of  the  A.  A.  E.  Started  in 
Philadelphia— The  first  meeting  of  the 
American  Association  of  Engineers  was 
held  at  the  Beilevue-Stratford  Hotel  on 
Friday.  Jan.  18.  Frank  P.  Roth  was 
elected  chairman  and  a  temporary  club  was 
formed  with  fifteen  new  members.  A.  H. 
Krom,  general  secretar>  of  the  organiza- 
tion, was  principal  speaker  and  he  out- 
lined the  "National  Association  Plans."  Ois- 
cussion  followed  by  T.  J.  Stone  Edelen, 
Kern  Dodge,  Joseph  B.  Smith  and  Howard 
K.  Hayes.  The  spirit  of  the  meeting  indi- 
ciated  that  Philadelphia  will  soon  have  a 
local  office  of  the  national  business  organi- 
zation for  engineers.  The  meeting  was  a 
close  "second"  to  the  one  in  New  York  City 
on  the  evening  of  Jan,   16. 


Miscellaneous  News 


Itoiler     Kx  plosion     Wrecks     Train     —    The 

night  express  train  of  the  Rutland  R  R.. 
bound  from  Montreal  to  Boston,  was 
wrecked  near  Middlebury,  Vt..  early  Jan. 
22,  by  an  explosion  in  the  locomotive.  The 
fireman  was  killed  and  the  engineer  prob- 
ably fatally  hurt.  Some  of  the  cars  of  the 
train  were  derailed  and  several  passengers 
received   minor  injuries. 

A  IJuiler  Kxplosion  occurred  at  the  saw- 
mill of  n.  K,  Walters  at  St.  George.  S.  C, 
on  the  afternoon  of  Jan.  7,  severely  in- 
juring  three    persons,    including   the   owner 


and  his  son,  the  latter's  condition  being 
serious,  and  completely  destroying  the  mill 
and  machinery.  Several  negro  workers 
were  shaken  up  and  mules  and  horses  which 
were  nearby  were  injured.  The  cause  oi 
the  explosion  is  unknown. 

A  Boiler  Explosion  wrecked  the  plant  of 
the  municipal  water-works  at  Swansea,  111., 
on  the  night  of  Jan.  12.  killing  two  men 
and  seriously  injuring  two  more.  The  plant, 
a  story  and  a  half  brick  building,  was  com- 
pletely destroyed  by  fire,  the  village  having 
no  fire  department.  The  cause  of  the  ex- 
plosion is  unknown,  but  it  is  supposd  it 
was  because  of  low  water  in  the  boiler.  The 
loss  is  estimated  at  $15,000, 

A  Boiler  Head  Blew  Off  in  the  heating 
system  in  the  basement  of  the  Chittenden 
Hotel.  Columbus.  Ohio,  on  Jan.  8,  flooding 
the  engine  room  with  boiling  water  and 
steam,  and  injuring  six  men.  one  severe- 
ly, who  died  later  at  the  hospital.  At 
the  time  of  the  explosion  the  men  were 
busy  removing  coal  from  a  pit  near  the 
end  of  the  boiler  to  the  fuel  room,  and 
when  clouds  of  .steam  made  it  impossible 
for  them  to  find  their  way  out.  they  were 
forced  to  stand  in  the  scalding  water  until 
firemen  and  |K)lice  arrived  to  remove  them 
in  ambulances.  The  hotel  manager  stated 
that  the  system  had  been  inspected  and 
approved  m,ore  than  a  month  ago,  A  weak 
tube  in  the  boiler  was  probably  the  cause 
of   the  accident,   it   was  said. 


Business  Items 

TllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIKT 

Orleans    Cotton    Mills.    Ine.,    is    the    new 

name  of  the  corporation  fomierlj-  known 
as  the  Kohlman  Cotton  Mill  and  Manufac- 
turing Co..  New  Orleans,   La. 

The    Hydraulic    Press    Manufacturing    Co. 

now  occupies  its  new  buildings  at  Mount 
Gilead,  Ohio,  and  the  plant  is  again  in  op- 
eration to  its  full  capacity.  The  new  equip- 
ment is  specially  adapted  for  the  building 
of  hydraulic  presses,  pumps  and  valves. 

Ford,  Bacon  &  Davis.  Engineers,  an- 
nounce the  formation  of  the  F"ord.  Bacon 
&  Davis  Corporation,  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conducting  a  general  contracting 
business,  with  particular  reference  to  in- 
dustrial, public-utility  and  power  plants, 
steam  and  street  railroads,  docks,  steam- 
ship and  railwaj'-terminal  facilities,  sub- 
ways, tunnels,  hydro-electric  and  irrigation 
projects.  In  effect  this  means  the  continu- 
ance in  cori>orate  form  of  construction 
work  whicli  heretofore  has  been  handled  by 
the  firm  direct.  The  corporation's  organi- 
zation comi)rises  men  skilled  and  experi- 
enced in  engineering  and  conti'acting  work 
b.v  the  most  modern  and  economical  meth- 
ods. It  is  i>rovided  with  ample  capital  to 
insure  the  successful  completion  of  any 
work  which  it  may  undertake,  and  starts 
business  with  important  work  already  en- 
trusted to  it.  Its  headquarters  are  at  115 
Rroadwa\',  New  York,  with  otlices  at  New 
Orleans  and  San  Francisco.  The  facilities 
available  to  the  new  corporation  from  the 
firm  of  Ford.  Hacon  &  Davis,  now  in  its 
21th  year,  which  continues  as  heretofore, 
assure  a  continuance  of  this  firm's  standard 
of  iKJth  engineering  and  construction  elli- 
ciency  and  enable  both  design  and  con- 
struction to  be  carried  on  with  a  degi'ee 
of  coiJrdination  which  should  make  for  econ- 
omy   and    rapidity   of   work. 


172 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  5 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


Boston — Current   quotations   per   gross  ton   delivered   alongside 
Boston  point.s  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 


Buckwheat 

Bice    

Boiler    .  .  . 
Barley   .  .  . 


Jan.  --li.  1918 
84.1)0 

4,10 

:t.!>0 
a. CM 


-  Circular! 


One  Year  Ago 
$S.0.'> — .'i.ao 
■2.-,o—ti.m 


■;.;30— :J.3r. 

BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous  not   on  market. 

F.o.b.  Mines* 


Jan.  •,24.  1918 

S7.10 — 7.:!;') 

fi.0.5 — li.90 

fi.l'r)'— ii.46 


■  Individual  *- 


One  Year  Ago 
S3.:;."> — 3..'>0 
3.70— a.g.T 


One  Year  Ago 
$3.00 


Jan. 


Alongside  Bostont v 

;4    191H      One  Year  Ago 
54.iJ.r, 500 


3.10 — 3.8.". 


4.00- 


i.40 


Jan.;;4,  1918 

Clearftelds 

Cambrias  and 

Somersets..  .         

Pocahontas  and  New  River,  l.o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  S4.  as  compared 
with  fi.Sr> — •l.M)  a  year  ago. 

•All-rail  rate  to  Boston   is  $3.60. 


tWater  coal. 


New  York — Current  quotations  per  grcss  ton  f.o.b.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 
ANTHRACITE 

, Circular' ,    . Individual ' , 

Jan  34   1918      One  Year  Ago     Jan.  34.  1918      One  Year  Ago 

Pea    $.'>.0.^.  $4.00  $.-..80  ^Z-yS^ZSr; 

Buckwheat  ..  4.30— .5.00  3.7.5  .-...50-0.00  I..0O— .00 

ak.e                .  3,7.5-3.95  3,30  4,.50— 5.00  4,50— ,5.00 

Barlcv             ..  3.35— .■1.50  1.95                  4.0(1 1.35  3.3.5—3.50 

Boiler    3.50 — 3.75  3.30                      

Bituminous  smithing  coal.   $4.50 — 5.35  f.o.b. 
Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c.  higher, 

BITUMINOUS 

P,o.b.  N,  Y.  Harbor     Mine 

.Pennsylvania     ^i?-!i-  *vRIl 

Maryland     Sij.i  ^.00 

West  Virginia    ( short  rate) .J.o.-.  .-.ou 

Based  on  Government  price  ol  $2  per  ton  at  mine. 
•The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport.  Port  Johnson,  Port  Reading. 
Perth  Amboy  and  South  Amboy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty 
Hoboken,  Weehawken,  Edgewater  or  Clilfside  and  Guttenberg.  St.  George 
.8  in  between  and  sometimes  a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bitumi- 
nous  is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  5e.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follovps : 


.-. Line — 

Jan.  34,  1918 
Buckwheat...   $3,1.5-3,75 

Rice     3, (.5-3,1)5 

Boiler    3,45-3.85 

Barley   3.15-3,40 

Pea    3,75 

Culm    


-Tide- 


One  Year  Ago     Jan,  34,  1918 
$3,00  $3.75  $3.90 

1,35  3,85  3.15 

1.10  3.55  3,00 

1,00  3.40  1,90 

2,80  4.G5  3,70 


.    Independent 
One  Year  Ago 
$4.15 
3.35 

3,.35 

1,3,5 


Cliieago — Steam    coal    prices    t,o.b,    mines: 
Illinois  Coals  Southern   Illinois 

Preprired   sizes    $3.05 — 3.80 

Mine-run      3.40 — 3.55 

Screenings     3.15 — 3. ."10 

So.  Illinois.  Pocahontas 
Pennsylvania 
Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia 

Prej.arefl   sizes    $3.(^0 — 3.80 

Mine-run      3.40-3.00 

Screenings ,         3.10 — 3..30 


Northern   Illinois 

$3.10 — 3.35 

3.8,5 — 3,00 

3.60 — 3.75 

Hocking. 

East  Kentucky  and 

West  Virginia  Splint 

S3. 05 — 3.35 

3,40 — 3,(?0 

2,10 — 3,30 


St.  Louis — Prices  pet  net  ton  fob.   mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared with  today  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and  Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  and  Staunton  . Standard ^ 

Jan.  34.            One           Jan.  34.         One  Jan.  34.              One 

1918         Year  Ago        1918       Year  Ago  1918           Year  Ago 

$3,65-3,80  $3.35-3,50  $3,65-3,80  $3.35-3.50  $2.65-3.80  $3.35-2.75 


6-in. 

lump.  . 

$3.65-3.80 

3 -in. 

lump,  , 

3.65-3.80 

Steam 

egg     .  . 

2.65-3.80 

Mine- 

run     .  . 

.    3.40-3.55 

No.   1 

nut    .  .  . 

.    2.65-3.80 

3-in. 

screen 

.    3.15-3..30 

No.  5 

washed 

3.15-3..30 

2.65-3.80  3,65-3.80 

3.65-3.80  3.05-3.80 

3.00-3.35  3.40-3.55  3  00  3.40-3.55 

3,35-3.50  2.65-2,80  3,23-3,50  2.65-2.80 

3.00-3.2.5  3.15-3.30  3.75-3.00  2.15-2.30 


3,00-3  35 
2.35-2.75 
2.50 


3.00 


;,15.3,.30 


i-3,00     3.15-3.30    2.50 


Wilhamson-Franklin  rate  St,  Louis,  87  v. c;  other  rates,  72M;e, 


Birmingham — Current  pricfs  per  net  ton  f,o,b  mines  are  as 
follows : 

Mine-Run      Lump  and  Nut 

Big  Seam   $1 ,90  $3,15 

Pratt,  Jagger.  Corona,  ,  ,  ,         3,15  3,40 

Black  Creek.  Cahaba    .  .  .        3,40  3,65 

Government  figures, 

'Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  fixed  according 
to  a  regular  schedule 


Slack  and  Screenings 

$1.65 

1,90 

3,15 


.\ia.,  Cieneva — The  Geneva  Power  Manufacturing  Co.  has  plans 
under  consideration  for  the  erection  of  a  hydro-electric  plant  on 
Dtiuble   Bridge  Creek. 

Ind.,  Ft.  Wayne — The  Board  of  Public  Works  plans  to  build 
e.xtensions  to  the  electric-lighting  plant,  Rstimated  cost,  $25,0011, 
P.  M.  Randall,  City  Engr. 

Iowa,  lndepeiiden4-e — The  State  of  Iowa  plans  to  build  a  power 
liouse  in  connection  with  the  State  Hospital  for  Insane,  including 
the  installation  of  1  generator  and  2  boilers.  H.  T.  Liebbe,  State 
House.  Des  Moines,  Arch. 

Kan.,  Oaldey — City  plans  to  install  new  generating  equipment 
in  its  electric  lighting  plant,  including  a  150  to  175-hp.  engine 
and  a  new  well  and  motor,     G.  Maurer  &  Son,  Engr. 

K.V.,  •laclison — The  Jackson  Light  and  Ice  Co.  plans  to  rebuild 
its  power  plant,   which  was   destroyed  by  fire, 

.Minn..  St.  Cloud — The  Pan  Motor  Co.,  care  of  G.  Booth,  is 
having  plans  prepared  for  a  power  house  and  a  drop  forge  plant, 

N.  .1.,  Kea.rny— The  Federal  Shipbuilding  Co.  plans  to  build  a 
large  power  house  to  cost  $60,000  and  a  boiler  shop  to  cost  $70,00(1 
in  connection  with  its  new  plant, 

N.  J.,  Tunis  River — The  Toms  River  Electric  Co,  has  been 
granted  permission  by  the  Board  of  Public  Utility  Commis.sioners 
to  is.sue  $15,000  bonds:  the  proceeds  will  be  used  for  addition  and 
improvements  to  its  plant. 

N.  Y.,  Brooklyn — The  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts.  Navy 
Dept.,  Wash.,  will  soon  receive  bids  for  furnishing  at  Navy  Yard. 
Brooklyn,  under  Schedule  Xo,  1(164.  15.000  ft,  single,  .stranded, 
rubber  covered  wire  and  interior  communication  plain  cable, 

N.  C,  Esmeralda — J.  T.  Patrick  and  associates  plan  to  build 
a   new  hydro-electric  plant   here, 

Ohio,  Akron — The  Goodyear  Tire  and  Rubber  Co.,  East  Market 
.St..  plans  to  build  a  brick  addition  to  its  boiler  house.     Estimated 

cost.  $100,000. 

Okla..  Aline — City  is  considering  the  installation  of  an  electric- 
lighting  plant.  Burns  &  McDonnel.  Tnter-State  Bldg.,  Kansas  City, 
Mo.,   Engr. 

Okla.,  Wewoka — City  plans  to  install  an  electric-lighting  plant. 

Olda.,  Woodward — City  voted  to  issue  $20,000  bonds  for  the 
erection  of  an  electric-lighting  plant.      Noted  Dec.   25. 

Penn..  Clifton  Heights — The  Kent  Manufacturing  Co.  is  having 
plans  prepared  by  F.  E.  Hahn.  Engr..  1112  Che.stnut  St.,  Phila- 
delphia, for  the  erection  of  1-storv,  40  x  67-ft,  power  plant. 
Estimated  cost,  $50,000. 

Penn.,  Norrixtown — The  Counties  Gas  and  Electric  Co.  plans 
to  issue  $300,000  bonds;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  for  extensions 
and  improvements  to  its  system.      H.  H.   Ganser,  Gen.  Mgr. 

Penn..  VVillianinport — The  Lycoming  Edison  Co.  plans  exten- 
sive improvements  and  additions  to  its  plant  during  the  coming 
year,      .\bout    $250,000    will    be   appropriated   for   this   work. 

Tex.,  Burnet — The  Southwestern  Graphite  Mining  Co.  plans  to 
rebuild  its  power  house  which  was  destroyed  by  fire.     Loss,  $6000. 

S.  C,  Lockhart — The  Lockhart  Power  Co,,  a  subsidiary  of  the 
Monarch  Mills.  Union,  plans  to  build  a  hydro-electric  power  plant 
here,      B,    .VichoLson,    Union,   Treas,   of  the  mills. 

S.  D..  Faith — City  has  plans  under  consideration  tor  the  in- 
stallation of  an  electric-lighting  i.lant 

Va.,  Dungannon — C.  F"  Hagan.  Bristol,  trustee  of  P.  Hagaii 
Estate,  iia.s  plans  under  consideration  for  the  erection  of  a  hydro- 
electric power  plant  on  the  Clinch   River  near  here. 

Va.,  Glenlyn — The  Appalachian  Power  Co.,  Bluefleld,  W.  Va., 
is  ha\nng  plans  prepared  by  \iele,  Blackwell  and  Buck,  Engrs.,  4H 
Wall  .St..  Xew  York  City,  for  the  erection  of  a  steam  driven  elec- 
tric generating  plant  on  .\ew  River,  including  the  installation  of 
new  equipment.  EJstimated  cost.  $3.0110,000  H.  Markle,  Bluefleld. 
W.  Va,,  Gen,  Mgr. 

Va.,  Petersburg — The  Virginia  Railway  and  Power  Co.  plaiis 
to  build  an  electric  transmission  line  from  here  to  Suffolk.  C.  B, 
Buchanan,  Gen,   Mgr, 

Wash.,  Fugret  Sound — (Bremerton  P,  O,) — The  Bureau  of  Sup- 
plies and  Accounts,  Navv  Dept.,  Wash.,  will  soon  receive  bids  for 
furnishing  at  Navv  Yard.  Puget  Sound,  under  Schedule  No.  1658. 
air  pressure  reducing  valves,  56  gale  valves,  brass,  high  pressure, 
steam  and  water  valves,  and  brass  low  pressure,  steam  and  water 
valves;  under  Schedule  No,  166H.  16,000  ft,  single-conductor,  light- 
ing and  power  wire  and  13,000  ft,  2  conductor,  lighting  and  power 
wire, 

W.  Va.,  Hartland — The  French  Coal  Co,  is  in  the  market  for 
un  electric  hauling  locomotive. 


POWER 


h^ 


'"•"" riiiiiiniiiiiii iiii,i„ii irinuiiiriu riiiii iiuiiiiiiia 


Vol.   47 


NEW  YORK,  FEBRUARY  5.  1918  No.  6 

iiiiiilliiiiitiiiiriiiiiii iiiiiiiiiitlllliiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiDiirMiitii > i iit m i unit rtniitirMtirHini r ■. 

'"""""""'""'''"""•'''•"'••'''•'''•''"''iii''titiMiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiMiuiMiiiiiiriiiiiiii(Miiriiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiniiiiiiiniiimi 


rROM  crowded  cities  and  scattered  farms, 

With  sobered  spirits  and  simple  trust, 
The  thousands  answer  the  call  to  arms 

To  humble  tj-ranny  in  the  dust; 
But  all  their  courage  and  all  their  strength 

May  yet  come  short  of  the  final  goal, 
Since  every  effort  depends  at  length 

On  Coal. 

r  OR  every  loyal  and  sturdy  son 

Must  be  accoutered  from  head  to  heel 
In  regimentals  of  arab  and  dun 

With  belt  and  rifle  and  blade  of  steel; 
But  looms  and  spindles  are  still  and  dead 

And  forge  nor  furnace  can  give  its  dole 
Till  boiler  fires  are  gleaming  red 

With  Coal. 

W ITHOUT  its  power  by  rail  and  sea, 

The  richest  harvest  of  fruit  and  grain 
Would  waste  and  molder  on  bush  and  tree 

And  rot  ungarnered  on  hill  and  plain; 
While  shot  and  shrapnel  that  burst  afield 

Would  cease  their  thunder  and  crash  and  roll 
If  mine  and  stripping  should  curb  their  vield 

Of  Coal. 

r  OR  coal  unleashes  the  force  of  steam 

That  drives  the  engine  and  turns  the  shaft 
And  pricks  the  night  with  the  blinding  beam 

That  stabs  and  searches  for  hostile  craft; 
But  cold  and  famine  bestride  the  earth, 

And  want  and  suffering  claim  their  toll, 
When  through  disaster  there  comes  a  dearth 

Of  Coal. 


174 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  6 


LARGER  High  HMblkANQs  T 


AK.VOLD  PFAU 


The  hydro-electric  equipment  i^istalled  in  the 
White  River  plant  of  the  Piifjet  Sound.  Traction, 
Light  aud  Power  Co.,  near  Sumner,  Wash.,  is 
described.  This  plant  contains  two  18,000-hp. 
Francis  turbines  operating  under  a  net  head  of 
HO  ft.,  which  have  developed  over  44,000  hp. 
without  anil  detriment  to  their  efficiency.  On 
account  of  the  hydraulic  conditions  special  engi- 
neering problems  tvere  involved,  which  have  been 
solved  by  special  features  in  design.  A  new  25,- 
000-hp.  unit  is  now  being  installed,  which  is  the 
largest  hydraulic  turbine  of  this  type  in  the 
world. 


THE  commercial  results  obtained  from  the  elec- 
trified operation  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Division 
of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Ry.  have 
been  so  eminently  satisfactory  that  it  was  decided  to 
immediately  proceed  with  the  electrification  of  the 
Cascade  Mountain  division,  which  extends  from  Othello, 
east  of  the  Columbia  River,  over  the  Cascades,  to  the 
end  of  the  transcontinental  line  at  Seattle  and  Tacoma. 
The  western  slope  of  the  Cascade  Mountain  division 
will  receive  about  25,000  kw.  of  electrical  energy  from 
the  Puget  Sound  Traction,  Light  and  Power  Co.,  at 
Seattle,  Wash.  This  concern  has  a  number  of  hydro- 
electric developments,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  so- 
called  White  River  plant  near  Sumner,  Wash.  The 
plant  (see  headpiece)  with  an  initially  rated  output  of 
36,000  hp.,  developed  by  two  hydro-electric  units,  de- 
signed and  built  by  the  Allis-Chalmers  Manufacturing 
Co.,  was  placed  in  commercial  operation  in  November, 
1911  (Stone  &  Webster,  Engineers),  and  has  since 
delivered  power  uninterruptedly  and  without  requiring 
any  repairs.  It  has  been  found  that  the  turbines  and 
generators  can  carry,  without  difficulty  or  detriment 
to  their  efficiency,  a  total  load  of  30,000  kw.,  or  over 
44,000  hp.  on  the  shaft.  Figs.  1  to  4  show  a  25,000-hp. 
unit  recently  built,  to  be  installed  in  this  plant,  which  is 
the   most  powerful   high-head    Francis   turbine   in   the 


world  and  is  practically  a  duplicate  of  the  two  18,000-hp. 
machines  already  in  service. 

The  plant  has  been  laid  out  with  a  view  of  main- 
taining the  highest  economy  of  water,  since  it  is  com- 
bined with  a  large  storage  capacity,  which  serves  to 
furnish  the  necessary  operating  water  during  drj' 
seasons.  The  course  of  the  White  River,  a  typical 
mountain  stream  fed  from  one  of  the  glaciers  of  Mount 
Rainier,  is  blocked  by  a  timber-crib  dam  near  Buckley, 
Wash.,  on  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Northern  Pacific's 
transcontinental  line.  The  water  is  controlled  by 
sturdy  steel  gates  and  led  through  a  heavy  timber  flume 
into  a  forebay,  which  serves  as  a  settling  basin  for 
the  glacial  silt,  carried  by  the  river  at  times  in  large 
quantities.  Provision  is  made  for  draining  and  flushing 
this  forebay  to  prevent  its  being  filled  up  with  deposits. 

An  open  canal  leads  to  the  storage  reservoir,  called 
Lake  Tapps.  which  was  a  small  natural  lake,  now 
greatly  enlarged  by  raising  its  water  level  about  35  ft., 
bringing  its  storage  capacity  up  to  2,250,000,000  cu.ft., 
equivalent  to  18,000,000  kw.-hr.  obtained  under  the  net 
head  of  440  feet. 

From  Lake  Tapps  the  water  is  carried  through  a 
deep  open  cut  and  a  tunnel  about  3000  ft.  long  and  of 
sufficient  area  to  carry  3000  cu.ft.  of  water  per  second. 
The  tunnel  ends  in  a  forebay  from  which  individual 
8-ft.  steel-pipe  lines  lead  down  to  the  power  house 

In  order  to  adhere  to  the  principle  of  conservation 
of  stored  hydraulic  energy  of  this  plant,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  provide  hydraulic  equipment  which  is  capable 
of  controlling  the  bulk  of  the  momentary  variation  of 
the  commercial  load  of  the  Puget  Sound  Traction 
System.  This  variation  is  sometimes  very  severe, 
owing  to  rapid  and  large  changes  of  the  power  re- 
quired by  the  freight  trains  of  the  Puget  Sound  lines. 

The  long  tunnel  combined  with  the  steel  pipe  lines, 
about  2500  ft.  in  length  each,  together  with  the  require- 
ment of  a  water-saving  method  of  speed  regulation 
under  heavy  fluctuations  of  load  over  a  high-tension 
transmission  line,  offered  a  problem  to  the  hydro- 
mechanical  engineer,  which  required  careful  study  and 
practical  experience. 


February  5,  1918 


POWEK 


175 


PIGS.   1  AND  2.      PLAN   AND   ELEVATION   OF   25,000-IIP.    FRANCIS   TURBINE 


176 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


In  order  to  prevent  excessive  variations  in  speed  and 
voltage  of  the  povi'er  system,  it  was  necessary  to  use 
a  very  sensitive  governor  and  to  quickly  control  the 
gates  of  the  turbine.  A  sudden  change  in  the  flow  of 
the   water   through   the   pipe    lines    and    tunnel    would 


PIG.  3.   COMPLETE  TURBINE  AND  BUTTERFLY  \ALVE 

cause  pressure  variations  which  would  not  only  impair 
the  regulation,  but  might  accumulate  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  wreck  the  whole  plant.  A  careful  analysis  of 
all  the  precautionary  methods  was  made,  and  as  a  result 
it  was  decided  to  use: 

1.  A  surge  reservoir  at  the  end  of  the  tunnel  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  surges  set  up  by  the  tunnel 
from  materially  affecting  the  pressure  in  the  pipe  lines 
and  vice  versa. 

2.  Pressure  regulators  so  combined  with  the  turbines 
that  they  permit  of  a  sudden  release  of  the  water, 
otherwise  brought  to  a  stop  when  the  governor  closes 
the  gates  of  the  turbines  quickly.  In  order  to  prevent 
excessive  waste  of  water,  these  releases  or  bypasses 
slowly  and  automatically  close  at  a  rate  so  adjusted 
that  the  flow  of  water  is  gradually  stopped  without 
causing  any  appreciable  secondary-pressure  rises. 

3.  Air-cushion  tanks,  which  supply  hydraulic  energy 
to  the  turbines  when  the  demand  of  load  is  so  sudden 
that  the  water  cannot  accelerate  in  the  pipe  line  suffi- 
ciently fast  to  prevent  a  serious  drop  in  pressure. 

The  proper  combination  of  these  devices,  together 
with  a  fairly  liberal  flywheel  effect  of  the  revolving 
parts  of  the  generators,  made  it  possible  to  attain  an 
accuracy  in  speed  regulation  which  has  been  the  subject 
of  considerable  comment   in  engineering  circles. 

The  turbines  of  the  initial  in.stallation  are  of  the 
double-discharge,  horizontal-shaft  spiral-case  type  oper- 
ating under  a  net  head  of  440  ft.  at  360  r.p.m.,  similar 
to  the  unit  shown  in  the  figures. 

The  water  from  the  penstock  passes  through  a  steel 
butterfly  valve,  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2  and  below  the 
turbine  in  Fig.  3,  of  seven  feet  inside  diameter,  which, 
when  closed  by  hand  or  electrically,  is  sufficiently  tight 
to  permit  inspection  of  the  interior  of  the  turbine.  The 
total  normal  pressure  on  the  gate  of  this  valve  is  about 
1,000,000  lb.  and  it  is  far  in  excess  of  this  when  the 


valve  is  closed  against  the  full  penstock  pressure  in 
emergency  cases.  The  water  is  brought  to  the  runner 
through  a  steel  casing  of  the  scroll  type,  this  being 
the  most  efficient  method  because  the  flow  of  water  is 
steady  and  direct.  Before  reaching  the  runner,  the 
water  passes  between  a  series  of  steel  guide  vanes  or 
wicket  gates,  by  means  of  which  the  quantity  is 
quickly  changed  by  the  governor  in  accordance  with  the 
load  to  be  carried  by  the  generator. 

The  steel  runner  of  the  turbine  is  bolted  to  a  flange 
forged  solid  with  the  turbine  shaft  and  is  of  the  double- 
discharge  type,  dividing  the  incoming  water  into  two 
equal  portions  which  discharge  separately  through  a 
quarter  turn  and  a  tapered  steel  draft  tube.  The  shaft 
revolves  in  two  ring-oiling  bearings  with  self-aligning 
ball-and-socket  seats,  one  end  having  a  solid  flange  for 
direct  connection  to  the  generator.  The  opposite  end 
carries  the  mechanical  hand  brake  (see  headpiece  and 
Figs.  1  and  3)  for  bringing  the  unit  to  a  dead  stop. 
The  bearing  near  the  brake  serves  also  as  a  mechanical 
thrust  bearing;  the  main  thrust,  however,  is  taken  care 
of  automatically  by  means  of  a  simple  and  very  effi- 
cient hydraulic  balancing  arrangement  combined  with 
the  two  runner  rims  and  the  adjacent  portions  of  the 
stationary   cover  plates. 

The  spiral  casing,  quarter  turns,  bearings  and  brake 
are  bolted  to  a  heavy  cast-iron  bedplate,  grouted  into 
the  foundation.  The  guide  vanes  are  held  in  three 
bearings  and  are  operated  from  a  concentric  steel  shift- 
ing ring  located  outside  of  the  casing.  Two  steel  rods 
connect  the  shifting  ring  to  bell-crank  levers  which  in 
turn  are  actuated  by  a  regulating  piston  guided  by  a 
crosshead.    The  oil  pressure  acting  on  both  sides  of  the 


FIG.  4.     COMPLETE  TURBINE  AND  PRESSURE  REGUL.A.TOK 

regulating  piston  is  controlled  by  a  double-acting, 
hydraulically  balanced  regulating  valve  bolted  to  the 
separate  governor  stand.  Fig.  5,  containing  the  flyballs 
and  the  relay  of  the  governing  device.  The  oil  pres- 
sure is  obtained  from  a  central  oil-pressure  system 
located  in  the  basement  of  the  plant.     It   is  produced 


February  5,  1918 


POWER 


177 


in  pumps  of  the  rotary-gear  type  driven  by  electric 
motors  or  by  a  small  waterwheel  operated  from  the 
penstock  pressure.  The  j-rovernor  has  a  capacity  of 
about  50,000  ft. -lb.  and  is  capable  of  moving  the  tur- 
bine gates  over  their  full  stroke  in  one  second. 


FIG.    5.     GOVERNOR    ACTCATOit    FOR    .'.!., "Ho-m'.    TL'RBINh: 

A  pressure  regulator  (see  Figs.  1,  2  and  4)  is 
directly  connected  to  a  branch  pipe  provided  on  the 
lower  portion  of  the  spiral  casing.  It  consists  of  an 
elbow  with  a  circular  disk  valve,  opening  and  dis- 
charging water  downwardly  through  a  plate-steel  pipe 
into  the  tailrace.  This  disk  valve  is  connected  to  a 
piston  subjected  to  water  pressure  controlled  by  a 
regulating  valve,  which  in  turn  is  relay-operated  from 
a  direct  connection  to  the  turbine  gates.  An  oil  dashpot 
is  so  inserted  into  this  connection  that  the  motion  of 
the  turbine  gates  is  transmitted  to  the  regulating  valve 
only  when  the  governor  closes  the  former  quickly,  a 
slow  motion  only  being  completely  absorbed  in  the 
dashpot.  Thus  the  discharge  of  the  turbine  can  be 
quickly  switched  over  from  the  turbine  to  the  pressure 
regulator,  and  is  there  reduced  slowly  in  accordance 
with  the  setting  of  the  bypass  in  the  oil  dashpot, 
determining  the  rate  of  the  closing  motion. 

The  turbine  discharges  about  450  cu.ft.  of  water 
per  second,  and  when  the  flow  is  stopped  through  the 
turbine  gates  in  1.5  sec,  it  will  discharge  through  the 
pressure  regulator  to  its  full  amount  by  the  time  the 
governor  has  closed  the  turbine  gates.  Thus  the  velocity 
of  the  water  in  the  pipe  line  is  not  changed  abruptly 
and  no  serious  pressure  rises  occur. 

After  the  units  were  placed  in  commercial  opera- 
tion, elaborate  efficiency  and  regulation  tests  were 
carried    out   by    the    owner.      It    was    found    that    the 


efficiency  exceeded  90  per  cent,  and  was  still  above 
80  per  cent,  at  about  one-fifth   load. 

The  full  load  of  20,000  hp.  was  thrown  off  suddenly, 
causing  the  governor  to  close  the  gates  quickly.  The 
speed  did  not  rise  more  than  12  per  cent,  above  normal, 
and  the  maximum  pressure  rise  in  the  pipe  line  above 
normal  did  not  exceed  5.5  per  cent,  as  against  a 
guaranteed  pressure  rise  of  15  per  cent,  and  a  .speed 
rise  of  18  per  cent. 

After  five  years  of  continuous  service  one  of  these 
turbines  was  opened  up  for  careful  examination.  The 
parts  subject  to  hydraulic  and  mechanical  wear  were 
measured  up  and  photographs  taken  in  order  to  estab- 
lish their  durability.  The  unit  was  taken  out  of  service 
Saturday  evening  and  was  delivering  its  regular  power 
again  after  midnight,  Sunday.  No  repairs  whatever 
were  considered  necessary,  and  it  was  estimated  that  it 
would  be  good  for  another  five  years  of  continuous  serv- 
ice under  similar  conditions. 

The  results  of  this  examination  were  so  gratifying 
that  it  was  decided  to  build  the  new  third  unit,  prac- 
tically a  duplicate  of  the  first  two.  The  results  obtained 
as  regards  efficiency  and  speed  regulation  encouraged 
the  purchaser  to  increase  the  rated  horsepower  from 
18,000  of  the  original  contract  to  24,000  without  increas- 
ing any  parts  except  those  directly  affected,  such  as  the 
runner,  shafts,  guide  vanes,  etc.  It  is  expected  that  25,- 
000  hp.  will  be  delivered  to  the  generator  shaft  and  that 
both  the  efficiency  and  the  speed  regulation  will  be 
at  least  as  good  as  they  are  with  the  first  units. 


Conserving  Waste  Heat 

Economists  are  continually  calling  attention  to  the 
necessity  for  intensified  conservation  of  resources  and 
greater  efficiency  in  our  methods  of  development.  As 
respects  the  conservation  of  heat,  it  is  doubtful  if 
the  manufacturers  of  reciprocating  steam  engines  are 
giving  that  .study  to  the  saving  of  the  heat  of  exhau.st 
.steam  which  their  interest  demands.  The  practicable 
savings  through  higher  pressures,  increased  expansion, 
superheat,  improved  vacuum,  reduced  cylinder  condensa- 
tion and  radiation  are  fairly  well  realized,  but  all  these 
are  nothing  as  compared  with  the  potential  conservation 
of  the  heat  of  exhaust.  Here  is  presented  to  the  engi- 
neer an  extended  field  for  endeavor.  Where  this  heat 
is  available  for  heating  or  mechanical  purposes,  the 
thermal  efficiency  of  the  reciprocating  engine  is  vastly 
beyond  that  of  the  Diesel  or  any  internal-combustion 
engine.  Po'^er  then  becomes  a  byproduct  and  the  use 
of  any  other  heat  engine  is  prohibited.  By  persistent 
exploitation  of  this  field  a  new  lease  of  life  for  the 
languishing  engine  trade  is  possible.  It  devolves  upon 
the  steam  engineer  to  extend  the  application  of  waste 
heat.  He  should  consolidate  the  diversified  industries 
in  such  a  way  that  the  manufacturer  requiring  power 
will  take  his  modicum  of  heat  from  the  steam  and  pass 
the  remainder  on  to  his  neighbor,  for  use  in  mechani- 
cal or  other  processes.  At  the  present  time,  we  utilize, 
on  an  average,  only  5  per  cent,  of  the  heat  value  of 
coal.  The  combustion  engineer  is  rapidly  whipping 
the  boiler  end  of  the  steam  plant  into  .shape;  an  ex 
haust  engineer  is  now  in  demand  to  coin  into  mont^ 
the  waste  at  the  exhaust  end — Sfcitm. 


178 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


While  the  Idle  Millions  Shiver 


An  exposition  of  the  deplorable  conditions  at  the 
"  great  coal  terminal  at  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  from 
which  coal  for  New  York  and  lower  Neiv  England 
is  shipped  by  water  after  arrival  at  the  terminal 
by  rail. 

WALK  slowly  along  the  east  side  of  Ninth  Ave- 
nue between  34th  and  35th  Streets  any  day  from 
daylight  until  after  darkness  falls  and  you  will 
see  a  line  of  shivering  wretchedness. 

It  is  a  coal  line.  It  is  a  full  block  long  and  three 
persons  wide.  You  find  there  aged  women,  rheumatic 
old  men,  sturdy  workmen,  young  women,  young  men  and 
belligerent  yet  laughing  children.  Each  has  a  bag  or 
a  box,  a  wash  boiler,  baby  carriage,  trunk — anything 
to  hold  the  treasure  coal  that  is  portioned  out  to  each 
while  three  policemen  preserve  order.  Be  there  snow,  or 
rain  or  wind  and  biting  cold,  the  shivering  line  is  there. 


Having  seen  the  woeful  coal  lines  and  experienced  the 
shock  of  the  Garfield  order,  let  us  see  the  conditions  at 
the  great  coal-distribution  center  that  supplies  Greater 
New  York  and  lower  New  England,  as  seen  by  two 
Power  representatives  on  the  day  the  Garfield  order 
went  into  effect.  These  are  anthracite-consuming  sec- 
tions for  the  most  part.  The  distribution  centers  are 
Perth  Amboy  and  South  Amboy,  on  the  New  Jersey 
coast,  the  former  handling  hard  coal,  the  latter  soft  coal 
almost  exclusively.  The  coal  comes  from  Pennsylvania 
to  the  water  front  by  rail  and  is  there  transferred  to 
barges  which  take  it  to  the  New  York  and  New  England 
waterfronts.  It  is  not  more  than  twenty  miles  from 
Manhattan  Island  to  Perth  Amboy — a  short  tow. 

The  waterways  from  the  coal-unloading  piers  have 
been  seriously  obstructed  with  ice;  but  at  the  time  of 
our  visit  they  were  free.  At  the  docks  near  the  unload- 
ing piers  was  one  group  of  55  empty  barges,  averaging 
850  tons  each.  Farther  to  the  left  were  other  groups 
of  a  few  barges  each.    Some  had  just  come  in,  but  the 


FIG.  1.    VIEW  OF  EMPTY  CARS,  LOOKING  EAST  AND  WEST.  PERTH  AMBOY.  N.  J. 


Imagine  standing  in  that  line  for  hours,  waiting,  wait- 
ing, eagerly,  hopefully  watching  for  the  coming  of  a 
two-ton  wagon  only  to  see  it  come  in — empty!  That 
happens. 

This  line  is  but  one  of  hundreds  in  that  city  of  six 
million  souls,  and  it  is  truly  indicative  of  the  cruel  suf- 
fering throughout  the  whole  of  the  greater  city  and 
the  country. 

That  line  has  nothing  to  do  with  power.  But  the  in- 
dustries, the  buildings,  the  schools  and  hospitals  are 
waiting  in  line  just  as  are  these  stamping,  crying  people. 
And  this  not  only  in  New  York,  but  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific. 

This  is  written  on  the  day  following  the  collapse  of 
industry  and  commerce  at  the  order  of  the  Fuel  Admin- 
istrator. We  are  not  arguing  the  expediency  of  that 
order,  for  we  believe  that  as  a  measure  to  relieve  rail  and 
terminal  congestion  it  is  warranted.  It  cannot  have 
been  issued  to  conserve  fuel  because  for  this  purpose 
it  is  too  obviously  doomed  to  failure  even  for  contem- 
plation. 


greater  number  had  been  there  many  days.  To  make 
the  irony  of  the  situation  most  stinging,  the  "Hurry 
Up,"  of  New  York,  had  been  there  27  days  up  to  Jan. 
18,  the  day  of  our  visit.  Demurrage  of  5  cents  per  day 
per  ton  capacity  is  what  the  coal  consumer  must  pay — 
is  what  those  wretches  in  the  coal  line  must  pay.  The 
capacity  of  the  "Hurry  Up"  is  about  five  hundred  tons. 
Twenty-seven  days'  demurrage  means  that  the  consumer 
of  the  coal  she  gets  must  pay  $1.35  per  ton,  not  for  coal, 
but  for  demurrage.     Fig.  2  shows  some  empty  barges. 

And  this  while  thousands  and  thousands  of  tons  of 
coal  stand  in  cars  at  the  unloading  piers  not  a  thousand 
feet  away,  and  while  well  above  300,000  tons  lie  farther 
back  along  the  rails  waiting  to  come  in.     (See  Fig.  1.) 

It  is  to  weep ! 

At  Perth  Amboy  there  are  two  unloading  piers  where 
coal  is  dumped  from  the  cars  to  the  barges.  One  pier 
has  a  machine  unloader  which  lifts  and  dumps  one  car- 
load at  a  time.  At  the  other  or  large  pier  the  cars  are 
unloaded  by  hand.  There  are  thirty  chuteways  down 
which  the  coal  may  run  to  the  barges  below.     On  the 


Feliruarv  '..   1918 


POWER 


179 


day  of  our  visit  three  were  being  used — the  pier  worl<- 
ingr  at  one-tenth  full  capacity.  True,  a  few  chutes  are 
missing  from  the  chuteways;  but  their  absence  only  adds 
to  the  neglect  so  strikingly,  so  astoundingly,  manifest. 

Six  men  per  car  is  the  crew  used  in  unloading  the 
frozen  coal.  Twenty-six  men  were  all  that  were  work- 
ing on  that  pier  unloading  on  Jan.  18.  There  should 
have  been  six  times  as  many. 

The  coal  is  frozen  solid  in  the  cars,  and  the  finer  the 
coal  the  more  solid  the  frozen  mass.  Back  at  the  en- 
trance end  of  the  pier  are  114  steam  thawing  heads,  all 
piped,  valved  and  ready  for  use.  Four  were  in  use 
during  the  time  of  our  visit.  Two  cars  had  one  steam 
lance  each  stuck  into  the  middle  of  the  coal,  and  one 
car  was  using  two  lances.  It  is  easily  possible  to  so 
place  cars  that  four  lances  per  car  may  be  used. 

Frozen  coal  is  the  most  serious  cause  of  the  delay  in 
unloading  and  of  the  congestion  which,  remember,  affects 
not   only   those   local   yards,    but   the   whole   line   back 


FIG.  2.   A  FEW  OF  THE  MANY  EMPTY  BARGES 

to  the  very  mines,  where  lack  of  cars  to  reecive  their 
coal  is  causing  miners  to  walk  the  streets  even  while 
this  is  written.  And  this  while  the  shivering  coal  lines 
wait  and  weep;  while  industry  dumps  its  fires  and  the 
victims  of  enforced  idleness  shiver  and,  in  many  in- 
stances, lose  thei  wages  with  which  they  hoped  to  buy  coal. 

But  this  is  not  the  worst.  The  writer  got  into  a  car 
of  culm  on  the  pier,  which  the  crew,  gone  to  lunch,  were 
unloading.  He  picked  at  it  with  pickax  and  bar.  It 
was  as  hard  as  concrete.  Six  men  have  been  allowed  to 
spend  two  full  days  unloading  a  car  of  culm!  They 
were  unloading  it  while  we  were  there.  Think  of  it. 
Six  men  two  days  unloading  one  car  of  culm  while  that 
shivering  line  pleads  for  the  nut  and  stove  and  pea  and 
egg  that  lies  by  the  thousands  of  tons  right  at  this 
very  pier.     Fig.  3  shows  the  little  ice  in  the  bay. 

No  attempt  seems  to  be  made  to  sidetrack  the  frozen 
culm  until  the  other  grades  which,  though  equally  frozen, 
may,  because  of  the  larger  particles,  be  unloaded  ten, 
aye,  fifty  times  as  fast.  And  then  there  is  the  relative 
heating  value.    Fig.  4  shows  frozen  culm. 

As  things  are  managed  now,  a  dealer  must  have  his 
barges  on  the  spot  or  he  can  get  no  coal.  If  one  or  a 
hundred  cars  of  his  coal  come  into  the  yards  and  his 
barges  are  not  there,  the  coal  remains  in  the  cars  until 
his  barges  arrive. 

They  work  nine  or  ten  hours  a  day  on  this  pier,  and 
if  it  is  worked  at  over  one-tenth  its  capacity  there  were 


KIO,    :i,      THK    II 'E    I.\   THE    BAY    I.S    NEGLIGIBLE 

no  evidences  of  it  when  we  were  there.  Why  has  not 
someone  provided  for  24-hour  day  operation? 

The  machine-unloading  pier  works  very  slowly  owing 
to  the  coal  being  frozen. 

At  South  Amboy,  the  soft-coal  terminal,  there  is  every 
evidence  of  adequate  and  proper  equipment,  of  organiza- 
tion, directive  intelligence  and  adequate  labor.  There 
are  three  thawing  sheds,  while  at  Perth  Amboy  there  is 
no  thawing  shed. 

One  who  knows  something  of  the  bitter  suffering,  of 
the  idleness,  of  the  loss  of  production  and  the  general 
serious  disturbance  of  the  whole  social,  economic  and 
industrial  fabric,  wonders  if  the  conditions  described  in 
the  foregoing  are  genera^  He  cannot  but  seek  a  motive 
for  it  all.  It  is  preposterous  to  say  that  the  conditions 
at  Perth  Amboy  simply  happen. 

The  Fuel  Administration  may  know  the  answer.  The 
public  rightly  assumes  that  it  does,  and  it  rightly  ex- 
pects it  to  lose  no  time  in  correcting  such  conditions. 

Through  it  all  one  thought  frequently  creeps  into  the 
fore  of  the  writer's  mind:  Some  of  the  public  utilities 
tried  hard  to  get  coal,  to  keep  going.  They  pleaded,  de- 
manded and  finally  precipitated  a  crisis  by  turning  off 
the  lights  and  stopping  the  industries.  Then  carne 
action.  If  that  shivering  line,  that  line  of  humans  and 
of  buildings,  hospitals  and  industries  discover  too  many 
Perth  Amboys,  how  long  before  it  will  precipitate  a 
crisis  as  only  the  constituents  of  such  a  line  can  pre- 
cipitate it? 

It  is  worth  pondering  over.  Dr.  Garfield. 


FIG 


CULM    FUOZE.N    .\S    HAI{I>    AS   CONCRIITE 


180 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


Alternating-Current  Automatic  Starters  for 
Squirrel-Cage  Induction  Motors 

By  W.  H.  PATTERSON 

Manager  Resale  Section,  Industrial  Department.  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  <'ompany 


An  explanation  of  the  operation  of  an  automatic 
alternating-current  starter  for  squirrel-cage  type 
induction  motors.  Some  of  its  applications  and 
limitations  are  pointed  out. 


ALTERNATING-CURRENT  automatic  starters 
are  now  quite  commonly  used  for  squirrel-cage 
induction  motors,  especially  where  it  is  desired 
to  start  the  motor  from  a  remote  point,  such  as  a 
motor  driving  a  centrifugal  pump,  an  air  compressor,  a 
fan  or  a  blower. 

One  type  of  these  starters,  built  by  the  Westinghouse 
Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  consists  of  a  slate 
panel.  Fig.  1,  upon  which  are  mounted  two  alternating- 
current  contact  switches — one  two-pole  switch  R  and 
one  four-pole  switch  S.  Both  these  switches  are 
equipped  with  magnetic  blowouts  for  quickly  destroying 
the  arc  when  opening  the  swit^ih.  An  accelerating  relay 
H,  a  transfer  relay  T  and  a  no-voltage  protection  relay 
P  are  also  mounted  on  the  panel.  Either  fuses  or 
overload  relays  are  mounted  on  the  panel  to  protect  the 
motors  from  overload.  In  Fig.  1  fuses  F  are  shown  on 
the  front  of  the  panel,  and  in  the  wiring  diagram.  Fig. 
2,  two  overload  relays  0  and  O,  are  used.  An  auto- 
transformer  is  mounted  on  the  rear  of  the  panel.  Fig.  2 
shows  a  complete  wiring  diagram  of  the  controller  for 
starting  a  two-phase  motor.  With  the  line  switch  closed 
and  all  contactors  on  the  controller  in  their  normal  posi- 
tion, all  circuits  through  the  controller  and  to  the  motor 
are  open.  The  different  steps  in  the  operation  of  the 
controller  are  explained  as  follows : 

Closing  the  start  push-button,  as  in  Fig.  3,  establishes 
a  circuit  through  the  operating  coil  of  the  no-voltage 
protection  relay  P.  This  circuit  is  established  from  L, 
of  the  supply  circuit  through  the  contact  on  overload 
relay  0,  down  to  9  on  the  no-voltage  protection  relay  P, 
through  this  coil  up  to  the  contact  on  the  overload  relay 
0„  then  down  to  the  start  push-button  to  the  stop  push- 
button, which  is  normally  closed,  back  to  L,  terminal  on 
the  control  board,  and  to  the  other  side  of  the  supply 
circuit  L,  on  the  line  switch,  as  indicated  by  the  arrow- 
head. This  energizes  the  coil  on  the  no-voltage  protec- 
tion relay  P  and  causes  it  to  close  its  contact  L  and  the 
auxiliary  contact  11-12  at  the  bottom  of  the  relay,  as  in 
Fig.  4.  Closing  contact  11-12  establishes  a  holding  cir- 
cuit for  the  relay  coil  P.  This  circuit  is  the  same  as  in 
Fig.  3  excepting,  instead  of  the  current  passing  from 
terminal  11  on  the  controller  down  to  the  starting  but 
ton,  it  goes  through  the  auxiliary  contact  11-12  on  relay 
P  and  to  terminal  12  on  the  stop  button,  through  this 
button  back  to  L,  terminal  on  the  line  switch,  as  in- 
dicated. This  shunts  out  the  starting  button;  there- 
fore it  can  be  released  and  allowed  to  take  its  normally 
open  position,  without  in  any  way  interfering  with  the 
operation  of  the  controller. 


The  closing  of  the  no-voltage  protection-relay  con- 
tact L  also  establishes  a  circuit  through  the  operating 
coil  X  of  the  four-contactor  switch  S.  This  circuit  ia 
made  from  L,  of  the  supply  circuit,  through  the  contact 
of  the  no-voltage  protection  relay,  to  terminal  6  on 
coil  X,  through  this  coil  and  up  to  point  1  on  the  trans- 
fer relay  T,  then  to  point  L,,  on  the  transfer  relay,  which 
is  directly  connected  to  L,  on  the  supply  circuit,  as 
shown  by  the  an-owheads.  Energizing  coil  X  causes  it 
to  close  the  four-contactor  switch  S,  as  in  Fig.  5.  With 
the  contactors  in  this  position  the  motor  is  connected  to 
the  low-voltage  taps  of  the  auto-transformer. 


FIG.   1. 


AUTOMATIC  .STARTER  FOR  SQUIRREL-CAGE 
TYPE  INDUCTION  MOTOR 


Contactor  A  on  the  four-pole  switch  is  connected  to 
terminal  A.  at  the  center  of  one  leg  of  the  auto-trans- 
former. This  connection  gives  65  per  cent,  normal  volt- 
age at  the  motor  terminals  at  starting.  Connecting 
terminal  A  on  the  switch  to  A,  or  the  auto-transformer 
will  give  a  higher  voltage,  while  connecting  to  A.,  will 
give  a  lower  starting  voltage  at  the  motor  terminal. 

The  circuit  to  the  A  leg  of  the  auto-transformer  ia 
from  L,  on  the  line  switch  down  to  L,  contactor  on  the 
four-pole  switch  S;  from  here  to  terminal  A^  on  the 
auto-transformer  through  the  transformer  to  A^  then 


February  5.  1918 


POWER 


181 


to  the  accelerating  relay  coil  H  to  contact  A  on  switch  S  completing  the  secondary  circuit  as  indicated  by  the 
and  down  to  the  A  terminal  on  the  motor ;  through  one  arrowheads.  The  circuits  for  the  B  phase  may  be 
phase  of  the  stator  winding  to  A,  terminal  and  up  to  L,  traced  out  in  the  same  way  and  are  indicated  by  arrow- 
terminal  on  the  controller  to  the  L,  pole  of  the  line  heads.  Accelerating  relay  H  is  adjusted  so  that  the 
switch.     Current  flowing  through  section  A„-A,  of  the  inrush  current  when  the  motor  is  first  connected  to  the 


L,  Lj    LjU4 


Ai   Ai 
AUTO-TRANSFORMERS 


~^  Ai  «4 
AUrO-  TJMNS/VRM5RS 


FI0..4 


FIG.  5 


FIGS    2  TO  5       WIRINC  DIAGRAMS  OF  CONNECTIONS  FOR  THE  C0NTRO1.1.ER,  FIG.  1,  IN  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF 

STARTING   A    TWO-PHASE.    SQUIRREL-CAGE   TYPE    MOTOR 

auto-Starter    induces   an    opposing   voltage    in   section  line  holds  contact  2-L,  open,  but  as  the  motor  increases 

A  -A  .     This  opposing  voltage  causes  a  secondary  cur-  in  speed  and  the  current  through  coil  H  decreases,  its 

rent  to  flow  from  A.  through  the  motor  as  did  the  pri-  strength  decreases  to  a  point  where  the  contactor  is 

mary  current,  but  instead  of  passing  from  L,  terminal  allowed  to  drop  and  establish  a  circuit  between  points 

on  the  controller  to  the  line  switch,  this  current  takes  2  and  L,.     This  completes  the  circuit  for  the  transfer- 

the  path  from  L,  to  A,  on  the  auto-transformer,  thus  relay  coil  T. 


182 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  6 


The  circuit  for  relay  coil  T  is  from  terminal  6  on  the 
coil  X,  through  the  coil  on  relay  T  to  terminal  2  on  the 
relay  down  to  2  on  relay  H,  to  the  L^  terminal  of  the 
line  switch.  The  operating  coil  on  the  transfer  relay  T 
being  energized,   draws   up   its  core   and   makes  com- 


AUTO-TffANSFORMERS 


r\(b.7 


FIGS.    6    AND    7.      CONTINUATION    OF    WIRING    DIAGRAMS 
OF  CONTROLLER  CONNECTIONS.   FIGS.    2   TO   .'') 

tact  at  point  2  at  the  bottom  and  opens  contact  1  at  the 
top,  and  closes  contact  3,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  Closing 
point  2  creates  a  direct  circuit  for  the  transfer-relay 
coil  from  6  on  coil  X  to  6  on  the  transfer-relay  coil,  to 
contact  2  up  through  the  core  to  terminal  L,  and  down 
around  to  the  L,  terminal  on  the  line  switch.    This  es- 


tabhshes  a  holding  circuit  for  the  transfer-relay  coil 
and  shunts  out  relay  contacts  2-L^  on  relay  H,  so  that 
their  opening  when  the  four-pole  contactor  switch  S 
opens  will  not  interfere  with  the  operation  of  the 
transfer  relay. 

Opening  contact  1  on  the  transfer  relay  interrupts 
the  circuit  of  coil  X  on  switch  S  and  allows  the  switch 
to  fall  open,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  The  closure  of  con- 
tact 3  on  the  transfer  relay  T  establishes  the  circuit 
for  the  operating  coil  Y  on  the  two-pole  switch  R.  This 
circuit  is  from  terminal  6  on  the  transfer-relay  coil 
over  through  coil  Y  around  to  terminal  L^  on  the 
transfer  relay,  and  to  the  L,  terminal  of  the  line 
switch.  This  circuit  causes  the  two-pole  contactor 
switch  R  to  close,  as  in  Fig.  7,  and  connects  the 
motor  directly  to  the  line.  The  circuit  through  the  mo- 
tor is  from  L,  on  the  line  switch  down  through  A  phase 
of  the  motor  and  back  to  L.,  on  the  line  switch,  and  from 
L,  down  through  the  B  phase  of  the  stator  winding 
back  to  L,  on  the  line  switch,  as  indicated  by  the  arrow- 
heads. 

Since  the  circuit  of  the  transfer-relay  coil  T  and  oper- 
ating coil  of  the  two-pole  contactor  switch  R  passes 
through  the  no-voltage  relay  P  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
opening  of  the  no-voltage  protection  relay  P  will  break 
the  circuit,  allowing  the  two-pole  contactor  switch  and 
the  transfer  relay  to  open  and  remain  open  as  in  Fig.  2, 
until  the  start  button  is  again  pressed. 

The  pressing  of  the  push-button  marked  stop  breaks 
the  circuit  through  the  no-voltage  protection-relay  coil, 
allowing    this    relay   to    open,    thus    breaking   the   coil 


FIG. 


Al/TD  -  THANSFORMERS 


8.      WIRING    UIAGR.^M    OF    CONTROLLER.    FIG. 
CONNECTED  TO  A  THREE-PHASE  MOTOR 


circuit  of  transfer  relay  T  and  switch  R,  allowing  the 
latter  to  open  and  stop  the  motor.  It  will  also  be  seen 
that  the  operation  of  either  of  the  overload  relays  O  and 
0,  will  open  the  circuit  that  holds  the  no-voltage  pro- 
tection relay  closed,  thus  opening  the  circuit  through 
the  coil  of  the  main  two-pole  switch  R. 


February  5,  1918 


POWER 


183 


In  general,  the  operation  of  the  automatic  auto- 
starter  is  the  same  for  either  two-  or  three-phase  mo- 
tors, Fig.  8  shows  the  connection  for  a  three-phase 
motor.  The  principal  difference  is  in  the  connections; 
in  the  case  of  the  three-phase  panel  line  L,  is  used 
to  replace  the  line  marked  L,  and  L,  in  the  two-phase 
diagram. 

The  two  contactor  switches  are  mechanically  inter- 
locked by  the  rod  D,  Fig.  1, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  for 
both  switches  to  be  closed  at 
the  same  time.  With  one 
type  of  this  controller  with- 
out the  no-voltage  protection 
relay  P,  in  case  of  failure 
of  voltage,  the  switches  auto- 
matically open  and  upon  re- 
turn of  the  voltage  will  auto- 
matically close  again  in  their 
proper  sequence.  This  is 
termed  "no-voltage  release," 
and  it  is  satisfactory  to  use 
a  controller  of  this  kind 
with  a  motor  driving  a  cen- 
trifugal pump,  air  compressor,  fan  or  blower.  How- 
ever, on  a  motor  driving  a  machine  tool  or  a  wood- 
working machine,  where  unexpected  starting  up  of  the 
tool  would  render  possible  injury  to  the  workmen,  the 
controller  is  equipped  with  the  additional  relay  P,  shown 
in  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the  panel.  Fig.  1, 
which  prevents  the  switches  from  closing  upon  return  of 
power  until  the  master  switch  or  a  push-button  station 


FIG.   9.     PUSH-BUTTON 
STATION 


PIG.    10.      PRESSURE-GAGE   MASTER    SWITCH 

is  again  closed.     A  controller  equipped  with  this  relay 
is  termed  as  having  no-voltage  protection. 

These  controllers  may  be  operated  by  hand  by  "start" 
and  "stop"  push-buttons,  Fig.  9,  or  automatically  by  a 
float-type  switch  or  a  pressure-type  master  switch.  Fig. 
10.  The  float-type  switch  is  used  in  liquid  tanks,  and 
the  motor  is  started  when  the  level  falls  to  a  certain 
point  and  is  again  automatically  stopped  at  the  de- 
sired upper  level.    The  pressure-gage  master  switch  is 


used  with  a  motor  driving  a  compressor  or  pump  empty- 
ing into  a  closed  pressure  system.  The  switch  makes 
the  connection  to  start  the  motor  when  the  pressure  falls 
to  a  predetermined  point  and  stops  it  when  the  desired 
pressure  is  reached. 


Griffin  Condenser-Tube  Cleaner 

Cleaning  condenser  tubes  is  not  agreeable  work,  and 
with  many  of  the  methods  employed,  considerable  time 
and  labor  are  spent  in  cleaning  them.  Several  devices 
for  doing  this  work  have  recently  been  described  in 


«^^^--^? 


CLEANER  IN  CONDENSER  TUBE 

Power.  The  latest  one  that  comes  to  our  attention  is 
illustrated  herewith,  and  it  has  been  devised  by  C.  M. 
Griffin,  114  Spruce  St.,  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 

The  tool  is  designed  to  clean  condenser  tubes  by  being 
forced  through  them  by  water  pressure  of  about  100 
lb.  per  sq.in.  Its  scraper  blade  is  loosely  attached  to 
the  front  end  of  a  central  bar,  and  is  tempered  and 
ground  to  fit  the  tube,  the  size  depending  upon  the 
tension  desired.  The  head  or  piston  at  the  rear  end 
of  the  bar  is  made  about  0.04  in.  smaller  than  the  tube. 
The  scraper  is  made  with  clearance  and  rake,  and  re- 
tains a  sharp  edge  while  being  used.  Each  tool  will 
clean  1000  or  more  tubes  before  it  is  worn  out.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  provide  protection  for  the  tool  while 
being  used,  and  it  may  be  shot  against  the  head  of 
the  condenser  and  dropped  to  the  bottom  of  the  water 
box  without  damage. 

Although  it  is  not  intended  that  the  tool  shall  revolve 
by  going  through  the  tube,  it  does  make  three  or  four 
revolutions  in  passing  through  an  18-ft.  tube,  which 
requires  about  3  sec.  time,  and  with  20  or  30  tools  at 
work,  two  men  can  clean  about  200  condenser  tubes 
per  hour. 

Automatic  Damper  Regulation 

By  C.  a.  Morris 

We  may  put  a  force  in  motion  and  with  a  fixed  degree 
of  control  operate  it  within  a  given  range  and  with  max- 
imum efficiency,  but  if  the  use  of  this  force  is  not  re- 
quired at  the  maximum  all  the  time,  yet  still  must  be 
held  in  readiness  to  meet  any  demand  within  the  range 
governed,  then  I  believe  it  is  necessary  to  have  some 
method  of  automatic  regulation  in  order  that  maximum 
efficiency  may  be  maintained.  If  the  mind  and  hand  of 
man  through  the  medium  of  the  eye  are  depended  upon 
for  proper  regulation,  it  is  better  than  no  regulation, 
but  a  mechanism  that  will  act  automatically  and  at  a 
point  not  discernible  to  human  senses,  it  seems  to  me, 
will  be  more  efficient  and  less  exacting  on  the  attention 
of  the  men  in  charge  of  the  actual  operation  of  the 
equipment. 

When  boilers  are  operating  at  a  high  point  of  rating 
against  a  load  that  is  constantly  swinging,  frequently  as 


184 


P  0  W  E  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


much  as  80  per  cent.,  the  judgment  and  action  of  the  hu- 
man element  are  inadequate  to  obtain  the  highest  effi- 
ciency, and  in  this  day  of  conservation  we  should  put 
the  accent  on  efficiency — not  alone  for  pecuniary  benefit 
to  ourselves,  but  to  help  in  a  national  crisis. 

We  have  a  station  rated  at  10,000  kw.  with  4000  hp. 
in  normal  rating  of  boilers.  The  boilers  are  the  Stir- 
ling type,  eight  in  number.    Two  are  in  disuse  owing  to 


TREBLC  SHEAVE 


STOKER  EN6IME 
eOl'ERNOR 


'WATER 
VALVE 


WEI6HT 


WATER  SUPPLY 

DIAGRAM   OF  DAMPER  COXTROL 


the  fact  that  they  are  equipped  with  a  type  of  stoker 
that  is  not  efficient  with  the  kind  of  coal  we  use.  The 
other  six  boilers  are  served  with  chain-grate  stokers 
that  are  driven  from  a  lineshaft  by  a  small  engine.  It 
i^  necessary  to  operate  these  boilers  constantly  at  175 
per  cent,  of  rating,  and  on  peak  periods  thev  carry  225 
per  cent.,  using  Indiana  screenings  and  mine-run  coal. 
Steam  pressure  is  carried  at  195  lb.,  with  100  deg.  of 
superheat.  Our  load  is  divided  about  equally  between 
commercial  and  railway  power. 

About  four  years  ago  the  question  of  higher  efficiency 
in  the  boiler  room  was  under  consideration  at  our  plant, 
and  we  installed  a  system  of  automatic  control  of  the 
draft  and  stokers  that  has  given  us  continued  satisfac- 
tion up  to  the  present  time  at  a  total  maintenance  ex- 
pense of  about  $12,  and  we  have  every  reason  to  believe 
that  it  will  render  good  service  for  years  to  come.  Ow- 
ing to  the  finer  degree  of  regulation  we  were  able  to 
secure  with  this  system  of  automatic  control  over  our 
old  method,  our  boiler  rating  was  increased  with  a  sav- 
ing of  about  14  per  cent,  in  fuel.  The  variation  of  steam 
pressure  was  reduced  from  20  to  5  lb.,  and  the  average 
CO,  was  increased  materially.  The  boilers  now  require 
less  cleaning  inside  and  out  owing  to  more  complete 
burning  of  the  coal  and  to  the  rapid  circulation  of  the 
water,  and  the  general  expense  on  the  upkeep  of  our 
furnaces  has  been  lessened. 

Our  regulating  system  consists  of  a  damper  regulator 
A  attached  to  two  master  dampers  B  and  C,  each  10  x  5 
ft.,  which  operate  vertically  in  rectangular  smoke  breech- 
ings,  one  on  either  side  of  the  chimney,  which  is  12  ft. 
in  diameter  and  225  ft.  high.  The  regulator  is  actuated 
by  the  steam  pressure,  and  the  actuating  beam  releases 
a  water  pressure  which,  acting  in  a  cylinder  D,  closes 
the  two  master  dampers  to  the  desired  point  within  30 
sec.  Simultaneously  with  the  action  of  the  water  in 
the  cylinder,  the  same  pressure  is  transmitted  to  a 
special  regulating  valve  E  on  the  stoker-engine  steam 


pipe,  so  that  the  speed  of  the  stokei  is  cut  to  a  point 
in  relation  to  the  closing  of  the  dampers,  and  after 
hours  of  operation  the  fires  are  maintained  at  the 
proper  thickness  and  length  without  manual  effort.  It 
is  this  particular  feature  of  the  equipment  that  dis- 
tinctively places  it  in  the  efficient  class.  The  design  and 
connections  of  the  master  dampers  are  such  that  any 
desired  degree  of  operation  can  be  secured  and  also  the 
stoker  valve  can  be  so  adjusted  as  to  be  always  in  true 
relation  to  the  operation  of  the  dampers. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  in  connection  with 
this  system  is  a  red  signal  lamp,  which  is  suspended 
centrally  in  the  boiler  room.  This  signal  is  flashed  the 
instant  the  regulator  goes  into  action  and  remains  burn- 
ing until  the  ddmpers  are  closed  again.  This  lamp  is  to 
the  firemen  what  the  compass  is  to  the  sailor,  and  with- 
out it  the  system  would  lose  a  great  deal  of  its  value. 
Should  the  light  remain  on  more  than  two  minutes  at 
any  period,  it  denotes  that  something  is  interfering  with 
the  boilers  in  meeting  the  demand  for  power.  The  flow 
meters  will  indicate  whether  it  is  an  increase  in  load  or 
not;  if  the  load  is  regular,  there  has  been  a  change  in 
fuel  and  the  proper  adjustment  is  made  on  the  stokers. 
Low  steam  pressure  permits  water  pressure  to  open  the 
dampers,  and  as  soon  as  the  normal  steam  pressure  is 
regained,  the  dampers  are  released  from  the  water-pres- 
sure cylinder  and  counterweights  close  the  dampers. 

With  the  increased  load  the  plant  now  carries  over 
that  which  it  carried  previous  to  this  installation,  three 
boilers  in  full  operation  meet  all  demands,  the  fourth 
being  used  as  a  buffer.  Previous  to  the  installation  of 
the  regulator  four  boilers  were  required  at  high  service, 
with  the  fifth  as  a  buffer.  The  initial  cost  of  the  regu- 
lator was  met  by  the  fuel  saving  effected  during  the 
trial  period. 


J.  R.  S.  Low-Grade  Fuel  Burner 

In  these  days  of  high-priced  fuel  and  coal  shortage 
throughout  the  country,  manufacturers  are  turning 
their  attention  to  perfecting  devices  that  will  burn  the 


FICx.    1. 


Bl'RNER  A.XD    DRAFT   FA.X    AS    APPLIED   TO 
FURNACE 


'ower  grades  of  fuel.  Among  others  who  have  been 
working  on  the  problem  is  the  MechanicviUe  Specialty 
Supply  Manufacturing  Co.,  Mechanicville.  N.  Y.,  which 
is  manufacturing  the  J.  R.  S.  Low-Grade  Fuel  Burner. 
The  object  of  this  apparatus   (Fig.  1)   is  to  burn  such 


February  5.  1018 


POWER 


185 


low-grade  fuels  as  coal  dust,  screenings  and  buckwheat, 
both  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal,  and  especially  such 
grades  as  cannot  be  burned  with  natural  draft. 

The  burner  is  made  of  cast  iron,  as  are  also  the  "fill- 
ing-plates."    Two  burners  are  usually  placed  in  a  fur- 


FIG. 


DKTAILS   OF   BT'RNRR 


nace,  the  "fillers"  being  bolted  to  them.  The  burners 
are  spaced  so  that  about  half  of  the  width  of  the  fur- 
nace is  between  them,  and  midway  is  an  ash  dump  so 
constructed  that  it  is  practically  gas-tight  when  closed. 
The  design  of  the  burner  and  also  the  ash  dump  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2. 

No  grates  are  used,  and  the  edges  of  the  burners, 
where  they  come  against  the  brickwork,  are  sealed 
with  a  noncombustible  substance  so  as  to  prevent  the 
flow  of  air  from  the  ashpit  into  the  furnace. 

Each  burner  consists  of  an  air-box  over  which  is  a 
cover  plate  so  separated  from  the  box  body  proper  that 
there  is  from  i  to  i  in.  opening  between  them  on  the 
sides.  In  other  words,  the  design  is  about  what 
would  be  obtained  with  an  ordinary  cardboard  shoe 
box  with  the  cover  a  couple  of  sizes  too  large  for  it  and 
lifted  about  one-half  inch  from  the  body.  Air  is  sup- 
plied to  the  burner  through  a  bottom  connection,  as 
shown.  In  the  case  of  a  double  burner  the  air  connec- 
tion is  made  as  indicated  by  the  elevation  in  Fig.  2. 

The  discharge  of  air  from  the  burner  box  is  under- 
neath the  cover  plate  and  along  the  two  sides  in  a  semi- 
lateral  flow  downward,  and  rebounding  under  a  pres- 
sure at  the  points  of  discharge  into  the  coal,  it  is  dis- 
tributed to  the  fuel  surrounding  the  burner.  The  air 
pressure  can  be  carried  as  high  as  12  in.  of  water,  thus 
enabling  the  operator  to  carry  a  heavy  fire  as  is  fre- 
quently necessary  in  plants  that  are  operated  at  their 
full  capacity.  With  a  clean  fire  the  draft  would,  of 
course,  be  much  less  than  would  be  necessary  with  a 
heavy,  dirty  fire. 

Air  is  supplied  by  means  of  either  a  direct-connected 
motor-driven  or  a  belt-driven  fan.  The  operation  of  the 
motor  is  controlled  by  a  diaphragm-pressure  regulator. 
For  instance,  if  the  damper  regulator  is  set  to  control 
the  steam  pressure  at  100  lb.,  the  motor  and  blower  will 


supply  air  to  the  fire  until  the  steam  pressure  reaches 
that  point.  The  diaphragm  regulator  then  operates  a 
switch  and  shuts  down  the  motor.  A  drop  in  the  steam 
pressure  causes  the  regulator  to  throw  the  switch  again 
to  start  the  motor. 

The  fuel  is  fired  as  with  the  ordinary  grate  furnace, 
and  the  ashes  are  discharged  into  the  ashpit  through 
the  dumping  gate. 

Lighting  Circuit  Caused  Water-Pipe 
Joint  To  Corrode 

By  B.  a.  Briggs 

The  effects  of  eddy  currents,  produced  by  stray  mag- 
netic fields  set  up  by  alternating-current  circuits,  are 
probably  not  appreciated  as  much  as  they  should  be. 
The  illustration  is  an  example  of  what  may  happen  to  a 
pipe  coupling  where  an  alternating-current  lighting  cir- 
cuit is  installed  near  it.  This  installation  is  in  a  per- 
fectly dry  basement  that  is  heated  in  the  winter.  The 
pipe  line,  which  is  used  for  water  supply  to  the  building, 
is  only  a  few  inches  away  from  a  ceiling  covered  with 
plaster  boards. 

The  electric  installation  has  been  in  use  for  a  period 
of  only  about  three  years ;  previous  to  that  time  the 
joint  was  not  corroded,  neither  has  any  other  pipe  joint, 
either  gas  or  water,  corroded  in  the  building  since  the 
electric  circuits  were  installed.  Therefore  it  appears 
to  be  quite  evident  that  the  presence  of  the  electric 
circuit  at  the  pipe  joint  caused  the  corrosion.    The  cor- 


BLECTRIC   WIRING  AND    PIPE  JOINT 

rosion  had  gone  so  far  when  this  photograph  was  taken 
that  in  some  places  the  threads  of  the  coupling  were 
visible. 

[Although  the  foregoing  is  not  positive  proof  that 
the  presence  of  the  lighting  circuit  caused  the  coupling 
to  corrode,  nevertheless  it  brings  up  the  question  as  to 
the  advisability  of  running  electric  circuits  across  a 
pipe  coupling  as  in  the  figure.  Power  would  appreciate 
an  expression  of  opinion  from  interested  readers  for 
publication  on  the  foregoing  question. — Editor.  J 


186 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  6 


Buying  an  Ash-Handling  System 


By  HERBERT  E.  BIRCH 


How  to  intelligently  purchase  an  ash-handling 
system  to  remove  ashes  from  boiler  ashpits  is 
a  question  that  is  confronting  many  engineers 
and  is  discussed  here.  It  is  a  timely  subject,  and 
there  are  many  ways  of  solving  this  apparently 
simple  problem. 

TO  ONE  who  is  not  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
effect  of  ashes  on  conveying  machinery,  it  seems 
like  a  waste  of  time  to  give  the  subject  much 
consideration,  but  it  requires  more  thought  to  design 
or  purchase  ash-handling  equipment  than  it  does  a 
system  to  convey  coal.  Any  conveyor  to  handle  coal 
may  be  installed  with  reasonable  expectations  of  a 
minimum  upkeep  cost,  but  with  ashes  it  is  necessary 
to  proceed  cautiously,  for  there  are  many  points  that 
demand  consideration. 

Perhaps  the  first  one  is  whether  to  install  a  single 
conveyor  to  handle  both  coal  and  ashes.  The  claim  in 
favor  of  this  method  is  that  it  avoids  a  multiplication 
of  machines  and  driving  parts  and  so  reduces  the  cost 
of  operation  and  maintenance.  Against  this,  there  are 
the  claims  of  those  who  prefer  a  "divorced"  system, 
where  the  ashes  are  handled  in  a  conveyor  set  apart 
for  that  purpose  only.  Briefly,  these  are  that  it  is 
often  necessary  to  handle  coal  and  ashes  simultaneously, 
which  it  is  impossible  to  do  with  the  "one  for  all" 
conveyor;  that  the  equipment  runs  only  about  one-tenth 
of  the  total  time  to  handle  ashes,  and  that  it  is  subject 
to  the  wear  of  the  ash  grit  in  the  chain  joints  the 
remaining  nine-tenths;  that  wet  ashes  sometimes  pack 
in  the  buckets  and  they  have  to  be  cleaned  out  before 
coal  can  be  handled,  and  that  inasmuch  as  the  conveyor 
was  made  heavy  and  ponderous  to  resist  the  destructive 
effect  of  ashes,  it  is  foolish  to  pull  this  extra  load 
around  the  boiler  room  when  handling  coal. 

Most  Engineering  Firms  Prefer  "Divorced"  System 

These  points  must  be  carefully  weighed  before 
deciding  which  system  to  follow,  but  in  this  connec- 
tion it  may  be  well  to  state  that  most  of  the  large 
engineering  firms  prefer  and  the  large  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  boiler  houses  use  the  "divorced"  system. 

Assume  that  it  is  decided  to  follow  in  their  footsteps 
and  see  just  what  there  is  to  watch  and  where  there 
is  a  probability  of  being  tripped  up  by  the  salesmen 
who  present  for  consideration  the  various  systems  on 
the  market.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  do  this  is  to 
first  look  at  the  ashes — examine  their  make-up.  It  is 
well  known  how  destructive  a  few  grains  of  grit  in  a 
bearing  would  be.  The  ashes  may  be  dripping  wet, 
red-hot,  dry  and  dusty,  or  hard  with  sharp  corners,  but 
they  are  never  just  plain  ashes. 

All  of  this  suggests  abrasion.  Consider  first  what 
effect  they  will  have  on  the  system  that  is  being  in- 
vestigated. Are  there  any  chain  joints  or  other  moving 
parts  that  are  likely  to  wear  out?  Perhaps  there  are 
no  chains.    Then  do  the  ashes  move  in,  over,  or  through 


anything?  It  does  not  make  much  difference  whether 
they  move  and  the  part  that  wears  out  is  stationary, 
or  whether  the  ashes  are  stationary  with  respect  to 
the  moving  part;  wear  occurs  in  any  event,  and  the 
result  is  that  the  repair  bill  is  high  or,  as  often  hap- 
pens, the  outfit  is  thrown  out  by  someone  higher  up. 

Power  requirements  often  lead  to  the  rejection  of 
a  conveying  system,  for  power  costs  money.  Will  the 
apparatus  under  consideration  consume  much  power? 
Will  it  use  power  at  its  maximum  rate  all  the  while 
it  is  in  operation,  or  does  it  consume  energy  only  while 
it  is  actually  conveying  its  full  load?  Some  systems 
operate  under  full  power  while  the  ashman  is  lighting 
his  pipe  or  while  it  is  conveying  only  at  one-half  its 
maximum  capacity.  Is  the  power  consumption  so  large 
tTiat  it  is  necessary  to  keep  90  or  100  hp.  continually 
floating  on  the  line  ready  for  ash-handling  service  at 
any  instant?  One  argument  for  large  power-consuming 
devices  is  that  ashes  are  handled  only  when  there  is  a 
large  head  of  steam  on  that  would  be  wasted  anyway. 
Beware,  for  it  is  but  a  snare  and  a  delusion.  What 
is  the  intelligent  engineer  doing  with  so  much  steam 
to  waste? 

Breaking  the  Clinkers 

What  size  clinkers  do  the  stokers  make?  Perhaps 
they  are  working  under  an  overload  and  the  clinkers  ^ 
are  extremely  hard.  Must  these  clinkers  be  broken  into 
small  pieces  before  they  can  be  fed  into  the  conveyor, 
or  can  they  be  put  in  just  as  they  come  from  the  fur- 
nace? Do  not  let  anyone  minimize  this  point  by 
suggesting  that  it  is  easy  to  put  a  concrete  block  at 
each  conveyor  intake  upon  which  to  break  any  recal- 
citrant clinker;  plant  operators  are  not  in  the  butcher 
business. 

Frequently  it  is  desirable  to  get  rid  of  boiler-room 
refuse  by  means  of  the  ash  conveyor.  Will  it  handle 
firebrick,  flue  dust,  soot,  etc.?  Do  not  take  the  sales- 
man's say-so.  Investigate,  use  common  sense  and  find 
out. 

How  about  dust  prevention?  Maybe  the  plant  is  at 
a  textile  or  paper  mill,  where  dust  is  frowned  upon. 
Will  the  conveyor  under  consideration  handle  a  finely 
powdered  material  and  deliver  it  to  the  ash  bin  without 
kicking  up  a  cloud  of  dust?  If  it  will  not,  can  it  be 
wet  and  then  will  the  conveyor  handle  it?  Will  the 
putty-like  mass  that  is  formed  clog  up  the  system  and 
will  it  be  necessary  to  poke  it  out  in  order  to  start 
the  apparatus  working  again?  Or,  if  it  is  handled 
dry  and  quenched  just  before  it  is  discharged  into  the 
ash  bin,  is  the  quenching  system  subject  to  freezing 
fn  winter?  Possibly,  where  steam  is  used  as  the 
propelling  agent,  mud  will  be  produced,  which  is  apt 
to  cause  trouble  at  the  turns.  Consider  what  happens 
to  the  ashes  (or  mud)  in  the  conveyor  when  it  stops 
handling  them.  Is  it  necessary  to  poke  things  clear 
before  it  is  possible  to  start  up  next  time?  Is  the  mud 
likely  to  settle  at  the  lowest  point  and  cake  there,  and 
if  it  does,  how  easy  is  it  to  find  where  this  occurs? 

How  about  a  dirty  appearance  around  your  plant? 
Will  it  be  necessary  to  drop  the  ashes  from  the  stoker 


February  5,  1918 


V  O  VV  K  K 


187 


hoppers  and  then  rake  them  into  the  conveyor?  An 
ashman  is  not  apt  to  be  overly  clean  in  sweeping  uj) 
after  he  is  through,  but  can  he  be  blamed? 

How  about  safety?  Some  systems  explode  occasion- 
ally, doing  severe  property  damage.  See  Poiver,  page 
468,  Apr.  3,  1917.    In  this  accident  two  men  were  killed. 

The  capacity  of  the  .system  should  be  of  interest 
also.  It  is  possible  that  it  will  take  several  men  to 
tease  the  ashes  through  an  intake  opening  in  order  to 
handle  the  amount  that  is  made.  Then  there  is  the 
distance  the  system  will  convey  the  ashes  and  the  height 
to  which  it  will  lift  them.  Perhaps  if  there  is  a  long 
run  in  the  basement  and  a  good  high  lift,  the  power 
consumption  will  be  enormous. 

Noise  a  Factor  To  Be  Considered 

Another  factor  that  may  influence  judgment  is  the 
noise  the  apparatus  is  likely  to  make.  Some  conveyors 
emit  a  grinding  noise  which  is  extremely  disagreeable 
to  those  who  live  close  by.  At  several  plants,  the  muni- 
cipal authorities  prohibit  the  conveyor  working  at  night, 
and  at  least  one,  to  my  knowledge,  was  refused  per- 
mission to  operate  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  common 
nuisance. 

Will  the  proposed  installation  meet  the  exacting 
demands  of  the  OMIA  formula?  .  This  means  that 
operating  charges  O  plus  maintenance  charges  M  plus 
interest  on  the  total  money  invested  /  plus  the  adap- 
tability A  of  the  plant  (which  can  hardly  be  measured 
in  dollars)  must  be  less  than  the  labor  saving  effected. 
Operating  cost  includes  power,  labor  to  operate,  oil  and 
such  incidentals.  Maintenance  charges  include  all  re- 
pairs of  any  nature  whatever  and  the  labor  expended 
in  making  these  repairs.  Under  this  head  is  usually 
included  depreciation,  which  is  likely  to  be  high  in  an 
ash-handling  plant.  Conveying-machinery  depreciation 
is  figured  at  10  per  cent.,  but  in  some  types  of  ash 
conveyors,  where  no  machinery  is  used,  the  depreciation 
is  likely  to  be  30  or  40  per  cent. 

Interest  on  the  investment  includes  not  only  the  in- 
terest on  the  parts  purchased  from  the  manufacturer, 
but  on  the  cost  of  labor  to  install,  foundations,  and 
any  preparatory  work  that  may  have  to  be  done,  bunkers 
built,  etc. 

Operating  Costs 

Just  a  word  in  passing  from  this  phase  to  the  next. 
Do  not  be  fooled  by  the  oft-repeated  statements  of  "a 
few  cents  per  ton  to  handle  ashes."  Just  figure  it  out. 
At  Sbc.  an  hour  for  labor,  if  5  tons  of  ashes  are  han- 
dled per  hour  with  the  system,  that  is  6c.  per  ton  for 
labor  alone.  How  about  power,  which  is  apt  to  cost 
20c.  per  ton  in  some  systems?  The  cost  per  ton  to 
handle  ashes  is  determined  by  dividing  the  OMI  cost 
per  year  by  the  tons  of  ashes  handled.  If  an  ash- 
handling  system  is  already  being  operated,  sit  down 
right  now  and  figure  it  out,  but  be  prepared  in  advance 
for  a  big  surprise.  Instead  of  6c.  per  ton  it  is  more 
likely  to  be  30  to  40c.  Then  perhaps  one  will  wonder 
just  what  is  the  trouble  with  a  wheelbarrow,  which 
has  no  operating  difficulties,  interest,  maintenance  and 
other  charges  to  speak  of.  It  may  be  that  if  an  "edu- 
cated wheelbarrow,"  with  ball  bearings  and  four  wheels 
running  on  tracks  is  used,  it  would  prove  to  be  just 
about  the  right  thing.  There  will  be  use  for  a  man 
anyway,  so  why  not  let  him  push  the  wheelbarrow? 


Speaking  of  having  to  have  a  man  is  a  reminder 
that  there  is  an  opportunity  to  say  just  a  little  about 
the  design  of  ash  hoppers.  If  the  plant  runs  night  and 
day,  the  ash  hoppers  ought  to  be  large  enough  to  take 
care  of  the  accumulation  of  ashes  during  the  night 
and  thus  avoid  a  night  shift  of  ashmen.  The  best 
condition  is  where  all  the  ashes  can  be  handled  by  one 
shift.  It  would  probably  be  advisable  to  figure  out  how 
much  labor  would  be  saved  by  rearranging  the  ash 
hoppers  to  accomplish  this,  and  determine  what  could 
be  spent  to  do  the  job.  Roughly,  an  expenditure  of 
about  $2200  is  warranted  for  every  dollar  per  day 
saved. 

The  engineer  who  spends  his  time  thinking  of  such 
problems  as  this  is  the  one  who  grows.  Such  a  man 
cannot  be  kept  down.  Let  someone  else  polish  the 
brasses,  or  else  do  away  with  them,  for  if  a  man  thinks 
and  acts  in  such  small  terms,  then  surely  will  the  real 
job,  the  job  worthy  of  an  engineer,  be  taken  from  him. 

Ash-Handling  Methods  That  May  Be  Used 

Now  to  get  back  to  ash  conveyors.  The  following 
methods  may  be  used  to  handle  ashes: 

1.  By  vacuum  systems,  which  arc  divided  into  two 
classes:  (a)  Complete  vacuum  systems,  where  the 
vacuum  is  maintained  by  exhausting  the  air  from  the 
ash  bin;  (b)  partial  vacuum,  where  the  jet  of  steam 
creates  a  vacuum  in  the  conveyor  pipe  back  of  the 
jet,  but  where  the  jet  itself  has  a  positive  action  on  the 
ashes  ahead  of  it. 

2.  Ash  drag  in  a  trench  in  front  of  the  boilers  or  in 
a  tunnel  beneath  the  ash  hoppers.  This  drag  consists 
of  a  wide  malleable  chain  running  in  a  cast-iron  trough 
and  dragging  the  ashes  with  it.  It  may  discharge  to 
another  drag  conveyor  which  operates  on  an  incline,  or 
it  may  discharge  to  a: 

3.  Bucket  elevator  of  the  centrifugal  discharge  type, 
which  is  usually  vertical  or  but  slightly  inclined.  This 
bucket  elevator  may  be  used  in  connection  with  wheel- 
barrows or  a  push  car. 

4.  Ashes  skip  hoist,  which  consists  of  a  large  bucket 
that  runs  up  steel  guides  and  dumps  into  an  ash  bin. 
This  system  is  usually  arranged  so  that  the  operator 
pushes  a  button  and  the  bucket  full  of  ashes  ascends, 
dumps,  reverses  and  descends  automatically,  coming  to 
a  stop  in  the  loading  pit.  This  skip  hoist  can  operate 
in  a  vertical  path  or  on  an  incline  of,  say,  45  deg., 
or  anything  between  these  two  conditions.  The  skip 
bucket  may  be  filled  by  means  of  a  push  car,  wheel- 
barrow or  ash  drag.  In  the  last  case,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  provide  an  equalizing  hopper  to  take  care  of 
the  ashes  which  accumulate  while  the  skip  bucket  is 
hoisting  a  load.  ( This  is  always  necessary  where  a 
continuous  conveyor  delivers  to  an  intermittent  one.) 

5.  A  grab  bucket  operated  by  a  monorail  crane  may 
be  used  to  dig  ashes  out  of  a  pit  where  they  have 
been  discharged,  by  barrow,  push  car,  steam  jet  or 
ash  drag.  The  pit  is  then  made  large  enough  to  take 
care  of  storage,  thus  eliminating  the  overhead  bunker. 
However,  an  experienced  man  is  usually  required  to 
operate  a  grab-bucket  crane,  which  is  one  disadvantage 
of  handling  ashes  in  this  wa.v. 

6.  Cold  ashes  can  be  handled  on  a  belt  conveyor,  but 
if  the  clinkers  are  large  the  belt  must  be  wide,  say 
36  in.  for  large  clinkers,   unless  they  can  be  broken. 


188 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


This  applies  to  several  of  the  other  types  of  conveyors, 
where  the  clinkers  have  to  be  broken  before  they  can 
be  teased  through  a  6-in.  hole. 

The  foregoing  are  the  principal  methods  used,  and 
although  others  may  exist,  they  are  of  minor  import- 
ance. Even  No.  6  could  be  omitted,  but  was  mentioned 
to  bring  out  the  point  about  the  clinkers. 

Get  acquainted  with  the  various  methods,  applying 
to  each  the  points  mentioned  in  this  article  and  then 
you  will  be  in  an  excellent  position  to  recommend  the 
type  of  equipment  to  buy.  The  boss  will  not  be  in  a 
mood  to  accept  excuses  when  it  becomes  necessary  to 
throw  out  a  bad  investment,  but  you  will  never  be  in 
this  position  if  a  little  study  is  given  to  the  subject 
now. 

Conduit  and  Wire  Sizes  for 
Two-Wire  Feeders 

By  T.  a.  Nash 

A  table  showing  what  size  conductors  will  be  required 
to  carry  different  numbers  of  660-watt  branch  circuits 
with  a  2  per  cent,  or  a  3  per  cent,  drop  is  given  herewith. 
The  first  column  indicates  the  number  of  660-watt  cir- 
cuits in  each  case.  The  second  column,  headed  "Am- 
peres," indicates  the  approximate  number  of  amperes 
in  each  case,  and  the  third  column  shows  the  smallest 
size  of  wire  that  can  be  used  for  the  feeder  without  ex- 
cessive heating  of  the  wire.  The  fourth  column  indi- 
cates the  normal  size  of  conduit  that  can  be  used,  as- 


FEEDER    AND    BRANCH    CIRCUITS 


suming  double-braided,  rubber-covered  wires  are  in- 
stalled. The  fifth  and  sixth  columns  indicate  respective- 
ly the  maximum  distances  to  which  the  currents  indi- 
cated in  column  /  can  be  carried  in  the  wire  size  of 
column  F  with  a  2  per  cent,  drop  and  with  a  3  per  cent, 
drop.  An  indication  of  what  the  table  stands  for  in  the 
circuit  is  given  in  the  figure;  the  letters  at  the  top  of 
the  columns  correspond  to  those  on  the  illustration. 

TABLE  SHOWING  FEEDER  AND  CONDUIT  SIZES  FOR 
IIO-VOLT  TWO-WIRE  SYSTEM 


N 

I 

F 

c 

Size  of 

L 

L 

Conduit  for 

Extreme 

Extreme 

Number  of 

Rubber- 

Distance  for 

Distance  for 

660-W!itt 

Size  of 

Covered 

2  per  Cent. 

3  per  Cent. 

Circuits 

Amperes 

Feeder 

Wire 

Drop 

Drop 

3 

13 

12 

5 

37 

55 

■4 

24 

10 

1 

44 

66 

5 

30 

8 

57 

85 

8 

48 

6 

56 

84 

11 

66 

4 

I  J. 

64 

97 

15 

90 

2 

li 

76 

114 

16 

96 

1 

\\ 

89 

134 

20 

120 

0 

90 

135 

25 

150 

00 

1    " 

91 

136 

29 

174 

000 

99 

148 

37 

222 

OOOD 

98 

146 

39 

234 

250,000 

2i 

110 

165 

45 

270 

300,000 

25 

114 

171 

50 

300 

350,000 

2J 

120 

ISO 

54 

324 

400,000 

127 

190 

60 

360 

450,000 

128 

192 

66 

396 

500,000 

130 

194 

70 

420 

550,000 
600,000 

135 

202 

75 

450 

137 

205 

79 

474 

650,000 

141 

211 

83 

498 

700,000 

144 

216 

87 

522 

750.000 

147 

221 

91 

546 

800,000 

35 

150 

225 

95 

570 

850,000 

3S 

153 

229 

100 

600 

900.000 

3J 

154 

231 

Operating  Costs   of    Electric    Elevators 

By  Charles  W.  Naylor 

Chief  Engineer.  Marshall  Field  &  Co..  Chicago  ;  Member  A.  S.  M.  E. 

The  electric  passenger  elevator  has  now  been  in  serv- 
ice for  a  period  long  enough  to  enable  the  engineer 
to  report  intelligently  on  its  cost  of  operation,  main- 
tenance and  repair.  Hitherto,  reports  on  electric-ele- 
vator costs  have  been  in  a  great  measure  based  on  tests 
made  at  the  time  of,  or  ver>'  soon  after,  installation, 
and  the  real  cost,  such  as  could  be  shown  only  by 
records  of  years  of  operation,  has  in  the  main  been  a 
matter  of  conjecture.  The  repair  or  maintenance  side 
of  the  ledger,  in  which  cost  records  are  tabulated,  shows 
a  marked  increase  as  the  machine  becomes  older,  after 
making  due  allowance  for  the  advance  in  the  cost  price 
or  repairs,  which  is  now  so  noticeable. 

This  article  will  be  based  on  the  records  for  ten  years^ 
ended  Dec.  31,  1916,  for  50  worm-gear,  drum-type  ele- 
vators having  a  150-  to  230-ft.  lift  and  running  in  pas- 
senger service  at  a  maximum  speed,  loaded,  of  8oO  ft. 
per  min.  The  elevators  cited  are  all  in  one  building, 
operated  in  a  similar  manner,  doing  exactly  the  same 
kind  of  work  for  equal  numbers  of  hours  per  day,  and 
cared  for  by  the  same  set  of  mechanics,  using  the  same 
oils,  grease,  cables,  ropes,  brushes,  etc. 

They  are  all  of  the  overhead  drum  type,  as  shown  in 
the  figure,  overbalanced  as  to  countei-weight  and 
equipped  with  all  the  standard  accessories  that  go  with 
this  make  of  elevator.  They  are  operated  on  direct  cur- 
rent at  about  226  to  230  volts,  with  magnet  control  of 
the  usual  construction  and  steel  guide  rails  for  cars  and 
counterweights.  There  are  two  sets  of  counterweights, 
one  for  the  drum  and  one  for  the  car.  All  cables  are 
standard,  ]  in.  diameter,  running  over  idler  sheaves  and 
drums  of  approximately  46  in.  diameter.  The  car- 
counterweight  cables,  two  in  number,  pass  directly  over 
the  vibrating  or  idler  sheave  A,  while  the  car-hoisting 
cables  wind  on  the  drum  B  as  the  drum-counterweight 
cables  unwind,  and  vice  versa. 

There  are  no  equalizing  or  compensating  cables  or 
chains.  The  cars,  or  cages,  of  a  rather  heavy  pattern, 
weigh  approximately  4000  lb.  each,  and  the  double 
counterweights  about  5000  lb.  The  drums  are  driven 
b.v  double,  or  fore-and-aft,  bronze  worm  gears  meshing 
with  steel  worms  on  an  extension  of  the  armature  shaft, 
with  the  magnet  brake  installed  on  this  shaft  between 
the  armature  and  the  worm.  The  armature  revolves  at 
850  r.p.m.  when  on  high  speed,  and  the  drums  make 
about  30  revolutions  during  the  same  period.  Of  the 
cars  listed,  five  have  a  travel,  or  rise,  of  150  ft.,  forty 
have  200  ft.  and  five  220  to  230  feet. 

In  addition  to  the  overhead  type  of  passenger  cars, 
there  are  five  machines  of  the  basement  type,  the  driv- 
ing mechanism  being  at  the  lower  landing,  with  travel- 
ing idler  sheaves  over  the  drum.  The  lift  is  about  40 
ft.  For  the  various  items  shown  in  the  table  the  oper- 
ating costs  are  about  the  same.  The  extra  cable  wear  is 
in  a  measure  compensated  for  by  the  shorter  length, 
the  cables  wearing  out  in  two  or  three  years  as  against 
six  to  ten  years  for  the  longer  lifts.  There  are  also 
11  freight  elevators  of  overhead  type,  220  ft.  travel, 
with  a  somewhat  slower  speed  and  smaller  motors.  These 
machines  cost  10  per  cent,  less  for  all  items  shown  in 
the  table,  except  for  cables,  and  50  per  cent,  less  for 


February  5,  1918 


POWER 


189 


these.  Their  speed  is  250  ft.  per  min.,  and  they  travel 
about  6  to  8  miles  per  day  as  against  12  to  15  miles 
each  per  day  for  the  passenger  cars. 

The  labor  shown  is  for  the  wages  of  the  maintenance 
and  repair  mechanics.  Each  man  cares  for  12  cars,  oil- 
ing, cleaning,  adjusting  and  ordinary  repairs.  Two 
extra  men  care  for  the  heavy  and  extraordinary  repairs 
such  as  installing  armatures,  greasing  guides  and  put- 
ting on  cables.  The  increase  from  year  to  year  is  oc- 
casioned by  some  additional  help  and  wages  advanced 
for  the  old  employees. 

The  item  miscellaneous  includes  leather  for  brakes, 
copper  rivets,  babbitt,  bolts,  screws,  etc.  The  armature 
expense  is  mostly  for  rewinding  and  includes  a  few  field- 
coil  renewals.  The  repair  item  includes  brushes,  con- 
troller disks,  contact  lugs,  carbons  and  such  material  as 
would  naturally  be  purchased  from  the  manufacturer  of 
the  machine,  used  mostly  in  keeping  up  the  controller 
boards.    Oil  includes  engine  oil  for  bearings  and  guides 

ILMNTENANCE  COSTS  OVER  10  YEARS  FOR  50  ELECTRIC 
ELEVATORS  * 

.\ver- 
1907   1908   1909   1910  1911    1912   1913   1914   1915   1916Total    age 

Oil 93       93       93       68       68     110     110       78       92       52       857       86 

Grease....  8        16        16       25       26       34        28       29       31  9       222       22 

Repairs  ..  4251.105  618  465  467  603  119  40  39  96  3.977  398 
Armatures  1,060  1,160     4611,148     935     540     918     580     660     362    7,824     782 

Cables 467      188     323      140      174     213     316     360  1,012    3,193     319 

Labor 5,000  5,000  5,525  5,525  5,525  6,375  6,375  6,450  6,450  7,650  59.875  5,988 

Misc 110       59     307     238     344      170     269       84     270       92    1,943      194 

Total. . .  6,696  7,900  7,208  7,792  7,505  8,006  8,032  7,577  7,902  9,273  77,891  7,789 
Percar.      134      158      145      156      150      160      161      151      158     185    1,558      156 

*  For  simplicity  all  amounts  given  to  the  nearest  dollar. 

and  castor  or  castor-machine  oil  for  the  worm  cases. 
Cables  include  the  3 -in.  main  cables  and  the  *-in.  wire 
and  i-in.  manila  rope  for  the  governors. 

Each  passenger  car  travels  about  13  miles  per  day, 
and  for  the  year  of  310  days,  totals  4030  miles.  Di- 
viding the  average  annual  cost  per  car  by  this  mileage 
gives  a  maintenance  cost  of  $0.0387  per  car  mile,  of 
which  about  75  per  cent,  is  for  labor  and  25  per  cent, 
for  materials  and  supplies. 

In  the  same  plant  are  11  worm-gear  one-to-one 
traction  machines  having  230  ft.  rise  in  the  hatchway, 
with  compensating  chains.  The  cars  travel  375  ft.  per 
min.,  or  14  to  16  miles  per  day.  Maintenance  costs  at 
present  are  about  the  same  as  for  the  old  drum  types, 
except  for  cables,  which  wear  out  about  twice  as  fast  as 
they  do  on  the  drum  machines.  These  elevators  are  now 
only  three  years  old,  and  it  is  too  early  to  pass  upon 
their  real  cost  of  operation. 

There  are  also  five  basement  worm-gear  one-to-one 
traction  machines  with  compensating  cables,  having  140 
ft.  lift  and  a  speed  of  300  ft.  per  min.  The  ropes  on 
these  machines  wear  out  very  rapidly. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  there  are  eight  one-to- 
one  overhead  traction  machines  having  280  ft.  lift,  450 
ft.  speed  and  equipped  with  compensating  cables  and 
weights.  The  cars  travel  about  20  miles  per  day  each, 
and  the  cables  are  wearing  out  three  times  as  rapidly 
as  those  on  the  old  drum  machines.  These  cars  having 
been  in  use  only  three  years,  it  is  wisdom  to  defer  de- 
cision on  their  operating  cost  to  a  later  date. 

In  the  plant  there  are  77  passenger  and  14  freight 
elevators  traveling  about  1500  miles  and  carrying  from 
150,000  to  325,000  passengers  per  day.  The  cost  per 
car-mile  for  current  is  practically  the  same  for  all  types. 
A  future  article  will  deal  with  some  of  the  many  oper- 
ating troubles  peculiar  to  these  machines. 


,l| 


JiMJ 


fr  I5L 

IQffilDl 


CAR 
\COUNT£R- 
\W£IQHTS 


DRUM 
ICOUNTER- 
IWEIGHTS 


Kii 


%, 


m 


OVERHELVD  TYPE  ELEVATOR  MACHINE 


190 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


Handy  Home-Made  Apparatus 


I 


HOME-MADE  PACKING  PULLER 


FOUR  SETS  OF  JAWS  W/LL  SUBSTITUTE 
\A  BULKY  P/PE  VISE 


lllllH 


Wwuu 


"nimi 


'-Ulnv. 


iii!)i|fi;i!/ii 


!lliiii!ill\in'- 


//OIV  TO  MAKE  A  LEATHER  PUNCH  AND 
HOW  TO  DRILL  THE  CURVED  HOLE 


PACKING  PULLER  MADE  FROM  CORKSCREW 


V/SE  CAN  BE  CLAMPED  WHERE  NEEDED 


'f/  SefA  to  the  Required 
Ang/Ie  B  Wanted 


COPPER  SOLUTION  WILL  STAIN  THE  TUBE 
\        AT  THE  DESIRED  ANGLE  \ 


Februan.'  5,  1918  POWER  191 

giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiuuiiuiumiuuuuiiiuuuiuiuuiuuuiiiiiiiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimii i i i iiiiiiu iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiniiiiiu 


1 
I 


Editorials 


iiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiniiiiiiininiiniimiimiinrmnitmiiniiiiiiiniiniiinMiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiMiiiiiii^ 


The    Fuel   Administration    Mandate 

THE  practical  suspension  of  business  by  the  Fuel 
Administration  for  five  days  and  for  a  day  each 
week  for  seven  weeks  to  come,  was  one  of  the 
largest  exercises  of  governmental  authority  to  which  in- 
dustry has  ever  been  asked  to  submit.  If  it  effects  its 
purpose,  Fuel  Administrator  Garfield  is  entitled  to  a 
meed  of  credit  proportional  to  the  magnitude  of  the  ex- 
igency and  the  boldness  of  the  remedial  act. 

The  execution  of  such  a  measure  can  be  justified  only 
by  the  existence  of  a  condition  of  the  utmost  gravity; 
its  wisdom  can  be  demonstrated  only  by  the  extent  to 
which  it  is  effective  in  mitigating  that  condition. 

In  the  first  place  its  primary  object  was  not  the  sav- 
ing of  fuel,  but  the  slowing  up  of  production.  Indus- 
tries, speeded  to  the  utmost,  were  piling  upon  the  al- 
ready overburdened  railways,  goods  for  transportation 
to  the  seaboard.  Ships  could  not  be  coaled  fast  enough 
to  take  the  goods  away.  Terminals  were  congested, 
cars  were  held  up  and  the  roads  and  sidings  were 
blocked,  interfering  with  the  transportation  of  the  coal 
needed  to  relieve  the  situation.  The  effect  was  cumula- 
tive. Much  as  some  of  the  goods  were  wanted,  it  was 
bootless  to  make  them  simply  to  be  piled  up  in  the  cars 
which  might  be  hauling  coal  and  which  were  standing  in 
the  way  of  trains  that  might  relieve  the  coal  famine. 

Could  the  railroads  have  been  speeded  up  enough  to 
overtake  the  accumulation  and  at  the  same  time  take 
care  of  the  daily  increase?  Those  who  are  in  the  best 
position  to  know  say  that  they  could  not.  Could  the 
manufacture  or  shipping  of  nonessentials  have  been  sus- 
pended? Several  days  were  lost  in  proving  this  to  be 
impracticable.  And  so,  in  the  light  of  what  they  know, 
and  what  the  man  on  the  street  does  not  know,  those 
responsible  for  results  said,  "We  must  stop  and  let  the 
roads  catch  up,  or  go  on  from  worse  to  worse."  To  have 
announced  their  intention  to  do  this  would  have  aroused 
such  remonstrance  and  have  set  into  operation  so  much 
machinery  of  opposition  as  to  render  it  impossible,  and 
would  have  so  speeded  up  production  in  the  interim  as 
to  further  swamp  the  roads  and  further  deplete  the  di- 
minished coal  supply,  to  say  nothing  of  its  effect  upon 
the  market. 

It  had  to  come,  as  it  did  come,  like  a  bolt  out  of  the 
blue;  and  before  some  of  our  good  people  could  weigh 
the  petty' sacrifice  that  they  were  asked  to  make  against 
the  supreme  sacrifice  that  those  are  making  to  whose 
support  this  order  ultimately  means  the  most,  there 
arose  a  storm  of  indignant  protest,  which  has  subsided 
at  this  writing  to  an  attitude  of  quiescent  submission, 
and  which  we  hope  as  this  is  read  will  have  changed  to 
one  of  intelligent  appreciation  and  approval. 

The  importance  of  the  fuel  supply,  even  to  interests 
to  which  it  seems  but  remotely  related,  has  been  demon- 
strated this  winter  as  never  before.  The  orderly  con- 
duct of  the  procurement  and  distribution  of  that  supply 
is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  concern  to  the  whole  people. 


The  organization  of  a  system  for  such  control  out  of  a 
mass  of  competing  units,  with  a  crippled  railway  sys- 
tem, in  a  winter  of  unwonted  severity,  and  against  the 
covert  opposition  of  those  who  do  not  wish  to  see  the 
practicability  of  government  control  successfully  demon- 
strated, is  not  the  work  of  a  week  or  of  a  season.  With- 
out the  Fuel  Administration  there  would  have  been  a 
coal  shortage  fully  as  acute  as  the  present — for  the 
mines  now  are  turning  out  all  that  the  roads  can  haul 
— and  prices  would  have  soared  unrestrained. 

Let  us  have  patience  until  the  machine  gets  warmed 
up.  Let  us  not  go  into  hysterics  if  it  skips  a  stroke 
now  and  then.  Back  up  the  Administration  until  it  has 
a  chance  to  put  into  effect  some  of  the  measures  now  in 
view  and  in  development,  and  this  year's  condition  will 
be  pointed  to  as  an  e.xample  of  those  which  intelligent 
organization  in  the  interest  of  over-all  efficiency  can 
correct. 

The  Day  of  the  Recording  Instrument 

NOT  many  years  ago  the  recording  instrument  in 
^  the  average  plant  was  a  rarity.  Its  use  was  con- 
sidered superfluous,  and  if  perchance  an  instrument  of 
this  type  did  find  its  way  into  a  plant,  its  possibilities 
were  not  fully  appreciated.  Considered  more  in  the 
light  of  an  ornament,  there  was  no  great  incentive  to 
maintain  it  in  accurate  working  order,  and  more  often 
than  not  the  records  would  be  dumped  into  a  drawer 
of  the  engineer's  desk  or  perhaps  filed  away  for  safe 
keeping.  Those  were  the  days  of  cheap  fuel  when 
a  few  tons  of  coal,  one  way  or  the  other,  was  not 
seriously  considered.  Conditions  were  not  severe,  and 
the  indicating  instrument  did  very  well.  Plants  fully 
equipped  did  better  than  those  with  no  precise  meas- 
uring instruments,  and  if  the  meters  were  read  often 
enough,  the  time  indicated  in  each  case  and  plots  after- 
ward made,  a  rough  approximation  of  the  register  of 
a  recording  instrument  was  obtained. 

Securing  complete  operating  data  in  this  way  and 
the  subsequent  plotting  were  tasks  too  arduous  for  the 
average  operator.  More  than  occasional  readings  could 
not  be  expected.  Comparison  of  the  value  of  data  ob- 
tained in  this  way  and  of  time  records  from  accurate 
instruments  recording  every  variation  of  the  quantity 
measured  and  transcribing  it  so  that  the  range  over 
the  entire  period  may  be  read  at  a  glance,  is  not  difficult 
to  make.  With  the  proper  number  of  instruments  simul- 
taneous records  giving  complete  operating  data  for  the 
station  are  at  hand  ready  for  analysis,  and  as  the  rec- 
ords are  permanent,  comparison  with  previous  perform- 
ance is  easy. 

There  is  no  need,  however,  of  championing  the  record- 
ing instrument.  It  is  already  with  us.  Its  merit  has 
been  proved,  and  its  adoption  even  in  the  smaller  plants 
is  becoming  more  general.  The  war,  the  urgent  demand 
for  coal,  the  rise  in  price  and  the  necessity  for  efficient 


192 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


production  have  been  contributing  factors.  In  these 
days  coal  must  be  conserved  for  military  purposes. 

The  small  plant  is  working  on  a  closer  margin  than 
ever  before.  It  must  be  fortified  in  every  way  possible 
and  must  conduct  its  business  intelligently,  complete 
and  accurate  data  being  the  first  essential. 

Those  plants  which  have  been  getting  along  com- 
fortably in  the  past  with  incomplete  indications  of 
operating  conditions,  cannot  afford  to  continue  in  the 
old  way.  The  recording  instrument  offers  a  decided 
advantage.  There  has  been  a  big  development  in  this 
field.  More  and  better  instruments  than  ever  before  are 
available.  Coal  must  be  saved.  A  wise  selection  of 
meters,  showing  the  operator  exactly  what  is  being 
done  in  the  plant  and  where  improvement  is  possible, 
is   the   first   step. 

How  Do  You  Mix  Your  Fuel? 

ONE  of  the  most  urgent  problems  that  now  confront 
the  engineer  is  the  utilization  of  the  lower  grades 
of  coal,  such  for  example,  as  screenings  and  culm.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  the  culm  piles  were  pretty  well 
cleaned  out,  but  the  fuel  shortage  has  developed  that 
there  are  great  quantities  still  available  and  at  a  price 
that  makes  it  worth  while  to  attempt  burning  it  when 
mixed  with  soft  coal. 

There  immediately  arises,  then,  the  pi-oblem  of  mix- 
ing the  culm  or  screenings  and  the  soft  coal  so  that 
when  used  in  stokers  the  mixture  will  be  sent  to  the 
stoker  hoppers  in  such  way  that  there  will  not  be  a 
segregation  of  the  lumps  as  the  fuel  goes  to  the  stokers. 
Should  this  happen,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent 
holes  in  the  fire  of  so  serious  a  nature  as  to  make 
combustion  not  only  uneconomical,  but  difficult  to  carry 
on.  Obviously,  the  problem  is  a  local  one  and  the  con- 
ditions in  each  particular  plant  will  require  different 
measures  for  its  most  successful  solution. 

Engineers  are  greatly  interested  to  know  how  the 
other  fellow  is  doing  it,  and  Power  extends  an  invita- 
tion to  those  who  have  met  this  problem  to  tell  how 
they  have  met  it  and  what  troubles  they  have  encoun- 
tered in  mixing  the  fine,  powdery  fuel  with  the  run-of- 
mine  coal.  What  proportions  are  found  most  suitable 
for  particular  types  of  stokers  with  particular  settings 
and  for  the  various  loads?  In  hand-fired  plants  it  is  a 
simple  matter  to  mix  the  culm  with  the  soft  coal,  but 
where  crushers  are  used  and  where  the  coal  is  conveyed 
to  an  overhead  bunker  and  then  gravitates  to  the  stoker 
hoppers,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  get  the  best  mixture. 

It  is  quite  important  that  engineers  learn  how  to  burn 
culm  and  other  very  low-grade  fuels,  especially  those 
which  are  byproducts  of  mining  and  which,  unless  used, 
may  stand  for  years  in  huge  piles  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere, thereby  suffering  deterioration  in  heating  value. 
The  sooner  such  fuels  are  used  after  they  come  from 
the  mines,  the  greater  their  value. 

Let  us  know  how  you  get  your  mixture  and  how  you 
crush,  convey  and  feed  the  fuel. 

Alaska's  Coal 

WHEN  Secretary  Seward  bought  Alaska  for  the 
United  States  no  man  was,  perhaps,  on  the  day  of 
the  consummation  of  the  sale,  regarded  as  a  greater  fool 
than  lie.    But  time  and  research  have  revealed  the  wealth 


of  resources  that  lie  buried  beneath  the  chilly  surface 
of  our  most  northern  possession.  And  Seward's  judg- 
ment is  vindicated. 

One  of  Alaska's  greatest  assets  is  coal.  At  this  time 
that  sounds  inspiring;  it  is  like  the  answer  to  a  ship- 
wrecked sailor's  signal.  The  Geological  Survey  esti- 
mates that  Alaska  treasures  more  coal  than  did  Penn- 
sylvania before  that  commonwealth's  coffers  were  tapped. 

Is  not  the  Seattle  Chamber  of  Commerce  then  to  be 
congratulated  for  at  this  critical  time  calling  attention 
to  the  possibilities  Alaskan  coal  offers  for  supplying  the 
West  and  Northwest?  Think  what  it  would  mean  to 
the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  if  now  the  present 
mines  had  to  supply  only  the  East.  Every  ton  of  coal 
that  can  be  spared  is  sent  to  the  Pacific  Coast  via  the 
Panama  Canal,  and  enormous  quantities  are  sent  from 
the  East  over  the  rails  to  the  remote  West.  It  is  re- 
ported that  25,000  cars  of  coal  started  for  the  Lakes,  to 
be  shipped  by  water  into  the  Northwest,  arrived  after 
navigation  closed  and  that  these  bearers  of  the  treasure 
still  lie  sidetracked  somewhere.  Maybe  the  report  is 
true;  but  it  seems  incredible  that  it  should  not  have 
been  carried  on  to  its  ultimate  destination  by  rail  or 
dumped  into  the  Middle  West,  where  coal  shortage  has 
driven  mayors  and  at  least  one  governor  to  extreme 
measures  to  get  relief. 

The  oils  of  the  Pacific  Coast  by  no  means  offer  great 
and  continuous  supply  of  that  fuel.  The  country  west 
of  the  Rockies  is  growing,  and  with  the  growth  the  de- 
mand for  coal  increases  proportionately.  The  railroad 
congestion  and  coal  crisis  have  taught  the  value  of  using 
that  fuel  nearest  the  place  of  consumption.  The  Govern- 
ment could  do  no  greater  service  to  the  nation  than  to 
be  most  reasonable  in  promoting  the  development  of 
coal  mining  in  Alaska.  Doing  so  would  doubtless  lend 
impetus  to  industrial  growth  not  only  in  Alaska,  but  all 
down  the  Pacific  Coast  and  as  far  inland  as  that  coal 
can  be  economically  transported. 

Why  New  York   Has  No  Coal 

AS  THIS  issue  goes  to  press  there  is  talk  of  pooling 
the  anthracite  coal  for  New  York  City  and  south- 
ern New  England.  Much  of  this  coal  comes  in  over 
the  rails  to  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  from  which  it  goes  by 
barge  to  the  sections  of  the  country  where  it  is  consumed. 

What  pooling  the  anthracite  arriving  at  this  port  will 
do  to  relieve  the  critical  conditions,  provided  labor  and 
other  vital  factors  are  properly  cared  for,  may  be  judged 
by  reading  the  account  of  conditions  at  this  port  as 
given  on  pages  178  and  179.  There  is  no  need  of  going 
into  particulars  here,  as  they  are  given  in  the  article; 
suffice  it  to  say  that  conditions  there  are  deplorable. 

J.  D.  A.  Morrow,  Secretary  of  the  National  Coal 
Association,  has  been  appointed  by  Dr.  Garfield  to 
assume  general  charge  of  distribution.  This  is  a  most 
commendable  move.  Certainly,  no  part  of  the  whole 
coal  problem  is  in  need  of  greater  and  competent  atten- 
tion than  that  of  distribution.  Mr.  Morrow's  experience 
fits  him  for  his  new  job.  Certainly,  it  is  the  hope  of 
all  Atlantic  Coast  sections  of  the  country  that  Mr. 
Morrow  will  not  only  get  the  authority  he  will  need  to 
accomplish  results,  but  will  use  it  fearlessly  when  he  gets 
it.  Hampton  Roads,  New  England  and  the  New  Jersey 
ports  have  plenty  for  him  to  do. 


February  5.  1918 


POWER 


193 


The  Reason  There  Is  No  Coal 


That  the  coal-unload  ill  SI  iiieis  are  the  keij  to  the 
critical  coal  situation  in  New  York  City  is  clearly 
evident  from  the  following,  which  is  from  a  re- 
cent report  of  the  Coal  Conservation  Committee 
of  New  York  State. 

THE  following  are  the  docks  with  the  railroad  serv- 
ing each:  UndercliflF,  Erie  R.R. ;  Weehawken, 
N.  Y.,  0.  &  W.  R.R.;  Hoboken,  D.,  L.  &  W.  R.R.; 
Port  Liberty,  C.  R.R.  of  N.  J. ;  Port  Johnson,  C.  R.R.  of 
N.  J.;  Port  Reading,  P.  &  R.  Ry.;  Elizabethport,  C.  R.R. 
of  N.  J.;  Perth  Amboy.  L.  V.  R.R.;  S.  Amboy,  Penn. 
R.R.;  St.  George,  B.  &  0.  R.R. 

Capacities  are  based  on  what  it  is  estimated  the  docks 
can  do  under  normal  weather  conditions.  The  total  ton- 
nages of  the  docks  on  this  basis  are  2615  cars  per  day. 
Averaging  a  car  at  40  tons,  this  would  amount  to  from 
100,000  to  110,000  tons  per  day. 

The  following  figures  were  given  as  represent- 
ing a  fair  average  cars  per  day  for  the  dumpings  under 
normal  winter  conditions:  Undercliff  150  to  160,  Wee- 
hawken 115  to  120,  Hoboken  225  to  250,  Port  Liberty 
60  to  70,  Port  Johnson  60  to  75,  Elizabethport  75  to 
100,  Port  Reading  225  to  275.  Perth  Amboy  150  to  200, 
South  Amboy  300  to  325,  St.  George  75  to  100.  A  total 
of  1675  cars  on  the  outside  figures,  or  in  tonnage  a  mat- 
ter of  65,000  to  70,000  tons. 

Thawing  Facilities — Undercliflf:  Covered  steam  house 
with  capacity  for  48  cars  at  one  setting ;  also  have  spear 
system  with  accommodation  for  8  cars  at  one  setting, 
or  total  of  56  cars.  The  house  is  old,  having  been  used 
for  a  number  of  years;  the  average  time  required  to 
thaw  coal  in  this  house  being  approximately  six  hours. 
Spear  system  requires  about  the  same  length  of  time  by 
reason  of  the  fact  that  an  insufficient  number  of  spears 
are  applied  to  each  car. 

Weehawken :  Spear  system  in  use ;  accommodation  for 
40  cars  at  one  setting ;  average  length  of  time  for  steam- 
ing, 4  hours. 

Hoboken:  Spear  system;  accommodation  for  40  cars 
at  one  setting;  average  time,  4  hours. 

Port  Liberty:  No  facilities  for  steaming. 

Port  Johnson:  No  facilities  up  to  this  date.  One 
locomotive  is  being  put  into  operatior   to  furnish  steam. 

Elizabethport:  No  steam  plant,  coal  being  thawed  by 
use  of  locomotive.  One  locomotive  can  take  care  of  two 
cars  at  one  setting.  The  number  of  locomotives  fur- 
nished for  this  purpose  is  two,  thawing  out  four  cars 
at  one  setting;  one  pipe  being  applied  to  each  car,  and 
average  time  for  steaming  forty-five  minutes  to  a  car. 

Port  Reading :  House  steam  equipment  for  44  cars  at 
one  setting.  Time  required,  two  hours  on  bituminous 
steam  coal,  and  on  anthracite  fine  sizes  several  hours. 

Perth  Amboy:  Spear  system  equipment  for  24  cars 
at  one  setting,  average  time  of  steaming,  3  hours. 

South  Amboy:  House  steam,  capacity  for  40  cars  at 
one  setting;  average  time,  2  to  4  hours. 

St.  George:  No  steaming  facilities.  At  St.  George  a 
steam  plant  accommodating  40  cars  will  be  ready  for 
use  in  a  few  days. 


Perth  Amboy:  The  Lehigh  Valley  expect  to  have  a 
new  plant  ready  some  time  in  February  which  will  in- 
crease their  capacity  to  96  cars.  This  plant  was  or- 
dered long  ago  and  was  originally  promised  for  delivery 
on  Aug.  1,  last. 

With  reference  to  labor,  the  following  docks  are  short: 
Undercliff,  Weehawken,  Hoboken  and  Port  Reading. 

Aside  from  the  question  of  shortage  of  labor,  most  of 
the  piers  are  handicapped  by  "green  labor." 

South  Amboy  now  operating  24  hours,  is  not  operating 
to  capacity  by  reason  of  insufficient  coal  supply.  This 
port  could  load  more  tonnage. 

Undercliff,  which  is  working  on  a  10-hour  basis,  could 
materially  increase  its  tonnage  if  put  on  a  24-hour  basis. 

In  addition  to  this  if  steaming  facilities  could  be 
promptly  devised,  such  as  furnishing  locomotives,  Port 
Liberty,  Port  Johnson  and  Elizabethport  could  load  more 
tonnage  by  working  24  hours. 

At  the  pier  at  Undercliff,  Weehawken,  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  27th,  there  were  available  for  individual 
shippers  142  cars  of  which  only  45  cars  could  be  re- 
leased that  day  on  account  of  no  individual  shipper  ap- 
parently having  sufficient  coal  of  proper  sizes  to  make  a 
cargo  beyond  45  cars. 

It  seems  that  at  this  time  there  is  ample  equip- 
ment to  take  care  of  the  movement  of  coal  from  piers 
to  harbor  points. 

The  Conservation  Committee  recommends  to  Mr.  Wig- 
gin,  Fuel  Administrator  for  New  York  State: 

1.  That  a  practical  railroad  official  directly  connected 
with  or  in  charge  of  each  dock,  meet  at  2:30  Friday  at 
this  office  and  be  empowered  to  cooperate  with  this 
committee,  to  go  more  fully  into  this  matter,  and  make 
any  practical  recommendations  that  they  think  will  be 
necessary  to  meet  this  critical  situation. 

2.  It  is  recommended  that  all  docks  immediately  ar- 
range to  work  twenty-four  hours  daily. 

3.  That  all  docks  increase  their  steaming  facilities  for 
the  thawing  of  this  frozen  coal  to  the  maximum  imme- 
diately. 

4.  That  this  committee  recommend  the  pooling  of  all 
coal  so  that  no  additional  time  may  be  lost  in  switching. 

5.  That  this  committee  recommend  that  any  culm, 
silt  or  any  anthracite  steam  sizes  containing  material 
that  will  pass  through  a  one-sixteenth  inch  mesh,  other- 
wise dirt,  be  temporarily  eliminated  until  such  time  as 
all  the  larger  sizes  of  coal  be  dumped,  as  it  is  found 
upon  investigation  that  the  time  consumed  in  unloading 
a  car  of  this  coal  materially  interfered  with  unloading 
other  sizes. 

6.  It  is  recommended  after  our  investigation  that 
every  effort  be  made  to  increase  labor  and  the  locomo- 
tive service  at  these  docks,  which  is  found  to  be  in- 
adequate. 

7.  That  the  docks  work  Sundays  and  holidays  till  the 
present  stringency  is  past. 

These  recommendations  have  been  in  the  hands  of  the 
national,  state  and  city  fuel  administrators  long  enough 
for  action.  The  conditions  are  more  severe  than  this 
report  reveals,  as  will  be  told  on  the  editorial  pages  of 
next  week's  issue. 


194                                                                                   POWER  Vol.  47,  No.  6 

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Correspondence 


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Coal  Shortage  and  the  Southern 
Power-Plant   Operator 

With  the  demand  for  coal  exceeding  the  production  by 
thousands  of  tons,  there  must  of  course  be  less  con- 
sumed to  prevent  crippling  industries  dependent  on  coal 
for  power.  Everything  possible  should  be  done  to  les- 
sen the  serious  fuel  famine  in  the  East,  where  hundreds 
of  highly  necessary  industrial  enterprises  are  located, 
and  partially  solve  the  fuel  problem.  After  giving  the 
matter  careful  thought  and  after  visiting  hundreds  of 
power  plants  in  the  South,  I  have  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  one  solution  of  the  difficulty  would  be  to  use 
wood  for  fuel.  The  South  has  an  abundance  of  various 
kinds  of  wood  that  could  be  used. 

About  50  per  cent,  of  the  South's  population  is  rural 
or  in  towns  up  to  ten  thousand  population.  In  these 
towns  there  are  power  plants  which  develop  from  a 
hundred  to  a  thousand  horsepower  and  consume  thou- 
sands of  tons  of  coal.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  boilers 
in  these  plants  are  of  the  horizontal  type  and  can  easily 
be  converted  from  coal  to  wood  burners,  and  at  the 
present  prices  of  coal  the  change  would  be  economical 
in  many  cases,  even  though  the  various  heat  losses 
should  increase.  It  may  seem  that  the  labor  cost  in 
stoking  would  increase,  but  a  close  study  of  local  condi- 
tions shows  that  there  will  be  a  reduction  instead. 

January  and  February  are  months  of  little  activity 
with  team  owners  and  common  labor,  so  that  wood  could 
be  cut  and  hauled  in  these  months  at  a  very  low  price. 
Four-foot  wood  seems  to  be  preferable  as  it  dries 
quickly  and  can  be  handled  easily.  When  trees  of  from 
six  to  twelve  inches  in  diameter  are  cut,  the  wood  should 
be  quartered  and  stacked  on  end.  If  cut  into  smaller 
pieces,  the  fire  burns  too  fast  and  the  furnace  doors  have 
to  be  opened  too  often,  in  firing,  to  allow  a  steady  com- 
bustion; but  the  larger  size  can  be  handled  easily,  I'.nd 
the  fire  can  be  kept  burning  constantly  with  a  minimum 
of  door  manipulation.  If  the  removal  of  the  bridge-wall 
becomes  necessary,  it  will  neither  affect  the  draft  nor  in- 
crease the  fuel  consumption  to  any  extent.  It  has  been 
my  experience  that  it  is  possible  to  fire  both  on  the 
grate  bars  and  partly  in  the  combustion  chamber  with 
good  results.  With  coal,  of  course,  this  would  be  absurd, 
buc  wood  will  burn  well  in  such  a  position  and  not  sim- 
ply char  as  might  be  expected.  If  green  wood  is  being 
used,  one  must  keep  the  furnace  full  so  as  to  produce  a 
drying  condition.  At  each. firing  the  dry  wood  should 
be  raked  from  the  combustion  chamber  to  the  fore  part 
of  the  grates;  in  this  way  the  fire  will  be  constantly  re- 
plenished with  dry  and  partly  ignited  wood.  In  stok- 
ing one  must  be  careful  not  to  injure  the  blowoff  pipe. 
To  avoid  this  an  iron  bar  might  be  placed  in  front  of 
it  to  check  a  blow  that  might  occur. 

With  a  careful  study,  expenses  can  be  minimized  and 
the  consumption  of  wood  can  be  reduced  by  timing  the 
stoking  and  feeding  the  water  into  the  boiler  as  the  in- 
tensity of  the  heat  varies.    By  heavj'  firing  the  labor  is 


reduced  and  one  man  can  stoke  just  as  many  boilers 
as   when    burning    coal.      Experience   will    enable   the 
fireman  to  work  his  fire,  draft  and  water  in  such  a  way 
as  to  keep  steam  constantly  at  the  desired  pressure. 
Newport  News,  Va.  G.  N.  McIlhenny. 

An  Emergency  Pump  Repair 

When  a  12  x  7  x  12-in.  duplex  pump  in  our  plant  failed 
to  supply  its  full  amount  of  water  and  began  to  "cut 
up  capers,"  it  was  shut  down  and  th°  handhole  plates 
were  removed  from  the  valve  chamber  on  the  water 
end.  One  valve  seat,  valve  and  spring  were  found  out 
of  place,  for  the  threads  had  stripped  on  the  valve  seat, 
allowing  it  to  be  forced  out  of  place.  The  pump  was 
urgently    needed,    so   it   was    repaired    temporarily    by 


IMPROVISED   .JACK   TO    HOLD   V.A.LVK    SEAT    IX    PLACE 

cutting  a  piece  of  s-in.  round  iron  the  right  length  to 
reach  from  the  top  of  the  valve  stem  to  the  top  of 
the  inside  of  the  valve  chamber.  One  end  was  threaded 
and  a  5-in.  nut  screwed  on  the  thickness  of  the  nut; 
the  upper  end  was  pointed  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
The  valve  seat  was  wrapped  and  "doped"  with  red 
lead.  The  bolt  was  put  in  place  and  then  backed  part 
way  out  of  the  nut,  forcing  the  seat  down  tight  into 
its  place  and  holding  it  there.  The  pump  was  out  of 
service  only  a  few  minutes.  E.  M.  Keys. 

Montesano,  Wash. 

How  To  Distinguish  Iron  from 
Steel  Pipe 

Those  who  specify  wrought-iron  pipe  should  be  able 
to  determine  whether  the  pipe  delivered  to  them  is  actu- 
ally iron  or  not,  and  in  the  case  of  old  pipe  it  is  also 
interesting  to  know  whether  it  is  iron  or  steel.  Four 
different  test  methods  may  be  used  for  distinguishing 


February  6,  1918 


POWER 


195 


non  from  steel,  and  these  are,  in  the  order  of  the  ease 
with  which  they  may  be  made,  as  follows: 

1.  Crushing  Test:  Cut  a  rinjj  an  inch  or  two  wide 
from  a  length  of  pipe  and  hammer  it  Hat,  so  as  to  obtain 
a  fracture.  The  structure  of  iron  is  fibrous,  while  steel 
is  crystalline.  Steel  is  difficult  to  fracture,  and  the 
fracture  is  bright  crystalline;  iron  is  more  easily  frac- 
tured, and  the  fracture  is  distinctly  fibrous  and  of  a  dull 
gray  tone. 

2.  Rough  Etching  Test:  Submerge  one  end  of  a  test 
piece  in  a  solution  of  equal  parts  sulphuric  acid  and 
water.  After  five  or  ten  minutes  the  end  of  pipe,  if  iron, 
will  begin  to  show  a  number  of  fine  concentric  rings  just 
as  though  it  had  been  made  from  a  number  of  sheets 
of  paper  pasted  together.  This  appearance  is  caused 
by  the  acid  eating  away  the  iron  more  quickly  than  the 
noncorrodible  layers  of  slag  popularly  referred  to  as 
"cinder-rings."  Steel  has  no  slag  incorporation,  there- 
fore will  show  smooth,  without  layers.  The  acid  or  any 
other  accelerated  test  is  no  indication  of  the  rust  re- 
sistance of  metals  in  service,  for  the  acid  dissolves  the 
metal,  while  corrosion  in  service  is  a  gradual  combina- 
tion of  iron  and  oxygen,  forming  rust. 

3.  Microscopic  Examination:  The  surface  of  the 
metal  when  highly  polished  will  exhibit  the  structure — 
the  crystalline  structure  of  steel,  and  in  wrought  iron, 
the  even  grains  and  slag  inclusions  in  the  form  of  ir- 
regular but  extremely  fine  strands  or  fibers  of  slag 
separating  the  grains  of  iron. 

4.  Chemical  Analysis:  The  chief  differences  are  the 
relatively  high  silicon  and  low  manganese  content  of 
iron,  and  the  analyses  will  show  about  as  follows : 

Iron  Pipe,  Steel    Pipe, 

Per   Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Silicon      0   15  0  05 

Maneanese.            ..                                                                   0  05  0.30 

Sulphur         ...                                                                            0  02  0.05 

Phosphorus                                                                                  0   15  0.  10 

Carbon              0  04  0   13 

The  high  silicon  in  iron  is  due  to  the  slag  content,  which 
is  actually  as  high  as  6  per  cent,  (by  volume)  in  iron; 
but  this  is  not  shown  in  ordinary  chemical  analysis,  as 
the  slag  is  not  chemically  combined  with  the  iron.  The 
higher  manganese  in  bessemer  steel  is  the  result  of  over- 
oxidation  of  the  metal  and  the  addition  of  manganese 
to  the  molten  mass  to  make  it  suitable  for  rolling  and 
welding.  N.  BOWLAND. 

Pittsburgh,  Penn. 


Using  a  Pitot  Tube 

The  article  in  the  issue  of  Oct.  23,  page  557,  by  W.  V. 
White,  on  the  pitot  tube,  impresses  me  as  misleading,  as 
it  contains  many  statements  that  are  incorrect.  I  have 
used  a  standard  pitometer  for  measuring  and  checking 
the  individual  discharge  from  some  twenty-five  pumps, 
rated  at  13  to  52  cu.ft.  per  sec,  and  probably  a  brief  de- 
scription of  our  method  will  be  of  value  to  readers  of 
Poioer. 

Our  pitometer  is  shown  diagrammatically  in  Fig.  1. 
There  are  two  tubes,  one  within  the  other,  and  con- 
nected by  rubber  tubes  at  the  top  at  D  and  E.  At  the 
bottom  a  small  opening  in  each  tube  allows  the  outside 
pressure  to  be  transmitted  independently  to  each  tube. 
These  openings  stand  at  90  deg.  to  each  other,  as  shown 
at  A,  and  A.^,  and  when  the  flow  in  the  pipe  is  in  the 
direction  indicated  by  the  arrow,  the  pressure  in  the 


outer  tube  is  the  static  pressure  or  head,  and  that  in  the 
inner  tube  the  static  head  plus  the  velocity  head,  as 
this  aperture  receives  the  pressure  due  to  the  impact  of 
the  flowing  water.  These  pressures,  when  transmitted 
through  the  hose  to  the  U-tube  or  differential  gage,  pro- 
duce a  difference  in  level  of  the  balancing  fluid,  propor- 
tional to  the  velocity  head.  This  balancing  fluid  must,  of 
course,  be  heavier  than  water,  else  there  would  be  a  con- 
tinuous flow  from  the  high-  to  the  low-pressure  side. 
For  high  velocities  we  use  mercury,  and  for  low  velocity 
carbon  tetrachloride,  which  is  about  1.6  times  as  heavy 
as  water  and  will  not  mix  with  it.     By  coloring  the 


A/r  Vent 


FITOMETKK    FOR    DETERMINING    FLOW    IN    PIPES 

tetrachloride  with  a  little  cochineal,  a  sharp  line  of  de- 
marcation is  produced.  This  deflection  of  the  balancing 
fluid  shown  as  H,.  does  not  represent  the  velocity  head. 
It  is  partly  balanced  by  a  column  of  water  of  equal 
height  in  the  opposite  leg  of  the  U-tube.  Assuming 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid  to  be  S,  as  compared 
with  water,  then  the  difference  in  pressure  between 
Ihe  two  sides  would  be  equal  to  (//,  X  S)  —  (//,.  X  1) 
or    //„    (S  —  1).    Theoretically,  the  velocity  would  be 


y  =:  )  2(7//,,  (S  —  1).  But  here  the  formula  must  be 
modified.  It  is  found  that  the  actual  deflection  //,  is 
more  than  the  actual  velocity  warrants,  owing  to  the  va- 
rious shapes  of  the  orifices,  their  positions,  etc.    Hence 


196 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


the  value  V  2gH(S  —  1)  is  modified  by  a  constant  C 
called  the  coefficient  of  the  pitometer.     Then  the  actual 

velocity  would  be  F  =  C  1  2gH,{S^^^^iT.  This  co- 
efficient is  obtained  for  each  instrument  by  tow^ing  the 
tube  through  a  body  of  still  water  at  a  known  velocity 
and  noting  the  deflection  H. 

It  is  worse  than  useless  to  assume  that  any  point  in 
a  pipe  represents  conditions  of  average  flow.  The  point 
varies  with  every  pipe  and  may  not  be  in  the  same 
place  twice  in  the  same  pipe,  if  the  delivery  is  increased 
or  diminished,  as  shown  in  hundreds  of  tests.  The  only 
reliable  way  is  dividing  the  cross-section  of  the  pipe 
into  a  number  of  equal  concentric  areas,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2,  and  placing  the  tube  orifices  at  a  predetermined 
point  in  each  ring,  both  above  and  below  the  pipe  cen- 
ter. These  points  must  lie  on  concentric  rings  which 
divide  the  respective  rings  into  two  equal  areas.  The 
average  of  these  individual  velocities  gives  the  average 
velocity  of  flow.  Note  that  to  obtain  the  average  ve- 
locity by  using  the  average  deflection  would  be  wrong, 
as  the  velocity  is  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  the 
deflection.  The  coefficient  of  our  pitometer  is  0.72.  We 
have  a  1-in.  corporation  cock  tapped  into  the  top  of  each 
discharge  pipe.  The  pipes  vary  from  15  to  36  in.  The 
end  of  the  pitot  tube  is  pulled  up  into  the  recessed  nut 
M,  which  is  screwed  on  the  top  of  the  corporation  cock 
which  is  then  opened  and  the  tube  pushed  down  into  the 
pipe.  A  stuffing-box  at  the  top  of  the  nut  M  prevents 
leakage.  By  means  of  a  pointer  attached  to  the  top  of 
the  tube,  and  a  scale,  the  orifices  can  be  placed  at  any 
desired  point  in  the  pipe,  in  a  vertical  line  from  the 
cock.  As  obtaining  the  readings  of  the  cross-section  of, 
say,  a  30-in.  pipe  is  a  matter  of  half  an  hour,  care  must 
be  taken  to  read  the  center  of  the  pipe  from  time  to 
time,  to  make  sure  that  the  flow  remains  uniform. 

The  foregoing  may  create  the  impression  that  the  use 
of  a  pitot  tube  is  a  complex  matter,  while  as  a  matter 
of  fact  it  is  simple  after  the  necessary  tables  are  figured 
out,  and  these  do  not  involve  more  than  simple  algebra. 
The  chief  objection  to  a  home-made  tube  is  its  unknown 
coefficient,  which  must  be  determined  with  some  degree 
of  accuracy  to  make  the  instrument  of  any  value  for 
test  purposes.  When  checked  against  a  weir,  our  tube 
showed  a  difference  of  2  or  3  per  cent.       W.  F.  Brye. 

Patterson,  Calif. 

Home-Made  Wire  Straightener 

The  article,  "Home-Made  Wire  Straighteners,"  in  the 
Nov.  27,  1917,  issue  of  Power,  brings  to  mind  how  the 
straightening  of  about  6000  ft.  of  No.  0000  bare-copper 
wire  was  accomplished  at  one  of  our  mines.  When  we 
received  this  wire,  it  was  in  bundles  containing  lengths 
of  from  300  to  500  ft.  The  rolls  were  of  small  circum- 
ference, and  in  several  places  the  wire  had  sharp  bends 
in  it. 

At  first  we  tried  to  straighten  the  wire  by  laying  it 
on  a  wooden  block  and  hammering  it  with  wooden 
mallets.  But  this  was  too  slow  a  process  and  I  set 
about  devising  a  quicker  way  of  doing  the  job,  the 
result  of  which  was  the  straightener  shown  in  the 
figures.  This  device  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  metal 
of  the  dimensions  sho\vn  in  Fig.  1,  riveted  together  and 
mounted  on  a  wooden  block  set  in  the  ground  as  in 
Fig.  4.    The  straightening  was  then  done  as  follows : 


One  end  of  a  cable  was  made  straight  for  about  two 
feet  and  pushed  through  the  straightener;  then  the 
clamp  detailed  in  Figs.  2  and  3  was  placed  on  the  end 
of  the  wire  extending  through  the  straightener,  as  in 
Pig.  4,  and  a  horse  used  to  pull  the  bent  wire  through 
the  straightener.  The  straightening  was  then  done  as 
fast  as  the  horse  could  walk.  The  slots  in  the  two 
halves  of  the  straightener  were  made  on  a  planer,  as 
we  did  not  have  any  drill  long  enough  to  drill  the 
hole  after  the  two  parts  had  been  assembled.  Wire  of 
any  size  can  be  straightened  by  making  the  hole  in  the 


e/oc/r  Set     -^£^-  _    -^^s 
d'otove  Oround 

FIG.  4. 


FIGS.    1    TO   4. 


PARTS  AND  ASSEMBLY  OF  WIRE 
STRAIGHTENER 


device  to  fit  the  wire.  The  corners  at  the  end  of  the 
hole  should  be  well  rounded  to  prevent  damaging  the 
wire.  I  have  never  tried  to  use  this  straightener  on 
insulated  or  lead-covered  insulated  wire,  but  I  see  no 
reason  why  it  cannot  be  done.  Thomas  J.  Pascoe. 

Norway,  Mich. 

Change  of  Water  for  Air  Pump 

Replying  to  L.  F.  Forseille's  question,  "Would  change 
in  water  for  air  pump  be  good  or  bad,"  in  the  Nov. 
20,  1917,  issue  of  Power,  page  703: 

The  change  as  indicated  by  the  sketch  would  not  be 
advisable  and  if  tried  would  probably  result  in  a  loss 
of  0.5  to  1.5  in.  vacuum  under  full-load  conditions. 
This  loss  in  vacuum  would  be  caused  by  the  warm- 
water  injection  for  the  air  pump  having  a  higher 
temperature  than  that  corresponding  to  the  temperature 
of  the  vacuum  in  the  condenser.  Some  of  the  water 
would  be  evaporated,  filling  the  space  that  should  be 
filled  with  air  from  the  condenser;  also,  the  warm 
water  coming  in  contact  with  the  cooler  air  from  the 
condenser  would  cause  the  air  to  rise  in  temperature 
and  increase  in  volume.  This  would  reduce  the  efficiency 
and  capacity  of  the  air  pump.  The  air  pump  and  con- 
denser were  operating  with  injection  water  of  the  same 
temperature,  when  no  bad  effect  was  noted  with  a  75- 


February  5,  1918 


POWER 


197 


deg.  F.  rise  in  the  temperature  of  the  injection  water. 
The  trouble  due  to  ice  obstructing  the  flow  of  water 
through  the  strainer  could  be  overcome  by  constructing 
an  air-pump  discharge  pit.  The  air-pump  injection- 
water  supply  would  be  from  the  discharge  pit.  Some 
arrangement  must  be  made  to  supply  cold  makeup  water, 
so  as  to  keep  the  air-pump  injection  water  within  2 
deg.  F.  of  the  condenser  injection-water  temperature. 
Should  this  arrangement  fail  to  reduce  the  work  on  the 
pump  turbine  or  fail  to  get  an  ample  water  supply  to 
the  condenser,  I  would  suggest  that  a  larger  set  of 
nozzle  blocks  be  put  in  the  turbine  to  increase  its 
capacity  and  do  the  required  amount  of  work. 
Montgomery.  Ala.  J.  E.  Craven. 

An  Emergency  Lighting  Switch 

Some  power  plants,  in  case  of  a  shutdown  at  night, 
use  lanterns  lighted  and  placed  in  convenient  positions 
where  they  can  be  readily  secured  in  case  of  an  emer- 
gency. However,  there  are  many  plants  that  go  without 
any  protection  against  being  left  in  darkness,  and  others 
use  small  gas  lights.  The  method  I  saw  used  some 
time  ago  in  a  substation  looked  to  be  as  about  as 
satisfactory  as  any  for  emergency  lighting. 

The  lighting  switch  for  the  building  was  double-throw 
and  of  a  type  shown  in  the  figure.  The  right-hand 
contacts  were  connected  to  110-volt  alternating  current, 
and  the  left-hand  terminals  connected  to  112-volt  direct 
current  coming  from  an  auxiliary  battery  used  for  re- 
mote control  of  the  oil  switches.  The  lighting  circuit 
connected  to  the  two  middle  contacts.  Between  the 
studs  on  the  alternating-current  side  on  the  back  of 
the  switchboard,  a  magnet  coil  was  arranged  as  shown 
in  the  sectional  view  and  connected  across  these  studs. 


ALTCRNATINa-CUIf/ICNT  SIDe 


DOITBLE-POLE,    DOUBLE-THROW    LIGHTING    .SWITCH 

This  coil  held  the  switch  closed  to  the  alternating- 
current  supply  under  normal  conditions.  Springs  were 
placed  on  the  middle  studs  to  throw  the  switch  to  the 
opposite  position  when  released  by  the  magnet  coil.  In 
this  way,  if  the  alternating-current  source  failed,  the 
switch  was  thrown  to  the  battery  circuit,  thus  lighting 
the  station  from  this  source.  After  the  plant  was 
running  all  right  again,  the  attendant  would  throw  the 
lighting  switch  back  on  the  alternating-current  side. 
New  York  City.  D.  R.  Hibbs. 


Combination  Pipe  Joint 

The  need  of  a  pipe  joint  suitable  for  any  pressure 
which  can  be  attached  to  the  pipe,  on  the  job,  without 
expensive  equipment,  has  long  been  recognized.  The 
combination  joint,  two  types  of  which  are  shown  in 
the  illustration,  was  designed  by  me  for  use  on  all 
lines  requiring  flanged  joints.  It  consists  in  attaching 
a  metal  collar  or  band  to  the  pipe  by  means  of  or- 


MEAXS  OF  ATTACHING  FLANGES  TO  PIPE 

dinary  pipe  thread,  shrinking,  welding  or  a  combination 
of  these  methods;  the  collar  or  band  to  form  the  joint 
or  gasket  face,  followed  and  held  in  place  by  a  flange 
loose  on  the  pipe,  similar  to  the  Van  Stone  type. 

This  joint  can  be  attached  to  pipe  of  any  material 
and  gives  a  wide  scope  in  method  of  construction,  com- 
bining a  screwed  and  welded,  a  screwed  and  Van  Stone, 
or  a  shrunk,  welded  and  Van  Stone  joint,  which  does 
not  depend  entirely  on  the  weld.  The  joint  is  some- 
what flexible,  and  the  holes  can  be  aligned  by  turning 
the  loose  flange;  and  in  case  of  cutting  a  length  of 
pipe  the  flanges  can  be  used  again,  which  is  impossible 
with  a  welded  flange. 

The  screwed  and  peened  joint  can  be  made  in  any 
pipe  shop  with  ordinary  tools  and  gives  the  flexibility 
of  the  Van  Stone  type  joint.  In  fact,  it  has  all  the 
good  points  of  the  Van  Stone  joint  and  does  away  with 
the  distorting,  thinning  or  the  welding  on  of  a  rein- 
forcing facing  piece  to  bring  the  pipe  up  to  original 
thickness.  The  collars,  or  bands,  can  be  machined  to 
form  male-and-female  or  tongue-and-groove  joints.  In 
general  this  joint  can  be  used  on  all  lines  in  the  plant, 
on  pipe  of  any  material  and  attached  to  suit  conditions. 

Midland  Beach,  S.  I.,  N.  Y.        Howard  C.  Thayer. 


Artistic   License 

Four  barefoot  men  in  a  row,  three  shoveling  coal  into 
furnaces!  What  do  you  think  of  it?  It  cannot  be  done. 
Mr.  Weil  must  have  peculiar  ideas  of  a  boiler  room  of 
a  warship,  in  which  men  go  around  in  their  bare  feet. 
How  about  cleaning  fires?  When  they  pull  "the  backs 
out"  and  "shove  the  fronts  back,"  do  they  put  on  their 
shoes  then?  Strange  that  a  picture  like  this  ever  got 
past  the  censor  for  an  engineering  publication  like 
Power.  J.  H.  HOCKING. 

New  York  City. 

I  Regarding  the  illustration  portion  of  the  foreword 
of  Jan.   15.— Editor.  I 


198 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


The  Lubrication  of  Steam  Turbines 


From  papers  on  steam-turbine  lubrication  submit- 
ted by  the  folloiving  members  of  the  Lubrication 
Engineers'  Association  of  the  Texas  Company: 
W.  M.  Davis,  John  H.  Young,  Jr.,  H.  D.  Gohlman, 
J.  M.  Preivitt,  H.  J.  Wilson,  J.  B.  Barton,  W.  0. 
Kroenke,  W.  A.  Edmondson,  H.  W.  Salbador,  J.  T. 
Snow,  D.  L.  Keys,  F.  J.  Davis,  J.  A.  Hansgen,  W. 
G.  Craig,  G.  M.  Shanks,  S.  J.  Hunt,  W.  H.  Grose 
and  Walter  L.  Foster.  The  article  is  from  "Lub- 
rication," published  by  the  Texas  Co. 


THE  weight  of  the  turbine  is  small,  compared  with 
that  of  a  piston  engine  of  the  same  horsepower.  For 
this  reason  and  owing  to  the  freedom  from  reciprocat- 
ing motion,  the  foundations  I'equired  for  turbines  are  of 
small  size  and  light  weight,  there  being  little  vibration  to 
be  absorbed  under  proper  conditions  of  aligning  and  bal- 
ancing. 

Turbine-oil  consumption  is  more  than  the  oil  consumption 
for  any  other  prime  mover,  the  loss  of  oil  being  due  chiefly 
to  leakage  and  a  small  amount  of  evaporation.  Since  there 
is  no  internal  lubrication,  the  steam  is  not  contaminated 
with  the  oil  and  therefore  the  condensed  steam  is  imme- 
diately available  for  boiler-feeding  purposes  without  puri- 
fication; and  this  re-use  of  condensed  steam  effects  a  large 
saving  in  the  cost  of  feed  water  and  in  the  expense  of  the 
maintenance  and  cleaning  of  boilers.  Again,  superheat,  as 
used  in  the  turbine,  imposes  no  restrictions  in  the  choice 
of  lubricants.  Finally,  the  turbine  can  usually  be  started 
and  loaded  more  quickly  than  the  piston  engine. 

Heat  From  Turbine  Affects  Bearings 

The  rotating  parts  of  the  turbine  proper  are  connected 
to  and  revolve  with  the  shaft,  so  that  the  bearings  that 
support  the  mainshaft  are  the  only  parts  that  require  lubri- 
cation. These  bearings  are  on  either  side  of  the  turbine 
and  are  subjected  to  radiated  heat  from  the  steam  passing 
through  the  turbine.  Turbine  lubrication  is  accomplished 
either  by  ring  oilers  or  by  some  form  of  circulating  system. 
Ring-oiling  bearings  are  used  on  small  types  of  turbines, 
the  rings  dipping  into  a  resei'voir  of  oil  and  can-ying  the 
oil  to  the  bearings  to  be  lubricated.  This  method  has  been 
found  satisfactoi-y  where  the  bearings  are  adjusted  so  that 
the  rings  do  not  vibrate  and  are  free  from  sharp  edges  that 
may  interfere  with  their  free  play  and,  what  is  of  still 
greater  importance,  whei-e  the  resei-voir  into  which  the 
rings  dip  is  of  sufficient  capacity  to  permit  the  oil  to  rest. 
Lubrication  difficulties  are  sometimes  experienced  on  cer- 
tain types  of  turbines  equipped  with  ring-oiling  bearings 
because  of  the  radiated  heat.  This  aff'ects  particulai-ly  the 
governor  bearing,  which  sometimes  reaches  a  temperature 
of  240  deg.  F.     Fig.  1  sliows  an  oil-ring  bearing. 

Larger  types  of  tui'bines  are  usually  lubricated  with 
a  self-contained  circulating  system  which  cools  and  strains 
the  oil  before  forcing  it  back  to  the  bearings  under  pres- 
sure. The  oil  is  used  over  and  over  again,  the  relative  size 
of  the  oil  system  determining  how  frequently  the  same  oil 
is  fed  to  the  bearings.  With  this  oiling  system  the  highest 
temperature  is  experienced  on  the  governor  bearing,  the 
next  highest  on  the  inside  turbine  bearing,  the  inside  and 
the  outboard  generator  bearing  both  being  lower  in  tem- 
perature. The  oil  is  in  constant  agitation,  frequently  with 
water  that  leaks  past  the  packing  glands,  and  unless  the 
oil  is  a  high-grade  one,  it  will  emulsify.  Sufficient  oil  must 
be  added  from  time  to  time  to  the  system  to  maintain  the 
oil  level,  making  up  for  what  is  lost.  A  section  of  a  typical, 
modem  steam  turbine,  showing  the  self-contained  oil-circu- 
lating system,  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Oil  fx'om  the  various 
bearings  flows  by  gravity  into  reservoir  B,  and  a  small 
rotary  pump  A,  usually  driven  from  the  governor  shaft, 
takes  this  oil  and  forces  it  through  the  cooler  C  and  thence 


through  pipes  D  to  the  various  bearings.  A  spring  relief 
valve  L  bypasses  any  excess  oil  back  to  the  storage  reser- 
voir. In  some  systems,  instead  of  using  a  relief  valve  L, 
the  oil  is  discharged  into  an  overhead  reservoir  and  allowed 
to  flow  by  gravity  to  the  bearings.  The  turbine  shown  in 
Fig.  2  has  four  main  bearings,  E,  F,  G  and  H.  These  are 
hollow  and  cooled  by  circuleting  water.  The  oil  is  fed  into 
the  top  of  the  bearing  at  the  center  and  flows  out  at  each 
end.  It  then  drops  down  to  chambers  in  the  turbine  casing 
and  is  collected  by  the  return  pipe  J  and  returned  to  the 
reservoir  B.  A  screen  K  is  provided  in  the  reservoir  to 
remove  large  particles  of  solid  matter.  There  are  several 
places  where  the  water  finds  its  way  into  the  oil,  the  main 
one  being  the  packing  gland  M  at  the  high-pressure  end  of 
the  casing.  Turbine  manufacturers  employ  various  methods 
for  preventing  steam  leakage  at  this  point,  such  as  carbon 
packing  held  against  the  shaft  by  springs,  labyrinth  packing 
and  water  seals,  but  in  spite  of  these  precautions  some  steam 
always  leaks  out  and  travels  along  the  shaft  and,  cOming 
in  contact  with  the  water-cooled  bearing  at  E,  condenses 
and  mixes  with   the  oil.     When  turbines  are  operated   on 


FIG.    1      On.,ING   RING 

back  pressure,  'there  is  also  an  outward  leakage  of  steam 
at  the  gland  end  on  the  other  end  of  the  turbine.  Occasion- 
ally, the  cooler  C  or  the  hollow  water-cooled  bearings  will 
develop  small  leaks,  permitting  water  to  get  into  the  oil.  A 
drain  pump  P  is  provided  in  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir  B 
for  drawing  off  the  water  that  collects  at  this  point,  and 
should  be  drained  off"  regularly.  As  the  oil  passes  rapidly 
through  this  small  tank,  there  is  not  sufficient  time  for  com- 
plete separation  of  the  water,  especially  when  it  is  consid- 
ered that  the  water  and  oil  are  thoroughly  churned  in  pass- 
ing through  the  rapidly  moving  bearings.  Furthermore, 
steam-turbine  bearings  are  usually  run  very  hot  and  the 
cooking  process  through  which  the  oil  passes  in  coming  in 
contact  with  the  leaking  steam  and  hot  water  makes  an  inti- 
mate mixture  of  oil  and  water.  Taking  these  points  into 
consideration,  it  is  evident  that  it  is  necessary  to  provide 
something  more  than  the  coarse  screen  K  to  thoroughly 
purify  the  oil. 

Where  a  separate  filtering  system  is  used,  considerably 
more  oil  is  in  circulation,  it  has  more  chance  to  rest  and 
the  water  and  impurities  in  it  are  removed,  thus  prolonging 
the  life  of  the  oil.  One  of  the  important  advantages  of  a 
filtering  system  when  used  with  the  oil-circulating  system 
is  that  it  makes  it  possible  to  keep  the  cooler  tubes  clean. 
Unless  a  filtering  system  is  used,  the  dirt  that  forms  in 
the  oil,  due  to  water  and  foreign   matter  and,  with   some 


Februarv  5.  1918 


POWER 


199 


oils,  to  oxidation  on  account  of  hiuh  tempei-atures,  the 
solids  in  the  oil  will  collect  in  the  coolest  part  of  the  turbine 
oil-circulatinp  system,  which  is  the  cooler.  As  this  dirt 
collects,  the  walls  of  the  tubes  or  pipes  of  the  cooler  tret  a 
thicker  coating  on  them  and  their  conductivity  decreases 
so  that  the  full  benefit  of  the  coolintr  water  is  not  realized. 
As  this  process  goes  on,  the  coolinj;-  effect  in  time  is  lost 
and  oil  will  be  circulated  at  a  very  high  temperature.  More- 
over, dirt  in  the  oil  will  eventually  find  its  way  to  the  bear- 
ings and  in  time,  if  the  water  that  collects  is  not  taken 
out,  a  mixture  of  water  and  oil  will  be  fed  instead  of  oil. 
Steam-turbine  oiling-  and  filtering  systems  may  be  classified 
as  follows: 

1.  Continuous  circulating  systems  in  which  oil  used  on 
the  bearings  is  continuously  passed  through  the  system 
which  filters  all  or  part  of  the  oil.  In  Fig.  3  is  shown  a 
gravity  cooling  and  filtering  system  especially  designed 
and  adapted  for  the  lubrication  of  steam  turbines.  Oil 
from  the  bearings  is  drained  into  the  oil  reservoir  in  the 
turbine,  from  which  it  is  delivered  to  the  filter  by  a  pump 
geared  to  the  turbine.  The  first  filtering  process  precipi- 
tates the  water,  the  oil  overflowing  into  the  filtering  com- 


all  the  oil  and  fitted  with  straining  devices  and  cooling 
coils,  where  connected  with  a  separate  filter,  is  situated  at 
a  suitable  level  for  receiving  oil  by  gravity  from  all  points 
lubricated.  The  oil  is  drawn  from  this  tank  by  a  pump 
which  delivers  it  at  a  pressure  about  25  per  cent,  in  excess 
of  that  required  to  sustain  the  weight  of  the  turbine  in 
the  step  bearing.  A  spiral  duct  is  situated  between  the 
source  of  pressure  and  the  step  bearing,  and  this  regulates 
the  oil  supply  and  renders  the  flow  more  uniform.  This 
source  of  pressure  is  also  connected  through  a  reducing 
valve  to  the  upper  oiling  system  of  the  machine,  where  a 
pressure  of  about  60  lb.  is  maintained.  This  system,  which 
includes  a  storage  tank  partly  filled  with  compressed  air, 
operates  the  hydraulic  governor  mechanism  and  supplies  oil 
to  the  upper  bearings.  The  regulation  of  oil  to  these  bear- 
ings is  efl:'ected  by  means  of  adjustable  baffles.  Pipes  from 
the  upper  bearings  and  from  the  hydraulic  cylinder  and 
release  valves  all  discharge  into  a  common  chamber,  in 
which  the  streams  are  visible,  so  that  the  oil  distribution 
may  always  be  under  observation. 

Previous   to   the   adoption   of  turbines,   it  was   generally 
believed  that  only  fatty  oils  would  emulsify  with  water, 


PIG.    2.    SELF-CONTAINED    OIL-CIRCULATING    SYSTEM 


partment.  The  speed  of  oil  circulation  is  such  that  it 
would  be  impracticable  to  filter  all  the  oil,  but  the  heaviest 
and  dirtiest  portions  are,  by  virtue  of  their  greater  weight, 
compelled  to  pass  through  the  filter.  The  clean  part  es- 
capes the  filtering  operation,  but  all  the  oil  is  compelled 
to  pass  through  the  cooling  compartment  before  it  reaches 
the  vertical  oil-storage  tank,  from  which  the  lubricant  is 
fed  directly  to  the  bearings.  This  vertical  tank  is  placed 
immediately  adjacent  to  the  cooling  compartment  of  the 
filter. 

2.  Batch  filtration,  in  which  all  the  oil  contained  in  a 
turbine-oiling  system  is  removed  and  purified,  the  turbine 
being  supplied  with  a  fresh  batch  of  clean  oil  to  permit 
it  to  operate  while  the  dirty  oil  is  being  cleaned.  With 
this  system  the  oil  in  one  turbine  after  another  can  be 
filtered  and  the  oil  from  the  clean-oil  compartment  of  the 
filter  may  be  pumped  into  the  turbine  from  which  the  dirty 
oil  has  been  removed.  This  is  the  system  ordinarily  used 
where  filtering  systems  have  been  introduced.  In  partial 
filtration,  which  was  described  in  an  article  in  an  earlier 
issue  of  Lubrication,^  part  of  the  dirtiest  oil  is  continuously 
removed  from  the  circulating  system,  passed  through  a 
filter  and  returned  to  the  system  by  a  steam  pump  auto- 
matically controlled  by  the  head  of  oil  in  the  clean-oil 
compartment.  In  forced-feed  systems  which  have  been 
used  in  the  lubrication  of  the  Curtis  vertical  turbines, 
where  the  weight  of  the  revolving  parts  has  to  be  sup- 
ported by  hydraulic  pressure,  a  tank  large  enough  to  contain 

'Turbine  Oil  PilteritiK  Systems,  by  Edwin  M.  May,  "Lubrica- 
tion," Vol.  3,  No.  11.  September.  laiG. 


and  that  a  mineral  oil  would  separate  from  water.  But  it 
was  soon  discovered  that  the  speed  of  the  turbines  was  so 
great  and  the  churning  action  so  violent,  that  a  petroleum 
oil  that  was  not  properly  manufactured  would  form  a  per- 
manent emulsion  with  any  water  with  which  it  came  in  con- 
tact. 

As  an  illustration  of  a  severe  case  of  emulsification  with 
a  paraffin  oil,  the  case  of  a  lead  mining  and  milling  plant  in 
Missouri,  a  few  years  ago,  may  be  cited.  This  occurred  in 
the  lubricating  system  of  two  vertical  Curtis  turbines  fitted 
with  a  larger  filter  of  several  barrels'  capacity. 

The  chief  engineer  complained  that  he  had  found  it  nec- 
essary to  add  several  barrels  of  new  oil  to  the  system  every 
month,  and  since  no  leaks  could  be  found,  he  was  at  a 
loss  as  to  the  cause  of  the  rapid  consumption.  Upon  care- 
ful examination  it  was  found  that  the  water  in  the  filter 
and  settling  tank  was  milk  white,  and  the  engineer  ex- 
plained that  he  had  to  draw  off  the  water  several  times  a 
day  to  avoid  an  overflow.  By  way  of  explanation  he  opened 
the  drain  pipe  and  allowed  some  of  the  water  to  run  off. 
A  large  glass  jar  was  filled  with  some  of  this  waste  water, 
and  after  it  had  settled  there  was  a  layer  of  oil  found  on 
top  of  the  water  and  the  water  still  remained  a  milk-white 
color,  indicating  the  presence  of  oil  still  held  in  suspension. 

With  paraffin  oils  the  peculiar  coiulitions  encountered  in 
the  bearings  and  the  system  generally  may  cause  a  partial 
separation  of  the  oil  and  paraffin,  and  the  subsequent  con- 
tact of  the  oil  with  the  cooling  coils  of  the  system  results 
in  a  deposit  of  the  paraffin,  thus  interfering  with  the  proper 
functioning  of  the  coils. 


200 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


In  a  previous  issue  of  Lubrication'  the  conditions  wliich 
have  to  be  met  by  a  turbine  oil  were  stated  as  follows: 

The  demands  made  upon  an  oil  in  a  turbine  are  exceed- 
ingly severe.  The  oil  must  circulate  at  high  speed  through 
innumerable  valves,  pipes  and  bearings,  subjected  first  to 
high  and  then  to  low  temperatures,  and  to  many  variations 
in  pressure.  It  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  air,  so  much  so 
that  foam  is  quite  frequently  found  on  top  of  the  oil  in 
the  settling  or  sump  tank.  Air  bubbles  can  always  be  seen 
as  the  oil  flows  from  the  bearings.  Frequently  it  must 
operate  with  a  percentage  of  water  which  leaks  through  the 
stuffiing-boxes  or  with  water  that  leaks  in  from  an  imper- 
fect or  damaged  cooler  coil;  or,  in  the  case  of  marine  in- 
stallations, salt  water  can  sometimes  get  into  the  system 
from  overboard.  At  times  the  oil  in  the  bearing  in  close 
proximity  to  the  stuffing-box  is  actually  cooked  by  the  live 
steam.  The  steam  carries  with  it  boiler  impurities  or  chem- 
icals used  for  boiler-water  treatment,  and  very  often  these 
chemicals  in  connection  with  the  water  and  air  cause  the 
oil  to  form   very  bad  emulsions.     Any  oil  that  has  a  ten- 


Overflow 


Cooling   Coil  Inlet  and 
XOuHet-"^ 


VERTICAL 
OIL    RESERVOIR 


Clean  Oil  Supply| 


Clean  Oil 
to  Turbine 


7 ^ 

Clean  Oil 
from  Filler 
to  Vert 
Reservoir 


PETERSON  TURBINE  OIL 


'^-Brackets 


Wh- 


R. 


■Automatic 
Water  Overflow. 


■Water 

Overflow/ 

Drain 


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OIL    RESERVOIR 


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'•Pump  Suction  frnm  Turbine  Oil  Reservoir 


h7F77ZWP7ZV777777777777^^^^^7:^WZ77^7777PZ'777777777?7^7777> 


PIG.   3. 


TURBINE   OIL   CONTINUOUS    COOLING    AND 
FILTERING   SYSTEM 


dency  to  form  an  emulsion  is  rather  dangerous  for  use  where 
the  churning,  heating  and  boiling  with  water  and  boiler 
compounds  are  carried  on  to  such  an  extent  as  in  a  turbine 
lubricating  system. 

Much  damage  has  been  done  to  turbines  because  of  the 
tendency  of  certain  oils  to  emulsify.  Some  oils  will  throw 
down  a  hard  emulsion  which,  under  conditions  which  prevail 
in  the  turbine,  will  cake  in  such  a  way  as  to  actually  stop 
up  the  pipes  and  oilways  to  the  bearings.  Other  oils  carry 
the  water  in  suspension  and  are  of  such  a  nature  that  the 
water  will  drain  off  only  with  great  difficulty.  The  best 
turbine  oils,  of  course,  are  those  that  under  all  conditions 
will  allow  whatever  water  gets  into  them  to  drain  off  and 
will  produce  a  minimum  amount  of  emulsion,  this  emulsion 
being  of  such  a  nature  that  it  will  not  fonn  a  hard  de- 
posit. The  perfect  oil  is  one  of  high  lubricating  body  which 
will  separate  freely  from  any  amount  or  any  kind  of  water 
after  it  has  been  thoroughly  agitated  and  even  boiled  and 
which  will  leave  absolutely  no  permanent  emulsion. 

Next  in  importance  is  the  question  of  viscosity.  At  one 
time  the  American  oil  manufacturers  used  the  very  lightest 
distillates  for  turbine  work,  the  theory  being  that  these 
lighter  oils  separated  easily  from  water  and  formed  less 
objectionable  emulsions.  The  factor  of  safety,  however, 
was  exceedingly  small  with  these  light  oils.  The  many 
mechanical  difficulties  experienced  while  these  low-viscosity 
oils  were  in  use  resulted  in  the  demand  for  heavier  oils, 
until  in  some  turbines  doing  very  severe  work,  very  heavy 
oils  are  now  being  used  with  complete  success.  The  ma- 
jority of  turbines,  however,  can  best  be  lubricated  by  a 
medium-bodied  oil. 

The  following  extract  from.the  Terry  Steam  Turbine  Co.  s 
"Instruction  Book  on  Bearings  and  Lubrication"  indicates 
the  attitude  of  the  turbine  manufacturers  on  the  subject  of 
viscosity: 

The  viscosity  of  the  oil  used  in  any  case  must  be  suitable 
for  the   service.     We  are  listing  below  oils   recommended 


by  several  refiners  for  turbine  work,  in  three  ranges  of 
viscosity  roughly  classified  as  light,  medium  and  heavy. 
The  approximate  viscosity  of  each  oil  is  given  with  its  trade 
name.  AO  viscosities  are  in  seconds  at  iOO  deg.  F.  by  Say- 
bolt  Universal  viscosimeter.  These  oils  are  tabulated  for 
the  convenience  of  the  turbine  user  as  being  standard 
brands.  If  any  oil  named  is  found  unsatisfactory  for  the 
purposes  stated,  please  advise  us  for  our  information  as 
soon  as  convenient. 

a.  Light  oil,  viscosity  130  to  200  sec,  is  best  for  turbines 
without  reduction  gears,  either  ring  or  forced  feed  oiling. 

b.  Medium  oil,  viscosity  200  to  -3.50  sec,  is  used  for  tur- 
bines with  reduction  gears  and  either  ring  or  forced  oiling. 
It  is  better  than  a  light  oil  for  turbines  subject  to  vibration 
either  from  within  or  from  an  external  source.  It  will  also 
allow  slightly  greater  bearing  clearances.  Bearings  may 
run  a  few  degrees  warmer  with  heavy  oil  than  with  the 
lighter  grades. 

c  Heavy  oil,  viscosity  350  to  500  sec,  is  useful  in  cases 
of  bad  vibration  or  of  gears  heavily  loaded  or  causing  noise. 
Many  times  gears  can  be  successfully  operated 
with  heavy  oil  which  would  be  noisy  or  show 
rapid  wear  with  lighter  oil.  Heavy  oil  works 
well  in  turbine  bearings  except  in  places  where 
exposure  to  cold  sometimes  makes  the  oil  too 
sluggish.  This  applies  especially  to  forced  oil- 
ing units.  When  using  heavy  oil,  more  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  oil  when  starting,  to 
be  sure  that  all  rings  run  freely  and  that  bear- 
ings are  not  flooded  by  the  forced  oiling  systems. 

The  purpose  of  an  oil  is  to  form  a  film  be- 
tween the  surfaces  to  be  lubricated  to  minimize 
friction  and  to  act  as  a  cushion  or  dashpot  to 
prevent  vibration  or  pounding  between  the  jour- 
nal and  the  bearing  or  between  adjacent  gear 
teeth. 

The  lightest  oil  that  will  do  this  with  cer- 
tainty will  give  the  lowest  running  temperature 
and  usually  the  lowest  cost  per  gallon.  The  best 
oil  for  a  particular  unit  depends  on  operating 
conditions  to  a  large  extent,  but  in  general  the 
safe  and  economical  oil  to  use  is  a  grade  slightly 
heavier  than  the  lightest  oil  on  which  it  will 
operate  smoothly  and  quietly.  [For  an  inter- 
esting article  setting  forth  the  formation,  main- 
tenance and  function  of  thu  oil  film  in  a  journal 
bearing  we  suggest  to  the  reader  the  following 
from  Power:  "The  Lubrication  of  Bearings  and 
Dec.  7,  1915.     The  Editors.] 


e 


Z 


="Lubrication  of  Steam  Turbines  with  Recommendation.s  of 
Turbine  Manufacturers."  by  W.  F.  Parish,  in  "Lubrication,"  Vol.  3. 
No.  10,  August,  1916. 


Cylinders," 


Instructions  To  Erecting  Engineers 

In  the  August,  1916,  issue  of  Lubrication  the  turbine-oil 
recommendations  of  the  Westinghouse  Machine  Co.  and 
Allis-Chalmers  Manufacturing  Co.  were  given.  The  follow- 
ing is  quoted  from  the  instructions  of  the  Westinghouse 
Machine  Co.  to  their  erecting  engineers: 

So  far  as  mere  lubrication  of  the  turbines  is  concerned, 
almost  any  oil  at  all  has  lubricating  properties  sufficient 
for  the  bearings  to  run  cool,  so  that  the  fact  of  the  bear- 
ings running  cool  and  nice  is  no  criterion  of  the  suitability 
of  the  oil. 

A  large  quantity  of  oil  is  in  circulation  in  the  turbines  at 
a  temperature  of  from  100  to  120  deg.,  or  thereabouts, 
which  temperature  is  conducive  to  any  chemical  reaction 
should  the  necessary  elements  be  present.  It  is  therefoi'e 
important  that  the  oil  be  an  absolutely  pure  mineral  oil, 
free  from  acid.  Sometimes  mineral  oils  are  adulterated 
with  animal  fats,  which  will  in  the  coui'se  of  time  decom- 
pose, foi-ming  acids,  corroding  the  shaft,  and  even  eating 
up  the  bearing  metals. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  the  recommendations  of  the 
Allis-Chalmers  Manufacturing  Co.: 

We  have  found  it  generally  ti-ue  in  steam-turbine  lubrica- 
tion that,  while  one  oil  may  be  suitable  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  there  are  from  time  to  time,  turbines  that  seem  to 
require  either  a  heavier  or  a  lighter  oil  and  this  makes  it 
inadvisable  to  issue  a  fixed  specification  governing  this 
one  class  of  work. 

A  suitable  oil  for  the  lubrication  of  steam  turbines  must 
have  certain  general  characteristics  which,  in  the  order  of 
their  importance,  are  as  follows: 

The  oil  must  be  so  made  and  of  such  a  nature  that  it 
will  separate  freely  from  water,  and  that  water  of  any 
nature  or  any  temperature  being  agitated  with  the  oil  in 
any  amount  will  not  form  an  emulsion;  even  if  the  condi- 
tions require  the  oil  and  water  to  work  together  so  that  a 


February  5,  1918 


POWER 


201 


mechanical  mixture  of  the  oil  and  water  is  secured,  the 
combination  must  not  be  permanent,  but  upon  resting  and 
being  subjected  to  a  heating  temperature  of  not  over  175 
deg.  F.,  the  water  must  separate.  Preference  should  always 
be  given  to  the  oil  separating  the  most  quickly  after  being 
agitated  with  water  that  will  be  used  for  boiler  purposes 
at  the  plant  where  the  turbine  is  located.  Tests  should 
be  made  by  shaking  50  per  cent,  of  oil  and  50  per  cent,  of 
water  in  a  bottle  or  by  mechanically  stirring  this  mi.xtui-e 
in  a  suitable  container  for,  say  ten  minutes,  and  noting  the 
separation  of  water  after  ten  minutes  and  after  twenty- 
four  hours. 

Any  oil  that  in  the  above  tests,  or  in  practice  will  throw 
3own  a  deposit,  should  under  no  conditions  be  used  for 
turbine  lubrication,  as  this  deposit  may,  under  severe  con- 
ditions, interfere  with  the  flow  of  the  oil  to  the  bearings. 

Oil  in  order  to  meet  the  above  conditions,  must  be  free 
from  acids,  free  from  all  fixed  oils  such  as  vegetable  and 
animal  oil,  and  should  be  properly  refined. 

The  leading  manufacturers  of  lubricating  oil  have  intro- 
duced the  practice  of  determining  a  property  known  as 
"viscosity."  To  determine  the  body,  or  viscosity,  of  an  oil 
a  standardized  viscosimeter  is  used,  by  means  of  which  the 
time  occupied  in  the  flow  of  a  measured  quantity  of  oil 
through  a  small  orifice  at  a  given  temperature  is  measured. 
The  Saybolt  Universal  viscosimeter  is  commonly  used  for 
this  purpose  by  the  large  producers  and  refiners  of  lubricat- 
ing oil  in  this  country,  the  sample  of  oil  being  maintained  at 
a  temperature  of  100  deg.  F.  and  the  time  occupied  in  the 
flow  of  the  measured  sample  of  oil  through  a  small  orifice 
being  measured  in  seconds.  This  time  reading  represents 
the  relative  viscosity  of  the  oil  which,  in  the  majority  of 
cases  for  steam-turbine  lubrication,  should  be  about  200  sec. 
at  100  deg.  F.  Saybolt  Universal. 

Should  it  be  desired  to  operate  the  turbine  with  a  very 
slight  reduction  in  temperature  of  the  bearings,  oil  as  light 
as  150  sec.  viscosity  for  the  majority  of  turbines  can  be 
used.  On  the  other  hand,  should  the  mechanical  conditions 
require  oil  of  heavier  body,  an  oil  as  heavy  as  750  sec. 
at  100  deg.  F.  Saybolt  machine,  can  be  used.  All  these 
oils,  however,  irrespective  of  the  body  or  viscosity,  should 
conform  absolutely  to  the  separation  from  moisture  or 
water  tests.  All  other  tests,  such  as  gravity,  flash,  fire 
and  color,  have  no  bearing  whatever  for  this  class  of  lubri- 
cation, but  it  might  be  well  to  be  more  explicit  in  regard 

to  these  particular  tests 

Temperature  Proportional  to  Viscosity  of  Oil 

The  temperature  of  a  bearing  in  a  turbine  working  on  a 
forced-feed  system  is  in  proportion  to  the  viscosity  or  body 
of  the  oil;  that  is,  if  a  very  heavy-bodied  oil  is  used,  the 
partially  resulting  bearing  temperature  can  be  reduced  to 
certain  limits  by  the  use  of  a  lighter-bodied  oil.  There  is  a 
limit  to  the  lightness  of  the  oil,  which,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  should  not  be  less  than  150  sec.  viscosity  on  the 
Saybolt  Universal  machine.  The  temperature  of  a  turbine 
bearing,  however,  is  not  a  point  of  the  greatest  value  in  tur- 
bine lubrication.  The  oil  heavy  in  viscosity  has  the  very 
valuable  feature  of  staying  on  the  surface  of  the  bearing 
after  the  turbine  has  come  to  rest,  so  that  in  starting,  the 
surfaces  are  well  lubricated.  Further,  heavy-bodied  oils 
will  take  up  bigger  clearances  and  operate  with  rougher 
bearings  and  shafts  without  danger,  whereas,  under  these 
abnormal  conditions,  light-bodied  oils  would  invariably  lead 
to  trouble,  as  the  oil  would  not  have  sufficient  thickness 
of  film  to  keep  the  high  points  of  the  surfaces  apart. 

The  actual  mechanical  frictional  difference,  or  the  effect 
upon  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  turbine,  between  the 
use  of  a  heavy  and  a  light  oil  on  a  turbine  having  two  or 
three  bearings  is  infinitesimal. 

Water  is  the  main  deteriorating  element  to  the  life  of  a 
turbine  oil,  therefore  special  attention  should  be  given  to 
keep  water  out  of  the  circulating  systems  and  out  of  all 
filters.  The  system  should  be  a  dry  one,  and  daily  inspec- 
tion should  be  made  to  see  that  water  is  not  getting  in.  The 
oil  that  will  meet  the  water  test  can  be  used  indefinitely 
in  a  turbine  by  being  added  to  from  time  to  time. 

The  following  list  of  oils  which  have  been  used  in  our 
steam  turbines  and  found  satisfactory,  is  to  be  submitted 
by  you,  without  recommendation,  to  any  of  our  customers 
who  request  information  regarding  the  kind  of  oil  to  be 
used  in  our  steam  turbines;  the  selection  of  the  particular 
brand  to  be  left  to  them     .... 

L.  E.  Strothman,  Manager, 
Steam  Turbine  Department. 

Follow  directions.  Today  the  direction  is  to  save  tioo 
slices  of  bread,  an  ounce  of  meat,  an  ounce  of  sugar,  a  snitch 
of  butter.  Tomorro^v  as  conditions  change  there  will  be 
new  directions.    Follow  directions. 


Engineers  for  the  New   Merchant 
Marine 

Plans  now  being  matured  by  the  Recruiting  Service  of 
the  United  States  Shipping  Board  reveal  a  system  of  prepa- 
ration in  connection  with  manning  the  new  merchant 
marine  that  for  thoroughness  will  not  suffer  by  compari- 
son with  any  known  example  of  German  efficiency. 

After  securing  chief  engineers  for  service  on  the  new- 
type,  fast  cargo  ships  now  being  constructed  under  its 
direction,  the  board  will  give  the  men  an  exceptional  op- 
portunity to  learn  all  there  is  to  know  about  the  engines 
they  are  to  operate  by  sending  them  to  the  Westinghouse 
works,  where  the  engines,  of  the  geared-turbine  type,  are 
being  built.  Each  chief  will  follow  his  own  engine  through 
the  process  of  construction  and  then  to  the  shipbuilding 
yard,  where  he  will  supervise  its  ei-ection  on  board  the 
ship,  and  will  take  charge  of  it  as  chief  engineer  when  the 
vessel  goes  into  commission. 

The  Board  probably  will  first  call  for  125  chief  engineers 
for  this  work.  While  on  this  special  duty  a  chief  will  re- 
ceive both  pay  and  an  adequate  allowance  for  board.  On 
board  ship  he  will  receive  the  standard  pay  for  his  grade 
in  the  merchant  marine,  which  is  high,  and  a  bonus  for 
war-zone  voyages. 

The  demand  thus  created  for  the  services  of  chief  engi- 
neers is  expected  greatly  to  stimulate  activity  among  first 
assistant  engineers  who  wish  to  become  chiefs.  To  assist 
any  men  of  this  grade,  or  of  lower  grades,  to  secure  pro- 
motion, the  Shipping  Board  invites  them  to  its  free  schools 
in  Marine  Engineering,  where  they  may  brush  up  on  tech- 
nical matters,  from  a  week  to  a  month,  as  they  may  choose. 
There  are  eight  of  these  schools,  located  respectively  at 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Cambridge,  Stevens 
Institute,  Hoboken,  The  Bourse,  Philadelphia,  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  Baltimore,  Case  School  of  Applied  Science, 
Cleveland,  Armour  Institute,  Chicago,  University  of  Wash- 
ington, Seattle,  and  Tulane  University,  New  Orleans. 


Shadowed ! 


— l)y  Darllnii;,  in  tho  N.  Y.   Tribune 
JUST   .\BOUT   ONK    MORK    PAL.Sl';    MOVl':    .VND— 


202 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


Convention  of  the  N.   M.  E.   B.  A. 

The  National  Marine  Engineers'  Beneficial  Association 
held  its  forty-third  annual  convention  at  Baltimore,  Md., 
dui-in?  the  vfeek  beginning  Jan.  2i,  with  headquarters  at 
the  Belvedere  Hotel.  It  was  necessary  for  the  convention 
committee  to  remove  the  meeting  from  Washington,  D.  C, 
this  year,  owing  to  the  lack  of  hotel  accommodations. 

There  were  upward  of  eighty  delegates  in  attendance, 
representing  134  votes.  The  several  sessions  of  the  con- 
vention were  held  in  the  banquet  hall  of  the  hotel.  Because 
of  the  large  amount  of  business  to  be  transacted,  it  was 
necessary  to  hold  night  sessions.  At  the  opening  meeting 
the  delegates  were  addressed  by  James  H.  Preston,  Mayor 
of  Baltimore,  who  cordially  welcomed  the  visitors.  A  char- 
ter offered  by  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  was 
voted  upon  and  accepted.  At  the  afternoon  session  on  Tues- 
day the  delegates  were  addressed  by  Andrew  Furuseth, 
International  President  of  the  Seamen's  Union,  who  told 
of  the  labor  conditions  existing  in  the  Navy  and  War  De- 
partments. The  reading  of  the  treasurer's  report  finds  the 
organization  on  a  sound  financial  basis. 

On  Wednesday  evening,  the  delegates  and  their  friends 
were  entertained  by  local  association  No.  5  at  its  rooms  on 
Baltimore  St.,  and  a  pleasant  evening  was  spent.  "The 
entertaining  feature  was  the  smoker  on  Thursday  evening 
tendered  to  the  convention  by  the  Supplymen.  There  was 
a  first-class  vaudeville  show,  and  pipes  and  tobacco  were 
distributed  to  the  auditors.  On  this  evening  the  ladies 
were   escorted   to   Ford's   Theater. 

The  election  of  national  officers  resulted  as  follows: 
William  S.  Bi-own,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  president;  Thomas  L. 
Delahunty,  New  York  City,  first  vice  president;  John  S. 
Fisher,  Galveston,  Tex.,  second  vice  president;  William  H. 
Hyman,  Baltimore,  Md.,  third  vice  president;  George  A. 
Grubb,  Chicago,  111.,  scretary;  Albert  L.  Jones,  Detroit, 
Mich.,  treasurer;  William  J.  DuBois,  Charles  S.  Follett,  Fred 
H.  Ki-ueger,  John  S.  Fisher  and  Charles  N.  Sheplar,  form 
the  executive  committee.  William  Kelly  was  chosen  for  the 
board  of  ti-ustees,  and  C.  N.  Vosburg  was  the  installing 
officer. 

The  Supplymen  elected  its  officers  as  follows:  George  F. 
Monroe,  Garlock  Packing  Co.,  president;  J.  J.  Cizek,  the 
Leslie  Co.,  vice  president;  Charles  A.  Wilhoft,  New  York 
Belting  and  Packing  Co.,  secretary-treasurer.  It  was  de- 
cided to  leave  the  selection  of  the  next  convention  city  to 
the  discretion   of  the   executive   committee. 


January  Meeting  of  the  A.  I.  &  S.  E.  E. 
and  A.  I.  E.  E.  at  Pittsburgh 

The  regular  monthly  meeting  of  the  Pittsburgh  Section, 
Association  of  Iron  and  Steel  Electrical  Engineers,  was 
held  at  the  Hotel  Chatham,  Pittsburgh,  on  Saturday  even- 
ing, Jan.  18,  jointly  with  a  meeting  of  the  local  section  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers.  Dinner 
was  served  before  the  meeting. 

With  Chairman  C.  A.  Menk  of  the  association  and  F.  E. 
Wynne  of  the  institute  presiding,  the  meeting  was  opened 
with  a  paper  by  R.  A.  McCarty,  engineer,  Westinghouse 
Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  on  "Methods  of  Power- 
Factor  Correction."  An  abstract  of  this  paper  will  appear 
in  an  early  issue  of  Potver. 

Under  the  title,  "A  General  Description  of  the  Electrical 
Installation  at  the  McDonald,  Ohio,  Works,"  B.  A.  Corn- 
well  and  B.  W.  Gilson,  of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Co.,  presented 
an  account  of  the  transmission  line,  substation  and  distri- 
bution system  at  this  new  plant.  Power  is  generated  at 
the  company's  Ohio  works,  five  miles  distant,  in  a  plant  con- 
taining 18,000  kw.  in  gas-engine-driven  25-cycle  alternators, 
at  6600  volts.  It  then  passes  through  three  8000-kv.-a.  oil- 
insulated  self-cooled  transformers  and  is  stepped  from  6600 
to  44,000  volts.  These  transformers  can  carry  the  load  on 
two  units  connected  in  open-delta  in  case  one  is  taken  out 
of  service.  The  transmission  line  carries  two  three-phase 
circuits  of  No.  0000  wire  on  steel  towers  to  a  substation  at 
the  McDonald  works,  where  the  voltage  is  reduced  from 
44,000  to  6600,  for   roll  and  roll-train  motors   and   motor- 


generator  sets,  and  to  220  volts  for  other  motors.     The  total 
line  loss  at  full  load  is  about  4  per  cent. 

When    completed,   this   plant   will    contain   the    following 
mills: 


HP. 

Main 
No.  Name  Motor 

18-in.  band 2,500 

8-in.  bar   1,000 

10-in   bar   1.500 

14-in,  bar 2,500 

12-in.  hoop 2,500 

2       10-in.  hoop        3,000 

2        8-in.  hoop  2,000 


Speed  Variation 

Above  or  Below 

Synchronism 

Per  Cent. 

20 

10 

20 

20 

20 

20 

10 


15.000 


At  present  only  the  18-in.  band  mill  is  running,  and  the 
others  are  scheduled  for  completion  at  the  rate  of  one  every 
two  months. 

Opening  the  discussion,  G.  C.  Hecker,  of  the  Duquesne 
Light  Co.,  asked  why  two  circuit-breakers  in  series  are  used 
at  each  end  of  the  transmission  line  and  what  the  relay 
arrangement  is.  Mr.  Gilson  replied  that  two  are  used  for 
safety  reasons;  that  each  has  its  own  equipment  of  current 
transformers,  overload  relays  and  control  panel,  the  relay 
setting  for  one  being  slightly  higher  than  the  other.  There 
is  no  intei'locking  between  the  circuit-breakers;  one  is  used 
for  normal  operation,  and  the  other  is  held  in  reserve.  No 
reactance  coils  are  used. 

E.  Friedlander,  electrical  superintendent  of  the  Carnegie 
Works  at  Bessemer,  suggested  the  advisibility  of  connecting 
a  reactance  across  one  circuit-breaker  which  should  be  the 

■Automaric  Oil  Switch 


Reactance  Con 


Bus  Sect /on 


Nonautomotic 
OirSmtch 


first  to  open,  thus  dividing  the  current  to  be  interrupted 
due  to  a  short-circuit  between  both  breakers,  instead  of 
requiring  the  first  one  opening  to  rupture  the  entire  cur- 
rent. On  the  other  hand,  gas-engine-driven  alternators  will 
not  deliver  the  heavy  short-circuit  current,  that  a  turbo- 
generator would,  on  account  of  their  less  inertia.  He  con- 
sidered it  better  practice  to  install  reactances  between  the 
large  motors  and  the  high-tension  bus  in  order  to  prevent 
trouble  on  one  motor  tripping  the  main  circuit-breakers. 

Mr.  Hecker  said  that  the  Duquesne  Light  Co.  used  a 
reactance  in  series  with  a  nonautomatic  oil  switch  between 
sections  of  its  station  busses;  the  sections  were  also  tied  by 
an  automatic  overload  breaker  as  in  the  figure,  so  that  trou- 
ble on  one  section  would  automatically  cut  in  a  reactance 
between  that  section  and  adjoining  ones;  if  the  trouble  did 
not  speedily  clear  itself,  the  operator  would  open  the  non- 
automatic  breakers  and  isolate  the  section. 

Many  favorable  comments  on  the  arrangement  of  the 
McDonald  plant  were  made  by  those  who  had  visited  it,  and 
it  was  hoped  that  the  association  might  visit  it  in  a  body. 

Coal  Shortage  in  New  England 
Still  Serious 

The  critical  shortage  of  coal  in  New  England  has  pre- 
cipitated some  drastic  action  by  Fuel  Administrator  Stor- 
row.  What  Boston  hails  as  a  master  stroke  by  the  Fuel 
Administrator  is  the  purchase  with  his  own  credit  of  con- 
siderable coal.  After  the  purchase  he  secured  priority  for 
its  shipment  from  Mr.  McAdoo,  so  that  this  coal  may  now 
come  direct  to  Boston  and  there  be  distributed  by  the  Fuel 
Administration. 

Five  minutes  spent  in  that  part  of  the  State  House  used 
by  the  Fuel  Administration  would  convince  even  the  most 
doubting  that  the  Garfield  order  created  more  than  havoc 
in  and  around  Boston.  Despite  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
considerable  .number  in  the  personnel  of  the  administration, 
the  lobbies  and  halls  and  waiting  rooms  were  crowded 
with  protesting  and  exemption-seeking  fuel  users. 


February  5,  1918 


POWER 


203 


Mr.  Storrow  is  convinced  that  there  is  no  possibility  of 
Kivinsr  New  England  coal  enough  by  means  of  rail  trans- 
portion,  as  the  requirements  are  130,000  tons  per  week 
and  half  of  this  amount  is  not 'arriving  and  cannot  be  made 
to  arrive  over  the  already  overloaded  rails.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  this  amount  is  not  now  arriving  either  by  rail  or  by 
water  or  both. 

The  charge  is  now  made  that  during  all  last  year  there 
never  was  a  shortage  of  boats  to  carry  coal  to  New  England 
when  coal  was  available  at  the  loading  piers  at  Hampton 
Roads.  It  is  further  said  that  while  the  Government  did 
take  over  some  ships  of  the  fleet  used  to  carry  coal  to  New 
England,  those  boats  left  were  often  lying  idle  for  want  of 
coal  at  the  loading  points.  It  is  further  reported  that  some 
of  the  transportation  companies  claim  that  there  were  times 
during  the  scarcity  of  coal  when  their  tugs  were  hunting 
for  barges  to  tow.  It  is  quite  generally  conceded  that  inas- 
much as  two-thirds  of  the  supply  for  New  England  must 
come  by  the  water  routes,  the  fleet  should  be  increased  so 
that  a  considerable  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  coal  may 
come  in  by  water  and  thus  relieve  the  already  seriously 
congested  railroads.  The  charge  is  made  further  that  great 
quantities  of  coal  were  sent  to  the  West  and  Northwest 
after  the  lakes  had  frozen  over  and  there  was  no  means  of 
conveying  the  coal  by  the  water  routes  into  the  Northwest 
region.  This  has  tied  up  thousands  of  cars  loaded  with 
coal,  which  have  remained,  as  many  yet  remain,  east 
of  the  Northwest  region.  Mr.  Storrow  has  managed  to 
head  some  of  these  cars  New  Englandward,  but  most  of  the 
coal  still  lies  on  the  tracks  where  it  was  stalled  weeks,  per- 
haps months,  ago,  according  to  the  latest  report. 

The  all-rail  shipment  of  coal  ties  up,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  tell,  how  many  cars.  Because  of  all-rail  shipment,  the 
cars  are  compelled  to  travel  many  times  farther  than  the 
distance  between  the  mines  and  tidewater,  as  they  do  under 
normal  conditions. 

Rhode  Island  is  in  a  rather  serious  condition,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  rail  deliveries  of  coal  are  very  low  and 
because  ice  has  repeatedly  closed  Narragansett  Bay.  The 
Navy  has  been  busy  breaking  the  ice  and  towing  delayed 
barges  to  their  docks. 

Getting  a  perspective  of  the  whole  situation  by  viewing 
it  here  and  viewing  it  there,  one  is  convinced  that  it  will 
be  a  long,  long  time  before  the  rail  and  the  water  trans- 
portation systems,  together  with  the  fuel  requirements  and 
coal  reserves,  will  again  become  normal. 

American  Society  of  Heating  and 
Ventilating   Engineers 

The  24th  annual  meeting  of  this  society,  held  Jan.  22,  23 
and  24,  at  the  Engineering  Societies  Building,  29  West  39th 
St.,  New  York,  proved  to  be  one  of  the  best  in  the  history 
of  the  society.  President  J.  Irvine  Lyle  congratulated  the 
members  on  the  interest  that  was  manifested  by  the  large 
attendance,  even  though  many  members  living  at  a  distance 
who  had  expected  to  be  present,  were  unable  on  account 
of  difficulties  of  traveling  due  to  unusually  severe  winter 
weather,  while  a  large  number  of  the  society's  most  active 
members,  represented  by  the  38  stars  of  the  society's  serv- 
ice flag,  had  gone  into  the  naval  and  military  service  of  the 
country,  and  on  the  very  eve  of  the  meeting  unusual  de- 
mands had  been  made  on  the  services  of  members  engaged 
in  every  branch  of  the  heating  business  by  the  extraor- 
dinary limitations  placed  on  fuel  consumption. 

The  Membership  Committee's  report  showed  that  with 
all  allowances,  the  net  increase  of  the  society's  membership 
was  74;  that  would  bring  the  membership  up  to  about  800. 
A  communication  from  the  National  District  Heating  Asso- 
ciation stated  that  it  had  decided  not  to  hold  its  meeting  in 
June  and  therefore  it  would  not  be  able  to  consolidate  tech- 
nical sessions  with  those  of  the  A.  S.  H.  and  V.  E.  sum- 
mer meeting  of  the  present  year.  The  committee  working 
in  conjunction  with  a  committee  of  the  Navy  Department 
on  the  ventilation  of  battleships  and  submarines  reported 
that  progress  had  been  made  that  will  almost  revolutionize 
the  designs  of  some  classes  of  ships.  Committees  working 
in    conjunction    with   the    Council    of    National    Defense   on 


improvement  of  the  sanitary  condition  of  factories  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  munitions,  and  also  the  other  com- 
mittees that  had  been  appointed  to  cooperate  with  various 
departments  of  national  defense,  reported  progress.  The 
report  of  the  auditing  committees  showed  that  the  society 
is  in  good  financial  condition  and  the  recommendation  was 
unanimously  adopted  that  during  the  period  of  the  war  all 
members  in  the  service  of  the  army  or  navy  shall  have  dues 
remitted  without  curtailment  of  privileges. 

The  Committee  on  Research  Bureau  recommended  that  a 
director  of  research  work  in  the  science  of  heating  and 
ventilation  should  be  appointed  to  take  charge  of  technical 
investigations  in  behalf  of  the  society  in  conjunction  with 
a  department  of  Government  or  institution  of  learning 
provided  the  director  is  selected  in  a  manner  acceptable  to 
the  society  after  provision  is  made  for  his  salary  by  popular 
subscription  providing  for  not  less  than  $2500  nor-  more 
than  $3600  per  annum.  After  full  discussion  the  subject 
was  referred  to  the  council  with  power  to  carry  out  the 
recommendations  if  found  practicable. 

Officers  elected  for  the  ensuing  year  were:  President, 
Fred.  R.  Still,  secretary  and  chief  engineer  of  American 
Blower  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich.;  first  vice  president,  Walter  S. 
Timmis,  consulting  engineer,  New  York  City;  second  vice 
president.  Dr.  E.  Vernon  Hill,  Department  of  Health,  Chi- 
cago, 111.  Treasurer  Homer  Addams  and  Secretary  Casin 
W.  Obert  were  reelected. 

The  Drying  Session,  Tuesday  evening,  Jan.  22,  was  occu- 
pied by  an  address  by  H.  C.  Gore,  chemist  of  Department  of 
Agriculture;  a  paper  on  "High  Temperature  Drying,"  by 
B.  S.  Harrison,  and  a  paper  by  W.  H.  Carrier  on  "The 
Temperature  of  Evaporation." 

Wednesday  afternoon's  session,  devoted  to  fuel  conserva- 
tion, was  enlightened  by  an  address  by  Prof.  L.  P.  Brecken- 
ridge,  representing  the  United  States  Fuel  Administrator. 
Professor  Breckenridge's  address  was  replete  with  interest- 
ing information  on  the  subject  of  coal  distribution,  produc- 
tion and  consumption,  graphically  illustrated  by  lantern 
slides.  George  W.  Martin  presented  a  paper  on  "Fuel  Con- 
servation," in  which  he  stated  that  "the  recent  drastic  order 
of  Fuel  Commissioner  Garfield  has  brought  to  the  attention 
of  everyone  the  fact  that  serious  shortage  exists  in  the 
supply  of  coal  available  for  domestic  and  power  purposes." 

A  paper  on  "Economy  in  Fuel"  was  presented  by  Perry 
West,  and  one  on  "Fuel  Conservation"  by  William  M. 
Mackay.  Wednesday  afternoon's  session  was  rounded  out 
by  a  free  discussion  on  the  subject  of  different  methods  of 
economizing  fuel  and  was  made  especially  interesting  by 
interchange  of  personal  experiences  of  those  present  with  a 
view  of  sounding  the  practicability  of  regulation  of  domes- 
tic fuel  supply  per  room  or  per  capita.  The  results  of  these 
comparisons  showed  wide  variations  and  that  it  would  be 
extremely  difficult  to  devise  a  system  of  fuel  apportionment 
for  American  residences  without  working  serious  hardship 
upon  those  whose  homes  could  only  be  adapted  to  an  aver- 
age supply  of  fuel  at  great  sacrifice  to  the  owners,  while 
to  many  a  stringent  average  would  be  a  surfeit. 

"What  We  Do  and  Don't  Know  About  Heating"  was  the 
subject  of  a  paper  by  Prof.  John  R.  Allen  read  at  the 
Wednesday  evening's  session  which  will  be  printed  in  a 
future  issue  of  Power.  The  report  of  the  Committee  on 
Code  for  Testing  Low  Pressure  Boilers  was  received  and 
discussed  and  the  code  was  adopted  as  recommended  in 
the  report  of  the  committee  that  was  printed  in  the  Octo- 
ber issue  of  the  society's  Journal.  The  committee  was  con- 
tinued to  revise  and  interpret  the  code  as  may  be  required. 

The  fifth  session,  held  Thursday  morning,  was  given  over 
to  Furnace  Heating  and  nciuded  the  delivery  of  an  address 
by  D.  R.  Richardson,  and  papers:  "The  Engineering  of 
Warm-Air  Furnace  Heating,"  by  M.  W.  Ehrlich;  "Answer- 
ing Fuel  Needs  With  a  New  Gas  Heating  System,"  by  G.  S. 
Barrows;  and  "Dust — Its  Universality,  Elimination  and 
Conservation,"  by  E.  R.  Knowles. 

The  professional  sessions  were  closed  Thursday  afternoon 
by  papers:  "The  Preservation  of  Hot-Water  Supply  Pipe," 
by  P.  N.  Speller  and  R.  G.  Knowland;  "The  Relation  of 
Hot-Water  Service  Heating  to  Various  Types  of  Buildings," 
by  H.  L.  Alt.;   "Calculations  and  Analysis  of  a  Compound 


204 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


Gravity  Low-Pressure  Hot-Water  System,"  by  A.  J.  Wells; 
and  "Measurements  of  Low-Pressure  Steam  Used  for  Heat- 
ing the  Buildings  of  the  University  of  Michigan,"  by  J.  E. 
Emsvifiler. 

Social  Entertainment 

The  programme  for  ladies  included  assemblage  with  the 
ladies'  reception  committee  in  the  main  lobby  of  the  Engi- 
neering Building  and  luncheons  and  theater  parties  on 
Wednesday  and  Thursday,  and  on  Thursday  evening  the 
twenty-fourth  annual  meeting  was  brought  to  a  close  by 
members,  guests  and  ladies  participating  in  a  dinner  and 
dance  at  the  Hotel  Astor. 

Boston  Welcomes  President   Main 

The  Boston  Section  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechani- 
cal Engineers  gave  a  reception  to  Charles  T.  Main,  of  Bos- 
ton, the  newly  elected  president  of  the  society,  on  Tuesday 
evening,  Jan.  22.  The  reception  was  held  at  the  Engineers' 
Club  and  was  preceded  by  a  dinner,  arranged  by  the  sec- 
tion committee,  Harry  Ashton,  W.  G.  Starkweather  and 
F.  L.  Fairbanks.  v 

Among  those  who  spoke  was  John  R.^reeman,  of  Provi- 
dence, who  reviewed  some  of  the  engineering  achievements 
•of  Mr.  Main.  Mr.  Freeman  emphasized  the  Pacific  Mills 
(textile)  designed  by  Mr.  Main,  also  the  part  the  new 
president  played  in  the  Big  Creek  water-power  development. 
Prof.  Lionel  S.  Marks,  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  recalled  the  illustrious  presidents  the  society 
had  had  and  who  were  New  Englanders;  chief  among  these 
were  E.  D.  Leavitt,  John  R.  Freeman  and  Dr.  Ira  N. 
Hollis.  Prof.  George  C.  Whipple,  president  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  spoke  of  Mr.  Main's  work  in 
that  field,  and  Prof.  D.  C.  Jackson,  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  acknowledged  the  indebtedness  of 
the  electrical  engineers  to  Mr.  Main  for  his  assistance  in 
the  development  of  the  electrical  industry. 

Calvin  W.  Rice,  secretary  of  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  told  of  the  society's  work  in  the 
war,  claiming  that  considerable  was  yet  to  be  done  and 
urging  upon  the  engineers  to  give  their  services  to  the  Gov- 
ernment. R.  A.  Hale,  of  the  Essex  Co.,  Lawrence,  empha- 
sized the  value  of  the  civic  services  rendered  by  Mr.  Main 
to  his  home  city.  Desmond  Fitzgerald,  one  of  Boston's  old 
and  distinguished  citizens,  was  most  entertaining  in  his 
portrayal  of  Mr.  Main's  life,  so  full  of  experience,  so  simple 
and  so  accomplished. 

Those  in  attendance  then  listened  to  W.  R.  Balch,  war 
<(ditor  of  the  Boston  Transcript,  tell  of  events  in  Europe 
during  the  war.  Mr.  Balch  laid  particular  stress  upon  the 
j:reat  social,  moral  and  economic  changes  sure  to  come  out 
of  the  war.  Unfortunately  he  had  to  cut  his  address  to  a 
half  hour  on  account  of  Fuel  Administrator  Storrow's  order 
closing  all  public  places  at  10  o'clock. 


leged  to  furnish  service  to  another  community,  and  without 
falling  within  the  domain  of  the  state  utility  board  in  the 
features  of  bond  issues,  franchises,  rates  for  light  and 
power,  etc. 

As  a  concrete  example  of  operation  under  this  law  the 
boroughs  of  Madison  and  Chatham  desire  to  combine  the 
service  of  the  municipal  electric  plants  of  each  municipality. 
In  this  it  is  proposed  that  the  larger  plant,  located  in 
Madison,  furnish  service  for  the  late  afternoon  and  night 
load,  when  the  demand  is  heavy,  in  both  boroughs,  covering 
both  street  and  private  lighting,  while  the  plant  at  Chatham 
would  be  employed  at  other  periods  of  the  day  and  under 
light-load  conditions.  The  systems  would  be  tied  in  together 
and  the  plants  operated  practically  under  one  head. 

By  the  other  measure  it  is  proposed  to  grant  municipali- 
ties the  right  to  sell  electric  current  for  light  and  power 
purposes  outside  of  the  municipal  limits,  all  lines  and  equip- 
ment beyond  the  city  or  borough  limits  to  be  under  the 
control  of  the  Board  of  Public  Utility  Commissioners,  but 
exempting  the  electric  stations  from  this  jurisdiction,  as 
well  as  the  furnishing  of  service  strictly  within  the  boun- 
daries of  the  particular  municipality. 

The  Madison  power  plant  recently  endeavored  to  supply 
electric  enei-gy  in  Chatham  Township,  but  was  compelled 
to  discontinue  service  or  become  a  regular  public  utility,  in 
accordance  with  a  ruling  of  the  utility  board.  The  service 
in  this  section  is  now  being  supplied  by  the  Morris  &  Somer- 
set Electric  Company. 


Federal    Funds    for   Vocational 
Education 

Recent  Federal  grants  of  money  for  vocational  education 
totaling  more  than  $240,000  have  been  allotted  by  the  Fed- 
eral Board  for  Vocational  Education  to  eight  states,  each 
of  which  has  complied  with  the  terms  of  the  Smith-Hughes 
law  and  has  agreed  that  a  sum  of  money  equal  to  the 
amount  of  its  grant  shall  be  publicly  raised  by  the  state  or 
local  community.  These  states  are  Connecticut,  Idaho, 
Illinois,  New  Hampshire,  North  Dakota,  Missouri,  Mary- 
land and  Vermont.  The  payments  of  Federal  money  are 
made  through  state  boards  for  vocational  education  and 
are  divided  into  three  general  classes — money  allotted  on 
the  basis  of  rural  population  for  the  salaries  of  teachers, 
supervisors  or  directors  of  agricultural  subjects;  money 
allotted  on  the  basis  of  urban  population  for  the  salaries  of 
teachers  of  trade,  home  economics  and  industrial  subjects; 
and  money  allotted  on  the  basis  of  total  population  for  the 
maintenance  of  teacher-training  courses  in  all  subjects. 
Thei-e  are  47  states  now  enjoying  the  benefits  of  the  Smith- 
Hughes  act.  Rhode  Island  has  not  yet  accepted  its  pro- 
visions.— Commerce  Reports. 


Proposed  Law  Allows  Expansion  of 
Municipal  Power  Plants 

The  borough  officials  of  Madison,  N.  J.,  in  cooperation 
with  neighboring  municipalities,  have  drafted  two  interest- 
ing bills  to  be  presented  at  the  present  session  of  the  State 
Legislature,  covering  extended  powers  for  municipal-light- 
ing plants.  These  bills  relate  to  two  distinct  phases  of 
station  operation,  the  first  dealing  with  service  combina- 
tion between  two  or  more  municipal  plants  for  greater  efll- 
ciency,  particularly  with  reference  to  fuel  conservation,  and 
the  second  to  cover  the  sale  of  electric  energy  generated  by 
municipal  statiorte  outside  of  the  city  or  boi-ough  limits. 
These  measures  are  the  result  of  recent  decisions  of  the 
Board  of  Public  Utility  Commissioners  in  holding  that  such 
proposed  conditions  of  operation  would  make  the  plants 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  board,  to  be  considered 
under  the  head  of  regular  public  utilities. 

The  first-noted  bill  provides  for  the  granting  of  authority 
for  municipal  plants  in  neighboring  sections  to  coojjerate 
and  combine,  where  desired,  for  the  rendering  of  proper 
service.     Under  this  law  a  municipal  plant  would  be  privi- 


Coal  (?)  Fifty-Five  Cents  a  Ton! 

The  inventive  genius  of  a  people  is  said  to  thrive  best 
in  an  atmosphere  of  pressing  necessity.  This  fact  possibly 
accounts  for  the  amazing  discovery— according  to  a  brief 
newspaper  note — of  a  method  of  making  coal  out  of  ashes. 
Making  ashes  out  of  coal  is  a  comparatively  simple  and 
common  performance.  Reversing  the  process  is  remark- 
able, not  to  say  miraculous.  Yet  it  is  none  the  less  feasible, 
if  we  are  to  believe  the  statements  of  the  secretary-treas- 
urer of  the  George  W.  Loft  Co.,  New  York  City.    Says  he: 

Our  firm  has  been  burning  55-cent  coal  for  some  time. 
We  take  the  ashes  after  the  furnace  is  done  with  them — 
just  plain,  ordinary  ashes — and  your  five  gallons  of  kero- 
sene over  about  a  ton  of  them.  Then  we  feed  the  mix- 
ture into  the  furnace.  From  five  gallons  of  oil,  at  Ic.  a 
gallon,  we  get  as  much  steam  as  we  could  from  a  ton  of 
$8  or  $10  coal. 

If  five  gallons  of  kerosene,  containing  a  total  of  about 
700,000  B.t.u.,  will,  when  mixed  with  ashes,  produce  as 
much  steam  as  2000  lb.  of  coal,  containing  approximately 
27,000,000  B.t.u.,  there  are,  in  the  despised  ashcan,  virtues 
of  which  none  of  us  ever  dreamed! 


February  5,  1918 


POWER 


205 


Poster  Competition 


Under  the  Auspices  of  the 
Smoke  and    Dust    Abatement   League   of    Pittsburgh 

1.  The  Smoke  and  Dust  Abatement  League  desires  a  post- 
er design  which  will  express  in  simple  form  the  relation  of 
smoke  abatement  to  fuel  conservation. 

2.  The  Committee  in  charge  of  the  competition  offers  the 
following  outline  of  the  smoke  abatement  problem  as  a 
basis  for  poster  ideas: 

During  1917  some  500,000,000  tons  of  bituminous  coal 
were  consumed  in  the  United  States.  Of  this  amount  about 
20  per  cent.,  or  100,000,000  tons,  were  lost  through  im- 
perfect combustion — the  visible  sign  of  which  is  black 
smoke. 

Black  smoke  is  an  indicator  of  waste  and  inefficiency.  A 
streamer  of  black  smoke  is  the  black  flag  of  a  pirate  con- 
fiscating a  part  of  the  nation's  resources. 

Black  smoke  in  time  of  peace  means  a  great  waste  and  a 
pollution  of  the  atmosphere,  which  destroys  building  materi- 
als, retards  the  growth  of  vegetation,  cuts  off  sunlight 
and  daylight,  prolongs  fogs,  is  injurious  to  comfort  and 
health,  and  is  costly  both  to  tlie  smoke  maker  and  to  the 
public.  In  time  of  war  it  means  all  of  that  and  more.  Coal 
is  a  sinew  of  war.  Coal  is  a  food  for  fighters,  and  he  who 
unnecessarily  reduces  the  country's  available  supply  cur- 
tails the  nation's  energy  in  the  great  industrial  conflict. 

The  elimination  of  smoke  requires  knowledge,  care,  at- 
tention and  some  investment  of  money.  There  is  no  use 
minimizing  these  requirements.  They  are  not  too  much  to 
ask  for  the  benefits  resulting. 

The  dividends  on  the  investment  of  knowledge,  care  and 
attention  are  self-respect,  a  citizen  doing  his  duty  by  his 
fellows,  and  a  better  place  in  which  to  live  and  work.  If 
the   investment   of   money   has   been    made   with    the   same 


caution  and  advice  as  other  investments,  the  dividends  in 
money  are  nearly  always  sure,  adequate  and  may  be  as 
large  as  speculative  ventures. 

3.  The  competition  is  open  to  all  residents  of  the  Greater 
Pittsburgh  District. 

4.  The  design  is  limited  to  three  colors  and  black. 

5.  The  size  of  the  work  is  to  be  15  x  24  in. 

6.  The  seal  of  the  league — the  seal  of  the  City  of  Pitts- 
burgh with  the  inscription  "Smoke  and  Dust  Abatement 
League  of  Pittsburgh"  encircling  it — is  to  appear  in  the 
design.     The  seal  is  to  be  about  three  inches  in  diameter. 

7.  The  designs  must  be  handed  in  before  noon  on  Feb. 
16,  1918. 

8.  The  designs  are  to  be  left  at  the  Civic  Club  of  Al- 
legheny County,  sixth  floor,  Keenan  Building. 

9.  The  name  and  address  of  contestant  must  be  placed 
on  the  back  of  design. 

10.  The  prizes  are  to  be  as  follows:  First  prize,  $50; 
second  prize,  $20;  two  prizes,  $5;  four  prizes,  $2.50;  ten 
prizes,  $1. 

11.  The  first  four  prize-winning  designs  are  to  become 
the  sole  property  of  the  league  upon  payment  of  the  prize 
money.  The  league  is  to  have  the  privilege  of  exhibiting  all 
of  the  poster  designs. 

12.  The  judges  for  the  competition  will  be  announced  at 
a  later  date. 

13.  Additional  information  concerning  the  competition 
may  be  secured  from  the  secretary  of  the  Smoke  and  Dust 
Abatement  League,  John  O'Connor,  Jr.,  Mellon  Institute, 
University  of  Pittsburgh;  Telephone,  Schenley  897. 

Committee:  John  O'Connor,  Jr.,  Chairman;  Mrs.  Isobel 
A.  Bowers,  Miss  H.  Marie  Dermitt,  Mrs.  William  D.  Hamil- 
ton, C.  J.  Taylor. 


Obituary 


Ueut.  Gordon  D.  Cooke,  who,  prior  to  en- 
tering the  service  of  the  country,  was  a 
member  of  the  field-service  department  of 
the  McGraw-Hill  Co.,  died  of  pneumonia 
at  the  base  hospital.  Fort  Bliss,  Tex.,  on 
Jan.  10.  He  was  a  graduate  of  the  Univers- 
ity of  Michigan  and  was  24  years  old. 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


Personal 


IIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIII 


tiiiiiimiiiiiiMiui 


B.  J.  Denman,  formerly  chief  eng"ineer  of 
power  plants  of  the  Detroit  Edison  Co.,  and 
for  the  last  few  years  vice  president  and 
general  manager  of  the  Tri-City  Railway 
and  Light  Co.,  Davenport,  Iowa,  has  been 
elected  president  of  the   company. 


^iiiiimiliiiiitiinii 


IIIMtllllHIli^ 


Miscellaneous  News 


nitlHIIIIIIIIIIIUtllliniltlHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllllll 

A  steam  Pipe,  used  for  an  exhaust 
through  the  firebox,  broke  and  caused  an 
explosion  in  the  boiler  room  of  the  Alamito 
dairy,  at  Omaha,  Neb.,  on  Jan.  11,  killing 
the  fireman. 

A  Tube  Blew  Out  of  one  of  the  boilers 
at  the  power  house  at  Fayette  station,  Con- 
nellsville,  Penn.,  on  Jan.  13,  painfully 
scalding  five  men  and  crippling  the  West 
Penn  power  system,  for  an  hour. 

A  I.aree  Furnace   Boiler  Kxploded  in  the 

subcellar  of  the  new  building  occupied  by 
Bowles  lunch  on  Main  St.,  BulTalo,  N.  Y., 
on  Jan.  21,  killing  the  engineer  and  turn- 
ing the  furnace  room  into  a  mass  of  debris. 
The  force  of  the  explosion  shook  the  build- 
ing and  threw  patrons  in  the  lunch  room 
into  a  panic.  The  boiler  was  a  new  one, 
having  been  installed  a  few  weeks  ago.  The 
cause  of  the   e.xplosion   is  unknown. 

Bed  Cross  Want*  Tracinsr  Cloth — To  help 
meet  the  enormous  problem  of  securing  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  white  goods  for  the 
manufacture  of  surgical  dressings,  the  Red 
Cross  is  asking  architects,  manufacturers 
and  draftsmen  to  contribute  their  discarded 
tracing  cloth.  If  anyone  having  such  mate- 
rial will  call  up  one  of  the  large  laundries 
of  his  city,  he  will  find  them  glad  to  send 
for  such  cloth  as  he  can  give  them.  The 
laundries  will  wash  and  bleach  the  mate- 
rial and  forward  it  to  its  proper  destina- 
tion. 

A  Boiler  Explosion  at  the  Wishkah 
.shingle  mill,   Aberdeen.   Wash.,   on  Jan.   18, 


killed  one  man,  seriously  injured  another, 
and  completely  wrecked  a  portion  of  the 
plant.  Both  men  were  thrown  fifty  feet  by 
the  explosion,  their  bodies  falling  into  the 
river,  and  bricks  surrounding  the  boiler 
were  thrown  more  than  300  yards.  The 
concussion  was  felt  in  stores  500  yards 
away.  A  piece  of  the  boiler  weighing  sev- 
eral hundred  pounds  was  hurled  through 
the  air  for  150  yards.  The  cause  of  the 
explosion   is  unknown. 

Tlie  Navy  Department  Announces  that 
men  will  be  soon  selected  for  aviation  serv- 
ice. Men  of  suitable  qualifications  who  re- 
port now  to  the  Navy  recruiting  offices  are 
eligible  for  examination  for  commissions 
and  ratings.  The  rates  of  pay  and  duties 
assigned  in  this  aviation  work  in  the  Navy 
will  make  this  opportunit.v  highly  attrac- 
tive to  mechanical  engineers  and  to  drafts- 
men, mechanics  and  others  who  are  experi- 
enced in  gasoline-engine  design  or  opera- 
tion. Full  information  may  be  obtained  at 
any  Navy  recruiting  ofiice. 

Merger  of  Electrical  Plants — The  Mo- 
hawk Gas  Co.,  understood  as  being  con- 
trolled by  General  Electric  Co.  interests, 
has  filed  intentions  with  the  Public  Serv- 
ice Commission  and  the  Schenectady  Coun- 
ty Clerk  a  plan  to  merger  all  plants  that 
generate  electric  power  from  the  Hudson 
River  west  to  Herkimer  County,  which 
would  include  the  Spier  Falls  and  Schagh- 
ticoke  hydro-electric  plants  and  which 
would  indirectly  control  the  electric-power 
supply  of  the  City  of  Albany  and  the  cities 
and  towns  of  Albany,  Rensselaer.  Fulton 
Schoharie,  Montgomery  County  and  part  of 
Herkimer  County.  Application  has  also 
been  filed  with  the  Public  Service  Commis- 
sion to  combine  the  Sfehenectady  Illuminat- 
ing Co.,  Schenectady  Power  Co.  and  the 
Mohawk  Gas  Co.,  under  the  name  of  the 
Mohawk   Gas   Co. 

Power-PIant  Courses  in  Wisconsin — The 
University  of  Wisconsin,  University  Exten- 
sion Division,  is  now  prepared  to  give,  by 
correspondence,  a  course  in  practical  hand 
firing,  which  will  take  up  methods  of  mak- 
ing a  good  fire,  fuel  supply,  tools,  size  of 
coal,  effect  on  smoke,  boiler  stresses,  ef- 
fect of  clinker,  draft  regulation  and  feed 
water  problems,  and  the  care  of  boilers. 
The  University  is  having  considerable  suc- 
cess with  this  course,  particularly  in  plants 
which  are  face  to  face  with  coal  short- 
age. The  following  steam-ongineering 
courses  have  been  prepared  for  firemen  and 
engineers  who  desire  to  increase  their  ef- 
ficiency and  prepare  for  promotion  and 
increased  earnings:  Steam  Boilers,  Part  I: 
Steam  Boilers.  Part  II;  Rteatn  Engines, 
Part  I;  Steam  Engines,  Part  II;  Hoivt— 
Part  T,  Principles  ;  Heat — Part  II,  Applica- 
tion, Fuel,  Refrigeration,  Heating  and  Ven- 
tilation.     Those    desiring    further    informa- 


tion should  address  the  University  Exten- 
sion Division,  University  of  Wisconsin. 
Madison,   Wis. 

Massachusetts  Teaches  Power-PIant 
Kconomics — In  the  hope  of  preventing  the 
great  wastage  of  fuel  that  occurs  in  steam- 
lK)wer  plants,  due  to  inefficient  management 
more  than  to  equipment  or  to  the  abilit.v 
of  the  plant  to  use  the  fuel  efficiently,  the 
State  Board  of  Education  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Massachusetts  has  organized  a 
class  in  power-plant  economics,  the  first 
lecture  being  Monday  evening.  Feb.  4.  at 
Room  109,  State  House.  Boston.  The  idea 
of  the  classes  is  the  dissemination  of  easil.v 
understood  information  of  how  to  obtain 
the  full  worth  of  every  pound  of  fuel  used 
in  the  industry.  J.  A.  Eames.  instructor 
in  mechanical  engineering,  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  University  Extension  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology,  will  give 
the  course,  which  will  be  in  the  form  of 
lectures  and  discussion  on  modern  power- 
plant  problems.  The  subjects  include  pow- 
er-plant location,  boiler  plans,  equipment, 
methods  of  firing,  arrangement  of  heating 
surfaces,  and  specifications  for  the  pur- 
chase of  coal  by  contract.  There  is  no 
charge  for  tuition,  but  the  student  is  ex- 
pected to  buy  his  textbooks. 

:iiiiiiiiiiiii,iiiiiiiiiiiii„iiii,,( , IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII, iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 

Business  Items 


Tlie  Libert.v  Manufacturing  Co.  has  re- 
moved its  otTices  from  Susquehanna  St.  to 
the    Frick    Building.    Pittsburgh,    Penn. 

The  Elliott  Co.  has  disposed  of  its  office 
building  on  Susquehanna  .St.,  and  taken 
offices  in  the  Frick  Building,  Pittsburgh, 
Penn. 

The  Estcrline  Co.,  Indianapolis.  Ind.,  an- 
nounces the  appointment  of  the  F.  R.  Jen- 
nings Co.,  610  Ford  Building.  Detroit.  Mich., 
as  its  sales  representative  for  graphic  in- 
struments for  the  state  of  Michigan.  Mr. 
Jennings  will  handle  the  entire  state  for 
the  Esterline  Co  .  with  the  exception  of  the 
northern  peninsula,  which  is  taken  care  of 
by  tlie   Milwaukee  office. 

The  National.  1  nl>e  Co.  is  sendingT  out  an 
interesting  circular  illustrating  seven  in- 
st.ances  of  the  rem.arkahle  ductility  of  "Nav 
tional"  pifie.  In  Biblical  times  seven  was 
a  number  signifying  completeness;  the  fur- 
nace in  which  the  three  Hebrew  children 
were  placed  was  heated  sever  times  hotter 
than  usual.  Also  in  jn-ofane  history  we 
read  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World, 
the  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  etc.  There- 
fore, out  of  the  many  Instances  of  the  duc- 
tility of  "National"  pipe  .seven  was  the 
number  appropriately  chosen  for  illu.stra- 
tion. 


206 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


Boston — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  delivered  alongside 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows : 

ANTHRACITE 

r Circular^ ^    , Individual  ^ — ^ 

Jan.  31,  1918     One  Year  Ago  Jan.  31,  1918     One  Tear  Ago 

Buckwheat     .  .           S4.60                S2.0.J — 3.U0  $7.10 — 7.35         83.25 — 3.50 

Rice    4.10                  2.50 — 3.65  6.65 — 6.90          2.70 — 2.95 

teller  3  90  

Barley   '.  '. '.  '.  '. '.            sleO                  2.'3'0— 3.3.5  6.15—6.40          3.35—2.60 

BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous  not  on  market. 

. P  o  b  Mines' ,    , Aloneside  Bostont , 

Jan.  31,  1918     One  Year  Agro  Jan.  31, 1918     One  Year  Ago 

Clearfields $3.00  $4.35 — 5.00 

Cambrias  and 

Somersets 3.10 — 3.85  4.60 — 5.40 

Pocahontas  and  New  River  f.o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  $4.  as  compared 
with  $3.85 — 3.90  a  year  ago. 

•All-rail  rate  to  Boston  is  $2.60.  tWater  coal. 

New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  fob.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 
ANTHRACITE 

J. Circular' s     ^ Individual' -^    ■ -v 

Jan.  31,  1918     One  Year  Ago     Jan.  31,  1918     One  Year  Ago 

Pea     $5.05  $4.00  $5.80  $8.50 — 6.75 

Buckwheat  ..       4.30 — 5.00  2.75  5.50 — 6.00  6.00 — 8.25 

Rice 3.75—3.95  3.30  4.50-5.00  4.50—5.00 

Barley     3.3.5 — 3.50  1,95  4,00 — 1,25  3.25 — 3,75 

Boiler   3.50 — 3.75  3.30  

Bituminous  smithing  coal,  $4.50 — 5.25  f,o,b. 
Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are   about  5c,  higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y,  Harbor     Mine  • 

Pennsylvania     $3,65  $2,00 

Maryland     3£j  2,00 

West   Virginia    (short  rate) 3,6o  2,00 

Based  on   Government  price  of   $2  per  ton   at  mine. 

•The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport,  Port  Johnson.  Port  Reading. 
Perth  Amboy  and  South  Amboy,  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty 
Hoboken.  Weehawken,  Edgewater  or  Cliflside  and  Guttenberg.  St.  George 
is  in  between  and  sometimes  a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bitumi- 
nous is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
Is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports, 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f,o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

. Line s Tide s    Independent 

Jan.  31,  1918     One  Year  Ago     Jan.  31,  1918     One  Year  Ago 

Buckwheat...    $3.15-3,75  $3.00  $3.75              $3,90  $4.15 

Rice     3,6,5-3,65        1,25  3.65  3.15  3,35 

Boiler     2,4.5-3.85        1.10  3.55  2.00  .... 

Barley    2.15-2,40        1.00  2.40  1.90  2.35 

Pea    3,75                 2.80  4.65  3.70  

Culm    1-35 

Chicago — Steam    coal    prices    f.o.b.    mines: 

Illinois  Coals  Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

Prepared   sizes    $2.6,5—2,80  $3,10—3,25 

Mine-run      3,40—3,55  3,85—3,00 

Screenings     3,15—3,30  2,60—3.75 

So.  niinois,  Pocahontas.  Hocking. 

Pennsylvania  East  Kentucky  and 

Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia      West  Virginia  SpUnt 

Prepared   sizes    $3.60 — 2.80  $3,05 — 3.25 

Mine-run      3.40—3,60  2.40—3.60 

Screenings    2.10—3.30  3,10— 3, .30 

St.  I.oni8 — Prices  pet  net  ton  f.cb,  mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared with  today  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and  Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  and  Staunton  ^ Standard > 

Jan,  31,  One  Jan.  31,        One  Jan,  31.  One 

1918         Year  Ago        1918       Year  Ago       1918  Year  Ago 

6-in. 
lump. 
3-in. 
lump.  . 
Steam 
egg     .  . . 
Mine- 
run    . . . 
No.   1 
nut    ,  .  . 
2-in, 
screen 
No,  5 
washed 

Williamson-Franklin  rate  St,  Louis.  8714e.;  other  rates,  7214c. 


$2.65-3.80  $3.25-3.50  $2.65-2.80  $3,25-3,50  $3.65-2.80  $2.35-2.75 

3.65-2.80    2.65-2.80    2.65-3.80    

.    2.65-2.80    2.65-3.80    3.65-2.80    

.    3.40-2.55    3.00-3.25  3,40-2.55  3.00  3.40-3.55  2.25-2.50 

.    2.65-3.80     3.35-3.50    3,65-3,80  3.35-3,50  2,65-2,80  2,35-2.75 

.  2.16-3,30    3,00-3,36  3.15-3.30  2,75-3,00  2.15-2.30  3.25-2,J0 

2,15-3,30     3.00  3.15-3.30  3.75-3,00  3.15-2.30  2.50 


Birmingham — Current,    pricr.s    per   net    ton    fob,    mines    are   as 

follows: 

Mine-Rv..:      Lump  and  Nut      Slack  and  .Screenings 

Big  Seam   $1.90  $2.15  $]  .65 

Pratt.  Jagger,  Corona.  ..  .         2,15  2,40  1,90 

Black  Creek,   Cahaba    ,  .  .         2.40  2.65  3,15 

Government  figures. 

'Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  fixed  according 
to  a  regular  schedule. 


Ala.,  Russellville — The  Alabama  Power  Co.  is  having  plans 
prepared  for  the  e.xtension  of  its  transmission  line  from  here  to 
Sheffield  and  Muscle  Shoals,  W.  N.  Walmsley,  Birmingham, 
Gen.  MgT, 

Conn.,  Norwich — City  plans  to  install  new  electric  equipment 
including  a  300-kw,  turbine  with  a  snn-hp,  boiler  in  its  gas  and 
electric  plant.      Estimated  cost,   $200,000, 

Conn.,  Thamesville — (Norwich  P,  O.) — The  Eastern  Connecti- 
cut Power  Co.  is  having  plans  prepared  by  H,  M,  Hope  Eng,  Co., 
Bng,,  185  Devonshire  St,,  Boston,  for  the  erection  of  a  power 
plant.      R.    W.    Perkins,    Treas,      Noted    Dec,    4    under    "Nonvich," 

Ga.,  Amerions — City  plans  to  build  an  electric-lighting  plant. 
J,  B,  Ansley,  City  Engr. 

Ga.,  Savannali — City  is  considering  a  proposition  made  by  the 
Savannah  Lighting  Co.  to  install  electrical  turbine  pumps  in  its 
water  department, 

Kan.,  Chardon — City  voted  to  issue  $25,000  bonds  for  the 
erection  of  an  electric-lighting  plant, 

Mich.,  Menominee — The  Menominee  Electric  Manufacturing 
Co.  will  soon  award  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  four  1-story 
additions   to    its    plant.      Estimated    cost,    $60,000. 

Miss.,  Wiggins — City  plans  to  improve  its  electric-lighting  and 

water-works  system. 

Mont,,  Redstone — City  plans  to  rebuild  its  electric-lighting 
plant. 

N.  J.,  Camden — Warren  Webster  &  Co,  has  notified  the  Public 
Utility  Commissioners  of  an  increase  in  its  capital  stock  from 
$150,000  to  $450,000;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  build  additions 
and    improvements  to   its   plant. 

N.  Y.,  Brooltl.vn— The  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  -"Accounts.  Navy 
Department,  Wash,,  will  soon  receive  bids  for  furnishing  at  Na\'y 
Yard.  Brooklyn,  under  Schedule  No.  1669,  12-in.  desk  and  bracket 
fans;  under  Schedule  No,  1670,  630,000  ft.  incandescent  lamp 
cord,  11.500  ft.  rubber-insulated,  lead-covered  wire,  duplex,  single- 
conductor,  rubber  covered  wire,  120,000  ft,  rubber-insulated  tele- 
phone wire  and  130.000  ft,  twin  conductor  wire;  under  Schedule 
No,  1671.  leaded  and  armored,  interior-communication  cable  and 
145,000   ft.   plain,   single-conductor  wire, 

N,  Y.,  Brooklyn — The  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Co.,  165 
Bway.,  New  York  City,  plans  to  build  a  1  story,  50x100  fl. 
transformer  station  on  Livonia  Ave,  Estimated  cost,  $40,000. 
G.    H,    Pegrara,    New   York   City,    Ch,    Engr. 

N.  Y.,  Buffalo — The  Oldman  Boiler  Works.  38  Illinois  St.,  is  in 
the  market  for  new  equipment  including  punching  machinery, 
blowers,  motors,  a  25-ton  crane  and  riveting  machinery  for  its 
boiler  shop. 

N.  y..  New  York — The  Weyant  Electrical  Co.,  Ill  Broad  St., 
has  increased  its  capital  stock  frpm  $5000  to  $15,000;  the  pro- 
ceeds will  be  used  to  build  additions  and  improvements  to  ita 
plant. 

Okla.,  Bartlesville — The  Crystal  Ice  and  Storage  Co.  plans  to 
rebuild    its  plant   which   was   destroyed  by  Are. 

Okla.,  Bristow — City  plans  an  election  soon  to  vote  on  $25,000 
bond  issue  for  an  electric-lighting  plant.     T.  B.  Gibson,  City  Clerk. 

Okla.,  Prague — City  plans  an  election  to  vote  on  a  bond  issue 
for    improvements    to    its    electric-lighting    plant. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  Philadelphia  Electric  Co.  plans  to 
build  a  large  power  house  on  Beach  and  Palmer  Sts.  Estimated 
cost,  $8,000,000.     A.  K.  Coe,  Secy. 

Tex.,  .San  Angelo — The  San  Angelo  Ice  and  Power  Co,  plans 
to  expend  about  $10,000  in  improvements  to  its  plant.  A,  L. 
Lair,    Mgr. 

Va..  Suffolk — The  Virginia  Ry,  and  Power  Co,  plans  to  issue 
$950,000  bonds;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  for  extensive  improve- 
ments to  its  plant,  including  the  erection  of  an  electric  transmis- 
sion line  from  here  to  Petersburg. 

Wash.,  Davenport — The  Washington  Water  Power  Co.  plans 
to  build  a  65-mil6  high  tension  transmission  line  from  its  Long 
Lake  plant  in  Lincoln  Co.  to  a  point  12  miles  south  of  Odessa. 
Estimated   cost,    $100,000.      C.   F.    Uhden,    Spokane,    Ch.    Engr. 

W.  Va.,  Switchback — The  Appalachian  Power  Co,  plans  to  re- 
build its  central  power  plant  which  was  recently  destroyed  by 
fire. 

W.  Va.,  Wheeling — The  Beech  Bottom  Coal  Co.  plans  to  rebuild 

its  power  station,  which  was  destroyed  by  fire.      Loss,  $40,000. 

Wis.,  Beaver  Dam — The  Wiscinsin  Power.  Light  and  Heat  Co. 
plans  to  build  a  transmission  line  here.     J.  D.  Roberts,  Supt. 

Wis.,  luaaisor. — The  Di-Electric  Manufacturing  Co.,  incor- 
porated with  $40.0C0  capital  stock,  plans  to  build  a  plant  E,  W. 
Smythe,  Jr.,  Vroman  Blk.,  and  E.  K,  Frautschi,  incorporators, 

B.  C,  Nelson — The  Swanetta  Power  Co..  incorporated  with 
$."00,000  capital  stock,  plans  to  build  a  large  hydro-electric  plant 
on  the  Pend   d'Oreille  River,   south  of   Nelson. 

Ont.,  Stayncr — J,  Knox  is  in  the  market  for  a  30-hp.  and  3-hp. 
220-volt,    60-cycle,    3-phase  A,C,    motor. 

Que.,  Montreal — The  Canadian  Pacific  Telegraph  Co,.  4  Hospi- 
tal St,,  is  in  the  market  for  a  25-volt,  60-ampere  motor  generator. 
W,   D.   Neil,   Supt. 

Sask.,  Yorkton — A.  M,  McNicol,  Box  526.  is  in  the  market  for 
a  250-gallon  vertical  centrifugal  submerged  pump  and  a  vertical 
40-hp.  A.  C.  3-phase,  60  cycle,  550-volt.  direct  drive  motor. 


Februarj'  5,  1918 


POWER 


207 


ai miiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii>3 

I  Prices — Materials  and  Supplies  | 

iiiiiiiiiiiiitiininiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiitiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiitiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinmm 

These     are     prlres     to     the     power     plant     by     jobbers    in    the    larEer    buyinp    centers    east    of    the 
Mississippi.    Klsewliere  the  prices  will  be  modified  by  iiiereused  freight  churgcH  an.d  by  local  conditions. 


ELECTRICAL  SUPPLIES 

KNIFE  SWITCHKS — r'ollowing  are  net  prices  each  in  cities 
named  for  knife  switches  mounted  on  slate  base,  front  connected, 
punched  clip  type.  250  volts: 


.•(0  Amp. 

D.   P.   S.   T,    fuseless $0.53 

D.   P.   S.   T.    fused 81 

D.   P.   D.  T.   f useless 88 

D.    P.    D.   T.    fused 1.67 

T.    P.    S.    T.    fuseless .78 

T.   P.    S.   T    .fused 1.23 

T.   P.   D.   T.   fuseless 1.37 

T.    P.    D.    T.    fused 3.68 

Lots  $33  and  more.  list. 


60  Amp 
$0.93 
1.37 
1.53 
3. .'58 
1.40 
3.05 
3.35 
4.13 


100  Amp.   300  Amp. 


$l.i)0 
3.70 
3.43 
5.(53 
3.86 
4.18 
5.34 
8.99 


$3.43 
5.14 
5.70 
9.88 
5.14 
7.70 
8.83 

15.80 


COPPER    WIRE — Prices    per     1000     ft. 
following    cities: 


for    rubber-covered    wire    in 


No. 

14 

10 

8 

6 

4 

1 

0 

00 

000 

0000 


^ Denver 

Single  Double 
Braid      Rraid 

$10.90    $15.15 


33.70 
33.60 


05 

37.35 

57.15 

81.70 

131.80 

158.50 

189.40 

398.05 

363.15 

448.50 


Duplex 

$37.:v5 

49.35 

74.45 


—  St.  Loui; 
le    Doubk- 
Braic; 


k 

Braid 

$11.30   $13.37 

33.16      36.34 


33.33 


35.96 
63.93 
88.30 
137.38 
167.80 
193. UO 
345.78 
300.00 
364.32 


; s    ^ Birmingrham s 

Single    Double 
Duplex    Braid      Braid     Duplex 
$36.08    $15.00    $17.90    $36.80 
....       39,00      34.30      07.60 


39.90 

46.85 

68.95 

74.60 

97.30 

106.55 

154.50 

163.00 

197.45 

309.50 

376.00 

385.50 

317.00 

330.00 

414.40 

438.00 

508.00 

516.00 

FUSES — Following    are    net    prices    of    250-volt    inclosed    fuses 
each,  in  standatd  packages,  in  cities  named: 


0-30   amperes    $0.11  U    each    110-300    amperes 

31-60    amperes    .15%   each    :w35-400    amperes 

61-100   amperes 40       each 


$0.90  each 
1.63  each 


LOOM — Price  per  100  ft..  In  coils 

Ft.  in  Coil 

■4    350  $3.35 

%    250  3.50 

%    200  4.50 

%    300  5.75 


Ft.  in  Coil 

%     150  $7.00 

1         100  10.00 

m    100  12.00 

1%    100  15.00 


0-30  amperes.  . 
0.30  amperes.  . 


FUSE  PLUGS    (MICA  CAP)    PER  100 

4c.  each  in   standard  package  quantities    (500) 

5c.  each  for  less  than  standard  package  quantities    (500) 


-Following  are  net  prices  in   cents  each   in 


SOCKETS,   B.   B.    FINISH 

standard  packages: 

%-IN.    OR   PENDANT  <3AP  %-IN.   CAP 

Key  Keyless  Pul!  Key  Keyless 

23.10c.  21.00c.  43.00c.  37.30c.  36.30c. 

Note — Less    than    standard    package    quantities.    15%    off    list 


Pull 
46.30c. 


CUT-OUTS — Following  are  net  prices  each  in  standard-package  quan- 
tities : 


CUT-OUTS.    PLUG 


S.  P.  M.  L..  . 
D.  P.  M.  L..  . 
T.  P.  M.  L..  . 
D.  P.  S.  B..  . 
D.   P.    D.    B.  . 


$0.11 
.18 
.36 
.19 
.37 


P.  to  D.  P.  S.   B. 
P.  to  D.  P.  T.  B. 

P.    S    B 

P.   D.    B 


$0.34 
.38 
.33 
.54 


CUT-OUTS.   N.   E.  C.   FUSE 


0-30  Amp. 

D.   P.    M.    L $0.33 

T.   P.    M.    L 48 

D.    P.    S.    B 43 

T    .P.    S.    B .81 

D.    P.    D.    B .78 

T.    P.    D.    B 1.35 

T.  P.  to  D,  P.  D.  B 90 


31-60  Amp.        60-100  Amp. 


$0.84 
1.30 
1.03 
1.80 
3.10 
3.60 
2.53 


$1.68 
2.40 


ATTACHMENT   PLUGS — Price  each,   in    standard   packages: 


Hubbell    porcelain     $0.21 

Hubbell    composition    .13 

Benjamin    swivel     .13 

Current   taps    .36 


Standard  Package 
350 
60 

60 


FLEXIBLE  CORD — Price  per  1000  ft.  in  coils  of  250  ft.: 

No.  18  cotton  twisted $31.50 

No.  16  cotton  twisted 39.00 

No.  18  cotton  parallel 24^00 

No.  1 6  cotton  parallel 36.00 

No.  18  cotton  reinforced   heavy .  .  28.50 

No.  16  cotton  reinforced   heavy 3.0.40 

No.  18  cotton  reinforced    light 24.00 

No.  16  cotton  reinforced   light 33^00 

No  18  cotton  Canvasite   cord 31.75 

No.  16  cotton  Canvasite   cord 33.00 


RUBBER-COVERED  COPPER  WIRE — Per  1000 

Solid.  Solid. 
NO.                                      Single  Braid     Double  Braid 

a  $10.50  $13.50 

13  14.33  16.93 

10 16-93  33.83 

8  27.66  31.40 

9  

4  

2                                             ....  .... 

1  .' .' .' .'  .'.'.'.■.'.■.■.'.■.■ 

0 :  — 

00 — 

000 — 

0000  


ft.  in  New  York: 


Stranded. 

Double  Braid 

$15.00 

19.48 

35.81 

35.50 

50.00 

70.40 
113.45 
153.26 
183.90 
333.60 
371.24 
333.40 


Duplex 

$33.50 

33.36 

45.00 

61.00 


CONDUITS,    ELBOWS    AND    COUPLING.S — Following    are    warehouse 
net  prices  per  1000  ft.  for  conduit  and  per  unit  for  elbows  and  couplings : 


In. 

, Conduit ^ 

Enameled  Galvanized 

, Elbows , 

Enameled  Galvanized 

, Couplings V 

Enameled  Galvanized 

i4 

$69.70 

$74.80 

$0.1673 

$0.1786 

$0.0616 

$0  0658 

% 

93.00 

98.90 

'Z'Z 

.335 

.088 

.094 

1 

136.00 

146.30 

.3356 

.3478 

.1144 

.1223 

IVi 

184.00 

197.80 

.4185 

.4496 

.1381 

.1698 

1% 

.        330,00 

336.50 

.558 

.5994 

.1953 

.3098 

396.00 

318.30 

1.033 

1.10 

.3604 

.3797- 

'■!¥, 

.        468,00 

503.10 

1.674 

1.80 

.372 

.3996 

3 

613.00 

637.90 

4.464 

4.79 

.558 

.5994 

3V<. 

763.00 

818,80 

9.86 

10.59 

.744 

.7993 

4 

936.50 

991.90 

11.39 

13.33 

.93 

.999 

Standard  lengths  rigid.   10  ft.     Standard  lengths  flexible,    Va   in..   100 
't.      Standard  lengths  flexible.    %    to  3  in..  50  ft. 


LOCKNUTS    AND    BUSHINGS — Following   are   net    prices   in    standard 
packages,   which  are:    V^-in..  1000;    %■  to  H4in..  100:   1  %  -  to  3-in..  50: 


Locknuts 
Per  100 

%     $1.02 

%     1.75 

1         3.00 

1%     5.00 

1%     7.50 

2         10.00 

3  ^4     12.30 


ARMORED  C.VBLES  AND  BOX  C0NNECTOR,S — Following  are  net 
prices  per  1000  ft.  cable  and  standard  package  of  100  box  connectors  in 
single  and  double  strip: 

,„  , — Twin  Conductor — ^  ^ — Three  Conductor — ^ 

Wire  Gage  Cable  Connectors  Cable  Connectors 

1* $70.00  $4.30  $103.30  $4.30 

13 101.35  4.50  137.50  4.50 

10 138.75  4.75  176.33  4.75 

8    176.30  6.75  347.30  6.00 

6   377.30  6.35  363.40  7.50 

4 431.35  7.50                     


Flexible  Conduit 

3ushings 

Box  Connections 

Per  100 

Per  100 

$1.68 

$5.63 

4.00 

7.13 

6.15 

10.50 

8.30 

15.00 

10.35 

33.50 

16.40 

30.00 

24.60 

67.30 

LAMPS- 

quan  titles: 


-Below  are  present  quotations  in   less  than  standard  package 


Straight-Side    Bulbs 


Mazda 
Watts 
10 
15 
3.5 
40 
50 
60 
100 


B — 
Plain 
$0.30 
.30 
.30 
.30 
.30 
.35 
.70 


Frosted 
$0.33 
.33 
..33 
.33 
.33 
.39 
.77 


No.  in 
Package 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
34 


Pear-Shape    Bulbs 


M<azda    C- 


Watts 

KH) 
150 
300 

;ioo 

400 

500 

750 

1000 


Clear 
$0.70 
1.10 
1 .65 
3.30 
3.35 
4,30 
4.70 
6.50 
7.50 


Frosted 
$0.75 
1.15 
1.70 
3.37 
3.35 
4.45 
4.85 
6.75 
7.75 


No.  in 
Package 
30 
34 
24 
24 
24 
12 
13 

8 

8 


Stnn<lard  quantities  arc  subject  to  discount  of  10%  from  list.     Annual 
contracts  ranging  from  $150  ncl  up  allow  a  discount  of  17%   from  list. 


WIRING  8UPPLIES- 

as  follows: 

Friction    tape.     '.4 -lb.    rolls.. 
Rubber    l;ii)c.     t^ -lb.    rolls.. 
Wire    solder.    30-lb.    pools.  .  . 
Soldering   p.'iste.    1-lb.   cans.  , 


-New  York  prices  for  tape  and  solder  are 


35c.  per  lb 
45c.  per  lb 
45c.  per  lb 
50c    per  lb 


208 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  6 


MISCELLANEOUS 

HOSE — 

Fire 

50-Ft.  Lengths 

Underwriters'     2  %  -in 75c.  per  ft. 

Common,    2  ^^  -in 40  9i> 

Air 
First  Grade     Second  Grade     Third  Grade 

%  -in.  per  ft S0..5.5  $0.30  S0.35 

Steam — Discounts  from  list 
First  grade...    30%      Second   grade...    30-5%      Third  grade...    40-10% 

RUBBER  BELTING— The  following  discounts  from  list  apply 
to  transmission  rubber  and  duck  belting:  • 

Competition    50  %     Best    grade    20  % 

Standard    33  % 

LEATHER  BELTINO — Present  discounts  from  list   in  the  fol- 
lowing cities  are  as  follows : 

New   York    

St.   Louis    

Chicap"o    

Birmingham     

Denver    


Medium  Grade 

Heavy  Grade 

40  % 

35% 

4.-)  % 

40% 

30-f  10% 

40  +  5% 

35  % 

35% 

40% 

35% 

RAWHIDE  LACING — 40%. 

PACKING — Prices    per    pound: 

Riibber  and  duck  for  low-pressure  steam 

Asbestos  for  hig^h-pressure  steam 

Duck   and   rubber   for  piston   packing 

Flax,    reprular     

Flax,    waterproofed     

Compressed    asbestos    sheet 

Wire    insertion    asbestos    sheet 

Rubber    sheet     

Rubber    sheet,    wire   insertion 

Rubber   sheet,   duck   insertion 

Rubber   sheet,   cloth  insertion 

Asbestos  packing,   twisted  or  braided,    and  graphited.    for  valve 

stems    and    stuffing    boxes 

Asbestos   wick,    Va-   and   1-ib.  balls 65 


80.77 
1.54 
.88 
.66 
.99 
.09 
1.'31 


.88 
.44 


1.10 
to  .70 


PIPE    AND   BOILER   COVERING — Below    are    discounts    and    part    of 
standard  lists: 


PIPE    COVERING 


Standard  List 

'ipe  Size 

Per  Lin.Ft. 

Thickne 

1-in. 

S0.27 

V4-in 

2-in. 

..16 

1       in 

6-in. 

.80 

1  %  -in 

4-in. 

.60 

2      -in 

3-in. 

.45 

2  y„  -in 

8-in. 

1.10 

3      -in 

lOin. 

1.30 

3% -in 

BLOCKS    AND    SHEETS 

Price 

per  Sq.Ft. 

80.27 

.30 

.45 

.60 

.75 

.90 

1.06 

85  %    magnesia  high   pressure 5  %  off 

r  4-ply 58%  off 

For  low-pressure  heating   and   return   lines  i  .3-ply 60%  off 

(  2-ply 62%  off 

GREA.IES — Prices  are  as  follows  in  the  following  cities  in  cents 
pep  pound  for  barrel  lots: 

Cincinnati     Chicago  St.  Louis    Birmingham    Denver 

'Cup    7  5 14  (i.l  8  H  10 

Fiber   or   sponge 8  6  6.4  15  15 

irransmission 7  6  6.4  10  15 

Axle    4>,4  4  3.3  3  5 

Goar    4%  4y.  6.5  oM  5^4 

Car  journal 22  (gal.)  3V4  4.6  5  5 

COTTON  WASTE — The  following  prices  are  in  cents  per  pound: 

,. New  York ^ 

Jan.  30.  1918       One  Year  Ago  Cleveland  Chicago 

White 11.00  to  13.00      13.00  to  15.00         16.00  12.00  to  13.00 

Colored  nii.\ed   .       8.50  to  12.00      10.00  to  12.00        12.50  10.00  to  12.00 

WIPINtJ  t'LOTHS — In  Cleveland  the  jobbers'  price  per  1000  is 
as  follows: 
1314x1314     S35.00        13y4x20Mi     $45.00 

In  Chicago  they  sell   at  S30r(f33  per  1000. 

LINSEED    OIL — These   prices    are   per   gallon : 

, —  New  York  — ^      , Cleveland ^      , Chicago s 

Jan.  .W.      1  Year      Jan.  .30.      1  Year  Jan.  30.    1  Year 

1918           Ago           1918           Ago  1918          Ago 

B,aw    per    barrel S1.31        $0.96        $1.35        $1.00  $1.33        $0.98 

5gal.  cans    1.41           1.06           1.50           1.10  1.45          1.08 

WHITE    AND    BED    LEAD    in    500-Ib.    lots    sell    as    follows    in 
cents   per  pound : 

, Red V    , White ^ 

Jan.  :30,  1918        1  Year  Ago    Jan.  30.  191S    1  Yr  Ago 

Dry  Dry 

Dry       In  Oil        Dry       In  Oil      and  In  Oil      and  In  Oil 
35-   and  50-lb.  kegs  11.50     11.00     10.50     11.00  10.50  10.50 

13y.-lb.    keg     11.75      11.25      10.75      13.35  10.75  10.75 

liOO-lb.    keg    11.25     11.50     11.00     11_50  11.00  11.00 

1-    to    5-lb.    cans...    13(25      13.00      12.50      13.50  13.00  12.50 

RIVETS — The   following   (luotations   are   allowed   for   fair-sized    orders 
from   warehouse: 

New  York     Cleveland         Chicago 

Steel  A  and  smaller 30  %  35  %,  40 ';;  • 

Tinned 30%        •        35%  40%* 

•For  less  than  keg  lots  the  discount  is  35  % . 

Button  heads,    %      %.   1   in.  diameter  by  2  in.  to  5  in.  sell   as  follows 
per   100    lb.: 
New   York    $7.00     Cleveland    $5.85     Chicago    $5.50 

Coneheads.   same  sizes: 
New  York    $7.10     Cleveland    $5.95     Chicago    $5.60 


FIRE  BRICK — Quotations  on  the  different  kinds  in  the  cities  namedt 
are  as  follows,  f.o.b.  works: 

New  York  Chicago 

Sihca  brick,    per   1000 $50.00  to    55.00  $50.00 

Fire  clay  brick,  per  1000,  No.  1 45X10  to    55.00  

Maguesite   brick,    per   net    ton 135.00  to  145.00  

Chrome    brick,    per   net   ton 135.00  

Deadburned  maguesite  brick,  per  net  ton  85.00  to    90.00  ...'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

Special  furnace  chrome  brick,  per  net  ton  60.00  to    70.00  60.00  to  80.00 

Standard  size  fire  brick.  9  x  4»4  x  3  Vi  in.  The  second  quaUty  is  $4 
to  $5   cheaper  per  1000. 

St.  Louis — High  grade,  $55  to  $65:  St.  Louis  grade,  $40  to  $50. 
Birmnigham — Fire   clay.    $35    to   $30:    Denver.    $23,    per    1000. 
Chicago — Second  quality,   $35   per  ton. 

FITEL  OIL — Price  variable,  depending  upon  stock.  New  York  quota- 
tions not  available  owing  to  this  fact.  In  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  the 
following  prices   are  quoted: 

Chicago  St.  Louis 

Domestic  light.-  33-36  Baum(5 5c  5i4c 

Mexican    heavy.    12-14    Baumf 7c.  None 

Note — There  is  practically  no  fuel   oil  in  Chicago  at  present   time. 

SWEDISH     (NORWAY)     IRON— The    average    price    per    100    lb      in- 

ton  lots,  is: 

Jan.  30.  1918  One  Year  Ago 

New   York    $15.00  $8.00 

Cleveland     15.30  ^7.50 

Chicago   15.00  6.00 

In   coils  an    advance  of   50c.   usually   is   charged. 
Note — Stock  very  scarce  generally. 


POLES — Prices  on  Western  red  cedar  poles: 

New  York      Chicago      St.  Louis 


6  in.  by  .30  ft $5.59 


7  in.  by  30  ft. 


7 

8  in. 

7  in. 

8  in. 
8  in. 
8  in. 


by  35  ft .  , 
by   35    ft .  . 

by  40  ft.  . 
by  40  f t .  . 
by  45  ft.  . 
by   50    ft.  . 


7.40 
10.70 
12,20 
12,35 
13,75 
18.20 
31.85 


$4.94 
6.60 
9.60 
10.90 
11.00 
13.15 
16.30 
19.45 


$4.94 
6.60 
9.60 
10.90 
11.00 
12.15 
16.30 
19.45 


Denver 

$4.32 

5.80 

8.55 

9.65 

9.75 

10.65 

14.30 

17.15 


10c.  higher  freight  rates  on   account  of'double  loads. 

For  plain  pine  poles,  delivered  New  York,  the  price  is  as  follows: 

lOin.   butt.s.   5-in.   tops,   length   20-30   ft $6  00 

12-in.   butts,   6-in,   tops,    length    30-40    ft 8'50 

12in.  butts.   6-in.    tops.    length   41-50  ft 9.50 

14-in,   butts,    6-in.   tops,   length   51-60    ft 17  00 

14-in.   butts,    6-in.  tops,   length   61-71    ft 18!50 

PIPE — The  following  discounts  are  for  carload  lots  f.o.b.  Pittsburgh, 
basing  card  in  effect  July  2,  1917,  for  iron,  and  May  1  for  steel: 


Inches 
ti     to    3, 


BUTT  WELD 
Steel 

Black   Galvanized         Inches 


Iron 

Black  Galvanized 


49% 


2     43  % 

2  '^     to    6 45  % 

7    to    12 43% 

13    and    14 32%  % 

15     30% 

BUTT  WELD. 

%    to  1  Vs 47  % 

3  to    3 48% 

LAP  WELD. 


35  %  %        %   to  1 14 33  %, 

LAP  WELD 

29  %  %       2     26  % 

■        3%     to    4 38% 


32  Vj  % 

38  1/2  % 


IV2     to    6 38% 


7    to    8. 


20%, 


2yi  to  4. 
4%  to  6. 
7  to  8.  . . 
9  to   13. . . 


40% 

28  lA  % 

43% 

31  y.  % 

42% 

30  %  % 

38% 

24  ¥2% 

33% 

19  %  % 

EXTBA  STRONG  PLAIN  ENDS 

34  ya  %        %    to  1  % 33  % 

35  %  % 

EXTRA  STRONG  PLAIN  ENDS 

27% 
15% 
25% 
29% 


9   to   12 

7    to    13 

3  y.  to  4 ... . 

4  y.    to  6 28  % 


17% 


12% 

15% 

15%, 

8% 


18% 


14% 

3% 
12% 
17% 
16% 


From   warehouses  at   the   places   named  the   following  discounts  hold 
for  steel  pipe: 

-Black- 


New  York 

%   to  3  in.  butt  welded 38% 

31/i    to  6  in.   lap  welded 18  7o 

7  to  12  in.  lap  welded 10% 


New  York 
%    to  3  in.  butt  welded 23% 


Chicago  St.  Louis 

43%  34.27% 

38%  31^:7% 

35%  21.37%, 

■Galvanized ^ 

Chicago  St.  Louis 

22  %  19.27  % 

18%  13.27% 

30%  6.37% 


3''A    to  6  in.  lap  welded List 

7  to  12  in.  lap  welded :Ust-|-30% 

Malleable  fittings.  Class  B  and  C,  from  New  York  stock  sell  at  5  and 
b%   from  list  prices.     Cast"  iron,  standard  sizes,   34  and  5%,. 


BOILER  TIBES — The  following  ire  the  prices  for  carload  lots  f.o.b. 
Pittsburgh,  announced  Nov.  13,  as  agreed  upon  by  manufacturers  and 
the  Government : 


Lap    Welded    Steel 


3  y^    to  4  ■ 

3y2   to  3' 


1%   to 


34 

34 
17  Vj 
13 


Charcoal    Iron 

3%   to  4%   in 

3  to  3yi   in 

3%    to  3%    in. 


13% 
+    5 

7% 


2  to  314   in --33yj 

1%   to  1%  in 4-35 

Standard  Commercial  Seamless — Cold  drawn    or  hot   rolled: 

Per  Net  Ton                                                     Per  Net  Ton 
1    in $340     1  ^.i    in $230 


1  ^i    in 

380     3  to  3  y.>    in 100 

370     3%    to  3?i    in ISO 

320    4    in 200 

4  14    to  5  in 230 

These  prices  do  not  apply  to  special  specifications  for  locomotive 
tubes  nor  to  special  specifications  for  tubes  for  the  Navy  Department, 
which   will  be  subje<'t  to  special  negotiation. 


1  V4  in. 
1%  in. 
ly.    in. 


POWER 


•  1 


Vol  47 


NEW  YORK    tEBRlAin    12    1)18 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

No.  7 
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


I'Ffiy  Nev/ibrk  has  no  Coat 


THERE  are  thousands  of  tons  of  coal  at  the  tide- 
water piers  that  supply  New  York  City.  Yet 
lines  of  people  a  block  long  wait  hours  to  buy  a 
hundred  pounds  each  at  50  cents.  Homes  and  offices  go 
unheated  and  pneumonia  makes  new  death  records. 

For  want  of  barges?  No,  scores  of  them  wait  for 
days,  aye  weeks,  at  each  of  the  piers.  Ice?  No,  the 
Kill  is  free  now.  Labor  shortage?  No,  hundreds  of 
men  are  available  at  a  fair  wage. 

Then  with  the  coal,  the  barges,  the  men  and  a  free 
channel,  why  does  the  city  freeze? 

Because  the  eight  piers,  operated  by  the  railroads, 
supplying  the  city  are  unloading  but  13.S5  cars  per  day 
average,  against  1800  last  year. 

Because  the  piers  are  undermanned  and  the  men  paid 
35  cents  an  hour,  while  almost  in  the  shadow  of  the 
piers  laborers  in  Government  employ  get  twice  as  much. 


Because  the  piers  are  worked  10  hours  or  so  a  day 
in.stead  of  24  hours. 

Because  the  thawing  facilities,  at  one  Perth  Amboy 
pier  at  least,  are  worked  at  less  than  10  per  cent,  ca- 
pacity, while  there  are  not  enough  -facilities  at  others. 
Because  this  pier  unloads  but  three  cars  at  a  time  in- 
.stead of  a  possible  28.  Because  it  employs  26  men 
instead  of  a  hundred. 

Because  a  gang  of  six  men  spend  two  days  unloading 
one  car  of  frozen  culm. 

Because,  at  this  writing,  anthracite  is  not  pooled, 
causing  switching  and  waiting  of  cars,  decrease  of  coal 
production  and  astounding  delay  of  barges. 

The  miners  blame  the  railroads,  who  say  they  are 
through  when  they  land  the  coal  at  tidewater;  the  pier 
management  blames  the  shipper  for  delaying  the  arrival 
of  his  barges.     Thus  "the  buck   is  passed   next  door." 

{See  editorial  pages,  i 

m  m 


210 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


^Hl-WINQE^^QWER.  STATra 


/III 


,(,. 


"'\, 


^SB 


^3||-^2^-^P|^;f/^^jjjj^y^ 


Features  in  the  location,  design  and  equipment 
of  a  huge  plant  located  at  a  coal  mine  in  West 
Virginia  to  produce  bulk  energy  for  its  joint 
owners,  the  American  Gas  and  Electric  Co.  and 
the  West  Penn  Power  Co.  Commercial  power 
was  first  put  on  the  line  to  Canton,  Ohio,  Aug. 
2S,  1917. 


WHEN  it  is  looked  upon  in  retrospect,  the  con- 
struction of  the  $10,000,000  Windsor  (W.  Va.) 
plant  of  the  American  Gas  and  Electric  Co. 
and  the  West  Penn  Power  Co.  will  probably  be  seen 
to  mark  a  new  epoch  in  the  central-station  industry. 
Far-seeing  engineers  and  central-station  executives  now 
view  it  as  a  pioneer  station ;  they  see  it  as  one  of  an 
interconnected  group  of  great  plants  strategically  lo- 
cated to  produce  large  quantities  of  energy  so  cheaply 
that  it  may  be  economically  transmitted  over  wide  areas 
to  serve  one  of  the  greatest  industrial  districts  in  the 
world.  True,  plants  have  been  built  at  coal  mines 
before;  but  this  is  a  pioneer  station  in  the  respect  that 
it  is  the  first  coal-burning  bulk  supply  station  of  any 
considerable  size.  Before  another  year  lapses,  the  sta- 
tion will  rank  among  the  world's  largest  steam  plants. 
It  is  the  initial  step  toward  carrying  into  actual  practice 
in  a  broad  way  what  has  proved  to  be  successful  on  a 
smaller  scale  in  the  Middle  West  with  steam  and  in 
the  Far  West  with  hydro-electric  power. 

As  a  bulk  supply  station  the  Windsor  plant  has  an 
enviable  situation.  Being  on  the  Ohio  River,  it  has  an 
adequate  and  dependable  supply  of  good  water.  Fig. 
2  is  a  view  of  the  station  at  its  present  state  of 
completion.  It  is  being  continued  for  the  second  section 
at  the  left  of  the  illustration.  It  is  but  2000  ft.  from 
a  coal  mine  that  produces  fuel  running  around  13,500 


B.t.u.  per  lb.  It  is  on  the  Pittsburgh,  Wheeling  & 
Kentucky  branch  of  the  Pennsylvania  R.R.  The  58 
acres  of  real  estate  purchased  around  the  plant  site 
was  not  expensive.  It  lies  between  the  Eastern  and 
the  Central  time  belts  and  receives,  therefore,  those 
advantages  of  diversity  which  come  from  serving  loads 
thrown  on  systems  at  different  times  by  reason  of  the 
arbitrary  shifting  of  clocks  as  the  meridian  is  passed. 
Moreover,  it  lies  in  what  is  practically  the  load  center 
of  the  eastern  Ohio,  western  Pennsylvania  and  Wheeling 
fW.  Va.)  industrial  district  which  it  will  serve.  This 
location  for  a  large  station  possesses  the  further  ad- 
vantage of  serving  a  territory  in  which  the  general 
run  of  boiler-feed  water  gives  enough  troubles  to  isolated 
plants  to  induce  them  to  central-station  service.  This 
water,  taken  from  small  streams,  is  contaminated  to 
a  considerable  extent  by  water  from  the  mines.  In 
fact,  this  exact  site  was  chosen  after  a  thorough  search 
extending  on  both  sides  of  the  Ohio  River  from  Steuben- 
ville  to  Wheeling. 

The  ultimate  rating  of  the  station  as  it  is  now  laid 
out  will  be  about  200,000  kw.  in  six  units.  Of  the 
first  60,000  kw.  of  this  rating  in  two  machines  now 
in  operation,  one  30,000-kw.  unit  was  put  into  com- 
mercial service  Aug.  28,  supplying  Canton,  Ohio.  Two 
additional  units  will  be  completed  in  1918.  The  last 
two  units  will  probably  be  installed  shortly  there- 
after. For  each  turbine  there  are  four  boilers,  each 
with  12,625  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface.  No.  2  unit  of 
the  two  now  installed  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  Each  boiler 
is  equipped  with  a  separate  economizer  and  induced- 
draft  fan  set  over  the  boiler.  Forced  draft  is  also 
applied  under  the  underfeed  stokers.  The  boilers  are 
arranged  on  both  sides  of  a  wide  room,  along  the  center 
of  which  is  a  large  concrete  coal  pit  into  which  fuel 
is  delivered  directly  from  the  mine  by  special  transfer 
cars.  From  thi.s  pit  coal  is  delivered  to  individual  hop- 
pers in  front  of  each  boiler. 


February  12.  1018 


P  0  W  E  R 


211 


PIG.    1.      ONE    OF    THE    30,onn-K\V.    TURBINE    UNITS 


In  the  turbine  room  the  machines  are  set  in  a  single 
line  with  their  axes  parallel  to  the  firing  aisle  of  the 
boiler  room.  The  units  are  grouped  in  pairs  with  the 
steam  ends  of  each  pair  adjacent  to  each  other  and 
directly  over  a  single  condenser  pit.  This  places  the 
operating  ends  of  each  pair  of  units,  as  well  as  the 
condensing  equipment  of  each  pair,  close  together  for 
convenient  operation.  Between  each  pair  of  turbines 
is  a  condenser  pit  74  ft.  deep,  the  walls  of  which 
form  the  foundation  of  the  turbines  (see  Fig.  3).  This 
pit  contains  two  horizontal  surface  condensers  each 
of  50,000  sq.ft.  cooling  surface,  together  with  the 
auxiliary  condenser  motor-driven  pump.  Details  of  the 
condenser  design,  auxiliaries  and  intake  and  discharge 
arrangement  will  be  published  in  a  following  article. 

All   tracks   run    into  the   station   on   trestles,   owing 


to  the  elevation  by  the  station  above  the  high-water 
level  of  the  river.  Although  these  were  costly  at  the 
outset,  the  space  beneath  them  will  be  used  for  ash 
dumps  for  several  years  to  come,  providing  an  econom- 
ical means  of  disposing  of  ashes. 

The  over-all  dimensions  of  the  plant  with  the  six 
units  completed,  exclusive  of  the  high-tension  yards, 
will  be  about  295  x  280  ft.  The  operating  floor  is  on 
one  floor  level,  and  in  a  plant  of  such  size  this  will 
add  greatly  to  the  convenience  of  operation.  Because 
it  is  necessary  to  radiate  quantities  of  heat  from  the 
large  units,  the  design  has  been  made  especially  liberal 
as  regards  light  and  air.  The  radiated  heat  from  the 
turbines  is  conducted  from  the  generators  to  the  base- 
ment of  the  boiler  room,  where  it  is  taken  up  by  the 
stoker  fans  and   delivered  to  the   furnaces. 


FIG.   2.     rOMPLETEP  SEOTIO.N  OK  TMK   Wlxn.«iOK   I'OWIOll   ST.VTIO.V 


212 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


To  get  the  proper  perspective  on  the  electrical  end 
of  the  plant,  it  should  be  viewed  in  two  units;  namely, 
the  low-tension  or  generator-voltage  equipment  and  the 
high-tension  equipment.  Control  of  all  .low  tension  and 
high  tension  is  centered  in  an  operating  room,  between 
the  original  section  of  the  generator  room  and  the 
switchhouse.  The  switching  of  all  circuits  operating 
at  the  generator  voltage  is  accomplished  in  this  switch- 
house,  which  is  built  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  gen- 
erator room.  The  energy  is  generated  at  11,000  volts, 
and  arrangements  are  made  so  that  ultimately  all  units 
in  the  station  can  operate  at  this  potential  on  a  ring- 
bus  system  with  reactors  between  each  two  bus  units. 


.52  ft.  Still  another  interesting  feature  is  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  space  over  the  intake  well  for  the  switch- 
board operating  room.  This  room  is  supported  on  6-ft. 
steel  trusses  that  span  the  space  between  the  turbine- 
room  wall  and  the  wall  of  the  switchhouse.  The  trusses 
do  not  interfere  with  access  to  the  intake  well,  which 
the  operating  force  must  have  for  cleaning  it  at  in- 
tervals. The  6-ft.  space  occupied  by  the  trusses  has 
proved  of  still  further  value,  since  it  was  inclosed  and 
was  used  as  a  spacious  conduit  chamber  for  all  lines 
leading  to  the  switchboards  in  the  operating  room.  By 
dividing  the  operating  room  horizontally  with  a  floor, 
it   has   also   been   possible   to   provide   offices   for   the 


PIG.   3.     ELEV.^TION  OF  THE  WINDSOR  PL.\NT 


From  the  switchhouse  the  energy  is  distributed  to  two 
separate  high-tension  yards  owned  individually  by  the 
joint  owners  of  the  station.  From  these  yards  the 
electricity  is  transmitted  to  distributing  companies  at 
four  different  potentials. 

In  the  building  itself  are  several  features  of  interest. 
The  problem  of  getting  a  solid  footing  under  the  boiler 
room  and  switchhouse  was  solved  by  sinking  caissons, 
but  the  necessity  for  carrying  out  this  method  under 
the  remainder  of  the  station  was  eliminated  by  utilizing 
the  walls  and  foundations  of  the  condenser  well  and 
intake  crib  to  support  the  superstructure.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  boiler-room  foundations,  generally  speaking, 
consists  of  seven  rows  of  concrete  piers  built  up  from 
depths    below   the   surface   that    vary    from    28    ft.    to 


chief  engineer  and  the  load  dispatcher  on  the  second 
floor. 

The  coal-handling  facilities  at  the  plant  are  note- 
worthy in  several  respects.  Coal  is  secured  under  a 
long-term  contract  from  a  mine  owned  by  the  Richland 
Coal  Co.,  approximately  2000  ft.  from  the  power  house. 
It  is  hauled  into  the  station  in  side-dump  transfer  cars 
on  a  standard-gage  track.  All  this  railroad  equipment 
is  owned  by  the  central  station.  It  is  considered  im- 
portant that  the  track  is  of  standard  gage,  because  in 
an  emergency  this  will  permit  the  shipment  of  fuel 
from  other  mines  without  inconvenience.  At  the  plant 
the  transfer  cars  are  dumped  into  a  concrete  pit  which 
is  appro.ximately  35  ft.  wide  and  runs  the  entire  length 
of  the  boiler  room  beneath  the  firing  aisle.     From  this 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


213 


pit,  which  will  hold  more  than  2500  tons  of  coal,  the 
fuel  is  lifted  in  a  3-cu.yd.  grab  bucket  operated  from 
an  overhead  crane.  After  being  weighed  by  a  device 
on  the  crane,  it  is  dropped  into  the  individual  hoppers 
that  serve  each  boiler.  This  indirect  but  effective  meth- 
od of  handling  coal  inside  the  boiler  room  permits  a 
rather  large  quantity  of  fuel  to  be  carried  inside  the 


FIG.  4. 


FRONT  VIEW  OF  ONE  OF  THE  STOKERS  AND 
COAL  HOPPERS 


plant  without  great  expense,  since  it  was  possible  to 
construct  the  coal  pit  of  concrete  instead  of  steel.  A 
large  coal-storage  yard  will  be  provided  near  the  plant 
in  the  future. 

From  the  hopper  the  coal  goes  by  gravity  to  under- 
feed stokers  with  fourteen  retorts  per  boiler  (Fig.  4), 
These  stokers  are  each  arranged  with  a  blast,  a  100-hp. 
motor-driven  fan  being  provided  for  each  boiler.  Stokers 
of  the  underfeed  type  were  chosen  for  this  service 
because  they  have  proved  efficient  in  burning  West 
Virginia  coal  and  have  possibilities  of  high  capacities. 

The  four  boilers  which  serve  each  turbine  are  of  the 
water-tube  cross-drum  type.  Each  one  has  12,625  sq.ft. 
of  heating  surface  and  supplies  steam  at  250  lb.  pres- 
sure and  250  deg.  superheat.  All  settings  are  incased 
in  steel  to  prevent  air  leakage.  The  four  boilers  which 
form  a  unit  to  serve  each  turbine  are  arranged  in 
banks  of  two  facing  each  other,  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  firing  aisle.  Each  bank  of  boilers  is  connected  to  a 
manifold,  which  in  turn  is  connected  to  the  steam  pipe 
running  to  the  turbine.  Leads  from  the  separate  boilers 
are  cross-connected.  A  feature  of  the  boiler  settings 
is  the  fact  that  the  center  line  of  the  drum  is  26.5 
ft.  above  the  firing-aisle  floor.  This  arrangement  pro- 
vides an  extra-large  furnace  and  insures  good  combus- 
tion of  the  fuel. 

As  the  gases  leave  the  boiler,  they  are  taken  through 
economizers.  Fig.  5.  One  8625-sq.ft.  economizer  is  set 
directly  over  each  boiler.  The  economizers,  which  are 
of  the  high-pressure  type,  are  arranged  in  two  divi- 
sions, 8  tubes  wide  by  36  tubes  long.  This  arrangement, 
it  is  believed,  provides  for  the  maximum  heat  transfer. 
It  also  allows  the  space  between  the  two  sections  to 
be  utilized  for  a  bypass  duct  and  permits  a  neat  ar- 
rangement of  the  duct  to  the  double-suction  induced- 
draft  fan.  Moreover,  arrangement  of  the  economizer  in 
this  manner  makes  the  section  narrower  and  hence  more 
accessible  for  repairs  and  cleaning.  Dampers  are  pro- 
vided in  the  uptake  and  are  so  arranged  that  in  one 
position  they  close  off  the  economizer  and  in  the  other 


position  the  bypass  duct.  From  the  economizer  the  gases 
Dass  through  a  60-hp.  motor-driven  fan  to  a  smoke  flue 
which  connects  three  boilers  to  a  13-ft.  by  146-ft.  steel 
stack.  The  gases  are  thus  actuated  by  both  induced  and 
forced  draft  and  practically  a  balanced  draft  condition 
is  maintained  over  the  fire.  The  stoker-blast  equip- 
ment is  designed  to  give  a  pressure  equal  to  6.5  in. 
of  water.  The  operation  of  the  induced-draft  fans  in 
connection  with  the  forced  draft  will  permit  the  furnaces 
to  operate  almost  without  pressure  in  the  firebox.  Hand 
regulation  is  employed  to  give  proper  relation  of  fuel 
and  air.  The  ash  from  the  furnaces  is  disposed  of 
by  dropping  into  pits,  from  which  it  can  be  dumped 
into  the  same  transfer  cars  that  are  used  for  bringing 
coal  to  the  plant.  A  plan  view  of  the  plant  is  shown 
in   fig.   6. 

Because  the  boilers  are  equipped  with  economizers 
and  since  the  large  units  permit  the  production  of 
energy  at  low  cost,  most  of  the  auxiliaries  are  motor- 
driven.  In  connection  with  each  condensing  equipment, 
there  are  two  hydraulic  air  pumps  driven  by  200-hp. 
motors  and  two  hotwell  pumps  driven  by  100-hp.  motors. 
The  hydraulic  air  pumps  are  set  on  the  gallery  adjacent 
to  the  condenser,  making  a  very  short  suction  con- 
nection. The  hotwell  pumps  are  located  on  the  floor  of 
the  condenser  well  under  the  condenser.  The  pumps, 
which  are  operated  in  connection  with  the  condensing 
equipment,  including  the  50,000-gal.  circulating  pumps, 
are  motor-driven. 

The  condensate,  after  passing  through  the  condenser, 
is  pumped  through  a  primary  heater  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  condenser  up  into  a  feed-water  heater  of  the 
open  type,  which  is  set  on  a  platform  immediately  over 
the  feed  pumps.  These  pumps  and  one  service  pump 
are  the  only  steam-driven  auxiliaries  in  the  plant.    There 


FIG.    5.      VIEW   ABOVE  THE   BCONOMIZETRS 

are  two  feed  pumps  on  each  unit,  one  of  these  pumps 
each  on  two  units  being  motor-driven  and  three  steam- 
driven. 

Besides  those  auxiliaries  which  are  attached  to  each 
separate  unit,  there  is  one  motor-driven  and  one  steam- 
driven  turbine  service  pump  located  in  the  condenser 
well.  These  units  are  connected  to  a  steel  service  tank 
under  the  boiler-room  roof.  This  supplies  all  service 
and  all  makeup  water,  the  latter  being  run  through  a 


214 


PO  WEP 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


settling  tank  and  quartz  filter  before  going  to  the  feed- 
water  heaters.  No  other  water-treating  equipment  is 
necessary.  From  the  feed  pump  water  is  taken  to  the 
boilers  through  a  double-feed  system,  the  main  feed 
being  arranged  to  take  water  through  the  economizers 
and  the  auxiliary  feed  being  arranged  to  deliver  the 
water  to  the  boilers  direct. 

On  account  of  the  fact  that  the  condenser  well  is 
deep  and  a  large  part  of  the  auxiliary  machinery  is 
under  the  condenser,   an  electric   push-button   elevator 


5  per  cent,  reactor,  which  may  be  placed  in  or  taken 
out  of  the  bus  by  opening  or  closing  a  reactor  short- 
circuiting  switch.  When  the  generators  are  paralleled  on 
the  bus,  they  are  separated  by  these  current-limiting 
reactors.  In  this  connection  a  unique  automatic  control 
feature  has  been  worked  out.  The  control  circuit  for 
oDerating  the  generator  switch  on  the  main  bus  and 
the  reactor  short-circuiting  switch  are  electrically  in- 
terlocked so  that  when  the  generator  switch  is  closed, 
the  reactor  switch  is  open  and  vice  versa.    This  prevents 


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PIG.    6.      PLAN    VIEW   OF    THE    STATION 


operates  between  the  turbine-room   floor  and  the  con- 
denser pit  for  the  convenience  of  the  operators. 

In  the  ultimate  layout  the  six  30,000-kw.  11,000-volt 
three-phase  60-cycle  generators  will  be  arranged  for 
connection  to  a  double-bus  system  composed  of  a  main 
bus  and  a  reserve  bus  parallel  to  it.  The  main  bus 
will  operate  on  the  ring  system,  and  although  the  re- 
serve bus  will  not  be  operated  as  a  ring  at  present, 
space  has  been  left  to  install  the  ring  connection  at  a 
later  date  if  it  is  thought  advisable.  For  each  station 
unit  there  is  a  bus  unit  so  designed  as  to  limit  the 
possible  interchange  of  power  between  bus  sections  to 
an  amount  well  within  the  guarantee  of  the  oil-switch 
manufacturers.     Between  each  bus  section  there  is  a 


generators  being  placed  on  the  bus  without  reactors  be- 
tween them.  Provision  is  made  for  independent  opera- 
tion of  these  switches  when  necessary.  Fig.  7  shows 
a  single-line  diagram  of  the  main  electrical  connections 
of  the  plant. 

The  11,000-volt  cables  from  the  turbines  are  arranged 
for  connection  with  the  11,000-volt  busses  in  the  switch- 
house  through  either  of  two  2000-anip.  oil  switches. 
The  busses  and  switch  cell  structures  are  on  the  turbine- 
room  floor  level.  The  reactors,  potential  transformers, 
current  transformers,  cable  terminals,  lightning  ar- 
resters, switch  gears  and  storage  batteries  which  are 
a'lso  in  the  switchhouse  are  on  the  floor  below.  Beneath 
this   lower  floor  are  cable  tunnels   which   extend   out 


February  l2,'l918 


P'OWtR 


215 


into  the  high-tension  switchyard,  carrying  power  cables 
in  fiber  conduit  laid  in  concrete  and  control  cable  in 
iron  conduit  on  racks. 

Each  turbine  is  provided  with  its  own  direct-connected 
exciter,  the  rating  of  which  is  sufficient  to  carry  two 
generators  in  an  emergency.  The  rating  of  each  exciter 
is  210  kw.  and  the  energy  required  for  the  maximum 
field  of  one  machine  is  140  kw.  Further  provision  for 
emergency  excitation  was  made  by  the  installation  of 
a  250-volt  exciter  bus  running  the  full  length  of  the 
station.  Arrangements  are  made  for  connecting  all  ma- 
chine exciters  and  all  machine  fields  to  this  bus.  The 
bus  is  also  served  by  a  150-kw.  motor-generator  set, 
which  was  installed  with  the  first  two  units.  Space  has 
also  been  reserved  for  an  excitation  storage  battery 
which  will  be  installed  later.  There  is  a  voltage  regu- 
lator on  each  machine  exciter  and  on  the  separate 
motor-driven  exciter  which  supplies  the  excitation  bus. 

Each  unit  is  provided  with  an  1800-kv.-a.  three-phase 


serving  the  longer  lines  of  the  American  Gas  and 
Electric  Co. 

All  the  feeders  leaving  the  station  are  laid  out  on 
the  radial  system,  arrangements  being  made  for  parallel 
operation  of  two  lines  in  case  of  emergency.  It  is 
understood  by  operators,  however,  that  radial  operation 
is  preferred  and  that  parallel  operation  is  an  emergency 
measure. 

Each  of  the  11,000-volt  feeders  is  equipped  with  a 
3  per  cent,  current-limiting  reactor.  These  3  per  cent, 
reactors,  like  all  other  reactors  in  the  plant,  were  not 
arbitrarily  chosen,  but  were  selected  to  limit  the  cur- 
rent that  might  flow  into  a  short  to  a  value  well  within 
the  rating  of  the  smallest  oil  switch  in  the  circuit. 

All  of  the  66,000-  and  130,000-volt  transformers  are 
wound  so  as  to  be  interchangeable.  Furthermore,  the 
66,000-volt  units  are  arranged  so  that  they  may  be 
operated  later  at  130,000  volts.  To  provide  further 
flexibility,  arrangements  have  also  been  made. for  con- 


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PIG.  7.     SINGLE  LINE  DIAGR.'\M  OF  THE  MAIN  ELECTRICAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THE  WINDSOR  PLANT 


•■600'l/olts,J'Ptiose,  Alternating  Current 
Transfer  Bus 


transformer  to  step  down  the  potential  from  1100  to 
550  volts  to  drive  the  motors  of  its  own  auxiliary 
equipment.  The  electrical  requirements  of  auxiliaries 
attached  to  one  unit  are  about  1500  kv.-a.  The  stoker 
motors  are  not  included  in  this  aggregate  since  they 
are  direct-current  machines  and  are  operated  from 
600-volt  motor-generator  sets  which  also  supply  cranes, 
hoists,  automatic  elevators  and  coal-mining  equipment. 
Two  1800-kv.-a.  station  auxiliary  transformers,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  one  attached  to  each  turbine,  are  operated 
from  the  11,000-volt  bus  section,  and  supply  motors 
about  the  station  which  are  not  directly  connected  with 
any  particular  unit.  They  also  supply  energy  for  oper- 
ating the  motor-generator  sets  which  furnish  energy 
for  the  direct-current  auxiliaries. 

The  feeders  leaving  the  station  can  be  divided  roughly 
into  four  groups:  The  11,000-volt  feeders  which  supply 
local  industries;  25,000-volt  feeders  which  supply  a 
network  of  the  West  Penn  system;  66,000-volt  feeders 
which  supply  some  of  the  lines  of  the  American  Gas 
and  Electric  Co.;  66,000-volt  feeders,  which  will  ulti- 
mately operate  at  130,000  volts  and  which  serve  a  part 
of   the   West   Penn   system;    and    130,000-volt   feeders 


necting  together  the  66,000-volt  busses  in  the  high- 
tension  yards  of  the  two  companies. 

From  the  main  11,000-volt  bus  the  energy  which  is 
to  be  transmitted  at  130,000  volts  leave.=  the  station 
through  30,000-kw.  banks  of  transformers,  the  low- 
tension  switches  for  which  are  located  inside  the  sta- 
tion. Fig.  9.  In  the  130,000-volt  yard  the  transformers 
are  tied  in  solid  on  the  low-tension  side.  Here  a  high- 
tension  transfer  bus  is  provided,  so  that  the  load  from 
any  outgoing  130,000-volt  line  can  be  distributed  over 
other  operating  banks  of  transformers  in  case  it  is 
necessary  to  shut  down  one  bank. 

In  the  66,000-volt  yard  of  the  American  Gas  and 
Electric  Co.,  a  double  66,000-volt  bus  has  been  provided ; 
it  is  at  present  supplied  by  a  bank  of  20,000-kv.-a. 
transformers,  and  all  outgoing  66,000-volt  feeders  are 
connected  to  this  bus.  Provision  is  made  for  the  future 
installation  of  a  bank  of  66,000-volt  transformers  when 
the  load  conditions  require  it. 

In  the  West  Penn  high-tension  yard  the  66,000-volt 
bus  is  normally  only  a  transfer  bus,  the  energy  being 
supplied  through  a  bank  of  30,000-kv.-a.  transformers. 
The  same  provision  for  flexible  operation  is  made  in  the 


216 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


yard  as  obtains  on  the  130,000-volt  bu.s  of  the  American 
Gas  and   Electric   Companj-. 

The  control  of  turbines,  exciters  and  auxiliary  trans- 
formers is  centered  on  a  benchboard  so  located  in  the 
operating  room  that  the  operator  faces  the  turbine  room 


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FIG- 


PARTIAL    VIEW    OF    THE    OHi-:KA'lMN(;     ROOM 


while  handling  the  equipment,  Fig.  8.  A  glass  parti- 
tion between  the  operating  room  and  the  turbine  room 
permits  a  view  of  practically  the  entire  floor  of  the 
latter.  Outgoing  feeders  are  controlled  from  a  vertical 
switchboard  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  room  from  the 
benchboard.  Voltage  regulators  and  curve-drawing 
instruments  ai'e  located  on  pedestals  at  the  center  of 
the  room.  The  600-volt  direct-current  board  and  the 
watt-hour  meter  board  are  at  opposite  ends  of  the 
operating  room.  This  arrangement  places  the  switch- 
boards requiring  the  most  attention  at  the  most  con- 
venient location  for  the  operator.  It  was  also  thought 
advisable  to  place  the  battery-charging  equipment  and 
panels  in  an  alcove  off  the  operating  room,  where  they 
are  i-eadily  accessible  to  the  switchboard  operators.  One 
of  the  unusual  features  in  this  room  is  a  provision  for 
reading  the  temperatures  of  transformers  in  the  high- 
tension  yard  and  the  temperatures  of  important  parts 
of  the  30,000-kw.  generators.  Alarm  bells  and  lamps 
are  also  placed  here  to  warn  operators   of  any   inter- 


ruption in  the  flow  of  cooling  water  to  the  high-tension 
transformers. 

The  11,000-,  25,000-,  66,000-  and  130,000-volt  feeders 
are  all  equipped  with  induction-type  inverse  time-limit 
relays.  The  transformers  are  protected  by  definite 
time-limit  relays.  The  25,000-  and  66,000-volt  relays 
are  given  a  minimum  setting  of  two  seconds.  The 
130,000-volt  relays  are  set  for  three  seconds.  The  trans- 
former relays  have  a  minimum  setting  of  three  seconds. 
The  11,000-volt  feeders  will  supply  only  local  territory. 

The  design  and  construction  of  the  station,  including 
the  high-tension  yard  of  the  West  Penn  Power  Co.,  were 
carried  out  by  Sargent  &  Lundy,  consulting  engineers, 


FIG.  9.      A  BATTERY  OF  OIL*  SWITCHES 

Chicago.  The  high-tension  yard  of  the  American  Gas 
and  Electric  Co.  was  handled  by  the  Electric  Bond  and 
Share  Co.  The  subcontracts  for  the  building  founda- 
tions, the  high-tension  yard  foundations  and  the  railroad 
foundations  were  all  awarded  to  the  Foundation  Com- 
pany of  America,  The  Riverside  Bridge  Co.  was 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  steel. 


PRINCIPAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  WINDSOR,  W    VA  .  POWER  PLANT 


No,   Equipment  Kind 

2  Turbines.,  , .   Steam,  horizontal 


Boilers B.   &   W.    water- 
tube  


Cleaners  -       Soot 

Stokers.         Front  inclined  un- 
derfeed ,  .  . 
Motors   .  -       Direct-current.  . 
Economizers  High-pressure.. 


Size  L^se 

30,000-kw..  80    per 
cent,  power  faetor  Main  generators 


1  2.625  sq.ft.  heating 
surface   .  Main  steam  generators 

Boiler  tubes 


Operating  Conditions 


Maker 


1 1.OOO-volt.  3-ph:ise.  bO-cycIe.  I.SOOr.p.m.. 

230  lb.  steam,  200  deg.  superheat  General  Electric  Co. 


8  Fans     .  Multivane,    dou- 

ble-suction. . 

8   Motors Induction 

8  Fans,  ,  .  Conodial,  double- 
siiction 

8  Motors  .   ,,     Induction  

4  Stacks Steel,  brick-lined. 

2  Condensers..  Leblanc,  surface.. 


l4-retort    . ,  , 

35-kw 

8. 256  sq.ft.  heating- 
surface 


60-hp 


Boiler  furnaces 
Driving  stokers  '   ,    ,  , 

One  with  eac-h  boiler 

Induced  draft 

Driving  induced-draft  fans 


3,500  lb.  air  per  niin..*Forced  draft 

1 00-hp Driving  forced-draft  fans. 

I50-ft.high.  131  ft 

dia Three  boilers  per  stack . , , 

50,000  sq. ft With  main  turbines. 


250  lb.  pressure,  250  deg.  superheat 
With  steam  pressure 

Motor-driven,  silent-chain  drive 
600-volt  d.c,  variable^apeed 


Placed  above  the  boilers. 

290  r.p.m.,  placed  above  boilers 

290  r.p.m.,  500  volts.  3-phase,  60-cycle. , 

Placed  back  of  boilers,  motor-driven 
500  volts,  3-phase,  60-cycle 


Babcock  &  Wilcox  Co. 
Diamond  Power  Specialty  Co. 

Westinghouse  Elec,  &  Mfg.  Co. 
Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co. 

B.F.  SturtevantCo. 

B.  F.  Sturtevant  Co. 
Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co. 

Buffalo  Forge  Co. 
Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co. 


With  forced  and  induced  draft 
29.2  in.  vacuum  expected  wi 
WfttlT         


ith  75-deg. 


2  Pumps,..          Double-runner..,    50.000  gal.  per  niiii     Circulating  water  to  conden- 
sers  

600-hp  Driving  circulating  pump.    , 

Feed- water  heating. 

Boiler  feed 

Drives  6-in.  boiler-feed  pump , 
Drives  6-in.  boiler  feed  pumps 
Station  service   and   makeup 

^■ater 

Screens . .  ,       Revolving . . : ';,... '.  .'.  . Cbndenser  intake 

Cranes,  traveling,  for  turbine  and  boiler  rooms 

Oiling  system ? '  ,  , '     

Equipment  for  American  Gas  &  Electric  Co.'s  high-tension  yard 
Equipment  for  West  Pcnn.  Power  Co.'s  high  tension  yard     


Motors. . 
Heaters, , 
Pumps.. 
Motor . , 
Turbines. 


Pumps Turbine, 


Induction  . . 
Open 

Turbine 6-in 

Induction 300-hp 

Horizontal 300-hp 


water 

350 r.p.m.,  motor-driven      , 
350r.p.m.,  550-volt,  3-phase,  60-eycle. . 

Takes  water  from  primary  heater 

One  motor,  three  turbine-driven 

I,750r.p.m.,  500-volt.  3-phase,  60-cycle. 
Direct-connected 


One  motor,  one  turbine-driven. 
Continuously 


Westinghouse  Electric  &  Mfg.  Co. 

Worthington  Pump  &  Machinery  Co. 
Westinghouse  Elec,  &  Mfg.  Co. 
Warren  Webster  &  Co. 
.Worthington  Pump  &  Machinery  Co. 
Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co. 
Westinghouse  Elec,  &  Mfg.  Co. 

Worthington  Pump  &  Machinery  Co. 

Chain  Belt  Co. 

Whiting  Foundry  and  Machinery  Co. 

Richardson-Phenix  Co. 

General  Electric  Co. 

Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co. 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


217 


Effect  of  the  War  on  Engineering  Education 


By  C.  R.  MANN 


The  e)igi>ieer,  not  the  banker,  the  real  power  be- 
hind the  throne.  He  is  vitally  involved  in  the 
control  of  credit,  in  the  interpretation  of  the  daily 
news  and  in  the  organization  of  indiistry  and 
commerce.  There  must  be  closer  cooperation  be- 
tween .'fchool  and  industry.  The  war  has  revealed 
a  profounder  appraisement  of  human  values  and 
costs  and  has  hastened  the  transformation  of  the 
individualistic  man  into  a  community  man  will- 
ing to  do  his  best  for  the  common  welfare.  The 
day  of  the  real  industrial  university  is  at  hand. 

THREE  years  ago  most  of  us  thought  that  a  world 
war  could  not  last  long  because,  however  much 
kings  and  kaisers  might  wish  to  continue,  the 
hanker  would  stop  it.  But  the  financiers  have  not  come 
up  to  our  expectations  in  this  matter,  and  we  have  there- 
fore been  compelled,  unwillingly  perhaps,  to  recognize 
that  money  is  not  the  ultimate  measure  of  national 
strength.  National  credit  is  the  result  and  not  the  cause 
of  intelligent  industrial  production ;  the  engineer,  not 
the  banker,  is  the  real  power  behind  the  throne. 

This  fundamental  fact  now  seems  so  simple  and  self- 
evident  that  it  is  rather  hard  to  remember  the  time 
when  we  thought  otherwise.  But  though  the  rugged 
outlines  of  this  fact  are  now  sharply  silhouetted  against 
the  ruddy  dawn  of  the  new  age,  the  details  of  its  mean- 
ing are  but  dimly  discernible  through  the  haze  of  specu- 
lation over  the  significance  of  the  struggle.  Naturally, 
the  engineer  is  intensely  interested  in  the  development 
of  the  details  of  the  picture,  for  on  him  devolves  th 
duty  of  interpreting  the  coming  conceptions  in  terms  of 
materials  and  organizations  of  men.  And  if  educatior 
makes  men,  engineering  education  must  be  the  first  t< 
feel  the  thrill  of  the  dawning  day. 

Three  Elements  Can  Be  Perceived 

Three  elements  in  the  picture  can  now  be  plainly  per- 
ceived. These  indicate  that  the  engineer  is  from  hence 
forth  vitally  involved  in  the  control  of  credit,  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  daily  news,  and  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  industry  and  commerce  to  make  goods  cheap  and 
men  dear. 

In  performing  the  first  of  these  new  functions  the 
engineer  becomes  the  partner  of  the  banker  to  deter- 
mine which  projects  are  worthy  of  financial  support  and 
which  not.  As  the  engineering  spirit  is  more  and  more 
infused  into  this  dispensing  of  credit,  public  service 
rather  than  excess  profit  becomes  the  inspiration  for 
enterprise;  intelligence  in  production  becomes  the  best 
security  for  loans;  ability  to  deliver  the  goods  becomes 
the  sure  basis  of  financial  success ;  and  the  control  of 
tools  gradually  passes  from  the  hands  of  those  who  own 
them  legally  into  the  hands  of  those  who  can  use  them 
effectively. 

Newspapers  and  periodicals  already  sense  the  expan- 
sion of  the  engineering  spirit  in  the  struggle  to  make 
the  nation  strong.  The  distribution  of  wheat,  the  sup- 
ply of  sugar,  the  transportation  of  coal  and  the  price 


of  bread  are  now  subjects  that  occupy  an  amount  of 
space  in  the  daily  press  that  only  a  Thaw  trial  could 
formerly  command.  The  public  has  never  before  real- 
ized how  vital  and  how  interesting  factories,  freight 
cars,  warehouses,  terminals,  trucks  and  ships  really  are. 
Some  faint  conception  of  the  necessity  of  organization 
for  the  common  project  of  liberating  life  by  winning  the 
war  seems  to  be  taking  shape;  while  an  impelling  desire 
to  serve  and  to  subordinate  personal  preferences  to  com- 
munity interests  appears  to  be  dimly  developing.  These 
faint  feelings  of  fraternity  may  grow  into  driving  im- 
pulses if  editors  continue  to  extol  engineering  enter- 
prise rather  than  private  profit  in  their  interpretations 
of  the  daily  news. 

Engineers  Have  Organized  To  Build  Up  Business 

In  many  communities  chambers  of  commerce  or 
groups  of  engineers  have  organized  to  build  up  business 
and  boom  the  town.  Through  their  efforts  living  con- 
ditions have  been  improved  and  many  a  city  is  being 
made  a  better  place  for  homes.  But  the  progress  has 
always  been  hampered  by  the  vested  rights  of  individu- 
als and  of  corporations,  so  that  none  has  yet  dared  to 
envisage  an  entire  community  as  a  single  working  plant 
for  the  purpose  of  organizing  it  for  the  most  intelligent 
production  of  human  wealth.  This  can  now  be  done. 
The  war  is  opening  many  hitherto  blind  eyes  to  see  that 
each  gains  more  than  he  loses  when  he  merges  his 
strength  with  the  might  of  all  in  an  organization  that  is 
constructed  for  the  purpose  of  releasing  creative  energy 
by  giving  each  the  work  he  is  best  qualified  to  do. 

The  time  has  come  for  such  an  organization  in  every 
community  and  every  state,  because  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment is  struggling  to  shape  the  nation  into  an  or- 
ganization of  this  type.  Only  so  may  the  nation  be 
strong;  only  so  many  communities  add  their  utmost  to 
the  nation's  strength.  The  responsibility  for  this  work 
must  finally  be  shouldered  by  engineers  who  are  both 
masters  of  the  mechanic  arts  and  molders  of  men. 

For  many  years  this  country  has  been  drifting  toward 
the  realization  of  these  requirements.  The  war  has  but 
accelerated  the  process  and  precipitated  conclusions  that 
were  bound  to  come,  otherwise  men  trained  by  experi- 
ence to  meet  the  present  crisis  could  not  now  be  found. 
Continuity  demands  that  the  same  conclusions  remain 
valid  long  after  the  war  is  ended.  Therefore,  engineer- 
ing schools  will  render  service  in  proportion  as  they 
grasp  the  implications  of  these  conclusions  and  express 
them  effectively  in  the  daily  work  of  instruction. 

Closer  Cooperation  Between  Sjhool  and  Industry 

The  possible  conclusions  for  engineering  education 
are  many  and  complex,  but  two  stand  out  in  bold  relief; 
namely,  there  must  be  closer  cooperation  between  school 
and  industry,  and  there  must  be  more  attention  to  the 
appraisement  of  values  and  costs. 

The  essential  feature  of  the  cooperation  with  industry 
is  not  the  skill,  the  knowledge  of  workmen,  or  the  feel 
of  the  machines  which  the  student  acquires  from  shop 
experience.  Important  as  these  are,  they  cannot  com- 
pete with  the  spirt  of  investigation  which  must  develop 


218 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


if  the  cooperation  between  school  and  industry  is  real 
and  vital.  There  are  thousands  of  unsolved  problems  in 
even  such  rough  shopwork  as  freshmen  are  permitted  to 
do.  The  boy  should  be  trained  to  discover  these  un- 
solved problems  and  to  bring  them  back  to  school  for 
discussion  and  solution.  By  making  shopwork  in  in- 
dustrial plants  the  source  of  problems  for  solution  in 
school,  and  by  relating  the  class  and  the  laboratory  work 
in  some  degree  to  the  problems  raised,  conditions  most 
favorable  to  the  self -development  of  the  student  may  be 
realized.  As  he  progresses,  the  problems  become  more 
and  more  intricate;  until  in  his  last  year,  if  he  has 
shown  real  engineering  ability,  he  may  be  assigned  as 
helper  in  industrial  research,  either  at  the  plant  or  in 
the  school  laboratories.  After  such  a  training  in  defin- 
ing and  solving  problems,  closely  coordinated  with  in- 
struction in  science  and  drill  in  mathematics,  he  should 
be  able  on  graduation  to  take  a  'responsible  position 
without  serving  several  years  as  an  apprentice  as  is 
usual  under  present  conditions. 

To  the  faculty  this  type  of  cooperation  with  industry 
brings  incentives  for  creative  work  in  production  and 
in  education.  For  cooperation  makes  the  school  the 
source  of  solutions  of  industrial  problems,  not  only  with 
respect  to  the  technique  of  manufacture,  but  also  con- 
cerning the  correlation  of  the  community's  productive 
processes  with  the  training  of  its  citizens  as  intelli- 
gent workers.  Hitherto  manufacturing  companies  have 
stood  aloof  and  regarded  one  another  with  suspicion — 
and  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  discovered  that  200,- 
000  of  them  are  not  paying  expenses ;  but  now  they  are 
ready  to  cooperate.  Similarly  in  education,  many  manu- 
facturers are  supporting  corporation  schools  to  train 
their  own  help,  while  more  than  half  the  children  in 
the  entire  country  quit  school  at  the  sixth  grade  with- 
out being  trained  to  earn  a  living ;  but  they  too  are  now 
ready  to  cooperate.  If  the  men  who  are  teaching  in  en- 
gineering schools  rise  to  the  responsibility  and  organize 
for  the  sy.stematic  study  of  community  production,  they 
could  soon  create  a  true  university,  with  its  feet  firmly 
planted  in  industry  and  its  soul  consecrated  to  the  task 
of  utilizing  science  and  literature  to  liberate  the  crea- 
tive energies  of  men. 

Appraisement  of  Values  and  Costs 

While  close  cooperation  between  school  and  industry 
gives  that  practical  experience  which  is  essential  for 
mastery  of  the  mechanic  arts,  it  is  not  in  itself  sufficient 
to  enable  the  schools  to  meet  adequately  the  fundamental 
requirements  of  engineering  in  the  new  epoch.  The 
Germans  are  technically  well  trained  in  the  mechanic 
arts,  yet  they  are  but  brutally  strong.  In  order  to 
strengthen  the  nation  by  infusing  the  engineering  spirit 
in  the  control  of  credit,  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
daily  news  and  in  the  organization  of  industry  for  the 
production  of  human  wealth,  the  engineer  must  have 
sound  judgment  in  the  appraisement  of  values  and  costs. 
This  requires  not  only  an  understanding  of  finance  and 
the  meaning  of  money,  but  also  a  sympathetic  apprecia- 
tion of  the  things  humanity  holds  to  be  most  worth 
while.  Even  a  practical  project  like  building  a  bridge 
is  ultimately  controlled  by  some  man's  decision  that  the 
resulting  value  is  worth  the  cost;  and  this  decision  is 
more  difficult  and  subtle  when  it  concerns  profoundly 
the  production  of  human  wealth  and  the  appraisement 


of  human  values  and  costs.  The  engineer  is  too  often 
obliged  to  be  only  the  employee  of  the  bank,  the  corpora- 
tion or  the  state  commission,  because  he  believed  that 
engineering  is  wholly  a  matter  of  technical  skill;  when 
control  in  this,  as  in  everything  else,  is  really  vested  in 
the  decision  of  the  question  whether  the  game  is  worth 
the  candle. 

The  training  in  the  appraisement  of  values  and  costs 
does  not  require  the  addition  of  formal  courses  for 
that  purpose,  but  rather  the  injection  of  this  point  of 
view  into  every  branch  of  school  work.  For  example, 
experiments  in  chemistry  need  not  always  be  of  the 
type,  "Analyze  this  baking  powder."  The  project, 
"Make  baking  powder  and  find  out  if  it  is  cheaper  and 
better  than  any  you  can  buy,"  is  vastly  more  effective  as 
a  training  exercise.  Presented  as  a  personal  effort  to 
appraise  the  human  values  and  costs  in  life's  experi- 
ences, literature  fascinates  engineering  students..  Eco- 
nomics delights  them  when  it  is  a  critique  of  proposed 
solutions  of  the  social  problems  defined  by  their  daily 
cooperation  with  labor.  Such  exercises  also  foster  the 
development  of  those  homely  virtues  which  always  make 
the  working  people  the  bulwark  of  a  nation's  strength — 
the  sense  of  justice,  feelings  of  neighborly  kindliness, 
devotion  to  right  and  respect  for  God  and  man. 

Opportunity  of  the  Industrial  University 

Thus  because  the  war  has  revealed  a  profounder  ap- 
praisement of  human  values  and  costs,  and  because  the 
war  has  hastened  the  transformation  of  the  individual- 
istic man,  selfishly  seeking  his  own  personal  profit,  into 
a  community  man  willing  to  do  his  best  for  the  common 
welfare,  the  ideal  that  was  set  for  the  engineering 
schools  in  the  passage  of  the  Morrill  Act  in  1862  may 
now  be  achieved.  For  many  of  the  first  schools  founded 
under  that  act  were  called  "Industrial  Universities"; 
but  they  soon  dropped  the  "industrial"  from  their  titles, 
fearing  lest  they  lose  caste  in  academic  councils.  But 
now,  if  they  gladly  grasp  the  opportunity  opening  be- 
fore them,  they  will  claim  with  pride  their  abandoned 
surname  and  proceed  to  demonstrate  that  the  engineer, 
the  creator  of  a  new  earth,  is  also  the  prophet  of  a 
profounder  philosophy  of  life. 

Carbon-Monoxide  Gas  Poisoning 

Breathing  of  furnace  gas,  smoke  in  burning  buildings, 
the  "afterdamp"  of  explosions  of  coal  dust,  etc.,  has 
caused  many  deaths  due  to  poisoning  by  carbon  monox- 
ide. How  this  kills  is  described  in  the  Journal  of  the 
American  Medical  Association. 

Carbon  monoxide  has  an  avidity  for  hemoglobin,  the 
red  coloring  matter  of  the  blood,  with  which  it  forms 
the  same  combination  as  does  oxygen,  only  250  times  as 
powerful. 

It  is,  however,  a  misapprehension  to  suppose  that  this 
combination  is  permanent.  A  man  brought  out  to  the 
fresh  air,  or,  better  still,  to  whom  air  mixed  with  oxygen 
can  be  administered,  will  generally  recover  if  exposure 
is  within  the  following  limits. 

As  a  rough  estimate,  it  may  be  stated  that  usually 
a  man  will  die  who  has  breathed  0.2  per  cent,  of  carbon 
monoxide  mixed  with  air  which  is  in  other  respects 
normal,  for  four  or  five  hours,  or  0.4  per  cent,  for  one 
hour.  With  from  2  to  5  per  cent,  of  carbon  monoxide 
death  follows  almost  as  quickly  as  in  drowning. 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


21S) 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — Commutator 

Construction 


The  construction,  methods  of  insulating  and  dif- 
ferent materials  used  for  insulating  commutators 
for  direct-current  machines  are  described. 

IN  A  previous  lesson  it  was  shown  that  if  a  single 
coil  is  connected  to  rings  /?,  and  R,,  as  in  Fig.  1, 
and  revolves  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet  as  in- 
dicated, an  alternating  current  would  be  caused  to  flow 
in  the  external  circuit  C.  It  was  also  shown  that  this 
alternating  current  could  be  changed  into  a  current  that 
flows  in  one  direction — that  is,  a  direct  current — by  con- 


Fig.  .5  shows  a  section  through  a  common  type  of 
commutator.  The  black  lines  A  across  the  surface  are 
insulation,  usually  mica,  between  the  segments.  The 
heavy  black  lines  B  are  also  insulation,  therefore  it  is 
evident  that  each  segment  is  insulated  from  the  iron 
or  steel  form.  Each  divi-sion  on  the  commutator  is 
called  a  bar  or  segment.  The  bars  and  insulation  are  as- 
sembled on  the  vee  and  sleeve  C.  Then  the  front  vee,  D, 
and  its  insulation  are  put  in  place  and  the  nut  E,  which 
is  threaded  on  the  sleeve  C,  is  screwed  up  as  tight  as  it 
can  be  drawn.  On  account  of  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  the  commutator,  caused  by  wide  variations 
of  temperature  and  strains  due  to  centrifugal  force,  it 


FIG.  1.   ONE-COIL,  ALTERN.'^.TING- 
CURRENT  GENERATOR 


FIG.  2.  ONE-COIL  DIRECT- 
CURRENT  GENERATOR 


FIG.  4 


FIGS.   3  AND  4.     TYPES  OF 
COMMUTATOR   BARS 


necting  the  ends  of  the  coil  to  a  divided  ring  S,  and  S,, 
as  in  Fig.  2.  This  divided  ring  represents  the  simplest 
form  of  what  is  called  a  commutator  on  a  direct-current 
machine.  Fig.  2  also  represents  the  simplest  form  of  an 
armature,  one  that  has  only  one  coil  revolving  in  a  two- 
pole  field.  In  the  commercial  type  of  direct-current 
generators  a  large  number  of  coils,  depending  upon  the 
size  of  the  machine,  are  arranged  on  the  armature  and 
connected  to  a  commutator. 

The  commutator  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  copper 
segments  similar  to  the  one  in  Fig.  3,  each  segment  be- 
ing insulated  from  the  other.  These  segments  are 
slotted  in  one  end,  as  shown,  so  that  the  armature-coil 
leads  may  be  easily  connected.  Many  of  the  large-sized 
commutators  have  an  extension  soldered  to  each  segment 
or  bar,  as  in  Fig.  4,  so  that,  instead  of  the  coil  leads 
being  bent  down  to  the  commutator,  they  are  brought 
out  almost  on  a  level  with  the  periphery  of  the  armature. 


is  necessary  that  the  clamping  rings  hold  the  bars  and 
insulation  very  tight,  or  there  will  be  a  movement  of 
the  bars  that  will  cause  .serious  trouble. 

The  insulation  used  between  the  bars  is  usually  mica 
or  micanite,  about  .iV  in.  in  thickness,  and  in  fact  this 
is  the  only  material  that  has  been  found  that  will  stand 
up  under  all  conditions.  Micanite  consists  of  thin  flakes 
of  mica  built  up  into  sheets  and  held  together  by  a 
suitable  binder.  In  some  of  the  small-sized  commu- 
tators, during  the  last  two  or  three  years,  the  bars  are 
molded  into  the  metal  sleeve  with  an  insulating  com- 
pound. This  construction  for  small-sized  machines 
seems  to  give  satisfactory  results.  In  the  early  develop- 
ment of  the  art  various  material  were  tried  for  insulat- 
ing commutators,  such  as  red  fiber,  fish  paper,  asbestos, 
etc.,  and  various  combinations  of  these  materials  and 
also  mica  and  other  insulations  built  up  in  alternate 
layers,  but  all  have  been  discarded. 


220^ 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


One  of  the  troubles  with  most  of  the  substitutes  for 
mica  insulation  in  commutators  is,  they  are  easily  eaten 
away  in  case  of  sparking  at  the  brushes.  Furthermore, 
all  fibers  or  papers  are  subjected  to  more  or  less  con- 
traction and  expansion  due  to  moisture  conditions.  This 
eventually  led  to  slight  looseness  between  the  bars  and 
insulation,  so  that  oil  or  copper  and  carbon  dust  could 
penetrate  and  cause  pitting  of  the  commutators.  One 
of  the  chief  requisites  of  a  commutator  insulation  is 
that  it  shall  not  be  affected  by  moisture  and  changes  of 
temperature ;  also,  it  must  possess  a  certain  elasticity  so 
that  it  will  fill  the  space  between  the  bars  irrespective  of 
the  e.xpansion  and  contraction  of  the  commutator.  So 
far,  mica  seems  to  possess  these  requirements  to  a 
greater  extent  than  anything  else.  The  story  of  cum- 
mutator  insulation  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  chap- 
ters in  the  history  of  electrical  development. 

Many  other  kinds  of  commutator  construction  are 
used,  especially  in  the  older  types  of  machines,  besides 
that  shown  in  Fig.  5,  some  of  which  are  indicated  in 
Figs.  6  and  7,  from  which  it  is  seen  that  the  general 
principle  is  the  same.  In  the  larger-sized  machines  the 
commutators  are  built  upon  a  cast-iron  spider,  the  same 


FIG.  7  l^  FIG.  8 

PIGS.   5  TO  8.     TYPES  OF  COMMUTATORS 

as  the  armature  core.  Fig.  8  shows  a  cross-section  of  a 
large  commutator  that  is  representative  of  large-sized 
construction. 

In  problem  1  given  in  the  last  lesson,  the  cross-sec- 
tion of  the  conductor  was  18,750  cir.mils.     The  resist- 

...  .     „  10.7  10.7 

ance  per  foot  of  copper  is  /J  =    ^j^^^^  =   jg^  = 

0.00057  ohm.    When  35  amperes  is  flowing  through  the 


conductor,   the   volts   drop   per   foot   is   Ed    =  RI  = 
0.00057  X  35  =  0.01995  volt. 

Fig.  9  is  a  layout  of  problem  2  given  in  the  last  lesson. 
If  the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  line  conductors  is  6530 
cir.mils,  or  No.  12  B.  &  S.,  then  their  resistance  is  that 


FIG.  10 

FIGS.    9   AND   10.      COMPLEX   CIRCUITS 

of  150  feet  of  No.  12  wire,  from  which  /?,  =  150  X 
0.0016   =    0.24    ohm.       The    resistance    is   also   R,  = 

10.7L     ^  10.7  X  150 
cir.mils 


6530 


0.24  ohm. 


R 


The  joint  resistance  of  the  three  lamps  in  parallel  is 
1  1 


"  1^ 


1^ 


1 


45 


1 


90  "^  180 


1       180     or  .,   , 


180 


Then  the  total  resistance  of  the  circuit 


=  0.24  +  25.7  =  25.94  ohms,  and  / 


is  R 

E 

''  R 


R,  +  R, 

135    _ 
25.94 


5.2  amperes. 

The  value  of  the  current  in  the  circuits  will  be  in- 
versely proportional  to  their  respective  resistances; 
that  is,  since  r,  has  the  highest  resistance  of  the  three 
lamps,  the  value  of  the  current  in  this  circuit  will  be 
the  lowest.  Since  r^  is  one-half  the  value  of  r^,  if  one 
part  of  the  current  flows  through  r„  two  parts  will  flow 
through  r..,  and  as  r,  has  only  one-quarter  the  resist- 
ance of  r^,  if  one  part  of  the  current  flows  through  r^, 
four  parts  will  flow  through  i\.  From  this  we  can  say 
that  the  current  may  be  divided  up  into  seven  parts,  one 
part  flowing  through  r„  two  parts  through  r.,  and  four 
parts  through  i\.    If  seven  parts  equal  5.2  amperes,  one 

5  2 
part  equals  ^  =  0.743  ampere,  two  parts  equal  0.743  X 

2  =  1.486  amperes  and  four  parts  ^  0.743  X  4  = 
2.972  amperes;  that  is,  r^  takes  0.743  ampere,  r.,  1.486 
amperes  and  r,  2.972  amperes. 

Another  way  of  finding  the  current  in  the  three  cir- 
cuits is  to  find  the  value  of  the  volts  E„  at  the  lamp 
terminals,  and  then  by  Ohm's  law  find  the  current  in  each 
circuit.    The  volts  drop  in  the  line  is  Ed  =  RJ  =  0.24 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


221 


X  5.2  =  1.248  volts,  and  E„  =  E  —  Ej 

=  133.752  volts.     Then  the  current  in  r,  is  ?'., 


133.752 


En 


0.743  ampere ;  in  r,  is  t,  ^=  —  =       _„ 
^  '        ■         Ti  90 


135  —  1.248 

Ea 

133.752 


180 
1.486  amperes;  and  in  r 


IS    I, 


133.752 

45 


2.972 


amperes,  which  checks  up  with  the  values  obtained  by 
the  foregoing  methods. 

1.  In  Fig.  10,  find  the  joint  resistance  between  points 
A  and  B.  If  points  A  and  B  are  connected  to  a  75-volt 
circuit  as  shown,  what  will  be  the  total  current  flowing 
in  the  circuit  and  the  current  in  each  branch? 

2.  At  115  volts  a  given  circuit  takes  15  hp.  Find 
the  current  flowing  in  the  circuit  and  the  ohmic  re- 
sistance. 

Garabed:    Boon    or    Buncombe? 

Jules  Verne  in  all  his  vivid  imaginings  never  conjured 
up  a  more  astounding  and  unbelievable  story  than  that 
which  is  being  told  by  Garabed  T.  K.  Giragossian,  a 
naturalized  Armenian,  who  claims  to  have  discovered  a 
supply  of  free  energy  and  to  have  invented  and  per- 
fected a  means  whereby  that  energy  can  be  converted 
into  usable  forms.  He  denies  emphatically  that  it  is 
perpetual  motion  or  that  it  in  any  way  controverts  the 
law  of  conservation  of  energy,  over  which  so  many 
would-be  inventors  have  tripped.  He  simply  makes  use 
of  an  inexhaustible  quantity  of  energy  that  exists  every- 
where and  that  cannot  be  monopolized. 

No  one  except  the  inventor  has  any  information  as 
to  the  exact  nature  of  the  free  energy  or  the  method 
by  which  it  is  used.  He  has  firmly  and  consistently  de- 
clined to  divulge  the  secret  until  both  the  idea  and  the 
machinery  for  its  development  have  been  fully  pro- 
tected. This  has  been  accomplished  by  the  passage,  on 
Jan.  16,  of  a  joint  resolution  by  Congress,  authorizing 
the  acceptance  of  the  invention  for  the  free  use  of  the 
United  States  Government,  protecting  the  inventor  for 
a  period  of  seventeen  years,  and  providing  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  five  eminent  scientists  (to  be  approved 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior)  to  determine  whether 
the  discovery  is  a  splendid  benefaction  or  a  stupendous 
bluff. 

Mr.  Giragossian,  who  is  a  citizen  of  Boston,  has 
named  his  discovery  the  Garabed.  With  it  he  proposes 
to  displace  the  steam  engine  as  a  prime  mover.  The 
steam  boiler  will  be  relegated  to  the  scrap  heap  or  the 
museum  of  antiquities.  Smoke  troubles  will  be  at  an 
end,  for  coal  will  be  no  longer  needed  for  fuel.  Pe- 
troleum will  be  used  largely  for  making  soap.  The  in- 
dustries of  the  earth,  the  needs  of  the  home,  the  illu- 
mination of  cities,  all  the  innumerable  activities  of  hu- 
mankind will  eventually  depend  on  the  Garabed. 

So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  conjecture,  the  atmosphere 
is  the  inexhaustible  reservoir  of  energy  to  which  Mr. 
Giragossian  refers,  for,  at  a  hearing  before  the  House 
Committee  on  Patents,  he  was  asked  whether  his  pro- 
cess or  contrivance  is  applicable  to  the  submarine,  and 
he  declined  to  give  an  unequivocal  answer.  He  does 
claim,  however,  that  the  motor  by  which  he  utilizes  the 
free  energy  can  be  used  for  ship  propulsion,  haulage  of 
railway  trains,  driving  airplanes,  production  of  electric- 
ity, pumping  water,  and   doing  the  thousand-and-one 


things  that  have  hitherto  been  done  by  steam  engines 
and  other  types  of  motors;  and  he  claims  further  that 
his  motor  will  operate  with  the  same  certainty  and 
regularity  in  all  climates  and  at  all  altitudes,  with- 
out human  assistance. 

The  advantages  of  such  a  device — if  it  actually  exists 
■  outside  the  imagination  of  Mr.  Giragossian — are  obvi- 
ous.    It  is  absolutely   independent   of  auxiliary   appa- 
ratus, for  it  is  complete  in  itself,  whereas  the  steam  en- 
gine must  have  a  boiler  with  its  furnace,  pump  and 


GARABED   T.    K.    GIRAGOSSIAN 

other  accessories.  The  Garabed  is  much  smaller  and 
lighter  than  the  steam  engine  of  equal  output,  is  easily 
portable  and  will  produce  power  anywhere  at  no  cost 
other  than  the  wear  and  tear  on  the  machinery.  With 
practically  unlimited  power  at  little  or  no  expense, 
human  labor  will  be  vastly  lightened  and  labor  troubles 
will  disappear.  At  the  same  time  the  productive  capac- 
ity of  industry  will  be  enormously  increased,  and  the 
present  era  of  prosperity  will  be  insignificant  in  com- 
parison with  that  which  will  come  when  the  Garabed  is 
used  universally. 

The  effect  on  social  and  economic  conditions  will  be 
equally  startling  and  revolutionary.  Free  energy  in  un- 
limited amounts  will  result  in  the  production  of  an 
abundance  of  all  those  things  necessary  to  the  ex- 
istence and  comfort  of  the  race.  Thus,  poverty  will  be 
wiped  out  and  luxuries  made  the  heritage  of  all. 

Such  prophecies  as  these  have  been  made  before  and 
have  been  met  by  the  sneers  and  laughter  of  all  classes 
of  people.     Mr.  Giragossian  has  not  been  exempt  from 


2222 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


ridicule;  but  his  unwavering  faith  in  himself  and  in 
the  incalculable  value  of  his  discovery  has  made  him 
indifferent  to  the  derision  of  his  fellowmen.  For  twenty 
years  he  has  patiently  pursued  the  task  of  developing 
his  idea  and  rendering  it  available  for  general  use. 
Three  years  ago  he  perfected  the  device,  and  since  that 
time  he  has  been  trying  to  have  it  protected  so  that 
he  shall  not  be  robbed  of  the  credit  and  the  benefits  of 
the  invention. 

The  adoption  of  the  joint  resolution  does  not  obligate 
the  United  States  to  buy  the  invention.  If  the  com- 
mittee of  five  eminent  scientists  decide  that  the  Garabed 
is  practicable,  then  the  United  States  may,  at  its  option, 
purchase  from  the  inventor  the  exclusive  right  to  utilize 
the  discovery.  The  sum  to  be  paid,  in  case  the  option  to 
purchase  is  exercised,  will  be  settled  upon  by  a  com- 
mittee of  even  number,  half  of  whom  are  to  be  selected 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  the  other  half  by 
Mr.  Giragossian,  and  the  verdict  of  this  committee  is  to 
be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior and  the  inventor.  If  the  United  States  decides 
not  to  buy  the  invention,  the  rights  of  Mr.  Giragos-  • 
sian  remain,  as  guaranteed  by  the  resolution. 

It  is  significant  that  this  man's  enthusiasm,  sincerity 
and  intelligence  so  impressed  the  Committee  on  Pat- 
ents and  other  members  of  the  House  that  the  resolu- 
tion was  adopted  by  a  vote  of  234  to  14.  In  the  Senate 
it  was  approved  without  much  debate,  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Patents  committee.  By  this  means 
the  upper  body  relieved  itself  of  being  held  up  to  ridi- 
cule in  case  the  Garabed  fails  to  demonstrate  its  in- 
ventor's claims. 

Truth  of  Claims  Remains  To  Be  Proved 

The  ability  of  Mr.  Giragossian  to  substantiate  his  as- 
sertions, by  the  exhibition  of  a  motor  that  will  run  with- 
out the  application  of  any  of  the  commonly  known  forms 
of  energy,  remains  to  be  proved.  The  inventor  himself 
is  confident  and  unperturbed,  reiterating  that  he  can 
and  will  do  all  that  he  has  promised,  and  more.  If  he 
succeeds,  as  everyone  would  be  glad  to  see  him,  the 
United  States  will  have  in  its  possession  an  agency  by 
which  the  war  can  be  brought  to  an  end  with  stunning 
suddenness  and  certain  victory;  and  in  the  peaceful 
years  that  will  follow,  the  same  agency  will  give  to  the 
nation  an  increase  in  material  prosperity  and  happiness 
such  as  the  world  has  never  seen. 

It  is  foolish  to  regard  Mr.  Giragossian  as  a  harmless 
lunatic.  That  which  he  proposes  is  fantastic  in  the  ex- 
treme and  subversive  of  fixed  ideas.  But  it  must  be 
remembered  that  people  ridiculed  the  possibility  of  the 
airplane,  the  wireless  telegraph  and  scores  of  other 
scientific  discoveries  that  have  now  become  familiar 
factors  in  everyday  life.  We  are  in  an  age  of  search- 
ing investigation  and  rapid  development.  The  impos- 
sibilities of  yesterday  are  the  achievements  of  today; 
dreams  of  yesternight  are  realities  tomorrow.  It  is 
unwise  and  unsafe  to  pass  judgment  on  the  discoverer  of 
the  Garabed.  If  he  proves  his  assertions,  the  world  will 
acclaim  his  genius  and  laud  his  perseverance.  If  he 
fails,  his  extravagant  promises  will  be  a  boomerang  that 
will  knock  him  into  the  darkest  corner  of  that  limbo 
reserved  for  perpetual-motion  cranks  and  other  power- 
generating  fakers. 


Four-in-One  Cartridge   Fuse 

No  doubt  many  readers  will  recall  the  description  of 
the  Six-in-One  plug  fuse  appearing  in  the  July  11,  1917, 
issue  of  Power.  Recently  a  four-in-one  cartridge  fuse, 
known  as  the  Atlas  fuse,  has  been  placed  on  the  market 
by  the  Atlas  Selling  Agency,  New  York  City.  A  sec- 
tional view  A  and  a  view  B  of  the  fuse  exploded  are 
given  in  the  figure. 

From  the  outside  this  new  type  of  fuse  looks  the  same 
as  the  standard  type  of  cartridge  fuse  and  can  be  used 
anywhere  that  standard  fuses  are  used.  However,  in- 
stead of  a  single  chamber,  as  in  the  ordinary  type  of 
cartridge  fuse,  the  inside  of  the  shell  is  divided  into 
four  compartments  by  four  pieces  of  fiber,  bent  and 
assembled  as  shown  at  C  in  both  views.  The  fiber  com- 
partments fit  into  grooves  D  in  the  fiber-containing 
shell,  making  a  very  strong  construction. 


SECTIONAL    VIEW    AND    P.AKTS    (IF    FOUR-IN-UNE 
CARTRIDGE    FUSE 

One  end  of  the  fuse  shell  is  equipped  with  a  sta- 
tionary brass  cap  E.  From  the  center  of  this  stationary 
cap  is  a  copper  extension  F  from  which  four  fuse  wires 
G  run  through  the  four  separate  compartments  to  four 
copper  terminals  H  held  in  a  short  solid-fiber  cylinder  / 
at  the  opposite  end  of  the  fuse.  On  the  end  of  the  fu.se 
shell  containing  the  four  copper  terminals  H  and  fiber 
cylinder  /  is  placed  a  stationary  brass  ferrule  J.  Fitted 
over  the  stationary  ferrule  is  a  movable  brass  cap  K, 
containing  a  copper  receptacle  L  that  fits  over  one  of 
the  copper  fuse  terminals  H,  as  shown  in  the  sectional 
view.  This  completes  the  circuit  through  the  fuse  from 
the  movable  cap  K  to  the  stationary  cap  E.  The  copper 
terminals  H  are  slotted  in  the  end  that  the  receptacle 
fits  over,  to  give  them  a  spring  and  make  a  good  contact 
in  the  receptacle. 

If  a  fuse  blows,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  remove  the 
cartridge  from  the  clips,  pull  cap  K  out  about  1  in.  and 
give  it  a  quarter  turn,  push  back  the  cap  and  another 
fuse  element  is  in  circuit.    Replace  the  cartridge  in  the 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


223 


clips  and  the  circuit  is  again  ready  for  service.  To 
jirevent  making  contact  with  any  fuse  element  other 
than  the  one  that  is  intended  to  be  in  circuit,  a  fiber 
washer  M  is  placed  in  the  top  of  the  movable  cap  K. 
The  blowing  of  a  fuse  element  is  indicated  as  in  a 
standard  fuse,  by  a  fine  steel  wire  A^,  that  extends  from 
the  copper  terminal  H  to  the  stationary  cap  E.  Each' 
fuse  element  is  solidly  packed  in  its  chamber  with  an 
insulating  powder.  This  new  type  of  fuse  is  approved 
by  the  Underwriters'  Laboratory  and  is  made  with  fer- 
rule contacts  in  all  amperages  up  to  and  including  60. 
All  measurements  and  dimensions  are  N.  E.  C.  stand- 
ards, thus  assuring  a  perfect  fit  in  every  type  of  N.  E.  C. 
standard  panels,  switchboard  and  inclosed-fuse  cutouts. 

Velocity  of  Air  in  Ducts 

After  the  velocity  head  of  air  in  a  chimney  or  duct  is 
found  by  means  of  a  manometer  or  U-tube,  its  velocity 
is  calculated  by  the  formula, 

V  =  ^     2gh: 
where  v  r^  velocity  in  feet  per  second,  h  =:  velocity  head 
in  feet,  and  g  =  acceleration  due  to  gravity  in  feet  per 
second  =  32.16  feet. 

When  the  manometer  contains  water  and  the  velocity 
of  air  is  being  determined,  the  head  must  be  changed 
from  inches  of  water  to  feet  of  air  by  multiplying  by 
the  ratio  of  the  density  of  water  to  that  of  air.  To  do 
this  the  temperature  of  each  must  be  known,  as  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  air  or  water  changes  with 
variation  in  temperature.  To  illustrate,  assume  that 
the  manometer  reading  h  (the  difference  in  level)  is 
one  inch  of  water  and  that  the  temperature  of  the  water 
and  of  the  air  is  60  deg.  F.  From  standard  tables,  the 
weight  of  one  cubic  foot  of  water  at  60  deg.  is  found 
to  be  62.37  lb.  and  of  a  cubic  foot  of  air  at  the  same 
temperature  is  0.0764  lb.,  or  the  height  of  the  column  of 
air  in  feet  to  represent  the  same  pressure  as  one  inch 
62.37  ^  i  ^  816.4 
0.0764    ^    12  12 

In  other  words,  water  is  816.4  times  as  dense  or  heavy 
as  air  at  the  temperature  taken,  so  that  a  column  of 
air  816.4  in.,  or  68.03+  ft.,  would  equal  or  balance  a 
column  of  water  one  inch  high  or  that  difference  in 
level  in  the  U-tube  manometer.  Then  applying  the 
equation,  the  velocity  of  the  air  is  found  to  be 

V  =  1    Iff!  =  1    2  X  32.lFX^68i)3  =  66.2 /<.  pe?-  sec. 

For  any  other  temperatures,  or  if  mercury  is  used  in 
the  manometer  in  the  place  of  water,  the  proper  weights 
per  cubic  foot  will  have  to  be  used. 

Installing  Electric  Cables  Under 
Concrete  Floor 
■  By  D.  R.  Shearer 

Sometimes  it  becomes  necessary  to  run  heavy  light 
and  power  cables  under  concrete  for  some  distance,  as 
for  instance,  from  the  generator  to  the  switchboard  in 
a  power  plant  or  from  the  transformers  to  the  switch- 
board in  a  substation.  Of  course  conduit  is  an  excellent 
runway  for  such  cables,  but  at  times  this  is  difficult  to 
secure  and  some  substitute  becomes  necessary. 


An  excellent  method  is  to  place  a  trough  form  in  the 
earth  floor  before  the  concrete  floor  is  laid.  On  the 
bottom  of  this  form  are  placed  cross-pieces  of  creosoted 
wood  about  three  feet  apart  and  slightly  longer  than 
the  trough  is  wide.    After  the  concrete  sets  the  form  is 


of  water  would  be 


68.03  ft. 


r  WOOD  CROSS 

SECTIONAL  VIEW    OF    CABLE    DUCT 

taken  out,  leaving  the  cross-pieces  embedded  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cement  trough. 

The  cables  are  then  cleated  to  the  cross-pieces  with 
porcelain  cleats  and  heavy  screws.  Either  iron  or  rein- 
forced concrete  may  be  used  as  a  cover  for  the  duct. 
This  can  be  removed  at  any  time  for  cleaning  the  cables 
or  attaching  other  leads.  The  figure  gives  a  sectional 
view  of  the  duct  construction. 

To  Determine    Heating   Requirements 

By  M.  William  Ehrlich 

Under  the  present  stress  it  is  more  important  than 
ever  to  provide  adequate  heat  for  the  comfort  of  work- 
ers, lest  quality  and  output  be  impaired.  Suppose  a 
case  of  a  corner  office  or  workroom  that  could  not  be 
heated  satisfactorily  although  it  had  been  figured  by  the 
old  rule  allowing  one  square  foot  of  direct  steam  radia- 
tion to  take  care  of  80  cu.ft.  of  space  and  accordingly 
a  radiator  having  30  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface  was  in- 
stalled. Experience  has  shown  this  to  be  wrong.  The 
mistake  was  made  in  using  a  thumb-rule  to  arrive  at  the 
radiator  size.  This  has  often  proved  to  be  a  dangerous 
procedure  unless  seasoned  with  judgment  based  on  ripe 
experience. 

The  cubical  contents  of  a  room  have  but  little  to  do 
with  its  heating  requirements.  They  enter  into  the 
question  only  as  regards  air  leakage  or  ventilation,  and 
in  direct  heating  this  factor  depends  mainly  on  the  in- 
filtration of  air  leaking  through  the  door  and  window 
crevices.  This  has  been  found  to  average  one  air  change 
per  hour  when  doors  and  windows  are  closed.  When 
some  form  of  ventilation  is  desired,  more  air  may  be 
admitted  through  windows  or  otherwise,  and  the  radia- 
tors must  be  proportionately  larger  to  take  care  of  this 
air  change  in  the  room.  The  cubical  contents  of  the 
room  are  therefore  taken  to  represent  one  change  of  air 
an  hour  which   is  usually   but  a  small  portion  of  the 


224 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


heating  requirements,  as  will  be  shown.  What  does 
count,  however,  is  the  weather  exposure  and  the  ma- 
terials used  in  the  wall  construction.  The  "exposure"  is 
that  part  of  the  wall  of  a  room  or  building  which  is 
subjected  to  the  direct  action  of  the  outside  weather, 
such  as  the  walls,  windows  and  doors  facing  on  a  street 
or  other  open  space  and  also  the  roof.  The  chief  heat- 
ing work  to  be  done  depends  on  the  losses  through  such 
exposed  surfaces  and  is  a  component  of  the  aggregate 
of  such  surfaces,  their  material  and  thickness  and  the 
difference  in  temperature  between  the  indoor  and  the 
outside  air.  Thus,  when  it  is  — 5  deg.  outside  and  65 
deg.  indoors,  the  difference  is  70  deg.,  or  with  +10  deg. 
out  of  doors  and  70  deg.  indoors  the  difference  in  tem- 
perature is  60  deg.  A  temperature  difference  of  70  has 
become  a  standard  for  calculating  radiator  sizes  in  the 
eastern  section  of  this  country  as  well  as  elsewhere  if 
climatic  conditions  are  similar. 

The  demand  on  a  heating  system  naturally  varies 
with  the  fluctuations  of  the  outdoor  temperature,  but 
the  radiators  must  be  selected  to  adequately  serve  the 
maximum   difference   in   temperature.      The   total   heat 


COURT -YARD 


3'x5 


0°  Outside 
S TREE T 


FTO.     1        rOXTRAST     IX     HE.4TIXG     RKQI'IRRMKXTS 

loss  for  any  condition  is  the  sum  of  the  transmissions 
through  all  the  surfaces  and  for  air  change,  for  any 
difference  in  temperature  between  inside  and  outside  air. 
As  an  illustration  take  a  room  arrangement  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  where  each  of  three  offices  adjoining  has  a 
cubical  contents  of  1500  cu.ft.,  or  an  inside  measure- 
ment of  10  X  15  ft.  with  a  ceiling  height  of  10  ft.  The 
windows  are  3x5  ft.  each  and  the  outside  temperature 
is  taken  at  zero  while  70  deg.  is  maintained  indoors. 
Room  No.  1  has  two  outside  walls,  a  gross  exposure  of 
(15  and  10  times  10  ft.  high)  250  sq.ft.  Two  windows 
(30  sq.ft.  of  glass)  deducted  from  250  leaves  220  sq.ft. 
net  for  exposed  wall.  No.  2  has  one  (10  X  10)  100  sq.ft. 
gross  wall  exposed  to  the  weather,  less  15  sq.ft.  for  the 
window,  leaving  85  sq.ft.  net  wall  exposure.  No.  3  has 
three  sides  10  -f  15  +  10  =  35  times  10  ft.  high,  or 
350  sq.ft.  gross  wall  exposed,  less  three  windows,  or  45 
sq.ft..  leaving  305  sq.ft.  net  wall  exposure.  With  sueh 
great  differences  in  the  surfaces  through  which  heat  is 
lost,  each  room  will  require  a  different  amount  of  radia- 
tion, but  on  the  basis  of  cubical  contents  each  would  get 
a  radiator  of  the  same  size  or,  say,  80  cu.ft.  to  one 
square  foot  heating  surface  would  be  1500  -;    80  =  18^ 


sq.ft.     This,  obviously,  cannot  be  right  for  three  such 
conditions. 

To  properly  determine  what  the  radiation  should  be 
involves  a  series  of  computations.  To  eliminate  this  fig- 
uring the  chart,  Fig.  2  (p.  225),  has  been  prepared  for 
low-pressure  steam  and  hot-water  heating  by  direct  ra- 
diation and  a  difference  in  temperature  of  70  deg.  The 
use  of  the  chart  for  practical  purposes  is  quite  simple 
as  it  is  only  necessary  to  know  the  material  and  thick- 
ness of  the  exposed  wall  as  shown  on  the  scale  at  line  A, 
and  the  square  feet  of  this  exposure  as  shown  on  scale  /? 
In  case  of  air  leakage  or  ventilation  this  same  scale  is 
used  for  reading  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour.  With  these 
factors  determined  by  examination  and  measurement  or 
from  plans,  it  is  only  necessary  to  lay  a  straight-edge 
across  from  point  to  point  and  read  the  answer  from 
scale  C  for  either  steam  or  hot-water  heating,  adding 
together  the  amounts  so  found  for  the  final  answer. 
For  example,  take  a  16-in.  brick  wall  that  has  an  ex- 
posure of  190  sq.ft.  net.  What  is  the  amount  of  radia- 
tion necessary  to  compensate  for  the  heat  loss  through 
this  exposure?  Laying  a  rule  across  from  scale  A  at 
the  point  marked  for  a  16-in.  brick  wall  to  190  on  scale 
B  gives,  as  shown,  an  intersection  at  scale  C  at  13 
sq.ft.  steam  or  about  21  sq.ft.  hot-water  radiation.  The 
wall  exposure  is,  however,  only  a  part  of  the  total  heat, 
loss  a  radiator  would  be  called  on  to  compensate.  The 
total  heat  requirement  is,  of  course,  the  sum  of  the 
losses  through  all  exposures  and  air  leakage.  In  the 
case  of  the  three  rooms  shovra  in  Fig.  1  and  assuming 
the  outside  walls  are  of  20-in.  concrete,  the  radiator 
sizes  for  steam  would  be  found,  by  the  use  of  the  chart, 
as  follows: 

Readings 

Determined  from  Chart, 

from  Plan,  Fig.  2. 

Room  No.    I:                                                                   Fig.  1  Sq.  Ft.  Radn. 

Net  exposed  wall 220  sq.ft.  23.  0 

Windows  (single  glass)    30  sq.ft.  9. 7 

I  Air  change  (contents) 1,500  cu.ft.  7.5 

Total  radiation 40. 2 

Room  No.  2: 

Net  wall 85  sq.ft.  9.0 

Glass     •. ISsq.ft.  4.9 

Air  change .- I.SDOcu.ft.  7.5 

Total  radiation .' 214 

Room  No.  3: 

Net  wall 305  sq.ft.  32, 0 

Glass     .                               45  sq.ft.  14.8 

.^ir  change                          1,500  cu.ft.  7.., 

Total  radiation  54   3 

These  values  are  all  determined  by  placing  a  .straight- 
edge from  values  on  scales  .4  and  B  and  reading  the 
answers  directly  from  scale  C.  However.  1500,  the 
cubical  contents,  is  not  on  the  chart,  so  500  was  se- 
lected of  which  1500  is  a  multiple.  For  one  air  change 
and  500  cu.ft.  the  result  on  scale  C  for  steam  is  2.5  sq.ft. 
This  multiplied  by  3  gives  7.5  sq.ft.  as  the  radiation  re- 
quired to  compensate  for  air  leakage.  This  same 
method  may  be  relied  on  for  any  other  values  not  found 
on  scale  B,  which  is  limited  to  1000.  The  different 
values  found  when  added  together  give  the  size  of  radi- 
ator required  for  the  given  condition,  then  the  nearest 
commercial  size  radiator  or  a  pipe  coil  of  the  required 
capacity  is  made  up. 

By  comparing  the  results  found  on  a  heat-loss  basis 
with  those  of  the  thumb-rule  ratio  method,  which  gave 
only  18,?  sq.ft.,  it  is  seen  why  there  would  be  difficulty 
in  heating  the  corner  rooms. 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


225 


Single  Glass'  -  • 


Heather- stnpped\_ 
Glass 


Double  Glass 

i"Brick 
Frcime  Wall 

6"  Brick 


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■  Tar  and  6ravel  Roof 

16' Brick-  4  ~  "         " 

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B4''BricA 


SAirChanges- 
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3Air  Changes  ■ 


Z  Air  Changes - 


lAirChanae 


Corrugated 
Iron  Roof 


[  Outside  Door 
\  Concrete  Roof 
VShingle  Roof 

ie"Concrete 

Slate  or  hn  Roof 
16"  Concrete 

?0"Concrete 
24''Concrete 


0.7 
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Copyrightea    1918   by    M   W  CttRLlCn 


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FIG.   2.      GRAPHIC   MKTHOD  OF  DETERMINING    THE  AMOUNT   OF   RADIATION    KEQL'IRED 


226 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


Self-Contained   Portable   Scoop 
Conveyors 

The  handling  of  coal  from  railroad  cars  to  the  storage 
pile  is  often  expensive,  and  the  more  automatic  and 
simple  the  apparatus  can  be  designed  the  less  the  labor 
and  operating  cost  involved.  There  are  several  types  of 
portable  conveyors  manufactured,  and  among  them  is 
the  portable  scoop  conveyor  made  by  the  Portable  Ma- 
chinery Co.,  Inc.,  Passaic,  N.  J.,  the  design  and  applica- 
tion of  which  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tions.    . 

This  machine  is  of  the  belt  type,  and  it  may  be  driven 
either  by  a  self-contained  motor  or  by  an  internal-com- 
bustion engine.  It  is  called  a  scoop  conveyor  because 
the  conveying  belt  receives  material  through  a  scoop 
that  can  be  pushed  into  the  material  to  be  handled.  The 
machine,  Fig.  1,  is  handled  by  one  man  in  loading  or 
unloading,  stacking  or  reclaiming  loose  material,  such 
as  coal,  coke  and  ashes,  at  a  rate  of  about  one  ton  per 
one  and  one-half  minutes. 

When  used  to  handle  from  coal  hopper  cars,  the  scoop 
end  of  the  conveyor  is  run  in  on  the  car  and  the  coal 
can  be  elevated  from  the  track  level,  a  distance  of  from 
six  to  nine  feet  to  a  storage  pile.  One  advantage  of 
this  machine  is  that  by  using  two  or  more  conveyors,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  coal  can  be  elevated  in  successive 
stages  until  the  storage  pile  has  reached  any  desired 
height  without  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  shoveling, 
thus  saving  in  labor. 

When  used  in  reclaiming  coal  from  a  storage  pile,  the 
scoop  end  of  the  conveyor  is  pushed  into  the  pile  and 
the  coal  is  discharged  into  the  car  for  conveying  it  to 


The  conveyor  is  built  of  steel  and  is  mounted  on  two 
wheels.  The  driving  motor  is  mounted  on  a  pipe  frame, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  and  drives  the  belt  by  means  of 
chains   and   sprockets.     When   the   conveyor   is  to   be 


Buffalo,    N.   Y. 


PIG.  1.      PORTABLE  SCOOP  CONVEYOR  WITH  SELP-CONTA  INED   MOTOR 


the  boiler  room.  If  a  storage  pile  is  such  a  distance 
from  the  car  track  as  to  be  out  of  the  range  of  the  ma- 
chine, a  second  unit  can  be  used,  the  first  one  discharg- 
ing into  the  scoop  of  the  second,  which  discharges  in 
turn  into  the  car.  In  this  way  the  coal  can  be  conveyed 
any  distance,  the  only  limit  being  the  number  of  ma- 
chines used. 


PIG.   2.     UNLOADING  CAR  WITH  THREE  CONVEYORS 

moved,  two  lengths  of  pipe  are  inserted  into  the  ends  of 
the  horizontal  members  of  the  pipe  frame,  which  en- 
ables the  machine  to  be  easily  wheeled  from  one  place 
to  another. 


Handling  Feed  Water  at  River  Station 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  Feb.  13,  1917, 
issue  of  Power  there  was  published  a  description  of 
the  River  Station  of  the  Buffalo  General  Electric  Co., 
One  of  the  features  of  this  station 
is  the  evaporator  system  for 
evaporating  makeup  water. 
The  boilers  are  run  at  300  to 
400  per  cent,  rating,  owing  to 
the  load  demands  increasing 
far  more  rapidly  than  plant 
expansion,  the  serious  situa- 
tion in  load  having  been 
brought  about  by  the  with- 
drawal of  water  power  by  the 
Canadian  government.  The 
evaporator  system  has  been 
in  service  now  for  nearly  a 
year,  and  Power  readers 
doubtless  will  be  interested  to 
knOw  how  the  boiler-feed 
water  is  taken  care  of. 

The  evaporators  (  R  e  i  1 1  y 
multicoil)  are  working  up  to 
the  limit  owing  to  the  heavy 
overloads  on  the  boilers,  so 
that  they  are  not  able  to  sup- 
ply all  the  makeup  water;  but 
they  do  supply  on  the  average 
98  par  cent,  of  distilled  water 
Once  every   month   the  water 


for  makeup  purposes, 
in  each  boiler  is  blown  down  so  that  the  water  level  is 
lowered  about  three  inches  in  the  gage-glass.  The  boil- 
ers are  opened  once  every  six  months,  and  so  far  the 
conditions  ob3er\'ed  have  been  excellent.  There  is  no 
scale,  and  nothing  but  a  slight  amount  of  mud  is  found 
on  the  lower  tubes.    There  \z  no  pitting. 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


227 


UIIIIIUIIIIIIIUUIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIUIUIIIIIIUIIIIUIIIIIUIIIIUIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIUIHUIIIIIIIIIIIIIlnilllllllHUIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIUIIIUIIIIIIIIIIUlU 


Editorials 


iniiiiiiimiiiHMiimiiiinnimiiininninmnimiiiinimiiimiiniiiiinniniiiiniiinimiMiiinimiiiiiiiiiniiiniiimiiiniimuniiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiniimimmmninm^^ 


^miinimnmiinmiiiiimminir 


The   Solution   of   Greater   New   York's 
Coal  Problem 


••OAL-DOCK  facilities  are  the  key  to  the  whole 
^situation!"  exclaimed  Harry  Peters,  chairman  of 
the  Conservation  Committee  of  the  New  York  Fuel 
Administration,  when  interviewed  on  January  thirtieth. 
And  Mr.  Peters  is  right.  We  concluded  so  ourselves,  as 
pointed  out  in  the  article,  "While  the  Idle  Millions 
Shiver,"  in  last  week's  issue.  The  thousands  of  tons 
of  coal  piling  up  on  the  rails  at  the  coal  docks  or 
piers  where  great  numbers  of  barges  wait  and  wait, 
and  the  acute  shortage  in  the  greater  city  show 
instantly  that  here  lie  the  causes  of  congestion  and 
shortage. 

There  is  another  factor.  According  to  New  England 
Fuel  Administrator  Storrow  the  New  England  States 
consume  forty-two  million  tons  per  year,  two-thirds  to 
three-fourths  of  which  is  ordinarily  shipped  by  water, 
and  most  of  it  is  delivered  to  New  England  during  the 
six  warm  months  of  the  year.  The  reserve  supply  in 
storage  in  these  states  is  gone.  Everybody's  bin  is 
empty.  The  industries  and  business  houses  in  and  about 
Boston  must  close,  says  Mr.  Storrow,  for  a  period  two 
hundred  per  cent,  longer  during  the  crisis  than  the  Na- 
tional Fuel  Administration  demands  of  the  rest  of  the 
country.  New  England  must  make  use  of  rail  trans- 
portation to  the  limit  of  physical  possibilities.  This 
means  throwing  a  severe  overload  on  the  coal  piers 
located  on  the  New  Jersey  shore  and  which  also  supply 
New  York  City,  equally  straining  rail  transportation 
from  the  mines  to  these  piers  and  taxing  barge  trans- 
portation from  the  piers  to  southern  New  England. 

New  York  City  cannot  escape  being  badly  hit  by  the 
New  England  crisis  and  the  great  increase  in  ocean 
shipping  from  this  port.  New  York  City  puts  in  only 
one-quarter  to  one-third  of  its  coal  during  summer. 
The  city  has  facilities  for  only  four  and  one-half  days' 
storage,  chiefly  because  of  real-estate  values.  Along 
in  October  the  whole  city  suddenly  demands  coal,  and 
in  April  the  demand  ceases  just  as  abruptly.  The  un- 
loading piers  have  been  built  and  equipped  to  care 
chiefly  for  the  usual  demands  of  the  Greater  City.  If 
the  city  is  to  be  properly  supplied,  if  New  England 
is  to  be  relieved  and  bunker  coal  furnished  to  the  ships 
leaving  New  York  harbor,  the  present  piers  are  likely 
to  be  found  to  be  wholly  inadequate  even  if  the  whole 
eleven  were  worked  day  and  night. 

The  report  of  the  Conservation  Committee  upon  its 
investigation  of  conditions  at  the  eleven  coal  piers  sup- 
plying New  York  City,  published  in  our  last  week's 
issue,  page  193,  clearly  reveals  that  the  piers  are  not 
working  at  capacity,  that  they  are  inadequately  equipped, 
undermanned  and  working  but  part  time,  considering 
twenty-four  hour  day  operation  imperative  in  this  crisis. 
What  is  the  good  of  rejoicing  at  the  news  in  the  papers 
each  day  that  so  and  so  many  thousand  tons  of  coal 


arrived  at  tidewater?     It  means   nothing  if  the  coal 
merely  dribbles  beyond  that  point. 

But  the  conditions  are  more  severe  than  is  revealed 
by  the  report.  The  Conservation  Committee  says  that 
for  twenty-nine  days  last  month  the  eleven  piers  to- 
gether averaged  1335  cars  unloaded  per  day,  as  against 
1800  per  day  last  year.  So  far  as  we  can  learn  the 
railroads  operating  the  piers  say  they  can  unload  but 
1300  per  day.  Their  best  performance  was  on  January 
twenty-ninth,  when  they  unloaded  1719.  The  Conserva- 
tion Committee,  the  fuel  administrators  and  the  coal 
dealers  know  that  unless  the  docks  can  average  about 
2000  cars  per  day,  all  hope  of  relieving  the  present 
situation  is  vain. 

It  is  up  to  the  coal-pier  management  to  do  this.  If 
the  local  fuel  administrators  and  the  railroad  repre- 
sentatives cannot  get  together  and  make  these  provisions 
at  once,  it  certainly  becomes  the  duty  of  Mayor  Hylan 
and  Governor  Whitman  to  demand  that  Dr.  Garfield  and 
Director  General  McAdoo  authorize  someone  to  use  a 
big  stick  here  at  tidewater. 

The  chief  reason  why  the  movement  of  anthracite  is 
so  slow  at  the  piers  seems  to  be  lack  of  coal-pooling 
arrangements  rather  than  physical  impediments.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Conservation  Committee  it  handed  its 
report  to  A.  H.  Wiggin,  Fuel  Administrator  for  New 
York  State,  and  to  Dr.  Garfield  over  a  month  ago,  or  on 
or  about  the  date  of  its  issue,  which  was  December 
thirty -first.  This  report  stated  "that  this  committee 
recommends  the  pooling  of  all  coal  so  that  no  additional 
time  may  be  lost  in  switching."  The  italics  are  ours. 
Despite  the  urgent  need  of  putting  that  recommendation 
into  immediate  effect  over  a  month  ago,  only  today 
(February  fourth)  have  arrangements  been  put  in  force 
whereby  barges  may  load  with  any  coal  available  at  the 
piers.  And  as  this  goes  to  press  we  are  advised  by  the 
State  Fuel  Administration  that  this  applies  to  three 
piers  only;  namely,  those  on  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna 
&  Western,  Lehigh  Valley  and  Erie  railroads.  It  is 
hoped  that  they  will  go  into  effect  for  the  other  piers 
at  an  early  date.  The  reader  should  understand  that 
there  is  no  pooling  of  anthracite  as  related  to  sizes. 

There  has  been  a  considerable  increase  in  demand 
for  coal  going  over  these  piers,  says  the  Conservation 
Committee.  Twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  coal  handled 
by  them  now  goes  to  New  England.  Ships  coaled  in 
New  York  for  transatlantic  service  must  be  provided 
with  sufficient  fuel  to  carry  them  across  the  ocean  and 
back  again,  instead  of  one  way  only,  as  formerly  done. 
It  is  likely,  then,  that  at  the  capacity  at  which  the 
piers  are  now  worked  the  coal  will  continue  to  pile  up 
in  the  yards,  tying  up  more  and  more  cars  until  a 
shortage  of  empty  cars  demoralizes  mining.  This  is 
the  very  thing  above  all  that  should  not  happen  through 
causes  originating  at  this  port.  New  York  affords 
one  of  the  best  hauls  in  coal  transportation.  It  is  only 
a  little  over  two  hundred  miles  from  the  anthracite  mines 


228 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


and  about  three  hundred  from  the  bituminous  mines  to 
tidewater,  and  a  short  tow;  about  twenty  miles,  from 
tidewater  to  the  city.  It  is  New  York  City's  vital 
concern  how  the  coal  piers  supplying  the  city  are 
equipped  and  managed. 

While  the  Mayor  logically  looks  to  Mr.  Wiggin,  State 
Fuel  Administrator,  and  to  Reeve  Schley,  Administrator 
for  Manhattan,  also  to  the  other  administrators  for  the 
city,  to  keep  him  informed,  he  must  appreciate  that 
these  gentlemen  interest  themselves  chiefly  in  individual 
consumers'  complaints  and  adjustments.  It  is  a  veritable 
riot  of  activity  in  the  offices  of  fuel  administrators  the 
country  over,  so  voluminous  and  varied  are  these  pleas 
and  "howls."  The  Mayor  has  wired  and  phoned  to 
Washington  for  priority  in  shipment.  New  York  does 
not  need  priority.  If  he  will,  through  a  representa- 
tive who  has  investigated,  concentrate  his  demands  on 
improving  the  loading  piers,  he  will  get  greater  results. 

The  question  of  labor  is  by  no  means  a  negligible 
one  at  these  piers.  First,  the  function  performed  by 
labor  there  during  this  crisis  is  indeed  a  vital  one. 
The  work  is  not  attractive.  The  piers  are  wind-swept 
and  much  of  the  coal  is  badly  frozen.  The  men  are 
paid,  so  far  as  we  can  learn,  but  thirty-five  cents 
an  hour.  The  pier  management  should  not  lose  sight 
of  the  fact  that  the  new  shipyards  and  many  other 
plants  near  all  these  piers  employ  tens  of  thousands 
of  men  and  will  soon  demand  more.  The  laborer  in 
the  section  in  which  these  piers  are  situated,  par- 
ticularly the  laborer  in  Government  work,  is  getting 
considerably  more  than  thirty-five  cents  an  hour. 

Clear  the  coal  docks  in  New  Jersey,  add  to  their 
discharging  capacity.  Relief  cannot  come  until  this 
is  done  and  the  railroads  are  unhampered  by  red-tape 
rules. 

The  Ammonia   Situation 

Now  it  is  an  ice  famine  that  confronts  Greater  New 
York.  Senator  Wagner  and  Former  Governor  Odell 
estimate  that  the  Greater  City  faces  a  shortage  of  2,500- 
000  tons.  The  State  Legislature  at  this  writing  contem- 
plates harvesting  ice  now  while  it  is  at  its  best,  piling 
it  on  the  banks  of  the  Ashokan  Reservoir,  the  Croton 
Lakes  and  other  places,  until  storage  houses  can  be 
built  to  hold  it.  • 

The  reason  is  that  New  York  City  relies  upon  arti- 
ficial ice  for  the  greatest  part  of  its  supply.  Ammonia 
is,  of  course,  required  for  ice  making.  But  the  report 
is  current  that  little  of  this  refrigerant  is  or  will  be 
available  because  those  products  from  which  it  is  made 
are  sorely  needed  for  munition  purposes  and  for  South- 
ern cities  which  cannot  get  natural  ice. 

All  this  sounds  reasonable,  particularly  as  related  to 
New  York  City.  Most  of  the  ice  harvested  may  be 
transported  to  the  city  by  barge,  which  does  not  require 
freight  cars  nor  add  to  the  congestion  on  the  railroads. 

One  thing  is  sure:  It  is  difficult  to  overestimate 
the  importance  of  an  adequate  supply  of  ammonia 
for  refrigerating  and  ice-making  purposes.  Refrig- 
eration plays  a  most  essential  role  in  our  national 
life,  a  role  that  has  not  only  enlarged  tremendously 
in  recent  years,  but  has  so  changed  our  whole  sys- 
tem of  transporting,  storing  and  consumption  of 
foodstuffs  that  to  try  to  abruptly  effect  a  marked 
change    in    any    of    these    would    be    followed  by    a 


calamity  as  great  as,  if  not  greater  than  the  fuel  crisis. 

Now  above  all  times  there  should  be  a  full  supply  of 
ammonia  on  hand.  In  five  or  si.x  weeks  the  winter  will 
break  and  the  load  on  refrigerated  warehouses  and  cool- 
ing systems  will  rise  like  a  kite  string.  The  refrigerat- 
ing plants  should  start  each  with  a  full  charge  of 
ammonia.  One  cannot  hoard  ammonia  by  overcharging 
the  system,  because  compressor  operation  will  not  per- 
mit of  it  without  prohibitive  mechanical  trouble.  Be- 
cause excess  ammonia  must  be  stored  in  drums  in  the 
average  plant  and  because  it  is  easily  possible  to  keep  a 
record  of  sales,  hoarding  should  be  easily  prevented. 

It  will  not  do  for  the  Federal  authorities  to  be  too 
hasty  in  TVithholding  ammonia,  particularly  from  ware- 
house companies  storing  food.  Considerable  discretion 
is  not  only  desirable  but  imperative.  Food  is  now  un- 
der Governmental  control.  On  the  whole  owners  and 
operators  of  these  warehouses  do  not  own  the  food. 
They  must  not  be  driven  or  goaded  to  an  attitude  of 
irresponsibility — to  a  state  of  mind  that  would  bring 
about  a  condition  whereby  the  food  stored  might  spoil 
due  to  a  shutdown  for  lack  of  ammonia  or  other  causes. 
With  the  Federal  authorities  in  control  of  food  and  the 
essentials  necessary  to  its  preservation,  and  when  some- 
one else  owns  the  food,  it  is  not  a  far  cry  to  unloading 
on  the  Government,  to  "passing  the  buck  next  door." 
These  warehouses  may  properly  be  regarded  as  public 
utilities.  But  the  Federal  authorities  cannot  be  unmind- 
ful of  the  fact  that  they  present  a  totally  different  prob- 
lem, as  related  to  service  interruptions,  from  that 
presented  by  railroads  or  the  electric-power  utilities,  for 
example.  These  can  pick  up  the  load  where  they  dropped 
it.  A  refrigerating  plant  rapidly  reaches  a  critical 
stage  once  the  refrigerant  ceases  to  circulate  through 
the  system.  While  the  rolling  stock  of  the  railroad  and 
all  freight  except  perishable,  and  the  transmission  lines 
and  lamps  of  the  electric  utilities  suffer  no  deterioration 
while  the  "power  is  off,"  the  foods  in  cold  storage  im- 
mediately start  on  a  road  whose  end  is  ruin  as  soon  as 
the  compressors  are  stopped. 

Not  until  every  source  of  the  raw  materials  from 
which  ammonia  is  made  is  worked  to  its  limit,  not  until 
everything  has  been  done  to  develop  new  sources,  should 
ammonia  be  withheld.  Happily,  the  Government,  is  pre- 
paring to  manufacture  ammonia  on  a  great  scale. 

The  Great  News 

THE  article  by  Dr.  C.  R.  Mann,  on  page  217,  has 
a  significance  beyond  that  suggested  by  its  title. 
Although  irrelevant  to  the  field  of  Power,  it  is 
good  reading  for  anyone  who  is  observing  the  direction 
in  which  things  are  drifting  in  these  times,  when  so 
much  that  was  regarded  as  immutable  has  broken  loose 
from  its  moorings  and  so  much  that  was  apparently 
crystallized  is  in  a  state  of  flux. 

If  we  are  now  to  "envisage  an  entire  community  as 
a  single  working  plant  for  the  purpose  of  organizing 
it  for  the  production  of  human  wealth";  if  industry 
and  commerce  are  to  be  "organized  to  make  goods  cheap 
and  men  dear";  if  "public  service  rather  than  excess 
profit  is  to  become  the  inspiration  for  enterprise" — 
then  indeed  will  "the  engineer  and  not  the  banker  be- 
come the  power  behind  the  throne"  and  the  word  effi- 
ciency take  on  a  new  and  broader  significance. 


February  12,  1918  POWER  229 

iiiniimiiiimiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiuiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiniiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiniiiiiiuuii iiiiuiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiniiiiniiniiiininiiiiiimiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiniiiiininniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiis 


Correspondence 


iiuuiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiniinniiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiniiiii MiniiiiiiiuiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiuiiiiiiniiiiiiiniiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniinmnimnnmirnniniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iii 


Peening   Pipe   in    Its   Flanges 

A  steam  line  that  once  came  under  my  observation 
gave  trouble  by  leaking  at  the  threads  in  the  flanges. 
To  my  knowledge  it  was  taken  dovni  three  times  and 
the  ends  of  the  pipes  calked  against  the  flanges.  If,  in- 
stead, with  a  ball-peen  hammer,  the  pipe  had  been 
peened  into  the  flange  and  back  for  a  distance  equal  to 
the  thickness  of  the  flange,  the  job  would  have  been 
more  successful. 

Many  engineers  make  a  practice  of  heating  the  flanges 
before  screwing  them  on  a  pipe,  believing  that  when 
they  cool  the  joint  will  be  tight.  So  far  I  have  failed 
to  get  good  results  that  way,  but  have  always  made  it  a 
practice  to  see  that  the  pipe  is  well  peened  into  the 
flange.  The  pipe  should  be  screwed  in  to  come  flush 
with  the  face  of  the  flange.  If  one  has  a  lathe,  the 
flange  can  be  turned  off  a  small  amount  at  the  inside 
edge.  The  pipe  can  then  be  screwed  in  so  it  projects 
through,  and  after  it  is  peened  into  the  flange  and  the 
recess,  it  can  be  faced  off  with  a  file,  making  a  job 
that  will  stay  tight.  N.  C.  Gleason. 

Northport,  Wash. 


Hoisting  Boilers  to  Second  Floor 

The  boilers  in  the  new  plant  of  the  Studebaker 
Corporation  at  South  Bend,  Ind.,  weigh  30  tons  each 
and  had  to  be  placed  on  the  second  floor  twenty  feet 
above  street  level.  I  secured  a  double-drum  hoisting 
engine  and  rigged  up  two  sets  of  blocks  with  a  i-in.  steel 
cable,  fastened  one  end  to  an  overhead  beam  in  the 
building  and  the  other  to  the  boiler  with  cables  and 
clamps.  The  leads  ran  from  the  upper  blocks  to  snatch- 
blocks  on  the  building  column,  thence  down  the  column 
to  the  ground  and  through  other  snatch-blocks  to  the 


drums  of  the  hoisting  engine,  all  snatch-blocks  being 
fastened  to  the  building  column  with  cable  and  clamps. 

We  hitched  li-in.  rope  blocks  to  each  end  of  the  boiler 
to  hold  it  away  from  the  building  and  to  let  it  come 
in  gradually  after  hoisting  it  above  the  second  floor. 
We  also  had  a  pair  of  skids  from  the  ground  to  the 
second  floor  and  two  planks  lashed  to  the  tubes  for 
the  boiler  to  slide  on,  as  it  went  up,  to  protect  the  tubes. 

In  hoisting,  we  raised  each  end  six  feet  at  a  time 
until  we  had  the  boiler  four  feet  above  the  second  floor. 
We  then  slacked  off  on  the  rope  blocks  and  placed 
two  14-in.  X  14-in.  x  20-ft.  timbers  under  each  water-leg, 
letting  them  extend  five  feet  out  from  building.  On 
these  we  put  three  rollers  with  a  3  x  12-in.  plank  on  top 
of  rollers  and  lowered  the  boiler  to  rest  on  these  planks 
slightly  and,  with  two  rope  blocks  within  the  building, 
moved  the  boiler  over  into  place.  The  time  required 
after  the  rigging  was  set  was  just  one  hour  to  hoist 
and  land  each  boiler,  and  there  was  no  damage  done  to 
man  or  material  on  the  entire  job. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.  C.    C.    MULDNER. 

Regulating  Fuel-Oil  Burners 

I  wish  to  add  to  the  letter  by  Edward  M.  Walker,  on 
page  807  in  the  issue  of  Dec.  11,  regarding  the  proper 
method  of  regulating  fuel-oil  burners,  that  economical 
combustion  is  not  assured  unless  strict  attention  is 
given  to  damper  or  air  regulation,  and  in  boilers  of  the 
B.  &  W.  type  using  back-shot  burners  the  proper  place 
to  observe  the  flame  is  through  the  small  holes  in  the 
settings  for  soot  cleaning,  in  the  first  pass  opposite  the 
second  or  third  row  of  tubes  where  the  end  of  the 
flame  may  be  seen;  then  with  the  atomizer  set  so  as  to 
produce  a  clear  flame,  the  breeching  damper  should  be 
gradually  closed  until  the  end  of  the  flame  appears  red 


THE  ILLUSTRATIONS  SHOW  THE  METHOD 
EMPLOYED  IN  HOISTING  SEVERAL  LARGE 
HEINE  BOILERS  INTO  THE  NEW  POWER 
HOUSE  OF  THE  STtlDEBAKER  CORPORA- 
TION. AT  SOUTH  BEND.  IND. 


230 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


or  slightly  smoky.  In  this  type  of  setting  the  flame  is 
directed  toward  the  front,  and  with  a  heavy  fire  curls 
back  over  the  top  of  the  main  flame  body,  ending  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  tube  bank:  therefore  no  idea  of  the 
actual  condition  of  the  fire  can  be  had  by  observations 
taken  at  the  front — that  is,  through  the  fire-door — be- 
cause the  fire  may  be  quite  smoky  either  from  insuffi- 
cient atomization  or  a  deficiency  in  the  air  supply,  while 
the  color  of  the  main  body  of  the  flame  is  not  noticeably 
changed,  but  a  glance  at  the  tip  of  the  flame  will  plainly 
reveal  the  condition. 

Tn  some  oil-burning  plants  the  firemen  are  given  in- 
structions to  so  regulate  the  dampers  that  a  faint  haze 
will  appear  at  the  stack.  The  careless  ones  soon  learn 
that  by  setting  one  fire  so  as  to  produce  the  haze  the 
remaining  boilers  may  be  operated  with  the  dampers 
wide  open,  thus  saving  them  the  trouble  of  regulating 
the  dampers,  and  the  chief  or  superintendent,  seeing  the 
haze  coming  from  the  stack,  is  satisfied.  This  little 
trick  is  often  played  on  the  CO,  recorder  when  but  one 
boiler  is  connected  to  it;  that  boiler  is  operated  so  as 
to  give  a  good  CO,  reading,  while  the  others  are  neg- 
lected. A.  C.  McHuGH. 

Del  Monte,  Calif. 

Why  Twist  the  Pulley? 

On  page  808  in  the  issue  of  June  12,  1917,  Sidney  A. 
Reeve  asks,  "Why  is  it  that  in  forcing  a  pulley  on  a 
shaft,  you  can  gain  by  twisting  the  pulley?" 

I  think  that  this  may  be  explained  in  the  follow- 
ing way:  Imagine  you  have  a  pulley  3  ft.  in  diameter 
on  a  3-in.  shaft,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  and  the 
pulley  is  pinched  on  the  shaft  by  forces  p.  When  a  force 
F  is  applied  to  the  pulley  in  order  to  force  it  along 
the  shaft,  the  pulley  will  move  as  soon  as  F  is  greater 
than  Spw,  in  which  Sp  =  sum  of  pressures  p  and  u  = 
coefl^cient  of  friction.  When  '^p  =  P,  then  F  must  be 
greater  than  Pu.  Let  Pu  be  fi  =  300  lb.,  then  it  will 
not  be  easy  to  succeed  without  twisting  the  pulley.  It  is 
much  easier  to  turn  the  pulley  round  the  shaft.     You 


PULLEY  TO  BE  FORCED  ON  SHAFT 

need  but  apply  to  the  circumference  of  the  pulley  a  force 
Q  =  300  X  Y'  =  25  lb.,  as  this  force  corresponds  with 
a  force  fg  =  300  on  the  circumference  of  the  shaft. 

Suppose  Q  =  24.9  lb.  or  fg  =  24.9  X  ^°  =  298.8  lb. 
Then  the  pulley  will  not  turn.  At  the  same  time  we 
apply  a  force  fi  =;  32  lb.  in  the  axial  direction.     The 

resultant  force  will  then  be  /F  ==  I    298.8"  +  32',  which 


is  greater  than  300  lb.  In  consequence  the  pulley  will 
move  in  the  direction  of  the  resultant  force  fF;  that  is, 
it  will  turn  round  the  shaft  and  move  in  an  axial  direc- 
tion. If  we  apply  a  force  Q  -=  25  lb.,  the  force  F,  be  it 
ever  so  small,  will  cause  a  movement  in  the  axial  direc- 
tion. 

This  property  might  be  taken  advantage  of  with  re- 
gard to  measuring  apparatus,  where  one  wants  to  elimi- 
nate the  influence  of  friction.  If  only  we  have  at  our 
disposal  a  turning  force  of  sufficient  .strength,  we  can 
eliminate  the  friction  in  the  axial  direction. 

Wageningen,  Holland.  Y.  Brouwers. 


Repairing  Worn  Valve  Stems 

When  the  valve  stems  of  a  Corliss  engine  become  cut 
or  worn  from  the  friction  of  the  packing,  it  is  expensive, 
especially  in  large  engines,  to  replace  them  with  "new 


VALVE    STEM    FITTED    WITH    SLEEVE 

ones.  If  the  stem  is  not  worn  to  a  dangerously  small 
diameter,  the  following  methods  of  repairing  will  be 
found  inexpensive  and  efficient.  The  job  might  be  re- 
peated whenever  necessary,  thus  retaining  the  same 
stems  indefinitely. 

The  stem  shown  in  the  illustration  is  2]  in.  diameter, 
with  a  tee-head  21  in.  square.  A  piece  of  drawn  steel 
tubing  2h  in.  outside  diameter  and  a  scant  2\  in.  inside 
diameter,  making  a  snug  driving  fit  on  the  stem,  was 
forced  on  over  the  valve  stem  to  the  position  shown  at 
A.  The  hole  in  the  bracket  was  bored  out  1  in.  larger, 
as  was  also  the  gland.  The  stem  was  then  put  in  place 
and  packed  with  packing  J  in.  smaller  than  the  old. 

The  job  proved  satisfactory  and  made  the  stem  ap- 
parently as  good  as  new. 

If  I  were  building  an  engine,  I  would  have  the  stems 
provided  with  sleeves  so  that  when  worn  they  could  be 
removed  and  replaced  by  new  ones. 

Passaic,  N.  J.  Charles  W.  Oakley. 


Removing  a  Key — Not 

Of  all  the  "fool  stunts"  I  ever  heard  of,  the  follow- 
ing seems  to  be  the  limit.  A  self-styled  expert  ma- 
chinery rigger,  after  sledging  at  a  l-'m.  key  that  had 
been  exposed  to  the  weather  for  years  and  failing  to 
move  it,  looped  a  few  turns  of  No.  10  galvanized  wire 
around  it  and  hitched  a  "flivver"  automobile  to  it  ex- 
pecting to  draw  it  out  by  a  steady  pull.  Did  he  succeed? 
He  did  not.  B.  C.  White. 

Spartanburg,  S.  C. 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


231 


Lowering  a  Heavy  Tank 

At  a  certain  plant  a  large  tank  was  to  be  lowered  from 
an  elevated  position  to  the  floor.  The  job  proceeded 
smoothly  by  successively  blocking  and  lowering  with 
jacks,  until  at  last  the  tank  was  resting  on  the  jacks 


LOWERING  THE  TANK  TO  REST  ON  BLOCKS  OP  ICE 

with  their  bases  on  the  floor.  The  problem  then  was 
to  get  it  the  rest  of  the  way  down.  This  was  accom- 
plished as  follows:  The  tank  was  lifted  slightly  and 
blocks  of  ice  placed  under  it.  The  jacks  were  then  re- 
moved and  warm  water  flushed  around  the  ice  and  the 
tank  gradually  settled  into  place.  J.  M.  PuRCELL. 

Richmond,  Va. 

A  Groaning  Steam  Pump 

Following  is  my  experience  with  a  groaning  pump.  It 
was  a  Worthington  duplex  16  by  12  by  12  plunger  pat- 
tern, and  furnished  water  at  90  lb.  pressure  to  operate 
three  hydraulic  elevators  in  a  loft  and  office  building. 
The  surge  tank  of  the  system  was  in  an  out-of-the-way 
place  under  the  floor.  The  awful  groan  drove  the  whole 
lot  of  us  almost  to  distraction,  including  about  50  or  60 
dressmakers  on  the  fifth  floor,  and  they  threatened  to 
quit.     Of  course,  that  would  never  do. 

We  located  the  groaning  in  the  water  end,  and  began 
feeding  it  soap  suds,  cylinder  oil  and  graphite,  etc., 
without  satisfactory  results,  so  we  decided  to  operate. 
It  was  found  that  the  two  bronze  plungers  and  the  cast 
bronze  sleeves  (a  snug  fit)  were  cutting  badly  and  some- 
thing had  to  be  done.  We  painted  the  plungers  with 
graphite  and  cylinder  oil,  then  went  on  a  still  hunt  for 
the  cause  of  the  cutting  and  found  the  water  in  the 
cistern  full  of  grit,  scum,  lath,  lime,  sand  and  cement 
that  would  neither  sink  nor  float  on  top,  but  would  stay 
suspended  in  the  water.  There  was  no  provision  made 
for  emptying  the  cistern,  but  we  soon  had  an  ejector  at 
work  and  had  the  cistern  empty  and  thoroughly  cleaned; 
after  filling  it  with  fresh  clear  water,  we  had  no  more 
trouble.  R.  A.  PERRY. 

Hayden,  Ariz. 

Why  a   Different  Rate  of  Scale 
Formation? 

I  have  picked  up  much  useful  information  from 
Power,  and  by  way  of  return  I  am  sending  the  following 
on  a  subject  I  have  never  seen  discussed,  in  the  hope  of 
stimulating  investigation  which  may  be  well  worth  time 
and  money  to  follow  up. 

As  a  boiler  inspector  I  have  often  been  struck  by  the 
different  amounts  of  scale  to  be  found  in  boilers  using 


the  same  water  and  working  under  the  same  conditions, 
and  on  inquiry  I  find  other  inspectors  have  noticed  the 
same  thing,  but  without  thinking  further  about  it.  Two 
cases  in  point  are  as  follows :  Of  two  locomotives  made 
by  the  same  firm,  working  at  the  same  pressure,  fed 
from  the  same  water  supply  and  working  the  same  num- 
ber of  hours,  one  boiler  shows  practically  no  scale  and 
the  other  is  in  a  very  bad  condition  with  scale.  In  a 
battery  of  boilers  all  working  under  similar  conditions 
as  regards  pressure,  feed  supply  and  time  between  each 
cleaning,  one  boiler  has  much  less  scale  than  any  of 
the  others,  yet  the  man  whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after  the 
feed  tells  me  that  judging  by  the  amount  of  water  he 
puts  into  it,  it  must  evaporate  about  twice  the  quantity 
of  steam  the  others  do. 

I  could  cite  many  other  similar  cases,  but  these  two 
are  enough  to  show  what  is  meant.  My  idea  is  that 
there  is  something  in  the  composition  of  the  plate  which 
accounts  for  it.  If  this  is  correct,  the  task  would  be 
to  find  out  what  that  something  is  and  then  to  see  that 
all  future  boilers  were  made  with  this  material.  Per- 
haps some  readers  may  be  able  to  confirm  my  statement. 

Wigan,  Lancashire,  England.  A.  BENNETT. 

Keeping  Lubricator  Glass  Clear 

To  keep  cylinder  oil  from  coming  in  contact  with 
and  adhering  to  the  sight-feed  glass  of  a  lubricator, 
my  practice  is  to  insert  a  small  strand  of  copper  wire  in. 
the  tube.  This  wire  should  extend  to  the  top  of  the 
sight  glass,  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  have  it  so 
long  as  to  come  in  contact  with  the  top  plug  when  it  is 
screwed  in.  M.  H.  OSGOOD. 

Woburn,  Mass. 

Improvement  in  Ring  Oilers 

The  slot  in  the  top  half  of  ring-oiled  bearings  is 
sometimes  made  too  wide  for  the  ring  and  the  oil  is 
not  carried  to  the  oil  grooves  and  consequently  is  not 
properly  distributed.  On  the  high-pressure  end  of 
turbines  the  heat  from  the  casing  and  the  steam  makes 
the  use  of  a  heavy  oil  almost  imperative,  as  the  lighter 


OIL-RINCr    SLOT    MADE    WIDER    AT    BOTTOM 

oils  are  "boiled  out"  of  the  reservoirs.  A  good  grade 
of  steam-cylinder  oil  follows  up  the  oiling  ring  in  a 
thicker  film,  but  this  necessitates  a  wider  ring  slot  at 
the  bottom,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  I  make  it  a 
rule  to  increase  the  width  of  the  slot  at  the  bottom 
to  twice  that  of  the  top  and  find  it  a  great  improvement. 

In  using  heavy  oil,  start  the  turbine  slowly  and  give 
the  oil  time  to  get  thoroughly  warm  and  flowing  freely. 

Herkimer,  N.  Y.  Harold  G.  Burrill. 


232 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


An  Electrical  Phenomenon 

At  the  close  of  my  apprenticeship  days,  many  years 
ago,  I  had  a  peculiar  experience  never  since  observed, 
although  it  is  said  not  to  be  unusual.  It  manifested 
itself  in  a  curious  manner  and  in  such  a  way  as  might 
easily  give  a  man  of  nervous  temperament  a  shock  not 
soon  to  be  forgotten.  I  was  at  that  period  engaged 
upon  the  upkeep  of  the  works  plant  which  included, 
among  other  things,  a  9  x  30-ft.  Lancashire  boiler  carry- 


PIPE  LINE  WITH  BT.EEDKR   PIPE  THAT  KT'RST 

ing  150  lb.  pressure  and  situated  some  distance  from 
the  works  at  the  end  of  a  field,  where  a  new  power 
house  wa-s  to  be  erected.  Steam  was  sent  across  the 
field  through  an  8-in.  pipe  supported  about  seven  feet 
above  ground  to  supply  the  existing  works  engines,  and 
at  a  point  A  about  midway  in  the  line  there  was  a 
branch  taken  vertically  and  then  horizontally  at  right 
angles  to  the  main  pipe  line  across  to  another  part  of 
the  works,  where  other  engines  were  situated. 

At  the  base  of  the  tee  there  was  a  3 -in.  pipe  at- 
tached to  act  as  a  drain  and  also  to  feed  a  tank  for 
boiling  suds.  It  was  the  custom  to  shut  the  steam  off 
this  pipe  line  at  night  and  turn  it  on  again  early  in 
the  morning.  On  this  particular  morning  in  January, 
during  a  spell  of  extremely  "black  frosty"  weather, 
on  starting  up  it  was  found  that  the  ;-in.  drain  pipe 
had  frozen  solid  during  the  night,  and  it  had  to  be 
allowed  time  to  thaw  out,  which  occurred  about  6:30 
a.m.,  but  the  frost  had  split  it  all  along  one  length 
of  pipe  so  that  after  it  had  thawed  out,  steam  issued 
from  the  split  into  the  cold  air  of  the  early  morning 
with  a  high  velocity  and  a  tremendously  shrill  noise. 
This  in  itself  was  not  so  alarming,  but  the  phenomena 
accompanying  it  presented  a  startling  appearance,  for, 
at  a  distance  of  about  three  inches  from  the  split  seam, 
and  at  that  point  where  the  steam  began  to  show  itself 
expanding  into  a  visible  vapor,  there  was  a  steady 
stream  of  heavy  blue  sparks  having  a  comb-like  appear- 
ance, apparently  jumping  across  the  air  space  from  the 
pipe  to  the  vapor,  the  effect  being  accentuated  by  a 
crackling  noise  not  unlike  continuous  musketry  firing 
at  a  distance. 

When  called  to  my  attention,  I  naturally  experienced 
an  uncanny  feeling,  intensified  by  the  frightened  tones 
of  my  informant,  but  soon  decided  what  the  cause  was. 
The  blue  sparks  were  discharges  of  static  electricity 
produced  by  the  friction  of  dry  steam  slightly  super- 
heated passing  through  cold  dry  air  at  a  high  velocity. 
Upon  closer  examination  the  discharge  was  found  to 
be  taking  place  actually  where  the  expansion  of  steam 
was  visible.  Detailed  information  will  be  found  in 
textbooks  treating  of  electricity  and  magnetism  regard- 
ing such  phenomenon. 

Such  electrical  effects  are  also  met  with  by  engi- 
neers in  other  forms.  A  fireman  vowed  that  he  got  a 
shock  upon  touching  the  mechanical  stokers,  and  it  was 
found  to  be  caused  by   the  dry   driving  belt   running 


at  a  high  velocity,  for  upon  holding  the  hand  near  the 
inner  side  of  the  belt  a  thick  bluish  .spark  leaped  across 
the  air  space  from  the  belt  to  the  hand,  giving  the  ex- 
perimenter a  sharp  but  not  dangerous  shock. 

Electrical  effects  of  this  nature  are  met  with  in  paper 
making.  Paper  is  passed  from  the  wet  stage  onto 
steam-heated  revolving  cylinders,  then  put  through 
heavy  calendering  rolls  so  as  to  glaze  the  surface  some- 
what. This  last  process  creates  a  static  discharge, 
with  its  crackling  noise,  tending  to  distort  the  paper 
as  it  is  being  wound  on  to  rolls.  To  prevent  this  dis- 
tortion, a  crude  but  satisfactory  method  is  adopted ; 
that  is,  two  or  three  pails  of  water  are  placed  upon 
a  plank,  .spanning  the  machine,  vertically  over  the  point 
of  exit  of  the  paper  from  the  rolls,  and  into  each  pail 
is  inserted  some  loose  .strands  of  cotton  rope  or  other 
material  hanging  well  down  below  the  bottom  of  the 
pails.  The  capillary  action  of  these  wick  siphons  is 
sufficient  to  distribute  drops  of  water  at  regular  periods 
into  the  air  space  between  the  paper  and  rolls,  which 
is  enough  to  dissipate  the  electrical  discharge. 

Doubtless  other  engineers  know  of  many  such  in- 
stances, but  perhaps  under  different  conditions. 

London,  N.  W.,  England.  Henry  S.  Whiteley.:'  ■ 

Trapping  Water  from  Air  Line 

In  a  plant  furnishing  compressed  air  for  various 
processes  of  manufacturing,  a  great  deal  of  complaint 
was  occasioned  by  the  moisture  in  the  air,  especially 
during  damp  weather.     A  separator  "helped  some,"  but 


TRAP    CONNECTED    TO    .SEP.\R.\TOR    OX    .VIR    LINE 

there  was  difficulty  in  trapping  the  water  from  the 
separator  and  it  was  necessary  to  leave  a  small  drip 
or  bleeder  open  all  the  time,  as  the  trap  did  not  work 
right;  consequently,  there  was  considerable  loss  of  air 
at  times  and  at  other  times  the  water  would  accumulate 
faster  than  the  bleeder  could  take  care  of  it.  The 
diflftculty  with  the  trap  was  caused  by  its  becoming 
air-bound,  so  the  engineer  drilled,  tapped  and  connected 
it  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  with  the  air  main  allow- 
ing the  air  to  flow  back  to  the  main,  and  no  further 
difficulty  was  experienced.  C.  W.  Oakley. 

Passaic,  N.  J. 


February  12.  1918  POWETR  233 

siiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin' Ill iiiiiiiiiiiimii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiii miiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiy 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest 

iilllllliiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiimiii iniiiiiiii iiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiii iiiiiiiniii iiiiiiiniiiniiniiinii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiii i iiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniMiiiiiiiiiiiii i iiiiii iiiniiiiniiii 


Strength  of  Manila  Rope — What  is  the  breaking 
strength  of  1^-in.,  %-in.,  1-in.  and  lV4-in.  diameter  Ma- 
nila rope?  I-  P- 

New  well-laid  Manila  hemp  rope,  Vi-in.  diameter,  should 
have  an  ultimate  strength  of  at  least  1900  lb.;  %-in.,  4100 
lb.;  1-in.,  7100  lb.;  and  1^4 -in.,  10,900  lb.  But  for  ordi- 
nary uses  the  working  stress  of  Vi-in.  diameter  rope 
should  not  exceed  50  lb:;  of  %-in.,  112  lb.;  of  1-in.,  200  lb.; 
and  of  1%-in.,  312  lb.  Greater  working  stresses  cause 
the  rope  to  rapidly  deteriorate  in  texture  and  strength. 

Grate  Openings  for  Smaller  Size  of  Coal  For  using  a 
smaller  size  of  coal  with  forced  draft  we  are  using  the 
herringbone  grate  bars  with  %-in.  openings  formerly  used 
for  burning  buckwheat  size  of  coal,  and  considerable  trouble 
is  experienced  from  coal  falling  through  the  grates  after 
each  cleaning.    What  size  of  grate  openings  should  be  used  ? 

E.  T. 

The  smallest  slot  form  of  openings  pi-acticable  for  ordi- 
nary forced  draft  are  Vs  to  .'■  in.  wide.  By  first  spreading 
the  grates  with  the  coarsest  fuel  that  is  retained  in  clean- 
ing, a  minimum  amount  of  fresh  fuel  will  drop  through. 

Steam  Consumption  and  Weight  of  Feed  Water — In  stat- 
ing steam  consumption  in  pounds,  is  this  calculated  from 
the  number  of  pounds  of  feed  water  evaporated  ? 

B.  C.  M. 

Unless  otherwise  qualified,  steam  consumption  stated 
in  pounds  refers  to  the  weight  of  dry  saturated  steam  sup- 
plied at  some  particular  pressure.  Computation  of  the 
weight  consumed  can  be  made  from  known  weight  of  feed 
water  that  has  been  evaporated  and  supplied  as  steam  with 
deduction  of  the  pei-centage  of  moisture  in  the  steam  de- 
livered or  of  the  percentage  of  moisture  above  the  stipu- 
lated  percentage.  The  weight  is  only  to  be  considered 
identical  with  the  weight  of  the  boiler-feed  water  when 
the  steam  is  delivered  as  dry  saturated  steam  or  if  it  is 
superheated  or  it  has  the  specified  percentage  of  moisture. 

Cost  of  Coal  per  1000  Cu.Ft.  of  Steam  Generated— Where 

the  actual  evaporation  of  a  boiler  is  8  lb.  of  water  per 
pound  of  coal  into  steam  at  100  lb.  gage  pressure  and 
the  cost  of  the  coal  is  $8  per  ton  of  2000  lb.,  what  is  the 
cost  of  coal  per  1000  cu.ft.  of  steam  generated  ? 

H.  L.  Y. 
The  cost  of  coal  would  be  $8  -^  (2000  X  8)  =  $0.0005,  or 
'Ao  of  Ic.  per  pound  of  steam  generated.  Assuming  that 
the  feed  water  is  converted  into  dry  saturated  steam  at 
a  pressure  of  lOO  lb.  gage  or  115  lb.  per  sq.in.  absolute, 
then,  according  to  the  Marks  and  Davis  Steam  Tables,  the 
density  of  the  steam  or  weight  per  cubic  foot  would  be 
0.2577  lb.  Therefore  1000  cu.ft.  would  weigh  1000  x  0.2577 
=  257.7  lb.,  and  the  cost  of  coal  required  would  be  257.7  x 
$0.0005  =  $0.12885,  or  practically  13c.  per  1000  cu.ft.  of 
steam  generated. 

Space  Occupied  by  Coal — How  many  cubic  feet  should 
be  allowed  per  ton  of  coal  ?  W.  E.  T. 

The  weight  per  cubic  foot  and  consequently  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  per  ton  varies  with  size,  and  uniformity  ofi 
size  to  which  the  coal  is  broken,  and  also  depends  upon 
whether  the  coal  is  "shaken  down"  in  bulk  as  by  trans- 
portation and  on  the  specific  gravity  of  the  coal,  which 
varies  for  different  mines  and  for  coal  taken  from  different 
parts  of  the  same  mine.  Hence  there  is  considerable  varia- 
tion in  the  cubic  feet  per  ton,  and  fiirther  confusion  arises 
from  misunderstanding  of  whether  "long"  tons  of  2240  lb. 
or  "short"  tons  of  2000  lb.  are  under  consideration.  The 
average  weight  of  American  anthracite,  taken  in  boxes 
holding  2  cu.ft.,  has  been  quoted  as  53.4  lb.  per  cu.ft.  and 
of  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  bituminous  coal  as  averag- 
ing 52.8  lb.  per  cu.ft.,  from  which  a'  short  ton  of  anthracite 
would  occupy   2000    -^    53.4   =   37.45  cu.ft.  and   a   long  ton 


2240  -^  53.4  =  41.94  cu.ft.;  and  a  short  ton  of  bituminous 
coal  would  occupy  2000  -^  52.8  =  37.87  cu.ft.  and  a  long 
ton  2240  ^  52.8  =  42.42  cu.ft.  On  account  of  the  wide 
variation  of  conditions,  no  estimates  of  weight  of  coal  from 
measurements  of  bulk  should  be  regarded  as  more  nearly 
approximate  than  within  about  10  per  cent'.  To  be  on  the 
safe  side,  provision  for  space  for  storage  of  coal  should 
allow  not  less  than  about  40  cu.ft.  per  ton  of  2000  lb.  and 
45  cu.ft.  per  ton  of  2240  pounds. 

Relative  Efficiency  of  Copper  a.id  Iron  Heating  .Surfaee.s — 

What  is  the  relative  efficiency  of  coils  Inade  of  iron  or  of 
copper  tubes  for  heating  water  by  a  gas   flame? 

F.  M.  E. 
Copper  coils  are  more  durable  than  coils  made  of  iron 
or  steel  pipe,  and  while  the  material  is  bright  and  clean  the 
rate  of  transmission  of  heat  to  the  water  is  several  times 
as  rapid  as  with  new  iron  or  steel  pipes  of  the  same  size 
and  arrangement.  But  coils  f  copper  heated  by  gas  quickly 
become  coated  with  a  deposit  from  the  products  of  com- 
bustion that  renders  the  copper  surfaces  no  more  efficient 
than  similar  iron-pipe  heating  surfaces  that  have  been 
in  use  for  the  same  length  of  time.  Tests  of  two  fire- 
tube  boilers  made  alike,  excepting  that  one  had  iron  fire 
tubes  and  the  other  copper  fire  tubes,  showed  that  their 
evaporative  activity  was  practically  the  same. 

Explanation  of  Formula  for  Use  with  Throttling  Calo- 
rimeter— What  is  the  explanation  of  the  fomiula  for  deter- 
mining the  fraction  of  di-yness  of  steam  with  the  throttling 
calorimeter?  A.    L. 

So  far  as  practical  results  are  concerned,  the  steam  in 
the  throttling  calorimeter  contains  the  same  number  of 
heat  units  per  pound  as  the  steam  in  the  pipe  from  which 
the  sample  is  taken;  and  since  the  original  steam  contains 
more  heat  per  pound  than  necesssry  for  dry  saturated  steam 
at  the  low  pressure  in  the  calorimeter  the  latter  is  super- 
heated; that  is,  contains  more  heat  per  pound  and  is  of  a 
higher  temperature  than  if  it  were  dry  saturated  steam 
at  the  low  pressure. 

The  specific  heat  or  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of 
superheated  steam  through  one  degree  when  near  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere  is  commonly  taken  as  0.48  B.t.u.  per 
pound,  hence  if  U  is  the  temperature  indicated  by  the 
thermometer  and  f,  is  the  temperature  of  dry  saturated 
steam  given  by  the  steam  tables  for  the  pressure  existing 
in  the  calorimeter,  then  the  steam  is  superheated  (U  —  U) 
degrees  and  the  B.t.u.  absorbed  as  superheat  by  each 
pound  of  steam  would  be  0.48  (t:  —  U).  Hence  it  H  —  the 
total  heat  of  a  pound  of  dry  saturated  steam  at  the  pres- 
sure that  exists  in  the  calorimeter,  then  the  number  of 
B.t.u.  contained  by  each  pound  of  the  steam  in  the  calorime- 
ter would  he  H  +  0.48  (ii  —  U),  and  this  same  quantity  of 
heat  is  assumed  to  be  present  in  each  pound  of  the 
initial  steam.  The  whole  of  each  pound  of  the  original 
water  must  have  been  heated  to  the  boiling  point  while  only 
a  fraction  of  a  pound  may  have  received  the  latent  heat  of 
evaporation.  Hence,  if  for  a  pound  of  the  initial  steam 
h  =  the  heat  of  the  liquid,  L  =  the  latent  heat  of  evapora- 
tion, and  q  =  the  fraction  of  the  whole  pound  that  is  dry 
saturated  steam,  then  for  a  pound  of  the  initial  steam  the 
B.t.u.  present  would  be  h  +  qL,  and  as  the  heat  per  pound 
of  the  initial  steam  is  assumed  to  be  the  same  as  the  heat 
per  pound  of  the  steam  in  the  calorimeter,  then 

fe  +  .L^//  +  0.48(t.-M,org  =  ^  +  »-^«^:-^'>-^' 


[Correspondents  sending  us   inquiries   should   sign   their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  oflice  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com 
munications    and   for   the    inquiries    to   receive    attention. — 
Editor.l 


234 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


Storage  and  Weathering  of  Coal 

By  W.  D.  STUCKENBERG  and  J.  F.  KOHOUT 

Commercial  Testing  and  Engineering  Co.,  Chicago 


During  the  present  international  complications 
the  storage  of  coal  is  becoming  increasingly  nec- 
essary. The  prime  purpose,  of  course,  is  to  have 
a  supply  of  fuel  on  hand  so  that  plants  will  not  be 
shut  doivn  and  homes  will  not  be  without  heat. 
Another  reason  is  the  occasional,  at  the  present 
almost  universal,  lack  of  railroad  equipment  to 
move  the  coal  from  its  source  to  the  ultimate 
destination.  Labor  troubles  also  interfere  tvith 
the  production  or  handling  of  coal,  either  at  the 
mine,  in  transit,  or  in  the  cities. 


ONE  OF  the  theories  now  being  advanced  for  the  relief 
of  railroad  congestion  and  mine  running  time  is  to 
require  large  consumers,  who  are  under  annual 
contracts,  to  accept  their  coal  in  equal  monthly  shipments. 
This  practice,  if  instituted,  will  necessitate  storing  coal 
when  the  deliveries  are  in  excess  of  daily  demands.  The 
storage  thus  accumulated  will  have  to  be  used  at  times 
when  shipments  are  less  than  daily  consumption. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  larger  sizes  of  coal  from  about 
No.  3  nut  on  up  through  the  various  sizes  of  nut,  egg  and 
lump  store  without  giving  any  trouble.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  these  sizes  are  drier  and  offer  a  smaller  surface, 
in  proportion  to  their  mass,  to  the  action  of  oxygen  than 
do  the  finer  sizes. 

Anthracite  and  semibituminous  coals  store  well  in  any 
size,  but  this  is  probably  due  to  their  chemical  composition. 
Oxidation  occurs  here  also,  but  is  much  slower  in  action, 
and,  therefore,  smaller  in  amount  for  any  given  length  of 
time.  Sub-bituminous  coal  from  the  West,  frequently  called 
black  lignite,  is  hardly  suitable  for  storage.  Its  tendency 
to  slake  condemns  it. 

FiNEis  Sizes  High  in  Moisture  and  Iron  Pyrites 

The  finer  sizes  of  coal,  which  are  used  principally  for 
power  purposes,  are  generally  high  in  moisture  and  iron 
pyrites.  These  are  deleterious  ingredients  because  of  the 
ease  of  oxidation  of  the  pyrite  in  the  presence  of  water 
vapor.  The  finer  sizes,  that  is,  coal  passing  through  2-in. 
screen  and  smaller,  expose  a  great  number  of  small  surfaces 
to  the  air.  These  several  factors  all  tend  to  initiate  oxida- 
tion and  to  speed  it  along  once  it  has  started. 

Here  also  the  difference  between  Eastern  and  Western 
coals  should  be  e.xplained.  The  fomier  are  much  purer  in 
that  they  ai-e  low  in  moisture  and  pyrite.  The  Western 
coals  are  much  higher  in  both  of  these  constituents  and  are 
therefore  to  be  considered  as  being  much  more  liable  to 
spontaneous  ignition.  As  an  illustration  of  this  peculiarity, 
a  quantity  of  screenings  from  southeastern  Kentucky  was 
in  storage  for  seven  years,  but  when  it  was  moved  there 
was  no  visible  evidence  of  excessive  oxidation  or  deteriora- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  a  storage  pile  of  western  Ken- 
tucky screenings  may  fire  easily  within  60  days. 

Storage  piles  vary  in  size  from  a  few  tons  to  many  hun- 
dred thousand  tons.  This  fact  necessitates  a  careful  con- 
sideration of  the  three  methods  of  storage — under  water, 
in  closed  bins  and  in  open  piles.  Under  water  any  kind  and 
size  of  coal  may  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time  without 
danger  from  fire.  This  method  is  used  by  large  consumers 
who  also  hold  coal  in  open  piles  for  immediate  use.  Storage 
in  closed  bins  is  generally  limited  to  small  quantities  of 
fuel. 

The  great  bulk  of  storage  coal  at  present  is  kept  in  open 
piles.  It  is  intended  to  be  held  readily  available  for  use,  and 
is  seldom  on  the  ground  for  more  than  a  few  months.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  should  not  be  kept  long,  but  the  length 


'Excerpt  from  paper  read  before  the  Kentucky  Ice  Manufac- 
turers' Association. 


of  time  should  depend  on  the  kind  of  coal,  since  this  is  the 
most  dangerous  form  of  storage.  However,  when  proper 
precautions  are  taken  at  the  time  the  coal  is  placed  on  the 
ground  and  maintained  while  the  pile  lasts,  losses  may  be 
eliminated  or  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  losses  which  occur  may  be  considered  to  be  due  to 
oxidation.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  rate  of 
oxidation  increases  with  the  temperature,  also  that  coal  is 
a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  so  that  much  of  the  heat  occurring 
or  generated  in  the  interior  of  the  pile  stays  there.  The;e 
two  facts  indicate  that  when  oxidation  starts,  even  though 
at  a  low  temperatui-e,  it  generates  a  small  amount  of  heat. 
This  heat  is  insulated  from  the  outside  air  and,  being  re- 
tained, tends  to  increase  the  rate  of  oxidation.  This  one 
action  helps  the  other,  and  the  oxidation  proceeds  at  a  con- 
stantly accelerated  rate,  the  more  easily  oxidizable  com- 
pounds or  constituents  being  attacked  first. 

Iron  pyrite  is  oxidized  in  the  presence  of  water  to  fer- 
rous sulphate  and  sulphuric  acid  according  to  the  equation 
expressed  in  plain  English, 
Iron  pyrite  +  oxygen  -{■  water  ^  Iron  sulphate  -)-  sulphuric 

acid  -\-  heat. 
This  reaction  takes  place  with  a  considerable  evolution  of 
heat.  It  is  trae  that  the  oxidation  really  goes  farther  with 
the  evolution  of  still  more  heat,  but  this  additional  heat,  and 
also  the  heat  due  to  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  lime  or 
alkalies  present  in  the  coal,  or  the  heat  generated  by  the 
dilution  of  the  acid  with  water,  are  not  considered.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  water  actually  enters  into  chemical 
combination  with  the  pyi'ite  and  oxygen,  unless  the  water  is 
present  in  sufficient  amount  to  exclude  the  air.  This  is  the 
condition  that  prevails  in  under-water  storage  and  is  one 
of  the  reasons  why  that  method  is  best. 

When  coal  is  stored  in  the  dry  state,  the  equation  for  the 
oxidation  of  the  pyrite  previously  given  is  incomplete,  since 
the  moisture  component  is  absent.  When  it  is  stored  under 
water,  the  equation  is  again  incomplete,  because  the  air  is 
thus  excluded  and  the  oxygen  component  is  absent. 

In  other  words,  the  oxidation  of  coal  in  the  dry  state 
proceeds  very  slowly,  since  the  only  moisture  available  is 
that  in  the  coal  and  in  the  air.  In  dry  coal  the  moisture  is 
very  low,  so  in  dry  storage  one  of  the  necessary  constituents 
of  the  reaction  is  lacking  to  a  relatively  large  extent. 

In  several  instances  which  have  come  under  observation 
a  low-volatile  coal,  called  "Arkansas  semi-anthracite,"  has 
given  considerable  trouble  from  spontaneous  combustion. 
This  coal  has  a  fairly  large  content  of  sulphur  and  low 
moisture.  Its  principal  use  has  been  as  a  substitute  for 
semibituminous  or  Pocahontas  coal  for  domestic  use;  and 
when  it  is  unloaded  from  wagons  into  basements,  it  is  gen- 
erally sprinkled  with  a  garden  hose  to  lay  the  dust.  This 
supplies  the  moisture  which  is  necessary  for  the  oxidation. 
Several  fires  have  occun-ed  in  Chicago  from  this  cause,  and 
the  fact  that  the  coal  is  used  so  much  in  dwellings  makes 
extreme  care  in  its  storage  and  handling  absolutely  neces- 
sary. It  has  not  been  on  the  Chicago  market  long  enough 
to  demonstrate  if  it  would  heat  up  in  the  dry  state,  but 
theoretically  it  should  give  no  trouble  in  such  a  condition. 

How  THE  Temperature  of  the  Pile  Is  Raised 

The  heat  due  to  the  oxidation  of  pyrite,  helped  by  that 
coming  from  external  sources,  if  any,  raises  the  temperature 
of  the  pile  to  the  point  where  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of 
the  coal  begin  to  be  attacked.  This  action  is  aided  by  the 
fact  that  coal,  particularly  when  freshly  mined,  has  a 
strong  affinity  for  oxygen.  The  oxygen  is  absorbed  much 
as  water  is  taken  up  by  a  sponge.  This  supplies  the  oxygen 
needed  for  the  oxidation  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen.  The 
action  is  not  likely  to  occur  until  a  temperature  of  about 
250  deg.  F.  is  reached.  The  temperature  of  the  coal  is 
raised  by  these  processes  until  it  reaches  a  point  (about 
450  deg.  F.)  where  the  action  is  autogenous  and  is  no 
longer  dependent  upon  external  sources  of  heat  to  maintain 


February  12.  1918 


POWER 


235 


the    temperature.      When   the   temperature   mounts    up    to 
about  750  dejr.  F.,  the  coal  takes  fire. 

Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  the  fact  must  be  kept  in  mind 
that  small  amounts  of  moisture  assist  in  the  oxidation  of 
the  coal.  This  was  tested  out  by  Professor  Parr  at  the 
University  of  Illinois.  His  bulletin  No.  46,  "The  Spon- 
taneous Combustion  of  Coal,"  pivinp:  the  results  of  his 
experiments,  shows  without  exception,  in  all  the  series  of 
tests,  that  the  wetting  of  the  coal  increased  the  activity, 
as  shown  by  the  ultimate  temperature.  Thus,  when  a  storage 
pile  is  burning,  it  must  be  flooded  with  water  to  extin- 
guish. Merely  wetting  the  surface  or  outer  layers  of  coal 
with  a  hose  or  spray  will  hasten  the  loss. 

Heat  from  External  Sources 

In  connection  with  piles  of  coal  in  storage,  the  effect  of 
external  sources  of  heat  is  of  extreme  importance.  Without 
the  aid  of  heat  from  some  external  source,  the  initial  stages 
of  oxidation  either  would  not  occur  or  their  rate  would  b^' 
extremely  slow.  These  sources  may  be  steam  pipes  in  the 
ground  or  near  the  pile,  as  in  conduits,  etc.,  which  are  in 
contact  with  the  coal,  or  the  heat  from  boilers.  This  last  is 
particularly  true  in  the  case  of  bunkers  on  vessels.  In  one 
case  that  came  under  observation,  a  pile  of  coal  which  or- 
dinarily stores  without  trouble,  ignited.  The  cause  was 
finally  discovered  in  the  presence  of  a  manhole  covered 
with  a  thin  layer  of  earth,  and  so  overlooked,  thi-ough 
which  steam  passed.  This  manhole  was  immediately 
under  the  pile  of  coal  and  was  the  means  of  supplying 
enough  heat  to  start  the  oxidation  of  this  coal. 

When  coal  is  unloaded  by  dumping  on  the  ground  from  a 
car  or  a  high  trestle  and  then  is  piled  up  to  almost  the  level 
of  the  car  floor,  as  is  frequently  done  in  the  coalyards,  the 
heat  of  impact  and  of  pressure  constitutes  a  positive  danger 
to  the  coal. 

The  question  is  often  asked  as  to  the  best  season  of  the 
year  to  store  coal.  As  far  as  possible  coal  should  be  placed 
on  the  ground  in  the  winter  months.  It  is  then  cold  and 
fairly  dry.  The  heat  of  impact  and  pressure,  due  to  un- 
loading and  piling,  while  present,  will  not  raise  the  temper- 
ature of  the  coal  to  any  noticeable  degree,  and  certainly 
not  to  the  temperature  of  ordinary  summer  weather.  Of 
course  the  coal  must  be  free  as  possible  from  snow  and 
must  be  unloaded  on  an  area  from  which  the  snow  has  been 
carefully  removed.  One  plan  worked  out  for  a  consumer 
was  to  put  down  about  two  or  three  months'  supply  in  Sep- 
tember, October  and  November,  then  when  the  first  of  Jan- 
uary came  around  to  pick  up  this  storage  and  let  the  daily 
shipments  be  put  down  for  the  fresh  storage  to  be  used  in 
the  spring,  when  labor  troubles  would  disturb  production. 

Absorption  of  Sun's  Heat 

Absorption  of  heat  from  the  sun  will  also  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  the  coal  to  a  surprising  degree.  This  was  no- 
ticed particularly  at  a  plant  in  Chicago  that  was  receiving 
coal  direct  from  a  mine  in  Indiana.  The  coal  carried  a 
rather  large  amount  of  moisture  and  pyrite,  but  was  taken 
out  of  the  ground  only  about  ten  days  before  delivery. 
When  received,  it  was  so  warm  that  the  hand  could  not  be 
kept  in  contact  with  it  for  more  than  a  few  seconds.  The 
reason  for  this  was  discovered  in  the  fact  that  it  was 
shipped  in  steel  cars  which  stood  on  sidings  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  for  about  two  days.  The  steel  ab- 
sorbed the  heat  readily  and  so  raised  the  temperature  of 
the  coal.  If  this  coal,  instead  of  being  passed  directly  to 
the  furnace,  had  been  placed  in  storage  in  the  condition  in 
which  it  was  received,  undoubtedly  it  would  have  fired  spon- 
taneously in  a  short  time. 

Oxidation  or  weathering  of  coal  decreases  the  heat  value. 
The  loss  is  brought  about  by  the  oxidation  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen  to  carbonic  acid  and  water,  which  escape  as  gases. 
There  is  also  an  increase  in  weight  of  the  coal  due  to  the 
absorption  of  oxygen.  This  oxygen  replaces  combustible 
matter  and  acts  like  so  much  ash.  In  fact,  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Mines  has  shown  in  Bulletin  No.  29,  "The 
Effect  of  Oxygen  in  Coal,"  that  oxygen  and  ash  are  of  very 
nearly  equal  anticalorific  value.  Oxygen  also  interferes 
with  the  coking  quality  of  coal,  and  a  coal  that  has  weath- 
ered to  any  great  extent  has  either  entirely  lost  its  coking 
quality  or  at  any  late  will  make  coke  of  inferior  quality. 


In  addition,  coal  will  disintegrate  under  the  influence  of 
oxygen,  and  the  larger  pieces  will  break  up.  In  fact,  the 
recommendation  has  been  made  that  coal  a  size  larger  than 
that  ordinarily  burned  at  the  particular  plant  should  be 
stored,  so  that  when  the  storage  coal  is  burned  it  will  not 
be  too  fine  for  use. 

This  discussion  of  the  effects  of  oxidation  leads  to  a  con- 
sideration of  some  of  the  precautions  to  be  taken  to  prevent 
or  minimize  them.  One  scheme  used  in  this  connection  had 
the  opposite  result.  This  consisted  of  two  perforated  pipes 
placed  down  in  the  pile.  The  idea  evidently  was  to  ven- 
tilate the  interior  and  to  provide  for  the  escape  of  heat, 
should  it  be  genei-ated.  However,  one  of  the  pipes,  which 
happened  to  be  about  two  feet  higher  than  the  other,  acted 
as  a  stack,  while  the  lower  pipe  served  as  an  intake  for 
fresh  air.  The  odor  of  coal  gas  and  of  the  products  of  com- 
bustion was  clearly  perceptible  at  the  top  of  the  higher 
pipe.  Thus  what  was  intended  to  check  combustion  was 
really  furthering  the  oxidation  of  the  coal.  To  minimize 
oxidation  the  following  precautions  should  be  taken: 

1.  Avoid  external  sources  of  heat  that  may  in  any  way 
contribute  toward  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  mass 
of  the  coal. 

2.  Eliminate  coal  dust  and  fine  coal  as  far  as  possible. 

3.  Store   di-y  coal   and   keep   it  dry. 

4.  Put  the  coal  on  the  ground  in  a  dry,  clean  place  on  as 
clear  and  cool  a  day  as  possible. 

5.  Do  not  pile  the  coal  too  high.  Shallow  piles  afford  the 
best  chance  for  the  escape  of  heat  from  the  interior. 

6.  Store  as  large  a  size  of  coal  as  possible. 

7.  Store  under  water  if  possible  and  be  sure  the  coal  is 
completely  submerged. 

8.  Watch  the  interior  temperature  of  the  pile  with  a 
thermometer,  and  as  soon  as  any  abnormal  rise  in  tem- 
perature occurs,  mark  that  spot  as  the  next  one  to  be  drawn 
on  for  fuel,  or  if  the  conditions  seem  serious,  overhaul  the 
pile  at  that  point  and  flood  it. 

Safe  Speed  for  Cast-iron   Flywheels 

The  following  table  of  safety  speeds  for  cast-iron  fly- 
wheels has  been  prepared  by  William  H.  Boehm  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Operative  Miller.  The  margin  of  safety  at 
the  speed  given  is  considered  to  be  approximately  three: 


No  Joint 

Flang-e  Joint 

Pad  Joint 

Linli  Joint 

100  Percent. 

25  Percent. 

50  Percent. 

fiO  Percent. 

TYPE}S 

OF  WHEELS 

AND 

THEIR 

MAXIMUM 

EFFICIENCY 

Diameter 

in  Ft. 

R,P..M. 

R.P.M. 

R.P.iM. 

R.P..M 

1 

1,910 

955 

1,350 

1.480 

2 

955 

407 

675 

740 

$, 

657 

318 

450- 

493 

4 

478 

239 

338 

370 

5 

382 

191 

270 

296 

6 

318 

159 

225 

247 

7 

2/3 

136 

193 

212 

S 

lA 

119 

169 

185 

9 

212 

106 

150 

164 

13 

191 

96 

135 

148 

II  , 

174 

87 

123 

135 

\l 

159 

80 

113 

124 

11 

147 

73 

104 

114 

l» 

136 

68 

96 

103 

13 

128 

64 

90 

99 

16 

120 

60 

84 

92 

17 

112 

56 

79 

87 

18 

1)6 

53 

75 

82 

19 

IJO 

50 

71 

78 

20 

95 

48 

68 

71 

21 

91 

46 

65 

70 

22 

87 

44 

62 

67 

2J 

84 

42 

59 

64 

24 

80 

40 

56 

62 

25 

76 

38 

54 

59 

26 

74 

37 

52 

57 

27 

71 

35 

50 

55 

28 

68 

34 

48 

53 

29 

66 

33 

47 

51 

iO 

64 

32 

45 

49 

If  the  revolutions  given  in  the  table  be  increased  20  per 
cent.,  the  margin  of  safety  on  speed  will  be  reduced  to  two 
and  one-half;  if  the  revolutions  be  increased  50  per  cent., 
the  margin  of  safety  will  be  reduced  to  two. 


236 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


Hydro-Electric  Development' 


THE  introduction  of  electricity  as  a  means  for  trans- 
mitting power  over  considerable  distances  and  its  subse- 
quent rapid  development  completely  changed  the  status 
of  hydraulic  power.  Previously,  such  power  could  be  used 
only  near  falling  water.  Now  it  is  commercially  available 
in  convenient  form  within  a  radius,  in  some  instances,  up 
to  200  miles,  a  fact  that  has  made  it  possible  to  utilize 
water  powers  even  when  located  in  remote  and  inaccessible 
places.  Indeed,  today  practically  all  hydraulic-power  de- 
velopments of  any  magnitude  are  hydro-electric. 

In  the  light  of  the  foregoing  it  might  seem  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  modern  demand 
for  electric  current  would  be  supplied  from  the  energy 
in  falling  water.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  Accu- 
rate statistics  are  difficult  to  obtain,  but  some  approximate 
totals  may  prove  illuminating.  It  has  been  estimated  by 
a  careful  engmeer  that  in  1911  there  were  over  26,000,000 
steam-engine  horsepower  capacity  in  use  (including  rail- 
road locomotives)  in  the  United  States.  The  aggregate 
water  horsepower  'eveloped  and  undeveloped  has  been  com- 
puted as  around  60,000,000.  Of  this  latter  the  United 
States  Census  of  1912  gives  4,870,000  as  developed,  and  in 
a  report  of  January,  1916,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  esti- 
mates this  total  to  have  been  increased  to  6,500,000.  Mak- 
ing liberal  allowances  lor  correction  in  these  several  fig- 
ures, it  seems  probable  that  there  are  in  service  from  four 
to  five  times  as  many  steam  as  water  horsepower  and  that 
there  are  still  undeveloped  water  horsepower  equal  to  at 
least  twice  that  of  all  the  steam  capacity  in  service. 

Steam-  and  Hydro-Electric  Powes  Compared 

There  are  two  fundamental  causes  which  have  militatsd 
against  the  substitution  of  hydro-electric  for  steam-electric 
power.  One  is  econor.-.ic  and  permanent;  the  other  is 
statutory  and  therefore  subject  to  modification.  Both  rea- 
sons apply  to  some  powers,  but  neither,  fortunately,  to  all. 
The  economic  and  permanent  reason  is  high  cost  of  de- 
velopment due  to  natural  conditions.  Electric  power  gen- 
erated by  falling  water  is  inferior  to  that  generated  by 
steam  in  every  particular  except  cost,  and  therefore  water- 
driven  service  must  be  cheaper  than  steam-driven  in  order 
to  justify  its  existence.  The  price  for  service  depends 
primarily  on  cost,  and  cost  divides  itself  naturally  into  two 
main  items,  namely,  operation  (including  maintenance)  and 
fixed  charges.  As  a  hydro-electric  plant  consumes  no  fuel, 
its  operating  cost  is  less  than  that  of  an  equivalent  steam- 
driven  plant.  On  the  other  hand  a  steam  plant  costs  usually 
only  from  one-fifth  to  one-half  as  much  per  unit  of  capacity 
as  a  hydro-electric  plant,  so  that  the  latter  must  carry 
very  much  heavier  fixed  charges. 

This  disability  of  water  service  is  usually  even  greater 
than  the  ratio  of  the  costs  of  two  equivalent  complete  de- 
velopments. When  steam  is  to  be  the  motive  power, 
only  such  capacity  is  installed  as  initial  demands  require, 
and  the  cost  per  unit  is  fairly  proportional  to  that  of  the 
ultimate  development.  In  a  water  development,  a  large 
part  of  the  cost  is  for  riparian  rights,  for  the  dam,  flume, 
forebay,  etc.,  and  for  the  transmission  right-of-way,  tow- 
ers, etc.,  which  must  be  at  the  start  largely  provided  and 
constructed  for  the  complete  installation.  The  obvious  re- 
sult is  a  greater  fixed  charge  per  unit  of  capacity  and 
a  higher  cost  per  horsepower  delivered  for  sale. 

In  forecasting  the  commercial  prospects  of  a  power  en- 
terprise, the  possible  market  must  be  studied  and,  of  course, 
a  sale  price  for  power  decided  upon.  As  this  price  is  con- 
trolled by  the  cost  of  similar  service  from  other  sources, 
usually  from  steam,  and  as  it  must  be  attractive  from  the 
start,  the  additional  burden  of  fixed  charges  on  the  initial 
part  of  a  hydro-electric  installation  frequently  forces  the 
sale  of  its  power  below  cost.  The  projectors  of  the  enter- 
prise then  must  rely  for  success  on  a  sufficient  subsequent 


•Excorrta  from  a  statement  prepared  and  presented  on  the 
snecial  tnviVation  of  the  Water  Power  Committee  of  the  Unl'ed 
States  Chamber  of  Commerce,  b"  the  Executive  Committee  of  Engi- 
neering Council  of  the  United  Engineering  Society. 


increase  in  their  markets.  The  possibility  of  an  incorrect 
forecast  of  the  extent  of  such  increase  and  of  the  time  when 
it  may  come  imposes  a  serious  business  hazard  against 
water  and  in  favor  of  steam. 

It  has  been  frequently  pointed  out  that  as  the  nation's 
coal  supply  is  depleted,  the  cost  of  coal  must  rise,  thus 
increasing  the  cost  of  steam-electric  power  as  a  competi- 
tor and  raising  the  market  value  of  hydro-electric  power 
accordingly.  The  rising  price  of  coal  is  a  matter  of  record, 
but  it  is  not  so  generally  known  that  the  improved  effi- 
ciency of  boilers,  engines,  generators  and  auxiliaries  has 
more  than  kept  pace,  so  that  the  net  cost  of  producing  elec- 
tric power  from  coal  has  steadily  declined. 

Factors  That  Influence  the  Cost  of  Power 

There  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  limit  of  improve- 
ment in  the  design  of  steam  prime  movers  has  been  reached 
or  is  even  in  sight.  It  is,  therefore,  a  reasonable  assump- 
tion that  further  advances  in  the  art  will  continue  to'  occur 
and  to  cut  down  both  the  fixed  charges  and  the  operating 
cost  of  steam  power  as  a  competitor  of  water.  As  bearing 
on  the  water-power  situation,  obviously  many  sites  which 
fifteen  years  ago  might  have  been  developed  to  sell  energy 
in  successful  competition  with  steam  at  its  then  cost  could 
not  now  be  so  developed,  and  in  consequence  their  devel- 
opment is  no  longer  commercially  possible. 

The  cost  of  producing  power  from  either  water  or  steam 
is  a  function  of  load.  Fixed  charges  remain  practically 
unchanged  in  both  instances,  whether  the  output  in  energy 
be  large  or  small ;  but  with  a  steam  plant,  increased  output 
means  increased  fuel  consumption,  while  a  water  plant  oper- 
ates either  with  or  without  load  with  but  little  variation 
in  expense.  To  illustrate  by  a  concrete  example  represent- 
ing not  unusual  conditions,  suppose  we  assume  a  steam 
plant  using  2'/^  lb.  of  coal  per  kilowatt-hour  at  a  price  of 
$3  par  short  ton  and  having  a  plant  or  output  factor  of  35 
per  cent. — that  is  to  say,  an  output  equal  to  35  per  cent,  of 
its  theoretical  output  if  every  unit  were  loaded  to  capacity 
24  hours  each  day  of  the  year.  Under  these  assumptions 
the  cost  of  fuel  per  unit  of  installed  capacity  per  year 
would  be  $11.50,  and  if  the  other  operating  and  mainte- 
nance charges  be  assumed  to  fairly  offset  those  of  a  water 
installation  of  equivalent  size,  $11.50  represents  the  ad- 
ditional fixed  charges  which  the  hydro-electric  plant  could 
carry  and  produce  power  at  an  equal  cost.  If  the  fixed 
charges  (interest,  taxes,  insurance  and  amortization)  total 
11%  per  cent.,  therefore,  the  hydro-electric  investment  per 
kilowatt  capacity  could  exceed  that  of  steam  by  $100.  This 
is  not  an  abnormal  excess.  Many  hydro-electric  develop- 
ments exceed  the  cost  of  equivalent  steam-driven  systems 
by  much  greater  amounts,  in  which  cases  they  become  com- 
mercial prospects  only  if  either  coal  be  more  expensive  per 
unit  of  output,  or  the  plant  factor  be  higher,  or  some  other 
operating  or  maintenance  condition  be  more  favorable. 

Inferiority  of  Hydro-Electric  Power 

As  has  been  previously  stated,  hydro-electric  power  is 
inferior  to  steam-electric  power.  The  reasons  are  elemen- 
tary. Stream  flow  is  subject  to  seasonal  variation,  and 
therefore  to  complete  or  partial  interruption  by  drought 
in  summer  and  by  ice  in  winter.  Floods  are  a  menace. 
Long  transmission  lines  may  break  from  wind  or  sleet  or 
the  service  be  disarranged  by  lightning.  The  losses  on  such 
lines  vary  with  load  and  are  frequently  responsible  for 
annoying  pressure  variations.  On  account  of  these  and 
other  reasons,  hydro-electric  power  cannot  prevail  against 
steam  competition  at  the  same  or  a  slightly  lower  price.  It 
must  be  materially  lower. 

We  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  water  power  may  not  be  a 
commercially  practicable  competitor  of  steam.  Many  suc- 
cessful hydro-electric  installations  give  substantial  proof 
to  the  contrary.  We  do  wish  most  emphatically  to  combat, 
however,  the  widely  held  but  mistaken  view  that  any  water- 
driven  plant  will  produce  power  at  lower  cost  than  st°am 
can,  and  that  the  margin  is  so  large  investors  generally 


February  12:  1918 


POWER 


237 


are  eagerly  seeking  a  chance  to  put  money  into  hydro- 
electric projects.  The  most  careful  investigation,  frequent- 
ly demanding  substantial  expenditure  and  the  keenest 
scrutiny  by  experts,  is  needed  to  discriminate  between 
worthy  and  commercially  impractical  projects,  and  the  dif- 
ference is  often  so  small  that  the  imposition  of  even  what 
seem  to  be  minor  burdens  is  sufficient  to  turn  the  scale  in 
favor  of  steam  and  entirely  prevent  what  might  otherwise 
be  a  desirable  hydro-electric  development. 

The  second  condition  which  vitally  affects  development 
is  statutory.  After  ten  years  or  more  of  discussion  it  has 
come  to  be  generally  agreed  that  our  Federal  laws  discour- 
age the  development  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  nation's 
water  powers,  and  remedial  legislation  has  been  consid- 
ered at  every  session  of  Congress  for  many  years.  The 
legal  obstacles  are  quite  distinct  and  separate  from  the 
economic  facts  which  have  been  previously  described  and 
are  in  addition  thereto. 

Of  the  estimated  55,000,000  undeveloped  water  horse- 
power in  the  entire  country,  approximately  40,000,000  is 
within  the  boundaries  of  the  thirteen  so-called  Western 
water-power  states.  In  these  same  states  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment still  retains  as  proprietor  760,000,000  acres,  or 
over  two-thirds  of  the  aggregate  acreage  of  all  these  states 
taken  together.  In  order  to  develop  power  in  that  section  it 
is  therefore  nearly  always  necessary  to  use  some  part  of  this 
public  domain,  if  not  for  the  dam  site  itself,  at  least  for 
flowage,  for  transmission  right-of-way  or  for  some  other 
purpose.  Existing  law  forbids  such  use  except  under  per- 
mit issued  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  revocable 
without  cause,  at  any  time,  by  himself  or  his  successor  in 
office. 

It  was  once  believed  that  revocation  would  only  follow 
gross  abuse  well  established  by  evidence;  but  the  drastic 
action  of  a  one-time  Secretary  of  the  Interior  some  years 
since  to  the  contrary  disabused  investors  of  this  confidence 
and  demonstrated  by  a  sad  object  lesson  the  insecure 
tenure  afforded  by  existing  law.  As  funds  for  hydro-elec- 
tric development  must  come  from  private  sources,  the  un- 
stable tenure  imposed  by  this  condition  has  constituted  so 
great  a  hazard  of  loss  that  the  private  investor  has  been 
loath  to  assume  it.  The  unfortunate — almost  disastrous — • 
result  has  been  practical  stagnation  in  water-power  de- 
velopment for  many  years. 

Many  available  power  sites  not  in  the  Western  States, 
or  not  on  the  public  domain,  are  on  navigable  streams.  For 
each  such  project  a  spscial  act  of  Congress  is  necessary. 
The  difficulty  of  obtaining  suitable  rights  by  this  means  has 
been  found  so  very  great  as  largely  to  discourage,  even  if 
not  entirely  to  prevent,  the  developments  affected. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  a  hydro-electric  enterprise 
being  once  successfully  established,  it  is  alike  to  the  inter- 
est of  the  owners  of  the  Government  and  of  the  public  that 
it  should  continue  indefinitely  without  interruption.     There 


is  no  economic  reason  to  be  served  by  a  cessation,  and  the 
only  reasons  for  providing  a  legal  means  of  recapturing 
the  installation  and  the  water  rights  are  to  preserve  an 
additional  measure  of  Government  control  against  possible 
abuse  by  the  permittee,  and  to  provide  for  a  contingency 
which  might  make  it  desirable  that  the  Government  would 
want  to   use   the   power   for   some   other   purpose. 

In  nearly  all  cases  steam  plants  are  necessary  to  supple- 
ment hydro-electric  power  at  periods  of  low  water  and  in  case 
of  interruption,  as  well  as,  in  some  instances,  to  provide 
increased  capacity.  In  fact,  modern  practice  is  rapidly  ap- 
proaching that  of  providing  steam  capacity  equal  to  100 
per  cent,  of  hydro-electric  for  the  purposes  stated.  In  any 
event  the  growth  of  the  enterprise  over  a  term  of  years  will 
be  continuous  and  progressive.  There  will  never  come  a 
time  when  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  completed  and  sub- 
ject to  no  further  expansion.  This  continuing  growth 
makes  burdensome  and  usually  abortive  any  attempt  to 
amortize  the  investment,  while  the  investment  in  other 
water  powers  or  in  steam  plants  or  both,  interconnected 
with,  and  generally  dependent  for  their  economic  operation 
on,  the  original  development  renders  the  right  to  recapture 
that  development  very  onerous  and  one  which  constitutes  a 
serious  impediment  to  the  free  and  full  development  of  an 
enterprise  which  is  otherwise  most  desirable  from  all  view- 
points. 

With  respect  to  power  sites  oh  the  public  domain  and  on 
navigable  streams,  the  Government  is  in  the  position  of 
seeking  to  have  its  resources  developed  without  assuming 
any  business  hazard  and  without  contributing  either  capi- 
tal or  credit.  It  would  be  unfortunate,  in  the  light  of 
past  experience,  if  any  new  laws  which  may  be  enacted 
should  put  the  Government  in  the  position  of  bargaining 
with  capital  and  of  offering  just  sufficient  incentive  not  to 
induce  capital  to  undertake  the  developments  desired,  there- 
by, while  apparently  providing  a  remedy,  in  reality  insur- 
ing a  continuance  of  the  present  undesirable  condition. 

It  is  our  belief  that  the  benefits  afforded  the  communities 
served  by  cheap  power,  and  to  the  nation  by  the  conserva- 
tion of  coal  resulting  from  the  substitution  of  a  self-renew- 
ing for  a  nonrenewable  natural  resource  are  far  more  valu- 
able than  is  the  exact  solution  of  the  questior.  of  restrict- 
ing the  returns  to  capital  to  their  irreducible  minimum. 
The  present  emergency  due  to  the  progress  of  the  war  has 
forcibly  illustrated  the  importance  of  having  developed 
the  greatest  possible  number  of  water  powers  as  a  source 
of  industrial  power  supply.  As  it  consumes  no  fuel,  the 
substitution  of  water  for  steam  power  would  release  to 
other  uses  all  the  extensive  railroad  and  water  facilities 
now  engaged  in  transporting  coal.  It  would  similarly  re- 
lease a  corresponding  volume  of  labor  now  occupied  in  min- 
ing this  coal  and  in  operating  such  transportation  agen- 
cies as  well  as  the  boiler-room  forces  of  the  steam-power 
plants  themselves. 


The   Thinker. 


.htft>ili,a]Bn««c,n^kiB4«"P<lr*l>'"l)Wi(rb*  Mri  I...4  l^ni' 


Tile  Only  Other  Fuel  Shortage  Tliat  CouTJ  Pleaae  Him  More.—  By  WebiteC 


-By  Glbbs  In  Baltimore 


—By  Webster  In  N.  Y.  Globs 


-By  Glbbs  In  Baltimore  Sun 


238 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  7 


What  We  Do  and  Don't  Know  About 

Heating* 


By  prof.  JOHN  R.  ALLEN 


THERE  are  many  things  we  know  about  heating  and  I 
will  try  to  enumerate  the  principal  ones;  there  are 
many  things  we  don't  know  about  heating,  but  can 
know  if  we  would  take  the  time  and  the  money  necessary 
to  investigate.  There  are  also  many  things  that  we  will 
never  know,  because  the  problem  involves  too  many  vari- 
ables which  can  never  be  solved. 

Let  us  start  first  by  considering  the  laws  of  heat.  Most 
of  the  useful  experiments  that  can  be  immediately  applied 
to  heating  were  first  made  by  Peclet  in  1840  to  1850. 
Peclet's  work  was  translated  into  English  by  Box  about 
1880  and  is  given  in  Box's  "Treatise  on  Heat."  Almost 
every  author  since  Box's  time  has  quoted  Box  and  given 
Box's  constants  for  radiation,  conduction  and  convection. 
Some  authors  have  given  him  credit,  but  most  authors  seem 
to  have  forgotten  the  source  of  their  infoi-mation. 

In  recent  years  very  little  fundamental  work  has  been 
done  by  physicists  upon  heat  and  its  application.  The 
modern  physicist  is  wedded  to  electricity,  and  he  can  tell 
you  the  elect!  ical  resistance  of  iridium  and  titanium  and 
all  the  metals  that  are  never  used  for  electrical  conduction, 
but  he  cannot  tell  you  the  heat  I'esistance  of  a  brick  or  a 
piece  of  stone,  or  a  piece  of  concrete.  There  is  a  real  reason 
for  this.  Heat  is  extremely  difficult  to  experiment  with 
accurately  and  electricity  is  the  easiest  of  all  the  fields  of 
research.  If  electricity  is  in  its  infancy,  as  is  often  said, 
heating  is  in  embryo  and  unborn.  We  know  a  thousand 
things  about  electricity  to  one  that  we  know  aljout  heat. 

Has  anyone  ever  looked  up  the  various  authors  to  find 
the  constants  for  radiation,  conduction  and  convection?  If 
so,  he  would  have  found  results  varying  as  much  as  100 
per  cent.  There  is  an  opportunity  for  some  physicist  to 
make  himself  undyingly  famous  by  establishing  beyond  con- 
troversy some  of  these  much-used  constants.  It  is  this  lack 
of  fundamental  knowledge  that  has  hampered  and  is  still 
hampering  the  heating  engineer  in  dealing  with  the  heat 
problems  connected  with  his  ousiness.  This  lack  of  funda- 
mental knowledge  has  aff'eeted  all  our  experimental  work. 
We  make  small  experiments  through  a  very  narrow  range 
of  observation  on  very  special  devices,  and  these  experi- 
ments would  be  absolutely  unnecessary  had  we  the  funda- 
mental principles  underlying  these  devices. 

Of  the  fundamental  laws  we  probably  know  a  little  about 
conduction,  still  less  about  convection  and  verv  little  about 
radiation.  We  find  the  statement  made  in  physics  that  a 
dull-black  surface  radiates  the  most  heat.  In  my  own 
experiments  upon  cast-iron  radiators  I  found  that  there  was 
practically  no  diflference  in  heat  transmission  between  dull- 
black  and  pure-white  polished  surfaces.  In  fact  the  pure- 
white  polished  surface  gave  oflf  about  3  per  cent,  more  heat 
than  the  dull-black.  These  are  facts  that  my  physicist 
friends  have  never  been  able  to  explain. 

Heat  Loss  From  Buildings 

Consider  heat  losses  from  buildings.  For  years  we 
guessed  at  them  by  some  rule-of-thumb.  These  rules  were 
usually  proposed  by  someone  supposed  to  know  more  about 
heat  than  anyone  else  and  were  usually  very  dangerous  to 
apply  throughout  a  wide  range  of  conditions. 

We  have  followed  the  German,  the  theory  of  which  is 
generally  considered  to  be  at  least  approximately  correct, 
but  these  formulas  require  certain  practical  constants  for 
heat  transmission.  The  heat  laboratory  at  Charlottenburg 
has  determined  many  of  these  constants  for  German  forms 
of  building  construction,  but  very  little  work  has  been  done 
in  this  country.  Some  years  ago  I  started  to  check  up  the 
German  constant  for  glass,  which  of  course  is  the  most 
fundamental  constant  that  we  have.  I  found  that  for  dry 
glass  with  no  rain  or  wind  the  constant  K  —  0.64;  for  rain 
and  no  wind,  K  =  1.248;  for  wind  and  no  rain,  K  =  1.05; 
for  rain  and  wind,  K  =  1.485.  The  generally  accepted  con- 
stant by  authors  as  determined  by  the  German  government 
is  1.3  and  for  fifteen  years  we  have  accepted  this  constant. 
It  is  entirely  possible  to  have  the  glass  surface  wet  even  in 
zero  weather  and  the  constant  is  manifestly  too  small.  Per- 
sonally I  am  "ow  using  K  =   1.25  as  the  glass  constant. 

•A  paper  pi-esented  at  tl>e  annual  meeting  of  the  American 
Society  of  Heating  and  Ventilating  Engineers,  New  York  City, 
Jan.    23,   1918. 


This  only  goes  to  show  that  some  of  our  fundamental  facts 
are  wrong  and  need  a  careful  checking  up. 

When  it  comes  to  the  constant  K  for  cement,  hollow  tile, 
metal  lath  and  similar  construction,  practically  all  the  con- 
stants we  have  are  based  upon  computation — they  are  only 
approximate.  They  may  be  right;  they  are  probably  wrong 
or  largely  in  error,  and  we  have  no  experimental  work  to 
guide  us.  We  need  in  this  country  a  vast  amount  of  experi- 
mental research  so  as  to  place  these  fundamental  constants 
of  the  heating  business  on  a  well-established  foundation. 

Infiltration  and  Radiatiok 

One  of  the  important  factors  in  determining  the  heat  loss 
from  a  building  is  the  amount  of  air  that  leaks  in  around 
the  cracks  and  crevices.  One  of  the  first  assumptions  with 
respect  to  infiltration  was  made  by  Carpenter,  in  which  he 
assumed  that  the  air  in  a  room  was  changed  once  per  hour 
due  to  infusion  of  air  from  outside  or  infiltration.  In  the 
average  room  this  is  approximately  true.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  absolutely  no  reason  why  the  cubic  contents 
should  have  anything  to  do  with  infiltration,  as  infiltration 
occurs  largely  around  the  windows  and  window  frames,  and 
it  should  be  based  on  wall  and  window  conditions  and  not 
upon  cubic  contents.  Recent  experiments  in  New  York 
show  that,  particularly  in  metal  sash,  infiltration  should  be 
based  upon  the  perimeter  of  the  sash. 

Of  course,  there  is  one  factor  in  this  that  we  will  never 
know,  as  no  one  can  foresee  how  tight  or  how  loose  the 
contractor  is  going  to  construct  the  building.  The  equation 
of  the  contractor  has  never  been  determined,  and  consider- 
ing the  number  of  variables  entering  into  the  problem,  it 
never  will  be  determined.  Such  phases  of  our  computations 
will  always  have  to  be  covered  by  adding  a  certain  percent- 
age which  might  well  be  called  the  "factor  of  ignorance." 

We  have  much  more  explicit  information  in  regard  to 
radiation  than  in  regard  to  heat  loss  from  buildings.  We 
know  that  a  two-column  38-in.  radiator  will  give  a  value  of 
K  of  about  1.65  B.t.u.  with  1  lb.  steam  pressure  and  a  room 
temperature  of  70  deg.  We  know  that  this  constant  K 
increases  as  the  diff'erence  between  the  temperature  outside 
the  radiator  and  the  temperature  inside  the  radiator  in- 
creases.    The  approximate  formula  is: 

K  =  1.445  -t-  0.001437   (T,  —  T,) 
where  Ti   =   the  temperature  of  the  steam  and  Ti  =:   the 
temperature  of  the  room. 

We  know  something  about  the  painting  of  radiators.  If 
a  radiator  is  painted  with  any  kind  of  flake  metal  pigment, 
such  as  aluminum,  gold  or  bronze,  its  efficiency  is  reduced 
approximately  25  per  cent.  If  it  is  painted  right  over  the 
aluminum  with  an  enamel,  the  heat  transmission  is  the 
same  as  the  bare  iron.  I  have  made  these  experiments  with 
14  coats  of  paint  on  the  radiator  and  the  effect  of  the  last 
coat  was  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  first  coat. 

This  shows  that  the  heat  transmission  of  the  radiator 
depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  surface  to  dispose  of  the 
heat  and  not  upon  the  conductivity  of  the  material  of  which 
the  radiator  is  composed.  That  is,  under  the  conditions 
existing  in  a  radiator,  the  heat  is  transmitted  much  more 
rapidly  through  the  metal  of  the  radiator  than  the  surface 
of  the  radiator  can  dissipate  the  heat.  It  is  possible  that 
we  may  find  some  coating  which  can  be  placed  upon  a  radia- 
tor that  will  increase  its  conductivity  beyond  that  of  the 
bare  iron.  I  do  not  know  that  any  attempts  have  ever  been 
made  to  do  this,  but  it  is  one  possible  means  of  increasing 
radiator  efficiency. 

A  radiator  gives  off  heat  in  two  ways — by  radiation  and 
by  convection.  For  many  years  I  have  tried  to  find  out 
what  proportion  of  the  heat  is  given  off  by  radiation  and 
what  proportion  by  convection.  Approximately  it  is  "50- 
50,"  but  I  have  never  been  able  to  make  a  satisfactory 
determination.  This  is  impossible  as  undoubtedly  some  of 
the  radiant  heat  from  the  radiator  passes  directly  out 
through  the  wall  and  window  surface  without  having  any 
effect,  and  we  may  find  it  desirable  to  so  arrange  our  radia- 
tors that  all  heat  given  off  by  them  is  given  off  by  convec- 
tion. We  should  have  more  fundamental  knowledge  on  this 
subject. 

Take  the  indirect  radiation,  and  by  indirect  radiation  I 
mean  that  not  only  through  which  air  circulates  by  natural 
circulation,  but  through  which  air  circulates  by  means  of  a 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


239 


fan  or  of  fan  coils.  We  know  that  in  this  type  of  radiator 
all  the  heat  from  the  radiator  is  given  off  by  convection  and 
in  convection  the  form  of  the  surface  plays  a  very  impor- 
tant part  in  its  effectiveness.  We  also  linow,  and  recent 
experiments  prove,  that  effectiveness  of  its  surface  is  prac- 
tically independent  of  the  material  of  which  the  surface  is 
composed.  Copper,  cast  iron  and  wrought  iron  give  prac- 
tically the  same  effect. 

The  condensation  from  surfaces  of  this  kind  depends 
upon  the  air  resistance  of  the  radiator,  provided  the  radia- 
tor is  properly  designed.  That  all  depends  upon  the  tem- 
perature of  the  surface  and  the  temperature  of  the  air. 
Since  the  condensation  depends  upon  the  air  resistance  of 
the  radiator,  in  radiators  of  this  class  low  resistance  is  not 
wanted  because  in  order  to  get  the  condensation,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  put  in  a  number  of  radiators.  Some  engi- 
neers have  specified  widely  spaced  fan  coils  of  low  resist- 
ance and  then  put  in  a  bank  of  coils  in  order  to  obtain  con- 
densation. This  is  simply  wasting  surface,  as  the  sime 
heating  effect  could  be  produced  with  closely-spaced  coils 
and  a  much  smaller  number  of  them. 

Determining  Pipe  Sizes 

In  this  country  we  probably  give  less  consideration  to 
pipe  sizes  than  in  any  other  engineering  country.  The  sins 
committed  by  the  average  contractor  in  the  matter  of  pipe 
sizes  are  legion.  When  we  get  down  to  the  economical  use 
of  pipe  there  is  just  one  way  to  determine  the  sizes  and 
t'lat  is  to  determine  the  resistance  of  each  piece  of  pipe. 
We  design  good  fan  piping  systems  for  air  by  resistance 
and  yet  we  design  our  steam-piping  sizes  on  a  heatinsf  job 
by  guesswork  and  experience — these  terms  are  sometimes 
synonymous. 

Some  years  ago,  when  I  had  some  time  on  my  hands  and 
a  heating  plant  was  to  be  designed,  I  designed  a  real  piping 
job  and  figured  the  pipe  resistance  to  each  radiator,  and 
it  is  the  most  satisfactory  job  of  heating  that  I  ever  in- 
stalled. The  average  engineer,  however,  is  too  lazy  to  go 
to  the  trouble  of  doing  this,  and  I  am  just  as  guilty  as  the 
rest. 

To  take  pipe  sizes  out  of  a  table  and  have  them  deter- 
mined by  the  square  feet  of  radiation  is  no  basis  of  reason 
on  a  large  job.  It  is  quite  possible  that  close  to  the  boiler 
you  can  put  150  sq.ft.  of  radiation  on  a  1%-in.  riser,  while 
at  a  remote  point  a  l^i-in.  riser  might  carry  only  60  sq.ft. 
A  tremendous  amount  of  pipe  is  wasted  in  the  heating  busi- 
ness by  using  excessive  sizes.  To  design  a  system  of  this 
kind  requires  great  accuracy  but  gives  economical  results. 

The  modern  piping  system  in  a  steam-heating  installation 
always  reminds  me  of  a  small  pumping  station  I  once  in- 
spected. The  board  of  directors  had  purchased  a  pump  with 
a  2-in.  discharge,  and  they  instructed  the  engineer  to  run  the 
2-in.  pipe  from  the  pump  a  distance  of  three-quarters  of 
a  mile.  When  I  came  to  examine  the  pipe  I  found  that  t'le 
pump  was  working  against  a  static  head  of  70  lb.  and 
friction  head  of  100  lb.,  and  that  in  place  of  a  2-in.  pipe 
they  should  have  had  a  6-in.  pipe  when  the  calculations 
were  based  on  friction. 

In  the  heating  business,  however,  we  more  often  make 
the  mistake  of  using  pipe  too  large  rather  than  pipe  too 
small,  particularly  in  the  smaller  installations.  In  hot- 
water  piping  with  forced  circulation  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  work  from  friction,  if  uniform  circulation  and  no 
short-circuiting  is  expected. 

Pipe  Coverings 

We  have  some  very  good  information  upon  the  subject 
of  pipe  coverings  above  ground.  We  are  just  acquiring  a 
little  information  in  regard  to  pipe  coverings  below  jrround. 
I  have  been  making  some  experiments  on  pipes  buried  in  the 
ground  without  any  covering.  The  surprising  thing  in 
f^ese  experiments  is  the  great  distance  that  heat  is  ti-ars- 
mitted  through  the  ground.  It  is  possible  to  detect  a  steam 
pipe  under  ground  twenty  feet  away. 

We  also  find  that  the  condensation  below  ground  is  less 
than  the  condensation  in  the  air.  Our  late?t  experinwnts 
show  that  there  is  less  condensation  with  the  st"am  passinn; 
through  the  pipe  at  a  good  velocity  than  with  the  steam  in 
a  quiescent  state  in  the  pipe.  Of  cource,  the  deeper  the  pipe 
is  bu'ied  in  the  ground  the  less  is  the  heat  transmission, 
and  if  we  were  to  bury  a  pipe  to  a  sufficient  depth  it  would 
be  uinecessary  to  have  anv  coverins:  at  all — t'le  ground 
would  serve  as  its  own  heat  insulator,  so  that  the  deeper 
we  run  heating  ducts  and  heating  pipes  the  less  we  need 
insulation.  This  fact  is  often  lost  sin:ht  of.  Exact  data 
in  regard  to  these  facts  are  not  available,  but  as  a  number 
of  exnerimpnts  are  being  carried  on  we  undoubtedly  will 
soon  be  able  to  make  some  exact  statements. 


Every  heating  engineer  seems  to  have  an  ambition  to 
invent  some  new  heating  device  that  everyone  will  have  to 
use  and  that  incidentally  will  give  him  an  opportunity  to 
make  some  money.  There  have  been  placed  upon  the  mar- 
ket and  advertised,  thousands  and  thousands  of  heating 
devices.  Some  of  them  are  very  good,  some  do  no  harm 
when  placed  upon  the  heating  plant,  and  some  are  positively 
detrimental.  Some  are  very  good  when  properly  applied 
and  are  useless  under  other  conditions. 

Some  years  ago  I  installed  a  heating  plant  in  a  residence, 
and  the  plant  is  almost  identical  with  a  certain  patented 
system  of  heating  now  on  the  market.  The  only  difference 
between  my  system  and  the  patented  one  is  that  I  left  off 
all  the  patented  articles  and  my  system,  I  think,  works  a 
little  better  than  similar  near-by  systems  that  used  the 
patented  articles. 

We  must  always  remember  as  engineers  that  the  best 
design  is  always  the  simplest.  There  is  a  tendency  among 
all  engineers  in  the  heating  business  to  complicate  their 
systems — to  use  too  many  unnecessary  devices.  This  is 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  these  devices  have  been  urged 
upon  them  by  salesmen  who  must  secure  business.  Many 
of  these  devices  are  very  meritorious,  but  the  attempt  is 
to  give  them  universal  application  when  they  should  only 
be  applied  in  specific  cases. 

The  purpose  of  these  remarks  has  been  to  emphasize: 

1.  The  necessity  of  bringing  to  the  attention  of  physicists 
and  scientific  men  the  fact  that  we  need  more  knowledge  of 
the  science  of  heat  and  heat  transmission.  As  we  get  more 
and  more  exact  knowledge,  this  knowledge  should  be  used 
by  the  engineer  so  as  to  leave  less  to  experience  and  guess- 
work and  more  to  actual  figures.  It  will  never  be  possible, 
however,  in  heating  work  to  entirely  eliminate  the  factor 
of  judgment.  So  many  variables  enter  into  the  problem, 
such  as  the  conditions  of  building  construction  and  the  ma- 
terials used,  that  we  will  always  have  to  make  our  figures 
only  the  basis  for  our  judgment. 

2.  To  call  the  attention  of  engineers  to  the  tendency  to 
overload  the  plants  with  unnecessary  devices  and  to  urge 
the  greatest  simplicity  in  construction  and  the  economical 
use  of  materials.  The  present  high  prices  of  piping  and 
materials  should  lead  us  to  consider  every  possible  means 
of  conserving  these  materials. 

Cost  Plus  a  Fair  (?)  Profit 

Fuel-oil  prices  are  discussed  in  a  special  bulletin  issued 
Jan.  27  by  the  Federal  Trade  Commission,  showing  wide 
variation  between  the  cost  of  oil  plus  refining  and  the  sale 
price,  particularly  in  the  East  and  Middle  West. 

The  figures  are  based  on  August  reports  of  the  refiners. 
The  commission  notes  that  published  quotations  show  that 
prices  now  are  from  70  to  104  per  cent,  higher  than  they 
were  in  June.  Following  are  the  August  figures  in  cents 
for  "representative  cost,"  refining  charge  and  sale  price  at 
district  centers: 


Coat 
Crude 
New  jTSPy  and  Eastern 

Tfrritory  (Pittsburgh)..  $3  34 
Indiina  and  North  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  (Chicago)    2  04 

Oklahoma  (Tulsa) 185 

Gu'f  Coast  (Ft.  Worth) . .      2.14 
Califcrnii     Coast     (San 

Fran.isco) 1 .  96 


Refin- 
ing 


$0  94 


Cost  Selling     Pcrcentag!^ 

Refined  Price         Profit 


.47 
.58 
33 

29 


$4  28 

2  51 
2  43 
2  47 

2  25 


$8  00 


87 


5  75  129 

3  60  48 

4  00  62 

3  45  53 


The  selling  prices  given  were  those  at  the  district  centers 
named  in  the  first  column. 

Appointment   of   Ordnance    Draftsmen 

The  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  Navy  Department,  is  in  need 
of  competent  draftsmen.  Men  who  are  graduates  in  me- 
chanical engineering  from  a  technical  school  or  college  of 
recognized  standing  and  have  had  some  drafting-room  ex- 
perience, or  men  who  are  competent  designers  of  heavy 
machinery,  engines  or  shop  tools,  and  have  had  a  number  of 
years'  drafting-room  experience,  are  eligible  for  these  posi- 
tions. The  pay  ranges  from  $4  to  $6.88  a  day,  depending 
upon  the  qualifications  of  the  draftsman. 

There  are  now  a  number  of  vacancies  in  the  rating  of 
draftsman  at  the  Washington  Navy  Yard.  Additional  in- 
formation may  be  had  by  addressing  the  Commandant  and 
Superintendent,  Naval  Gun  Factory,  Navy  Yard,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 


240 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


Labor  in  Its  Relation  to  National 
Efficiency 

Until  within  a  month  the  most  discouraging  fact  to  those 
looking  on  in  Washington  was  the  lack  of  any  indication  of 
broad  consideration  of  the  labor  problem.  The  President's 
speech  before  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  put  up  no 
consti-uctive  policy.  It  was  a  patriotic  appeal.  The  De- 
partment of  Labor  was  dealing  with  industrial  disputes  as 
they  arose,  but  there  was  no  expression  of  fundamentals. 
The  direct  parties  to  the  controversy— employers  and  em- 
ployees— were  pulling  apart  instead  of  being  drawn  together. 
Apparently,  as  far  as  official  Washington  was  concei-ned,  we 
were  to  be  allowed  to  come  to  an  impasse  without  any  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  Government  to  compromise  the  difficulties. 

Within  two  weeks  there  has  been  a  most  i-emarkable  and 
a  most  welcome  change.  Today  machinery  is  in  motion 
which  will  bring  the  contending  interests  together  on  a 
broad  basis.  Light  has  broken.  Hope  has  succeeded  the  dis- 
couragement of  last  month. 

The  first  official  recognition  of  the  need  for  a  broad  con- 
sidei-ation  of  the  problem  was  the  appointment  of  an  Ad- 
visory Council  to  the  Secretary  of  Labor.  This  appointment 
— far  more  important,  broadly  speaking,  than  many  of  the 
problems  that  have  occupied  front-page  space — was  hardly 
noticed  in  the  public  prints.  Yet  that  council  is  expected  to 
determine  the  policy  that  shall  keep  labor  and  capital  work- 
ing together  during  the  war.  More  than  this,  if  their  work 
is  far-seeing — as  the  constitution  of  the  council  gives  war- 
rant for  expecting — it  should  have  a  tremendous,  if  not  the 
detei-mining,  influence  on  the  socio-economic  conditions  un- 
der which  we  shall  live  after  the  war.  To  industry,  there- 
fore— yes,  and  to  labor,  to  the  country  at  large — the  estab- 
lishment of  the  council  is  easily  the  most  important  event 
since  the  beginnin?  of  the  war. 

Lest  this  estimate  of  the  importance  of  the  council  be 
considered  extravagant,  it  will  be  well  to  set  down  here  the 
work  outlined  for  it.  It  will  consider  the  establishment,  in 
the  Department  of  Labor,  of  agencies  to  perform  the  fol- 
lowing functions: 

1.  A  means  of  furnishing  an  adequate  and  stable  supply 
of  labor  to  war  industries.  This  would  embrace:  (a)  a 
satisfactory  system  of  labor  exchanges;  (b)  a  satisfactory 
method  and  administration  of  training  of  workers;  (c)  an 
agency  for  determining  priorities  of  labor  demand;  (d) 
agencies  for  dilution  of  skilled  labor  as  and  when  needed. 

2.  Machinery  that  will  provide  for  the  immediate  and 
equitable  adjustment  of  disputes  in  accordance  with  the 
prmciples  to  be  agreed  upon  between  labor  and  capital  and 
without  stoppage  of  work.  Such  machinery  would  deal  with 
demands  concerning  wages,  hours,  shop  conditions,  etc. 

3.  Machinery  for  safeguarding  conditions  of  labor  in  the 
production  of  war  essentials — this  to  include  industrial 
hygiene,  safety,  woman  and  child  labor,  etc. 

4.  Machinery  for  safeguarding  conditions  of  living,  in- 
cluding housing,  transportation,  etc. 

5.  Fact-gathering  body  to  assemble  and  present  data  col- 
lected through  various  existing  Govei-nmental  agencies  or 
by  independent  research  to  furnish  the  information  neces- 
sary for  effective  executive  action. 

6.  Publicity  and  educational  division,  which  has  the  func- 
tion of  developing  sound  public  sentiment,  securing  an  ex- 
change of  information  between  departments  of  labor  admin- 
istration and  promotion  in  industrial  plants  of  local  machin- 
ery  helpful    in   carrying   out  the   national   labor   program. 

The  first  four  divisions  cover  matters  familiar  to  all  man- 
ufacturers, contractors  and  engineers.  Subdivisions  (b), 
'(c)  and  (d)  of  function  (1)  represent  activities  made  nec- 
essary by  the  war.  The  true  significance  of  the  establishment 
of  the  body  is  appreciated  when  attention  is  directed  to  the 
sixth  division,  and  when  we  recall  the  activities  of  the  labor 
division  of  the  British  Ministry  of  Munitions  and  the  influ- 
ence that  its  work,  of  the  same  broad  scope,  has  had  on  in- 
dustrial England.  What  can  one  not  read  into  "the  func- 
tion of  developing  sound  public  sentiment"  and  "promotion 
in  industrial  plants  of  local  machinery  helpful  in  cai-rying 
out  the  national  labor  program"?,  such  program  obvious- 
ly being  comprehended  in  the  determination  of  the  first  four 


divisions  of  the  program.  One  may  expect  that  the  "devel- 
oping of  a  sound  public  sentiment"  will  necessitate  the 
statement  of  the  fundamentals  for  industi-ial  and  labor  pros- 
perity— a  difficult  task,  but  one  the  performance  of  which 
would  be  of  the  greatest  value. 

If  further  evidence  is  needed  as  to  the  possible  influence 
of  the  council,  it  is  furnished  by  its  action  last  week  in 
recommending  to  the  Secretary  of  Labor  (1)  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  board  which  will  formulate  an  arrangement  for 
ending  strikes  and  (2)  the  centralization  in  his  department 
of  the  industrial  service  divisions  of  the  various  branches  of 
the  war  machine.  Both  plans  have  been  approved  by  the 
secretary.  The  first  of  them  is  absolutely  essential  if  cooper- 
ation is  to  replace  strife. 

The  personnel  of  the  council,  as  has  been  said,  gives  war- 
rant for  expecting  broad-gaged  results.  It  is  headed  by  John 
Lind,  former  governor  of  Minnesota  and  envoy  to  Mexico, 
representing  the  public;  Waddill  Catchings,  president  of  the 
Sloss-Sheffield  Steel  and  Iron  Co.  and  of  the  Piatt  Iron 
Works;  and  A.  A.  Landon,  general  manager  of  the  American 
Radiator  Co.,  representing  the  employers.  Labor's  mem- 
bers are  John  B.  Lennon,  treasurer  of  the  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor,  and  John  J.  Casey,  former  member  of  Con- 
gress. Dr.  L.  C.  Marshall,  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  is 
the  economist  member,  and  Agnes  Nestor,  of  Chicago,  repre- 
sents women. 

The  council's  duty  is  not  merely  to  foraiulate  a  program, 
but  to  recommend  the  machinery  for  putting  it  into  effect. 
That  it  believes  in  action  is  shown  by  its  two  public  acts 
within  ten  days  after  its  organization.  Industrial  leaders 
will  be  impi-essed  by  that  evidence  of  virility  and  will  fol- 
low closely  the  further  activities  of  the  body. — E.  J. 
Mehren,  in  Engineering  Neivs-Record. 

Work  of  the  Labor  Divisions  of  War 
Administration  Co-ordinated 

Upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Advisory  Council 
created  to  report  on  the  handling  of  industrial  relations 
growing  out  of  the  war,  the  Secretary  of  Labor  has  ar- 
ranged for  the  coordination  of  the  industrial  sei-vice  (labor) 
activities  being  developed  in  the  various  purchasing  and 
supervisory  offices  of  the  war  administration.  Simulta- 
neously, a  number  of  new  bureaus  have  been  established  and 
will  assume  the  coordinating  functions. 

A  well-developed  industrial  service  division  is  in  opera- 
tion in  the  Ordnance  Department,  and  similar  organizations 
are  being  worked  up  in  the  other  purchasing  and  supervisory 
branches  of  the  War  Department  as  well  as  in  the  Navy 
Department  and  the  Shipping  Board.  These  bodies  are  all 
developing  plans  for  accomplishing  similar  results  in  their 
own  given  departments.  In  some  cases  they  might,  if  not 
coordinated,  work  to  cross  purposes,  and  in  any  of  their 
activities  exchange  of  views  on  methods  is  desirable.  The 
necessai-y  machinei-y  for  getting  together  is  now  provided 
by  the  action  of  the  Secretary  of  Labor. 

The  following  new  bureaus  are  established  to  effect  the 
desired  coordination:  (1)  Adjustment  Bureau,  to  deal  with 
disputes;  (2)  Condition  of  Labor  Bureau,  to  administer  con- 
ditions of  labor  within  business  plants,  such  as  safety,  sani- 
tation, etc.;  (3)  information  and  Education  Bureau,  to  pro- 
mote sound  sentiment  and  to  provide  appropriate  local  ma- 
chinery and  policies  in  individual  plants;  (4)  Women  in 
-  Industi-y  Bureau,  to  correlate  the  activities  of  various 
agencies  dealing  with  this  matter;  (5)  Training  and  Dilution 
Bureau;  (6)  Bureau  of  Housing  and  Transportation  of 
Woi-kers;  (7)  Bureau  of  Personnel  (which  may  possibly  be 
fused  with  the  Information  and  Education  Bureau). 

The  present  United  States  Employment  Service  will  act 
as  the  coordinating  bureau  on  the  procurement  of  labor. 


In  a  theater,  hall  or  other  densely  filled  room,  the  body 
heat  given  off  by  the  occupants  must  be  considered.  This 
averages  425  B.t.u.  per  hour  per  person.  After  the  building 
is  once  warm,  thoroughly  heated  and  the  performance  has 
started,  it  is  more  a  problem  of  cooling  than  of  heating,  and 
it  is  the  ventilation  which  is  of  prime  importance. — B.  F. 
Sturtevant  Engineering  Series. 


February  12.  1918 


i'  O  W  E  R 


241 


Production  and  Uses  of  Coal  in  the  United  States 


1607-la=5 
1826-1835 
1836-1345 
1846-1856 
1866-1865 
1866-1875 
1676-1835 
1836-1895 
1896-1905 
1906-1915 


TOTAL  ANTHRACITE  and  BITUUUOUS 
COAL  PRODUCTIOII 
AT  EACH 
TEN  YEAR  INTERVAL 
Unltad  6tiits> 


Tona(2060) 

342,181 

4,168,149 

23,177,697 

83,417.827 

173,795,014 

419,425,104 

847,760,319 

1,586,098,641 

2,eS2,49S,746 

4,918,717,233 


Tone (2000) 
Pennsylvania   88,995,137 


Pennsylvania  157,955,13? 


Anthraolta 


Bltunlnouo 


W.  Vlr. 

77 

184 

069 

Illinois 

68 

829 

576 

Ohio 

£2 

434 

691 

Kentucky 

21 

361 

674 

Indianna 

17 

006 

162 

Alabama 

14 

927 

937 

Colorado 

8 

624 

960 

Virginia 

8 

122 

596 

Iowa 

7 

614 

143 

Kansas 

6 

324 

474 

Wyoming 

6 

544 

028 

Tennessee 

5 

730 

361 

All  other 
statee 

29 

453 

798 

COAL  PRODUCING  STATES 


Tone (2000 ) 
Pennsylvania  23,2?2,584 
New  Yorlc 


Hew  Eng. 
New  Jersey 
Railroads 
Exported 
I llinois 
Wisoonain 
Minnesota 
Md.  &   D.C. 

Remaining 

30  states 


20,789,494 
13,767,000 
0,375,000 

6,200,000 
3,965,255 
3,292,000 
1,730,000 
1,670,000 
1,470,000 

4,512,400 


THE  COAL  USING  STATES 
ANTHRACITE 
1915 


THE  COAL  USING  STATES 

Bltuolnous  &  Anthracite 

19:5 


Railroads  B. 
A 

Ponna.    6 


OJilo      B 


New  Eng.   B, 


Exported  B 


Hew  York  B 


All  other  B 


Tons (2000) 

122,000,000 
6,200,000 

65,540,997 
85,392,584 

39,976,650 
3,292,000 

22,368,036 
600,000 

20,511,987 
13,767,000 

18,776,640 
3,965,256 

17,186,191 
20,789,000 

124,273, 2?3 

17,256,600 


Tons (2000) 
Railroads  122,000,000 
Pennsylvania   65,540,997 


Illinois 

Ohio 

New  Eng. 

Exported 

Indianna 

Michigan 

Missouri 

Wisconsin 

Alabama 

low 

w.  Vlr. 

The  other 
30  states 


39,976,650 
22,368,036 
20,511f987 
18,776,640 
16,116,765 
10,276,284 
7,715,248 
7,652,249 
7,524,540 
6,876,285 
6,197,229 

61,914,623 


THE  COAL  USING  STATES 

BITUMINOUS 

1915 


Industrial  steam  trade 

Railroads 

Domestic  &  small 
steam  trade 

Beehive  colfe 

By-product  coke 

Exported 

SteamLhlp  bunker  fuel 

Steam  &   heat  at  mines 

Coal  gaa 


Dooeatlo 
Steam 
Rallroadb 
Exported 


Tons (2000) 
145,765,500   - 
122,000,000  - 

71,336,489  - 

42,276,516  - 

19,554,382  - 

18,773,782  - 

10,707,507  - 

9,798,681  - 

4,563,579  * 

Anth 

47,338,100   — 

31,560,400   — 

6,200,000  — 

3,965,265   • 


THE  USES  OF  COAL  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
1015 


The  above  tables,  with  graphical  representations  of  coal  produc- 
tion in,  the  United  States  and  of  consumption  for  the  year  1915. 
wert-  presented  by  I'rof.  L.  P.  Hreckcnrid^iv  ;tt  tlu-  recent  nn-eting 
of   the    American    Society   of    llcatiiiK   and    VcntMating    I'inKhu-ers. 


The  total  production  shown  for  the  ten-year  period  190G-15  would 
give  an  average  annual  production  of  491.871,728  short  tons.     For 

1910    tlie    total    production    in    the    United    States    was    R;iO.(Hl8.17r> 
short  tons,  and  rt)r  HUT  it  was  increased  to  ClCMUl  TSlt  sliort  tons. 


242 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


Points  in  Steam-Boiler  Management* 


BY  C.  E.  STROMEYERt 


Some  points  relating  to  the  safe  and  economical 
operation  of  steam  boilers,  obtained  from  the  ex- 
perience of  an  association  which  has  been  en- 
yaged  for  over  fifty  years  in  the  prevention  of 
boiler  explosions  by  scientific  inspection. 


AN  EFFECT  of  the  war  conditions  is  the  scarcity 
of  labor  and  its  replacement  by  substitutes.  As  a 
rule  boiler  attendants  of  former  days,  if  engaged 
from  outside,  will  have  had  varied  boiler  experiences,  or 
if  they  were  advanced  from  the  position  of  laborers,  they 
will  have  been  selected  on  account  of  their  reliable  dispo- 
sition and  will  have  received  some  training.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  imagine  that  boiler  attendants  should  think  that 
they  are  competent  to  judge  of  the  safety  of  boilers.  Their 
first  and  foremost  qualification  should  be  reliability.  In 
fact,  the  little  knowledge  which  can  be  imparted  to  them 
may  be  or,  rather,  often  has  been  a  dangerous  thing.  A 
fireman  who  has  been  taught  to  believe  that  it  is  danger- 
ous, especially  to  himself,  to  overload  the  safety  valve 
or  to  allow  the  water  level  to  sink  out  of  sight  is  safer 
than  a  man  who  has  heard  that  a  boiler  is  worked  at  a 
factor  of  safety  of  four  or  five  and  overloads  the  safety 
valve  or  who  knows  that  the  gage-glass  bottom  is  3  in. 
or  5  in.  above  the  furnace  crown  and,  once  too  often,  allows 
the  water  level  to  fall  out  of  sight. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  good  men  among  the  sub- 
stitutes and  many  willing  men  who  wish  to  do  their  best. 
They  show  their  willingness  by  working  hard,  but  a  busy 
stoker  is  rarely  a  good  one.  A  stoker's  limited  duty  is 
to  shovel  coal  on  the  fire,  watch  the  pressure  gage  and 
water  level,  and  manipulate  the  feed  valve.  A  man  who  is 
new  to  his  job  is  probably  at  first  not  impressed  with  the 
importance  of  these  matters.  Not  until  he  discovers  that 
the  works  actually  engage  an  inspector  to  carefully  ex- 
amine the  inside  of  the  boiler,  to  adjust  the  safety  and 
low-water  alarm  valves,  and  to  verify  the  pressure  and 
water  gages,  does  he  become  impressed  with  the  import- 
ance of  these  matters  and  of  his  own  duties. 

Substitutes  Frequently  Reduce  Efficiency 

Another  eff'ect  of  having  to  employ  substitutes  in  place  of 
well-tried  stokers  is  that  the  efficiency  as  well  as  the  out- 
put of  boilers  is  very  frequently  reduced.  This  is  particu- 
larly annoying  at  the  present  time,  when  coal  is  both 
scarce  and  dear  and  increasing  demands  are  made  on  boil- 
ers. Take  the  case  of  a  boiler  that  used  to  be  fired  with 
good  coal  by  an  expert  fireman.  Possibly  the  duty  of 
such  a  boiler  might  have  been  increased  10  per  cent,  with- 
out a  reduction  of  efficiency.  If,  however,  the  demand 
for  steam  has  increased  10  per  cent.,  if  the  quality  of  the 
coal  has  been  reduced,  and  if  an  inexperienced  stoker  has 
been  engaged,  the  probability  is  that  he  will  not  be  able 
to  maintain  steam,  he  will  rake  and  slice  his  fires  and 
reduce  the  efficiency  by  perhaps  10  per  cent.,  and  the  boiler, 
which  is  probably  unable  to  increase  its  consumption  by  20 
per  cent.,  wastes  coal  and  reduces  its  steam  production. 

It  seems  desirable  to  discuss  the  suggestion  that  man- 
agers should  set  aside  a  day  or  two  to  the  study  of  the 
firing  problem,  and  devote  themselves  to  the  teaching,  or 
rather  guiding,  of  the  newly  appointed  fireman.  If,  as  may 
easily  be  the  case,  especially  with  the  present  high  coal 
prices,  such  a  procedure  should  result  in  a  saving,  the 
time  and  trouble  will  have  been  well  spent. 

Seeing  that  the  best  teachers  are  said  to  be  those  who 
are  learning  while  teaching,  the  ovvTier  or  his  manager 
who  watches  the  stoking  operation  need  not  imagine  that 


•Excerpts    from    "Memoranclum    by    Chief    Engineer"    of    the 

Manchester   Steam   Users'   Association. 

tChief   engineer,   Manchester   Steam   Users'   Association. 


his  is  a  case  of  the  blind  leading  the  blind.  The  leading 
principles  are  exceedingly  simple  and  are  based  on  what 
is  transparently  obvious,  that  the  maximum  quantity  of 
steam  is  produced  from  a  ton  of  coal  if  the  heat  losses  are 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  man  who  may  be  watching  the  fireman  will  soon  dis- 
cover that  the  more  quickly  the  firing  is  done  the  more 
easily  can  steam  be  maintained,  but  only  if  the  firing  is 
properly  done.  Suppose  that  the  coal  is  thrown  on  the 
grate  anyhow;  then,  as  there  is  less  resistance  to  the  pass- 
age of  air  at  the  thin  parts  than  at  the  thick  ones,  the 
latter  hardly  burn  away  at  all,  while  the  former  burn 
themselves  first  into  pockets  and  then  into  holes,  and 
long  before  the  next  firing  is  done  there  will  be  a  rush 
of  cold  air  through  these  holes.  This  unfavorable  condition 
has,  of  course,  to  be  remedied  by  raking,  but  that  opera- 
tion introduces  cold  air  and  results  in  a  diminished-steam 
production  and  a  reduced  efficiency. 

It  would,  however,  be  wrong  to  forbid  the  raking  of  the 
fires  or  the  opening  of  the  doors.  Some  coals  must  be 
broken  up,  and  some  coals,  because  they  produce  smoke, 
must  be  supplied  with  air  through  the  doors.  This  latter 
air  supply  has  to  be  regulated  by  studying  the  smoke  dis- 
charged from  the  chimney.  If  it  is  black  or  dark,  then  the 
air  supply  through  the  fire-door  is  insufficient;  if  there  is 
no  smoke,  then  there  is  an  excess  of  air  either  through 
the  door  or  through  holes  in  the  bed  of  fuel  or  through 
the  bed  of  fuel  if  this  is  too  thin. 

How  To  Fire  Different  Qualities  of  Coal 

As  some  of  the  preceding  remarks  apply  only  to  smoke- 
producing  coal,  a  few  words  on  the  firing  of  different  qual- 
ities will  be  needed.  Roughly  speaking,  coals  can  be  divided 
into  caking  and  noncaking  coals.  The  latter  break  up  while 
burning,  and  if  disturbed  by  raking,  they  fall  through  the 
grates  and  the  result  is  much  waste.  Coal  of  this  class 
should  therefore  be  thrown  evenly  on  the  grate  and  should 
not  be  disturbed.  Considerable  manual  skill  and  a  good 
eye  are  required  to  do  this  work  properly,  and  inexperienced 
firemen  will  have  to  use  the  rake. 

Caking  coal,  on  the  other  hand,  must  be  broken  up 
after  it  has  become  heated  and  stuck  together.  Caking 
coal  produces  smoke,  and  that  has  to  be  avoided.  The 
general  practice  with  this  coal  is  therefore  to  throw 
it  on  the  front  end  of  the  grate,  nearly  choking  the  fire- 
door  hole,  which  is  kept  open  during  the  time  that  the 
mass  of  coal  is  warming  up  and  producing  smoke  and 
combustible  gases.  Then  this  mass  of  coal  is  broken  up 
with  a  rake  and  shoved  back,  the  fire-door  being  entirely 
or  partly  closed  some  time  after.  Another  method,  called 
side  firing,  is  equally  effective  in  preventing  smoke.  The 
firing  interval  of,  say,  fifteen  minutes  is  divided  into  two 
short  ones  of  about  seven  minutes,  and  during  the  one 
opening  of  the  door  the  fuel  is  thrown  only  on  the  one 
side  of  the  grate,  and  during  the  next  on  the  other  side. 
The  smoke  which  is  produced  on  the  newly  charged  side  is 
consumed  as  it  passes  to  the  other  side.  If  this  firing  were 
done  with  the  help  of  long  troughs  filled  with  coal,  in  the 
same  way  that  horizontal  gas  retorts  are  charged,  the 
periods  during  which  the  fire-doors  are  open  could  be  very 
much  curtailed  and  the  efficiency  of  the  furnaces  im- 
proved. 

Inspection  and  Cleaning  of  F^ues  Necessary 

Bad  results  are,  however,  not  always  due  to  the  fireman; 
in  many  cases  the  inspection  and  cleaning  of  flues  is  not 
properly  carried  out.  In  a  certain  factory  the  power  re- 
quirements had  increased  somewhat,  and  on  account  of  bad 
coal  and  poor  firemen  the  steam  production  sank  lower  and 
lower  and  the  coal  consumption  rose  higher  and  higher. 
On  the  advice  of  an  outsider,  which  advice  seemed  rea- 
sonable under  the  existing  conditions,  a  sixth  boiler  was 
added  to  the  five  overworked  ones.     Then  the  trouble  grew 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


243 


worse;  even  more  coal  was  burnt,  and  less  sU'am  was  pro- 
duced. Several  people  were  asked  to  K'ive  advice,  and  we 
too  were  appealed  to.  On  exaniininR-  the  various  dimen- 
sions it  was  found  that  the  flue  area  was  only  suitable  for 
three  boilers,  and  as  alterations  could  easily  be  made,  we 
recommended  the  building-  of  a  larger  flue.  It  was  also 
discovered  that  there  was  a  solid  layer  of  flue  dust,  which 
must  have  been  damp  occasionally,  of  two  feet  in  thickness. 
The  factory  can  now  be  worked  with  the  g-reatest  ease  with 
five  boilers,  and  the  saving  of  coal  is  probably  well  over 
$5000  per  annum. 

A  source  of  recurring  trouble  is  the  disturbance  of  the 
brickwork  of  the  flues  and  outer  walls.  It  is  an  almost 
daily  occurrence  that  our  inspectors  draw  attention  to 
these  and  similar  defects  in  the  flues  and  thus  help  to 
maintain  the  efficiency.  That  these  disturbances  should 
occur  is  but  natural,  for  the  diff'erence  in  length  of  a 
boiler  when  cold  and  when  hot  is  about  half  an  inch,  and  as 
it  is  a  heavy  weight,  it  is  sure  to  pull  the  brickwork  about. 
These  expansions  and  contractions  also  affect  the  outer 
walls,  which  crack  and  admit  air,  and  this  unnecessary 
air  wastes  much  heat.  As  these  cracks  may  occur  the  day 
after  an  inspection,  it  is  desirable  to  look  for  them  and 
have  them  plastered  up.  Searching  along  the  walls  with 
lamp  or  candle  flames  is  not  an  efficient  method.  A  simpler 
plan  is  to  have  the  boiler  walls,  especially  the  front  and 
the  blowoff  pit,  whitewashed  as  frequently  as  may  be  found 
necessary.  If  any  cracks  occur,  the  inrushing  air,  laden 
with  coal  dust,  will  blacken  the  cracks,  and  these  can  then 
be  plastered  up  and  whitewashed. 

In  continuation  of  my  analysis  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
reports  on  boiler  explosions,  those  accidents  which  were 
due  to  wasting  of  shell  plates  have  now  been  taken  in  hand. 
The  analysis  embraces  75  reports.  The  general  conclusion 
to  be  drawn  from  these  practical  cases,  and  it  is  an  im- 
portant one,  is  that  when  wrought  iron  plates  are  very 
materially  reduced  in  thickness  by  corrosion,  their  tenacity 
is  also  reduced  to  about  one-third  of  its  original  value. 

In  plotting  these  75  explosions  against  the  years  in 
which  they  occurred,  it  appears  as  if  the  prospect  of  the 
early  passing  of  the  Factory  and  Workshops  Act,  with 
its  compulsory  inspection  clauses,  had  frightened  many 
careless  owners  into  having  their  neglected  boilers  exam- 
ined. At  any  rate,  whereas  before  1900  there  were  on  an 
average  three  explosions  per  annum  due  to  shell  wasting, 
from  that  date  the  average  number  was  reduced  to  one. 


Men  Wanted  for  Shipyard  Work 

The  Department  of  Labor  is  seeking  to  enroll  250,000  men 
for  work  in  shipyards.  A  nation-wide  campaign  began  Jan. 
28  with  an  appeal  to  all  men  possessing  any  skill  in  any 
of  the  trades  necessary  to  the  building  of  ships  to  enroll  as 
a  reserve  supply  of  labor  sufficient  to  meet  present  and 
future  needs  of  the  shipyards.  Some  of  the  men  enrolled  will 
be  called  upon  at  once,  others  as  they  are  needed.  Men  who 
enroll  themselves  will  not  sacrifice  independence  of  action, 
and  are  advised  to  remain  at  their  present  jobs  until  noti- 
fied that  places  in  shipyards  are  open  to  them.  The  "four- 
minute  men"  will  conduct  a  speaking  campaign  in  every 
state. 

Following  is  the  quota  for  each  state:  Maine,  2972;  New 
Hampshire,  1698;  Vermont,  1390;  Massachusetts,  14,321 
Rhode  Island,  2355;  Connecticut,  4786;  New  York,  39,526 
New  Jersey,  11,348;  Pennsylvania,  32,771;  Ohio,  19,802 
Indiana,  10,847;  Illinois,  23,662;  Michigan,  11,734;  Wiscon- 
sin, 9611;  Minnesota,  8762;  Iowa,  8531;  Missouri,  11,812; 
North  Dakota,  2548;  South  Dakota,  2393;  Nebraska,  4400; 
Kansas,  6330;  Delaware,  811;  Maryland,  5250;  Virginia, 
8453;  West  Virginia,  5327;  North  Carolina,  9264;  South 
Carolina,  6253;  Georgia,  11,001;  Florida,  3435;  Kentucky, 
8260;  Tennessee,  7952;  Alabama,  8994;  Mississippi,  7488; 
Arkansas,  6022;  Louisiana,  7064;  Oklahoma,  8492;  Texas, 
17,023;  Montana.  1583;  Idaho,  1621;  Wyoming,  618;  Colo- 
rado. 3320;  New  Mexico,  1428;  Arizona,  888;  Utah,  1660; 
Nevada,  386;  Washington,  5906;  Oregon,  3204;  California, 
11,310. 


The  American  Engineer* 

The  American  engineer  is  that  citizen  of  the  United 
States  who  is  qualified  by  training  and  practice  to  join 
with  his  coworkers  to  direct  organizations  and  harness 
natural  resources  which  will  crush  the  greatest  menace  to 
Christianity  and  make  the  world  safe  for  democracy. 

He  is  the  man  who  will  after  this  war  solve  the  great 
international  problems  of  making  all  countries  safe  and 
sanitary  for  their  peoples. 

He  is  the  man  who  has  for  his  foundation  a  broad  engi- 
neering education  that  has  prepared  him  to  use  the  natural 
elements  which  he  has  discovered  and  developed  through 
experiment  until  today  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  are 
speedways;  the  air  is  a  highway  free  from  dust  and  the 
shortest  distance  between  two  points  for  travel,  and  a  line 
for  conversation  by  telegraph  and  telephone;  the  swamps 
are  the  best  fields  for  grain;  and  the  hills  and  mountains 
are  producing  untold  wealth. 

He  is  the  man  who  recommends  the  expenditures  of  mil- 
lions by  his  government  or  by  the  business  men  of  the  coun- 
try. All  industry,  either  in  war  or  peace,  depends  upon 
the  engineer  for  production  and  operation.  Our  profession 
is  extremely  fortunate  to  have  the  opportunity  to  step  In 
and  be  the  deciding  factor  in  the  war  which  will  mean  most 
to  civilization  for  all  ages. 

The  American  engineer  is  the  man  of  the  hour. 

Would  Utilize  Peat 

Governor  McCall  of  Massachusetts  has  sent  a  message  to 
the  legislature,  saying  in  part:  "I  recommend  that  you  make 
an  investigation  of  uses  of  peat,  the  near-by  deposits,  the 
methods  of  its  utilization  in  producing  heat  and  power,  and 
in  other  ways  with  a  view  to  enacting  such  legislation  relat- 
ing to  it  as  your  investigation  may  show  to  be  for  the  public 
interest.  Peat  has  long  been  used  as  fuel  in  diff^erent  coun- 
tries, and  I  am  informed  that  at  present  it  is  utilized  in 
Germany  in  the  production  of  heat  and  power,  in  munitions 
of  war  and  even  in  clothing,  through  use  of  its  fiber.  I 
am  advised  that  large  deposits  exist  in  New  England,  and 
that  even  under  existing  methods  of  preparation  much  of 
it  may  be  made  available  for  power  and  heat  before  the 
coming  of  another  winter. 

"Its  large  content  of  ammonia  would  tend  to  relieve 
scarcity  of  that  article,  much  needed  now  in  the  making  of 
munitions  and  invaluable  at  all  times  for  use  in  agriculture. 
We  are  largely  dependent  on  coal  for  heating  our  homes 
and  keeping  our  industries  in  motion.  If  we  have  on  hand 
in  great  quantities  a  substance  which  may  make  us  less 
dependent  upon  coal,  it  is  our  obvious  duty  to  take  steps 
for  its  development.  I  believe  the  subject  well  worth  imme- 
diate investigation  by  you  either  through  a  regular  or  spe- 
cial committee  or  in  some  other  way,  and  that  a  moderate 
appropriation  be  granted  to  make  the  investigation  eflfec- 
tive." — Boston  News  Bureau. 

Ecuador  and  Peru   Favor  American 
Electrical  Goods 

America's  opportunity  of  increasing  its  sales  of  electrical 
goods  in  Ecuador  and  Peru  during  the  absence  of  Gei-man 
competition  is  pointed  out  in  a  report  made  public  by  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce.  Before  the  war  this  trade  was  divided 
between  Germany  and  the  United  States,  the  advantage 
being  with  the  American  manufacturer.  The  Government's 
report  is  concerned  with  the  market  as  it  exists  today  and 
the  opportunities  it  off'ers  for  the  future. 

Copies  of  "Electrical  Goods  in  Ecuador  and  Peru,"  Special 
Agents  Series  No.  154,  can  be  purchased  at  the  nominal  price 
of  10c.  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  or  from  any  of  the  dis- 
trict or  cooperative  offices  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce. 

•From  adiliea.s  given  bofoio  the  Savaniiiili  Chiiptor  of  UlO 
\iiioiii':iii  .\s.sociation  of  lOiiKlnooi-!),  Satiinlay.  .Ian.  L'U.  by  A.  H. 
kioni    (jeneral  seiielur.v,  .\nu-ilcan  Assorlalion  of  BnKlncers. 


^44 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


Firing  Bituminous  Coal  in  Heating 
Boilers 

Technical  Paper  180,  "Firing  Bituminous  Coals  in  Large 
House-Heating  Boilers,"  by  S.  B.  Flagg,  Bureau  of  Minos, 
tells  how  to  burn  bituminous  coals  economically  in  these 
large  house-heating  boilers. 

In  burning  bituminous  coals  in  large  house-heating  boil- 
ers the  fuel  bed  should  not  be  seriously  disturbed  until 
the  coal  has  become  well  coked;  that  is,  until  the  gassy 
part  of  the  coal  has  been  largely  driven  off. 

Both  caking  and  noncaking  types  of  coal  may  be  used 
satisfactorily   in   boilers   of  this  type   if   properly  handled. 

The  presence  of  a  moderate  proportion  of  screenings 
mixed  with  the  lump  coal  causes  the  fresh  charge  of  coal 
to  heat  more  gradually  and  the  emission  of  smoke  is  kept 
down  more  easily.  Therefore  such  a  proportion  of  screen- 
ings is  an  advantage. 

Increasing  the  proportion  of  screenings  in  the  coal  neces- 
sitates the  use  of  a  stronger  draft  to  carry  the  same  load. 
Smaller  firing  charges  must  also  be  used  and  more  fre- 
quent attention  given.  The  tendency  of  caking  coals  to 
cake  is  increased  and  this  also  means  that  the  fire  must 
have  more  frequent  attention. 

One  large  charge  of  coal  fired  by  the  spreading  method 
will  result  in  a  longer  emission  of  dense  smoke  than  the 
total  emission  of  such  smoke  from  tv  o  charges  of  half 
the  size  fired  some  time  apart  and  by  the  alternate  method. 

With  some  coals  moderate  charges  fired  by  the  alternate 
method  necessitate  less  frequent  attsntion  to  the  heater 
than  larger  charges  fired  by  the  spreading  method.  Caking 
coals  having  a  considerable  proportion  of  fine  coal  or 
screenings  are  usually  among  these.  Conversely,  a  fire  will 
usually  require  more  frequent  attention  when  a  lumpy 
caking  coal  free  from  screenings  or  a  noncaking  coal  is 
fired  in  moderate  charges  by  the  alternate  method. 

The  number  of  tests  made  was  not  large  enough  to  justi- 
fy conclusions  regarding  the  relative  efliciency  with  which 
a  coal  may  be  burned  by  the  two  methods  of  firing,  but 
the  author  believes  that  in  actual  service  over  considerable 
periods  better  results  will  be  obtained  by  the  altei-nate 
method. 

Frequency  of  cleaning  the  fires  will  be  determined  by 
the  character  of  the  coal  and  the  rate  at  which  it  is  burned, 
but  with  most  coals  the  fires  should  be  cleaned  only  once 
or  twice  in  24  hours  in  ordinary  weather. 

If  the  alternate  method  of  firing  is  employed,  the  clean- 
ing should  be  done  just  before  firing  the  fresh  charge,  and 
only  one-half  of  the  grate  cleaned  at  a  time.  Then  little 
or  no  smoke  will  result  from  the  cleaning,  because  the 
side  of  the  fire  on  which  thei-e  is  uncoked  coal  is  not  dis- 
turbed. 

All  three  of  the  coals  fired  by  the  alternate  method  in 
the  tests  described  were  burned  at  rates  con-esponding  to 
the  heating  conditions  during  the  most  of  the  winter,  with 
scarcely  any  manipulation  of  the  fuel  bed  except  the  clean- 
ing of  the  fires  and  an  occasional  leveling  just  before 
firing. 

The  average  fireman  is  apt  to  poke  and  slice  the  fire 
much  more  than  is  necessary.  If  a  caking  coal  is  used 
and  the  caked  fuel  must  be  broken  up  before  it  is  well 
coked,  slice  the  fii'e  by  running  a  straight  bar  under  the 
fuel  bed  and  raising  it  slightly  so  as  to  crack  the  caked 
mass.  Do  not  stir  the  bed  upside  down  by  raising  the  bar 
through  the  fuel  bed,  nor  break  the  bed  with  a  bar  from 
the  top. 

If  the  fuel  bed  is  covered  with  a  charge  of  fresh  fuel  in 
a  layer  more  than  5  in.  thick,  the  new  charge,  unless  it  is 
very  free  from  slack,  is  likely  to  have  a  smothering  eff^ect. 
Then  the  output  of  the  boiler  will  be  correspondingly  de- 
creased and,  especially  if  the  spreading  method  of  firing 
is  employed,  the  mass  of  fresh  coal  will  usually  have  to  be 
broken  once  or  twice  before  the  fire  will  pick  up.  Conse- 
quently, the  maximum  firing  charge  should  be  not  much 
thicker  than  five  inches  and  for  caking  coal  containing 
considerable  slack  it  should  not  be  more  than  four  inches 
thick.  Of  course,  when  a  fire  is  to  be  kept  banked,  hea\'ier 
charges  may  be  used. 


Do  not  fire  large  lumps  of  coal.  Break  all  lumps  into 
pieces  no  larger  than  fist  size. 

Large  house-heating  boilers  do  not  require  an  intense 
draft  to  meet  any  reasonable  demands  for  heat  if  the 
fuel  bed  is  kept  in  proper  condition,  but  the  draft  must  be 
properly  controlled. 

The  damper  regulator  should  work  freely  with  changes 
in  steam  pressure  and  should  close  the  swinging  damper 
in  the  ashpit  door  before  it  starts  to  open  the  check  damper 
in  the  smoke  pipe. 

The  doors  on  the  front  of  the  boiler  should  fit  snugly  in 
their  seats;  special  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  any 
material  wedging  between  the  doors  and  the  front  and  thus 
admitting  air  when  or  where  it  ought  to  be  prevented  from 
entering. 

Do  not  allow  clinkers  to  accumulate  in  the  fire  or  too 
great  a  quantity  of  ashes  on  the  grates.  Be  careful,  how- 
ever, in  shaking  the  grates  not  to  shake  through  unburned 
fuel. 

In  ordinary  or  severe  weather  keep  an  active  fuel  bed 
averaging  ten  to  twelve  inches  deep.  In  milder  weather 
the  depth  of  active  fuel  may  be  decreased  by  keeping  a 
layer  of  ashes  on  the  grate  under  the  live  coals. 

Copies  of  this  technical  paper  may  be  obtained  free  of 
charge  by  addressing  the  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Fuel  Administration   Wants   Uniform 
Regulation 

The  United  States  Fuel  Administration  has  advised  all 
state  fuel  administrators  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  and 
also  those  of  Minnesota  and  Louisiana  in  part  as  follows: 

As  a  result  of  various  restrictive  regulations  established 
locally  by  state  fuel  administrators  in  certain  states,  we 
are  receiving  many  complaints  of  discrimination  between 
different  states  and  inequalities  in  the  requirements  of 
neighboring  communities.  Fuel  Administrator  Garfield  has 
concluded  that  regulations  in  every  state  should  in  general 
be  "niform  with  those  promulgated  by  Washington.  This 
does  not  absolutely  prohibit  additional  local  regulations 
where  they  are  necessitated  by  extraordinary  local  emer- 
gency. 

We  particularly  desire  to  secure  uniform  regulations  for 
the  whole  country  at  the  earliest  possible  date,  not  later 
than  Feb.  6. 

In  general,  we  feel  that  the  United  States  Fuel  Admin- 
istrator's order  of  Jan.  17  is  sufficiently  drastic  and  that 
further  extensions  should  not  be  attempted  unless  absolutely 
required  by  local  emergency  and  substantially  supported  by 
local  sanction. 

If  you  have  already  established  additional  regulations, 
we  ask  that  you  announce  a  date  in  the  near  future,  after 
which  regulations  in  your  state  will  be  uniform  with  those 
of  Washington. 

Dam's  Effect  on  Subsurface  Waters 

Whei-e  a  power  company  by  erecting  and  maintaining  a 
dam  across  a  stream  raises  the  level  of  the  water  so  that 
flow  of  percolating  waters  from  adjacent  lands  owned  by 
others  is  obstructed,  and  where  the  impounded  water  of  the 
stream  percolates  through  the  adjoining  land,  causing  sub- 
surface waters  under  such  land  to  rise  and  remain  so  near 
the  surface  as  to  injure  the  land  and  the  crops  and  improve- 
ments thereon,  damages  may  be  recovered  by  the  landowner 
against  the  power  company  on  the  theory  of  unreasonable 
interference  with  his  enjoyment  of  his  property.  (Florida 
Supreme  Court,  Cason  vs.  Florida  Power  Co.,  76  Southern 
Reporter,  535.) 


It  is  difficult  to  put  ordinary  wood  screws  into  hard  tim- 
ber; the  thread  in  the  wood  keeps  stripping,  and  the  head 
of  the  screw  may  break.  It  can  be  easily  done,  however,  in 
the  following  way:  Grind  or  file  another  screw  fiat  on  one 
side  to  the  form  of  a  half-round  or  shell  bit  to  be  used  as  a 
tap.  A  small  hole  is  first  bored  into  the  hard  timber  and 
the  tap  screwed  into  it.  It  will  cut  a  good  thread,  and  the 
screw  can  then  be  easily  turned  into  the  hole  if  it  is  well 
coated  with  tallow. 


February  12,  1918 


POWER 


245 


New  Publications 


IIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 


IIIMIIIIMIIIMIIIIIIIMII 


IIIMIIIIMUIItllllttlMII 


Central  Stntions.  By  Terrell  Croft.  Pub- 
lished bv  McGriiw-Hill  Hook  Co.,  New 
York.  1917.  Cloth;  .IJ  x  8  In.;  332 
pases;   306    illustrations.      Price.   iZ. 

Although  this  book  has  been  written,  as 
Its  name  would  indicate,  to  deal  with  cen- 
tral-station practice,  nevertheless  the  major 
portion  of  the  work  can  be  read  with 
profit  to  himself  by  almost  an.vone  inter- 
ested in  the  generation,  transmission  and 
distribution  of  electric  power.  The  work 
is  divided  into  eighteen  sections.  I^lie  open- 
ing section  defines  the  terms  niost  common- 
ly used  to  designate  the  different  compon- 
ents of  an  electrical-energy-distribution 
system;  then  the  other  chapters  following 
in  order  take  up:  liistribution  loss  and  dis- 
tribution-loss factors ;  maximum  demand, 
maximum-demand  meters  and  demand  fac- 
tors ;  diversity  and  diversity  factors ;  load 
factor,  plant  factor  and  connected-load  fac- 
tor; load  graphs  and  their  significance; 
general  principles  of  circuit  design  ;  calcu- 
lation and  design  of  direct-current  circuits  ; 
calculation  and  design  of  alterating-current 
cii'cuits ;  transmission  and  distribution  of 
electrical  energy  ;  liglitning-protection  ap- 
paratus ;  automatic  voltage  regulators; 
switchboards  and  switchgear;  character- 
istics of  electric-generating  stations ; 
adaptability  of  steam,  internal-combustion 
engine,  and  hydraulic  prime  movers  ;  steam- 
electrical-energTi-  generating  stations:  in- 
ternal-combustion-engine stations,  and  hy- 
dro-electric stations. 

The  treatment  of  alternating-current 
problems  usually  involve  more  or  less  com- 
plicated trigonometric  expressions ;  how- 
ever, the  author,  in  the  many  problems 
on  alternating-current  circuits  treated  in 
this  book,  keeps  within  the  bounds  of  sim- 
ple arithmetic,  therefore  he  can  be  compre- 
hended by  the  reader  of  only  limited  mathe- 
matical   attainments. 

As  the  dimensions  in  the  book  would  in- 
dicate, its  treatment  of  central-stations 
liractice  must  needs  be  limited,  and  in  this 
case  is  confined  to  the  practical  side  of  the 
subject ;  therefore,  the  work  will  meet  the 
needs  of  the  practical  electrician  and  .sta- 
tion operator  i^ther  than  those  of  the  de- 
signing engineer,  and  it  should  fill  a  large 
field  of  usefulness  with  the  former  class  of 
readers. 


The  Tru»tee»  of  the  United  ISnglneerInK 
Society,  held  their  annual  meeting  Jan.  2f, 
and  elected  the  following  ofllcers  for  the 
ensuing  year;  President.  Charles  F.  Hand, 
member  A.  I.  M.  E.  ;  first  vice  president. 
Calvert  Townley.  member  A.  1.  E.  VZ.  ;  sec- 
ond vice  president,  Robert  M.  Dixon,  mem- 
ber A.  S.  M.  B.  ;  treasurer.  Dr.  .Joseph 
Strut  hei-s,  member  A.  I.  M.  E.  ;  secretary. 
■Mfred  11  Fllnn.  member  A.  S.  C.  E.  ;  chair- 
man finance  committee,  J.  Vipond  Davies, 
member  A.   S.    C.   E. 

The  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Kn- 

BlneerK  will  hold  its  sixth  annual  midwinter 
convention  on  Feb.  15  and  16,  in  the  En- 
gineering Societies  Building.  New  York 
City.  The  convention  will  include  four  tech- 
nical sessions,  which  will  take  place  on 
Friday  morning,  afternoon  and  evening,  and 
Saturday  morning.  A  strictly  inforitial 
dinner  will  be  held  at  the  Cafe  Boulevard, 
41st  St.  and  Broadway,  on  Friday  evening. 
Feb.  15,  at  6:3U  o'clock.  The  session  on 
Friday  morning  will  be  devoted  to  "Circuit- 
Breaker  Ratings."  One  paper  will  be  pre- 
sented. "Rating  and  Selection  of  Oil  Circuit - 
Breakers."  by  E.  M.  Hewlett.  J.  M.  Ma- 
honey  and  G.  A.  Burnham.  The  session 
on  "Meters  and  Measurements"  will  be  held 
on  Friday  afternoon.  Four  papers  are 
scheduled  for  this  meeting:  "A  New  Stand- 
ard of  Current  and  Potential."  by  C.  T. 
Allcutt ;  "The  Thermoelectric  Standard 
Cell,"  by  C.  A.  Hoxie ;  "The  Character  of 
the  Thermal-Storage  Demand  Meter,"  by 
P.  M.  Lincoln ;  "Measurement  of  Power 
Losses  in  Dielectrics  of  Three-Conductor 
High-Tension  Cables."  by  F.  M.  Farmer. 
Dr.  A.  C.  Crehore  will  lecture  at  the  Friday 
evening  session  on  "Some  Applications  of 
Electromagnetic  Theory  to  Matter."  This 
lecture  will  be  followed  by  a  discussion. 
The  session  on  "Alternating-Current  (Com- 
mutator Motors"  will  be  held  Saturday  morn- 
ing. Three  papers  will  be  presented:  "Com- 
mutation in  Alternating-Current  Machin- 
ery." b.v  Marius  A.  C.  Latour ;  "The  Seco- 
mor — a  Kinematic  Device  Which  Imitates 
the  Performance  of  a  Series-Wound  Com- 
mutating  Motor,"  by  V.  Karapetoff ;  and 
"The  Polyphase  Shunt  Motor."  by  W.  C.  K. 
Altes. 

I       Miscellaneous  News       I 

~< iiiiMtiDiiiiMiii MtiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiitir 


uiiiiiiiirMniiniMiiiiiiiiiiiMiii 


Personals 


vitMinMiniiiiMiiiiitiiiiiii 


iiiiMiiiniiniiiiiitrjiiiiiiiiii'  17 


Capt.  C.  W.  Dyson.  U.  S.  N.,  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Steam  Engineering  of  the  Xa-\T 
Department,  has  been  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  rear  admiral. 

Rear  Admiral  R.  S.  Grimn,  U.  S.  N.,  chief 
of  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering,  ha.^ 
been  reappointed  as  engineer-in-chief  of  the 
navy   for   another    term   of   four   years. 

F.  E.  Pratt,  formerly  representative  of 
the  Worthington  Steam  Pump  Co.  in  Brazil, 
is  now  New  York  sales  manager  of  the 
Steam  Motors  Co.,  Inc.,  with  offices  at  30 
Church    St. 

K.  P.  Worden,  formerly  chief  engineer  of 
Henry  R.  Worthington  Pump  Corp.,  has  re- 
signed to  accept  the  position  of  mechanical 
engineer  for  the  Submarine  Boat  Corp.. 
New  York. 

J.  H.  Pardee,  president  of  The  J.  G.  White 
Management  Corporation,  New  York,  and 
J.  P.  Ripley,  engineer,  have  returned  to 
New  York  from  a  general  inspection  of  the 
Manila  Electric  Railroad  and  Light  Co.  and 
other  interests  in  the  Philippine  Islands  op- 
erated by  The  J.  G.  White  Management 
Corporation. 


Engineering  Affairs 


The  American  Society  of  Meclianical  Kn- 
grineers  announces  the  following  sections 
meeting:  Buffalo.  N.  Y..  Feb.  26;  Meriden. 
Conn.,  Feb.  14  ;  New  York  City,  Feb.  21  ; 
Philadelphia,   Feb.   26. 

New  York  Chapter  A.  A.  E. — At  the  next 
meeting  of  the  New  York  Chapter  of  the 
American  Association  of  Engineers,  which 
will  be  held  at  the  Hotel  McAlpin  on  Wed- 
nesday. Feb.  1.3  at  S  I».M..  H.  H.  Bubar. 
of  the  National  Aniline  and  Chemical  Co.. 
will  speak  on  "The  Engineer;  His  Present 
and  Future." 


A  Boiler  l^^xploded  at  the  plant  of  the 
Leesburg  Silica  Sand  Co..  near  Mercer, 
Penn.,  Jan.  25,  killing  two  and  injuring  two 
men.  The  cause  of  the  explosion  is  un- 
known. 

A  Boiler  Explosion  in  a  shoe  store  at 
Peterboro,  Ont.,  on  Jan.  26  caused  a  fire 
that  wiped  out  one-half  of  the  business 
section  of  the  town,  entailing  a  loss  of 
half  a  million  dollars  damage. 

National    Labor   Policy   Board   Authorized 

— Acting  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Ad- 
visory Council  (on  labor  problems),  the 
Secretary  of  Labor  will  appoint  a  Policy 
Board,  which  will  formulate  a  program  for 
the  settlement  of  difficulties  between  em- 
ployers and  employees  arising  during  the 
war.  It  will  be  composed  of  twelve  per- 
sons. The  American  Federation  of  Labor 
has  been  asked  to  nominate  five  i)ersons  to 
represent  the  workers  and  the  National  In- 
dustrial Conference  Board  five  to  represent 
the  employers.  Each  group  will  nominate 
a  representative  of  the  public,  thus  com- 
pleting the  board. 

New  Power  HouHe  Extension- — The  steel 
framing  of  the  extension  of  the  new  power 
house  of  the  Binghamton  (N.  Y.)  Light. 
Heat  and  Power  Co.,  is  completed  and  the 
roof  and  side  walls  are  well  under  way. 
being,  on  Jan.  19.  about  50  per  cent,  fin- 
ished. Work  has  been  started  on  the  in- 
stallation of  the  additional  boilers.  The 
concrete  work  is  in  such  condition  that  with 
a  few  warm  days  this  end  can  be  finisht'd. 
During  the  enforced  industrial  shutdown  it 
was  possible  to  close  this  plant  completely 
and  to  do  a  considerable  amount  of  con- 
struction work  to  good  advantage,  with 
some  saving  in  cost  over  what  it  would 
have  been  if  the  work  had  been  done  while 
the  plant  was  running. 

A  Boiler  Exploded  on  the  Weirich  farm. 
west  of  Washington,  Penn..  on  Jan.  17  and 
damaged  considerable  property.  Fortunate- 
ly no  one  was  injured.  The  cause  of  the 
explosion  was  a  most  unusual  one.  A  con- 
tracting company  was  putting  in  a  switch 
from  the  B.  &  O.  railroad  to  the  coal  works. 
when  one  of  the  piles  that  was  being  driven 
for  a  trestle  struck  and  broke  a  5-in.  oil 
line.  The  oil  gushed  out,  ran  down  the 
hill  to  the  boiler  and  caught  fire,  and  hi 
less  than  five  minutes  the  boiler  let  go  aiul 
was  wrecked  completely.  Two  tool  sheds 
standing  nearby  were  also  burned,  The 
property  loss  amounted  to  about    $5000,   aB 


well  as  a  financial  loss  occasioned  by  thfj; 
holding  up  of  the  work  awaiting  new  equip- 
ment. 

Flywheel    of    Stoker    Engine    Burst   —   A 

series  of  circumstances  led  up  to  the  in- 
jury of  one  man  and  the  curtailment  of 
the  electric  service  in  Cumberland  (Md.) 
and  the  Georges  Creek  region  early  Mon- 
day morning,  Jan.  21.  It  appears  that  some 
repair  parts  had  been  ordered  and  shipped 
by  express  from  Boston  on  Jan.  8  for  the 
governor  of  the  stoker  engine  in  the  plant 
of  the  Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Co.  of 
Cumberland,  but  were  not  delivered  as 
promptly  as  expected.  I  n  the  meantime 
the  engine  was  being  operated  and.  al- 
though given  unusual  attention,  it  raced 
and  burst  the  flywheel.  Fragments  of  the 
wheel  struck  and  broke  the  arm  and  hand 
of  one  of  the  employees.  The  service  on 
several  lines  of  electric  railway  was  reduced 
one-half  and  all  users  of  electric  current 
were  urged  to  minimize  their  demands  so 
that  all  might  have  part  service. 

Druif  Stores  Recruiting  Agents  for  Mer- 
4>liant  Marine — Five  hundred  and  twenty-six 
druggists  scattered  all  over  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  from  Fort  Kent,  Me.,  to  Green- 
wich. Conn.,  and  from  Swanton,  Vt.,  to 
Nantucket,  have  volunteered  as  recruiting 
agents  for  the  new  merchant  marine,  and 
will  begin  their  official  labors  Feb.  4.  accord- 
ing to  a  statement  issued  by  Henry  How- 
ard, Director  of  Recruiting  for  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board.  Custom  House,  Bos- 
ton, Mass.  Each  of  the  druggists  will  con- 
duct an  enrolling  station  at  his  store,  at 
which  young  Americans  from  17  to.  27,  in- 
experienced in  seagoing,  may  put  their 
names  to  apx^lications  for  training  as  sailors 
.  firemen,  oilers,  water-tenders,  cooks  or 
stewards,  on  ships  of  a  training  squadron 
maintained  by  the  Shipping  Board,  with 
headquarters  at  Boston,  for  preparing 
crews  to  serve  on  the  new  cargo  fleets  of 
the  merchant  marine.  The  cooperation  of 
the  druggists  with  the  Shipping  Board  was 
brought  about  through  the  initiative  of 
Louis  K.   Liggett,  of  Boston. 

Government  Control  of  Fuel  Oil — On  Feb. 

4  President  Wilson  issued  his  proclamation 
putting  under  license  manufacturers  and 
distributors  of  fuel  oil  with  an  output  of 
more  than  100,000  barrels  a  year.  The 
proclamation   went   into  effect   Feb.    11. 

Preference  in  shipments  is  to  be  given 
first  for  war  purposes  at  home  and  abroad, 
public  utilities  and  private  consumers  in  the 
order  of  necessity. 

The  classes  referred  to  and  the  order  of 
their  preference  are :  ( 1 )  railroads  and 
bunker  fuel;  (2)  export  deliveries  or  ship- 
ments for  the  United  States  ariny  or  navy  ; 
(3)  export  shipments  for  the  navies  and 
other  war  purposes  of  the  Allies;  (4)  hospi- 
tals where  oil  is  now  being  used  as  fuel  ; 
(5)  public  utilities  and  domestic  consumers 
now  using  fuel  oil  (including  gas  oil)  ;  (6) 
shipyards  engaged  in  Government  work ; 
(7)  navy  yards;  (8)  arsenals;  (9)  plants 
engaged  in  manufacture,  production  and 
storage  of  food  products;  (10)  army  and 
navy  cantonments  where  oil  is  now  being 
used  as  fuel;  (11)  industrial  consumers  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  munitions  and 
other  articles  under  Government  orders; 
(12)   all  other  classes. 

Mark  L.  Requa.  recently  appointed  Oil 
Director  by  Dr.  Harry  A.  Garfield,  Fuel  Ad- 
ministrator, will  have  power  to  move  oil  to 
those  industries  needing  it  most,  classes  of 
priorities  being  issued  by  President  Wilson 
in  rules  and  regulations  governing  those 
distributors  licensed.  The  proclamation  is 
essentially  a  war  distribution  measure  and 
exerts  no  control  or  restriction  over  the  oil 
wells.  Government  officials  say  there  is  no 
shortage  of  fuel  oil  or  gasoline  production. 

Traffic  congestion  preventing  sufficient 
shipments  to  the  Allies  and  allowing  the 
movement  of  fuel  oil  to  industries  that 
are  secondary  in  importance  to  war  needs. 
caused  the  Government  to   issue  the  order. 


Business  Items 

■•••in II iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiii? 

The  .luniiar.v  IsHiio  of  the  "Walworth 
Log"  is  largely  devoted  to  the  newly  opened 
.Seattle  branch  of  the  Walworth  Manufae- 
luring  <'o.  We  leooKnize  the  work  of  Li.  F. 
Hamilton. 

Walter    .\.    Keliilrker    Suppl.v    Co..    of    St. 

l.oiii.s.  ha.^  estalilished  permanent  ortices  .at 
Minneapolis.  Minn,,  at  Ii27  Plymouth  Build- 
ings to  serve  the  Nortli  Central  and  Cana- 
dian trade  Uionard  K.  Pai)in.  formerly  St. 
Louis  and  Southwestern  representative  of 
the  naven)iort  Locomotive  Works  and  for 
ten  years  manager  of  the  Zelnlcker  Co.'s 
equipment  department,  is  in  charge.  He  la 
especially  finalitled  to  handle  imiuirles  on 
rails,  loeomotlves.  cars,  iriachlnery.  piling, 
tanks,  etc..  In  his  district. 


246 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  7 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


•  IIMIIIMIII 


Boston — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  delivered  alongside 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows  ; 

ANTHRACITE 

, Circular' ,    , Individual ' > 

Feb.  7,  1918       One  Year  Ago  Feb.  7,  1918       One  Year  Ago 

Buckwheat    ..          $4.60                $;.0.-.— :i.eO  S7. 10— 7.35         83.23—3.50 

Rice    4.10                   'J.-'jO — 2.65  0.05—6.90           2.70— 3.9o 

Barity  :■.::::      ilS        2.20— 2.35     s.is— e.46     s.ss— 'i.eo 

BITDMINODS 
Bituminous  not  t)n  market. 

Y  a  b  Mines' ,  , Alongside  Bostont , 

Feb.  7.  1918       One  Year  Ago  Feb.  7.  1918       One  Year  Ago 

Clearflelds $3.00  S4.33 — 3.00 

Cambnas   and  _   ,„ 

Somersets 3.10 — 3.83  4.60 — 5.40 

Pocahontas  and  New  River,  l.o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  S4,  as  compared 
with  $2.8.5 — 2.90  a  year  ago. 

*AlI-rail  rale  to  Boston   is  $2.60.  tWater  coal. 

New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  fob.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 
ANTHRACITE 

, Circular'  ,    , Individual  • n 

Feb.  7.  1918       One  Year  Ago       Feb.  T.  1918    .  One  Year  Ago 

Pea         $5.0")  $4.00  $5.80  $6.50 — 6.75 

Buckwheat  ..       4.30 — 3.00  2.75  3.50 — K.OO  B.OO — 6.2o 

Rice 3.73—3.95  2.20  4.50—5.00  4.50—5.0;) 

Barley     3.25— :i.30  1.95  4.00 — 1.25  3.25—3.75 

Boiler 3.50. — 3.75  2.20  

Bituminous  smithing  coal.  S4.50 — 5.23  f.o.b. 
Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c.  higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.  Harbor     Mine 

Pennsylvania     $3.65  ^I'SU 

Maryland     3i)o  3.00 

West   Virginia    (short  rate) S.Co  3.00 

Based  on  Government  price  of  $2  per  ton   at  mine. 

•The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport,  Port  Johnson.  Port  Reading. 
Perth  Amboy  and  South  Amboy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  I.iherty 
Hoboken.  Weehawken,  Edgewater  or  Cliflside  and  Guttenberg.  St.  George 
■,s  in  between  and  sometimes  a  snecial  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bitumi- 
nous is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  porta 
is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows : 


T  iiir 

m;.i„ 

N    Independent 
One  Year  Ago 

Feb.  7. 

1918 

One  Year  Ago       Feb.  7 

.  1918 

Buckwheat  . 

.    $3.1.5- 

-3.73 

$2.50 

$3.75 

$3.40 

$4.15 

2.65-3.65 

2.10 

3.65 

3.00 

3.35 

Boiler    

.      2.43- 

-2.85 

1.95 

3.55 

3.15 

.      2.15- 

-2.40 

1.85 

2.40 

2.05 

3.35 

Pea    

.       3.75 

2.80 

4.05 

3.70 

Culm    

1.35 

Chicago^Steam    coal    prices   f.o.b.    mines: 

Illinois  Coals  Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

Prepared   sizes    $2.H-.— '.'.SO  $3.10-3.25 

Mine-run     2.40— ■;.55  3.8.5—3  00 

Screenings     2.1.5— 2..30  2.60—2.75 

So.  Illinois,  Pocahontas,  Hocking. 

Pennsylvania  East  Kentucky  and 

Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia      West  Virginia  Splint 

Prepared   sizes    $2.60 — 2.80  $3.0.5 — 3.25 

Mine-run      3.40—2.60  3.40 — 2.60 

Screenings    2.10—2.30  3.10—3.30 

St.  Lnuis — Prices  pet  net  ton  f.o.b.   mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared with  today  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and  Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  and  Staunton  , Standard s 

Feb.  7.  One  Fdb.  7.         One  Feb.  7,  One 

1918         Year  Ago        1918       Year  Ago       1918  Year  Ago 

6-in, 
lump.  .    $2.65-2.80  $3.25-3.50  $2.65-2.80  $3.25-3.50  $2.63-2.80  $3.35-3.75 


;-in. 


3.65-3.80    .  .  . 
2.65-3.80    .  .  . 


3.65-3.80    

2.65-2.80    

3.40-3.55    2.25-3.50 


lump.  .       3.65-3.80    

Steam 
*^^%     .  .  .    3.6.5-3.80    

Mine- 
run    ...    3.40-2.55    3.00-3.35    3.40-2.55    3.00 

No.   1  •  ' 

nut    ....    2.65-2.80     3.25-3.30   2.65-3.80     3.25-3.50     2.63-2.80     2.35-2.75 

"screen    .  3.15-2.30    3.00-3.35    2.15-2.30    3.75-3.00    2.15-2.30    3.35-2.50 
No.   5 
washed       2.15-3.30    3.00  2.15-3.30    2.75-3.00    2.15-2.30    2.50 

WiUiamson-Franklin  rate  St.  Louis,  87  %c.;  other  rates.  73i4c. 

Birmingrbam — Current   prices  per  net   ton   f.o.b.   mines   are   as 
follows : 

Mine-Run     Lump  and  Nut     Slack  and  Screenings 
$3.15  $1,65 

2.40  1:90 

2.65  3.15 


Big  Seam   $1.90 

Pratt.  Jagger,  Corona.  .  .  .        2.15 
Black  Creek    Cahaba    .  .  ,        3.40 


Government  figures. 

'Individual  nrices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  fixed  according 
lu  a  rcb'ular  schedule. 


Ala.,  Alexander — City  plans  to  issue  $10,000  bonds  for  the 
erection  of  an  addition  to  its  electric-lighting  plant.  J.  A.  Coley. 
Ch.    Kngr. 

Ala.,  Mobile — The  Mobile  &  Ohio  Ry.  plans  to  install  electrical 
equipment  in  its  grain  elevator  which  is  nearing  completion.  P, 
A.   Wood,   Ch.    Kngr. 

.'Vrk.,  ONi'Pola — Town  plans  to  install  a  200  kva.  generating 
unit  in   its  electric-lighting  plant.      E.  Teaford.  Mg[. 

Calif.,  Palo  Alto — City  voted  $66,000  bonds  to  install  a  Diesel 
engine  in  its  electric-lighting  plant.  J.  F.  By.Kbee,  Jr.,  City  Engr. 
Noted  Jan.  8. 

Fla.,  Pensarola — The  Pen.sacola  Electric  Co.  plans  to  build  a 
13.200  volt  transmission  line  from  here  to  Pensacola  Naval  Sta- 
tion.    T.  J.   Hanlon,  Jr..   Mgr. 

Oa.,  Portland — The  American  Potash  Co.  is  in  the  market  for 
200  kw  electrical  equipment  to  operate  fuller  mills  for  manu- 
facturing potash  from  sericite. 

Kan.,  L.eon — Citv  having  preliminary  plans  prepared  by  W.  B. 
Rollins  &  Co..  Engr.,  209  Ry.  Bxch.  Bldg.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  for 
the  erection  of  an  electric-lighting  plant. 

Ky.,  Walton — The  Walton  Electric  Light  Co.  is  in  the  market 
for  an  electric  generator. 

Mich.,  Marquette — City  is  having  preliminary  plans  prepared 
for  the  erection  of  a  power  plant  to  include  a  140  ft.  pentstock. 
Estimated   cost.    $150,000.      M.   H.   Wright,   City   Engr. 

Miss..  Canton — City  plans  to  install  new  equipment  in  its  elec- 
tric-lighting plant  including  a  surface  condenser  for  a  200  hp. 
engine  and  spray  equipment  for  cooling.     J.  T.   Sharp.  Jr..  Mgr. 

Miss.,  Houston — City  plans  to  install  new  equipment  in  its 
flectric-lighting  plant  including  an  80  hp  crude  oil  engine  direct- 
ly connected  to  a  60  kw..  3  phase,  2300  volt,  revolving  field  motor 
and  switchboard,  etc.      A.  G.   .\tkinson,   Supt. 

Mo.,  Wellsville — The  Blattant  Poultry  and  Manufacturing  Co. 
plans  to  rebuild  its  electric-lighting  plant  which  was  recently 
destroyed   by  fire. 

Neb.,  Falls  City — City  voted  $75,000  bonds  for  the  erection  of 
an  electric-lighting  plant.  K.  J  C.  Mullen.  City  Clerk.  Noted 
Dec.  25. 

Neb..  .luniata — City  plans  an  election  soon  to  vote  on  a  $7000 
bond  issue  for  the  erection  of  a  tran.smission  line  from  here  to 
Hastings. 

N.  J.,  .Jersey  City — The  Board  of  Freeholders,  Hudson  County, 

is  having  plans  prepared  bv  P.  K.  Vivarttas,  Arch..  Un  4th  Xt.. 
W^est  New  York,  for  the  erection  of  a  1  story,  brick,  power  house 
and  electric   lighting  plant.   Noted   Dec.    18, 

N.  Y.,  Albion — The  State  is  in  the  market  for  two  150  hp.  hori- 
zontal tubular  boilers.  Estimated  cost,  $10,000.  L.  P.  Pilcher. 
Capitol.   .Mbany,  Arch. 

Okla.,  Canadian — City  plans  to  vote  on  bond  issue  for  the  erec- 
tion of  an  electric-lighting  plant. 

Penn..  Harrisburg — The  Harrisburg  Light  and  Power  Co.  plans 
to   improve  and   enlarge   its  plant ;   also   install   4    new   stokers. 

Penn.,  New  Castle — The  Mahoning  &  Shenango  Ry.  and  Light 
Co.  has  been  granted  permission  by  the  Public  Service  Commis- 
sion to  issue  $2,000,000  bonds;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to 
build  additions  and  improvements  to  its  .system.  E.  H.  Bell, 
Y'oungstown,    Ohio,   Mgr. 

Va.,  Kichmond — The  Virginia  Ry.  and  Power  Co.  plans  to 
erect  a  21  x  116  ft.  concrete  addition  to  its  power  house  on  12th 
St.     C.   B.   Buchanan.  Gen.    Mgr. 

Wash.,  Seattle — The  Board  of  Public  Works  will  receive  bids 
until  March  1  for  the  erection  of  an  addition  to  its  hydro-elec- 
tric power  plant.  Estimated  cost,  $5,000,000.  J.  D.  Ross,  Supt. 
of  Light  and  Power. 

Wash.,  Tacoma — City  having  plans  prepared  for  the  erection 
of  an  additional  power  plant  with  17,000  hp.  capacity.  Estimated 
cost,   $1,000,000.      L.   Evans,   Gen.   Supt. 

Wis.,  Madison-  The  Di-Electric  Manufacturing  Co..  incorpor- 
ated with  $40,000  capital  stock,  plans  to  build  a  plant.  B.  W. 
Smythe.  Jr.,  Vronian  Blk..  and  E.  K.  Frautschi.  incorporators. 

B.  C,  Nelson — The  ."^wanetta  Power  Co..  incorporated  with 
$500,000  capital  stock,  plans  to  build  a  large  hydro-electric  plant 
on  the  Bend  d'Oreille  River,  south  of  Nelson. 

Ont.,  KImira — A.  S.  Gingrich  is  in  the  market  for  a  30  to  35 
hp.   oil  engine. 

Ont.,  Hamilton — The  Wentworth  Orchard  Co.,  Sun  Life  Bldg., 
is  in  the  market  for  a  5  hp.  electric  motor  for  hydro  power. 

Ont.,  Merritton — The  Riordon  Pulp  and  Paper  Co.,  Ltd..  355 
Beaver  Hall  Sq..  Montreal,  will  soon  award  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  a  power  plant. 

Ont.  Renfrew — The  British  Explosives,  Ltd..  is  in  the  market 
for  several  Vie  hp.  and  J  hp.  electric  motors.    \V.  C.  Cram,  Mgr. 

Ont.,  Toronto — E.  Pullen.  20  Main  St.,  is  in  the  market  for  a 
10  hp.  D.   C,  550  volt,  high  speed  motor. 


POWER 


Vol     I 


M'W    ^OKK    M'hKUAK^    1  )    1  US 


No     8 


The  Secret 

By  Berton  Braiev 

I  leap  through  Hmitless  miles  of  space, 

And  the  ether  throbs  to  the  thrill  of  me, 
It  is  only  light  that  can  match  my  pace. 

Yet  Man  has  ever  his  will  of  me; 
Though  he  has  Small  knowledge  of  what  I  am 

Or  the  truth  of  the  smallest  wave  of  me, 
With  switch  and  turbine  and  wire  and  dam 

He  makes  a  servant  and  slave  of  me. 

Unawed  by  lightnings  that  rip  the  skies, 

Immense,  intense  and  terrible. 
He  hitches  me  up  in  humdrum  guise 

To  help  make  his  tasks  more  bearable; 
And  I,  who  laugh  at  the  very  gods, 

Am  put  in  a  box  to  work  for  him. 
To  drive  his  carriage,  to  turn  the  clods. 

To  lighten  the  nightmare  murk  for  him. 

As  a  messenger  boy  he  bids  me  go 

To  the  end  of  the  world  and  back  for  him 
Or  sets  me  pulling  a  freight  train  slow 

Up  a  wandering  mountain  track  for  him; 
Yes,  I  who  once  was  the  sword  of  Jove 

When  the  gods  were  in  their  bravery. 
Now  substitute  for  the  kitchen  stove 

In  keeping  Man's  coffee  savory. 

Yet,  though  he  make  me  a  drudge  indeed, 

As  never  before  in  history, 
I'm  still  a  riddle  he  cannot  read. 

The  world's  most  marvelous  mystery; 
For  though  man  study,  detect,  deduce. 

With  all  of  his  brain's  felicity, 
I  shall  keep  the  key  of  the  mystic  Juice, 

The  Secret  of  Electricity. 


•KF-  Pn  Li^e.  t2.  - 


ocvxt- 


248 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


UNTIL  recent  years  the  application  of  electricity  to 
the  operation  of  the  various  devices  on  board  ship 
has  been  slow.  This  has  been  true  of  marine  work 
in  general.  The  most  conspicuous  exception  to  this  rule 
has  been  in  the  American  Navy,  which  is  not  only  a 
larger  user  of  electrically  driven  machinery  than  the 
merchant  marine,  but  also  leads  tha  navies  of  the  world 
in  the  application  of  electricity  to  the  almost  countless 
devices  used  on  board  a  modem  battleship. 

The  employment  of  electricity  on  shipboard  was  at 
first  limited  to  illuminating  purposes  and  searchlights. 
On  the  cruiser  "Brooklyn,"  which  was  launched  in  1895, 
electric  motors  were  used  to  drive  the  ammunition 
hoists  and  for  turning  two  of  the  turrets,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  launching  of  the  battleships  "Kear- 
sarge"  and  "Kentucky"  in  1898  that  an  extensive  use 
of  electrically  driven  auxiliaries  began.  Since  then 
the  use  of  electricity  has  been  extended  until  today 
some  of  our  largest  and  most  powerful  superdread- 
naughts  and  battle  cruisers  are  electrically  driven. 
As  an  illustration  of  this,  the  superdreadnaught  U.S.S. 
"Tennessee,"  which  has  a  displacement  of  32,600  tons 
and  is  designed  for  a  speed  of  21  knots  per  hour,  will 


be  driven  by  four  alternating-current  motors,  one  on 
each  propeller.  Each  motor  will  have  a  normal  capacity 
of  6700  hp.  and  a  25  per  cent,  overload  rating,  or  8375 
hp.  for  four  hours.  Power  will  be  supplied  by  two  13,- 
500-hp.,  standard  steam  turbo-alternators  similar  to 
those  used  in  large  power  houses  throughout  the  country 


FIG.    2. 


GEARED-TURBINE,    DIRECT-CURRENT 
GENER.^TOR 


FIG.    1.      STANDARD    STEAM    TURBO-ALTERNATOR 


(Fig.  1).  In  addition  to  the  main  generators  there  will 
be  six  300-kw.  direct-current  geared-turbine-driven 
auxiliarj'  units,  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  2,  to 
furnish  current  for  exciting  the  alternators  and  for 
light,  power,  signals  and  several  hundred  motors  used 
about  the  ship.  This  equipment  was  described  in 
Power,  Aug.  7,  1917  issue. 

The  first  ship  of  any  importance,  excepting  submarine 
boats  of  the  navy,  to  be  electrically  driven  was  the  U.  S. 
collier  "Jupiter,"  which  was  built  at  the  Mare  Island 
Navy  Yard  and  put  in  commission  Sept.  15,  1913.  This 
vessel  is  of  about  20,000  tons  displacement  and  is  de- 
signed to  carry  12,000  tons  of  coal  or  oil.  The  main 
units  of  this  boat  consist  of  one  alternating-current 
turbo-generator  set  of  7000  hp.  and  two  3500-hp.  wound- 
rotor   induction   motors,   wound    for   3400    volts.      The 


February    19,   1918 


POWER 


249 


stator  and  rotor  of  one  of  the  motors  are  shown  in 
Figs.  3  and  4  respectively. 

The  electrical  installation  on  board  a  modern  battle- 
ship may  be  divided  into  three  general  systems — power, 
lighting  and  signaling.  Outside  of  the  main  drive,  when 
the  vessel  is  electrically  driven,  the  power  plant  usually 
consists  of  a  number  of  300-  to  375-kw.  turbine-driven 
125-  or  250-volt  direct-current  generators,  although  in 
some  of  the  oldest  ships  80-volt  equipments  are  used. 
As  pointed  out  in  a  previous  paragraph,  the  superdread- 
naught  "Tennessee"  will  have  six  300-kw.  direct-current 
units  in  the  auxiliary  power  plant.  The  generators  of 
the  earlier  equipment  were  direct-connected  to  the  tur- 
bine, ran  at  a  speed  of  1500  r.p.m.  and  were  of  the 
compound-wound  type  with  commutating  poles.  In  the 
more  modern  e^iuipments  geared  turbines  are  used  and 
the  generator  operates  at  from  700  to  1000  r.p.m.  On 
account  of  the  comparatively  heavy  current  and  small 
diameter  of  the  commutator,  the  125-volt  units  generally 
have  two  commutators,  one  at  each  end  of  the  arma- 
ture. 

It  is  general  practice  to  provide  not  less  than  four 
of  these  sets  and  locate  them  in  two  separate  dynamo 
rooms,  so  that  in  case  of  the  disablement  of  one  dynamo 
room  the  entire  electrical  equipment  will  not  be  put 
out  of  business. 

The  method  of  operating  the  generators  varies  some- 
what with  different  nations.  In  America  it  is  general 
practice  to  operate  them  in  parallel,  while  in  Europe 
in  many  cases  the  generators  are  arranged  so  that 
the  distributing  circuits  can  be  transferred  from  one 
generator  to  another,  but  the  generators  cannot  be 
operated  in  parallel. 

Figs.   5  and  6  show  the  back  and  front  view  of  a 


FIG.    3.      STATOn  OF  ONE  OF  THK  JUPITER'S   MOTOR.S 


FIG.    4.      ROTOR    OF    THE    STATOR,    FIG.    3 

switchboard  used  for  the  control  of  the  direct-current 
power  plant  on  a  modern  battleship.  On  the  center 
panels  are  mounted  the  switches,  circuit-breakers,  in- 
struments, etc.,  for  the  control  of  two  generator  sets, 
either  or  both  of  which  may  be  connected  to  the  bus- 
bars. The  end  panels  are  for  the  control  of  the  dis- 
tributing circuits.  Circuit-breakers  are  used  to  protect 
the  large-capacity  circuits,  while  fuses  are  used  on  the 
smaller  circuits.  Where  the  power  plant  is  divided  and 
located  in  different  rooms,  tie  lines  are  provided  between 
the  different  switchboards  so  that  the  machines  in  one 
generator  room  may  supply  power  to  busbars  of  the 
switchboard  located  in  the  other  room.  In  addition 
to  the  main  switchboard  other  distributing  panels  are 
located  in  the  various  parts  of  the  ship  for  the  control 
of  motors  and  distribute  the  current  to  the  various 
equipments. 

In  America  the  earlier  practice  was  to  construct  the 
switchboard  panels  of  slate  mounted  on  angle-iron  sup- 
ports, and  sometimes  cushioned  with  rubber  to  prevent 
breakage.  The  more  modern  practice  is  to  construct  the 
panels  of  nonfragile  insulating  material,  such  as  asbestos 
lumber.  In  Europe  the  panels  are  frequently  made  of 
steel  with  the  instruments  insulated  therefrom. 

The  large.st  and  one  of  the  most  important  applica- 
tions of  electricity  on  board  ship  is  the  steering  gear. 
The  operation  of  the  steering  gear  by  some  power 
means  dates  back  to  the  "Great  Eastern,"  on  which  was 
placed  a  steam-operated  steering  equipment.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  installation  soon  led  to  the  general  adop- 
tion of  steam-operated  steering  gears  on  most  all  classes 
of  vessels.  Although  electrical  steering  gears  have 
been  given  attention  for  some  twenty  or  twenty-five 
years  past,  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  they 
have  been  adopted  in  general.  At  fir.st  they  were  ap- 
plied in  conjunction  with  steam  engines,  the  electrical 
drive  acting  as  an  auxiliary. 

One  of  the  first  systems  to  be  successfully  employed, 


250 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


uLilized  a  motor-generator  set  to  supply  power  to  a 
shunt  motor  fOx-  operating  the  rudder.  Control  with 
this  system  wa*;;  effected  on  the  Wheatstone-bridge  prin- 
ciple and  is  known  as  the  "Pfatischer"  system,  one  arm 
of  the  rheostat  being  located  at  and  operated  from  the 
steering  stand  and  the  other  located  at  and  operated 
by  the  rudder. 

This  system  followed  along  the  idea  of  the  old  follow- 
up  system,  used  with  the  steam  engine;  that  is,  the 
helmsman  sets  the  steering  wheel  at  the  angle  it  was 
desired  to  have  the  rudder  moved  to,  and  when  the  latter 
arrived  at  this  position  it  automatically  cut  out  the 
source  of  driving  power. 

Quite  a  number  of  the  United  States  battleships  and 
cruisers  are  equipped  with  a  rheostatic  system  of  con- 
trol on  the  steering  gear.  The  motor  is  fed  directly 
from  the  chip's  mains,  thu.s  obviating  the  use  of  a 
motor-generator  set.  With  the  rheostatic  control  the 
motor  is  controlled  by  the  use  of  a  contactor  panel, 
Fig.  7,  equipped  with  contactors  for  reversing  the  motor, 
cutting  out  the  armature  resistance,  for  operating  at 
slow  speeds  and  for  dynamic  braking.  The  controller, 
along  With  the  starting  resistance,  is  usually  placed 
near  the  motor  and  operated  from  a  steering  stand,  Fig. 
8,  located  at  steering  stations  in  different  parts  of  the 
ship.  The  helmsn:an  can  always  tell  the  position  of  the 
rudder  by  a  helm-angle  indicator  located  near  the  steer- 


FIG.    5.      BACK    VIKW    DIRECT-CURRKXT    SWITCH  BdARI ) 

ing  stand.  To  prevent  the  rudder  from  jamming  on  the 
hard-over  position,  limit  switches  are  provided  similar 
to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  9. 

The  system  which  is  now  receiving  favorable  con- 
sideration at  the  hands  of  the  Navy  Department  involves 
the  use  of  a  hydraulic  mechanism  to  operate  the  rudder. 
A  variable-stroke  hydraulic  pump  delivers  oil  to  large 


rams  connected  to  the  rudder  crosshead,  and  this 
variable-stroke  pump  i.s  driven  by  a  constant-speed 
motor,  which  is  started  up  and  allowed  to  run  continu- 
ously. A  small  pilot  motor  operates  the  valve  of  the 
hydraulic  variable-stroke  pump,  and  the  control  of  this 


-^=;^'«^ 


FIG.    6.       FRONT    VIEW    DIRECT-CURREXT    SWITCHBOARD 

pilot  motor,  from  various  stations  in  the  ship,  is  the 
same  as  the  rheostatic  system  described  in  the  foregoing. 

While  this  hydraulic-electric  steering-gear  system 
may  be  said  to  be  still  somewhat  in  the  experimental 
stage,  it  is  being  installed  at  the  present  time  quite 
generally  on  large  naval  vessels.  Its  principal  point 
of  advantage  is  that  it  substitutes  the  hydraulic 
variable-stroke  pump  and  hydraulic  ram  for  the  very 
inefficient  screw-gear  arrangement  previously  used  on 
all  the  old  vessels,  and  therefore  permits  the  installa- 
tion of  a  motor  of  relatively  small  horsepower  for 
driving  the  rudder. 

The  requirement  on  nearly  all  naval  vessels  is  that 
the  motor  must  operate  the  rudder  from  hard-over  to 
hard-over  in  twenty  seconds.  On  the  most  recent  and 
largest  vessels,  it  has  been  modified  in  some  cases  to 
thirty  seconds.  With  the  rheostatic  control  on  the 
larger  battleships,  compound-wound  interpole  motors 
of  300-hp.  capacity  are  required  to  operate  the  steer- 
ing gear,  while  with  the  hydraulic-electric  the  horse- 
power is  reduced  to  about  one-half,  or  150.  Fig.  10 
shows  a  pair  of  175-hp.  steering-gear  motors  operating 
in  parallel  on  a  single  rudder  shaft.  The  motors  are 
equipped  with  disk  brakes  on  the  armature  shaft,  which, 
assisted  by  dynamic  braking,  brings  the  rudder  to  rest. 

Another  service  that  requires  large  motors  on  board 
ship  is  the  anchor  windlass.  On  some  of  the  recent 
equipment  installed  on  American  battleships,  two  motors 
are  used,  each  having  a  one-hour  rating  of  from  125 
to  150  hp.  The  motors  are  compound-wound  and 
equipped  with  commutating  poles  and  a  disk  brake,  and 
are  coupled  directly  to  the  two  worm  gears  through 
which  the  windlass  is  operated.  The  control  of  the 
motors  is  such  that  each  can  be  operated  independently 
as  well  as  the  two  simultaneously  in  series  or  parallel. 
The  equipment  is  capable  of  raising  two  20,000-lb. 
anchors  simultaneously  and  360  ft.  of  chain  on  each, 
each  chain  weighing  about  36,000  lb.,  at  the  rate  of  36 
ft.  per  minute. 

The  cranes  for  handling  the  lifeboats  are  operated 
by  compound-wound  motors,  usually  of  50-hp.  capacity, 
one  of  which  is  showTi  in  Fig.  11.  In  this  equipment 
the  requirements  are  that  it  raise  a  40,000-lb.  load  at 


February   I'J,  1918 


POWER 


251 


20  ft.  per  min.  and  the  empty  hooks  at  60  ft.  per  min. 
The  motor  is  oiiuipped  with  an  electric  brake  so  that 
it  will  hold  the  load  if  the  power  fails.  A  motor  is 
also  used  for  rotating  the  crane  so  as  to  place  the  boats 
in  position  on  deck.  The  capacity  of  this  motor  is 
frequently  50  hp.  A  rheostatic  controller  for  a  boat- 
crane  motor  is  shown  in  Fig.   12. 

Winch  motors  for  both  coal  and  cargo  are  35  to  45 
hp.  in  size,  compound-wound  and  equipped  with  inter- 
poles.  The  winches  for  coal  handling  are  generally 
capable  of  handling  a  5000-lb.  load  at  200  ft.  per  min. 
and  a  20,000-lb.  load  at  50  ft.  per  minute. 

Forced  ventilation  is  an  important  feature  in  the 
operation  of  a  modern  battleship.  On  large  ship.*^  the 
ventilation  system  may  consist  of  over  one  hundred 
electrically  driven  fans,  handling  500,000  cu.ft.  of  air 
per  minute.  The  size  of  the  motors  varies  from  1 
to  15  hp..  In  addition  to  the  ventilation  motors,  there 
may  be  as  many  as  200  small  desk  or  bracket  fans  in 
use.  In  the  latest  practice  on  battleships  steam  turbines 
are  being  used  extensively  for  driving  the  ventilating 
fans. 

Electrically  driven  pumps  are  used  for  various  pur- 
poses, such  as  fire,  fresh-water  supply,  bilge,  drainage 
tanks,  sanitary  purposes,  refrigeration,  etc.  These 
motors  vary  in  size  from  1  to  75  hp.  To  handle  the 
bilge  water  15  to  20  pumps  are  supplied.  These  pumps 
require  vertical  and  horizontal  motors  varying  in  size 
from  25  to  75  horsepower. 

Motors  are  used  for  turning  the  turrets,  elevating 
the  large  guns  and  hoisting  ammunition.  These  serv- 
ices require  motors  ranging  in  size  from  3  to  35  hp. 
Variable-speed  as  well  as  constant-speed  motors  are  used 
on  the  ammunition  hoists. 


FIG.    7. 


CONTACTOR    PANEL    FOR    300-HP.    EI.MCTKIC 
STEKRINC-GEAR  MOTOR 


FIGS.    8    .\ND    i).      STEERING   STAND   AND   LIMIT    SWITCH 
Fig.    S — On    left,    electric    steering"    stand    for    non-follow-up    sys- 
tem.    Fig.   9 — On  riglit.  rudder  limit  switch 

Electricity  is  used  for  almost  every  imaginable  pur- 
pose on  board  the  modern  battleship.  The  complete- 
ness of  the  equipment  is  evident  from  such  items  as 
moving-picture  machines,  motor-driven  cake  mixers, 
ice-cream  freezers,  etc.,  which  would  indicate  that  about 
all  the  luxuries  that  may  be  had  on  land  are  also  pro- 
vided on  board  ship. 

The  illuminating  equipment  of  a  battleship  consists 
of  from  3000  to  4000  lights.  Incandescent  lamps  are 
used  almost  exclusively  for  this  purpose.  The  fixtures 
are  of  special  design  to  make  them  water-tight  and 
aL-o  on  account  of  the  vibration  of  the  ship. 

The  cables  must  also  be  of  special  design  on  account 
of  the  moisture.  They  are  insulated  with  a  high-grade 
rubber  and  a  suitable  braid,  and  then  protected  with 
a  lead  sheath,  covered  with  metal  armor.  This  cable 
is  quite  flexible  and  can  be  easily  made  to  conform 
to  almost  any  contour.  The  electrical  installation  on 
a  battleship  requires  from  75  to  100  miles  of  cable. 

The  signaling  systems  are  also  a  very  extensive  part 
of  the  electrical  equipment,  consisting  of  some  40  dif- 
ferent systems,  including  ammunition-hoist  indicators, 
gun  firing,  turret  telephone,  fire-control  telegraph, 
engine-room  telegraph,  fire  alarms,  toiiiedo  firing,  wire- 
less telegraph,  etc.  A  number  of  these  equipments  are 
installed  in  duplicate  and  are  supplied  with  power  from 
two  sources.  The  systems  operate  on  voltages  ranging 
from  the  potential  of  the  power  circuit  down  to  15 
volts  used  for  call  bells.  Both  alternating  and  direct 
current  are  used.  Alternating  current  and  low-voltage 
direct  current  are  obtained  from  motor-generator  sets. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  pieces  of  electrical  appa- 
ratus on  a  battleship  is  the  gyroscopic  compass.  This 
has  completely  displaced  the  magnetic  compass  on  the 
larger  vessels  and  submarines  of  practically  every  navj' 


252 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


in  the  world.  The  sensitive  element  is  a  rapidly  re- 
volving wheel  which,  owing  to  the  peculiar  effect  of 
gyroscopic  force,  keeps  its  axis  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  earth  and  hence  points  to  the  north  pole. 

A  magnetic  compass  must  be  corrected  for  the  iron 
masses  surrounding  it  and  also  for  the  difference  be- 


FIG.   10.      PAIR  OF  175-HP.   STEERING-GEAR  MOTORS 

tween  the  location  of  the  magnetic  north  pole  and  the 
geographic  north  pole.  As  the  gyro  compass  is  inde- 
pendent of  magnetism,  these  corrections  do  not  have  to 
be  made  and  calculations  based  on  compass  bearings 
are  greatly  simplified.  The  only  corrections  are  for  the 
speed  of  the  ship  and  for  latitude.  These  corrections 
are  made  semi-automatically  and  involve  no  calcula- 
tions. 

The  complete  battleship  equipment  consists  of  two 
master  compasses,  one  of  which  is  shown  at  M,  Fig. 
13,    a    number    of    repeater    compasses    7?,    a    motor- 


FIG.    11.      BOAT-CRANE    MOTOR 

generator  set  G,  and  a  control  panel  C  for  running  either 
master  compass  and  for  interconnecting  the  repeater 
compasses  in  any  desired  combination. 

The  repeater  compasses  contain  small  motors  which 
are  driven  by  a  transmitter  in  the  master  compass. 
The  master  compass  is  mounted  below  deck  out  of  all 
danger,  while  the  repeater  compasses  are  used  in 
navigating  the  ship.  These  repeaters  are  mounted  in 
different  ways — on  a  stand  similar  to  the  ordinary 
magnetic  compass;  on  the  wall;  on  a  pelorus  P,  Fig. 
13,  for  taking  azimuth  sights  directly;  and  they  even 
may  be  portable  so  that  the  navigating  officer  may 
walk  around  and  still  have  the  compass  with  him. 


To  the  layman  the  master  compass  appears  to  be 
a  tremendously  complicated  and  delicate  mechanism. 
A  detailed  view  of  it  is  given  in  Fig.  14.  Its  "sensitive 
element"  is  a  steel  wheel  W,  with  its  axis  horizontal, 
driven  at  8600  r.p.m.  by  a  self-contained  three-phase 
alternating-current  motor.  This  wheel  runs  in  a  vacuum 
to  eliminate  the  air  friction,  which  is  very  great  at 
the  high  speed  at  which  it  runs.  The  wheel  and  case 
W  are  suspended  on  a  steel  cable,  which  is  held  at  its 


FIG.     12.       BOAT-CRANE     MOTOR    CONTROLLER 

upper  end  in  a  ball  bearing.  This  bearing  is  covered 
by  a  cap  which  can  be  seen  at  C  in  the  figure.  Con- 
nected to  this  case  through  the  "floating  ballistic"  is 
the  compass  card  D,  Fig.  15,  from  which  the  heading 
is  read.  The  card  is  kept  continually  oscillating  about 
half  a  degree  by  a  small  motor,  to  keep  out  any  slight 
friction  lag  in  the  reading.  The  force  of  the  gyro 
does  not  turn  the  card  directly,  but  closes  contacts  at 


FIG.    13.       GYRf)SrOPir-GOMrA.SS     EQITIPMENT 

T  and  T,  which  causes  a  little  motor  to  drive  it  one 
way  or  the  other.  The  transmitting  mechanism  which 
controls  the  repeaters  is  also  operated  by  this  motor. 
At  W  are  shown  the  small  wheels  for  correcting  the 


Febiuary    19,   1918 


POWER 


253 


compass  for  speed  and  position.  These  two  knobs 
operate  interconnected  cams  and  link  wliich  automatic- 
ally solve  an  involved  trigonometric  equation  and  make 
the  necessary  corrections. 

Another  interesting  and  important  device  used  on 
warships  is  the  high-intensity  searchlight,  Fig.  16. 
The  beam  from  this  light  is  the  most  brilliant  known, 
being  equal  to  the  sun's  intensity  at  8  a.m.  or  4  p.m. 
New  York  latitude.  The  size  used  on  ships  is  36  in. 
diameter  and  will  throw  a  beam  40  miles. 

The  positive  and  negative  electrodes  are  respectively 
16  and  11  millimeters  in  diameter  in  this  lamp.  Its 
candlepower  is  320.000  per  sq.in.,  and  in  the  36-in. 
type  it  has  a  beam  intensity  of  256,000,000  cp.  The 
temperature  of  the  arc  is  about  5000  deg.  C,  or  9000 
deg.  F.  The  arc  running  at  a  temperature  of  7000  deg. 
F.  higher  than  the  melting  point  of  the  carbon  holders 


FIG.    14.      SIDE   VIEW   OF   MASTER   GYRO   COMPASS 

is  only  about  one  inch  away  from  them.  The  positive 
carbon  is  rotated  as  it  is  fed  forward,  while  the  negative 
feeds  forward  and  upward  at  an  angle  to  meet  the 
positive.  The  voltage  of  the  arc  is  approximately  75. 
When  focused  sharply,  the  beam  will  ignite  paper  at 
a  distance  of  approximately  250  ft.  A  larger  size, 
60  in.  in  diameter,  used  in  coast-defense  work,  is  the 
most  powerful  light  in  the  world,  having  a  beam  of 
1,280,000,000  cp.  This  lamp  stands  ten  feet  high  and 
weighs  three  tons;  newspapers  may  be  read  in  its  light 
thirty  miles  away.  It  has  been  reported  that  signals 
flashed  by  this  searchlight  were  seen  150  miles  away. 
The  brilliant  light  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  special 
carbons  having  a  deep  but  small  crater  in  the  positive 
carbon,  in  which  the  vapor  burns.  This  gives  a  beam 
3.5  times  greater  than  an  arc  using  ordinary  carbons. 


FIG.    15.      TOP   VIEW   OF   MASTER   GYRO    COMPASS 

The  lamp  may  be  controlled  directly  by  using  the 
handwheel  W,  or  it  may  be  trained  and  elevated  by 
using  the  remote-control  lever  L,  which  may  be  located 
in  any  part  of  the  ship.  This  is  a  very  important 
feature,  as  it  is  much  easier  to  see  what  the  light  is 
disclosing  from  a  point  200  ft.  away  from  the  light 
than  from  a  position  near  the  light  itself.  It  is  possible 
to  elevate  the  lamp  to  a  vertical  position,  making  it 
available  for  anti-aircraft  work.  The  shutter,  which 
completely  cuts  off  the  beam,  may  be  seen  at  S.     The 


KJil.    Hi,      TIIIKTY-SIX    INCH   SEARCHLIGHT 


254 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


movement  of  a  lever  closes  it  tightly.  This  feature  is 
very  important,  as  a  dying  arc  makes  an  excellent 
target.  For  this  reason  the  shutter  is  closed  previous 
to  putting  out  the  light,  leaving  the  boat  in  complete 
darkness. 

The  arm  of  the  Navy  that  is  attracting  more  atten- 
tion than  any  other  at  the  present  time  is  the  submarine 


FIG.     17.       PAIR    OF    SUBMARINE     PROPELLED    MOTORS 

boat.  Modern  submarine  boats  are  propelled  by  oil 
engines  on  the  surface  and  electric  motors  when  sub- 
merged, each  propeller  shaft  being  operated  by  an 
oil  engine  or  motor  according  to  the  conditions  of 
operation,  the  oil  engines  operating  the  motors  as 
generators  while  on  the  surface  and  charging  storage 
batteries,  which  in  the  submerged  condition,  supply 
current  to  the  motors  to  drive  the  boats. 

The  main  motors,  Fig.  17,  one  on  each  propeller 
shaft,  are  of  large  size,  varying  from  500  to  800  hp. 
according  to  the  size  of  the  boats,  and  these  motors  are 
remotely  controlled  by  automatic-contactor  controllers 
from  a  central  station.  Each  motor  may  consist  of  two 
units  as  in  the  figure  or  a  single  unit  according  to  con- 
ditions. 

In  addition  to  the  main-motor  equipments,  each  sub- 
marine is  provided  with  a  large  number  of  auxiliary- 
motor  equipments  for  operating  pumps,  air  compressors, 
steering  gears,  diving  gears,  periscope-lifting  gears,  etc. 
The  horsepower  of  these  auxiliary  equipments  varies 
from  about  0.5  to  50  or  60  hp.,  and  the  majority  of 
them  are  operated  by  contactor  push-button  controllers. 
In  addition,  the  submarines  are  equipped  with  electric 
cooking  and  heating  devices  and  complete  sets  of  wire- 
less and  other  signaling  apparatus. 

[Considerable  of  the  material  in  this  article  was  com- 
piled from  articles  in  the  General  Electric  Review: 
February,  1914,  "Electric  Propulsion  of  the  U.S.S. 
'Jupiter,'  "  by  W.  L.  R.  Emmett;  and  June,  1915,  "Elec- 
tricity in  Marine  Work,"  by  Maxwell  W.  Day.  "Elec- 
tricity the  Future  Power  for  Steering  Vessels,"  by  H. 
L.  Hibbard,  Transactions  of  the  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Vol.  XXXIII, 
was  also  drawn  upon.  This  material  has  been  added 
to  when  necessarj'  to  bring  it  up  to  date.  The  descrip- 
tive literature  of  the  Sperry  Gyroscope  Co.  was  also 
consulted.  Photographs  were  supplied  by  the  Westing- 
house  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  the  General 
Electric  Co.,  Cutler-Hammer  Manufacturing  Co.  and  the 
Sperry  Gyro.scope  Co. — Editor.] 


Mercury   Column   Indicates   CO2 

The  Dwight  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Chicago,  has 
added  to  its  line  a  second  form  of  CO,  indicator.  The 
use  of  a  mercury  column  calibrated  to  indicate  directly 
the  percentage  of  CO,  is  the  distinguishing  feature.  ■ 
The  initial  design,  which  is  still  retained,  used  a  small 
spring-type  gage  for  this  purpose.  Both  types  are  ac- 
curate and  so  rapid  in  operation  as  to  encourage  the 
consistent  use  necessary  to  produce  a  material  saving 
in  coal. 

The  new  instrument,  knovra  as  type  B,  is  shovin  in 
the  illustration.  It  consists  of  the  usual  metal  reservoir, 
a  specially  calibrated  mercury  gage  and  the  carrying 
case  for  the  complete  outfit.  When  in  service  the 
reservoir  is  disconnected  from  the  gage  and  a  sample 
of  flue  gas  pumped  through  the  chamber.  A  com- 
paratively large  supply  of  potash  solution  fills  the  base, 
and  on  the  surface  of  this  solution  floats  a  layer  of 
mineral  oil  sealing  from  the  chemical  the  gas  sample 
being  collected.  When  the  gas  sample  has  been  obtained, 
both  valves  on  top  of  the  instrument  are  closed  and  the 
reservoir  is  shaken  back  and  forth  a  few  times  to  break 
the  oil  seal  and  allow  the  chemical  solution  to  absorb  the 
CO,  from  the  gas  sample.  This  "splash  system"  of  mix- 
ing the  gas  and  liquid  produces  rapid  absorption  of  the 
CO,  on  account  of  tne  large  surface  area  of  fresh  chem- 
ical brought  in  contact  with  the  gas.  Connection  is  then 
made  with  the  mercury  gage,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 


MERCURY    COLUMN    CO,.    INDICATOR 

tion,  and   upon  opening  the  communicating  valve  the 
percentage  of  CO,  in  the  gas  is  indicated  on  the  gage. 

In  the  design  proper  precautions  were  taken  to  trap 
the  mercury  so  that  it  cannot  spill  even  when  the  ap- 
paratus is  inverted.  The  graduated  scale  is  movable 
so  that  the  zero  point  can  be  easily  set  opposite  the 
mercury  level  when  the  gage  is  under  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. 


The  Canadian  Commission  of  Conservation  estimates 
the  total  possible  water-power  resources  of  the  Dominion 
at  18,80.3,000  hp.,  while  the  developed  water  power  is 
1,813,210  hp. — Commerce  Reports. 


February   19.   1918 


POWER 


255 


The  Fifty-Thousand  Kilovolt-Ampere 
Connors  Creek  Turbines 


By  C.  F.  HIRSHFELD* 


Laryest  sinyle-cyUmlvr  turbine.  The  first  of  two 
iDiits  now  beiufi  installed,  each  to  be  served  by 
four  2S65-hp.  boilers.  With  70,000  sq.ft.  of  sur- 
face the  condenser  is  the  largest  yet  attempted 
in  a  single  shell.  It  has  but  one  7vater  pass,  and 
drain  plates  spill  the  condersate  into  the  steam 
belt,  so  that  its  temperature  at  the  hotwell  will 
approximate  that  corresponding  to  the  vacvum. 

THE  Connors  Creek  plant  of  the  Detroit  Edison  Co. 
was  planned  to  contain  six  2^,000-kv.-a.  60-c.vcle 
machines  supplied  with  steam  from  twelve  2365- 
hp.  boilers  operating  at  225  lb.  gage  pressure  and  200 
deg.  superheat  at  200  per  cent,  of  rating.  The  first  unit 
was  started  Feb.  8,  1915:  the  second  July  7,  1915,  and 
the  third  Feb.  15,  1917.  When  the  fourth  unit  came 
up  for  consideration,  it  became  evident  that  the  develop- 
ment of  large  turbine  units  and  likewise  the  growth  of 
the  company's  load  had  progressed  to  such  a  point  that 
it  would  be  desirable  to  choose  a  unit  of  greater  ca- 
pacity than  originally  planned.  It  was  then  decided  to 
complete  the  plant  by  installing  two  50,000-kv.-a.  ma- 
chines instead  of  the  three  25,000-kv.-a.  units  originally 
contemplated.  One  of  these  larger  units  is  now  being 
placed. 

Each  Turbine  Supplied  by  Four  Boilers 

Each  of  these  machines  will  be  supplied  with  steam 
from  four  boilers'  similar  to  those  originally  planned, 
so  that  the  ratio  of  boiler  capacity  will  not  be  altered. 
However,  the  change  involves  the  ultimate  installation 
of  eight  boilers  instead  of  the  six  which  would  have  been 
required  to  serve  three  25,000-kv.-a.  machines.  The 
ultimate  capacity  of  the  station  as  now  planned  will  be 
175,000  kv.-a.  instead  of  150,000  as  originally  intended. 

The  turbine  for  the  large  unit  is  of  the  disk  tvpe  and 
represents  a  development  of  the  design  used  in  the  first 
machines  installed  in  the  station.  It  has  21  stages  as 
against  nine  in  the  smaller  machines.  However,  in  spite 
of  this  fact  and  also  in  spite  of  its  larger  capacity,  the 
new  unit  is  only  fifteen  feet  longer,  over-all,  than  are  the 
smaller  machines.  Other  dimensions  are  also  much 
smaller  than  one  would  expect  from  a  direct  comparison 
of  capacities.  The  weight  is  only  about  40  per  cent, 
greater  than  that  of  the  earlier  models.  The  speed,  1200 
r.p.m.,  is  the  same. 

The  small  physical  size  in  comparison  with  the  earlier 
units  is  partly  due  to  refinements  in  the  design  of  the 
turbine  which  have  made  it  possible  to  greatly  decrease 
the  distance  between  wheels.  It  is  also  due  in  a  small 
degree  to  higher  generating  voltage,  12,200  instead  of 
4600. 

The  best  indication  of  the  tremendous  capacity  that 
has  been  incorporated  in  a  single  turbine  barrel,  and  in 


•Chief  of   I'esf-arch   depailnient.    Dcti'oit   I^dison    (^o. 
'For  description   of  initial   installation  seo   "rower," 
1»15,   pp.    388-396. 


Sept    14, 


a  single  generator,  is  given  by  the  size  of  the  exhaust 
opening.  This  is  rectangular  and  measures  12  x  18  ft. 
in  the  clear. 

Longitudinally,  the  barrel  is  made  in  two  sections. 
The  low-pressure  section  is  of  cast  iron  and  is  rigidly 
bolted  to  the  concrete  foundation.  The  high-pressure 
section  is  of  cast  steel  and  is  bolted  to  the  high-pres- 
sure end  of  the  low-pressure  section.  It  is  hung  free 
of  the  foundation  between  the  low-pressure  casing  and 
the  bearing  on  the  high-pressure  end  of  the  turbine.  It 
is  thus  free  to  expand  radially  in  all  directions.  At 
the  high-pressure  end  the  bearing  is  held  in  guides  in 
such  a  way  that  it  can  slide  longitudinally  under  the 
effects  of  varying  temperatures. 

The  unit  is  supplied  with  steam  through  two  lines, 
each  14  in.  diameter.  These  two  lines  run  together  in  a 
special,  cast-steel,  inverted-Y  fitting  which  carries  the 
steam  up  to  the  turbine  throttle.  The  exit  of  the  in- 
verted Y,  that  is,  the  vertical  leg,  has  an  internal  diam- 
eter of  20  in.  While  the  unit  is  nominally  served  by 
the  four  boilers  located  opposite  it,  crossover  headers 
are  so  arranged  that  any  of  the  boilers  in  the  plant  can 
supply  it  with  steam.  In  practice  these  crossover  head- 
ers are  always  open  so  that  practically  all  the  simplicity 
of  a  unit  layout  is  obtained  with  the  security  char- 
acteristic of  a  collective  layout. 

The  steam  exhausted  by  the  turbine  passes  directly 
downward  through  a  short  expanding  neck  into  the  con- 
denser. This  condenser  contains  approximately  70,000 
sq.ft.  of  surface  made  up  of  1-in.  tubes  with  a  length  of 
24  ft.  The  tube  sheets  have  a  diameter  of  about  15.5 
ft.  in  the  clear,  which  gives  sufficient  area  to  permit 
the  use  of  numerous  generously  proportioned  lanes  to 
lead  the  steam  to  all  parts  of  the  surface.  This  action 
is  assisted  by  a  steam  belt  which  is  obtained  by  setting 
the  tube  sheet  eccentric  in  the  shell.  The  steam  belt 
is  so  shaped  and  focated  that  it  connects  the  exhaust 
nozzle  with  the  space  directly  over  the  hotwell.  This 
will  be  referred  to  later. 

Largest  Single-Shell  Condenser 

This  condenser,  like  the  turbine,  is  the  largest  yet 
attempted  in  a  single  shell.  It  is  also  unique  among  con- 
densers of  this  general  class,  in  that  it  is  arranged  for 
but  one  water  pass.  The  circulating  water  enters  all 
the  tubes  at  one  end  and  leaves  all  at  the  other  end, 
flowing  away  over  a  dam  the  crest  of  which  is  so  located 
as  to  submerge  the  highest  tubes. 

It  was  feared  that  with  a  condenser  containing  such  a 
deep  mass  of  tubes  as  this  one  and  with  all  the  tubes 
carrying  cold  water,  the  condensate  would  be  abnormally 
cooled  before  arriving  at  the  hotwell.  For  this  reason 
devices  which  have  been  called  drain  plates  were  in- 
stalled. These  have  been  tried  in  various  forms  in 
smaller  condensers  in  the  older,  or  Delray,  plant  of  the 
company  and  have  been  found  very  satisfactory. 

Drain  plates,  are  formed  by  placing  light-weight 
metal  plates  in  the  steam  space  in  such  positions  as  to 
catch  the  condensate  fi'om  the  upper  sections  and  lead  it 


256 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


Co  the  bottom  of  the  condenser  without  allowing  it  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  tubes  in  the  sections  through 
which  it  is  led.  These  plates  are  not  intended  as  steam 
guides  or  baffles,  and  their  successful  use  depends  on 
placing  them  in  such  positions  that  they  do  not  inter- 
fere in  any  manner  with  the  free  flow  of  steam. 

In  the  condenser  under  discussion  the  plates  are  ar- 
ranged in  such  a  way  that  the  condensate  is  spilled  di- 
rectly into  the  steam  belt  in  streams  of  comparatively 
small  cross-section.  It  then  flows  toward  and  into  the 
hotwell  in  contact  with  the  steam  in  this  belt.  Provision 
is  n^ade  to  prevent  a  collection  of  air  over  the  hotwell 
and  at  the  lower  end  of  the  steam  belt,  and  it  is  hoped 
thai  the  condensate  will  enter  the  hotwell  at  a  tem- 
perature very  near  that  corresponding  to  the  vacuum 
even  under  winter  conditions. 

The  condenser  is  served  by  two  hotwell  pumps,  either 
of  which  has  sufficient  capacity  to  handle  all  condensate 
made  at  full  load.  There  are  also  two  circulating  pumps. 
These  are  48-in.  double-suction  pumps  and  are  driven 
by  variable-speed  direct-current  motors.  Each  pump 
has  a  capacity  of  60,000  gal.  per  min.  and  can  there- 
fore pass  sufficient  water  to  condense  all  steam  used  at 
the  most  economical  turbine  loading.  The  second  pump 
will  be  required  only  at  maximum  output,  or  when  the 
circulating  water  is  above  a  normal  temperature. 

The  air  pump  is  of  the  rotative  dry-vacuum  type  and 
is  driven  by  a  variable-speed,  direct-current  motor.  It 
is  arranged  for  two-stage  operation  in  a  single  cyl- 
inder and  has  a  diameter  of  39  in.  and  a  stroke  of 
30  in. 

Coal-Pit   Mouth   Power   Plants 

By  D.  a.  Shearer 

The  present  abnormal  conditions  direct  attention  to 
the  apparent  economy  of  operating  steam-power  plants 
at  tiie  coal  mines.  Long-distance  electrical-power  trans- 
mission has  long  since  passed  the  experimental  stage, 
and  I'nes  carrying  hydro-electric  power  many  hundred 
miles  furnish  indisputable  evidence  of  the  practicability 
of  so  distributing  power  over  a  large  territory. 

It  has  been  stated  that  35  per  cent,  of  the  freight 
handled  by  the  railroads  consists  of  coal,  only  15  per 
cent,  of  which  is  for  domestic  requirements.  This 
means  that  the  transportation  of  coal  for  power  pur- 
poses is  one  of  the  big  factors  in  the  high  cost  of  power 
and  is  moreover  one  of  the  causes  of  the  present  great 
freight  congestion.  It  seems  therefore  that  the  estab- 
lishment of  many  large  central  stations  directly  in  the 
coal  fields  would  mitigate  this  serious  economic  con- 
dition. The  coal  fields  are  situated  in  a  comparatively 
central  position  relative  to  the  manufacturing  centers  of 
the  Eastern  States  and  are  within  an  economical  trans- 
mission distance  if  electrical  energy  is  used.  By  the 
use  of  large  boiler  capacity  and  large  generating  units 
a  high  degree  of  efficiency  could  be  achieved  and  a  net- 
work of  high-voltage  large-capacity  transmission  lines 
could  be  extended  over  the  entire  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States.  This  would  relieve  the  railroads  of  much 
congestion,  dodge  labor  troubles  on  the  transportation 
systems,  prevent  much  coal  waste  in  hauling,  prob- 
ably increase  the  efficiency  of  many  manufacturing 
plants  and  would  lead  to  the  electrification  of  many 
steam   railways,  with  a  further  saving  of  coal.     The 


entire   output  of  all  grades   from   any  mine   could  'be 
economically  and  efficiently  changed  to  electric  power. 

The  coal  question  will  not  be  settled  with  the  cessa- 
tion of  war,  for  it  is  a  problem  that  will  remain  with 
us  and  grow  more  acute  with  years.  The  war  has  only 
been  the  means  of  drawing  attention  to  economic  prob- 
lems in  a  pressing  manner  and  a  little  ahead  of  the 
normal  schedule.  The  problems  were  there  before  the 
war  and  will  remain  after  it  is  ended,  to  be  considered 
and  perhaps  solved  by  a  future  if  not  by  the  present 
generation.  If  the  proposed  development  was  in  oper- 
ation now,  there  would  be  no  coal  shortage. 

Energy    in    Revolving    Flywheel 

To  calculate  approximately  the  energy  stored  in  a  re- 
volving flywheel,  first  ascertain  (by  calculation)  the 
weight  of  the  rim  (weight  of  spokes,  etc.,  is  usually 
disregarded)  and  its  velocity  in  feet  per  second  (at 
the  given  r.p.m. ) .  This  velocity  multiplied  by  itself 
(squared)  and  by  the  weight  of  the  rim  and  divided  by 
the  constant  64.32  gives  the  foot-pounds  of  energy. 
For  example,  a  20-ft.  flywheel  with  a  rim  weighing 
30,000  lb.  revolving  at  80  r.p.m.,  or  83.7  ft.  per  sec, 
would  represent  83.7  X  83.7  X  30,000  ^  64.32  =  3,270,- 
000  ft.-lb.  of  energy. 

Military  Road  Building 

By  Sergt.  B.  C.  White 

I  am  writing  this  from  the  field  to  describe  an  en- 
gineering feat  by  army  engineers  in  building  a  road 
called  Vanderbilt  Ave.,  from  camp  to  town,  requiring 
several  bridges,  cuts,  fills,  etc.,  to  straighten  the  one 
time  "snake  road."  Owing  to  the  lack  of  gravel  crushed 
stone  had  to  be  used.  Not  far  from  the  road  there  was 
an  old  quarry  of  bastard  granite,  but  the  only  things  in 
the  way  of  machinery  were  parts  of  an  old  belt-driven 
drum  hoist  that  Noah  may  have  used.  For  tools  they 
had  one  ax,  one  timber  saw,  a  2-in.  wood  chisel  and  a 
2-in.  auger. 

They  investigated  the  scrap  yards  in  all  the  near-by 
towns  and  found  in  one  place  an  old  locomotive-type 
boiler  and  engine  mounted  on  wheels  (35  hp.).  In 
another  place  they  found  an  old  stone  crusher  of  per- 
haps five  yards  per  hour  capacity;  in  another  old  quarry 
they  found  a  steam  drill  or,  rather,  scraps  of  several  out 
of  which  they  contrived  one  that  would  work  some,  and 
an  old  pump  that  works  well  after  some  little  tinkering 
up.  Out  of  another  heap  of  scrap  they  got  a  piece  of 
l[fi-in.  shaft  and  a  couple  of  car  trucks  with  the  flanges 
missing  on  one  side.  They  also  begged  a  few  feet  of 
canvas  belt  that  had  been  discarded  in  a  sawmill.  I 
think  there  was  about  225  ft.  of  8-in.  belt  including  bad 
spots,  which  were  numerous.  With  this  accumulation 
assembled,  they  now  have  200  ft.  of  railroad  trestle 
made  of  bents  with  rails  spiked  to  headframes  at  about  a 
15  per  cent,  grade,  on  which  they  draw  stone  from  the 
quarry  to  the  crusher.  One  side  of  the  track  is  raised 
two  inches  higher  than  the  other  so  the  stone  car  will 
not  jump  the  track  on  the  side  where  the  flanges  are 
missing.  They  also  have  a  belt  conveyor  of  8-in.  belt 
28-ft.  centers  running  in  a  trough  over  12-in.  pulleys  at 
about  100  ft.  per  min.     This  belt  drops  the  stone  into 


February   19,   1918 


POWER 


257 


a  pocket  from  ^\llich  the  trucks  are  loaded.  The  con- 
veyor is  home-made,  as  it  were — pipe  for  shafting,  the 
bearings  made  o-f  old  tires  when  available,  but  many 
were  made  of  wood,  log  ends  for  pulleys,  etc.  To  make 
these  pulleys  they  sawed  off  some  pine  blocks,  bored  a 
2-in.  hole  through  them,  drove  them  onto  the  shaft  pro- 
jecting from  the  hoist  and  turned  them  to  size  with  a 
2-in.  wood  chisel.  Some  of  ths  rails  on  the  road  are 
polos,  and  all  the  woodwork  is  of  logs  and  poles  cut 
in  the  woods.  The  railroad  is  known  (locally  )  as  the  P.  W. 


&  MacD.  R.R.  (Pop  White  &  MacDougal  R.R.)  Private 
Harry  Cassey,  who  is  our  hard  rock  man,  is  better 
known  as  "Dynamite  Cassey"  in  the  regiment  but  as 
Captain  Cassey  to  the  natives.  Little  Willie  O'Connors 
(6  ft.  3  in.  tall)  is  a  drill  runner.  Master  Engineer 
Senior  Grade  MacDougal,  who  was  formerly  master 
mechanic  in  the  subway,  is  in  charge.  The  four  master 
engineers  in  the  group  posing  for  their  picture  are, 
from  left  to  right,  "Pop"  White,  Dunagan,  MacDougal 
and  Conrow. 


I'P.IJI'AKINC    STUNK    .VT   'I'lllO    ca'AKltY    FUU    HLI  11^1  )lN<.i     A    iMIUTAKV    HO\\> 


258 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


'.   Novel    Method   of   Shipping    Large 
Transformers 

The  method  used  by  the  Westinghouse  Electric  and 
Manufacturing  Co.  for  shipping  three  7500-kv.-a.,  wa- 
ter-cooled transformers  from  East  Pittsburgh,  Penn., 
to  the  Northern  States  Power  Co.,  at  St.  Paul,  Minn., 
is  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  The  weight  of  each  trans- 
former without  oil  is  approximately  45,000  lb.  Be- 
fore placing  each  unit  in  its  tank  a  corset  of  wood  slats 
and  ribs  of  steel  was  built  up  around  it,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1,  so  as  to  give  a  circular  shape  to  fit  the  inside 
of  the  tank.  The  cooling  coils  were  left  fastened  to  the 
transformer  covers,  and  a  bracing  arrangement  through 
the  center  of  these  coils  against  the  top  of  the  cover, 
which  was  in  turn  braced  against  the  end  of  the  car, 
served  to  hold  the  transformer  in  place  inside  the  tank. 

These  transformers  were  so  large  that,  even  when 
loaded  on  a  drop-frame  car,  if  shipped  in  the  upright 
position,  they  would  barely  be  within  the  maximum 
height  allowable  by  railroad  bridges,  etc.,  even  when 
using  special  flat  covers  on  the  tanks.  It  was  found  by 
the  engineering  and  construction  department  of  the 
power  company  that  if  the  transformers  were  to  be 
shipped  in  this  manner  there  would  be  difficulty  in  get- 


PIG. 


TRANSFORMER    READY    TO    PI.ACK    IN    TANK 


ting  them  over  the  streets  at  their  destination  and  up  a 
30-ft.  rise,  without  crushing  through  the  streets  or  tip- 
ping over.  They  therefore  suggested  that  the  trans- 
formers be  shipped  lying  on  their  sides  if  possible. 


The  Westinghouse  company  has  an  ingenious  cradle 
in  which  to  place  transformers  when  they  are  to  be 
turned  over  on  their  sides.  This  cradle  consists  of  a 
platform  with  one  side  projecting  up  at  right  angles  to 


FIG. 


TRANSFORMRR  IX  ORADLE  READY  TO  SHIP 


the  floor  of  the  platform.  At  the  corner  of  the  platform 
there  is  a  rocker.  Attached  to  the  top  of  the  side  and 
to  the  outer  edge  of  the  platform  are  chains  of  equal 
length,  which,  after  the  transformer  is  placed  on  the 
platform,  are  attached  to  a  crane.  The  crane  starts  lift- 
ing, and  the  chain  attached  to  the  platform  is  the  one 
that  carries  the  weight.  This  starts  to  tip  the  cradle 
on  the  rocker  and  when  it  is  just  half  tipped,  both 
chains  are  bearing  the  weight.  As  the  transformer 
goes  on  over  in  the  cradle,  the  chain  attached  to  the 
top  of  the  side  bears  the  weight  and  the  one  attached 
to  the  platform  is  slack.  By  this  means  there  is  no 
rough  jostling  in  tipping  the  transformer. 

A  cradle  arrangement,  similar  to  the  foregoing,  was 
built  for  each  transformer  and  used  as  a  skid  in  ship- 
ment, and  in  moving  the  transformers  over  the  streets 
and  up  the  rise,  at  their  destination.  Fig.  2  shows  one 
of  the  transformers  in  its  cradle  ready  for  shipping. 

The  transformers  arrived  in  good  condition  and  were 
skidded  to  position  in  the  basement  of  the  substation  in 
St.  Paul.  Through  a  hole  in  the  main  floor  a  stationary 
hoist  lifted  the  transformers  out  of  their  tanks,  the 
packing  was  removed  and  the  transformers  were  again 
lowered  into  the  tanks  and  the  oil  put  in ;  each  unit  was 
then  lifted  to  the  main  floor  and  put  into  service. 


Superheating  steam  increases  its  volume  a  different 
percentage  for  different  pressures  and  temperatures. 
For  example,  steam  at  100  lb.  pressure  when  super- 
heated 100  deg.  is  expanded  approximately  16  per  cent., 
while  200  deg.  increases  its  volume  30  per  cent,  and 
300  deg.  45  per  cent.  For  any  desired  case  see  the 
steam  tables  giving  the  specific  volume  of  saturated 
steam,  subtract  this  from  the  specific  volume  for  the 
degree  of  superheat  and  divide  by  the  specific  volume 
of  the  saturated  steam ;  the  result  will  be  the  percentage 
of  increase  in  volume.  The  same  process  gives  the  per- 
centage of  difference  in  volume  between  two  different 
degrees  of  superheat.  The  amount  of  work  steam  of 
a  given  pressure  will  do  is  very  nearly  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  its  volume.  This  is  one  of  the  advantages  of 
superheating. 


February   19,   1018 


POWER 


259 


Troubles  and  Their  Remedies  in  Gas-Engine 

Ignition  Systems 


By  a.  L.  BRENNAN,  JR. 


The  various  troubles  that  may  happen  to  either 
high-  or  low-tension  ignition  systems  for  inter- 
nal-combustion engines  are  outlined,  and  hoiv  to 
go  about  locating  and  correcting  these  troubles  is 
explained. 


NEARLY  all  gas  engines  are  equipped  with  bat- 
teries to  supply  the  primary  current  to  suitable 
coils  to  effect  easy  starting.  However,  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  the  magneto  is  relied  upon  to  furnish 
the  electrical  pressure  for  constant  operation.  It  must 
not  be  understood  from  this  that  battery  ignition  is  not 
reliable,  for  in  actual  practice  it  is  quite  as  dependable 
as  that  derived  from  a  magneto. 

Low-Tension  and  High-Tension  Magnetos 

Although  there  are  many  variations  in  the  design  and 
construction  of  magnetos,  they  can  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes — low-tension  and  high-tension.  In  re- 
gard to  the  former  the  current  is  sometimes  utilized 
direct  in  connection  with  a  make-and-break  igniter  or  is 
sent  through  a  coil  first  and  thence  to  the  igniter.  In 
other  cases  dynamos  are  used  to  supply  a  current  for  a 
high-tension  system,  the  current  being  taken  through  an 
induction  coil  to  obtain  the  necessary  potential  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  air  gap.  From  this  it  is  seen 
that  the  principal  difference  between  low-  and  high-ten- 
sion ignition  is  that  a  low-tension  current  has  not  suffi- 
cient voltage  to  break  down  the  resistance  of  an  air  gap ; 
therefore,  in  order  to  induce  a  spark,  a  current  must  be 
set  up  by  a  closed  circuit.  This  closed  circuit  results 
from  the  movable  electrode  coming  in  contact  with  the 
stationary  electrode  of  the  igniter,  which  separates  at  a 
predetermined  time  according  to  the  setting  of  the 
timer.  As  the  points  spring  apart,  the  electric  current 
has  a  tendency  to  maintain  the  circuit  already  formed, 
and  in  consequence  an  electric  arc  is  formed  between 
these  two  points  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  ignite 
the  compressed  gas  in  the  cylinder.  One  of  the  principal 
considerations  involved  in  procuring  a  good  spark  from 
a  low-tension  igniter  is  to  have  the  points  in  good  repair 
and  forming  a  complete  contact;  that  is,  their  entire 
surfaces  coming  together.  If  two  very  small  points 
only  come  in  contact,  the  resultant  spark  will  be  small 
and  may  not  be  strong  enough  to  ignite  the  gas. 

The  chief  advantage  of  low-tension  ignition  over 
high-tension  is  absence  of  secondary  wires  and  their 
danger  to  short-circuit;  also,  low-tension  ignition  is 
practically  waterproof.  It  has  several  disadvantages, 
however.  The  timing  of  the  break  is  controlled  by  me- 
chanical means,  and  the  rapidity  of  the  rupture  of  cur- 
rent between  the  points  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the 
tension  of  certain  springs  which  operate  under  detri- 
mental conditions,  such  as  high  temperatures.  Low- 
tension  magnetos  are  usually  of  the  simple  H  type  and 
have  but  a  single  coil  of  comparatively  coarse  wire.  In 
operation  the  current  induced  in  the  armature  fluctu- 


ates from  zero  to  a  maximum  twice  in  each  revolution, 
and  so  in  order  to  realize  high  efficiency  the  magneto 
must  be  so  timed  that  this  maximum  current  will  be 
supplied  the  igniter  at  the  moment  of  break  in  the 
current.  This  is  usually  referred  to  as  synchronism, 
meaning  that  the  rotation  of  the  magneto's  armature 
and  the  engine  crankshaft  coincide  in  such  a  way  that 
the  maximum  potential  is  utilized  at  the  time  of  ignition 
of  the  compressed  gas,  as  already  mentioned.  From  this 
it  is  evident  that  a  magneto  of  this  type  must  be  timed 
in  such  a  way  as  to  follow  out  the  conditions  cited, 
but  this  is  not  the  case  with  continuous-current  ma- 
chines. Generators  of  the  latter  type  are  very  easy 
to  maintain  and  are  surprisingly  free  from  any  com- 
plications. 

The  commutator  should  be  kept  bright  by  using  fine 
sandpaper.  The  bearings  should  be  properly  lubricated, 
but  care  must  be  exercised  against  excessive  oil,  for  it 
has  a  tendency  to  creep  and  thus  destroy  the  insulation 
of  the  machine.  The  brushes  should  be  kept  clean  and 
bear  with  their  whole  surface  on  the  commutator. 

High-tension  magnetos  can  be  divided  into  two 
classes:  (1)  Magnetos  that  merely  take  the  place  of 
battery  and  timer  and  deliver  current  to  a  coil  where  the 
secondary  current  is  produced,  and  (2)  magnetos  that 
comprise  in  their  construction  all  the  elements  of  gen- 
erating and  distributing  a  high-tension  current,  which 
are  commonly  called  self-contained  generators,  as  they 
are  only  dependent  upon  the  engine  to  furnish  the  power 
for  their  rotation,  which  of  course  must  be  in  synchro- 
nism with  the  timing  of  the  engine. 

Magnetos  of  the  latter  type  are  subject  to  about  all 
the  troubles  that  have  to  do  with  high-tension  ignition 
of  other  varieties.  But  as  seemingly  complicated  as 
some  of  the  troubles  appear,  they  are  in  almost  every 
instance  easily  traced  and  corrected. 

Locating  Faults  by  Elimination   Method 

A  means  of  locating  a  fault,  commonly  known  as  the 
elimination  method,  often  proves  of  value  in  quickly  de- 
tecting an  existing  fault.  For  instance,  suppose  the  en- 
gine is  operating  from  current  derived  from  a  magneto ; 
the  first  step  to  take  is  to  disconnect  the  secondary  wire 
from  a  plug  and  hold  its  terminal  about  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  from  top  of  the  latter  and  notice  if  a  spark 
takes  place.  This  operation  is  easily  performed  while 
the  motor  is  in  operation  if  the  high-tension  wires  are 
fitted  with  terminals  that  pull  off.  Considering  the  set- 
ting of  the  points  of  a  spark  plug  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
may  seem  excessive,  but  the  fact  should  be  remembered 
that  the  average  magneto  will  produce  a  spark  of  this 
length  under  atmospheric  conditions,  but  not  in  the 
cylinder  under  pressure,  where  the  resistance  offered  to 
a  spark  gap  is  considerably  more.  Misfiring,  although 
often  due  to  faulty  ignition,  has  other  causes,  such  as 
faulty  mixtures  or  mechanical  defects  that  interfere 
with  good  compression. 

High-tension  generators  are  necessarily  complicated 
to  a  certain  degree;  that  is,  there  are  several  parts  nee- 


260 


POWER 


Vol    47,  No.  8 


essary  to  control  and  distribute  the  current,  which  re- 
quire more  or  less  attention  from  time  to  time.  Chief 
among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  contact  points  of  the 
circuit  interrupters.  These  points  often  have  a  tend- 
ency to  wear  and  become  pitted  and  thus  make  inferior 
contacts  and  cause  misfiring.  In  order  to  overcome  this 
defect  the  contact  points  should  be  cleaned  with  sand- 
paper, care  being  exercised  to  rub  the  surfaces  flat  and 
not  wear  away  the  edges  of  the  contacts  and  thus  reduce 
their  bearing  surfaces.  If  the  pitting  is  very  bad,  the 
contacts  will  probably  need  filing,  which  will  neces- 
sitate their  removal.  In  regard  to  their  repair,  there 
are  two  conditions  to  bear  in  mind:  First,  to  file  the 
points  to  produce  a  smooth  even  surface ;  and  second,  to 
adjust  the  surfaces  of  the  points  at  such  an  angle  that 
when  they  are  together  their  surfaces  will  be  parallel. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  the  points  will  be  evenly  re- 
paired, but  only  make  contact  on  their  inside  or  out- 
side edges.  In  regard  to  the  correct  distance  they 
should  be  set,  it  will  generally  depend  upon  the  make  of 
the  magneto.  However,  the  majority  of  manufacturers 
supply  suitable  implements  and  scales  for  the  adjust- 
ment of  their  machines,  which  should  be  closely  ad- 
hered to.  At  times  dust,  dirt  or  oil  will  find  its  way 
into  the  circuit-interrupter  box  and  cause  misfiring. 
To  overcome  this  trouble  the  interrupter  box  should  be 
washed  with  gasoline,  using  a  stiff  brush. 

To  Remove  Scale  Deposits 

Continued  operation  will  sometimes  produce  scale  de- 
posits in  the  circuit-interrupter  box,  but  more  often 
on  the  distributor  segments  and  brush  surfaces,  which 
is  usually  indicated  by  misfiring,  but  this  trouble  is 
readily  remedied  by  cleaning  the  contact  surfaces  with 
gasoline. 

It  is  very  seldom  that  a  magneto  fails  to  generate  a 
current.  Some  years  ago  difficulty  was  sometimes  ex- 
perienced from  the  failing  of  the  magnetos  owing  to 
loss  of  magnetism,  but  this  is  seldom  the  case  at  pres- 
ent. 

Any  ueposits  on  the  contact  surfaces  of  these  high- 
tension  generators  will  invariably  interfere  with  uni- 
form operation,  and  so  they  should  at  all  times  be  kept 
entirely  free  from  foreign  substances.  Oil  is  especially 
liable  to  creep  and  render  a  magneto  inoperative.  The 
only  remedy  in  this  case  is  to  take  the  machine  apart 
and  clean  it  off  thoroughly  with  gasoline.  There  is 
one  thing  to  bear  constantly  in  mind  when  employing 
»  gasoline  for  this  purpose,  and  that  is,  do  not  slop  it  all 
around,  allowing  quantities  of  it  to  collect  arcund  the 
engine,  for  the  chances  are  that  if  you  start  the  en- 
gine soon  after  cleaning  the  magneto  with  this  fluid, 
the  gasoline  at  the  contact  points  will  ignite  and  start  a 
dangerous  fire.  But  in  any  case  do  not  shut  down  the 
machine,  but  turn  the  gasoline  off,  if  of ;  this  type  of 
motor,  so  that  the  fuel  in  the  carburetor  will  be  used  up 
in  the  engine  instead  of  perhaps  injuring  the  gen- 
erator. 

In  order  to  look  after  a  magneto  in  an  efficient  way,  it 
must  be  removed  from  the  engine.  However,  before  this 
is  done,  suitable  marks  should  be  made  that  will  allow 
the  ready  replacement  of  the  magneto  without  changing 
the  timing. 

If  a  motor  is  equipped  with  both  battery,  and  mag- 
neto ignition  and  operates  satisfactorily  on  the  battery 


and  coil  circuit,  but  faulty  operation  follows  when  the 
magneto  is  switched  into  circuit,  the  trouble  is  in  the 
second  method  of  ignition,  and  should  not  be  attributed 
to  other  causes.  On  the  other  hand,  if  misfiring  occurs 
when  either  system  is  in  circuit,  it  would  indicate  that 
probably  some  fault  exists  in  the  ignition,  and  it  should 
be  tested  as  described  in  the  foregoing. 

Particular  pains  should  be  exercised  to  keep  all  wires 
free  from  excessive  chafing  due  to  vibration,  for  short- 
circuits  will  result  if  the  insulation  on  the  wires  is 
broken  dowm.  All  terminals  should  be  kept  secure — 
not  only  the  primary,  but  the  secondary  wires  as  well. 
The  spark  plugs  should  be  kept  free  from  oil  or  mois- 
ture, their  component  parts  tight  and  points  bright  in 
order  to  realize  the  best  results. 

Saving  by  Burning  Slack  Coal 
By  F.  H.  Guldner 

While  working  as  a  special  apprentice  for  a  Middle 
Western  railroad,  the  writer  was  called  on  to  determine 
the  fuel  and  labor  costs  in  a  stationary  power  plant 
at  one  of  its  larger  repair  shops.  Some  rather  sur- 
prising results  were  found,  and  in  view  of  the  present 
difficulty  in  obtaining,  and  the  urgent  need  of  conserv- 
ing coal,  the  data  showing  the  savings  effected  seem 
timely  in  again  calling  to  attention  principles  well 
known  but  too  often  overlooked. 

The  table  shows  the  amount  of  coal  burned  each 
month,  the  labor  and  fuel  costs  and,  in  addition,  the 
quantity   of  each  of  the  three   grades   of  coal   used — 

FUEL  ECONOMY  EFFECTED 


■• 

— Coal  Burned  in  Tons- 
Chute 

Total 
Coal 

Month 

Labor 

Engine 

Droppings  Slack 

Total 

Cost 

1913 

October 

1.115 

95 

28  85 

I.I44  80 

November 

1,415 

60 

120  40 

1,535  00 

December 

1,471 

90 

31   35 

1,503  25 

1914 

January 

$588'93 

1,385 

55 

1,385  65 

$2,577.31 

February 

584   11 

1,443 

80 

1,443  80 

2,571   03 

.March 

685  24 

1,629 

25 

31.00 

1,550   25 

3,102  47 

April 

630  73 

1,351 

50 

25  60 

1,378   10 

2,590  83 

May, 

613  76 

877 

20 

42  60 

55  75 

975  75 

1,839  97 

.June. 

596   67 

895 

50 

12  65 

908   15 

1,905  45 

.July 

506   49 

1,045 

90 

61   90 

18  70 

1,126  50 

2,123  53 

August. .  .  . 

603  86 

919 

85 

57  95 

977  80 

1,825  95 

September. 

589  83 

1.041 

35 

86  05 

1,127  40 

2,087  94 

October .  .  . 

669  21 

1,250 

35 

39   10 

2  50 

1.291    95 

2,421   61 

November- 

670   82 

1,242 

65 

75  80 

1,318  45 

2,428  56 

December. 

723  85 

1,621 

35 

25  40 

1,547  75 

3,099  42 

1915 

January. 

861   41 

2,231 

80 

2.231   80 

4,271  74 

February  . 

779  90 

1,634 

60 

88   10 

1.722  70 

3,213  51 

March 

700  34 

1.644 

45 

65  75 

1.710  20 

3,186  24 

April.   . 

588  05 

1,153 

50 

70  95 

1.224  45 

2,280  25 

May.    .    . 

576  29 

713 

95 

66  95 

163  55 

944   45 

1,521    29 

June.    .    .  . 

585  37 

439 

25 

274   90 

714   15 

1,156  99 

July 

567  92 

329 

90 

385   55 

715  45 

1,056  44 

August.. . 

587  99 

85 

00 

482  85 

567  85 

731   84 

September. 

594  46 

84 

00 

477  05 

551   04 

592  76 

engine,  chute  droppings  and  slack.  In  the  interval 
given  no  great  fluctuation  in  output  occurred.  The  co.st 
of  labor  for  the  various  months  was  nearly  uniform 
excepting  the  period  from  the  latter  half  of  December, 
1914,  up  to  and  including  March,  1915,  during  which 
time  the  old  duplex-steam  air  compressor  was  replaced 
by  a  cross-compound  two-stage  compressor  of  high 
efficiency  and  a  feed-water  heater  was  installed.  While 
the  change  was  being  made,  air  was  furnished  by  a 
battery  of  locomotive  air  compressors  of  relatively  low 
efficiency;  this  accounts  for  the  high  labor  and  fuel 
cost  during  these  months. 

In  April,  1915,  it  was  decided  to  change  from  engine 
coal    costing   about    $1.85    per    ton    to    slack    at    $1.10. 


February   10.  1018 


POWER 


261 


It  was  fearoil  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain 
the  required  steam  pressure,  but  results  dissipated  this 
fear.  About  164  tons  was  burned  that  month,  and 
gradually  the  percentage  of  slack  was  increased  and  the 
amount  of  engine  coal  decreased  until  in  August  and 
September.  1015,  the  slack  was  nearly  five-sixths  of 
tTie  total  coal  burned.  About  this  time  the  writer  was 
transferred  to  another  position,  and  he  was  unable  to 
get  later  figures.  Those  given,  however,  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  illustrate  the  object  of  this  article.  By  com- 
paring the  average  (May  to  September,  1014)  monthly 
coal  cost  with  a  corresponding  period  one  year  later, 
it  will  be  noticed  that  it  was  reduced  from  $1056.77  to 
$1047.86,  or  46.5  per  cent.  A  more  striking  example 
would  be  to  compare  the  average  coal  cost  in  August 
and  September,  1014,  when  the  old  air  compressor  was 
in  use  and  practically  all  the  fuel  was  engine  coal 
and  little  slack,  with  the  same  months  in  1015,  when 
the  feed-water  heater  and  the  new  compressor  were 
in  use  and  the  coal  conditions  reversed  to  nearly  all 
slack  with  a  little  engine  coal.  The  average  in  1014 
for  these  two  months  was  $1056.04,  against  $712.30 
in  1015,  a  decrease  of  $1244.64,  or  63.5  per  cent. 

This  was  accomplished  by  an  investment  of  approxi- 
mately $10,000  for  the  air  compressor,  $2000  for  the 
feed-water  heater  and  $6000  for  removing  the  old  com- 
pressor and  installing  the  new  equipment — a  total  of 
about  $18,000 — less  the  salvage  value  of  the  old  com- 
pressor, which  was  sent  to  a  smaller  shop  for  use.  No 
doubt  there  are  many  plants,  not  only  in  the  railroad 
field  but  also  in  public  utilities,  manufacturing,  etc., 
whose  coal  consumption  could  be  materially  reduced  by 
the  use  of  more  efficient  prime  movers  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  cheaper  coal.  Substitution,  when  possible, 
enables  the  conserving  of  the  better  coals  for  purposes 
that  do  not  permit  the  use  of  poor  coal  and  at  the  same 
time  is  profitable. 


Spliced  Conductors  in  Conduits 
By  B.  a.  Briggs 

The  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters'  Rules 
specify  that  a  splice  in  a  conductor  must  not  be  pulled 
into  a  conduit.  The  wisdom  of  this  ruling  appears  to 
be  hard  for  many  to  appreciate.  Nevertheless,  that  it 
is  based  on  sound  judgment  has  been  proved  in  many 
cases  by  cable  grounding  on  splices  that  have  been 
pulled  into  conduits.  One  case  in  point  that  came  to 
the  writer's  attention  was  that  of  a  small  rotary  con- 
verter that  blew  one  of  its  fuses  infrequently  for  several 
months  before  the  cause  was  discovered.  All  tests  that 
could  be  made  indicated  nothing  wrong  during  this  pe- 
riod. The  trouble  was  caused  by  a  spliced  cable,  in  a 
conduit  running  from  the  machine  to  the  switchboard, 
flashing  to  ground  at  irregular  intervals  and  each  time 
burning  itself  clear  without  leaving  any  trace  of  the 
trouble  except  blowing  the  fuse.  At  last  the  conductor 
became  grounded,  and  then  the  trouble  was  easily  lo- 
cated and  repaired  by  pulling  out  the  old  cables  and  re- 
placing them  with  new  ones. 

In  another  case,  in  what  is  supposed  to  be  one  of 
the  best  isolated-plant  installations  in  this  country,  the 
shunt-field  winding  of  one  of  the  machines  of  a  three- 
wire  balancing  set  was  discovered  to  be  dangerously  hot. 


after  the  machine  had  been  standing  idle  for  about 
twelve  hours.  Investigation  showed  that  one  side  of 
the  shunt-field  winding  was  connected  permanently  to 
one  of  the  220-voIt  busses  and  that  one  of  the  main 
cables  running  from  the  switchboard  to  the  machine 
was  grounded  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  shunt-field 
winding  connected  across  the  220-volt  circuit. 

In  this  plant  the  cables  from  the  switchboard  pass 
down  through  bushings  in  the  floor  into  a  large  iV^"- 
iron  duct,  about  6  in.  deep  by  2  ft.  wide,  which  runs 
the  entire  length  of  the  switchboard.  From  this  duct 
the  cables  run  in  conduit  to  the  various  circuits  and 
machines.  It  was  in  this  duct  that  the  ground  was  lo- 
cated on  the  cable.  The  cable,  like  a  lot  more  of  them 
in  this  duct,  had  been  cut  too  short  and  was  spliced 


CONDITION    OP    SPLICE    AFTER    BURNOUT 

out  to  reach  up  to  the  terminals  on  the  back  of  switch- 
board. In  making  the  splice,  points  of  solder  were  left, 
or  maybe  some  of  the  ends  of  the  wire  were  not  properly 
forced  down  into  the  splice,  so  that  in  time,  because  of 
the  vibration  of  the  cable  against  the  bottom  of  the  duct, 
the  insulation  was  broken  down  and  a  ground  occurred. 
Some  severe  arcing  must  have  taken  place,  since,  as  the 
illustration  shows,  considerable  of  the  splice  is  burned 
away;  also  a  large  hole  was  burned  into  the  tV-in. 
iron-duct  wall.  This  splice  from  all  appearances  had 
been  thoroughly  insulated  by  both  rubber  and  friction 
tape,  and  could  not  have  been  subjected  to  any  of  the 
abuses  that  it  would  receive  if  pulled  into  a  conduit; 
nevertheless,  it  failed  as  man.y  other  cable  splices  have 
failed  in  conduits.  Consequently,  there  is  but  one  safe 
rule:  Obey  one  of  the  mandates  of  the  National  Elec- 
trical Code  and  do  not  pull  spliced  conductors  into  con- 
duits. 

Burning   Oil    or   Tar   in    Combination 
With  Coal 

The  coal  shortage  has  caused  most  engineers  to  con- 
sider using  whatever  fuels  are  available  whether  they  be 
the  various  grades  of  coal,  fuel  oil,  tar  or  bagasse,  and 
to  provide  an  auxiliary  fuel  should  their  coal  give  out. 
Dr.  W.  N.  Best  has  lately  brought  forth  an  invention 
which  makes  possible  the  quick  change  from  coal  to 
oil  or  tar  and  vice  versa.  The  usual  location  of  an  oil 
burner  is  at  the  ashpit  or  the  fire-door.  This  inven- 
tion leaves  these  doors  free  for  use  without  disturbing 
the  burner  or  the  piping.  It  is  sold  by  W.  N.  Best, 
Inc.,  11  Broadway,  New  York  City. 

Referring  to  Fig.  1,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
liquid-fuel  burner  is  mounted  on  the  side  or  front  wall 
of  the  boiler  furnace.  Fig.  1  shows  that  the  burner  is 
in  the  operating  position.     Fig.  2  shows  it  in  the  idle 


262 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


position  as  it  would  be  when  no  liquid  fuel  at  all  is  being 
burned  or  when  fuel  on  the  grate  only  is  burning. 
Notice  that  by  moving  the  operating  lever  to  the  up 
position,  the  sliding  gate  closes  the  opening  in  the  side 
wall  .so  that  no  air  is  admitted  here  while  the  liquid- 
fuel  burner  is  idle.  It  will  be  observed,  also,  that  should 
it  be  desired  to  operate  at  rather  low  boiler  capacity,  the 
sliding  gate  may  be  operated  so  as  to  admit  a  little  air, 
or  rather  so  as  to  admit  the  quantity  of  air  required  by 
the  amount  of  fuel  being  fed.    Greater  capacity  may  be 


fuel  outlet,  thus  keeping  the  outlet  free  of  the  carbon  so 
frequently  found  on  burner  tips. 

Where  tar  is  burned,  the  fuel  may  gravitate  to  the 
burner  from  a  tank  mounted  on  top  of  the  boiler  or  in 
an  elevated  and  warm  location  in  the  boiler  room.  Heat- 
ing coils  are  provided  so  that  the  fuel  may  be  heated 
nearly  to  the  point  of  vaporization. 

One  burner  is  used  per  furnace  regardless  of  how 
large  or  how  small  the  furnace  may  be.  This  is  true 
for  oil  or  tar.     The  atomized  oil  issues  from  the  burner 


SECTIONAL  i'lCW 
OF  SL  IDE  <3A  TC  OPEIi 


OIL  OR   TAR 
PCOULATIhS  COCK 


Tig.    1 


SIDE  OR  FRONT 
WALL  OF  BOILER..., 


Drain  connecting  Pipe 
Not  Shown 


Fir     2 


LIQUID-FUEI.  BURNING  APPAR.^TUS  FOR  USR  IN  COMBIN.\TION  WITH   COAL 
Fig.    1 — Burtier    in    Po.sition    for    L'.se.      Pig-    2 — Burner    Siiut    off    and    opening    in    Furnace    Wall 


Clo-sed 


had  by  opening  the  sliding  gate  more  and  more  and  feed- 
ing greater  quantities  of  oil  and  steam  for  atomization. 

Readers  will,  perhaps,  remember  that  an  oil  burner  of 
similar  design  is  in  general  use.  With  the  old-style 
burner  equipment  designed  by  Dr.  Best  no  provisions 
other  than  a  few  loose  brick  were  made  for  closing  up 
the  openings  in  the  side  or  front  wall  when  the  burner 
was  not  in  use.  This,  of  course,  means  that  great  quan- 
tities of  excess  air  are  admitted  to  the  furnace  when  the 
oil  burner  is  not  being  operated.  With  the  new  device 
the  opening  is  closed  tight  when  the  burner  is  idle  and 
is  adjustable  to  accommodate  various  capacity  demands. 
The  apparatus  lends  itself  to  the  use  of  auxiliary  fuel. 

Manifestly,  no  alterations  are  required  to  the  boiler  or 
the  furnace  to  attach  the  burner.  If  liquid  fuel  is  burned, 
the  grate  may  be  covered  with  ashes  for  protection. 

The  burner  is  one  wherein  the  oil,  tar  or  liquid-fuel 
opening  or  outlet  is  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of 
the  steam  outlet;  that  is,  the  steam  used  for  atomiza- 
tion.   This  steam  sweeps  directly  over  the  oil  or  litiuid- 


through  a  diverging  groove  in  the  burner  tip.  The  flame 
is  flat  and,  depending  upon  the  shape  of  the  groove,  is 
long  or  short. 

The  oil  or  liquid-fuel  control  valve  is  provided  with 
stops  which  may  be  set  by  the  boiler-room  engineer 
after  he  determines  the  limit  of  open  position  of  the 
valve,  thus  preventing  the  fireman  from  exceeding  this 
limit. 


A   Handy   Packing  Cutter 

By  J.  A.  Lucas 

Many  methods  of  cutting  piston-rod  packing  have 
been  published  in  Power,  but  I  have  never  seen  anything 
similar  to  the  tool  shown  herewith. 

The  base  A  is  made  of  wood  1  in.  thick,  35  in.  wide 
and  21  in.  long.  The  gage  bar  B  is  about  16  in.  long 
and  is  made  of  hardwood.  One  end  is  cut  to  an  angle  of 
45  deg.     The  sliding  block  C  is  part  of  an  old  motor 


February   10,   1918 


POWER 


263 


brush-holder  with  a  piece  of  ,',j-in.  iron  bent  to  an  angle 
nf  45  cleK-  riveted  to  it.  The  bar  B  is  made  an  easy  slid- 
injr  fit  for  the  block,  which  is  clamped  to  it  by  the 
thumb-screw  placed  on  the  back  side.  The  knife  guides 
D  are  made  of  j'V  x  3-in.  iron  and  are  about  4  in.  high, 
with  the  slot  cut  on  an  angle  of  45  deg.  and  set  so  that 
the  knife  will  just  clear  the  end  of  the  bar  B.  A  com- 
mon bread  knife  witn  scalloped  edge  is  used  for  cutting 
thCipacking.  The  top  of  the  bar  B  is  graduated  so  that 
the  distance  from  the  knife  to  the  stop,  when  set  at  a 
certain  number,  gives  the  length  of  the  ciTumference 
of  a  circle  of  that  diameter,  pju;;  ^V  i'^-  loi"  expansion. 

To  lay  off  the  graduations  on  the  bar,  get  a  table  of 
circumferences  of  circles,  and  to  the  length  of  the  cir- 
cumference add  JL  in.  for  expansion  up  to  2  in.  diam- 
eter ;  1  in.  from  2  to  o  in.  diameter,  and  «  in.  for  larger 
diameters.  After  measuring  off  their  distances  on  the 
bar,  stamp  them  with  smali  figures  or  other  suitable 


DEVICE  FOR  CUTTING  PACKING 

marks.  The  distance  from  the  knife  to  the  2-in.  mark 
by  this  method  is  64  in.;  to  the  2i-in.  mark,  8  in.,  etc. 
To  operate,  first  get  the  diameter  of  the  rod,  which 
is,  say,  2  in.  Add  the  size  of  the  packing,  which  in  this 
case  is,  say,  J  in.,  amounting  to  2  2  in.  This  is  the 
diameter  of  a  circle  passing  through  the  center  of  the 
packing  ring.  Set  the  gage  at  the  2i  mark  on  the  bar, 
and  cut  the  first  end  at  an  angle  in  the  slot ;  then  butt 
the  packing  against  the  stop  C  and  cut  off.  This  would 
be  the  length  for  a  good  fit,  with  the  right  amount  of 
room  left  for  expansion. 

Vibration  Effects  on  the  Operation 
of  Electric  Generators 

By  R.  K.  Long 

Vibration  may  be  due  to  causes  internal  or  external 
to  a  machine,  or  both,  the  result  being  cumulative  or 
otherwise.  The  commoner  causes  of  vibration  are  un- 
balanced rotors,  bent  shafts,  improper  foundations  and 
fastenings,  excessive  speed,  excessive  and  fluctuating 
loads,  vibration  of  the  structure  housing  the  machine, 
its  periodicity  of  vibration  being  superposed  upon  that 
of  the  machine.  Some  machines  show  less  vibration 
with  no  load  than  with  load.  Others  again  vibrate  only 
when  running  light  or  at  a  definite  load,  still  others 
only  with  load  changes.  The  effects  of  vibration  upon 
direct-current  machines  is  probably  more  serious  than 
on  alternating-current. 

Vibration  in  direct-current  machines  may  cause  loose 
connectione  and  open-circuits.  Abrasion  also  often 
occurs,  the   effect   of  which   causes   short-circuits   and 


ground  in  the  windings.  Brushes  may  chatter,  causing 
sparking,  poor  commutation  and  rapid  deterioration  of 
the  commutator  and  brushes,  with  accompanying  higher 
cost  of  upkeep,  as  well  as  interfering  with  the  capacity 
and  regulation  of  the  machine.  With  certain  classes 
of  brushes  increased  heating,  due  to  sparking  and  un- 
equal current  distribution,  causes  the  lubricant  to  exude 
from  them,  gumming  the  commutator  and  permitting 
carbon  dust  to  collect,  causing  flashovers  and  making  the 
brushes  stick  in  the  holders. 

A  bent  shaft  in  setting  up  vibration  also  causes  un- 
equal air  gaps  as  it  revolves,  which  may  result  in  over- 
heating the  equalizer  rings  or  taps  in  some  form  of 
armature  winding.  Bad  commutation  results  in  any 
case;  flat  and  burnt  spots  may  appear  at  definite  spac- 
ings  around  the  commutation.  A  bent  shaft  may  dam- 
age the  insulation  or  cause  breaking  of  armature  con- 
ductors; unequal  wear  of  bearings  may  occur,  due  to 
shaft  out  of  alignment.  Throwing  lubricating  oil  may 
occur,  which  may  soon  eat  into  the  mica  of  the  commu- 
tators, doing  serious  damage,  for  oil  is  the  arch  enemy 
of  mica. 

Alternating-current  generators  are  usually  less  in- 
fluenced by  vibration  than  direct-current  machines,  ow- 
ing to  the  absence  of  the  commutator.  Where  the  units 
have  a  direct-connected  exciter,  however,  they  may 
suffer  in  the  same  way  as  the  direct-current  generators 
already  referred  to.  Excessive  vibration  has  often  re- 
sulted in  grounding  and  short-circuiting  of  the  field 
winding  of  high-speed  turbo-generator  units,  the  result 
of  which  is  that  the  field  current  is  increased,  causing 
overheating  and  finally  failure,  by  burning  out  the  en- 
tire field  winding. 

The  stator,  or  armature,  of  alternators  also  suffers 
from  vibration.  Conductors  work  loose,  enabling  them 
to  move  with  load  changes,  causing  deterioration  of  the 
insulation  and  failure  under  normal  potential.  Another 
result  of  vibration  sometimes  encountered  in  large  tur- 
bo-generators is  that  the  emergency  steam  valve  closes 
accidentally,  shifting  the  generators'  load  to  other  ma- 
chines— a  somewhat  serious  matter  where  the  load  may 
be  20,000  kv.-a.  or  more.  Vibration  is  perhaps  more 
likely  to  occur  in  the  rotating  elements  of  steam-turbine 
units  than  in  other  types,  because  of  the  accumulation 
of  scale.     This  is,  however,  a  transitory  condition. 

In  one  case  a  machine  was  installed  upon  a  girder  so 
that  it  wabbled  from  one  side  to  the  other  with  load 
changes,  a  matter  easily  remedied  by  leveling  the  ma- 
chine and  grouting,  at  the  same  time  solving  a  difficult 
commutation  problem.  Several  boosters  have  run  away 
with  varying  degrees  of  damage  on  account  of  broken 
field  coils,  due  to  vibration.  Bent  shafts  have  added 
their  quota  to  strange  voltage  drops  for  no  apparent  rea- 
son, although  brushes  sticking  in  the  holders  may  have 
helped  in  this  case. 

There  are  many  degrees  of  vibration,  causing  as  many 
effects,  some  obvious  and  others  not  so  apparent.  All 
unnecessary  causes  should  be  eliminated  because  vibra- 
tion is  always  objectionable,  since  it  shortens  the  life  of 
materials,  wastes  energy  in  the  form  of  noise  and  need- 
less motion,  which  lowers  the  efficiency  of  the  ai)pa- 
ratus  and  increases  the  difliculties  and  cost  of  operation. 
Provided  a  machine  is  properly  designed,  installed  and 
maintained,  most  of  the  troubles  enumerated  may  be 
prevented,  and  prevention  is  always  better  than  cure 


264 


POWER     . 

Illustraied  Crank  Job 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


DRILLING 


/^cer 


HEATING 


TAPERED 
PIN 


CUTTING 


FACING 


Febniaiy    10,   1018  POWER  265 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiwiiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiuuiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim 


Editorials 


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The  Coal  Supply  and  the  Railroads 

WITH  the  exti'aordinary  demand  for  fuel  conse- 
quent upon  the  war  the  price  of  coal  went  to  ex- 
orbitant figures.  A  contract  was  no  protection,  for  the 
contractor  simply  avowed  his  inability  to  carry  out  his 
agreement,  and  those  who  had  to  have  coal — and  that 
means  everybody  who  bought  it,  for  nobody  buys  coal 
for  bric-a-brac — had  to  go  out  in  the  market  and  out- 
bid the  others  for  it.  The  consequence  was  that  not- 
withstanding the  alleged  inability  of  contractors,  han- 
dlers and  dealers  to  get  coal,  there  was  more  coal  than 
ever  mined  and  sold,  but  at  greatly  increased  prices. 

And  then  the  people  spoke  up  and  said,  through  their 
President:  "This  profiteering  must  stop.  We  will  pay 
you  producers  so  much  per  ton  for  the  coal  at  the 
mine.  The  railroad  haulage  is  fixed.  You  jobbers  and 
retailers  can  have  so  much  per  ton";  and  it  looked  as 
though  the  consumer  was  going  to  get  his  coal  for  cost 
plus  a  more  or  less  fair  profit. 

But  notwithstanding  the  price  allowed  per  ton  at  the 
mine  was  away  above  what  they  had  got  before  the  war, 
the  producers,  or  some  of  them,  averred  that  they  could 
not  produce  at  that  price;  and  the  long-suffering  people 
raised  the  price  still  higher  with  an  intimation  that  if 
the  producers  could  not  and  did  not  produce  at  that 
price,  they  would  take  over  the  mines  and  do  it  them- 
selves. 

And  then  it  was  found  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
coal  had  been  already  sold  on  contract  at  prices  above 
those  fixed  by  the  Government;  and  again  the  long- 
suffering  people,  standing  abashed  before  the  sanctity 
of  contract  and  the  horror  of  upsetting  business,  said: 
"All  right,  we  will  pay  these  prices  that  somebody  has 
contracted  for  us,  for  their  payment  will  come  upon 
us  in  the  final  analysis,  but  only  on  the  contract  coal. 
Let  the  free  coal  come  along  at  the  prices  we  have 
fixed." 

But  the  price  did  not  go  down.  The  cost  for  railroad 
haulage  was  controllable,  but  there  was  a  shortage  of 
bottoms  and  of  tugs,  and  prices  for  water  transporta- 
tion went  soaring.  When  one  must  have  coal  or  shut 
down  and  another  has  coal  and  wants  to  turn  it  into 
the  most  money  that  one's  necessity  will  compel  him  to 
pay,  it  takes  more  than  a  Government  dictum  without 
penalties  for  its  evasion  to  keep  them  apart.  A  bet  that 
the  Washington  Monument  will  fall  in  two  weeks;  an  in- 
timation on  the  part  of  the  coal  merchant  of  his  willing- 
ness to  part  with  a  treasured  desk  weight,  a  bull  pup, 
an  old  white  horse  or  some  similar  object  of  virtu 
upon  sufficient  inducement,  offers  an  opportunity  for 
the  purchaser  to  pay  the  difference  between  the  price 
at  which  the  Government  has  said  the  dealer  must  sell 
and  that  which  is  fixed  by  the  buyer's  necessity  and  the 
dealer's  cupidity.  Speculators  offered  to  furnish  coal 
if  they  were  permitted  to  bill  at  the  Government  price 
and  collect  at  their  own.    Contracts  were  dated  back  to 


precede  the  Government  order.  Wagon  mines  sold  coal 
at  the  Government  price,  but  on  condition  that  they  be 
allowed  to  haul  it;  and  made  up  in  the  haulage  charge 
the  extortion  which  the  President's  order  was  intended 
to  inhibit. 

And  still  the  prices  do  not  go  down;  the  free  coal 
does  not  come  along  and  the  shortage  has  increased 
until  factories  are  shut  down,  ships  lie  in  the  harbors 
with  empty  bunkers,  while  the  goods  that  they  should 
transport  glut  the  terminals  and  clog  the  railroads. 
War  work  is  hampered,  public  utilities  are  crippled, 
hotels  are  without  light  and  heat,  and  long  lines  of 
shivering  men,  women  and  children  stand  waiting  for 
hours  for  the  privilege  of  buying  a  pailful  of  coal  at 
ten  dollars  a  ton.  The  death  rate  from  pneumonia  in 
New  York  has  gone  up  enormously. 

Whose  is  the  fault  and  what  is  to  be  done  about  it? 
The  anthracite  producers  say  they  cannot  produce  on 
account  of  labor  shortage,  and  they  send,  to  a  market 
which  is  in  a  condition  where  it  must  take  anything, 
the  ejecta  of  more  exigent  years,  burdening  the  al- 
ready overloaded  transportation  system  with  tons  of 
worthless  dirt  and  slate  and  ash  sold  at  the  price  of 
good  coal.  Trainloads  of  this  coal,  large  and  small,  good 
and  bad,  were  held  almost  within  sight  of  New  York 
until  shifting  engines  could  pull  out  of  the  maze  cars 
bearing  particular  numbers  consigned  to  the  particular 
man  whose  barge  was  ready,  because,  they  say,  some 
ridiculous  Government  regulation  decreed  it  so.  The 
Administration  has  now  decreed  that  the  coal  shall  be 
pooled  and  kept  moving. 

The  bituminous  producers  claim  that  they  can  mine, 
with  the  plant  and  labor  available,  more  coal  than  the 
railroads  can  furnish  cars  to  take  away  and  that  they 
are  filling  cars  as  fast  as  they  get  them.  The  mine  is 
the  best  storage  for  the  coal  until  it  can  be  shipped. 
The  railroads  say  that  they  have  cars  enough,  but 
that  their  systems  are  blocked  by  priority  orders,  ex- 
cessive demands  upon  their  equipment  and  lack  of  mo- 
tive power. 

It  would  take  5000  locomotives  to  replace  those  worn 
out  in  the  United  States  every  year.  In  the  month 
of  October  there  was  ordered  in  the  whole  country  just 
one.  In  the  last  five  years  the  number  ordered  per 
year  has  been  on  an  average  2391  and  has  never 
exceeded  3467;  and  just  previous  to  the  war  the 
shops  of  the  American  Locomotive  Company  were  al- 
most shut  down  for  lack,  of  orders.  With  a  mild  winter 
and  an  ordinary  amount  of  traffic  the  railroads  might 
have  pulled  through  again.  A  sea.son  of  exceptional 
severity  and  the  extraordinary  traffic  due  to  the  war  have 
swamped  them.  If  the  Government  had  been  operating 
the  railways  and  had  gotten  them  into  this  self-con- 
fessed condition  of  impotency.  Government  ownership 
would  have  been  indicted  as  long  as  the  memory  of  it 
should  last. 

It  is  useless  to  inquire  how  we  drifted  into  this  con- 


266 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


dition,  except  as  the  inquiry  may  help  us  to  avoid  doing 
it  again.  The  thing  now  is  to  get  to  running  again. 
The  combining  of  the  railroads  into  a  consi.stent  unit 
under  Government  control,  with  the  resources  of  the  en- 
tire country  back  of  them,  was  the  logical  first  step,  and 
if  the  railroad  managements  with  whom  the  operation 
of  the  roads  is  still  left  will  concentrate  on  getting  the 
most  that  is  possible  out  of  them  under  the  new  coopera- 
tive conditions  instead  of  worrying  about  when  they  are 
going  to  get  them  back  or  trying  to  discredit  Gov- 
ernment operation,  the  task  will  be  easier.  In  the  mean- 
time let  us  not  blame  the  Government  if  it  cannot  make 
a  run-down  cripple  do  a  giant's  task. 

Developing  the  Water  Powers 

THE  most  insistent  of  the  conservationists  in  and 
out  of  the  Government  have  always  bean  ready 
to  permit  private  capital  to  develop  the  water  powers 
upon  terms  which  would  insure  the  complete  return 
of  the  investment  with  interest  and  a  fair  profit  upon 
the  business  done,  subject  only  to  such  risk  as  attends 
the  development  of  any  water  power  outside  of  Gov- 
ernment control.  After  years  of  hampering  argument 
and  struggle  between  those  who  sought  to  obtain  the 
control  of  the  water  powers  and  those  solicitous  for  the 
rights  of  the  people,  the  Administration  has  prepared 
a  bill  which,  in  view  of  a  public  sentiment  created  by 
months  of  vigorous  propaganda  by  chambers  of  com- 
merce, industrial  committees  and  similar  organizations, 
is  likely  to  pass.  This  bill,  while  an  improvement  on 
former  measures,  does  not  appear  to  us  to  be  without 
objection. 

Any  bill,  while  guarding  absolutely  the  safety  of  the 
investment  ^against  confiscation  or  embarrassment  by 
Government  interference,  should  provide  for  the  retak- 
ing of  the  privilege  by  the  Government  when  the  people 
need  it  or  conditions  make  it  advisable.  This  bill  gives 
an  irrevocable  grant  for  fifty  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  Government  "shall  have  the  right"  to  take 
the  property,  not  by  paying  back  what  the  investor  put 
into  it,  less  what  he  has  paid  himself  back  besides  his 
fair  profit,  but  by  paying  "the  fair  value  not  to  ex- 
ceed actual  cost  of  the  property  taken."  Inasmuch  as 
the  fifty-year  grant  is  insisted  upon  in  order  that  the 
bonds  may  be  retired  out  of  earnings  within  the  life 
of  the  grant,  this  would  appear  to  allow  the  investor 
to  recover  his  investment  out  of  earnings,  and  then 
collect  it  again  when  the  plant  is  sold. 

A  "fair  value"  is  indefinite  and  indeterminable.  The 
price  of  recapture  should  be  fixed  at  actual  investment 
less  depreciation.  Depreciation  is  simply  retired  invest- 
ment and  should  be  deducted  from  the  capital  account, 
leaving  the  amount  upon  which  interest  is  allowed  and 
which  must  be  paid  upon  recapture. 

"The  United  States  shall  have  the  right"  to  take  the 
plant  over.  Who  is  going  to  exercise  this  right  or  de- 
termine that  it  shall  be  exercised — the  President,  the 
Congress,  the  Commission,  or  who?  Unless  the  provo- 
cation is  great,  there  will  be  no  concerted  movement 
on  the  part  of  the  consumers,  and  a  Congressman 
would  have  to  be  a  radical  spoiling  for  a  fight  to  under- 
take the  recapture  on  his  own  initiative. 

We  should  like  to  see  the  bill  stipulate  that  current 
should  be  sold  at  cost  plus  a  fair  (and  stipulated)  profit. 


This  involves  an  oversight  of  the  issue  of  securities  and 
of  expenditures  to  insure  that  all  the  investment  in- 
curred appears  in  the  property  in  either  material  or 
service,  and  is  essential  also  to  establishing  the  recap- 
ture value.  The  Commission  established  by  the  bill  is 
empowered  to  prescribe  rules  for  uniform  accounting, 
to  examine  books  and  to  require  full  statements  as  to 
cost  of  operation  and  the  production,  transmission  and 
sale  of  power,  to  hold  hearings  in  connection  with 
the  regulation  of  rates  or  service;  but  the  Commission 
has  no  rate-making  power  except  for  interstate  business 
or  in  states  where  no  such  regulation  exists.  The  dele- 
gation of  such  powers  to  state  public-utilities  commis- 
sions is  not  likely  to  be  so  positive  and  satisfactory  as 
a  specification  of  the  allowable  rate  of  profit  and  the 
methods  of  its  determination  in  the  grant. 

Wherever  licenses  to  states  or  rtiunicipalities:  are 
mentioned,  it  is  prescribed  that  the  power  is  to  be  gen- 
erated solely  for  state  or  municipal  purposes.  Does 
this  preclude  the  obtaining  of  a  grant  by  a  state  or 
municipality  for  the  purpose  of  generating  power  for 
the  use  of  its  inhabitants? 

Altogether,  the  bill  is  a  great  improvement  upon 
former  attempts,  but  we  should  like  to  see  it  more 
specific  and  positive  in  the  particulars  mentioned. 

Government  Control   of   Fuel  Oil 

THE  President's  fuel-oil  proclamation  of  February 
fourth,  which  went  into  effect  the  following  Mon- 
day, or  the  eleventh,  now  gives  the  Government  control 
of  the  transportation  and  distribution  of  the  two  chief 
fuels.  Considering  the  troubles  that  producers,  ship- 
pers and  consumers  of  fuel  oil  have  been  having,  it  is 
assumable  that  they  welcome  the  Government's  action. 

Take  New  England,  for  example.  Oil  displaces  about 
one  million  tons  of  coal  per  year  at  the  present  con- 
sumption. It  is  used  in  many  industries  vital  to  the 
prosecution  of  the  war.  The  shippers  of  the  oil  and 
the  consumers  have  viewed  with  no  small  measure  of 
alarm  the  commandeering  of  oil-carrying  ships  by  the 
Government.  One  company  transporting  great  quanti- 
ties of  oil  to  New  England  ports  has  six  ships  left 
out  of  a  total  of  twenty-one,  the  Government  having 
taken  the  difference.  Much  o?  this  oil  goes  to  Provi- 
dence by  water  and  then  by  rail  inland  to  the  points  of 
consumption.  The  serious  congestion  of  the  railroads 
has  caused  excruciating  delays  of  tank  cars  both  going 
and  coming.  Lately,  one  car  was  six  weeks  from  Provi- 
dence to  Lawrence,  Massachusetts,  and  return.  There  is 
not  an  abundance  of  oil-tank  cars  even  for  normal  con- 
ditions of  demand  and  transportation.  Now  fuel  oil 
will  likely  have  a  priority  commensurate  with  its  value 
as  a  war  essential. 

The  situation  had  become  serious  for  New  England, 
and  the  President's  proclamation  is  by  no  means  prema- 
ture. To  cite  another  case:  A  consumer  of  fuel  oil 
in  Boston  has  been  compelled  to  transport  oil  for  his 
plant  by  motor  truck  from  Providence  to  Boston  because 
the  shipper  could  not  get  oil  beyond  Providence.  The 
truck  or  trucks  had  to  be  kept  going  night  and  day. 
The  expense  is  obvious.  Doubtless  one  of  the  first 
moves  of  Mark  L.  Requa,  new  head  of  the  Oil  Division, 
Fuel  Administration,  will  be  the  elimination  of  condi- 


February    19,   1018 


POWER 


267 


der  Government  orders ;  all  other  classes. 

Plants  not  makiig  munitions  or  other  articles  under 


tions  that  impose  such  hardship  upon  the  shipper  and 
consumer. 

Tho  priority  list  for  deliveries  of  fuel  oil  as  announced 
from  VVashinjirton  are,  in  the  order  of  preference,  as 
follows:  Railroads  and  l)unkor  fuel;  export  deliveries 
or  shipments  for  the  United  States  Army  or  Navy; 
export  shipments  for  the  navies  and  other  war  pur- 
poses of  the  Allies;  hospitals  where  oil  is  now  being 
used  as  fuel;  public  utilities  and  domestic  consumers 
now  using  fuel  oil  (including  gas  oil)  ;  shipyards  en- 
gaged in  Government  work;  navy  yards;  arsenals; 
plants  engaged  in  manufacture,  production  and  storage 
of  food  products;  army  and  ravy  cantonments  where 
oil  is  now  used  as  fuel;  industrial  consumers  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  munitions  and  other  articles  un- 
orders ;  all  othe 
v'lg  munitions 
Government  orders  are  therefore  twelfth  on  the  list. 
The  order  of  preference  appears  eminently  fair.  If 
fhe  head  of  the  Oil  Division  gets  the  right  kind  of 
cooperation  from  Mr.  McAdon  and  if  the  Navy  De- 
partment and  Shipping  Boarc;  will  not  divert  more 
ships  from  our  coastwise  oil  trade  than  extraordinary 
emergencies  demand,  Mr.  Requa  will  be  free  to  devote 
his  time  to  moving  oil  instead  of  needing  all  time  avail- 
able to  care  for  complaints,  as  the  state  and  local  fuel 
administrators  have  to  do. 

Why  Not  Have  an  Ash  Inspector? 

TODAY  we  have  fire  inspectors  to  see  to  it  that  the 
means  used  for  generating,  transmitting  and  utiliz- 
ing power  are  not  allowed  to  become  a  fire  hazard  and 
endanger  the  safety  of  the  community.  We  have  boiler 
inspectors,  in  some  cases  backed  up  by  the  law  of  the 
state,  whose  business  it  is  to  have  all  boilers  maintained 
in  such  condition  that  they  will  not  become  a  menace 
to  life  and  property.  We  also  have  fuel  administrators, 
both  national,  state  and  municipal,  whose  good  purpose 
it  is  to  control  the  destiny  of  the  nation's  coal  pile. 
All  this  may  be  very  commendable,  but  how  about  what 
happens  to  the  coal  after  it  goes  into  the  boiler  room? 

An  inspection  of  the  contents  of  the  ash  cans  on  the 
curb  waiting  to  be  removed  from  in  front  of  many  of 
our  large  buildings  would  indicate  that  many  plants 
have  coal  to  throw  away.  The  time  when  we  can  afford 
to  allow  coal  to  be  used  in  such  a  way  that  a  large 
percentage  of  its  carbon  content  is  throvra  away  in  the 
ashes  has  long  gone  by.  Although  the  fuel  supply  will 
last  for  hundreds  of  years  hence,  nevertheless  it  has 
been  the  bitter  experience  of  millions  in  this  country 
and  abroad  recently  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  ob- 
tain fuel  at  any  price.  Landlords,  using  the  coal  famine 
as  a  pretext,  have  allowed  their  tenants  to  suffer  for 
the  wanted  heat,  and  some  of  the  traction  companies 
have  tried  heating  their  cars  with  animal  heat,  while 
the  public  paid  for  something  they  did  not  get.  Yet, 
after  all  we  have  been  experiencing  from  a  coal  short- 
age, it  is  difficult  by  inspection  to  tell  whether  the  con- 
tents of  many  of  the  ash  cans  waiting  removal  from  in 
front  of  a  number  of  our  city  buildings  are  intended 
for  coal  or  ashes. 

If  the  owner  of  a  plant,  whether  it  be  for  power  or 
for  heating  purposes,  is  willing  to  allow  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  coal  thrown  into  the  boiler  furnace  to  be 


carted  away  in  the  ashes  when  the  nation  is  facing  a 
coal  famine  like  the  present,  it  is  time  that  some  pres- 
sure be  brought  to  bear  from  the  outside  by  someone 
who  has  the  power  to  have  the  conditions  remedied  or 
to  cut  off  the  offending  ones'  coal  supply.  One  of  the 
ways  to  get  at  this  would  be  to  enact  a  law  limiting 
the  carbon  content  of  the  ashes  from  boiler  furnaces  to 
a  certain  percentage  and  to  appoint  inspectors  to  in- 
vestigate the  ashes  coming  from  every  plant  and  see 
to  it  that  the  law  is  being  complied  with. 

As  long  as  the  manner  in  which  a  power  plant  was 
operated  did  not  in  any  way  seriously  affect  the  com- 
munity, how  it  was  run  was  very  largely  nobody's  busi- 
ness but  the  owners;  but  when  it  has  come  to  the  time 
when  it  means  that  coal  wasted  in  these  plants  is  coal 
that  somebody  else  seriously  in  need  of  it  must  go  with- 
out, then  it  becomes  the  public's  business  how  even  a 
private  plant  is  run.  Many  of  the  central  stations 
throughout  the  country  have  been  forced  to  curtail  their 
output  for  certain  illuminating  purposes,  consequently 
suffering  a  loss  of  revenue,  in  order  to  save  coai  for 
private  industries  and  heating.  In  justice  to  these  pub- 
lic utilities  which  have  had  their  output  restricted  by 
Government  control  to  conserve  the  nation's  fuel  supply, 
the  same  Government  should  see  to  it  that  the  fuel  used 
in  private  plants  is  utilized  in  the  most  economical  way 
and  not  thrown  out  in  the  ashes. 


That  the  electrical  interests  have  been  alive  to  the 
opportunities  afforded  by  the  exceptional  fuel  situation 
is  evidenced  by  the  general  advice  given  by  fuel  admin- 
istrators to  power  users  to  conserve  fuel  by  patronizing 
the  central  station.  The  advice  is  honestly  and  disinter- 
estedly given,  but  the  shutting  down  of  many  an  isolated 
plant  would  mean  a  waste  rather  than  a  saving.  Many 
power  users  who  would  otherwise  have  put  in  or  con- 
tinued their  own  plants  have  been  driven  to  adopt 
"street  service"  by  the  uncertainty  of  the  fuel  supply 
or  the  impossibility  of  getting  deliveries  on  apparatus. 
On  the  other  hand,  many  owners  of  plants  depending 
upon  central-station  current  and  idle  for  the  want  of 
it  are  hustling  for  steam,  gas  and  oil  engines. 


Now  or  never  Rhode  Island  coal  has  its  chance. 
There  is  said  to  be  a  large  quantity  of  it  above  ground 
as  the  result  of  Henry  M.  Whitney's  attempt  to  develop 
the  mines  some  years  ago.  The  coal  is  hard,  almost 
graphitic,  but  will  burn,  and  might  be  used  to  advan- 
tage mixed  with  bituminous.  It  was  of  these  mines  that 
William  Cullen  Bryant  wrote. 

That  men  might  to  their  inner  caves  retire 
And  there,  unsinged,  abide   the  day  of  fire. 


An  expressive  statement  of  the  purpose  of  the  Amer- 
ican Association  of  Engineers,  emanating  from  its 
secretary,  is  that  it  is  to  put  scientific  management  be- 
hind the  young  engineer  and  get  him  into  the  place 
where  he  belongs  in  a  nation  organized  for  over-all 
eflficiency. 


At  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College  there  are 
one  hundred  and  fifty  women  studying  electrical  engi- 
neering. Many  women  are  employed  in  the  central 
stations  of  Europe.    Welcome  to  our  ranks. 


268  POWER  Vol.  47,  No.  8 

jiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiuuiiiuiuuiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiniiuiiiiiiiiuiiiiiimiuiiuiiuiiiJiMiuiiiuuiuuiiuMiiiujiiiiiiiiJimiM 


Correspondence 


nnillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIKIIIIIIIIflllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllUllllinillllllU 

the  valve  disk  and,  after  putting  on  the  nut,  had  driven 
a  blunt  chisel  into  the  slot  to  spread  the  end  of  the 
bolt  and  thus  prevent  the  nut  from  working  off,  but 
in  doing  so  had  fractured  the  metal  on  one  side,  which 
had  eventually  come  out,  leaving  the  nut  loose,  which 
also  dropped  off  and  then  the  disk  dropped  from  the 
hinge. 

It  is  always  best  to  close  the  stop  valve  on  the  return 
pipe  before  closing  the  stop  valve  cii  the  steam  line, 
but  do  -not  forget  to  open  it.  If  it  is  forgotten,  how- 
ever, the  water  will  not  escape  from  the  boiler  very 
rapidly  by  evaporation  and  it  will  be  noticed  at  the 
water  glass  before  the  water  becomes  too  low. 

In  one  instance  the  floor  in  front  of  the  boiler  was 
covered  with  several  inches  of  water  one  morning.  The 
blowoff  pipe  passed  beneath  the  floor  of  the  next  room, 
which  was  about  30  in.  higher  than  the  floor  in  the 
front  of  the  boiler.  The  blowoff-valve  stem  had  been 
leaking,  corrosion  had  eaten  the  pipe  through,  and 
water  escaped  from  the  boiler  overnight. 

Where  pipes  go  through  a  brick  wall,  they  should 
pass  through  a  sleeve  of  a  larger  diameter,  and  under- 
ground blowoff  pipes  should  not  be  buried,  but  should 
be  surrounded  by  a  box  to  keep  the  earth  moisture 
from  the  pipes  to  prevent  corrosion.        R.  A.  Cultra. 

Cambridge,    Mass. 

[These  experiences  of  a  man  who  evidently  did  not 
know  his  business  emphasize  the  need  of  a  license  law 
to  protect  such  men  and  others  against  their  own 
ignorance.  The  owner  of  the  plant  evidently  hired  an 
inexperienced  man  because  he  was  cheap,  and  at  the 
same  time  ran  a  very  favorable  risk  of  ruining  the 
boiler  by  burning  and  the  piping  system  by  water- 
hammer,  to  say  nothing  of  a  possible  boiler  explosion. — 
Editor.] 


Losing  Water  from  a  Heating  Boiler 

The  attendant  of  a  small  heating  plant  had  consider- 
able trouble  in  keeping  water  in  the  60-in.  diameter 
boiler  over  night,  and  although  it  was  filled  nearly  full 
it  was  necessary  to  put  in  considerable  city  water  each 
morning  before  starting  up.  On  one  occasion  it  was 
impossible  to  get  any  heat  in  the  system  at  all  until 
it  was  drained,  as  it  was  full  of  water. 

At  one  time  some  radiator  repairs  had  been  made 
and  the  steam  fitter  had,  as  a  matter  of  safety,  closed 
the  stop  valve  on  the  return  pipe  and  the  attendant 
had  closed  the  stop  valve  over  the  boiler.  When  the 
attendant  opened  the  stop  valve  on  the  top  of  the  boiler, 
he  forgot  to  open  the  valve  on  the  return  pipe,  and 
the  condensed  steam  filled  the  heating  system  full  of 
water,  as  it  could  not  return  to  the  boiler.  When  the 
stop  valve  on  the  return  pipe  was  opened  the  boiler 
filled  and  some  of  the  water  had  to  be  blown  out  through 
the  blowoff.  This  freed  the  heating  system,  but  the 
next  morning  the  water  was  again  out  of  sight  in 
the  gage-glass  and  considerable  water  had  to  be  sup- 
plied. 

It  was  noticed  that  there  was  water  in  the  ashpit, 
and  it  was  supposed  that  it  seeped  through  the  ground. 
Investigation  showed  water  trickling  out  through  the 
brickwork  just  below  the  grates  on  the  water-column 
side.  The  boiler  was  shut  down,  the  brickwork  was 
torn  away,  and  just  back  of  the  water  column  the  bot- 
tom connection  from  the  fi'ont  head  to  the  water  column 
was  found  badly  corroded  externally;  and  although  the 
brickwork  was  dry  at  this  time,  it  evidently  had  been 
wet  during  the  summer  months  while  the  boiler  was  out 
of  service,  as  it  was  customary  in  the  spring  to  play 
the  hose  over  the  top  of  the  boiler  brickwork  to  settle 
the  dust  before  brushing  it  down.  Probably  because  of 
this  considerable  moisture  remained  in  the  side  walls 
and  caused  corrosion  at  the  pipe  connection.  After 
repairs  were  made,  the  boiler  gave  no  more  trouble  for 
several  days,  when  the  water  again  disappeared  from 
the  boiler  and  the  radiators  and  pipes  began  to  hammer 
furiously. 

Investigation  showed  that  the  attendant  had  closed 
the  stop  valve  on  the  top  of  the  boiler  while  making 
a  radiator  repair,  and  he  either  forgot  to  close  the  stop 
valve  on  the  return  line  or  else  depended  on  the  check 
valve  to  hold  the  water  in  the  boiler.  But  the  check 
valve  was  out  of  order  and  allowed  the  water  in  the 
boiler  to  back  up  in  the  return  pipes  to  the  radiators, 
thus  causing  the  water-hammer.  Opening  the  stop  valve 
on  the  top  of  the  boiler  equalized  the  pressure,  and 
the  boiler  quickly  filled  up.  Luckily,  there  was  but 
little  fire  in  the  furnace  or  the  fusible  plug  would  have 
been  melted. 

The  check-valve  disk  was  found  to  be  disconnected 
from  the  hinge  plate,  the  nut  holding  it  being  missing; 
oni  side  of  the  bolt  end  was  also  broken  off.  Some- 
one had  slotted  the  end  of  this  bolt  on  the  back  of 


Inadequate  Provision   for   Expansion 

A  practical  demonstration  of  the  necessity  of  allow- 
ing liberally  for  the  expansion  of  a  pipe  line  to  carry 
steam  came  under  my  observation  several  years  ago. 
The  2-in.  pipe  line  was  intended  for  use  in  emergencies, 
to  serve  a  tank  pump  when  the  boilers  were  off  in  that 
part  of  the  plant.  About  400  ft.  was  laid  under  ground, 
ending  with  a  tee  to  make  the  turn  into  the  building 
and  a  nipple  and  valve  for  a  bleeder,  in  a  shallow  wooden 
box  about  2  ft.  square. 

When  steam  was  turned  on  slowly,  the  engineer  went 
down  the  line  to  close  the  bleeder,  but  he  found  the 
pipe  had  lengthened  and  pushed  the  valve  and  nipple 
through  the  side  of  the  box,  so  the  only  thing  to  do  was 
to  shut  off  and  wait  for  the  line  to  contract  enough  to 
take  the  nipple  out  and  screw  a  plug  into  the  tee  and 
do  the  draining  at  a  point  beyond.  All  the  expansion 
had  gone  one  way  because  of  the  considerable  pitch 
downward  in  that  direction.  J.  Lewis. 

New  York  City. 


February   10,   1018 


POWER. 


269 


Strainer  for  Pipe  Lines 

Attention  is  frequently  called  to  the  necessity  of  con- 
necting strainers  to  the  inlet  piping  of  steam  traps  and 
other  such  apparatus,  and  considerable  trouble  is 
caused  at  times  by  dirt  getting  into  them.     This  led 


PUTLCT 


INLCT     •' 


Section  A- A 


NOVEL  TYPE   OF   STRAINER  TO   GO    IN    PIPP:    LINE 

me  to  design   a   strainer   in   accordance  with   my   own 
ideas,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.     It  can  be  put  in 
a  line  in  place  of  a  union  or  a  pipe  fitting,  can  be  used 
to  form  any  desired  angle  and   is  extremely   simple. 
Hasbrouck  Heights,  N.  J.  GEORGE  J.  LITTLE. 

"Buttoning  a  Key" 

This  is  a  means  of  tightening  a  key  in  its  keyway 
when  it  is  difficult  to  remove  it,  as  in  some  cases  it 
means  dismantling  a  lot  of  parts  to  take  a  key  out. 
Drill  the  key  lengthwise,  being  sure  not  to  cut  through 


KEY    DRILLED    AND    TIGHT-FITTING    PLUGS    DRIVEN    IN 

the  sides  of  it,  then  cut  off  pieces  of  round  steel  about 
half  an  inch  long  and  a  little  larger  than  the  hole 
and  drive  them  in  separately  until  they  fill  the  hole  solid. 
When  the  job  is  done,  you  have  as  tight  a  key  as  you 
ever  had.  GEORGE  H.  DiMAN. 

Lawrence,  Mass. 


Three  Motors  Heated 

The  connections  for  two  single-phase  transformers 
when  operated  open-delta  from  a  three-phase  circuit 
are  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  voltages  of  the  secondary 
side  are  displaced  120  deg.  fiom  each  other  and  are 
of  the  same  value,  therefore  any  three-phase  device 
that  is  operated  from  the  secondary  will,  under  normal 
conditions,  be  subjected  to  balanced  three-phase  voltages. 

A  construction  contractor  complained  that  three  three- 
phase  motors  which  he  had  just  started  on  a  new  job 
heated  so  badly  when  operated  for  only  five  minutes 
without  any  connected  load,  that  it  was  impossible  to 
use  them.  He  further  stated  that  their  operation  had 
been  entirely  satisfactory  on  the  preceding  job. 

The  fact  that  all  the  motors  heated  in  this  case, 
whereas  none  had  ever  heated  before,  suggested  trouble 
in  the  220-volt  service  line.  As  there  was  no  voltmeter 
available,  the  voltage  at  the  motors  was  roughly  meas- 


PRIMARY 

1 


SECONDARY 


FIGS.    1    AND    2.      DIAGRAMS    OF    TWO    TRANSFORMERS 
CONNECTED    OPEN-DELT.\ 

ured  by  means  of  two  110-volt  lamps  connected  in 
series.  From  the  middle  to  either  outside  wire  the 
voltage  appeared  to  be  about  normal,  but  between  the 
two  outside  wires  the  voltage  was  abnormally  high. 
It  was  determined  that  in  using  supply  transformers 
that  were  made  by  different  manufacturers,  the  two 
secondaries  had  been  connected  with  the  wrong  polarity, 
as  indicated  in  Fig.  2.  Reversing  the  polarity  of  one 
transformer  not  only  increases  the  value  of  the  voltage 
between  the  outside  legs  1.732  times  over  that  of  one 
phase,  or  in  this  case  220  X  1-732  =  381  volts,  but 
also  changes  the  phase  displacement  between  the  re- 
sultant voltage  across  the  two  transfomiers  and  that 
of  each  unit  from  120  deg.  to  only  30  deg.  As  a 
result  of  the  error,  not  only  was  one  phase  winding 
of  all  motors  subjected  to  73  per  cent,  overvoltage, 
but  the  torque  characteristics  were  so  much  modified 
that  the  rotors,  even  when  free,  would  not  come  up 
to  full  speed.  E.  C.  Parham. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


270 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


Ideal  Power-Plant  Location 

Mr.  Dow.  in  his  article  on  "Production  of  Electricity 
by  Steam  Power,"  in  Power  of  Dec.  11,  speaks  of  the 
location  of  power  plants,  and  this  brings  to  my  mind 
the  ideal  location  of  a  small  country  plant.  Of  course 
they  wanted  to  get  as  near  the  center  of  distribution 
as  possible,  and  in  looking  for  such  a  site  found  a  creek 
running  through  this  section.  They  decided  that  by 
making  a  reservoir  near  a  railroad  they  would  be  sure 
of  water  and  also  be  accessible  to  a  coal  supply.  After 
excavating  a  few  feet,  solid  rock  was  found,  which  was 
blasted  out  and  considerable  of  it  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  plant. 

So  here  we  had  an  ideal  location,  with  plenty  of 
water,  and  in  making  the  reservoir  we  secured  enough 
stone  to  build  the  plant,  which  was  erected  within  one 
hundred  feet  of  the  main-line  railroad,  with  the  plant 
located  in  about  the  center  of  distribution. 

New  York  City.  D.  R.  HiBBS. 


A.  single-throw  double-pole  switch  may  be  installed 
at  the  top  of  the  board  to  permit  the  opening  and 
closing  of  the  rheostat  without  interfering  with  the 
position  of  the  smaller  switches.  If  portable,  a  handle 
should  be  mounted  on  the  top  of  the  board  to  carry  the 
rheostat  from  place  to  place.  This  handle  may  be  a 
hole  of  suitable  shape  cut  in  the  board. 

If  the  rheostat  is  equipped  with  a  base  so  that  it 
will  stand  in  an  upright  position,  both  sides  of  the 
board  can  be  used  for  the  mounting  of  lamps  and 
switches  as  shown  in  the  figure.  Installing  lamps  and 
switches  on  both  sides  of  the  board  makes  the  rheostat 
twice  the  former  capacity.  If  so  desired,  metal  guards 
may  be  placed  on  the  board  to  prevent  the  lamps  from 
being  broken.  This  device  may  be  filled  with  any  size 
lamps  that  the  spacing  will  permit  and  from  one  to 
forty  lamps  may  be  cut  in  at  will;  also,  four  lamps  can 
be  connected  in  series.  Therefore,  it  is  readily  seen 
that  the  individual  resistance  may  be  varied  over  a 
wide  range.     Where  the  lamps   are  to  be   connected 


Lamp  Bank  as  a  Rheostat 

In  connection  with  electrical  work  there  are  innumer- 
able instances  where  some  form  of  rheostat  is  required 
for  reducing  the  current  in  a  constant-potential  circuit. 
There  are  many  forms  and  types  of  rheostats,  using 
metallic  or  carbon  resistance  units  or  a  liquid ;  but  they 
may  all  be  classed  under  one  of  two  categories,  those 
for  continuous  service  and  those  for  intermittent 
service.  Rheostats  used  in  charging  storage  batteries 
or  in  motor  circuits  for  speed  control  must  be  designed 
for  continuous  service;  rheostats  used  for  starting  duty 
only    need    be    designed    for   intermittent    service. 

The  ordinary  electric  lamp  offers  a  convenient  means 
of  designing  a  rheostat  for  continuous  duties,  which  is 
easily  made  from  material  readily  obtainable  almost 
anywhere. 

The  figure  shows  a  rheostat  that  is  made  up  of 
110-volt  lamps  arranged  so  that  they  may  be  used  on 
110,  220  and  440  volts.  The  shape  and  size  of  such  a 
rheostat  depend  upon  where  it  is  to  be  used.  For  use 
around  a  power  station  or  an  industrial  plant,  lightness 
and  portability  are  important  features.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  \'-in.  wood  board  treated  with  asphaltum  paint 
or,  better  yet,  a  piece  of  asbestos  board,  or  slate  if  the 
rheostat  is  for  stationary  pui-poses,  may  be  used.  At 
one  end  of  this  board  are  placed  five  5-amp.  single-pole 
knife  switches,  two  of  them  double-throw  .and  three 
single-throw,  mounted  on  porcelain  bases,  which  should 
be  left  on,  since  the  porcelain  insulates  the  live  parts 
of  the  switch  from  the  wood.  These  switches  are 
mounted  as  shown  in  the  figure,  with  the  lamp  sockets 
in  four  rows,  where  five  switches  are  used.  The  num- 
ber of  lamps  per  row  depends  upon  the  desired  capacity 
of  the  rheostat  and  the  permissible  length.  The  lamp 
sockets  may  be  mounted  on  about  4i-in.  centers. 

From  the  figure  is  obtained  an  idea  of  the  wiring 
scheme,  an  arrangement  that  permits  closing  switches, 
counting  from  the  right-hand  side.  Nos.  1,  3  and  5 
down  and  2  and  4  up  for  110-volt  service;  Nos.  1  and 
5  down  and  3  up  for  220-voIt  use;  thereby  connecting 
two  rows  of  lamps  in  series;  likewise  for  440-volt  serv- 
ice, four  rows  of  lamps  would  be  connected  in  series 
by  closing  No.  1  down  and  No.  5  up. 


FRONT   AND   SIDE  VIEW  OF  LAMP   RHEOSTAT 

in  series,  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  they  are  all 
of  the  same  size. 

The  uses  to  which  a  rheostat  of  the  foregoing  type 
may  be  put  around  every  power  house  and  industrial 
plant  are  almost  endless.  It  may  be  used  for  meter 
checking,  for  testing  small  machines  or  for  drying  out 
new  or  damp  equipment  by  current  control,  .or  as  a 
heater;  also  for  charging  small  storage  batteries.  It 
can  be  placed  in  the  armature  or  shunt-field  circuit 
of  motors  to  vary  their  speed,  although  in  the  latter 
case  care  must  be  exercised  that  the  field  is  not  acci- 
dentally opened  or  the  motor  may  run  away  and  destroy 
itself. 

It  permits  apparatus  designed  for  a  given  voltage 
to  be  operated  at  a  higher,  by  absorbing  the  ex- 
cess voltage  in  the  rheostat,  this  being  accomplished 
by  connecting  a  voltmeter  across  the  terminals  of  the 
current-consuming  apparatus,  which  is  connected  in 
series  with  the  lamp  bank.  The  rheostat  is  then  manip- 
ulated until  the  voltage  indicated  by  the  voltmeter  con- 
nected across  the  device  is  of  the  desired  value.  Another 
use  for  the  rheostat  is  as  a  light  cluster,  and  I  have 
used  it  as  such  on  several  occasions  to  good  advantage. 
In  fact,  it  will  be  found  a  useful  and  frequently  used 
adjunct    to    ary    electrical    equipment. 

Chicago,  111.  M.    A.    WALKER. 


February  19.  1918 


POWER 


271 


An  Easily  Made  Gasket  Cutter 

Having  wasted  considerable  packing  by  hacking  it 
out  on  the  flange  with  a  ball-peen  hammer,  I  made  a 
gasket  cutter  of  the  design  shown  in  the  illustration. 


GASKET  CUTTER  MOUNTED  ON  A  BENCH  OR  BOARD 

The  cutter  bars  are  adjustable  to  suit   a  large  range 
of  sizes.    Considering  the  large  number  of  gaskets  used 
to  keep  things  tight,  such  a  device  is  worth  while. 
Concord,  N.  H.        -  Charles  H.  Willey. 

Synchronoscope  Needle  Stuck 

Paralleling  a  rotary  converter  with  another  machine 
of  the  same  type  is  generally  an  easy  job,  but  one  morn- 
ing a  machine  in  the  substation  where  I  was  working, 
caused  considerable  disturbance.  The  machine  had  been 
brought  up  to  the  correct  speed,  and  we  were  watching 
the  synchronoscope  so  as  to  close  the  oil  switch  at  the 
right  moment.  Finally  the  hand  revolved  very  slowly, 
indicating  about  synchronous  speed  and  then  suddenly 
swung  to  the  zero  position  and  stayed  there.  The  oper- 
ator waited  for  an  instant  and  then  closed  the  switch. 
There  was  a  succession  of  flashes  from  the  commutators 
of  the  machines,  accompanied  by  bangs  and  flashes  as 
the  reverse-current  relays  operated  and  tripped  out  the 
circuit-breakers  on  the  direct-current  side.  The  ma- 
chines began  to  slow  down,  indicating  that  the  trans- 
mission line  from  the  main  station  had  opened. 

The  end  cells  of  the  storage  battery  were  cut  in  to 
hold  up  the  voltage  until  the  machines  could  again  be 
started.  One  of  the  rotaries  was  cut  in  on  the  starting 
circuit  before  it  stopped  and  was  brought  up  to  speed 
again  ready  to  be  connected  in  on  the  alternating-cur- 
rent circuit  as  soon  as  the  transmission  line  was  made 
alive. 

When  the  synchronizing  plugs  were  put  in  again,  the 
hand  on  the  synchronoscope  still  remained  at  the  zero 
position.  Evidently,  something  was  wrong  with  the  in- 
strument since  a  pair  of  lamps,  which  were  also  con- 
nected to  indicate  synchronism,  were  fluctuating  prop- 
erly; these  were  used  as  an  indicator  and  the  machines 
put  in  service.  When  the  synchronoscope  was  opened,  a 
piece  of  insulation  was  found  jammed  between  the  ro- 
tating member  and  the  poles  of  the  instrument,  which 


must  have  happened  as  the  needle  came  to  zero  position. 

If  the  operator  had  watched  the  lamps  as  well  as  the 
indicator,  he  would  have  noticed  that  something  was 
wrong  and  would  not  have  closed  the  switch  until  the 
trouble  had  been  investigated;  which  we  all  received 
strict  orders  to  do  after  the  experience  related. 

Minneapolis.  Minn.  E.  W.  Miller. 


Unusual   Equipment  on   Small   Boilers 

The  cmplaint  in  most  small  power  plants  is  the  ab- 
sence of  devices  that  render  the  operation  less  of  a  care. 
In  striking  contrast  the  photograph  shows  some  of  the 
equipment  on  a  pair  of  36-in.  by  10-ft.  return  tubular 
boilers  (normal  rating  20  hp.)  that  have  been  rather 
overburdened. 

These  boilers  furnish  steam  to  the  oil  burners  of  a 
number  of  kilns  and,  as  shown,  are  provided  with  feed- 
water  regulators,  automatic  stop  and  check  valves  on  the 
2i-in.  steam  nozzles  and  automatic  regulators  for  the 
oil  burners;  also  damper  regulators  are  about  to  be  in- 
stalled.   One  thing  that  catches  the  eye,  however,  is  that 


OIL    BURNER   AND    FERD-WATER    REGULATORS 

the  water  columns  are  several  sizes  too  large.  The 
lower  gage-cock  is  correctly  located,  but  the  upper  one 
is  about  level  with  the  top  of  the  boiler. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.  C.  0.  Sandstrom. 


272 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


Water-Level    Indicator    in    Gage-Glass 

It  is  sometimes  hard  to  see  just  where  the  water  is 
in  gage-glasses  on  the  fronts  of  boilers,  heaters,  etc., 
that  have  become  fogged  and  dirty. 
The  trouble  can  be  obviated  by  plac- 
ing a  hollow  cork  in  the  glass,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  as  the  cork 
can  be  readily  seen  and  being  hol- 
low and  a  loose  fit  in  the  glass,  will 
not  affect  the  level  of  the  water. 
This,  of  course,  is  not  a  new  or  origi- 
nal "stunt,"  but  is  simply  a  reminder 
or  suggestion  to  someone  who  has  not 
thought  of  it.  There  have  been  nu- 
merous floats,  to  go  into  gage-glasses 
on  the  market  in  years  past,  but  the 
cork  will  serve  the  purpose  just  as 
well  and  costs  nothing.  Giving  the 
cork  a  color,  red  for  example,  that 
will  make  it  more  clearly  visible  is  also  advantageous  in 
extreme  cases,  but  is  not  often  necessary. 

New  York  City.  D.  R.  HiBBS. 


■■^ORK     IN     GAGE 
GLASS 


this  foot  valve,  allowing  the  air  to  escape  at  the  top 
of  the  pump  casing.  If  there  is  no  check  or  foot  valve, 
the  pump  can  be  primed  by  exhausting  the  air  from 
the  pump  and  pipe  with  a  water,  steam  or  air  ejector. 
In  this  case  the  discharge  valve  must  be  closed  to  pre- 
vent air  coming  in  from  the  discharge  line.  Connect 
the  ejector  to  the  top  erf  the  pump  casing  and  draw  off 
all  air;  start  the  pump  with  the  discharge  valve  closed, 
and  when  the  pump  is  up  to  speed,  open  the  discharge 
valve  gradually  and  the  pump  will  promptly  go  into 
service. 

A  permanent  vacuum  connection  can  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage when  operating  a  centrifugal  pump  on  a  high 
suction  lift.  Vacuum  connections  should  be  made  to 
all  closed  chambers  or  spaces  not  in  open  communication 
with  the  main  vent  opening,  as  shown,  and  when  start- 
ing a  pump  all  valves  should  be  open;  but  when  the 
pump  -is  in  operation,  the  valves  should  be  open  just 
enough  so  that  any  air  coming  in  with  or  being  released 
by  the  liquid  will  be  drawn  off  by  the  vacuum.  When 
a  pump  is  so  connected,  a  small  amount  of  water  is 
apt  to  be  drawn  over  into  the  vacuum,  but  this  can 
be  controlled  by  the  regulating  valves  or  by  running 


Priming  Centrifugal  Pumps 

All  high-grade  centrifugal  pumps  are  equipped  with 
wearing  rings,  the  duty  of  which  is  to  act  as  packing 
and  prevent  the  liquid  in  the  pump  from  flowing  back 
to  the  suction  chamber.  Therefore  they  must  be  a  close 
running  fit  and  have  sufficient  surface  to  prevent  exces- 
sive leakage.  The  best  pumps  are  equipped  with  double 
wearing  rings  which  can  be  easily  replaced  when  wear 
occurs.  If  such  a  pump  is  run  without  water  even 
for  a  short  period,  there  is  great  danger  of  these 
rings  heating  and  scoring.  Pumps  have  sometimes 
been  run  without  water  until  the  rings,  usually  made 
of  brass,  have  become  hot  and  seized  and  have  either 
broken  or  stopped  the  pump;  in  fact,  there  is  danger 
of  wrecking  the  pump,  especially  a  new  one,  when 
this  happens.  For  the  foregoing  reasons  no  centrifugal 
pump  should  be  run  until  the  operator  is  sure  that  it 
is  primed. 

A  centrifugal  pump  cannot  handle  air  alone  and 
for -that  reason  is  not  self-priming,  and  air  must  be 
prevented  from  entering  it  while  in  operation,  or  its 
capacity  will  be  reduced  to  a  marked  degree  or  the 
flow  of  water  may  stop  entirely.  The  shaft  is  often 
provided  with  water  seals  or  lantern  glands.  In  oper- 
ation these  glands  are  filled  with  water,  under  some 
pressure,  which  prevents  air  leaking  into  the  pump 
through  the  packing  and  also  lubricates  the  packing, 
preventing  any  heating  or  scoring  of  the  shaft.  Some 
engineers  have  used  grease  successfully  in  these  lantern 
glands  and  prefer  it  to. water. 

A  centrifugal  pump  can  be  primed  in  a  number  of 
ways.  If  the  water  flows  to  the  pump  under  a  suction 
head,  the  only  thing  required  is  to  open  the  suction 
valve  and  the  vent  at  the  top  of  the  pump  until  all 
air  is  expelled,  and  the  pump  is  then  ready  to  run. 
If  operating  against  a  suction  lift,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  get  the  air  out  of  the  suction  line  and  pump  casing 
before  it  will  be  possible  to  begin  pumping  water.  If 
there  is  a  check  or  foot  valve  in  the  suction  line, 
water  can  be  run  back  down  the  discharge  line  against 


VACUUM    CONNECTIONS    FOR    PRIMING    CENTRIFUGAL 
PUMP 


the  pipe  high  enough  above  the  pump  to  prevent  any 
water  flowing  to  the  vacuum.  If  the  latter  method  is 
used,  it  will  be  necessary  to  connect  an  enlarged  sec- 
tion of  the  pipe  in  the  line  in  order  to  separate  the 
air  and  water  and  break  up  the  air-lift  action.  It  is 
possible  to  operate  pumps  provided  with  vacuum  con- 
nections at  practically  full  capacity  on  a  suction  lift 
of  27  in.  of  mercury  with  the  temperature  of  the 
liquid  from  70  to  80  deg.  F.  H.  L.  Thompson. 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 


February  19,  1918  POWER                                                                               273 

giiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim  iiiiiiiuiimiiiiiiiiiiiui 

I  = 

I           Inquiries  of  General  Interest           | 


Hiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii mil Ill iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiimiiiiiii iiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


Heat  Value  of  Coke — What  is   the   heat  value  of  coke  ? 

H.  M. 

The  heat  value  of  coke  depends  mainly  upon  the  percent- 
age of  ash,  which  varies  from  5  to  20  per  cent.  Witli 
theoretically  pei'fect  combustion  a  pound  of  average  coke 
yields  about  12,000  B.t.u. 

Advantages  of  Cylinder  Counterbores — What  is  the  ad- 
vantage of  counterbores  in  the  ends  of  steam-engine  cylin- 
ders? E.  L.  B. 

The  principal  advantage  is  to  allow  the  piston  to  over- 
ride the  ends  of  the  main  boi'e  and  thus  prevent  the  wear 
by  the  piston  from  leaving  a  shoulder  in  the  main  bore  at 
each  end  of  the  stroke.  Counterbores  also  are  advantageous 
in  requiring  less  length  of  reboring  and  in  affording  con- 
venient means  for  determining  the  original  centering  of  a 
cylinder. 

Setting  Boilers  in  Battery  at  Different  Levels — When 
boilers  of  different  sizes  are  set  in  the  same  battery,  what 
advantages,  if  any,  are  to  be  obtained  by  placing  them  so 
their  water  lines  will  be  at  the  same  level  ?  W.  R.  P. 

The  boilers  will  have  different  rates  of  evaporation,  and 
to  maintain  propet-  water  levels  when  in  operation,  each  will 
require  special  adjustment  of  its  feed  valve.  Hence  no  ad- 
vantage is  to  be  obtained  by  having  a  uniform  level  of  the 
water  lines,  excepting  for  filling  the  boilers  when  cold  by 
regulation  of  a  single  water-supply  valve. 

Soft  Bearing  Metal  of  Lead  and  Antimony — We  wish  to 
use  a  quantity  of  soft  bearing  metal  and  are  thinking  of 
making  a  mixture  of  80  parts  of  lead  to  20  parts  of  anti- 
mony.    Would  this  be  good  proportions  ?  F.  F.  B. 

The  high  crystalline  structure  of  antimony  is  likely  to 
cause  it  to  separate  and  become  "i-ubbed  out"  of  an  alloy  of 
lead  and  antimony  if  the  proportion  of  antimony  is  higher 
than  17  per  cent,  of  antimony  to  83  per  cent,  of  lead.  "Car- 
box"  metal  is  made  in  the  proportions  of  about  15  per  cent, 
antimony  and  85  per  cent.  lead. 

Use  of  Motor  Below  Rated  Capacity — We  have  a  250-hp. 
three-phase  induction  motor  that  is  used  for  driving  a  cen- 
trifugal pump  requiring  170  hp.  input  to  the  motor.  Is  there 
enough  loss  in  efficiency  on  account  of  the  motor  being 
underloaded  to  warrant  installation  of  a  smaller  motor? 

A.  H. 

The  efficiency  of  standard  types  of  electric  motors  of  2o0- 
hp.  capacity,  when  in  good  working  order,  ranges  from  92 
to  94  per  cent.,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  motor  when  operated 
at  170-hp.  would  be  practically  the  same.  The  efficiency  of 
the  present  motor  is  probably  quite  as  high  as  might  be 
expected  of  a  170-hp.  motor  of  the  same  type,  and  a  change 
on  ground  of  superior  efficiency  would  not  be  warranted. 

Adiabatic  Compression  of  Ammonia — What  is  the  formula 
that  expresses  the  relation  of  pressure  to  volume  in  adiabatic 
compression  of  ammonia  ?  C.  W. 

The  equation  for  adiabatic  compression  of  ammonia  gas  is 

where  v  =  the  volume  at  the  initial  absolute  pressure  p, 
and  V,  =  the  volume  at  the  absolute  pressure  p,.  This  for- 
mula signifies  that  the  ra*"io  of  the  volumes  is  to  be  raised 
to  the  1..32  power  and  the.,  multiplied  by  the  initial  pressure 
for  obtaining  the  final  pressure,  or  pressure  obtained  for 
an  intermediate  volume  Vi.     For  compression  to  0.9  of  the 

initial  volume,  the  equation  becomes  pi   =   p  i-^  j         =  p 

X  1.149;  for  0.8,  p,  =  p  x  1.342;  for  0.7,  p,  =  p  X  1.601; 
for  0.6,  p,  =  p  X  1.962;  for  0.5,  p,  =  p  x  2.496;  for  0.4, 
p,  =  p  X  3.352;  for  0.3,  p,  =  p  x  4.900;  and  for  0.2, 
/),  =  V  X  8.368. 


Advantage  of  Spiral  Form  of  Crank  Arm— What  benefit 
is  derived  from  having  a  spiral  form  of  crank  arm  such  as 
sometimes  used  for  transmitting  foot  power  to  lathes  and  to 
spindles   of  grinders  ?  B.   R. 

The  spiral  form  of  crank  arm  is  beneficial  only  when, 
from  its  flexibility,  it  permits  of  smoother  conversion  of 
reciprocating  to  rotary  motion,  or  when  appropriately  de- 
signed, the  flexibility  causes  the  force  applied  to  the  crank- 
pin  to  throw  it  off  the  dead-center,  in  which  there  may  be 
advantage  for  starting  off  the  stroke,  but  no  less  energy  is 
required  to  overcome  resistance  that  may  be  offered  to  com- 
plete revolution  of  the  crankshaft.  Various  other  forms 
of  flexible  mechanism  have  been  proposed  for  the  crank 
motion  of  reciprocating  engines  with  the  erroneous  idea 
that  they  effected  a  saving  of  power,  though  some  have  been 
successfully  employed  for  permitting  the  engine  to  start  up 
from  any  point  of  stroke  of  the  piston. 

Relation  of  Piston  Clearance  to  Cylinder  Clearance — How 

is  the  percentage  of  clearance  of  a  compressor  determined, 
knowing  the  distance  of  the  piston  from  the  cylinder  when 
the  compressor  is  on  a  dead-center?  C.  W. 

"Distance  of  the  piston  from  the  head  of  the  cylinder"  is 
understood  to  signify  what  is  commonly  termed  "piston 
clearance,"  or  distance  the  piston  would  have  to  be  moved 
beyond  the  end  of  its  stroke  to  place  it  in  contact  with  the 
cylinder  head.  Cylinder  clearance  is  the  volume  of  the  space 
in  the  end  of  the  cylinder  and  connected  passages  and  spaces 
when  the  valves  are  closed  and  the  piston  is  at  the  end  of 
the  working  stroke.  The  cylinder-clearance  volume  can  be 
found  by  filling  the  clearance  space  with  water  and  deter- 
mining the  volume  of  water  required.  Cylinder-clearance 
volume  usually  is  expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  volume 
displaced  by  one  stroke  of  the  piston:  hence  the  percentage 
would  be  100  x  volume  of  cylinder  clearance  -^  volume  dis- 
placed by  1  working  stroke  of  the  piston. 

The  cylinder  clearance  for  any  assumed  piston  clearance 
will  be  the  cylinder  clearance  for  0  piston  clearance  plus  the 
piston  displacement  due  to  a  stroke  that  is  equal  to  the 
assumed  piston  clearance. 

Factor  of  Evaporation  Generating  Superheated  Steam — 

What  would  be  the  factor  of  evaporation  under  the  follow- 
ing conditions:  Steam  generated  at  168  lb.  boiler  pressure; 
temperature  of  steam,  394.5  deg.  F.;  feed  water,  143  deg.'F.  ? 

G.  A.  E 

The  formula  for  factor  of  evaporation  is 

970.4 
where  F  =  factor  of  evaporation,  H  =  total  heat  of  1  lb. 
of  the  steam,  /;  =  heat  of  1  lb.  of  the  feed  water,  and  970.4 
=  the  latent  heat  of  evaporation  at  atmospheric  pressure, 
or  number  of  B.t.u.  required  to  evaporate  1  lb.  of  water 
from  212  deg.  F.  into  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure. 

Dry  saturated  steam  at  168  lb.  boiler  pressure,  or  168  + 
15  =  183  lb.  per  sq.in.  absolute,  has  a  temperature  of  374.5 
deg.  F.  and  if  the  temperature  is  394.5  deg.  F.  there  would 
be  20  deg.  of  superheat.  According  to  Marks  and  Davis' 
Steam  Tables  of  properties  of  superheated  steam,  the  value 
of  H  in  the  formula,  for  the  total  heat  of  1  lb.  of  the  steam, 
would  be  1209.7  B.t.u.  above  32  deg.  F.,  and  a?  the  value  of 
/(  for  the  heat  per  pound  of  the  feed  water  would  be  143  — 
32  =  111  B.t.u.  above  32  deg.  F.,  by  substituting  these  values 

1209.7  -  111 


in  the  formula,  it  becomes  F 
evaporation  =  1.1322. 


970.4 


-,   or  factor  of 


[Com^spoiuicnt.s  sondiiiK  us  inquiries  should  siRn  their 
communications  witli  full  luvmes  and  post  otfice  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  Kuarantee  the  g«od  faitli  of  the  conimunl- 
tations  and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention. — Editor.] 


274 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  8 


Absorption  Refrigerating  Machines' 


By  F.  C.  SPANGLERt 


Fully  describes  the  absorption  viachine,  high-  and 
low-pressure,  and  tells  how  to  operate  and  care 
for  them.  Causes  of  lack  of  capacity,  making  a 
charge  of  ammonia,  purging  the  system,  thaw- 
ing the  freezer  coils,  care  of  the  ammonia-pump 
regulator,   cleaning    coils,   locating   slight   leaks. 


A  SECTIONAL  view  of  the  Carbondale  exhaust-steam 
refrigei-ating  machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  and  briefly 
described,  the  method  of  operation  is  as  follows:  The 
generator  is  filled  with  sufficient  aqua  ammonia  to  cover 
the  steam  coils,  and  the  absorber  with  enough  to  submerge 
the  water  tubes.     The  brine  pump  is  started  and  brine  is 


Mr  6AS 

TO  DCCrinCK  - 


■  cxHAusr  TO  ocKcsnoR 

PIG.    1.      TUBULAR    TYPE    ABSORPTION    SYSTEM 


contained  in  it.  The  dry,  or  anhydrous,  gas  passes  to  the 
condenser,  where  it  is  condensed  and  falls  in  liquid  form 
into  the  anhydrous  receiver.  The  liquid  anhydrous  am- 
monia thus  formed  is  then  allowed  to  pass  through  the  ex- 
pansion valve  into  the  brine  cooler,  the  same  as  in  the  com- 
pression system.  The  expansion  valve  is  throttled  so  as  to 
keep  a  constant  liquid  level  in  the  anhydrous  receiver. 

The  pressure  in  the  brine  cooler  is  much  below  that  of 
the  condenser,  and  this  drop  in  pressure  causes  the  am- 
monia on  entering  the  cooler  to  boil  and  absorb  the  heat 
from  the  brine  in  the  coils.  This  changes  it  from  liquid 
form  on  entering  the  cooler  into  a  gaseous  state  on  leaving 
it.  The  method  of  condensing  the  ammonia  gas  and  the 
refrigeration  that  is  produced  in  the  brine  cooler  are  iden- 
tical with  the  compression  system. 

The  problem  now  is  to  recover  this  gas.  To  do  this,  the 
weak  ammonia  liquor,  which  was  left  behind  in  the  gener- 
ator, and  from  which  the  gas 
has  been  expelled  by  the  heat 
in  the  steam  coils,  is  drawn 
from  the  bottom  of  the  gener- 
ator, through  the  exchanger, 
and  thence  through  the  weak 
liquor  cooler  into  the  absorber. 
Owing  to  the  great  affinity  of 
water  for  ammonia  gas,  this 
weak  ammonia  liquor  absorbs 
the  gas  in  the  absorber  as  it 
comes  from  the  brine  cooler,  and 
by  this  means  keeps  down  the 
pressure  in  the  cooler.  In  turn, 
this  weak  liquor  becomes  en- 
riched or  strengthened  by  the 
ammonia  gas  and  forms  a 
strong     liquor.       This     strons 


BRINE 
COOLER 


,:irculated  through  the  cooler 
coils.  Then  the  water  is  turned 
into  the  machine.  The  inlet 
water  enters  the  bottom  header 
of  the  condenser  and,  after  it 
passes  through  the  condenser, 
enters  the  absorber.  It  circu- 
lates through  the  tubes  of  the 
absorber;  thence  through  the 
weak-liquor  cooler,  and  finally 
into  the  rectifier.  By  this  ar- 
rangement the  water  is  used 
four  times,  each  stage  being  at 
a  somewhat  higher  temperature 
than  the  preceding.  Thus  the 
water  consumption  of  the  ma- 
chine is  greatly  economized. 

Steam  is  now  gradually 
turned  into  the  generator  coils 
until  the  full  exhaust-steam 
pressure  is  reached.  As  the 
steam  heats  the  ammonia  in  the 
generator,  the  "generator"  pres- 
sure,  which  indicates  the  pres- 
sure in  the  generator,  condenser 
and  rectifier,  will  rise  until  it 
reaches  a  point  sufficiently  high 
to  condense  the  ammonia  gas  in 
the  condenser. 

As    the    gas    passes    through 
the  rectifier  on  its  way  to  the  condenser,  the  cool  water  cir- 
culating through  the  tubes   of  the  rectifier  chills  the  gas 
sufficiently  to  separate  any  entrained  moisture  that  may  be 


TRAP 


'•  GENERATOR  CONDENSER       COOLER     ABSORBER 

FIG.    2.      SHELL   TYPE    ABSORPTION    SYSTEM 


AMMONIA  PUMP 


•From   a   paper   before   the 
Association,   November,   1917. 

■(■Engineer,   the  Carbondale   Machine 
York  City. 


New    Yorlt    Engineers'    Protective 
Co.,    50    Church    St.,    New 


liquor  is  drawn  from  the  bottom  of  the  absorber  by  the  am- 
monia pump,  which  discharges  it  into  the  exchanger,  where 
it  circulates  around  the  coils  that  contain  the  weak  liquor 
and  then  passes  into  the  generator.  The  exchanger  is  simply 
a  heat  exchanger  and  answers  the  same  purpose  as  a  feeJ- 
water  heater  in  a  steam  boiler  plant.  It  heats  the  strong 
liquor  on  its  way  to  the  generator  and  cools  the  weak  liquor. 


February  19.  1918 


POWER 


275 


We  now  have  the  strong  liquor  back  in  the  generator, 
ready  for  redistillation,  and  tho  cycle  is  complete. 

Tlie  Cavbondalc  Machine  Co.  builds  three  types  of  ice  and 
refrigerating  machines — tlie  shell,  atmospheric  and  tubular 
types.  The  original  Carbondale  construction  was  of  the 
shell  and  coil  type,  shown  in  Fig.  2.  This  machine  was  the 
development  of  the  old  Pontifcx  design,  which  was  brought 
to  this  country  in  1884  and  has  been  gradually  improved 
until  it  has  produced  high  efficiency.  This  type  of  machine 
is  admirably  suited  for  condensing  water  that  is  free  from 
dirt  and   incrusting   solids. 

A  number  of  these  machines  have  been  in  operation  for 
over  twenty  years  without  any  coil  renewals  or  repairs,  and 
are  giving  good  service  today.  The  generator  used  with  all 
three  types  is  of  the  same  construction  and  is  pi-ovided 
with  return  bend  coils  of  extra-heavy  pipe.  The  condenser, 
exchanger  and  absorber  of  the  shell  type  have  cast-iron  or 


means  the  quantity  of  condensing  water  is  economized.  With 
the  majority  of  atmospheric  absorption  machines,  the  con- 
denser and  absorber  are  located  side  by  side  and  the  water 
is  used  independently  over  each  part  of  the  apparatus, 
thereby  inci-easing  the  consumption.  The  absorbers  ar 
provided  with  an  injector  arrangement. 

Though  a  helical-coil  cooler  is  shown,  this  construction 
can  be  used  with  expansion  coils  in  the  ice  tank  or  with  a 
horizontal-tubular  cooler,  if  preferred. 

The  tubular  type  of  machine.  Fig.  4,  is  the  latest  develop- 
ment of  the  Carbondale  construction,  and  consists  of  a  gen- 
erator similar  in  con.struction  to  the  preceding  types,  a 
double-pipe  rectifier,  double-pipe  exchanger,  weak-liquor 
cooler  and  condenser  and  a  tubular  absorber.  This  is  par- 
ticularly adapted  for  low  headroom  and  is  easily  accessible 
for  repairs.  Furthermore,  containing  nothing  but  straight 
pipes,   it  can   be  readily  inspected   and   cleaned.     In   cases 


■y/^////. 


fZ''/////////^/////////'////////^//////////////////////// 

AMMONIA  AQUA  BRINE    COOLER  ANHYDROUS 

PUMP  RECEIVER  RECEIVER 


FIG.    3.      .'^RRANCJEMENT    OP    ATMOSPHERIC    ABSORPTION   SYSTEM 


steel   shells,   supplied   with    spiral   wound   coils  of   suitable 
proportion  for  the  work  contemplated. 

In  case  of  warm  or  muddy  water  the  atmospheric  type 
of  machine  shown  in  Fig.  3  is  recommended.  In  this  ma- 
chine the  exchanger  is  of  either  the  double  pipe  or  shell 
type,  the  latter  construction  being  shown.  In  case  the 
water  is  sea  water  or  at  all  corrosive,  I  would  recommend 
the  use  of  extra-heavy  galvanized  pipe  in  the  rectifier,  weak- 
liquor  cooler,  condenser  and  absorber;  but  in  case  it  is  of 
high  temperature,  such  as  comes  from  a  water  tower,  full- 
weight  ammonia  pipe  will  answer  the  purpose  and,  if  prop- 
erly painted,  will  last  for  years.  The  rectifier  is  placed 
under  the  weak-liquor  cooler,  so  that  the  cooling  water  is 
used  by  this  cooler  before  it  descends  to  the  rectifier.  The 
condenser  is  placed  above  the  absorber,  so  that  the  water 
passing  over  it  runs  down  over  the  absorber,  and  by  this 


where  the  condensing  water  is  corrosive,  the  use  of  galvan- 
ized tubes  is  recommended. 

Special  attention  is  called  to  the  water  connections.  To 
economize,  the  water  first  enters  the  bottom  header  of  the 
condenser,  the  overflow  passing  to  the  absorber.  From 
there  it  passes  to  the  weak-liquor  cooler  and  thence  to  tho 
rectifier.  By  this  means  the  water  is  used  through  all  four 
parts  of  the  apparatus  progressively  and  consequently  the 
quantity  of  water  is  no  greater  than  that  required  with  a 
compression   machine. 

The  advantages  of  the  absorption  system  are:  (1)  It 
takes  very  little  steam  at  30  lb.  per  hour  per  ton  refrigera- 
tion effect;  (2)  if  exhaust  steam  or  waste  heat  is  available 
it  takes  no  live  steam  except  that  required  to  run  the 
small  ammonia  pump;  (3)  it  has  no  heavy  moving  parts 
and  cannot  be  materially  damaged  by  carelessness;    (4)    it 


276 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


has  no  oil  to  clog  and  insulate  the  pipes;  (5)  it  does  not 
require  heavy  foundations,  can  be  piaced  on  the  top  floor 
of  a  building  and  makes  no  noise  or  vibration;  (6)  it  can 
easily  and  economically  produce  low  temperatures. 

Operating  and  General  Information 

To  start  the  machine,  assuming  that  the  machine  has  a 
normal  charge,  proceed  as  follows:  (1)  Start  water  circu- 
lating through  machine;  (2)  start  brine  pump,  making  sure 
that  the  brine  is  circulating  through  cooler;  (3)  turn  steam 
gradually  on  the  generator  (this  steam  should  never  be  en- 
tirely shut  off)  ;  (4)  open  the  gas  line  between  the  cooler 
and  the  absorber;  (5)  open  the  weak  liquor  valve  setting 
it  as  in  usual  running;  (6)  start  the  ammonia  pump;  (7) 
when  the  generator  pressure  is  raised  to  about  that  usually 
carried,  slowly  open  the  valve  between  the  rectifier  and  con- 
denser; (8)  open  the  expansion  valve  and  set  it.  The  ma- 
chine now  is  in  regular  operation. 

To  stop  machine:  (1)  Shut  off  steam  on  the  generator, 
leaving  a  little  turned  on;  (2)  shut  the  expansion  valve; 
(3)  shut  down  the  ammonia  pump;  (4)  close  the  weak  liquor 
valve;    (5)    close  the  cooler   and   absorber   gas   line   valve; 

(6)  close   the  valve   between   the   rectifier   and   condenser; 

(7)  shut  down  brine  pump;    (8)   shut  ofl'  water  supply. 
The  causes  of  lack  of  capacity  are:   (1)  Insufficient  water 

supply;    (2)    insufficient  brine  supply:    (3)    insufficient  am- 


liquor  out  of  the  cooler. 


FIG. 


DOUBLE-PIPE    TYPE    ABSORPTION    REFRIGERATING  MACHINE 


monia  charge;  (4)  air  or  foul  gas  in  the  machine;  (5) 
dirtv  condenser,  absorber  and  rectifier  coils;  (6)  cooler  in 
need  of  purging. 

Steam  pressures:  In  case  of  the  exhaust  machine  the 
steam  pressure  is  usually  in  the  neighborhood  of  three 
pounds,  and  does  not  vary.  In  case  of  the  standard  ma- 
chine the  steam  pressure  should  be  regulated  according 
to  the  water  temperature.  Ordinarily,  the  steam  pressure 
should  never  be  in  excess  of  one-third  of  the  generator 
pressure.  For  example,  with  150-lb.  generator  pressure, 
50-lb.  pressure  on  tiie  generator  is  the  maximum.  If  the 
machine  is  properly  charged  to  do  full  capacity,  a  higher 
steam  pressure  will  tend  to  dissociate  the  ammonia  gas. 
Make  sure  that  the  generator  steam  coils  are  clear  of  con- 
densation. An  air-cock  is  provided  on  the  bottom  header 
for  the  purpose  of  relieving  air  from  the  coils  and  also  in- 
dicating whether  any  condensation  backs  up  in  the  coils. 
At  times  traps  do  not  work  properly,  and  it  is  always  well 
to  ketp  this  air-cock  open  slightly  to  indicate  any  accumu- 
lation of  condensation.  When  the  machine  is  shut  down, 
except  for  a  long  period,  a  little  steam  should  always  be 
allowed  to  enter  the  generator,  so  as  to  keep  the  shell  warm. 

Ammonia  c!iarge:  With  the  machine  in  regular  operation, 
and  a  normal  cliarge,  the  following  will  be  the  conditions 
as  indicated  by  the  gage-cocks  on  the  various  shells.  The 
generator  will  have  1  to  2  in.  of  liquor  covering  the  coils. 
The  absorber  v,'iil  have  1  in.  of  liquor  covering  the  tubes 
or,  if  a  shell  type  or  atmospheric  machine,  it  will  have  about 
6  in.  of  liquor  in  the  shell  or  receiver.  The  condenser  will 
have  4  to  C  in.  of  anhydrous  in  sight,  and  the  brine  cooler 
will  have  enough  anhydrous  in  it  to  frost  over  both  gage- 
cocks  and  show  a  flush  of  soapy  fluid  in  the  glass  when  the 
cocks  are  onened.     The  gas  line  should  be  slightly  frosted 


back  to  the  absorber.     This,  however,  should   never  frost 
sufficiently  to  show  frost  on  the  purge  line. 

Water  supply  to  machine  should  be  as  regular  as  possible 
and  a  branch  should  be  taken  off  the  main  at  a  point  where 
other  connections  would  not  interfere  with  the  flow  to  the 
machine. 

Purging  the  cooler  may  have  to  be  done  as  often  as  once 
a  week,  and  then  again  not  for  two  or  three  months.  A 
cooler  needs  purging  under  the  following  conditions:  (1) 
If  both  gage-cocks  are  frosted,  as  with  normal  charge; 
(2)  if  the  cooler  pressure  is  only  a  little,  if  any,  in  excess 
of  the  brine  temperature;  (3)  if,  on  opening  the  cooler  gage, 
the  liquor  looks  watery  and  not  soapy,  then  the  indication 
is  that  some  aqua  has  worked  over  into  the  cooler  and  that 
the  cooler  needs  purging. 

To  purge  the  cooler,  close  the  expansion  and  gas-outlet 
valve  and  open  the  purge  valve  leading  out  of  the  bottom 
of  the  cooler.  This  will  drain  all  the  liquor  out  of  the 
cooler  into  the  absorber.  The  pressure  will  rise  in  the 
cooler  at  first,  but  after  fifteen  minutes,  will  gradually  fall. 
During  the  purging  the  pump  should  be  run  slowly  and  the 
liquor  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  absorber, ,  which 
will  prevent  the  pump  from  losing  its  suction.  When  the 
cooler  has  been  well  drained  out,  open  the  expansion  valve 
for   about   thirty   seconds.     This   will   force   the   remaining 

After  this  is  done  two  or  three 
times  and  when  the  cooler 
pressure  drops  back  to  zero, 
the  cooler  has  been  completely 
purged.  The  machine  can  then 
be  started,  care  being  taken  not 
to  open  the  expansion  valve  too 
wide  at  the  start. 

The  brine  should  preferably 
be  made  of  chloride  of  calcium 
rather  than  from  ordinary  salt; 
it  is  more  expensive  than  the 
latter,  but  does  not  have  any 
corrosive  action  upon  either 
pipes  or  valves  and  does  not 
deposit  solids  in  the  coils.  The 
gravity  of  the  brine  should  oc- 
casionally be  tested  with  the 
hydrometer.  Brine  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.165  is  safe  at  6  deg. 
F.  above  zero;  that  of  1.200  does 
not  freeze  until  it  gets  about 
14  deg.  F.  below  zero.  If  the  brine  is  weak,  there  is  liability 
of  the  cooler  coils  freezing,  which  would  be  indicated  by  a 
sudden  stoppage  of  the  brine  pump.  In  such  event  imme- 
diately close  the  gas  valve  and  open  the  expansion  valve 
wide  for  at  least  five  minutes.  This  should  sufficiently  heat 
the  brine  to  thaw  it  and  permit  the  pump  to  start. 

To  thaw  freezer  cooler,  close  the  gas  line  from  the  cooler 
to  the  absorber  and  open  the  expansion  valve  wide  and 
warm  gas  from  the  condenser  will  thaw  out  coils.  Never  al- 
low the  brine  pump  to  stop  when  the  cooler  is  in  operation, 
as  this  is  one  of  the  causes  of  freezing. 

When  running  at  full  capacity,  the  ammonia  pump  should 
circulate  about  %  gal.  of  liquor  to  the  ton  of  refrigeration. 
If  a  steam  pump  does  not  run  steadily,  but  with  a  jerk,  it 
is  probable  that  there  is  some  difficulty  with  the  valves. 
These  are  of  hard  rubber  or  steel  and  should  be  inspected 
occasionally.  If  they  become  pitted  in  the  crossbars  of  the 
valve  seats,  it  is  best  to  replace  them  with  new  valves. 
Pump  rods  should  be  kept  smooth  and  true;  any  difficulty 
experienced  in  properly  packing  the  pump  end  can  usually 
be  traced  directly  to  the  fact  that  the  rod  has  become  worn, 
tapering  from  the  middle  to  the  ends,  which  has  a  tendency 
to  burst  the  stuffing-box  by  the  wedge-like  action  of  the 
rod.  A  properly  packed  box  requires  only  a  very  light 
pressure  of  the  gland  and  follower  on  the  packing  to 
prevent  leakage.  A  small  quantity  of  oil  is  to  be  used  oc- 
casionally to  lubricate  the  rod.  If  it  is  found  that  the 
pump  is  air-bound  or  gas-bound,  it  can  be  relieved  by 
closing  the  suction  and  discharge  valves  and  emptying 
the  pump  into  a  bucket  of  water  through  the  pumping-out 
valve  at  the  discharge  of  the  pump.  The  suction  valve 
should  then  be  slowly  opened  and  the  pump  allowed  to  fill 
with  ammonia. 


BRINE  COOLER 


February   19,   1918 


POWER 


277 


A  rt'Kulator  is  providt'd  on  all  inodt'rn  steam  ammonia 
pumps.  It  is  connected  top  and  bottom  with  the  absorber, 
the  liquid  level  line  of  the  regulator  beinsr  placed  on  a  line 
with  the  liquid  level  desired  in  the  absorber.  It  is  of 
the  ball-float  type,  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  ball  operatinjr 
the  steam-inlet  valve  to  the  pump.  In  case  the  regrulator 
does  not  work  properly,  it  may  be  due  to  a  stoppage  in  the 
lines  to  absorber  or  the  collapse  of  the  float.  The  float  is 
of  a  special  spun-steel  type  and  should  be  purchased  of  the 
manufacturer.  The  regulator  connections  are  provided  with 
the  valves  on  inlet  and  outlet,  which  should  be  closed  in 
case  it  is  desired  to  examine  the  float. 

To  get  good  results  it  is  important  to  keep  condenser, 
absorber  and  rectifier  coils  clean.  They  should  be  cleaned 
at  least  twice  a  year  or  oftener  if  possible. 

Helical  coils  can  be  cleaned  by  blowing  air  and  water 
through  each  coil  or  using  some  good  coil  compound.  Tubu- 
lar "coils"  can  be  cleaned  by  using  an  ordinary  tube  scraper 
and  brush.  After  the  tubes  are  thoroughly  cleaned  it  is 
well  to  coat  them  with  noncorrosive  solution,  which  is  es- 
pecially  prepared  for  this  purpose. 

When  the  charge  of  mnionia  is  too  weak,  the  process  of 
distillation  will  not  be  uniform  and  continuous,  and  diffi- 
culty will  be  experienced  in  maintaining  a  reserve  of  an- 
hydrous ammonia  in  the  receiver,  and  an  increased  steam 
pressure  will  be  required  on  the  generator  to  distill  over 
the  ammonia.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  ammonia  charge 
must  be  strengthened.  It  should  always  be  remembered 
that  a  weak  charge  entails  a  loss  in  the  capacity  of  tht 
machine,  and  that  more  fuel  and  more  condensing  will  be 
required  to  do  the  work. 

When  starting  the  machine,  some  trouble  will  be  experi- 
enced for  a  few-  days  on  account  of  the  pressure  of  air  in 
various  parts.  The  same  is  true  when  at  times  the  ma- 
chine is  recharged  with  aqua  ammonia,  which  holds  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  air  in  solution.  The  air  is  gradually 
driven  off  from  the  aqua  ammonia  during  the  process  of 
distillation  and  finds  its  way  through  the  machine.  A  hose 
should  be  attached  to  the  air  valves  on  the  absorber  an.i 
receiver  and  dipped  into  a  bucket  of  clean,  cold  water.  If 
the  gas  coming  from  the  hose  is  at  once  absorbed  by  the 
water  with  a  sharp  rattling-  noise,  and  no  bubbles  rise  ti 
the  surface,  and  the  water  turns  slightly  bluish,  all  the  aii 
is  out;  if,  however,  bubbles  continue  to  rise  there  is  still 
air  in  the  machine.  When  there  are  indications  of  a  large 
amount  of  air  in  the  machine  it  is  best  to  shut  down  and 
blow  out  the  air  in  one  operation.  At  other  times  it  is 
sufficient  to  slightly  open  the  air-cocks  and  carefully  watch 
for  air  and  ammonia. 

The  presence  of  air  in  the  machine  is  generally  indi- 
cated by  an  excessive  and  misleading  pressure  in  the  gen- 
erator and  by  the  inability  of  the  absorber  to  properly  and 
promptly  absorb  the  gas.  It  thus  affects  both  the  economy 
i-.nd  the  capacity  of  the  machine. 

With  proper  care  and  attention  and  by  a  systematic  in- 
spection of  all  joints,  cocks  and  valves  at  convenient  tunes, 
no  ammonia  leaks  should  occur;  but  in  case  of  any,  how- 
ever small,  they  should  be  stopped  at  the  first  opportunity ; 
these  leaks  are  usually  of  anhydrous  ammonia  gas,  and  loss 
of  ammonia  rapidly  diminishes  the  capacity  and  efficiency 
of  the  machine. 

When  the  sense  of  smell  is  not  sufficient  to  definitely 
locate  a  leak,  the  same  can  be  found  by  holding  a  glass  rod. 
moistened  with  muriatic  acid,  at  or  near  the  place  of  the 
suspected  leak.  A  bluish-white  cloud  forms  at  the  leak  and 
immediately  discloses  its  location.  The  same  results  can 
be  obtained  by  holding  burning  sulphur  near  the  leak. 

Qualifications  of  Employees  in  Russian 
Refrigerating  Industries 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Council  of  the  Russian  Refrigerating 
Committee  of  the  .-X.ssociation  Internationale  du  Froid  the 
following  resolutions,  here  given  in  part,  were  adopted, 
according  to  the  association's  bulletin. 

The  committee  for  the  propaganda  of  knowledge  on  arti- 
ficial refrigeration  adopted  the  following  classification  con- 


cerning conditions  with   which   employees   in   different  sec- 
tions of  these  industries  shall  comply: 

Machine  Section — Besides  being  experienced  as  regards 
the  running  of  steam  engines  and  dynamos,  the  machinist 
and  his  assistants  must  be  perfectly  familiar  with  the  con- 
struction and  operation  of  refrigerating  machines,  not  only 
as  regards  the  machine  itself,  but  all  its  parts  (condenser, 
cofls,  manometers,  recording  instruments,  thermometers, 
etc.),  as  well  as  the  starting  of  a  machine  and  its  super- 
vision during  operation.  They  shall  have  sufficient  rudi- 
mentary knowledge  on  this  subject  to  enable  them  to  draw 
up  plans,  replace  bolts,  clamps,  etc.,  and  understand  a  tech- 
nical description  of  a  machine. 

Cold-Storage  ]]'(irehouse — The  first  and  second  inspectors 
shall  have  a  good  conception  of  cold-store  construction,  the 
operation  of  various  refrigerating  systems  and  their  differ- 
ent organs  and  recording  instruments  for  temperature  and 
humidity  and  understand  thermometer  and  hygrometer  in- 
dications. They  shall  have  charge  of  the  supervision  of 
rooms,  doors  and  ventilating  appliances  and  are  expected 
to  be  able  to  distinguish  the  different  grades  of  goods  stored 
in  the  cold-storage  plant;  they  shall  also  be  familiar  with 
the  various  packing  systems  and  Icnow  the  proper  storage 
temperature  for  different  kinds  ot  perishables. 

Icehouses — Workmen  making  a  specialty  of  ice  making 
will  be  employed  in  this  branch  of  the  business.  An  account- 
ing system  especially  adapted  for  icehouses  will  be  used. 

Railway  Icing  Stations- — Employees  shall  possess  enough 
instruction  on  this  subject  to  understand  the  rational  con- 
struction and  operation  of  icehouses  and  factories,  ice  mak- 
ing, ice  loading  into  i-efrigerator  cars,  etc. 

Specialists  in  Refrigeration  (Technics  and  Engineering) 
— The  general  direction  or  management  of  a  cold  store 
shall  be  confided  exclusively  to  a  refrigerating  engineer  or 
a  specialist  in  refrigeration.  As  regards  the  construction 
of  a  cold  store,  it  shall  be  intrusted  only  to  a  refrigerating 
engineer. 

In  order  to  manage  a  cold-stoi-age  wai-ehouse,  a  technical 
engineer  must  have  received  special  instruction  as  regards 
artificial  refrigeration,  from  both  a  theoretical  and  a  prac- 
tical standpoint  and  especially  as  regards  the  management 
of  refrigerating  machines;  he  shall  further  be  familiar 
with  the  requirements  of  all  parts  of  a  cold  store. 

For  agriculturists  wishing  to  make  a  specialty  of  arti- 
ficial refrigeration,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  all  branches 
of  this  subject  is  required,  especially  as  regards  the  storage 
and  transport  oi  different  kinds  of  perishables;  inspection 
of  all  parts  of  the  plant  at  regular  intervals  shall  be  orga- 
nized in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  stand- 
points of  temperature,  hygronietry,  etc. 

Every  specialist  in  refrigeration  snail  be  perfectly  famil- 
iar with  the  commercial  part  of  this  industry. 

A  list,  appended,  gives  the  names  of  schools,  institutions 
and  courses  which  applicants  may  attend  in  order  to  fit 
themselves  for  service  in  the  refrigerating  industry. 

Price-Fixing  and  Coal  Quality 

Ever  since  coal  prices  were  fixed  by  the  Fuel  Administra- 
tion, long  before  the  coal  shoi-tage  became  acute,  there  have 
been  complaints  of  the  poor  quality  of  the  coal  delivered, 
and  since  the  shortage  these  complaints  have  been  getting 
moi-e  strenuous.  A  big  coal  man  was  asked  the  I'eason  back 
of  this  i-ecently,  and  he  answered:  "Well,  for  instarice,  we 
have  two  coal  properties.  One  produces  an  unusually  good 
quality  of  coal,  of  high  heating  value,  with  very  little  slag 
or  sulphur.  Before  they  fixed  prices  we  commanded  about 
forty  cents  a  ton  above  run-of-mine  prices  for  this  coal, 
which  we  sold,  on  tests  of  its  heating  value,  to  public-service 
corporations  and  other  institutions  which  were  willing  to 
pay  extra  for  quality.  Our  other  mine  produced  a  much 
inferior  grade  of  coal,  which,  however,  was  easier  to  mine. 
But  the  Fuel  .■Xdministration,  in  fixing  prices,  said  in  effect, 
'Coal  is  coal,'  and  fixed  the  same  price  for  both  mines. 
What's  the  answer?  Naturally  we  are  tempted  to  concen- 
trate our  surplus  producing  power  on  the  poorer  mine. 
Probably  there  are  plenty  of  other  coal  men  in  exactly  the 
same  situation." — The  .Ve»-  Vtn-A-  Times. 


278 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


Engineers  in  Government  Service 

Engineering  Council,  through  its  American  Engineering 
Service  Committee,  has  during  the  past  few  months  sup- 
plied to  various  Government  departments  and  bureaus  in 
response  to  their  requests,  several  thousand  names  of  engi- 
neers from  which  men  were  to  be  selected  to  fill  a  gi-eat 
variety  of  positions  in  uniformed  and  civilian  service  for 
Army  and  Navy  and  other  branches  of  the  Government's 
activities  in  connection  with  the  war,  as  well  as  for  indi- 
rect service  for  manufacturers  and  contractors  engaged 
upon   Government  war  work. 

To  meet  these  demands  the  American  Engineering  Serv- 
ice Committee  has  assembled  in  its  offices  in  the  Engineer- 
ing Societies  Building,  New  York,  extensive  lists  and  much 
detailed  information  concerning  engineers  in  all  branches 
of  the  profession  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
land.  It  will  i-eadily  be  appreciated  that  if  these  lists  are  to 
be  maintained  in  the  most  useful  condition  to  the  Govern- 
ment and  to  Engineering  Council,  the  committee  should 
receive  promptly  information  concerning  each  engineer 
who  has  gone  into  any  kind  of  Government  service,  direct 
or  indirect,  so  that  a  record  may  be  made  on  his  cards  in 
the  committee's  office. 

Engineers  reading  these  lines,  to  whom  this  request  ap- 
plies, are  urged  to  send  at  once  their  names,  present  ad- 
dresses and  occupations  in  the  Government  service,  with 
brief  statement  as  to  whether  or  not  they  are  available  for 
other  service,  to  American  Engineering  Service  Com- 
mittee, Room  901,  29  West  39th  St.,  New  York.  Other  read- 
ers are  asked  to  bring  this  request  to  the  attention  of  such 
engineers  or  to  send  information  directly  to  the  com- 
mittee. 

Engineering  Council  is  an  organization  of  national  engi- 
neering and  other  national  technical  societies  of  America 
of  approximately  forty  thousand  members,  each  member  so- 
ciety having  duly  elected  representatives  therein,  created 
to  provide  for  the  proper  consideration  of  subjects  of 
general  interest  to  engineers  and  the  public  and  for  united 
action  upon  matters  of  common  concern  to  engineers  in  all 
branches  of  the  profession. 


New  York  N.  A.  S.  E.  Offers  Aid  to 
Fuel  Administrator 

The  following  is  the  copy  of  a  lettsr  addressed  to  the 
New  York  State  Fuel  Administrator  by  the  Combined  As- 
sociations of  IManhattan,  Bronx  and  Queens  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Stationary  Engineers: 
Mr.  A.  H.  Wiggin, 

State  Fuel  Administrator. 

Dear  Sir:  As  the  Government  has  for  some  time  been 
considering  ways  and  means  to  promote  the  economical 
consumption  of  fuel  wherever  and  whenever  used  for  the 
generation  of  heat,  light  and  power,  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  Stationary  Engineers,  recognizing  its  responsibili- 
ties and  duties  in  the  present  fuel  crisis,  hereby  tenders  its 
services  to  the  various  fuel-conservation  commissions  to  co- 
operate in  any  capacity  as  their  judgment  may  dictate. 

We  are  anxious  to  demonstrate  a  true  and  patriotic  spirit 
of  cooperation  to  our  Government  in  its  efforts  to  bring  our 
fighting  forces  up  to  the  highest  standard  of  efficiency. 

We  note  that  you  have  appointed  a  committee  to  report 
back  to  you  on  ways  and  means  whereby  the  consumption 
of  fuel  may  be  reduced.  If  this  is  so,  may  we  not  suggest 
that  men  be  represented  on  this  committee  who  are  actually 
in  touch  with  the  fuel-burning  situation  at  all  times,  men 
who  have  been  trained  through  the  hard  knocks  of  experi- 
ence in  fuel  bui-ning  from  the  ground  up,  men  who  have 
come  from  the  fireroom  to  the  actual  charge  of  the  opera- 
tion of  the  largest  steam,  electrical  and  refrigerati«in  plants 
in  the  country? 

This  organization  represents  eleven  subordinate  locals 
in  Greater  New  York,  who  are  affiliated  witti  nearly  25,000 
operating  engineers  in  the  country. 

Conservation  of  fuel  does  not  only  mean  the  proper  burn- 
ing of  a  combustible  or  the  reduction  of  power  consumption. 
It  also  means  the  proper  application  of  steam  through  the 
various  appliances  and  apparatus  that  are  auxiliary  to 
every  power  plant.  In  many  plants  changes  could  be  made 
thp.t   would   result  in  considerable   saving   of   fuel   if   th? 


necessary  changes  in  equipment  were  made  as  suggested  by 
the  chief  operating  engineer. 

May  we  further  suggest  that  if  your  time  permits,  a 
personal  interview  be  granted  to  a  committee  representing 
this  organization,  where  the  various  phases  of  the  question 
could  be  discussed.  Yours  very  truly, 

D.  Larkin, 
President. 

Discharging  Warm  Water  in  Stream 

Where  warm  or  hot  water  or  steam  is  discharged  into  a 
stream  in  the  winter  time,  when  ice  has  fomied  on  the 
surface  and  is  being  used  by  skaters,  the  owner  of  the  plant 
is  legally  bound  to  take  all  reasonable  precautions  to  guard 
against  drowning  of  persons  skating  and  exercising  due  care 
for  their  own  safety.  This  should  be  done  by  erecting  bar- 
riers where  the  ice  is  rendered  unsafe,  or  by  other  suitable 
warning  of  danger  that  may  not  be  appreciated  by  persons 
on  the  ice. 

This  statement  of  the  law  is  supported  by  the  recent 
decision  of  the  Michigan  Supreme  Court  handed  down  in 
the  case  of  Parsons  vs.  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  Powder 
Co.,  164  Northwestern  Reporter,  413.  In  this  case,  the  court 
upholds  liability  of  defendant  for  drowning  of  a  boy  who 
skated  upon  ice  which  had  been  rendered  insecure  by  warm 
water  discharged  into  a  stream  from  defendant's  plant,  in 
the  absence  of  proof  showing  that  the  boy  was  guilty  of 
contributory  negligence.  It  is  decided  that  unless  such  proof 
be  made,  it  must  be  presumed  that  the  boy  used  due  care 
for  his  own  safety. 

Personal  Mention 

Most  men  have  limitations  as  to  the  quantity,  quality  and 
variety  of  work  they  can  conduct  with  credit.  Not  so  with 
J.  C.  McCabe,  head  of  the  Department  of  Safety  Engineer- 
ing, Detroit,  Mich.  The  city  fathers  have  already  given 
him  twelve  distinct  duties,  and  there  are  rumors  of  more  to 
follow.  In  fact,  when  there  is  a  choice  bit  of  engineering 
work  to  do,  testing  or  what  not,  requiring  originality  and 
unusual  ability,  an  appropriation  is  made  and  McCabe  is 
the  man  to  do  the  work.  The  present  activities  of  the  de- 
partment are  as  follows:  1,  boiler  inspection;  2,  licensing  of 
steam  engineers;  3,  inspection  of  ice-making  and  cooling 
plants;  4,  inspection  of  elevators  for  construction,  freight 
or  passenger  service;  5,  analysis  of  gas;  6,  use,  handling, 
storage  and  sale  of  inflammable  liquids  and  their  products; 
7,  smoke  inspection;  8,  plumbing  inspection  (pending)  ;  9, 
inspection  of  air  tanks;  10,  use  of  acetylene  and  calcium 
carbide;  11,  testing  of  inflammable  liquids  and  such  other 
duties  as  the  common  council  shall  assign;  12,  purchasing 
and  handling  coal  for  city  departments  and,  in  the  recent 
shortage,  diversion  of  city  coal  for  industrial  use. 

A   New    Fuel— "Carbocoal" 

Announcement  is  made  of  the  invention  of  a  commercial 
process  for  converting  bituminous  coal  ir.to  a  fuel  called 
"Carbocoal,"  the  equivalent  of  anthracite.  A  feature  of 
the  process  is  that  by  it  there  is  recovered  valuable  byprod- 
ucts from  the  coal  that  in  present  practice  are  wasted. 
The  Smith  process,  as  it  is  termed,  takes  the  raw  coal  and 
separates  the  oils  from  the  carbon  and  in  turn  presses  the 
carbon  into  convenient  shape  for  use. 

This  fuel  is  said  to  contain  only  1%  to  4  per  cent,  of  vola- 
tile matter  and  consists  mainly  of  fixed  carbon;  in  com- 
bustion it  is  smokeless,  ignites  with  comparative  ease,  burns 
freely  and  under  all  draft  conditions,  is  dustless,  clear  and 
uniform  in  size  and  quality.  It  is  said  to  be  suitable  for  use 
in  marine  and  stationai-y  boilers,  for  domestic  use,  kilns 
and  gas  producers.  This  fuel  is  to  be  put  on  the  market 
by  the  International  Coal  Products  Corporation.  No  ad- 
dress is  given. 


To  keep  polished  iron  or  steel  from  rusting,  mix  five 
parts  of  fat  oil  varnish  v/ith  four  parts  of  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine.   Apply  with  a  sponge. 


Februarv    11».    HMK 


POWER 


279 


New  Publications 


PHiECTIOiXS      Ft>U      SAMJM.INO      C^OAL. 
FOR     SHJPMKXT     OK     PHLIVERY — 
Bv   tJeoi'se    F.    Pope.      Technical    I'aper 
133,    Department    of    the    Interior.    Bu- 
reau of   Mines. 
This  is  another  one  of  the  many  publica- 
tions of  the   Bureau   of   Mines  on   sampling 
e(»al.      It   deals  with    tlie   time   of   samiilinti, 
the    collection    of    sross    samples,    the    size 
of  samples,   storage  of  ^ross  samples,   sam- 
plini?    from    \vaKoiil<>a(is.    carload    sampling, 
ship     or     barpe     ^i;iInplinK.     an<i      with     the 
preparation    of    the    trross    sample  :    that    is. 
crushing:,   halving  and   quartering-      For  the 
power-plant  man  this  paper  is  probably  the 
most     useful     of    all     that     the     Bureau     has 
published  on   this  subject.      It   may  be  had 
free  by  addressing  the  Director  of  the   Bu- 
reau.  Washington,  D.   C. 

HYDRO-FLRCTRir     I'OWIOR     STATIONS 

By  Krie  A.  l^jf  and  l>a\id  B.  RushuTore. 

Published   bv  John   Wiley  *fc   Sons.    Im-. 

New     York.     1S>17.       Cloth ;     6x9     in.  ; 

8L'J  pages:   408  illustrations;  66  tables. 

Price  $6. 
AVater-]K)wer  developments  have  become 
so  closely  allied  with  electrical  engineering 
that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  give 
due  consideration  to  the  former  without 
considering  the  latter ;  or.  as  the  authors 
have  pointed  out  in  the  preface  of  this  book, 
"The  work  of  planning,  building,  operating 
a  hydro-electric  power  development  requires 
a  full  understanding  of  the  economic  fac- 
tors which  enter  into  the  problem  and  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  both  the  hydraulic- 
and  electrical-engineering  sides  of  the  sub- 
ject." It  is  with  these  elements  in  mind 
that  the  authors  have  prepared  this  work. 
The  book  is  divided  into  11  chapters  and  3 
appendixes.  Chapter  1  is  a  general  intro- 
duction and  gives  data  on  the  history  of 
water  power  and  electrical  developments, 
available  and  developed  water  powers  in 
the  United  States,  primary  power  and  its 
uses,  power  from  inland  waterways,  etc. 
Chapter  2  deals  with  properties  of  water, 
rainfall,  disposal  of  rainfall,  stream  flow. 
energ>'  of  flowing  water  and  convenient 
equivalents.  Chapter  3  eonsiders  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  water-power  developments. 
Chapter  4  treats  of  dams,  flashboards. 
fishways.  intakes,  etc.  Chapter  5  is  on 
water  conductors,  water-hammer  and  surge 
tanks,  gates  and  valves.  Chapter  6  deals 
with  storage  reservoirs  Chapter  7  takes 
up  the  problem  of  power-house  design, 
embracing  buildings,  arrangement  of  appa- 
ratus, transportation  and  erection,  starting 
up.  general  preeaution.  drying-out  equip- 
ment, etc.  Chai)ter  8  deals  with  the  various 
types  of  turbines  and  their  characteristics; 
governors,  theii-  operation  and  methods  of 
control ;  pressure  regulators  or  relief  valves, 
water-flow  meters,  water-stage  registers. 
Chapter  9  takes  up  the  subject  of  electrical 
equipment.  This  chapter  is  very  compre- 
hensive, covering  373  pages,  and  gives  con- 
sideration to  practically  every  piece  of 
electrical  equipment  entering  into  a  hydro- 
electric power  plant.  Chapter  Hi  is  also 
very  comprehensive,  occupying  100  pages 
and  embraces  the  economical  aspects  of 
water-power  development,  such  as  pre- 
liminary considerations,  general  guide  for 
the  compilation  of  water-power  reports  and 
the  securing  of  field  datii.  This  particular 
section  is  illustrated  with  different  forms 
used  for  obtaining  the  foregoing  data. 
Another  very  important  section  of  this 
chapter  is  that  on  costs  of  hydro-electric 
power  plants.  This  latter  section  gives 
cost  data  on  17  different  hydro-electric 
power  stations,  varying  in  size  from  600- 
to  liOO.OOO-kw.  capacity.  Chapter  11  gives 
consideration  to  the  ]>rol»lem  of  organization 
and  operation.  Appendix  1  gives  a  reference 
to  the  descriptions  of  hydro-electric  power 
systems  in  Nortli  America  that  have  been 
published  in  the  eiigiiicering  publications 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada;  Appendix 
2  is  a  table  giving  lu'incipal  data  on  trans- 
mission systems  operating  at  70,000  volts 
and  above ;  Api>endix  3,  standard  testing 
code   for   hydraulic    turbines. 

In  this  book  an  ondcavoi-  has  been  made 
to  describe  tlie  most  recent  engineering 
practice  and  a  considerable  amount  of  in- 
formation tliat  has  not  heretofore  been 
available  is  included  The  authors,  for 
many  years  being  i-omieeted  with  one  of 
the  largest  power-plant  equipment  manu- 
tacturing  companies  in  the  world,  have  had 
an  excellent  opportunity  to  collect  valuable 
inforniatiou  over  a  wide  range  of  experience 
The  hook  is  not  a  mathematical  treatise, 
although  fonnulas  are  given  where  neces- 
sary, but  is  a  prai'tical  presentation  in 
readable  language  of  the  problenii?  that 
must  be  solved  in  connection  with  the  con- 
struction, management  and  operation  oC 
hydro-electric     powei-     stations.        Although 


written    for    the    engineer    ami    <>nirineerinfcr 

students,  a  great  deal  of  the  material  is 
presentetl  in  such  a  way  that  it  c:iti  hr 
easily  understood  by  the  practical  power- 
plant  oi»erator.  and  should  be  well  received 
by  all  those  who  have  to  do  with  hydro- 
electric ])ower  plants. 

COLLAPSE  OF  SHORT  THIN  TUBES 
Bulletin  No.  09  of  the  University  of  Il- 
linois Engineering  Experiment  Station 
contains  the  results  of  a  series  of  experi- 
ments on  the  collapse  of  short  thin  tubes, 
made  by  Prof.  A.  P.  Carman  of  the  de- 
partment of  physics.  The  purpose  of  these 
tests  was  to  find  an  equation  by  the  ap- 
plication of  which  the  pressure  re<|uired  to 
colhipse  a  tube  can  be  calculated  when  the 
dimensions  of  the  tube  and  the  elastic 
properties  of  the  material  are  known.  The 
bulletin  gives  a  brief  summary  of  earlier 
experiments  on  collapsing  pressure,  such 
as  those  of  Fairbairn.  Stewart  and  others, 
together  with  the  fonnulas  developed  by 
these  investigators.  Then  follow  the  de- 
scription of  the  testing  apparatus  used  by 
Professor  Carman,  the  graphical  and  tabu- 
lated results  of  his  experiments,  and  his 
conclusions.  The  data  as  given  represent 
the  results  of  the  collapse  of  about  150 
tubes.  The  majority  of  these  were  cold- 
drawn  steel  tubes  from  1  to  3  in.  in  diam- 
eter. The  remainder  were  of  brass,  alumi- 
num, glass  and  hard  rubber.  The  number 
of  experiments  on  the  last  two  materials, 
however,  was  too  small  to  justify  much 
generalization.  The  glass  tubes,  on  col- 
lapsing, were  reduced  to  a  fine  powder. 
The  metal  tubes  collapsed  in  two,  three, 
or  four  lobes,  depending  on  the  length. 
Copies  of  this  bulletin  may  be  obtained 
gratis  by  addressing  the  Engineering  Ex- 
perimentr  Station,   Urbana,    111. 

DETERMINATION    OF    MOISTURE    IN 
COKE 

Technical  Paper  No.  148.  of  the  Bureau 
of  Mines.  Department  of  the  Interior,  deals 
with  The  Determination  of  Moisture  in 
Coke,  and  is  written  by  A.  C.  Fieldner  and 
W.  A.  Selvig.  The  following  is  from  the 
summary  of  the  bulletin: 

1.  Investigation  shows  that  the  influence 
of  temperature,  time,  humidity  of  drying 
atmosphere,  and  fineness  of  sample  on  the 
determination  of  moisture  in  coke  may  be 
varied  over  a  considerable  range  without 
affecting    the    result    appreciably. 

'2.  <;)ven  temperatures  ranging  from  105 
to  200  deg.  C.  produced  a  maximum  vari- 
ation in  moisture  of  not  exceeding  (1.3  per 
cent. 

3.  Coke  can  be  dried  to  "'constant 
weight"  without  any  gain  in  weight  taking 
place. 

4.  The  circulation  of  air  dried  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  through  the  oven  atmosphere. 
as  specified  for  coal  analysis,  is  unneces- 
sary, there  being  no  measurable  difference 
of  results  between  circulating  perfectl.\ 
dry  air  through  the  oven  and  using  in 
the  oven  the  natural  circulation  of  air 
from    the    room. 

5..  Moisture  can  be  determined  quickl.\' 
with  adequate  accuracy  of  0.5  per  cent, 
by  simply  heating  to  constant  weight  a 
large  sample  of  lump  coke,  in  any  conve- 
nie!it  oven  or  on  a  stove,  hot  plate  or  steam 
coil  at  a  temperature  of  100  to  20(1  deg.  C 

Because  of  its  simplicity  and  flexibility, 
this  method  may  be  used  advantageously 
at  points  when  coke  shipments  are  sam- 
).led. 


Personals 


S.  I».  LevingN  has  resigned  as  Eastern 
rejiresentative  of  the  automobile  equipment 
department  of  the  Westingho\i.se  EU-ctric 
and    Manufactui'ing    (^a. 


Engineering  Affairs 


Th*.  ANMKMiitioli  of  Iron  and  Steel  Klei-- 
Iricul  Kngineers  announces  the  following 
iiieeting.s:  Cleveland  District  Section.  Keli. 
L'l).  at  Hotel  Statler,  at  which  B.  W,  <iil.- 
.soii.  of  the  ("ainegie  Steel  Co.  will  deliver 
a  papei-  on  "(leneration.  Distribution  ann 
I'otisuniption  of  Power."  The  Philaileliihia 
Section  on  Mar.  1.  at  the  Maje.«!tic  Hotel  ; 
.John  S.  Kowan.  of  the  Kowan  Controller 
Co.,  Baltimore.  Md..  will  present  an  illus- 
trated paper  on  "Standardized  Mill  Table 
Controllers."  A  joint  technical  session, 
.\.  1.  10.  K.  and  Cleveland  Di.strict  Section. 
.\.  1.  &  S.  E.  I'l.  will  be  held  on  the  evi'iiinft' 
of  Mar.  8.  of  which  complete  announcement 
is  to  lie  made  later.  The  Pittsbin'th  Sec- 
lif)n's  regular  meeting  will  he  held  on  Mar, 
li:   at   the   Hotc>l  Chatham. 


The  .VxNoeiutioa  of  Ohio  Trcliniral  Soei- 
rtivH  was  oi'Kanized  at  a  conference  of  the 
rigineerins  societies  of  the  state  held  at 
Columbus,  .Jan,  29.  with  Clyde  T,  Morris, 
professor  of  civil  ensineering,  of  Ohio 
State  University  as  president,  and  C,  E, 
Drayer,  of  Cleveland,  as  secretary.  The 
.societies  included  in  the  as.sociation  em- 
brace every  local  .society  and  local  section 
of  the  national  societies,  twelve  in  num- 
ber, as  follows:  Cleveland  Association  of 
Members  of  the  A.  S.  C,  B,  ;  Cleveland 
RiiKinering  Society ;  Cleveland  Section, 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers ;  Columbus  Chapter,  American  In- 
stitute of  Architects ;  Engineers'  Club  of 
Cincinnati;  Engineers'  Club  of  Columbus; 
Engineer's  Club  of  Dayton ;  Engineers' 
Club  of  Youngstown ;  Northwestern  Ohio 
Surveyors'  As.sociation ;  Ohio  Engineering 
Society  ;  Ohio  Society  of  Mechanical,  Steam 
and  Electrical  Engineers ;  Toledo  Society 
of  Engineers. 


Ill IIMIIillllllllll 


illlllllllllllllli. 


Miscellaneous  News 


.\  ISoiler  Kxploded  on  the  lease  of  the 
Ohio  ('o.  in  Lawrence  Co,,  111,,  on  Jan,  29, 
instantly  killing  one  of  the  oil  worliers 
and  probably  fatally  injuring  another.  The 
cause  of  the  explosion   is  not  known. 

: "i"<iii"iiii«'iiiiiii)i'iiii(iiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniMi 

Business  Items 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii? 


Fred  F.  Woolley,  president,  and  John  T. 
Sibley,  chief  engineer  of  the  Haramel  Oil 
Burning  Equipment  Co.,  liic,  of  Providence, 
R,  I,,  are  now  covering  the  southern  power 
plant  field  from  the  Carolinas  to  Cuba  and 
along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  New  Orleans, 
The}'  are  receiving  numerous  large  orders 
and  report  that  fuel  oil  burning  in  this 
territory  will  be  active.  Their  temporary 
headtiuarters  for  this  district  is  at  Tampa, 
Fla. 

The  \VestinRhou>ie  P:iectrie  and  Manu- 
faetiirin^  To's.  automobile  equipment  de- 
IJartment  has  removed  its  manufacturing 
operations  to  the  company's  Newark  works. 
Plane  and  Orange  Sts,,  Newark,  N,  J.  At 
this  works  the  compan}-  has  for  many  years 
been  manufacturing  small  motors  and  in- 
struments of  accuracy  and  precision.  At 
the  same  time  the  general  sales  ofBce  of 
this  department  will  be  moved  to  110  West 
42d.  St..  New  York  City,  where  the  East- 
ern District  .Sales  Office  will  al.so  be  located. 


iiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiitiiiiiii: 


Trade  Catalogs 


IndusrriHl  Heating  Apparatus..  Westing- 
house  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co..  East 
Pittsburgh  Penn.  Catalog  8-E.  Pp.  32; 
8x11  in.  ;  illustrated.  Describes  the  many 
different  types  of  industrial  heaters  built 
by  this  company  and  their  application. 

The  Yarnall-WarinK:  Co.,  Chestnut  Hill. 
Philadelphia.  Penn.,  has  issued  two  new 
bulletins  illustrating  and  describing  Sim- 
plex "Seatless"  Blow-Off  Valve  and  Sim- 
plex Pipe-Joint  Clamp,  also  a  pam- 
phlet listing  some  of  the  users  of  Simplex 
blow-off  valves  and  containing  some  sam- 
ple reports  and  photographs  of  installa- 
tions. 

Hakelite  AIirarta-l>  (iearfi  and  Pinions. 
Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing 
Co.,  East  Pittsburgh.  Penn.  Booklet  1579- 
A.  Pp.  12;  8  X  11  in.;  illustrated.  Gives 
technical  information  regarding  this  type 
of  gear,  such  as  methods  of  attaching  to 
the  driving  shaft,  that  have  proved  i^uitable 
for  these  gears,  tables  of  pitch,  teeth  and 
other  gear  data,  formulas  for  horsepower 
lating.  amount  of  power  that  can  be  trans- 
mitted through  a  press  fit  and  for  calculat- 
ing other  variables  in  gear  practice. 

Tlie  .Moloeh  Stoker  Co.'h  Type  H  cat- 
alog. The  Moloch  Stoker  Co.,  Continental 
;ind  (Commercial  Xational  Bank  Building. 
Chicago,  Pp.  :iii  ;  Si  x  U  in.;  illustrated. 
This  catalog  is  tiuite  unusual  in  character, 
in  that  it  presents  the  subject  in  a  most 
connnon-sense  way.  Beginning  with  a 
paragrai)h  entitled  "The  Economy  of  Mech- 
anical firing"  ;ind  proceeding  in  a  logical 
and  natm-al  nuunu-r  to  a  clear,  although 
nontechnical  description  of  the  apparatus 
featured.  The  text  matter  proceeds  in  a 
logical  manner  to  a  well-developed  con- 
clusion in  which  the  advantages  of  the 
Moloch  stoker  are  summarized.  The  cata- 
log is  well  ill  u'st  rated  throughout  with 
assembled  and  detail  \"iews  of  the  various 
parts  and  mechanism,  as  well  as  numerous 
typical    instnllut  ions. 


280 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  8 


I  THE  COAL  MARKET  | 

Boston — Current   quotations   per  gross  ton   delivered   alongside 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 

r Circulari ,    , Individual  h ; — • 

Feb  14.  191S      One  Year  Aero  Feb.  14,  1018      O.ne  ^  ear  Ago 

Buckwheat    ..         S4.60              SJ.Oi— .J.^O  SV.IO— 7.35       SJ.^-j— XgO 

Hi^e    4.10                   ~.jO — '4.6j  6.bj — 0.90           .i.iO — -.yo 

Barlly  !  '.  . !  ! !           llo                •3;20-3.35  6.15-6.46         2:35-3.66 
BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous  not  on  market. 

p  o  h  Mine's* v    ' Alongside  Bostont ^ 

Feb  14   1918'    One  Year  Ago  Feb.  14.  1918      One  Year  Ago 

Clearflelds S3.00  $4.2o — o.OO 

Cambnas  and                                           ^      ,  t^n      -  *r. 

Somersets 3.10—3.83  4.60—3.40 

Pocahontas  and  New  River.  J.o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  $4.  as  compared 
with  S'J.Sj — 3.90   a  year  ago. 

•All-rail  rate  to  Boston  is  ?3.60.  tWater  coal. 

New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 
ANTHRACITE 

, rircular' ^    ^ Individual 

Feo  14   1918      One  Year  Ago     Feb.  14.  1918     0;ie  Tear  Ago 
Pea                       ».'>.0",                            84.00               55.80  S7.25 — 7,50 

Buckwheat    ..       4.30—5.00                   3.7.5                   5.50—5.80  6.3.-6.00 

RarlBV  3  25 — 3.50  1.95  4.00 1.3)  3.)0 — 3.7.) 

I"e  ..:::;:   3:7.5-3.95        3.20        4.50-4.80     4..50-5.00 

Boiler     3.50—3.75  330  3.3o— S.oO 

Bituminous  smithing  coal.   S4.50 — 5.25  l.o.b. 
Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  oo.  higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.  Harbor     Mine 

Pennsylvania     *3.|5  S2.00 

Maryland     ■ 3-8?  sP^ 

West  Virginia    (short  rate) -loa  ~.uu 

Based  on  Government  price  of  $2  per  ton   at  mine. 

•The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport.  Port  Johnson.  Port  Reading. 
Perth  Amboy  and  South  Amboy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Porl  Liberty 
Hoboken  Weehawken.  Edsrewater  or  Cliflside  and  Gutlenberg.  St.  George 
's  in  between  and  sometimp*  a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bitumi- 
nous is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  6c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

, Line , Tide 

On»  Tear  One  Year    Independent 

Feb  14   1918    Ago         Feb.  14.  1918       Ago        One  Y'ear  Ago 
Buckwheat   .  .    $3.15-3.75      S3.50  S3.75  83.40  Si.1.5 

Rice                .         3.65-3.65        3.10  3.6:)  .J.09  3.3o 

Boiler"    2.45-3.85        1.95  3.55  3.15  ... 

larily ::::..   3.16-3.40    i.ss        2.40       3.05        3.35 

Pea    3.75  3.80  4.0j  3.  iO  .... 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIMI 


lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 


iiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiin 


Chicaeo — Steam    coal    prices    f.o.b.    mines: 

Illinois  Coals  Sonthern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

.  .  .       ga.fi-, — 3.80  83.10 — 3  25 

2.40 — 3.55  2.85 — 3  00 

2.15 — 2.30  2.60—2.75 


Prepared  sizes 
Mine-run 
Screenings     .  . 


Smokeless  Coals. 


Prepared  sizes 
Mine-run  .  .  .  . 
Screenings    .  .  . 


So.  Illinois  Pocahontas.  Hocking. 

Pennsylvania  East  Kentucky  and 

and  West  Virginia       West  Virginia  Splint 
.     %i.i\n — 3.80  s:).n5 — 3.35 

3  40 — ;.H0  3  40 — 3.00 

3  10 — 3.30  3  10 — 3.30 


St.  I^ouis — Prices  pet  net  ton   fob.   mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared with  today  are  as  follows : 

Williamson  and  Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  n"d  Staunton  Standard , 

Feb   14  One  Feb  14.        One  Feb   14  One 

191S         Year  Ago        1918       Tear  Ago       1918  Tear  Ago 

"lump.  .    S3. 05  3.80  S3.35-3.50  83.65-3.80  $3.35-3.50  S3.65-2.80  S2j50-2.75 

"lump..       2.65-2.80    2.65-3.80    2.65-2.80    

^egg"  .  .  .    2.65-3.80    . 3.65-2.80    3.65-2.80    

^lin     .  .  .    2.40-3.O5    3.00-3.25    3.40-2.55    3.00  3.40-3.55    3.35-2.50 

^ut^ 3.05-3.80    3.35-3.50  3.65-2.80    3.35-3.50    3.65-3.80    2.35-2.75 

"screen     .  3.15-3.30    3.00-3.25    3.15-2.30    2.76-3.00    3.15-3.30    2.26-3.50 

'^washed       2.15-2.30     3.00  2.15-2.30     2.75-3.00     2.15-3..30    3.50 

Williamson-FrankUn  rale  St.  Louis.  87 He:  other  rates.  73 He. 

BirminEham — Current    prices   per   net    ton    fob.    mines    are   as 

Mine-Run     Lump  and  Nut     Slack  and  Screenings 

Big  Seam   S1.90  $2.15  $1.65 

Pratt.  Jagger.  Corona 2.1o  2.40  1.90 

Black  Creek.  Cahaba    .  .  .        3.40  3.6a  2.1.T 

Government  iigures. 

'Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  flxod  according 
to  a  regular  schedule. 


Ark..  El  Dorado — The  Arkansas  Light  and  Power  Co.  plans  to 
build  an  18  mile  transms  ion  line  from  here  to  Junction  City. 
J.  L/.  Longino,  Arkadelphia,   Ch,   Engr. 

Fla.,  St.  Petersburg — The  St.  Petersburg  Lighting  Co.  plans  to 
increase    the    capacity    of    its    lighting    plant.       Estimated    cost, 

?40,000. 

Ga.,  Albany — The  Albany  Power  and  Manufacturing  Co.  is  in 
the  market  for  a  185  lb.  hand  fired  600  hp.  water  tube  boiler.  E. 
S.  Killebrew.   Supt. 

Ga..  Jeffersonville — City  plans  an  election  to  vote  on  $15,000 
bonds  for  the  erection  of  an  electric-lighting  plant.  W.  Good- 
lee,  Macon.  Engr. 

Ind.,    Monterey— The   Monterey    Electric    Light    and    Power    Co. 

is  having  plans  prepared  by  C.  Xielson.  Engr..  154  West  Randolph 
St..  Chicago,  for  the  erection  of  a  1  .story,  50  x  125  ft.  power  house. 

Ind.,  Williamsport — City  plans  to  install  new  machinerj'  in  its 
piant  including  a  3  phase  generating  uait,  directly  connected,  to 
replace  the  single  pha.ie  unit  now  being  u.sed.     B.  Scott,  Supt. 

Kan..  Colb.v — City  voted  $30,000  bonds  for  improvements  to  its 
electric-lighting  plant.     C.   V.   Parrott,  City  Clerk. 

Kan.,  WeUsville — The  Wellsville  Electric  Light.  Power  and  Ice 
Co.  plans  to  purchase  5  or  10  kva.  transformers  soon.  C.  A. 
Smith.   Mgf. 

Mass.,  Palmer — The  Central  Massachusetts  Electric  Co.  plans 
to  issue  $200,000  additional  stock;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to 
build  additions  and  improvements  to  its  plant.  H.  M.  Parsons, 
Gen.  Mgr. 

Minn.,  Pine  Citv — The  Eastern  Minnesota  Power  Co.  plans  to 
build  a  10  mile  transmission  line  and  install  a  500  kw.  turbine  in 
its  plant.  R.  P.  Allen,  Mgr. 

Mo.,  OreBon — City  plans  to  build  an  electric  tran.smission  line 
from  here  to  St.  Joseph  in  order  to  secure  electricity  from  there. 
M.  R.  Martin,  Supt. 

Neb  ,  Dalton — The  Village  Board  will  receive  bids  until  Febru- 
ary 26  for  the  erection  of  a  power  plait  and  the  installation  of 
the  necessary  machinery.  R.  D.  Salisburg,  1415  East  Colfax 
Ave..   Engr. 

N.  Y.,  Rochester — The  Department  of  Public  Works  will  soon 
receive  bids  for  the  erection  of  a  central  heating  p'ant  and  will 
install  a  h-ating  boiler  and  coal  and  ash  handling  machinery. 
Estimated  cost,   $75,000. 

N.  Y.,  X'tiea — The  West  Brewery  is  in  the  market  for  new 
machinery  including  motors,  two  150  hp.  boilers,  belting  and  con- 
veying and   bottling   machinery. 

N.  C.  Rockv  Mount — City  is  having  plans  prepared  by  J.  N. 
Eley,  Engr..  Empire  Bldg.,  Atlanta.  Ga..  for  the  erection  of  an 
electric-lighting  plant.  New  equipment  including  a  300  hp.  Heine 
type  boiler,  will  be  installed. 

Ohio,  .\kron — The  Xoithern  Ohio  Traction  and  Light  Co..  Hamil- 
ton Bldg  will  soon  receive  bids  for  the  i  rection  of  a  power  plant 
and  meter  building.  Estimated  cost.  $100,000.  F.  C.  Warner. 
767  Hippodrome  Bldg.,  Cleveland.  Arch. 

Ohio  Chardon — Citv  voted  $25,000  bonds  to  rebuild  and  im- 
prove its  electric-lighting  plant.  Xew  electric-generating  units 
a"d  an  entire  change  of  system  from  133  to  RO  cycle,  will  be  m- 
stalled.     Noted  Nov.  27. 

Ohio  Cleveland — The  Board  of  Education  will  receive  bids  un- 
til February  25  for  the  installation  of  three  350  hp.  water  tube 
boilers  stokers  for  same.  2  boiler  fe-d  pumps  and  one  150  ft. 
radial  brick  chimney.  96  in    diameter  for  its  central  heating  plant. 

Ohio  Wellincton — The  Board  of  Trustees  of  Public  Affairs  is 
in  the  'market  for  flywheel.  40  x  10  in.  to  14  x  6  or  6J  in.  bore  to 
weigh  about   1000   lb.     C.   E.  Gadfield.   Supt. 

Penn  Philadelphia — The  Colver  Electric  Co.  has  petitioned  the 
Public  Service  Electric  Co.  for  authority  to  is.sue  $25,000  addi- 
tional stock  ;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  build  additions  and 
improvement's    to    its    plant. 

Penn.  BeadinB— The  Metropolitan  Edison  Co.  plans  to  issue 
$97,500  in  bonds:  the  proceeds  will  be  u.sed  to  build  additions 
and  improvements  to  its  plant. 

Te-x  Dallas— The  Dallas  Light  and  Power  Co.  plans  to  build 
an  electric  transmission  line  from  here  to  Norwood.  K.  C. 
Brooks.   Supt. 

Va.  Richmond— The  Richmond.  Fredericksburg  and  Potomac 
R  R  is  having  plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of  an  addition 
to  its  engfne  house.  E.stimated  cost.  $20,000.  W.  D.  Duke.  Gen. 
Supt. 

Wash  Seattle — The  Union  Lake  Co.  plans  to  build  a  third 
addition'to  i?s  i^er  plant.  Estimated  cost.  $600,000.  K.  J.  D. 
Ross,  Supt. 

Ont  Stratford— The  G.  McLagan  Furniture  Co.  is  in  the  mar- 
ket for  a  horizontal  steam  boiler,  16  ft.  long  and  6  ft.  in  diameter 

Que..  Warwick— The  Warwick  Overall  Co.  is  in  the  market  foi 
a  20  hp.  electric  motor. 


Vol.  47 


POWER 

I  n  I 

NLW    \ORK,  rEBKUAK\   20,  1918 


No.  9 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^^ 


The  Engineer  and  His  Position 


THE  era  of  efficiency  having  arrived,  what  has 
the  operating  engineer  done  to  prepare  himself 
to  meet  it? 

Operating  a  power  plant,  whether  it  is  in  a  hotel, 
mill,  office  building  or  railway  station,  is  not  what 
it  was  some  years  ago. 

Power-plant  engineering  has  advanced  rapidly  in 
recent  years,  and  for  the  engineer  to  keep  pace 
with  it  requires  continuous  study.  If  he  does  not 
read  and  become  acquainted  with  the  new  appli- 
ances and  methods  that  are  being  introduced,  he 
will  slide  into  a  rut  and  hold  his  position  only  untU 
the  owner  becomes  convinced  that  he  can  find  some- 
one who  can  operate  the  plant  efficiently. 

TAOES  your  plant  operate  efficiently?  If  not, 
'^  are  you  to  blame,  or  is  it  the  boss'  fault? 
If  you're  guilty,  how  long  do  you  think  the  owner 
is  going  to  keep  you  when  there  are  others  compe- 
tent to  handle  your  job  and  glad  of  the  chance? 

When  a  manufacturer  finds  that  competitors 
sell  the  same  goods  for  less  than  he  can,  he  investi- 
gates the  cause.  If  an  expert  reports  that  one  great 
contributing  cause  is  poor  plant  management,  who 
"gets  it  in  the  neck"? 

Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  operate  efficiently 
because  you  have  not  the  equipment  for  doing  so. 


but  no  matter  how  bad  the  machinery  or  equip- 
ment may  be,  you  can  make  an  attempt  at  keeping 
a  record  sheet  or  log.  When  this  is  done,  it  is  con- 
vincing proof  that  you  are  onto  the  job. 

Your  vest  pocket  is  not  the  place  for  a  log  or 
record  sheet.  Keep  it  where  it  will  create  a  healthy 
rivalry  between  the  men,  and  also  get  their  co- 
operation.   That  is  what  makes  for  success. 

UNITY  in  the  department  should  be  the  watch- 
word. It  is  a  pleasure  to  see  the  competition 
between  the  men,  as  one  watch  is  trying  to  beat  the 
record  of  the  other,  and  you,  checking  up  each  day, 
are  devising  some  way  to  make  a  better  record  than 
the  previous  one. 

After  youjhave  started  tojkeep  up-to-date  records, 
possibly  you  find  you  do  not  have  the  instruments 
or  apparatus  necessary  to  keep  them  accurately, 
but  if  you  will  take  the  matter  up  with  the  manager 
and  a  good  reason  is  shown  him  why  you  should 
have  them,  he  will,  no  doubt,  after  seeing  what  you 
are  striving  for  and  knowing  that  it  is  going  to 
save  money,  acquiesce  and  give  you  all  the  assist- 
ance desired.  It  is  then  that  you  are  headed  right 
and  becoming  the  kind  of  man  the  management 
wants  you  to  be,  the  kind  you  want  to  be  and  the 
kind  your  fellows  like  to  call  acciuaintance  and 
friend.    You  are  then  headed  for  a  better  job. 

Cnntrihuted  hji  David  Larkiu,  Chief  Enflinetr, 
Fifth    Anniir    Building,    New    York    City, 


niiiuiiiiiuuiuiiilliiuiiaiuiniiiiiiliiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilliuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiilliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiM 


282 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


sac 


.JiWiLfl^ 


A^PIFTY- 
THOUSAND 

SQ.FT. 
CONDENSER 


A  surface  condenser  having  50,000  sq.ft.  of  cool- 
ing surface,  serves  a  30,000-kw.  turbine.  The 
condenser  is  in  a  pit  74  ft.  deep,  and  the  exhaust 
pipe  between  the  turbine  and  the  condenser  is 
13  ft.  diameter  and  JtO  ft.  long.  It  is  provided 
with  a  special  design  of  expansion  joint.  The 
circulating  pump  is  below  the  low-level  stage  of 
the  river. 

WITH  the  increase  in  the  capacity  of  turbine- 
generator  units  for  power-plant  service  the  sizes 
of  the  condensers  that  serve  them  have  also  in- 
creased, and  improvements  and  refinements  in  design 
have  been  made.  Some  of  the  notable  condensers  that 
have  been  developed  and  put  in  service  during  the  last 
year  or  two  are,  for  instance,  the  50,000-sq.ft.  surface 
condenser  of  the  New  York  Edison  Co.,  and  also  one 
of  the  Chicago  Commonwealth  Edison  Co.,  that  serves 
30,000  kw.  generators.  Another  large  condenser,  a  Le- 
blanc,  serves  a  45,000-kw.  turbine  of  the  Narragansett 
Electric  Light  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I.  It  is  designed  to 
handle  18,000,000  lb.  of  circulating  water,  condensing 
approximately  500,000  lb.  of  steam  per  hour,  an  equiva- 
lent of  3G  lb.  of  circulating  water  per  pound  of  steam. 
The  largest  condenser  so  far  built  is  one  for  the  De- 
troit Edison  Co.,  which  has  70,000  sq.ft.  of  cooling  sur- 
face. 

Another  installation  of  large  surface  condensers,  of 
which  there  will  be  six,  the  largest  yet  built  of  the  Le- 
blane  surface  type,  is  to  be  located  at  the  bottom  of  a 
pit  74  feet  deep.  Fig.  2.  At  present  there  are  two  50,- 
000-sq.ft.  surface  condensers  that  serve  the  two  30,- 
000-kw.  turbines  installed  in  the  present  structure  of 
the  Windsor  power  plant  of  the  American  Gas  and  Elec- 
tric Co.     (See  headpiece.) 


Both  condensers  are  of  the  straight  downflow  type, 
with  the  tubes  so  spaced  that  steam  lanes  are  provided 
-SO  that  all  parts  of  the  cooling  surface  can  do  their 
proportionate  share  of  the  condensing  and  thus  insure  a 
minimum  pressure  drop  between  the  steam  inlet  and 
the  air-pump  connection.  Each  condenser  contains 
muntz-metal  tubes,  of  18  B.w.g.  and  18  ft.  long.  The 
condensers  are  18  ft.  inside  diameter  and  25  ft.  long. 
A  portion  of  the  tubes  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  con- 
denser, aggregating  about  2400  sq.ft.,  are  used  as  a  pri- 
mary feed-water  heater  through  which  the  condensate  is 
pumped  before  going  to  the  two  open  feed-water  heat- 
ers. The  primary  heater  brings  the  temperature  of  the 
condensate  up  very  near  to  that  of  the  incoming  steam. 
Each  condenser  is  set  below  the  turbine  which  it  serves, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  As  the  turbine  must  be  above  the 
highest  point  which  the  river  reaches  and  the  condenser 
must  be  low  enough  to  avoid  lifting  the  water  at  low 
stages,  the  13-ft.  diameter  exhaust  pipe  is  40  ft.  in 
length. 

Expansion  of  the  pipe  and  the  vertical  expansion  of 
the  condenser  are  taken  care  of  by  a  mercury  expan- 
sion joint,  Fig.  1,  designed  especially  for  and  constitut- 
ing one  of  the  really  novel  features  of  the  installation. 
It  is  13  ft.  in  diameter  and  consists  mainly  of  a  fairly 
close-fitting  cast-iron  sleeve  so  formed  as  to  permit  a 
manometric  column  of  mercury  to  make  a  seal  to  pre- 
vent air  leakage  and  at  the  same  time  permit  of  a  free 
motion  of  the  upper  and  the  lower  halves  of  the  joints 
relative  to  each  other.  The  upper  part  of  the  joint  is 
built  so  that  if  for  any  reason  the  mercury  arrangement 
part  of  it  should  fail,  an  ordinary  slip  joint  with  soft 
packing  could  be  used.  This  is  not  installed,  inasmuch 
as  the  mercury  joint  operates  very  well,  but  it  is  readily 
seen  that  in  case  the  mercury  joint  should  fail,  the  part 
of  the  joint  around  the  gland  and  packing  could  be  im- 


February  2(;.   191S 


P  O  W  K  R 


283 


mediately  turned  into  an  ortlinary  slip  joint  with  soft  densers   and   the   turbines   entailed   an   extraordinarily 

packing  in  the  part  that  is  marked  "Rope  for  Packing."  great  expansion  in  case  the  apparatus  should  be  much 

The  dotted  portion  marked  "Expansion  Joint  Clamping  changed  in  temperature.     The  mercury  expansion  joint 

Block"  is  not  used  with  the  joint  in  service.   This  is  sim-  can  take  up  an  indefinite  amount  of  expansion,  whereas 


U- 


m 


Upper- 


Upper 
CxpdwfSion 
Joint  5tee\/e 


Pipe  Flange 


Expansion'^ 

Joint   Clomping 

Block 


I" Pipe  Tap.  Wafer- 
seal  Overflow 


Expansion    Joint''' 
Sleeve   Pipe  Plugs 


Fir,,     1.       DKTAILS    OF    THE    13-FT.     DIAMRTF.R    MERCURY     EXPANSION    JOINT 


JWOOKW.TURBINE-., 


v\c. 


ELEVATION    OF    THIO    INTAKE    WEM-    AND    roNOENSIOI!    IMT 


ply  ■.ir\  arrangement  wh^^reby  the  two  portions  of  the 
jjint  can  be  firmly  fastened  together  for  shipment.  That 
portion  is  removed  after  the  joint  is  in  place. 

It  was  decided  that  this  type  of  joint  was  necessary 
because   the   great   vertical   distance   between   the   c"/n- 


there  would  be  a  danger  that  a  copper  joint,  with  the 
great  distortions  necessary,  would  ultimately  fail. 

With  each  condenser  is  furnished  a  horizontal  motor- 
driven  circulating  pump  having  a  capacity  of  50.000  gal. 
par    min.      There   are    r.lsu    two    motor-driven    Leblanc 


284 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


rotary  hydraulic-type  air  pumps  and  two  motor-driven 
hotwell  pumps.  Water  from  these  pumps  is  supplied 
from  two  steel  tanks  in  the  basement  of  the  power  plant, 
and  it  is  discharged  back  into  the  tanks.  Makeup  water 
is  taken  from  the  discharge  of  the  circulating  pump. 
The  centrifugal  hotwell  pumps  are  driven  by  550-volt 
three-phase  60-cycle  squirrel-cage  induction  motors  that 
are  provided  with  special  insulation  to  withstand  the 
damp  atmosphere  of  the  pit. 

At  this  writing  no  plant  tests  have  been  made  on  the 
turbines,  but  assuming  12  lb.  of  steam  per  kilowatt- 
hour,  each  condenser  will  take  care  of  360,000  lb.  of 
steam  at  rating  or  7.2  lb.  per  sq.ft.  of  cooling  surface 


the  circulating  pumps  at  the  same  elevation  with  the 
extreme  low  level  of  the  river,  thus  reducing  the  cost  of 
pumping  the  circulating  water  to  a  minimum. 

Steel  cross  members  support  the  condenser  at  a 
height  of  about  15  ft.  above  the  floor  of  the  condenser 
pit,  which  provides  space  for  the  circulating  air  and  hot- 
well  pumps.  The  concrete  intake  and  discharge  tun- 
nels for  the  condensing  water  are  built  to  take  care  of 
the  proposed  ultimate  capacity  of  200,000  kw.  Water 
coming  from  the  Ohio  River  through  the  intake  tunnel 
goes  to  an  intake  crib  inside  the  turbine  room  at  the 
condenser  well  of  Nos.  1  and  2  condensers.  From  this 
crib    the   water   passes    successively    through    bar-iron 


KIO. 


VKRTIC.A.L  ItKV(ll.\l.\(;   SCUKiOXS  AT  THE  INTAKE  TUNNEL 


and  8.3  gal.  of  circulating  water  per  pound  of  steam  con- 
densed at  rating.  Per  kilowatt  of  generator  rating  the 
condenser  contains  1.67  sq.ft.  of  cooling  surface. 

The  opening  into  the  condenser  pit  is  centrally  be- 
tween the  steam  ends  of  the  two  turbines,  the  founda- 
tions of  which  are  formed  by  the  walls  of  the  condenser 
pit.  The  Ohio  River  at  Windsor  has  a  rise  of  50  ft.  from 
extreme-low  to  extreme-high  water,  which  necessitated 
the  construction  of  a  condenser  pit  with  the  bottom  74  ft. 
below  the  turbine-room  floor.  The  basement  floor  is 
just  above  the  high-water  mark,  and  the  main  floor  is 
18  ft.  higher.  With  the  condenser-pit  floor  74  ft.  below 
the  turbines,  it  was  possible  to  place  the  center  line  of 


grills,  traveling  screens  and  stationary  screens  to  a  rear 
chamber  of  the  crib.  The  84-in.  diameter  cast-iron 
suction  pipe  of  the  circulating  pumps  drops  to  this 
chamber.  Water  from  the  condensers  discharges  from 
a  side  outlet  on  the  upper  side  at  one  end  through  a 
54-in.  cast-iron  pipe  into  a  discharge  well  that  connects 
to  the  discharge  tunnel,  and  is  returned  to  the  river  be- 
low the  intake. 

When  the  remaining  four  condensers  are  installed,  they 
will  receive  circulating  water  through  tunnels  running 
from  the  crib  to  the  intakes  of  their  circulating  pumps. 
Each  circulating-pump  intake  pipe  is  provided  with  an 
extra-heav>'  sluice  gate.  Fig.  3,  operated  by  a  hydraulic 


February  26,   1918 


POWER 


285 


cylinder  for  controlling  the  flow  of  water  to  the  pumps. 
The  KP'ieral  station  arrangement  permits  the  screens 
in  the  crib  to  be  handled  by  the  110-ton  turbine-room 
crane,  which  is  provided  with  a  15-ton  auxiliary  hoist. 
The  traveling  screens  are  mounted  in  a  vertical  position 
and  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  raised  or  lowered. 
Figures  regarding  the  construction  of  the  tunnels  and 
condenser  pit  are  of  interest.  The  intake  and  the  dis- 
charge tunnels  from  the  river  to  the  intake  in  the  station 
building  required  appro.ximately  -'50,000  cu.yd.  of  ex- 
cavation, 5300  cu.yd.  of  concrete  and  270  tons  of  rein- 
forcing. The  condensing  pit,  which  is  25  ft.  6  in.  wide, 
91  ft.  long  inside  and  74  ft.  deep,  required  approxi- 
mately 32,000  cu.yd.  of  excavation,  13,500  cu.yd.  of  con- 
crete placed  and  514  tons  of  reinforcing  steel,  as  well 
as  315  tons  of  structural  steel  used  in  the  construction. 

A    Forty-Eight-Inch    ReHef    Valve 

There  has  recently  been  built  one  of  the  largest  relief 
valves  ever  manufactured,  for  the  Conners  Creek  plant 
of  the  Detroit  Edison  Co.  It  is  a  48-in.  horizontal  ex- 
haust relief  valve,  and  is  hydraulically  operated.  It  will 
.serve  as  a  safety  relief  for  the  condenser  on  a  new 
turbine  unit.  The  complete  valve  weighs  14,000  lb. 
r.nd  measures  7  ft.  5  in.  from  face  to  face  of  the  flanges. 
The  cast-iron  valve  disk  is  48  in.  in  diameter  and  has  a 


lead   is  connected   to  a  long   lead,   as   in   Fig.   2.      This 

connects  the  two  sections  of  stator  winding  in  parallel. 

In  some  types  of  repulsion-induction  motors  they  are 

equipped  with  a  set  of  energy  brushes  and  a  set  of  com- 


A    48-IN.    EXHAUST   RELIEF   VALVE 

metal  ring  face  which  seats  on  a  brass  ring.  It  is  wa- 
ter-sealed and  is  double-cushioned  with  brass-lined 
dashpots  above  and  below  the  disk.  The  valve  stem  is 
32  in.  in  diameter.  The  illustration  gives  an  idea  of  the 
relative  size  of  the  valve;  it  was  built  by  the  G.  M.  Davis 
Regulator  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Variable-Speed    Motor    Used    in 
Constant-Speed    Service 

By  E.  C.  Parham 
Repulsion-induction  motors  of  the  constant-speed 
type  have  four  leads  coming  from  the  stator  winding, 
as  in  Fig.  1.  If  the  supply  voltage  is  220,  the  two  short 
leads  are  connected  together  as  in  the  figure,  thereby 
connecting  the  two  sections  of  the  stator  winding  in 
series.     If  the  supply  voltage  is   110,  then  each  short 


FI0.2 


FIG.3 


K1G.S.    1    TO    3.      ARRANGEMENT    OF    LBAD.S    FROM    A 

REniLSlON-INDUCTION  MOTOR 

Figs.    1    and    :i — *\)nstant-speed.    motor.       Fig.    3 — Variable-speed 

niotoi'. 

pensating  brushes  on  the  commutator.  Inside  of  the 
motor  frame  the  two  energy  brushes  are  connected  to- 
gether and  the  two  compensating  brushes  are  connected 
to  the  compensating  field  winding.  Where  such  a  motor 
is  to  be  used  on  variable-speed  duty,  the  energy  and 
compensating  circuits  are  opened  and  the  ends  appear 
at  the  outside  of  the  motor  as  two  more  pairs  of  leads 
that  are  to  be  connected  to  the  controller  by  means  of 
which  the  speed  is  varied  by  varying  the  amount  of 
resistance  included  in  the  energy  and  compensating-field 
circuits.  Where  such  a  motor  is  to  be  used  on  constant- 
speed  duty,  no  controller  is  required  and  the  two  energy- 
brush  leads  are  connected  together,  also  the  compensat- 
ing leads,  the  stator  leads  being  grouped  according  to 
the  voltage  and  connected  to  the  starting  switch. 

A  second-hand  repulsion  induction  motor  was  bought 
and  applied  to  the  driving  of  a  pump  through  a  worm 
and  gear.  The  motor  was  complained  of  because  it 
could  not  be  started.  What  puzzled  the  local  electrician 
was  that  the  motor  had  eight  leads  and  the  starting 
switch  had  connections  for  only  two  wires  coming  from 
the  motor.  Investigation  developed  that  the  motor 
formerly  had  been  used  on  variable-speed  duty  and  it 
now  was  to  be  used  in  constant-speed  service. 

The  leads  of  the  energy  brush-holders  always  are 
tagged  3  and  4  and  those  of  the  compensating  brush- 
holders,  5  and  6  as  in  Fig.  3 ;  and  in  this  particular  case 
the  tags  were  still  in  place.  By  lifting  the  brushes,  so 
that  the  holders  would  not  be  connected  together 
through  the  armature,  and  testing,  the  energy  leads  3 
and  4  were  identified  and  connected  together,  also  the 
compensating  leads  5  and  6  were  found  and  joined.  The 
stator  leads  were  easily  identified  because  each  short 
lead  was  connected  to  the  long  lead  nearest  to  it,  show- 
ing that  the  motor  formerly  had  been  operated  on  a  110- 
volt  circuit.  As  the  work  in  hand  called  for  220-volt 
operation,  the  short  leads  were  disconnected  from  the 
long  ones  and  connected  together,  as  in  Fig.  1,  and  the 
two  long  leads  connected  to  the  motor  side  of  the  start- 
ing switch.  On  closing  the  switch,  the  motor  started 
promptly,  and  it  gave  no  furtiicr  trouble. 


286 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


Measuring  High  Pressures  With 
Dead  Weight 

By  SANFORD  A.  MOSS 

■Rnprineer.  Turbine  Research   I  leiiaT-tiiieTit,  'Jeneral  Electric  Co..  I.,>"nn.   Mass. 


Complete  details  are  yiven  for  using  the  equiv- 
alent of  the  dead-iveight  pressure-gage  tester  for 
measuring  pressures  during  tests  as  used  in  the 
steam-turbine  department  of  the  General  Electric 
Co.,  Lynn,  Mass. 


EVERYONE  who  ha.s  had  any  experience  with  the 
use  of  Bourdon  pres.sure  gages,  even  of  good 
quality,  knows  that  they  are  more  or  less  trouble- 
some when  extreme  accuracy  is  desired.  Frequently 
the    calibrations    before    and    after    the    test    disagree. 


„  PIG     1.      DEAn-WEIGHT    PRESSURE    GAGE 

Even  if  the  calibrations  do  agree,  there  is  often  a  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  the  temperature  effect  has  been 
properly  taken  care  of.  Most  Bourdon  gages  are  not 
accurate  to  a  per  cent.,  therefore,  they  are  usually  read 
to  one  per  cent,  by  estimation  between  graduations. 
Accuracy  of  the  construction  probably  does  not  warrant 
closer  graduation  than  the  coarse  one  usually  given. 

The  dead-weight  pressure  gage  consists  of  an  accu- 
rately bored  cylinder,  usually  having  an  area  of  one- 
eighth  of  a  square  inch,  with  a  closely  fitting  piston, 
at  the  top  of  which  is  a  platform  on  which  are  placed 
weights  sufficient  to  keep  the  gage  floating.  The  in- 
strument in  this  form  has  been  in  use  for  many  years 
for  testing  pressure  gages.  For  use  in  direct  measure- 
ment of  pressure,  the  addition  of  a  stop  must  be  made 
to  prevent  the  piston  from  rising  out  of  the  cylinder, 
and  an  oil  trap  and  reservoir  so  that  there  is  sure  to 
be  oil  in  contact  with  the  cylinder  and  piston.  The 
con.struction  can  also  be  cheapened  from  that  usually 
adopted  in  dead-weight  testers.  The  platform  and 
piston  must  always  be  spun  by  hand  when  the  appa- 
ratus is  in  use. 

The  use  of  a  dead-weight  apparatus  thus  attached 
directly  to  the  pipe  where  pressure  is  being  measured, 


gives  accuracy  to  within  about  0.25  of  one  par  cent. 
without  any  difficulty  whatever.  The  dead-weight 
apparatus  is  cheaply  and  easily  made  and  easily  oper- 
ated. Considerable  experience  indicates  that  it  is 
satisfactory  in  every  way.  Fig.  1  shows  the  apparatus 
used  in  the  turbine  department  of  the  General  Electric 
Co.'s  Lynn  works,  where  there  are  about  fifteen  outfits, 
all  in  more  or  less  regular  use.  This  system  has  been 
in  use  in  this  department  for  over  ten  years.  Fig.  2 
indicates  the  manner  of  installation,  operation  and  a 
machine  on  test.  Fig.  3  gives  a  sectional  view 'of  the 
apparatus. 

Tlie  apparatus  is  primarily  adapted  for  testing  work 
where  the  pressure  is  constant  or  nearly  constant  and 
where  the  exact  value,  whatever  it  may  be,  must  be 
known  at  frequent  intervals,  or  where  an  exact  value 
must  be  held  by  hand  regulation.  Following  are  some 
te.sts  in  which  dead-weight  gages  have  been  used. 

A.  Laboratory  test  of  a  steam  turbine,  or  the  like, 
at  a  given  load  point  such  as  full-load,  half-load,  etc. 
Steam  pressure  is  held  by  hand  regulation  at  an  exact 
value  for  which  the  turbine  is  rated.  In  such  a  case 
of  course  the  boiler  pressure  must  be  somewhat  higher 
than  the  rated  pressure  and  an  attendant  at  all  times 
holds  the  pressure  at  the  exact  rated  value.  If  the 
Bourdon  gage  were  used,  there  would  be  more  or  less 
uncertainty  about  the  pressure  due  to  variations  of  the 
boiler  pressure  or  governing  of  the  turbine;  the 
throttle  valve  is  being  opened  or  closed  slightly  at  all 
times  during  the  test.    The  Bourdon  gage,  for  pressures 


I'Ml!.    -1.       riK.Vn-WKIGTIT    OACl.;    l.V.'^TALLEn    OX    TURBINE 

that  vary,  gives  an  appreciable  difference.     On  the  con- 
trary,  with   a  dead-weight   gage,   the   attendant,   after 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes'  practice,  can  hold  the  rated  pre:; 
sure  within  0.25  of  one  per  cent,  or  less.    In  such  a  tes. 


February  2i;.   1918 


POWER 


287 


the  load,  which  is  an  electrif  Kenerator,  is  either  held 
exactly  constant  by  hand  regulation  of  water  rheostats 
or  the  like,  or  else  is  set  at  nearly  desired  value  and 
allowed  to  drift  up  and  down  near  the  correct  value. 
If  the  load  or  steam  pressure  varies  rapidly,  the  dead- 
weight pressure  gage  cannot  be  used. 

B.  Calibration  of  steam-turbine  nozzles  or  other  work 
on  flow  of  steam,  or  high-pressure  air  through  orifices. 
Here  there  is  a  constant  opening  through  which  a  fluid 
is  discharged,  and  a  constant  pressure  is  to  be  held 
by  hand  regulation  of  a  throttle  valve  just  as  in  the 
preceding  case.  The  steam  is  of  course  condensed  and 
weighted  at  successive  intervals.  The  flows  during  each 
interval  should  be  all  alike.  Much  greater  precision  is 
secured  in  this  particular  with  a  dead-weight  gage  than 
with  a  spring-pressure  gage. 

C.  Test  of  any  other  type  of  steam  or  high-pressure 
air  machinery  where  an  exact  pressure  is  to  be  held 
by  hand  regulation  at  all  times  during  the  test. 

D.  Test  of  a  high-pressure  centrifugal  pump.  Here 
a  dead-weight  gage  can  be  used  with  great  satisfaction 
to  measure  the  discharge  pressure.  If  the  volume  flow- 
ing is  measured  by  means  of  orifices,  another  dead- 
weight gage  can  be  used  to  measure  the  orifice  pressure. 

E.  Test  of  a  high-pressure  air  compressor.  If  the 
compressor  is  a  reciprocating  machine,  there  must  be 
the  usual  air  receiver  with  capacity  enough  to  smooth 
out  the  pressure  fluctuations  so  that  the  dead-weight 
gage  will  give  the  average  value.  Here  also,  if  the 
air-compressor  flow  is  being  measured  by  means  of  an 
orifice,  a  dead-weight  gage  can  be  used  to  give  orifice 
pressure.  If  the  flow  of  the  reciprocating  compressor 
is  being  measured,  the  arrangement  of  the  orifice  must 
be  especially  attended  to.  There  must  be  a  large  re- 
ceiver, and  a  throttle  valve  between  discharge  pressure 
and  orifice  pressure  so  as  to  reduce  the  orifice  pressure 
a  very  considerable  amount.  This  throttling  smooths 
out  the  flow  so  that  the  pressure  is  not  pulsating  at  the 
orifice.  As  is  well  known,  the  average  value  of  a  pulsat- 
ing orifice  pressure  does  not  give  the  average  flow.  If 
the  orifice  can  be  made  large  enough,  it  is  best  to 
reduce  the  orifice  pressure  by  throttling  until  it  is  about 
15  lb.  per  sq.in.  Then  the  orifice  dead-weight  gage  could 
be  discarded  altogether  and  a  mercury  column  used. 

In  orifice  tests  of  pumps  or  air  compressors,  as  in  D 
or  E  it  is  necessary  to  have  two  dead-weight  gages  or 
one  dead-weight  gage  and  one  mercury  column,  since 
there  are  two  distinct  pressures.  One  of  these  is  a 
discharge  pressure  measured  in  the  pipe  between  the 
throttle  valve  and  the  machine  and  gives  the  pressure 
with  which  the  machine  is  to  be  credited  in  computing 
its  performance,  eflSciency,  etc.  The  throttle  valve  cuts 
down  this  pressure  so  that  any  desired  pressure  can  be 
had  on  the  orifice  so  as  to  give  any  desired  volume  or 
amount  of  flow,  which  is  computed  from  the  orifice 
pressure.  This  orifice  pressure  may  be  measured  by 
means  of  a  static  hole  in  the  pipe  wall  with  a  pipe 
connecting  to  the  dead-weight  gage  or  mercury  column, 
or  an  impact  tube  may  be  used  in  the  jet  discharged 
from  the  orifice  as  explained  in  the  paper,  "The  Impact 
Tube,"  A.  S.  M.  E.  Transactions,  December,  1916. 

F.  Measurement  of  high  pressures  during  any  experi- 
mental work  such  as  hydraulic  work,  high-pressure 
steam  work,  or  the  like,  or  calibration  of  thermometers 
by   means   of   high-pressure    steam.      The   dead-weight 


gage  of  the  construction  here  described  has  been  suc- 
cessfully used  for  pressures  up  to  500  lb.  per  sq.in. 
without  any  difticulty.  For  very  high  pressures,  pistons 
of  larger  diameter,  as  well  as  lever  devices  for  balancing 
the  piston,  have  been  proposed.  Just  how  far  the  one- 
eighth-inch  piston  with  direct  balancing  can  be  used, 
and  the  magnitude  of  the  pressure  when  it  is  necessary 
to  resort  to  other  devices,  cannot  be  definitely  stated. 
During  use  of  the  dead-weight  gage  in  any  test  such 
as  the  preceding  ones,  if  the  pressure  variation  is  such 
as  to  require  constant  adjustment  by  an  attendant,  there 
must  be  provided  a  throttle  valve  at  a  convenient  loca- 
tion and  the  gage  must  be  piped  near-by.    The  attendant 


Section 
•ttirough  Clamp 


a 

'doffom  of  Inside 
of  Pipe  coincides  wi-ff, 
Mid-position  of  Bottom 
of  Pistvnj  Line  B-B 


I  Pipe  Fian^  ■■ 

FIG.    3.      SECTIONAL    VIEW    THROUr.H 
PRESSURE   r.AOK 


OKAD-WEIGHT 


then  has  one  hand  on  the  throttle  valve  and  with  the 
other  hand  spins  the  dead-weight  gage,  as  in  Fig.  2. 
He  turns  the  throttle  valve  backward  and  forward  so 
as  to  keep  the  gage  floating  between  the  top  and  bot- 
tom stops.  After  about  ten  minutes'  practice  anyone, 
even  an  unskilled  laborer,  can  keep  the  gage  floating 
without  any  difficulty  whatever. 

In  some  tests  the  pressure  does  not  vary  much,  so 
that  no  hand  regulation  is  required.  In  such  cases, 
whenever  a  pressure  reading  is  needed  it  must  be  taken 
by  adding  or  subtracting  one-pound  weights  until  the 
gage  floats.  During  all  periods  when  reading  of  the 
gage  is  being  observed,  it  must  be  spun  by  hand.  For 
this  reason  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  the  heavier 
weights  thin  and  of  large  diameter  rather  than  thick 
and  of  small  diameter,  so  that  a  single  spin  will  persist 
for   a   long  period. 


zas 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


The  valve  used  to  regulate  the  pressure  vh'ch  is 
read  by  dead-weight  gage  must  be  adapted  to  that  pur- 
pose. If  the  valve  is  too  large,  the  motion  is  so  small 
as  to  be  difficult.  If  it  is  too  small,  the  motion  is  too 
large.  The  easiest  way  of  handling  this  matter  is  to 
have  two  throttle  valves  in  the  line.  One  of  these  is 
set  at  such  a  point  as  to  give  easy  manipulation  of  the 

TABLE   I.      WEIGHTS  To  <II\K   ABSOIATE    I'HESSUl'.Eci 
FOR  VARIDUS  BAHOMIOTEI!   READINGS 


Uncorrected 

Barometer 

Reading 

Tenipc 

raturo  o 

f  MTcury,  Uegi 

res 

F 

Inches  of 

Mercurj* 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

28  5 

6  05 

6  05 

6 

05 

6  05 

6   05 

6    10 

6 

10 

6 

10 

6    10 

28  6 

6  00 

6  00 

6 

00 

6  00 

6  00 

6  05 

6 

05 

6 

05 

6  05 

28  7 

5  95 

5  95 

95 

5  95 

5   95 

6  00 

6 

00 

6 

00 

6   00 

28  8 

5  90 

5  90 

90 

5  90 

5   90 

5  95 

95 

5 

95 

5  95 

28  9 

5.85 

5  85 

85 

5   85 

5   85 

5  90 

90 

90 

5   90 

29.0 

5  80 

5  80 

80 

5  80 

5  80 

5  85 

85 

85 

5  85 

29.1 

5  75 

5  75 

75 

5  75 

5  75 

5  80 

80 

80 

5  80 

29.2 

5.70 

5  70 

70 

5  70 

5  70 

5  75 

75 

75 

5  75 

29  3 

5  65 

5  65 

65 

5  65 

5  65 

5.70 

70 

70 

5  70 

29.4 

5.60 

5  60 

60 

5  60 

5  60 

5  65 

65 

65 

5  65 

29  5 

5  55 

5  55 

55 

5  55 

5  55 

5  60 

60 

60 

5  60 

29  6 

5  50 

5  50 

50 

5  50 

5  50 

5  55 

55 

55 

5  55 

29  7 

5  45 

5  45 

45 

5  45 

5  45 

5  50 

50 

50 

5  50 

29  8 

5.40 

5  40 

40 

5  40 

5  40 

5  45 

45 

45 

5  45 

29.9 

5  35 

5  35 

35 

5  35 

5  35 

5  40 

40 

40 

5  40 

30.0 

5  30 

5.30 

30 

5   30 

5  30 

5  35 

35 

35 

5  35 

30.1 

5  25 

5  25 

25 

5  25 

5  25 

5  30 

30 

30 

5  30 

30  2 

5  20 

5  20 

20 

5  20 

5  20 

5  25 

25 

25 

5  25 

30  3 

5   15 

5   15 

15 

5   15 

5    15 

5  20 

20 

20 

5  20 

30  4 

5   10 

5   10 

10 

5    ID 

5    10 

5   15 

15 

15 

5   15 

30.5 

5  05 

5  05 

05 

5  05 

5  05 

5    10 

10 

10 

5,  10 

30  6 

5  00 

5  00 

00 

5  00 

5  00 

5  05 

05 

05 

5  05 

30  7 

4.95 

4  95 

95 

4  95 

<  95 

5  00 

00 

00 

5  00 

30  8 

4  90 

4  90 

90 

4   90 

4  90 

4  95 

95 

95 

4  95 

30  9 

4  85 

4  85 

85 

4   85 

4  85 

4  90 

90 

QO 

4  90 

31   0 

4  80 

4  80 

80 

4  80 

4  80 

4  85 

85 

85 

4  85 

;econd  one,  which  is  thereafter  the  one  regulated  to 
keep  the  gage  floating. 

As  seen  in  the  figures,  the  dead-weight  gage  is  con- 
nected so  that  there  is  a  "U"  of  oil  with  the  piston 
at  the  top  of  one  leg  and  the  applied  pressure  at  the 
top  of  the  other.  The  pipe  from  the  latter  point  must 
be  led  downward  to  the  place  where  the  pressure  is  being 
measured,  so  there  will  be  no  chance  of  a  water  trap 
giving  error.  The  point  from  which  the  pipe  is  led 
downward  must  be  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  average 
position  of  the  bottom  of  the  piston,  so  as  to  auto- 
matically maintain  the  liquid  level  the  same  in  the  two 
sides  of  the  "U." 

If  the  gage  is  filled  with  oil  at  the  beginning  of 
a  test,  there  is  usually  not  enough  oil  leakage  to  re- 
quire any  refilling.  The  gage  was  originally  filled  by 
removing  the  .stop  casting  and  lifting  the  piston  out 
of  the  cylinder.  However,  with  the  piping  arrange- 
ment shown  in  the  figures,  removal  of  the  stop  casting 
and  piston  is  avoided  as  follows :  The  two  plugs  in  the 
tees  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  side-pipe  leg  are 
removed  and  the  vent  cock  opened.  After  the  water 
has  run  out,  the  bottom  plug  is  inserted  and  oil  added 
at  the  top  opening. 

In  air  tests,  a  slight  oil  leakage  during  the  test 
gives  an  error  of  a  head  of  oil  equal  to  an  inch  or  so. 
In  steam  tests  the  gage  oil  is  replaced  by  water  so 
that  the  error  will  only  be  that  due  to  the  difference 
between  an  inch  or  so  of  oil  and  an  equal  amount  of 
water.  As  in  all  pressure  measurements,  the  pipe  con- 
necting the  dead-weight  gage  to  the  place  where  pres- 
sure is  being  measured,  must  be  absolutely  tight.  This 
pipe  is  usually  l-in.  standard  material.  However,  if 
there  is  any  appreciable  length  of  pipe,  it  should  be 
made  i  inch. 

Any  dead-weight  gage  tester  can  be  used  as  a  dead- 
weight gage  by  arranging  a  stop  so  that  the  piston 
cannot  be  ejected  from  the  cylinder.  However,  the 
gages  on  the  market  are  of  more  expensive  construction 


than  is  desirable  for  ordinary  pressure-measuring  pur- 
poses, so  that  home-made  ones  similar  to  that  shown  in 
Fig.  3  must  be  used,  until  some  manufacturer  produces 
a  gage  whose  cost  is  considerably  less  than  that  of  the 
present  types  on  the  market.  The  gage  shown  was 
made  by  purchasing  pi.stons  and  cylinders  from  a  manu- 
facturer, which  were  made  with  the  precision  necessary 
for  this  work.  A  stop  was  fastened  to  the  piston  and 
holes  boi-ed  in  the  platform  so  as  to  leave  the  weight 
the  same  as  before.  The  weights  were  carefully  made 
by  use  of  a  precision  scale,  so  as  to  weigh  within  0.1 
of  one  per  cent,  of  the  correct  amount.  The  pressure  in 
pounds  per  square  inch  for  each  weight  is  of  course 
eight  times  that  of  the  weight  in  pounds. 

In  the  course  of  comparative  tests  with  a  given  ma- 
chine on  different  days,  if  the  same  dead-weight  gage 
pressure  is  held,  the  absolute  pressure  will  vary.  For 
accurate  work  this  is  avoided  by  use  of  a  set  of 
barometer  weights.  These  vary  from  4.85  to  6.05  lb. 
per  sq.in.  by  0.05  lb.  and  are  selected  according  to  the 
barometer  so  as  to  give  the  same  absolute  pressure  each 
day,  as  per  Table  I. 

The  first  column  of  the  table  (as  well  as  Table  II) 
gives  the  actual  reading  of  the  mercury  column  of  the 
barometer  without  correction  for  mercury  temperature. 
The  headings  of  the  other  columns  give  various  values 
of  the  temperature  of  the  mercury  column  of  the 
barometer,  and  the  body  of  the  table  gives  that  one  of  the 
barometer  weights  which  is  to  be  added  on  the  gage. 
The  other  weights  to  be  used  must  total  the  desired 
absolute  pressure  minus  20;  that  is,  the  weight  placed 
on  the  gage  should  be  the  desired  absolute  pressure  in 
pounds  per  square  inch,  minus  20,  plus  weight  in  table. 


TABLE  II 

INCHE 

S  OF  \ 

VATEH 

TO  GI 

VE    15 

.3.  Pb 

R  SQ.I 

N 

\BSOLUTE 

EXHAUST  PRESSURE 

.'ncorrected 

Barometer 

Reading 

Tempc 

raturc  o 

Mercury.   Deg 

rees  F. 

Inches  of 

.Mcrcur.\- 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

29 

0 

21    9 

22   1 

22  3 

22  5 

22   6 

22  9 

23  0 

23.1 

23  4 

29 

1 

20  5 

20  7 

20.9 

21    1 

21   2 

21   5 

21   6 

21.8 

22.0 

29 

2 

19  2 

19  3 

19  6 

19  7 

19  9 

20   1 

20  3 

20,4 

20,7 

29 

3 

17  8 

18   1 

18  2 

18  4 

18  5 

18  8 

18  9 

19  0 

19.3 

29 

4 

16  5 

16  7 

16  8 

17  0 

17  3 

17  4 

17  5 

17  8 

18  0 

29 

5 

15   1 

15  4 

15  5 

15  6 

15  9 

16   1 

16  2 

16  5 

16  6 

29 

6 

13  7 

14  0 

14   1 

14  3 

14  6 

14  7 

14  8 

15   1 

15.2 

29 

7 

12  4 

12  6 

12  8 

12  9 

13  2 

13  3 

13  5 

13  7 

13  9 

29 

8 

110 

113 

11   4 

117 

11   8 

12  0 

12  2 

12  4 

12  5 

29 

9 

9  7 

9  9 

10   1 

10  3 

10   5 

10  6 

10  9 

II   0 

11    2 

30 

0 

8  3 

8  6 

8  7 

9  0 

9    1 

9  3 

9  5 

9  7 

9.8 

30 

1 

6  9 

7  2 

7  3 

7  6 

7  8 

7.9 

8  2 

8.3 

8  4 

30 

2 

5  6 

5  8 

6  0 

6  3 

6  4 

6  5 

6  8 

6  9 

7.1 

30 

3 

4  4 

4  5 

4  6 

4  9 

5  0 

5  2 

5  4 

5  6 

5.7 

30 

4 

3  0 

3   1 

3  3 

3  5 

3  7 

3  8 

4   1 

4  2 

4.5 

30 

5 

1   6 

1   8 

1    9 

2  2 

2  3 

2  4 

2  7 

2  9 

3.1 

30 

6 

0  3 

0  4 

0  5 

0  8 

10 

1    1 

1   4 

1    5 

1.8 

30 

7 

-1    1 

—  10 

—0  8 

—0  5 

—0  4 

—0  3 

0  0 

0   1 

0,4 

30 

8 

-2  4 

—2  3 

—2  2 

—  19 

—  1   8 

—  16 

—  1   4 

—  12 

—  1.0 

30 

9     - 

-3.8 

—3  7 

-3  5 

—3  3 

—  3   1 

—3.0 

—2  7 

—2  6 

—2.3 

31 

0     - 

-5   1 

—5  0 

—4  9 

—4  6 

— 4  5 

—4  4 

—4  1 

—3  9 

—3  7 

Fifteen  pounds 

per  sq.il 

equal 

.  30.35  in 

of  mercury; 

in.  of 

uercury 

equals 

13.6  in 

of  \\ 

ater. 

Change  of  barometer  also  atfects  the  absolute  exhaust 
pressure  in  comparative  tests  made  on  different  days  of 
a  noncondensing  steam  turbine  or  the  like.  Although 
this  point  has  nothing  to  do  with  dead-weight  gages, 
a  method  of  handling  the  absolute  exhaust  pressure  will 
be  given.  This  is  to  always  hold  such  back  pressure 
on  the  exhaust  line  as  will  give  exactly  15  lb.  absolute 
pressure.  This  is  accomplished  by  putting  a  water  U- 
tube  on  the  exhaust  line  and  throttling  the  exhaust  until 
fhe  back  pressure  indicated  by  the  U-tube  plus  the 
reading  of  the  barometer  is  such  as  to  give  the  desired 
absolute  pressure.  Table  II  gives  the  inches  of  water 
to  be  held  in  the  U-tube  to  secure  this  effect,  taking  into 
account  the  temperature  of  the  barometer  column. 


Kebriian'  2l),  I'JIB 


POWER" 


289 


Some  Why's  of  the  Coal  Shortage 


There  have  been  many  assertions  as  to  the  cause 
of  the  prevailing  coal  shortage  in  that  those  in- 
terested in  the  production,  transportation,  han- 
dling ut  the  terminals  and  in  the  delivery  to  the 
coalyards  claim  that  the  trouble  has  been  due  to 
the  failure  of  some  other  arm  of  the  coal-han- 
dling organization.  Some  of  the  causes  for  the 
scarcity  of  coal  arc  enumerated  in  this  article. 

IT  HAS  been  asserted  almost  countless  times  that 
the  American  public  do  not  realize  that  we  are  at 
war.  This  may  have  been  true  to  a  great  extent 
prior  to  Jan.  16,  when,  by  the  order  of  Dr.  Harry  A. 
Garfield,  Fuel  Administrator,  practically  all  of  the  in- 
dustries east  of  the  Mississippi  River  were  closed  for  a 
period  of  five  days  and  by  which  order,  countermanded 
now,  Mondays  were  to  be  workless  until  Mar.  30 ;  but 
the  assumption  does  not  now  apply.  The  five  workless- 
days  bomb  was  an  eff'ective  awakener  for  the  American 
people  to  the  fact  that  war  does  exist.  Furthermore, 
the  average  citizen  knows  more  about  the  coal  situation 
today  than  he  ever  did  before  the  closing-down  order 
went  into  effect. 

Shortage  Traceable  as  Far  Back  as  July 

That  there  is  and  has  been  a  serious  shortage  of 
coal,  both  for  domestic  and  manufacturing  purposes,  is 
without  question  a  fact.  Thousands  of  individuals  have 
their  belief  as  to  the  cause,  and  they  are  varied.  It  is 
evident  to  many  that  the  coal  shortage  does  not  date 
back  to  the  extreme  cold  weather  of  the  past  few  weeks, 
but  rather  that  it  is  traceable  as  far  back  as  July  of 
1917. 

Previous  to  this  date  the  coal  operators  had  reduced 
their  rates  from  $5  and  $6  to  $3  per  ton,  and  a  few 
days  later  the  Secretary  of  War  reduced  the  price  to 
$2.50  a  ton  for  all  coal  sold  to  the  Government.  Those 
who  thought  they  were  foresighted  and  who  were  ac- 
customed to  put  in  winter  coal  during  the  summer 
months  held  off  with  the  idea  that  a  better  price  would 
obtain  later  on.  The  result  was  that  the  movement  of 
coal  during  the  summer  months  was  greatly  retarded 
because  consumers  delayed  their  buying,  and  the  possi- 
bilities are  that  orders  for  thousands  of  tons  of  coal 
were  cancelled.  It  is  easy  enough  now  to  see  that  this 
was  a  mistake  and  that  this  coal  should  have  been  pur- 
chased and  delivered  before  the  cold  weather  came  to 
delay  traff'.c  and  freeze  the  coal  in  the  cars,  which  so 
seriously  delays  the  unloading.  Naturally,  the  time  lost 
because  of  the  public  waiting  for  a  lower  price  could 
not  be  made  up  after  the  price  of  coal  was  fixed  at  $2 
a  ton,  during  the  latter  part  of  August,  and  which  was 
later  found  too  low  and  increased  to  $2.45. 

Has  price  fixing  saved  the  public  money?  This  is  a 
debatable  question.  One  thing  is  certain — there  has 
been  a  loss  to  the  country  in  the  extra  coal  produced  be- 
cause the  price  fixed  by  the  Government  is  for  run-of- 
mine  coal  and  the  added  tonnage  mined  is  largely 
slate  and  refuse.  That  some  of  the  coal  operators 
have   no    scruples    about   putting    their   hands    in    the 


pockets  of  those  who  cannot  afford  to  spend  an  extra 
nickel  for  coal  is  evident  when  they  ship  trash  that  is 
being  sold  for  fuel  at  a  price  that  is  high  for  a  good 
grade  of  coal. 

There  was  produced  642,340,134  short  tons  of  coal  in 
1917.  This  coal  in  normal  times  should  run  not  higher 
than  8  per  cent,  ash,  but  much  of  it  is  running  as  high 
as  18  per  cent,  at  the  present  time  and  some  of  it  as 
high  as  35  per  cent.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  there  is 
at  least  6  per  cent,  more  ash  included  in  the  total  coal 
shipped  to  consumers  last  year  than  in  the  year  pre- 
vious, which  if  true  would  mean  that  38,540,408  tons 
of  last  year's  coal  output  is  in  the  form  of  increased  ash 
and  bone.  Taking  an  average  of  45  tons  per  car,  this 
would  mean  that  856,453  carloads  of  ash  is  being  added 
to  the  transportation  difficulties  of  the  railroads.  At  60 
loaded  cars  per  train  there  would  be  required  14,274 
locomotives  to  move  this  material  that  has  no  heating 
value. 

Efficiency  of  Fuel  Decreased 

This  useless  transportation  of  noncombustibles  does 
not  stop  with  the  delivery  of  the  cars  at  their  destina- 
tion. It  has  been  determined  by  experiments  conducted 
by  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  that  there  is  a  decrease  of  ap- 
proximately 1.5  per  cent,  in  efficiency  for  each  1  per 
cent,  additional  ash  contents  to  the  coal,  and  an  increase 
of  6  per  cent,  in  ash  content  over  normal  conditions 
means  that  the  efficiency  of  the  coal  is  reduced  about 
9  per  cent.,  which,  plus  6  per  cent,  additional  ash  In 
the  coal  now  being  sent  to  the  consumer,  makes  a  15 
per  cent,  reduction  in  the  efficiency  of  the  fuel. 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  although  more  fuel  was 
shipped  from  the  mines  last  year  than  during  the  pre- 
vious year,  there  is  an  actual  decrease  in  the  effective 
coal  received  by  the  consumer.  This  is  certainly  a 
matter  that  the  Fuel  Administration  at  Washington 
should  take  in  hand.  The  writer  has  seen  coal  that 
looked  fully  40  per  cent,  slate  and  incombustible,  which 
is  being  sold  to  the  consumer.  Selling  such  coal  at  the 
prevailing  prices  makes  the  offense  of  stealing  pennies 
from  a  dead  man's  eyes  look  like  a  virtue  in  compari- 
son. 

The  Railroads  Said  To  Be  at  Fault 

The  tying  up  of  14,000  locomotives  in  hauling  as 
many  trains  of  60  loaded  cars  of  ash  is  one  of  the 
several  reasons  for  the  present  fuel  shortage.  More 
than  one  man  occupying  a  responsible  position  asserts, 
and  with  apparent  justification,  that  the  railroads  are  at 
fault  in  that  they  have  failed  to  render  the  full  meas- 
ure of  car  service  of  which  they  have  been  capable,  and 
some  believe  that  this  has  been  done  deliberately  to 
make  it  appear  that  the  recent  demands  for  higher 
freight  rates  were  justifiable. 

It  has  also  been  claimed  that  for  every  period  of  de- 
cline in  coal  production  since  the  United  States  entered 
the  war  figures  show  that  the  railroads  were  rendering 
less  car  service  than  in  the  corresponding  weeks  or 
months  of  the  preceding  year,  and  furthermore,  that 
there  has  been  misuse  and  nonuse  of  available  cars. 
That  is,  if  the  empty  cars  had  been  shipped  back  to 
the  mines  as  soon  as  they  were  unloaded  instead  of  be- 


290 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


ing  held  on  side  tracks,  there  would  have  been  enough 
cars  to  move  all  the  coal  required  both  by  the  manu- 
facturers and  by  the  public  at  large.  The  coal  shortage 
is  reported  as  being  approximately  10  per  cent,  of  the 
requirements,  and  it  is  also  claimed  that  the  railroads' 
performance  is  about  10  per  cent,  less  than  it  was  in 
1916. 

Inefficiency,  on  the  part  of  the  roads  is  also  charged, 
and  this  applies  to  the  repairing  of  motive  power,  the 
lack  of  which  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  for  the 
freight  congestion  at  various  points  of  the  railroad 
systems.  The  demand  for  locomotives  is  so  great  that 
only  such  repairs  as  are  absolutely  necessary  are  made, 
and  minor  repairs,  such  as  would  increase  their  effi- 
ciency, are  left  undone. 

Condition  of  Equipment  Below  Normal 

That  the  railroads  have  neglected  to  maintain  their 
equipment  at  normal  is  shown  in  the  orders  they  have 
issued  from  new  locomotives  during  the  last  year.  The 
following  figures  regarding  this  feature  of  the  railroad 
difficulties  are  of  interest:  A  total  of  3467  locomo- 
tives were  ordered  by  the  American  railroads  in  1913, 
1262  in  1914,  1612  in  1915,  2910  in  1916  and  2704  in 
1917,  an  average  of  2391  per  year  during  the  past  five 
years.  In  1905  there  were  6255  locomotives  ordered  for 
use  in  the  United  States.  At  least  5000  new  loco- 
motives, it  is  estimated,  are  needed  each  year  by  the 
railroads  of  the  United  States.  Foreign  orders  for 
1916  totaled  2983,  and  in  1917  there  were  ordered  by 
our  Allies  4938  locomotives,  of  which  2057  were  for  the 
use  of  the  United  States  in  France.  The  actual  de- 
liveries to  our  railroads  were  5332  locomotives  in  1913, 
1251  in  1915,  2708  in  1916  and  2587  in  1917.  The 
deliveries  to  foreign  countricr;  were  2861  in  1917. 
As  the  railroads  of  the  United  States  have  for  the 
last  three  or  four  years  ordered  but  a  little  more  than 
half  the  number  of  locomotives  required  to  move  the 
tonnage  consigned  to  them,  there  is  little  cause  for 
speculation  as  to  why  they  have  fallen  down  in  their 
attempt  to  move  freight  and  do  away  with  congestion 
that  appears  to  block  the  freight  yards  throughout  the 
country. 

Increase  in  Car  Mileage  and  Tonnage  Handled 

On  the  other  hand,  railroad  statistics  for  1917  show 
that  the  average  car  mileage  per  day  was  27.7,  as 
against  27.5  for  1916,  and  that  there  was  18  per  cent, 
increase  in  the  coal  tonnage  handled  in  1917  over  1916. 
Railroad  officials  claim  that  they  can  deliver  to  terminal 
points  only  such  coal  as  is  consigned  to  them  and  that 
they  do  not  control  the  acts  of  the  shipper.  As  an 
example,  one  railroad  had  one  day  recently  600  steel 
cars  of  50  tons  capacity  each,  or  sufficient  to  carry 
30,000  tons  of  coal,  distributed  at  the  anthracite  mines 
that  it  serves.  When  these  cars  were  loaded,  they  went 
in  all  directions — not  as  the  railroad's  manager  chose, 
but  as  the  shippers  directed. 

That  something  is  radically  wrong  is  self-evident, 
and  some  of  the  trouble  that  has  resulted  in  a  gigantic 
freight  jam  may  be  due  to  a  cause  similar  to  that  re- 
cently published  in  the  Boston  News  Bureau: 

A.  R.  Whaley.  former  operating  vice  president  of  the 
New  Haven,  recently  inspected  the  congescion  in  the  Jersey 
terminals  and  was  discussing  it  with  the  yardmaster,  an 
old-time  railroad  man. 


"What  is  the  basic  trouble?"  asked  Whaley.  "Wp  used 
to  handle  things  better." 

"I'll  tell  you,"  said  the  yardmaster.  "Twenty-five  years 
ago,  when  you  and  I  started,  they  had  wooden  cars,  but 
they  had  men  of  steel  handling  them.  Nowadays,  they've 
got  steel  cars,  but  there's  a  blamed  lot  of  wooden  men  han- 
dling them." 

Snow  and  extreme  cold  weather  have  contributed  to 
the  coal  shortage  by  delaying  rail  transportation  and 
the  unloading  of  the  frozen  coal  from  cars  into  barges 
for  water  transportation. 

New  England,  as  well  as  New  York  and  other  East- 
ern cities,  is  a  sufferer.  In  Boston  about  90  per  cent. 
of  the  45  coalyards  are  bare  of  fuel.  The  railroads 
have  been  unable  to  increase  their  shipments,  and  but 
little  coal  has  been  coming  in  by  water. 

Among  other  things  that  contribute  to  this  condition 
is  the  order  that  was  given  earlier  in  the  season  to  ship 
coal  to  the  Northwest,  with  the  result  that  it  could  not 
be  absorbed  and  thousands  of  loaded  coal  cars  have  been 
standing  on  the  tracks  between  the  mine  and  the  West; 
this  is  one  cause  of  car  .shortage.  The  condition  is 
traceable  back  to  the  fixing  of  prices  of  coal  and  the 
uncertainty  of  getting  it.  Much  of  the  trouble  that 
New  England  is  experiencing  is  due,  it  is  believed,  to 
the  holding  up  of  coal  shipments  during  several  weeks 
during  the  summer  months  and  fall,  in  the  endeavor  to 
obtain  lower  rates  to  the  tune  of  one  dollar  per  ton. 

New  England  uses  approximately  25,000,000  tons  of 
coal  per  year,  most  of  which  comes  from  the  Virginia 
coal  mines.  This  year  there  was  required  about  7,000,- 
000  tons  more. 

Another  reason  why  New  England  is  out  of  coal  is 
because  the  Government  commandeered  five  of  the 
thirty-five  collieries  that  brought  coal  to  that  section 
and  also  took  over  seven  out  of  forty-five  tugs  that 
were  used  in  towing  from  two  to  four  coal  barges  at  a 
time.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  then,  there  has  been  1,000,- 
000  tons  less  of  coal  brought  to  New  England  by  water, 
and  on  the  other  hand  the  roads  have  brought  in  about 
1,000,000  tons  more  than  usual. 

The  coal-mine  operators  claim  that  the  coal  short- 
age is  due  to  lack  of  cars.  They  maintain  that  it  is 
idle  to  talk  of  increasing  the  output  of  the  mines  until 
the  cars  are  available  to  transport  it.  They  claim  that 
the  coal  production  could  be  greatly  increased  if  there 
were  cars  in  which  to  load  it.  It  is  pointed  out  that 
on  the  average  200,000  coal  miners  are  idle  each  day 
in  the  year  because  the  output  cannot  be  handled  by 
the  railroads;  that  there  has  been  no  falling  down  in 
the  production  of  coal  at  the  mines,  but  that  the  trouble 
is  due  to  distribution. 

Loss  of  coal  output  can  be  easily  traced  to  the  method 
of  shipping,  whereby  coal  going  to  one  section  passes 
coal  going  in  the  opposite  direction.  That  is,  it  is  a 
waste  of  mileage,  locomotives  and  car  haulage  to  ship 
coal  to  a  consumer,  say  400  miles  or  so  from  the  mines, 
when  coal  could  be  obtained  in  a  mine  not  more  than 
200  miles  di-stant.  This  method  of  distribution  has  been 
carried  on  unchecked  and  has  undoubtedly  cost  the  na- 
tion thousands  of  dollars.  Recently,  S.  Peabody  ad- 
vocated before  the  Senate  Investigation  Committee  a 
zone  system  dividing  the  country  into  thirty  distinct 
districts,  and  he  stated  that  it  would  increase  the  coun- 
try's output  of  coal  by  20  per  cent.  Under  such  a  sys- 
tem no  coal  would  be  sent  out  of  one  zone  into  another 
without  a   license  from   the   Fuel   Administration. 


February  26,   1918 


POWER 


291 


That  there  will  be  a  scarcity  of  coal  during  the  rest 
of  the  winter  and  well  on  into  the  spring  is  a  foregone 
conclusion.  What  the  situation  will  be  after  that  is 
problematic.  Conditions  will  doubtless  change  for  the 
better  to  .some  extent,  but  it  will  be  impossible  to  get 
coal  in  large  quantities.  That  a  repetition  of  present 
conditions  shall  not  prevail  next  winter  a  number  of 
changes  in  the  handling  of  coal  should  be  made. 

The  householders  should  order  coal  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  The  coal  operators  should  be  made  to 
sell  clean  coal,  not  adulterated  with  ash  and  bone.  The 
unloading  piers  should  be  equipped  with  suitable  means 
for  thawing  frozen  coal  in  cars.  The  railroads  should 
repair  their  locomotives  and  order  new  ones  so  that 
their  motive  power  can  handle  the  volume  of  freight 
that  must  reach  the  points  of  delivery.  Empty  cars 
should  be  moved  to  the  mines  as  fast  as  they  are 
emptied,  and  the  fuel  and  railroad  administrators 
should  work  together  to  bring  such  changes  about. 

New  England  should  be  taken  care  of  by  seeing  to  it 
that  sufficient  bottoms  are  available  for  transporting 
coal  by  water  and  thus  avoid  their  present  predica- 
ment. 

Model  of  Superdreadnaught 
"New  York" 

The  illustration  gives  a  view  of  a  model  of  the  super- 
dreadnaught "New  York,"  made  completely  of  Crane 
Co.  products — fittings,  valves,  specialties,  etc.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Valve  World,  the  model  was  designed  and  its 


MODEL    MADK    OF    K1TT1.\(!.S 

construction  supervised  by  an  employee  of  Crane  Co.  in 
the  works  of  the  company's  Bridgeport  division.  It  is 
now  on  exhibition  in  the  Crane  exhibit  rooms,  23  West 
44th  St.,  New  York. 

The  over-all  dimensions  of  the  model  are:  Length,  186 
in.;  breadth,  34  in.;  molded  depth,  42  in.,  total  height 
from  keel  to  topmast,  102  in.  Its  net  weight  is  3308 
lb.,  and  6669  separate  pieces  were  used  in  its  construc- 
tion.   It  is  complete  to  the  smallest  detail,  and  the  ordi- 


nary working  parts  of  a  battleship  are  movable.  A 
small  electric  motor  gives  action  to  the  propeller.  The 
ship  is  electrically  wired  throughout,  the  wires  running 
in  conduit,  and  by  the  pressing  of  a  button  action  may 
be  seen  everywhere — the  propeller  turns,  the  com- 
mander salutes,  lights  flash,  guns  roar,  the  wireless 
crackles,  the  searchlight  throws  a  searching  beam.  The 
entire  action  is  automatic  and  may  be  repeated  indefi- 
nitely or  until  the  pressing  of  another  button  .stops  it. 
A  row  of  colored  electric  lights  runs  from  bow  to  stem 
over  the  mast  tops,  and  when  in  action  the  model  makes 
an  interesting  exhibition. 

Eleven  Ohms  the  Resistance  of  a 
Circular-Mil-Foot 

By  T.  a.  Nash 

The  resistance  of  a  circular-mil-foot  of  copper  de- 
pends on  the  purity  of  the  copper  and  on  its  tempera- 
ture. The  resistance  of  ordinary  commercial  soft-drawn 
copper  wire  at  70  deg.  F.  is  almost  exactly  10.6  ohms. 
However,  the  use  of  the  value  of  11  ohms  in  the  for- 
mula for  a  two-wire  circuit, 
cir.  mils  =  amperes  X  H  X  total  length  of  conductor 

in  feet  -h  volts  drop, 
is  justified.  In  computing  wire  sizes  for  interior-wir- 
ing circuits,  it  is  folly  to  endeavor  to  figure  too  closely. 
The  length  of  the  circuit  is  probably  not  known  within 
10  per  cent.,  the  purity  of  the  copper  to  be  used  is  un- 
known, and  finally,  one  must  use  conductors  of  one  of  the 
standard  wire-gage  sizes.  Hence,  it  is  common  prac- 
tice to  use  the  11-ohms  value  in  practical  calculations 
because  the  results  obtained  by  using  it  will,  on  the 
average,  be  as  accurate  as  those  obtained  by  using  10.6 
ohms,  and  it  (11  ohms)  is  an  easier  figure  to  handle. 
Also  the  value  11  ohms  can  be  remembered  easily. 

Inexperienced  Draymen  Damage 
Heavy  Machinery 

A  recent  purchaser  of  a  large  air  compressor  points 
out  that  irresponsible  draying  firms  cost  the  purchaser 
of  heavy  machinery  far  more  than  is  saved  by  patroniz- 
ing inexperienced  firms  who  will  take  a  job  "for  less." 
The  point  is  that  serious  damage  can  be  easily  done  by 
inexperienced  teamsters  in  delivering  heavy  machinery 
from  railroad  depot  to  plant  and  it  may  be  that  this 
damage  will  not  be  discovered  until  the  plant  is  being 
tested  in  operation.  In  that  case  the  blame  may  never  be 
properly  placed  and  is  very  likely  to  be  charged  up  to  the 
manufacturer  as  a  defect  in  construction.  The  case  in 
point  occurred  recently  in  a  Western  city.  Some  large- 
sized  compressors  were  hauled  across  the  town  in  such  a 
oosition  on  the  dray  that  the  stress  of  shocks  from  the 
wheels  was  carried  by  bolts  in  the  lining  of  the  cylinder, 
rt'hich  separated  the  water  jacket  from  the  compressor 
chamber,  and  these  stresses  so  strained  the  bolts  that 
I  joint  was  opened  and  leakage  resulted  that  caused  much 
delay  and  inconvenience  after  the  unit  had  been  put  in 
operation.  In  this  instance  a  capable  mechanical  engi- 
neer saw  the  compressor  in  its  strained  position  on  the 
dray  and  at  once  entered  a  protest,  predicting  the  possi- 
bility of  the  trouble  which,  in  fact,  later  developed. 


292 


P  OWE  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


Mine  Plant  Saves  Forty-Five  Tons  of  Coal 

Per  Day 


Installation  of  a  new  boiler  plant,  utilization  of 
exhaust  steam  by  a  low-pressure  turbine  and  a 
change  from  steam  and  compressed  air  to  electric 
drive  for  auxiliaries  and  mine  pumps  resulted  in 
a  reduction  of  fuel  of  from  90  to  45  tons  per  day. 
Besides,  the  mine  capacity  per  day  was  increased 
50  per  cent. 

ABOUT  two  years  ago  the  Chicago  &  Carterville 
Coal  Co.  decided  to  improve  its  power  plant  at 
Mine  A,  at  Herrin,  111.  The  plant  at  that  time 
consisted  of  eight  horizontal-tubular  boilers  72  in. 
diameter  by  18  ft.  long,  one  250-hp.  and  one  350-hp. 
water-tube  boilers,  each  being  equipped  with  an  inde- 
pendent steel  stack.  The  equipment  supplied  by  the 
boilers  consisted  of  one  250-hp.  and  one  450-hp.  air 
compressors  and  also  one  170-kw.  electric  generating 
unit.  Standard  steam  piping  with  screwed  fittings  was 
used. 

All  the  auxiliaries  around  the  mine,  consisting  of  the 
coal  washer,  the  centrifugal  pump  for  the  washer,  the 
shaker  engine,  the  engine  for  driving  the  shop,  the 
main  fan  and  various  other  small  units,  were  steam- 
driven.  The  steam  lines  were  run  underground  in  many 
cases  with  no  insulation.  Most  cf  the  joints  were 
leaking,  and  the  entire  plant  was  in  a  deplorable  con- 
dition, being  extremely  wasteful  in  the  use  of  steam. 
Under  these  conditions  it  required  90  tons  of  coal  per 
day  to  operate  the  plant,  nine  firemen  for  the  three 
shifts  and  three  ash  wheelers.  No.  4  washed  coal  was 
Burned  under  the  boilers. 

After  a  careful  examination  it  was  decided  to  install 
a  new  boiler  plant,  consisting  of  water-tube  boilers 
equipped  with  chain-grate  stokers,  and  a  500-kw. 
mixed-pressure  turbine  to  utilize  the  exhaust  steam 
from  the  present  air  compressors  and  fan  engine. 
Provision  was  made  also  for  using,  at  some  future  date, 
the  steam  from  the  main  hoisting  engine  by  the  use 
of  a  regenerator.  There  was  no  noed  to  draw  on  the 
hoisting  engine  for  the  time  being,  as  the  two  compres- 
sors would  furnish  more  than  enough  exhaust  steam 
to  operate  the  low-pressure  turbine  at  full  load. 

Steam  Drive  Replaced  by  Electric 

All  the  steam-driven  auxiliaries  were  to  be  replaced 
by  electric-driven  units  with  the  exception  of  the  engine 
driving  the  main  fan.  Distributed  at  various  points 
about  the  mine  were  several  pumps  that  had  been 
operated  by  compressed  air  taken  from  the  main  air 
lines  in  the  mine,  supplying  the  punchers  used  for 
undercutting  the  coal.  These  pumps  were  extremely 
wasteful  in  the  use  of  compressed  air,  and  it  was 
decided  to  replace  them  with  direct-connected  centrif- 
ugal pumps,  and  in  a  few  cases  where  gathering  pumps 
would  be  required  of  a  portable  type,  with  motor-driven 
reciprocating  pumps. 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  of  water  for  condensing 
purposes,   it  was  decided  to  install  a  spray  pond,  the 


makeup  water  being  drawn  through  a  4-in.  line  from 
a  small  pond  about  a  (luarter  of  a  mile  distant  by  a 
motor-driven  pump.  The  plant  had  been  operating  on 
city  water,  as  the  water  available  close  to  the  mine 
was  too  poor  in  quality  to  use  in  the  boilers.  The  new 
arrangement  provided  for  a  vertical  motor-driven  sub- 
merged centrifugal  pump  placed  at  one  corner  of  the 
.spray  pond,  which  delivers  the  water  direct  to  the  feed- 
water  heater. 

The  new  boiler  plant  consists  of  three  350-hp.  water- 
tube  boilers,  two  being  new  and  the  third  a  boiler  from 
the  old  plant.  All  are  provided  with  chain  grates 
and  are  connected  to  a  7  x  210-ft.  concrete  stack,  the 
stack  and  breeching  being  arranged  for  the  installation 
of  an  additional  boiler  at  some  future  time. 

Punchers  Used  To  Undercut  Coal 

As  previously  stated,  the  present  method  of  under- 
cutting coal  is  by  the  use  of  punchers  driven  by  air 
furnished  by  the  two  compressors  now  supplying 
exhaust  steam  to  the  low-pressure  turbine.  It  is  the 
intention,  however,  at  some  future  time  to  do  the  un- 
dercutting with  electrically  operated  machines.  When 
this  is  done,  the  two  compressors  will  be  abandoned 
and  steam  for  operating  the  low-pressure  turbine  will 
be  obtained  from  the  hoisting  engine,  the  engine  driv- 
ing the  170-kw.  generator  and  the  mine  fan  engine. 
As  the  turbine  is  of  the  mixed-pressure  type,  it  may 
be  operated  on  live  steam  at  periods  when  insufficient 
exhaust  steam  is  available.  The  turbine  drives  a  500- 
kw.  250-volt  direct-current  compound-wound  generator 
through  reducing  gears,  the  reduction  being  from  3600 
to  720  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  condensing  equipment  consists  of  a  Rees  Returbo 
installation  taking  water  from  the  spray  pond  and 
returning  it  through  60  nozzles.  It  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing 28  in.  of  vacuum,  referred  to  a  30-in.  barometer, 
the  year  around  and  a  great  part  of  the  year  produces 
a  vacuum  of  29  in.  and  better.  The  condenser  is  driven 
through  gears  by  a  steam  turbine,  and  the  exhaust 
steam  is  delivered  to  the  500-kw.  low-pressure  unit. 

As  shown  in  the  layout  drawing,  steam  from  the 
two  compressors  passes  through  a  vertical  receiver  oil 
separator  and  thence  through  a  )4-in.  flow  valve  to 
the  low-pressure  turbine.  A  5-in.  live-steam  connection 
is  made  from  the  new  steam  header  to  the  turbine  to 
carry  the  load  when  sufficient  exhaust  steam  is  not 
available.  At  the  top  of  the  receiver  oil  separator  a 
14-in.  relief  valve  allows  any  excess  steam  to  pass  to 
the  atmosphere.  The  condenser  is  also  provided  with 
a    12-in.   automatic    relief   valve. 

New  Equipment  Reduces  Labor  Cost 

By  the  installation  of  this  new  equipment  the  num- 
ber of  firemen  was  reduced  from  nine  to  four  and  the 
ash  wheelers  to  one,  the  latter  reduction  being  due  to 
the  installation  of  a  steam-jet  ash  conveyor.  As  the 
operating  shifts  at  the  mine  are  eight-hour  periods 
and  the  day  shift  is  the  only  period  of  heavy  load,  the 


February  26.   1918 


POWER 


293 


ashes  during  the  other  two  shifts  are  easily  taken  care     The  plant   has  been   in   operation   for  21    months,   and 


of  by  the  fireman  operating  the  boilers.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  there  is  sufficient  ash  storaije  under  the  boilers 
to  allow  accumulation  for  16  hours. 


the  owners  claim  that  the  improvements  have  already 
paid  for  themselves.  Besides,  by  releasing  the  air  com- 
pres.sors  from  supplying  the  mine  pumps,  the  capacity 

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ELEVATION  OF  LOW-PRESSURE  TURBINE 


PLAN     OF    BOILERS    AND     STAC/f 

As  a  result  of  the  improvements  the  coal  consumption 
was  reduced  from  90  tons  of  No.  4  washed  coal  per 
day  to  45  tons  of  No.  5  washed  coal.  At  present  prices 
this  means   a  saving  of  approximately   $1.'?5   per   day. 


of  the  mine  has  been  increased  from  2000  to  3000  tons 
of  coal  per  day.  This  in  itself  is  a  great  advantage 
at  this  time,  when  coal  is  in  such  urgent  demand  and 
the  price  is  higher  than  it  has  been  for  years. 


294 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — The  Dynamo 


Consideration  is  given  to  the  generation  of  volt- 
age in  a  two-pole  machine  having  a  ring  arma- 
ture, and  the  distribution  of  the  current  in  the 
armature  winding. 


SO  FAR  we  have  only  consif^ered  dynamos  that  have 
one  coil  of  a  single  turn  of  wire  on  the  armature. 
In  the  commercial  type  of  machines  the  armature 
contains  a  number  of  coils.  On  the  small-sized  machines 
the  armature  is  usually  wound  with  a  small  number  of 
coils  having  a  considerable  number  of  turns  of  small 


Ca/  Leads: 


FIG.    1.      RING   ARMATURE    IN   SECTION 

wire,  whereas  in  the  large-sized  machines  the  armature 
is  wound  with  a  large  number  of  coils  of  large  wire 
having  a  small  number  of  turns,  usually  one  turn 
made  from  a  copper  bar.  We  have  also  learned  that 
there  are  two  types  of  armatures;  namely,  ring  and 
drum. 

The  ring  armature  consists  of  an  iron  ring  with 
the  coils  wound  around  it  as  in  Fig.  1,  where  the  coils 
on  a  drum  armature  are  placed  on  the  surface  of  the 
core,  or  in  slots  in  the  surface  of  the  core,  as  in  Fig.  2. 
Fig.  2  shows  three  coils  in  place  and  how  the  coils 
fall  over  one  another  to  form  a  complete  winding,  as 
in  Fig.  3.  In  the  drum-type  armature  the  spread  of 
the  coils — that  is,  the  number  of  slots  spanned  by  a 
coil — is  determined  by  the  number  of  poles.  For  ex- 
ample, in  Fig.  2  the  coils  span  approximately  one- 
quarter  of  the  core,  which  would  indicate  that  this 
armature  is  intended  to  operate  in  a  four-pole  field 
frame.  In  the  ring  armature  the  distribution  of  the 
winding  on  the  core  is  the  same,  irrespective  of  the 
number  of  poles,  where  in  the  drum  armature  the  coil 
spans  approximately  the  distance  between  the  centers 
of  adjacent  poles. 

Although  there  is  no  difference  in  the  two  types  of 
armatures  so  far  as  voltage  generation  is  concerned, 
when  it  comes  to  a  consideration  of  the  various  ele- 
ments that  take  place  in  the  windings,  the  ring  type 
lends  itself  much  more  readily  to  a  theoretical  discus- 
sion, therefore  will  be  used  in  our  consideration  of  this 
subject. 

In  Fig.  4  is  shown,  diagrammatically,  the  complete 
layout  of  a  dynamo-electric  machine  having  an  armature 


of  the  ring  type.  Coils  of  wire,  designated  field  coils, 
are  placed  on  the  polepieces.  The  winding  on  the  arma- 
ture is  shown,  for  simplicity's  sake,  to  be  continuous 
for  the  entire  circumference  of  the  core  and  closed 
on  itself,  with  a  tap  taken  out  at  each  turn  of  the 
winding  to  a  bar  or  segment  in  the  commutator.  This 
winding  could  have  been  shown  grouped  into  coils,  as 
in  Fig.  5,  with  the  leads  of  each  coil  coming  out  to 
two  commutator  bars,  as  showoi,  which  is  generally  the 
way  the  job  is  done  in  practice,  but  for  our  purposes 
Fig.  4  is  better  suited.  The  winding  in  Fig.  5  has 
twice  as  many  turns  as  that  in  Fig.  4,  consequently, 
will  generate  twice  the  voltage  under  a  given  condition 
of  speed  and  field  strength. 

In  Fig.  4,  if  a  current  is  caused  to  flow  through 
the  field  coils  in  the  direction  shown,  it  will  cause-  the 
top  polepiece  to  become  south  and  the  bottom  one  north 
polarity,  and  the  magnetic  flux  will  flow  in  the  direction 
indicated.  Then,  if  the  armature  is  revolved  in  the 
direction  of  the  curved  arrow,  the  conductors  under  the 
S  pole  will  be  cutting  the  lines  of  force  in  a  left-hand 
direction,  while  those  under  the  N  pole  will  be  cutting 
the  flux  in  a  right-hand  direction.  The  lines  of  force 
are  m.oving  upward,  from  the  N  to  the  S  pole,  in  each 
case,  therefore,  by  applying  the  rule  for  determining 
the  direction  of  electromotive  force,  it  will  be  found  that 
in  the  conductors  under  the  S  t>ole  the  voltage  is  down 
through  the  plane  of  the  paper,  while  in  the  conductors 
under  the  N  pole  it  is  toward  the  reader,  as  indicated 
by  the  arrowhead.  It  will  be  seen  that  all  the  voltages 
generated  in  the  various  conductors  under  the  S  pole 
are  in  series  assisting  one  another,  likewise  under  the 
N  pole.     Therefore,  the  sum  of  the  voltages  generated 

J/,W#«|(/r£7T5^^^^t-^       'ran  Core 


^      Sots  for 
f  V        f^e  Coi/s 


Ir^ 


,,|lll|IIIUlUlUlllllillBllMlllllllllllll 


CcU  Leads-    ^V^-SBmii^J^^ 


Wiiiiii/j^i 


FJ&.  3 
PIGS.   2    AND  3       nRITM-TYPE  ARMATURE 

in  the  conductors  under  one  pole  is  the  voltage  that 
will  appear  at  the  brushes  when  the  latter  is  in  the 
position  shown.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  voltage 
in  the  windings  under  the  N  pole  opposes  that  generated 
in  the  conductors  under  the  S  pole.     Since  the  voltages 


Febtniary  2G,   1918 


POWER 


296 


in  the  two  halves  of  the  windings  are  equal,  or  at  least 
should  be,  no  current  flows  in  the  winding  as  long  as 
the  circuit  is  open  between  the  two  brushes. 

The  question  of  electromotive-force  generation  was 
discussed  to  considerable  extent  in  some  of  the  earlier 
lessons,  and  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  device  which 
supplies  the  current  to  the  circuit  does  not  generate 
the  current,  but  produces  a  voltage  that  causes  the 
current  to  flow   in   a  conductor   when   it   is   connected 


Fie.4- 


no  current  can  flow  around  in  the  winding  until  the 
brushes  are  connected  to  an  external  circuit  C,  as  in 
Fig.  6.  In  the  figure  the  external  circuit  is  shown 
on  the  center  of  the  commutator;  however,  this  is  for 
simplicity's  sake  only,  as  this  circuit  might  be  a  motor 
or  a  group  of  lamps,  or  any  device  that  requires  an 
electric  current  for  its  operation,  and  might  be  located 
at   a  considerable  distance  from   the  machine. 

The  generator  in  an  electric  circuit  is  the  same  as 
a  pump  is  in  a  circulating  system.  The  pump  does  not 
generate  the  fluid  that  it  causes  to  flow  in  the  system, 
but  creates  a  pressure  that  causes  the  fluid  to  flow  in 
the  pipe  line.  Likewise  an  electric  generator  only  pro- 
duces the  pressure  that  causes  the  electric  current  to 
flow  in  the  circuit. 

The  two  halves  of  the  armature  windings  in  Figs.  4, 
5  and  6  are  similar  to  two  voltaic  cells  in  parallel. 
In  Fig.  6  it  will  be  seen  that  the  electric  pressure 
generated  in  the  conductors  under  the  N  pole  causes  a 
current  to  flow  out  from  the  positive  brush  through 
the  external  circuit  C  and  into  the  negative  brush, 
as  indicated  by  the  arrowhead;  likewise,  for  the  con- 
ductors under  the  S  pole.  Since  the  two  halves  of 
the  windings  are  in  parallel,  the  voltage  appearing  at 
the  brushes  will  be  that  developed  in  one  half  of  the 
winding,  just  as  when  two  voltaic  cells  are  connected 
in  parallel — the  voltage  of  the  group  is  equal  to  that 
of  a  single  cell.  Also,  each  half  of  the  winding  will 
supply  one-half  of  the  current  in  the  external  circuit; 
that  is,  when  the  armature  is  supplying  30  amperes  to 
the  external  circuit  C,  15  amperes  will  be  flowing  in 
the  conductors  under  the  N  pole  and  15  amperes  in  the 
conductors  under  the  S  pole.     This  is  again  the  same 


Fie.  5  F16.6 

PIG.=!.    I    TO    i;.       niACKA.MMATlC    KKFRKSENTATKINS    Oh'    A    RI^'^,-ARM.^TUKI•:    TYPK    GENERATOR 

between    the    positive    and    negative    terminals    of    the  as  when  two  voltaic  cells  are  connected  in  parallel  and 

source  of  voltage.     This  is  just  the  condition  we  have  supplying  current  to  a  circuit — one-half  of  the  current 

in  Fig.  4.    The  conductor  on  each  half  of  the  armature  is  supplied  by  each  cell. 

cuts  the  line  of  force  and  generates  a  voltage;  how-         All  the  foregoing  discussion  has  been  in   reference 

ever,  the  arrangement  of  the  winding  is  such  that  the  to   two-pole    machines.      The   general   principle   applies 

voltage  in  one  half  opposes  that  in  the  other  half,  and  to    multipole    machines,    although    the   division    of   the 


296 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


current  may  be  somewhat  different  in  the  winding,  as 
will  be  seen  in  our  discussion  rn  this  subject  in  future 
lessons. 

Fig.  7  is  a  layout  of  problem  1  given  in  the  last 
lesson.  This  circuit  may  look  complicated,  nevertheless 
it  is  the  equivalent  of  three  resistances  in  parallel. 
There  are  three  circuits  from  ^  to  B:  One  directly 
through  r,  =  6  ohms;  another,  which  we  will  call  R' 
through  ?•,  and  r  in  series  =  2.5  -|-  7.5  =  10  ohms; 
and  the  third,  which  we  will  designate  as  R"  through 


r,-=7.5 


current,  first  find  the  watts,  which  e(iual  W  ^=  hp.   X 


Q^mo^MQiKKmnaa^' 


r,'t> 


-£'75- 

Fie.8 


FIGS.    7    AND    8.      COMPLEX    CIRrUITS 

r,  and  r,  in  series  ^  6  -|~  -^  =  1^  ohms;  that  is, 
three  resistances  R' ,  r,  and  R" ,  in  parallel,  of  10.  6 
and  15  ohms  respectively.  That  there  are  three  circuits 
parallel  is  indicated  by  the  flow  of  the  current  shown  by 
the  arrows. 

The  joint  resistance  of  the  circuit   is 

\ 1  ^  i  ^  30 

10 


i?  = 


1      J, 
r ,      i?" 


1+1  +  1      ^ 

10      6      15      30 


10 


3  ohms 


The  total   current   flowing   in   the   circuit   equals   total 
volts  divided  by  the  joint  resistance  of  the  circuit,  or 


E 
R 

i\ 


75 


ta 


=  25  amperes. 


75 


t3 


^^ 


-1-  rj 

rs       6 
E 


2.5  +  7.5 


=  7.5  amperen; 


12.5  ampere!^; 


75 


=  ^r~Q  =  5  amperes; 


Ti   +  Tt 

and  the  total  current  equals  the  sum  of  the  three,  or 
7.5  -|-  12.5  -f-  5  ^  25  amperes,  which  checks  the  fore- 
going calculation. 

In  problem  2  of  the  last  lesson  the  circuit  took   15 
hp.    when    115   volts   was   applied   to   it.      To   find   the 


746  =   15   X   746 
11,190 


W 
11,190  w.itts.     Then  /  =  -^  = 


115 

pressed  as  / 


=   97.3   amperes.      This    might    have   been    ex- 

:  97.3  amperes. 
1.18  ohm.s.     R 


hp.   /_746 
E 


15  ^    746 
115 


F        1 1  f\ 
The  total  resistance  R  ^=   y  —  an\ 


also  equals 


1.18  ohms. 


^        115  X  115 
W  ^      11,190 
In  Fig.  8,  in  addition  to  determining  the  values  in- 
dicated by  the  interrogation  marks,  find  the  joint  re- 
sistance of  the  circuit. 


Engine  Troubles  Due  to  Carelessness 

By  Charles  W.  Oakley 

There  is  a  weakne.ss  on  the  part  of  many  engineers 
to  consider  the  man  sent  out  by  the  builder  to  erect 
an  engine  or  turbine  as  almost  infallible.  While 
this  man  is  usually  a  thorough  mechanic,  conscien- 
tious and  painstaking  in  his  work,  occasionally  one 
is  met  whose  idea  of  his  own  importance  either  over- 
comes his  judgment  or  else  takes  the  place  of  the 
knowledge  and  experience  which  he  is  supposed  to  have. 
This  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  attitude  of  many 
superintendents  and  managers,  who,  because  the  erect- 
ing man  is  invested  with  considerable  responsibility, 
defer  to  him  and  seek  his  opinion  not  only  on  questions 
pertaining  to  the  machinery  being  installed,  but  on 
matters  concerning  the  operation  of  the  plant,  with 
which  the  chief  engineer  is  much  better  acquainted  and 
probably  has  vastly  more  experience. 

A  case  of  carelessness  on  the  part  of  an  erecting  man, 
which  might  have  resulted  in  a  disastrous  accident, 
occurred  in  putting  together  a  flywheel  weighing  about 
sixteen  tons,  made  in  halves  and  bolted  through  flanges 
at  the  rim  and  the  hub.  When  the  wheel  was  put 
on,  the  heads  and  nuts  of  the  bolts  had  a  bearing  on 
the  flanges  at  one  side  only,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The 
engineer  protested  to  the  erecting  man,  who  explained 
that  it  was  unnecessary  to  face  off  the  flanges  to  secure 
a  full  bearing,  as  it  was  the  custom  of  his  firm  to  make 
the  bolts  and  flanges  several  times  as  strong  as  re- 
quired, and  therefore  no  harm  could  ever  occur.  How- 
ever, he  suggested  that  copper  washers  be  placed  under 
the  heads  and  nuts,  explaining  that  the  copper  would 
allow  the  heads  and  nuts  to  bed  themselves  until  a  full 
bearing  was  obtained.  This  was  done,  the  bolts  being 
pulled  down  considerably  tighter  than  would  have  bean 
necessary  had  they  had  a  full  bearing  on  the  flanges. 
The  engineer  was  then  instructed  to  tighten  the  bolts 
at  intervals,  after  running  a  few  days,  and  eventually 
they  would  have  a  uniform  bearing. 

The  engineer  obeyed  his  instructions;  but  one  morn- 
ing shortly  after  the  engine  had  been  put  in  service, 
when  he  started  to  tighten  up  one  of  the  nuts,  he  was 
sui-prised  to  find  that  it  turned  quite  easily.  The  bolt, 
on  being  removed,  was  found  to  be  cracked  about  half- 
way through  under  the  head,  as  at  A,  Fig.  2.  Examina- 
tion of  the  other  bolts  disclosed  incipient  fractures  in 
three  of  them.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  describe  what 
would  have  happened  to  that  wheel  before  many  hours. 


February  26.   1918 


POWER 


297 


No  time  was  lost  in  getting  the  engine  builders  on  the 
job  and  having  them  face  oflf  the  flanges  until  the 
new  bolts  which  were  secured  had  a  proper  bearing 
on  the  flanges. 

One  of  the  errors  made  by  engineers,  and  sometimes 
by  erecting  men,  is  the  improper  fitting  of  bolts.  Some 
engineers  are  of  the  opinion  that  so  long  as  a  bolt  is 
amply  large  for  the  work  it  has  to  do,  it  is  of  little 


no.  2 


no.  1 


ft 


Tff^ 


no.  3 


FIGS.   1   TO   3.      EXAMPLE.S   OP  CARELESS   PITTING 

Pigrs.   1  and  2 — Effect  of  poor  bearing  of  flange  bolts.     Pig.   3 — 
Design  of  connecting-rod  end. 

consequence  whether  it  fits  closely  in  the  hole  or  not. 
They  argue  that  the  job  is  all  right  because  the  nuts 
are  drawn  up  tight.  Later  on,  evidence  of  shifting 
of  the  parts  that  are  bolted  together  may  be  detected 
through  the  appearance  of  rusty  oil  at  the  joint  or  under 
the  bolt  head.  Whenever  an  indication  of  this  kind 
appears,  the  nut  should  not  be  tightened  further,  but 
the  bolt  should  at  once  be  removed  and  an  examination 
made  to  ascertain  whether  there  is  any  fracture  of 
the  bolt  or  the  casting.  The  hole  should  be  tested 
for  alignment,  to  see  whether  a  bolt  the  full  size  of  the 
hole  will  go  all  the  way  through.  If  not,  the  parts 
should  be  held  firmly  together  in  their  correct  relative 
positions  and  the  hole  should  be  carefully  reamed  out. 
Then  a  bolt  of  proper  size  should  be  obtained  and  turned 
to  fit  the  reamed  hole  snugly. 

In  making  a  flywheel  or  a  large  belt  wheel  in  two 
or  more  sections,  it  is  customary  to  plane  off  the  joints 
and  flanges  of  the  wheel,  and  then  bolt  the  sections 
together  before  turning  and  boring  the  wheel.  It  is 
rare,  however,  that  a  wheel  is  bolted  together  as  firmly 
for  this  purpose  as  it  is  when  placed  in  position  for 
service;  consequently,  when  the  wheel  is  put  in  place 
on  the  shaft,  some  slight  distortion  frequently  occurs 
at  the  bolt  holes,  especially  when  the  arms  are  bolted 
between  hub  flanges.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  the  bolts  well  fitted  to  holes  reamed  out  care- 
fully, and  no  springing,  prying  or  drifting  should  be 
allowed  in  making  up  these  bolted  joints.  Not  only  must 
the  head  and  nut  of  each  bolt  bear  fully  and  squarely 
on  the  surfaces,  thus  insuring  a  straight  pull  on  the 
bolt,  but  the  shank  of  the  bolt  should  present  its  full 
shearing  area  at  all  points  in  the  joint. 

Other  parts  of  the  engine  besides  the  flywheel  are 
susceptible  to  danger  and  trouble  from  ill-fitting  bolts. 
To  illustrate,  the  crosshead  end  of  a  large  connecting- 
rod  developed  a  very  annoying  pound  shortly  after  it 


had  been  fitted  with  a  new  set  of  brasses.  Upon  taking 
down  the  connecting-rod  at  the  crosshead  end,  which 
was  of  the  design  shown  in  Fig.  3,  it  was  discovered 
that  the  bolts  A  were  slightly  loose  in  their  holes  and 
had  necks  cut  into  them  by  the  strap,  thus  allowing 
some  movement  of  the  strap. 

When  this  condition  of  aflfairs  was  pointed  out  to 
the  engineer,  he  confessed  that  as  the  brasses  had 
been  found  slightly  large  between  the  strap  and  the 
wedge,  he  had  filed  the  bolts  down  so  that  they  would 
pass  through  the  holes  in  the  rod  end,  thus  avoiding 
the  trouble  of  taking  out  the  brasses  again  to  plane 
them  oft.  It  was  necessary  to  secure  new  bolts  and 
ream  out  the  holes  in  the  strap  and  rod  to  fit.  The 
pound  then  disappeared. 

In  erecting  a  large  engine  it  is  usual  to  locate  the 
pillow  block  or  pedestal  on  the  sole  plate  by  means 
of  dowel  pins,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  4.  The  sole  plate  B 
is  first  lined  up  and  leveled  properly,  and  when  the 
foundation  has  hardened  suflSciently  the  pedestal  is  set 
in  place  over  the  dowel  pins  and  held  firmly  by  means 
of  the  anchor  bolts  C. 

It  is  inadvisable  to  have  the  anchor  bolts  fit  closely 
in  the  holes  in  the  sole  plate  and  pedestal,  as  shifting 
of  the  bolts  while  the  foundation  is  being  built  would 
prevent  the  placing  of  the  pedestal  over  the  bolts.  To 
allow  for  slight  lateral  movement,  therefore,  they  are 
usually  set  in  boxes  D,  with  pockets  E  in  the  foundation 
at  their  lower  ends,  so  that  a  wrench  may  be  inserted 


PIG.  4.      DOWEL  PINS  TO  PREVENT  PILLOW  BLOCK  FROM 
SHIFTING 

to  remove  the  lower  nuts  and  allow  the  bolts  to  be 
drawn  up  and  replaced  in  case  injury  or  breakage  re- 
quires their  renewal. 

Allowing  the  anchor  bolts  to  become  loose  permits 
the  pedestal  to  work  back  and  forth,  slightly  at  first, 
but  gradually  increasing  in  movement  until  the  dowel 
pins  are  sheared  or  broken  off,  leaving  the  position  of 
the  pede.stal  dependent  entirely  on  the  tension  of  the 
anchor  bolts.  A  serious  accident  resulted  from  this 
cause  some  years  ago.  The  movement  of  the  engine 
frame  caused  such  excessive  vibration  of  the  governor 
standard  that  it  broke  or  sheared  off  the  studs  securing 
it  to  the  engine  frame.  The  breaking  loose  of  the 
governing  mechanism  resulted  in  a  runaway  that 
wrecked  the  entire  plant. 


298 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


What  of  the  Lahor  Situation? 


WHAT  of  the  labor  situation?  Let  us  face  the 
facts.  Labor  is  stronger  today  than  ever  before. 
It  has  tremendous  power.  It  can  for  short  periods 
stop  industry.  Within  reason,  it  can  force  almost  any- 
thing it  will.  If  it  goes  to  extremes,  the  rural  communi- 
ties and  large  groups  in  the  citie.s  will  rise  to  check  and 
thwart  its  demands.  Nevertheless,  if  misguided,  it 
can  work  serious  hardship.  What,  then,  is  its  purpose? 
How  will  it  use  its  power?  Is  it  bent  on  a  rule-or-ruin 
policy?  Or,  seeing  the  good  in  the  existing  order  and 
conscious  of  the  sure  control  that  lies  in  the  mass  of 
the  people,  is  it  desirous  of  compromise? 

Emphatically  the  latter  is  true — speaking  as  to  the 
majority  of  the  acknowledged  labor  leaders.  Their 
desires  cannot  be  realized  unless  capital  comes  half 
way.  If  capital  resists,  if  it  is  represented — or  rather 
misrepresented — by  those  who  take  an  autocratic 
stand,  it  will  force  millions  into  'the  radical  wing  of  the 
labor  party,  it  will  add  fuel  to  fires  already  burning. 

These  are  not  the  days  for  sugar-coating  the  pill. 
The  coward  will  cringe  from  facing  the  facts.  He  will 
roundly  condemn  those  whose  object  is  to  save  him — 
and  with  him  the  essential  elements  in  the  present 
social  order.  Charles  M.  Schwab  said  a  few  days  ago 
that  the  worker  was  to  dominate  the  world.  A  more 
temperate  statement  is  that  of  former  Supreme  Court 
Justice  Hughes,  a  student  of  industrial  relations, 
accu.stomed  to  consider  and  weigh.  Before  the  New 
York  Bar  Association  last  month  he  said: 

"Individual  privilege  [in  the  future]  will  have  to 
show  cause  before  a  public  to  which  old  traditions  are 
no  longer  controlling — a  public  trained  in  sacrifice — 
which  will  enforce  its  owm  estimate  of  the  common 
right."  And  again  he  said:  "The  present  exercise  of 
authority  over  the  lives  of  men  will  hereafter  find  its 
counterpart  in  a  more  liberal  exercise  of  power  over 
the  conduct,  opportunities  and  possessions  of  men." 

Mr.  Schwab  and  Justice  Hughes  had  the  courage  to 
recognize  the  changing  order.  Narrow  minds,  however, 
will  rail  and  rant,  urge  that  capital  prepare  to  fight  for 
its  position,  and  declare  that  no  man  shall  dictate 
how  they  shall  run  their  plants.  Such  minds  are  not 
changed  by  dissertations  on  the  reasonableness  of  the 
new  order,  which  decrees  that  the  public  good  shall 
take  precedence  over  private  gain,  that  the  public 
cares  for  the  individual  and  demands  that  he  have  a  voice 
in  determining  the  conditions  under  which  he  works. 

It  is  a  matter  of  indifference,  in  any  event,  what  the 
individual  thinks  as  to  the  soundness  of  the  coming 
order.  We  are  in  a  new  era,  in  fact.  Witness  the  fires 
raging  socially  in  Russia  and  now  kindling  in  Austria 
and  even  in  Germany.  Note  the  power  which  labor 
has  in  England. 

We  are  in  and  of  the  world.  The  power  drifting  to 
the  workers  here  is  part  of  the  world  tide.  Whither 
will  it  lead  us? 

Even  as  there  are  standpat  autocrats  as  well  as 
men  of  enlightenment  among  employers,  so  there  are 
radicals  and  conservatives  among  labor.  The  autocrats 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  radicals  on  the  other  are  the 
extremists.  If  they  are  left  to  lead  us  out  of  the  diffi- 
culties, we  shall  have  an  arming  for  conflict  and  a  great 


catastrophe.  It  is  for  those  who  see  the  light  to 
compose  the  differences — the  moderates  among  the 
employers,  the  conservatives  among  tne  workers. 

These  wings  of  the  opposing  parties  can  reach  a 
working  agreement.  They  must  come  together  in 
order  that  the  extremists  may  be  disarmed — aye,  that 
they,  and  the  country  with  them,  shall  be  saved  from 
their  own  madness.  The  final  result  will  work  for  the 
greater  good  of  all.  "Harsh  changes  are  necessary," 
said  Mr.  Schwab,  "but  they  will  be  more  than  repaid 
not  only  materially,  but  in  happiness  and  contentment." 

Practically,  what  is  coming  out  of  the  present 
economic  crisis?  Detailed  predictions  are  dangerous. 
This  much  is  certain:  (1)  Labor  will  demand  and  get  a 
larger  share  of  the  profits  of  industry,  and  (2)  it  will 
demand  a  voice  in  each  industry  in  determining  the 
conditions  under  which  it  shall  work. 

Is  that  a  cure-all?  Will  all  labor  difficulties  be  then 
composed  ? 

Not  so.  There  is  not  an  absolute  unity  of  interest; 
there  cannot  be  a  permanent  peace.  All  we  can  hope 
for  is  compromise  under  conditions  that  obtain  today. 
When  conditions  change,  there  will  be  a  new  compro- 
mise, succeeded  by  another  and  another  and  still 
another.  But  the  present  compromise  will  be  the 
greatest  for  many  a  day,  for  it  will  definitely  establish 
labor's  voice  in  the  control  of  industry. 

And  what  of  the  inaustries  that  pay  a  bare  4  or  5 
per  cent,  on  a  fair  or  low  valuation  of  investment? 
Bankruptcy  or  a  reduction  of  overhead  through 
increased  production.     These  are  the  only  alternatives. 

And  what  of  efficiency,  now  at  a  low  mark  in  in- 
dustrial plants?  Education  is  the  answer — education, 
through  participation  in  management,  regarding  the 
factors  which  affect  profits;  education  which  will 
engender  a  sense  of  responsibility  for  the  success  of 
the  industry,  a  realization  that  there  can  be  no  labor 
prosperity  without  industrial  prosperity — a  realization 
that  will  be  turned  into  effective  action  by  confidence 
tTiat  labor  will  get  "its  share"  of  the  profits  it  helps  to 
create.    A  long  process,  yes,  but  a  necessary  one. 

And  efficiency  is  a  shoe  that  both  parties  can  wear. 
Management  inefficiency  more  than  matches,  count  for 
count,  labor  inefficiency. 

Radical  talk  this?  Yes,  if  you  will  have  it  so,  but 
read  again  the  words  of  Charles  Schwab  and  of  Justice 
Hughes. 

Shall  we  fear  to  face  the  facts?  Shall  we,  by  ignoring 
conditions  that  the  merest  numskull  can  appreciate, 
drift  into  anarchy?  Laissez  faire  and  "last-ditch 
resistance"  both  lead  to  that  end. 

Soon  there  will  meet  in  Washington  a  Labor  Policy 
Board.  It  will  hold  the  balances  for  our  industrial 
peace.  There  must  be  give  and  take — compromise. 
Both  sides  must  surrender  much  that  they  value 
highly.  Far-seeing  employers  are  ready  to  make 
sacrifices.  So,  too,  are  the  forward-looking  labor 
leaders.  The  interests  of  the  country  demand  that  both 
sides  look  carefully  to  it  that  they  be  not  misrepre- 
sented. And  above  all  let  both  be  prepared  for  large 
concessions.  In  that  direction  lie  peace  and  the  coun- 
try's good. — E. J. Mehreyiin" Engineering  News-Record." 


Foh'.uan    2l>,   1918  F  0  W  E  R  299 

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Editorials 


HIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIMIIIIMIIIIIIIinMllrllllllllllllMIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIU 


What   Is   Labor   Unrest? 

THE  human  mind  is  the  most  complex  piece  of 
mechanism  in  the  world.  It  is  the  master 
mechanism.  How  it  works  nobody  knows.  What  it  will 
do  individually  and  collectively  under  any  given  con- 
ditions nobody  knows — not  even  its  owner. 

The  man  who  digs  your  ditches  has  depths  you  cannot 
plumb.  You  see  him  come  and  go  every  day  and  his 
coming  and  going  become  a  part  of  your  daily  habit  of 
thought,  like  the  coming  of  your  morning  newspaper. 
Some  day  he  doesn't  blend  with  the  scenery  as  you  are 
accustomed  to  viewing  it.  Unknown  to  you  there  has 
been  some  crisis  in  his  life;  his  mental  depths  are  in 
turmoil;  age-old  ([uestions  come  to  the  surface.  Placidity 
becomes  turbulence  and  you  are  annoyed — unless  you 
I  have  become  similarly  turbulent  yourself,  in  which 
event  you  are  not  annoyed.    You  understand. 

Your  ditch  digger  has  thousands  of  years  of  his 
ancestors'  life  and  thoughts  and  yearnings  slumbering 
in  his  soul  and  speaking  when  he  is  roused.  He  has 
not  always  been  a  ditch  digger.  Some  centuries  past 
in  Asia  Minor,  in  Greece,  in  Italy,  along  the  whole 
line  of  civilization's  push  upward,  he  has  been  oppressor 
and  oppressed,  .just  as  you  have  been — mostly  oppressed, 
for  the  oppressed  have  always  been  in  the  majority. 

One  life  begins  and  ends ;  but  the  blood-flow  is  con- 
tinuous from  generation  to  generation.  The  thousands 
of  years  behind  us  speak  in  us  and  to  us  and  through 
us  every  day.  The  greatest  thinkers,  ancient  and 
modern,  affirm  this. 

There  has  been  more  stirring  of  the  human  depths 
since  August,  1914,  than  there  had  been  in  the  whole 
period  since  our  Civil  War.  All  of  our  accustomed 
grooves  have  been  upset.  In  our  social  bearings  we 
lack  a  sureness  of  direction.  The  guide  posts  have 
become  weather  vanes.  Our  placid  graj'  matter  has  been 
set  seething.  The  former  smooth  surface  of  our  minds 
which  reflected  the  current  weather,  the  passing  clouds 
and  the  orderly  seasons,  is  turbulent;  the  sediment  of 
the  centuries  is  bubbling  to  the  surface  from  the  depths. 

We  get  into  channels.  Channels  are  comfortable. 
They  fix  direction.  Where  you  are  going  doesn't  worry 
you.  It  suflices  that  you  are  comfortably  on  your  way. 
Then  something  happens  and  destroys  the  channel.  You 
and  your  ditch  digger  face  each  other  with  the  eternal 
((uestion  of  your  mutual  relationship  in  your  eyes. 
The  thousands  of  years  back  of  each  of  you  is  com- 
pacted in  the  look.  And  you  couldn't  phrase  the  question 
in  words  if  you  tried.  You  don't  try,  either  of  you. 
Instinctively  you  know  it,  but  to  save  your  souls  neither 
of  you  could  say  it. 

Tf  you  tried  to  say  it,  you  would  both  use  the  words 
you  used  in  the  channel — wages,  open  shop,  cost  of 
living.  Especially  the  ditch  digger  would.  He  couldn't 
phra.'-e  the  concentrated  protest  of  ten  thousand  years 
in  a  moment  of  crisis  any  more  than  he  could  think 
it  logically  in  a  year  in  the  channel.     It  is  too  big,  too 


overwhelifling,  too  much  a  rising  of  his  whole  being. 
So  when  you  ask  him  what  he  is  turbulent  about, 
don't  quibble  about  the  lack  of  a  clear-cut  answer.  It 
can't  be  made;  you  couldn't  make  it  yourself.  But  if 
you  want  his  answer,  get  it  in  his  reactions.  Hear 
him  give  approval  to  war  against  the  Kaiser;  note  the 
set  of  his  features  when  the  war  profiteer  is  mentioned ; 
watch  him  as  he  listens  by  the  hour  to  the  man  you 
would  call  an  agitator;  catch  his  constant  sanction  to 
tTie  opportunities  open  alike  to  everybody  and  his 
e<iually  constant  suspicion  of  opportunities  not  possible 
for  his  children.  The  public  schools  are  never  afraid 
to  go  direct  to  the  people  for  money;  the  universities 
are. 

Business  based  on  the  idea  of  maximum  cash  returns 
to  the  owner,  at  any  cost  to  competitors,  to  labor,  to  the 
social  order,  to  the  Government,  was  bound  to  be  a 
boomerang. 

The  labor  unrest  is  the  instinctive  protest  of  ten 
thousand  years  against  all  this. 

New  Jersey  Plants  Closed  from  Lack 
of  Coal 

NOTWITHSTANDING  the  fact  that  suspension  of 
heatless  Mondays  was  announced  on  February 
Thirteenth,  by  Fuel  Administrator  Garfield,  with  the 
reservation,  however,  that  the  suspension  order  might 
be  revoked  before  the  ten-week  period  expired  if  a  re- 
turn of  cold  weather  should  bring  another  breakdown  in 
railroad  transportation,  it  strikes  one  as  being  some- 
what premature  when  viewed  from  the  state  of  local 
conditions  and  those  prevailing  in  New  England. 

Although  heatless  Mondays  have  been  abolished,  a 
large  number  of  industrial  plants  in  northern  New 
Jersey  were  forced  to  stop  or  curtail  work  the  day 
prior  to  the  Fuel  Administration  order,  because  of  the 
cutting  off"  of  electric  power  by  the  Public  Service 
Electric  Co.  of  Newark  and  the  Public  Service  Corpo- 
ration of  Jersey  City,  due  to  lack  of  coal. 

Many  of  the  plants  aff'ected  have  important  war  con- 
tracts, and  about  50,000  employees  were  made  idle. 
It  was  announced  by  officials  of  both  companies  that  the 
shutdown  would  probably  continue  until  February  twen- 
tieth. 

It  is  believed  that  the  manufacturers  in  this  district 
have  cause  for  complaint  because  of  the  alleged  failure 
of  the  Fuel  Administrator  to  keep  his  promise,  made 
about  the  middle  of  January  last,  to  the  effect  that  the 
Public  Service  Corporation  vrould  be  supplied  with 
enough  coal  to  keep  it  going.  It  is  understood  that  a 
delegation  from  Jersey  Cit,\',  Hoboken,  the  Rayonne 
('hamber  of  Commerce  and  the  Newark  Board  of  Trade 
visited  the  Washington  fuel  authorities  and  were  told 
by  them  that  arrangements  would  be  made  with  War 
and  Navy  Departments  whereby  the  coal  would  be 
shipped  ostensibly  to  the  army,  but  would  be  delivered 
in    Jersey    City    to   the    corporation.     The    corporation 


300 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  0 


officials  declare  that  this  plan  was  never  carried  out 
properly,  that  although  for  a  time  they  got  coal  from 
what  is  known  as  the  tidewater  pool,  a  few  days  ago 
the  pool  refused  to  deliver  coal. 

It  seems  incredible  that  such  a  situation  should  have 
been  allowed  to  come  to  a  head  as  to  compel  the  shuttin<j: 
down  of  a  chain  of  large  power  plants,  especially  when 
so  many  companies  are  using  their  current  for  manu- 
facturing war  materials. 

Improve  Plant  Efficiency 

SHORTAGE  of  labor  limits  the  output  of  the  mines, 
and  scarcity  of  cars  hinders  coal  distribution.  With 
the  demand  far  in  excess  of  production,  there  is  one  way 
that  will  help  to  relieve  the  shortage.  Save  coal  at  home 
and,  more  important  still,  save  it  in  the  power  plant. 
Make  nine  pounds  of  coal  do  the  work  ten  pounds  did 
before,  and  then  see  if  the  economy  cannot  be  bettered. 
There  is  many  a  plant  in  which  this  ten  per  cent,  saving 
might  readily  be  increased  to  thirty,  and  in  some  cases 
it  would  be  possible  to  cut  coal  consumption  in  two  with- 
out reducing  the  output. 

It  is  not  a  question  of  installing  new  and  more  effi- 
cient machinery.  Manufacturing  and  transportation 
facilities  are  not  available,  and  if  they  were,  the  time 
element  is  too  pressing.  Relief  is  needed  at  once.  The 
solution  is  to  improve  the  plant  as  it  stands.  The 
worse  the  condition  the  greater  the  saving  possible. 
The  opportunity  exists  and  all  that  is  needed  is  intel- 
ligent attention  by  every  power-plant  owner  and  engi- 
neer in  the  country. 

A  real  engineer  well  knows  what  is  needed.  He  will 
look  to  air  leaks  in  the  boiler  setting  and  stop  steam 
and  water  leaks  in  the  piping.  He  will  adopt  proper 
firing  methods  for  the  coal  he  is  burning,  see  that  the 
draft  is  right  and  keep  the  heating  surface  free  from 
soot  and  scale.  All  equipment  in  the  engine  and  pump 
rooms  will  be  kept  in  good  order.  The  valves  will  be  prop- 
erly set,  and  the  bearings  will  be  kept  cool  by  sufficient 
lubrication.  In  a  word,  the  plant  will  be  maintained 
in  the  "pink"  of  condition. 

All  this  necessitates  a  competent  engineer,  a  good 
fireman,  a  system  of  records  showing  accurately  what 
is  being  done  and  the  necessary  instruments  with  which 
to  obtain  the  operating  data.  And  here  is  the  owner's 
opportunity.  He  must  choose  his  man  wisely  and  then 
provide  him  with  every  facility  possible  that  will  help 
to  produce  the  most  efficient  results. 

In  those  plants  not  containing  mechanical  stokers 
the  fireman  is  the  biggest  single  factor  to  be  considered. 
Good  men  of  this  trade  are  scarce,  and  it  is  a  question 
of  educating  the  material  at  hand.  Higher-priced  fuel 
has  helped  to  eradicate  the  idea  that  the  fireman  is  a 
common  laborer  subject  to  the  treatment  of  a  roustabout. 
As  fuel  prices  go  up  the  margin  between  good  and  in- 
different work  means  more  and  more  of  the  firm's  money. 
It  will  be  found  cheaper  to  educate  the  fireman  than  to 
pay  for  coal,  and  the  laborer  will  be  raised  to  the  plane 
of  a  skilled  workman.  In  this  process  valuable  informa- 
tion may  be  obtained  from  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  various 
schools  and  engineering  associations  will  contribute  to 
the  cause,  and  Power  stands  ready  to  supply  all  informa- 
tion at  its  command. 


Prompt  action  by  every  power  plant  in  the  country 
would  easily  increase  the  average  economy  ten  per  cent. 
It  would  mean  millions  of  tons  of  coal  for  war  purposes, 
resulting  in  more  rapid  mobilization  of  men  and  sup- 
plies at  the  front  by  our  own  country  and  our  allies. 
It  would  contribute  toward  shortening  the  war  and  at 
the  same  time  mean  a  saving  to  the  power-plant  owner. 
This  is  no  sacrifice.  Like  buying  a  Liberty  Bond  with 
interest  and  principal  returnable,  it  is  the  duty  of  every 
patriotic  engineer  and  power-plant  owner  to  contribute 
to  the  cause. 

Names !    Names !    Names ! 

THE   following  appeared   in  the  New  York  Sun  o 
February  15.     Why  is  it  that  "The  names  have  not 
been  made  public"? 

COAL  MEN  INDICTED 
Tennessee   Operators  and  Dealers   Held  for  Food. 
Lau>  Violations 
Knoxville,  Tenn.,  Feb.  14. — The  Federal  Grand  Jury  here 
today    returned    twenty-three    indictments    against    forty- 
seven  defendants,  including  coal  operators,  coal  dealers  and 
coal  brokers  of  the  east  Tennessee  field,  charging  violation 
of  the  food-control  bill.     The  names   have  not  been   made 
public. 

The  indictments  include  163  counts.  The  cases  will  be 
called  for  trial  here  at  the  May  term.  The  indictments  re- 
sulted from  investigations  made  during  the  last  two  months 
by  the  Department  of  Justice,  which  developed  charges  of 
violations  of  Government  fixed  prices  and  Fuel  Administra- 
tion order. 

Give  us  their  names. 


Coal   Piracy  Under   Ban 

Sale  of  rock  and  slate  masquerading  as  coal  is  going  to 
be  discouraged,  C.  E.  Robertson,  deputy  state  fuel  adminis- 
trator, said  today. 

"Within  the  past  few  days,"  he  added  "this  office  has  had 
rejected  two  cargoes  of  which  an  analysis  showed  69  per 
cent,  of  rock  and  slate  and  only  31  per  cent,  of  coal.  The 
railroad  companies  carrying  this  coal  notified  the  producers 
in  Pennsylvania  that  no  more  cars  would  be  furnished  to 
them.  If  this  stuff  had  been  accepted  by  the  consignee,  it 
would  have  cost  him  $26  per  ton  for  the  coal  in  it." — N.  Y. 
Globe,  Feb.  IJ,. 

And  even  at  that  he  could  not  have  burned  it. 


There  is  nothing  to  be  gained  by  holding  meetings, 
writing  papers  and  editorials  to  argue  that  the  Monday 
closing  orders  of  the  Fuel  Administration  have  saved 
little,  if  any,  coal.  Their  object  was  not  to  save  coal, 
but  to  relieve  the  bunged-up  conditions  of  the  railways. 
It  is  a  pity  that  some  of  these  intellectual  giants  can- 
not see  how  absurd  some  of  their  advice  and  comments 
appear  in  the  light  by  which  those  who  have  great 
responsibilities  are  doing  big  things. 


The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  will  say  the  fol- 
lowing, editorially: 

The  days  of  suspended  industry  in  February  may  or  may 
not  be  costly,  but  it  is  certain  that  they  were  not  so  expen- 
sive as  the  New  York  dailies  represented  last  Sunday,  on 
the  authority  of  the  Black  Diamond.  They  put  the  loss 
for  eight  days  at  $4,344,000,000,  which  would  be  $543,000,- 
000  per  day,"  or  at  the  rate  of  $162,900,000,000  per  annum, 
reckoning  300  days.  Inasmuch  as  the  gross  volume  of  busi- 
ness in  the  United  States  in  1917  is  estimated  at  about 
$.50,000,000,000,  there  is  manifestly  something  wrong  in 
estimating  the  loss  of  about  eight  per  cent,  of  that  sum  in 
eight  days. 


Kobniary   2(;.    i;il8                                                            POWER  301 

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Correspondence 


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Why  Hot-Water  Pipes  Pit 

On  page  824  in  the  issue  of  Dec.  18,  1917,  a  descrip- 
tion was  given  of  the  pitting  of  steel  pipes  used  for 
steam  and  hot-water  lines.  Two  instances  were  given, 
and  the  question  was  asl^ed,  "What  is  the  reason?" 

There  is  a  possibility,  as  mentioned  in  the  article, 
that  there  was  originall.v  in  the  steam  pipe  a  pin-hole 
through  which  the  steam  escaped,  gradually  wearing  the 
hole  larger  and  larger  and  that  it  was,  therefore,  not 
a  case  of  corrosion  but  of  erosion.  The  other  case, 
however,  is  typical  of  corrosion  in  hot-water  lines,  which 
is  one  of  the  everyday  troubles  of  power-plant  engineers 
and  is  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  electrolytic  theory 
of  corrosion.  According  to  this  theory  corrosion  is 
caused  by  electric  currents  emanating  either  from  out- 
side sources  or  in  the  material  itself.  In  the  latter 
ca.se  the  elements  necessary  for  corrosion  to  occur  are 
as  follows :  ( 1 )  Impurities  or  other  conditions  in  the 
metal,  causing  different  electrical  potential  in  adjoining 
areas  thereof;  (2)  an  electrolyte — commonly  water: 
(3)  a  depolarizer — ^air  or  oxygen.  With  these  condi- 
tions prevailing,  a  current  is  set  up  which  dissolves 
the  metal  at  the  electropositive  pole,  resulting  in  oxida- 
tion and  precipitating  of  rust  at  this  point,  where  the 
pit  will  subsequently  be  observed. 

It  will  be  seen  tliat  if  oxygen  can  be  excluded  from 
a  water  line,  corrosion  will  not  talte  place;  likewise 
that  corrosion  will  to  some  extent  be  accelerated  or 
retarded  according  to  the  amount  of  free  oxygen  con- 
tained in  the  water.  From  the  oxygen  content  of  the 
water  viewpoint  one  may  reason  out  the  relative  cor- 
rosive effects  of  water,  steam  and  moisture  in  various 
forms,  and  it  will  be  seen  from  the  following  that  the 
corrosion  in  hot-water  lines  is,  in  the  light  of  the  electro- 
lytic theory,  calculated  to  be  very  severe,  agreeing  with 
actual  experience.  Hot  water,  under  certain  conditions, 
as  will  be  explained,  is  very  destructive  to  the  life  of 
ferrous  metals. 

The  experiments  of  Heyn  and  Bauer  in  1910  indicate 
that  the  corrosion  of  iron  in  hot  water  increases  with 
the  temperature,  reaching  its  maximum  at  about  140 
deg.  F.,  where  the  effect  is  about  four  times  as  great 
as  at  normal  temperatures.  Above  140  deg.  the  cor- 
rosion decreases  with  increase  of  temperature,  and 
above  176  deg.  the  falling  off  is  rapid  and  the  cor- 
rosion should  be  very  slight  at  the  boiling  point  (212 
deg.)  because  of  the  expulsion  of  oxygen  from  the  water. 

When  iron  is  immersed  in  hot  water,  there  are  op- 
posing forces  to  be  considered : 

1.  Corrosion  should  be  increased  because:  (a)  The 
conductivity  of  the  water  as  an  electrolyte  becomes 
progressively  greater  with  increase  of  temperature  to 
the  boiling  point.  At  this  point  it  may  be  several 
times  as  great  as  at  normal  temperatures,  and  thus 
there  may  be  several  times  the  current  den.sity  with 
its  equivalent  solution  of  iron   for  the  same  potential 


difference  set  up  between  the  iron  and  any  electro- 
negative substance,  (b)  With  rise  of  temperature  there 
should  be  increased  speed  of  reaction  between  the  iron 
and  oxygen  in  the  formation  of  the  rust. 

2.  Corrosion  should  be  decreased  because:  The 
solubility  of  oxygen  in  water  decreases  with  rise  of 
temperature,  becoming  nil  at  the  boiling  point. 

The  amount  of  corrosion  at  any  temperature  will 
depend  on  the  balance  of  these  forces.  As  indicated 
previously,  the  observed  effect  is  an  increase  to  a 
maximum  with  subsequent  decrease  from  this  temper- 
ature to  the  boiling  point  of  water. 

In  hot-water  supply  and  heating  systems  the  corrosive 
action  will  depend  largely  upon  conditions  of  design, 
installation  and  operation.  At  best  there  is  a  tendency 
for  marked  acceleration  of  corrosion  because  of  the 
increased  electrical  conductivity  of  the  water  up  to  a 
certain  temperature;  also  because  of  the  evaporation 
of  the  water — as  in  all  closed  circulating  systems — 
which  will  result  in  increased  concentration  of  salts 
in  solution  as  compared  with  the  natural  supply.  If 
an  open  system  is  used,  where  the  water  is  brought 
£o  the  boiling  point  and  the  greater  part  of  the  liberated 
oxygen  is  allowed  to  escape  before  entering  the  pipe 
.system,  corrosion  may  be  very  much  reduced  in  spite 
of  other  influences  in  its  favor.  But  with  the  customary 
closed  system  conditions  could  hardly  be  more  favorable 
for  maximum  effect,  owing  to  the  accelerating  influence 
of  high  temperature  and  probable  concentration  of  salts 
in  solution,  coupled  with  a  maximum  content  of  oxygen, 
s'ince  the  latter  cannot  escape  from  the  closed  system 
and  is  forcibly  kept  in  solution  by  the  relatively  high 
working    pressure. 

The  electrolytic  theory  of  corrosion,  or  the  difference 
of  electrical  potential  in  adjoining  areas  of  a  metal, 
may,  as  mentioned,  be  caused  by  impurities  contained 
in  the  metal.  On  this  theory  it  might  be  thought  that 
high  purity  of  metal  would  prevent,  or  at  least  greatly 
reduce  corrosion.  But  the  high-purity  commercial  irons 
apparently  do  rust  just  as  quickly  as  ordinary  steel, 
and  metallurgists  were  therefore  forced  to  look  for 
other  causes  besides  high  purity.  They  then  discovered 
that  different  polarity,  causing  electrolytic  action,  may 
also  be  due  to:  (1)  Distortion  or  unevenly  strained 
parts  in  the  metal  ( caused  in  pipe  by  applying  a  wrench 
In  tightening  a  joint,  bending  the  pipe  or  the  like)  ; 
(2)  lodgment  of  foreign  matter  or  mill  scale  on  the 
metal  surface. 

In  addition  it  ha.s  been  found  that  rust  is  of  a  dif- 
ferent electrical  potential  from  that  of  iron  or  steel 
and,  when  once  formed  on  the  surface,  becomes  the 
cause  of  further  rusting  or  pitting.  In  other  words, 
lust  breeds  rust,  becoming  such  an  important  factor  in 
the  progress  of  corrosion  that  original  purity  of  metal 
and  the  other  causes  mentioned  assume  comparatively 
little  importance.  While  the  electrolytic  theory  of  cor- 
rosion, when  properly   interpreted,  is  a  valuable  guide 


302 


f  U  W  iU  K 


vol. 


47,  No.  9 


to  the  understanding  of  the  subject,  it  cannot  be  used 
for  the  purpose  of  reasoning  out  how  any  metal  of  a 
given  composition  will  behave  in  actual  service.  Ex- 
perience with  the  metal  under  service  conditions  is  the 
best  guide.  The  metal  may,  for  instance,  be  very  im- 
pure, like  cast  iron,  and  yet  be  fairly  rust-resistant. 
This  is  assumed  to  be  due  to  the  barrier  action  afforded 
by  these  very  impurities,  principally  the  graphitic 
carbon,  which  in  itself  is  highly  rust-resistant  and 
protects  the  underlying  iron  from  corrosion  by  prevent- 
ing penetration  of  the  water  or  oxygen.  In  respect 
to  the  nature  of  other  forms  of  iron  considerable  con- 
fusion exists,  and  the  following  may  therefore  be  in 
order: 

By  commercially  "pure  iron"  we  understand  certain 
products  of  the  openhearth  processes  which  should  more 
properly  be  called  pure  steel,  for  they  lack  both  the 
graphite  contained  in  cast  iron  and  the  slag  contained 
in  genuine  wrought  iron.  We  know  that  wrought  iron 
is  a  very  durable  product  in  spite  of  the  large  pro- 
portion of  slag  which  is  incorporated  in  the  pure  iron, 
but  we  should  not  be  misled  into  construing  this  as 
a  contradiction  of  the  electrolytic  theory,  for  it  is  ap- 
parent that  the  slag,  like  the  graphite  in  cast  iron,  being 
in  itself  a  practically  noncorrodible  substance,  must  on 
account  of  its  fine  distribution,  protect  the  underlying 
iron  from  corrosion.  N.  BowLAND, 

Pittsburgh,  Penn.  A.  M.  Byers  Co. 

Water  for  Air  Pump 

I  would  like  to  add  the  following  to  what  the  readers 
of  Power  have  contributed  to  the  subject  of  the  source 
of  water  supply  for  the  air  pump  of  Mr.  Forseille,  as 
told  by  him  in  Power,  Nov.  20. 

The  first  change  to  make  is  to  lower  the  strainers  and 
then  connect  up  the  new  proposed  line  to  the  intake 
of  the  strainers,  with  a  gate  valve  in  the  line  so  as  to 
cut  out  the  new  line  when  the  slush  ice  disappears. 
This  will  melt  the  slush  ice  by  mixing  the  water,  and 
a  temperature  from  60  to  70  deg.  F.  can  be  held  in  the 
air  pump  intake  water.  The  temperature  of  the  intake 
should  be  below  70  deg.  The  pump  gets  more  or  less 
vapor  or  steam  from  the  condenser,  but  as  long  as  the 
temperature  is  kept  below  70  deg.  F.  the  efficiency  of 
the  pump  will  not  be  appreciably  reduced.  Cold  water 
is  two-thirds  of  the  battle  in  condenser  operation. 

North  Kansas  City,  Mo.  P.   B.   Williamson. 

Providing  Stand-by  Service 

In  an  industrial  power  plant  where  only  one  generator 
was  provided,  on  which  the  maximum  load  never  ex- 
ceeded 75  per  cent,  of  the  unit's  rated  capacity,  it 
was  getting  to  be  quite  a  problem  to  find  sufficient  time 
to  make  the  necessary  repairs  and  adjustments.  Some- 
body always  requires  light  and  power,  and  although  the 
load  was  small  on  nights  and  Sundays,  it  nevertheless 
caused  considerable  inconvenience  if  the  engine  was 
".hut  do^vIl  for  any  length  of  time.  The  management  did 
not  feel  inclined  to  buy  another  engine  as  long  as  this 
one  was  not  loaded  up  to  capacity.  The  figures  offered 
by  a  central  station  for  stand-by  service  were  such 
thnt  they  could  not  be  even  considered.  The  central  sta- 
ton  offered  to  take  the  entire  load  at  a  reasonable  rate, 


but  as  all  the  exhaust  steam  was  used  in  the  ditierent 
heating  and  cooking  processes  in  the  plant,  the  engi- 
neer soon  convinced  the  management  that  the  central- 
station  figures,  no  matter  how  attractive,  would  be  an 
expensive  proposition.  It  was  now  up  to  the  engineer  to 
provide,  if  possible,  some  sort  of  stand-by  service,  and 
he  solved  the  problem  as  follows : 

In  the  room  adjoining  the  engine  room,  mounted  on 
the  wall  between  the  two  rooms,  was  a  15-hp.  motor 
belted  to  a  lineshaft.  This  machine  was  never  run  at 
night  or  on  Sunday  and  was  idle  part  of  the  time  dur- 
ing nearly  every  day  in  the  week.  The  motor  had  origi- 
nally been  used  for  a  generator  and  had  been  driven  by 
a  small  engine,  which  had  been  taken  out  and  stored  in 
the  boiler  room.  The  old  engine  was  resurrected, 
cleaned  up,  adjusted,  tried  out  and  found  to  be  in  good 
condition.  Holes  were  cut  in  the  wall  in  line  with  the 
pulley  on  the  motor,  and  the  engine  was  placed  on  a 


GflVeffATO/f 

DIAGRAM  OF  GENERATOR  AND  MOTOR  CONNECTIONS 

concrete  foundation  built  on  the  engine-room  floor  in 
such  a  position  that  the  engine  pulley  was  in  line  with 
that  of  the  motor. 

The  governor  of  the  engine  was  adjusted  so  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  pulley  proportions,  it  should  about  run 
the  motor  at  normal  speed.  A  lamp  /,  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  was  connected  across  the  motor's  switch  to  ap- 
proximately determine  the  voltage  of  the  motor  while 
running  as  a  generator. 

When  everything  was  ready,  the  engine  was  started 
and  brought  up  to  speed.  The  arm  on  the  starting  box 
S  was  placed  in  the  running  position,  and  soon  the  lamp 
/  began  to  glow  and  came  up  to  full  brilliancy. 

The  switchboard  was  arranged  with  four  switches,  as 
shown.  The  two  switches  marked  P,  and  P^  supplied 
the  power  circuits;  L,  and  L,  the  lighting  circuits  of  the 
plant.  There  was  only  one  other  motor  on  the  circuit 
P,  besides  the  one  being  used  as  a  generator,  and  the 
switch  to  this  and  the  switch  P,  on  the  switchboard 
were  blocked  open  so  that  no  one  could  close  them  and 
throw  excessive  load  on  the  emergency  generating  unit. 

When  everything  was  ready  for  the  change-over,  the 
motor  switch  B  was  closed,  after  which  the  generator 
switch  A  was  opened  and  switch  P,  closed.  The  light 
grew  a  little  dimmer,  but  this  was  soon  remedied  by 
adjusting  the   governor  to   increase   speed   of   engine. 


February  2G,   1918 


POWER 


303 


This  stand-by  unit  was  used  several  nights  a  week  and 
nearly  every  Sunday  for  almost  two  years,  when  the 
load  became  so  heavy  on  the  main  unit  that  a  larger 
one  had  to  be  installed.  The  night  engineer  made  an- 
other improvement  by  connecting  the  voltmeter  to  a 
double-throw  switch,  as  shown,  so  that  it  could  be 
switched  from  the  main  to  the  emergency  unit  when  it 
was  in  operation,  and  the  change-over  was  then  made 
by  paralleling  the  units,  and  therefore  without  interrupt- 
ing the  service.  E.  W.  MiLLER. 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

A  Thermometer  Guard 

The  illustration  shows  a  serviceable  thermometer 
guard  which  is  simple  to  make  and  easily  removed 
when  not  in  use.  Its  essential  parts  are  a  piece  of 
§-in.  pipe  14  in.  long  and  a  wooden  cap,  the  latter 
shaped  to  give  oily  fingers  a  secure  hold  and  having 
a  hole  lengthwise  through  it  for  a  wire  or  cord  by 
which  to  support  or  move  the  thermometer.  The  pipe 
is  threaded  at  one  end  and  is  attached  to  the  ordinary 
thermometer  cup  by  tapping  the  cup  as  shown.  The 
other  end  is  preferably  reamed  out  smooth.  Two  f^j-in. 
slots  are  machined  in  the  pipe  90  deg.  apart.  Then, 
with  the  pipe  loosely  screwed  into  the  cup,  one  slot 
can  always  be  turned  to  face  the  light.  With  a  hole 
through  the  cap,  the  length  of  the  wire  or  cord  con- 


GUAKD     TO     PROTECT     A     THERMOMETER     TUBE 

necting  with  the  thermometer  is  more  readily  adjusted 
than  with  a  screw-eye  or  a  transverse  hole  in  the  inner 
end  of  the  cap. 

If  the  eye  is  broken  off  the  thermometer,  tie  a  soft 
string  around  it,  followed  by  a  succession  of  half- 
hitches.  Where  excessive  vibration  endangers  the 
thermometer,  a  turn  of  lampwick  around  its  upper 
end  or  a  small  rubber  band  looped  around  a  few  turns 
will  safeguard  it.  R.   Matthews. 

Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


Water-Jacketed  Pillow-Block  Cap 

The  pillow  block  of  a  30  x  42-in.  rolling-mill  engine 
was  in  the  habit  of  working  hot;  in  fact,  it  required 
close  attention  and  a  lot  of  oil,  and  occasionally  some 
cylinder  oil,  to  keep  it  from  smoking  and  throwing 
babbitt.  It  was  cured  by  circulating  water  in  the  cored- 
out  space  in  the  bearing  cap  through  a  i-in.  pipe.  The 
bolt  holes  were  in  solid  metal,  and  there  was  a  vertical 


riLLOW-BLOCK    CAP    COOLED    BY    CIRCULATING    WATER 

cast-iron  partition  in  the  middle,  but  the  core  was  nearly 
the  size  of  the  babbitt  area  so  that  there  was  plenty  of 
cooling  surface.  The  rough  core  holes  were  stopped 
with  wooden  plugs  into  which  small  iron  wedges  were 
driven,  on  the  principle  of  securing  a  hammer  handle. 
Four  holes  for  i-in.  pipe  were  drilled  and  tapped  and 
piped  so  that  the  water  entered  at  the  bottom  of  the 
space  next  to  the  flywheel,  discharging  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom  of  the  crank  side,  as  shown,  and  out  at 
the  top,  after  which  the  bearing  was  the  least  of  the 
engineer's  troubles.  J.    Lewis. 

New  York   City. 

Induction  Motor  Would  Not  Operate 
on  Direct  Current 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  counter-electromotive 
force  in  the  armature  conductors  of  a  direct-current 
motor  is  generated  by  the  conductors  being  moved  across 
the  magnetic  field  from  the  field  poles,  where  in  an  in- 
duction motor,  the  counter-electromotive  force  is  de- 
veloped by  the  stator  winding  cutting  the  lines  of  force 
set  up  by  the  current  in  this  winding,  it  is  evident  that 
the  alternating-current  motor  will  not  operate  on  a  di- 
rect-current circuit. 

Some  time  ago,  after  making  some  repairs  on  a 
small  alternating-current  motor,  I  started  to  give  it  a 
running  test  from  a  double-pole,  double-throw  switch 
connected  to  a  direct-current  circuit  on  one  side  and 
an  alternating-current  circuit  on  the  other.  By  mistake 
I  threw  the  switch  to  the  direct-current  side  instead  of 
the  alternating-current  side,  with  the  result  that  the 
fuses  were  immediately  blown.  After  trying  to  make 
this  te.st  two  or  three  times  and  failing,  the  motor  was 
opened  up  and  inspected  for  trouble,  but  everything  was 
found  in  good  condition.  About  this  time  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  .switch  had  been  thrown  to  the  direct- 
current  side  instead  of  the  alternating.  Upon  as- 
sembling the  motor  and  connecting  it  to  the  alternating- 
current  circuit,  it  operated  satisfactorily  without  any 
further  trouble.  C.  R.  Behringer. 

Schenectady,  N.  Y. 


304 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


Shrinking  the  "Eye"  of  a  Rod 

I  have  received  a  great  deal  of  useful  information 
from  Potver  and  will,  in  turn,  endeavor  to  supply  some- 
thing myself.  I  am  a  machinist  and  was  called  out 
on  a  job   on  a   Corliss   engine    (18x42    in.)    that   had 


EYE     rOXTK.\rTEI)     JIV     HEATI.NG     AND     COOLING 

developed  a  bad  pound,  and  I  discovered  that  the  brasses 
were  loose  in  the  rod. 

To  save  the  customer  buying  a  set  of  new  brasses, 
I  removed  the  old  ones,  took  the  rod  to  the  shop  and 
heated  and  shrunk  it  in  the  manner  illustrated.  When 
cooled,  I  found  I  had  to  remove  nearly  ^'^  in.  to  refit 
the  brasses.  B.  Harrison. 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

An   Elusive   Ground 

A  direct-current  motor,  controlled  by  an  automatic 
starter,  as  in  the  figure,  caused  trouble  by  blowing  its 
fuses.  The  wires  from  the  controller  to  the  motor 
were  run  in  conduit,  and  a  magneto  test  showed  one 
of  these  wires  to  be  grounded.  A  burned  spot  showed 
on  the  conduit  near  the  control  panel,  about  three  inches 
from  the  end  fitting.  As  this  was  believed  to  be  the 
location  of  the  ground,  the  wires  were  disconnected 
from  the  motor,  and  pulled  about  six  inches  out  of  the 
conduit  at  the  control-board  end,  and  were  all  found  to 
be  in  perfect  condition.  Closer  inspection  showed  the 
burned  spot  on  the  conduit  to  be  on  the  outside  only, 
evidently  having  been  caused  by  a  live  wire  coming  in 
contact  with  the  conduit  at  some  previous  time.  With 
the  wires  in  this  position  the  magneto  was  again  applied 
and  all  rang  clear. 

Next,  the  motor  and  control  board  were  tested  for 
grounds  and  found  to  be  clear.  Inasmuch  as  every- 
thing was  now  apparently  in  good  order,  the  wires  were 
again  connected  to  the  motor  and  upon  starting  all  went 


well  for  a  few  hours,  then  the  same  trouble  again  oc- 
curred. The  next  thing  done  was  to  test  each  and  every 
connection  on  the  controller,  all  of  which  showed  a 
ground  that  could  not  be  located.  After  losing  consider- 
able time  in  this  manner,  the  wires  in  the  conduit  were 
disconnected  at  each  end  and  again  tested,  this  time 
showing  a  ground  on  one  of  them. 

The  wires  were  then  pulled  entirely  out  of  the  con- 
duit and  found  to  be  badl.v  water-soaked,  while  the  in- 
sulation was  burned  from  one  of  them  for  a  length  of 
about  four  inches  where  the  current  had  been  arcing 
trom  the  conductor  to  the  conduit.  A  hole  had  been 
burned  entirely  through  the  conduit  at  this  point,  which 
was  directly  under  the  motor  and  could  not  be  seen  until 
the  conduit  was  removed  from  the  floor.  When  the 
lines  were  moved  during  the  first  inspection  as  men- 
tioned, it  so  happened  that  the  bare  part  of  the  grounded 
wire  was  moved  away  from  the  conduit,  which  accounted 
for  the  mysterious  way  the  trouble  was  cleared  at  the 
first  trial.  It  is  supposed  that  after  staying  in  that  po- 
sition for  a  few  hours,  it  had  again  moved  by  jarring 
caused  by  the  slight  vibration  of  the  motor.  Upon  in- 
specting the  conduit,  it  was  found  that  water  occasion- 
ally splashed  over  from  the  open  jackets  of  a  small  verti- 
cal compressor  near-by  and  had  found  its  way  into  the 
conduit  through  the  end  fitting  near  the  motor,  which 


MOTOK    AND    CONTKOU1.EH     1  .\-STALI>ATION 

was  SO  located  as  to  allow  of  that  happening.  This 
trouble  was  overcome  by  placing  an  elbow  on  the  con- 
duit so  as  to  point  the  end  fitting  horizontally,  as  shown 
at  B.  When  testing  for  grounds  in  conduits,  both  ends 
of  wires  should  be  disconnected  and  tests  made  before 
moving  wires.  I.  S.  Chamberlain. 

Jersey  City,  N.  J. 


February  26,  1918                                                    POWER  305 

|iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiii Ill iniiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiii<iiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiii iiiim iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iimiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiui 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  f 


cniiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMniiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 


Equalizing  Cutoff  of  Single-Valve  Engine — How  can  the 

cutoff  of  a  single-valve  automatic  engine  be  made  the  same 
for  each  end  of  the  cylinder?  J.  C. 

The  cutoff  can  be  equalized  for  any  particular  load  by 
adjusting  the  length  of  the  valve  rod,  and  for  most  valve 
gears  thus  adjusted,  the  cutoff  will  be  practically  equal  for 
all  loads. 

Exhaust  Lap — What  is  meant  by  "exhaust  lap"?      A.  C. 

The  "lap"  of  a  valve  is  the  distance  the  valve  overlaps  its 
port  when  the  valve  is  in  the  middle  of  its  travel.  Exhaust 
lap  is  the  lap  of  an  exhaust  valve.  In  a  "D"  slide  valve 
"exhaust  lap"  is  sometimes  defined  as  the  distance  between 
the  exhaust  edge  of  the  valve  and  the  near  edge  of  the 
steam  port  when  the  valve  is  in  its  mid-position. 

Chattering  of  Spring-Loaded  Safety  Valve — What  causes 
a  spring-loaded  safety  valve  to  chatter  or  rumble  on  its 
seat,  and  how  can  it  be  remedied?  H.  H. 

Chattering  or  rumbling  occurs  when  the  pressure  is  just 
enough  to  balance  the  valve,  but  not  enough  to  hold  the 
valve  clear  of  the  seat.  The  chattering  or  rumbling  will 
be  of  duration  for  less  time  by  adjusting  the  blow-dovm 
ring  for  greater  blow-down. 

Greatest  Expansion  at  Temperature  of  Freezing — When 
water  pipes  are  burst  by  freezing,  at  what  temperature 
does  the  rupture  occur?  T.  P.  M. 

Rupture  usually  occurs  while  the  water  is  passing  to 
the  solid  state  or  when  the  temperature  has  been  returned 
to  the  freezing  point,  which  for  quiet  water  at  atmospheric 
pressure  is  32  deg.  F.  and  for  higher  pressures  is  about 
0.0135  deg.  F.  higher  for  each  additional  atmosphere  of 
pressure.  During  the  freezing  process  the  volume  becomes 
about  8V2  per  cent,  greater  than  water  at  the  same  tem- 
perature, or  the  volume  may  increase  a  slightly  less  amount 
when  the  oi-iginal  water  has  been  freed  from  air  by  boiling. 
After  ice  has  formed,  a  reduction  of  its  temperature  causes 
contraction,  and  reheating  to  the  freezing  temperature 
causes  expansion  back  to  the  initial  ice  volume,  and  the 
latter  may  cause  rupture  of  a  pipe  from  local  accumulation 
of  the  expansion  of  volume. 

Best  Thickness  of  Fire  for  Forcing  Boiler — Can  a  boiler 
be  forced  hardest  by  carrying  a  thick  fire  or  a  thin  one? 

L.  B.  R. 

The  thickness  of  fire  with  which  a  boiler  can  be  forced 
hardest  depends  on  the  denseness  of  the  fuel  bed  and  the 
draft  available.  The  greatest  heat  will  result  from  the 
thickest  fuel  bed  for  which  the  draft  is  sufficient  to  supply 
air  necessary  for  complete  combustion,  and  the  greatest 
absorption  of  heat  or  forcing  of  the  boiler  will  occur  when 
the  air  supply  is  not  in  excess  of  1%  to  2  times  the  theo- 
retical requirement  for  perfect  combustion.  More  air  be- 
comes a  vehicle  of  heat  wasted  in  the  chimney  gases. 
Hence  the  thickness  of  fire  that  is  most  advantageous  for 
forcing  a  boiler  with  a  given  draft  cannot  be  predicted 
without  recourse  to  trial  or  analysis  of  results  obtained 
with  given  sets  of  conditions.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
of  draft,  fuel  and  grate  area,  the  greatest  forcing  can  be 
accomplished  with  fires  carried  3  to  6  in.  in  thickness. 

Pump  Fails  To  Empty  Receiver — The  feed  pump  of  a 
pump  and  receiver  apparently  in  good  working  order  fails 
to  operate  at  sufficient  speed  to  keep  down  the  water  level 
in  the  receiver.    How  can  the  pump  be  made  to  run  faster  ? 

N.  S. 

If  the  pump  is  in  good  working  order,  it  may  be  that  it 
is  prevented  from  operating  at  a  higher  speed  by  excessive 
back  pressure  on  the  discharge  or  on  the  exhaust.  To  as- 
certain whether  the  trouble  is  with  the  discharge  pipe  it 
should  be  disconnected,  and  if  the  pump  then  runs  at  a 
good  speed,  the  trouble  comes  from  back  pressure  that  may 


Circular  mils 


be  caused  by  stoppage,  excessive  pipe  friction  or  attempting 
to  discharge  against  excessive  head  pressure.  Putting  a 
bleeder  connection  in  the  foot  of  the  steam  exhaust  pipe 
will  show  whether  the  trouble  is  not  due  to  back  pressure 
of  the  exhaust.  Such  a  drip  always  should  be  employed 
and  left  open  so  there  will  be  no  accumulation  of  condensa- 
tion to  cause  back  pressure.  If  the  pump  and  connections 
are  suitable  for  obtaining  normal  speed  when  the  float- 
operated  valve  is  held  open,  then  if  it  will  not  work  fast 
enough  when  operated  by  the  float-controlled  valve  it  may 
be  assumed  that  the  float  is  set  too  high  or  is  otherwise 
prevented  from  opening  the  float-controlled  steam-supply 
valve. 

Size  of  Conductors  for  a  Direct-Current  Motor — How  can 
the  size  of  the  conductors  be  determined  for  a  25-hp.  220- 
volt  motor,  full-load  current  92  amp.?  The  motor  is  located 
325  ft.  from  the  generator.  J.  S. 

The  size  of  conductors  for  a  two-wire  circuit  may  be 
found  by  the  formula, 

21  AID 
Ei  ' 

where  /  =  the  current  in  amperes,  D  =  the  length  of  the 
circuit  one  way  in  feet,  and  E,i  =  the  volts  drop  in  the  line. 
The  volts  drop  should  not  be  allowed  to  exceed  5  per  cent. 
For  distances  under  500  ft.  3  per  cent,  is  a  better  practice. 
As  3  per  cent,  of  220  volts  is  6.6,  then. 

Circular  mils  =  21-4  X  92  X  325  ^  ^^ 
6.6 
The  nearest  larger  standard  size  is  a  No.  0,  B.  &  S.  con- 
ductor. This  is  also  the  smallest  size  that  can  be  used  in 
this  case,  since  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters' 
Code  specifies  that  for  direct-current  motors  the  circuit 
capacity  must  exceed  the  normal  rating  of  the  motor  in 
amperes  by  25  per  cent.  A  No.  0  rubber-covered  conductor 
IS  rated  at  125  amp.,  therefore  it  has  ample  capacity  to 
meet  the  code  requirements  for  a  motor  rated  normally  at 
92  amperes. 

Boiler  Horsepower  and  Coal  Required  to  Heat   Water — 

With  evaporative  economy  under  actual  conditions  of  7  lb. 
of  water  per  pound  of  coal  and  steam  at  90  lb.  boiler  pres- 
sure, what  quantity  of  steam  and  of  coal  would  be  required 
to  heat  22,000  gal.  of  water  from  40  deg.  P.  to  160  deg.  F. 
and  what  boiler  horsepower  would  be  required  to  heat  the 
water  in  10  hours?  H.  S. 

Each  pound  of  water  would  receive  160  —  40  =  120  B.t.u., 
and  as  22,000  gal.  of  water  would  weigh  22,000  x  8J  = 
183,333  lb.,  the  water  would  receive  183,333  x  120  =  21,999,- 
960  B.t.u.  A  pound  of  steam  at  90  lb.  boiler  pressure  con- 
tains 1187.2  B.t.u.  above  32  deg.  F.,  and  when  condensed  and 
cooled  to  160  deg.  F.,  or  128  deg.  above  32  deg.  F.,  each 
pound  would  part  with  1187.2  —  128  =  1059.2  B.t.u.  and 
under  the  conditions  raising  the  temperature  of  the  water 
would  require  21,999,960  -^  1059.2  =  20,770  lb.  of  steam. 
With  a  boiler  economy  of  7  lb.  of  water  evaporated  per 
pound  of  coal,  this  would  require  2967  lb.  of  coal.  A  boiler 
horsepower  is  equivalent  to  the  evaporation  of  34'/2  lb.  of 
water  from  and  at  212  deg.  or  33,479  B.t.u.  per  hour,  and  as 
the  heat  transmitted  to  the  water  would  amount  to  21,999,- 
960  -=-  10  =  2,199,996  B.t.u.  per  hour,  the  expenditure  of 
steam  for  heating  the  water  would  be  at  the  rate  of  65.71 
boiler  horsepower.  The  estimates  given  do  not  include  any 
allowances  for  heat  lost  by  radiation  from  the  surfaces  of 
the  water  heater  or  the  steam -supply  pipe. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  ami  post  office  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention.— 
Editor.] 


30G 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


How  Fuel  May  Be  Saved 


Two  papers  presented  before  the  Providence  Engi- 
neering Society,  one  by  Prof.  William  H. 
Kenerson,  of  Broivn  University,  and  the  other  by 
Henry  W.  Ballou,  of  Jencks  &  Ballou,  consulting 
engineers,  discuss  means  for  the  alleviation  of  the 
present  serious  fuel  situation  and  the  prevention 
of  waste  in  the  use  of  steayn. 


TliE  Providence  Engineering-  Society  held  one  of  its 
most  successful  fuel-conservation  iiieetinu:s,  Wednes- 
day, Feb.  13,  at  its  headquarters,  29  Waterman  St. 
The  meeting  was  under  the  direction  of  the  Power  Section 
and  was  presided  over  by  Warren  B.  Lewis,  of  Providence. 
The  first  paper,  "The  Fuel  Situation  as  It  Confronts  New 
England,"  by  Prof.  William  H.  Kenerson,  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity, Providence,  and  a  paper  on  "The  Abuse  of  Steam," 
by  four  local  engineers,  read  by  Henry  W.  Ballou,  follow: 

The  Fuel  Situation  as  it  Confronts  New  England 
Two-thirds  of  the  coal  mined  in  this  country  is  used  for 
generating  steam,  and  of  this  it  is  probable  that  10  per 
cent.,  at  least,  can  be  saved.  Instead  of  a  shortage  of  50,- 
000,000  tons  of  coal  this  year,  it  is  likely  that  there  might 
have  been  an  actual  excess  over  requirements  if  the  pre- 
ventable wastes  had  been  eliminated.  The  large  public 
utilities  and  some  of  the  more  progressive  manufactures 
have  long  since  carefully  studied  and  met  the  situation,  but 
to  many  users  fuel  has  been  such  a  relatively  small  item 
in  the  total  cost  of  production  that  the  desirability  of  sav- 
ing in  this  direction  has  not  occurred  to  them.  So  long 
as  the  wheels  go  round  and  the  plant  is  comfortably  heated, 
and  coal  can  be  easily  obtained  when  wanted,  there  are  too 
many  things  of  greater  immediate  importance  to  claim 
attention.  Now  it  is  not  only  a  desirable  economy  but  a 
patriotic  duty  to  conserve  coal.  It  has  been  my  good  for- 
tune to  know  a  considerable  number  of  the  men  who  imme- 
diately control  the  coal  pile,  and  I  know  that  many  ai-e 
well  informed  and  desirous  of  getting  the  most  out  of  fuel. 
For  e.xample,  the  National  Association  of  Stationary  Engi- 
neei's  conducts  educational  lectures  by  expei'ts.  The  burn- 
ing of  coal  is  a  complex  chemical  problem,  and  it  is  no  more 
reasonable  to  equip  a  man  with  a  nicked  shovel  and  a 
woolen  cap,  which  he  can  use  as  a  pad  to  hold  a  hot  slice 
bar,  and  then  expect  him  to  get  the  best  results  out  of  the 
fireroom,  than  it  would  be  to  turn  a  chemist  loose  in  a  dye 
works,  without  balance  and  graduate,  and  expect  him  to 
get  uniform  and  satisfactory  results.  And  so  you  see  that 
it  is  very  necessary  that  we  educate  the  man  who  hires 
the  man  who  shovels  the  coal.  He  must  know  what  is 
involved  in  the  burning  of  coal  and  that  the  knowledge  of 
his  fireman  cannot  be  utilized  unless  he  is  given  some  facili- 
ties which  will  help  him  to  determine  the  conditions  of  his 
plant  and  soma  expert  advice  from  time  to  time  in  solving 
pi'oblems  as  they  arise. 

In  principle,  however,  the  burning  of  coal  is  a  simple 
matter.  All  that  is  necessai-y  is  to  thoroughly  mix  the 
proper  proportions  of  fuel  and  air  and  maintain  the  whole, 
including  the  gases  evolved,  at  such  a  temperature  that 
the  chemical  action  resulting  will  be  accompanied  by  the 
maximum  evolution  of  heat.  Then  all  that  remains  is  to 
transfer  as  much  of  the  heat  as  possible  into  the  water  in 
the  boiler.  The  manufacture  of  pig  iron  is  just  as  simple. 
All  that  is  necessai'y  is  to  mix  the  right  proportion  of  iron 
ore,  coke  and  limestone  together,  maintain  a  proper  tem- 
perature by  supplying  air  to  the  burning  coke  and  draw  oft' 
the  iron,  slag  and  gases  from  the  blast  furnace.  But  in 
the  latter  case  the  ingi-edients  are  carefully  weighed  and 
the  resulting  pi'oduct  is  analyzed,  all  under  the  eye  of 
an  expert  chemist,  while  in  the  boiler  i-oom  reliance  is  often 
placed  on  more  or  less  shrewd  guessing  and  no  fault  is 
found   unless  the   steam   pressure   drops.      If  the   guess  is 


wrong  and  too  much  air  is  used,  a  lot  of  heat  is  lost.  If 
the  guess  is  wrong  and  too  little  air  is  used,  still  more 
heat  is  lost.  In  either  case  the  loss  can  be  made  up  by 
simply  shoveling  in  more  coal,  and  nobody  knows  the  differ- 
ence and  nobody  cares.  Every  steam  plant  needs  certain 
facilities  for  the  determination  of  facts,  together  with  in- 
telligent supervision.  Please  do  not  undei'stand  by  this 
that  I  advocate  elaborate  plant  tests  or  analyses  of  fuel  at 
this  time.  At  present  we  will  not  question  a  lump  of  coal 
regarding  its  pedigree  if  it  chances  to  come  our  way  nor 
condemn  it  if  it  does  not  contain  14,500  B.t.u.  per  pound. 
We  are  overjoyed  to  get  any  kind  of  coal.  Certainly  in 
many  cases  a  complete  plant  test  would  be  a  waste  of  time 
and  of  money.  But  to  deprive  the  boiler  room  of  measuring- 
devices  which  show  what  is  going  on  is  as  absurd  as  it 
would  be  to  deprive  the  merchant  and  manufacturer  of  the 
yard  stick,  quart  measure  or  set  of  scales.  The  boiler  room 
should  at  least  be  provided  with  means  for  measuring-  water 
and  weighing  coal,  and  in  addition  it  would  usually  be  well 
to  provide  means  for  analyzing-  flue  gases.  Large  sums  of 
money  are  spent  in  the  boiler  and  engine  rooms  and  it  is 
as  essential  that  some  system  of  accounting  be  installed  as 
in  any  other  part  of  the  plant.  Incidentally,  this  makes 
possible  a  bonus  system  based  on  fuel  saved,  which  in  many 
cases  has  worked  out  well.  Entirely  apart  from  such  a 
system,  however,  the  men  who  run  steam  plants  will,  ir 
nearly  all  cases,  welcome  the  opportunity  to  know  the  facts 
that  they  may  better  the  conditions.  Although  I  have 
studied  many  steam  plants,  I  have  yet  to  meet  a  man  in 
charge  who  was  in  any  way  antagonistic.  In  most  cases 
they  are  eager  to  help  in  improving  conditions.  It  remains 
for  the  manufacturers  to  capitalize  that  interest  by  assist- 
ing them  with  measuring-  appliances,  competent  advice  and 
supervision.  The  I'eturn  in  dollars  and  cents  would  be  well 
worth  while,  and  at  the  same  time  the  present  coal  ci'isis 
would  be  relieved  in  the  most  sensible  and  logical  way. 

There  is  one  other  way  in  which  many  plants  could  save 
fuel.  Power  can  be  produced  in  the  large  central  stations 
far  more  cheaply  than  in  some  small  isolated  plants.  Where 
there  is  relatively  little  use  for  exhaust  steam  either  for 
heating  purposes  or  in  the  processes,  coal  can  be  saved  by 
purchasing  the  power. 

The  Abuse  of  Steam 

The  aim  of  this  paper  is  to  contribute  to  the  current 
public  discussion  on  the  conservation  of  coal.  It  is  an  en- 
deavor to  combine  and  set  forth  some  of  the  views  of  four 
local  engineers  who  have  had  experience  with  the  more 
popular  methods  of  wasting  steam  in  Rhode  Island. 

There  is  today  within  fifty  miles  of  Providence  an  in- 
dustry employing  5000  people,  which  is  the  last  word  in 
systematic  scientific  management.  Its  prime  movers  con- 
sist of  no  less  than  si.x  small  noncondensing  engines.  For 
half  of  the  year  nearly  all  the  exhaust  steam  belches  to 
the  atmosphere;  for  the  other  half  a  large  pai-t  is  used 
for  heating.  The  hot  drip  from  the  heating  system,  instead 
of  being  returned  to  the  boiler,  flows  to  the  sewer,  while 
the  annual  bill  for  the  feed  water  amounts  to  several  thou- 
sand dollars.  There  are  literally  hundreds  of  similarly 
flagrant  cases. 

What  the  typical  Rhode  Island  manufacturer  needs  to 
help  him  conserve  coal  is  not  information  about  the  refine- 
ments of  the  economic  use  of  steam,  but  ceaseless  reitera- 
tion of  the  simplest  platitudes  about  steam.  Platitudes  as 
simple  as  this: 

//  steam  can  be  seen  anywhere  unt  of  doors,  coal  is  being 
icasted. 

Another  platitude  would  be: 

.■ire  your  steam  traps  and  valves  leaking  coal  all  of  the 
tinted  Do  you  have  periodic  inspection  and  reports  as  to 
their  condition? 

These  platitudes  are  ridiculously  elementary,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  one  plant  out  of  fifty  in  Rhode  Island  has  any 
periodic  inspection  and  reports  on  these  vital  matters.  For 
illustration,  about  a  year  ago  the  owner  of  a  new  plant 


February  26,   li)18 


POWER 


307 


usinjr  central-station  electric  power  complained  that  his 
heating  system  took  too  much  steam  and  that  liis  boiler 
plant  was  not  of  sufficient  capacity.  On  investigation  it 
was  found  that  the  otherwise  frozen  ground  was  soft  and 
moist  for  a  considerable  distance  around  a  cei-tain  cistern. 
The  bypass  on  a  steam  trap  serving  the  sprinkler  tank 
had  been  carelessly  left  open,  and  live  steam  to  the  tune  of 
sevei-al  tons  of  coal  per  day  had  been  wasting  through  the 
trap  into  the  cistern  for  several  months.  This  is  typical 
Rhode  Island  cause  of  deficient  boiler  capacity. 

Steam  Traps — Hundreds  of  cases  come  under  observa- 
tion where  steam  traps  are  either  leaking  or  are  bypassed 
and  where  the  leakage  is  a  source  of  direct  waste.  The 
discharge  from  traps  is  frequently  connected  directly  to 
the  sewer  or  to  mill  trenches  where  leakage  is  invisible,  and 
waste  may  go  on  for  months  and  even  years  undetected. 
This  subject  of  leaky  traps  is  a  long  story,  but  therein  lies 
a  great  possibility.  Nearly  every  steam  plant  has  steam 
traps,  and  sometimes  there  are  hundreds  of  steam  traps  in 
a  single  manufactory.  Yet  it  is  probable  that  not  one  plant 
in  ten  has  its  traps  so  equipped  and  connected  that  they 
can  be  readily  tested  for  leakage.  It  is  the  opinion  of  a 
number  of  engineers  that  of  all  the  steam  ti-aps  in  Rhode 
Island  today,  probably  over  In  per  cent,  are  either  leaking, 
are  bypassed  or  are  in  some  way  failing  to  serve  their  pur- 
pose purely  for  want  of  regular  supervision. 

Lax  Operating  Conditions — There  is  a  large  finishing 
plant  in  which,  a  few  years  ago,  an  engineer  was  "turned 
loose."  Within  a  few  months  the  load  on  the  boilers  was 
reduced  fully  1000  boiler  horsepower  with  practically  no 
expense  for  new  equipment,  but  simply  by  stopping  gross 
leakage  and  waste.  The  most  obviously  needful  changes 
were  often  secured  with  difficulty  or  secured  only  in  pai't. 
In  one  department  there  were  three  sets  of  large  can  driers, 
each  set  being  served  by  a  2-in.  live-steam  pipe  and  a  6-in. 
exhaust-steam  pipe.  Steam  was  kept  turned  on  in  both 
pipes  at  the  same  time,  despite  repeated  protests  to  the 
manager,  the  master  mechanic  and  the  chief  engineer.  Of 
course  the  live  steam  was  immediately  reduced  to  exhaust- 
steam  pressure,  to  the  end  that  large  quantities  of  steam 
went  to  waste  through  the  back-pressure  valve  in  a  remote 
part  of  the  low-pressure  piping  system  without  the  slight- 
est advantage  to  the  driers.  This  is  an  excellent  illustra- 
tion of  the  objections  to  having  high-  and  low-pressure  con- 
nections to  any  one  piece  of  apparatus. 

This  same  plant  had  a  large  air  compressor  driven  by  a 
cross-compound  Corliss  engine.  It  was  desired  to  carry  a 
nearly  constant  pressure  in  the  compressed-air  receivers, 
and  to  accomplish  this  the  engine  was  throttled  by  hand, 
running  probably  95  per  cent,  of  the  time  at  a  speed  below 
which  the  valves  would  cut  otT  automatically;  in  other 
words,  taking  steam  the  full  stroke.  This  engine  was 
equipped  with  a  sui'face  condenser  which  was  not  in  oper- 
ation, the  engine  exhausting  directly  to  the  atmosphere. 
A  test  was  made  of  the  engine  as  found  running,  and  again 
when  operating  condensing  and  with  the  valves  cutting  off 
properly.  It  was  found  that  the  saving  due  to  opei'ating 
the  outfit  as  intended  by  the  makers  was  in  excess  of  125 
boiler  horsepower. 

Bloiuoff  Valves — ProbaDly  not  one  steam  boiler  out  of  a 
hundred  in  Rhode  Island  has  the  boiler  blowofF  valves  so 
arranged  that  they  may  be  readily  tested  for  leaks.  More- 
over, it  is  fashionable  to  submerge  the  end  of  the  blowoff 
pipe  in  some  river  or  brook  so  that  no  offensive  steam 
cloud  caused  by  leakage  will  be  perceptible.  The  blo\|Voff 
platitude  would  be  as  follows: 

Ai'e  the  hlowoff  valves  so  connected  that  they  may  be 
readily  tested  every  day? 

Pipe  Covering — Pipe  covering  is  almost  an  axiom  of 
steam  economy,  yet  there  is  no  systematic  periodic  inspec- 
tion and  recorded  report  on  the  condition  of  this  most 
thrifty  means  of  saving  coal.  It  is  a  popular  custom  not 
to  cover  the  flanges  because  of  the  inconvenience  when  a 
joint  leaks. 

Excessive  Back  Pressure  on  Engines — Where  steam  is 
used  for  heating  and  drying  purposes,  it  is  often  economical 
to  operate  engines  and  other  prime  movers  against  back 
pressures.  Under  these  conditions  every  effort  should  be 
made  to  have  this  back  pressure  as  low  as  nossible.    In  one 


instance,  where  a  single  back -pressure  gage  was  in  use,  io 
was  stated  that  1  lb.  back  pressure  was  all  that  was  re- 
quired. But  the  gage  in  use  and  which  indicated  a  pressure 
of  1  lb.  was  found  to  be  nearly  4  lb.  in  error  due  to  faulty 
piping,  and  the  back  pressure  was  in  consequence  nearly 
5  lb.     The  platitude  in  this  case  would  be: 

Test  the  pressures  periodically. 

In  many  cases  the  back  pressure  has  been  reduced  ow- 
ing to  a  more  efficient  circulation  of  steam  by  vacuum 
heating  systems  or  other  means.  Plants  running  condens- 
ing can  frequently  obtain  a  better  vacuum  by  eliminat- 
ing air  leaks,  etc.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  a  poor  vacuum 
caused  by  insufficient  condensing  water  which  latter  is 
caused  by  obstructions  in  the  piping  such  as  leaves  and 
accumulations  of  foreign  matter. 

Back  Pressure  and  Reducing  Valves — At  least  four  cases 
have  been  observed  by  one  engineer  where  live  steam  was 
blowing  directly  to  the  atmosphere  in  large  quantities 
thi'ough  the  low-pressure  steam  system.  These  were  in 
the  case  of  a  supposedly  insufficient  supply  of  exhaust 
steam,  where  live  steam  was  being  admitted  to  make  up 
the  supposed  deficiency.  At  the  time  the  live  steam  was 
being  admitted  through  a  reducing-pressure  valve  or  by 
hand  control,  the  back-pressure  valve  was  partly  open,  al- 
lowing the  escape  of  steam  direct  to  the  atmosphere.  The 
remedy  is  to  install  properly  sensitive  back-pressure  and 
reducing-pressure  valves  so  arranged  and  set  as  to  pi-es- 
sures  that  it  will  be  impossible  for  such  waste  to  occur. 

Heating  Systems — As  a  general  statement  it  can  be  said 
that  little  or  no  attention  is  paid  to  securing  economical 
operation  of  heating  systems  for  buildings.  Many  plants 
operating  noncondensing  engines  have  a  surplus  of  exhaust 
steam  available  for  heating  at  all  times  when  the  prime 
movers  are  running.  Under  these  conditions  this  steam  is 
likely  to  be  carelessly  used,  there  being  a  feeling  that  be- 
cause it  is  exhaust  steam  and  there  appears  to  be  no  other 
use  for  it,  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  it  economically,  the  re- 
sult oftentimes  being  that  radiation  is  not  properly  trapped 
and  that  various  drains  and  bleeders  discharge  directly  to 
the  sewer.  Under  these  circumstances  waste  of  live  steam 
occurs  at  night  and  on  holidays,  at  such  times  as  the  heat- 
ing system  must  be  operated  with  live  steam,  which  in  this 
climate  in  an  ordinary  manufacturing  plant  is  a  consider- 
able number  of  hours  yearly.  Obviously,  all  open  ends  be- 
come sources  of  waste  when  live  steam  is  in  use. 

Exhaust  steam,  where  available,  can  frequently  be  sub- 
stituted for  live  steam  in  heating  coils  with  slight  changes 
in  the  equipment. 

In  some  cases  it  has  been  found  possible  to  extract  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  steam  from  a  compound  condensing  engine 
or  turbine,  such  steam  first  performing  a  certain  amount 
of  mechanical  work  and  then  giving  up  its  latent  heat 
(amounting  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  heat)  to  the  heating 
system.  A  specific  instance  may  be  noted  where  in  a  cot- 
ton-mill plant,  the  steam  which  passes  through  one  of  the 
turbines  is  used  in  the  heating  system  during  the  winter 
months,  the  unit  being  operated  condensing  in  the  summer 
months.  This  is  a  change  made  during  the  present  winter 
which  has  resulted  in  a  reduction  of  the  load  on  the  boiler 
plant  amounting  to  more  than  200  horsepower. 

Hotel-heating  systems  are  as  a  rule  very  wasteful,  be- 
cause there  is  a  great  tendency  toward  overheating.  Many 
mills,  office  buildings,  etc.,  are  overheated  during  most  of 
the  winter  months.  Automatic  temperature  regulation  is  in 
many  cases  a  desirable  and  profitable  adjunct  to  a  heating 
system,  for  it  prevents  overheating. 

Some  of  the  older  vacuum  heating  systems  are  wasteful 
in  that  considerable  quantities  of  water  are  required  at 
the  vacuum  pump  to  assist  in  maintaining  a  vacuum.  This 
condition  is  frequently  caused  by  improper  automatic  ex- 
pansion valves  on  the  return  ends  of  radiators,  in  many 
(ases  it  having  been  found  that  the  interiors  of  the  valves 
have  been  entirely  removed,  allowing  the  steam  to  be  pulled 
through  into  the  return  line.  Several  cases  have  been  ob- 
served where  large  quantities  of  water  were  being  injected 
into  the  vacuum  pump  and  delivered  by  the  pump  to  an 
open  heater  or  receiver,  and  from  there  overflowing  (in 
the  form  of  hot  water)  to  the  sewer. 

Leaks — Leaks  in  pipe  joints  and  flanges  are  a  source  of 


308 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


waste  larger  than  is  sometimes  supposed.  The  cumulative 
effect  of  a  wee  jet  of  steam  moving  perhaps  a  mile  a  min- 
ute during  24  hours  a  day  is  considerable. 

Most  plants  keep  their  piping  systems  fairly  tight  where 
the  pipes  are  in  plain  view;  but  leaky  joints  on  hidden 
pipes,  leaky  valves  on  connections  between  live  and  exhaust 
systems  and  on  drains,  etc.,  are  common.  It  has  been 
found  helpful  in  large  plants  having  many  piping  connec- 
tions, to  go  through  the  plant  late  at  night  when  every- 
thing is  quiet  (both  out  of  doors  and  inside),  at  which  time 
it  is  easier  to  detect  the  sound  of  escaping  or  leaking  steam. 

Large  plants  should  be  equipped  with  valve  reseating 
tools  and  should  use  them  whenever  necessary  to  maintain 
all  steam  valves  in  proper  condition.  This  is  another  matter 
that  should  have  systematic  attention. 

Heating  of  Water — It  is  quite  common  in  plants  using 
large  quantities  of  hot  water  to  find  this  water  being  heated 
by  live  steam,  while  at  the  same  time  exhaust  steam  is 
being  wasted  to  the  atmosphere.  This  matter  needs  little 
comment  as  it  is  obvious  that  great  economies  can  be  ef- 
fected by  using  exhaust  steam  for  this  purpose. 

Boiling  with  Live  Steam — In  cloth-finishing  plants  and 
dyehouses  there  are  many  processes,  the  nature  of  which 
makes  it  necessary  to  boil  large  tubs  of  water  with  direct 
steam  and  maintain  them  at  the  boiling  point  sometimes 
for  hours.  Large  wastes  can  occur  in  this  operation,  be- 
cause the  amount  of  steam  that  can  be  turned  into  appa- 
ratus of  this  sort  is  limited  only  by  the  sizes  of  pipe  con- 
nections thereto.  It  is  evident  that  the  temperature  can- 
not be  increased  after  the  liquid  reaches  the  boiling  point. 
This  is  a  difficult  matter  to  control,  as  the  men  handling 
such  apparatus  are  usually  not  in  the  least  interested  in 
where  the  steam  comes  from  or  in  what  it  costs. 

Automatic  temperature  regulation  can  be  applied  to  some 
work  of  this  character  under  some  conditions,  but  the  sov- 
ereign remedy  is  systematic,  skilled  oversight  and  eternal 
vigilance. 

Insufficient  Boiler  Capacity — Another  instance  of  the 
typical  Rhode  Island  cause  of  insufficient  boiler  capacity 
may  not  be  irrelevant.  The  management  of  a  thriving 
manufactory  suddenly  concluded  that  its  steam  supply  was 
inadequate.  It  was  immediately  realized  that  two  new 
boilers  and  a  new  chimney  and  appurtenances  were  needed, 
and  in  a  hurry.  (Intense  hurry  is  apt  to  be  one  of  the 
most  distressing  symptoms  of  this  disease.)  It  is  the  usual 
custom  in  such  cases  to  ask  the  gentlemen  who  sell  boilers 
and  other  things  to  supply  the  engineering.  They  do  engi- 
neering free  of  charge.  But  in  this  instance  the  manage- 
ment called  in  an  engineer.  Instead  of  installing  two  new 
boilers,  he  shut  down  one  of  the  old  ones.  At  the  end  of 
the  next  year,  during  which  the  business  had  increased  by 
some  millions  of  yards  of  cloth,  the  cost  of  coal  consumed 
had  decreased  $8000.  This  saving  was  attained  by  stop- 
ping the  waste  of  steam  in  the  dyehouse  and  by  using  ex- 
haust steam. 

Exhaust  steam  was  used  to  preheat  large  quantities  of 
water,  instead  of  putting  cold  water  into  dye  tubs  and 
bringing  it  to  a  boil  with  live  steam  as  was  done  previously. 

Exhauat  Steam — There  is,  on  the  part  of  owners  and 
managers,  a  universal  prejudice  against  exhaust  steam.  This 
prejudice  also  extends  to  superintendents  and  foremen,  and 
it  becomes  virulent  with  the  workmen.  They  all  know  that 
high-pressure  steam  will  make  more  commotion  and  racket 
than  exhaust  steam.  They  know  that  high-pressure  steam 
will  make  water  boil  harder.  Most  manufacturers  are  con- 
fident that  there  is  some  magic  property  in  live  steam  that 
is  lacking  in  exhaust  steam,  even  at  the  same  pressure; 
their  head  dyers  tell  them  so. 

A  large  part  of  the  failure  of  some  exhaust-steam  sys- 
tems is  attributable  to  a  feeling  that  exhaust  steam  is 
cheap — doesn't  cost  anything — and  may  therefore  be  wasted 
with  impunity. 

A  perpetual  campaign  of  education,  remonstrance  and  ex- 
postulation is  necessary  to  prevent  the  waste  of  both  live 
f.nd  exhaust  steam  in  dyehouses  and  finiohing  plants.  In 
the  previously  mentioned  plant  where  the  coal  bill  was  re- 
duced $8000  in  a  year  of  increasing  business,  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  the  gain  would  have  all  been  lost  in  the  following 


year  if  previous  conditions  of  oversight  and  management 
had  been  resumed. 

Platitudes  for  exhaust  steam  should  be  about  as  follows: 

Nine-tenths  of  the  coal  used  in  ■making  steam  goes  into 
latent  heat. 

In  making  steam  nine-tenths  of  the  coal  is  used  before 
(ce  get  an  ounce  of  steam  pressure. 

When  you  ivaste  exhaust  steam,  you  waste  nine-tenths  of 
the  coal  used  in  making  live  steam. 

There  are  many  processes  where,  with  slight  changes  in 
the  method  of  drainage,  etc.,  exhaust  steam  may  be  used 
in  place  of  live  steam.  This  is  particularly  true  in  cloth- 
finishing  plants,  paper  mills,  rubber  works  and  similar  in- 
dustries, where  large  quantities  of  materials  have  to  be 
dried. 

One  of  the  most  prolific  sources  of  waste  is  in  the  throw- 
ing away  of  the  condensed  steam  in  the  form  of  hot  or 
warm  water.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  every  manager  to 
see  that  no  heat  is  lost  to  the  air  or  to  the  sewer  which 
may  be  recovered. 

Enemies  Within 

It  is  unfortunate  that  there  can  be  no  powerful  govern- 
ment or  great  industry  without  its  traitors.  Often  such 
enemies  are  fanatics  who  believe  they  are  right  while  all 
others  are  wrong.  The  anarchist  who  plants  a  bomb  to 
correct  a  seeming  injustice  risks  his  neck  and  is  an  honest 
gentleman  compared  to  that  Judas  in  the  coal  industry  who 
today  is  allowing  the  shipment  of  dirty  coal,  and  accepting 
record  prices  for  a  product  he  couldn't  possibly  sell  in  nor- 
mal times. 

"That's  strong  language,"  you  say;  and  I  reply,  "It  isn't 
strong  enough  to  fit  the  case."  Furthermore,  let  it  be 
understood  I  wouldn't  make  such  an  accusation  if  I  hadn't 
seen  with  my  own  eyes  many  times  in  many  places  instances 
of  such  a  reprehensible  practice.  Yesterday  I  saw  60  tons 
of  coal  that  cost  a  lot  of  money  that  couldn't  even  be  burned 
without  being  mixed  with  real  coal  of  decent  quality. 

The  dishonest  clerk  who  short-changes  his  customer  is  a 
thief,  but  he  hurts  only  a  few  people  and  harms  himself 
most.     Here  is  what  the  dishonest  coal  shipper  does  today: 

He  is  damning  an  industry  that  has  developed  through 
the  exercise  of  greater  individual  courage  and  the  endur- 
ance of  more  personal  hardship  than  any  other  important 
business. 

He  is  causing  the  finger  of  public  condemnation  to  be 
pointed  at  honest,  conscientious  coal  operators  who  have 
spent  a  lifetime  in  the  organization  and  development  of 
reputable  mining  companies. 

He  is  wilfully  and  certainly  bringing  about  a  situation 
that  can  have  no  other  outcome  than  to  deprive  efficient 
mining  men  of  conti'ol  of  their  own  business,  and  to  hasten 
government  direction  of  mining,  if  not  Federal  ownership. 

However,  these  are  only  a  few  of  the  little  things.  Here 
is  something  more  serious: 

The  very  existence  of  this  United  States  depends  on  our 
overthrowing  German  autocracy.  The  weak  link  in  our 
entire  war  program  is  transportation.  This  deficiency  in 
the  last  three  weeks  has  caused  our  nation  a  billion-dollar 
loss  through  suspended  effort. 

Here  is  what  the  dishonest  coal  shipper  accomplishes. 

The  railroads  of  the  United  States  haul  about  1800  mil- 
lion tons  of  freight  yearly;  approximately  35  per  cent,  of 
this  freight  is  coal.  Some  coal  is  sold  locally  and  consider- 
able is  used  at  the  mines.  Assuming  that  630  million  tons 
will  be  shipped  over  the  railroads  this  year,  it  will  require 
12,600,000  fifty-ton  cars  to  move  this  output. 

Nine  per  cent,  of  ash  is  a  normal  quantity  for  American 
coal.  If  numerous  recent  investigations  are  at  all  accurate, 
there  is  at  least  9  per  cent,  additional  adulteration  in  the 
coal  now  being  shipped  in  America.  Coal  carrying  18  per 
cent,  refuse  has  but  63  per  cent,  of  the  fuel  value  of  coal 
carrying  6  per  cent,  ash  and  requires  the  transportation 
of  37  per  cent,  more  coal  than  is  necessary.  In  certain 
localities  the  transportation  facilities,  due  to  dirty  coal,  are 
being  taxed  as  much  as  35  per  cent,  above  normal  re- 
quirements. 


February   'ii;,    1918 


P  O  W  E  K 


309 


With  coal  ciuryiiiK  (>  per  cent,  ash,  eiffht  boilers  are 
roiiuired  to  st-nerate  300,000  lb.  of  steam  per  hour.  With 
■20  per  cent,  ash,  IS)  boilers  are  required.  A  certain  tonnage 
of  coal  running  6  per  cent,  in  ash  requires  11  cars  to  trans- 
port it;  coal  having-  the  same  fuel  value,  but  running  20  per 
cent,  ash,  requires  17  cars  to  move  it. 

For  every  additional  1  per  cent,  of  impurities  in  the 
nation's  annual  coal  production  the  railroads  must  haul 
more  than  five  million  tons  of  useless  waste.  Coal  adultera- 
tion means  more  boilers,  more  firemen,  increased  fuel  de- 
mand and  more  ash  handlers.  It  is  further  true  that  as  the 
percentage  of  ash  in  coal  increases,  the  percentage  of  com- 
bustible matter  lost  in  the  ashes  increases. 

It  is  physically  impossible  to  mine  and  market  coal  that 
contains  no  nonconibustible  matter,  but  when  the  impurities 
in  our  total  production  average  more  than  10  per  cent.,  a 
despicable  crime  is  being  perpetrated.  The  coal  industry 
must  rid  itself  of  the  pirates  that  would  destroy  it,  and  it 
is  urgent  that  effective  action  be  taken  at  once. — Floyd  W. 
Parstnis  in  Coal  Age. 

Why  Support  the  A.  A.  E.? 

The  following  is  from  a  circular  issued  by  the  Committee 
on  Ethics  and  Cooperation,  American  Association  of  En- 
gineers, Isham  Randolph,  chairman,  consulting  engineer; 
W.  H.  Finley,  chief  engineer,  C.  &  N.  W.  Ry.;  F.  H.  Newell, 
head  of  School  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Illinois. 

A  question  often  asked  when  the  A.  A.  E.  is  under  dis- 
cussion is  "What  is  the  need  of  anothei  national  society  of 
engineers?"  The  answer  is  it  is  because  we  are  awaken- 
ing to  the  fact  that  the  engineers  are  not  occupying  their 
full  position  of  usefulness.  The  cui-ious  anomaly  exists 
that  although  the  victories  of  war  and  peace  are  those  of 
the  engineer,  yet  in  most  of  these  the  engineer  is  occupying 
a  secondary  place;  because  of  this  fact  he  is  unable  individu- 
ally or  collectively  to  utilize  his  ability  to  the  largest  good 
of  mankind.  Forthe  last  ten  years  this  has  been  discussed 
in  a  more  or  less  abstract  manner.  Morris  L.  Cooke  in 
1908  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  while  other  profes- 
sions and  lines  of  business  have  awakened  to  the  need  of 
definite  action,  the  engineers  have  been  singularly  conserva- 
tive. Dr.  Talcott  Williams  has  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  profession  which  gives  "this  age  in  the  various 
works  and  achievenipnts  of  engineers  its  crowning  differ- 
ence from  other  ages  has  less  weight  in  public  affairs  and 
on  public  opinion  from  any  other."  "Modern  life  pays 
little  attention  to  the  word  of  the  engineer."  "The  engi- 
neer will  never  stand  where  he  should  in  the  state  until  he 
discharges  his  duty  at  this  point  (of  cooperation  and  in- 
formation)." 

These  quotations  taken  from  among  scores  that  might  be 
used,  indicate  a  condition  which,  while  widely  appreciated, 
has  not  yet  been  definitely  entered  upon  by  any  engineering 
organization  in  the  same  way  in  which  the  A.  A.  E.  is  act- 
ing. Unlike  other  societies  its  main  object  is  not  mainly 
that  of  meeting  to  discuss  technical  papers,  but  rather,  not 
neglecting  these,  to  concentrate  on  the  human  matters — the 
things  which  affect  the  engineer  as  a  man  and  citizen  as 
well  as  an  engineer.  It  goes  into  employment  because  it  is 
the  foundation  for  the  success  of  the  individual.  Other 
societies  have  neglected  this  fundamental  point  or  at  least 
have  given  it  merely  perfunctory  attention.  The  American 
Association  believes  in  doing  what  other  professional  and 
business  organizations  are  doing  for  the  mutual  advance- 
ment and  protection  of  the  highly  trained  man  from  the  un- 
dermining influence  by  the  unskilled  or  incompetent.  It 
goes  into  publicity,  advertising  if  you  please,  not  for  the 
benefit  of  th-^  individual  but  of  all  engineers,  because  it 
believes  that  engineers  as  a  whole  will  be  benefited  to  the 
extent  that  the  public  knows  about  the  work  already  per- 
formed or  f.f  the  position  to  be  achieved,  which  can  be  rea- 
lized when  the  public  really  understands  what  can  be  gained 
in  greater  health,  comfort  and  prosperity. 

It  goes  into  politics,  not  the  partisan  kind,  but  into  the 
science  or  practice  of  the  original  meaning  of  the  word, 
that  of  he\ping  to  direct  affairs  of  public  policy,  of  the 
greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number.  It  believes  that 
every  intelligent,  educated  man  or  engineer  educated  largely 
at  public  expense,  should  individually  and  collectively  de- 
vote a  part  of  his  time  to  the  affairs  of  the  community, 
especially  those  which  touch  the  practice  of  engineering. 
Ours  is  a  political  government  and  every  citizen  is  vitally 
interested  in  politics  and  every  engineer  who  does  not  take 


an  intelligent  interest  in  public  questions  and  array  him- 
self in  the  cause  that  appeals  to  his  reason  and  sense  of 
right,  fails  in  duty  to  himself,  to  his  community  and  to 
his  country.  Engineers  have  fallen  far  short  of  their  du- 
ties and  privileges  in  this  respect. 

Why  is  it  that  engineers  have  done  so  little  in  this 
direction?  It  is  because  the  older  societies  established 
precedents  that  have  hampered  growth  in  public  affairs. 
They  were  early  impressed  with  the  danger  of  being  con- 
sidered unprofessional  or  falling  into  the  category  of  com- 
mercialism. They  have  prided  themselves  on  keeping 
away  from  the  very  subjects  that  are  most  vital  to  the 
majority  of  members  of  the  engineering  societies.  There 
is  no  class  of  educated  people  more  bound  to  traditions  in 
this  regard  than  the  engineer,  nor  none  who  have  made 
slower  progress  toward  efficiency  in  their  own  organi- 
zations. 

Illuminating    Engineers    Hold    Special 
Meeting 

On  Thursday  evening,  Feb.  14,  1918,  in  the  Engineering 
Societies  Building,  New  York  City,  the  Illuminating  Engi- 
neers held  a  special  meeting  for  the  purpose  of  discussing 
the  saving  of  coal  by  lighting  curtailment.  The  meeting 
was  formally  opened  with  a  short  address  by  G.  H.  Stick- 
ney,  president  of  the  society,  after  which  Preston  S.  Millar, 
chairman  of  the  Committee  on  War  Service  of  the  Illu- 
minating Engineers,  presented  his  paper  on  "Lighting  Cur- 
tailment." An  abstract  of  this  paper  will  appear  in  an 
early  issue  of  Power. 

The  discussion  was  opened  by  J.  W.  Lieb,  chairman  of 
the  National  Committee  on  Gas  and  Electric  Service,  of  the 
Council  of  National  Defense.  During  Mr.  Lieb's  address 
he  read  a  resolution,  filed  with  Dr.  Harry  A.  Garfield, 
National  Fuel  Administrator,  setting  forth  what  his  com- 
mittee believes  to  be  the  attitude  of  the  electric-light  and 
power  companies  of  the  country  on  the  question  of  sign 
lighting  in  its  relation  to  national  fuel  conservation.  The 
resolution  minus  the  whereases  read  as  follows: 

Resolved,  that  the  public-utility  companies  throughout 
the  United  States  through  their  organization,  the  National 
Committee  on  Gas  and  Electric  Service,  of  the  Council  of 
National  Defeiise,  representing  the  gas  companies — manu- 
factured and  artificial — the  electric-light  and  power  com- 
panies, the  water-works  companies  and  the  central  steam- 
heating  companies  throughout  the  country,  pledge  their 
hearty  support  and  co6per-\tion  to  the  national  authorities 
in  carrying  out  any  plan  or  regulation  for  the  saving  of 
fuel,  gas,  oil  or  electricity  which  the  national  authorities  in 
the  public  interest  may  consider  it  necessary  to  adopt  as 
a  war  measure. 

Morton  G.  Lloyd,  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  called  attention  to  the  tremendous  waste 
of  fuel  due  to  overheating  our  buildings,  residences  being  the 
most  uneconomical  and  industrial  plants  almost  as  bad  in 
their  methods  of  burning  coal.  Mr.  Lloyd  took  the  opportu- 
nity to  criticize  the  coal  operators  of  the  country  for  the  poor 
quality  of  coal  that  they  l.ave  been  supplying,  pointing  out 
that  there  might  be  some  excuse  for  doing  this  if  the  mines 
could  not  produce  sufficient  quantity,  but  if  the  operators' 
claim,  that  the  coal  shortage  is  due  entirely  to  lack  of 
transpoi-tation,  is  true,  then  there  is  no  excuse  for  shipping 
the  extremely  low  gi'ades  about  the  country. 

Many  others  took  part  in  the  discussion,  and  the  general 
opinion  expressed  was  that  every  effort  possible  should  be 
made  to  save  coal  by  the  curtailment  of  all  unnecessary 
lighting,  but  that  the  amount  of  fuel  that  could  be  saved 
by  the  elimination  of  waste  in  other  dii-ections  was  so  great 
that  the  possible  saving  by  the  curtailment  of  light  becomes 
almost  insignificant  in  comparison. 

Probably  one  of  the  most  disappointing  features  to  many 
who  attended  the  meeting  was  the  absence  of  representa- 
tives from  the  national,  state  and  municipal  fuel  adminis- 
trations. Representatvies  from  each  of  these  bodies  had 
been  invited  to  take  part  in  the  discussion,  but  for  some 
reason  failed  to  avail  themselves  of  tliis  opportunity. 


The  address  of  C.  M.  Griffin  should  be  114  First  St., 
Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  instead  of  114  Spruce  St.,  as  given  in 
the  article  on  page  183  of  Power  for  Feb.  5,  descriptive  of 
his  condenser-tube  cleaner. 


310 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


Electricity  To  Solve  the  Fuel  and 
Transportation  Problems 

By  E.  W.  rice,  Jr. 

President,    General    Electric    Co.    and    the    A.    I.   E.    E. 


An  address  delivered  at  the  opening  session  of 
the  midwinter  convention  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Electrical  Engineers,  held  in  Neiv  York 
City,  Feb.  15  and  16,  1918.  The  speaker  sets 
forth  the  tremendous  saving  in  fuel  that  can  be 
accomplished  by  a  universal  electrification  of  our 
steam  raihvays,  also  that  at  least  50  per  cent, 
increase  in  available  capacity  of  existing  tracks 
can  be  obtained  by  substituting  electricity  for 
steam  in  the  operation  of  the  railroads  in  this 
country. 


MEMBERS  of  the  electrical  profession  and  industry 
have  reason  to  be  pleased  with  the  contributions 
which  they  have  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  world. 
While  we  are  glad  to  think  that  our  science  and  our  indus- 
try are  fundamentally  devoted  to  the  products  and  conditions 
of  peace,  we  realize  that  in  the  electric  light,  searchlights, 
the  X  ray,  telephones,  telegraph,  wireless  apparatus,  electric 
motors,  etc.,  electricity  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
grim  business  of  war. 

We  are  in  the  midst  of  an  extraordinary  coal  famine, 
due  to  causes  which  it  is  perhaps  undesirable  for  us  to 
attempt  to  outline.  However,  I  would  like  to  point  out 
how  much  worse  the  situation  might  have  been  were  it  not 
for  the  contributions  of  the  electrical  engineers;  and  also 
how  much  better  our  condition  might  have  been  if  our  con- 
tributions had  been  more  extensively  utilized. 

Electricity  Increased  Coal  Production 
Suppose  we  assume  that  the  present  serious  situation  is 
due  to  a  lack  of  production  of  coal.  It  is  comforting  to 
consider  to  what  extent  conditions  surrounding  such  pro- 
duction have  been  improved  and  how  the  output  of  our  coal 
mines  had  already  been  increased  by  the  use  of  electrical 
devices  in  connection  with  coal  mining — such  for  example 
as  the  electric  light,  electric  coal  cutters,  electric  drills 
and  electric  mining  and  hauling  locomotives.  I  have  no 
figures  before  me,  but  I  think  it  is  a  fair  assumption  that 
the  output  of  coal  mines  should  have  been  increased  at 
least  25  per  cent,  on  the  average  by  the  employment  of  such 
electrical  devices.  If  this  estimate  were  cut  down  to  10  per 
cent.,  it  would  still  leave  a  possible  increase  in  the  coal 
produced  of  something  like  50,000,000  tons  during  the  past 
year. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  our  situation  is  not  due  to  a 
shortage  in  the  production  of  coal,  but  rather  to  the  failure 
of  the  distributive  agencies  of  the  country,  which  is  more 
probable,  it  is  interesting  to  see  how  this  difficulty  would 
have  been  largely  removed  if  the  railroads  of  the  country 
were  operated  by  electricity  instead  of  steam. 

Where  electricity  has  been  substituted  for  steam  in  the 
operation  of  railroads,  fully  50  per  cent,  increase  in  avail- 
able capacity  of  existing  tracks  and  other  facilities  has 
been  demonstrated.  This  increased  capacity  has  been  due  to 
a  variety  of  causes,  but  largely  to  the  increased  reliability 
and  capacity,  under  all  conditions  of  service,  of  electric 
locomotives,  thus  permitting  a  speeding  up  of  train  schedules 
by  some  25  per  cent.,  under  average  conditions.  Of  course, 
under  the  paralyzing  conditions  which  prevail  in  extremely 
cold  weather,  when  the  steam  locomotives  practically  go 
out  of  business,  the  electric  locomotives  make  an  even 
better  showing.  It  is  well  known  that  extreme  cold  (aside 
from   the   physical   condition   of   the   traffic   rail)    does   not 


hinder  the  operation  of  the  electric  locomotive,  but  actually 
increases  its  hauling  capacity.  At  a  time  when  the  steam 
locomotive  is  using  up  all  its  energy  by  radiation  from  its 
boiler  and  engine  into  the  atmosphere,  with  the  result  that 
practically  no  useful  power  is  available  to  move  the  train, 
the  electric  locomotive  is  operating  under  its  most  efficient 
conditions  and  may  even  work  at  a  greater  load  than  in 
warm  weather.  It  may  therefore  be  said  that  cold  weather 
offers  no  terrors  to  an  electrified  road,  but  on  the  contrary 
it  is  a  stimulant  to  better  performance  instead  of  a  cause 
of  prostration  and  paralysis. 

But  this  is  not  all.  It  is  estimated  that  something-  like 
150,000,000  tons  of  coal  was  consumed  by  the  railroads  in 
1917.  Now  we  know  from  the  results  obtained  from  such 
electrical  operation  of  railroads  as  we  already  have  in  this 
country  that  it  would  be  possible  to  save  at  least  two-thirds 
of  this  coal  if  electric  locomotives  were  substituted  for  the 
present  steam  locomotives.  On  this  basis  there  would  be  a 
saving  of  over  100,000,000  tons  of  coal  in  one  year.  This  is 
an  amount  three  times  as  large  as  the  total  coal  exported 
from  the  United  States  during  1917. 

Coal  Restricts  Capacity  of  Railroads 
The  carrying  capacity  of  our  steam  roads  is  also  seri- 
ously restricted  by  the  movement  of  coal  required  for 
haulage  of  the  trains  themselves.  It  is  estimated  that  fully 
10  per  cent,  of  the  total  ton-mileage  movement  behind  the 
engine  drawbar  is  made  up  of  company  coal  and  coal  cars, 
including  in  this  connection  the  steam-engine  tender  and  its 
contents.  In  other  words,  the  useful  or  revenue-carrying 
capacity  of  our  steam  roads  could  be  increased  about  10  per 
cent,  with  existing  track  facilities  by  eliminating  the  entire 
company  coal  movement. 

I  have  not  mentioned  the  consumption  of  oil  by  the  rail- 
roads, which  we  are  told  amounted  in  1915  to  something 
like  40,000,000  bbl.,  nearly  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  oil 
produced.  This  fuel  is  entirely  too  valuable  to  be  used  in 
a  wasteful  manner.  It  is  important  for  many  reasons  that 
such  a  wonderful  fuel  as  oil  should  be  most  economically 
used,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  that  it  will  be  needed  for 
the  ships  of  our  forthcoming  merchant  marine,  for  the 
tractors  that  till  our  fields,  and  for  the  motor  trucks  that 
serve  as  feeders  to  our  railways. 

The  possible  use  of  water  power  should  also  be  considered 
in  this  connection.  It  is  estimated  that  there  is  not  less 
than  25,000,000  hp.  of  water  power  available  in  the  United 
States,  and  if  this  were  developed  and  could  be  used  in 
driving  our  railroads,  each  horsepower  so  used  would  save 
at  least  6  lb.  of  coal  per  horsepower-hour  now  burned  under 
the  boilers  of  our  steam  locomotives.  It  is  true  that  this 
water  power  is  not  uniformly  distributed  in  the  districts 
where  the  railroad  requirements  are  greatest,  but  the  pos- 
sibilities indicated  by  the  figures  are  so  impressive  as  to 
justify  careful  examination  as  to  the  extent  to  which  water 
power  could  be  so  employed  and  the  amount  of  coal  that 
could  be  saved  by  its  use.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  very 
considerable  portion  of  the  coal  now  wastefully  used  by 
the  railroads  could  be  released  to  the  great  and  lasting 
advantage  of  the  country. 

Water  Power  Allowed  To  Run  to  Waste 
The  terrors  of  these  "heatless  days"  will  not  have  been 
without  benefit  if  they  direct  the  attention  of  the  people  and 
of  our  law  makers  to  the  frightful  waste  of  two  of  our 
country's  most  valuable  assets — our  potential  water  power 
and  our  wonderful  coal  reserves.  The  first,  potential  water 
power,  is  being  largely  lost  because  most  of  it  is  allowed  to 
run  to  waste,  undeveloped,  unused.  The  second  asset, 
coal,  is  wasted  for  exactly  the  opposite  i-eason.  It  is 
being  used  but  in  an  extravagant  and  inefficient  manner. 


February   2G.   1918 


POWER 


311 


Our  waterfalls  constitute  potential  wealth  which  can 
bo  truly  conserved  only  by  development  and  use.  Millions 
of  liorsepower  run  to  waste  every  day,  which,  once  har- 
nessed for  the  benefit  of  mankind,  become  a  perpetual  source 
of  wealth  and  prosperity. 

The  amount  of  coal  in  our  country  is  enormous,  but  it  is 
definitely  limited.  While  Providence  has  blessed  us  with 
a  princely  amount  of  potential  riches  in  our  coal  beds,  it  is 
known  that  there  is  a  finite  limit  to  the  amount  of  coal  so 
stored  and  when  this  coal  is  once  exhausted,  it  is  gone  for- 
ever. It  is  really  terrifying  to  realize  that  25  per  cent, 
of  the  coal  that  we  are  digging  from  the  earth  each  year  is 
burned  to  operate  our  railroads  under  such  inefficient  con- 
ditions that  an  average  of  at  least  6  lb.  of  coal  is  required 
per  horsepower-hour  of  work  performed. 

The  same  quantity  of  coal  burned  in  a  modern  central 
power  station  would  produce  an  equivalent  of  three  times 
that  amount  of  power  in  the  motors  of  an  electric  locomo- 
tive, even  including  all  the  losses  of  generation  and  trans- 
mission from  the  source  of  power  to  the  locomotive.  Where 
water  power  may  be  utilized,  as  in  our  mountainous  dis- 
tricts in  the  West,  all  the  coal  used  for  steam  locomotives 
can  be  saved.  In  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States,  however, 
water  powers  are  not  sufficient  and  it  will  be  necessary  in 
a  universal  scheme  of  electrification  that  the  locomotives 
be  operated  from  steam-turbine  stations;  but  as  I  have 
already  stated,  the  operation  of  the  electrified  railroads 
from  steam-turbine  stations  will  result  in  the  saving  of 
two-thirds  of  the  coal  now  employed  for  equivalent  tonnage 
movement  by  steam  locomotives. 

Electrification  Not  an  Inventor's  Dream 

It  is,  therefore,  not  too  much  to  say  that  if  the  roads 
of  the  country  were  now  electrified,  no  breakdown  of  our 
coal  supply,  due  to  failui'e  of  distribution,  would  exist. 
What  this  would  mean  for  the  comfort  of  the  people  and  the 
vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war,  I  will  leave  for  you  to 
imagine. 

Of  course  this  picture,  which  I  have  briefly  and  inade- 
quately sketched,  of  the  great  benefits  which  our  country 
would  have  received  if  the  roads  had  been  electrified,  does 
not  improve  our  present  situation  and  it  may  be  claimed 
that  any  discussion  of  such  a  subject  at  this  time  is  of  an 
academic  nature.  This  point  of  view  is  in  a  sense  true,  but 
I  think  that  we  can  properly  take  time  to  consider  it  because 
of  the  effect  which  it  may  have  upon  our  f  jture  efforts. 
This  picture  is  not  merely  an  inventor's  dream,  but  is 
based  upon  the  solid  foundation  of  actual  achievement.  We 
have  had  enough  experience  upon  which  to  base  a  fairly 
accurate  determination  of  the  stupendous  advantages  and 
savings  which  will  surely  follow  the  general  electrification 
of  the  railroads;  in  fact,  I  think  we  can  demonstrate  that 
there  is  no  other  way  known  to  us  by  which  the  railroad 
problem  facing  the  country  can  be  as  quickly  and  as  cheaply 
solved  as  by  electrification. 

The  solution  of  the  railroad  problem  would  also  "kill 
two  birds  with  one  stone"  by  solving  the  fuel  problem  at 
the  same  time. 

If  it  is  a  fact,  as  has  been  stated,  that  the  steam  rail- 
roads of  the  country  have  failed  to  keep  pace  with  the 
country's  productive  capacity — the  inci'eased  output  of 
manufacturing  industries,  the  extension  of  agriculture  and 
other  demands  for  transportation — it  is  obvious  that  if  the 
country  is  to  go  ahead,  the  railroad-transportation  problem 
must  be  solved  and  it  must  be  solved  at  the  earliest  possible 
date.  It  becomes  a  matter  of  national  importance  that  the 
best  solution  should  be  reached  in  the  shortest  possible 
time.  That  solution  is  best  which  will  give  the  greatest 
amount  of  transportation  over  existing  tracks,  in  the  most 
reliable  manner  and,  if  possible,  at  the  lowest  operating  cost. 

Every  Element  of  Electrification  Solved 
We  electrical  engineers  would  not  be  justified  in  being 
so  confident  of  the  benefits  of  electrification  of  railroads  if 
every  element  in  the  problem  had  not  been  solved  in  a 
thoroughly  practical  manner.  The  electric-generating- 
power  stations,  operated  either  by  water  or  by  steam  tur- 
bines, have  reached  the  highest  degree  of  perfection,  effi- 
ciency and  reliability,  while  the  tran.smission  of  electricity 


over  long  distances,  with  reliability,  has  become  a  common- 
place. Electric  locomotives  capable  of  hauling  the  heaviest 
trains  at  the  highest  speeds,  up  and  down  the  heaviest 
grades,  have  been  built  and  found  in  practical  operation  to 
meet  every  requirement  of  an  exacting  service. 

There  is,  therefore,  no  element  of  uncertainty,  nothing 
experimental  or  problematical,  which  should  cause  us  to 
hesitate  in  pressing  our  claims  upon  the  attention  of  the 
country. 

I  realize  that  the  task  of  electrifying  all  the  steam  rail- 
roads of  the  country  is  one  of  tremendous  proportions.  It 
would  require  under  the  best  of  conditions  many  years  to 
complete,  and  demand  the  expenditure  of  billions  of  dollars. 

The  country,  however,  has  clearly  outgrown  its  railway 
facilities,  and  it  would  require,  in  any  event,  the  expendi- 
ture of  billions  of  dollars  and  many  years  of  time  to  bring 
the  transportation  facilities  up  to  the  country's  require- 
ments. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  electrification  should  be  universal 
in  order  to  obtain  much  of  its  benefits.  It  is  probable  that 
one  of  the  most  serious  limitations  of  our  transportation 
system,  at  least  in  so  far  as  the  supply  of  coal  is  con- 
cerned, is  to  be  found  in  the  mountainous  districts,  and  it 
is  precisely  in  such  situations  that  electrification  has  demon- 
strated its  greatest  value.  Electrification  of  a  railroad  in 
a  mountainous  district  will  in  the  worst  cases  enable  double 
the  traffic  to  be  moved  over  existing  tracks  and  grades. 

If  a  general  scheme  of  electrification  were  decided  upon, 
the  natural  procedure  would  be,  therefore,  to  electrify 
those  portions  of  the  steam  railroads  which  will  show  the 
greatest  results  and  give  the  greatest  relief  from  existing 
congestion.  Electrification  of  such  sections  of  the  steam 
railroads  would  have  an  immediate  and  beneficial  effect 
upon  the  entire  transportation  system  of  the  country,  and 
it  is  our  belief  that  electrification  offers  the  quickest,  best 
and  most  efficient  solution  that  is  to  be  obtained. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  present  is  not  a  propitious  time 
in  which  to  deflect  any  of  the  country's  money  into  railroad 
electrification.  I  think  that  in  spite  of  the  enormous  ad- 
vantages of  which  I  have  spoken,  we  would  be  inclined  to 
agree  with  such  a  point  of  view  if  it  were  not  for  the  recent 
unpleasant  demonstration  of  the  failure  of  our  railroad- 
transportation  systems  to  meet  the  demands  placed  upon 
them  by  the  industries,  aggravated  it  is  true  by  the  war  con- 
ditions and  also  by  the  unkindness  of  the  weather. 

After  all,  the  question  for  the  country  to  decide  is  whether 
we  dare  to  limp  along  with  the  present  conditions  of 
restricted  production,  due  to  limited  transportation,  at  a 
time  when  the  world  demands  and  expects  from  us  the 
greatest  possible  increase  in  our  efficiency  and  production. 

What  assurance  have  we  that  the  present  conditions  are 
temporary?  And  even  if  they  improve,  as  they  will  with  the 
coming  of  warm  weather,  what  are  we  going  to  do  next 
winter?  Of  course,  even  if  we  should  start  electrification 
at  once,  we  could  not  have  all  our  railroads  electrified  by 
next  winter,  but  we  could  have  a  good  start,  and  as  Sherman 
said  about  the  resumption  of  specie  payments,  "The  way  to 
resume  is  to  resume,"  so  "The  way  to  electrify  is  to  elec- 
trify." 

College   of   the   City   of   New   York 
Giving  Boiler-Room  Course 

The  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  has  oflfered  a 
course  in  boiler  and  fuel  economy,  under  Harry  Bauni,  an 
engineering  expert.  The  course  is  given  at  the  college  on 
Thursday  evenings  fi-om  7:30  to  9:18.  The  first  lecture 
was  given  Feb.  21,  1918. 

The  course  is  intended  for  such  men  as  building  managers 
and  superintendents,  operating  engineers,  firemen,  public- 
school  janitors,  engineers,  library  janitors  and  others  who 
have  not  had  technical  training,  but  who  are  interested  in 
the  subject. 

The  prerequisites  for  this  course  ai-e  a  knowledge  of 
simple  arithmetic,  common  sense  and  an  interest  in  the 
subject.  The  fee  is  $7.50,  and  for  city  employees  $5.  The 
course  is  under  the  direction  of  Frederick  B.  Robinson,  City 
College,  Convent  Ave.  and   l.'iOth   St.,   New  York  City. 


312 


POWER 


Vol.  47    No.  9 


A.  I.  E.  E.  Midwinter  Convention 

The  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Eng:ineers  held  its 
sixth  annual  midwinter  convention  in  the  Engineering  So- 
cieties Building,  New  York  City,  Feb.  15  and  16,  1918.  On 
account  of  conditions  due  to  the  war,  the  Meetings  and 
Papers  Committee  with  the  approval  of  the  board  of  di- 
rectors made  this  convention  purely  a  business  meeting, 
eliminating  all  entertainment  featui-es  and  excursions,  so 
that  instead  of  the  convention  occupying  three  days  as  in 
])revious  years,  this  season's  sessions  were  curtailed  to  one 
and  a  half  days.  Pour  technical  sessions  were  held  at 
which  nine  papers  were  presented  and  discussed.  Although, 
as  would  be  expected,  the  attendance  was  smaller  at  this 
season's  convention  than  in  previous  years  (280  members 
and  guests  registering),  it  is  doubtful  if  more  enthusiasm 
and  interest  was  ever  shown  in  the  meetings. 

The  first  session,  Friday  morning,  was  devoted  to  the 
subject  of  "Circuit-Breaker  Ratings,"  President  E.  W.  Rice, 
Jr.,  occupying  the  chair.  Mr.  Rice  addressed  the  meeting 
on  the  solution  of  the  country's  fuel  and  transportation 
problem  by  the  electrification  of  our  railways.  This  address 
appears  in  this  issue,  beginning  on  page  310. 

One  paper,  "Rating  and  Selection  of  Oil  Circuit- 
Breakers,"  by  E.  M.  Hewlett,  J.  M.  Mahoney  and  G.  A. 
Burnham,  was  presented  at  this  session.  It  was  read  by 
Mr.  Burnham  and  discussed  by  Messrs.  Hewlett  and  Ma- 
honey. In  this  paper  the  authors  discuss  the  interpreta- 
tions of  the  A.  I.  E.  E.  Standardization  Rules  covering  the 
rating  of  oil  circuit-breakers  and  consider  the  variable  fac- 
tors involved  in  the'  selection  of  circuit-breakers  for  various 
systems.  A  method  is  suggested  whereby  short-circuit 
characteristics  of  various  systems  can  be  used  for  determin- 
ing the  proper  selection  of  oil  circuit-breakers  for  average 
systems.  The  method  does  not  apply  to  very  lai-ge  systems 
or  unusual  conditions. 

In  the  open  discussion  on  the  paper  it  was  made  evident 
that  there  was  a  need  of  some  standard  for  the  selection 
of  electrical  protective  equipment.  It  was  also  brought  out 
that,  although  oil  circuit-breakeis  had  been  constructed  that 
had  ruptured  as  high  as  500,000  kv.-a,  there  are  so  many 
variable  conditions  in  systems  on  which  circuit-bi'eakers 
are  used  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  simple  rule  covering 
the  selection  of  circuit-breakers  for  all  cases. 

The  Friday  afternoon  session  was  presided  over  by 
Vice-President  L.  T.  Robinson.  This  session  was  devoted 
tn  the  subject  of  "Meters  and  Measurements."  Four  papers 
were  presented.  The  first,  "A  New  Standard  of  Current 
and  Potential,"  by  Chester  T.  Allcutt,  was  given  in  abstract 
by  the  author.  This  paper  describes  a  new  secondary 
standard  which  is  proposed  as  a  substitute  for  the  standard 
cell  in  certain  classes  of  direct-current  measurements.  The 
device  consists  of  a  Wheatstone  bridge  which  will  balance 
for  but  one  value  of  current.  Various  factors  affecting  the 
accuracy  and  permanence  of  the  device  are  discussed  and  a 
number  of  curves  are  given  showing  the  characteristics 
which  have  been  obtained. 

The  second  paper,  "The  Thermoelectric  Standard  Cell," 
by  C.  A.  Hoxie,  was  also  presented  in  abstract  by  the  author. 
It  considers  a  means  of  obtaining  a  secondary  standard 
electromotive  force  by  utilizing  the  voltage  of  a  thermo- 
couple. The  standard  thernio  cell  is  fundamentally  a  stand- 
ard of  current,  in  that  it  requires  a  definite  value  of  current 
to  function  properly.  The  operation  of  the  cell  consists  in 
balancing  the  potential  across  a  resistance  against  the  ther- 
moelectric em.f.  of  the  thermocouple.  This  requires  a 
definite  value  of  current  through  a  filament  which  is  : 
source  of  heat  for  the  thermocouple. 

"The  Character  of  the  Thermal-Storage  Demand  Meter," 
by  P.  M.  Lincoln,  was  read  by  the  author.  Following  a 
detailed  description  of  the  principle  and  construction  of  the 
thermal-storage  demand  meter,  the  author  shows  wherein 
it  always  indicates  what  may  be  called  "logarithmic 
average"  rather  than  "arithmetic  average"  of  power  con- 
sumption, heretofore  indicated  by  practically  all  demand 
meters.  The  inherent  faults  of  the  "arithmetic  average," 
oi  "block  interval"  meter,  are  described  and  examples  given 
demonstrating  that  the  thermal-storage  meter  alone  recog- 
nizes the  true  heating  effect  that  fixes  size  of  equipment  and 


therefore  cost  that  should  be  assessed  against  the  customer. 
This  paper  will  be  published  in  abstract  in  an  early  issue 
of  Power. 

During  the  discussion  of  this  paper  the  question  was 
raised  as  to  the  justification  of  basing  rates  upon  the  maxi- 
mum demand  of  the  customer,  the  opinion  being  expressed 
that  the  diversity  factor  of  the  load  on  the  system  should 
be  taken  into  consideration.  In  answer  to  this  question  Mr. 
Lincoln  said  that  the  cost  of  the  equipment  at  the  customer's 
load  end  of  the  line  justified  basing  a  rate  upon  the  maxi- 
mum demand  of  that  customer,  because  the  equipment  to 
render  service  cost  practically  the  same  whether  the  cus- 
tomer used  it  continuously  or  for  a  short  period  only. 

The  last  paper  given  at  this  session,  "Measurement  of 
Power  Losses  in  Dielectrics  of  Three-Conductor  High-Ten- 
sion Cables,"  by  F.  M  Farmer,  was  presented  in  abstract 
by  the  author.  This  paper  describes  the  method  used  at  the 
Electrical-Testing  Laboratories  for  measuring  the  dielectric- 
power  losses  in  10-ft.  samples  of  three-conductor  cables  with 
three-phase  potential  applied  to  the  cable.  The  difficulties 
encountered  and  the  methods  employed  to  overcome  them  are 
discussed  in  considerable  detail.  Typical  results  are  given 
in  the  form  of  data  for  two  specimens  of  cable,  one  -having 
a  low  power  loss  in  the  dielectric  and  one  having  a  high 
power  loss  in  the  dielectric.  The  data  are  also  presented  in 
the  form  of  curves. 

The  interest  taken  in  this  session  was  evidenced  by  the 
large  attendance  and  the  length  of  the  session,  which  lasted 
from  2:30  until  after  6  p.m. 

Between  the  Friday  afternoon  and  evening  sessions  an 
informal  dinner  was  served  at  the  Cafe  Boulevard,  Broad- 
way and  41st  St.,  225  members  and  their  guests  attending. 
The  dinner  was  followed  by  an  inspiring  address  by  Presi- 
dent E.  W.  Rice,  Jr.,  on  what  this  country  has  accomplished 
so  far  toward  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  and  the  problems 
that  lie  ahead  of  us  to  win  this  great  conflict.  This  lecture 
will  appear  in  an  early  issue  of  Power. 

The  Friday  evening  session  was  presided  over  by  Presi- 
dent E.  W.  Rice,  Jr.,  and  was  devoted  to  a  lecture  by  Dr. 
A.  C.  Crehore,  on  "Some  Applications  of  Electromagnetic 
Theory  to  Matter."  Dr.  Crehore  during  his  address  showed 
how  a  number  of  the  conclusions  were  arrived  at  mathemati- 
cally as  regards  the  electron  theory. 

The  Saturday  morning  and  last  session  was  called  to 
order  by  Vice-President  B.  A.  Behrends.  This  session  was 
devoted  to  a  discussion  of  "Alternating-Current  Commuta- 
tor Motors."  Three  papers  were  presented.  "The  Poly- 
phase Shunt  Motor,"  by  W.  C.  K.  Altes,  was  read  in  abstract 
by  the  author.  "Commutation  in  Alternating-Current  Ma- 
chinery," by  Marius  A.  C.  Latour,  the  noted  French  electrical 
engineer,  in  the  absence  of  the  author  was  presented  by  C. 
0.  Mailloux.  These  two  papers  are  very  largely  a  mathe- 
matical discussion  on  alternating-current  commutator 
motors. 

The  third  paper,  "The  Secomor — A  Kinematic  Device 
Which  Imitates  the  Performance  of  a  Series-Wound  Alter- 
nating-Current Commutating  Motor,"  by  V.  Karapetoflf, 
was  presented  by  the  author.  Mr.  Karapetoflf  had  one  of 
his  instruments  present  on  which  he  gave  a  demonstration 
of  its  operation  and  use.  No  small  amount  of  attention  was 
taken  in  this  new  device  to  assist  in  the  designing  of  series- 
wound  polyphase  commutating  motors,  which  are  beginning 
to  come  into  quite  extensive  use  at  the  present  time. 

Workers  for  the  Shipyards 

Because  ships  are  the  primary  factor  in  the  winning 
of  this  war,  and  because  the  construction  of  these  ships 
depends,  and  will  always  depend,  upon  labor,  there  has 
been  created  an  organization  of  workmen  known  as  the 
United  States  Shipyard  Volunteers,  enrolled  under  the 
Public  Service  Reserve.  This  organization  is  composed 
of  workmen  who  are  willing  to  give  a  good  day's  work 
for  a  good  day's  pay;  workmen  who  will  stand  ready,  when 
called  upon,  to  do  a  particular  job  for  a  particular  wage 
in  a  particular  place,  and  who  have  enrolled  themselves  in 
this  organization  so  that  when  needed  they  may  be  readily 
reached. 


February  2G,  1918 


P  O  W  E  R 


313 


The  nocd  of  the  nation  is  preat.  The  Shipping  Board  has 
the  money,  the  housing  of  men  is  beins  arranged  for,  the 
yards  are  being;  completed  and  the  materials  provided.  All 
that  now  is  lacking-  is  the  khowledge  of  the  need  that  will 
inspire  loyal  and  efficient  mechanics  to  enroll  for  service 
in  the  yards,  though  not  in  a  fashion  to  disrupt  the  business 
of  the  country  through  the  robbing  of  present  industries. 

It  is  urgeil  that  mechanics  go  at  once  to  the  nearest  en- 
rollment agent  of  the  United  States  Public  Service  Reserve 
of  the  Labor  Department,  or  to  the  local  enrollment  agent  of 
their  State  Council  of  Defense,  and  register  themselves  as 
willing  to  work  in  the  shipyards  if  needed;  then  to  retain 
their  present  positions  until  called  personally  for  service. 

Through  the  Council  of  National  Defense  an  appeal  has 
been  made  to  governors,  mayors  and  other  prominent 
officials,  to  stimulate  interest  in  their  communities. 

In  addition  to  the  card  which  the  volunteer  fills  out  for 
the  Public  Service  Reserve,  he  signs  the  following  franked 
postcard,  addressed  to  Chairman  Hurley  at  Washington: 

Appreciating  the  Nation's  imperative  need  for  skilled 
workmen  to  build  merchant  ships  with  which  to  overcome 
the  submarine  menace,  I  request  to  be  enrolled  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  Shipyard  Volunteers  of  the  Public 
Service  Reserve.  I  realize  that  the  World  War  will  be  won 
or  lost  in  the  American  shipyards.  Every  rivet  driven  is  a 
blow  at  the  Kaiser.  Every  ship  turned  out  brings  America 
nearer  to  victory. 

It  is  understood  that  if  I  am  asked  to  enter  shipyard 
employment,  my  compensation  shall  be  at  the  rate  of  wage 
prevailing  in  such  yards. 

The  button  which  the  workmen  receive  after  enrolling 
bears  this  inscription:  "U.  S.  Shipyard  Volunteers."  A 
service  cei'tificate  will  be  given  to  all  who  enroll. 

The  list  following  shows  the  kind  of  trades  most  needed 
in  shipbuilding,  and  a  particular  appeal  is  addressed  to  men 
in  those  occupations  to  enroll  in  the  Reserve:  Acetylene  and 
electrical  welders;  asbestos  workers;  blacksmiths,  angle- 
smiths,  drop-forge  men,  flange  turners,  furnace  men;  boiler- 
makers,  riveters,  reamers;  carpenters,  ship  carpenters,  dock 
builders;  chippers  and  calkers;  electrical  workers,  elec- 
tricians, wiremen,  crane  operators;  foundry  workers; 
laborers,  all  kinds;  loftsmen,  templet  makers,  machinists 
and  machine  hands,  all  sorts,  helpers;  painters,  plumbers 
and  pipefitters;  sheet-metal  workers  and  coppersmiths; 
shipfitters;  structural  iron  workers,  riveters,  erectors, 
bolters  up;  other  trades,  cementers,  crane  men. 

Mobilizing  the  Educational  Institutions 

It  is  estimated  that  within  the  next  six  months  75,000  to 
100,000  men  will  be  given  intensive  training  in  schools  and 
colleges.  With  a  view  to  mobilizing  the  educational  institu- 
tions of  the  country  and  their  facilities  for  such  special 
training,  there  has  been  created  in  the  War  Department  a 
"Committee  on  Education  and  Special  Training,"  associated 
with  which  committee  will  be  five  civilian  educators:  Dr. 
Charles  R.  Mann,  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Teaching  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology;  Dr.  James  R.  Angell,  of  Chicago,  Dean  of  the 
Faculties  of  the  University  of  Chicago;  J.  W.  Dietz,  of 
Chicago,  Director  of  Education,  Western  Electric  Co.,  Presi- 
dent of  the  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools; 
James  P.  Munroe,  of  Boston,  a  member  of  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education  (which  appointment  will 
include  the  interests  of  the  trade  schools  and  schools  of 
secondary  grade),  and  Dr.  Samuel  P.  Capen,  of  Washington, 
specialist  in  higher  education. 

Manhole  Heads   for   Heating   Mains 

Manholes  surrounding  fittings  in  the  heating  mains,  par- 
ticularly high-pressure  steam  mains,  are  one  of  the  great- 
est sources  of  heat  loss.  This  heat  loss  is  concentrated  in 
the  manhole  head  which  is  in  direct  contact  with  the 
pavement. 

The  damage  to  pavement,  particularly  asphalt  pavement, 
is  a  continual  cause  of  comi)laint  from  city  highway  de- 
partments and  property  owners  and  a  continual  source  of 


damage  claims  and  expense.  The  Underground  Construc- 
tion Committee  of  the  National  District  Heating  Associa- 
tion desires  to  arrive  at  a  solution  of  these  troubles  and 
has  sent  out  the  following  questionnaire.  Replies  should 
be  addressed  to  H.  A.  Austin,  Chairman,  280  Madison  Ave., 
New  York. 

A.  What  class  of  mains  do  you  operate  ?  High  pressure 
steam  ?  Low  pressure  steam  ?  Hot  water  ?  ( Give  oper- 
ating pressure.) 

B.  What  type  of  manhole  do  you  use  ?  Concrete  ?  Brick  ? 
Cast  iron  sectional  ? 

C.  How  do  you  insulate  the  fittings  in  your  manholes? 
(Give  details.) 

D.  Do  you  have  trouble  with  pavement  around  manhole 
heads  ?  What  kind  of  pavement  ?  Describe  trouble  and 
state  inside  temperature  manhole  when  closed. 

E.  What  valves,  traps,  fittings,  expansion  joints,  or  spe- 
cials in  manhole? 

F.  Do  you  pave  around  manhole  head  in  special  manner? 
(Give  details  and  sketch.) 

G.  What  have  you  done  to  overcome  heat  losses  at 
manholes  ? 

H.  What  suggestions  have  you  to  offer  regarding  con- 
struction of  manholes,  such  as  insulating  sidewalks,  etc.? 
(Give  details  and  sketch.) 

I.  What  suggestions  have  you  to  offer  regarding  special 
insulation  of  fittings  in  manhole?     (Give  details.) 

Five   Powerless    Days   Saved   Coal 

The  W.  S.  Barstow  &  Co.,  in  their  weekly  news  letter 
No.  59  give  some  comparative  figures  of  coal  saved  as 
a  result  of  the  Fuel  Administration  order  for  the  closing 
down  of  industries  from  Jan.  18-22  inclusive.  The  follow- 
ing figures  are  from  seven  plants  operated  by  the  company: 

COMPAR.\TIVE  FIGURES  ON  COAL  SAVED  FROM  JAN.    18  TO     22 
INCLUSIVE 

Average  Coal  Coal  Coal  Saved 

Consumption  Consumption  During  the 

for  a  for  the  Five-Day 

Like  Five-Day  Period  in 

Five-Day  Period  in  Question 

Period,  Question,  Jan.  18-22 

Company                               Tons  Tons  Tons 
Bingham  ton  Light,  Heat  and  Power 

Co 303.40  246  80  56  60 

Metropolitan  Edison  Co 1.240  00  935  00  305  00 

New  .Jersey  Power  and  Light  Co.  .  .        179.90  148   10  31   80 
Northwestern   Ohio    Railway   and 

Power  Co        190  42  *207  9l  -17  49 

Pennsylvania  Utilities  Co 1,490  00  850  00  640  00 

Sandusky  Gas  and  Electric  Co 236.50  152  50  84  00 

Sayre  Electric  Co 103.52  97.52  6  00 

Totals 3,743.74     —     2,637  83=         1,105.91 

Figures  given  are  in  long  tons — 2,2401b.  *  Coal  in  excess  of  ordinary 
consumption  used  on  account  of  severe  storms. 

President  Wilson  Signs  Garabed  Bill 

On  Feb.  9  President  Wilson  signed  the  so-called  Garabed 
bill.  This  measure,  as  explained  in  the  issue  of  Power  for 
Feb.  5,  assures  to  the  inventor  of  the  Garabed,  or  free- 
energy  motor,  protection  of  his  rights  in  the  invention  for 
a  period  of  seventeen  years,  and  gives  the  Government 
the  free  use  of  the  device.  It  also  provides  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  committee  of  five  eminent  scientists,  before  whom 
the  invention  is  to  be  demonstrated,  to  determine  whether 
it  is  practicable.  The  inventor,  Garabed  T.  K.  Giragossian, 
of  Boston,  is  now  arranging  with  Secretary  Lane  for  the 
selection  of  the  committee  of  scientists.  The  opinion  pre- 
vails that  these  men  will  be  taken  from  the  faculties  of 
such  well-known  technical  institutions  as  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  Harvard  and  Tufts.  Engineers 
will  await  the  report  of  the  committee  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  expectancy. 


In  recent  discussion  of  the  subject  of  electrolytic  corrosion 
of  steel  before  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  it  was  brought 
out  that,  "Water  containing  carbonic  dioxide  is  electrolytic 
at  adjacent  anodic  and  cathodic  areas  in  a  steel  surface. 
These  areas  may  be  revealed  by  use  of  an  indicator  of 
phenolphthalein  and  potassium  ferricyanide.  Where  iron 
(dissolves,  a  blue,  and  at  cathodic  spots,  a  pink,  reaction  is 
obtained."  The  quotation  is  from  a  letter  in  London  Engi- 
neerbig. 


314 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


Waste  of   Fuel   and  the   Remedies 

At  a  meeting  open  to  the  public,  held  by  N.  A.  S.  E.  No.  1, 
In  Fullerton  Hall,  Art  Institute,  Chicago,  Joseph  Harring- 
ton, chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Technical  Publicity  of 
the  United  States  Fuel  Administration  for  Illinois,  delivered 
an  interesting  talk  on  the  "Waste  of  Fuels  and  the  Remedies." 
In  his  discussion  Mr.  Harrington  had  two  objects  in  mind: 
First,  a  brief  outline  for  the  benefit  of  nontechnical  mem- 
bers present,  showing  the  causes  of  waste  of  fuel  and  the 
remedies  that  could  be  applied  thereto  in  a  practical  man- 
ner; and  second,  an  endeavor  to  bring  out  the  fact  that 
the  stationary  engineer,  through  his  control  of  both  steam 
production  and  consumption,  was  handling  a  necessity  of 
life,  and  as  such  should  be  rated  as  one  of  the  important 
cogs  in  every  industrial  establishment  using  power.  The 
technical  end  of  the  discussion  was  intended  to  show  that 
if  the  engineer  is  given  adequate  assistance  in  the  way  of 
the  proper  instruments  and  the  necessary  moral  support, 
it  is  possible  to  save  substantial  amounts  of  coal. 

Without  the  aid  of  certain  instruments,  Mr.  Harrington 
claimed  that  it  is  not  feasible  to  apply  measures  of  economy. 
In  the  electrical  departmeyit  switchboard  instruments  are 
considered  an  absolute  essential  without  which  a  generator 
would  not  be  started.  Voltage  can  be  regulated  approxi- 
mately by  the  brightness  of  the  lamps,  but  the  method  is 
not  to  be  considered  for  a  moment.  It  is  no  more  possible, 
and  should  no  more  be  countenanced  in  the  boiler  room, 
that  the  fireman  should  operate  his  boiler  and  judge  of  the 
efficiency  of  the  combustion  by  merely  inspecting  the  fire  by 
eye.  While  an  experienced  fireman  can  approximate  the 
conditions  by  looking  into  the  furnace,  it  is  impossible  for 
the  average  man  to  do  so.  Instruments  are  therefore  a  neces- 
sity, and  they  should  be  backed  up  by  adequate  records. 

A  record  system  that  does  not  show  the  effect  of  each  and 
every  change  made  by  the  engineer  is  useless.  Mr.  Har- 
rington brought  out  the  point  that  in  undertaking  an  effi- 
cient examination  a  test  should  be  conducted  under  operat- 
ing conditions  to  show  wherein  the  losses  are  greatest  and 
division  should  be  made  of  furnace  and  boiler  losses.  With 
the  heat-balance  test  before  him  the  engineer  would  then 
be  in  a  position  to  locate  the  loss  and  apply  the  remedy. 
After  this  the  records  should  show  the  effect  on  the  plant 
efficiency  of  any  changes  made,  and  if  they  fail  to  do  this 
they  are  valueless. 

Changes  should  be  made  one  by  one  in  such  manner  that 
close  I'ecords  may  be  kept  and  the  proper  credit  be  given 
to  each  change.  These  records  must  go  to  the  chief  engi- 
neer and  from  him  to  the  plant  manager  or  owner.  As 
the  owner  is  usually  nontechnical,  the  details  would  neither 
interest  nor  enlighten  him.  The  result  that  the  fuel  admin- 
istration is  after  in  this  campaign  is  to  reduce  the  quan- 
tity of  coal  burned  to  produce  a  given  amount  of  steam, 
and  unless  the  changes  actually  accomplish  this,  they  have 
not  been  beneficial.  The  plant  owner,  therefore,  should  be 
given  a  data  sheet  in  which  this  one  main  significant  figure 
predominates.  To  get  this,  two  instruments  are  essential — 
a  coal-weighing  device  and  a  water  or  steam  meter.  In 
the  larger  plants  one  more  step  can  be  taken  and  that  is  a 
regular  coal  analysis  that  will  permit  the  engineer  to  report 
tne  number  of  B.t.u.  consumed  per  thousand  pounds  of 
.steam  from  and  at  212  deg.  This  is  the  ultimate  criterion 
and  is  the  oi  e  on  which  a  just  comparison  can  be  based. 

When  the  records  have  been  arranged,  there  is  one  other 
matter  that  must  be  given  attention  by  the  owner.  He  must 
consider  that  the  engineer  and  the  engineering  department 
constitute  a  link  in  his  manufacturing  chain  that  is  all- 
important  and  without  which  manufacturing  processes  can- 
not be  carried  on.  Instead  of  considering  the  power  plant 
in  the  light  of  a  necessary  expense,  it  must  be  considei'ed 
one  of  the  prime  factors  and  be  given  every  support.  Th? 
engineer  himself  must  be  assisted  in  every  possible  way  in 
acquiring  information  about  his  business;  he  must  be  given 
the  tools  necessai-y  to  efficiently  carry  on  his  work,  and  he 
must  be  encouraged  in  the  reporting  of  results  in  an  intelli- 
gent manner  so  that  both  he  and  the  owner  may  pi-ofit  by 
The  experiences  of  the  past.  The  plant  itself  should  be  put 
in  such  shape  that  operatives  can  work  comfortably  and  use 
all  the  intelligence  with  which  they  are  endowed.  Very 
high  temperatures  in  the  boiler  room,  dark  and  dirty  sur- 


roundings, lack  of  washing  facilities  and  lack  of  office  space 
for  the  engineer,  all  conduce  to  indifference  and  neglect  on 
the  part  of  the  men,  which  in  turn  results  directly  in  in- 
creased fuel  costs.  One  of  the  most  prolific  sources  of  eco- 
nomical combustion  is  a  general  toning  up  and  dignifying 
of  the  work  of  handling  the  power  department. 

Why    a  Fire  Polic\    Was  Avoided 

An  application  form  filled  out  as  a  basis  for  issuing  a 
policy  insuring  an  industrial  plant  against  fire  contained 
the  question,  "Is  steam  power,  water  power,  or  what  other 
power  is  used?"  This  was  answered,  "Water."  The  next 
question  was  left  unanswered,  "If  gasoline  power  is  used, 
then  describe  the  location  of  the  engine,  gasoline  storage 
tank,  spark  igniter,"  etc.  Applicants  also  remitted  in  pay- 
ment of  a  premium  based  on  use  of  water  power  only,  al- 
though a  gasoline  engine  was  in  auxiliary  use  in  its  plant 
and  it  was  known  that  this  called  for  a  higher  rate.  The 
insurance  company's  representative  knew  that  the  engine 
had  been  used  about  three  months  before  and  drew  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  this  was  not  disclosed  in  the  applica- 
tion. The  mill,  the  subject  of  insurance,  burned  one- night 
just  after  the  gasoline  engine  had  been  shut  down.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  Pennsylvania  Supreme  Court  holds 
ill  the  case  of  Corbin  et  al.  vs.  Millers'  Mutual  Fire  Insur- 
ance Co.  of  Harrisburg,  102  Atlantic  Reporter,  425,  that  the 
insurance  company  was  not  liable  for  the  loss;  the  state- 
ments in  the  application  amounting  to  a  waiTanty  of  facts 
material  to  the  risk,  and  it  being  found  that  notwithstand- 
ing the  company's  representative's  previous  knowledge  con- 
cerning the  use  of  a  gasoline  engine,  the  company  was  en- 
titled to  assume  that  such  use  had  been  discontinued. 

Dog  as   Power-Plant   Adjunct 

Where  a  factory  employee  was  sent  on  an  errand  to  the 
basement  of  a  building  and  was  injured  by  a  dog  that  the 
engineer  of  the  plant  had  been  permitted  by  the  common 
employer  to  keep  there,  it  was  decided  by  the  Appellate 
Term  of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court  in  the  recent  case  of 
Barone  vs.  Brambach  Piano  Co.,  167  New  York  Supplement, 
933,  that  the  accident  must  be  deemed  to  have  been  one 
sustained  in  the  "course  of  employment,"  within  the  pur- 
view of  the  New  York  Workmen's  Compensation  Act.  The 
court  said: 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  plaintiff  was  engaged  in  per- 
fomiing  the  duties  of  his  employment  at  the  time  he  was 
bitten.  The  presence  of  the  dog,  with  the  employer's  im- 
plied knowledge  and  consent,  was  one  of  the  physical  con- 
ditions of  the  plant  under  which  the  defendant  required  the 
plaintiff  to  perform  his  duties.  The  mere  fact  that  the 
direct  cause  of  the  injury  was  animate,  rather  than  inani- 
mate, does  not  alter  the  result;  nor  in  this  view  can  I  see 
any  force  in  the  suggestion  that  the  dog  was  not  especially 
kept  as  a  watch  dog,  or  for  some  similar  purpose  (though 
I  think  the  proof  showed  that  it  was  so  employed).  The 
right  of  the  plaintiff  to  a  recovery  does  not,  on  any  theory 
of  which  I  am  aware,  depend  upon  the  comparative  useful- 
ness to  the  employer's  business  of  the  immediate  cause  of 
the  injury. 

War-Savings  and  Thrift  Stamps 

The  sale  of  War-Savings  and  Thrift  Stamps  has  been 
mad 3  much  easier  and  missionary  work  much  more  effective 
by  the  use  of  the  blue  return  jjost  card,  Form  WS-138.  This 
card  is  an  order  for  War-Savings  and  Thrift  Stamps  to  be 
delivei-ed  at  your  door  C.  O.  D.  The  blue  card  provides  the 
simplest,  easiest,  safest  and  least  objectionable  way  of  ob- 
taining a  pledge  to  buy  stamps  and  the  utilization  of  the 
card  permits  a  vast  amount  of  better  patriotic  campaign- 
ing.   It  is  also  convenient  for  agents  when  ordering  supplies. 

The  card  explains  its  utility  to  all  who  can  i-ead.  It  does 
away  with  uncertainty,  difficulty  and  delay  in  securing 
stamps,  for  Uncle  Sam's  letter  carriers  will  fill  all  blue 
post  card  oi-ders  in  the  earliest  mail,  thus  eliminating  both 
bother  and  risk.  The  cai-ds  can  be  obtained  free  in  large 
quantities  at  almost  any  post  office  or  bank  and  from  the 
letter  carriers. 


Kehniary   2ti,    1918 


POWER 


315 


:ilHIIMtllllltltllttMllltlMIIIII 


New  Publications 


i 


IIIIIIIIIIKIIIllilllllll 


illlllllllilllllKP 


COX'IOIIY  UK  OIL  SAXI'S  Uy  J  O 
Lewis.  Huri';iu  of  Mhus.  lUilli'Uii  No. 
Its.       Peti-olfurn    TeohiioloB.v    37. 

In  Its  efforts  to  reduce  waste  and  lii- 
erense  eltioiene.v  im  oil  innduction.  tlie  Bu 
reau  of  iMiiies  is  investigatiiiK'  iiietliods  >( 
inereasiiis  tile  reeoveriiiK  from  tile  Uiidor- 
simuiui  sourees  of  supply  which  are  the 
fouiulatioii  of  the  petrokniiu  industry  and 
the  allied  industries  wholly  or  partly  de- 
pendent on  it.  Tn  the  face  of  a  demand 
that  is  increasing  faster  than  the  produc- 
tion, and  that  in  the  consensus  of  opinion 
of  well-informed  authorities  is  soon  likely 
to  outstrip  the  productive  commodity,  it  is 
well  til  consider  .'. '.i-tlier  it  is  not  jiossible 
to  extract  more  oil  frini  the  known  snui'ccs 
of  supply.  It  is  universally  ackimwIiilKed 
rhat  liy  the  usual  production  metliods  niuc.i 
nil  is  left  undersround.  the  general  opinion 
heiuK  that  at  lea-t  iili  per  cent,  of  the  oil 
in  tlie  field  remains  unrecovered  when  the 
Held  is  abandoned  as  exhausted.  The  writ- 
er believes  from  his  investigations  that 
the  avei-age  recoverj-  is  even  less,  and  if 
an.v  considerable  portion  of  this  oil  being 
left  underground  could  be  made  available, 
it  would  have  a  tremendousl.\-  favorable 
influence  on   the  petroleum   industry. 

This  publication  considers  the  principles 
invoh'ed  in  increasing  recovery'  and  meth- 
ods of  extractii\g  more  oil  from  the  oil- 
bearing  formations  than  by  the  usual  way 
of  producing.  These  methods  are ;  The 
use  of  gas  or  vacuuin  pumps  in  forcing 
compressed  air  or  gas  through  the  oil-bear- 
ing formations,  displacing  the  oil  by  wa- 
ter, and  further  utilization  of  the  natural 
pressures  in  the  oil-l>earing  formations. 
Special  attention  is  being  given  to  a  proc- 
ess commonly  known  as  the  Smith-Dunn 
for  forcing  compressed  air  through  oil- 
bearing  formations  because  it  is  believed  to 
hold    the    most    promise    for   the    future. 

The  article  is  of  interest  to  power-plant 
men  for  the  reason  that  it  shows  that 
the  Bureau  is  active  in  attempting  to  re- 
cover the  maximum  of  oils  in  the  oil  field. 
These  oils,  of  covn-se.  are  not  only  used 
for   fuel   jiurposes   but    for   lubrication. 

SAFE  PRACTICES 

Bulletins  No.  8.  9  and  10,  is.sued  by  the 
National  Safety  Council,  Continental  and 
Commercial  Bank  Building,  Chicago,  111., 
are  just  off  the  press,  "being  an  orderly 
presentation  in  loose-leaf  foimi  of  acci- 
dent hazards  and  the  best  practices  for 
their  elimination."  No.  S  (pages  85  to  9-' 
inclusive  of  the  series)  pertains  to  "shaft- 
ing, couplings,  pulleys,  gearing,  etc.  (trans- 
mission machinery),"  No.  9  (pages  93  to 
108),  is  on  "engine  guarding  and  engine 
stops."  and  No.  10  (pages  109  to  116), 
treats  of  "oiling  devices  and  oilers."  These 
pamphlets  may  be  obtained  for  lOc. 
each  bv  addressing  the  society  or  Edwin 
R.  Wright,  Editor,  at  Chicago. 

They  are  accepted  not  only  by  the  4000 
members  of  the  council,  but  generally,  as 
standard  safe  practic*  s  to  pi'Otect  the  lives 
and  limbs  of  workers.  Accident  pn.'Ven- 
tion  is  now  recognized  as  of  supreme  im- 
portance if  for  no  other  reason  than  to 
keep  every  man  on  the  joV>  producing  ma- 
terials to  help  Uncle  Sam  win  the  war. 


Obituary 


•  IIIIIMMIM 


JamfN  Stackliotise,  for  many  y^'a^s  super- 
intendent of  buildings  for  the  John  Han- 
nook  Mutual  I^ife  Insurance  Co.,  of  Boston. 
Mass..  died  at  his  home  in  West  RoxburA  . 
Feb.  8.  He  was  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  life, 
and  had  spent  '2H  years  in  the  service  of  the 
John  Hancock  Co.  Mr.  Stackhouse  was  born 
in  St.  John.  N.  B..  and  most  of  his  early 
life  was  spent  at  sea  as  a  marine  engi- 
neer, having  made  several  trips  around  the 
world.  Entering  the  employ  of  the  Han- 
cock Steamboat  Co..  he  later  bcranif  chiel 
fngJiH'cr  of  one  of  the  passeng-  r  steamers. 
He  was  afterward  in  the  emplo.v  nf  the 
Sttburban  lOlectrii'  Co.  as  chief  engineer, 
followed  by  a  similar  position  at  the  Mason 
building,  on  Kilbey  Ht..  Boston,  which  posi- 
tion he  r''Mign('d  to  become  chief  iMigineer 
nf  the  building  at  178  Oevonshire  St..  now 
known  as  the  Old  John  Hancock  Building. 
Mr,  Stackhouse  was  one  of  the  oldest 
membrrs  of  Massairhusetts  No.  1.  M,  A.  R. 
K  ,  of  Boston,  and  always  took  an  actlv. 
interest    in    the    welfare    of    that    organiza- 


tion. I'jdward  H.  KeaJMiey,  who  for  many 
years  served  as  chief  engineer  of  the  John 
Hancock  Building,  under  Mr.  Sta.ckhous4\ 
succeeds  the  latter  In  the  position  of  super- 
intendent of  buildings  for  the  company. 


MIMMItlllllllllllllllllllttlllllMIIMIIIIIl: 


Miscellaneous  News 


illlDIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIItlllllll 


IIIMIIIMHIIIIIMIIIIillUIIIIIIIMIIIHUII 


Personals 


iiiMiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiiiii  r 


.Inmes  A.  I'ainpbell  has  resigned  his  posi- 
tion with  tile  Renfrew  Manufacturing  Co.. 
.\dams.  M.ass.,  to  take  a  position  as  me- 
chanical superintendent  with  Lever  Bros., 
Cambridge,    Mass. 

H.  W.  Fuller  has  been  appointed  vice 
president  in  charge  of  operation  of  the 
Northern  States  Power  Co.,  with  head- 
quarters at  Minneapolis.  H.  M.  Byllesby 
&  Co.  announce  the  creation  of  this  posi- 
tion to  relieve  R.  F.  Pack,  vice  president 
and  geiieral  manager,  of  operating  re- 
sponsibilities which  have  increased  greatly 
due  to  the  rapid  growth  of  tlie  Northern 
States  organization.  Mr,  Fuller  has  been 
associated  with  Byllesby  &  Co.  for  seven 
years,  devoting  a  large  part  of  his  time  to 
the  solution  of  special  operating   problems. 

II.  H,  Harrison,  of  the  Merchants  Heat  and 
Light  Co.,  Indianapolis.  Ind.,  has  a  vigorous 
polic.v  as  to  patriotic,  civic  and  public  mat- 
ters. His  iheory  is  that  any  institution  that 
works  industriously  for  the  good  of  a  cit.\-. 
county,  state  or  nation  will  in  turn  be  treat- 
ed generously  by  the  community.  In  short. 
in  serving  the  public  .\"ou  are  serving  the 
company.  Last  fall  he  inaugurated  a  cam- 
paign to  send  useful  Christinas  gifts  to  the 
French  tots  who  had  been  cr>'ing  for  a 
Santa  Claus  for  three  long  years.  The 
effort  put  forth  resulted  in  18,000  gifts  sent 
to  the  little  French  children.  His  com- 
pany has  vigorously  pushed  Liberty  Loans, 
and  is  now  pushing  Food  Conservation, 
Thrift  Stamps  and  Comic  Valentines  made 
hv  celebrated  Hoosi  r  caricaturists  and 
authors.  These  valentines  are  sold  for  the 
benefit  of  the  French  Relief. 


Engineering  Affairs       | 

The  Soutliwestern  Klectrieal  and  Gas  As- 
sui'iation  will  hold  its  annual  convention 
on  Apr.   la   at  Galveston,   Tex. 

The  American  Institute  of  Steam  Boiler 
Inspectors  of  New  York  City  held  its  regu- 
lar meeting  in  the  Engineering  Societies 
Building,  29  West  39th  St.,  on  Thursday, 
Jan.  31.  The  officers  of  the  past  year  were 
reelected  as  follows:  T.  T.  Parker,  presi- 
dent :  J.  G.  Shaw,  vice  president  ;  M 
Fogarty,  treasurer ;  J.  H.  Pollard,  secre- 
tary. The  annual  dinner  will  not  be  held 
because  of  the  conditions  caused  by  the 
war. 

The  New  York  Section  of  the  American 
Society  of  Refrigerating  Engineers,  at  its 
next  meeting,  Tuesday.  Mar.  16.  will  hear 
a  paper  by  Charles  H.  Bromley,  associate 
editor  of  "Power."  on  "Some  Specific  Fuel 
Wastes  and  Their  Reduction."  The  paper 
will  be  illustrated  with  lantern  slides.  The 
meeting,  to  be  held  at  Machinery  Club. 
50  Church  St..  New  York  City,  will  be  pre- 
ceded by  a.  dinner,  also  in  the  club.  Vai 
R.  H.  Greene,  consulting  engineer,  50 
Church  St..  New  York  City,  is  secretary  of 
the  New  York  Section  and  has  charge  of 
the  arrangements. 

The    Boston    Section    of   the    A.    S.    M.    E., 

combined  with  the  American  Institute  of 
Electrical  Engineers  on  the  evening  of 
Tuesday.  Feb.  5,  at  the  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology  to  listen  to  a  pipr 
by  Prof.  Walter  I.  Sohlicter,  of  Columbia 
tfniversity,  on  "The  Modern  Trend  of  Edu- 
cation." The  paper  was  discussed  by  Pro- 
fessor Franklin,  of  Lehigh.  Professor  Bro- 
zel,  of  Yale,  Professor  Clifford,  of  M.  1.  T  . 
and  several  other  prominent  educators. 
Representatives  of  the  American  Sticiety  of 
Mechanical  Engineers  were  Parker  H, 
Kemble.  of  the  U.  S.  Shipping  Board:  Cip- 
tain  Foster  Veitenh' imer :  Dr.  Ira  N.  Hol- 
lis,  president  of  Worcester  Pol\technic  In- 
stitute: A.  L.  Williston,  of  Wentworth  In- 
stitute; Director  Russell.  of  Ii'ranklin 
ITniiin.  and  Mr.  Hall,  of  the  General  Illec- 
tric  ("o,,  Lynn,  Mass.  These  speakers  cov- 
ered the  special  problems  in  training  for 
the  .\rm,v  and  Navy,  a-^  well  as  for  the 
mercantile  mnrine,  munition  factories  and 
other  industries  directl>'  concerned  in  the 
prosecution  of  the  w,ar,  ,itu1  particularl,\'  i!i 
reference  to  the  utilizatin:i  of  existing  tech- 
nical schools  in  Ne'V  lOngland  for  the 
training  of  large  numbers  of  men  for  such 
serviri' 


,'\.    Ni'wiands,    IOnK:inee'ring    Chief    of    the 

illgliland  Ky..  in  thi'  course  of  a  [laper 
on  "Walei-  l*ov\'ei-  in  (jreat  Britain,"  be- 
fore tlie.  Iio.\'aI  Society  of  Art,  said  that 
turbines  for  a  head  of  25  ft.  cost  £4  per 
horsepower  as  against  £1  per  horsepower 
for   a    head   of    500    feet. 

.\  Boiler  Kxplofled  at  the  plant  of  the 
Republic  Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  East  Chicago. 
Ind..  on  Feb.  18.  Two  employees  were  in- 
stantly killed  and  two  others  died  later 
in  a  hospital.  (.)f  the  29  injured,  two  art 
not  expected  to  live.  The  plant  was  partly 
wrecked,  with  an  estimated  loss  of 
$500,000. 

Radio  EnKineerinB  at  Lafayette — Prof. 
Jatties  T.  Rood  has  started  a  course  in 
radio  engineering  in  connection  with  the 
prescribed  course  of  electrical  engineering 
at  Lafayette  (College.  This  course  was  de- 
signed and  approved  by  the  Signal  Corps 
of  the  United  States  Army  in  order  that 
the  engineering  students,  subject  to  the 
selective  draft,  might  enter  this  course 
and  receive  thereby  the  deferred  classifica- 
tion which  would  enable  them  to  continue 
in  their  engineering  courses  at  the  college 
for    the    balance    of    the    year. 

Western    States   Petroleum    Administrator 

— Prof.  D.  M.  Folsom,  head  of  the  School 
of  Mines  at  Stanford  University,  Calif., 
on  Feb.  6  was  appointed  petroleum  admin- 
istrator for  the  Western  States  by  Mark 
L.  Requa,  national  oil  administrator.  Pro- 
fessor Folsom  has  been  serving  as  chair- 
man of  the  petroleum  committee  of  the 
state  fuel  administrator  in  California  and 
is  one  of  the  leading  oil  experts  of  the 
West.  In  his  new  cai^acity  he  will  have 
supervision  over  the  production  and  dis- 
tribution of  petroleum  in  California.  Wash- 
ington. Oregon.  Idaho,  Utah,  Nevada. 
Arizona.  Alaska  and  Hawaii.  This  ap- 
pointment is  taken  to  mean  the  abolition 
of  the  petroleum  committee  which  consisted 
of  Professor  Folsom  and  two  members  ot 
the  Railroad  Commission  of  California. 
Professor  Folsom  has  announced  that  tliere 
will  be  no  compulsory  licensing  of  oil  pro- 
ducers at  present,  as  this  would  require 
the  fuel  administration  to  become  imme- 
diately responsible  for  operation  and  pro- 
duction. A  system  of  friendly  cooperation 
rather  will  be  practiced.  "It  will  be  neces- 
sary, however,"  he  stated,  "for  all  compa- 
nies to  pool  their  cars  and  tank  ships  to 
prevent  shortages  and  embarrassment  in 
deliveries."  No  limit  is  to  be  placed  on 
fuel-oil  consumption  so  long  as  storage 
conditions  remain  as  they  are  at  present." 


Business  Items 


The  Plant  and  Business  of  the  Schuttc 
&  Koerting  Co..  of  Philadelphia,  has  been 
taken  over  by  the  Government  as  a  Ger- 
man-owned concern.  Adalbert  K.  Fischer, 
its  former  president,  is  interned  at  Fort 
du  Pont,  Del.,  as  a  dangerous  alien. 

The  Esterline  Co.,  of  Indianapolis.  Ind.. 
has  appointed  the  Northern  Electric  (.''o.. 
of  Montreal,  as  exclusive  distributor  of  Es- 
terline products  for  the  entire  Dominion 
of  Canada,  and  complete  information  and 
service  may  be  had  at  its  o  tlie  is  at  Mon- 
tr'al.  Halifax,  Ottawa.  Toronto,  London, 
Winnipeg,  Regina,  Calgary  atid   Vancouver. 

The  Marion,  Indiana,  Machine.  Foundr.v 
and  Supply  Co.  has  taken  over  the  entire 
business,  good  will,  etc.,  of  the  Planet  Steam 
Specialty  Co.,  which  has  specialized  in  the 
manufacture  of  soot  blowers  for  all  typ  s 
of  water-tube  boilers.  Gordon  C.  Bennett, 
who  was  secretary  of  the  latter  cnmpany. 
has  taken  charge  of  the  engineering  de- 
partment to  develop  the  manufacture  of  .i 
complete  line  of  soot  blowei-s  for  all  types 
of  boilers. 

WriBh(-.\nslin  Co.  —  .\fter  twenty-five 
years  of  producing  the  highest  grade  of 
steam  si)cci,'ilties  in  close  association,  the 
Wright  Manufacturing  Co,  of  Detroit, 
Mich.,  the  .\ustin  Seiiarator  Co.  and  the 
Murray  .Specialty  Manufacturing  Co.  Itave 
combined  their  interests  mnler  tin*  name 
of  Wright-.Vustin  Co,  The  high  standards 
of  m,'inurncture  and  service  which  have 
t)een  Jealously  guarded  hv  th"  older  con- 
cerns will  be  maititained  The  business 
will  he  contii'ueii  at  the  present  address  and 
under  tlie  direction  of  tlie  same  oflicials  as 
heretofore 


316 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  9 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


Boston — Current   quotations   per  gross   ton   delivered   alongside 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows; 


ANTHRACITE 


Buckwheat 

Rice    

Boiler    .  .  .  . 
Barley  ■    . . 


Feb.  21,  1918 

S-i.BO 

4.10 

3.90 

3.60 


-  Circular' 


One  Year  Ago 
S-.0."> — :i:M 
3..")0 — 'J.eo 


:.'iO- 


1.35 


Feb.  21.  1918 

S'/.IO — 7.35 

6.65 — 6.90 

6.15—6.46 


-  Individual  ^— 


One  Year  Ago 
S3.35 — 3.50 
3.70 — 2.95 


!.35 — 3.60 


BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous  not  on  market. 

. Fob  Mines* n    ^ Alongside  Boston  t ^ 

Feb  21,  l.tllS      One  Year  .\i;o  Feb.  21.  191«     One  Year  Ai-'O 

Clearfields S3.00  $4.25 — 5.00 

Cambnas   ;iiul  ^   ,  ^ 

Somersets 3.10 — 3.85  4.60 — j.40 

Pocahontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  $4.  as  compared 
with  1t3.85 — 2.1*0  a  year  ago. 


•All-rail  rate  to  Boston   is  $2.60. 


tWater  coal. 


New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  fob.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 
.■VNTHRACITE 

. Circular' ,    , Individual' .^ 

Feb.  21.  1918      One  Year  Ago      Feb.  21.1918      One  Year  Ago 

Pea      S.J.O.-.  S4.00  85. SO  87.35— 7,-.0 

Buckwheat    ..       4..30 — 5.00  2.75  5.50 — 5.80  6^5 — b.ijO 

Barley     3.2.5 — 3.50  1,95  4.00 4.25  3.50 — 3.7^ 

R,ce  3.75—3.95  2.30  4.50 4.80  4.50—5.00 

Boiler      3.50—3.75  230  3.35 — 3.50 

Bituminous  smithing  coal.   84.50 — 5.25   f.o.b. 
Quotations  at  the  upper  poi-ts  are  about  5c.  higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

Fob.  N.  Y.  Harbor     Mine 

Pennsylvania    *2  §5  *.^J!n 

Maryland     3-69  s  2„ 

West   Virginia    Ishort   rate) ''.bD  ~.uu 

Based  on   Government   price   of   $2   per  ton   at   mine. 

■The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport.  Port  Johnson.  Port  Reading. 
Perth  Ambov  and  South  Amboy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty 
Hoboken  Weehawken.  Edgewater  or  CliBside  and  Guttenberg.  St.  George 
,s  in  between  and  sometimes  a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bitunu- 
nous  is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  fob.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

, Line ,  . Tide ^^ 

One  Year  One  Year 

Feb   21.1918              Ago  Feb.  21.1918  Ago 

Pea                  S3. 75                     S2.80                     84.65  83.7(1 

Barley     3.15                        1.85                        2.40  2.05 

Buckwheat      3.15                        3.50                        .3.75  3.40 

Rice     2.65                        3.10                        3.65  3.00 

Boiler    2.45                        1.95                        3.55  3.15 

Chicago — Steam    coal    prices    t.o.b.    mines: 

Illinois  Coals  Southern   Ilhnoia  Northern  Illinois 

Prepared   sues    S3.6.> — 2.80  'iJi? — ixi 

Mine-run      2  *"— ~  25  S  li^^S  2? 

Screenings     3.1a — 2.30  2.60 — 2./u 

So.  Illinois,  Pocahontas.  Hocking. 

Pennsylvania  East  Kentucky  and 

Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia       West  Virginia  Splint 

Prepared    sizes    $3.60 — 2,80  $3.05 — 3.3."i 

Mine-run      2,40—2.60  2.40— 3.60 

Screenings    3.10—2.30  3  10—2.30 

91.  I.,oiil8 — Prices  pet  net  ton  f.o.b.  mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared with  today  are  as  follows: 


6-in. 

lump, 

3 -in. 
lump , 

Steam 
egg     , 

Mine- 
run 

No.   1 
nut    . 


Williamson  and 
l^rn'iltlin  Counties 
Feb.  31.  One 

1918         Y'ear  Ago 


Mt.  OUve 

and  Staunton  . Standard ^ 

Feb.  21.        One  Feb.  21.              One 

1918       Year  Ago  1918           Year  Ago 


S3.65  2.80  $3.25-3.50  $3.65-2,80  $3.35-3.50  $3.65-2.80  $2j50-2.' 


2.65-3.80    3.65-3.80  

.  .    3.65-3.80    3.65-3.80  

.  .    2.40-3.55     3.00-3.35     2.40-2.55  3.00 

,  .  .    2.65-2.80     3.25-3.50   3.65-2.80  3,25-3.50 

!. 15-2.30  3.75-3.00 


2.65-2.80  

3.65-2.80  

2.40-3.55  3.35-3.50 

2.65-2.80  3..35.2.75 

3.16-3.30  2.35-3.50 


screen    .  3.15-2.30    3.00-3.; 
washed       2.15-3.30     3.00  2.15-2.30     2.75-3.00     2.15-2.30    2.50' 

WilUamson-Franklin  rate  St.  Louis,  87M!''.:  other  rates,  73M;e, 

-Curren'    prices   per   net    ton    fob.    mines    are   as 


Birmingham- 
follows  : 

Mine-Run 

Big  Seam   $1.90 


Pratt,  Jagger,  Corona. 
Black  Creek.   Cahaba 


3,15 
3.40 


Lump  and  Nut 
$3.15 
2.40 
2.65 


Slack  and  Screenings 

$1,65 

1.90 

2.15 


Government  figtireB. 

'Individual  nrices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  flxod  according 
to  a  regular  schedule. 


Calif.,  Red  Bluff — City  is  having  plans  prepared  by  E.  A.  Rol- 
lison,  Arch.,  Redding,  for  the  erection  of  an  electric  lighting  plant. 

U.  C.  \Va»li. — The  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  .Vccounts,  Na\'>' 
Dcpt.,  Wash.,  will  soon  receive  bids  for  furni.shing  at  various  Navy 
Yards,  under  Schedule  Xo.  16M7.  sttam  and  v.-attr  orass.  air,  bibb, 
hose,  pet.  cutout  oil,  and  stop  cocks ;  Schedule  Xo.  1698.  steam 
and  water  composition  bends.  Y-branches,  caps,  couplings,  crosses 
nipples,  plugs,  tees  and  unions,  steam  and  water  screwed  reduc- 
ing bushinjjs.  elbows  and  locknuts. 

Iowa,  Bloomtidd — City  plans  to  improve  its  electric-lighting 
plant  and  install  new  equipment  including  2  electric  generators, 
one  225  i^w.  and  one  75  kw.  alternating  current,  and  two  150  hp 
boilers. 

Ky..  Walton — The  Walton  Electric  Light  Co.  is  in  the  market 
for  a  25  kw..  250  volt.  220  r.p.m  n.  C.  generator  for  direct  connec- 
tion through  flexible  couplings,  a  10.000  gallon  horizontal  oil 
storage  tank.  6-8   ft.  in  diameter.  3-16    in.   shell  and  i   in.   heads. 

.Mass.,  Kverett — The  .J.  Duncan  Co.,  7  Fulton  Place.  Boston,  is 
in  the  market  foi  machine  lathes,  blacksmith  power  punches,  cut- 
ters, bolt  drivers  and  all  machinery  used  in  small  structural  iron 
work. 

.Mass.,  Everett — The  Town  plans  to  install  equipment  in  its  in- 
cinerator to  include  a  32  x  40  ft.  conveyor  belt,  baling  presses 
and  binds  with  appurtenances.  About  $7,000  is  available,  A. 
Varney.  Town   P'ngr. 

.Miss.,  Clinton — City  plans  to  build  a  brick  addition  to  its  electric 
lighting  plant  and  install  a  50  hp.  engine.  Estimated  cost,  $8850. 
A.  Latimor.  Ma^■or. 

Mo.,  Kahoka — City  plans  to  extend  its  electric  transmission  line 
from  here  to  t.uray,  Williamstown,  Clark  City  and  Medill,  about 
IC  mi,     L.   R,  Sherrill,  Supt. 

Mo.,  Ozark — The  Finley  Light  Co.  plans  to  build  an  electric- 
lighting  plant.     Estimated  cost,  $15,000.     G.  T.  Breazeale.  Mgr. 

Neb..  !Sidne> — The  Town  will  receive  bids  until  March  12  for 
furnishing  and  installing  one  250  hp.  steam  engine,  two  200  hp. 
.steam  boilers,  one  200  kv.-a.  60  cycles,  2300  volt.  A.  C.  generator.  1 
steel  smoke  stack,  feed-water  pumps  and  automatic  stokers,  two 
150  hp.  internal-combustion  oil  engines  and  one  10,000  gallon  fuel 
tank.     R.  D.  Salisbury.  1415  East  Colfax  Ave.,  Denver,  Colo..  Engr. 

N.  .1.,  <'anid(n — City  plans  to  build  an  electric-lighting  plant. 
L.    E.   Farnhan.   City   Engr. 

N.  v.,  rhenango  Forks — The  Binghamton  Bridge  Co.,  Press 
Bldg..  Binghamton,  plans  to  build  a  concrete  d.tm.  150  ft.  long,  a 
brick  and  .steel  power  house  and  steel  penstocks  and  install  two 
250   kw.    water  turbine-driven  generators       Xoted   X^qv.   27. 

N.  Y..  .lanicttuwn — The  Crescent  Tool  Co..  200  Harrison  St.. 
plans  to  build  a  power  station  and  concrete  coal  storage  binds. 
New  machinery,  including  a  1000  kw.  steam  turbine  generator  set 
and  boilers  will  he  installed.     C.  R.  Swisshelm.  Sales  Mgr. 

N.  I».,  ;Mnddock — City  is  having  plans  prepared  by  W.  E.  Skin- 
ner, Engr..  714  Plymouth  Bldg..  Minneapolis.  Minn.,  for  the  erec- 
tion of  an  electric-lighting  system.  Estimated  cost.  $7000.  Noted 
Oct.  23. 

Ohio,  VouiiB'-town — The  JMahoning  and  Shenango  Ry.  and  Light 
Co.  plans  to  build  a  transmission  line  from  here  into  the  Hosier 
District.      R.   T.    Sullivan,    Mgr. 

Okla.,  Chandler — The  Washita  Electric  Power  Co.  plans  to 
build  a  50  X  75  ft,  brick  and  concrete  power  house  and  improve 
and  extend  its  distribution  system.  R.  Iv.  .lohnston,  Pauls  Valley. 
Secy. 

Penn.,  Pliiiadelpliia — The  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  -Accounts. 
Xavj'  Dept..  Wash.,  will  soon  receive  bids  for  furnishing  at  Navy 
Yard,  Philadelphia,  under  Schedule  No  1698,  steam  and  water 
brass   joints. 

Fenn.  I'liilndeiiihia  (Kensington) — L.  S.  Leberman  is  having 
plans  prepared  by  A.  .1.  Sauer  &  Co.,  .\rch..  H08  Chestnut  St..  for 
the  erection  of  a  l-story.  brick  and  concrete  power  plant,  including 
the  installation  of  pumps.     Estimated  cost.  $10,000. 

S.  U.,  Mitchell — Citv  is  having  plans  prepared  by  Burns  &  Mc- 
Donnell. Hngr,,  Interstate  Bldg..  Kansas  City.  ."  lo  .  for  improve- 
ments to  the  electric  lighting  system. 

Tenn..  Hampton — J.  H.  Eden.-  plans  to  rebuild  his  electric-light- 
ing plant  which   was  recently  destioyed   by   fire. 

Tex.,  Canyon — The  Canyon  Power  Co.  plans  to  rebuild  its  plant 
\>hich  was   recently  destroyed   by   fire.     J.    K.   Boring.   Ch.    Engr. 

Tex  Del  Rio — C  .A  Lindsev.  Wichita.  Kan.,  and  associates, 
plan  to'  build  1  or  2  hydro-electric  plants  in  connection  with  a  large 
irrigation  project. 

Wash  Puset  Sound — (Bremerton  P.  O. — The  Bureau  of  Sup- 
plies and  Accounts.  Navy  Dept..  Wash.,  will  soon  receive  bids  tor 
furnishing  at  Navy  Yard,  Puget  Sound,  under  Schedule  No.  IbDS. 
steam  and  water  brass  joints. 

B.  C.  Vancouver — The  Ontario  Power  Co.  plans  to  issue  $1,000.- 
000  bonds;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  build  additions  to  its  plant. 


POWER 


5-    '! 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw  n  iiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 

Vol.  47  NEW  YORK.  MARCH  5,  1918  No.  10 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiniiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiiiinniH 


On  Being  a  Good  Loser 

Contributed  by  H.  S    Knowlton,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


TT  IS  not  given  to  every  engineer  to  advance 
-*■  steadily  in  his  profession  without  setbacks 
which  at  times  wear  a  discouraging  aspect.  The 
power  to  take  the  long  look  forward,  to  be  a 
good  loser  if  one  is  temporarily  held  back,  and 
to  learn  the  utmost  possible  from  apparent 
failures  is  almost  invaluable.  Take  the  matter 
of  promotions.  Sometimes  a  plant  chief  resigns 
or  passes  away,  leaving  a  second  in  command 
who  feels  himself  the  logical  successor,  and 
along  comes  the  plant  owner  with  a  new  man 
for  the  post  of  command,  or,  harder  than  this, 
he  appoints  a  younger  man  from  below  in  the 
organization  in  place  of  the  former  chief.  Ex- 
periences like  these  put  upon  the  "heir  apparent" 
to  the  chief  engineership  a  strain  which  some- 
times causes  him  to  offer  his  resignation  at  once 
in  the  belief  that  he  is  no  longer  appreciated 
and  that  the  future  in  this  particular  station 
holds   nothing  for  him. 

THE  GOOD  loser  in  a  situation  of  this  kind 
conceals  his  feelings  at  least  for  the  time 
being  and  never  makes  the  mistake  of  jumping 
too  rapidly  to  conclusions.  His  disappointment 
at  being  blocked  in  his  logical  progress  may  be 
taken  for  granted;  but  instead  of  losing  his 
temper  and  acting  hastily,  he  immediately  begins 
a  personal  stock-taking.  The  problem  is  to  find 
the  reason  why  someone  else  was  called  to  "go 
up  higher,"  and  the  man  who  can  analyze  a 
situation  of  this  kind  regardless  of  how  hard  it 
may  hit  himself  is  at  least  fortunate  in  being 
able  to  look  facts  in  the  face.  Now  there  may 
be  a  hundred  reasons  why  he  was  not  selected 
to  command  the  installation.  Some  of  them 
haven't  the  slightest  relation  to  his  personal 
efficiency.  Cases  are  not  unknown  where  an 
unfair  choice  is  made  through  favoritism,  family 


connections,  misunderstanding  of  the  inside 
situation,  or  some  other  cause  beyond  the  control 
of  the  engineer.  What  concerns  him  is  his  own 
record  in  the  plant,  his  own  fitness  for  larger 
responsibilities. 

"VTOTE  the  course  of  the  good  loser.  He 
subjects  his  work  to  a  severity  of  scrutiny 
which  is  bound  to  bring  out  every  weakness  of 
performance  and,  in  most  cases,  every  important 
lack  in  qualifications.  Rigid  self-examination 
helps  mightily  to  establish  the  true  inwardness 
of  the  new  appointment.  Then  the  engineer 
begins  to  study  the  ways  and  knowledge  of  his 
new  chief  and  seeks  to  learn  what  he  can  from 
him  to  improve  his  own  efficiency.  His  loyal 
service  continues.  Time  passes,  and  ultimately 
the  truth  comes  home  to  him.  If  the  superiority 
of  the  new  chief  is  established  in  his  mind — 
and  it  takes  pluck  to  realize  it — the  good  loser 
may  decide  to  continue  in  his  present  post, 
striving  constantly  to  do  better  work  and  attain 
a  broader  mastery  of  his  profession.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  may  become  convinced  that  better 
opportunities  lie  elsewhere,  and  quietly  but  de- 
liberately may  begin  to  lay  his  plans  to  become 
established  in  another  installation.  Whatever  the 
decision,  it  is  not  hasty,  and  it  is  the  outcome 
of  mature  study  which  not  seldom  points  the 
way  toward  more  efficient  service.  Personal 
"preparedness"  often  grows  out  of  difficult  and 
trying  situations  in  connection  with  the  organi- 
zation and  direction  of  power-plant  personnel. 
And  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  sometimes 
the  new  chief  proves  less  adapted  to  command 
than  the  good  lo.ser,  whose  fitness  is  demonstrated 
thereby  and  who  may  come  into  his  own  by 
refraining  from  rash  generalizations  while  stick- 
ing harder  than  ever  to  his  job. 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiii 


iiiiiiniiiniiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiuiiiuiiuiiiiiiuMiiiiiiiMiiiiMuiiiiiitiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiu  iiiiiniiniuiiiiiiiiiiiinimiiiiiiiiiiitiiiimiimiiiiiiii 


318 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


Walnut  Plant,  Columbus  Railway,  Power 

and  Light  Co. 


This  plant  is  ten  miles  from  the  center  of  the 
city  and  will  have  a  capacity  of  31,250  kv.-a. 
The .  boilers  are  arranged  on  the  unit  system, 
each  unit  consisting  of  two  boilers,  one  econo- 
mizer, two  stokers,  one  induced-  and  one  forced- 
draft  fan.  No  bypCLSses  are  provided  for  the 
economizers.  Each  unit  is  to  operate  continuously 
or  shut  do7vn  as  a  whole  when  necessary.  With 
three  exceptions  auxiliaries  are  electrically  oper- 
ated. All  equipment  requiring  attention  is  on 
the  main-floor  level.  The  circulating  and  con- 
densate pumps  are  of  the  vertical  motor-driven 
type. 

THE  Columbus  Railway,  Power  and  Light  Co. 
operates  the  street  cars  and  supplies  light  and 
power  for  the  City  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  its  sur- 
rounding suburbs  and  near-by  villages.  This  company 
has  a  number  of  old  power  stations,  some  of  which 
are  becoming  inoperative  due  to  one  reason  or  another. 
The  company  still  owns  the  site  and  buildings  that 
were  used  for  the  first  commercial  generating  station 
built  in  Columbus,  and  the  first  Edison  station,  started 
nearly  thirty  years  ago,  is  still  in  operating  shape  and 
used  considerably  at  times.  For  a  number  of  years  the 
company  has  had  plans  under  consideration  for  new 
power-plant  equipment,  and  in  the  last  two  years  this 
problem  became  extremely  active  owing  to  the  large 
increase  in  the  industrial  load  and  to  the  necessity  of 
securing  more  economical  operation. 

Because  of  the  scarcity  and  quality  of  water  for 
condensing  purposes  and  the  lack  of  space  for  coal 
storage,  it  was  considered  desirable  to  find  a  site  for 
a  new  power  station  outside  of  the  city.  The  location 
chosen  is  ten  miles  southeast  of  the  center  of  the  city 
at  a  point  where  the  Hocking  Valley  Ry.  crosses  Big 
Walnut  Creek.  The  site  consists  of  25  acres  of  rolling 
ground  on  the  east  bank  of  Walnut  Creek,  with  the 
railroad  running  through  about  the  center  of  the  prop- 
erty. The  map  of  the  property,  Fig.  15,  shows  the 
location  of  the  plant  and  the  railroad  tracks  for  coal- 
storage  purposes  and  proposed  operators'  houses.  Big 
Walnut  Creek  is  formed  by  three  small  streams  that 
come  together  about  a  mile  above  the  site  of  this  plant. 
There  are  approximately  500  square  miles  in  the  water- 
shed of  Big  Walnut  above  the  plant  site,  and  there  is 
a  natural  pool  in  the  creek  at  the  station  varying  in 
depth  at  low  water  from  15  to  20  feet. 

The  plant.  Fig.  1,  is  located  on  the  north  half  of 
the  property,  the  low  ground  of  this  part  being  used 
for  coal  storage  and  the  other  part  for  houses  for  the 
operators  and  for  coal  storage.  It  will  be  the  policy  of 
the  company  to  carry  sufficient  coal  in  storage,  when 
it  can  be  obtained,  to  run  the  plant  for  three  or  four 
months  at  a  time. 

The  site  for  the  Walnut  Station  was  purchased  in 
January,  1917.  Active  work  was  started  in  April,  and 
the    station   began   regular   operation    Nov.    18,    1917. 


This  was  accomplished  in  spite  of  delays  in  nearly  all 
shipments  of  equipment  and  in  the  midst  of  a  diifieult 
labor  market. 

That  part  of  the  station  now  in  operation  consists 
principally  of  one  18,750-kv.-a.  60-cycle  turbine.  Fig.  5, 
and  eight  440-hp.  boilers  provided  with  underfeed 
stokers.  The  plans  include  a  second  turbine,  capacity 
12,500  kv.-a.  and  eight  additional  boilers.  This  equip- 
ment is  under  order,  and  it  is  expected  that  it  will 
be  ready  for  installation  in  the  early  part  of  1918. 
Fig.  9  is  a  plan  view  of  the  completed  plant. 

The  boiler  plant  will  consist  of  16  cross-drum  water- 
tube  boilers,  each  having  a  heating  surface  of  4440  sq.ft. 
The  present  boiler  and  turbine  installation  gives  1.9 
kw.  turbine  capacity  per  square  foot  of  boiler-heating 
surface.  With  the  second  turbine  and  eight  additional 
boilers  there  will  be  a  ratio  of  1  sq.ft.  of  boiler-heating 
surface  to  2.27  kw.  of  turbine  capacity.  Each  boiler 
has  21  sections  of  tubes,  each  section  consisting  of  10 
tubes  18  ft.  long  and  4  in.  diameter.  Single-loop  super- 
heaters are  also  provided,  each  having  855  sq.ft.  of 
heating  surface,  which  will  give  about  150  deg.  super- 
heat under  average  conditions.  This  gives  a  ratio  of 
5.19  sq.ft.  of  boiler-heating  surface  to  1  sq.ft.  of  super- 
heater surface.  These  boilers  are  designed  for  250  lb. 
steam  pressure  and  are  provided  with  mechanical  soot 
blowers,  feed-water  regulators,  balanced-draft  regula- 
tors for  opening  the  outlet  dampers  and  with  furnace 
meters  which  record  the  steam  flow,  air  flow  through 
boilers  and  the  temperature  of  the  exhaust  gases  and 
also  indicate  the  draft  under  the  stokers. 

The  boilers  are  set  two  in  a  battery,  and  each  boiler 
is  provided  with  one  8-retort  underfeed  stoker.  The 
gases  from  each  battery  of  boilers  pass  through  one 
economizer  having  6300  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface,  or  1.4 
sq.ft.  of  boiler-heating  surface  per  square  foot  of  econo- 
mizer surface.  Each  economizer  has  32  sections,  each 
section  consisting  of  12  tubes,  12  ft.  long  and  4s  in. 
outside  diameter.  The  gases  are  conveyed  from  the 
boiler  to  the  economizer  by  means  of  ,%-in.  steel-plate 
flues  covered  with  IJ  in.  of  asbestos.  The  gases  from 
each  economizer  are  in  turn  conveyed  from  the  econo- 
mizer by  uncovered  steel  breechings  to  one  60,000-cu.ft. 
per  min.  induced-draft  fan.  Figs.  2  and  9.  These  fans 
are  direct-connected  to  75-hp.  variable-speed  motors. 
The  fans  discharge  downward  into  a  concrete  flue, 
located  below  grade,  which  connects  into  the  base  of  a 
tapered  concrete  chimney  having  a  height  of  150  ft. 
and  an  inside  diameter  at  the  top  of  14  ft.  6  in.  There 
will  be  two  of  these  chimneys,  one  chimney  accommo- 
dating four  fans  and  eight  boilers.  The  economizers 
are  provided  with  the  usual  scraper  mechanism,  and 
one  5-hp.  720-r.p.m.  motor  drives  the  scrapers  on  two 
economizers. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  boilers  are  arranged  in 
units  of  two  boilers,  one  economizer,  two  stokers,  one 
induced-draft  fan,  one  forced-draft  fan,  and  that  no 
bypasses  are  provided  for  the  economizer.  It  is  ex- 
pected to  operate  this  unit  continuously  and  when 
necessary  to  make  extensive  repairs,  to  shut  down  the 


March  5,  1918 


POWER 


319 


entire  unit.     Of  course  either  one  of  the  boilers  may  variable-speed  motors,  which  are  hand-controlled.     The 

be    shut    down    for    cleaning    without    disturbing    the  forced  draft  is  also  hand-regulated  by  varying  the  speed 

operation  of  the  other.    The  stoker,  forced-  and  induced-  of  the  motors  and  by  the  movement  of  the  dampers  in 

draft  fans  are  all  driven  by  motors,  the  controllers  for  the  air  ducts. 


^^^^^■^^^Br|» 

h 

PIGS.    1    TO    8.      GENERAL    VIEWS    IN    AND    ABOUT    THE    NEW  POWER  PLANT 


^^fsl?'  ^T'^l'^!"  °',!,"r,wl"'^  !f 9'"  ''■'""  ''"^^  ®"'"^'  showing  intake-  and  di.scliarge-water  tunnel.<!  feed-water  purifvine  plant  and  a 
e?onomiz»,=  F?g  S  '  re^^rnS'^vrlw  ™f^l7*'V  P^'  ^-Showing  induced-draft  frfn.s  for  boilers  l'  .and  4  and  o  "ningf  in  "valtrfo^- 
eonc^Ite  sl'°i<-lc  Fil~4  Tnnf  JAvT^S  t'^  ""!;'  '!?>"?  "/"'"r  room,  showing  coal-  and  ash-handling  ciuiipmct.  induced-draft  fans  and 
The  18  7>-,0  kv  a  turhit^^h^ZilJJ^^  ^  T^'  This  track  showing  elevated  steel  support  track  mounted  on  concrete  piers.  Fig.  5— 
The    inn  kw    tifrho  evc^fir  I J     ^^.?  ""i'c",'  "^'v„l',',^''S^"t   direct-connected  e.Kciter  and  main  steam  pipe  for  turbine.     Fii.  6— 

ine  inn-.<w  turbo-exciter  set.  Fig.  7— T\vo  35-hp.  220-voIt,  three-phase,  alternating-current  vertical  constant-speed  motors  witli 
controllers  for  driving  condensate  pumps.  Fig.  8— General  view  of  switchboard  panfls  and  bus  structS?"  the  1  a.tels  at  ihe  lef 
are  for  control  of  exciter,  panels  in  the  center  are  for  control  of  outgoing  lines  and  pedeltal  at  the  right  c<introIs?i.rmne. 


which   are   located   convenient   to   the   boilers   and    are 
under  the  control  of  the  boiler-room  operators. 

The  balanced-draft  equipment  will  provide  the  close 
regulation  of  the  induced  draft,  and  the  large  steps  in 
the    adjustment    of    this    draft    are    obtained    by    the 


The  economizers  are  operated  in  parallel  and  feed  direct 
into  the  feed-water  header,  and  to  avoid  unequal  feeding 
from  the  economizers  there  are  monel-metal  orifices  in 
the  feed-water  header  between  the  connections  to  the 
economizers,  the  feed-water  branch  pipe  to  each  boiler 


320 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


connecting  to  the  header  at  a  point  between  the  orifices. 
As  for  the  fine  adjustment  of  the  feed  to  the  econo- 
mizers, it  is  expected  to  obtain  this  by  regulating  the 
opening  of  the  valves  in  the  connections  between  the 
economizers  and  the  header,  determining  the  adjustment 
of  these  valves  by  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water 
leaving  the  economizers,  as  shown  by  recording  ther- 
mometers. In  addition  to  the  recording  furnace  meters, 
there  are  recording  thermometers  for  the  gases  leaving 
the  economizers  and  for  the  water  entering  and  leav- 
ing the  economizers  and  also  for  the  water  entering  the 
feed-water  heater.  Fig.  11  is  a  cross-section  of  the 
boiler  room. 


the  feed  water  will  be  supplied  to  the  boilers  from  a 
6-in.  feed-water  header  for  each  row  of  boilers,  and 
the  feed-water  headers  will  be  connected  across  so  as 
to  form  a  loop. 

The  equipment  for  handling  the  coal  and  ash  is  very 
complete.  The  station  will  be  provided,  when  completed, 
with  two  400-ton  coal  bunkers  located  just  outside  of  the 
boiler  room  at  the  end  of  the  station,  Figs.  3  and  13. 
Coal  will  be  supplied  to  these  bunkers  from  two  track 
hoppers,  the  coal  passing  from  the  track  hoppers  by 
means  of  a  flight  conveyor  through  a  coal  crusher  and 
thence  by  bucket  elevator  to  the  top  of  the  coal  bunkers. 
The  coal  from  the  bunkers  will  be   carried   into  the 


15,200  Voll-     L 
South  Cdumbusl 


33,000  Volt  to 
Chillicothe 


For  supplying  the  makeup  water  for  the  boilers,  that 
is,  water  over  and  above  that  secured  from  the  surface 
condensers,  a  lime  and  soda-ash  feed-water  purifying 
plant  is  installed.  It  is  placed  outside  of  the  building, 
•as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  This  plant  consists  principally  of 
'two  20,000-gal.  wood-stave  tanks  with  stirring  mech- 
anism, and  an  elevated  dosing  tank.  The  river  water 
is  of  fairly  good  quality  except  during  high  water, 
iwhen  it  may  be  quite  roily. 

f  Four  4-stage  centrifugal  pumps  supply  the  boilers 
jwith  water.  Three  are  motor-  and  the  other  one  is 
>turbine-driven.  The  water  rate  of  the  turbine  at  full 
load  is  49  lb.  per  brake-horsepower. 

The  steam  from  the  boilers  will  be  carried  through 
6-in.  steam  lines  to  a  main  12-in.  steam  header.  Each 
row  of  eight  boilers  will  be  provided  with  a  12-in. 
steam  header,  the  two  headers  being  connected  together 
at  each  end  so  as  to  form  a  ring.     In  the  same  way 


PIG.    9.      FLOOR   PLAN    OP   STATION,    SHOWING   GENERAL 

ARRANGEMENT  OP  EQUIPMENT  IN  THE  BOILER 

AND  TURBINE  ROOMS 

boiler  room  by  means  of  a  4i-ton  electric  traveling  larry, 
which  travels  on  a  standard-gage  railroad  track  laid 
flush  wdth  the  boiler-room  floor. 

Track  scales  are  provided  immediately  under  one  of 
the  coal  bunkers  so  that  all  coal  can  be  accurately 
weighed  as  it  is  carried  into  the  station.  This  arrange- 
ment will  permit  the  keeping  of  accurate  records  of 
all  coal  used  for  the  entire  station  or  for  any  one  boiler 
over  any  particular  period.  The  larry  is  electrically 
operated,  has  a  revolving  bin  which  works  like  a  turret, 
and  is  provided  with  a  screw  conveyor  which  supplies 
the  boilers  on  either  side  of  the  firing  aisle.  The  larry 
requires  only  one  man  for  its  operation,  is  simple  in 
construction,  and  all  wearing  parts  are  accessible  for 
repairs. 

The  foundations  for  the  boilers  are  of  concrete  and 
form  the  ashpits.  Two  drag-chain  conveyors  pass 
under  each  row  of  eight  boilers,  conveying  the  ash 
out  to  the  end  of  the  station  and  discharging  into  a 
clinker  crusher,  which  in  turn  discharges  into  the  boot 
of  a  bucket  elevator.  This  elevator  may  discharge 
either  into  a  concrete  ashpit,  shown  at  the  right  of 
Fig.  9,  or  into  railroad  car  or  wagon.  The  ash  can 
be  disposed  of  for  a  long  time  by  grading  around 
the  property.  Each  drag-chain  conveyor  has  sufficient 
capacity  for  carrying  out  the  ash,  and  duplicate  con- 


March  5.  1918 


POWER 


321 


veyors  are  furnished  so  as  to  allow  repairs  and  changes 
to  be  made  without  inconvenience  to  operation,  as  ar- 
rangements are  made  so  that  either  one  can  be  isolated 
for  repairs  without  interfering  with  the  other. 


The  coal  will  be  distributed  over  the  ground  and 
reloaded  into  cars  for  moving  into  the  station  by  means 
of  a  15-ton  steam-driven  locomotive  crane  provided 
with  a  2-yd.  grab-bucket. 


'^^^■^V^wy<:^v^''<\'<''^"''^'^^''''.^'<'Avyr<^\'/?vv/^^'^y 


ifti 


FIG.   10.      LOXniTUDINAL  SECTION  OF  BOILER  ROOM  AND  A  CROSS -SECTION  OP  TURBINE  ROOM 

The  coal  bunkers  have  capacity  sufficient  for  one  to  The  generators  are  connected  to  the  13,200-volt  bus 

two  days'  operation  of  the  station.     To  provide  against  through  oil  switches,  and  a  transfer  bus   is  provided 

car  shortage  and  irregularity  of  shipments,  an  elevated  with  a  transfer  switch  so  that  any  13,200-volt  switch 

storage  track  is  provided,  a  track  480  ft.  in  length  being  with  its  instrument  transformers  may  be  cut  out  of 


-T"--. 


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11/ 


tf^, 


r^ 


I 


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I  -5 


i,  r,  iys 


PIG.    11. 


CROS.'i-.SECTION  OF  BOILER  HOUSE,  SHOWING    PRESENT    AND    FUTURE    BOILER    ROOM    AND    ARRANGE- 
MENT  OP   FORCED    DRAFT.    STOKERS.    FLUES,    ECONOMIZERS.   ETC. 


elevated  approximately  15  ft.  over  low  ground.  Fig.  4. 
Since  practically  all  the  coal  received  is  in  hopper- 
bottomed  cars  of  one  type  or  another,  no  labor  will  be 
required  for  unloading  them.  This  track  is  supported 
by  reinforced-concrete  piers,  14-ft.  centers,  and  sup- 
ported between  piers  by  steel  I-beams  with  steel  cross- 
members  on  5-ft.  centers  to  prevent  spreading. 


service  and  worked  on  when  necessary  without  inter- 
rupting service.  All  feeders  and  other  circuits  ar? 
provided  with  the  same  type  of  oil  switch,  and  all  of 
them  are  remote-controlled  from  the  switchboard.  All 
the  turbine  controls  are  also  located  at  the  switchboard. 
The  auxiliaries  in  the  station  will  be  electrically 
operated  with  the  exception  of  one  boiler-feed  pump 


322 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


and  two  dry-vacuum  pumps.  The  current  for  .supplying 
these  motor-driven  auxiliaries  will  be  supplied  by  two 
duplicate  banks  of  three  300-kv.-a.  single-phase  13,200- 
volt  to  220-volt  outdoor  type  self-cooled  transformers. 
The  total  connected  load  of  motors  for  auxiliaries  in  the 
station  will  amount  to  2533  hp. 

Each  turbine  is  provided  with  a  direct-connected 
lOO-kw.  250-volt  exciter,  and  a  100-kw.  3600-r.p.m. 
geared  turbo-exciter  set  is  provided  for  spare  service, 
Fig.  6. 

The  plant  is  laid  out  with  the  idea  of  having  all 
equipment   that    requires    attention    on    the    main-floor 


circulating  water  and  hotwell  pumps   it  is  possible  to 
avoid  many  reasons  for   shutdown. 

The  circulating  water  being  carried  into  the  station 
by  a  concrete  tunnel  and  in  turn  being  carried  out  by 
the  same  means,  eliminates  the  usual  large  amount  of 
piping  required  for  circulating  water  and  also  supplies 
the  water  at  a  convenient  point  with  minimum  waste . 
of  power.  The  water  in  the  tunnel  will  have  a  velocity 
of  about  2  ft.  per  sec.  with  two  turbines  carrying 
full  load  and  about  3.1  ft.  per  sec.  with  40,000-kw. 
turbine  capacity  in  operation.  The  discharge-water 
lines  from  the  condensers  are  sealed  in  the  discharge 


'^1      H    < 

>  1         m      ■ 
\  i         1      ! 

fl   '!  1 

1 

^^^^^1 

1 

1 

^^*Ili^B 

PIG.    12.      A    120-HP.   VERTICAL   VARI- 
ABLE-SPEED,    220-VOLT,     THREE- 
PH.\SE.         ALTERNATING  -  CURRENT 
MOTOR       FOR       DRIVING       ONE       OF 
THE    CIRCULATING    WATER     PITMP.'i 


FIG.  13.  VIEW  OF  COAL  BUNKER 
AND  ASH  ELEVATOR.  THE  ELE- 
VATOR AT  THE  LEFT  WITH  THE 
LONG   CHTTTE  H.\NDLES  THE  ASH 


FIG.  14.  A  PORTION  OF  13,200-VOLT 
SWITCH  CELLS,  SHOWING  LOCATION 
OF  POTENTI.\L  TRANSFORMERS. 
DISCONNECTING  SWITCHES  ARE 
BACK    OF    THE    REMOVABLE    DOORS 


level,  or  elevation  740,  this  applying  to  the  switchboard, 
turbines,  motors  for  driving  circulating  water  pumps 
and  hotwell  pumps,  controllers  for  all  forced-draft, 
induced-draft  and  stoker  drives,  battery-charging  set, 
etc  Therefore  there  will  be  as  small  occasion  as  possible 
for  the  operators  leaving  the  main  floor. 

Each  turbine  is  provided  with  a  surface  condenser, 
and  each  condenser  will  be  supplied  with  circulating 
water  by  duplicate  vertical  variable-speed  motor-driven 
circulating-water  pumps.  These  pumps,  Fig.  12,  receive 
water  from  a  gravity  tunnel  which  runs  under  the 
length  of  the  turbine  room,  and  the  water  from  the 
condensers  discharges  into  another  separate  gravity 
tunnel,  which  also  runs  the  full  length  of  the  turbine 
room  and  carries  the  water  out  into  the  river  at  a 
point  about  160  ft.  below  the  intake.  Each  condenser 
is  also  provided  with  duplicate  vertical  motor-driven 
single-stage  centrifugal  condensate  water  pumps.  Fig.  7. 
Therefore,  by  the  supplying  of  these  duplicate  sets  of 


tunnel  so  that  advantage  is  taken  of  the  siphon  action 
obtained   thereby. 

The  intake  end  of  the  tunnel  is  enlarged  and  provided 
with  a  large  area  of  racks  (velocity  through  racks 
0.5  ft.  per  sec.  first  two  units  and  0.8  ft.  per  sec.  for 
40,000  kw.  of  turbines  in  operation)  for  the  water  to 
flow  through.  There  are  also  provided  six  large  re- 
movable wire  baskets  (1-in.  mesh)  which  should  catch 
nearly  all  the  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  that  may  come  down- 
stream during  high  water.  Each  basket  is  in  a  separate 
compartment  provided  with  a  gate  for  shutting  off  the 
flow  of  water  when  the  basket  is  raised  for  cleaning. 
A  traveling  hoist  is  provided  for  operating  the  gates 
and  baskets.  Such  particles  of  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  as 
pass  through  these  baskets  and  racks  can  be  removed 
before  reaching  the  condenser  by  means  of  twin 
strainers  (5-in.  holes)  which  are  located  between  the 
circulating- water  pumps  and  the  condensers.  The 
circulating-water  pumps  are  immediately  on  top  of  the 


March  5,  1918 


POWER 


323 


intake  tunnel  so  that  a  minimum  suction  lift  of  about 
II  ft-  is  secured. 

A  battery  of  four  200-gal.  per  min.  motor-driven 
centrifugal  pumps  is  located  in  the  basement  of  the 
turbine  room  for  furnishing  water  to  the  feed-water 
purification  plant,  for  the  cooling  of  bearings  and  for 
the  15,000-kv.-a.  transformers. 

The  condenser  of  the  18,750-kv.-a.  unit  is  bolted 
direct  to  the  exhaust  flange  of  the  turbine  without 
any  expansion  joint,  Fig.  16.  Car  springs  are  placed 
below  the  condenser  and  so  compressed  as  to  balance 
the  weight  of  the  empty  condenser.  These  springs  will 
allow  the  condenser  to  expand  when   heated,   and  the 


was  thought  desirable  to  transmit  at  a  higher  voltage 
than  that  generated.  Therefore  the  current  will  be 
carried  into  the  city  over  three  transmission-line 
circuits  at  39,400  volts,  and  one  13,200-volt  circuit,  the 
latter  being  the  generating  voltage,  which  will  feed 
an  industrial  section  at  the  extreme  south  end  of  the 
city.  The  electrical  energy  will  be  received  at  39,400 
volts  at  one  point  in  the  city  at  the  present  time  and 
at  second  and  third  points  later  on.  Current  will  be 
distributed  in  the  city  between  substations  and  to  large 
power  customers  at  13,200  volts;  the  primary  voltage 
for  all  other  light  and  power  customers  is  4150  volts 
four-wire  distribution.    The  tie-lines  between  the  prin- 


FIG.   15.     PROPERTY  MAP   .SHOWING  GENERAL.  ARRANGE- 
MENT OF  TR.^CKS  AND  LOCATION  OF  PLANT,  COAL 
.STORAGE    AND    OPERATORS'    HOUSES 

turbine  is  capable  of  taking  the  additional  weight  of  the 
water  which  may  be  in  the  condenser  during  regular 
operation. 

The  condensate  from  the  condenser  is  forced  by  the 
centrifugal  pumps  to  the  top  of  the  boiler  room,  where 
the  water  will  flow  through  water  meters  into  an  open 
storage  tank.  This  tank  is  divided  into  two  compart- 
ments, one  compartment  with  a  capacity  of  6000  gal. 
for  condensate  and  one  compartment  with  a  capacity 
of  3000  gal.  for  makeup  water.  The  water  from  this 
storage  tank  will  flow  through  an  open  feed-water 
heater  having  1300  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface.  The 
feed-water  heater  is  divided  into  two  parts;  the  con- 
densate will  pass  over  one-third  and  the  makeup  water 
over  two-thirds  of  the  heating  surface.  From  the 
heater  the  water  will  pass  through  a  battery  of  four 
400-gal.  per  min.  four-stage  centrifugal  boiler-feed 
pumps,  three  of  these  pumps  being  driven  by  100-hp. 
three-phase  60-cycle  220-volt  1740-r.p.m.  motors,  and 
the  fourth  by  a  steam  turbine,  1850  r.p.m.  The  pumps 
will  discharge  direct  into  headers  supplying  the  econo- 
mizers, the  economizers  carrying  full  boiler  pressure 
plus  the  additional  pressure  required  for  forcing  the 
water  through  the  economizer  to  the  boilers. 

As  the  station  is  situated  about  ten  miles  from  the 
center  of  distribution  of  the  current  in  Columbus,  it 


!'      ^ 


i^^..^i_^^^^,jU]^ 


aS23ZE 


jT^i 


FIG.    16.      CROSS-SECTION    OF    TURBINE    ROOM.    SHOWING 
.SOME   OF   THE    DETAILED    ARRANGEMENT    OF   CON- 
DENSING     EQUIPMENT     FOR     THE     TURBI.NE. 
ALSO     SECTION     OF     WATER     TUNNELS 
FOR    CIRCULATING    W^\TF:R 

cipal  substations  of  the  city  will  operate  at  13,200  volts 
and  consist  of  triple-conductor  lead-incased  cables  laid 
in  vitrified-clay  duct  subways.  Figs.  8  and  14  show 
the  switchboard  panels  and  a  portion  of  the  13,200-volt 
switch  cells   respectively. 

The  current  will  be  transformed  from  13,200  to 
39,400  volts  at  the  power  station  by  means  of  15,000- 
kv.-a.  three-phase  60-cycle  water-cooled  outdoor-type 
transformers.  Two  units  vi'ill  be  installed  this  year 
and  a  third  transformer  at  a  later  date.  All  switches 
for  the  13,200-volt  transformers  and  main  generators 
will  be  located  within  the  station,  but  all  the  39,400-volt 
switches,  lightning  arresters  and  connections  will  be  out- 


324 


POWER 


Vol  47,  No.  10 


side  of  the  station.  Provision  is  made  for  taking  the 
transformers  in  the  station  on  a  truck  so  that  they  can 
be  placed  under  the  electrical  traveling  crane  for  dis- 
assembly for  repairs  and  also  for  the  original  erection. 

Very  little  space  is  required  within  the  station  for 
the  electrical  equipment.  The  control  part  is  compact 
and  only  the  13,200-volt  switches  are  within  the  station. 
All  transformers,  high-voltage  bus  structure,  main-line 
switches  and  lightning  arresters  are  located  outdoors. 
Any  of  this  equipment  can  be  cut  out  of  service  and 
moved  into  the  station  for  inspection  and  repairs,  thus 
securing  all  the  advantages  of  the  outdoor-type  of  elec- 
trical equipment  with  minimum  disadvantages. 

The  main  building  is  a  steel-frame  structure  sup- 
ported on  a  reinforced-concrete  foundation.  The  turbine 
room  now  completed  for  two  turbines  is  156  ft.  6  in. 
in  length  and  44  ft.  1  in.  in  width,  is  provided  with 
a  35-ton  electric  traveling  crane  having  a  rail  height 
of  25  ft.  above  the  main  floor.  The  turbine-room  base- 
ment is  15  ft.  high  from  floor  to  floor  excepting  under 
the  condensers,  where  the  height  is  20  ft.  The  boiler 
room  now  completed  is  174  ft.  in  length  and  60  ft.  in 
width  and  will  be  174  ft.  in  length  and  96  ft.  2  in.  wide 
when  completed  for  16  boilers.  The  height  under  the 
lower  chord  of  roof  trusses  is  30  ft.  6  in.  The  basement 
under  the  boiler  room  is  10  ft.  6  in.  floor  to  floor. 

The  outside  walls  are  built  of  hard-burned  red  brick, 
and  the  partition  and  temporary  end  walls  of  the  tur- 
bine room  are  built  of  interlocking  tile.     Fenestra  steel 


sash  glazed  with  factory-ribbed  glass  are  used  through- 
out the  building.  Steel  rolling  doors  are  used  for  large 
doorways  and  steel  paneled  doors  on  all  small  doorways. 

The  roofs  are  supported  by  Fink  trusses,  h  pitch, 
provided  with  monitors,  ventilation  being  secured  by 
opening  sections  of  the  steel  sash  by  means  of  suitable 
window-operating  mechanism.  The  roof  for  the  boiler 
room  consists  of  a  concrete  slab  waterproofed  with 
three-ply  asbestos  felt  laid  in  asphalt.  The  turbine- 
room  roof  is  similar  except  that  a  slab  made  up  of  a 
composition  of  gypsum  and  wood  fiber  is  used,  this 
construction  being  resorted  to  in  order  to  avoid  the 
possibility  of  condensation  forming  on  the  underside 
of  the  roof.  The  concrete  slabs  for  roof  and  floors  are 
supported  by  asbestos-protected  corrugated  metal  with 
reinforcing  fabric.  The  slabs  are  flat  in  both  cases, 
being  2}  in.  thick  for  the  roof  and  4  in.  for  the  floor. 

The  foundations  for  walls  and  equipment  are  sup- 
ported on  reinforced  mats  or  footings  which  r^st  on 
hard  river  gravel  or  clay  hardpan,  the  character  of 
earth  varying  according  to  the  elevation  of  the  various 
foundations.  Extensive  soundings  and  test  pits  were 
driven  to  determine  the  nature  of  underlying  earth 
previous  to  starting  construction.  A  test  pile  was  also 
driven  in  the  deepest  portion  of  excavation. 

For  the  foregoing  information  and  accompanying 
illustrations,  Power  is  indebted  to  the  E.  W.  Clark  & 
Co.  Management  Corporation,  who  designed  and  con- 
structed the  Walnut  Station. 


PRINCIPAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  BIG  WALNUT  CREEK  POWER  PLANT.  COLUMBUS.  OHIO 


Operating  Conditions 
250-lb.  steam,  ISOdeg.  superheat.  . . 


No.  Equipment              Kind  Size  Use 

8  Boilers Water-tube 4,440aq.ft.  heating 

surface Main  steam  generators 

8  Superheaters  Single  loop 855  sq.ft.  heating 

surface  - . . 

8  Soot  cleaners  Diamond 

8  Regulators. ,    Copes 2i-in 

8   Meters   ....    Bailey 

8  Stokers Riley,  self-dumping    8-rctort 

4  Economizers  Green,  fuel. . .  6, 300sq. ft.  heating 

surface One  serves  four  boiler? 

4  Fans Induced-draft 60,000    cu.ft.    per 

min     Induced  draft  to  furnaci 

4  Pans Forced-draft 45,000    cu.ft.    per 

min Forced  draft  to  furnaces. . .  ,    Motor-driven,  S^-in.  pressure 

1    Fan Forced-draft 45,000    cu.ft.    per 


With  water-tube  boilrrs. . . 
Cleaning  boiler  tubet-,  , .    . 
Feed-water  regulation.  . 
Steam  flow,  air  flow,  draft . 
With  steam  boilers  .  . . 


1  50  deg.  superheat  under  normal  conditions. . . 

As  conditions  demand      . 

Automatic  balanced  regulating  valve 

Automatic 

Motor-driven,  chain  connection    


I'nder-pressure 

Motor-driven,  3-in.  pressure,  variable  speed. 

ariable  speed.. 


min 

4  Motors Induction 75-hp.  . 

3  Motors Induction 75-hp 

I   Motor.    ...    Induction 100-hp 

1    Heater Hoppers 


Forced  draft  tf)  furnace. . .  . 
Driving  forced-draft  fans . . . 
nri\'ing  forced-draft  fans. . 
Driving  fttreed-draft  fan. ,  .  . 
Heating  and  purifying  feed 
water 


Motor-driven,  5^-in.  pressure,  variable  speed. 

600  r.p.m.,  220-volts,  flexible  coupling 

600  r. p.m.,  220-volts,  flexible  coupling 

900r.p.ni.,  220-voUs.  flexible  coupling 


Maker 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  Co. 

Babcock  &  Wilcox  Co. 
Diamond  Power  Specialty  Co. 
Erie  Pump  &  Equipment  Co. 
Bailey  Meter  Co. 
Sanford  Riley  Stoker  Co. 

Green  Fuel  Economizer  Co. 

Green  Fuel  Economizer  Co. 

Green  Fuel  Economizer  Co. 

B.  F.  Sturtevant  Co. 
Lincoln  Electric  Co. 
General  Electric  Co. 
General  Electric  Co. 


4  Pumps Centrifugal,  4-stage  400  gal.  per  min. 

1  Turbine  Curtis I05-hp 

3   Motors Induction    ....  "  . 

I   Conveyor, . .  Bucket 50-ton  per  hr 

1   Larry      Traveling 5-ton 

1  Crusher Single-roll 24  x  24-in . . 

1   Scale Track 50-ton 


Steel,  circular 400-ton  capacity. , 


One-third  heats  condensate,  two-thirds  heats 
make-up  water 

One  motor-,  one  turbine-driven 

I,800r.p.m.  water-rate  full  load  49  lb.  per  b.hp 

l,740r,p.m.,  220-volts.  A.C.,  .  : 

85  ft.  height,  speed  250  ft.  per  min 
C^oal  from  bunkers  to  stokers  Track  speed  400  ft .  per  min .... 

Crushing  coal Motor  belt-driven,  900  r.p.m 

Weighing  coal Provided  with  tare  beams  and  type  registering 

device      

Coal  storage Concrete-lined 


Boiler  feed 

Drives  feed  pump. 

1 00-hp Drives  feed  pumps 

Coal  to  bunkers 


2  Bunkers 

2  Conveyors. .   Drag 1 82  ft.,  6  in.  centers  Handling  ashes   .  ,  Motor-driven,  20  ft.  per  min 

I   Crusher Single-roU 18-in Crushing  clinkers Motor,  belt-driven,  40  r.p.m 

I  Crane Locomotive 15-ton   Reclaiming  coal  from  storage  2-cu.yd.  grab  bucket.  46-ft.  boom 

I   Generator....  Turbine 18,750-kv.-a Main  generating  unit 1,800 r.p.m.,  1 3, 200  volts,  3-phase,  60  cycles. 


I   Exciter Turbo-generator. 

I  Condenser. .    Surface,  spiroflo 


1 00-kw 

23,900  sq.ft.  heat- 
ing surface 


Exciting  main  generator.. 


3600-1200  r.p.m..   250  volts.    250  lbs. 
pressure 


Hoppes  Mfg.  Co. 
Cameron  Steam  Pump  Co. 
General  Electric  Co. 
General  Electric  Co. 
Jeffrey  Mfg.  Co. 
Jeffrey  Mfg.  Co. 
Jcflfrey  Mfg.  Co. 

Fairbanks  Morse  Co. 

Jeff'rey  Mfg.  Co. 

Jeffrey  Mfg.  Co. 

Jeffrey  Mfg.  Co. 

Brown  Hoisting  Machinery  Cn 

General  Electric  Co. 

General  Electric  Co. 


Witli  18.750-kv.-a.  turbine.. 


1  Pump......   Centrifugal No.   10 

2  Pumps Circulating 20-in 

1  Pump Condensate S-in 

2  Strainers Twin      24-in 

4  Pumps  Centrifugal 200  gal.  per  miij . 

2  Motors ...        Induction 20-hp 

2  Motors Induction,  vertical..  l20-hp  .     , 

I   Motor Induction,  vertical  35-hp 

I   Motor-gener- 
ator set, ,      Induction-motor,  d. 

c.  generator 35-hp.,  1 5-kw. . . 


Performance  180.0001b.  steam  per  hr..  22.000 
g. p.m. ,70  deg.  water.  1 .65  lb.  vac 

Turbine  driven.  . 

I  2.500  gal.  per  min.,  425  r.p.m. , . 

Condenser  condensate 600  gal.  per  min.,  1,140  r.p.m 

Straining  circulating  water     Brass  buckets,  f-in.  holes 

Water  to  feed- water  pumps  Motor-driven  L 200  r.p.m 

Driving  stokers 1, 200 r.p.m..  220  volts,  gear  ratio  4.33  to  1.... 

Driving  circulating  pump.       514  r.p.m.,  220  volts,  speed  range  300  to  500 
r.p  ni      

l,200r.p.m.,  220 volts      


\acuain  in  condenser. 
Water  to  Condenser. 


Driving  condensate  pump 


.\lberger  Pump  &  Condenser  Co 

.\lberger  Pump  &  Condenser  Co- 

R.  D.  Wood  &  Co. 

.Mbcrger  Pump  &  Condenser  Co. 

Elliott  Co. 

General  Electric  Co. 

General  Electric  Co. 

CJeneral  Electric  Co. 
General  Electric  Co. 


Operating  coal  larry . 


I  Crane. . .  Traveling. . 

1  Battery Storage     . 

I  Charging  set  Motor-generator., 

1  Compressor,  Belt-driven... 


35-ton In  turbine  room 

1 0-amp   , Control 

5-kw..  10-hp.  motor  Charging  storage  battery.. 


lOx  lO-in..  2I0cu. 

ft,  per  min Miscellaneous     

High  pressure  steam  valves,  350-lb.  pressure.  800  deg.  temperature . 

Water  meters  for  measuring  condensate  and  make-up. 

Transformers, switchboards,  all  switches  and  miscellaneous  electrical  apparatus , 


1,800  r.p,m.  motor,   220  volts,  generator    125 

volts 

4  motors.  250  volts,  d.c. 

60-cell,  1 25  volts 

1.800  r.p,m,.  125-170-volt  generator.  220-voU 

motor 

235  r.p.m..  1 25  lb.  air  pressure 


General  Electric  Co. 

Case  Crane  &  Engineering  Co 

Electric  Storage  Battery  Co. 

CTeneral  Electric  Co. 

Ingcrsoll-Rand  Co. 

Nelson  Mfg.  Co. 

Alberger  Pump  &  Condenser  Cn 

General  Electric  Co. 


March  5.  1918 


POWER 


325 


Rewinding  Direct-Current  Armatures 


By  R.  THISTLEWHITE 


The  difficuUies  of  winding  armatures  are  easily 
overcome  if  a  few  general  principles  are  kept 
in  mind.  These  are  given  in  a  very  brief  form 
without  any  technical  explanation,  it  being  taken 
for  granted  that  the  statements  are  correct,  and 
should  the  reader  wish  proof  of  the  fact  he  can 
refer  to  any  standard  work  on  armature  tvinding 
and  find  them. 

WHEN  an  armature  is  to  be  rewound,  the  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  count  the  number  of  slots 
in  the  core  and  the  number  of  commutator  bars, 
from  which  can  be  determined  the  distribution  of  the 
coils.  Each  coil  has  two  sides,  as  in  Fig.  1.  Then 
(1)  if  there  are  one-half  as  many  bars  in  the  commuta- 
tor as  slots  in  the  armature  core,  there  will  be  only 
one  side  of  a  coil  in  each  slot;  (2)  if  there  are  as 
many  bars  as  slots,  there  will  be  one  side  of  two  dif- 
ferent coils  in  each  slot;  (3)  if  there  are  twice  as 
many  bars  as  slots,  there  will  be  one  side  of  four 
different  coils  in  each  slot;  (4)  if  there  are  three  times 
as  many  bars  as  slots,  there  will  be  one  side  of  six 
different  coils  in  each  slot.  Always  keep  in  mind  that 
for  every  bar  in  the  commutator  there  must  be  a  coil 
in  the  winding. 

As  there  is  only  one  side  of  one  coil  in  a  slot  in 
No.  1,  this  winding  is  known  as  a  single-layer  winding. 
In  No.  2  there  is  one  side  of  two  different  coils  in  a 
slot  and  the  winding  is  called  a  two-layer  winding. 
In  No.  3  there  is  one  side  of  four  different  coils  in 
the  same  slot,  therefore  it  is  termed  a  four-layer  wind- 
ing. In  No.  4  there  is  one  side  of  six  different  coils 
in  the  same  slot,  consequently  it  is  known  as  a  six-layer 
winding. 

Determining  Spread  between  Coil  Leads  Connected 
TO  the  Commutator 

The  next  operation  is  to  trace  from  the  commutator 
along  a  lead  to  the  slot  it  enters,  then  stretch  a  piece 
of  string  from  the  center  of  this  slot  to  the  end  of 
the  shaft  and  mark  the  bar  the  string  passes  over; 
count  from  this  bar  to  the  bar  the  lead  is  connected 
to,  taking  notice  whether  this  is  to  the  left  or  right 
when  facing  the  commutator.  Fig.  2,  which  shows  the 
throw  of  the  leads  to  be  from  1  to  9  to  the  left.  Now, 
mark  bar  9  and  lift  up  the  lea^s  about  halfway  round 
the  commutator,  then  with  a  lamp  test  from  the  top 
lead  in  bar  9  and  find  the  other  end  of  the  coil.  Count 
the  bars  between  these  two  points,  including  the  two 
the  coil's  leads  connect  to,  which  will  give  the  spread 
between  leads,  and  with  this  information  the  coils  can 
again  be  connected  up  to  the  commutator  as  they  were 
originally. 

There  are  two  general  ways  of  connecting  an  arma- 
ture—parallel and  series.  In  the  former  the  spread 
between  the  leads  will  be  one  bar;  that  is,  the  two  ends 
of  the  same  coil  will  be  found  in  adjacent  bars,  while 
in  the  latter  the  spread  will  vary,  depending  on  the 
number   of   field   poles    in   the   machine.      In    four-pole 


machines  the  spread  will  be  approximately  halfway 
round  the  commutator,  for  a  six-pole  one-third,  etc. 
In  parallel  windings  the  leads  can  usually  both  be  lifted 
at  the  same  time;  that  is,  the  beginning  and  ending 
of  the  coil,  or  as  they  are  most  commonly  spoken  of, 
the  bottom  and  top  leads.  But  in  the  series  winding  it 
is  generally  practice  to  place  the  bottom  leads  first, 
which  are  then  covered  with  about  two  layers  of  tape, 
then  the  top  leads  are  put  down;  therefore,  when  lift- 
ing the  leads,  the  top  ones  would  be  lifted  first.  It 
will  also  be  necessary  to  stretch  the  string  as  before 
and  find  the  throw  of  the  bottom  leads  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  throw  of  the  top  leads  was  found,  and 
also  to  observe  the  direction  of  the  throw. 

The  distance   in   bars   between   the  bottom   and   top 
leads,  counted  so  as  to  embrace  the  bars  that  the  coil 


FIG.    E 

FIGS.    1   AXD   2.      ARMATURE  COIL   AND   ARMATURE   WITH 
WINDING  CONNECTED  TO  COMMUTATOR 

leads  connect  to,  is  the  correct  count  of  the  lead  spread. 
It  will  also  be  found,  for  a  series  winding,  if  the  count 
is  continued  it  will  return  to  the  adjacent  bar  started 
from.  This  is  clearly  indicated  in  Figs.  3  to  5.  Figs. 
3  and  4  show  one  series  of  coils  connected  to  the 
commutator  of  a  four-pole  machine  and  Fig.  5  one 
series  of  coils  connected  to  the  commutator  of  a  six- 
pole  machine.  This  can  be  checked  by  building  a  short 
table  thus:  In  Fig.  4  there  are  39  commutator  bars 
and  for  four  poles  the  lead  spread  should  be  commuta- 
tor bars  plus  or  minus  1  divided  by  the  number  of 
pairs  of  poles;  or,  in  this  case,  39  plus  1  equals  40, 
40  divided  by  2  equals  20,  then  the  coil  leads  spread 
bar  1,  and  bar  1  plus  20  equals  21;  that  is,  the  leads 
of  one  coil  connect  to  bars.l  and  21.  Continuing  the 
count,  bar  21  plus  20  equals  41;  as  there  are  only  39 
bars,  bar  40  would  be  bar  1  and  bar  41  would  be  bar 
2,  as  in  the  figure.  The  table  will  then  read  1  and  21, 
21  and  2,  etc. 

Coming  back  to  the  foregoing  rule  and  using  the 
minus  sign,  39  minus  1  equals  38,  38  divided  by  2 
equals  19;  then  the  lead  -spread  would  be  1  plus  19 
equals  20  and  20  plus  19  equals  39.  which  is  adjacent 


326 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


to  bar  1.  This  is  the  condition  in  Fig.  .3.  The  only 
difference  between  the  connections  in  Figs.  3  and  4 
is  that  with  the  motor  connected  to  the  line  the  same 
in  both  cases,  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  armature, 
when  the  minus  sign  is  used,  will  be  the  reverse  of 
that  when  the  plus  sign  is  used. 

In  the  six-pole  machine  the  spread  of  the  leads  would 
be  equal  to  the  number  of  commutator  bars  plus  or 
minus  1  divided  by  the  number  of  pairs  of  poles;  in 
this  case  three  counts  have  to  be  made  before  a  series 
of  coils  encircle  the  commutator  as  in  Fig.  5. 

When  the  lead  spread  has  been  taken  and  checked, 
the  armature  can  be  stripped  and  the  number  of  turns 


F1S.3 


FIGS.    3    TO    5.      ONE    SERIFJS    OF    COILS    CONNECTED    TO 
COMMUTATOR  OF  SERIES  WIXDI.VO 

per  coil  counted  and  the  size  wire  measured.  The 
core  is  then  cleaned  of  all  old  insulation  and  given 
a  coat  of  shellac  or  other  good  insulating-compound 
varnish. 

Rewinding  Four-Pole  Armature 

I  have  before  me  a  four-pole  armature  that  I  am 
going  to  rewind,  and  will  describe  the  operations  as 
I  go  through  them.  I  do  not  know  the  type  of  wind- 
ing at  the  present  time  or  the  count,  but  from  the 
foregoing  it  will  readily  be  seen  how  to  go  about 
finding  it. 

The  number  of  slots  in  the  core  is  15  and  the  num- 


ber of  bars  in  the  commutator  29.  Referring  back 
to  the  data  previously  given,  it  will  be  found  that  this 
winding  is  four  layer,  that  there  is  one  side  of  four 
different  coils  in  each  slot.  Two  coils  per  slot  would 
give  30  coils,  and  as  we  have  only  29  bars,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  connect  them  all,  so  one  coil  is  wound 
in,  but  its  leads  are  cut  off  short  and  it  is  not  con- 
nected to  the  commutator.  If  this  was  not  done,  two 
slots  would  contain  one  side  of  only  three  coils  instead 
of  four,  which  would  leave  the  armature  out  of  balance 
mechanically  and  also  allow  the  wires  to  move  around 
in  the  slot  and  eventually  destroy  the  insulation  and 
cause  grounds  and  short-circuits. 

Stretching  a  string  from  the  center  of  the  slot  to 
the  center  of  the  shaft,  the  top  leads  from  one  slot 
are  found  swung  over  to  the  left  6  and  7  bars.  Since 
there  is  one  side  of  four  different  coils  in  each  slot, 
there  are  two  bottom  leads  and  two  top  leads  coming 
from  each  slot.  Lifting  the  leads  about  halfway  round, 
the  other  ends  of  the  coils  are  found  brought  out  straight 
and  the  distance  between  these  leads  is  from  1  to  15, 
or  14  bars  between. 

Checking  the  Winding  Data 

Checking  this  result,  29  minus  1  equals  28,  divided 
by  2  equals  14;  1  plus  14  equals  15,  15  plus  14  equals 
29,  which  is  adjacent  to  bar  1   and   is  correct. 

Before  stripping  the  winding,  measure  the  distance 
the  end  of  the  winding  projects  beyond  the  end  of 
the  core;  in  this  case  it  is  0.75  in.  The  spread  of  the 
coil  is  found  to  be  from  slot  1  to  4.  The  winding  can 
now  be  removed  and  the  number  of  turns  in  one  or 
two  coils  counted,  which  in  the  case  in  hand  is  10 
turns. 

These  results  must  be  tabulated  in  a  notebook  and 
kept  for  future  reference,  thus:  Number  of  armature 
slots,  15;  number  of  commutator  bars,  29;  coils  spread 
slots  1  and  4;  top  leads  throw  1  to  6  and  7  to  the  left; 
bottom  leads  throw,  straight;  leads  spread,  1  to  15  (14 
segments  between)  ;  coils  have  10  turns  of  No.  17 
double-cotton-covered  wire,  and  the  wire  weighs  2 
lb.  This  last  item  can  be  determined  by  weighing  the 
coils  after  they  have  been  removed  from  the  core. 
Any  other  information  can  be  kept  along  with  these 
items,  such  as  insulation,  time  to  rewind,  cost,  etc. 

Before  rewinding,  clean  the  slots  in  the  commutator 
bars  so  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  getting  the  wires 
in  and  file  the  top  and  side.  Fig.  6.  Scrape  in  be- 
tween the  commutator  bars  to  remove  all  carbon  dust, 
also  on  the  ends.  Using  a  110-volt  circuit  and  lamp 
test  between  each  bar  and  also  each  bar  to  ground, 
if  the  insulation  is  in  good  condition  there  should  not 
be  the  slighest  spark  between  bars  when  the  110  volts 
is  applied.  If  there  is  a  defect,  even  though  it  is  on 
the  surface  of  the  commutator,  scrape  it  away  until  it 
tests  clear.  Do  not  allow  the  test  to  bum  the  carbon 
deposits  away  on  the  surface  of  the  mica,  as  it  only 
injures  the  insulation. 

If  the  commutator  tests  out  clear,  the  insulation  for 
the  armature  slots  can  be  cut  to  size,  so  as  to  allow  it 
to  project  by  the  end  of  the  core  about  f^  in.  on  each 
end,  and  about  I  in.  above  the  core;  this  will  protect 
the  wire  as  it  is  wound  into  the  slots.  It  is  preferable 
to  insulate  the  slots  with  oiled  linen  and  fiber  in  the 
form  of  a  sandwich.     For  instance,  suppose  that  the 


March  5.  1918 


POWER 


327 


slot  insulation  used  is  30  mils  thick,  make  this  up  of 
5  mils  of  oiled  linen  and  two  thicknesses  of  fiber  each 
5  mils;  this  will  make  15  mils  on  each  side  of  the 
slot,  or  a  total  of  30  mils. 

In  the  amiature  under  consideration  the  insulation 
as  measured  from  a  piece  of  the  old  material  taken 
from  a  slot  is  found  to  be  10  mils  in  thickness,  there- 
fore it  will  be  better  to  make  this  up  of  5  mils  of  oiled 
linen  and  5  mils  of  fiber,  because  if  two  pieces  of  3-mil 
fiber  is  used  it  would  be  too  thin  to  stand  the  handling 


F16.  6 

HCl.S,    1)    AND    7.      COMMUTATOR    AND    CROSS-SECTION    OP 
ARMATURE  SLOT  AND  COIL 


of  the  wire  and  would  break.  The  slots  are  2  in.  long 
by  i  in.  wide  and  s  in.  deep,  shaped  elliptical.  The  in- 
sulation is  cut  2  s  in.  long  by  about  3  in.  wide.  In 
addition  to  this  small  pieces  of  oiled  linen  will  be  re- 
quired to  place  between  the  ends  of  adjacent  coils  as 
they  are  wound,  thus  increasing  the  insulation  between 
them. 

Everything  is  now  ready  for  the  wire,  and  as  the 
winding  is  four-layer,  two  wires  can  be  wound  together. 
To  accomplish  this,  wind  half  the  wire  needed  upon  a 
second  spool  and  then  two  wires  can  be  wound  into 
the  same  slot  at  once.  Mark  one  of  these  spools  No.  1 
and  the  end  of  the  wire  coming  from  this  spool  with 
shellac  or  blue  pencil;  when  the  coil  is  completed,  mark 
the  other  end  to  correspond.  This  will  save  a  lot 
of  trouble  testing  out  when  all  the  coils  are  in  place. 
If  No.  20  wire  is  used  it  would  require  four  wires 
to  be  wound  together  and  the  wire  would  have  to  be 
wound  upon  four  spools,  marking  two  of  them  instead 
of  one.  It  would  not  make  any  material  difference 
which  of  the  coils  in  the  same  slot  came  first,  but  it 
would  make  a  difference  if  coils  in  two  different  slots 
were  crossed.  Begin  at  any  slot,  call  this  slot  1  and 
wind  the  first  two  coils  in  this  and  slot  4,  then  use  the 
next  slot  and  proceed  until  all  are  full,  placing  a  piece 
of  oiled  linen  in  between  the  ends  of  the  coils.  Now 
cut  the  projecting  insulation  and  turn  back  into  the 
slot,  pushing  in  a  piece  of  i',.  fiber  to  cover  and  hold 
the  wire  in  the  slots,  as  this  armature  has  no  bands. 
A  cross-section  of  one  slot  with  the  insulation  and  wind- 
ing is  shown  in  Fig.  7. 

Looking  up  the  throw  of  the  bottom  leads  in  the  data 
taken  from  the  armature,  it  will  be  found  that  they 
come  out  straight.  Use  the  string  to  find  the  com- 
mutator bar  that  is  opposite  the  slot  started  from,  then 
bai'e  the  ends  of  the  leads  and  place  them  in  the  com- 
mutator, leaving  the  top  ones  out.  Get  all  the  leads  in 
rotation — that  is,  one  marked  and  one  unmarked  lead 
all  the  way  around  the  armature — then  cover  them  with 


two  layers  of  tape.  When  these  leads  are  placed  in  the 
commutator,  the  ends  will  project  out  on  the  bars  for 
about  an  inch,  but  do  not  cut  them  off  short  as  it  might 
be  possible  that  some  of  these  leads  are  twisted,  and 
have  to  be  changed.  When  the  leads  are  being  put 
down,  interweave  a  piece  of  tape  so  as  to  properly 
separate  each  lead  from  its  neighbor.  When  all  the 
way  around,  one  coil  will  be  left  over;  this  is  the  dummy 
coil  already  spoken  of,  and  its  ends  must  be  found  and 
cut  off  short.  It  is  sometimes  more  convenient  to  place 
one  or  two  coils  in  the  slots  and  then  put  their  bottom 
ends  in  the  commutator  instead  of  waiting  until  all 
coils  are  wound. 

We  are  now  ready  for  a  test,  and  this  mu.st  be  made 
before  the  top  leads  are  brought  down  to  the  com- 
mutator— first  for  rotation  to  see  that  no  leads  are 
twisted,  then  for  shorts  and  opens.  Arrange  the  top 
leads  in  the  order  that  they  come  out  of  the  slot  and 
begin  anywhere  with  the  test  lamp.  Place  one  end 
of  test  circuit  on  the  top  lead  and  with  other  terminal 
find  the  commutator  bar  that  the  bottom  end  is  con- 
nected to;  this  will  light  the  lamp  if  there  is  no  opening 
in  the  coil.  Keep  in  contact  with  the  top  lead  and 
touch  the  bar  on  each  side  of  the  one  that  the  bottom 
lead  connects  to;  no  light  shows  no  short-circuit  be- 
tween coils.  Mark  the  bar  which  lights  with  chalk  or 
anything  else  to  identify  it  and  place  the  test  lead 
on  the  next  commutator  bar;  a  light  should  be  obtained 
on  the  next  top  lead.  Continue  this  all  the  way  around. 
Tf  any  are  crossed,  make  the  correction  on  the  botton^ 
leads.  Finally  test  for  grounds ;  place  one  test  lead 
on  the  core  and  with  the  other  touch  on  each  bar  of 
the  commutator.  Next  run  a  layer  of  tape  over  the 
bottom  leads  to  make  a  nice  even  surface  on  which 
to  lay  the  top  leads,  completely  covering  the  ends  of 
the  coils,  and  begin  to  lay  down  the  top  leads.     Select 


FI'l.    S        METHOD    OF    TESTINO    .ARMATURES 

one  top  lead  and  find  the  other  lead  of  this  coil  in 
the  commutator,  count  toward  the  top  lead  15  bar 
and  place  the  top  lead  in  this  bar,  and  continue  in 
rotation,  making  sure  that  none  get  crossed. 

When  all  the  leads  are  in  place,  hold  them  down 
with  a  temporary  string  band  and  place  a  little  non- 
corrosive  soldering  paste  on  each  bar  and  solder  the 
leads  in  place.  Raise  the  back  end  of  the  armature 
slightly  to  prevent  the  solder  from  running  down  the 
back  of  the  commutator.     Wash  the  commutator  thor- 


328 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


oughly  with  gasoline  to  remove  all  traces  of  soldering 
paste.  Lastly,  test  with  a  millivoltmeter;  the  test  can 
be  made  before  or  after  the  commutator  is  turned 
down. 

With  a  bank  of  lamps  in  series,  place  two  leads  from 
the  110-volt  circuit  at  points  on  the  commutator  where 
the  brushes  will  rest  when  the  armature  is  in  place; 
that  is,  one-half  way  round  for  two-pole  machine,  one- 
quarter  for  a  four-pole  machine,  etc.  Pass  a  current 
through  and  measure  the  voltage  between  bars  with  a 
millivoltmeter;  each  reading  will  be  the  same  if  the 
work  is  correct    (see  Fig.  8). 

Turn  down  the  commutator  and  remove  temporary 
string  band  on  the  leads  and  replace  it  with  a  per- 
manent one.  Place  the  armature  in  an  oven  until  it 
Is  at  a  temperature  of  about  250  deg.  F.  for  one-half 
hour,  then  remove  and  dip  in  or  paint  with  clear  in- 
sulating varnish  and  then  rebake  at  a  temperature  of 
about  200  deg.  F.  for  six  or  eight  hours.  This  will 
make  a  very  hard  finish  and  warrant  against  the 
entrance  of  moisture  or  oil  into  the  winding. 

On  parallel  windings  the  procedure  is  somewhat 
simpler  than  that  on  series,  as  the  leads  of  the  coils 
are  both  brought  together  on  one  side  of  the  coil  be- 
cause they  are  connected  to  adjacent  commutator  bars. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  to  use  the  string  to  find  the 
fhrow  of  the  leads,  either  to  the  right  or  left,  and  the 
spread  of  the  coil  in  the  slots.  Usually,  with  small  wires 
the  coil  is  wound  in,  say,  slots  1  and  4;  then,  instead 
of  cutting  a  lead  on  the  coil  long  enough  to  reach  to 
the  commutator  readily,  the  wire  is  looped  and  the 
next  coil  immediately  started.  When  the  winding  is 
completed,  a  loop  is  placed  in  each  commutator  bar; 
this  will  be  the  same  as  placing  the  ends  of  one  coil  in 
adjacent  bars.  The  baking,  etc.,  will  be  taken  care  of 
in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  for  the  series-connected 
winding  described  in  the  foregoing. 

Portable   "Chaingrip"    Pipe  Vise 

Most  pipe  vises  are  made  to  be  permanently  secured 
to  a  bench,  and  when  the  pipe  has  been  threaded  it 
must  be  carried  to  the  point  where  the  work  is  being 
done.     Frequently,  a  portable  vise  bench  is  made,  but 


it  is  not  always  convenient  nor  is  it  possible  to  move 
it  to  the  point  where  it  is  wanted. 

A  portable  vise  known  as  the  "Chaingrip,"  which  can 
be  easily  and  quickly  removed  from  one  location  and 
mounted  at  another,  is  made  by  the  Gerolo  Manufac- 
turing Co.,  Old  Colony  Building,  Chicago,  111.  It  can 
be  fastened  to  any  horizontal  or  vertical  support,  round, 
square  or  flat,  without  the  use  of  bolts,  and  it  locks 
any  size  of  pipe  or  conduit  within  its  limits  by  the 
slight  push  of  a  lever. 

The  base  support  of  the  vise  is  in  the  form  of  an 
inverted  V,  at  the  sides  of  which  are  bolt  lugs  to  be 
used  only  in  case  the  vise  is  to  be  permanently  bolted 
in  one  position.  It  will  therefore  conform  to  a  round, 
square  or  flat  surface.  A  clamp  support  to  fit  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  column  is  a  part  of  the  equipment. 
The  vise  is  clamped  to  any  upright  by  means  of  a  chain 
which  passes  through  an  eye-bolt  that  is  part  of  the 
clamp.  One  end  of  the  chain  is  riveted  to  one  side  of 
the  vise  base.  After  passing  around  the  supporting 
column  through  the  eye  of  the  bolt,  a  link  is  held  in 
position  in  a  socket  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  base. 
Screwing  up  on  the  eye-bolt  nut  tightens  the  supporting 
chain  and  holds  the  vise  in  position  to  the  support,  as 
shown. 

The  pipe  or  conduit  is  locked  between  a  double  set 
of  steel  pipe  jaws  on  one  side,  and  by  a  heavy  close- 
linked  steel  chain  on  the  other.  The  locking  motion 
is  accomplished  by  the  downward  movement  of  a  lever. 
One  end  of  the  chain  is  riveted  to  one  end  of  a  horizontal 
bar  which  comes  in  contact  with  a  cam  on  the  lever 
end.  The  gripping  chain  passes  around  the  pipe  or  con- 
duit and  is  locked  in  a  steel  socket  on  the  outer  end  of 
the  base.  The  other  end,  or  fulcrum  point  of  the  bar, 
is  supported  by  a  threaded  bolt  the  enlarged  knurled 
head  of  which  rests  upon  a  boss  on  the  base  of  the  vise. 
Rotation  of  the  head  of  the  bolt  raises  or  lowers  the 
fulcrum  point  of  the  bar  and  forms  an  adjustment  of 
pressure  exerted  by  the  other  end  of  the  bar  on  the 
gripping  chain  when  the  handle  of  the  vise  is  in  a 
locked  position. 

The  application  of  the  vise  to  uprights  is  shown  in 
the  illustrations,  also  the  method  of  attaching  the  vise 
and  securing  the  pipe  in  place. 


APPLICATION  OF- THE  CHAINGRIP  A'lSE  TO   SUPPORTS    AND  MF;THOr»  OF  CLAMPING  PIPE 


iuarch  5,  1918 


POWER 


329 


Conditions  in  the  Power  Industry 


By  LUDWIG  W.  SCHMIDT 


A  diyetit  of  the  reports  of  the  United  States  con- 
suls on  the  power  situation  tn  the  various  parts 
of  the  worhl  and  the  influence  of  the  war  upon 
this  important  industry.  Also,  see  "Power,"  Dec. 
11,  1917. 


THE  demand  for  electrical  power  is  still  very  great 
all  over  the  world.  The  principal  reason,  of 
course,  is  the  industrial  activity  caused  by  the 
war.  Secondary  influences  are  the  shortage  of  fuels 
used  for  power  generation  and  in  some  cases  their  pres- 
ent high  cost.  The  latter  consideration,  for  instance,  is 
responsible  for  an  increased  employment  of  electrical 
power  in  cases  where  gasoline  was  in  use  formerly. 

Consul  Franklin  D.  Hale  reports  from  Huddersfield, 
England  (C.R.  256)',  that  there  is  a  great  demand  for 
electrical  vehicles  of  all  kinds  throughout  England.  In 
some  cities  electric  pjwer  has  been  adopted  for  omnibus 
service,  and  at  many  places  power  for  commercial  elec- 
trics can  be  had  at  the  rate  of  2c.  per  kilowatt-hour.  A 
similar  report  is  made  by  Consul  E.  Haldeman  Den- 
nison  in  Birmingham  (C.R.  265). 

The  increase  in  the  cost  of  coal  has  compelled  addi- 
tional expenditures  in  the  budget  of  many  electrical 
enterprises  in  England.  It  is  reported  (C.R.  273)  that 
the  Glasgow  Corporation  estimates  an  increase  of  $121,- 
662  in  the  fuel  bill  of  its  electrical  central  station.  The 
difficulties  created  by  the  increased  cost  of  fuel  for 
many  of  the  central  stations  in  England  have  made  the 
last  year  a  very  unsatisfactory  one,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  kilowatt-hour  output  sold  increased 
nearly  everywhere.  It  is,  therefore,  interesting  to  note 
that  the  desire  for  a  better  organization  of  power  dis- 
tribution in  England  is  gaining  ground.  Consul  J.  S. 
Armstrong,  Jr.,  in  Bristol,  quotes  in  support  of  this 
contention,  part  of  the  engineers'  report  of  the  Bristol 
Electricity  Department,  where  it  is  said:  "It  appears 
likely  that  in  the  very  near  future  the  organization  of 
the  electricity-supply  industry  throughout  the  country 
will  be  rearranged  on  a  much  broader  basis  than 
hitherto,  the  country  being  for  such  purpose  divided 
into  districts  irrespective  of  municipal  boundaries  or 
the  present  limits  of  company-supply  areas,  and  the  gen- 
erating stations  of  the  future,  being  fewer  in  number, 
will  be  equipped  with  larger  and  more  efficient  ma- 
chinery than  at  present  in  use"  (C.R.  274). 

In  view  of  the  great  development  of  the  hydro-elec- 
tric power  distribution  expected  in  Italy  as  a  result  of 
the  war,  remarks  made  by  Vice  Consul  Ilo  C.  Funk 
about  the  power  situation  in  Milan  are  of  considerable 
interest  (C.R.  301).  Milan  today  draws  its  electrical 
power  from  the  Alps,  where  it  is  produced  by  hydro- 
electric plants.  Power  is  distributed  by  the  Societa 
Generale  Italiana  Edison  di  Elettricita  and  the  Azienda 
Elettrica  Municipale.  Although  both  these  enterprises 
have  steam-electric  plants  in  Milan,  these  stations  are 
used  only  .in  time  of  drought.     The  energy  consumed 


'C.   R.   indicates  "('ommerce   Report.'!"  of    11117 


in  Milan  and  adjoining  towns  is  given  as  an  average 
of  800,000  kw.-hr.  per  day,  the  maximum  power  demand 
varying  from  56,000  to  70,000  kilowatts.  Almost  all 
the  power  is  three-phase  42-cycle  alternating-current 
transmitted  at  8700  volts,  only  a  limited  quantity  being 
110-  and  220-volt  direct  current  used  for  lighting  pur- 
poses in  the  central  section  of  Milan.  Two  important 
power  plants  are  now  under  construction — one  at  Sesto 
S.  Giovanni,  Province  of  Milan,  belonging  to  Ernesto 
Breda  &  Son;  the  other  in  Milan,  belonging  to  the  Ac- 
ciajerie  e  Ferrerie  Lombarde.  Both  will  produce  three- 
phase  alternating  current  and  transmit  it  at  70,000 
volts.  The  lack  of  fuel  so  prevalent  in  Italy  has  made 
necessary  great  economy  among  all  those  central  sta- 
tions using  coal  for  generation.  It  is  reported  from 
Turin  (C.R.  282)  that  the  use  of  electricity  has  been 
restricted,  in  that  city,  by  a  decree  of  the  prefect,  re- 
sulting in  a  reduction  of  consumption  of  50  per  cent. 

In  Oporto,  Portugal,  a  company  has  been  organized  to 
develop  the  water  power  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
country  (C.R.  271). 

Denmark  is  feeling  the  effects  of  the  war  along  with 
the  rest  of  the  neutral  countries  of  Europe.  The  princi- 
pal problem  at  present  is  the  need  of  energy  for  light- 
ing and  power  purposes.  Denmark  in  this  respect  is 
rather  unfavorably  placed,  as  it  has  few  hydro-elec- 
tric possibilities.  On  the  other  hand,  the  proximity  of 
Sweden,  with  its  great  hydraulic-power  resources,  has 
led  to  experiments  to  transmit  power  from  that  coun- 
try to  Denmark  over  submarine  cables.  This,  in  the 
case  of  several  smaller  villages  in  the  north  of  Den- 
mark, seems  to  have  met  with  good  results.  The  diffi- 
culty at  the  present  time  is,  the  power  production  of 
Sweden  is  consideiiably  reduced  during  the  winter 
months,  and  there  has  not  been  a  sufficient  surplus  to 
continue  a  supply  to  Denmark  during  this  period.  With 
the  increase  of  the  Swedish  power-producing  facilities  a 
better  employment  of  part  of  the  Swedish  power  re- 
serves in  Denmark  should  become  possible.  Commercial 
Attache  Erwin  W.  Thompson  in  Copenhagen  reports 
(C.R. 296)  that  additional  cables  will  be  laid  across  The 
Sound  with  the  intention  of  furnishing  power  to  the 
street-car  service  of  Copenhagen  and  Frederiksberg. 
This  power  will  come  principally  from  the  Laga  Lakes 
and  the  Trolhattan  Falls. 

From  the  Gold  Coast  in  Africa  it  is  reported  that 
the  City  of  Secondee  will  be  furnished  with  electric 
light  by  the  Gold  Coast  Railway  (C.R.  304). 

Electrical  development  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia 
continues  to  be  very  active.  Consul  General  Alfred  A. 
Winslow  writes  that  the  City  of  Dannevirke  intends  to 
build  an  electric-lighting  plant  for  its  6000  inhabitants 
(C.R.  264).  Increasing  attention  is  given  to  the  use 
of  electricity  in  the  farming  and  dairying  districts  of 
the  South  Island  of  New  Zealand.  This  is  the  country 
around  Christchurch,  and  it  is  intended  to  erect  a  gov- 
ernment  hydro-electric   station    in    that   neighborhood. 

Considerable  activity  in  electrical  development  also  is 
reported  from  all  parts  of  the  American  continent  south 
of  the  United  States.  Consul  G.  C.  Woodward,  Mata- 
moros,  Tamaulipas,   Mexico,  says    (C.R.  262)    that  the 


330 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


r    ■ 

•*• 

FIG.    1.      W.\I^L   TORX   OUT    BY    EXPLODED    FLY  WHEEL 

only  electric-lighting  plants  established  in  his  district 
are  at  Victoria  and  Matamoros.  The  supply  of  electric 
light  and  power  for  public  and  private  use  is  con- 
templated in  Santo  Domingo,  Dominican  Republic  (C.R. 
262).  It  is  also  reported  from  that  republic  that  a 
franchise  to  build  an  electric  railway  in  the  City  of 
Santiago  de  los  Caballeros  has  been  annulled.  This 
would  have  been  the  first  electric  tramway  in  the  Do- 
minican Republic  (C.R.  286). 

Plans  are  under  consideration  in  Guadeloupe,  French 
West  Indies,  to  build  an  electric  railroad  with  a  total 
length  of  track  of  118  miles.  The  power  will  be  ob- 
tained by  harnessing  two  waterfalls,  which  are  ex- 
pected to  supply  sufficient  energy  (C.R.  275). 

Consul  Frank  Anderson  Henry  reports  from  Vene- 
zuela (C.R.  275)  that  the  South  American  Copper  Co. 
at  Aroa  is  engaged  in  enlarging  its  present  small  hy- 
dro-electric plant  to  about  800  hp.  The  City  of  San 
Felipe  will  have  an  electric-lighting  plant,  and  it  is 
further  contemplated  to  furnish  Barquisimeto  and  Yari- 
tagua  with  electricity  generated  by  a  large  waterfall 
near  the  latter  city.  Barquisimeto  has  already  a  small 
plant  using  anthracite  for  fuel.  This,  however,  sup- 
plies light  only  at  night.  The  war  has  brought  a  con- 
siderable weakening  of  German  influence  in  electrical 
enterprises  in  South  America.  It  is  reported  that  the 
Compania  da  Tramways  Electricos  del  Sud,  of  Buenos 
Aires,  Argentina,  has  not  renewed  its  power  contract 
with  the  Compania  Alemana  Transatlantica  de  Elec- 
l-i'.!dad,  which  is  a  German  company,  but  has  made  ar- 
rangements for  a  power  supply  from  the  new  Compania 
Italo  Argentina.  The  income  of  the  tramway  company 
shows  a  falling  off,  and  the  operating  expenses  have  in- 
creased  (C.R.  284). 

Interesting  information  as  to  power  development  in 
Peru  is  contained  in  a  special  report  by  Consul  Gen- 
eral William  W.  Handley,  Callao,  Lima  (Supplement 
C.R.  46a).    This  report  shows  that  the  service  provided 


by  the  Lima  Light,  Power  and  Tramways  Co.  has  in- 
creased considerably  with  good  effects  on  the  income  of 
that  enterprise.  This  increase  is  due  especially  to  the 
growing  of  general  industrial  activity  in  and  around 
Lima,  which  holds  good  promise  of  a  further  extension 
of  power  demand  in  that  city  and  its  neighborhood. 

Flywheel  Explosion  at  Minot,  N.   D. 

The  photographs  reproduced  show  some  of  the  havoc 
caused  by  the  failure  of  a  flywheel  on  a  direct-connected 
rsciprocating-engine  generating  unit  at  the  plant  of  the 
Northern  States  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Minot, 
N.  D.,  at  about  3  a.m.,  Oct.  17,  1917. 

The  night  engineer  was  instantly  killed  and  a  large 
amount  of  property  damaged.  Fragments  of  the  wheel 
went  through  the  window  and  the  brick  wall  below  it, 
as  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  rocketed  a  full  city  block 
(about  500  ft.),  striking  a  newly  erected  brick  building 
which  was  unoccupied  except  one  apartment  on  the  top 
f.oor,  into  which  a  piece  of  the  wheel  was  driven,  causing 
the  damage  shown  in  Fig.  4.  Fortunately,  a  larger  en- 
gine, set  at  right  angles  with  its  shaft  almost  in  line 
with  the  flywheel  that  failed,  was  not  running  or  greater 
damage  no  doubt  would  have  resulted,  as  several  large 
pieces  of  wreckage  were  found  in  its  wheelpit,  and  some 
wreckage  may  be  seen  near  it  in  Fig.  3. 

A  curious  feature  was  the  damage  to  a  box-car  and 
ihe  tearing  out  of  two  rails  from  the  main  track  of  the 
Great  Northern  Ry.  The  "Oriental  Limited"  was  about 
due,  but  was  flagged  in  time  to  avoid  a  wreck.  The 
city  was  without  light  until  the  debris  was  cleared 
away  and  numerous  repairs  made  to  the  damaged  plant. 


VIEW  FROM    INTERIOR  OF  ENGINE  ROOM 


March  5,  1918 


POWER 


331 


FIG.  3       FEAGMENTS  OF  FLYWHKKl.  AN'D   GOVERNOR  AGAINST  FOUNDATION   OF  IDLE  ENGINE 


FIG.  4.     INTERIOR  OF  APARTMENT  WHERE  DAMAGE  WAS   DONE 


332 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.   10 


Average  and  Maximum  Heating 
Demand 

By  M.  W.  Ehrlich 

In  heating  work  it  has  become  an  established  custom 
to  design  plants  to  provide  a  temperature  of  about  70 
deg.  indoors  when  the  minimum  outside  temperature  is 
zero,  but  during  the  season  the  outside  temperature  may 
be  as  high  as  65  deg.,  when  but  little  artificial  heat  is 
naeded.  This  range  of  outdoor  temperature  corre- 
sponds to  conditions  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  states ;  else- 
where the  minimum  outside  temperature  may  be  con- 
siderably above  or  below  zero,  therefore  the  local 
weather  bureau  records  should  be  consulted  to  learn  the 
lowest  temperature.  However,  it  is  customary  to  base 
calculations  for  average  conditions  for  the  range  from 
zero  to  70  deg.     In  many  localities  zero  weather  may 


100 


P'-IO.    1.      TYFICAI.   TE.\IPERATrKK-Kl.rc"rr.\TrOX    CHART 

not  be  reached  except  in  January  and  February,  and 
then  only  during  the  early  hours  of  the  morning,  just 
after  nndnight,  lasting  for  periods  of  not  more  than 
about  three  to  four  hours  at  a  time  during  the  entire 
season. 

The  maximum  demand  for  heat  therefore  obtains  only 
for  very  short  periods.  The  average  requirements  for 
the  locality  referred  to  are  given  graphically  in  Fig.  1, 
which  shows  the  typical  fluctuations  in  outdoor  tempera- 
ture during  a  day  in  the  coldest  and  the  warmest  month 
and  for  the  entire  heating  season.  The  scale  at  the 
left  gives  the  temperature  in  degrees,  and  the  scale  at 
the  right  is  assumed  to  be  the  corresponding  tax  on 
the  boiler  plant  to  supply  the  required  steam.  The  curve 
of  the  "warmest  month"  might  represent  April,  while 
the  "coldest  month"  might  be  January  or  February.     In 


the  first  case  the  boiler  would  be  taxed  an  average  of 
about  15  per  cent,  of  its  capacity,  while  in  the  other 
case  the  average  monthly  demand  is  about  62  per  cent., 
and  for  an  "extremely  cold  day,"  the  minimum  tempera- 
ture is  nearly  zero  during  the  night,  gradually  rising 
to  about  14  deg.,  averaging  about  9  deg.,  taxing  the 
boiler  during  that  day  to  about  87  per  cent,  of  its  ca- 
pacity. The  average  temperature  for  the  heating  sea- 
son in  New  York  City  is  about  38  deg..  requiring  ap- 
proximately 44  per  cent,  of  the  assumed  maximum 
boiler  capacity. 

The  amount  of  coal  or  steam,  which  is  the  tax  on  the 
boiler,  therefore  is  a  proportionate  variable  of  the  out- 
door-temperature fluctuations,  and  on  this  basis,  using 
zero  temperature  as  a  maximum  demand,  diagram  Fig. 
2  has  been  prepared  for  average  conditions  in  New  York 
and  vicinity  or  other  localities  having  similar  climatic 
variations  during  the  heating  season.  It  is  intended 
more  as  an  illustration  of  how  such  diagrams  are  con- 
structed and  used  than  as  a  standard  of  computation. 
As  an  example  it  should  serve  its  purpose  well. 

The  load  curve,  shown  .shaded,  may  represent  the 
amount  of  coal  or  steam  or  boiler  tax  for  each  month. 
The  scale  at  the  left  is  given  in  percentage  for  con- 
venience, as  in  that  way  a  relative  value  is  at  once  es- 
tablished regardless  of  the  unit  and  numerical  value 
selected.  The  monthly  coal  requirements  are  expressed 
in  percentages  of  the  total  used  during  the  season.  For 
example,  during  December  18.2  per  cent,  of  the  coal  used 
during  the  entire  heating  season  will  be  consumed,  while 
in  April  only  9.8  per  cent.,  showing  that  considerable 
coal  is  wasted  because  the  boiler  drafts  and  radiators 
are  not  controlled  in  conformity  to  the  weather  varia- 
tions, but  with  automatic  temperature  regulation  and 
draft  control  the  steam  demand  would  correspond 
closely. 

Keeping  a  Record  of  Outside  Temperature 

A  monthly  check  on  the  coal  consumption  is  conducive 
to  operating  economy.  For  a  given  locality  it  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  construct  a  diagram  similar  to  Fig.  2, 
which  would  take  the  local  weather  conditions  into  con- 
sideration. By  keeping  a  record  of  the  outside  tem- 
perature, either  through  personal  observation  or  by 
watching  the  newspapers  if  there  is  no  local  weather 
bureau,  the  essential  information  may  be  obtained.  It  is 
useful  to  record  at  least  the  average  daily  temperature 
on  the  power-plant  log  sheet.  Some  engineers  note  dovm 
in  addition  the  maximum  and  minimum  outdoor  tem- 
peratures. Then,  according  to  the  records,  taking  70- 
deg.  temperature  dilTerence  as  a  basis,  the  average  tem- 
perature for  November  is,  say,  43  deg. ;  then  70  less  43 
gives  27  deg.  difference,  and  dividing  this  by  70  equals 
38.6  per  cent.  Likewise  in  January  the  average  is, 
say,  25  deg.  and  the  difference  is  then  70  —  25  =  45, 
which  divided  by  70  gives  64  per  cent.  In  the  same 
way  the  relative  heating  demand  for  each  month  is  de- 
termined and  plotted.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  di- 
visor is  the  maximum  or  basic  temperature  difference, 
which  represents  100  per  cent.  From  the  values  found 
as  shown,  the  average  of  the  season  is  computed  as  well 
as  the  relative  monthly  coal  requirements. 

The  actual  quantity  of  coal  required  for  a  heating 
system  is  dependent  on  the  variables  heretofore  noted, 
and  for  a  particular  installation  the  local  physical  condi- 


March  5,  1918 


POWER 


333 


tions  must  also  be  known.  This  would  mean  the  total 
or  equivalent  square  feet  of  direct  radiation  in  the  build- 
iuK.  the  number  of  hours  the  system  operates  during  the 
heating  season  and  the  grade  of  coal  burned.  The  com- 
putation for  the  tons  of  coal  required  for  the  heating 
s.vstem  during  the  season  is: 

sqjt.  radn.  X  hours  operation  X  300 
lorn  oj  coal  -  -    ^^^^  -^  ^^^^^  y:  2m)  >^  efficiency 

X  average  demand 

This  computation  may  be  simplified  for  practical  ap- 
plication as  follows,  so  that  the  result  will  be  the  tons 
of  coal  appro.ximating  fair  operating  conditions.     The 


100 


Oc+        Nov      Dec       Jan       Feb      Mar      Apr 

PIG.  2.   SE.^SOXS  MOXTHLY  AVKKAGE  TEMPKRATURE 

variables  are  well  accounted  for  in  the  fact  that  there 
are  losses  when  fires  are  banked  and  cleaned  and  that 
the  draft  control  does  not  correspond  exactly  with  the 
weather  variations.  These  variables  comprise  the  use- 
ful heat  in  the  coal,  the  over-all  efficiency  and  the  aver- 
age heating  demand. 

The  average  demand  on  the  system  for  the  entire 
heating  season  is  a  value  that  must  be  determined  for 
the  particular  locality  in  which  the  plant  is  situated,  as 
it  depends  on  the  weather  variations  and  may  be  arrived 
at  in  the  manner  explained  in  connection  with  Fig.  2. 

Taking  all  these  variables  as  one  combined  whole,  the 
component  may  be  designated  as  a  factor  to  be  used  in 

TABLE  GIVING  VALUES  OF  FACTOR  (/) 

Location  Hard    Coat        Soft  Coal 

Boston.  Mass         85  80 

Columbus,  Ohio     84  78 

Detroit,  Mich    89  83 

Now  York,  N.  Y 7o  73 

Philadelphia,  Peni. 75  70 

St.  Louis,  Mo 64  60 

the  simplified  formula.  This  factor  would  naturally 
vary  for  different  localities  because  the  weather  condi- 
tions give  a  different  average  demand  on  the  system.    It 


coal 


97.1  tons. 


would  also  vary  for  hard-  and  soft-coal  operation  be- 
cause of  the  characteristics  of  these  fuels.  Then,  for 
observed  averages  of  operation  and  heating  den\and  in 
steam  plants  using  hard  and  soft  coal,  the  values  for 
this  factor  may  be  computed  for  different  localities. 
The  numerical  values  of  this  complex  factor  so  com- 
puted have  been  designated  as  /  and  are  given  in  the 
tabulation  herewith. 

These  values,  when  used  in  connection  with  the  fol- 
lowing formula,  give  a  close  approximation  of  what 
the  coal  consumption  should  be  under  fair  operating 
conditions.  The  factor  /  may  therefore  be  said  to  rep- 
resent the  tons  of  coal  used  per  hour  during  the  heating 
season  for  each  square  foot  of  radiation  for  a  given 
locality  when  applied  specifically  to  the  formula  which 
gives  the  total  tons  of  coal  required  for  the  heating 
season  as  equal  to: 

SqJ't.  radiation  X  hours  X  / 
10,000,000 
Consider  for  example  a  shop  running  24  hours  a  day 
for  200  days  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston  and  the  installa- 
tion consists  of  several  indirect  radiators,  pipe  coils,  and 
many  regular  cast-iron  radiators,  aggregating  an  equiv- 
alent of  2380  sq.  ft.  direct  radiation.  What  will  be  the 
coal  consumption  under  this  condition?  According  to  the 
foregoing  the  computation  is  as  follows:  24  hours  times 
200  days  gives  4800  hours  as  the  total  operating  time. 
The  average  demand  corresponding  to  /  is  85  for 
Boston,  when  anthracite  coal  is   used.     Then,   tons  of 

2380  X  4800  X  85 
''    "  lO.OOO^OOO 

Then  with  97  tons  required  for  the  heating  season, 
the  monthly  use  of  coal  can  be  determined  as  has  been 
shown,  but  it  is  a  variable  corresponding  to  the  weather 
and  not  a  direct  fractional  proportion  of  the  total 
months  in  the  season.  Assume  that  this  condition  cor- 
responds to  the  load  diagram,  Fig.  2.  It  will  be  seen,  for 
example,  that  for  the  month  of  December  18.2  per  cent, 
of  this  total,  or  about  17.7  tons  of  coal,  will  be  required. 
In  the  same  way  it  is  found  that  during  the  month  of 
March  14  per  cent,  is  consumed,  which  is  equal  to 
about  13.6  tons. 

Determining  the  probable  coal  consumption  by  the 
method  outlined,  gives  a  means  of  comparison,  for  if  the 
actual  coal  consumption  for  any  month  exceeds  the 
quantity  as  computed  for  the  weather  conditions  and 
temperature  differences,  then  apparently  some  coal  has 
been  wasted.  If  the  difference  is  quite  small,  it  may  be 
just  a  variation  due  to  averaging,  but  if  there  is  a  wide 
discrepancy,  the  conditions  justify  an  investigation  so 
that  the  same  leak  or  waste  will  not  occur  or  appear 
again. 

This  method  of  computing  the  coal  consumption  will 
be  found  to  agree  closely  with  practical  conditions,  and 
as  a  means  of  checking  the  operating  efficiency  of  the 
plant  it  will  be  found  helpful.  Engineers  who  keep  plant 
records  or  log  sheets  usually  know  what  the  total  coal 
consumption  is  for  the  entire  plant  and  equipment.  De- 
ducting the  coal  required  for  the  heating  sy.stem  gives 
a  remaining  quantity  that  shows  the  other  useful  serv- 
ice the  coal  has  given.  If  this  figure  is  too  high  for  the 
load  carried,  something  requires  attention  and  the 
sooner  this  waste  is  found  and  things  set  right  the 
sooner  will  the  over-all  efficiency  begin  to  pick  up.       ( 


334 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


A  Traveling  Anti-Waste   Exhibit 

In  a  large  manufacturing  plant  where  thousands  are 
employed,  it  is  surprising  to  learn  of  the  food  products 
and  manufacturing  material  wasted  each  day. 

To  give  the  employees  of  the  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Manufacturing  Co.  some  idea  of  the  waste,  the  man- 
rgement  devised  the  idea  of  fitting  up  a  storage-battery 
truck  as  a  traveling  exhibit  and  upon  it  a  collection  of 
food  wasted,  including  bread,  butter,  meat,  cakes,  crack- 
ers, pickles,  cheese,  fruits,  etc.,  as  well  as  a  quantity  of 
manufacturing!  materials  such  as  copper,  zinc,  lead, 
mica,  rubber,  felt,  gum  and  similar  materials,  much  of 
which  could  be  used  to  advantage. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  foodstuffs  wasted  every  day 
amount  to  between  $35  and  $50,  the  cost  of  which,  of 
course,  comes  out  of  the  employees'  pockets;  the  waste 
of  material  amounts  to  hundreds  of  dollars  per  day — 
which  would  be  a  loss  to  the  company  if  it  were  not  that 


FOOD     MATERIAL  J 

Brought  fromI  Belonging  TO^ 

YOUR  HOMESJ  THE  CQ 


A  TIMELY  OBJECT  LESSON 

a  force  of  men  are  continually  assorting  the  seemingly 
scrap  material  and  turning  it  back  for  use  or  so  that 
the  highest  price  may  be  obtained  for  scrap  produce — 
all   due   largely   to   the  carelessness   of  the   employees. 

Above  the  material  is  a  sign  reading  in  large  letters, 
"Wasted";  and  underneath  the  words,  "Food  Brought 
from  Your  Homes";  and  on  the  other  side,  "Material 
Belonging  to  the  Company." 

This  truck  was  driven  up  and  down  the  shop  aisles 
so  that  the  employees  could  look  upon  it  and  form  in 
their  minds  some  idea  of  the  waste.  Such  an  object  les- 
son is  valuable  at  this  time,  when  everyone  should  re- 
duce waste  as  much  as  possible. 

Fuel   Saving  "Don'ts" 

To  assist  the  Fuel  Controller  for  Canada  in  his 
campaign  for  fuel  conservation,  the  General  Accident 
Assurance  Co.  of  Canada  has  prepared  the  following 
series  of  "don'ts,"  which  have  been  printed  and  are 
being  distributed  to  manufacturers  and  boiler  owners: 

1.  Don't  fill  the  furnace  with  the  intention  that  there 
will  be  no   necessity   for   any   additional   fuel   for   the 


next  two  to  four  hours.  This  is  quite  a  common  prac- 
tice with  heating  boilers,  and  with  bituminous  fuel 
results  in  very  great  waste. 

2.  Don't  regulate  the  draft  by  closing  the  ashpit  door, 
but  regulate  it  with  a  damper  in  the  smoke  flue  or  pipe 
between  the  boiler  and  the  chimney.  This  also  applies 
to  any  kind  of  furnace. 

3.  Don't  allow  any  cracks  in  the  brick  setting  of  the 
boiler,  because  cold  air  will  enter  through  these  cracks 
and  absorb  the  heat  that  should  have  been  transferred 
to  the  boiler. 

4.  Don't  permit  the  use  of  grates  of  any  kind  which 
are  in  bad  condition.  This  will  permit  the  unconsumed 
fuel  to  fall  through  to  the  ashpit  and  be  shoveled  out 
as  ashes  or  waste. 

5.  Don't  use  a  grate  that  is  larger  than  will  permit 
the  burning  of  at  least  12  lb.  of  coal  per  square  foot 
of  grate  per  hour. 

6.  Don't  permit  any  pipes  or  boiler  surfaces  to  re- 
main uncovered,  unless  it  is  necessary  to  transmit  the 
heat  through  the  surface  of  that  pipe  to  the  room  in 
which  it  is  located. 

7.  Don't  permit  any  joint  in  the  boiler  or  any  pipe 
connected  thereto  to  leak. 

8.  Don't  permit  any  valve  to  leak  which  is  located 
on  a  pipe  supplied  by  the  boiler.  This  is  a  very  common 
source  of  loss.  All  valves  should  be  positively  tight 
when  closed. 

9.  Don't  attempt  to  control  the  quantity  of  condensa- 
tion to  be  collected  from  any  pipe  or  other  apparatus 
by  hand  control.  There  are  many  good  serviceable 
traps  to  collect  these  returns  of  condensation  and  they 
should  be  returned  from  these  traps  to  the  boiler. 

10.  Don't  permit  any  surface  on  the  boiler  exposed 
to  the  furnace  heat  to  become  covered  with  soot  or 
ashes.     The   tubes    should    be    cleaned    at    least    daily. 

11.  Don't  use  live  steam  for  heating  rooms,  liquids 
or  other  substance  when  there  is  exhaust  steam  from 
engines  or  pumps  available.  If  the  exhaust  steam  is 
not  of  sufficient  temperature  to  heat  the  room,  the 
liquids,  or  other  substance  to  the  required  temperature, 
arrange  your  heating  to  be  done  in  two  stages;  for  in- 
stance, water  could  be  heated  to  nearly  212  deg.  F.  by 
exhaust  steam,  then  passed  through  to  another  vessel  to 
be  heated  to  the  desired  temperature  with  live  steam. 

12.  Don't  feed  a  boiler  with  cold  water  when  there 
is  exhaust  steam  available  to  heat  it.  Every  eleven 
degrees  in  temperature  that  feed  water  is  raised  by 
heating  by  exhaust  steam  there  is  a  saving  of  1  per 
cent,  in  fuel,  and  in  wintertime  especially  feed  water 
is  very  seldom  any  warmer  than  42  deg.  F.  If  this 
water  is  heated  to  212  deg.  F.  it  will  then  effect  a 
saving  of  15  to  16  per  cent. 

13.  Don't  allow  the  main  steam  valves  on  any  engine 
or  pump  to  leak.  This  is  a  very  common  fault,  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  leak  is  not  seen. 

14.  Don't  allow  the  piston  of  any  engine  or  pump  to 
leak.  This  is  also  a  common  defect  permitted  to  go  on 
day  after  day   simply  because   the  leak   is  not  seen. 

15.  Don't  take  it  for  granted  that  pipes  that  lead 
to  sewers,  blowoff  tanks  or  other  places  of  discharge 
are  tight.  If  the  pipe  is  warm  between  the  stop  valve 
and  the  source  of  discharge,  it  will  generally  pay  to 
investigate  a  little  closer,  because  it  generally  is  a  sure 
sign  of  leakage,  with  great  waste. 


March  5,  1918  POWER  335 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiuuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiu 


Editorials 


SlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIMIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIinilinilllMllllllllllllllllllllllllllinillllinillllMIIMIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^ 


Use    Surplus    Productive    Power    To 
Rehabilitate  the  Railways 

THERE  are  indications  on  all  sides  that  we  are 
approaching  an  industrial  and  economic  crisis. 
One  of  the  most  evident  signs  of  this  is  the  amount 
of  criticism  which  is  being  showered  on  those  in 
charge  of  Government  activities,  nearly  all  of  which 
at  present  relate  to  the  war.  The  attempts  to  blame 
these  various  inefficiencies  on  individuals  are  being 
made  on  all  sides.  It  was  only  natural  in  this  con- 
fusion that  Army  officers  and  Government  officials  in 
general  should  be  the  first  to  receive  the  blow,  for 
we  have  always  held  the  theory  that  Government  officials 
were  far  more  inefficient  than  our  business  men. 

The  number  of  applications  from  private  manufac- 
turers for  the  help  of  "efficiency  engineers,"  which  has  so 
largely  increased  lately,  is  indicative  of  a  realization  on 
the  part  of  many  of  our  manufacturers  that  their  meth- 
ods also  are  not  what  they  should  be.  The  people  who 
are  applying  for  help  are  in  many  cases  no  worse  off,  as 
far  as  their  methods  are  concerned,  than  others  who  have 
not  yet  discovered  how  badly  they  are  doing  their  work. 
The  whole  subject  seems  to  resolve  itself  into  the  fact 
that  our  business  and  industrial  systems  are  not  suited 
for  times  like  these,  when  it  is  necessary  to  combine 
all  our  energies  and  exert  our  full  driving  power  toward 
the  achievement  of  one  supreme  object. 

We  should  not  be  surprised  that  this  is  the  case,  for 
our  economic  theory  has  never  contemplated  teaming 
up  all  the  industries  of  this  country  for  one  object,  but 
has  rather  discouraged  that  idea  and  encouraged  in- 
dividual competition  of  the  most  strenuous  kind.  In 
other  words,  we  are  a  nation  of  individualists  who  have 
never  really  seriously  contemplated  cooperation  for  the 
common  good. 

When  this  problem  of  cooperation  is  suddenly  put  up 
to  us  as  it  has  been  by  the  war,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  our  business  men,  trained  in  the  individualistic 
school,  should  be  entirely  unfitted  to  solve  the  new  prob- 
lem. Moreover,  it  might  be  expected  that  the  men  who 
have  been  most  successful  in  individualistic,  competi- 
tive business,  in  which  profit  was  the  main  aim,  should 
be  actually  the  ones  least  fitted  to  establish  a  scheme 
of  business  and  production  for  the  benefit  of  the  com- 
munity. This  is  a  new  problem  to  them,  and  one  alto- 
gether outside  of  their  experience. 

It  is  to  be  granted  that  such  business  men  may  have 
individually  great  driving  power,  but  this  very  excess 
of  driving  power  in  individuals  or  corporations  is 
likely  to  make  the  confusion  all  the  worse,  unless  a 
means  of  coordination  is  established  which  will  keep 
the  driving  power  of  the  individuals  or  corporations 
in  proper  balance. 

It  has  become  perfectly  evident  to  all  observers  that 
the  capacity  of  the  nation  for  production  of  war  mate- 
rial is  enormously  greater  than  its  capacity  for  shipping 


it  to  Europe,  and  that  we  must  at  once  not  only  balance 
£his  production,  but  slow  it  down  in  order  to  prevent 
such  a  choking  of  our  Eastern  ports  as  may  produce 
an  impossible  condition.  The  five-day  shutdown  ordered 
by  the  Fuel  Administrator  and  the  one  day  per  week 
shutdown  are  our  first  attempts  to  slow  up  this  pro- 
duction, and  we  ask  ourselves  at  once  if  this  is  the 
best  way.  The  answer  comes  that  if  we  are  making 
too  much  war  material  we  had  better  turn  such  of  our 
activities  as  cannot  be  utilized  in  increasing  our  ship- 
ping capacity  into  the  manufacture  of  articles  of  peace. 
Immediately  we  run  into  the  financial  situation,  which 
at  present  seems  to  seriously  hamper  new  undertakings. 
It  would  seem  that  the  claim  of  the  railroads  that 
they  need  $1,000,000,000  worth  of  improvements  should 
at  this  juncture  be  considered.  Here  is  one  organiza- 
tion now  devoted  exclusively  to  the  service  of  the  com- 
munity, which,  being  under  the  control  of  the  Federal 
Government,  can  be  financed  directly  by  that  Govern- 
ment, and  there  would  seem  no  reason  why  the  produc- 
tion programs  of  war  material  should  not  be  limited, 
and  a  certain  amount  of  the  energy  now  being  expended 
in  that  direction  turned  at  once  toward  the  improvement 
of  our  transportation  facilities. 

Our  Fuel-Oil  Supply 

NATURE  has  been  prolific  in  her  provision  of  fuels 
for  the  benefit  of  man.  The  potential  energy  locked 
up  in  the  interior  of  this  planet  of  ours  is  enormous. 
The  world's  coal  reserve,  according  ta  a  recent  estimate,  is 
roughly  7,897,553,000,000  tons.  Miners  are  cutting  into 
the  supply  at  the  rate  of  about  1,500,000,000  tons  pe>r 
year,  or  less  than  two-hundredths  of  one  per  cent.  In 
all  probability  the  estimated  amount  of  the  world's  coal 
reserve  is  much  below  the  actual  figures  given,  since  coal 
is  occasionally  found  in  territory  yet  unexplored  and  in 
localities  where  its  existence  was  not  previously  sus- 
pected. 

The  present  world  conflict  has  accentuated  the  demand 
for  liquid  fuel  to  the  extent  that  the  magnitude  of  our 
petroleum  supply  is  one  of  the  questions  of  the  hour. 
The  present  demand  for  petroleum  is  in  excess  of  pro- 
duction, in  spite  of  the  fact  that  over  three  hundred 
million  barrels  was  marketed  in  the  United  States  alone 
in  1916,  and  the  estimates  for  1917  and  1918  are  319,- 
000,000  and  338,000,000  barrels  respectively.  Since  the 
United  States  in  normal  times  produces  approximately 
sixty-five  per  cent,  of  the  world's  petroleum,  we  may 
expect  a  petroleum  consumption  for  1918  of  over  half  a 
billion  barrels.  With  the  consumption  increasing  at  the 
rate  of  six  per  cent,  each  year,  we  have  a  right  to  be 
somewhat  concerned  about  the  source  of  our  future 
supply. 

Where  is  the  oil  to  come  from?  Unlike  our  coal  re- 
sources, we  have  no  means  of  estimating  the  contents  of 
the  oil  sands  below  the  earth's  surface.    Whether  our  oil 


336 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


reserve  is  being  rapidly  depleted  or  not,  we  have  no 
means  of  telling.  We  may  be  fast  approaching  the  limit, 
or  we  may  be  just  scratching  the  comers  off,  as  in  the 
case  of  coal.  This  refers  to  our  supply  of  oil  from 
wells. 

The  history  of  the  petroleum  industry  would  tend 
to  make  our  forecast  optimistic  in  a  way,  while  the  gen- 
eral tendency  is  toward  the  pessimistic  view.  This  atti- 
tude is  caused  more  by  the  habit  of  jumping  at  con- 
clusions than  basing  our  decisions  upon  actual  facts. 
We  have  It  as  the  opinion  of  one  well  informed  in  the 
oil  industry  that  there  are  possiblities  of  new  fields  in 
every  state  in  the  Union.  It  is  a  matter  of  fact  that  oil 
is  often  discovered  in  most  unexpected  places.  Locali- 
ties that  are  considered  today  as  of  no  importance  in 
the  oil  industry  may,  a  few  years  hence,  be  pouring  out 
a  flood  of  oil. 

This  statement  is  substantiated  by  numerous  ex- 
amples. The  production  of  the  Kentucky  oil  fields  was 
in  the  front  rank  for  November,  1917,  yet  about  a  year 
ago  this  state  stood  at  the  bottom  of  the  list.  Wyoming 
is  fast  becoming  an  important  factor  in  production. 
While  six  years  ago  its  output  was  of  practically  no 
account,  today  it  is  giving  us  about  five  million  barrels  a 
year.  But  the  rise  of  Oklahoma  as  a  producing  state 
was,  perhaps,  the  most  spectacular.  In  1906  its  produc- 
tion was  so  small  that  it  was  included  with  that  of 
Kansas;  in  1915  Oklahoma  passed  California  and  stood 
in  the  front  rank  with  a  production  of  nearly  ninety- 
eight  million  barrels,  which  was  34.83  per  cent,  of  our 
total  production.  This  would  give  a  reasonable  founda- 
tion to  hope  for  the  discovery  of  new  fields  from  time  to 
time  as  the  demand  increases  the  incentive  to  search 
for  them. 

Leaving  our  own  shores,  we  find  that  there  is  much 
potential  oil  territory  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 
China,  for  example,  promises  much  for  the  future,  al- 
though the  present  production  in  that  country  is  small. 
Oil  territories  are  being  exploited  in  Australia  and  New 
Zealand.  Many  parts  of  South  America  hold  out  prom- 
ises; for  example,  the  oil  fields  of  Argentina  and  Peru 
are  already  of  considerable  importance. 

Passing  from  the  oil  well  as  a  source  of  supply,  we 
have  within  our  borders  another  source  of  this  valuable 
fuel,  of  almost  limitless  extent,  as  yet  untouched.  Un- 
like the  oil  from  wells,  it  is  possible  to  estimate  the  ex- 
tent of  this  supply.  Covering  100,000  acres  in  north- 
western Colorado  and  extending  into  the  neighboring 
states  of  Utah  and  Wyoming,  there  is  practically  a  whole 
mountain  range  of  bituminous  shale,  rich  in  oil.  The 
sides  of  the  precipitous  cliffs  in  this  region  show  layer 
upon  layer  of  rich  oil  shale.  A  careful  survey  of  this 
region,  by  representatives  of  the  United  States  Geologi- 
cal Survey,  indicates  a  deposit  of  petroleum  in  Colorado 
alone,  of  at  least  twenty  billion  barrels.  Comparing  this 
deposit  to  the  output  from  oil  wells,  it  is  found  to  be 
nearly  three  times  the  total  production  of  petroleum  in 
the  world  from  the  beginning  of  the  industry  in  1857. 

Analyses  of  the  oil  distilled  from  this  shale  show  it  to 
have  a  paraifin  base  and  to  be  of  most  excellent  quality. 
Chemical  engineers  state  that  it  shows  a  gasoline  con- 
tent as  high  as  25  per  cent.  It  carries  valuable  byprod- 
ucts, chief  of  which  is  ammonium  sulphate.  The  value 
of  this  one  byproduct  is  sufficient  to  pay  almost  half  of 
the  cost  of  extracting  and  refining.     So  valuable  are 


these  deposits  considered  by  our  Government  that  the 
President  on  December  6,  1916,  set  aside  forty-five  thou- 
sand acres,  or  nearly  one-half  the  Colorado  shale-oil 
field,  as  a  fuel  reserve  for  the  United  States  Navy. 

There  is  nothing  difficult  about  extracting  oil  from 
shale.  The  shale-oil  industry  has  been  a  profitable  en- 
terprise in  Scotland  since  the  early  fifties,  and  the  out- 
put of  oil  from  Scotch  shales  today  is  approximately 
two  million  barrels  per  annum. 

But  we  need  not  stop  here  in  our  estimate  of  the  liquid- 
fuel  reserve.  More  or  less  oil  shale  has  been  discovered 
in  many  other  states.  In  many  parts  of  Ohio  and  Indi- 
ana, oil-well  drillers  penetrate  a  strata  of  dark  brown 
shale,  about  one  hundred  feet  above  the  Trenton  sand. 
From  the  best  information  obtainable,  this  is  a  deposit 
of  oil  shale  which  it  may  pay  us  to  mine  some  day, 
as  is  done  in  Scotland.  We  recall  having  seen  the  state- 
ment by  one  of  our  Government  geologists  that,  in  the 
oil  shales  underlying  Ohio  and  Indiana,  there  is  suffi- 
cient oil  to  fill  Lake  Huron.  It  would  appear  from  this 
brief  statement  that  we  have  no  cause  for  alarm  as  to 
our  oil  supply  for  the  immediate  future,  whatever  the 
situation  may  be  a  generation  hence. 

Not  Developing  the  Water  Powers 


TN  view  of  the  fact  that 
^  some  60,000,000  horse- 
power is  continuously  going 
to  waste  in  the  streams  of 
the  country,  it  is  beyond 
comprehension  why  an  en- 
lightened people  like  ours 
should  not  only  fail  to  en- 
courage, but  should  blindly 
bar  the  way  to  the  develop- 
ment of  a  great  natural  re- 
source so  important  to  the 
well-being  of  the  nation. 
When  we  consider  the  bene- 
fits which  have  already  ac- 
crued to  industry  from  the 
water  powers  now  developed 
and  recall  how  we  have 
besought,  appealed  and 
pleaded  for  legislation  to 
permit  further  development, 
we  contemplate  the  present 
unhappy  power  situation 
with  pain  and  sorrow.  How 
the  cry  for  power  must 
strike  with  hollow  mockery 
the  ears  of  the  water-power 
obstructionist ! — Exchange. 


THE  data  show  that  120 
out  of  about  1500  pub- 
lic-service corporations  claim 
to  own  or  control  a  total  of 
3,683,000  undeveloped  water 
horsepower,  or  80  per  cent, 
of  the  total  water  power  at 
present  developed  by  public- 
service  corporations. 

Those  who  lay  claim  to 
such  extensive  ownership  or 
control  of  undeveloped 
power  sites  are  hardly  in  a 
position  to  contend  that  any 
legislation  or  lack  of  legis- 
lation or  any  administrative 
policies  of  the  executive  de- 
partments of  the  Govern- 
ment should  be  held  respon- 
sible for  the  stagnation  in 
water  -  power  development 
which  they  allege  exists. 
The  fact,  if  it  is  a  fact,  that 
a  comparatively  few  corpo- 
rations hold  unused  nearly 
4,000,000  water  horsepower 
would  of  itself  furnish  suffi- 
cient explanation.  —  O.  C. 
Merrill,  Chief  Engineer,  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 


Garabed  Giragossian  has  appointed  a  commission 
satisfactory  to  Secretary  Lane,  to  pass  upon  the  merits 
of  his  alleged  invention  whereby  unlimited  power  is 
to  be  gathered  from  a  new  source.  In  case  he  demon- 
strates to  the  satisfaction  of  the  commission  that  he 
has  anything,  the  Government  has  the  free  use  of  it, 
but  guarantees  him  in  the  control  of  all  other  uses  of 
it  for  seventeen  years.  In  case  he  doesn't  satisfy  the 
commission — Oh,  well! 


All  that  one  does  in  his  lifetime  that  really  counts 
is  done  in  a  short  number  of  hours.  The  rest  of  the 
time  is  consumed  in  getting  ready  and  in  waiting. 


March  5,  1918  POWER  337 

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Correspondence 


i 

s 


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The  Administration's  Water-Power  Bill 

The  twelve-year  fight  to  keep  the  nation's  water 
power  from  capture  by  the  power  monopolists  is  at 
last  on  the  verge  of  being  won.  The  Administration 
water-power  bill  now  before  Congress  opens  the  way  to 
save  for  the  people  of  the  United  States  their  most  valu- 
able natural  asset.  Some  fifty  million  water  horsepower 
is  at  stake.  The  bill  in  question  was  formulated  under 
the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  President  for  his  approval  and  recently 
put  forward  as  an  Administration  measure.  It  deals 
with  water  power  in  national  forests,  public  lands, 
Indian  lands  and  navigable  streams.  A  special  com- 
mittee of  the  House  has  been  created  to  consider  it; 

It  is  an  admirable  measure,  drawn  with  thorough 
knowledge  and  unusual  skill.  The  principles  essential 
for  the  wise  use  and  development  of  our  public  water 
powers  in  the  public  interest  are  all  embodied  in  it. 

I  have  always  urged  the  support  of  the  following 
seven  definite  principles  in  water-power  legislation: 

1.  The  thing  to  do  with  water  power  is  to  develop  it. 
Whatever  retards  or  restricts  the  development  of  public 
water  powers  on  terms  fair  to  the  public  is  against 
public  policy  and  hostile  to  the  general  welfare. 

2.  Water  power  belongs  to  the  people.  The  sites 
where  it  is  produced  should  always  be  held  in  public 
hands,  for  only  so  can  effective  control  in  the  general 
interest  be  secured. 

3.  Where  public  development  is  not  desired,  the  right 
to  use  water-power  sites  should  be  leased  for  periods 
long  enough  to  permit  sound,  attractive  and  profitable 
investment,  but  never  longer  than  fifty  years.  At  the 
end  of  each  lease  all  rights  should  return  to  the  people 
who  gave  them. 

4.  In  order  to  protect  the  consumer  against  extortion, 
rates  and  service  should  be  regulated  by  Federal  author- 
ity when  state  or  local  authorities  fail  to  do  so. 

5.  Reasonably  prompt  and  complete  development  and 
continuous  operation,  subject  to  market  conditions, 
should  be  required.  Already  millions  of  water  horse- 
power are  held  out  of  use  to  further  monopoly  by  pri- 
vate corporations. 

6.  Corporations  or  individuals  that  make  money  out 
of  rights  granted  by  the  people  should  share  their 
profits  with  the  people. 

7.  The  public  has  a  right  to  complete  information 
about  every  business  based  on  the  use  of  public  prop- 
erty. 

It  is  a  real  pleasure  to  know  that  every  one  of  these 
principles  is  fully  safeguarded  in  this  bill.  What  re- 
mains, therefore,  is  for  Congress  to  put  this  meas- 
ure through  without  delay.  The  Administration  water- 
power  bill  will  first  come  before  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, where  an  effort  will  certainly  be  made  to 
amend  it  in  the  interest  of  the  power  interests.  If  that 
fails,  the  water-power  lobbyists  will  endeavor  to  have 


the  indefensible  provisions  of  the  Shields  bill  substi- 
tuted in  the  Senate  for  the  Administration  bill.  Beaten 
in  that,  they  will  fall  back  upon  the  formula  of  ob- 
struction and  delay  they  have  used  so  successfully  for 
the  last  ten  years.  This  measure  is  practical,  fair  and 
wise.  The  friends  of  conservation  should  insist  that 
their  friends  in  Congress  shall  give  their  prompt  and 
full  support  to  the  Administration  bill  and  shall  see  to 
it  that  it  is  passed  without  emasculation,  substitution 
or  postponement.  It  is  of  vital  interest  to  our  country 
while  the  war  is  on,  and  will  be  equally  important 
after  the  war  is  over.  The  passage  of  this  law  will  se- 
cure to  the  American  people  forever  vast  resources 
whose  use  for  the  good  of  all  will  make  this  land  a 
safer  and  a  better  place  to  live  in.  All  the  forces  of 
conservation  are  behind  it.  I  urge  you  to  give  the  bill 
your  strongest  approval  and  support. 

Milford,  Penn.  GiFFORD  PiNCHOT. 

High-  and  Low-Water  Alarm 

The  illustration  shows  without  the  need  of  much  ex- 
planation a  device  for  ringing  an  alarm  bell  when  the 
water  in  a  tank  is  high  or  low.  As  the  water  and  the 
float  lower,  the  cross-piece  or  disk  on  the  end  of  the  rod 


FT^OAT-OPER.\TED    HIGH-    AND    LOW -WATER    AL..\RM 

completes  the  electric  circuit  at  the  contacts,  which 
causes  the  alarm  bell  to  ring.  When  the  water  rises  to  a 
predetermined  point,  contact  will  be  made  at  the  other 
terminals  and  the  high-water  bell  will  ring,  giving  notice 
that  it  is  time  to  stop  the  pump.  Two  bells  are  shown, 
but  both  of  the  contacts  can  be  connected  with  the  same 
bell  if  desired.  U.  R.  HiBBS. 

New  York  City. 


338 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


Securing  Gland  Nuts 

The  valve-stem  stuffing-box  gland  nuts  on  Corliss 
engines  often  give  trouble  by  working  loose  and  allow- 
ing the  packing  to  blow  out,  requiring  a  shutdown  to 
repack.  This  is  more  often  the  case  on  old  engines  that 
have  worn  valve  stems  having  a  side  movement,  every 
time  the  hook  picks  up  the  steam  arm,  which  tends  to 
move  the   gland   and   work   the   nuts   loose.      There   is 


COTTER  TIN  TO  KEEP  NUT  FROM  TtTRNING 

sometimes  scant  room  on  the  studs  for  the  jam  nuts, 
so  the  engineer  has  to  keep  a  close  watch  on  the  single 
nuts  to  keep  them  tightened.  While  overhauling  re- 
cently, I  drilled  a  small  hole  in  each  end  of  every  gland 
in  such  a  position  that  a  small  cotter  pin  inserted 
in  the  holes  acted  as  a  nut  lock.  This  is  also  a  good 
kink  to  use  on  the  piston-rod  glands  of  big  engines 
and  may  prevent  a  serious  accident.  J.  W.  Stanley. 
Braemar,  Tenn. 

Power- Plant  Burns  Locomotive  Sparks 

My  attention  has  been  called  to  an  article  in  Poiver, 
page  13  of  the  Jan.  1  issue,  descriptive  of  a  large 
electric  power  station  in  Germany  wherein  locomotive 
cinders  are  burned  under  the  boilers.  It  is  said  to  be 
"the  first  large  railway  power  station  in  the  world  to 
be  operated  entirely  on  cinders  taken  from  the  locomo- 
tive." 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  recall  that  twenty  years 
ago  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  R.R.  built 
three  power  stations,  from  500  to  2500-hp.  capacity,  in 
which  horizontal  return-tubular  boilers  were  fitted  to 
burn  this  same  kind  of  fuel.  Mo.st  of  this  work,  both 
construction  and  operation,  was  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  the  writer  who,  at  that  time,  contributed 
an  article  to  Locomotive  Engineering  in  which  it  was 
described  fully. 

To  most  railroad  men  locomotive  cinders  are  known 
as  "sparks"  and  are,  of  course,  small  pieces  of  partly 
burned  coal,  which  is  really  coke,  drawn  through  the 
tubes  by  the  exhaust  and  confined  in  the  front  end  by 
the  screen,  from  which  they  are  dumped  at  the  end  of 
each  trip.  A  number  of  experimenters  had  previously 
discovered  that  sparks  could  not  be  successfully  burned 
by  the  use  of  the  ordinary  forced  draft  under  the  boil- 
ers unless  mixed  with  coal.  Success  was  obtained  by 
the  use  of  a  forced  draft  in  which  steam   is  mingled 


with  the  air  blovm  into  the  ashpit.  A  steam  blower 
fitted  to  the  ashpit  doors  supplied  this  combination.  The 
hydrogen  of  the  steam  combined  with  the  carbon  of  the 
sparks,  forming  what  is  commonly  known  as  water  gas. 
The  boilers  were  set  high  above  the  grates,  forming  a 
large  combustion  chamber;  they  were  hand-fired  and 
not  overloaded. 

No  coal  was  ever  mixed  with  the  fuel  except  on  rare 
occasions  when  a  heavy  load  dropped  the  steam  pressure 
seriously.  For  eight  or  ten  years,  at  least,  to  my 
knowledge  two  of  these  power  stations  were  operated 
entirely  by  sparks. 

Shortly  after  they  were  in  operation,  a  number  of  Eu- 
ropean engineers  and  railroad  officers  (some  Germans 
among  them)  were  on  a  tour  of  this  country  and  were 
being  shown  the  boiler  room  of  one  station.  Mr.  As- 
pinwall,  then  general  manager  of  the  Lancashire  & 
Yorkshire  R.R.,  was  closely  examining  the  sparks  and 
also  the  ashes.  Holding  a  small  portion  of  each  in  his 
hands  he  remarked:  "Do  I  understand  that  you  have 
already  burned  this  stuff  in  your  locomotives,  and  you 
are  burning  it  over  again  here?"  I  replied,  "That  is 
so."  "Then,"  said  he,  "pray  tell  me  who  burns  it  after 
you  get  through  with  it?"         Edward  C.  Boynton. 

New  York  City. 

A  Smokeless   Portable   Forge 

A  small  forge  is  a  handy  device  about  a  steam  plant, 
but  it  has  one  disadvantage — it  will  fill  the  room  with 
smoke  unless  there  is  a  smoke  connection  to  the  out- 
side, which  is  not  commonly  the  case.  Much  of  the 
smoke  can  be  avoided  by  arranging  the  forge  as  shown 


A  SMOKELESS  FORGE 

in  the  illustration.  I  used  a  common  forge  with  the 
hood  attached,  and  connected  at  the  top,  at  D,  a  tin  pipe 
of  the  same  size  as  the  opening  into  the  intake  side  of 
the  blower  B,  as  shovra  at  C.  When  the  blower  is  in  use, 
the  smoke  that  rises  from  the  fire  is  drawn  up  into  the 
hood  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows  and  down  to  the 
blower,  which  forces  it  up  through  the  fire  without  its 
escaping  into  the  open.  J.  A.  LuCAS. 

New  York  City. 


March  5,  1918 


POWER 


339 


Piston   Packing  Burns  Out 

In  reply  to  Mr.  Noble's  letter  on  page  129  in  the 
issue  of  Jan.  22,  I  would  suggest  that  he  look  over 
the  oiling  system  and  make  sure  that  the  proper  amount 
of  oil  is  reaching  the  cylinder  at  all  times.  If,  as  he 
states,  the  material  and  workmanship  are  of  the  best, 
I  am  inclined  to  think  the  heating  of  the  rod  is  from 
undue  friction  caused  by  the  stoppage  of  the  oil  sup- 
ply— perhaps  for  a  short  time,  but  long  enough  to  permit 
overheating.  J.  H.  Kendel. 

Chicago,  111. 


I  believe  it  may  be  caused  by  any  one  of  several 
reasons.  The  rod  may  be  too  small  and  at  times  of 
peak  load  may  spring,  thereby  throwing  excessive  pres- 
sure on  the  packing.  This  might  occur  and  yet  not 
show  in  the  packing  for  some  time  afterward,  but 
the  most  probable  cause  in  my  opinion  is  in  the  packing 
itself,  although  Mr.  Noble  assures  us  he  is  using  a  good 
grade  of  packing  and  backs  it  up  by  the  statement  that 
it  cost  $1.50  per  pound,  but  that  is  no  proof  that  it 
is  adapted  to  his  special  need. 

Twenty-five  years  of  engineering  experience  has 
taught  me  that  packing  can  cause  any  amount  of  trouble 
and  worry,  yet  I  do  not  think  that  we  can  recommend 
any  one  brand  or  make  that  will  suit  all  places  or  con- 
ditions. In  former  years  I  made  many  changes  and 
tried  every  new  packing  that  I  could  get  hold  of,  but 
now  I  use  but  one  make  and  have  no  packing  trouble. 

Syracuse,  N.  Y.  M.  E.  Webber. 


I  almost  "sweat  blood"  over  an  experience  similar  to 
that  described  by  Mr.  Noble^  shortly  after  taking  charge 
of  a  Corliss  engine  plant.  The  coal  consumption  was 
enormous  for  the  size  of  the  plant,  and  after  setting 
valves  and  testing  for  leaks,  I  opened  the  boiler  and 
found  it  badly  limed.  After  cleaning  by  mechanical 
means  as  much  as  possible,  I  started  a  heavy  treatment 
of  soda  ash  and  hydrated  lime.  Then  trouble  with 
piston  packing  began  with  evidences  of  lack  of  proper 
cylinder  lubrication.  We  fixed  up  an  oiler  for  the  piston 
rod  and  did  considerable  fussing  with  the  lubricator, 
but  to  no  avail.  It  finally  occurred  to  me  that  the 
trouble  was  greatest  when  the  engine  was  heavily 
loaded;  then  came  the  inspiration,  the  boiler  was 
foaming!  That  was  easily  remedied,  and  we  had  no 
more  trouble  on  that  score. 

The  next  day  we  cleaned  the  boiler  and,  before  re- 
filling, put  in  a  gallon  of  kerosene  to  float  upon  the 
water  and  soften  the  scale.  Shortly  after  starting  up, 
the  steam  valves  would  not  close  until  pushed  down  by 
the  hooks  and  there  was  a  strong  smell  of  hot  kerosene 
around  the  engine;  so  it  was  surmised  that  the  kerosene 
vapor  had  washed  the  oil  off  the  valves.  After  getting 
rid  of  the  kerosene  via  the  safety-valve  route,  the  engine 
valves  acted  properly  and  the  packing  did  not  heat. 

By  the  way,  the  real  cause  of  the  foaming  was  a 
worn-out  blowoff  valve  that  we  were  afraid  to  use  often 
enough.  Howard  Wolcott. 

Ponca,  Neb. 


now  pack  the  piston  in  the  usual  way,  drawing  up 
the  gland  nut  with  a  wrench  and  then  backing  off. 
As  we  only  run  ten  hours  a  day,  I  back  off  the  pack- 
ing nut  every  morning  until  I  feel  that  it  is  not  tight, 
after  which  I  do  not  touch  the  gland  until  I  hear  it 
blowing,  when  I  repack  the  piston.  I  have  only  had 
trouble  with  one  brand  of  packing,  and  with  this  brand 
it  does  no  good  to  draw  up  on  the  gland  after  blowing 
begins.  W.  G.  Walters. 

Aurora,  111. 


I  think  the  packing  gland  is  too  tight  after  the  new 
packing  has  been  put  in,  and  for  a  day  or  less  Mr. 
Noble  should  back  the  gland  nuts  off  till  steam  starts 
to  blow,  then  take  up  enough  to  stop  it;  and  the  next 
day  try  to  back  off  some  more.  In  the  meantime  he 
should  have  a  small  pail  of  cylinder  oil  and  graphite 
(there  should  be  enough  graphite  to  make  it  thick) 
and  every  three  or  four  hours  for  a  few  days  give  the 
rod  a  good  coat  of  this  mixture;  then  after  three  or 
four  days,  two  or  three  times  a  day  will  be  enough. 
He  should  try  this  treatment  on  any  rod  and  see  how 
much  longer  the  packing  will  last  and  what  a  good 
finish  it  will  put  on  the  rod.  FRANK  WELLS. 

Jeffersonville,  Ind. 


I  have  had  the  same  kind  of  trouble  as  that  described 
by  Mr.  Noble,  on  an  Ideal  engine,  and  it  seemed  to 
be   caused   by   the   packing   expanding    excessively.      I 


The  trouble  with  ordinary  "soft"  packing  (no  matter 
how  good  the  quality  may  be)  is  that  when  adjusted 
with  the  gland  nuts  just  set  to  hold  the  packing  in 
place — say  finger-tight — the  steam  works  in  behind  the 
packing  and  exerts  a  force  in  exactly  the  same  man- 
ner and  with  the  same  effect  as  if  the  packing  gland 
nuts  were  drawn  too  snug,  and  overheating  follows. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  gland  nuts  are  dravra  so 
tight  that  the  steam  cannot  get  behind  the  packing, 
it  will  pinch  and  the  rod  will  heat.  My  suggestion  as 
to  a  remedy  is  metallic  packing.  ROBERT  E.  HiCKS. 

Houston,  Tex. 

Discussion    on    Ammonia-Compressor 
Diagrams 

Regarding  the  ammonia-compressor  diagrams  of  J.  C. 
Harrison  in  the  Jan.  15  issue,  neither  set  seems  to  have 
been  taken  under  correct  conditions  of  suction-gas  tem- 
perature. The  Wolf-Linde  compressor  is  of  the  wet 
gas  type,  in  which  the  frost  is  carried  right  up  to  the 
compressor,  the  temperature  being  regulated  by  the 
amount  of  liquid  ammonia  carried  into  the  cylinder  with 
the  suction  gas. 

With  the  temperature  of  the  suction  gas  shovra  by 
diagrams  Figs.  1  and  2,  the  temperature  of  the  cyl- 
inder and  discharge  would  be  too  high,  and  the  ammo- 
nia rod  would  be  hot  and  troublesome.  With  conditions 
as  revealed  by  diagrams.  Figs.  3  and  4,  too  much  liquid 
ammonia  is  being  carried  with  the  suction  gas,  the 
temperature  of  suction  gas  being  approximately  4  deg. 
F.  below  the  boiling  point  of  the  ammonia  due  to  a 
pressure  of  24  lb.  Better  results  are  obtained  when  the 
temperature  of  the  suction  gas  is  about  10  deg.  higher 
than  the  boiling  point  of  the  ammonia  due  to  the  suc- 
tion pressure. 

Fig.  1  indicates  either  incorrect  gage  readings  or  a 
mistake   in   locating  the   atmospheric   line,   as  scaling 


340 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


with  a  120-lb.  scale  shows  the  suction  pressure  24  lb. 
and  the  head  pressure  140  lb.  Fig.  2  shows  a  larger 
reexpansion  loss  than  necessary  with  this  type  of  com- 
pressor and  may  be  due  to  excessive  clearance.  Figs. 
3  and  4  show  the  loss  in  capacity  due  to  too  much  liquid 
ammonia  entering  the  cylinder.  This  is  indicated  by 
reexpansion  taking  place  during  30  per  cent,  of  the 
suction  stroke,  being  about  25  per  cent,  more  than  nec- 
essary with  a  correct  suction-gas  temperature. 

I  believe  that  in  this  case  the  compressor  cylinder  it- 
self was  well  frosted,  as  the  compression  line  leans 
more  toward  the  isothermal  curve  than  in  Figs.  1  and 
2,  indicating  that  some  of  the  heat  of  compression  was 
being  removed  by  the  extremely  cold  cylinder  walls. 

The  discharge-valve  springs  on  both  ends  of  the  com- 
pressor seem  to  be  too  strong,  although  this  may  be 
necessary  owing  to  the  speed  of  the  compressor,  as  the 
normal  speed  for  which  this  type  of  compressor  was 
designed  is  about  50  r.p.m. 

I  would  advise  that  lighter  springs  be  tried  and  some 
diagrams  taken  with  the  suction  temperature  regulated 
to  give  a  discharge  temperature  of  120  to  140  deg.  F. 

New  York  City.  F.  G.  Schoenfeld. 

Tallest  Chimney  in  the  World 

In  the  issue  of  Jan.  8,  1918,  page  56,  it  is  stated  that  a 
smelter  stack  in  Japan  is  570  ft.  tall  and  that  it  is  claimed 
tobethehighestintheworld.  I  am  sending  a  photograph  of 


TACOM.\,  WASH..  S.MKiyrKK  .-^TAi'K  572  h"V.   1"  IN.  HICH 

one  recently  completed  in  Tacoma,  Wash.,  by  the  Tacoma 
Smelting  Co.,  the  height  of  which,  from  top  of  the  con- 
crete base,  is  572  ft.   10  in.     It  is  50  ft.   in  diameter 


over-all  at  the  bottom,  where  the  walls  are  4*  ft.  thick. 
It  tapers  to  25  ft.  outside  diameter  at  top,  with  walls 
17  in.  thick.  The  chimney  is  lined  and  has  a  2-in.  dead- 
air  space  between  the  lining  and  walls.  The  concrete 
base  is  31  ft.  thick,  and  2,400,000  bricks  were  used  in 
constructing  the  chimney.  The  original  contract  called 
for  571  ft.,  but  it  was  built  1  ft.  10  in.  higher.  I  wish 
you  would  publish  this  in  Potver  as  we  don't  want  anyone 
to  get  away  with  anything  on  us.  Glenn  Martin. 
Tacoma,  Wash. 


Wire-Tightening  Tool 

It  is  generally  a  somewhat  difficult  job,  without  the 
use  of  proper  tools,  to  get  a  hold  on  an  insulated  or  a 
bare  wire  to  take  a  strain  on  it  without  injuring  the 
insulation  or  kinking  the  wire,  especially  if  the  con- 
ductors are  of  large  size.     It  was  to  provide  a  satis- 


-1'"^ 


i'FyrBiiVs 


Pul/ 


^^ 


PARTS    AXIl    A.SSRMHI.V    (II'    WIRR-TIGHTENINC.    TOOL 

factory  means  for  putting  the  proper  tension  in  elec- 
trical conductors  when  they  are  being  run  in  the  open 
on  insulators  that  the  tool  shown  at  A  in  the  figure  was 
devised. 

The  construction  of  the  device  is  self -explanatory,  and 
the  dimensions  given  are  sufficient  for  anyone  to  go 
ahead  and  make  one.  The  one  shown  was  made  from  a 
taper  pin  1.5  in.  in  diameter  on  the  large  end  and  1  in. 
on  the  small  end.  Eye-bolts  in  the  pieces  B  are  used  to 
apply  the  strain  to  the  conductor.  The  grooves  in  the 
movable  parts  must  be  cut  of  sufficient  size  to  allow 
the  large  end  of  the  V  on  the  stationary  parts  to  fit  into 
them  as  at  C,  or  the  former  will  jam  on  the  latter.  To 
take  a  strain  on  a  wire  from  two  directions  two  of  the 
tools  mAy  be  used,  spaced  at  convenient  distances  apart 
on  the  conductor,  with  a  rope  run  through  the  eye-bolts 
to  apply  the  tension,  as  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  fig- 
ure. The  dimensions  shown  in  the  figure  are  right  for  a 
tool  to  be  used  on  conductors  up  to  2  in.  diameter. 

Ozone  Park,  N.  Y.  M.  P.  Bertrande. 


The  buying  of  War-Saving  Stamps  has  developed  a 
finer  sense  of  thrift  and  economy  among  the  people. 


March  5,   1018  POWER  341 

DIIIIIUUUlllllUIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIinMIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMnMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIII^ 

I  I 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  | 


^llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllinilllMIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIMIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM 


Greater  Sensitiveness  of  Loaded  Governors  -How  does 
loading  an  engine  governor  affect  its  sensitiveness? 

W.  N.  B. 

Omitting  friction,  the  sensitiveness  of  a  loaded  or  un- 
loaded governor  would  be  theoretically  the  same.  But  in 
practice  the  friction  of  a  governor  and  its  gear  may  be 
considerable,  and  the  sensitiveness  of  a  loaded  governor  is 
actually  much  greater  than  the  unloaded  one,  as  the  fric- 
tion is  a  smaller  proportion  of  the  total  forces  acting  on 
the  governor  when  loaded  than  when  unloaded. 

Long  Pump-Suction  Pipes  Objectionable — What  are  the 
objections  to  a  long  pump-suction  pipe?  R.  H. 

Long  suction  pipes  are  objectionable  because  the  greater 
amount  of  pipe  friction  to  be  overcome  by  the  suction  pres- 
sure requires  the  pump  to  make  a  higher  vacuum;  the 
momentum  of  the  suction  water  at  each  reversal  of  the 
pump,  or  sudden  stoppage  of  the  pump,  may  be  productive 
of  damaging  water-hammer;  and  in  addition  to  having  more 
joints  to  give  trouble  from  air  leakage,  with  the  water 
taking  longer  time  for  its  passage  through  the  suction  pipe, 
more  air  is  libei-ated  out  of  the  water,  thus  impairing  the 
capacity  and  proper  operation  of  the  pump  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  with  a  short  suction  pipe. 

Location  for  Tightener-Idler  Pulley — Where  should  a 
tightener-idler  pulley  be  placed  for  increasing  the  driving 
capacity  of  a  belt  when  there  is  short  distance  between 
centers  of  the  main  pulleys  ?  H.  B.  F. 

An  idler  should  be  employed  for  increasing  the  arc  of 
contact  of  the  belt  on  the  smaller  pulley  rather  than  for 
increasing  the  tension  of  the  belt  and  should  be  on  the  slack 
side  of  the  belt  near  the  smaller  pulley.  To  minimize  fric- 
tion, the  diameter  of  the  idler  should  be  as  large  as  com- 
patible with  obtaining  the  necessary  arc  of  belt  contact  on 
the  smaller  of  the  main  pulleys,  and  the  idler  frame  should 
be  held  to  its  position  by  means  of  screws  or  other  adjust- 
able fastenings. 

Disadvantage  of  Excess  Air — What  is  the  disadvantage 
of  excess  air  to  a  boiler  furnace  ?  R.  A.  E. 

The  surplus  air  has  to  be  heated  up  to  the  furnace  tem- 
perature without  adding  anything  to  the  combustion,  and 
carries  off  to  the  chimney  as  many  units  of  heat  as  are  re- 
quired to  raise  it  from  the  temperature  at  which  it  enters 
the  furnace  to  the  temperature  at  which  it  enters  the  up- 
take, or  about  0.24  of  one  B.t.u.  per  degree  difference  of 
temperature  for  each  pound  of  excess  air.  To  be  sure  that 
each  atom  of  carbon  of  the  fuel  will  meet  with  an  abundance 
of  oxygen,  it  is  necessary  to  admit  50  to  100  per  cent,  more 
air  than  is  required  for  theoretically  complete  combustion, 
and  determining  what  proportion  of  excess  air  is  most  ad- 
vantageous is  best  done  by  flue-gas  analysis. 

Deposit  of  Scale  at  Girth  Seam  Over  Fire — Where  scale 
is  formed  by  the  feed  water  of  a  return-tubular  boiler  why 
is  there  greater  accumulation  of  scale  at  the  girth  seam 
over  the  fire?  J.  J.  O. 

Local  deposits  of  scale  are  generally  due  to  the  circula- 
tion. In  a  return-tubular  boiler  the  heat  of  the  fire  causes 
disengagement  of  steam  bubbles  that,  in  rising  to  the  steam 
space,  induce  an  upward  current  of  the  water,  which  is  re- 
placed by  a  flow  along  the  bottom  from  the  rear  of  the 
boiler.  The  change  in  the  direction  of  the  circulation  and 
also  the  obstruction  offered  to  flow  by  the  rivets  and  lap  of 
the  joint  cause  eddies  and  swirls  that  include  places  where 
the  water  is  quieter  and  out  of  which  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  suspended  matter  is  precipitated  than  from  water  that 
is  moving  at  higher  velocity. 

Wasting   Live   Steam    When    Used    With    Exhaust — In   a 

plant  where  exhaust  steam  for  heating  is  supplemented  by 
live  steam  passed  through  a  pressure-reducing  valve,  less 
total  steam  appears  to  be  required  from  the  boilers  to  do 
the  same  heating  when  no  e.xhaust  is  used  and  the  heating 


apparatus  is  supplied  with   only  live  steam.     What  is  the 
explanation?  A.  B.  C. 

The  results  obtained  signify  that  when  the  exhaust  is  used 
in  conjunction  with  live  steam,  there  must  be  a  waste  of 
more  heat  than  the  exhaust  is  capable  of  supplying.  This 
may  result  from  escape  of  steam  through  the  back-pressure 
relief  valve  because  the  heating  apparatus  is  oversupplied, 
or  rejects  steam  at  the  I'elief  pressure  of  the  back-pressure 
valve;  or  from  passage  of  unused  steam  through  the  ap- 
paratus and  discharging  it  direct  to  the  atmosphere;  or  that 
the  excess  of  steam  is  received  by  a  vacuum  pump  that  re- 
moves more  steam  than  should  be  necessary  for  obtaining 
good  circulation  in  the  heating  apparatus.  When  live  steam 
is  used  to  supplement  exhaust,  a  waste  is  likely  to  occur 
unless  the  discharge  pressure  of  the  live-steam  pressure- 
reducing  valve  is  well  below  the  pressure  at  which  the  back- 
pressure relief  valve  opens,  or  when  unused  steam  is 
allowed  to  escape  from  the  heating  apparatus. 

Estimate  of  Chimney  Draft — What  should  be  the  force  of 
draft,  in  inches  of  water,  of  a  brick  chimney  120  ft.  high 
with  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  40  deg.  F.  and  tem- 
perature of  the  chimney  gases  .500  deg.  P.?  N.  G.  D. 

The  force  of  draft  may  be  found  by  the  following  formula, 
which  makes  an  allowance  of  20  per  cent,  for  friction  in 
the  chimney: 

D  =  QA2H  X  P{\  -  ^),  wbe  " 

D  =  Force  of  draft  in  inches  of  water   shown  by  the 

difference  of  level  of  water  in  a  U-tube; 
H  =  Height  of  the  chimney  in  feet; 
P  =  Pressure  of  atmosphere  in  pounds  per  square  inch 

(14.7  at  sea  level)  ; 
t  =  Absolute   temperature  of  atmosphere    (deg.   F.    + 

460); 
T  =  Absolute    temperature    of    gases    in    the    chimney 

deg.  F.  +  460)  ; 
Substituting  gives, 

D  =  0.42  X  120  X  14.7  (gip  -  ^^j  =  0.71  in.  of  water 

Slippage  and  Readjustment  of  Eccentric  Without  indi- 
cating an  engine  or  uncovering  the  valve,  how  may  it  be 
known  whether  the  eccentric  of  an  engine  has  slipped  on 
the  shaft?  ij.  G. 

Slippage  usually  has  the  appearance  of  having  occurred 
backward,  though  in  fact  due  to  the  shaft  having  continued 
in  forward  rotation  while  the  setscrew  or  other  fastening  of 
the  eccentric  to  the  shaft  was  not  sufficient  to  overcome  tha 
resistance  that  the  valve  and  valve  gear  offered  to  their 
motion.  If  the  initial  position  of  the  eccentric  cannot  be 
determined  by  the  setscrew  impression  on  the  shaft  or  other 
marking,  then,  to  test  the  position,  place  the  engine  nearly 
on  the  center  and  turn  it  forwawl  until  steam  begins  to 
be  admitted  as  may  be  seen  by  opening  the  throttle  a  little 
and  observing  when  steam  is  seen  to  issue  from  an  indicator 
hole  or  drip-cock  in  the  end  of  the  cylinder.  Then  place  the 
engine  on  the  other  center  to  see  whether  the  same  amount 
of  lead  is  obtained.  If  there  does  not  seem  to  be  the  same 
amount  of  lead,  readjust  the  eccentric  forward  or  backward 
to  compensate  for  one-half  the  apparent  difference.  It 
does  not  follow,  however,  that  because  the  eccentric  is 
turned  to  the  correct  position  to  give  equal  leads  that  the 
valve  is  properly  set,  for  if  the  valve  rod  was  not  in  proper 
length  of  adjustment,  the  other  valve  events  will  not  be 
equalized. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  addresses 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications  and   for   the   inquiries   to   receive   attention 

Editor.] 


342 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


Internal-Combustion-Engine  Lubrication 


By  W.  F.  OSBORNE 


Some  of  the  important  facts  relating  to  the  lubri- 
cation of  internal-comhustion  engines  are  set 
forth  and  discussed. 


THE  film  of  oil  placed  on  the  cylinder  walls  by  the 
piston  on  the  compression  strokes  of  an  internal-com- 
bustion engine  lubricates  the  piston  on  the  explosion 
stroke.  As  the  piston  moves  towards  the  crank,  the  walls 
are  exposed  to  the  high  temperatures  of  the  burning  gases; 
thus  the  flame  comes  in  contact  with  the  oil  film  only  after 
it  has  served  its  purpose  of  lubricating  the  piston  on  the 
instroke.  The  greater  part  of  the  damage  to  the  oil  film 
is  done  during  the  firing  stroke.  The  oil  between  the 
rings  and  between  the  piston  and  cylinder  walls  also  is 
subjected  to  the  pressure  of  the  burning  fuel  and  thus  as- 
sists the  piston  ring  in  preventing  loss  of  power  through 
leakage  of  gases  into  the  crank  case.  If  there  is  any  trouble 
with  the  lubrication,  it  will  occur  on  the  exhaust  stroke, 
as  the  oil  film  on  the  cylinder  wall  has  just  been  exposed 
to  the  high  temperature  of  the  burning  gases  and  has  un- 
doubtedly been  somewhat  damaged.  However,  if  the  oil 
possesses  the  proper  characteristics,  some  lubricating  value 
remains,  which,  together  with  the  oil  film  on  the  piston  it- 
self, lubricates  the  piston  on  this  stroke. 

There  are,  in  the  mechanical  construction  and  in  the 
operating  conditions  of  an  engine,  a  number  of  factors 
which  determine  the  characteristics  of  an  oil  that  will  sat- 
isfactorily meet  the  requirements  cited.  Some  of  the  more 
important  of  these  are:  Temperatures  in  the  cylinders, 
piston  clearance,  speed,  cooling  systems,  ignition,  fuels, 
carburetion  and  oiling  systems. 

Effect  of  Temperature  Conditions 

The  temperatures  existing  in  the  cylinder  of  a  four- 
stroke-cycle  engine  as  given  by  Lieut.  G.  S.  Bryan,  U.  S.  N., 
in  his  paper  on  "Motor  Cylinder  Lubrication,"  published 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Naval  Engineers,  February, 
1915,  are  as  follows: 

Maximum  temperatures  obtained  at  top  of  explosion 
stroke,  2700  deg.  F.;  minimum  temperature  during  suction 
stroke,  250  deg.  F.;  and  an  average  temperature  during 
the  complete  cycle,  950  deg.  F.  These  are  the  temperatures 
of  the  gases  in  the  cylinder,  and  not  of  the  cylinder  walls. 

Basing  calculations  on  an  investigation  made  by  the 
Bureau  of  Mines  in  1912,  of  the  transmission  of  heat  in 
steam  boilers,  it  would  appear  that  the  temperature  of 
the  inner  surface  of  the  cylinder  walls  ranges  from  55  to 
60  deg.  higher  than  that  of  the  circulating  water.  Later 
investigations  have  shown  the  temperature  difference  to  be 
as  low  as  30  deg.  in  some  instances.  As  long  as  the  water 
is  not  boiling,  the  cylinder-wall  temperatures  will  hardly  be 
much  better  than  267  deg.  F.,  while  at  normal  circulating- 
water  temperatures  of  140  to  150  deg.  F.,  the  wall  tempera- 
tures will  probably  range  from  170  to  210  deg.  F.  The 
temperature  of  the  center  of  the  piston  head,  which  in 
most  cases  is  not  water-cooled,  runs  from  800  to  1300 
deg.  F. 

The  maximum  temperature  of  2700  deg.  F.  occurs  when 
tlie  piston  is  practically  at  dead-center,  and  the  tempera- 
ture then  rapidly  drops  as  the  piston  moves  inward,  un- 
covering the  oil  film  and  exposing  it  to  the  flame  until  the 
end  of  the  stroke.  The  outer  surface  of  the  oil  film  in 
contact  with  the  cylinder  walls  at  the  comparatively  low 
temperature  of  between  170  and  210  deg.  F.  is  probably 
never  affected  by  the  high  temperatures,  but  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  oil  film,  directly  exposed  to  the  flame,  is  un- 
doubtedly damaged,  probably  the  greater  part  being  de- 
stroyed. 

With  a  maximum  gas  temperature  of  2700  deg.  F.,  and 
an  average  temperature  of  950  deg.  F.,  as  it  is  impossible 


•Abstract  from  a  paper  published  in  .Tanuaiy.  1918.  issue  of  the 
National    Gas   Engine    Association's    Bulletin. 


to  produce  a  petroleum  lubricating  oil  of  any  kind  ha\'ing 
a  flash  point  over  700  deg.  F.,  it  would  seem  that  any  oil  film 
would  be  promptly  destroyed  and  that  the  so-called  high- 
flash  oil  of  450  deg.  F.  would  afford  very  little  more  re- 
sistance to  burning  than  a  low-flash  oil  of  325  deg.,  under 
these  conditions.  Either  oil  will  burn  if  kept  in  contact  with 
these  temperatures  for  any  appreciable  time,  so  that  the 
outer  surface  of  the  oil  film  will  be  affected,  regardless  of 
the  flash  point  of  the  oil.  However,  lubricating  oils  burn 
comparatively  slowly,  and  in  the  short  period  the  film  is 
exposed  to  the  flame  it  will  not  be  completely  destroyed  if 
it  is  of  the  proper  thickness.  It  would  therefore  appear 
that  the  film  must  be  thick  enough  to  permit  of  a  part  be- 
ing destroyed  and  at  the  same  time  sufficient  thickness  of 
good  oil  being  maintained  to  lubricate  the  piston  and  cylin- 
der on  the  exhaust  stroke. 

While  the  high  temperatures  of  the  exhaust  gases,  around 
800  deg.  F.,  continue  to  destroy  the  film  on  the  exhaust 
stroke,  the  advancing  piston  smears  a  fresh  film  of  oil 
over  the  cylinder's  surface,  which  lubricates  the  piston  for 
the  suction  stroke.  The  cool,  fresh  charge  of  fuel,  even 
when  mixed  with  the  exhaust  gases  remaining  in  the  cyl- 
inder, does  not  average  over  250  deg.  F.,  so  that  no  damage 
is  done  to  the  oil  from  high  temperatures  on  this  stroke. 
As  the  increase  in  temperature  on  the  compression  stroke 
does  not  become  very  great  until  the  piston  has  completed 
the  greater  part  of  its  stroke,  there  is  very  little  effect  on 
the  oil  film.  An  oil  to  be  suitable  should  maintain  a  film 
of  a  proper  thickness  under  the  working  temperatures 
of  the  cylinder. 

The  Effect  of  Piston  Clearance 

The  seal  between  the  pistons  and  cylinders  obtained  by 
mechanical  means  is  secured  at  the  expense  of  greatly  in- 
creased friction.  In  fact,  the  rings  can  be  so  tight  that 
the  engine  cannot  be  turned  over  at  all.  A  more  desirable 
form  of  seal  can  be  secured  by  making  use  of  the  film  of 
lubricating  oil  necessarily  existing  for  lubrication.  As  the 
piston  advances,  a  supply  of  oil  builds  up  on  the  edge  of 
the  piston  head  and  on  the  advancing  side  of  the  rings, 
which  opposes  the  force  of  the  compressed  gases,  and  if  the 
lubricating  oil  has  sufficient  strength  or  viscosity  to  resist 
the  force  of  the  gases,  a  perfect  seal  is  obtained. 

The  benefits  secured  by  a  perfect  seal  maintained  by  the 
lubricating  oil  are:  Minimum  lubricating-oil  consumption; 
minimum  fuel  consumption,  by  preventing  leakage  of  fuel 
past  the  rings  on  compression  and  waste  of  power  on  fir- 
ing stroke;  minimum  friction,  through  the  use  of  looser- 
fitting  pistons  and  rings  working  on  a  lubricating  film; 
minimum  carbon,  due  to  minimum  quantity  of  oil  working 
into  the  combustion  space.  Where  a  crank-case  oiling  sys- 
tem is  provided,  a  perfect  seal,  by  preventing  the  hot  gases 
from  reaching  the  crank  case,  maintains  lower  oil  tempera- 
tures and  thus  prevents  excessive  bearing  and  cooling-wa- 
ter temperatures.  In  the  operation  of  crank-case  oiled  en- 
gines, a  perfect  seal  is  of  great  benefit,  as  it  prevents  liquid 
fuel  or  vapors  from  passing  the  rings  and  later  condensing 
into  a  liquid  in  the  crank  case,  thus  thinning  down  the  oil 
and  destroying  it. 

Cause  of  Thinning  Down  op  Oil 
Some  elaborate  experiments  were  made  in  1911  to  de- 
termine the  cause  of  this  thinning  down  of  the  oil.  During 
these  experiments  many  different  kinds  of  oil  were  run  to 
the  breaking  point  in  a  Singer  motor.  An  examination 
before  and  after  the  test  showed,  in  every  case,  that  the 
body  of  the  oil  had  become  lighter  and  that  the  flash  point 
had  been  lowered,  sometimes  to  the  surprisingly  low  point 
of  150  deg.  F.,  whereas  the  original  oil  had  a  flash  point 
of  450  deg.  F.  To  determine  whether  this  was  caused  from 
the  breaking  down  of  the  oil  or  its  being  thinned  by  the 
amount  of  fuel  working  past  the  piston  rings,  tests  were 
made,  using  benzol  as  a  fuel.  The  presence  of  benzol  is 
readily  detected  in  lubricating  oil,  whereas  gasoline  or 
kerosene  and  the  products  of  the  decomposition  of  a  pe- 
troleum oil,  which  are  similar  to  gasoline,  are  not.    These 


r 


Marth  5,  1918 


POWER 


343 


tests  ostablisheil  the  fact  that  the  pas  leaked  past  the  piston 
rings,  evidently  afterward  condensing  and  affecting  the 
motor  oil.  As  high  as  3  per  cent,  of  benzol  was  found  in 
the  motor  oil  after  four  hours'  running.  The  effect  of 
this  admixture  of  fuel  is  to  lower  the  flash  and  fire,  increase 
the  Baunie  gravity  and  lower  the  viscosity.  Many  tests 
made  in  subsequent  years  confirm  these  general  facts. 

Judging  from  these  tests  it  would  appear  that  a  large 
proportion  of  motors  of  this  type  operate  on  an  oil  that 
is  quite  different  from  the  new  oil  introduced  into  the  en- 
gine. This  varying  condition  of  the  oil  i^  directly  the  re- 
sult of  the  condition  of  the  engine,  and  the  condition  of 
the  engine,  as  time  goes  on,  is  the  result  of  the  changed  con- 
dition of  the  lubricating  oil.  What  becomes  of  the  argu- 
ment that  a  high-flash  oil  is  necessary  to  properly  lubri- 
cate motors,  when  this  same  oil  promptly  has  a  flash  point 
of  200  deg.  F.  when  the  motor  is  warmed  up  and  operating  ? 
The  Effect  ok  Time  of  Complete  Cycle 

A  thin  film  of  oil  smeared  on  a  hot  (300  deg.  F.)  piece 
of  iron  or  steel  will  burn  several  seconds  if  ignited,  so  that 
even  with  the  engine  running  as  slowly  as  100  r.p.m.,  if 
the  oil  film  is  of  reasonable  thickness  it  will  not  be  entire- 
ly destroyed.  When  the  speed  is  increased  to  1000  r.p.m., 
as  in  the  case  of  automobiles,  which  allows  a  total  time  of 
0.06  of  a  second,  and  even  less  with  higher  speed  motors, 
for  the  lubricating-oil  film  to  be  exposed  to  the  burning 
gases,  the  viscosity  of  the  oil,  and  consequently  the  thick- 
ness of  the  film,  can  be  reduced  considerably  without  meet- 
ing with  trouble.  In  any  case  the  viscosity  should  be  high 
enough  to  maintain  a  film  of  such  thickness  that  it  will 
not  be  destroyed  on  the  firing  and  exhaust  strokes. 

Air-cooled  motors,  such  as  motor-cycle  engines,  air-plane 
engines  and  one  or  two  types  of  automobile  engines,  natur- 
ally run  with  very  hot  cylinders.  With  circulating-water 
systems  it  is  possible  to  hold  the  cylinder-wall  temperatures 
at  a  much  lower  point,  and  the  required  viscosity  of  a 
suitable  oil  will  be  higher  or  lower  as  the  cooling  water 
leaving  the  cylinder  jacket  is  hotter  or  cooler.  With  a 
given  oil  the  cooler  the  engine  the  better  will  be  the  seal, 
owing  to  the  increased  viscosity  of  the  oil. 

If  ignition  takes  place  at  exactly  the  proper  time,  re- 
sulting in  the  most  complete  combustion  possible  of  the 
fuel  mixture  supplied,  the  temperature  falls  off  rapidly. 
If  the  spark  is  retarded,  a  slower  and  later  burning  results, 
extending  over  a  considerable  portion  of  the  stroke.  Con- 
tinuous retarded-spark  operation  raises  the  tempei-ature 
of  the  cylinder  walls  and  the  cooling  water,  thinning  down 
the  oil  and  frequently  reducing  its  viscosity  to  the  danger- 
ous point. 

Effect  of  Different  Fuels 

,  Natural  gas,  blast-furnace  gas,  producer  gas  and  coke- 
oven  gas,  being  comparatively  slow-burning,  do  not  produce 
high  initial  temperatures,  but  expose  the  oil  to  more 
severe  temperature  conditions.  These  slow-burning  gases 
are  generally  used  in  comparatively  low-speed  engines  on 
account  of  the  time  required  for  complete  combustion,  and 
a  thicker  oil  film  on  the  walls  is  necessary  for  protection 
against  the  long  exposure  to  high  temperatures. 

Kerosene  being  slow  burning,  slower  than  gasoline,  per- 
mits of  higher  compression,  and  requiring  somewhat  high- 
er circulating-water  temperatures,  imposes  a  severe  serv- 
ice on  the  lubricating  oil,  which  must  have  exceptionally 
good  body  and  lubi'icating  qualities  to  stand  up  to  the  re- 
quirements. 

The  question  of  complete  carburetion  or  vaporization  of 
the  fuel  has  great  bearing  on  the  efficiency  of  lubrication. 
The  ideal  condition  is,  of  course,  high  initial  pressure,  and 
very  early,  complete  combustion,  approaching  the  gunpow- 
der explosion.  In  this  case  the  maximum  temperatures  are 
obtained  when  the  piston  completely  covers  the  working 
surface  of  the  cylinders  and  the  lubricating  film  is  not 
exposed  to  these  extremely  high  temperatures.  If  the 
fuel  is  not  completely  vaporized  and  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  proper  proportion  of  air,  slow  burning  occurs, 
with  the  bad  effects  indicated  in  the  foregoing. 

The  method  of  supplying  the  oil  to  the  cylinders  and  bear- 
ings affects  somewhat  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  that  can  be 
used,  in  that  the  suitable  oil  must  be  thin  enough  to  flow 
to  the  parts  to  be  lubricated  from  the  point  of  supply;  but 


instead  of  selecting  an  oil  that  is  suitable  for  working  in 
the  system  provided,  it  seems  much  better  to  select  an  oil 
suitable  for  the  parts  to  be  lubricated  and  then  arrange 
the  oiling  system  to  properly  handle  that  oil. 

The  most  discussed,  perhaps  becjjuse  it  is  the  most  visibl", 
efl'ect  of  unsuitable  oil,  is  the  carbon  deposit  in  the  com- 
bustion space,  on  the  valves,  the  piston  head  and  behind 
the  rings.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  all  carbon  de- 
posits are  caused  by  poor  oil  or  by  poor  gasoline,  whereas 
the  carbon  deposits  may  be  caused,  and  probably  in  many 
cases  are  caused,  by  the  use  of  unsuitable  oil  or  imperfect 
carburetion.  An  analysis  of  the  carbon  deposits  in  a  cyl- 
inder generally  shows  the  presence  of  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  dust,  drawn  in  through  the  air  intake,  and  rust  hehi 
together  by  a  small  quantity  of  oil. 

A  motor  oil  should  consist  of  refined  and  filtered  mineral 
oils  or  mixtures,  having  a  cold  test  of  not  ever  2.5  deg.  F., 
fully  suitable  for  use  in  internal-combustion  engines.  An 
oil  meeting  these  specifications  would  be  perfectly  satis- 
factory when  used  in  an  engine  for  which  it  was  suitable, 
its  suitability  being  largely  determined  by  its  viscosity. 

There  are  a  number  of  tests  that  are  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  suitability  of  a  lubricating  oil, 
which  it  might  be  well  to  mention,  together  with  the  quali- 
ties they  determine. 

The  gravity  reading  is  merely  an  indication  of  the  crude 
from  which  a  lubricant  is  i-efined,  and  is  no  indication 
of  its  lubricating  value  for  internal-combustion  cylinders. 

Flash  and  fire  tests  are  no  indication  of  the  ability  of  an 
oil  to  stand  up  under  the  workin?;-  temperatures  of  the 
cylinders.  As  previously  stated,  the  temperatures  in  the 
cylinders  are  far  beyond  the  highest  possible  flash  tests  of 
any  lubricating  oil,  and  a  high-flasli  oil  would  aft'ord  very 
little  more  resistance  to  destruction  than  a  low-flash-te.st 
oil. 

The    pour   test    is    an    indication    of   the   temperature    at 
which  the  oil  will  flow,  and  where  the  engine  is  operated 
under  conditions  of  temperature  below  .30  deg.  F.  the  pour 
test  of  the  oil  is  of  considerable  importance. 
Viscosity  of  Oils 

The  viscosity  reading  is  the  measure  of  the  body  of  the 
oil,  and  may  also  be  considered  as  a  measure  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  film  of  oil  maintained  on  the  cylinder  walls. 
It  is  also  an  indication  of  the  ability  of  the  oil  to  resist 
the  pressure  of  the  explosion  gases,  which  tend  to  force 
their  way  past  the  piston  rings.  In  other  words,  the  high- 
er the  viscosity  the  greater  will  be  the  ability  of  the  oil  to 
withstand  the  high  temperatures  encountered  and  the  better 
would  be  the  effect  in  maintaining  the  piston  seal. 

The  average  purchaser  of  motor  oils,  having  no  data  on 
their  actual  viscosity  readings,  must  select  the  oil  according 
to  the  general  trade  name  of  light,  medium,  heavy  and  ex- 
tra-heavy motor  oils.  These  terms  at  present  having  a 
somewhat  indefinite  meaning,  it  would  appear  that  there  is 
a  great  need  for  the  standardization  of  viscosity,  and  th'i 
following  suggestions  are  made,  based  on  the  viscosity  of 
100  deg.  F.,  Saybolt  Universal  Viscosimeter:  Motor  oil, 
light,  from  170  to  230  sec;  medium,  from  270  to  330  sec; 
heavy,  from  470  to  .530  sec;  extra-heavy,  from  720  to  780 
seconds. 

Color  in  itself  is  no  indication  of  the  lubricating  value 
of  an  oil.  About  the  only  information  as  to  its  value  that 
can  be  obtained  from  noting  the  color  is  whether  or  not 
the  oil  is  contaminated  by  moistui-e  or  foi-eign  matter. 

The  author  realizes  that  there  are  a  number  of  addition- 
al influences  affecting  the  selection  of  suitable  oils,  but 
it  is  hoped  that  the  points  brought  out  will  be  of  some 
benefit  to  those  interested  in  the  use  and  purchase  of  in- 
ternal-combustion cylinder  oils. 


Under  the  Iowa  statute  which  empowers  cities  to  fix  the 
rates  to  be  charged  by  electric-Dower  companies  and  other 
public  utilities,  and  under  a  power  company's  franchise, 
fixing  a  schedule  of  charges  on  the  basis  of  kilowatt  con- 
sumption, without  any  provision  for  meter  charges,  the  com- 
pany is  not  entitled  to  increase  its  service  charges  by  im- 
posing a  meter  fee  or  by  any  other  subterfuge.  (Iowa 
Supreme  Court,  Iowa  Railway  and  Light  Co.  vs.  Jones  Auto 
Co.,  164  Northwestern  Reporter,  780.) 


344 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.   10 


Mixing  Coal  in  Storage 

By   GEORGE   FREDERICK  ZIMMER 


Because  of  the  problem  of  mixing  culm  and 
other  fine  coals  -with  bituminous  coal  preparatory 
to  use  in  boilers,  the  following  article  should  be 
of  especial  interest  to  American  engineers. 


THE  writer  will  here  deal  with  the  subject  of  accumu- 
lating coal  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  reclaimed 
fi&m  the  base  of  the  pile.  This  method  is  more  scien- 
tific and  has  the  advantage  that  not  only  is  accumulation  of 
the  small  coal  prevented,  but  the  coal  at  the  deepest  part  of 


FIG.  I 


FIG.  2 


FIG7 


Fie.  a 


PIGS.  1  TO  8.     SHOWING  MOVEMENT  OF  COAL,  AS  IT  RUNS 

OUT    OF    VARIOUS    SHAFTED    RUNKBRS    AS    REVEALED 

RY      COLORED      M.\TERI.\L.      DEPOSITED      IX 

ALTERNATE     L.\YBRS 

the  pile  is  kept  just  sufficiently  in  motion  for  the  bullv  to  be 
slightly  broken  every  time  coal  is  withdrawn,  two  advan- 
tages that  minimize  spontaneous  combustion  and  therefore 
make  a  deeper  or  higher  pile  admissible  with  a  sufficient  de- 

♦Fiom  rn  article  in  the  .Tan.   IS.   1918.   issue  of  "Engineering" 
(London),  entitled  Modein  Methods  for  tM  Storage  of  Coal. 


gree  of  safety.  This  is  important  if  the  available  storage 
area  is  limited,  as  is  often  the  case  in  plants  within  the 
precincts  of  large  cities. 

Concerning  the  movement  of  the  coal  in  a  hopper  pocket, 
it  might  not  here  be  out  of  place  to  record  the  results  of 
some  tests  made  by  the  writer.  The  diagram,  Fig.  1,  shows 
the  movement  of  a  granular  material,  which  was  deposited 
in  alternate  vertical  layers  of  different  color,  during  with- 
drawal; while  Figs.  2  to  4  show  three  stages  of  a  similar 
test  where  the  material  was  arranged  in  alternate  horizon- 
tal layers.  The  movement  in  bunkers  of  the  form  now  fre- 
quently employed  is  shown  in  Figs.  5  to  8. 

As  the  diameter  of  the  descending  column  in  the  bunker 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  outlet,  it  is  well  to  make  this 
as  large  as  possible  and  withdraw  the  coal  relatively  slow- 
ly by  employing  mechanical  feeding  devices.  A  large  outlet 
is  advantageous  for  a  twofold  object;  namely,  the  slowly 
descending  column  of  coal  will  have  a  ventilating  or  cool- 
ing effect  if  there  should  be  a  tendency  to  heat,  and  a 
larger  outlet  will  prevent,  or  at  least  lessen,  the  tendency 


FIG.  lO 


FIGS.  9  AND  10.     CONCRETE  BUNKERS  WHICH  DROP  COAL, 
INTO  CARS  LOCATED  IN  TUNNELS  BENE.VTH  THE  PILE 

for  large  pieces  to  bridge  or  cave  and  cause  a  stoppage  in 
the  coal  supply  through  the  outlet. 

The  diagrams  give  a  clear  picture  of  what  takes  place, 
nnd  if  the  sides  of  the  hoppers  are  chosen  of  a  more  shal- 
low or  even  a  somewhat  more  acute  angle,  it  will  not 
alter  the  proceedings;  as  soon  as  a  funnel-shaped  depres- 
sion has  been  formed  of  the  angle  of  repose  of  the  coal,  the 
pieces  ai-ound  the  crater  will  roll  down  and  descend. 

The  experiments  were  made  with  a  model  having  a  glass 
front,  but  in  practice  the  same  process  can  be  proved  to 
take  place,  for  if  the  upper  layer  of  coal  is  limewashed,  this 
washed  sui-face  will  not  be  distui'bed  beyond  the  formation 
of  a  crater;  that  is,  the  central  column  will  be  withdrawn 
from  the  bunkers  before  the  whitewashed  pieces  begin  to 
descend,  and  they  will  presently  appear  through  the  outlet. 
This  shows,  incidentally,  that  the  coal  deposited  last  in  the 
bunker  will  mix  with  some  of  that  stowed  earlier,  so  that 
we  might  almost  depend  on  having  in  the  descent  an  aver- 
age sample  of  the  contents  of  the  bunker,  provided  the  out- 
let is  big  enough.  Where  gas  pipes  are  used  in  such  coal 
stores  for  the  reception  of  thermometers — to  record  any 
change  in  the  temperature — these  pipes  remain  in  an  up- 
right position  as  the  coal-level  in  the  bunker  becomes  lower, 
until  practically  two-thirds  of  the  coal  which  used  to  hold 
them  has  been  withdrawn. 


Miiivh 


1918 


P  O  W  K  R 


345 


Cooperation  an  Essential  Element  in  the 

Winning  of  the  War 


By  E.  W.  rice.  jr. 

President.  r;<'nei;il    Klecli-ic  ("ci    anil   the  A,   r,   K.   R. 


Abstract  from  a  lecture  delivered  Feb.  15,  ut  the 
dinner  of  the  sixth  annual  midivinter  convention 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers 
held  in  New  York  City.  The  speaker  oiitlines 
what  the  country  has  already  accomplished  since 
entering  the  war  and  then  points  out  the  great 
need  of  cooperation  between  the  industrial  or- 
ganizations of  the  country,  and  between  these  or- 
ganizations and  the  Government  in  order  that 
the  'inaximum  output  of  brains,  labor  and  ma- 
terial may  be  obtaiiied. 


THERE  was  never  a  time  in  the  history  of  the  world 
when  work  was  more  needed  and  when  talking  is  only 
justified  which  may  help  forward  the  great  work  at 
hand.  We  all  know  what  that  great  job  is — the  winning  of 
the  war.  Everything  else  must  wait  and  take  a  back  seat 
until  that  job  is  done. 

We  were  all  greatly  encouraged  and  thrilled  during  the 
early  months  of  the  war  by  the  patriotic  attitude  of  Con- 
gress, which  supported  the  Administration  in  an  unprece- 
dented manner,  without  distinction  of  party. 

Activities  This  Country  Has  Started 

The  two  great  Liberty  Loans,  aggregating  between  five 
and  six  billion  dollars,  were  voted  and  raised  with  the  patri- 
otic and  enthusiastic  support  of  all  the  country,  and  we  are 
told  that  when  history  has  been  written  wicked  Wall 
Street  will  deserve  a  decoration  for  its  patriotic  and  efficient 
assistance.  A  great  scheme  of  taxation,  more  drastic  and 
bearing  more  heavily  upon  the  wealth  of  the  country  than 
anything  known  in  our  history,  has  been  passed  and  will 
be  loyally  supported  even  by  those  who  are  most  heavily  hit. 

The  selective-draft  system  was  prepared  and  put  into 
operation  and  accepted  by  the  country  in  a  truly  magnifi- 
cent manner.  The  Red  Cross  has  been  reorganized  and  an 
enormous  amount  raised  by  voluntary  subscriptions  and  is 
well  started  on  its  beneficent  and  valuable  mission.  The 
Knights  of  Columbus  are  also  doing  magnificent  work  in  a 
similar  field.  I  will  not  take  your  time  to  sketch  any 
further  the  tremendous  activities  which  this  country  has 
started  during  the  past  year. 

In  view  of  this  reeoi-d  of  accomplishment  and  our  truly 
splendid  start  in  the  war,  why  has  this  feeling  of  nervous- 
ness come  over  the  country  ?  Why  has  Congress  suddenly 
changed  its  attitude  of  unquestioning  support  to  one  of  in- 
vestigation and  criticism  ?  What  does  it  all  mean  ?  Is  it 
true  that  we  are  making  a  failure  of  the  job? 

It  seems  clear  to  me  that  we  have  not  made  a  failure 
and  that  everything  is  moving  along  as  well  as  we  had  a 
right  to  expect  under  all  the  circumstances.  When  we  con- 
sider that  less  than  a  year  ago,  our  nation  of  a  hundred 
million  of  people,  entirely  unprepared  for  war,  with  insti- 
tutions and  traditions  adapted  only  to  the  conditions  of  pro- 
found peace,  was  thrust  into  this  greatest  of  enterprises,  I 
think  we  have  already  accomplished  wonders  and  that  we 
should  not  be  discouraged.  In  spite  of  eminent  authority  a 
million  men  cannot  spring  to  arms  over  night,  nor  can 
dreadnaughts,  destroyers,  submarines,  anti-subn\arine  de- 
vices, heavy  ordnance  and  all  the  great  mechanism  of  war  be 
produced  in  a  day,  in  a  month,  or  even  in  a  year,  no  matter 
how  much  we  pray  or  "cuss"  or  work.  Business  men,  and 
especially  engineers  and  manufacturers  who  understand  the 
nature  of  the  equipment  required  for  this  conflict,  however, 
must  appreciate  that  our  fundamental,  and  let  us  hope  not 


fatal   mistake,  is  that  we  waited  until  the  war  was  thrust 
upon  us  before  we  started  to  get  ready. 

I  think  that  a  little  reflection  will  make  it  clear  that  the 
mistakes  we  have  made  since  we  started  in  the  war,  how- 
ever numerous  or  avoidable,  are  in  the  aggregate  negligible 
compared  with  the  overwhelming  mistake  of  failure  to  pre- 
pare for  the  war  during  191,5  and  1916.  That  precious  time 
has  been  lost  forever,  and  no  effort  or  time,  criticism  or 
talk  can  cancel  that  mistake  and  give  us  back  the  lost  time. 
We  must  expend  untold  billions  and  we  must  make  super- 
human efl'orts,  but  we  must  also  be  patient  and  realize  that 
inconsiderate  haste  is  likely  to  result  in  added  friction,  lost 
motion,  false  starts  and  a  general  retardation  of  our 
program. 

Done  Well  Since  We  Started  in  the  War 

While  it  would  seem  that,  considering  our  history  and  our 
type  of  government,  with  its  checks  and  balances,  we  have 
done  fairly  well  since  we  started  in  the  war,  we  realize  that 
ve  have  fallen  short  of  what  we  would  like  to  have  accom- 
plished, and  we  should  not  be  satisfied  nor  should  construc- 
tive criticism  be  discouraged.  I  believe,  however,  that  we 
should  not  become  unduly  disturbed,  but  rather  be  en- 
couraged at  the  prospect.  "While  there  is  life  there  is 
hope,"  and  the  very  fact  that  the  country  has  energy  enough 
to  kick  violently  while  it  is  woi-king,  clearly  demonstrates 
that  there  is  no  possibility  of  dissolution  or  thought  of 
defeat. 

It  seems  quite  probable  that  the  questioning  attitude  of 
the  country  today  is  due  more  than  anything  else  to  a  grow- 
ing fear  that  the  full  ability,  wisdom  and  experience  of  the 
country  is  not  being  properly  utilized.  When  at  war  every 
important  force  in  our  nation  must  be  enlisted  to  the  fullest 
extent  and  in  the  most  efficient  mannei-.  The  support  of 
the  country  has  been  magnificent.  Would  not  this  confidence 
be  greatly  strengthened  if  those  in  political  control  would 
look  beyond  their  party  and  take  into  the  service  of  the 
nation  its  strongest  men  without  reference  to  political 
affiliation  ? 

There  are  plenty  of  such  men  who  are  willing  to  help  the 
country,  and  the  country  wants  them  put  to  work  worthy  of 
their  records  and  abilities,  not  under  dictation  but  as  part- 
ners of  our  great  enterprise.  England  has  met  the  situation 
by  a  so-called  Coalition  Government.  Why  can't  we  do 
something  similar? 

Large  Number  Volunteer  for  Service 

The  country  is  greatly  encouraged  at  the  large  number  of 
able  men,  prominent  in  business  and  otlier  walks  of  life,  who 
have  volunteei'ed  for  service  in  various  departments  of  the 
Government  and  who  have  been  accepted  and  set  to  work. 
This  policy  should  be  encouraged,  as  the  more  it  is  followed 
the  better  the  country  will  be  satisfied  and  the  sooner  we 
will  win  the  war. 

It  is  essential  that  the  men  who  are  charged  with  enor- 
mous responsibilities  in  our  Governmental  enterprises  have 
the  confidence  of  the  country,  as  their  orders,  no  matter  how 
di'astic  or  arbitrary  or  apparently  unnecessary,  should  be 
followed  with  confidence.  .4t  the  present  time  orders  are 
patriotically  obeyed,  but  with  some  misgiving.  There  is 
no  lack  of  confidence  in  their  good  intentions  and  character, 
but  there  is  some  questioning  of  their  wisdom  and  practical 
experience. 

Every  organization  must  demonstrate  what  it  can  do  to 
help  the  country  in  its  hour  of  need.  Every  organization, 
whether  of  capital,  labor,  manufacture  or  business,  and 
every  individual  must  be  subjected  to  the  test  of  whether 
it  is  doing  its  best  and  most  eft^ective  work  to  win  the  war. 
This  will  be  the  only  and  supreme  test.     Every  individual 


346 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


who  fails  to  put  forth  the  maximum  effovt  in  the  most 
efficient  manner  must  be  brought  into  line. 

It  is  obvious  that  no  single  element  by  itself  can  win 
the  war.  Capital  alone  is  helpless;  labor  alone  is  equally 
helpless.  The  Navy  cannot  win  without  the  help  of  the 
Army,  and  both  are  helpless  without  ships.  The  sacrifices 
cannot  be  made  by  capital  alone,  or  by  labor  alone,  but  must 
be  distributed  on  a  fair  basis. 

The  test  of  patriotism  will  be  the  willingness  to  work, 
each  in  his  own  sphere,  to  the  absolute  limit.  We  need  the 
maximum  output  of  brains,  labor  and  material;  the  country 
demands  it,  and  the  country  will  see  that  it  is  obtained.  Any 
man  or  organization  of  men  that  stands  in  the  way  of  the 
purpose  which  this  country  has  set  for  itself  will  be  even- 
tually crushed. 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  build  up  a  new  organization 
that  will  operate  satisfactorily  at  once.  It  has  taken  many 
years  to  build  and  perfect  the  great  industrial  organizations 
of  our  country.  The  transfer  of  a  man  to  Government  serv- 
ice does  not  change  his  character  or  necessarily  increase 
his  efficiency.  After  any  organization  has  been  brought 
into  existence,  time  is  required  for  the  different  units  to 
learn  their  duties  and  particularly  to  learn  how  to  cooperate 
with  one  another. 

It  takes  time  for  us  to  get  over  our  ideas  and  practices, 
based  upon  our  competitive  conditions  and  education.  We 
are  now  to  forget  our  education  in  competition,  and  think 
of  nothing  but  cooperation;  in  other  words,  of  what  is  best 
to  increase  the  country's  production  as  a  whole,  for  that  is 
vital  in  winning  the  war. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  Navy  and  Army  cannot  be  built 
up  without  drawing  upon  the  organization  and  facilities  of 
the  country  and  that  their  activities  cannot  be  maintained 
without  an  efficient  industrial  organization  constantly  at 
work  behind  them  in  this  country.  Therefoi-e,  our  Govern- 
ment, as  well  as  ourselves,  must  never  forget  that  the 
preservation  of  the  counti-y's  industries  in  the  highest  state 
of  efficiency  is  a  vital  matter. 

I  like  the  President's  expression,  "Spirit  of  accommoda- 
tion," for  that  is  an  essential  element  of  cooperation. 

Now  I  wish  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  it  takes  time  to 
produce  really  efficient  cooperation.  No  new  organization 
can  possibly  work  as  smoothly  and  effectively  as  one  which 
has  had  time  to  become  perfected.  Moreover,  cooperation 
in  Washington  between  departments  will  not  entirely  settle 
the  matter.  We  have  a  duty  to  perform.  There  must  be 
cooperation  among  the  industries.  We  must  forget  to  com- 
pete and  learn  to  cooperate  with  other  units. 

But  this  is  not  all;  we  must  have  cooperation  between  the 
Government  and  industries,  and  to  be  effective,  this  means 
that  each  must  be  a  party  to  the  cooperation.  It  cannot  be 
a  "lion  and  lamb"  sort  of  affair.  If  the  Governmental 
heads  use  their  vast  power  arbitrarily  and  unwisely,  they 
can  easily  cripple  the  industries  of  the  country,  and  thus 
delay  victory  for  years. 

I  believe  that  the  problems  facing  us  will  be  successfully 
solved  in  time,  but  we  need  more  cooperation,  more  of  the 
spirit  of  accommodation,  all  our  patience  and  wisdom  and, 
above  all,  a  willingness  to  work  to  the  limit. 

We  must  discipline  ourselves  until  a  shirker  in  any  field 
of  useful  effort  will  be  regarded  with  the  same  contempt 
as  a  shirker  in  the  military  service  of  the  country,  for 
there  is  no  difference,  or  if  there  is  any  difference,  a  shirker 
behind  the  lines  is  worse  than  one  in  the  trenches. 


It  has  taken  a  world  tragedy,  the  tragedy  of  war,  to 
arouse  the  nation  to  an  appreciation  of  the  value  of  its 
technical  men.  This  great  strife  is  not,  as  in  other  ages,  a 
contest  of  brute  force  in  which  the  bulkiest  muscle  is  bound 
to  win,  but  it  is  a  battle  of  intellectual  giants  struggling  for 
supremacy  in  destructive  creation,  and  protective  and  de- 
fensive development.  The  civil  engineer,  the  mechanical 
engineer,  the  electrical  engineer,  the  mining  engineer,  the 
chemical  engineer,  the  aeronautic  engineer,  the  marine 
engineer — a  great  cooperative  brotherhood  working  for 
peace  and  victory — have  cast  their  skill,  knowledge  and 
effort  into  a  crucible  from  which  our  country  is  drawing 
the  metal  from  which  victory  will  be  fabricated  and  a  world 
peace  be  secured. — American  Association  of  Engineers. 


Ships,  Ships,   and   More   Ships 

The  question  of  whether  we  ai-e  going  to  allow  our  coun- 
try to  become  a  German  province  has  now  to  be  answered. 
And  it  must  be  answered  by  ships,  and  ships,  and  more 
ships.  It  must  be  answered  now — at  this  moment.  We 
have  got  to  decide  instantly  whether  we  are  going  to  live 
up  to  our  promises  to  our  Allies — to  England  and  her 
colonies,  that  are  putting  their  last  men  into  their  armies; 
to  France,  that  is  in  desperate  straits;  to  Italy,  which  has 
so  bravely  pulled  herself  together  after  an  almost  withering 
defeat. 

Without  ships  we  cannot  win  the  war;  we  cannot  justify 
the  faith  with  which  our  Allies  honor  us.  Wanting  ships, 
we  can  send  no  more  men  to  the  battlefield;  we  cannot  even 
maintain  the  American  soldiers  who  have  reached  the  other 
side  and  who  depend  for  their  very  lives  on  the  support  of 
their  fellow-citizens  at  home. 

To  build  ships  we  must  have  men.  Our  shipyards  will 
need,  must  have,  250,000  workers.  Men  of  all  trades  who 
can  work  in  wood,  iron  or  steel  with  a  fair  degree  of  skill 
will  be  welcomed  by  the  Government  and  by  the  Shipping 
Board,  so  long  as  they  are  willing  to  serve  with  faith, 
loyalty  and  perseverance.  Workmen  in  our  shipyards  to-day 
are  absolutely  vital  to  our  military  success,  and  those  who 
answer  the  call  will  be  just  as  truly  defenders  of  our  coun- 
try and  its  Allies  as  are  our  soldiei's  on  the  fighting  front. 

The  men  required  are  not  asked  to  give  up  their  jobs  and 
move  somewhere  else  immediately.  That  would  cause  con- 
fusion. What  is  asked  is  that  every  man  who  stands  ready 
to  go  to  work  building  ships  when  the  United  States  Ship- 
ping Board  asks  him  to,  shall  now  enroll  in  the  United 
States  Shipyard  Volunteers  of  the  Public  Ser\'ice  Reserve. 
Such  enrollment  will  include  registration  and  an  examina- 
tion as  to  fitness  for  the  work.  Application  for  enrollment 
can  be  made  at  any  office  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service,  and  such  offices  are  now  being  established  all  over 
the  country. 

If  thei-e  is  no  enrollment  agent  of  the  Public  Service 
Reserve  in  your  community,  see  the  local  representative 
of  the  State  Council  of  Defense,  or  write  to  Edward  N. 
Hurley,  Chairman,  U.  S.  Shipping  Boai-d,  Washington,  D.  C. 


March  5,  1918 


POWER 


347 


Culm  and   Bituminous  Coal  as  Fuel 

In  an  address  delivei-ed  before  the  manufacturers  and 
business  men  of  Reading-,  Penn.,  William  P.  Frey,  fuel 
engineer  of  the  Lehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  Co.,  g:ave  some 
interesting  figures  relating-  to  the  use  of  a  mixture  of 
anthracite  culm  and  bituminous  coal  as  a  fuel.  The  tests 
from  which  his  figures  were  obtained  were  conducted  at 
the  plant  of  the  Carpenter  Steel  Co.,  Reading-,  Penn.,  from 
Nov.  19  to  Nov.  24,  1917.  The  following-  excerpts  are  taken 
from  Mr.  Frey's  address: 

Given  the  large  amount  of  anthracite  culm  available  for 
immediate  use  and  the  great  shortage  of  bituminous  coal,  is 
there  a  possibility  of  combining  the  two  fuels  into  one? 
What  are  the  proportions  to  be  used,  and  what  will  be  the 
resulting:  effects  practically  and  economically? 

The  first  question  is  answered  by  mixing-  soft  and  hard 
coal  mechanically  or  by  hand  and  developing-  a  firing  prac- 
tice to  burn  the  combination  of  the  two.  In  a  small  plant 
the  mixing  may  be  done  very  much  like  the  mixing-  of  sand, 
gravel  and  cement,  using-  a  box  or  wheelbarrow  as  a  meas- 
ure. The  better  the  mixing-  the  better  will  be  the  results. 
Accordingly,  all  lumps  that  will  not  pass  through  1%-in. 
round  mesh  should  be  crushed  to  smaller  sizes.  In  large 
plants  this  crushing  can  be  done  through  a  rotary  crusher. 
The  mechanical  mixing  can  be  done  in  many  different  ways 
— common  dump  pockets,  sci-ew  conveyors,  paddle  mixers, 
rotary  drums,  spray-out  mixing  devices  like  revolving 
tables  with  scraper  arms  or  shaking  tables  with  collecting 
chutes  and  spouts. 

If  the  mixing  is  done  properly,  firing  practice  need  not 
be  changed,  though  there  should  be  a  tendency  to  damp  off 
fires.  Firing  in  thin  layers  will  give  better  results  but  not 
quite  so  high  ratings.  Grate  bars  up  to  %-in.  air  space 
can  be  used,  as  the  culm  bakes  with  the  soft  coal  to  a 
coarsely  granulated  material  having  the  appearance  of 
coke,  which  will  not  fall  into  the  ashpit. 

In  all  these  tests  the  mixing  was  done  by  hand.  Begin- 
ning with  bituminous  coal  only,  culm  was  added  in  increas- 
ing amounts  until  the  mixture  consisted  of  66.7  per  cent, 
of  bituminous  coal  and  33.3  per  cent,  of  culm.  The  results 
obtained  are  given  in  Tables  I  and  II. 

TABLE  I.     RE.SUI.TS  OBTAI  N'l;n   rsl\(;    WTlIiAI.   DRAFT 


Av(>r.ige  feed-water  teniper:iture 

Average  steam  pressure,  gage 

Average  stack  draft,  water  gage 

Cost  of  bituminous  coal  per  short  ton,  delivered 

Cost  of  anthracite  culm  jier  short  ton,  delivered 


Bitu- 
minous 
Coal 
•Per 
C^>nt, 
100.00 
80.00 
75.00 
66  67 


Culm 
Per 
Cent. 


20  00 
25.00 
33  33 


ICtiuiv.  Evaporation 

from  and  at 

212  Deg.  F.  per 

Pound  of  Dry  Coal 

Pounds 

10  03 

9.47 

8.76 

7  34 


Boiler 

Rating 

Per 

Cent. 

112 

106 

96 

80 


Boiler 
Efficiency 
Per 
Cent. 
69 
68 
64 
55 


198deg.  F. 

112  5  11, 

0  4  in. 

$4  60 

$1    90 

Cost  per 
Boiler-hp- 
Per  Hour 
Cents 
0.78 
0  73 
0  75 
0  89 


TABLE  IL     RESULTS  OBTAINED  U.SIXG   FORCED   DRAFT 


Average  feed-water  temperature 
Average  steam  pressure,  gage 

Average  stack  draft,  water  gage  

Cost  of  bituminous  coal  per  short  ton,  delivered. 
Cost  of  anthracite  culni  per  short  ton,  delivered 


Bitu- 
minous 
Coal 
Per 
Cent. 
100 
65 
50 


Culm 
Per 

Cent. 

35 
50 


Kquiv.  Evaporation 

from  and  at 

212    Deg.    F.    per 

Pound  of  Dry  Coal 

Pounds 

10  80 

9  90 

8  42 


Boiler 
I^ating 
Per 
Cent. 
140 
112 
96 


Boiler 
Efficiency 
Per 
Cent. 
75 
74 
65 


198  deg.  F. 

112  1b. 

0    15  in. 

.$4   60 
$1    90 

Cost  per 

Boiler-hp. 

Per  Hour 

Cents 

0  73 

0  63 

0  65 


The  boiler  used  was  a  Newburgh  fire-tube  boiler,  having 
1549  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface  and  32.25  sq.ft.  of  grate  sur- 
face. Forced  draft  was  supplied  by  two  calibrated  Parson 
blowers,  the  steam  used  by  them  being  deducted  to  obtain 
the  data  in  Table  II. 

Chemical  analysis  of  the  bituminous  coal  showed  2.41  per 
cent,  of  moisture,  9.66  per  cent,  of  ash,  and  17.34  per  cent. 
of  volatile  matter.  The  heating  value  was  14,000  B.t.u.  per 
pound  of  dry  coal.  Similar  analysis  of  the  culm  showed 
9.65  per  cent,  of  moisture  and  25.60  per  cetit.  of  ash.  The 
culm  was  clean  and  its  heating  value  was  10,S00  B.t.u.  per 
pound  of  dry  coal. 

The  tests  were  run  under  ordinary  normal  conditions, 
without  overworking-  the  firemen,  and  all  the  test  results 
are  given  in  the  tables.     The  Carpenter  Steel  Co.  ran  two 


check  tests,  and  their  results  agreed  very  closely  with  those 
shown.  The  points  to  be  observed  are  that  with  natural 
draft  at  least  20  per  cent,  of  culm  should  be  used,  and  if 
forced  draft  is  employed,  the  amount  of  culm  in  the  mixture 
should  be  increased  to  at  least  35  per  cent. 

National  War  Savings  Committee  of 
New  York 

The  method  of  pi'ocedure  followed  by  divisional  chairmen 
of  the  Commei'cial,  Industrial  and  Professional  groups  of 
the  National  War  Savings  Committee  of  New  York  is 
about  as  follows: 

The  chairman,  immediately  upon  his  selection,  proceeds 
to  organize  his  division  by  appointing  as  follows — provided 
his  group  is  of  sufficient  size  to  warrant  a  duplication  of 
the  state  organization:  vice-chairman,  secretary,  manager 
of  publicity,  manager  of  speakers'  bureau,  manager  of 
war-savings  societies,  executive  committee  of  3  or  4,  man- 
aging- committee  of  15  or  20.  As  soon  as  possible,  the 
chairman  sends  to  everyone  in  his  division  a  letter  urging 
all  firms  and  corporations,  co-partnerships  or  individuals 
doing-  business,  to  take  out  selling  agencies.  The  letter 
should  cover  the  following  points: 

1.  The  Government  is  anxious  to  make  War-Savings 
Stamps  and  Thrift  Stamps  the  easiest  things  in  the  world 
to  buy,  the  object  being  twofold:  First,  to  obtain  funds 
to  carry  on  the  war  and  second,  to  encourage  the  habit  of 
economy  among  the  people. 

2.  No  capital  is  required  to  become  Treasury  Depart- 
ment agents — merely  the  investment  of  a  few  dollars  in 
stamps,  which  can  be  obtained  from  the  postman  or  post 
office  after  receiving  appointment  as  an  agent,  and  that 
the  stamps,  which  are  sold  at  cost  to  employees,  members 
of  the  firm  or  to  the  general  public,  may  be  replenished 
from  time  to  time,  depending-  on  requirements. 

3.  After  an  application  has  been  filled  out  in  the  name 
of  an  individual  and  returned  to  the  chairman  direct  or 
to  state  headquarters  for  Greater  New  York,  51  Chambers 
St.,  New  York,  a  full  supply  of  posters,  literature  and 
information  regarding  sale  of  these  stamps  will  be  sent  to 
the  applicant. 

4.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  to  apply  for  agencies  to  sell  these 
stamps,  even  if,  as  in  some  cases,  only  a  few  dollars'  worth 
of  stamps  will  be  sold. 

5.  Foremen  and  department  managers  should  be  in- 
duced to  become  selling-  agents,  as  a  greater  interest  is 
usually  maintained  when  the  employee  is  the  personal 
representative  of  the  Treasury  Department  and  not  the 
employer. 

A  few  days  after  a  general  letter  has  been  sent  out, 
the  members  of  the  committee  generally  make  personal 
calls  on  all  those  in  their  divisions,  urging  them  to  carry 
out  to  the  fullest  extent  of  their  ability  the  suggestions 
contained  in  the  letter. 

Quotas  are  assigned  to  the  various  trades,  and  in  order 
that  these  may  be  made  on  a  fair  basis,  divisional  chair- 
men send  in,  as  soon  as  their  committees  are  completed,  to 
the  vice-chairman  of  the  Pioneer  Division,  approximate 
statements  as  to  the  number  of  employees  in  their  group. 

When  100  per  cent,  of  all  the  firms  in  a  division  have 
become  selling  agents,  it  is  suggested  that  committeemen 
secure  members  for  the  United  States  Government  War- 
Savings  Limit  Investment  Society  of  New  York.  This  field 
is  limited,  however,  to  employers  and  principals,  so  that 
no  very  strenuous  campaign  is  necessai-y  to  secure  mem- 
bership. 

The  principal  idea  of  the  Limit  Club  is  that  every  in- 
dividual who  can  possibly  afford  to  take  the  limit  allowed 
by  law  ($1000  at  maturity,  which  costs  only  $826  in  Febru- 
ary, 1918,  $828  in  March,  etc.)  do  so. 

All  employers  are  urged  to  start  their  employees  saving 
by  the  gift  of  a  25c.  Thrift  Stamp  and  card,  or  the  gift  of 
the  sixteenth  stamp  in  order  to  complete  the  Thrift  Card, 
or — as  in  some  cases  it  has  been  done — by  the  gift  of 
both  the  first  and  last  Thrift  Stamp  for  their  employees. 
Various  schemes  can  be  worked  out  which  will  stimulate  the 
sale  of  stamps  among  employees. 


348 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


Food  Administration   on  Ammonia 
and  Ice 

In  view  of  the  discussion  of  the  Food  Administration's 
ruling  and  desires  relative  to  ammonia  and  ice  harvest,  the 
following  letter  from  the  Administration  is  of  interest: 

Your  [Power's]  letter  of  Feb.  .'j  addressed  to  Mr.  Hoover 
on  the  subject  of  the  ice  industry  has  been  referred  to 
this  division  for  reply,  as  the  matters  therein  mentioned 
come  directly  within  our  jurisdiction,  and  we  take  pleasure 
in  giving  you  below  the  Food  Administration's  position  on 
the  subject. 

It  is  our  desire  that  every  possible  ton  of  natural  ice  be 
harvested  and  stored  now,  in  order  to  displace  a  similar 
amount  of  artificial  ice  and  thereby  pei'mit  of  the  diversion 
of  ammonia  from  the  manufacture  of  artificial  ice  to  the 
making  of  ammunition  for  our  soldiers.  There  is  serious 
danger  of  a  shortage  of  ammonia,  and  ice  producers  are  not 
only  serving  their  country  by  heeding  our  request  to  store 
natural  ice,  but  they  are  actually  protecting  their  trade 
and  insuring  their  customers  against  a  serious  misfortune, 
which  might  follow  in  the  event  that  the  War  Department 
felt  it  necessary  to  commandeer  a  considerable  amount  of 
ammonia  and  thereby  materially  curtail  the  manufacture 
of  artificial  ice.  We  hope  and  expect  that  by  the  coopera- 
tion of  all  parties  in  interest,  and  by  careful  conservation 
of  the  limited  supply,  it  will  be  possible  to  avert  a  depleted 
ice  supply  during  this  year,  but  this  possibility  must  be 
kept  constantly  in  mind. 

In  your  letter  you  referi'ed  to  a  conversation  with  a  mem- 
ber of  the  committee  of  New  York  ice  men,  which,  some 
time  ago,  was  in  conference  with  officials  of  the  Food 
Administration.  We  do  not  see  how  any  member  of  this 
committee  could  take  the  position  that  "he  does  not  know 
what  Washington  wants,"  for  we  thought  our  position  was 
made  very  plain,  and  men  representing  96  per  cent,  of  the 
ice-producing  capacity  of  New  York  City  have  signed 
agreements  whereby  an  additional  million  tons  of  natural 
ice  is  being  harvested  in  New  York  today.  This  will  result 
in  the  saving  of  approximately  two  hundred  thousand 
pounds  of  ammonia  and  will  guarantee  that  New  York  City 
will  not  suffer  an  ice  famine  this  summer  and  that  the 
people  will  not  have  to  pay  exorbitant  prices  for  ice. 

As  you  know,  nearly  all  ice  factories  have  large  storage 
rooms,  which  they  fill  by  operating  at  capacity  during  the 
winter  months,  in  order  to  have  ice  in  the  summer  to  take 
care  of  their  peak  load.  In  general,  it  is  not  desired  to  stop 
the  filling  of  these  rooms.  However,  it  is  desired  that  wher- 
ever possible,  they  be  filled  with  natural  ice  instead  of  the 
artificial  article,  in  order  to  save  as  much  ammonia  as 
possible. 

It  is  also  the  case  that  in  most  communities  there  ai'e 
more  ice  factories  than  are  necessary  to  supply  the  trade, 
and  there  is  a  consequent  waste  of  ammonia  and  fuel, 
duplication  of  delivery  service  and  a  general  economic 
waste.  We  are  asking  that  wherever  possible,  this  condition 
be  cured  by  having  the  individual  firms  enter  into  a  volun- 
tary agreement  with  the  Food  Administrator,  whereby  a 
few  of  these  plants  may  operate  at  capacity  and  the  others 
be  shut  down,  the  plants  which  are  closed  to  be  furnished 
with  ice  for  their  customers  by  those  in  operation  at  prac- 
tically the  cost  of  manufacture. 

We  are  restricting  the  supply  of  ammonia  for  ice-produc- 
ing plants  and  refrigerating  plants  to  their  legitimate  60- 
day  requirements,  in  order  to  insure  against  the  hoarding 
of  this  chemical,  and  are  only  allowing  the  sale  of  ammonia 
for  new  plants  when  we  can  be  convinced  of  their  urgent 
necessity  in  the  community  where  it  is  proposed  to  erect 
them. 

With  regard  to  your  suggestion  that  it  may  be  unwise  to 
fill  up  cars  with  ice  and  thus  add  to  the  congestion  of  the 
railroads,  we  beg  to  advise  that  most  of  this  ice  is  stored 
very  close  to  the  point  where  it  is  harvested  and  that  it  will 
add  very  little  to  the  difficulties  of  the  transportation  situa- 
tion. It  can  be  hauled  the  short  distance  necessary  in  old 
cars  which  are  not  suitable  for  through  traffic,  and  will 
not,  in  any  event,  seriously  aff'ect  the  transportation  system. 
We  might  add  that  a  general  embargo-lifting  order  was 
issued  on  Feb.  11  by  the  Car  Service  Commission,  covering 


about  75  or  80  different  seasonal  commodities,  which  would 
indicate  that  the  railroad  situation  is  improving  in  a  very 
marked  degiee,  and  that  no  one  need  worry  greatly  about 
the  effect  of  the  natural-ice  harvest  on  raih'oad  congestion. 
We  trust  that  this  gives  you  sufficient  information,  but  if 
there  is  any  point  that  we  have  not  covered  or  on  which 
you  desire  further  advice,  we  shall  be  glad  to  have  you  call 
on  us.  The  Food  Administration  appreciates  your  attitude 
and  desire  to  be  of  assistance  to  us  in  this  matter. 

U.  S.  Food  Administration, 
Charles  W.  Merrill,  Division  of  Chemicals. 

Annual   Exhibit  of  Evening  Work  at 
Pratt  Institute 

Thursday  evening.  Mar.  7,  will  be  "Visitors'  Night"  at  the 
School  of  Science  and  Technology  of  Pratt  Institute,  Brook- 
lyn. From  8  to  9  o'clock  all  the  shops,  laboratories  and 
drawing  rooms  of  the  school  will  be  open  to  the  public, 
giving  an  opportunity  to  those  interested  in  industrial  edu- 
cation to  observe  the  students  at  work  in  the  various  courses 
and  to  inspect  the  results  and  methods  as  well  as  the 
equipment  and  general  facilities  of  the  institute  for  con- 
ducting this  kind  of  industrial  training. 

The  school  provides  instruction  in  industrial  electricity, 
technical  chemistry,  mechanical  drawing  and  machine  de- 
sign, strength  of  materials,  stationary  engineering  and 
power-plant  machinery,  internal-combustion  engine  work, 
machine  work  and  toolmaking,  forge  work,  carpentry  and 
building,  patternmaking,  and  trade  teaching  for  the  train- 
ing of  skilled  workmen  who  desire  to  prepare  themselves  for 
the  teaching  of  their  trades.  A  special  feature  of  the  work 
this  year  is  the  organization  of  a  number  of  new  courses 
to  meet  the  extraordinary  demands  for  skilled  mechanics 
arising  from  the  war.  These  courses  are  boat  woodworking, 
ship  drafting,  marine-engine  operation,  and  gasoline-engine 
operation  for  men  desiring  to  enter  the  aviation  service. 

This  school  is  now  giving  instruction  in  its  evening- 
courses  to  more  than  1300  men  who  are  regularly  employed 
in  various  vocations  and  who  use  these  courses  as  a  means 
to  prepare  themselves  for  more  effective  service. 

This  will  be  the  only  public  exhibit  of  the  work  of  this 
school  held  this  year. 

A  35,000-Kw.  Turbine  Is  Wrecked  in 
Boston  Station 

About  4:55  p.m.,  Thursday,  Feb.  14,  the  35,000-kw.  hori- 
zontal single-cylinder  steam  turbine  in  the  O  Street  Station 
of  the  Boston  Elevated  Railways  Co.  exploded,  so  com- 
pletely wrecking  the  machine  that  it  will  be  sold  for  junk 
as  it  stands,  it  is  reported.  Fortunately  no  one  was  killed 
or  injured.  The  trouble  developed  in  the  low-pressure 
stages — the  17th,  it  is  believed.  All  diaphragms  and  wheels, 
together  with  the  blades  from  this  stage  on  to  the  20th, 
were  fractured  and  broken  in  many  pieces  and  released  with 
such  force  as  to  smash  away  the  whole  top  half  of  the  low- 
pressure  end  of  the  casing. 

The  initial  cause  of  the  accident  is,  at  this  writing, 
thought  to  be  due  to  e.xcessive  steam  pressure  between  the 
diaphragm  and  the  17th  wheel  concaving  the  diaphragm, 
causing  it  to  foul  the  wheel,  closing  up  the  buckets  and  in 
this  way  increasing  the  steam  pressure  at  this  point  until 
the  next  diaphragm  was  similarly  affected,  when  the  whole 
low-pressure  end  let  go. 

The  accident  occurred  at  a  time  when  27,500  kw.  carried 
by  engines  in  another  station  of  the  Railways  Co.  dropped 
their  load.  Assumably,  the  wrecked  turbine  tried  to  take  all 
of  this  load,  opening  its  secondary  valve  to  get  all  the  high- 
pressure  steam  available. 

A  member  of  the  Power  staff  is,  at  this  writing,  in  Boston 
endeavoring  to  get  details  of  the  accident. 


One  of  the  tendencies  of  the  present  day  is  to  overdo  the 
stop-watch  and  the  watch-dog  method.  Efficiency  of  product 
does  not  lie  in  that  direction.  It  is  not  right  to  imagine 
that  the  men  have  no  other  interest  in  the  success  of  the 
undertaking  than  to  watch  the  hands  of  the  clock  go  round. 


March  5,  1918 


POWER 


349 


HlllllllltllllllltMIIMIIH 


IIUIItliniMIMMMMIIMIMinil 


I., 


New  Publications 


Interested  may  obtain  a  copy  by  afhlrens- 
ins  a  request  to  the  Huroau  of  Standards, 
W'ashinKton.    D*    ('. 


BOIUKK  ROOM  ICroXOMU'S— By  A.  L. 
Totter  and  S.  Ij.  Sinnnering'.  Dean  Bn- 
j^rlneerins  Kxperinient  Stat  ion.  Kansas 
State  Agricultural  (.'ollege.  Assistant 
IM'ofessor  of  Steam  and  Gas  Knginfer- 
ing,  Kngineering"  Kxperinient  Station 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

Boiler  Room  Kc-onomirs  is  tht-  title  of 
Bulletin  No.  2.  originally  published  in  i;U4. 
but  which  the  Agricultural  I'oUege  is  again 
circulating  in  the  hope  that  the  contents 
may  lie  of  material  aid  in  assisting  in  the 
campaign  to  cut  down  tlie  waste  in  the 
use  of  coal  in  boiler  furnaces.  The  bulle- 
tin gives  considerable  cost  data,  which  of 
course  need  some  mtxlitication  at  this 
time,  owing"  to  the  changes  in  the  market 
brought  about  by  the  war.  The  bulletin 
deals  with  boilers,  pumps  and  injectors, 
feed-water  heating  and  jnu-itication.  stok- 
ers, economizers  and  superheaters,  and  the 
subdivisions   of   each   of   these   subjects. 

THE    CALORIFIC    POWER    OF    Fri-:i.S— 
By  Herman    Poole.      Third   edition.   Re- 
written   by    Robert    Thurston    Kent.    M, 
E..    New    York.      John    Wiley    tt    Sons. 
Inc.  Pages,  627  :  illustrated.      Price,   $3. 
Since     the     original     publication     of     this 
work     in     1900     the     available     information 
upon    the    subject    has    multiplied    to    such 
an    extent   tliat    its   practical    rewriting   was 
necessary.       This    rewriting    was    entrusted 
to    Robert   Thurston    Kent.    M.    E.      It    deals 
with    calorimetry     in     four    chapters,     with 
solid,   liquid  and  gaseous  fuels  in  a  chapter 
each,    devoting  then   a   cliapter  to   the   com- 
bustion of  coal  and  another  to  the  calorific 
power  of  coal   burned   under   steam   boilers. 
The    final    chapter    treats    of    the    analysis 
and   measurement   of   the   products   of   com- 
bustion.     English    units    have    been    substi- 
tuted   for   the    metric    units   of    the    original 
volume.       The    rewriting    appears    to    have 
been   well   done,    and    the    book    presents,    in 
an     attractive     form,      information     that     is 
very    timely. 

IXTB:RXAL    -    COMBUSTION     -    p:Nr;iXE 
MANUAL.      By    F.    A\'.    Sterling.       Pub- 
lished   by     R.     Beresford.     Washington,  - 
D.    C,    1917.      Cloth;    6    x    9    in.;    168 
pages ;   92    illustrations.      Price,    $2. 

This  is  the  fourth  edition  of  this  book: 
it  has  been  completely  rewritten,  enlarged 
and  brought  up  to  date,  and  a  cliapter  ad- 
ded on  ain^lane  engines  to  cover  all  five 
types  of  these  motors.  Every  type  of  gaso- 
line and  heavy-oil  engine  used  in  the 
L^nited  States  Navy,  including  those  used 
on  submarine  chasers  and  naval  launches, 
the  Diesel  and  Standard  types,  is  described. 

The  subject  is  divided  into  twelve  chap- 
ters, taking  up  in  order  fuels,  solid,  liquid 
and  gaseous:  comparison  of  internal-com- 
bustion, and  steam  engines  :  construction  ; 
types,  cycles,  etc.  ;  carburetion.  the  mixture, 
its  preparation,  carburetors  and  vaporizers  ; 
ignition  and  ignition  systems;  cooling  and 
lubrication;  governing  and  indicator  cards: 
operation,  troubles  and  remedies  ;  gasoline, 
kerosene  and  alcohol  engines,  aerial  motors  ; 
the  Diesel,  Niirnberg  and  Sulzer  types  of 
engines. 

The  work  is  not  a  book  on  design,  but 
it  gives  a  practical  description  of  the  con- 
struction and  operation  of  the  different 
types  of  internal-combustion  engines.  The 
practical  way  in  which  the  subject  is  pre- 
sented both  in  text  and  illustrations  makes 
the  work  easily  understood  even  by  the 
uninitiated,  and  it  should  meet  with  favor 
from  all  those  who  ai'e  interested  in  inter- 
nal-combustion engines. 

TESTING  CURRENT  TRANSFORMERS 
The  Bureau  of  Standards  has  recently 
issued  Scientific  Paper  No.  309.  entitled  "A 
Method  for  Testing  Current  Transformers." 
A  general  method  is  outlined  in  this  paper 
for  the  determination  of  the  ratio  and 
phase  angle  of  current  transformers  in 
terms  of  the  constants  of  previously  cali- 
brated standard  transformers  of  the  same 
nominal  ratio.  It  has  been  shown  that 
such  methods  are  essentially  more  sensi- 
tive or.  conversely,  may  be  used  with  much 
less  sensitive  instruments  than  the  labora- 
tory methods  now  in  use  for  the  absolute 
determination  of  the  ratio  and  phase  angU- 
of  a  single  transformer.  Two  of  the  most 
convenient  of  the  many  possible  modifica- 
tions of  the  general  method  are  described 
in  detail.  It  is  hoped  that  the  methods 
will  be  found  useful  in  connnercial  plants 
where  delicate  laboratory  equipment  is  not 
available  anii  where  large  numbers  of 
transformers  must  be  tested  rapidly  and 
with  moderate  accuracy .  This  pajier  is 
now    available    for    distribution,    and    those  t 


Obituary 


IIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIItU 


h\  <i.  K»MinN,  late  president  of  the 
Hohnes  Metallic  Packing  Co..  of  WilUes- 
Barre,  Penn.,  died  at  his  home  in  Phila- 
delphia on  Feb.  20.  in  his  57th  year.  He 
is  survived  by  his  wife,  mother  and  one 
sister, 


Personals 


•I.  C.  KertNcli  has  resigned  his  position 
as  refrigerating  engineer  with  the  Westing- 
house  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.  Ma- 
ehine  AVorks.  to  become  established  as  gen- 
eral consulting  engineer,  with  otfices  in 
the  Monongahela  Bank  Building.  Pitts- 
burgh.   Penn. 

W.  II.  Thuinpsou,  for  many  years  promi- 
nt-nt  in  the  heavy  electric-traction  work  of 
the  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufac- 
turing Co.,  has  resigned  to  accept  the  posi- 
tion of  works  manager  of  the  Fairmont 
Mining  Machinery  Co..  Fairmont,  W.  Va., 
makers    of    coal-inining    equipment. 

VV.  r.  Austin,  auditor  of  the  Eastern 
Pennsylvania  Railways  Co.,  Pottsville. 
Penn..  has  been  elected  assistant  secretary 
and  assistant  treasurer  of  that  company. 
In  1017  Mr.  Austin  was  transferred  from 
the  staff  of  traveling  auditors  of  the  J.  G. 
White  Manngement  Corporation.  New  York. 
to  the  accounting  department  of  the  East- 
ern Pennsylvania  Railways  Co.,  which 
company  is  being  operated  by  the  Manage- 
ment   Corporation. 


Engineering  Affairs 


Thf      .Vrkaii!.as      ANNociation      of      Public 
-    I'tility  Operators   will   hold  a   state  conven- 
tion at   Hot   Springs,  Ark.,   May  31-23,  with 
headquarters   at    the   Arlington    Hotel. 

The  Kngliieeriiiir  Council's  first  annual 
meeting-  was  held  Feb.  21.  The  following 
ofBcers  were  elected:  Chairman.  J.  Parke 
Channing ;  first  vice  chairman,  Harold  W. 
Buck  :  second  vice  chairman.  George  F. 
Swain  :  secretary.  Alfred  D.  Flinn.  Com- 
mittees were  appointed  as  follows:  Execu- 
tive committee,  the  chairman,  the  two  vice 
chairmen  and  David  S.  Jacobus,  Calvert 
Townley.  George  J.  Foran  ;  finance  commit- 
tee. E.  Wilbur  Rice,  Jr.,  chairman  ;  Charles 
F.  Loweth.  Sidney  J.  Jennings.  David  S 
Jacobus ;  rules  committee,  J.  Parke  Chan- 
ning. chairman  ;  Clemens  Herschel.  Na- 
thaniel A.  Carle.  Ir\'ing  E.  Moultrop  :  pub- 
lic affairs  committee,  Charles  Whiting 
Baker,  chairman :  George  F.  Swain.  Ben- 
jamin B.  Thayer,  E.  W.  Rice,  Jr.,  Charles 
E.  Skinner.  American  engineering  service, 
George  J.  Foran.  chairman  ;  George  C. 
Stone,  Alfred  D.  Flinn,  Dr.  Addams  S.  Mc- 
Allister. Edward  B.  Sturgis,  secretary  ;  war 
committee  of  technical  societies,  D.  W. 
Bruntno,  chairman  :  Arthur  H.  Storrs.  sec- 
retary ;  James  M.  Boyle,  Nelson  P.  Lewis 
(American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers), 
Edmund  B.  Kirby  (American  Institute  of 
Mining  Engineers),  A.  A.  Greene.  Jr..  R.  N. 
Inglis  (American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers).  Harold  W.  Buck.  Dr.  .\ddams 
S.  McAllister  (American  Institute  of  Elec- 
trical Engineers).  Dana  D.  Barnum.  E.  C. 
Uhlig  (American  Gas  Institute).  Joseph 
Bijur,  Dr.  Charles  A.  Doremus  (American 
Electrochemical  Society).  Louis  B.  Marks, 
Preston  S.  Milar  (Illuminating  Engineering 
Society).  Christopher  R.  Corning.  George 
C.  .Stone  (Mining  and  Metallurgical  So- 
ciety of  America),  Henry  Torrance,  F.  E. 
Matthews  (American  Society  of  Refrigerat- 
ing Engineers)  :  fuel  conservation  commit- 
tee :  L.  P.  Breckenridge,  chairman  :  Ozni 
P.  Hood,  secretary ;  Robert  H.  Fernald. 
Charles  R.  Ricliards.  Charles  L.  Edgar. 
(~'arl  Scholz.  David  Moffat  Mvers,  Edwin 
Ludlow.   Harold   W.    Buck. 

The  definition  of  the  Engineering  Coun- 
cil that  was  adopted  declared  that  "the 
l<]ngineering  Council  is  an-  organization  of 
national  technical  societies  of  America  cre- 
dited to  pro\'ide  for  considei-ation  of  mat- 
ters of  common  concern  to  engineers,  ius 
well  as  those  of  puljlic  welfare  in  which 
the  profession  is  interested,  in  order  that 
united  .action  may  be  nuide  possible.  The 
TCngineering  Council  i.s  now  composed  of 
he    American    Society    of    Civil    Engineers. 


the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engi- 
neers, the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  and  the  American  Institute  of 
Electrical  Engineers,  having  a  membership 
of  33,000  and  known  us  the  'Founder 
Societies.'  " 

^tiiitiiiiiiiiniii iiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiitiiiiiiMi iiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiitiiiii,„ 

Miscellaneous  News       I 


.V  Boiler  Kxploileil  on  the  Croffett  planta- 
tion, near  Bastrop.  La.,  on  Feb.  12,  injur- 
ing two  persons,  one  i)erhaps  fatally,  and 
wrecking    the    entire    machinery. 

A  roller  Tube  Blew  Out  at  the  plant  of 
the  Sioux  City  (Iowa)  Gas  and  Electric 
Co.  on  Feb.  8,  injuring  two  firemen,  one 
seriously.  The  accident  necessitated  shut- 
ting off  the  power  until  repairs  were  made. 

l'r«:es  Higher  ConipenNHtion  for  Kngl- 
neers — At  the  conference  in  Washington 
Feb.  26.  between  representatives  of  capi- 
tal and  labor,  held  to  forward  the  adop- 
tion of  a  national  labor  policy,  a  repre- 
.sentative  of  the  Engineering  Council  urged 
the  necessity  of  higher  compensation  for 
engineers,  to  enable  them  to  take  their 
proper  part  in  the  nation's  activities  in  war 
and    i>eace. 

An    Order    .Autliorizinf;    the    construction 

of  a  power  dam  at  Muscle  Shoals.  Ala.. 
has  been  signed  by  President  Wilson,  as 
part  of  the  $60.00n.ani)  project  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  Government  plant  there  for  the 
fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  for  use 
in  the  manufacture  of  munitions  and  fer- 
tilizer. The  site  has  been  offered  to  the 
government  without  cost  by  the  Alabama 
Power    Co. 

The  Schiitte  &  Koertlng  Co.,  of  Phila- 
delphia, has  been  taken  over  by  the  United 
States  (Jovernment  as  an  alien  concern.  It 
will  be  operated  by  A.  Mitchell  Palmer, 
alien  property  custodian.  Adalbert  Wilhelm 
Fischer,  its  former  president,  is  now  in- 
terned as  a  dangerous  enemy  alien.  His 
wife  is  the  daughter  of  Ernest  Koerting, 
of  Hanover.  Germany,  believed  to  be  a 
near  relative    of  the  German  Emperor. 

An  Koonoinlzer  Kxploded  recently  at  the 
plant  of  the  Ithaca  Traction  and  Lighting 
Co.,  Renwick,  N.  Y.  From  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  circumstances  under  which  th? 
accident  occurred,  it  develops  that  the  econ- 
omizer had  been  shut  off  from  the  line 
and  the  bypass  used  without  shutting  the 
dampers  leading  to  the  economizer,  these 
dampers  having  been  warped  so  they  could 
not  be  operated.  The  engineer  who  was 
responsible  for  the  exiilosion  was  instantlx- 
killed. 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMI 


IIIMMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIK 


Business  Items 


C.  \V.  Hunt  Co.,  Inc.,  has  moved  its  New 
York  offices  from  45  Broadway  to  the 
Astor   Trust   Building,    501    Fifth   Avenue. 

The     H.     \V.     Johiis-Manville     Co.     is  now 

comfortably      installed     and     working  full 

speed  in  its  new  building  at  St.  Louis.  Mo., 

on    the   southeast   corner   of  Olive   and  11th 
Streets. 

The  Cleveland  (Ohio)  Kleitrio  Illuminat- 
ing Co.  is  planning  on  building  a  two-story 
and  basement  addition  to  its  present  power 
station  on  East  70th  St.,  at  a  cost  of  about 
$1,000,000.  A  25.00U-kw.  turbine  will  be  in- 
stalled. 

The  Westinghouse  Kleetric  and  Manu- 
faeturing  Co.  announces  the  removal  of  its 
office  from  Phoenix,  vVriz..  to  Tucson,  Ariz. 
Its  representatives,  J.  11.  Knost  and  W.  G. 
WiUson.  will  have  headquarters  in  the  Im- 
migration   Building    at    the    latter    point. 

The  We*;(inghonNe  Kle<'trie  and  IVIanii- 
farturing  Co..  Ka**f  Pittsburgh,  Penn..  has 
recently  secured  the  exclusive  sales  agencv 
for  the  United  States  for  Frankel  soldi>r- 
less  connectors,  widely  used  for  joining 
electrical  wires  and  cables.  The  Westing- 
house  company  will  act  also  as  a  distribu- 
tor   of    Frankel    testing    clips. 


Trade  Catalogs 


Snfet.v  Auto-I,o<'k  Swltcliew.  Krantz 
Manufacturing  t^o..  Inc.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y 
Special  publication  No.  1586-A.  Pp.  4  :  8  .x 
11  in.  ;  illustrated.  Describes  a  type  of 
safety  switch  manufactured  by  this  com- 
pan,\     anil    -'Iso    gives    list    prii'es. 


350 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


Diliiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiriiitiiriiiitirriii 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


Boston — Current   (luotations   per  gross   ton   delivered   alongside 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows; 


."VNTHRACITE 


Buckwheat 

Rice    

Builer     .  .  . 
Barley    .  .  . 


Feb.  -IS.  1018 
S4.60 
4.10 
3i)0 

.'i.eo 


-  Circular! 


One  Year  A^o 
}i-2.0o—a:i0 
3..J0 — 2.65 


Feb 
6.U5 


—  Individual  1 N 

8.  1918      One  Year  Ago 


-T.:35 
-U.90 


$3.2.1 — 3..i0 
^  70 — 2.9.) 


2.20 — 2..-).-) 

BITUMINOUS 
Bitimiinous  not  on   market. 

F.o.b.  Mines* 


6.1."> — 1)40 


Feb,  2K.  1918 


One  Year  As'o 
S3. 00 

3.10 — 3.8.0 


Clearfields.  ...         

Cambrias  and 

Somersets. .  .  

Pocahontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hampton  Road.=. 
wilh   $2.S.'i — 2.90   a  year  ago. 

•All-rail  rate  to  Boston   is  $2.00.  tWater  coal 


■  .\lonirside  Bostont ^ 

28   191K      OneYearAKO 
$4.2.') — .5.00 


4.e0 — .")  40 
is  $4.  as  compared 


New  York — Current  quotation.s  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports'  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  a-re  as  follows: 


Pea     

Buckwheat 
Barle.v     .  .  . 

Rice     

Boiler     .  .  . 


ANTHRACITE 

. Circulari ^ 

Feb.  '.8.  1918      One  Year  Ag-o 
$3.0".  S4.00 

4.30 — .-).00  2.7.) 

3.2.-) — 3.50  1.95 

3.75 — 3.93  2.20 

3.50 — 3.75  2.2(1 


-  Indjvidual' 


Feb.  28.  1918 
So. 80 
5.50 — 5.80 

4.00 1.25 

4,50 — 4,80 


One  Year  Ab:o 
S7.25 — 7^)0 
7.00 — 7.25 

4.00 1.25 

5.00 — 5.50 
3.50 — 4.00 


Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are   about  5c.  higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

Fob.  N.  Y.  Harbor      Mine 

Pennsylvania     $3.65  $2.00 

Maryland     3£5  2.00 

West  Virginia    (short  rate) 3.65  3.00 

Based   on    Government   price   of   $2   per   ton    at    mine. 

*The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabeth(ioi-t.  Port  Johnson.  Port  Reading. 
Perth  Amboy  and  South  Amboy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty 
Hoboken.  Weehawken.  Ed^ewaler  or  Cliffside  and  Guttenbergr.  St.  George 
.9  in  between  and  sometimes  a  special  bo.at  rate  is  made.  Some  bitumi- 
nous is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  5c,   higher  than   to  the  lower  ports. 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shijiment  are  as  follows : 


-Lme- 


Pea     

Barley     .  .  . 
Buckwheat 

Rice     

Boiler    .  .  .  . 


Feb.  28  1918 
$3.75 
2.15 
3.15 
2.65 
2.45 


One  Year 
Ago 
$2.80 
1.85 
2.50 
2,10 
I  95 


Feb.  28.  1918 
.$4.S5 
2.40 
3.75 
3.65 
3,55 


One  Year 
Ago 
$3.70 
2.05 
3.40 
3.00 
3.15 


Chicago — Steam    coal    prices    f.o.b,    minc« 


Illinois   Coals 
Prci)arcd    sizes    , 

Mine-run      

Sci-eenings     .  ,  .  . 


Smokeless  Coals 
Prepared  sizc^    ,  ,  , 

Mine-run      

Screening-s     


Soutllcrii    Illinois 

.$2.65 — 2.80 

2.40—2.55 

2.15 — 2.30 


Northern   Illinois 

«3..35 — 3.50 

3.10 — 3.25 

2.83 — 3.00 


So.  Illinois.  Pocal\ontas.  Hocking. 

Pennsylvania  East  Kentuck.v  and 

and  West  Virginia       West  Virginia  Splint 

.  .  .       $2.00 — 2.85  $2.85 — 3.35 

2.40 — 2.60  2.60 — 3.00 

2.10 — 2.55  2.35 — 2.75 


St.  Louis — Prices  pet  net  ton  fob.    mines  a   year  ago  as  com- 
oared  with  today  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and  Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  and  Staimton           Standard — ■ — ^ 

Feb.  28,          One  Feb.  28,        One  Feb.  2N,              One 

1918         Year  Ago  1918       Year  Ago  191S            Year  Ago 

S2.85  2.80  $3.25-3.50  $2.65-2.80  $3.25-3.50  S2. 65-2.80  $2^30-3.75 


Bin. 

lump .  . 

S2.852.80 

3-in. 

lump.  . 

3.65-3.80 

Steam 

egg     .  . 

2.63-2.80 

Mine- 

rim     .  . 

.    2.40-2.53 

No.  1 

nut    .  .  . 

.    2.65-2.80 

2 -in. 

screen 

.    2.15-3.30 

No.  5 

washed 

2.15-3.30 

2.65-2.80 

2.05-2.80 

2.73-3.00  2.40-2.55 

3.25-3.50  2.65-3.80 

3.50-2.75  3.15-2.30 


3.00 

3.25-3.30 

3.75-3.00 


3.65-3.80 
2.65-2.80 
2.40-2.35 
2.65-2.80 
2  15-2.30 


3.00 


;  .15-3.30 


Williamson-Franklin  rate  St.  Louis.  87' 


2.73-3.00     3.15-2.30 

other  rates.  72',!; 


2.23-3.50 
3.35-2.75 
2.25-2.50 
2.50 


Birmineham — Curren'.  price.s  per  net  ton  fob.  mines  are  as 
follows : 

Mine-Run 

Big  Seam $1.90 

Pratt,  Jagger.  Corona.  .  .  .         3.15 
Black  Creek.   Cahaba    .  .  .         3.40 

Government  figures. 

'Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  §nd  are  fixed  according 
10  a  regular  schedule. 


Lump  and  Nut 

Slack  and  Screenings 

$2.15 

$1,63 

2.40 

1.90 

2.65 

2.13 

Calif.,  Ontario — The  San  .\ntonio  Water  Co.  plans  to  build  a 
power  plant  in  the  San  Antonio  Canyon.     G.  D.  Smith,  Mgr. 

Fla,,  Waurliiila — City  plans  an  election  soon  to  vote  on  $2.T,Ono 
bonds  for  the  erection  of  an  eleetrio-lighting  plant. 

tia.,  Montezuma — J  Harrison  and  K.  M.  JIcKenzie  are  consider- 
ing plans  for  the  installation  of  a  hydro-electric  plant  on  White- 
water Creek.    4    miles   from   here. 

III.,  .lucksont  ille — The  Board  of  Education  plans  to  build  a 
boiler  house 

Iowa,  l>uriinor — The  Lorimoi-  Light  and  Power  Co.  has  been 
granted  a  franchise  by  the  Board  of  Commissioners,  to  build  and 
oi)erate   an   electric   ti'ansmission    line   in    L'nion    Co. 

Iowa,  Maquoketa — The  Iowa  Electric  Co.  plans  to  extend  its 
33.000-volt  transmission  line  from  here  to  Anamosa.  J.  I.  Reed. 
Oen.   Mgr. 

Iowa.  Waterloo — The  Citizens  Gas  and  Klectric  Co.  has  been 
granted  a  franchise  by  the  Board  of  Railroad  Commissioners,  to 
build  and  operate  an  electric  transmission  line.  H.  B.  Maynard. 
Secy. 

Md.,  .Monkton — The  Monkton  Roller  Mills  Co.  plans  to  build 
a  hydro-electric  power  plant  on  Gunpowder  River  to  op&t'ate  a 
proposed  Hour  mill.  Estimated  cost,  $25,000  (i,  E.  McCoy.  Mount 
Washington,   Pres. 

.Mich.,  -Marquette — City  is  in  the  market  for  a  waterwheel  and  a 
generator  to  cost  about  $45,000,  in  connection  with  the  new  elec- 
tric power  plant.     C.  Retallic.  Supt.  T.   \V.  Orbison,  Consult.   Engr. 

Minn.,  Nasliwank — City  plans  to  install  a  new  electric  deep 
well  pump,      E.stimated  cost.  $7,000. 

N.  Y.,  Buffalo — The  Eastern  Monolithic  Co.,  96  South  Park  .Ave.. 
is  in  the  market  for  electric  motors. 

N.  Y.,  Greenwich — The  Consolidated  Electric  Co.  has  petitioned 
the  Public  Service  Commission  for  authority  to  build  a  3  mi.  trans- 
mi.ssion  line  from  Xorthumberland  Bridge  through  Bacon  Hill  and 
along  highway  leading  from  Bacon  Hill  to  Orangeville.  H,  c 
Gray,  Mgr, 

X,  Y',,  Vtica — The  Sa\'age  .Arms  Corporation.  Turner  St.,  is  in 
the  market  for  lOno  hp.  power  plant  equipment.      .Voted  July  31 

N,  C,  Raleigh — The  Empire  Steel  Co.  plans  to  build  a  hydro- 
electric plant  to  operate  its  steel  plant  which  will  be  equipped 
with  electrically  driven  machinery. 

N.    !>.,    Nome — City    ]»lans    to    install    an    electric-lighting    plant 

Ohio,  Cleveland — The  Cleveland  Electric  Illuminating  Co.,  Public 
Sq,,  is  in  the  market  for  25,000  kw,  turbine  and  accessory  et|uip- 
ment.     Noted  July  31. 

Okla.,  OUemah — Cit.v  has  plans  under  consideration  for  the 
erection  of  an  electric-lighting  plant. 

Okla.,  .'Shattuck — City  plans  to  install  either  an  oil  fuel  or 
steam  plant  for  power.  J.  C.  Fowler,  Secy,.  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, 

Okla,,  Stillwater — City  plans  an  election  soon  to  vote  on  $175,- 
0110  bonds  for  improvements  to  its  electric-lighting  plant,  etc,  G 
M.   Smith.  Supt, 

Tex.,  Grapevine — The  Grapevine  Light  and  Ice  Co.  plans  to 
build  a  new  plant  soon.     Burrough  &  Harmon,  Owners. 

Vtali,  Monticello — The  Blye  Mountain  Irrigation  Co.  has  in- 
creased its  capital  stock  from  $15,000  to  $16,000;  the  proceeds  will 
be  used  to   improve  and  extend  its  transmission   line, 

I  tall,  Provo — S.  P.  Stewart  has  applied  to  the  State  Engineer 
foi"  permission  to  take  10  second  feet  of  water  for  the  electric 
generating  plant  to  be  erected  here. 

Wash.,  La  Grande — The  American  Xitiogen  Products  Co.  plans 
to  install  3  electric  ovens  in  its  plant. 

Wash.,  Seattle — The  Board  of  Public  Works  will  receive  bids 
until  March  15,  instead  of  March  1.  for  the  erection  of  a  hydro- 
electric power  plant.  Estimated  cost,  $5,000,000.  J,  D.  Ross. 
Supt.  of  Light  and  Power.     Xoted  Feb.  S. 

W.  Va.,  Charleston — The  State  Universit.v  plans  to  rebuild  its 
boiler   house   which    was   recently   destroyed    by    fire. 

Wis,,  Appleton — The  Patton  Paper  Co.  plans  to  build  a  hydio- 
eiectric   power   i)lant.      .1.    McXaughton,    Pres. 

Wis,,  Kilbourn — The  Wisconsin  Power.  Light  and  Heat  Co., 
Milwaukee,  has  purchased  the  proijerty  of  the  Onu"o  Electric 
Light  Co,.  (;)mro.  and  i)lans  to  extend  its  Kilbourn  and  Price  due 
Sac  transmission  lines  to  Berlin  and  Omro,  J  I,  Beggs.  142S  1st 
.Xatl.  Bank  BIdg  .  Milwaukee,  Pres. 

W.10.,  Wlieulland — The  Town  is  in  the  market  for  a  150  hp.  en- 
gine with  a   100  kw.a.  generator. 

Ont.,  Beetni — City  plans  to  issue  $15,000  bonds  for  the  installa- 
tion of  a  hydro-electric  system. 

Ont.,  Toronto — The  Swift  Canadian  Co,,  Keel  St.  and  St,  Clair- 
.^ve..  plans  to  build  a  concrete  and  brick  addition  to  its  boiler 
house.      Estimated   cost,    $10,000, 

Ont,,  Tottenham — City  plans  to  install  a  hydro-electric  system 
here. 


March  5.  1918  POWER  351 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiii iiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiii mill iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiii imiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii miiiii i mi liiim iimiii i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiii| 

a  i 

3  = 

I  Prices — Materials  and  Supplies  | 

liniiiiiiiiiiiiiiii II I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiniiiiiiiiiiii II iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiKiiiiiimiiiiiuiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii iiiiiiiiiii i iiiiii i inn i i iiiiii 

Tliesi'     are     prioOB     to     the     power     plant     by     Jobbers    in    tlic    laimr    bii.vinK    cenlciB    pnBl     of    the 
MiHsIssi]>pi.    Klsewhere  tlie  prires  will  be  modified  by  in<ieased  freiKbl   charKes  and  by  loeal  (onditions. 


ELECTRICAL  SUPPLIES 

KNIFK  s\VIT<^HKS — i<"'oIlowing  are  net  prices  each  in  cities 
named  for  knife  switches  mounted  on  slate  base,  front  connected, 
punched  clip  type.  L'SO  voII.-j: 


S.3.43 
5.14 
.5.70 
9.88 
.-J.14 
7.70 
8.83 

15.80 


;K1  Amp. 

lU)  .Vmp- 

100  Am 

n. 

P.   S. 

T. 

f  useless 

$0.53 

$0.03 

S1.90 

D 

P.   S. 

T 

fused 

.81 

1.37 

3.70 

D. 

P.    D. 

'r 

f  useless 

.88 

1.33 

:j.43 

D 

P.    D. 

T, 

fused 

l.fi7 

3.58 

5.63 

T 

P.    S. 

T 

f  useless 

.78 

1.40 

3.86 

T 

P.    S. 

T 

.fused 

1.33 

3.03 

4.18 

T 

P.    D. 

T 

f  useless 

1.37 

3.33 

3.34 

T. 

P.    D. 

T. 

fused 

3.68 

4.13 

8.S9 

Lots 

»■:.- 

.md  more,  list. 

COPPER     WIRE- 

following    cities; 

.. Denver  - 

Double 

Braid 

$15.15 

37.05 

37.35 

57.13 

81.70 

131.80 

158.50 

189.40 

398.05 

363.13 


■Prices    per     1000     ft.     for    rubber-covered    wire    in 


No. 

14 

10 

8 

6 

4 

1 

0 

00 
000 
0000 


Single 
Braid 

JlO.ilO 
33.70 
33.60 


^    ^ St.  Louis ^ 

Sinffle    Dovible 
Duplex    Braid      Braid    Duplex 
$37.33    $13.30    $16.35    $31.35 


49.35 
74.45 


;5.oo 

34.83 

59.75 

84.40 

135.50 

163.00 


38.50 
38.85 
64.35 
84.90 
133.00 
171.15 


.  .  448.50 


316.00  335.00 
363.00  373.50 
330.00  331.50 
388.50  400.30 


36.40 
74.70 


^ Birmingham- 
Single  Double 
Braid  Braid 
$13.50  $16.35 
35.00  38.50 
38.83 
64.33 
84.90 
1.33.00 
171.15 
335.00 
373.50 


34.85 
39.73 
84.40 
135.50 
l(i:i.oii 
31(i.ll0 
363.00 


Duplex 

$31.35 

56.40 

74.70 


330.00    331.30 
388.30  400.50 


FUSES — Following    are    net    prices    of    250-volt    inclosed    fuses 
each,  in  standaid  packages,  in  cities  named: 


0-30    amperes    $0.11  Vi    each 

31-60    amperes    .!.>%    each 

61-100    amperes 40       each 


110-300    amperes    $0.90  each 

335-400    amperes    1.63  each 


LOOM — Price  per  100  ft.. 

Ft.  in  Coil 

14    250 

%    250 

M,    300 

%    300 


Ft    in  Coil 

$3.35         %     150  $7.00 

3.50      1         :00  10.00 

4.50      114    100  13.00 

5.75      IMs    100  15.00 


0-30  amperes. 
0.30  amperes. 


FUSE  PLUGS    (MICA  CAP)    PER  100 

4c.  each  in  standard  package  quantities    iSOO) 

5c.  each  for  less  than  standard  package  quantities    (600) 


-Following   are  net  prices  in  oent:^  each   in 


SOCKETS.   B.   B.    FINISH- 

•tandard  packages : 

H-IN.    OB    PENDANT    CAP  %-IN.    CAP 

Key  Keyless  Pull  Key  Keyless  Pull 

33.10c.  31.00c.  43.0t)c.  37.30e.  36.30c.  46.20c. 

Note — Less    than    standard    package    quantities,    15  %     off    list. 


CUT-OUTS — Following  are  net   prices  each  in   standard-package  quan- 
tities ; 


CUT-OUTS.    PLUG 


S.  P.   M.   L 

D.  P.  M.  L.  .  . 
T.  P.  M.  L. ..  . 
D.  P.  S.  B.  .  . 
D-   P.    D.    B ..  .  . 


$0.11 
.18 
.36 
.19 
.37 


P.   to   D.  P.  S.   B.. 
P.   to  D.  P.  T.  B. . 

P.    S    B 

P.    D.    B. 


$0,24 
.38 
.33 
.54 


CUT-OUTS.    N.    E.    C.    FUSE 


0-30  Amp. 

D.    P.    M.    L $0.33 

T.   P.    M.   L 48 

D.    P.    S.    B 43 

T    .P.    S.    B 81 

D.    P.    D.    B .78 

T.    P.    D.    B 1.35 

T.  P.  to  D.  P.  D.   B 90 


31-60  Amp.        60-100  Amp. 


$0.84 
1.30 
1.05 
1.80 
3.10 
3.60 
3.53 


$1.68 
3.40 


ATTACH.MENT   PLUGS — Price  each.   In    standard   packages: 


Hubbell    porcelain     $0.31 

Hubbell    composition     .13 

Benjamin    swivel     .13 

Current  taps    ".....  .35 


Standard  Package 

250 

50 

100 

50 


CONDUITS,    ELBOWS    AND    COUPLINGS — Following    are    warehouse 
net  prices  per  1000  ft.  for  conduit  and  per  unit  for  elbows  and  couplings: 


-Conduit— 


% 
1 

IM 
114 

2% 
3 

3% 
4 


Enameled  Galvanized 
$69.70 
93.00 
136.00 


184.00 
330.00 
396.00 
468,00 
613.00 
763.60 
926.50 


$74.80 
08.90 
146.30 
197.80 
336.50 
318.30 
503.10 
657.90 
818.80 
991.90 


Enameled  Galvanized 
$0.1673        $0.1786 


-Couplings- 


.3356 
.4185 
.558 
1.033 
1.674 
4.464 
9.86 
11.39 


!35 
.3478 
.4496 
.5994 
1.10 
1.80 
4.79 
10.59 
13.33 


Enameled  Galvanized 
$0.0638 


$0.0616 
.088 
.1144 
1581 
.1953 
.3604 
.373 
.558 
,744 
.93 


Standard  lengths  rigid.   10  ft.     Standard  lengths  flexible, 
ft.     Standard  lengths  flexible.    %   to  3  in..  50  ft. 


.094 

.1333 

.1698 

.3098 

.3797 

.3996 

.5994 

.7993 

.999 

V4    in..    100 


LOCKNUTS   AND   BUSHINGS—Following   are   net   prices   in   standard 
packages,  which  are:    % -in..  1000:    %-  to  I'iin..  100:  lU-  to  2-in..   50: 


Locknuts 
Per  100 

%     $1.03 

%     1.75 

1         3.00 

i^     5.00 

1%      7.50 

3,^    10.00 

"'i     13.30 


„ri.^V^""^onn  ^P''?f  ^^^  "^i^  CONNECTORS— Following  are  net 
prices  per  1000  ft.  cable  and  standard  package  of  100  box  connectors  in 
smgle  and  double  strip: 


Flexible  Conduit 

Bushings 

Box  Connections 

Per  100 

Per  100 

$1.68 

$5.63 

4.00 

7.12 

6.15 

10.50 

8.30 

13.00 

10.35 

33,50 

16.40 

30.00 

34.60 

67.50 

,„.       -,  , — Twin  Conductor — , 

Wire  Gage  Cable  Coinieotors 

1*   $65.00  $4.50 

}2 101.35  4.50 

10    138.73  4.75 

I 176.30  5.75 

o 377.50  6.35 

* 431.35  7.50 


Three  Conductor — , 
Connectors 
$4.50 
4.50 

4.75 


Cable 
$103.50 
137.50 
176.35 
247.50 
362.40 


6.00 
7.50 


FLEXIBLE  CORD — Price  per  1000  ft.  in  coils  of  350  ft. : 

No.  18  cottcfi   twisted $31.50 

No.  16  cotton   twisted 29.00 

No.  18  cotton   parallel \\  34^00 

No.  1 6  cotton   parallel 36.00 

No.  18  cotton    reinforced   he<ivy 38.50 

No.  IB  cotton   reinforced   heavy 39^40 

No.  18  cotton   reinforced   light 34.00 

No.  1 6  cotton    reinforced   light 33^00 

No  18  cotton   Canvasite   cord 31,75 

No.  16  cotton   Canvasite   cord 32.00 


RUBBER-COVERED  COPPER   WIRE— Per   1000 

.,  Solid.  Solid. 

No.  Single  Braid      Double  Braid 

14  $10.50  $13..50 

13  14.33  16.93 

10  16.93  33,83 

8  37.65  31,40 

6 

4 

3 

0 

00 

000 

0000 


ft.  in  New  York: 

Stranded. 

Double  Braid 

$15.00 

19.48 

25.81 

35.50 

66.00 

78.40 
113.45 
153.30 
183.90 
33».60 
371.34 
333.40 


Duplex 

$33.50 

32.35 

46.00 

61.00 


LAMPS- 

quantities: 


-Below  are  present  quotations  in  less  than   s-iandard  package 


Straight-Side    Bulbs 
Mazda    B- 


Watts 
10 
15 
35 
40 
50 
60 
100 


Plain 
$0.30 
.30 
.30 
.30 
.30 
.35 
.70 


Frosted 
$0.33 
.33 
.33 
.33 
.33 
.39 
.77 


No.  in 
Package 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
34 


Pear-Shape    Bulbs 
Mazda    C — 


Watts 

100 
150 
300 
300 
400 
500 
750 
1000 


Clear 
$0.70 
1.10 
1.65 
3.30 
3.35 
4.30 
4.70 
6. .50 
7.50 


Frosted 
$0.75 
1.15 
1.70 
3.37 
3.35 
4.43 
4.85 
6.75 
7.75 


Standard  quantities  are  subject  to  discount  of  10%  from  list 
contracts  raiiging  from  $150  to  $300,000  net  allow  a  discount 
40  %    from  list. 


No.  in 
Package 
50       . 
34 
34 
24 
24 
13 
13 

8 

8 

Animal 
of  17  to 


WIRING  SUPPLIES— New  York  prices  for  tape  and  solder  are 
a,s  roiiows '. 

Friction    tape.     H-lb.    rolls 35-   ner  lb 

Rubber   tape,    V,  lb.    rolls.  .    45^'  1%   g' 

Wire    solder.    50-lb.    pools !  !      45c    per    b 

Soldering  paste.    1-lb.   cans ]  50?'  per  lb' 

I'ANS — It  IS  prophesied  that  there  will  be  a  scarcity  of  electric  fans 
bills  sumnicr.    - 


3.32 


p  0  ^^■  E  R 


,ol.  47,  No.  10 


MISCELLANEOUS 


HOSE- 


Underwriters'    2  % 
Conimon.    2^i-in. 


in. 


50-Ft.  Lengths 
75c.  per  ft 
.      40 ", 


%  -in.  per  ft 

First  erade ...    30 


Air 
First  Grade     Second  Grade 

SO.,-)-.  $0.30 

Steam — Discounts  from  list 
%      Second  ffrade...    30-.->'>l      Tliird   grade 


Third  Grade 
SO. 35 


40-10" 


RUBBER  BELTING — The   following  discounts  from   list  apply 
to  transniissioii  rubber  and  duck  belting : 

Competition    50  7e     Best    grade    -0  ''i 

Standard    35  9; 

tE.\THKH    BKI.TIN<i — Present  discounts  fi-om  list   in  the  fol- 
lowing cities  are  as  follows: 

Medium  Grade       Heavy  Grade 


35" 

40  'S 

40-1-5'- 

35% 

35  <", 


New   York    *0% 

St.   Louis    4.)  <S 

Chicago   •'2:y  ^o 

Birmingham     ^ij  ^ 

Denver    40  % 

RAWHIDE    I,.\CINti— 40%. 

P.\CKING — Prices    jier    pound: 

aubber   and  duck    for   low-pressure   steam    

Asbestos    for    high-i»ressure    steam 

Duck   and   rubber   for   piston    packing 

Flax,    regular    

Flax,    waterproofed 

Compres.sed  abestos   sheet    

Wire   insertion    asbestos    sheet  

Rubber     sheet      

Rubber    sheet,     wire    insertion      

Rubber    sheet,     di[ck    iiiscrtiiiii     

Rubber     sheet,     cloth     nisertioii      .........        ,■.;■■■; ,■ 

Asbestos   packing,    twisted    or   braided    and    -rarduted     for   -lahe 

stems    and    stufting    boxe.s     •  -  ■  ■  • 

Asbestos   wick,    'i-   and    1-lbi  balls 

PIPE    AND    BOILER    t'OVERIN(i — Below    are    discounts    and    part    of 

standard  lists: 

BLOCKS    AND    SHEETS 

Price 

Thickness  per  Sq.Ft. 

S0.27 

.30 

.45 

.60 

.75 

.90 

1.05 

85 %    magnesia  high   pressm-e ^.^^y  •  ■  •  ■  •  •  ■  ■  •  •       .5 %    off 

For   low-pressure    heatins-    and    return    lines  j  3-pIy 80%    off 

GRE.\SES Prices  are  as  follows  in  the  following  cities  in  cents 

per  pound  for  barret  lots: 


PIPE 

COVERING 

Standard  List 

Pipe  Size 

Per  Lin. Ft. 

1-in. 

S0.2T 

2 -in. 
6-in. 

.36 
.80 

4-in. 

.CO 

3-in 

8-in 

1.10 

10-in. 

1.30 

V. 

-in. 

1 

-in. 

]  1^ 

-in. 

-in. 

•!V, 

-m. 

3 

-in. 

3% 

-in. 

Cincinnati      Chicago  St.  Lotus  Birmingham  Denver 

7               .-,1,  til                71...            10 

li  H.4                   15                      15 

(I  (i.4                   10                      15 


Cup      ■ 

Fiber   or   sponge S 

Transmission    7 

41:!  4  '..  Ii.5 

'. '.    22   Tsal,!        3H'  4.1) 


Axle 

Gear    

Car  journal    .  . 


ti 


COTTON  WASTE — The  following  prices  are  in  cents  per  pound  ; 


New  York  - 


Feb.  28.  litis      One  Year  Ago      Cleveland  Chicago 

Colored    mixed  S  50  to  12.00      10.00  to  12.00         12.50         12.00  to  12.50 

\Vhite     .  .     ;    11.00  to  13.00      13.00  to  15.00         10.00 


10.00  to  11.00 


FIRK  I5RKK — Quotations  on  the  diffeient  kinds  in  the  cities  named 
are  as  follows,  f.o.b.  works; 

New  York  Chicago 

Silica   brick,    per    1000 '.  .  .    550(10  to    55.00  550.00 

Fire  clay  brick,  per  1000.  No.  1 45jUO  to    55.00  

Maguesitc   brick,    per   net    ton 135.00  to  145.00 . 

Chrome    brick,    per   net    ton 135.00  

Deadburned  magnesite  brick    per  net  ton      S.5.00  to    00.00  

Special  furnace  chrome  brick   per  net  ton     60.00  to     70.00  (iO.OO  to  80.00 

Standard  size  fire  brick  il  x  4 'j  x  2'-  in  The  second  quality  is  S4 
to  35  cheaper  per  1000. 

St.  Louis — High  grade    S55  to  S<i5 :  SI.  Louis  grade.  S40  to  S50. 
Birmingham — Fire    clay.    S25    to    S30 :    Denver.    $23.    iier    1000. 
Chicago — Second   iiu;ilil,v.    S25    i»cf   'iin 

Fl'EI.  Oil. — Price  v:iri;ible.  depending  upon  stock.  New  York  quota- 
tions not  available  owing  to  this  fact.  In  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  the 
following   prices   are   quoted: 

Chicago  St.  Louia 

5c.  None 

7c.  7,'„c. 


WII'IN<i  CLOTHS— In  Cleveland  the  jobbers'  price  per   lOOn  is 
as  follows: 
1311x13'..,     S45.00         13'.,x20k.     S..-,00 

In  Chicago  they   sell   at   S30(ii33   per   1000. 

LINSEED    OIL — These    prices    aie    per    gallon: 

^  New  York  -,      , Cleveland ,     ^—-Chicago; , 

P^b.  28.     1  Year      Feb  28       l^enr  Feb2S.    IJear 

1018           Ago            1018           Ago  1018          Ago 

SI  30         SO.ilO         Si;i5         SI. 00  51.35         50.98 
r4li            1.00            1.50            1  10 


Raw   per   barrel 
5-gal.   cans    .  .  . 


1  45 


1,08 


100-lb.    kee 

1.    to    5-lb.    c.ms 


11.- 

13(25      13.00 


12,50      12,511 


00 
13.00  12.50 


Domestic  light.   22-20   Baunie.  . 
Mexican    heavy,    12-14    Baunie. 


Note 


-There  is   jiractically   no   fuel    oil   in   Chicago   at   present   time. 


SWEDISH      (NORWAY  I     IKON — The    average    pri,-e     per     100     lb. 


ton  lots 

Feb,  28.  101 S 

New    Y'ork    515.00 

Cleveland     15.30 

Chicago   15.00 

ance  of   50c.    usually   is  charged, 
•y   scarc-e   generall.v. 


Prices   on   Western   red  cedar  poles : 


One  Year  Ago 
$8.00 
7.50 
(i.OO 


50  90 

i    10 

In    coils   an 

Note — Stoc 

.90 

1  10 

1.00 

POLES— 

1.20 

.00 

.90 

6 

in.  by  30   ft 

.50 

in.  by  30   ft 

.25 

7 

in.  by  35   ft 

8 

in.  by  35   ft 

1.10 

in.  by  40  ft 

.70 

8 

in.   by   40   ft 

WHITE    .\ND    BKI>    LEAD    in    .tOO-II),    lots    sell    as    follows    in 

cents  per  pound:  

, Red >    / White , 

Feb   -8    1918         1  Y'ear  Ago   Feb.  28.  191  8    1  Yr,  Ago 

Dry  Dry 

Dry       In  Oil        Drv       In  Oil      and  In  Oil      and  In  Oil 
05-    and    50-lb.    kegs   11.50      11.00      10.50      11,00  10.50  10.50 

lsri?,^k^l^:::;;  ilis  iho     :oo    1:50     ii«i:      n 


RIVETS— The  following  quotations   are  allowed   for  fair-sized  orders 


from   warciiouse: 


New  York     Cleveland 
.      30  %  35  % 

.      30%  35% 


Chicago 

40%' 

40<!'r  • 


Steel., "j   and  smaller 

Tinned   

•For   less   than    keg   lots   the   discount    is   35%. 

Button  heads,    'i  .    >     1    in.  diameter  by  2  in.  to  5  in.  sell  as  follows 
per   100   lb  :  . 

New   York    $7.00     Cleveland  55.85      Chicago    $:..oO 

Coneheads.    same   .sizes:  .-  ^„ 

New  York    $7  10     Cleveland  $5,95     Chicago    Ju.GO 


8   in.   by   45   ft 

8   in.  by  50   ft 

10c.  higher  freight 


w  Y'ork 

Chicago 

St.  Lcuis 

Denver 

55.59 

54.94 

84.94 

$4.32 

7,40 

6.60 

0.60 

5.80 

10.70 

9.60 

9.60 

8.55 

12.20 

10.90 

10.90 

9.65 

12.35 

11.00 

11.00 

9.75 

13.75 

12.15 

12.15 

10.65 

18.20 

16.20 

16.20 

14.30 

21.85 

19.45 

19.45 

17.15 

account   of  double  loads 


For  ^lain  pine  poles,  delivered  New   York,   the  price  is  as  follows: 


10-in.  butts.  5-in.   tops,  length  20-30  ft 

12-in.  butts,  li-in.   tops,  length  :i0.40  ft. 

12-in.  butts,  6-in.    tops,  length  41  .)0  ft. 

14-in  butts.  Ij-in.    tops  length  51-00  ft. 

14-in  butts,  H-in.   tops,  length  lil  71  ft. 


SHOO 

8.50 

0.50 

17.00 

18. .50 


PIPE — The  following  discounts  are   for  carload   lots  fob.   Pittsburgh, 
basing  card  in   effect  July  2.   1917.   for  iron,   and  May   1    for  steel: 


Inches 
*4     t  o    .3 

Black   C 
49% 

42% 

2  4     to    6. 
7    to    12 .  . 
13    and    14 

15     

45% 
42% 
32  «,  % 
30% 

»j    to  1  ti  . 
2    to    3 

BUTT 
LAP 

WELD 

47  9^ 
48% 

WELD, 

40  9i 

■Zhi     to    4. 
4H     to    6. 
7    to    8 .  .  . 
^   to    12 .  .  . 

43% 

42% 
38  7o 
33% 

BUTT   WELD 
Steel 

ilvaiiizetl         liu-hes 
35  U  %        \    to  m  .  . 
LAP   WELD 

29  li  %        2     

32  V.  %■        2  l.j     to    4  .  . 

28 1>.  %        41..     to    6 .  . 

. .'  .  7    to    8. . .  . 


Black   Galvanized 


26% 

12% 

28% 

15% 

28% 

15% 

20% 

8% 

EXTRA   STRONG    PLAIN   ENDS 

.14  I..  %        >i    to  1  !• 3.;% 

35  K,  <-^ 

EXTR.\  STRONG   PLAIN    ENDS 


18% 


28 1"  %        2     27  %  14  % 

31  iJ  %       9    to    12 15  %  3% 

301-^%        7    to    12 25%  12% 

24ii%        21.    to  4 29%  17% 

19  U  %        4'-i    to  1) 28%  16% 

From   warehouses  at   the   places  named   the    following  discounts  hold 
for  steel   pilie: 


New  Y'ork 

'4    to   3   in     butt    welded 38% 

31 .    to  6  in.   lap  welded 18% 

7   to  12  in.  lap  welded 10% 


— Black » 

Chicago  St.  Louis 

42%  .34.27% 

38%  2157%. 

35%,.  21.27%, 

Galvanized \ 

Chicago  St.  Louis 


New  Y'ork 

'4    to   3   in.   butt    welded 22% 

SH    to  0  in,  lap  welded ,List 

7  to  12  ill    lap  welded Li9t-t--0% 

Malleable  fittings.  Class  B  and  C.   from  New  York  stock  sell  at  5  and 
5%    from  hsl   prices.     Cast   iron,   standard  sizes.    .34   and  0%. 


18% 
20  % 


19.27% 
13.27%. 

6.27  %■ 


BOILF.R  Tl  BES — The  following  are  the  prices  for  carload  lots  f.o-b. 
Pittsburgh,  announced  Nov  1 :!  as  agreed  upon  by  manufacturers  and 
the  Government: 

Lap    Welded    Steel                                         Charcoal  Iron 
31.    to  -11.    in  34         3'j    to  iV-   in 13% 

lK^^i^-y—  —  V..       13-     -0^2')    ni.^.............     J22H 

Standard  Commercial  Seamless — Cold  drawn   or  hot    rolleil: 

Per  Net  Ton  Per  Net  Ton 

\C^ ::::::::::   *?IS  n„^'vui.:::::::::;::::   '||S 

t»    ■■■••• ::::::    5?8  iV-.^^^'".:;: ::::::::; 

'■   -        4  i.j    to  5  in 220 

These  prices  do  not  apply  to  special  speinfications  for  locomotive 
tubes  imr  to  special  spcifications  (or  tubes  for  the  Navy  Department, 
which   will  be  subject  to  siiecial   negotiation. 


POWER 


5^'^ 


„„ ,„„„„„ MiilMiir I llMii, I I "Mm 1 1 1 "cimiiu 1 1 1 1 » ' 

NEW  YORK,   MAR('H    12.   1918  No.  11 

„„„ , , „„ , , ....,„ ' ' ' ' """" "" 


Vol.    17 

jmiiMiiiiiiiitiiiiDiiiiiiii 


Help   Yourself 


Bii  Rujus   T.  Sirohm 


WE'RE  apt  to  be  filled  with  envy 
At  the  mention  of  the  chap 
Whom  circumstance,  by  a  lucky  chance, 

Has  tossed  into  Fortune's  lap; 
For  the  ordinary  mortal 

Is  a  poor  and  hapless  elf, 
And  the  best  that  he  can  expect  to  see  ; 
Is  a  way  to  help  himself. 


I 


T'S  a  comfort  to  the  climber 
.     Who  would  scale  the  mountain  wall 
To  know  a  friend  is  at  hand  to  lend 

Swift  help  should  he  chance  to  fall; 
But  the  man  who  scans  most  keenly 

Each  inch  of  the  rocky  shelf 
Is  the  lonely  wight  on  the  dizzy  height 
Who  is  forced  to  help  himself. 


» 


THE  strides  that  the  race  is  making 
In  its  struggle  toward  the  light 
Have  come  by  the  throes  and  the  sweat  of  those 

Who  have  had  to  work  and  fight; 
For  earth  doesn't  owe  its  progress 

To  the  Guildford  or  the  Guelph, 
But  in  shire  and  town  to  a  Jones  or  Brown 
Who  heis  learned  to  help  himself. 

THE  gawk  who  inherits  millions 
Has  a  cheap  cause  to  be  vain. 
Since  not  one  sou  of  the  sum  is  due 

To  his  use  of  brawn  or  brain; 
But  the  engineer  who  labors 

As  he  garners  in  the  pelf 
Has  the  cheering  thought  that  his  wealth  is  wrought 
By  the  way  he  helps  himself. 


iHMliilimiliimniiiiiiiiiiiiiliinniiiiiinniim.iimnin"".""""""".""""""""" 


iirt)tritiititiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiii'iiiinnNiiiii)imiii»iiiitiiiiiiiiitiiiiimiii»iii<ii"ii"«ii«iii.i'i'"".""'||' 


iiiiiinimiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiir m\ 


-A  -• .« ■  w«^ 


354 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


Nmet2/-FiveT/iousandKilowatt 


The  Commonwealth  Edison  Co.,  of  Chicago  is 
completino  the  installation  at  Northwest  Station 
of  three  additional  turbo-generators  of  an  aggre- 
gate capacity  of  95,000  kw.  Tico  are  of  the  com- 
pound reaction  type  and  the  third  an  impulse 
machine  of  new  design.  One  of  each  type  is  now 
in  operatio7i,  and  the  second  compound  machine 
is  in  course  of  erection.  At  the  turbine  throttle 
steam  is  supplied  at  a  pressure  of  230  lb.  gage 
and  200  deg.  superheat. 


WITH  the  present  in.stallation  of  three  turbo- 
generator-s,  two  with  a  rating  of  30,000  kw. 
and  one  of  35,000  kw.,  Northwest  Station  of 
the  Commonwealth  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  will  have 
an  aggregate  rated  capacity  of  165,000  kw.  The  plans 
calling  for  six  unit.s  will  have  been  completed,  and  the 
present  building   fully   occupied. 

As  previously  recorded  in  these  columns,  the  station 
was  first  equipped  with  two  20,000-kw.  vertical  ma- 
chines generating  25-cycle  current.  The  next  addition 
was  unit  No.  3.  a  horizontal  compound  turbine,  with 
the  double-tlow  low-pressure  element  in  a  separate 
casing,  driving  a  30.000-kw.  25-cycle  generator.  In 
service  this  machine  has  been  found  to  have  ample 
capacity  for  continuous  operation  at  35,000  kw.  Full 
details  of  the  unit  are  available  in  the  June  20,  1916, 
issue  of  Power. 

Of  the  three  new  units  No.  4  (see  headpiece  above 
and  Fig.  3)  consists  of  an  impulse  turbine  arranged 
in  a  single  casing  and  a  25-cycle  three-phase  generator 
rated  at  35,000  kw.  at  unity  power  factor.  Units  Nos. 
5  and  6  consist  each  of  a  compound  reaction  turbine 
driving  a  60-cycle  three-phase  generator  (see  headpiece 
on  opposite  page)  rated  to  deliver  30,000  kw.  at  85 
per  cent,  power  factor. 


Unit  No.  6  was  the  first  of  the  new  machines  to  be 
placed  in  service,  and  No.  5,  now  in  the  course  of 
erection,  will  be  a  duplicate.  The  turbine  is  of  tandem- 
compound  design,  the  two  rotating  elements  being  con- 
nected by  a  solid  flanged  coupling.  The  generator 
is  in  turn  connected  through  a  flexible  coupling  so 
that  all  three  rotors  turn  as  one  unit,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  cross-compound  type,  where  each  element  of  the 
turbine  drives  a  separate  generator.  There  are  five 
main  bearings,  three  on  the  turbine  and  two  on  the 
generator,  with  an  additional  small  bearing  on  the  out- 
board end  of  the  direct-connected  exciter.  All  bearings 
are  served  by  the  usual  system  of  oil  circulation.  Normal 
oil  temperature  is  maintained  by  an  oil  cooler  supplied 
with  water  from  the  condenser  circulating-water  sys- 
tem. There  are  no  cooling  coils  in  the  individual  bear- 
ings. 

The  shaft  packing  consists  of  the  well-known  water 
gland  with  a  steam  labyrinth  added,  by  means  of  which 
vacuum  may  be  established  before  placing  the  turbine 
in  operation.  After  suflScient  speed  is  attained,  the 
water  gland  is  put  in  operation  and  the  steam  labyrinth 
shut  off. 

The  high-pressure  element  of  the  turbine,  which  con- 
tains the  governor  and  valve  mechanism,  is  of  standard 
single-flow  pure  reaction  construction,  containing  a 
total  of  90  rows  of  rotating  and  stationary  blading. 
In  this  element  the  steam  expands  from  the  throttle 
pressure  of  230  lb.  gage  down  to  a  pressure  of  about 
34  lb.  absolute,  at  the  most  economical  load.  The  steam 
passes  next  through  an  exhaust  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
into  an  overhead  passage  leading  to  the  low-pressure 
element. 

In  the  low-pressure  element  there  is  a  combination 
of  single-  and  double-flow  construction,  employing  all- 
reaction  blading.  Steam  from  the  high-pressure  element 
enters  at  the  top  near  the  center  and  passes  through 
a    single-flow    stage    consisting    of   20    stationary   and 


March  12,  1918 


POWER 


355 


rotating  rows  of  blading,  expanding  from  a  pressure 
of  34  lb.  absolute  to  approximately  8.5  lb.  absolute. 
It  is  then  divided,  one  half  continuing  through  an 
adjacent  low-pressure  stage  consisting  of  16  rotating 
and  stationary  rows  of  blading,  while  the  other  half 
passes  back  around  the  single-flow  stage,  through 
passages  between  the  inner  and  outer  cylinders,  to  a 
duplicate  pressure  stage  on  the  opposite  end  of  the 
spindle.  Each  low-pressure  stage  has  its  separate  ex- 
haust passage  to  a  condenser. 

Steam  admission  is  controlled  by  means  of  standard 
Westinghouse  control  mechanism,  consisting  of  a  gov- 
ernor controlling  the  main  or  primary  steam-admission 
valve  and  two  overload  valves  through  an  oil  relay. 
The  designed  capacity  on  the  primary  valve  is  25,000 
kw.,  this  being  the  point  of  maximum  efficiency.  The 
designed  capacity  on  the  secondary  is  30,000  kw.,  and 
on  the  tertiary,   35,000  kilowatts. 

The  turbine  is  served  by  two  condensers,  shown  to 
the  right  in  Fig.  1,  containing  28,000  sq.ft.  each,  or 
a  total  of  56,000  sq.ft.  of  cooling  surface,  in  12,972 
tubes  1  in.  in  diameter  and  16.5  ft.  long  between  tube 
heads.  The  surface  is  disposed  equally  between  the 
two  shells,  each  taking  steam  from  one  of  the  low- 
pressure  elements.  On  a  basis  of  30,000  kw.  the  con- 
denser has  1.87  sq.ft.  of  surface  per  kilowatt. 

At  the  entrance  to  each  shell  is  a  primary  heater 
containing  750  sq.ft.  of  surface  through  which  the 
condensate  is  passed,  so  that  it  may  be  heated  to  sub- 
stantially the  temperature  of  the  exhaust  steam.  A 
bi-rotor  circulating  pump  direct-connected  to  a  600-hp. 
induction  motor  (at  the  left  in  Fig.  1 )  furnishes  cooling 
water  to  both  sections  of  the  condenser.  This  pump, 
when  running  at  a  speed  of  350  r.p.m.,  has  capacity  to 
deliver  60,000  gal.  of  water  per  minute  against  a  head 
of  18  feet. 

Each  shell  of  the  condenser  is  served  by  a  condensate 
pump  and  a  hydraulic  air  pump  of  the  Leblanc  type, 


Fig.  2.  Both  pumps  are  turbine-driven  on  a  common 
shaft.  Each  of  these  auxiliary  sets  is  of  sufficient  size 
to  serve  the  main  unit  when  operating  at  its  maximum 
capacity,  thus  giving  one  set  for  reserve.  The  con- 
densate is  pumped  through  the  condenser  preheater  and 
to  the  feed-water  heater.  From  the  heater  the  feed 
water  passes  through  the  boiler-feed  pumps  and  thence 
through  the  economizers  to  the  five  boilers  of  the  unit. 

The  makeup  water,  which  serves  to  supply  any  de- 
ficiency in  the  boiler  feed,  is  drawn  from  a  fresh-water 
reservoir  in  which  is  collected  the  heater  overflow,  trap 
discharges  and  condensation  that  would  otherwise  be 
wasted.  At  such  times  as  the  supply  of  condensation 
to  the  fresh-water  reservoir  is  insufficient,  filtered  water 
is  admitted  through  a  float  valve.  The  makeup  water 
is  drawn  from  this  reservoir  into  the  condenser  by 
the  vacuum,  the  amount  being  regulated  by  a  float  valve 
on  the  feed-water  heater. 

The  generator  of  unit  No.  6  (see  headpiece  on  this 
page)  is  of  standard  construction,  star-connected,  being 
designed  to  deliver  three-phase  60-cycle  current  at  12,- 
000  volts.  The  speed  is  1200  r.p.m.  and  the  rating 
35,300  kv.-a.,  or  30,000  kw.  at  85  per  cent,  power  factor. 

For  cooling  the  generator  windings,  a  motor-driven 
blower  has  been  installed  with  capacity  to  deliver  120,- 
000  cu.ft.  of  air  per  minute.  The  air-intake  passage 
is  equipped  with  an  air  washer  of  suitable  capacity, 
which  comprises  the  usual  complement  of  spray  cham- 
ber, eliminators  and  tempering  coils  to  clean,  cool  and 
humidify  the  air.  Sufficient  steam  at  low  pressure  is 
supplied  to  the  tempering  coils  to  maintain  the  humidity 
at  the  desired  point  below  saturation.  The  motors  driv- 
ing the  blower,  circulating  pump  and  economizer  fans 
operate  on  440-volt  service  and  have  standard  remote- 
control  starting  equipment.  The  motors  are  brought  up 
to  speed  automatically  by  a  system  of  accelerating  re- 
lays and  air-break  contactor-type  circuit-breakers  with 
pu.sh-button  control. 


356 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.   11 


Unit  No.  4  (see  headpiece  on  page  354  and  Fig.  3), 
the  second  of  the  new  machines  to  be  placed  in  service, 
is  of  a  relatively  new  type  of  which  a  striking  feature 
is  the  compactness  of  arrangement  for  a  unit  of  such 
large  capacity.  The  turbine  is  of  the  impulse  type. 
The  wheels,  arranged  in  a  single  casing,  increase 
progressively  in  diameter  from  the  first  to  the  last  stage. 
Similarly,  there  is  an  increase  in  the  length  of  the 
blading  conforming  in  a  general  way  to  the  increase  in 
volume  of  the  steam  in  its  expansion  as  it  passes  through 
the  turbine. 

Steam  is  admitted  to  the  annular  ring  supplying  the 
first-stage  nozzles  through  a  single-balanced  valve  closed 
by  a  spring  and  opened  by  a  cam-actuated  lever  under 
the  control  of  the  governor.  A  secondary  control  valve  of 
similar  design  supplies  steam  to  one  of  the  intermediate 
stages  of  the  machine,  this  valve  opening  automatically 
when  the  load  on  the  unit  reaches  a  certain  predeter- 
mined capacity.  By  the  new  arrangement  the  numerous 
admission  valves  of  former  designs  have  been  eliminated. 


ugal  pump.  Fig.  5,  driven  by  a  600-hp.  induction  motor. 
The  speed  is  300  r.p.m.  and  the  capacity  against  an 
18-ft.  head,  60,000  gal.  per  min.  There  are  two  sets 
of  combined  air  and  condensate  pumps,  Fig.  6,  each 
set  being  driven  by  a  190-hp.  turbine  running  1500 
r.p.m.     One  set  is  a  stand-by  to  the  other. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  auxiliaries  is  some- 
what similar  to  those  for  unit  No.  6.  With  the  com- 
bination pump,  both  air  and  condensate  are  withdrawn 
from  the  condenser,  separate  piping  connections  being 
provided.  The  air  is  discharged  with  the  hurling  water 
to  a  reservoir  from  which  it  escapes  into  the  room,  and 
the  condensate  is  passed  through  the  preheater  at  the  top 
of  the  condenser  to  the  feed-water  heater.  Cross-con- 
nections allow  either  pump  to  serve  the  condenser.  As 
the  hurling  water  is  constantly  recirculated,  it  requires 
cooling.  For  this  purpose  a  surface-type  cooler  is 
inserted  in  the  hurling-water  reservoir  and  a  certain 
percentage  of  the  condenser  circulating  water  is  passed 
through   the   tubes.     Arrangements   for  the  supply  of 


FIG.    1.      TWO   SURFACE  CONDRNSERS  TO  THE  RIGHT.  EACH  CONTAINING  28.000  SQ.FT.  OF  COOLING  SURFACE.  AND 
IX   THE    FOREGROUXI)    .\    fifl.OOO-GAL.-PER-MIN.    CIRCULATING  PUMP  FOR  U.NTIT  NO.  6 


The  unit  has  four  main  bearings  cooled  by  water 
from  the  house  service.  Bearing  oil  is  supplied  under 
forced  circulation  at  about  20  lb.  pressure,  by  a  screw 
pump  geared  to  the  turbine  shaft.  In  starting,  use  is 
made  of  an  auxiliary  steam  pump  that  is  cut  out  of 
service  when  the  unit  is  up  to  speed. 

The  turbine  of  unit  No.  4  is  served  by  a  two-pass 
surface  condenser,  Fig.  4.  containing  56,000  sq.ft.  of 
surface.  The  condenser  is  rigidly  connected  to  the 
turbine  exhaust,  the  necessary  freedom  for  expansion 
being  provided  by  supporting  the  condenser  on  springs. 
Cooling  water  is  circulated  by  a  bi-rotor  48-in.  centrif- 


makeup  water  to  the  condenser  are  as  previously  de- 
scribed for  unit  No.  6. 

The  electrical  generator  of  unit  No.  4  is  a  three- 
phase  25-cycle  machine  rated  to  deliver  35,000  kw.  at 
unity  power  factor,  the  speed  being  1500  r.p.m.  A 
250-volt  110-kw.  shunt-wound  exciter  is  mounted  at 
the  end  of  the  generator  shaft.  Cooling  air  for  the 
main  generator  is  washed,  cooled  and  humidified  as  in 
the  case  of  the  other  unit,  but  the  air  is  forced  through 
the  machine  by  the  action  of  the  generator  rotor,  no 
independent  blower  being  used.  The  heated  air  from 
the  generr.tcr"  ia  discharged  to  the  boiler-room  base- 


March   12.   1918 


POWER 


357 


nient.  whence  it  finds  its  way  to  the  boiler  furnaces. 
This  saving  of  heat  that  otherwise  would  be  wasted  is 
in  line  with  modern  tendencies. 

In  jreneral  the  new  boiler  installations  are  similar 
to  the  equipment  installed  for  unit  No.  3,  which,  as 
previously  mentioned,  was  described  in  the  June  20, 
191G,  issue  of  Power.  May  16  and  30,  1916,  i.ssues  dealt 
with  the  condenser-circulating-  and  the  coal-handling 
system. 

As  a  brief  summary  it  may  be  stated  that  the  steam- 
generating  equipment  tor  each  of  the  new  units  con- 


transformers  the  three  leads  are  brought  together  to 
form  the  neutral  point  of  the  star,  from  which  con- 
nection to  the  neutral  bus  is  made  through  an  oil 
switch. 

For  each  unit  the  stator  leads  consist  of  two  cables 
per  phase.  In  the  case  of  unit  No.  4  each  cable  has  1,500,- 
000  cir.mils  cross-section,  and  the  cables  of  No.  6,  the 
60-cycle  generator,  have  1,250,000  cir.mils.  cross-section 
each.  The  leads  are  lead-covered  and  are  carried  within 
barrier  structures  similar  to  the  busbar  construction. 
The  lead  sheath  is  grounded  solidly  at  the  generator 


FIG.    2.      TURBINE-DRIVEN    COXnENSATE   AND   HYDRAULIC  AIR  PUMP  FOR  UNIT  NO.   6 


sists  of  five  cross-drum  water-tube  boilers  generating 
steam  at  240  lb.  gage  and  200  deg.  F.  superheat.  Each 
boiler  contains  12,200  sq.ft.  of  steam-making  surface, 
giving  61,000  sq.ft.  for  the  unit.  Two  chain  grates 
having  a  total  active  area  of  304  sq.ft.,  bearing  a  ratio 
to  the  steam-making  surface  of  1  to  40,  are  placed  under 
each  boiler.  The  furnace  is  of  the  expanding  type  with 
a  tile  roof  and  the  first  pass  at  the  rear.  Each  boiler 
is  connected  to  an  economizer  containing  6450  sq.ft. 
of  tube  surface  and  equipped  with  a  motor-driven 
induced-draft  fan  capable  of  handling  90,000  cu.ft.  of 
hot  gases  per  minute.  Five  boilers  are  served  by  a 
self-supporting  steel  stack  18  ft.  in  diameter  and  250 
ft.  in  height  above  the  boiler-room  floor,  the  base  of 
the  stack  resting  on  a  steel  structure  at  a  level  66  ft. 
above  the  boiler-room  floor.  Two  turbine-driven  boiler- 
feed  pumps  are  installed  for  each  unit,  the  capacity 
of  each  pump  being  900  gal.  per  minute. 

The  electrical  system  follows  the  standard  practice 
of  the  company  of  simple  two-bus  arrangement.  The 
alternators  are  star-connected  with  the  neutral  end  of 
each  phase  brought  outside  of  the  machine  for  the 
purpose  of  connecting  in  current  transformers  used  in 
connection  with  protective  reiays.     Beyond  the  current 


end  and  through  a  resistance  of  about  ten  ohms  at  the 
other  end. 

On  each  unit  is  used  the  company's  standard  system 
of  protection  for  the  generator.  It  consists  of  balanced 
relays  that  balance  the  current  going  through  the 
neutral  end  of  each  phase  winding  against  the  current 
flowing  in  that  same  phase  lead  at  the  oil-switch  end 
of  the  connection.  In  case  of  a  fault  in  the  generator 
windings  or  leads  between  the  windings  and  the  oil 
switches,  which  include  in  the  25-cycle  units  the  gen- 
erator reactor  coils,  these  relays  operate  and  instantly 
open  the  main  oil  switch,  the  neutral  oil  switch  if  it 
is  closed,  the  field  switch,  and  in  the  case  of  the  60-cycle 
machine,  the  switch  on  the  motor  driving  the  generator's 
ventilating  blower.  The  opening  circuit  of  the  field 
switch  is  connected  in  series  with  contacts  on  the  main 
oil-switch  mechanism  so  as  to  insui-e  against  the  opening 
of  the  field  before  the  alternator's  stator  circuit  has 
been  opened. 

For  the  preceding  information  on  steam  equipment. 
Power  is  indebted  to  Sargent  &  Lundy,  consulting 
engineers  for  the  Commonwealth  Edison  Co.  The  elec- 
trical data  came  from  the  electrical  department  of  the 
company. 


358 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


PRINCIPAL  DATA  OX  EQUIPMENT  OF  \f:y\'   ('XITS 
Turbo-'^pncrator  No.  4 

Turbine  General  Electrir  single-cylinder  horizontal  impulse  type 

Capacity,  kw  35,000 

Speed,  r.p.ni  1,300 

Generator  Three-phase,     25-cyrle.     9.000     voltt- 

Capacity,  unity  power  factor,  kw  35.000 

Exciter,  direct-connected,  capacity,  kw  95 

Air  for  cooling,  cu.ft.  per  min  .  , ,  60,000 

Unit: 

Length,  over-all,  ft  30 

Width,  ft.-in  19-10 

Floor  space  per  kw.  (35,000  kw),  sq.ft  0  028 

Condenser             Two-pass   surface,    Wheeler   Condenser   and  Engineeriim   Co 
Number  of  tubes,  including  prfheater                                                 ,  ,  12.939 

Tube  diameter,  o.  d..  in  I 

Length  between  heads,  ft                                      ,  16  5 

Surface,  sq.ft  36.000 

Surface  per  kw.  ( 35.000  k^.) 16 

Circuiatiiic    pump  ,  .Wheeler    bi-rotor 

CapMc-ity,   18-ft.  head.  gal.  per  min  60,000 

Driven  by  G.i\..,  440-volt  3-phasp  600-hp.  induction  motor,  speed,  r  p.m.      300 

Combined  air  and  condensate  pumps,   two  units  Wheeler 

Each  unit  driven  by  I90-hp.  G.  E.  turbine,  r.p.ni       . .  1,300 

Capacity  condensate  pump,  gal.  per  min 1.200 

TuTho-f^'enerntor  No   6 

Turbine ^ .  Westinghousc  two-cylinder  reaction 

Capacity,  kw             30,000 

Rows  of  blading,  h.-p.  element 90 

Rows  of  blading,  l.-p.  element,  single-flow 20 

Rows  of  blading,  l.-p.  element,  2  double-flow  stages,  each  16 

Spccil,  r.p.ni             -           1,200 

Generatnr Three-phaae.    60-cvcle.    12.000  volt?^ 

Capacity.  85  per  cent,  p.f.,  kw 10,000 

Exciter,  direct-connected,  shunt-wound,  capacity,  kw  110 

Cooling  air,  cu.ft.  per  min  120,000 

Unit: 

Length  over-all,  ft.-in  72-9 

Width,  ft.-in                            .                 .  19-2 

Floor    space    per   kw.    (30.000    kw.>    sq.ft  0  046 


Condenser  Weatinghouse    surface,    two    shells 

Number  of  tubes     \2  972 

Tube  diameter,  o.d.,  in '      i 

Length  between  heads,  ft 155 

Surface,  including  preheater.  sq.ft 56  000 

Surface  per  kw.  (30,000  kw.),  sq.ft I  87 

Circulating  pump  Weatinghouse  bi-rotor 

Capacity,  18-ft.  head,  gal.  per  min        60,000 

Driven  by  Westinghouse  60D-hp.,   440-volt  ind.  motor,  speed,  r.p.m         350 

-\ir  pump         Leblanc,  same  shaft  as  condensate  pump,  two  units,  each  driven  bj 

.  l39-h.p.  Westinghouse  turbine 

Capacity  condensate  pump,  gal.  per  min  L200 


Boiler     Unit   for    No.   4  or    No.    6 


Boilers 

Number  of  boilers  to  each  turbine 

Tubes  per  boiler 

Diameter  of  tubes,  in 

Length  of  tubes,  ft 

Steam-ruaking  surface  per  boiler,  sq.ft 

Pressure  at  turbine  throttle,  lb.  gage 

Superheat  at  turbine  throttle,  deg.  F 

Temperature  of  steam  at  throttle,  deg.  F 

Nominal  capacity  each  boiler,  lb.  steam  per  hour 

Size  steam  main  to  turbine,  outside  diameter,  in 
Stoker,  two  per  boiler        

.Active  area  two  stokers,  sq.ft 

Ratio  grate  area  to  steam-making  surface 
Pumps,   two  boiler-feed  per   unit         Worthinpton,   t 

Capacity',  lb.  per  hour  

Feed-water   heater  ( )pc 

Capacity  from  60-150  deg.  F.,  lb.  per  hour      

Economizer,  one  per  boiler 

.Nvunber  of  tubes    

Length  of  tubes,  ft 

Heating  surface  in  tubes,  sq.ft 
Fans,  induced-draft H, 

Capacity,  cu.ft.  hot  gases  per  min 
Stack 

Height  above  boiler-room  floor,  ft 

l^iameter  inside,  ft 


B.  &  W    Cross-Drum 

5 

368 

4 

18 

12,200 

230 

200 

600 

85,000 

20 

B.  &  W.  Chain  Grate 

304,6 

I  to  40 

iirbine-driven    three-stage 

430,000 

I    type,    Warren    Webstei 

400,000 

B.  F.  Sturtevant 

43b 

12 

V.  6,450 

F.  Sturtevant  multivam- 

90,000 

Steel    self-supporting 

230 

18 


FIGS.    :i    TO    (;,      TURBINE    AND    CONDENSKR    EQUIPMENT    OF    UNIT   NO.    I 
Fig.  3 — End  view  of  turbine      Fig.   4 — End  view  of  condenser    with    cover    plate    reniovt-d.      Fig     5 — Bi-rotor    circulating    pump. 

Fig    fi— Two   sets,   combined   air  and   condensate   pumps. 


March    12,    1!I18 


P  O  W  E  K 


369 


The  Selection  of  Ammonia  Condensers 


By  M.  a.  SALLER 


So»i<  KKtinextioiis  lue  nuulc  to  asuist  tilt'  eni/ineer 
in  yettitifi  arquninted  with  the  chief  factors  that 
should  (iiiide  him  in  the  selection  of  condensers 
for   the    lefrifiiratinn   plant. 

IN  THE  following  it  'is  not  the  intention  of  the 
writer  to  go  into  a  thorough  analysis  of  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  the  various  types  of 
condensers  for  refrigeration  plants,  but  merely  to 
suggest  the  chief  points  with  which  the  engineer  should 
acquaint  himself  before  selecting  a  particular  type. 

Condensers  for  use  in  compression  or  absorption 
plants  are  made  in  four  general  types :  Atmospheric,  or 
open-air  type ;  double-pipe,  or  closed  condensers ; 
straight-tube  surface  condensers;  submerged  condensers. 

In  the  atmospheric,  or  open-air  condenser,  a  number 
of  coils  or  passes  are  employed  through  which  the 
ammonia  gas  flows,  the  cold  cooling  water  trickling 
down  over  the  outside  of  the  pipes  from  a  trough 
or  distributor  above,  to  a  collecting  pan  or  basin  below. 

The  double-pipe  condenser,  as  the  name  implies,  con- 
sists of  a  double  set  of  pipes,  one  located  inside  the 
other,  the  ammonia  passing  through  the  inner  tube, 
while  the  cooling  water  is  passed  through  the  coil  sur- 
rounding it. 

The  straight-tube  surface  condenser  is  designed  along 
the  same  lines  as  the  surface  condenser  regularly  used 
in  steam-engine  and  turbine  practice. 

The  submerged  condenser  consists  of  ammonia- 
carrying  coils  submerged  in  a  tank  through  which  the 
cooling  water  is  circulated. 

Selection  of  Type  Rests  Largely  on  Conditions 

The  decision  as  to  which  of  the  four  types  should 
be  used  rests  largely  on  the  conditions  surrounding 
the  plant,  its  method  of  operation  and  the  amount 
of  money  available.  That  the  operator  may  have  sug- 
gested to  him  all  the  various  factors,  the  different 
points  for  and  against  each  type  are  briefly  outlined. 
Present-day  practice  in  refrigerating-plant  service  tends 
toward  the  ase  of  the  atmospheric  and  double-pipe 
types  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  the  outstanding 
feature  of  the  atmospheric  type  being  its  simplicity 
and  low  first  cost,  while  the  double-pipe  condenser  is 
often    preferred    because    of    its    high    efliciency. 

One  of  the  worst  features  of  the  double-pipe  condenser 
is  that  if  a  water  containing  an  appreciable  quantity 
of  foreign  matter  or  scale-forming  impurities  is  used 
-for  cooling  purpo.ses,  it  will  quickly  collect  in  the  pipe 
and  cause  a  coating  of  the  surfaces  which  will  greatly 
reduce  the  efliciency  and  finally  cause  complete  stoppage 
of  the  pipe.  It  should  be  remembered  that  scale  in  a 
double-pipe  condenser  is  a  more  serious  matter  than  in 
the  atmospheric  type.  With  the  exposed  surface  of  the 
atmospheric  condenser  any  deposit  which  forms  will 
be  quickly  noticed  and  may  be  readily  scraped  off  even 
while  the  condenser  is  in  operation,  while  in  the  double- 
pipe  condenser  the  coating  of  scale  can  be  detected  only 


by  shutting  down  the  plant  for  examination  or  by 
noting  a  reduction  in  the  efficiency  of  the  plant,  follow- 
ing which  the  unit  must  be  cut  out  of  service  for 
cleaning. 

A  scale  formation  of  the  same  thickness  is  also  a 
more  serious  matter  in  the  double-pipe  condenser  than 
in  the  atmospheric  type.  In  the  latter  case  the  scale 
gathers  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  tubes  and  really 
might  be  said  to  increase  the  area  of  the  cooling  surface, 
though  probably  not  sufliciently  to  counterbalance  the 
insulating  properties  of  the  scale. 

Scale  in  the  double-pipe  condenser  forms  on  the  outer 
surface  of  the  inner  pipe  and  materially  decreases  the 
heat-transmission  efficiency ;  also,  it  forms  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  outer  pipe  and  reduces  the  sectional  area 
of  the  water  passage. 

Other  Disadvantages  of  Double-Pipe  Condenser 

The  decrease  in  the  transverse  area  of  the  water- 
carrying  tubes  caused  by  scale  in  a  double-pipe  con- 
denser also  requires  an  increase  in  power  to  circulate 
the  water  through  it,  and  in  the  same  proportion  the 
flow  of  water  decreases  if  extra  pressure  is  not  applied. 
In  the  atmospheric  condenser,  where  the  cooling  water 
merely  flows  over  the  coils  by  gravity,  the  quantity  or 
distribution  of  the  water  is  not  affected  by  scale  forma- 
tion. As  in  cooling-tower  practice,  advantage  is  taken 
in  the  atmospheric  condenser  of  the  reduction  in  tem- 
perature resulting  fi"om  the  evaporation  of  some  of 
the  water  which  is  cooled  by  the  natural  air  currents 
and  the  outside  temperature  prevailing.  This  slight 
advantage  is  lost  with  the  double-pipe  condenser. 

It  should  also  be  considered  that  the  matter  of  am- 
monia leaks  in  the  double-pipe  condenser  operates  to 
its  disadvantage.  Because  >  •"  the  great  affinity  of 
anhydrous  ammonia  for  water,  a  leak  in  a  double-pipe 
condenser  may  continue  for  a  long  time,  the  ammonia 
being  absorbed  by  the  circulating  water,  without  Refec- 
tion. The  double-pipe  condenser  requires  extra  atten- 
tion when  shutting  down  the  plant,  especially  in  winter. 
Should  the  water  remaining  in  the  closed  circuit  of  the 
double-pipe  condenser  be  frozen,  the  rupture  of  one  or 
more  of  the  pipes  or  fittings  is  likely  to  occur. 

In  first  cost  the  atmospheric  condenser  has  an  ad- 
vantage over  the  double-pipe  condenser  because  only 
a  single  coil  of  pipe,  with  much  simpler  connections, 
is  required  with  a  distributing  and  collecting  trough. 
as  compared  to  the  double  set  of  coils  and  special  fittings 
usually  found  in  the  double  pipe.  As  a  general  rule 
it  can  be  figured  that  the  first  cost  of  the  double-pipe 
condenser  runs  from  three  to  four  times  the  cost  of  the 
atmospheric  type,  figured  on  the  basis  of  square  feet  of 
cooling  surface. 

In  the  matter  of  compactness,  however,  the  double- 
pipe  condenser  has  the  advantage  because,  due  to  its 
higher  efficiency,  a  small  condenser  will  do  the  same 
work  as  a  larger  atmospheric  condenser.  The  double- 
pipe  condenser  can  also  be  installed  indoors,  while  the 
atmospheric  type  must  be  installed  outdoors  or  in  a 
room  separated  from  other  machinery  because  of  the 
presence  of  moisture.    By  reason  of  its  compactness  and 


360 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


freedom  from  moisture  and  water  splashing,  the  double- 
pipe  condenser  can  be  located  close  to  the  ice  machine, 
with  a  saving  in  cost  of  pipe  lines,  therefore  this  type 
is  frequently  used  in  small  plants. 

Where  the  cooling  water  is  to  be  used  over  again 
for  other  purposes  under  pressure,  the  doiible-pipe 
condenser  also  possesses  an  advantage,  in  that  the 
cooling  water  can  be  taken  from  the  condenser  under 
pressure  to  any  other  point  of  use,  whereas  in  the 
atmospheric  type  all  the  pressure  is  dissipated  when 
the  water  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  Where  an 
unlimited  supply  of  cheap  water  under  pressure  is 
available,  the  double-tube  condenser  can  also  be  used 
to  advantage  and  can  frequently  be  installed  in  the 
lower  portion  of  the  building,  saving  the  investment 
in  an  extra  set  of  pumps  which  might  be  required 
to  force  the  water  up  to  an  atmospheric  condenser  in- 
stalled up  high  on  the  roof.  In  congested  localities, 
such  as  in  the  heart  of  cities,  the  water  and  moisture 
passed  out  to  the  atmosphere  by  the  open  type  of  con- 
denser is  often  objectionable,  and  in  these  cases  the 
double  type  offers  a  nice  solution  of  the  problem. 

High  Efficiency  of  Double-Tube  Type 

Given  favorable  operating  conditions— good  clean 
cooling  water,  clean  pipes  and  high  velocity  of  circu- 
lating water — a  high  efficiency  can  be  secured  from 
the  double-tube  condenser.  Giving  the  double-tube  con- 
denser the  benefit  of  these  favorable  conditions,  the 
comparison  of  the  two  types  expressed  in  number  of 
B.t.u.  exchanged  per  square  foot  of  cooling  surface  per 
hour  can  be  stated  as:  Atmospheric  type,  60  B.t.u. 
per  deg.  difference;  double-tube  type,  100  B.t.u.  per 
deg.  difference. 

Because  of  this  theoretically  higher  efficiency  it 
sTiould  be  possible  to  do  the  work  with  the  double- 
tube  condenser  with  40  per  cent,  less  cooling  surface 
than  in  an  atmospheric  condenser;  but  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  the  cooling  surface  in  the  double-tube  type 
costs  about  300  per  cent,  more  than  the  atmospheric, 
this  apparent  advantage  must  be  qualified.  It  should 
also  be  remembered  that  this  theoretical  efficiency  will 
not  always  be  encountered  because  of  the  unfavorable- 
ness  of  operating  conditions. 

Summed  up,  it  would  appear  that  the  atmospheric 
condenser  is  the  type  that  can  be  used  to  advantage  in 
the  average  plant  where  no  restrictions  are  encountered 
as  to  roof  space,  building  congestion,  etc.,  though  the 
double  type  appears  to  be  the  most  attractive  where  good 
cooling  water  is  available  or  where  the  condenser  can 
advantageously  be  located  inside  the  building  or  near  the 
compressor. 

As  to  the  straight-tube  surface  condenser,  this  is  not 
so  generally  used  on  account  of  the  expensive  construc- 
tion involved  as  against  the  atmospheric  type,  because 
it  is  subject  to  the  same  troubles  from  "scaly"  water 
as  the  double-tube  type,  and  because  trouble  is  usually 
experienced  in  maintaining  tight  connections  at  the 
tube  heads,  the  ammonia  leakage  being  quite  consider- 
able unless  constant  attention  is  paid  to  keeping  the 
tubes  tight. 

The  submerged  type  of  condenser  is  very  cheap,  com- 
prising merely  a  tank  and  some  ammonia  coils,  though 
it  is  not  desirable  for  large-plant  work  because  of  the 
large  size  of  tank  required  and  the  weight  of  the  large 


volume  of  water  it  carries.  The  matter  of  detecting 
leakage  is  also  unfavorable.  In  a  condenser  of  this  type 
it  is  also  often  necessary  to  install  stirring  apparatus  to 
insure  proper  circulation. 

Fyrox  Moving  West 

The  present  condition  of  stress  makes  the  public  more 
susceptible  to  the  exploitation  of  nostrums  that  are  sup- 
posed to  save  a  large  percentage  of  coal.  Purveyors  of 
these  preparations  are  alive  to  the  situation.  Our  old 
friend  "Fyrox,"  so  active  in  the  East  last  summer,  and 
of  which  Power  had  something  to  say  on  page  56  of  the 
July  10,  1917,  issue,  recently  bobbed  up  in  Detroit.  As 
may  be  remembered,  the  compound  is  in  powder  form  put 
up  in  one-pound  boxes  which  sell  for  one  dollar.  A  box 
of  the  compound  is  dissolved  in  8  to  10  gal.  of  water, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  coal  burned,  and  the  resulting 
solution  is  sprinkled  over  the  coal.  According  to  the 
directions  given  this  amount  is  sufficient  to  treat  two  tons 
of  coal.  It  is  claimed  that  ordinarily  two  tons  of  treated 
coal  will  last  as  long  as  three  tons  of  the  untreated, 
thus  saving  one-third  of  the  coal  bill. 

An  inquisitive  citizen  of  Detroit  brought  a  box  of  the 
preparation  to  .1.  C.  McCabe,  director  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Safety  Engineering,  requesting  an  opinion  on 
its  merits.  An  analysis  by  the  Detroit  Testing  Labora- 
tory showed  the  following  ingredients: 


Moisture 

Common  salt  with  trace  of  potassium  chloride 
Potassium  permanganate  .  - .  . 

Potassium  chlorate 

Carbon  

Sugar 


Per  Cent. 
0.51 
89  93 
0.23 
0.B8 
2  45 
6  00 


100  00 


In  other  words,  nearly  nine-tenths  of  the  preparation 
is  common  salt,  and  the  cost  of  one  pound  of  the  mixture 
at  the  present  high  prices  is  about  six  cents.  Appar- 
ently, if  there  were  any  advantage  in  using  such  a 
compound,  it  would  be  considerably  cheaper  to  patron- 
ize the  local  stores. 

When  sprinkled  on  a  hot  fire  salt  produces  a  highly 
colored  flame,  but  does  not  add  to  the  heat  value  of  the 
fuel.  If  used  in  sufficient  quantity,  it  would  tend  to 
slow  up  combustion  and  eventually  extinguish  the  fire. 
Less  coal  would  be  burned  and  less  heat  would  be  gen- 
erated. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  one  pound  of  Fyrox  is  used  to 
4000  lb.  of  coal,  the  proportion  being  0.025  per  cent. 
It  should  be  evident  that  any  benefit,  or  for  that  matter 
injury,  to  combustion  must  be  negligible. 

Calorimetric  tests  on  two  identical  samples  of  coal,  one 
without  and  the  other  with  400  times  the  amount  of 
Fyrox  specified,  gave  11,517  and  11,767  B.t.u.  respec- 
tively. The  second  test  was  made  with  a  slightly  heavier 
fusion  wire,  which  would  mean  a  little  more  heat  in  the 
calorimeter.  The  usual  variation  between  readings' 
is  about  2  per  cent.,  or  in  the  present  case,  say,  200  B.t.u., 
so  that  for  all  practical  purposes  the  heat  from  each 
sample  of  coal  was  identical. 

If  it  is  the  psychological  effect  that  is  desired,  some- 
thing that  will  influence  the  flreman  to  improve  his 
methods  and  to  watch  the  fire  more  carefully  than  usual, 
why  not  use  plain  water  and  give  it  a  trade  name  to 
conceal  its  identity?  The  results  would  be  equivalent 
and  the  cost  much  less. 


March  12,   1!U8 


POWER 


361 


^iniinihiHiNiiiiMiiitHiiitiiiiHiiiiiniMtiiiiMuirniiiMiiitniuniuninniiMtiiiniiMiniiiiMiiiiHiiiiniiMiiiriiiihiiiniiiMniUMiiitiiiniiiiiiiiiiiitniiiMniMii^ 

I 
I 


From  an  Engineer's  Notebook 


By  M.  p.  Bebtrande 


HANDY   LADLE  FOR    POURING    BABBITT 


AN  EMERGENCY    DRILLING    MACHINE 


"^S^    DRILL    PRESS ^BRACE 


FEEDING  THE  BREAST    BIT  WITH  THE  AID  OF^yiSE   SCREW 


Bumps   in   Tanks   can  be  remowd  with    Hammer-  and 
Pull  Rod 


Holes  are  made  Wafer- fight\  with  a  Cc^per  Tube  and 
Tapered  Screw  Plug 


'.iinilllllHlllinilllllllllllhllMllliniinniliHllininljliiiniiHiMiininiHnii;n:iMn!nillMillllMlMiMlli)iiniiiMiiiMniiiiniMlllMiiiHlnniirlllMMPMiniiMMiiHMnuniiMiMiiiMiiMMniiMiMinniinMnnni^ 


362 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


The   Electrical   Study   Course — Commutation 


The  process  involved  in  the  armature  coils  under 
commutation  is  explained,  and  one  of  the  meth- 
ods that  may  be  used  to  assist  in  commutating 
the  current  is  pointed  out. 

IN  FIG.  1  the  lines  of  force  pass  from  the  N  pole 
into  the  armature  core  between  points  B  and  D;  like- 
wise under  the  S  pole  the  magnetic  flux  passes  from 
the  armature  core  into  the  S  pole  between  points  A  and 
C.  It  is  only  between  these  points  that  the  armature 
conductors  will  be  cutting  the  lines  of  force  and  there- 
fore generating  voltage,  when  the  armature  is  revolved. 
Between  points  A  and  B  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
armature  and  C  and  D  on  the  right-hand  side,  the  con- 
ductors are  outside  of  the  magnetic  field  and  are  not 
cutting  the  latter;  therefore  do  not  produce  any  volt- 
age. The  space  between  the  polepieces  where  the  con- 
ductors do  not  cut  any  line  of  force  is  called  the  neutral 
point  or  neutral  zone.  It  is  always  at  this  point  that 
the  brushes  must  be  located  on  the  commutator,  because 
if  they  are  very  far  off  the  neutral,  serious  sparking 
will  result. 

In  general  it  is  possible  to  shift  the  brushes  slightly 
ahead  of  the  neutral,  that  is,  in  the  direction  that  the 
armature  is  turning,  or  to  shift  them  slightly  back  of 
the  neutral,  against  the  direction  of  rotation,  without 
seriously  interfering  with  the  operation  of  the  machine. 
In  some  cases  the  brushes  can  be  shifted  slightly  ahead 
or  back  of  the  neutral  with  beneficial  effect  upon  the 
operation  of  the  machine.  However,  this  is  a  subject 
to  be  considered  in  a  later  lesson. 

We  have  already  seen  in  a  previous  lesson  how  a  ring 
divided  into  two  parts  acts  to  cause  an  alternating  cur- 
rent generated  in  a  coil  revolving  between  the  poles 
of  a  magnet  to  flow  in  one  direction  in  the  external 
circuit.  It  will  be  recalled  that,  although  the  current 
was  caused  to  flow  in  one  direction,  the  current  was  of 
a  pulsating  nature;  that  is,  flowed  in  waves.  Where  a 
number  of  coils  are  connected  to  a  commutator,  as  in 
Fig.  1,  the  current  not  only  flows  in  one  direction  in  the 
external  circuit,  but  also  is  maintained  at  a  constant 
value.  This  will  be  seen  by  considering  what  takes 
place  at  the  brushes  as  the  armature  revolves. 

In  Fig.  2  the  armature  is  shown  after  it  has  been  re- 
volved one  segment  from  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
In  Fig.  2  coil  k.  which  was  under  the  N  pole  in  Fig.  1, 
has  moved  out  from  under  the  pole  and  into  the  neutral 
zone,  while  coil  j,  which  is  in  the  neutral  zone  in  Fig. 
1,  has  moved  in  under  the  N  pole,  thus  maintaining  the 
same  number  of  active  conductors  under  this  pole.  The 
same  thing  has  happened  under  the  S  pole,  where  coil 
g,  which  is  under  this  pole  in  Fig.  1,  has  moved  out  into 
the  neutral  zone  and  coil  h  has  come  in  under  the  pole, 
thus  maintaining  the  number  of  active  conductors  under 
this  pole  constant  and  consequently  maintaining  the 
voltage  at  the  brushes  constant,  which  in  turn  will  cause 
a  current  of  constant  value  to  flow  in  an  e-ternal  cir- 
cuit L  of  constant  resistance.  This  is  the  process  that 
is  going  on  all  the  time  in  the  armature  as  long  as  it  is 
revolved.    As  fast  as  one  armature  coil  moves  out  from 


under  a  polepiece,  another  moves  in  to  take  its  place, 
thus  maintaining  the  number  of  active  coils  on  the  arm- 
ature constant. 

The  process  that  takes  place  around  the  coils  under 
commutation,  that  is,  the  coils  in  the  neutral  zone,  is  one 
of  the  most  complicated  operations  in  the  machine. 
In  Fig.  1  the  current  in  coil  I  is  flowing  up  through  the 
plane  of  the  paper  and  to  the  positive  brush.  At  the 
negative  brush  the  current  is  flowing  from  segment  c 
to  coil  m  and  down  through  the  plane  of  the  paper.  In 
Fig.  2  the  current  in  coil  /  is  flowing  down  through  the 
plane  of  the  paper  and  to  segment  e  and  then  to  the 
positive  brush,  and  at  the  negative  brush  the  current  is 
flowing  in  through  segment  b  and  to  coil  m,  up  through 
the  plane  of  the  paper.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  the 
direction  of  the  current  in  coils  /  and  m  is  reversed  in 
Fig.  2  from  that  of  Fig.  1.  In  other  words,  when  the 
armature  revolves  through  an  arc  equal  to  the  width 
of  a  commutator  segment,  that  is,  causes  one  segment 
to  move  out  from  under  a  brush  and  another  to  move  in, 
ihe  current  in  a  coil  connected  to  the  segments  that  the 
brushes  rests  on  is  reversed. 

In  changing  from  the  condition  in  Fig.  1  to  that  in 
Fig.  2,  there  was  a  period  when  coils  I  and  m  were 
short-circuited;  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  In  this  case 
the  positive  brush  rests  on  segments  d  and  e  and  the 
negative  brush  on  segments  b  and  c.  When  the  brushes 
are  in  this  position,  as  far  as  the  circuits  in  the  arma- 
ture are  concerned  there  need  not  be  any  current  flow- 
ing in  coils  I  and  m,  since  as  shown  in  the  figure,  the 
current  to  the  positive  brush  can  flow  directly  from  coils 
/;  and  fc  without  flowing  through  coil  I.  Likewise  at 
the  negative  brush,  the  current  is  from  the  brush  to 
coils  g  and  j  without  passing  through  coil  m.  In  other 
words,  coils  m  and  I  are  shunted  out  of  circuit,  until 
the  brushes  move  onto  segments  b  and  e,  as  in  Fig.  2, 
where  the  current  must  flow  in  an  opposite  direction,  in 
coils  I  and  m,  to  that  in  Fig.  1. 

The  foregoing  might  be  easily  accomplished  if  it  were 
not  for  the  property  of  self-induction,  which  is  present 
in  every  electrical  circuit  when  the  current  is  changing 
in  value.  It  was  shown  in  the  lesson  in  the  Dec.  4 
issue,  that  when  the  current  is  increasing  in  value  in  a 
conductor,  the  conductors  cut  the  line  of  force  set  up 
by  the  current  and  induce  a  voltage  that  tends  to  pre- 
vent the  current  from  increasing  in  value,  and  when 
the  current  is  decreasing  in  value,  the  conductors  cut 
the  line  of  force  in  a  direction  which  creates  a  voltage 
that  tends  to  keep  the  current  flowing  in  the  circuit.  In 
other  words,  the  effect  of  induction  is  to  oppose  any 
change  in  the  value  of  the  current  in  the  circuit. 

Let  us  see  what  the  result  of  self-induction  is  upon 
the  armature  coils  under  commutation,  such  as  coils  I 
and  m  in  the  figures.  Start  with  Fig.  1  and  consider 
only  the  positive  brush.  The  brush  moves  off  segment  d 
onto  segment  e  bridging  across  the  insulation  between 
the  two  segments,  as  in  Fig.  3.  If  it  were  not  for  the 
induction  of  the  coil,  there  would  be  no  reason  for  the 
current  flowing  in  coil  /,  Fig.  3,  but  when  the  coil  is 
short-circuited  and  the  current  starts  to  decrease,  it  is 
prevented  from  doing  so  by  induction  and  for  a  short 
period  must  continue  to  flow  through  the  coil  into  seg- 


March  12.   1<)18 


POWER 


363 


ment  d.  If  this  continues  until  segment  d  moves  out 
from  under  the  brush  and  segment  e  moves  in,  as  in 
Fig.  2,  then  the  current  must  not  only  cease  flowing 
from  coil  /  to  segment  d.  l)ut  also  reverse  its  direction 
and  build  up  to  full  value  in  the  opposite  direction,  as 
in  "Fig.  2.  In  the  latter  case  induction  again  tends  lo 
prevent  the  current  from  building  up  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection. The  result  of  this  is,  if  some  means,  which  will 
be  considered  later,  is  not  emplo.ved  to  make  the  current 


Fie.  1 


spark  is  produced  in  a  make-and-break  ignition  sy.stem 
on  a  gas  engine.  Another  thing  is  that  as  segment  d 
moves  out  from  under  the  brush,  the  contact  between 
the  brush  is  getting  smaller  all  the  time  until  the  brush 
leaves  the  segment.  If  considerable  current  is  kept 
flowing  from  the  coil  under  commutation  into  the  seg- 
ment that  the  brush  is  leaving,  such  as  coil  /.  to  segment 
</.  Fig.  3,  it  may  increase  the  temperature  of  the  trail- 
ing corner  of  the  brush  to  the  point  where  it  will  glow. 


Fie.  2 


FI&.  3 


FIO.  4. 


PIG.S.    1     TO    4.       DIA(;R.\MM.A.TICAL    representation    op   a   DrRECT-CURRKNT  IIENERATOR 


reverse  in  the  coil  under  commutation  in  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  brush  to  pass  from  one  segment  to  an- 
other, severe  sparking  at  the  brushes  will  take  place. 
This  is  caused  by  the  current  not  being  able  to  reverse 
in  the  coil,  in  the  time  that  the  brush  passes  from  one 
segment  to  another,  and  follows  the  brush  across  the 
insulation  between  the  segments,  similar  to  the  way  the 


The  time  during  which  the  current  must  decrease 
from  full  value  to  zero  and  build  up  to  full  value  in 
the  opposite  direction  is  very  small.  For  example,  as- 
sume that  the  armature  in  the  figure  is  revolving  at 
1500  r.p.m.,  which  is  not  an  excessive  speed.  Since 
there  are  24  segments  in  the  commutator,  24  X  1500  = 
36,000  segments  pass  each  brush  per  minute,  or  600  seg- 


364 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.   11 


ments  per  second.  We  have  just  seen  that  each  time  a 
segment  passes  a  brush,  the  current  reverses  in  a  coil. 
Therefore,  when  a  two-pole  armature  having  24  seg- 
ments revolves  at  1500  r.p.m.,  the  current  must  reverse 
in  the  coil  under  commutation  in  tJtt  part  of  a  second. 
From  this  it  is  evident  that  it  may  be  a  somewhat  diffi- 
cult proposition  to  make  the  current  properly  reverse 
in  the  coil  in  such  a  short  period. 

At  the  positive  brush  the  current  is  flowing  up 
through  the  coil  under  commutation  and  must  be  re- 
versed and  caused  to  flow  down,  each  time  that  a  seg- 
ment moves  out  from  under  the  brush  and  another  one 
moves  in.  What  would  help  to  reverse  the  current 
would  be  an  electromotive  force  induced  in  the  coil  op- 
posite to  the  direction  that  the  current  is  flowing  in 
the  coil  under  commutation;  that  is,  if  the  current  is 
up  through  the  plane  of  the  paper,  the  voltage  will  have 
to  be  downward  to  assist  in  changing  the  direction  of 
the  current.  In  the  figure  all  the  conductors  under  the 
S  pole  have  an  electromotive  force  induced  in  them 
down  through  the  plane  of  the  paper.  Therefore,  if  the 
brushes  are  shifted  so  that  the  positive  brush  will  come 
under  the  tip  of  the  S  pole,  as  in  Fig.  4,  the  coil  under 


7J  =  Z5 


-E^75- 

PIG.    5.      COMPLEX  CIRCUIT 

commutation  will  have  a  voltage  induced  in  it  that  is 
opposite  to  the  flow  of  the  current  in  the  coil.  When 
the  brushes  are  properly  located,  they  will  be  in  a  posi- 
tion where  the  voltage  generated  in  the  coil  will  be  just 
sufficient  to  reverse  the  current  during  the  period  of 
commutation. 

The  foregoing  is  one  way  to  obtain  sparlcless  commu- 
tation and  was  the  one  usually  relied  upon  in  the  early 
type  of  machines,  but  by  improvement  in  design  it 
has  become  possible  to  build  generators  and  motors  that 
will  operate  over  their  entire  range  from  no  load  to  full 
load  with  the  brushes  located  exactly  between  the  pole- 
pieces  without  sparking.  Further  consideration  will 
be  given  this  subject  in  later  lessons.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  brushes  are  shifted  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  armature  is  revolving.  However,  this  is  true  only 
of  a  generator. 

When  we  consider  the  electric  motor,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  brushes  must  be  shifted  against  the  direction 
of  rotation,  to  assist  in  reversing  the  current  in  the  coil 
under  commutation. 

In  Fig.  5  is  given  the  layout  of  the  problem  given  in 
the  last  lesson,  and  it  is  worked  out  in  a  manner  similar 
to  the  one  solved  in  that  lesson.  Here  we  have  two  cir- 
cuits, a  simple  one  from  B  through  r,  =  6  ohms  to  A, 


fnd  a  second,  a  complex  circuit,  from  B  through  r,  == 
9  ohms  to  C;  at  this  point  the  circuit  divides,  one  part 
going  through  r,  =r  6  ohms  and  the  other  through  r,  = 
7.5  ohms  in  series  with  r,  =  2.5  ohms  to  A.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  simple  circuit  r^  is  in  parallel  with  the 
complex  circuit  just  described.  In  the  complex  cir- 
cuit r^  is  in  parallel  with  r,  and  r,  in  series.  Therefore, 
if  we  represent  the  joint  resistance  of  this  part  of  the 
circuit  by  R' ,  then 

i 1  _       1  1 

8 


R  =■ 


+ 


r,  +  rj      rs      2.5  -I-  7.5 


-f  ■ 


10  ^  6      30 


30 
=  -Q-  =  3.75  ohms 


R'  is  in  series  with  r„  hence  the  resistance  of  the  com- 
plex circuit  is  R"  =  iJ'  -f-  r,  =  3.75  +  9  =  12.75  ohms. 
Then  the  joint  resistance  of  the  total  circuit  is 
1  1  1  76.5 


R 


R" 


+ 


12.75      6 


18.75      18.75 


=  4.08  ohms 


Then  the  total  current  /  =  =  = 


18.38  amperes. 


f=12.5 


76.5 
E  ^    lb 
R       4.08  '' 

Since  full  pressure  is  applied  across  r^,  i 

amperes.  Full  voltage  is  also  applied  across  the  complex 

E       75 
circuit  R",  hence,  in  this  circuit  the  current7'  =  7^,  =  .,„  _.; 

K       12.75 

=^  5.88  amperes.  All  this  current  flows  through  r„  there- 
fore. i^  =  r  =  5.88  amperes.  After  the  current  passes 
through  r„  it  divides  at  C,  part  of  it  going  through  r, 
and  part  going  through  r^  and  r^  in  series.  The  volt- 
age drop  across  r,  is  e,  =  r„  t,  =  9  X  5.8?  ;=  52.92  volts. 
£"  =  £■  —  e,  =  75  —  52.92  =  22.08  volts  available 

.F  ^  22.08 

r 
E'  22.08 


between  C  and  A,  from  which  i,  =  — 


=  3.68 


amperes,  andi  1  =  i 
sum  of  i,  and 


:=2.2  amperes.  The 


r,+r.  2.5  +  7.5 
(,  or  i_,  is  3.68  +  2.2  =  5.88  amperes, 
which  checks  up  with  i,  the  current  flowing  in  r,.  This 
is  as  it  should  be. 

In  Fig.  1  if  the  resistance  of  each  half  of  the  arma- 
ture winding  from  the  positive  brush  around  to  the 
negative  brush  is  0.5  ohm,  and  there  is  connected  be- 
tween the  brushes  a  resistance  L  =  4.75  ohms,  what 
current  will  flow  in  the  external  circuit  and  in  each 
half  of  the  armature  winding  when  150  volts  is  being 
generated  in  the  winding?  Also,  what  will  be  the  value 
of  the  volts  across  the  brushes  when  the  external  cir- 
cuit is  connected? 


An  owner  of  land  joining  a  stream  above  an  exist- 
ing dam  loses  all  right  to  enjoin  a  raising  of  the  dam, 
although  that  causes  overflow  of  his  lands,  where  no 
objection  was  made  while  the  new  structure  was  being 
constructed,  and  he  maintained  suits  to  collect  damages 
for  the  injury  done  his  property,  without  then  seeking 
to  enjoin  further  maintenance  of  the  dam  at  its  in- 
creased height.  In  addition  to  laying  down  this  rule 
of  law  in  the  case  of  Holcomb  vs.  Alpena  Power  Co., 
164  Northwestern  Reporter,  470,  lately,  the  Michigan 
Supreme  Court  also  decided  that  where  land  is  perma- 
nently flooded  by  a  dam;  the  owner's  damages  should  be 
computed  in  full  in  one  suit  on  the  basis  of  the  excess  of 
value  of  the  land  unflooded  above  its  value  as  flooded. 


.March  12,  1918 


POWER 


365 


Possible  Saving  in  Avoiding  Leaks  in 

Boiler  Setting 


By  J.  M.  AARONS 


Some  ivell-knoicn  truths  are  pointed  out.  Air 
leakage  through  boiler  settings,  due  to  cracked 
settings  and  porous  bricks,  Cu,n  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum  by  coating  the  brickuwrk.  The  present 
coal  situatio7i  is  bringing  home  the  facts  set  forth. 

SUPPOSE  that  150,000,000  tons  of  coal  could  be 
deposited  in  the  bunkers  of  the  coal  users  of  this 
country  during  the  next  twelve  months  without  any 
effort  on  the  part  of  either  the  mines  or  the  railroads. 
This  would  mean  that  the  fuel  shortage  would  not  only 
be  overcome,  but  there  would  be  a  large  surplus  for  ex- 
port. This  150,000,000  tons  is  the  estimated  amount 
annually  wasted  by  the  coal  users  of  this  country,  and 
the  fuel  shortage  may  therefore  be  charged  directly  to 
waste. 

Engineers  throughout  the  country  have  for  years  been 
pointing  out  the  possibilities  of  increased  efficiency  in 
the  boiler  room.  Generally  speaking,  little  attention  has 
been  paid  to  them.  The  executive  heads  of  manufactur- 
ing concerns  do  not,  as  a  rule,  make  a  study  of  their 
boiler-house  conditions.  This  part  of  their  operation  is 
looked  upon  as  a  hot  and  dirty  place.  Combustion,  as 
far  as  they  are  concerned,  consists  in  starting  a  fire  and 
shoveling  on  sufficient  coal  at  intervals  to  keep  up  the 
steam  pressure. 

Coal  Bills  Considered  Necessary  Evils 

Coal  bills  always  touch  the  "sore  spot,"  but  they  are 
looked  upon  more  or  less  as  necessary  evils — some- 
thing to  kick  about  on  the  first  of  each  month  and  then 
forget.  Until  recently,  if  the  coal  bill  was  15  to  30 
per  cent,  higher  than  it  should  be,  it  was  nobody's  busi- 
ness as  long  as  the  man  who  "paid  the  piper"  was  in- 
different. Today  things  have  changed  and  every  pound 
of  coal  wasted  is  a  black  spot  against  the  one  who  sanc- 
tions it. 

How  can  coal  be  saved?  When  it  is  taken  into  con- 
sideration that  a  ton  of  good-grade  coal  delivered  to  the 
plant  contains  approximately  29,000,000  B.t.u.  and  that 
the  average  plant  delivers  to  the  point  where  power  is 
used  only  about  555,000  B.t.u.,  it  will  be  seen  that  an 
enormous  waste  is  taking  place  somewhere.  Part  of  this 
loss  is  unavoidable,  but  a  large  percentage  of  it  is  due 
to  carelessness  in  operation  and  to  neglect. 

By  far  the  greatest  waste  is  caused  by  the  large 
amount  of  excess  air  that  is  permitted  to  enter  furnaces 
and  boiler  settings  and  to  escape  up  the  chimneys,  carry- 
ing away  heat  that  should  be  utilized  to  do  useful  work. 
This  unnecessary  excess  air  is  admitted  in  two  ways — 
first,  through  uneven  fires  which  leave  part  of  the  grates 
bare  and,  second,  through  pores  and  cracks  in  the  boiler 
settings.  Loss  due  to  uneven  fires  is  chargeable  directly 
to  improper  operation.  Every  fireman  knows  that  to  gfet 
the  greatest  capacity  out  of  a  boiler  the  entire  grate 
surface  must  be  covered  with  burning  fuel  and  that 


there  must  be  no  holes  or  bare  spots,  but  apparently 
many  do  not  appreciate  that  an  even  fire  is  necessary 
if  the  fuel  is  to  be  burned  efficiently.  If  a  few  simple 
instructions  along  this  line  were  given  and  the  firemen 
were  required  to  follow  them,  a  tremendous  saving 
would  be  effected. 

The  loss  due  to  leakage  through  boiler  settings  is  even 
more  important  because  it  is  less  easily  detected.  If  a 
fire  is  in  improper  condition,  one  look  into  the  furnace 
reveals  the  fact,  but  leakage  through  settings  is  not 
so  apparent.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  leakage 
around  doors  and  boiler  drums,  but  most  of  it  filters 
through  what  appears  to  be  a  solid  brick  wall.  The 
heating  and  cooling  of  the  brickwork  opens  up  a  large 
number  of  small  cracks  which  increase  the  leakage 
without  giving  a  setting  the  appearance  of  being  in  bad 
condition.  The  leakage  through  boiler  settings  reaches 
greater  proportions  than  is  apparent  from  an  inspection 
of  the  brickwork  and  may  be  as  great  as  one-half  of 
the  amount  of  air  supplied  for  combustion.  This  repre- 
sents a  large  preventable  loss,  and  one  which  may  go 
on  unnoticed  because  there  is  no  outward  indication 
that  it  actually  exists.  Moreover,  the  loss  due  to  in- 
filtration of  air  to  the  boiler  settings  is  not  intermittent 
but  represents  a  continual  source  of  fuel  waste  from 
the  time  the  boiler  is  put  in  service  until  it  is  taken 
out.  In  fact,  the  condition  is  gradually  aggravated, 
week  after  week,  as  the  settings  become  more  cracked 
and  porous. 

A  large  plant  recently  attempted  to  purchase  two  500- 
hp.  boilers.  The  delivery  on  this  equipment  was  so  far 
off  that  a  serious  problem  faced  them.  The  services  of 
an  experienced  combustion  engineer  were  engaged  to 
see  what  improvement  could  be  made  in  the  existing 
plant.  Analyses  of  the  flue  gas  were  taken,  and  read- 
ings as  low  as  2.4  per  cent.  CO,  were  secured  on  two 
of  the  boilers.  This  represented  an  excess  air  condi- 
tion of  about  800  per  cent.  Further  investigation  dis- 
closed large  openings  in  the  settings,  and  open  doors 
into  the  combustion  chamber  were  admitting  sufficient 
air  to  absorb  practically  all  the  heat  liberated  by  the 
fuel  burned  in  the  furnaces. 

Tight  Settings  Effect  Large  Coal  Saving 

With  all  settings  made  tight,  which  required  but  a 
few  days'  work,  the  new  boilers  were  no  longer  neces- 
sary, and  a  large  saving  of  coal  was  effected.  Although 
this  is  an  extreme  case  of  waste,  due  to  air  infiltration, 
it  serves  to  emphasize  the  necessity  for  tight  settings. 
In  fact,  the  heat  units  actually  used  in  the  average  boiler 
room  when  compared  to  the  heat  units  that  can  be  ob- 
tained under  proper  operating  conditions  and  with  tight 
boiler  settings,  if  put  on  a  dollar  and  cents  comparative 
basis,  are  equivalent  to  paying  $5  for  only  $2.86  worth 
of  coal. 

Any  handbook  or  treatise  on  boiler  and  furnace  efl!i- 
ciency  will  point  out  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  set- 
tings tight.    The  efficiency  guarantee  of  any  stoker  com- 


366 


P  0  M^  E  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


DismuK 

AIR  PUffP 


pany  has  a  clause  referring  to  tight  boiler  settings  that 
qualifies  their  guarantee.  In  spite  of  all  this  the  boiler 
settings  in  9-5  per  cent,  of  the  plants  leak  air  excessively. 

Every  crack  and  crevice  represents  waste,  and  every 
brick  and  mortar  joint,  no  matter  how  good  it  may  look, 
is  passing  a  certain  amount  of  air.  Leaky  boiler  set- 
tings not  only  seriously  affect  the  coal  bill,  but  ma- 
terially reduce  the  capacity  of  the  plant.  Many  manu- 
facturing concerns  that  are  now  crippled  through  lack  of 
steam  could  sail  merrily  along  with  steam  to  spare,  by 
simply  coating  the  boiler  .settings. 

The  capacities  of  most  chimneys  are  limited  and  can 
handle  only  so  much  air  as  they  are  not  usually  gen- 
erously designed.  The  higher  the  temperature  of  the 
gases  entering  the  chimney  the  greater  the  velocity 
through  it.  Its  duty  in  all  natural-draft  installations  is 
to  pull  the  required  amount  of  air  through  the  fuel  bed 
and  to  carry  off  the  resultant  gases  of  combustion.  If 
cold  air  is  allowed  to  leak  in- 
to the  settings,  it  lowers  the 
temperature  of  the  gases, 
slows  up  tka  velocity  through 
the  chimney,  puts  an  unnec- 
essary burden  on  it  and  cuts 
down  the  capacity  of  the 
plant. 

There  are  usuall.\  two  sides 
to  a  question,  but  there 
is  positively  but  one  side  to 
this  one.  There  can  be  no 
argument  brought  to  bear 
against  a  tight  boiler  setting. 
The  first  step  tov^ard  econ- 
omy' intheboiler  hf)use  should 
be  to  cover  all  brick  settings 
and  stacks  with  a  suitable 
air-tight  coating.  The  ma- 
terial of  this  coating  should 
have  suflScient  elasticity  to 
expand  and  contract  with  the 
brickwork  and  also  be  ca- 
pable of  standing  consider- 
able heat  and  temperature 
changes  and   remain  plastic 

for  a  long  period.  Above  all,  it  should  adhere  firmly  to 
the  brickwork  and  not  crack  or  peel  off.  There  are 
several  compounds  that  meet  these  requirements.  They 
are  cheap,  easily  applied  and  present  one  of  the  best  in- 
vestments that  can  be  made. 

No  matter  what  improvements  are  contemplated  in 
the  boiler  house,  the  settings  should  be  coated.  A  for- 
tune may  be  spent  on  instruments  and  boiler-house 
equipment,  but  the  results  striven  for  will  still  be  missed 
if  the  boiler  settings  are  leaky.  Fuel  represents  70  to 
80  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  of  power.  Is  not  3  to  30 
per  cent,  of  this  amount  worth  saving? 

Unusual    Design   of   Evaporator   for 
Distilling  Sea  Water 

Those  who  have  to  deal  with  the  distilling  of  sea 
or  other  water  or  with  evaporation  problems  of  almost 
any  kind  will  be  interested  in  the  design  of  the  Lillie 
evaporator  now  being  built  by  the  Wheeler  Condenser 
and  Engineering  Co.,  of  Carteret,  N.  J,     It  is,  as  will 


he  seen  from  the  illustration,  a  modification  of  a  regular 
Lillie  sextuple-effect  sea-water  distilling  apparatus. 
Two  of  these  now  under  construction  are  to  be  oper- 
ated by  steam  up  to  60  lb.  gage  pressure  or  at  any  lower 
pressure. 

The  point  that  will  catch  the  veteran's  eye  is  the 
employment  of  four  condensers,  side  by  side,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration.  This  unusual  arrangement  of  con- 
densers permits  seven  different  combinations  of  opera- 
tion, as  follows: 

It  may  be  operated  as  one  single  effect  or  more  single 
effects;  it  may  be  operated  as  one  or  more  double  effects 
with  vapors  reversible  in  each ;  it  is  possible  to  operate 
it  as  a  triple  effect,  or  as  two  triple  effects  with  vapors 
reversible  in  each ;  it  is  impossible,  of  course,  to  operate 
it  as  two  quadruple  effects,  but  every  effect  may  be 
utilized  by  grouping  as  one  quadruple  effect  and  one 
double  effect,  in  both  of  which  the  vapors  are  reversible ; 


X-  f:vaporotof  Feed  Pump 
B-  Distillers  Circulating  Pump 
C-  Surface  Condenser 
D-  Steam  Inlet 
E=  Circulating  Pump  Motor 


iiia<;k.\.\i  ijf  the  lii^i.ie  .ska-watek  ev.\por.\tor 


it  may  be  operated  as  one  vapor  reversible  quadruple 
effect  with  both  end  effects  or  either  end  pair  of  the 
section  cut  out ;  with  one  effect  at  either  end  cut  out, 
it  may  be  operated  as  a  vapor  reversible  quintuple  effect; 
lastly,  it  may  be  operated  as  a  vapor  reversible  sextuple 
effect. 

It  is  evident  that  should  a  mishap  occur  at  either 
end.  in  the  middle  or  anywhere  else,  there  is  little 
danger  that  this  evaporator  will  be  put  out  of  com- 
mission entirely. 

Useful  Conversion  Multipliers 

Multiply  by  Multiply  by 


Inches  to  millimeters 
Millimeters  to  inches 
Inches  to  centimeters. . 
Centimeters  to  inches. 
Inches  to  meters 
Meters  to  inches 
Feet  to  meters 
Meters  to  feet.  , 
Meters  to  yards. 

Yards  to  meters      

Yards  to  kilometers 
Kilometers  to  yards 
Kilometers  to  miles 


2S  4  Miles  to  kilometers 161 

0   0394  Grains  to  grams      0  065 

2   54  Grams  to  grains               15   4 

0   394  Grams  to  ounces  0   35 

0  0254  Ounces  to  grams  28   35 

39   4  Pounds  to  prams        ..  453   6 

0   3048  Pounds  to  kilograms.        ..  0  455 

3  281  Kilograms  to  pounds              .  .  2.2 

1    1  Kilograms  to  ounces 35  3 

0   9144  Kilograms  to  hundredweight  0  02 

0   0009  Hundredweight  to  kilograms  50  85 

1,093  6  Kilograms  to  tons  0  001 

0  62  Tons  to  kilograms     .  t,0I6 

— Graphite. 


Maivh   12.   1018 


F  O  W  E  R 


3G7 


Fuel  Consumption  of  Low-Compression 

Oil  Engines 


By  L.  H.  MORRISON 


I 


THE  hiiil'!<»;-;  of  low-coiiipre;sion  oil  en;rine'.!  have 
quite  generally  adopted  thy  foUowiiiK  guarantees 
of  fusi  consumed  per  brake  horsepower  per  hour 
at  various  loads:  Full  load,  0.100  gal.;  three-fourths 
load,  0.110  gal.;  half  load,  0.125  gal.  These  performan- 
ces can  be  attained  in  actual  ssrvicc,  sn  long  as  the  wear 
on  the  engine  is  not  excessive. 

All  builders  claim  that  their  encines  will  operate  on 
the  heaviest  of  oils,  as  well  as  on  other  grades  up  to 
kerosene.  Although  any  oil  engine  will  work  well  with 
a  crude  oil  that  contains  a  considsrable  percentage  of 
the  lighter  oils,  the  service  will  not  be  satisfactory  if 
the  crude  has  an  asphaltum  base.  When  such  oil  is 
used,  deposits  of  carbon  and  asphaltum  occur  in  the 
cylinder  and  cause  rapid  cutting.  The  same  is  true  of 
any  fuel  oil  having  an  asphaltum  base.  The  wear  on 
the  cylinder  is  particularly  heavy  if  the  oil  contains  dirt 
and  grit. 

If  a  fuel  oil  is  decided  upon,  it  is  advisable  to  pur- 
chase a  filtered  oil,  usually  sold  as  "Diesel  fuel  oil." 
This  will  probably  cost  from  ons  to  one  and  a  half  cents 
more  per  gallon  than  unfiltered  fuel  oil,  or  "boiler  oil," 
but  in  lessening  the  wear  on  the  cylinder,  reducing  the 
cutting  of  valves  and  seats  and  decreasing  trouble  in 
general,  it  is  well  worth  the  difference  in  cost. 

The  best  all-round  fuel  is  without  question  a  distillate 
of  about  32  deg.  Baume,  because  it  is  light  enough  to 
burn  completely  at  all  loads.  Experience  has  proved 
that  distillate  is  the  proper  fuel  for  any  low-compres- 
sion engine.  These  remarks  apply  specifically  to  as- 
phaltum-base  oil ;  with  a  paraffin-base  oil  it  seems  that 
any  grade  of  fuel  oil  or  crude  may  be  used  successfully. 

Amount  of  Sulphur  Should  Be  Limited 
In  the  purchase  of  the  fuel,  limits  should  be  placed  on 
the  amount  of  sulphur  in  the  oil.  While  one-fifth  of 
one  per  cent,  of  sulphur  is  as  much  as  ought  to  be  al- 
lowed, a  greater  percentage  is  usually  found.  One 
engine  builder  suggests  the  following  requirements, 
which  have  been  found  satisfactory  in  connection  with 
his  ovm  engines;  Specific  gravity,  not  below  26  deg. 
B. ;  sulphur,  less  than  0.5  per  cent. ;  water,  less  than  0.5 
per  cent. ;  coke,  not  over  3  per  cent. ;  fraction  which  will 
distill  off  below  360  dag.  C,  at  least  60  per  cent. ;  oil  to 
have  a  heating  value  of  at  least  18,500  B.t.u.  per  lb.,  and 
to  ba  free  from  grit  or  dirt. 

On  the  basis  of  brake  horsepower,  the  thermal  effi- 
ciency at  full  load  will  be  in  the  neighborhood  of  19  per 
cent.  On  the  basis  of  indicated  horsepower,  disregard- 
ing the  friction  and  the  pov,'er  required  to  run  the  air 
compressor,  the  eflSciency  will  be  approximately  23  per 
cent.  If  efficiencies  much  greater  than  these  are  guar- 
anteed, it  will  usually  be  found  that  the  engine  is  not  of 
the  low-compression  type,  but  belongs  to  the  semi- 
Diesel  class,  in  which  the  temperature  range  allows 
a  greater  efficiency  to  be  obtained. 

In  case  the  engine  drives  an  industrial  load,  the  best 
method  of  drive  is  by  means  of  a  belt.  Many  engi- 
neers show  a  preference  for  a  clutch  coupling  connect- 


ing the  engine  shaft  to  the  driven  shaft;  hut  with  this 
arrangement  it  is  a  hard  matter  to  keep  all  the  bear- 
ings in  line,  and  the  usual  result  is  rapid  wear  of  the 
bearings  and  the  clutch  friction  blocks. 

By  using  a  friction  belt  pulley,  the  engine  can  be 
started  under  ni  load  and  brought  up  to  speed  before 
the  load  is  thrown  on.  Driving  by  belt  allows  the  shaft 
bearings  to  keep  their  alignment  with  greater  ease. 
The  wear  on  the  engine  and  lineshaft  bearings  is  less, 
and  the  drive  is  more  flexible. 

In  an  installation  in  which  the  engine  drives  an  elec- 
tric generator,  the  rotor  should,  if  possible,  be  placed 
directly  on  the  engine  shaft.  In  the  past  it  has  been 
the  general  custom  to  use  a  waterwheel  or  gas-engine 
type  of  alternator  with  self-contained  bearings  and 
shaft.  This  shaft  was  connected  to  the  engine  shaft  by 
a  flexible  coupling  or  a  flange  coupling.  Such  a  method 
involved  at  least  one  extra  bearing  or  was  hard  to  keep 
aligned.  In  the  later  engines  an  extended  shaft  and  an 
outboard  bearing  are  generally  used.  The  rotor  can  be 
pressed  on  the  shaft  extension.  Such  an  installation  is 
more  attractive  and  easier  to  keep  in  good  shape. 

The  question  often  arises  as  to  the  possibility  of 
paralleling  two  alternators  driven  by  low-compression 
engines.  If  the  engines  are  of  the  single-cylinder  type, 
the  synchronizing  will  ba  more  difficult  than  if  multi- 
cylinder  engines  are  used.  This  is  due  to  the  large 
angular  variation  in  the  speed  of  the  single-cylinder  en- 
gine, although,  of  course,  the  use  of  extra-heavy  fly- 
wheels will  eliminate  part  of  this  trouble.  As  a  conse- 
quence, there  are  more  installations  in  which  parallel- 
ing of  the  units  is  accomplished  by  using  multicylinder 
engines  than  by  single-cylinder  engines. 

It  is  well  to  have  the  alternators  equipped  with 
squirrel-cage  windings  on  the  rotor  to  reduce  the  cross- 
currents. Another  good  plan  is  to  use  exciters  large 
enough  so  that  one  of  them  will  be  able  to  furnish  suf- 
ficient current  for  both  generators. 

Low-Compression  Type  Suited  to  Small  Plants 
The  low-compression  engine  has  its  field  of  useful- 
ness. In  industrial  plants  using  less  than  a  hundred 
horsepower,  this  type  is  quite  suitable.  While  the  his- 
tory of  the  usual  installation  is  one  of  expensive  re- 
pairs and  shutdowns,  this  is  not  really  the  fault  of  the 
engine.  It  has  been  customary  for  builders  to  claim 
that  experienced  attendance  was  not  necessary;  but 
many  purchasers  who  have  acted  on  this  statement  have 
learned  how  little  truth  there  is  in  it.  Given  the  care 
that  a  Diesel  engine  or  a  Corliss  steam  engine  receives, 
the  low-compression  engine  will  operate  satisfactorily. 

While  fuel  oil  was  cheap,  the  saving  of  the  Diesel 
engine  over  the  low-compression  engine  was  not  great 
in  the  smaller  sizes ;  as  a  result,  the  low  first  cost  of  the 
low-compression  engine  was  the  motive  that  caused 
many  to  be  installed.  With  oil  costing  about  five  cents 
i.  gallon,  the  Diesel  engine  will  undoubtedly  be  favored 
over  the  former  type  even  in  sizes  less  than  one  hundred 
horsepower. 


Z38 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


Falling   Chimney   Wrecks   Part   of 
New  England  Factory 

A  part  of  the  three-story  frame  building  of  the 
Sprague  Box  Co.,  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  was  wrecked  by  a 
falling  chimney  recently,  causing  four  fatahties  and 
injuring  a  number  of  employees.  The  chimney  failed 
during  a  gale  estimated  at  6n  miles  per  hour,  and  had 
the  accident  occurred  later  in  the  day,  the  loss  of  life 
would  unquestionably  have  been  much  greater.  The 
chimney  was  a  brick  stack  of  rectangular  horizontal 
cross-section,  about  3x5  ft.  inside  dimensions  and 
approximately  70  ft.  high.  As  shown  in  Fig.  1,  the 
original  of  which  was  made  on  the  spot  by  a  repre- 
sentative of  Power,  the  chimney  was  carried  upward 
from  the  boiler  house  of  the  factory  along  the  outer 
wall,  to  which  it  was  attached  by  iron  straps  about 
half-way  up  and  also  at  the  roof  level.  It  extended 
above  the  roof  for  about  35  ft.  The  original  chimne\- 
was  built  eight  years  ago,  and  twelve  months  ago  about 


represents  the  thickness  of  the  chimney,  8  in.;  F  i^ 
an  iron  strap  at  the  roof  level,  and  G  represents  the 
point  where  the  chimney  broke  off. 

In   giving  way   under  the  gale,   the  stack  broke  off 


FIG. 


I'HKKE    FLOORS    W^ERE 
r>EM(')LISHED 


mney 


W' BOILER  HOUSE 

Kic;.  1      i>1';tails  <.^v  twv.  chimxk-,.  mi'ITHod  or  uhacln'o 

8  ft.  was  added  to   its  height,  the  stack  being  guyed 
to  two  parts  of  the  factory  building. 

In  Fig.  1  A  represents  the  two  anchorages  to  the 
chimney  and  B  the  anchorages  to  the  roof;  the  rods 
C  are  1  in.  in  diameter  and  about  30  ft.  long;  D 
is    an    angle    iron    on    the    inside    of    the    chimney;    E 


at  the  roof  level.  It  fell  intact 
into  the  factory,  demolishing 
three  floors  covering  a  panel  or 
bay  about  16  ft.  wide  and  40  ft. 
long,  Fig.  2.  The  anchorages 
of  the  brace  rod.s  in  the  stack 
held.  The  wooden  anchorages 
of  the  rods  in  the  building  struc- 
ture were  carried  away  wnth 
the  rods,  and  ths  only  bracing 
support  of  the  stack  was  the 
stiffness  of  these  rods.  Foun- 
dation and  straps  were  in  good 
condition  when  inspected.  It 
appears  that  the  chimney  was 
ill-proportioned  for  the  height 
to  which  it  was  carried  and 
that  its  anchorages  to  the  roof 
were  inadequate  in  size  and 
number,  guying  being  on  one 
side  only.  All  possible  aid  was 
extended  to  the  victims  of  the  disaster  by  the  local 
branch  of  the  Red  Cross,  the  Lynn  works  of  the  Gen- 
eral Electric  Co.,  the  Lynn  Giis  and  Electric  Co., 
.1.  R.  Blood  Co.,  and  others,  and  fortunately  no  fire 
occurred. 

Tha  accident   occurred   at   7:4.'i  a.m.,   and   at    ^  p.m. 


A.Vn  POINT  UK   FAILmK 


March   12,  1918 


POWER 


360 


on  the  same  day  the  debris  had  been  removed,  a  new 
roof  erected,  and  the  chimney  replaced  l)y  a  2.5-ft. 
steel  stack  30  ft.  long,  erected  upon  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  brick  stack.  The  plant  resumed  opera- 
tion on  war  orders  the  morning  after  the  accident. 
About  5  ft.  of  new  brickwork  wa-'.  built  upon  the  upper 
end  of  the  old  stack  in  adding  the  new  section.  Two 
courses  of  bricks  formed  the  stack  proper,  the  walls 
being  8  in.  thick. 

Sc()\  ille   Pump  Valve 

A  metal-to-metal  pump  valve  sealed  by  compressible 
composition  rings  of  special  form  is  being  made  by  the 
Scoville  Pump  Valve  Co.,  Chicago,  111.  As  shown  in 
the  illustration,  the  valve  disk  is  beveled  on  its  outer 
circumference  and  also  around  the  hole  for  the  stem. 
In  grooves  around  the  stem  and  in  the  seat  of  the 
valve  the  composition  sealing  rings  are  inserted.  The 
pressure  of  the  fluid  forces  the  rings  against  the  beveled 
edges  of  the  valve,  making  the  metal-to-metal  joint 
tight,  and  as  the  rings  come  in  contact  with  the  valve 
before  it  is  fully  seated,  there  is  little  opportunity  for 
slippage. 

Wear  upon  the  seals  is  small  as  the  valve  does 
not  seat  directly  upon  them,  and  renewal  is  com- 
paratively simple  and  inexpensive.     Another  advantage 


SCOVILI^E    MBT.\L-TO-MET.»iL    PUMP    VALVE 

claimed  for  the  beveled  valve  is  a  reduction  in  friction 
and  loss  from  eddy  currents  over  a  flat  disk  in  which 
the  fluid  flow  is  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the 
valve.     Standard  and  pot  types  of  valve  are  made. 

Compressed  Air   for  Cleaning   .Motors 

By   D.   R.   Shearer 

In  a  great  manj-  manufacturing  plants,  especially 
those  working  in  wood  or  a  similar  material,  the  driv- 
ing motors  have  a  tendency  to  become  clogged  with  dust 
in  a  short  time.  Such  accumulation  of  dust  is  a  fire 
hazard,  particularly  if  the  motors  are  overloaded  and 
Hable  to  have  coils  burn  out;  and  if  a  motor  is  not 
overloaded,  it  may  heat  if  the  air  ducts  are  filled  with 
dust.  Moreover,  the  motor  is  not  able  to  carry  the 
peaks  when  called  upon,  for  the  reason  that  the  addi- 


tional heat  cannot  be  dissipated.  Motors  should  be 
cleaned  frequently,  but  such  cleaning  with  the  means 
ordinarily  at  h;ind  is  a  rather  diflicult  procedure  since 
the  air  ducts  are  usually  small  and  difficult  to  clear  with 
II  brush.  The  windings  may  be  brushed  off  externally, 
but  such  cleaning  does  not  reach  the  real  seat  of  the 
trouble. 

One  of  the  best  methods  is  compressed  air  under  con- 
.siderable  pressure.  If  the  air  is  not  available  from 
some  source  already  in  use,  it  is  advantageous  to  use  a 
small  motor-driven  compressor  and  a  storage  tank.     The 


Xo/.ZI.IOS 


■I.KAXIXC    WITH    AIR 


(ompressor  should  have  a  capacity  of  from  4  to  10 
cu.ft.  of  air  per  minute  at  a  pressure  of  100  lb.  per 
sq.in.,  and  the  tank  should  hold  from  40  to  100  cu.ft. 
This  size  will  take  care  of  the  average  plant. 

In  piping  a  factory  the  air  line  can  be  1-in.,  f-in.  and 
^-in  pipe.  Since  the  amount  of  air  used  in  cleaning  any 
one  motor  is  small,  a  large  pipe  is  not  necessary.  An 
outlet  with  a  valve  should  be  placed  near  each  motor,  or 
if  they  are  grouped,  several  motors  can  be  reached  from 
one  outlet  with  ^-  or  »-in.  hose;  the  smaller  size  is  more 
easily  handled.  The  nozzles  can  be  made  up  of  brass 
rod  of  suitable  sizes  and  shapes,  one  of  which  is  shown 
in  the  illustration.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  use 
nozzles  with  small  openings  as  a  large  nozzle  opening 
would  consume  too  much  air.  Probably  the  most  useful 
sizes  would  be  ..■^-,  ,\.-  and  ,,4 -inch,  and  these  three 
nozzles  will  meet  most  conditions. 

Sometimes  it  becomes  desirable  to  clean  surfaces  with 
air;  for  instance,  the  walls  or  ceilings  of  the  buildings. 
This~may  be  done  with  a  tool  made  from  s-  or  l-in.  pipe 
in  which  there  are  a  number  of  holes,  as  shown,  to  form 
a  "brush"  of  escaping  air.  For  ordinary  purposes  holes 
of  about  a'^  to  bV  in-  can  be  used.  -       -  • 

These  small  nozzles  do  not  clog  readily  if  all  the  scale 
i'.nd  dirt  is  blown  out  of  the  piping.  As  an  investment 
such  a  cleaning  system  will  be  found  to  pay  for  itself 
in  the  reduction  of  motor  troubles  and  the  decrease  in 
fire  hazard. 

C^arbon  in  Steel 

There  is  more  or  less  uncertainty  in  the  mind  of  the 
average  reader  in  regard  to  carbon  in  steel  and  how  it 
can  be  got  there.  While  there  are  many  ways  of  in- 
troducing carbon  into  iron,  one  of  the  most  direct  is 
to  throw  charcoal  into  a  ladle  being  filled  with  molten 
iron — simple  as  sprinkling  salt  in  soup  and  the  deter- 
mination of  the  proper  amount  is  the  same;  that  is  by 
sampling. 


370 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


Centralized  Mine  Plant 

By  C.  C.  Muldner 

The  illu.strations  show  the  boilers  in  course  of  erec- 
tion in  the  new  addition  to  the  power  plant  of  the  Oliver 
Iron    Mining    Co.,    at    Ironwood,    Mich. 

The  chief  feature  in  this  setting  is  that  two  25-ton 
(450-hp.)  Heine  boilers  are  hung  on  one  gallows,  there 
being  no  supporting  column  in  the  division  wall  between 
them.  The  overhead  support  consists  of  two  24-in. 
I-beams  27  ft.  long,  supported  by  two  10-in.  H-beams, 
eliminating  the  usual  column  in  the  division  wall,  which, 
being  completely  bricked  in,  deteriorates  rapidly,  causing 
serious  trouble.  The  height  of  the  setting  can  be 
judged  from  the  height  of  the  man  standing  on  the 
floor  level  and  the  tops  of  two  return-tubular  boilers 
in  the  background,  by  means  of  which  it  is  expected 
to  eliminate  smoke  and  greatly  increase  the  furnace 
efficiency  and  pay  for  the  extra  first  cost  in  a  short 
time.  The  temperature  control  connected  with  the 
superheaters  maintains  any  desired  superheat  within 
five  degrees. 


This  plant  will  be  used  as  a  central  station  for  all 
the  mines  in  the  vicinity  belonging  to  the  Oliver  Iron 
Mining  Co.,  of  which  there  are  about  thirty,  to  be 
linked  together  with  about  14  miles  of  tunnels.  Cables 
and  steam  pipes  will  transmit  power,  light  and  heat 
to  each  mine.  Eventually,  the  mines  will  be  electrified, 
thus  doing  away  with  the  numerous  individual  boiler 
plants. 

This  is  an  example  of  the  present  tendency  to 
centralize  mine  power  plants  and,  in  the  case  of  coal 
mines,  to  produce  electric  current  for  distribution  and 
sale  at  the  pit  mouth,  where  low-grade  fuel  can  be 
profitably  utilized  by  combining  high  boiler  setting  and 
superheaters  in  large  units;  and  with  stokers  and  coal- 
and  ash-handling  machinery,  the  cost  of  producing  steam 
should  be  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

The  transfer  of  electric  current  long  distances  in- 
volves a  loss,  of  course,  but  it  often  costs  much  less 
than  the  hauling  and  handling  of  coal  from  the  mine  to 
the  market.  Time  was  when  crude  oil  was  hauled  from 
the  wells  to  the  refineries;  nowadays  it  is  pumped  for 
distances   of   several   hundred   miles. 


TWO    BOILERS 


SUSPENDED    PROM    A    SINGLE    GALLOWS    FR.^.ME ;   HIGH    SETTTXO    .AXP    srPKRHE.-VTBRS 


March  12.  1918  POWER  371 

fiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii luiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii tiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiis 


Editorials 


liiiiiii III! mill miiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Ill Mil iiMiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiimii iiiiiiim iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuii n iiiii i imiiiiiiiiiiiiiii m iiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiimi i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiir 


Putting    Iheir    Houses    in    Order 

THE  employers  have  beRun  to  set  their  houses  in 
order.  Some  emjjloyers,  not  all.  Careful  study  is 
beginning  to  replace  indifferent  handling  of  the  labor 
problem.  Necessity  is  forcing  i'  modification  of  the 
autocratic  policy.  The  worker  will  no  longer  be  a 
chattel.  He  demands  to  be  treated  as  a  human  being. 
His   aspirations    must    l)e    consulted. 

There  was  plenty  of  reason  in  the  past  for  the 
employer  changing  his  attitude.  Where  he  did  not  have 
strikes,  he  found  at  least  indifferent  and  consequently 
wasteful  labor  interest.  His  dominant  thought,  though, 
was  to  hold  all  power.  He  feared  that  any  injection 
of  the  milk  of  human  kindness  would  lead  the  men  to 
believe  that  he  was  weakening,  that  kindness  was  the 
resort  of  waning  strength. 

Yet  around  him  there  were  plants  that  continued 
successful  even  though  the  men  were  treated  like 
humans;  aye,  that  increased  their  profits  through 
greater  efficiency  and  greater  labor  stability.  Gradually 
the  public,  learning  faster  than  the  owner,  forced  upon 
him  shorter  hours,  accident-prevention  measures,  proper 
sanitation,  workmen's  compensation.  And  lo,  the  in- 
dustry was  the  gainer.  There  was  physical  response  to 
the  improved  conditions;  and  just  as  surely,  response 
in  spirit,  even  if  unconscious. 

Still,  the  absolutism  in  management  remained.  The 
changes  were  forced,  not  voluntary. 

Then  came  the  war.  Labor,  from  receiving  an  in- 
different interest  from  the  employer,  began  to  get  his 
chief  attention.    The  supply  was  ostensibly  short. 

For  a  decade  those  who  thought  deeply  on  manage- 
ment problems  have  urged  a  closer  study  of  the  human 
element.  Management  inefficiency,  as  affecting  the 
worker,  had  been  berated.  The  value  of  intelligent 
employment  and  promotion  systems,  involving  a  close 
study  of  the  aptitudes,  ability  and  ambition  of  each 
employee,  had  been  emphasized.  All  to  no  avail — until 
the  war  came. 

Now  the  demand  for  skilled  employment  managers 
is  far  greater  than  the  supply.  With  an  apparent  labor 
shortage  the  wisdom  of  putting  each  man  in  his  best 
place,  of  giving  him  the  highest  type  of  work  he  is 
capable  of  doing,  of  encouraging  him  to  improve  himself, 
has  been  apparent. 

Intelligent  employment  methods  must  become  uni- 
versal. They  are  necessary  for  the  development  of  the 
highest  efficiency  of  the  individual  as  an  individual 
and  as  a  member  of  an  industrial  organization.  More- 
over, they  bring  employee  and  employer  into  close, 
sympathetic  touch.  Each  will  profit  from  the  experience 
of  the  other. 

Such  contact,  too,  is  a  necessary  preparation  for  the 
inevitable — cooperative  management.  Any  scheme  that 
is  not  based  on  confidence  and  sympathy  will  fail.  If 
cooperative  management  is  accepted  grudgingly,  if  an 
artificial  structure  of  labor  participation  in  plant  con- 


trol is  nullified  by  an  unjust  employment  sy.stem,  there 
is  sure  to  be  strife.  The  insincerity  will  prevent  effec- 
tive cooperative  work. 

And  since  cooperative  management  is  to  be  expected 
as  a  war  product,  it  behooves  industrial  leaders  to  pre- 
I>are  for  the  day,  to  put  their  houses  in  order.  There 
must  be  in  each  plant  someone  whose  duty  is  to  know 
the  worker,  whose  seat  at  the  council  table  is  that  of 
the  employee's  advocate. 

Such  is  the  way  that  progressive  employers  are  pre- 
paring for  the  industrial  change  that  will  inevitably 
follow  the  war. 

Shutting    Down    the    Isolated   Plant 

THERE  are  two  sides  to  every  question,  and  this 
applies  to  the  methods  of  supplying  power  to  manu- 
facturing plants.  Most  manufacturers  who  operate 
their  individual  power  stations  do  so  because  they  find 
that  power  can  be  produced  cheaper  than  it  can  be 
purchased.  To  be  sure,  the  coal  shortage  has  caused 
annoyance  and  in  certain  cases  some  losses,  but  it  is 
not  evident  that  the  situation  has  been  such  as  to 
warrant  eliminating  these  isolated  steam  plants  as 
advocated  by  the  following  extract  from  a  recent 
editorial  appearing  in  The  Central  Station: 

Never  was  the  time  more  ripe  for  urging  the  shutting- 
down,  if  not  eliminating  entirely,  for  business  as  well  as 
for  National  reasons,  the  isolated  plants  which  could  and 
should  be  served  by  the  central  station.  The  stubborn 
owners  and  operators  of  isolated  plants,  and  the  word 
stubborn  fits  the  majority  of  these  cases,  have  certainly 
had  their  full  measure  of  worry  and  loss  during  the  past 
two  months,  due  to  the  coal  situation.  Yet  no  amount  of 
accurate  operating  figures  submitted  to  them,  previous  to 
the  present  conditions,  by  central-station  engineers,  could 
move  them  to  action. 

As  has  been  stated  many  times  in  Power,  there  arc 
some  types  of  isolated  steam  plants  that  should  either 
put  in  new  ecjuipment  or  purchase  power.  There  are 
others  that  should  use  purchased  power  part  of  the 
time,  as  for  in.stance,  night  runs  during  the  months 
when  no  heating  is  required  and  the  load  is  light,  but 
should  use  their  own  power  during  the  yearly  day  run 
with  a  heavy  load,  and  heating  during  the  winter 
months.  Other  plants  should  never  purchase  power,  but 
should  produce  their  own  at  all  times. 

We  agree  that  the  isolated-plant  owners  are  "stub- 
born," when  it  comes  to  discarding  their  power  plant 
and  substituting  purchased  power,  but  if  their  plants 
are  run  in  an  economical  manner,  there  should  he  no 
cause  for  surprise  as  to  the  admission  made  in  the 
editorial  mentioned  that  "no  amount  of  accurate  oper- 
ating figures  submitted  to  them,  previous  to  the  pre.sent 
conditions,  by  central-station  engineers,  could  move 
them  to  action." 

We  very  much  doubt  that  the  same  "accurate  figures" 
will  move  them  even  now  after  the  period  of  "worry 
and  loss."  Most  isolated-plant  owners  have  an  ear  to 
the  ground  when  it  conies  to  dependability  and  econom- 


ai^ 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


ical  service,  and  the  plight  that  many  manufacturers 
have  found  themselves  in  during  the  last  two  months 
can  hardly  be  an  incentive  for  them  to  continue  central- 
station  service  or  to  induce  isolated-plant  owners  to 
abandon  an  expensive  and  dependable  plant  equipment 
for  a  service  that  is  not  as  dependable  and  does  not 
always  serve. 

Some  of  the  recent  newspaper  headlines  relating  to 
this  matter  tell  the  story,  but  they  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered as  evidence  favorable  to  the  wiping  out  of 
the  isolated  power  plant.  A  Nashville,  Tenn.,  paper  has 
this  headline:  "ELECTRIC  POWER  CANNOT  BE 
USED.  INDUSTRY  IN  NASHVILLE  WILL  ALMOST 
WHOLLY  CEASE  TOMORROW."  A  New  Jersey  paper 
came  out  with  the  heading:  "ALL  DEPENDENTS 
UPON  P.  S.  SERVICE  ARE  TIED  UP.  OFFICIALS 
OF  THE  PUBLIC  SERVICE  ELECTRIC  COMPANY 
TODAY  ESTIMATE  THAT  2509  PLACES  OF  BUSt 
NESS  ARE  SHUT  DOWN  IN  HUDSON  COUNTY." 
Another  heading  reads,  "POWER  OFF  SEVERAL 
DAYS,"  and  still  another:  "POWER  OFF  ALL  THIS 
WEEK.  INDUSTRIES  PRACTICALLY  AT  A 
STANDSTILL.  15,000  IDLE  HERE."  These  are  only 
a  few  of  the  many  that  could  be  cited. 

Many  manufacturing  plants  are  engaged  in  making 
war  materials,  and  the  sudden  expansion  of  power 
requirements  has  forced  them  to  purchase  power  to  meet 
the  additional  demands  upon  their  steam  plants.  Al- 
though big  and  little  factories  engaged  in  war  materials 
have  been  hit  by  the  failure  of  the  central  station  to 
provide  power,  it  is  significant  to  note,  according  to 

newspaper  articles,  that  "the factory  operated  in 

part,  however,  because  it  has  a  plant  of  its  own.     The 

plants  of  the Co.,  the Co.  and  the Co.  are 

operating  today  because  these  concerns  can  generate 
their  own  electricity.  Practically  everything  else  in 
the  city  is  at  a  standstill." 

Central-station  representatives  are  undoubtedly  using 
the  past  and  present  fuel  difficulties  as  a  lever  to  pry 
isolated  plants  into  taking  their  current.  In  fact  one 
such  gentleman  stated  in  this  office  that  this  was  the 
time  to  cover  the  isolated-plant  field  in  a  central-station 
canvass.  Some  will  fall  for  it,  but  with  the  most  of 
them  no  amount  of  "accurate  operating  figures"  sub- 
mitted to  them  by  central-station  engineers  will  "move 
them  to  action"  that  is  against  their  own  interest. 

Government  Coal-Price  Regulation 

THE  regulation  of  coal  prices  by  the  Fuel  Adminis- 
tration is  the  first  attempt  ever  made,  at  least  on 
a  large  scale,  by  the  United  States  Government  to  fix 
and  establish  prices  for  any  of  the  great  industries. 
It  is  very  important  to  both  the  public  and  the  coal 
industry  that  the  prices  so  fixed  should  be  based  on 
accurate  information  as  to  the  conditions  prevailing 
in  different  fields,  and  that,  when  once  this  informa- 
tion has  been  received,  the  right  principles  should  be 
employed  in  making  use  of  this  information. 

The  Fuel  Administration  believes  that  it  has  devised 
a  speedy  and  accurate  method  for  using  the  cost 
information  which  it  has  in  hand,  and  that  it  has  worked 
out  the  fundamental  principles  which  should  guide  it 
in  considering  applications  for  modifications  of  coal 
prices.     It  is  the  purpose  of  the  Administration  to  an- 


nounce decisions  on  all  applications  for  the  price  revi- 
sions now  before  it,  prior  to  April  1,  1918,  and,  prior  to 
that  time,  to  make  such  changes  in  the  classification  as 
seem  to  be  necessary,  in  order  to  relieve  uncertainty  on 
this  score  as  far  as  possible  beforo  the  beginning  of  the 
new  coal  year. 

By  this  statement,  the  Fuel  Administration  does  not 
wish  to  be  understood  as  stating  that  the  examination 
of  the  prices  now  being  made  will  complete  its  price 
work.  On  the  contrary,  it  will  continue  to  collect  and 
study  facts  relating  to  the  cost  of  production  of  coal 
and  the  prices  at  which  it  is  sold.  It  will  make  such 
further  readjustments  from  time  to  time  as  are  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  price  on  a  scale  fair  to  the  public, 
fair  to  the  coal  industry  and  sufficiently  high  to 
encourage  production.  It  hopes,  also,  to  take  measures 
in  the  very  near  future  to  encourage  and  insist  upon 
the  use  of  less  wasteful  methods  of  mining,  the  sale 
of  clean  coal  and  the  more  definite  recognition  of  the 
different  qualities  of  coal  in  the  Government  prices. 

Rate  Fixing 

THE  Supreme  Court  has  decreed  that  a  public- 
utilities  corporation  is  entitled  to  a  profit  on  a  "fair 
value"  of  its  property.  Several  public-service  com- 
missions consider  a  fair  value  the  cost  of  reproduction 
at  present  prices,  less  depreciation. 

Public-utilities  corporations  are  actually  going  before 
public-utilities  commissions  and  pleading  for  raises  in 
rates  which  will  enabla  them  to  pay  a  profit  on  values 
of  their  property  based  upon  the  inflated  war  prices 
of  last  year. 

And  they  do  this  in  all  apparent  seriousness  and 
with  the  evident  expectation  of  getting  away  with  it. 
Allowable  profit  should  be  based  upon  the  cost  of  the 
service  rendered  and  not  upon  an  indeterminable  value 
of  the  plant  required  to  produce  it. 


Frank  Baackes,  vice  president  of  the  American  Steel 
and  Wire  Company,  in  criticizing  the  Fuel  Administra- 
tion, says:  "You  cannot  expect  a  tailor  to  operate  a 
blacksmith  shop  successfully,  nor  can  we  expect  too 
much  of  an  administrator  who  was  nothing  more  than 
a  professor  of  economics." 

Probably  a  representative  of  the  coal  producers 
could  have  induced  his  associates  to  produce  more  and 
cleaner  coal  at  a  less  price ;  and  could  have  made  a  crip- 
pled railway  system  distribute  it  to  better  advantage. 
Eh? 


The  Toronto  Call  announces  that  Patrick  K.  Gallagher, 
of  Nelson,  B.  C,  has  developed  an  internal-combustion 
engine  in  which  oxygen  will  take  the  place  of  gas  or 
oil.  It  won't  do,  Patrick.  Oxygen  is  working  now  in 
every  kind  of  combustion  engine,  internal  and  other- 
wise, even  in  the  mysterious  motor  processes  of  the 
animal  organism ;  but  it  needs  fuel  or  food  to  work  with. 
If  you  want  to  make  a  real  fuss  with  your  idea,  keep 
people  guessing  about  it,  like  Garabed. 


The  essentials — Students  of  Divinity  and  Dentistry 
are  exempt  from  the  draft;  students  of  engineering  are 
not. 


March   12.  1918  POWER  373 

^jiimimiiii iiifiiiiiiiiiiii'iiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiuilllllliuiliiiiimiiiiiiiuiiiiiiimimiiiiiiitiiiiiiii iiiiii iiiiiiiiimiiiuiiiiiiiiliiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiinillllliliuilliuiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiii|fi 


Correspondence 


illllllllllllJIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Illllllllll IIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIilllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIinillllMllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Illlllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIUIIUUS 


Grate  Area  and  the  Underfeed  Stoker 

With  hand-fired  grates  or  overfeed  stokers  operating 
on  natural  or  induced  draft,  the  question  of  grate  area 
is  an  important  oni;.  With  natural  draft  the  furnace 
suction  that  can  be  obtained  is  limited  by  the  height  of 
the  stack  it  is  feasible  to  build.  In  the  case  of  induced 
draft,  infiltration  losses  through  the  boiler  setting 
and  grates,  which  become  prohibitive  at  high  negative 
pressures,  lin-.it  the  possible  furnace  suction.  The 
amount  of  coal  that  can  be  burned  per  square  foot  of 
grate  is  limited  by  the  available  furnace  suction,  and 
consequently,  if  it  is  desired  to  double  the  capacity  of  a 
boibr,  it  is  necessary  to  double  the  amount  of  grate 
surface. 

In  the  case  of  the  underfeed  stoker,  grate  area  is 
not  of  so  much  importance.  The  capacity  that  can  be 
obtained  from  the  stoker  is  dependent  only  to  a  small 
degree  upon  the  grate  area.  The  amount  of  coal  that 
can  be  fed  by  the  stoker  is  limited  only  by  the  mechani- 
cal strength  of  the  stoker  parts.  To  burn  this  coal,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  provide  a  sufficient  blast  pressure 
under  the  grates,  sufficient  openings  through  the  grates 
and  means  for  keeping  the  fuel  bed  broken  so  that  the 
air  may  find  a  passage  up  through  it.  The  draft  suc- 
tion in  the  furnace  of  an  underfeed  stoker  should  be  kept 
as  nearly  equal  to  the  atmosphere  as  possible  at  all 
ratings  to  prevent  infiltration  and  also  to  stop  gases 
escaping  from  the  furnace  into  the  boiler  room.  The  re- 
sistance of  the  fuel  bed  is  taken  care  of  by  the  forced- 
draft  pressure  under  the  grates.  To  a  certain  extent, 
the  resistance  of  the  fuel  bed  is  inversely  proportional 
to  the  percentage  of  volatile  in  the  fuel.  The  higher 
the  volatile  the  less  draft  pressure  under  the  grates 
necessary  for  burning  a  given  amount  of  fuel.  Infil- 
tration losses  actually  decrease  at  high  ratings.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  limit  to  capacity  with  an 
underfeed  stoker  is  usually  set  by  the  ability  of  the  chim- 
ney or  induced-draft  fans  to  get  the  gases  away  from 
the  furnace  without  permitting  a  pressure  in  the  fur- 
nace. The  capacity  limit  is  usually  not  due  to  inability 
to  burn  sufficient  coal. 

With  the  underfeed  stoker  combustion  efficiency  does 
not  depend  to  any  great  extent  on  the  grate  surface, 
but  is  dependent  more  upon  distillation  or  retort  volume 
and  total  volume  of  coal  in  the  iurnace.  To  show  this 
the  underfeed  .stoker  may  be  compared  to  a  continuous 
gas  producer.  It  is  well  known  that  the  highest  ef- 
ficiency of  combustion  would  be  obtained  from  a  gas 
producer  with  a  fire  bed  several  feet  thick.  The  under- 
feed stoker  and  the  gas  producer  are  similar  in  the  fol- 
lowing functions:  (a)  Distillation  of  gas  by  approach 
to  hot  zone;  (b)  mixture  of  gas  and  air  in  the  fire, 
using  the  tortuous  passage  between  lumps  as  a  means 
of  thoroughly  mixing  volatile  matter  and  air;  (c)  heat- 
ing of  the  mixture  to  a  high  temperature  as  it  passes 
through  the  topmost  layer  of  the  fire. 


The  great  difference  between  the  underfeed  stoker  and 
the  producer  is  that  the  producer  is  not  intended  to  com- 
plete combustion  but  only  to  produce  a  combustible  gas, 
whereas  the  stoker  must  not  only  produce  the  gas  but 
burn  it  and  the  resulting  coke.  The  temperature  of  the 
fire  of  the  underfeed  stoker  is  much  higher  than  the  pro- 
ducer, and  this  sets  a  limitation  to  pursuing  the  analogy 
too  far.  The  high  temperature  with  the  underfeed 
stoker  causes  the  formation  of  masses  of  clinker,  and  if 
a  great  depth  of  fuel  bed  were  used  with  the  stoker,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  keep  it  broken  up  and  free  from 
clinker  by  any  practical  method  of  stoking  or  mechanical 
poking.  Within  the  limits  of  the  clinker  problem,  that 
stoker  having  the  greatest  distilling  volume  will  have 
the  highest  combustion  efficiency.  The  higher  the  per- 
centage of  volatile  in  the  coal,  the  greater  the  necessity 
for  large  retort  volumes  in  order  to  get  high  capacity 
and  efficiency. 

The  difficult  feature  of  coal  combustion  is  not  the 
burning  of  fixed  carbon,  but  of  volatile  matter.  The 
burning  of  volatile  matter  is  a  function  of  the  relative 
thoroughness  of  mixing  air  and  gas  and  of  temperature. 
The  temperature  must  be  kept  above  the  ignition  point 
or  the  flames  will  be  extinguished.  The  thoroughness 
of  mixing  introduces  the  element  of  time.  If  mixing  is 
done  in  the  fuel  bed,  the  thoroughness  will  depend  upon 
the  length  of  the  mixing  passages;  that  is,  the  depth 
of  the  bed.  If  mixing  wore  perfect  in  the  fire  bed,  which 
might  occur  with  a  deep  producer  fire,  there  would  be 
little  or  no  flame,  and  surface  combustion  would  practi- 
cally result  with  a  bed  of  hot  coke  as  refractory  material. 
If  the  depth  of  bed  is  insufficient  for  perfect  mixing, 
flame  occurs  and  furnace  volume  is  then  required  to 
provide  the  length  of  path  to  complete  the  mixing.  For 
the  highest  efficiency,  combustion  must  be  completed  and 
flames  disappear  before  contact  with  any  heat-absorb- 
ing surface,  otherwise  extinction  of  the  partly  burned 
material  occurs,  usually  with  soot  deposit,  and  part  of 
the  gases  must  escape  unburned,  unless  secondary  com- 
bustion can  be  established,  as  for  instance,  at  the  top 
of  the  first  boiler  pass. 

In  general  the  problem  of  combustion  is  that  of  car- 
buretion,  and  the  stoker  might  well  be  compared  to  a 
carburetor.  The  dictionary  defines  a  carburetor  as  an 
"apparatus  used  to  charge  air  or  gas  with  volatilized 
hydrocarbons."  The  verb  to  carburize  means  "to  com- 
bine or  impregnate  with  carbon."  A  stoker  fire,  or  the 
fire  in  any  furnace,  is  a  device  for  carburetting  the  air 
passing  through  the  fuel  bed.  The  hydrocarbons  and 
carbon  are  volatilized  by  the  heat,  and  then  they  im- 
pregnate the  air  so  that  it  becomes  a  combustible  gas. 
Combustion  efficiency  depends  on  the  accuracy  of  the 
mixture.  The  capacity  varies  with  the  volume  of  air 
passed  through  the  fuel  bed  and  impregnated.  Grate 
area  is  of  some  importance,  but  depth  of  fuel  bed  is  the 
essential  feature,  for  depth  is  what  promotes  better  mix- 
ture of  gas  and  air.     Any  carburetor  device  is  efficient 


374 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


ns  it  secures  mixture  in  right  proportions.  Thus  the 
tortuous  passages  through  a  deep  fuel  bed  of  small  area 
are  more  effective  than  the  relatively  direct  passages 
through  a  thin  fuel  bed  of  large  area. 

As  an  index  of  the  value  of  an  underfeed  stoker,  the 
relation  between  distillation  or  retort  volume  and  total 
volume  of  coal  is  most  important.  By  distillation  or  re- 
tort volume  is  meant  the  volume  of  coal  in  the  retorts 
Ijelow  the  tips  of  the  tuyeres  or  grates,  including  the 
throat  under  the  front  wall  in  front  of  the  feeding 
plunger.  By  total  volume  of  coal  is  meant  the  retort 
volume  plus  a  one-foot  thickness  of  fuel  over  the  entire 
surface  of  the  stoker.  This  one  foot  will  allow  for  the 
usual  thickness  of  18  to  24  in.  in  the  thickest  part  of  the 
fire  down  to  6  or  8  in.  on  the  overfeed  section  and  the 
dump  grates.  This  same  comparison  might  be  made  by 
obtaining  the  ratio  between  retort  volume  and  grate 
surface.  Distillation  and  mixing  of  the  volatile  matter 
occurs  clear  to  the  surface  of  the  fire  so  that  the  rela- 
tion between  total  volume  of  coal  and  the  square  feet 
of  grate  is  also  important.  Combustion  of  fixed  carbon 
of  course  predominates  near  the  surface  of  the  fire, 
while  in  the  retorts  proper  distillation  and  mixing  is 
the  sole  function. 

The  most  important  function  of  the  underfeed  stoker 
consists  in  the  burning  of  volatile  matter.  For  this^ 
reason  the  best  comparison  of  an  underfeed  stoker  con- 
sists in  getting  either  the  ratio  between  retort  volume 
and  total  volume  or  between  retort  volume  and  grate 
surface.  The  usual  practice  in  figuring  square  feet  of 
grate  surface  is  to  use  the  projected  area  of  the  stoker 
including  dump.  Combustion  actually  takes  place  with 
the  underfeed  stoker  from  the  front  wall  clear  back  to 
the  bridge-wall.  The  path  of  least  resistance  for  the  air 
through  the  fuel  bed  is  generally  toward  the  bridge-wall. 
Consequently,  even  if  there  is  no  definite  air  supply  at 
the  rear  end  of  the  stoker,  there  is  still  ample  air  com- 
ing through  from  the  fuel  bed  above  to  maintain  active 
combustion.  For  this  reason  it  is  perfectly  legitimate 
to  include  dump-grate  area  when  figuring  the  grate  sur- 
face of  an  underfeed  stoker.  F.  H.  Daniels, 

Worcester,  Mass.  Sanford  Riley  Stoker  Co. 

Turbine  Accidents 

The  list  of  turbine  accidents  by  C.  H.  Camp,  in  the 
Nov.  20  issue  of  Power,  covering  a  period  of  seven  years, 
justifies  the  present  writer's  claims  for  overspeed  tests 
notwithstanding  the  small  number  of  accidents  due 
purely  to  explosions  of  the  turbines.  When  one  con- 
siders that  in  a  period  covering  seven  years  the  casualty 
companies,  as  the  author  states,  can  record  only  19  acci- 
dents due  to  explosions,  it  is  apparent  that  "turbines 
which  have  exploded  due  to  overspeed  or  overpressure  in 
the  low-pressure  stages  have  been  very  few." 

In  most  cases  the  explosions  or  accidents  were  due 
not  to  inherent  faultiness  of  the  turbines  themselves, 
but  to  causes  separate  from  the  turbines  and  mostly 
due  to  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  operators  or  to 
improper  electrical  protection.  It  is  not  proposed  nor 
intended  to  be  understood  that  a  100  per  cent,  overspeed 
test  on  the  turbine  will  make  it  safe  against  explo- 
sions. It  will  not  be  required  if  the  trips  and  gov- 
ernors work  properly;  but  if  the  governors  should  re- 
fuse to  act,  the  additional  factor  of  safety  of  a  machine 


tested  to  a  100  per  cent,  overspeed  would  give  the  at- 
tendant, or  watch  engineer,  an  opportunity  to  trip  the 
throttle  by  hand  before  the  turbine  rotor  reached  the 
breaking  point. 

From  careful  examination  of  the  list  of  accidents  sub- 
mitted I  am  of  the  opinion  that  most  of  them  were  due 
to  faulty  and  careless  operation  or  attendance,  as  in  well- 
conducted  plants  the  engineer  in  charge  makes  it  his 
business  to  ascertain  that  the  governor  does  not  stick 
and  that  the  relief  valve  will  relieve  the  pressure  if  need 
be.  Relief  valves,  however,  should  always  be  fitted  with 
safety  measures,  such  as  auxiliary  tripping  devices  actu- 
ated by  the  governor  of  the  turbines. 

New  York  City.  W.  F.  Schaphorst. 

Adjustable   Extension    Lamp 

Anyone  who  has  worked  in  a  shop,  power  plant  or 
any  place  where  a  portable  electric  lamp  is  used,  will 
quickly  become  impressed  with  the  annoyance  that  the 
loose  extension  cord  causes  when  thrown  promiscuously 


'^'iiti 


PAHTS    .\XD    A.SSEMBLV    OF    ADJUSTABLE 
EXTEX.'JrilX  L.\MP 


about  the  floor.  An  efficient  method  of  avoiding  much  of 
this  annoyance  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tion. The  extension  cord  passes  alternately  over  a 
series  of  fixed  and  movable  pulleys  as  shown.  The 
fi.xed  pulleys  A  are  ordinary  porcelain  insulators  mount- 
ed on  round-head  screws,  at  the  upper  end  of  a  panel 
which  should  be  made  of  slate  or  asbestos  board.  The 
panel  can  be  attached  to  the  wall  in  any  convenient 
place.  Small  cast-lead  weights  C  are  attached  to  the 
movable  pulleys  B  to  keep  the  cord  taut.  The  movable 
pulleys  are  also  made  of  porcelain  insulators,  and  the 
connection  between  the  pulley  and  weight  is  made  from 
a  piece  of  wire  bent  to  the  proper  shape. 

The  lamp  cord  makes  one  and  a  half  turns  around 
roller  E  at  the  bottom  of  the  board  and  passes  out  to  the 
lamp.  A  small  spring  catch  D  allows  the  cord  to  be 
easily  pulled  out  to  the  desired  length,  but  prevents  it 
from  slipping  back.  It  is  obvious  that  upon  pulling  out 
the  extension  cord  the  movable  pulleys  will  be  lifted, 
shortening  the  distance  between  them  and  the  fixed 
pulleys.  By  releasing  the  catch  D  the  cord  is  allowed  to 
return  slowly  to  its  normal  position,  as  shown  in  the 
diagram.  M.  P.  Bertrande. 

Ozone  Park,  N.  Y. 


March  12,  1918 


POWER 


375 


WIRC  LOOP 
FIELD    RHEOSTAT 


Repairing  an   Open-Circuit  in  a 
Field  Rheostat 

Repairing  open-circuits  in  field  rheostats  having  the 
resistance  encased  in  porcelain  or  other  insulating  com- 
pounds can  be  accomplished  as  follows:  Assuming  that 
the  opon-circuit  has  been  located 
between  contacts  A  and  B  in  the 
figure.  A  radial  slot  is  cut  with 
a  hacksaw  in  the  center  of  each 
of  the  two  contacts  between 
which  the  open-circuit  is  located. 
Cut  these  slots  about  jL  in.  deep. 
Then  make  a  loop  of  No.  20  B. 
&  S.  gage  copper  wire,  as  in  the 
figure,  and  drive  it  down  in  the 
slots.  The  edges  of  the  slots  are 
slightly  upset  by  a  small  cape 
chisel  to  hold  the  wire  firmly  in 
place,  and  then  soldered  to  the 
contacts.  All  excess  of  solder  is  removed  so  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  contact-arm  travel. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  SAMUEL  SPAGNOLA. 

Starting  Diesel  Engines  Under 
Difficulties 

As  all  Diesel-engine  operators  know,  it  is  difficult  to 
start  these  engines  when  they  are  cold — that  is,  below 
a  temperature  of  40  deg. — and  especially  so  when  they 
have  been  exposed  to  freezing  weather  for  a  day  or 
two.  The  builders  usually  recommend  that  they  be 
installed  where  they  can  be  kept  from  getting  so  cold. 
About  the  first  of  November,  1917,  I  took  charge  of  a 
plant  having  two  Diesels,  in  which  the  engines  are 
under  the  shelter  of  a  corrugated-iron  structure  that 
has  been  through  the  vicissitudes  of  fire  and  reconstruc- 
tion and  is  more  of  a  refrigerating  room  in  winter  than 
anything  else. 

In  addition  tc  the  foregoing,  the  starting-air  tanks 
are  a  long  distance  from  the  engines,  and  there  are 
ten  elbows  and  bends  in  the  starting-air  line.  This 
line  is  also  too  small  for  efficient  starting,  being  of 
1-in.  double-extra-heavy  pipe.  The  engine  is  belted  to 
a  lineshaft  carrying  several  pulleys  and  belts,  driving 
the  air  compressor  and  circulating  pumps  and  two 
generators,  as  well  as  several  other  belts  that  usually 
are  running  on  loose  pulleys,  but  altogether  producing 
a  considerable  friction  load.  And  then  the  engines  are 
old  and  badly  worn  in  the  cylinders  so  that  compression 
is  poor.  In  fact  they  were  in  such  shape  that  the 
employees  of  this  plant  who  had  been  handling  them 
had  not  been  able  to  start  them  since  last  June. 

After  overhauling  and  repairing  these  units  as  best 
I  could,  so  that  we  could  get  some  service  out  of 
them  before  the  final  shutdown  for  rebuilding,  I  started 
up  one  without  much  trouble  and  continued  to  do  so 
every  day  for  a  week;  then  the  temperature  dropped 
to  19  or  20  deg.  above  zero  and  stayed  there  for  several 
days.  On  Monday  morning  I  attempted  to  start  up 
and  before  quitting  had  lost  all  the  air  that  we  had 
stored  without  getting  the  engines  running.  It  was 
then  necessary  to  connect  up  the  steam  engine  of  an 
ammonia  compressor  that  was  belted  to  the  lineshaft 


and  take  the  belt  off  the  Diesel's  pulley  so  as  to  drive 
the  air  compressor,  and  pump  up  the  starting  tanks 
again  before  we  got  started. 

When  it  was  convenient  to  shut  down  for  a  day  or 
two,  I  cut  into  the  steam  line  running  through  the 
building  and  connected  it  into  the  circulating-water 
system  as  near  to  the  cylinder  jackets  as  possible.  Now, 
when  it  is  too  cold  to  start  easily,  I  turn  live  steam 
through  the  water  jackets  and  in  ten  to  fifteen  minutes 
the  cylinders  are  warm  enough  to  start  on  the  first 
attempt. 

Of  course  not  all  Diesel  plants  are  so  arranged  that 
they  can  have  steam,  and  many  are  so  housed  that  they 
do  not  need  any  external  means  of  warming  up,  but 
doubtless  there  are  a  good  many  who  might  be  able 
to  use  this  method  and  so  get  around  a  serious  difficulty. 

Austin,  Texas.  F.  C.  Williams. 

Repair  to  Copper   Circulating   Pipe 

The  copper  pipe  connecting  the  jacket  of  an  oil 
engine  with  the  radiator  broke  -ear  a  union,  as  shown 
by  the  irregular  line  in  the  illustration.  It  was  repaired 
by  the  engineer  in  a  short  time  as  follows : 

The  coupling  was  separated  and  a  ring  was 
shrunk  on  the  end  of  the  broken  pipe  and  pinned,  after 


BROKEN    UNION    REPAIRED 

which  the  pipe  end  was  peened,  smoothed  off  and  the 
union  put  together  as  before.  The  pipe  when  joined  was 
about  an  inch  shorter  than  originally,  but  fortunately 
the  radiator  could  be  moved  that  amount  without  diffi- 
culty. This  job  seems  all  the  more  creditable  when  it 
is  considered  that  only  a  few  hand  tools  were  available. 
West  New  York,  N.  J.  LUDWIG  V.  Lauther. 

Distinguishing  Iron  from  Steel  Pipe 

I  have  noticed  several  articles  in  Power  relating  to 
methods  of  distinguishing  iron  pipe  from  steel,  and  I 
herewith  present  my  method,  which  is  very  simple. 

Aqua  fortis  (weak  nitric  acid)  applied  to  the  surface 
of  steel  produces  a  black  spot ;  on  iron  the  metal  remains 
clean.  By  this  method  the  slightest  vein  of  iron  or  steel 
can  be  readily  detected.  J.  W.  Stanley. 

Braemar,  Tenn. 


376 


f  OW  t.  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


Vapor   Relief  on    Pump    Suction 

A  feed  pump  which  got  water  from  an  open  heater 
situated  about  four  feet  above  the  pump  gave  trouble  by 
pounding — not  only  at  the  pump,  but  in  the  discharge 
line.     Various  remedies  were  tried  with  no  success  until 


OPKX    KXD    PIPE   CONNKCTED    TO    PUMP    .SUCTION 

an  air  pipe  was  connected  to  the  suction  line  with  the 
open  end  extending  above  the  water  level  of  the  heater, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration,  after  which  the  trouble 
ended.  N.  C.  Gleason. 

Northport,  Wash. 

Piston  Packing  Burns  Out — No  More 

My  S.O.S.  regarding  piston  packing  burning  out  in 
the  issue  of  Jan.  22,  page  129,  brought  several  fine 
answers  by  mail  from  widely  separated  places — Staunton, 
111.;  Denver,  Colo.;  Port  Huron,  Mich.;  Trenton,  N.  J.; 
and  Milford,  Mass.  I  have,  of  course,  replied  to  these 
letters,  thanking  the  writers  for  their  interest.  Is  there 
any  other  group  of  mechanics  except  engineers  who 
would  use  their  time,  stationery  and  stamps  simply  to 
help  out  a  brother  engineer  who  is  a  perfect  stranger 
to  them?  One  thing  that  is  noticeable  about  engineers 
is  their  unselfish  willingness  to  help  others. 

Some  of  the  sugge.stions  given  me  are  peculiar,  and 
probably  I  never  would  have  thought  of  them.  Follow- 
ing, in  part,  the  advice  given  by  two  of  my  correspond- 
ents, one  suggesting  metallic  packing  and  another  a 
certain  brand  of  steam  packing,  I  compromised  and  used 
both.  Instead  of  a  concave  ring  in  the  back  of  the 
packing  box,  I  now  use  a  flat  one  and  have  made  the  end 
of  the  follower,  or  gland,  flat  and  use  alternate  rings 
of  a  good  high-pressure  asbestos  rubber  packing  and 
rings  of  plastic  metallic  packing.  Some,  no  doubt,  will 
raise  their  hands  in  horror  at  such  an  idea,  but  the 
proof  of  the  thing  is  in  the  satisfactory  results  gained. 

Another  peculiar  thing  I  noticed  in  the  replies  received 
is  that  the  electric  men  are  so  certain  the  fault  can  be 
traced  to  defects  in  the  electric  end  of  the  work,  while 
the  steam  men  are  just  as  certain  that  the  trouble  is  in 
the  steam  machinery.  However,  the  steam  men  were 
right  in  this  case,  so  far  as  I  can  see  in  the  short  time 
since  I  made  the  change.  I  have  tried  it  severely  by 
drawing  the  packing  tight  and  also  by  leaving  it  loose, 
t)ut  it  does  not  get  hot.  .James  E.  Noble. 

Portsmouth,    Ont.,    Canada. 


Starting  Synchronous  Motors 

In  starting  up  the  synchronous  motor  in  our  plant, 
there  is  usually  one  man  at  the  switchboard  and  another, 
generally  the  fireman,  at  the  compensator  for  starting 
the  motor.  At  starting,  the  man  at  the  switchboard 
closes  the  oil  switch  and  the  attendant  at  the  starting 
compensator  throws  the  lever  to  the  starting  position. 
When  the  motor  comes  up  to  speed,  the  man  at  the 
switchboard  closes  the  field  switch  and  the  attendant 
at  the  compensator  throws  the  lever  to  the  running 
position. 

There  are  times  when  it  is  not  convenient  for  the 
fireman  to  leave  the  boiler  room  in  order  to  help  out. 
It  is  a  case  of  either  waiting  or  getting  someone  else. 
This,  again,  is  often  out  of  the  question.  To  start  the 
motor  without  an  assistant,  I  first  tie  the  lever  on  the 
starting  compensator  to  the  starting  position,  then  I 
go  to  the  switchboard  and  close  the  oil  switch;  when 
the  motor  gets  up  to  speed,  the  field  switch  is  ^.closed ; 
after  this  I  go  to  the  compensator,  release  the  starting 
lever  and  throw  it  to  the  running  position;  then  I 
return  to  the  switchboard  and  make  the  necessary  ad- 
justments. In  this  way  I  am  able  to  satisfactorily  put 
the  motor  into  service  without  the  help  of  an  assist- 
ant. 

Middletown,   N.  Y.  Thomas  M.  Gray. 


Hanger-Clamp   for    I-Beam 

The  best  and  strongest  kind  of  an  I-beam  hanger 
tlamp  I  know  of,  can  be  made  from  two  pieces  of  3-in. 
angle  iron  sawed  off  about  two  inches  wide,  heated  and 


HANGER-CLAMP   M.\DE   OF   A.VOLE   IRON 

one  end  or  flange  bent  back  and  the  other  drilled  for 
the  strap,  as  shown.  The  thickness  of  the  angle  is 
where  it  is  most  needed.  W.  H.  H.  Plowman. 

Philadelphia,  Penn. 


March   VI.   1!)18                                                                POWER  '.m 

iuiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiir iitiiiiiiiiiiiiii Ill Ill II liiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Ill I iiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii III! iiiiiii I nil iiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiMiiiii[g 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  i 


^iiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiimiim iiiiiiiiiiiiiii mil iii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii i ii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiillliiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ii iiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiii i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih 


Flow  of  Steam  ThrouRh  B-In.  I'ipe — What  weight  of 
steam  at  150  lb.  gage  would  be  delivered  per  hour  by  a 
6-in.  steam  pipe  100  ft.  long?  B.  C.  W. 

The  rate  of  flow  would  depend  on  the  drop  of  pressure; 
that  is,  the  number  of  pounds  per  square  inch  the  steam 
pressure  would  be  reduced  in  traversing  the  full  length  of 
the  pipe.  A  simple  form  of  diagram  for  computing  the 
flow  of  steam  in  pipes,  based  on  the  Babcock  formula,  with 
examples,  is  given  on  pages  836-7,  June  13,  1916,  issue  of 
Power.  For  a  continuous  flow  and  pressure  drop  of  5  lb. 
per  sq.in.  the  discharge  would  amount  to  about  9000  lb.  of 
steam    per    hour. 

Diameters  of  Fire  Tubes  of  Boilers — What  is  the  rule  for 
the  diameter  of  fire  tubes  of  return-tubular  and  vertical  fire- 
tube  boilers?  C.  H.  S. 

For  natural  draft  the  usual  rule  is  to  allow  one  inch  of 
nominal  or  outside  tube  diameter  for  each  4  ft.  of  tube 
length  for  use  with  bituminous  coal,  and  for  use  with 
anthracite,  1  in.  of  nominal  diameter  for  each  5  ft.  of  tube 
length.  For  artificial  draft  the  size  of  tubes  may  be  con- 
siderably smaller,  according  to  the  force  of  draft  and  ten- 
dency of  the  fuel  to  clog  the  tubes  with  soot.  For  vertical 
five-tube  boilers,  where  the  course  of  the  heated  gases  is 
short  and  direct,  the  ratio  of  tube  diameter  to  length  is 
usually  about  1  to  70. 

Reason  for   Lap   on   Corliss   Steam   Valves — Why  is   lap 

given   to   the   steam   valves   of   single-eccentric    Corliss   en- 
gines? W.  R.  S. 

For  obtaining  compression  of  the  exhaust  the  exhaust 
port  must  be  closed  before  the  piston  reaches  the  end  of 
the  stroke.  It  is  not  permissible  to  obtain  earlier  closing 
of  the  exhaust  valves  by  lengthening  the  exhaust-valve  rods, 
as  that  would  make  the  valves  later  in  opening  and  the 
steam  would  not  be  released  until  after  the  piston  had 
completed  its  stroke.  Thei-efore  to  obtain  earlier  com- 
pression and  release,  the  eccentric  is  advanced;  that  Is, 
set  ahead  of  the  90-deg.  position.  All  valve  events  are 
thus  made  earlier,  and  to  delay  uncovering  of  the  steam 
ports  by  their  valves  until  the  beginning  of  the  stroke,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  add  lap  to  the  steam  valves. 

Cushioning  of  Duplex  Pump — How  can  a  duplex  pump 
be  given  more  cushion?  H.  D.  W. 

In  the  ordinary  duplex  pump,  the  ports  and  passages 
for  admission  of  steam  are  at  the  ends  of  the  cylinder, 
and  those  for  discharge  of  the  exhaust  are  nearer  the 
middle  of  the  cylinder.  The  piston  in  approaching  the  head 
covers  the  exhaust  port,  while  the  exhaust  edge  of  the 
valve  is  still  open  and  the  steam  end  of  the  valve  covers 
its  port.  The  volume  of  steam  thus  entrapped  in  the  end 
of  the  cylinder  and  steam  passage  is  constant,  and  there  is 
no  convenient  means  of  covering  the  exhaust  port  earlier 
so  as  to  obtain  more  cushion,  excepting  to  provide  a  wider 
piston  ring.  On  pumps  of  over  10-in.  stroke,  for  resruiat- 
ing  the  cushion  an  opening  is  provided  through  tht  ijarti- 
tion  between  the  steam  and  the  exhaust  passages  with  a 
valve  inserted  for  relieving  the  piston  of  too  much  cushion, 
but  cushioning  cannot  be  adjusted  to  more  than  the  amount 
obtainable   with   this   valve   closed. 

Noise  in  Ends  of  Cylinder — What  causes  a  noise  in  a 
steam-engine  cylinder  at  each  reversal  of  the  stioke  of  the 
piston?  W.  E.  B. 

With  a  noncondensing  Corliss  engine,  a  rattling  noise 
may  be  due  to  the  exhaust  valves  being  raised  from  their 
seats  when  the  steam  expands  to  such  a  low  pressure  that 
the  valves  are  raised  from  their  seats  by  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere.  If  the  noise  from  this  cause  continues  when 
the  engine  is  running  at  regular  speed,  it  can  be  stopped 
by  throttling  or  reducing  the  initial  steam  pressure,  or  by 


joining  together  the  indicator  connections  of  opposite  ends 
of  the  cylinder  with  a  very  small  opening.  A  slapping  noise 
may  result  from  loose-fitting  piston  rings  driven  against 
the  sides  of  the  grooves  by  sudden  change  in  difference  of 
cylinder  pressures  on  opposite  sides  of  the  piston,  or  from 
frictional  resistance  to  being  dragged  at  each  reversal  of 
the  stroke.  A  rattling  noise  may  be  due  to  a  broken  piston 
ring  or  some  material  out  of  place,  and  when  it  occurs  the 
engine  should  be  stopped  as  soon  as  possible  and  inspected 
to  discover  loose  or  broken  parts  that  might  scoi-e  the 
cylinder. 

Ventilation  of  Paper-Machine  Room — How  can  a  paper- 
machine  room  be  ventilated  to  prevent  deposit  and  dripping 
of  condensation  from  the  roof  or  ceiling?  W.  H.  D. 

To  retard  the  condensation  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
roof  or  ceiling  warm.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  sheath- 
ing under  the  roof  or  ceiling  to  form  a  dead-air  space  and 
liberally  warming  the  sheathing  with  steam  pipes  hung 
close  to  its  under  side  and  evenly  distributed.  The  space 
over  the  machine  where  vapor  rises  should  be  covered  with 
a  hood  kept  clear  of  vapor  by  an  exhaust  fan  discharged 
outside  of  the  room,  and  for  general  ventilation  of  the 
room  to  remove  moisture,  there  should  be  exhaust  fans  or 
suction  ducts  in  the  side  walls,  placed  at  intervals  near 
the  roof  or  ceiling. 

Equivalent  Evaporation  from  and  at  212  Deg.  F. — With 
an  evaporation  per  pound  of  coal  of  8 '4^  lb.  of  feed  water 
at  208  deg.  F.  into  steam  at  140  lb.  boiler  pressure  and  96 
per  cent,  dry,  what  is  the  equivalent  evaporation  from  and 
at  212  deg.  F.?  J.  W.  N. 

Each  pound  of  the  feed  water  contained  208  —  32  =  176 
B.t.u.  above  32  deg.  F.  According  to  Marks  and  Davis' 
Steam  Tables,  a  pound  of  steam  at  140  lb.  per  sq.in.  gage 
or  155  lb.  absolute,  contains  332.9  B.t.u.  in  the  water  and 
861  B.t.u.  latent  heat;  hence  with  the  steam  96  per  cent, 
dry  each  pound  contained  332.9  +  (861  x  0.96)  =  1159.46 
B.t.u.  and  each  pound  of  the  feed  water  must  have  received 
1159.46  —  176  =  983.46  B.t.u.  The  evaporation  of  a  pound 
of  feed  water  from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  requires  the  latent 
heat  of  evaporation,  or  970.4  B.t.u.;  hence  the  factor  of 
evaporation  was  983.46  -i-  970.4  =  1.0134,  and  the  evapo- 
ration was  equivalent  to  8%  X  1.0134  =  8.36  lb.  of  water 
from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  per  pound  of  coal. 

Thickness  and  Weight  of  Lead  Pipe — What  is  the  rule 
for  finding  the  proper  thickness  and  weight  of  lead  pipe? 

P.   F. 

The  thickness  of  lead  pipe  required  to  withstand  a  given 
pressure  may  be  calculated  by  the  formula, 

0.4332<^X^ 
2745 


T  = 


in  which 

T   =   Thickness  of  pipe  in  fractions  of  an  inch; 
H  =    Head  of  pressure  in  feet;    (water) 
R  —   Radius  of  pipe  in  inches; 
from  which 

T  -  0.0001578    X   H   X   R. 
For  lead  a  factor  of  safety  of  10  is  required,  hence  for 
practical  application  T  =  0.001578  X  H  X  R,  or  if  we  take 
D  =  the  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches,  instead  of  the  radius, 
T  =  0.000789   X   H   X   D. 

The  formula  for  the  weight  of  lead  pipe  is: 
W  =  3.86  (D'  —  d~-)  ;  or  3.86  (D  +  d)   X    (D  —  d) 
in  which 

W  =  Weight  of  pipe  per  lineal  foot  in  pounds; 
D  =  External  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches; 
d  =  Internal  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches; 
3.86  =:  A  constant. 


378 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


The  Coal  Problem 


By  E.  G.  bailey 


THE  biggest  and  most  important  question  before  the 
American  people  today  is  the  coal  problem.  Some 
may  disagree  and  claim  that  it  is  transportation. 
But  sift  the  present  situation  to  the  bottom,  and  you  will 
find  that  the  coal  problem,  or  rather  the  abnormally  high 
percentage  of  ash  and  impurities  in  the  coal,  is  like  sand 
in  the  bearings  of  transportation,  of  ocean  shipping  and  of 
practically  all  industries,  causing  them  to  slow  down  at 
the  most  critical  time  in  our  history. 

Coal  is  bought  solely  for  the  combustible  elements  it 
contains.  The  less  ash  and  impurities  in  the  coal  the  less 
number  of  tons  you  need.  The  greater  the  demand  for  coal 
the  higher  the  price  and,  under  present  conditions,  the 
poorer  its  quality.  The  price  has  been  regulated,  but  the 
quality  has  run  riot. 

Why  have  we  allowed  this  to  happen  just  at  the  time 
when  we  need  heat  units  in  their  most  concentrated  form? 
Why  are  the  railroads  burdened  today  with  hauling  millions 
of  tons  of  utterly  worthless  dirt?  To  say  that  this  excess 
of  impurities  in  the  coal  coming  on  the  market  today  is 
worthless  does  not  describe  the  situation.  The  price  paid 
for  this  dirt  is  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  damage.  The 
rest  of  its  cost  is  in  the  decreased  efficiency,  the  lowered 
capacity,  the  increased  labor  and  the  excessive  repair  bills 
involved  in  the  combustion  of  this  coal — and  in  the  neces- 
sity of  closing  down  industries  because  of  the  lack  of  coal 
which  might  have  been  shipped  in  place  of  these  so-called 
"worthless,"  but  really  exceedingly  costly,  impurities. 

Impurities  in  Coal 

Through  the  past  winter  we  have  heard  a  great  deal  of 
talk  about  the  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  coal,  the 
increase  of  ash,  slate,  sulphur  and  other  impurities.  We 
know  this  has  occurred,  but  let  us  see  how  much  it  has 
amounted  to,  how  much  it  has  cost,  and  we  can  decide  better 
what  efforts  should  be  put  forth  to  remedy  this  difficulty. 

We  find  from  reliable  sources  that  the  coal  received  in 
many  of  the  largest  power  plants  in  the  country  has  in- 
creased by  5  per  cent,  to  10  per  cent,  in  ash  and  has  de- 
creased in  heating  value  by  8  per  cent,  to  12  per  cent.  Many 
good  authorities  state  that  the  amount  of  coal  consumed  in 
their  plants  has  increased  10  per  cent.,  entirely  owing  to 
the  inferior  quality  of  coal  received  today  as  compared  with 
that  received  previous  to  1916.  Figures  from  a  prominent 
manufacturer  who  has  received  coal  from  the  same  district 
during  the  past  seven  years  and  has  followed  its  quality 
closely  by  analysis  and  other  means  show  a  decrease  of  9 
per  cent,  in  B.t.u.  during  the  calendar  year  1917  as  compared 
with  the  average  of  five  years,   1911  to  1915  inclusive. 

War  conditions  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  this  connec- 
tion. We  should  not  assume  that  the  quality  of  all  coal 
mined  has  decreased  in  this  same  ratio,  for  the  Navy  and 
other  Government  requirements  have  increased  by  several 
million  tons,  and  they  rightfully  are  getting  the  better 
coal.  Hence,  some  of  the  decrease  in  the  quality  of  coal 
going  to  industrial  plants  and  locomotives  has  been  due  to 
confining  their  supply  to  the  mines  of  inferior  quality.  But 
evidence  is  at  hand  to  show  that  coal  coming  from  the  same 
mines  carries  a  much  higher  percentage  of  bone,  slate  and 
free  impurities  than  it  formerly  did,  and  as  a  conservative 
estimate  I  am  confident  that  the  increased  coal  consump- 
tion of  this  country  during  the  year  1917  due  to  the  in- 
ferior quality  resulting  from  neglect  of  preparation  at  the 
mines,  tipples  and  breakers  amounted  to  at  least  5  per 
cent.  In  other  words,  of  the  approximately  600,000,000  tons 
of  coal  produced  and  shipped  to  market  during  the  last  year 
.30,000,000  tons  was  worthless  dirt,  slate  and  rock. 

How  much  has  this  increase  in  impurities  in  coal  cost  the 
United  States  during  the  last  year?  In  the  first  place  coal 
has  been  worth  on  an  average,  counting  contracts  and  all, 
about  $2.50  at  the  mines.  The  average  freight,  including 
both  rail  and  vessel,  paid  on  all  coal  produced  is  probably 


•Lecture  (somewhat  condensed)  delivered  at  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins University.  Baltimore,  Md.,  Feb.  27,  1918,  as  one  of  the  J. 
E.  Aldred  Lectures  on  Engineering  Practice 


in  the  neighborhood  of  $1.50  per  ton.  So  that  the  30,000,000 
tons  of  dirt  which  has  been  delivered  to  the  consumer  has 
cost  about  $120,000,000  during  the  past  year. 

But  this  only  takes  into  consideration  the  cost  of  the  coal 
delivered  to  his  plant.  He  then  has  the  additional  cost  of 
firing  this  inferior  coal,  repairing  furnaces,  stokers,  locomo- 
tives and  the  cost  of  handling  the  ashes.  These  items  would 
add  a  few  million  dollars  more,  but  that  is  a  mere  bagatelle 
compared  with  the  cost  due  to  the  shortage  of  coal,  the 
closing  of  plants  and  our  heatless  holidays.  Estimates  by 
various  authorities  on  the  cost  of  the  heatless  holidays 
range  from  one  billion  dollars  on  up,  and  that  was  probably, 
for  the  time  being,  the  best  and  cheapest  way  out  of  the 
difficulty. 

Coal  Shortage  or  Dirt 

We  have  been  talking  about  the  coal  shortage,  while  in 
reality  we  have  been  loading  our  cars  and  locomotives  with 
slate  and  impurities  instead  of  coal,  and  had  coal  of  the 
former  quality  been  shipped  to  market,  we  would  have  had 
30,000,000  tons  more  real  coal  than  we  did  get. 

The  effect  of  this  increase  in  the  percentage  of  ash  has 
been  cumulative.  Storage  piles  have  been  gradually  ex- 
hausted, and  the  supply  to  consumers  has  diminished  to 
absolutely  nothing  in  many  cases,  due  to  each  day's  coal 
consumption  requiring  5  per  cent,  more  than  it  otherwise 
would,  because  of  the  high  percentage  of  ash  alone,  re- 
gardless of  weather  conditions  or  increased  load.  Supp.':se 
that  all  of  the  slate  and  impurities  corresponding  to  this 
5  per  cent,  increase  had  been  concentrated  into  two  or  three 
weeks  of  normal  shipments  during  the  middle  of  the  winter 
and  this  30,000,000  tons  of  pure  slate  and  rock  were  loaded 
into  1,000,000  railroad  cars  without  any  coal  mixed  with  it. 
Every  American  citizen  would  have  been  up  in  arms  in  a 
minute,  and  indignation  societies  and  vigilance  committees 
would  have  emptied  the  slate  out  along  the  railroad  tracks 
and  started  the  empty  cars  back  to  the  mines  to  be  loaded 
with  coal  instead  of  impurities.  But  the  final  result  has 
been  the  same. 

We  should  also  remember  that  the  inferior  quality  of 
coal,  in  addition  to  tying  up  1,000,000  railroad  cars  and  re- 
quiring the  use  of  thousands  of  locomotives,  has  also  seri- 
ously affected  the  operation  of  the  locomotive  itself.  The 
locomotive  is  a  complete  power  plant,  with  grate  area,  size 
of  nozzle,  draft,  steam  consumption,  etc.,  very  nicely  bal- 
anced. If  either  the  quality  or  character  of  coal  is  changed 
on  a  locomotive,  its  efficiency  and  capacity  are  affected. 
Today  locomotives  are  receiving,  not  only  the  poorer  quality 
of  fuel,  but  coal  of  widely  varying  character  due  to  the 
allotment  of  railroad  fuel  to  all  mines.  This  has  resulted 
in  greatly  reducing  the  hauling  capacity  of  the  locomotives. 

In  buying  coal  we  have  been  so  accustomed  to  expect  the 
quality  to  decrease  when  the  price  went  up  that  we  con- 
sidered it  inevitable.  We  thought  there  was  no  remedy. 
The  coal  operator  has  not  been  wholly  to  blame,  because 
he  could  not  control  the  preparation  of  coal  at  the  mines  of 
his  competitors.  If  he  was  conscientious  and  prepared  his 
coal,  he  was  the  loser  and  the  man  who  shipped  dirty  coal 
to  the  market  obtained  his  profits. 

The  cause  for  this  condition  is  well  known  to  anyone  at 
all  familiar  with  the  mining  of  coal;  the  reason  is  that  the 
technically  trained  men  of  this  country  have  failed  to  master 
a  difficult  problem  they  tackled  several  years  ago  and 
would  have  mastered  by  this  time,  had  they  had  the  courage 
of  their  convictions  and  the  ability  to  handle  human-nature 
problems  as  well  as  engineering. 

In  mining  coal  we  find  the  ash  occurs  in  two  general 
forms,  intrinsic  ash  and  extraneous  or  free  impurities.  The 
intrinsic  ash  is  locked  up  in  the  coal,  so  to  speak,  and  is 
inseparable  from  it.  The  purest  lump  of  coal  contains  a 
percentage  of  ash  that  is  thoroughly  mixed  through  it, 
much  like  the  ash  in  wood.  From  any  one  coal  seam  in  a 
district  this  intrinsic  ash  usually  runs  fairly  uniform,  al- 
though it  may  vary  widely  in  different  coal  seams,  in  differ- 
ent' districts,  or  even  in  different  strata  of  the  same  seam. 


.March   VJ.,  litlt< 


1'  C)  W  K  K 


379 


The  oxtnineous  or  free  iniimrities  usually  consist  of  slate, 
shale  or  sand  rock  from  the  roof  of  tlie  mine,  and  clay  from 
the  Hoor,  Mnd  sometimes  slate,  shale  and  sulphur  balls  are 
sandwiched  between  the  coal  strata.  The  slate  and  shale 
strata  in  the  coal  seam  itself  are  the  most  difficult  to 
eliminate  because  they  are  more  or  less  broken  and  intei-- 
minu'led  with  the  coal  when  it  is  shot  down  and  require 
extra  labor  and  special  care  on  the  part  of  the  miner  to 
throw  back  these  impurities  or  load  them  separately  into 
mine  cars  for  the  dump.  Small  sulphur  balls  are  still 
harder  to  detect  because  they  are  usually  covered  with  coal. 
Large  ones  should  be  detected  by  their  weight.  The  amount 
of  free  impurities  likely  to  come  from  the  roof  varies  widely 
with  its  character.  Some  mines  have  a  very  firm  roof  that 
seldom  breaks,  while  in  others  it  crumbles  and  falls  badly, 
mixing  in  with  the  freshly  mined  coal  much  like  the  strata 
of  slate  running  through  the  seam.  There  is  little  excuse 
for  loading  dirt  from  the  floor  of  any  mine.  Sometimes 
the  fireclay  bottom  is  very  soft,  making  it  difficult  to 
prevent  its  being  shoveled  up  with  the  coal,  and  again  the 
mining-machine  operators  may  carelessly  permit  some  of 
the  bottom  to  become  mixed  with  the  slack  or  fine  coal. 

There  is  another  form  of  impurity  generally  known  as 
"bone."  This  is  really  a  stratum  of  coal  containing  an  ab- 
normally high  percentage  of  intrinsic  ash.  The  ash  in 
bone  coal  usually  runs  about  30  per  cent.,  although  it  may 
be  much  higher  or  even  lower.  As  there  is  no  distinct 
division  between  coal  and  bone,  there  is  often  a  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  what  should  be  loaded  as  marketable  coal. 

How  Coal  Is  Usually  Cleaned 

In  normal  times  there  is  a  great  deal  of  real  competition 
between  different  mine  operators,  in  selling  soft  coal  ,at 
least.  In  meeting  this  competition  the  operator  is  forced 
either  to  sell  at  a  lower  price  or  produce  a  superior  quality 
of  coal.  He,  therefore,  puts  forth  considerable  effort  and 
goes  to  extra  expense  to  produce  as  low-ash  coal  as  pos- 
sible. This  preparation  of  the  coal  is  accomplished  by  com- 
pelling the  miner  to  throw  out  all  free  slate,  bone  and  other 
impurities  previously  mentioned.  Inspectors  examine  the 
conditions  of  the  mine — which,  by  the  way,  may  vary  a 
great  deal  in  different  parts  of  the  mine  as  it  develops — 
and  they  instruct  the  miner  just  what  to  load  out  as  coal 
and  what  to  throw  back  in  the  gob  as  refuse  or  load  out 
separately  for  the  slate  dump.  Additional  cleaning  of 
the  coal  is  done  on  the  railroad  cars  as  each  mine  car  is 
dumped,  and  during  the  last  ten  years  many  mines  have 
been  equipped  with  picking  tables.  In  many  districts  the 
slack  and  smaller  sizes  of  coal  have  the  extraneous  or 
free  impurities  removed  by  washing.  At  anthracite  mines 
the  slate  and  bone  are  picked  out  of  the  larger  sizes  in  the 
breakers  and  removed  from  the  smaller  sizes  by  washing. 

In  all  cases  the  preparation  and  cleaning  of  coal  increases 
the  cost  to  the  operator,  both  for  labor  and  equipment  as 
well  as  the  actual  tonnage  of  impurities  and  some  accom- 
panying coal  that  is  removed.  The  customer  has  been 
glad  to  pay  more  for  the  cleaner  coal  because  it  saved  his 
paying  the  freight  on  slate  and  impurities. 

In  times  of  normal  condition  in  the  coal  trade,  which 
existed  between  the  years  of  1903  and  1916,  competition 
carried  the  preparation  of  coal  so  far  that  a  great  deal 
of  really  marketable  coal  was  thrown  aside  or  left  in  the 
roof  or  floor  of  the  mine,  merely  because  it  contained  a 
slightly  higher  intrinsic  ash  than  the  remainder  of  the 
seam.  Oftentimes  this  amounted  to  as  much  as  10  to  20 
per  cent,  of  the  total  coal  in  the  seam,  while  its  elimination 
reduced  the  ash  content  in  the  coal  as  shipped  by  only  1  or 
2  per  cent.  This  is  one  of  the  extravagant  wastes  which 
has  taken  place,  and  which  has  been  so  frequently  referred 
to  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines  in  support  of  its  estimate  that 
50  per  cent,  of  our  coal  resources  was  wasted  beyond  re- 
covery in  the  mining.  Another  big  waste  of  our  coal  supply 
has  been  due  to  mutilation  of  the  thinner  seams  or  those 
having  a  higher  ash  content,  by  first  mining  the  thicker  and 
better  seams  underneath. 

There  was  an  increased  demand  for  coal  in  1916.  Natur- 
ally, prices  began  to  soar,  and  many  consumers  foresaw 
what  was  coming  and  were  glad  to  pay  any  price  in  order 
to  get  coal  and  fill  up  their  storage  space.  This  condition 
continued   through   the   winter   of   1916-17   until   it  was   of 


common  occurrence  to  pay  as  high  as  $.'>  and  $6  per  ton  for 
bituminous  coal  at  the  mines.  Most  of  the  purchasers  were 
so  anxious  to  get  coal  that  they  forgot  all  about  quality  and 
were  willing  to  take  anything  at  any  price,  in  order  to 
keep  their  plants  in  operation. 

It  is  only  logical,  under  such  conditions,  for  the  mine 
operator  to  ease  up  on  the  preparation  of  coal  at  the  mines. 
He  has  ample  market  at  a  high  price  for  every  ton  of  coal 
that  he  can  load. 

Some  may  think  that  the  price  of  coal  at  the  mines  as 
fixed  by  the  Government  in  August,  1917,  being  lower  than 
the  operators  considered  justifiable,  had  something  to  do 
with  the  decrease  in  quality.  It  may  possibly  have  affected 
the  preparation  of  coal  in  a  few  instances  where  the 
operator  was  forced  to  reduce  his  costs  as  much  as  possible, 
but  if  the  Government  price  were  advanced  on  the  present 
basis  of  control  to  $5  per  ton  at  the  mines,  it  would  not 
reduce  the  percentage  of  impui'ities  in  the  coal  one  iota. 

At  the  time  when  we  should  have  given  attention  to 
conservation  of  our  natural  resources,  we  were  wasting 
large  quantities  of  really  marketable  coal.  But  in  a  crisis 
like  the  present  war,  when  we  need  large  quantities  of 
coal  in  its  pui-est  form  with  the  most  concentrated  heat 
units,  we  find  the  miners  are  loading  all  of  the  high-ash 
coal,  bone  and  in  many  cases,  slate,  rock  and  sulphur  balls 
with  practically  no  effort  on  the  part  of  the  operator  to 
stop  them.  In  fact,  most  of  the  picking  tables  and  coal 
washers  have  been  discontinued  and  the  entire  product  of 
coal  with  its  impurities  goes  to  market  unchecked.  In 
some  cases  the  operator  is  loading  the  gob  pile,  the  culm 
bank,  coal  from  the  poorer  parts  of  his  mine,  or  is  concen- 
trating his  production  on  the  mines  of  poorest  quality, 
for  he  knows  that  under  present  conditions  anything  will 
go,  and  he  is  reserving  the  better  quality  of  coal  for  future 
needs  when  strong  competition   is  resumed. 

There  has  been  a  time,  and  there  will  again  come  a  time, 
when  conservation  of  our  coal  supply  should  be  carefully 
considered  in  connection  with  the  preparation  of  coal  for 
a  competing  market,  but  now  is  not  the  time  to  conserve 
our  national  resources.  Today,  when  every  ounce  of  heat 
energy,  every  railroad  car  and  every  locomotive  should  be 
producing  maximum  results,  one  thing  above  all  others 
should  claim  the  attention  of  the  men  of  this  country,  and 
that  is  to  distribute  coal  in  its  purest  form  to  the  consumer 
and  obtain  maximum  efficiency  in  its  combustion.  Instead 
of  doing  that,  we  are  clogging  our  railroads  and  furnaces 
with  the  dirtiest  and  poorest  quality  of  coal  ever  produced. 

What  Is  the  Remedy? 

To  simply  appeal  to  the  coal  operators  and  miners  on 
the  grounds  of  patriotism  will  not  accomplish  the  results. 
We  must  go  to  the  very  root  of  the  matter,  and  during 
the  present  crisis  eliminate  every  possible  pound  of  slate 
and  impurity  from  the  coal  as  it  is  loaded  into  the  railroad 
cars  at  the  mines.  This  will  be  equivalent  to  increasing 
the  motive  power,  the  car  supply  and  terminal  facilities  of 
our  railroads  to  the  extent  of  30,000,000  tons  carrying  ca- 
pacity per  year.  It  is  possible;  it  can  be  done;  and  it  must 
be  done.  The  question  remains  how  to  do  it  most  quickly 
and  at  least  expense. 

You  must  bear  in  mind  that  increasing  the  price  alone  will 
not  improve  the  quality,  and  without  the  quality  being  im- 
proved the  railroads  cannot  haul  the  necessary  heat  units. 
There  is  enough  labor  available  at  the  mines  to  clean  the 
coal;  our  trouble  is  due  to  lack  of  raih-oad  facilities  to  haul 
the  excessive  amount  of  impurities  it  contains.  It  seems 
so  perfectly  self-evident  that  we  must  put  forth  every  effort 
to  concentrate  as  many  heat  units  in  each  ton  of  coal  which 
our  railroads  can  handle,  that  in  the  face  of  these  figures  we 
can  go  to  any  end  in  carrying  out  the  remedy.  This  question 
is  important  enough  to  do  the  job  right  and  anything  which 
i-f  worth  while  can  he  done. 

Pay  Price  in  Proportion  to  Quality 
I  would  recommend  that  the  Government  establish  coal- 
sampling  stations  at  certain  points  where  large  numbers  of 
railroad  cars  are  unloaded  to  vessels  or  power  houses.  These 
sampling  stations  should  be  equipi)ed  with  the  necessary 
machinery  for  handling  samples  of  one  thousand  pounds  or 
more  so  that  the  sample  will  be  thoroughly  representative 


380 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  11 


of  the  individual  car  from  which  it  is  taken.  From  this 
sample  determine  the  percentage  of  total  ash  as  well  as 
the  free  impurities  (slate,  rock,  etc.)  so  that  a  positive 
check  will  be  obtained  on  each  mine  as  to  the  quality  of  coal 
being  produced,  and  the  effectiveness  of  its  preparation. 

By  locating  these  sampling  plants  at  such  points  as 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Hampton  Roads,  Cin- 
cinnati, Lorain,  Buffalo  and  other  lake  loading  ports,  adding 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Indianapolis,  Birmingham  and  other 
cities  throughout  the  United  States  later  on  as  the  work  is 
extended,  coal  from  every  mine  in  the  adjacent  districts 
can  be  consigned  or  reconsigned  by  the  Fuel  Administration 
to  these  cities  and  to  these  particular  piers  and  power  plants 
so  that  at  least  one  sample  each  month  will  be  obtained 
from  every  mine  shipping  coal.  Later  on  as  the  system  is 
perfected  it  could  be  increased  to  the  sampling  of  one  car 
out  of  every  ten  shipped,  so  that  a  very  fair  average  of  the 
quality  of  coal  loaded  from  each  mine  would  be  obtained. 
Even  though  not  enough  cars  could  be  sampled  to  get  an 
average  that  vi'ould  be  scientifically  accurate  to  a  fraction 
of  one  per  cent.,  the  influence  on  the  operator  and  miner 
would  be  effective. 

To  give  the  coal  operator  a  real  incentive  to  clean  his 
coal  as  he  should,  the  price  he  receives  should  be  materially 
affected  by  the  quality  of  coal  produced.  It  would  be  ad- 
visable to  go  a  step  farther  and  base  the  distribution  of 
cars  to  the  mines  on  quality  also.  The  quality  as  shown 
by  the  results  of  one  month  should  form  the  basis  of  price 
and  car  distribution  for  the  subsequent  month,  so  that  no 
confusion  resulting  from  back  charges  and  adjustments 
need  interfere  with  the  plan. 

The  adjustment  of  price  for  variations  in  intrinsic  ash 
should  be  nominal,  say  5  or  10c.  per  ton,  but  for  extraneous 
ash  it  must  be  severe,  such  as  25  to  50c.  per  ton  for  each 
1  per  cent.  ash. 

The  base  price  for  standard  quality  of  coal  should  be 
established  by  the  Government  as  at  present,  with  possibly 
different  base  prices  and  different  quality  standards  for  the 
several  districts,  taking  into  account  the  character  of  coal, 
height  of  seam  and  other  mining  conditions,  but  the  main 
thing  to  strive  for  is  to  obtain  the  highest  quality  of  coal 
and  the  most  concentrated  form  of  heat  units  in  order  to 
tide  us  over  the  coming  year,  which  is  going  to  be  much 
more  critical  than  that  just  past,  unless  some  radical  step  is 
taken  to  apply  a  remedy  for  the  basic  cause  of  the  present 
situation. 

This  work  of  sampling  and  accurate  quality  determina- 
tion should  be  supplemented  with  Government  inspection  at 
the  mines  to  prevent  the  loading  of  bad  crop  coal  and  to 
keep  in  first-hand  touch  with  the  mining  conditions  as  a 
supplemental  check  upon  the  preparation  of  coal  and  to  in- 
still a  spirit  of  cooperation. 

Real  knowledge  of  the  quality  of  coal  being  produced  will 
also  be  of  great  benefit  in  classifying  coal  from  various 
mines  into  the  different  pools  so  the  consumer,  and  par- 
ticularly the  railroads,  will  receive  coal  of  uniform  quality, 
thereby  enabling  them  to  obtain  maximum  capacity  and 
efficiency  from  the  coal  they  use. 

The  Remedy  Is  Feasible 

There  may  be  some  people  pessimistic  enough  to  say  that 
this  scheme  cannot  be  carried  out,  it  would  cost  too  much 
money  or  we  cannot  get  the  men  to  do  it;  but  this  question 
is  of  such  basic  importance  today  that  some  remedy  is  ab- 
solutely necessary.  We  have  our  choice  of  either  building 
thousands  of  locomotives,  a  hundred  thousand  railroad  cars 
and  adding  to  the  terminal  facilities  of  our  railroads  within 
the  next  few  months  to  haul  this  30,000,000  or  more  tons  of 
dirt,  or  asking  the  railroads  to  ship  only  the  most  concen- 
trated form  of  heat  units  in  coal  of  highest  quality. 

The  latter  can  be  done,  the  remedy  is  feasible  and  prac- 
tical, it  can  be  started  immediately  and  put  into  effective 
operation  within  a  few  months  at  a  trivial  cost  as  compared 
with  any  other  remedy  available.  The  Government  already 
has  departments  familiar  with  every  problem  which  enters 
into  the  carrying  out  of  this  scheme.  It  would  require 
many  competent  technical  men  to  carry  it  out,  such  men 
as  you,  who  are  being  turned  out  of  our  colleges  and  uni- 
versities today,  and  those  who  have  preceded  you  during 
the   past  few  years. 


In  normal  times,  when  competition  was  strong,  the  con- 
sumer could  get  about  what  he  wanted  at  a  very  low  price, 
but  now  in  his  anxiety  to  get  coal  he  has  catered  to  the 
coal  man,  forgotten  quality,  paid  any  price,  and  has  been 
satisfied  to  take  whatever  the  coal  man  gave.  Today  we 
hear  more  talk  of  quality  from  the  coal  operators,  who 
want  the  quality  considered  as  a  basis  of  price,  as  a  basis 
of  car  distribution,  as  a  basis  of  classifying  coal  into  dif- 
ferent pools,  than  we  have  heard  from  the  consumer.  But 
the  operators  seem  to  think  that  it  is  sufficient  to  classify 
the  coal  very  roughly,  using  quality  data  obtained  prior 
to  present  conditions.  This  would  help  some,  but  it  is  not 
the  real  remedy  that  must  be  put  into  effect  today,  for  it 
must  be  based  on  the  quality  of  coal  now  being  produced. 

The  engineers  of  this  country,  who  are  responsible  for 
efficiency  in  the  combustion  of  coal,  should  also  make  a 
very  thorough  search  into  the  actual  conditions  which  exist 
in  the  plants  under  their  care.  One  of  the  difficulties  is 
that  combustion  has  been  discussed  and  rehashed  so  many 
times  and  they  have  been  warned  about  excess  air,  un- 
burned  gas,  CO:  and  various  other  things  until  it  is  a  good 
deal  like  the  boy  and  the  wolf.  They  know  so  well  what 
ought  to  be  done  that  they  begin  to  think  they  are  actually 
doing  it.  Others  know  they  have  done  it  once  and  ^ssume 
that  the  men  in  their  plant  are  continuing  to  do  it  without 
constant  supervision  or  checking  up,  but  everyone  who  is  at 
all  familiar  with  the  combustion  of  coal  knows  that  there  is 
room  for  decided  improvement  along  this  line  in  a  majority 
of  power  plants,  including  many  of  the  larger  central  sta- 
tions in  operation  today. 

One  of  the  basic  difficulties  is,  the  person  responsible  for 
the  operation  of  the  plant  does  not  always  know  exactly  what 
results  he  is  getting.  If  he  is  basing  the  results  on  coal  per 
kilowatt,  coal  per  unit  product,  such  as  steel,  paper,  cloth, 
etc.,  or  even  pounds  of  water  evaporated  per  pound  of  coal, 
he  does  not  have  as  close  a  check  upon  his  efficiency  as  he 
should  have,  because  he  is  likely  to  blame  poor  results  to 
the  inferior  quality  and  varying  character  of  the  coal  he 
has  received.  To  a  large  extent  the  coal  has  been  respon- 
sible. The  decrease  in  quality  has  taken  his  heart  out  of 
his  work  so  far  as  striving  for  high  efficiency  is  concerned, 
and  I  have  even  heard  some  prominent  engineers  make  the 
remark  that  they  did  not  care  a  rap  about  efficiency — what 
they  wanted  was  coal  that  would  give  them  capacity.  They 
apparently  forgot  that  when  they  are  getting  efficiency 
they  are  also  getting  capacity,  for  wasted  heat  units  can 
accomplish  nothing.  Efficiency  and  total  plant  capacity  go 
hand  in  hand.  We  must  stretch  every  ton  of  coal  out  to 
last  as  long  as  possible. 

Let  us  forget  for  a  minute  much  of  the  detailed  theory 
and  ideas  of  combustion  and  come  dov^Ti  to  a  few  basic 
facts.  Coal  is  fired  to  the  boiler  furnaces  to  produce  heat. 
Whatever  the  heating  value  of  this  coal  may  be,  whether  it 
is  10,000  or  14,000  B.t.u.  per  pound,  that  figure  represents 
100  per  cent,  of  the  heat  units  available  for  making  steam 
in  that  boiler.  The  problem  is  to  transfer  as  many  heat 
units  as  possible  from  the  coal  to  the  steam.  All  of  this 
heat  cannot  be  utilized,  but  it  does  all  show  up  some  place, 
and  the  channels  through  which  this  heat  passes  may  be 
divided  into  three  general  classes: 

Best  Probable 
Practice,        Average, 

Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

1  Incomplete  combustion  (loss) . .  _  _  2  7 

2  Heating  up  fiue  gases  anrl  other  things  beside  wafer  in 

in  boiler  (loss)  18  28 

3  Evaporating  water  in  the  boiler  (viseful) .  80  65 

Total  heat  in  coal  as  fired.  100  100 

The  entire  100  per  cent,  of  heat,  no  more  and  no  less, 
always  shows  up  in  these  three  main  items,  which  may  be 
called  a  heat  balance. 

The  amount  of  heat  in  the  third  item  represents  boiler 
efficiency,  and  it  must  be  low  if  the  other  two  items  are  high 
and  it  can  be  high  only  by  keeping  the  other  items  low. 
These  two  loss  items  are  such  that  they  get  fir.^t  chance,  so 
to  speak,  at  the  heat  units  in  the  coal,  and  high  boiler 
efficiency  can  be  assured  only  by  knowing  what  are  these 
controllable  losses  and  how  to  keep  them  at  a  minimum. 

The  first  item,  incomplete  combustion,  covers  unburned 
coal  and  coke  carried  away  in  the  ashes.  This  is  a  loss  that 
can  readily  be  observed  by  inspection  and  checked  up  by  sam- 


I 


March  12,  1918 


POWER 


381 


pling  the  ashes  and  determining  the  percentage  of  combus- 
tible. Tfie  other  loss  under  this  item  is  unburned  gas, 
principally  carbon  monoxide  (CO),  which  is  due  to  carrying 
too  thick  a  fire  and  operating  the  furnace  like  a  gas  pro- 
ducer. This  loss  can  be  obviated  by  carrying  a  thinner  fire 
and  providing  a  greater  supply  of  air  per  pound  of  com- 
bustible. If  this  is  carried  to  an  extreme,  too  much  air 
passes  through  the  furnace  and  carries  away  large  quan- 
tities of  heat  at  flue-gas  temperature,  thereby  increasing 
a  loss  which  would  come  under  the  second  item.  It  is, 
therefore,  necessary  for  the  fireman  to  have  some  guide  in 
maintaining  the  fuel  bed  in  the  proper  condition  so  as  to 
obviate  the  unburned-gas  loss  on  the  one  hand  and  the  ex- 
cess-air loss  on  the  other. 

The  most  usual  means  of  checking  up  this  condition  has 
been  flue-gas  analysis,  and  engineers  should  apply  their 
knowledge  of  this  subject  to  actual  practice  today  as  never 
before.  There  are  other  means  that  serve  as  a  very  valu- 
able guide,  such  as  the  relation  between  the  rate  at  which 
air  is  supplied  for  combustion  and  the  rate  at  which  steam 
is  generated  from  this  combustion.  This  is  based  on  the 
fact  that  air  is  a  fuel  just  as  much  as  coal,  and  a  certain 
evaporation  should  be  obtained  per  pound  of  air.  This  is 
practically  independent  of  the  quality  or  character  of  fuel. 

Watch  the  Appearance  of  the  Flame 
Another  method,  which  is  within  the  reach  of  every  fire- 
man and  every  engineer  in  the  country  without  buying  a 
cent's  worth  of  equipment,  is  to  watch  the  appearance  of  the 
flame  from  the  furnace.  The  critical  points  to  watch  are 
the  top  of  the  first  pass  in  a  cross-bafl!led  water-tube  boiler; 
the  point  where  the  gases  enter  the  tubes  at  the  rear  of  a 
return-tubular  boiler,  or  the  corresponding  location  iri' 
boilers  of  other  types.  When  there  is  too  little  air  for  com- 
plete combustion  a  flame  of  burning  CO  gas  is  visible  at 
these  points.  Oftentimes  it  reaches  entirely  through  the 
boiler  and  escapes  before  combustion  is  complete.  A  large 
loss  due  to  unburned  gas  may  result  even  though  this' flame 
may  extend  only  part  way  through  the  tubes  of  a  return- 
tubular  boiler,  or  only  start  down  through  the  second  pass 
of  a  water-tube  boiler,  for  the  gases  are  cooled  below  their 
ignition  temperature  before  combustion  is  complete.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  too  much  air  is  supplied  to  the  furnace, 
observations  at  these  points  will  show  no  flame  at  all.  The 
most  efficient  conditions  exist  when  there  is  a  good  mellow 
flame  ending  at  about  these  points  in  the  gas  passage.  This 
shows  that  there  is  air  enough  for  complete  combustion, 
but  not  much  loss  due  to  excess  air.  The  latter  loss  may 
be  very  great  when  the  flame  is  too  short.  In  many  metal- 
lurgical furnaces  the  appearance  of  the  flame  is  the  prin- 
cipal guide  in  controlling  combustion. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  engineer  and  fireman  are  look- 
ing into  the  gas  passages  of  their  boiler,  studying  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  flame,  many  of  them  will  be  surprised  to  find 
how  dirty  are  the  tubes  and  how  many  holes  there  are  in 
the  baffles  of  their  water-tube  boilers.  These  conditions 
are  much  more  prevalent,  even  in  the  largest  power  plants, 
than  is  generally  supposed  or  admitted.  Both  conditions 
result  in  a  high  temperature  of  gases  escaping  from  the 
boiler  and  materially  increase  the  loss  in  the  second  item 
previously  mentioned.  It  pays  big  to  keep  boiler  tubes 
clean  and  maintain  baffles  in  good  repair,  even  when  coal  is 
at  normal  price  and  there  is  plenty  to  be  had;  but  now  it  is 
a  crime  to  overlook  conditions  that  can  be  so  easily  remedied 
and  produce  returns  of  such  magnitude  and  importance. 

Knowledge  and  Eternal  Vigilance 
In  connection  with  the  operation  of  power  plants  there 
are  two  old  quotations  that  exactly  fit,  and  I  urge  everyone 
to  bear  them  in  mind  in  connection  with  their  own  plant. 
The  first  one,  "Knowledge  is  power,"  is  certainly  applicable. 
You  must  knoiv  what  your  plant  is  doing,  you  must  know 
what  is  the  efficiency  of  your  boilers  and  furnaces,  what 
and  how  much  your  losses  are  before  intelligent  steps  can 
be  taken  to  apply  remedies.  If  you  simply  know  that  the 
efficiency  is  poor,  you  cannot  improve  it  until  you  know  why 
it  is  poor.  If  there  are  big  losses  in  the  first  item  of  the 
heat  balance  mentioned,  you  should  do  one  thing.  If  they 
are  in  the  second  item,  you  should  apply  some  other  remedy, 
rhe  other  quotation,  "Eternal   vigilance   is  the   price  of 


economy,"  is  equally  pertinent.  Many  people  have  spent 
much  time  and  money  making  an  extensive  series  of  tests 
in  their  power  plants,  and  by  means  of  such  tests  obtained 
very  good  evaporation  and  high  efficiencies  which  pleased 
them  greatly.  The  results  were  tabulated  for  blueprints 
or  framed  in  their  office,  and  many  of  them  are  foolish 
enough  to  think  that  their  plant  is  still  producing  this  kind 
of  results.  Some  of  them  are,  and  some  of  them  are  getting 
even  better  results  today  than  they  were  during  such 
tests,  but  this  applies  only  to  those  who  are  using  eternal 
vigilance  and  checking  up  their  efficiencies  as  well  as  their 
losses  from  day  to  day  and  hour  to  hour.  As  George  Diman 
says,  "A  boiler  test  is  a  good  deal  like  a  horse  race — you 
can  get  most  anything  you  want  out  of  it,  but  you  keep  on 
burning  coal  365  days  of  the  year." 

Importance  of  the  Coal  Industry 

The  things  which  have  happened  during  the  last  year 
in  connection  with  the  coal  industry  have  served  to  waken 
the  engineers  as  well  as  the  general  public  to  the  im- 
portance and  magnitude  of  the  coal  problem.  It  not  only 
needs  the  most  careful  attention  and  the  most  diligent  study 
today,  but  it  needs  the  continued  service  of  the  technically 
trained  men  of  this  country  to  follow  it  up  in  the  future, 
for  it  always  will  be  a  problem  of  the  greatest  magnitude 
in  the  United  States.  We  have  been  bountifully  supplied 
with  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of  coal  of  good  quality; 
we  have  been  mining  it  so  cheaply  and  thinking  so  little  of 
the  future  that  most  people  have  not  realized  what  tre- 
mendous problems  were  involved  and  how  important  they 
were  to  the  industrial  and  physical  welfare  of  the  country. 

One  of  the  most  important  problems  is  the  relation  be- 
tween the  price  and  value  of  coal.  This  has  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  or  equitably  determined,  for  it  involves  a  third 
factor — conservation  of  our  natural  resources  which  should 
enter  into  this  relation,  and  the  working  out  of  this  phase  of 
the  coal  problem  alone  will  require  a  great  deal  of  attention 
by  the  best  brains  of  the  country. 

Another  illustration  of  a  single  phase  of  the  coal  problem 
which  is  deserving  of  further  attention  is  the  simple  ques- 
tion of  storage.  This  always  has  been  a  serious  problem, 
especially  for  certain  coals  when  stored  in  certain  parts 
of  the  country.  Following  the  war  it  is  going  to  be  more 
so,  because  people  who  have  been  handicapped  now  are 
going  to  store  larger  quantities  of  coal  as  soon  as  they  are 
able  to  get  coal  to  store,  but  what  is  the  use  of  storing 
if  they  are  unable  to  prevent  expensive  losses  due  to  spon- 
taneous combustion? 

I  therefore  urge  you  students  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity and  young  men  from  other  schools  to  give  the  coal 
problem  in  its  various  phases  your  most  earnest  considera- 
tion in  selecting  your  life  work  or  at  least  your  first  job, 
because  there  is  no  more  important  problem  today,  and 
there  is  no  richer  field  for  the  future,  than  to  tackle  some 
phase  of  this  important  industry  and  bring  to  light  and 
establish  as  facts  many  of  the  traditions  that  have  been 
drifting  along  for  so  many  years  without  knowledge  as  to 
their  control  and  application  in  normal  times,  or  even  in 
emergencies  like  that  of  the  present  day. 

The  problems  that  concern  us  most  are  those  of  the  im- 
mediate future.  Are  we  going  to  have  coal  enough  to  see 
us  through  the  coming  winter?  The  present  indications  are 
that  unless  some  radical  steps  are  taken  immediately,  the 
coal  shortage  vAW  be  much  worse  than  it  has  been.  To  be 
satisfied  with  preferential  shipments  and  permit  many  of 
our  basic  industries  to  close  down  is  to  be  a  quitter,  when 
by  concentrating  our  efl'orts  on  loading  clean  coal  at  the 
mines  and  improving  the  efficiency  of  its  combustion  in 
furnaces  we  can  have  ample  coal  for  all,  thereby  helping 
instead  of  hindering  the  Thrift  Campaign. 

We  have  heard  the  argument  that  we  should  be  patriotic 
and  be  content  with  inferior  coal,  old  culm  banks  and  other 
refuse  fuel  the  same  as  we  are  with  wheat  substitutes  in 
our  bread.  But  the  food  and  fuel  problems  are  very  dif- 
ferent. Economy  in  their  use  applies  equally  to  both,  but 
the  neck  of  the  bottle  of  the  food  question  is  production, 
while  the  weakest  link  of  the  coal  problem  is  transpoi'ta- 
tion.  It  is  a  crime  to  burden  our  railroads  with  hauling 
dirt  when  it  is  within  our  power  to  ship  clean  coal  and 
supply  heat  units  in  their  most  concentrated  form. 


382 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


Boiler  Explosion  at  East  Chicago 
Kills    Seven 

At  10:  15  p.m.,  on  Feb.  18,  a  most  unfortunate  boiler 
explosion  occurred  at  the  Inland  works  of  the  Republic 
Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  East  Chicago,  Ind.  A  total  of  43  men 
were  victims  of  the  accident.  Two  were  killed  instantly, 
two  died  in  the  hospital  soon  after,  and  in  the  course  of  a 
few  days  three  more  succumbed  to  their  injuries.  Of  the 
othei's  ten  were  wounded  seriously.  At  the  time  of  wiiting 
they  were  still  in  the  hospital  but  on  the  road  to  recovery. 
The  remainder,  for  the  most  part,  received  minor  injur- 
ies requiring  only  first-aid  dressing.  As  an  explanation  of 
the  excessive  casualty  list,  it  may  be  stated  that  at  the 
time  of  the  accident  a  number  of  men  were  sitting  in  their 
favorite  gathering  place  in  the  vicinity  of  the  boiler,  eating 
lunch.  Near-by,  others  were  transferring  a  truckload  of 
material  from  the  mills.  Scalding  from  hot  water  issuing 
from  a  bi'oken  feed  line  on  an  adjacent  boiler  and  flying 
brick  from  the  setting  of  the  ruptured  boiler  were  the 
sources  of  injury. 

The  boiler  was  of  the  Cook  vertical  water-tube  type, 
rated    at    2.50    hp.       It    had    been    installed    in    1901    as    a 


range  on  Monday,  the  day  of  the  accident.  At  the  time 
of  the  explosion  seven  boilers  were  in  service  and  the 
pressure  on  the  line  was  70  lb.  The  ruptured  boiler  had 
been  cut  out  of  service  Saturday  on  account  of  two  leaky 
tubes.  These  tubes  had  been  replaced  on  Sunday,  and  the 
boiler  filled  with  water.  One  hour  before  the  explosion 
the  boiler  had  been  fired  up  cold,  and  within  this  period 
the  pressure  had  built  up  to  50  lb.  Both  the  engineer  in 
charge  and  the  water  tender  had  looked  at  the  gage  just 
before  the  explosion,  as  they  were  intending  to  "cut  in" 
the  boiler  on  the  line  when  the  pressures  equalized. 

Without  any  preliminary  indication  the  boiler  exploded, 
the  brick  walls  of  the  setting  spreading  out  and  the  top 
drum  with  the  tubes  rising  through  the  roof  and  landing 
about  50  ft.  distant  on  the  side  opposite  from  the  furnace. 
The  roof  was  damaged  badly  and  the  whole  side  of  the 
building  blown  out,  the  property  loss  approximating  .$20,- 
000.  The  lower  drum  and  the  tube  sheet  remained  on  the 
foundation. 

The  steel  stack  connecting  with  the  boiler  through  a  cone- 
shaped  breeching,  was  propelled  75  ft.  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. The  guy  wires  apparently  turned  it  top  down,  and 
in   this  position   it  cut  through   a  box-car  half  filled   with 


FK;.    1     GK.NER.M.   VIRW   OF   WRK'^'KED    Bl'lI^PKNC:    .STACK    STICKING   IN   BOX-CAR    IN    BACKGROUND 


waste-heat  boiler,  taking  the  gases  from  a  furnace  serv- 
ing a  16-in.  bar  mill.  With  a  similar  outfit  it  occupied  a 
sljeet-steel  building  measuring  65  x  140  ft.  About  three 
years  ago  the  two  fui-naces  were  removed,  but  the  boilers 
were  retained,  equipped  with  dutch-oven  furnaces  provided 
with  hand-fired  grates  and  used  as  auxiliary  units  to  help 
out  with  steam  on  large  orders  and  to  furnish  a  necessary 
supply  on  Sundays,  holidays  and  at  times  when  the  fur- 
naces and  their  respective  waste-heat  boilers  were  down. 
In  other  words,  the  boilers  were  subject  to  intermittent 
service,  being  fired  Up  and  allowed  to  cool  off  frequently 
in  the  course  of  a  month. 

Including  the  two  auxiliary  boilers  just  mentioned,  the 
plant  contained  a  total  of  18  vertical  water-tube  boilers, 
11  rated  at  125  hp.  and  7  having  double  this  capacity.  As 
previously  intimated,  16  are  waste-heat  boilers,  each  being 
located  in  proximity  to  its  respective  furnace.  All  feed  into 
a  common  steam  line  supplying  the  engines  of  the  mill. 
The  pressure  on  this  line,  depending  upon  the  number  of 
furnaces  and  waste-heat  boilers  in  service,  the  condition 
of  each  and  the  demand  of  the  engines,  varies  from  70  to 
125  lb.,  the  latter  pressure  being  the  maximum  allowed 
for  safe  operation.  A  chart  from  a  recording  gage  on  the 
steam  line  showed  that  the  pressure  had  run  through  this 


firebrick,  coming  to  rest  on  an  axle  of  one  of  the  end 
trucks  and  remaining  in  that  position  as  shown  in  the 
general  view.  The  boiler  steam  pipe  was  ruptured  be- 
tween the  valve  and  the  main  steam  line,  and  a  length  was 
broken  out  of  the  latter,  so  that  steam  from  the  other 
boilers  rushed  out  of  the  ruptured  ends.  Within  three 
minutes  the  pressure  was  down  on  the  whole  plant,  but  be- 
fore the  other  boilers  could  be  emptied  completely,  hand- 
operated  valves  in  the  line  beyond  the  ruptured  points  were 
closed.  With  the  line  located  about  40  ft.  above  the  floor 
and  the  building  open,  it  is  felt  that  steam  issuing  from  the 
header  did  not  contribute  to  the  suffering  of  the  injured. 
Those  scalded  were  in  line  with  a  stream  of  hot  water 
forced  from  an  adjacent  boiler  and  this  was  the  cause  of 
at  least  half  the  injuries.  A  2% -in.  feed  pipe  leading  into 
the  bottom  drum  of  this  boiler  had  been  ruptured  by  the 
explosion. 

As  the  Cook  boiler,  formerly  built  by  the  McNeil  Boiler 
Co.,  of  Akron,  Ohio,  is  no  longer  made,  it  may  be  well  to 
review  its  construction.  The  boiler  under  discussion  con- 
sisted of  an  upper  steam  drum  and  a  lower  mud  drum  con- 
nected by  a  14-in.  central  flue  and  120  No.  10  gage  seamless 
Shelby  tubes  4  in.  in  diameter  and  20  ft.  long.  The  tubes 
extended  through  the  sheets  and  were  rolled   and  belled  to 


March  12,  1918 


POWER 


383 


make  tipht  joints.  The  drums  were  80  in.  in  diameter,  tlie 
top  drum  Iving:  7  ft.  deep  and  the  lower  drum  44  in.  The 
vertical  seam  was  double-butt-strappcd  triple-riveted, 
havinp  a  computed  efficiency  of  85.8  per  cent.  The  metal 
of  the  crowned  heads  was  %  in.  thick,  the  shell  plates  % 
in.  and  the  tube  sheets  %  in.  At  either  end  the  central  flue 
was  riveted  to  a  Hanged  portion  of  the  tube  sheet,  turning 
into  the  drum  in  each  case.  In  addition  eight  l'/4-in.  round 
stays  tie  the  flue  to  the  crowned  head  of  the  steam  drum 
and  six  2V4  x  V^-in.  flat  braces  secure  it  to  the  lower  head. 


elongated,  in  some  cases  the  reduction  in  area  being  75 
per  cent.  The  conditions  under  which  the  boiler  operated 
were  favorable  to  induce  failure  at  this  point.  As  previous- 
ly stated,  the  boiler  was  in  irregular  service,  being  fired 
up  and  cooled  off  frequently.  Before  the  explosion  it  is 
evident  that  the  boiler  must  have  been  forced  to  raise  a 
pressure  of  50  lb.  from  cold  water  in  one  hour.  For  a  boiler 
of  this  type  three  or  four  hours  would  have  been  better. 
With  no  baffle  to  guide  the  flame,  the  intense  heat  from  the 
furnace  would  strike  the  tubes  on  the  furnace  side  and  the 


FIG.  2.  LOWER  DRUM,  SHOWING  THE  RAISED  TUBE 
SHEET 


FIG.  3. 


UPPER  DRUM  AND  TUBES  SHORTLY  AFTER  THEJ: 
EXPLOSION 


The  tube  sheets  were  also  tied  to  the  heads  by  evenly 
spaced  2  x  %-in.  double-strap  stays,  six  having  been  placed 
in  the  upper  drum  and  eight  in  the  mud  drum. 

In  this  particular  boiler  water  was  fed  into  the  steam 
drum.  The  circulation  was  dov/n  through  the  central  flue 
and  up  through  the  tubes.  The  gases  from  the  furnace 
made  one  pass  along  the  tubes  and  around  the  upper  drum 
into  the  conical  outlet  to  the  stack.  The  boiler  had  a  full 
brick  setting.  It  was  equipped  with  two  3V2-in.  pop  safety 
valves  in  good  working  order.  Manholes  in  both  drums  were 
provided  to  afford  access  for  inspection  and  repairs.  From 
the  outside  it  is  difficult  to  inspect  the  central  flue.  A 
subsequent  inspection  of  this  part  of  a  duplicate  boiler  re- 
quired the  cutting  away  of  20  tubes. 

An  inspection  of  the  damaged  boiler  revealed  no  defect 
in  the  top  drum  or  in  the  tubes.  The  stays  in  this  drum 
were  twisted,  and  one  of  them  had  been  broken  as  a  result 
of  the  explosion.  The  central  flue  was  intact,  but  had 
been  buckled  slightly  near  the  center,  a  natural  result  if 
the  bottom  of  the  flue  first  struck  the  ground.  In  the  lower 
drum  the  central  flanged  portion  of  the  tube  sheet  had 
been  torn  off  and  the  sheet  pulled  up  at  the  center  to  form  a 
convex  surface  having  about  the  same  radius  as  the  head 
of  the  drum.  The  joint  attaching  the  sheet  to  the  circu- 
lar wall  of  the  drum  held  fast.  All  the  stays  were  broken. 
Ir  four  of  the  flue  braces  the  crowfeet  at  the  bottom  were 
ruptured.  In  the  other  two  the  break  was  near  the  top  of 
the  stay,  the  riveted  end  remaining  intact  in  each  case. 
With  one  exception  the  flat  double  stays  supporting  the  tube 
sheet   broke   at   the   top. 

Nearly  all  the  breaks  in  these  stays  gave  evidence  of 
some  crystallization,  but  not  sufficient  to  materially  lessen 
the  strength.  Notwithstanding  the  long  service  there  was 
no  evidence  of  corrosion  in  the  boiler.  The  metal  was  clean 
and  free  of  scale.  Two  years  previously,  the  boiler  had 
been  entirely  retubed  and  20  new  tubes  had  been  put  in 
place  Christmas  week.  On  Jan.  20  an  insurance  inspection 
revealed  no  defects.  Cracks  or  any  visible  cause  of  weak- 
ness would  probably  have  been  discovered  at  that  time.  On 
account  of  coal  shortage  the  boiler  had  not  been  fired  more 
than  ten  times  since  the  inspection. 

A  review  of  the  case  would  indicate  that  the  initial  rup- 
ture occurred  at  the  knuckle  of  the  central  flange  of  the 
lower  tube  sheet.  As  will  be  remembered,  this  was  broken 
away  and  could  not  be  found  after  the  explosion.  The  21 
rivets  of  -J|-in.  diameter  holding  it  to  the  flue  were  greatly 


front  of  the  central  flue,  leaving  the  other  half  of  the  flue 
and  the  rear  tubes  comparatively  cold  until  proper  circula- 
tion had  been  established.  This  would  create  expansion  on 
the  furnace  side  of  the  boiler  and  tend  to  tilt  it  away  from 
the  fire.  In  a  boiler  of  this  type  after  being  used  for  a 
short  time,  the  tubes  will  warp  to  a  certain  extent  and  will 
have  little  holding  power  until  straightened  out.  Conse- 
quently much  of  the  stress  would  be  thrown  on  the  central 


> 


I'MC.    1.      VERTICAL  SECTION  THROUC.H   BOlLEIi.  SHOWING 
FLUE  BRACING  AND   POINT  OF   INITIAL  RUPTURE 

flue  and  with  the  tilting  action  previously  mentioned  the 
strain  on  the  lower  flange  would  be  particularly  severe, 
tending  to  weaken  and  crystallize  the  metal  in  the  flange. 
It  is  quite  probable  that  during  the  hard  firing  a  crack 
developed  at  the  knuckle  of  the  flange  on  the  furnace  side 
and  followed  around  until  the  metal  weakened  enough  to  let 
go.      This   would    release    the    pressure,    the    water   in    the 


384 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


boiler  would  flash  into  steam  and  in  rushing  down  the 
central  flue  would  produce  a  skyrocket  effect  that  would  be 
irresistible.  Coming  suddenly,  this  force  snapped  all  of 
the  lower  stays,  pulled  the  tubes  out  of  the  sheet  and,  in 
doing  so,  raised  the  sheet  itself  as  previously  described, 
the  upper  drum  and  tubes  shooting  upward  and  landing 
some  50  ft.  away. 

Other  theories  have  been  advanced.  For  example,  the 
unequal  expansion  might  have  snapped  the  tube-sheet  braces 
on  the  furnace  side  and  so  weakened  the  holding  power  that 
the  explo.sion  resulted.  The  boiler  in  this  case  would  have 
been  propelled  away  from  the  furnace,  and  this  is  the  di- 
rection in  which  it  did  go.  The  evidence,  however,  favors 
the  theory  first  advanced,  and  if  this  is  correct,  the  central 
flue  was  an  undesirable  element  in  the  boiler  design.  It 
appropriated  much  of  the  stress  created  by  expansion,  acted 
as  a  powerful  lever  on   the   '.:  "   nge  and  centered  the 

holding  power  in  one  element  rather  than  in  the  120  tubes 
of  the  boilers. 


Chicago  Section  A.  S.  M.  E.  Discusses 
Coal    Situation 

On  Mar.  1  at  the  La  Salle  Hotel,  the  Chicago  Section  of 
the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  held  its 
second  dinner  meeting  of  the  season.  The  topic  was  "The 
Coal  Situation."  Prof.  H.  H.  Stoek,  head  of  the  Mining  De- 
partment, University  of  Illinois,  and  chairman  of  the  Con- 
servation Committee  of  the  Fuel  Administration  for  Illinois, 
and  Joseph  Harrington,  also  a  member  of  the  committee, 
were  the  speakers.  Prof.  A.  N.  Talbot,  the  newly  elected 
president  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  was 
present  and  in  response  to  an  invitation  from  the  chairman 
made  a  few  remarks  upon  the  present  need  for  cooperation 
among  engineers.  The  recent  decision  of  the  civil  engineers 
to  take  quartrs  in  the  Engineering  Societies'  Building,  he 
said,  was  a  step  in  advance  and  it  was  his  opinion  that  it 
would  result  in  close  and  united  effort  of  the  various  engi- 
neering bodies. 

Joseph  Harrington,  who  was  called  upon  to  open  the  topic 
of  the  evening,  said  that  it  was  not  his  object  to  reiterate 
the  familiar  phrases  in  regard  to  the  character  and  extent 
of  heat  losses,  assuming  that  the  body  of  engineers  present 
were  familiar  with  these  details.  With  engineers  of  ex- 
perience it  is  not  so  much  a  question  of  what  constitutes 
efficiency  or  wherein  the  losses  occur,  as  it  is  to  apply  the 
knowledge  of  efficiency  measures  from  both  the  physical 
and  the  human  viewpoint.  The  efficiency  of  a  boiler  plant 
depends  on  the  inherent  efficiency  of  the  equipment  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  operatives  in  using  this  equipment. 

Mr.  Harrington  contended  strongly  that  efficient  ap- 
paratus must  be  provided.  While  intelligent  operation 
serves  to  overcome  to  a  certain  extent  the  deficiencies  of 
the  equipment,  it  is  not  adequate  to  offset  old  worn-out 
inefficient  apparatus,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  mathematics  to 
demonstrate  the  wisdom  of  scrapping  old  equipment  and 
providing  modern  machinery  in  its  place.  As  to  the  effi- 
ciency of  operation,  this  depends  on  the  intelligence  and 
interest  of  the  operating  force.  These,  in  turn,  must  be 
supplemented  by  adequate  instruments  and  a  general  record 
of  observations.  Granting  that  all  of  the  foregoing  is  un- 
derstood and  applicable  in  such  instances  where  both  the 
will  and  the  money  are  available,  the  question  still  re- 
mains, how  to  apply  this  knowledge  in  the  universal  man- 
ner necessary  to  have  any  practical  effect  on  the  coal  con- 
sumption of  the  entire  country. 

Two  general  methods  appear — the  educational,  or  pa- 
triotic, and  the  autocratic,  or  compulsory.  The  former 
method  is  that  which  is  now  being  attempted  by  the  conser- 
vation department  of  the  Fuel  Administration,  and  in  spite 
of  every  effort  it  is  almost  impossible  to  reach  all  coal  con- 
sumers. It  would  mean  the  education  of  millions,  and  the 
outlook  is  more  or  less  discouraging  to  those  who  see  the 
necessity  of  conservation  for  the  immediate  future.  This 
method,  however,  is  necessary  and  satisfactory  as  far  as  it 
goes.  It  is  applicable  to  the  larger  plants  having  the  more 
intelligent  type  of  engineer  and  sufficient  capital  for  proper 
equipment. 


It  was  Mr.  Harrington's  belief,  however,  that  the  educa- 
tional method  must  be  supplemented  more  or  less  by  the  au- 
tocratic method.  Recognizing  the  painful  fact  that  every 
coal  consumer  in  the  country  has  not  yet  reached  the  point 
where  he  is  willing  to  forego  some  of  his  own  peculiar  ad- 
vantages for  the  sake  of  the  public,  there  seems  to  be  a 
necessity  for  some  Governmental  agency  endowed  with 
power  to  step  into  a  man's  plant  and,  after  an  intelli- 
gent examination  of  the  situation,  set  foi'th  imperatively 
the  needs  of  such  a  plant.  Care  would  have  to  be  exercised 
and  it  would  probably  be  necessary  to  have  some  organiza- 
tion or  clearing  house  composed  of  a  body  of  fair-minded, 
intelligent  and  experienced  combustion  engineers  to  which 
appeal  could  be  taken  in  case  any  owner  was  dissatisfied 
with  the  requirements  laid  down  by  the  inspector.  There 
are  so  many  cases  wherein  the  conditions  call  loudly  foi 
simple  remedies  that  it  is  more  than  likely  that  great  good 
could  thus  be  accomplished.  Mr.  Harrington  closed  by 
stating  that  he  advocated  a  country-wide  application  of 
compulsory  measures  through  state  committees  and  all  act- 
ing through  a  central  clearing  house  such  as  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Mines  or  some  specially  created  body. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  enforcement  of  smoke  ordinances,  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  compulsion  would  be  -required 
only  in  the  exceptional  cases.  The  mere  fact  that  there 
was  such  a  body  competent  to  prescribe  measures  and  in- 
sist upon  enforcement  would  go  a  long  way  in  inducing 
plant  owners  to  spend  their  money  for  conservation  meas- 
ures. The  only  attractive  feature  of  the  whole  program  is 
that  money  thus  spent  reacts  immediately  to  the  advantage 
of  the  owner. 

Coal  Output  Hampered  by  War  Conditions 

Professor  Stoek  reviewed  the  coal  situation  in  war  times. 
He  showed  how  coal  is  related  to  everything  connected  with 
war  and  how  badly  it  is  needed  to  carry  the  war  to  a  suc- 
cessful conclusion.  The  United  States  uses  more  coal  per 
capita  than  any  other  nation,  and  as  we  have  more  of  it. 
many  might  wonder  why  enough  could  not  be  obtained  to 
meet  all  needs.  In  191.3  the  coal  production  of  the  world 
was  1,478,000,000  tons.  Of  this  the  United  States  produced 
570  million  tons  and  Great  Britain  322.  In  1914  the  pro- 
duction in  Great  Britain  fell  to  262  million  tons,  to  252  in 
1915  and  to  256  in  1916.  Consequently  the  coal  output  in 
that  country  suffered  as  a  result  of  the  war.  It  would  be 
reasonable  to  expect  that  there  might  be  a  similar  falling 
off  in  this  country. 

The  speaker  briefly  reviewed  the  coal  resources  of  the 
Allies.  All  of  the  Belgian  mines  and  most  of  the  French 
mines  are  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Italy  needs  1,000,000 
tons  of  American  coal  per  month.  Russia  is  a  negligible 
quantity  as  far  as  the  coal  situation  is  concerned,  and  of 
the  neutrals  Holland  and  Switzerland  are  particularly 
scarce  of  coal. 

Now  that  the  immediate  shortage  is  over,  there  is  no 
occasion  to  feel  too  optimistic.  The  conditions  producing 
last  season's  shortage  are  still  with  us,  and  there  is  little 
hope  to  increase  the  output.  Conditions  next  winter  may 
be  even  worse,  unless  large  economies  are  effected. 

In  1916  the  output  of  coal  in  this  country  was  600,000,000 
tons.  To  maintain  the  normal  increase  of  10  per  cent,  a 
year  would  call  for  an  increased  production  of  60,000,000 
tons.  This  would  mean  the  opening  of  fifty  new  mines  of 
the  largest  size  or  gieatly  increased  capacity  in  existing 
mines.  It  would  also  mean  a  10  per  cent,  increase  in  the 
700,000  men  employed  last  year,  or  70,000  new  men.  With 
a  decreasing  labor  supply  the  chance  of  increasing  the  out- 
put of  present  mines  is  small.  New  mines  would  require 
enormous  capital  investments  and  with  slow  deliveries  new 
equipment  could  hardly  be  obtained  in  time  to  do  much 
good.  It  would  look  as  though  all  will  have  to  make  the 
best  of  it  and  get  results  by  economizing  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. 

Professor  Stoek  reviewed  the  causes  leading  up  to  the 
coal  shortage.  The  enormous  demand,  the  high  prices  in 
effect  last  June,  the  attempted  reorganization  in  Washing- 
ton on  the  Peabody  plan,  the  rumor  of  cheaper  coal  delay- 
ing its  purchase  and  the  final  fixing  of  the  price  by  the 
present  Fuel  Administration  were  all  mentioned.     When  the 


March   12,  1918 


POWER 


385 


busy  tvansportation  season  in  the  fall  arrived,  there  was  a 
great  shortage  of  coal  and  tlie  unusually  cold  weather 
handicapped  transportation.  In  addition  there  was  a  shortage 
of  coal  cars.  To  keep  pace  with  the  usual  10  per  cent, 
increase  in  coal  requires  new  ears  in  the  same  proportion. 
The  increase  in  cars  last  year  was  only  4  per  cent.,  and 
although  the  average  time  for  the  return  trip  of  a  coal  car, 
.'?0  days,  was  reduced,  there  was  not  a  sufficient  number  to 
meet  the  demand.  A  number  of  experiments  such  as  pool- 
ing, revolutionized  present  methods  and  temporarily  re- 
sulted in  disorganization.  In  addition  far  too  much  waste 
material  was  shipped  with  the  coal.  The  50,000,000  increase 
in  tonnage  was  counteracted  by  three  times  the  quantity  of 
dirt,  slate  and  ash.  Lack  of  coal  was  not  due  to  export. 
We  sent  almost  a  negligible  quantity  to  France. 

The  severe  fuel  restrictions  imposed  in  Europe  were 
reviewed  and  in  conclusion  the  ways  of  saving  coal  pro- 
posed by  our  Fuel  Administration,  such  as  lightless  nights, 
curtailing  the  schedule  of  electric  roads,  changing  the 
running  time,  lessening  the  temperature  in  the  cars,  the 
skip-stop  plan  and  cooperation  of  all  employees.  Many  of 
these  regnilations  were  put  into  effect  and  resulted  in  saving. 
It  is  hard  to  make  the  consumer  realize  the  enormous  in- 
crease in  demand  and  that  his  little  saving  with  numerous 
other  comparatively  small  savings  made  in  reality  a  large 
aggregate.  Efforts  are  being  made  to  get  in  the  hands  of 
those  using  fuel,  literature  dealing  with  conservation  and 
care  in  operation,  not  only  in  the  power  plant  and  the  rail- 
way locomotive,  but  in  the  home  as  well. 

With  the  railway  facilities  taken  up,  storage  will  not 
greatly  augment  the  annual  supply,  but  to  relieve  the 
situation  it  is  evident  that  as  much  coal  as  possible  should 
be  obtained  before  the  fall  rush.  Storing  can  be  safely  done 
if  care  is  used  to  separate  the  fine  from  the  coarse  coal  and 
to  keep  the  pile  away  from  external  heat.  Fine  coal  must 
have  very  little  air  or  an  abundance  of  air  to  carry  away 
the  heat  of  oxidation.  .  When  heat  does  show  it  is  neces- 
sary to  move  the  pile  to  cool  it.  With  the  difficulty  of  mov- 
ing eliminated,  high  piles  are  just  as  safe  as  low  ones,  the 
burning  generally  starting  near  the  surface  and  frequently 
at  the  top  of  the  pile.  Storage  of  screenings  is  risky  unless 
under  water.  When  storing  in  basements,  the  coal  should 
never  be  drenched  with  water. 

The  discussion  turned  to  storage,  the  possibility  of  large 
savings  by  the  railways,  which  use  one-quarter  of  the 
entire  coal  supply,  and  in  the  power-plant  supervision  over 
improvements  that  would  effect  economy.  It  is  important 
to  get  a  better  grade  of  firemen  and  make  the  pay  com- 
mensurate with  the  saving. 

In  conclusion  it  was  strongly  emphasized  that  as  the  coal 
production  cannot  be  greatly  increased,  all  must  save — the 
railways,  the  industrial  plant  and  heating  in  all  buildings 
and  the  home.  It  is  everybody's  problem — the  man  at  the 
mine,  transportation  and  the  consumer.  All  should  be 
impressed  with  the  need  of  saving  and  with  the  fact  that 
if  each  "does  his  bit"  it  will  tend  to  relieve  the  situation 
next  winter. 


Increase  in  Electric  Rates 

Public  utilities  commissions  throughout  the  country  are 
wrestling  with  the  question  of  increased  rates  asked  for 
by  electric-light  companies,  which  maintain  that  they  are 
losing  money  under  the  present  rates.  It  is  not  clear,  how- 
ever, as  to  whether  the  losses  are  based  upon  the  falling  off 
of  revenue  below  actual  operating  expenses  or  are  based 
upon  lesser  profits  as  compared  with  those  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war.  These  increases  in  rates  are  considered  by 
many  of  the  users  as  being  excessive  and  are  being  fought. 

In  the  City  of  Mobile,  Ala.,  the  Mobile  Electric  Co.  is  de- 
sirous of  increasing  its  present  rates,  which,  according  to 
the  contract  of  Dec.  31,  1906,  should  remain  in  force  perpet- 
ually. On  Dec.  26,  1917,  the  city  and  the  electric  company 
entered  into  another  contract  for  municipal  lighting,  which 
contains  the  provision  that  the  electric  company  shall  fur- 
nish customers  with  current  on  a  meter  basis  at  its  regular 
schedule  of  rates.  The  rates  under  the  perpetual  contract 
are  as  follows:  From  0  to  hO  kw.-hr.  per  month  inclusive, 
10c.  per  kw.-hr.;  from  51   to  150  kw.-hr.  inclusive,  9c.  per 


kw.-hr;  from  151  to  300  kw.-hr.  per  Tnonth  inclusive,  8c.; 
from  301  to  500  kw.-hr.  inclusive,  7c.  per  kw.-hr.;  from  501 
to  1000  kw.-hr.  inclusive,  6'/2C. 

A  discount  of  2c.  per  kw.-hr.  to  be  allowed  if  bills  are  paid 
within  ten  days  after  rendered,  except  that  during  the  ten 
yeare  of  this  contract  the  rate  mentioned  from  0  to  50  shall 
be  10c.  per  kw.-hr.  less  a  discount  of  3c.  per  kw.-hr.  if  paid 
within  ten  days  after  the  rendering  of  the  bill.  All  over 
1000  kw.-hr.  special  contract.  The  minimum  charge  per 
customer  is  to  be  $1.25  per  month  less  25c.  if  paid  within 
ten  days  after  the  bill  has  been  rendered. 

The  proposed  increased  rates,  to  take  effect  Mar.  1, 
1918,  are  as  follows:  First  50  kw.-hr.  per  month  at  10c.  per 
kw.-hr.;  next  50  kw.-hr.  at  9c.;  next  100  kw.-hr.  at  8c.;  next 
300  kw.-hr.  at  7c.;  next  1500  kw.-hr.  at  6c.;  excess  kw.-hr. 
per  month  at  5c.  per  kw.-hr. 

Prompt  payment  discount  10  per  cent. 

Minimum  bill,  $1  net  per  meter  per  month. 

Legal  steps  have  been  taken  to  prevent  the  enforcement 
of  the  proposed  increase  in  rates. 

Another  instance  is  that  of  the  Wilmington  &  Philadel- 
phia Traction  Co.,  which  has  asked  the  public  utility  com- 
mission for  permission  to  raise  its  rates.  At  the  hearing 
it  was  brought  out  that  the  big  users  of  electricity  are  will- 
ing to  pay  the  proposed  increase,  but  there  are  those  who 
are  opposed  to  an  increase  to  the  consumer  for  the  lighting 
of  homes. 

The  increase  of  rates  was  protested  on  the  ground  that 
the  actual  cost  of  production  of  current,  even  under  present 
conditions,  does  not  warrant  it;  that  the  actual  cost  now  is 
at  least  50  per  cent,  below  the  price  that  the  company  is 
receiving  for  the  current;  that  the  plant  and  equipment  are 
sufficient  to  supply  local  needs,  and  that  the  abnormal  de- 
mand for  current  is  due  almost  exclusively  to  contracts 
with  outside  parties.  Other  objections  were  also  brought  to 
the  foreground. 

The  proposed  new  schedule  for  electric  current  rates  is 
as  follows: 

Lighting  Rate:  First  75  kw.-hr.  used  per  month,  9%c. 
per  kw.-hr.;  next  150  kw.-hr.,  8c.;  next  175  kw.-hr.,  7c.;  all 
over  400  kw.-hr.  used  per  month,  6c. 

Minimum  monthly  service  charge,  for  residence,  50c.  per 
meter;  for  business,  $1  per  meter;  5  per  cent,  discount  for 
cash  on  bills  exceeding  the  minimum  amounts  when  paid 
within  10  days  from  date  of  bill. 

Retail  Power:  First  100  kw.-hr.  used  per  month,  8%c. 
per  kw.-hr.;  next  100  kw.hr.,  8c.;  next  100  kw.-hr.,  7c.;  next 
300  kw.-hr.,  6c.;  next  400  kw.-hr.,  5c.;  next  3000  kw.-hr., 
4c.;  next  26,000  kw.-hr.,  3c.;  all  over  30,000  kw.-hr.  used 
per  month,  2%c.  per  kw.-hr. 

Minimum  monthly  sei-vice  charge,  $1  per  hp.  for  the  first 
10  hp.,  75c.  per  hp.  for  the  next  10  hp.,  50c.  per  hp.  for  all 
over  20  hp. 

No  minimum  less  than  $3  for  direct-current  or  single- 
phase  alternating;  nor  $5  for  three-phase  alternating;  5 
per  cent,  discount  for  cash  on  bills  exceeding  the  minimum 
amounts  when  paid  within   10  days  from  date  of  bill. 

High-Voltage  Wholesale  Power:  First  50,000  kw.-hr. 
used  per  month,  $0.02  per  kw.-hr.;  next  50,000,  $0,019 
per  kw.-hr.;  next  50,000  kw.-hr..  $0,018  per  kw.-hr.;  all  over 
150,000  kw.-hr.  used  per  month,  $0,017  per  kw.-hr. 

In  addition  to  the  charges  as  per  foregoing  schedule  add 
25-100  of  one  mill  for  each  10c.  of  increase  of  cost  of  coal 
delivered  at  power  plant  in  excess  of  $3.05  per  long  ton. 
Guarantee  50,000  kw.-hr.  per  month.  Prices  are  net.  Cur- 
rent metered  at  primary  voltage. 

That  the  central  stations  have  been  hard  hit  by  the  coal 
shortage  this  winter  is  well  known.  Some  of  the  heating 
companies  have  been  hit  by  the  ruling  of  the  public  service 
commissions.  For  instance,  the  Kansas  City  Light  and 
Power  Co.  has  had  its  rates  reduced  from  those  which  ex- 
isted last  August.  The  company  claims  that  it  lost  $57,000 
during  the  last  three  months  of  1917  under  the  August 
rates  and  estimates  that  its  loss  under  the  new  rate  just 
fixed  by  the  commission  would  have  been  at  least  $75,000. 

The  new  rate  is  as  follows:  First  20,000  lb.  of  condensa- 
tion, 85c.  per  1000  lb.;  next  180,000  lb.,  70e.;  next  500,000 
lb.,  60c.;  all  over  700,000  lb.,  50c.;  minimum  on  buildings, 
$5  a  month  from  Oct.  1  to  .lune  1 ;  minimum  for  water 
heating  and  other  purposes.  $5  per  month  for  12  months. 


386 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


Although  it  is  said  that  the  company  is  considering  dis- 
mantling its  $1,500,000  heating  plant  and  quitting  the  heat- 
ing business,  it  is  doubtful  that  such  a  step  will  be  carried 
out. 

With  the  increase  in  rates  sought  by  the  central  stations 
and  the  curtailment  of  power  from  time  to  time,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  isolated  plants  has  been  strengthened  in  that 
they  have  in  most  instances  been  able  to  operate,  while 
neighboring  plants  depending  upon  central  station  service 
have  suffered  from  more  or  less  interrupted  service. 

Abandoning  Isolated  Plants  in  Favor 
of  Central-Station   Power 

A  public  hearing  was  held  on  the  afternoon  of  Mar.  4, 
before  the  Public  Service  Commission  of  New  York,  to 
obtain  information  as  to  whether  coal  could  not  be  saved 
by  the  closing  up  of  many  small  private  plants  and  the 
substitution  of  electrical  power  generated  in  large  central 
stations.  Representatives  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Ad- 
ministration attended  the  hearing,  as  the  question  is  one 
in  which  Dr.  Garfield  is  vitally  interested. 

J.  W.  Lieb,  vice-president  and  general  manager  of  the 
New  York  Edison  Co.,  repeated  the  statement  he  had  made 
at  an  earlier  hearing,  that  the  shutting  down  of  some  650 
small  steam-power  plants  in  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx 
and  the  taking  over  of  their  power  business  by  the  large 
central  station  would  result  in  a  saving  of  500,000  tons 
of  coal  a  year,  as  a  conservative  estimate.  He  based  these 
figures  on  the  savings  obtained  in  the  cases  of  sixty  isolated 
plants  that  had  been  closed  up  in  1917  and  that  were  now 
purchasing  current  from  the  New  York   Edison  Co. 

Mr.  Lieb  cited  several  instances,  covering  office  and  loft 
buildings,  apartment  houses  and  the  like,  in  which  the 
cl  ange  from  private-plant  to  central-station  service  had 
produced  savings  in  coal  consumption  ranging  from  19.8 
per  cent,  to  60  per  cent.  When  asked  to  name  one  or 
more  of  these  instances  specifically,  however,  Mr.  Lieb 
emphatically  refused,  on  the  ground  that  the  data  in  each 
case  were  private  matters  between  the  company  and  its 
patron,  and  that  the  figures  could  not  with  propriety  be 
made  public. 

Inasmuch  as  the  whole  purpose — in  fact,  the  sole  pur- 
pose—of the  investigation  is  to  determine  whether  coal 
will  actually  be  conserved  by  the  substitution  of  central- 
station  service  for  isolated-plant  operation,  it  was  a  decided 
disappointment  to  find  Mr.  Lieb  unwilling  to  divulge  the 
name  of  a  single  one  of  the  plants  in  which  such  marvelous 
savings  had  been  effected.  This  secretive  and  sacrosanct 
attitude  of  the  central-station  representative  was  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  readiness  with  which  the  isolated-plant  rep- 
resentatives were  prepared  to  show  their  cost  figures  and 
to  identify  them  by  naming  the  plant  location  in  every  case. 

W.  J.  Salmon,  representing  the  Apex  Leasing  Co.,  stated 
that  his  company  operated  a  private  plant  in  which  electric 
current  was  generated  at  a  cost  of  2c.  per  kw.-hr.  The  ex- 
haust steam  from  the  engine  was  used  in  connection  with 
Turkish  baths  and  heating  in  the  building,  and  so  the  engine 
acted  practically  as  a  reducing  valve.  As  a  result,  their 
current  was  obtained  at  a  smaller  cost  than  the  Edison  Co. 
would  quote. 

J.  I.  Straus  testified  that  at  the  time  R.  H.  Macy 
&  Co.  erected  their  building  the  New  York  Edison  Co. 
was  asked  to  estimate  the  probable  current  demand,  with 
the  idea  of  using  central-station  current.  The  Edison  com- 
pany's engineers  estimated  1,250,000  kw.-hr.  per  year  and 
quoted  a  rate  of  3c.  per  kw.-hr.  But  they  refused  to  accept 
a  contract  calling  for  the  payment  of  $37,500  a  year  for 
current  used.  The  reason,  so  Mr.  Straus  inferred,  was  that 
the  estimate  was  ridiculously  low.  For,  during  the  first 
year  of  operation  of  the  private  plant  installed  by  his  com- 
pany, the  current  consumption  was  2,000,000  kw.-hr.,  and  in 
late  years  the  figure  has  increased  to  4,000,000  kw.-hr. 

The  testimony  offered  by  Mr.  Townsend,  of  the  Hotel  Ma- 
jestic, was  illuminating.  During  a  ten-month  period  just 
before  current  was  taken  from  the  Edison  company,  the  coal 
consumption  was  5622  tons,  costing  $21,860.  In  a  similar 
ten-month  period  after  entering  into  a  contract  for  central- 
station  current,  5352  tons  of  coal  was  used  for  heating  and 


cooking,  at  a  cost  of  $26,342,  and  in  addition  $14,118  was 
paid  to  the  Edison  company  for  current.  Thus,  although 
there  was  an  apparent  decrease  of  270  tons  in  coal  consump- 
tion, the  amount  burned  at  the  central  station  should  be 
taken  into  account.  The  total  cost  was  $18,600  greater  than 
before — certainly  a  very  expensive  experiment  in  the  use  of 
central-station  service. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  see  why  the  owners  of  small  plants 
are  anxious  to  see  this  question  openly  discussed.  If  it  could 
be  proved  that  the  abandonment  of  small  plants  in  favor  of 
central-station  service  would  save  coal,  the  Fuel  Administra- 
tor might  order  the  closing  of  such  plants  as  a  fuel-conser- 
vation expedient. 

In  a  matter  that  may  involve  the  sacrifice  of  costly  equip- 
ment and  the  means  of  livelihood  of  many  employees,  there 
should  be  no  secrecy  or  evasion.  A  fair  decision  as  to  the 
correct  course  to  pursue  should  be  based  on  well-authenti- 
cated facts  and  data,  and  not  on  mere  estimates  based  on 
figures  to  which  access  is  obtainable  by  only  one  party  to  the 
controversy,  and  an  interested  party  at  that. 

The  hearing  will  be  resumed  on  Monday,  Mar.  11. 

New   England's   Shipping  Needs 

In  an  international  shipping  shortage  such  as  the  allied 
countries  are  now  facing,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  what 
branch  of  war  endeavor  should  have  precedence  over  others. 
But  with  New  England  mills  and  factories  turning  out  war 
supplies  for  the  Allies,  valued  at  billions  of  dollars,  the 
Massachusetts  Fuel  Administration  feels  that  it  has  a  right 
to  priority  of  bottoms  at  the  Southern  coal-loading  points. 

Notwithstanding  at  the  present  time  216,200  tons  of 
shipping  are  engaged  in  bringing  fuel  to  New  England  for 
commercial  consumption,  there  is  still  a  shortage  of  115,000 
tons  of  shipping.  In  other  words,  says  the  Boston  News 
Bureau,  Mr.  Storrow  has  figured  that  with  the  three- 
fold increase  in  industrial  activity  due  to  the  war,  a  total 
of  351,000  tons  of  shipping  must  be  available  for  the  New 
England  coal-carrying  trade  or  production  of  essentials 
must  be  curtailed. 

While  the  boats  turned  over  to  this  district  the  last  two 
days  (Feb.  25  and  26)  total  21,000  tons,  they  are  still  far 
short  of  the  required  amount  and  are  providing  only  tem- 
porary relief  to  those  factories  that  were  verging  on  shut- 
down. 

Through  the  western  gateways  Monday  (Feb.  25)  a  total 
of  973  cars  of  both  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  were 
moved  into  New  England.  This  is  the  second-best  rail 
movement  in  a  day  and  approaches  the  required  maximum 
of  rail-coal  income  of  1000  tons  a  day.  This  is  for  com- 
meixial  purposes  and  does  not  include  coal  which  must  be 
moved  by  the  railroads  for  their  own  consumption. 

Locally,  conditions  are  greatly  improved  and  dealers'  sup- 
plies on  hand  Tuesday  morning,  Feb.  26,  showed  an  increase 
of  nearly  6000  tons  compared  wdth  Monday.  Officials  at 
the  Fuel  Administration  are  sending  out  warnings  that 
while  domestic  conditions  are  more  comfortable,  all  un- 
necessary use  of  coal  for  lighting  or  heating  must  still  be 
prevented  to  keep  New  England  war  plants  working. 

Aviation  Section,  Signal  Corps,  Needs 
Skilled  Workers 

Ten  thousand  machinists,  mechanics,  chauffeurs  and  other 
skilled  workers  are  needed  at  once  by  the  Aviation  Section, 
Signal  Corps.  The  dependence  of  the  air  service  on  the 
most  highly  skilled  men  is  being  brought  out  more  emphatic- 
ally with  every  week  of  development.  Practically  98  men 
out  of  every  100  in  the  service  must  be  skilled  in  some  branch 
of  v/ork. 

Men  registered  in  the  draft  may  be  inducted  into  this 
service  by  applying  to  their  Local  Draft  Board.  Men  not 
registered  may  enlist  at  any  Recruiting  Office.  Further  in- 
formation may  be  had  by  applying  to  the  Aid  Division,  Per- 
sonal Department,  Washington,  D.  C.  In  either  case  they 
will  be  sent  to  San  Antonia,  Texas,  for  segregation  by 
trades,  followed  by  a  brief  course  of  instruction  at  the  flying 
fields  or  at  various  fastories  and  organized  into  squadrons 
mostly  for  service  overseas. 


March  12,  1918 


POWER 


387 


UimillimHHtiiin»HiilllltMtmMllitniiit mntii i i iiimiiii^ 

I         New  Publications         | 

blllUllllllltllllllllillllMIII Illtttllltm "lilt tlllHUttlllllllMlllMIIIMtB 

STEAM    rowioK    ri.AX'r    ioxuinhiok- 

INc; — Hv  CcorKi'  V.  (IflilianU,  Filth 
edition.  Vowrittcn  and  reset.  l'ul)li.-<hed 
bv  John  Wile.v  &  Sons,  New  Yorli. 
Size,  t!  .K  !i  in.;  Hi.'>7  pages;  642  il- 
lustrations. I'rice.  $4. 
Few  books  are  more  highly  valued 
amonK  iHiwer-iilunt  men  than  this  one.  the 
first  edition  of  whioh  appeared  nearl.v  ten 
.vears  ago.  Us  wide  use  is  its  lust  com- 
mendation, especially  when  one  reflects 
upon  the  remarkably  rapid  development  m 
this  field  durinK  the  last  deeade.  .\s  the 
author  savs  in  the  preface  to  this  latest 
edition:  ■■Kevisions  in  l!lo;i.  1  ill  1  and  1!U3 
failed  to  keep  pace  with  the  art.  and  the 
task  of  reeordinK  correct  practice  appi-ared 
to  be  a  hopeless  one."  He  puts  out  the 
new  edition,  rewritten  in  great  part,  be- 
lieving that  radical  changes  are  not  likely 
to  come  in  the  immediate  future.  He  has 
aimed,  therefore,  to  produce  a  general  work 
of  stabilitv.  one  which,  assumably,  he  be- 
lieves will  present  cun-ent  practice  for 
some  time  to  come  without  the  frequent 
editions  which  events  of  the  past  have 
made  necessary.  That  Mr.  Gebhardt  is 
sound  in  this  belief  i.s  the  opinion  of  the 
reviewer.  Certainly,  no  new  typi  s  of  prime 
movers  of  such  revolutionary  character  as 
the  steam  turbine  and  -express"  stokers 
and  boilers  are  in  sight  on  the  horizon ; 
and  as  th-  author  has  excellently  covered 
these  and  allied  subjects,  he  likely  has 
put  his  work  in  more  stable  form  than  it 
has  ever  been.  A  period  of  refinements 
in  detail  and  thorough  quest  of  economical 
performance  is  now  here,  and  these,  as  al- 
wavs  before,  the  engineer  must  get  from 
current  Journals  and  add  the  worth-while 
data  to  his  loose-leaf  notebook  which  forms 
a  working  supplement  to  a  book  like  the 
one   under    review. 

The  most  conspicuous  additions  to  the 
work  are  the  new  chapters  on  Elementary 
Thermodynamics.  Pioperties  of  Steam  and 
the  Properties  of  r)ry  and  Saturated  Air. 
In  Chapter  XXIV.  Supplementary  Elemen- 
tary Thermodynamics  of  Steam  Engine, 
the  author  has  done  a  real  service  to  the 
great  number  of  men  who  use  his  book. 
There  is  not  an  integral  sign  in  the  chap- 
ter, which  will  gladden  the  hearts  of  9S 
per  cent,  of  his  readers,  and  that  he  gets 
through  the  Carnot  and  Rankine  cycles 
without  the  forbidding  "log"  will  be  ap- 
preciated bv  those  studious  operating  men 
who  have  mastered  by  self-study,  the  use 
of  letters  and  symbols  in  formulas,  but 
have  balked  at  logarithms.  The  table  of 
properties  of  saturated  steam,  which  are 
from  Marks  and  Pavis.  are  well  arranged, 
the  pressures  selected  being  such  that  they 
cover  all  but  the  most  unusual  found  in 
practice. 

No  less  welcome  in  this  book  is  Chapter 
XXV,  Supplementary  on  the  Properties  of 
Air — Pry.  Saturated  and  Partially  Satu- 
rated. Gebhardt  has  needed  this  chapter 
on  account  of  tlie  air  problems  that  in 
ever-growing  numbers  confront  the  engi- 
neer in  these  days  of  widening  application 
of  refrigeration  and  humidifying  processes. 
Goodenough's  air  tables,  the  most  widely 
used,    are   included    in   this   chapter. 

Gebhardt  has  greatly  enlarged  upon  his 
treatment  of  fuels  and  combustion.  Suffice 
it  to  say  that  in  this  latest  edition  he 
has  presented  the  most  .suitable  treatment 
of  these  subjects,  judged  by  the  needs  of 
power-plant  men,  that  the  reviewer  has 
ever  found,  even  in  books  devoted  exclu- 
sively to  fuels  and  the  theory  and  chem- 
istry of  combustion — the  theory  and  chem- 
istry, mind  ;  not  those  details  of  technique 
of  combu.stion  as  it  must  be  carried  on  in 
boiler  furnaces.  For  these  he  refers  the 
reader  to  articles  in  engineering  periodi- 
cals,  and   the   references   are   many. 

That  part  of  Chapter  II  devoted  to  fuel 
oil  would  please  more  if  it  had.  among 
the  many  excellent  tables  it  contains,  one 
giving  the  equivalent  heating  values  of 
some  of  the  coals  and  fuel  oils  widely  used 
along  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  value  of 
such  a  table  may  be  questioned,  it  is  true  ; 
hut  it  is  useful,  and  its  use  will  grow, 
particularly  in  New  England,  where  fuel 
oil  is  .said  to  now  displace  one  million 
tons   of    coal    yearly. 

The  re\-iewer  regretted  to  find  thai  in 
the  sectional  views  of  settings  of  hoi-izontal 
return-tubular  boilers  the  shells  are 
shown  only  -fi  in.  above  the  grate.  Of 
('()urse,  this  is  satisfactor.v  for  anthracite  ; 
but  the  author  would  have  done  well  to 
show  these  shells  at  hast  nearly  twice 
as  far  above  the  grate.  He  owes  it  to  the 
book  to  help  discourage  the  installation  of 
these  low  settings.  He  does  give  a  whole 
page  to  drawings  of  the  Chicago  No.  .S  S't- 
ting,  which  has  a  wing  wall  and  in  whii-h 
the  shell   is   3fi    in.   above   the  grate. 


The  chapter  on  stokers  is  almost  wholly 
descriptive,  and  the  power  dump  plate  is 
not  shown,  though  brief  mention  is  made 
of  it  There  is  little  or  nothing  said  alioiil 
clinker  grinders  as  ap|)lied  to  some  undei- 
feed  stokers,  and  the  reviewer  finds  no  men- 
tion of  development  in  cooling  the  furnace 
side  walls  or  of  the  desirability  of  doing 
this  to  avoid  clinker  accunmlating  here  and 
seriously  affecting  the  operation  of  the 
stoker.  Stoker  operation  is  too  vital  a 
part  of  power-plant  practice  to  receivi- 
such  scant  treatment  in  a  book  which  deals 
so  well  with  the  operation  of  other  power- 
plant  apparatus.  But  then,  no  other  book, 
so  far  as  the  reviewer  knows,  covers  this 
subject  even  half  well  ;  .so  perhaps  Mr. 
Gebhardt  should  not  be  too  severely  criti- 
cized   for   this   omission. 

There  is  something  familiar  about  the 
chart  showing  the  effect  of  temperature  on 
strength  of  materials  on  page  238,  and 
the  reviewer  thinks  Mr.  Gebhardt  forgot 
to  credit  "Power,"  Feb.  13.  1917,  p.  308. 
for  it.  But  then,  he  has  referred  so  often 
to  "Power"  that  this  oversight  is  not  seri- 
ous. The  chart  was  plotted  by  the  reviewer 
from  data  obtained  from  the  "Valve 
World,"  and  Mr.  Gebhardt's  chart  is  a  re- 
production. 

The  reviewer  is  sure  that  the  author's 
many  readers  will  wish  he  devoted  a  para- 
graph or  two  to  the  relative  advantages 
of  cast  iron  and  .steel  for  economizers,  and 
sketched  tendencies  in  America  and  Europe 
in  these  materials  as  used  in  economizers. 
It  is  an  important  part  of  power-plant 
practice  now  that  high  pressures  are 
"coming  in"  and  safety  and  long  periods  of 
uninterrupted  service  from  boilers  are  de- 
manded. 

That  Maurice  Leblanc  has  but  recently 
brought  out  his  multijector  (steam  jet)  air 
pump  probably  accounts  for  the  lack  of 
reference  to  it  in  the  chapter  devoted  to 
air  pumps.  The  "Radojet."  a  purely  Amer- 
ican steam-jet  air  pump  of  recent  develop- 
ment,   is    described. 

On  page  531  appears  the  statement:  "No 
better  material  than  admiralty  brass  has 
been  found,  and  it  is  the  standard  for 
modern  condenser  practice  "  The  reviewer 
believes  that  it  should  be  made  clear  that 
while  this  is  true  for  salt  water.  Muntz 
metal  is  now  the  standard  for  condenser 
tubes  passing  fresh   water. 

Except  for  the  fore  part,  the  chapter 
on  steani  turbines  is  wholly  descriptive, 
with  too  much  omitted  about  turbine  oil- 
ing systems  which,  by  the  way,  are  not 
as  broadly  treated  of  in  the  chapter  on 
lubrication  as  one  wishes.  So  far  as  the 
reviewer  knows,  nothing  has  transpired  to 
impair  the  hopes  engineers  have  in  tin 
IjjuTigstrom  turbine,  yet  no  mention  of  it 
is  found  in  the  chapter  dealing  with"  tur- 
bines. 

This  fifth  edition  is  indeed  a  creditable 
work  and  the  reviewer  regrets  that  space 
forbids  more  about  it  here.  Reviewing  it 
is  like  eating  peanuts — one  does  not  want 
to  stop.  The  subjects  embraced  ^re  so 
numerous  and  well  presented  that  only  in 
rare  instances  does  one  care  to  criticize : 
but  rather,  to  suggest  at  these  places,  re- 
alizing the  enormity  of  the  fatiguing  task 
of  compiling  such  numerous  and  varied 
data.  Chapter  XYIII,  pp.  845-890.  on 
Finance  and  Economics — Cost  of  Power, 
is,  in  the  reviewer's  mind  the  best  extant. 
Mr.    Gebhardt    is   to  be    congratulated. 


itiriiiriMMiiiMr. 


Engineering  Affairs 


iiiiitiiiiiiMitiim 


iiiiitiiiiiiitiiiiriitnii 


Obituary 


Adam  Cook,  the  senior  member  of  the 
firm  of  .\dam  (""ook's  Sons,  maruifacturers 
of  Albany  grease,  died  on  Feb.  IM.  at  his 
residence.  148  West  78th  St.,  New  York 
City,  after  an  illness  extending  over  a 
period  of  seventeen  weeks.  Adam  Cook 
was  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1367.  and 
was  a  graduate  of  the  Albany  Military 
.\cademy.  At  an  early  age  he  became  a 
member  of  the  firm  of  Adam  Cook's  Sons, 
which  his  father  founded  at  Albany,  in 
1868. 


i  Personal  f 

niiiiiiiiiiiirriiii iiiiiti iiiiiiiiiiniiiM I II I nil iiiiiiiin 

Harrison  WilliiimN  'las  succeeded  Samuel 
Scovil  as  president  of  the  Cleveland  (Ohio) 
lOlectric    Illuminating   Co. 

II.  I*.  riirtiHH  has  been  appointed  repre- 
sentative for  the  New  England  States  of 
the  Clarage  Fan  Co  .  of  Kalanuizoo.  Mich., 
with   office   at    120    Milk    St..    Boston.    Mass. 

.1.  S.  Green,  formerly  erecting  engineer 
and  master  mechanic  for  the  Wickvvire 
Steel  Co..  of  Buffalo.  N,  Y.,  has  resigned 
to  accept  a  iiosition  as  master  mechanic 
for  thi-  lOdgewater  Steel  Co.,  Pittsburgh, 
Penn. 


The  \ew  lOiiglaiifl  VViiter  WorkH  Am80- 
i-iutlnn  will  luild  a  rneeling  on  Mar.  13,  at 
the  Hotel  Bi'unswick,  t'opley  Square,  Bos- 
ton,   Mass. 

The  Ameriean  .Smdet.v  »f  Mpehanical  Kn- 
ffineerH  announces  the  following  Section 
meetings:  Baltimoi'e.  Md..  Mar.  13;  Chi- 
cago. Mar.  IB  ;  Philadelphia.  Mar.  26  ; 
Bridgeport.    Conn.,    Mar.    27. 

The   New  York  ('hB|)trr  of  the  American 

Association  of  [engineers  will  hold  its  next 
regular  meeting  on  Mar.  13.  at  the  McAI- 
pin  Hotel.  E.  W.  McKnight,  of  the  First 
Canadian  Expeditionary  Forces,  will  speak 
on    "War-Time    Experiences." 

The  .\morieun  Institute  of  Eleetrical  En- 
gineers announces  the  following  Section 
meetings:  Baltimore,  Md..  Mar.  18;  sub- 
ject. "Air  Brakes  ;"  Chicago,  Mar.  25  ;  sub- 
ject, "Electrochemical  Processes,"  by 
Charles  F.   Surges ;   Portland,   Apr.   2. 

The  MinnescKta  Electrical  Association  will 
hold  its  annual  convention  at  the  Hotel 
Radisson,  Minneapolis,  Mar.  11-13.  Among 
the  important  papers  to  be  presented  are 
"Minnesota  Water  Powers,"  by  R.  J. 
Thomas,  superintendent  of  the  St.  Anthony 
Falls  Water  Power  Co..  and  "Iron-Wire 
Transmission."  by  Prof.  W.  T.  Ryan,  of 
the    University  of  Minnesota. 

The  American  Institute  of  Electrical  En- 
gineers will  hold  an  inter-section  meeting 
in  Pittsburgh.  Apr.  9  and  in  New  York. 
Apr.  12.  Two  papers  will  be  presented: 
"The  Physical  Conception  of  tlie  Operation 
of  tne  Single-Phase  Induction  Motor."  b.\ 
B.  G.  Lamme ;  and  "The  Theory  of  the 
Phase  Converter  and  the  Single-Phase  In- 
duction   Motor,"    by    R.    E.    Hellmund. 


Miscellaneous  News 


Boiler  Explosion  Kills  Three  in  Provi- 
dence— The  explosion  of  a  boiler  in  the 
Mount  Pleasant  Laundry.  Providence,  R.  I.. 
Monday.  Mar.  4.  is  reported  to  have  killed 
three  per.sons.  injured  four  and  completel\ 
wrecked  the  laundry  building.  .V  "Power" 
representative  isf  now  aftei"  the  details 
of   the    explosion. 

A   Heating  Uoiler   Exploded  at  the  Crown 

garage.  Main  St..  Peoria.  III.,  on  Feb.  20. 
wrecking  the  iiack  wall  of  the  .garage,  shat- 
tering the  boiler  ^\■alls  into  thousands  of 
pieces  and  doing  damage  estimated,  ai 
nearly  .f  10.000.  The  l)oiler  has  only  been 
installed  a  year,  and  the  cause  of  the  ex- 
plosion   is    unknown. 

A  Boiler  Exploded  at  the  sawmill  of 
James  Roberts,  seven  miles  northeast  of 
Clanton.  Ala.,  on  Feb.  26.  instantly  killing 
three  workmen  and  injuring  several  others. 
There  were  two  big  boilers  standing  side 
by  side  at  the  mill,  and  from  some  un- 
known cause  one  of  thetn  exploded  with 
such  terrific  force  that  it  caused  the  other 
boiler  also  to  blow  to  bits,  breaking  its 
iron   part. 


iiiiiiiiiniiMiiiMiii 


Business  Items 


Flynn  &  Emrirh  Co.,  of  Baltimore,  Md.. 
are  manufacturing  the  Huber  hand  stoker, 
which  was  formerly  made  by  the  Huber 
Grate  Bar  and  Stoking  Ca,  a  description 
of  which  was  published  on  page  665  of  the 
Nov.  4.  1913,  issue  of  "Power."  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  movement  of  the  grate 
advances  tlie  coal  to  the  rear  of  the  fur- 
nace, sifts  out  the  ashes,  and  at  the  same 
time  breaks  up  the  fire.  'I'he  movement 
of  the  grate  is  accomplished  by  levers  oper- 
ated  from   the   front  of   the  boiler. 

The  Sriiiilte  &  KoertinB  fo.  will  con- 
tinue business  in  all  its  lines  and  to  its 
full  capacity,  as  always,  under  a  board 
of  directors  reconstructed  as  follows  b> 
the  Alien  i'ropert.v  Custodian  of  the  United 
States:  E.  Pu.sey  Passmore.  governor  of 
the  l<"edcral  Reserve  Bank.  Philadelphia  ; 
Ralph  J.  Haker.  assistant  general  coun.sel 
of  the  Alien  I'roperly  Custodian;  H.  W. 
Hildreth.  treasurer  of  Schiltle  &  Koerling 
Co.;  T.  H.  .lohnston,  of  Schiitte  &  Ivoerting 
Co.  ;  Charles  S.  Caldwell,  president.  Corn 
Exchange  National  Bank,  Philadelphia. 
The  new  board  has  elected  the  following 
oflicers:  President.  Charles  S.  Caldwell; 
treasurer,  D.  W.  Hildreth:  secretary,  Ralph 
J.    Baker. 


388 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  11 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


IIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIII 


IIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIII 


Boston — Current   quotation.s   per  gross  ton   delivered   alongside 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 


ANTHRACITE 


Mar.    7.  lOlti 
Buckwheat    .  .         $4.60 

Rice    4.10 

Bciler    •3.!»0 

Barley 3.60 


One  Year  Ago 

$2.0.j — 3.30 

2.50—2.65 


r Individual ' v 

Mar.    7.  lai8      One  Year  Ago 

$7.10 — 7.35        $3.3.5 — 3.50 

6.65 — 6.90  3.70 — 3.95 


6.15 — 6.40 


3.35 — 3.60 


BITUMLNODS 


Bituminous  not  on  market. 


Mar. 


P.o.b.  Mines* s 

7,  1918     One  Year  Ago 
$3.00 

3.10—3.85 


-  Alongside  Bostont s 

7.  1918      One  Year  Ago 
$4.35 — 5.00 


4.60 — 5.40 


Clearfields . 
Cambri.is   and 
Somersets. .  . 

Pocahontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  $4.  as  compared 
with  $3.85 — 3.y0  a  .m-hi'  ago. 

•All-rail  rate  to  Boston  is  $3.60.  tWater  coal. 

New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 


-  Cireulari  - 


ANTHRACITE 


-  Individual^  - 


Mar.    7,1918      One  Ycnr  ,\go      M.n>-.     7.  191S      One  Year  Ago 


Pea      $5.05  $400 

Buckwheat   ..  4.30 — 5.00  2.75 

Barley    3.3.5 — 3.50  1.9-t 

Rice     3.75—3.95  2.20 

Boiler     3.50—3.75  2.20 


$5.80 
5.50 — 5.80 

4.00 1.25 

4.50 — 4,80 


$7.35 — 7^0 
7.00 — 7.35 
4,00 — 4.35 
5.01—5.50 
3.50 4.00 


Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c.  higher. 


BITUMINOUS 


F.o.b.  N.  T.  Harbor 

$3.65 

3£5 

3.65 


Mine 

$2.00 

2.00 

2.00 


Pennsylvania    

Maryland     

West   Virginia    i  short  rate) 

Based   on   Government   price   of   $2   per  ton   at   mine. 

•The  lower  ports  .-ire:  Elizabethnort.  Port  Johnson.  Port  Reading. 
Perth  AmboT  and  South  Amho.v,  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty 
Hoboken.  Weehawken.  Ediiewater  or  Cliffside  and  Guttenberg.  St.  George 
".8  in  between  and  sometimes  a  snecial  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bitumi- 
nous is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

, Line V  , Tide , 

One  Year  One  Year 

Mar     7   1918             Asro  Mar      7.  1918  Ago 

Pea     $3.75                     $2.80  $4.65  $3.70 

Barley     3.15                      1.85  3  40  3.05 

Buckwheat     3.15                    3.50  3.75  3.40 

Rice     3.65                      2.10  3.65  3.00 

Boiler    3.45                      1.95  3..55  3.15 

Chicago — Steam    coal   prices   f.o.b.    mines' 

Illinois  Coals  Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

Prepared  sizes    $3.65—2.80  $3.35 — 3.50 

Mine-run      2.40—2,55  3  10—3.25 

Screenings     2.15—3.30  3,85—3,00 

So,  Illinois.  Pocahontas,  Hocking, 

Pennsylvania  East  Kentucky  and 

Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia      West  Virginia  Splint 

Prepared  sizes    $2,60—3.85  $2.85— 3. .35 

Mine-run      2.40 — 2.60  2.60 — 3.00 

Screenings     3.10 — 3,55  3.35 — 3,75 

St.  Iiouis — Prices  pet  net  ton  f.o.b.  mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared with  today  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and  Jit.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  and  Staunton         ^ Standard ^ 

Mar.    7.          One  Mar.    7,        One  Mar.     7.              One 

1918         Year  Ago  1918       Year  Ago  1918           Year  Ago 


6 -in. 

lump.  . 
2-in. 

lump.  . 
Steam 

egg     .  . 
Mine- 
run     .  . 
No.   1 

nut    .  . 
2-in. 

screen 
No.  5 

washed 


$3.65-3.80  $3.35-3.50  $3.65-2.80  $3.25-3.50  $3.65-3.80  $2j60-2.75 

3.65-2.80    3.65-3.80    3.65-3.80    

.    3.65-3.80    3.65-3.80    3.65-3.80    

.    2.40-2.55    3.75-3.00    3.40-3.55    3.00  3.40-3.56    2.25-2.50 

.  3.65-2.80  3.35-3.50  2.65-3.80  3.35-3.60  3.66-3.80  2.35-2.75 
.    2.15-2.30    3^50-3.75    3.15-3.30    3.75-3.00    2  15-2.30    2.35-3.50 


15-3.30    3.00  2.15-3.30    3.75-3.00    2.15-2.30    3.50 

Williamson-Franklin  rate  St.  Louis.  87  %c.;  other  rates,  73  ^c. 

Birmingham — Current.  prici:.s  per  net  ton  fob.  mines  are  as 
follows : 

Mine-Run  Lump  and  Nut     Slack  and  Screenings 

Big  Seam $1.90  $3.15                         $1.65 

Pratt.  Jagger.  Corona.  ..  .        2.15  2.40                           1.90 

Black  Creek.  Cahaba    .  .  .        2.40  2.65                           3.15 

Government  figures. 

'Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  are  fixed  according 
to  a  regular  schedule. 


Cat.,  Oakdale — An  agreement  has  been  reached  between  the 
Sierra  &  San  Francisco  Power  Co.  and  the  Oakdale  and  South 
San  Joaquin  Irrigation  Districts  by  which  the  power  companv 
will  build  reservoir  on  the  south  fork  of  the  Stanislaus  River. 
This  work  will  be  followed  by  that  of  doubling  the  output  of 
the  hydro-electric  plants.  Estimated  cost,  between  $2,000,000  and 
$3,000,000. 

Calif.,  Redding — City  plans  to  sell  $40,000  bonds  to  build  an 
electric-lighting  plant  soon.     W.  D.   Tillotson.  City  Attorney. 

Calif.,  iSarramento — The  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric  Co.  plans  to 
extend  its  transmission  line  from  here  to  Guinda.  Humsey  and 
Brooks.      C.    W.    McKillip.    Mgr. 

D.  C,  Wash. — A.  L.  Flint.  Purchasing  Agent,  Panama  Canal, 
is  in  the  market  for  generator  sets,  copper  cable,  transformers, 
etc. 

Oa,,  Sandersville — Cit.v  plans  to  rebuild  its  electric-light  and 
water  plant.s  which  were  recently  destroyed  bv  fire,  I  N  Lozier. 
Supt. 

III.,  Evansfon — The  Public  Service  Co,  of  Northern  Illinois. 
Chicago,  plans  to  build  an  extension  to  its  transmission  line  from 
Evanston  to   Highland    Park,      G,    H,    Lukes.   Gen.   Supt, 

III,,  Grafton — The  Grafton  Electric  and  Power  Co,,  recently 
incorporated,  plans  to  build  an  electric-lighting  plant  here.  W, 
Chapman,    Jerseyville,    Attorney, 

Kan.,  Dighton — City  plans  election  soon  to  vote  on  a  bond 
issue  for  enlarging  its  electric-lighting  and  water-works  system. 
D.   E.    Bradstreet,    Mayor, 

Kj-.,  Greenville — The  W,  G,  Duncan  Coal  Co,  is  having  plans 
prepared  by  C,  M,  Means.  Engr,,  Oliver  Bldg.,  Pittsburgh.  Penn., 
for  the  erection  of  a  new  1-story,  60  x  80-ft,  brick  and  steel 
power   plant, 

Xeb.,  Clarksnn — City  plans  to  extend  and  improve  its  electric- 
lighting  plant.     L.   J.   Roubineck,   Supt, 

Neb.,  'Juniata — City  voted  $7000  bonds  at  a  recent  election 
tor  the  erection  of  a  transmission  line  from  here  to  Hastings: 
also  the  instalhition  of  an  electric  lighting  system.     Noted  Feb,  8, 

N.  Y.,  Chenango  Forks — The  Binghamton  Bridge  Co.,  Press 
Bldg,.  Binghamton,  will  not  receive  bids  in  April  for  the  erection 
of  a  brick  and  steel  power  house,  steel  penstocks,  etc.  When 
plans  have  matured,  the  work  will  be  done  by  their  own  forces. 
Noted  Feb,  26, 

N.  Y.,  Clyde — The  Clyde  Glass  Works  plans  to  remodel  its 
plant  and  completely  re-equip  same  by  installing  power  plant 
with    500    hp.    capacit.v. 

N.  Y.,  BulTalo — (East  Buffalo) — The  Delaware.  Lackawanna 
and  Western  R.R,  is  in  the  market  for  power  plant  equipment. 
G.    J.    Ray,    Hoboken,    Ch.    Engr. 

Ohio,  Salem — The  Salem  Lighting  Co,  has  been  authorized  by 
the  War  Department  to  build  a  power  line  from  here  to  the 
Morgan    plant    at    .\lliance, 

Okla.,  Ada — The  Oklahoma  Power  and  Transmission  Co.  plans 
to  build  a  transmission  line  to  supply  the  surrounding  towns  with 
current. 

N.  H.,  Claremont — The  Claremont  Power  Co.  plans  to  equip  a 
new    substation.      J.    G.    Menut,    Mgr. 

Penn.,  Coudersport — The  Home  Electric  Co.  plans  to  issue 
$22,000  bonds;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  extend  and  improve 
its  plant  and  system,     D,   B.   Belknap,  Mgr, 

Penn.,  Indian  Creek — The  Mountain  Water  Supply  Co,  is  hav- 
ing plans  prepared  by  King  &  AVightman,  Engrs,,  1513  Walnut 
St,,  Philadelphia,  for  a  new  30  x  70-ft.  power  plant  to  be  erected 
soon, 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  Coca  Butter  Manufacturing  Co.  is 
having  plans  prepared  by  A,  F  Sauer  &  Co,,  Engr,.  908  Chestnut 
St.,  for  a  new  l-storv.  30  x  60-ft  brick  power  house  to  be  erected 
at  2626  Martha  St, 

Penn.,  Pittsburgh — The  West  Penn  Power  Co,  has  been  au- 
thorized by  the,  Public  Service  Commission,  to  issue  $1,500,000 
bonds  ;  the"  proceeds  will  be  used  to  extend  and  improve  its  plant 
and    system, 

S.  n.,  Newark — L.  Severson  has  gained  control  of  the  electric- 
lighting  plant  here  and  plans  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the 
plant   by   installing   new    machinery, 

Penn.,  williamsport — The  Lycoming  Rubber  Co,  is  having 
plans  prepared  bv  Lockwood  Greene  &  Co,,  Engrs.,  60  Federal  St.. 
Boston,  for  the  erection  of  a  1 -story  brick  and  steel  power  house, 
H,    S,    Marlor.    Supt.      Noted   Jan,    29, 

S,  D..  Scotland — City  plans  an  election  to  vote  on  the  issuance 
of  $35,000  bonds  for  the  erection  of  an  electric-lighting  plant. 

Wis.,  Itrodhead — The  Brodhead  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co, 
plans  to  rebuild  and  remodel  its  electric-lighting  plant,  K,  Guel 
son,   Supt, 

N.  S.,  Halifax — The  Department  of  Public  Works  plans  to 
build  an  electric-lightine  plant,      L,    F.    Monash.nn,    Clerk, 


G 


POWER 


JSs-'^ 


Vol.  47 


NEW   YOIJv,  MAIvCH  19,  19.8  Nu.  12 

iiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiu^^^  iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiittiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii mill 


The  Unexpected 

Contributed  by  C.  H.  WiLLEY. 


TT  IS  the  unexpected  that  always  happens, 
■■-  and  how  often  we  could  avoid  disaster  or 
humiliation  if  we  kept  our  eyes  open.  A  young 
engineer  of  my  acquaintance  recently  came  to  see 
me  and  pour  out  his  troubles  in  the  hope  that 
I  could  aid  him. 

T  TE  WAS  in  charge  of  a  factory  power  plant 
■'■  -'•  and  had  gotten  along  pretty  well  for  several 
years,  keeping  things  running.  He  felt  quite 
content  with  his  job  and  really  sort  of  prided 
himself  that  things  went  so  smoothly.  And  now 
he  had  received  a  bump  that  startled  him,  and 
he  professed  he  was  up  against  it  and  worried. 
The  factory  owners  had  called  him  into  the 
office  and  told  him  that  they  wished  him  to  go 
over  the  power  plant  with  a  fine-tooth  comb  and 
submit  a  report  on  items  that  were  causing 
waste  of  steam  or  that,  in  his  opinion,  were  so 
antiquated  and  inefficient  that  they  could  be  dis- 
pensed with.  They  also  wished  him  to  make  recom- 
mendations as  to  new  and  modern  devices  that 
would  return  a  reasonable  interest  on  the  invest- 
ment. 

THEY  explained  that  as  fuel  prices  were  now 
so  high  and  the  prospects  were  that  they 
would  remain  so  for  an  indefinite  length  of 
time,  they  desired  to  bring  the  old  plant  up  to 


a  more  modern  standard.  This  rather  large 
order  caught  the  young  engineer  wholly  unpre- 
pared. When  asking  me  to  assist  him,  he  said: 
"Gee!  I  never  expected  the  old  crabs  would 
ever  spend  any  money  on  improvements.  Why, 
every  time  I  sent  in  a  requisition  for  supplies, 
they  grumbled  over  it  and  cut  it  down,  and  now 
here  they  are  asking  me  to  remodel  the  plant!" 

SEEING  that  he  was  up  against  it,  I  tried  to 
help  him  out  and  succeeded.  I  wonder  how 
many  more  of  his  kind  are  working  blindly 
along  each  day.  These  are  days  of  quick  deci- 
sions on  the  part  of  power-plant  and  factory 
owners.  Many  who  have  been  skimping  along 
on  old  dilapidated  equipment  all  at  once  decide 
to  yank  out  the  old  junk  and  adopt  the  modern. 

THE  new  is  always  trying  to  crowd  out  the 
old  everywhere,  and  to  those  engineers  who 
would  keep  up  with  the  times  I  would  give 
this  advice:  Keep  your  eyes  peeled  for  new 
ideas  and  be  alert  to  grasp  them.  Get  acquainted 
with  every  up-to-date  device  that  could  be  applied 
to  your  plant  to  aid  efficiency  and  economy.  Do 
not  allow  the  small  details  of  everyday  work  to 
crowd  out  new  thoughts  and  modern  ideas. 
Become  a  spare-time  student  of  your  trade 
paper — it  will  keep  you  abreast  of  the  times. 


DniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininDiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiii 


nimnnnniiiMiiniiimmininniiiiininiiiiiiiinnnmninniiiiniinmiinnminiiniiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiniiiiin^^^^ 


390 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


Wreck  of  a  Thirty-five  Thousand 
Kilowatt  Turbine 


A7i  account  of  the  ivreck  of  a  35,000-kw. 
horizontal  single-cylinder  iynpulse  steam  turbine 
in  the  O  Street  Station  of  the  Boston  Elevated 
Railway  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  H,  1918 

A  35,000-kw.  20-stage  1500-r.p.m.  25-cycle  horizontal 

AA    single-cylinder  impulse  steam  turbine   in  the  0 

-^  -^  Street  Station  of  the  Boston  Elevated  Railway 

Co.   was   completely   disabled   and    seriously    damaged 


date  was  Feb.  14,  1017.  At  that  time  the  18th 
diaphragm  became  distorted;  that  is,  it  deflected  at  its 
edge  in  the  direction  of  the  18th  wheel,  rubbed  the 
buckets  where  they  join  the  wheel  and  stripped  the 
buckets  from  the  18th  and  19th  wheels,  seriously 
damaging  the  18th  and  19th  diaphragms.  This  hap- 
pened when  the  machine  was  being  given  trial  runs. 
Rubbing  began  and  the  throttle  was  tripped,  after  which 
the  damage  to  the  buckets  and  diaphragms  followed. 
When  the  buckets  let  go,  the  speed  was  below  the  normal 
1500;  perhaps  1000  or  1200  r.p.m. — no  one  knows. 


FIG.   1.     CASING  OP  TURBINE  OF  TYPE  SIMILAR  TO  THAT  DAMAGED  IN  BOSTON 


while  in  service  Thursday,  Feb.  14,  1918.  There  were 
no  casualties  and  no  one  was  injured.  A  distorted 
cast-iron  diaphragm  in  the  18th  stage  presumably  fouled 
the  18th  wheel,  breaking  off  the  buckets,  after  which 
the  buckets  and  diaphragms  from  the  18th  stage  on  to 
<:he  last,  or  20th,  wheel,  also  the  entire  casing,  were 
destroyed.  There  are  excellent  photographs  of  the 
wreck  in  existence  but  are  not  available  for  publication 
without  the  consent  of  the  manufacturers  of  the  tur- 
bine, which  consent  is  refused.  A  turbine  of  a  type 
similar  to  that  which  was  wrecked  is,  however,  shov/n 
in  Figs.  1  and  2. 

To  get  a  proper  perspective  of  this  accident  one 
should  go  back  a  year  ago,  when  the  turbine  was  in- 
stalled. At  this  time  trouble  of  a  nature  similar  to 
that  which  wrecked  the  turbine  was  experienced;  the 


After  the  accidept  of  Feb.  14,  1917,  the  capacity  was 
reduced  to  20,000  kw.  from  Mar.  17  to  May  23,  while 
repair  parts  were  being  made,  by  locking  closed  the 
secondary  valve,  which  admits  steam  to  the  7th  stage. 
The  repair  parts  in  place  and  the  machine  in  service, 
annoyance  was  given  because  the  machine  would  not 
carry  the  load  with  its  swings  of  2500  kw.  above  the 
rated  35,000  kw.  under  the  operating  conditions.  When 
these  swings  came,  the  cycles  dropped  from  the  normal 
25  to  24.  The  purchaser  was  most  anxious  that  the 
turbine  carry  the  swings,  and  it  was  suggested  that  nine- 
teen li-in.  holes  to  be  drilled  in  the  eighth  diaphragm  in 
front  of  the  eighth  wheel.  See  Figs.  3  and  4.  The  holes 
were  drilled  to  allow  high  pressure  steam  to  that  stage. 
The  turbine  then  carried  these  swings. 

The  machine  was  designed  for  200  lb.  gage  pressure 


March  19,  1918 


POWER 


391 


at  the  turbine  throttle,  200  deg.  F.  superheat  and  29  in. 
vacuum  at  30  in.  barometer.  There  was  a  pressure 
drop  of  4  lb.  in  the  .steam  line  between  the  boilers  and 
the  throttle,  or  from  200  lb.  to  196  lb. ;  the  drop  through 
the  governor  valves  was  also  slightly  more  than  normal. 
The  builder  states  that  on  Aug.  15  last,  with  188.7  lb. 
gage  pressure  at  the  throttle,  132  deg.  F.  superheat  and 
28.7  in.  vacuum,  the  turbine  carried  36,500  kw.,  and  that 
based  on  these  figures  the  capacity  would  be  39,000  kw. 
under  contract  conditions. 

Rumor  has  had  it  that  thrust-bearing  trouble  was 
responsible  for  the  accident  of  Feb.  14,  1918.  In  view 
of  this  it  is  well  to  point  out  that  the  most  authorita- 
tive statement  claims  that  what  little  thrust-bearing 
trouble  did  arise  did  not  present  itself  until  December, 


operating  crew  climbed  on  top  of  the  platform  to  adjust 
the  thrust  bearing,  hoping  to  stop  the  rubbing  and 
consequent  vibration.  The  statements  of  these  men  say 
that  the  first  vibration  was  heavy,  that  it  was  of  the 
nature  of  a  shock,  after  which  there  came  a  second 
with  such  evident  commotion  within  the  casing  as  to 
cause  all  hands  to  seek  safety  by  running  to  cover. 

At  5:01  p.m.,  six  minutes  after  the  first  sign  of 
serious  rubbing,  the  damage  was  completed  and  pieces 
of  metal  had  ceased  to  fly  about  the  room.  [This  time 
is  variously  given  as  3,  4,  5  and  6  minutes;  but  6 
minutes  is  the  most  authoritative  as  it  is  that  given 
by  the  men  who  were  handling  the  machine  and  the 
switchboard.]  The  period  during  which  pieces  of  the 
turbine  were  flying  about  and  while  the  low-pressure 


FIG. 


ROTOR   OF   THE    TITRBINB    THE    CASING   OF   WHICH   IS   SHOWN   IN   FIG.    1 


1917.  The  trouble  was  not  inherent  in  the  bearing, 
'but  was  due  to  oil  of  poor  quality,  it  having  been 
used  for  too  long  a  time,  as  seems  evident  from  the 
gradual  rise  in  temperature  of  the  oil  and  from  the 
chocolate-colored  deposit  left  on  the  bearing.  After 
this  incident  new  oil  was  put  in  and  the  bearing  burned 
out  a  week  later,  caused  likely  by  interference  with  the 
oil  circulation.  Slight  changes  were  made  to  the  circu- 
lating system,  and  the  machine  was  put  in  service  on 
Jan.  26,  1918,  after  which  no  further  trouble  was  ex- 
perienced with  the  bearing.  So,  evidently  the  bearing 
had  no  influence  whatever  on  the  present  accident. 

With  the  foregoing  in  mind,  take  up  the  details  of 
the  accident.  On  Feb.  14,  1918,  at  4:55  p.m.,  when 
the  evening  peak  load  was  mounting,  the  machine  was 
heard  to  rub  and  observed  to  vibrate.    Members  of  the 


end  of  the  rotor  and  the  casing  were  going  to  pieces 
was  likely   not  more  than   30   seconds. 

Now  to  go  back  to  the  time  that  the  first  severe 
rubbing  was  heard.  At  this  time  the  Central  Station 
of  the  same  company,  which,  of  course  is  tied  in  with 
the  0  Street  Station,  dropped  its  load  of  about  10,000 
kw.  owing  to  a  station  blowout.  Prior  to  this  the 
machine  now  damaged  was  carrying  32,000  kw.  This 
turbine  was  practically  the  only  unit  to  take  the  sys- 
tem's load — there  having  been  some  trouble  at  the 
Lincoln  Wharf  Station— and  tried  to  take  all  the  load 
dropped  when  the  blowout  occurred,  by  opening  wide 
its  secondary  valve.  The  quick  opening  of  this  valve 
so  suddenly  increased  the  steam  pressure  in  the  low- 
pressure  stages  that  the  impact  was  probably  sufficient 
either  to  initially  and  seriously   distort  the   18th   dia- 


392 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


phragm  or  to   further  distort   it   if  already   deflected, 
sufficiently  to  make  it  further  foul  the  18th  wheel. 

When  the  secondary  valve  opened,  the  machine  was 
said  to  take  on  37,000  kw.  Whether  it  took  but  37,000 
or,  because  of  the  momentum  of  the  rotor,  took  every 
kilowatt  of  that  10,000,  no  one  knows  for  it  seems  there 
was  no  instrument  to  record  the  load  it  did  take.  But 
it  appears  certain  that  the  machine  took  a  very  heavy 
load  and  took  it  with  the  suddenness  of  a  hammer 
blow.  The  cycles  had  dropped  from  the  normal  25  to  24 
when  the  switchboard  operator  noticed  that  the  turbine 
was  carrying  37,000  kw.  Unable  to  stop  the  rubbing, 
the  operator  on  the  floor  signaled  the  switchboard  man 
to  take  off  some  load,   which   he   did,   dropping  it  to 


into  the  condenser,  crushing  the  tubes  for  a  depth  of 
about  two  feet.  When  this  frame  broke,  it  is  probable 
that  the  19th  and  20th  diaphragms  let  down  on  the 
shaft,  or  more  correctly  on  the  wheelbases,  and  either 
revolved  with  the  shaft,  then  broke  due  to  centrifugal 
force,  or  they  were  broken  at  the  time  their  support- 
ing frame  cracked  by  reason  of  being  struck  by  frag- 
ments from  other  stages.  These  diaphragms,  like  all 
others  in  the  low-pressure  end  of  this  and  other  large 
turbines,  were  of  cast  iron.  The  centrifugal  force  may 
have  broken  them,  but  at  any  rate  they  were  broken 
in  many  pieces,  and  these  were  hurled  against  the 
outside  casing  with  force  enough  to  blow  out  the  whole 
end  of  this  casing  and  break  the  great  web  or  bracket, 


FIG.    3       LONGITUDINAX,  SECTION  OF   35,nnO-KW.   TURBINE   DAMAGED   IN  BOSTON  ACCIDENT 


32,000  kw.  It  was  soon  after  this  that  the  turbine  went 
to  pieces.  The  buckets  on  the  18th  wheel  ripped  off, 
they  fouled  the  19th  diaphragm,  which  in  turn  fouled 
the  19th  wheel  and  the  20th  diaphragm. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  buckets  from  the 
18th  wheel  are  broken  identically  as  were  the  buckets 
from  this  wheel  in  the  accident  of  a  year  ago.  In 
the  recent  accident  the  same  evidence  of  heating  of 
the  buckets  where  they  join  the  wheel  is  apparent  as 
was  apparent  on  the  buckets  damaged  a  year  ago.  Fig. 
5  shows  where  the  buckets  were  rubbed  and  how  they 
left  the  wheel.  These  buckets  are  indeed  tough,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7.  The  20th,  or  last,  wheel  has  all  or 
nearly  all  its  buckets,  though  they  are  severely  bent  and 
twisted. 

Reference  to  Figs.  3  and  6  shows  that  a  break  occurred 
in  the  semi-steel  frame  which  holds  the  diaphragms 
in  the  low-pressure  end.     This  conical  frame  dropped 


that  supports  the  bearings  on  the  generator  side  of 
the  turbine.  The  significant  fact  is  that  these  dia- 
phragms are  the  only  large  pieces  of  metal  to  completely 
break  up  and  leave  the  turbine.  It  was  some  of  these 
pieces  that  went  through  the  roof  and  terra  cotta  tem- 
porary end  wall  of  the  building.  The  direction  taken  by 
the  principal  fragments  that  left  the  turbine  was  radi- 
ally of  the  shaft,  though  five  pieces  went  through 
the  building  wall  near  the  generator  end  of  the  shaft. 
A  piece  weighing  70  lb.  went  through  one  of  the  switch- 
board gallery  windows,  coming  to  rest  at  the  other  side 
of  the  gallery  room.  One  large  chunk  of  diaphragm 
fell  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  scene  of  the 
accident.  A  man  was  punching  the  time  clock  in  the 
turbine  room,  the  clock  being  at  an  angle  of  about  45 
deg.  from  the  turbine,  when  the  crash  came.  As  he 
punched  the  clock,  a  piece  of  metal  tore  through  the 
board  holding  the  time  cards. 


March  19,  1918 


POWER 


393 


There  are  some  interesting  speculations  as  to  what 
broke  the  conical  semi-steel  casing  which  held  the  low- 
pressure  diaphragms  and  which  inclosed  the  last  five 
wheels.  The  mJvn  qualified  to  speak  most  authorita- 
tively, that  is,  the  eminent  designer  of  the  turbine, 
shows  by  calculations  that  high-pressure  steam  at  that 
point,  caused  by  possible  closure  of  the  buckets  in 
the  19th  diaphragm,  could  not  do  it,  as  the  pressure  on 
the  ledges  .1,  B  and  C,  Fig.  6,  probably  was  not  more 
than  186  lb.  at  most.  He  thinks  that  the  expansion 
of  the  18th  diaphragm,  caused  by  the  diaphragm  rub- 
bing the  buckets  on  the  18th  wheel,  may  have  forced 
the  ring  D,  which  is  the  outside  or  ring  of  the  18th 
diaphragm,  to  exei't  pressure  enough  on  the  casing  to 
fracture  the  latter.  Others  think  that  it  was  broken 
by  pieces  of  diaphragm  being  jammed  against  it.  A 
combination  of  these  causes  seems  not  improbable. 

The  whole  turbine  casing  is  ruined,  being  severely 
cracked  at  the  low-pressure  end,  with  other  smaller 
cracks  extending  to  the  high-pressure  end.  As  stated, 
the  great  bracket,  or  web,  supporting  the  bearings 
between  the  turbine  and  generator  dropped  away,  let- 
ting the  bearings  free.  The  low-pressure  labyrinth 
packing  was  destroyed.  There  was  thrust  enough  to 
break  the  collars  at  the  bearings  and  to  push  the  exciter, 
mounted  on  the  end  of  the  mainshaft,  forward  suffi- 
ciently to  break  the  four  spider  brackets  supporting 
the  extreme  end  of  the  exciter  shaft.  The  collars  on 
the  thrust  bearing  at  the  high-pressure  end  are  intact. 


FIG.  4.     LOCATION  OP  HOLES  IN  EIGHTH  DIAPHRAGM 

All  wheels  and  diaphragms  up  to  and  including  the 
17th  stage  are  intact.  The  18th,  19th  and  20th  wheels 
are  intact,  though  their  blading  is  either  gone  or  ruined. 
There  is  one  small  piece  out  of  the  rim  of  the  20th 
wheel,  broken  out,  presumably,  by  being  struck  a  tre- 
mendous blow  by  a  fragment  of  diaphragm. 


Fortunately,  the  automatic  throttle  valve  which  con- 
trols steam  to  the  turbine  tripped,  either  from  vibra- 
tion or  because  one  of  the  operating  crew  tripped  it 
by  hand.  The  men  do  not  remember  tripping  the  valve, 
and  one  of  those  present  who  most  likely  would  trip  it 
is  not  sure  whether  he  did  or  did  not.  It  was  most 
fortunate  that  this  did  trip,  for  if  it  had  not  one  can 


Direction  of  Steam 

Flow  and  Appiicafion  of 

Pressure 


Position  Bucket 
tended  iv  assume 
crfter  Fracture 


Where  Buckets 
fractured  . 


Area  of  Contact 
ofBiades  with 
distorted  Diaph- 
ragm. This  Area 
burned  blue  and 
fbsed. 


FIG.    5. 


HOW   BUCKETS   ON   THE   EIGHTH   WHEEL   WERE 
BROKEN 


but  conjecture  where  the  damage  and  loss  of  life  may 
have  ended.  Vibration  probably  tripped  the  valve,  as 
valves  of  this  design  are  held  open  by  a  catch  resting 
on  a  knife-edge  steel. 

That  the  turbine  wheels,  especially  the  20th,  are  intact 
is  most  gratifying.  Nothing  could  more  thoroughly 
prove  the  correctness  of  the  designer's  calculations  and 
more  completely  convince  one  of  the  adequacy  of  the 
factor  of  safety  of  these  wheels. 

There  were  some  who  were  apprehensive  about  this 
20th  wheel.  In  fact,  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  was  engaged  to  check  up  the  stresses  in  the 
wheel,  determine  the  factor  of  safety,  etc.  The  results 
of  these  checking  tests  showed  astonishingly  close 
agreement  with  the  designer's  values.  The  factor  of 
safety  was  a  little  more  than  four. 

On  going  over  the  matter  with  characteristic  thor- 
oughness, the  professors  at  "Tech"  were  in  no  way 
apprehensive  about  the  wheel  going  to  pieces.  They 
did  express  an  opinion  that  because  of  the  shape  of 
the  wheel  (thick  at  the  hub,  then  growing  thin  as  the 
rim  is  approached)  fracture  might  develop  if  the  wheel 
were  subjected  to  sudden  extreme  temperature  changes, 
which  of  course  are  not  likely  in  usual  operation.  Super- 
heat "shoots"  through  a  turbine  under  certain  load 
conditions;  but  the  wheels,  diaphragms  or  shaft  prob- 


394 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


ably  absorb  an  insignificant  amount  of  it.  Breaking 
of  the  vacuum  will  cause  a  more  or  less  sudden  change 
in  temperature  of  the  turbine  rotor;  but  the  writer 
does  not  at  this  time  know  of  a  case  where  damage 
or  even  minor  trouble  has  come  from  this  cause. 

The  20th  wheel,  and  presumalily  the  others,  has  a 
tensile  strength  of  130,000  lb.  and  an  elastic  limit  of 
73,000  lb.  per  sq.in.  It  is  12  ft.  1  in.  diameter,  and 
its  tip  speed  at  1500  r.p.m.  is  950  ft.  per  second. 

An  engineer  of  unusual  experience  with  turbines, 
who  desires  to  remain  anonymous,  expressed  his  opinion 
that  before  these  wheels  would  fracture  or  burst  they 
would  stretch  so  much  as  to  become  loose  on  the  shaft 
and  cease  rotating  at  dangerous  speed.  Perhaps  this 
would  happen.  But  one  wonders  if  the  wheel  would 
not  rub  the  shaft,  fuse  both  shaft  and  wheel,  and 
freeze  fast.  It  is  recent  experience,  however,  that  in 
some  cases  of  overspeed  of  turbine  rotors,  the  wheels 
have  been  found  loose  on  the  shaft  when  examined 
after  overspeeding  occurred. 

One  wonders  if  these  wheels  in  large-capacity  turbines 
would   ever,   except    under   failure   of   both   governors 


PIG.    6.      SECTION    OF    LAST    WHEEILS    AND    DIAPHRAGMS 

TOGETHER   WITH    DIAPHRAGM    SUPPORT    FRAME, 

WHICH   BROKE  AS   SHOWN 

to  function  should  all  load  be  suddenly  lost,  reach  a 
speed  sufficient  to  fracture  them.  In  the  experiments 
by  the  engineering  staff  of  the  Public  Service  Electric 
Co.  of  New  Jersey,  conducted  May,  1916,  the  last  or 
final  wheel  of  an  1800-r.p.m.  25,000-kw.  turbine  was 
about  four  hours  beinj.  brought  to  a  speed  of  nearly 


3600  r.p.m.,  or  to  1C8  per  cent,  of  normal,  and  not- 
withstanding that  a  motor  of  450  hp.  was  used  to  turn 
the  wheel  and  that  steam  was  impinged  upon  the  blades 
to  assist  in  revolving  it.  This  gives  one  an  idea  of 
the  windage  of  these  wheels.  The  wheel  in  question 
did  not  fracture,  and  though  painted  and  marked  at 


FIG.    7. 


TYPICAL,   BLADES    FROM    THE    BOSTON    TlfRBINE 
SKETCHED    AFTER    THE    WRECK 


the  shaft  and  hub,  showed  no  indications  of  having 
slipped  or  stretched. 

The  Boston  wheel  was  certainly  subjected  to  jamming 
and  Impact  from  broken  blading  and  pieces  released 
from  diaphragms,  and  it  withstood  these  severe  shocks 
while  subjected  to  the  centrifugal  force  due  to  rota- 
tion at  the  normal  speed.  This  demonstration  of 
resistance  is  most  assuring. 

The  machine  was  carrying  29  in.  vacuum  at  the  time 
the  low-pressure  end  of  the  casing  was  blown  out.  Just 
what  effect  the  sudden  release  of  the  vacuum  had, 
one  can  study  out  at  his  leisure. 

It  is  probable  that  steel  will  be  used  in  the  last 
stages  of  the  Boston  turbine  when  it  is  repaired.  The 
builders  are,  of  course,  taking  steps  to  avoid  a  repe- 
tition of  this  accident,  and  with  their  wide  experience 
plus  that  gained  in  this  accident,  this  should  not  be 
difficult,  especially  as  no  fundamental  changes  in  design 
seem  necessary. 

It  is  likely  that  difficulties  of  manufacture  of  steel 
diaphragms  as  well,  perhaps,  as  cost  reasons  account  for 
the  universal  use  of  cast  iron.  In  making  diaphragms 
one  large  ring  and  one  large  disk,  connected  by  nozzles 
or  stationary  buckets,  have  to  be  cast.  The  claim  of 
some  persons  is  that  the  steel  nozzles  would  likely  burn 
off  or  become  seriously  weakened  if  the  disks  and  rings 
were  cast  of  steel.  However,  by  pouring  and  venting 
in  a  number  of  places  burning  of  the  nozzles  where  they 
join  the  ring  and  disk  can  probably  be  avoided. 

When  the  Boston  machine  gets  its  new  casing,  the 
great  web  supporting  the  bearings  at  the  generator 
end  will  be  of  steel  for  reasons  of  greater  safety  than 
cast  iron  insures. 

The  turbine  with  its  condenser  represented  an  in- 
vestment of  about  $335,000. 

The  details  of  the  accident  described,  some  general 
observations  are  in  order:  Naturally,  the  question 
uppermost  in  the  minds  of  designers  and  engineers  is 
whether  cast  iron  should  or  should  not  be  used  for 
large  turbine  diaphragm  construction.  This  much  is 
obvious:  Cast  iron  should  not  be  used  where  it  is 
likely  to  be  subjected  to  the  stresses  imposed  by  the 
centrifugal  force  that  a  steam-turbine  diaphragm  would 


March  19,  1918 


POWER 


395 


be  called  upon  to  resist  if  it  revolved  with  the  shaft. 
But  this  is  the  first  case  the  writer  knows  of  where  a 
diaphragm  has  revolved  with  the  shaft.  Certain  it  is 
that  if  there  are  no  probabilities  of  these  large  dia- 
phragms being  let  down  on  the  shaft,  and  if  it  is  found 
that  cast  iron  for  these  relatively  thin  disks  is  not 
subject  to  too  great  deflection,  cast  iron  seems  suit- 
able, as  the  diaphragms  now  in  use  have  a  high  factor 
of  safety  against  rupture  by  normal  stage  pressure. 

Since  these  high-capacity  turbines,  with  their  rota- 
tions which  give  wheel-tip  speeds  of  nearly  1000  ft.  per 
sec,  have  appeared,  all  have  learned  that  rubbing  of 
a  diaphragm  on  its  adjacent  wheel  and  vice  versa  must 
be  immediately  stopped  to  avoid  the  loss  of  blading  or 
more  serious  trouble.  The  element  of  time  is  most 
vital.  Take  the  Boston  case:  If  the  throttle  had  been 
tripped  at  the  first  sign  of  serious  rubbing  or  vibration, 
it  is  probable  that  the  turbine  would  have  needed 
nothing  more  than  new  buckets  for  the  ISth  wheel.  To 
go  further  with  the  "if,"  for  the  good  it  may  do  "the 
next  time  she  rubs  hard,"  the  casing  would,  in  the 
Boston  case,  simply  have  had  to  be  lifted  off,  the  loose 
blades  cleared  away  and  the  machine  closed  up  and 
put  back  on  the  line — a  delay,  of  course,  but  not  a 
delay  plus  a  direct  loss  of,  say,  $200,000. 

The  Human  Side  Must  Not  Be  Neglected 

The  point  is  that  turbine  operators  not  only  must 
be  alert,  sober  and  intelligent  men,  but  must  be  made 
to  realize  that  they  should  never  take  a  narrow  chance 
when  the  safe  course  is  obvious  and  practicable.  The 
watch  engineer  on  the  floor  must  know  the  peculiarities 
of  his  machines  and  have  judgment  quick  and  decisive 
enough  to  know  when  he  should  attempt  adjustments 
to  thrust  bearing  or  governor,  or  whether  he  should 
signal  for  load  reduction  or  trip  the  throttle.  This  is 
the  human  sfde  of  the  development  of  turbine  art.  It 
must  not  be  neglected,  it  must  develop  with  the  ma- 
chine, for  the  machine  is  right  and  the  human  has  the 
quality  of  adaptation. 

Anyone  not  a  switchboard  operator  would,  when  he 
looks  at  the  scarred  walls,  the  broken  wire-glass  in  the 
switchboard  gallery  windows  and  the  other  turbines 
down  the  room  at  the  0  Street  Station,  turn  over  in 
his  mind  or  revise  his  opinion  as  to  placing  turbines 
with  their  shafts  transversely  of  the  room.  If  the 
Boston  machine  had  been  placed  transversely,  the  other 
turbines  down  the  room  might  have  been  considerably 
damaged.  There  are  excellent  arguments  for  both  trans- 
verse and  longitudinal  positions.  The  Boston  case  is 
an  impressive  one  for  the  latter. 

Just  a  word  about  turbine  accidents  in  general.  Some 
folks  are  foolish  enough  to  try  to  give  the  impression 
that  machines  may  be  made,  that  they  are  made,  so  as 
to  be  "absolutely  free  from  accident."  No  sensible 
engineer  ever  made  such  a  statement.  Be  assured  of 
that.  Only  the  other  day,  in  discussing  this  question 
with  one  of  the  most  eminent  turbine  designers,  a 
man  to  whom  the  world  owes  a  deep  debt  of  gratitude 
for  his  contribution  to  the  art,  he  said:  "The  man  who 
thinks  this  can  be  done  is  indeed  foolish." 

Accidents  are  as  much  a  part  of  the  progress  in  ma- 
chine design  as  illness  and  death  are  parts  of  animal 
life.  They  are  the  impetus  stimulants  that  reveal  the 
danger  zones  and  help  us  the  sooner  to  get  out  of  them. 


Heat  Carried  to  the  Chimney  by 
the  Flue  Gases 

In  a  recent  issue  of  the  Stevens  Indicator  E.  A.  Ueh- 
ling,  M.  E.,  derives  the  following  formulas  for  determin- 
ing the  amount  of  heat  carried  off  in  the  chimney  gases. 
CO  =  Percentage  of  CO  in  the  flue  gas ; 
CO,  =  Percentage  of  CO,  in  the  flue  gas ; 
H    =  Weight  of  available  hydrogen  per  pound  of 

carbon  in  fuel ; 
M    =  Weight   of   moisture    in    fuel   per   pound    of 

carbon ; 
t       =  Temperature  of  air  supplied  for  combustion ; 
T      =  Temperature  of  flue  gases  on  leaving  boiler; 
V     =  Weight  of  water  vapor  in  the  air  used  to  burn 

one  pound  of  carbon; 
W     =  Weight   of  water  of  hydration    (water  com- 
bined in  fuel)  per  pound  of  carbon. 
H  is  the  weight  of  free  hydrogen  available  for  com- 
bustion per  pound  of  carbon  as  distinct  from  the  hy- 
drogen already  combined  with  oxygen  and  forming  the 
moisture  and  the  water  of  hydration  in  the  fuel.     W  is 

the  weight  of  water  (o  +  -j  that  is  formed  by  the 

combination  of  the  oxygen,  O,  in  the  fuel  per  pound  of 
carbon  with  hydrogen,  in  which  form  it  is  combined 
in  the  fuel  as  water  of  hydration  as  distinct  from  the 
moisture  which  is  present  but  uncombined. 

Heat  Carried  Away  by  the  Dry  Gases 
58.46> 


(0.24  +  g^^)x(T-0 


Heat  Carried  Away  Through  Incomplete  Combustion 

10,150  X    CO        olker  combustihlM  difficuU  to  de- 
QQ  -|_   QQ.,       '    termine  and  generally  negligible 

Heat  Carried  Away  by  Water  Vapor  in  the  Air 
V  X  (^^~-  +  3.8//)  X  (T-  t) 

Heat  Carried  Aivay  by  the  HO  from  the  Combustion 
of   Hydrogen 

4.32  XH  X  (T—t) 

Heat  Carried  Aivay  by  the  Moisture  and  Water  of 
Hydration  in  the  Fuel 
(M  +  W)   X    (0.48  X  T  -{-  1080  — O 

Theoretical  Maximum   CO,  Obtainable  from  Fuel 
Containing  Hydrogen 

21 
1  +  2.387/ 

Percentage  of  Excess  Air  Supplied 
2100  100  +  238// 

COAl 


3//) 


1  +  SH 


Percentage  of  Oxygen  in  Gas 
21—  (1   +  2.38//)   CO, 


Be  careful  that  no  pieces  of  rubber  gaskets  work 
through  the  steam  pipe  into  the  steam  chest  of  a  throt- 
tling engine.  Wrecks  have  occurred  due  to  the  govern- 
or valve  being  blocked  open  by  pieces  of  packing. 


396 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


Training  Power-Plant  Men  for  the  Navy 


By  willard  connely,  u.  s.  n.  r.  f. 


How  ship  fitters  and  gas  engineers  get  expert 
free  training  for  duty  ivith  Uncle  Sam's  fleets. 


NOT  all  the  naval  pipefitters,  steam  and  gas 
engineers,  water  tenders  and  boiler  men  can  be 
trained  at  sea.  There  is  neither  room  nor  time 
for  that.  Schools  of  instruction  on  our  coasts  and 
inland,  too,  are  adding  more  and  more  men  to  their 
classes  every  day.  Quite  as  frequently  the  rawf  recruits 
of  four  months  back  pass  their  examinations  at  these 
training  stations  and  are  dispatched  with  all  speed 
to  their  receiving  ships,  whose  power  rooms  the  new 
bluejackets  enter  familiarly,  chafing  for  action. 

A  school's  remoteness  from  the  ocean  does  not  deter 
the  Navy  Department  from  authorizing  thereat  trade 
instruction  for  bluejackets.  For  instance,  witness  the 
training  base  established  at  Dunwoody  Industrial  In- 
stitute, Minneapolis,  now  producing  for  the  fleets  nearly 
three  thousand  artisan  specialists  a  year. 

Dunwoody  Institute  is  a  free  trade  school,  and  al- 
though the  Navy  now  makes  demands  on  the  major 
portion  of  its  facilities,  it  continues  to  hold  civilian 
classes  in  day,  evening  and  extension  courses.  Of  the 
ten  departments  now  making  dextrous  naval  craftsmen 
out  of  bluejacket  apprentices,  among  the  foremost  are 
those  teaching  the  foundry  and  boiler  men,  the  pipe- 
fitters, and  the  gas,  steam  and  oil  engineers.  Three 
general  divisions  of  power-plant  processes  are  here 
involved:  Navy  blacksmiths  in  a  power  plant  would 
do  the  repairing,  metal  workers  would  make  new  parts, 
navy  gas  engineers  would  represent  operation.  The 
naval  detachment,  under  the  command  of  Ensign  Colby 
Dodge,  U.  S.  N.,  has  now  a  smoothly  running  routine 
worked  out  by  the  commandant  and  by  Acting  Director 
Kavel  of  the  Institute. 

Work  in  Forging  and  Welding 

The  blacksmithing  and  boiler  men  begin  naturally 
at  the  forge.  Preliminary  exercises  involve  making 
various  foundry  tools,  then  a  week  or  two  building 
iron  racks  and  the  like,  and  the  blacksmiths  come  to 
the  most,  significant  branch  of  their  course — oxyacety- 
lene  welding.  At  the  welding  tables  the  bluejackets 
repair  broken  or  cracked  machine  parts.  They  are 
dentists  to  stripped  gears.  They  rebuild  a  cylinder, 
a  cam  or  an  engine  connecting-rod.  All  this  time  the 
ironworkers  are  having  daily  classroom  work  too,  in 
heat  treatment  of  metals,  metallography,  and  related 
mathematics.  Open  discussion  is  encouraged,  that  the 
older  jackies  who  have  been  previously  at  the  trade  may 
relate  their  power-plant  experiences. 

The  men  are  admitted  to  the  Soo  line  car  shops  in 
St.  Paul,  where  they  tackle  welding  jobs  so  compara- 
tively gigantic  that  nothing  thereafter  on  a  battleship 
will  seem  too  formidable.  From  a  motor-boat  engine 
cylinder  to  the  stripped  boiler  of,  a  big  freight  locomo- 
tive^is  a  significant  leap.  After  two, months  in  the 
car  foundries    the    naval    apprentices-  rightly    believe 


themselves  to  have  become  fairly  competent  welders. 
While  acquiring  skill  at  the  Soo  shops,  the  black- 
smiths alternate  training  periods  in  the  boiler  room 
at  Dunwoody,  where  at  stated  hours  they  assume  the 
responsibility  of  the  boiler  operation.  This  duty  they 
share  with  men  in  other  departments  also,  men  whose 
general  scheme  of  training  covers  a  survey  of  power- 
house methods.  Four  to  five  months,  in  sum,  round 
out  a  man  in  the  foregoing  vocation,  whereupon  he 
goes  aboard  ship. 

Power-plant  men  will  see  at  once  that  the  instruc- 
tion of  these  metal-worker  bluejackets  is  essentially 
in  productive  work. 

The  course  in  pipe  fitting,  which  embraces  training 
in  coppersmithing,  tinsmithing,  sheet-  and  galvanized- 
iron  construction,  covers  mathematics  through  solid 
geometry,  catalog  study,  freehand  sketching  and  laying 
out  of  water,  vapor  and  low-pressure  heating  systems, 
plan  reading  and  estimating  quantities. 

Gas-Engine  Instruction 

Outfitted  at  the  start  with  a  set  of  hand  tools  and 
all  the  standard  coppersmith  stakes,  the  bluejackets 
in  the  power-plant  course  are  then  acquainted  with 
the  crimping  machine,  the  bar  folder  for  stovepipe, 
the  cornice  brake  to  bend  up  edges,  the  squaring  and 
circle  shears,  and  rolls  for  forming.  Working  in  tin, 
the  students  make  mess  pans,  dust  pans,  drinking  cups, 
cooking  measures  and  funnels;  then  they  proceed  to 
such  marine  articles  as  tees,  elbows,  bunker  lamps  and 
ventilators.  While  such  power-house  accessories  as  oil 
cans,  oil  feeders,  air  chambers  and  ventilators  are  made 
of  copper,  the  more  important  exercises  allied  to  pipe 
fitting  comprise  a  cuff  joint,  a  cramped-seam  pipe, 
a  long  bend,  short  bend,  return  and  offset  bends,  a 
formed   tee,   and   single   and   double   saddle   branches. 

Through  the  naval  students'  gas-engine  class  at 
Dunwoody  lies  the  quickest  avenue  for  a  recruit  to 
attain  the  rating  of  a  chief  petty  oflScer.  This  exigency 
is  created  by  the  sudden  demand  of  the  Government 
for  experienced  gas-engine  men  to  make  up  the  engi- 
neer crews  of  the  new  submarine  chasers.  Now  that 
enlistments  in  the  Navy  are  closed  to  men  of  draft 
age  (unless  their  numbers  are  obviously  far  dovra  the 
list),  perhaps  the  best  chance  remains  for  engineers 
between  between  31  and  35  years  old,  because  of  their 
more  substantial  knowledge  of  the  craft.  However, 
competent  men  between  18  and  21  are  gladly  enrolled 
in  this  course.  The  point  is,  a  man  who  enlists  as 
seam.an  for  training  in  the  submarine-chaser  corps  can 
in  four  months  arrive  at  the  rating  of  chief  machinist's 
mate,  provided  he  knows  what  he  knows.  This  chance 
cannot  be  duplicated,  nor  will  it  last  for  long. 

To  be  sure,  not  all  Dunwoody  gas-engine  apprentices 
are  pointing  for  the  submarine-chaser  service.  Some 
of  the  bluejackets  cannot  make  all  the  requirements, 
which  embody  a  proven  ability  to  handle  men  and  to 
stand  the  shaking  of  the  high  seas  in  a  small  boat. 
Gas-engine  students  not  so  qualified  are  trained  for 
motor-boat  pilots,  operating  the  boats  that  ply  between 


March  19,  1918 


POWER 


397 


ships  of  a  fleet  or  from  a  ship  out  in  the  harbor  to 
shore.  On  a  basis  of  five  days'  instruction  per  week,  with 
Saturday  mornings  for  review  and  tests,  the  gas-engine 
men  spend  three  half-days  in  the  Dunwoody  auto  shop, 
tearing  down,  repairing  and  reassembling  gasoline 
engines,  three  quarter-days  with  classwork  on  theory 


ing  and  repairing  parts.  The  auto  shop  is  fitted  with 
gas  engines  of  various  types  from,  one  to  twelve  cylin- 
ders, with  axles  and  transmissions  of  equivalent  divers- 
ity. The  ignition  room  has  an  electric  dynamometer 
for  testing  horsepower,  with  a  profusion  of  car- 
buretors,   magnetos,    starting    and    lighting    systems. 


ENGINEER    STUDENTS    IN    TRAINING    FOR    SERVICE    ABOARD    SUBMARINE    CHASERS 


of  engines  and  starting  and  lighting,  three  quarter- 
days  in  the  testing  laboratory,  operating  oil  and  steam 
launch  engines,  taking  horsepower  tests,  setting  valves 
and  taking  indicator  cards.  The  remaining  four  half- 
days  have  been  employed  at  a  near-by  lake,  running 
motor  boats  and  learning  to  approach  docks  properly. 
Through  the  winter  the  boat  work  is  indoors,  overhaul- 


For  a  comprehensive  idea  of  this  highly  developed 
course,  a  resume  of  the  work  from  week  to  week  may 
be  taken.  First  the  men  are  given  classroom  lectures 
on  engine  types.  They  make  a  study  of  the  basic 
principles  of  these  types,  including  both  two-  and  four- 
stroke-cycle  kinds,  and  a  survey  of  general  construction 
and  arrangement  of  parts.    The  crank  case  and  attached 


398 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


parts  are  next  taken  up.  This  subject  covers  bearings, 
crankshafts,  flywheels,  counterbalancing  and  connecting- 
rods.  The  third  week  is  devoted  to  cylinder  parts,  their 
assembly  and  correct  fitting,  concluding  with  observa- 
tions on  pistons  and  rings,  the  whole  covering  both 
two-  and  four-stroke-cycle  cylinders.  Valves,  springs 
and  timing  follow,  and  their  correlative  subjects  of 
camshafts   and  timing  gears. 

Cooling  systems  claim  the  fifth  week,  during  which 
pumps  and  piping  of  all  recognized  sorts  are  analyzed 
and  examined.  The  natural  corrollary  of  this  topic 
is  lubrication.  A  description  of  each  lubricating  sys- 
tem is  necessary,  involving  questions  and  answers  on 
oils  and  their  distinguishing  characteristics.  The 
seventh  week  is  given  to  carburetion,  under  these  heads : 
Fuels  and  their  uses,  mixing  valves,  carburetor  types, 
fuel  tanks,  piping  systems,  manifolds,  mufflers,  inlet, 
exhaust,  cutouts. 

By  this  time  the  bluejackets  are  required  to  apply 
their  knowledge  directly  to  the  operation  of  the  Nor- 
folk Navy  Yard  engine  for  a  week,  and  then  to  the  Van 
Blerck  engine.  On  both  these  highly  important  pieces 
of  naval  machinery  each  sailor  is  examined,  asked  to 
describe  all  parts  discussed  and  studied  to  date. 

Three  weeks  are  given  to  the  subject  of  ignition, 
covering  a  description  of  systems,  wiring,  coils,  inter- 
rupters and  distributors,  magnetos  and  generators.  Two 
weeks  more  are  taken  up  with  starting  and  lighting, 
in  the  same  department.  Generators  and  motors,  wiring 
and  cutouts,  storage  batteries  and  lights  are  the  sub- 
divisions of  this  period.  Then  comes  a  week  of  trans- 
mission systems  with  instruction  in  gear  sets,  reverse 
gears,   thrust   bearings,   propeller  shaft   and  propeller. 

Oil  engines  are  considered  separately.  Five  days' 
intensive  application  to  this  type  is  given,  with  horse- 
power tests  and  valve  notations,  so  that  by  this  time 
the  bluejacket  is  familiar  with  every  kind  of  engine 
in  wide  use — gas,  steam  or  oil.  Finishing  training 
succeeds  on  the  Norfolk  and  Van  Blerck  types,  with  a 
study  of  all  features  not  previously  inspected. 

The  final  teaching  period  is  occupied  with  boat  con- 
struction. A  bluejacket  who  knows  how  to  run  a  motor 
boat  should  also  know  how  to  build  and  repair.  In 
the  gas-engine  class  he  winds  up  with  learning  dis- 
placement theory,  hull  construction,  engine  mounting, 
control   and   signals. 

As  fast  as  the  bluejackets  can  complete  this  course 
satisfactorily  they  are  sent  to  receiving  ships  or 
transferred  to  Columbia  University  for  a  four  weeks' 
supplementary  training  on  actual  submarine-chaser 
apparatus.  The  time  required  by  the  average  student 
in  gas-engine  work  at  Dunwoody  is  four  to  five  months. 
At  the  school  of  mechanical  engineering  at  Columbia 
the  sailors  have  a  week  in  the  electrical  laboratory,  a 
week  in  the  mechanical  laboratory  and  two  weeks  of 
outside  training  under  the  supervision  of  instructors. 
The  first  week  of  outside  work  is  in  the  assembly  de- 
partment of  a  chaser  yard  somewhere  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  the  final  week  before  going  to  sea  is  spent 
studying  the  engine  itself  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

Before  a  gas  engineer  is  recommended  for  transfer 
to  Columbia  he  must  pass  a  rigid  personal  examination, 
aside  from  his  technical  test,  by  Ensign  Dodge.  Two 
companies  of  Dunwoody  men  have  qualified  and  are 
now  at  sea. 


Anthracite  Coal  from  Lignite 

By  Charles  Philip  Norton 

A  lawyer  named  Fiske,  whose  standing  and  con- 
nections command  respect,  startled  the  Seattle  public 
in  February  by  announcing  that  after  years  of  ex- 
perimentation he  had  perfected  a  system  of  coal  dis- 
tillation by  which  the  full  power  value  of  lignites  could 
be  utilized,  saving  the  byproducts  of  gas,  coal  tar  and 
oils  and  producing  a  manufactured  coal  containing 
seven-eighths  of  the  fuel  value  of  the  best  Pennsyl- 
vania anthracite.  In  the  process  of  making  coke  from 
bituminous  coal  the  byproducts  are  saved  to  some  ex- 
tent, but  anthracite  coal  goes  to  market  untreated. 

Mr.  Fiske  said  he  had  no  stock  to  sell,  no  scheme 
to  promote.  In  proof  of  his  patriotism  he  proffered  his 
formulas  to  Franklin  K.  Lane,  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
for  the  use  of  the  Government.  Together  with  his 
offer  to  Secretary  Lane,  Mr.  Fiske  urged  that  the 
Government  appropriate  $500,000  and  establish  the  first 
coal-manufacturing  plant,  utilizing  lignites,  with  a 
capacity  of  100,000  tons  per  annum.  The  volume  of 
byproducts,  he  said,  would  be  enormous  and  profitable. 
He  guaranteed  that  the  coal  manufactured  by  his 
process  from  the  practically  worthless  lignites  would 
be  almost  as  good  as  the  best  anthracite  and  that  it 
would  stand  every  test  in  use. 

Mr.  Fiske  is  a  man  of  independent  means.  He  said 
that  if  he  desired  to  make  a  fortune  he  would  engage 
in  such  manufacture  upon  a  colossal  scale  and  in  a 
few  years  would  rank  with  Rockefeller,  but  that  his 
sole  desire  at  this  time  was  to  "swat  the  Kaiser."  "It 
is  almost  a  crime,  in  my  opinion,"  said  Mr.  Fiske,  "to 
waste  the  bjT)roducts  in  coal — products  which  we  need 
so  badly  in  everyday  life." 

The  Fiske  manufactured  coal  is  not  even  second 
cousin  to  the  well-known  briquet,  according  to  his 
statement.  The  latter,  he  says,  simply  is  coal  in  a 
different  form,  containing  all  the  byproduct  elements, 
while  his  coal  is  divested  of  these  products  in  toto.  He 
further  says : 

If  the  Government  is  afraid  to  experiment  with  my  pro- 
cess, but  will  appropriate  the  necessary  capital  for  the 
initial  plant,  I  would  be  perfectly  willing  to  operate  the 
plant  upon  a  lease  and  commercial  basis,  paying  the  Gov- 
ernment 7  per  cent,  on  the  investment,  and  would  put 
up  a  bond  in  any  amount  to  guarantee  the  Government 
against  possibility  of  loss.  Being  a  Westerner,  believing 
in  immediate  action  in  a  matter  so  vital  as  this,  which 
promises  permanent  insurance  against  coal  famine  as  well 
as  a  never-ending  supply  of  the  valuable  byproducts  of 
coal,  I  am  urging  the  Government  to  do  it  now. 

In  almost  every  Western  State  and  in  Northwestern 
Canada  there  are  vast  deposits  of  lignite  coal  which  is 
undesirable  as  fuel  in  its  natural  state.  Mr.  Fiske  is  of 
the  opinion  that  the  United  States  should  lead  in  coal 
distillation.     He  says : 

It  is  no  secret  process,  but  is  well  known  to  scientists 
and  power  engineers  the  world  over.  The  stupidity  of  gov- 
ernments is  such,  however,  that  none  has  yet  started  this 
industry.  Once  begun,  it  will  develop  rapidly  into  a  colos- 
sal enterprise.  Large  capital  is  required  to  get  immediate 
results.  That's  why  I  am  anxious  to  have  the  Government 
take  hold  of  it. 

He  said  his  process  and  formulas  were  the  result  of 
many  years  of  scientific  study  and  experimentation; 
that  he  was  willing  to  make  a  gift  of  the  whole  thing 
to  Uncle  Sam,  provided  the  Government  would  use 
it  to  help  win  the  war. 


March  19,  1918 


POWER 


399 


Warrior  Steam  Plant  of  the  Alabama 

Power  Company 


By  W.  B.  west 


A  stand-by  steam  station  to  be  held  for  taking 
care  of  emergency  loads.  There  is  but  one  25,- 
000-ku:  turbo-generator  unit,  the  largest  in  the 
South.  Two  additional  units  are  to  be  installed. 
Coal  is  obtained  from  a  mine  but  a  feiv  himdred 
feet  distant. 

PRIOR  to  August,   1917,  the   Alabama   Power  Co., 
operating  in  North  Alabama,  with  headquarters  at 
Birmingham,  generated  most  of  its  power  at  Lock 
No.  12  on  the  Coosa  River,  thirty  miles  below  Birming- 


FIG.  1. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OP  THE  POWER  HOUSE  AND 
SUBSTATION 


ham,  and  had  but  a  10,000-kw.  steam  plant  in  reserve. 
This  plant  is  at  East  Gadsden,  Ala.'  At  Lock  No.  12 
there  are  five  13,500-kw.  vertical  waterwheel  generators. 


•See   "Power,"   p.    156,   Aug.    4.    1914. 


When  the  river  gets  low,  these  generators  cannot  carry 
the  load,  and  it  was  seen  that  the  East  Gadsden  plant 
would  soon  be  too  small  to  take  care  of  an  emergency. 
The  company  officials,  therefore,  decided  to  construct  an- 
other steam  plant  on  the  banks  of  the  Warrior  River 
(Fig.  1)  about  forty  miles  northwest  of  Birmingham, 
to  be  held  in  reserve.  By  the  time  the  first  unit  in  this 
plant  was  started,  the  load  in  the  Birmingham  district, 
at  Gadsden  and  at  Anniston,  had  become  so  heavy  as  to 
make  it  necessary  to  put  it  into  operation  at  once. 

Since  that  time  the  Government  has  decided  to  use 
power  generated  at  this  plant  for  the  operation  of  its 
industries  at  Muscle  Shoals  on  the  Tennessee  River 
I' Near  Sheffield,  Ala.)  until  the  $12,000,000  dam  at  that 
place  is  completed.  Construction  crews  are  hastening 
the  completion  of  the  transmission  line.  The  power 
plant  to  serve  the  Government  projects  will  be  enlarged 
and  extended  at  an  initial  cost  of  $3,000,000.  The  size 
of  the  new  units  to  be  installed  has  not  yet  been  de- 
termined. It  is  certain,  however,  that  they  will  have  a 
capacity  of  over  25,000  kv.-a.  each. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Warrior  River  plant 
is  at  an  apex  of  a  large  imaginary  triangle  whose  sides 
inclose  the  Birmingham  district.  Lock  No.  12  is  at  an- 
cfher  apex,  and  the  East  Gadsden  plant  is  at  the  third. 
While  most  of  the  load  is  still  carried  by  the  Lock  No.  12 
plant,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  Warrior  River  plant  in 
operation  except  during  periods  of  high  water  on  the 
Coosa  River. 

The  location  of  the  new  plant  was  determined  largely 
by  the  available  supply  of  coal  and  water.  Ground  was 
broken  early  in  July,  1916,  and  in  spite  of  the  congested 
freight  situation  and  manufacturing  delays,  the  first 
unit  was  started  in  August,  1917.  While  not  a  record 
performance,  yet  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  main 
equipment  was  much  delayed,  it  compares  well  with 
similar  installations  even  in  the  less  active  periods. 

In  general  plan  the  plant  follows  pretty  well  the  estab- 
lished practice  for  an  installation  of  its  size.     The  foun- 


PIG.    2.      BOILER    ROOM    AND    AUTOMATIC    STOKERS  PIG.    3.     THE    EXCITER   END    OP   THE    M.A.IN   GENER.\TOR 


400 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


dations  are  carried  down  to  bedrock,  which  lies  fairly 
level  about  fourteen  feet  below  grade.  The  basement 
walls  of  the  turbine  room  and  the  walls  of  the  cold 
well  are  carried  down  to  rock,  which  is  below  the  river- 
water  level;  but  in  the  boiler  room  the  columns  are 
carried  on  piers  founded  on  rock. 

The  boiler  room  at  present  is  86  x  120  ft.  in  the  clear 
and  accommodates  six  water-tube  boilers.  Fig.  2,  each 


FIG.     4.      THE    25,000    KV.-A.    TURBO-GENERATOR 

of  1200  normal  horsepower  with  150  deg.  superheat. 
Five  of  the  stokers  are  the  underfeed  tuyere  type.  All 
are  driven  by  two  stoker  engines. 

The  fact  that  coal  is  mined  only  a  few  hundred  yards 
up  the  river  from  the  plant  is  one  of  its  interesting 
features.  The  plan  of  establishing  a  power  plant  at  the 
mouth  of  a  coal  mine  has  been  advocated  by  many  of  the 
leading  engineers,  but  as  yet  very  few  plants  have  been 
so'  located.  After  it  leaves  the  mines  the  coal  is  car- 
ried to  the  crusher  in  cars  drawn  by  electric  locomo- 
tive. From  the  crusher  it  is  delivered  upon  a  24-in. 
belt  conveyor  driven  from  the  lower  end.  The  belt  con- 
veyor discharges  into  a  steel  bunker  having  a  capacity 
of  600  tons.  From  the  bunker  the  coal  passes  into  the 
automatic  registering  scales.  Each  stoker  is  equipped 
with  two  sets  of  scales.  The  total  weighing  capacity  of 
the  twelve  scales  is  9600  lb.  per  min.  Ordinarily,  the 
daily  coal  consumption  is  about  450  tons. 

At  present  the  turbine  room  is  40  x  86  ft.  in  the  clear 
and  is  served  by  a  60-ton  overhead  crane.  In  order  to 
make  room  for  the  two  additional  units  that  are  to  be 
installed  at  once  for  the  Government,  the  turbine  room 
will  be  enlarged  to  258  x  40  ft.  Another  crane,  larger 
than  the  one  in  use  at  present,  will  also  be  installed  in 
the  near  future. 

At  present  there  is  one  25,000-kw.-a.,  turbo-generator 
served  by  a  jet  condenser  located  in  the  basement  (see 
Fig.  4).  Circulating  water  is  pumped  from  the  river 
and  goes  back  by  force  of  gravity.  The  generator  is 
cooled  by  means  of  a  water-driven  blower  located  in  the 
basement. 

Water  for  boiler  feed  is  drawn  either  from  the  dis- 
charge or  from  the  intake  canal  and  is  measured  by 
venturi  meters.  Centrifugal  feed  pumps  are  used.  The 
boiler  piping  follows  the  usual  lines. 

The  generator  is  equipped  with  a  direct-connected 
exciter.  Fig.  3.  There  is  also  a  motor-generator  ex- 
citer set  and  a  turbine-driven  exciter.     The  latter  sup- 


plies power  to  haul  coal  from  the  mines  to  the  plant. 
It  is  a  100-kw.  230-volt  machine,  making  3600  r.p.m. 
The  main  generator  speed  is  1800  r.p.m.  The  current 
is  three-phase  60-cycle  generated  at  6600  volts  and  is 
stepped  up  to  45,000  volts  for  distribution.  The  switch- 
ing system  consists  of  duplicate  busses  with  remote-con- 
trolled solenoid-operated  oil  switches.  The  feeder  cir- 
cuits are  equipped  with  three-phase  aluminum-cell 
lightning  arresters. 

The  installation  was  designed  and  constructed  by  the 
company's  engineers  and  construction  department,  0.  G. 
Thorlow,  chief  engineer,  and  J.  A.  Sernit,  chief  elec- 
trical engineer  having  charge  of  the  work.  A.  R.  Gil- 
christ is  in  charge  of  construction. 

Speed-Reduction  Gear 

Small  steam  turbines  and  electric  motors  to  be  cheap 
and  efficient  must  run  at  a  higher  speed  than  the 
machinery  which  they  drive.  Reciprocating  engines, 
on  the  other  hand,  often  run  much  slower  than  the 
generators,  fans,  pumps,  etc.,  for  which  they  furnish 
power.  To  step  the  speed  of  the  prime  mover  up  or  down 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  driven  apparatus  is  a 
problem  which  the  engineer  must  often  solve. 

The  ideal  thing  would  be  a  self-contained  device  which 
could  be  inserted  in  the  shaft  connecting  the  prime 
mover  with  the  load  and  which  would  receive  the  power 
at  the  motor  speed  on  one  side  and  deliver  it  at  the 
desired  speed  on  the  other.  Such  a  device  is  the  Turbo- 
Gear,  shown  in  Fig.  i,  and  manufactured  by  the  Poole 


FIG.  1.  EXTERIOR  OF  THE  TURBO-GEAR 

Engineering  and  Machine  Co.,  of  Woodberry,  Baltimore, 
Md.  If  the  speed  is  to  be  stepped  down,  the  swiftly 
running  motor  or  turbine  is  connected  to  the  smaller 
shaft  at  the  right,  and  the  larger  shaft,  in  the  same  axial 
line  at  the  left,  rotates  in  the  same  direction  at  the 
desired  speed.  If  the  speed  is  to  be  stepped  up,  the 
prime  mover  is  connected  to  the  larger  shaft. 

The  method  by  which  the  change  is  effected  is  shown 
in  Fig.  2.  If  the  shafts  or  pins  upon  which  the  inter- 
mediate or  planet  gears  C  turn,  were  held  in  a  fixed 


March  ID,  1918 


POWER 


401 


position,  it  is  apparent  that  if  the  internal  gear  A  were 
rotated  counterclockwise  it  would  rotate  each  of  the 
intermediate  gears  C  counterclockwise  upon  its  own  axis 
and  these  would  drive  the  pinion  /?  in  a  clockwise  direc- 
tion. But  suppose  the  internal  gear  A  to  be  held 
stationary  and  the  planet  gears  C  to  be  mounted  in  a 
carrier.  Fig.  3,  free  to  turn  upon  its  axis.  If  now  the 
pinion  B  is  revolved  in  a  clockwise  direction,  it  will  turn 
the  gears  C  each  upon  its  own  axis  in  a  counterclock- 
wise direction,  but  they  will  roll  around  upon  the  in- 
ternal gear  A,  carrying  the  cage  which  supports  their 


FIG.    2.     DETAILS    OF   THE    GEAR   MEMBER 

axes,  and  the  shaft  to  which  it  is  attached,  around  in 
a  clockwise  direction,  like  the  actuating  pinion. 

The  assembled  mechanism  is  shown  in  longitudinal 
and  cross-section  in  Fig.  4.  The  pinion  shaft  is  sup- 
ported at  the  left  in  a  ring-oiled  bearing,  and  at  the  right 
its  reduced  end  is  carried  in  a  bronze  bushing  in  the  axis 


of  the  low-speed  shaft.  The  low-speed  member  is  sup- 
ported on  both  sides  of  the  gears  by  ball  bearings. 

An  eccentric  on  the  low-speed  shaft  within  the  casing 
actuates  the  plunger  of  a  pump  by  which  oil  is  forced 
to  all  the  bearings  and  gear  faces  through  the  channels 
shown.  This  oil  gravitates  back  to  a  chamber  in  the 
base  containing  a  cooling  coil,  from  which  chamber  the 
cooled  oil  is  taken  by  the  pump  through  a  filter. 

The  change  in  speed  depends  upon  the  ratio  of  the 
pinion  to  the  large  internal  gear,  the  intermediates  or 
planet  gears  being  simply  carriers.  The  gear  must  be 
designed  with  reference  not  only  to  the  change  in  speed, 
but  to  the  load  to  be  transmitted  and  to  the  actual  as 
well  as  the   relative  speeds.     As  an   indication   of  the 


F-IG.     3.      THE    CARRIER    AND    SLOW-SPEED    BEARING 

range  of  speeds  and  horsepower  capacity  offered,  the 
following  data  are  given  relative  to  five  types  of  Turbo- 
Gears  : 


Type  A,  with  24  separate  ratios  from  4  :  I  to    7 

Type  B,  with  51  separate  raticj  from  4  ;  1  to  10 

Type  C,  with  71  separate  ratios  from  4  :  1  to  13 

Type  D,  with  105  separate  ratios  from  4  ;  1  to  19 

Type  E,  ^vith  135  separate  ratios  from  4  ;  I  to  17 


I,  good  for  from  I  to  50  hp.; 
I,  good  for  from  1  to  130  hp.; 
I,  good  for  from  1  to  240  hp.; 
1,  goo.I  for  from  1  to  400  hp.; 
1,  good  for  from  1  to  800  hp.; 


The  Poole  company  is,  however,  able  to  furnish  gears 
capable  of  transmitting  any  load  up  to  20,000  hp.  with 
speed  ratios  varying  from  4  :  1  up,  which  ought  to  meet 
any  case  likely  to  occur  in  ordinary  practice. 


LOW-SPEED         -/S^/    \    ~____X 
CENTR!FU6/IL. 


v-LO\V-SPEED  MEMBER 


-ECCENTRIC 


'LOW  SPEED         p,^„„ 


FORCED  FEED 
PUMP 


—/flR  CHAMBER 


CCOL/NO  CCJL 


FIG.    4.      LONGITUDI.N.\L    A.XD    TRANSVERSE    CROSS-SECTION   OF  TUE  TURBO   CE.VK 


402 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


Electric  Welding  Stops  Leaks  in  Girth  Seams 


By  ROMEO  A.  GRISE 


To  engineers  who  have  experienced  trouble  with 
leaks  in  the  first  girth  seam  of  return-tubular 
boilers,  the  following  is  of  interest.  The  trouble 
referred  to  in  this  article  is  leakage  due  to  fire- 
cracks  at  the  seam  over  the  fire. 

IN  THE  plant  to  which  this  article  refers  there  are  five 
84-in.  return-tubular  boilers  with  overhanging 
fronts,  nine  72-in.  return-tubular  boilers  with  flush 
fronts  and  two  water-tube  boilers.  The  boilers  that  gave 
the  trouble  are  the  84-in.  and  that  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  oldest  of  these  five  has  been  in  service  seven 
years.  None  of  the  other  boilers  has  ever  given  any 
trouble  at  the  girth  seams. 

The  first  of  the  troublesome  boilers  had  been  in  place 
almost  four  years  before  any  leakage  occurred,  and 
that  was  so  slight  at  first  that  when  new  boilers  were 
needed  for  e.xtensions  it  did  not  influence  us  against 
choosing  the  same  type.  The  fire-cracks  through  which 
the  leakage  passed  appeared  from  the  rivet  hole  to  the 
calking  edge.  At  first  only  a  few  were  noticed,  but  as 
time  wore  on  it  was  not  surprising  to  find  twelve  to 
sixteen  cracks  on  one  boiler  extending  from  a  point  over 
the  fire  to  about  one-quarter  way  around  the  shell. 
Some  of  the  cracks  were  from  one  rivet  hole  to  another. 
Pieces  of  the  plate  actually  fell  out  while  the  boiler- 
makers  were  calking  the  edge. 

Cause  of  Leaks  Perplexing 
The  cause  of  the  trouble  puzzled  us  all.  Some  said 
it  was  due  to  the  water;  but  if  that  was  so,  why  did 
we  not  also  have  trouble  with  the  72-in.  boilers?  One 
thing  seems  certain,  and  that  is,  the  thickness  of  the 
metal  from  which  the  shell  was  made  had  some  influ- 
ence. These  boilers  are  made  of  i-in.  plate,  while  the 
72-in.  boilers  are  of  /(j-in.  plate.  The  extra  thickness 
makes  some  difference  when  the  plate  is  over  a  very  hot 
fire,  but  beyond  the  possibility  of  thick  plate  no  one 
here  offers  a  good  reason  for  the  trouble.  The  ma- 
terial used  in  making  these  boilers  was  not  necessarily 
poor,  because  all  boilers  gave  the  same  trouble  and  no 
two  of  them  were  built  at  the  same  time.  We  do  not 
believe  that  mud  or  oil  was  to  blame  for  the  fire-cracks ; 
for  while  there  was  just  a  trace  of  oil  and  a  little  mud 
did  collect  in  the  bottom  of  the  boilers,  the  same  condi- 
tions were  true  for  the  72-in.  boilers. 

It  was  finally  realized  that  just  plain  calking  would 
not  stop  the  leaks.  It  was  then  decided  to  try  oxyacety- 
lene  welding. 

The  way  this  was  first  tried  was  to  weld  the  plates 
together  solid  along  the  calking  edge;  but  this  did  not 
hold,  as  on  absorbing  the  heat  the  inside  plate  would 
curl  up  and  away  from  the  lap  and  the  weld  would 
break  almost  immediately.  In  one  joint  the  strain 
caused  by  the  cooling  of  the  weld  pulled  the  rivets  apart. 
Then  it  was  decided  to  take  out  the  rivets  where  the 
fire-cracks  occurred,  "V"  out  these  cracks,  weld  the 
plate  back  to  normal  again  and  scarf  the  edge.  After 
the  plate  was  welded,  the  rivet  holes  on  the  welded  plate 


were  drilled  and  the  boiler  again  riveted  just  as  in  the 
shop.  This  job  seemed  to  give  satisfaction,  and  the  re- 
maining four  boilers  were  similarly  repaired.  The  first 
boiler  ran  about  six  months  before  it  started  to  leak 
again,  but  the  other  four  lasted  only  a  short  time;  one 
of  them,  the  last  one  repaired,  held  hardly  two  weeks. 

About  this  time  forced  draft  was  used  under  these 
boilers,  a  fact  which  doubtless  did  not  better  conditions, 
as  the  fire  in  the  furnace  was  almost  white  hot.  Still, 
forced  draft  was  not  the  cause  of  the  boilers  leaking 
again. 

For  the  next  five  months  we  were  trying  to  keep 
going  as  best  we  could.  The  load  was  quite  heavy,  the 
coal  very  bad  and  the  draft  poor.  Those  boilers  would 
leak  so  badly  that  when  the  men  came  on  in  the  morn- 
ing, there  would  be  a  large  area  on  the  grates  where 
the  fire  was  dead  and  the  fuel  bed  water-soaked.  Some 
of  the  boilers  had  two  or  three  streams  the  size  of  a 
lead  pencil  pouring  down  on  the  fire.  Imagine  trying  to 
get  up  steam  under  those  conditions.  It  was  necessary 
to  have  boilermakers  on  the  job  every  two  or  three 
weeks  to  calk  the  cracks. 

The  Electric  Welder  Is  Called  In 

Finally  we  got  in  touch  with  electric  welders  who 
would  tackle  most  any  kind  of  a  job  and  guarantee  it 
to  hold.  The  guarantee  was  something  new  to  us  as 
the  oxyacetylene  people  would  not  guarantee  their  work. 
As  a  last  resort  we  decided  to  give  these  electric  weld- 
ers a  trial.  We  had  everything  to  gain  and  nothing 
to  lose;  the  condition  of  the  boilers  meant  patching 
each  one  of  them  and  possibly  having  the  pressure  cut 
down  by  the  insurance  company.  And  a  patch  would 
expose  two  seams  to  the  fire  instead  of  one,  which  pre- 
sented the  possibility  of  twice  the  trouble  and  of  event- 
ually compelling  us  to  throw  out  the  boilers. 

When  the  electric  welder  arrived,  we  had  our  worst 
boiler  out  for  him.  He  looked  it  over  carefully  and 
asked  a  few  questions,  then  calmly  told  us  he  could  fix 
the  boiler  so  it  would  be  tight  and  would  give  us  a 
three-year  written  guarantee.  He  also  gave  us  as 
references  the  owners  of  two  large  power  plants  where 
he  had  done  similar  work.  We  wrote  these  people  and 
received  encouraging  replies. 

The  process  of  electric  welding  required  that  first 
the  boilermaker  chip  away  all  the  old  stock  on  the  out- 
side of  the  girth  seam  till  clean  metal  was  reached. 
When  he  had  chipped  away  all  that  was  necessaiy,  the 
welder  built  up  new  stock  on  the  plate,  bringing  it  up 
to  its  original  length  and  thickness.  At  the  same  time 
that  the  plate  v/as  being  built  up,  it  was  welded  to  the 
other  plate  at  the  lap,  and  when  the  calking  edge  was 
reached  the  whole  seam  was  welded  together. 

Where  there  was  much  new  stock  to  build  up,  it  was 
necessary  for  the  boilermaker  to  chip  off  the  scale  of 
each  "layer"  as  it  was  applied  by  the  welder.  The  loose 
rivets  were  also  welded  to  the  plate  without  being  re- 
moved, it  being  necessary  only  to  chip  all  around  the 
heads. 

For  electric  power  the  welder  used  our  regular  110- 
volt  direct  current  with  about  50  amperes.     The  volt- 


March  19,  1918 


POWER 


403 


age  was  cut  down  to  about  20  through  a  water  rheo- 
stat. One  side  of  the  line  was  grounded  at  the  switch- 
board so  that  the  boiler  proper  formed  the  other  side. 
On  an  average  job  it  took  the  welder  between  12  and 
14  hours  to  weld  six  feet  of  girth  seam. 

After  this  boiler  was  finished  and  satisfactorily 
passed  the  scrutinizing  inspector  of  the  insurance  com- 
pany, we  waited  a  couple  of  weeks  for  developments. 
As  the  job,  however,  appeared  to  hold  well  and  to  be  as 
good  as  guaranteed,  we  decided  to  have  the  remaining 
four  boilers  welded. 

It  is  now  more  than  four  months  since  the  first  boiler 
was  welded,  and  all  five  look  as  good  and  are  as  tight  as 
the  day  they  were  finished.    We  feel  pretty  certain  that 


the  welding  will  hold  for  the  three  years  and  longer. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  the  success  of  this  job 
over  the  o.xyacetylene  is  due  to  two  facts.  One  is  that 
with  o.xyacetylene  welding  the  metal  is  heated  over  a 
large  area  and  consequently  there  are  strains  when  the 
metal  is  cooling.  In  the  electric  welding  the  heat  is 
localized  with  little  or  no  attendant  strains  due  to  cool- 
ing of  the  material. 

The  success  of  this  welding  is  due  also,  I  believe, 
to  the  man  doing  the  work.  He  must  know  how  to  do  a 
first-class  job  and  must  use  good  judgment  both  as  to 
the  amount  of  stock  to  be  chipped  away  before  he  starts 
welding  and  as  to  the  thickness  of  stock  applied  on  each 
"layer"  as  he  is  building  upon  the  old  piata. 


Maintenance  of  Electric  Elevators 

By  CHARLES  W.  NAYLOR 

Chief  Engineer,  Marshall  Field  &  Co.,  Chicago,  Member  A.  S.  M.  E. 


Cable  and  brake  troubles,  iron  vs.  steel  ropes, 
governor  cables,  the  need  of  lubrication  and  kilo- 
watt-hour consumption  per  car-mile  of  electric 
elevators  are  discussed. 


CABLES,  as  the  wire  lifting  ropes  of  elevators  are 
called,  are  the  source  of  one  of  the  two  chief 
elevator  troubles.  The  substitution  of  steel  for 
iron  ropes,  which  has  come  about  during  the  last  twenty 
years,  has  added  greatly  to  the  worries  of  maintenance 
engineers,  for  the  change  has  not  brought  with  it  all 
that  might  be  wished  for.  The  more  recent  machines, 
with  their  higher  speeds  and  greater  loads,  naturally  led 
to  the  use  of  new  materials  without  necessarily  adding 
to  their  reliability.  The  increased  cost  of  renewals  ac- 
companying the  use  of  steel  cables  is  almost  enough  to 
condemn  them.  If  the  operator  would  be  satisfied  to  put 
up  with  the  troublesome  stretch  of  iron  ropes,  he  would 
be  tempted  to  use  them  exclusively,  but  excessive 
stretching  or  lengthening  of  the  cables  has  to  be  equal- 
ized by  frequent  and  tedious  readjustments  of  the  limit 
sto'ps  and  the  compensating  devices,  particularly  where 
there  is  only  a  small  overtravel  space  at  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  hatchway.  When  it  is  considered  that 
these  adjustments  must  be  made  for  both  the  car  and 
the  counterweights  as  well  as  for  compensating  weights 
or  chains,  the  engineer  will  often  ask  himself,  Does 
it  pay? 

The  harder  and  stiflfer  a  rope,  provided  it  is  flexible 
enough  to  suit  the  carrying  sheaves  or  drums,  the  more 
rapidly  it  crystallizes  and  breaks.  A  good  quality  of 
iron  rope  and  perhaps  a  soft-steel  cable,  may  run  four  or 
five  years  on  a  traction  machine,  while  a  hard-steel  cable 
will  need  replacing  in  two  years  or  less  on  account  of 
its  greater  brittleness.  This  defect  is  intensified  by  the 
manufacturer  making  the  ropes  too  hard  on  the  pre- 
tense that  great  strength  is  needed.  This  applies  equally 
to  all  makes  of  rope. 

In  spite  of  the  utmost  precaution  no  manufacturer 
is  certain  that  two  batches  of  rope  of  the  same  catalog 
grade  will  act  alike  in  service.  At  any  rate  the  engi- 
neer using  them  knows  it  by  the  cost  to  his  employer 


for  renewals.  Breakage  is  liable  to  occur  at  any  point 
of  the  cable  running  over  the  drums. 

There  is  another  break,  which  occurs  at  the  shackles 
on  top  of  the  car.  It  is  caused  by  the  flection  produced 
by  the  cables  swinging  from  side  to  side.  The  severe 
changing  torsion  set  up  at  this  point,  because  of  the 
tendency  of  the  cable  to  unwind  and  rewind  on  itself 
due  to  the  set  given  it  when  built  in  the  factory,  also 
contributes  to  the  stress  at  this  point.  The  set  in  the 
cable  is  disturbed  by  the  frequent  and  great  changes 
in  load  that  accompany  the  starting  and  stopping  of  the 
car.  The  strain  runs  from  zero  to  several  thousand 
pounds  and  may  take  place  a  number  of  times  in  each 
minute  that  the  machine  is  in  operation.  The  ball-bear- 
ing swivel  shackle  is  intended  to  obviate  this  trouble, 
and  is  successful  to  a  considerable  degree. 

If  a  cable  runs  many  years,  as  was  common  in  the  use 
of  elevators  years  ago,  the  inner  strand  will  frequently 
crumble  and  be  broken  in  small  pieces,  the  cause  being 
largely  a  lack  of  interior  lubrication  in  the  cable  itself. 
If  cables  are  in  use  less  than  three  years  under  aver- 
age operating  conditions,  and  run  in  a  warm,  dry  place 
over  generously  proportioned  drums  having  a  diameter 
of  60  to  I  for  the  rope,  the  lubricant  put  in  the  cables 
by  the  manufacturer  will  be  sufficient  to  prevent  this 
cracking.  If  the  life  of  the  cables  exceeds  this  pe- 
riod, and  particularly  when  the  cables  travel  over  small 
sheaves,  if  the  former  is  of  hard  material  and  is  used  in 
a  cold  and  damp  place,  frequent  lubrication  is  neces- 
sary. A  good  penetrating  oil  or  liquid  grease  is  best 
for  this  purpose. 

Governor  ropes  or  cables  are  made  of  vegetable  fiber- 
like hemp  or  cotton  and  of  steel  or  iron.  They  are 
naturally  more  flexible  than  the  lifting  ropes,  but  have 
troubles  similar  to  the  larger  cables  although  to  a  lesser 
degree.  They  require  internal  lubrication  only  when 
run  in  damp  places  and  when  in  use  for  unusually  long 
periods.  A  record  kept  on  manila  governor  ropes  for 
15  elevators  shows  a  wearing-out  or  breaking  period 
varying  between  14  and  56  months,  with  an  average  life 
of  37  months. 

The  second  cause  of  serious  trouble  in  an  electric  ele- 
vator is  the  brake — and  these  two  troubles,  cable  and 
brake,  are  of  moi-e  moment  than  all  others  combined. 


404 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


An  elevator  brake,  in  many  installations,  is  applied 
many  thousand  times  every  day  and  must  bring  a  high- 
speed 40-  to  50-hp.  motor  and  a  fast-moving  elevator 
car  weighing  6000  to  8000  lb.  to  rest  and  hold  it  each 
time  the  car  is  stopped.  Of  course  it  is  helped  to  some 
extent  by  the  dynamic-braking  action  of  the  motor,  but 
the  real  stopping  is  done  by  the  brake  itself.  Since  the 
brake  has  to  act  so  frequently  and  positively,  it  must 
act  through  a  small  space,  which  minimizes  the  oppor- 
tunities for  adjustments.  In  fact,  it  is  an  extremely 
difficult  task  to  adjust  a  brake  so  that  it  will  work 
equally  well  on  up  and  down  travel,  and  particularly  with 
temperature  changes-  that  come  with  frequent  use. 
Brake  bands  and  their  lining  and  the  brake  wheels  or 
drums,  become  hot  on  severe  service,  rising  75  or  100 
deg.  F.  above  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  at- 
mosphere. 

The  lining  of  the  brake  band,  on  which  the  brunt  of 
the  work  falls,  gives  the  most  trouble.  No  really  good 
substitute  for  the  usual  leather  lining  has  been  found, 
although  a  number  of  asbestos  and  fibrous  compounds 
have  been  given  trials.  The  old-style  wooden  blocks 
with  the  grain  end  on  did'  not  prove  satisfactory. 

A  brake  must  set  itself  smoothly,  not  too  suddenly, 
and  with  certainty.  Brake  slippage,  if  not  too  serious, 
may  be  anticipated  by  the  skilled  operator,  except  at 
the  top  and  bottom  landing,  where  there  is  small  pit 
space.  A  car  must  come  to  the  top  and  bottom  landings 
at  normal  speed,  as  otherwise  the  automatic  limit  stops 
interfere  with  the  car  reaching  the  floor. 

A  good  brake  lining  in  easy  service  may  last  for 
years,  but  in  heavy  work  only  a  few  months  The 
leathers  must  be  solid  and  clear  of  hard  spots.  Built- 
up  leather  in  which  glue  or  cement  is  used,  will  not 
last  long  enough  to  justify  giving  it  a  trial. 

Calculating  the  Energy  Consumption 

The  energy  consumption  in  kilowatt-hours  per  mile  of 
car  travel  is  best  obtained  by  taking  the  total  readings 
over  a  period  of  not  less  than  eight  hours.  An  ordinary 
recording  watt-hour  meter  and  a  revolution  counter  at- 
tached to  the  main  drum  or  sheave  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose nicely.  The  counter  must  not  be  attached  to  the 
drum  periphery,  because  the  speed,  often  400  to  500  ft. 
per  min.  is  too  great.  A  good  place  to  connect  on  the 
counter  is  at  the  small  chain  operating  the  signal  lights, 
if  this  latter  device  is  used. 

There  is  a  movement  of  the  car  at  the  end  of  its 
travel  that  is  too  small  to  register  a  full  unit  on  the 
counter,  but  this  is  absorbed  in  the  total  travel  when 
the  test  is  extended  over  several  hours.  It  is  seldom 
that  the  recorded  revolutions  of  the  counter  match 
evenly  with  the  cable  travel,  so  that  a  constant  must  be 
found  and  used  in  multiplying  the  revolutions  to  give 
n  correct  product  in  feet  or  miles. 

As  e.xplained  in  a  previous  article  ("Operating  Costs 
of  Electric  Elevators,"  Feb.  5  issue)  the  plant  in  ques- 
tion contains  91  elevators,  77  being  used  for  passenger 
service  and  14  for  freight.  Fifty  of  the  passenger  cars 
are  of  the  worm-gear  overhead  drum  type.  The  others 
are  traction  elevators,  a  few  being  of  the  basement 
type. 

The  drum  machines  run  11  to  15  miles  per  day  and  the 
traction  elevators,  16  to  20  miles  each.  The  energy  con- 
sumption of  the  drum-type  elevators  is  3.5  to  5.5  kw.-hr. 


per  mile  of  car  travel.  No  two  cars  out  of  the  50  under 
discussion  use  exactly  the  same  amount  of  current,  ex- 
cept by  accident,  and  any  one  car  will  register  differ- 
ently from  one  day  to  another,  but  the  average  for  any 
ten  cars  taken  at  random,  is  4.55  kw.-hr.  per  car-mile. 
For  the  traction  machines  it  is  4.25  kw.-hr.  per  car-mile. 
The  car  speed  per  minute  is  greater  in  the  case  of  the 
traction  machines,  but  the  cars  are  smaller  and  lighter. 
The  drum-machine  motors  are  rated  at  42  hp.  and  run  at 
700  and  850  r.p.m.,  while  the  traction-machine  motors 
are  35  hp.  at  60  to  65  revolutions. 

In  a  working  plant  it  is  not  convenient  to  get  the 
comparative  records  for  up  and  down  travel,  and  when 
varying  loads  in  both  directions  are  taken  into  con- 
sideration, there  is  no  good  reason  for  assuming  any  dif- 
ference. In  the  plant  under  discussion  about  40  cars  are 
operated  on  the  basis  of  20  for  up  passengers  only  and 
20  for  down  travel.  These  cars  run  empty  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  yet  careful  and  numerous  readings  fail 
to  show  any  material  difference  in  the  results  that 
are  obtained. 

Five  basement  traction  machines  showing  9.4  miles 
each  per  day,  average  6.3  kw.-hr.  per  car-mile.  Eight 
overhead  one-to-one  traction  elevators  with  16  landings, 
running  express  to  the  seventh  floor,  show  17.5  miles 
each  per  day  and  an  average  of  4.6  kw.-hr.  per  car-mile. 
Two  overhead  drum-type  machines  with  light  cars,  stop- 
ping only  at  the  first,  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  floors, 
travel  16  miles  per  day  on  a  current  consumption  of  3.6 
kw.-hr.  per  mile.  Forty  or  more  overhead  drum-type 
machines  averaging  14.5  miles  per  day,  use  5.1  kw.-hr. 
per  car-mile.  The  accuracy  of  all  tests  on  individual 
machines  has  been  demonstrated  by  comparing  results 
obtained  on  two  watt-hour  meters  and  further  checked 
by  testing  the  machines  in  groups  of  five  on  a  large 
watt-hour  meter. 

Carelessness  Wrecks  Gasoline  Plant 

Carelessness  on  the  part  of  a  helper  in  the  engine 
room  of  the  Moon  gasoline  plant,  near  Tulsa,  Okla., 
wrecked  the  building,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The 
explosion  was  due  to  two  causes.  First,  one  of  the 
compressors  exploded,  filling  the  plant  with  gas;  then 


BUILDING  WRECKED   BY   GAS   EXPLOSION 

an  inexperienced  engineer's  helper  took  it  upon  himself 
to  stop  the  engine,  and  in  doing  so  he  made  the  mistake 
of  pulling  a  spark-plug  connection,  which  ignited  the  gas 
and  caused  an  explosion.  Eight  men  were  seriously 
injured.  As  shown  in  illustration,  the  roof,  which  was 
made  of  corrugated  iron,  and  the  sides  of  the  building 
were  partly  blown  off. 


March  19,  1918 


POWER 


406 


SMALL  WEIGftrS  on  BIG  SO\LES 


BY 

JVCX).  Qurch 


It  is  occasionally  desired  to  weigh  small  articles  ac- 
curately when  the  only  means  available  is  a  platform 
scale  designed  for  weighing  hundreds  of  pounds.  By 
a  method  outlined  herewith,  small  articles  may  be 
weighed  on  platform  scales  within  1/100  lb.  and  often 
within  1/400  lb.  of  accuracy. 

On  most  platform  scales  the  100-lb.  weight  actually 
weighs  one  pound.  That  is,  one  pound  on  the  weight 
pan  will  balance  100  lb.  on  the  platform.  Other  scales 
have  ratios  of  200:  1  or  50:  1.  In  any  case  the  ratio 
can  usually  be  found  easily  by  reading  the  marks  on  one 
of  the  weights  or  weighing  one  or  more  of  them. 

Let  us  assume  we  have  a  platform  scale  capable  of 
weighing  up  to  600  lb.  by  half-pounds  and  that  it  has 
a  ratio  of  100:  1.  If  it  is  desired  to  weigh  a  small 
article  accurately,  place  it  on  the  weight  pan  and  run 
the  sliding  weight  back  to  zero.  Then  put  sufficient 
weight  of  any  kind  on  the  platform  to  raise  the  beam. 
Your  own  weight  is  usually  most  convenient.  Bal- 
ance the  scales  with  the  sliding  weight,  and  note  the 
reading.  Suppose  this  to  be  115 J  lb.,  for  example;  then 
remove  the  article  being  weighed,  say  it  is  a  spring, 
and  again  balance  the  scales  by  sliding  the  weight  on 
the  beam  or  adding  scale  weights  to  the  weight  pan. 
Note  the  reading  again,  say  153  lb.  The  weight  of  the 
article  is  (153  —  1151)  -^  100  =  0.375  lb. 

This  method  can  be  extended  to  cover  many  uses,  as 
for  any  weight  from  as  small  as  will  tip  the  beam  up  to 
a  weight  as  great  as  the  range  of  the  scale  divided  by 
the  ratio. 

One  particular  use  of  this  method  is  for  the  determi- 
nation of  specific  gravity.  If  we  have  a  specimen  of 
metal,  rock  or  other  insoluble  substance  that  will  not 
float,  the  following  method  may  be  used:  With  a  light 
cord  hang  the  specimen  a  foot  or  so  below  the  weight 
pan  and  take  its  weight.  Then  hold  a  pail  of  water 
so  that  the  specimen  is  submerged  and  weigh  again. 
Using  the  rule,  specific  gravity  equals  weight  in  air 
divided  by  loss  of  weight  in  water,  if  a  piece  of  metal 
weighs  1.43  lb.  in  the  air  and  1.225  lb.  in  water,  the 
specific  gravity  is  1.43  -^  (1.43  —  1.225)  =  6.97-f . 

In  the  case  of  liquids  hang  an  empty  bottle  on  the 
scale  pan  by  a  cord  and  balance  the  scales.  Then  fill 
the  bottle  to  a  given  point  with  water  and  find  the 
weight  of  the  water  by  the  method  already  given.  Then 
fill  the  bottle  to  exactly  the  same  point  with  the  liquid 
to  be  tested  and  get  the  weight  of  that.  The  specific 
gravity  of  the  liquid  will  be  equal  to  the  weight  of  liquid 
divided  by  the  weight  of  water.  That  is,  if  the  water 
weighed  2.147  lb.  and  the  weight  of  an  equal  volume 


406 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  12 


of  a  certain  kind  of  oil  was  2.042  lb.,  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  oil  would  be  2.042  ^  2.147  =  0.952. 

The  idea  of  using  the  ratio  of  the  scales  applies  also 
to  utilizing  the  scales  for  counting  when  the  amount  of 
counting  to  be  done  does  not  warrant  a  special  scale. 
Suppose  we  have  a  thousand  or  so  nuts  to  be  counted. 
Place  a  box  on  the  scale  platform  and  balance  the  scales 
by  the  sliding  weight.  Then  put  the  nuts  into  the  box. 
Again  balance  the  scales  by  piling  nuts  on  the  weight 
pan.  If  the  ratio  of  the  scales  is  100:  1,  there  will  be  as 
many  hundreds  of  nuts  in  the  box  as  there  are  nuts 
on  the  pan.  If  accuracy  is  desired,  the  final  balanc- 
ing may  be  done  by  taking  a  few  nuts  out  of  the  box 
and  counting  the  odd  nuts  and  those  on  the  pan  by 
hand. 

When  there  is  much  counting  to  be  done,  it  will  be 
found  handy  to  make  a  special  pan  out  of  a  small  pie 
tin  and  a  piece  of  rod  to  take  the  place  of  the  regular 
pan.  It  should  be  made  to  weigh  exactly  the  same  as 
the  regular  pan  and  will  hold  many  more  small  parts. 
Such  an  arrangement  will  be  found  handy  in  any  store- 
room and  will  usually  pave  the  way  for  a  regular  count- 
ing scale. 

Industrial  Plant  Furnishes  Street 
Railway  Power 

It  is  often  possible  for  an  industrial  power  plant 
to  find  some  use  for  its  excess  power  which  will  extend 
the  period  of  the  peak  load  without  increasing  its 
magnitude  and  at  the  same  time  materially  benefit  the 
new  power  user.  An  interesting  example  of  this  is 
the  supply  of  direct  current  by  the  Westinghouse  Elec- 
tric and  Manufacturing  Co.  to  the  Pittsburgh  Railways 
Co.  for  the  operation  of  its  cars  in  and  about  East 
Pittsburgh,  Penn.  Owing  to  the  tremendous  increase  in 
the  number  of  employees  at  the  Westinghouse  plant, 
the  present  overhead  equipment  of  the  street  railway 
was  overtaxed  for  about  two  hours  morning  and  even- 
ing. 

To  take  care  of  this  condition,  connections  were 
made  between  the  railway-feeder  system  and  the 
Westinghouse  company's  rotary  converters  in  its  power 
house.  Since  this  arrangement  has  been  in  operation 
there  has  always  been  plenty  of  power  to  move  cars 
at  any  time  and  the  day's  demand  upon  the  industrial 
power  plant  has  not  increased,  although  its  duration 
has  been  somewhat  lengthened. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  many  industrial  companies 
similarly  located  with  respect  to  transit  lines  extending 
out  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  railway's  last 
substation  could  use  such  a  method  with  great  advan- 
tage. While  the  revenue  from  the  sale  of  power  is 
of  course  desirable,  the  principal  benefit  will  be  found 
to  be  in  getting  employees  to  and  from  work  on  time,  in 
which  an  ample  supply  of  power  is  an  important  factor. 

Ernst  Safety  Gage-Glass 

One  of  the  annoyances  of  the  boiler  room  is  the 
breaking  of  water-gage  glasses.  This  is  due  to  several 
reasons,  such  as  the  connections  being  out  of  alignment, 
erosion  of  the  glasses  at  the  upper  end,  due  to  the 
action  of  steam,  cold  drafts  striking  the  glass,  acci- 
dental breakage,  etc. 


These  causes  of  breakage  seem  to  have  been  over- 
come in  the  Ernst  safety-gage  glass,  manufactured 
by  Ernst  &  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J.  The  water  glass  is 
fitted  into  a  centralizing  member  composed  of  an  upper 
and  a  lower  holder,  each  fitted  with  a  packing  nut.  To 
a  projection  of  each  a  removable  metal  half  frame  is 
secured,  which  holds  the  whole  rigid.  The  back  of  the 
frame  is  drilled  with  1-in.  holes  and  three  lines  of  red 
are  painted  on  the  inside  of  the  strip,  which  causes 
the  water  to  show  red  when  it  is  viewed  from  any 
direction. 

In  the  upper  connection  there  is  a  hollow  pen-shaped 
member  through  which  all  condensation  trickles  without 
touching  the  glass,  which  is  held  tight  in  the  upper  and 


DETAIL  OF  THE  ERNST  SAFETY  GAGE-GLASS 

lower  members  by  rubber  washers  and  packing  nuts  in 
the    regular   manner. 

The  top  and  bottom  nipples  of  the  centralizing  device 
fit  into  the  regular  water-glass  connection,  the  same 
as  the  ordinary  water  glass,  but  any  ordinary  packing 
can  be  used  to  keep  them  steam-  and  water-tight. 

The  bottom  member  of  the  centralizing  device  is 
fitted  with  a  check  ball  which  operates  only  when  the 
glass  breaks,  in  which  case  the  ball  is  forced  up  against 
its  seat,  thus  preventing  the  escape  of  water.  As  the 
ball  operates  in  a  vertical  chamber,  which,  although 
containing  a  ball,  has  an  area  equal  to  that  of  the 
opening  in  the  top  member,  it  cannot  remain  in  a  closed 
position.  Any  glass  will  fit  into  the  protecting  frame, 
and  the  complete  member  takes  the  place  of  the  ordinary 
water  glass. 


A   country   worth   fighting   for   is   a   country   worth 
saving  for.     Buy  Thrift  Stamps. 


March  10.  1918  P  0  \V  E  R  407 

^'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiu 


Editorials 


Hiiimiiiinilllliimiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiimiimiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin niimiiiii iiiiiiirijiii;;:!iiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiirmiiimii iiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


The  Miracle  of  the  Mass 

NORMALLY  the  mass  of  the  people  follow  a  few 
leaders.  History  is  the  record,  page  after  page, 
of  the  doings  of  the  nations  under  the  guidance  of  a 
few  men.  But  now  and  then  in  the  record  you  come  to 
a  story — and  it  is  always  a  thriller — in  which  the  mass 
of  the  people  yank  their  leaders  from  ths  head  of  the 
procession  and  move  whenever  and  wherever  their 
whims  or  their  wisdom  dictates.  Such  a  page  is  being 
written  now  in  the  logbook  of  the  world. 

Mass  movements  are  the  miracles  of  the  day.  They 
are  the  big  surprise.  When  the  war  began,  our  minds 
ran  riot  with  the  expectancy  of  inventions — of  miracles 
of  matter.  We  awaited  the  daring  developments  of  wiz- 
ardi-y — things  wireless,  things  uncanny. 

There  have  been  miracles  of  matter,  of  course.  In 
time  of  peace  we  would  have  acclaimed  them  as  mar- 
velous. But  we  give  them  a  glance  and  turn  with 
serious  interest  to  the  miracles  of  mass  movement.  If 
a  chemist  came  forth  now  and  turned  gold  into  lead, 
our  eyes  would  still  be  riveted  to  the  Russian  drama 
where  diamonds  have  become  dust,  and  dust  is  becom- 
ing— what?  We  look  at  Germany  and  Austria.  Will 
the  miracles  of  the  mass  overcome  their  own  miracles 
of  matter  and  make  ours  unnecessary?  In  England, 
they  tell  us,  an  orderly  miracle  of  the  mass  is  taking 
place — and  in  France. 

Who  doesn't  sense  the  upgathering  sweep  of  it  at 
home?  And  if  your  feeling  is  one  akin  to  fear,  is 
there  or  isn't  there,  mingled  with  it  and  dominating  it, 
a  sense  of  relief  because  many  of  the  hampering  grips 
of  the  old  order  are  passing  into  history? 

It  will  be  an  interesting  story  when  it  is  written 
by  a  future  Carlyle;  and  those  of  us  living  in  the 
life  of  it  will  understand  it  better  when  we  read  it 
than  we  do  now.  Old  phrases  will  come  back  to  us. 
"Cost  Plus"  will  be  one  of  them.  We  shall  wonder 
then,  not  at  the  miracle  of  the  mass,  but  at  the  stark 
madness  of  men — we  had  thought  them  big  men — 
who  played  poker  openly  at  a  holy  moment.  The 
tragedy  of  it  is  that  the  poker  players  are  a  minority 
of  what  we  have  come  to  call  our  classes — distinc- 
tions by  professions. 

But  the  mass  indignation  does  not  discriminate.  By 
its  very  nature  it  cannot  discriminate.  It  is  too  over- 
whelming. It  is  a  thing  of  the  heart,  not  of  the  head. 
The  miracle  of  the  mass  can  wreck  us  or  save  us. 
In  all  groups  there  are  good  and  bad,  in  the  moral 
sense.  There  are  good  lawyers  and  bad  lawyers,  good 
employers  and  bad  employers,  good  engineers  and  bad 
engineers,  good  laborers  and  bad  laborers.  If  the  old 
classification  by  professions  does  not  disappear — -and 
that  quickly — the  outlook  is  ominous.  If  the  employers 
stick  together  nr.s  a  clans,  the  lawyers  as  a  class,  the 
industrial  workers  as  a  class,  regardless  of  the  good 
and  evil  among  them.  Heaven  help  us.  But  if  the 
iipfiweeping  protest  against  the  poker  players   of   all 


classes  destroys  the  class  distinctions  and  aligns  the 
good  against  the  bad,  then  we  are  saved. 

The  hope  of  salvation  grows  day  by  day.  Our  fight 
against  a  ruthless  autocracy  to  whom  people  are  pawns 
has  stirred  our  deepest  age-old  moral  instincts.  The 
sons  of  most  of  us  are  in  that  fight.  Their  lives 
cannot  be  gambled  with  by  the  poker  players  of  any 
class,  and  this  feeling  is  permeating  the  good  men  of 
all  classes. 

What  the  miracle  of  the  mass  will  mean  to  us  in  this 
country  lies  in  a  large  measure  in  the  hands  of  the  good 
employers.  Are  they  courageous  enough  to  meet  their 
clear  duty,  to  cut  loose  from  an  artificial  class  grouping, 
and  align  themselves,  by  their  acts,  with  the  good  in  the 
new  moral  grouping? 

What  will  the  future  Carlyle  say  of  them? 

The  Boston  Turbine  Accident 

NATURALLY,  much  interest  is  centered  in  the  ac- 
cident to  the  thirty-five  thousand  kilowatt  horizon- 
tal twenty-stage,  impulse  turbine  in  the  0  Street  Sta- 
tion of  the  Boston  Elevated  Railway  Co.  The  machine 
was  of  a  type  that  represents  the  most  advanced  in 
design  of  single-cylinder  turbines  of  large  capacity. 
With  condenser  and  air  pump  it  represented  an  invest- 
ment of  about  $335,000. 

The  details  of  the  wreck  are  told  on  page  390  of  this 
issue,  so  there  is  no  need  of  reiteration  here.  It  seems 
certain  that  deflection  of  the  east-iron  diaphragm  in  the 
eighteenth  stage  causing  the  diaphragm  to  rub  the 
wheel  and  release  the  buckets  was  the  immediate  cause 
of  the  accident,  just  as  similar  deflection  of  a  cast- 
iron  diaphragm  in  the  same  stage  of  this  turbine  once 
before  stripped  the  buckets  from  the  wheel. 

Considering  that  the  whole  low-pressure  end,  rotor 
and  casing,  went  to  pieces,  it  is  miraculously  fortunate 
that  no  one  was  killed  or  injured. 

As  pointed  out  in  the  article,  the  question  arises  as 
to  whether  it  is  advisable  to  extend  the  use  of  steel  to 
the  large  diaphrams  in  the  lowest  stages  of  these  high- 
capacity  machines.  The  question  is  one  which  cannot 
be  finally  answered  ofthand  at  this  time.  If  in  these 
very  large  diaphragms  it  is  found  that  the  cast  iron  is 
subject  to  frequent  deflection;  that  the  bond  between 
the  buckets  and  the  disk  and  ring  of  the  diaphragm 
soon  weaken ;  or  if  these  relatively  thin  disks  are  likely 
through  any  cause  foreseen  to  be  subjected  to  the 
stresses  set  up  by  centrifugal  force  imposed  by  acci- 
dentally revolving  with  the  shaft — then  steel  seems  ad- 
visable unless  some  means  of  avoiding  these  possible 
troubles  with  cast  iron  are  found,  and  this  seems  pos- 
sible. It  should  here  be  pointed  out  that  the  Boston 
accident  is  the  only  case  we  know  of  where  a  diaphragm 
let  down  on  the  shaft. 

This  Boston  accident  gives  an  impressive  example  to 
all  operating  engineers  of  the  value  of  accurate,  decisive 
and  c:uick  judgment  while  oti  duty  and  responsible  for 


408 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  12 


turbines  in  their  charge.  With  wheel  speeds  up  to 
nearly  one  thousand  feet  per  second,  as  in  these  large 
machines,  the  operator  must  be  quick  enough  either  in 
adjusting  the  thrust  bearing  or  tripping  the  machine 
out  of  service  to  avoid  longer  than  momentary  rub- 
bing of  buckets  and  diaphragms  at  this  speed.  There 
must  be  no  continued  rubbing.  That  is  a  vital  maxim. 
The  operator  must  develop  with  the  turbine.  The 
builder  and  the  employer  must  see  to  it  that  he  so 
thoroughly  understands  how  the  machines  under  his 
care  are  put  together  that  he  can  in  effect  look  through 
the  casing  and  see  every  detail,  gage  every  clearance 
and  anticipate  the  effect  of  this  and  that  happening 
upon  the  safety  and  economy  of  the  machine.  The  oper- 
ator has  the  right  to  demand  that  every  reasonable  fa- 
cility be  available  to  him  to  know  his  machine.  For  this 
reason  the  policy  of  any  builder  to  make  it  difficult  to 
get  drawings  or  photographs  that  would  assist  the  oper- 
ator in  better  knowing  his  machine  is  a  policy  that  has 
no  place  in  modern  power-plant  engineering,  regardless 
of  commercial  considerations.  All  builders  maintain 
corps  of  men  for  the  very  purpose  of  providing  such  in- 
formation to  operators.  But  that  is  not  enough;  the 
operator  must  get  it  and  use  it. 

The  accident  at  Boston  is  simply  an  unfortunate  one 
in  the  development  of  the  art.  Because  the  turbine  is 
the  first  of  the  particular  type  that  it  represents  does 
not  mean  that  there  is  anything  fundamentally  wrong 
in  its  design.  We  believe  the  design  is  safe.  It  is 
the  opinion  of  all  users  of  large-capacity  machines  whom 
we  know  personally  that  this  design  is  safe.  There  are 
millions  of  kilowatts  of  such  types  of  machines  on 
order  for  large  plants  the  country  over.  The  accident 
at  Boston  is,  perhaps,  the  most  momentous  in  turbine 
history,  and  likely  it  will  in  time  have  done  more  good 
for  turbine  development  than  any  other  factor  one 
can  name. 


What   Is  the  Capacity  of  a  Turbine? 

IF  YOU  order  a  ten-,  a  twenty-,  or  a  fifty-thousand 
kilowatt  turbine  and  if,  when  installed,  it  carries  a 
water-box  load  of  just  the  capacity  specified,  but  will 
not  carry  a  thousand-  or  two-thousand  kilowatt  load 
swing  above  that  amount  without  speed  reduction  and 
decrease  in  cycles — if  these  are  the  conditions,  have  you 
got  a  ten-,  a  twenty-  or  a  fifty-thousand  kilowatt  ma- 
chine? If  the  load  was  such  as  to  swing  one  or  two 
thousand  kilowatts  above  ten,  or  twenty  or  fifty  thou- 
sand, would  you  report  the  load  to  the  public-service 
commission,  if  a  public  utility,  as  the  average  or  as  the 
peak  maximum? 

Of  course  these  points  have  been  quite  thoroughly 
thrashed  out,  but  all  engineers  do  not  agree.  The  dis- 
putes about  machine  capacity  led  to  "max.  rating," 
as  engineers  like  to  call  it.  That  is,  the  greatest  load 
a  machine  will  carry  with  specified  speed  is  the  capacity 
of  that  machine.  Technically,  that  seems  reasonable. 
But  the  early  conservatism  of  builders  in  rating  their 
machines  got  engineers  into  the  habit  of  expecting  more 
than  rating  from  them. 

We  thought  that  this  question  of  rating  had  been 
settled,  but  there  are  still  some  wrinkles  in  it  that  have 
not  been  ironed  out  to  the  satisfaction  of  some  folks. 


In  fact,  it  is  probable  that  recent  events  will  open  up 
the  whole  question  anew,  notwithstanding  the  set 
opinions  of  authoritative  persons.  Obviously,  three  fac- 
tors influence  the  capacity  of  the  machine;  namely  the 
pressure  at  the  throttle,  or  better,  the  pressure  at  the 
first  stage,  the  superheat  and  the  vacuum.  In  disputes 
about  the  capacity  of  any  particular  turbine  at  some 
particular  time — as,  for  example,  on  load  swings — one 
naturally  inquires  what  the  steam  and  vacuum  condi- 
tions were  at  the  time.  Were  these  below  what  the 
turbine  required  in  order  to  develop  the  necessary  capa- 
city? If  so,  the  cause  is  not  in  the  turbine  and  the 
purchaser  is  at  fault.  If  these  conditions  were  normal, 
that  is,  as  specified  in  the  guarantee,  and  the  swings, 
whatever  they  may  be,  five,  six  or  seven  per  cent,  of 
the  turbine  rating  could  not  be  carried,  then  is  anyone 
at  fault?  Who  is  going  to  say  where  the  limit  is  in 
this  ability  of  a  turbine  to  carry  swings  above  the  rated 
capacity?  Who  will  say  that  the  turbine  should  not  be 
expected  to  carry  any  swing  above  its  rated  load"?  What 
is  the  consensus  of  opinion?  One  requisite  is  clear 
as  concerns  the  purchaser — he  should  have  a  record  of 
load,  steam  pressure  at  the  throttle,  superheat  and 
vacuum  as  his  evidence  in  event  of  dispute.  Frank 
expressions  now  would  clear  the  air,  and  Poiver  wel- 
comes such  expressions. 

Ash-Handling  Apparatus 

IN  OUR  issue  of  February  5  appeared  an  article  by 
Herbert  E.  Birch  entitled  "Buying  an  Ash-Handling 
System."  The  editor  who  handled  it  did  not  know  that 
the  author  was  the  consulting  engineer  of  a  manufac- 
turer of  conveyors  of  the  bucket  or  skip  type,  and  even 
if  he  had  would  not  have  considered  that  fact  a  dis- 
qualification. It  is  to  specialists  of  this  kind  that  we 
must  turn  for  the  latest  and  best  information  upon  their 
respective  subjects.  We  do  not  intentionally  pay  such 
authors  for  briefs  of  their  cases  in  favor  of  their  own 
apparatus  nor  permit  them  to  go  outside  of  engineering 
grounds  in  criticizing  the  apparatus  of  their  competi- 
tors. 

Letters  from  several  manufacturers  of  apparatus  of 
other  types  and  their  representatives  express  sui-prise 
that  Power  should  have  printed  an  article  which  attacks 
so  viciously  their  type  of  apparatus.  The  "attack"  was 
so  well  camouflaged  as  not  to  have  been  apparent  to 
a  disinterested  editor,  and  its  viciousness  appears  to 
be  more  evident  to  the  minds  of  the  victims  of  the  sup- 
posed attack  than  to  the  less-interested  reader. 

The  article  stands  simply  for  what  it  is,  a  present- 
ment, by  a  man  who  is  identified  in  a  consulting  capacity 
with  one  type  of  ash-conveying  machinery,  of  some  of 
the  points  to  be  considered  in  selecting  an  installation. 
It  bears  nobody's  indorsement  and  is  open  to  criticism, 
denial,  refutation  and  reversal  if  anybody  has  a  case 
against  it  and  the  will  to  state  it.  We  have  no  interest 
or  predilection  in  the  matter  and  invite  the  fullest  and 
freest  discussion  upon  any  statement  which  the  author 
has  made  or  any  suggestion  which  he  has  advanced,  not 
only  from  makers  of  the  apparatus  criticized,  but  from 
all  our  readers,  especially  those  who  have  had  e.xperi- 
ence  with  ash-handling  apparatus  of  any  kind. 

Incidentally,  we  have  an  apparatus  of  one  of  the  types 
criticized  in  our  own  plant. 


March  19,  1918  POWER  409 

|iuiiiiiiiiiimuuuiiuiiiiiiiii:iuuiimiuiiiiumuiliuillllliiuilliuiiuiiuiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiimiiuiiiii iimi ii""Miiuiiiiiiijiuiiiiiiimuiiumuiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiuiiiiiiiuuiliiii>iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinM 


Correspondence 


WiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiii iiMiiiiiiii mill nil I iiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiniiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiii iiiiiiui^ 


The  Conservation  of  Fuel 

There  have  been  some  mighty  good  articles  on  fuel 
conservation  published  in  various  papers,  but  it  seems 
to  me  that  the  good  advice,  in  general,  is  directed  at 
the  operating  engineers  and  boiler-room  attendants. 
Without  a  doubt  there  could  be  enormous  savings 
effected  in  some  plants,  but  on  the  whole  the  best  the 
operator  can  do  is  to  operate  the  plant  of  which  he 
has  charge  at  the  highest  degree  of  economy  possible 
under  the  given  conditions.  As  a  rule,  the  highest 
degree  of  economy  cannot  be  brought  about  by  the 
operator  alone;  some  good  sound  judgment  has  to  be 
exercised  by  the  purchasing  department  as  well.  For 
instance,  there  are  plants  where  at  least  40  per  cent, 
of  the  fuel  burned  goes  for  live-steam  heating,  yet 
such  plants  are  operated  condensing,  with  motor-driven 
auxiliaries  and  not  enough  steam-driven  noncondensing 
units  to  even  bring  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water 
up  to  212  deg.,  to  say  nothing  of  heating  buildings. 

If  the  Government  wishes  to  conserve  the  coal  supply, 
it  should  recjuest  all  municipalities  and  private  corpora- 
tions that  contemplate  building  power  plants  or  making 
changes,  to  submit  full  plans  of  the  work  and  detailed 
information  regarding  it,  to  their  engineering  depart- 
ment for  inspection.  This  would  do  away  with  the 
jumping-at-conclusions  method  and  make  the  purchas- 
ing man  sit  up  and  take  notice.  Louis  P.  ALLEN. 

Johnson  City,  N.  Y. 

A  Talk  to  Firemen  on  Saving  Coal 

In  the  Jan.  22  issue  of  Power,  there  appeared  an 
article  on  the  conservation  of  coal  which  I  am  sure 
appeals  to  all  who  have  any  intimate  contact  with  this, 
at  present,  scarce  and  costly  commodity.  That  firing 
is  an  art  learned  only  through  experience  is  a  fact  that 
no  engineer  will  deny;  yet  how  small  is  the  percentage 
of  men  who  use  their  brains  with  their  efforts  when 
shoveling  coal  into  furnaces. 

Supervision  of  the  coal  pile  by  chief  engineers  is 
something  which  the  average  fireman  resents,  and  often 
leads  to  the  frequent  changes  that  are  made  in  the 
fireroom. 

Mr.  Bromley  states  that  employers  need  educating 
as  well  as  employees.  While  this  is  true,  it  does  not  get 
at  the  real  seat  of  the  trouble.  To  analyze  the  situation 
it  is  necessary  to  go  back  to  the  inception  of  the  plant, 
to  the  point  where  it  was  planned.  In  many  cases  I 
think  it  will  be  found  that  the  boiler  plant,  as  well  as 
all  other  machinery,  was  laid  out  largely  according  to 
the  views  of  an  architect.  Boilers,  boiler  settings, 
grates,  etc.,  agreeing  to  some  arbitrary  standard  were 
installed  with  little  regard  to  conditions  as  they  would 
apply  after  completion.  The  result  is  that  after  the 
engineering  staff  has  been  placed  in  charge  it  must 
make  the  best  of  it. 

The  hints  given  for  the  handling  of  the  different  kinds 


of  fires  I  think  are  good.  They  are  practical.  From 
experience  I  have  found  that  the  dumping  grate  is  far 
more  desirable  than  either  the  stationary  or  shaking 
grate.  It  seems,  too,  that  the  hand-fired  stokers  now 
being  offered  have  a  good  field. 

As  regards  the  excessive  ash  content  of  the  hard 
coals  now  available,  most  any  engineer  will  agree  that 
Mr.  Bromley's  statement  is  correct.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, then,  conserving  the  coal  supply  is  extremely 
difficult,  and  when  one  considers  that  the  cost  of  coal 
is  about  70  per  cent,  higher  this  winter  and  that  more 
of  it  has  to  be  burned  to  get  the  required  results,  it  is 
almost  beyond  human  effort  to  economize  in  any  plant 
where  care  is  always  used  to  see  that  only  the  required 
amount  of  coal  is  used  to  economically  carry  the  load. 

I  should  like  to  see  a  discussion  in  Power  as  to  the 
probable  savings  to  be  gained  by  changing  grates  and 
ashpit  levels  under  boilers  built  20  years  ago  where 
the  heating  surface  is  approximately  30  in.  above  the 
grate,  to  the  heights  of  60  or  72  in.  as  advocated  in 
Mr.  Bromley's  article.  It  seems  that  the  time  is  ripe 
for  a  discussion  on  the  relative  merits  of  what  is  gained 
by  keeping  the  water  in  the  boiler  at  a  certain  level 
under  all  conditions  of  load,  also  if  it  is  preferable 
to  return  the  water  of  condensation  to  a  storage  tank 
or  to  pipe  it  to  a  governor  through  which  it  will  be 
pumped  to  the  boiler  after  passing  through  a  heater 
and  meter.  H.  H.  BURLEY. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Climbing  a  Smoke-Stack 

In  connection  with  the  letter  by  D.  R.  Hibbs  in  the 
issue  of  Jan.  1,  page  24,  regarding  climbing  smoke- 
stacks not  fitted  with  ladders,  the  following  may  be  of 
interest.  A  stack  painter  of  my  acquaintance  uses  three 
slings  mlade  of  three-quarter  inch  rope  with  one  end 
made  into  an  eye;  two  of  the  slings  have  stirrups  at  the 
other  end  and  the  third  has  a  long  loose  end.  When 
climbing  a  stack,  the  slings  are  passed  around  the  stack 
with  the  rope  drawn  through  the  eye,  the  feet  being 
placed  one  in  each  stirrup,  and  the  free  end  of  the  third 
sling  drawn  around  the  painter's  waist  and  one  end  of 
a  light  hand  line  made  fast  to  the  waist  line  convenient 
to  the  painter's  hand.  In  climbing  the  stack,  the  waist- 
line sling  is  placed  around  the  stack  above  the  stirrup 
lines  and  is  raised  by  drawing  it  back  and  forth  around 
the  stack;  the  others  are  then  raised  the  same  way,  one 
at  a  time. 

When  the  painter  reaches  the  top  of  the  stack,  he 
hauls  up  the  paint  bucket  and  brush  with  the  hand 
line,  hangs  it  on  the  waist  line  with  a  hook  and  paints 
the  stack  above  the  slings.  Moving  the  slings  around 
and  down  the  stack,  he  paints  the  whole  stack  as  he 
goes  down.  This  man  once  painted  a  stack  seven  feet 
in  diameter  and  one  hundred  feet  high  in  eight  hours 
from  the  time  he  started  to  climb  up. 

Ringwood  Manor,  N.  J.  A.  A.  Blanchard. 


410 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


Improved  Snifting  Valve 

Snifting  valves  are  a  rather  despised  and  neglected 
pump  accessory,  but  their  utility  is  above  question. 
Even  slow-running  boiler-feed  pumps  with  a  long  stroke 
and  a  perceptible  pause  at  each  stroke  have  such  valves 


AUTOMATIC   AIR   INLET   FOR   PUMP    SUCTION 

fitted,  although  they  are  less  necessary  than  on  high- 
speed pumps,  and  there  are  many  such,  which  mur.t  em- 
ploy means  to  cushion  the  blow.  They  are  usually  fitted 
between  the  suction  and  delivery  valves  to  admit  air 
on  the  suction  stroke,  cushioning  the  blow  of  the  plunger 
and  seating  the  valves  without  shock;  and  there  is  a 
difference  in  running  with  and  without  them,  especially 
under  variable  speed. 

In  the  pulsometer  type  of  pump  the  snifting  valves 
are  of  more  than  ordinary  importance,  and  unless  they 
are  correctly  adjusted,  the  efficiency  of  the  pump 
(never  very  great)  is  much  impaired.  The  air  has  a 
special  function  in  this  type  of  pump  in  that  it  acts 
as  a  nonconducting  layer  between  the  steam  and  the 
water.  Air  being  a  bad  heat  conductor,  heavier  than 
steam  and  lighter  than  water,  admirably  fills  the  neces- 
sary conditions.  The  quantity  of  water  delivered  is 
seriously  affected  by  imperfect  adjustment  of  the 
snifting  valves. 

The  usual  fitting  is  in  most  cases  leaky,  the  seat 
and  valve  get  battered  so  that  at  each  delivery  stroke 
it  leaks  water,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  engineer,  for 
the  type  of  fitting  usually  employed  is  of  a  cheap  char- 
acter of  soft  brass,  wears  rapidly  and  is  tolerated  as  a 
sort  of  necessary  evil.  Its  function  is  to  admit  air  and 
close  against  the  escape  of  water,  and  while  it  does 
the  former  whatever  condition  it  may  be  in,  it  often 
fails  to  perform  the  latter  office.  Retruing  the  seat 
is  difficult,  the  fitting  being  of  small  size,  while  the 
screw  adjustment  for  lift  becomes  slack  after  short 
service. 

The  improved  valve  illustrated  was  designed  by  a 
marine  engineer  now  in  charge  of  a  shop  making  high- 
grade  pumps,  and  it  has  had  several  years'  trial  with 
entire  satisfaction.     The  chief  feature  of  the  design  is 


a  means  of  adjustment  which  controls  the  valve  lift. 
The  body  of  the  valve  consists  of  a  hard-brass  casting 
D  fitted  with  an  adjustable  valve  seat  C  held  in  the 
desired  position  by  the  locknut  shown  and  a  valve  A 
made  of  hard  bronze. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  machining  is  easy  as  one 
hole  is  drilled  through  the  body  and  tapped  out  and 
the  other,  at  right  angles,  breaks  into  the  first.  The 
adjustment  for  valve  lift  is  by  means  of  the  portion 
of  C,  which  may  be  screwed  up  so  valve  A  is  close  to 
the  stop  or  as  far  down  as  desired.  Retruing  the  valve 
seat  is  done  in  a  few  minutes  wherever  that  becomes 
necessary  by  the  withdrawal  of  C.  There  is  nothing 
to  go  vrrong;  it  is  a  rational  design  for  which  credit 
is  due  to  its  originator,  for  although  an  inversion  of 
ordinary  practice,  it  needs  only  to  be  seen  to  be  appre- 
ciated. A.  L.  Haas. 

London,  England. 

Binder  for  Detached  Pages  " 

Readers  of  Power  may  be  interested  in  the  follow- 
ing description  of  a  binder  for  keeping  articles  from 
periodicals  in  a  handy  form  for  reference.  A  standard 
Power  binder  is  used  with  manila  folders  cut  and  folded 
as  shown  (Fig.  2)  for  each  section  subject  and  held 
in  place  by  the  binder  strips.  Pages  from  periodicals 
are  clipped  together  for  each  section  with  standard 
paper  fasteners,  the  edges  trimmed  and  slots  cut  in 
the  inner  edge  to  pass  the  binder  strips.  These  are 
then  inserted  in  their  respective  folders  and  the  whole 
binding  tightened  up  in  the  usual  way.  The  paper 
fasteners  securing  the  articles  in  each  section  should 
be  "staggered,"  in  order  to  even  up  the  thickness  of 


Paper  Fasteners  in 
'  Sections  as  doited 


FIGS.  1  TO  3.    LOOSE-LEAP  BINDER  FOR  MAGAZINE  PAGES 
Fig.    1 — The  units   all    assembled.      Fig.    2 — One  of  the   manila 
folders.     Pig.  3 — Pages  clipped  together  ready  to  file. 

the  binding.  To  insert  new  articles,  any  section  can 
be  readily  removed  from  its  folder  without  disturbing 
those  on  either  side. 

When  there  are  articles  relating  to  different  subjects, 
overlapping  or  on  the  same  page,  the  pages  are  filed 
under  one  section  or  title  and  reference  is  made  to 
the  other  article  on  the  front  of  its  particular  section 
folder  in  a  ruled  space  for  that  purpose.  I  have  found 
it  most  convenient  to  have  about  fourteen  section  folders 
in  each  binder  with  the  marginal  title  tabs  IJ  in.  long 
in  two  courses  making  seven  in  the  length  of  the  folder. 


March  19.  1918 


POWER 


411 


Typical  section  titles  are  "Boiler  Construction,"  "Scale 
and  Corrosion,"  "Boiler  Setting,"  etc.,  and  the  number 
of  pages  in  any  section,  extending  over  a  period  of 
five  years,  varies  between  ten  and  forty,  so  that  it  is 
easy  to  refer  to  the  particular  information  required; 
and  as  long  as  there  is  room,  any  article  that  has  any 
item  of  interest  is  inserted  and  the  items  marked.  Such 
an  adjustable  post  binder,  of  a  size  to  take  standard 
pages,  and  fitted  with  manila  folders  ruled  and  cut  for 
marginal  title  tabs  and  having  suitable  detachable  clips 
for  holding  the  articles  in  each  .section  and  securing 
them  to  the  binder,  would,  in  my  opinion,  be  of  great 
value  to  engineers  who  wish  to  keep  only  one  or  two 
articles  out  of  any  periodical.  Couldn't  someone  get 
out  a  binder  designed  along  these  lines? 

Montreal,  Que.,  Canada.  F.    A.    COMBE. 

Helping   Out    a    Worn    Compressor 

On  taking  charge  of  this  plant  I  found  the  compres- 
sor supplying  air  to  the  Diesel  engines  so  badly  worn 
both  in  the  valves  and  piston-packing  rings  that  it  was 
impossible  to  keep  up  the  required  pressure  of  75  at- 
mospheres. It  was  also  impossible  to  get  repairs  within 
a  reasonable  time,  therefore  it  was  necessary  to  do 
something  to  overcome  the  trouble  temporarily.  The 
compressor  seemed  to  be  blowing  back  almost  half  of  the 
air  that  was  drawn  in  at  the  suction  stroke  so  I  con- 
nected a  swing-cnecK  valve  on  the  air  intake  and  it 
worked  "beautifully";  m  a  few  minutes  the  air  pressure 
increased  from  45  to  80  atmospheres.  That  gives  us  a 
surplus,  and  we  get  rid  of  it  by  turning  the  check  valve 
part  way  over  so  that  it  stays  open  late,  allowing  some 
air  to  escape. 

The  compressors  are  of  an  old  two-stage,  single-act- 
ing type  and  it  is  not  likely  that  there  are  many  of  this 
type  in  service,  but  the  idea  may  help  someone  get  by 
while  it  is  so  hard  to  get  repairs  promptly. 

Austin,  Texas.  F.  C.  Williams. 

Cutter  for  Round  Gaskets 

The  illustration  shows  a  simple  and  easily  made  de- 
vice for  cutting  round  gaskets  rapidly  and  accurately 
of  any  size  \vithin  its  capacity,  from  sheet  packing. 
The  saving  in  time  is  most  pronounced  when  a  num- 
ber of  gaskets  of  the  same  size  are  wanted,  and  it  is 


I -in.  colJ-rolled  steel  rod,  is  ground  flat  on  one  side  on 
an  emery  wheel  to  give  a  good  bearing  for  the  setscrew. 

The  center  point  in  the  handle  is  made  from  a  broken 
twist  drill  of  small  diameter  ground  to  a  needle  point. 
For  the  cutter  use  is  made  of  another  broken  drill  about 
i  in.  diameter  flattened  slightly  on  an  emery  wheel,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  main  bar,  to  give  the  binding  screw 
a  good  grip.  The  cutting  end  is  ground  V-shaped  and 
sharp  and  given  a  fine  edge  on  an  oilstone. 

Readville,  Mass.  H.  M.  Nichols. 

How  Not  To  Connect  Drain  Pipes 

The  drain  line  of  a  header  was  attached  rigidly,  as 
shown  in  the  upper  part  of  the  illustration,  and  there 
was  no  chance  for  expansion,  so  it  broke  one  of  the  nip- 


ADJUSTABI.R   CUTTER   FOR   GASKKTS    AND    WASHERS 

only  necessary  to  set  the  cutter  once  for  the  diameter 
desired.  It  is  constructed  along  the  same  lines  as  a 
beam   compass.     The   main   bar,   or   beam,   made   from 


OLD   AND   NEW  HEAJDER   DRAIN   LINE 

pies  off  one  day  and  shut  the  plant  down,  proving  that 
it  was  not  designed  rightly.  I  had  some  bends  made 
and  put  in,  after  which  there  were  no  more  leaks  as 
there  was  plenty  of  chance  for  expansion;  besides, 
whenever  it  was  necessary  to  put  a  new  gasket  in  any 
part  of  the  header,  the  flanges  could  be  spread  with- 
out disconnecting  the  drain  line. 

Northport,  Wash.  N.  C.  Gleason. 

Taper  for  Flash  Test  of  Oil 

In  applying  the  open-cup  oil  test  for  determining  the 
flash  and  burning  points  of  lubricating  oils,  a  "lighted 
taper"  is  passed  over  the  cup  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
above  the  surface  of  the  oil,  but  a  lighted  string  or 
broom  straw,  as  usually  suggested,  is  unsatisfactory  to 
manipulate  because  embers  may  drop  into  the  oil  and 
spoil  the  accuracy  of  the  determination  of  the  flash  point 
at  least. 

I  have  found  that  an  old  bunsen  burner  or  chemical 
blowpipe  connected  to  the  gas  supply  with  rubber  tubing 
will  give  a  fine  gas  jet  which  can  be  easily  regulated 
to  obtain  the  desired  test  flame.  The  blowpipe  should 
be  held  so  that  the  flame  is  in  a  horizontal  plane.  A 
cruder  but  effective  "taper"  can  be  made  by  inserting 
into  the  end  of  the  gas  tubing  a  piece  of  small  tubular 
porcelain  such  as  is  used  to  support  crucibles  above 
bunsen  burners.  WiLLiAM  J.  Dana. 

Baltimore,  Md. 


412 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


Ring  for  Hoisting  Wire 

The  steel  ring  shown  is  a  time  saver  and  gives  a  per- 
fect grip  when  hoisting  wires  up  to  elevated  lines  inside 
or  outdoors,  where  the  common  knot  frequently  slips. 
This  ring  can  be  used  to  raise  any  wire  that  is  stiff 


mil-foot  of  copper.  The  resistance  of  copper  or  any 
metal  increases  with  its  temperature  and  varies  with 
the  purity  of  the  metal;  hence  a  circular-mil-foot  of 
copper  will  have  a  resistance  of  exactly  10.6  ohms  only 
at  some  certain  temperature  and  when  the  metal  is 
of  a  certain  degree  of  purity.  For  example,  copper  of 
98  per  cent,  conductivity  has,  at  68  deg.  F.,  a  resistance 
of  almost  exactly  10.6  ohms  per  circular-mil-foot.  At 
a  temperature  of  86  deg.  F.,  copper  of  98  per  cent, 
conductivity  has  a  resistance  of  11  ohms  per  circular- 
mil-foot. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  value  10.6  may  be  entirely 
correct  for  a  certain  condition  and  the  value  11  ohms 
also  correct  for  another  condition.  However,  in  mak- 
ing wiring  calculations  there  are  so  many  indeterminate 
factors  that  affect  the  problem  that  it  is  a  waste  of 
time  to  endeavor  to  attain  great  accuracy.  The  value 
D  (distance)  in  the  foregoing  formulas  can  ordinarily 
not  be  determined  within  10  per  cent,  and  the  value 
I  (amperes)  is  usually  also  an  approximation.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  believed  that,  on  the  whole,  the  result 
will  be  as  accurate  if  the  value  11  is  used  instead  of 
10.6.  Furthermore,  the  value  11  is  easier  to  remembei 
and  can  be  handled  with  less  labor.  T.  H.  NASH. 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 


Pipe  Wrench  for  Many  Sizes 

HOISTING    RING    FOR    CABLES 

Having  the  bar  A  originally  belonging  to  a  large  pipe 

enough  not  to  be  bent  by  the  strain  of  the  ring;  the     ^^ench  "kicking  around"  the  power  house,  I  decided  to 

heavier  the  wire  the  more  positive  the  grip.     The  ring     utilize  it  and  avoid  the  expense  of  buying  a  new  one. 

is  made  of  tool  steel,  with  sharp  edges  and  hardened,     rpj^^  upper  jaws  are  home-made.     They  are  different 

Ozone  Park,  L.  I.  M.  P.  Bertrande.         ^^.^^^  ^j^g  regular  ones  and  in  my  opinion  are  better  for 

Valve    Opening    Against    Pressure 

The  damage  and  delay  that  can  be  caused  by  incom- 
petent men  handling  machinery  was  demonstrated  the 
other  day  in  a  plant  where  several  elevator  pumps  take 
their  suction  supply  at  80  lb.  pressure  from  an  elevated 
tank. 

A  helper,  when  ordered  to  start  one  of  these  pumps, 
found  that  the  globe  valve  on  the  suction  line  was  hard 
to  open  (on  account  of  the  pressure),  but  proceeded  to 
apply  force  to  it  until  the  stem  was  broken,  instead  of 
first  equalizing  the  pressure  on  the  two  sides  by  means 
of  the  bypass  as  he  should  have  done.  The  pump  was 
out  of  service  for  several  days,  and  considerable  ex- 
pense was  occasioned  by  this  lack  of  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  the  operator.  W.  T.  OSBORN. 

Newark,  N.  J. 

Resistivity  of  Copper 

Certain  formulas  that  are  used  for  figuring  the  size 
of  wire  to  transmit  a  certain  current  a  given  distance 
with  a  specified  voltage  drop  read:  Circ.mils  =  10.6 
X  2  X  ^  X  ^  -^  ^''-  Others  read:  Circ.mils  =  11 
X  2  X  JO  X  '  -^  ^'^.  where  D  equals  the  length  of 
the  circuit  one  way  in  feet,  /  the  current  and  Ed  the 
volts  drop  in  the  circuit.  Note  that  the  formulas  are 
the  same  except  that  the  constant  10.6  is  used  in  one 
and  11  in  the  other.  Why  these  two  different  values 
are  used  may  be  explained  thus:  The  values  10.6  and 
11   respectively   represent  the  resistance  per  circular- 


adjustable  pipe  wrench 

some  work  and  have  a  larger  capacity  or  adjustment  for 
different  pipe  sizes.  The  holes  are  for  adjusting  for 
various  sizes  of  pipes.  The  two  parts  of  the  jaw  are 
held  together  by  two  rivets  with  two  spacing  rings  to 
keep  the  jaws  the  right  distance  apart.  The  construc- 
tion is  easily  understood.  J-  A.  LuCAS. 
Ozone  Park,  L.  I. 


When  you  save  and  buy  War-Saving  Stamps,  you  help 
to  make  the  world  safe  for  democracy  and  at  the  same 
time  make  your  financial  future  safe  for  yourself. 


March  19,  1918 


POWER 


413 


aiiiiriiiiimiiiiuiiiiiimiiiimiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimilllllllluiliiMiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiii^  "iiininiiMiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiriiiMiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiE 

i  3 

=  a 

I  Inquiries  of  General   Interest  | 


«lllllillluimillllllllllinilllllllilluillliiilillllllillllllllllllliiliMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiijiiiiiiiiiiimmiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii i mi iiiiiiiiiiiiiimimiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiihiiiiI 


Limitation    of    Size    of    Safety    Valves — Why    are    not 

spring-loaded  safety  valves  made  larger  than  4%   in.? 

M.  F. 
When  safety  valves  are  larger  than  iVz  in.,  unequal  ex- 
pansion of  the   parts   from  temperatures   imparted   by  the 
steam  is  likely  to  cause  leakage  or  derangement. 

Dead-Weighted  Safety  Valve — What  is  a  dead-weighted 
safety  valve  and  what  advantage  has  it  over  a  weiglited- 
lever  safety  valve?  E.  W. 

A  dead-weighted  safety  valve  is  one  that  is  held  to  its 
seat  by  the  dead  weight  of  the  valve  and  generally  an  addi- 
tional weight,  consisting  of  a  cast-iron  ball  mounted  cen- 
trally on  the  valve  spindle.  The  principal  advantage  of 
this  form  of  valve  over  a  lever  safety  valve  is  that  it  can- 
not be  so  easily  overloaded. 

Auxiliary  Valve  on  Single  Steam  Pump — Why  is  it  neces- 
sary to  provide  an  auxiliary  steam  valve  on  a  single-cylin- 
der steam  pump  ?  J.  R.  S. 

Proper  movement  of  the  main  valve  cannot  be  derived 
from  a  positive  connection  to  the  piston  rod,  as  the  steam 
port  would  be  closed  gradually  toward  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
and  although  the  stroke  might  be  completed,  there  would 
be  no  movement  of  the  valve  appropriate  for  reversal  of 
the  stroke.  Hence  the  necessity  of  an  auxiliary  valve  to 
effect  movement  of  the  main  valve. 

Rotary  Converter  Hunting — What  are  the  causes  of  a 
rotary  converter  hunting  and  how  are  thev  remedied? 

W.  E.  A. 

The  causes  of  a  rotary  converter  hunting  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  mechanical  and  electrical.  Mechanical 
causes  may  be  present  when  reciprocating  engines  are  used 
to  drive  the  generators,  due  to  the  turning  effort  exerted  on 
the  craijkpin  not  being  uniform  at  all  parts  of  the  stroke, 
causing  momentary  variations  in  the  engine's  speed  during 
each  revolution.  The  momentary  variations  in  engine  speed 
cause  variations  in  voltage  and  frequency  of  the  generator 
which  are  transmitted  to  the  converter  and  cause  the  ma- 
chine to  hunt.  This  cause  may  be  remedied  by  using  a 
heavier  flywheel  on  the  engine,  or  a  governor  that  will  not 
respond  to  these  momentary  variations.  This  trouble  can 
also  be  alleviated  by  placing  a  damping  winding,  similar 
to  the  copper  structure  on  the  rotor  of  a  squirrel-cage 
motor,  in  the  pole  faces.  The  electrical  causes  are  excess 
drop  in  voltage  due  to  the  transmission  line  being  over- 
loaded, and  also  to  the  lack  of  dampers  in  the  pole  faces  of 
the  converter;  the  remedy  in  this  case  is  obvious. 

Hot-Water  Supply  in  Conjunction  with  Hot-Water  Heat- 
ing— What  are  the  objections,  if  any,  of  obtaining  a  hot- 
water  supply  out  of  the  boiler  of  a  gravity  hot-water  heat- 
ing system  ?  G.  H.  J. 

For  heating  purposes  the  temperature  of  the  water  would 
need  to  be  adapted  to  the  variable  requirements  of  the  heat- 
ing apparatus  and  thereby  may  be  unsuitable  for  the  hot- 
water  supply.  Another  objection  is  that  drafts  of  water 
thus  made  fi-om  the  heating  system  would  need  to  be 
replenished  by  a  supply  of  cold  water  that  would  impair 
the  operation  of  the  heating  system,  and  the  sudden  changes 
of  temperature  would  have  a  tendency  to  warp  and  crack 
the  boiler.  If  it  is  desired  to  dispense  with  a  separate  fire 
for  obtaining  a  hot-water  supply,  it  is  better  to  heat  the 
water  by  means  of  a  water-back  or  pipe  coil  placed  in  the 
firebox  of  the  heating  boiler.  Although  this  may  reduce 
the  size  of  the  boiler  firebox  and  interfere  to  some  extent 
with  the  capacity  of  the  heating  apparatus  and  economy 
of  fuel,  these  objections  may  be  compensated  by  greater 
convenience  and  economy  in  operation  of  a  single  fire  for 
the  heating  apparatus  and  a  hot-water  supply. 


Requirements  and  Appointments  of  Fire  Pumps — What 
are  the  leading  differences  between  fire  pumps  and  stand- 
ard pumps?  W.  F.  C. 

Fire  pumps  are  designed  with  special  consideration  as 
to  reliability  and  durability.  The  valve  area  must  be  larger 
than  that  of  standard  pumps,  as  the  demand  for  water 
may  at  any  time  be  in  excess  of  the  rating,  and  the  pump 
can  then  be  run  at  a  very  high  speed  even  if  the  operation 
may  be  regarded  as  unsatisfactory  in  an  ordinary  pump. 
A  fire  pump  should  be  strong,  rustproof  and  reliable  and 
one  that  any  inexperienced  man,  who  may  be  excited  and 
in  a  hurry,  could  start  up  instantly  without  doing  any 
damage  and  should  be  provided  with  cushioning  sufl[icient 
to  prevent  damage  from  pounding  when  the  pump  dis- 
charges against  only  atmospheric  pressure,  as  from  sud- 
den breaking  of  a  hose  or  discharge  connection  near  l.o 
pump. 

Closing  Cracks  in  Brick  Settings — What  is  the  best  mate- 
rial for  pointing  the  cracks  in  brickwork  of  boiler  settings  ? 

J.  W.  R. 

Cracks  develop  from  expansion  and  contraction,  and  once 
a  crack  forms,  it  will  open  wider  from  continued  use  of 
the  boiler,  as  small  pieces  of  the  wall  material  fall  into  the 
opening  with  each  contraction  and,  when  reexpansion 
occurs,  these  particles  and  the  jagged  fracture  prevent  the 
joint  from  closing  as  tight  as  it  was  at  the  time  of  the 
previous  expansion.  Hence  for  keeping  a  crack  closed  it  is 
necessary  to  close  the  opening  with  an  elastic  material  or 
cover  the  crack  with  a  material  that  will  adapt  itself  to 
increase  of  its  width.  A  good  plan  is  to  fill  the  opening 
with  dry  asbestos  cement,  point  the  outside  with  ordinary 
lime  mortar  for  holding  the  asbestos  cement  in  place,  and 
if  serious  objection  is  believed  to  result  from  renewal  of 
the  cracks,  the  leakage  can  be  stopped  by  covering  the 
openings  with  strips  of  muslin  pasted  on  the  outside  of  the 
wall  with  a  good  flour  paste.  The  muslin  strips  should  be 
thoroughly  sized  with  the  paste  on  both  sides  and  applied 
when  the  openings  are  widest,  which  for  most  cracks  will 
be  when  the  walls  are  cold. 

Required  Size  of  Duplex  Boiler-Feed  Pump — What  size 
of  duplex  boiler-feed  pump  would  be  suitable  for  boilers 
rated  at  450  hp.  ?  N.  H. 

To  meet  emergencies  boilers  are  likely  to  be  forced  to 
deliver  one-third  more  than  their  rated  capacities,  and  in 
case  of  low  water  at  such  times,  the  delivery  capacity  of 
the  feed  pump  should  be  at  least  double  the  rate  of  evapora- 
tion. To  meet  these  conditions,  without  operating  the  pump 
beyond  the  speed  proper  for  a  pump  in  regular  service,  the 
regular  service  capacity  needs  to  be  about  three  times  the 
steady  requirement  of  the  boilers  when  operated  at  their 
rated  capacity.  Allowing  the  rating  to  be  equivalent  to 
an  evaporation  of  30  lb.  of  water  per  boiler  horsepower  per 
hour,  the  feed  pump  should  be  of  size  suitable  for  a  delivery 
in  regular  service  at  the  i-ate  of  4.50  x  30  X  3  ;=  40,500  lb. 
of  water  per  hour,  or  make  a  displacement  equivalent  to 
40,500  -^  (60  X  8.33)  =  81  gal.  =  81  x  231  or  18,711 
cu.in.  per  min.  Allowing  6  in.  stroke,  and  for  maximum 
rate  of  delivery  a  piston  speed  of  65  ft.  =  780  in.  per  min. 
(which  will  be  the  piston  speed  for  each  side  of  the  pump), 
the  pump  would  make  780  -;-  (2  X  6)  =  65  revolutions, 
or  65  X  4  =  260  single  strokes  per  minute;  and  neglecting 
the  reduction  of  plunger  area  due  to  piston  rods,  each 
plunger  area  would  need  to  be  18,711  4-  (2  X  780)  =  11.99 
sq.in.,  which  corresponds  to  about  3%  in.  diameter.  The 
usual  commercial  size  of  duplex  pump  coming  nearest  to 
the  above  would  be  6  X  4  x  6  in.;  that  is,  6-in.  diameter 
steam  cylinders,  4-in.  diameter  water  cylinders  and  6-in. 
stroke. 


414 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


Economy  of  Refrigerating  Power  Plants 


Ry  victor  J.  AZBE 


Resume  of  the  various  factors  entering'  into 
economy  of  a  refrigerating  or  ice-making  plant. 
The  boiler  room,  prime  mover,  auxilianes  and 
condenser  and  suction  pressures  are  considered. 


WHILE  power  plants  are  genei-ally  wasteful,  the 
average  refrigerating  plant  is  especially  so,  by 
reason  of  the  many  factors  that  enter  into  the  ul- 
timate economy.  It  is  generally  accepted  that  five  to  six 
tons  of  ice  is  produced  per  ton  of  coal,  but  more  often  only 
one  to  two  tons  is  obtained,  and  to  find  an  ice  plant  where 
a  saving  as  great  as  50  per  cent,  could  be  made  is  quite 
common.  Some  of  this  loss  is  due  to  the  impi-oper  equip- 
ment and  improperly  propoi'tioned  plants,  but  most  of  it  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  good  refrigerating  power-plant  engi- 
neers are  scarce. 

Table    I    shows    what    a    good    operating    engineer    in    a 
plant  can  do  over  a  mediocre  man.     It  is  evident  that  the 

TABLE    I.      RESULTS   OBTAINED    BY    TWO   ENGINEERS   IN    THE 
SAME  PLANT  WITH  THE  SAME  EQUIPMENT 


Tons  of  Ice 

per  Ton  of   10,000  B.T.U.  Fuel 

1916 

1917 

Im 

provement,    1917 
Per  Cent. 

March 
April 
May      . 

June 

July 
August      , 

2  88 

3  64 

3  74 

4  00 
4   16 
4  32 

4  06 

5  08 
5  02 
5   12 
5  44 
5  53 
5  48 
5  21 
5  35 

76  7 
37  7 
36  7 
36  0 
32  9 
.26  7 
28  3 

October 

3  96 

35   1 

Simple  steam-driven  ice  plant.  Distilled  water  can  ice.  In  addition  storage  to 
the  extent  of  I  50,000  cu.ft.  was  maintained  with  average  atmospheric  temperature 
of  90deg.  F.,  lor  which  no  correction  was  made. 

chief  problem  of  the  mechanical  and  refrigerating  engineer 
is  to  develop  the  proper  caliber  of  power-plant  opei'ator. 
A  large  percentage  of  the  total  loss  is  ordinarily  found  in 
the  boiler  room,  due  to  either  improperly  selecting  or  burn- 
ing the  fuel.    Close  attention  to  CO:  is  necessary  and  seldom 


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0     1     £34     5    6    7    8    9    10   11    12    13   14   \5    16   17    18    13   20  21 
C  Oe  Percentage    in   Flue    Ga& 

FIG.   1.      LOSS  OF  FURL  X1\\V.  TO  EXCESS  AIR  WITH 
VARIOUS   CO:;   PERCENTAGES 

exercised.  Proper  installation  of  boilers  and  such  damper 
arrangement  that  regulation  at  all  loads  can  be  maintained, 
are  important  factors. 

Fig.  1  gives  the  loss  of  fuel  with  different  percentages 
of  COi  in  the  flue  gases.  Table  II  gives  the  loss  due  to 
carbon  monoxide.     It  must  be  remembered  that  CO  is  not 


the  only  loss  when  there  are  smoke  and  incomplete  com- 
bustion. There  may  be  other  gases  escaping,  having  an 
equally  gi-eat  or  greater  content  of  latent  heat  that  be- 
comes unavailable. 

In  the  boiler  room  close  attention  must  be  paid  to  baffling, 
gas  velocity  and  cleanliness  of  heating  surface,  both  in- 
ternally and  externally.  These  factors  have  an  important 
bearing  on  flue-gas  temperature,  which  is  all-important 
when  it  comes  to  boiler  efficiency. 

Average  relative  values  of  various  fuels  are  given  in 
Table  III.   Wood  and  lignite  have  been  somewhat  discredited 


28 

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F. 

14 

TEI^R^  OF  WATER^  TV  CANS 

\l 
11 
10 

1 

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f 

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w 

lO 

z. 

X) 

2! 

0 

300 

350 

400 

450 

500 

550 

600 

650 

700 

750 

Linear  Length   of  l!4-in.   Pipe    per  Ton   of  Ice 

FIG    2.      RIOLATION   OF  LENGTH   OF  PIPE  PER  TON  Oj?  ICE 

TO  SUCTION  PRESSURE 

by  being  burned  under  improper  conditions  and  by  men  un- 
familiar with  their  peculiarities.  At  present  many  a  plani; 
in  this  country  now  burning  oil  or  coal  could  change  with 
profit  to  lignite  or  wood  fuel.  The  data  given  in  the 
table  are  conservative  and  should  be  obtained  in  any  plant 
properly  equipped  and  operated. 

Few  plants   operate  on  a   discharge  pressure  as   low  as 
it  should  be.     The  condenser  may  be  of  improper  design, 

TABLE  II  FUEL  LOSS  DUE  TO  CARBON  MONOXIDE  IN  FLUE  GASES 
CO., 


B.t.u. 


10      B.t  u 


II       Btu. 


12       Bt, 


13      Btu 


15      Bt.u 


25 

0  50 

0  75 

CO 
1    00 

1    25 

1    50 

500 
3  5 

960 
6  6 

1.380 
915 

1.760 
1  1    1 

2,100 
14   3 

2,420 
16  b 

420 
2  8 

800 
5  4 

1.160 
7   9 

1.500 
10   2 

1,810 
12   3 

2,090 
l>  6 

360 
2  4 

700 
4  7 

1,020 
6   9 

1.310 
8  9 

1,590 
10  8 

1,850 
12  5 

320 
2  2 

620 
4  2 

900 
6    1 

1.160 
7   9 

1.420 
9  7 

1,660 
II    3 

280 
1    9 

550 
3  7 

810 
5   5 

1,050 
7   2 

1,280 
8  7 

1,500 
10  3 

250 
1   7 

490 
3  3 

730 
5  0 

960 
6  6 

1,165 
7  9 

1,370 
9  3 

220 
1    5 

450 
3    1 

660 
4    5 

880 
6  0 

1,070 
7  3 

1,260 
8  6 

205 
1    3 

410 
2  8 

610 
4    1 

800 
5   4 

990 
6   1 

1,165 
7   9 

190 
1   3 

385 
2  6 

570 
3   9 

725 
4   9 

920 
6  3 

1,065 
7    4 

180 
1   2 

355 

2  4 

530 
3   6 

700 
4   7 

860 
5  8 

1,015 
6   9 

172 
1    1 

330 
2   2 

500 
3    i 

650 
4    4 

800 
5  4 

955 
6  5 

•Abstract    of    paper   read    before    the    .St.    Tjouis    Associated    Eti- 
gineerinir  Societies. 


improperly  operated  or  filled  with  air.  There  may  be  in- 
sufficient water  or  poor  water  distribution,  and  the  surface 
may  be  dirty.  The  condenser  pressure  should  correspond 
to  a  temperature  of  5  deg.  F.  above  that  of  the  cooling 
water  leaving  the  condenser.  The  temperature  of  the  am- 
monia liquid  leaving  the  condenser  should  also  be  close  to 


.Mairh   I'.l,   1;M8 


POWER 


415 


the  teiuperature  of  the  coolest  water  and  sliould  pass  to 
tho  ovaporatiii};-  coils  through  an  insulated  receiver  and 
pipin;^'  by  some  other  way  than  a  hot  engine  room.  Where 
very  cold  water  is  available,  a  jacketed  receiver  is  desir- 
able. Flooded  condensers,  however  desirable,  are  greatly 
misunderstood,  and  in  some  plants  actually  poorer  results 
are  obtained  than  could  be  expected  with  the  ordinary  at- 
mospheric type. 

Suction  pressure  is  even  more  important  than  condenser 
pressure,  but  in  spite  of  this  far  less  understood.  Few 
operating  men  will  take  advantage  of  higher  suction  pres- 
sures at  lower  loads.  Plants  actually  can  be  found  that  in 
winter  operate  with  suction  pressures  ten  pounds  lowv^r 
than  in  summer.  By  increasing  the  suction  pressure  to 
correspond  with  the  lower  output,  as  much  as  30  to  !iO  per 
cent,  in  power  could  at  times  be  saved.  Plants  should  be  de- 
signed so  that  high-tenipei-ature  work  can  be  done  at  hig'i 
pressures  and  in  such  a  way  that  one  or  two  low-tempera- 
ture rooms  will  not  spoil  the  economy  of  the  whole  plant. 
The  importance  of  proper  suction  and  condenser  pressures 
may  be  realized  when  it  is  stated  that  every  ten-pound  re- 
duction in  ammonia  condenser  pressure  represents  about  !j 
per  cent,  saving,  and  every  single  pound  increase  in  suc- 
tion pressure  represents  2%  per  cent,  saving.     If  tlie  length 


40 


36 


iiK 


OJO 


01 

>D   8 


PERTONOF\  g       ,_       ,_ 
ST0RA6E REFb.^  S       S8       In 


Requirec)    Lirjeol  |  Fee+  of|  lij-'in.   Pjpg 


PER  TON 
OFFICE 


-\ — \ — r 

750    580    im    570    3?0 


^MH^ 


4-      5      6      7      8      9      10      n 

Tempero+ure      DifFerence 


~l \ ^ 

250    OT     190    170     160     150    M|0 


V.      13      14     15 


FIG 


:i       LENGTH  OF  PIPE  FOR  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES 
TO  OBTAIN  CERTAIN  SUCTION   PRKSSURKS 


of  pipe  in  the  tank  is  known,  Fig.  2  will' give  the  suction 
pressure  to  be  expected;  Fig.  3  is  more  complete  as  it  also 
includes  storage  refrigeration. 

It  is  known  that  the  power  required  per  ton  of  refrigera- 
tion increases  rapidly  as  the  suction  pressure  decreases. 
It  is  also  known  that  the  load  on  the  engine  decreases  with 

TABLE  III.     RELATIVE  VALUES  OF  FUELS  AND  ICE  PRODrCTIUX 
PER  UNIT  OF  FUEL  IN  ECONOMICAL  PLANTS 

Tons  of  Ice  per  Unit  of  Fuel 


Seini-bituni.  eoal 
Anthracite    . 
Eastern  bituni 
Western  bituni 
Lignite.   . . 


Wood,  air  dried 


Equiv. 
Evap. 
per 
Lh 
10  5 
9  7 
8  0 
7  0 
5  0 


Equiv.  Cost 

Not    Considering 

Relative  Labor 

Per  Ton 

$4  50 

4    16 

3   43 

3  00 

2    14 


Simple 

Non-Cond. 

Plant 

Tons  per  Ton 

8  2 

7  6 

6   3 

5   i 

3  9 


Conip 
Cond, 
Plant 
Tons  per  'I'on 
14  0 
13  0 
10  9 
9  5 
6  7 


Oil 


Natural    gas, 
1,000  B.t.u.. 


4  0 


13  5 


Per  3,000  Lb.  Cord   Tons  per  Con!    Tons  per  Cord 
$2  57 


Per  Barrel 

$0  95 

Per  1.000  Cu, Ft. 


4   7 

Tons  per  Bbl      Tons  per  Bbl. 
17  2  9 


Tons  per 
1,000  ("u. Ft. 


Tons  per 
1.000  Cu. Ft. 


$0   145  0  26  0  45 

Expected  production  at  about    15  lb.  suction  pressure  and   185  lb.  condenser 
preesure. 

the  suction  pressure,  which  in  turn  tends  to  increase  the 
steam  consumption  per  horsepower  developed.  Thus  low 
suction  pressure  not  only  increases  the  power  per  unit 
of  refrigeration,  but  also  decreases  the  economy  of  devel- 
oping this  power.     The  variation  is  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

A  serious  loss  in  many  plants  is  uneconomical  auxiliaries. 
There  are  plants  in  which  the  auxiliary  steam  consutnption 
is  enual  to  or  even  greater  than  the  steam  consumption  of 


the  main  units,  and  to  further  complicate  the  problem  this 
factor  is  commonly  accepted  offhand  as  not  at  all  serious. 

As  far  as  wastefulness  is  concerned,  the  duplex  steam 
pump  is  the  champion  of  them  all.  Its  wastefulness  be- 
comes especially  great  when  operated  at  a  low  rate  of 
speed.  The  logical  auxiliary  unit  is  a  properly  designed 
centrifugal  pump  of  variable  speed  and  driven  by  power 
generated  initially  in  an  economical  unit. 

When  designing  a  plant,  a  careful  analysis  must  be 
made  as  to  the  number  and  size  of  auxiliaries.     From  the 


10      M      14      16 
6age     Suction 


100^^  0.6  s_ 

ai      0.6  d. 
60"      041 


V\r,.    I,      V.\RlATION    OF   ECONOMY   WITH   SUCTION 

I'UIO.SS rUW.    INCLI.iniNG   BOTH    ENGINE 

AND    COMPRESSOR 

economic  standpoint  they  might  better  be  too  small  than 
too  large.  The  former  can  be  forced,  while  the  over-large 
auxiliary  is  liable  to  excessive  consumption  of  power  or 
steam. 

To  state  that  the  economy  of  a  properly  operated  plant, 
as  far  as  ice  per  unit  of  fuel  is  concerned,  should  be  about, 
the  same  at  half  load  as  at  full  load  may  be  surprising,  but 
Fig.  5  tends  to  prove  the  truth  of  this  assertion  and  other 
such  diagrams  could  be  given.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
ice  production  varies  from  month  to  month,  but  the  curve 
representing  tons  of  ice  per  ton  of  10,000  B.t.u.  fuel  is 
nearly  flat. 

Fig.  6  illustrates  in  a  greater  detail  tht  foregoing  con- 
tention. The  curves,  of  course,  apply  only  to  a  certain 
plant,  and  characteristics  will  vary  with  each  plant.     Still 


1300 

^ 

1 

1 

Snoo 

01 

/ 

i 

Y 

h 

/ 

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y 

3 

■0 

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t 

^800 
■+- 

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S 

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400 
300 

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FIG. 


liCONOMlCAT.     PMRFOUMA.XCE     OF     SIMPLE     ICE 
PLA.NT    WITH    VAUIABLIO    LOAD    F.\CTOR 


in  a  properly  designed  plant,  and  even  in  improperly  de- 
signed ones,  they  will,  or  should,  under  proper  operating 
conditions,  follow  the  directions  as  given  on  this  chart. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  ice-tank  ten'perature  increases 
as  the  load  drops  off,  up  to  20  deg.  F.,  at  which  point  it 
becomes  flat.  This  curve  is  the  base  on  which  the  efficiency 
of  the  system  is  built.     The  increase  of  the  ice-tank  tem- 


416 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.   12 


perature  is  the  factor  that  governs  the  increase  of  suction 
pressure  on  which  the  economy  depends.  All  too  frequent- 
ly, it  will  be  found  that  the  ice-tank  temperature  main- 
tained under  low  loads  is  the  same  or  even  lower  than  at 
periods  of  full  ice  pi-oduction.  A  great  many  plants  in 
winter  will  have  half  of  their  tank  frozen  down  with  ice.     It 

TABLE  IV.     RELATIVE  EXPECTED  EFFICIENCY  OF  VARIOUS 
ICE-PLANT  INSTALLATIONS 


Tons  of  Ice 

Increase  of  Heat 

Rel. 

Per 

Req.  per  B.Hp.  at 

Eff. 

20,000.000 

'.    Load   Over 

Ther. 

Per  Cent. 

R.t.u. 

Full  Load 

Eff, 

100 

30 

5  5 

33  8 

60 

IB 

36 

20  5 

40 

38 

13  6 

35 

7 

12  2 

32 

9  6 

4 

10  9 

22 


20 


9  9 


4  8 


Diesel  engine _ 

Gas-producer  and  engine .  . . 

Locomobile 

Turbine. .  .  . 

Uniflow  condensing  engine. . 

Corliss      compound      cond. 

engine  .....  27  90 

Uniflow   non-condensing   en- 
gine      21  63 

Corliss    compound    non-con- 
densing         20  6  0 

Simple   Corliss  non-condens- 
ing        16  4  9 

Simple   engine   non-condens- 
ing           14 

Chart  is  calculated  on  a  standard  of  70  per  cent,  boiler  and  grate  efficiency. 

An  allowance  of  \  hp.  was  made  for  refrigerating  auxiliary  load  per  ton  of  ice. 

A  total    of  3.5    b.'hp.    was    taken  per  ton  of  ice.  which  corresponds  to  a  back 

pressure  of  about  15  lb.  suction  and  185  lb.  condenser  pressure. 

is  known  that  large  can  surface  per  ton  of  ice  is  a  factor  of 
economy,  but  this  can  surface  must  be  working,  and  not 
idle.  The  minute  a  block  of  ice  becomes  frozen  solid,  the 
can  holding  it  ceases  to  do  work,  and  if  there  are  twenty 
cans  per  ton  of  ice  in  the  tank  and  half  of  them  contain 
solid  frozen  blocks,  then,  actually  there  are  only  ten  cans 
per  ton  of  ice,  with  the  resulting  necessary  higher  tempera- 
ture difference  to  freeze  the  required  amount  of  ice. 

As  soon  as  frozen,  ice  should  be  pulled,  up  to  the  point 
where  the  tank  temperature  gets  to  be  20  deg.  F.  Ordi- 
narily, a  higher  tank  temperature  is  not  advisable  owing 
to  the  danger  that  in  case  of  a  shutdown  or  breakdown,  the 
tank  temperature  is  liable  to  climb  to  the  point  where  the 
ice  in  the  can  would  begin  to  thaw  and  upon  freezing  dam- 
age the  cans.  The  amount  of  frozen  blocks  in  the  tank  is 
sufficiently  important  to  warrant  careful  attention  and 
should  be  made  an  item  of  daily  report. 

In  the  further  study  of  Fig.  6  it  will  be  noticed  that  as 
the  suction  pressure  goes  up  the  condenser  pressure  comes 
down.  While  the  suction  pressure  is  definite  and  can  be 
calculated,  condenser  pressure  in  some  plants  and  climates 


FIG.    li.      GOOn    ICE-PLANT    PERFORMANCE.    VARIABLE 
LOAI.)    FACTOR 

will  go  lower  even  than  shown,  or  perhaps  will  tend  to 
hold  up,  but  ft  necessarily  will  always  decrease  a  great 
deal  with  lower  loads.  With  these  two  factors  increasing 
or  decreasing  as  shown,  the  compressor  horsepower  will 
decrease.  This  will  reduce  the  amount  of  steam  the  prime 
mover  requires  per  ton  of  ice,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  economy  of  the  engine  decreases  with  the  speed,  the 
drop  of  the  steam  curve  will  not  be  as  pronounced. 

The  steam  required  for  auxiliaries  per  ton  of  ice  de- 
creases with  the  load.  Heat  leakage,  condensation,  radia- 
tion naturally  remain  constant.  Adding  the  heat  leakage, 
auxiliary    steam    and    main    engine    steam    gives    the    com- 


posite, or  total,  steam  per  ton  of  ice.  This  drops  off,  then 
increases,  and  at  half  load  is  practically  the  same  as  at 
full  load.  Consequently  the  fuel  cost  per  ton  of  ice  should 
be  the  same  at  half  as  it  is  at  full  load. 

Table  IV  shows  the  relative  efficiency  of  various  prime 
movers  for   ice   plants.     The  data  here   and   also  in  other 


E19 

t.  It 

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FIG.    7.      LABOR    IN    STEAM-DRIVKX    ICE    PLANT 


60         80        100        KO 
Ton  s   of  Ice  pe' 


140     160     180     eoo     ?eo 

r  Day 


parts  of  the  paper  are  based  upon  20  million  B.t.u.,  equal 
to  a  ton  of  10,000  B.t.u.  fuel.  The  general  acceptance  of 
this  standard  would  make  possible  accurate  comparison  of 
plant  operation.  The  data  given  in  Table  IV  are  conserva- 
tive and  should  be  attainable  with  reasonable  operating 
ability.  The  column  showing  increased  heat  or  power  re- 
quired at  one-half  load  over  full  load  is  especially  import- 
ant in  ice  plants,  where  the  load  is  so  extremely  variable. 
Next  to  the  fuel  cost  per  ton  of  ice  ranges  the  labor 
cost.  Fig.  7  gives  a  good  idea  of  what  is  to  be  expected 
in  the   average   properly   operated   steam-driven   ice   plant. 


The  Plant  Engineers'  Club  of  Boston 

The  Plant  Engineers'  Club  was  planned  in  1915  by  Henry 
S.  Dennison,  of  the  Dennison  Manufacturing  Co.,  and  E.  D. 
Freeman,  of  the  B.  F.  Sturtevant  Co.,  along  the  lines  of  a 
similar  organization  which  includes  managers  of  plants  and 
which  is  called  the  Factory  Managers'  Club.  Mr.  Dennison 
gave  a  dinner  at  the  City  Club  on  June  9  of  that  year,  to 
which  he  invited  about  25  mechanical  engineers,  master 
mechanics  and  chief  engineers  of  various  plants  in  the 
vicinity  of  Boston.  As  a  result  of  this  meeting  the  Plant 
Engineers'  Club  was  organized.  The  meetings,  which  are 
held  each  month,  usually  are  followed  by  an  informal  din- 
ner, and  occasionally  a  visit  is  made  the  same  afternoon 
to  one  of  the  plants  represented  by  the  members  of  the 
organization. 

Considerable  time  was  spent  during  the  first  year  in  the 
study  and  preparation  of  a  code  for  continuous  boiler-room 
tests  so  that  the  members  could  adopt  a  standard  by  which 
they  could  bring  up  the  over-all  efficiency  of  their  plants 
and  compare  them  with  what  the  other  members  are  doing. 
They  have  found  this  code  of  great  value,  and  it  has  a 
tendency  to  improve  the  general  efficiency  of  the  boiler 
plant,  obtaining  very  much  better  results  than  they  had 
been  able  to  get  formerly.  The  next  meeting  will  be  held 
at  the  Boston  City  Club,  Mar.  20,  at  6:30  p.m.,  and  will  be 
devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  Cost  of  Coal  Handling  and 
the  Storage  of  Coal.  Mr.  Eaton,  of  the  Waltham  Watch 
Co.,  will  also  recount  his  recent  investigation  in  the  use  of 
powdered  coal  in  large  manufacturing  plants. 

The  membership  of  the  club  is  limited  to  superintendents, 
master  mechanics  and  engineers  of  plants,  not  more  than 
one  in  each  line  of  business  and  not  more  than  25  in  all. 
The  officers  are:  G.  L.  Finch,  president;  H.  C.  Eaton,  vice 
president;   H.   S.   Scott,  secretary-treasurer. 


March  19,  ii)18 


POWER 


417 


Lubrication  of  Air-Compressor 
Cylinders 

Recent  disastrous  explosions  in  air-compressor  systems 
present  striking  examples  of  the  danger  existing  from  the 
use  of  ordinary  engine  oil  in  the  air  cylinders  of  air  com- 
pressors. Only  a  pure  mineral  oil,  with  a  flash  point  as 
high  as  good  lubricating  qualities  will  permit,  should  be 
used.  As  little  as  possible  of  even  the  best  oil  should  be 
used. 

Numerous  cylinder  oils  are  compounded,  and  such  oils 
are  likely  to  produce  a  carbon  that  will  stick  the  valves  and 
collect  on  valve  faces  and  other  parts  of  the  cylinder  and 
valve  chambers,  resulting  in  a  dangerous  condition. 

Air  receivers  are  liable  to  explosion  from  accumulated 
oil  deposits.  Every  receiver  should  be  equipped  with  a 
pressure  gage,  a  safety  valve,  and  proper  drains,  and  all 
reservoirs  and  likely  places  of  deposit  in  the  air  line  should 
be  thoroughly  and  frequently  drained  and  cleaned.  It  is 
bad  practice  to  have  the  inlet  of  an  air  compressor  take 
from  a  hot  or  dusty  room — the  air  should  be  cool  and  as 
clean  as  possible. 

The  practice  of  throwing  kerosene  oil  into  the  inlet  of 
an  air  compressor  to  clean  it  is  an  extremely  dangerous  one, 
and  the  cause  of  an  explosion  under  such  circumstances  is 
not  difficult  to  understand.  Lubrication  of  the  air  cylinder 
with  soapsuds  (preferably  made  of  soft  soap,  about  one 
part  soap  to  fifteen  parts  water)  for  a  few  hours  each  week 
(or  less  frequently  if  the  load  is  light),  instead  of  oil,  will 
help  very  materially  in  keeping  the  cylinder  clean.  The 
only  danger  from  the  use  of  soapsuds  is  rust,  and  this 
should  be  overcome  by  being  careful  to  discard  the  soap 
and  feed  the  cylinder  with  oil  an  hour  or  so  before  shutting 
down.  The  receiver  blowoff  should  then  be  opened  and  the 
accumulation  of  oil  and  water  drained  off. 

An  air-compressor  engine  should  not  be  controlled  by  the 
air  pressure  alone,  as  many  are,  but  should  be  fitted  with 
an  auxiliary  governor  which  will  act  as  soon  as  the  speed 
rises  above  a  certain  predetermined  limit.  This  will  pre- 
vent the  engine  fi'om  "racing"  in  case  an  accident  to  the 
tanks  or  piping  causes  a  sudden  lowering  of  the  pressure. 
It  is  not  necessary  for  an  explosion  to  take  place  to  pro- 
duce a  lowering  of  the  pressure,  as  the  giving  way  of  a 
pipe,  valve  or  tank  from  any  cause  will  have  the  same 
effect. — The  National  Safety  Council. 

Engine-Room  Rules 

Employees  should  be  strictly  forbidden  to  enter  the  engine 
room  except  for  a  special  mission,  and  then  should  remain 
only  as  long  as  necessary. 

The  engineer  should  not  be  permitted  to  leave  the  engine 
room  until  some  other  attendant  who  is  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  engine,  valves  and  signals  is  present  to  take 
charge. 

No  person  other  than  those  responsible  for  the  operation 
of  the  engines  should  be  allowed  to  touch  any  valves  or 
other  part  of  the  mechanism  or  approach  any  moving  part. 

No  one  except  the  attendants  should  be  permitted  to  go 
inside  the  railings  or  upon  footways  when  the  machinery 
is  in  motion. 

The  safe  speed  for  each  flywheel  should  be  known,  and  in 
no  case  should  this  be  exceeded.  Flywheel  revolutions 
should  be  recorded  every  day  in  order  to  make  sure  that  the 
engine  is  not  running  over  the  speed  limit. 

All  parts  of  engines  and  accessories  should  be  frequently 
and  thoroughly  inspected,  and  daily  tests  should  be  made 
of  the  governor  mechanism  and  automatic  engine  stops. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  engines  be  started  until 
they  are  thoroughly  cleared  by  alternately  blowing  live 
steam  through  each  end  of  the  cylinders,  and  the  steam 
pipe  and  cylinders  thoroughly  drained  of  all  water.  The 
drip  should  be  left  open  until  the  load  is  put  on  and  then 
closed.     Be  sure  to  warm  the  engine  cylinder  at  both  ends. 

In  shutting  down,  the  drip  valve  should  be  left  closed 
until  the  engine  is  stopped.  If  the  throttle  is  equipped  with 
a  bypass   valve,  the   throttle   should   be   closed   and   engine 


stopped  with  the  bypass.  This  gradually  stops  the  engine, 
avoids  the  pumping  effect  of  the  piston  and  prevents  water 
being  drawn  into  the  cylinder. 

Never  attempt  to  "bar"  a  flywheel  around  nor  pull  it  off 
center  by  grasping  the  belt  when  the  steam  pressure  is  on. 

Never  start  to  take  cylinder  head  off  or  piston  out  of 
cylinder  without  making  sure  that  the  throttle  and  exhaust 
valves  are  shut  tight  and  locked  and  the  drains  wide  open; 
nor  without  trying  the  indicator  cocks  to  see  whether  there 
is  any  pressure  on. 

Never  stop  the  air  pump  before  stopping  the  engine 
(condensing),  as  the  condenser  and  exhaust  pipe  may  be 
flooded  and  overflow  into  the  cylinder. 

All  steam  traps  should  be  kept  clean  and  in  working 
order.  Should  a  trap  get  out  of  order,  and  it  be  impossible 
to  repair  it  at  once,  the  bypass  should  be  opened  sufficiently 
to  pass  off  all  water  which  might  collect. 

Leaks  in  pipes,  flanges  or  gaskets  should  be  repaired  at 
the  earliest  possible  time. 

In  opening  up  a  cold  line,  all  available  drips  should  be 
opened.  The  line  should  be  warmed  by  opening  the  bypass 
where  possible  or  by  opening  the  stop  valve  sufficiently  to 
warm  very  slowly.  Never  open  the  main  valve  until  certain 
that  the  line  is  thoroughly  heated.  An  inexperienced  at- 
tendant should  not  be  allowed  to  turn  steam  into  a  cold  line 
until  properly  instructed. 

Automatic  valves  should  be  frequently  examined  to 
insure  their  proper  action  in  emergency. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  vacuum  breakers,  gov- 
ernors, engine  stops  or  other  safety  devices  be  blocked  or 
otherwise  made  ineffective.  If  such  apparatus  is  out  of 
order,  it  should  be  repaired  at  once. 

Do  not  stand  in  front  of  cylinder  head  of  engines. 

Do  not  place  any  material,  tools,  etc.,  on  platforms  or 
stairs  around  engine.  They  might  fall  off  and  injure  some- 
one below. 

Never  work  in  a  gas-engine  room  alone;  always  have  a 
helper  with  you. 

If  you  find  a  man  overcome  with  gas,  get  him  into  the 
open  air  at  once,  send  for  the  doctor  and  notify  the 
foreman. 

Smoking  and  open  lights  should  be  forbidden  around  gas 
machinery  and  gas  pipes;  otherwise  an  explosion  might 
occur. — The  National  Safety  Council. 

It  occurs  not  infrequently  that  the  steel  toe  B  becomes 
worn  down  as  shown  in  the  illustration  (reproduced  from 
Power  and  the  Engineer  for  Apr.  20,  1909).  In  order  to 
get  the  desired  trip  after  the  toe  B  has  worn  down  thus, 
attendants  have  been  known  to  shorten  the  regulator  rod 
so  as  to  bring  down  the  steel  C  nearer  to  B.  This  practice 
usually  results  in  throwing  the  safety-cam  or  trip  D  out  of 


SAFETY  CAM  TOE  EXCESSIVELY  WORN 

reach  of  the  toe  B.  The  danger  attaching  to  such  a  con- 
dition is  obvious.  If  the  governor  belt  should  break,  away 
goes  the  engine  with  steam  being  admitted  full  stroke,  un- 
less perchance  the  engine  is  equipped  with  an  independent 
safety  stop  or  a  "governor  stop."  The  engineer  should  also 
make  sure  that  he  does  not  make  the  safety  trip  inoperative 
by  rolling  the  eccentric  ahead,  in  order  to  get  compression 
at  the  end  of  the  stroke. — The  Natio7ial  Safety  Council. 


418 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


Daylight  Saving  Advocated  by  United 
States  Chamber  of  Commerce 

Fifty-two  important  reasons  for  the  prompt  passing  of 
the  daylight-saving  bill  were  recently  given  Congress  in 
the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Daylight  Saving  of  the 
United  States  Chamber  of  Commerce.  The  items  in  rela- 
tion to  the  immediate  reduction  in  the  use  of  light  and  heat, 
with  the  attendant  saving  of  coal,  are  of  the  most  interest 
to  engineers  and  manufacturers. 

More  than  1,500,000  tons  of  coal  a  year  is  the  estimated 
saving  even  if  the  measure  is  in  effect  only  for  the  shortest 
period  that  has  been  suggested;  and  the  saving  in  fuel  oils 
is  equally  impressive.  The  savings  would  occur  in  both 
direct  and  indirect  ways.  The  amount  of  coal  that  will  be 
saved  if  the  clock  is  moved  ahead  one  hour  would  differ 
with  the  method  in  which  daylight  saving  is  used.  Calcu- 
lations computed  for  different  periods  based  upon  the  actual 
British  experience  in  the  summer  of  1916,  and  modified  by 
allowances  for  differences  in  latitude  give  the  following 
savings  in  coal  for  the  United  States: 

1.  Saving  of  150  hours  of  a  yearly  average  of  1320  per 
year  requiring  artificial  illumination  in  the  United  States, 
that  is,  by  daylight  saving  between  second  Sunday  in  April 
and  last  Sunday  in  Se' timber  according  to  the  Calder  bi'l 
(S.  1854)  now  before  the  House  Committee  on  Interstate 
and  Foreign  Commerce: 

Tons  Coal 

In  el?ctrioity  for  lighting-  

In  gas  for  lighting  


660,000 
144,000 


804,000 

2.  Saving  of  ISO  hours  from  the  yearly  average;  that  is, 
with  clocks  moved  ahead  cne  hour  between  Apr.  1  and 
Nov.  30: 

Tons  Coal 

In  rWtririty  for  lighting 836.000 

In  gas  for  lighting 183,000 


1,019,000 


3.  Saving  of  1C8  hours  fi'om  the  yaarly  average;  that  is, 
with  clocks  advanced  cne  hour  throughout  year: 

Tona  Coal 

In  clpctririty  for  lighting   871,000 

In  gas  for  lighting 190,000 

1,041,000 

The  saving  in  coal  used  for  these  purposes  could  be 
represented  approximately  by  the  following  percentages: 

1.  With  savino:  of  153  hours:  Amount  of  coal  used  for 
lighting  through  gas  and  electricity,  appi-oximately  15,750,- 
000  tons;  amount  saved,  804,000  tons;  percentage  saved,  5. 

2.  With  saving  of  ICO  hours:  Amount  of  coal  used  for 
lighting  through  gas  and  electricity,  approximately  15,750,- 
000  tons;  amount  saved,  1,019,000  tons;  percentage  saved, 
6.5. 

3.  With  saving  of  198  hours:  Amount  of  coal  used  for 
lighting  throuiTih  gas  and  electricity,  approximately,  15,750,- 
000  tons;  amount  saved,  1,061,000  tons;  percentage,  6.6. 

These  figures  do  not  include  the  saving  that  would  be  ob- 
tained at  isolated  plants  and  at  electric-power  plants  which 
sell  power  for  lighting.  To  be  borne  in  mind,  too,  is  the 
fact  that  the  estimate  has  been  made  on  a  basis  which  as- 
sumes that  the  use  of  electric  energy  and  gas  for  lighting 
is  spread  evenly  over  the  country,  whereas  as  a  matter  of 
fact  57  million  electric  lights  out  of  a  total  of  76  million  in 
the  country  are  in  the  New  England,  Middle  Atlantic  and 
Northern  Central  States,  where  the  advantages  of  daylight 
saving  will  be  most  striking. 

The  saving  of  coal  through  substitution  of  a  morning 
hour  of  moderate  illumination  for  an  evening  hour  of  maxi- 
mum use  of  electricity  and  gas  illustrates  ways  in  which 
very  important  savings  in  coal  would  be  obtained. 

"Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  eight  other 
nations  have  adopted  daylight  saving  since  the  outbreak 
of  the  war,"  says  A.  Lincoln  Filene,  of  Boston,  chairman 
of  the  committee  that  prepared  the  report  for  the  United 
States  Chamber  of  Commerce,  "and  in  all  of  them  it  is  a 
great  success.  In  England  the  saving  in  the  use  of  artificial 
light  and  fuel  is  estimated  at  $2,500,000  for  the  summer 
months  alone.     In  France  the  saving  has  oeen  estimated  to 


be  10  per  cent,  of  the  coal  ordinarily  consumed  by  the  gas 
and  electric  undertakings.  Adopted  as  a  war  measure,  it 
has  resulted  in  such  increased  efficiency  and  such  marked 
economy  that  there  is  no  question  of  a  return  to  the  old 
ways  after  the  war." 

Supporting  the  daylight-saving  measure  are  the  President 
of  the  United  States;  Herbert  C.  Hoover,  the  United  States 
Food  Administrator;  Dr.  Harry  A.  Garfield,  the  United 
States  Fuel  Administrator;  E.  N.  Hurley,  Chairman  of  the 
Shipping  Board;  the  Council  of  National  Defense,  literally 
scores  of  state  and  municipal  civic  bodies  and  the  more 
than  one  thousand  chambers  of  commerce  and  commercial 
organizations  comprising  the  membership  of  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce  of  the  United  States. 

New  Jersey   Boiler   Inspection   Bureau 

A  boiler-inspection  bureau  for  the  State  of  New  Jersey 
was  provided  by  the  legislature  at  its  recent  session  by 
passage  of  Senate  Bill  No.  209,  which  has  received  the 
approval  of  Governor  Walter  E.  Edge.  The  act  goes  into 
effect  immediately.  The  bureau  is  established  in  the  De- 
partment of  Labor,  consisting  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Labor,  as  head,  and  the  members  of  the  Steam  Engine  and 
Boiler  Operators'  License  Bureau  of  the  Department  of 
Labor  that  was  created  under  the  provisions  of  the  act 
approved  Apr.  14,  1913,  and  amended  by  the  act  approved 
Mar.  29,  1917,  together  with  such  inspectors  as  the  Com- 
missioner of  Labor  shall  deem  necessary.  The  new  bureau 
will  be  in  charge  of  the  inspection  of  all  steam  boilers 
located  within  the  state  carrying  a  pressure  of  more  than 
15  lb.  per  sq.in.     Section  3  of  the  law  provides: 

Any  person  who  shall  be  a  citizen  of  the  State  of  New 
Jersey,  who  has  had  at  least  five  years'  experience  as  an 
engineer  in  the  care  and  operation  of  steam  b:ilers,  or  who 
has  had  at  least  five  years'  experience  as  a  boilermaker,  or 
who  has  been  for  five  years  an  inspector  of  an  insurance 
company  issuing  insurance  upon  boilers  and  licensed  to  do 
business  within  this  state,  who  shall  satisf  ct~rily  pa=s  the 
examination  hereinafter  provided  for,  shall  be  eligible  to 
the  office  of  inspector  in  the  said  Boiler  Inspection  Bureau. 

The  Commissioner  of  Labor  is  authorized  to  direct  the 
members  of  the  Steam  Engine  and  Boiler  Operators'  License 
Bureau  to  hold  examinations  of  inspectors,  and  he  is  to 
prescribe  the  rules  and  scope  of  the  examinations,  appoint 
the  necessary  inspectors  from  among  the  successful  candi- 
dates and  issue  licenses  to  inspectors  so  appointed.  When 
so  licensed,  inspectors  are  authorized  and  empowered  to 
conduct  inspections  and  examination.  Inspectors  shall  hold 
office  during  the  pleasure  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor 
and  shall  perform  such  duties  as  he  may  direct. 

The  act  requires  that  all  steam  boilers  within  the  state 
carrying  a  pressure  of  more  than  15  lb.  per  sq.in.  shall 
be  inspected  internally  and  externally  and  be  subjected  to 
a  hydrostatic  test,  "if  necessary,"  at  least  once  in  each 
year  by  an  inspector  of  the  bureau,  excepting  boilers  that 
are  inspected  in  accordance  with  the  act  by  insurance  com- 
panies, whose  inspectors  have  been  duly  licensed  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Labor.  The  owner  of  any  steam  boiler 
who  shall  use  or  allow  to  be  used  a  steam  boiler  in  violation 
of  any  provision  of  the  act  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of 
$50  to  $100,  to  be  collected  by  suit  in  the  name  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Labor.  Section  15  provides  that  all  steam 
boilers  shall  conform  to  the  regulations  and  standards 
adopted  by  the  State  Board  of  Boiler  Rules. 

Steam  boilers  in  marine  or  railroad  service  that  are 
subject  to  United  States  Government  inspection  and  regula- 
tions and  also  fire-department  apparatus  and  motor  road 
vehicles  are  excepted. 

A  fee  of  ?6  and  traveling  expenses  of  the  inspector  is  to 
be  paid  by  the  owner  of  each  boiler  inspected  and  collected 
by  the  inspector,  $1  of  which  is  to  be  turned  into  the  state 
treasury  and  $5  and  expenses  to  be  retained  by  the  inspector 
as  his  compensation. 

In  addition  to  the  annual  internal  and  external  inspection, 
each  boiler  is  to  be  inspected  e.xternally  as  nearly  as  may  be 
at  the  expiration  of  six  months  after  the  annual  inspection. 
For  such  external  inspection  the  owner  of  the  boiler  is  to 
pay  the  inspector  a  fee  of  $2.50  in  addition  to  the  actual 
railroad  fare. 


March  19,  1018 


POWER 


419 


Bituminous  C'oal  To  Be   Mined  ('lean 
or  Sold  at  Less  Than  h'ixed  Price 

The  United  States  Fuel  Administration  has  announced 
the  organization  of  an  inspection  system  to  enforce  the  min- 
ing: of  clean  coal. 

During:  last  winter  much  of  the  output  of  bituminous 
coal  reached  the  market  containing  a  large  percentage  of 
slate  and  other  impurities.  The  effect  of  this  has  been 
not  only  to  reduce  the  heating  value  of  the  coal,  but  to  put 
an  additional  unnecessary  burden  upon  transportation 
facilities. 

Under  the  inspection  system,  coal  condemned  by  the  Fuel 
Administration  for  lacking  preparation  or  because  it  con- 
tains a  high  percentage  of  impurities  will  be  sold  at  50c. 
per  ton  less  than  the  fixed  Government  price  for  the  mine. 
Order  Effective  Monday,  Mar.  11 

The  inspection  system  will  be  operated  through  the  dis- 
trict representatives  of  the  Fuel  Administration  in  the  vari- 
ous coal  fields.  The  order  became  effective  Monday,  Mar. 
11.     It  provides: 

United  States  Fuel  Administration, 

Washmgtoji,  D.  C,  Mar.  7,  1918. 
Regulation   Concerning  Clean   Coal 

The  United  States  Fuel  Administrator,  acting  under 
authority  of  the  Executive  order  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States  dated  Aug.  23,  1917,  appointing  said  ad- 
ministrator, and  in  furtherance  of  the  purpose  of  said 
order  and  of  the  purposes  of  the  act  of  Congress  therein 
referred  to  and  approved  Aug.  10,  1917,  hereby  orders 
and  directs  that  until  further  or  other  order,  and  subject 
to  modification  hereafter  from  time  to  time  and  at  any  time: 

Section  I :  Authority  is  hereby  given  to  the  district  rep- 
resentatives of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration  to 
appoint  a  sufficient  number  of  inspectors  in  their  respective 
districts  to  carry  out  the  terms  and  provisions  of  this  order, 
and  to  assign  to  eacK  of  said  inspectors  a  particular  ter- 
ritory. 

Section  \l:    It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  of  said  inspectors: 

1.  To  cover  his  territory  at  as  frequent  intervals  as  may 
be  consistent  with  thorough  inspection;  the  inspectors  shall 
be  qualified  by  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  particular 
district  or  districts  in  which  the  inspection  is  to  be  per- 
formed, and  shall  familiarize  themselves  with  the  condi- 
tions under  which  the  coal  is  produced  and  prepared,  so 
as  to  enable  them  to  effectually  carry  out  the  terms  and 
provisions  of  this  regulation,  the  intent  being  to  reinstate 
the  cleaning  of  coal  at  the  working  faces  of  the  mines;  to 
reinstate  employment  of  slate  pickers  with  a  view  of  bring- 
ing the  ash  contents  of  coal  back  to  approximately  the 
standard  of  normal  times.  Furthermore,  where  the  coal 
in  any  part  of  the  mine  is  found  to  be  naturally  of  such 
character  as  to  be  unfit  for  market,  judging  from  the  usual 
standard  of  the  district,  the  district  representative  may 
order  the  mining  suspended  in  said  part  or  parts  of  a  mine 
until  or  unless  proper  cleaning  methods  be  adopted;  pro- 
vided, however,  that  the  workings  shall  not  be  so  suspended 
where  the  nature  of  the  mining  to  be  done  is  necessary  to 
preserve  the  mine  from  damage,  or  where  a  cessation  of 
work  endangers  life  or  may  result  in  serious  risk  of  flood- 
ing, of  explosions,  or  of  squeezing. 

2.  To  report  daily  to  the  district  representative  of  the 
Fuel  Administration,  mines  inspected,  the  condition  of  the 
coal  as  loaded;  methods  being  employed  to  prepare  and 
clean  the  product;  whether  or  not  the  product  being  shipped 
to  market  is,  in  his  judgment,  a  well-prepared  and  mei-- 
chantable  product.  All  reports  of  inspections  shall  be  made 
in  quadruplicate,  one  to  be  forwarded  by  mail  to  the  Fuel 
Administration,  Department  of  Inspection,  at  Washington, 
D.  C;  one  to  the  district  representative;  one  to  the  oper- 
ator; and  one  to  be  retained  by  the  inspector  for  his  per- 
sonal files. 

Section  III:  Inspectors  are  authorized  to  condemn  at  the 
mines  any  coal  loaded  in  railroad  cars  which,  in  their  judg- 
ment, is  not  properly  prepared;  and  any  inspector  finding 
unmerchantable  coal  shall  immediately  notify  the  district 
representative  and  the  operator  by  wire  or  in  person  and 
in  wi'iting,  giving  the  car  numbers  and  initials  of  any  and 
all  cars  so  rejected  and  stating  the  facts  on  which  such 
action  was  based.  A  copy  of  such  notice  shall  be  imme- 
diately mailed  to  the  United  States  Fuel  Administi-ation, 
department  of  inspection,  and  to  the  district  representa- 
tive. If  the  district  representative  approves  the  inspec- 
tion  report,  he   shall   so   notify   the  operator  at  once;    in 


which  case,  unless  the  operator  unloads  and  reprepares  the 
rejected  coal,  the  consignee  shall  be  permitted  to  deduct 
50c.  per  ton  from  the  authorized  price  for  the  grade  of 
coal  with  which  the  car  is  loaded,  provided,  however,  the 
consignee  after  examining  the  coal  may  at  his  option  p^iy 
and  the  operator  may  receive  the  full  authorized  price. 
Each  invoice  covering  the  sale  of  condemned  coal  shall  bear 
the  following  notation,  "This  reduced  price  is  fixed  by  the 
United  States  Fuel  Administration  as  a  penalty  for  im- 
proper preparation."  The  operator  shall  thereupon  imrne- 
diately  report  to  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration, 
department  of  inspection,  at  Washington,  and  to  the  dis- 
trict representative  the  disposition  made  by  him  of  said 
car  or  cars  of  coal,  and  shall  accompany  his  reports  with 
a  copy  of  the  invoice. 

The  district  representative,  where  repeated  violation  of 
this  regulation  has  taken  place,  or  in  flagrant  cases,  shall 
require  a  special  written  report  from  the  operator,  which 
report  shall  be  transmitted  by  said  district  i-epresentative 
to  Washington  with  his  conclusions  thereon,  all  of  which 
is  subject  to  review  by  the  United  States  Fuel  Adminis- 
trator. 

This  order  or  regulation  shall  not  operate  to  change  the 
terms,  conditions,  or  validity  of  existing  contracts,  but  new 
contracts  shall  be  made  subject  to  this  order. 

Above  regulation  to  become  effective  Mar.  11,  1918. 

H.  A.  Garfield, 
United  States  Fuel  Administrator. 


Coke   Breeze   for  Steam   Raising 

In  a  recent  paper  on  low-grade  fuels  for  power,  before 
the  Liverpool  Engineering  Society,  Mr.  Kershaw,  as  re- 
ported in  the  Power  User,  pointed  out  that  coke  breeze,  as 
the  fine  coke  is  called  which  is  washed  from  the  quenching 
tables  and  grading  screens  in  gas-works  and  byproduct 
coking  plants,  has  lately  come  into  prominence  as  a  useful 
and  cheap  fuel  for  power  generation.  The  ash  content 
varies  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  and  the  moisture  from  10 
to  20  per  cent.,  so  that  it  may  be  classed  as  low-grade,  either 
on  account  of  its  contents  of  incombustible  matter,  or  on 
account  of  its  fine  state  of  subdivision. 

The  conditions  required  for  the  successful  combustion  of 
coke  breeze  under  steam  boilers  are  now  well  understood, 
and  there  are  many  plants  in  operation  in  this  country 
where  it  is  being  employed  either  alone  or  mixed  with 
ordinary  bituminous  fuels  for  steam  generation.  When  coke 
breeze  or  coke  ash  containing  over  30  per  cent,  of  incom- 
bustible matter  is  to  be  burned  alone,  some  form  of  ex- 
ternal furnace  of  the  dutch-oven  type  becomes  necessary 
for  its  complete  combustion,  and  in  this  case  the  advantages 
offered  by  the  internal  fireboxes  of  the  marine  and  Lan- 
cashire type  of  boiler  are  lost.  Forced  draft  will  still  be 
necessary  to  burn  the  fuel,  and  the  radiant  heat  from  the 
furnace  can  be  utilized  by  means  of  hollow  walls  for  pre- 
heating the  air  before  it  is  draviTi  into  the  furnace  by  the 
fan  or  steam  jet — the  heat  of  the  gases  can  be  best  utilized 
in  the  water-tube  type  of  boiler.  Underfeed  stokers  are 
sometimes  used  with  this  furnace,  but  as  the  proportion 
of  ash  in  the  fuel  rises,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  anything 
like  complete  combustion  of  the  carbonaceous  matter  with 
mechanical  stokers  increases. 

When  burning  a  mixture  of  bituminous  coal  and  breeze, 
it  is  very  important  that  the  fuel  should  be  well  mixed.  A 
method  of  burning  the  mixed  fuels  on  chain-grate  stokers 
which  is  stated  to  have  given  good  results  is  to  fit  an  ad- 
ditional hopper  to  the  front  of  the  stoker,  by  means  of 
which  a  layer  of  breeze  is  fed  on  to  the  chain-grate  before 
the  ordinary  fuel  comes  down  upon  it  from  the  hopper 
above.  The  grate  then  travels  forward  with  two  layers  of 
fuel  upon  it,  the  coke  below  and  the  bituminous  above,  and 
the  proportionate  depth  of  these  two  layers  can  be  varied 
by  altering  the  relative  speeds  at  which  the  two  hoppers 
deliver  their   fuel   onto   the  grate. 


The  idea  that  a  technical  paper  is  dry  at  best,  and  that 
the  English  employed  in  it  is  of  small  consequence  has  long 
been  proved  incorrect.  There  is  so  much  nowadays  that  is 
well  written  that  no  busy  professional  man  will  spare  the 
time  to  read  and  digest  an  ill-written  paper. — Harrington 
in  the  Sibley  Journal. 


420 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


Merchant  Marine  Conference  at  Boston 

Problems  that  are  expected  to  result  in  greater  efficiency 
in  the  manning  and  operation  of  American  merchant  ships, 
improvements  that  will  be  welcomed  by  the  ship  operators 
and  crews  alike,  were  discussed  in  a  conference  of  repre- 
sentatives of  leading  maritime  organizations  and  United 
States  Shipping  Board  Recruiting  Service  officials  at 
Boston,  Tuesday,  Mar.  5. 

Henry  Howard,  director  of  the  Shipping  Board  Recruit- 
ing Service,  presided.  Among  those  taking  part  were  Ed- 
ward F.  Flynn,  assistant  to  the  director  of  recruiting;  John 
H.  Pruett,  of  New  York,  national  president,  American  As- 
sociation of  Masters,  Mates  and  Pilots;  Andrew  Furuseth, 
president.  International  Seamen's  Union;  H.  P.  Griffin, 
president.  Marine  Cooks'  and  Stewards'  Association  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf;  Thomas  L.  Delahunty,  of  New  York, 
business  manager.  Marine  Engineers'  Beneficial  Associa- 
tion; John  Olson,  of  the  Marine  Firemen,  Oilers'  and  Water- 
tenders'  Union  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf;  Bert  L.  Todd,  of 
New  York,  secretary.  Ocean  Association  of  Marine  En-ri- 
neers;  Parker  H.  Kemble,  and  Henry  G.  Vaughan  and  Edwin 
Reynolds  of  the  Shipping  Board  Recruiting  Service. 

In  the  afternoon  the  delegation  went  on  board  ths  train- 
ing ship  "Governor  Dingley"  for  luncheon  and  an  inspection 
of  seamanship  and  boat  drill  by  the  merchant  marine  ap- 
prentices being  trained^  by  the  Shipping  Board. 

Effect  of  Poor  Coal  on  Plant  Efficiency 

An  interesting  analysis  of  the  effect  of  poor  coal  on 
power-plant  efficiency  was  presented  at  a  meeting  of  the 
New  England  Street  Railway  Club  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb. 
28,  by  Walter  C.  Slade,  superintendent  power  and  lines, 
Rhode  Island  Company,  Providence.  Rhode  Island  has 
keenly  felt  the  shortage  of  bituminous  coal.  The  two  power- 
producing  utilities  at  Providence  have  been  operating  of 
late  with  inadequate  coal  reserves  and  the  Rhode  Island 
Company  in  particular  has  recently  been  forced  to  operate 
its  main  power  plant  at  Manchester  St.  for  three  or  four 
days  entirely  with  borrowed  coal.  The  company  operates 
two  steam  plants,  one  a  turbine  station  at  Providence  with 
two  15,000-kw.  units  and  some  smaller  machines,  and  one 
at  Rockland,  of  the  engine  type.  In  1916  these  plants 
burned  73,100  gross  tons;  in  1917  the  consumption  rose  to 
90,500  tons,  although  the  power  generated  increasiJ  less 
than  5  per  cent. 

The  load  on  these  stations  is  exclusively  railway.  The 
diversity  factor  which  the  average  central  station  enjoys 
does  not  exist  on  the  Rhode  Island  system.  The  turbine 
station  generated  73,492,300  kw.-hr.  in  1917  and  the  Rock- 
land station  1,423,217  kw.-hr.  In  1915-16  the  company  paid 
$3.32  per  ton  for  coal  alongside;  discharging  cost  8.5c. 
per  ton.  The  average  price  is  now  over  $8.35,  provided  there 
are  no  demurrage  charges.  Owing  to  Government  regula- 
tion, the  consumer  absorbs  not  only  demurrage  charges, 
whether  they  occur  on  cars  or  on  the  boat  at  the  loading 
end  or  at  the  discharging  end,  but  also  other  charges  such 
at  war  taxes,  insurance,  etc.  To  date  the  company  has  re- 
ceived about  $6000  in  demurrage  bills  on  the  last  eleven 
boats,  on  which  two-thirds  was  incurred  at  the  loading 
end.  Discharging  costs  have  advanced  to  23c.  per  ton,  be- 
cause the  company  is  now  obliged  to  discharge  boats  on 
overtime  work  to  avoid  the  high  demurrage  charges.  To- 
day coal  passers  on  the  water  front  are  getting  50c.  per 
hour  straight  time,  65c.  per  hour  overtime  and  75c.  per 
hour    Sundays    and    holidays. 

In  August,  1917,  the  company  realized  that  it  was  going 
to  have  trouble  with  fires  in  part  of  its  stored  coal,  due  to 
the  rapid  heating  properties  of  some  of  the  coal,  which 
was  of  poor  quality  even  though  of  high  price.  The  fire 
tiouble  actually  occurred  earlier  than  was  anticipated. 
About  Sept.  1  shipments  became  less  frequent,  and  in  De- 
cember the  reserve-storage  supply  v/as  reduced  to  about 
7500  tons.  In  February  the  coal  left  was  all  consumed 
and  the  company  was  forced  to  borrow  coal  through  the 
local  fuel  administration.  For  the  last  year  all  possible 
pressure  was  exerted  to  have  suitable  deliveries  kept  up 
to  prevent  the  depletion  of  the  supply. 


Prior  to  the  time  when  the  coal-mining  conditions  be- 
came abnormal  and  transportation  facilities  became  demor- 
alized, the  company  burned  New  River  or  Pocahontas  coal, 
with  an  average  analysis  of  about  14,900  B.t.u.  Even  the 
same  grade  of  coal,  due  evidently  to  poorer  preparation  at 
the  mines  and  at  a  later  time  possibly  to  pooling  of  coal 
supplies  by  the  Government,  gave  noticeably  lower  average 
B.t.u.  on  analysis.  The  spot  cargoes  purchased  outside, 
consisting  mainly  of  Pennsylvania  coals,  but  which  were 
expected  to  be  of  average  quality,  were  in  some  instances 
of  extremely  poor  quality.  Of  the  coal  placed  in  yard  stor- 
age, 35  per  cent,  showed  a  heat  value  under  14,500  B.t.u., 
and  46  per  cent,  under  14,750  B.t.u.  In  fact,  21  per  cent. 
was  under  14,000  B.t.u.,  some  of  it  containing  15  per  cent, 
ash.  Owing  to  the  deterioration  of  this  coal  in  storage 
before  it  was  consumed  under  the  boilers,  the  average  B.t.u. 
value  of  the  coal  as  fired  was  not  over  14,300  B.t.u.  The 
poor  quality  of  coal  was  reflected  in  operating  cost,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  higher  cost  of  the  coal  alongside.  Increased 
boiler-room  maintenance  also  resulted.  The  net  result  was 
to  raise  the  unit  cost  of  power  for  1917  by  106  p;r  cent., 
compared  with  the  year  ended  June  30,  1916. 

The  coal  factors  for  both  stations  have  been  growing 
worse  since  1916,  as  shown: 


. — Manchfster  St.  Station — ■ 
Lb.  Coal  Pi>r  Cent. 

Per  Kw.-Hr.        Increase 
1 2  months  ending  June  30, 

1916     ....      2  28 

6  months  ending  Dec.  31, 

1916  ....  ...    .  2  38  4,4 

12  months  ending  Dec.  31, 

1917    2  69  13  0 


. — Rockland  Station — - 
Lb.  Coal  Percent. 
Per  Kw.-Hr.      Increase 


3  49 
3  78 


3  99 


8  3 
14  3 


The  unusually  high  factor  for  the  turbine  plant  in  1917 
was  due  to  a  combination  of  operating  conditions  requir- 
ing a  large  number  of  banked  hours  on  stand-by  boilers 
not  used  in  1916,  together  with  the  necessity  of  burning  a 
considerable  amount  of  inferior  coal,  as  well  as  coal  dam- 
aged by  spontaneous  combustion.  The  performance  will  not 
be  repeated  in  1918.  In  fact,  under  favorable  conditions  the 
plant  in  Providence  was  operating  for  a  part  of  January 
at  2.13  lb.  The  decrease  in  economy  at  both  turbine  and 
engine  plants  has  been  of  the  same  relative  order. 

As  regards  the  increased  cost  of  busbar  power,  some  com- 
parisons may  be  made  with  the  costs  which  apply  to  the 
year  ended  June  30,  1916.  Comparing  the  last  six  months 
of  1916  and  the  year  1917  with  this  period,  it  is  found  that 
the  cost  per  kilowatt-hour  at  the  bus  increased  for  the 
six  months  23.4  per  cent,  and  for  the  following  twelve 
months,  106  per  cent,  at  the  Manchester  Street  Station.  At 
the  small  Rockland  plant  the  busbar  cost  increased  for 
the  same  periods  31.8  per  cent,  and  73.5  per  cent.  These 
remarkable  increases  in  unit  cost  are  due  primarily  to  the 
abnormally  high  price  and  also  to  the  poor  character  of  the 
fuel.  Some  of  the  coal  was  of  such  poor  quality  that  it 
raised  the  maintenance  of  stokers  and  furnaces  to  an  abnor- 
mal point.  Steam-plant  maintenance  in  1917  increased  75 
per  cent,  compared  with  1916,  and  all  other  maintenance 
increased  only  13  per  cent,  at  the  Manchester  Street  Sta- 
tion. The  increase  in  the  cost  of  fuel  as  fired  was  132 
per  cent,  and  raised  the  fuel  charge  in  1917  to  as  much 
as  83  per  cent,  of  the  total  maintenance  and  operating  costs. 
Referring  to  operating  charges  in  the  same  year,  while 
fuel  costs  advanced  132  per  cent,  over  1916,  wages  advanced 
30  per  cent,  and  all  other  operating  charges  25  per  cent. 
The  kilowatt-hours  delivered  increased  only  4.9  per  cent, 
and  the  pounds  of  coal  per  kilowatt-hour  18  per  cent. 

The  majority  of  the  existing  railway  plants  were  built 
at  a  time  when  25  cycles  was  the  only  commercial  fre- 
quency considered  suitable  for  traction  purposes.  These 
plants  as  a  rule  enjoyed  no  diversity  factor  in  their  load. 
So  much  capital  is  invested  in  these  large  railway  plants 
that  even  though  they  are  able  to  generate  less  economical- 
ly than  adjacent  central  stations,  it  is  difficult  to  consider 
anything  but  a  continuance  of  operation  with  added  im- 
provements in  the  interest  of  economy  in  these  railway  in- 
stallations. Between  the  average  large  60-cycle  central 
station  and  the  average  large  25-cycle  railway  plant  there 
can  be  no  interchange  of  power  except  through  frequency- 
changing  equipment,  which  is  sufficiently  uneconomical  to 
make  such  an  exchange  feasible  only  for  emergency  service. 
In  certain  cases  it  appears  feasible  to  add  some  60-cycle 


March  I'J,  I'JiS 


POWER 


421 


equipment  in  extending  cxistintc  '25-cyclc  plants,  where  in- 
timate co6pe>'ation  exists  between  the  two  classes  of  plant 
owners.  The  writer  believes  that  many  of  the  smaller 
railway  plants  of  the  engine-driven  type  should  be  shut  down 
by  central-station  service,  holding  that  with  increasing  cost 
•  of  coal  the  balance  is  all  in  favor  of  the  central  station.  It 
is  questionable  if  the  price  of  coal  in  future  years  reaches 
a  minimum  that  is  $1  to  $1.50  a  ton  above  prices  prevailing 
before  the  war. 

In  ordinary  times  the  fuel  item  represents  from  70  to  75 
per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  of  generated  power.  Recently, 
this  reached  83  per  cent,  on  the  Rhode  Island  system.  In 
fact,  at  least  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  was  expended 
in  the  boiler  room  for  fuel,  water,  wages,  supplies  and  ma- 
terials required  for  maintenance.  The  boiler  plant  has 
been  too  much  neglected  in  the  past,  especially  in  employing 
high-priced  men  to  operate  it.  Now  there  is  a  man  short- 
age, and  perhaps  the  best  solution  is  to  put  under  the  chief 
engineer  a  technically  trained  man  or  at  least  a  man  who 
understands  the  theory  of  combustion  well  and  who  can 
keep  a  constant  check  on  the  operation  of  the  boiler  room. 
This  type  of  man  has  been  termed  "combustion  engineer." 
Even  plants  of  moderate  capacity  could  well  afford  to  main- 
tain such  a  man  on  the  payroll.  Working  with  the  assist- 
»ance  of  tlie  necessary  measuring  devices,  such  a  man  could 
put  the  true  spirit  of  industrial  control  into  boiler-room 
practice.  To  aid  the  combustion  engineer  in  effecting  the 
desired  economies,  it  is  advisable  to  consider  the  question 
of  making  all  equipment  as  nearly  automatic  as  possible. 
Man  power  may  be  at  a  premium  for  some  time  to  come, 
and  at  all  times  undue  dependence  upon  the  human  element 
i".  undesirable. 


Toluol  from  City  Gas 

In  anticipation  of  the  present  national  emergency,  says 
Iron  Age,  there  has  been  going  on  without  any  publicity 
a  development  in  toluol  manufacture  which  bids  fair  to  be 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  nation  in  the  supply  of 
trinitrotoluol.  Early  in  1915,  the  Koppers  Co.,  of  Pitts- 
burgh, which  at  that  time  was  building  a  large  number 
of  byproduct  coke  plants,  and  in  connection  with  which  it 
was  also  building  benzol  and  toluol  plants,  started  in  the 
laboratories  of  the  Mellon  Institute,  Pittsburgh,  an  inves- 
tigation into  the  recovery  of  toluol  from  carburetted  water 
gas,  the  gas  made  in  all  large  cities  of  the  country  by  the 
gas  companies  for  domestic  use. 

It  has  been  found  that  every  byproduct  coke-oven  plant 
in  the  country  is  producing  or  has  arranged  to  produce 
toluol  to  the  utmost  capacity  and  that  the  remaining  needed 
toluol  must  be  secured  from  city  gas.  The  Pittsburgh  By- 
product Coke  Co.,  an  operating  company  associated  with 
the  Koppers  Co.,  has  carried  out  a  plan  in  conjunction  with 
the  gas-light  company  at  Washington  to  erect  the  first  plant 
at  the  West  station  of  that  company  to  effect  the  removal 
of  toluol  from  5,000,000  cu.ft.  of  carburetted  water  gas  per 
day.  This  plant  was  placed  in  operation  on  July  14,  1916, 
and  has  yielded  since  that  date  200,000  gallons  of  toluol. 
While  this  plant  was  the  first  to  use  this  process,  and  many 
improvements  increasing  the  efficiency  and  economy  of 
operation  have  been  introduced,  it  proved  a  commercial  and 
technical  success,  equaling  the  results  promised  by  labora- 
tory methods.  Many  of  these  "stripping"  plants  are  in 
operation  in  various  cities,  and  others  are  in  preparation. 


The  Belgian  Coal  and  Coke  Industry 

During  the  years  that  immediately  preceded  the  war, 
Belgium  produced,  in  round  figures,  24,000,0?0  metric  tons 
of  coal  a  year.  About  1,350,000  tons  of  this  was  coked, 
yielding  a  trifle  more  than  1,000,000  tons  of  commercial 
coke,  including  breeze  sold  for  domestic  use.  All  coke  was, 
of  course,  byproduct  coke,  as  none  other  has  been  made  in 
Belgium  since  1892  or  1893. 

Belgium  was  a  pioneer  in  the  byproduct  industry.  The 
oldest  byproduct  company  now  in  existence  is  the  Societe 
Anonyme  du  Charbornage  des  Produits,  at  Flenu,  Belffium, 
which  was  incorporated  in  1856  fcr  the  mining  of  coal  and 


the  manufacture  of  byproducts.  Thnt  company  may  have 
become  better  known  abroad  as  a  coal  company  than  as  a 
byproduct  concern,  but  this  was  due  to  the  extraordnarily 
fine  natural  condition  of  its  coal  deposits,  which  enabled  the 
company  to  pay  big  dividends  earned  in  mining  and  selling 
coal  while  meeting  the  stress  of  developing  the  byproduct 
department  of  its  business.  Regardless,  however,  of  the 
trying  period  of  development,  the  Produits  Co.  never  ceased 
for  a  single  day,  since  1856,  to  make  byproducts;  and  the 
first  aniline  colors  ever  put  on  the  market  were  made  at 
Flenu  by  this  company  at  a  time  when  its  coke  and  by- 
product department  was  managed  by  the  noted  Belgian 
chemist,  Neyrincks. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Coppee  vertical-flue  coke  oven,  the 
Produits  Co.  became  a  decided  factor  in  the  byproduct  in- 
dustry. That  was  about  1870,  at  a  time  when  Germany 
had  only  beehive  coke  ovens  and  v/hen  all  coke  made  in  Bel- 
gium was  produced  in  retort  ovens  of  the  original  Coppee 
design.  Not  only  was  Germany  later  than  Belgium  in  elim- 
inating its  beehive  ovens,  but  even  to  this  day  there  is  not 
in  Germany  a  single  coke  oven  which  is  not  of  the  vertical- 
flue  kind  first  invented  by  Coppee,  a  Belgian,  or  the  hori- 
zontal-flue type  developed  by  Solvay  and  Semet,  the  former 
a  Belgian,  the  latter  a  Frenchman,  both  living  today.  Many 
persons  in  this  country,  even  among  these  engaged  in  the 
byproduct  industry,  believe  that  the  byproduct  oven  is  of 
German  origin  and  development.  To  this  day  the  Belgium 
coke  ovens  have  always  kept  at  least  one  step  ahead  of  all 
others. — Coal  Age. 

Science  or  Art 

There  are  times  when  we  find  it  diflicult  to  take  any  in- 
terest whatever  in  education,  times  when  the  n.ere  word 
bores  us,  calling  up  dull  recollections  of  tedious  debates  and 
the  incessant  repetition  of  those  platitudes,  formulas,  pious 
hopes  and  bitter  criticisms,  which  for  many  a  long  year 
have  been  the  currency  of  educational  conferences.  To  man 
thus  weary  of  the  subject,  we  recommend  a  little  book  by 
H.  G.  Taylor,  lecturer  in  civil  and  mechanical  engineering 
at  King's  College,  the  University  of  London.  According 
to  their  point  of  view,  it  will  make  them  angry  or  rejoice 
them.  If  they  are  university  men,  if  they  are  mathema- 
ticians rather  than  engineers,  they  will  bs  roused  either  to 
wrath  or  contempt;  if,  en  the  other  hand,  they  are  inventors 
or  manufacturers,  and,  above  all,  if  they  are  men  who  owe 
more  to  practical  training  than  to  college  classes,  they  will 
applaud  the  author's  argument. 

Mr.  Taylor  is  a  whole-hearted  advocate  of  a  thorough 
practical  training.  A  Whitworth  scholar  himself,  he  be- 
lieves in  the  Whitworth  method.  Ensineerin-i;,  he  says 
quite  bluntly,  is  not  a  science,  it  is  an  art,  and  it  is  net  to 
be  learned  by  abstractions,  but  in  the  workshop,  the  factory 
and  the  field.  A  man,  he  holds,  must  first  be  an  engineer 
by  nature;  he  may  then  be  taught  to  think  scientifically, 
but  "to  be  useful  to  him,  any  elementary  science  must  be- 
come an  idea  over  which  he  has  complete  control."  Wiih 
the  exception  of  the  method  of  training  naval  cadets,  for 
which  he  has  nothing  but  the  highest  praise,  Mr.  Taylor 
does  not  think  any  one  of  our  universities  gives  this  de- 
sirable control.  "Without  exaggeration,"  he  writes,  "for 
an  engineer  who  has  to  make  his  way  in  life,  the  worst 
thing  he  could  possibly  do  is  to  become  educated. "  The 
training  that  is  given  in  the  schools  lacks  reaMty,  and  de- 
pends too  much  upon  mathematical  abstractions.  "To  a 
man  with  good  mathematical  knowledge  and  no  engineering 
experience,  all  problems  resolve  themselves  into  mathe- 
matics, and  his  engineering  credulity  obtains  for  him  the 
desired  success." 

We  are  disposed  to  agree  with  him.  The  mathematics 
employed  in  the  ordinary  course  of  mechanical  and  civil 
engineering  are  small  indeed,  and  the  advanced  teaching  is 
unnecessary,  and  in  many  cases  even  vicious,  since  it  gives 
a  wholly  false  idea  of  the  truth  and  encourages  a  belief  in 
mathematical  dogma.  Meticulous  accuracy  in  engineering 
calculations  is  impossible,  because  there  are  always  many 
unknown  quantities  and  qualities.  Hence  broad  calculations 
which  allow  a  margin  for  error  are  always  used  ''n  practice. 
For  general  purposes  the  engineer  will  learn  more  about 
heat  from  the  experiments  and  simple  arithmetic  of  Tyn- 


422 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


dall  than  from  the  textbooks  of  Rankine.  The  instinct  that 
is  acquired  by  doing  things  is  more  useful  in  this  work-a- 
day  world  than  mathematical  abstractions.  "The  best 
education  for  an  engineer,"  says  Mr.  Taylor,  "is  found  in 
the  natural  and  instinctive  pursuit  of  manual  toil  accom- 
panied by  study  at  a  technical  school."  We  agree  with 
him.  The  great  engineers  of  the  past  learnt  by  hard 
experience,  and  the  great  engineers  of  the  future  will  learn 
by  the  same  methods.  The  university  will  never  replace 
the  workshop. 

There  are  one  or  two  more  words  that  must  be  said  on 
this  eternal  question  of  mathematics.  We  went  some  time 
ago  to  visit  the  dean  of  a  technical  college,  well  known  to 
us  in  our  youth.  In  our  days  it  was  a  hotbed  of  mathe- 
matics, and  the  student  who  did  not  revel  in  the  higher 
flights  of  "conic  sections"  had  a  poor  chance,  indeed,  of 
achieving  distinction.  We  found  a  great  change.  The  pres- 
ent dean  was  bred  in  the  workshop,  and  he  holds  that  the 
drawing  office  rather  than  the  classroom  is  the  proper  place 
to  teach  the  science  of  figures.  With  a  sly  twinkle  in  hi.« 
eye,  he  admitted  that  on  more  than  one  occasion  he  had 
found  his  students  busy  over  their  boards,  engaged  in  the 
actual  design  of  a  machine  or  a  structure  when  they  ouglit 
to  have  been  attending  a  lecture  on  abstract  mathematics. 
His  duty  obliged  him  to  pack  them  off  straight  away,  but 
we  could  see  that  his  sympathy,  as  a  man  and  an  engineer, 
went  out  to  them.  He  knew  that  these  youths  had  in  them 
the  making  of  real  engineers.  They  were  fired  by  that 
love  of  creating,  that  desire  to  make  things,  which  is  the 
call  of  our  profession.  Where  arithmetic  or  algebra,  g.?om- 
etry  or  the  calculus  was  needed  for  the  construction  of 
something,  they  used  it  gladly,  as  they  would  any  other  in- 
strument or  tool,  but  they  could  not  look  upon  mathematics 
as  an  end  in  themselves.  We  dare  say  that  this  professor 
is  teaching  many  a  man  how  to  handle  figures  who  would 
never  have  learned  the  art  from  the  professors  of  the 
subject. 

Mr.  Taylor  is  right,  we  think,  when  he  suggests  that 
mathematics  have  gained  too  high  an  estimation  in  tech- 
nical schools.  We  cannot  conceive  of  an  engineer  who  was 
unacquainted  with  the  strength  of  material,  the  nature  of 
stresses,  the  means  for  working  metal,  stones  and  timber 
and  the  general  facts  of  physics  and  chemistry.  These 
things  and  many  others  must  be  known  and  handled  by  the 
mind.  But  we  can  quite  well  conceive  a  super-perfect  Bab- 
bage  calculating  machine  that  would  answer  by  the  turn 
of  handle  any  mathematical  proposition  that  might  be  put 
before  it.  There  are  certain  things  mathematics  cannot 
replace,  and  it  is  those  things  far  more  than  mathematics 
that  should  be  given  the  place  of  honor. 

No  one,  we  trust,  will  run  away  with  the  idea  that  we 
fail  to  recognize  the  value  of  mathematics;  nothing  could 
be  further  from  the  fact.  Accurate  measurement  is  the 
basis  of  science.  What  we  desire  to  convey  is  our  con- 
viction that  good  engineers,  men  of  resourcefulness,  inven- 
tiveness and  imagination  can  be  made  with  far  less  mathe- 
matical knowledge  than  is  now  insisted  upon.  The  science 
of  mathematics  is  best  reserved  for  those  who  have  the 
aptitude  for  it.  Such  men  become  useful  calculating  boxes 
in  the  hands  of  others  whose  natural  bent  is  toward  inven- 
tion and  creation.  Where  you  may  find  a  thousand  engi- 
neers doing  useful  work  in  the  world  with  no  more  than  a 
decent  acquaintance  with  arithmetic,  you  shall  barely  find 
one  high  mathematician  who  is  also  a  progressive  engineer. 
— Random  Reflections  from,  The  Engineer,  London. 

Complaints   of   Excessive   Prices   for 
Soft  Coal 

Investigation  is  being  made  of  complaints  received  by 
the  United  States  Fuel  Administration  that  operators  in 
some  of  the  bituminous  coal  fields  are  charging  an  exces- 
sive price  for  coal  under  contracts  made  before  Aug.  21, 
1917,  embodying  prices  below  those  fixed  by  the  President, 
which  contained  no  sliding  scale  of  labor  charges. 

Operators  against  whom  charges  have  been  lodged  are 
alleged  to  be  exacting  from  customers  45c.  per  ton  in  addi- 
tion to  the  figure  set  forth  in  such  contracts,  and  are  at- 


tempting to  defend  their  course  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  required  to  make  the  increase  under  the  President's 
order  of  Oct.  27,  1917,  allowing  a  45c.  per  ton  increase 
to  cover  wage  advances  for  the  miners. 

Consumers  will  be  protected  against  such  practices  of 
overcharging  when  their  purchases  were  made  under  con- 
tracts which  contained  no  provision  for  variations  in  price 
to  correspond  with  changes  in  wage  scales.  The  Fuel  Ad- 
ministration previously  announced  that  the  President's 
order  in  no  degree  lessened  the  obligation  of  operators  to 
make  deliveries  at  prices  stipulated  in  contracts  made  before 
Aug.  21,  1917. 

Proper  steps  have  been  taken  to  prevent  overcharging 
in  such  cases.  In  one  case  brought  to  light,  one  of  the 
large  coal  companies  of  the  country  has  agreed  to  with- 
draw the  45c.  per  ton  increase  which  they  had  imposed  in 
excess  of  their  contract  price. 


Civilian  Workers  Wanted  for  Ordnance 
Department 

Men  having  a  high-school  education,  some  shop  training 
and  the  natural  ability  to  adapt  themselves  to  new  work, 
may  qualify  for  a  Government  appointment  in  which  under 
Government  instructors  they  will  receive  the  necessary 
training  for  the  following  positions:  Inspectors  and  as- 
sistant inspectors,  field  artillery  ammunition  steel;  inspec- 
tors, artillery  ammunition,  cartridge  cases,  assembling, 
loading,  forging,  primers,  detonators,  shell  and  shrapnel 
machining;  ballistic  inspectors;  metallurgical  chemists  and 
assistants;  inspectors,  powder  and  explosives;  inspectors, 
cannon,  forging  operations;  inspectors,  gun  carriages  and 
parts;  inspectors,  gun-fire  control  instruments;  assistant 
inspectors,  motor  vehicles  and  artillery  wheels;  engineers 
and  assistant  engineers,  for  tests  of  ordnance  materials; 
inspectors,  ammunition  packing  boxes;  machinists,  ac- 
customed to  work  to  one  thousandth  of  an  inch. 

Those  who  have  the  required  technical  training  will  be 
placed  and  advanced  as  quickly  as  their  ability  justifies. 

Send  in  your  ovim  application  and  urge  your  associates 
who  may  be  qualified  to  do  so.  These  positions  are  under 
civil-service  regulations,  but  applicants  will  not  be  required 
to  report  for  examination  at  any  place.  Applicant  will  be 
rated  in  accordance  with  education  and  general  experience. 
No  applications  will  be  accepted  from  persons  already  in 
the  Government  service  unless  accompanied  by  the  vsritten 
assent  of  the  head  of  the  concern  by  which  the  applicant  is 
employed.  Papers  will  be  rated  promptly  and  certification 
made  vrith  least  possible  delay.  Apply  or  write  for  further 
information  to  C.  V.  Meserole,  Special  Representative  of 
the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  A.,  Room  800,  79  Wall  St., 
New  York  City. 


Our  Greatest  Enemy 

Comparatively  few  persons  realize  how  great  a  toll  in- 
dustrial accidents  take  of  our  people  every  year,  states  Sec- 
retary Redfield.  If  we  are  ever  so  unfortunate  as  to  hear 
of  the  loss  in  a  great  battle  of,  say,  10,000  of  our  soldiers 
(10,000  killed)  the  nation  would  be  moved  deeply;  yet  every 
year  twice,  perhaps  three  times,  that  number  are  slain  in 
industries  of  all  kinds  and  almost  without  its  invoking 
comment.  If  we  were  to  hear  that  1,000,000  of  our  men 
suffered  wounds  in  this  war,  the  nation  would  be  troubled; 
yet  industry  takes  its  toll  in  the  form  of  injuries  to  per- 
sons to  an  extent  nearly  three  times  that  number  every 
year.  Of  this  we  think  but  little.  There  is  a  real  danger, 
therefore,  that  in  our  sympathetic  and  proper  thought  for 
the  soldier  in  the  field,  we  may  lose  sight  of  the  soldier  in 
the  factory,  who  has  his  casualty  risks  as  well  as  his 
brother  in  arms.  Just  as  there  is  a  call  to  service  for  the 
soldier  and  the  financier  and  the  nurse  and  the  doctor  and 
the  engineer  and  the  mechanic,  there  is  a  call  to  service  to 
see  that  the  precious  lives  in  the  country  are  not  wasted  and 
that  the  bodies  of  the  precious  people  who  make  up  this 
country  are  not  crippled. — Scientific  American. 


March  19,  1918 


POWER 


423 


iiiiinrMiDtMiii 


New  Publications 

lllllllll IIIIIMMIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIMIII lllllllinilllltllMUItlll 

POWDERED  COAL.  AS  A  FUELr—By  C.  F. 
Herington.  Published  by  D.  Van  Nos- 
trand  Co.,  New  York.  1918.  Size.  t>  x 
9    In..    211    pages;    Illustrated.      Price, 

The  Information  which  the  author  has 
collected  in  this  book  was  largely  acquired 
while  he  was  employed  as  assistant  engi- 
neer ii-  the  service  of  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral Railroad  Co.  Having  described  the 
coals  suitable  for  powdering,  the  prepara- 
tion and  fei  ding  of  powdered  coal,  the  au- 
thor proceeds  to  di.scus.s  the  use  of  fuel 
in  this  form  in  the  cement  industries,  in 
reverberatory  and  metallurgical  furnaces. 
under  steam  boilers  and  in  locomotives.  A 
chapter  is  devoted  to  cxp'.osio.is  of  pow- 
dered fu  1  and  a  comprehensive  bibliog- 
raphy given  of  the  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

COMBIXEn  T.VBLE  OF  SIZES  IN  THE 
PRINCIPAL,  WIRE  GAGES 
A  new  publication  (Circular  67)  entitled 
"Combined  Tablj  of  Sizis  in  the  Pri.icipal 
Wire  Gages,"  has  recently  been  issued  by 
the  Bureau  of  Standards.  Washingto.i,  D.  C. 
This  table  combines  in  o.ie  series  the  sizes 
1:1  the  American  <B.  &  S).  Ste.l.  Birming- 
ham (Stubs').  British  Standard,  and  Metric 
Wire  Gages.  arra..ged  in  ord.r  of  diam^tor^ 
of  wires.  It  gives  thj  diameters  of  all  the 
gage  numbers  i.i  these  five  syst  ms.  in 
mils,  inches  and  millimeters,  also  th3 
cross-sections  in  square  mils,  circular  mils, 
square  inches  and  square  millimeters.  The 
table  is  especially  useful  to  thosj  who  wish 
to  determine  the  near  st  equivalent  i.i 
American  or  British  gage  sizes  of  wires, 
specified  in  millimeters  or  square  mil.i- 
m.,ters,  or  vice  v^rsa.  This  paper  is  now 
ready  for  distribution  ard  those  iittrested 
may  obtain  a  copy  by  addressing  a  request 
to   the    Bureau, 

MACHINE  SHOP  PRACTICE  —  By  WIN 
liam  B.  Hartma  i.  Published  by  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.,  New  Y'ork,  1917.  Cloth; 
44  X  6J  i.i. ;  i:35  pages;  132  illustra- 
tions; 10  tables.  Prrce,  $1.10. 
The  man  who  has  no  knowledge  of  ma- 
chinist tools  and  machin.-shop  practice 
will  fi-.d  this  volume  of  valuj  in  tnat  it 
presents  the  elementary  pri.iciples  of  ma- 
chine-shop work  in  a  simple  a  -d  log.cal 
manner.  Measuring  tools  are  fiir  t  i  ,u  > 
trated  and  explained  as  to  form  and  use. 
This  subject  is  followed  by  a  descriptio.i 
of  hand  and  maciinc-culting  too.s.  and 
finally  the  several  machines  alone  and  i  i 
combination  with  the  tools  are  treated. 
Correct  methods  in  the  ha. idling  of  tools 
and  in  the  operation  of  machines  are  em- 
phasized. All  higher  mathematics  are  ex- 
cluded, and  all  calculations  are  confined 
to  the  use  of  simple  arithmetic.  The  data 
tables  in  the  appendix  are  such  as  are 
found  in  the  ge  i,.ral  run  of  handbooks,  but 
they  will  b;  useful  to  th?  student.  The 
contents  cover  the  following  subjects: 
Chipping ;  filing  and  scraping ;  drills  and 
drilling  machines  ;  lathes  ;  straight  tur.ing  ; 
taper  turning  ;  thread  cutting  ;  lathe  work  ; 
planer  and  shaper ;  boring  mills;  mil.ing- 
ma.chine  work  ;  and  a  chapter  dealing  with 
the  automobile.  Each  chapter  is  concluded 
by  a  list  of  questions.  The  illustrationi 
are  confined  to  mechanical  drawings  which 
will  assist  the  reader  in  learning  to  read 
them  and  as  to   their  use. 

THEORY'  AND  OPERATION  OF  DIRECT- 
CURRENT    MACHINERY'.       By    Cyril 
M.     Janskv.       Publishtd     by     McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Co..  New  Y'ork,  1917.     Cloth; 
6    X    9    in  ;    285    pagis ;    214    illustra- 
tions.     Price    $2.50. 
This   book    has    been    prepared   as   a    text 
to    meet    the    needs    of    students    of    limited 
mathematical  training.     Elementary  mathe- 
matics   has    bien    made    use    of    quite    ex- 
tensively   throughout    the    work,    neverthe- 
less     the    subject    has    beon    present- d    so 
that    an    understanding    of    th..'     princip'.es 
involved  may  be  obtained   even   though  the 
reader  may  be  unable  to  follow  the  mathe- 
matical   reasoning. 

The  book  is  divided  into  sixteen  chapters 
embracing  fundamental  magnetic  pri.ici- 
ples, electromagnetism,  electromagnetic  in- 
duction, units  of  measurement,  transforma- 
tion of  energy,  the  continuous-current  gen- 
erator and  motor,  the  magnetic  circuit  of 
the  direct-current  dynamo,  armatures,  usos 
of  electrical  energy,  types  of  dynamos, 
commutation,  operating  characteristics  of 
generators,  operation  and  care  of  genei 
ators,  operating  characteristics  of  motors, 
operation  of  three-wire  systems,  selection 
and   installation  of  dynamos. 

Although  this  book  was  written  primarily 
for  use  in  the  classroom,  it  contains  much 


that  tho  practical  man  can  make  good  use 
of,  espi  dally  the  last  eight  chapters,  which 
deal  largely  with  the  construction  aid  OD- 
cration  of  direct-current  machinery.  In 
the  first  four  chapters  the  author  has  given 
(Considerable  space  to  a  diacus.non  on  thii 
theoretical  magnetic  and  electrical  units, 
making  it  clear  just  what  the.se  units  are 
and   how   they   are   arrived   at. 


Obituary 


rindla.v  Clem  was  killed  on  Feb.  2.5  while 
inspecting  a  boiler  at  Owens  Station,  near 
Marion,  Ohio.  He  was  employed  by  the 
J.  T.  Adams  Construction  Co. 


iiiiiii.  .tniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiirMii 


Personals 


M.  H.  Collins  has  been  appointed  sales 
manager  of  the  new  Louisville  (Ky.) 
branch  of  the  Rensselaer  Valve  Co. 

G.  W.  Bichlmeir,  formerly  connected  with 
the  supply  departments  of  the  Missouri 
Pacific  and  Kansas  City  Southern  Railway 
Companies,  and  also  secretary-treasurer  of 
the  W.  L.  Sullivan  Machinery  Co.,  is  now 
connected  with  the  machinery  department 
of  the  Walter  A.  Zelnicker  Supply  Co.,  St. 
Louis.  Mo. 

H.  A.  Brassert,  who  has  been  connected 
with  the  Unite,!  States  Steel  Corporation 
since  its  organization,  has  resigned  as  as- 
sistant general  superintendent  of  the  Illinois 
Steel  Co.  at  South  Chicago,  in  orler  to'de- 
%'ote  himseif  to  his  personal  interests.  H:; 
will  act  as  vice  pesident  of  the  Miami 
Metals  Co.  and  subsidiaries,  consulting  en- 
gineer for  Freyn  &  Co,  and  in  a  consulting 
and  advisory  capacity  with  the  firm  of 
Brassert.  Hardy  &  Tripp.  Hs  o'fices  are 
in  the  Peoples  Gas  Building,  Chicago. 

I.oyaU  A.  Osborn-,  cf  New  York,  vice 
president  of  the  Westinghouse  Electric  and 
Manufacturing  Co.  and  chairman  of  the 
Executive  Committee  of  the  National  In- 
dustrial Conference  Board,  has  been  ap- 
pointed by  the  Secretary  of  Labor  a  mem- 
ber of  a  committee  on  industrial  peace  dur- 
ing the  war.  Th's  committee,  which  con- 
sists of  five  representatives  of  employers, 
five  labor  lenders  and  two  public  men.  will 
provide  a  definite  labor  program  in  order 
tliat  there  may  be  industrial  peace  during 
the  war.  thus  preventing  interruption  of 
industrial  'iroduction  vital  to  the  war. 


Engineering  Affairs 


The    Sinton    Hotel,    Cincinnati.    Ohio,    has 

been   selected   as    the   headquarters    for   the 
N.  A.  S.  E.  Convention,  Sept.   16-21,  1913. 

The  New  York  State  iEducational  Com- 
mittee of  the  N.  A.  S.  E.  ani  Combined 
Associations  of  Greater  New  York  will  hold 
a  meeting  on  the  evening  of  Mar.  2  6.  at 
220  E.  ]5th  St.,  New  Y'ork  City.  Walter  N. 
Polakov  will  give  a  lecture  on  "Power- 
Plant  Management."  an!  W.  R.  Marshall 
will  give  a  talk  on  "The  Operation  of  Steam 
Turbines  and  The-r  Auxiliar'es."  Through 
the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Shillcocks  a  visit  will 
bo  made  to  the  power  plant  of  the  Loose- 
Wiles  Biscuit  Co,  Thompson  Ave.,  Astoria, 
L.  I.    on  the  evening  of  Mar    22. 


nunineHfl    Was    Temporarily    Hlsruptert    in 

St.  Louis.  Mo.  at  noon  on  Mar.  1.  when 
peiwer  furnished  the  Union  lOlectric  Co. 
from  the  Keokuk  Dam  failed.  The  trouble 
was  caused  by  the  grounding  of  a  high 
tension  transmission  line. 

An  ExploNion   In  the  Kni^ine  Room  of  the 

Farley  &  Loetscher  Manufacturing  Co.'s 
plant,  at  Dubuque.  Iowa,  on  Feb.  21  seri- 
ously injured  three  jiersons  and  two  men 
were  still  missing  wlien  the  report  of  the 
accident  was  received.  The  explosion  fol- 
lowed a  fire  that  spread  into  one  of  the  big 
sawdust  conveyors. 

Tlie   Ma^neHia   ,\8Horiation   of   America   is 

issuing  a  portfolio  of  all  the  educational 
publicity  given  its  product  during  1917  in 
the  various  technical  and  trade  papers, 
under  the  title,  "Let  85%  Magnesia  Defend 
Y'our  Steam."  Anybod.y  interested  may  se- 
cure a  cop.v  by  writing  to  the  secretary  of 
the  Association  at  702  Bulletin  Building, 
Philadelphia,  Penn. 

The  Bureau  of  Standards  at  Washington 
has  purchased  eight  acres  of  land  west  of 
Connecticut  Ave.  and  has  let  contracts  f3r 
a  new  engineering  laboratory.  175x350  ft. 
and  four  stories  in  height.  The  new  build- 
ing and  Its  e  uipment  will  cost  in  the 
neighborhood  of  $1,000,000.  and  will  in- 
crease the  capacity  of  the  Bureau  by  50  per 
C6;nt.  The  Pittsburgh  laboratory  of  the 
Bureau,  including  the  work  on  glass  and 
c:!ramics.  will  be  transferred  to  Washing- 
ton. It  is  expected  that  the  new  building 
v'ill  be  occupied  during  the  coming  summer. 


<*MIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII>II )i 


tllllllllllllllllMII,^ 


Miscellaneous  News 


A  Boiler  Kxploded  at  Sharp's  farm.  Plum 
township.  Penn,,  on  Mar,  8,  k'lling  one  man 
and  injuring  three  others.  The  men  were 
drilling  an  oil  well  when  the  boiler  ex- 
ploded. 

A    FreiKht  Knglne   Blew   I'p   on   the   Wa- 

ba.sh  R.  R.  near  Cerro  Gordo.  III.,  on  Mar. 
3,  injuring  four  persons,  wrecking  19  leaded 
cars,  and  breaking  windows  two  miles 
away.  The  engineer  was  blown  about  20 
ft.  away. 

.\    Loromotlv©    Boilpr    ^i^xplodod    on     the 

Santa  Fe  R.  R  two  miles  west  of  Williard. 
N.  Mcx,.  on  >'nr,  3.  instantlv  killing  the 
engineer  and  fireman  and  slightl.y  Injuring 
another  man  who  was  riding  a  liorse  near 
the  scene  of  the  explosion. 


:iiiiiillllllltiliitililiilr.,ti 


iliiMlllliniiiiiiniiniililliiiiii 


Business  Items 


niiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiii 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiTinnnniniiii; 


Tlia   Wheeler   Condenser  and  Engineering 

Co.  announces  the  removal  of  its  Philadel- 
phia office  to  the  Land  Title  Building,  with 
L..  McKendnck  as  district  manager. 

The  Ketzer  Machinery  Co.  has  consoli- 
dated with  W.  H.  Robinson  &  Co..  with 
oirices  in  the  Real  Estate  Trust  Building, 
Philadelphia.  Paul  R.  Ketzer  is  manager 
i.i  charge. 

The  Permutit  Co.,  manufacturers  of 
water-softening  and  water-rectification  ap- 
paratus, for  several  years  located  at  30 
East  42nd  St.,  New  York,  announces  its 
removal  to   440   Fourth  Ave, 

The  Worth inpton  Pump  and  Machinery 
Corp.  announces  the  following  appointments 
in  its  organization:  William  Goodman,  as- 
sistant to  vice  president ;  William  Schwan- 
hausser.  chief  engineer ;  Edward  T.  Fish- 
vick,  general  sales  manager;  Charles  E. 
Wilson,  assistant  general  sales  manager; 
James  E.  Sague.  vice  president,  in  charge 
of  engineering  and  manufacturi.ig ;  Loon  P. 
Peustman,  vice  president,  in  charge  of  gen- 
eral commercial  affairs ;  Fank  H.  Jones, 
vice  pres'dont.  in  charge  of  sa'e^ ;  all  at 
Kew  York  City  offices,  115  Broadway.  Neil 
C.  Lamont,  works  manager.  iLaidlaw 
Works,  at  Elmwood  Place,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 


I  Trade  Catalogs  j 

TiiiitiiiiiiitiiMii iiiitiiiii iitimi mill iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMii iiiiiitiii. 

Ammonia    iFittings    and   Accessories.      De 

La  Vergne  Machi  e  Co,  Foot  of  E.  138th 
St..  New  York.  Catalog.  Pp.  92  ;  6x9  in.  ; 
illustrated.  This  company  has  also  issued 
a  bulletin  giving  ammonia-compressor  ca- 
pacity and  list  of  installations. 

Safety  Enclosed  Fuses,  EliH'trical  Pro- 
tective Equipment  and  .Materials.  Electric 
Fuseguard  Co.,  Newark,  N.  .1.  Catalog 
No.  1.  Pp.  54;  6  X  9  in.;  illustrated.  De- 
rcrib?s  this  company's  line  of  safety  elec- 
trical-protective equipment  and  allied  ma- 
terials ;   list   prices   are   also   given. 

Electrical  Equipment  in  tlie  Woodwork- 
ing  Industry  is  the  title  of  a  new  crcular 
just  is  ued  by  the  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Ma"Ufacturing  Co.,  Ea  ^  Pittsburgh. 
Penn.  The  publication  is  illustrated  by 
views  of  motor-driven  wood-working  ma- 
chinery. In  thi  first  section  the  general 
subject  of  motor  drive  is  di^cus.^ed.  The 
next  section  i-!  devot  d  to  features  of  West- 
inghouse motors  which  make  them  suit- 
able for  this  work.  Th  >  rest  of  the  book 
glv^s  horsepower  requirements  and  other 
dat.a  for  many  different  sorts  of  wood- 
working machinery  which  will  bo  of  much 
value  to  those  having  to  do  wltli  this 
class    of    industrial    activity. 


424 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  12 


^lllltllMIIHMIIIIIIIIHIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIttllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 

I  THE  COAL  MARKET 


I    PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION 


7llllllllllllllllllllltlll tlllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Illlllllll IIIMIIIIIIIMIIII imtt IIIMIIIIMIllimiMIIMIIIIIIII. 

Boston — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  delivered   alongside 
Boston  points  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 

, Circular' >    , Individual  > — , 

Mar.  14.  1918     One  Year  Ago  Mar.  14,  lfll8      One  Year  Ago 

Buckwheat    ..         S4.00              $2.0.",— 3.U0  ^l-iq—l.-^r,       $jj.3.;j— 3..50 

Rice    4.10                   2.50 — 3.65  6.65 — 6.90           3.70 — 3.9o 

Barlly  '.  !  '.  '. !  !            silo                 3;3d— 3.3.i  6.15— ■6.46  3.35'— 2.60 
BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous  not   on  market. 

F.o.b.  Mines* ,    , Alongside  Bostont ^ 

Mar   14    191S      One  Year  Ago  Mar.  14    1918  One  Year  Ago 

Clearflelds $3.00                          $4.2o— o.OO 

Cambrias  and  *  o^      r  An 

Somersets 3.10—3.85             4-60 — 5.40 

Pocahontas  and  New  River,  l.o.b.  Hampton  Roads,  is  54,  as  compared 
with  S3. 85 — 3.90  a  year  ago. 

•AlJ-rail  rate  to  Boston  is  $3.60.  tWater  coal 

New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  Tidewater  at 
the  lower  ports*  as  compared  with  a  year  ago  are  a.n  follow. s: 

ANTHRACITE 

Circulari ^      , Individual'  ■- — > 

Mar.  14,  1918      One  Year  Ago      Mar.  14,  1918      One  Year  Ago 
D«,  R-,  0",  84.00  85.80  S7.3  )— 7,>0 

|Sk.Aeat-.:'4|0-5.00  '2.75  5  50--5  80  7  00-7.3o 

Bfl^y     ^iTkHaS}?  330  4  50—4,80  5.00— .'i..50 

Ij^fer    •.•.•.::      .3:50-1.75  3:30  3.50-4.00 

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c.  higher.. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.Y.  Harbor     Mine 

Pennsylvania    »3||  *2gg 

Maryland     ■■  • o  r=  0  00 

West  Virginia    (short  rate) •">"  "■"" 

Based  on  Government  price  of  82  per  ton  at  mine. 
•The  lower  ports  are;  Elizabethport.  Port  Johnson,  Port  Rea£";S- 
Perth  Ambov  and  South  Amboy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Libert.v 
HobSken"w7ehawken°"Edgewater  or.Cliflside  and  ,G"ttenberg  St.  George 
.  in  between  and  sometimes  a  special  boat  rate  is  made  Some  bitumi^ 
nois  is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  freight  rate  to  the  upper  ports 
is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

PhlladelphiB- Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars  at  mines  for  line 
shipment  and  f  o.h   Port  Richmond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

^ Line s         / Tide—- — - — v 

One  Year  One  Year 

Mar.  14,  191S      One  Year  Ago     Mar.  14   1918      One  Year  Ago 
Pea  83.75  83.80  84.6.5  S3. /O 

Blney ■:.::......    3.15  i.fx  H^  ^% 

iiuer- ::::::::::    2:45  1.95  3.56-         3.15 

Chicago — Steam    coal    prices    f.o.b.    mines; 

TlUnnii  Cnals  Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

PrenLrcd   si°es  $3.85—3.80  $.3.35—3.50 

Mine  ran  ...         3.40—3.55  3.10—3.35 

iviine-1  uii       OIK       o  in  •>  Hf^ 1 0O 

Screenings     -55 ^..30  -.85— 3.0U 

So.  Xlhnois.  Pocahontas.  Hocking. 

Pennsylvania  East  Kentucky  and 

Smokeless  Coals  and  West  Virginia      West  Virginia  Splint 

S™  """ ::::::::::  '2:40=5:60         '5:6o=!:o8 

s'creenTg.  :::::::::::::: 3.10-2.55  2.35-3.75 

St.  Louis — Prices  pet  net  ton  f.o.b.   mines  a  year  ago  as  com- 
pared with  today  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and  Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  and  Staunton  r Standard ^ 

Mar.  14.  One  Mar.  14.        One  Mar.  14.  One 

1918  Year  Ago       1918       Year  Ago       1918  Year  Ago 

^liSmp.  .    $3.65-2.80  $3.35-3.50  83.65-3.80  $3.26-3.50  $3.65-3.80  $3^0-3.75 

\imp..       3.65-3.80    3.65-3.80    3.65-3.80    

^egl" .  .  .    3.65-2.80    3.65-3.80    3.65-3.80    

^^'   .  .  .    2.40-2.55    2.75-3.00    2.40-3.55    3.00  3.40-3.55    3.25-2.50 

'Jiut'^ 2.65-3.80    3.35-3.50  2.65-3.80    3.35-3.50    2.65-3.80    3.35-3.75 

^s'dreen     .    2.15-3.30    350-3.75    3.15-3.30    3.75-3.00    2  15-3.30    3.35-2.50 

^'washed       3.15-3.30    3.00  3.15-3.30    2.75-3.00    2.15-2.30    2.5C 

WilUamson-Franklin  rate  St.  Louis.  87  %c.;  other  rates,  7:;>2C. 

Birmineham — Current   prices  per  net   ton   f.o.b.   mines   are  as 

Mine-Run  Lump  and  Nut  Slack  and  Screeninffs 

Big  Seam  »l-90  $2.15  •        $1.65 

^atrj^gger:  Corona.  ..  .        3.15  2.40  1.90 

Black  Creek.   Cahaba    .  .  .         2.40  3.6»  3.1a 

Government  figures. 

'Individual  nrices  are  the  company  circulars  at  which  coal  is  sold  to 
regular  customers  irrespective  of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the  year  and  arc  fixed  according 
to  a  regular  schedule. 


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Fla.,  Christina — The  Phosphate  Mining  Co.  plans  to  rebuild 
its  electric  power  plant  which  was  recently  destroyed  by  fire.  P. 
H.  Puller,  Nichols,  Gen.  Mgr. 

Idalio,  Dubois — The  Dubois  Light  and  Power  Co.,  recently  in- 
corporated with  $25,000  capital  stock,  plans  to  build  an  electric- 
lighting  plant   on   Beaver  Creek  near   here. 

Ind.,  Richmond — J.  P.  Dillon,  Supt.  of  the  electric-lighting  plant, 
has  requested  the  City  Council  to  appropriate  $200,000  for  an 
extension  to  the  plant. 

Kan.,  Bunkerliill — City  is  considering  the  erection  of  an  elec 
trie-lighting  plant. 

Ky.,  Louisville — The  Progress  Laundry  Co.,   716-720  Broadway, 

plans  to  purchase  electrical  equipment  including  a  100  hp.  engine. 

Ma.,  Baltimore — The  Bartlett  Hayward  Co.,  Scott  and  McHenry 

St..    has   awarded   the   contract    for   the   erection   of   a   28   x   49   ft. 

transformer  house,  to  Morrow  Bros.,  Fidelity  Bldg. 

Mass.,  Medfleld — The  Commission  on  Mental  Diseases  will  soon 
receive  bids  for  replacing  main  steam  line  to  various  buildings 
with  large  line  and  extensions.  The  work  involves  3850  sq.ft. 
radiation,  Jenkins  valves,  240  ft.  IJ  in.  pipe  mains  to  various 
building  and  large  3   in.  steel  pipe. 

3Iinn.,  Lanesboro — City  plans  an  election  soon  to  vote  on  $15,000 
bonds  tor  the  erection  of  an  electric-lighting  plant.  H.  T.  Asbre, 
City  Clerk. 

Miss.,  Clinton — City  plans  to  install  additional  equipment  ,in  its 
power  plant.     Estimated  cost.  $8000.     J.  W.  Provine.  Mgr. 

Mo.,  Concordia — The  Trustees  of  St.  Pauls  College  have  plans 
under  consideration  for  the  erection  of  a  new  power  plant  at  the 
institution.  C.  F.  May,  Merchants  Lacleded  Bldg..  St.  Louis, 
Arch. 

Mo.,  Kansas  Cit.v — The  Kansas  City  Light  and  Power  Co.  will 
build  a  4-story.  185  x  244  ft.  power  plant  on  Front  St.  and  Park 
Ave.     A.   .\.   Richardson,  Gen.   Supt. 

Mo.,  Lewistuwn — H.  H.  Bronson  is  in  the  market  for  direct  cur- 
rent generators. 

Mo.,  Marshfleld — The  Marshfield  Electric  Co.  plans  to  improve 
and  alter  its  plant ;  a  new  generating  unit  will  be  installed. 

Mo.,  St.  Louis — E.  W.  Leverett.  Supt.  of  the  lighting  system,  is 
in  the  market  for  a  generating  unit  and  power  plant  equipment 
to  replace  150  hp.  equipment  now  in  use. 

N.  y.,  Brooklyn — The  Arabol  Manufacturing  Co.,  100  William 
St.,  New  York  Citv,  is  having  plans  prepared  by  H.  Harlach, 
BngT.,  451  East  144th  St..  New  York  City,  for  the  erection  of  an 
addition  to  its  boiler  house  on  Santord  St..  here. 

N.  Y.,  Buffalo — The  Delaney  Forge  and  Iron  Co.,  300  Perry  St., 
is  in  the  market  for  power  plant  equipment  of  about  500  hp. 

N.  Y.,  Buffalo — The  Pullman  Co..  79  East  Adams  St.,  Chicago, 
plans  to  purchase   power  plant   equipment. 

N.  Y.,  Elmira — Hilliard  Clutch  and  Machine  Co.,  4th  St.,  plans 
to  install  a  steam  heating  extension  to  its  present  plant.  Elec- 
tric motors  will  be  purchased. 

N.  Y.,  Elmira — The  Willys- Morrow  Co.,  Toledo,  Ohio,  is  in  the 
market  for  power  plant  equipment. 

N.  C,  Badin — The  Tallassee  Power  Co.  plans  to  build  200  addi- 
tional buildings  to  its  plant  soon.  G.  R.  Gibbons,  Pittsburgh, 
Secy. 

Ohio.  Afwater — The  Atwater  Light  and  Power  Co.,  incorpor- 
ated with  $10,000  capital  stock,  plans  to  build  and  operate  an 
electric-lighting  plant.  E.  P.  and  P.  W.  Whittlesey  and  others, 
interested. 

Ohio,  Cincinnati — J.  A.  Fay  &  Egan  Co.,  John  and  Front  Sts.. 
will  install  power  plant  equipment  in  its  proposed  wood-worliing 
factory. 

Ohio,  Cleveland — City  is  in  the  market  for  1333  electric  meters 
ranging  from  5  ampere,  110  volt  single  phase  meter  to  220  ampere, 
110  volt  potential  transformers.  E.  Shattuck,  City  Purchasing 
Agent.      R.   Hoffman,   City  Engr. 

Olda.,  Kingston — City  plans  to  rebuild  its  electric-lighting  plant 
which  was  recently  wrecked  by  an  explosion. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  Cocoa  Butter  ManufactuiMng  Co.  has 
had  plans  prepared  bv  A.  F.  Sauer  &  Co.,  Engr.,  908  Chestnut  St., 
for  a  new  1-storv.  50  x  60  ft.  brick  power  house  to  be  erected 
at  2626  Martha  St.      Noted  Mar.   12. 

Wash.,  Bellingham— The  Puget  Sound  Traction  Co.,  Stuart 
Bldg.,  Seattle,  plans  to  build  a  transmission  line  from  here  to  the 
Cokedale  Mine  to  furnish  horsepower  to  the  plant  there.  J.  Harls- 
berger.  Gen.  Supt. 

Wash.,  Seattle — The  Citv  will  build  a  power  station  for  the 
lighting  department  at  14th  Ave..  N.  W..  and  49th  St.  The  work 
will  be  done  by  day  labor.     Noted  Jan.   22. 

W     Va.     Fireco — The    Battleship   Coal    Co.,    Princeton,    pl.ins    to 
build  a  central  power  plant  at  its  mines,  here.     H.  E.  Hines,  Pres. 
Wis.,    Neenah — The    C^ty    Council    plans    to    purchase    electric 
equipment   for   its  stone  quarry. 

Ont..  Hamilton— The  Imperial  Oil  Co.,  56  Church  St.,  Toronto, 
has  had  plans  prepared  by  J.  L.  Havill,  Engr.,  for  the  erection  of 
a  pump  house.     Estimated  cost.  $5000. 

Ont.,  Port  Dover — The  Town  Council  plans  to  install  a  hydro 
system'.     J.   Slian.  Town  Clk. 

Que  Montreal — The  Southern  Canada  Power  Co..  Coristine 
Bldg,  'is  in  the  market  for  a  150  kw.  and  a  300  kw  motor  gener- 
ator set,  second  hand,  the  generator  end  250  volts  direct  current, 
motor  end  3  phase,  60  cycle,  220  volts  synchronous  motor,  or 
separate  machines  of  identical  capacities  and  characteristics.  I* 
C.  Haskell,   Purchasing  Agent. 

Que  Verdun— The  Town  Council  will  soon  receive  bids  for 
repairi'ng  and  reinforcing  its  electric-lighting  and  w-ater  works 
plants.     Estimated  co.st,   $50,000.     G.  A.  Ward,  Town  Clerk, 


POWER 


^  a '.) 


iiiiiiimitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiirttiMtiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiitMiii 


iMiiti iiiiiiiiMMMiiiii«iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiririi 


lliritllllllllllllllMllltllllllllllllllllllPIIIIIHUIIIIIH 


Vol.  47 


NEW  YORK,  MARCH  26,   1918 


No.  13 


The  National  Shibboleth 


By  RUFUS  T.  STROHM 


W  e've  long  been  a  nation  of  prodigal  spenders 
With  Luxur}'  reigning  and  Wealth  as  her 
slave, 
But  now  we  must  change  to  a  nation  of  lenders. 
For  Uncle  Sam  needs  every  cent  we  can  save. 
It's    time   that   we   exercised   judgment    and 
gumption 
And  gave  to  our  allies  a  powerful  lift 
By     cutting     out     waste      and      decreasing 
consumption — 
The  patriot's  watchword  is  personal  thrift. 

"b        v        v 

rSecause  the  expense  every  day  runs  to  millions 

In  feeding  and  clothing  and  arming  our  men, 
We've  twice  taken  loans  that  were  measured 
in    billions. 

And  now  we're  required  to  do  it  again. 
But  though  it  may  seem  like  a  burdensome  trial, 

The  end  of  it  all  will  be  certain  and  swift 
If  every  true  citizen  learns  self-denial — 

The  secret  of  winning  is  personal  thrift. 


W  e  ought  to  be  proud  that  the  gold  we    are 
saving 
In  office  and  workshop,  at  roll-top  and  bench, 
Is  spent  in  behalf  of  the  men  who  are  braving 

The hardshipsanddangerSjOf billow  and  trench. 
Though    prices    mount    higher   and    war-bills 
grow   longer. 
The  conflict  will  have  but  the  shortest  of 
shrift. 
And  people  and  nation  be  better  and  stronger, 
If  everyone  practices  personal  thrift. 

V        V        t- 

1  he  ease-loving  habit  of  "letting  George  do  it" 

Is  criminal  now  and  must  go  to  the  wall; 
The    country's    at    war,    and    to    pull    bravely 
through  it 
The  cares  and  discomforts  must  rest  on  us  all. 
Extravagant  ways  are  a  species  of  treason 

From  which  we  should  hasten  to  cut  us  adrift 
And  substitute  carefulness,  saneness  and  reason— 
We'll  win  if  we  cultivate  personal  thrift. 


IttlMllllltirMIIIMIIIMOtlKIIMIII 


illllMIIIIUMIIIIi 


IIIMIIDIIIIIIIMIIIinillUIIIUMIIMIIIIIIIi 


< IIMMIIIHIMIMMIIMIIIIMHIIui 


426 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


Tamarack  Mills  Power  Plant 


By  CHARLES  H.  BROMLEY 


Describes  the  chief  features  of  the  new  oil- 
burning  plant  furnishing  light,  heat  and  poiver 
to  the  Tamarack  Mills,  Pawtucket,  R.  I.  The 
plant  was  designed  solely  for  fuel,  has  a  2500 
kw.  extraction  turbine,  heats  the  mills  with 
forced-circulation  hot  tvater  and  has  the  largest 
atmospheric  cooling  tower  in  New  England. 
Unusually  interesting  performance  figures  are 
given. 

PERPHAPS  no  plant  is  today  commanding  more 
attention  in  New  England  than  that  of  the  new 
Tamsrack  Mills,  Pawtucket,  R.  L,  the  turbine 
room  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  Certainly,  no  engi- 
neers were  ever  prouder  of  their  plant  than  are  Charles 


[Those  interested  who  may  want  further  cost  and 
performance  data  are  referred  to  two  articles  on  this 
plant  by  the  present  writer  in  Power  for  Dec.  1,  1914, 
and  Dec.  19,  1916.] 

So  when  the  Tamarack  plant  was  proposed  the  man- 
agement merely  needed  a  contract  for  oil  at  a  favor- 
able price  to  immediately  decide  what  fuel  it  should 
be  built  to  burn.  The  management  got  a  price  of  92c. 
per  bbl.  of  42  gal.  of  oil,  delivered  and  averaging  as 
following:  Moisture,  0.3  per  cent.;  sulphur,  3.56  per 
cent.;  sediment,  trace;  specific  gravity,  0.960;  Baume 
gravity,  15.9;  flash  point  (closed  cup),  178  deg.  F.;  fire 
point  (open  cup),  262  deg.  F.  The  oil  is  a  Mexican 
product.  No  one  hopes  now  to  close  a  long-term  con- 
tract at  this  price.  There  is  a  257,500-bbl.  oil-stor- 
age station  at  Providence  a  few  miles  away,  arid  oil 
from  here  is  delivered  to  the  Tamarack  plant  in  cars. 


FIG.    1.      VIEW    OP    TURBINE    ROOM,    TAMARACK    MILL.S.    P.\WTUrKET.    R.    I 


Teft,  the  chief  engineer  of  the  plant,  and  .Jencks  and 
Ballou,  consulting  engineers  who  designed  it.  To  get 
a  proper  perspective  of  this  power  house  one  must  go 
back  to  1914,  when  the  plant  of  the  Jencks  Spinning  Co., 
alongside  the  Tamarack  Mills  plant,  was  using  coal, 
and  to  1916  when  oil  was  introduced  as  fuel  for  this 
plant.     With  coal  the  results  were: 

Per  Ton 

Fuel:    Crozer-Pocahontas,  14,500  B.t.u.,  per  lb $4  40 

Equivalent  evaportation  per  lb.  combustible,  lb 12  33 

Cost  per  1 000  lb.  steam,  cents. 18  2 

When  the  change  to  oil  was  made,  tests  in  1916  with 
oil  as  fuel  gave  the  following  chief  results,  the  costs 
including  operating  and  overhead   charges. 

YEARLY  SAVING   WITH  Oil. 

Weekly  kilowatt-hour  output    195,400 

Yearly  kilowatt-hour  output 10,160.000 

Cost  per  kilowatt-hour  output,  exclusive  of  makeup  water,  cents 0  588 

Cost  per  kilowatt-hour  in  1 9 1 3  with  coal,  cents .  0  662 

Difference  'n  cost,  cents                  ....  0  074 

Yearly  saving  10,160,000  X  0  00074                                   $7500 


Now  that  the  Fuel  Administration  controls  fuel  oil, 
one  is  interested  to  know  how  the  contract  is  affected. 
Well,  the  mills  are  making  Government  war  goods,  and 
timely  and  adequate  delivery  is  reasonably  well  as- 
sured at  the  contract  price.  The  plant  was  designed 
for  oil  exclusively,  no  coal  or  ash-handling  equipment 
being  installed. 

consists    of    four    water-tube 
set  with   the  bottoms   of  the 


The    Tamarack    plant 
boilers    (B.  &  W.  type) 


8  2  front  tube  headers  8  ft.  above  the  floor.  Fig.  2  is  a 
view  of  the  boiler  room.  There  are  two  furnace  doors 
per  boiler,  and  at  each  is  a  steam  atomized  (Hammel) 
oil  burner,  giving  one  burner  for  every  seven  tube 
headers.  The  burner  produces  a  flat  flame  by  reason 
of  the  impact  of  oil  upon  a  renewable  steel  plate  in 
each  burner  tip.  Two  oil-storage  tanks,  each  of  24,000 
gal.  capacity,  are  used,  the  contents  being  kept  at  115 
deg.  F.  by  live  steam  from  the  boilers  admitted  through 


March  26.  1918 


POWER 


427 


rediii-injr  valves  to  pipe  coil  henters  in  each  tank.  Ex- 
haust steam  from  the  oil-puniping  outfit  gives  the  oil 
a  temperature  of  IdO  deg.  F.  at  the  burner.  This  is 
18  dejr.  F.  below  the  flash  point  of  the  oil.  The  usual 
furnace  draft  carried  is  0.2  in.,  the  best  boiler  rating 
10  to  50  per  cent,  above  builders'  rating,  and  the 
evaporation  from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  per  lb.  of  oil 
averages  15  pounds. 

Throughout  the  plant  the  piping  is  one  of  the  finest 
jobs  the  writer  has  ever  seen.  By  great  care  in  draw- 
ing up  the  specifications,  the  cost  for  extras  was  less 
than  1  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  of  the  piping.  A 
16-in.  lap-welded  steel  steam  header  is  connected  to 
the  boilers  by  two  90-deg.  bends  (6-in.  pipe)  of  4  ft. 
radius  each,  having  a  nonreturn  valve  between  each 
bend.  Fig.  5  shows  the  exhaust  piping  at  the  spiral 
riveted  free  exhaust  pipe. 

All  auxiliary  exhaust  is  led  to  a  10-in.  cast-iron  main 
supplying  exhaust  steam  to  a  closed  feed-water  heater 


The  feed-water  tank  receives  the  condensate  from 
the  surface  condenser  attached  to  the  main  unit,  also 
water  from  the  turbine  bearings  and  from  the  various 
drains  throughout  the  plant.  Fig.  3  is  a  view  of  the 
auxiliaries  room. 

The  main  four-stage  turbine  is  of  the  extraction  type, 
2500  kw.,  3600  r.p.m...  155  lb.  steam  pressure.  Steam 
is  bled  from  the  second  stage  at  from  1  to  10  lb.  gage 
pressure  for  heating  the  water  used  for  heating  the 
mill  buildings.  Morp  about  the  hot-water  heating  sys- 
tem later.  The  turbine  is  served  by  a  surface  con- 
denser of  5000  sq.ft.  As  no  adequate  cheap  water  sup- 
ply is  available  for  condensing  purposes  an  atmospheric 
cooling  tower  20  ft.  wide,  120  ft.  long  and  35  ft.  high, 
handling  about  5000  gal.  of  water  per  minute  during 
cool  weather,  is  usetl.  The  12-in.  circulating  pump  is 
of  4500  gal.  per  minute  capacity,  driven  by  a  95-hp. 
two-stage  turbine.  The  discharge  water  goes  to  the 
cooling  tower  through   an    18-in.   pipe   and   returns   to 


FIG.    2.      OIL-BURNING    BOILKR    ROOM.    TAMARACK    MILLS 


of  900  sq.  ft.  heating  surface.  From  the  feed-water 
heater  the  12-in.  wrought-iron  auxiliary  exhaust  main 
■  is  continued  to  a  back-pressure  valve  and  then  to  the 
24-in.  spiral  riveted  free  exhaust  pipe.  A  tilting  trap 
pumps  water  to  a  feed  tank,  from  which  the  heated 
water  enters  the  pump  suction  main.  Two  feed  pumps 
are  used,  one  a  duplex  10  and  7  x  12-in.,  the  other  a 
three-stage  centrifugal.  The  6-in.  discharge  main  is 
of  cast  iron  and  has  a  4xll-in.  venturi  tube  inserted 
in  it.  The  branches  to  the  boilers  are  of  brass,  and 
each  branch  has  a  "drop"  pipe  leading  to  each  drum 
of  each  two-drum  boiler.  To  avoid  shock  and  pulsat- 
ing flow,  which  would  disturb  the  accuracy  of  the 
venturi  feed-water  meter,  a  large  cast-iron  air  cham- 
ber is  placed  in  the  discharge  main  between  the  venturi 
tube  and  the  pumps.  Two-inch  brass  globe  valves  are 
used  for  controlling  the  feed  to  each  boiler.  The  feed 
to  the  boilers  averages  190  deg.  F. 


the  pump  suction  through  one  of  the  same  size.  This 
tower  has  not  yet  had  an  opportunity  to  show  what  it 
can  do  under  summer  conditions,  but  judging  what  it 
will  do  based  on  winter  operation,  in  the  way  of  vacuum 
and  cost  of  handling  water,  all  concerned  are  indeed 
enthusiastic,  especially  Jencks  and  Ballou,  the  consult- 
ing engineers  who  designed  the  plant.  The  recording 
instruments  are  well  arranged,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The 
main  water  connections  to  the  tower  are  shown  in  Fig.  6. 
The  hot-water  heating  system  is  of  considerable  in- 
terest. Exhaustive  investigations  led  to  a  decision  be- 
tween a  vacuum  steam  heating  system  and  forced  hot- 
water  circulation.  The  successful  company  ])id  on  both, 
but  guaranteed  appreciably  better  economy  for  the  hot- 
water  system.  The  contract  was  awarded  for  the  lat- 
ter system.  The  essential  facts  are  these:  The  mill 
is  devoted  chiefly  to  cotton  spinning,  and  the  main  mill, 
of  red  brick,  is  368  ft.  long  by  172  ft.  wide,  has  four 


428 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


FIG.    3       ONE   SIDE  OF  THE   AUXII.IARY    ROOM.    SHOWING    PIPING    AND    FEED    PUMPS 


stories  and  a  basement.  The  stories  are  high,  ranging 
between  18  and  19  ft.  The  height  of  the  basement 
varies  between  8  ft.  8  in.  and  13  ft.  8  in.  The  total 
floor  area  of  the  mill,  including  the  basement,  is  334,500 
sq.ft.,  and  the  cubical  content,  including  basement,  is 
5,720,000  cu.ft.  Glass  area,  43,320  sq.ft.;  wall  area, 
40,000  sq.ft.;  skylight  area,  3870  sq.ft.  These  include 
three  toilet  towers.  The  radiating  surface  totals  22,800 
square  feet. 

At  the  south  end  ot  the  mill  is  a  storehouse  adjoin- 
ing the  power  house.  This  structure  is  78  ft.  long  by 
172  ft.  wide,  the  stories  9  ft.  each  except  the  first, 
which  is  18  ft.+.  The  floor  area  is  47,200  sq.ft.; 
volume,  629,600  cu.ft. ;  glass  area,  1980  sq.ft. ;  wall 
area,  6760  square  feet. 

For  the  mill,  the  ratio  of  heating  surface  to  volume 
in  cubic  feet  averages  1  to  251.  The  ratio  varies  of 
course  for  difl'erent  parts  of  the  mill,  but  ranges  from  1 
to  155  for  the  top  story  to  1  to  434  in  the  basement. 


For  the  storehouse,  the  average  ratio  of  radiating  sur- 
face to  cubic-foot  volume  is  1  to  547. 

The  radiating  surface  in  the  buildings  is  of  li-in. 
pipe  in  coils  distributed  overhead  and  on  the  walls 
beneath  windows. 

The  main  pipes  extend  from  the  mill  through  the 
storehouse  and  into  the  power  house,  where  connec- 
tion is  made  to  the  circulating  pump.  The  latter  unit 
is  situated  in  the  basement  of  the  power  house.  The 
pump  is  of  special  design  for  this  job  and  is  direct- 
connected  to  the  steam  turbine.  The  pump  has  a  6-in. 
suction  and  a  5-in.  discharge,  and  maintains  a  differ- 
ential pressure  betvi'een  the  suction  and  discharge  of 
25  pounds. 

The  steam  turbine  is  supplied  with  steam  at  150  lb. 
pressure  and  exhausts  at  a  back  pressure  ranging  from 
1  to  5  lb.  The  exhaust  from  the  turbine  is  led  to  the 
heater  located  in  the  storehouse.  This  is  a  .straight 
tube  heater  of  special  design  for  this  job,  with  capacity 


FIG     4       I'NUSUALIJy    GOOD    ARRANGEMENT    OF    RECORDING    INSTRUMENTS 


March  26.   1918 


POWER 


429 


to  maintain  the  tlow  temperature  of  water  to  any  de- 
sired temperature  ranging  from  100  to  a  maximum 
of  approximately  210  degrees. 


C I  EXHAUST  HEAD 


3WI  DHAINFROM 
eXHAUST  HEADS 


%  6^V  J  OrYiYATIP 


I 


S  C  I  OFTSn 


\  BRASS  ASBESTOS 

mxcDBtj)W-0Fr 


iBAUx/UAfrr 

exUAUST 


The  exhaust  from  the  hot-water  circulating  pump 
turbine  is  also  connected  to  the  heater  and  there  is  a 
live-steam  connection  for  use  when  the  main  turbine 
is  not  running.  The  hot-water  circulating  pump  tur- 
bine is  designed  to  give  full  capacity  with  steam  pres- 
sure as  low  as  70  lb.  Thus  the  boilers  at  night  or  on 
Sundays  may  vary  in  pressure  considerably  without 
interfering  with  the  proper  heating  of  the  mill.  The 
governor  of  this  turbine  is  equipped  with  thumb-screw 
adjustment  that  will  vary  the  speed  of  the  pump  from 
zero  to  maximum.  In  this  way  more  or  less  water  can 
be  circulated,  according  to  the  flunctuating  demands 
occasioned  by  the  weather  conditions. 

The  volume  and  pressure  of  the  steam  supply  to  the 
heater  is  controlled  by  hand  to  conform  to  the  de-' 
mands  of  the  work  in  the  mill,  and  to  the  outside 
temperature  and  other  conditions.  The  pipe  used  is 
wrought  steel.  Long-turn  fittings  were  used  where  the 
friction    conditions    made    this    advisable,    but    regular 


PIG.    5.      EXHAUST     AND    BLOWOPP    CONNBCTTONS 


FIG-   tV      WATER  f'ONNRCTIONS   AT   COOLING   TOWER 


PIUNCIPAL  KQl'IP.\IE.\T   OF  T.XMARACK    MILf.S   PLANT,   PAWTUCKET.    li.    I. 


No.         Equipment 

4    Boilers 

I   Turbine 

I  Exciter - 

I   Exciter. . 

I  Condenser 

I  Cooling  tower . 

I   Pump 

I    Pump 
I    ( )il-burning 
I^quipniont.  Complete 
1    Heatir    . 

I   Heatnr 

Heating  system.. 
I   Pum^. 
I   Turbint- 
I   Turbine 
I    Meter      , 
I   Switehb  .ut.l 


Kind 

Water-tube 

ICxtraetion. 

Turbine-driven 

Motor-driven 

Surfaee. 

Atniospherie 

Centrifugal. 

Reciprocating 


Steam 

(Mosed .      900-s((.ft 

Closed 

Hot-water 

Centrifugal 725  gal.  per  inin.. 

Steam 

Steam 

Venturi. . .  4-in 

Direct-eon' rol 


Size 

Use 

Operating  Conditions 

400-lip. 

Steam  generation. 

1 50-lh.  pressure 

2500-kw.  . 

Main  unit 

150  !b.,  29-in.  vacuum,  5-lb.  extraction 

3S-lip 

Main-unit  excitation 

3.600  r. p.m..  280  amp.,  123  volts. 

^0-hp         ., 

Main-unit  excitation 

1,200  r.p.m.,  48  amp.,  125  volts 

5.000-s.i.ft. 

Main  unit 

Cooling  tower  water 

20x  35x  120ft 

Main-unit  condenser 

Atmospheric 

350-gj),ni.. 
lOx  7  X  12 

lioiler  food. 

Lea-turbine-driven . 

in. . 

Boiler  feed.    . 

150-lb,  pressure 

Oil  for  l>oilor  purposes. 
Feed-water  heating. . , 
Mill-heatine  system. 

Heating  nulls 

Hot-water  circulation 
Hot-wat<'r  pump  drive, 
Feed-puinp  drive 
Feed  water 


Exhaust  from  all  auxiliaries.. 
Extraction  gleam  for  main  turbine. 
Forced  cireululion  , 

1,550  r.pm.,  54-f(.  head 
1.550  r.p.m.. 
2.800  r, p.m. 


Maker 
Babcock  &  Wileox  Co. 
General  Electric  Co. 
General  Electric  Co. 
General  Electric  Co. 
C    H.  Wheelc  r  Mfg.  Co. 
C.  H    Wheeler  Mfg.  Co. 
Piatt  Iron  Works 
Plutt  Iron  Works 

ilamincl  Oil  Burning  Equip.  Co 
C.  H.  Wheeler  Mfg,  Co. 
General  Fire  Extinguisher  Co 
General  Fire  Extinguisher  Co 
Goulds  Mfg  Ci) 
n.  E.  Whiton  Machine  Co. 
D  E.  Whiton  Machine  Co 
Builders  Iron  Foundry  Co 
General  Electric  Co 


430 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


fittings  were  used  to  a  great  extent,  especially  on  the 
smaller  sizes  of  pipe. 

The  system  was  designed  to  guarantee  the  follow- 
ing temperatures  with  outside  temperature  at  5  deg. 
below  zero:  Main  mill,  65  deg.;  toilet  towers,  55  deg.; 
opening  room,  60  deg. ;  storehouse,  40  degrees. 

In  the  severe  weather  of  this  winter,  with  the  tem- 
perature often  lower  than  10  deg.  below  zero,  this 
system  maintained  satisfactory  temperatures,  thus  ex- 
ceeding the  guaranteed  temperatures. 

Uniform  circulation  has  been  produced  without  any 
changes  in  the  design  of  the  piping  since  the  system 
was  first  started. 

This  plant  is  commanding  the  attention  of  all  New 
England,  particularly  that  of  the  textile  industry.  Its 
performance  portends  much  for  the  future  of  fuel  oil 
in  New  England. 


Kultur   Mit   Sledgehammer 


The  water,  light  and  power  industry  in  January  had 
6  per  cent,  more  employees  and  paid  5  per  cent,  more 
wages  than  in  December.  As  compared  with  the  cor- 
responding month  of  one  year  ago,  the  group  as  a  whole 
reported  in  January,  1918,  an  increase  of  13  per  cent, 
in  the  number  of  employees  and  27  per  cent,  in  wages. 


In  a  paper  read  recently  at  Chicago,  Major  R.  A. 
Millikan,  professor  of  physics  in  Chicago  University, 
stated  that  war  was  85  per  cent,  science  and  engineering 
and  15  per  cent,  actual  fighting.  As  one  application  of 
science  he  mentioned  that  it  had  proved  practicable  to 
locate  the  position  of  a  heavy  gun  within  50  ft.  by 
observations  on  the  sound  waves  set  up  on  its  discharge. 


The  illustrations,  reproduced  from  Etigineering 
(London;,  show  the  damaged  high-pressure  cylinders 
of  one  of  the  German  merchant  ships  interned  in 
Brazil  and  illustrate  the  thoroughness  of  German  de- 
.struction. 

The  45  vessels  which  are  interned,  totaling  235,- 
000  gross  tons,  had  all  been  more  or  less  seriously 
damaged,  particularly  the  propelling  machinery.  In  some 
cases  new  cylinders  throughout  had  to  be  made;  in  others 
only  portions  of  the  cylinders  had  been  destroyed.  In 
one  instance  nearly  8000  holes  must  have  been  drilled 
in  order  to  effect  complete  destruction.  As  it  was  found 
that  the  repair  work  could  be  carried  out  in  the  naval 
arsenal  of  Brazil,  it  was  decided  by  the  Ministry  of 
Marine  to  proceed  immediately  with  the  recasting  of 
the  damaged  cylinders  and  liners,  and  great  credit 
is  due  to  the  engineering  officers  of  the  Brazilian  Navy 
and  to  the  personnel  of  the  arsenal,  not  only  for,  exe- 
cuting the  work,  but  for  the  expedition  with  which  it 
was  carried  out. 

The  cylinders  illustrated  had  been  broken  into  hun- 
dreds of  small  pieces,  and  in  order  to  make  new 
cylinders  to  suit  th?  set  it  was  necessary  to  assemble 
as  many  pieces  as  possible  so  that  their  dimensions 
could  be  measured  accurately. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  most  of  the  broken 
parts  of  the  machinery  were  carefully  stored  between 
decks,  evidently  in  order  to  be  used  as  scrap  in  Germany 
in  the  event  of  the  return  of  the  ships  to  the  "Father- 
land." 


WHAT 


••SCHRECKLICHKEIT"    DID   TO   AN    INTERNED   GERMAN   STEAMER  IN  BRAZIL 


March  2C,  1918 


POWER 


431 


Distinguished  Engineers  of  New  England 


New  England  is  the  home  of  many  distinguished  engineers.  It  ivas  there  that  George  H. 
Corliss  made  his  engine,  which  became  a  famous  type.  E.  D.  Leavitt,  of  Boston,  had  become  a 
distinguished  engineer  before  he  died,  and  among  the  boys  that  Leavitt  had  in  his  office  some  are 
today  holding  positions  of  appreciable  magnitude.  Edwin  Reynolds,  who  designed  the  last  of  the 
great  reciprocating  engines,  was  a  New  Englander.  And  there  are  so  many  others  who  have 
"drunk  their  cup  a  round  or  two  before  and  one  by  one  crept  silently  to  rest"  that  it  is  regret- 
table that  space  here  does  not  permit  of  saying  something  about  them  and  others,  who,  fortu- 
nately, are  living.  There  follow  brief  sketches  of  some  engineers  in  New  England  who  are  well 
known  for  their  interest  i7i  and  contributions  to  the  art. 


CHARLES    T.    MAIN 


I 


CHARLES    T.    MAIN,    Boston,    President    of 
the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  was 
born   in   Marblehead,   Mass.,   Feb.    16,    1856.     He  is   a 

graduate  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute 
of  Technology,  and 
after  graduation  was 
an  assistant  in  the 
department  of  me- 
chanical engineering 
in  that  institute.  In 
the  late  70's  he  be- 
came draftsman  for 
the  Manchester  Mills, 
Manchester,  N.  H. 
Later  he  became  en- 
gineer for  the  Lower 
Pacific  Mills,  Law- 
rence, Mass. ;  in  1886 
he  became  assistant 
superintendent,  and 
in  July,  1887,  was  made  superintendent. 

In  all  Mr.  Main  put  in  eleven  years  in  these  mills, 
having  charge  of  all  engineering  and  of  the  reorganiza- 
tion and  operation  of  the  mechanical  department.  After 
a  year  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  he  formed  an  association 
with  F.  W.  Dean,  whose  photograph,  by  the  way,  should 
appear  here  were  it  not  that  Mr.  Dean  is  serving  the 
Government  and  unavailable  at  this  writing.  These 
engineers  became  famous  for  their  textile-mill  work, 
which  later  extended  to  general  engineering.  The  asso- 
ciation lasted  for  fourteen  years,  or  from  1893  to  1907. 
The  small  waterwheel  installations  grew  to  great  hydro- 
electric projects.  Mr.  Main  has  engineered  four  hydro- 
electric developments  aggregating  280,000  hp.  for  the 
-Montana  Power  Co.  He  is  president  of  the  Engineers' 
Club,  Boston;  member  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Consulting  Engineers;  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers, and  other  technical  societies.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers in  1885,  served  as  manager  for  three  years,  and 
was  elected  president  at  the  last  yearly  meeting  in 
December,  1917.  He  has  long  been  active  in  public  life. 
As  president  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  he  is  sure  to  play  a  laudable  part  in  America's 
war  against  the  Hun.  The  society  has  been  called  upon 
by  the  Government  to  assist  in  solving  many  knotty 
problems  related  to  the  war,  and  it  is  fortunate  that  a 
man  of  Mr.  Main's  capacity  and  experience  is  guiding  the 
society  through  these  propitious  times  for  the  engineer. 


JOHN  R.  FREEMAN 


JOHN  R.  FREEMAN,  Providence,  R.  I.,  is, 
perhaps,  New  England's  most  distinguished  en- 
gineer. Born  in  West  Bridgeton,  Me.,  July  27,  1855,  he 
graduated  from 

"Tech"  in  1876.  In 
1904  Brown  honored 
him  with  the  degree 
of  Sc.D.,  and  Tufts' 
did  the  same  in  1905. 
From  1876  to  1886 
he  was  engineer  with 
the  Water  Power  Co., 
Lawrence,  Mass. ; 

from  1878  to  1886 
assistant  consulting 
engineer  to  Hiram  F. 
Mills,  and  for  the  fol- 
lowing ten  years 
chief  engineer.  Asso- 
ciated Factory  Mu- 
tual Insurance  Co. 
He  was  also  consulting  engineer  on  water  supply  and 
mill  construction  for  various  corporations  and  for  New 
York,  Boston,  Los  Angeles,  Baltimore  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. He  was  civilian  engineer.  Supplies  Board,  War 
Department,  in  1902;  advised  on  the  Panama  Canal 
locks  and  dams  and  for  the  Canadian  government  on 
water-power  conservation.  He  is  trustee  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology;  was  president  (1893), 
Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  vice  president 
(1902),  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  presi- 
dent (1905),  American  Society  of  Mechanical  En- 
gineers, member  Providence  Chamber  of  Commerce  and 
fellow  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 
In  1899  he  made  extensive  investigations  of  New  York 
City's  water  supply;  he  was  chief  engineer  of  investiga- 
tions for  the  Charles  River  Dam,  Boston  Harbor,  in  1903, 
and  in  1903-4  was  consulting  engineer  on  drainage  and 
sanitation  for  the  Boston  Metropolitan  Park  Commis- 
sion. He  planned  the  hydro-electric  development  on  the 
Feather  River,  Calif.,  in  1905,  also  developments  along 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  Long  Sault.  He  was  in  charge  of 
the  water-power  investigations  of  the  New  York  State 
Water  Supply  Commission.  At  one  time  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Water  Commission  of  Winchester,  Mass.  Mr. 
Freeman  has  always  been  active  in  general  business  and 
financial  matters,  being  president  of  the  Manufacturers, 
Rhode  Island,  Mechanics,  State,  Enterprise  and  the 
Associated  Factory  Mutual  Insurance  Companies; 
director  Rhode  Island  Trust  Co.,   Providence  Gas  Co. 


432 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


DR.    IRA  N.  HOLLIS 


DR.    IRA    N.    HOLLIS,    Worcester,  Mass.,  is 
the  President  Wilson  of  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers.     His  utterances  when  president 

of  the  society  are  full 
of  the  same  lofty, 
substantial  vision 
and  comprehension 
of  events  in  engineer- 
ing as  President  Wil- 
son's are  of  the 
changing  social  fab- 
ric. Born  in  Moores- 
ville,  Ind.,  1856,  he 
graduated  from  the 
Louisville,  Ky.,  high 
school,  took  up  the 
machinist's  trade  and 
later  entered  the 
United  States  Naval 
Academy.  He  served 
on  cruisers  "Quinne- 
bang,"  "Alert,"  "Hartford,"  "Richmond"  and  "Charles- 
ton." In  1884  he  was  a  member  of  the  advisory  board 
that  designed  the  ships  of  the  famous  White  Squadron. 
Following  this  he  served  under  the  late  Admiral  Mel- 
ville, chief  engineer.  United  States  Navy.  In  1893  he 
resigned  to  become  professor  of  engineering.  Harvard 
University,  where  he  remained  for  twenty  years  or 
until  he  became  president  of  Worcester  Polytechnic 
Institute.  Since  the  outbreak  of  war  Dr.  Hollis  has 
been  of  most  valuable  assistance  to  his  Government  in 
engineering  problems  of  the  war. 

PROF.    EDWARD    F.    MILLER    is   one   of 
the  most  widely  known  men  in  the  field  of  power- 
plant  engineering.     He  is  head  of  the  Department  of 

Mechanical  E  n  g  i  - 
neering,  Technology, 
which  department  is 
maintained  by  Har- 
vard University  and 
the  Institute;  he  is 
also  director  of  the 
engineering  labora- 
tories of  "Tech," 
from  which  he  grad- 
uated in  1886.  He 
planned  the  greatest 
part  of  "Tech's"  new 
engineering  labora- 
tories. He  is  a  mas- 
ter at  harnessing 
theory  and  practice 
to  give  the  best 
teamwork.  The  engineer  officers  now  instructed  by  him 
for  the  Shipping  Board's  merchant  marine  will  swear 
to  that.  He  is  author  of  valuable  engineering  litera- 
ture. Professor  Miller  is  a  member  of  the  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  American  Society  of 
Refrigerating  Engineers,  American  Society  of  Civil 
En'gineers,  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Science, 
Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  and  honorarj'  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Association  of  Stationary  En- 
gineers. He  is  Chief  Instructor  in  Engineering  for 
the  Shipping    Board,  member  Boiler  Code  Committee. 


PROF.  EDWARD  P.  MILLER 


GEORGE    H.    BARRUS 


GEORGE  HALE  BARRUS,  of  Boston,  is 
-losely  identified  not  only  with  the  development  of 
power  as  applied  particularly  to  the  textile  and  paper 
industries  of  New 
England,  but  with  its 
development  nation- 
ally. He  is  a  gradu- 
ate of  the  class  of  '74, 
Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology. 
Mr.  Barrus  has  con- 
ducted investigations 
and  experiments  in 
steam  engineering 
for  the  United  States 
Navy  and  for  marine 
purposes  generally. 
Under  the  late  and 
well-known  Prof. 
Channing  Whitaker 
he  supervised  the 
erection  of  the  steam-engineering  laboratory  of  old 
Technology,  the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  United  States. 
His  works  on  boiler  and  engine  tests  are  known  inter- 
nationally, and  he  is  chairman  of  the  power-test  com- 
mittee of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers. Mr.  Barrus  was  vice  president  and  member  of 
Council  of  that  society  from  1905  to  1906 ;  is  a  member 
of  the  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  New  Eng- 
land Water  Works  Association,  Society  of  Naval  Archi- 
tects and  Marine  Engineers,  Bostonian  Society,  Engi- 
neers'  Club  of  New  York  and  the  Technology  Club. 

JOHN  A.STEVENS,  Lowell,  Mass.,  was  bom 
in  Galva,  111.,  1868.  He  left  school  at  the  age  of  7, 
but  later  graduated  from  the  East  Saginaw,  Mich., 
high  school,  and 
spent  a  year  at  the 
University  of  Michi- 
gan. He  served  as 
machinist  in  the  Pere 
Marquette  Railroad 
shops,  and  as  engi- 
neer on  the  Lake 
steamers,  "Sappho," 
"Byron  Whittaker," 
"W.  H.  Stevens," 
"Roman"  and  "Cam- 
bria." At  27  he  held 
a  marine  engineer's 
unlimited  license,  and 
was  engineer  on  the 
ocean  steamships 
"Indiana,"  "Illinois," 
"New  York,"  "St.  Louis"  and  "St.  Paul."  In  1896  he 
became  chief  engineer,  Merrimack  Manufacturing  Co., 
Lowell,  appointed  to  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Boiler 
Rules  by  Governor  Curtis  Guild  in  1907,  reappointed 
by  Governor  Draper  in  1910,  studied  European  engi- 
neering practice  in  1909  and  later  engaged  in  consult- 
ing work,  appointed  chairman  Boiler  Code  Committee, 
A.S.M.E.,  in  1911,  and  to  his  dynamic  personality  the 
Code  owes  much  for  its  success.  He  was  one  of  the 
early  users  of  stage  and  exhaust  steam  from  turbines; 
one  of  two  inventors  of  a  25,000  hp.  water-tube  boiler. 


JOHN    A.    STEVENS 


March  20.  1918 


POWER 


433 


1 


I.    B.    MOUL.TROP 


E.  MOULTROP,  Boston,  widely  known  in  en- 
•  jrineering  circles,  began  his  career  as  an  apprentice 
machinist  with  the  Whittier  Machine  Co.,  later  to  be- 
come that  company's 
chief  draftsman. 
Twenty-six  years  ago 
he  resigned  this  po- 
sition to  go  with  the 
Boston  Edison  Co., 
with  which  he  has 
served  ever  since. 
His  first  job  with  the 
Edison  company  was 
to  lay  out  and  install 
the  steam  equipment 
for  the  old  Atlantic 
Avenue  Station,  com- 
monly known  as  the 
third  station.  Since 
then  he  has  grown 
with  the  development 
of  power  generation  and  transmission.  For  some  years 
he  has  been  assistant  head  of  the  construction  bureau 
of  the  Edison  company,  directly  responsible  for  work 
of  all  character  on  power  stations,  substations,  office 
buildings,  etc.,  and  indirectly  responsible  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  transmission  lines,  underground  and 
overhead.  Mr.  Moultrop  has  been  manager  and  vice 
president  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers, and  for  five  years  was  chairman  of  the  member- 
ship committee  of  that  society;  he  also  serves  on  the 
Boiler  Code  Committee.  He  is  a  prominent  member 
of  the  National  Electric  Light  Association. 

WALTER    A.DIMAN,  Manchester,  N.  H.,  is 
the   son   of   George   H.    Diman,    consulting   engi- 
neer, American  Woolen  Co.    Born  in  Woonsocket,  R.  L, 

1879,  he  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public 
schools,  Lawrence, 
Mass. ;  entered  the 
Naval  Academy,  An- 
napolis, September, 
1898,  graduated  in 
1902 ;  performed  ser- 
vice in  the  Navy  at 
the  Asiatic  Station 
from  1902  to  190.5, 
when  he  returned  for 
duty  at  the  Bureau 
of  Steam  Engineer- 
ing, Navy  Depart- 
ment, Washington, 
D.  C.  After  a  tour 
of  duty  here  he  was 
detailed  as  engineer  officer  of  the  President's  yacht 
"Mayflower,"  returning  to  duty  at  the  Bureau  of  Steam 
Engineering;  detailed  for  duty  at  the  Naval  War  Col- 
lege, Newport,  R.  L,  and  then  transferred  in  1910  a^ 
engineer  officer  of  the  U.  S.  S.  "New  Jersey."  He  re- 
signed from  the  Navy  October,  T911,  to  become  superin- 
tendent of  power,  Amoskeag  Manufacturing  Co.,  Man- 
chester, N.  H.  He  is  a  member,  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  the  American  Society  of  Naval 
Engineers  and  belongs  to  several  clubs. 


WALTER     A.     DIMAN 


GEORGE  A.   LUCK 


GEORGE  A.  LUCK,  chairman,  Massachusetts 
Board  of  Boiler  Rules  and  chief  of  the  common- 
wealth's Boiler  Inspection  Department,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, Eng.  He  served 
his  apprenticeship  to 
the  machinist's  trade 
there,  and  when  a 
young  man  came  to 
America.  One  of  his 
first  jobs  was  as  watch 
engineer  in  the  old 
Boston  Electric  Light 
Co.  That  was  when 
the  electrical  indus- 
try was  still  in  swad- 
dling clothes.  Later, 
he  was  engineer  for 
the  Reece  Buttonhole 
Machine  Co.,  Boston, 
the  Franklin  Brew- 
ery, Boston,  and  later 
became  engineer  for  the  Hamilton  Mills,  Amesbury, 
Mass.  Following  this  he  went  to  Chicopee  to  take 
charge  of  the  power  plant  of  the  Dwight  Manufactur- 
ing Co.  In  1906  he  took  the  civil-service  examination 
for  state  boiler  inspector,  and  in  September,  1907,  was 
appointed,  together  with  five  others,  a  law  having  passed 
the  legislature  increasing  the  number  of  inspectors 
from  ten  to  fifteen.  Joseph  McNeil  was  then  chairman 
of  the  Board  of  Boiler  Rules  and  chief  boiler  inspector. 
Mr.  Luck  was  assigned  to  the  district  embracing  the 
suburbs  of  Boston.  In  July,  1912,  he  became  acting 
chief  and  chief  in  June,  1914. 

WALTER  H.  DAMON,  superintendent  of 
power  generation.  United  Electric  Co.,  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  typifies  the  purposeful,  persistent  New 
Englander.  Com- 

pelled to  face  the 
world  pi'actically 
alone  before  he  could 
with  dignity  wear 
long  pants — at  11,  to 
be  exact  —  he  has 
fought  a  long  fight, 
and  won.  Like  most 
boys  whom  the  Fates 
have  cast  up  and 
would  make  of  them 
derelicts,  young 
Damon  tried  his 
hand  at  various 
things  until  one  mo- 
mentous day  he  got 
a  job  wheeling  coal 
into  the  little  boiler  room  of  the  United  Electric  Co. 
That  was  twenty-six  years  ago.  He  had  not  been  on 
the  job  long  before  he  got  his  hands  on — well,  it  was  a 
copy  of  Power.  Friend  Walter  says  the  world  unfolded. 
Mr.  Damon  is  a  member  of  several  engineering  soci- 
eties, including  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  and  the  National  Electric  Light  Association. 
He  has  held  most  of  the  chief  offices  in  the  National 
Association  of  Stationary  Engineers;  he  was  elected 
national  president  of  this  association  in  1915. 


WALTER    H.    DAMON 


434 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


FRANK    W.    TOWNSEND,    of   Providence, 
R.    I.,    is   a   chief   operating    engineer   of   the   new 
school.     Born  in  the  country,  he  was  always  fascinated 

by  the  blacksmith 
shop  and  the  thump- 
ing engine  down  at 
the  old  stone  mill.  He 
laid  the  foundation 
for  ability  as  an 
operating  engineer 
by  getting  machine- 
shop  experience  at 
the  start.  He  at- 
tended night  school 
and  studied  hard  the 
few  engineering 
books  that  came  his 
way.  Then  came  a 
job  in  a  machine  shop 
doing  marine  work. 
Of  course  he  soon 
went  to  sea,  started  somewhere  in  the  stoke-hole  and 
after  seven  years  had  his  marine  chief  engineer's  un- 
limited license  and  commanded  the  mechanical  equip- 
ment of  a  large  ship.  Not  that  swimming  through 
bilge-water  to  start  a  balky  pump  took  the  romance 
from  a  ship's  engine  room,  no,  that  is  what  gives  it; 
but  the  shore  had  a  stronger  call.  He  is  now  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  famous  South  Street  Station,  Narragan- 
sett  Electric  Lighting  Co.,  Providence,  an  80,000-kw. 
turbine  plant  having  a  45,000  kw.  compound  turbine. 


PRANK   W.    TOWNSEND 


EDWARD    H  .    KEARNEY   is  one  of  the  best- 
known  operating  engineers  in  New  England.     Born 
in  North  Billerica,  Mass.,  he  graduated  from  the  Howe 
Academy  there,  later 
serving    three    years 
as      apprentice      ma- 
chinist.    His  appren- 
ticeship    served,     he 
put  in  four  years  as 
journeyman  and 

erecting  engineer, 
and  completed  the 
four-year  course  in 
mechanical  drawing 
in  the  night  schools 
of  Boston.  He  served 
as  instructor  in 
steam  engineering 
for  three  years  in 
Franklin  Union,  Bos-  edward  h.   Kearney 

ton.  He  held  the  po- 
sition of  assistant  chief  engineer  for  the  Jordan  Marsh 
Co.'s  large  department  store,  Boston,  and  for  twenty 
years  he  has  been  chief  engineer  for  the  John  Hancock 
Mutual  Life  Insurance  Co.  In  the  N.A.S.E.  he  has 
held  the  following  important  offices:  state  deputy  for 
Massachusetts,  chairman  state  educational  committee, 
national  vice  president  in  1911,  national  president  in 
1912  and  secretary  of  the  national  educational  com- 
mittee in  1913,  1914,  1915  and  1916.  Mr.  Kearney  has 
contributed  largely  to  the  technical  press. 


New  England's  Water  Power 

Most  of  the  interesting  figures  relative  to  New 
England's  water  power  which  follow  are  given  by 
Henry  I.  Harriman,  of  Chace  &  Harriman,  Boston: 
In  New  England  there  are  eight  large  rivers  having 
considerable  fall:  Penobscot,  1500  ft.;  Kennebec, 
1000  ft.;  Androscoggin,  2200  ft.;  St.  Croix,  400  ft.; 
Saco,  1900  ft.;  Merrimac,  269  ft.;  Connecticut,  2000 
ft.  and  the  Housatonic  with  900  ft.  These  rivers  drain 
35,000  of  the  60,000  square  miles  of  New  England.  The 
Bureau  of  Corporations  estimates  that  600,000  hp.  of 
water  energy  is  now  in  use  in  New  England  and  that 
these  same  developments  can  be  improved  to  give 
200,000  hp.  additional.  The  minimum  water  power 
capable  of  development  is  placed  at  1,000,000  hp.,  with, 
a  possible  2,000,000  hp.  In  developed  and  undevel- 
oped water  power  Maine  has  nearly  1,000,000  hp.;  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont  and  Massachusetts,  200,000  to 
300,000  hp.  each;  Connecticut,  160,000  hp.  and  Rhode 
Lsland,  16,000  hp. 

The  present  water-power  developments  in  New  Eng- 
land total  more  than  two  billion  kilowatt-hours. 

Most  large  New  England  streams  vary  greatly  in 
their  maximum  and  minimum  flow.  At  the  Vernon 
plant,  Connecticut  River  Power  Co.,  the  variation  is 
from  1500  cu.ft.  per  sec.  to  150,000  cu.ft.  per  sec, 
or  100  times  the  minimum.  The  extremely  low  flow 
occurs  on  relatively  few  days,  and  in  an  average  year 
the  plant  has  sufficient  water  to  carry  full  load  for 
nine  months. 

Among  the  large  hydro-electric  developments  in  New 


England  are  the  plant  of  the  Rumford  Falls  Power  Co., 
on  the  Androscoggin  at  Rumford,  Me.;  the  plant  of 
the  Androscoggin  Power  Co.,  on  the  same  river,  near 
Lewiston;  the  plants  of  the  Cumberland  County  Power 
and  Light  Co.,  on  the  Saco  River,  near  Portland;  the 
plants  of  the  Bangor  Railway  and  Electric  Co.,  near 
Oldtown  and  Ellsworth ;  the  plants  of  the  Central  Maine 
Power  Co.,  near  Waterville;  the  plant  of  the  Turners 
Falls  Co.,  on  the  Connecticut  River  at  Turners  Falls, 
Mass.;  the  plant  of  the  Connecticut  Power  Co.,  on  the 
upper  Housatonic;  the  plant  of  the  Connecticut  River 
Power  Co.,  on  the  Connecticut  River  near  Brattleboro; 
and  the  plants  of  the  New  England  Power  Co.,  on  the 
Deerfield  River.  These  various  plants  have  an  aggre- 
gate capacity  of  about  250,000  hp.  Nearly  all  of  them 
have  been  constructed  within  the  last  five  years  and 
indicate  the  rapidity  with  which  our  streams  are  being 
utilized  and  their  energ>'  transmitted  to  distant  cities 
and  towns. 

Considerable  progress  has  also  been  made  in  the 
development  of  storage  and  the  consequent  consen'atiou 
of  the  flood  waters  of  the  .spring.  A  dam  at  the  outlet 
to  Moosehead  Lake  impounds  a  total  in  excess  of  thirty 
billion  cubic  feet  and  is  capable  of  more  than  doubling 
the  minimum  flow  of  the  Kennebec  River  at  Augusta. 
Storage  reservoirs  on  the  Rangeley  Lakes  and  in  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Androscoggin  have  assured  a 
minimum  flow  of  2000  sec.-ft.  at  Rumford  Falls  and 
Lewiston,  and  a  reservoir  created  in  Somerset,  Vt.,  is 
now  storing  enough  water  to  produce  in  existing  plants 
approximately  25,000,000  kw.-hr.  which  would  otherwise 
be  wasted. 


March  2G,  1918 


POWER 


435 


Training  Engine-Room  Crews  for 
America's  New  Ships 

By  henry  HOWARD 

Director  of  Uecruiting  Service.   United  States  Sliippiiig  Board,  t;ustom  House,  Boston. 


WITH  the  recent  putting  into  commission  at  Bos- 
ton of  the  first  of  a  squadron  of  training  ships 
for  training  men  to  man  the  new  Government- 
owned  cargo  fleets,  the  United  States  Shipping  Board 
Recruiting  Service  has  greatly  increased  its  activities. 
It  is  planned  to  train  25,000  Americans,  21  to  30  years 
old,  fo^  sailors,  firemen,  coal-passers,  oilers,  water- 
tenders,  cooks  and  stewards  in  the  new  merchant  marine. 
There  are  now  two  training  ships  in  commission  at 
Boston,  the  "Calvin  Austia"  and  the  "Governor  Ding- 
ley,"  formerly  in  the  coastwise  passenger  trade.  Each 
is  a  3800-ton  ship,  having  reciprocating  engines  of  2700 
hp.  Each  ship  accommodates  from  500  to  600  appren- 
tices, divided  between  the  engine  department,  the  deck 
department  and  the  steward  department.     A  third  ship. 


8  a.m.,  general  work;  9:30  a.m.,  discipline  and  instruc- 
tion; 10  a.m.,  inspection;  10:30  a.m.,  boat  drill;  11:45 
a.m.,  clean  up;  12  noon,  dinner;  1  p.m.,  fire  drill;  2  p.m., 
seamanship;  3  p.m.,  boat  drill;  4  p.m.,  general  work; 
4:45  p.m.,  clean  up;  5  p.m.,  supper;  6  p.m.,  muster  and 
liberty;  6-9  p.m.,  recreation,  bathing,  etc.;  9  p.m., 
all  lights  out.  There  is  one  instructor  for  every  ten 
apprentices'. 

The  plan  of  training  inexperienced  young  men  on 
training  ships  evidently  hit  a  popular  chord  from  the 
first.  In  48  hours  after  the  announcement  was  pub- 
licly made  that  the  "Calvin  Austin"  had  been  chartered 
as  a  training  ship,  more  than  500  applications  for  en- 
rollment on  her  were  received  at  the  national  head- 
quarters of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board  Recruiting 


SOME  OF  THOSE  WHO  ARE  HELPING  AMERICA  TO  MAN  HER  SHIPS 

Front  Row  (left  to  right) — Capt.  Eug-ene  E.  O'Donnell,  Supervising  Inspector,  Fifth  District.  U.  S.  Steamboat-In- 
spection Service ;  Capt.  Robert  M.  Lavender,  National  Trustee,  American  Association  of  Masters,  Mates  and  Pilots : 
Henry  Howard,  Director  of  Recruiting,  United  States  Sliipping  Board  ;  William  S.  Brown.  National  President,  Marine 
Engineers'  Beneficial  Association ;  Capt.  Arthur  N.  McGray,  Secretary-Treasurer,  Neptune  Association,  also  representing' 
the  Masters,   Mates   and   Pilots  of  the   Pacific  Coast. 

Middle  Row — Capt.  Ulster  Davis.  National  Trustee,  American  Association  of  Masters,  Mates  and  Pilots  ;  Capt.  Luther 
B.  Dow,  Business  Manager,  American  Steamship  Licensed  Officers  Association,  Inc.  ;  George  W.  Willey.  Business  Mana- 
ger, Marine  Engineers'  Beneficial  A.-isociation,  No.  .50,  of  Boston;  James  J.  Raftery,  Jr.,  President,  Marine  Engineers' 
Beneficial    Association,    No.    59,    of    Boston ;    Capt.    Irving    Sparks,    Boston    Agent,    Neptune    Association. 

Back  Row — Winfield  M.  Thomp.son,  Field  Agent.  U.  S.  Shipping  Board  Recruiting  Service ;  Edward  Clarence  Hovey. 
Jr.,  Chief,  Sea  Service  Bureau:  Bert  L.  Todd,  Secretary,  Ocean  Association  of  Marine  Engineers:  Thomas  .\.  King, 
Chairman  Board  of  Directors,  Ocean  Association  of  Marine  Engineers  :  Henry  G.  Vaughan.  Sea  Service  Bureau  ;  Edward 
F.    Flynn,    Assistant    to    Director    of    Recruiting,    U.    S.    Shipping  Board. 


the  former  Army  transport  "Meade"  will  soon  be 
ready. 

Apprentices  accepted  for  training  are  taken  only  after 
careful  physical  examinations.  They  sign  an  agree- 
ment to  serve  in  the  merchant  marine  for  the  dura- 
tion of  the  war.  It  is  expected  that  most  of  them  will 
win  promotion  and  remain  in  the  service  many  years 
after  peace  is  restored,  for  the  United  States  is  to 
maintain  its  rightful  place  among  foremost  maritime 
nations.     Opportunities  for  advancement  will  be  many. 

Here  is  the  program  established  for  the  men  in 
training:  6  a.m.,  all  hands  tidy  room;  7  a.m.,  breakfast; 


Service  at  the  Boston  Custom  House.  Only  American 
citizens  are  accepted  for  the  training  ships.  All  the 
instructors  are  American  seaman  to  man  American 
ships.  The  apprentices  are  paid  $30  a  month  while 
training.     The  course  is  five  to  seven  weeks. 

Since  the  summer  of  1917  the  United  States  Shipping 
Board  Recruiting  Service  has  successfully  trained  en- 
gineer officers  for  the  new  merchant  marine,  finding  its 
material  among  men  already  experienced  as  assistant 
engineers,  firemen,  oilers  and  watertenders.  This  work 
has  been  carried  on  at  schools  conducted  by  the  Shipping 
Board  at  eight  leading  technical  institutions  in  differ- 


436 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


ent  parts  of  the  country,  with  Prof.  Edward  F.  Miller, 
of  the  Department  of  Mechanical  Engineering  at  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute  of  Technology,  as  chief  instructor 
in  engineering.  The  schools  will  continue  until  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  officers  are  trained  for  the  new  Govern- 
ment-owned cargo  ships. 

The  free  Government  Schools  conducted  by  the  Ship- 
ping Board  are  located  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Baltimore;  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
Cambridge;  Armour  Institute  of  Technology,  Chicago; 
Case  School  of  Applied  Science,  Cleveland;  Stevens  In- 
stitute of  Technology,  Hoboken;  the  Tulane  University, 
New  Orleans;  The  Bourse,  Philadelphia;  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Washington,  Seattle. 

The  course  ordinarily  lasts  about  four  weeks.  In- 
struction is  free  to  those  who  qualify  for  admission,  but 
students  have  to  pay  their  own  living  expenses.  On 
graduating  from  an  engineering  school,  a  student  goes 
to  sea  for  two  months'  special  training  as  a  junior 
officer  at  |75  a  month,  if  necessary.  He  is  then  free 
to  go  into  the  merchant-marine  service  at  prevailing 
rates  of  wages. 

The  Shipping  Board  Recruiting  Service  conducts 
a  Sea  Service  Bureau,  with  headquarters  at  the  Boston 
Custom  House  and  branches  at  other  ports,  for  placing 
its  graduates.     This  service  is  free. 

Ever  since  the  Recruiting  Service  was  established, 
it  has  conducted  free  Government  navigation  schools 
for  the  training  of  experienced  seamen  as  deck  officers. 
Forty-one  of  these  schools  have  been  established,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  wherever  the  demand  seemed 
to  justify  them.  The  enrollment  headquarters  for  all 
the  United  States  Shipping  Board  Recruiting  Service 
activities  are  at  the  Custom  House,  Boston. 

These  may  qualify  for  training  as  chief  engineer, 
ocean-going,  in  a  Shipping  Board  engineering  school: 
First  assistant,  one  year,  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  ves- 
sels; second  assistant,  two  years,  ocean  or  coastwise 
steam  vessels;  fireman,  oiler  or  watertender  of  three 
years'  engine-room  service,  ocean  or  coastwise  steam 
vessels,  may  qualify  as  chief  on  ocean  steamer  of  500 
tons  or  under;  chief,  one  year,  lake,  bay  or  sound; 
first  assistant,  two  years,  lake,  bay  or  sound. 

These  may  qualify  as  first  assistant  engineer,  ocean- 
going: Second  assistant,  one  year,  ocean  or  coastwise 
.steam  vessels;  fireman,  oiler  or  watertender  of  three 
years'  engine  room  service,  ocean  or  coastwise  steam 
vessels,  may  qualify  as  first  assistant,  1000  tons  or  un- 
der; first  assistant,  one  year,  lake,  bay  or  sound;  sec- 
ond assistant,  two  years,  lake,  bay  or  sound ;  apprentice 
to  machinist  trade,  with  three  years'  service  on  mar- 
ine, stationary  or  locomotive  engines  and  one  year  at 
sea;  graduate  in  engineering,  nautical  schoolship,  with 
six  months  at  sea;  graduate  in  mechanical  engineering 
at  a  technical  college,  with  six  months  at  sea ;  locomotive 
engineer,  two  years,  with  one  year  at  sea;  stationary 
engineer,  two  years,  with  one  year  at  sea. 

These  may  qualify  as  second  assistant  engineer, 
ocean-going:  Third  assistant,  one  year,  ocean  or  coast- 
wise steam  vessels ;  chief,  six  months,  lake,  bay  or  sound ; 
first  assistant,  six  months,  lake,  bay  or  sound;  second 
assistant,  six  months,  lake,  bay  or  sound ;  third  assis- 
tant, one  year,  lake,  bay  or  sound;  stationary  engineer 
in  full  charge  of  a  1000  hp.  plant ;  locomotive  engineer, 
one  year,  and  six  months  at  sea;  stationary  engineer 


cf  plant  of  less  than  1000  hp.  who  has  had  six  months 
at  sea;  apprentice  to  the  machinist  trade  who  has  had 
six  months  at  sea;  graduate  in  mechanical  engineering 
at  a  technical  college,  with  three  months  at  sea;'  gradu- 
ate in  engineering,  nautical  schoolship,  with  three 
months  at  sea.' 

These  may  qualify  as  third  assistant  engineer,  ocean- 
going: Fireman,  three  years;  oiler  or  watercender,  two 
years  (or  combined  service  of  two  years  in  these 
grades),  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessels;  chief,  six 
months,  lake,  bay  or  sound;  assistant,  six  months,  lake, 
bay  or  sound;  graduate  in  engineering,  nautical  school- 
ship;  chief,  one  year,  river;  assistant,  one  year,  river; 
journeyman  machinist  who  has  been  engaged  ui  con- 
struction or  repairs  of  marine  engines. 

Increasing  the  Life  of  Economizers 

Throughout  New  England  particularly,  the  average 
life  of  an  economizer  may  be  estimated  as  about  18 
years.  During  this  time,  because  of  internal  and  ex- 
ternal corrosion,  there  is  a  gradual  thinning  down  of 
the  walls  of  the  headers  and  tubes.  How  serious  this 
becomes  depends  upon  the  local  conditions  in  each  case, 
but  on  the  average  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  walls  of 
the  tubes  become  so  thin  that  they  are  liable  to  fracture 
after  the  economizer  is  about  13  or  14  years  old.  This 
liability  to  fracture  is  greatly  increased  by  any  sud- 
den shock,  such  as  a  water-hammer. 

After  a  period  of  16  or  17  years  the  walls  of  the  tubes 
become  so  thin  that  it  is  impracticable  to  carry  the 
usual  high  boiler  pressure.  To  overcome  this  difficulty 
C.  W.  E.  Clark,  of  Boston,  and  J.  V.  Santry,  of  Schu- 
maker-Santry  Co.,  Boston,  have  patented  the  application 
of  a  three-stage  centrifugal  pump  in  connection  with 
these  older  economizer  installations.  The  water  is 
pumped  from  the  primary  heater  through  one  stage  of 
the  pump  to  the  economizer  at  about  40  to  50  lb.  pres- 
sure, then  from  the  outlet  of  the  economizer  to  the 
suction  of  the  second  stage  of  the  pump,  the  pressure 
being  increased  to  the  required  boiler  pressure.  So  far 
as  the  writer  knows,  George  Diman,  of  Lawrence,  Mass., 
was  the  first  to  propose  this  method  of  feeding  water 
to  economizers. 

The  application  of  this  type  of  pump  has  materially 
increased  the  life  of  several  economizer  installations. 
In  one  case  where  the  repairs  had  become  excessive 
a  pump  of  this  type  was  installed  and  the  pressure  cut 
down  from  175  lb.  to  40  lb.  This  prolonged  the  life 
of  the  machine  for  a  period  of  four  years,  and  prac- 
tically all  the  repairs  due  to  tube  and  header  fractures 
were  eliminated  during  this  period.  The  accompanying 
illustration  .shows  all  this  so  plainly  that  further  de- 
scription is  unnecessary.  During  these  times  of  high 
fuel  costs  and  fuel  shortage  this  method  of  feeding 
the  water  should  effect  worth-while  savings  in  any  plant 
where  the  economizer  is  out  of  service  because  it  vdll 
not  stand  boiler  pressure,  but  would  hold  if  the  pressure 
were  reduced.  The  advantage  of  feeding,  as  shown  in 
the  full-page  illustration,  is  that  no  boiler  will  "rob"  the 
other  of  water;  each  will  take  what  it  needs  without 
interfering  with  the  other's  supply. 


'This  three  months'  service  at  sea  may  be  obtained  after  gradu- 
ation from  the  school  and  before  taking  United  States  Steamboat- 
Inspection  Service  e-xaminations,  for  license  as  an  officer 


March  26.  1918 


POWER 


437 


.-"/T^: ,':  y-1^' ■:'.■>'  ■"■  VTr>i^Ij^'^V^i^iJ-^^Vs£i. 


LOW   PRESSURE 
PUMP 


SUCTION 


w 


I 


FKEDIXC  WATKR  AT  LESS  THAN  BOILER  PRESSURE  TO  OLD  ECONOMIZERS  AND  REGULATING  FLOW  AS 

REQUIRED  TO  EACH  BOILER  AND  ECONOMIZER 


438 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


Foreign   Substances   in  Coal 

The  photograph,  Fig.  1,  shows  of  a  pile  of  slate  and 
rock  which  iS  a  sample  of  the  material  received  as 
coal  and  paid  for  as  such  by  one  of  the  largest  manu- 
facturing companies  in  Connecticut.  The  pieces  are 
30  large  as  to  convince  one  that  they  were  not  left 
accidentally  with  the  coal  as  it  came  out  of  the  mines, 
for  the  reason  that  it  was  not  in  one  or  two  cars,  but 
many.  It  causes  no  end  of  trouble  with  the  coal  crusher, 
continually  breaking  gears  and  pinions,  smashing  bear- 
ings, etc.  These  breakdowns  occurred  so  frequently 
that  it  became  necessary  to  prevent  them;  this  was 
accomplished,  after  trying  various  methods,  by  install- 
ing a  set  of  overload  relays.  A  20-hp.  induction  motor 
is  used  for  each  crusher;  only  about  60  per  cent,  of 
the  horsepower  is  required  to  crush  the  coal  under 
ordinary  conditions;  the  relays  were  set  about  15  per 
cent,  above  the  usual  required  power  for  the  crusher. 
Cast  steel  is  now  used  for  the  crusher  gears. 

While  the  average  monthly  cost  per  pound  of  steam 
for  the  year  1916  was  $0.00027,  it  has  greatly  increased 
until  it  reached  a  figure  of  $0.00042.  It  would  not  be 
fair,  of  course,  to  ch?rge  this  increase  to  bad  coal  only 
because  the  cost  of  labor  and  material  has  increased. 

Sticks,  stones,  chains — most  anything  of  that  nature — 
in  coal  will  cause  serious  delays,  damage  and  possible 
service  interruptions  in  a  power  plant.  Protest  by 
mail  to  the  mine  owoiers,  when  bought  direct,  is  of  no 
avail.  As  New  England  ordinarily  gets  two-thirds  of 
its  coal  by  water,  Fig.  2  is  of  particular  interest,  for 
it  shows  what  comes  in  with  the  coal  in  barges. 

The  company  from  which  the  photograph  was  received 
now  sends  such  pictures,  without  comment,  to  the  mine, 
and  since  doing  this  the  foreign  substances  in  the  coal 
have  greatly  decreased     Try  it. 


FIG. 


1.      SLATE  AND  STONE  TAKEN   FROM  COAL  SOLD   IN 
NEW    ENGL.'^ND.      NOTE    THE    TWO-FOOT    RULE 


FIG.    2.      SOME   THINGS   THAT   COME   IN   COAL  AND    DAM.AGE    THE   CRUSHER    AND    STOKERS 


March  26.  191S 


P  O  W  E  R 


439 


Bonus  For  Power-Plan t  Employees 


By  warren 

Consulting    Engineer, 


B.  LEWIS 

Hrovldeiice.    R.    I. 


Boiiiin  paid  to  power-plant  I'mpUiijees  does  not 
mean  that  theij  must  originate  satiny  on  which 
the  bonus  is  based.  The  author  bases  the  bonus 
on  the  saving  in  power-plant  costs  per  unit  out- 
put of  product  manufactured  and  gives  detailed 
directions  for  enabling  the  management  to  quick- 
ly determine  by  reference  to  a  curve,  the  bonus 
due  employees. 

THE  term  "bonus"  generally  means  something  over 
and  above  a  fixed  compensation  or  price,  based 
on  the  net  saving  effected.  It  means  that  if  the 
operator  can  reduce  the  cost  per  unit  of  product,  he 
should  receive  a  proportion  of  the  savings.  It  does 
not  mean  that  he  is  to  originate  the  methods  to  be  em- 
ployed. A  course  of  instruction  may  be,  and  generally 
is,  necessary,  but  methods  having  been  established,  the 
employee  receives  a  proportion  of  the  savings  effected 
because  he  maintains  the  standard  set. 

Establishing  a  Base-Line 

In  establishing  a  bonus  there  must  be  a  starting 
point,  which  should  be  a  reasonable  efficiency.  Call  this 
a  base-line.  If  the  plant  as  a  whole  has  been  well  oper- 
ated, then  its  cost  for  a  period  of  two  or  three  years 
might  be  taken  as  the  base-line.  If  there  have  been 
glaring  faults,  these  should  be  corrected  before  the 
base-line  operating  costs  are  established. 

The  start  must  be  made  with  the  sum  total  of  power- 
plant  expenses,  which  must  bear  some  definite  relation 
to  the  product  turned  out  in  the  plant  as  a  whole.  There 
are  few  cases  where  the  cost  of  power  (and  I  refer 
now  to  all  the  items  under  the  general  heading  of 
power)  does  not  bear  a  definite  relation  to  the  product 
manufactured.  If  the  plant  is  operated  at  100  per  cent, 
capacity,  the  power-plant  cost  should  bear  a  definite  re- 
lation to  the  product  in  terms  of  pounds,  bushels,  yards, 
tons,  etc.  If  the  plant  is  operating  at  50  or  20  or  80 
per  cent,  of  its  capacity,  the  cost  of  power  for  each  will 
have  a  relation  unlike  the  others. 

It  is  possible,  then,  to  establish  a  curve  that  will 
show  what  the  power-plant  costs  per  unit  of  product 
should  be  at  any  given  output,  and  this  is  the  measure 
most  satisfactory,  as  it  includes  every  factor  that  enters 
into  power  costs.  The  manager  need  not  worry  about 
boiler  or  engine  efficiencies,  uses  of  steam  or  economical 
heating  and  lighting  of  buildings,  but  can  group  these 
under  the  general  heading  of  "Cost  per  Unit  of  Product 
Manufactured,"  and  the  weekly  or  monthly  report  show- 
ing the  power-plant  costs  need  be  simply  divided  by 
the  product  of  the  plant  to  determine  whether  the  set 
standard  is  being  maintained.  He  can  then  compare 
this  cost  with  those  of  other  plants  with  which  he  is 
familiar  or  to  whose  costs  he  has  access. 

The  first  step  in  establishing  a  base-line  is  to  divide 
the  power-plant  costs  into  two  items — those  which  bear 
little  or  no  relation  to  the  volume  of  product  and  those 
more  or  less  proportioned  to  the  volume  of  product.  In 
every  industry  there  are  cost  items  that  are  fixed.   Some 


of  these  are  familiar  to  the  accounting  department  and 
some  are  not.  The  familiar  ones  are  interest,  deprecia- 
tion, taxes,  insurance,  etc.,  which  are  termed  "over- 
head"; but  there  are  others  which  are  as  definitely  fixed. 
If  the  power  plant  is  ready  to  serve  the  factory  with  any 
amount  of  power  up  to  its  maximum,  then  the  other 
fixed  charges  consist  of  cost  of  labor,  fuel  required  to 
bank  fires  and  to  keep  engines,  generators,  pumps,  etc., 
turning  over  but  developing  no  useful  power,  certain 
amounts  for  lubricants,  water,  ash  removal,  etc.  To  a 
great  extent  the  heating  of  buildings  is  an  overhead 
charge  against  the  power  plant  and  is  not  affected  ma- 
terially whether  the  plant  is  running  at  25  per  cent,  or 
100  per  cent,  capacity.  In  some  cases  heating  may  have 
to  be  divided  into  the  two  elements,  but  in  most  cases 
it  is  a  fixed  charge.  A  certain  amount  of  lighting 
comes  under  the  head  of  fixed  charges  and  is  not  af- 
fected by  the  volume  of  output. 

We  have,  therefore,  to  determine,  first,  what  the  real 
fixed  charges  are  on  any  individual  power  plant,  and  one 
proceeds  as  follows :  Make  an  appraisal  of  the  plant,  de- 
termine the  value  of  the  land  and  buildings  occupied, 
of  the  complete  boiler  equipment,  engines,  pumps,  heat- 
ers, piping,  generators,  switchboards — everything  con- 
cerned in  the  production  of  power,  steam,  light  and  heat, 
not  forgetting  the  sprinkler  systems,  lighting  systems, 
etc.,  which  apply  wholly  to  the  power  plant;  also  the 
main  lines  of  pipe  running  to  production  centers  in  the 
manufacturing  buildings,  as  well  as  main  lines  of  wires, 
etc.,  these  being  a  part  of  the  power  plant.  Generally, 
the  branch  lines  and  pipes  in  manufacturing  depart- 
ments are  considered  as  a  part  of  the  department  and 
are  not  concerned  in  the  establishment  of  power-plant 
costs.  This  appraisal  having  been  made,  certain  charges 
are  entered  such  as  are  commonly  called  overhead; 
namely,  interest,  depreciation,  taxes,  insurance,  etc. 

Determining  Stand-by  Losses 

The  second  step  is  to  determine  what  may  be  called 
"fixed  costs  regardless  of  output,"  or  stand-by  losses, 
in  some  such  manner  as  follows:  If  the  boilers  are 
maintained  at  the  usual  pressure,  engines  turning  over 
at  normal  speed,  generators  excited  but  delivering  no 
current  to  the  lines,  or,  in  case  of  mechanical  drives, 
shafting  turning  but  all  productive  machinery  stopped, 
a  certain  quantity  of  coal  is  being  used  which  may  be 
considered  as  a  fixed  cost  regardless  of  production. 
This  includes  coal  used  in  banking  fires  and  rebuilding 
fires  which  have  been  cleaned.  If  one  wants  to  be  very 
accurate,  the  amount  of  ash  resulting  from  the  burning 
of  this  fixed  amount  of  coal  is  determined,  and  the  cost 
of  removing  that  ash  added. 

Next  determine  what  lubricants  are  used  irrespective 
of  production,  and  certain  supplies  such  as  pump  and 
engine  packings,  boiler  gaskets  and  numerous  other 
things  that  are  not  affected  by  production.  Current 
used  for  lighting  main  passageways,  the  yard,  the  en- 
gine and  boiler  rooms,  etc.,  is  a  fixed  charge.  Coal  used 
on  Sundays  and  holidays  and  that  used  at  night  is  also 
a  fixed  charge- 


P  O  W  E  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


The  heating  of  buildings  may  in  most  cases  be  con- 
sidered as  a  fixed  factor.  In  some  plants  a  decrease  in 
the  output  carries  with  it  the  possibility  of  decreasing 
the  number  of  departments  to  be  heated:  but  in  most 
cases  the  heating  will  be  a  fixed  item  and  will  not  vary 
generally  with  the  percentage  of  production  of  the 
plant. 

Practically  all  labor  employed  in  the  power  plant  is  a 
fixed  item. 

A  considerable  proportion  of  the  total  costs  is  as 
truly  a  fixed  charge  as  are  the  usual  overhead  items; 
and  the  natural  result  is  that  if  the  plant  is  operating 
at  50  per  cent,  capacity,  the  cost  per  unit  of  these  fixed 
charges  is  twice  what  it  is  when  the  plant  is  operating 
at  100  per  cent,  capacity.    It  is  this  that  makes  the  final 


considered  as  a  straight  line.  If  we  now  combine  these 
two  sets  of  costs,  we  get  a  line  that  shows  the  actual 
variation  in  cost  as  the  productiveness  of  the  plant 
varies. 

To  illustrate :  Assume  a  power  plant  of  the  simplest 
character,  of  1000  hp.,  where  mechanical  power  is  the 
only  thing  required  and  the  equipment  is  concentrated. 
The  plant  is  appVaised  at  $100,000;  and  for  the  first 
item  we  have  the  overhead,  which  may  be  taken  at  15 
per  cent.,  covering  interest,  depreciation,  insurance  and 
taxes,  which  is  equivalent  to  $1250  a  month.  This  over- 
head has  no  relation  to  the  volume  of  output  and  in 
Fig.   1   is  plotted  as  a  straight  line. 

The  ne.xt  item  is  the  stand-by  losses,  which  are  af- 
fected by  the  output.     These  consist  of  the  following 


9000 


8000 


7000 


6000 


5000 


Q4000 


3000 


2000 


1000 


/ 

M 

/ 

A 

/ 

/OVER 

HEAD  AN 

D  STAND 

.y 

/ 

/ 

NO    BY- 

•^/                    OVERHEAD 

./X 

/ 

25  50  75  100 

Per  Cent,  of    Factory    Product 

FIG.  1 


125 


20 


Jl5 


|10 


a 


0 

o 


06 


^0.6 


00.4 
0 

o 

in 
^02 

O 

Cl 


\ 

\ 

■s 

\ 

A 

Jd^vjr 

0           25,000        50,000       75,000        100,000       125,000       15^000     175,C 
Units    of     Product 

FIG.  Z 

' 

\ 

\ 

^ 

^ 

"^^^^2/ 

^^ 

=:: 

250p00'      50QP00     750,000      IflOOpOO    125QpOO      ISOCpOO  I750p00 
Yards      Finished 
FIG.  3 


Fig.   1- 


FIGS.     1     T(i    3.       CURVES    PliOTTBD    WTIEN 
-Expensf   Chart.      Fig.    2 — Unit   Cost   Curve.      Fig.    3- 


PLANNING    A    BONUS    SYSTEM 
—Coal    Consumption   Per  Unit   of  Production. 


cost  per  unit  of  product  not  proportional  to  the  volume 
of  product. 

The  third  item  to  determine  is  the  variable  costs  of 
the  power  plant,  those  which  change  with  the  product. 
As  the  amount  of  power  required  increases,  the  coal 
will  increase  in  fairly  direct  proportion,  assuming  that 
the  prime  movers  have  a  fairly  flat  water  rate.  If  they 
do. not,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  plot  the  relation  between 
coal  and  product  as  a  slight  curve  rather  than  as  a 
straight  line.  If  the  boiler-feed  water  is  purchased,  it 
will  be  an  item  varying  with  the  factory  output.  A  cer- 
tain part  of  the  ash  and  a  certain  percentage  of  sup- 
plies will  also  be  directly  aflfected  by  the  output.  We 
have,  therefore,  a  group  of  items  which  increases  nearly 
proportionally  to  product,  and  in  many  instances  may  be 


items  in  dollars  per  month:  Labor,  $606;  coal,  $1170; 
oil,  $37;  supplies,  $25;  repairs,  $40;  water,  $10;  total, 
$1888.  The  items  of  supplies  and  repairs  represent  the 
materials  used  to  keep  the  machinery  in  good  working 
order,  whether  it  is  developing  one  horsepower  or  a 
thousand.  The  item  of  $1888  is  drawn  as  a  horizontal 
line  because  in  every  respect  it  is  practically  the  same 
as  overhead.  The  sum  of  these  two  items  is  plotted  as 
a  horizontal  line  at  $3138. 

The  third  item  is  the  expenses  which  are  proportional 
to  product,  made  up  as  follows,  if  the  plant  is  delivering 
1000  hp.:  Coal,  $3510;  repairs,  $40;  water,  $100;  total, 
$3650.  This  is  plotted  as  a  diagonal  line,  with  the  fig- 
ure $3650  against  100  per  cent,  output  with  proportional 
amounts   against   lower   outputs;    namely,    $2737.50   at 


March  2(5,  1918 


POWER 


441 


75  per  cent,  output,  $1825  at  50  per  cent,  output,  $012.50 
at  25  per  cent,  output,  and  00.00  at  0  output.  If  this 
diagonal  line  is  now  added  to  the  item  of  overhead  plus 
standby,  the  total  costs  are  plotted  as  a  diagonal  line 
beginning  at  the  figure  $3138  for  0  output  and  ending 
with  $6788  for  100  per  cent,  output.  If  the  plant  runs  a 
month  at  25  per  cent,  output,  the  cost  would  be  $4050.50. 
If  it  runs  a  month  at  75  per  cent,  output,  the  cost  would 
be  $5875.50.  This  chart  shows  at  once  the  tremendous 
influence  that  the  stand-by  and  the  overhead  have,  and 
how  necessary  it  is  to  keep  them  at  a  minimum.  The 
importance  of  this  is  frequently  overlooked.  In  this 
assumed  case  they  are  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  total 
maximum  cost  at  100  per  cent,  factory  output  and  are 
more  than  60  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  at  50  per  cent, 
factory  output.  If  we  divide  the  cost  for  any  given 
week  by  the  productiveness  for  that  week,  we  establish 
the  power-plant  cost  per  unit  of  product  output. 

Fig.  2  illustrates  the  ratio  between  product  and  cost. 
Instead  of  using  percentages,  we  may  convert  this  into 
thousands  of  units,  such  as  pounds,  bushels,  yards,  etc. 
Taking  the  total  operating  cost  at  100  per  cent,  output 
of  $6788  and  considering  that  100  per  cent,  output 
means  100,000  units,  then  the  cost  per  unit  is  6.788c. 
At  75  per  cent,  output,  or  with  75,000  units,  the  cost 
would  be  7.83c. ;  at  50  per  cent,  output,  or  50,000  units, 
the  cost  would  be  9.9c. ;  at  25  per  cent,  output,  or  25,000 
units,  the  cost  would  be  16.2c.  per  unit.  If  this  chart 
is  kept  before  the  management,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
pick  out  on  the  curve  the  proper  cost  for  any  given  out- 
put to  determine  whether  the  standard  has  been  main- 
tained. In  making  such  a  chart  the  records  of  total  cost 
of  power  should  be  divided  by  the  output  for  each 
period  and  plotted  regularly. 

It  may  take  many  weeks  to  check  up  such  a  curve. 
If  the  factory  is  operating  at  about  a  certain  definite 
percentage  of  capacity,  the  opportunity  will  not  be  pre- 
sented to  find  the  actual  ratio  at  some  other  percent- 
age unto  the  rate  of  percentage  goes  up  or  comes  down. 
In  some  cases  it  has  taken  nearly  a  year  to  check  up  a 
curve  with  actual  performance;  and  even  then  the  curve 
is  bound  to  be  a  mean  between  certain  extremes. 

Stand-by-Losses  Shoiild  Be  Watched  Carefully 

In  those  industries  where  steam,  hot  water  and  other 
evidences  of  power  are  distributed  about  the  plant,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  stand-by  plus  the  overhead  is  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  the  whole.  In  some  cases  it 
has  been  as  high  as  70  per  cent,  at  100  per  cent,  pro- 
duction and  a  correspondingly  larger  amount  at  lower 
rates  of  production.  This  makes  it  doubly  important 
to  watch  the  stand-by  losses  even  more  carefully  than 
the  variable  running  expense.  If  the  industry  is  such 
that  the  influence  of  the  out-of-doors  temperature  is 
considerable,  then  two  curves  should  be  established,  one 
for  summer  and  one  for  winter  conditions,  the  transi- 
tion from  one  to  the  other  being  more  or  less  arbitrary 
and  depending  somewhat  upon  the  climate. 

Fig.  3  illustrates  two  curves  that  actually  apply  to  an 
industry  where  large  quantities  of  steam  and  water  are 
used  and  the  cost  of  heating  water  in  winter  is  much 
greater  than  in  summer.  In  this  plant  the  bonus  is  fig- 
ured on  the  coal  consumption  alone.  The  curve  shows 
the  ratio  between  production  and  pounds  of  coal  per 
unit  of  production,  and  well  illustrates  the  rising  cost  of 


coal  per  unit  when  the  factory  output  is  increased. 
It  is  evident  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  judge  fairly 
from  a  week's  operation.  It  is  almost  impossible  in 
many  industries  to  get  the  actual  product  for  one  week. 
Materials  may  be  put  into  process  which  do  not  reach 
the  packing  room  for  several  weeks,  and  more  goods 
may  be  shipped  than  are  in  actual  process  in  any  given 
week.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  figure  costs  over  a 
longer  period,  say  four  weeks,  or  by  calendar  months; 
and  at  the  same  time  determine  with  a  fair  degree  of 
accuracy  what  is  the  actual  output  of  finished  product. 
The  cui-ve,  then,  becomes  the  basis  of  a  bonus  sys- 
tem of  payment.  Some  engineers  have  argued  that  it 
is  not  a  fair  one,  that  all  that  the  operating  engineer 
can  do  is  to  make  steam  efficiently,  run  his  engines, 
pumps,  heaters,  etc.,  as  well  as  he  knows  how,  and  that 
he  has  no  control  of  the  situation  beyond  his  depart- 
ment. That  is  partly  true  and  partly  not  true.  The 
functions  of  the  chief  engineer  should  extend  beyond 
the  confines  of  the  engine  and  boiler  rooms.  He  should 
spend  at  least  one-third  of  his  time  around  the  plant, 
and  he  should  have  an  inspector  going  around  the  plant 
continually  watching  out  for  improper  use  of  power, 
light,  steam,  etc.  The  chief  engineer  should  be  directly 
concerned  in  seeing  that  the  process  machinery  is  main- 
tained in  an  efficient  condition.  This  is  particularly 
true  with  regard  to  apparatus  that  uses  steam  in  any 
form.  If  we  include  in  the  power  plant  all  the  equip- 
ment which  in  any  way  aff'ects  the  use  of  fuel,  it  be- 
comes a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  place  upon  the 
chief  engineer  the  responsibility  for  the  efficiency  of  the 
entire  power-making  and  power-using  equipment,  and 
for  its  cost  per  unit  of  production. 

Specific  Application  to  Bleachery  Plant 

An  instance  of  the  specific  application  of  the  theory 
herein  advanced  is  that  of  a  cotton-cloth  bleachery  and 
finishing  plant.  Here  the  measure  was  the  number  of 
yards  of  cloth  finished  in  a  given  period,  and  it  was 
found  that  an  average  of  the  number  of  yards  put  into 
process  and  of  the  yards  shipped  could  be  taken  as  the 
basis  of  production.  Distributed  over  a  period  of  four 
weeks  the  inaccuracy  due  to  the  possible  holding  up  of 
goods  in  the  plant  was  shown  to  be  more  or  less  reduced. 
From  records  extending  over  a  period  of  two  or  three 
years  it  was  found  that  for  any  given  production  the 
amount  of  coal  burned  did  not  vary  much  notwithstand- 
ing a  great  variety  of  processes  carried  on  and  continu- 
ally changing  methods  of  handling  goods.  This  was  ac- 
counted for  largely  by  the  fact  that  the  fixed  operating 
costs,  as  before  explained,  were  a  large  part  of  the 
whole.  The  ratio  between  the  coal  burned  and  the 
yards  finished  was  not  a  constant  one  by  any  means, 
but  varied  with  the  volume  of  the  product,  so  that  a 
curve  could  be  produced  which  would  show  the  actual 
ratio  under  any  given  conditions.  This  curve  was  based 
on  costs  as  they  had  been  for  a  considerable  period  of 
time.  The  employees  of  the  power  plant  were  offered  a 
certain  percentage  of  any  saving  they  could  effect.  The 
chief  engineer  did  not  accept  the  offer  with  any  interest, 
explaining  that  he  did  not  believe  that  a  material  sav- 
ing could  be  made.  The  company  employed  a  consulting 
engineer  to  study  the  conditions  in  the  power  plant, 
with  the  result  that  with  the  cooperation  of  a  new 
engineer  the  costs  were  greatly   reduced  and  the  em- 


442 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


ployees  received  substantial  rewards.  The  saving  came 
not  only  through  the  better  operation  of  the  machinery, 
but  through  the  reduction  in  the  use  of  steam  all  over 
the  plant. 

Two  factors  must  be  recognized,  one  of  which  has 
been  already  mentioned — that  of  proper  advisory  serv- 
ice and  a  process  of  education.  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant is  the  attitude  of  the  management  toward  the 
whole  plan.  There  must,  first  of  all,  be  a  keen  desire  to 
reward  the  power-plant  force  for  their  efforts  and  a 
genuine  feeling  that  a  man's  earnings  should  be  based 
on  what  he  saves  his  employer  rather  than  on  what 
some  other  man  gets.  Because  |30  a  week  is  a  recog- 
nized standard  for  a  certain  class  of  help  is  no  reason 
why  a  man  should  not  get  $10  a  week  additional  if  his 
employer  can  make  $10  or  $20  or  $30  a  week  additional 
out  of  the  man's  effort.  The  bonus  paid  the  first 
year  will  come  from  the  actual  reduction  in  costs  of 
operation.  The  bonus  paid  after  that  will  be  due,  not 
so  much  to  still  further  reducing  costs,  as  to  keeping 
them  down  to  a  minimum ;  and  it  is  certainly  worth  as 
much  to  keep  the  costs  down  as  to  bring  them  down  in 
the  first  place. 

Work  of  the  xMassachusetts  Boiler 
Inspection   Department 

In  the  accompanying  Tables  II  and  III,  are  given  the 
chief  items  of  interest  in  the  work  of  the  Boiler  Inspec- 
tion Department  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  since  pre- 
liminary investigations  by  Thomas  Hawley,  of  Boston, 
in  1893  and  1894  up  to  1917.  The  tables  should  be  of 
considerable  interest  to  all  those  interested  in  boiler 
legislation,   construction   and   operation. 

The  total  number  of  Massachusetts  standard  boilers 
and  air  tanks  constructed,  received  into  the  state  and 
reported  during  the  last  five  years,  are  given  in  Table  I. 

The  following  insurance  companies  are  authorized  to 
insure  and  inspect  boilers  in  the  Commonwealth: 
Employers  Liability  Assurance  Corp. ;  Fidelity  and  Casu- 
alty Co.;  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Inspection  and 
Insurance  Co.;  Maryland  Casualty  Co.,  Mutual  Boiler 
Insurance  Co.,  Royal  Indemnity  Co.;  and  Travelers 
Indemnity  Co.  The  148  insurance  inspectors,  certi- 
fied by  the  state,  inspected  19,607  boilers  and  376  air 
tanks  in  1917. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  some  of  the  violations  of  the 


various  laws  enforced  by  the  boiler  inspection  depart- 
ment during  the  last  year:  assaulting  an  officer,  1; 
causing  a  boiler  to  be  operated  by  person  not  properly 
licensed,  2 ;  causing  boiler  to  be  operated  without  neces- 
sary safety  appliances,  1 ;  operating  boiler  without 
certificate  of  inspection,  4;  failure  to  pay  boiler  inspec- 
tion fee,  3 ;  operating  steam  plant  without  proper  license, 
5;  operating  electric  derrick  without  license,  1.  It  is 
seen  that  violations  are  few. 

When  the  German  steamship,  the  "Kronprinzessin 
Cecile"  was  interned  in  Boston,  members  of  the  depart- 
ment took  charge  of  the  mechanical  equipment  aboard. 
Since  the  outbreak  of  the  war  three  members  have 
entered  service  under  the  flag. 

TABLE  I.     BOILER.S  AND  AIR  TANKS  INSTALLED  DURING 
LA.ST  FI\E  YEARS 

Mass.  Std.    Mass.  Std. 


\ 

ear  Ending  Oct.  31 

Boilers 

Air  Tanks        Total 

1908  (from  Mav  n. 

519 

519 

1909 

1,365 

1  365 

1910 

1,642 

1,642 

1911 

1,604 

1,604 

1912 

2,002 

2,002 

1913 

. .      2,860 

~"  2,860 

1914 

. .      2,738 

2,738 

1915 

2,291 

214 
178 

2,505 

1916 

1,665 

1,843 

1917 

als 

1,788 

216 
608 

2.004 

.     18,474 

Tot 

19.082 

TAB! 

E  II.    EXAMINATION'S  AND  FEES  PAID  TO  STATE  TREASURER 

Year 

. — Inspections 

— Examinations — . 

End- 

Insur- 

Engineers 

Opera- 

ing 

Boiler 

ance 

and 

tors  of 

Fees  Paid 

Oct. 

Ins  pec. 

Compa- 

Fire- 

Hoisting 

to  State 

31 

Dept. 

nies 

Total 

men 

Machinery 

Total 

Treasurer 

1893 

171* 

171 

1894 

405* 

405 

1895 

306 

306 

1,605 

1.605 

$15,263 

1896 

719 

719 

11,703 

11,703 

6,628 

1897 

1,528 

1,528 

9,274 

9,274 

8.699 

1898 

1.961 

1,96! 

5,655 

5,655 

9,590 

1899 

2,626 

2.626 

5,981 

5,981 

13,142 

1900 

2,364 

2,364 

6,472 

6.472 

11.438 

1901 

2,814 

2,814 

6,589 

6,389 

13,203 

1902 

2,583 

2,583 

6,518 

6.518 

11,447 

1903 

2,448 

2,448 

5,873 

5,873 

10,977 

1904 

2,441 

2,441 

5,850 

5,850 

10,628  53 

1905 

2.555 

4,080 

6,635 

5,725 

5,725 

12,832  00 

1906 

2,363 

12,000 

14,363 

6,612 

6,612 

15,382  50 

1907 

3,043 

12,467 

15.510 

7,140 

7.140 

18,801   00 

1908 

3.698 

13,739 

17,437 

7,129 

7,129 

22,066  00 

1909 

3,763 

16,032 

19,795 

6,657 

6,657 

23,735  00 

1910 

3,837 

15,972 

19,809 

6,867 

6,867 

23,356  00 

1911 

4,510 

15,986 

20,496 

6,948 

161 

7,109 

25,036  00 

1912 

4.334 

16,766 

21,100 

6,737 

291 

7.028 

22,604  00 

1913 

5,403 

17,006 

22,409 

6,404 

134 

6,539 

25,558  00 

1914 

6,746 

18,010 

24,756 

6,490 

147 

6,637 

27,457  20 

1915 

6,987 

19,456 

26,443 

5,364 

141 

5.505 

27,698  00 

1916 

7,360 

19,254 

26,614 

5,174 

116 

5,290 

27,766  00 

1917 

6,892 

19,983 

26,875 

5,022 

93 

5,115 

26,635.00 

1895). 


Totals  81,857    200,751      282,608      147,590  1,083        148,673      $409,942.23 

*  Preliminary  investigations. 

(IriginalBoilerlnspectionLawlChap.  418,  Actsof  1895)'  .May  29,  1895. 

Original  Engineers  and  Fireman's  License  Law  (Chap.  471.  .^cts  of 
June  5.  1895. 

Original  Operation  of  Hoisting  Machinery  Law  (Chap.   656,  .Acts  of   1911), 
July  11,  1911. 

Original  Air  Tank  Inspection  Law  (Chap.  629,  Acts  of  1 9 1 3) ,  May  8.  19 1 3. 

Original  Ammonia  Compressor  Safety'Valve  Law  (Chap.  467,  Acts  of  1914), 
May  2,  1914. 


TABLE  III 


BOILER  EXPLOSIONS  INVESTIGATED  BY  THE  BOILER  INSPECTION  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE 
MASSACHUSETTS  DISTRICT  POLICE 


Year 
1895 


1896 
1897 

1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 

1908 
1909 
1910 

1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 


Explosions 


Kinds   of    Boilers 
48-in-  horizontal-tubular 
60-in.  horizontal-tubular 
48-in.  horizontal-tubular 
48-in.  horizontal-tubular 


72-in.  horizontal-tubular 
72-in.  horizontal-tubular 


72-in.  horizontal-tubular 
72-in.  horizontal-tubular 
60-iii.  horizontal-tubular 
Cast-iron  sectional 


Locations 

Webster 
Woburn 
Fall  River 
New  Bedford 

New  Bedford 
New  Bedford 
Hubbardston  (icehouse) 


—  Number    of    Persons — 


Killed 
0 
5 

4 

0 
2 


Injured 

0 
Large  number 
Several 

0 

0 

0 


Causes   of  Explosion 
Ignorance  of  fireman 
Stuck  safety  valve 
Lap  crack 
Overpressure 


I 


Lap  crack 

Explosion  of  other  boiler 

Defective  fine 


Brockton  (Monday  morntng.  Mar.  20) 
Lynn 
Hubbardston 


42-in.  horizontal-tubular 
35-in.  locomotive-type 


New  Bedford 

Pittsfield 


60-in.  horizontal-tubular 
Cast-iron  sectional 


East  Weymouth 
Beverly 


58 
0 
1 
0 


0 
17 


Fracture    of    shell    plate    at    longitudinal 
joint 

Defective  casting 


Fractured  shell  plate  at  longitudinal  joint 
Over  pressure 


Fracture  of  shell  plate  at  longitudinal  joint 
Explosive  in  combustion  chamber 


March  26.  1918 


POWER 


443 


The  Forcible  Shutting  Down  of  Isolated 

Power  Plants 


By  PERCIVAL  R.  MOSES 


A  complete  account  of  the  vanous  events  which 
led  up  to  the  heurincia  noiv  being  held  before 
the  Public  Service  Commission  for  the  First  Dis- 
trict of  Neto  York,  to  determine  the  advisability 
of  shutting  down  isolated  plants  and  substituting 
central-station   service,   in   order   to   save   coal. 

THE  Public  Service  Commission  is  holding  a 
series  of  hearings  which  are  technically  directed 
to  the  question  of  the  rates  for  breakdown  and 
auxiliary  electric  service  and  which  are  largely  an 
investigation  of  the  possibility  of  establishing  an  off- 
peak  rate  for  electricity  which  shall  induce  owners 
and  operators  of  private  power  plants  to  shut  dowTi 
such  plants  when  the  use  of  fuel  in  them  is  greater 
than  it  would  be  if  the  electricity  were  derived  from 
the  New  York  Edison  Co.  or  some  other  public  utility. 
The  history  of  the  case  is  as  follows :  In  November 
of  last  year,  when  the  threat  of  fuel  scarcity  became 
imminent,  I  wrote  the  Fuel  Administration  in  Washing- 
ton, suggesting  that  a  great  measure  of  fuel  conserva- 
tion would  be  obtained  if  cooperation  between  public 
utilities  and  the  owners  of  private  or  isolated  power 
plants  could  be  enforced.  This  letter,  which  clearly 
outlines  my  position,  is  as  follows: 

366  5th  Ave.,  New  York  City,  Nov.  9,  1917. 
United  States  Fuel  Administration, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Dear  Sirs:  I  have  written  you  before,  suggesting  that  a 
very  large  amount  of  fuel  could  be  saved  by  enforcing 
cooperation  between  the  public  utilities  and  the  owners  of 
private,  or  isolated,  power  plants.  I  have  not  heard  from 
you  further  in  the  matter,  and  I  assume  that  the  immense 
amount  of  work  you  have  had  to  do  prevented  a  careful 
consideration  of  the  matter,  because  there  can  be  no  pos- 
sible dispute  as  to  the  facts.  What  I  want  to  see  accom- 
plished is  the  supply  by  the  public  utility  of  all  electricity 
which  it  can  most  efficiently  supply,  and  the  supply  by  the 
private  power  plant  of  all  the  electricity  it  can  most  ef- 
ficiently supply. 

That  there  are  distinct  fields  for  each  type  of  plant  is 
evident  on  the  slightest  consideration  of  the  subject.  A 
large  building  needs  coal  to  heat  it.  The  heating  is  accom- 
plished by  steam  at  low  pressure.  By  adding  3  or  4  per 
cent,  to  the  amount  of  heat  in  the  steam,  the  steam  can  first 
be  made  to  drive  engines  and  dynamos  making  electricity 
and  afterward  be  used  for  the  heating.  In  this  way  all  the 
energy  delivered  by  the  coal  to  the  steam  is  utilized,  where- 
as in  the  public-utility  plant  of  the  best  type  not  over  1.5 
per  cent,  is  utilized.  On  the  other  hand,  during  certain 
periods  of  the  year  and  certain  periods  of  the  day  and  night 
the  more  efficient  plants  of  the  public-utility  company 
should  be  utilized  and  the  engines  of  the  private  plant 
should  be  shut  down,  as  such  engines  are,  of  course,  in- 
efficient except  when  their  exhaust  steam  can  be  utilized. 

I  have  estimated  that  100,000  tons  of  coal  a  year  could  be 
saved  in  New  York  City  alone  by  carrying  out  this  cooper- 
ation to  a  reasonable  extent.  A  practical  example  will 
show  that  this  idea  is  not  a  theoretical  one.  The  Columbia 
Trust  Co.  owns  a  building  at  60  Broadway,  about  20  stories 
high,  60  x  150-ft.  plot.  Electricity  was  purchased  one  year 
in  the  winter  and  the  next  year  it  was  generated  in  the 
building.  The  same  kind  of  coal  was  used  under  the  same 
conditions  of  firing.  Less  coal  was  used  during  the  months 
of  December,  January,  February  and  March  in  the  year 
when  the  electricity  was  being  generated  than  was  used  in 
the  same  period  when  electricity  was  being  purchased.    Ap- 


proximately l.'iO.OOO  kw.-hr.  of  electricity  was  generated 
during  the  period,  and  this  would  have  required  of  the  Edi- 
son company,  allowing  for  wastes  and  distribution,  over  200 
tons  of  coal,  so  that  by  this  change  in  one  building  a  saving 
to  the  community  of  200  tons  of  coal  was  effected. 

This  same  condition  has  been  shown  to  exist  in  a  number 
of  other  instances  where  a  number  of  tests  have  been  made 
with  and  without  electric  generating  plants.  For  example, 
we  made  a  test  for  the  Mutual  Insurance  Co.,  Richmond, 
Va. — 24  hours  with  their  own  plant  and  24  hours  with  pur- 
chased electricity,  running  their  own  steam  plant,  during 
the  winter  season — and  the  results  were  the  same  as  I  have 
mentioned  at  the  Columbia  Trust  Co.;  that  is,  less  coal  was 
used  when  the  plant  was  running  than  when  the  plant  was 
not  running.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  the  engines  used  in  private  plants  are  far  less  efficient 
than  the  turbines  of  the  big  central  stations,  so  that  in 
the  summer  months  the  use  of  coal  by  the  private  power 
plant  for  a  given  quantity  of  electric  current  must  be  more 
than  in  the  central  station,  so  that  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  community  it  would  pay  during  the  summer  months 
to  have  the  electricity  generated  at  the  central-station 
plant.  This  cooperation  could  be  easily  obtained  by  a  sys- 
tem of  rates  for  electric  current  which  would  make  it  eco- 
nomical for  a  private-plant  owner  to  use  electric  current 
during  the  summer  and  other  light-load  periods.  The  ad- 
vantage to  the  public  utility  must  be  obvious,  as  an  add'  - 
tional  load  would  be  obtained  which  would  involve  practi- 
cally, no  additional  investment. 

This  letter  received  a  prompt  reply  from  the  United 
States  Fuel  Administration,  referring  it  to  0.  P.  Hood, 
chief  mechanical  engineer  of  the  Department  of  the 
Interior,  who  was  working  for  the  Fuel  Administratior 
Mr.  Hood  requested  a  more  detailed  statement  of  m}' 
suggestion,  which  I  sent  him  within  a  few  days.  This 
was  acknowledged  on  Dec.  6,  stating  that  the  matter 
had  been  referred  to  another  and  that  the  desirability 
of  cooperation  was  not  questioned,  but  that  the  diffi- 
culty appeared  to  be  that  of  getting  a  definite  knowledge 
of  conditions. 

In  another  letter  of  Dec.  26,  Mr.  Hood  said  that 
it  seemed  to  be  better  to  bring  the  matter  to  the 
attention  of  the  local  fuel  administrators,  and  this  was 
done  by  me  in  a  letter  of  .Jan.  2,  to  Mr.  Wiggin  and 
Mr.  Schley,  state  and  county  administrators,  to  whom 
I  submitted  a  brief  plan,  as  follows: 

Outline  of  Plan  of  Cooperation 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  tons  of  fuel  could  be  saved 
if  through  cooperation  between  the  public-utility  plant 
and  the  private  power  plant  each  of  these  could  be 
operated  to  its  utmost  efficiency.  While  this  cannot 
be  entirely  realized,  there  is  a  very  simple  plan  by 
which  it  can  be  realized  in  large  measure. 

First,  private  plants  should  be  shut  down  during  the 
summer  months  and  during  the  balance  of  the  year 
with  the  exception  of  the  very  cold  winter  weathei 
during  the  so-called  "otf-peak"  period,  which  in  the 
vicinity  of  New  York  is  from  10  p.m.  to  6  a.m.  That 
is,  I  would  advocate  the  shutting  down  of  private  plants 
except  those  which  are  utilizing  their  exhaust  steam 
for  manufacturing  purposes  during  the  nonheating 
season — May,  June,  July,  August,  September  and 
October — and  during  the  other  months,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  December,  January,  February  and  March, 
from   10  p.m.  to   6   a.m.,  with  the  possible  exception 


444 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


of  hotel  plants,  as  in  these  plants  exhaust  steam  is 
largely  used  for  heating  water  and  for  drying  purposes; 
hence,  high  efficiency  is  obtained. 

These  plants  may  be  shut  down  without  hardship  to 
the  owners  provided  a  rate  is  made  by  the  public- 
utility  company  which  would  not  exceed  2c.  per  kw.-hr. 
for  moderate  consumers — that  is,  consumers  up  to 
1,000,000  kw.-hr.  per  year— and  possibly  lie.  per  kw.- 
hr.  to  consumers  of  larger  quantities. 

The  public-utility  company  can  easily  afford  to  make 
such  a  rate  because  the  current  it  would  supply  during 
these  periods  would  be  off-peak  current,  which  could 
be  furnished  without  any  increase  in  investment  in 
plant  or  in  underground  mains  or  in  real  estate;  hence, 
the  only  increases  to  which  the  public  utility  would 
be  subject  would  be  increases  in  operating  expenses 
and  the  small  cost  of  connections  from  the  under- 
ground mains  to  the  buildings.  In  most  cases  it  will 
be  found  that  connections  are  already  in,  so  that  in 
reality  the  only  increase  to  the  public  utility  would  be 
the  increase  in  operating  expense.  This  will  be  found 
to  be  less  than  one  cent  per  kilowatt-hour. 

Second,  private  power  plants  should  be  encouraged 
to  develop  their  market  for  steam  and  electricity  in 
their  immediate  neighborhood  during  the  heating  season 
up  to  the  extent  of  their  present  capacity,  as  in  this 
way  the  most  perfect  utilization  of  fuel  and  labor 
can  be  obtained. 

Reasons  for  the  Suggested  Changes 

The  reason  why  these  changes  should  be  made  is 
that  in  the  winter  months  when  the  private  power 
plant  is  operating,  supplying  electricity  and  steam  for 
heating,  almost  perfect  utilization  of  the  heat  con- 
tained in  the  steam  is  obtained,  as  the  steam  is  first 
used  at  high  pressure  to  generate  power  and  electricity, 
and  then  afterward  as  exhaust  steam  is  used  for  heat- 
ing purposes.  During  this  same  period  the  public 
utility  is  generating  steam  at  high  pressure  and  is 
wasting  a  large  part  of  the  latent  heat  in  the  exhaust 
steam  because  it  has  no  place  to  use  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  during  the  summer  months  in 
such  plants  as  cannot  use  their  exhaust  steam  for 
drying  or  manufacturing  purposes  or  for  heating 
water,  the  private  plant  wastes  95  per  cent,  of  the 
heat  contained  in  the  steam,  whereas  the  central  plant 
on  account  of  its  high  efficiency  equipment  and  con- 
densers wastes  only  85  per  cent. 

In  so  far  as  the  off-peak  load  is  concerned,  the  public 
utility  would  benefit  because  it  would  obtain  a  load 
which  would  bring  its  average  load  up  to  a  more  effi- 
cient point;  that  is,  the  private-plant  load  would  help 
fill  in  the  valleys  of  the  public-utility  load,  or  as  it 
is  usually  expressed,  the  load  factor  would  be  bettered. 

Shutting  down  private  plants  during  the  off-peak 
period  would  shut  them  down  when  they  are  least 
efficient,  in  the  use  of  both  fuel  and  labor.  I  have 
knov/n  cases  where  the  coal  per  kilowatt-hour  ran  to 
30  lb.  during  these  light-load  periods,  and  20  lb.  is 
quite  common.  It  results,  therefore,  that  if  a  plan 
such  as  that  just  outlined  should  be  adopted,  instead 
of  obtaining  from  200  to  250  kw.-hr.  per  ton  of  coal 
burned,  there  would  be  obtained  from  700  to  800 
kilowatt-hours. 

The  danger  of  making  suggestions  to  bankers  and 


others  with  but  little  knowledge  of  engineering  matters 
was  demonstrated  strikingly  by  the  circular  sent  out 
by  Albert  H.  Wiggin,  state  fuel  administrator,  on 
Jan.  14,  1918,  urging  owners  of  private  power  plants 
having  bre&kdown-service  connections  to  utilize  to  the 
fullest  extent  their  connection  with  the  Edison  com- 
pany, and  on  Jan.  15  I  wrote  to  Mr.  Wiggin  pointing 
out  the  error  of  his  sugge.stion  and  that  instead  of  fuel 
being  conserved  by  obtaining  electricity  from  a  central 
source  in  winter  months  fuel  would  be  wasted. 

Many  of  these  letters  were  sent  to  the  Public  Service 
Commission  of  the  First  District  with  the  request  that 
they  start  a  series  of  hearings  looking  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  off-peak  and  summer  rate  for  current 
and  urging  the  necessity  of  quick  action  so  that  an 
equitable  rate  might  be  made  and  the  new  methods 
go  into  effect  at  the  close  of  the  heating  season. 

These  hearings  started  on  Feb.  25,  and  so  far  the 
commission  has  simply  asked  the  public-utility  officials 
to  state  their  side  of  the  case,  which  they  have  don'j 
at  great  length  with  practically  no  cross-examination. 

Mr.  Wiggin's  letter  and  other  indications  apprised 
me  of  the  fact  that  influence  was  apparently  beint; 
brought  to  bear  to  take  advantage  of  the  country's 
necessity  in  an  attempt  to  shut  down  private  power 
plants  generally,  winter  and  summer,  regardless  of  the 
fact  that  during  the  winter  months  and  during  such 
other  periods  of  the  year  when  exhaust  steam  can  be 
fully  utilized  the  private  power  plant  is  the  most  efficient 
means  of  production. 

A  circular  letter  was  therefore  addressed  by  me  to 
a  great  number  of  owTiers  of  private  power  plants, 
calling  attention  to  this  condition,  and  a  number  have 
agreed  to  join  with  me  in  properly  presenting  tho 
facts  as  we  see  them  and  as  I  have  outlined  them 
already  to  the  Fuel  Administration. 

Benefits  To  Be  Derived  by  Use  of  Plan 

My  position  in  the  matter  is  that  if  the  plan  as  out- 
lined is  carried  out,  the  public  utility  will  benefit  by 
obtaining  a  large  additional  amount  of  profitable  busi- 
ness at  a  minimum  of  cost.  The  country  will  benefit 
because  the  minimum  amount  of  coal  will  be  used  for 
the  generation  of  electricity.  The  private-plant  owner 
will  benefit  because  he  will  obtain  the  electricity  used 
ty  him  during  summer  and  off-peak  periods  at  not 
more  than  his  present  cost  and  he  will  be  relieved  of 
the  necessity  of  operating  the  private  plant. 

I  estimate  that  the  saving  in  fuel  in  New  York  City 
alone  if  the  plan  outlined  was  carried  out  in  full  would 
be  in  excess  of  200,000  tons  per  year,  and  if  the  plan 
was  extended  throughout  the  country  the  conservation 
of  fuel  would  mount  up  certainly  over  a  million  tons 
per  year.  In  addition  to  this  a  certain  amount  of  labor 
would  be  released  for  other  service,  and  this  under 
the  present  conditions  is  equally  important. 

The  facts  as  I  have  presented  them  seem  to  be  in- 
disputable. The  plan  presented  is  practical,  and  it  is 
merely  an  attempt  to  apply  a  correct  economic  solution 
to  the  problem  of  the  supply  of  light,  heat  and  power. 
It  is  presented  neither  on  behalf  of  the  owner  of  the 
private  power  plant  nor  on  behalf  of  the  public-utility 
company,  and  for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  an  ex  parte 
proposal  it  should  be  considered  on  its  merits 


March  26,  1918 


POWER 


445 


ejiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiuuiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


Editorials 


3IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIinilllllllllllllllMIIIIMIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItllllllllll»IIIIIIIIIIMIIIIiniUIIIIIIII»IIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII|i|IIU 


Investing  in   Liberty 

JUST  what  is  this  thing  called  liberty  in  which  and 
for  which  we  are  asked  to  invest  billions?  For  the 
individual  liberty  is  simply  the  ability  to  react  to  im- 
pulse, to  the  impulse  of  hunger  or  thirst,  of  self-defense 
or  self-preservation,  as  well  as  to  those  higher  impulses 
of  self-determinatior  with  which  we  usually  associate 
the  word.  With  a  complete  lack  of  liberty  life  would 
cease.  It  is  as  necessary  to  life  as  air  and  light  and 
water  and  food — in  fact,  more  necessary,  since  in  the 
last  analysis  it  means  access  to  these  things.  And  up 
to  a  certain  point,  as  in  the  case  of  all  these  things, 
the  less  liberty  the  less  vitality.  One  may  exist  on  a 
little  liberty,  as  on  a  little  air  or  a  little  food,  but  one 
cannot  support  normal  life  on  it  unless  it  is  abundant. 

But  there  is  such  a  thing,  also,  as  too  much  liberty, 
as  of  all  the  other  necessities  of  life.  And  furthermore, 
it  is  not  a  thing  whose  supply  is  inexhaustible.  Like 
air  or  light  or  water,  it  can  be  so  restricted  by  monopoly 
that  untold  suffering  and  death  result  to  those  whose 
access  to  it  is  cut  off.  Look  at  Belgium  or  Germany 
itself. 

The  Prussian  Junker  would  hardly  consider  as  liberty 
the  restrictions  which  we  in  this  country  impose  upon 
our  conduct.  He  would  miss  here  that  superabundant 
liberty  to  which  he  has  become  accustomed  in  the  land 
of  the  Kaiser — to  saber  civilians  who  make  faces  at 
him,  to  elbow  women  off  the  sidewalk,  to  radiate  ar- 
rogance with  impunity.  He  would  scoff  at  our  sensitive- 
ness to  the  rights  and  feelings  of  our  neighbors,  at 
our  habit  of  chivalry  and  of  kindness  and  compassion 
toward  those  weaker  or  more  helpless  than  ourselves. 
This  thing  which  we  call  liberty  in  America,  this  every- 
day conduct  hedged  about  by  law  and  conscience  and 
the  dictates  of  humanity,  to  the  German  Junker  seems 
a  mockery  of  the  word.  But  by  liberty  he  means  a 
monopoly  of  liberty,  and  we,  its  proper  distribution. 

It  is  to  secure  and  preserve  for  every  inhabitant 
of  the  United  States  his  share  of  liberty,  that  greatest 
of  life's  necessities,  that  we  have  declared  war  against 
the  Hun  Monopolist,  that  we  are  sending  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  our  boys  to  the  firing  line  in  France,  that 
we  have  bought  billions  in  Liberty  Bonds,  and  are  now 
to  begin  the  third  loan  campaign  on  April  6,  to  multiply 
that  great  investment.  It  is  worth  every  cent  of  the 
mighty  effort  and  much  more.  Would  you  fight  for 
a  water  hole  after  a  day's  ride  across  the  desert?  And 
if  you  could  not  fight,  would  you  give  your  all  for 
access  to  that  elixir  of  life  without  which  you  must 
go  mad  or  die?  Then  fight  for  liberty;  it  is  equally 
precious.  And  if  you  can't  fight,  give — give  your  all, 
or,  rather,  in  this  case,  lend  it  at  a  good  rate  of  interest. 
For,  happily,  your  forefathers  have  so  fortified  your 
position  in  this  world  that  you  are  bound  to  receive 
your  contribution  back  with  interest. 

It  is  impossible  to  pay  too  much  for,  to  invest  too 
much  in,  liberty.     The  need  is  great  that  every  man. 


woman  and  child  in  this  country  put  everything  he  is 
and  has  into  this  vital  struggle,  once  for  all  to  smash 
the  would-be  monopolist  and  all  his  breed.  We  have 
floated  two  mighty  loans  already,  now  comes  the  third. 
As  our  artist  has  depicted  in  the  colored  supplement 
to  this  issue,  the  Kaiser  is  tottering  on  his  pedestal. 
Therefore,  again  with  Uncle  Sam,  one,  two,  THREE, 
NOW,  ALL  TOGETHER! 

Inefficiency  in  Refrigerating  Plants 

IN  last  week's  issue  of  Power  an  interesting  paper 
on  the  economy  of  refrigerating  plants  was  presented 
Apparently,  conditions  in  this  field  are  far  from  ideal, 
as  the  author  ventures  the  opinion  that  "of  all  power 
plants  the  refrigerating  plant  is  most  wasteful."  By 
and  large  this  statement  is  probably  true,  and  as  to  the 
reasons,  there  are  several  having  an  important  bearing. 
Although  the  refrigerating  cycle  is  not  particularly  diffi- 
cult to  understand,  as  it  is  practically  the  reverse  of  the 
condensing  steam  plant,  there  are  many  factors  enter- 
ing into  the  ultimate  economy.  This  multiplicity  of 
factors,  each  a  source  of  possible  waste,  and  the  proper 
correlation  of  the  various  elements  of  the  refrigerating 
and  steam  plants,  make  economical  results  more  difficult 
to  obtain.  Further  reasons  are  a  decided  scarcity  of 
good  refrigerating  engineers  and  general  inability  on 
the  part  of  the  management  to  realize  the  possibilities  of 
the  plant. 

As  expressed  by  the  author  of  the  paper,  there  is  a 
wonderful  future  in  the  refrigerating  field,  but  before 
any  great  headway  can  be  made,  men  must  be  developed, 
who  can  safely  and  economically  operate  the  plants. 
The  management  must  be  educated  as  to  what  results 
might  reasonably  be  expected  and  be  made  to  realize  the 
importance  of  proper  selection,  promotion,  competition, 
training  and  salary  based  upon  results.  This  in  itself  is 
a  big  task,  worthy  of  the  efforts  of  the  various  re- 
frigerating and  ice-making  associations. 

With  plant  examination  and  supervision  where  it  is 
needed  by  well-posted  refrigerating  engineers,  progress 
may  be  expected.  This,  of  course,  entails  constant  touch 
with  the  operating  force  by  means  of  complete  records 
and  the  checking  of  results  from  day  to  day.  Ineffi- 
ciencies will  immediately  show  and  may  be  corrected. 
From  a  study  of  existing  conditions  and  the  operating 
data,  characteristic  curves  for  each  plant  may  be  pre- 
pared. These  curves  should  cover  all  factors  relating  to 
economy  and  should  be  used  as  a  guide  and  basis  of  com- 
parison for  future  operation. 

Briefly,  the  engineer  is  the  big  factor  in  the  problem. 
He  may  be  educated  as  suggested  in  the  previous  para- 
graph, but  until  the  management  realizes  the  need  of 
competent  men  and  the  necessity  of  salaries  commensu- 
rate with  their  engineering  knowledge,  it  is  quite  prob- 
able that  the  refrigerating  plant  will  continue  as  a 
model  of  inefiiciency. 


446 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


Bonus  for  Power-Plant  Employees 

ON  OTHER  pages  of  this  issue  appears  an  article  on 
"Bonuses  for  Power-Plant  Employees,"  by  Warren 
B.  Lewis,  a  consulting  engineer  well  known  in  New 
England  and  particularly  familiar  with  mill  power- 
plant  practice  in  that  section  of  the  country  noted  for  its 
Industrial  activity.  The  impressive  feature  of  the  arti- 
cle is  its  scope;  the  author  em'braces  all  power-plant 
employees  as  those  who  should  share  in  the  bonus. 
This,  while  unquestionably  most  equitable,  is  uncom- 
mon. Usually,  bonuses  are  paid  only  to  boiler-room 
crews  on  the  assumption  that  they  have  greatest  in- 
fluence over  the  source  of  heaviest  loss.  Where  a  plant 
is  large,  and  especially  if  it  is  one  supplying  heat  and 
power,  as  to  a  bleachery  or  other  large  consumer  of 
steam  for  industrial  purposes,  it  certainly  is  best  for  the 
management  to  provide  a  bonus  system  wherein  all 
power-plant  employees  will  share  in  the  savings  effected. 

Mr.  Lewis  says  that  because  the  employee  (and  he 
means  everyone  in  the  plant  from  the  chief  engineer 
down)  shares  in  the  bonus  "does  not  mean  that  he  is  to 
originate  the  methods  [of  saving]  to  be  employed." 
When  considering  the  application  of  a  bonus  system  to 
power  plants,  managers  are  too  likely  to  predicate  con- 
sideration on  the  premise  that  the  employee  should  orig- 
inate the  means  of  saving.  That  is  too  often  taken 
for  granted.  As  saving,  to  the  management  as  well  as 
to  the  employees,  is  the  prime  object  of  paying  a  bonus, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  method  that  gives  the  greatest  re- 
turn is  worth  while  whether  it  comes  through  the  man- 
agement's own  staff  or  after  survey  of  the  plant  by  a 
consulting  engineer. 

It  is  of  interest  that  the  system  of  paying  bonuses, 
as  told  of  by  Mr.  Lewis,  presupposes  that  the  manage- 
ment "include  in  the  power  plant  all  the  equipment 
which  in  any  way  affects  the  use  of  fuel,"  and  that 
when  this  is  done  "it  becomes  a  comparatively  simple 
matter  to  place  upon  the  chief  engineer  the  responsi- 
bility for  the  efficiency  of  the  entire  power-making  and 
power-usmg  equipment,  and  for  its  cost  per  unit  of  pro- 
duction." Needless  to  say,  this  assumes  that  the  chief 
engineer  be  a  high-grade  man,  one  who  is  capable  of 
meeting  and  discussing  problems  with  department 
heads,  who  has  a  good  working  knowledge  of  relative 
values,  of  cost  accounting  and  apportionment  of  charges 
— these  along  with  a  most  thorough  knowledge  and 
understanding  of  his  plant  and  of  the  availability  of 
equipment,  materials  and  supplies  which  the  market 
affords.  Even  though  the  company  retains  a  consulting 
engineer,  these  qualities  in  the  chief  engineer  in  charge 
are  highly  desirable. 

Mr.  Lewis  is  aware  that  many  will  criticize  his  ac- 
counting of  power-plant  performance  on  the  unit  of 
product  of  the  works  or  mill  turned  out  per  unit  of 
power-plant  cost.  But  he  meets  the  probable  criticism 
very  well,  we  think. 

When  Contracts  Go  Begging 

During  these  days  when  everybody  is  talking  in  mil- 
lions and  even  billions  of  dollars,  the  fellow  with  a  few 
paltry  thousands  of  dollars  does  not  cut  much  of  a 
financial  figure,  if  the  Mining  Journal,  of  Marquette, 
Mich.,  is  correct  in  the  publication  of  an  article  rela- 


tive to  the  placing  of  an  order  amounting  to  forty-five 
thousand  dollars  for  new  equipment.  It  reads  as  fol- 
lows: 

The  superintendent  of  the  light  and  power  department 
and  the  department's  engineer  have  gone  a-journeying  to 
see  if  they  can  find  anyone  who  will  condescend  to  con- 
sider the  small  matter  of  an  order  for  forty-five  thousand 
dollars  of  electrical  and  hydraulic  machinery.  They 
have  gone  because  their  tentative  inquiries  among  manu- 
facturers brought,  in  most  instances,  no  response  at  all, 
and  in  others  only  a  languid  interest.  In  normal  times  the 
announcement  that  Marquette  was  seeking  to  place  an  order 
for  forty-fiv  thousand  dollars  of  machinery  would  have 
meant  an  eager  charge  on  the  city  officials,  by  most  reso- 
lute agents,  and  another  besieging  of  the  city  hall  during 
the  period  of  consideration  of  the  proffers,  such  as  has 
frequently  been  seen  in  the  past.  But  these  are  not  normal 
times;  they  are  war  times.  An  individual,  or  city,  that 
ventures  to  raise  a  voice  about  a  mere  matter  of  forty-five 
thousand  dollars  of  machinery  finds  that  he  raises  it  in 
vain.  The  magic  word  "million,"  at  least,  has  to  be  used 
to  secure  a  hearing. 

The  foregoing  is  doubtless  true  at  present,  but  there 

is  coming  a  time  when  a  forty-five  thousand  dollar  con:- 

tract  for  power-plant  apparatus  will  look  as  good  as  a 

full  coal  bin  did  this  winter. 


The  AHen  Employee  and  the  Labor 
Turnover 

ONE  of  the  most  perplexing  problems  in  industrial 
plants  at  the  present  time  is  that  of  the  many 
millions  of  aliens  now  employed.  This  is  a  matter  call- 
ing for  careful  and  delicate  handling,  and  it  would  be 
helpful  to  large  employers  generally  to  know  what 
others  are  doing  to  solve  this  problem.  The  columns  of 
Power  are  open  to  a  discussion  of  this  subject. 

The  excessive  cost  of  labor  turnover  resulting  from 
unsettled  war  conditions  is  another  matter  that  is 
causing  the  employer  considerable  anxiety.  Many  plants 
find  that  costs  run  from  ten  to  one  hundred  dollars  for 
each  employee  broken  in  and  that  the  annual  total  is 
enormous.  What  methods  have  you  adopted  to  reduce 
this  cost  and  what  results  are  you  getting?  Give  others 
the  benefit  of  your  experience  through  the  columns  of 
this  paper. 


The  McGraw-Hill  Company,  Inc.,  publishes  ten  papers. 
Each  of  these  papers  has  its  own  half  dozen,  more  or  less, 
distinctly  separate  departments,  such  as  advertising, 
editorial,  subscription,  circulation,  makeup,  with  one 
centralized  mail  department  for  all.  It  would  con- 
siderably facilitate  matters  for  those  charged  with  ex- 
peditiously distributing  to  the  proper  persons  or 
departments  the  hundreds  of  letters  that  come  in  daily, 
if  our  correspondents  would  remember  to  mention,  when 
they  know  it,  the  name  of  the  papv "  for  which  their 
communications  are  intended,  as  well  as  the  department 
connected  with  it.  Thus,  for  instance,  matter  addressed 
to  Editor  of  Power,  Advertising  Manager,  Subscription 
Department,  etc.,  will  be  dispatched  more  quickly  and 
have  more  prompt  attention  than  that  addressed  merely 
to  the  McGraw-Hill  Co.,  which  has  to  be  read  through, 
very  often  passed  through  many  departments  and  hands, 
previous  correspondence,  if  any,  looked  up,  and  a  great 
deal  of  valuable  time  and  energy  wasted  that  might 
otherwise  be  spared,  in  an  effort  to  get  it  to  the  proper 
person  to  be  efliciently  and  satisfactorily  taken  care  of. 


March  26,  1918  POWER  447 

iiiiiiiuuiiiililliiiiiiiiuiiuiliiiiiliiiilliuiliiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiii mill MiiiiiiiiimiuiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiuuiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiu^ 


Correspondence 


niiiiMiiiiiiiMiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiii mill immiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimi miimiimiii miimimiiiii uiiiiiiiiiiimiimiiiiiiiiimiii miim imiiiiiiiiiimimiiiimiiii iiimniiiiiiS 


BELLOWS  FOR  VACUUM 


Removing   Drill   Chips   by   Vacuum 

The  following  is  a  useful  kink  when  drilling  holes, 
reseating  valves  or  similar  work  where  it  is  difficult  to 
remove  the  chips.    On  the  nozzle  of  an  ordinary  molder's 

hand   bellows   solder 
"^'"'^  a  reducer  of  the  size 

and  shape  desired 
and  close  up  the 
regular  air-inlet 
valves  in  the  bel- 
lows. To  operate, 
close  the  bellows, 
place  the  nozzle  near 
the  chips  to  be  got 
rid  of  and  open  the 
bellows  quickly.  The  rush  of  air  will  carry  the  chips 
into  the  bellows,  after  which  they  can  be  easily  blown 
out  again.  W.  H.  BENNETT. 

Mount    Vernon,    Wash. 


A  Wooden  Tank  Repaired 

It  does  not  seem  that  the  wooden  tank  repaired  as 
described  on  page  164  in  the  issue  of  Jan.  29,  1918, 
could  be  considered  safe  to  have  over  one's  head. 
Atmospheric  moisture  and  minute  seepage  will  collect 
between  the  cement  coating  and  the  wood,  and  it  will 
not  be  long  before  the  planks,  weakened  by  decay,  will 
give  way  under  the  load. 

"Safety  first"  would  surely  require  a  new  tank. 

Lynn,  Mass.  P.  P.   FenaUX. 

[The  repair  job  referred  to,  when  finished,  would 
appear  to  be  a  concrete  tank  reinforced  by  the  original 
planking  banded  with  iron  hoops.  No  doubt  a  time 
will  come  when  the  wood  will  have  become  decayed  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  afford  no  support  or  backing  be- 
tween the  bands  and  the  concrete,  but  this  does  not 
seem  to  be  its  present  condition. — Editor.] 


Care   of   Electrical    Equipment   in 
Cold  Weather 

A  few  words  may  be  in  order  concerning  the  care 
of  electrical  apparatus,  particularly  motors  and  gen- 
erators which  are  exposed  during  cold  weather. 

It  is  very  easy  for  machines  to  get  "wet"  during 
cold  weather,  even  though  not  exposed  directly  to  rain 
or  snow.  Condensation  is  at  the  root  of  the  trouble. 
If  a  cold  machine  is  brought  into  a  warm  room,  the 
atmospheric  moisture  condenses  on  the  machine's  cold 
surfaces,  just  as  it  does  upon  one's  spectacles  under 
similar  conditions.  It  is  possible  for  a  great  deal  of 
moisture  to  be  formed  and  absorbed  by  an  electrical 
machine  in  this  way.  It  may  also  happen  that  con- 
densation will  occur  while  a  machine  remains  out  of 
doors  covered  and  unmolested,  a  sudden  change  from 


low  to  higher  temperature  being  responsible.  This  is 
particularly  liable  to  occur  with  large  machines,  the  in- 
ternal temperatures  of  which  change  but  slowly. 

The  preventive  of  trouble  lies  in  removing  the  cause. 
Store  machines  in  a  warm  place  if  possible  and  do  not 
move  them  from  a  cold  into  a  warm  place  suddenly, 
but  bring  about  the  change  gradually.  If  a  machine 
is  stored  outside,  protect  it  well  and  provide  resistors 
or  other  means  to  keep  it  moderately  warm,  particularly 
whenever  a  change  from  cold  to  warm  weather  is 
expected. 

When  a  piece  of  electrical  equipment  has  absorbed 
moisture,  it  should  be  dried  out  before  use.  The  methods 
for  doing  this  are  quite  familiar  (see  Power,  p.  46,  Jan. 
8,  1918).  The  drying  should  be  continued  until  in- 
sulation resistance,  as  measured  by  a  megger  or  other 
means,  indicates  that  the  machine  is  in  good  condition 
again  and  safe  for  use.  Gordon  Fox. 

Chicago,  111. 

Holding   Up   the   Curtain   Wall 
of  a  Stoker 

The  illustration  shows  my  way  of  holding  the  curtain 
wall  of  a  Green  chain  stoker  in  place,  independently  of 
the  arch.  The  old  way  was  to  use  the  channels  marked 
A  and  B  to  hold  the  T-bars  (suspended  under  them)  on 
which  the  arch  brick  are  hung  and  upon  which  the 
curtain  wall  is  built.     But  when  the  arch  burns  out, 


CHANGE   IN    SUPPORT   FOR   ARCH   AND  CURTAIN  WALL 

down  comes  the  curtain  wall  also.  By  adding  another 
channel,  marked  C  in  the  illustration,  and  cutting  the 
T-bars  and  adding  another  clip,  then  bolting  a  6-in. 
angle  iron  on  the  back  of  B  so  as  to  support  the  curtain 
wall  independently  of  the  regular  support,  the  curtain 
wall  will  always  be  held  in  place  and  the  arch  can  be 
replaced  without  disturbing  it.  J.  J.  Neville. 

Chicago,  111. 


448 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


Cutter    for    Large-Sized   Wire 

Cutting  iron  wire  or  large  copper  conductors  is  im- 
practical with  shears  and  impossible  with  ordinary  cut- 
ting pliers.  A  powerful  and  very  compact  cutter,  which 
anyone  can  make  in  his  spare  time,   is  shown   in  the 


PART.S   AND   ASSEMBLY   OP   WIRE   CUTTER 


figure.  This  tool  is  made  of  y't;"^'^-  steel,  hardened  on  the 
cutting  edges,  and  will  cut  copper  wire  up  to  j'^  in.  diam- 
eter, or  even  larger  if  the  handles  are  made  longer  than 
those  shown.  The  spring  A  holds  the  cutter  C  against 
the  lever  handle  D,  while  the  spring  B  holds  the  handles 
apart.  M.  P.  Bertrande. 

Ozone  Park,  N.  Y. 


Combustion    in    Boiler    Breechings 

As  considerable  interest  seems  to  be  centered  on  the 
subject  of  combustion  in  the  fuel  bed  of  hand-fire  fur- 
naces and  in  the  gas-producer  action  of  fuel  beds,  and 
with  explosions  in  boiler  furnaces,  I  am  telling  the  fol- 
lowing points  from  experience  in  our  boiler  room. 

When  the  writer  took  charge,  two  of  the  boilers  were 
fitted  with  ordinai-y  stationary  flat  herringbone  grates 
and  natural  draft  and  two  were  fitted  with  a  forced- 
draft  system  employing  hollow  grate  bars  through 
which  the  air  was  blown,  the  bars  having  narrow  slots 
on  the  upper  surface  through  which  the  air  reached  the 
fire.  The  breeching  over  the  latter  boilers  was  badly 
warped  and  showed  plain  signs  of  overheating. 

It  was  soon  found  that  when  heavy  loads  were  being 
carried,  a  gas  flame  was. present  in  the  breeching  after 
every  firing,  gradually  dying  out  as  the  fires  burned 
clear.  The  coal  used  was  of  high  volatile  content  and 
southern  Illinois  origin.  The  boilers  were  of  the  Heine 
type,  and  the  baffling  was  in  good  condition,  so  that 
there  was  no  question  of  the  fire  going  directly  through 
the  tubes  to  the  breeching.  The  firemen  reported  also 
that  the  furnaces  would  occasionally  "puff"  badly,  es- 
pecially if  a  door  were  opened  wide  a  short  time  after 
firing. 

The  breeching  not  infrequently  became  red-hot,  and 
because  of  the  warping  it  did  not  make  tight  connec- 


tions on  top  of  the  boilers.  It  soon  became  evident  that 
the  combustion  of  the  gas  was  supported  by  the  air 
dravra  in  at  these  openings.  It  was  also  found  that  the 
flame  did  not  occur  if  the  furnace  doors  were  left  open 
about  an  inch  for  a  minute  or  two  after  firing.  If  the 
flame  was  permitted  to  start  by  keeping  the  doors 
closed,  it  could  be  extinguished  at  once  by  slightly  open- 
ing them.  This  showed  that  the  trouble  was  caused 
by  insufficient  air  in  the  furnace.  As  long  as  we  had  the 
forced-draft  grates,  we  kept  the  doors  open  a  little 
for  a  minute  or  so  after  each  firing. 

The  air  forced  into  the  furnace  from  the  grates  at 
high  velocity  made  a  very  hot  fire  close  to  the  grate, 
but  it  was  not  sufficient  for  complete  combustion,  and 
the  fuel  bed  acted  like  a  shallow  gas  producer.  The 
flame  in  the  breeching  was  caused  by  the  burning  of  the 
producer  gas  so  generated,  enriched  by  the  gases  dis- 
tilled from  the  green  coal  just  after  firing.  ^ 

I  believe  that  this  condition  is  likely  to  occur  in  other 
hand-fired  forced-draft  plants  and  that  it  would  be  well 
for  operators  of  such  plants  to  be  on  the  lookout  for 
trouble  in  this  direction.  C.  H.  SoNNTAG. 

Cape  Girardeau,  Mo. 

Hot  Gas-Engine-Bearing  Remedy 

On  a  1200-kw.  gas  engine  direct-connected  to  a 
generator,  the  main  bearings  ran  hot  although  they 
were  water-cooled  by  means  of  a  series  of  brass  pipes 
shown  at  A  in  the  figure.  The  pipes  were  connected 
by  return  bends  and  embedded  in  the  babbitt  metal. 

We  tried  different  mixtures  of  babbitt  in  the  bearing 
and  various  pressures  on  the  cooling  water,  but  these 
did  not  remedy  the  trouble,  the  worst  part  of  which 
was  that  the  babbitt  wore  dovvn  quickly,  throwing  the 
generator's  armature  out  of  the  polar  center,  conse- 
quently changing  the  magnetic  pull  between  the  field 
poles  and  the  armature.  We  finally  made  a  series  of 
soft-bronze  grids,  or  strips  B,  and  poured  the  babbitt 
around  them  as  shown.  The  bearings,  where  necessary, 
were  scraped  to  a  good  fit.  Since  making  this  improve- 
ment,  no  trouble  has  been  experienced.     These  strips 


SECTION-    THKOUOH    GAS-ENGIXE    BE.\RIXG    SHOWING 
LOCATION    OF    BRONZE    STRIPS 

help  the  babbitt  to  stand  up  under  the  heavy  pressures, 
and  the  babbitt  particles  embedding  themselves  in  the 
bronze  faces  form  an  excellent  lubricant. 

I  would  like  to  hear  an  expression  of  opinion  from 
Po'iuer  readers  on  why  the  bronze  strips  are  so  effective 
in  remedying  the  trouble.  I  believe  that  mixed-metal 
bearings  have  proved  very  satisfactory  where  used. 

Chicago,  111.  C.  A.  Merton. 


March  2l),  lit  18 


POWER 


449 


Thawing   Frcrzen   Water   Pipes 
by   Electricity 

During  periods  of  extremely  cold  weather  the  frost 
penetrates  deeper  into  the  earth  than  usual  and 
frequently  fi'eezes  embedded  water  pipes  that  are 
ordinarily  considered  as  being  below  the  frost  line  or 
pipes  which  under  normal  cold-weather  conditions  would 
be  protected  by  means  of  wrappings,  conduit,  etc.  In 
and  around  the  plant  it  is  generally  easy  to  get  enough 
heat  to  thaw  a  frozen  pipe,  but  the  first  problem  is 
to  get  into  contact  with  the  pipes  in  order  to  concen- 
trate the  heat  so  as  to  make  it  effective. 

It  is  no  easy  job  to  dig  down  through  two  or  three 
feet  of  frozen  earth  or  tear  out  insulating  coverings 
to  get  at  piping;  in  fact,  by  far  the  greater  amount 
of  time  and  labor  is  employed  in  getting  at  the  pipes 
so  that  the  actual  thawing  may  be  done. 

For  such  cases  as  the  foregoing,  the  electrical  method 
of   thawing   saves    all   this    unnecessary    labor.      Many 


SOOAMPERES,,USEDATIS  VOLTS 

FOR  9 'MINUTES 


LAYOUT   OF    PIPING    AND    THAVV'ING    EQUIPMENT 

power-plant  engineers  are  aware  that  pipes  are  being 
successfully  thawed  by  electricity,  and  while  they  have 
knowledge  of  its  being  done  in  the  cities  by  lighting 
and  power  companies,  it  is  associated  in  their  minds 
with  special  apparatus  and  transformers  and  with  the 
belief  that  alternating  current  is  necessary. 

H  is  preferable  to  use  alternating  current  for  this 
work,  because  greater  amperage  can  be  obtained  from 
commercial  circuits  by  means  of  a  step-down  trans- 
former. The  use  of  the  transformer  in  the  electrical 
system  charging  the  pipe  line  also  insulates  the  high- 
voltage  circuit  from  the  low-voltage,  thereby  reducing 
the  danger  of  shock  and  grounds  with  gas  piping,  etc. 
However,  direct  current  can  well  be  used  because  it 
is  the  heating  effect  only  that  is  required. 

The  necessary  equipment  to  use  a  direct-current 
circuit  for  thawing  water  pipes  consists  of  a  water 
rheostat,  which  may  be  a  barrel  of  salt  water  with 
two  electrodes  made  of  pieces  of  iron  plate  or  other 
metal  and  a  length  of  stranded  cable  sufficiently  heavy 
to  conduct  the  current  used  without  excessive  loss. 
An  ammeter  is  also  desirable,  since  too  great  a  current 
may  damage  the  piping. 

Data  on  the  number  of  amperes  and  the  time  re- 
quired is  likely  to  be  misleading,  for  the  reason  that 
all  the  current  may  not  traverse  the  pipe  being  thawed 
as  there   is   liable   to  be   current   leakage   through   the 


damp  earth  to  other  piping.  For  instance,  in  a  par- 
ticular case  in  which  an  electroplating  generator  was 
used  to  supply  300  amperes  at  12  volts,  it  was  esti- 
mated that  50  amperes  was  bypassed,  therefore  only 
250  amperes  was  used  effectively.  The  apparatus  ufeed 
consisted  of  a  water  rheostat  made  from  a  half-barrel 
filled  with  salt  water,  two  9  x  12-in.  iron  plates  for 
electrodes,  about  75  ft.  of  No.  4  .stranded  wire  and 
an  ammeter.  The  entire  length  of  the  circuit  was 
about  230  ft.,  and  the  time  to  produce  running  water 
was  9  minutes. 

The  figure  explains  the  conditions  of  the  case  in 
question.  Pipes  AB  and  CB  were  tapped  directly  into 
the  12-in.  main.  The  vertical  distance  between  any 
two  pipes  was  small  and  all  were  from  jtwo  to  threp 
feet  below  the  surface.  At  C  the  -f-in.  riser  terminates 
in  a  sink  without  sewer  connections.  The  pipes  were 
not  disconnected  from  the  risers  for  the  reason  that 
all  were  short  runs.  A  terminated  at  a  humidifier  on 
the  second  floor  of  the  building  and  was  practically 
insulated  from  the  earth,  thereby  presenting  an  isolated 
condition.  This  was  also  true  of  riser  D,  which  ter- 
minated in  a  watering  trough.  The  water  rheostat  was 
short-circuited  when   the  current  was   in   use. 

Meter  readings  taken  from  A  to  D  and  D  to  B  showed 
that  there  was  considerable  current  leakage,  and  i^,  was 
estimated  that  about  50  amperes  was  diverted  by  way 
of  F,  G,  D  and  B.  However,  in  this  case  the  freezing 
was  between  points  .4  and  F,  therefore  the  leakage  was 
of  no  consequence.  The  following  figures  were  obtained 
in  connection  with  an  alternating-current  portable 
pipe-thawing  outfit  operated  by  a  central-station  com- 
pany. The  primary  of  the  transformer  was  connected 
to  their  distributing  line  and  the  110-volt  secondary 
to  the  pipes  to  be  thawed  on  the  premises. 


Size  of  Iron  Pipe, 
Inches 

Length 

Amperes 

=1 

r 

60 

70 

100 

250 

350 
300 
150 
480 

Volts 
110 

no 

55 
50 


Time    in 
Minutes 
20 
30 
12 
15 


The  writer  has  also  used  a  200-ampere-hour  12-volt 
storage  battery  for  thawing  water  pipes  with  satis- 
factory results.  Mathew  King. 

Passaic,  N.  J. 


It  is  quite  generally  known  that  a  heavy  current  of 
electricity  passing  through  a  frozen  water  pipe  will  heat 
it  sufficiently  to  melt  the  ice.  It  is  not,  however,  so 
generally  known  that  enough  current  can  be  taken  from 
an  ordinary  lamp  socket  to  accomplish  this  result 
provided  the  circuit  is  an  alternating-current  one  and 
a  small  transformer  is  available. 

The  writer  recently  thawed  out  a  ';-in.  service  pipe, 
which  was  frozen  solid  for  a  distance  of  about  25  ft., 
with  a  5-ampere  current  at  110  volts,  taken  from  a 
house  circuit.  The  current  was  passed  through  a  500- 
watt  transformer  having  a  1  to  12  ratio,  thus  delivering 
at  the  secondary  a  current  of  approximately  60  amperes. 
The  secondary  wires  were  connected  directly  to  the 
frozen  pipe  line  and  hydrant,  as  shown  in  the  figure 
so  as  to  include  the  frozen  section  between  the  con- 
nections. No  resistance  was  necessary  on  account  of 
the  low  voltage  of  the  current.  The  current  was  left 
on  for  nearly  two  hours  before  water  came,  but  the 
time  required  was  longer  than  it  otherwise  would  have 


450 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


been  on  account  of  it  being  necessary  to  make  one 
connection  to  a  hydrant  150  ft.  away  from  the  frozen 
pipe,  as  a  connection  with  the  frozen  section  could  not 
be  had  in  less  di.stance  without  digging  in  the  ground. 
This,  no  doubt,  caused  considerable  leak  of  current 
through  the  ground  that  otherwise  would  have  passed 
through  the  frozen  pipe. 

Any    small    transformer    having    a    capacity    of    500 
watts  or  more  will  do  the  trick.     An  ordinary  sign- 


maiMT 


TKAN.SKOKMEK      COXN'l'X'TEON       Ki  )it      THAWINi;       KIIOZKX 
SECTION    OF   WATER   PIPE 

lighting  transformer  of  500-  or  750-watt  capacity  is 
convenient,  and  is  also  useful  for  other  purposes,  and 
the  cost  is  only  slightly  more  than  an  electric-light 
company  charges  for  one  thawing  job. 

These  transformers  are  foolproof,  and  there  is  not 
the  slightest  danger  in  using  them.  They  can  be 
short-circuited  on  the  secondary  side  without  injury. 
They  take  current  from  a  lighting  socket  on  the  primary 
side  at  110  volts  at  about  5  to  8  amperes,  and  deliver 
current  on  the  secondary  terminals  at  10  volts  and 
from  50  to  75  amperes.  They  may  also  be  obtained  for 
use  on  a  220-volt  circuit.  A  10-ampere  fuse  should  bs 
used  in  the  circuit  on  the  primary  side,  and  if  this 
blows  the  current  must  be  kept  down  by  means  of  a 
water  rheostat  connected  in  series  in  the  circuit,  so  that 
a  new  fuse  won't  blow. 

The  water  rheostat  need  only  consist  of  an  iron  bucket 
to  which  one  wire  is  attached  and  the  other  wire  con- 
nected to  a  piece  of  metal  and  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  bucket  in  the  salt  water  with  which  the  latter  is 
filled.  The  current  can  be  increased  by  moving  the 
metal   electrodes   toward    the    side   of   the    bucket. 

Care  should  be  used  to  see  that  the  pipe  to  be  thawed 
is  disconnected  from  all  other  piping  in  the  building.  If 
this  is  not  done,  there  is  a  possibility  that  the  major 
portion  of  the  current  may  be  bypassed  around  the 
freeze  and  the  job  will  be  a  failure  or  require  con- 
siderable more  time  than  necessary. 

If  alternating  current  is  not  to  be  had,  one  or  more 
llO-amp.-hr.  storage  batteries  can  be  utilized  at  a 
high  discharge  rate,  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
use  a  rate  which  would  damage  the  batteries.     Slight 


freezes  can  be  taken  care  of  in  this  way,  but  several 
batteries  would  be  needed  if  the  heating  required  more 
than  half  an  hour.  William  R.  Bryans. 

New  York  City. 

Repairing   a   Steel   Stack 

Some  time  ago  in  our  plant  a  steel  stack  rusted  off  at 
the  base,  and  we  were  confronted  with  the  problem  of 
how  to  put  in  a  new  section  without  taking  down  the 
whole  stack.  The  difficulty  was  overcome  by  building  a 
scaffold  around  the  stack  and  lifting  it  by  a  block  and 
tackle  to  a  sufficient  height  to  allow  the  new  section  to 
be  put  in ;  then  the  top  part  was  let  down  and  riveted 
to  the  new  section,  thus  making  the  repair  without  the 
extra  work  of  lowering  and  raising  the  entire  stack. 

Philadelphia,  Penn.  D.  R.  Hibbs. 

Piston,  Striking  Head,  Wrecks  Engine 

The  engine  wreck  shown  in  the  illustration  is  similar 
to  many  others  that  have  occurred  in  the  past  and, 
like  many  others,  was  due  to  neglect  and  lack  of 
lubrication  of  the  main-crank  bearing,  which  caused 
the  engine  in  time  to  get  too  much  lateral  motion  in 
the  main  moving  parts  and  allowed  the  piston  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  cylinder  head,  resulting  in  the 
general  wreck,  as  shown.  The  engine  cylinder  was 
16x24  in.,  the  speed  150  r.p.m.  and  the  working  com- 


WUIOL-K    C.vr.SEIi    BV    IM.STu.X    STHIKIN'C    CYLINDER    HEAT> 

pression  260  lb.  The  balance  weights,  which  were 
distributed  over  the  plant,  weighed  approximately  3600 
lb.,  and  a  connecting-rod.  which  was  thrown  some  dis- 
tance, weighed  about  1500  lb.  The  accident  not  only 
wrecked  the  machine  as  shown,  but  cracked  the  main 
bedplate  in  several  places.  C.  R.  McGahey. 

Atlanta,  Ga. 


It  is  better  to  wear  a  Liberty  Bond  button  on  your 
coat  than  the  print  of  the  Kaiser's  heel  on  your  neck. 

Do  you  believe  in  Democracy?  Do  you  believe  in 
America?  A  purchase  of  a  Liberty  Bond  is  a  test  of 
your  faith  in  American  Democracy. 

When  you  lend  money  to  the  Government  it  does  more 
for  you  than  you  do  for  it.  The  Government  pays  good 
interest  and  protects  your  life  ^nd  property. 


Murch  20,  1918 


POWER 


451 


giilii'iiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifi MiiiiMiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii riiiiiiMiiiriiiiif iiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMllllliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiillllliniUIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllllillilf 

I  -1 

I  Inquiries  of  General   Interest  I 

lllllllllllllllllllllllMlllllinilllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIKUIIIIIMIMIMIllllllllnllllMlinillUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMItlltlllMIMIIIIIIIIMIMIIIIIIIIIIIMIMMIIJIIIIIIIIIIlin 


Burning  of  Clean  Water  Tubes — What  would  cause  clean 
tubes  of  a  water-tube  boiler  to  become  burnt  or  blistered 
below  the  water  line  of  the  boiler?  L.  G. 

The  material  of  water  tubes  or  other  heatinfc  surfaces  of 
a  boiler  is  likely  to  become  burnt  when  the  fire  is  driven  so 
hard  that  the  rapid  generation  of  steam  drives  the  water 
away  from  the  heatinR'  surface,  as  that  condition  causes  the 
surface  to  become  overheated  from  much  slower  transfer 
of  heat  than  when  the  water  is  directly  in  contact  with  the 
heating  surface. 

Mean  Forward  and  Mean  Effective  Pressure — What  is  the 
meaning:  of  "mean  forward  pressui-e"  and  "mean  effective 
pressure"'?  W.  P.  S. 

"Mean  forward  pressure"  is  a  term  used  to  desip:nate  the 
average  pressure  acting-  on  a  piston  with  a  tendency  to 
move  it  forward,  or  in  the  direction  corresponding  to  that 
necessary  for  pei'formance  of  useful  woi-k.  It  is  the  reverse 
of  mean  back  pressure,  which  is  the  average  pressure  that 
resists  the  motion  of  a  piston  in  pei-formance  of  useful 
work.  "Mean  effective  pressure"  is  the  mean  net  pressure 
that  urges  a  piston  forward,  and  therefore  is  equal  to  the 
mean  forward  pressure  minus  the  mean  back  pressure. 

Inches  of  Water  Pressure — What  is  meant  by  an  inch  of 
water  pressure;  and  how  many  pounds  or  ounces  per  square 
inch  would  a  pressure  of  2^2  in.  of  water  be  equivalent  to? 

N.A. 

.\n  inch  of  water  pressure  signifies  the  intensity  of  pres- 
sure due  to  a  column  of  water  1  in.  high.  As  1  cu.ft.  of  wa- 
ter at  62  deg.  F.  weighs  62.355  lb.,  the  weight  of  1  cu.in.,  or 
the  pressure  per  square  inch  exerted  by  a  water  column  1 
in.  high,  would  be  62.355  -^  1728  =  0.03609  lb.  Hence  2y3 
in.  of  water  pressure  would  be  equivalent  to  0.03609  X  2% 
=  0.09022  lb.  or  0.09022    X    16   =   1.4435  oz.  per  sq.in. 

Discharge  from  Broken  Gage-Glass — If  in  case  of  break- 
age of  a  watei'-gage  glass  of  a  boiler  under  steam,  the  top 
connection  is  closed  but  the  bottom  connection  cannot  be 
closed,  would  escape  of  hot  water  and  steam  from  the 
broken  glass  be  prevented  by  opening  the  valve  on  the 
blowoflf  pipe  to  the  column  or  glass?  H.  W. 

Discharge  from  the  bi-oken  glass  would  not  be  prevent- 
ed, as  opening  a  blowoff  valve  would  relieve  only  part  of 
the  pressure  holding  the  water  up  in  the  column.  The  wa- 
ter level  in  the  column  would  become  lower  and  as  soon  as 
the  level  dropped  below  the  open  gage-cock,  steam  would 
blow  through  the  cock  and  it  would  be  discharged  from  the 
broken  gage-glass  at  the  full  pressure  of  the  boiler. 

Exhaust-Steam   Heating   with   Back-Pressure  Valve  Open 

— Can  an  exhaust-steam  heating  system,  supplied  with  ex- 
haust from  a  noncondensing  engine,  be  operated  with  the 
exhaust  back-pressui'e  relief  valve  left  open?       C.  P.  C. 

The  purpose  of  a  back-pressui-e  relief  valve  is  to  hold 
sufficient  pressure  to  satisfy  the  heating  system,  to  relieve 
excessive  back  pressure  and  to  act  as  a  check  valve  to  pre- 
vent admission  of  air  in  case  the  heating  system  draws  the 
pressure  below  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  Hence  the 
back-pressure  valve  may  be  left  open  so  long  as  the  pres- 
sure of  the  exhaust  at  the  point  where  the  heating  supply 
is  taken  off  is  high  enough  for  the  heating  apparatus,  or  the 
effect  of  the  heating  apparatus  is  not  to  reduce  the  pres- 
sure at  the  back-pressure  relief  valve  below  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere. 

Setting  Valve  of  Single-Valve  Automatic  Engine — What 
is  the  method  of  setting  ths  valve  of  a  single-valve  auto- 
matic shaft-governor  engine?  J.  W.  M. 

The  valve  setting  will  consist  mainly  of  adjustment  for 
equalizing  the  cutoff.  If  cutoff  takes  place  earlier  on  one 
end  of  the  cylinder  than  the  other,  then  with  other  portions 
of  the   valve   gear   properly   assembled,   the   cutoff   can   be 


equalized  by  lengthening  or  shortening  the  valve-rod  con- 
nections to  obtain  diagrams  that  would  be  desirable  when 
the  engine  is  driving  the  average  load.  If  indicating  is  not 
available,  the  cutoff  can  be  approximately  equalized  by 
blocking  the  governor  to  a  position  of  about  one-half  its 
range  of  motion  and  adjusting  the  valve-rod  connections 
to  obtain  closing  of  the  steam  valve  at  the  same  fraction 
of  stroke  from  both   ends,  when  the  engine  i.s  turned  over. 

Kerosene  as  Boiler-Scale  Remover — What  are  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  using  kerosene  for  removing 
scale  from  a  boiler? 

In  cases  where  boiler  scale  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it 
can  be  softened  by  introducing  kerosene  along  with  the 
feed  water,  the  oil  has  the  advantages  of  being  a  cheap  and 
conveniently  applied  scale  remover.  The  leading  objections 
to  its  use  are  that  the  presence  of  oil  in  a  boiler  is  likely 
to  cause  leaks  at  joints  and  rivets;  steam-joint  gaskets  of 
rubber  and  many  other  materials  disintegrate  and  leak 
from  presence  of  oil;  and  deposits  of  heavier  oils  may  be 
formed  which,  combining  with  material  contained  in  the 
feed  water,  may  cause  the  heating  surfaces  to  become 
burned.  Boilers  containing  traces  of  mineral  oils,  especial- 
ly when  the  oil  has  been  liberally  added  to  the  feed  water, 
should  be  thoroughly  washed,  drained  and  ventilated  before 
being  entered,  as  highly  inflammable  hydrocarbon  gases  are 
likely  to  be  present. 

Failure  of  Corliss  Engine-Governor  Belt — What  would 
result  if  the  governor  belt  of  a  Corliss  engine  should  break 
or  come  off  the  pulley?  W.  F. 

The  governor  would  stop,  and  with  the  governor  balls 
no  longer  acted  upon  by  centrifugal  force,  they  would  drop 
to  a  position  of  support.  If  permitted  to  drop  to  the  very 
lowest  position  for  which  the  governor  is  designed,  the 
safety  cams,  if  pi'operly  set,  would  be  drawn  around  to  a 
position  for  which  the  steam  admission  valves  are  not 
opened,  and  the  engine  would  come  to  rest.  But  if  the 
governor  is  hindered  from  dropping  far  enough  to  bring 
the  safety  cam  to  this  position,  as  for  instance,  from  rest- 
ing on  the  starting  pin  or  other  device  used  to  support  the 
governor  for  holding  it  up  to  a  starting  position,  then  the 
valves  will  be  operated  to  admit  steam  without  the  gover- 
nor's regulation  of  the  cutoff.  Under  these  conditions,  un- 
less the  supply  of  steam  is  shut  off  by  hand  or  by  some  form 
of  automatic  safety  stop,  the  speed  is  likely  to  increase 
sufficiently  to  wreck  the  engine. 

Drilling  and  Reaming  Boiler  Rivet  Holes — Why  are  boil- 
er rivet  holes  required  to  be  drilled  or  i-eamed  in  place  of 
punching  the  holes  to  size  ?  J.  R.  L. 

Punching  lessens  the  tensile  strength  of  the  material 
around  the  holes,  and  the  pressui-e  of  the  punch,  and  dif- 
ference of  diameter  of  the  punch  and  die,  cause  jagged- 
edged  holes  and  burrs  that  reduce  the  holding  power  of  the 
I'ivets.  In  addition  to  this,  holes  punched  in  two  or  more 
thicknesses  that  are  to  be  riveted  together  seldom  come  in 
correct  register.  By  first  punching  the  holes  smaller  than 
required  for  receiving  the  rivets,  the  rough  edges  and  dis- 
torted material  can  be  removed  by  drilling  the  punched 
holes  to  size,  and  the  holes  of  two  plates  that  are  to  be 
riveted  together  may  be  brought  into  alignment  by  drilling 
the  holes  full  size  with  the  plates  bolted  in  position.  The 
strength  of  the  remaining  material  is  considered  to  be  un- 
impaired for  plates  over  L  in.  thick  when  the  diameter  of 
the  punched  holes  does  not  exceed  ';  in.  less  than  the  fin- 
ished diameter,  and  for  plates  not  exceeding  i"^  in.  thick, 
when  their  diameter  does  not  exceed  %  in.  less  than  the 
finished  diameter. 

Erratum:  The  result  of  the  computation  given  in  the 
first  item,  page  377,  Mar.  12  issue,  as  "about  9000"  should 
have  been  "about  49,000  lb.  of  steam  per  hour." 


452 


POWER 


Vol. 


No.  13 


Coal  Saving  by  Lighting  Curtailment 


By  PRESTON  S.  MILLAR 


The  author  points  out  that  the  coal  used  in  the 
production  of  electric  light  is  less  than  2  per 
cent,  of  the  total  coal  output  of  the  country,  and 
that  any  practical  curtailment  is  about  7  per 
cent.,  which  means  about  840,000  tons  of  coal  per 
annum,  or  a  trifle' more  than  0.1  of  1  per  cent, 
saving.  It  is  possible  to  effect  much  larger  sav- 
ings by  other  methods  ivith  less  disadvantage  to 
the  public. 


THE  most  important  thing  is  to  win  tlie  war.  Need  for 
directing  money,  enei-gy  and  materials  toward  the  pros- 
ecution of  the  war  makes  it  imperative  that  waste  and 
extravagance  be  eliminated.  The  first  consideration  is  how 
best  to  contribute  to  victory.  Economy,  in  lighting,  as  in 
other  things,  is  one  means  toward  that  end.  Economy  in 
lighting  in  the  present  circumstances  depends  upon: 

Securing  best  accomplishments  of  the  results  which  the 
lighting  is  intended  to  bring  about,  subject  to  the  need  for 
reducing  the  consumption  of  fuel  by  the  elimination  of  un- 
necessary lighting  and  by  reduction  of  other  lighting  so 
far  as  the  emergency  warrants.  Emergency  reduction 
should  be   undertaken  after  due   consideration  of: 

a.  The  amount  of  fuel  saving  that  can  be  accomplished. 

b.  The  disadvantages  involved  in  the  reduction. 

c.  The  practicability  of  saving  the  same  amount  of  fuel 

otherwise  with  less  aisadvantage. 


STotal  Coal,  1917 

MTofal  Coal,  Elec 
Li^htand  Power 


fc^Totai  Coal,  Dec 

I      iTotoil  Coal  smed 
throuqh  Lighting 
Cijrtailment 


FIG,    1.      TOTAL  CoAIj   P1;oDUCTION   AND   COAL  CONSUMP- 
TION OF  THE  COUNTRY  FOR  LIGHT   AND   POWER 

The  cost  of  artificial  illumination  of  all  kinds  is  0.5  to  2 
per  cent,  of  the  total  expenditure  of  the  people.  It  com- 
pares with  certain  other  expenditures  as  follows:    Illumina- 


*.\bKtrac't  from  a  paper  i>resented  at  llie  special  meeting  of 
tlie  Illuminating  Engineering  Society  in  New  York  City  on  Feb.  14. 
1918,  and  at  a  meeting  of  tlie  Philadelphia  section  of  this  society 
on  Feb.   15,   1918. 


tion,  $500,000,000;  liquors,  $665,000,000;  and  tobacco,  $490,- 
000,000. 

The  significant  figures  to  have  in  mind  in  discussing  this 
subject  are  as  follows,  all  being  rough  approximations: 
Total  coal  output  of  the  country,  640,000,000  tons;  total 
employed  in  production  of  electric  light  and  power  (trac- 
tion excluded),  36,000,000  tons;  total  employed  for  produc- 
tion of  light  by  electricity,  12,000,000  tons.  According  to 
these  estimates,  about  2  per  cent,  of  the  coal  consumption 
of  the  country  goes  into  electric  light.  Fig.  1  gives  a 
graphic  comparison  between  the  foregoing  figures  and  the 
estimated  coal  saving  possible  by  lighting  curtailment. 

Some  comparison  may  assist  to  provide  a  proper  per- 
spective for  the  consideration  of  these  data.  Coal  short- 
age, the  equivalent  of  which  must  be  saved,  50,000,000  tons, 
estimated  savings  in  coal  during  1914  if  all  private  plants 
could  have  been  replaced  by  central-station  power,  13,000,- 
000  tons.  Estimated  saving  in  coal  by  maintaining  tem- 
perature of  building  interiors  at  67  deg.  F.  instead  of  70 
deg.,  10,000,000  tons. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  total  consumption  of 
coal  in  the  production  of  all  electric  light  is  relatively  not 
a  very  large  item  in  the  coal  consumption  of  the  country. 
If  the  entire  electric  lighting  of  the  country  were  cut  off, 
the  saving  in  coal  would  be  only  24  per  cent,  of  the  re- 
quired saving,  and  no  more  than  would  be  accomplished 
by  a  reduction  of  readily  i^racticable  extent  in  the  heating  of 
buildings.  In  considering  lighting  curtailment,  therefore, 
it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  even  if  every  candle 
power  of  electric  lighting  were  wasted,  the  loss  of  coal  in- 
volved would  not  be  the  great  outstanding  coal  waste  of 
which  this  country  is  guilty.  As  relatively  little  light  is 
wasted,  it  is  evident  that  the  amount  of  coal  which  can  be 
saved  by  electric-lighting  curtailment  is  small. 

RECOMMENDED  .\D.IUST.MENT  OF  ILLU.MINATION   INTENSITIES 
IN  VIEW  OF  THE  WAR  AND  THE  FUEL  SHORTAGE 


Cliiss  of  Lighting  Service 

Street  

Publie  Imildin!;  

Iiidustri:il 
Pri.t.'.'tiv 

( 'illlltlll'M'ijlI 

l{c'si,l.-nre 

K.iTeatiulKli 

Ailvertisilig  .        , 

i\liscellaneous  

Totiil  .  101)  Net—     7 

The  authoB  has  prepared  the  rough  estimate  given  in  the 
table,  showing  the  adjustment  of  illumination  intensities, 
which  according  to  expert  opinion  of  several  men  engaged  in 
the  lighting  business  ought  to  be  made  from  standards  exist- 
ing before  the  war,  in  view  of  the  war  and  the  coal  shortage. 
The  table  also  shows  the  manner  in  which  artificial  light- 
ing is  distributed  among  the  several  classes  of  service 
adopted  as  a  classification  for  this  purpose.  There  are  no 
general  statistics  on  this  subject.  Therefore,  these  figures 
should  not  be  accepted  as  anything  more  than  a  rough  ap- 
proximate, although  they  are  probably  reasonably  indica- 
tive of  expert  opinion  on  this  subject  at  the  present  time. 

The  first  adjustment  of  artificial  lighting  which  ought 
to  be  made  at  the  present  time  depends  on  the  one  hand 
upon  the  need  for  obviating  extravagant  lighting  and  elimi- 
nating waste,  and  on  the  other  hand  upon  the  importance 
of  promoting  industry  and  safeguarding  lives  and  property. 
The  net  adjustment  based  upon  the  estimates  of  opinions 
summarized  in  the  table  is  in  the  order  of  — 7  per  cent.  Ad- 
justment in  particular  classes  of  service  range  from  a 
maximum  curtailment  of  — 80  per  cent,  in  advertising  light- 
ing to  a  net  increase  of  200  per  cent,  in  protective  lighting. 
In  the  opinion  of  lighting  experts,  electric  lighting,  which 
to  obtain  most  desirable  value  ought  to  be  increased  by 
73  per  cent,  before  the  war,  ought  now  to  be  decreased  by 
7  per  cent. 


Desirable 

Adjustments 

Per  Cent. 

in  Intensity 

Distribution 

Per  Cent. 

15 

—     5 

3 

—   10 

18 

+   50 

1 

4-200 

20 

—  20 

25 

—  20 

7 

—  40 

5 

—  80 

5 

—   10 

March  26.  1918 


POWER 


453 


Various  methods  of  reducing  artificial  lip:htinK  as  a  war 
measure  have  been  proposed  as  follows: 

Remove  unnecessary  lamps,  extinguish  all  lamps  when 
they  are  not  in  use,  extin^cuish  some  of  the  lamps  when 
possible,  substitute  smaller  sizes  of  lamps,  and  replace  in- 
efficient by  efficient  lamps. 

There  is  every  reason  for  emphasizing  the  desirability 
of  eliminating  the  unnecessayy  use  of  light.     Fuel   admin- 


]Total  Coal  Saving 

to  be  effected  per 

Annum 


]5avirn^Winstead 
ofTCinBuildirii^s 


|5avinc5  One  Shovelful  |      |Savinq  bylightinc^ 
per  Day  per  Family  Curtailment 


rotal    Co:^  1,10m 


FIG. 


TOTAL    COAL    PRODUCTION    AND    COAL    SAVINGS 
BY  DIFFERENT  CURTAILMENTS 


istrators  and  lighting  companies  have  urged  this  expedient 
very  prominently.  Bulletin  V  of  the  Committee  on  Coal 
Conservation  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United 
States,  entitled  "Conservation  in  Use  of  Coal,"  is  an  ex- 
cellent presentation  on  this  general  subject  which  should 
be  distributed  generally. 

To  arrive  at  suggestions  for  saving  fuel  used  for  light- 
ing purposes  without  deleterious  effects,  one  should  con- 
sider the  elements  of  inefficiency  in  lighting  and  the  possi- 
bility of  eliminating  them.  Such  a  line  of  consideration 
brings   the   following   to   the   fore: 

Good  utilization  of  light,  good  maintenance  of  lighting 
equipment,  use  of  good  reflecting  surfaces,  daylight  saving, 
utilization  of  water  power,  and  elimination  of  small  power 
plants. 

The  adoption  of  summer  daylight  saving,  as  now  pro- 
posed, is  estimated  to  be  capable  of  reducing  the  coal  con- 
sumption of  electric  central  station  steam  plants  by  230,- 
000  tons  per  annum  for  the  entire  country.  A  suggestion 
to  advance  the  period  of  activity  by  one  hour  the  entire 
year  round,  which  is  now  attracting  considerable  attention, 
is  estimated  to  afford  about  the  same  saving  to  the  public 
in  lighting  bills,  but  to  result  in  a  somewhat  greater  saving 
of  coal  on  account  of  the  more  favorable  load  factors  for 
the  power  plants,  which  would  result  in  the  winter  months. 

The  inherent  lower  efficiency  of  small  plants,  together 
with  less  expert  operation,  which  in  general  they  receive, 
is  estimated  to  be  responsible  for  the  use  of  one-third  more 
coal  than  necessary.  This  element  of  waste  is  even  more 
serious  in  England  than  in  this  country,  as  is  evidenced  by 
a  recent  report  (April  16,  1917)  of  the  Coal-Conservation 
Sub-Committee  of  the  Reconstruction  Committee,  in  which, 
after  pointing  out  that  the  average  cajiacily  of  English  gen- 
erating plants  is  .5000  hp.,  it  is  stated  that  "the  present  coal 


consumption  if  used  economically  would  produce  at  least 
three  times  the  present  amount  of  power." 

If  a  propoi'tional  amount  of  coal  saving  equivalent  to  7 
Ijer  cent,  of  the  total  electric  light  produced  be  assumed, 
this  would  mean  a  reduction  in  coal  consumption  of  840,- 
000  tons  per  annum.  This  is  the  maximum  extent  to  which 
it  is  believed  that  the  best  interejrts  of  the  public  requires 
coal  to  be  saved  through  electric-light  curtailment.  Such 
a  saving  compares  with  other  possible  annual  savings  as 
follows: 

Total  savings  which  must  be  accomplished,  50,000,000 
tons;  net  savings  thought  desirable  through  curtailment 
of  electric  lighting,  840,000  tons;  savings  if  one  degree 
lower  temperature  is  adopted  for  building  interiors,  that 
is,  69  instead  of  70  deg.  F.,  3,000,000  tons;  and  saving  if 
each  family  decreased  by  one  shovelful  its  daily  use  of 
coal,  15,000,000  tons.  A  graphic  comparison  of  these  fig- 
ures is  given  in  Fig.  2. 

The  saving  which  is  possible  in  the  heating  of  buildings 
looms  large.  Our  practice  in  this  respect  is  to  heat  build- 
ings to  a  considerably  higher  temperature  than  is  done  in 
Europe.  The  coal  which  might  be  saved  by  operating 
buildings  at  temperatures  which  prevail  in  Europe,  instead 
of  at  the  temperature  which  we  affect,  would  be  more  than 
the  equivalent  of  the  entire  consumption  of  coal  in  electric 
lighting.  Even  the  saving  of  one  shovelful  of  coal  per 
day  makes  any  practical  saving  through  electric  lighting 
curtailment   seem   very   small 

New  York  State   Legislation  Affecting 
Power   Interests 

A  synopsis  of  the  more  important  bills  affecting  power 
interests  introduced  in  the  Legislature  at  Albany  follows: 

Senate  Print  No.  1.  Amending  the  Public  Service  Com- 
missions law,  by  providing  that  whenever  a  gas  or  electric 
corporation  or  a  municipality  files  with  the  commission  a 
new  schedule  of  rates  or  a  change  in  form  of  contract  as  to 
rates,  sei-vice  or  facilities,  the  commission  may,  upon  com- 
plaint or  of  its  own  initiative  and  upon  notice,  hold  a  hear- 
ing concerning  the  propriety  of  the  proposed  change  and 
pending  a  decision  may  suspend  it  for  not  exceeding  120 
days  from  the  date  when  it  would  otherwise  take  effect. 
On  Feb.  13  this  bill  was  on  the  calendar  in  the  Senate  for 
final  passage,  but  was  recommitted  to  the  Public  Service 
Committee  and  has  not  since  been  called  out. 

Senate  Print  Nos.  66,  67  and  68  are  three  companion  bills 
providing  for  the  erection  of  a  state  owned  and  controlled 
hydro-electric  power  plant  at  Niagara  Reservation.  They 
provide  for  the  issue,  after  approval  by  a  referendum,  of 
$3,000,000  of  tax-exempt  bonds,  empower  the  Niagara 
State  Reservation  to  construct  such  power  plant  and  to 
operate  it  under  their  own  management  or  under  lease 
and  provide  for  the  manner  of  construction.  Neither  one  of 
the  measures  has  as  yet  been  reported  for  consideration. 

Senate  Print  No.  271.  Amends  the  Public  Service  Com- 
missions law  relative  to  complaints  as  to  quality  and  price 
of  gas,  by  providing  that  upon  written  petition  of  not  less 
than  100  users  of  gas  or  electricity  in  first-  or  second- 
class  cities,  and  not  less  than  50  such  users  in  third-class 
cities  and  25  elsewhere,  the  mayor,  village  trustees  or  town 
board,  as  the  case  may  be,  must  complain  to  the  proper 
commission  regarding  the  matters  specified  in  the  petition. 
This  bill  has  not  been  acted  on  in  the  Senate.  The  same 
bill  introduced  in  the  Assembly  under  print  number  404  on 
Mar.  7  was  reported  to  second  reading. 

Senate  Print  No.  475.  Amends  the  Public  Service  Com- 
missions law  by  empowering  the  commission  to  raise  or 
reduce  rates  and  charges  for  gas  and  electricity,  notwith- 
standing a  rate  may  be  fixed  by  statute  or  othei-wise.  No 
action  has  been  taken  on  this  measure. 

Senate  Print  No.  428.  Creating  a  state  hydro-electric 
power  commission  to  consist  of  the  Governor  or  a  repre- 
sentative appointed  by  him,  Lieutenant-Governoi-,  Attorney- 
General,  State  Engineer  and  the  Conservation  Commis- 
sioner, to  investigate  costs  and  method  of  development, 
transformation,  transmission  and  distribution  of  the  water 
powers  of  the  state,  formulate  a  definite  and  fixed   policy 


454 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  i:^ 


of  utilizing  same,  including  canals;  prepare  and  recommend 
proper  legislation  for  carrying  out  such  plan  and  urge 
upon  the  Federal  Government  proper  recognition  of  the 
state's  inherent  right  to  full  control  of  the  boundary  wa- 
ters; and  may  authorize  the  Attorney-General  to  bring  ac- 
tion against  the  Federal  Government  to  determine  such 
rights.  One  hundred  thousand  dollars  is  appropriated.  The 
commission  may  maintain  a  bureau  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
This  bill  is  the  result  of  the  labors  of  the  Thompson  water- 
power  investigating  committee  which  has  been  busy  the 
last  two  years.  At  this  writing  it  cannot  be  determined 
what  action  the  Legislature  will  take  in  regard  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  measure. 

Senate  Print  No.  430  authorizes  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Works  with  the  approval  and  direction  of  the  Canal 
Board,  to  lease  the  use  of  surplus  waters  impounded  by 
canal  dams  and  flowing  into  canals;  authorizing  the  Canal 
Board  to  compromise  and  adjust  claims  and  demands  of 
water-power  claimants  and  owners  of  water-power  rights 
and  privileges,  appurtenant  to  state  canal  dams,  constitut- 
ing part  of  improved  canals.  The  surplus  waters  of  canals 
are  to  be  leased  to  the  highest  bidder  whether  it  be  a  per- 
son, corporation  or  municipality.  Leases  must  not  be  for 
less  than  the  appraised  value  of  such  water,  and  every 
ten  years  the  value  is  to  be  reappraised.  The  Legislature 
has  taken  no  action  on  the  passage  of  this  measure,  but  it 
will  undoubtedly  come  up  for  discussion  before  the  adjourn- 
ment. 

Senate  Print  No.  542.  Authorizes  the  state  through  the 
Canal  Board  to  build  and  equip  canal  boats  and  other  craft, 
or  to  purchase  or  lease  them  for  a  period  not  longer  than 
one  year  after  the  war.  The  state  may  lease  such  craft 
to  individuals  or  corporations  for  opei'ation  or  may  operate 
them  itself  through  the  Department  of  Public  Works,  which 
is  empowered  to  fix  transportation  rates.  The  Canal  Board 
may  organize  one  or  more  stock  companies  for  construct- 
ing, purchasing  or  leasing  such  craft  and  for  their  opera- 
tion, the  aggregate  capital  not  to  exceed  $2,000,000.  If  the 
state  i-emains  stockholder,  it  must  retain  at  least  51  per 
cent.,  selling  the  remainder  to  the  public  at  par.  The  Canal 
Board  may  with  the  governor's  consent  sell  the  entire  issue 
to  the  public.  One  million  dollars  is  appropriated.  This 
measure  is  said  to  be  favored  by  the  Governor  and  will  un- 
doubtedly meet  with  the  serious  consideration  of  the  Legis- 
lature before  its  adjournment.  It  bears  upon  the  question 
of  transportation  and  coal  supply. 

Senate  Print  No.  597.  Amends  the  second-class  cities 
law  by  permitting  a  municipality  to  construct,  own,  main- 
tain and  operate  an  electric  power  plant  with  necessary 
equipment  for  supplying  electric  power  and  light  to  the 
municipality  itself. 

Senate  Print  No.  744.  Amends  the  railroad  law  by  pro- 
hibiting the  use  of  a  locomotive  engine  not  equipped  with 
a  vestibule  cab  so  constructed  as  to  attach  to  the  sides  of 
and  inclose  all  openings  between  the  engine  cab  and  the 
water  tank  or  coal  tender.  It  strikes  out  the  provision  that 
mechanically  operated  doors  are  not  required  on  doors  of 
locomotives  equipped  with  mechanical  stokers.  This  bill 
has  not  been  reported  from  committee. 

Senate  Print  No.  747,  by  Senator  Wagner,  is  a  municipal- 
ownership  public-utilities  bill  introduced  as  the  outgrowth 
of  campaign  pledges  in  the  recent  New  York  mayorality 
campaign.  It  amends  the  general  city  law  giving  all  cities 
power  to  own,  construct,  acquire,  purchase,  maintain  and 
operate  plants,  facilities  and  property  of  every  kind  for 
supplying  light,  heat,  power  and  transportation  for  both 
municipal  and  private  use.  Intention  to  exercise  such  pow- 
er must  be  evidenced  by  resolution  of  the  local  administra- 
tive body  declaring  it  in  the  public  interests  to  do  so  and 
giving  general  description  of  the  facilities  or  property  to 
be  constructed  or  acquired.  The  propositions  must  be.  sub- 
mitted to  the  electors  of  the  city.  The  value  of  the  property 
to  be  acquired  must  be  ascertained  in  the  first  instance  by 
the  Public  Service  Commission.  There  are  various  other 
provisions.  What  action  the  Legislature  will  take  on  this 
bill  is  largely  a  matter  of  conjecture. 

Senate  Print  No.  842.  Amends  the  labor  law  by  extend- 
ing the  provisions  for  boiler  inspection  by  the  Industrial 
Commission  to  include  all  boilers  for  generating  steam  or 


heat,  which  carry  a  pressure  of  over  15  lb.  to  the  square 
inch  instead  of  10  lb.  as  at  present,  and  whether  used,  for 
factory  purposes  or  otherwise,  except  boilers  subject  to 
inspection  by  the  United  States  Government  or  Public 
Service  Commission;  requiring  such  inspection  at  least  once 
a  year. 

Senate  Print  No.  889.  Amending  the  Public  Service 
Commissions  law  by  authorizing  incorporation  of  gas  cor- 
porations for  acquiring  natural  gas  and  distributing  and 
selling  same,  giving  such  corporation  the  right  to  acquire 
necessary  artificial  gas  to  augment  its  supply  by  purchase, 
manufacture  or  otherwise,  and  empowering  the  public  serv- 
ice commission  to  order  such  augmentation  when  neces- 
sary for  adequate  service  to  customers. 

Senate  Print  No.  902.  Amending  the  Public  Service  Com- 
missions law  by  requiring  the  commission  to  establish  gas- 
testing  stations  for  each  individu;il  gas  corporation  at  points 
remote  from  the  gas  plants,  and  providing  a  schedule  of 
fines  based  on  the  percentage  of  inferiority  in  gas,  such 
penalties  to  be  in  the  form  of  rebates  to  the  customer. 

Assembly  Print  No.  54.  Amending  the  Transportation 
Corporations  law  by  prohibiting  electric-light  corporations 
from  collecting  rent  from  meters.  This  law  already  ap- 
plies to  gas  meters. 

Assembly  Print  No.  472.  Appointing  Benjamin  B.  Odell 
State  Ice  Comptroller  and  regulating  the  storage  and  dis- 
tribution of  natural  and  artificial  ice.  It  prohibits  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  ice  in  New  York  City,  on  Long 
Island  and  the  counties  bordering  the  Hudson  River  be- 
tween Mar.  1,  1918  and  Feb.  1,  1919.  This  bill  passed  both 
houses  of  the  Legislature  and  became  Chapter  4  of  the 
Laws  of  1918. 

Assembly  Print  No.  645.  Amends  the  conservation  law 
by  creating  a  division  of  hydro-electric  power  in  the  con- 
servation department.  This  is  a  socialist  measure  and  calls 
for  the  development  of  the  Niagara  River,  the  Long  Sault 
Rapids  and  all  inland  waters  and  streams.  Twenty  million 
dollars  of  4%  per  cent,  bonds  are  to  be  issued  if  the  people 
approve  of  their  issue  at  a  referendum  to  be  submitted  to 
them  this  fall.  The  measure  has  to  pass  the  Legislature, 
however,  before  it  can  be  thus  submitted. 

Assembly  Print  No.  346.  Provides  for  a  terminal  im- 
provement commission  in  New  York  City,  consisting  of  the 
mayor  and  comptroller,  two  public-service  commissioners, 
First  District,  designated  by  the  Governor,  and  three  other 
members  appointed  by  the  Governor  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate  to  adopt  plans  for  comprehensive  terminal  facil- 
ities for  freight  and  for  terminal  markets  in  Manhattan. 
The  commission  may  enter  into  an  agreement  with  the  New 
York  Central  and  other  transportation  corporations,  or  if 
an  agreement  cannot  be  reached  it  may  oi-der  compliance 
with  plans  adopted  by  it.  The  commission  may  order  joint 
usage  of  facilities  by  different  corporations.  Until  the 
Legislature  determines  that  adequate  terminal  facilities 
have  been  completed,  the  commission  is  to  exercise  all  the 
powers  of  the  Public  Service  Commission  over  such  termi- 
nals in  Manhattan.  When  so  completed  the  commission's 
existence  is  terminated.  Provision  is  made  for  the  con- 
demnation of  property,  lease  or  exchange  of  lands  with  city, 
and  for  enforcement  b.v  courts. 

Assembly  Print  1098.  Empowers  the  Public  Service  Com- 
mission by  order  to  require  two  or  moi'e  telephone  corpora- 
tions to  establish  continuous  and  through  lines  of  communi- 
cation, as  in  the  case  of  telegraph  corporations  as  at  present. 

Assembly  Print  No.  334.  Empowering  the  Public  Service 
Commission  to  raise  or  reduce  rates  and  charges  for  gas 
or  electricity,  notwithstanding  a  rate  may  be  fixed  by 
statute  or  otherwise. 

Steam  Heating  at  C^amp  Funston 

Before  the  Kansas  City  Chapter  of  the  American  Society 
of  Heating  and  Ventilating  Engineers,  B.  Natkin  read  an 
interesting  paper  on  "Heating  of  Army  Camps  and  Can- 
tonments," dealing  in  particular  with  the  installation  at 
Camp  Funston.  Of  the  16  National  Army  cantonments 
the  following  four  are  mainly  heated  by  steam :  Camp 
Custer,  of  Michigan;  Camp  Devens,  of  Massachusetts; 
Camp   Funston,  of   Kansas;   and    Camp   Grant,  of   Illinois. 


March  'iC.   1918 


P  ()  W  K  R 


455 


All  were  installed  under  the  same  general  plan  with  niinof 
alterations  to  suit  local  conditions,  so  that  a  description 
of  the  heatinj;  plants  at  Camp  Funston  will  practically 
apply  to  the  other  three  camps. 

Camp  Funston  is  situated  tlu-ee  miles  from  Fort  Riley 
ii:  the  central  portion  of  Kansas  on  a  Government  reser- 
vation of  about  1200  acres.  There  are  erected  on  these 
grounds  1400  wooden  buildings,  inclusive  of  barracks, 
latrines,  medical  quarteis,  officers'  quarters,  stables,  gar- 
ages, heating  plants,  exchange  stores,  warehouses  and 
amusement  buildings.  Of  this  number,  650  buildings  are 
heated  from  a  central  steam  plant,  while  the  balance  have 
individual  plants,  stove  or  furnace  heat,  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  stables,  garages  and  warehouses  have  no  heat. 

For  heating  these  buildings  there  are  18  separate  boiler 
plants,  each  taking  care  of  about  :)5  buildings.  Steam  is 
supplied  by  a  system  of  overhead  mains  supported  on  poles, 
and  the  condensation  from  each  building  is  wasted.  Steam 
in  the  main  line  is  carried  at  50-lb.  pressure  and  is  reduced 
at  each  building  to  about  5  lb.  A  2% -in.  reducing  valve 
is  used  in  each  barrack  and  two  lV4-in.  valves  in  each 
latrine,  one  for  the  radiators  and  the  other  for  the  hot- 
water  tank.  There  is  a  total  of  965  reducing  valves  in  the 
camp.  The  poles  are  20  ft.  apart,  and  the  steam  main  is 
suspended  about  15  ft.  in  the  air  from  trapeze  hangers. 
The  average  size  of  the  main  is  about  5  in.  and  the  average 
run  is  1200  ft.  The  drop  in  pressure  at  the  end  of  the 
main  is  about  20  lb.  Expansion  is  taken  care  of  by  slip 
joints  at  200-ft.  intervals.  Branches  to  the  various  build- 
ings are  taken  off  at  the  bottom  of  the  mains.  By  this 
means  the  lines  are  drained  approximately  every  75  ft. 
The  steam  mains  are  covered  with  1  in.  of  asbestos  air- 
cell  covering,  then  1V4  in.  of  wool  felt,  over  which  is 
wrapped    waterproof    roofing    paper    securely    wired. 

Overhead  lines  were  used  in  preference  to  underground 
because  this  system  was  cheaper  to  install,  could  be  readily 
got  at  for  repairs,  and  material  could  be  obtained  more 
readily.  As  no  return-line  system  was  installed,  a  single 
line  served  the  purpose.  If  the  system  was  laid  under- 
ground it  would  necessitate  miles  of  trenching,  suitable 
underground  covering,  such  as  wood  log  or  insulated  tile, 
a  parallel  return  main  with  traps  to  take  off  the  condensa- 
tion in  the  mains  and  a  drainage  system  for  keeping  the 
line  dry.  Then  there  would  be  the  greater  difficulty  of 
repair.  The  condensation  in  the  overhead  line  is  little 
greater  than  generally  occurs  in  an  undei-ground  line. 

Lack  of  an  abundant  supply  of  water,  together  with  its 
large  percentage  of  scale,  has  made  it  necessary  to  install 
a  return-line  system  to  save  the  condensation.  These  lines 
are  now  being  installed.  They  run  to  a  central  low  point 
in  each  unit,  where  the  condensation  is  collected  by  an 
electric-driven  pump  and  receiver,  which  in  turn  discharge 
the  water  to  the  boiler  room.  It  is  quite  probable  that  had 
the  Government  engineers  foreseen  this  necessity  of  un- 
derground return  lines,  they  might  have  put  the  steam 
lines  also  underground,  as  it  would  have  proved  less  ex- 
pensive than  the  present  system  of  overhead  lines  and 
underground  returns. 

Each  boiler  house  has  four  72-in.  x  18-ft.  hand-fired 
tubular  boilers  rated  at  150  hp.  each  and  served  by  indi- 
vidual 34-in.  steel  stacks  60  ft.  high.  Each  plant  takes 
care  of  about  35,000  sq.ft.  of  radiation,  there  being  a  total 
of  600,000  sq.ft.  in  the  18  units.  Outside  of  the  boilers, 
the  only  equipment  in  the  boiler  house  is  a  6  x  4  x  6-in. 
duplex  boiler-feed  pump  and  a  small  heater  built  of  8-in. 
pipe  utilizing  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  pumps.  Three 
boilers  are  fired  as  a  rule,  with  the  fourth  in  reserve  for 
extreme  cold  weather. 

The  oi-ganization  used  to  handle  the  central  plants  at 
Camp  Funston  is  made  up  as  follows:  Two  firemen  are 
employed  for  each  boiler,  each  man  taking  his  turn  for 
a  twelve-hour  shift.  Two  foremen  are  employed  to  watch 
groups  of  three  plants.  Over  the  foreman  is  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  heating  plants,  who  works  under  the  head 
of  the  Department  of  Camp  Utilities.  The  civilians  em- 
ployed in  the  various  boiler  plants  are  fast  being  replaced 
by  soldiers,  who  will  eventually   handle  the  plants. 

Barracks  are  two-story  buildings  140  x  43  ft.     The  radi- 


ation installed  in  the  barracks  is  all  of  the  three-column, 
38-in.  high,  cast-iron  type.  Three  or  four  radiators  in  a 
row  are  connected  togethei-  at  the  bottom  by  a  2-in.  pipe, 
the  steam  feeding  from  one  radiatoi-  into  another.  One 
valve  controls  the  three  or  four  radiators  that  are  con- 
nected together.  A  steam  main  ends  at  each  corner  of  the 
barrack  and  is  connected  into  a  steam  trap,  discharging 
upon  the  ground  under  the  building. 

The  second-story  squad  i-ooms  are  heated  by  14  radiators, 
totaling  810  S(i.ft.  Using  a  factor  of  88  B.t.u.  loss  per 
hour  per  square  foot  of  glass,  24  B.t.u.  for  exposed  wall 
and  1.43  B.t.u.  loss  per  hour  per  cubic  foot  of  contents, 
these  squad  rooms  would  require  762  sq.ft.  of  radiation  1» 
heat  them  to  70  deg.  in  weather  10  deg.  below  zero.  The 
loss  through  the  roof  is  disregarded,  as  there  is  a  dead- 
air  space  of  about  4  in.  between  the  beaver  board  and 
the  roofing  through  which  the  air  does  not  circulate,  thus 
forming  a  fairly  good  insulation.  The  first-story  squad 
room  is  heated  by  seven  radiators,  totaling  385  sq.ft. 

The  radiation  installed  in  the  barracks  has  been  keeping 
the  soldiers  comfortable  during  the  cold  snaps  that  have 
occurred  this  winter.  At  night  all  upper  windows  in  the 
squad  room  are  opened,  and  trouble  was  experienced  dur- 
ing the  cold  weather  from  radiators  freezing.  To  conserve 
the  water  and  fuel  and  prevent  freezing,  the  steam  is  now 
turned  off  the  barracks  after  the  soldiers  have  retired  for 
the  night. 

Besides  the  18  central  heating  plants  there  are  42  indi- 
vidual steam-heating  plants  for  officers'  quarters  and  in- 
firmaries, carrying  loads  of  from  280  to  3900  sq.ft.  each. 
These  buildings  are  heated  on  the  two-pipe  gravity  plan 
using  cast-iron  boilers  and  radiators. 

Near  the  center  of  the  camp  is  the  big  amusement  zone, 
which  comprises  four  blocks,  150  x  250  ft.,  with  buildings 
of  a  permanent  character,  having  stuccoed  fronts.  There 
are  theaters,  restaurants,  dry-goods  stores,  pool  hall,  shoot- 
ing gallery  and  other  buildings  which  contain  a  total  of 
45,000  sq.ft.  of  radiation.  For  this  zone  a  two-pipe  vacuum 
heating  system  is  used.  Steam  is  supplied  from  a  central 
heating  plant  of  600-hp.  capacity,  having  four  72-in.  x  18-ft. 
return-tubular  boilers  set  in  a  battery.  The  other  boiler- 
house  equipment  consists  of  one  700-hp.  feed-water  heater, 
two  6  x  4  X  6-in.  boiler-feed  pumps,  two  10  x  14  x  12-in. 
vacuum  pumps,  one  3000-gal.  per  hour  hot  water  heater, 
one  3000-gal.  per  hour  deep-well  pump,  one  48-in.  x  24-ft. 
pressure  tank  and  one  large  receiving  tank. 

Boiler  connections  of  6  in.  diameter  lead  into  a  12-in. 
drop  header.  From  this  two  5-in.  leads  are  taken,  each  of 
which  passes  through  a  5  x  10-in.  pressure-reducing  valve 
in  the  boiler  house.  The  10-in.  lines  supply  heat  to  the 
various  buildings.  No  piping  is  run  exposed  outside  of 
the  buildings.  The  steam  and  hot-water  supply  mains  are 
run  in  the  attics  or  on  the  ceilings  of  the  buildings  and 
drop  under  the  streets  in  wood  conduit  in  a  trench  back 
of  the  buildings. 

Builds   Small    Hydro-Electric    Plant 

North  Wilkesboro,  a  small  town  in  North  Carolina,  will 
soon  be  operating  its  own  hydro-electric  lighting  station 
with  a  day  and  night  service.  The  new  plant  is  nearly 
completed  and  the  only  remaining  machinery  to  be  in- 
stalled is  the  electric  apparatus,  which  has  been  selected 
with  a  view  to  fulfilling  the  needs  of  the  city  for  a  long 
time  to  come.  Although  the  town  has  a  population  of  but 
about  2000,  it  is  setting  an  example  worthy  of  many  others 
to  follow,  in  that  an  available  water  site  is  being  utilized  for 
producing  electrical  energy. 

Heretofore  there  has  been  trouble  in  generating  sufficient 
energy  by  steam  power,  which  was  not  only  expensive,  but 
could  not  be  generated  in  quantities  sufficient  for  both  day 
and  night  service,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  coal.  With 
the  water-power  plant  in  operation  the  question  of  coal 
will  be  a  thing  of  the  past  and  power  will  be  generated 
from  a  source  that  has  been  allowed  to  go  to  waste  day 
after  day,  while  valuable  coal  has  been  burned  in  pro- 
ducing power  that  could  have  just  as  well  have  been 
generated   by   water. 


456 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  13 


Forty-seven  Coal   Dealers  Indicted 

In  response  to  Power's  editorial  request,  in  the  issue  of 
Feb.  26,  for  the  names  of  Tennessee  operators  and  dealers 
indicted  for  fuel-law  violations,  a  correspondent  has  sent 
in  a  copy  of  the  Knoxville  Journal  and  Tribune  for  Feb.  15, 
containing  a  report  from  which  the  following'  is  abstracted: 
Violations  of  the  Lever  fuel  control  act  and  price-fixing 
regulations  of  the  National  Fuel  Administration  are 
charged  in  23  indictments,  naming  47  separate  defendants 
and  containing  16.3  counts,  which  have  been  returned  by 
the  Federal  grand  jury.  Some  of  the  largest  coal  com- 
panies and  best  known  mine  operators,  wholesalers  and 
retailers  of  coal  in  east  Tennessee  are  made  defendants. 
Charges  against  the  defendants  include  conspiracy  to 
violate  the  Lever  law,  filing  of  false  and  fraudulent  I'eports 
with  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  and  the  sale  of  coal 
at  unlawful  prices. 

Should  the  defendants  be  found  guilty,  they  are  subject 
to  maximum  fines  of  $.5000  on  each  of  the  163  counts,  or 
imprisonment  in  the  United  States  penitentiary  at  Atlanta 
for  not  exceeding  two  years,  or  both  fine  and  imprisonment. 

Evidence  in  the  cases  was  gathered  by  Arthur  J.  Delvin, 
D.  H.  Littleton,  F.  S.  Shipp  and  Ernest  Hawkins,  special 
agents  of  the  Department  of  Justice  during  an  investiga- 
tion which  lasted  more  than  two  months.  Further  investi- 
gations are  to  be  made,  and,  if  developments  justify,  the 
results  will  be  presented  to  the  Federal  grand  jury  which 
meets  in  Knoxville  on  the  fourth  Monday  in  May. 

John  Q.  Barker  and  William  C.  Barker,  of  the  Barker 
Lumber  Co.,  coal  brokers,  of  Knoxville,  and  E.  Scott  Miles 
and  the  Sequatchie  Coal  Co.,  coal  brokers,  of  Chattanooga, 
are  named  as  defendants  in  an  indictment  containing  19 
counts,  one  of  which  alleges  conspiracy.  John  Q.  Barker 
and  William  C.  Barker  are  made  defendants  in  separate 
indictments  on  a  charge  of  having  filed  false  and  fraudu- 
lent reports  with  the  Federal  Trade  Commission,  reporting 
the  coal  handled  by  them. 

The  following  companies  and  individuals  are  named  as 
defendants  in  an  indictment  containing  27  counts,  two  of 
which  allege  conspiracy  to  violate  the  Lever  act:  A.  Gatliff, 
,T.  B.  Mahan,  E.  C.  Mahan,  N.  B.  Perkins,  L.  F.  Pratt, 
C.  G.  Ellison,  N.  A.  Archer,  Gorman  Jones,  Wiley  W. 
Thomas,  J.  D.  Williams,  Southern  Coal  and  Coke  Co.,  New 
Caryville  Coal  Co.,  Sun  Coal  Co.,  Gatliff  Coal  Co.,  Mahan- 
Jellico  Coal  Co.,  Southern  Mining  Co.,  Golden  Ash  Coal  Co. 

D.  C.  Campbell,  of  the  D.  C.  Campbell  Coal  Co.,  is  named 
as  defendant  in  a  14-count  indictment,  alleging  the  sale  of 
coal  at  unlawful  prices. 

The  Superior  Coal  Co.,  S.  T.  Buffet  and  W.  C.  Whitaker 
are  named  as  defendants  in  a  10-count  indictment,  alleging 
the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful  prices. 

The  Hackney  Coal  Co.  and  Walter  M.  Miller  are  named 
as  defendants  "in  an  indictment  charging  the  retail  sale  of 
coal  at  unlawful  prices. 

Hugh  B.  Miller  and  Beatrice  Hutchens,  of  the  Knoxville 
Coal  Co.,  are  named  as  defendants  in  an  indictment  charg- 
ing the  sale  of  coal  at  a  retail  price  of  $10.40  per  ton  when 
the  Government  price  was  not  exceeding  $6.25. 

The  Sun  Coal  Co.  is  named  as  defendant  in  an  indict- 
ment of  8  counts  alleging  the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful  prices. 

The  New  Caryville  Coal  Co.  is  named  as  defendant  in  a 
G-count  indictment  alleging  the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful 
prices. 

The  Terry,  West  Coal  Co.  and  A.  C.  Terry,  of  Oneida, 
are  named  as  defendants  in  a  13-count  indictment  alleging 
the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful  prices. 

Tallman  Sexton,  Clifford  Sexton,  R.  S.  Barnes  and  B.  L. 
Sadler,  doing  business  as  the  Oneida  Coal  Exchange,  of 
Oneida,  Tenn.,  are  named  as  defendants  in  an  11-count 
indictment  alleging  the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful  prices. 

The  Southern  Jellico  Coal  Co.  and  Walter  L.  McKinney, 
of  Jellico,  are  named  as  defendants  in  an  11-count  indict- 
ment charging  the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful  prices. 

Wymer  B.  Siler,  of  Jellico,  is  named  as  defendant  in  a 
7-count  indictment  charging  the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful 
prices. 

Ray  Buell,  J.  L.  Lindsay,  of  Jellico,  and  Clyde  Rhode- 
haver  are  named  as  defendants  an  indictments  charging  the 
sale  of  coal  at  unlawful  prices. 

L  C.  Stonecipher,  of  Scott  County,  is  named  as  defendant 
in  a  3-count  indictment  charging  the  sale  of  coal  at  unlaw- 
ful prices.  ,   „      , 

W.  M.  Pierce,  of  Jellico,  is  named  as  defendant  m  a 
3-count  indictment  charging  the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful 
prices. 

T.   C.   Williams,  of  Jeilico,  is   named  as  defendant   m   a 


3-count  indictment  charging  the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful 
prices. 

John  C.  Pemberton,  of  Oneida,  is  named  as  defendant 
in  an  18-count  indictment  charging  the  sale  of  coal  at  un- 
lawful prices. 

J.  T.  Moore,  of  Jellico",  is  named  as  defendant  in  a  5-count 
indictment  charging  the  sale  of  coal  at  unlawful  prices. 

These  indictments  cover  a  wide  field  of  alleged  violations 
of  the  Lever  act,  says  District  Attorney  Kennerly,  from 
conspiracy  to  violate  that  law  to  alleged"  violations  of  the 
prices  fixed  by  President  Wilson  regarding  the  sale  of  coal 
at  wholesale,  in  car  lots,  down  to  small  retail  sales  of  from 
three  to  five  bushels. 

Recently,  the  Federal  grand  jury  at  Covington,  Ky., 
returned  indictments  against  61  coal  operators,  operating 
mines  and  handling  coal  in  eastern  Kentucky.  Many  of 
these  Kentucky  defendants,  it  is  claimed,  operated  in  con- 
nection with  the  Knoxville  coal  brokers  and  dealers,  selling 
their  output,  which  was  marketed  through  the  agency  of 
some  of  the  defendants  named  in  the  Knoxville  indictments. 


How  to  Join  the  Army  Engineers 

The  Kaiser  has  placed  the  keenest  engineering  talent  of 
his  own  and  allied  empires  into  the  imperial  armies  of  the 
Central  Powers  to  defeat  the  world.  During  these  last 
three  years  the  best  engineering  skill  of  France,  Great 
Britain,  Russia  and  Italy  and  their  Allies  have  been 
matched  against  the  enemy.  American  employers  are  pay- 
ing engineers  such  attractive  salaries  that  voluntary  en- 
listments of  the  high-class  technical  men  in  the  United 
States  Army  are  below  requirements.  This  deficiency  is 
also  probably  due  in  part  to  the  lack  of  proper  informa- 
tion concerning  the  engineering  branch  of  the  service.  Few 
civilians  know  that  it  is  possible  for  them  to  perform  in 
the  Engineering  Corps  almost  exactly  the  same  kind  of 
work  in  w-hich  they  are  at  present  engaged. 

The  best  results  in  any  organization  are  obtained  only 
when  the  energies  of  all  the  men  in  it  are  concentrated 
along  the  lines  for  which  they  are  best  suited  by  natural 
ability,  education  and  training.  The  First  Replacement 
Regiment  of  Engineers  was  organized  at  Washington  Bar- 
racks, D.  C,  on  December  14,  1917,  with  the  express  idea 
of  accomplishing  this  end.  Its  specific  purpose  is  to  keep 
all  engineering  units  of  the  Army  at  full  enlistment  strength 
during  the  period  of  this  war.  This  regiment  has  not  only 
the  responsibility  of  finding  men  to  fill  up  depleted  ranks, 
but  it  must  also  fit  them  to  step  into  the  work  of  trained, 
efficient  and  disciplined  soldiers. 

The  preliminary  work  of  the  recruit  is  first  a  thorough 
training  in  military  drill,  for  the  engineer  soldier  must  be 
prepared  to  lay  down  his  shovel  and  take  up  his  rifle  at 
any  time.  Infantry  drills  gradually  give  way  to  engineer 
work  and  more  specific  technical  training.  The  engineer 
soldiers  must  know  how  to  tie  all  the  important  kinds  of 
knots  and  lashings,  to  build  spar  and  truss  bridges,  to  con- 
struct revetments,  dig  ti'enches,  place  wire  entanglements, 
construct  machine-gun  emplacements,  build  pontoon  bridges 
and  to  construct  roads.  They  must  also  know  the  methods 
of  demolition,  sapping  and  mining.  Specialized  training  in 
lithography,  zincography,  surveying,  mapping,  photography, 
carpentery,  blacksmithing,  electricity  and  machinery  are 
also  given  to  those  qualified  for  further  training  in  any  of 
these  branches. 

The  Replacement  Regiment  will  be  called  upon  to  furnish 
men  for  the  following  organizations:  Camouflage  regiments, 
crane-operating  and  maintenance  regiments,  depot  detach- 
ments, electrical  and  mechanical  regiments,  forestry  ( saw- 
mill) battalions,  forestry  (auxiliary  road,  camp  and  bridge) 
battalions,  gas  and  flame  service,  general  construction  bat- 
talions, mining  regiments,  quarry  regiments,  sapper  regi- 
ments, searchlight  regiments,  supply  and  shop  battalions, 
surveying,  ranging  and  map-reproduction  regiments,  water 
supply  companies. 

Engineers  are  called  upon  to  perform  such  a  wide  range 
of  work  that  practically  every  man  with  any  technical  train- 
ing or  mechanical  ability  can  find  a  place  in  this  organiza- 
tion. Every  male  citizen  in  the  United  States  who  is  physi- 
cally fit,  and  between  the  ages  of  18  and  21,  and  31  and  40, 
is  eligible  to  join  the  regiment  by  voluntary  enlistment. 


March  26,  1918 


POWER 


457 


The  applicant  should  write  to  the  Commanding  Officer, 
First  Replacement  Regiment  Knuineers,  Room  107,  Head- 
quarters BuildinR-,  Post  of  Washiiifjton  Barracks,  D.  C,  for 
application  blank.  If  the  blank  shows  the  man  to  be  eli- 
Kible,  an  enlistment  card  is  filled  out  and  sent  to  the  recruit- 
ing: officer  nearest  to  the  applicant's  place  of  residence,  with 
instructions  to  enlist  the  man  for  service  in  this  rep:iment. 

United  States  Steel  and  Pig-iron  Output 

According  to  the  Iron  Trade  Reriew,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  the 
steel-ingot  production  in  1917,  as  estimated  by  the  American 
Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  will  be  42,600,000  gross  tons  and 
the  pig-iron  output,  38,500,000  tons.  The  former  figure  will 
mark  a  new  record ;  the  latter  will  mark  a  drop  from  the 
total  pig-iron  production  of  1916.  The  ability  of  the  steel 
industry  to  make  a  new  production  record  in  the  year  in 
which  the  United  States  entered  the  war  will  arouse  great 
satisfaction  among  the  country's  friends.  Germany's  steel 
output  sagged  heavily  after  she  opened  hostilities,  and  yet 
she  had  a  clearer  appreciation  than  any  other  nation  of 
the  colossal  tonnages  of  iron  and  steel  which  modern  war- 
fare demands.  German  "efficiency"  could  round  up  an 
immense,  trained  army  overnight,  but  failed  to  mobolize 
simultaneously  her  industrial  forces.  America,  with  an 
army  to  find  and  equip,  and  with  the  handicaps  which  her 
inexperience  and  unpreparedness  entailed,  was  able,  at 
the  same  time,  the  Review  states,  to  keep  her  steel  fur- 
naces in  operation  and  to  surpass  her  1916  mark,  itself  a 
record.  The  decline  i7i  pig-iron  output  from  1916  is  com- 
paratively slight  and  is  due  to  the  difficulties  met  in  assem- 
bling raw  materials.  The  Review  concludes  by  stating  that 
the  year's  record  production  inspires  confidence  in  the 
future.  Germany's  steel  industry,  when  pitted  against 
America's,   is  fighting  a  losing  battle. 


Signal  Corps  Wants  Electrical   Men 

The  Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  Army,  has  announced  that  it 
can  use  the  services  of  a  large  number  of  men  having 
electrical  training.  They  are  needed  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  radio  communication  systems  in  use  in  the 
military  service.  All  classes  of  electrical  men — wiremen, 
expert  electricians,  storage-battery  men,  telegraph  and  wire- 
less operators,  and  men  with  electrical-engineering  training 
and  experience  are  wanted.  The  opportunity  offered  is 
exceptional  because  of  the  great  interest  and  importance 
of  this  branch  of  the  service  which  has  been  most  aptly 
characterized  as  the  nerve  system  of  the  army.     Men  en- 


gaged in  the  radio  division  of  tho  communication  work  in 
particular  have  an  increasingly  important  part  in  the  great 
intelligence  system  upon  which  army  operations  are  almost 
totally  dependent.  The  scope  of  this  work  requires  men 
who  will  fall  in  general  into  three  classes,  depending  on 
the  character  and  amount  of  experience  had  by  the  indi- 
vidual; namely,  radio  operators,  radio  mechanics  and  field 
radio  experts. 

Application  blanks  for  service  in  the  radio  work  of  the 
Signal  Corps  may  be  secured  by  addressing  the  Office  of 
the  Chief  Signal  Officer,  Land  Division,  Training  Section, 
Washington,  D.  C.  Men  of  draft  age  may  make  applica- 
tion and  if  qualified  will  be  inducted  into  the  army,  at  their 
request,  for  service  in  this  branch  of  the  Signal  Corps. 
After  enlistment  or  induction,  all  personnel  will  be  sent 
to  one  of  several  radio  schools  for  six  weeks  to  three 
months  of  intensive  ti-aining  in  one  of  the  three  general 
branches  of  the  radio  work  for  which  their  previous  ex- 
perience qualifies  them.  Some  of  the  personnel  completing 
these  courses  will  be  commissioned,  and  the  opportunity  for 
advancement  for  all  graduates  will  be  dependent  on  the  indi- 
vidual ability. 

Comparative    Costs   of    Heating   by 
Electricity,   Gas   and  Coal 

The  following  examples  will  give  one  an  opportunity  to 
determine  the  comparative  costs  of  heating  a  building  by 
electricity,  gas,  hard  coal,  and  soft  coal,  by  employing  the 
figures  or  costs  of  fuels  in  his  own  locality. 

The  heating  value  of  one  kilowatt-hour  is  approximately 
3400  thermal  units — therefore,  at  10c.  per  kw.-hr.,  one  cent 
will  purchase  340  thermal  units.  At  $7.50  per  ton  hard 
coal — making  available  about  8000  thermal  units  per 
pound — one  cent  will  purchase  21,333  thermal  units.  At 
this  rate  it  would  cost  62i'"  times  as  much  to  heat  with 
electricity  as  with  coal. 

The  available  heating  value  of  one  cubic  foot  of  gas  for 
heating  purposes  is  approximately  600  thermal  units  per 
cubic  foot.  At  50c.  per  1000  cu.ft.,  one  cent  would  pur- 
chase 12,000  thermal  units.  With  coal  at  $7.50  per  ton — it 
would  cost  lAi  times  as  much  to  heat  with  gas  as  with 
hard  coal. 

With  electricity  and  gas  on  the  same  basis — but  with 
soft  coal — having  a  heating  value  of  6000  thermal  units 
per  pound  and  selling  at  $3.50  per  ton — it  would  cost  one 
hundred  times  as  much  to  heat  with  electricity  as  with 
soft  coal — and  2i'o  times  as  much  to  heat  with  gas  as  with 
soft  coal. — The  Ideal  Fitter. 


Obituary 


.John  P.  Sparrow,  chief  engineer  New 
Vorli  Edison  Co.  died  suddenly  of  pneu- 
monia at  his  home.  Sunday,  Mar.  17.  .\ 
full  account  of  Mr.  Sparrow's  career  is  now 
being  prepared  and  will  appear  in  our  next 
issue. 


Personals 


Harry  S.  Potter  has  resigned  as  general 
manager  of  the  Tarentum  Glass  Co.  to  be- 
come general  manager  of  the  Wellington 
Glass  Co.,  Cumberland.  Md. 

C.  W.  Watkins,  of  Dorranceton.  Penn., 
inventor  and  patentee  of  the  WatUins  auto- 
matic air-regulating  furnace  door,  has  sold 
his  United  States  patent  rights  on  the  de- 
vice to  the  Page  Boiler  Co.,  of  Chicago,  111. 

iiiiiiiiiiiiinniiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiitiiiiiiiiii:. 

i       Miscellaneous  News       I 


LHitnrli  Rip  roncretc  Ship — The  World's 
largest  concrete  ship,  7;miu  tons,  christened 
the  "Faith."  was  hiunched  at  a  Pacific  port 
Mar.  1.5.  With  the  successful  completion 
of  the  ship  the  construction  of  .'il  similar 
vessels-  will  start,  according  to  her  builders. 
The  "Faith"  was  launched  six  weeks  after 
•he  concrete  was  poured  into  the  forms. 


Fifty-eiplit  RIectrio  Companies  operating 
in  Pennsylvania  have  filed  notices  with  the 
Public  Service  Commission  that  they  pro- 
pose to  ad"\'ance  rates  since  Jan.  1.  In  every 
instance  the  advances  are  declared  to  be 
necessary  because  of  increased  cost  of  fuel, 
htbor  and  materials.  In  a  number  of  cases 
ol>jections  have  been  filed  and  hearings  held. 
In  the  saiTie  period  there  have  been  notices 
of  increases  filed  hy  2  4  gas  companies,  wliile 
20  telephone  companies,  most  of  them 
rural  lines  doing  a  purely  local  business, 
have   given    notice   of  advances   in  rates. 

Ste^'ens  Institute  Ctiniinenoenient — As 
many  members  of  tJie  senior  class  have 
been  pursuing  an  accelerated  schedule  since 
Nov.  21.  litl"?,  the  graduating  exercises  this 
year  will  be  advanced  from  June  11  to  Apr. 
2.  as  follows:  Saturday,  Blar.  30,  8  p.m., 
alumni  smoker;  Sunday,  Mar.  31,  7:45  p.m., 
baccalaureate  sermon.  Tuesday,  Apr.  2, 
10:30  a.m.,  forty-sixth  annual  commence- 
ment in  the  auditorium  ;  1  p.m..  President 
and  Mrs.  Humphreys'  reception  to  the 
graduating  cla.ss,  trustees,  faculty,  alumni, 
undergraduates  and  friends  at  Castle  Ste- 
vens; 3:30  p.m..  review  of  .Stevens  Bat- 
talion under  command  of  Francis  G.  Hub- 
bard. First  I-ieutenant,  71st  Inf.antry,  N. 
Y  G.,  drillmaster.  by  President  Humphreys 
and  graduating  class. 


lllllllllMllllllllllllllllllltlllllllllllllllltllllllllMIIIIIMIIX 


illMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM 


Business  Items 


Tllllllllllllllllll 


Tlie   Wilson-Sn.vder  .Maniiraedirin^  Co.,  of 

Pittsburgh.    Penn.,    has    opened   an    office   in 
Cleveland.  Ohio,  at  511  Citizens  Bldg.,  with 


H.    W.   Van   Cleve,   of  the   Pittsburgh   office, 
in  charge  as  district  manager. 

The  I>.  Connell.v  Boiler  Co.,  of  Cleveland, 
has  awarded  contra<^ts  for  an  addition  to  its 
main  boiler  shop.  The  addition  will  be 
140x80  ft.  of  steel  construction  and  glass. 
This  company  is  installing  a  set  of  plate- 
bending  rolls  which  are  said  to  exceed  in 
length  and  capacity  any  similar  machine  in 
any  boiler-manufacturing  plant  in  .\merica. 

The  I>inBle-ria*U  Co.  h.as  been  organized 
with  othces  at  53ii  Engineers  Bldg..  Cleve- 
land, Ohio.  This  corporation  will  handle  a 
complete  line  of  motors,  transformers,  con- 
trollers, turbo-gears  and  is  in  ;i  position  to 
install  electrical  equipment  for  any  size 
plant.  Howard  llingle  and  W.  W.  (^lark 
were,  up  to  Feb.  1.  respectively  district 
iTianager  and  assistant  manager  of  the 
Crocker-AVheeler  <^o.  in  Cleveland.  Both 
are  well  known  in  ()hio  electrical  circles  by 
reason  of  Iheir  ten-year  connection  in  this 
territory. 

Wiiliani  T.  Prii'e  resigned  as  manager 
.and  cliief  en.gineer  of  the  He  La  Vergne 
Machine  Co.'s  (►il-cngine  department  re- 
cently to  become  ijresident  of  Uie  P-R  En- 
gine Co.,  of  Xew  York,  and  secontl  vice 
president  of  the  ll;ithbun-.lones  iCngineer- 
ing  C^o..  of  Toledo,  wliich  will  imdertake  the 
sale  and  manufacture  respectively  of  Price- 
Kathbun  stationary  and  marine  oil  engines 
built  in  accordance  with  a  new  principle  of 
fuel  injection  developed  by  Mr.  Prii-e  during 
the  past  several  years.  The  P-R  lOngine 
Co.  lias  its  main  ofllce  :it  110  West  40th  St, 
New  York,  'and  branch  olliccs  in  Phila- 
delphia. Baltimore  and  Toletio. 


458 


POWER 


Vol.  47,.  No.  13 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


I'ropoKcil     AVork 

X.  .1..  .lercey  City — The  Hudson  Poimtv 
Bouieva'rd  roilimi.s.'iioners  will  receive  bids 
until  April  3  tor  equipment  for  the  liRlit- 
iuK  system  of  the  Hudson  County  Boule- 
vard. '    K.   Cahill.   Pres. 

\.  .1.,  I'itiiiHn — The  Klectric  Co.  of  New 
.Tersev  has  been  granted  permission  by  the 
Board  of  Public  Utilities,  to  issue  JilHT.iinii 
bonds  ;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  build 
additions  and  make  improvements  to  its 
plant.      VV.    1'.   Mercer.   Mgr. 

I'eiin..  Clifton  HeiBht» — The  Kent  ilanu- 
facturinST  Co.  has  had  plans  prei)ared  for 
(lie  erection  of  a  power  i)lant  and  boiler 
house.  Kstimated  cost.  $50,(ilill.  F.  K. 
Hahn.  Arch..  1112  Chestnut  St..  Phila- 
deliihia.  is  receiving  bids  for  the  construc- 
tion.     Noted    ,Ian,    211. 

I'eiiii..  Waynesboro — The  Oreencastie  and 
Waynesboro  Ry.  Co  .  Bank  Bldg..  is  hav- 
ing'plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of  a 
■'  storv.  411  .X  .SO  ft,  sul)station.  Kstiniajed 
cozl.   .t'lO.UOU.      H.    IX   Sefton.  Cen.    Mgr. 

M.l  ,  T.intliifum — The  Consolidated  O.as 
Klectric  Light  and  Power  Co..  ijexington 
St.  Bldg .  Baltimore,  will  soon  award  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  a  2i;  x  4fi  ft. 
addition  to  its  power  .«taticm.  FIstimateil 
cost,  IfTfllHi.  K.  T>.  I'Idmonton,  Baltintore. 
Gen.'    Supt. 

N.  C,  Dunn — The  < '.eneral  Ptility  Co.  re- 
cently incorporated  with  $1(Mi.lliHi  capital 
stock"  plans  to  build  an  electric  lighting 
plant.      lOstimated  cost,    $2r.,(HMi. 

N.  C.  Wiirrenton — The  Warrenton  Klec- 
tric l>ight  Co.  plans  to  build  a  3  phase.  221111 
volt  transmission  system.     .).  M.  King.  Mgrr. 

<■».,  Klherlon — City  plans  to  extend  its 
electric  lighting  system.  S.  W.  Allen.  Cen. 
Supt. 

Fla.,  DaytonH — The  Haytona  Putjlic 
Service  Co.  plans  to  increa.se  its  cai)ital 
.stock  from  $300.1100  to  J.SOO.OOO  ;  the  pro- 
ceeds will  be  used  for  additions  and  im- 
provements to  its  system.  R.  W.  Mes.s- 
more.   Ch.    Kngr. 


\el>.,  .Sehuyler — City  election  April  2  to 
vote  on  $.(0,000  bonds  to  build  an  electric 
lighting    plant,      K    A.    Schmid.    Mgr. 

Oklii..  Stillwater — City  voted  $175,000 
bonds  for  improvements  and  additions  to 
its  electric  lighting  plant.  G,  M.  Smith, 
Supt.      Noted    .Mar.    .5 

X.  M.,  (iailup — The  Town  Board  plans 
an  election  to  vote  on  propostion  to  biiild 
an  electric  lighting  plant.  K.  H.  Myers, 
.Secy. 

Wasli..  Walville — The  Central  Light  and 
Manufacturing  Co.  has  filed  a  petition  with 
the  Lewis  County  Commissioners,  for  au- 
thorization to  build  an  electric  light  and 
power  line  from  here  to  Mcskill.  R.  P. 
Brush.    Pe    ICll.    Supt. 

Calif.,  ISakersfield — The  ilt.  Whitney 
Power  Co.  of  BakeTsfield.  plans  to  .spend 
$108,.5fi2  to  improve  and  enlarge  its  hydro- 
electric generating  plants  and  $21fi.|i37  to 
extend  distributing  lines  in  Tulare,  Kern 
and  Kings  Counties,  E.  R,  Davis.  fi24 
Pacific    Electric    Bldg.,    Los    Angeles.    Mgr, 


IPIIItllllMlltllll 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


-The   .\rmagli   Electric  Co. 

April   foi-   electrical    equip- 

de\'elopment.        Estimated 


l.a..  Shreveport — The  Elliott  Electric  Co 
is  considering  the  installation  of  additional 
e(ini])ment. 

Kv..  <ir»iliani — The  W.  G.  Duncan  Coal 
Co.,'  Greenville,  will  build  a  T.S  x  100  ft., 
brick  and  concrete  jHuver  house.  The  work 
will  be  done  bv  day  labor.  C.  M.  Means. 
Oliver  Bldg..  Pittsburgh.  Pa..  Consult 
Engr 

K.V.,  Newport — The  Newport  Rolling  Mill 
Co  "has  acquired  a  site  here  and  plans  to 
build  11  additional  sheet  mills  and  install 
new  machinery  including  a  fiOOO  kw.  gen- 
erator .set  to  operate  proposed  mills.  Es- 
timated co.st,  $S00,000,  W,  A.  Andrews, 
pres, 

Ohio.  ^lulilleport — The  Staltee-Essex 
Coal  Co.  plans  to  in.stall  electrical  equip- 
ment  in   its   mine.      V.    Essex.    Supt. 

Ohio,  New  reter.HhiirB — Fred  Essex  plans 
to  install  electrical   equipment   in   his   mine. 

III..  Charleston — City  plans  to  issue  .$20,- 
000  bonds  to  improve  its  electric  lighting 
and  water  works  systems.  Address  T.  T, 
Shoemaker. 

111.,  Koekford — City  election  in  .\pril  to 
vote  on  $500,000  bonds  for  the  erection  of 
an  electric  lighting  plant.  E.  A.  Witter- 
gren.   City   Clerk. 

Wis.,  ReedshurK — City  plans  to  improve 
its  electric  lighting  plant  and  install  new 
machinery  including  electrical  generating 
unit  of  2.50  or  300  kw.  directly  connected 
to  either  uniflow  engine  or  steam  turbine. 
( 1.   W.    Burkett.   Gen.    Supt. 

Wis.,  Thorp — The  Thorp  Electric  l^ight 
and  Power  Co..  recently  incon'orated  filaiis 
to  take  over  the  City  electric  lighting  plant 
and  improve  and  enlarge,  same.  P.  I). 
Kline,    interested. 

Iowa.  I>ysart — The  Iowa  Ry.  and  I,ight 
Co.  plans  to  install  a  high  tension  line  from 
here  to  Traer.  W.  <"..  Dows.  Cedar  Rapids. 
Gen.    Mgr. 

Kan.,  i'olby — <'ity  plans  to  build  a  trans- 
mission line  from  here  to  i  lakley.  C.  V. 
Parrott,   City   Clerk. 

Kan.,  fiardner — City  plans  to  build  an 
electric  lighting  plant.  K.stimated  cost. 
$20,000. 

Xeb..  Carroll — Village  voted  $!t5nO  bonds 
to   install    a   lighting   system. 


illlMllltlMt 


Boston — Current  quotations  per  press  ton  de- 
livered alongside  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  afro  are  as  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 


Circular^ 
Mar.  ;U.  ini8 

Individual' 
Mar.  21.  191 S 

Buckwheat     .  . 
Sice    

S4.60 

4.10 

.'t.SO 

-.i.ao 

S7.10- 
ti.65- 

-ti.Sd 

Bailey    

0.15- 

-(i.4n 

BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous    not    on    market. 

Pocohonlas  and  New  River,  f.cb,  Hamp.ton 
Roads,  is  S4,  as  <'ompared  with  SS,8.5 — 2.00  a 
.vear  a.^^'o. 


Ont..    .\rmaBll- 

rccei\es  bids  in 
juent  tor  powei 
cost.    $40,000. 

Ont.,  i'ornwall — The  Cedar  Rapids 
Transmission  Co.  has  had  plans  prepared 
for    the   erection    of   a    110.000    volt    station. 

Ont.,  London — The  City  will  appropriate 
$25,000  for  extensions  to  its  electric  light- 
ing  plant, 

cm.,  Rideau — The  Hudro  Electric  Com- 
mission plans  to  purchase  High  Falls  on 
the  Mississipjii  River  and  build  a  generat- 
ing station   on   same. 

B.  C,  South  Wellington — The  Canadian 
Colleries  are  in  the  market  for  boilers  and 
air  compressors  to  install   in  the  mines. 

CONTRACTS    .\W.\RDF,0 

.N.  .1..  Hoboken — The  Board  of  Education 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  in.stalling 
electrical  fixtures  and  lighting  system  in 
Public  School  jNo.  3.  to  W.  Coleman,  29 
Willow  Court,  .lersey  City,  Estimated 
cost.    $15,000. 

X.  .1.,  Jersey  City — The  Board  of  Edu- 
<-ation  has  awarded  the  contract  for  in- 
stalling electrical  fixtures  and  lighting  sys- 
tem in  Lincoln  High  School  on  Harrison 
Ave.,  to  W.  Coleman,  29  Willow  Court.  Es- 
timated  co.st.    $21,000. 

X.  .1..  Perth  Ambny — The  American 
Smelting  and  Kefining  Co.  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  a  1  story.  tiO  x  70  ft.  addi- 
tion to  its  iiower  house  to  be  erected  on 
Maurer  St.,  to  1.  Crouse.  4H5  State  St. 
Noted   Oct   23. 

I'enn.,  Philadelphia  (Kensington) — I.,.  S 
Lebernian  has  awarded  the  contract  for  a 
1  story,  30  x  40  ft.  power  house  addition 
and  a  new  boiler  house,  to  Conneen  Con,str, 
Co..   1737   Filbert  St.      Noted   Feb.   2li. 

I).  C.  Wash. — The  V.  S.  Government  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  electric  lighting 
system  in  .Anacostia,  to  the  G.  E,  Engineer- 
ing Co.,  417  Canal  St.,  -New  York  City.  Ks- 
timated  cost.    $10,535. 

'  Tenn.,  Iludleys  Bend — The  T'.  S.  Gov- 
ernment has  awarded  the  contract  for  fur- 
nishing electrical  eqviipment  for  the  pro- 
posed power  plant,  to  the  West  Electric  Co. 
Estimated    cost,    $5,000,000. 

Ohio,  Cleveland — City  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  an  addition  to  its  electric 
lighting  plant  on  East  53rd  St.,  to  Kelley 
r»emarest  Constr.  Co,.  418  .Vmerican  Trust 
Bldg.  Estimated  co.st,  $25,000.  i^ity  is 
constantly  purchasing  machinery  and 
equipment  and  will  soon  be  in  the  market 
for  all  kinds  of  boilers,  generators,  switch- 
boards and  equipment.  W.  E.  Davis,  Ch. 
I'Ingr. 

Jlieh.,  River  RnoKe — The  P^ord  Motor  Co. 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  a  1  story. 
40  X  GO  ft.  transformer  hou.se  to  be  erected 
on  Dix  Rd.  and  River  Rouge,  to  H,  G. 
Christman    Co,,    Stevens   Bldg..    Detroit. 

III.,  <ireat  Lakes — The  U.  S.  Government 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  an  addition 
to  the  overhead  distribution  and  lighting 
system  at  the  Naval  Training  Station,  to 
Paxchen  Bros..  Ill  West  Washington  St.. 
Chicago.      Estimated  cost.   $7830. 

Mo.,  Carthage — The  Polak  Steel  Co.,  Cin- 
cinnati, Ghio,  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  an  addition  to  its  power  plant  here, 
to  M.  Marcus  Building  Co.,  2023  Reading 
St,,    Cincinnati.    Ghio. 

Wash.,  Pusret  Sound  (Bremerton  P.  O.) 
— The  U.  S.  Government  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  a  telephone  and  transmission 
line,  to  Nepage  &  McKenny.  Armour  Bldg.. 
Seattle.      K.stimated    cost.    $8950. 


•.\ll-rriil    to    Boston  is  S-;.(i(l. 


tWater  coal. 


Xmv  York — Cxn-rent  quotations  per  gross  ton 
lob.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  as  compared 
with  a  .year  afro  arc  as  follows: 


ANTHRACITE 


Circular' 
Mar.  -11.  1918 


Individual* 
Mar.  21/1918 


Pea     

Buckwheat 
Barley    .... 

Rice     

Boiler     .... 


$,i.0.5 
t.SO — .5.00 

:!.-;.-) — 'iSiO 

:!.7.'i — .•1.9.") 

:i..'>o — •:!.7ri 


s.'j.so 
ri..5o- 
■t.oo- 

4..')0- 


i.80 
1.2.5 
1.80 


s.t.6r> 

52.00 

:t.H5 

2.00 

.•!.H.-) 

2.00 

Quotations  at  the  ut>per  ports  are  about  Vtc. 
higher. 

l.^rPMINOUS 

P.o.b.  N.  Y.  Harbor    Mine 

Penns.vlvania    

Maryland     

West  Virginia   (short  rate). 

Based  on  Government  price  of  $2  per  ton  at 
mine. 

*The  lower  jiorts  :u'e :  Elizahethitort,  Port  John- 
son, Port  Readin^^.  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Am- 
boy.  The  ujijier  [lorts  are:  Port  I.ibert.v.  Hobo- 
ken. Weehawkeii.  Edirewaler  or  Cliffsitle  and  Gut- 
tenberfr.  St.  Georye  is  ni  between  and  sometiinea 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  .">e.  iiieher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 

Pliiladelpitia — l»rices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  line  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 


-Line— 


-Tiile- 


1918 

Pea    »:J.7.T 

Barley    2.1.5 

Buckwheat    ..    S.l.'i 

Rice    2.(15 

Boiler     2.4.5 


Mar.  21.   One  Yr.  Mar.  21.  One  Year 


.■Vs-o 
S2.80 
1.83 
2.50 
2.10 
1..95 


1918 
S4.65 


Ago 
S3 .70 
2.40  2.05 

.•t.75  3.40 

:(  li,5  3.00 

3.55  3.15 


Chi4-ago — Steam  coal  jjrices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  HUnois 
S-Mi.5 — 2.80  $3.35 — 3.50 


Preiiared    sizes 

Mine-run    

Screeninps     .  .  . 


2.40- 
2.1.5 — 2.30 


3.10 3.25 

2.8.5 — 3.00 


So.  111..  Pocohontas.    Hocking. Ea.st 


Kentucky  and 

West   Va.   Splint 

S2.8.5 — 3.35 

2. HO :).00 

2.3.5 — 2.75 


Pennsylvania 
Smokeless  Coals    and  W,  Va. 
Preijared    sizes..  .S2.t>0 — 2.85 

Mine-run    2.40 — 2.(jO 

Screenings     2.10 — 2..55 

St.    Louis — Prices   per  net    ton    f.o.b.   mines   a 
year  ago  .-is  compared  with  today  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and       Mt.  Olive 

Fr;uiklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

Mar.  21.        Mar.  21.  Mar.  21. 

1918              1918  1918 

0-in.  lump     ....$2.65-2.80   $2.05-2.80  82.65-2.80 

2-in.-lurap     ....    2.65-2.80      2.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

Steam     egg 2.65-2.80      2.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

Mine-run    2.40-2.55      2.411-2.55  2.40-2.55 

No.    1    nut 2.65-2.80      2.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

2-in.    screen....    2.15-2.30      2.15-2.30  2.50-2.65 

No.   5   washed..    2.15-2.30      2.15-2.30  2.50-2.65 


Birniingliuni — Current  T>rices  i)cr  net  ton  f.o.b, 

mines  ;ire  as  follows: 

Mine-       Lump  Slack  and 

Run         &  Nut  Screenings 

$2.15  $1.65 

2.40  1.90 

2.65  2.15 


Big  .Seam   $1.90 

Pratt.   .lagger.    Corona     2.15 
Black  Creek,  Cahaba,      2,40 
Govenmient  figures. 

Individual  t>rices  are  the  compan,v  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  reguLar  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according-  to  a  resrular  schedule. 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


POWKR 


April  2.   1018 


OVER  HERE 

Helps  dtefirin^Iiiie 

OVERTHERE 


460 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


Underground  Steam  Mains 


By  CHARLES  L.  HUBBARD 


While  the  construction  details  of  underground 
mains  are  much  the  same  as  for  any  other  piping 
of  large  size,  the  fact  that  they  are  less  accessible 
in  case  of  repairs  makes  it  necessary  to  use  extra 
care  in  their  installation.  Furthermore,  the 
greater  length  of  run  as  compared  with  ordinary 
power-plant  or  heating  work  makes  the  matter  of 
expansion  oyie  of  much  importance,  ivhich  calls 
for  special  provision  and  anchors. 

THE  method  of  making  the  joints  will  depend  upon 
the  pressure  and  temperature  carried  on  the 
system.  For  heating,  both  by  steam  and  water, 
the  lengths  of  pipe  are  commonly  put  together  with 
screwed  couplings,  placing  flanges  at  sufficiently  fre- 
quent intervals  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  sections 
should  occasion  require,  but,  so  far  as  possible,  advantage 
should  be  taken  of  the  flanged  joints  which  must  be 
put  in  for  other  purposes  and  in  this  way  reduce  the 
cost  of  installation.  These  flanged  joints  will  occur  at 
bends,  take-offs  to  buildings,  expansion  joints  and 
anchors.  For  the  low  pressures  carried  on  heating 
work,  the  plain  flange  with  a  good  form  of  flexible 
packing  gives  satisfactory  results  and  allows  of  a  section 
of  pipe  being  easily  removed,  which  is  a  more  difficult 
matter  with  a  recessed  flange  on  heavy  piping.  A  gasket 
of  "soft"  packing  will  make  up  for  any  small  inaccuracies 


RECESSED  FLViOE 

no.  I 


PIPE  EXPANDED  IN  rmnoE 

r\Q.z 
A 


OIITFRnANi'irM  "^hl    PIPE  FLANGE 

OR  HUB  •— ^4       \l        t:".--     OR  LAP  \t^ 


;' 


2ZZS^Z2Z222Z2I 


■}/^M^/////////77A 


VAN -STOME  JOINT 
FIO.  3 


METHOD  OF  FLANGINS  PIPE 
FOR  VAN -STONE  JOINT 


PIGS.    1    TO    4. 


nQ.4 

TYPICAL   FLANGED    PIPE   CO.N'NECTIOXS 


in  the  alignment  of  the  pipe  and  is  not  so  likely  to  permit 
a  leak  should  the  line  settle  slightly.  Corrugated  copper 
gaskets  have  been  used  with  satisfactory  results.  If 
a  recessed  joint  is  to  be  used,  the  male-and-female  type, 
shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  preferable  to  the  tongue-and-groove 
flange,  being  easier  to  pack  when  in  place.  The  depth 
of  recess  is  made  just  sufficient  to  hold  the  packing  in 
place,  varying  from   I'g  to  J  in.,  according  to  the  size 


of  pipe.  There  is  danger  of  leaks  developing  where 
the  flanges  are  joined  to  the  ends  of  the  pipe — that  is, 
when  the  pipe  does  not  extend  through  the  flange — 
because  there  may  be  sand  holes  in  the  casting,  imperfect 
threads,  etc.;  but  this  is  guarded  against  in  various 
ways,  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  being 
by  threading  the  pipe  with  a  full  taper,  then  screwing 


DOUBLE  SLIP -JOINT 
FIG.  5 


DOUBLE  CXPANSIOli  JOINT 


3C 


ESI 

AtlCHOR 


^C 


FIGS  5  AND  6. 


DOUBLE  SLIP-JOINT 
WITH  ANCHORS 

FIO.  6 
DOUBLE  SLIP-JOINT  AND  ITS  LOCATION  IN 
A  LINE 


the  flange  on  by  power  until  the  end  of  the  pipe  projects 
through  about  iV  in.,  then  facing  off  in  a  lathe.  Another 
method  is  to  round  off  the  inner  edge  of  the  flange 
and  expand  or  peen  the  end  of  pipe  into  it,  as  in  Fig.  2. 

For  lines  carrying  high  pressure,  and  especially  highly 
superheated  steam,  more  care  must  be  taken  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  joints.  While  there  are  many  types 
of  higher-pressure  flanges  in  use,  some  form  of  the 
Vanstone  joint  is  probably  employed  more  frequently 
than  any  other.  The  principle  of  this  joint  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  3  and  consists  essentially  of  flanging  the  ends 
of  the  pipe  and  drawing  them  together  by  means  of  a 
pair  of  loose  flanges  or  hubs  slipped  over  the  pipe, 
which  act  as  a  clamp.  In  order  to  give  sufficient 
strength,  the  flanged  ends  of  the  pipe  must  be  thickened 
either  by  upsetting  or  turning  over  a  flap  to  get  the 
extra  thickness.  As  it  is  difficult  to  get  a  perfect  weld 
in  the  latter  case,  it  seems  best  to  first  upset  the  end 
of  the  pipe  to  obtain  the  necessary  thickness,  which 
should  be  at  least  equal  to  the  normal  pipe  walls  after 
machining  on  both  sides. 

The  form  shown  in  Fig.  4,  in  which  the  stock  is 
somewhat  thinner  at  A  than  the  pipe  wall  and  slightly 
thicker  at  B,  has  given  satisfactory  results.  Finishing 
the  flange  or  lap  is  of  much  importance,  and  in  general 
it  should  be  machined  on  both  sides  to  get  a  tight  and 
durable  joint,  although  in  some  cases  only  the  face  is 
finished  when  the  back  is  accurately  formed  and  the 
scale  carefully  removed.  Tests  made  on  joints  of  this 
construction  show  that  the  laps  will  hold  considerably 
more  pressure  than  the  bolts,  and  with  specially  designed 
flanges  and  bolts  it  has  been  shown  that  the  pipe  will 
burst  before  the  joint  will  give  way.  To  make  a  lasting 
joint,  the  pipe  flange  should  fit  snugly  in  the  hub  of 
the  outer  flange  in  order  to  give  it  the  proper  support. 


April  2.  1918 


POWER 


461 


yor  pressures  above  150  lb.  the  outer  flanges  should  be 
of  the  "hijrh-hub"  type,  made  of  rolled,  forged  or  cast 
steel.  While  a  joint  of  this  type  may  be  made  tight 
without  a  gasket,  by  grinding,  it  is  not  usually  advisable 
in  case  of  inaccessible  mains,  because  a  ground  joint 
is  expensive  and,  even  if  properly  made,  may  become 
loosened  by  the  tremendous  forces  of  expansion  and 
contraction.  It  is  therefore  recommended  that  the  bear- 
ing faces  be  given  a  fine  tool  finish  and  be  provided  with 
a  gasket  suitable  to  the  pressure  and  temperature  car- 
ried. The  ordinary  corrugated  copper  gasket  has  given 
satisfactory  service  for  saturated  steam,  but  does  not 
seem  to  be  good  for  superheated  steam,  owing  to  a  ten- 
dency to  pit  out  in  some  part  of  the  flange  from  some 


AMCMOR 
LUO 


\e 


kJ 


3)      ^ 


L 


Position  of  Diaphraams 
"  vhei 


fr- 


VAftlKTOR     OR  DIAPHRAGM 
EXPAMSIOM  JOINT 


of  it  being  on  small  individual  flanges  that  are  easily 
handled.  Welding  the  ends  of  the  lengths  of  pipe,  with- 
out the  use  of  flanges,  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the 
oxyacetylene  torch  or  the  thermit  welder  and  is  success- 
fully employed  in  laying  lines  of  underground  piping 
for  water,  steam  and  high-pressure  gas.  While  the  work 
may  be  done  with  the  oxyacetylene  torch  in  any  position, 
the  best  results  are  obtained  when  the  pipe  is  rotated 
so  as  to  do  all  the  welding  from  the  top. 

A  committee  of  the  National  District  Heating  Asso- 
ciation, in  1915,  investigated  the  matter  of  pipe  welding 
and  reported  the  cost  to  be  from  25  to  50  per  cent,  less 
than  for  screw  couplings,  depending  upon  whether  the 
work  was  done  on  the  bank  or  in  the  trench.     The  cost 


] 


ELEVATION 


SWiyEL  . 
A 


2 


P  L  A  tl 


DETAIL  or 
StyiVEL  JOINT 


no.  7 

FIG.S.   7  AND  8. 


Fie.  6 

TWO  FORMS  OP  EXPANSION  .JOINTS  IN  GENERAL  USE 


undetermined  cause.  In  place  of  copper  soft  Swedish 
steel  coated  with  "Smooth-on"  cement  has  been  satis- 
factorily used.  Gaskets  made  up  of  copper  on  bronze 
surrounded  with  asbestos  have  also  been  made  use  of. 

The  life  of  the  gasket  depends  largely  upon  the  meth- 
od of  pulling  up  the  bolts.  If  the  joint  is  first  drawn 
up  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  there  is  almost 
certain  to  be  trouble  with  the  gasket,  but  instead  of 
this  procedure  the  bolts  should  be  taken  up  gradually 
and  evenly  all  around  the  flange. 

The  welded  joint  is  made  use  of  in  two  ways — either 
by  welding  heavy  flanges  to  the  ends  of  the  pipe  and 
bolting  them  together  or  by  uniting  the  ends  of  the 
pipe  without  flanges.  Welded  flanges  are  used  where 
the  piping  is  to  be  removable  or  where  it  is  to  be  joined 
to  a  fitting,  but  joints  of  this  kind  are  more  expensive 
than  the  Vanstone  type  because  ail  finishing  must  be 
done  on  heavy  sections  of  piping,  instead  of  a  portion 


per  joint  at  that  time,  for  labor  and  materials  for  work 
done  on  the  bank,  was  estimated  as  follows:  4-in., 
$0.44;  6-in.,  $0.57;  8-in.,  $1.06;  12-in.,  $1.57;  16-in.. 
$2.21.  The  cost  for  welding  in  the  trench  was  estimated 
at  twice  the  foregoing.  If  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
a  section  at  any  subsequent  time,  it  is  easily  cut  out  by 
means  of  the  oxyacetylene  flame  and  a  new  piece  of 
piping  welded  in  by  the  same  means. 

The  expansion  of  wrought-iron  and  steel  pipe  under 
different  conditions  may  be  determined  by  the  formula, 

/  =  0.00009(7',  —  T,)L 
in  which 

f=  Increase  of  length,  in  inches; 
T,  =  Temperature  of  steam  in  pipe ; 
T.,  =  The  lowest  temperature  to  which  the  pipe  is  to 

be  subjected ; 
L  ==:  Original  length  of  pipe  in  feet. 
The   factor  0.00009   is   obtained  by   multiplying  the 


462 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


coefficient  of  expansion,  0.0000075.  by  12,  in  order  to 
reduce  the  length  L  to  feet,  which  puts  the  formula  in 
more  convenient  form  for  general  use. 

Example:  A  main  1000  ft.  long  was  fitted  at  a  tem- 
perature of  60  deg.,  the  lowest  considered,  and  carries 


DOUBLE  OFFSET 
EXPAtlSION  BEliO 

no. 9 


I'lUS.  9  AND  10. 


COMBI/iED    U~ ANO 
QUARTER  BE  no 

Fie.  10 

STANDARD  FORMS  OF  EXPANSION  BENT).'^ 


steam  at  150  lb.  pressure  and  100  deg.  superheat.   What 
will  be  the  increase  in  length  due  to  expansion? 

Here,  T,  =  366  +  100  =  466,  T,  =  60  and  L  1000. 
Substituting  in  the  formula  gives  I  =  0.00009(466  — 


■^ 


There  are  three  methods  commonly  employed  for 
taking  care  of  the  expansion  in  long  runs  of  piping — 
expansion  joints,  which  include  slip  joints  and  variators; 
swivel  joints ;  and  loops.  The  objection  to  slip  joints 
is  th?  difficulty  in  keeping  them  in  working  adjustment, 
for  if  the  gland  is  drawn  up  too  tightly  the  joint  will 
not  slip,  and  on  the  other  hand,  if  too  loosely  adjusted 
leakage  will  take  place.  In  order  to  get  the  best  results, 
the  pipe  line  must  be  securely  anchored  at  suitable  points 
and  also  properly  supported  upon  either  side  of  the 
joint  to  prevent  sagging  and  binding. 

A  simple  way  of  combining  all  of  these  requirements 
in  a  single  fitting  is  shown  in  Fig.  5,  which  illustrates 
double-slip  joint,  outlet  and  anchor.  The  method  of 
installing  this  in  the  line  and  its  relation  to  other  anchors 
is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  Joints  of  this  type  should  be  so 
spaced  that  the  maximum  slippage  will  not  exceed  five 
or  six  inches,  which  in  the  case  of  low-pressure  steam 
or  hot-water  heating  will  mean  every  300  or  400  ft.  A 
typical  expansion  joint  of  the  "variator,"  or  diaphragni, 
type  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  In  this  case  the  expansion  and 
contraction  are  taken  care  of  by  a  pair  of  flexible  cop- 
per diaphragms  of  a  special  form.  .Joints  of  this  design 
avoid  the  use  of  stuffing-boxes  and  all  adjustments,  thus 
making  them  especially  adapted  to  underground  work. 
It  is,  however,  a  patented  device  and  must  therefore 
be  obtained  from  the  manufacturers. 

The  swivel  joint,  or  expansion  loop,  is  also  made  use 
of  in  places  where  suitable.  The  first  of  these  is  usually 
adopted  where  long-radius  bends  are  not  practicable  on 
account  of  lack  of  space  and  where  screwed  fittings  or 
joints  of  the  Vanstone  type  are  used.  A  diagram  of 
this  arrangement  is  shown  in  plan  and  elevation  in 
Fig.  8,  which  illustrates  how  any  lengthening  or  short- 
ening of  the  line  is  taken  up  by  a  slight  turning  or 
swivel  movement  at  the  flanges  at  points  A.  When  there 
is  ample  space,  long-radius  bends  are  preferable  to  any 


CONDUIT  WALL 


ANCHOR 


TxPAfisioN     CU  "  "^Hl     expansion' 

Expansion  in  Opposite  Directions 
FIQ.I2 


LOOP 


LOOP 


^mJX 


ANCHOR 


EXPANSION 


GUIDE      (f^      / 


ANCHOR 


BAR  AND  STRAP  ANCHOR 
P  l_A  li 

Fie.  14 


or r SET  EXPAIiSION 
LOOP 

Fie.  II 

PIUS.   11    TO   LI. 


EXPAhSION 
Expansion  in  Same  Direction 
FIO.I3 


\expansion 


LINE  CONSTRUCTION  WHTH   EXPANSION   LOOPS  AND  ANCHORS 


60)1000  =  36.5  in.,  or  practically  3  ft.  This  shows  the 
importance  of  providing  means  for  taking  care  of  the 
variation  in  length  so  as  to  avoid  throwing  undue  strain 
on  pipe  and  fittings.  In  low-pressure  steam  and  water 
heating  the  expansion  is  much  less,  owing  to  lower  work- 
ing temperature.  In  work  of  this  kind  the  increase  in 
length  will  not  usually  exceed  1.5  in.  per  100  ft.  of  run. 


TEE  AJ1CMOR 

no  15 

other  method,  especially  for  high-pressure  work.  In  this 
case  all  movement  of  the  pipe  is  taken  up  by  the  elasticity 
of  the  metal,  thereby  doing  away  with  any  movement  at 
joints.  A  typical  expansion  loop  is  shown  in  Fig.  9. 
and  as  the  pipe  itself  is  under  an  enormous  strain,  it 
is  evident  that  the  loop  must  be  carefully  proportioned 
in  order  not  to  overtax  any  part  of  it. 


April  2.  1918 


POWER 


468 


Table  I,  made  up  from  curves  published  some  time 
apo  in  the  Electrical  World,  gives  the  maximum  allow- 
able expansion  for  different  sizes  of  pipe  with  varying 
radii  of  bend  of  the  general  form  shown  in  Fig.  9. 

For  example,  a  loop  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  9, 
made  of  8-in.  pipe  and  having  bends  with  a  radius 
of  70  in.,  will  safely  care  for  8  in.  of  expansion.    When 

T.\BLE  I.     ALLOWABLE  EXPANSION,  IN   INCHES 

Mi-an  UHcliu.-i)f  Bend  (R  Fig  9) 

Diameter  of  Pipe,  Inches        30   40  50   60  70  80   100 

J  J    6  9   13  .18 

4  2.5    4  7   10  M  18 

5 3  6    8  11  15  23 

6 5    7  10  12  20 

8 6  8  ID  15 

10  4  6  8  12 

12   3  4  5   5  10 

'4  4  5  5  8 

the  loop  is  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  10,  take  80 
per  cent,  of  the  expansion  given  in  Table  I  for  the  same 
pipe  size  and  radius  of  bend. 

These  figures  are  based  on  the  strain  in  the  pipe,  and 
any  strain  at  the  flange  joints  other  than  that  parallel 
with  the  axis  of  the  line  should  be  guarded  against  by 
guides,  as  indicated. 

Sometimes  the  expansion  loop  is  made  up  of  a  pipe 
bend  and  fittings,  as  in  Fig.  11,  in  which  case  Table  II 
may  be  used  to  give  the  required  length  of  offset  for 
different  amounts  of  expansion  and  different  sizes  of 
pipe.  These  figures  take  into  account  the  strain  on  the 
fitting  as  well  as  on  the  pipe  and  are  therefore  some- 
what higher  than  would  be  required  if  the  fiber  strain 
of  the  pipe  alone  were  considered. 

The  inner  radius  of  the  bend  at  the  end  of  the  loop 
should  never  be  less  than  five  diameters  of  the  pipe, 
and  a  length  of   straight  pipe  equal  to  two  or  three 

T.^BLE  II.     LENGTH  OF  STRAIGHT  PIPE  IN  OFFSET.  IN  FEET 
(Fig.    II) 

. Diameter  of  Pipe.  Inches . 

Expansion  in  Inches  3  4  5     6  8  10  12  14 

1   7  8  9  10  11  12  13  14 

2  9  11  12  13  15  lb  18  19 

3 11  13  15  16  18  20  22  24 

4 13  15  17  19  21  24  25  28 

5 15  17  19  21  •  24  27  29  32 

6 17  19  20  23  26  29  32  35 

7 18  20  22  24  28  31  34  37 

8  20  22  24  26  30  33  36  40 

diameters  should  be  provided  at  each  end  for  handling 
in  the  process  of  bending.  In  order  to  distribute  the 
expansion  evenly  between  the  different  joints  or  loops, 
it  is  necessary  to  anchor  the  pipe  at  regular  intervals. 
The  method  of  placing  the  anchors  for  a  double-slip 
expansion  joint  is  shown  in  Fig.  6,  in  which  case  the 
expansion  is  toward  the  joint  from  either  side,  as 
indicated  by  the  arrows.  This  arrangement  is  also 
applicable  to  an  expansion  loop,  as  in  Fig.  12.  When 
it  is  desired  to  use  shorter  loops,  they  may  be  placed 
close  together  and  the  expansion  made  to  take  place 
continuously  in  one  direction,  as  in  Fig.  13.  which  shows 
the  arrangement  of  guides  and  anchors  with  reference 
to  the  loop.  The  layouts  shown  are  for  long  lines 
of  pipe.  It  frequently  happens  in  practice  that  suffi- 
cient offsets  and  changes  in  direction  are  necessary  to 
reach  the  different  buildings  to  furnish  a  considerable 
part  of  the  flexibility  required  without  the  use  of 
special  joints.  Conditions  of  this  kind  should  be  fully 
taken  advantage  of  in  order  to  simplify  the  construction 
and  reduce  the  co.st  of  installation. 

Various  methods  are  employed  for  anchoring  a  pipe 
line,  depending  upon  local  conditions.  A  simple  form 
that  may  be  applied  at  any  flanged  joint  or  offtake 
fitting  is   shown   in   Fig.    14,   and   is   self-explanatory. 


Another,  formed  of  a  tee  fitting  with  the  side  outlet 
closed,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  15.  This  requires  a  special 
foundation  built  into  the  conduit  to  which  the  flange  of 
the  tee  is  bolted.  All  expansion  joints  of  the  slip  or 
"variator"  type  which  have  moving  parts  should  be 
placed  in  manhole  chambers  where  they  are  readily  ac- 
cessible. Expansion  loops  should  have  ample  room  to 
expand  in  the  conduits  or  chambers  without  coming  in 
contact  with  the  side  walls  or  other  piping.  The  method 
of  support  will  depend  largely  upon  whether  the  pipes 
are  carried  through  tunnels  or  conduits  of  compara- 
tively small  size  and  is  best  taken  up  in  connection  with 
tunnel  and  conduit  construction. 

Boiler  E.xplosion  at  Providence,  R.I. 

By  H.  S.  Knowlton 

A  sixty-inch  horizontal  return-tubular-  boiler  at  the 
Mt.  Pleasant  Wet  Wash  Laundry,  Providence,  R.  I., 
exploded  at  6 :  40  a.m.  Monday,  Mar.  4,  killing  three 
persons,  seriously  injuring  four  others  and  completely 
wrecking  the  establishment.  The  boiler  was  being  fired 
by  one  of  the  proprietors,  who  was  killed.  It  was  in- 
spected July  15,  1917,  by  E.  W.  Farmer,  city  boiler 
inspector  of  Providence,  and  was  reported  then  in  first- 
class  condition.  Business  growth  at  the  laundry  led 
to   the   recent   purchase   of  two   large   washers,   which 


I      a  ^ 

r      Tear  mrou^/i  Plaie 

Inificul  Rupture 
/  a/ -fh/s  Joint 

PIG.     1.    WHERE    INITIAL   RUPTURE   OCCURRED   AND    AP- 
PROXIM.ATE  PATH  OF  TEAR  THROUGH  FIR.ST  SHEET 

were  being  placed  in  service  for  the  first  time  on  the 
morning  of  the  explosion. 

The  boiler  contained  sixty  3-in.  tubes  16  ft.  long  and 
was  hand-fired.  It  supplied  steam  to  a  small  single- 
cylinder  engine  and  to  the  various  steam-heated 
machinery  housed  in  the  laundry,  a  50  x  60-ft.  one-story 
wooden  structure.  As  the  fireman  was  instantly  killed, 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  with  exactness  the  con- 
dition immediately  preceding  the  explosion,  but  one  of 
the  partners  of  the  concern,  who  passed  through  the 
boiler  room  at  4:30  a.m.,  states  that  at  that  time  the 
steam  gage  showed  a  pressure  of  55  lb.  and  that  about 
four  inches  of  water  was  showing  in  the  gage-glass. 

Examination  of  the  boiler  after  the  disaster  disclosed 
no  apparent  structural  defects.  The  boiler  sheets  had 
no  indication  of  having  been  burned  or  of  crystallization 
where  the  fracture  occurred.  The  explosion  tore  the 
boiler  in  two.  The  rear  sheet  and  tube  head,  Fig.  2, 
were  thrown  backward  to  a  point  just  behind  the 
original  location  of  the  boiler.  The  other  section,  com- 
prising the  center  and  front  sheet,  Fig.  3,  opened  up, 
the  shell  being  torn  away  from  the  tube  sheet  and  flat- 
tened out  in  an  irregular  plate.  Many  of  the  tubes 
were  blown  out  and  scattered  about  the  neighborhood 
for  distances  up  to  600  ft.,  but  the  damage  was  slight 
excepting  in  the  laundrj'  itself. 

From  the  appearance  of  the  wreckage  it  is  deduced 
that   the   initial   failure   occurred    in   the   longitudinal 


464 


PO  WEE 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


seam  of  the  center  sheet  and  extended  to  the  girth  seam 
between  the  first  and  second  sheets.  From  this  point 
the  first  sheet  was  torn  diagonally  through  the  solid 
metal  to  the  front  head  about  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The 
opening  up  of  the  center  sheet  tore  through  the  rivet 


FIG.    2.       KKAR    SHI'Ipyr    (iF   THE    KXPLODED    BOILER 

holes  on  the  girth  seam,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  A  portion  of 
the  sheet  of  the  rear  section  was  torn  instead  of  the 
rupture  following  the  rivet  holes  of  the  girth  seam. 

The  boiler  was  of  the  single  butt-strap  double-riveted 
design,  the  rivets  being  't  in.  in  diameter,  spaced  3  in. 
apart  on  centers  and  staggered  in  rows  2  in.  apart.   The 


.-ihell  plate  was  -{\,  in.  thick.  In  the  rear  section  six  of 
the  tubes  remained  attached  to  the  tube  sheet,  and  al- 
though some  of  these  were  flattened  out  and  bent,  no 
signs  of  fracture  could  be  seen.  There  was  a  slight  pit- 
ting on  the  front  tube  sheet,  and  a  little  pitting  was 
noticed  on  the  side  of  the  larger  sheet  fragment. 

Most  of  the  braces,  which  were  II  in.  diameter,  re- 
mained in  place  in  the  rear  section  of  the  boiler,  the 
rivets  of  which  held  with  the  exception  of  three  at  the 
girth  seam,  which  were  in  a  longitudinal  .ioint,  these 
three  being  sheared  off. 

The  boiler  had  not  been  operated  for  about  48  hours 
prior  to  opening  the  laundry  on  the  morning  of  the 
explosion,  but  there  had  been  a  pressure  of  about  20  lb. 
throughout  the  night.  The  boiler  was  operated  at  75 
lb.  pressure;  it  was  about  six  years  old  and  was  allowed 
a  maximum  pressure  of  100  lb.  The  safety  valve  was 
of  the  ball-and-lever  type  and  was  connected  to  the 
boiler  by  a  cast-iron  nozzle  of  light  construction.  The 
safety  valve  had  not  lifted  from  one  year's  end  to  the 
other,  and  on  the  night  before  the  explosion  the  partner 
who  was  killed  moved  the  ball  out  to  the  end  of  the 
lever,  which  put  the  blowing-off  point  to  120  lb.  instead 
of  100,  allowed  on  the  inspection  certificate,  and  75  lb., 
the  normal  operating  pressure. 

Summing  up,  the  evidence  is  that  the  boiler  operator 
was  not  experienced;  the  single  butt-strap  joint  on  the 
longitudinal  seam  was  of  poor  construction ;  the  violence 
of  the  explosion  indicates  that  there  was  plenty  of  water 
and  a  high  steam  pressure.  A  sticking  safety  valve, 
together  with  the  weight  moved  to  the  extreme  end  of 
the  lever  and  a  hot  fire  in  the  furnace,  left  to  take  care 
of  itself  (as  was  done  while  the  engine  and  other  ma- 
chinery was  being  got  ready  for  starting  up)  are  the 
probable  causes  for  the  explosion. 


FIG.  3.     FRONT  TUBE  SHEET  AND  FIRST  TWO  SHELL  SHEETS 


April  2.  1918 


POWER 


465 


Hydro-Electric  Power  Development  in 

Australia  and  New  Zealand 

By  LUDWICx  SCHMIDT 

— ; a  decline  in  expansion  have  added  to  a  general  activity 

,  .     .■  w  M    ^  M      I  ,    J        I    ^   •  '1  the  industry  itself.     With   Australia   receiving  less 

An  account  of  the  preaent  state  of  hijaro-elertnc  ,      .  ...i,  ■    ,     ^  „  j 

.  \     ,.         J  »7        '„     ,     J    X,  goods  from  abroad,  the  home  industry  was  compelled 

development  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the  ,  ,  .,      ,  ^r  i  ■         '  -^11 

,       ^       .  ,  .         .  ,  to  make  up  the  loss.     New  machinery  was  introduced, 

proposed   extenfsions    and   new    enterprises,    and  j      -1.1    xi.  1  •  ^    ^     •  x,    j 

...      ^,.        .  ^,     ,       ,        J...  ,         ,  .  ,  and  with  the  machinery  new  manufacturing  methods, 

a  brtef  outline  of  the  legal  conditions  under  which  ...  uj-  .  .-  ^i.- 

...  ,  .,  , ,  which    resulted   in   a   greater   consumption    of   electric 

the  water-power  resources  are  made  available.  .,        ,,       ,    ,      ,       .    ,  .   j     .  ,  •  , 

power.     Also,  the  electrochemical  industry,  which  was 

much  benefited  by  the  war,  increased  the  demand  on 

THE  utilization  of  the  water-power  resources  of  ^^e  power  resources  of  the  country, 
tne  Australian  continent,  if  not  exactly  a  monopoly  The  yearly  report  of  the  Melbourne  Electrical  Supply 
of  the  government,  is  at  least  a  prerogative  Co.  is  generally  regarded  as  an  index  of  the  state  of 
secured  to  the  nation  hv  a  series  of  laws  passed  during  the  electrical  industry  of  the  Dominion.  The  following 
the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years.  As  these  laws  are  fi^"»'^«-  therefore,  are  of  interest:  During  the  year 
similar,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  give  the  principles  of  ^^^^  to  1910  this  company  had  an  increase  of  20  per 
the  law  of  the  State  of  Victoria,  which  was  passed  in  cent,  in  the  number  of  consumers.  The  power  supply 
1896.  According  to  this  law,  the  state  reserves  to  '•"^^  ^^  P«^  <=ent.,  the  total  connections  22  per  cent., 
itself  the  right  to  generate  electrical  power  including  ^"d  the  number  of  units  sold  36  per  cent,  above 
that  drawn  from  natural  sources.  This  right  can  be  t^^^t  of  the  year  before.  The  gross  revenue  was  24 
delegated  to  others  under  a  special  license,  which,  P^r  cent,  higher  than  that  of  the  preceding  year, 
however,  in  the  case  of  a  person  or  a  private  corpora-  Similar  indications  of  great  prosperity  in  the  elec- 
tion, cannot  run  longer  than  thirty  years.  At  the  trical  industry  of  Australia  may  be  found  in  the  reports 
expiration  of  the  term  the  license  may  be  renewed  at  ^^  ^any  other  undertakings;  but  the  character  of  the 
the  option  of  the  state,  under  modified  conditions  which  electrical  materials  imported  shows  clearly  the  direction 
apply  mostly  to  the  optional  powers  of  the  municipalities  the  electrical  business  has  taken  during  recent  years, 
or  the  state  to  acquire,  when  desired,  the  property  of  ^^uring  the  years  1915  and  1916,  for  instance,  the  State 
the  licensee  for  the  purpose  of  municipal  or  state  ^f  New  South  Wales  received  from  the  United  States 
operation.  No  electrical  enterprise  can  be  undertaken  the  following  electrical  machines  and  supplies: 
without  the  issuance  of  a  special  order  or  permit.  This  1915  1916 
stipulation,  however,  does  not  apply  to  private  under-  switHies'^  ^'w.ms  ^^ItjVa 
takings,    such   as   installations   made    in    factories    and  HoatiDg  and  cooking  apparatus                                   9.378  9.578 

*^    '  Electroliers  ..  18.361  27,113 

for    similar    purposes.       The    carrying    of    overhead    lines  Regulating,  starting,  and  controlling  apparatus 150,715  96,000 

Telephones.  180,303  303,319 

requires  special  permission  by  the  local  or  government  Accumulators  .  47,269  13,880 

^,         .^.  ^!_  ,  ,T-    u  4.  Arc  lamps  21,544  15,041 

authorities,  as  the  case  may  be.     High-pressure  trans-  cables 15.612  28,934 

mission    lines    are    subject    to    special    control.      The  ^"-^>'-''™"= '"^  ^^•'»*'' 

government    retains    the    right    to    review    the    rates         It  will  be  noticed  that  the  demand  has  run  rather  in 

charged,   and   no   enterprise   may   discriminate  against  favor  of  material  for  extension  purposes  than  materials 

any  consumer  as  to  distribution  or  charges.  for  new  installations. 

In  the  meantime,   however,   interest   in   future   elec- 

Distribution  of  Operating  Licenses  in  Victoria  ^^.^^^  development  in   Australia  is  far  from  waning. 

Under  this  law  107  licenses  were  issued  in  Victoria  Good  progress  has  been  made  in  charting  and  develop- 

from  1896  to  1914,  of  which  57  allowed  the  operation  ing    the    existing    natural    power    resources.      In    this 

of   municipal   enterprises,    49    applied    to   private   and  respect    Tasmania   has   been    especially    active.      Theo- 

corporate  enterprises  and  one  was  given  to  the  govern-  retically  the  Island  of  Tasmania  seems  to  offer  great 

ment.      As    to    the    influence    of    the    laws    governing  possibilities    for    hydro-electric    development,    but    in 

transmission  of  power,  the  result  has  been  a  prepon-  practice  the  situation   is  not  quite  so  favorable.     The 

derance    in    favor    of    overhead    transmission,    which  many    small   and    large    rivers    which    form    important 

e.\tended  during  1914  over  3233  miles,  while  there  were  falls  are  not  water  carriers   during  the  whole  year, 

in  existence  only  80  miles  of  underground  cables.  They  lose  much  of  their  force  during  the  dry  season, 

Electrical  enterprise  and  power  development  had  been  and  successful  hydro-electric  development  becomes  pos- 
extremely  active  in  Australia  before  the  war,  but  since  sible  only  where  the  flow  of  the  river  can  be  supple- 
that  time  progress  has  been  slower,  apparently  because  mented  by  the  use  of  artificial  or  natural  reservoirs, 
of  the  general  contraction  of  capital.  Lack  of  suitable  Such  locations  are  few  on  the  island,  and  where  they 
shipping  facilities  made  it  difficult  for  Australia  to  exist  they  are  not  situated  within  easy  access  of  the 
dispose  of  its  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials  in  the  world's  centers  that  would  be  most  benefited  by  them.  Even 
market.  The  result  was  a  general  desire  to  save  on  the  big  natural  reservoir  which  is  now  used  for  hydro- 
the  part  of  municipalities  and  the  government,  both  electric  power  generation  on  a  large  scale  is  far  re- 
ef which  are  responsible  for  the  extension  of  electric  moved  from  its  principal  consumer,  the  City  of  Hobart 
enterprise.     On  the  other  hand,  the  causes  that  led  to  and  the  surrounding  district. 


466 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


The  so-called  Great  Lake  of  Tasmania  lies  in  the 
center  of  the  island  at  an  altitude  of  3350  ft.  above 
sea  level.  It  has  an  area  of  42  square  miles  and 
draws  its  water  from  a  watershed  covering  200  square 
miles  or  more.  During  at  least  six  months  of' the  year 
this  region  has  a  comparatively  heavy  fall  of  rain,  which, 
if  retained,  guarantees  to  the  rivers  flowing  out  of 
the  lake  a  sufficient  surplus  of  water  to  eliminate  the 
dauj^er  of  their  becoming  useless  for  power  generation 
during  the  dry  months.  Here,  with  the  help  of  a  dam 
conserving  the  waters  of  the  lake,  is  in  operation  the 
government  hydro-electric  plant,  which  serves  Hobart 
and  other  cities  of  Tasmania  with  electric  light  and 
power.  The  dam  is  run  across  the  southern  end  of 
the  Great  Lake,  and  the  waters  are  led  by  the  existing 
river  bed  to  a  second  reservoir  from  which  pipe  lines 
feed  the  turbines. 

Government  Assists  Development  in  Tasmania 

The  Great  Lake  region  is  not  easily  accessible,  and 
much  tim.e,  labor  and  money  were  lost  in  transporting 
materials  and  machinery  to  the  building  grounds.  So 
it  happened  that  the  capital  provided  by  the  promoters 
proved  to  be  insufficient,  and  the  work  was  in  danger 
of  being  discontinued,  as  it  was  imp'issible  at  the  time 
to  get  additional  capital.  So  the  government  of  Tas- 
mania, unwilling  to  let  lapse  a  project  which,  when 
completed,  would  benefit  the  whole  country  materially, 
stepped  in  and  undertook  to  finish  the  scheme  under  an 
agreement  with  the  former  owners. 

After  the  government  took  hold,  the  woi-k  progressed 
very  rapidly.  The  station  finally  was  opened  during 
1916  with  an  initial  development  of  10,000  hp.  of  the 
100,000  hp.  which  is  expected  to  be  available.  The 
result  of  the  opening  has  been  that  most  of  the  cities 
in  proximity  to  the  station  either  have  given  up  their 
own  power  enterprises  or  have  connected  their  stations 
with  the  government  scheme. 

The  City  of  Hobart  has  entered  into  an  agreement 
which  secures  to  the  city  at  least  1,500,000  units  per 
annum,  to  be  used  for  municipal  and  private  purposes. 
The  city  pays  a  minimum  price  for  the  power  con- 
sumed and  undertakes  to  do  everything  in  its  power 
to  increase  the  sale  and  use  of  electrical  power  within 
its  limits.  The  government  reserves  the  right  to  deal 
directly  with  consumers  that  buy  more  than  500  hp. 
The  government  also  bought  the  existing  generating 
plant  of  the  city,  to  be  used  in  an  emergency,  and  it 
is  stipulated  that  the  city  shall  have  the  first  call  on 
the  power  generated  in  this  station,  should  the  occa- 
sion arise. 

Electric  Power  for  Mining  Companies 

The  government  also  has  made  power-supply  agree- 
ments with  several  of  the  large  mining  and  electro- 
metallurgical  enterprises  that  operate  in  the  island, 
such  as  Amalgamated  Zinc,  Ltd.,  and  the  Mount  Lyell 
Co.  Beginning  with  the  first  of  January  of  the  present 
year,  the  government  agrees  to  supply  Amalgamated 
Zinc  with  4000  hp.,  and  within  two  years  that  company 
agrees  to  take  26,000  additional  horsepower  at  a  price 
of  $800,000  per  year  for  the  30.000  hp.  It  also  has  a 
call  for  20,000  hp.,  which  need  not  be  taken  from  the 
Great  Lake  development.  Under  a  similar  agreement 
the  Mount  Lyell  Co.  will  receive  50,000  hp.     The  ex- 


tension of  the  plant  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  these 
additional  demands  is  already  under  way,  and  during 
the  spring  of  last  year  $855,000  was  voted  by  the 
Tasmanian  government  for  the  further  development 
of  the  site. 

There  has  been  some  dissatisfaction  among  Tas- 
manian manufacturers  over  the  government's  action 
in  distributing  the  vast  power  resources  of  the  Great 
Lake  to  big  industrial  enterprises,  and  so  there  has 
been  an  extension  of  surveys  made  in  the  island  for 
other  sites  likely  to  be  used  for  power  development. 
As  a  result  the  following  new  developments  have  been 
proposed:  A  development  of  10,000  hp.  can  be  obtained 
on  Lake  Rolleston,  near  Zeehan.  There  are  several 
prospective  sites  on  the  Franklin  River.  The  Great 
Lake  region  contains,  apart  from  the  big  development 
described,  a  possible  development  of  at  least  40,000  hp. 
on  the  Derwent  River,  which  would  have  to  be  worked 
in  conjunction  with  the  lake.  From  40,000  to  50,000 
hp.  ma.v  be  obtained  on  the  Arthur  Lakes. 

In  the  meantime  work  has  begun  on  the  Mount  Lyell 
development  on  King  River.  Here  a  dam  120  ft.  high 
across  a  narrow  gorge  forms  a  reservoir  of  3A  square 
miles,  sufficient  to  generate  30,000  hp.  The  water  is 
carried  in  pipe  lines  to  the  power  station,  which  will 
be  operated  by  the  government  and  will  be  used  prin- 
cipally to  furnish  current  for  the  electrical  treatment 
of  zinc  ores. 

Hydro-Electric  Tendencies  in  New  Zealand 

The  present  tendency  of  hydro-electric  development 
in  New  Zealand  probably  is  best  characterized  by 
quoting  from  the  report  of  U.  S.  Consul  Alfred  A. 
Winslow,  of  Auckland.  This  report  says:  "Much 
preliminary  work  is  being  done  on  proposed  public 
works,  such  as  extensive  harbor  improvements  at 
several  ports,  hydro-electric  plants  and  new  railway 
developments  on  North  Island,  many  new  public  build- 
ings and  extensive  road  building  to  open  up  new  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  The  government  hydro-electric 
plant  at  Lake  Coleridge,  about  70  miles  west  of  Christ- 
church,  was  opened  during  the  year  with  splendid  re- 
sults for  Christchurch  and  vicinity.  The  city  is  now 
lighted  by  electricity,  the  tramcars  are  operated  with 
power  from  this  source,  and  many  of  the  industries 
in  and  about  the  city  secure  their  power  from  this 
plant,  at  very  low  rates  in  all  cases.  There  is  a  demand 
for  more  current  than  can  be  supplied  by  the  present 
installation  of  6000  hp.,  and  it  is  proposed  to  put  in 
another  unit  of  equal  power.  The  Minister  of  Public 
Works  has  announced  that  progress  was  made  on  the 
preliminary  work  for  government  hydro-electric  devel- 
opment in  the  North  Island  and  that  the  work  will 
progress  until  completed,  with  a  view  to  developing 
the  scheme  as  soon  as  conditions  warrant." 

These  preparations  in  the  meantime  have  developed 
rapidly,  and  they  show  that  a  great  number  of  sites 
will  be  available  for  hydro-electric  purposes  in  the 
island.  The  most  promising  are  the  following:  A  large 
development  able  to  produce  120,000  hp.  on  a  50  per 
cent,  load-factor  basis  at  the  Arapuni  Gorge,  eight  miles 
from  Hira  Hira.  Of  this  total,  30,000  hp.  could  be  de- 
veloped at  a  cost  of  $6,000,000  This  would  be  sufficient 
to  cover  the  present  demand  for  power  from  Auckland 
and  surrounding  districts.     The  most  suitable  source 


April  2,  1918 


POWER 


467 


of  power  supply  for  the  City  of  Wellington  is  the 
Manffahao  River,  where  approximately  50,000  hp.  would 
be  available.  If  this  should  not  be  sufficient,  there  is 
another  site  in  the  Taranaki  district  offering  good 
facilities.  The  Hawkes  Bay  district,  finally,  could  draw 
its  power  supply  from  Lake  Waikaramoana. 

The  scheme  of  power  development  proposed  by  Evan 
Parry,  the  chief  electrical  engineer  of  the  Public  Works 
Department,  is  very  far-reaching.  It  not  only  provides 
for  an  early  development  of  the  principal  sites  avail- 
able, but  it  contemplates  also  to  link  up  these  sites. 
This  would  add  materially  to  the  security  of  the  out- 
put and  would  guarantee  to  the  whole  North  Island  a 
continuous  source  of  cheap  power  probably  not  to  be 
found  in  any  other  territory  of  the  same  extent  in  the 
whole  world. 

The  Wellington  scheme  utilizing  the  waters  of  the 
Mangahao  River  provides  for  an  interesting  engineering 
feat,  as  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  a  tunnel  through 
the  mountain  range  separating  that  river  from  the 
Tokomaru  River  With  the  help  of  this  tunnel  the  waters 
of  the  latter  river  will  be  fed  to  the  Mangahao.  The 
power  station  will  be  situated  on  the  Mangahao,  within 
easy  reach  of  the  railroad,  so  that  material  can  be 
transported  to  the  site  without  much  difficulty.  To 
develop  25,000  hp.  in  this  locality  will  cost  approxi- 
mately $2,100,000.  To  this  will  have  to  be  added  the 
cost  of  providing  the  trunk  lines  and  other  installation 
necessary  for  power  distribution  to  the  district,  which 
is  estimated  at  approximately  $2,900,000,  bringing  the 
cost  of  the  scheme  to  $5,000,000  in  all.  Trunk  lines 
will  be  run  from  the  central  generating  station  to 
Wellington,  Palmerston  North,  Wanganui,  and  Master- 
ton  as  chief  distributing  centers.  The  power  wall  be 
sold  to  the  municipalities  in  bulk  for  distribution  to 
small  consumers,  and  the  larger  consumers  will  be 
supplied  by  the  government. 

The  enterprise  shown  by  the  New  Zealand  govern- 
ment doubtless  has  been  stimulated  very  much  by  the 
great  success  of  the  Lake  Coleridge  development,  the 
opening  of  which  took  place  during  1916.  The  Christ- 
church  municipality  says  in  its  yearly  report  that  the 


development  has  proved  an  unqualified  success,  and  a 
governmental  report  dealing  with  the  same  subject 
points  out  that  the  effect  of  the  new  power  source  was 
evidenced  immediately  by  a  great  activity  in  all  indus- 
tries. 

The  original  development  of  the  Lake  Coleridge 
scheme  provided  for  fiOOO  hp.,  but  during  the  erection 
of  the  plant  it  became  apparent  that  this  would  not  be 
sufficient  to  meet  the  large  demand,  and  it  was  finally 
decided  to  add  another  unit  of  2000  hp.  to  the  three 
already  existing.  During  the  first  year  of  operation 
a  fifth  unit  of  4000  hp.  was  added.  The  plant  earned 
enough  during  the  first  year  of  operation  to  pay  for 
itj,  running  expenses,  and  satisfactory  progress  has 
been  made  since  then.  R.  A.  Lundquist,  the  United 
States  Commercial  Agent,  who  recently  visited  New 
Zealand,  says  that  the  Lake  Coleridge  power  plant 
ultimately  will  supply  a  territory  75  to  100  miles  north 
and  south  of  Christchurch. 

The  future  of  the  electrical-power  situation  in  New 
Zealand  will  depend  largely  upon  the  success  of  the 
present  undertakings.  As  in  Australia,  hydro-electric 
development  in  New  Zealand  is  a  prerogative  of  the 
government  under  a  law  passed  in  1887  and  extended 
in  1908.  Under  this  law  there  are  in  operation  at 
present  111  electrical  undertakings,  10  of  which  refer 
to  tramway  systems. 

The  present  tendency  all  over  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land is  to  make  use  as  much  as  possible  of  the  hydro- 
electric powers  available  in  preference  to  all  other  kinds 
of  power.  The  demand,  however,  has  not  grown  to 
such  an  extent  that  hydro-electric  generation  can  be 
used  to  advantage  in  all  locations.  The  result  is  that 
there  is  still  a  very  extensive  demand  for  steam  tur- 
bines and  engines.  The  fact  that  coal  can  be  obtained 
at  a  fairly  low  rate  gives  steam  generation  a  decided 
advantage  over  gas  and  the  internal-combustion  oil 
motor.  According  to  R.  A.  Lundquist,  there  will  be 
a  demand,  as  far  as  New  Zealand  is  concerned,  for 
steam  turbines  in  units  of  about  500  to  600  hp.  for 
central  stations.  Below  that  horsepower  steam  engines 
will  be  favored  for  the  present. 


Bonus  Plan  for  Boiler-Plant  Operatives 


By  HAYLETT  O'NEILL 


The  author  proposes  a  boyius  plan  whereby  the 
firemen,  boiler  cleaners  and  fire  cleaners  may 
share  in  the  saving  effected  by  close  attention  to 
operation  and  maintenance  of  the  boiler-room 
equipment.  Numerous  charts  are  given  to  read- 
ily check  up  performance  of  the  boilers,  efficiency 
being  rapidly  estimated  on  CO.  content  of  flue 
gases  and  temperature  of  uptake  gases. 

THE  principal  argument  for  a  boiler-room  bonus 
plan  is  that  such  a  system,  in  stimulating  effi- 
ciency and  thereby  resulting  in  the  workman  get- 
ting part  of  the  money  that  otherwise  would  go  to  the 
coal  dealer,  makes  employer  and  employee  partners  for 
each  other's  benefit. 

The  extraction  of  heat  from  fuel  to  generate  steam 


is  a  complicated  process.  Some  of  the  factors  of  waste 
and  efficiency  are  inherent  by  nature  in  the  fuel,  at- 
mospheric conditions,  etc.,  while  others  are  dependent 
upon  the  design,  operation  and  upkeep  of  the  furnace 
and  boiler.  Ordinarily,  a  plant  using  modern  stoking 
equipment  should  get  better  results  than  a  hand-fired 
plant.  But  unfortunately,  the  elimination  of  old  equip- 
ment comes  slowly  and  the  object  of  a  bonus  must  be  to 
obtain  the  best  results  with  existing  apparatus. 

Practically  every  bonus  is  estimated  from  one  or  both 
of  two  measurements :  ( 1 )  Over-all  plant  efficiency  or 
money  cost  of  steam  production;  (2)  percentage  of  CO, 
in  the  flue  gas,  an  index  to  the  efficiency  of  firing  and 
maintenance  of  the  boiler  settings. 

To  be  of  value  the  first  system  requires  regular  and 
accurate  analyses  of  coal  fired,  weights  of  coal  fired  and 
water  evaporated,  etc.,  and  while  the  over-all  efficiency 
obtained  is  the  final  test  of  plant  operation,  the  system 


468 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


by  itself  is  faulty  in  that  there  is  no  fixation  of  re- 
sponsibility for  savings  or  losses  upon  the  individuals 
concerned  in  the  various  operations.  Such  a  system  is 
proper  when  its  benefits  are  applied  to  the  chief  engi- 
neer or  chief  executive. 

The  CO,  system,  where  the  flue  gas  is  accurately 
sampled  for  an  entire  period  and  analyzed,  gets  surpris- 
ing results  in  many  places;  but  such  a  system  is  faulty 


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FIG.  1.     VARIATION  IN  EXCESS  AIR  WITH  CO2  WHEN  FUEL 
IS  COMPOSED  OF  CARBON  AND  HYDROGEN 

in  that  CO,  percentage  by  itself  has  no  relation  to  the 
demands  on  the  coal  pile.  The  CO.,  merely  measures 
the  degree  of  air  supplied  in  excess  to  that  theoretic- 
ally required  as  a  minimum  for  perfect  combustion  of  a 
given  fuel.  Thus,  as  in  Fig.  1,  with  coal  containing 
about  5  lb.  of  hydrogen  per  100  lb.  of  combustible,  10 
per  cent.  CO^  indicates  that  23.2  lb.  air  was  supplied 


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PIG.  2.    BOILER  EFFICIENCIES  ESTIMATED  FROM  CO^  AND 
Fl^UE    TEMPERATURES — EASTERN    COALS 

per  pound  of  combustible,  or  80  per  cent,  in  excess  of 
theoretical  requirements. 

By  far  the  greatest  operating  loss  in  a  boiler  and  fur- 
nace is  that  loss  of  heat  which  escapes  in  the  flue  gas, 
and  this  heat  is  measured  by  the  weight  of  gas  and  its 


temperature.  Consequently,  a  knowledge  of  flue  tem- 
perature is  essential  to  the  measurement  of  boiler-room 
losses.  These  two  measurements  can  be  made  to  accu- 
rately indicate  the  total  losses. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  calculated  combined  boiler  and  fur- 
nace eflficiency  in  terms  of  CO,  and  flue  temperature. 


300        400         500         600  700         SOO         900 

Flue    Temperatui-e.  Deg.    Fahr 

FIG.    3.      RELATION    BETWEEN   CO2   AND   FLUE    TEMPERA- 
TURES   FOR    CONSTANT    BOILER    EFFICIENCY 

The  values  are  calculated  with  certain  operating  condi- 
tions, actually  variable,  assumed  as  constant,  when  the 
samples  of  gas  and  temperatures  are  accurately  taken 
and  averaged  over  a  given  period.  There  will  be  found 
a  remarkable  agreement  with  actual  efficiencies  as  de- 


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FIG.    4. 


SAVING    IN   COAL   FOR   CONST.^NT    EV.4.PORATION 
BY   INCREASING  CO; 


termined  in  the  usual  approved  manner.  That  is  to  say, 
if  the  average  CO,  and  flue  temperature  were  respec- 
tively 10  per  cent,  and  600  deg.  F.,  the  average  combined 
boiler  and  furnace  efficiency  would  be  70  per  cent,  with- 
in 1  or  2  per  cent,  above  or  below. 


April  2.  1918 


POWER 


469 


Per    Cen-t,  COj 
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Fig.  3  shows  more  clearly  the  same  values,  but  with 
COj  and  flue  temperature  plotted  against  each  other  for 
fixed  combined  boiler  and  furnace  efliciencies:  That 
is,  with  8  per  cent.  CO,  there  would  be  the  same  boiler 
efficiencies  as  with  14  per  cent.  CO,;  or  70  per  cent.,  if 
the  flue  temperatures  were  respectively  480  deg.  F.  and 
810  deg.  F.  If  a  fireman  by  careful  firing  produced  14 
per  cent.  CO,,  and  the  boiler- 
cleaning  and  repair  crew 
allowed  the  boiler  to  become 
dirty,  the  baffles  to  dete- 
riorate, etc..  the  net  benefit 
to  the  plant  would  be  nil. 
In  fact  it  is  evident  from  the 
chart  that  it  is  possible  to 
increase  the  CO,  percentage 
and  still  have  a  net  plant 
loss.  In  Fig.  2  a  flue  tem- 
perature of  600  deg.  and  a 
CO.  percentage  of  10  per 
cent,  indicate  a  combined 
boiler  and  furnace  efficiency 
of  70  per  cent.  By  in- 
creasing the  CO,  to  12  per 
cent.,  but  permitting  the  con- 
dition of  the  boiler  to  be- 
come so  bad  as  to  re.=ult  in  an 
800-deg.  flue  temperature,  the 
efficiency  will  fall  to  about 
67  per  cent.,  with  a  net  fuel 
loss  of  over  4  per  cent. 

Nearly  all  CO,  bonus  sys- 
tems allow  a  fixed  sum  of 
money  for  each  increase  in 
CO,  above  a  standard.  The 
operating  results  may  work 
out  all  right  in  the  end, 
but  there  is  a  danger  in  the 
workman's  not  sharing  in 
true  proportion  to  his  saving. 
That  is,  the  percentage 
of  fuel  saving  per  CO,  per- 
centage increase  is  variable, 
depending  upon  the  percent- 
age of  CO,  and  flue  tempera- 
ture. A  fixed  bonus  rate 
results  in  the  workman's 
receiving  less  than  he  is 
entitled  to  under  certain 
conditions,  and  more  un- 
der other  conditions.  For 
a  plant  run  at  high  rating 
or  with  poor  heating  sur- 
face, the  importance  of  high 
CO,  percentage  is  greatest. 
There  is  a  greater  gain  from 

boosting  low  CO,  than  from  boosting  high  CO,.  That 
is,  in  Fig.  4,  with  600  deg.  flue  temperature,  a  gain 
in  COj  from  9  per  cent,  to  10  per  cent,  will  save 
3  per  cent,  coal,  while  a  gain  from  4  per  cent,  to  5 
per  cent,  will  save  20.5  per  cent.  coal.  This  explains 
the  almost  incredible  savings  that  can  be  made  in  a 
poorly  fired  plant,  with  only  a  slightly  increased  effort 
by  the  management  and  the  workmen.  It  is  easy  to 
make  big  savings  in  a  poorly  operated  plant;  but  the 


savings    become    increasingly    hard    as    perfection    is 
approached. 

Although  there  is  theoretically  a  gain  in  increasing 
CO,  up  to  a  point  of  zero  excess  air,  18  per  cent,  to  19 
per  cent,  for  soft  coal,  there  is  probably  no  practical 
gain  in  going  beyond  16  per  cent.  Engineers  are  not 
agreed  upon  this  point  because  of  the  difficulty  of  get- 


Per  Cenl;  in  Loss 


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PIG.  5. 


Dollars   per  Day  Loss 
FUEL,  LOSSES  MEASURED  BV   CO,  .\ND  FLUE  TEMPERATURES 

ting  sufficient  accurate  data,  but  it  may  be  said  that  the 
gain  would  be  next  to  nothing. 

Thus  a  bonus  sy-stem  based  on  a  fixed  payment  per 
percentage  increase  of  CO,  and  planned  to  give  to  the 
workman  a  reasonable  percentage  of  the  savings  made 
by  improving  poor  operation  may  bring  as  large  bonuses 
to  the  workman  as  the  total  saving  to  the  plant,  when 
top-notch  results  are  obtained,  in  which  case  further  im- 
provement results  in  a  loss  to  the  owner. 


470 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


The  proposed  bonus  scheme  is  to  pay  a  bonus  to  each 
of  three  classes — firemen,  boiler  cleaners  and  fire 
cleaners — who  are  respectively  responsible  for  perform- 
ances measured  by  CO,,  flue  temperature  and  percent- 
age of  combustible  in  refuse,  each  of  which  values  de- 
termines the  bonus.  Actually,  the  three  classes  may  be 
vested  in  one  man  or  several,  in  which  case  the  bonuses 


Combustible  In   Refuse, 
30  20 


Total    Fuel   Value  Loss  to  Ash    Pit,  Per  Cent 


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per  Ion  = 
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BsrCent,  Ash  in  Coal  =  10 
Ffer  Cent  Connbustiblein  !?efuse=  ?5 
Loss  to  Ash  Pit  per  Day=  «  32^ 


30  eO  10 

Loss  per  Doy  to  Ash   Pit,  Dollars 


PIG.   6.     BOILER-ROOM  LOSS  CHART.   SHOWING  FUEL  LOSSES   TO   THE  ASHPIT 


are  to  be  calculated  in  the  same  way,  but  payment  is  to 
be  made  according  to  responsibility.  In  a  one-man  plant 
one  man  would  get  three  bonuses,  etc.  Each  bonus  is 
to  be  a  fixed  percentage  of  the  fuel  saving  measured  by 
CO,,  flue  temperature  and  percentage  combustible  in 
refuse,  for  results  better  than  those  measured  by  stand- 
ard COj,  flue  temperature  and  percentage  combustible 
in  refuse.  Thus  there  will  always  be  a  fixed  ratio  be- 
tween profits  of  workmen  and  owner,  which  is  desirable. 


Ordinarily,  CO,  depends  upon  the  quality  of  firing, 
but  it  also  is  dependent  upon  the  condition  of  the  boiler 
setting  and  of  the  grates  over  which  the  fireman,  as 
such,  has  no  direct  control.  On  the  other  hand,  a  good 
fireman  would  not  allow  himself  to  be  deprived  of  the 
fruit  of  his  efforts  because  of  a  poor  setting  or  of  poor 
grate.    Knowing  that  such  defects  in  the  apparatus  lead 

to  unnecessary  excess  air,  if 
the  maintenance  man  fails 
to  do  his  duty,  the  fireman 
naturally  will  report  defects 
of  apparatus  to  the  chief  for 
proper  action. 

The  maintenance  man  or 
boiler  cleaner  can  save 
money  by  keeping  the  boiler 
clean  and  the  baffles  in 
such  shape  that  the  boiler 
will  readily  absorb  heat,,  so 
that  the  flue  temperature  will 
be  low.  An  unscrupulous  re- 
pairman may  wilfully  neglect 
the  setting  and  grates  in 
order  to  admit  excess  air  to 
cool  flue  gas  so  as  to  increase 
his  bonus.  But  such  a  con- 
dition would  naturally  be 
opposed  by  an  active  fireman. 
It  is  true  that  the  flue  tem- 
perature is  dependent  not 
only  upon  the  condition  of 
the  apparatus,  but  also  upon 
the  rate  at  which  the  fuel  is 
fired.  Even  in  the  most 
efficiently  designed  installa- 
tion the  percentage  of  total 
heat  absorbable  falls  off  as 
the  boiler  rating  increases 
and  the  flue  temperature 
rises  with  increase  of  load. 
Therefore  it  is  necessary  to 
base  the  standard  flue  tem- 
perature for  an  average  load 
by  test.  This  is  compara- 
tively simple  for  industrial 
plants  where  the  load  is 
rather  steady. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  daily 
losses  in  dollars  and  cents 
based  on  the  efficiency  charts, 
for  any  condition  meas- 
ured by  CO,  and  flue  temper- 
ature. That  is,  under  the 
conditions  for  the  plant  illus- 
trated, the  daily  loss  would 
be  $332.  Loss  from  com- 
bustible in  ashpit  refuse  is  primarily  up  to  the  fire 
cleaner,  who  may  be  a  special  man  or  the  regular  fireman. 
In  case  the  loss  is  great  owing  to  poor  condition  of  grates, 
the  fire  cleaner,  whose  interest  is  thereby  prejudiced, 
should  report  conditions  to  the  chief  for  proper  action. 
The  losses  on  account  of  combustible  in  the  refuse  are 
measured  not  only  by  the  percentage  of  combustible  in 
the  refuse,  but  also  by  the  percentage  of  gas  in  the  coal. 
Twenty  per  cent,  combustible  in  refuse  of  coal  contain- 


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April  2,  1918 


POWER 


471 


ing  5  per  cent,  ash  means  a  loss  of  205  B.t.u.  per  pound 
of  coal,  while  the  same  percentage  of  combustible  in 
refuse  of  coal  containing  25  per  cent,  ash  means  a 
1023-B.t.u.  loss  per  pound  of  coal. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  daily  losses  in  dollars  and  cents  for 
any  condition  measured  by  percentage  of  combustible 
in  the  refuse  and  percentage  of  ash  in  the  coal.     That 


Stiandord   Average    COj  =  14%         I 

Flue  Temfbera+ure  =  600% 

Combust-ible  in  Ash    = 


!00  Tons  Cool    fired  per  Day 
-Cost-  per   Ton  =  #55S 
Btu,  per  lb.  Dry  =  14000 
Per  Cent  Ash  in  Goal  =  10% 


6  10 

Per  Cent,  CO? 


10 


FIG.   7. 


Dolbrs  per   Doy    Total     Oonus 
CHART  TO  DETERMINE  BONUS  FOR  BOILER  PLANT  OPERATIVES 


is,  under  the  conditions  of  the  plant  illustrated,  the 
daily  loss  is  $32. 

Fig.  7  shows  a  bonus  chart  with  assumed  conditions 
as  to  quality,  quantity  and  price  of  coal,  with  bonus 
equal  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  savings  calculated  from  the 
efficiency  chart,  to  be  made  by  obtaining  results  better 
than  those  measured  by  the  standards  of  8  per  cent  CO,, 
600  deg.  flue  temperature,  25  per  cent,  combustible  in 
ash. 

Assuming  the  following  average  attained: 


CO2.  ppr  cent 

Flue  temperature,  deg.  F 

Combustible  in  refuse,  per  cent 

the  daily  bonus  oer  day  equals: 

To  firemen 

To  boiler  cleaners  and  maintenance  men 

To  tire  cleaners  


10 

550 

20 


$6  10 
I  80 
I  00 

.$8  90 


e.xperiences  may  be  of  interest  to  others.  The  large 
buildings  are  all  heated  by  steam  furnished  from  a 
central  power  plant  through  tunnels,  but  residences 
have  individual  heating  systems  in  their  basements. 
The  chaplain's  cottage  is  heated  by  hot  water  heated 
by  steam  from  the  tunnel  steam  main,  and  the  illus- 
tration shows  a  tilting  trap  to  which  a  tally  is  attached 

to  meter  the  condensation  dur- 
ing a  test  of  the  steam  re- 
quired to  heat  the  cottage. 

The  heater,  also  shown,  is 
32  in.  long  and  14  in.  in  diam- 
eter, having  16  sq.ft.  of 
heating  surface,  and  the  wa- 
ter circulates  through  the 
tubes  by  the  thermo-siphon 
principle.  High  -  pressure 
steam  is  delivered  through  a 
reducing  valve  at  2  lb.  pres- 
sure, controlled  by  a  tempera- 
ture-regulating valve,  so  that 
the  water  in  the  system  may 
be  maintained  at  any  prede- 
termined temperature.  Ordi- 
narily, the  condensation  from 
the  heater  returns  to  the  tun- 
nel system  through  a  seal,  but 
in  order  to  obtain  operating 
data,  the  calibrated  tilting 
trap  with  a  counter  attached, 
was  installed  temporarily  and  all  the  condensate  during 
the  month  of  February  passed  through  this  improvised 
meter.  Daily  readings  of  the  counter  were  taken,  and  the 
daily  consumption  of  steam,  in  pounds  of  condensa- 
tion, was  plotted  for  the  month  against  the  daily 
outside  temperatures  and,  although  the  consumption 
varied  inversely  as  the  temperature  change,  there  was 
no  definite  ratio.  This  is  accounted  for  by  variable 
winds  as  well  as  bright  or  cloudy  days,  snow,  etc. 
Following  is  the  result:  February,  1917,  average  out- 
side temperature,  25.2  deg.;  pounds  condensate  for  the 
month,  58,270;  per  day,  2081;  cost  per  month  at  20c. 
por  thousand  pounds,  $11.65;  day,  $0,416.  The  cost 
of  steam,  20c.  per  thousand  pounds,  was  figured  from 
the  cost   of  evaporation   at   the   power   plant. 

The  convenience  and  flexibility  of  such  a  system  are 
at  once  apparent. 


zo 


Pons  Coal    Soved    per   Day 
10 


30 


15 


The  division  of  the  bonuses  to  individual  men  is  left 
to  the  judgment  of  the  management.  In  the  example 
given,  it  may  be  advisable  to  increase  the  bonus  to 
boiler  cleaners  to  $3.60  per  day,  in  which  case  the  bonus 
would  be  equal  to  20  per  cent,  of  this  saving  to  the 
plant. 

Steam  To  Heat  Water  for  House 
Heating 

By  p.  J.  Bryant 

The  use  of  steam  to  heat  water  is  not  uncommon, 
but  as  to  the  economy  of  the  transfer  of  the  heat 
from  steam  to  water  there  seems  to  be  a  scarcity 
of  data  at  hand.  We  have  such  an  installation  at 
the  institution  where  I  am  employed,  and  our  operating 


T.M.I.Y    COUNTER    ATTACHED   TO    -STEAM    TRAP 


472 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  14 


Burning  Slack  Containing  Excessive  Moisture 

By  J.  F.  McCALL 

Superintendent    and   Phief  Engineer,    Municipal    Power    Plant.    Calgary.    Alberta,    Canada 

~- ~ — ~  contains  excessive  moisture,  frequently  over  15  per  cent. 

I  tried  the  Drumheller  slack  coal  several  times  on 
our  335-hp.  water-tube  boilers  with  chain-grate  stokers, 
invariabl.v  with  very  unsatisfactory  results.  It  was 
impossible,  owing  to  the  excessive  moisture,  to  ignite 
the  coal  sufficiently  until  it  had  passed  about  three  feet 
into  the  furnace.  This  was  the  more  disappointing 
as  the  freight  rate  from  the  Urumheller  district  was 
from  20  to  40c.  per  ton  cheaper  than  the  rate  on  the 
supply  we  were  using,  and  in  the  class  of  coal  we 
burn  the  freight  is  usually  the  larger  item.  This, 
however,  did  not  affect  us  as  much  as  it  did  the  power 
plants  at  Saskatoon  and  some  other  towns  and  cities 
north  of  Calgary,  all  of  which  have  the  Drumheller  field 
between  them  and  the  field  south  of  Calgary,  their 
freight  rates  in  that  case  being  more  than  double  ours 
and  their  cost  of  production  correspondingly  higher. 
Their  difficulty  in  burning  the  Drumheller  coal  was  the 
same  as  we  experienced. 

Early  in  1917  I  learned  that  experiments  were  being 
made  in  Edmonton  and  Saskatoon  with  a  view  to  burn- 
ing the  Drumheller  coal,  the  idea  being  to  dissolve  the 


The  author  burns  Drumheller  {Alberta,  Can.) 
slack  coal,  averaging  15  per  cent,  moisture  and 
12  per  cent,  ash  on  a  chain-grate  stoker  ivith  an 
arch  over  the  entire  grate  except  for  a  space 
2  ft.  6  in.  deep,  and  the  width  of  the  grate  long. 
The  long  deflection  arch  extending  forward  3  ft. 
from  the  brige-ivall  rolls  the  flame  of  the  30  per 
cent,  volatile  coal  forward  far  enough  to  evaporate 
the  moisture  as  the  coal  comes  on  the  grate  from 
the  feed  hopper,  avoiding  caking  of  the  coal  at 
the  rear  of  the  grate. 

THERE  is  sufficient  coal  in  the  province  of  Alberta 
to  supply  the  whole  of  the  North  American 
Continent  for  several  centuries.  The  quality 
varies  considerably  from  surface  lignite  to  the  excellent 
coking  coal  at  Fernie  and  the  valuable  semi-anthracite 
in  the  Banff  district.  The  known  deposits  extend  over 
an  enormous  area,  from  the  Peace  River  district  in 
the    north    to    the    international    boundary,    and    from 


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SETTING  FOR  BURNIN(;   SLACK   HIGH   IN  MOISTURE  .\ND   ASH 


Medicine  Hat  to  the  Rockies.  Supplies  are  sent  as  far 
east  as  Regina,  Saskatoon  and  Winnipeg;  the  hard  coal 
at  Banff  finds  its  way  to  the  coast,  and  the  coke  product 
of  the  south  is  extensively  used  in  the  smelters  across 
the  border.  Freight  rates,  however,  govern  the  extent 
of  the  market,  the  local  requirements  do  not  begin  to 
absorb  the  possible  output,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
field  lies  undeveloped.  A  few  years  ago  a  new  district, 
known  as  the  Drumheller  field,  was  opened,  and  imme- 
diately became  a  factor  in  the  market.  This  coal  was 
found  to  average  around  11,500  B.t.u.  on  analysis,  but 


moisture  immediately  the  coal  reached  the  furnace  grate. 
To  find  out  what  they  were  doing  and  to  get  some 
ideas  for  myself,  I  went  to  both  places,  and  found  that 
taking  into  consideration  their  higher  costs  for  fuel  as 
compared  with  ours,  the  Saskatoon  and  Edmonton 
plants  had  been  fairly  successful  in  burning  the  Drum- 
heller coal.  I  was  satisfied,  however,  that  the  arrange- 
ment made  there  of  the  furnace  grate  could  be  improved 
upon,  and  we  made  alterations  to  eight  of  our  335-hp. 
boilers,  and  eventually  evolved  the  idea  represented  in 
the  drawing.     The  chief  feature  is  the  center  deflecting 


April  2,  1918 


POWER 


473 


.  arch,  which  deflects  the  Hame  from  the  burning  coal 
to  the  front  of  the  furnace  and  thereby  ignites  the 
fresh  coal  as  it  enters  the  grate.  This  flame  evaporates 
all  moisture,  and  the  result  is  an  intense  heat  evenly 
distributed.  We  have  no  trouble  in  getting  110  per 
cent,  overload  out  of  these  boilers,  and  can  burn  any- 
thing which  has  anything  in  it  to  burn.  We  have  been 
successfully  burning  coal  with  22^  per  cent,  of  moisture, 
so  that  we  are  able  to  use  freely  the  slack  from  the 
Drumheller  field. 

We  found  it  necessary  to  remove  an  18-in.  sector 
of  the  stoker  (Babcock  &  Wilcox  chain-grate)  casing, 
to  move  the  bridge-wall  back  to  correspond,  so  that  we 
could  put  the  stoker  back.  We  considered  that  it  would 
bo  desirable  to  allow  an  ignition  space  of  18  in.  below 
the  hopper.  Ignition  takes  place  at  from  8  to  12  in. 
The  reason  for  the  opening  at  the  rear  arch  is  that 
we  found  that  the  fuel  on  the  grate  showed  a  tendency 
to  bank  at  the  end  of  the  grate  and  that  this  bank 
was  rich  in  combustibles.  By  arranging  the  opening, 
a  strong  draft  was  created  at  this  point  and  we  were 
able  to  burn  the  carbon  out  of  this  bank.  In  our  earlier 
alterations  we  allowed  only  a  4-in.  space,  but  later  we 
found  a  6-in.  space  gave  better  results.  A  trial  of 
an  8-in.  space  proved  unsatisfactory.  Much  depends 
on  the  available  draft.    We  used  a  0.3-in.  draft. 

It  will  be  understood  that  these  boilers  are  equipped 
with  chain-grate  stokers  of  the  close-link  type.  To 
find  out  how  the  arrangement  of  arches  would  work 
with  other  kinds  of  stokers  or  in  hand-fired  boilers  must 
be  a  matter  of  experiment. 

In  September  last  we  made  several  tests  on  the  Drum- 
heller coal.  In  each  case  the  boiler  was  fired  for  24 
hours.  The  test  lasted  for  10  hours,  the  object  being 
to  test  the  coal  and  to  obtain  working  results  from 
the  boilers  under  the  new  arch  arrangement.  The 
following  is  an  average  result: 

Average  pressure,  gage,  lb.  per  sti.in     .              149 

Average  draft  (at  furnace),  water,  in .  .  -  0  31 

Average  temperature,  steam  (saturated),  deg.  F 364  6 

Average  temperature,  steam  (superheated),  deg.  F     512 

Average  temperature,  flue  gas,  second  pass,  deg.  F 690 

Average  temperature,  flue  gas  at  damper,  deg.  F  487 

Average  temperature  water  (at  heater),  deg.  F 116 

Average  CO,,  per  cent    11    33 

Builder's  rating,  hp ■ 333 

Horsepower  developed              ' 458 

Percentage  of  builder's  rating I  36  7 

Water  evaporated  per  pound  of  coal  as  fired,  lb 6  65 

Equivalent  evaporation  per  pound  of  coal  as  fired,  lb 8  02 

Stoker  speed,  average,  ft.  per  min 2 

Thickness  of  fire,  in    4 

On  analysis  these  coals  from  the  Drumheller  mines 
are  quite  uniform.  The  following  is  an  analysis  of 
an  average  sample: 

Moisture,  per  cent 13,  04 

Ash,  per  cent    12.18 

Volatile  combustible,  per  cent 29 .  95 

Fixed  carbon,  per  cent 42  47 

B.t.u 11.450 

In  view  of  the  present  shortage  of  coal  these  suc- 
cessful experiments  will  probably  prove  of  interest. 
It  is  possible,  under  the  conditions  enumerated,  to  burn 
any  fuel  that  has  anything  in  it  to  burn,  and  it  would 
be  quite  possible  to  utilize  dumps  of  wet  slack  coal 
which  lie  at  the  mouth  of  coal  mines  all  over  the  con- 
tinent, rejected  as  being  useless  on  account  of  the 
moisture  content,  the  accumulation  of  long  periods  of 
exposure  to  the  weather.  It  is  quite  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  there  are  large  quantities  of  fuels  of  this 
class  which  owners  of  boiler  plants  are  at  present 
unable  to  use,  in  some  cases  hauling  their  coal  from  a 
distance  when  they  have  a  suitable  fuel  close  at  hand. 


Sarco    Metallic    Gaskets 

Lead  would  make  a  good  gasket  with  high-pressure 
steam  if  it  were  not  so  liable  to  blow  out.  A  lead 
gasket,  being  soft,  fits  into  any  depression  in  the  flange 
and  gives  way  for  any  protruding  surface.  A  copper 
ring  gasket  makes  a  good  joint,  but  being  harder  than 
lead,  does  not  conform  to  the  surface  of  the  joint  so 
readily. 

A  combination  of  a  lead  and  a  copper  gasket  has 
been  devised  by  the  Sarco  Co.,  Woolworth  Building, 
Ndw  York  City.  It  is  made  for  various  purposes  and 
in  different  forms.  For  flange  work,  Fig.  1,  the  lead 
ring  A  forms  the  inner  member,  and  just  fitting  over 
the  outer  edge  is  a  copper  ring  B  of  smaller  cross- 
section.  This  is  to  permit  the  lead  ring  to  come  under 
considerable  pressure  in  tightening  up  the  joints  before 
the  Jlange   begins  to  compress   the  outer  copper  ring. 


PIG.  1.   GASKET  FOR  WIDE- 
PACED  PIPE 
PLANGE 


PIG.  2.   BEFORE 

AND  AFTER 

COMPRESSION 


With  this  type  of  gasket  the  copper  and  lead  elements, 
.4  and  B,  are  surrounded  by  a  centering  ring  C,  the 
outer  diameter  of  which  is  a  trifle  less  than  the  diameter 
of  the  circle  on  which  the  inner  edge  of  the  bolt  holes 
line;  thus  the  bolts,  when  fitted  into  place,  center  the 
gasket.  The  centering  ring  C  is  held  concentric  with 
the  gasket  rings  by  small  copper  circles,  all  members  of 
the  gasket  being  lightly  soldered  to  form  a  complete 
unit. 

For  union  connections,  where  the  coupling  surfaces 
to  be  sealed  are  relatively  narrow,  the  gasket  is  com- 
posed of  a  lead  and  a  copper  ring  lightly  soldered 
together  at  intervals.  The  application  of  the  gasket 
is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  which  also  shows  the  gasket  before 
and  after  the  joint  is  tightened.  The  inner  lead  ring 
is  of  greater  cross-section  than  the  copper  one  and 
squeezes  out  into  a  ribbon  form  under  pressure.  The 
slightly  compressed  copper  ring  backs  it  solidly  and 
prevents  the  lead  ring  from  blowing  out  when  it  is 
under  pressure. 

A  gasket  for  superheated  steam  above  the  safe 
working  point  for  lead  is  made  of  a  number  of  soft 
concentric  copper  rings.  For  joints  the  gaskets  of 
which  are  subject  to  corrosive  fluids  from  the  outside 
the  copper  ring  is  surrounded  by  a  lead  one,  which,  as 
the  gasket  is  compressed,  foiTns  an  effective  shield 
against  the  access  of  foreign  matter.  These  gaskets 
are  made  in  various  sizes. 


474 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


The  Central -Station  and  Isolated-Plant 

Controversy 


THE  continuation  of  the  hearing  before  the  Public 
Service  Commission  for  the  First  District  of  New 
York  on  Mar.  11  was  taken  up  principally  with 
an  investigation  of  the  relations  between  the  New  York 
Service  Co.  and  the  New  York  Edison  Co.  According 
to  the  testimony  of  several  witnesses,  the  New  York 
Service  Co.  is  a  company  that  undertakes  the  manage- 
ment and  operation  of  isolated  plants.  In  a  number 
of  instances  the  salesmen  of  the  Edison  company  had 
suggested  to  prospective  customers  the  advisability  of 
discontinuing  the  private-plant  generation  of  electricity 
and  the  purchase  of  current  from  the  Edison  company, 
at  the  same  time  allowing  the  New  York  Service  Co. 
to  operate  the  steam  plant.  The  case  of  the  Hotel 
Majestic,  mentioned  at  the  hearing  of  Mar.  4,  was  an 
instance  of  this  sort  of  arrangement. 

The  purpose  of  the  hearing  at  the  outset  was  to 
investigate  the  service,  facilities  and  rates  of  electrical 
corporations  with  regard  to  furnishing  current  for 
breakdown  or  auxiliary  use,  and  for  buildings  having 
private  electric  plants.  The  interest  of  the  Fuel  Ad- 
ministration and  the  controversy  between  the  private 
plant  and  the  central  station  are  matters  that  developed 
naturally  from  statements  made  at  the  first  hearing  in 
the  case. 

It  had  been  suggested  that  if  isolated  plants  could 
be  supplied  with  current  from  the  central  station  dur- 
ing those  periods  in  which  the  isolated  plants  had  no 
use  for  the  exhaust  steam  from  their  engines,  it  would 
be  possible  to  shut  down  those  plants  and  save  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  fuel.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the 
additional  burden  thus  thrown  upon  the  central  station 
vi'ould  be  in  the  nature  of  an  off-peak  load. 

At  the  hearing  on  Mar.  11,  John  W.  Lieb,  of  the 
New  York  Edison  Co.,  made  the  emphatic  statement 
that  on  Manhattan  Island,  and  under  Manhattan  Island 
conditions,  there  was  no  such  thing  as  off-peak  service. 
To  substantiate  this  assertion,  he  produced  two  load 
curves,  one  for  Dec.  12,  1917,  and  the  other  for  June 
5,  1917.  The  former  represented  the  maximum  load 
for  the  year  1917,  which  was  234,736  kw.  The  latter 
showed  a  maximum  load  of  200,000  kw.,  due  to  a  very 
sudden  thunderstorm.  The  point  Mr.  Lieb  sought  to 
bring  out  was  that  during  the  summer — when  the  iso- 
lated plants  would  wish  to  use  the  suggested  off-peak 
service — the  Edison  company  was  likely  to  be  subjected 
to  a  demand  for  current  equal  to  the  capacity  of  the 
plant,  and  that  at  very  short  notice.  From  this  he 
argued  that  an  off-peak  condition  did  not  exist. 

At  the  same  hearing,  Charles  E.  Stuart,  representing 
the  Conservation  Division  of  the  Fuel  Administration  at 
Washington,  asked  permission  to  read  into  the  record 
a  statement  defining  the  position  of  the  Fuel  Admin- 
iptration  in  the  matter  of  coal  conservation  by  manu- 
facturers of  electric  current.  In  part,  his  statement 
was  as  follows: 

The  individualistic  way  in  which  fuel  is  now  consumed 
in  cities  is  not  efRcient.  A  ton  of  coal  burned  in  a  large 
central  station  will  produce  at  least  four  times  as  much 
electric  power  as  if  burned  in  the  average  small  plant,  and 
If   centralized    burning   could    be    introduced    to    a    greater 


extent,  the  amount  of  fuel  required  could  be  largely  reduced 
without  reducing  in  any  way  the  ultimate  production  of 
light  and  power. 

It  may  be  generally  stated  that  in  buildings  where  elec- 
tric plants  are  located  and  where  exhaust  steam  from 
engines  is  utilized  in  the  heating  of  the  building,  furnish- 
ing hot-water  requirements,  and  possibly  providing  a  very 
small  amount  of  steam  for  industrial  and  other  processes, 
such  buildings  can  readily  adopt  central-station  service 
without  a  loss  of  money  and  at  a  large  percentage  of  sav- 
ing in  fuel. 

In  many  other  cases  it  might  be  more  economical  from 
the  viewpoint  of  fuel  saving  to  utilize  isolated  electric  plants 
in  conjunction  with  central-station  service.  The  ideal  ar- 
rangement would  then  be  to  use  the  combination  of  services 
in  such  a  way  that  no  exhaust  steam  is  sent  to  the  atmos- 
phere to  be  lost. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  Fuel  Administration  to  devise  means 
for  securing  a  curtailment  in  the  use  of  fuel  in  ways  which 
will  impose  a  minimum  of  hardship.  It  is  believed  that 
there  are  many  plants  not  only  in  New  York,  but  through- 
out the  entire  country,  which  could,  at  least  temporarily, 
shut  down  their  own  electrical  machinery  and  pui-chase 
power  from  others  at  a  financial  advantage  to  both  parties 
and  with  a  considerable  saving  in  fuel. 

The  Fuel  Administration  believes  that  if  even  a  com- 
paratively small  proportion  of  the  plants  throughout  the 
country  which  could  save  fuel  in  this  way  at  a  profit  to 
themselves  would  do  so,  it  would  prove  a  tremendous  help 
in  meeting  the  fuel  situation  with  which  the  country  is  con- 
fronted, and  in  winning  the  war. 

While  it  may  appear  that  the  interests  of  the  central 
station  are  being  benefited  to  a  large  degree,  such  is  not 
of  necessity  the  case.  In  some  cases,  central  stations  may 
be  shut  down.  In  any  event  any  connection  between  a  cen- 
tral station  and  a  building  or  a  manufacturing  plant  that 
is  affected,  will,  of  necessity,  be  for  the  period  of  the  war 
only  or  through  the  period  where  the  coal  situation  is  criti- 
cal. The  machinery  of  the  isolated  plant  can  be  readily 
preserved  through  this  period  of  necessity.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  heavy  expense  attendant  upon  the  mak- 
ing of  the  connection  by  the  central  station  may  completely 
or  even  more  than  offset  any  profit  which  could  be  expected 
of  such  a  load  through  a  short  period. 

At  this  point  another  very  important  question,  that  of 
the  release  of  the  operatives  of  the  plants,  presents  itself. 
In  those  cases  where  small  electric  plants  are  closed  down 
entirely,  there  will  be  a  larger  number  of  men  available 
than  in  cases  where  a  partial  closing  down  is  brought  about. 
In  any  event  these  skilled  men  are  vitally  needed  in  many  ■ 
of  the  war  industries  of  this  country,  and  provision  is  now 
being  made  whereby  men  of  such  training  will  be  assisted 
in  obtaining  profitable  work  suitable  to  their  ability. 

Again,  the  conservation  efforts  of  the  Fuel  Administra- 
tion are  being  directed  in  order  to  conserve  the  interests 
of  all  with  the  least  inconvenience  and  cost  and  with  the 
object  of  making  the  coal  supply  that  is  available  go  just 
as  far  as  possible  and  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  further 
drastic  measures  such  as  were  necessary  in  January.  In 
this  spirit  the  Fuel  Administration  invites  the  cooperation 
of  the  isolated  plant  owner,  whether  the  question  be  of  con- 
necting in  on  the  lines  of  a  central  station  or  whether  it  be 
that  of  operating  his  plant  to  maximum  efficiency.  The 
alternative  will  be  at  least  the  one  if  not  the  other. 

The  administration  at  this  time  has  no  idea  of  attemjpt- 
ing  to  bring  about  any  such  result  by  means  of  orders, 
or  of  even  suggestions  that  fuel  be  saved  by  the  closing  of 
isolated  plants  where  this  would  cause  hardship  to  the 
owners,  not  commensurate  with  the  benefit  derived  by  the 
public.  It  is  interested  in  the  present  hearings,  however, 
in  the  hope  that  they  will  set  forth  the  facts  and  also  the 
savings  which  are  possible  in  certain  cases  in  so  convinc- 
ing a  way  that  each  plant  owner  will  consider  himself  a 
volunteer  member  of  the  administration,  charged  with  the 
duty  of  investigating  his  own  condition  in  a  nonpartisan 
way  and,  where  circumstances  warrant  it,  of  taking  the 
necessary  steps  to  secure  the  saving. 

The   second   paragraph    of   the    foregoing   statement 

is  of  especial  interest  to  the  owners  of  isolated  plants 

in  which  a  small  part  of  the  steam  generated  is  used 


April  2.  1018 


POWER 


475 


in  producinir  electric  current  while  the  greater  part 
is  used  for  heating,  drying,  cooking,  etc.  Its  con- 
clusions are  diametrically  opposed  to  the  results  of 
experience  in  many  instances  in  which  isolated  plants 
discontinued  the  generation  of  electric  power  and 
i'dopted  central-station  service,  at  the  same  time  con- 
I  inuing  to  produce  steam  for  heating  and  other  purposes. 
The  testimony  of  Copeland  Townsend,  of  the  Hotel 
Majestic,  at  the  hearing  of  Mar.  4,  showed  that  the 
adoption  of  such  a  plan  not  only  failed  to  save  coal, 
but   placed   the  plant   under  additional  heavy   expense. 

Mr.  Stuart,  who  issued  this  statement  on  behalf  of 
the  Fuel  Administration,  is  an  electrical  engineer  and 
a  member  of  the  firm  of  Stuart,  James  &  Cooke,  whose 
business  it  was,  previous  to  the  war,  to  investigate  power 
plants  with  a  view  to  determining  whether  they  could 
not  be  supplanted  economically  by  electric  power  from 
large  central  stations.  In  an  interview  with  the  editor 
of  Power  Mr.  Stuart  said  that  his  firm  had  investi- 
gated perhaps  800  plants,  most  of  which  were  connected 
with  mining  operations,  and  that  the  majority  of  these 
eventually  changed  from  individual  sei-vice  to  central- 
station  service. 

When  he  was  asked  whether  the  statement  he  had 
read  into  the  record  was  an  expression  of  his  own 
individual  views,  he  replied  that  it  represented  the 
consensus  of  opinion  of  a  number  of  the  Fuel  Adminis- 
tration's engineers,  himself  included ;  however,  he 
finally  admitted  that  there  were  numerous  small  plants, 
such  as  those  carrying  combined  heating,  power  and 
lighting  loads,  in  which  the  substitution  of  central- 
station  service  would  undoubtedly  fail  to  show  a  saving 
of  coal. 

This  is  the  opinion  held  by  many  engineers  who 
have  carefully  considered  the  problem.  At  the  January 
meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers, a  paper  was  presented  by  Lynn  S.  Goodman 
f.nd  William  B.  Jackson  on  "The  Effects  of  War  Con- 
ditions on  Cost  and  Quality  of  Electric  Service,"  in 
which  the  authors  made  the  following  assertions : 
"When  viewed  from  every  standpoint,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  economical  central  power  generating  station 
is  the  proper  medium  for  the  supply  of  the  large  power 
requirements  arising  on  account  of  the  war";  and  "these 
advantages  of  the  central-station  power  are  so  large  that 
it  is  advisable  for  the  Government  to  use  every  reason- 
able means  to  encourage  the  central-station  companies 
and  discourage  individual  power  plants  during  the  war 
period." 

As  might  have  been  e.xpected,  such  sweeping  claims 

as  these  were  not  allowed  to  stand  unchallenged.     Bion 

J.  Arnold,  in  discussing  the  paper,  said: 

There  is  no  question  in  my  mind  that  where  you  can 
utilize  steam  for  heating  and  have  some  use  for  that  heat 
aside  from  merely  heating  in  winter  time,  there  is  an  ad- 
vantage in  having  an  isolated  plant.  For  instance,  in  a 
hotel,  where  you  need  steam  for  cooking,  under  such  con- 
ditions as  that  the  isolated  plant,  in  my  judgment,  will  be 
superior  to  the  central-station  power;  that  is,  it  can  pro- 
duce its  own  heat  and  electrical  energy  cheaper  than  it 
can  buy  it  from  the  central  station.  That  is  the  only  in- 
stance, in  my  experience,  where  I  have  found  that  it  would 
work  out  in  that  way;  otherwise,  it  is  generally  cheaper  to 
bliy  energy  from   the  central   station. 

The  same  topic  was  referred  to  in  the  discussion  by 

Mortimer  Freund,  who  said: 

I  do  not  believe  it  proper  to  allow  to  pass  unquestioned 
the  authors'  statement  that  "the  economical  central-power- 


generating  station  is  the  proper  medium  for  the  supply  of 
large  power  requirements  arising  on  account  of  the  war," 
and  further  that  "it  is  advisable  for  the  Government  to 
use  every  reasonable  means  to  encourage  the  central- 
station  companies  and  discourage  individual  power  plants 
during  the  period  of  the  war."  Both  of  these  statements 
are  too  sweeping  in  character  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
only  justifiable  for  such  cases,  where  a  careful  and  dis- 
interested consideration  of  all  the  circumstances  will  war- 
rant such  a  conclusion. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  second  statement  might  better 
be  substituted  by  the  following:  It  is  advisable  for  the 
Government  to  encourage  all  consumers  of  fuel  to  use  every 
effort  to  fulfill  their  heat,  light  and  power  requirements  by 
such  means  as  will  utilize  fuel  most  economically  and  do 
away  with  all  existing  wastes  which  are  preventable. 

There  are  industrial  plants,  for  example,  where  a  great 
part,  if  not  all,  of  the  electricity  used  is  virtually  a  by- 
product due  to  the  utilization  of  exhaust  steam  from  the 
electrical  generating  unit.  I  have  in  mind  a  large  indus- 
trial plant  which  up  to  1915  operated  two  separate  boiler 
plants,  the  output  of  one  of  which  was  utilized  almost  ex- 
clusively for  drying.  The  exhaust  steam  from  the  electric 
generating  plant  was  wasted  in  the  nonhealing  season  and 
only  partly  used  during  the  heating  season.  Substitution 
of  purchased  electricity  had  been  suggested.  Since  1915 
the  exhaust  steam  has  been  utilized  in  place  of  live  steam, 
the  use  of  one  of  the  boiler  plants  has  been  discontinued 
and  the  actual  cost  of  electricity,  in  view  of  the  use  of  the 
exhaust  steam,  is  far  less  than  the  best  price  which  out- 
side service  can  offer.  The  action  on  the  part  of  the  man- 
agement of  this  mill  in  undertaking  the  change  necessary 
to  permit  of  this  has  not  only  paid  them  well  on  the  in- 
vestments made,  but  has  benefited  the  country  to  the  extent 
of  reducing  their  fuel  consumption.  Surely,  the  authors 
do  not  recommend  that  the  Government  discourage  such 
an  individual  generating  plant,  although  such  a  conclusion 
might  be  drawn  from  their  statements. 

I  hold  no  brief  for  the  private  power  plant.  There  are 
unquestionably  many  private  plants  now  in  operation  which 
should  be  supplanted  by  central-station  service.  It  has 
been  my  own  practice  to  recommend  central-station  service 
in  all  cases  excepting  those  where  the  installation  of  a 
new  private  power  plant  or  the  continuance  of  an  existing 
plant  would  show  a  substantial  saving  in  the  cost  of  opera- 
tion or  other  advantages  of  substantial  worth.  The  private 
power  plant  is  not  an  obsolete  idea,  as  some  have  been  try- 
ing to  tell  us.  There  are  cases  where  it  results  in  the  most 
highly  efficient  production  of  heat,  light  and  power.  Each 
case  should  be  decided  upon  its  own  merits  and  not  on  the 
basis  of  sentiment.  Sweeping  generalities  are,  in  my 
opinion,  unwarranted  and  misleading. 

The  central-station  service  and  the  private  power  plant 
should  not  be  in  conflict,  especially  at  the  present  time. 
Each  has  its  proper  sphere,  and  conditions  may  have  arisen 
or  will  arise  in  particular  instances  to  cause  one  service 
to  supplant  the  other.  It  has  been  and  will  be  to  the  mutual 
advantage  of  many  central  stations  and  private  plants  to 
cooperate  by  exchanging  of  service  at  different  times  of 
the  day  or  during  different  seasons  of  the  year.  Friendly 
consideration  and  cooperation  should  exist  between  central- 
station  management  and  the  management  of  private  power 
plants,  so  that  maximum  efficiency  in  operation  may  be 
maintained  and  the  greatest  benefit  assured  to  the  general 
public.  This  is  a  policy  in  keeping  with  the  spirit  of  the 
times  and  necessary  for  the  conservation  of  our  natural 
resources. 


If  we  help  Uncle  Sam  by  buyinp:  Liberty  Bonds,  we 
help  ourselves.  The  buying  of  Liberty  Bonds  resolves 
itself  into  an  expression  of  the  highest  form  of  intel- 
ligent self-interest.  A  British  sergeant  told  a  cocky 
young  American,  just  off  a  troopship,  "You  aren't 
fightin'  to  save  France,  an'  you  aren't  fightin'  to  save 
Belgium;  you're  jolly  well  fightin'  to  save  your  chil- 
dren and  your  grandchildren."  The  same  line  of  rea- 
soning applies  to  the  buying  of  Liberty  Bonds,  for  in 
the  last  analysis  you  aren't  buying  them  to  help  a 
mythical  old  gentleman  in  a  bestarred  swallow-tailed 
coat  and  .striped  trousers  who  is  having  a  lot  of  trou- 
ble purchasing  ships  and  shoes  and  sealing  wax;  you're 
jiUy  well  buying  them  to  help  yourself. 


476 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


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April  2,  1918  POWER  .477 

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Editorials 


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The  Buying  Line  and  the  Firing  Line 

THE  Buying  Line  Over  Here  and  the  Firing  Line 
Over  There,  which  our  cartoonist  has  depicted  in 
the  foreword  of  this  issue,  makes  us  ask  the  question. 
Can  there  be  any  comparison?  Although  the  buying 
of  Government  securities  by  those  at  home  is  absolutely 
necessary  in  order  that  supplies  in  a  never-ending 
stream  be  kept  flowing  to  the  boys  at  the  firing  line, 
a  comparison  between  the  two  is  difficult  of  compre- 
hension. 

How  many  of  us  at  home  have  made  any  real 
sacrifice?  True,  we  have  our  wheatless  days  and  our 
meatless  days,  but  so  far  no  eatless  days,  and  whatever 
restrictions  we  have  made,  those  of  us  who  have  made 
them,  regarding  our  stomachs,  have  found  it  to  have 
a  beneficial  effect.  Therefore,  in  this  respect  our 
sacrifice  has  not  been  a  hardship  at  all,  but  something 
that  we  should  have  done  for  our  own  physical  well 
being,  war  or  no  war. 

Most  of  us  are  employed  in  as  congenial  or  even 
more  congenial  vocations  than  ever  before,  at  better 
wages  than  received  in  pre-war  periods  and  to  a  very 
large  extent  indulging  in  the  same  luxuries  we  always 
have. 

As  to  buying  Liberty  Bonds,  is  this  a  sacrifice — to 
invest  money  in  your  Government's  bonds,  a  security 
that  is  the  safest  investment  in  the  world  at  a  rate  of 
interest  that  is  as  good  and  in  some  cases  better  than 
can  be  obtained  in  a  savings  bank?  This  act,  even 
leaving  all  patriotic  motives  out  of  it,  is  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  a  sound  common-sense  business  trans- 
action, in  which  you  are  absolutely  sure  of  benefiting 
yourself  financially. 

How  about  the  boys  on  the  firing  line  over  there — 
those  who  have  given  up  their  home  and  its  comforts 
and  all  that  most  of  us  hold  dear,  for  the  life  of  the 
trench  and  the  dugout?  This  is  best  expressed  by  the 
following    letter    received    from    Citizen    Soldier    No. 

258, th  District,  National  Draft  Army.    This  letter 

should  make  every  American  do  more  than  think.  It 
should  make  him  act. 

They  say,  who  have  come  back  from  Over  There,  that  at 
night  the  troubled  earth  between  the  lines  is  carpeted  with 
pain.  They  say  that  Death  rides  whistling  in  every  wind, 
and  that  the  very  mists  are  charged  with  awful  torment. 
They  say  that  of  all  things  spent  and  squandered  there 
young  human  life  is  held  least  dear.  It  is  not  the  pleasantest 
prospect  for  those  of  us  who  yet  can  feel  upon  our  lips  the 
pressure  of  our  mothers'  good-bye  kiss.  .  .  .  But,  please 
God,  our  love  of  life  is  not  so  prized  as  love  of  right.  In 
this  renaissance  of  our  country's  valor,  we  who  will  edge 
the  wedge  of  her  assault  make  calm  acceptance  of  its  haz- 
ards. For  us  the  steel-swept  trench,  the  stiffening  cold — 
weariness,  hardship,  worse.  For  you,  for  whom  we  go,  you 
millions  safe  at  home — what  for  you  ?  .  .  .  We  shall  need 
food.  We  shall  need  care.  We  shall  need  clothes  for  our 
bodies  and  weapons  for  our  hands.  We  shall  need  terribly 
and  without  failure  supplies  and  equipment  in  a  stream  that 
is  constant  and  never-ending.  From  you,  who  are  our  re- 
source and  reliance,  who  are  the  heart  and  hope  of  that 


humanity  for  which  we  smite  and  strive,  must  come  these 
things. 

For  us  at  home  to  do  our  bit  isn't  enough.  Our  ut- 
most is  mighty  little  compared  to  the  supreme  sacri- 
fice our  men  are  willingly  making.  We  can't  all  fight, 
but  we  can  all  support  the  Government.  We  can  all 
economize  and  we  can  invest  our  savings  in  Govern- 
ment securities.  Remember  this  war  won't  be  won  if 
we  depend  on  the  other  fellow  to  win  it.  It's  up  to 
you.  Your  bit  isn't  enough;  we  must  see  to  it  that 
the  Buying  Line  Over  Here  is  maintained  in  a  way  that 
will  make  it  possible  for  the  boys  at  the  front  to  make 
the  firing  line  Over  There  impregnable.  One  way  of 
doing  this  is  to  buy  all  the  bonds  you  can  of  the  Third 
Liberty  Loan,  to  be  offered  on  Apr.  6. 
« 

Bandar-Log  or  Bee? 

FROM  the  time  a  monkey  opens  his  eyes  in  the  morn- 
ing until  drowsiness  overpowers  him  at  night,  he 
is  pretty  much  a  law  unto  himself.  He  does  anything 
he  wants  to,  when  he  wants  to,  and  as  long  as  he 
wants  to.  A  whimsical  individualism  sums  up  his 
philosophy  of  life.  The  day's  end  finds  him  just  where 
he  was  in  the  morning.  The  tribe — bandar-log,  Kip- 
ling calls  them — respond  to  any  leader  of  the  moment 
and  as  quickly  quit  him  to  follow  another  or  to  fetch 
up  individually  with  a  brand-new,  suddenly  caught  and 
all-absorbing  idea. 

Like  any  other  philosophy,  it  is  a  charming  one  if 
you  like  the  net  results  of  it.  The  monkey  does.  On  the 
contrary,  the  bee  doesn't.  The  bee  insists  on  organi- 
zation by  functions.  His  philosophy  is  self-sacrificing, 
vigorous  and  stern — a  Spartan  philosophy  applied  to 
production.  "Beeficiency"  is  the  Taylor  System  raised 
to  the  wth  power;  and  the  bee  doesn't  get  the  honey. 

If  the  bee  had  sense,  he'd  maintain  his  present  or- 
ganization a  few  hours  a  day — which  would  easily 
supply  his  wants — and  be  a  bit  bander-logish  the  bal- 
ance of  the  time.  But  he  cannot.  The  reason  is  be- 
cause he  doesn't  think.  He's  a  machine  that  is  a  part 
of  a  bigger  machine.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  did 
think,  he'd  immediately  tend  to  become  individualistic, 
and  the  moment  that  happened  the  organization  would 
begin  to  wabble.  There  would  be  argument  about  how 
the  comb  should  be  built,  who  should  build  it,  who  should 
boss  it,  how  much  honey  should  go  to  each;  societies 
for  the  prevention  of  this  and  that  would  be  formed. 
Social  workers  must  eat ;  so  must  bosses ;  so  must  socie- 
ties for  the  prevention  of  things. 

Nature  did  not  see  fit  to  devise  a  species  having  the 
merits  of  both  bandar-log  and  bee — a  sort  of  bandar- 
bee. 

A  bandar-bee  would  help  us  a  lot  just  now.  It  would 
be  the  real  super-thing.  It  would  be  highly  cooper- 
ative for  a  few  working  hours  and  highly  individualis- 
tic the  rest  of  the  day.  It  would  accept  the  notion 
that  working  together  bee-fashion   is   the  answer  to 


478 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


the  question  of  maximum  production  in  minimum  time; 
but  being  a  super-thing,  it  would  reject  the  notion  that 
the  honey  gathered  should  all  get  into  the  hands  of  a 
few  crafty  speculators  to  be  sold  back  at  the  specu- 
lators' price.  It  would  control  distribution  with  the 
same  bee-like  cooperative  efficiency  that  it  used  in  pro- 
duction. 

It  would  accept  the  axiom  that  self-expression  is 
necessary  to  a  thinking  super-thing — that  monkey  play 
in  a  monkey  way  is  after  all  the  best  fun  in  life.  It 
would  approve  the  bandar-log  system,  in  which  the  in- 
dividual in  his  idle  hours  may  sit  on  a  limb  and  philoso- 
phize, or  try  a  new  way  of  weaving  twigs,  or  .ioin  the 
bunch  in  a  frolic,  or  play  with  the  kids. 

Obviously,  the  bandar-bee  would  be  a  clear  and  direct 
thinker.  He  would  be  an  intense  individualist — so  in- 
tense an  individualist  that  in  order  to  have  the  maxi- 
mum number  of  hours  a  day  for  individualism,  he 
would  sink  his  individualism  when  he  came  to  his  pro- 
duction and  distribution  hours,  and  be  an  intense  co- 
operator.  He  would  treat  as  wasters  those  superbees 
who  would  work  themselves  and  others  without  any 
thought  of  the  monkey  play,  merely  to  amass  a  per- 
sonal pile  of  honey.  There  would  be  piles  of  honey, 
adequate  personal  piles,  but  not  huge  ones. 

Individualism  and  self-interest  are  about  the  same 
thing.  The  date  when  the  bandar-bee  will  appear  on 
the  earth  depends  upon  the  amount  of  hammering  which 
mankind  mu.st  undergo,  to  pound  into  it  a  realization 
of  the  fact  that  in  the  long  run  self-interest  can  be 
most  permanently  promoted  by  intense  and  unselfish 
cooperation  in  production  and  distribution. 

The  Water-Power   Bill 

A  SPECIAL  committee  of  eighteen  members  of  the 
House  has  devoted  a  week  to  hearings  upon  the 
Administration's  Water  Power  Bill.  This  bill,  which  is 
a  proposed  House  substitute  for  the  Shields  Bill  as 
passed  by  the  Senate,  creates  a  commission  consisting 
of  the  Secretaries  of  War,  Interior  and  Agriculture  and 
having  an  executive  officer  to  be  appointed  by  the 
President.  This  commission  may  grant  licenses  for  the 
development  of  power  projects  upon  navigable  streams 
or  streams  located  upon  public  lands  for  terms  not  to 
exceed  fifty  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  Gov- 
ernment may  renew  the  license,  transfer  it  or  take  the 
project  over  itself. 

The  tentative  draft  of  the  bill,  commented  upon  in 
Poiver  of  February  19,  provided  that  the  Government  on 
recapture  should  pay  for  the  project  "the  fair  value 
not  to  exceed  actual  cost  of  the  property  taken."  In- 
asmuch as  a  large  proportion  of  the  original  investment 
might  have  been  retired  through  depreciation  and 
amortization  during  the  fifty  years'  tenure,  it  would  be 
possible,  as  was  pointed  out  in  the  editorial  referred 
to,  for  the  promoter,  in  addition  to  a  fair  profit  during 
that  time,  to  receive  back  much  more  than  he  put  into 
the  project.  This  has  been  taken  care  of  in  the  draft 
of  the  bill  now  before  the  committee  by  providing 
that  the  Government  shall  have  the  right,  on  the  ter- 
mination of  the  license,  to  take  over  the  project  upon 
the  payment  of  the  "net  investment"  of  the  licensee. 
This  net  investment  is  defined  as  the  actual  legitimate 
cost  as  defined  and  interpreted  in  the  "Classification 


of  Investment  in  Road  and  Equipment  of  Steam  Roads, 
issue  of  1914,  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission" 
plus  similar  costs  of  additions  thereto  and  betterments 
thereof  minus  the  sum  of  the  following  items  properly 
allocated  thereto,  if  and  to  the  extent  that  such  items 
have  been  accumulated  during  the  period  of  the  license 
from  earnings  in  excess  of  a  fair  return  on  such  invest- 
ment: (a)  Unappropriated  surplus,  (b)  aggregate 
credit  balances  of  current  depreciation  accounts,  and 
(c)  aggregate  appropriations  of  surplus  or  income  held 
in  amortization  sinking  fund  or  similar  reserves  or 
expended  for  extensions  or  betterments. 

Dependence  for  the  regulation  of  rates,  service,  issue 
of  securities,  etc.,  is  placed  upon  the  public-service 
commissions  or  other  authorities  of  states  where  such 
regulation  is  provided.  Where  no  such  local  regulation 
exists,  the  Federal  commission  has  authority.  A  rental, 
not  less  than  ten  cents  per  horsepower  per  annum,  is 
to  be  charged,  except  to  states  and  municipalities. 
Whether  this  is  based  upon  the  potential,  installed  or 
developed  capacity,  or  the  amount  of  power  sold  is  not 
clear.  This,  if  kept  to  the  minimum,  represents  not 
much  more  than  an  administrative  charge,  but  is  ap- 
plied in  part  to  the  improvement  of  the  lands  and  rivers 
upon  which  the  project  is  located.  There  was  no  objec- 
tion to  the  rental,  as  the  operator  will  simply  pass  it 
on  to  the  consumer.  One  of  those  who  took  part  in 
the  discussion  suggested  making  the  maximum  fifty 
cents  per  horsepower  annually  so  that  it  would  not 
become  a  burden  in  meeting  competition. 

The  presentation  was  arranged  to  show  the  benefits 
that  would  accrue  from  the  development  of  the  powers; 
then  that  the  privileges  that  the  Government  is  offering 
are  not  so  valuable  as  is  popularly  supposed  because 
water  powers  can  compete  with  steam  power  only  under 
favorable  conditions,  and  that  projects  must  not  be 
burdened  with  too  many  restrictions  and  handicaps; 
then  to  seek  the  modification  of  the  bill  in  those  re- 
spects in  which  these  handicaps  might  be  supposed  to  lie. 
These  were  chiefly  in  the  tenure  and  recapture  provisions. 

Our  preference  has  been  for  a  license  revocable  at 
any  time  on  repayment  of  the  net  investment.  There 
is  an  argument  for  the  term  license,  however — not  that 
which  is  usually  advanced,  that  the  project  cannot  be 
financed  without  a  franchise  valid  over  the  lifetime  of 
a  long-term  bond,  for  the  recapture  provisions  of  an 
indeterminate  license  could  protect  the  investment  how- 
ever soon  it  was  taken  over,  but  that  the  chance  of 
making  a  profit  is  the  incentive  for  the  promoter.  If 
the  Government  can  take  it  by  restoring  what  has  been 
put  into  it  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  pay  a  profit,  his 
chance  for  remuneration  is  jeopardized. 

The  bill  provides  that  the  commission  may  in  its 
discretion  give  preference  to  applications  for  licenses 
by  states  and  municipalities  for  developing  power  for 
state  and  municipal  purposes.  Municipal  purposes  are 
defined  as  "all  purposes  within  municipal  powers  as 
defined  by  the  constitution  or  laws  of  the  state  or  by 
the  charter  of  the  municipality  where  any  such  purpose 
is  directly  pursued  by  the  municipality  itself  with  the 
primary  object  of  promoting  the  security,  health,  good 
government  or  general  convenience  of  its  inhabitants," 
and  licenses  may  be  issued  without  charge  for  the  de- 
velopment, transmission  or  distribution  of  power  solely 
for  state  or  municipal  purposes. 


April  2,  1918 


POWER 


479 


As  the  Federal  Government  would  be  unlikely  to  re- 
capture a  project  and  operate  it  by  selling  the  power, 
fhe  opinion  seemed  to  be  that  unless  it  acquired  it  for 
a  governmental  purpose,  as  for  making  nitrate,  am- 
munition, etc.,  or  operating  Government-owned  railways, 
projects  would,  on  the  expiration  of  the  licenses,  pass 
into  the  possession  of  the  municipalities  that  they  served 
unless  satisfactory  terms  could  be  made  for  renewal. 
Municipality,  as  used  in  the  bill,  means  a  city,  county, 
irrigation  district  or  other  political  division  of  a  state 
competent  under  the  laws  thereof  to  carry  on  the  busi- 
ness of  developing,  transmitting  or  distributing  power. 

At  the  present  rate  of  development  it  is  difficult  to 
predict  what  social  and  industrial  conditions  may  be 
fifty  or  more  years  from  now,  but  the  bill  appears  to 
safeguard  as  well  as  possible  the  interests  of  the  public 
while  offering  security  to  capital  and  incentive  to  enter- 
prise. 

America  Calls  to  Americans 

ON  APRIL  6,  one  year  from  the  day  the  United  States 
entered  the  war,  the  Third  Liberty  Loan  will  be  of- 
fered for  subscription.  It  is  imperative  that  it  should  be 
oversubscribed.  It  is  frequently  asserted  that  the  moral 
effect  of  a  magnificent  response  will  be  felt  among  our 
Allies  and  by  the  enemy.  While  this  is  undoubtedly 
true,  there  is  another  reason  why  the  money  should  pour 
in,  which  must  not  be  overlooked — It  is  needed! 

Each  day  sees  some  new  demand  for  extraordinary 
expenditure.  The  shipbuilding  program  alone  will  en- 
tail an  outlay  that  must  be  stupendous.  The  building 
of  aircraft  calls  for  immense  appropriations.  And  these 
are  only  two  items  in  the  cost  of  the  war.  The  main- 
tenance of  troops  at  home  and  abroad  and  a  hundred 
other  expenses  are  mounting  every  day. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  this  Third  Loan  will 
be  made  at  a  time  when  the  war  has  reached  a  critical 
stage.  Money  and  more  money  must  be  expended.  The 
Allies  can  no  longer  contribute  in  amounts  that  are  nec- 
essary at  this  crucial  time.  America  must  furnish  the 
sinews  of  war.  And  America  calls  to  Americans.  That 
is  all  that  need  be  said.  To  think  that  she  should  ap- 
peal in  vain  is  impossible. 

The  school  children  of  New  York  City  alone  are  pre- 
paring to  raise  $50,000,000.  Surely,  American  men  and 
women  would  be  ashamed  to  look  these  children  in  the 
face  if  they  failed  to  grasp  the  privilege  which  is  of- 
fered of  aiding  America  at  this  critical  time  in  the 
history  of  the  nation. 

Conservation  of  Natural-Power  Re- 
sources in  Australia 

THE  article  on  hydro-electric  power  development  in 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  published  on  page  465 
of  this  issue  touches  a  question  which  is  just  now  of 
great  interest  to  the  American  reader.  It  appears  that 
the  Australians  have  decided  to  make  as  wide  a  use  as 
possible  of  their  natural-power  resources  in  the  future, 
and  also  that  they  are  not  willing  that  these  resources 
shall  be  exploited  by  private  capital,  but  shall  be  devel- 
oped by  the  nation  in  the  interest  of  the  nation. 

The  realization  of  the  great  importance  which  hy- 


dro-electric development  will  play  in  the  economic  life 
of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  so  far  has  found  expres- 
sion in  the  carrying  out  of  vast  schemes  of  hydro-elec- 
tric power  generation.  Of  these,  the  great  development 
contemplated  in  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand 
deserves  special  attention.  When  completed,  this  enter- 
prise will  not  only  tap  most  of  the  best  power  sources 
known  at  present,  but  will  also  be  interconnected  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  the  resources  of  each  development 
available  for  all  the  other  developments. 

The  whole  of  the  work  is  carried  out  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  government  will  be  the  owner  of  the  gen- 
erating stations  and  the  means  of  distribution.  The 
cities  and  large  consumers  of  electrical  power  will  buy 
from  the  government.  By  this  scheme  a  guarantee  is 
offered  that  the  resources  of  the  country  will  be  devel- 
oped so  as  to  give  the  best  results. 

Australia  and  New  Zealand  have  been  very  far- 
sighted  and  fortunate  in  taking  early  steps  to  prevent 
the  unhealthy  exploitation  of  their  natural-power  re- 
sources. Laws  passed  years  ago  have  made  the  under- 
taking of  electrical  enterprises  dependent  upon  govern- 
ment license,  and  when  the  time  came  to  tap  the  great 
dormant  power  resources  of  the  country  the  govern- 
ment's position  was  strengthened  by  additional  laws 
giving  to  the  nation  virtual  control  of  all  the  existing 
resources. 

Does  Rhode  Island  Need  a 
License    Law? 

DURING  the  last  few  weeks  we  have  published 
accounts  of  an  unusually  large  number  of  boiler 
explosions.  On  page  463  of  this  issue  is  a  report  of 
another  one  in  which  three  persons  were  killed  and  four 
were  seriously  injured. 

Nothing  is  definitely  known  as  to  the  pressure  carried 
at  the  time.  One  hour  and  forty  minutes  before  the 
explosion  the  gage  registered  fifty-five  pounds  pressure 
and  sufficient  water  was  showing  in  the  gage-glass. 
Two  factors  stand  out  prominently,  one  being  that  the 
safety  valve  was  found  frozen  solid  the  day  after  the 
e.xplosion,  although  the  weather  was  not  sufficiently  cold 
to  produce  this  result.  The  other  is  that  the  man  who 
was  operating  the  boiler  was  performing  this  duty 
without  a  license,  and,  furthermore,  the  State  of  Rhode 
Island  does  not  make  it  necessary  for  a  boiler  attendant 
to  have  one. 

Some  good  may  result  from  this  explosion  in  that 
it  may  lead  to  the  adoption  of  a  city,  if  not  a  state, 
law  governing  the  supervision  of  steam  plants  and  the 
licenses  of  those  engaged  in  their  operation. 

Suggested  Caution  Warranted 

In  spite  of  the  coal  shortage  this  winter,  the  showing 
made  in  the  annual  statement  of  the  Rhode  Island  Coal 
Co.,  just  issued,  is  the  worst  on  record,  with  a  deficit 
of  more  than  half  a  millions  dollars.  The  December  deficit 
alone  was  $102,347.76.  And  yet  coal  mining  is  generally 
a  profitable  business,  and  Rhode  Island  coal  has  lasting 
qualities.— Bcsfon  Globe,  Feb.  27,  1918. 

Before  purchasing  any  of  the  400,000  shares  of  stock 
offered  in  the  pamphlet  previously  mentioned,  investigators 
would  do  well  to  make  a  thorough  investigation,  visit  the 
mine  and  form  their  own  conclusions. — Power,  Oct.  5,  1909. 


480                                                                                   POWER  Vol.  47,  No.  14 

isiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilililiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiimiiniiiimiiiiiiiiiiii!: 


Correspondence 


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Does  a  Bonus  System  for  Firemen  Pay? 

Many  articles  have  been  written  advocating"  bonus 
systems  for  firemen  on  a  CO,  or  high-evaporation  basis, 
but  my  experience  is  that  competition  among  firemen 
has  not  always  produced  the  desired  results  when  the 
actual  conditions  are  known,  for,  however  dense  and 
ignorant  of  the  laws  of  combustion  a  fireman  may  be,  it 
does  not  usually  take  long  for  him  to  learn  how  to  beat  a 
CO,  recorder  or  to  find  means  whereby  he  can  juggle 
evaporation. 

Almost  every  fireman,  whether  he  is  working  under 
a  bonus  system  or  not,  likes  to  receive  credit  for  a 
good  day's  work,  and  there  are  always  a  few  unscru- 
pulous ones  who  will  adopt  underhand  tricks  in  order  to 
increase  their  own  prestige.  The  percentage  of  these 
unscrupulous  ones  may  be  small,  but  they  are  usually 
present  in  sufficient  number  to  defeat  the  object  of  any 
system  or  friendly  competition  ever  devised  or 
inaugurated. 

In  a  small  hand-fired  installation  where  a  CO^  recorder 
is  used,  the  fireman  on  each  watch  tries  to  make  a  good 
showing  on  the  chart.  One  fireman  in  cleaning  the  fire 
under  the  boiler  to  which  the  recorder  happens  to  be 
attached  does  a  "half  job";  merely  pulling  out  the  loose 
dirt  and  clinkers,  leaving  the  heavy  clinker  formation 
on  the  bridge  and  side  walls,  cleaning  the  fire  just  suf- 
ficiently to  enable  him  to  "get  by"  for  the  remainder  of 
his  own  watch.  As  a  result  of  such  a  cleaning,  the  CO, 
on  the  chart  is  down  for  but  a  short  time.  When  it  is 
the  next  man's  turn  to  clean  that  particular  fire  it  is  in 
an  awful  condition — the  clinker  formation  on  the  walls 
is  hard  as  cement  and  has  covered  a  large  part  of  the 
great  area.  This  fireman  is  perhaps  conscientious  in 
the  discharge  of  his  duties,  and  by  hard  labor  and  loss 
of  considerable  time  he  manages  to  remove  the  clinker 
and  regain  the  lost  grate  area.  But  the  record  he  has 
made  on  the  chart  is  anything  but  "pretty,"  the  CO, 
has  been  down  for  a  long  interval. 

The  chances  are  that  the  unscrupulous  fireman  is 
credited  with  being  a  speedy  and  skillful  man,  while  the 
conscientious  fellow  is  criticized  for  his  poor  showing. 
The  usual  result  is  that  the  fireman  so  censured,  rather 
than  start  a  controversy,  either  seeks  another  position 
or  else  resorts  to  the  other  fireman's  underhanded 
methods.  The  efficiency  of  the  plant  suffers  in  either 
case.  When  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  re- 
sults obtained  by  the  different  firemen,  the  engineer 
should  ascertain  the  true  reasons  for  such  before  be- 
stowing praise  or  censure. 

Some  time  ago  I  read  an  article  about  a  certain  plant 
where  a  competition  was  fostered  between  the  boiler- 
room  crews  on  the  different  shifts  to  see  which  crew 
could  obtain  the  best  evaporation.  The  results  so  ob- 
tained and  published  were  misleading,  the  actual  con- 
ditions were  not  made  known — some  of  the  tricks 
resorted  to  by  the  night  crew  to  bolster  up  the  evapora- 


tion on  that  shift.  The  coal  passer  who  was  responsible 
for  the  weighing  of  the  coal,  after  having  got  well 
caught  up  on  his  work  was  in  the  habit  of  going  to  a 
quiet  corner  best  known  to  himself,  for  a  little  nap. 
The  fireman  would  seize  this  opportunity  to  sneak  in  an 
extra  car  or  two  of  coal,  which  of  course  was  never 
I'ecorded.  "Cracking"  the  blowoff  and  other  means  they 
had  of  getting  rid  of  the  water  were  resorted  to. 
Whether  any  such  methods  were  practiced  by  the  crews 
on  the  other  shifts  or  as  to  how  long  these  practices 
went  undetected,  I  do  not  know,  but  certainly  the  com- 
petition so  fostered  came  far  from  attaining  the  desired 
results. 

In  my  estimation  intelligent  and  appreciative  super- 
vision, good  working  conditions,  fair  wages  and  reason- 
able hours  will  pay  the  plant  owner  greater  dividends 
than  all  the  bonus  systems  or  competitions  ever  devised 
or  inaugurated.  By  reasonable  hours  I  do  not  mean 
seven  days  a  week  for,  however  interested  an  engineer 
or  fireman  may  be  in  his  work,  he  needs  one  day  of  rest 
and  relaxation  if  he  is  to  maintain  his  maximum  effi- 
cienc.y.  I  am  glad  to  note  that  there  seems  to  be  a  grow- 
ing tendency  among  the  more  reasonable  employers  to 
recognize  this  fact.  L.  L.  Sprague. 

Andover,  Mass. 

There  Should   Be  an   Ash   Inspector 

Reading  the  editorial,  "Why  Not  Have  an  Ash  In- 
spector?" in  the  issue  of  Feb.  19,  page  267,  reminds 
me  of  a  suggestion  that  I  made  the  local  fuel  adminis- 
trator some  time  ago — to  appoint  a  capable  man  clothed 
with  authority  to  visit  plants,  commercial  and  domestic, 
and  to  say  to  the  owners  or  operators:  "Your  fuel 
is  not  suited  to  the  conditions,"  or  "Your  grates  are 
not  right,"  or  "Your  draft  is  not  handled  rightly," 
"Your  settings  are  leaking,"  or  any  of  the  many  things 
that  go  to  prevent  getting  good  results.  He  should 
show  the  operator  how  to  handle  the  furnace,  then  see 
that  instructions  are  followed  or  cut  the  fuel  off,  whether 
it  be  the  fault  of  the  installation  or  of  the  men  handling 
it.  In  homes  there  are  many  heaters  that  are  wasting 
a  lot  of  fuel  where  an  expert  could  help  out,  and  the 
owners  would  be  glad  to  save  if  they  knew  what  steps 
to  take  to  do  sc. 

My  suggestion  to  the  fuel  administrator  was  not 
acted  on  for  the  reason,  as  stated,  that  there  was  no 
provision  for  such  a  man  nor  funds  with  which  to 
pay  one.  Why  should  a  power  plant,  where  the  men 
and  the  company  are  trying  in  every  way  to  save  and 
run  economically,  be  compelled  to  stop  to  save  coal  for 
those  who  are  wantonly  wasting  it?  It  is  not  fair 
and  is  very  discouraging  to  the  ones  that  are  trying 
and  "working  their  heads"  off  to  save.  There  certainly 
.-.hould  be  an  ash  inspector  and  one  who  knows  some- 
thing besides  what  he  has  learned  from  some  textbook. 

Binghamton,  N.  Y.  Asa  P.  Hyde. 


April 


li)l8 


F  O  W  E  K 


481 


SINGLE  -   PHASE 
LItSE 


Operating  Polyphase  Motors 
Single-Phase 

The  letter  in  the  issue  of  Jan.  29,  by  F.  W.  Plumb, 
on  operating  two-phase  motors  single-phase  recalls  two 
incidents  in  my  experience  along  a  similar  line.  A  power 
company  in  a  Southern  city  made  it  a  practice  to  run 
long  single-phase  primary  extensions  out  into  the 
country  in  order  to  furnish  lighting  and  single-phase 
power- to  the  farmers.  One  such  customer  had  ordered 
a  corn  shredder  and  a  single-phase  motor  to  drive  it. 
The  machine  was  delivered,  but  the  motor  was  delayed 
in  transit  and  it  became  necessary  to  get  the  machine 
running.  No  other  single-phase  motor  of  sufficient 
size  was  available,  so  it  was  decided  to  attempt  the 
work  with  a  large  three-phase  machine.  The  motor 
was  installed  and  a  phase-splitting  device  built,  as  shown 
in  the  figure,  to  assist  in  starting.  After  some  adjust- 
ment of  the  phase-splitting  coils  and  a  little  assist- 
ance on  the  belt,  the 
motor  came  up  to 
speed  with  the  switch 
in  the  down  position; 
then  the  switch  was 
thrown  up,  which  con- 
nected the  motor 
directly  to  the  single- 
phase  current.  The 
motor  continued  to 
operate  in  this  man- 
ner until  the  single- 
phase  machine  was 
delivered  and  i  n  - 
stalled. 

In  another  case  a 
small  central  station 
had  two  generators, 
one  single-phase  and 
the  other  a  three- 
phase.  The  single- 
phase  machine  was 
used  only  in  emergen- 
cies and  to  furnish 
light  when  there  was 
no  power  load  on  the 
plant.  One  of  the 
manufacturing  plants 
in  the  town  used  several  small  three-phase  motors  and 
one  larger  machine  of  the  same  type,  which,  however, 
was  only  partly  loaded.  The  three-phase  generator  broke 
down  and  required  several  days  for  repairs  to  be  made; 
in  the  meantime,  the  power  consumers  desired  to  con- 
tinue operations. 

A  temporary  single-phase  connection  was  made  to  the 
large  motor  and  a  split-phase  device  constructed  for  the 
purpose  of  starting  the  large  machine.  After  the  large 
motor  was  started  on  the  single-phase  circuit,  it  was 
thrown  over  on  the  three-phase  line,  one  phase  of  which 
was  connected  to  the  single-phase  generator.  In  this  way 
the  three-phase  motor  was  made  to  operate  as  a  single- 
phase  to  three-phase  converter  in  addition  to  pulling  its 
own  load  on  single-phase  power,  so  that  the  small  motors 
could  be  started  and  operated  on  three-phase  power  as 
formerly.  The  large  motor  now  operated  at  nearly  full 
load,  but  the  small  motors  took  about  the  same  power 


rH.A.SE-SPLITT]XG    CONNECTION' 


from  the  circuit  as  when  supplied  from  the  three-phase 
generator.  D.  R.  Shearer. 

Johnson  City,  Tenn. 

Single-Phase  Operation  Caused  Low 
Power  Factor 

With  frequency  changers  operating  in  parallel,  both 
the  motors  and  the  generators  must  be  in  phase.  With 
the  motors  locked  in  phase  with  the  main  generators  and 
the  motors  having  a  different  number  of  poles  than  the 
generators  of  the  frequency  changers,  there  is  evidently 
only  a  certain  relative  position  in  which  the  generators 
of  the  sets  will  be  in  phase.  If  this  position  is  not  ob- 
tained when  the  motors  are  switched  in,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  do  what  the  operators  term  slipping  poles 
on  the  motor.  This  is  accomplished  by  opening  the 
motor  switch  long  enough  for  the  synchronizing  indi- 
cator on  the  motor  to  make  a  complete  revolution,  in- 
dicating that  the  rotor  of  the  motor  has  dropped  back 
one  pair  of  poles,  with  regard  to  the  main  generator, 
and  then  closing  the  switch  when  the  motor  is  again 
in  synchronism. 

This  may  have  to  be  repeated  a  number  of  times  on 
some  occasions,  to  bring  the  generator  of  the  frequency 
changer  sets  to  be  paralleled  in  phase  with  the  one  that 
is  running.  It  is  a  job  that  requires  careful  handling 
even  for  an  experienced  operator,  because  the  machine 
drops  out  of  phase  at  an  increasing  speed  when  the 
switch  is  opened,  and  by  the  time  it  comes  into  phase 
again,  the  hand  on  the  synchronoscope  may  be  moving 
quite  rapidly.  If  the  change  is  not  made  properly,  the 
whole  starting  operation  mu.st  be  done  over  again. 

When  two  alternating-current  generators  are  paral- 
leled, the  indicator  of  the  synchronoscope  always  swings 
to  the  zero  point  and  remains  rigidly  in  this  position.  One 
morning,  however,  after  cutting  in  the  motor  of  a  2000- 
kw.  frequency-changer  set,  the  indicator  made  several 
swings  back  and  forth  across  the  zero  point  before  it 
finally  decided  to  stay  there.  Nothing  else  happened  and 
the  machine  kept  on  running,  so  I  went  ahead  and  cut 
in  the  generator.  As  luck  would  have  it,  the  generator 
happened  to  be  in  phase,  and  it  was  not  necessary  to 
slip  poles  on  the  motor  to  get  the  latter  in  phase.  When 
the  exciting  current  of  the  motor  was  adjusted  so  as  to 
maintain  unity  power  factors,  it  required  something 
like  twice  normal  value. 

I  had  always  made  it  a  practice  to  go  up  on  the  switch 
gallery  and  examine  the  high-tension  switches  as  soon 
as  possible  after  each  operation.  This  is  what  probably 
saved  trouble  this  time,  as  there  was  only  a  small  frac- 
tion of  a  load  on  the  machine  and  no  doubt,  under  the 
conditions  aftei-ward  found,  as  soon  as  load  came  on 
the  machine  would  have  pulled  out  of  step.  When  I 
came  to  examine  the  switch,  the  cause  of  the  trouble 
was  at  once  evident.  One  of  the  wooden  rods  which 
closed  the  switch,  there  being  one  on  each  phase,  had 
been  broken;  consequently,  the  motor  was  operating 
single-phase.  As  a  temporary  measure  I  took  a  stick 
and  pushed  the  broken  section  into  place,  thus  closing 
the  third  phase  of  the  circuit.  This  made  it  necessary  to 
reduce  the  exciting  current  for  the  motor  to  its  normal 
value,  to  maintain  unity  power  factor. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.  E.  W.  MlLLER. 


482 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


Calculating  the  Contents  of  Oil  Tanks 

There  is  a  timely  article  in  the  Jan.  22  issue  of 
Potver,  on  the  calculation  of  the  contents  of  horizontal 
cylindrical  tanks  with  dished  heads,  when  the  liquid 
is  at  different  levels.  The  writer  has  no  criticism 
whatever  to  offer  concerning  Mr.  Strohm's  method, 
which  is  the  most  logical  way;  but  the  time  involved 
in  getting  up  a  table  of  capacities  by  that  process  is 
a  nerve-trying  ordeal— as  the  writer  knows!  It  is 
evident  that  for  the  tank  mentioned  in  Mr.  Strohm's 


^------L -1 

'  / 

\ 

;  / 

,.-0-'" 

i  \ 

1/ 

DIMENSIONS  USED  IN  FINDING  CONTENTS  OP  TANK 

article  it  would  be  necessary  to  use  the  circular-segment 
formula  forty-eight  times,  to  obtain  the  volume  at  every 
inch  of  depth  of  the  liquid  for  one-half  of  the  tank. 

The  writer  is  employed  by  a  large  byproduct  coke 
company,  and  the  average  plant  of  this  nature  has 
many  storage  tanks  which  must  be  calibrated  and  for 
which  gages  must  be  provided,  so  that  the  contents 
may  be  read  at  any  time.  He  calibrated  our  tanks  for 
a  long  time  by  the  method  given  by  Mr.  Strohm,  using 
a  planimeter  to  obtain  the  areas  of  the  segments,  thus 
decreasing  the  labor  somewhat.  But  our  troubles  came 
to  an  end  when  the  writer  discovered,  in  an  old  paper 
on  chemistry,  the  formula, 

V  =  TASD'Lf,  -\-  14.96D7, 
in  which 

V  ^=  Contents  of  tank   in   U.   S.   gallons   at  the 

depth  considered; 
D  =  Diameter  of  tank  in  feet; 
L  =  Length  of  tank  in  feet; 
i/r=  Depth  of  liquid  in  tank; 
/j,  /^  :=  Factors  whose  values  depend  on  the  value 
of  H,  as  shown  in  the  table. 
The   meanings   of   the   several   letters   may   be   more 
readily  understood  from  the  accompanying  illustration. 

VALUES  OF  A  AND  f,  FOR  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS 

H  f,  /, 

0   30  0    198168  0  01048 

0  35  0  244980  0  01385 

0   40  0   293370  0   01805 

0   45  0    342783  0   02234 

0  50  0   392699  0  02697 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  table  gives  the  values 
of  the  factors  only  for  every  0.05  of  the  diameter  of 
the  tank,  whereas  it  is  usual  to  calibrate  tanks  for  each 
inch  of  depth.  This  difficulty  can  be  overcome  by 
"calculating  the  capacities  at  all  depths  from  0.05D  to 
0.50  D,  and  then  plotting  the  results  in  the  form  of 
a  curve  on  cross-section  paper,  to  a  sufficiently  large 
scale.  The  vertical  scale  can  be  used  to  represent  depths 
and  the  horizontal  scale  to  represent  capacities  in  gal- 
lons. After  the  curve  is  carefully  plotted,  the  capacity 
at  any  inch  of  depth  may  be  read  from  the  horizontal 
scale.  By  this  means  the  formula  need  be  used  only 
ten  times,  instead  of  once  for  each  inch  of  depth. 

Pittsburgh,  Penn.  William  C.  Strott. 

[From  the  sketch  shown  by  Mr.  Strott,  it  appears 
that  his  formula  is  strictly  applicable  only  in  case  the 


H 

/. 

h 

0  05 

0  014681 

0  00017 

0  ID 

0  040875 

0  00085 

0  15 

0  073875 

0  00221 

0  20 

0  111824 

0  00420 

0.23 

0  153546 

0  00687 

radius  of  the  dished  head  is  equal  to  the  diameter  of 
the  tank,  although  it  will  probably  give  results  accurate 
enough  for  all  practical  purposes  when  applied  to  any 
horizontal  cylindrical  tank  with  dished  heads. — Editor.] 

Sucking  from  a  Condenser 

In  the  issue  of  Jan.  29,  1918,  there  is  another  letter 
[Others  on  pages  807,  Dec.  11,  and  740,  Nov.  27— 
Editor.]  on  "Sucking  from  a  Condenser,"  and  I  have 
read  all  the  previous  articles,  but  the  matter  was  brought 
home  by  the  same  thing  happening  in  the  plant  of  which 
I  have  charge,  breaking  both  steam  valves  of  a  Corliss 
engine.  The  circumstances  as  reported  to  me  were  as 
follows:  The  engineer  had  just  shut  off  the  steam  to  stop 
the  engine,  and  was  going  around  to  the  other  side  of  the 
cylinder  to  shut  the  valve  in  the  exhaust  line  between 
the  engine  and  air  pump  or  jet  condenser,  when  there 
was  a  sound  of  water  in  the  cylinder  and  a  discharge  of 
water  from  the  relief  valves.  On  examination  I  found 
both  steam  valves  in  eight  or  ten  pieces  each  and  the 
floor  wet  from  the  water,  although  it  must  have  been 
twenty  minutes  after  the  accident  before  I  got  to  the 
engine  room. 

The  question  is.  Where  did  the  water  come  from  if 
not  from  the  condenser?  My  conclusion,  after  studying 
the  matter,  is  this:  When  this  plant  was  built,  the 
e.xhaust  from  the  engine  was  dropped  about  2  ft.,  then 
carried  horizontally  for  about  15  ft. ;  there  is  a  tee  and 
two  45-deg.  bends  in  this  length;  the  condenser  is  con- 
nected to  the  tee,  then  it  turns  up  with  an  elbow  to  the 
relief  valve  to  the  atmosphere.  Now  this  pipe  past 
the  tee  makes  a  dead  end  in  which  a  certain  amount 
of  water  is  held  by  the  exhaust  from  the  engine;  and 
when  the  steam  was  shut  off,  a  few  strokes  of  the  pump 
cleared  the  engine  of  steam  pressure,  so  that  there  was 
a  partial  vacuum  as  far  back  as  the  throttle  valve,  as, 


'^m 


Tm 


Enhoust 


V 


To  Condenser 


DIAGRAM  OF  EXHAUST  PIPING 

the  action  of  the  piston  would  raise  the  exhaust  valves 
off  their  seats  and  give  the  water  in  the  dead  end  a 
surge  or  wave  toward  the  engine — in  fact,  enough  to 
carry  it  past  the  tee  and  into  the  engine  so  that  the 
action  of  the  piston  would  be  as  much  of  a  vacuum 
pump  as  the  pump  itself. 

This  is  the  second  condenser  that  I  have  found  con- 
nected in  this  way  (off  a  tee).  In  the  other  case  the 
condenser  was  condemned  as  "no  good"  until  I  changed 
it  from  the  tee  to  the  end  of  the  pipe  and  put  the  relief 
valve  on  the  tee;  since  then  it  has  been  working  satis- 
factorily. The  same  change  is  required  in  this  latter 
case,  but  the  engine  is  used  only  in  case  of  emergency 
and  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  change,  so  it  has  not  been 
done  yet.  J-  DRUM  MONO. 

Granby,  Que.,  Canada. 


April  2,  1018 


POWER 


483 


Telescopic-Oiler   Discussion* 

The  discussion  of  telescopic  oilers  recently  appearing 
in  Power  has  brought  out  useful  points.  As  H.  Ham- 
kens  pointed  out  at  the  beginning  of  the  discussion,  the 
main  disadvantages  of  most  tjlescopics,  especially  the 
older  ones,  are  too  many  parts,  leakage  of  oil,  tendency 
to  irregular  feeding  and  too  rapid  wear. 

It  is  true  that  the  older  telescopies  were  somewhat 
complicated  and  that,  with  numerous  springs,  locknuts, 
washers,  etc.,  they  were  hard  to  keep  in  repair  and  in 
good  working  order.  But  the  design  has  gradually  been 
simplified  and  improved  until  today  oilers  can  be  pro- 
cured which  are  apparently  as  simple  as  it  is  possible 
to  make  them. 

As  Mr.  Fenno  pointed  out  in  his  article  in  the  July 
17,  1917,  issue,  the  tendency  to  pumping  and  irregular 
feeding  can  be  overcome  simply  by  providing  suitable 
clearance  between  the  inner  and  outer  telescopic  tubes. 

The  rapid  wear  of  the  tubes  noticed  by  Mr.  Ham- 
kens  in  some  instances,  is  the  result  of  their  binding 
upon  each  other  due  to  imperfect  alignment  either  when 
installed  or  after  reassembling.  This  can  be  avoided 
by  due  care  when  installing  and,  with  some  telescopies, 
extreme  care  when  reassembling.  It  all  depends  upon 
the  type  of  joint  employed. 

By  employing  the  special  design  of  true  male  and  fe- 
male joint  shown  in  the  illustration,  all  wear  due  to 
imperfect  alignment,  except  that  due  to  poor  installation, 
is  completely  avoided,  because  no  threading  is  even  dis- 
turbed. Also,  because  this  joint  permits  of  gravity  feed, 
the  pumping  tendency  is  practically,  and  leakage  com- 
pletely, eliminated. 

With  the  arrangement  shown  by  Mr.  Fenno  and  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  1,  the  oil  accumulated  at  the  bottom  of 
the  outer  element  as  at  A.  In  other  words,  the  flow 
of  oil  is  against  the  direction  of  the  joint  instead  of 
with  it.  Hence,  the  fiber  packing  B  is  always  in  contact 
with  the  oil  and  subject  to  deterioration  and  leakage. 

In  most  of  the  older  designs  the  joint  could  not  be 
taken  apart  without  first  unscrewing  the  telescopic  pipe. 
This  meant  that  with  any  irregular  alignment  whatso- 
ever in  the  initial  assembling,  the  pipe  would  have  to  be 
screwed  up  to  exactly  its  original  position  when  reas- 
sembled, or  extreme  wear  was  sure  to  ensue. 

With  the  type  of  joint  shown  in  Fig.  2,  both  wear 
and  leakage  are  practically  overcome.  The  overhanging 
lip  D  drops  the  oil  from  the  movable  element  E  directly 
into  the  hollow  of  the  fixed  element  F,  and  hence,  unless 
the  oil  is  fed  in  a  flood  greater  than  the  latter  can  con- 
duct it  to  the  pin,  the  joint  G  remains  leakless. 

The  joint  is  taken  apart  by  sliding  off  the  spring  clip 
H,  which  is  attached  to  the  loose  collar  /.  The  movable 
element  E  then  slides  out  of  the  fixed  element  F.  As 
the  construction  at  the  top  of  the  telescopic  is  similar, 
the  telescoping  pipes  may  both  be  removed  without  de- 
taching them  from  their  parts  of  the  joints.  Hence, 
they  can  always  be  replaced  in  alignment.  As  no  nuts 
or  screws  are  used  in  putting  'he  joints  together,  they 
may  be  taken  apart  for  cleaning  or  inspection  while  the 
engine  is  running  unless  the  .':peed  is  uncomfortably 
high.  William  W.  Nugent. 

Chicago,  111. 


•.=!ee  "Power"  l!tl7,  .Tan.  30.  p,  142;  Mar.  6,  p.  325:  Apr.  3, 
p.  463  ;  May  22,  p.  707  ;  May  29,  p.  748  ;  July  17,  p.  96  ;  Sej)t. 
18.  p.    399  ;  Dec.   11,  p.   800. 


Lime  As  a  Protection  for  Steel 

In  the  issue  of  Feb.  26,  on  page  301,  there  is  an  inter- 
esting letter  by  N.  Bowland,  on  "Why  Hot  Water 
Pipes  Pit,"  which  gives  as  the  reason  for  the  rusting  of 
steel  and  iron  the  unlike  polarity  of  different  parts  of 
the  material,  setting  up  galvanic  currents.  To  have  a 
galvanic  current  requires,  as  is  well  known,  an  electro- 
lyte, usually  an  acid,  however  weak,  such  as  comes  from 
vegetation  sometimes  and  through  the  pollution  of 
streams  by  sewage  and  the  liquids  from  factories  of 
different  sorts. 

In  this  connection  I  was  led  to  the  belief  that  if  the 
solution  was  made  alkaline  there  would  be  no  electrol- 
ysis. To  test  this  out,  two  pieces  of  commercial  angle 
iron  were  cut  from  the  same  bar  and  placed  in  separate 
jars  filled  with  river  water,  but  to  the  water  in  one  jar 
a  handful  of  spent  lime  was  added,  while  that  in  the 
other  jar  was  left  natural.  Before  immersing  the  two 
specimens  in  the  water  thus  prepared,  they  were  sand- 
blasted to  remove  all  mill  scale  and  rust  except  one  face 
that  was  left  as  it  came  from  the  mill  and  one  face 
of  each  specimen,  in  addition  to  sandblasting,  was 
polished  to  a  fine  surface.  Both  specimens  were  im- 
mersed in  the  jars  on  the  same  date,  Oct.  2,  1915.  The 
cne  in  the  natural  river  water  began  to  rust  immediately 
and  is  now  covered  with  a  thick  coating,  and  much  oxide 
has  fallen  off  and  covers  the  bottom  of  the  jar.  The  other 
remains  exactly  as  when  put  in.  The  polish  on  this 
specimen,  immersed  in  lime  water,  is  as  perfect  as  on  the 
day  it  went  into  the  jar.  The  sandblasted  side  shows 
no  rust  whatever,  but  on  the  natural  side  there  is  one 
small  speck  about  J  in.  in  diameter  which  is  brown  in 
appearance,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  appreciable  in- 
crease in  area  or  thickness  of  this  brown  spot  from 
month  to  month. 

This  protective  action  of  lime  water  is  made  use  of 
by  English  hostlers,  who  are  accustomed  to  take  the 
highly  polished  steel  bits  from  the  horses'  bridles  when 
they  come  in  from  a  trip  and  throw  them  into  a  bucket 
of  lime  water  to  prevent  them  rusting  before  they  get 
time  to  give  them  their  daily  polishing.  I  find  that  lime 
water  is  eflfective  in  preventing  rust  in  the  bottoms  of 
steel  hulls,  which  nearly  always  have  more  or  less  bilge 
water  in  them,  often  from  condensation  of  atmospheric 
moisture  when  there  is  no  leakage.  Whitewash  is  also 
an  excellent  preservative  of  steel  in  inclosed  places  like 
the  air  tanks  in  steel  gates,  where  it  effectually  banishes 
rust  and  at  a  fraction  of  the  cost  of  paint.  It  needs 
occasional  touching  up  where  condensation  water  drips 
from  the  top  of  the  tank.  It  is  a  cheap  remedy  where 
applicable,  but  of  course  it  will  not  stand  abrasion 
or  where  the  steel  is  under  running  water.  It  has  been 
used  for  coating  the  tanks  of  the  50-ft.  gates  of  the 
Mississippi  River  lock  with  the  best  of  results.  It  seems 
to  show  that  where  the  acid  of  the  water  is  killed  with 
lime,  no  electrolysis  can  take  place. 

The  experiment  is  easy  to  make,  but  it  seems  not 
generally  known  what  a  good  and  cheap  preventive  of 
rust  lime  is  when  mixed  with  water.  Readers  of  Power 
may  find  many  uses  for  this  simple  protective  and  pos- 
sibly someone  may  find  a  way  to  combine  lime  with  a 
paint  that  will  stick  to  the  metal  under  water,  making 
an  ideal  coating  for  steel. 

Keokuk,  Iowa.  Montgomery  Meigs. 


484 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


A  Correction  Regarding  the  Use  of 
85  Per  Cent.  Magnesia 

In  the  May  1,  1917,  issue  of  Poiver  there  appeared, 
on  pages  593-6,  a  reprint  of  a  report  made  by  the 
Mellon  Institute  on  heat-insulating  materials.  In  both 
this  report  and  in  the  editorial  commenting  thereon 
(page  604  of  the  same  issue)  statements  regarding 
magnesia  were  made,  which  should  be  clarified  and 
corrected,  particularly  as,  in  view  of  the  present,  urgent 


g  0,5 

it 

0  0.4 
E 

1  0.3 


■0.2 


^0.1 


l?.0'l-. 

|== 

B« 

£       0  100         200         300         400  500        600 

Temperature    Difference,  Degrees  Fnhr 

CONDUCTIVITY    OF    MAGNESIA    HEATED    TO    720    DBG. 

necessity  for  conserving  our  coal  supply,  the  true  value 
of  steam-pipe  and  boiler  coverings  for  saving  coal 
should  be  recognized  and  the  proper  use  of  such 
coverings  encouraged.  The  editorial  was  partly  recti- 
fied in  the  July  17,  1917,  issue  (page  90),  but  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  reprints  of  the  original  article  and 
editorial  are  being  freely  circulated,  we  desire  to 
emphasize  the  true  meaning  of  the  original  report. 

It  was  stated  in  the  original  that  "even  when  sub- 
jected to  low  temperatures,  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time 
before  disintegration  (of  magnesia)  takes  place,  as 
is  well  known  from  the  behavior  of  magnesia  coverings 
for  steam  pipes."  And  in  the  editorial  this  assertion 
was  regarded  as  proved  by  the  report,  since  the  com- 
ment made  was :  "It  is  brought  out  that  when  subjected 
to  low  temperatures  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time  before 
disintegration  of  this  material  (magnesia)  takes  place." 

The  tests  reported  upon  in  the  article  cited  were 
made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  relative  values 
of  various  refractory  materials  for  furnace  insulation, 
involving  a  set  of  conditions  totally  different  from  those 
for  which  magnesia  is  intended  for  use,  conditions  for 
which  magnesia  is  admittedly  unfitted.  The  high  tem- 
peratures necessary  in  furnace  practice  are  far  in  excess 
of  those  demanded  by  the  highest  steam  pressures,  even 
with  a  considerable  degree  of  superheat  in  addition. 
It  is  well  known  that  at  a  high  temperature  carbonate 
of  magnesia  loses  combined-water  and  carbon  dioxide, 
but  this  takes  place  at  temperatures  above  700  deg.  F. 

On  page  594,  in  the  article  referred  to,  the  state- 
ment was  made:  "It  is  well  known  that  magnesia  is 
equal  in  insulating  value  to  many  times  its  thickness 
in  ordinary  firebrick,  so  long  as  disintegration  does  not 
take  place."  We  should  like  to  restate  this  as  follows: 
"It  is  well  known  that  magnesia  is  equal  in  insulating 
value  to  many  times  its  thickness  in  ordinary  firebrick, 
when  applied  to  temperatures  suited  to  its  use." 

Magnesia  is  not  a  refractory ;  and  the  statement  that 


disintegration  of  magnesia  takes  place  at  loic  tempera 
tures  refers  to  the  temperatures  of  furnace  linings, 
where  700  deg.  F.  might  reasonably  be  called  a  low 
temperature.  Such  a  temperature  is  much  higher  than 
magnesia,  as  a  heat-insulating  material,  encounters  in 
its  regular  day-in  and  day-out  service.  Even  this  tem- 
perature, however,  can  safely  be  used  in  steam  pipes 
covered  with  85  per  cent,  magnesia.  In  the  accom- 
panying diagram  the  upper  curve  shows  the  conductivity 
of  a  2-in.  thick  magnesia  covering  before  being  subjected 
to  a  temperature  of  720  deg.  F.  The  lower  curve  was 
taken  just  after  this  test  and  shows  that  no  damage 
was  done  to  the  covering  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  the 
thermal  efficiency  was  slightly  improved  by  the  high 
temperature  to  which  it  had  been   subjected. 

E.  R.  Weidlein, 
Acting  Director, 

Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research,  University 
of  Pittsburgh, 

Pittsburgh,  Penn. 

Repairing  Worn   Valve   Stems 

I  have  had  experience  with  worn  valve  stems  on 
Corliss  engines  as  referred  to  by  Mr.  Oakley  in  the 
issue  of  Feb.  12,  page  230,  and  find  that  it  is  best 
to  build  them  up  by  the  oxyacetylene  process  and  turn 
them  to  the  original  size  in  a  lathe,  making  a  mechanical 
job  of  it. 

Sleeves  may  be  all  right  when  one  knows  just  what 
the  conditions  are,  but  the  next  man  that  takes  charge 
does  not  know  what  has  been  done.  So,  if  the  bracket 
is  cut  away,  it  means  that  if  he  orders  new  ones  from 
the  manufacturer  they  will  not  be  of  much  use  without 
a  ring  in  the  bottom  of  the  stuffing-box  to  keep  the 
packing  in  place;  and  it  will  also  be  necessary  to  have 
special  packing  for  the  stems  with  sleeves  on,  whereas 
one  size  should  fit  all  four  stems.  J.  B.  FREEMAN. 

La  Grande,  Ore. 

Measuring    High    Pressures   with 
Dead  Weight 

In  my  article,  "Measuring  High  Pressures  with  Dead 
Weight,"  appearing  in  Poiver,  Feb.  26  issue,  at  the 
bottom  of  Table  II,  on  page  288,  is  a  note  which  reads: 
"Fifteen  pounds  per  sq.  in.  equals  30.35  in.  of  mercury ; 
1  in.  of  mercury  equals  13.6  in.  of  water."  This  note 
.should  read:  "Fifteen  pounds  per  sq.in.  equals  30.53 
in.  of  mercury  at  32  deg.  F. ;  1  in.  of  mercury  equals 
13.6  in.  of  water."  Sanford  A.  Moss. 

Lynn,  Mass. 

A  Liberty  Bond  will  soon  become  a  badge  of  loyalty. 

A  Liberty  Bond  is  a  profit-sharing  certificate  on  the 
prosperity  of  America. 

A  Liberty  Bond  is  an  old-age  insurance  policy,  fully 
paid  and  nonassessable. 

A  Liberty  Bond  gives  you  a  look  into  the  future,  but 
defeat  in  the  war  will  tie  you  to  an  unfortunate  past. 

A  Liberty  Bond  will  pay  you  interest  on  the  future 
of  America.  Defeat  will  make  you  pay  compound  in- 
terest on  the  future  of  Germany. 


April  2,  1918  POWER  486 

giniiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 

Inquiries  of  General  Interest 


ilimilMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIMII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIINIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIinillllllllllllMIIIIIIIM 


Hotter  Feed  Water  at  Expense  of  Heating  Capacity — We 

have  use  for  all  the  exhaust  steam  from  an  engine  that 
develops  about  50  hp.,  but  the  exhaust-steam  feed-water 
will  not  raise  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water  higher 
than  200  deg.  F.  Would  it  pay  to  increase  the  size  of  the 
heater?  K.  R.  R. 

Where  there  is  use  for  all  the  exhaust  steam  that  is 
available,  an  increase  of  feed-water  temperature  would  be  of 
no  benefit,  for  to  accomplish  the  same  heating  by  the  exhaust 
as  at  present,  the  heat  going  to  increase  the  feed-water 
temperature  would  need  to  be  made  up  by  live  steam  or 
some  other  source  of  heat. 

Two  Induction  Motors  on  the  Same  Load — Is  it  practical 
to  connect  two  induction  motors  on  the  same  lineshaft 
where  the  load  is  varying?  One  motor  is  300-hp.  and  the 
other  100-hp.  capacity.  G.  C.  T. 

It  would  not  be  advisable  to  attempt  to  operate  two 
motors  of  any  type  on  the  same  load.  If  the  machines 
are  the  same  size  and  constructed  to  have  the  same  char- 
acteristics, they  probably  would  operate  fairly  satisfac- 
torily. But  when  they  are  of  different  sizes  or  types,  the 
probabilities  are  that  one  motor  will  take  over  more  than 
its  share  of  the  load.  This  is  readily  understood  when  it 
i.s  considered  that  one  machine  may  take  its  full  load  at 
5  per  cent,  and  another  at  10  per  cent,  decrease  of  speed. 

Heating  Surface  and  Grate  Area  for  Steam-Heating  Boiler 
— What  number  of  square  feet  of  heating  surface  and  grate 
area  should  a  boiler  have  for  a  low  pressure  stearn  heat- 
ing apparatus  to  supply  1500  sq.ft.  of  direct  raaiating 
surface?  W.  B.  C. 

In  estimating  the  required  size  of  boiler,  the  number  of 
square  feet  of  direct  radiating  surface  must  be  understood 
to  include  the  surface  of  uncovered  piping.  Using  good 
anthracite,  or  the  better  grades  of  bituminous  coal,  and 
with  a  good  draft  and  usual  frequency  of  firing,  the  boiler- 
heating  surface  should  be  equal  to  the  total  number  of 
square  feet  of  radiating  surface  divided  by  about  7.5  and 
the  grate  area  should  be  equal  to  the  total  radiating  sur- 
face divided  by  about  160.  Hence  for  1500  sq.ft.  of  radia- 
tion and  pipe  surface,  the  boiler  should  have  about  200 
sq.ft.  of  heating  surface  and  9^  sq.ft.  of  grate  area. 

Testing  Out  Correctness  of  Indicator  Reducing  Motion — 
How  may  it  be  determined  whether  an  indicator-reducing 
motion  is  correct?  E.  T. 

For  determining  the  truthfulness  of  a  reducing  motion 
as  used  with  a  given  indicator  on  a  given  engine,  place  the 
engine  on  a  center,  make  a  mark  on  the  crosshead  corre- 
sponding with  one  made  on  one  of  the  guides  and  then  turn 
the  engine  over  to  the  other  center  and  make  another  mark 
on  the  guide  to  correspond  with  the  mark  on  the  crosshead 
previously  referred  to.  The  distance  between  the  marks 
made  on  the  guide  will  be  the  length  of  stroke.  Sub- 
divide this  distance  corresponding  to  eighths  of  the  stroke 
and,  for  greater  accuracy,  lay  off  sixteenths  at  the  ends 
of  the  stroke,  having  all  divisions  so  located  that  they  may 
be  matched  with  the  mark  on  the  crosshead  for  properly 
placing  the  crosshead  and  piston  at  the  different  positions 
they  would  occupy  for  the  selected  fractional  parts  of  the 
stroke.  With  a  spring  in  the  indicator  and  a  blank  card 
on  the  paper  drum,  trace  a  long  atmospheric  line  by  draw- 
ing out  the  cord  by  hand.  Then  hitch  the  cord  to  the  re- 
ducing motion  and  with  the  engine  placed  so  the  crosshead 
mark  registers  with  one  mark  after  another  on  the  guide, 
laise  the  pencil  arm  of  the  indicator  a  short  distance  above 
the  atmospheric  line  and  obtain  a  trace  for  each  position 
of  the  crosshead.  If  the  reducing  motion  is  correct,  the 
distances  between  the  tracings  of  the  pencil  will  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  corresponding  fractions  of  stroke  laid  off  on 
the  guide. 


Allowable  Boiler  .Pressure  for  Stay-Bolted  Water  Leg — 

What  would  be  the  safe  working  pressure  for  the  water 
legs  of  a  locomotive  type  of  boiler  having  plates  %  in.  thick, 
with  screwed  and  riveted  stay-bolts  %  in.  outside  diameter, 
pitched  6  in.  centers?  F.  R.  B. 

According  to  the  A.S.M.E.  Boiler  Code,  the  maximum 
allowable  working  pressure  for  stayed  flat  plates  should  be 
calculated  by  the  formula 

P=  CX—. 

in  which 

P  —   Maximum  allowable  working  pressure,  pounds  per 

square  inch ; 
t    =   Thickness  of  plate  in  sixteenths  of  an  inch; 
p    =   Maximum  pitch  of  stay-bolts; 

C  =   112,    for    stays   screwed    through    plates    not   over 
I'l   in.  thick. 
By  substituting, 

F  =  112  X  |-^  =  112  lb.  per  sq.in. 
o  X  b 

Screwed  stay-bolts  %  in.  diameter,  12  threads  per  inch, 
would  be  0.7307  sq.in.  diameter  at  the  bottom  of  the  screw 
thread  and  have  a  net  cross-sectional  area  of  0.419  sq.in. 
With  an  allowable  load  of  7500  lb.  per  sq.in.,  each  stay-bolt 
would  be  capable  of  sustaining  a  load  of  0.419  x  7500  = 
3142.5  lb.  The  plate  area  occupied  by  each  stay  would  be 
C/sY  X  0.7854  =  0.6013  sq.in.  and  the  net  plate  area  sup- 
ported per  stay  would  be  (6x6)—  0.6013  =  35.3987  sq.in. 
Hence  the  safe  working  pressure  would  be  limited  to  the 
allowable    working    pressure    for    the    stay-bolts-,    namely, 

3142.5  -^   35.3987    =   88.7  lb.  per  square   inch. 
Temperature  of  Steam  After  Passing  Through  Reducing 

Valve — If  steam  at  90  lb.  gage  pressure  and  97  per  cent, 
dry  is  passed  through  a  reducing  valve  and  the  pressure  is 
reduced  to  5  lb.  gage,  what  will  be  the  temperature  and 
quality?  C.  A.  C. 

According  to  the  steam  tables,  the  heat  of  a  pound  of 
dry  saturated  steam  at  a  pressure  of  90  lb.  gage,  or  105 
absolute,  consists  of  302  B.t.u.  in  the  water  and  885.2  B.t.u. 
latent  heat,  so  that  if  97  per  cent,  dry,  each  pound  of  the 
initial  steam  contained  302  -f-  (885.2  x  0.97)  =  1160.6 
B.t.u.  In  passing  through  the  reducing  valve,  some  heat  is 
lost  by  radiation  from  the  surface  of  the  valve  to  the  sur- 
rounding medium,  depending  on  the  character  of  insulation, 
but  as  loss  of  heat  from  friction  is  small,  as  the  tempera- 
ture within  the  valve  is  rather  less  than  the  temperature 
of  the  initial  steam,  loss  of  heat  from  radiation  may  be 
neglected;  and  as  any  work  done  on  the  steam  in  moving 
itself  through  the  valve  is  restored  when  the  steam  is 
brought  to  rest,  it  may  be  considered  that  each  pound  of  the 
steam  after  passing  through  the  reducing  valve,  although 
reduced  to  the  pressure  of  5  lb.  gage,  contains  as  much 
heat  as  it  contained  in  the  initial  condition,  namely,  1160.6 
B.t.u.  Reference  to  the  steam  tables  shows  that  a  pound 
of  dry  saturated  steam  at  5  lb.  gage,  or  20  lb.  absolute, 
contains    1156.2    B.t.u.,    hence    each    pound    would    contain 

1160.6  —  1156.2  =  4.4  B.t.u.  in  excess  of  the  heat  required 
for  a  dry  saturated  condition.  Allowing  the  specific  heat 
of  superheated  steam  at  the  reduced  pressure  to  be  0.48, 
the  steam  would  be  superheated  4.4  -^  0.48  =  9  deg.  F.  As 
the  temperature  of  dry  saturated  steam  at  5  lb.  gage  is  228 
deg.  F.,  the  actual  temperature  would  be  228  -f  9  =  237 
deg.  Fahrenheit. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  "eceive  attention. — 
Editor.] 


486 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


The  Water-Power  Bill 


THE  Administration's  bill  for  the  development  and 
control  of  the  water  powers  was  referred  to  a  special 
committee  cf  18,  consisting  of  Titus  W.  Sims,  Ten- 
nessee, chairman;  Scott  Ferris,  Oklahoma;  Asbury  F.  Lever, 
South  Carolina;  Frank  E.  Doremus,  Michigan;  Edward  T. 
Taylor,  Colorado;  Gordon  Lee,  Georgia;  Dan  V.  Stephens, 
Nebraska;  John  E.  Raker,  California;  Ezekiel  S.  Candler, 
Mississippi;  Carl  Hayden,  Arizona;  John  J.  Esch,  Wiscon- 
sin; Irvine  L.  I.enroot,  Wisconsin;  Gilbert  N.  Haugen,  Iowa; 
Edward  L.  Hamilton,  Michigan;  William  L.  LaFollette, 
Washington;  James  C.  McLaughlin,  Michigan;  Richard 
Wayne  Parker,  New  Jersey;  Sydney  Anderson,  Minnesota. 

The  week  commencing  Mar.  17  was  set  apart  for  hear- 
ings upon  the  measure.  The  bill,  which  has  been  con- 
sidered in  recent  issues  of  Power,  creates  a  commission 
consisting  of  the  Secretaries  of  War,  Interior  and  Agri- 
culture and  provides  for  the  issue  of  licenses  to  those  who 
wish  to  undertake  the  development  of  water  powers  upon 
navigable  rivers  or  public  lands  for  terms  not  to  exceed 
fifty  years.  Rates  and  service  will  be  regulated  by  the 
commission  where  there  is  no  state  regulation.  The  pro- 
vision that  the  Government  could  take  the  property  at  the 
expiration  of  the  license  upon  the  payment  of  a  "fair  value 
not  to  exceed  the  original  investment,"  which  Power  criti- 
cized in  the  original  draft  of  the  bill,  has  been  changed  so 
that  the  Government  shall  pay  the  "net  investment  of  the 
licensee"  as  defined  and  interpreted  in  the  Classification  of 
Investment  in  Road  and  Equipment  of  Steam  Roads,  issue 
of  1914  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  plus  simi- 
lar costs  of  additions  thereto  and  betterments  thereof, 
minus  the  unappropriated  surplus  aggregate  credit  bal- 
ances of  current  depreciation  accounts,  aggregate  appro- 
priations of  surplus  or  income  held  in  amortization,  sinking 
fund  or  similar  reserves  or  expended  for  extensions  or 
betterments. 

Mr.  Merrill's  Statement 

On  Monday  O.  C.  Merrill,  of  the  Forestry  Division,  one 
of  the  authors  of  the  bill,  presented  a  statement  on  behalf 
of  its  projectors.  He  showed  that  although  there  was  a 
very  considerable  drop  in  the  prices  of  material  after  the 
fixing  of  prices  by  the  Government  in  1917,  prices  still  re- 
mained at  the  close  of  the  year  far  above  the  pre-war  level. 
Hydraulic  machinery  has  advanced  from  100  to  150  per 
cent,  over  1914  prices;  electrical  apparatus,  from  125  to 
150  per  cent.;  steam-turbine  generators,  150  per  cent.,  and 
water-tube  boilers,  170  per  cent.,  with  uncertain  deliveries. 
The  union  scale  of  wages  in  classes  of  work  found  in  power- 
plant  construction  has  advanced  in  many  cases  from  25  to 
40  per  cent,  since  1913.  Operating  costs  have  increased, 
owing  to  the  higher  prices  of  labor,  maintenance,  materials 
and  fuel.  Increased  fuel  costs  have  made  the  development 
of  pov/er  by  water  increasingly  desirable. 

The  demand  for  power  has  increased  at  an  accelerated 
rate,  until  during  the  last  two  years  the  annual  increment 
in  power  generated  by  commercial  central  stations  alone 
has  been  from  three  to  four  billion  kilowatt-hours,  requiring 
an  annual  increase  in  installation  of  from  one  and  one-half 
to  two  million  horsepower.  In  the  United  States  the  kilo- 
watt-hour output  by  central  electric  stations  was  61  per 
cent,  greater  in  1917  than  in  1914.  During  the  four  years 
from  1913  to  1917  the  ratio  of  the  operating  expenses  to 
gross  revenue  had  increased  from  62  to  more  than  68  per 
cent.  The  gi-eater  costs  of  construction  and  operation  in 
connection  with  other  demands  upon  capital  make  financing 
difficult.  These  conditions  make  water-power  legislation 
that  will  offer  capital  a  fair  return  and  a  certainty  of  tenure 
desirable. 

Although  new  developments  and  extensions  will  be  neces- 
sary to  meet  the  demands  of  the  immediate  future,  a  con- 
siderable increase  in  the  output  of  electrical  energy  could  be 
secured  by  the  combination  of  existing  isolated  plants  into 
a  single  system  through  the  medium  of  high-tension  trans- 
mission lines.  In  1912  the  capacity  load  lactor  averaged 
only  2G  per  cent,  for  the  United  States  and  probably  is  not 


above  oO  per  cent,  today.  Eighty  per  cent,  of  the  electric 
power  development  of  Montana  is  in  one  system,  and  it  has 
a  capacity  load  factor  of  58  per  cent.  Studies  made  in  1912 
for  New  York  City  and  Chicago  showed  that  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  operating  stations  in  the  latter  city  would  have 
saved  from  $10,000,000  to  $12,000,000  in  investment.  In  New 
York  it  would  have  saved  from  $18,000,000  to  $20,000,000 
and  would  have  reduced  operating  expenses  by  $1,000,000 
a  year. 

Extent  of  Water-Power  Resources  Unknown 

Nobody  knows  whether  our  water-power  resources  are  30 
million  or  300  million  horsepower,  or  what  is  the  relation 
of  the  powers  to  any  particular  market.  An  intensive  study 
should  be  made  of  the  conditions  and  possibilities.  The  bill 
coordinates  the  activities  of  the  three  departments  that 
have  to  do  with  water  power.  Our  industrial  efliiciency  both 
during  the  war  and  thereafter  will  be  increased  or  diminished 
according  to  whether  we  do  or  do  not  make  adequate  pro- 
vision for  the  development  of  our  water-power  resoutces. 
Water-power  legislation  should  be  considered  a  war  emer- 
gency measure  and  as  such  should  be  taken  up  by  Congress 
and  passed  at  an  early  date. 

Following  the  presentation  of  his  formal  statement  Mr. 
Merrill  was  questioned  by  members  of  the  committee,  re- 
maining upon  the  stand  all  day  Monday  and  Tuesday  fore- 
noon. He  was  interi-ogated  principally  on  the  following 
phases  of  the  bill:  Licenses,  rentals,  rates  and  rate  regula- 
tion, and  recapture  of  project.  His  I'eplies  brought  out 
the  following  points: 

The  terms  of  the  license  should  be  absolutely  definite  and 
unchangeable  for  the  entire  period  of  issue.  This  is  quite 
necessary  in  order  to  prevent  any  uncertainty  in  the  mind 
of  the  licensee  as  to  the  conditions  under  which  he  can 
operate.  It  would  be  inadvisable  to  introduce  any  factor 
that  would  make  the  terms  of  the  license  subject  to  change. 
One  member  of  the  committee  suggested  that  the  term  of 
the  license  should  be  for  an  original  period  of  50  years 
"unless  the  applicant  should  request  and  the  commission 
agree  upon  a  shorter  term." 

It  was  suggested  that  the  application  by  the  licensee  for 
a  new  license  should  antedate  the  expiration  of  his  original 
license  by  a  definite  stated  period  of  time,  which  should  be 
long  enough  to  permit  the  delivery  of  a  new  license  on  the 
expiration  of  the  old  one.  There  was  considerable  discus- 
sion on  the  tenure  of  the  license,  but  it  was  Mr.  Merrill's 
opinion  that  the  original  term  should  be  for  50  years  and 
that  any  unusual  conditions  should  be  met  by  an  adjustment 
in  the  rental  charge. 

Rental  Charges  Not  for  Revenue  Purposes 

Mr.  Merrill  felt  that  the  rental  charge  should  apply  to 
the  total  capacity  of  the  project  and  not  to  production  only. 
While  the  rental  would  not  have  much  to  do  with  encourag- 
ing or  discouraging  the  development  of  a  project,  yet  any 
effect  which  it  might  have  should  be  in  the  direction  of 
securing  maximum  development.  The  idea  of  the  rental 
charge  is  not  to  secure  revenue  for  the  Government,  but 
it  is  made  in  return  for  the  issuance  of  a  license.  The 
money  thus  received  is  to  be  used  (1)  to  defray  the  cost 
of  administration  and  (2)  the  possible  necessity  of  recover- 
ing excess  earnings  which  it  is  impossible  to  reach  in  any 
other  way. 

While  the  rentals  should  be  nominal,  they  should  be 
greater  in  those  cases  where  the  Government  contributes 
land  or  some  other  tangible  property  to  a  project,  and  less 
where  the  Government  has  nothing  to  offer  but  the  license. 
Whatever  provision  is  made  should  be  clearly  stated  in  the 
license  before  it  is  accepted  by  the  licensee.  It  was  Mr. 
Merrill's  opinion  that  it  would  be  a  better  fiscal  policy  to 
charge  a  rental  that  would  be  nominal  and  that  would  not 
reduce  earnings  below  a  fair  return  or  increase  rates  to  the 
consumer.  As  between  getting  revenue  for  the  Govern- 
ment and  reducing  rates  to  the  consumer,  rental  charges 
should  operate  in  favor  of  the  latter. 


April  2.  1918 


POWER 


487 


Rate  regulation  on  interstate  business  should  be  left  to 
the  several  state  authorities  and  handled  locally  as  long'  as 
local  authorities  show  the  ability  to  act  and  as  long  as 
there  is  no  disagreement  between  states.  Federal  jurisdic- 
tion should  come  in  when  other  authority  is  insufficient. 

The  recapture  clause  is  considered  to  be  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  bill,  and  it  was  Mr.  Merrill's  opinion  that  the 
basis  for  recapture  should  be  an  actual  legitimate  original 
cost  of  the  property  plus  additions,  less  any  funds  accumu- 
lated in  unappropriated  surplus,  depreciation  and  amortiza- 
tion. The  price  should  allow  nothing,  however,  for  any 
unearned  increment  in  value  of  the  property,  good  will, 
going  value  or  expected  profit. 

Judge  Raker,  of  California,  was  solicitous  regarding  the 
effects  of  the  measure  upon  the  use  of  water  for  irrigation 
purposes. 

Chairman  Sims  said  that  the  Government  was  concerned 
with  projects  upon  navigable  rivers  simply  as  means  for 
improving  navigation.  A  10-ft.  dam  might  effect  this  pur- 
pose, but  a  licensee  might  put  up  a  50-ft.  dam  in  order  to 
get  the  power  byproduct.  In  case  the  Government  recap- 
tured such  a  project,  could  it  operate  it  as  a  power  plant 
and  enjoy  the  retui-ns  from  the  greater  investment?  In 
other  words,  can  the  Government,  under  the  Constitution, 
go  into  the  power  business  ?  Mr.  Merrill  could  not  say. 
We  do  not  know  what  the  powers  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment may  be  fifty  years  from  now. 

Henry  J.  Pierce,  of  Seattle,  told  of  a  $25,000,000  project 
in  which  he  was  interested  at  the  Priest  Rapids  on  the 
Columbia  River.  It  would  make  the  river  navigable  from 
its  mouth  to  200  miles  above  the  rapids,  neai-ly  to  the  Ca- 
nadian border,  develop  250,000  horsepower  at  the  lowest  flow 
of  the  river  and  as  much  again  or  more  during  the  season 
of  high  water.  This  season  of  surplus  power  synchronized 
with  the  irrigation  demand,  and  the  extra  power  could  be 
used  to  pump  water  to  arid  lands  above  the  watered  level. 
He  thought  that  in  the  granting  of  licenses  preference 
should  be  given  to  those  who  were  already  in  the  business 
and  best  qualified  to  carry  out  the  development. 

Calvert  Townley,  assistant  to  the  president  of  the  West- 
Inghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  although  anxious 
in  the  interest  of  his  company,  which  furnishes  machinery 
for  hydro-electric  installations,  to  see  the  water  powers 
developed,  was  a  bear  on  the  value  of  such  projects,  claim- 
ing that  there  were  few  water  projects  that  offered  much 
of  an  advantage  over  steam-operated  plants.  For  this 
reason  the  Government  should  not  encumber  the  privilege 
with  onerous  restrictions. 

Public  Interest  Should  Be  Protected 

E.  K.  Hall,  vice  president  of  the  Electric  Bond  and  Share 
Co.,  spoke  for  the  investor.  The  interest  of  the  public,  he 
said,  is  to  get  the  water  powers  into  use.  The  first  thing 
in  any  bill  is  to  protect  the  public  interest.  Rates  and 
service  should  be  regulated  through  state  or  some  Federal 
commission  so  that  it  will  be  certain  that  no  unreasonable 
profit  shall  be  made.  But  in  order  to  interest  capital  the 
interest  of  the  investor  must  also  be  protected.  A  hydro- 
electric development  calls  for  a  tremendous  investment, 
with  a  very  short  tenure  of  the  title  and  a  very  slow  turn- 
over. The  money  to  build  the  public  utilities  of  the  coun- 
try comes  from  small  investors.  From  the  point  of  view  of 
the  investor  there  are  two  fundamental  defects  in  the  bill. 
The  contract  has  been  made  definite,  and  the  investor 
knows  what  he  is  getting  and  what  is  expected  of  him.  He 
is  assured  of  the  enjoyment  of  the  privilege  for  fifty  years 
and  of  the  return  of  his  capital  at  the  end  of  that  period  if 
the  Government  at  that  time  wishes  to  recapture  the  proj- 
ect. B«t  if  the  Government  does  not  want  to  take  the 
property,  he  must  continue  to  run  it  under  an  indeterminate 
and  uncertain  tenure.  He  cannot  issue  refunding  bonds,  be- 
cause he  does  not  know  how  long  he  may  be  allowed  to  hold 
the  property.  For  this  reason  Mr.  Hall  urged  that  if  the 
Government  did  not  wish  to  take  or  transfer  the  property 
on  the  expiration  of  the  license  the  license  should  be  reis- 
sued to  the  holder  for  a  term  of  thirty  years. 

The  other  defect  was  the  provision  that  the  Government 
could  acquire  the  property  at  the  expiration  of  the  license 


on  payment  of  the  net  investment.  This  assured  the  in- 
vestor the  return  of  what  he  had  put  into  the  project  and 
had  not  already  taken  out  besides  his  fair  profit,  but  did 
not  allow  him  to  profit  by  the  enhanced  value  of  the  property. 
In  all  other  businesses  the  investor  was  allowed,  besides 
what  fair  current  profit  he  could  make,  to  benefit  by  an  in- 
crease in  the  value  of  the  propei'ty  while  in  his  hands.  In 
response  to  an  inquiry  by  a  member  of  the  committee,  he 
said  that  he  considered  this  the  best  bill  offered  to  date. 

On  Wednesday  morning  John  A.  Britton,  vice  president 
and  general  manager  of  the  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric  Co., 
told  of  two  projects  in  which  his  company  is  inter- 
ested— one  at  Lake  Spaulding  and  one  on  the  Pitt  River — 
which  would  be  affected  by  the  pending  legislation.  The 
company  owned  or  controlled  practically  all  the  land,  but  in 
one  case  the  pipe  line  would  have  to  pass  for  a  short  dis- 
tance through  a  portion  of  the  forest  reserve,  and  in  the 
other  case  about  36  acres  of  Govei'nment  land  would  be  sub- 
jected to  occasional  flooding.  It  did  not  appear  just,  on 
account  of  these  minor  concessions,  that  the  whole  great 
project  of  which  they  were  such  an  inconsiderable  part 
should  be  brought  under  the  pi'ovisions  of  the  act,  and  he 
suggested  amendments  whereby  such  minor  concessions 
might  be  granted  upon  a  lease  basis.  He  also  suggested 
limiting  the  rental  to  not  more  than  50  cents  per  annum 
per  horsepower  generated.  The  bill  provides  that  the  pres- 
ident may  take  the  plant  for  war  purposes,  and  upon  restor- 
ing it  shall  pay  such  just  and  fair  compensation  for  its  use 
as  may  be  fixed  by  the  commission  upon  the  basis  of  a  rea- 
sonable profit  in  time  of  peace.  Mr.  Britton  pointed  out 
that  such  a  settlement  would  not  recompense  the  company 
for  the  loss  of  customers  driven  over  to  competitors  or  for 
the  investment  in  other  plant  necessary  to  hold  them,  and 
urged  that  this  be  made  to  read,  "shall  pay  to  the  party  or 
parties  entitled  thereto  just  and  fair  compensation  for  the 
use  of  the  property." 

Indeterminate  Franchise  with  Investment  Return 

In  response  to  an  inquiry  of  a  member  of  the  committee 
as  to  how  he  would  regard  an  indeterminate  franchise  with  a 
guarantee  of  the  return  of  the  investment  in  case  of  recap- 
ture, he  answered  that  that  was  just  what  they  wanted. 
With  these  amendments  the  bill  is  the  most  workable  bill 
that  he  has  ever  seen.  Asked  by  Representative  Taylor  if 
he  knew  of  any  water-power  trust  interlocking  directorates 
or  combination  of  interests,  Mr.  Britton  said  that  he  could 
speak  only  for  California,  but  there  was  nothing  of  the 
kind  evident  there.  Even  if  there  were,  with  the  present 
method  of  rate  control  and  regulation  it  could  not  be  made 
onerous  upon  the  consumer.  Every  public  utility  ought  to 
be  a  regulated  monopoly. 

Chairman  Sims  asked  what  would  '.lappen  if  at  the  ex- 
piration of  the  license  there  were  no  other  applicant,  and 
the  Government  must  either  take  the  plant  over,  involving 
a  large  appropriation,  or  allow  the  licensee  to  continue,  the 
licensee  would  not  be  in  a  position  to  dictate  terms  to  the 
Government.  Mr.  Britton's  reply  was  that  with  the  present 
tendency  of  public  thought,  at  the  end  of  fifty  years  it 
would  be  no  shock  to  the  public  if  the  Government  took 
over  and  operated  the  plant  itself.  To  Mr.  Sims'  urging 
that  the  money  would  have  to  be  appropriated,  Mr.  Britton 
replied  that  it  would  be  paid  for  a  going  concei-n  and  imme- 
diately begin  to  return  a  revenue  under  which  conditions 
public  and  congressional  approval  of  the  appropriation 
would  not  be  difficult  to  obtain. 

The  chairman  thought  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  ob- 
tain the  appropriation  of  such  large  sums  and  that  there- 
fore the  license  would  be  in  efi'ect  perpetual.  Mr.  Britton 
thought  that  the  Government  would  be  glad  to  recapture 
the  project  and  turn  it  over  to  the  municipality  that  would 
have  grown  up  around  it.  The  most  that  the  original 
grantee  can  make  is  a  reasonable  return.  If  he  makes  a 
paying  concern  out  of  it,  the  Government  can  take  it  when 
the  license  expires.  If  he  does  not  make  good,  the  Govern- 
ment can  leave  him  in  his  misery. 

Asked  whether  this  bill  or  the  Shields  bill,  both  un- 
amended, was  the  better,  Mr.  Britton  replied  that  in  his 
opinion  the  bill  under  discussion  by  the  committee  would  be 
the  most  attractive  to  capital. 


488 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


H.  T.  Freeman,  of  Hartford,  of  the  Connecticut  River 
Co.,  said  that  his  company  in  the  first  half  of  the  last 
century  had  put  a  dam  in  the  Connecticut  River  by  the  con- 
sent of  the  state  legislature,  before  the  Federal  Government 
had  begun  to  exercise  control  in  such  matters,  and  urged 
that  the  provision  under  which  the  commission  might  grant 
licenses  to  parties  operating  projects  upon  public  lands  or 
navigable  rivers  "under  authority  heretofore  lawfully 
granted"  might  bs  so  modified  as  to  include  such  a  case. 
He  also  argued  for  "just  compensation"  instead  of  return 
of  net  investment  as  the  condition  of  recapture.  .The  bill 
excludes  as  an  element  in  determining  cost,  expenditures 
from  funds  obtained  through  donations  by  state,  munici- 
palities, individuals  or  others.  Mr.  Freeman  said  that  in 
some  cases  customers  paid  for  extensions  of  lines  neces- 
sary to  fuiTiish  them  power,  and  it  was  explained  that  if 
the  company  eventually  reimbursed  the  customer  and  ac- 
quired the  line  it  became  a  proper  element  of  cost,  but  if  it 
involved  no  expenditure  by  the  company  it  could  not  be  so 
included. 

The  first  excess-profit  act  ever  passed  in  New  England 
gave  his  company  the  right  to  make  8^/2  per  cent,  on  its 
investment,  after  which  the  Government  took  8  per  cent, 
and  any  excess  was  divided  equally  between  the  company 
and  the  Government. 

To  Mr.  Taylor's  inquiry  as  to  whether  there  was  any 
water-power  trust  in  New  England,  Mr.  Freeman  replied 
that  on  the  contrary  there  is  the  fiercest  kind  of  competition. 

John  J.  Harris,  of  Hardin,  Mont.,  president  of  the  Big 
Horn  Canyon  Irrigation  and  Power  Co.,  described  the 
project  in  which  he  was  interested  and  claimed  that  the 
Government  would  receive  a  benefit  from  it  in  flood  control 
equivalent  to  what  it  received  in  improved  navigation  on 
navigable  rivers  and  that  this  benefit  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered in  fixing  the  rental  charge.  Three  years  is  not 
enough  time  to  do  the  preliminary  work.  He  was  still  pre- 
senting his  case  when  the  committee  took  a  recess  until 
Thursday  morning. 

Thursday  Morning's  Session 

On  Thursday  morning  Charles  N.  Chadwick,  chairman 
of  the  Committee  on  Conservation  of  State  Waters,  Lands 
and  Forests  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  appeared  in  behalf  of  House  Bill  No.  9681.  This 
bill  seeks  to  create  a  national  board  of  water  conservation 
consisting  of  seven  members  appointed  by  the  President 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  not  more 
than  four  to  be  members  of  the  same  political  party,  each 
to  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  none  to  hold  any 
other  Federal,  state  or  municipal  office.  They  are  to  be 
appointed  for  seven-year  terms  so  that  the  term  of  one 
commissioner  will  expire  each  year,  and  are  removable 
only  for  incompetency  or  misconduct. 

This  board  would  have  the  control  and  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  interstate  waters  of  the  United  States.  It  would 
ascertain  what  are  the  interstate  streams  of  the  United 
States  most  available,  desirable  and  best  for  development, 
control  and  jurisdiction,  and  study  the  problems  relating 
to  the  conservation  of  the  rainfall,  the  control  of  freshets, 
recovering  desert  and  waste  lands  by  irrigation  and  swamp 
lands  by  draining,  and  the  pollution  of  interstate  rivers; 
the  utilization  of  the  rainfall  for  potable  purposes  and  for 
navigation  and  water  transportation  aided  by  storage 
i-eservoirs,  regulation  of  stream  flow  and  waterways,  and 
for  the  development  of  hydro-electric  and  other  power,  and 
the  control  thereof.  It  would  study  the  climatic  conditions 
of  the  state  and  compile  information  and  make  recom- 
mendations concerning  the  revision  and  codification  of  the 
water  laws  and  the  passage  of  new  laws  coordinating 
Federal  and  state  jurisdiction.  It  would  make  surveys, 
maps,  plans,  specifications,  estimates  and  investigations 
with  regard  to  interstate  streams,  and  report  to  Congress 
w^ith  recommendations  as  to  what  action  should  in  its 
opinion  be  taken  with  reference  thereto. 

Mr.  Chadwick  explained  that  interest  has  been  centered 
upon  the  one  problem  of  hydro-electric  development,  while 
the  bill  in  favor  of  which  he  appeared  dealt  with  the  con- 
servation  and   utilization  of  the  rainfall   for   all   purposes. 


The  broad  policy  of  the  nation  with  regard  to  the  disposi- 
tion and  use  of  its  rainfall  for  various  and  conflicting  pur- 
poses could  not  be  determined  by  busy  and  transient  cabinet 
officers  but  required  the  concentrated  and  continuous  atten- 
tion of  specialists.  The  single  executive  provided  for  by 
the  Administration  Bill  could  not,  single-handed,  deal  with 
the  determination  of  the  national  policy  in  all  phases  of 
the  question,  and  cabinet  officers  would  become  but  rubber 
stamps  for  his  recommendations.  He  doubted  the  consti- 
tutionality of  that  provision  of  the  Administration  Bill 
which  conferred  the  right  of  eminent  domain  upon  the 
licensee.  Under  it  a  licensee  might  condemn  even  muni- 
cipal or  state  property,  and  the  taking  of  private  property 
for  private  use  cannot  be  justified  by  a  declaration  of 
beneficent  purpose.  Under  the  Administration  Bill  there 
is  likely  to  be  a  conflict  of  authority  between  state  and 
Federal  Government.  There  is  also  the  question  of  riparian 
rights  vs.  rights  of  appropriation  for  beneficial  purposes. 
In  the  East,  with  its  congested  population,  the  large  ques- 
tion is  the  use  of  the  water  for  potable  purposes;  in  the 
West,  with  its  large  arid  sections,  that  for  irrigation.  The 
commission  should  be  composed  of  big  men  who  will  put 
in  all  their  time,  and  the  bill  should  be  so  drawn  that  they 
can  deal  with  the  whole,  broad,  general  question. 

Mr.  Anderson,  of  the  committee,  pointed  out  that  under 
such  a  bill  each  project  would  require  an  act  of  Congress. 

Judge  Raker,  of  California,  evinced  a  live  interest  in  the 
irrigation  phase  of  the  question  and  asked  if  the  witness 
considered  hydro-electric  power  as  secondary  to  the  other 
uses.  Mr.  Chadwick  replied  that  the  use  for  potable  pur- 
poses should  come  first;  next  commercial  uses,  then  navi- 
gation, and  then  hydro-electric. 

Chadwick  Bill  Same  In  Substance  As 
Administration  Bill 

Mr.  Chadwick  admitted  that  in  substance  his  bill  was 
the  same  as  the  Administration  Bill,  with  the  exception 
of  the  personnel  of  the  commission.  But,  under  his  bill, 
the  commission  would  not  be  subject  to  the  will  of  one  man 
who  could  reverse  the  policy  of  the  country  with  regard  to 
the  administration  and  utilization  of  the  rainfall. 

C.  F.  Kelley,  counsel  for  the  Montana  Power  Co.,  said 
that  the  bill,  though  a  compromise,  appeared  to  aff^ord  a 
workable  measure.  He  said  that  the  bonds  should  be 
amortized  within  the  duration  of  the  original  license,  and 
stood  out  for  "just  compensation,"  instead  of  a  return  of 
the  "net  investment,"  as  the  condition  of  recapture.  He 
agreed  that  unappropriated  surplus  accumulated  from  earn- 
ings in  excess  of  a  fair  return  on  the  investment  should 
be  deducted  in  computing  the  net  investment,  but  claimed 
that  such  portion  of  such  funds  as  had  been  reinvested  in 
improvements  and  betterments  should  not  be  so  excluded. 
He  claimed  that  inasmuch  as  the  prospective  applicant 
would  be  at  great  expense  in  making  surveys,  maps,  plans, 
etc.,  a  preliminary  permit  should  be  exclusive  to  its  holder. 
Section  8  provides  that  any  successor  or  assign  of  the  rights 
of  a  licensee  shall  be  subject  to  all  the  conditions  of  the 
license  under  which  such  rights  are  held  by  the  licensee. 
Mr.  Kelley  suggested  that  such  conditions  may  have  been 
so  onerous  as  to  have  led  to  the  failure  and  foreclosure  of 
the  operation  under  the  original  license,  and  that  there 
should  be  some  arrangement  whereby  they  might  be  modi- 
fied with  the  transfer  of  the  license.  He  thought  that  the 
provision  that  the  licensee  shall  convey  to  the  United  States 
free  of  cost  its  lands  and  rights-of-way,  and  right  of 
passage  through  its  dams  or  other  structures,  as  might 
be  necessary  to  complete  navigation  facilities,  would  be  likely 
to  be  burdensome.  The  repealing  clause  stipulates  that  "no 
;ilterations,  amendment  or  appeal  shall  affect  any  license 
heretofore  issued  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  or  the 
rights  of  any  licensee  thereunder,"  which  language  unwit- 
tingly shuts  the  license  off  from  desired  modification.  Mr. 
Kelley  therefore  suggested  the  insertion  of  the  word  "ad- 
versely" before   "any   license." 

Chairman  Sims  said  that  upon  the  expiration  of  the 
license  the  Government  had  three  alternatives — to  continue 
the  license  in  the  hands  of  the  original  licensee,  to  trans- 
fer it  to  another  licensee,  or  to  take  the  plant  over.     Un- 


April  2.  1918 


POWER 


48!) 


k'ss  thi"  Government  had  some  use  for  it  for  a  strictly 
Governniontal  purpose,  it  would  not  take  it  over.  And  if 
nobody  else  wanted  it,  there  would  be  no  alternative  but 
to  leave  it  in  the  hands  of  the  original  licensee,  and  that 
upon  his  own  terms,  so  that  the  )j;i'<i'it  was  virtually  one 
in   perpetuity. 

Mr.  Kelley  thought  that  renewals  and  I'eplacements  were 
not  properly  taken  care  of  in  the  depreciation  charge,  and 
that  there  was  likely  to  be  a  conflict  between  public  of- 
ficials that  will  be  zealous  in  protecting  the  public  inter- 
est and  the  building  up  of  a  surplus.  The  question  of 
what  is  a  fair  return  cannot  be  decided  at  the  time  of 
granting  the  license,  and  at  the  end  of  the  term  a  manager 
who  thought  he  had  a  comfortable  surplus  for  distribution 
to  his  shareholders  might  find  it  wiped  out  entirely  upon 
the  ground  that  it  had  been  earned  by  charging  a  rate 
which  would  yield  more  than  a  fair  return.  No  other 
class  of  property  is  subjected  to  such  "discrimination." 
There  is  no  limit  in  the  bill  to  the  reserve  fund  that  a 
promoter  may  be  required  to  maintain.  It  is  not  quite 
clear  in  Section  5  just  what  rights  are  conferred  upon 
the   holder  of  a   preliminary   license. 

Asked  if  he  would  give  a  municipality  a  better  rate 
than  another  consumer,  Mr.  Kelley  answered  that  in  case 
there  were  a  limited  amount  of  power  available  he  would 
give  a  municipality  the  preference  as  to  service,  but  at  the 
same  rate. 

Mr.  Ferris,  of  the  committee,  pointed  out  that  an 
amortized  concern  could  keep  going  very  cheaply.  Mr. 
Kelley  said  that  the  tendency  in  all  public  utilities  is  to 
increase  the  amount  of  business  done  by  decreasing  the 
rate,  and  so  to  make  more  money.  Further,  he  thought 
this  bill  more  workable  than  any  of  the  others  which  had 
been  offered,  and  he  would  sooner  see  it  adopted  than 
none. 

Miss  Rankin,  member  of  Congress  from  Montana,  asked 
the  witness  about  interlocking  directorates,  but  obtained 
no  admission  that  the  Montana  Power  Co.  was  so  inter- 
connected with  other  interests.  In  reply  to  a  question  by 
Judge  Raker  as  to  price  and  service  to  small  consumers, 
Mr.  Kelley  said  that  there  was  more  power  developed  per 
capita  in  Montana  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  that  the  rates  were  the  lowest.  He  said  that 
he  did  not  know  of  any  water-power  development  in  the 
linited  States  that  was  paying  more  than  5  per  cent,  divi- 
dends. He  justified  the  common  stock,  usually  referred  to 
as  water,  as  a  just  return  to  the  promoter  for  his  enter- 
prise. 

Mr.  Stuart's  Paper 

Charles  E.  Stuart,  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administra- 
tion, read  a  short  paper  dealing  with  the  efforts  of  the 
Administration  to  conserve  fuel,  and  suggested,  as  possible 
aid  by  the  Government  in  this  direction,  assistance  which 
may  be  rendered  to  the  power  system  wherever  intercon- 
nections may  be  deemed  practicable  and  desirable,  the 
rendering  of  financial  aid  for  the  enlargement  of  central- 
station  systems  to  produce  increased  power,  a  radical  fuel 
saving,  or  where  there  will  be  obviated  what  practically 
amounts  to  a  duplication  of  investment,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  construction  of  isolated  plants  at  this  time;  the  neces- 
sary help  to  enable  the  complete  systemization  of  the  power 
situation  of  the  entire  country,  the  avoidance  of  duplica- 
tion of  investment,  and  the  establishment  at  some  central- 
ized point,  as  at  Washington,  of  a  complete  perspective 
of  the  entire  power  situation  which  would  prevent  any 
of  the  now  recognized  errors  or  abuses,  such  as  exist  in 
the  duplication   of  investment. 

John  J.  Harris,  of  Hardin,  Mont.,  President  of  the  Big 
Horn  Canyon  Irrigation  and  Power  Co.,  resumed  the  stand 
to  describe  some  of  the  preliminary  operations  which  were 
necessary  in  working  up  a  project  of  this  kind. 

A.  P.  Morrison,  of  the  Electro-Metallurgical  Co.,  Niagara 
Falls,  spoke  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  user  of  power, 
to  whom  stability  of  service  and  of  rates  was  of  the  first 
importance.  While  he  is  apparently  taken  care  of  by 
the  public  service  commissions,  the  fact  that  his  invest- 
ment is  entitled  to  protection  against  increa.se  of  rates  or 
diminution  of  service  has  not  been   given   the   importjince 


that  it  warrants.  The  investment  of  the  user  of  power  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  furnisher  of  power.  No  power 
can  be  developed  on  a  franchise  revokable  at  will,  and  a 
vevokable  contract  is  of  no  use  to  the  user  of  power,  lie 
suggested  an  amendment  to  the  bill  to  prevent  existinc; 
projects  coming  in  under  the  law  to  get  a  chance  to  raise 
rates. 

Commenting  upon  Mr.  Kelley's  testimony  that  a  project 
should  be  amortized  within  the  life  of  the  license,  Mr. 
Pierce  said  that  the  Priests  Rapids  development  could  not 
be  developed  under  a  law  that  required  its  amortization 
within  50  years,  and  in  his  opinion  95  per  cent,  of  the 
available  water  powers  could  not. 

S.  P.  Weston,  representing  the  Water  Power  Legislation 
Committee  of  the  American  Newspaper  Publishers  Asso- 
ciation, also  questioned  Mr.  Kelley's  position  upon  the 
question  of  amortization,  and  said  that  English  companies 
always  differentiated  between  stock  and  bond  capital.  He 
showed  that  the  available  paper-pulp  material  outside  of 
private  ownership  in  the  United  States  was  in  the  West- 
ern States  contiguous  to  the  undeveloped  water  power  neces- 
sary for  its  manufacture.  He  was  personally  interested 
in  a  project  which  had  obtained  contract  for  $75,000,000 
worth  of  print  paper,  but  was  unable  to  finance  it  on  ac- 
count of  the  Supreme  Court  decision  in  the  Utah  case. 

A  discussion  ensued  with  regard  to  the  provisions  of 
recapture,  and  Mr.  Ferris,  of  the  committee,  said  it  ap- 
peai-ed  that  the  Government  would  either  have  to  take  the 
projects  over,  or  allow  them  to  go  on.  It  was  practically 
a  mandatory  proposition.  An  inquiry  by  Representative 
Lever  as  to  whether,  in  the  opinion  of  the  witness,  the 
present  tendency  is  not  in  the  direction  of  Government 
ownership,  was  followed  by  a  speedy  adjournment. 

Possible  Conflict  with  State  Laws 
Augustus  H.  Houghton,  representing  the  Conservation 
Committee  of  the  State  of  New  York,  called  attention  to 
certain  possibilities  of  conflict  with  the  New  York  State 
laws,  and  suggested  amendments  which  would  avoid  these. 
The  term  of  five  years  provided  for  the  executive  was  too 
short.  It  ought  to  be  ten  or  fifteen  years  at  least.  Asked 
by  Representative  Taylor  why  the  state  had  not  gone 
about  developing  its  water  powers,  the  witness  replied 
that  the  present  commission  does  not  believe  in  the  state 
going  into  business  and  competing  with  existing  companies 
William  B.  Matthews,  of  Los  Angeles,  which  has  its  own 
municipal  plant,  believed  that  a  license  to  a  state  or 
municipality  should  be  perpetual,  where  the  United  States 
does  not  wish  to  take  it  back.  The  commission  should 
not  have  jurisdiction  or  regulation  over  the  rates  and  serv- 
ice of  a  municipal  corporation,  whei-e  the  power  is  used 
for  state  or  municipal  purposes.  He  believed  that  the 
proposed  law  should  not  only  give  encouragement  to  private 
capital,  but  to  states  and  municipalities.  It  is  not  likely 
that  the  National  Government  will  be  disposed  to  recap- 
ture and  operate  the  project  itself,  and  that  a  license  once 
granted  to  a  private  corporation  will  be  in  effect  perpetually. 
Under  this  condition,  which  would  not  be  compatible  with 
the  public  interest,  the  project  should  be  recaptured  and 
given  to  the  municipality,  or  the  municipality  should  have 
a  prior  right  to  it. 

A  few  other  witnesses  remain  to  be  heard,  but  the  bill 
as  a  whole  appears  to  meet  with  general  commendation, 
and  there  is  every  evidence  that  it  will  be  reported  favor- 
ably without  radical  changes.  How  it  will  be  received  by 
the  Senate,  which  has  already  passed  the  Shields  Bill  is 
not  so  evident. 


The  Netherlands  Government  has  fixed  maximum  prices 
for  coal  and  coke,  says  Coiiniierrc  Reports,  which  are  an 
advance  on  previous  prices.  They  are  stated  in  florins  per 
hectoliter,  but  in  American  terms  are  equivalent  to  about 
$22  a  ton  for  anthracite  and  $17  for  bituminous  coal;  coke, 
about  $10  a  ton;  coal  briquets,  about  $25  a  ton.  The  dis- 
tribution is  carefully  regulated  by  cards  in  specified  quan- 
tities, varying  with  the  size  and  nature  of  the  residence 
or  the  place  of  business.  The  quantity  allowed,  especially 
to  residences,  is  much  smaller  than  the  amount  they  con- 
sumed in  peace  times. 


490 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


John  P.  Sparrow,  Dead 

John  Porterfield  Sparrow,  chief  engineer,  N'ew  York  Edi- 
son Co.,  and  for  many  .years  a  member  of  the  .\merican 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  died  at  his  home  in  Flat- 
bush,  Brooklyn,  on  Mar.  18,  1918.  He  was  born  in  Port- 
land, Me.,  Mar.  17,  18fi0;  he  died  therefore  at  the  age  of 
fifty -eight. 

Mr.  Sparrow  was  an  engineer  by  inheritance  and  educa- 
tion,  his   father,  John    Sparrow,  being  well    known    in   the 


his  death  he  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Standardiza- 
tion of  Flanges  and  Pipe  Fittings  and  had  just  finished 
the  completed  report  on  that  subject.  On  Feb.  1,  1918, 
he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  Advisory  Board  of  the 
Power  Test  Committee.  His  work  along  these  lines  has 
been  particularly  valuable  as  his  long  experience,  trained 
judgment  and  personal  influence  insured  the  reconciliation 
of   conflicting   interests. 

In   the   Association   of   Edison    Illuminating   Cos.   he   was 
a   member   of  the   Committee   on    Steam   Plants   from    1906 


JOHN  P.  SPARROW.  FOR 
MA.VY  YK.VR.S  CHIEF  EXOIXEEK. 
NEW  YOUK  EDISON  COMPA.XY-. 
WHO  niED  OF  PNEU^fONIA  AT 
HIS  HOME.  BROOKT^YN,  N.  Y.. 
in  .\n.\Y,  M.VRCH  18.  MR.  SPAR- 
ROW H.\]1  C'H.VROE  OF  THE 
DESIi-.NINO  .\Nr>  BLIJ.DING  OF 
THE  F.AMOl'S  W.VTERSIDF:  POW- 
ER ST.-XTIOXS.  BKSTilES  HIS 
M.\NY  CO.XTRIBL'TIO.XS  TO  EX- 
GIXKKIU.Xn.  HE  WAS  .\.  PHY\S- 
ICTST  i)F  NC  ME.\N  ABILITY, 
M.M»E  V.^LUABLE  IXVESTIGA- 
TIOXS  I.XTO  THE  inCPOSTRUC- 
TI'P.E     OF     THE     .XOXi-'ERROUS 

.\Li,()VS   A.xn  nin  m-jch  pio- 

XEKK    WORK    IX    COLOR    PHO- 
TOilR.\PHY    ^ 


engineering  field.  His  early  education  was  obtained  in 
the  public  schools  of  Portland,  but  this  was  largely  supple- 
mented by  his  father's  teachings  in  physics,  chemistry  and 
engineering.  In  1879,  being  interested  in  sugar  manu- 
facture, he  was  taken  to  Europe  by  his  father  to  study 
the  industry,  and  while  there  visited  all  the  larger  engi- 
neering works. 

In  1880  he  entered  the  Portland  Co.'s  locomotive  and 
marine  engine  works  as  an  apprentice.  He  served  his  ap- 
prenticeship and  became  a  toolmaker  and  erector  for  that 
company,  leaving  it  in  1888  to  work  for  the  Sprague  Elec- 
tric Co.  During  the  next  two  years  he  acted  as  superin- 
tendent for  the  Sprague  company  in  charge  of  construc- 
tion of  electric  railways  in  the  various  pai-ts  of  the 
country. 

In  1890  he  went  to  New  Orleans  for  the  New  Orleans 
Electric  Co.  on  construction  work.  In  1892  he  joined  the 
conbtruction  staff  of  the  Edison  General  Electric  Co.  and 
was  employed  in  building  lighting  and  power  plants  for 
tliem  and  the  Canadian  General  Electric  Co.  until  1895. 
He  then  joined  the  staff  of  the  Construction  Department 
of  the  Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Co.  of  New  York,  and 
in  1898  became  superintendent  of  construction,  having 
charge  of  all  the  construction,  which  included  the  new 
Waterside  Station,  at  that  time  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant construction  of  its  kind  which  had  been  attempted. 
In  1906  he  became  chief  engineer  of  The  New  York  Edison 
Co.  in  charge  of  construction  and  operation,  the  position 
he  held  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Mr.  Sparrow  became  a  member  of  tlie  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers  in  1898,  and  has  been  an  active 
member   serving   on    various   committees.      At   the   time   of 


up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  and  was  chairman  in  1910,  1912 
and  1913.  In  this  work  his  most  valuable  contiibutions 
were  those  in  connection  with  coal  testing  and  burning. 
Before  the  Edison  Association  he  presented  a  number  of 
papers  on   boiler-plant  problems. 

In  the  National  Electric  Light  .Association  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Committee  on  Prime  Movers  for  a  number 
of  years.  - 

Shortly  after  tlie  United  States  entered  the  war,  he 
made  a  number  of  tests  for  the  Naval  Consulting  Board 
in  connection  with  smoke  abatement  on  ships  as  a  pro- 
tection against  submarines.       —  -^      —        ^^    — 

Mr.  Sparrow's  hobbies  were  largely  of  an  engineering 
character.  In  photography  his  work  as  an  amateur  rivaled 
that  of  many  professionals,  and  he  was  one  of  the  first 
to  take  up  color  photography.  Microscopy,  as  a  result  of 
his  early  training,  was  always  one  of  his  chief  aids,  and 
his  work  on  the  photomicrography  of  lamp  filaments  is 
well  known.  In  later  years  he  turned  to  metallography  in 
connection  with  the  ever-present  subject  of  the  corrosion 
of  condenser  tubes,  and  assisted  in  the  settling  of  important 
questions  of  heat  treatment  in  the  manufacture  of  this 
material.  His  knowledge  of  physical  science  was  funda- 
mental, and  he  was  an  adept  in  the  mechanical  handling 
and  manipulation  which  is  a  necessity  in  research  work  of 
this  kind. 

Mr.  Sparrow  had  a  charming  personality  and  his  optimis- 
tic temperament,  uniform  courtesy  and  entire  absence  of 
contentiousness  endeared  him  to  a  host  of  friends.  He 
was  held  in  affectionate  regard  by  the  ofliicials  of  The  New 
York  Edison  Co.  to  whom  his  passing  away  comes  as  a 
personal  loss. 


April  2,  1018 


P  O  W  K  R 


491 


Struggling   with    Poor   C^)al 


:[: 


By  Georck  E.  Wooh 

MechanU-al    lOiiKi"*^*'''.    < 'omu'i't  icnl    ('nm|iaii>' 

The  ConiUH'tieut  Co.  has  six  Ke'iLM-atinn'  plants  ransinK 
in  capacity  from  1(1,500  kw.  to  'MiO  kw.,  which  supply  tlio 
entire  system  with  energy,  with  the  exception  of  the  New 
Britain,  Waterbury,  Norwalk  and  Stamford  divisions,  the 
latter  sections  beinji-  supplied  with  purchased  power.  The 
total  installed  capacity  is  40,000  kw.,  of  whicli  12,000  kw. 
is  held  in  resei've.  The  Bridgeport,  Hartford  and  New 
Haven  plants  supply  85  per  cent,  of  the  total  output. 

Since  the  latter  part  of  1916  the  quality  of  the  coal  has 
been  jji'adually  deteriorating  and  at  present  it  is  a  con- 
tinual stru.ggle  to  keep  the  plants  operating',  to  say  noth- 
ing of  trying  to  improve  the  efficiency.  If  good  coal  could 
have  been  obtained  last  year  a  10  per  cent,  increase  in 
efficiency  over  1915  would  have  been  attained  in  fuel  con- 
sumption, due  to  new  and  reconstructed  plants.  However, 
as  the  fuel  was  below  standard,  the  actual  tonnage  con- 
sumed increased  24  per  cent,  over  that  required  in  1915 
and  .'51  per  cent,  over  what  would  have  been  required  in 
1917  with  standard-quality  coal.  It  appears  that  with  good- 
quality  coal  7  per  cent,  less  cars  would  be  required  on  the 
railroads  compared  with  the  rolling  stock  needed  to  handle 
what  one  of  the  company's  engineers  terms  "black  asbestos." 

Soon  after  the  first  lot  of  poor  coal  was  received  the 
tonnage  consumed  began  to  rise.  The  company  engaged 
the  services  of  a  competent  combustion  engineer,  who  in- 
structed the  various  boiler-room  eng'ineers  <in  the  vagaries 
of  combustion  under  the  conditions  attending  the  constantly 
changing  gi-ades  of  coal.  Without  his  aid  the  tonnage  con- 
sumed would  have  been  considerably  greater. 

Plants  Were  Designed  for  High-Grade  Fuel 

It  is  possible  economically  to  consume  low-grade  fuels  of 
uniform  quality  and  corresponding  low  price,  where  the 
furnaces  are  designed  to  suit  the  fuel,  with  ash-removal 
machinery  capable  of  meeting  the  heavier  demands  and,  of 
course,  suitable  unloading  facilities.  When,  however,  a 
plant  is  designed  for  a  high-grade  coal  and  the  fuel  actually 
used  is  worse  than  a  uniform  low-grade  product,  there  is 
no  doubt  as  to  what  the  results  will  be.  Thus,  one  consign- 
ment of  fuel  received  would  pack  down  on  the  tuyeres  so 
solidly  that  the  combined  capacity  of  all  the  blowers  in  the 
plant  could  not  force  sufficient  air  through  to  allow  it  to 
burn.  To  attain  any  semblance  of  combustion,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  apply  slice  bars  through  the  observation  doors,  and 
even  then  interruptions  of  varying  duration  could  not  be 
avoided. 

About  the  time  this  coal  had  been  "run  through  the  fur- 
naces" and  the  firemen  were  able  to  attain  better  results, 
the  next  shipment  would  be  received.  As  this  new  coal  fol- 
lowed the  last  of  the  previous  shipment  through  the  bunkers, 
the  firemen  would  find  that  with  the  usual  plenum  in  the 
wind  boxes,  the  coal  would  be  blown  over  onto  'the  dump 
plates  and  pile  up  in  a  red-hot  mass  to  a  depth  of  three  to 
four  feet.  Often  the  entire  dump  plate  and  shaft  twisted 
out  of  shape  so  badly  that  they  had  to  be  entirely  renewed. 
Within  a  few  days  some  coal  was  received  that  would  burn 
nicely  for  about  an  hour,  after  which  it  could  be  seen  grad- 
ually to  shut  off  the  air  supply.  The  shaking  grates  could 
not  be  moved  more  than  one-half  inch,  and  a  slice  bar  thrust 
in  along'  the  grates  would  lift  nearly  half  the  fire  up  from 
the  grate.  Steam  jets  in  the  ashpits  were  of  little  assist- 
ance in  preventing  this  "india  rubber"  like  clinker,  and 
after  a  short  time  the  plant  was  shut  down  for  two  hours. 
Section  breakers  and  feeder  switches  were  relocated  to 
relieve  the  load  on  the  plant,  and  the  arrival  of  more  coal 
made  it  possible  to  resume  operation  under  these  condi- 
tions. It  also  gave  the  operators  a  chance  to  take  the  boiler 
out  of  service  and  clean  the  heating  surfaces,  which  were 
covered  with   soot  and  slag. 

This  boiler  had  been  in  service  continuously  for  three 
weeks  and  as  a  result  of  the  cleaning  five  barrows  of 
stalactites   were   taken    out,    in    spite   of   the   fact   that   the 


•Ahstract  of  address  before  Xew  KiiKlaiul  Slrept  Uaihvav  Chili, 
Boston,   I'Vh.   18,   11118. 


boiler  was  dusted  daily.  If  the  boiler  had  not  been  taken 
out  of  line  at  the  time,  a  <leposit  would  have  formed  which 
practically  would  have  closed  the  gas  i)assage. 

An  investigation  of  the  records  of  fuel  analysis  shows 
samples  containing  24  per  cent,  of  volatile  hydrocarbons, 
45  per  cent,  fixed  carbon,  29.8  per  cent,  ash  and  3  per  cent, 
sulphur,  with  a  calorific  value  of  10,:!00  B.t.u.  per  lb.  One 
particular  cargo  "passed  through  the  furnace"  with  the 
ash  running  close  to  37  per  cent,  by  weight.  The  average 
for  all  coal  received  in  1917  was  but  little  better  than  the 
case  cited. 

Poor  Coal  Inckeaseo  Maintenance 
In  addition  to  serious  interruptions,  great  trouble  has  been 
experienced  from  stoker  failu)'es.  These  occur  at  some 
plants  at  the  rate  of  two  a  day,  and  on  this  account  it  is 
impossible  to  repair  them  in  a  first-class  manner.  This  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  when  one  stops  to  think  of  the  foreign 
substances  found  in  the  coal,  such  as  traprock,  short  bolts, 
coupler  pins,  slate,  slag,  brickbats  and  even  pig  iron.  The 
smaller  pieces  pass  through  the  crushers  and  into  the  fur- 
naces, in  spite  of  the  vigilant  eye  of  the  weigh-hopper  man, 
and  then  there  is  a  cracked  bearing  cap,  broken  bracket  or 
sprung  crankshaft.  Stoker  repairs  are  tripled,  and  the 
stock  of  repair  parts  seriously  depleted. 

The  poor  quality  of  coal  has  added  to  the  difficulties  of 
the  labor  situation.  It  has  been  particularly  difficult  to 
retain  the  ashmen  and  firemen.  For  every  carload  of  ashes 
taken  out  of  the  ash  hoppers  during  1915  three  carloads 
are  taken  out  today. 

An  inspection  of  the  operating  records  shows  that  the 
total  unit  cost  of  production  for  1917  was  1.48c.,  or  double 
the  cost  for  1915.  Of  this,  82.5  per  cent,  is  due  to  fuel 
cost.  Comparing  the  total  amounts  for  the  fiscal  years  1915, 
191G  and  1917,  the  total  cost  of  production  for  1915  was 
.$630,000;  for  1916,  $745,000  (an  increase  of  18  per  cent, 
for  8  per  cent,  increase  in  production),  and  in  1917,  $1,187,- 
500,  an  increase  in  production  of  11  per  cent,  and  a  cost 
increase  of  90  per  cent.  In  1915  the  total  amount  paid 
for  fuel  for  the  six  plants  was  $425,000,  or  67  per  cent,  of 
the  total  production  cost.  In  1916  it  was  $520,000,  or  70 
per  cent.,  and  in  1917  it  was  $976,900,  or  83  per  cent., 
which  is  more  than  twice  that  paid  under  normal  condi- 
tions. Labor  shows  an  increase  of  $33,000  and  maintenance 
an  increase  of  $70,000.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  state  that 
fully  90  per  cent,  in  the  company's  increased  cost  of  power 
is  due  solely  to  the  fact  that  the  road  is  paying  for,  but  not 
getting,  coal. 

Company  Plans  .Additional  Equipment 
Several  plans  are  afoot  to  relieve  conditions  in  the  near 
future.  The  most  important  is  the  installation  of  addi- 
tional ash-handling  facilities  and  coal-handling  equipment 
and  storage  space.  In  the  last  case  it  is  proposed  to  dis- 
charge sufficient  coal  at  each  plant  between  the  dates  of 
Apr.  1  and  Nov.  1.  1918,  to  take  care  of  the  needs  during 
this  period  and  have  stored  at  the  latter  date  sufficient  coal 
to  carry  the  plants  through  until  the  spring  of  1919.  To 
do  this  it  will  be  necessary  to  receive  in  214  days  150,000 
gross  tons  of  coal,  which  is  equivalent  to  unloading  692 
tons  per  day.  To  attain  this  result  the  Connecticut  Co. 
will  have  to  expend  between  $200,000  and  $300,000.  For 
the  New  Haven  power  plant  it  will  have  to  furnish  addi- 
tional storage  space.  In  the  Hartford  plant  the  same  thing' 
pertains,  and  in  the  Bridgeport  plant  another  dock  will 
have  to  be  built,  with  facilities  for  reclaiming  the  coal  and 
getting  it  into  the  bunkers.  To  put  in  this  coal  and  get 
it  into  storage  about  $500,000  will  have  to  be  expended. 
A  quotation  receive<l  in  this  connection  for  an  eight-wheel 
locomotive  crane  with  50-ft.  boom  and  a  lV6-cu.yd.  bucket 
was  $18,4.58,  compared  with  $7,650  in  1915.  This  plan  will 
relieve  much  anxiety  as  to  coal  shortage  next  year  and  will 
relieve  traffic  congestion. 

The  company  has  exerted  every  effort  to  reduce  fuel  con- 
sumption to  a  minimum.  Strict  attention  has  been  paid 
to  turning  off  all  unnecessary  lights  and  electric  heaters; 
the  skip-stop  system  of  operation  has  been  inaugurated;  a 
vigorous  campai.gn  in  power  saving  has  been  instituted  with 
.yood  results. 


492 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


The  National   Chamber  of  Commerce 
Vote  on  the  Water  Powers 

1.  That  Federal  legislation  encouraging  the  development 
of  water  powers  should  at  once  be  enacted.  Adopted  by 
the  almost  uaanimous  vote  of  1324  to  6. 

2.  That  authority  to  grant  permits  should  be  vested  in 
an  administrative  department.  Carried  by  a  vote  of  1253 
to   17. 

3.  That  the  permit  period  should  be  at  least  fifty  years, 
any  shorter  period  being  at  the  applicant's  option.  In 
favor,  1216;  opposed,  42. 

4.  That  tolls  should  attach  only  to  use  of  public  lands 
or  benefits  derived  from  headwater  improvements.  Adopted 
by  vote  of  1191 1/2   to  40%. 

5.  That  permittees  should  be  entitled  to  acquire  the 
right  to  use  public  lands  forming  only  a  small  and  inci- 
dental part  of  the  development.  Carried  by  a  vote  of  1210 
to  25. 

6.  That  recapture  should  be  exercised  only  upon  pay- 
ment of  fair  and  just  compensation.  In  favor,  1234; 
opposed  25. 

7.  That  if  recapture  is  not  exercised,  the  investment  of 
the  permittee  should  be  adequately  protected.  Adopted  by 
a  vote  of  1226  to  26. 

8.  That  rates  and  service  should  be  regulated  by  state 
commissions  where  the  service  is  intrastate,  with  Federal 
regulation  only  where  several  states  are  dii'eetly  con- 
cerned and  do  not  agree  or  there  is  no  state  commission. 
Carried  by  a  vote  of  1177  to  57. 

9.  That  if  any  jurisdiction  to  regulate  the  issuance  of 
securities  is  exercised,  it  should  be  solely  by  the  state. 
In   favor,   1114;   opposed,   117. 

10.  That  no  preference  should  be  granted  as  between 
itpplicants  amounting  to  a  subsidy  from  the  government 
creating  unequal  competition.  Adopted  by  a  vote  of  1191 
to  38. 


Navy  Engineers  to  Train  at  Stevens 

The  Navy  Department,  after  consultation  with  Presi- 
dent Humphreys,  has  designated  the  Stevens  Institute  of 
Technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  as  the  headquarters  for  the 
new  United  States  Naval  Steam  Engineering  School  for 
training  engineer  officers  for  the  Naval  Auxiliary  Reserve. 

This  school  is  the  only  one  devoted  to  training  engineer 
officers  for  steam-engine  service,  and  is  a  branch  of  the 
large  training  school  now  located  at  Pelhani  Bay  Park, 
New  York.  There  is  at  Pelham,  in  addition  to  the  school 
for  general  training  of  enlisted  men,  an  Officers'  Materia) 
School,  Naval  Auxiliary  Reserve.  Both  the  school  at 
Felham  and  the  engineer  officer  school  at  Stevens  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  supervisor.  Naval  Auxiliary  Reserve. 
The  education  of  the  engineer  officers  at  Stevens  is  directed 
by  Prof.  F.  L.  Pryor,  of  Stevens,  who  has  been  appointed 
By  the  Navy  Department,  with  the  approval  of  President 
Humphreys,  civilian  director. 

It  is  contemplated  to  make  a  five-months  course  for  the 
training  of  an  officer;  one  month  to  be  devoted  to  military 
and  ship  duties  training  at  Pelham,  one  month  at  Stevens 
to  receive  the  preliminary  requirements  and  duties  of  an 
engineer,  one  month  in  inspection  and  repair  duties  at  local 
shipyards,  machine  shops  and  boiler  shops,  one  month  at 
sea  in  the  engine  room  of  different  type  boats,  and  one 
month  subsequent  training  and  examination  at  Stevens. 
It  is  expected  to  have  about  one  hundred  men  in  each  of 
these  divisions,  or  five  hundred  in  all. 

Three  of  the  divisions  will  be  quartered  in  barracks  now 
in  the  course  of  construction  on  the  college  grounds  at 
the  corner  of  Sixth  and  Hudson  Sts.,  adjoining  the  Carnegie 
Laboratory  of  Engineering.  The  school  divisions  will  at- 
tend classes  in  the  lecture  rooms  of  the  college  and  will 
take  their  meals  at  the  college  mess  hall  at  Castle  Stevens. 

The  instructors  for  the  school,  with  the  exception  of 
the  civilian  director,  will  be  regularly  appointed  commis- 
sioned officers  of  the  United  States  Naval  Auxiliary  Re- 
serve, selected  particularly  for  their  especial  work. 


Quotas  are  furnished  for  this  school  by  the  various  Naval 
Districts  throughout  the  country  as  outlined  by  the  Navy 
Department  and  are  required  to  meet  the  following  quali- 
fications: (a)  Men  of  ability  and  officer  material;  (b)  age 
21  to  30,  inclusive;  (c)  completed  high-school  course  and 
graduate  of  engineering  course  at  a  recognized  technical 
school  or  an  equivalent  of  the  above;  (d)  must  be  regular 
Navy,  N.  N.  V.,  or  N.  R.  F.  (any  class)  for  general  serv- 
ice; (e)  physically  qualified  for  line  officer — standard  of 
regular  Navy. 

Men  may  be  newly  enrolled  specifically  for  this  course  by 
applying  to  their  Naval  District  enrolling  officer  and  then 
be  transferred  by  the  commandant  of  that  district  to  the 
school  in  his  weekly  quota. 

That  the  students  will  be  required  to  perform  hard  work 
is  evidenced  by  the  routine  of  duty  which  has  been  posted 
as  follows:  6,  reveille;  6:15,  assembly;  7,  breakfast 
formation;  7:15,  breakfast;  8:15,  study  call;  9:45,  retreat; 
10,  study  call;  11:30,  retreat;  12:15,  dinner  formation; 
12:30,  dinner;  1:15,  study  call;  2:45,  retreat;  3,  study  call; 
4:15,  retreat;  4:30,  drill;  5:30,  retreat;  6,  supper  forma- 
tion; 6:15,  supper;  7,  study  call;  9:30,  retreat;   10,  taps. 

It  was  expected  that  the  first  course  would  start  on  Mar. 
25  and  the  second  course  about  Apr.  22.  After  the  barracks 
are  completed,  a  unit  of  25  men  will  be  eni-olled  eacli 
week,  and  after  the  school  is  in  full  operation  about  one 
hundred  engineer  officers  will  be  graduated  each  month. 
The  rank  of  the  successful  students  will  be  that  of  ensign; 
the  unsuccessful  students  will  be  given  appropriate  ratings 
by  the  Supervisor,  Naval  Auxiliary  Reserve  and  transferred 
to  Pelham  Park  for  general  detail. 


Turbine  Propelling  Units  Wanted 

Quotations  are  requested  by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Cor- 
poration, Washington,  D.  C,  on  one  hundred  turbine  pro- 
pelling units,  to  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the 
following  general  specifications:  (1)  Capacity,  3000  s.hp.; 
(2)  propeller  speed,  90  r.p.m.;  (3)  steam  pressure,  210  lb.; 
(4)  superheat,  50  deg.  F.;  (5)  vacuum,  28  in.;  (6)  each  pro- 
pelling unit  is  to  consist  of  a  high-pressure  turbine  and 
a  low-pressure  turbine  with  backing  turbines,  and  a  double 
herringbone  reduction  gear  and  housing,  and  is  to  be  com- 
plete with  all  necessary  attachments  including  a  forced- 
oil  lubricating  system,  cross-connecting  piping,  overspeed 
emergency  valve  and  other  necessary  appurtenances.  The 
propelling  unit  shall  meet  the  requirements  of  Lloyd's 
and  of  the  American  Bureau  of  Shipping. 

Segregated  prices  are  to  be  stated  for  complete  sets  of 
spare  parts.  No  auxiliary  equipment,  such  as  condensers 
and  circulating  pumps,  is  to  be  provided  with  the  main 
propelling  unit. 

The  time  of  delivery  is  of  prime  importance.  Bidders 
are  to  state  in  proposal  the  earliest  possible  delivery  of 
complete  units  and  are  to  tabulate  a  complete  schedule 
of  deliveries  which  are  to  be  guaranteed. 

Proposals  are  to  be  complete  in  every  respect  and  are  to 
be  accompanied  by  a  full  set  of  specifications  and  general 
and  detail  drawings  showing  the  equipment  contemplated. 

Bidders  are  to  state  the  type  of  turbine  proposed;  the 
turbine  speed;  the  steam  consumption  at  M,  Vz,  %,  full 
load  and  1%-load  (in  pounds  of  steam  per  s.hp.-hr.)  ;  gear 
efficiency;  the  length,  width,  height  and  weight  of  the  pro- 
pelling unit;  the  sizes  of  the  steam  and  exhaust  pipes; 
and  a  list  of  all  gages,  valves,  strainers,  case-hardened 
wrenches,  wrench-boards,  packing,  lifting  bolt,  and  simi- 
lar devices  supplied  with  the  unit.  The  name  of  manu- 
facturer and  the  point  of  manufacture  and  delivery  are  to 
be   stated. 

It  is  contemplated  that  manufacturers  will  bid  on  their 
standard  turbine  propelling  equipment  complete  in  every 
respect.  Proposals  must  be  submitted  within  ten  days  after 
date  hereof.     No  bidding  bond  is  required. 

Alternative  proposals  are  expressly  desii-ed  on  equipment 
conforming  generally  to  the  specifications  of  this  inquiry. 
Alternatives  will  be  received  upon  turbines  operating  at  :\ 
shaft  speed  of  100  r.p.m. 

Washington,  D.  C,  Mar.  23,  1918. 


April  2,  1918 


POWER 


49:? 


New  Publications 


■  IIIIIKIMIIttllHMIMIIIIHMII 


tMIMIIIItllltllllllllllllllllMIIIMIIIIII 


IIIK  nOTUOLEl'M  AXn  NATITR.\L.  GAS 
liUCISTEU  1917-1!»1S  Published  by 
The  Oil  Trado  Journal.  New  York.  Sizi 
'.•xlll  in.;  548  pase.x.  Trice,  fl'2. 
This  1.*^  a  repre.sentatlve  catalog  of  the 
trade  and  is  a  collection  of  much  valuable 
information  about  the  petroleum  and  nat- 
ural-Kas  indu.stries  of  the  United  States. 
Canada  and  Jlexico.  giving  names  of  otli- 
eers.  capital  stock,  location  of  properties 
and  other  valuable  data.  toEether  with  fi- 
nancial statements  that  fit  in  with  fads 
as  to  organizations  and  operations.  The 
text  is  divided  into  lists  of  refiners  of 
petroleum  ;  manufacturers  and  compounders 
of  lubricating  oils,  grea.ses.  jietroleum. 
etc..  and  gives  marketers  and  jobber.s 
grouped  under  Kastern.  Central  and  South- 
ern, and  Western  States ;  producers  of 
petroleum.  Eastern  and  Central  States.  Ok- 
lahoma and  Kansas,  Texas  and  Louisiana, 
and  Western  States :  also  lists  of  oil  pipe- 
line companies,  casin^nead-gasoline  manu- 
facturers, natural-gas  producers  and  dis- 
tributers, manufacturers  of  and  dealers  in 
supplies  and  equipment  for  the  oil  and  nat- 
ural-gas industries,  and  a  directory  of  offi- 
cers and  members  of  the  oil  and  gas  a.sso- 
ciations  and  clubs  in  the  United  States 
The  arrangement  and  classifications  of  data 
are  well  planned  for  enabling  the  reader 
to  obtain  the  desired  information  with  little 
difliciUty. 


Personals 


Joseph  Harrington,  of  Chicago,  the  well- 
known  combustion  engineer,  has  been  elect- 
ed vice  president  and  advisory  engineer  of 
the  Chicago  Superheater  Co.  E.  A.  Geog- 
hegan  has  resigned. 

A.  F.  Ausman,  formerly  vice  president  of 
McMa-ster-Carr  Supply  Co..  of  Chicago,  i.s 
now  Chicago  district  manager  of  Xagle 
Corliss  Engine  AVorks.  of  Erie.  Penn.,  with 
offices  in  the  Monadnock  Block. 

Frederick  L.  Ray,  past  president  of  the 
National  Association  of  .Stationary  Engi- 
neers, has  resigned  as  chief  engineer  of  the 
Merchants  Heat  and  Light  Co..  of  Indian- 
apolis, Ind..  to  take  a  correspononig  posi- 
tion with  the  Erie  Ligliting  Co..  Erie,  Penn. 

A.  I>.  Alexander  has  purchased  the  Pitts- 
burgh (Penn.)  office  of  the  Richard  D.  Kim 
ball  Co..  consulting  engineers,  and  will  con- 
tinue the  business  under  his  own  name.  Mr. 
Alexander  has  been  resident  engineer  in 
charge  of  the  Kimball  office  for  the  last 
three  yean  and  was  formerly  engineer  with 
the   Pittsburgh   Board   of  Public   Education. 

C.  H.  A"an  Hooven,  claim  agent  of  the 
Manila,  (P.  I.)  Electric  Railroad  and  Light 
Co.  who  has  been  visiting  the  United  States 
for  the  purpose  of  consulting  witii  otficers 
of  the  J.  C.  White  Management  Corpora- 
tion, New  York,  the  rTi>tifiting  managers 
of  the  Manila  Co.  is  refurinng  to  tiie  Philip- 
pines by  way  of  Hawaii  and  japan.  Whil>- 
in  the  United  Slates.  Mr.  Van  Hooven  also 
devoted  considerable  time  to  inspecting  the 
claim  methods  of  electric  railways  in  a 
number  of  large  cities.  He  has  been  con- 
nected with  the  Manila  Electric  Railroad 
and  Light  Co.  for  the  last  ten  years.  He 
was  recently  admitted  to  the  Philippine  bar. 
having  successfully  completed  the  law 
course  at  the  Manila   University. 


f^miniiiiiiiniiii! 


Miscellaneous  News 


The  Wentwortli  Institute,  Boston,  Ma-^s.. 
held  its  seventh  public  exhibition  of  work 
done  in  the  various  departments  on  Mar. 
21.  It  appealed  especially  to  persons  in- 
terested in  modern  methods  of  training 
young^  men  for  skilled  occupations  in  the 
trades  and  industries.  A  short,  intensive 
12-\veeks*  full-time  day  course  in  military 
engineering  will  he  given  at  the  Institute, 
in  cooperation  with  First  ('orps  Cadet  Vet- 
eran Association.   April   8   to  July  1. 

Steam   Power   Plants   Close  to  Save   Oil — 

All  but  one  of  the  steam  plants  of  the 
three  big  electric  i)ower  companies  operat- 
ing in  San  Francisco  closed  down  on  th*; 
night  of  Mar.  1 !»  and  will  remain  closed 
for  the  remainder  of  the  season  if  i)os- 
sible.  The  Pacific  Oas  and  Electric  Co., 
Great  Western  Power  Co.  and  the  Sierra 
&  San  Francisco  Power  Co..  Iiave  inter-con- 
nected their  heavy  power  lines  and  phints 
and   the  one  operating  steam  plant   will  act 


as  a  standby  in  case  of  accident  to  the 
transmission  lines  from  the  h\'dio-eIectrii; 
plants  of  the  three  companies.  Tlie  shut- 
ting down  of  the  steam  plants  is  in 
line  with  the  program  adopted  for  the 
conservation  of  fuel  oil.  The  Potr«ro  plant 
of  the  Pacific  Oas  and  Klectric  Co,  will  act 
as  the  standby  at  night  and  the  steam 
plants  of  the  other  two  companies  will 
alternate  as  standbys  during  the  day,  each 
plant    taking  an   eight-hour   shift. 


Business  Items 


The  H.  W.  ,lfihiis-:MHnville  C'4>.  has  opened 
a  branch  ollice  at  1015  A  Street.  Tacoma. 
Wa-sh. 

The  l>ufinesne  Klectrir  and  Maniifaetur- 
inp  <'».,  of  Pittsburgh,  Penn..  announces 
the  opening  of  a  branch  oflice  at  23U  South 
La   Salle   St..    Chicago. 

Tile    A'ulean    Soot    Cle-rtiier    Sales    Co.    has 

transferred  its  general  sales  office  from 
:.'3t1  So.  La  Salle  St.,  Chicago,  to  Du  Bois, 
Penn..  in  order  to  bring  the  sales,  factory 
and  engineers  in  immediate  touch.  G.  L. 
Simonds   is   in   charge. 

Tlie  .\nieriean  Tlirea<l  Vo.'s  general  engi- 
neering department  will  be  transferred  from 
the  Merrick  Mills  at  Holyoke,  Mass.,  to  the 
company's  head  olfice  at  260  West  Broad- 
way, New  York  City,  on  Apr.  1.  Malcolm 
Curry,  general  engineer,  Kenneth  B.  Millett, 
assistant  general  engineer,  and  A.  C.  Rich- 
ardson will  be  located  at  this  latter  office. 

Tlie  .Jos,  \y.  Ha.vs.  Corporation,  of  Michi- 
gan City.  Ind.,  has  purchased  the  l)usiness 
and  good  will  of  the  Combustion  Appliance 
Co..  of  Chicago,  manufacturers  of  the  Hay.-; 
line  of  combustion  testing  apparatus.  The 
general  offices  will  be  maintained  at  Michi- 
gan City.  Following  are  the  authorized 
representatives  of  the  company:  For  New 
England  States,  Eagle  Oil  and  Supply  Co.. 
45  India  St..  Boston.  Mass.  ;  New  York 
City  and  vicinity.  Stephen  H.  Payne.  30 
Church  St..  New  York  ;  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia,  the  Paul  B.  Huyette  Co., 
5  So.  18th  St..  Philadelphia.  Penn.;  Ohio, 
the  Hays  Engineering  Co..  614  Commerce 
Bldg.,  Columbus,  Ohio ;  Indiana.  Acme 
Engineering  Agency.  423  Fletcher-Ameri- 
can Bank  Bulding.  Indianapolis,  Ind.  ; 
Illinois  and  Wisconsin,  The  Hays  Instru- 
ment Co..  1426  Consumers  Bldg..  Chi- 
cago, 111.  ;  Minnesota,  Montana,  North  and 
South  Dakota,  The  R.  B.  Whitacre  Co..  205 
S.  Robert  St..  St.  Paul.  Minn.  :  Oklahoma 
and  Texas.  The  Chas.  W.  Hays  Co..  Tul-sa, 
Okla.  ;  Louisiana  and  Mississippi.  Henry 
J.  MalocJiee.  SIT  Hennen  Bldg..  New  Or- 
leans. La.  ;  The  Pacific  Coast.  The  Braun- 
Knecht-Heimann  Co.,  576-584  Mission  St.. 
San  Francisco.  Cal.,  and  The  Braun  Corp.. 
363-371  New  High  St.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Agency  arrangements  will  be  considered 
with  aggressive  and  responsible  people  in 
unoccupied  territory.  E.  A.  Acers  is  presi- 
dent and  general  manager  of  the  Jos.  W. 
Hays   Corporation. 


I   NEW  CONSTRUCTION    | 

^IlllllllllllllllUllllllltllUIIIIIIIIIII I Illllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIMI IIHII? 

Proposed    AVork 

Vt.,  IJrattleboro — The  Twin  States  Gas 
and  Electric  Co.  ha.s  been  granted  permis- 
sion by  the  Public  Service  Commission  to 
build  transmission  lines  in  Brattleboro, 
Bennington  and  St.  Johnsbury.  and  to  im- 
prove its  po\\'er  plant  at  West  Dummers- 
towTi       W.   H.   Richardson,   local  mgr. 

Mass.,  .Vdams — The  Renfrew  Manufac- 
turing I'll,  iilans  to  build  a  power  plant  on 
Columbia    St. 

Mass.,  Fall  River — The  .stockholders  of 
the  Fall  River  Electric  Co.  will  petition  the 
Gas  and  Electric  Light  Commissioners  for 
authoritv  to  increase  its  capital  stock  from 
$1,400.0011  to  $2,100,000;  proceeds  to  be 
used  for  paying  its  outstanding  indebted- 
ness, also  for  new  high  tension  transmis- 
sion svstem  to  be  built  over  the  Taunton 
River.  A.  H.  Kimball,  85  North  Main  St.. 
Gen.    Mgr. 

Mass.,  .^lillbiiry — The  New  England 
Power  Co..  IS  Grafton  St.,  Worcester,  is 
having  siwveys  made  for  the  construction 
of  a  higli  tension  tratismission  line  from 
here   to    Webster.      S.    C.    Moore.    Gen.    Mgr. 

.Mass.,  Worerster — The  W.  H.  Sawyer 
Lumber  Co..  26  Lincoln  St.,  is  having  plans 
prepared  for  the  construction  of  a  power 
house  in  connection  with  its  new  plant. 
Estimated   cost.    $70,000. 


N.  Y..  Iliifl-iilo— The  J  H.  Williams  Co.. 
400  ^'v^I(■an  St..  jilans  to  increase  the  capac- 
ity of   its   power   plant   during  the   >'ear. 

N.  Y..  I^iM-kpnrt — The  Lockport  Light. 
Heat  and  Power  Co..  controlled  by  the 
United  Oas  and  Electric  Co..  61  Broadway. 
New  York,  has  been  authorized  by  the  Pub- 
lic Service  Commission  to  issue  $106,700 
capital  stock  ;  proceeds  to  be  used  for  pay- 
ing the  outstanding  indebtedness,  J.  A. 
Perkins.    Gen.    Mgr. 

N.  Y.,  New  Y'ork — The  Interborough 
Rapid  Transit  Co.  has  filed  plans  for  tht 
construction  of  a  3-story,  40x41  ft.  trans- 
former station  on  74th  St.  east  of  Ave  A. 
Estimated  cost.  $12,900.  G.  H.  Pegram. 
Ch.  Engr. 

N.  Y.,  Koi'liester — The  Rochester  Rail- 
way, Light  and  Power  Co.  has  been  granted 
permission  by  the  Public  Service  Commis- 
sion to  issue  $2,000,000  capital  stock  to 
cover  the  cost  of  tlie  recent  improvements 
in  the  eiiuipment  of  its  Genesee  River  hy- 
draulic plant.  T.  H.  Yawger,  34  Clinton 
Ave..    Supt. 

N.  Y'..  f^andluke — The  McLaren  Knitting 
Co.  has  applied  to  the  Town  Board  for  a 
franchise  to  construct  an  electric  trans- 
mission line  to  enable  it  to  secure  electric- 
ity to  operate  its  mills  here. 

I'enn.','  Chester — The  Delaware  County 
Electric  Co..  Lansdowne.  controlled  by  the 
Philadelphia  Electric  Co.,  1000  Chestnut 
St.,  Philadelphia,  is  building  a  large  steam 
power  station  on  the  Delaware  River  here. 
A.   R.   Granger.   Mgr. 

Penn.,  Pliiladelphia — The  Bureau  of  Sup- 
plies and  Accounts.  Navy  Dept.,  Wash., 
will  .soon  receive  bids  for  furni.shing  at 
Navy  Yard,  here,  under  Schedule  No.  1725. 
plain   enameled   magnet  wire  ;   Schedule   No. 

1726.  300     counter    scales;     Schedule     No. 

1727,  standard    steel   bolts. 

Del.,  ttowers — W.  E.  Kelly  is  interested 
in  a  project  to  organize  a  company  to  in- 
stall and  operate  an  electtic  light  plant 
here. 

Md.,  Kllieott  Cit.v — The  Town  Commis- 
sioners plan  to  issue  bonds  for  the  con- 
struction  of   an   electric-light    plant. 

:Md.,  Pylesville — The  Fawn  Grove  Liglit 
and  Power  Co.,  Fawn  Grove,  Pa.,  will  con- 
struct a  new  concrete  dam  at  their  Eden 
Mills  plant  on  lower  Deer  Creek  near  Pvles- 
ville.  about  300  ft.  long  to  carry  30  ft.  of 
which  only  16  ft.  will  be  built  this  sea.son 
The  company  will  install  water  wheels  and 
one  125  kva.  generator,  3  phase,  60  cycle, 
2200  volts  with  exciter,  ,switchboard,  etc.. 
and  refiuire  from  foin-  to  seven  miles  of 
No.  6  coppei-  transmission  wire.  Work 
will  be  done  by  day  labor.  William  Rus- 
sell Smith   Co..    York.   Pa..   Bi.gr. 

X.  C,  southpurt — J.  G  AVhite  &  Co.,  43 
Exchange  PI..  New  York,  has  purchased 
property  of  Southport  Electric  Light  and 
Power  Co.  The  new  owners  plan  to  spend 
about    $20,000    for    improving   same. 

S.  C.  Charleston — Charleston  Consoli- 
dated Railway  and  Lighting  Co.  plan  to 
increase  the  capacitv  of  its  power  house  on 
Meeting   St.      P.    H.    Gadsden.    Pres. 

Ga.,  'larkson — City  plans  to  improve  the 
electric-light  plant  to  include  rebuilding 
IJ  mi.  of  pole  line  and  installation  of  high 
l)ressure  centrifugal  pump.  2  stage,  elec- 
trically'   driven.      W.    E.    Merck,    Gen.    Mgr. 

.\Ia.,  Knsle.v — The  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron 
and  Railwa.v  Co.  will  in.stall  a  7500  k.w. 
generator  in  iiower  station  No.  1  at  the 
Ensle,\'    blast    furnaces. 

-Ma.,  :Mobile — The  Chickasaw  Shipbuild- 
ing (^o.  is  constructing  a  power  plant  at  its 
yards,  here.  Estimated  cost  $750,000.  The 
plant  will  have  two  40i)0  k.w.  turbo  genera 
tor  units  and  three  air  compressors  of  8800 
cu.ft.  per  minute  will  be  installed.  Equip- 
ment   has    been    purcliased. 

"La.,  Oiik  Oriive — Cit.v  plans  to  install  an 
electric  lighting  plant  soon.  .-Vddress  1-. 
Grathwell.    Oak    Grove. 

Ky.,  firahHin — The  W.  G.  Duncan  Co.. 
Greenville.  i)lans  to  construct  a  75x100  ft. 
power  house,  also  build  from  4  to  5  mi. 
transmission  line  to  connect  Greenville, 
Luzerne  and  Depoy.  Material  and  equip- 
ment   purchased. 

Ky.,  Hazard — The  Perry  Coal  and  Linn- 
ber  Co.  plans  to  install  nn  eUctrically  oi)er 
ated  ])lanl  for  a  coal  development  on  Louis- 
ville •&  -Nashville  Railroad  in  Perry  County. 

Ky.,  Indian  Itnlluin — The  Middle  West 
Coal  Co.  will  receive  bids  until  Mar.  30. 
for  the  erection  of  a  power  plant  midwa.\ 
between  here  and  Jeremiah.  Estimated 
cost,    $50,000. 

Ind.,  .MtlcH — The  city  plans  to  rebuild 
its  electric-light  and  water-works  pl.^nts 
which  were  recently  destroyed  bv  fire  witli 
a  loss   of    $60,000.      G.    McDonald.    Mgr. 


494 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


Ind.,  Giir.v — The  Gary  Street  Railway 
,)lans  to  construct  a  new  pov  er  station  on 
nth   Avr. 

lud.,  linliaiiapoliti — Bids  will  !)■■  itciived 
hy  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  Indiana  Uni- 
versity. Bloomington.  for  the  construction 
of  a  1-story,  88x01  ft.,  hrick  and  reinforced 
concrete  power  house  in  connection  with 
the  new  medical  buildinfc  to  be  built  on 
"West  Michigan  St.  Bids  will  be  received 
at  the  same  time  for  furnishinR  the  elec- 
tric enuipment.  boilers  and  heating  equip- 
ment. refriseratiiiK  and  ice-maUin.e  ei|Uip- 
ment,  hoi  water  equipment,  heating  and 
ventilating  apiiaratus.  electrii-  wiring,  etc.. 
fur  both  buildings.  R.  b\  Daggett.  I)5f. 
Tjemcke  .\nnex.    Arch. 

III.,  ItiKKsvlUe — The  Biggsville  I^iglu  Co 
plans  to  change  its  s.vstem  to  alternating 
current,  single  phase,  and  extending  its 
service  to  two  small  towns  and  fanns  along 
the  line.  .A  75  kva.  single  phase.  22011  or 
U99  volt  machine  will  be  required.  O.  W 
Lee.   Vice-Pres. 

111.,  f'liarleston — Council  authorized 

$20,000  bond  issue,  proceeds  of  which  will 
be  us<:'d  for  im]>ro\'ing  electric-light  plant 
and    "^A'ater-works    system. 

III.,  Mt.  Olive — City  will  hold  an  election 
.\pr.  IR  to  vote  on  $80(10  bonds  to  be  used 
for  the  iinjirovement  of  the  electric-light 
plant.  Tt  is  also  proposed  to  eqtiii)  the 
water-works  puinping  station  with  elec- 
trically operated  machiner>".  W.  S.  Merkle, 
Federal  Reserve  Bank  BIdg..  St.  Louis. 
Mo..    Engr. 

111..  Rorkford — Citv  will  hold  election  m 
.\pril  to  vote  on  $500,000  bonds  to  in.stall 
an    electric-light    plant. 

lowii,  Bo.vden — Veenschoten  Bros..  Bo.v- 
den,  have  been  granted  a  franchise  by  the 
Board  of  State  Railroad  Commissioners  to 
construct  and  operate  ,^Ieetric  transmis- 
sion lines  on  certain  highways  and  roads 
in  Sioux   County   for  a    period   of    25    .vears. 

Iowa,  Dubuque — The  Chicago.  Milwau- 
kee and  .St.  Paul  Railway  plans  to  improve 
the  power  plant  at  its  shops  here.  Esti- 
mated cost.  $50,000.  C.  F.  Loweth.  Chi- 
cago.   Til..    Ch.    Engr. 

Iowa,  L,aneKbori» — City  will  hold  election 
March  S  to  vote  on  $7000  bonds,  proceeds 
will  be  used  for  building  electric-light 
plant. 

la.,  Osfiian — Harry  Bullard.  owner  of  the 
local  electric  light  and  power  i)lant.  has 
sold  same  to  -A.  G.  O'Rear  of  Mason  City. 
The  new  owner  plans  to  improve  the  same. 

^linn.,  loiia — City  plans  to  install  elec- 
tric-light and  power  plant  to  cost  approxi- 
mately   $10,000. 

Kan.,  Cliapnian — The  Unitfd  Telephone 
Co.  is  building  a  new  transformei-  station 
here.  Plans  are  also  being  considered  by 
the    company   for   other    improvements. 

Kan..  Lawrence — The  Bowerstock  Mills 
and  Power  Co.,  Lawrence,  plans  to  build 
a  large  boiler  house  soon.  R.  C.  Jackman. 
Mgr. 

Kan..  Oakle.v — Plans  are  being  consid- 
ered by  the  citv  for  the  construction  of  a 
transmis.sion  line  from  here  to  Colby  to 
secure  electricit>'  to  operate  the  local  sys- 
tem. 

Kan..  Ottawa — Cit.\'  plans  to  build  .t 
transmission  line  on  South  "Willow  St..  from 
nth  to  15th  St..  thence  on  15th  St.  from 
Willow  to  Locust  Sts.     W.  O    Myres.  Supt. 

S.  I>.,  Miller — The  City  Council  contem- 
plates calling  an  election  to  vote  on  $.'i0,- 
000  bonds  to  install  an  electric-light  and 
power   plant. 

.\rk.,  Helena — The  Helena  Gas  and  Elec- 
tric Co.  plans  to  enlarge  its  plant  and  in- 
stall  new   machinery. 

Tex.,  Kr.van — City  will  purchase  addi- 
tional transformers  for  its  tlectric-light  and 
power  si'-stcm. 

Tex.,  San  .Vngelo — Plans  are  being  con- 
sidered by  the  Interstate  Corporation,  141 
Bi*oadway.  .\e\\  York,  for  extending  its 
electric  transmission  systein  now  running 
from  San  Angelo  to  Ballinger  to  Colernaii 
and  Brownwood.  E.  Burrow,  San  Angelo. 
Ch.   Engr. 

Okla.,  iioniiny — The  Hominy  Ice,  Light 
and  Powei-  <l'o.  has  purchased  an  addi- 
tional electric  generating  unit  consisting 
of  a  150  h.i).  gas  engine  directly  connected 
to  a  100  k.w..  3  phase,  fill  c.vcle,  2300  volt 
generator   for   its    plant    here 

Okla..  Laverne — City  will  spend  $13,000 
to  construct  an  electric-light  plant.  Ad- 
dress  The    Mayor.      Noted    Dec.    18. 

Okla.,  ^liami — Cit.v  will  expend  about 
$45,000  to  improve  and  extend  its  electric- 
light  plant  Address  The  iMavor.  Noted 
Nov.    R, 


Okla.,  .Shatluek — City  plans  to  spend  be- 
tween $20,000  and  $30,000  to  build  elec- 
tric-light plant  to  develop  150  to  300  h.p. 
A.  C.  Oliver.  :Mayor.  Burns  &  McDonnell. 
Interstate    BIdg..    Kansas    City.    Mo..    Engr 

Colo..  Colorado  Springs — The  Golden 
Cycle  Co.  has  under  considei  ation  the  con- 
struction  of  an    electric   lighting   plant. 

X.  M.,  Ues  Moines — Village  Trustees 
will  call  an  election  to  vote  on  $50,000 
bonds  to  purchase  the  local  electric-light 
plant  and  water-works  system  and  im- 
jirove   and    extend    same. 

.\riz..  Tuina — The  City  plans  to  improve 
and  enlarge  the  electric-light  and  power 
plants  and  .the  water-\\'orks  system.  .Among 
imiirovements  contemplated  is  the  erection 
of  ill!  electric  transmission  line  of  ti60i 
\'olts  to  suppb"  nearby  ranches.  Fred 
Kuecke.    Supt. 

Wash.,  Taeoma — City  will  bold  an  elec- 
1  i(Ut  soon  to  vote  to  purchase  eitiier  a  cor.i- 
plcted  power  plant  at  a  cost  of  .approxi- 
mately $5,000,000  or  a  site  on  which  a 
plant  may  be  built.  L.  Evans.  Gen.  Supi. 
.Voted    Feb.    8. 

Wash..  Tacnnia — City  is  having  plans 
prepared  li.v  its  Electrical  Department  for 
the  erection  of  a  substation.  L.  Evans, 
Gen.   Supt 

Wash..  Ta<Minia — Light  and  Water  De- 
partment pl.ans  to  rei>lace  conduits  under- 
.ground  from  Xisciually  sub-station  at  23rd 
and  c  sts..  to  Winthrop  Ave.  New  cir- 
cuits will  be  for  shipvards  and  t'Kh-  flats. 
T,.    Evans.    Gen.    Supt. 

Calif..  Hanl(»n — The  Imiierial  Irrigation 
District.  Masonic  Temple  BIdg..  El  Centro. 
])lans  to  construct  a  new  powei-  line  from 
here  to  point  on  the  Alamo.  Estimated 
cost,    $11,000. 

Calif..  Los  .Vngeles — The  Public  Service 
I'omniission  authorized  the  leasing  from 
the  Harbor  Commission  of  a  tract  of  lanu 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Harbor  Blvd.  to  be 
used  as  a  site  for  a  sub-station  for  the 
municipal  power  system.  The  site  ad- 
joins the  property  of  the  Los  Angeles  Dry 
Dock  and  Shipbuilding  Co.  A.  .Scatter 
good.    Ch.    Electrical    Engr. 

Calif..  Los  .\n!;ele.s — The  Riverside-South- 
ern Sierras  Power  Co..  fill -12  Lymes  BIdg.. 
Denver.  Colo.,  plans  to  expend  about  $279,- 
0  00  for  reconstructing  one  of  its  main 
tran.smission  lines,  extending  for  distance 
of  60  mi.  from  hydro-electric  plant  located 
on  Rush  Creek.  V.  Presto.  Riverside.  Gen. 
Mgr. 

X.  is..  Woodstock — The  Woodstock  Elec- 
tric Railway  Light  and  Power  Co.  plans  to 
improve  its  plant  here  this  summer.  Im- 
provements contemplated  include  installa- 
tion of  Hercules  turbine,  type  D  of  Hol- 
yoke  Manufacturing  C^o.,  developing  1375 
h.p.  at  13  ft.  head,  belt  connected  to  a 
Westingliouse  generator  in  synchronism 
with  two  generators.      C.   D.   .Tohnson.    Mgr. 

Ont.,  London— The  Helena  Costume  Co., 
1110  King  St..  i.s  in  the  market  for  a  60 
k.w.,  110  volts.  G80  r.p.m.,  compound 
wound,    direct   current   generator. 

CONTK.ICTS    .VW.VKDKn 

Mass..  New  Itedlnrd — The  Cnion  Street 
Railway  has  awarded  tlu'  contract  for  the 
construction  of  thi  si;perstiucture  of  a  2- 
stor.v.  9Sxl2G  ft.,  brick  and  .steel  building 
to  be  xised  as  a  boilei-  house  and  turbine 
room,  to  J.  "W.  Bishop  Co..  1 09  Foster  St.. 
Worcester.      Estimated    co-st.    $135,000. 

N.  .1..  West  Orange — T.  .\.  Edison.  Inc.. 
Lakeside  .\\e.,  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  construction  of  a  l-.story.  100x100 
ft.  reinforced  concrete  power  plant,  to  the 
Cnderpinning  and  Foundation  Co.,  270 
Broadway.  New  York  Cit.v.     Noted  Oct.  23. 

Penn.,  Nanticoke — The  Board  of  Mana- 
gers of  the  .State  Hospital,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  a  l-storj'.  50x65  ft.  power 
house,  to  John  Curtis  &  Co.,  1  Hickory  St., 
Wilkes-Barre. 

Penn.,  Re.vnolds — The  Atlas  Powder  Co. 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  power  plant  here,  to  ,\.  Breslm, 
Summit    Hill. 

O..  Salem — The  Salem  Lighting  Co.  ha.s 
awarded  the  contract  for  a  1-story.  31x4  0 
ft.  boiler  house  addition,  to  Walker  & 
Curley  Co..  East  End  Tru.st  BIdg..  Pitts- 
burgh,  Pa.     Estimated  cost.   $30,000. 

Ind.,  Kobey — The  AVestern  Products  Co., 
Robe\-.  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
construction  of  a  1 -story  powei'  house,  to 
the  Industrial  Building  Co..  38  South  Dear- 
born St.,  Chicago.  111.  Estimated  cost, 
$5600. 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


Boston — Current  quotation.'*  per  gross  ton  de- 
livered aIoi):;sidc  Boston  points  as  comiiared  with 
a  year  a^o  are  as  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Cirpular'  Individual^ 

Mar.  'iS.  1918    Mar.  *I8.  lf»18 


Buckwhe,Tt    .  . 

Bice    

Boiler   

S4.(i(i 

4.1(1 

.'i.!)!! 

.'l.iin 

S7.10 — 7.:)5 
(i.U.-) — 0.90 

Baiiey    

l).l.-i — li.40 

BITCMINOUS 
Bituminous    not    on    market. 

Pocohonlas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hamilton 
Roads,  is  S4.  as  comjjared  with  $'.2.85 — -.00  a 
year  ag-o. 


•All-rail   to  Boston   is  S'l.OO. 


tWater  epal. 


New  A'ork — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  i)orls*  as  compai'ed 
with  a  year  at;o  arc  as  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Circnlari  IntiividiiaP 

ilar.  IS.  1018    Mar.  28,1D18 

Pea    S5.0.->  $5. SO 

Buckwheat    4.;i0 — r>.00  ."j.SO — .i.80 

Barley    :i:l^ — .i.So  4.00 — 1.2.1 

Rice     :5.7.5 — .{.SI.-)           4.50 4.80 

Boiler     .1.50 — :!.7.">           

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  .5c. 
higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.  Harbor    Mine 

Penns.vlvania    53. 65  S'2.00 

Maryland     ;l.ti5  'l.OO 

"NVest  Virg-inia   i short  rate).        ;j.65  '2.00 

Based  on  Government  iiric*;  ol  $*!  per  Ion  at 
mine. 

•The  lower  noits  are:  Elizabethport.  Port  John- 
son, Port  ReailiriiT.  Perth  Amboy  and  South  .\m- 
boy.  The  ujiper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty.  Hobo- 
ken.  Weeliawkeii.  Edijcwaler  or  Cliffside  and  Gut- 
tenberg-.  St.  George  is  in  between  ami  sometimes 
a  special  boat  i';ite  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  Tlie  ratte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


riiihulelphii) — Prices  per  ^ross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  line  .shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond lor  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 


-Li  iie- 


-Tide- 


Pea    

Barle,v    . .  .  . 
Buckwheat 

Rice    

Boiler     . .  .  . 


Mar.  •:«.  One  Yr.  Mar.  -ZS.  One  Year 

1018  Aso  1!I18          .\eo 

.  .S.3.75  S'i.80  S4.(i5  S3.70 

.  .    ?J.15  1,85  !!,40           -i.OJ 

..    3.15  'i.SO  3.75           3.40 

.  .    ;2.65  3,10  3.05           .'i.OO 

,  ,    2,43  1,05  3.35          3.15 


Cliiriiuo — Ste.'iin  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 
Prepared    sizes. ..  S'i. 1)5 — ^'J.80  S:!.35 — 3.30 


Mine-run 
Screening's 


■2.40 — '.'..55 
■2.15 — •.•..•50 


3.10 — 3.- 
■;.S.5 — 3.00 


So.  111.,  Poeohontas,   Hockinsr.E.i.st 


Peiiii.sylvania 
Smokeless  Coals   and  W,  Va, 
Prepared    sizes.,  ,S^-.(iO — '2,85 

Mine-run    2,40 — 'J, 60 

Screenings     ■*,10 — •3,55 


Kentuck.v  a'ud 

West   Va,   Splint 

S'2,83 — 3,35 

•2.60 — 3,00 

3.35— '2,75 


St,   Louis — Prices  per  net   ton   f,o,b,  mines  a 

year  ag-o  as  compared  with  loilay  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and       Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

Mar.  ■;s.         Mar.  28  Mar, -2 8, 

liiis           mis  1018 

6-in,  lump     ,,,  ,52.65-2, .SO    S2.()5-2,80  52,65-2,80 

2-in,-lump     ,...    2.65-2.80      2.ti5-2,80  2,0,5-2,80 

Steam    egg....    2,05-2,80      2,65-2,80  2,05-2.80 

Mine-run     2,40-2,53      2,40-'2,55  2,40-2.55 

No,   1    nut 2,63-2,80      2,63-3,80  2,63-2,80 

2-iu,    screen...    3,15-3,.30      2,15-2,30  2,50-3,65 

No,  3  washed..    3,15-3,30     2.15-3.30  3.50-2,65 


Birmingham — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b, 
mines  are  as  follows: 


Lump  Slack  and 

&  Nut  Screenings 

S2.15  51,63 

3,40  1,30 

3,65  2.15 


Mine- 
Run 

Bigr  Seam    SI. 00 

Pratt.    Jajrger.    Corona     2.15 
Black  Creek.  Cahaba.      2.40 
Government  Iil^ures, 

Individual  prices  are  the  eomriany  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  regular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
erenerall.v  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
,vear  and  are  fixed  ai-cordinsr  to  a  regular  schedule. 


April  2,  1918 


POWER 


495 


piiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin  miiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iijs 

I  Prices — Materials  and  Supplies  | 

I  i 

3  = 

iiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiii II IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII iiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiii iiiiimiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiimi iiiimiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinilliiiirn 

Tlifwc     lire      prices      to      the      power      pluiit      Ity      johliers    in    tlie     larcer    biiyinj;    renters     eawt     iif     tlie 
.'MissiHHippi.    Eisewhere  tlie  l»riees  will  lie  inodilleil  liy  iiii'reusetl    I'relKlit   elinrKes  iiiul   liy  loeill   contlitiiins. 


ELECTRICAL  SUPPLIES 

K.MKK  SWITt'HKS — r'ollowing  are  net  prices  each  in  cities 
named  for  Ijnifc  switolies  mounted  on  slate  base,  front  connected. 
punclied  clip  type,  250  volts: 


COPPER    WIRE — Prices     |)er     1000     ft. 
followintr    rilics: 


r\ibhcr-coverpil     win 


:!0  Amii. 

liO  .Amp. 

100  .-^mp. 

200  Amp. 

I> 

P.    S. 

T, 

fu.scless 

. .     $0  ..->:: 

SO.iKi 

$1.00 

S3.42 

T) 

P.    S. 

T 

funcd 

.81 

l.:t7 

•;.70 

5.14 

T> 

P.    D. 

T 

f useless.  .  .  . 

.88 

1..J'.; 

:f.42 

5.70 

n 

P.    D. 

T 

fused 

1.67 

2.58 

5.03 

0.88 

T 

P.   S. 

T, 

f  useless 

.78 

1.40 

2.86 

5.14 

T 

P.   s. 

T 

.fused 

1.2:3 

3.05 

4.18 

7.70 

T 

p.    D. 

T 

1.37 

2.3.5 

5.34 

8.83 

T. 

P.    D. 

T. 

fused 

3.68 

4.13 

8.99 

15.80 

Lots 

$-;.i 

1  and  more.  list. 

No. 

14 

10 


■1 

i 

0 

00 

000 

0000 


^ Doiivor 

Single  Double 

Braid  Braid 

Jfl.'i.OO  Sin. Oil 

■y.tMO  20.50 

:!.■!. 10  .■ili.70 

56.20 

.SO. 55 

)20,:tO 

150.25 

l.S7.()5 

252.65 

.■t0!1.:i5 

.  :J76.75 


■ ^   ^ St.  Loui^ 

SuiKle    Doubln 

Duplex     Braid      Biaid     D 

»2().00  Sl:f.50    $10.25    .*, 

52.55      25.00      28.50 

7:1.20     ;i4.85      :iS.K5 

59.75      64.25 

84.40      84.00 

135.50    1.32.00 

103.00    171.15 

310.00    225.00 

263.00    273.50 

320.00    :!31.50 

388.50   400.50 


vnilcx 
(1.25 
.■>!>. 40 
74.70 


-B 

Sinslp 

liraiil 

$13.50 

25.00 

34.85 

50.75 

84.40 

125.50 

in:i.oo 

216.00 
26:i.OO 
:!20.00 
388.50 


irmiiiffha 

Donlile 

Braid 

.1fl6.25 

28.50 

:i8.85 

64.25 

84.90 

1.32.00 

171.15 

225.00 

273.50 

:!31.50 

400.50 


Fl'SKS — Following   are    net   prices    of    250-volt    inclosed   fuses 
each,  in  standard  packages,  in  cities  named  : 

0-30   amperes    $0.11  r,    each    110-200    amperes    $0.90  each 

31-60    amperes 15%   each    225-400    amperes    1.63  each 

61  100    umpei'cs 40       each 

FUSE  PbfGS    (MIC.A.  CAP)    PER   100 

0-30  amperes.  .    4c.  each  iii   standard  package  Muantities    (500) 

0.30  amperes..    5c.  each  for  less  than  standard  imckase  quantities    (500) 


riN'ISH — Following:   are    net    iiriccs    in    cents   each    in 


SOCKETS.   IS. 

standard  packascs: 

%-IN.    OR    PENDANT    CAP 
Key  Keyless       -         Pull  Key 

22.10e.  21.001'.  42.00c.  27.30c.  26.20c.  46. 20c 

Note — Less    than    slaniiard    package    nnantilics.    15''^     off    list. 


%-lN.    CAP 
Keyless  Pull 


CDT-OUTS- 

tities: 


S.  P.  M.  L..  .  . 
D.  P.   M.   L  .  .  . 

T.   P.   M.  L 

D.    P.    S.   B..  .  . 
D.   P.    D.    B..  .  . 


are   ;u't   prices    each    in    staudard-pacltage    tiuan- 


CUT-OUTS.     PLUG 


$0.11 
.18 
.26 
.19 
.37 


T.   P.   to  D.  P.  S.  B..  . 
T.  P.   to  D.  P.  T.   B..  . 

T:    P.    S    H 

T.    P.    D.    B 


CUT-OUTS.    N.    E.    C.    FUSE 


0-30  Amp. 

D.    P.    M.    L •      SO  33 

T.    P.    M.    L 48 

D.    P.    S.    B 42 

T    .P.    S.     B 81 

D.    P.    D.    B 78 

T.    P.    D.    B 1.35 

T.  P.  to  D.  P.  D.  B 90 


31-60  Amp. 
$0.84 
1.20 
1 .05 
1.80 
2.10 
:,.60 


$0.34 
.38 
.33 
.54 


60-100  Amp. 


$1.68 
3.40 


ATT.ACHMENT    PLUGS — Price    each,    in    standard 


Hubbell    porcelain     .  . 
Hubbell    composition 
Benjamin    swivel     .  .  . 
Current    taps    


$0.21 
.13 
.12 
.33 


packages: 

Standard  Packatre 
350 
50 
100 


LOOM — Price  per   100  ft.. 

Ft.  ill  Coil 

'A    350 

%    350 

Vi    200 

%    300 


Ft.  in  Coil 

$2.25  ■•>:',     150  $7.0(1 

3.50      1         100  10.00 

4.50      1  1.1    100  12.00 

5.73      I'i    100  15.00 


CONnriTS.    ELBOWS    AND    COUPLINGS— Followin-    arc     warehouse 
net  prices  per  1000  ft.  for  conduit  and  per  unit  lor  elbows  and  couphngs: 


-Conduit- 


Enameled   tJalvanized 
S71.66 


-  Elliows  - 


Enameled  fJalvanized 


r Couplinsa N 

Enameled  Galvanized 


1 
I 'A 

;t 

3  ■<. 
4 


$66..')6 
87.75 
129.71 
175.49 
209.83 
383.31 
446.36 
383.70 
729.56 
886.17 


$0.1602  $0.1716 

94.03  .2108  .:i25.'i 

139.91  .•',)19  .3.341 

189.29  .4019  .4289 

336.;i3  .3338  .571s 

304.51  .9823  1  .05 

481.46  1.61  1.71 

629.60  4.2.S  1.57 

784.76  9.47  10.10 

951.57  10.93  11.67 

From   New   York   Warehouse — l^css  3 '■/c  cash. 

Standard   lengths  riiid     10  ft.      Standard   lengths   flexible. 

Standard  lengths  flexible.  %   to  3  in..  50  ft. 


$0,059 
-0S4:i 
.1096 
.1518 
.1873 


.533K 
.7144 
.893 


$0.0632 
.090:i 
.1174 
.162 
.2'|01 
.261:-: 
.38 1  2 
.571  8 
.7(!2'1 
.933 


LOCKOUTS    .VXD    ItUSHTXGS- 

packages.   which  are:    '/L'-in..   1000; 


-Following    ro-i 
':i-    to   1  "i  in.. 


Lockniits 
Per  1  00 

'4     $1 .02 

%      1 .75 

1  3.00 

l"i      5.00 

IK     7  .-,n 

2  10.110 

3%      12  :i0 


iH't    pi-iccs    in    standard 
100:    lU-   to   2-in..    50: 

Flexible' Conduit 

Bushings  Box  ronuections 

Per  100  l-.rlOO 

$1.68  $5.63 

4.00  7.12 

6.15  10  50 

8.20  15  00 

10.25  22.50 

16  40  30.00 

24.60  67.50 


AKMORKI)    CABLES    .\N1)    BOX     CONNECTORS — Following    are    net 

prices  iMT   1000  ft.  cable  and  standard  pa'-kagc  of  100  box  eounectors  in 
single  and  double  strip : 

. — Twin  Cnnductor — ^  , — Three  Conductor — v 

Wire  Gage                                    Cable         Connectors  Cable        Connectors 

14    ...                            $65.00              $4.50  $103.50           $4.50 

12    ....                          101.25                4.50  127.50              4.50 

10    .  .  ,  .                          138.75                 4.75  176.35              4.75 

8    .  .     176.20                5.75  247.50              6.00 

6    277.50                6.35  363.40              7.50 

4    431.25                 7.50  ....              .... 


FLEXIBLE  ((»KD — Price  per  1000   ft.   in  coils  of  250    ft. 


L.V.MI'S — Br-low   are  present    tiuotalioiis   in    less   than    staiidaril   p:tck:(gA 
nuantilirs : 


No 

18 

No 

16 

No 

IS 

No 

16 

No 

18 

Nn 

16 

No 

18 

No 

16 

No 

18 

No. 

16 

cott,o?J 
cotton 
<;otton 
cotton 
cotton 
cotton 
cotton 
cotton 
cotton 
cotton 


twi' 

ilcd 

l\v\r 

itcd 

illc] 

rein 

fori 

■ed 

heavy 

i-eiT 

lion 

■cd 

hcavv 

rem 

ton 

•ed 

light 

rem 

for( 

•ed 

light 

Canvasite 

cord 

Cauvasite 

cord 

$21.50 
29.00 
24.00 
36.00 
28.30 
39.40 
•:4  00 
32.00 
21.75 
32.00 


RUBKER-COVEREO   COPPER   WIRE — I'lr   1000    ft     in    New   York: 

Solid.  Solid.  Stranded. 
No.                                         Single  Braid      Double  Braid      Double  Braid      Dunlcx 

14  $10.50  $12.30  $13.00  $23.50 

12  14.23  16.92  10.48  :(2.25 

10 16.93  33.83  33.81  45.00 

8  37.65  31.40  35.50  61  HO 

6 ....  .36.00  ... 

4 ....  76.40  .... 

S  ....  113.43  .... 

1  133.36                 

0 183.90                 

00 323.60                 

000 ....  271.24  .... 

0000  :i32.!0 


Straight-Side    Bulb 

IS 

Pear-Sh 

ape    Bullis 

7,.azda    B — 

No.  in 

M.-izd:i 

I    C— 

N 

n.  in 

Watts       Plain 

Frosted 

Pai;kage 

Watts 

Clear 

Frosted 

Pa 

ekafre 

10        $0.30 

$0.33 

100 

75 

$0.70 

$0.75 

50 

15               .30 

.33 

100 

10(1 

110 

1.15 

24 

25            .:io 

■■V.i 

1(10 

150 

1  65 

1.70 

24 

40            .:io 

.33 

100 

'.'00 

'.'.20 

24 

50               .30 

.3:! 

100 

:{oo 

:!.25 

:!.35 

24 

(id            .:i3 

.:!!1 

100 

10(1 

4.30 

4 .45 

12 

10(1               .70 

77 

24 

50(1 

4.70 

4 .83 

13 

750 

6.50 

6.75 

8 

1000 

7.50 

7.7.5 

8 

Sl;ind;il'il  iin 

.autitics  are 

subject  til 

discount 

iif   lO'-, 

from  list. 

A 

nnual 

contracts  rauKing*  from   $150   to  $300,000  net   allow   ;i  iliscount   of   17   to 
407,    from  list. 

WlRINti  SI  ri'LIES — New  Vork  prices  for  tape  and  solder  are 
as  follows: 

Friction    tape.     V. -lb.    rolls.  35e.  per  lb 

Rubber   tape.    Vj-lb     rolls.  .  45c.  per  lb 

Wire    solder,    50-lb,    pools,  ,  ,  : 45e.  per  lb. 

Soldering   paste,    lib.   cans 50c,  per  lb 

r,\X,s — Tt  is  Tirophcsicd  that   there  will  ho  a  -gearcity  of  electric  fans 
this  snmnlcr 


496 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  14 


HOSE- 


Underwriters'     3% -in. 
Common.    3  '/^  -in.    . .  ■ 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Fire 


50-Pt.  Lengths 
7.5f.  per  It. 


40  % 


Air 
First  Grade     Second  Grade 

>4  -in.  per  « 80.5.5  S0.30 

Steam — Discounts  from  list 
First  erade ...    30  %      Second  grade .  . .    30-5  %      Third  grade 


Third  Grade 
J0.25 


40-10% 


Rl'BBER  BELTING — The  following  discounts  from  list  apply 
to  ti(an.smission  rubber  and  duck  belting: 

Competition    .50  %     Best    grrade    -0  % 

Standard    35  7o 

I.KATHER  BELTING — Present  discounts  from  list  in  the  fol- 

Heavy  Grade 
35% 
40% 
40-(-5<;'« 
35% 
30% 


lowing  cities  are  as  follows: 

Medium  Grade 

New    York     40  % 

St.    Louis    45  % 

Chicago     .30^10% 

Birmingham     35  % 

Denver     35  % 

RAWHIDE   LACING 40%. 

P.^CKING — Prices    per    pound: 

Kubber  and  duck   for   low-pressure   steam    ^?'i5n 

Asbestos    for    high-pressure    steam JoO 

Duck  and   rubber  for  iiiston   rmcking l-.OU 

Flax,    regular    -90 

Flax,    waterproofed    inn 

Compressed  abestos   sheet    i  oH 

Wire  insertion    asbestos    sheet    -  *2rt 

Rubber     sheet      -OO 

Rubber    sheet,     wire    insertion      ••jO 

Rubber     sheet,     duck     insertion      -50 

Rubber     sheet,     cloth     insertion      . '  J 

Asbestos  packing,   twisted  or  braided  and  graphited.   lor  valve 

stems    and    stuffing    boxes     1.10 

Asbestos  wick.     '.'.-   and    1-lbj  balls .70 

r.l'E    AND    BOILER    COVERING — Below    are    discounts    and    part    of 
standard  lists : 

BLOCKS    AND    SHEETS 

Price 
Tliickness  per  Sq.Ft. 

Vj-in.  »0.27 

1  -in  .30 
l>4-in.  .45 

2  -in.  .60 
2y. -in.  .75 

3  -in.  .90 
3% -in.                                         1.05 


PIPE 

COVERING 

Standard  I^ist 

Pipe  Size 

PerLin.Ft. 

1  in. 

•^                ,36 

•.I-in. 

6-in. 

.80 

4-in. 

.60 

3-in. 

.45 

R-in. 

1.10 

1  0-in. 

l.TO 

H.^'^;.    magnesia   high    pressure 

For    low-pressure    healing    and    return 


5  %  off 

(  4-pIy 58  %  oft 

lines  :  :S-ply 60%  off 

(  'i-plv 02  %  off 


GREASES — Prices  ure  as  follows  in  the  following  cities  in  cents 
per  pound  for  barrel  lots : 

Cincinnati      Chicago       St.  Louis    Birmingham    Denver 


Cup      7  514  6.1 

Fiber    or    sponge 8  6  6.4 

Transmission 7  6  6.4 

Axle     4l,.i  4  3.3 

Gear    4 ',4  i'i  6.5 

Car  journal   22  (gal.)  3^4  4.6 


15 
10 


7>4 
5 


10 

15 

15 

5 

6 

6 


COTTON  WASTE — The  following  prices  are  in  cents  per  pound: 


Mar.  28.  liilK 
Color«t  mixed..  8.50  to  12.00 
White     11.00  to  13.00 


-  New  York  - 


One  Year  .\og 
10.00  to  12.00 
13.00  to  15.00 


12.50 
16.0tl 


Chicago 
12.00  to  12.50 
10.00  to  11.00 


Cleveland  the  jobbers'  price  per  1000  is 


WIPING  CLOTHS- 

as  follows : 

1314  X  1314    S45.00        1314  X  20 li    . 

In  Chicago  they  sell  at  S;i0rn33  per  1000. 
LINSEED    OIL — The.'se   prices   are   per  gallun 
^ — New  York — .      ^ Cleveland — 


Mar.   2S 

One       Mar.   28 

One 

ini.s 

Year  Ago      1!)1S 

Year  At 

Haw   per   barrel.  . 

.  .    S1.5(i' 

fO.Oit        SI  .60 

$1.05 

5-yal.  cans    

.  .        1.6(i« 

1.00           1.75 

1.15 

•  Nominal. 

!.00 


. Chicago ^ 

Mar.   28.      One 
)      1018   Year  Ago 
»l.li5  S0.98 

1.75  1.08 


WHITE  AND  RED  LK.M 

l>er  pound: 


.'iOO-lb.  lots  sell  as  follows  in  cents 


25-  ami  50-Ib.  ke 
12'; -lb.  keg  ... 
loo-lb.  keg  .  .  .  . 
1-    to   5-lb.    cans. 


, Rnil ^  . White > 

Mar.  28.  1018        1  Year  Ago  Mar.  28.  1918   1  Yr.  Ago 

Dry  Dry 

Dry        III  Oil        Urv       In  Oil      and  In  Oil      and  In  Oil 
1    11.50      11.00      10.50       11.00  10.50  10.50 

11.75      11.25      10.75       11.25  10,75  10.75 

11.25      11.50      11.00      11.50  11,00  11.00 

13.35      13.00      12.50      12.50  l:!  Oil  12.50 


FIRK  BRICK — Quotations  on  the  different  kinds  in  the  cities  named 
are  as  follows,  f.o.b.  works: 

New  York  Chicago 

Silica   brick,    per   1000 $50.00  to    55.00  $50.00 

Fire  clay  brick,  per  1000.  No.  1 45j00  to    55.00  

Magnesite   brick,    per   net    ton 135.00  to  145.00  

Chrome   brick,    per    net    ton 135.00  

Deadburned  magnesite  brick,  per  net  ton      85.00  to    90.00  

Special  furnace  chrome  brick,  per  net  ton     60.00  to    70.00  60.00  to  80.00 

Standard  size  fire  brick  9x4  '-^  x  2  ^i  in.  The  second  quality  is  $4 
to  $5   cheaper  per  1000. 

St.  Louis — High  grade.  $55  to  $65;  St.  Louis  grade.  $40  to  $50. 
Birmingham — Fire  clay.  $25  to  $30. 
Chicago — Second  quality.    $25   i)er  ton. 
Denver — Silica.   $35   per    1000. 

FUEL  OIL — Price  variable,  depending  upon  stock.  New  York  quota- 
tions not  available  owing  to  this  fact.  In  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  the 
following   prices   are   quoted: 

Chicago  St.  Louia 

Domestic  light.   22-26  Baume 5c.  None 

Mexican    heavy.    12-14    Baume 7c.  7i'ac. 

Note — There  is  practically  no  fuel  oil  in  Chicago   at  present  time. 

SWEDISH  (NORW.W)  IRON — The  average  price  per  100  lb.,  in 
ton  lots,  is: 

Mar.  28,  1918 

New   York    $15.00 

Cleveland     15..30 

Chicago   15.00 

In   coils   an    advance   of   50e.    usually   is    charged. 
Note — Stock  very   scarce  generally. 

POLES — Prices   on   Western  red  cedar  poles: 


6  in.  by  30  ft $5.59 


One  Year  Ago 
$8.00 
7.50 
6.00 


RIA'ETS — The   following   quotations   are   allowed    for    fair-sized    orders 
from  warehouse: 

New  York     Cleveland  Chicago 

Steel  ,\  and  smaller 30%  .35%  40%« 

Tinned 30%  35%  40  %  • 

•For  less  than   keg  lots  the  discount  is  35%. 

Button  heads.    %     %.   I  in.  diameter  by  2  in.  to  5  in,  sell  as  follows 
per  100  lb,: 
New     York $0.0914      Cleveland $5.85     Chicago $5.50 

Co.iv-heads,    same   sizes: 
New    York $i>.19';      Cleveland $5.95     Chicago $5  tio 


7  in.  by  30 

7  in.  by  35 

8  in.  by  35 

7  in.  by  40 

8  in.  by  40 
8  in.   by   45 


;w  York 

Chicago 

St,  Louis 

Denver 

$5.59 

$4.94 

$4.94 

$4.33 

7.40 

6.60 

6.60 

5.80 

10.70 

9.60 

9.60 

8.55 

13.30 

10.90 

10.90 

9.65 

13.35 

11.00 

11.00 

9.75 

13.75 

13.15 

13.15 

10.63 

18.20 

16.30 

16.30 

14.30 

31.85 

19.45 

19.45 

17.15 

8  in.  by  50   ft 

10c.  higher  freight  rales  on  account  of  double  loads. 

For  plain  pine  poles,  delivered  New  York,  the  price  is  as  follows: 

10-in.  butts.   5-in.   tops,   length    20-30   It $6.00 

12-in.  butts.    6-in.    tops,    length    .3(1-40   ft 8.50 

12-in.  butts.   6-in.   tops,    length  41-50   ft 9.50 

14-in.  butts.    6-in.   tops.    length   51-60   ft 17.00 

14-in.  butts,   6-in.  tops,   length  61-71  ft 18.50 

PIPE — The   following  discounts  are  for  carload  lots  f.o.b.  Pittsburgh, 
basing  card  in  effect  July  2.   1917.  for  iron,  and  May  1   for  steel: 


Inches 
i     to    3. 


BUTT  WELD 
Steel 

Black  Galvanized         Inch 


Iron 

Black   Galvanized 


i  M  %       %   to  1  M  . 
LAP   WELD 


314  to  6.. 
7  to  12. . . 
13  and  14. 
15     


42  % 

.  .  .  .       45  %, 

42  % 

.  .  .  .       32  14  % 

30  % 

BUTT  WELD. 


29  %  % 
32  H  % 
38  Ml  % 


31i  to  4. 
414  to  6. 
7    to    8.  . . 


33% 

36% 

28% 
28% 
20% 


17% 

13% 

15% 

15% 

8% 


EXTRA  STRONG  PLAIN  ENDS 

.34>4  %       ?4   to  1 V4 33% 

35  hi  '■/c 

EXTRA  STRONG  PLAIN  ENDS 

28ii%  2     37% 

31Vi  %  9    to    13 15  % 

30  %  %  7    to    12 25  % 

24  14  %  2  >,i    to  4 39  % 

1914  %  414    to  6 38% 

From    warehouses   at    the   places  named   the    following   discounts   hold 
for  steel  pipe: 

Black- 


4   to  1  M  . 
to   3. .  .  . 


314  to  4 
414  to  6 
7  to  8.  . 
9  to   13 .  . 


.  . . .  47  % 
48%. 

LAP  WELD. 

40  % 

43% 

42  % 

.  .  .  .  38  % 
.33% 


18% 


14% 
3% 
13% 
17% 
16% 


New  York 

%    to  3  in.  butt  welded 38  % 

314   to  6  in.  lap  welded 18% 

7  to  12  in.  lap  welded 10% 


New  York 


Chicago 

42% 

.38% 

35  % 

-Galvanized- 

Chtcago 


St.  Louis 
.34,27% 
21.27% 
21,27% 


St,  Louis 

%    li.   3   in.   bull    welded 33%  32%  J-O-sZS 

3^2    10  6  in,  lap  welded List  18%  13.377o 

7  to  12  in.  lap  welded List +  20%)        20%  6.37% 

Malleable  fillings.  Class  B  and  C,  from  New  York  stock  sell  at  5  and 
5  %    from  Ust  prices.     Cast  iron,   standard  sizes,    34   and  5  % . 

BOILER  Tl'BES — The  following  are  the  prices  for  carload  lots  f.o.b. 
Pittsburgh,  announced  Nov.  13.  as  agreed  upon  by  manufacturers  and 
the  Government : 


Lap    Welded    Steel 

3  Vj   to  4  1,0   in 

3  !4   to  3%   in 

314    in 

1  ?4   to  2  in 


34 
34 
17  >4 
13 


Charcoal  Iron 

314   to  4>4  in 

3  to  3  Vi   in 

2  14   to  2  ?4   in 

^  to  2  Vi   in. 


1314 
-    5 

--    7U 
3314 


1%   to  1T4  in -t-.35 


1  in.  . 
IVi  in 
1%  in 
Hi    in 


Standard  Commercial   Seamless— -Cold  drawn  or  hot  rolled: 

Per  Net  Ton 

$220 

190 

180 

200 

220 


Per  Net  Ton 

$.340     1%    in 

280    2  to  214   in.. . 

270     ■i%    to  3?4    in. 

220    4   in 

4','.    to  5  in,,  , 


These  prices  do  not  apply  to  special  sptvifications  for  locomotive 
tubes  nor  to  special  specifications  for  tubes  for  the  Navy  Department, 
which   will  be  subject   to  special   negotiation. 


POWER 


April  9,  1918 


One  hundredtniffioriii^^efn^ri  answer 


\t.'    Vf-»  ■•<&>■ 


498 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


Reconnecting  Induction  Motors — For 
Changes  in  Number  of  Poles 

By  a.  M.  DUDLEY 

Designing  Engineer.  Westingliouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co. 


The  effect  upon  the  operation  of  the  machine 
caused  by  changing  the  member  of  poles  in  an  in- 
duction-motor ivinding  is  discussed.  Tables  are 
given  in  tvhich  data  are  compiled  for  a  SA-coil 
winding  having  a  coil  spread  of  1  to  7,  recon- 
nected for  4,  6,  8,  10  and  12  poles.  These  data 
are  discussed  in  a  ivay  that  will  make  them  easily 
applied  to  any  induction-motor  ivinding. 


THE  speed  of  an  induction  motor  expressed  in  rev- 
olutions per  minute  =  (cycles  X  120)  ^-  number 
of  poles.  The  speed  so  determined  is  called  syn- 
chronous speed  and  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  the  no- 
load  speed.  When  operating  under  full  load  the  speed 
will  be  a  few  revolutions  less  than  this — for  ordinary 
motors,  on  an  average  of  about  95  to  97  per  cent,  of  the 
synchronous  speed.  The  synchronous  speed  is  the  speed 
at  which  the  rotating  magnetic  field  is  traveling  around 
in  the  stator,  and  the  difference  between  this  and  the 
full-load  speed  of  the  rotor  (3  to  5  per  cent.)  is  called 
the  "slip"  of  the  motor. 

From  the  equation  for  revolutions  per  minute  it  can 
be  seen  at  once  that  if  the  speed  of  the  motor  is  to 
be  changed,  it  is  necessary  to  change  either  the  cycles 
or  the  number  of  poles.  Or,  assuming  that  the  cycles 
have  been  changed  and  that  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  same  speed  as  before,  it  will  be  necessary  to  change 
the  number  of  poles.  So  far  as  the  cross-connections 
themselves  are  concerned,  and  admitting  windings 
where  all  the  pole-phase  groups  do  not  have  the  same 
number  of  coils,  as  discussed  in  the  article  in  the  May 
22,  1917,  issue  of  Power,  it  is  evident  that  any  winding 
might  be  connected  for  several  different  numbers  of 
poles  and  for  either  two-phase  or  three-phase,  by  the 
simple  expedient  of  changing  the  number  of  coils  in 
each  pole-phase  group. 

For  example,  a  winding  having  54  slots  and  54  coils  if 
arranged  for  three-phase  6  poles  would  have  3  coils  per 
group  and  18  pole-phase  groups.  If  the  same  winding 
is  rearranged  for  three-phase  4  poles  there  will  be  12 
pole-phase  groups  having  alternately  4  and  5  coils  per 
group.  Or,  if  the  same  winding  is  arranged  for  two- 
phase  4  poles  there  will  be  8  pole-phase  groups,  6  of 
which  would  have  7  coils  and  2  of  which  would  have  6 
coils,  or  54  total.  There  are  practical  limits  beyond 
which  this  form  of  reconnection  cannot  properly  be 
carried  and  which  are  discussed  farther  on  in  this 
article,  but  before  proceeding  to  a  discussion  of  them 
attention  is  called  to  some  typical  cases  of  reconnection 
of  this  nature. 

Fig.  1  shows  a  54-slot  winding  having  a  coil  pitch  of 
1  and  7  as  arranged  for  6  poles  and  connected  series 
star.  There  are  3  coils  in  every  group.  Fig.  2  shows 
the  same  winding  as  Fig.  1  except  grouped  and  con- 
nected for  4  poles.     It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  now 


3  X  4  ^  12  pole-phase  groups  containing  alternately 

4  and  5  coils  per  group.  Fig.  3  shows  the  same  wind- 
ing as  in  Fig.  1  arranged  and  connected  for  8  poles; 
there  are  18  pole-phase  groups  with  2  coils  and  6  with 
3,  making  a  total  of  24  groups  and  54  coils.  Fig.  4  is 
the  same  winding  as  Fig.  1  connected  for  10  poles. 
There  are  24  groups  having  2  coils  each  and  6  groups 
with  1  coil,  making  a  total  of  30  pole-phase  groups 
and  54  coils.  Fig.  5  shows  the  winding.  Fig.  1,  con- 
nected for  12  poles.  There  are  18  groups  of  2  coils  each 
and  18  groups  of  1  coil  each,  making  a  total  of  36  groups 
and  54  coils. 

Of  course  all  these  connections  would  not  normally 
operate  at  the  same  voltage,  nor  would  the  horsepower 
developed  be  the  same,  and  the  speed  would  vary  in- 
versely as  the  number  of  poles.  Assuming,  for  example, 
that  the  motor  was  100-hp.  60-cycle  three-phase  440- 
volts  and  run  at  1160  r.p.m.  on  the  6-pole  connection, 
the  characteristics  for  the  other  connections  are  shown 
in  Table  I.     Three-phase  is  assumed  throughout. 

TABLE  I.  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A  THREE-PHASE  MOTOR 

CONNECTED  AS  IN  FIGS.   I  TO  5 

Poles  H.P.                   Voltage  R.P.M.  Connection 

6  100                        440  1,160  Fig.  1 

4  110                          484  1,750  Fig.  2 

8                          86                        375  860  Fig.  3 

10                          68                        300  690  Fig.  4 

12                            50                          220  580  Fig.  5 

The  only  commercial  voltages  in  Table  I  are  the  first 
and  last,  440  and  220.  To  operate  the  motor  on  the 
other  connections  would  require  special  taps  from  the 
transformer,  unless  some  other  change  could  be  made  in 
the  motor's  winding  at  the  same  time  that  the  number 
of  poles  was  changed.  For  example,  the  8-pole  connec- 
tion requires  375  volts.  If  it  so  happened  that  the  6- 
pole  motor  was  connected  in  parallel  star,  then  the  8-pole 
motor  could  be  connected  series  delta,  which  would  be 
the  same  thing  as  operating  the  motor  on  a  voltage  in 

375  X  2 
the  ratio  of  1.73  to  2  or  — ^-=^ —  =  434,  which  is  ap- 
proximately the  voltage  required. 

Table  I  of  horsepowers  and  normal  voltages  is  figured 
by  taking  account  of  the  speed  and  of  the  chord  factor 
in  the  following  way: 

One  of  the  functions  of  the  winding  is  to  be  acted 
upon  by  the  rotating  magnetic  field  and  to  actually 
generate  a  counter-electromotive  force  which  is  opposed 
to  and  almost  equal  to  the  applied  line  voltage.  If,  then, 
in  reconnecting  for  a  different  number  of  poles,  the 
assumption  is  made  that  the  magnetic  field  in  the  teeth 
and  air  gap  remains  at  a  constant  value  irrespective 
of  the  connections,  it  is  at  once  evident  that  the  gen- 
erated electromotive  force,  and  consequently  the  ap- 
plied line  voltage,  should  vary  directly  as  the  speed  of 
the  rotating  magnetic  field,  which  is  practically  the  same 
as  the  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  motor  at  no  load. 
For  example,  in  the  case  cited  in  the  foregoing,  if  the 
normal  voltage  on  the  6-pole  connection  is  440,  every- 
thing else  being  equal,  the  normal  voltage  on  the  12- 
pole  connection  should  be  220,  since  the  revolutions  per 


April  y,  li)18 


P  (J  \V  E  K 


499 


^>  ^Pi  \)s  r>  ^»i  ^V))  'r>  ?!>>  ^ 


cr  F16.    5  '"> 

FIGS.   1    TO  5.      TNDUCTION-MOTOR  WINDING  01<-  b4  COILS   GROrPKO  FOT?    1.   «.   8,   1(1   AND  12   FOLKS 


500 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


minute  of  a  12-pole  motor  are  just  one-half  those  of 
a  6-pole  machine. 

Practically,  the  only  condition  which  enters  to  change 
the  voltage  from  varying  directly  as  the  speed  is  the 
"chord  factor,"  which  is  due  to  the  throw  or  pitch  of 
the  coil.  This  was  described  under  "Fractional  Pitch 
Windings"  in  the  July  31,  1917,  issue.  It  will  be  re- 
called that  this  is  a  factor  which  reduces  the.  voltage 
generated  in  a  coil  because  one  side  of  a  coil  is  not  ex- 
actly under  the  center  of  a  north  pole  when  the  other 
side  is  exactly  under  the  center  of  a  south  pole.  The 
numerical  value  of  this  factor  is  expressed  as  the  sine 
of  one-half  the  electrical  angle  which  is  spanned  by  the 
coil.  It  may  appear  in  the  example  given  in  Figs.  1 
to  5  that  the  chord  factor  should  remain  constant 
since  the  physical  throw  of  the  coils  is  unchanged.  It 
should  be  carried  in  mind,  however,  that  while  the  coil 
spread    remains    unchanged,    the    number    of    poles    is 


culiar  that  the  4-pole  connection  having  the  lowest 
chord  factor,  which  is  0.64,  operates  at  484  volts,  which 
is  the  highest  voltage,  while  the  8-  and  10-pole  con- 

TABLE  III.     FACTORS,  DUE  TO  CHANGE  IN  NUMBER  OF 
POLES,  MODIFYING  INDUCTION-MOTOR  VOLTAGE 

Number  of  poles 4  6  8  10  12 

Factor  for  changing  voltage  on  account  of 

changing  speed 15  I         0.75         0.60       0.50 

Factor  for  changing  voltage  on  account  of 

change  in  chord  factor   =  chord  factor 

for  new  No.  of  poles  -j-  6-pole  chord 

factor 0  74  I  I    14  I    14  I 

Productof  Nos.  2aud3 I    II  I        0  855       0  685       0  50 

Resulting  voltage  =  (440  X  No.  4) 484       440  3/5  300         220 

nections,  having  a  high  chord  factor  of  0.99,  operate 
at  375  and  300  volts  respectively.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  speed  at  which  the  magnetic  field  is  ro- 
tating comes  into  effect  and  changes  the  result  of  the 
chord  factor.  Throughout  this  series  of  articles  we 
have  considered  the  induction  motor  as  being  an  alter- 
nating-current generator,  generating  the  counter-elec- 
tromotive force,  or  back  voltage.     Hence,  in  this  ease, 


r^l^ziFt-^:?: 


F16.  7 


FIGS.  6  A.ND  7.     INDUCTION-MOTOR  WINDING  OF  54  COILS  GROUPED  FOR  6  AND  12  POLES 

Fig.   6 — Two-parallel-star,    connected,    6-pole  winding.      Fig-.    7 — Same    winding    as    in    Fig.    6    reconnected    series-star,    consequent 

pole,  for   12  polej. 


changed,  consequently  the  pole  arc  is  changed;  hence, 
the  relation  of  the  throw  of  the  coil  to  the  pole  arc  is 
different  in  each  case.  The  foregoing  can  be  best 
shown  by  Table  II,  remembering  that  the  throw  of  the 
coils  is  slots  1  and  7  in  all  cases. 


TABLE  II. 


EFFECTS  OF  CHANGING  THE  NUMBER  OF  POLES 
IN  AN  INDUCTION-.MOTOR  WINDING 


Number  of  poles 

Throw  of  coil    

Slots  spanned  by  coil 

Number  of  slots  equivalent  to  180 
54 
electrical  degrees  = 


4 

1-7 

6 


13  5 


1-7 
6 


6  75 


10 

1-7 
6 


5  4 


12 

1-7 

6 


4  5 


160 


200 


0  09 


240 


0  866 


No.    of   poles 

Electrical  degrees  represented  by  six 

slots    80  120 

Sine  of  half  the  electrical  angle  cov- 
ered bv  the  coil  throw  or  pitch  = 
chord  factor 0  64         0  $66 

Table  II  indicates  that  the  normal  6-pole  voltage  of 
440  must  be  modified  by  two  factors  to  find  its  value  for 
other  speeds.  These  factors  and  their  results  are  com- 
bined in  Table  III. 

On  first  comparison  of  Tables  II  and  III  it  seems  pe- 


the  assumption  has  been  made  that  the  magnetic  field 
in  the  air  gap  remains  the  same  in  density  for  all  these 
connections,  and  when  connected  for  4-pole  this  field  will 
rotate  twice  as  fast  as  when  connected  for  8-pole,  and 
thus  generate  twice  as  much  voltage.  This  is  the  rea- 
son that  the  two  factors,  one  due  to  changing  the  speed 
of  the  field  and  the  other  due  to  changing  the  throw  of 
the  coil,  are  introduced,  as  shown  in  Table  III.  The 
product  of  these  two  factors  governs  the  voltage  which 
must  be  applied  to  the  windings  to  give  normal  oper- 
ation. 

Table  III  determines  the  value  of  the  proper  voltage 
for  the  new  connections  as  given  in  Table  I.  The  horse- 
power is  determined  just  as  if  it  were  an  alternating- 
current  generator  by  taking  the  product  of  the  volts  X 
amperes  X  1-73  X  power  factor  and  dividing  by  746. 
The  cross-section  of  the  copper  has  not  been  changed, 
hence  the  amperes  remain  constant.  The  power  factor 
is   assumed   the   same,   although    it    will    be   somewhat 


April  0.   1918 


POWER 


501 


higher  on  high  speeds  and  lower  on  low  speeds.  There- 
fore, the  output  in  horsepower  will  vary  as  the  voltage, 
assuming  100  hp.  at  440  volts.  The  horsepower  for  the 
new  connections  is  figured  in  this  manner,  as  given  in 
Table  I.  Some  general  observations  might  be  made 
about  the  examples  chosen  in  this  article:  First,  the 
question  of  starting  torque  or  maximum  torque  re- 
quired, or  the  saturation  of  the  core  wlien  connecting 
for  higher  speeds  might  require  a  voltage  somewhat 
higher  or  lower  than  Table  I ;  second,  as  pointed  out  in 
the  article  in  the  July  31,  1917,  issue  of  Poiver,  on 
fractional-pitch  windings  it  is  not  wise,  in  general,  to 
chord  up  a  coil  so  far  that  the  chord  factor  is  less  than 
0.707,  which  means  that  the  coils  span  only  halfway 
from  the  center  of  a  north  to  the  center  of  a  south  pole. 
The  reason  for  this  will  be  shown  in  the  next  article 
by  plotting  the  shape  of  the  magnetic  field  set  up  by 
windings  having  different  coil  pitches.  For  this  reason 
the  4-pole  connection,  as  shown  and  discussed  in  this 
article,  should  be  avoided  in  practice,  but  the  6-,  8-,  10- 
and  12-pole  connections  would  be  satisfactory  if  the 
proper  operating  voltage  could  be  secured. 

From  the  foregoing  it  may  be  seen  that  there  are 
three  factors  to  be  taken  care  of  in  changing  the  num- 
ber of  poles.    These  are : 

First,  if  the  new  speed  is  to  be  higher  than  the  origi- 
nal speed,  the  peripheral  speed  should  not  be  allowed 
to  exceed  7500  to  8000  ft.  This  figure  is  the  diameter 
of  the  rotor  in  feet  X  -'^•14  X  revolutions  per  minute. 

Second,  the  chord  factor  of  the  winding. 

Third,  the  phase-insulation  coils  should  be  shifted  so 
as  to  come  at  the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  new  pole 
phase  groups,  as  discussed  in  the  article  on  "Phase  Insu- 
lation," Power,  July  31,  1917. 

Sometimes,  when  a  winding  is  connected  in  parallel 
star  it  is  possible  to  reconnect  it  in  series  star  with 
consequent  poles,  as  explained  in  the  Mar.  20,  1917, 
issue  of  Poiver,  and  have  the  motor  operate  at  one-half 
its  original  speed.  This  reconnection  is  shown  in  Figs. 
6  and  7.  Conversely,  if  the  motor  was  originally  con- 
nected for  series  star,  it  might  be  reconnected  for 
parallel  star  and  operate  at  double  speed  if  the  motor 
would  stand  up  mechanically.  The  counter-electromo- 
tive force  generated  by  the  consequent-pole  connection 
is  only  86.6  per  cent,  as  much  as  with  the  salient-pole 
connection,  which  means  that  if  the  motor  was  run  on 
normal  rated  voltage  on  the  consequent-pole  connec- 
tion it  would  operate  as  if  it  had  an  overvoltage  of 

— --  — 100  ^=  15  per  cent.     Such  a  reconnection  should 

not  be  attempted  if  the  throw  of  the  coils  is  exactly  or 
nearly  full  pitch  for  the  high  speed.  The  reason  for 
this  will  be  explained  in  a  future  article. 

The  effect  of  chording  the  coils  or  making  the  throw 
less  than  full-pole  pitch,  as  in  Figs.  6  and  7,  brings 
out  the  point  that  it  is  often  possible  in  reconnecting  a 
winding  to  raise  the  side  of  all  the  coils  lying  in  the 
top  of  the  slots,  and  to  spring  the  coils  one  or  two 
slots  longer  or  shorter  and  thus  help  out  materially  on 
the  operating  conditions  after  the  change  is  made.  For 
example,  in  Fig.  7,  if  the  coils  are  raised  and  wound 
in  slots  1  and  6  instead  of  1  and  7,  the  new  chord  factor 

5 
would  be  sine  one-half  of   r-jr  X  180  deg.  =  200  deg.. 


or  0.98  instead  of  0.866.  The  winding  connected,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7,  would  then  operate  as  if  on  102  per 
cent,  of  normal  voltage  instead  of  115  per  cent.,  which 
would  have  cut  down  the  iron  losses  and  improved  the 
power  factor. 

In  the  next  article  a  graphical  explanation  will  be 
given  of  the  effect  of  chord  factor  and  reconnecting  for 
a  different  number  of  poles.  This  will  be  shown  by  plot- 
ting the  shape  of  the  magnetic  field  set  up  by  a  three- 
phase  winding  connected  for  different  numbers  of  poles 
and  whose  coils  have  different  pitches.  It  will  show 
the  magnetic  conditions  inside  the  motor  which  give  rise 
to  the  practical  results  discussed  in  this  article.  As  is 
the  case  throughout  this  series  no  attempt  is  made  to 
give  actual  diagrams  for  all  possible  changes  of  poles, 
but  an  effort  is  made  to  make  plain  what  is  physically 
happening  inside  the  motor  in  such  a  way  that  the 
practical  man  may  judge  for  himself  the  possibility  and 
advisability  of  any  suggested  change  in  connections. 


Coal-Pit-Mouth    Electric    Generation 

A  burning  question  of  these  fuel-short  and  freight- 
congested  times  is  the  feasibility  of  burning  low-grade 
fuel  at  coal  mines  and  delivering  electric  current  to 
remote  markets,  instead  of  transporting  the  coal  to 
plants  near  the  market  for  current.  As  practiced  now, 
coal  is  loaded  on  cars  needed  for  other  freight,  hauled 
by  burning  a  considerable  percentage  of  it  in  locomo- 
tives, also  urgently  needed  for  other  service,  manned  by 
a  labor-short  craft,  delivered  to  a  city  where  smoke 
and  dirt  are  "all  sorts  of  objectionable"  and  where  even 
the  disposition  of  ashes  is  a  serious  problem.  What 
absurdity !  Those  living  in  some  future  period  will 
perhaps  wonder  what  manner  of  men — engineers — lived 
in  what  we  now  call  the  "advanced  age." 

For  a  long  time  we  have  been  using  pipe  lines  hun- 
dreds of  miles  long,  with  relay  pumping  stations,  to 
handle  crude  oil  from  the  producing  fields  to  the  re- 
fineries. The  oil  men  seem  to  have  gone  the  electri- 
cians one  better  and  put  it  over  years  in  advance. 


Protest  Power  Company  Rule 

It  is  becoming  the  practice  of  electric-light  compa- 
nies to  compel  new  customers  to  pay  the  cost  of  serv- 
ice connections.  According  to  the  Review,  of  East 
Liverpool,  Ohio,  the  Ohio  River  Power  Co.  has  adopted 
such  a  rule,  and  the  taxpayers  and  citizens  have  cir- 
culated a  petition  to  be  presented  to  the  city  council 
as  a  protest  against  this  extra  charge  and  to  ask  the 
council  to  use  its  power  to  have  this  ruling  discontinued. 
The  company  specifies  that  any  person  desiring  to  use 
electrical  currents  made  by  the  Ohio  River  Power  Co. 
shall  pay  all  cost  in  connection  with  their  lines  (this 
includes  time  and  material)  the  same  to  become  the 
property  of  the  company.  The  petition  goes  on  to  state 
that  it  is  a  rule  in  all  cities  that  the  power  company 
shall  connect  any  residence  or  factory  within  a  rea- 
sonable distance  of  their  line  free  of  charge. 

The  citizens  of  East  Liverpool  do  not  see  why  they 
should  pay  for  the  installation  of  connecting  line  work 
to  their  property  and  then  have  it  become  the  property 
of  the  power  company. 


502 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


Unpreventable  Losses  in  Coal  Combustion 

Under  Boilers 


By  HAYLETT  O'NEILL 


Calculations  shoiv  the  relative  magnitude  of  the 
various  unavoidable  losses  in  the  combustion  of 
coal  under  boilers.  A  number  of  charts  to  assist 
in  making  these  calculations  accompany  the 
article. 


IT  NEVER  is  possible  in  the  ordinary  boiler  furnace 
to  transform  the  total  heat  units  in  the  coal,  as 
determined  by  the  calorimeter,  into  equivalent  heat 
of  the  steam.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  article  to  show 
the  effect  of  these  losses  on  the  ultimate  value  of  coal 
for  steaming  purposes.  The  necessary  losses  are  due 
to  the  follovsfing  causes:  ■'■ 

1.  To  heating  the  theoretical  quantity  of  air  required 
for  combustion  from  the  outside-air  temperature  to 
the  uptake-gas  temperature. 

2.  To  heating  the  combustible  from  the  outside-air 
temperature  to  the  temperature  of  the  exit  gases. 

3.  To  evaporating  and  superheating  the  moisture  in 
the  coal  from  the  outside-air  temperature  to  the  boiler 
temperature. 

4.  To    evaporating    and    superheating    the    moisture 


FIG.    1. 


Hydrogen  Per  Cent,  of  Combustible 

RELATION    BETWEEN    HYDROGEN. 
AND  COa 


EXCESS    AIR 


formed  by  burning  hydrogen  at  outside  temperature 
to  the  temperature  of  the  exit  gases. 

5.  To  heating  the  moisture  in  the  theoretical  amount 
of  air  required  for  combustion,  from  the  outside  tem- 
perature to  the  temperature  of  the  exit  gases. 

In  addition  there  are  other  losses  practically  neces- 
sary and  due  to  the  following  causes: 


6.  To  sensible  heat  in  the  refuse  to  the  ashpit  with 
a  practical  minimum  percentage  of  combustible. 

7.  To   unconsumed   combustible   in   the   ash   with   a 
practical  minimum  percentage  of  combustible. 

The  effect  of  climate  is  obvious,  and  there  will  be 


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50  60  70  80  90  100  110         120 

Temperature  of  Air,  Degrees  Fahrenheit  (Dry  Bullj) 

RATIO   OF  MOISTURE  TO   DRY  AIR  FOR  VARIOf« 
HUMIDITIES 


greater  necessary  losses  in  winter  than  in  summer.    For 
example,  assume: 

1.  Boiler  pressure,  lb.  abs.,  165. 

2.  Boiler-water  temperature,  deg.  F.,  366. 

3.  Outside-air  temperature,  deg.  F.,  70. 

4.  Relative  humidity,  per  cent.,  70. 

5.  Moisture  in  coal,  per  cent.,  2. 

6.  Hydrogen  in  coal,  per  cent.,  5. 

7.  Practical  minimum  combustible  in  ash,  per  cent., 
25. 

8.  Temperature  of  ash,  deg.  F.,  1800. 

9.  Ash  in  coal,  per  cent.,  6. 

10.  B.t.u.  (dry),  per  lb.,  14,500. 

11.  Specific  heat  of  refuse  and  coal,  B.t.u.,  0.2. 

12.  Blean  specific  heat  of  vapor  in  atmosphere,  B.t.u., 
0.46. 

13.  Dry  coal  =  ash  -\-  hydrogen  +  carbon.  This  is 
approximately  correct  for  high-grade  Eastern  coals — 
that  is,  neglecting  the  effect  of  sulphur,  nitrogen  and 
oxygen. 

14.  Specific  heat  of  air,  B.t.u.,  0.2375. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  relationship  between  percentage 
of  CO,,  excess  air,  and  hydrogen  contained  in  the  fuel, 
and  the  pounds  of  air  per  pound  of  combustible.  For 
average  good-grade  coal  the  percentage  of  hydrogen 
is  about  5.     Referring  to  Fig.  1,  with  no  excess  air 


April  9,   1918 


POWER 


603 


;ind  5  per  cent,  hydrogen,  the  pound.s  of  air  per  pound 
of  combustible  eiiual  12.7. 

The  losses  then  are  as  follows: 

1.  Due  to  heating  theoretical  air  required: 

Air  required  per  pound  of  coal,  (1  —  0.06)12.7  = 
11.92  lb. 

Heat  loss  per  pound  of  coal,  0.2375  X  11-92  X  (366 
—  70)  :=  839  B.t.u. 

2.  Due  to  evaporating  and  superheating  moisture  in 
coal'  (Values  from  Marks  and  Dans'  Steam  Tables)  : 

H  at  14.7  lb.  abs.  and  366  deg.  F.  =  1223  B.t.u. 

/(  at  70  deg.  F.  =  38  B.t.u. 

Heat  lo.=;s,  0.02  X   (1*223  —  38)  =  24  B.t.u. 

3.  Due   to  heating  combustible: 

Heat  loss,  ( 1  —  0.06)  X  0.2  X  <  366  —  70)  =56 
B.trU. 

4.  Due  to  evaporating  and  superheating  moisture 
formed  by  burning  hydrogen: 

Atomic  weight  of  H  ^=  1,  atomic  weight  of  0  =  16. 


15,000 

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Per  Cen+.Ash 
FIG.    3.      RELATION    BETWEEN    ASH    AND    HEAT    VALUE 


Pounds  of  vapor  per  pound  of  hydrogen, 


16 


9. 


Heat  loss,  9  X  0.05  X   (1223  —  38)  =  533  B.t.u. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  ratio  of  moisture  to  dry  air  for 
various  relative  humidities  at  different  air  tempera- 
tures, as  determined  by  the  ordinary  dry-bulb  ther- 
mometer. With  70  deg.  F.  air  temperature  and  70  per 
cent,  relative  humidity,  the  moisture  per  pound  of  dry 
air  equals  0.0108  pound 

5.  Due  to  heating  moisture  in  air: 

Heat  loss  -^  0.0108  ■  11.92  X  0.4G  X  (366  — 
70)  =  17  B.t.u. 

Total  heat  loss  =  839  +  24  +  56  +  533  +17  = 
1469  B.t.u. 

From  this  should  be  deducted  loss  due  to  heating 
the  oxygen  required  for  the  combustion  of  the  hydrogen 
that  has  been  duplicated. 

Pounds  oxygen  per  pound  of  hydrogen,  8. 

Heat  loss,  0.05  X  8  V  0.2375  X  (366  —  70)  = 
29  B.t.u. 

Heat  lo.ss,  net  total,  1469  —  29  =  1440  B.t.u. 

14,500        1440 


Maximum  possible  efficiency 
per  cent. 


14,500 


=    90 


C.  Loss  due  to  sensible  heat  in  refuse: 

3-|g  ■    0.2   ■    (1800       70)       28  B.t.u. 

7.  Loss  due  to  unconsumed  combustible  in  refuse: 
0.25(0.06) 
1  -  25 

90 


14,610  -    292  B.t.u. 


'E 

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■>< 

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X 


80 


^^O 


13,000  14,000 

British  Thermal  Uni+  per  Pound  of  Cool 


15.000 


PIG.    i       THEORETICAL   THERMAL   EFFICIENCY    WITH 
WEST    VIRGINIA    COAL 

Total  refuse  losses  =  320  B.t.u. 
Total,  all  losses  =  1763  B.t.u. 

D      ^.     ,•.,«.  .                 14,500  -  1763         „ 
Practical  ideal  einciency  =   g„„ ^  88  per 

cent. 

1.  Heat  loss  on  account  of  warming  air: 

12.7  X  296  X  0.2375(100  per  cent,  ash) 

100 

=  8.94  B.t.u.  (100  per  cent,  ash) 

2.  Heat  loss  on  account  of  heating  combustible: 

0.2  A,  296  /:  (100  per  cent,  ash) 

100 

=  0.5920  B.t.u.  (100  per  cent,  ash) 

3.  Heat  loss  on  account  of  moisture  in  coal: 
Per  cent,  moisture 

100 


A  1185  =  11.85       percent,  tnoi.^ture; 


assume  this  to  be  1  per  cent.,  or  12  B.t.u.  constant. 


^7 
o 

u 
D 

CO  i- 


FIG 


SUPERHEATED  STEAM  FROM  HYDROGEN,        ^ 


4  6  8  10  I? 

Per  Cent.  Ash  in  Dry  Coal 

SEPARATE    AND    TOT.\L    N'ECESSARY    LOSSES 


4.  Heat  loss  on  account  of  hydrogen  =  533   B.t.u. ; 
assume  5  per  cent.  H. 

5.  Heat   loss   on   account   of    moisture    in   air   =    17 
B.t.u. ;  assume  this  to  be  constant. 

6.  Heat  loss  on  account  of  sensible  heat   refuse: 


Ber  cent,  ash  ,     ,    , 
^0:75  ^  "-^^ 


1730  —  4.62  X  per  cent,  ask; 
assuming  25  per  cent,  combustible  in  refuse. 


504 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


7.  Heat  loss  on  account  of  unconsumed  combustible 
in   refuse : 

I  ^  per  cent,  ash  ^  ^^  ^^^  ^  ^^^  ^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^;, . 

assuming  25  per  cent,  combustible  refuse. 
Summing  up  all  losses,  we  have: 
Necessary  losses  in  B.t.u.  =  1486  +  43.8  X  Per  cent. 

ash. 

For  good  West  Virginia  coal,  analyses  taken  from  a 
bulletin  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  show  the 
following  relationship  between  percentage  of  ash  and 
heat  content: 

B.t.u.  per  pound  dry  is  16,130  —  210  X  per  cent, 
ash.  This  is  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  3. 


Maximum  efficiency  ■ 


B.t.u.  —  (1486  +  43.8  per  cent,  ash) 


B.t.u. 
Substituting  ash  in  terms  of  B.t.u., 

1.208  B.t.u.  -  4832 
Maximum  efficiency  = bTu 

This  relationship  is  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
Fig.  5  shows  the  separate  and  total  necessary  losses 
as  calculated. 


Cleaning  a 


Condenser 
Acid 


With  Muriatic 


By  D.  C.  McKeehan 

The  writer  once  took  charge  of  a  500-kw.  plant  using 
a   1525-sq.ft.   surface  condenser  containing   875  three- 
fourths-inch  brass  tubes.     The  plant  had  been  in  oper- 
ation only  about  six  months.     Mine  water  containing  a 
high  percentage  of  scale-forming  material  was  used  for 
cooling,  and  the  tubes  were  rapidly  becoming  "plugged." 
The  scale  was  about  as  hard  as  gypsum,  so  that  scraping 
or  drilling  was  both  costly  and  unsatisfactory.     Few  of 
the  tubes  were  clear  enough  so  that  a  light  could  be 
seen  through  them;  only  a    1-in.   rod  could  be  pushed 
through  quite  a  number,  and  dozens  were  closed  com- 
pletely.   This  was  about  the  "limit"  for  condenser  oper- 
ation, particularly  for  apparatus  in  use  for  so  short  a 
time.     The  problem  was  to  get  the  tubes  clean  or  at 
least   clean   enough   to   maintain   a   "reasonably   good" 
vacuun^.     At  times  a  peak  load  would  pull  the  vacuum 
from  19  or  20  in.    (the  best  obtainable  at  light  load) 
to  zero  and  a  clattering  of  the   relief  valve  could  be 
heard.    However,  zero  vacuum  was  better  than  exhaust- 
ing into  the  atmosphere,  for  it  allowed  the  hot  con- 
densate to  be  returned  to  the  boilers— when  the  pump 
did  not  balk ;  besides,  the  water  was  better  than  usual. 
To  clear  the  condenser  of  scale,  it  was  completely  filled 
with  muriatic  acid  and  water,  about  equal  parts,  acid 
being  poured  in  about  two  quarts  at  a  time,  then  two 
quarts  of  water.     The  cooling-water  intake  and   dis- 
charge openings  were  of  course  sealed  in  order  to  retain 
the  solution,  and  to  prevent  pressure  suitable  vents  were 
provided  for  the  escaping  gas.     Occasionally,  a  violent 
blowing  would  occur  at  the  vents,  due  to  the  acid  open- 
ing a  tube  that  contained  active  material,  also  due  to 
the  increased  surface  acted  upon.    The  solution  was  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  the  condenser  until  bubbling  prac- 
tically ceased,  when  it  was  drained  into  che  circulating 
pump  so  that  the  unconsumed  acid  might  remove  the 
scale  from  it ;  and  at  times  it  was  allowed  to  pass  to  the 


spray  nozzles  to  clean  them  also.  The  operation  usually 
required  about  eight  hours,  and  the  treatment  was  ap- 
plied every  month  for  about  a  year.  Previous  to  the 
recent  high  price  of  acid  the  cost  was  not  excessive,  all 
things  considered,  and  the  method  of  procedure  adopted 
was  apparently  the  most  economical  available.  Operat- 
ing conditions  have  changed  for  the  better  in  the  last 
two  years,  the  tubes  requiring  cleaning  at  intervals  of 
two  or  three  months  only,  as  a  purer  cooling  water  is 
available  and  the  pond  is  allowed  to  cool  from  4  p.m. 
Saturday  until  7  a.m.  on  the  following  Monday. 

In  four  years  we  have  removed  about  400  tubes  and 
given  them  individual  treatment  with  acid  in  a  trough, 
and  some  were  set  aside  for  the  scale  to  air-slack.  The 
percentage  of  tubes  discarded  owing  to  acid  attacking 
the  metal  is  negligible,  probably  not  more  than  ten. 
Tubes  with  longitudinal  splits,  possibly  due  to  expand- 
ing scale  inside,  number  only  eight.  The  corset-lacing 
packing  at  tube  ends  was  badly  eaten  at  the  end  of 
the  first  year. 

The  water-jacket  space  of  the  vacuum  pump  was  also 
cleared  of  scale  by  the  acid  treatment.  Then  a  pe- 
culiar turbine  vibration  suggested  that  scale  or  sedi- 
ment had  accumulated  on  the  bottom  of  the  rotor  while 
standing  idle.  Examination  was  impossible  except  at 
the  exhaust  end,  but  these  buckets  showed  a  slight  coat- 
ing of  dirt  and  scale.  The  turbine  casing  was  half 
filled  with  a  dilute  solution  of  acid  and  the  shaft  then 
turned  slowly  with  a  bar.  The  usual  boiling  and  bub- 
bling sounds  were  heard  inside  and  rank  odors  were 
emitted.  When  drained  of  acid  and  put  into  service,  the 
turbine  acted  very  well;  a  subsequent  test  showed 
better  results,  and  there  was  no  injurious  action  on  the 
blading.  Kerosene,  previously  tried,  failed  to  clean  the 
turbine  rotor. 

Suggestions   on   the   Management 
of  Boilers 

By  L.  R.  Hoffman 

Assuming  a  properly  installed  and  equipped  plant, 
the  attendant  should  be  a  sober,  industrious  man  with 
enough  intelligence  to  realize  the  responsibility  of  his 
position ;  he  should  be  well  paid  and  should  give  heed  to 
the  following: 

Boilers  should  be  kept  free  from  scale,  sludge  and 
soot,  inside  and  outside;  frequency  of  cleaning  depends 
on  conditions,  but  they  must  be  clean  at  any  cost.  At 
least  one  gage  of  water  should  be  blovra  out  of  a  boiler 
daily,  and  more  as  conditions  demand.  Pop  valves 
should  be  lifted  from  their  seats  at  least  once  a  day, 
and  thty  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  inside  and 
out.  Water  columns  should  be  blown  out  at  least  once 
a  day,  noting  that  the  water  returns  quickly  and  does 
not  stand  dead  still;  the  water  should  rise  and  fall 
gently  in  the  glass  at  all  times.  Try-cocks  should  be 
blown  at  least  once  a  day  and  kept  free  and  clean. 

If  only  one  boiler  is  in  use,  two  steam  gages  should 
show  the  pressure,  and  when  they  do  not  agree  they 
should  be  inspected  and  adjusted  at  once.  Sudden 
contraction  and  expansion  of  the  metal  of  a  boiler  saps 
its  strength.  This  should  be  avoided  by  keeping  the 
feed  water  going  into  the  boiler  steadily,  holding  the 
water  level  near  the  same  place  when  this  is  possible. 


April  9,   1918 


POWER 


505 


Government  Control  of  Water  Power  and 
Electrical  Distribution  Abroad 


By  L.  VV.  SCHMIDT 


The  irriter  yires  an  outline  of  what  hax  been 
done  in  European  countries  to  regulate  the  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  electrical  energy. 
Indications  seem  to  point  in  the  direction  of  in- 
creased governmental  control  of  electrical-power 
production  and  consumption. 

THERE  is  today  possibly  no  country  in  the  world 
that  has  not  attempted  in  one  way  or  another  to 
regulate  the  production  and  distribution  of  elec- 
trical power.  As  to  the  control  of  power  production, 
a  diflference  is  made  as  a  rule  between  power  generated 
by  steam  and  hydro-electric  power.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  while  the  former  has  to  be  regarded  more 
or  less  as  an  industrial  product,  power  generated  by 
water  is  a  natural  product  and  therefore  more  or  less 
the  property  of  the  nation  as  a  whole.  The  systems 
that  have  been  used  for  the  control  of  power  production 
and  distribution  differ  very  much  in  each  country. 
Governmental  control,  where  it  exerts  itself,  may  begin 
at  the  fountain  of  production,  it  may  be  confined  to 
a  regulation  of  the  means  of  distribution,  or,  finally, 
it  may  attempt  to  control  the  price  of  power  when 
sold  to  the  consumer.  There  are  examples  of  all  kinds 
of  regulations  among  the  laws  and  administrative  or- 
ders issued  in  one  or  another  country  of  the  world. 

E.\RLY  Laws  Dealing  With  Electrical  Power 
The  juridical  conception  of  electrical  power  in  the 
early  days  of  electrical-power  control  was  that  of  a 
merchandise  produced  by  a  manufacturer  and  sold  to 
a  consumer.  Unfortunately  for  the  law  makers,  this 
sort  of  merchandise  embodied  certain  characteristics 
which  necessitated  a  distribution  and  consumption 
different  from  that  of  other  merchandise  sold.  The 
production  and  distribution  of  coal  gas  seemed  to  be  the 
only  precedent.  Laws  regulating  the  production  and 
distribution  of  electrical  power,  therefore,  were  framed 
after  the  example  of  the  laws  dealing  with  the  sale  and 
production  of  coal  gas.  This  explains  some  of  the 
measures  found  in  many  of  the  earlier  European  laws 
dealing  with  the  control  of  electric  energy,  which  for 
a  long  time  hindered  the  progress  of  the  industry  until 
they  were  removed  by  later  legislation. 

When  governments  finally  came  to  formulate  a  policy 
as  to  their  dealings  with  the  new  power,  their  first 
desir6  was  to  protect  the  citizen  against  the  real  or 
imagined  dangers  connected  with  its  application.  The 
outcome  of  this  generally  has  been  laws  dealing  prin- 
cipally with  the  distribution  of  electrical  power.  They 
affect  the  right-of-way  of  electrical  transmission  lines 
and  deal  with  such  questions  as  protection  of  private 
property  by  falling  wires,  etc.  With  the  progress  made 
in  overland  transmission,  many  of  these  laws  have  been 
strengthened  materially,  especially  as  to  their  safety 
provisions,  and  they  form  today  an  essential  part  of 
the  regulations  controlling  electrical-power  distribution 


all  over  the  world.  With  the  coming  of  the  public 
utility  into  the  field  of  electrical  enterprise,  these  laws 
have  been  used  frequently  in  support  of  the  public 
utility  against  the  private  electrical  enterprise,  and 
it  is  this  side  of  their  application  that  is  of  especial 
interest  to  the  power  industry. 

This,  for  instance,  is  done  by  the  French  law  of  July 
15,  1906,  regulating  electrical  enterprise.  This  law, 
while  providing  for  the  right-of-way  for  electrical  dis- 
tribution, differentiates  between  the  undertaking  having 
the  character  of  a  public  utility  and  such  lacking  this 
quality.  Each  kind  of  enterprise  can  obtain  a  local 
monopoly  as  to  electric  lighting,  but  only  the  public 
utility  can  claim  the  additional  right  of  eminent  do- 
main. No  monopoly  is  given  to  either  with  reference 
to  the  production  and  sale  of  power  only.  To  prevent 
the  private  enterprise  from  enroaching  upon  the  sales 
field  and  thus  impeding  the  action  of  the  public  utility, 
an  act  has  been  passed  which  amends  the  law  by  giving 
a  preferential  right-of-way  to  the  high-tension  trans- 
mission lines  of  the  public  utilities  and  semipublic  utili- 
ties  against   the   ordinary   commercial   enterprise. 

Switzerland  Encourages  Use  of  National 
Water  Powers 

The  same  tendency  to  favor  special  groups  of  enter- 
prises is  shown  in  Switzerland,  where  preferential 
right-of-way  is  given  to  the  ti-ansmission  lines  of 
hydro-electric  power  stations  with  the  object  of  en- 
couraging the  use  of  the  national  water  powers  for 
power  generation.  This  Swiss  law  deals  also  witli 
transmission   lines   in   general. 

Of  late  Prussia  has  made  an  entirely  new  use  of 
its  powers  to  regulate  the  transmission.  Prussia 
formerly  followed  the  principle  of  free  development  of 
electrical  enterprise,  reserving  for  the  government  only 
the  right  to  control  the  conduct  of  high-tension  trans- 
mission lines  for  which,  to  use  the  right-of-way,  under 
the  Prussian  law,  a  special  permission  is  needed.  The 
result  of  this  policy  has  been  a  rather  irregulai'  de- 
velopment of  power  distribution  in  Prussia,  which  often 
leaves  out  districts  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
the  central  stations  in  favor  of  others  farther  removed 
but  promising  a  better  financial  return.  In  the  absence 
of  a  special  law  Prussia  has  now  decided  to  use  its 
administrative  powers  to  force  the  central  stations  to 
serve  not  only  the  districts  where  great  profits  can  be 
obtained,  but  also  those  which  are  less  promising  but 
possibly  not  less  deserving.  The  way  selected  for  this 
purpose  is  surprisingly  simple. 

Hight-of-Way  for  Prussian  Transmission  Lines 
The  usual  procedure  to  obtain  the  right-of-way 
essential  for  the  conduct  of  transmission  lines  is  that 
of  application  to  the  provincial  authorities.  Since  1914 
the  Ministry  of  Public  Works,  which  has  the  direct 
control  of  all  matters  of  this  description,  has  decreed 
that  these  applications  can  no  longer  be  passed  upon 
by  the  provincial  presidents,  but  must  be   referred   to 


506 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


the  Minister  of  Public  Works.  All  applications  have 
to  be  accompanied  by  full  explanations  as  to  the  in- 
tended extensions  of  the  installation  and  the  present 
activity  of  the  central  station.  Permission  for  fur- 
ther extensions  will  be  granted  only  if  in  line  with 
the  special  policy  followed  by  the  Ministry  of  Public 
Works.  The  Ministry  may  make  its  permission  de- 
pendent upon  the  condition  that  the  central  station, 
while  making  the  extension,  will  also  make  extensions 
to  districts  needing  supply. 

The  Netherlands,  which  has  suffered  from  a  similar 
development  of  its  national  electrical  supply,  has  em- 
bodied into  its  new  law  for  the  control  of  electrical 
enterprise  a  paragraph  reserving  to  the  Crown  the 
right  to  stipulate  the  extension  or  the  limits  of  the 
distribution  field  of  any  licensed  electric  undertaking. 
This  is  done  to  prevent  discrimination  in  favor  or  to 
the  disadvantage  of  certain  parts  of  the  country  or 
certain  groups  of  likely  subscribers.  The  law  also  gives 
to  the  government  the  right  to  decree  the  date  at 
which  all  the  districts  comprised  in  the  license  must 
be  fully  connected. 

Generally  speaking,  it  appears  that  the  regulation 
of  electrical  enterprise  by  simply  exerting  control  over 
the  distribution  of  power  has  not  been  accompanied 
by  very  satisfactory  results  from  the  national  point  of 
view.  The  governments  realized,  in  fact,  very  early 
the'  great  advantages  which  industry  and  public  life 
were  destined  to  derive  from  the  new  power.  A  change 
took  place  in  the  form  of  governmental  control.  While 
all  the  earlier  laws  rather  inclined  toward  restricting 
the  use  of  electricity,  parliaments  now  began  to  enact 
measures  with  a  view  to  aid  its  expansion.  Laws  were 
made  giving  electrical  enterprises  certain  privileges 
similar  to  those  enjoyed  by  railroads  and  other  enter- 
prises of  that  kind.  A  series  of  public-utility  laws 
were  made  which  placed  the  electrical-power  industry 
in  a  special,  favored  position  in  comparison  with  other 
national  industries.  At  the  same  time  a  tendency  was 
shown  to  protect  public  electric  undertakings  against 
destructive  competition.  Laws,  therefore,  were  passed 
regulating  electrical  concessions.  Most  of  the  big  elec- 
trical enterprises  having  the  municipal  or  public-utility 
character  of  today  were  created  during  the  last  twenty 
years  of  the  past  century. 

England  Took  Lead  in  Electrical  Power 
Legislation 

The  lead  in  this  kind  of  legislation  doubtless  was 
taken  by  England,  which  promulgated  her  first  law 
regulating  the  generation  and  distribution  of  electrical 
energy  during  the  year  1882.  This  law  gave  the  con- 
trol of  electrical  enterprise  in  England  into  the  hands  of 
the  Board  of  Trade,  which  was  and  still  is  empowered 
to  issue  licenses  to  municipalities,  companies  and 
individuals  wishing  to  operate  electrical  undertakings. 
Today  the  license  is  granted  as  a  rule  after  consulting 
the  local  authorities,  but  the  board  can  act  without 
such  consultation.  According  to  the  law  of  1882  the 
authorities  of  the  locality  served  had  the  right  to  ac- 
quire the  enterprise  after  a  period  of  21  years  at  10 
per  cent,  of  its  value.  As  it  was  found  that  the  short- 
ness of  this  period  tended  to  discourage  private  enter- 
prise, it  was  extended  to  42  years  by  the  Act  of  1888. 
The    Board    of    Trade    exerts    considerable    powers    of 


control  over  all  electrical  undertakings  in  England,  ot 
which  the  most  prominent  is  the  right  to  review  rates. 
Under  a  special  act  of  Parliament  of  1909  central  sta- 
tions in  Great  Britain  have  the  right  of  eminent  domain 
for  the  conduct  of  transmission  lines  and  other  purposes. 
This  law  of  1882  is  doubtless  the  fundamental  law 
dealing  with  electrical  enterprise  today  in  the  whole 
world.  It  was  the  first  law  that  attempted  to  deal  with 
the  production  and  distribution  of  electrical  power  on 
the  basis  of  a  progressive  national  policy,  and  it  has 
been  copied  later  in  part  or  in  whole  not  only  by  most 
of  the  British  colonies,  but  practically  by  all  countries 
of  the  world.  Its  licensing  provisions  are  recognized 
today  to  be  an  essential  part  of  all  legislation  endeavor- 
ing to  produce  the  best  application  of  electrical  power 
for  the  good  of  all,  and  there  is  hardly  an  agreement 
made  between  a  public  body  and  a  private  enterprise 
for  the  operation  of  a  public  utility  in  which  there 
is  not  embodied  the  right  of  the  licensor  to  acquire 
the  property  from  the  licensee  after  the  expiration  of 
a  certain  period  with  or  without  compensation  to  the 
licensee.  As  to  the  right  of  reviewing  rates  this  is 
today   recognized  everywhere. 

British  Board  of  Trade  Favors  Municipal 
Enterprise 

While  there  is  nothing  in  the  English  law  compelling 
the  Board  of  Trade  to  follow  a  certain  policy  in  the 
issue  of  licenses  to  electrical  enterprises,  it  appears 
from  the  actions  of  the  board  that  it  has  been  rather 
inclined  to  favor  the  municipal  enterprise.  Competi- 
tion has  been  allowed  to  grow  in  the  operating  fields 
of  private  enterprise,  but  the  municipal  enterprise  as  a 
rule  has  been  protected  against  the  encroachment  of 
private  stations.  But  allowing  even  for  this  preference 
shown  to  the  public  undertaking,  it  appears  that  in 
principle  at  least  the  right  of  free  competition  has  been 
upheld  in  England.  This  right  seems  to  have  found 
its  widest  application  in  the  policy  followed  by  Italy 
in  dealing  with  electrical  undertakings.  In  that  country 
electrical  enterprises  have  to  obtain  a  license  before 
beginning  operation.  This  license,  however,  is  obtained 
apparently  without  much  difficulty,  and  the  result  is 
that  there  is  hardly  a  city  of  any  size  where  there  are 
not  two  or  even  more  electrical  stations  competing  for 
business. 

While  competition,  therefore,  seems  to  have  been  held 
essential  to  rapid  electrical-power  development  during 
the  last  twenty  years,  it  seems  that  this  policy  is  slowly 
changing  in  favor  of  consolidation  of  power  production 
with  a  view  to  securing  a  cheaper  and  more  even  supply 
of  power  over  the  whole  country. 

This  development  has  been  favored  by  two  considera- 
tions. The  first  has  been  the  increasing  use  made  of 
the  water  powers  for  electric-power  generation  and 
the  necessity  of  passing  laws  for  that  purpose;  the 
second,  the  growing  demand  by  industrial  and  other 
consumers  for  the  supply  of  power. 

Before  considering  this  last  and  most  recent  piiase 
in  the  development  of  national  power  control,  the 
following  few  examples  of  legislation  dealing  with  the 
use  of  natural  water  powers  in  Europe  may  be  given. 
The  Norwegian  law  recognizes  the  right  of  the  nation 
to  regulate  the  use  of  the  water  powers  of  the  coun*:ry, 
but  makes  certain  exceptions  as  to  such  uses  of  water 


April  9,  1918 


POWER 


507 


as  do  not  encroach  on  the  public  interest,  do  not  in- 
crease or  decrease  the  sea  level  of  inland  waters  or 
produce  powers  above  368  kw.  Application  for  the 
use  of  water  power  can  be  acted  upon  by  the  kinpf 
provided  the  withdrawal  of  water  does  not  exceed  7360 
kw.  If  it  is  contemplated  to  use  more  power,  permis- 
sion can  be  obtained  only  by  special  act  of  the  Storthing. 
The  law  does  not  exclude  foreigners  from  the  use  of 
the  water  powers,  but  prescribes  that  concessions  given 
to  foreign  enterprises  as  a  rule  shall  not  run  for  longer 
than  sixty  years.  The  Storthing  is  empowered  to  ex- 
tend the  duration  for  another  ten  years.  In  every  case 
the  nation  reserves  the  right  to  acquire  the  property 
of  the  licensee  after  forty  years  of  operation.  No 
payment  need  be  made  in  such  a  case  where  the  ac- 
quisition takes  place  after  fifty  years  of  operation.  The 
use  of  water  power  is  dependent  upon  the  payment  of 
a  license  fee. 

The  French  Water-Power  Law 

Very  similar  to  the  Norwegian  water-power  law  is 
that  of  France.  This  law  demands  in  the  case  of  de- 
velopments of  less  than  200  kw.  a  simple  governmental 
authorization  which  is  issued,  as  a  rule,  without  much 
trouble  to  the  applicant.  Developments  of  200  to  5000 
kw.  require  a  special  governmental  decree,  while  higher 
developments  can  be  carried  out  only  under  a  special 
law.  The  maximum  duration  of  an  authorization  is  75 
years,  but  the  concession  may  be  extended  for  another 
ten  years  if  no  new  concession  has  been  granted  five 
years  before  the  expiration  of  the  original  grant.  The 
government  reserves  the  right  of  expropriation  after  a 
period  of  fifteen  years'  duration  of  the  grant  if  such 
action  is  in  the  public  interest. 

Similar  action  for  the  protection  of  the  natural 
power  resources  has  been  taken  by  most  of  the  South 
American  governments.  The  water-power  law  of  New 
Zealand  represents  today  the  final  stage  in  this  devel- 
opment reached  so  far  by  reserving  the  right  of  all 
hydro-electric  development  to  the  nation.  The  Dominion 
is  now  developing  the  most  promising  power  sites  under 
national  management. 

So  far  Europe  does  not  seem  to  be  ready  to  go  all 
the  way  in  the  direction  of  public  ownership  of  na- 
tional power  production.  Nevertheless,  it  becomes  now 
increasingly  clear  that  future  legislation  in  Europe 
destined  to  deal  with  the  problem  of  power  production 
and  distribution  will  be  vastly  different  from  the 
policies  followed  before  the  war.  It  is  generally  held 
in  Europe  that  electrical-power  production  has  passed 
the  stage  of  the  public  utility  and  reached  that  of 
national  utility. 

Prussian  Government  Adopts  New  Policy 
The  Prussian  government  only  recently  struck  out 
for  a  new  policy  in  hydro-electric  power  development 
by  which  it  enters  into  direct  competition  with  the 
existing  private  and  municipal  generating  stations  with 
the  avowed  intention  finally  to  take  control  of  the  whole 
power  generation  in  Prussia.  So  far  the  scheme  pro- 
vides for  a  system  of  interconnected  hydro-electric  and 
steam  power  stations  owned  by  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment which  will  cover  all  of  western  Prussia  from 
Bremen  to  the  Main.  The  interesting  feature  of  this 
scheme  is  that  the  different  stations  have  been  selected 
in  such  a  way  as  to  supplement  one  another.     If,  as  it 


is  expected,  the  station  on  the  Main  should  suffer  in 
effectiveness  during  the  months  of  February  and  March, 
its  losses  can  be  equalized  with  the  help  of  the  two 
stations  at  the  Elderthal  and  the  Diementhal  reservoir, 
where  sufficient  power  will  be  obtainable  for  this  pur- 
pose. Another  hydro-electric  station,  according  to  press 
reports,  is  located  at  Dorverden.  This,  like  the  others 
forementioned,  will  be  connected  with  the  steam-power 
plant  near  Hanover,  where  the  great  peat  coal  beds  of 
the  neighborhood  can  be  employed  as  a  cheap  fuel. 

This  Prussian  system  of  power  supply  is  continued 
in  the  south  by  a  similar  development  in  Bavaria.  The 
center  of  the  Bavarian  scheme  is  the  powerful  govern- 
ment central  station  on  the  Walchensee.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  this  enterprise  it  is  proposed  to  combine  all 
the  power  stations  existing  at  present  in  Bavaria,  the 
new  combination  to  be  conducted  under  governmental 
control.  The  Walchensee  development  will  be  connected 
with  the  most  powerful  of  the  other  stations,  and  these 
together  will  be  the  principal  sources  of  electrical  power 
in  the  kingdom,  while  the  small  stations  will  continue 
to  act  merely  as  distribution  stations  for  the  central 
system.  It  is  expected  that  such  an  organization  would 
save  approximately  20  per  cent,  on  the  present  operation 
expenses,  or  about  $1,000,000  a  year. 

France  also  will  make  a  better  use  of  its  natural 
power  resources  after  the  war.  It  appears  that  so  far 
no  special  legislation  has  been  passed  for  this  purpose, 
but  a  commission  has  been  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
existing  hydro-electric  possibilities  of  the  country  with 
a  view  to  early  exploitation. 

England  Adopts  the  Most  Extensive  Scheme 

The  most  extensive  scheme  for  national  power  con- 
trol so  far  developed,  however,  has  been  put  forward 
in  England.  The  industrial  reorientation  in  England 
forced  by  the  war  has  provided  for  the  opportunity 
also  to  reorganize  the  whole  system  of  power  supply 
in  that  countrj'.  According  to  the  present  scheme, 
which  was  worked  out  by  a  combined  committee  of  the 
Municipal  Electrical  Association  and  the  Incorporated 
Association  of  Electrical  Power  Companies,  it  is  con- 
templated to  divide  England  and  Scotland  into  sixteen 
supply  areas.  These  areas  will  not  be  formed  by 
political  divisions,  but  their  boundaries  will  be  defined 
rather  by  technical  considerations  so  that  the  best  re- 
sults may  be  obtained  in  the  distribution  of  power.  In 
each  area  the  production  of  power  will  be  concentrated 
in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  the  closing  down  of  all  the 
generation  stations  that  are  not  absolutely  essential. 
The  remaining  stations  will  be  interconnected  to  obtain 
a  better  equalization  of  the  load  over  the  operating 
district.  It  is  thought  that  it  may  be  possible  to  use 
most  of  the  existing  large  power  houses.  Should  addi- 
tions be  necessary,  it  is  proposed  that  new  power  houses 
be  erected  in  neighborhoods  where  .special  facilities  are 
offered  for  their  operation. 

While  all  power  experts  in  England  seem  to  agree 
that  the  concentration  of  power  generation  in  the  form 
prescribed  by  the  report  finally  will  be  the  most  satis- 
factory solution  of  England's  power  problems,  public 
opinion  is  not  as  unanimous  about  the  recommendation 
of  the  committee  to  exert  the  same  control  on  power 
distribution.  Most  probably  this  will  be  left  in  the  hands 
of  the  existing  enterprises.  Estimates  seem  to  .show 
that   by    reorganizing   in    this   way   the   production    of 


508 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


electric  power,  it  will  be  possible  for  England  to  effect 
a  saving  of  approximately  .50  per  cent,  in  the  cost  of 
electricity  to  the  consumer.  All  in  all  about  six  hundred 
central  stations  would  be  affected  by  the  scheme.  The 
control  of  the  enterprise  will  be  in  the  hands  of  a 
national  board  of  control. 

As  the  existing  powers  of  the  Board  of  Trade  will 
not  be  sufficient  to  carrj*  into  effect  so  vast  a  scheme 
of  electrical  organization,  it  will  be  necessary  to  obtain 
special  powers  by  act  of  parliament,  and  the  whole 
enterprise,  therefore,  will  be  discussed  fully  before  be- 
ing actually  put  into  operation. 

In  Europe  the  war  has  been  the  principal  cause  of 
the  reforms  now  contemplated.  It  is.  however,  certain 
that  even  if  the  war  had  not  come,  steps  very  soon  would 
have  to  be  taken  for  a  reorganization  of  the  legislation 
governing  electrical-power  production  and  development. 
The  great  progress  made  in  the  electrometallurgical 
and  the  electrochemical  industries  has  widened  the 
application  of  electrical  power  in  such  a  way  as  to 
necessitate  the  employment  of  power  which  could  not 
be  foreseen  originally  by  power  experts  and  law  makers. 
The  war  now  has  prepared  a  fertile  ground  for  a  new 
settlement  of  the  whole  question  of  power  control 
What  will  be  the  solution  of  the  problems  raised  is  still 
not  quite  clear.  In  Europe  all  indications  seem  to 
point  in  the  direction  of  increased  national  control  of 
electrical  power  in  all  its  stages  from  production  to 
consumption. 

Boiler-Room  Gage  and  Control  Board 

Centralization  is  the  basis  of  economy  in  any  branch 
of  industry.  A  machinist  would  make  but  little  progress 
in  turning  out  his  allotment  of 
work  if  he  were  obliged  to  go 
from  one  side  of  the  shop  to 
the  other  each  time  he  re- 
quired a  tool.  In  the  power 
plant  a  fireman  will  be  able  to 
obtain  better  results  from  his 
boilers  if  the  various  gages, 
draft-fan  control  and  other 
necessary  operating  devices 
are  placed  convenient  for  ob- 
servation and  manipulation 
instead  of  being  scattered 
about  the  boiler  room  where- 
ever  it  is  most  convenient  to 
place  them. 

The  idea  of  centralization 
has  been  adopted  by  the  Pre- 
cision Instrument  Co.,  Detroit, 
Mich.,  in  the  design  of  a 
boiler-room  gage  and  control 
board  illustrated  herewith. 
The  recording  gages  include 
a  tachometer  for  recording 
the  speed  of  the  stoker  and  a 
steam-flow  meter  for  recording 
the  steam  flow  in  the  main 
steam  header  leading  to  the 
power  unit;  there  is  also  an 
indicating  steam  gage.  These 
are    arranged    at    the    upper 


portion  of  the  board;  at  the  lower  end  there  is  a  CO, 
recorder  for  furnace  gases,  a  double-pen  recording  gage 
for  furnace-  and  chimney-gas  temperatures  and  a 
recording  steam-pressure  gage.  At  the  right-hand  end 
of  the  board  there  is  a  three-in-one  draft  gage  that 
indicates  the  standard  readings  of  the  furnace  draft 
which  has  a  register  of  from  zero  to  2  in.  of  water 
for  the  flue;  1  in.  vacuum  to  1  in.  pressure  for  the 
combustion  chamber  and  from  zero  to  6  in.  for  the 
ashpit.  These  readings  are  shown  on  the  boiler-draft 
gage  beginning  at  the  top  of  the  instrument  and  read- 
ing downward. 

At  the  left  of  the  gage  board  is  another  three-in- 
one  draft  gage  for  indicating  the  draft  through  the 
economizer.  The  top  gage  is  connected  to  indicate  the 
draft  in  inches  at  the  chimney,  the  center  one  shows 
the  draft  through  the  economizer,  and  the  bottom  one 
the  draft  at  the  entrance  to  the  economizer  when  one 
is  used. 

Centralization  of  the  motor  control  is  also  taken  care 
of  as  shown  by  the  handwheel  and  the  switches  at 
the  bottom  of  the  gage  board.  The  handwheel  at  the 
left  controls  the  rheostat  of  the  motor  that  operates 
the  stokers.  Next  to  it  is  a  switch  for  starting  and 
stopping  the  induced-draft  fan  motor;  the  center  switch 
is  to  control  the  motor  used  for  opening  and  closing 
the  main  damper  in  the  smoke  flue,  and  the  last  switch 
is  for  controlling  the  motor  that  drives  the  forced-draft 
fan. 

This  gage  board  is  supported  on  standards,  and  it 
can  be  placed  at  any  point  in  the  boiler  room  where 
the  operator  can  conveniently  get  at  it  for  operating 
the  various  controls  and  for  reading  the  various 
instruments. 


GAGE  AN'Ti  roXTRoL  BOARD   FUR  THK   BoJLER  ROOM 


April  9,   1918 


POWER 


509 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — Shunt-Connected 

Generators 


Explains  hoio  an  electrical  generator  builds  up  its 
voltage  from  the  small  pressure  that  is  gen- 
erated due  to  the  residual  magnetism  in  the  pole- 
pieces.  The  relation  that  must  exist  between  the 
field  coil  and  armature  connection  for  the  ma- 
chine to  generate  normal  voltage  is  also  pointed 
out. 

IN  THE  previous  lesson  we  considered  that  the  field 
coils  of  the  generator  were  excited  from  an  outside 
source;  that  is,  as  in  Fig.  1,  the  field  coils  are  as- 
sumed to  be  connected  to  some  source  of  electric  cur- 
rent, for  exciting  them,  separate  from  the  armature.  In 
alternating-current  generators  the  field  coils  are  always 
excited  from  a  separate  source  of  direct  current,  but 
in  direct-current  generators  the  field  coils  are  in  almost 
all  cases  excited  directly  from  the  armature.  There  are 
two  ways  of  doing  this,  one  by  connecting  the  field  coils 
directly  across  the  brushes — that  is,  the  field  winding 
is  in  parallel  with  the  armature,  as  in  Fig.  3 — and  an- 
other by  connecting  the  field  coils  in  series  with  the 
armature,  as  in  Fig.  4. 

When  the  field  coils  and  armature  are  connected  in 
parallel,  as  in  Fig.  3,  the  machine  is  known  as  a  shunt- 
connected  generator;  Vv'hen  the  field  coils  and  armature 
of  a  generator  are  connected  in  series,  as  in  Fig.  4,  it  is 
known  as  a  series  machine.    The  shunt-type  machine,  or 


FIG. 


.SEPARATE-EXCITED     .SHUNT    GENERATOR 


modifications  of  it,  which  will  be  considered  later,  is  the 
type  that  is  generally  used,  the  straight  series  type  be- 
ing seldom  used  and  then  in  only  special  cases.  To  sim- 
plify the  connection  in  Fig.  3  and  subsequent  figures, 
the  commutator  will  be  shown  on  the  outside  of  the 
winding  and  the  yoke  will  be  dispensed  with. 

With  the  machine  that  excites  its  own  field  coils,  the 
first  question  that  arises  is,  How  does  the  machine  start 
to  generate?     If  the  machine  was  new  and  never  had 


been  in  service  before,  it  would  not  generate  until  an 
electric  current  had  been  caused  to  flow  through  the 
field  coils  to  magnetize  the  polepieces.  When  the  field 
poles  have  been  magnetized,  they  will  retain  a  small 
percentage  of  the  magnetism  after  the  current  has 
ceased  to  flow  through  the  field  coils.     This  generally 


J3U 

1 

IJ5 

S 

^ 

■ 

■ 

■i- 

0 

ElOO 

< 

/ 

/ 

/ 

C 

■0  75 

4- 
0 

/ 

/ 

r 

/ 

/ 

5  35 

' 

0 

' 

Q2  0,4  OCi  Q6  1  1.2 

Amperes   in    Field   Coils 

FIG.    2.      niRECT-CURRENT  GENERATOR  VOLTAGE  CURVE 


amounts  to  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  normal  field  mag- 
netism. The  magnetic  flux  which  remains  in  the  field 
poles  after  the  current  has  ceased  to  flow  in  the  coils  is 
called  the  residual  magnetism.  This  residual  mag- 
netism is  sufficient  in  a  llO-volt  machine  to  cause  about 
5  or  6  volts  to  be  generated  in  the  armature  when  run- 
ning at  normal  speed  and  with  the  field  coils  discon- 
nected from  the  armature,  as  in  Fig.  5 ;  in  a  220-volt 
machine,  approximately  10  or  12  volts  will  be  generated 
due  to  the  residual  magnetism. 

If  the  field  coils  are  connected  across  the  armature, 
as  in  Fig.  3,  and  the  latter  revolves  in  the  direction 
of  the  curved  arrow,  a  small  voltage  will  be,  as  pointed 
out  in  the  foregoing,  generated  in  the  armature  wind- 
ings. This  small  voltage,  say  5  volts,  will  cause  a  small 
current  to  flow  through  the  field  windings;  if  in  the 
proper  direction,  it  will  cause  the  field  strength  to  be  in- 
creased above  that  of  the  residual  magnetism. 

In  Fig.  3  the  polarity  of  the  residual  magnetism  is 
denoted  by  N  and  S,  which  will,  for  the  direction  that 
the  armature  is  turning  in,  cause  the  right-hand  brush 
to  have  positive  and  the  left-hand  brush  negative  po- 
larity. This  in  turn  will  cause  a  current  to  flow  through 
the  field  coils  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow- 
heads. By  applying  the  rule  for  the  polarity  of  a  coil  of 
wire  with  an  electric  current  flowing  through  it,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  field  coils  will  have  a  polarity  as 
indicated  by  N'  and  S',  which  will  be  seen  to  be  the 
same  as  the  residual  magnetism  in  the  polepieces.  Con- 
sequently the  current  flowing  in  the  field  coils  will  assist 
in  magnetizing  the  polepieces,  and  the  small  current  set 
up  in  the  field  coils  by  the  5  volts,  which  we  assumed 
was  generated  due  to  the  residual  magnetism  in  the 
polepieces,  will  increase  the  field  strength ;  that  is,  there 


510 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  1.5 


will  be  a  greater  number  of  lines  of  force  entering  and 
leaving  the  armature.  The  armature  will  therefore  be 
cutting  a  greater  number  of  magnetic  lines,  hence  caus- 
ing the  voltage  to  increase,  which  in  turn  will  cause  the 
field  current  to  increase,  thus  bringing  about  another 
increase  in  the  field  flux  and  also  the  voltage  in  the 
armature.  This  process  continues  until  the  machine  is 
generating  full  voltage. 

The  next  question  that   naturally  arises   is  why  this 


no  reading,  indicating  that  no  voltage  was  being  gen- 
erated. However,  if  the  field  coils  are  connected  to  a 
separate  source  of  voltage  and  a  small  current  caused  to 
flow  through  the  field  coils,  say  0.2  ampere,  we  would 
find  that  the  generator  would  produce  an  electromotive 
force  of,  say  90  volts.  Then  if  we  were  to  increase  the 
current  to  0.4  ampere,  it  would  be  found  that  the  voltage 
may  not  increase  as  much  for  the  second  0.2  ampere  as 
it  did  for  the  first.     This,  however,  will  depend  some- 


Fie.6  F16.7  FIGS 

Pins.    :!    TO    S.       niAORAMS    OF    .SHT-XT-roXXECTKD    AXD    SKRIES-roxXErTEP   (TEXERATORS 


process  does  not  keep  on  indefinitely  and  the  voltage 
continue  to  increase  in  value.  The  answer  to  this  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  the  lines  of  force  in  the  field  poles 
do  not  increase  in  proportion  to  the  current  flowing 
through  the  coils. 

If  we  were  to  take  a  generator  with  the  iron  in  the 
magnetic  circuit  absolutely  dead,  that  is,  no  residual 
magnetism  in  it,  and  connect  a  voltmeter  across  the 
armature  terminal  and  drive  the  machine  at  normal 
speed,  it  would  be  found  that  the  voltmeter  would  give 


what  upon  the  normal  voltage  of  the  machine.  In  this 
case  assume  the  normal  voltage  to  be  110  and  that  when 
0.4  ampere  was  flowing  in  the  field  coils,  the  machine 
generates  115  volts. 

The  foregoing  is  indicated  on  the  curve  Fig.  2.  Here 
it  is  shown  that  if  the  field  current  is  increased  to  0.6 
ampere,  the  volts  will  only  increase  to  about  120,  and  be- 
yond this  point  if  the  current  is  increased  to  1.2  am- 
peres, the  voltage  only  increases  to  124.  For  the  first 
0.6  ampere  supplied  to  the  field   coils  the  voltage   in- 


April  9,  1918 


POWER 


611 


creases  from  0  to  120,  but  for  the  next  0.6  ampere 
the  e.m.f.  only  increases  from  120  to  124,  or  an  increase 
of  4  volts.  The  foregoing  indicates  that  the  lines  of 
force  in  the  polepieces  increase  rapidly  at  first,  but  as 
the  current  in  the  field  coils  increases,  a  condition  is 
reached  beyond  which  increasing  the  current  in  the 
latter  will  not  cause  any  increase  in  the  lines  of  force. 
This  condition  is  called  the  point  of  saturation;  that  is, 
the  iron  is  saturated  with  magnetic  flux,  just  the  same 
as  a  sponge  becomes  saturated  with  water. 

A  fi.xed  relation  exists  between  the  connection  of  the 
field  winding  to  the  armature  and  the  direction  of  rota- 
tion. It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  field-coil  con- 
nections to  the  armature  in  Fig.  3  are  such  that  the  cur- 
rent flows  through  them  from  the  armature,  in  a  direc- 
tion to  make  the  field  coils  the  same  polarity  as  the  resi- 
dual magnetism  in  the  polepieces,  thus  causing  the  ma- 
chine to  build  up  to  normal  voltage.  However,  suppose 
we  interchange  the  field-coil  connections  as  in  Fig.  6. 
In  this  case  the  polarity  of  the  field  coils,  as  indicated 
by  N'  and  S'  is  opposite  to  that  of  the  residual  mag- 
netism, indicated  by  A^  and  S.  Consequently,  instead 
of  the  small  current  caused  to  flow  in  the  field  coils  by 
the  voltage  generated  due  to  the  residual  flux,  increasing 
the  field  strength,  it  has  the  opposite  efi'ect  and  the  ma- 
chine cannot  build  up  its  voltage. 

At  first  thought  it  may  appear  that  if  the  polarity  of 
the  residual  magnetism  is  reversed,  the  machine  con- 
nected as  in  Fig.  6  could  build  up.  Considering  Fig.  7 
will  show  that  this  is  not  true.  Since  the  residual  mag- 
netism is  reversed,  as  indicated  by  N  and  S,  the  volt- 


t: 


n 

Q-i 

^3t 

\ 

^^^ 

\  V 

.^§y 

\  x^^jCy    '  /  1 

'  \  \ 

■'A>^^  X 

«^$:<g 

____ 

^^   N' 

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t 
( 

— 



) 

' — 

PIG.    9.      .SHUNT-COXXECTED    OKXER.\TOR.      SAME    AS    • 
PIG.    8   WITH   FIELD   CONNECTIONS    I.NTERCHANGED 

age  generator  in  the  armature  is  reversed;  conse- 
quently, the  current  in  the  field  coils  is  also  reversed,  as 
indicated  by  the  arrowheads.  This  again  brings  the 
polarity  of  the  field  coil,  as  shown  by  N'  and  S',  opposite 
to  that  of  the  residual  flux,  and  the  machine  cannot 
build  up.  Therefore  it  is  evident  that  for  the  direc- 
tion of  rotation  shown  there  is  only  one  way  that  the 
field  coil  can  be  connected  to  the  armature  and  have  the 
machine  generate,  and  that  is  as  in  Fig.  3. 


If  the  armature's  direction  of  rotation  is  reversed, 
as  in  Fig.  8,  then  the  field-coil  connections  to  the  arma- 
ture have  to  be  reversed  before  the  machine  can  build 
up.  Assume  the  same  polarity  for  the  residual  mag- 
netism as  in  Fig.  3;  then,  since  the  direction  of  rota- 
tion is  reversed  in  Fig.  8,  the  voltage  generated  in  the 
armature  winding  will  be  rever.sed,  as  indicated  by  the 
arrowheads.     This  voltage  will  cause  a  small  current  to 


JI 


•  )     (*)i-AMP5 


II         If 

U       I- 


WOLTMETEI? 


FIG.    in. 


DIAGRAM    OF    LAMP    BANK    CONNECTED    IN 
SERIES  WITH   A  VOLTMETER 


flow  through  the  field  coils  in  a  direction  as  shovim, 
which  gives  the  coils  a  polarity  N'  and  S'  which  is  op- 
posite to  that  of  the  residual  flux,  and  the  generator 
cannot  build  up  to  normal  voltage. 

To  produce  a  condition  where  the  machine  can  build 
up  its  voltage,  it  will  be  necessary  to  interchange  the 
field  connection  to  the  armature  terminals,  as  in  Fig. 
9.  This  allows  the  small  voltage  due  to  the  residual 
magnetism  to  set  up  in  the  field  coils  a  current  that  will 
give  them,  the  same  polarity  as  the  residual  flux,  as 
shown,  and  the  machine  will  build  up  to  normal  voltage. 

The  foregoing  is  an  important  point  to  remember 
when  putting  into  service  a  new  machine  or  one  that  has 
been  repaired.  After  the  field  poles  have  been  excited 
by  sending  a  current  through  the  field  coils  from  an 
outside  source,  to  establish  the  residual  magnetism,  if 
the  machine  does  not  build  up,  then  the  shunt-field  coil 
connection  should  be  reversed. 

One  way  of  knowing  when  the  field  coils  are  con- 
nected in  the  right  relation  to  the  armature  is  as  fol- 
lows: First  bring  the  machine  up  to  normal  speed  with 
the  field  coils  disconnected  from  the  armature  and  note 
the  voltage  generated,  which  should,  as  pointed  out  in 
the  foregoing,  be  about  .5  or  6  for  a  110-volt  machine,  10 
or  12  for  a  220-volt  machine,  etc.  After  doing  this 
connect  the  field  coils  to  the  armature,  and  if  the  voltage 
due  to  the  residual  magnetism  decreases,  the  field-coil 
connections  must  be  reversed  for  the  machine  to  come 
up  to  normal  voltage.  Further  consideration  will  be 
given  the  shunt  generator,  also  the  series  generator, 
in  the  next  lesson. 

Fig.  1  is  similar  to  the  problem  given  in  the  last 
lesson.  The  two  circuits  through  the  armature  from 
the  negative  brush  around  to  the  positive  are  in  parallel, 
and  each  path  was  assumed  to  have  0.5  ohm  resistance. 
Therefore,  the  resistance  of  the  armature  winding  be- 
tween brushes  is  one-half  that  of  one  path,  or  0.5  -h- 
2  =  0.25  ohm.  The  external  resistance  was  assumed 
to  be  4.75  ohms;  then  the  total  resistance  of  the  arma- 
ture and  external  circuit  is  /?  =  0.25  -f-  4.75  =  5  ohms. 

When  the  armature  is  generated  a  voltage  E  =  150, 

the  current  flowing  in  the  circuit  is  /  =  „  =  ~^  =  30 
amperes.    This  current  will  divide  at  the  negative  brush 


512 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


and  one-half  will  flow  through  each  of  the  two  circuits 
in  the  armature  winding.  Consequently,  each  half  of 
the  armature  winding  will  supply  15  amperes  to  the  ex- 
ternal circuit.  The  volts  drop  in  the  armature  equals 
the  joint  resistance  of  the  winding  times  the  total 
current,  or  0.25  X  30  =  7.5  volts.  The  volts  drop 
also  equals  the  resistance  of  one  path  through  the  arma- 
ture winding  times  the  current  flowing  in  this  path,  or 
in  this  case  0.5  X  15  ^  7.5  volts.  If  7.5  volts,  is  used 
up  in  the  armature  to  cause  the  current  to  flow  through 
the  winding,  then  only  Ea  =  150  —  7.5  =  142.5  volts 
is  available  at  the  brushes.     The  current  that  Ea  will 


cause  to  flow  through  the  external  circuit  the  resistance 
of  which  is  R'  =  4.75  ohms,  is  /  =  ^  =  ^:^^  =  30 


4.75  ohms,  is  /  =  -j^?  =     .  „",- 

K  i.lb 


amperes,  which  checks  up  with  the  values  obtained  in 
the  foregoing. 

The  value  of  one  of  two  resistances  connected  in 
parallel  is  6  ohms ;  the  joint  resistance  of  the  two  is  3.75 
ohms  and  the  resistance  of  the  voltmeter  is  10,956  ohms. 

In  Fig.  10  if  the  resistance  of  each  lamp  is  220 
ohms  and  the  resistance  of  the  voltmeter  is  10,956  ohms, 
what  will  the  reading  of  the  voltmeter  be?  Also  will 
the  lamps  light,  and  if  not,  why  not? 


Coal  Conservation  Without  Shutdown  of 

Isolated  Plants 


THE  continuation  of  the  hearing  before  the 
Public  Service  Commission  for  the  First  District 
of  New  York  on  Mar.  18  was  rendered  unusually 
interesting  by  the  testimony  of  C.  T.  Coley,  who 
appeared  for  the  New  York  Building  Managers'  Asso- 
ciation. Mr.  Coley,  who  is  operating  manager  of  the 
Equitable  Building,  proposed  a  plan  whereby  the  isolated 
plant  for  combined  lighting  and  heating  could  be  oper- 
ated in  conjunction  with  the  public-utility  plant  with 
a  maximum  of  benefit  to  the  community.  The  plan 
involved  three  suggestions,  the  common  object  of  which 
was  to  save  coal  without  detracting  from  the  value  of 
the  various  kinds  of  service. 

According  to  Mr.  Coley's  argument,  the  seasons  of 
the  year  may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  the  first 
group  being  the  winter  months  of  December,  January 
and  February,  the  second  group  being  the  six  months 
comprising  spring  and  fall,  and  the  third  group  being 
the  summer  months  of  June,  July  and  August.  A  few 
buildings  containing  isolated  plants  produce  insufficient 
exhaust  steam  from  the  manufacture  of  power  or  elec- 
tric energy  to  heat  themselves  during  the  three  winter 
months,  and  it  is  necessary  to  draw  further  on  the 
coal  pile  by  generating  live  steam,  which  is  turned  into 
the  heating  system  so  as  to  maintain  the  desired  tem- 
perature. This  is  especially  true  of  mornings,  nights, 
Sundays  and  holidays.  The  remedy  for  this  condition 
is  to  increase  the  electric  production  to  a  point  at  which 
enough  exhaust  steam  will  be  produced  to  meet  the 
heating  requirements  and  to  find  a  suitable  outlet  for 
the  excess  current  generated. 

Obviously,  the  extra  energy  produced  must  be  used 
in  such  places  as  to  save  coal  or  to  remove  the  neces- 
sity of  burning  coal.  Two  methods  of  accomplishing 
this  result  are  suggested.  First,  to  obtain  permission 
to  supply  other  buildings  in  the  neighborhood — across 
the  street,  if  necessary — with  electricity,  thus  reducing 
their  demands  for  energy  on  the  Edison  company's 
m.ains  at  such  times ;  and  second,  to  run  separate  units 
on  independent  busbars  in  the  isolated  plant  and 
synchronize  with  the  240-volt  direct-current  mains, 
pumping  electrical  energy  from  the  isolated  plant  out 
on  the  Edison  company's  mains  and  using  the  addi- 
tional exhaust  steam  thus  produced  to  make  up  the 
deficit  for  heating  in  the  coldest  weather. 

To  illustrate  the  amount  of  coal  needed  for  live-steam 


generation  for  heating,  in  addition  to  the  exhaust  steam 
used,  Mr.  Coley  submitted  the  following  statistics  of 
coal  consumption  in  the  case  of  the  Equitable  Building: 


Month  Coal,  in  Lb.  Kw.-Hr. 

June,  1917 2,940.490  456,896 

July 2,982,060  496,034 

August 2.928,690  461,329 

September 2,913.120  416,866 

October   3,201,030  475,962 

.November 3,205,150  411,562 

December 3,826,190  405,129 

January,  1918 3,255,700  358.678 

February 2,634,500  300,401 


Coal  per  Kw.-Hr. 
■6  43 


6.49 

Aver. 


9.09 

Aver. 


6  01 
6.34 
6  98 
6  72 
7.78 
9  44 
9  07 
8  76 


The  second  column  shows  the  total  coal  used  per 
month;  the  third  column  shows  the  electrical  output; 
and  the  last  column  shows  the  pounds  of  coal  used  per 
kilowatt-hour  for  all  services.  During  the  first  five 
months  shown,  the  average  coal  used  per  kilowatt-hour 
was  6.49  lb.,  which  was  about  the  normal  summer  rate. 
During  the  three  winter  months  an  average  of  9.09  lb. 
of  coal  was  used  per  kilowatt-hour  for  all  purposes. 
The  increase,  2.60  lb.  per  kilowatt-hour,  is  due  to  heating 
requirements. 

The  electrical  output  during  the  three  winter  months 
was  1,064,208  kw.-hr.  Then,  (1,064,208  X  2.6)  h- 
2000  =  1383  tons  of  coal,  which  was  burned  in  excess 
of  that  required  to  produce  the  electrical  energy  so  as 
to  furnish  live  steam  to  help  out  in  heating  the  building. 

If  this  1383  tons  of  coal  had  been  used  to  generate 
electrical  energy,  and  the  exhaust  had  then  been  used 
for  heating,  it  would  have  been  possible  to  supply  to 
the  Edison  company's  240-volt  mains  553,200  kw.-hr. 
during  the  three  winter  months,  assuming  5  lb.  of  coal 
per  kilowatt-hour.  Thus,  the  coal  saved  to  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole  would  be  the  amount  ^-equired  at 
the  Edison  plant  to  produce  that  553,200  kw.-hr.  As  a 
central  station  can  produce  a  kilowatt-hour  on  2  lb.  of 
coal,  or  two-fifths  of  the  quantity  used  in  the  isolated- 
plant  calculation,  the  net  saving  of  coal  would  amount 
to  two-fifths  of  1383  tons,  or  553  tons. 

The  second  suggestion  for  coal  saNnng  made  by  Mr. 
Coley  was  that  during  the  months  of  March,  April,  May, 
September,  October  and  November  the  isolated  plant 
should  be  allowed  to  supply  electric  energy,  and  particu- 
larly exhaust  steam,  to  its  neighbors,  whether  over  the 
street  or  under  it.  During  these  months  some  exhaust 
steam  is  used  for  heating,  but  at  the  same  time  great 
quantities  are  wasted  into  the  atmosphere,  while  build- 
ings close  by  are  buying  steam  for  heating  or  are 
producing  it  in  their  own  heating  boilers,  merely  be- 


April  9,  1918 


POWER 


513 


cause  of  lack  of  permission  to  run  mains  under  or  over 
streets.  Much  coal  could  be  saved  to  a  community  if 
it  were  permissible  to  supply  exhaust  steam  from 
engines  to  buildings  across  street  and  such  permission 
should  be  granted  as  a  war-emergency  measure,  if  not 
permanently. 

The  third  suggestion  was  that  the  Edison  company 
should  make  a  low-rate  schedule  to  apply  during  the 
summer  months  of  June,  July  and  August,  and  maybe 
include  May  and  September  also,  to  enable  isolated 
plants  to  shut  down  for  this  period  and  thereby  save 
an  amount  of  coal  equal  to  the  difference  between  what 
they  would  burn  and  what  the  Edison  company  would 
burn  to  furnish  the  electrical  energy  the.v  needed. 

Holding  Plant  Labor  in  Nonheating  Season 

It  was  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Coley  that  although 
isolated  plants  could  be  shut  down  during  the  non- 
heating  period,  it  would  not  be  feasible  to  discharge 
the  operating  forces;  for  if  that  were  done,  the  men 
thus  thrown  out  of  positions  would  turn  to  other  forms 
of  labor,  and  there  would  be  great  difficulty,  if  not  an 
actual  impossibility,  of  getting  trained  men  to  put  the 
plants  into  operation  again  at  the  beginning  of  the 
heating  period.  The  men  would  have  to  be  retained 
throughout  the  summer,  and  their  services  could  be 
utilized  in  making  overhauls  and  repairs  to  the  plant 
equipment.  On  this  account,  any  rate  for  that  period 
made  by  the  Edison  company  would  have  to  be  con- 
sidered from  the  coal  pile  in  order  to  be  economic  and 
would  have  to  take  into  consideration  the  retaining  of 
the  plant  operatives. 

The  impossibility  of  saving  coal  by  substituting 
central-station  current  for  that  generated  in  an  isolated 
plant  having  use  for  exhaust  steam  was  further  em- 
phasized by  the  testimony  of  H.  Goldstein,  who  operates 
two  manufacturing  buildings  in  which  steam  is  re- 
quired from  9 :  30  a.m.  to  6  p.m.  The  steam  is  used  for 
power,  lighting,  heating  and  various  manufacturing 
processes.  According  to  this  witness,  the  cost  of  oper- 
ating one  of  the  buildings  by  purchasing  Edison  com- 
pany current  and  generating  live  steam  in  his  own 
plant  amounted  to  $1000  a  month.  Later,  he  installed 
an  engine  and  generator  of  sufficient  capacity  to  furnish 
electric  current  to  the  tenants  of  both  buildings,  and 
discontinued  the  use  of  Edison  company  service,  with 
the  result  that  at  present  he  is  supplying  current  and 


steam  to  both  buildings  at  a  monthly  expense  of  only 
$700. 

Robert  E.  Dowling  presented  the  cases  of  the  Adams 
Fixpress  Co.  building  at  61  Broadway  and  the  City 
Investment  Building,  in  each  of  which  is  an  isolated 
plant  for  furnishing  light  and  heat.  Neither  building 
has  any  electrical  connection  with  the  Edison  company. 
The  average  coal  consumption  in  each  building  is  in 
the  neighborhood  of  35  or  36  tons  per  day,  the  exhaust 
steam  from  the  engines  being  ample  to  furnish  heat 
for  the  buildings.  If  current  were  obtained  from  the 
street  service  during  the  warm  weather,  much  of  this 
coal  would  be  saved;  but  during  the  seven  months  in 
which  heating  is  required,  the  cost  of  running  the  plants 
to  furnish  heat  would  be  equal  to  the  present  cost  for 
combined  current  and  heating,  since  all  the  exhaust 
is  available  for  heating  purposes. 

Arthur  F.  Rice,  representing  the  Coal  Merchants' 
Association,  deprecated  the  shutting  down  of  isolated 
plants  during  the  warni  months,  on  the  grounds  that 
the  coal  man  must  have  something  to  do  in  the  summer 
if  he  is  to  maintain  his  facilities  for  winter  deliveries. 
He  insisted  that  no  coal  dealer  could  afford  to  keep  his 
men,  horses  and  trucks  on  the  basis  of  a  winter  busi- 
ness only. 

The  hearing  will  be  resumed  on  Apr.  8. 

Unit  Costs  of  the  Cleveland  Electric 
Illuminating  Company 

The  table  shows  the  unit  costs  of  the  Cleveland  Elec- 
tric Illuminating  Co.,  as  shown  by  Ballard  Exhibit  No. 
6  in  the  Cleveland  Electric  Rate  Case  before  the  public 
utilities  commission  of  the  State  of  Ohio  on  Feb.  20, 
1918. 

These  values  are  classified  figures  taken  from  Nau 
Audit,  Commission's  Exhibit  No.  2,  and  reduced  to 
cents  per  kilowatt-hour  sold  by  F.  W.  Ballard  &  Co. 
These  figures  will  be  of  general  interest  to  engineers 
and  city  officials. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  unit  cost  for  practically 
every  classification  of  expense  has  decreased  during  this 
four-year  period,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
cost  of  labor  and  material  has  increased  owing  to  war 
conditions.  The  kilowatt-hours  sold  during  the  four 
years  was:  1913,  123,767,142;  1914,  167,226,182;  1915, 
180,800,669;  and  in  1916,  248,465,487. 


EXPENSES  AND  DEDUCTIONS  FROM  INCOME  FOR  YEARS  ENDING  JUNE  30.    1913.    1914,    1915.   1916 
CLEVELAND  ELECTRIC  ILLUMINATING  CO. 


Item 

Total  power  production 

Total  transmission 

Total  storage 

Total  distribution 

Total  utilization ' .  .  . . 

Undistributed 

Administrat  ive 

Commercial 

Business  promotion , 

Injuries  and  damages 

Public  regulation  expenses  and  undistributed. 

Deferred  upkeep   

Interest  on  funded  debt 

Other  interest 

Taxes   

Amortization  of  discount 

Employees  fund      

Valuation  and  regulation  reserve 


Year   1913 


Amount 

579,036  20 

36,888  00 

2,435  81 

145,065  55 

85,833  13 

2,027  31* 

185,948  38 

104,796  51 

105,045  80 

27,906  28 

15,480  26 

403,029  II 

294,409  51 

26,852  23 

246,151  92 

60,539  70 

37,124  33 


Cents 

per 

Kw.-Hr. 

0  4680 
0298 
0019 
1173 
0694 
0016* 
1520 
0846 
0850 
0225 
0125 
3260 
.2380 
0217 
1991 
0490 
0300 


-Year  1914- 

Cents 

per 

Kw.-Hr. 


Amount 
654,261   86 

50,964  03 

3,522  00 

195,657   26 

93,791    60 

2,544   17 

202,351    96, 

124,842  01 

140,414   13 

43,398  00 

7,348   59 

513,461   75 

300,625  00 

28,901    13 
301,872,07 

12,876  00 

82,559  70 

46,250  00 


Total . 


Total,  excluding  deferred  upkeep,  and  interest 


0  3908 
0305 
0021 
1170 
0561 
0015 
.1210 
.0745 
0839 
0259 
0044 
3070 
1793 
0173 
1802 
0077 
.0494 
0276 


$2,354,515.41        I   906  $2,805,641    26       1.675 

leterred  upkeep,  and  interest 
onfundeddeht 1,657,076  79  1    339  1,991,554.  Slf        1.192 

*  These  figures  are  deficits,     t  These  amounts  shown  on  Complainant's  Exhibit  No.  25.  Page  1. 


-Year  1915- 


Aniount 
605,513  83 

62,977  85 

3,237.29 

209,567   21 

92,282  69 

3,751.27* 

211,726  94 

129,156  66 

156,348   14 

36,340  00 

7,944   06 

445,215  38 

318,456  96 

12.471    16 
324,989   24 

13,355   15 

63,860.71 

23,125.00 

$2,712,816  99 

1,949,144  66t 


Cents 

per 
Kw.-Hr. 
0,3350 
0348 
0018 
1159 
0511 
0021* 

,  1170 
0715 
0865 
0201 
0044 

,2465 
1760 

,0069 
1798 
0074 
0352 

,0128 


1  500 

I  078 


—Ye 


1916- 


.Amount 

796,136  46 

64,059  19 

5,485  60 

219,034.88 

82,573  78 

11,359  82* 

256,411  79 

143,644  78 

177,284  61 

15,487  00 

8,395  79 

566,962  94 

339,667  70 

2,277  89 

341,180  77 

13,378  72 

63,823  89 

57,323  20 


Cents 
per 

Kw.-Hr. 

0  3208 
0258 
0022 
0882 
0332 
0046* 
1032 
0577 
0713 
0062 
0034 
2280 
1365 
0009 
1372 
0054 
0257 
0230 


$3,141,769.17   01  264 

2.235,138  531   0  900 


514 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


Secretary  Lane  Supports  the  Water  Power  Bill 

He  Points  Out  That  Water  Power  Will  Not  Be  Developed 
Under  Revocable  Permits,  but  That  Long-Term  Leases 
with  Fair  Recapture  Provisions  Furnish  a  Workable  Plan 


SECRETARY  LANE  of  the  Interior  Department 
appeared  at  the  hearing  on  the  Administration 
water-power  bill  before  the  Joint  Special  Water 
Power  Committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in 
Washington  Wednesday,  Mar.  27.  After  pointing  out 
that  the  bill  now  before  the  committee  has  a  long  his- 
tory and  reciting  some  of  the  attempts  to  bring  about 
water-power  legislation  during  the  last  five  years  in 
which  he  and  others  have  been  concerned,  Secretary 
Lane  said  that  the  matter  of  developing  one  bill  in 
Congress  was  taken  up,  and  that  there  was  strong  op- 
position in  some  quarters  against  any  kind  of  leasing 
system.  "Perhaps  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the 
time  I  have  devoted  to  this  matter,"  he  said,  "has  been 
spent  in  attempting  to  convert  members  of  the  House 
and  Senate,  who  had  notions  in  opposition,  that  the  leas- 
ing system  was  the  only  practicable  one." 

Revocable  Permits  Unsatisfactory 
The  Secretary  pointed  out  that  there  is  still  on  the 
books  a  statute  under  which  revocable  permits  are 
granted,  but  that  the  men  who  have  money  to  invest 
in  water-power  propositions  are  not  willing  to  allow 
any  official  to  say  when  the  investment  they  have  made 
shall  be  thrown  to  the  winds.  The  result,  he  said,  has 
been  that  "we  have  stood  for  five  years  of  which  I  know 
almost  entirely  without  development  of  one  of  our  great 
resources.  Now,  it  is  not  merely  the  West  that  is  con- 
cerned in  this;  it  is  the  East  just  as  well.  Right  now 
I  can  call  your  attention  to  one  particular  matter  that 
shows  how  intimately  East  and  West  are  tied  up  on 
such  a  proposition.  You  know  John  D.  Ryan,  of  the 
Montana  Power  Co.  He  has  private  rights,  or  his 
company  owns  certain  dam  sites  and  rights  along  rivers 
in  Montana.  I  sent  out  a  general  request  some  time 
ago  that  the  Eastern  minerals  which  had  not  been  here- 
tofore developed  in  veiy  great  quantities,  such  as  man- 
ganese and  chrome,  should  now  be  developed  for  the 
purpose  of  saving  ships.  We  get  manganese,  as  you 
know,  from  Brazil.  It  takes  a  very  large  tonnage.  We 
import  some  800,000  tons  a  year.  We  get  chrome  from 
Africa  and  New  Caledonia.  We  get  nitrates  from  Chile, 
and  for  all  those  things  a  very  large  number  of  ships 
are  at  present  required.  We  are  short,  the  Allies  are 
short,  for  the  carrying  of  nitrates  to  the  other  side 
and  to  this  side,  .  .  .  short  for  carrying  pyrites 
from  Spain  to  this  side,  .  .  .  short  for  carrying 
manganese  from  Brazil,  .  .  .  short  for  carrying 
food  to  our  own  boys  on  the  other  side,  and  munitions 
and  food  for  the  Allies;  and  no  matter  what  comes 
out  of  this  German  drive  now  going  on  over  there, 
there  is  an  obligation  upon  us,  and  the  pressure  of 
necessity  that  we  should  supp'  "  those  people  on  the 
other  side. 

"For  that  we  must  have  ships.  Now,  Mr.  Ryan  came 
to  me  and  said  he  had  a  plant  in  Montana  which  will 
develop  150,000  hp.  That  horsepower  can  be  used  in 
a  process  by  which  the  low-grade  manganese  ores  we 


take  out  of  the  Butte  mines  can  be  reduced,  and  by 
their  reduction  they  can  be  made  commercially  available 
to  the  plant  in  Pittsburgh.  So  that  a  water  power 
2000  miles  away  in  Montana  makes  possible  the  devel- 
opment and  the  support  of  industries  in  Pittsburgh 
and  relieves  ships  that  come  all  the  way  from  South 
Africa." 

Secretary  Lane  then  again  went  into  the  history  of 
the  various  bills  that  have  been  before  Congress  and 
said  that  the  executive  branches  of  the  Government,  in 
^e  present  bill,  had  united  upon  a  measure  under  vdiich 
"leases  could  be  made  that  would  govern  the  navigable 
waters  and  the  unnavigable  waters,  and  control  as  to 
pulblic  lands  and  as  to  forests."  He  told  the  committee 
he  felt  sure  its  members  would  find  the  House  and  the 
Senate  in  support  of  a  measure,  such  as  that  under  con- 
sideration, which  does  the  following: 

"Gives  a  lease  for  a  definite  term  of  years  not  to 
exceed  fifty  years ;  gives  an  opportunity  for  the  Govern- 
ment to  take  over  the  property  at  the  end  of  that  period ; 
gives  an  opportunity  if  the  Government  does  not  want 
to  take  over  the  property  at  the  end  of  that  time  for 
the  lessee  to  take  it  over,  and  I  should  say  that  reason- 
able terms  to  him  would  be  that  he  should  have  that 
property  if  the  Government  does  not  wish  to  use  it  and 
that  he  should  have  that  property  upon  terms  that  would 
be  no  more  favorable  to  him  than  those  that  others 
might  oflFer,  but  that  he  should  have  a  preference. 
.  .  .  Into  the  hands  of  the  men  capable  of  developing 
them  should  be  given  sufficient  to  make  a  wise  and 
large  investment  and  development;  we  cannot  save 
things  for  men  who  have  no  capital  or  men  who  go 
about  things  with  a  spade  where  a  steam  shovel  is 
needed." 

Right  of  the  People  Is  Paramount 
The  Secretary  spoke  of  the  right  of  the  community, 
of  the  nation,  pointing  out  that  the  right  of  the  people 
of  the  United  States  is  superior  to  any  right  "that  you 
or  I  might  have  to  speculate  upon  those  things  that  are 
primary  resources,"  and  adding  that  he  believes  as  to 
lands  and  as  to  minerals  and  as  to  water  powers  that 
no  man  is  entitled  to  anything  unless  he  uses  it. 

"If  we  had  money  enough,"  he  continued,  "if  this 
were  not  a  time  of  war,  if  we  could  think  in  the  terms 
of  money  that  we  are  now  thinking  of,  or  if  four  or 
five  years  ago  Congress  had  been  willing  to  expend  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  dollars  in  the  development  of  water 
power  as  it  is  forced  now  to  spend  millions  of  dollars 
for  war,  it  would  be  a  wise  thing  to  put  a  large  part 
of  the  public  revenues  into  such  projects  where  they  are 
found  to  be  needed. 

"I  have  no  doubt  in  my  own  mind  but  that  such 
schemes  as  water-power  schemes  are  perfectly  practic- 
able from  a  Governmental  standpoint,  no  matter  what 
your  sympathies  may  be  respecting  Government  owner- 
ship, as  a  rule,  of  large  utilities.  A  thing  that  is  as 
well    standardized    as    a    water-power    scheme    can    be 


April  9.  1918 


POWER 


515 


operated  successfully  by  the  Government.  But  I  do  not 
take  it  that  this  is  a  practicable  proposition  at  this 
time,  nor  probably  will  it  be  for  many  years  to  come, 
and  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  real  develop- 
ment, and  that  soon."  Mr.  Lane  elaborated  his  point 
of  view  in  regard  to  the  impracticability  of  devoting 
Government  funds  at  this  time  to  the  building  of  water- 
p>ower  plants  by  discussing  the  immense  demands  being 
made  upon  the  Treasury  now  and  in  prospect. 

"The  news  now  coming  from  the  other  side  of  the 
water,"  he  said,  "is  disheartening,  discouraging,  but  it 
leads  me  to  believe  that  all  the  conclusion  we  can  come 
to  is  that  we  are  in  this  thing  for  a  longer  time  than 
we  thought.  Not  that  there  is  to  be  any  cessation  of 
effort  on  our  part,  but  there  is  to  be  renewed  effort,  a 
stronger  fight,  and  a  longer  fight.  And  if  we  are  to 
have  a  long  fight,  and  if  we  are  to  get  into  this  thing 
with  our  full  strength ;  if  a  larger  portion  of  the  burden 
of  beating  von  Hindenburg  and  the  other  Germans 
is  to  fall  upon  us,  then,  surely,  it  becomes  necessary 
that  we  should  not  delay  longer  in  the  development  of 
every  resource  that  we  can." 

Secretary  Lane  spoke  at  this  point  again  of  the  nitrate 
situation,  pointing  out  that  it  is  not  one  that  can  be 
looked  upon  with  equanimity  and  remarking  that  "the 
more  nitrates  we  have  the  more  food  we  can  get,"  as 
well  as  "There  is  a  large  portion  of  the  acreage  of 
this  country  that  is  now  coming  to  need  fertilizers  of 
one  kind  or  another." 

The  speaker  then  told  of  an  offer  he  had  had  from  a 
company  in  Washington  five  years  ago  for  the  develop- 
ment of  a  water-power  proposition.  "That  proposition,' 
he  said,  "could  have  been  financed  successfully  at  that 
time  if  we  had  had  such  a  bill  as  the  one  which  is 
now  before  you.  Then  they  wished  to  go  into  the  busi- 
ness of  developing  nitrates.  The  power  is  still  there 
and  is  still  unused."  He  said  that  there  are  proposi- 
tions of  this  kind  all  over  the  country,  that  there 
is  a  supreme  obligation  upon  all  the  people  of  the 
country  at  this  time,  as  well  as  its  officials,  to  think 
more  seriously  of  such  things,  and  that  "we  will  get 
no  development  under  the  present  law." 

Not  in  Sympathy  With  Government  Loans  to 
Private  Enterprises 

Answering  questions  by  Chairman  Sims,  Secretary 
Lane,  before  entering  upon  a  general  discussion  of  his 
remarks,  participated  in  by  almost  all  members  of  the 
committee,  said  that  if  there  is  a  determination  by  Con- 
gress that  there  shall  be  water-power  development — 
for  instance,  along  the  Columbia  River,  or  the  Snake 
River,  or  the  Colorado  River,  for  the  production  'of 
low-grade  manganese,  or  for  the  development  of  nitrates, 
either  for  gunpowder  or  for  fertilizer — and  such  works 
could  not  be  financed,  "it  is  the  duty  of  the  Federal 
Government  at  this  time  to  help  out  the  proposition  and 
put  it  on  its  feet."  He  added:  "I  am  not  sympathetic 
generally  with  the  idea  of  having  the  Government  lend 
money  to  private  enterprises  because  it  is  a  hard  thing 
to  get  it  back.  But  I  am  very  much  in  sympathy 
with  the  Government  doing  what  it  pleases  with  it.s 
own  money,  provided  it  knows  where  it  is  going  and 
what  it  wants  and  how  that  money  can  be  properly  han- 
dled; and  I  am  not  afraid  at  all  of  the  Government 
undertaking  the  development  of  water-power   proposi- 


tions, because  we  have  had  some  experience  with  them 
in  the  Reclamation  Service.  The  Salt  River  proposi- 
tion which  I  have  turned  over  to  the  water  users  i.'^ 
practically  paying  its  own  way  now  out  of  the  power 
developed  out  of  the  Roosevelt  dam.  That  was  a  venture 
at  the  time.  All  these  propositions  are  gambles.  That 
is  one  reason  why  a  man  who  puts  his  money  into  a 
water-power  project  has  got  to  have  very  real  con- 
sideration. He  is  a  developer,  and  every  man  who  is  a 
pioneer  of  any  kind  takes  the  risk,  and  for  his  risk 
he  ought  to  be  compensated." 

Mr.  Lane  was  asked  some  questions  as  to  whether 
it  will  be  possible  for  water-power  plants  to  be  built 
in  time  to  be  of  service  before  the  war  is  over.  Very 
close  attention  was  paid  to  the  answer  of  the  Cabinet 
officer  on  this  point  because  men  in  public  life  in  Wash- 
ington have  not  recently  been  hazarding  gues.=es  as  to 
the  length  of  time  which  the  struggle  will  continue.  He 
said :  "I  have  no  expectation  that  this  war  will  be  over 
before  water-power  projects  such  as  many  that  we  know 
of  can  be  developed.  I  think  you  have  got  to  look  at 
that  thing  with  a  long  range." 

Why  I  Buy  Liberty  Bonds 

By  George  W.  Munro 

Assistant    Professor    Mechanical    Engineering.    Purdue    University 

Last  spring  twenty  students  of  my  class  responded 
to  the  call  of  the  nation  and  joined  the  colors,  and  this 
response  was  prompt,  spirited  and  enthusiastic.  Some 
of  these  boys  are  already  on  the  fighting  front  and  a 
few  weeks  will  see  them  all  at  the  grim  business.  These 
twenty  men  who  have  left  my  classroom  for  a  place 
on  the  very  lips  of  the  bloody  jaws  of  hell  represent 
me  in  a  very  personal  way,  and  I  expect  great  things 
of  them.  I  expect  them  to  be  brave  with  a  courage 
which  knows  no  faltering;  I  expect  them  to  be  chival- 
rous before  an  enemy  wholly  savage;  and  I  expect  them 
to  reflect  honor  on  my  nation,  my  state  and  my  univer- 
sity in  all  their  dealings  with  men  and  women,  friend 
and  foe  alike. 

Of  me  they  have  a  right  to  expect  in  return  that 
I  will  not  send  them  into  a  strange  land  to  die  of  want 
and  neglect.  From  me  to  them  must  flow  a  never-end- 
ing stream  of  food,  of  shelter,  of  clothes,  of  arms  and 
munitions,  of  hospital  supplies,  of  encouragement  and 
good  cheer.  I  must  provide  ships  for  their  passage 
and  provisioning,  convoy  for  their  safe  conduct,  air- 
craft for  their  battle  eyes;  and  all  the  things  which 
are  necessary  for  their  well-being,  without  limit  or 
stinting.  It  is  evident  that  I  cannot  serve  these  men 
directly  but  must  use  the  agencies  provided.  I  must 
support  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  Salvation  Army,  the  Red 
Cross.  1  must  pay  cheerfully  and  gladly  such  war 
taxes  as  come  within  my  reach  and  must  buy  Liberty 
Bonds  and  War  Saving  Stamps  to  the  limit.  Only 
so  can  I  meet  the  reasonable  expectations  of  those  who 
have  gone  forth  from  my  classroom  to  the  edge  of  the 
abyss. 


We  are  loud  in  our  praise  of  James  Watt  for  what 
he  accomplished,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  Watt  would 
be  as  proud  of  his  successors  who  are  throwing  away 
steam  in  the  form  of  exhaust  that  is  as  good  as  some 
he  used  initially. 


516 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


*W/iy^we  sfiouldButf 

Libert]/  JBottds 


One  year  ago  President  Wilson  said :  "We  will  not  choose  the  path  of  sub- 
mission."    Buy  Liberty  Bonds  and  show  that  you  agree  with  him. 

Germany  has  announced  her  eighth  tyranny  loan.  We  have  offered  our 
Third  Liberty  Loan.     Can  we  allow  ourselves  to  be  outdone  by  Germany? 

"When  innocent  blood  from  the  four  corners  of  the  world  cries  out  for 
justice,"  what  will  your  answer  be?     Speak  through  the  Third  Liberty  Loan. 

Time  enough  to  beat  the  sword  into  plowshares  after  the  Kaiser  is  beaten 
into  submission.  The  Third  Liberty  Loan  is  an  effective  weapon  against 
him. 

That  man  in  khaki,  to  whom  you  wished  "best  luck,"  wants  you  to  buy 
Liberty  Bonds  and  show  that  you  meant  what  you  said. 

If  you  don't  believe  in  the  premature  peace  that  the  pacifists  demand,  if 
you  don't  want  to  see  the  United  States  "Russianized,"  buy  Liberty  Bonds. 

The  time  to  talk  peace  is  when  the  Germans  lay  down  their  arms.  Just 
now,  let  your  money  talk  in  terms  of  Liberty  Bonds. 

Our  Allies  keep  on  supporting  their  war  loans;  Americans  cannot  afford 
to  hang  back  in  this  Third  Liberty  Loan,  when  most  of  the  civilized  world 
is  united  against  Germany. 

You  buy  Liberty  Bonds  because  you  believe  with  every  American  in  back- 
ing this  war  to  the  last  dollar,  the  last  soldier,  the  last  ounce  of  energy. 

Uncle  Sam  is  offering  you  one  kind  of  bonds,  and  the  Kaiser  another. 
The  Kaiser's  don't  fit  Americans  of  the  breed  of  Washington,  Lincoln  and 
Wilson. 

You  owe  a  debt  of  freedom  to  America.  Buy  a  Liberty  Bond  and  help 
pay  your  debt. 

Buy  Liberty  Bonds  because  they  help  to  arm,  outfit  and  feed  the  soldiers 
and  sailors  who  are  fighting  democracy's  battle  under  your  flag. 

Buy  Liberty  Bonds  because  they  give  you  a  chance  to  enter  the  richest 
partnership  in  the  world,  the  United  States  of  America. 

Buy  Liberty  Bonds  because  the  man  behind  the  gun  is  doing  his  all  and 
you  want  to  do  yours.  He  cannot  fight  long  without  your  help. 

The  campaign  for  the  Third  LibertyLoan  is  a  spring  drive  in  which  every 
American  is  summoned  over  the  top.     And  let  us  all  be  shock  troops. 

Translate  your  good  intentions  into  Liberty  Bonds.  Russia  today  is  paved 
with  good  intentions— for  the  Germans  to  walk  upon. 

Our  boys  in  France  are  as  anxious  as  the  Germans  to  know  whether  the 
Third  Liberty  Loan  has  been  oversubscribed.     Which  will  you  disappoint? 

You  must  buy  a  Liberty  Bond  to  preserve  your  self-respect,  to  still  your 
conscience  and  to  prove  your  patriotism. 

Purchasing  a  Liberty  Bond  will  mean  helping  insure  these  United  States 
against  depredatory  powers  for  ages  to  come. 

Each  of  us  should  buy  Liberty  Bonds  to  assume  at  least  part  of  the  indi- 
vidual responsibility  which  the  war  imposes  on  the  nation  as  a  whole. 

Unless  we  lend  to  the  Government  voluntarily  by  investing  in  Liberty 
Bonds,  the  Government  will  be  forced  to  conscript  our  wealth. 

Because  those  who  have  enlisted  set  an  example  of  sacrifice,  knowing  that 
Liberty  would  be  won  by  the  small  sacrifice  made  by  those  who  remained 
behind. 

Because  by  buying  Liberty  Bonds  you  are  helping  yourself  and  your 
country. 


l\®j 


:t 


r^ 


# 


SfiouldBui/Liberfi/Bo?ids 
Because  iHej/are  ior  i/io 
Purpose  ofDe/endhzgl/js 
Country  and/Jis  Home 


April  9,   1918  POWER  517 

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIUIIIUIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIN 


Editorials 


illlllllllUlinilllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Mill IIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIlniiiulllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIillllillllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^ 


Daylight  Saving  the  Year  Around 

THE  Calder  Daylight  Saving  Bill  that  provides  for 
changing  the  working  hours  throughout  the  United 
States  has  been  signed  by  the  President  and  is  now  in 
force  and  will  so  continue  until  October  27  of  this  year, 
when  the  clocks  will  be  set  as  they  were  before  the 
changre.  It  would  seem  that  the  idea  might  be  carried 
still  farther  and  the  law  so  amended  as  to  become  ef- 
fective throughout  the  year. 

There  are  several  features  favorable  to  this  change 
of  working  hours  which  would  affect  the  home,  the 
factory,  the  office  and  also  electric-light  plants.  During 
the  summer  the  saving  in  the  home  would  center  around 
the  evening  illumination,  an  hour's  less  lighting  being 
required  each  day.  During  the  winter  months  lights 
would  be  used  both  morning  and  evening,  but  the  extra 
hour's  lighting  during  the  morning  would  be  more  than 
offset  by  the  greater  number  of  lights  that  would  be 
shut  off  an  hour  earlier  at  night. 

In  the  office  buildings,  in  the  larger  cities  at  least, 
opening'  for  business  one  hour  earlier  in  the  morning 
would  not  require  the  burning  of  lights  and  would  save 
an  hour's  lighting  in  the  late  afternoon  during  the 
winter  months.  The  lighting  period  in  the  factory 
would  be  shortened  to  some  extent,  depending  upon  the 
natural  light  conditions.  During  the  period  when  the 
days  are  the  shortest,  the  morning  and  evening  lighting 
load  would  about  balance,  but  during  the  early  and  late 
winter  months  the  change  of  working  hours  would  result 
In  a  saving  of  light. 

These  savings  of  light  would  result  in  a  cash  gain 
to  the  user,  but  to  the  electric-light  companies  it  would 
mean  a  loss  in  revenue.  On  the  other  hand,  such  a  loss 
would  be  beneficial  in  that  the  power  load  for  the  day 
and  the  evening  lighting  load  would  not  overlap. 
Furthermore,  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  maintain 
expensive  equipment  to  carry  the  peak  loads,  as  it  is 
now.  With  a  more  even  load  on  the  stations,  the  boilers 
that  are  now  held  in  reserve  with  banked  fires  in 
order  to  carry  the  peak  loads  caused  by  the  lapping 
of  the  power  and  lighting  demand  would  not  be 
required. 

Just  what  such  a  daylight-saving  plan  would  amount 
to  in  coal  saved  by  the  power  plant  and  to  the  consumer 
of  electricity  is  shown  by  the  statement  of  Samuel 
Insull,  chairman  of  the  Illinois  State  Council  of  Defense 
and  president  of  the  Commonwealth  Edison  Company  of 
Chicago,  which  is  to  the  effect  that  the  enactment  of 
an  all  year's  daylight-saving  law  would  save  the  electric 
industries  of  Chicago  alone  about  fifteen  thousand  tons 
of  coal  per  year  and  about  two  hundred  and  thirty 
thousand  tons  of  coal  for  the  entire  country;  and 
then  it  would  save  the  electricity  consumers  in  Chicago 
about  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand  dollars  and 
for  the  country  seven  million  and  a  half  dollars  per 
year,  which,  by  the  way,  would  be  the  loss  to  the 
electric    companies    in    revenue.      This    loss,    however, 


would  be  largely  offset  by  an  improved  load  factor 
because  of  the  reduction  of  winter  peaks,  and  in  many 
instances  it  would  mean  real  economy  in  operation  as 
well  as  a  saving  to  the  country  as  a  whole. 

Invest  To   Destroy  Autocracy 

THERE  are  two  kinds  of  power.  The  first  is  the  kind 
that  is  developed  from  the  latent  heat  of  coal  or  the 
self-perpetuating  source  of  energy  of  waterfalls.  The 
second  is  what  is  being  temporarily  exerted  by  Germany 
today — man  power  gone  mad. 

The  former  is  the  mainstay  of  all  industry ;  the  climax 
of  man's  intelligence.  Through  it  vast  distances  have 
been  opened  for  transportation,  vast  enterprises  car- 
ried out  to  a  successful  end.  Indeed,  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  wheels  of  all  industry  would  never  have  rolled 
in  the  wealth  they  do  today  if  energy  had  not  turned 
them  into  proper  channels.  With  the  wheels  of  industry 
yet  unborn,  the  whole  fabric  of  our  every-day  existence 
would  be  still  an  impossible  dream.  Your  work,  then, 
is  the  work  of  progress,  development  and  the  conquest 
of  man. over  the  uncurbed  forces  of  nature. 

The  second  phase  of  power  has  no  part  in  the  progress 
of  civilization.  Its  presence  is  intolerable.  By  the 
power  gained  through  ruthless  savagery,  Germany  has 
conquered  a  large  part  of  the  unfortunates  who  have 
been  unable  to  escape.  Her  power  is  the  mad  frenzy 
of  a  beast  drunk  with  the  blood  of  her  helpless  victims. 
It  is  well  that  that  kind  of  power  lost  its  place  among 
mankind  when  civilization  first  made  itself  felt. 

Those  of  us  who  are  not  in  the  army  can  stand  to- 
gether in  helping  to  put  down  this  uncontrolled  and  auto- 
cratic power,  by  subscribing  to  the  Third  Liberty  Loan. 
Save  for  it ;  every  cent  you  invest  in  Liberty  Bonds  goes 
toward  helping  to  destroy  the  power  of  the  beast  of  Eu- 
rope, that  power  which  is  striving  to  destroy  all  that 
every  true  American  holds  dear. 

Government  Control  of  Water  Powers 

THE  article  "Government  Control  of  Water  Powers 
and  Electrical  Distribution  Abroad,"  in  this  issue, 
deals  with  a  question  that  demands  the  close  atten- 
tion of  those  interested  in  central-station  work  and  the 
development  of  the  water  powers  in  this  country.  The 
policies  of  governments  in  their  attempts  to  deal  with 
the  production  and  distribution  of  electrical  power  have 
jndergone  frequent  changes  following  the  rapid  devel- 
opment of  the  central-station  industry.  The  progress 
made  in  the  development  of  overland  transmission  and 
the  great  saving  to  be  derived  from  centralized  pro- 
duction have  opened  the  way  for  a  new  development  in 
power  legislation  which  seems  to  lead  in  the  direction 
of  complete  governmental  control  over  all  agencies  of 
power  production  if  not  finally  to  national  ownership. 
It  is  interesting  to  see  how  the  attainment  of  this 


518 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


end  is  approached  in  the  different  countries.  In  Eng- 
land the  power  engineers  and  those  interested  in  power 
(consumption  have  worked  out  an  extensive  scheme  which 
will  centralize  power  production  in  a  comparatively 
few  generating  stations  which  will  supply  a  territory 
now  served  by  more  than  six  hundred  central  stations. 
Prussia  forces  its  central  stations  to  fall  in  with  its 
own  policies  by  simply  taking  administrative  action 
which  will  make  it  impossible  for  the  existing  enter- 
prises to  expand  unless  they  do  the  will  of  the  govern- 
ment; it  has  also  entered  the  central-station  business 
on  its  own  account  and  now  competes  against  the 
existing  private  and  municipal  enterprises,  assisted  by 
large  generating  stations  conveniently  situated.  Finally, 
there  is  the  example  of  New  Zealand,  where  government 
ownership  has  been  in  successful  operation  for  many 
years. 

The  importance  of  reserving  the  existing  water-power 
resources  of  the  country  so  that  they  may  be  used  to 
the  best  interest  of  the  nation  is  now  generally  realized 
throughout  the  world,  and  many  laws  have  been  passed 
regulating  the  use  of  waterfalls  and  other  natural  power 
sources.  With  increasing  industrial  activity  it  has 
become  essential  that  this  power  should  not  be  squan- 
dered and  that  it  should  be  provided  for  all  at  the 
cheapest  possible  rate.  This  can  be  done  by  a  better 
use  of  the  existing  natural  resources  and  by  central- 
ization of  the  existing  central  stations.  _  While  the 
means  to  that  end  used  in  the  different  countries  differ, 
it  seems  that  the  final  outcome  in  each  case  will  be 
identical. 

So  far  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  is  also  contem- 
plated to  nationalize  the  means  of  distribution.  On 
the  contrary,  opinion  seems  to  be  very  largely  in  favor 
of  continuing  the  existing  organization,  which  has 
proved  itself  to  be  the  most  practicable  for  the  purpose. 

The  development  is  one  which  certainly  cannot  be 
lost  sight  of  in  our  own  power  industry.  With  the 
whole  world  striving  today  for  a  cheapening  of  powei; 
production,  it  is  certain  that  similar  action  will  have  to 
be  taken  very  soon  in  our  own  country. 

Bonus  for  Boiler-Room  Crews 

THE  world  was  never  so  aroused  to  the  need  of  sav- 
ing fuel,  indeed  never  was  so  astounded  by  its 
wasteful  use,  as  it  is  now.  Power  has  watched  with 
keen  interest  the  effect  of  the  great  volume  of  publicity 
directed  chiefly  to  firemen  and  engineers,  pleading  with 
them  to  save  coal.  The  good  this  publicity  has  done  is 
not  the  measure  of  fuel  actually  and  immediately  saved. 
This  is  yet  to  come.  The  great  good  comes  through 
the  channel  in  which,  unwittingly,  the  manufacturer  and 
manager  have  stood  as  obstructions.  Of  course  there 
are  many  exceptions.  But  many  of  these  men  did  not 
realize  before  the  coal  shortage  how  vital  a  factor  is  coal 
and  how  important  it  is  to  check  its  use  in  the  power 
plant.  Thousands  of  such  men,  who  heretofore  would 
not  listen,  or  would  listen  unconvinced,  to  pleas  of  their 
engineers  for  instruments  to  gage  power-plant  perform- 
ance or  for  equipment  to  better  such  performance,  will 
give  a  willing  ear  from  now  on. 

Begging  firemen  and  engineers  to  save  coal,  appeal- 
ing to  their  patriotism  to  do  this,  will  do  some  measure 
of  good.    But  to  him  who  knows,  there  are  limitations 


soon  reached  by  such  a  course.  In  last  week's  issue, 
Haylett  O'Neill,  well  known  to  Poiver  readers,  proposes 
a  plan  by  which  boiler-plant  crews  may  receive  bonuses 
for  fuel  saving  effected  by  careful  attention  to  operation 
and  maintenance  of  boiler-room  equipment.  Here  is 
something  that  gets  the  enthusiastic  support  of  the 
crew  just  as  soon  as  they  understand  what  it  is  all 
about. 

The  author  proposes  paying  a  bonus  only  to  the  fire- 
men, fire  cleaners  and  boiler  cleaners — that  is,  to  those 
whose  work  it  is  to  bum  the  coal  economically  and  keep 
the  boiler  and  furnace  in  the  "pink"  of  condition  physi- 
cally. Assumably  he  includes  the  foremen  when  ap- 
plied to  large  plants,  and  the  engineer  also  in  plants 
where  he  is  responsible  to  the  management  for  the  con- 
dition and  performance  of  the  boiler  plant. 


The  Daily  Grind 


THOUSANDS  of  men  in  thousands  of  power  stations 
in  the  United  States  and,  in  fact,  throughout  the 
world  are  obliged  to  go  through  with  the  daily  grind. 
One  day  is  very  much  like  the  next,  and  it  frequently 
gets  to  be  an  old  story  for  some.  The  duties  of  the 
engineer  and  fireman  are  not  always  pleasant.  There 
is  a  continual  handling  of  coal,  feeding  of  water,  dis- 
posal of  ashes,  blowing  down,  cleaning,  oiling,  wiping, 
repairing,  making  of  reports — all  necessary  and  respon- 
sible work,  but  ofttimes  dull  and  irksome.  The  boiler 
or  engine  room  is  no  place  for  the  mollycoddle.  There 
are  dirt,  soot,  scale,  heat,  poor  ventilation,  inadequate 
equipm.ent — all  enemies  of  the  self-respecting  operator. 
One  is  really  tempted  at  times  to  ask  himself  the  fruit- 
less question,  "What's  the  use?" 

But  there  is  another  side  to  all  this.  If  the  work 
of  any  man  in  a  power  plant  is  uninteresting,  it  is 
his  own  fault.  The  very  fact  that  there  are  enemies 
to  conquer  makes  life  interesting.  Even  the  simplest 
duty  is  worthy  of  the  best  efforts  and  calls  for  the 
exertion  of  the  greatest  powers  of  the  whole  man. 
Many  people,  whatever  their  occupation,  only  live  half 
a  life.  They  fail  to  recognize  their  opportunities. 
They  spend  their  energies  bemoaning  their  fate  or  curs- 
ing their  luck  or  wishing  that  they  were  born  rich  or 
good  looking.  What  a  waste  of  time!  How  much  better 
would  it  be  if  they  took  an  equal  amount  of  pains  to 
improve  conditions.  Nothing  is  so  bad  but  that  it  can 
be  made  better,  and  the  way  to  make  it  better  is  to 
think,  talk,  decide  and  do. 

Cheerfulness  is  the  best  servant  of  any  man.  Some 
men  about  a  plant  are  so  disagreeable  that  they  are 
actually  shunned  by  their  fellows.  They  are  not  only 
burdensome  to  themselves,  but  they  are  a  pest.  What- 
ever good  thty  may  wish  to  accomplish  is  already 
nullified  by  their  very  attitude. 

We  are  said  to  be  creatures  of  our  environment, 
a;^.d  to  some  extent  this  is  doubtless  true.  Fortunately, 
however,  it  lies  within  our  power  to  alter  our  environ- 
ment. If  you. don't  like  your  job,  get  out  and  secure 
one  that  you  do  like,  but  make  sure  first  that  it  is  the  job, 
and  not  you,  that  is  disagreeable.  If  the  daily  grind 
seems  irksome,  do  your  best  to  make  it  interesting.  Do 
not  be  discouraged  by  setbacks.  The  best  fighter  is 
the  man  who  cannot  recognize  failure — who  does  not 
know  when  he  is  licked. 


April  9,   i;)18                                                                     1' ()  W  K  K  519 

;j|iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiii iiiiiiiii nil iiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiim iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii n iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuii!!: 


1 

I 
I 


Correspondence 


^iiiiiiiiiiiiii Ill iimi mill I iiiiiiiiiiiiimiii iiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiii iiiii i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiii i in iii i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinl 


Pump- Valve-Seat  Wrench 

A  valve-seat  wrench  made  of  pipe  with  slots  cut  in 
the  end  to  match  the  spider  of  the  seat  will  prove 
effective  and  will  serve  in  awkward  places,  such  as 
depressed  decks  or  where  there  are  projecting   studs. 


;»»• 


PUMP-VALVE-SEAT   WRENCH 

It  may  be  turned  with  a  Stillson  wrench  or  with  a 
bar  in  holes  drilled  in  the  pipe. 

I  have  taken  seats  out  without  injuring  them  where 
it  took  two  men  with  a  6-ft.  pipe  on  a  48-in.  wrench  to 
start  them — the  wrench  being  made  as  described  of 
3-in.  extra-heavy  pipe.  The  pipe  should  be  the  largest 
size  that  can  be  put  into  the  valve  to  bring  the  force 
as   near  the  point   of   resistance   as   possible. 

San  Francisco,  Calif.  ARTHUR  B.  Saunders. 

Gas   Engines   of   Former   Times 

Referring  to  the  letter,  "Gas  Engines  of  Former 
Times,"  on  page  164  in  the  issue  of  Jan.  29,  it  may 
be  interesting  to  Power  readers  to  know  more  about  a 
gas  engine  called  the  Automatic,  which  was  manufac- 
tured at  Oil  City,  Penn.,  about  the  date  referred  to. 
This  engine  had  the  following  earmarks:  The  ones 
that  I  came  in  contact  with  were  horizontal  four- 
stroke-cycle  with  one  rotary  valve  driven  by  a  camshaft. 
This  valve  controlled  the  air  inlet  and  also  an  exhaust. 
Ignition  was  obtained  by  the  old-time  hot  tube,  and 
the  governor  was  of  the  throttling  type,  controlling 
the  quantity  of  admission.  The  engine  was  nicely 
balanced,  was  almost  noiseless  and  would  run  at  a 
high  rate  of  speed.  Trouble,  however,  always  developed 
in  the  rotary  valve,  cutting  and  causing  loss  of  com- 
pression. 


This  made  a  bad  job  to  repair,  and  I  think  that  was 
what  put  the  engine  off  the  market.  I  have  heard  that 
some  shops  fitted  poppet  valves  to  these  engines  and  got 
good  service  from  them.  It  occurred  to  me  that  the 
writer  of  the  letter  referred  to  may  have  had  one  of 
these  engines  or  that  some  other  contributor  might  be 
able  to  give  some  interesting  reminiscences  in  regard 
to  it.  Lloyd  R.  Hoffman. 

Oil  City,  Penn. 

Holding  Damper  in  Position 

A  damper  control  can  be  put  in  in  a  cramped  place 
if  1-in.  wire  sash  cord  is  used  with  "side  pulleys"  at 
necessary  turns,  and  it  will  last  indefinitely.  I  use  a 
section  of  light  chain  down  the  boiler  front,  of  a  length 
equal  to  the  travel  of  the  damper  lever,  securing  it 
over  a  hook  at  any  desired  damper  opening — the  chain 
serving  also  as  an  indicator  of  the  damper  position. 

For  the  relief  of  distressed  worthy  brothers  whose 
patience  and  stock  of  profanity  runs  out  when  they 
try  to  pack  the  water  end  of  a  feed  pump,  especially 


TWO    SRLP-EXPLANATuRY    SrOOKSTTONS 

when  it  is  hot  and  valves  leak,  I  would  recommend 
the  kind  of  device  I  use,  for  I  can  drive  the  packing 
into  place  as  fast  as  a  helper  can  cut  it.  It  is  a 
tapered  wooden  plug,  the  large  end  of  which  is  the  same 
size  as  the  body  of  the  piston,  with  a  hole  in  its  center 
of  the  same  size  as  the  projecting  end  of  the  plunger 
rod  or  the  locknuts  and  deep  enough  for  the  plug  to  butt 
against  the  piston.  The  packing  rings  can  be  easily 
slipped  over  the  small  end  and  driven  into  place  by  this 
means.  ARTHUR  B.  SAUNDERS. 

San  Francisco,  Calif. 


520 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


Favors  an  Ash  Inspector 

The  editorial  on  page  267  in  the  issue  of  Feb.  29, 
regarding  appointing  ash  inspectors  strikes  me  as  being 
mighty  good  dope.  Last  winter  at  my  home  we  burned 
eight  tons  of  pea  coal,  not  sifting  any  of  the  ashes. 
This  winter,  sifting  them,  we  have  not  burned  six 
tons  yet,  and  we  expect  to  use  not  more  than  six  and 
one-half  tons.  If  a  ton  and  a  half  out  of  eight  can 
be  saved  by  sifting  the  ashes  as  we  have  done  this 
season,  I  can  easily  imagine  what  a  big  saving  can  be 
made  in  the  nation's  coal  pile  by  having  an  ash  inspec- 
tor or  someone  to  take  care  of  the  ashes  not  sifted. 

One  large  city  in  the  East  has  considered  the  propo- 
sition of  building  an  ash-sifting  plant,  and  it  was 
thought  that  enough  coal  could  be  obtained  from  the 
ashes  gathered  to  run  the  city  several  months  of  the 
year.  This  estimate,  I  believe,  is  not  far  wrong,  for  in 
walking  along  the  streets  in  the  morning  I  have  noticed 
that  the  contents  of  the  ash  boxes  are  nearly  half  coal. 

New  York  City.  D.  R.  HiBBS. 

Protection  of  Furnace  Walls 

In  the  Jan.  8  issue  of  Power  appeared  an  interesting 
article  on  "Venti'ated  Side  Walls."  In  hand-fired 
furnaces  with  natural  draft  it  is  highly  desirable  to 
eliminate  abrasion  from  firing  tools  and  clinkers.  As 
pointed  out  in  the  previous  article,  perforations  in 
side  walls  are  of  little  effect  in  furnaces  of  this  type. 
We  have  used  with  success  side  grates  of  special  design, 
not  only  to  overcome  the  clinker  troubles,  but  also  to 
improve  combustion  conditions  when  the  coal  contains 
a  considerable  amount  of  volatile. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  side  grate  in  position.  By  cor- 
rectly proportioning  the  free  area  and  height  of  these 
grates,   the   quahtity   of  air  entering  over  the  top   of 


3wi=hiDil 


fig.  1.     perforated  side  grate  to  admit  air,  ovkr 
purn.-^ck: 

the  fuel  bed  is  practically  self-regulating.  After  a 
new  charge  the  fuel  bed  is  thicker  and  offers  greater 
resistance  to  the  air  than  after  the  fuel  is  partly  con- 
sumed. The  air  will  seek  the  path  of  least  resistance 
and,  when  the  new  charge  of  fuel  is  introduced,  will 
pass  through  the  openings  of  the  side  grates  at  a 
greater  velocity  when  it  is  needed  above  the  fuel  bed 
to  consume  the  volatiles.  The  greater  velocity  will  also 
help  to  effect  a  better  mixture  of  air  and  combustible 
gases.  The  lower  resistance  of  the  fuel  bed  during  the 
later  part  of  the  period  decreases  the  inrush  of  sec- 
ondary  air  through   the   side   grates.     This   difference 


seems  comparatively  small,  but  has  proved  its  effec- 
tiveness in  practice.  Care  must  be  taken  to  supply 
these  side  grates  with  proper  cooling  surface.  The 
proportioning  of  the  cooling  ribs  and  the  air  openings 
spell  success  or  failure.  In  the  furnace  shown  in  Fig. 
1  there  is  also  provided  a  flame  port  formed  by  an 
arch  over  the  bridge-wall,  as  a  means  of  enhancing 
the  mixture  of  the  furnace  gases  and  air.  Openings 
are  provided  to  hinder  the  formation  of  gas  pockets. 


FIG 


SIDE  GRATE   FOR   SLOPING  FURNACE 


F'ig.  2  shows  a  successful  side-grate  installation  for 
a  sloping-grate  furnace.  In  this  case  the  construction 
of  the  side  grates  is  more  simple.  The  only  delicate 
point  is  the  provision  of  sufficient  cooling  surface  to 
prohibit  excessive  temperatures  and  premature  destruc- 
tion of  grates.  JOSEPH  GODER, 

Chicago,  111.  Boiler  Efficiency  Engineer. 

Using  a  Pitot  Tube 

In  the  issue  of  Feb.  5,  page  195,  Mr.  Brye  gives  sug- 
gestions concerning  the  use  of  a  pitot  tube.  It  is  not  my 
purpose  to  discuss  the  construction  of  the  tube  as 
shown;  although  one  might  criticize  some  features  of 
it,  there  are  other  features  that  are  admirable.  I  wish 
to  call  attention  only  to  the  difficulties  connected  with 
his  plan  of  determining  the  average  velocity  in  the  pipe. 
In  the  first  place  it  is  somewhat  troublesome  in  practical 
work  to  divide  the  cross-section  of  the  pipe  into  con- 
centric areas  that  are  equal;  then,  after  having  thus 
divided  the  cross-section,  it  is  exceedingly  hard  to  locate 
the  tube  at  exactly  the  right  position  in  each  of  these 
equal  concentric  areas.  In  the  third  place  there  would 
be  a  comparatively  large  distance  near  the  middle  of 
the  pipe  in  which  but  one  velocity  reading  would  be 
taken.  Under  certain  conditions  it  would  be  very  de- 
sirable to  have  more  readings  from  this  central  area. 

I  would  suggest  that  it  is  much  easier  to  take  the 
velocity  readings  at  definite  distances  (which  may  be 
equal  or  unequal)  along  the  diameter  of  the  pipe.  In 
determining  the  average  velocity  it  would  be  necessary 
to  calculate  the  area  in  cross-section  of  the  water  travel- 
ing at  any  of  the  obtained  velocities,  then  giving  proper 
weight  to  each  of  the  calculated  velocities,  the  average 
velocity    is    obtained.  E.    J.    Fermier. 

College  Station,  Tex. 


April  9.  1918 


POWER 


521 


Operating   Induction    Motors   at 
Reduced   Frequency 

A  mill  operator  requested  that  the  motor  drives  in 
his  plant  be  investigated  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the 
speed  of  practically  all  the  machinery.  It  was  found 
that  there  were  about  thirty  motors  in  the  mill,  most 
of  them  direct-connected  to  the  machines  they  were 
driving  and  all  operated  from  the  mill's  electric  plant. 
The  trouble,  it  appeared,  had  come  about  by  the  mill  de- 
signer's errors  in  calculating  the  motor  speeds,  and  the 
machinery  was  considerably  overspeeded,  so  much  so  in 
fact,  that  the  quality  of  the  product  was  seriously  im- 
paired. 

The  power  plant  was  found  to  be  operating  at  the 
proper  frequency  and  voltage  and  was  in  excellent  con- 
dition. As  an  experiment  the  governor  on  the  engine 
was  changed  to  reduce  the  frequency  10  per  cent.,  or 
from  60  to  54  cycles.  The  mill  machinery  operated  prop- 
erly at  this  speed  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  belted 
motors  on  which  the  pulleys  could  be  changed  easily,  so 
it  was  determined  to  continue  the  operation  at  the  re- 
duced frequency.  However,  when  heavy  loads  came  on, 
it  was  found  that  the  voltage  dropped  seriously  although 
it  was  controlled  by  a  regulator. 

After  some  testing  it  was  found  that  the  exciter, 
which  was  belted  to  the  alternator,  was  running  too 
slow  to  generate  sufficient  voltage  to  properly  excite  the 
alternator's  fields.  The  pulley  was  changed  so  as  to  in- 
crease the  speed  of  the  exciter  slightly  above  normal, 
and  after  this  change  tio  further  trouble  was  en- 
countered, and  the  plant  and  mill  have  been  operating 
continuously  since. 

During  the  test  after  the  governor  had  been  adjusted, 
attention  was  given  to  the  electrical  operating  char- 
acteristics of  the  equipment,  but  the  instrument  changes 
were  slight  except  on  the  frequency  meter.  The  kilo- 
watt output  was  slightly  decreased  and  so  was  the  power 
factor;  the  amperage  increased  slightly,  and  the  voltage 
remained  constant.  D.  R.  Shearer. 

Johnson  City,  Tenn. 

Different  Rate  of  Scale  Formation 
in   Boilers 

The  letter  by  Mr.  Bennett  in  the  issue  of  Feb.  12, 
page  231,  regarding  the  different  amounts  of  scale 
to  be  found  in  boilers  interested  me  very  much.  At 
one  of  our  boiler  plants  we  have  six  large  B.  &  W. 
boilers,  all  working  under  the  same  pressure  and  using 
the  same  feed  water,  but  one-half  of  each  boiler  will 
always  have  more  scale  than  the  other  half.  The 
difference  is  so  great  that,  when  cleaning,  three  or 
four  tubes  on  the  easy  side  can  be  bored  in  the  time 
it  takes  to  bore  one  on  the  hard  side. 

These  boilers  have  been  in  use  for  many  years,  and 
this  condition  has  always  been  the  same.  During  the 
time  they  have  been  in  operation,  the  feed  water  has 
been  taken  from  three  different  sources;  still  the  same 
condition  exists.  The  soot  is  removed  by  inserting  a 
blowpipe  at  one  side  through  openings  provided  for  this 
purpose,  and  this  is  the  side  that  is  always  found  with 
the  greatest  amount  of  hard  scale.  Whether  this  is 
what  makes  more  and  harder  scale  on  that  side  than 


on   the   side   where   no  blowing   is   done,    I   am   unable 
to  say.  Thomas  J.  Pascoe, 

Norway,  Mich.  Oliver  Iron  Mining  Co. 

Safety  Guard  Prevents  Injury 

The  upper  photograph  shows  a  wire-mesh  guard 
around  a  30-in.  (diameter)  shaft  coupling  on  a  motor- 
generator  set  operating  at  360  r.p.m.,  the  middle  one 
shows  the  broken  coupling  with  all  the  pieces  retained 
within  the  guard  or  directly  underneath  on  the  floor, 


CONFIDENCE    IN    GUARD    .rUSTIFIED 

and  the  lower  one  shows  the  broken  coupling  after 
removal.  This  accident  happened  in  one  of  the  sub- 
stations in  the  San  Francisco  District  on  Dec.  27,  1917. 
I  am  sending  these  photographs,  thinking  that  they 
may  be  of  interest  to  Poirer  readers,  bringing  out  the 
effectiveness  of  this  guard  not  only  as  a  protection  from 
contact  with  revolving  parts,  but  also  from  flying  parts 
in  case  of  breakage.  V.  R.  Hughes, 

San  Francisco,  Calif.  Safety  Inspector. 


522 


FOWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


Telescopic-Oiler    Discussion* 

The  discussion  of  telescopic  oilers  recently  appearing 
in  Power  has  brought  out  useful  points.  As  H.  Ham- 
kens  pointed  out  at  the  beginning  of  the  discussion,  the 
main  disadvantages  of  most  telescopies,  especially  the 
older  ones,  are  too  many  parts,  leakage  of  oil,  tendency 
to  irregular  feeding,  too  rapid  wear.  He  might  have 
added,  the  almost  general  difficulty  of  nonalignment 
after  repairs  and  cleaning. 

It  is  true  that  the  older  telescopies  were  somewhat 
complicated  and,  what  with  numerous  springs,  locknuts. 


PIG.    1.    MR.  FENNO'S 
ARFIANGEMENT 


FIG. 


MR.   NUGENT' S 
DESIGN 


washers,  etc.,  they  were  hard  to  keep  in  repair  and  in 
good  working  order.  But  the  design  has  gradually  been 
simplified  and  improved  until  today  oilers  can  be  pro- 
cured which  are  apparently  as  simple  as  it  is  possible 
to  make  them. 

As  Mr.  Fenno  pointed  out  in  his  article  in  the  July 
17,  1917,  issue,  the  tendency  to  pumping  and  irregular 
feeding  can  be  overcome  simply  by  providing  suitable 
clearance  between  the  inner  and  outer  telescopic  tubes. 

The  rapid  wear  of  the  tubes  noticed  by  Mr.  Ham- 
kens  in  some  instances,  is  the  result  of  their  binding 
upon  each  other  due  to  imperfect  alignment  either  when 
installed  or  after  reassembling.  This  can  be  avoided 
by  due  care  when  installing  and,  with  some  telescopies, 
extreme  care  when  reassembling.  It  all  depends  upon 
the  type  of  joint  employed. 

By  employing  the  special  design  of  true  male  and  fe- 
male joint  shown  in  the  illustration,  all  wear  due  to 
imperfect  alignment,  except  that  due  to  poor  installa- 
tion, is  completely  avoided,  because  no  threading  is 
even  disturbed.  Also,  because  this  joint  permits  of 
gravity  feed,  the  pumping  tendency  is  practically,  and 
leakage  completely,  eliminated. 

With  the  arrangement  shown  by  Mr.  Fenno  and  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  1,  the  oil  accumulated  at  the  bottom  of 
the  outer  element  as  at  A.     In  other  words,  the  flow 


of  oil  is  against  the  direction  of  the  joint  instead  of 
with  it.  Hence,  the  fiber  packing  B  is  always  in  contact 
with  the  oil  and  subject  to  deterioration  and  leakage. 

In  most  of  the  older  designs  the  joint  could  not  be 
taken  apart  without  first  unscrewing  the  telescopic  pipe 
C.  This  meant  that  with  any  irregular  alignment 
whatsoever  in  the  initial  assembling,  the  pipe  would 
have  to  be  screwed  up  to  exactly  its  original  position 
when  reassembled,  or  extreme  wear  was  sure  to  ensue. 

With  the  type  of  joint  shovra  in  Fig.  2,  both  wear 
and  leakage  are  practically  overcome.  The  overhanging 
lip  D  drops  the  oil  from  the  movable  element  E  directly 
into  the  hollow  of  the  fixed  element  F,  and  hence,  unless 
the  oil  is  fed  in  a  flood  greater  than  the  latter  can  con- 
duct it  to  the  pin,  the  joint  G  remains  leakless. 

The  joint  is  taken  apart  by  sliding  off  the  spring  clip 
A,  which  is  attached  to  the  loose  collar  /.  The  movable 
element  E  then  slides  out  of  the  fixed  element  F.  As 
the  construction  at  the  top  of  the  telescopic  is  similar, 
the  telescoping  pipes  may  both  be  removed  without  de- 
taching them  from  their  parts  of  the  joints.  Hence, 
they  can  always  be  replaced  in  alignment.  As  no  nuts 
or  screws  are  used  in  putting  the  joints  together,  they 
may  be  taken  apart  for  cleaning  or  inspection  while  the 
engine  is  running  unless  the  speed  is  uncomfortably  high. 

Chicago,  111.  William  W.  Nugent. 

Testing  Field-Pole  Polarity. 

In  putting  into  service  a  new  generator  or  motor 
or  one  that  has  been  repaired,  it  frequently  requires 
considerable  testing  to  find  whether  the  field  poles  have 
correct  polarity ;  that  is,  alternate  north  and  south 
poles.  The  figure  shows  a  simple  way  of  determining 
the  correct  polarity.     First,  excite  the  field  coils  and 


•See  "Power"  1917.  Jan.  30.  p.  142  ;  Mar.  6,  p.  325  :  Apr.  3, 
p.  463 :  May  22,  p.  707  ;  May  29,  p.  748  ;  July  17.  p.  9G  ;  Sept 
18,  p.  399;  Dec.  11.  p.  80C.  The  illu.strations  were  inadvertently 
omitted  from  this  letter  as  published  in  "Power"  of  .•\pr.  2. 
Therefore  it  is  reprinted  here. 


FIELD  FRAME.  SHOWING  TWO  NAILS  IN  POSITION  TO 
TEST   FIELD-POLE   POL.\RITY 

then  take  two  wire  nails  and  placing  their  points  on 
adjacent  polepieces,  then  bring  their  heads  close  to- 
gether, as  in  the  figure :  if  they  attract,  the  poles  are  the 
correct  polarity,  since  unlike  poles  attract.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  nails  repel  each  other,  the  polarity  of  the 
polepieces  is  wrong  and  must  be  corrected  by  inter- 
changing the  lead  on  one  field  coil.  In  this  way  it  re- 
quires only  a  few  minutes  to  examine  the  whole  machine 
New  York  City.  D.  R.  Hibbs. 


April  9,  1918  POWER  523 

UIIIIUIIIIUIUIIUIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIM^ >"I"IIIIIIIIIIII>III>IIIIIII"MIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII|IIIIIIIIII|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||{|||||{||||{||||||||||{||||||,||,^ 

i 

Inquiries  of  General  Interest  | 


iiiiniini 


nnilllMIIIMIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIinillllllllllllllllK 


Relative  Dimensions  of  Extra-Heavy  and  Standard  Pipe — 

lb  the  difference  in  thickness  of  extra-strong  pipe  and 
tubing  from  that  of  commercial  standard  pipe  and  tubing 
in  their  variation  of  inside  or  outside  diameter?  J.  L. 

The  greater  thicliness  of  the  extra-heavy  pipe  and  tubing 
is  provided  by  having  smaller  actual  inside  diameter  than 
the  same  nominal  size  of  standard  pipe,  the  external  diam- 
eter being  made  the  same  so  as  to  be  suitable  for  standard- 
pipe  screw  threading. 

Pressure  Equivalent  to  Zero  Inches  Vacuum  —  When  a 
vacuum  gage  shows  0  inches  of  vacuum,  what  is  the  pres- 
sure? R.  A.  S. 

"An  inch  of  vacuum"  signifies  one  inch  of  mercury  column 
pressure  less  than  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  atmosphere. 
Hence  the  pressure  for  zero  inches  of  vacuum  would  be  the 
same  as  zero  gage,  or  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  above 
a  perfect  vacuum,  which,  unless  otherwise  qualified,  is 
assumed  to  be  equivalent  to  the  intensity  of  pressure  exerted 
by  a  column  of  mercury  30  in.  high  when  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  62  deg.  F.,  or  an  absolute  pressure  of  14.7  lb.  per 
square  inch. 

Length  of  Open  Belt — What  would  be  the  length  of  an 
open  belt  to  go  around  pulleys  respectively  8  ft.  and  4  ft. 
C  in.  diameter  and  24  ft.  center  to  center?  H.  C.  B. 

The  approximate  formula  for  obtaining  the  required 
length  is 

where 
L  =  Length  of  open  belt; 
C  =   Distance  center  to  center  of  pulleys; 
D  =   Diameter  of  larger  pulley; 
d    =   Diameter  of  smaller  pulley. 
By  substituting, 

(-8  +  4.5\   ,    (8  -  4.5)' 
4  X  24 
or  practically  67  ft.  9  in. 

Latest  Cutoff  of  Single-Eccentric  Corliss  Engine — In  or- 
dinary operation  of  a  single-eccentric  Corliss  engine,  why 
cannot  cutoff  take  place  later   than   one-half   stroke? 

F.  E.  G. 

Each  exhaust  valve  must  be  opened  and  closed  by  a  for- 
ward and  backward  motion  of  the  wristplate  to  one  side  of 
its  central  position  during  one  stroke,  and  as  the  operation 
must  be  accomplished  during  180  deg.  of  the  revolution  of 
the  shaft,  the  motion  of  the  wristplate  to  one  side  of  the 
central  position  must  occur  during  90  deg.  of  the  revolu- 
tion, or  about  one-half  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  As  a 
steam  valve  must  not  open  until  the  exhaust  of  the  same 
end  has  closed,  and  cutoff  must  be  effected  by  the  cutoff 
cam  while  the  steam  valve  is  carried  by  the  vn-istplate  in 
the  initial  direction  for  opening,  and  before  the  wristplate 
begins  to  return  toward  the  central  position,  cutoff  cannot 
occur  later  than  90  deg.  of  revolution  of  the  eccentric,  from 
the  time  the  wristplate  is  in  its  central  position  or  about 
one-half  stroke  of  the  piston. 

Setting  Common  D-Slide  Valve — What  is  the  method  of 
setting  the  valve  of  an  ordinary  D-slide-valve  engine? 

A.  N. 

Uncover  the  valve  chest  and  adjust  the  length  of  the  valve 
rod  so  each  end  of  the  valve  will  overtravel  the  steam  ports 
the  same  amount,  either  from  turning  the  engine  over  with  the 
eccentric  fastened  to  the  shaft  or  from  turning  the  loosened 
eccentric  all  the  way  around  the  shaft.  Then  put  the  engine 
on  a  center  and  set  the  eccentric  at  such  a  position  on  the 
shaft  that,  with  forward  direction  of  rotation  of  the  shaft, 
the  end  of  the  valve  would  begin  to  uncover  the  steam  port 
on  the  end  of  the  cylinder  that  contains  the  piston,  or  set 


L  =  (2  X  24)  -f  3. 1416 (^-^^)  -|- 


67.76 


the  eccentric  forward  far  enough  to  obtain  the  desired 
amount  of  lead  opening.  The  engine  should  then  be  turned 
over  on  the  other  center  to  ascertain  whether  the  same 
amount  of  lead  has  been  obtained  for  the  other  end  of  the 
valve.  If  not,  take  out  one-half  of  the  difference  by  read- 
justment of  the  length  of  the  valve  rod.  If  more  lead  is 
desired  for  both  ends,  it  can  be  obtained  by  shifting  the 
eccentric  forward  on  the  shaft  or  less  lead  by  shifting  it 
backward. 

Whole-Coil  and  Half-Coil  Windings— What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  a  whole-coil  and  a  half-coil  winding?      A.  R. 

In  concentrated  winding  sometimes  used  on  alternating- 
current   machinery,   a  whole-coil   winding   is   one   in   which 


PIG.  1. 


WHOLE-COIL,  WIND- 
ING 


PIG. 


HALP-COIL  WIND- 
ING 


there  is  one  complete  turn  or  coil  per  phase  per  pole,  as  in 
Fig.  1.  A  half-coil  winding  is  one  which  has  only  one  com- 
plete turn  or  coil  per  phase  per  pair  of  poles,  as  in  Fig.  2. 

Advantage  of  Inclosing  Heating  Returns — When  steam  at 
105-lb.  gage  is  supplied  to  drying  coils  in  which  the  pres- 
sure is  maintained  at  R  lb.  gage,  with  the  condensate  dis- 
charged against  atmospheric  pressure  and  returned  to  the 
boiler  at  180  deg.  F.,  what  percentage  of  saving  would  be 
effected  by  returning  the  condensate  under  5  lb.  pressure? 

H.  L.  W. 

If  the  coils  discharge  direct  to  the  atmosphere  without 
being  trapped,  no  comparison  of  economy  can  be  made 
without  knowing  the  percentage  of  steam  thus  wasted.  If 
the  present  discharge  consists  only  of  condensate  that  is 
formed  in  the  coils  and  returned  to  the  boiler  at  180  deg.  F., 
then  as  one  pound  of  steam  at  105-lb.  gage  or  120  absolute 
contains  1189.0  B.t.u.  above  32  deg.  F.,  for  reconversion  into 
steam  each  pound  of  the  return  water  must  receive  from  the 
boiler  1189.6  -  (180  -  32)  =  1041.6  B.t.u.  The  relatively 
small  amount  of  heat  that  would  be  saved  by  reason  of 
supplying  the  boiler  feeder  with  water  at  5  lb.  higher  pres- 
sure can  be  neglected.  The  principal  consideration  would 
be  the  temperature  of  the  returns  as  received  by  the  boiler. 
The  temperature  of  the  condensate  when  formed  in  the 
coils  would  be  the  same  as  the  temperature  of  dry  saturated 
steam  at  .5  lb.  gage,  namely,  about  228  deg.  F.,  but  there 
would  necessarily  be  some  reduction  of  this  temperature  in 
handling  the  returns.  Assuming  that  the  actual  tempera- 
ture of  the  condensate  as  returned  to  the  boiler  is  220  deg. 
F.,  each  pound  of  steam  generated  would  require  220  —  180 
=  40  B.t.u.  less  than  with  the  feed  temperature  at  180  deg. 
F.  and  the  saving  would  be  40  X  100  -=-  1041.6  =  3.84  per 
cent.,  practically  1  per  cent,  for  each  10  deg.  temperature 
of  the  feed  in  excess  of  180  deg.  F. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  ad- 
dresses. This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of 
the  communications  and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  atten- 
tion.— Editor.] 


524 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


Central  or  Independent  Power  Service* 

By  FREDERICK  B.  KENNEYf 

into  favor,  followed  shortly  by  the  Corliss  type,  which  with 

certain  refinements,  is  standard  today. 
A  survey  of  the  reaso7is  for  the  development  of  Though    engines    of    many   types    and    arrangements    of 

the    central    electnc    light    and    power   industry.  valve  gear  appeared  from  time  to  time,  the  reign  of  the 

Discussion  of  the  paper  is  given.  ^'^^''y  slow-speed  engine  was  undisputed  until   1879,  when 

the  perfection  of  the  incandescent  lamp  by  Edison  ushered 
in  a  new  phase  of  the  light  and  power  problem  and  gave 

TTTn   i  li       i.     1     1-  i.-     1'   u        t    1        1     i     i-u         u  birth  to  the  electric  central  station  as  it  is  popularly  known. 

HE   term     central   station     has   todav   lost,   through  „,  jj.,-,  .         •         ^,-i,  , 

,  1-     i-        1  i     1     i.  i-  ■      f       AT,      j„         Ibe  need  of  high-speed  engines  to  drive  the  new  generators 

popular  application   to   central   stations   for  the   dis  j     ■     j  u      r^  i-  c     i.        ^       ^1  ■        j     .        j 

:  -l.  i-         r    1     i  ■     1-   ui.       J  -i     ■     1  ,  ■         „„  devised   by   Edison  was  first  met  with   an  engine  designed 

tribution  of  electric  light  and  power,  its  inclusiveness  ,      „,.     "^  .  .        ,^    „  ,,         ,  ,  j,     ,V  , 

r     n         «     1  r  1       r  j-4.  _  ;„  by  Edison  himself,  followed  bv  engines  of  other  manufac- 

of  all  central  sources  of  supply  of  a  commoditv  or  service  .■'  •  ,     .  ,•       j.,  ■,  -Ti-         j.  j_,  !•"*<»>- 

..,..,  ,1  u  •  J  .„         ■<■        T     ii         -A^^i.  turers  quick  to  realize  the  possibilities  of  the  new  incan- 

essential  to  the  well  being  of  a  community.     In  the  widest       ,  .'  _.  \,  ^,        ^  j_     ,  ■  ""-»" 

.c  i  ii      i  u     •     1   J  J     11         i     1  descent    lamp.      Designers    of   the    steam    turbine   renewed 

significance  of  the  term  can  be  included  all  central  sources  ...       ™     ,    ^  j^  ^  j.,    ■  Z- 

,  1        1.-  u  4.-  J  •  It.-         u         J  ,,.,1  their  eiiorts  to  perfect  their  machines. 

of  supply  which  time  and  economic  conditions  have  devel-  ,    .  ,oo.t  ^  ui-  i    j  •      .      ■  ^        -nr-      i,      ,-     ^ 

J  ^C         -u       I         1  J  J         1-     *.-       iu  4-        i   •  Late  in  1882  was  established  m  Appleton,  Wis.,  the  first 

oped  through  a  knowledge  and  realization  that  certain  es-  4.     i     i     ,.  •    ,•   ,  .      ,    i-        -       ii        ,■  ^  ■,    j.-  j,     , 

,.,  ,  -.       jj       1       J  r   J    4.  central   electric-light   station   for  the   distribution   of   elec- 

sentials    can    be    manufactured,    developed    or    sunplied    to  .   .  .,         ^     ■       ,  1     4.1  •     ,.4.4.,       ^  ^-  ^   .-,-„   ^ 

,      ,      J        .  ■■         i.-  -4.       r  •   t        4.  tricity.     Curiously   enough   this   little    station   of   2o0   ten- 

best  advantage  on  a  cooperative  or  community-of-interest  ,/  ,        •'  ?.  1.    j        1     4.  ■       1     4.    Z! 

,      .  candlepower  lamp  capacity  was  a  hydro-electric  plant,  the 

^The  cooperative   store   is   perhaps   the   first   central    sta-  generator  being  driven  by  a  waterwheel      This  seems  al- 

tion  worthy  of  note,  followed  by  the   metropolitan  water  '"°^*  prophetic  of  what  to  many  seems  to  be  the  ultimate  of 

.,  .,  14.    41  4.iiCri4.        1  economic  efficiency  with   such  apparatus   as   is  now  avail- 

system,  the  central  gas  plant,  the  central  electric  light  and        ,  ,  •'  "^ 

power  plant,  and  finally  by  the  utilities  for  the  transporta-  mil     r  n      ■  ^i.        4.  1.1  ■  1  4.     j?        4.     1     4. 
f.          f           ,                               I      r         -4.1          u     4.          1                 The  following  year  saw  the  establishment  of  central  sta- 
tion  of  ourselves   or   our  goods,   for   either   short   or   long  , .         .                 %  iu    1               -t-            j  4.1.     j  j  4.1.  u 
,.                                               o         >                                                o  tions  in  many  of  the  larger  cities,  and  the  demand  through- 
aistances.  ^^j.  ^y^^  country  for  such  service  for  a  while  exceeded  the 
The   Central   Station    a    Natural   Development  ability  of  the  manufacturei-s  to  supply  the  necessary  ap- 
The  central  station  is  the  natural  development  of  such  paratus  and  lamps, 
realization,   for  while   each   family   in   a   community   could          The   growth   of  the  central   station   from  that  time   has 
today  maintain  a  private  well  for  its  water  needs,  the  ab-  been  rapid  and  is  perhaps  best  reflected  in  such  figures  as 
surdity    of   attempting    this    for   any    reason    is    apparent.  'ire  available  from  the  Federal  Census  since  that  date  as 
Again,  the  family  which  once  was  content  to  make  its  own  follows: 

tallow  dips  could  today  maintain  its  own  little  acetylene-  Commercial  Only  1902  1907  1912 

gas  plant,  but  where  such  a  plant  can  be  found  within  the  ^enj^al  ft^-,, ' ' ; !     ;  1,099:000       lAttl       Ajel'Z 

territory  supplied  v/ith  illuminating  gas  from  a  central  gas  ,  '      „  „  .,,,,.. 

plant,  common  sense  is  not  one  of  the  factors  responsible  Figures  for  1917  are  not  yet  available,  but  it  is  interest- 

for  its  maintenance.    The  same  argument  can  be  applied  to  ing  to  note  that  while  the  total  number  of  stations  in  1912 

our  transportation  needs,  for  were  we  as  individuals  com-  ^ad   increased  by  less  than   6  per  cent,   over  the  total  of 

pelled  to  relv  today  upon  our  physical  ability  to  fill  them,  l^O''-  the  total  capacity  had  increased  by  over  90  per  cent, 

we  would  indeed  be  sadly  limited  in  our  travels  and  in  all  This  rate  of  increase  has  probably  been  maintained  during 

supplies  not  available  in'our  immediate  vicinity.  the   last   five   years,   and   it   is   reasonable   to   suppose    the 

Centralization    is   decidedly   apparent    in    manufacturing,  P«sent   total   capacity   approaches    very   closely    9,000,000 

for  the  origin  of  all  manufactured  articles  can  be  traced  kilowatts.  ,     ,        ,        . 

to  the  individual  home  until  demand  and  economic  needs  Development  of  the  electric  motor,  together  with  con- 
develoned  the  factory  solidations,  reorganizations  and  centralization  of  manage- 
To  confine  ourselves  to  the  popular  interpretation  of  the  ^ent,  soon  put  the  central  station  upon  a  solid  foundation 
term  "central  station"  and  to  attempt  to  compare  its  value  and  direct  competition  with  the  iso  ated  plant  was  the  in- 
with  that  of  the  "isolated  plant."  a  knowledge  of  the  his-  evitable  result.  With  the  large  field  for  power  opened  to 
tory  and  development,  with  a  full  realization  of  the  field  the  central  station  by  the  electric  motor,  a  greater  output 
occupied  by  each,  is  essential.  Since  light,  heat  and  power  o^er  which  to  spread  overhead  charges  resulted.  With  in- 
are  the  products  of  each,  a  slight  review  of  the  present  and  greased  demands,  larger  units  followed  with  higher  ef- 
past  needs  is  not  out  of  place.  ficiencies  and  lower  operating  costs.  Some  idea  of  the 
In  the  Eighteenth  Century  Newcomen  produced  the  first  "^t  results  relative  to  steam  prime  movers  and  motors 
steam  engine  which  seemed  commercially  practicable.  A  oP^rated  with  purchased  current  in  industrial  plants  can 
number  of  these  engines  were  installed  for  pumping  pur-  ^e  obtained  from  the  census  figure  for  the  years  1899  and 
poses  in  the   mines  of  England,  but  not  until   late   in  the  l^*^^  ^^  follows. 

same   century   was    the   steam    engine,   as   we   recognize    it  Capacity  In  o  l^n'nnn        u  Trl'nnn 

.      ,  ,  ,  .,  1     4.  T.      iir    4.4.         J  I-  '^t.^  feteani  goneratod  power,  horsepower     .    o.iOO.UUO         M,2UU,0Un 

today,  placed  on  the  market  by  Watt  and  his  associates.  purchased  electric,  horsepower    182,500         i,750,oou 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  at  this  period  illuminating  ,    ,  u  .>.  .  ,„,  ,„„       TTZ^nnn 

,  ,  ,     ™  ,    ,  CI      4.    I  I    111  Total  of  both  sources  .  8,382,500  13,930,000 

gas  was  developed  from  coal  bv  a  Scotchman  named  Mur- 
doch and  utili  -.ed  in  the  shop  of  Boulton  and  Watt  in  Birm-  While  the  total  capacity  in  steam   power  had  increased 

ingham,  England.     Shortly  following,   London   Bridge  was  by   75   per  cent.,  the  total  purchased   power  had  increased 

illuminated  with  coal  gas,"  anl  for  the  distribution  of  this  by  960  per  cent.,  and  whereas  the  purchased  power  in  1899 

new   illuminant   was   born   the   central-station    idea   coinci-  was  a  trifle  in  excess  of  2  per  cent,  of  the  total,  m  1909  it 

dent  with  the  prime   mover  which   is  today  the  backbone  had  become  in  excess  of  11  per  cent,  of  the  total.     Figures 

of  the  isolated  plant.  for  the   last  eight   years   will   no   doubt   prove   equally   as 

■   The  steam  engine  o-j  improved  bv  Watt  found  a  receptive  creditable  to  the  central  station. 

field  in  various  industrial  plants,  notably  in  the  cotton  in-  Meanwhile  the  sponsors  for  the  isolated  plant  have  n-t 

dustry,  which  at  this  time  in  England  was  rapidly  under-  been  idle  and,  profiting  by  the  experiences  of  the  centra, 

going  radical  changes  in  mechanical  equipment.     The  beam  station,   have    disposed    of   obsolete    equipment,    eliminated 

tvpe  was  accepted  as  standard  until  the  middle  of  the  Nine-  wasteful    methods    of   transmission,    installed    modern    and 

teenth   Century,   at  which   time   the   horizontal   type   came  efficient  equipment  and  taken  measures  to  obtain  the  maxi- 

^ mum  economies  possible.     For  these  the  day  of  surrender 

•A  paper  before  the   Providence   Englneerinfe   Society,   Provi-  ^^  central-station  service  is  deferred,  but  not  entirely  elim- 

tMea.anicarEnglneer,  Blackstone  Valley  Gas  and  Electric  Co..  inated.      For  the  plarts   that  have  not   profited   by  the   ex- 

Pawtucket,  R.  I,  penences  of  the  central  station  and  have  neglected  to  im- 


April  9,  1918 


POWER 


525 


proVe  their  conditions,  the  handwritinp  on  the  wall  is  clear. 
There  always  will  be  exceptions  to  this  probability,  de- 
pendent upon  peculiar  and  local  conditions. 

Probably  no  better  method  of  outlining;  the  truth  of  this 
can  be  employed  than  to  apply  the  arguments  for  and 
against  central-station  service  to  a  typical  plant  familiar 
to  the  writer.  The  plant  in  mind  furnishes  lipfht.  heat 
and  power  for  a  cotton  mill  of  the  usual  type,  spinninK  its 
own  yarn  and  utilizing  it  all  in  the  weaving  of  plain  cot- 
ton fabrics. 

The  engine  plant  consists  of  two  old  Corliss  cross-com- 
pound engines  operating  condensing,  one  of  approximately 
1200  hp.  rating  and  the  other  of  approximately  600  hp. 
rating  and  both  about  thirty  years  of  age.  Transmission 
is  mechanical  throughout.  Steam  is  furnished  from  a  bat- 
tery of  water-tube  boilers.  Heating  is  done  with  live  steam. 
A  mixture  of  about  one  part  bituminous  to  three  parts 
buckwheat  coal  is  burned.  The  average  load  carried  ap- 
proximates 1400  i.hp.  The  actual  operating  costs  for  the 
year  1912  were  $25,000,  which  includes  no  overhead  charges, 
with  slight  repair  or  maintenance  charges.  The  engineer 
in  charge  is  a  most  capable  man  and  is  obtaining  results 
that  could  hardly  be  bettered  with  any  apparatus  that 
could  be  installed.  The  physical  conditions  in  transmission 
are,  however,  extremely  bad,  and  fully  40  per  cent,  of  the 
power  generated  is  dissipated  in  friction.  It  is  estimated 
that  900  hp.  in  motors  would  handle  this  mill  to  much  bet- 
ter advantage  than  it  is  being  handled  at  present.  With 
2,000,000  kw.-hr.  per  year  at  Ic.  per  kw.-hr.,  the  cost  of  cur- 
rent to  this  mill  would  be  $20,000;  overhead  charges  on 
motor  equipment  (based  on  1912  figures),  $1500;  heating 
and  all  other  charges,  $6500;  total,  $28,000;  apparent  bal- 
ance in  favor  of  the  isolated  plant,  $3000  yearly. 

Eventually,  this  plant  for  physical  reasons  must  be  re- 
placed. At  such  time  overhead  charges  must  be  consid- 
ered, and  assuming  the  installation  of  a  1000-kw.  plant 
with  a  minimum  cost  of  $100,000,  the  immediate  yearly 
burden  approaches  $12,000.  Add  to  this  the  item  of  $1500 
burden  on  motors  and  $6500  for  heating  and  incidental 
operation,  a  total  of  $20,000  is  chargeable  to  the  power 
plant  before  the  generation  of  a  single  kilowatt.  Since  the 
central-station  price  for  the  service  is  estimated  at  $28,- 
000,  $8000  is  available  for  the  generation  of  2,000,000  kw.- 
hr.,  necessitating  a  generation  figure  of  $0,004  per  kw.-hr. 
Assuming  this  new  plant  operated  at  an  economy  of  2.5  lb. 
of  coal  per  kw.-hr.,  with  coal  at  $3.50  per  ton  as  in  1912,  the 
resultant  coal  charge  becomes  $7700. 

Similar  illustrations  could  be  furnished,  but  probably 
this  is  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  facts  where  the  average 
industrial  plant  is  concerned.  In  considering  hotels,  bleach- 
eries  and  plants  where  the  utmost  use  of  exhaust  steam  can 
be  made,  different  conditions  are  encountered  which  make 
it  more  difficult  for  ths  central  station  to  justify  abolishing 
the  isolated  plant,  but  since  the  same  is  being  done  daily, 
it  would  seem  that  such  action  in  many  cases  can  be  justi- 
fied. However,  in  each  of  such  cases,  the  proper  course 
can  be  determined  only  by  individual  analysis.  Aside  from 
all  the  considerations  outlined,  the  question  of  coal  supply 
is  important.  Reverting  to  the  case  of  the  mill  outlined, 
the  total  coal  required  for  power  purposes  in  this  mill  was 
in  excess  of  4000  tons  yearly.  To  furnish  2,000,000  kw.-hr. 
yearly  to  this  plant  the  coal  required  by  the  central  station 
would  approximate  2000  tons.  The  application  of  this 
ratio  to  the  requirements  of  the  many  isolated  plants 
throughout  the  country  furnishes  abundant  food  for 
thought  in  view  of  the  present  coal  situation. 

In  conclusion,  it  must  be  apparent  that  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer  the  isolated  plant,  except  for  isolated  cases  where 
geographical  or  peculiarly  local  conditions  prove  the  excep- 
tion to  the  rule,  is  surely  bound  toward  central-station 
service.  The  day  for  a  large  number  of  plants  may  be  long 
deferred,  but  eventually  economic  efficiency  will  prevail. 

Discussion 

Warren  B.  Lewis,  consulting  engineer.  Providence,  R.  I.: 
If,  before  I  finish,  I  appear  to  be  harshly  critical  of  some  of 
the  features  of  Mr.  Kenney's  very  excellent  paper,  it  will 
not  be  by  reason  of  antagonism  to  either  the  speaker  or 
his  subject,  but  will  arise  from   an  attempt  to  emphasize 


the  weakness  of  some  of  the  arguments  advanced  for  ano 
against  central-station  service. 

Mr.  Kenney  says  that  this  is  an  era  of  centralization.  This 
is  the  strongest  argument  that  he  uses,  and  I  think  that  he 
might  have  carried  it  farther  by  saying  that  there  is  no 
more  reason  why  manufacturers  should  generate  power 
than  that  they  should  enter  into  the  business  of  manufac- 
turing the  raw  materials  that  they  use.  Up  to  within  a 
few  years  ago  it  was  necessary  that  they  should  manu- 
facture their  own  power  because  they  could  not  get  it  any 
other  way;  and  I  venture  to  say  that  most  of  them  have 
always  considered  it  as  one  of  the  most  irritating  depart- 
ments of  their  business  and  looked  upon  it  as  a  "necessary 
evil."  Now  that  they  can  purchase  power  delivered  f.o.b. 
their  factory,  there  would  seem  to  be  little  excuse  for  con- 
sidering any  other  method.  Power  bears  no  relation  to 
manufactured  product  as  far  as  being  a  constituent  ele- 
ment; and  specialization  is  as  logical  in  the  manufacture 
of  power  as  it  is  in  the  manufacture  of  machinery  or  tex- 
tiles. 

Again,  there  is  little  justification  in  investing  one's 
money  in  power  plants  as  a  mere  department  of  one's  regu- 
lar business  on  the  basis  of  a  net  return  of  5  or  6  per 
cent,  (which  is  the  rate  usually  charged  into  the  costs),  when 
the  same  amount  of  money  would  probab'y  earn  from  two 
to  three  times  that  amount  when  invested  in  the  business 
itself.  However,  while  these  are  perfectly  good  arguments, 
they  are  very  general  ones;  and,  after  all,  the  question 
is  not  the  central  station  vs.  the  isolated  plant,  but  it  is 
the  central   station  vs.   some  particular  isolated   plant. 

Mr.  Kenney,  for  instance,  states  that  for  one  to  maintain 
a  private  well  for  his  water  needs  would  be  an  absurdity 
from  any  viewpoint.  Private  wells  are  quite  general  in 
the  midst  of  large  cities,  and  the  matter  is  purely  one  of 
the  amount  of  water  used  and  the  cost  of  pumping  it.  It 
certainly  would  be  an  absurdity  for  each  individual  family 
to  run  its  own  water-works  as  suggested,  but  it  is  not  an 
absurdity  for  an  individual  who  needs  large  quantities  of 
water  at  a  fairly  uniform  rate  of  flow.  So  with  other 
facilities.  Expediency  of  individual  effort  is  determined 
largely  by  the  particular  characteristics  of  the  case  in 
question. 

Mr.  Kenney  goes  on  to  give  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  steam  engines  and  the  electric-lighting  industry, 
arriving  ultimately  at  the  conclusion  that  the  huge  units 
made  possible  through  the  centralization  of  the  power 
business  have  brought  about  efficiencies  that  could  not  be 
attained  by  the  individual  producer.  This  is  true  when 
referred  to  small  users,  but  is  not  always  true  in  the  case 
of  the  larger  users.  Furthermore,  the  centralization  of 
the  industry  has  added  expenses  of  distribution,  manage- 
ment, cost  accounting,  investigation,  research,  etc.,  which 
makes  the  actual  cost  of  power  at  the  point  of  generation 
a  comparatively  small  percentage  of  the  whole.  These  ex- 
penses, not  being  incidental  to  the  cost  of  the  power  pro- 
duced by  the  individual,  ai'e  in  many  cases  a  handicap. 

If  we  are  to  indulge  in  general  arguments,  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  the  cost  per  unit  of  power  installed  must,  in  the 
case  of  the  central  station,  be  as  great,  if  not  greater  than 
for  the  case  of  an  isolated  plant  of  considerable  size,  when 
one  takes  into  consideration  the  investment  in  auxiliary 
equipment,  distributing  systems,  real  estate,  etc.  The  cen- 
tral station  must  earn  fixed  charges,  as  well  as  the  isolated 
plant;  and  if  there  is  any  advantage  in  this  respect  it  is 
that  the  central  station  can  figure  lower  fixed  charges 
than  can  the  isolated  plant. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  running  costs,  I  doubt  whether  the 
pounds  of  coal  consumed  per  kilowatt-hour  are  much,  if 
any,  less  in  stations  of  from  25,000  to  30,000  kw.  than  in 
many  textile  plants  of  a  thousand  kilowatts.  Here  again 
Mr.  Kenney  might  have  emphasized  the  fact  that  the  cen- 
tral stations  have  a  corps  of  technical  experts  who  are 
constantly  studying  problems  of  economy  where  the  usual 
isolated  plant  does  not,  and  that  the  central  station  will 
maintain  its  cfiiciency  for  a  much  longer  time  than  will 
the  isolated  plant;  and  therefore,  the  figures  for  the  latter, 
previous  to  its  installation,  may  not  be  of  much  weight 
five  years  after. 

Mr.  Kenney  goes  on  to  cite  the  case  of  a  cotton  mill.  I 
find  the  figures  rather  general,  which  always  leaves  one  in 


526 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


doubt  as  to  whether  any  conclusions  can  be  drawn  after 
all.  He  admits  at  the  start  that  the  plant  had  a  most  in- 
efficient drive  and  was  wasting  40  per  cent,  of  the  power 
generated.  Whether  this  mill  continued  to  make  its  own 
power  or  purchased  it,  it  is  evident  that  it  would  have  to 
spend  considerable  money  not  only  to  install  motors  but  to 
rearrange  entirely  its  shafting,  belting,  etc.,  to  reduce  the 
load  from  1400  to  900  hp.;  and  the  expense  would  be  put 
upon  the  mill  in  any  event.  The  real  comparison  would 
then  come  as  to  whether  power  could  be  purchased  at  the 
switchboard  at  the  price  at  which  it  could  be  made  in.  the 
isolated  plant;  and  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  take  into 
consideration  overhead  charges  on  motor  equipment,  shaft- 
ing, etc.,  nor  on  heating  or  steam  used  for  processes. 

He  quotes  a  price  of  one  cent  per  kilowatt-hour;  but  few 
of  us  have  realized  the  benefits  of  any  such  price,  even  on 
total  bills  aggregating  $20,000  a  year.  Most  rates  are 
based  on  a  service  charge  and  a  running  charge,  and  the 
service  charge  is  generally  much  higher  than  the  fixed 
charges  placed  on  isolated  equipment.  I  am  assuming  that 
for  a  mill  using  1000-kw.  maximum  demand,  the  service 
charge  would  probably  be  $15,000  a  year,  which  is  $3000 
more  than  the  burden  that  he  places  on  a  1000-kw.  isolated 
plant.  If  the  service  charge  is  $12  per  kw.,  then  the  burden 
becomes  the  same.  Through  the  advantages  of  the  diversity 
factor,  the  central  station  realizes  very  much  greater  revenue 
from  service  chai-ges  than  is  at  fir^t  apparent.  I  venture 
to  say  that  if  the  total  maximum  demand  billed  to  all  cus- 
tomers was  added  together,  it  would  greatly  exceed  the 
actual  maximum  demand  of  the  central  station,  owing  to 
the  peculiar  workings  of  the  diversity  factor. 

Mr.  Kenney  refers  to  plants  where  exhaust  steam  can 
be  used,  as  presenting  a  more  difficult  problem  for  the  cen- 
tral station.  He  could  have  made  a  strong  point  for  his 
case  in  this  particular  direction,  by  showing  that  few  plants 
use  as  much  exhaust  steam  as  thev  think  they  do,  and  that 
many  use  exhaust  steam  most  inefficiently  just  because  they 
have  it,  and  then  console  themselves  with  the  thought  that 
they  are  operating  economically.  There  is  many  a  plant 
that,  if  it  started  with  its  uses  of  exhaust  steam  and  re- 
duced them  to  the  actual  minimum  requirements,  would 
find  that  the  supposed  efficiency  had  disappeared. 

With  reference  to  the  economic  consideration  it  is  hardly 
fair  to  compare  the  central-station  requirement  of  2000 
tons  with  the  mill  requirement  of  4000  tons.  The  4000 
tons  referred  to  were  admittedly  more  than  should  have 
been  the  case;  and  then  one  must  not  forget  slashers,  heat- 
ing and  other  equipment  which  require  the  use  of  coal. 

It  might  be  interesting,  in  connection  with  this  paper, 
to  cite  the  case  of  a  cotton  mill  having  a  generating  equip- 
ment of  12.50  kw.  and  a  modern  and  efficient  plant  through- 
out. The  heating  of  the  mill  was  a  very  considerable  item, 
owing  to  the  peculiar  processes  carried  on.  The  mill  was 
heated  by  the  use  of  a  hot-water  system,  the  water  in  turn 
being  heated  by  live  steam  on  the  .heory  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  mill  could  be  nicely  controlled  with  varying 
temperatures  out  of  doors.  Investigation  developed  that  it 
was  possible  to  heat  the  water  in  the  hot-waier  system  by 
using  the  surface  condenser  as  a  water  heater;  or,  to  put 
it  another  way,  by  using  the  water  in  the  heating  system  as 
the  circulating  water  for  the  condenser.  It  was  found 
possible  to  vary  the  temperature  of  the  circulating  water 
by  varying  the  load  on  the  turbine  and  carrying  varying 
degrees  of  vacuum.  The  net  result  was  the  production  of 
300  kw.  with  the  steam  previously  used  for  heating  pur- 
poses alone.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the  saving  that  can 
be  effected  during  the  heating  season  through  this  method 
of  operation  would  justify  the  operation  of  the  plant  the 
whole  year  round  even  in  the  face  of  extremely  low  rates 
for  central-station  current. 

Engine-Room   Design 

The  engine  room  is  universally  recognized  as  a  hazardous 
department.  Admittance  is  denied  even  to  the  initiate 
except  when  required  by  their  duties. 

It  is  because  of  this  condition  that  great  case  should  be 
exercised  to  guard  against  accidents.  In  many  ways  this 
care    is    noticeable.      Engineers    are    experienced,    trained 


specialists  who  recognize  the  potential  destructiveness  of 
their  machines.  Engines  are  the  product  of  the  highest 
type  of  engineering  skill  and  have  been  perfected  to  an 
extent  equalled  in  few  other  branches  of  mechanical  con- 
struction. The  eff'orts  of  the  best  designers  are  centered  on 
producing  material  surroundings  within  which  the  heart  of 
the  plant  may  beat  safely  and  with  the  greatest  efficiency. 

An  engine  room  should  have  at  least  two  means  of  en- 
trance and  exit,  each  of  which  should  be  easy  of  access  and 
within  reasonable  view  of  the  engineer  in  charge.  (Too 
many  entrances,  however,  for  obvious  reasons,  are  inad- 
visable.) All  passageways  and  exits  should  be  free  of 
obstructions,  and  doors  should  open  outwardly  and  should 
not  be  so  close  to  operating  equipment  as  to  create  a 
hazard.  Basements  of  engine  rooms  should  have  exits  so 
arranged  that  men  may  not  be  trapped  in  the  basement. 

A  sign  should  be  conspicuously  posted  outside  each  door- 
way forbidding  entrance  except  on  business. 

If  entrance  ways  are  kept  open  for  ventilating  or  other 
purposes,  bars  or  gates  should  be  placed  aci-oss  the  entrance. 

A  gallery  for  visitors  is  sometimes  provided,  as  the 
department  exercises  a  fascination  for  plant  visitors.  En- 
trance to  such  a  gallery  is  preferable  by  an  outside  stair- 
way. If  entrance  to  the  gallery  is  from  the  main  entrance, 
substantial  guard  and  intermediate  rails  should  clearly 
prescribe  the  limit  of  welcome,  and  signs  indicating  en- 
trance to  gallery  should  be  displayed.  The  gallery  or 
balcony  should  be  of  fire-resisting  construction,  rigidly 
built,  and  should  be  securely  railed  to  a  height  of  at  least 
42  in.,  with  intermediate  rails  and  toe-boards,  or  the  space 
between  the  top  rail  and  floor  entirely  filled  in.  Conversa- 
tion between  visitors  in  gallery  and  engineers  or  assistants 
in  room  below  should  not  be  permitted. 

Floor  of  engine  room  should  be  of  concrete  or  abrasive 
surface  to  eliminate  the  slipping  hazard.  When  approach 
is  had  to  any  engine  or  machine,  the  nonslipping  provision 
should  be  emphasized.  Frequently,  inserts  or  mats  of  non- 
.slip  material  are  used  at  these  points  when  the  entire  floor 
is  not  of  nonslip  material. — National  Safety  Council. 

Flyball  Governor  Guard 

A  hemispherical  sheet-metal  or  wire-mesh  basket  strong 
enough  to  hold  the  balls  in  case  of  breakage,  placed  under 
the  flyballs  as  shown    is  a  useful  guard  and  is  absolutely 


FL.YBALL-GOVERNOR  GUARD 

necessary  if  the  governor  enci'oaches  at  all  upon  a  passage- 
way or  a  position  occupied  by  an  attendant  in  the  perform- 
ance of  his  duties. — National  Safety  Council. 


April  9.  1918 


POWER 


527 


Gasoline   Substitute    Full   of   "Pep" 

Dr.  Lewis  Clements,  who  claims  to  have  produced  a  substi- 
tute for  gasoline  at  a  cost  of  2 He.  per  ga\.,  gave  a  demon- 
stration in  New  York  on  Mar.  19.  First  of  all,  the  doctor 
was  arrested  recently  on  complaint  of  a  party  who  had  been 
induced  to  invest  in  the  substitute  that  could  not,  it  was 
claimed,  be  made  for  the  price  stated,  and  the  police  agreed 
to  this  contention.  The  district  attorney,  however,  gave 
the  doctor  a  chance  to  prove  that  this  substitute  would  work. 

According  to  the  New  York  Sini  the  thing  that  sticks  in 
the  crop  of  Assistant  District  Attorney  Renaud  is  that  all 
the  chemists  who  looked  over  Doc  Clement's  formulas  said 
that  when  it  came  to  producing  a  low-cost  fuel  the  Standard 
Oil  Co.  was  an  eleemosynary  institution  compared  to  the 
doctor. 

They  admitted  that  something  ought  to  happen  when  all 
that  benzine,  alcohol,  kerosene,  naphtha,  sugar  and  sulphuric 
acid  was  poured  into  a  gas  tank,  but  they  didn't  see  how  the 
Doc  could  make  it  even  at  his  revised  figures  of  8c.  a  gal. 
They  said  that  solemnly  and  with  forethought,  and  then  put 
their  names  after  it  and  went  away,  so  that  the  Doc  was 
really  licked  before  he  started. 

It  wasn't  his  fault.  He  picked  things  up  and  put  them 
down,  washed  them  out  and  then  washed  them  again,  sipped 
kerosene  as  if  he  liked  it  every  time  he  started  a  siphon 
working,  spilled  benzine  and  alcohol  and  naphtha  all  over 
the  place,  built  little  fires  and  put  them  out  again,  and 
generally  had  a  lovely  time.  It  was  the  verdict  at  the  ring- 
side that  the  Doc  put  up  a  game  fight. 

Before  the  show  began,  however,  the  chemists  herded  the 
Doc  off  in  a  corner  and  got  his  formula.  Then  they  de- 
liberated for  about  an  hour  and  produced  the  following: 

At  the  request  of  Mr.  Renaud  we  have  today  conferred 
with  a  person  introduced  to  us  by  Mr.  Renaud  as  Louis 
Clement  (they  weren't  taking  any  chances),  and  have  re- 
ceived from  said  Clement  a  statement  of  what  he  declares 
to  be  a  full  and  complete  formula  for  his  motor  fuel. 

We  know  that  a  motor  fuel  made  according  to  said 
formula  will  cost  more  than  2y2C.  a  gal.,  which  you  stated 
said  Clement  represented  that  it  would  cost,  and  further 
that  it  would  cost  much  more  than  8c.  a  gal.,  as  said  Clement 
represented  to  us  today. 

In  our  conference  with  said  Clement  we  noted  that  he  used 
chemical  terms  incorrectly,  and  he  did  not  impress  us  as 
possessing  scientific  or  technical  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
Signed:  Charles  Baskerville,  Charles  F.  McKenna,  Gustave 
W.  Thompson,  Francis  P.  Smith,  J.  C.  Olsen,  William  Gies. 

With  which  deathbed  bulletin  they  all  went  away  save  Dr. 
Gies,  who  is  professor  of  biological  chemistry  at  Columbia 
University,  and  who  waited  till  the  bitter  end.  This  pro- 
nouncement dia  not  bother  Doc  Clement  a  bit.  He  listened 
to  it  being  dictated  to  the  reporters  waiting  to  give  the  news 
to  expectant  owners  of  little  flivvers,  and  then  rolled  up  his 
sleeves,  removed  his  hat,  but  kept  his  overcoat  on. 

To  show  that  he  had  nothing  concealed  about  him  the  Doc 
permitted  detectives  to  search  him  in  the  most  approved 
manner  of  the  stage.  He  got  behind  his  big  board  table  and 
proceeded  to  unwrap,  and  as  he  did  so  it  was  hard  to  make 
out  whether  the  Doc  was  going  to  take  up  light  housekeeping 
or  not. 

This  is  what  he  produced : 


Four  glass  gallon  jars 

Ten  test  tubes 

Four  graduated  glasses 

Two  glass  funnels 

More  corks 

One  can  of  alcohol 

One  washtub 

One  bottle  of  cedar  oil 

Sodium  bicarbonate 

Weighing  scales 

Five  rubber  tubes 

Two  towels 

One  pair  of  scissors 

One  piece  of  chamois 

Two  porcelain  spoons 


One  oil  can 

One  bottle  sulphuric  acid 

Nine  corks 

One  bunsen  burner 

Two  boxes  talcum  powder 

One  wash  boiler 

One  bag  of  sugar 

One  package  of  alum 

Alcohol  stove 

Thermometer 

More  test  tubes 

Three  gallons  distilled  water 

Four  gallons  kerosene 

One  suit  case 


To  these  were  later  added  a  Stillson  wrench,  an  oil  stove, 
which  was  purchased  halfway  through  the  experiment,  a  cut 


on  the  hand  acquired  by  the  Doc  in  opening  the  kerosene  can, 
a  frown  and  a  bad  taste  from  drinking  kerosene. 

Just  to  make  the  scene  a  bit  more  reminiscent  of  Mr. 
Kellar,  Assistant  District  Attorney  Renaud  opened  some  of 
the  packages  with  an  explanation  something  like  this: 

Gentlemen,  in  this  package  we  have  talcum  powder,  or 
what  purports  to  be  talcum  powder.  Is  it  talcum  powder? 
It  is.     Martini,  pour  it  back. 

Hours  and  hours  had  gone  by  and  the  spectators  shifted 
about,  watching  the  doctor  unpack  and  get  ready,  and 
listened  to  his  attorney,  William  Rosier,  explain  that  th« 
Doc  hadn't  eaten  a  thing  since  the  night  before  and  had  only 
slept  an  hour  in  four  days. 

No  blushing  debutante  ever  awaited  the  hour  of  appear- 
ance with  greater  trepidation  than  the  urbane  Dr.  Clement. 
He  finally  got  started  about  1 :20  and  at  1 : 56  had  his  picture 
taken,  with  cries  of  "Look  thoughtful,  doctor!"  from  the 
photographers. 

He  Gives  'Em  a  Little  Action 

1:57.  Weighs  graduated  glass  excitedly. 

1:58.  Rubs  talcum  powder  on  the  graduated  glass  and 
puts  it  down. 

2:00.  Somebody  says,  "What  does  the  labor  cost?" 

2:01.  Pours  water  into  a  jar. 

2:02.  Pours  it  into  another  jar.     Movie  machines  clicking. 

2:03.  Puts  naphtha  flakes,  the  stuff  mothballs  are  made 
of,  into  a  graduated  glass.     More  movie  activity. 

2:05.  Little  bird  up  in  the  rafters  says:  "Tweet,  cheep, 
tweet." 

2:07.  Puts  sulphuric  acid  in  glass  and  pours  in  cedar  oil. 
Stirs  it  violently  while  it  turns  red.  Movie  men  angry  be- 
cause their  machines  won't  take  red. 

2:11.  Assistant  district  attorney  eats  a  sandwich. 

2:15.  Mixes  oil  and  water.  Somebody  explains  that  the 
cedar  oil  gives  the  car  a  woody  smell  so  that  in  driving 
through  Central  Park  the  squirrels  will  follow  the  car. 

2:25.  The  Doc  siphons  kerosene  and  gets  a  mouthful. 

2:26.  Assistant  district  attorney  takes  seat  on  a  motor 
truck  to  referee  the  match. 

2:38.  Drinks  more  kerosene.  Somebody  denies  the  rumor 
that  he  has  it  for  breakfast  instead  of  orange  juice. 

2:40.  Makes  salad  dressing  of  kerosene  and  sugar,  lights 
the  mixture  and  then  throws  it  away.  Look  of  perplexity  on 
the  faces  watching. 

2:41.  Mixes  water  and  alcohol  and  burns  it. 

2:42.  Puts  benzine  in  the  wash  tub. 

Then  hours  and  hours  and  hours  while  search  is  made  for 
a  stove  to  heat  the  mixture  which  has  been  consigned  to  the 
wash  tub.  People  go  in  and  out  and  send  for  more  lunch.  The 
stove  is  produced  and  the  firemen  run  in  a  hose  from  the  hy- 
drant outside.  Nothing  happens.  The  stuff  is  stirred  up  by 
the  doctor  with  a  thermometer  and  he  announces  that  it  is 
cooked.     It  is  strained  and  ready  for  the  experiment. 

Outside  a  big  two-ton  fii'e  truck  had  been  prepared  for  the 
experiment.  A  gallon  can  with  connections  all  in  sight  was 
fastened  above  the  engine  and  the  mixture,  which  was  a  pale 
lemon  color,  with  little  bubbles  of  what  a  chemist  said  was 
water,  was  poured  in.  Battalion  Chief  Marshall  super- 
intended this  and  when  the  Clement  mixture  had  been 
poured  in,  a  large  husky  workman  was  detailed  to  turn  over 
the  engine. 

He  turned.  Nothing  happened.  He  turned  and  turned 
and  turned.  Still  nothing  happened.  Then  he  tinkered  with 
the  carburetor,  and  turned  some  more.  Not  a  kick.  The 
engine  was  primed  and  the  exhausted  cranker  relieved  by 
another,  but  still  no  response. 

Deep  gloom  and  words  of  indignation  on  the  part  of  Doc 
Clement's  attorney  and  friends.  The  engine  should  not 
have  been  cold;  the  water  in  the  radiator  was  cold;  it  was 
not  fair. 

"Let  me  try  the  flivver,"  said  the  doctor.  It  was  per- 
mitted, and  with  a  few  deep  inhalations  the  engine  raced  as 
if  it  had  picric  acid  in  its  innards.  Large  clouds  of  smoke 
drifted  from  the  exliaust  and  brought  back  memories  of 
kerosene  lamps  in  the  days  of  one's  youth. 

One  recalled  that  according  to  Don  Marquis  a  flivver  will 
run  on  Stutter's  Stomach  Bitters,  Stewroona,  Doctor  Bun- 
kus'  Discovery  for  the  Kidneys,  Lily  Gingham's  Discovery 
or  Siwash  Injun  Soorah.     It  seemed  even  so. 


528 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


It  was  tried  on  a  six-cylinder  car  with  a  self-starter  and 
worked  beautifully,  but  all  the  efforts  of  Chief  Marshall's 
mechanics  would  not  cause  that  fire-department  machine  to 
cough  once.  The  chemist  explained  that  it  was  because  the 
water  had  dissolved  and  settled  to  the  bottom  and  no  engine 
will  run  on  water,  except  apparently  a  Ford.  So  the  experi- 
ment ended,  with  both  sides  claiming  victory. 

But  the  scientific  gentlemen  were  all  on  the  side  of  the 
district  attorney,  for  they  showed  that  all  the  ingredients  in 
the  mixture,  with  the  exception  of  kerosene,  cost  as  much 
as  gasoline— some  of  them  more.  Kerosene  costs  less;  but 
even  that  is  15c.  per  gal.,  and  the  Doc  claims  he  can  make 
his  stufT  for  eight  cents.  He  produced  at  the  test  from  the 
$9  worth  of  material  about  5  gal.  of  substitute. 

No  Strikes  or  Lockouts  During  the  War 

The  War  Labor  Conference,  which  has  been  in  session 
at  Washington  for  several  weeks,  on  March  29  submitted 
to  Secretary  of  Labor  Wilson  a  comprehensive  program 
for  the  settlement  of  industrial  disputes  during  the  war 
period,  by  means  of  which,  if  adopted,  lockouts  and  strikes 
would  be  averted  and  production  kept  at  a  maximum. 
Under  the  proposed  agreement,  the  right  of  workers  to 
organize  in  trade  unions  and  to  bargain  collectively  is 
unreservedly  recognized  and  the  open  shop  is  also  pro- 
tected; the  basic  eight-hour  day  is  recognized;  the  right  of 
all  workers  to  a  living  wage  is  guaranteed;  and  women 
doing  the  work  ordinarily  performed  by  men  are  to  receive 
the  pay  of  men. 

In  case  of  disputes  there  is  to  be  investigation  and  arbitra- 
ment by  a  National  War  Labor  Board  to  consist  of  five  rep- 
resentatives of  capital  and  five  representatives  of  organized 
labor.  If  the  efforts  of  the  National  Board  fail  to  bring 
about  a  voluntary  settlement,  provision  is  made  for  the 
appointment  of  an  umpire  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  the 
National  Board.  Failing  such  choice,  the  name  of  the 
umpire  shall  be  drawn  by  lot  from  a  list  of  ten  suitable  and 
disinterested  persons  to  be  nominated  for  the  purpose  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States.  This  umpire  shall  have 
power,  under  simple  rules  of  procedure  prescribed  by  the 
National  Board,  to  make  final  decisions,  from  which  there 
can  be  no  appeal.  „,  ,  , 

Ex-President  William  H.  Taft  and  Frank  P.  Walsh, 
selected  counsellors  respectively  of  capital  and  labor,  in 
statements  made  on  Saturday,  gave  their  full  approval  to 
the  recommendations  of  the  board. 

Rules  of  Procedure 

The  principles  and  policies  to  govern  relations  between 
workers  and  employees  in  war  industries  for  the  duration 
of  the  war  are  stated  substantially  as  follows: 

There  should  be  no  strikes  or  lockouts  during  the  war. 

The  right  of  workers  to  organize  in  trade  unions  and  to 
bargain  collectively,  through  chosen  representatives,  is 
recognized  and  affirmed. 

The  right  of  employers  to  organize  in  associations  of 
groups  and  to  bargain  collectively,  through  chosen  repre- 
sentatives, is  recognized  and  affirmed. 

Employers  should  not  discharge  workers  for  membership 
in  trade  unions,  nor  for  legitimate  trade-union  activities. 

Ihe  workers  shall  not  use  coercive  measures  of  any  kind 
to  induce  persons  to  join  their  organizations  nor  to  induce 
employers  to  bargain  or  deal  therewith. 

In  establishments  where  the  union  shop  exists,  the  same 
shall  continue  and  the  union  standards  as  to  wages,  hours 
of  labor  and  other  conditions  of  employment  shall  be  main- 
tained. 

In  establishments  where  union  and  nonunion  men  and 
women  now  work  together  and  the  employer  meets  only 
with  employees  or  representatives  engaged  in  said  establish- 
ments, the  continuance  of  such  condition  shall  not  be  deemed 
a  grievance.  This  declaration,  however,  is  not  intended  in 
any  manner  to  deny  the  right  or  discourage  the  practice 
of  the  formation  of  labor  unions  or  the  joining  of  the  same 
by  the  workers  in  said  establishments,  nor  to  prevent  the 
War  Labor  Board  from  urging,  or  any  umpire  from  grant- 


ing, under  the  machinery  herein  provided,  improvement  ot 
their  situation  in  the  matter  of  wages,  hours  of  labor,  or 
other  conditions. 

Established  safeguards  and  regulations  for  the  protection 
of  the  health  and  safety  of  workers  shall  not  be  i-elaxed. 

If  it  shall  become  necessary  to  employ  women  on  work 
ordinarily  performed  by  men,  they  must  be  allowed  equal 
pay  for  equal  work  and  must  not  be  allotted  tasks  dispro- 
portionate to  their  strength. 

The  basic  eight-hour  day  is  recognized  as  applying  in  all 
cases  in  which  existing  law  requires  it.  In  all  other  cases 
the  question  of  hours  of  labor  shall  be  settled  with  due 
regard  to  governmental  necessities  and  the  welfare,  health 
and  proper  comfort  of  the  workers. 

The  maximum  production  of  all  war  industries  should  be 
maintained  and  methods  of  work  and  operation  on  the  pai't 
of  employers  or  workers  which  operate  to  delay  or  limit 
production,  or  which  have  a  tendency  to  artificially  increase 
the  cost  thereof,  should  be  discouraged. 

For  the  purpose  of  mobilizing  the  labor  supply  with  a 
view  to  its  rapid  and  effective  distribution,  a  permanent  list 
of  the  number  of  skilled  and  other  u'orkers  available  in., 
different  parts  of  the  nation  shall  be  kept  on  file  by  the 
Department  of  Labor,  the  information  to  be  constantly 
furnished:  (1)  By  the  trade  unions;  (2)  by  state  employ- 
ment bureaus  and  Federal  agencies  of  like  character;  (3) 
by  the  managers  and  operators  of  industrial  establishments 
throughout  the  country.  These  agencies  should  be  given 
opportunity  to  aid  in  the  distribution  of  labor,  as  necessity 
demands. 

In  fixing  wages,  hours  and  conditions  of  labor  regard 
should  always  be  had  to  the  labor  standards,  wage  scales 
and  other  conditions  prevailing  in  the  localities  affected. 

The  right  of  all  workers,  including  common  laborers,  to 
a  living  wage  is  hereby  declared. 

In  fixing  wages,  minimum  rates  of  pay  shall  be  estab- 
lished which  will  insure  the  subsistence  of  the  worker  and 
his  family  in  health  and   reasonable  comfort. 


Fuel  Administration's  Fuel-Oil  Rules 

President  Wilson,  acting  through  the  United  States  Fuel 
Administrator,  on  Mar.  25,  promulgated  revised  rules  and 
regulations  governing  the  distribution  of  fuel  oil  in  that 
section  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
These  regulations  supersede  those  issued  Jan.  31,  1918. 

Under  a  proclamation  issued  by  the  President  Jan.  31, 
every  manufacturer  and  distributer  of  fuel  oil  (including 
gas  oil)  whose  gross  sales  aggregate  more  than  100,000 
bbl.  per  annum  was  required  to  secure  a  license  from  the 
Fuel  Administration  on  or  before  Feb.  11,  1918.  The  regu- 
lations promulgated  Mar.  25  control  these  licensees. 

The  reason  for  revising  the  regulations  is  that  under  the 
former  provisions  it  was  found  that  distributers  controlling 
only  a  small  supply  of  fuel  oil  were  unable  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  all  their  customers.  Distributers  con- 
trolling larger  supplies  were  able  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  all  consumers  on  the  priority  list.  This  situation  worked 
a  hardship  to  the  customers  of  the  smaller  distributers  and 
deprived  essential   industries   of  their   fuel   oil. 

Under  the  new  regulations  if  a  distributer  is  unable  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  all  of  his  preferred  customers, 
another  distributer  may  be  required  by  the  Fuel  Admin- 
istration to  meet  this  demand  before  he  is  allowed  to  supply 
his  own  customers  who  are  not  on  the  preferred  list. 

Twelve  classes  of  consumers  are  specified  in  these  regu- 
lations, and  manufacturers  and  distributers  are  required 
U:  give  priority  in  the  distribution  of  fuel  oil  to  them  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  named. 

Deliveries  must  be  made  in  conformity  with  this  list 
regardless  of  any  existing  contracts  between  licensees  and 
consumers  in  other  classes.  After  the  requirements  of  con- 
sumers entitled  to  priority  are  satisfied,  licensees  must  carry 
out  their  contracts  for  other  deliveries  to  the  extent  of  their 
supplies. 

These  rules  and  regulations  are  for  the  purpose  of  assur- 
ing an  adequate  supply  and  equitable  distribution  of  fuel 


April  9,  1918 


POWER 


529 


oil  fo!'  pui  poses  vitally  essential  to  the  national  security 
and  defense  and  to  the  successful  prosecution  of  the  war. 
The  shortage  in  the  amount  of  fuel  oil  which  can  be 
delivered,  because  of  transportation  conditions,  is  such  that 
it  is  clearly  a  wasteful  and  unreasonable  practice  to  deliver 
such  fuel  oil  for  uses  which  are  not  intimately  and  dii-ectly 
connected    with   the   prosecution   of   the   war. 

Rule  1.  No  licensee  engaged  in  the  distribution  of  fuel 
oil  in  that  part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  United  States 
Fuel  Administrator,  make  any  deliveries  of  fuel  oil  to  any 
customer  or  consumer  of  any  one  of  the  classes  mentioned 
below,  whether  the  licensee  is  under  any  contract  to  make 
delivery  to  such  customer  or  consumer  or  not,  until  such 
licensee  shall  have  delivered  to  the  customers  or  consumers 
of  every  class  designated  by  a  lower  number  with  whom 
such  licensee  may  have  contracts,  or  to  whom  such  licensee 
shall  have  been  directed  to  deliver  by  order  of  the  United 
States  Fuel  Administrator,  all  fuel  oil  to  be  delivered  upon 
such  last-mentioned  contracts  or  such  orders  of  the  United 
States  Fuel  Administrator.  Preferential  deliveries  as  be- 
tween members  of  the  same  class  may  be  made  only  with 
the  consent  and  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States 
Fuel  Administrator.  This  rule  shall  apply  to  all  deliveries 
of  fuel  oil,  regardless  of  any  contracts  therefor  or  here- 
after made. 

Provided  that  this  rule  shall  not  prevent  the  delivery  of 
fuel  oil  by  any  licensee  to  any  jobber  or  distributer  if  such 
fuel  oil  is  to  be  used  for  a  purpose  for  which  the  licensee 
could  deliver  such  oil  direct,  nor  in  any  case  where  the 
jobber  or  distributer  shall  have  been  licensed  or  designated 
by  the  United  States  Fuel  Oil  Administrator. 

The  classes  referred  to  and  the  order  of  their  prefer- 
ence are  as  follows:  (1)  Railroads,  bunker  fuel  and  oil 
refineries  using  or  making  fuel  oil;  (2)  export  deliveries 
or  shipments  for  the  United  States  Army  or  Navy;  (3)  ex- 
port shipments  for  the  navies  and  other  war  purposes  of 
the  Allies;  (4)  hospitals  where  oil  is  now  being  used  as 
fuel;  (5)  public  utilities  and  domestic  consumers  now  using 
fuel  oil  (including  gas  oil)  ;  (6)  shipyards  engaged  in  Gov- 
ernment work;  (7)  navy  yards;  (8)  arsenals;  (9)  plants 
engaged  in  manufacture,  production  and  storage  of  food 
products;  (10)  Army  and  Navy  cantonments  where  oil  is 
now  being  used  as  fuel;  (11)  industrial  consumers  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  munitions  and  other  articles  under 
Government  orders;    (12)   all  other  classes. 

Rule  2.  Licensees  shall  promptly  comply  with  all  orders 
of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administrator  with  respect  to 
the  delivery  of  fuel  oil,  the  submission  of  reports,  and  other 
matters  proper  and  necessary  to  carry  into  effect  the  Presi- 
dent's proclamation  of  Jan.  31,  1918. 

Ride  3.  Neither  these  rules  and  regulations  nor  the  orders 
of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administrator  shall  relieve  any 
licensee  from  his  obligation  to  deliver  fuel  oil  which  he 
has  contracted  to  deliver  as  soon  as  the  prevention  result- 
ing from  such  rules,  regulations,  or  orders  shall  have  ceased 
to  operate  and  the  fuel  oil  shall  be  available  for  delivery 
under  such  contracts. 

These  rules  and  regulations  shall  apply  to  all  licensees 
heretofore  or  hereafter  licensed  under  the  proclamation  of 
the  President  dated  Jan.  31,  1918,  and  shall  supersede  the 
rules  and  regulations  issued  with  the  approval  of  the  Presi- 
dent on  that  day. — H.  A.  Garfield,  United  States  Fuel 
Administrator. 


Speaking  recently  at  Dewsbuiy  on  coal  conservation, 
W.  B.  Woodhouse,  chi;f  engineer  and  manager  of  the  York- 
shire Electric  Power  Co.,  said  that  in  the  United  States 
the  production  of  coal  per  man  was  660  tons,  as  against 
250  tons  in  Great  Britain ;  in  the  textile  clothing  trade,  the 
annual  value  of  the  production  per  person  employed  in  the 
United  States  was  £484,  as  against  £158  in  Great  Britain; 
the  primary  cause  for  the  difference  was  that  American 
industry  used  approximately  three  times  as  much  power 
as  was  used  here  in  corresponding  trades.  The  solution 
of  the  problem  was  the  more  economical  use  of  fuel  and 
the  cheapening  of  power  supply,  the  one  being  a  conse- 
quence of  the  other. — Engineering  (London). 


Syracuse   Garbage- Digester   Explosion 

An  explosion  of  one  of  the  garbage  digesters  at  the 
Syracuse  Municipal  Reduction  Plant  at  about  8  o'clock 
on  the  evening  of  Mar.  20,  badly  wrecked  the  plant  (Fig. 
1 ),  causing  an  estimated  loss  of  $80,000,  but  fortunately 
without  loss  of  life  or  injury  to  any  of  the  six  men  who 
were  employed  in  the  plant  at  the  time. 

It  is  understood  that  several  of  the  digesters  had  b.ien 
installed  recently,  and  that  the  older  ones  had  all  been 
overhauled  during  the  winter.     They  had  been  examined  by 


FIG.    1. 


WRECKED   BY   AN   EXPLODING   G.4RBAGE 
DIGESTER 


boiler  inspectors  a  few  days  previous  to  the  explosion  and 
had  been  pronounced  in  excellent  condition. 

The  top  of  the  exploded  digester.  Fig.  2,  was  thrown 
several  hundred  feet  over  the  buildings  and  landed  in  an 
adjoining  marsh.  No  details  of  the  condition  of  the  digesters 
has  been  obtained  other  than  that  an  examination  of  the 
drums  showed  that  the  plates  were  much  thinner  than 
when  first  installed  and  that  they  were  not  strong  enough 
to  withstand  the  steam  pressure  carried,  which  was  not 
supposed  to  be  over  80  lb.  The  metal  of  the  drums, 
which  should  have  been  li  in.  thick,  had  so  deteriorated 
that  the  plate  was  extremely  thin  in  places  and  incapable 
of  withstanding   the   pressure   carried. 


PIG    2      TOP  OF  THE  EXPLODED  DIGESTER 

It  is  to  be  remembei'ed  that  digesters,  although  operating 
under  comparatively  low  steam  pressure,  are  subject  to 
the  corrosive  action  of  acids  and  gases,  which  causes  the 
wasting  away  of  the  plates  and  greatly  reduces  the  strength 
of  the  riveted  joints. '  These  are  probably  responsible  for 
the  explosion,  although  the  theory  '  of  frozen  dynamite 
having  been  placed  in  the  digester  with  the  garbage,  and 
that  of  the  explosion  of  an  accumulation  of  gas  and  steam 
in  the  digesters  had  been  advanced. 

Fortunately  no  fire  followed  the  accident;  and  as  a 
protection  against  further  danger  the  fires  were  drawn 
from  the  boiler  furnaces  and  the  employees  ordered  from 
the  building  later  on  on  account  of  the  danger  from 
falling  walls. 


530 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


Points  About  Storing  Coal 


So  many  inquiries  reach  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  concerning  the  spontaneous  com- 
bustion of  coal  that  the  bureau  has  issued  the  follow- 
ing general  statement  on  the  subject.  The  point  of  view 
of  the  bureau  is  as  follows:  The  wisdom  of  establishing 
large  storage  piles  is,  of  course,  another  matter  which 
must  be  determined  from  the  facts  in  each  case. 

The  conditions  of  storage  of  coal  are  so  various  as  to 
make  it  necessary  to  apply  general  principles  in  each 
case  rather  than  specific  directions. 

It  is  to  be  recommended  that  coal  should  be  stored  in 
small  quantities  as  near  to  the  point  of  consumption  as 
possible.  Small  coal  piles  rarely  ignite  from  spontaneous 
combustion.  Coal  should  be  stored  near  the  point  of  use 
to  avoid  rehandling,  extra  transportation,  and  the  degrada- 
tion of  size  which  follows  each  rehandling.  For  these  rea- 
sons the  bureau  would  advocate  storage,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, in  the  bins  and  yards  of  the  ultimate  consumer,  thus 
dividing  the  risk  of  loss  from  spontaneous  combustion.  If 
large  storage  piles  are  necessary,  certain  general  prin- 
ciples must  be  borne  in  mind.  The  generation  of  heat  is 
the  result  of  slow  oxidation  of  the  coal  surface.  The  oxida- 
tion is  much  more  rapid  from  freshly  mined  coal  or  from 
freshly  broken  surfaces.  The  oxidation  rate  increases 
rapidly  with  increased  temperature.  Different  coals  have 
different  oxidizing  rates.  These  facts  lead  to  the  follow- 
ing  recommendations : 

Where  there  is  choice  of  coal  to  be  stored,  that  having 
the  lowest  oxidizing  rate  should  be  chosen,  if  known.  Be- 
tween two  coals,  that  which  is  least  friable,  and  therefore 
which  presents  the  least  total  coal  surface  in  the  pile, 
should  be  selected.  The  method  of  handling  should  be  such 
as  to  produce  the  least  freshly  broken  coal  surface.  The 
coal  should  be  as  cool  as  possible  when  piled.  Piling  warm 
coal  on  a  hot  day  is  more  likely  to  produce  spontaneous 
combustion.  The  coal  must  be  kept  from  any  extraneous 
source  of  heat.  Alternate  wetting  and  drying  of  coal 
during  piling  is  to  be  avoided  if  possible. 

The  fine  coal,  or  slack,  which  furnishes  the  larger  coal 
surface  in  the  pile,  is  the  part  from  which  spontaneous 
combustion  is  to  be  expected.  Piling  of  lump  coal  where 
possible  is  therefore  desirable.  In  the  process  of  handling, 
if  the  lump  coal  can  be  stored  and  the  fine  coal  removed 
and  used  immediately,  the  practice  prevents  spontaneous 
combustion  in  coals  which  would  have  otherwise  given 
trouble. 

The  sulphur  content  of  coal  is  believed  by  many  to  play 
an  important  role  in  spontaneous  combustion.  The  evi- 
dence on  this  point  is  still  conflicting,  but  to  play  safe, 
it  is  desirable  to  choose  coal  having  a  lower  sulphur  con- 
tent, when  choice  is  possible. 

There  is  a  current  belief  that  dissimilar  coals  stored 
in  one  pile  are  more  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion.  The 
evidence  on  this  point  is  also  conflicting,  but  to  play  safe, 
it  is  advisable  to  store  only  one  kind  of  coal  in  a  pile.  The 
ground  on  which  a  coal  pile  is  built  should  be  dry. 

The  foregoing  recommendations  are  all  derived  from  the 
factors  affecting  the  heating  of  coal. 

There  should  be  no  spontaneous  combustion,  whatever 
the  heating  rate,  provided  the  heat  is  carried  away  as 
rapidly  as  produced.  This  fact  brings  about  the  following 
recommendations:  Coal  piles  should  be  so  made  that  there 
is  ready  movement  of  air  for  ventilation  throughout  all 
parts  of  the  coal  pile.  This  is  the  londition  when  the  en- 
tire pile  is  made  of  coarse  lump  coal.  With  ordinary  coal 
piling,  this  is  difficult. 

The  surfaces  of  coal  piles  should  be  so  exposed  as  to 
allow  the  pile  to  cool;  or  else  the  coal  should  be  so  stored 
that  air  circulation  within  the  pile  is  very  small.  When 
the  air  circulation  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  as  in  an  air- 
tight bin  with  no  opening  in  the  bottom,  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  is  soon  removed  and  the  mass  of  the  coal  lies  in  an 
inert  atmosphere,  except  for  small  local  circulation  near 
the    surface.      Air-tight    bins    are    usually    impracticable. 


but  the  following  practice  is  recommended  to  approximate 
these  conditions: 

In  making  a  coal  pile  of  mixed  sizes,  the  coal  should 
be  so  handled  as  to  make  a  homogeneous  pile  and  pre- 
vent the  segregation  of  coarse  and  fine  coal.  This  fre- 
quently determines  the  most  desirable  machinery  for  un- 
loading coal. 

It  is  common  practice  to  limit  the  height  of  a  coal  pile; 
this  for  two  reasons:  A  pile  too  high  crushes  the  lower 
layers  of  coal,  producing  more  fines;  the  larger  the  pile 
the  less  heat-dissipating  sui-face  there  is  exposed  in  pro- 
portion to  the  heat-generating  capacity  of  the  pile.  Twelve 
feet  in  height  is  a  common  limit. 

Whatever  precautions  are  taken  in  the  choice  and  han- 
dling of  coal,  provision  should  be  made  for  keeping  track 
of  the  temperature  rise  in  a  coal  pile  and  for  rapid  re- 
handling of  portions  of  a  pile  in  case  of  excessive  heating. 
In  a  coal  pile  covering  a  considerable  area,  it  should  be 
so  subdivided  that  in  case  of  spontaneous  combustion  of 
a  portion,  the  heat  will  not  be  transmitted  to  the  whole 
pile,  thus  accelerating  the  heating  of  portions  of  the  pile 
which  normally  would  have  remained  cool. 

To  keep  track  of  the  temperature  of  coal  piles,  it  is 
recommended  that  half-inch  iron  pipe  be  driven  vertically 
into  the  pile  at  distances  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  apart.  A 
maximum  thermometer  lowered  into  the  pipe  to  varying 
depths  will  indicate  the  temperature  of  the  pile  opposite 
the  thermometer. 

A  survey  of  the  pile  and  a  survey  of  the  temperature 
of  all  parts  of  the  pile  should  be  made  twice  a  week  dur- 
ing the  first  three  months  after  the  pile  is  made,  and  once  a 
week  thereafter  until  the  pile  has  evidently  ceased  to  heat. 
As  soon  as  any  portion  of  the  pile  reaches  a  temperature 
of  150  deg.  F.  provision  should  bo  made  for  removing 
that  portion  of  the  pile.  Actual  removal  need  not  begin 
until  the  temperature  has  reached  180  deg.  F.,  but  at  these 
temperatures  the  rate  of  oxidation  is  dangerously  rapid. 
The  object  of  rehandling  the  coal  is  to  allow  it  to  cool  be- 
low a  dangerous  temperature.  Any  method  of  rehandling 
which  does  not  allow  of  cooling  will  only  transfer  the 
difficulty  from  the  old  pile  to  the  new  one.  It  is  generally 
useless  to  employ  water  in  an  attempt  to  cool  a  coal  pile. 

Lack  of  provision  for  rapid  reloading,  cooling  and  re- 
piling  of  coal  is  the  cause  of  serious  loss  from  spontaneous 
combustion. 


Zone  Distribution  for  Bituminous  Coal 

United  States  Fuel  Administrator  Garfield  on  Mar.  30 
signed  formal  orders  instituting  the  zone  system  of  dis- 
tribution for  bituminous  coal.  Twelve  general  orders,  im- 
posing upon  the  movement  of  coal  the  limitations  arranged 
by  the  Fuel  Administrator  and  the  Director  General  of 
Railroads  were  issued.  They  will  be  communicated  at 
once  to  those  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  the  zone- 
system  distribution  plan.  Each  order  covers  a  single  con- 
suming zone. 

The  orders  of  the  Fuel  Administrator  are  directed  to  the 
operators  in  the  various  producing  fields,  which  are  limited 
in  their  shipments  to  specified  consuming  territory.  They 
are  supported  by  embargoes  imposed  by  the  Director  Gen- 
eral of  Railroads  on  all  coal  movement  except  along  the 
lines  laid  down  in  the  zone-system  plan. 

The  orders  directing  coal  producers  to  restrict  their  ship- 
ments to  the  coal-consuming  territory  alloted  to  them 
became  effective  at  7  a.m.,  Monday,  Apr.  1. 


The  Municipal  Electrical  Association,  comprising  187 
towns  in  England,  has  been  discussing  the  question  of  link- 
ing up  stations,  so  that  one  can  assist  the  other  with  current 
if  necessary.  In  this  connection  it  is  proposed  to  divide  the 
country  into  16  areas. — Commerce  Reports. 


April  9,   1918 


POWER 


631 


Electrical  Energy  from  the  Volterra 
"Soffioni" 

The  large  works  of  Count  Larderel  for  the  recovery  of 
borax  from  the  hot  springs  that  abound  in  the  volcanic 
district  to  the  south  of  Volterra  have  long  been  known. 
There  the  volcanic  district  for  many  miles  round  is  punctu- 
ated with  soffioni — blasts  of  hot  borax-bearing  steam  which 
breaks  through  the  natural  crevices  of  the  soil. 

For  many  years  it  was  only  for  the  recovery  of  the  borax 
that  this  steam  was  utilized,  but  of  late  a  new  departure 
has  been  made  which  is  interesting  both  for  the  ingenuity 
of  the  methods  devised  for  overcoming  technical  difficulties 
and  for  the  importance  it  may  reach. 

The  earliest  experiments  for  utilizing  the  Volterra  steam 
for  producing  power  date  back  to  1903,  when  Prince  Ginori- 
Conti  had  a  powerful  jet  of  natural  steam  directed  onto 
the  vanes  of  a  waterwheel,  but  the  apparatus  was  little 
more  than  a  toy.  Later  on  he  used  the  steam  in  a  i-ecip- 
rocating  engine  which  sufficed  to  drive  a  small  dynamo 
and  provide  current  for  a  few  lamps.  Encouraged  by  the 
development  of  these  experiments,  the  prince  set  up  a 
larger  engine  of  40  hp.,  which  also  was  actuated  by  the 
natural  steam  just  as  it  rose  fi'om  the  ground.  The  results 
obtained  were  satisfactory  in  a  way,  but  the  rapid  cor- 
rosion of  the  metal  work  by  the  sulphuric  acid  and  other 
impurities  that  contaminated  the  raw  steam  were  a  serious 
drawback.  However,  in  the  hopes  that  this  obstacle  might 
by  some  device  be  overcome,  several  borings  were  made 
reaching  from  a  depth  of  from  100  to  180  meters  (328  to 
590  ft.),  in  which  iron  tubes,  of  a  bore  varying  from  20 
to  40  centimeters  (7.87  to  15.75  in.),  were  fixed.  Jets  of 
superheated  steam  were  thus  obtained  in  large  quantities. 
The  production  of  the  several  shafts  varies  from  5000  to 
20,000  kg.  (11,023  to  44,092  lb.)  of  steam  per  hour,  the 
pressure  from  2  to  3  atmospheres  (29.4  to  34.1  lb.),  while 
if  the  aperture  of  the  tube  is  completely  closed  the  pres- 
sure rises  to  4  or  5  atmospheres  (58.8  to  73.5  lb),  and  the 
temperature  ranges  from  150  deg.  to  180  deg.  C. 

This  source  of  possible  power  is  clearly  important  in 
quantity,  and  is  susceptible  of  great  development,  for  ex- 
perience shows  that  shafts  can  be  sunk  as  close  to  each 
other  as  are  the  oil  wells  in  a  Pennsylvanian  field  without 
interfering  with  their  respective  production,  and  the  ground 
in  which  they  can  be  sunk  with  good  results  extends  over 
several  square  miles.  But  befoi-e  this  source  of  power 
could  be  made  commercially  available  some  means  had  to 
be  devised  for  getting  over  the  corrosion  of  the  metals  in 
the  apparatus  used. 

The  first  attempt  on  anything  like  a  large  scale  was 
made  with  a  jet  of  25,000  kg.  (55,115  lb.)  of  steam  per 
hour  at  a  pressure  of  2  atmospheres  (29.4  lb.).  Theo- 
retically, this  would  provide  about  4000  hp.,  40  per  cent, 
of  which  could  be  practically  utilized.  What  was  actually 
done  was  to  install  in  1912  a  turbine  of  300  hp.,  coupled 
to  an  •  alternator,  providing  a  current  sufficient  for  light- 
ing the  Larderel  establishment.  The  results  obtained  were 
considered  good  enough  to  justify  the  erection  of  a  plant 
or  a  larger  scale,  and  the  huge  increase  in  the  cost  of  coal 


caused  by  the  war,  owing  to  which  coal  has  actually  been 
sold  on  the  wharves  of  Genoa  up  to  £20  ($97.33)  per  ton, 
provided  an  additional  motive  for  pushing  on  the  work. 
Three  turbines  were  built  by  Tosi,  of  Legnano,  coupled  to 
alternators  for  the  production  of  3000  kw.  each.  The  cor- 
rosion problem  was  tackled  in  this  way.  The  steam  from 
the  soffioni  was  not  sent  direct  into  the  turbines,  but  was 
used  to  heat  three  groups  of  low-pressure  ( 1  %  atmospheres 
01  18.37  lb.)  tubular  boilers  supplied  with  pure  water,  the 
condensed  steam  being  collected  for  the  recovery  of  the 
boracic  acid  and  the  other  byproducts  which  it  contains. 
The  boilers  that  produce  the  steam  for  feeding  the  turbines 
are  vertical  and  the  tubes  are  of  aluminum,  as  being  less 
affected  by  the  acids  contained  in  the  steam  which  pro- 
vides the  heat  for  boiling  the  water  in  the  secondary  boiler. 
Each  of  these  turbines  develops  about  4000  hp.,  and  they 
are  coupled  to  three  alternators  of  3000  kw.  each.  The  elec- 
tric current,  which  by  the  transformers  is  raised  to  36,000 
and  16,000  volts,  is  distributed  by  five  distinct  lines  to  vari- 
ous towns.  Last  summer  only  two  of  the  groups  were  used, 
the  third  being  held  in  reserve,  but  other  turbines  were 
under  order,  and  the  power  produced  will  probably  be 
largely  increased  in  the  near  future.  The  latest  informa- 
tion to  hand  is  that  the  company  has  sold  more  power  than 
it  can  at  present  produce.  It  is  in  contemplation  to  pro- 
vide motive  power  from  this  source,  in  substitution  for 
coal-raised  steam,  to  the  two  important  steel  works  situ- 
ated on  the  cost  at  Piombino — the  Alti  Forni  and  the 
Magona  d'ltalia.  A  scheme  of  treatment  is  also  under 
consideration  for  the  recovery  of  helium  and  other  rare 
gases,  which  may  be  used  for  the  making  of  electric  lamps 
and  other  purposes. 

Of  the  economical  results  of  the  scheme  it  is  as  yet  too 
early  to  say  anything  positive.  Even  if  the  management 
were  willing  to  divulge  them,  it  is  hardly  likely  that  it  has 
yet  been  able  to  determine  their  costs  with  any  accuracy. 
With  coal  at  its  present  price  almost  any  source  of  energy 
may  be  scrambled  for,  but  when  normal  times  return  the 
question  of  finance  will  assume  a  different  aspect,  and  the 
plant  now  working  must  therefore  still  be  looked  on,  from 
the  profit  and  loss  point  of  view,  as  something  of  an  experi- 
ment, though  the  able  men  who  work  it  are  not  lacking  in 
confidence.  It  will  take  a  longer  experience  to  determine, 
not  only  the  ultimate  efficiency  of  the  plant,  but  also  what 
vfiW  be  the  cost  of  repairs  for  boilers  working  under  the 
trying  conditions  to  which  they  are  subject.  How  will  this 
cost  compare  with  that  of  water  turbines? 

For  the  technical  details  of  these  notes  and  the  illustra- 
tions we  are  indebted,  says  the  Engineer,  to  Engineer  Pro- 
fessor Luigi  Luiggi,  inspector  of  the  Genio  Civile,  and  an 
authority  of  unquestionable  competence. 


If  the  War-Savings  and  Thrift-Stamp  campaign  attains 
the  goal  set,  it  will  cover  the  entire  cost  of  the  Govern- 
ment's shipbuilding  program  for  the  year.  Already  the 
Government  is  receiving  from  the  buyers  of  War-Savings 
Stamps  daily,  enough  money  to  build  more  than  10,000  tons 
of  shipping.  It  has  already  received  funds  for  the  building 
of  420,000  tons  or  84  ships  of  5000  tons  each. 


STKAM  FROM  EARTH  FI.SSURIOS.  .STEAM-PIPE  LINES  AND  .STI'-.AM  .HOT  I.S.Sl'lXn   FROM  A  PIPE 


532 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 


Water-Power  Leg^islation  As:reement 
Made 

It  is  understood  in  Washington  that  the  Special  Joint 
Water  Power  Committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
has  agreed  to  incorporate  in  the  Shields  bill,  passed  by 
the  Senate  some  time  ago,  all  the  features  of  the  so-called 
Administration  water-power  bill  agreed  upon  by  the  com- 
mittee. The  Shields  bill,  when  it  passed  the  Senate,  was 
referred  to  the  House  Committee  on  Interstate  and  Foreign 
Commerce,  and  that  committee  has  referred  it  to  the 
special  committee  which  has  been  holding  hearings  on  the 
Administratici    bill  for  some  time. 

Senators  are  expressing  satisfaction  that  a  way  has 
been  found  out  of  a  legislative  difficulty,  by  the  special 
committee  of  the  House  deciding  not  to  bring  in  the  Ad- 
ministration bill  as  a  separate  measure.  Some  Senators 
have  entertained  the  idea  that  as  the  Senate  has  recently 
dealt  with  water-power  matters  and  officially  expressed 
itself  in  the  Shields  bill,  there  would  be  little  opportunity 
for  substituting  the  Administration  bill  from  the  House 
for  the  Shields  bill  in  the  Senate.  The  plan  now  is  for 
the  House  to  amend  the  latter  bill  by  incorporating  the 
features  of  the  Administration  bill.  The  bill  as  so  amended 
will  then  Ije  submitted  to  conferees  on  the  part  of  the 
House  and  Senate.  Senator  Shields  will  be  manager  of  the 
conferees  on  the  part  of  the  Senate  and  Judge  Sims, 
chairman  of  the  House  Special  Committee,  will  be  manager 
on  the  part  of  the  House.  It  is  authoritatively  stated  in 
Washington  that  Senator  Shields  has  made  up  his  mind 
to  accept  a  number  of  the  most  important  provisions  of 
the  Administration  bill  when  they  are  tacked  on  to  his  bill 
as  amendments,  and  there  is  a  general  disposition  among 
other  Senators  to  urge  the  measure  to  completion. 

The  measure  must  nevertheless  go  through  a  number  of 
slow-moving  processes  before  coming  to  be  a  law,  as  in  all 
likelihood  there  will  be  debate  on  it  in  the  House  and  in 
the  Senate.  It  is  said  in  Washington  that  if  there  is  a 
disposition  in  the  House  to  retard  the  passage  of  the  bill 
unduly,  a  rule  will  be  brought  in  by  the  Rules  Committee, 
shutting  off  debate. 

Brief  additional  hearings  were  held  on  the  bill  Thurs- 
day, Apr.  4,  before  the  House  Special  Committee.  As 
this'  is  written  in  Washington,  however,  the  committee 
feels  that  it  has  had  laid  before  it  practically  all  the  facts 
upon  which  it  needs  to  act. 


Marking  Packages  for    Express 
Shipment 

The  express  companies  have  issued  what  is  termed  Sup- 
plement No.  5  to  Official  Express  Classification  No.  25. 
This  refers  to  the  marking  on  packages,  bundles,  etc.,  and 
it  goes  into  effect  May  1,  1918.  Some  of  its  requirements, 
which  may  be  of  interest  to  Poiver  advertisers  and  readers, 

follow: 

(a)  Each  package,  bundle  or  loose  piece  in  a  shipment 
must  be  plainly,  legibly  and  durably  marked,  showing  the 
name  of  only  one  consignee,  and  of  only  one  station,  town 
or  city  and  state  to  which  destined. 

(b)  Shipments  wi-apped  in  paper,  or  packed  in  boxes, 
crates,  barrels,  corrugated  paper  or  fiberboard  containers 
must  be  marked  with  pen,  brush,  stencil,  waterproof  crayon, 
or  by  label  securely  attached  with  glue  or  equally  good 
adhesive.  Such  shipments  must  not  be  accepted  when 
marked  only  with  tag  except  as  provided  below: 

Shipments  of  iced  goods,  such  as  fish,  oysters,  etc.,  must 
be  marked  with  brush,  stencil  or  waterproof  crayon,  or  with 
two  tags  securely  tacked,  one  of  which  must  be  sunk  in  a 
groove  in  the  box  or  case,  or  otherwise  protected  in  such 
manner  as  to  prevent  becoming  detached  or  defaced  by 
contact  with  other  articles  or  surfaces. 

Containers  which  are  customarily  used  several  times  for 
transportation  of  goods  by  express,  such  as  bread  boxes  or 
(log  kennels,  which  cannot  be  satisfactorily  marked  with 
brush,  stencil,  waterproof  crayon  ci  label,  may  be  accepted 


when   bearing   two   address   tags   securely   attached   to   the 
package. 

(c)  Castings,  machine  farts,  shafting,  pipe,  rods,  bars, 
and  other  metal  articles: 

1.  When  boxed,  barreled,  crated  or  trussed,  must  be 
marked  in  compliance  with  paragraph   (b). 

2.  When  not  boxed,  barreled,  crated  or  trussed,  and  there 
is  sufficient  smooth  surface  for  the  purpose,  the  address 
must  be  plainly  marked  on  the  article  with  durable  paint. 
Such  shipments  must  not  be  accepted  unless  marks  are 
thoroughly  dry. 

3.  When  not  boxed,  barreled,  crated  or  trussed,  or  when 
not  possible  to  mark  as  provided  in  preceding  paragraph, 
shipments  must  be  marked  with  not  less  than  two  wooden, 
leather,  metal,  cloth,  rope  stock  or  sulphite  fiber-tag-board 
tags.  Rope  stock  or  sulphite  fiber-tagboard  tags  must  test 
not  less  than  14  point,  50  per  cent,  rope,  have  reinforced 
metal  eyelets  and  cord  must  be  attached  by  wnre  not  less 
than  23  gage,  or  strong  tarred  cord.  Tags  must  be  attached 
wherever  possible  to  unexposed  parts  of  the  article  in  order 
that  they  may  not  become  detached  in  handling. 

4.  Rods,  shafting,  bars,  iron-bed  slides,  automobile  springs 
and  other  articles  of  like  character  marked  with  tags  a? 
provided  in  paragraph  3  must  have  the  tags  securely  wired 
to  the  article„and  in  addition,  a  concealed  tag  bearing  the 
same  address,  must  be  bound  to  the  article  with  burlap 
covering,  the  latter  securely  wired  at  each  end. 

5.  When  metal  articles  are  shipped  in  sacks,  the  address 
must  be  shown  on  tag  conforming  to  the  specifications  in 
paragraph  3^  attached  either  by  wire  or  strong  cord,  and 
an  additional  tag  Ijearing  the  same  address  must  be 
inclosed  in  the  sack. 

Except  when  in  carloads,  each  package  or  article  in  a  lot 
shipment  must  be  marked  in  compliance  with  these  require- 
ments. 

Shipments  not  marked  in  accordance  with  the  foregoing 
requirements,  or  as  noted  under  individual  items  of  the 
Classification,  must  be  refused. 


Petroleum  in  Britain 

Lord  Cowdray  has  addressed  a  letter  to  the  press  which 
requires  the  most  careful  consideration,  both  of  the  govern- 
ment and  the  public.  It  appears  that  he  has  offered  on 
behalf  of  his  firm  to  (1)  place  at  the  government's  dis- 
posal the  services  of  his  technical  staff  for  the  duration  of 
the  war,  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  and  exploiting 
oil  fields  in  Great  Britain,  entirely  free  of  cost;  (2)  to  sur- 
vey, drill  and  exploit  at  their  own  entire  cost,  subject  to 
certain  areas  being  reserved  to  the  firm  as  licensees,  who 
will  spend  at  least  £500,000  ($2,433,250)  on  the  work. 
Thus  the  nation  would  incur  no  expenses,  but  would  stand 
to  gain  both  directly  and  indirectly.  The  point  that  requires 
most  immediate  attention  is  the  statement  that  legislation 
is  required;  otherwise  if  the  government  proceeds  undSr  the 
Defense  of  the  Realm  Act,  all  discoveries  made  and  work 
done  would  revert  to  the  landowner  after  the  war.  That 
should  not  be.  If  petroleum  exists  m  these  islands  in  any 
quantity,  it  should  be  made  national  property. —  The  En- 
gineer. 


Production  of  Fuel  Briquets 

The  output  of  fuel  briquets  in  the  United  States  in  1917 
was  406,856  net  tons,  valued  at  $2,233,888,  an  increase 
over  1916  of  111.701  tons,  or  38  per  cent,  in  quantity,  and 
of  $788,226,  or  55  per  cent,  in  value,  again  breaking  the 
record  of  the  previous  year. 

According  to  C.  E.  Lesher,  of  the  United  States  Geologi- 
cal Survey,  Department  of  the  Interior,  the  demand  for 
fuel  in  1917  was  so  strong  throughout  the  whole  year  that 
there  was  no  lack  of  market  to  limit  the  production  of  the 
briquet  manufacturers.  Despite  the  increased  cost  of 
binders  and  of  manufacturing,  most  of  the  plants  operated 
to  full  capacity  and  reported  a  prosperous  year. 


April  9,  1918 


POWER 


533 


Obituary 


M<Tri<k  M.  i'lillcls,  for  22  years  iiiaTiasor 
and  sui-n-iiiit.iult'iit  of  the  Mi'tcalf  BulkliiiK, 
ProvitU-iK-e.  K.  I.,  died  at  his  lioine  at  I'ldKe- 
wood  on  Mar.  31.  after  an  illne^Js  of  three 
weeks.  His  health  had  been  pour  for  about 
two  years.  He  was  treasurer  of  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  Stationary  Knglneers. 
No.  1  for  17  years,  and  previous  to  that 
had  been  president  for  three  terms  He 
was  a  director  of  the  Nichols  Manufacturing 
Co.  and  also  a  Civil  War  veteran.  He  was 
born  in  Woodstock.  Conn.  He  is  survived 
by   his   widow   and   one   daughter. 


MllllltlllllllllMllli 


Personals 


■IlllllllllUlllllllttll IIMII tlltl IIIIMIIIIII IIIMII Illlllllllllllllltll'l 

H.  O.  Savage  has  been  elected  vice  presi- 
dent of  the  Locomotive  Pulverized  Fuel 
Co.  of  New  York.  He  will  also  continue  as 
vice  president  of  the  American  Arch  Co. 

George  M.  Keenan,  formerly  test  engi- 
neer of  the  Union  Electric  Co.,  St.  Louis. 
Mo.,  is  now  chief  engineer  of  the  Little 
Rock  Rallwav  and  Electric  Co.,  Little  Rock. 
Ark. 

Henr.v  A.  Stringfellow  has  resigned  from 
the  Epping-Carpenter  Pump  Co..  Pittsburgh. 
Penn..  to  accept  the  position  of  first  assist- 
ant engineer  with  R.  Winthrop  Pratt,  con- 
sulting engineer,  on  the  design  of  the  new 
filtration  plant  for  the  City  of  Detroit,  Mich. 


Engineering  Affairs       I 

The    American    Association    of    Engineers 

will    hold    its    fourth    animal    convention    in 
Chicago,  May  14. 

Tlie  Soutliwestcm  Electrical  and  Gas 
Association  will  hold  its  annual  convention 
at   Galveston,   Tex.,   Apr.    15-111. 

Tlie    Soutliwestern    Societ.v    of    Engineers 

wil   hold   its  annual   convention   at    I  louglas, 
Bisbee  and  Tuscon.   Ariz.     Apr.    18-2M. 

Tlie  American  .Society  of  Heating  and 
Ventilating  Engineers  will  hold  a  meeting 
on  the  evening  of  Apr.  15.  which  will  be  de- 
voted   to    "Fuel    Conservation." 

American  Association  of  Engineers — -Gar- 
rett P.  Serviss.  the  prominent  scientist  and 
author,  will  address  the  New  York  Chapter 
at  its  next  meeting  on  Wednesday,  Apr.  I'l. 
at  the  Hotel  Mc.\lpin,  at  8  p.m.  His  sub- 
ject  will   be,    "The   Glory  of  the  Engineer." 

The  American  Institute  of  Electrical  En- 
gineers will  hold  a  meeting  on  the  evening 
of  Apr.  12.  The  following  papers  will  b.' 
presented:  *'A  Ph.vsical  Conception  of  the 
Operation  of  the  Single-Phase  Induction 
Motor."  b.v  B.  G.  Lamme  :  "Xo-Load  Condi- 
tions of  Single-Phase  Induction  Motors  and 
Phase    Converters,"    by    R.    E.    Hellmund. 


I       Miscellaneous  News       | 

r>>lt I IIIIIMItllllllllMIIOIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIilllillllllllllllllllllllllllP 

The  Xortliwest+rn  Kleetric  Co.  of  Port- 
land, Ore.,  ha-s  started  the  construction  of  a 
$1,500,000  additional  power  plant  in  this 
city  which  will  have  a  capacity  of  10,000 
kw.  or  13,400  hp..  with  an  ultimate  de- 
velopment of  40.000  hp. 

The  City  Officials  of  Seattle,  Wash,,  ha\( 
decided  to  make  a  thorough  investigation 
of  all  power  sites  offered  recently  before 
awarding  the  contract  for  the  construction 
of  a  new  plant.  The  opinion  seems  to 
favor  the  acceptance  of  the  bid  of  Grant 
Smith  &  Co.  for  the  construction  of  a  plant 
to    cost    $2,100,000. 

The  Northern  Idalio  and  Mnntiina  l*»wer 
Co.,  Kalispt'll,  Mont.,  has  licpn  sold  at  public 
auction  for  $563. IGf.  to  rtob.Tt  J.  Oraf.  i-ep- 
resenting-  the  stockholders  of  the  conip;iny. 
His  bid  was  the  only  one  received  and  was 
made  for  him  by  John  L.  lluemer,  a  Chicago 
attorney.  The  power  cumpany  became  in- 
solvent some  time  ago  and  was  ordered  sold 
at  auction.  The  Continental  and  Com- 
mercial Trust  and  Shavings  Hank,  of  Chi- 
cago, is  the  trustee  for  the  bondholders, 
which  has  held  the  deed  of  trust  in  order  to 
secure,  its  issue  of  about  $4,ono.OO()  in  bonds. 

The  Nevadfl-Californui  Power  Co.  is  con- 
templating one  of  the  longest  transnilssion 
lines  In  the  country.  The  company  has  its 
headquarters  at  Riverside.  Calif.,  and  has 
been  working  out  details  of  Its  scheme  with 


a  view  to  saving  power  to  railroad  com- 
panies that  have  been  engaged  in  hauling 
fuel  to  thi-  Nevada  Consolidated  ConU'Jmies' 
plant  at  Kly,  Nev.  The  •J4-hour  shift  of  the 
company  has  an  etjuivalent  of  liil.tHH)  hp., 
and  this  could  be  used  to  good  advantage 
for  a  saving  of  fuel.  The  Nevada  Consoli- 
dated now  generates  its  own  power  with  lo- 
cal steam  plants,  which  call  for  an  immense 
totmage  of  fuel  that  is  diflicult  to  deliver  in 
the  present  congested  condition  of  tratlic, 
and  anything  that  would  relieve  the  com- 
pany from  the  uncertainty  of  getting  power 
would  be  welcome,  even  though  the  cost 
would  be  in  excess  of  the  present  showing. 
The  copper  company  is  mining  by  the 
steam-shovel  method  and  concentrating  the 
ores  at  the  rate  of  10.000  tons  a  day.  The 
cost  of  the  installation  would  be  approxi- 
mately $300,000  for  the  pole  line  alone. 
Before  engaging  in  its  construction  or  en- 
tering into  a  definite  contract,  the  power 
company  would  have  to  secure  the  consent 
of  the  Government  for  a  priority  order  of 
delivery  for  the  material  required  in  the 
construction,  as  it  would  be  impossible  to 
secure  any  considerable  material  without 
this  arrangement.  Should  the  deal  become 
effective,  the  Nevada  Consolidated  would 
become  the  largest  individual  consumer 
of  electric  power  in  the  West  and  the  elec- 
tric companies'  service  would  extend  over 
a  distance  of  300  miles  from  Inyo  county 
almost  to   the   Utah   line. 


Business  Items 


The  H.  W.  Jolms-Manville  Co.  announces 
the  removal  of  its  Memphis  (Tenn.  office  to 
new  quarters  at  804-5  Exchange  Building, 
Madison  Ave.   and   Second   Street. 

Smith  Serrel  Co.,  Inc.,  90  West  St.,  New 
York  City,  are  now  manufacturing  the  Pin- 
tite  rigid  couplings  for  line  shafting,  which 
are  made  in  shaft  sizes  from  J^-iu.  to  4-in. 
This  coupling  was  described  on  page  229 
of  the  Feb.  17,  1914.  issue  and  was  at  that 
time  manufactured  by  the  Thomas  Coupling 
Co.,  Warren,  Penn. 

The   Hawes   Foundry   and   F^qutpnient   Co.. 

with  a  capitalization  of  $250,000.  has  just 
announced  its  acquisition  of  the  Central 
Bronze  Co.,  which  concern  will  cooperate 
with  its  other  plants  in  turning  out  a  com- 
plete line  of  bronze  valves  and  fittings.  All 
its  products  will  be  marketed  and  distributed 
as  in  thf  past,  through  its  principals,  the 
John  Wilfert  Co.,  of  New  York,  Brooklyn. 
St.    Louis   and    Buenos   Aires. 

MaeGovern  &  Co.,  of  114  Liberty  St.. 
New  York  City,  well-known  dealers  in  sec- 
ond-hand equipment,  announce  the  opening 
of  branch  offices  at  Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  and 
St.  Louis.  Mo.  The  office  in  Pittsburgh  is 
located  at  498  Union  Arcade,  and  is  under 
the  direction  of  L.  H.  Tippins  and  W.  L. 
Sprengle.  The  St.  Louis  office  is  at  315 
North  12th  St..  and  is  under  the  direction 
of   R.    S.    Fisher,    district   manager. 

The     Big     California-Oregron      Power     Co. 

Dam  at  Copco,  Calif.,  on  the  Klamath  River 
has  been  completed  and  the  reservoir  whicii 
is  formed  has  been  filled.  This,  together 
with  the  construction  of  a  similar  dam  lower 
down  the  river,  will  give  the  company  a 
total  of  103.000  hp.  from  this  one  source 
The  dam  just  completed  is  considered  one 
of  tlie  great  engineering  feats  of  the  coun- 
try. It  is  95  ft.  across  at  the  base  and  500 
ft.  at  the  top.  It  develops  26.000  hp.  and 
cost    $1,500,000. 

W'tllllllllllllllltMlltllllllllllllllMIIMIIIMirilllMIIIIIIIMIIIMIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMiu 

I  Trade  Catalogs  j 


"The    Pump    that    Manistee    Builds."    The 

Maniste  Iron  Works.  Manistee.  Mich.,  Pp. 
12  ;  9  X  a  in.  ;  illustrated.  This  booklet  illus- 
trates the  design  and  construction  of  the 
RO  TTTRBO  centrifugal  pump,  made  by  the 
Manistee  Iron  Works,  in  a  most  unusual 
way.  Instead  of  the  ordinary  series  of  half- 
tone views  of  the  various  features  of  the 
pump,  the  booklet  contains  a  cleverly  ar- 
ranged series  of  pictures  of  each  part. 
These  are  cut  out  and  arranged  one  over 
the  other  so  that  in  turning  the  leaves  the 
reader  sees  the  pump  just  as  he  would  see 
an  actual  model  being  taken  apart.  Thus, 
turning  the  first  page  removes  the  bearing 
cap.  Turning  the  next  page  removes  tln' 
thrust  cap  and  bearing  bracket.  Kach  page 
in  turn  shows  the  pump  in  a  more  disas- 
sembled condition  until  the  last  page  shows 
just  the  holow  pump  casing.  Not  only  is 
this  booklet  one  of  the  most  novel  pul)lica- 
tions  ever  issued  by  a  machinei'>'  house, 
but  it  makes  the  design  and  construction  of 
the  RO  TURBO  pump  so  clear  that  a  copy 
slunild  be  in  every  englneer'.s  library. 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


IIIMIItllllllllllllllll 


iiiiiiMMiniiiiiiiiiiiii. 


PrupoHed    Work 

Mans.,  CambridEe — The  Cambridge  Elec- 
tric Light  Co.  46  Blackstone  St.,  is  receiv- 
ing bids  for  the  erection  of  a  1-story,  30  x 
50  ft.  addition  to  its  power  plant.  Noted 
Jan.  22. 


N.  Y.,  Alban.v— State  Dept.  of  Health 
will  receive  bids  until  May  8,  for  the  in- 
.stallation  of  heating  and  illuminating  sys- 
tems in  laboratory  on  New  Scotland  Ave. 
H.   Biggs,   Comr. 

N.  Y.,  Buffalo — The  Demarest  Heating 
Corporation,  21  The  Terrace,  has  increased 
its  capital  stock  from  $10,000  to  $50,000; 
the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  make  altera- 
tions   and    build    additions. 

N.  Y..  Buffalo — The  Frontier  Water  and 
Steam  Supply  Co.,  667  Main  St.,  has  in- 
creased its  capital  stock  from  $40,000  to 
$150,000  ;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  make 
alterations  and  build  additions. 

N.  Y..  Buffalo — The  Lackawanna  Steel 
Co.  Hamburg  Turnpike,  is  having  plans 
prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  l-story,  100 
X  190  ft.  central  turbo  generator  power 
plant.      Estimated   cost,    $200,000. 

N.  Y..  Buffalo — The  National  Aniline  and 
Chemical  Co..  Abbott  Rd..  plans  to  build  a 
power  house  in  connection  with  its  plant. 
Estimated   cost,    $8500. 

N.  Y..  Buffalo — The  Power  Efficiency 
Corporation.  102  Clinton  St.,  has  plans  un- 
der consideration  for  additions  and  im- 
provements to  its  plant. 

N.  Y.,  Jamestown — The  Crescent  Tool 
Co..  202  Harrison  St.,  is  having  plans  pre- 
pared for  a  power  station  to  be  erected  at 
its   plant.      Noted   Feb.    26. 

N.  Y,,  Nia^rara  Falls — The  State  Reser- 
vation Commission  is  having  plans  pre- 
pared by  F.  N.  Williams  State  Engr., 
Capitol,  Albany,  for  a  power  plant  to  be 
erected  on  Goats  Island.  Estimated  cost, 
$3,000,000. 

N.  J.,  Bridg:eton — City  has  plans  under 
consideration  for  the  installation  of  an 
electric  lighting  plant. 

N.  .1.,  Newark — Maas  &  Walstein,  Inc., 
Ave.  R..  has  had  plans  prepared  for  the 
erection  of  an  addition  to  its  power  plant 
and  alterations  to  its  boiler  room.  Esti- 
mated cost,  $12,000. 

N.  J.,  Trenton — City  is  considering  plans 
for  a  hvdro  electric  plant  to  be  erected  on 
the  Sarihican  Creek.  J.  R.  Pell,  Jr.,  City 
Engr, 

N.  .1.  Trenton — J.  E.  Thropp  Sons  Co.. 
Lewis  St..  will  receive  bids  until  Apr.  19. 
for  the  erection  of  an  iron  plant  to  include 
a  power  house,  foundry,  etc.  Estimated 
cost,  $100,000.  J.  O.  Hunt,  114  North 
Montgomery   St.,    Engr. 

Penn.,  .  Philadelphia — The  Bureau'  of 
Yards  and  Docks.  Navy  Dept.,  Wash.,  will 
soon  award  the  contract  for  furnishing  and 
installing  at  Navy  Yard.  here,  exciters 
switchboards,  cell  structures,  cell  equip- 
ment,   wiring   transformers,    etc. 

Penn.,  Portersville — The  Fox  Coal  Co.. 
Brannan.  near  here,  has  had  plans  pre- 
pared by  C.  D.  Hall.  Engr..  Jenkins  Ar- 
cade, Pittsburgh,  for  the  erection  of  a 
power  house  at  its  plant. 

Md.,  Baltimore — The  Baltimore  Jlanu- 
faeturing  Co..  Monument  and  Constitution 
St.,  Is  having  plans  prepared  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  new  power  station  on  Centi'al 
Ave.   and   Bank  St. 

Va.,  Norfolk — The  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Docks,  Navy  l>ept..  Wash.,  will  soon  award 
the  contract  for  furnishing  and  installing 
at  Nav,>'  Yard,  here,  exciters,  switchboards, 
cell  structures,  cell  equipment,  wiring, 
transformers,   etc. 

Oft.,     ValdONta — The  Ocean     Pond     Club 

House   plans    to    Install  an   electric   liehtli\t; 

Iihmt    to    supply    light  to    the    hou.9e    and 
gi'ounds. 


534 


Ala.,  Chickasaw — The  Chickasaw  Ship- 
building Co.  plans  to  build  an  elec- 
tric generating  plant  to  cost  $750,000 
in  connection  with  its  shipbuilding  plant 
now   under  way  at   Mobile. 

Tenn.,  Columbia — M.  R.  Sterns.  Nash- 
ville, and  associates,  plans  to  organize  a 
company  with  $200,000  capital  stock,  to 
build  and  operate  an  electric  generating 
plant  on  the  Duck  River,  near  here. 

Ky.,  Somerset — The  Southern  Machinery 
Exchange  is  in  the  market  tor  a  150  kw.. 
direct  current,  250  volt  belted  generator 
and  engine,  or  direct  connected  set. 

Oliio,  Bedford — The  Owen  Tire  and  Rub- 
ber Co.,  1900  Euclid  Ave..  Cleveland,  will 
build  a  1-story,  250  x  350  ft.,  reinforced, 
concrete,  steel  and  brick  factory  and  power 
house ;  also  install  a  high  presrure  boiler, 
steam  engine  and  dynamo.  Estimated 
cost,   $125,000. 

WiH.,  Brodhead — The  Brodhead  Electric 
Light  and  Powt-r  Co.  has  had  plans  pre- 
pared by  Power  Eng.  Co..  Engrs..  512  Corn 
Exchange.  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  2-story.  40  x  80  ft.,  brick  and 
rein. -con.  hydro  electric  plant.  K.  Guel- 
son,  Supt.     Noted  Mar.   19. 

Wis.,  Superior — ^E.   Kaner  has  acquired  a 

site    and    plans    to    build    a    plant    and    will 
install    electric    cranes    in    same. 

Minn.,  Crosby — City  voted  to  issue  $76.- 
000  bond.s  for  the  installation  of  an  elec- 
tric-lighting  plant. 


Wyo  .    Manvilli 

electric-ligiiting 
$30,000. 


— City    plans    to    build    an 
plant.      Estimated      cost, 


.*rk.,  RufTalo — The  Dixie  Mining  Co.  will 
soon  award  the  contract  for  the  erection 
of  an  electric  lighting  and  power  plant. 
Address  A.  C.  Barnhart.  Wheat  Bldg.,  Ft. 
Worth,  Tex.      Noted   Apr.   2. 

Ark.,  Delight. — B.  P.  Ryon.  Texarkana, 
has  been  granted  a  franchise  to  build  an 
electric  lighting  plant  here. 

Ark.,  Diaz — The  Wilmans  Mercantile  Co. 
is  in  the  market  for  machinery  including 
power   plant    equipment,    crusher,    etc. 

Ark.,  Hominy — The  Hominy  Ice.  Light 
and  Power  Co.  is  in  the  market  for  ma- 
chinery including  a  150  hp.  gas  engine. 
direct  connected  to  a  100  kw.,  3  phase. 
2300   volt  generator. 

.*rk..  Rector — The  King  Mercantile  Co. 
is  in  the  market  for  equipment  for  its 
power  plant  and  cotton  gin.  About  $25,000. 
L.    King,    Pres. 

Tex.,  Texas  Cit.v— The  Texas  City  Elec- 
tric Light  and  Power  Co.  plans  to  build 
an  electric  power  station ;  also  install  a 
100  kw.  turbo  generator  with  convertor. 
for  street  railway  service  and  an  emer- 
gency unit.     R.   C.  Trubex.   Mgr. 

Okla.,  Hlaokwell — City  plans  to  install 
ai'ditional  ilcctric  lighting  equipment.  Es- 
timated  cost,    $82,500. 

Okla..  Ferguson — The  Blaine  County  Salt 
Co.  plans  to  install  electrical  equipment  in 
its   new   salt   plant. 

S.  ,M..  Columbus — The  Columbus  Electric 
Ijiglit  and  Power  Co.  plans  to  build  a  power 
pli»nt  here.  Estimated  cost,  $30,000.  J. 
L.    Greenwood,    Pres. 

Wash..  S"attle — The  Rothert  Process 
Steel  Co.,  622  Harriman  St.,  plans  to  in- 
stall a  10  ton  electric  furnace. 

Calif.,  Oakdale — The  Sierra  and  San 
F'rancisco  Power  Co.,  58  Sutter  St..  plans 
to  rehabiUiate  its  old  hydro-electric  plant 
at  Knights  Ferr>'.  Estimated  cost,  $10,- 
000.      M.    C.    McKay,    Supt. 

Ont.,  Drumiiionilsville — The  Dominion 
Power  and  Transmission  Co..  Terminal 
Bldg..  Hamilton,  has  had  plans  prepared 
for  the  erection  of  a  hydro  electric  plant. 
New  electrical  equipment  will  be  installed. 
E.    R.    Coleman.   Uen.    Mgr. 

Ont.,  Oahawa — Bradley  Bros,  is  in  the 
market  for  a  5  hp..  220  volt,  single  pha.se. 
electric    motor.    170    r.p.rr-.. 


POWER 


Ont,,  Owert  Sound — The  Empire  Stove  & 
Furnace  Co..  Ltd..  is  in  the  market  for 
three  15-20  and  25  hp.,  60  cycle.  550  volt. 
3  phase  motors,  either  new  or  second  hand 

Ont.,  Owen  Sound — Keenan  Bros.,  Ltd.. 
is  in  the  market  for  a  60-75  hp.  engine. 

Ont.,  Toronto — The  Universal  Products. 
Ltd..  43  Britain  St.,  is  in  the  market  for 
one  5  hp.  and  one  10  hp  .  230  volt,  direct 
current,   medium   speed   motor. 

Ont.,  Toronto — E.  Whiting,  122  King  St.. 
E..  is  in  the  market  for  an  18-30  hp.  steam 
traction  engine. 

Que.,  East  Broughton — The  Quebes  As- 
bestos Co.  plans  to  spend  $30,000  for  a 
power  plant. 


CONTRACTS     AWARDED 

Mass.,  Boston — The  Tilestone  and  Hol- 
lingsworth  Co..  49  Federal  St..  is  building 
a  reinforced  concrete  transformer  house. 
Electric  motive   power   is  being   installed. 


Mass.,  East  Hampton — The  Glendale 
Elastic  Fabrics  Co.,  52  Union  St..  is  build- 
ing a  l-stor>-.  65  x  75  ft.  power  plant  and 
switchroom.      Estimated  cost,    $10,000. 


Mass.,    New    Bedford — The    New    Bedford 

Textile  Co..  247  Shawniut  Ave.,  is  building 
a  1-storv.  25  x  40  ft,  boiler  plant.  E.sti- 
mated   cost     $40,000. 

Mass.,  Springfield — The  Undertakers  Sup- 
ply Corporation.  Stearns  Bldg..  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  new  25 
X  30  ft.  power  house,  to  Gour  Bros.,  20 
"^'oodmont  St. 

R.  I.  Westerly — The  Narragansett  Elec- 
tric Light  Co..  Providence,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  1-story. 
30  X  72  ft.  addition  to  the  gas  house  of 
the  Westerly  Light  and  Power  Co.,  to  the 
Joslin  Lena  Co.,   20  Mechanic  St. 

Conn.,  Hartford — The  Pratt  &  Cady  Co., 
Capitol  Ave.,  has  awarded  the  contract  for 
a  l-stor>-.  30  x  103  ft.  concrete  and  brick 
boiler  room  to  be  erected  at  its  foundry 
on  Cushman  St.,  to  Porteus  &  Walker  Co. 
13   Forrest   St.      Estimated  cost,    $23,000. 

N.  Y.,  New  Hampton — The  Department 
of  Corrections.  Municipal  Bldg.,  New  York 
City,  is  building  a  power  house  at  the  re- 
formatory  here. 

N.  Y.,  Syracuse — The  Swan  &  Finch  Co.. 
416  Tracey  St.,  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  an  addition  to  its  power 
house,  to  F.  M.  Kimmey,  1007  West  Onon- 
daga St. 

Penn..  Indian  Creek — The  Mountain 
Water  Supply  Co.  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  1-story.  31  x  71 
ft.  power  plant,  to  the  Rust  Eng.  Co. 
Penna,  Bldg.,  Philadelphia.  Estimated 
cost,    $35,000. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  Fretz  Co..  On- 
tario and  Brabant  St..  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  construction  of  a  new  en- 
gine and  boiler  house,  to  H.  E,  Brockle- 
hurst,  512  West  Norris  St.  Estimated  cost, 
$19,000. 

Penn.,  Pittsburgh — The  Arrott  Estate, 
.\rrott  Bldg.,  has  awarded  the  contract  for 
a  new  power  plant  to  be  erected  on  Barker 
PI.  to  replace  the  one  recently  destroyed 
bv  tire,  to  Rose  &  Fisher,  821  Penn  Ave. 
Estimated   cost,    $15,000. 

Penn.,  Pittsburgh — The  South  Pittsburgh 
Water  Co..  Carrick.  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  new  45  x  ll.j 
ft.  power  house,  to  the  Walker  &  Curley 
Co.,  Trust   Bldg.        Estimated  cost.   $35.iiOO. 

Ala.,  Columbia — The  Columbia  Power 
Co.  has  awarded  the  contract  for  enlarging 
its  plant  at  Omussee,  to  Tucker  &  Laxton. 
Inc.  Charlotte,  N.  C.  Bstintated  co.st, 
$500,000. 

W.vo.,  Wheatland — The  town  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  a  120  kw.  generator  di- 
rectly connected  and  a  new  switchboard, 
to  the  Fairbanks-Morse  Co.      Noted  Mar.   5. 

B.  C,  Vancouver — The  Wallace  Ship- 
building Co.  has  awarded  the  contract  for 
reconstructing  the  entire  power  system 
to    the    .\ludy    Rowland    Co. 


Vol.  47,  No.  15 

THE  COAL  MARKET 


Boston — Current   tiuotations   per   gross   Ion   tie 

livered  alongrside  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  ag^o  are  as  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Cireular  Individual 

Apr.   4,    1918  Apr.   4.    1918 

Buckwheat     54.60  S7.1U — -7.35 

Rice    4.10  6.65 — 6.90 

Boiler    3.90  

Barley    3.60  6.15 — 6.40 

BITUMINOUS 

Bituminous    not    on    market. 

Pocohontas    and    New    River,     f.o.b.    Hannjton 

Roads,    ia   £4.    as   (.ompaj-ed   with  $'J.85 — '3.00   a 
year  agro. 


*  All-rail   to   Boston   is  S--60. 


tWater  coal 


New-  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  as  compared 
with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows; 

ANTHRACITE 

Circ-ular  Individual 

Apr.  4.   1918      Apr.  4.   1'918 

Pea    $4.90  S5.65 

Buckwheat    4.45<5i5.ir>  r).10@6.85 

Barley    3.40rdi3.65  3.10@4.10 

Rice     3.90(J3  4.10  4.10@4.85 

Boiler     3.65(3)3.90            

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c. 
higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N,  Y,  Mine 

Gross  Price  Net     Gross 

Central    Pennsylvania.  .$5,06  $3.05          $3.41 
Maryland— 

Mine-run    4.84  2.85            3.19 

Prepared    5.06  5.05            3.41 

Screeniners    4.50  2.55             2.85 

•The  lower  ports  are;  Elizabethport.  Port  John- 
son. Port  Reading-.  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Am- 
buy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty,  Hobo- 
ken,  Weehawken.  Ed^ewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut- 
tenberg.  St.  George  is  in  between  and  sometiineB 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ralte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5c.  hig^her  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  line  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

, Line >,  ^ ; Tide ^ 

April  4,  One  Yr.  April  4.  One  Year 

1918  Affo  1918  Ago 

Pea    $3.75  $2.80  $4.65  $3.70 

Barley    2.15  1.85  2.40  2.05 

Buckwheat    ..    3.15  2.50  3.75  3.40 

Rice     2.65  2.10  3.65  3.00 

Boiler     2.45  1.95  3.55  3.16 


Chicago — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  lUinois 
Prepared    sizes,.  .$2.65 — 2.80  $3.35 — 3.50 


Mine-run    3.40 — 2.55 

Screening's     2.15 — 2.30 


3.10 — 3.25 
2.85 — 3.00 


So.  111..  Pocohontas,   Hocking:. Ea.st 
Pennsylvania        Kentucky  and 
Smokeless  Coals    and  W.  Va.         West   Va.   Splint 
Prepared    sizes..  .$2.60 — 2.85  $2.85 — 3.35 

Mine-run   2.40 — 2.60  2.60 — 3.00 

Screening-s     2.10 — 2.55  2.35 — 2.75 


St.    Louis — Price.-*   per   net   ton   f.o.b.   mines  a 
year  ag^o  as  compared  with  today  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and       Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

April   4.        April   4,  Apr.   4 

1918               1918  1918 

6-in.  lump     ....  $2,65-2.80   $2.65-2.80  $2.65-2.80 

2-in.-lump    ....    2.65-2.80      2.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

Steam    egg.  .  .  .    2.65-2.80      2.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

Mine-run    2.45-2.60      2.-15-2.60  2.45-2.60 

No.    1    nut 2.65-2.80      2.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

2-iu.    screen,    .  .    2.15-2.30      2.15-2.30  2.50-2.65 

No.   5   washed  .    2  15-2.30      2.15-2.30  2.50-2.65 


Kirminghau) — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b. 
mines  are  as  follows: 


Lump    Slack  and 


&Nut  ! 

Screenings 

S-J.l.'i 
2.40 
3.65 

$1.6.-> 
1.90 
3.15 

Mine- 
Run 

Big  Seam    51 .90 

Pratt.    Jajrg^er.    Corona      2.15 
Black  Creek.   Cahaba.      2.40 
Government    figures. 

Individual  priees  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  regular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according  to  a  regular  schedule. 


POWER 


6'^^ 


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Vol.47  NEW    YORK,    APRIL    16,  1918  No.  16 

llllllllllllllinilllllllinillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllinillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllin  iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiih 


Lost  Opportunity 

Contributed  by  H.  D.  Odell 


THE  chief  engineer  was  an  intelligent  and 
industrious  young  man,  a  correspondence 
graduate.  Although  only  25  years  old,  he  had 
already  put  in  eleven  years  at  the  game,  having 
entered  the  engineering  field  as  an  oiler  in  an 
electric-light  plant.  In  two  years  he  was 
promoted  to  the  position  of  night  engineer. 
Attentive  to  his  work  and  courteous  to  all,  he 
made  friends  and  a  great  future  was  predicted 
for  him.  At  the  age  of  25  years  he  had  realized 
his  ambition  and  was  a  full-fledged  chief  engineer 
in  charge  of  a  street-railway  power  plant.  But 
there  was  one  thing  that  had  never  been  im- 
pressed on  his  mind  and  that  was  '"never  to 
accept  favors  from  drummers." 

THE  manager  of  this  railway  system  was 
a  clean-cut,  intelligent  person  and  a  first- 
class  judge  of  men  in  general.  This  power  plant 
was  one  of  a  string  of  six  owned  by  a  syndicate, 
and  the  manager  was  so  efficient  that  the  syndi- 
cate appointed  him  general  manager  of  all  six 
plants  with  headquarters  in  a  larger  city.  Of 
course  he  had  to  employ  a  man  to  take  his  place 
in  the  position  he  was  going  to  give  up.  He 
thought  the  young  chief  would  make  good  if 
given  a  trial,  but  he  wanted  to  find  out  a  few 
things  before  deciding.  He  walked  into  the 
power  house  the  next  evening  and,  not  finding 
the  chief,  was  told  that  he  was  at  home  and 
decided  to  call  on  him  there.  He  was  invited 
in  and  found  the  chief  taking  down  short-hand 
from  his  wife's  dictation.  He  expressed  his 
surprise,  and  the  chief  told  him  that  he  had 
been  studying  office  work  by  correspondence  for 
over  a  year.  The  manager  was  so  well  pleased 
that  he  almost  told  the  chief  of  his  intended 
promotion,  but  his  better  judgment  prevailed 
and  he  decided  to  try  him  on  honesty  first.  So, 
after  talking  about  several  proposed  changes  to 
be  made  at  the  plant,  he  left.  Next  day  the 
manager  called  an  oil  drummer  by  'phone  and 
asked  him  to  visit  the  chief  and  try  to  sell 
him  some  oil.  The  drummer  did  so,  but  the 
chief  told  him  that  he  only  made  requisition 
to  the  manager,  who  acted  as  purchasing  agent. 
The  drummer  said  that  he  was  anxious  to  place 
his  oil  at  the  plant  and  that  if  the  chief  would 
use  his  influence  he  would  divide  his  commission 
with  him.  As  he  left  he  shoved  a  five-dollar 
bill  into  the  chief's  shirt  pocket,  the  latter  ob- 
jecting rather  weakly. 


The  manager  visited  the  power  house  next 
evening  and  after  talking  with  the  chief  for 
a  while,  asked  him  how  his  oil  supply  was  and 
if  he  would  need  any  soon.  The  chief  stam- 
mered and  said  that  he  had  plenty.  The  manager 
left,  looking  sad. 

SEVERAL  days  later  the  drummer  appeared 
again  and  told  the  chief  that  the  chance 
he  had  waited  for  so  long  had  come  and  he 
wanted  to  get  his  oil  placed  in  the  plant  and 
would  pay  the  chief  well.  He  then  said  that 
the  manager  was  going  to  be  promoted  and  that 
a  new  man  was  to  take  his  place,  and  when  the 
change  was  made  he  expected  him  to  purchase 
his  oil.  It  would  be  easy,  he  said,  as  the  new 
manager  would  not  be  familiar  with  the  run  of 
things  for  several  weeks  and  the  chief  could 
make  the  change  from  one  oil  to  the  other 
without  any  danger  and  make  some  velvet 
besides.  When  he  left  he  gave  the  chief  $20  and 
did  not  have  to  push  it  into  his  pocket. 

NOT  knowing  that  he  had  been  selected  for 
the  manager's  position,  the  chief  fell  for 
the  whole  plan  and  upon  reaching  home  told 
his  wife  that  his  influence  was  beginning  to 
be  recognized  and  then  told  her  the  whole 
story.  Her  woman's  intuition  almost  saved  him, 
for  she  begged  him  to  take  the  money  to  the 
manager  and  order  the  drummer  to  keep  away 
from  the  plant.  She  told  him  that  the  manager 
might  promote  him  and  wanted  to  know  why 
he  had  been  studying  office  work  evenings  for  the 
past  year  if  he  did  not  expect  to  advance  by  the 
knowledge  he  gained.  The  chief  maintained  that 
the  manager  had  nothing  for  him  or  he  would 
have  spoken  to  him  before  about  the  change. 

The  manager  appeared  at  the  plant  again  the 
next  day  to  give  the  chief  a  chance  to  redeem 
himself,  but  the  latter  would  not  talk  much, 
and  as  he  felt  guilty,  he  was  glad  when  the 
manager  had  gone. 

The  manager  left,  a  new  man  took  his  place 
and  the  oil  deal  was  made  two  weeks  later. 
The  first  of  the  next  month  when  the  general 
manager  made  his  visit  to  the  city,  he  called 
on  the  chief  and  told  him  he  had  heard  of 
his  little  deal  in  oil,  but  that  he  had  not  entirely 
lost  faith  in  him  and  was  going  to  give  him 
a  chance  to  be  honest.  Then  he  told  the  humili- 
ated chief  of  the  opportunity  he  had  lost  for 
advancement. 


536 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


Spontaneous  Ignition  of  Bituminous  Coal 


By  J.  F.  SPRINGER 


The  author  explains  how  the  spontaneous  igni- 
tion of  bituminous  coal  occurs;  cites  the  results 
of  experiments  made  to  determine  conditions 
favorable  and  unfavorable  to  self -firing ;  gives 
tests  by  which  to  find  out  whether  a  certain  coal 
is  likely  to  ignite  spontaneously ;  and  points  out 
methods  of  storing  coal  to  prevent  such  action. 

BITUMINOUS  coal  will  often  take  fire  without  the 
application  of  a  flame.  This  action  is  called  spon- 
taneous ignition  or,  more  commonly,  spontaneous 
combustion.  In  times  past  it  was  largely  a  mystery,  and 
even  at  the  present  day  it  is  not  thoroughly  understood 
in  all  its  details;  however,  scientific  men  have  learned 
enough  about  its  causes  to  remove  the  cloak  of  mystery. 


may  ultimately  take  fire  spontaneously,  although  it 
would  have  remained  safe  from  such  eventuality  if  the 
furnace  wall  or  the  steam  pipe  had  been  absent.  It  is 
possible  that,  under  favorable  circumstances,  coal  that 
is  merely  warm  when  stored  may  develop  spontaneous 
combustion.  In  the  Cape  Breton  mining  region  in  Nova 
Scotia  the  coal  piled  in  heaps  on  the  surface  in  the 
winter  does  not  develop  spontaneous  combustion;  but 
the  very  same  coal  stored  in  Montreal  in  the  summer- 
time in  piles  of  less  height  is  subject  to  spontaneous 
firing.  It  would  seem  as  though  the  very  moderate 
temperature  of  the  coal  due  to  the  summer  weather  is 
sufficient  to  start  spontaneous  combustion. 

Doubtless  some  coals  are  much  more  subject  to  self- 
firing  than  others,  so  that  the  conditions  which  result 
in  no  harm  in  one  case  will  make  all  kinds  of  trouble 
in  another.    Anthracite  seems  to  be  proof  against  spon- 


^:^.~~*^^ 


FIG.   1.     CONCRETE  COAL-STORAGE  PIT  OF  THE  OMAHA  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER  CO. 


Spontaneous  ignition  is  believed  to  occur  as  follows: 
,  Bituminous  coal  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  absorbs  oxy- 
gen slowly,  and  as  a  consequence  of  the  oxidation,  the 
temperature  rises — slowly,  perhaps,  but  nevertheless  the 
coal  gets  warmer.  Now,  the  higher  the  temperature  of 
the  coal  the  more  rapidly  will  oxygen  be  absorbed  from 
the  air,  and  the  more  rapid  the  absorption  of  oxygen 
the  faster  will  the  temperature  increase.  Thus,  each 
action  accelerates  the  other  until  the  temperature 
eventually  reaches  the  ppint  at  which  the  coal  will 
ignite,  and  spontaneous  combustion  ensues. 

No  external  application  of  heat  is  necessary,  though 
it  will  doubtless  hasten  spontaneous  ignition.  External 
heating — not  necessarily  at  a  high  temperature,  either 
— may  start  spontaneous  combustion.  For  example, 
coal  stored  against  a  furnace  wall  or  over  a  steam  pipe 


taneous  combustion;  it  is  bituminous  coal  that  causes 
difficulty,  and  some  grades  give  more  trouble  than 
others  under  the  conditions  of  storage. 

A  very  simple  test  may  be  applied  to  determine 
whether  a  coal  is  likely  to  ignite  spontaneously.  If  it 
results  unfavorably,  great  care  should  be  taken  in  stor- 
ing that  particular  coal.  If  the  test  results  are  only 
moderately  favorable,  caution  should  still  be  exercised. 
One  form  of  test  is  as  follows:  Take  a  convenient 
quantity  of  the  coal  and  weigh  it  pretty  accurately. 
Heat  the  sample  to  250  deg.  F.,  hold  it  at  that  tem- 
perature for  three  hours,  and  then  weigh  it.  If  the 
weight  has  gone  up  2  per  cent,  or  more,  the  coal  is  a 
dangerous  one,  from  the  point  of  view  of  spontaneous 
combustion.  The  sample  must  be  dry  coal,  the  drying 
being  done  at  about  100  deg.  F.    During  the  test  a  tern- 


April  16,  1918 


POWER 


537 


perature  of  250  deg.  could  be  maintained  by  using  a 
steam  coil  containing  steam  at  a  pressure  of  15  lb.  per 
sq.in.,  gage.  Another  simple  form  of  test  is  as  follows: 
Shake  one  grain  of  finely  pulverized  coal  for  five  min- 
utes with  20  c.c.  (1.2  cu.in.)  of  a  half-normal  solution 
of  bromine.  Bromine  has  a  bad  smell.  If  the  sample, 
at  the  end  of  the  five  minutes,  has  absorbed  the  bro- 
mine and  destroyed  the  smell,  then  the  coal  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  dangerous  one  to  put  in  storage. 

The  depth  of  a  pile  seems  to  have  a  good  deal  to  do 
with  the  development  of  spontaneous  combustion,  ac- 
cording to  experiments  made  in  France  some  years  ago. 
A  pile  of  slack  coal  was  constructed  in  such  a  way  that 
its  height  or  depth  varied  from  nothing  at  all  up  to 
20  ft.  The  length  was  130  ft.,  and  the  width  at  the  top 
was  about  3  ft.  This  pile  was  under  observation  for 
some  three  months,  and  every  day  tests  were  made  at 
points  in  its  length,  to  determine  temperature  condi- 
tions down  in  the  pile.  The  points  tested  varied  in 
respect  to  their  distance  from  the  bottom;  the  deeper 
the  pile  the  greater  this  distance.  Disregarding  the  low 
end  of  the  pile,  the  temperature  rose  pretty  steadily 


case,  then  there  must  be  a  circulation  of  air  into  and  out 
of  a  coal  pile.  It  has  been  estimated — for  a  particular 
case — that  an  entire  change  of  air  takes  place  once  every 
9i  hours,  which  would  mean  a  very  slow  movement  of 
air.  An  experiment  with  a  coal  pile  having  a  cover  with 
openings  that  could  be  closed  showed  that  the  tem- 
perature rose  and  fell  as  holes  were  opened  and  closed, 
respectively.  That  is  to  say,  when  the  air  supply  was 
cut  off,  the  coal  cooled;  and  when  air  was  admitted,  the 
coal  heated.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  if  coal  could 
be  stored  in  an  air-tight  chamber,  spontaneous  combus- 
tion would  not  develop. 

Fine  coal  is  especially  susceptible  to  self-firing,  prob- 
ably because  there  is  much  more  surface  exposed  to  the 
air  in  a  ton  of  fine  coal  than  in  a  ton  of  coarse.  Wher- 
ever air  touches  the  surface  of  a  piece  of  coal,  there  is 
opportunity  for  the  coal  to  absorb  oxygen ;  so,  the  larger 
the  surface,  the  greater  the  absorption  of  oxygen  and 
the  higher  the  rise  of  temperature.  It  is  therefore  dis- 
advantageous to  have  a  part  of  the  coal  in  the  form  of 
dust  or  very  small  pieces.  Such  fine  coal  will  naturally 
sift  toward  the  bottom  of  the  pile,  which  is  a  bad  posi- 


YcRU'SHt 
FIG.   2.     SECTIONAI>  VIEW  OP  STORAGE  PIT,   RECEIVING    HOPPERS,  AND  PLANT 


from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  three-month  pe- 
riod. The  temperature  never  got  higher  than  about  160 
deg.  F.  between  the  low  end  of  the  pile  and  a  depth  of 
about  13  ft.  From  a  depth  of  13  ft.,  the  temperatures 
went  up  until  at  the  deep  end  of  the  pile  spontaneous 
combustion  took  place. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  for  each  and  every 
coal  there  is  a  certain  safe  depth  of  pile  which  should 
not  be  exceeded.  A  10-ft.  pile  is  very  likely  safe  for 
most  bituminous  coals,  provided  other  conditions  are 
not  unfavorable;  but  20  to  25  ft.  is  probably  more  or 
less  dangerous  for  most  coals.  The  New  York  Edison 
Co.  has  a  big  storage  yard  at  Shadyside,  N.  J.,  where 
coal  is  stored  in  long  piles  which  reach  heights  up  to 
about  35  ft.,  and  spontaneous  combustion  gives  trouble 
at  this  yard.  In  fact,  it  is  probable  that  most  con- 
sumers who  pile  coal  to  heights  exceeding  20  ft.  have 
more  or  less  trouble. 

The  oxygen  absorbed  by  the  coal  is  taken  from  the 
air  in  the  spaces  between  the  lumps,  but  it  has  been 
pretty  well  established  that  the  amount  of  oxygen  con- 
tained in  these  spaces  is  too  little  to  account  for  the 
total  absorption  from  the  moment  of  storage  up  to  the 
moment  when  the  coal  takes  fire.     If  this  is  really  the 


tion ;  for  it  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  deep  piles 
heat  up  more  rapidly  than  shallow  ones. 

The  circulation  of  air  through  coal  appears  to  have 
a  double  tendency.  First,  the  circulation  continually 
supplies  oxygen,  increasing  the  rate  of  absorption  and 
consequently  the  temperature;  that  is  to  say,  the  circu- 
lating air  tends  to  promote  spontaneous  combustion. 
Second,  the  circulation  of  air  tends  to  cool  the  coal  and 
so  operates  to  retard  spontaneous  combustion.  As  these 
tendencies  are  opposed,  it  is  necessary  to  know  which 
will  have  the  upper  hand,  and  that  introduces  a  serious 
element  of  doubt.  The  safe  thing  to  do  is  to  put  no  de- 
pendence upon  air  made  to  circulate  through  a  coal  pile. 
It  may  bring  trouble,  instead  of  warding  it  off. 

Another  matter  that  is  somewhat  obscured  in  doubt 
is  the  effect  of  storing  wet  coal.  Those  who  have  made 
inquiries  or  who  have  had  experience  of  their  own  do 
not  seem  to  be  agreed.  About  a  score  of  years  ago  in 
Australia,  an  experiment  was  made  to  obtain  informa- 
tion on  this  matter.  Each  of  two  similar  bins,  placed 
side  by  side,  was  charged  with  245J  tons  of  the  same 
grade  of  small  coal.  There  was  a  roof  over  the  bins, 
but  surface  ventilation  was  supplied,  and  the  sides  of 
the  bins  were  of  boards  with  the  cracks  left  unstopped. 


538 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


In  the  one  bin,  the  coal  was  put  in  dry;  but  during  the 
loading  of  the  other  a  stream  of  water  was  played  on 
the  coal,  which  was  made  thoroughly  wet,  as  was  in- 
dicated by  the  leakage  of  water  from  the  bin.  Tempera- 
ture observations  were  made  from  day  to  day  in  both 
bins.  The  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  dry  coal 
rose  steadily  until  in  about  sixty  days  it  reached  392 
deg.  F.  in  the  central  part  of  the  coal.  The  experiment 
was  then  halted  for  fear  of  actual  firing.  The  coal 
that  was  stored  wet  also  increased  in  temperature  until 
a  maximum  of  138  deg.  F.  was  reached,  after  which 
time  the  temperature  fell. 

Paymaster  G.  R.  Crapo  of  the  United  States  Navy, 
with  an  experience  gained  in  a  subtropical  climate,  says 


FIG.  3.  RECEIVING  HOPPERS  FOR  COAL 

that  he  has  handled  coal  both  wet  and  dry  and  has  dis- 
charged vessels  in  a  downpour  of  rain.  He  says  that 
fires  have  occurred  with  coal  stored  in  both  ways,  but 
that  less  trouble  has  been  experienced  with  coal  stored 
wet.  But  this  is  not  the  end  of  the  story.  A  British 
investigation,  by  J.  I.  Graham,  resulted  in  the  following 
conclusion:  "At  temperatures  below  122  deg.  F.,  coal 
dust,  when  moist,  absorbs  oxygen  at  a  rate  approxi- 
mately half  as  great  again  as  dry  dust."  This  means 
that  under  such  conditions  spontaneous  combustion 
would  be  markedly  promoted.  J.  Ashworth,  lately  of 
Vancouver,  B.  C.,  reached  the  conclusion,  presumably 
from  observation  and  information,  that  moisture  had  to 
be  considered  and  that  no  gob  fire  in  a  mine  would  take 
place  if  the  mine  were  dry  and  particularly  if  the  air 
were  dry.  In  years  gone  by,  he  was  connected  with  a 
colliery  where  the  gob  heated  up  and  where  the  coal 
when  stacked  above  ground  was  subject  to  spontaneous 
firing.  He  notes  that  this  self-firing  "generally  occurred 
soon  after  the  first  heavy  shower  of  rain."  What  is  to 
be  concluded  in  this  matter  ? 

An  investigation  of  Illinois  coals  seems  to  have 
favored,  for  those  coals  at  least,  the  idea  that  wet  coal 
is  dangerous.  "Any  coal  with  conditions  favorable  to 
oxidation  will  be  facilitated  in  that  action  by  moisture. 
Without  exception,  in  all  the  series  of  tests,  the  wet- 


ting of  the  coal  increased  the  activity,  as  shown  by  the 
ultimate  temperature." 

The  truth  of  the  matter  probably  is  that  a  little  water 
will  promote  spontaneous  combustion,  but  that  a  great 
deal  will  check  it.  But  how  much  is  "a  great  deal"  ?  Is 
a  generous  sprinkling,  as  in  the  Australian  experiment, 
sufficient?  Or  must  there  be  complete  submergence  in  a 
body  of  water?  There  seems  to  be  no  recorded  case  of 
self-firing  originating  with  a  coal  that  was  fully  sub- 
merged in  water;  but  if  the  coal  is  merely  damp  or 
lightly  sprinkled  with  water,  it  is  probably  in  a  danger- 
ous condition.  Old  coal  mixed  with  coal  freshly  mined 
is  understood  to  be  a  dangerous  combination. 

There  may  exist  an  impression  that  spontaneous  com- 
bustion seldom  occurs.  In  contradiction  of  this  idea, 
it  is  on  record,  according  to  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
coaling  plant,  that  at  the  United  States  Naval  Station  at 
Key  West,  Fla.,  sixteen  cases  of  spontaneous  combus- 
tion occurred  in  a  period  of  less  than  100  days.  This 
was  during  the  winter  of  1914-15  at  this  subtropical -lo- 
cation. The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway's  big  storage 
yard  at  Montreal  has  been  productive  of  repeated 
trouble  from  spontaneous  combustion.  The  Chicago  & 
Alton  R.R.  some  years  ago  had  a  coal-storage  pile  10 
ft.  high,  containing  a  considerable  percentage  of  slack. 
Notwithstanding  the  moderate  depth,  this  pile  took  fire 
in  several  places. 

Fires  due  to  spontaneous  ignition  apparently  do  not 
occur  on  the  surface;  they  occur  down  in  the  coal. 
A  lighted  match  or  a  cigar  stub  could  not  very  well 
account  for  a  deep-seated  fire.  Spontaneous  combustion 
is  a  real  danger  in  connection  with  coal  storage  and  can 
no  longer  be  doubted  or  ignored.  The  thing  to  do  is  to 
provide  against  its  occurrence. 

There  is  at  least  one  certain  and  sure  method — com- 
plete submergence  of  the  coal  in  water.  Such  submerg- 
ence operates  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  it  cuts 
off  the  oxygen  supply,  which  is  most  important.  As  the 
coal  cannot  get  oxygen,  there  will  be  no  absorption  of 
this  gas  and  no  consequent  heating.  In  the  second 
place,  the  water  is  sufficient  in  amount  to  keep  the 
temperature  fairly  uniform.  There  can  be  no  spontane- 
ous combustion  unless  the  temperature  rises  to  the  point 
at  which  coal  takes  fire,  known  as  the  ignition  point. 

Complete  submergence  is  neither  unheard  of  nor  un- 
used. The  United  States  Navy  is  using  submergence 
for  large  quantities  of  coal  at  the  coaling  stations  at  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  ends  of  the  Panama  Canal.  De- 
pressed storage  floors  are  provided  at  both  points,  and 
the  arrangements  are  such  that  from  20  to  30  ft.  of  V~'^ 
bases  of  the  coal  piles  on  these  floors  is  submerged  > 
salt  water. 

The  Underground  Railways  of  London  have  an  elec- 
tric generating  station  at  Lot's  Road.  Here  a  tank  for 
totally  submerging  coal  in  quantities  up  to  15,000  tons 
has  been  constructed  and  put  in  operation.  The  tank 
is  of  steel  and  is  operated  by  means  of  their  existing 
coal-handling  equipment.  The  company  has  dry  stor- 
age in  addition. 

An  interesting  example  of  a  submerged-storage  pit 
for  bituminous  coal  is  that  of  the  Omaha  (Neb.)  Elec- 
tric Light  and  Power  Co.,  in  which  6000  tons  can  be 
stored  under  water.  Fig.  1  ia  a  general  view  of  the 
storage  pit  filled  with  coal,  snowing  also  the  crane  by 
which  the  coal  is  handled.     Between  the  pit  and  the 


April  16,  1918 


POWER 


539 


power  house  are  two  receiving  hoppers  over  which  runs 
the  railway  siding.  A  longitudinal  section  of  the  plant 
and  pit  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  pit  is  built  of  concrete, 
with  walls  22  ft.  high  on  three  sides.  On  the  fourth 
side  the  wall  is  16S  ft.  higher.  This  high  wall  parallels 
the  west  side  of  the  power  house  and  not  only  forms 
one  of  the  sides  of  the  pit,  but  also  serves  as  a  fire  pro- 
tection for  the  near-by  plant  of  the  Omaha  Ice  Co.  and 
supports  one  rail  of  the  crane  runway.  The  other  rail 
is  carried  on  a  girder  along  the  side  of  the  power  house. 
The  two  receiving  hoppers,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  are  of 
reinforced  concrete,  and  each  has  a  capacity  of  50  tons. 
The  function  of  the  receiving  hoppers  is  to  receive  coal 
that  is  to  be  consumed  at  once.  As  the  railway  track  is 
directly  overhead,  it  is  only  necessary  to  spot  the  cars  at 
the  proper  points  and  make  delivery  by  gravity,  with 
or  without  the  assistance  of  men.  Coal  going  into  stor- 
age is  taken  from  the  cars  by  a  grab  bucket  on  the 
crane.  As  the  crane  spans  both  track  and  pit,  the  coal 
may  be  readily  delivered  at  any  desired  point.  The  span 
of  the  crane  is  143i  ft.  from  center  to  center  of  wheels. 
The  grab  bucket  has  a  capacity  of  li  cu.yd.,  and  the  lift- 
ing power  of  the  crane  is  5  tons.  This  handling  device 
is  guaranteed  to  deliver  50  tons  of  coal  per  hour  from 
the  car  to  the  center  of  the  pit. 

Walls  and  Floor  Rest  on  Piles 

The  site  of  the  pit  is  underlaid  by  quicksand,  and  so 
the  walls  and  floor  are  carried  by  piles.  Apparently 
all  the  floor  piles,  and  possibly  the  wall  piles  also,  reach 
down  to  rock  and  accordingly  act  more  as  columns  than 
as  piles.  The  pile  heads  terminate  just  beneath  the 
floor,  and  each  is  surrounded  by  a  square  cap  of  con- 
crete 2J  ft.  on  a  side  and  1  ft.  thick.  In  estimating  the 
loads,  the  engineers  placed  the  full  load  on  the  piles 
and  none  on  the  soil  between  the  piles.  There  is  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  reinforcement  in  the  floor  slab.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  not  a  part  of  the  design  that  the  floor 
shall  withstand  an  unbalanced  upward  pressure  of  wa- 
ter beneath  it.  There  is  such  a  pressure,  especially 
when  the  river  is  in  flood,  but  the  dowmward  pi-essure  of 
the  water  and  coal  in  the  pit  operates  against  it. 

A  recent  pit  for  submerged  storage  is  the  one  built 
for  the  Duquesne  Light  Co.  on  Brunots  Island  at  Pitts- 
burgh'. This  pit  is  150  by  800  ft.  in  plan  and  25  ft. 
deep.  The  bottom  is  horizontal,  but  the  sides  slope  at 
an  angle  of  45  degrees. 

A  blanket  of  carbon-dioxide  gas  would  probably  be 
quite  as  effective  as  submergence  in  water  for  prevent- 
ing spontaneous  ignition.  Such  a  blanket  might  be  re- 
lied upon  to  remain  in  the  tank  because  of  the  fact 
that  its  specific  gravity  is  greater  than  that  of  air;  but 
it  might  be  necessary  to  extend  the  sides  of  the  tank  a 
few  feet  upward  to  prevent  dissipation  of  the  gas  by 
passing  currents  and  the  like. 

The  things  to  be  done  when  spontaneous  combus- 
tion occurs  are  to  dig  out  the  fire  and  either  burn  the 
affected  coal  at  once  or  remove  it  to  a  safe  place.  Flood- 
ing with  water  is  not  advisable;  for  the  coal  over  the 
fire  may  coke,  and  form  a  dome-like  shield  capable  of 
affording  a  good  deal  of  protection  against  water.  At 
Shadyside  spontaneous  combustion  is  dealt  with  by  dig- 
ging out  the  fire  and  sending  the  affected  coal  to  the 
power  station. 


•See  Power,  page  650,  Nov.  13,  1917. 


Power-Plant  Measuring  Instruments 
By  H.  Taylor 

Plants  of,  say,  150  hp.  or  less  are  as  a  rule  the  ones 
where  the  absence  of  measuring  in-struments  is  most 
noticeable.  Picture,  if  you  will,  such  a  plant  consisting 
of  one  150-hp.  horizontal  return-tubular  boiler  operating 
under  forced  draft,  one  pump  feeding  through  a  closed 
feed-water  heater,  and  one  injector  for  emergency  use; 
one  100-hp.  automatic  cutoff,  high-speed  engine  belted 
to  a  lineshaft  and  one  little  air  compressor  tucked 
away  in  a  corner  where  no  one  can  get  at  it,  trying  its 
best  to  do  the  work  of  a  50  per  cent,  larger  machine. 

The  tools  usually  supplied  to  such  a  plant  consist  of 
the  following :  The  remains  of  a  No.  7  scoop  shovel ;  one 
fire  hoe  with  the  blade  badly  burned  and  loose  on  the 
handle;  one  garden  hoe  with  handle  split,  to  be  used  for 
cleaning  the  ashpit;  one  iron  body  wheelbarrow  with  a 
large  hole  eaten  through  the  bottom  and  one  leg  loose; 
a  few  broken  wrenches,  a  hammer  and  an  old  tomato 
can  to  fill  the  oil  cups  with.  The  engineer  must  be  on 
duty  at  6 :30  a.m.  in  order  to  have  power  on  at  7  a.m.  " 
He  must  wheel  his  coal  about  fifty  feet  to  the  boiler 
room,  do  his  own  firing,  including  cleaning  fires  from 
stationary  grates  twice  during  the  ten-hour  run,  and 
then  wheel  away  the  ashes  in  all  kinds  of  weather.  He 
is  responsible  for  and  must  look  after  the  boiler  and 
engine  plant  throughout  the  entire  day  and  occasionally 
repair  a  steam  line  or  splice  a  broken  wire  in  the  mill. 

This  type  of  plant  is  more  common  than  some  of 
us  believe,  perhaps.  Suppose  this  is  the  ti^pe  of  plant 
I  am  about  to  take  charge  of.  I  get  after  the  man- 
ager as  follows:  "Mr.  Manager,  I  have  come  to  ask 
your  cooperation  to  the  extent  of  purchasing  the  neces- 
sary implements  and  instruments  that  I  may  conserve 
fuel,  oil  and  other  supplies,  thus  aiding  the  Government 
and  benefiting  yourself — first  of  all,  a  set  of  good  tools, 
a  list  of  which  I  submit  herewith,  that  I  may  be  able  to 
do  my  work  quicker  and  better,  thereby  giving  me  more 
time  to  study  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  plant.  Next,  I 
will  need  a  thermometer  to  put  on  the  feed  line  to  the 
boiler — the  cost  is  trifling  compared  with  its  value — 
a  boiler-room  scales  and  a  water  meter,  that  I  may  be 
able  to  weigh  the  coal  and  measure  the  water  to  deter- 
mine whether  I  am  getting  a  reasonable  water  evapo- 
ration per  pound  of  coal.  I  would  then  suggest  a  gas- 
analysis  instrument  to  find  out  whether  we  are  getting 
the  benefit  of  the  greatest  number  of  heat  units  possible. 
By  the  aid  of  these  tools  and  instruments  I  can  get  the 
boiler  plant  working  more  efficiently  and  save  many 
pounds  of  coal.  For  the  engine  room  I  will  need  a  few 
suitable  oil  cans  to  save  gallons  of  oil  which  today  costs 
'real  money.'  After  making  steam  economically,  we 
should  not  fail  to  use  it  economically,  therefore  I  will 
ask  you  to  purchase  a  good  steam-engine  indicator  that 
I  may  make  sure  the  engine  valves  are  set  properly  and 
not  wasting  steam. 

"With  the  aid  of  these  instruments  we  can  tell  from 
day  to  day  just  what  our  power  costs,  and  I  feel  certain 
we  can  reduce  that  cost,  thereby  conserving  coal  and 
saving  money  for  the  company.  Now,  Mr.  Manager, 
just  one  more  suggestion.  If  you  will  allow  me  access 
to  the  vouchers  pertaining  to  my  department  I  will  be 
able  to  prepare  a  tabulated  cost  sheet  of  the  whole 
power  plant." 


540 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


Underground  Steam  Mains 


By  CHARLES  L.  HUBBARD 


This  article  treats  of  tunnel  and  conduit  coro- 
struction.  Various  types  of  conduits  selected 
from  those  in  common  use  are  described.  Wood 
conduits  are  still  extensively  used  where  it  is 
desired  to  avoid  the  expense  of  concrete  and  tile. 
Insulation  of  piping. 

ONE  of  the  most  important  details  connected 
with  underground  steam  mains  is  the  form  and 
construction  of  the  conduit.  This  serves  the 
purpose  of  protecting  the  pipe  from  moisture  and  also 
forms  a  part  of  the  insulation  for  reducing  heat  loss. 
In  some  cases,  as  with  wooden  conduits,  both  of  these 
offices  are  combined  to  a  large  extent  in  the  same  casing, 
while  with  those  of  masonry  the  walls  of  the  conduit 
only  serve  as  a  protection  to  the  special  insulation  which 
surrounds  the  pipe,  tile  or  concrete  in  itself  offering 
a  comparatively  small  resistance  to  the  transmission 
of  heat.  The  forms  of  construction  shown  have  been 
selected  from  those  in  common  use,  with  the  idea  of 
illustrating  different  types.  Some  of  them  are  patented, 
while  others  have  come  into  general  use  through  the 
experience  of  various  engineers. 

Various  Kinds  of  Wooden  Conduits 

Wooden  conduits,  the  oldest  type,  are  still  extensively 
used  where  it  is  desired  to  avoid  the  expense  of  concrete 
or  tile.  With  some  of  these  the  wooden  casing  forms 
both  protection  and  the  only  insulation,  while  in  others 
an  additional  insulating  filling  is  placed  around  the 
pipe  inside  the  conduit.  The  life  of  a  wooden  conduit 
depends  largely  upon  the  quality  of  the  wood  employed 
and  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  it  is  laid,  whether 
wet  or  dry.  A  typical  conduit  or  casing  of  this  kind 
is  shovra  in  Fig.  1.  The  main  body  in  this  case  is 
composed  of  a  thick  wooden  wall  lined  with  bright 
tin  and  protected  on  the  outer  surface  by  a  coating 
of  waterproof  asphaltum  cement.  Solid  turned  logs  are 
employed  for  pipe  sizes  up  to  6  in.;  larger  sizes  are 
built  up  of  staves,  put  together  with  mortise-and-tenon 
joints,  coated  with  a  creosote  preservative  and  strength- 
ened with  heavy  galvanized  wire.  The  thickness  of 
shell  varies  from  two  to  four  inches,  according  to  re- 
quirements. The  sections  are  made  in  lengths  of  six 
to  eight  feet,  cylindrical  in  form,  with  space  inside  for 
rollers  and  supports.  Wood  casings  of  this  type  have 
been  known  to  give  thirty  years  of  service.  Fig.  2  is 
a  section  of  a  conduit  of  this  kind,  showing  its  make-up 
and  method  of  drainage. 

Porous-tile  drain  pipes  are  laid  below  and  at  either 
side  of  the  conduit,  with  a  layer  of  crushed  stone  be- 
tween to  prevent  surface  or  ground  water  from  settling 
around  the  casing.  This  is  an  important  detail  of  con- 
duit work,  especially  where  wood  is  used,  as  the  length 
of  service  depends  largely  upon  the  degree  of  dryness 
which  is  maintained.  Another  wooden  conduit  is  shown 
in  Fig.  3,  and  consists  of  a  tin  lining  outside  of  which 
are  layers  of  asbestos,  wood,  corrugated  paper  and, 
finally,   an  outer  casing  of  wood   staves   coated  with 


asphaltum.  This  form  has  the  advantage  of  being  re- 
movable for  repairs  to  the  pipe. 

A  simple  form  of  conduit,  often  used  around  railroad 
yards  and  industrial  plants  where  the  pipes  are  carried 
a  short  distance  below  the  surface,  is  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
The  box  is  of  rough  lumber,  usually  about  two  inches 
thick,  and  is  set  over  broken  stone  with  a  tile  drain 
below.  Any  water  that  finds  its  way  into  the  conduit 
is  drained  off  through  holes  bored  in  the  bottom  of  the 
box  at  frequent  intervals.  The  pipes  are  supported  upon 
rollers  strung  on  a  stay-bolt,  also  serving  to  strengthen 
the  box.  Stiffening  pieces  are  nailed  to  the  sides  and 
bottom  of  the  box  to  give  it  additional  support.  The 
life  of  a  wooden  conduit  of  this  type  in  fairly  dry  soil 
with  the  trenches  well  drained  is  estimated  at  W  to 
30  years.  One  trouble  experienced  with  wooden  con- 
duits comes  from  the  great  difference  in  temperature  to 
which  they  are  exposed  during  the  heating  and  non- 
heating  season.  In  some  cases  they  shrink  or  swell, 
causing  serious  damage,  and  sometimes,  to  avoid  this, 
it  has  been  considered  m»ore  economical  to  keep  steam 
on  the  mains  all  summer,  shutting  off  the  branches  to 
the  various  buildings  just  inside  the  basement  walls. 
The  tile  underdraining  already  mentioned  appears  to 
be  necessary  to  long  life  as  instances  are  common  where 
conduits  so  protected  have  been  found  in  good  condition 
after  25  or  30  years,  while  those  without  underdraining 
have  had  to  be  renewed  in  seven  to  ten  years. 

The  objectionable  points  mentioned  in  connection  with 
wooden  conduits  have  led  to  the  adoption  of  materials 
that  are  not  affected  by  heat  or  moisture,  among  which 
are  brick  glazed  sewer  piping,  hollow  tile  blocks,  con- 
crete and  combinations  of  these.  A  well-constructed 
conduit  of  masonry  is  practically  indestructible  so  far 
as  general  deterioration  is  concerned,  but  is  susceptible 
to  the  action  of  frost,  the  bursting  of  pipes,  etc.,  which 
limits  its  useful  life  to  that  of  the  pipes  which  it  con- 
tains unless  it  be  of  such  form  that  the  top  may  be 
removed  without  damage  to  the  lower  half. 

Glazd-Tile  Conduits 

A  common  form  of  glazed-tile  conduit  is  illustrated 
in  section  in  Fig.  5.  The  lengths  are  made  with  longi- 
tudinal grooves,  which  allow  of  their  being  split  in 
halves  with  considerable  accuracy  after  being  burned. 
The  lower  half  is  first  laid  in  the  trench,  after  which 
the  pipe  is  put  in  place  supported  upon  iron  cradles 
or  rollers  and  the  space  around  it  filled  with  insulating 
material.  The  cover,  or  upper  half,  is  then  put  in  posi- 
tion, the  space  around  the  pipe  packed  with  insulating 
material,  completely  filling  the  conduit,  and  the  joints 
then  made  tight  with  Portland  cement.  One  diflSculty 
experienced  with  tile  conduits  is  in  supporting  the  pipe, 
as  bolts  cannot  be  used  to  hold  the  saddle  in  place. 
A  simple  device  for  a  single  pipe  is  shown  in  Fig.  5 
and  consists  of  filling  in  the  bottom  of  a  section  of  the 
conduit  with  concrete  forming  a  pier  10  or  12  in.  in 
length,  in  the  top  of  which  is  set  a  piece  of  channel 
iron,  forming  a  guide  for  the  roller  supporting  the  pipe. 
The  ends  of  the  pier  are  raised  sufficiently  to  prevent 
the  roller  from  falling  out  of  place,  and  a  gutter  beneath 


April  16,  1918 


POWER 


641 


the  pier  allows  any  water  in  the  bottom  of  the  conduit 
to  drain  away.  When  there  are  two  or  three  pipes  to 
be  supported,  a  saddle  or  frame  carrying  the  required 
number  of  rollers  may  be  built  into  the  concrete  base 
in  place  of  the  channel-iron  described. 
A  patented  split  tile  conduit  especially  adapted  to 


around  the  conduit  is  secured  by  gravel  filling,  crushed 
stone  and  a  tile  underdrain. 

A  combination  type  of  conduit  used  by  one  of  the 
largest  distributers  of  steam  in  their  latest  construc- 
tion, shown  in  Fig.  7,  consists  of  a  concrete  base  upon 
which  is  laid  a  flooring  and  side  walls  of  hollow  tiling 


Cement 


Broken  Stone 


F"IQ.  9  ■                           FIG.  II 
FIGS.   1  TO  11.     VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  UNDERGROUND  PIPE-LAYING  AND  CONDUIT  CONSTRUCTION 

extensive  systems  of  piping   is  illustrated   in   Fig.   6.  carried  up  to  the  center  line  of  the  pipe  and  on  top 

The  principal  feature  is  the  method  of  supporting  the  a   line  of  brick   and   over  the  top   a   half  section   of 

pipe  rollers  and  anchors  by  using  a  tee  in  the  conduit  line  glazed  sewer  pipe.     The  joints  between  the  tile  in  the 

With  the  side  outlet  turned  down  and  built  into  a  heavy  side  walls  and  bottom  are  left  open  to  drain  off  any 

concrete  base.    The  pipe  support  or  anchor  is  embedded  water  that  may  find  its  way  into  the  conduit.    To  prevent 

in   this,   as    indicated    in    the    illustration.      Drainage  a  circulation  of  air  from  tile  to  tile  in  a  longitudinal 


542 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


direction,  bricks  are  set  up  on  edge  between  the  sections, 
forming  dead-air  spaces  which  add  to  the  insulating 
effect.  The  steam  pipe  is  covered  with  sectional  cover- 
ing, and  the  space  between  it  and  the  conduit  walls 
is  packed  with  mineral  wool. 

A  patented  conduit  of  special  construction  particu- 
larly adapted  to  wet  locations  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The 
lower  half,  which  is  of  concrete,  is  first  constructed  and 
the  pipes  are  laid,  after  which  the  tile  cover  is  put  on 
and  made  tight  by  a  cement  dam  at  the  sides  and  a 
special  waterproofing  poured,  while  hot,  into  the  joints. 
The  conduit  shown  in  Fig.  9  is  similar  to  Fig.  7,  except 
that  the  sides  and  top  are  of  hollow  tile  laid  crosswise 
on  a  concrete  base;  this  arrangement  of  the  tiling 
limits  the  length  of  the  air  spaces  and  prevents  air 
circulation.  The  entire  trench,  except  the  top,  is  lined 
with  crushed  stone,  and  a  porous-tile  drain  is  laid  under 
the  center. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  continuous  concrete 
conduit  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  10.  When  the  trench 
is  dug,  a  mold  is  made  of  boards  with  a  core  to  form 


Fig.  11  as  one  of  the  best  "home-made"  arrangements 
when  material  and  the  degree  of  skill  required  in  its 
construction  are  taken  into  account.  In  laying  this  con- 
duit wooden  sheathing  is  driven  along  the  sides  of  the 
trench  to  a  distance  of  at  least  a  foot  below  the  sub-base. 
Seepage  water  is  kept  out  by  means  of  pumps  and  the 
sub-base  and  outer  walls  poured  nearly  to  the  top,  an 
inner  form  of  course  being  used.  When  this  outer  shell 
has  set,  the  inner  faces,  siaes  and  bottom  are  brushed 
with  hot  asphaltum,  a  lay<  r  of  '  elt  or  burlap  is  pressed 
against  it  and  the  ;;•.;:  'ace  a^iain  brushed  with  hot 
asphaltum  as  before.  1  rom  four  to  six  layers  of  this 
material  are  used,  taking  care  to  give  it  a  good  lap, 
each  being  joined  to  the  previous  one  by  brushing  it 
over  with  hot  asphaiLu;;;.  The  strips  of  felt  or  burlap 
are  run  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  trench  and 
the  ends  carried  well  above  the  sides  of  the  preliminary 
outside  walls  and  folded  back,  awaiting  completion  of 
the  top,  or  cover.  Next,  the  inner  reinforced  base  "is 
poured,  the  pipe  installed  and  insulated  either  by  a 
sectional  coverin.tr  or  by  packing  it  in  some  suitable 


FIGS.   12  TO  14.      TUNNEL,  DESIGN  AND  MEANS     OF  SUPPORTING  PIPES  AND  CABLES 


the  slot  at  the  center.  The  concrete  is  then  filled  in, 
forming  the  bottom  and  side  walls.  After  this  has 
set  for  about  twelve  hours,  the  core  is  removed  and  the 
pipe  may  be  laid,  a  strip  of  sheet  iron  placed  over  the 
slot  and  the  covering  layer  of  concrete  filled  in.  If 
the  ground  is  likely  to  hold  water  long  after  rain,  it 
is  well  to  coat  the  sides  and  top  of  the  conduit  with 
hot  coal  tar. 

There  is  no  item  of  greater  importance  concerning 
underground  heating  mains  than  the  protection  of  the 
piping  from  outside  moisture.  The  presence  of  water 
in  the  conduit,  especially  if  it  reaches  the  piping,  greatly 
increases  both  the  heat  loss  and  the  deterioration  of 
pipe  and  insulation,  therefore  conduits  should  be  thor- 
oughly underdrained  with  tile  laid  in  coarse  gravel  or 
crushed  stone,  special  care  being  taken  to  provide  a 
free  outlet  for  the  drains  to  keep  the  trenches  clear 
of  water. 

The  National  District  Heating  Association  has  re- 
cently made  an  investigation  of  different  methods  of 
underground  conduit  construction  with  special  reference 
to  waterproofing  and  has  submitted  the  type  shown  in 


insulating  material.  The  wooden  form  for  supporting 
the  inner  walls  and  top  are  left  in  place,  serving  as 
additional  insulation.  After  the  inner  walls  and  top  are 
poured,  the  felt  is  folded  over  the  top,  layer  by  layer, 
each  being  brushed  with  hot  asphaltum  as  previously 
described.  Last  of  all  the  outer  or  preliminary  side 
walls  of  concrete  are  carried  up  and  over  to  make  a 
complete  envelope.  Although  no  under-drain  is  shown, 
it  is  always  advisable  to  provide  one  if  it  is  possible  to 
secure  an  outlet  at  such  a  grade  as  to  drain  away  the 
surface  water  from  around  the  conduit. 

Tunnels  have  the  advantage  of  accessibility  to  the 
piping,  but  their  excessive  cost  as  compared  with  con- 
duits limits  their  use  to  special  cases.  They  are  most 
frequently  employed  in  connecting  buildings  of  an  in- 
dustrial plant  where  a  considerable  number  of  pipes  and 
electric  cables  are  to  be  put  in.  Tunnels  were  formerly 
constructed  of  brick,  but  reinforced  concrete  is  now 
employed  almost  exclusively.  One  form  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  12,  having  a  reinforced  floor  and  roof  and 
monolithic  side  walls.  The  roof  slabs  are  made  in 
sections  and  cemented  to  the  walls  and  are  therefore 


April  16,  1918 


POWER 


543 


removable.  The  I-beams  just  below  the  roof,  for  attach- 
ing pipe  hangers,  are  spaced  10  or  12  ft.  apart.  They 
may,  however,  be  buried  in  the  roof  slabs  with  only  the 
lower  flange  projecting.  Pipes  run  in  tunnels  should 
be  carried  close  to  the  walls  so  as  to  allow  a  free  pas- 
sage, either  at  one  side  or  in  the  center.  Fig.  13  shows 
a  tunnel  having  an  arched  top  and  made  of  solid  con- 
crete. Special  attention  is  called  to  the  construction  of 
the  rack  for  carrying  the  pipe  chairs,  designed  so  that 
sections  of  the  top  pipe  may  be  removed  directly,  while 
those  below  must  be  slid  out  from  behind  the  front 
support  of  the  rack,  which  is  not  objectionable  in  the 
case  of  small  or  medium-sized  piping.  Another  method 
of  supporting  pipes  and  cables  is  shown  in  Fig.  14, 
in  which  pipe  standards  are  erected  at  the  center  of  the 
tunnel  and  cleats  are  bolted  to  the  wall  opposite  the 
standards.  Heavy  piping  is  carried  on  horizontal  sup- 
ports attached  to  the  standards  and  cleats,  while  small 
pipes,  cables,  etc.,  may  be  carried  on  hooks  or  other 
devices  fastened  directly  to  the  cleats.  Special  care 
must  be  taken  in  the  insulation  of  tunnel  piping  and  the 
ends  of  the  tunnel  should  be  tightly  closed  to  prevent 
any  circulation  of  air  which  would  tend  to  increase  the 
radiation  losses. 

When  considering  the  insulation  of  a  pipe,  the  entire 
covering,  including  the  conduit,  must  be  taken  into 
account.  Where  pipes  are  carefully  packed  with  suitable 
nonconducting  material  and  incased  in  tile  or  concrete, 
the  efficiency  will  be  somewhat  more  than  for  sectional 
covering,  owing  to  its  greater  thickness.  Conduits  of 
this  kind  are  usually  made  of  such  size  that  the  thickness 
of  the  insulation  shall  not  in  any  case  be  less  than  three 
inches,  which  should  bring  the  efficiency  of  the  entire 
conduit  up  to  90  or  95  per  cent.  The  insulating  material 
for  this  purpose  should  be  especially  adapted  to  conduit 
work,  such  as  granulated  cork,  fossil  earth,  asbestos 
fiber  and  ground  sponge.  Mineral  wool  may  be  used 
when  the  pipe  is  protected  with  some  form  of  sectional 
covering  to  prevent  the  corrosive  action  of  the  mineral 
wool.  In  the  case  of  brick  and  concrete  tunnels  the 
pipes  should  be  covered  with  some  form  of  sectional 
covering  that  has  the  property  of  resisting  dampness 
as  well  as  preventing  the  loss  of  heat,  for  tunnels  may 
be  dry  in  winter,  when  heat  is  on,  but  during  the  sum- 
mer, when  steam  is  shut  off,  moisture  is  likely  to  gather. 
The  best  grades  of  sectional  covering  have  an  efficiency 
of  75  to  85  per  cent.,  which  refers  only  to  the  covering 
on  the  pipe  and  not  to  the  conduit  as  a  whole.  The 
insulating  effect  of  the  tunnel  will  depend  largely  upon 
the  tightness  of  the  manhole  covers  and  the  pipe  openings 
into  various  buildings.  If  there  is  a  perceptible  circu- 
lation of  air  through  the  tunnel,  the  insulating  effect 
of  the  walls  will  be  neutralized,  based  on  the  principle 
that  a  dead-air  space  around  the  pipes  is  important  in 
reducing  radiation  losses.  Similarly,  in  tunnel  con- 
struction, the  circulation  of  air  through  it  should  be  kept 
at  a  minimum. 

"Royal"  Family  of  Waste 

What  is  cotton  waste?  "The  answer  to  that  is  sim- 
ple," say  some,  yes,  probably  most  engineers.  "Cotton 
waste  is  the  yarn  remnants  from  cotton  mills,  and  we 
use  it  to  wipe  up  power-plant  machinery.  Waste  is 
waste,  but  what  is  the  idea  of  the  (lucstion?" 


Waste  is  not  waste ;  there  is  as  much  difference  in  the 
grades  of  cotton  waste  as  there  is  in  shoe  leather.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  there  are  many  grades  of  cotton  waste, 
and  that  which  is  suitable  for  one  kind  of  work  is  not 
good  for  another.  A  good  waste  should  be  standard- 
ized as  to  quality,  and  that  is  what  the  Royal  Manu- 
facturing Co.,  Rahway,  N.  J.,  has  done  in  the  production 
of  twelve  grades  of  cotton  waste.  Six  of  these  grades 
are  white  and  six  are  colored.  The  illustration  shows 
the  sampling  catalog  on  which  are  mounted  a  sample 
of  each  of  the  twelve  standard  grades  manufactured  by 
this  company.  The  upper  row  represents  the  white  and 
the  lower  the  colored  grades. 

When  an  engineer  receives  this  sample  card  he  orders 
a  100-lb.  bale  of,  say,  Duke.  Some  time  later  he 
orders  a  second  bale  of  the  same  grade,  and  it  will  be 
the  same  in  quality  as  the  first  order  because  each  grade 
of  waste  is  made  from  the  same  prescribed  grades  of 
materials  which  are  procured  from  cotton  mills  that 
manufacture  a  certain  grade  of  cotton  or  yarn  cloth. 


SAMPLE  CARD  OF  ROYAL  WASTE 

A  high-grade  waste  will  not  leave  lint  on  a  machine 
after  wiping  it,  and  it  will  have  the  maximum  capacity 
for  absorbing  oil.  A  poor  grade  will  possess  just  the 
opposite  quality.  In  order  to  know  how  to  intelligently 
purchase  waste  an  engineer  must  know  to  what  use  it 
is  to  be  put  and  he  must  also  be  somewhat  acquainted 
with  the  grade  of  waste  that  is  made  by  the  manu- 
facturer of  whom  the  purchase  is  made. 

Some  prefer  clean  white  waste,  which,  of  course,  is 
made  from  white  raw  material;  others  favor  the  use  of 
colored  waste,  which  is  made  from  yarns  which  have 
Ijeen  dyed  in  various  colors.  One  reason  for  the  prefer- 
ence for  white  waste  is  that  after  it  has  been  soiled  the 
user  is  more  likely  to  open  it  up,  bringing  the  clean 
portion  to  the  outside,  thereby  using  all  clean  portions 
before  throwing  it  away  as  too  dirty  to  use.  Colored 
waste  has  a  soiled  appearance  to  begin  with  and  is 
likely  to  be  thrown  away  before  it  has  been  thoroughly 
used;  therefore,  when  purchasing  waste  a  considera- 
tion of  the  type  of  men  who  will  use  it  is  of  import- 
ance. 

Referring  to  the  illustration,  the  grade  designated 
as  Baron  is  a  fine,  long-fibered,  high-grade  waste  suit- 
able for  polishing  varnished  surfaces,  etc.,  and  is  not 
recommended  for  general  use.  Grades  Count  and  Czar 
are  high-grade  wiping  wastes  and  Duke  and  Earl  are 
for  general-utility  work  and  fit  the  pocketbook  as  well 


544 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


as  the  requirements  of  the  purchaser.  Emperor  grade, 
although  it  can  be  used  for  wiping  purposes,  is  really 
not  suitable  for  such  work,  because  it  does  not  give  the 
service,  being  coarse  in  texture  and  is  somewhat  dirty 
to  begin  with.  It  is  usually  employed  by  oil  companies 
for  mopping  up  oil. 

The  best  grade  of  colored  waste,  King,  is  equal  in 
quality  to  Czar  and  Duke  grades  of  white  waste,  at  the 
same  price.  King  and  Marquis  are  for  general  wiping 
and  are  used  largely  by  railroads,  as  well  as  in  power 
plants.  Mikado  and  Prince  are  for  general-utility  work 
and  Rajah  is  for  rough  work  such  as  putting  into  the 
journal  boxes  of  railroad  rolling  stock.  Sultan  is  in 
the  same  class  as  the  white  Emperor,  both  being  of  a 
low  order  of  the  Royal  family,  being  fit  only  for  dirty 
work.  Sultan  is  for  use  in  foundries  for  protecting  the 
hands  of  the  workmen  when  handling  the  ladles  of 
molten  metals,  etc.,  and  for  starting  fires. 

Having  determined  on  the  grade  of  waste  wanted,  the 
engineer  is  also  interested  in  knowing  how  much  will  be 
delivered  with  an  order  for  a  100-lb.  bale.  That  is, 
how  many  pounds  of  burlap,  paper  and  iron  hoops  is  to 
be  paid  for  at  the  price  of  waste.  Here  is  what  he  re- 
ceives in  the  Royal  brand  of,  say,  a  100-lb.  bale:  First, 
04  lb.  of  waste,  it  does  not  matter  what  grade,  is  weighed 
in  a  basket.  The  burlap  wrapper  paper  and  iron  hoops 
are  also  weighed,  the  total  for  each  bale  being  just  6 
lb.  After  the  waste  has  been  pressed  in  a  bale,  it  is 
again  weighed  and  if  there  is  a  gain  or  loss  in  weight 
enough  is  taken  from  or  added  to  the  bale  to  bring  the 
total  weight  up  to  100  lb.  Therefore  the  tare  on  every 
100-lb.  bale  of  waste  in  just  6  lb.,  no  more  and  no  less. 

This  waste  is  put  up  in  bales  of  25,  50,  100, 
250  and  500  lb.,  but  in  each  case  the  tare  is  6  per  cent 
of  the  total  weight.  With  this  standardization  of  the 
bale  the  engineer  knows  just  how  much  useless  material 
he  is  getting  with  his  waste;  in  some  instances  with 
certain  dealers  the  tare  runs  as  high  as  14  per  cent, 
of  the  total  weight  of  the  bale. 

All  raw  waste  material  of  the  Royal  brand  is  hand- 
picked  and  screened;  the  yarn  that  goes  to  make  up  the 
grade  of  finished  waste  is  thoroughly  mixed  by  hand, 
and  the  mixture  is  machined  twice  to  give  uniformity  of 
texture.  This  applies  to  all  grades  except  the  lowest 
grade  of  colored  waste. 

Mono-Rail    Hoist    Handling   Ashes 

A  few  years  ago,  in  most  cases  ash-handling  ma- 
chinery was  "conspicuous  by  its  absence"  and  the  ashes 
were  almost  allowed  to  take  care  of  themselves,  so  that 
designing  machinery  to  handle  them  in  old  boiler  houses 
is  an  undertaking  that  must  be  viewed  from  a  number 
of  different  angles.  The  device  adopted  must  save 
labor;  its  first  cost  and  maintenance  must  be  low,  and 
it  should  never  entail  a  lot  of  changes  in  the  old  build- 
ing, with  the  consequent  expense.  A  mono-rail  electric 
hoist  with  a  bottom-dumping  bucket  lends  itself  readily 
to  such  installation,  especially  where  the  ashes  are  pulled 
out  on  the  boiler-room  floor.  The  illustrations  show  a 
Link-Belt  Mono-Rail  Hoist  of  this  type  that  is  giving 
excellent  results  in  the  plant  of  the  Philadelphia  Paper 
Co. 

This  machine  runs  on  the  lower  flange  of  an  I-beam 
track  and  is  operated  by  a  man  riding  in  a  trailer  cage. 


who  controls  the  raising  or  lowering  of  the  bucket  as 
well  as  the  travel  of  the  hoist.  The  track  runs  through 
the  boiler  house  and  continues  on  out  over  a  railroad 
car  on  the  siding.  Laborers  fill  the  bucket,  and  the 
operator  then  hoists  it  and  runs  it  out  over  the  car, 
and  dumps  it  by  the  motion  of  a  lever  in  the  cage. 
The  current  required  is  very  small,  and  the  saving  in 
time  and  labor  by  this  method  compared  with  that  of 
wheeling  the  ashes  is  notable.  In  this  instance  the 
superintendent  designed  his  own  track  supports.  It  is 
evident  that  while  he  did  the  work  quite  cheaply,  he 
made  a  thoroughly  good  job  of  it.  About  thirty  tons  of 
ashes  are  handled  daily,  pulled  out  every  six  hours. 
Two  men  do  the  work  of  shoveling  into  the  bucket,  and 


TYPICAL,  USB  OP  MONO-RAIL  HOIST 

at  times  one  of  them  gets  into  the  cage  and  runs  it  out 
over  the  car;  at  other  times,  to  hurry  the  work,  an 
additional  man  operates  the  hoist,  remaining  in  the 
cage.  The  bucket  holds  11  cu.yd.  and  is  handled  by  a 
two-ton  hoist.  The  machine  is  very  compact  and 
requires  little  headroom,  and  all  th°  gears  are  entirely 
inclosed  in  housings  and  operate  in  oil. 

In  places  where  an  overhead  coal  bin  cannot  be  in- 
stalled for  lack  of  space,  it  may  then  be  practicable  to 
use  the  same  mono-rail  system  to  handle  the  coal  as 
well  as  the  ashes,  using  either  the  bottom-dumping 
or  a  tipping  bucket  to  discharge  coal  into  the  stoker 
hopper  as  the  case  may  require,  or,  sometimes  better 
even,  a  bucket  with  a  small  chute  and  undercut  gate 
is  often  used.  This  problem  of  handling  ashes  mechan- 
ically is  daily'  becoming  more  urgent,  as  many  plants 
are  now  running  twenty-four  hours  a  day  where  two 


April   IC,   i;U8 


1'  ()  W  K  K 


545 


yeiirs  ago  they  were  running  only  ten ;  hence  they  have 
over  twice  the  ashes  to  handle,  with  labor  scarce.  Many 
plants  have  stokers  and  forced-draft  systems  put  in  to 
increase  their  capacity,  without  providing  for  the  han- 
dling of  the  ashes. 

Some  Old   Firebox  Boilers 

By  R.  E.  McNamara 

The  illustration.  Fig.  1,  represents  one  of  two  fire- 
box type  of  boilers  recently  removed  from  one  of  the 
power  houses  of  the  Calumet  &  Hecla  Copper  Co.,  Calu- 
met, Mich.,  the  combination  of  size,  age,  design  and 
serviceable  condition  being  so  unusual  as  to  merit  a 
few  words  of  description. 

These  boilers  are  84  in.  diameter,  34  ft.  O','  in.  long 
and  have  52  sq.ft.  of  grate  surface,  two  6-in.  safety 
valves  and  double  firebox.  Being  about  forty  years 
of  age,  they  have  been  discontinued  from  service,  al- 
though a  test  strip  cut  fi'om  one  of  the  shells  showed 
practically  no  diminution  on  tensile  .strength  or  elonga- 
tion. 

One  of  the  unusual  features  is  the  Quintuple-riveted 
butt  joint  and  the  rigid  head  bracing;  even  in  the 
modern  boiler  nothing  is  found,  as  a  rule,  above  the 
quadruple  butt  joint  with  94  per  cent,  efficiency;  and 
when  it  is  considered  that  this  boiler  was  built  in  1878, 
not  only  was  it  a  leviathan  for  its  time,  but  it  repre- 
sents engineering  and  boilei'-making  practice  which, 
to  say  the  least,  is  by  no  means  universal  even  at  the 
present  day.  The  firebox  or  furnace  of  one  of  these 
boilers  partly  demolished  is  .shown  in  Fig  2. 

In  explanation  of  the  apparent  longevity  of  these 
lioilers,  it  might  be  noted  that  one  of  the  contributory 


FI'l.     1,      FIREBOX 


BOTI.Ei;     ItKMOVRD    AFTER     4n     YEARS 
OP  SERVICE 


factors  is  the  remarkable  purity  of  the  Lake  Superior 
water  and  the  close  attention  in  care,  washing  and 
repairs  that  the  boilers  have  received  since  their  in- 
stallation. 

Other  similar  boilers  are  still  in  use,  but  they  are 
limited  to  comparatively  low  pressure;  that  is,  around 
100  lb.  Other  and  later  types  in  the  same  power  house 
are  of  similar  design,  but  are  somewhat  larger  and  are 
allowed    170  lb.  pressure. 

I  Since  receiving  the  foregoing  we  yiave  obtained  some 
additional    informatioTi    from    F.    \V.    Dean,    iiiechanical 


engineer,  formerly  of  Boston,  Mass.,  and  now  with  the 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  in  Washington.  In 
speaking  of  this  type  of  boiler,  Mr.  Dean  expresses  the 
opinion  that  the  first  ones  of  90  in.  diameter  were 
designed  in  1882  or  1883.  Mr.  Dean  made  the  first 
drawings   of   the  90-in.   boilers   which   were   designed 


EUi. 


.simwi.m;  stay-B(^i.ts  and  tube  .spacino 


by  E.  D.  Leavitt  at  his  office  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and 
were  built  by  Edward  Kendale  &  Sons  of  that  place. 
The  steel  was  acid  openhearth  and  was  rolled  by  the 
Na.shua  Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  of  Nashua,  N.  H.  The 
nozzles  were  of  steel  plate  rolled  up  and  flanged,  and 
with  thick  plates  riveted  to  the  flanges. — Editor.] 

Steam-C^arrying   Capacity    of    Pipes 

Several  readers  have  written,  suggesting  that  it  would 
be  of  interest  to  know  what  formula  was  used  by  Mr. 
Thies  in  computing  and  laying  out  the  charts  for  the 
carrying  capacity  of  pipes,  in  the  issue  of  Dec.  18, 
1917,  pages  825  and  820.  Following  is  Mr.  Thies' 
reply : 

These  charts  were  made  after  a  careful  study  of  an 
article  on  "Flow  of  Superheated  Steam  in  Pipes,"  by  E.  H. 
Foster  before  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  in  May,  1917  (Volume  29 
of  the  Transactions).  These  charts  are  good  only  for  short 
runs  of  pipes  such  as  mains  and  branches  in  power  plants 
and  are  not  figured  on  a  basis  of  pressure  drop.  The 
formula   is: 

.       2APC 


in  which 


A 
P 
C 
V 
2.4 


Area  of   pipe   in   square   inches; 
Pounds  of  steam  passing  per  hour; 
Cubic  feet  of  steam  per  pound; 
Velocity  in  feet  per  minute; 
Constant. 


The  Continental  heat  unit,  or  calorie,  is  the  quantity 
of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  kilo- 
gram of  water  one  deg.  C,  and  as  1  kg.  is  equal  to 
2.205  lb.  and  1  deg.  C.  is  ecjual  to  1.8  deg.  F..  it  is 
obvious  that  one  calorie  measures  the  same  quantity 
of  heat  as  does  3.969  B.t.u.  This  is  shown  by  multi- 
plying 1.8  by  2.205.  It  is  usual  when  translating  from 
the  English  and  American  standard  to  the  Continent;il 
or  metric  standaril  of  heat  measure  to  call  1  caloi'ie 
e(iual  to  3.97  B.t.u. 


A  ready  means  of  remed.\iiig  leaks  in  engine  casings 
is  by  tilling  ciacks  with  litharge  and  glycei'in. 


546 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


Parallel  Operation  of  Direct- Current  Generators 


By  T.  F.  barton 


The  elements  that  must  he  considered  when  oper- 
ating direct-current  generators  in  parallel  are 
discussed,  and  the  adjustments  that  may  be  made 
to  obtain  the  proper  characteristics  are  pointed 
out. 


ELECTRICAL  generators  are  considered  as  oper- 
ating perfectly  in  parallel  when  the  load  divides 
among  the  several  units  according  to  their  rating, 
this  proper  division  of  the  load  holding  as  the  load 
varies  over  the  entire  operating  range  of  the  machine. 
Parallel  operation  is  considered  satisfactory  when  this 
perfect  condition  is  approximated  within  a  small  per- 
centage. 

For  successful  parallel  operation  machines  must  have 
approximately  the  same  voltage  characteristics.  It  is 
therefore  impossible  to  operate  shunt-  and  compound- 
wound  generators  in  parallel  or  compound  machines  of 
greatly  different  characteristics,  although  the  equalizer 
used  with  such  machines  tends  to  give  each  the  same 
effective  compounding. 

The  simplest  case  of  parallel  operation  in  so  far  as 
connections  and  electrical  characteristics  are  involved. 


120 

u 

fllO 

p 
>  100 

V    60 

70 


A 


50  75  100 

Per  Cent.  Load 


fE5 


150 


FIG,  1. 


REGULATION   ('URVE.S   OF  TWO   SHUNT-WOUND, 
DIRECT-CURRB.XT  GENERATORS 


is  found  in  the  shunt-wound  noncommutating-pole  type 
machine.  Fig.  4.  If  two  shunt-wound  machines  are  con- 
nected together  at  no  load,  and  no  change  is  made  in 
their  field  rheostats,  then  the  voltage  of  both  machines 
will  decrease  with  increase  of  load,  and  the  two  ma- 
chines will  divide  the  load  as  determined  by  their  volt- 
age regulation. 

As  an  example,  consider  two  200-kw.  generators  oper- 
ating in  parallel,  having  voltage  regulations  as  shown 
by  the  curves  A  and  B  in  Fig.  1.  A  total  load  of  450  kw. 
will  divide  as  indicated,  200  kw.  on  generator  B  and  250 
kw.  on  A. 

There  are  three  adjustments  that  can  be  made  to 
change  the  regulation  of  shunt-wound  generators : 

a.  The  demagnetizing  effect  of  the  armature  current 
on  the  field  poles  is  proportional  to  the  amount  of  brush 
shift.  The  greater  the  brush  shift,  therefore,  the 
broader  the  regulation.  Commutation  primarily  deter- 
mines the  brush  position,  and  it  is  unwise  to  sacrifice 
commutation  for  regulation. 

b.  Increasing  the  air  gap  improves  regulation,  while 
decreasing  it  has  the  opposite  effect.  Most  machines  are 
arranged  with  shims  back  of  the  polepieces,  and  these 
may  be  removed  or  added  to,  depending  on  the  results 


desired.  Mechanical  dimensions  determine  the  mini- 
mum air  gap,  and  field  copper  the  maximum.  It  should 
be  remembered,  however,  that  the  design  of  a  machine 
determines  the  proper  air  gap,  and  any  change  from  this 
value  may  result  in  some  slight  disadvantage,  but  usu- 
ally not  sufl!icient  to  affect  the  operation  of  the  machine 
in  any  way  except  regulation. 

'■w 


•  ♦  *  ♦ 


Position  *J 


v2'  -Brushes 
^i   j*  f  Rotation 

I  i  I 


tCOnOUCTORS 


Position  *  I 
'I 


brushes  on  Neutral 
"      "altead'of Neutral 
-      "back"  " 


FIG. 


DIFFERENT  BRUSH  POSITIONS   IN  REFERENCE 
TO   THE   COM  MUTATING   POLES 


c.  A  change  in  speed  also  affects  voltage  regulation. 
Speed  changes  are  to  be  used  only  within  narrow  limits. 
Better  regulation  is  obtained  bj^  lowering  the  speed  or 
improving  speed  regulation,  or  by  a  combination  of  the 
two. 

Commutating-pole  machines  require  very  careful  ad- 
justments if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  Con- 
nections are  shown  for  a  shunt-wound  commutating- 
pole  type  machine  in  Fig.  5. 

At  brush  position  No.  1  in  Fig.  2,  the  effect  of  the 
commutating  field  is  normal  with  regard  to  regulation. 
With  the  brushes  in  position  No.  2  or  3,  a  part  of  the 
commutating-field  flux  is  not  effective  for  commutation, 
but  combines  with  the  flux  of  the  main  pole,  subtracting 
from  it  with  forward  and  adding  to  it  with  backward 
brush  shift. 

The  voltage  generated  by  a  direct-current  machine  is 
the  sum  of  the  voltages  of  all  coils  connected  to  the 
commutator  bars  between  positive  and  negative  brush 
studs.    If  the  brushes  were  shifted  90  electrical  degrees 

.106 
.,  103 


>   97 

0   94 
U 

U  91 
Q. 
68 


^^-=r 



— - 

^r^;-;,^^ 

"^=^^ 

B 

\ 

ti 


50  ■  75 

Per  Cent,    Load 


100 


125 


FI<; 


3,      REGULATION    CURVES    OF    TWO    t'OMPOUND- 
WOUND.  DIRECT-CURRENT  GENERATORS 


from  the  neutral  position,  no  voltage  would  exist  be- 
tween positive  and  negative  studs.  Similarly,  if  the 
brushes  were  shifted  a  few  degrees  as  in  position  No.  2, 
Fig.  2,  in  this  position  some  of  the  conductors  connected 
to  commutator  bars  between  the  studs  would  cut  the 
flux  from  the  commutating  field;  and  since  this  flux  is 
proportional  to  the  load,  the  voltage  characteristic  with 
forward  brush  shift  is  similar  to  that  of  a  differen- 


April   U;,   1918 


POWER 


547 


tiiiUy  wound  generator.  Backward  brush  shift  is  a 
compounding  effect.  Brush  position  and  commutating- 
field  strength  are  definitely  related,  a  backward  of  neu- 
tral position  requiring  a  stronger,  and  ahead  of  the 
neutral  a  weaker  flux.  If  the  brush  position  is  changed, 
the  strength  of  the  commutating  machine  should  usually 
be  changed.  This,  however,  depends  on  the  correctness 
of  the  original  adjustment.  The  effect  of  air  gaps, 
speed  and  speed  regulation,  are  the  same  as  in  the  non- 
commutating-pole  type. 

An  equalizer  is  used  in  connection  with  Shunt-wound 
commutating-pole  machines  in  some  instances.  Such  an 
arrangement  becomes  necessary  only  where  the  voltage 
regulation  is  made  very  close  owing  to  the  compounding 
effect  of  the  commutating  field.  The  equalizer  func- 
tions here  as  in  compound-wound  machines.  An  equal- 
izer is  undesirable  on  shunt-wound,  commutating-pole 
machines,  since  for  the  equalizer  to  function,  the  com- 
mutating-pole field  strength  is  necessarily  changed  from 
its  correct  value. 


sistance  is  often  connected  in  the  line  cables  for  ob- 
taining a  proper  balance.  Resistance  should  never  be 
connected  in  the  equalizer  cable.  If  the  resistances  of 
the  field  circuit  are  not  properly  balanced,  the  machine 
with  the  low-resistance  field  circuit  will  take  more  than 
its  proportion  of  the  load. 

The  compounding  curves  of  generators  vary  greatly, 
and  except  for  the  correcting  effect  of  the  equalizer, 
generators  with  voltage  characteristics  as  shown  in  Fig. 
3  would  not  divide  a  load  properly  between  them  at  any 
point  except  zero  and  100  per  cent.  The  amount  of 
compounding  above  a  given  no-load  voltage  may  be 
varied  by  changing  the  strength  of  the  compound  wind- 
ing, raising  or  lowering  the  speed,  changing  the  speed 
regulation,  shifting  the  brushes,  or  changing  the  air 
gap. 

Connections  for  a  compound-wound  commutating-pole 
generator  is  given  in  Fig.  8  and  the  connection  for  a 
compound-wound  commutating-pole  compensated  ma- 
chine is  given  in  Fig.  9.     In  adjusting  these  types  for 


RHEOSTAT  SHUNT 


-^MKM^^ 


aRCWT  BREAKER 
L  FIG.  4 


RHEOSTAT 

SMUHT  FIELD 


COHH.  FIELD 


ne.  5 


RHEOSTAT 

SHUNT  FIELD 


ARMATURE 
CIRCUIT 
\^REAKER 


^TJOCWTh 


(t  SERIES  FIELD 


SHUNTFIELD 


,  '°     ARMATURE 

(      ORCUIT 
•■   loBREAKER 

1  + 


FIG.  7 

PIGS.  4   TO   9. 


Fio.  a 


SHUliT  FIELD 


COMP 
FIELD 


COMM 
FIELD 


TJOW^^^O^JMVTTOM 


SERIES 
FIELD 


FIG.  9 


DIAGRAMAIATIC   CONNECTIONS   FOR  V.\RIOUS  TYPES   OF  GENERATORS 


The  shunt-wound,  compensated,  commutating-pole 
generator  is  very  similar  to  the  commutating-pole  type 
except  that,  instead  of  neutralizing  the  armature  reac- 
tion only  under  the  commutating  pole,  it  is  more  or 
less  entirely  neutralized  by  the  compensating  windings, 
depending  on  the  amount  of  compensation.  The  con- 
nection for  this  type  of  machine  is  given  diagrammati- 
cally  in  Fig.  6.  The  eff'ects  of  brush  position,  strength 
of  field,  etc.,  are  the  same  as  in  the  commutating-pole 
type. 

To  obtain  stability  in  parallel  operation  of  compound- 
wound  noncommutating-pole  generators,  they  must  be 
connected  together  at  points  where  a  drooping-voltage 
characteristic  results  with  increase  of  load.  The  equal- 
izer connection,  if  made  on  the  armature  side  of  the 
compound-field  winding,  will  accomplish  this  result  (see 
Fig.  7). 

The  compound-field  windings  with  their  connecting 
line  cables  of  all  machines  in  parallel  are  in  multiples 
between  the  equalizer  and  the  bus,  and  it  is  therefore 
important  that  the  resistance  of  these  circuits  be  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  rating  of  the  machines.    Re- 


parallel  operation,  the  fact  that  the  series  field  does  not 
necessarily  produce  all  the  compounding  should  be  kept 
in  mind.  The  actual  compounding  depends  on  the 
strength  of  the  compound  field,  the  brush  position  and 
the  strength  of  the  commutating  field.  Parallel  opera- 
tion is  sometimes  difficult  even  though  the  voltage 
characteristic  of  each  generator  is  approximately  the 
same.  The  real  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  while 
each  machine  has  the  same  regulation  at  the  line  term- 
inals, each  does  not  have  the  same  regulation  at  the 
point  of  equalization,  and  the  machines  may  compound 
entirely  from  the  action  of  the  compound  field,  while 
another  may  compound  but  slightly  from  this  source, 
but  from  the  commutating  field  and  brush  position. 
The  equalizer  cannot  be  very  effective  in  such  cases, 
since  all  equalizing  must  be  done  by  current  changes  in 
the  compounding-field  winding,  and  if  any  such  field  has 
little  or  no  effect  on  the  compounding,  it  follows  that 
the  equalizer  has  little  effect  on  the  division  of  load 
among  the  machines.  The  equalizer  cable  of  an.v  ma- 
chine should  be  designed  to  carry  not  less  than  50  per 
cent,  full-load  current. 


548 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


Operating  Cost,  Tamarack  Mills  Power  Plant 


Anali/seif   of   cost   of   operation    of    the   Jenckes 
Spinning  Co.  and  the  Tamarack  Mills  power  plant. 


IN  POWER  for  Mar.  26  appeared  an  article  setting 
forth  the  chief  features  of  the  new  Tamarack  Mills 
power  plant,  Pawtucket,  R.  1.  This  plant  and  that 
of  the  Jenckes  Spinning  Co.  near-by  are  two  of  the 
most  interesting  in  New  England,  particularly  in  the 
te.xtile  industry.  At  the  time  the  article  referred  to 
was  written,  operating-cost  figures  were  not  available; 
but  they  are  given  in  the  following.  As  pointed  out  in 
the  article,  both  the  Tamarack  plant  and  that  of  the 
Jeiickes  Spinning  Co.  burn  fuel  oil  exclusively  in  B.  & 
W.  water-tube  boilers.  The  former  is  a  high-pressure 
turbine  plant,  the  latter  a  reciprocating-engine  mixed- 
pressure  turbine  plant;  both  use  atmospheric  cooling 
towers  for  cooling  the  condensing  water. 

This  is  a  good  time  to  call  the  reader's  attention  to 
an  error  in  the  price  of  oil  for  the  Tamarack  plant,  as 
stated  in  the  article  in  Power  for  Mar.  26.  It  was  given 
as  92c.  per  bbl.  of  42  gal.  The  price  paid  is  $1.15  in- 
stead ;  92c.  per  bbl.  is  the  old  contract  price  made  about 
two  years  ago  for  the  Jenckes  Spinning  Co.'s  plant. 

There  follows  a  brief  analysis  of  the  cost  per  kilowatt- 
hour  of  generating  power  in  the  Jenckes  Spinning  Co.'s 
power  station  and  in  the  Tamarack  No.  2  power  station. 
The  figures  given  are  actual  operating  expenses  incurred 
during  one  week's  continuous  run.  The  matter  of  oil, 
repairs,  supplies,  etc.,  was  estimated  and  then  verified 
by  reference  to  the  accountant's  books,  so  that  the  total 
over-all  cost  per  kilowatt-hour  includes  every  expense 
that  can  rightfully  be  charged  against  the  operating 
expenses. 

With  particular  reference  to  the  fixed  charges  on 
these  two  power  stations,  it  is  believed  that  the  follow- 
ing figures  will  serve  as  an  accurate  criterion  in  esti- 
mating the  gross  costs  of  power  delivered  to  the  switch- 
board. The  percentages  given  are  those  that  are  nor- 
mally used  in  plants  of  the  capacity,  and  containing 
like  generating  equipment. 

Fixed  annual  charges:  Interest,  $0.06000;  deprecia- 
tion (annuity  basis),  $0.03344;  taxes  (;  of  total  cost  at 
li  per  cent),  $0.01125;  insurance,  $0.01000;  total  fixed 
charges,  $0.11469. 

The  item  of  depreciation  given  as  3.344  per  cent,  is 
figured  on  the  annuity  basis,  which  is  the  common  prac- 
tice in  plants  of  this  nature.  The  percentage  of  the  total 
cojts  of  the  plants  must  be  set  aside  at  the  beginning 
of  each  year,  for  a  period  of  17  years  (the  estimated 
average  life  of  the  complete  plants),  the  same  assumed 
to  earn  interest  during  the  whole  period  at  the  rate  of 
6  per  cent,  compounded. 

Using  the  figures  given  of  11.46  per  cent,  as  the  aver- 
age annual  fixed  charge  on  the  two  plants,  the  gross  cost 
of  power  delivered  at  the  switchboards,  per  kilowatt- 
hour  is  as  follows:  Jenckes  Spinning  Co.,  $0.00806; 
Tamarack  No.  2,  $0.00782. 

Note  that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  gross  cost  per 
kilowatt-hour  in  favor  of  the  Tamarack  plant  of 
$0.00024.     This  decrease  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 


items  of  repairs,  supplies,  lubricating  oil  and  labor  cost 
27  per  cent,  less  in  the  Tamarack  plant  than  in  the 
Jenckes  Spinning  plant.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  costs 
on  the  two  plants  were  identical,  the  total  net  cost  per 
kilowatt-hour  in  the  Jenckes  Spinning  plant  would  be 
somewhat  less  than  in  the  Tamarack  plant,  due  to  the 
fact  that  fuel  oil  costs  approximately  28  per  cent,  less 
in  the  Jenckes  Spinning  Co.'s  plant  than  in  the  Tam- 
arack plant. 

KI'ONmiY    CALCULATIONS    OF    THE    .lENCKES    SPINNING    CO 'S 
POWER  PLANT  FOR  WEEK  ENDING  FEB.  23,  1918: 

Thponginr  ronni  of  this  plant  rontaiiis  tlip  foIlowinR  equipment: 

One  Harris  simple  engine,  30;  \  60-in  .  bfir.pni. 

One  Harris  simple  engine,  24^,^  x  48in..  76r.p.ni. 

One    l,(H)0-kw.    mixed-pressure   turbine,    taking   exhau.'it,   from    engines   anri 

auxiliaries,  in  exeees  of  amount  required  to  heat  feed  water. 
One  300-kw.  noneondensing  turbine,  tlie  exhaust  steam  from  which  is  used  for 

heating  feed  water  and  operating  1,000-kw.  unit. 
One  390-hp.  synchronous  motor  belted  to  the  engines  and  connected  in  parallel 

with  the  turbines,  this  motor  being  allowed  to  float  on  the  line,  sometimes 

operating  as  a  generator  and  again  as  a  motor. 


A.  Total  Quantities: 

Kind  of  fuel      .    ,  

Total  oil  used  at  147  deg.  F.,  bbl  

Total  oil  used  at  1 47  deg.  F.,  gal     

Weight  of  one  gallon  oilas  fired,  lb 

Total  weiglit  of  oil,  lb 

Total  water  feed  to  boilers,  gal 

Total  weight  of  water,  lb 

Total  water  evaporated,  corrected  for  quality  of  steam  (0.985 

estimated) ,  lb ,    .  , 

B.  Economy: 

1.  Water  fed  per  pound  of  oil  as  fired,  lb 

2.  Water  evaporated  per  pound  of  dry  oil  (estimated) ,  lb 

C.  Cost  of  Evaporation: 

1.  Cost  of  oil  per  barrel  of  42  gal.,  cents 

2.  Weight  of  gallon  of  oil  at  60  deg.,  lb 

3.  Cost  of  oil  per  pound,  delivered  to  tanks,  cents 

4.  Cost  of  oil  per  one  thousand  pounds  of  water  evaporated,  cents 

5.  Cost  of  1,0001b.  of  water  (8c.  per  1, 000  gal.),  cents 

D.  Chargeable  to  Power: 

1 .  Fuel  oil  (estimated),  bbl   

2.  Total  cost  fuel  oil,  dollars 

3.  Water  purchased,  gal 

4.  Total  cost  water,  dollars 

5.  Labor,  dollars 

6.  ( lil,  dollars   

7.  Repairs,  dollars 

8.  Supplies,  dollars 


Mexican  fuel  oil 

1657  3 

69,606  6 

7  7 

535,970  8 

710,600 

5,921,567 


5,840,000 


E.     Chargeable  to  Heating: 
Fuel  oil  (estimated),  bbl      ... 
Total  cost  fuel  oil.  dollars 
Water  purchased  (estimated),      gal 
Total  cost  water  (8c  per  1, 000  gal)   . 

Labor  all  charged  tn  power 

Repairs  (estimated),  dollars 

Total  weekly  heating  costs,  dollars 

F      Power-plant  Details: 
Total  average  output  for  54  hours  (nightst.  hp 

Total  average  output  for  54  hours  (days),  hp 

Total  grand  average  ( 54  hours),  hp   

*Total  kw,-hr.  generiited    

Load  factor  of  plant,  per  cent     ..... 
Pounds  of  steam  per  kw.-nr.  . 
Pounds  of  oil  per  kw.-hr 
R.t.u.  per  pound  of  oil  (estimated) 
'.     Over-all  efficiency  of  plant,  per  cent  

G.     Unit  Costs  of  Power  per  Kilowatt-Hour,  Dollars: 

Fuel  oil .  . 

Water  ' 

Labor  

Oil  

Repairs 

Supplies  


11.10 
11.14 


0.90 

8  02 
0  267 
24  05 
0  96 


1,325  9 

1,193  31 

568  48 

45  48 

193  00 

10  00 

72   12 

7  80 


331   4 

298  ,26 

142.12 

11.37 

25.00 
334.37 


2.436  7 

2,829  0 

5,265  7 

213,800 

64  2 

21   8 

2  09 

18.400 

8  9 


n  005600 
0  000230 
0  000965 
n  000047 
0  000338 
0  0000365 


Total  cost  per  kilowatt-hour 0  0072165 

NOTE. — No  allowance  made  for  overhead  charges  which  should  be  added  to 

"G"  to  give  gross  costs. 

♦The  figure  of  213,800  kw.-hr.  is  the  net  power  output  after  deductions  for 

excitation  and  other  auxiliaries. 

ECONOMY   CALCULATIONS   OF   THE   TAMARACK  CO.'S   NO.    2 
POWER  PLANT  FOR  WEEK  ENDI.NG  MAR.  2,  1918 

The  engine  room  of  this  plant  contains  the  following  equipment: 
One  2,50(»-kw.  bleeder-type  turbine. 

A.     Total  Quantities: 

1.  Kind  of  fuel   Mexican  fuel  oil 

2.  Total  oil  used  at  149  deg.  F.,  bbl 1,227  8 

3.  Total  oil  used  at  149  deg.  F.,  gal 51,567.6 

4.  Weight  of  one  gal.  of  oil  as  fired  (estimated),  lb 7  7 

5.  Total  weight  of  oil,  lb    397,070  5 

6.  Total  weight  fed  to  boilers,  gal 594,510 

7.  Total  weight  of  water,  lb 4,954,250 

8  Total  water  evaporated,  corrected  for  quality  of   steam  0.96!' 

(estimated),  lb 4,870,000 


April  16,  1918 


POWER 


649 


B.  Economy: 

Wutrr  ft'd  per  pound  of  oil  ns  fired,  lb. 

Water  ovaporiited  per  pound  of  dry  oil  (intinmted),  lb. 

C.  Co8t  of  Evaporation: 

Cost  of  oil  per  barrel  of  42  pal.,  dollars 

Weight  of  gal.  of  oil  at  60  deg.  F.  (estiniated),  lb     .  . . . 

Cost  oi  oil  per  potiiid.  delivered  to  tanks,  eents     

Cost  of  oil  per  1,000  lb.  of  water  evaporated,  eents     -  ,  . 
Cost  of  1,000  lb.  of  water  (8c.  per  1,000  gal.),  eents 


D.     Chargeable  to  Power: 

1.  Fuel  oil  (estimated),  bbl  

2.  Total  cost  fuel  oil,  dollars  

3.  Water  purchased,  gal  

4.  Total  cost  water  (6e.  per  1,000  gal.,),  dollars 

5.  Labor,  dollars  

6.  Oil.  dollars 

7.  Uepairs  (estiniated),  dollars 

8.  Supplies,  dollars 


E.  Chargeable  to  Heating: 

1.  Fuel  oil  (estiniated),  bhi 

2.  Total  cost  fuel  oil,  dollars  

3.  Water  purchased  (estimated),  gal     

4.  Total  cost  water  (8e.  per  1.000  gal.),  dollars. 

5.  Labor  (all  charged  against  power) 

6.  Repairs  (estimated),  dollars 

7.  Total  weekly  heating  costs,  dollars 

F.  Power-plant  Details: 

1.  *Total  kw.-hr.  generated. 

2.  Load  factor  of  plant,  per  cent 

3.  Pounds  of  steam  per  kw.-hr 

4.  Pounds  oil  per  kw.-hr 

5.  B.t.u.  per  pound  oil  (estimated) 

6.  Over-all  efficiency  of  plant,  per  cent 


12,0'. 
12  54 


1  15 
8  02 
0  342 
27  4 
0  96 


1,050 

1,207  50 

510,000 

40  80 

153  00 

5.00 

50.00 

6.00 


177  8 

204  47 

84,510 

6  76 


G.     LTnit  Costa  of  Power  per  Kilowatt-Hour,  Dollars: 

1.  Fuel  oil 

2.  Water 

3.  Labor   

4.  Oil 

5.  Repairs   

6.  Supplies 


15  00 
226  23 


208.100 
49  5 
20  4 
I  69 
18.400 
10  9 


0  005790 
0  000196 
0  000736 
0  000024 
0  000240 
0  000029 


Total  cost  per  kilowatt-hour 0.  007015 

NOTE._ — No  allowance  made  for  overhead  charges,  such  as  interest,  insurance, 

depreciation,  etc.,  which  should  be  added  to  "G"  to  give  gross  costs. 

*  F-| :   The  figure  of  208. 100  kw.-hr.  is  the  net  power  output,  after  deductions 

for  excitation  and  other  auxiliaries. 

The  foregoing  data  were  obtaineci  through  the 
courtesy  of  Charles  E.  Teft,  chief  engineer  of  both 
plants  and  of  Robert  L.  Brunet,  Public  Service  Engi- 
neer for  the  city  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  who  is  consulting 
engineer  for  the  Jenckes  Spinning  Co. 


Electric  Current  Without  Cost  During 
Heating  Season 

An  instance  of  the  saving  to  be  realized  by  gen- 
erating the  necessary  current  in  a  building  where  heat 
is  maintained  is  found  in  the  New  Weston  Hotel  on 
the  northeast  corner  of  Madison  Ave.  and  49th  St., 
New  York  City.  Although  the  generator  has  been  in 
operation  only  a  short  time,  the  showing  at  present 
is  that  the  electric  current  used  for  light  and  elevator 
service  is  a  cost-free  byproduct  and  will  continue  so 
during  the  heating  season  at  least.  Mr.  Clayton,  the 
lessee  of  the  building  and  proprietor  of  the  hotel,  feels 
that  with  his  modem  kitchen  equipment  he  will  be 
able  to  utilize  a  large  percentage,  if  not  all,  of  the 
exhaust  steam  in  summer  also,  because  of  the  diminished 
use  of  current  for  lighting  during  that  period.  The 
new  unit  is  a  high-speed  self-contained  American  Ball 
50-kw.  three-wire  direct-current  set  with  an  automatic 
oiling  system,  so  that  operating  attention  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum.  Another  unit  of  the  same  type  but  only 
about  25  kw.  capacity  will  be  put  in  as  soon  as  the 
manufacturers  can  deliver  it.  This  small  unit  will  be 
able  to  supply  the  current  during  the  periods  of  least 
demand — during  the  day  and  the  late  part  of  the  night. 
The  chief  engineer,  James  Daugherty,  is  enthusiastic 
over  the  showing  already  made  and  expects  to  do  still 
better  when  the  new  set  is  in,  which  will  permit  better 
manipulation  or  handling  of  the  load. 

The  building  has  a  frontage  of  79 i  ft.  on  Madison 


Ave.  and  85  ft.  on  49th  St.,  is  12  stories  high  and 
contains  176  guest  rooms  besides  the  commodious  dining 
rooms  and  offices— roughly,  7000  sq.ft.  of  floor  space. 
It  is  of  modern  fireproof  brick  and  steel  construction, 
so  that  heating  it  is  not  difficult,  and  by  the  use  of 
high-efficiency  lamps  the  current  consumed  is  compara- 
tively small,  making  an  ideal  combination  for  a  private 
plant,  especially  since  the  services  of  an  engineer  are 
essential  and  no  additional  help  is  required  whether 
the  generating  unit?  are  in  use  or  not.  Complete 
operating  costs  for  a  year,  when  available,  will  furnish 
material  for  comparison  with  past  performance  when 
no  current  was  generated. 

Notwithstanding  the  extremely  cold  weather  and  the 
poor  quality  of  the  coal  he  is  able  to  procure,  Mr. 
Clayton's  daily  reports  show  no  increased  coal  con- 
sumption, while  generating  all  the  electric  current  used 
about  the  hotel  for  illumination  and  elevator  service, 
over  that  used  when  only  the  heating  was  being  done, 
so  that  the  electricity  generated  can  be  considered  as 
a  byproduct. 

The  calculation  regarding  the  capital  invested  and 
the  return  from  it,  is  interesting.  Placing  the  cost 
of  the  first  unit  at,  say,  $2500  (which  seems  ample 
considering  the  fact  that  there  was  practically  no  cost 
for  the  foundation,  switchboard,  etc.),  and  the  annual 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  service  at  $620,  the  difference 
between  $1100,  the  approximate  total  cost  per  year  for 
the  street  service  and  the  partial  street  service  still 
retained  at  a  cost  of  $480  per  year,  or  $40  per  month  for 
the  minimum.  Six  per  cent,  of  $2500  =  $150  interest 
to  be  deducted  from  $620,  leaving  $470  to  be  deducted 
from  $2500  =-  $2030  remaining  at  the  end  of  the  first 
year.  Continuing  the  calculation  for  succeeding  years, 
it  would  show  $1532  at  the  end  of  the  second,  $1004  at 
the  end  of  the  third  and  $444  at  the  end  of  the  fourth, 
so  that  by  the  end  of  the  fifth  year  this  unit  would  have 
paid  for  itself. 

Taking  again  the  case  of  the  smaller  (second)  unit, 
this  should  not  cost  more  than  $1500  and  by  means  of 
it  the  street  service  could  be  dispensed  with,  saving 
$480  per  year.  Six  per  cent,  of  $1500  =  $90,  which, 
subtracted  from  $480,  leaves  $390  to  be  deducted  from 
the  first  cost  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  leaving  $1110. 
There  would  remain  $697  at  the  end  of  the  second 
year,  $259  at  the  end  of  the  third,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  fourth  year  this  unit  would  be  paid  for  by  its  own 
output. 

Therefore,  allowing  liberally  for  insurance,  extra 
taxes,  repairs,  lubricants  and  a  proportionate  fuel 
charge  for  that  part  of  the  year  when  the  exhaust 
steam  is  not  all  used,  the  period  required  for  the  in- 
stallation to  pay  for  itself  is  not  extended  more  than 
a  year  or  two  at  most.  Or,  extending  the  period  of 
the  transaetion  to  20  years  and  allowing  for  a  total 
depreciation  in  that  time,  5  per  cent,  of  the  $4000  in- 
vestment, or  $200,  would  have  to  be  deducted  annually 
from  the  net  saving  shown  after  overhead  is  taken 
care  of.  Then  $4000  at  6  per  cent,  interest  and  say  1 
per  cent,  for  extra  taxes  and  insurance,  7  per  cent, 
in  all,  from  $1100  is  ($4000  at  7  per  cent.  =  $280  + 
$200  refund  on  principal)  $480,  leaving  $620  net  per 
year.  Even  setting  aside  $120  per  year  for  "incidentals" 
leaves  a  $500  saving,  or  121  per  cent,  clear  on  the 
original  investment. 


550 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


Low-Pressure  Turbines  for  Lineshaft  Drive 


By  R.  J.  HORNE 


Geared  low-pressure  steam  turbine  used  to  drive 
a  lineshaft  in  a  paper  mill  resulted  in  obtaining 
600  hp.  ivithout  any  cost  for  steam  and  made  it 
possible  to  operate  the  plant  with  eight  boilers 
in  service  ivhere  before  the  installation  of  the 
turbine  thirteen  boilers  were  required. 

MANY  a  mill  owner  whose  plant  is  driven  by 
lineshafts  finds,  when  he  seeks  to  add  power 
supply,  that  the  simplest  solution — electric- 
motor  drive  supplied  from  existing  power  lines — is  not 
available.  Often,  however,  there  is  sufficient  boiler 
capacity  in  the  plant  to  do  the  work  if  it  is  effectively 


ditions  were  somewhat  as  follows:  Two  100-hp.  non- 
condensing  engines  turned  the  rolls  and  gave  practically 
all  the  exhaust  steam  necessary  for  feed-water  heating, 
so  that  all  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  700-hp.  non- 
condensing  Corliss  engine  driving  one  of  the  lineshafts 
would  have  to  be  discharged  to  the  atmosphere  unless 
some  means  were  provided  for  abstracting  the  energy 
still  available  in  it.  A  low-pressure  turbine  was,  with- 
out a  doubt,  the  logical  prime  mover,  but  it  would  have 
been  of  little  use,  on  account  of  its  high  speed,  without 
.suitable  reduction  gearing. 

Other  types  of  drive  were  considered,  but  each  had 
inherent  characteristics  which  disqualified  it;  for  in- 
stance, a  duplication  of  the  old  reciprocating  engine 
with  the  inevitable  wasting  of  exhaust  steam.     A  con- 


FKt.    1        LOW-PRESSURE    STEAM    TURBTNE    WITH    DOUBLE-REDUCTIOX  GEARS 


applied.  Particularly  where  the  lineshaft  drives  only 
a  small  number  of  machines,  an  ingenious  solution  of  the 
problem  is  to  install  a  turbine,  with  reduction  gearing. 

In  a  western  Pennsylvania  paper  mill  there  is  a 
unique  lineshaft  drive  consisting  of  a  Westinghouse 
low-pressure  turbine  and  double-reduction  gear,  Fig.  1. 
There  are  two  mainline  shafts  to  which  the  machines 
are  belted.  To  one  lineshaft  are  belted  two  cutters,  ten 
beaters  and  one  Jordan;  and  identical  equipment,  with 
the  exception  of  the  cutters,  is  belted  t»  the  other 
shaft.  Under  ordinary  running  conditions  only  seven 
of  the  ten  beaters  on  each  shaft  are  in  operation  at 
one  time,  and  these,  with  one  Jordan,  require  about 
600  hp.    The  rag  cutters  take  20  hp.  each. 

Originally,  these  two  lineshafts  were  each  driven  by 
a  noncondensing  reciprocating  engine.  However,  one 
of  these  engines  was  wrecked,  and  it  became  necessary 
to  obtain  some  form  of  drive  to  replace  it. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  considerations  entering 
into  the  final  selection  of  the  new  drive.     These  con- 


densing engine  would  have  been  expensive  and  no 
material  improvement.  Again,  an  electric  motor,  while 
comparatively  cheap  to  install,  would  have  been  much 
more  expensive  when  the  electric-power  bill  was  added 
to  the  cost  of  energy  lost  in  wasted  exhaust  steam 
And  finally,  it  was  still  more  expensive  to  install  a 
turbine  generator  and  an  individual  electric  drive,  be- 
cause the  existing  e((uipnient  was  of  an  entirely  differ- 
ent character.  In  a  new  plant  where  all  equipment  is 
being  installed  for  the  first  time,  the  individual  electric 
drive  is  by  far  the  best,  for  reasons  too  well  known  to 
need  discussion  here. 

A  few  approximate  figures  will  show  more  clearly 
the  fitness  of  the  low-pressure  turbine  for  this  ap- 
plication. The  exhaust  steam  from  the  700-hp.  Corliss 
engine  was  more  than  sufficient  to  give  600  hp.  in  the 
low-pressure  turbine.  The  engine  takes  steam  at  150- 
Ib.  pressure  and  exhausts  into  an  oil  separator  at  a 
back  pressure,  depending  on  the  load,  from  0  to  4  or 
6  lb.,  which   is  approximately  the  pressure  of  admis- 


April   IC).   1!)18 


P  O  W  K  U 


551 


sion  to  the  low-pressure  turbine.  The  steam  is  then 
expjmded  in  the  turbine  down  to  a  vacuum  correspond- 
ing to  27.5  in.  of  mercury  referred  to  a  ;}0-in.  barometer, 
the  vacuum  being-  maintained  by  a  Westinghouse-Le- 
blanc  low-level  jet  condenser  and  air  pump.  The  pumps 
are  centrifugal  and  are  driven  by  a  small  steam  turbine 
through  a  reduction  gear.  They  take  their  water  from 
a  near-by  creek  and  discharge  it  from  the  condenser 
into  a  reservoir  at  an  elevation  of  45  ft.  This  water 
is  used  in  the  manufacturing  processes.  The  small 
turbine  runs  noncondensing,  and  its  exhaust  steam  goes 
to  the  feed-water  heater,  so  that  only  a  part  of  the 
heat  energy  in  the  steam  used  by  it  can  be  charged  to 
the  turbine,  and  even  that  cannot  be  charged  against 
the  main  turbine,  for  it  is  used  to  do  work  in  elevating 
the  discharge  water  from  the  condenser  to  the  reser- 
voir and  should  be  charged  against  the  total  cost  of 
manufacturing.  In  brief,  it  may  be  said  that  this  paper 
company  actually  gets  600  hp.  without  paying  a  cent 
for  steam  and  is  using  just  one-half  the  steam  formerly 
used  with  two  reciprocating  engines  for  the  same  power. 
While  this  particular  mill  was  not  enlarged,  it  is 
evident  that  with  a  given  amount  of  exhaust  steam, 
either  for  noncondensing  engines  or  condensing 
engines  run  noncondensing,  a  large  increase  of  power 
is  made  available  by  the  installation  of  a  low-pressure 
turbine.  Further  evidence  of  this  possibility  for  expan- 
sion is  the  fact  that,  in  this  paper  mill,  when  the  two 
lineshafts  were  driven  by  noncondensing  reciprocating 
engines,  a  battery  of  13  boilers  was  required,  whereas 
now  only  eight  are  required  for  the  maximum  load. 


PIG.  2.      FLEXIBLE-FRAME  GEAR  WITH    COVER  REMOVED 

Although  the  application  of  the  low-pressure  turbine 
is  an  interesting  one,  the  means  of  transmitting  its 
high-speed  power  to  a  slow-speed  lineshaft  is  fully  as 
interesting  and  as  important.  The  change  in  speed  is 
made  by  means  of  two  reduction  gears,  shown  at  A 
and  B,  Fig.  1,  because  the  first  cost  of  a  single  gear 
and  pinion  of  ratio  36  to  1  would  be  prohibitive  and 
the  gear  would  be  very  large  and  unwieldly.  The  first 
speed  reduction,  3600  to  720  r.p.m.,  is  made  with  a  fixed 
bearing  type  of  reduction  gear,  the  gear  shaft  of  which 
is  direct-connected  to  the  pinion  shaft  of  the  second 
gear,  which  reduces  the  speed  from  720  to  103  r.p.m. 

This  larger  reduction  gear  is  of  the  flexible-pinion 
frame  type,  known  as  the  Westinghouse  I-beam  type. 
In  this  the  pinion   is  supported   on  three  bearings   in 


a  frame,  as  shown  in  Figs.  2  and  3.  This  frame  is  sup- 
ported under  the  middle  bearing  on  an  I-beam  at  right 
angles  to  the  pinion  axle.  The  flexibility  of  the  web  of 
this  I-beam  support  allows  the  pinion  to  tip  slightly  and 
to  let  the  teeth  of  the  pinion  line  up  with  those  of  the 
gear.  This  lining  up  is  entirely  automatic  and  instan- 
taneous in  operation,  so  that  no  mechanical  complica- 


FKi.    .i.       FLEXIBLE-FRAME    GEAR    SHOWING    HOW    THE 
THREE    PINION    BEARINGS    ARE    SUPPORTED 

tions  are  encountered  and  no  adjustments  from  the 
outside  of  the  gear  case  are  necessary  at  any  time. 

Both  reduction  gears  are  lubricated  by  sprays  of  oil 
directed  upon  the  teeth  just  before  they  mesh.  The 
oil  pressure  is  maintained  by  a  pump  geared  to  the 
gear  shaft,  as  shown  at  C,  Fig.  1.  This  pump  also 
supplies  oil  under  pressure  to  all  the  bearings  in  the 
two  reduction  gears.  For  starting,  a  hand  pump  is 
provided  which  insures  a  plentiful  supply  of  oil  at  the 
bearing  and  teeth. 

It  may  be  asked  why  a  fixed-bearing  type  of  reduc- 
tion gear  was  used  in  one  case  and  an  I-beam  type 
in  the  other.  It  was  a  question  of  tooth  pressure  which 
determined  the  design.  Take,  for  instance,  a  pinion 
transmitting  600  hp.  at  3600  r.p.m.,  which  was  the  casi 
of  the  first  reduction  gear  in  the  particular  installation 
under  discussion.  If  the  same  pinion  was  to  turn  at 
720  r.p.m.  and  with  the  same  tooth  pressure,  that  is, 
pounds  pressure  per  inch  of  tooth  face,  it  would  be 
capable  of  transmitting  one-fifth  of  600  hp.,  or  120  hp., 
only.  It  follows,  then,  that  the  second  gear  would  have 
been  made  five  times  as  large  as  the  first  if  the  same 
type  had  been  used,  and  for  the  transmission  of  the 
same  amount  of  power.  Such  a  reduction  gear  would 
have  been  large  and  bulky.  It  would  also  have  been 
costly,  because  co.st  is  a  function  of  size. 

In  order,  then,  to  make  a  reduction  gear  that  would 
be  within  reasonable  limits  as  to  size,  and  at  the  same 
time  marketable,  the  allowable  tooth  pressure  had  to 
be  increased,  or  in  other  words,  the  factor  of  safety 
included  in  the  allowable  stress  in  fixed  bearing  design 
had  to  be  lowered.  But  if  this  were  done,  some  other 
safety  factor  would  have  to  be  incorporated  to  insure 
reliability  of  operation,  otherwise  a  slight  misalignment 
of  the  teeth  and  uneven  distribution  of  tooth  pressure 
would  result  in  a  failure  of  the  gear.  This  safety 
factor  was  found  in  the  I-beam  support  for  the  pinion, 
which  corrects  any  misalignment  and  uneven  pressure 
distribution  that  might  othei-wise  exist. 

In  the  case  of  the  reduction  gear  with  fixed  bearing 
support   for   the  pinion,   misalignment,   although   prac- 


552 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


tically  prevented  by  good  workmanship,  will  not  have 
disastrous  results  if  it  should  exist,  because  of  the  high 
factor  of  safety  used   in  the  tooth  design. 

The  actual  efficiency  of  the  two  gears  together  is 
97  per  cent. ;  that  is,  only  3  per  cent,  of  the  total  power 
transmitted  is  lost  in  them.     This  energy  is  dissipated 


in  the  form  of  heat  and  is  taken  up  by  the  oil,  which 
in  turn  is  cooled  by  a  water-cooling  system.  As  to 
reliability,  in  the  paper  mill  under  discussion  the  double 
reduction  gear  has  run  24  hours  per  day,  six  days  per 
week,  under  maximum  load,  and  it  has  never  been  shut 
down  on  account  of  trouble  with  the  gears. 


The  Cost  of  Coal 

DURING  the  first  few  weeks  of  this  year,  when  Jobbers'    commissions    as    separate    items    of    cost 

the  entire  country  was  in  the  grip  of  unusually  have  been  eliminated;   instead,  the  commission  of  the 

severe  winter  weather  and  the  railroads  were  un-  jobber  is  included  in  the  price  at  the  mine,  beginning 

able  to   meet   the   demands   made   upon   them    for  the  Apr.  1,  so  that  the  retail  dealer  will  obtain  coal  at  the 

transportation  of  fuel,  the  price  of  coal  was  a  matter  of  same  price,  whether  purchased  through  a  jobber  or  di- 

secondary  importance.    The  main  consideration  was  the  rect  from  the  mine. 

possibility  of  getting  coal,  regardless  of  kind,  grade  or  Still  another  item  of  cost  that  may  have  to  be  con- 
size,  at  any  price  whatever.  sidered  in  connection  with  bituminous  coal  is  the  allow- 
Now  that  moderate  weather  has  decreased  the  press-  ance  for  cleanness.  According  to  a  ruling  of  the  Fufel 
ing  demand  for  coal  and  has  allowed  the  railroads  to  re-  Administration,  operators  who  use  special  means  to 
cover  somewhat  from  their  congestion,  the  coal  user  eliminate  impurities  from  their  products  will  be  al- 
naturally  turns  again  to  a  consideration  of  the  cost  of  lowed  to  add  20c.  a  ton  to  the  Government  prices  for 
his  fuel.  coal  at  the  mine.  The  objects  of  this  concession  are  to 
The  cost  of  coal  to  the  consumer  is  the  sum  of  several  stimulate  production  and  to  insure  a  better  quality  of 
items,  each  of  which  can  be  reckoned  more  or  less  ex-  coal.  The  offer  embraces  the  period  from  Apr.  1  to 
actly.  The  first  of  these  is  the  price  of  the  coal  per  ton  July  31,  1918,  and  permits  will  be  extended  beyond 
at  the  mine.  This  is  fixed  by  the  Government,  since  a  Aug.  1  in  all  cases  in  which  such  action  seems  proper, 
definite  schedule  of  rates  is  set  to  cover  the  selling  Retail  dealers  m.u.st  also  obtain  permits  from  the  Fuel 
prices  of  the  various  kinds  and  sizes  of  coal.  These  Administration  before  they  will  be  allowed  to  add  to 
prices,  per  ton  f.o.b.  at  the  mines,  are  given  in  Tables  their  prices  the  allowance  made  to  the  operators. 
I  and  II.  They  should  be  increased  by  the  amounts  al-  Specially  cleaned  coal  will  be  designated  by  cards  in  the 
lowed  for  wage  increases,  as  given  in  the  footnotes  to  cars  in  which  such  coal  is  loaded  and  also  by  notations 
the  tables.     Also,  the  reductions  allowed  during  certain  on  the  invoices. 

months  of  the  year  should  be  taken  into  account  in  all  The  next  item  is  the  freight  on  the  shipment.     As 

cases  in  which  they  are  applicable.  the  freight  rates  of  the  various  railroads  engaged  in  in- 

Since  the  issuance  of  the  order  putting  into  effect  terstate  transportation  are  subject  to  the  approval  of 

the  reduction  of  30c.  a  ton  on  anthracite  for  domestic  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  they  can  be  de- 

TABLE  I    PRICES  OF  ANTHRACITE  tcrmined  by  addressing  an  inquiry  to  the  commission. 

Grate      Egg      Stove     No.  4      Pea      Buck.     Slack  Thus,  the  freight  charge  per  ton  of  coal  from  the  mine 

.\rkansas:  to  the  destination  of  the  shipment  may  readily  be  ascer- 

Bcniice  district. . .     $7  30       $7  55       $8  30       $8  30       $6  30       $2  85       $2  50  f                       J                  J 

Spadra  district   .. .      6  80          6  80                            7   30          4  80                            2  50  tained. 

Tlie  foregoing  prices  are  f.o.b.  mines  and  notiiing  to  be  added.  t                                      j.i                i             iuj.                     i.j„„i.j 

Aiitheseprices— exceptthoseforsiack— aresubjecttothefoUowingreductions:  in  many  cases  the  coal  must  be  transported  a  part  01 

?5c.inSept"mber'*'    75c.  in  May;    60e.  in  June;    45e.  in  July;    30e.  in  August;  ^j^g    ^^^    ^y    ^argeS    Or    stoamers.       This    is    particularly 

Pennsylvania:               Broken        Egg         Stove     Chestnut       Pea  true  of  the  coal  consunied  in  Now  York  City  and  many 

^hit^e^ash $4  55        $4  45        $4  70        $4  80        $3  40  parts  of  New  England.     Transportation  by  water  adds 

LykensVaiiey 5  00         4  90         5  30         5  30         3.75  another  charge   for   lighterage   or   water   freight.      In 

The  foregoing  prices  do  not  include  the  35c.  per  ton  allowance  for  wage  increase  ix-              xi                i.         T,ii>..„xT           •\rixT-» 

under  the  President's  order  of  Dec  5  1917  normal  times  the  Water  haul  from  New  York  to  Bos- 

PennS'l?in1alSthr'aci\'e\oVd°^^^^^^^^^^  ton   is  about   50c.  a  ton,   and  from   Newport  News  to 

use,  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  has  granted  ^ew  England  ports  it  is  from  70  to  90c.  a  ton;   but 

the    railroads   an    increase   of    I5c.    a   ton    on    all    coal  ""^er  the  stress  of  a  scarcity  of  coal-carrying  bottoms 

freighted.     As  a  consequence,  coal  dealers  are  puzzled  ^^se  charges  rose  to  as  much  as  $4  a  ton  during  the 

to  know  whether  they  shall  reduce  their  price  30c.  and  recent  fuel  crisis. 

pay  the  increased  freight  of  15c.  or  whether  they  shall  If  the  coal  is  purchased  through  a  local  dealer,  or  if 

reduce  the  price  to  the  consumer  only  15c.     The  Fuel  the  purchaser  must  pay  for  hauling  the  coal  from  the 

Administration  will  be  asked  to  decide  the  matter.  wharf  or  railway  to  his  plant,  there  will  be  a  charge  for 

The  first  schedule  of  Government  prices,  which  went  delivery.     The  amount  of  this  item   is  easily  and  di- 

into  effect  less  than  a  year  ago,  covered  only  such  coal  rectly  obtainable. 

as  had  not  been  contracted  for,  or,  in  other  words,  free  After  the  several  items  of  cost  have  been  determined 

coal.    By  the  first  of  April  of  this  year,  most  contracts  or  estimated,  the  reasonable  total  cost  of  the  coal  per 

will  have  expired,  and  any  further  purchases  or  con-  ton  may  be  found  by  adding  them.     The  sum  will  give 

tracts  to  purchase  will  be  made  on  the  basis  of  the  the  consumer  a  fair  idea  of  what  his  coal  should  cost, 

new  prices.     The  prices  shown  in  Tables  I  and  II  in-  If  the  price  he  is  paying  is  very  greatly  in  excess  of  the 

elude  all  changes  and  modifications  up  to  the  fifth  of  calculated  price,  he  may   feel  reasonably  certain   that 

April,  1918.  someone  is  profiteering  at  his  expense. 


April  16.  1918 


POWER 


553 


TAIti.K  11      IMlirKS  OF  HITUMINOTS  COM.  VK\i  TON    V  n  H    AT  THE  MINES 


State 


Hun  nf 
Mine 


Alabniim: 


UiR  Soam  distrii'l  

Culmba,  Hhirk  Crock,  Brook  wood  nnd  Rliie 
Creek  distriets 

I*rntt,  JueRor,  Jefferson,  Niekel  Plate  and 
Coal  City  districts,  ...... 

Coroiiu  district  '.  .  .  . 

Monteviillo  district 

(^onl  mined  in  upper  heufli  of  HiR  Scam  .  .  .  . 

Coal  niineil  at  I^ynn  mines  of  Monroe  War- 
rior Coal  and  Coke  Co.  for  nse  at  Macon, 
Cia 

Coal  Tuined  by  Cnliaba  Snutheni  ('..id  Min- 
inp  Co  .  HarRro\'c,  Hilib  CuuTity 

Climax  Seam,  near  Maylenr,  Slidliy  County 

Arkansas  .... 

.liihnson.  Franklin  and  Sebjiatian  Counties, 

except  lOxD'Isior  district  . 

hogan  an(i  Scott  Counties  ami  the  KxceUior 

district  of  Sebastian  County 

Colorado   .  

Domestic  coal.  domi>slir  field  t 

Steam  coal,  Trinidad  district  j 

Lignite  coal  

(Jeorfiia. 

Illinois: 

Mercer,  Bureau,  Kniiknkce.  I, a  Sa'Ie, 
Cir\mdy,  Will.  Put luini.  Marshall,  I,iv- 
inRston,  Woodford,  and  Mcl^ran  Coun- 
ties         

Hock  Island,  Henry,  Warren,  Knox,  Stark, 
Peoria,  Hancock,  McDonough,  Hender- 
son, Fulton,  Taaewell  and  Schuyler 
Counties . 

Menard,  Logan,  Dewitt,  Champaigti.  Ver- 
milion, Sangamon,  Macon,  Pratt.  Chris- 
tian, Moultrie.  Shelby,  Greene.  Macoupin 
and  Montgomery  Counties,  Madison 
County  north  of  latitude  of  Alton,  and  all 
mines  which  are  not  included  in  other 
rulings 

Bond,  St.  Clair,  Monroe  and  Handoiph 
Counties  and  Madison  County  south  of 
latitude  of  Alton,  and  Clinton.  Washing- 
ton and  Perry  Counties,  not  including 
mines  along  Illinois  Central  R,R.  between 
Vandalia  and  Carbondale 

Jackson  County,  not  including  mines  along 
Illinois  Central  R.R.  between  Carbondale 
and  Duquoin 

Marion,  Jefferson,  Franklin.  W^illiamsoii, 
Johnson,  Hamilton,  Saline,  White,  Galla- 
tin, and  mines  along  main  line  of  Illinois 
Central  between  Vandalia  and  Carbon- 
dale in  Clinton,  Washington,  Perry  and 
Jackson  Counties   

Indiana  

Brazil  Block  field 


Iowa. 


$2   IS 


Appanoose,  Wayne,    Boone,   and     Webster 

Countif  s 
Marion  County     

Kansas 
Osage  county 
Mines  at  Leavenworth 

Kentucky 

Harlan,  Perry  and  Letcher  Countietf,  and 
operations  in  Pike  County  on  tlie  Levisa 
Fork  of  the  Big  Sandy  River 

East  of  the  85th  degree  of  longitude,  except 
Harlan,  Perry  and  Letcher  Counties  and 
operations  in  Pike  County  on  the  Levisii 
Fork  of  the  Big  Sandy  River 

Maryland 


Michigan  .    . 

What  Cheer,  Banner,  Bliss.  Robert  Gage, 
Beaver  and  Consolidated  &  Wolverine 
coal  companies      , 

Handy  Bros 

Caledonia  mine 

Flint  mine 

Missouri 

Lafayette,  Pay.  Clay.  Platte,  Linn  and 
Putnam  Coimties,  end  T>ongwall  thin 
seam  vein  in  Randolph  County 

Montana 

'New  Mexico ... 

Raton  district 

Sugarite  and  Monero  field 

CJallup  field  

Cerillos  and  Carthage  fields 

JNorth  Dakota  (lignite); 

Run-of-mine 

Screenings 

Screened  lump 

6-iu .  steam  lump 


2  65 


2  00 


2   00 
2   40 


2  00 
I   95 


2  70 


7S 

70 

SS 

ns 

15 

I    95 


2  20 


Ohio: 
Thick  vein 

Thin  vein     ','.'.'.. 

DporfifU,  Palmyra,  Massillon  and  JackBon 

(iflds       

Jpfforson,  Harrison,  Belmont,  Carroll  and 

Monroe  Counties 


I'rrpiired 
Sues 


$2  45 


3    10 


4  on 


2  90 


2  20 


2  20 
2  60 


20 

20 

95 

95 

10 
95 

SO 

50 
40 

2 

20 

2  95 


3  40 


Slack  or 
SerceninKs 


$1   65 


2  45 


2  35 

2  (.5 

2  05 

2  40 

2  75 

2  05 

2  40 

4  00 

2  15 

2  35 

2  65 

2  05 

3   10 


2  R5 
4  25 

3 
4 

70 
50 

2  45 
2  13 

2  65 

2 

90 

2  40 

3  70 

4 

60 

2  40 

4  35 

5 

15 

2  60 

2  45 

2 

70 

2  20 

2  25 
2  35 
2  25 

3 

3 
3 

50 
25 
25 

1  25 
1  65 

1  on 

3  25 

3 

50 

3  20 

2    10 


I   70 
2.10 


70 

70 

70 

45 

no 

45 

30 

80 
90 

1 

70 

1    95 


2  65 

2  90 

2  40 

2  40 

2  65 

2  15 

i  15 

5  60 

2  20 

3  40 

3  70 

4  55 

3  95 

4  25 

5  05 
5  55 

2  25 
2,55 

3  55 
3  55 

2  45 


2   90 


2  65 

3  30 

1  50 

2  40 

2  75 

3  00 

3  05 

4  05 

2  65 

3  25 

4  00 

4  50 

5  05 

2  15 
2  00 
2  00 

2  00 

3  55 

2  25 

1  25 

2  50 
2  00 

2  00 
2  35 

2  25 
2  60 

1  75 

2  10 

3  25 

3  50 

3  00 

2  00 

2  25 

1  75 

Oklahoma  ... 

Li-Mnir,  UaMkcll.  Okmulgee,  Tulsa,  Rogers, 
and  Coal  Counties  and  the  Hartshorn- 
Wilburton  vein  in  Pittsl)urg  and  Latimer 
( 'ountics    .       .  . 

McAlcster  vein  in   Pittsburg  and   Latimer 

CoUTltii'S 

Peimsylvania 
Operations  in  Tioga,  Ivyi-oming.  Clinton. 
Center.  Huntingdon,  Bedf<)rd,  Cameron, 
Elk.  Clearfield,  Cambria,  Blair,  Somerset, 
.leffiTson.  Indiana,  Clarion,  Armstrong, 
Ruller,  Mercer,  Lawrence  and  licavcr 
Countii's.  anrl  in  Allegheny  County  from 
Lower  ImkI  of  Tarentum  Borough  north 
tr>  county  line,  and  in  Westmoreland 
County  from  point,  opposite  lower  eufl  of 
Tarentum  Borough  north  along  Alle- 
ghetiy  River  to  Kiskiminitas  River  ;ind 
along  Kiskiminitas  River  eastward  to 
Concmaugh  River  and  along  Conemaugh 
Ii,i\er  t.()  Cambriii.  County  line,  and  oper- 
ations on  B.  (V,  O.  R.R,,  fro7n  Somerset 
( 'ounty  line  to  and  including  Indian 
(  Veck  and  Intlian  Creek  Vallev  branch  of 
B    \'  O    R  R 

rill^liuigli  field,  inrUidiiig  counties  of 
W;iHliington.  (Jreen,  Fayette.  Westmore- 
land and  Allegheny',  except  ( 11  that  por- 
1  ion  of  Allegheny  County  from  lower  end 
of  Tarentum  Borough  north  to  county 
line;  (2)  territory  in  Westmoreland 
County  from  a  point  opposite  lower  entl 
of  Tarentum  Borough  north  along  Alle- 
gheny River  to  Kiskiminitas  River  and 
along  Kiskirninitas  River  eastward  to 
Conemaugh  River,  continuing  aiong 
Conemaugh  River  to  county  line  of 
Cambria  County;  (3)  operations  on 
Indian  Creek  in  Westmoreland  County; 
(  4)  operations  in  the  Ohio  Pyle  district  of 
Fayette  County 

Ajax  Hocking  Coal  Co.,  Clearfield  and 
Somerset  Counties 

Tennessee: 
All  except  Overton  and  Fentress  Counties. . 
Overton  and  Fentress  Counties.    


Run  r,f 
Mine 

3.05 


Texas  

Operators  at  Thurber  and  Strawn 

Operators  at  Bridgeport 

Young,  Erath,  and  Palo  Pinto  Counties. . . 

Wise  County 

Ligniie  run  of  mine 

Lignite,  screened,  with  at  least  15  per  cent. 

of  screenings  taken  out 

Lignite  screenings      

Utah      

Virginia                     ... 
Li'c.    Wise    and    Dicken.son    Counties,    .-itid 
liussell  County  west  of  Finney  on   Ihf 
Norfolk  &  Western  Ry ' 


Washington  (Screened  Coals): 

Kittitas  Cf)unty 

Kittitas  County,  special  steam  and  gas., , 
Lewis    and     Thurston     Counties,     sub-bi- 
tviminous 
Lump 
Lump  nut 
Nut  


Washington  (Washed  Coals): 
Kittitas  County.  . 

Pierce,  King.  Lewis  and  Skagit  Counties  . 

Lump  nut 

Mixed  steam 

Straight  steam  and  gas. 
King  County,  sub-bituminous  ,     , 

Lump   nut 

Pea 

Buckwheat 

Lewis  County,  sub-bituminous 

Lump 

Nut 

Pea  

B\ickwheat 

West  \'irginia 

Pittsburgh  sr-am  in  Hancock,  Brooke,  Oliift, 
and  Marshall  ( '(unities      

KcnovH  and  Thacker  fieUJs  and  Preston 
County 

Tvig  River  district,  -oal  mining  operations 
on  Norfolk  &  Western  Ry.,  west  of  Welch 
to  Panther,  including  branches,  except 
Newhall,  Berwind,  Canebrake  and  Hart- 


2  60 


2  00 
2  75 


Prnpared 
Sites 

3   30 


'2.60 


2.25 


4  00 


Stack  oi 
Screenin).^p 

2.60 


3  70 

4  60 

2  40 

4  25 

5  10 

3.00 

2  00 

2.25 

1.75 

I  75 


2  65 
2  20 

2  90 

2.45 

2  40 
1  95 

2  65 

3  60 

4  25 
3.60 
4.25 

2  90 

4  40 

5  05 

4  40 

5  05 

2  40 
2  25 
2  25 
2.25 
2  25 
1  40 

1.50 
0.85 

2  65 

3  30 

1  50 

2  00 

2  25 

1  75 

2  20 

2  45 

1  95 

3  55 

3  95 
3  25 

2  50 

2  75 

3  95 
3  25 
3  00 

1.25 

6  on 

5  25 

4  80 

150 

5  00 

3  50 

3.25 

i;25 

3  95 

3  75 

5  00 

1  50 

2  00 

2  25 

1  75 

2  00 

2  25 

1  75 

2  40 

2.65 

2  15 

2  40 
2  35 
2  15 

2.65 
2.60 
2.40 

2  15 
2  10 
1  90 

2  75 
2  75 

2  65 

3  30 

1  50 

Pomeroy  field 

New  River 

Davy- Pocahontas  Coal  Co.  in  McDowell 

County   

Ajax  Hocking  Coal  Co.  in  Mineral  County.. 

Wyonung      

The  foregoing  prices  are  f.o.b.   mines  basis  for  ton  of   2,000  lb 
include  the  45c.  per  ton  allowed  in  President's  order  of  Oct.  27.   1917 

*  Increase  (if  45c.  per  ton  does  not  apply  to  these  mines. 

t  I'repared  sizes  svibject  to  following  monthly  reductions  in  price: 
May  \.  50c.;  June  },  35c,;  July  1,  t5c,;  base  price  again  effective  .\ug,  1 

X  Prei)iired  sires  subject   to  following  monthlv  reductions  in   price:    Ajir.    L 
"       Ma>   ■    '"        .       -      .        . 


nd  do  not 


Apr.  L  70c 


40c.: 


lay  1,  30c,;  June  I,  20c.;   July  1     lOc  ;   base  price  again  effective  Aua.    I 


554 


c  \j  yy  cj  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


Fall  and  Rise  of  Government  Bonds  on 

Account  of  War 


GOVERNMENT  bonds,  like  people,  act  pretty 
much  like  one  another  under  similar  conditions. 
Whether  they  are  French,  English,  German,  Rus- 
sian, Japanese,  American  or  any  other  nationality,  peo- 
ple will  act  according  to  well-established  psychological 
traits,  laughing  at  about  the  same  thing,  crying  over 
similar  events  and  manifesting  fear  under  given  situa- 
tions. Corresponding  to  human  temperament,  the  mar- 
ket value  of  Government  bonds  is  also  subject  to  well- 
defined  changes,  and  one  of  the  most  consistent  similar- 
ities of  conduct  which  history  shows  to  be  true  of  them 
is  their  habit  of  temporarily  dropping  on  account  of  war. 

Sometimes  they  do  so  to  an  alarming  extent,  no  mat- 
ter how  stable  the  government  that  issued  them,  no 
matter  how  rosy  its  military  situation  and  no  matter 
how  unimpaired  the  resources  behind  the  securities  may 
be,  guaranteeing  the  prompt  payment  of  their  interest 
and  their  redemption  for  full  face  value  at  maturity. 

But  just  as  consistently  as  history  shows  that  gov- 
ernment bonds  go  down  during  the  war,  no  less  does  it 
record  that  their  usual  habit  has  been  not  only  to  re- 
cover to  their  original  price,  but  also,  in  many  in- 
stances, to  rise  to  a  marked  degree  above  it  after  the  end 
of  the  war. 

At  the  present  writing  your  Liberty  Bonds  are  quoted 
in  the  market  at  about  97.  Taken  as  a  detached  con- 
dition, without  regard  to  history,  and  looked  at  simply 
from  the  narrow  pocketbook  point  of  view,  the  fact 
that  something  you  paid  $100  for  a  short  time  ago  will 
bring  you  only  about  $97  at  the  present  moment  may 
seem  to  be  disquieting.  But  it  simply  means  that  United 
States  bonds  are  now  doing  what  the  bonds  of  all  na- 
tions do  in  war  time. 

Our  bonds  have  depreciated  to  a  lesser  degree  than 
most  government  bonds  have  done  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances. One  instance  may  be  cited  where  the  bonds 
of  a  foreign  government  went  down  to  almost  50  during 
s.  war,  but  although  that  nation  suffered  a  crushing  de- 
feat and  tremendous  material  losses,  within  a  compara- 
tively few  years  after  the  war  was  ended  those  same 
bonds  went  up  to  more  than  105. 

The  fact  that  your  $100  Liberty  Bond  is  now  selling 
for  about  $97  does  not  in  any  sense  imply  a  loss  of  in- 
trinsic value  nor  uncertainty  either  as  to  its  principal 
or  interest.  It  merely  implies  that  because  of  a  complex- 
ity of  economic  factors  your  Government  bond  is  nor- 
n.ally  following  the  way  of  its  historic  fellows.  Even 
though  Liberty  Bonds  have  thus  fluctuated  to  prices  be- 
low par,  there  has  been  absolutely  no  fluctuation  in 
the  fact  that  the  Government  will  go  on  paying  the 
promised  interest  on  them  without  delay  as  it  falls  due, 
nor  in  the  fact  that  when  the  time  comes  it  will  redeem 
them  at  the  full  face  value  regardless  of  the  ups  and 
downs  in  the  market  quotations  meanwhile. 

These  ups  and  downs  in  the  market  quotations  of  gov- 
ernment bonds  during  wars  are,  in  the  history  of  na- 
tions, analogous  to  what  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  ther- 
mometer is  to  the  weather.  Just  as  you  can  tell  the 
changes  in  the  temperature  by  watching  the  fluctuations 


in  the  height  of  the  column  of  mercury,  an  expert  in 
finance  could  almost  tell  the  changes  of  a  country  from 
peace  to  war  merely  by  looking  at  the  fluctuations  in  the 
column  of  government-bond  quotations  year  by  year. 
He  could  make  a  pretty  fair  guess  that  the  country  was 
at  war  when  bond  prices  suddenly  dropped  and  fluctu- 
ated below  the  prices  of  previous  years,  and  then  in 
after  years  returned  to  their  former  levels  or  higher. 

Take  the  case  of  Great  Britain.  Her  national  debt  is 
funded  in  the  consolidated  annuities,  or  bonds,  popularly 
known  as  "consols."  In  1792  these  consols  were  quoted 
at  97,  but  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  1793-1815,  they 
dropped  down  to  as  low  as  47}  in  1798.  These  consols 
have  fluctuated  with  England's  periods  of  peace  and  of 
war  until  in  1896  they  were  quoted  at  114.  The  effect 
of  the  present  war  is  shown  in  the  downward  quotations 
of  these  consols.  In  1915  the  highest  point  was  76  V  and 
the  low  was  down  to  54,  while  in  1916  the  high  was  62] 
and  the  low  50.  In  1917  the  high  was  561  and  the 
low  51. 

The  history  of  the  French  government  bonds,  or 
rentes,  shows  similar  fluctuations  on  their  part.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolution  the  5's  rentes  dropped  to  50,  and  the 
3's  to  32*.  As  a  result  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War, 
1870-71,  the  3's  rentes  dropped  to  50.35.  Although 
France  was  defeated,  losing  Alsace-Lorraine  and  having 
to  pay  a  billion-dollar  indemnity  to  Germany,  and  al- 
though there  were  two  funding  operations  reducing  the 
interest  rate,  nevertheless  the  price  of  France's  bonds 
continued  to  rise  until  in  1897  they  reached  their  max- 
imium  of  105.25.  The  present  war,  true  to  precedent, 
has  again  sent  them  plunging  downward.  In  1916  the 
high  was  58  and  the  low  52.5,  and  in  1917  the  range 
was  55.5  to  73.25. 

Prussian  bonds  have  also  felt  the  full  effect  of  the 
present  war.  In  1914  Prussian  4's  recorded  a  high  of 
86  and  a  low  of  81.  In  1915  the  high  was  651,  the  low 
523,  and  in  1916  the  high  was  58i  and  the  low  50]. 

The  United  States  4's  of  1925,  while  not  showing  a 
very  marked  decline  during  the  Spanish  War,  did  show 
a  notable  rise  the  year  afterward.  Their  range  for  1897 
was  from  a  low  of  120i  to  a  high  of  129A.  The  year 
of  the  war  the  low  price  sank  to  117ii  and  the  high  dur- 
ing the  war  period  was  only  128:^.  But  in  1899  they  re- 
bounded sharply,  the  high  for  that  year  being  134i  and 
the  low  128. 

Therefore,  in  their  present  market  quotations  below 
par.  United  States  Liberty  Bonds  are  simply  follow- 
ing the  trait  of  their  kind  as  they  normally  might  be 
expected  to  do.  By  the  same  token,  after  the  war  is 
over,  there  is  no  reason  to  expect  otherwise  than  that 
they  will  return  to  par  and  then  go  above  par.  More 
than  this,  in  their  present  comparatively  slight  depre- 
ciation they  are  showing  typical  American  stability. 
Instead  of  falling  only  two  or  three  points  below  par, 
they  might  have  dropped  ten  or  fifteen  points  without 
exhibiting  a  fluctuation  as  violent  as  has  been  shown 
by  the  bonds  of  other  less  wealthy  nations  which  have 
finally  soared  many  points  above  par. 


April  IG,  1918  POWER  555 

§IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^ 


Editorials 


nillllllllllllllli:illlllllllllllllllllllllll>IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIinilllllllllMIIIMIIIMIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIlrllllM 


Forestalling  a    Fuel   Famine 

THE  proper  period  for  laying  in  a  supply  of  coal  for 
the  coming  winter  is  the  six  months  now  beginning. 
There  is  nothing  ludicrous  in  the  statement,  even  though 
the  country  stands  on  the  threshold  of  warm  weather. 
If  any  individuals  are  stirred  to  mirth  at  the  mention 
of  coal  and  midsummer  in  the  same  breath,  it  is  proof 
that  they  have  failed  to  profit  by  the  bitter  experiences 
of  the  winter  that  is  past. 

The  crisis  that  gripped  the  country  during  the  early 
part  of  the  year  was  due,  in  a  large  measure,  to  a 
failure  to  exercise  ordinary  prudence  and  foresight. 
The  country  had  become  so  accustomed  to  living  in  a 
hand-to-mouth  fashion  that  this  came  to  be  the  ac- 
cepted mode  of  existence.  But  the  effect  of  increased 
fuel  consumption  due  to  the  war  industries  had  not  been 
taken  into  account.  As  a  result,  the  means  of  supply 
and  distribution  that  were  satisfactory  in  normal  times 
utterly  broke  down  under  the  double  burden. 

Among  the  many  lessons  of  importance  that  the  war 
has  taught,  none  is  of  more  consequence  than  that  of 
our  fuel  distribution,  which  touches  at  the  same  time  the 
physical  comfort  and  the  commercial  prosperity  of  the 
nation.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  we  cannot  wait 
until  the  demand  has  arisen  and  then  expect  it  to  be 
met  instantly.     That  plan  proved  a  dismal  failure. 

As  a  people,  we  are  beginning  to  extend  our  vision 
beyond  the  tip  of  our  nose,  and  the  range  is  lengthen- 
ing rapidly  in  the  light  of  swiftly  moving  events.  Ob- 
viously, the  way  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  fuel  famine 
is  to  accumulate  supplies  of  fuel  sufficient  to  meet  neces- 
sary requirements  at  or  near  the  points  where  they  will 
be  needed. 

This  should  be  done  now,  without  delay.  The  plac- 
ing of  orders  at  this  time,  with  delivery  during  the 
summer,  will  keep  the  mines  working  at  full  capacity, 
which  is  highly  important.  Recent  weekly  reports  have 
shown  alarming  drops  in  coal  output,  the  decrease  in 
some  cases  being  as  much  as  half  a  million  tons.  The 
country  needs  a  definite  amount  of  coal  each  year,  and 
if  the  production  falls  off  at  one  season  it  must  be 
made  up  at  another;  but  unfortunately,  it  may  not  be 
possible  to  speed  up  production  just  when  the  increased 
demand  arises. 

Another  phase  of  the  matter  should  be  kept  in  mind. 
The  living  expenses  of  the  mine  workers  go  on  whether 
the  mines  are  working  or  idle.  If  the  orders  on  hand 
necessitate  continuous  operation,  the  miner  can  be  kept 
at  his  job.  But  if  there  is  a  prospect  of  weeks  of  part- 
time  work,  the  miner  is  going  to  seek  some  other  kind 
of  labor  in  which  he  can  earn  a  steadier — and  probably 
a  larger — income.  He  cannot  be  blamed  if  he  does. 
But  if  the  labor  at  the  mines  is  diverted  to  other  chan- 
nels, no  wiseacre  is  needed  to  point  out  the  predicament 
of  the  country  when  the  cold  weather  arrives. 

Further  than  this,  the  railroads  are  now  in  position 


to  deal  effectively  with  the  transportation  of  the  coal 
supply,  if  it  is  distributed  over  the  entire  summer.  The 
zone  system  put  into  effect  by  the  Fuel  Administration 
will  reduce  the  average  length  of  trip,  cut  out  cross- 
hauling  and  simplify  the  whole  problem  considerably. 
But  all  these  efforts  for  the  common  good  will  be  com- 
pletely nullified  if  the  public  puts  off  ordering  its  coal 
until  the  first  chill  winds  of  October  begin  to  blow.  In 
that  direction  lies  disaster. 

Put  in  your  order  at  once.  You  need  not  be  per- 
turbed over  the  thought  that  you  will  be  accused  of 
hoarding.  The  Fuel  Administration  has  seen  to  that. 
You  will  be  allowed  to  accumulate  all  the  coal  required 
to  meet  your  normal  needs,  and  no  more. 

Protect  yourself  against  future  discomforts  and  per- 
form a  patriotic  service  at  one  and  the  same  time. 

Remember  the  first  few  weeks  of  last  January. 

Put  in  your  coal  orders — NOW! 

Internal-Combustion  Economy 

A  PRIME  condition  of  high  economy  in  any  heat  en- 
gine is  the  avoidance  of  heat  waste.  This  is  sn 
obvious  in  steam-engine  practice  that  it  needs  no  com- 
ment, but  it  is  doubtful  if,  outside  of  the  field  of  vision 
of  the  designing  engineer,  it  is  so  well  recognized  in 
connection  with  internal-combustion  engines.  Briefly, 
all  the  potential  heat  of  the  fuel  that  is  not  transformed 
into  work  given  off  at  the  shaft  is  wasted.  While  much 
of  this  waste  is  inevitable,  some  of  it  can  be  avoided. 
To  grasp  fully  the  significance  of  this  factor  we  should 
know  in  just  what  way  heat  is  wasted.  Heat  not  trans- 
formed into  mechanical  power  passes  away  in  the  cool- 
ing water,  in  the  exhaust  and  in  friction  and  radiation. 
The  friction  of  the  piston  and  the  bearings  passes  off 
in  two  directions — by  direct  radiation  from  the  bearings 
principally,  from  the  piston  by  conduction  through  the 
walls  of  the  cylinder  and  to  some  extent  by  radiation 
from  the  interior. 

The  internal-combustion  engineer  regards  the  oper- 
ation of  the  engine  in  two  ways — one  from  the  view- 
point of  indicated  work  on  the  piston  and  the  other  from 
the  viewpoint  of  power  delivered  to  the  flywheel.  From 
the  viewpoint  of  indicated  work  we  have  the  heat  of 
the  engine  divided  into  three  principal  parts — work, 
jacket  loss  and  exhaust  loss.  Roughly,  the  division  for 
the  average  engine  is  about  even,  or  one-third  to  each. 
Taking  the  average  of  tests  of  gas  engines  ranging  from 
six  to  sixty  horsepower,  the  heat  distribution  runs 
thirty-eight  and  three-tenths  per  cent,  in  the  exhaust 
gases,  twenty-seven  and  four-tenths  per  cent,  in  cooling 
water  and  radiation,  and  thirty-four  and  three-tenth^i 
per  cent,  indicated  work. 

The  average  mechanical  efficiency  of  this  same  group 
of  engines  is  about  eighty-five  per  cent.  This  summao' 
of  heat  losses  gives  a  goal  that  the  operator  should  strive 
to  reach  or  surpass.  Both  exhaust  and  jacket  losses  may 
be  increased  by  poor  adjustment  of  valves  or  iKnition 


556 


POWER 


Vol.  47,   No.  16 


or  other  derangement  of  the  function  of  the  cycle. 
Jacket  loss  is  increased  by  keeping  the  jacket  cooler  than 
necessary.  Excessive  friction  is  a  source  of  loss  that 
should  not  be  tolerated  in  any  well-conducted  engine 
room. 

For  a  Diesel  engine  the  average  heat  distribution  is: 
Exhaust  gases,  twenty-three  per  cent.;  cooling  water 
and  radiation,  thirty-four  per  cent. ;  and  indicated  work, 
forty-three  per  cent. 

The  average  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  Diesel  is 
seventy-eight  per  cent.  The  high  friction  loss  as  com- 
pared to  that  of  the  gas  engine  is  due  to  the  auxiliaries 
and  especially  the  air  compressor  for  injection.  It  is 
interesting  to  notice  that  the  final  efficiencies  of  the 
Diesel  and  a  good  gas  engine  of  moderately  large  power 
are  very  closely  equal.  The  efficiency,  based  on  the 
brake-horsepower,  of  the  Diesel  seldom  exceeds  thirty- 
five  per  cent.,  while  gas  engines  of  moderate  size  have 
shown  total  efficiencies  of  thirty-two  and  five-tenths  per 
cent. 

The  value  of  this  knowledge  to  the  operator  will  be 
appreciated  when  he  realizes  the  fact  that  the  efficiency 
of  the  engine  depends  upon  keeping  it  in  the  very  best 
of  operating  condition  at  all  times.  Excess  of  friction, 
improper  cooling  or  any  derangement  of  the  valve  or 
ignition  mechanism  is  shown  promptly  in  an  increased 
fuel  consumption. 

Consideration  of  heat  wastes  shows  the  engine  de- 
signer opportunities  for  improvement.  One  of  the  most 
promising  fields  of  endeavor  appears  to  be  along  the 
line  of  cutting  down  the  exhaust  waste.  The  method 
that  gives  the  greatest  assurance  of  improvement  is 
complete  expansion.  It  has  been  attempted,  but  there 
is  one  serious  stumbling  block  in  its  path,  and  that  is 
friction.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  increase  the  indicated 
efficiency  by  expanding  beyond  the  pressure  at  which 
the  exhaust  is  released  ordinarily;  but  to  off'set  that 
gain,  there  is  the  increased  friction  of  the  engine,  which 
is  likely  to  equal,  if  it  does  not  exceed,  the  gain  obtained 
by  increased  expansion. 

Help  the  Counter-Offensive  by    Buying 
Liberty  Bonds 

THE  whole  civilized  world  at  this  moment  of  writ- 
ing is  interested  in  one  thing,  the  counter-off'en- 
sive.  When  will  it  start,  how  will  it  fare  against  the 
hordes  of  Hindenburg  now  engaged  in  their  mighty  and 
ferocious  bid  for  a  world  decision? 

But  the  great  drives  of  the  western  front  are  not  af- 
fairs of  days  or  weeks.  They  come  after  careful  prepa- 
ration; some  before  this  have  taken  months  to  run  their 
course.  And  so  with  the  counter-offensive.  It  must 
be  deliberately  well-timed,  and  it  must  have  a  duration 
in  proportion  to  the  sustained  thrust  it  is  designed  to 
defeat. 

Both  these  conditions  have  been  happily  fulfilled  for 
our  own  share  in  the  counter-offensive  here  at  home. 
Possibly  it  has  never  occurred  to  a  great  many  anxious 
patriots,  scanning  the  headlines  for  some  confirmation 
of  hope  in  this  critical  time,  that  they  have  a  personal 
j.nd  vital  part  to  take  in  the  effort  to  halt  Hindenburg. 
This  counter-offensive  was  started  on  Saturday,  April  C, 
the  anniversary  of  our  entrance  into  this  titanic  struggle 
for  everything  that  makes  life  sweet.     It  will  last  a 


month,  following  a  schedule  as  carefully  mapped  out  in 
advance  as  any  the  Germans  have  ever  prepared  for  a 
march  on  Paris.  Its  result,  a  huge  oversubscription 
to  the  Third  Liberty  Loan,  will  have  carried  every  ob- 
jective, financial  and  moral,  which  it  is  at  present  our 
function  to  carry  in  our  majestic  progress  toward  vic- 
tory. 

This  is  not  a  mere  figure  of  speech  which  defines  our 
Liberty  Loan  campaign  as  a  counter-offensive.  This 
is  not  a  v/ar  simply  of  military  and  naval  forces,  but 
of  whole  nations,  of  the  stay-at-home  civilians  of  either 
sex  and  every  age  as  surely  and  completely  as  of  sol- 
diers and  sailors.  At  home  the  mobilization  of  money 
and  industry  for  the  prosecution  of  war,  a  process  in- 
volving every  inhabitant  of  the  country  when  success- 
ful, is  as  vital  a  part  of  the  vast  conflict  as  the  give 
and  take  across  No  Man's  Land.  With  a  great  national 
response  to  this,  the  Third  Liberty  Loan,  we  Americans 
at  home  here,  from  three  to  six  thousand  miles  from 
the  scarlet  waters  of  the  Somme,  are  launching  an  of- 
fensive against  Hindenburg  as  sure  to  hit  his  line  as 
if  we  were  plunging  over  the  top  tomorrow  with  bayo- 
nets fixed  to  attack  his  shock  troops. 


Keepi 


)ing  Down  the  Cost  of  Coal 

THE  United  States  Fuel  Administration  has  adopted 
strict  rules  to  govern  the  distribution  of  coal. 
Licensed  distributors  may  not  serve  as  middlemen 
unless  their  services  are  bona  fide.  If  it  is  found  that 
the  licensee  as  purchasing  agent  has  direct  or  indirect 
control  of  the  mine  owner,  no  commission  will  be  al- 
lowed; or,  if  the  licensee  is  in  position  to  dictate  to 
the  mine  owner  and  prevent  him  from  selling  to  any 
consumer  or  retail  dealer  who  has  not  employed  the 
licensee  as  purchasing  agent,  it  will  be  assumed  that 
there  is  direct  or  indirect  control.  Any  licensed  dis- 
tributor who  attempts  to  obtain  a  purchasing  agent's 
commission  unless  actually  engaged  as  a  purchasing 
agent  will  have  his  license  revoked. 

The  object  of  this  ruling  is  to  give  the  consumer 
or  retail  dealer  free  choice  as  to  whether  he  will  em- 
ploy a  purchasing  agent.  Further  than  this,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  all  coal  contracts  made  before  April  1,  1918, 
will  be  declared  void,  thus  putting  the  whole  coal  out- 
put on  the  market  at  the  Government  prices. 


To  public-utilities  commissions,  petitioned  to  allow 
increases  of  rates  on  account  of  the  high  cost  of  fuel, 
we  suggest  that  raises,  if  allowed,  be  in  the  proportion 
that  the  increased  fuel  cost  bears  to  the  present  price. 
Of  the  eight-  or  ten-cent  rate  to  the  small  consumer  it 
is  a  very  small  proportion;  of  the  one-  or  two-cent  rate 
to  the  big  user  it  is  a  large  fraction.  There  is  no 
reason  why  the  small  user  should  be  made  to  carry  more 
than  his  share  of  the  increased  cost. 


The  old-fashioned  wood  engraver  was  unable  to  make 
a  picture  of  a  chimney  without  a  picturesque  cloud  of 
smoke  issuing  from  it,  or  of  a  machine  without  a  man 
with  a  tall  hat  and  cane  in  the  foreground.  The  modern 
artist  is  still  so  possessed  of  the  ideals  of  a  past  genera- 
tion that  he  cannot  depict  an  engineer  without  a  work- 
ingman's  cap  with  a  visor  on  it. 


April   1(1,   1!M8                                                                  POWER  557 

Siiiuiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iimiiiiiiiiiiii nil iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiii mill iiiiiiiiiiiiini 1 iiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii» 


Correspondence 


milllHIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIinllllllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIinMIIIIM^  111^ 


Indexing  Trade  Literature 

Trade  pamphlets,  circulars,  catalogs,  etc.,  are  of  value 
to  the  power-plant  engineer  and  should  be  preserved; 
but  when  the  engineer  stops  to  contemplate  the  large 
volume  that  will  accumulate  in  a  year,  he  begins  to 
realize  that  it  is  sometimes  like  hunting  for  the 
proverbial  "needle  in  the  haystack"  to  find  the  particu- 
lar piece  of  information  that  is  wanted  unless  some 
system  of  indexing  and  filing  is  employed. 

Many  of  the  large  companies  making  a  variety  of 
articles  issue  large  and  expensive  general  catalogs 
which  contain  much  information  other  than  listing 
sizes,  etc.,  and  which  are  of  value  to  the  engineer  or 
purchasing  agent.  Then  there  are  bulletins  and  pam- 
phlets which  are  of  uniform  size  and  intended  to  fit 
suitable  binders.  But  there  are  many  pieces  of  adver- 
tising matter  received  that  are  outside  the  scope  of 
the  plant  and  of  only  general  interest  to  the  engineer. 
For  instance,  the  chief  engineer  of  a  department  store 
using  220-volt  direct-current  service  from  his  own  plant 
will  receive  catalogs  of,  say,  a  new  150,000-volt  trans- 
former or  hydro-electric  machinery  or  relating  to 
special  street-lighting  equipment,  which  represent 
considerable  expense  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturer. 

Many  pamphlets,  circulars  and  data  sheets  are  sent 
out  to  supersede  former  issues  on  the  same  subject, 
and  are  usually  so  marked  but  not  always.  Unless  they 
are  marked,  the  engineer  may  keep  both  copies,  thereby 
congesting  his  filing  system  and  possibly  causing  con- 
fusion by  getting  the  older  copy  when  looking  for 
information.  Valuable  data  are  in  the  many  loose 
sheets  which  are  received  from  time  to  time,  yet  they 
are  difficult  to  save  unless  some  system  is  followed. 

In  the  modern  manufacturing  power  plant  trade 
literature  on  all  parts  of  the  plant  is  essential  and,  in 
addition  to  power-plant  machinery,  must  include  a 
variety  of  subjects,  and  the  system  used  to  keep  these 
numerous  pieces  convenient  for  use  will  depend  on 
the  space  available  and  on  the  ideas  of  the  engineer. 

One  of  the  simplest  yet  efficient  systems  that  has 
come  to  my  attention  is  that  of  a  public  institution 
which  receives  a  large  amount  of  trade  literature.  In 
the  system  formerly  employed  all  the  large  catalogs 
were  numbered  from  100  up,  and  the  smaller  pieces 
sorted  out  as  to  subjects  as  much  as  possible  and  placed 
in  file  boxes  which  were  numbered  beginning  with 
No.  1.  The  large  catalogs  were  numbered  with  a 
sticker  on  the  back  and  set  on  the  shelves,  as  were 
also  the  file  boxes.  A  card  index  was  then  made  of 
the  subjects,  with  the  file  or  catalog  number  showing 
just  where  the  desired  information  could  be  found. 
After  a  few  years  this  system  outgrew  the  available 
space  and  a  metal  file  cabinet  was  installed.  This  case 
has  seven  drawers  16  in.  wide,  11  in.  high  and  24  in. 
deep.  In  each  drawer  there  are  from  four  to  eight  num- 
bered index  cards.  The  large  catalogs  are  listed  as  before, 


and  the  small  catalogs,  etc.,  are  given  a  file  number 
beginning  with  No.  1,  and  as  far  as  practicable  sorted 
out  as  to  subjects.  It  is  not  possible  to  do  this  in 
every  case  as  there  are  many  small  catalogs  that  contain 
several  separate  and  distinct  items.  A  new  card  index 
of  this  literature  was  then  made,  and  also  another 
index  of  firms.  If  it  is  desired  to  find  the  catalog 
of  a  certain  firm,  it  can  be  quickly  done  by  referring  to 
an  index  of  firms. 

The  principal  advantage  of  this  system  is  that  it 
is  simple  and  compact.  The  hundreds  of  pieces  of  trade 
literature  are  kept  where  they  are  easily  reached,  and 
after  the  engineer  has  used  the  system  for  a  few  months 
he  can,  in  many  cases,  find  the  desired  catalog  without 
referring  to  the  index,  provided  it  is  replaced  where 
it  should  be  when  used.  After  the  system  is  installed, 
the  work  of  keeping  it  up  is  slight.  When  a  new 
catalog  is  received,  it  is  numbered  as  to  subject  and 
an  entry  made  on  the  proper  index  cards.  About  once 
a  year  the  whole  system  is  gone  over,  and  obsolete  and 
duplicate  matter  cleaned  out.  J.  C.  HAWKINS. 

Hyattsville,  Md. 

Burning  Wood  To  Save  Coal 

Commenting  on  G.  N.  Mcllhenny's  letter  on  page  194 
in  the  issue  of  Feb.  5,  I  would  say  that  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  substitution  of  wood  for  coal  is  entirely 
feasible  and  advisable  under  present  conditions  in  many 
Southern  plants,  especially  if  good,  dry  wood  is  avail- 
able. Full  capacity  may  be  had  from  almost  any  coal- 
burning  boiler  with  dry  wood,  but  not  with  green  wood. 
Burning  green  wood  entails  great  waste  as  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  heat  in  wood  is  required  to  dry  the  wood 
itself  in  the  furnace.  It  takes  from  three  months  to 
one  year,  depending  on  the  kind  of  wood  and  climatic 
conditions,  to  thoroughly  dry  wood  stacked  in  the  open. 

To  successfully  burn  green  wood  a  strong  draft  is 
required  and  a  much  greater  distance  between  the  grate 
and  the  boiler  than  is  found  in  the  ordinary  coal-burn- 
ing installation.  In  firing  green  wood  the  furnace 
should  be  kept  "crammed  full,"  replenished  as  fast  as 
burned  and  the  intensity  of  the  fire  regulated  with  the 
damper.  I  can  say,  however,  from  a  wealth  of  expe- 
rience that  there  will  be  few  occasions  to  close  the 
damper  when  firing  green  wood;  the  big  wony  is  to 
keep  steam  if  there  is  much  of  a  load  on  the  boiler.  The 
idea  of  burning  or  drying  the  wood  in  the  combustion 
chamber  is  no  good.  Besides  the  trouble  of  getting  the 
ashes  out,  it  would  be  necessary  to  let  the  fire  die  dowh 
to  a  certain  extent  to  allow  the  fireman  to  get  at  thf 
wood  in  the  combustion  chamber  to  drag  it  back  on  the 
grate.  No  boiler  could  be  fired  at  half  of  capacity  under 
these  conditions.  As  to  iron  bars  to  protect  the  blowoflf 
pipe,  they  might  last  a  week,  probably  less,  in  the  direct 
path  of  the  heat  under  a  hard-fired  boiler. 

Ash  Fork,  Ariz.  W.  G.  Camp. 


X     W    VY     XlJ   XV 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


Bolting  a  Rivet  Hole  Under  Water 

The  illustration,  "Bolting  a  Hole  Under  Water,"  on 
page  81  in  the  Jan.  15  issue,  suggests  that  the  artist 
had  in  mind  a  situation  one  may  be  up  against  on 
board  a  ship,  although  the  necessity  of  closing  a  bolt 
hole  under  water  may  arise  in  connection  with  open 
tanks  on  land.  The  kink  there  illustrated,  however, 
does  not  appear  as  certain  of  quick  success  as  the  one 


":=f^=f^2f=3^  Spjo're  to  keep  Bo/t 
from  fuming 


MKTHDF)    r)F    HOI-TIXn    A    RIVET    HOLE   TTXPER   WATER 

shown  herewith,  which  is  an  old  catch  at  marine  engi- 
neer's examinations. 

The  principal  points  against  the  first-mentioned 
method  are  that  with  even  the  slightest  current  or 
other  disturbance  of  the  water  it  would  be  rather  diffi- 
cult to  get  a  hold  on  the  string  with  the  wire  hook 
so  as  to  fish  it  through  the  opening,  and  the  idea  cannot 
be  used  if  the  opening  is  at  a  joint  in  curved  plates, 
as  shown  herewith. 

However,  as  a  practical  expedient,  I  believe  that  a 
pine  plug  or  one  made  of  other  wood  that  will  swell 
greatly  when  in  contact  with  water  has  its  advantages, 
at  least  until  such  time  as  the  insertion  of  rivets  or 
bolts  becomes  conveniently  possible.  This  temporary 
plugging  with  wood  was  once  successfully  resorted  to 
during  my  experience  as  a  marine  engineer,  when  two 
rivets  had  jumped  out  of  a  joint  in  the  ship's  hull  about 
14  or  16  ft.  below  the  water  line.  The  plugs  remained 
securely  in  place  until  the  next  dry-docking  the  ship 
underwent,  which  happened  to  be  soon.  Of  course  we 
could  hardly  have  stopped  the  ship  for  such  a  com- 
paratively small  matter,  and  besides,  as  there  was  quite 
a  sea  running,  the  bolting  "kink"  would  have  been 
pretty  hard  of  execution.  H.  J.  Vander  Eb. 

Hartford,  Conn. 


Distant-Load   Indicator 

The  following  scheme  is  used  in  a  system  where  it 
is  desired  to  obtain  frequent  load  readings  at  the  office 
of  the  central  station,  the  power  plant  being  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  away.  There  is  no  indicating  watt- 
meter in  the  plant,  but  an  integrating  watt-hour  meter 
measures  the  total  energy  supplied  to  a  transmission 
line. 

The  register  of  the  watt-hour  meter  was  sent  to 
the  manufacturer,  and  a  counting  or  contact-making 
device  applied,  which  makes  momentary  contact  for  a 
certain  number  of  revolutions  of  the  meter  disk.     The 


company  maintains  a  private  telephone  line  between 
its  office  and  plant,  and  the  indications  are  transmitted 
over  this  line  by  means  of  the  contact-making  device 
shown  in  the  drawing,  wired  so  that  its  operation 
does  not  interfere  with  talking  on  the  line  at  the  same 
time  the  indications  are  sent. 

Referring  to  the  drawing,  it  is  seen  that  the  tele- 
phone line  forms  the  secondary  circuit  of  an  induction 
coil.  The  primary  circuit  contains  four  dry  cells  and 
two  60-watt  110-volt  type  B  Mazda  lamps,  the  latter 
being  used  merely  to  act  as  rheostats  to  limit  the 
primary  current  and  inserted  in  each  side  of  the  circuit 
for  protection  in  case  the  potential  or  current  trans- 
formers supplying  the  meter  should  break  down  and 
subject  the  telephone  line  to  high  voltage,  the  supposi- 
tion being  that  the  lamps  would  either  light  or  burn 
out  in  case  of  trouble. 

As  a  further  precaution  and  also  to  reduce  noise 
on  the  telephone  line  caused  by  possible  leaks  in  the 
meter  or  its  transformers,  the  induction  coil  is  specially 
constructed,  the  primary  being  wound  around  a  core 
0.25  in.  in  diameter,  made  of  No.  18  soft-iron  wire 
and  inserted  in  a  glass  tube,  the  secondary  coil  being 
wound  on  the  outside  of  the  glass.  The  induction  coil, 
when  finished,  is  3.5  in.  long  and  1.5  in.  in  diameter. 
The  glass  tube  was  obtained  by  cutting  off  a  section 
of  a  round  vial.  The  coils  are  wound  with  No.  30 
single  cotton-covered  wire,  there  being  approximately 
2500  turns  in  the  primary  and  2000  turns  in  the 
secondary. 

The  primary  circuit  is  closed  by  the  contact-maker 
in  the  meter,  and  this  produces  a  faint  though  audible 
click  in  any  receiver  of  the  telephone  sets  on  the  line. 

The  time  between  two  successive  clicks  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  load  being  registered  by  the  meter, 


e 


-^ 


inoucTiOM 

-Q,COIL 


METER 


COMTACT 
MAKfR 


■^ 


LAMPS 


PRIVATE  METALLIC 
TELEPHONE  LINE 
TO  OFFICE 


WIRIN'C    THAORAM   FOR    DLSTANT-T/lAP  IN'PICATOR 

and  with  a  stop  watch  and  the  following  table,  the  load 
at  the  plant  may  be  determined  from  any  station  on  the 
private-telephone  line: 


TiniL-  Between  Successive 
Clicks,  Seconds 
10  6 
IS  9 
21   2 
42  4 


Kilowatt 
Load 
100 
75 
50 
25 


The  complete  table  used  by  this  company  gives  the 
load  in  kilowatts  for  every  5  kw.  from  5  to  150,  and 
the  corresponding  time  in  seconds.  The  table  must, 
of  course,  be  calculated  for  the  installation  it  is  used  on, 
from  the  disk  constant  of  the  meter,  the  ratio  of  the 
reducing  motion  on  the  contact  maker  and  the  ratio  of 
the  transformers.  R-  S.  Seese. 

Carthage,  Tenn. 


April  16,  1918 


POWER 


569 


Heat  from  the  Atmosphere  a  Substitute 
for  Fuel 

Technically,  this  proposition  is  known  as  perpetual 
motion  of  the  second  kind,  and  is  commonly  believed 
to  be  nothing  more  than  a  mere  chimera,  simply  be- 
cause the  idea  of  its  realization  seems  to  be  absurd. 
In  the  particular  branch  of  science  which  treats  of 
the  motive  power  of  heat,  treatment  of  this  idea  as 
chimerical  is  the  fundamental  dogma  from  which  is 
derived  the  so-called  "second  law  of  thermodynamics" 
and  underlies  the  entire  science  as  it  is  taught  at  the 
present  time. 

In  the  year  1824  Sadi  Carnot,  a  noted  scientist  of 
France,  demonstrated  that  realization  of  perpetual 
motion  of  the  second  kind  meant  the  effect  of  combined 
action  of  two  distinct  heat  engines,  one  acting  as  a 
heat  pump  driven  by  the  other  acting  as  a  heat  motor; 
furthermore,  that  the  motor  must  be  operated  by  a 
working  substance  that  is  more  efficient  as  a  medium 
for  converting  heat  into  work  than  the  working  sub- 
stance which  is  used  in  the  pump  to  produce  a  reversed 
effect. 

Carnot  stated  that  realization  of  this  requirement 
must  be  impossible  simply  because  its  resultant  effect 
would  be  absurd;  and  in  accord  with  this  assumption 
he  concisely  formulated  the  following  principle  which 
bears  his  name,  and  is  considered  the  best  formulation 
of  that  dogma:  "The  efficiency  of  a  thermodynamic 
reversible  cycle  is  independent  of  the  working  medium." 
Stripped  of  all  camouflage,  this  is  the  real  question 
which  the  United  States  Government  must  settle  if 
it  undertakes  to  investigate  the  feasibility  of  obtain- 
ing free  energy  from  the  atmosphere. 

Unfortunately  for  the  cause  of  the  advancement  of 
science,  at  various  times  individuals  possessed  of  various 
degrees  of  honesty  and  knowledge  of  the  subject  have 
appeared  in  the  limelight  and  failed  to  deliver  the 
goods  in  regard  to  this  question  of  free  energy.  How- 
ever, it  may  be  said  that  present-day  experimentally 
derived  knowledge  of  the  physical  properties  of  elastic 
fluids  indicates  that  Carnot's  postulate  is  fallacious ; 
and  as  a  consequence  obtainment  of  free  energy  from 
the  atmosphere,  and  in  fact  from  all  matter  possessed 
of   temperature,    is    not    necessarily    impossible. 

Milwaukee,  Wis.  Jacob  T.  Wainwright. 

Different  Rate  of  Scale   Formation 

Replying  to  Mr.  Pascoe  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  9,  page 
521,  I  would  suggest  that  the  scale  formation  is  greatest 
on  the  side  of  the  boiler  nearest  the  soot-blowing  open- 
ings, because  there  is  less  soot  on  the  tubes  on  that  side, 
therefore  the  heat  transfer  is  better  and  more  water  is 
evaporated  in  these  tubes;  hence  the  extra  scale. 

New  York  City.  J.  Lewis. 

Corliss    Engine    Frame    Repaired 

About  three  years  ago  I  found  that  the  frame  of  our 
18  X  42-in.  Corliss  engine  was  cracked  where  the  flange 
on  the  frame  is  faced  to  receive  the  cylinder  head.  The 
first  method  of  repair  thought  of  was  to  have  the  frame 
welded,  but  while  many  firms  would  undertake  the  job 
none  would  guarantee  it  to  be  a  success  on  account  of 


the  strains  set  up  by  the  process,  so  I  decided  to  patch 
the  frame  with  a  piece  of  boiler  plate. 

As  may  be  seen  in  the  illustration,  the  recess  back  of 
the  guides  is  considerably  larger  than  the  bore  of  the 
guides  themselves.  The  distance  from  the  end  of  the 
guides  to  the  end  of  the  frame  is  8  in.  and  the  diameter 
back  of  the  guides  24i  in.  From  these  dimensions  I  gave 
the  boilermakers  an  order  to  form  a  cylinder  of  S-in. 
boiler  plate  24  i  in.  outside  diameter,  8  in.  long,  with 
a  4-in.  flange  turned  inward  on  one  end.  When  the 
blank  came,  it  was  faced  on  the  end  that  was  to  be  placed 
against  the  finished  end  of  the  frame  under  the  cylinder 
nuts,  and  was  then  laid  out  and  drilled  for  the  cylinder 
studs. 

The  problem  then  was  to  get  as  much  of  this  flanged 
cylinder  in  back  of  the  guides  as  possible.  I  had  de- 
cided upon  two-thirds  of  it  going  in  one  piece,  but  ex- 
actly how  it  was  to  be  put  in  was  not  fully  decided  until 
a  friend  came  in  and  suggested  that  I  make  a  galvanized 


wt 

t^ 

REINFORCEMENT    PLATE   IN.'^IDE   OP  ENGINE   FRAME 

iron  templet  like  the  patch  and  then  cut  it  in  two  parts 
in  order  to  ascertain  how  large  a  part  of  it  would  go  in 
place. 

Then  the  old  cylinder  studs  were  all  taken  out  by  drill- 
ing a  2-in.  hole,  half  in  the  stud  and  half  in  the  nut,  in- 
serting a  piece  of  ii-in.  round  iron  to  lock  them  and  un- 
screwing with  a  1-in.  solid-end  wrench.  The  patch  was 
heated,  using  charcoal,  closed,  put  in  and  opened  out, 
or  expanded,  with  bars  and  jacks,  and  long  tapered 
wedges  were  driven  between  it  and  the  ends  of  the 
guides  to  keep  it  forced  back  in  place.  At  first  it  was 
thought  that  rivets  would  be  good  to  fasten  the  plate 
in  place,  but  it  was  decided  that  turned  bolts  i  x  4  in. 
would  be  the  best  with  the  holes  drilled  f^7,  in.  and 
reamed  to  a  driving  fit  for  the  i-in.  bolts.  When  fin- 
ished and  the  cylinder  studs  put  in  and  drawn  up  tight, 
it  made  a  good  job.  ; 

The  drilling  was  all  done  with  an  air  motor  and  the 
reaming  by  hand.  The  total  cost  of  the  job  was  $90, 
and  the  engine  was  out  of  service  five  nights.  This  job 
was  done  three  years  ago  and  has  proved  perfectly  satis- 
factory. None  of  the  bolts  ever  slacked  enough  to  re- 
quire tightening  up  at  all.  J.  T.  Sharp,  Jr. 

Canton,  Miss. 


560 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


Cook  Boiler  Explosion  at  East  Chicago 

I  have  read  the  interesting  article  on  page  382  of 
the  Mar.  12  issue  of  Power  on  the  explosion  of  a  Cook 
boiler,  and  the  cause  of  the  accident.  In  a  case  of  this 
kind  all  have  a  right  to  an  opinion  as  to  the  cause  of 
the  explosion,  and  I  can  hardly  agree  with  the  deduc- 
tion as  published. 

It  is  stated  that  the  initial  fracture  occurred  in  the 
joint  or  flange  connecting  the  center  tube  to  the  lower 
tube  sheet.  It  is  further  expressed  in  opinion  that  this 
type  of  construction  is  wrong.  Cook  boilers  have  been 
in  operation  for  about  25  years,  and  it  seems  rather  a 
late  date  to  discover  an  error  in  construction.  Had 
there  been  a  defect  in  the  design  of  the  boiler,  it 
would  have  appeared  a  great  many  years  ago.  The 
illustration,  Fig.  2,  as  published,  of  the  lower  drum  after 
the  explosion  shows  the  lower  tube  sheet  drawn  up  into 
a  shape  of  a  bell.  This  indicates,  in  my  opinion,  that 
the  center  tube  held  to  the  tube  sheet  and  was  the  last 
portion  to  give  way.  It  indicates  that  this  was  the  final 
rupture  and  not  the  initial  rupture.  In  discussing  the 
explosion  of  a  boiler  after  it  happens,  we  are  prone  to 
criticize  the  design  and  give  too  little  attention  to  the 
care  and  management.  The  statement  to  the  effect  that 
some  twenty  tubes  were  renewed  just  previous  to  the 
explosion  indicates,  in  my  opinion,  the  prime  reason 
for  the  explosion. 

The  tubes  in  a  boiler  of  this  type  which  are  renewed 
frequently  are  those  in  the  front  bank  facing  the  fire. 
In  a  boiler  used  for  utilizing  waste  heat  these  tubes 
will  be  renewed  several  times  in  17  years.  The  repeated 
rolling  will  enlarge  the  tube  holes,  and  the  result  is 
that  when  new  tubes  are  put  in,  they  will  not  hold  ff 
care  is  not  used  in  rolling.  It  is  my  opinion  that  the 
new  tubes  were  not  properly  rolled  into  the  lower  drum. 
They  were  probably  surrounded  by  other  tubes  that 
were  warped  and  consequently  pulled  out  of  the  lower 
drum,  causing  the  explosion.  It  is  not  unusual  for  an 
inspector  to  find  tubes  in  the  lower  drum  of  a  boiler  of 
this  type  improperly  rolled.  The  short  drum  and  the 
stays  make  it  somewhat  difficult  for  the  boilermaker 
to  work  in  this  position,  and  he  is  liable  to  slight  the  job. 

It  is  also  stated  that  the  boiler  was  fired  up  from 
a  cold  boiler  in  one  hour.  This  is  an  unusually  short 
time  to  fire  up  any  boiler,  but  I  can  hardly  agree  that 
this  particular  type  is  less  likely  to  stand  it  than  any 
other.  The  reputation  of  the  Cook  boiler  was  based 
on  its  free  circulation  and  quick  steaming  qualities, 
and  its  popularity  as  a  waste  heating  boiler,  and  was 
based  on  every  quality  which  the  report  indicates  it 
lacked.  G.  W.  CoOK, 

■    Senior  Inspector,  Travelers  Insurance  Co. 
Springfield,  Mass. 


in  two  hours  or  less — something  has  to  give  way  sooner 
or  later  if  this  practice  is  kept  up.  Boilers  and  settings 
should  be  warmed  up  gradually,  and  what  applies  to 
boilers  also  applies  to  steam  lines,  only  with  the  latter 
one  must  be  doubly  vigilant  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the 
condensation  also.  W.  H.  H.  PLOWMAN. 

Philadelphia,  Penn. 


In  Power's  report  of  the  boiler  explosion  at  East  Chi- 
sago two  theories  were  mentioned  as  to  the  cause  and 
each  involved  unequal  expansion,  caused  no  doubt  from 
hard  firing.  The  report  says,  "One  hour  before  the 
explosion  the  boiler  had  been  fired  up  cold  and  within 
this  period  the  pressure  had  built  up  to  50  lb.,"  which 
in  itself  explains  the  primary  cause,  for  no  boiler  will 
stand  that  strain  for  long. 

Engineers  and  firemen  do  not  fully  realize  the  strain 
caused  by  unequal  expansion  in  firing  up  a  cold  boiler 


[It  is  not  always  possible,  in  fact,  it  is  often  impos- 
sible, to  determine  the  exact  cause  of  a  boiler  explosion, 
because  it  is  usually  so  badly  demolished.  In  this  in- 
stance information  has  been  received  to  the  effect  that 
the  lower  tube  sheet  was  much  thinner  at  the  line  of 
fracture  around  the  center  flange.  The  first  impres- 
sion seemed  to  be  that  the  thinness  was  due  to  corro- 
sion, but  it  has  since  been  determined  that  it  extended 
uniformly  all  the  way  around  at  the  turn  of  the  flange, 
and  it  is  the  opinion  of  experts  that  this  thinness  is 
due  to  the  flow  of  metal  at  the  time  of  forming  the 
flange.  In  conversation  with  William  H.  Boehm,  vice 
pi-esident  of  the  Fidelity  and  Casualty  Co.,  regarding  the 
subject,  the  following  case  was  cited  as  bearing  out 
this  opinion.  Mr.  Boehm  said  regarding  the  thinning 
of  the  material  at  the  turn  of  the  flange  head: 

Several  years  ago,  when  a  boiler  exploded  down  in 
Mississippi,  we  found  a  similar  condition;  that  is  to  say, 
the  condition  where  the  drumhead  was  about  %  in.  thinner 
at  the  turn  of  the  flange  than  elsewhere.  We  inspected 
similar  drums  in  the  same  plant  and  found  that  their  drum- 
heads also  were  thinned  by  the  flanging  process.  We  wrote 
a  little  article  on  the  subject  at  the  time,  and  it  is  my 
understanding,  mostly  on  this  account  alone,  that  it  has 
been  the  practice  in  recent  years  very  greatly  to  thicken 
up  the  heads  of  drums  and  tube  sheets  likely  to  be  thinned 
by  the  flanging  process. 

Mr.  Boehm  is  of  the  opinion  that  investigations  of 
such  explosions  will  show  that  the  most  likely  cause  for 
such  accidents  is  due  to  this  thinning  down  of  the  tube 
sheets  by  the  flanging  process,  together  with  the 
crystallization  that  has  been  going  on  during  the  period 
the  boiler  has  been  in  service.  Furthermore,  unfor- 
tunately, it  is  not  possible,  through  ordinary  means  of 
inspection,  to  discover  a  condition  of  this  sort.  Even 
if  all  the  tubes  in  a  boiler  have  been  removed,  the  thin- 
ness of  the  metal  at  the  turn  of  the  flange  would  not 
manifest  itself,  as  the  edge  of  the  nozzle  and  also  the 
edge  of  the  flanged  part  of  the  head  would  show  the 
usual  thickness.  The  best  way  to  make  a  determination 
of  this  sort  would  be  to  drill  a  small  hole  in  the  turn  of 
the  flange  and  then  to  measure  the  thickness  with  a 
short  piece  of  bent  wire.  Boiler  inspectors  would  hardly 
resort  to  such  a  method  and  boiler  owners  would  prob- 
ably not  permit  the  drilling  of  the  head  at  this  point- 
Editor.] 

Correction  Regarding  the  Use  of  85  Per 
Cent.  Magnesia 

In  my  statement,  "A  Correction  Regarding  the  Use  of 
85  Per  Cent.  Magnesia,"  appearing  in  Power,  Apr.  2, 
1917,  issue,  at  the  top  of  page  484,  lines  2  and  3  read: 
"a  reprint  of  a  report  made  by  the  Mellon  Institute  on 
heat-insulating  materials."  This  should  read :  "a  report 
made  by  Sargent  &  Lundy  on  heat-insulating  materials." 

E.  R.  Weidlein, 
Acting  Director, 

Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research,  University 
of  Pittsburgh, 


April  16.  i9i»  1:-  O  W  P:  K  561 

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Inquiries  of  General  Interest 


niliiniiniiiiiiiiiMiiiMiiiiiiiiiiMniiiiiiiiiuiiiniiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiKUiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 


Damaj^Ce  from  Handhoie  Cover  Dropped  in  Water-Leg — 
What  damage  would  result  from  dropping  a  handhoie  cover 
and' leaving-  it  in  the  water-leR  of  a  iooomotive  boiler? 

A.  H.  B. 

There  would  be  practically  no  harm  done,  unless  the  hand- 
hole  cover  was  lodged  at  or  near  the  bottom  of  the  water- 
leg  in  such  a  position  as  to  cause  accumulation  of  sediment 
that  would  endanger  the  fire  sheet  to  burning. 

Shaft  Out  of  Line  with  Cylinders — If  the  cylinder  center 
lines  of  a  twin-cylinder  hoisting  engine  are  parallel  and  the 
shaft  center  line  is  %  in.  below  each  cylinder  center  line, 
will  the  difference  of  level  affect  the  operation  of  the  en- 
gine? H.M.N. 

In  a  hoisting  engine  of  ordinary  size,  the  discrepancy 
would  make  no  appreciable  difference  in  the  wear  or  opera- 
tion of  the  engine. 

Pitch   Required  To  Retain  Given  Percentage  of  Plate — 

With  rivet  holes  %  in.  in  diameter,  what  pitch  of  rivets 
would  retain  70  per  cent,  of  the  solid  plaie  along  the  pitch 
line  ?  A.  H. 

To  have  70  per  cent,  of  the  material  retained  along  the 
pitch  line,  the  material  removed  for  %-in.  diameter  holes 
would  amount  to  100  —  70  or  30  per  cent.,  and  therefore  100 
per  cent,  of  the  pitch,  or  the  distance  center  to  center  of 
%-in.  diameter  holes,  would  n«ed  to  be  %  in.  ~  30  per  cent. 
X  100  per  cent.  =  2%  inches. 

Lap,  Lead  and  Angular  Advance — What  is  meant  by  the 
lap  and  the  lead  angle  and  angular  advance  of  an  eccentric? 

C.  B.  S. 

The  lap  angle  is  the  angle  through  which  the  eccentric 
must  be  set  more  than  90  deg.  in  advance  of  the  crank  to 
have  the  valve  moved  far  enough  to  obtain  admission  of 
steam  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke.  The  lead  angle  is  the 
angle  through  which  the  eccentric  is  set  in  advance  of  the 
lap  angle  to  obtain  the  lead  or  amount  of  valve  opening  at 
the  beginning  of  the  stroke.  The  sum  of  the  lap  and  lead 
angles  is  called  the  angular  advance  of  the  eccentric. 

Apparently  Excessive  Water  Metering — What  reasons  can 
be  given  why  the  metered  water  consumption  of  an  office 
building  reported  for  the  month  of  February  should  be  much 
in  excess  of  the  ordinary  monthly  consumption?  The  meter 
was  pronounced  correct  at  the  end  of  the  period  and  there 
was  apparently  no  unusual  use  or  waste  of  water. 

E.  H.  H. 

Prior  to  the  month  in  question,  the  meter  may  have  been 
"too  slow,"  though  it  is  probable  that  if  pronounced  correct 
at  the  end  of  the  period,  the  previous  rate  of  error  was  not 
materially  different.  There  may  have  been  a  larger  supply 
than  usual  during  this  coldest  month  of  the  year  to  make 
up  such  wastes  as  leaving  taps  open  to  obtain  hot  water,  or 
circulation  to  prevent  freezing;  or  there  may  have  been 
unobserved  wastes  of  water,  as  from  leaky  tank  valves  or 
a  leaky  boiler  blowoff  valve.  Another  cause  for  an  ap- 
parently higher  metering,  and  one  that  is  largely  responsible 
for  popular  distrust  of  meters,  is  that  the  final  registration 
charged  against  the  particular  month  may  have  been  read 
down  closer  than  usual,  thereby  including  an  accumulation 
of  meterings  that  belonged  to  a  prior  period. 

Determining  Benefits  of  Aligning  Shafting  —  What 
methods  are  employed  to  determine  the  benefits  derived 
from  lining  and  leveling  shafting  of  a  power  plant? 

G.  H.  W. 

The  benefit  of  truer  alignment  in  reducing  bending 
stresses  will  become  apparent  from  reduction  in  frequency 
of  breakages,  less  wear  and  cooler  i-unning  of  bearings  from 
less  loss  of  power  from  friction,  requirement  of  less  lubri- 
cant and  less  vibration  of  bearings,  hangers  and  other  sup- 


ports. The  actual  benefit  of  reduction  in  power  required 
for  overcoming  friction  must  be  determined  by  measuring 
the  power  required  for  driving-  the  shafting  before  and 
after  it  is  aligned.  For  complete  information,  the  improve- 
ment should  be  ascertained  with  respect  to  both  the  bare 
shaft  and  with  the  shaft  carrying  its  regular  load.  The 
relative  power  required  by  the  unloaded  shaft  will  usually 
he  the  better  index  on  account  of  difficulty  in  obtaining  the 
same  load  before  and  after  the  shaft  is  lined.  For  making 
a  comparison,  the  best  method  of  measuring  the  power  is 
by  means  of  a  transmitting  dynamometer,  using  the  same 
instrument  under  identical  conditions;  or  by  ascertaining 
the  input  to  an  electric  motor  when  used  for  driving  the 
shafting  and  whose  efficiency  has  been  calibrated  for  the 
conditions.  Comparable  measurements  of  power  may  be 
made  with  sufficient  precision  for  most  practical  purposes 
by  carefully  indicating  the  regular  driving  engine  without 
change  of  any  of  its  adjustments  that  would  alter  the  fric- 
tion of  the  engine.  The  diagrams  should  be  made  with 
steady  speed  of  the  engine  and  lowest  steam  pressure  and 
scale  of  indicator  spring-  compatible  with  the  load,  so  as 
to  obtain  diagrams  that  can  be  measured  with  greater 
accuracy. 

Obtaining  Required  Length  of  Piston  Rod — How  would 
dimensions  be  taken  for  the  length  of  the  piston  rod  for  an 
engine?  J.  E.  R. 

The  important  consideration  is  to  provide  length  suitable 
for  securing  equal  piston  clearance  at  each  end  of  the 
stroke.  For  this  purpose,  first  determine  the  required  fin- 
ished length  from  the  piston  to  the  crosshead.  Having  the 
shaft  square  with  the  cylinder  center  line,  and  the  connect- 
ing-rod in  place  with  brasses  shimmed  to  give  the  average 
length  of  connecting-rod,  make  a  mark  on  the  crosshead  to 
register  with  a  mark  made  on  the  guide  when  the  crank 
is  on  first  one  dead-center  and  then  the  other.  The  dis- 
tance between  these  marks  on  the  crosshead  will  be  the 
actual  length  of  stroke.  Place  the  piston  in  the  cylinder 
with  a  distance  piece  or  pattern  of  hardwood  on  the  cylin- 
der-head side  of  the  piston,  to  represent  the  dimensions  of 
the  piston  rod  with  nut  or  other  fastenings  that  are  to  pro- 
ject beyond  the  piston.  With  the  cylinder  head  in  place  and 
piston  with  distance  piece  firmly  pressed  against  the  head, 
mark  on  a  wooden  rod  the  distance  from  the  piston  at  the 
bore  of  the  piston  rod  to  the  outside  of  the  piston-rod 
stuffing-box,  and  on  the  same  end  of  the  measuring  rod 
mark  the  distance  from  the  same  part  of  the  stuffing-box  to 
the  same  part  of  the  piston  while  it  is  pressed  hard  against 
the  crank  end  of  the  cylinder. 

The  difference  of  distance  between  the  marks  thus  made 
on  the  measuring  rod  and  length  of  stroke  previously  laid 
off  on  the  guide  will  be  the  sum  of  piston  clearance  distances 
obtainable  for  both  ends  of  the  stroke.  To  provide  for 
equal  clearances,  make  a  mark  on  the  guide  at  one-half  of 
this  distance,  measured  toward  the  crank,  from  the  crank 
end  of  the  length  of  stroke  previously  marked  on  the  guide. 
After  disconnecting  the  connecting-rod,  place  the  cross- 
head  so  the  mark  previously  made  on  it  comes  opposite  to 
the  mark  last  made  on  the  guide.  Then  with  the  piston 
hard  against  the  crank  end  of  the  cylinder,  rod  the  length 
for  the  finished  piston  rod  from  the  end  of  the  crosshead 
bore  to  the  end  of  the  bore  of  the  piston.  The  additional 
length  and  dimensions  required  for  machining  the  ends  of 
the  new  piston  rod  will  be  governed  by  the  design  of  the 
piston  and  crosshead. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention. — 
Editor.] 


562 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


The  Marine  Engineer  and  His  Work' 


By  an  ex-marine  ENGINEER 


This  is  not  a  technical  discussion,  but  is  intended 
to  illustrate  by  a  few  experiences,  the  duties  and 
responsibilities  of  engineers  on  board  a  North 
Atlantic  greyhound. 


WE  WILL  imagine  ourselves  at  the  pier  in  New  York, 
having  just  arrived  in  port,  and  will  go  below  and 
begin  preparations  for  another  voyage.  As  soon 
as  the  telegraph  from  the  bridge  rings,  "Finished  with  the 
engines,"  all  safety  valves  are  raised  by  the  easing  gears, 
the  main  stop  valves  are  closed  and  the  fires  drawn  in  all 
but  two  of  the  main  boilers.  As  soon  as  fires  are  drawn, 
the  water  in  the  boilers  is  pumped  overboard,  the  man- 
hole doors  are  taken  off,  the  smokebo.x  doors  are  hoisted, 
and  the  work  of  withdrawing  the  retarders,  some  6600  of 
them  in  number,  and  cleaning  the  tubes  is  begun  by  the 
shore  gang,  numbering  about  150  men.  By  the  time  the 
tubes  are  cleaned,  the  boilers  are  cool  enough  for  the  men 
to  go  on  cleaning  the  furnaces  and  combustion  chambers, 
and  then  the  work  of  scaling  the  boilers  is  started.  We 
generally  found  on  the  furnace  crowns  a  deposit  of  salty 
scale  ranging  from  Ve  to  Vs  in.,  each  run. 

In  the  meantime  the  engineers  having  general  supervision 
of  this  work  are  "passing  the  tubes,"  which  means  having 
a  light  held  at  the  back  end,  passing  along  from  tube  to 
tube,  and  when  one  is  found  choked  up,  chalking  it;  then 
in  turn  inspecting  all  the  furnaces  and  combustion  cham- 
bers inside  and  out,  stay-bolts  and  nuts,  tube  ends,  boiler 
shells  inside  and  out,  all  main  lines  of  piping,  valves,  and 
in  fact  every  piece  of  metal  visible  to  the  naked  eye;  withal 
keeping  watch  of  the  boilers  under  steam.  As  soon  as  two 
boilers  can  be  cleaned  and  steamed  up  for  the  auxiliary 
service,  the  two  that  have  been  running  are  taken  off  and 
made  ready  like  the  others.  While  the  cleaning  is  going 
on,  a  large  crew  of  boilermakers  are  expanding  tube  ends, 
fixing  air  casings,  calking  seams  which  leaked  at  sea, 
repairing  furnace  doors  and  their  catches — which,  by  the 
way,  is  of  no  small  importance,  for  a  steamship's  furnace 
door  must  stay  open  until  it  is  closed  and  stay  closed  until 
it  is  opened;  otherwise,  with  the  Howden  forced  draft, 
which  we  had,  there  will  be  some  severely  burned  faces  as  a 
consequence.  The  blowing  engines  are  also  gone  over  as 
carefully  as  the  main  engines. 

BOILET^S  THE  FOUNDATION  FOR  GOOD  RECORDS 

In  regard  to  the  care  of  steamship  boilers,  or  any  other 
boilers  under  pressure,  do  not  fail  to  see  everything  that 
can  be  seen,  for  bear  in  mind  the  boilers  and  their  output 
are  the  foundation  for  good  records  both  at  sea  and  on 
shore. 

In  the  engine  rooms  in  the  meantime  the  work  is  going 
on  in  the  following  order:  Upon  receiving  the  "finished 
with  the  engines"  signal,  the  turning  gears  are  connected 
and  two  of  the  most  trusted  engineers  are  sent  to  sound 
the  shafts,  this  being  done  by  screwing  together  a  sectional 
sounding-rod  about  forty  feet  long,  which  is  carefully  ma- 
chined at  each  end  of  each  piece  and  screwed  together  till 
it  butts  metal  to  metal.  This  rod,  as  it  is  made  up  in  the 
gloryhole  aft  (or  what  would  be  called  the  "  'tween  decks" 
over  the  propellers) ,  is  passed  down  through  a  cupped  open- 
ing onto  the  shaft  near  the  propeller  bosses  and  the  exact 
height  recorded  on  these  rods  after  each  run.  When  the 
shafts  ax'e  found  down  or  deflected  more  than  a  certain 
prescribed  limit,  they  must  be  lined  up  or  there  will  be  a 
repetition  of  the  "Paris"  disaster  back  in  the  80's,  when  the 
shaft  was  said  to  be  down  1%  in.  at  the  point  where  it 
failed.  Incidentally,  one  of  the  senior  engineers  is  liable 
to  happen  along  at  the  time  the  readings  are  being  taken. 


•Informal   talk  before  the  graduating   class  of   the    Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology. 


The  circulating  pumps  on  the  main  condensers  are 
stopped,  feed  pumps  connected  by  lines  of  hose  to  dock 
hydrants,  the  exhaust  of  the  auxiliaries  put  into  the  auxil- 
iary condenser  or  to  the  atmosphere  and  the  steam  cut  out 
of  all  lines  of  pipe  not  in  use,  which  means  the  closing 
of  not  less  than  30  valves;  and  the  work  of  overhauling 
the  engines  and  pumps  is  now  begun  by  the  "shore  gang," 
the  ship's  crew  being  off  duty  with  the  exception  of  three 
or  four  engineers  until  the  next  morning  to  get  at  least 
one  full  night's  sleep  or  a  run  on  shore — probably  the  latter. 

Work  Done  in  Port 

As  an  example  of  the  work  done  while  in  port,  my  notes 
taken  on  board  the  "St.  Paul,"  when  I  had  charge  of  her 
starboard  engines,  will  serve,  about  the  same  work  going 
along  on  the  port  engines.  First  entry,  "Stripped  and 
examined  forward  high-pressure  piston."  This  work  is  done 
by  one  of  the  junior  engineers  with  four  or  five  firemen  -to 
assist.  We  generally  found  the  wear  on  the  piston  packing 
rings  in  the  high-pressure  cylinders  very  severe,  due  to  the 
high  steam  temperature,  occasional  priming  which  carried 
over  more  or  less  dirt  from  the  boilers,  and  the  very  mod- 
erate use  of  cylinder  oil,  which  for  these  large  engines  is 
not  over  one  drop  through  the  lubricator  per  minute,  and 
frequently  no  oil  at  all  is  used.  Sometimes  we  would  find 
only  a  few  pieces  of  the  packing  rings  in  the  piston.  This, 
however,  was  not  a  difficult  repair,  as  we  always  carried 
spare  rings,  which  were  sawed  diagonally  across  and  left 
apart  an  eighth  of  an  inch  when  in  the  cylinder  to  preclude 
any  chance  of  cramping.  These  high-pressure  rings  are  usu- 
ally the  ordinary  snap  rings  called  "Ramsbottom,"  and  this 
same  type  of  packing  is  used  in  marine-engine  cylinders  up 
to  50-in.  in  diameter;  above  that  size,  light  steel  springs  are 
used  to  keep  packing  rings  against  the  walls  of  the 
cylinder.  Follower  bolts  were  renewed  occasionally  as 
we  often  found  them  crystallized  to  such  an  extent  that, 
laid  across  the  jaws  of  a  vise,  they  would  break  with  a 
very  light  hand-hammer  blow;  while  when  new  they  could 
be  bent  double  on  themselves  vrithout  fracture.  To  make 
sure  that  the  follower  bolts  were  screwed  down  tight 
enough,  we  generally  provided  the  men  with  a-  light  steel 
bar  which  was  to  be  bent  on  every  bolt  in  making  it  up. 

"Overhauled  piston-rod  packing  on  aft  high-pressure  rod." 
"Examined  second  intermediate  piston,  found  12  springs 
broken,  replaced  with  new  ones."  To  do  this  on  a  77-in. 
cylinder,  we  had  a  small  manhole  in  the  center  of  the  cylin- 
der cover  through  which  we  could  enter  without  taking  up 
the  cylinder  cover  proper. 

"Universal  couplings  on  throttle-valve  gearing  repinned." 
"Overhauled  and  adjusted  first  and  second  intermediate 
valve-spindle  guides."  "Put  lighter  oil  cups  on  all  cross- 
heads."  A  great  fault  of  oiling  service  was  that  heavy 
cast-brass  cups  were  held  in  position  by  light  slot-headed 
screws,  which  never  ought  to  be  used  except  for  holding  the 
cylinder  lagging.  These  cups  are  better  if  made  of  sheet 
brass  and  held  in  place  by  capscrews. 

"Overhauled  low-pressure  crosshead."  To  properly  over- 
haul crossheads,  we  generally  had  to  hang  the  engine  up, 
take  the  crosshead  brasses  off  the  rod  and  chip  side  clear- 
ance in  the  boxes,  filing  and  scraping  them  before  putting 
them  together,  for  very  often  we  would  find  the  crosshead 
pins  afloat;  that  is,  not  bearing  in  the  bottom  of  the  box 
after  the  engines  had  cooled  down  from  a  hard  run.  When 
we  had  the  crosshead  landed  in  the  boxes,  after  giving  the 
boxes  side  clearance,  we  adjusted  the  amount  of  running 
clearance  between  brass  and  pin  by  the  use  of  wire  made  of 
pure  lead  and  very  soft.  This  adjustment  is  made  by  laying 
the  lead  wire  across  the  pin  at  right  angles  to  its  axis 
and  a  little  short  of  its  half-circumference,  one  wire  about 
an  inch  in  from  each  end  and  one  in  the  center,  putting  in 
the  liners  and  putting  the  top  half  of  the  box  and  binder  on 
and  screwing  the  nuts  hard  down  on  the  lead  wires,  marking 
the  nuts  before  slacking  them  up  so  as  to  have  a  record  of 
their  position.  Then,  by  putting  in  or  taking  out  liners  as 
required  and  by  taking  a  final  lead  impression,  we  adjusted 


April  IG,  1918 


POWER 


663 


these  boxes  to  a  clearance  amounting  to  about  a  thousandth 
of  an  inch  by  micrometer  calipers  for  every  inch  of  diam- 
eter of  pin  or  bearinp.  This  method  is  used  for  all  bear- 
ings of  marine  engines  where  adjustments  are  to  be  made. 

"Pound  piston  nut  slack  on  forward  circulating  engines, 
and  one  follower  bolt  broken."  "Reciprocating:  parts  of 
these  engines  thoroughly  overhauled."  "Renewed  oil-piping 
systems  on  high-pressure  valve  gear,  which  was  thrown  off 
at  sea."  "Sawdust  connection  put  on  condenser  circulating 
pumps."  This  was  done  so  that  we  would  be  able  to  inject 
sawdust  into  the  condensers  when  leaking.  "Air-pump 
valves  and  feed-pump  valves  and  seats  examined  and  re- 
newed whore  necessary."  "Filter  cloths  renewed."  "Two 
copper  bends  (a  practice  now  abandoned)  put  into  auxiliary 
steam  mains,  reducing  valves,  main  to  auxiliary  thoroughly 
overhauled,  adjusted  forward  l.-p.  crankpin  (this  adjust- 
ment being  similar  to  that  of  the  crosshead,  except  that  we 
rarely  had  to  give  boxes  additional  side  clearance)." 

A  word  about  the  bedding  of  the  main  crankshafts  of 
these  ships  and  about  the  use  of  water  on  hot  bearings  is 
probably  in  order  at  this  point.  There  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  in  regard  to  the  use  of  salt  water  on  hot  bearings. 
On  one  new  ship  we  were  permitted  to  use  water  on  the 
bearings  when  they  were  above  110  deg.,  and  this  shaft 
went  down  uniformly  about  a'a  in.  in  all  its  bearings  in 
about  twelve  months'  running.  In  another,  a  sister  ship, 
we  had  orders  not  to  put  the  sea  water  on  until  the  ther- 
mometers in  the  bearings  (which  are  hung  by  wires  just 
clear  of  the  revolving  shaft)  registered  180  deg.,  or  there- 
about, but  this  shaft  went  down  considerably  more  and 
gave  a  good  deal  of  trouble.  It  is  my  practice  to  keep 
the  temperature  down,  water  or  no  water. 

"Thrust  bearing  pumped  out  and  refilled  with  clean  oil." 
Thrust  bearings  require  a  great  deal  of  attention  and 
should  be  closely  watched.  When  they  do  go  wrong,  they 
give  a  lot  of  trouble  and  are  hard  to  handle.  "Plates  put 
over  two  bearings  underneath  platforms  to  keep  dirt  off; 
hotwell  cleaned  out."  "New  water  end  put  in  main  boiler- 
feed  pump  and  any  number  of  small  jobs  too  numerous  to 
mention."  Boiler-feed  pumps  on  all  the  ships  that  I  was 
ever  in  were  about  half  large  enough;  technically  speaking, 
they  were  ample,  but  in  practice  we  were  greatly  bothered 
with  them,  especially  with  broken  valves,  split  water  ends, 
broken  pistons  and  piston  rods,  feed  pipes  and  feed-pipe 
anchorages,  packing  blown  out  of  joints,  etc.  These  should 
have  ample  margin,  so  that  they  can  be  run  slowly. 
Washing  Down  and  Painting 

On  the  day  before  sailing,  after  all  this  examination  and 
repair,  the  washing  down  and  painting  is  started  and  the 
engine  rooms  are  all  "slicked  up"  ready  for  sea,  tools  and 
tackle  are  all  stored  away  and  the  boilers  closed  up  and 
filled  with  fresh  water  from  the  dock.  The  last  half-day 
before  sailing,  the  ship's  engineers  are  given  another  short 
run  on  shore,  sailing  hour  being  at  10  o'clock  next  morning. 
At  8  o'clock  the  night  before  sailing,  the  bottom  fires  in  the 
boilers  are  lighted  under  the  supervision  of  one  of  the 
senior  engineers,  who  makes  it  his  particular  business  to  see 
that  the  water  is  well  up  in  every  one  before  the  fires  are 
lighted  and  that  all  the  stop  valves  are  opened  from  the 
cold  boilers;  he  also  sees  that  the  main  throttle  is  "cracked" 
in  order  that  all  the  main  lines  of  piping  right  through  to 
the  engine  cylinders  are  warmed  up  gradually  with  the 
boilers.  After  the  fires  are  started  the  men  of  this  crew 
take  one  turn  out  of  both  main  engines  with  the  turning 
gears,  first  looking  the  engines  over  carefully  to  see  that 
nothing  is  in  the  way,  that  all  the  small  parts  are  connected, 
that  the  crankpits  are  clear  and  all  is  right  for  running. 
The  turning  gears  are  then  disconnected  so  that,  if  the 
engines  should  move  while  the  cylinders  are  being  warmed, 
no  damage  would  be  done.  This  is  all  the  trial  these  engines 
have  before  going  to  sea. 

At  midnight  the  high  fires  are  lighted  in  all  the  main 
boilers,  Scotch  marine  type,  and  the  circulating  of  the  water 
in  them  commenced.  One  boiler  is  taken  at  a  time,  and  the 
water  is  pumped  from  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  and  back 
into  it  again,  through  the  feed  pipe,  to  warm  the  bottom 
of  the  boiler  shell  and  sun  ounding  parts  under  the  fire  line 
of  the  furnaces,  so  as  to  equalize  the  expansion  of  the  shell. 
This  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  process  and  is  under 


the  eye  of  one  of  the  senior  engineers,  for  a  little  careless- 
ness might  mean  the  pumping  out  entirely  of  one  boiler  and 
the  flooding  of  two  or  three  more. 

In  the  meantime  the  manhole  covers  in  the  bottom  of  the 
boilers  are  followed  up  and  every  water  pocket  in  all  steam 
mains  is  carefully  drained,  for  the  steam  pressure  now  is 
20  or  30  lb.  and  by  4  or  5  o'clock  has  reached  100  to  120  lb. 
The  engineer  and  two  assistants  go  all  over  the  engine  de- 
partment, setting  the  main  valves  as  they  are  to  be  run  for 
the  voyage — some  of  the  main  stop  valves  on  the  boilers 
are  run  2  to  6  turns  open,  to  retard  priming  where  the  draft 
of  steam  to  the  engines  is  heavier  than  to  others.  At  8 
o'clock  in  the  morning  the  8  to  12  watch  is  detailed  below 
"all  hands,"  and  begin  filling  the  oil  cups,  start  the  main 
condensers,  prove  the  telegraph,  try  the  reversing  gears  and 
complete  the  warming  up  of  the  cylinders  of  the  main  en- 
gine, but  do  not  start  the  main  engine. 

Getting  Under  Way 

The  stokers  are  given  their  stations,  trim  the  fires  and 
gradually  raise  the  steam  to  about  195  lb.  Occasionally,  at 
about  this  time  there  are  little  things  such  as  stay-bolt  nuts 
giving  way  in  the  combustion  chambers  or  tube  ends  leaking 
badly;  this  means  that  fires  are  drawn  from  the  boiler 
affected  and  a  lot  of  man-killing  work,  twelve  or  fifteen 
of  the  shore  gang  being  kept  to  lend  all  the  assistance  they 
can.  Finally,  the  "all  ashore"  is  sounded  and  we  are  left 
to  our  own  devices  and  the  next  thing  we  hear  is  "half- 
speed  astern,"  for  the  two  10,000-hp.  engines,  which  have 
each  been  dismantled  in  a  dozen  places  and  readjusted. 
Every  order  of  the  telegraph  is  registered  in  minutes  and 
seconds  in  writing  in  a  log  book.  This  order  is  no  more  than 
carried  out  until  we  have  "full  speed  astern,  both  engines" 
to  carry  us  out  into  the  river  against  the  tide.  All  hands 
except  the  chief  engineer  are  below,  to  assist  in  getting 
under  way,  handling  the  engine,  etc.  After  a  series  of 
"half-speed  ahead,"  "slow  ahead,"  "stop,"  one  side  and  then 
the  other,  we  drop  the  pilot  and  get  the  "full-speed  ahead" 
double  order,  and  sometimes  if  the  skipper  is  feeling  extra 
well,  triple  order,  and  the  real  business  of  driving  a  grey- 
hound across  the  Western  ocean  begins. 

Here  is  where  all  the  bad  work  done  in  port  shows  up; 
although  every  bit  of  the  work  was  dine  under  the  eyes  of 
the  engineers,  more  or  less  of  it  had  to  be  intrusted  to  a 
gang  of  machinists  who  are  not  engineers  and  who  came 
aboard  ship  to  get  in  time.  Some  of  the  bearings  were 
adjusted  too  closely,  some  improperly  put  together,  so  that 
the  first  watch  at  sea  between  poor  firemen  and  hot  engine 
bearings  is  often  a  "hot  one."  Again,  we  might  leave  port 
without  a  particle  of  trouble.  In  regard  to  the  driving  of 
one  of  these  ships,  I  wish  to  say  a  word  about  a  man's  per- 
sonal character.  Above  all  things,  he  must  be  a  man,  say 
what  he  means  and  mean  what  he  says;  for  in  so  large  a 
crew  of  men  there  are  all  sorts  of  dispositions,  and  in  order 
to  get  the  ship  along,  a  man  must  have  a  level  head  and 
be  more  or  less  a  manipulator  of  men  as  well  as  of  engines; 
for  if  you  are  not  a  steam  getter,  your  engineering  ability 
will  count  for  naught.  Habitually  following  one  revolution 
per  minute  behind  the  other  watches,  you  will  be  called 
up  to  explain  why.  Sometimes  the  men  claim  to  have  a 
poor  crew — that's  easy;  the  chances  are  that  the  next  time 
you  leave  port  you  will  have  the  best  watch  of  men  on 
the  ship,  or  the  watch  that  has  made  the  best  time,  and 
then  if  you  fall  short,  your  number  may  be  called.  It  is  a 
business  proposition  from  start  to  finish. 

On  going  below  to  take  charge  of  a  watch,  the  senior 
engineer  will  look  over  the  gageboards,  see  that  the  reading 
of  the  revolution  counters  for  the  previous  watch  are  prop- 
erly recorded  at  8  bells.  In  the  meantime  his  watch  of  men 
has  gone  over  the  engines  to  see  for  themselves  that  every- 
thing is  all  right.  The  stoke-hole  engineers  at  the  same 
time  have  gone  through  the  stoke-holes  taking  in  the 
average  height  of  the  water  in  the  boilers,  the  amount  of 
coal  in  front  of  the  boilers  and  the  general  condition  of 
things  under  their  supervision.  If  nothing  is  reported 
wrong  inside  of  ten  minutes,  he  will  turn  to  his  fellow 
senior  with  the  woi'ds,  "I've  got  her."  Should  anything  be 
found  wrong — for  instance,  low  water  in  the  boilers,  hot 
guide,  main  bearings,  a  hot  crankpin,  eccentric  straps, 
or  the  like — he  may  refuse  to  take  the  watch  until  the  ir- 


564 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


regularity  is  straightened  out.  Should  the  water  in  the 
boilers  be  exceptionally  short,  for  instance,  he  might  go  on 
deck  till  more  water  is  put  into  the  boilers.  Or  if  it  were 
simply  a  broken-down  auxiliary  which  could  be  temporarily 
stopped  for  repairs,  the  required  number  of  men  would  be 
detailed  from  the  watch  being  relieved  to  make  the  repairs; 
these  men  would  work  for  two  hours  of  the  watch  coming 
on,  when  the  same  number  of  men  would  be  brought  down 
from  the  watch  coming  after — so  that  any  number  of  men 
would  be  liable  to  be  below  eight  hours  on  a  stretch,  for 
on  a  "liner"  you  are  with  your  job  all  the  time. 

Troubles  Not  Always  in  Engine  Room 

The  following  will  show  that  all  troubles  are  not  in  the 
engine  room.  Once,  in  leaving  New  York,  one  of  our  coaling 
ports  in  the  ship's  side  had  not  been  properly  secured  and 
just  as  we  were  nicely  ploughing  into  a  February  nor'easter, 
the  door  swung  open,  shipping  water  in  "gi'eat  shape."  It 
was  on  my  watch  and  I  sent  an  assistant  to  tell  the  chief 
in  person  what  had  happened,  thinking  it  might  be  neces- 
sary to  "heave  to"  or  "put  the  good  side  to  the  weather," 
but  I  started  at  once  with  six  men  to  try  to  make  the  door 
fast  between  seas.  We  had  no  more  than  reached  it  when 
a  fire  in  the  dynamo  room  put  the  ship  in  total  darkness 
temporarily.  Between  getting  the  door  fast,  putting  oil 
torches  by  the  side  of  water-gage  glasses  and  about  the 
engine  I'ooms,  we  were  busy.  But  after  an  hour  or  so  we 
had  some  of  the  lights  on  and  made  the  run  without  any 
further  trouble. 

Another  time  we  were  nicely  around  "the  corner"  of  the 
Banks  of  Newfoundland,  when  a  forward  port  main-bearing 
stud  broke.  This  was  handled  about  as  well  as  any  break 
of  its  kind  I  ever  saw.  First  of  all  the  turning  engines  were 
put  into  gear  so  that  the  main  engines  would  not  move 
while  we  were  working  over  them.  We  then  put  a  large 
ring  spanner  or  solid  wrench  encircling  the  nut  on  top  of 
the  bearing  over  the  nut;  the  wi-ench  by  the  way,  weighed 
about  300  lb.,  the  stud  being  6  in.  in  diameter.  This  was 
securely  lashed  close  up  to  the  bearing  cap  with  chains, 
tightened  by  a  "Spanish  windlass"  and  chain-falls.  For 
additional  holding-down  power  we  took  one  of  the  cargo- 
hoisting  booms  and  cut  it  to  reach  from  the  cap  to  the 
reversing-shaft  bracket,  securely  lashing  top  and  bottom 
ends  in  position.  After  the  turning  gear  was  taken  out, 
we  were  able  to  proceed  for  the  rest  of  the  voyage  at  about 
half-speed  with  this  engine,  occasionally  tightening  up  our 
rigging. 

Shortage  of  Water  Causes  Trouble 
In  regard  to  the  possibility  of  the  boilers  being  short  of 
water,  we  were  once  westward  bound,  about  four  days  out, 
running  in  a  heavy  beam  sea.  Through  some  mistake  in  a 
pumping  order,  two  of  the  ship's  trimming  tanks  were  not 
entirely  pumped  out,  and  the  ship  made  one  tremendous 
lurch  to  port,  about  37  deg.  from  perpendicular,  as  I  re- 
member it,  and  owing  to  slack  water  in  the  trimming  tanks, 
held  there  for  quite  a  period — long  enough  to  melt  the 
fusible  plugs  in  five  boilers  at  one  time  (the  fusible  plugs 
being  in  the  side  combustion  chambers).  This  meant  draw- 
ing fires  out  of  forty  furnaces  (for  the  boilers  were  double- 
enders  with  four  furnaces  in  each  end,  half  a  ton  or  so  of 
incandescent  fuel  in  each),  the  closing  of  the  stop  valve  on 
each  of  these  boilers  and  the  releasing  of  the  steam  through 
the  safety  valves  by  the  easing  gears  before  we  could  get 
in  the  combustion  chambers  to  screw  brass  plugs  into  the 
fusible  plugs  in  place  of  the  fusible  metal.  We  accom- 
plished this  with  a  long  socket  wrench,  lying  on  our  backs 
on  planks  on  top  of  grate  bars  which  only  a  few  moments 
before  were  covered  with  incandescent  coal.  You  can 
imagine  what  this  meant.  We  had  sixty  men  from  another 
watch  to  help  draw  the  fires  and  rekindle  them,  while  coal, 
wheelbarrows,  red-hot  rakes,  slice  bai-s  and  the  like  were 
thrashing  from  one  side  of  the  ship  to  the  other.  I  have 
known  of  fusible  plugs  being  temporarily  plugged  by  very 
adept  men  when  there  was  SO  to  40  lb.  pressure  in  the 
boilers. 

Occasionally,  in  going  across  we  fall  in  with  another  ship 
of  our  own  class  going  in  the  same  direction.  I  remember 
in  particular  one  time  when  we  fell  in  with  the  "Campania." 
We  can  always  tell  by  the  smoke  whether  it's  a  ship  with 


anything  like  our  time  or  not,  for  if  the  smoke  remains  on 
the  horizon  an  hour  she  is  with  us  to  stay.  In  coming  the 
other  way,  we  have  her  nicely  abreast  in  an  hour.  We 
sighted  the  "Campania"  astern  about  8  o'clock  one  morning. 
At  8  o'clock  the  next  morning  she  was  just  about 
abreast,  a  "stern  chase,"  and  at  8  o'clock  the  following 
morning  her  smoke  was  just  in  sight  ahead,  with  practically 
one-third  more  power  than  we  had,  which  speaks  pretty 
well  for  the  smaller  ship.  In  the  meantime  they,  in  the 
forecastle,  began  to  take  a  great  interest.  The  8  to  12  watch 
the  first  morning  went  below  with  a  full  determination  to 
beat  all  previous  records,  which  they  did.  The  12  to  4  in  tak- 
ing charge,  found  stars  chalked  all  around,  on  the  boilers, 
on  wheelbarrows,  in  coal  bunkers  and  even  way  up  on 
top  of  coal  piles,  showing  they  had  been  up  there  for  lump 
coal,  for  they  certainly  did  not  go  up  there  to  sleep.  These 
came  oif  watch  with  a  better  record  and  more  stars  and 
more  revolutions  made  per  minute.  Not  to  be  outdone  by 
any  of  the  other  watches,  the  4  to  8  went  below  and  made  a 
still  better  record,  which  I  believe  was  the  higiiest  ever 
made  by  that  ship  before  or  since.  I  went  forward  myself 
to  be  sure  this  watch  was  properly  called,  and  found  them 
all  ready  to  go  below  half  an  hour  ahead  of  time.  We  ha^ 
a  one-armed  fireman  on  this  watch  who  was  born  for 
better  work.  He  had  been  around  the  woi-ld  probably  a 
dozen  times,  and  he  said  to  me:  "I  heard  them  'bi'eaking 
her  up'  on  the  other  watches,  and  I  thought  I  would  get 
the  boys  ready.  She's  making  such  good  time  I  couldn't 
sleep  for  her  turning."  He  was  my  mascot  as  long  as  I 
was  in  the  ship  and  the  boss  of  the  watch  in  the  fore- 
castle. There  is  another  point  which  I  wish  to  bring  out  in 
regard  to  marine  engineering,  and  which  I  will  illustrate  by 
an  incident  that  happened  on  board  the  "New  York."  We 
were  within  twelve  or  fifteen  hours  of  port  when  the  con- 
necting-rod broke  on  one  of  our  fan  engines,  almost  wreck- 
ing the  engine.  We  could  have  made  the  run  without  this 
engine,  but  to  go  into  port  with  anything  broken  down  was 
not  in  our  book.  The  word  "helplessness"  is  not  known  in 
the  business.  The  engine  was  properly  repaired,  a  new 
spai-e  crankshaft  being  put  in  in  place  of  the  old  one,  the 
frame  patched  with  steel  plates,  and  the  engine  made  as 
strong  as  originally,  the  work  being  completed  about  two 
hours  before  we  reached  port. 

The  Coal  Situation  in  France 

Before  the  war  France  consumed  a  total  of  approximately 
65,000,000  tons  of  coal,  of  which,  in  round  figures,  41,000,- 
000  tons  was  of  domestic  production  and  24,000,000  tons  was 
imported  from  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  Belgium.  The 
monthly  consumption  in  peace  times  thus  amounted  to  5,- 
400,000  tons.  In  1916  the  domestic  mines  produced  only 
20,000,000  tons  and  the  imported  coal  amounted  to  only 
19,000,000  tons,  making  the  total  quantity  available  for 
consumption  39,000,000  tons.  In  November,  1916,  a  typical 
month,  the  French  mines  produced  1,800,000  tons  of  coal  and 
the  imports  amounted  to  1,500,000  tons,  the  available 
monthly  supply  being  therefore  3,300,000  tons,  which  rep- 
resents a  deficit,  compared  with  the  monthly  consumption 
in  1913,  of  approximately  40  per  cent.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  average  for  1913  includes  also  the  sum- 
mer months,  whereas  the  consumption  is  necessarily  greater 
in  the  winter  months.  The  figures  for  December,  1916,  com- 
pared with  the  monthly  average  of  1913,  indicate  a  diminu- 
tion of  44  per  cent. 

The  most  hopeful  sign,  pointing  to  the  unlikelihood  of 
a  serious  coal  crisis  during  the  remainder  of  the  present 
viinter,  is  furnished  by  the  great  increase  in  the  domestic 
production  of  coal.  In  October,  1915,  the  French  mines 
produced  1,700,000  tons;  in  October,  1916,  1,800,000  tons;  in 
October,  1917,  2,782,000  tons.  In  November,  1915,  the 
French  coal  mines  produced  1,500,000  tons;  in  November, 
1916,  1,600,000  tons;  and  in  November,  1917,  2,690,000  tons, 
or  an  increase  of  about  80  per  cent,  in  the  two  years.  It 
should,  of  course,  be  noted  that  the  invaded  portions  of 
France  contain  the  principal  French  coal  mines,  and  that 
therefore  the  war  has  cut  off  the  chief  source  of  supply 
and  has  made  necessary  the  more  intensive  exploitation  of 
the  mines  in  the  uninvaded  regions. — Cornmerce  Reports. 


April  IG.  1918 


POWER 


565 


566 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


War  Service  of  the  Petroleum  Industry* 

By  M.  L.  Requa 

Director,  Oil    Division   United   States  Fuel   Administration 

This  war  cannot  be  won  without  an  ample  supply  of 
petroleum  products.  We  must  have,  if  we  are  to  succeed, 
not  only  fuel  oil,  but  gasoline,  kerosene  and  lubricants  as 
well;  for  them  there  are  no  known  substitutes. 

It  is  not  possible  to  single  out  any  one  product  and  say 
of  it,  this  is  the  most  important  for  the  winning  of  the  war. 
We  may  say  truly  that  the  most  important  element  is  the 
spirit  of  the  soul  of  the  people,  the  morale  of  the  nation, 
but  in  dealing  with  our  industrial  life  we  have  absolute 
need  of  many  things.  Food  we  must  have,  or  perish;  steel, 
copper,  chemicals,  petroleum — we  have  need  for  all  of  these, 
and  more,  or  we  must  sutfer  defeat.  From  the  standpoint 
of  the  winning  of  the  war,  not  one  of  these  products  is 
more  important  than  petroleum.  It  lubricates  the  ma- 
chinery of  our  transportation  and  manufacturing,  it  plows 
our  fields,  drives  our  vessels  at  sea  and  gives  life  to  the 
airplane  that  watches  over  our  soldiers  and  sailors. 

As  the  application  of  steam  and  electricity  grew,  so  grew 
the  demand  for  more  and  better  petroleum  products.  One 
to  a  large  degi'ee  kept  pace  with  the  other.  The  original 
"puffing  Billy"  has  grown  into  the  Mallet  compound  of 
today;  the  original  "Robert  Fulton,"  wending  laborious 
way  down  the  placid  Hudson,  into  the  monster  turbine- 
driven  battleship.  All  these  machines  have  been  dependent 
upon  lubrication,  upon  petroleum;  and  the  more  recent  ad- 
vances in  marine  construction  have  been  predicated  upon  the 
use  of  fuel  oil  as  the  means  of  steam  generation. 

Rapid  Rise  of  Internal-Combustion  Engine 

We  have  witnessed  in  the  last  decade  the  rise  of  the 
internal-combustion  engine.  Its  profound  effect  on  rural 
as  well  as  urban  life  grows  more  and  more  manifest;  it 
competes  with  the  locomotive  and  the  trolley  as  a  means 
of  rapid  transit;  and  as  a  method  of  distributing  freight 
in  cities,  plowing  fields,  and  providing  healthful  recrea- 
tion it  is  rapidly  superseding  the  horse.  As  an  instrument 
of  war  it  is  of  paramount  necessity;  driving  the  swift-fly- 
ing airplane  that  serves  as  the  aerial  scout  to  our  armies; 
it  makes  possible  observations  for  lack  of  which  disaster 
would  be  the  inevitable  portion  of  our  forces. 

In  the  realm  of  the  internal-combustion  engine,  petroleum 
reigns  supreme.  It  supplies  the  motive  power;  it  lubri- 
cates the  machinery;  it  is,  in  short,  the  life  fluid  without 
which  neither  motor  vehicle  nor  airplane  could  serve  the 
needs  of  humanity. 

The  internal-combustion  engine  has  created  a  demand 
for  gasoline  of  hitherto  undreamed-of  proportions;  it  has 
made  what  was  once  considered  almost  a  waste  product  into 
the  most  important  element  derived  from  petroleum  dis- 
tillation. Inability  to  supply  the  rising  demand  by  recog- 
nized methods  of  refining  has  spurred  inventive  genius  to 
new  ett'orts,  until  today  we  have  the  new  practice  of  pres- 
sure distillation  with  its  resultant  increase  in  gasoline 
output. 

And  what  are  our  assets,  with  which  to  meet  the  de- 
mands which  may  be  made  upon  us  for  petroleum?  What 
is  the  strength  of  this  young  giant  that  responds  to  the 
nationis  call  to  arms  ?  We  have  produced  from  the  year 
18.59  to  date  a  total  of  more  than  4,250,000,000  bbl.  of  oil. 
Our  production  has  increased,  by  decades,  from  500,000  in 
1860  to  5,260,000  in  1870,  26,286,000  in  1880;  45,823,000  in 
1890,  63,620,000  in  1900,  209,557,000  in  1910,  and  330,000,000 
in  1917.  Over  long  periods  the  average  increase  has  been 
about  7  per  cent,  of  the  previous  year's  production.  At 
this  rate  of  increase  we  shall  require  460,000,000  bbl.  per 
annum  in  1927;  and  for  1918,  if  the  average  holds  good, 
we  shall  require  an  additional  amount  above  last  year's 
production  of  appro.ximately  23,000,000  bbl.  It  will  be 
forthcoming,  of  course;  from  the  known  fields,  if  neces- 
sary; and  perhaps  in  part  from  new  discoveries. 

We  are  beginning  to  realize,  however,  that  our  resources 
are  not  limitless.  It  is  the  consensus  of  opinion  that  the 
Appalachian,   Lima    (Indiana)    an6   Illionis   fields    can    si& 


♦From  an  address  delivered  at  the  Petroleum  Congress,  Chicago 
111.,  Mar.    29,    I'JIS. 


Tittle  in  the  way  of  increased  production;  leaving  but  three 
great  known  fields  to  meet  our  future  requirements — Mid- 
Continent,  Gulf  and  California. 

The  changes  in  the  industry  are  startling;  today  a  flow 
of  oil,  tomorrow  a  famine.  Spindletop  was  discovered  in 
1901,  and  yet  today  the  Southern  Pacific  brings  oil  from 
Mexico  to  supply  its  locomotives  plying  in  Te.xas.  We  are 
confronted  vrith  constantly  mounting  consumption  and  a 
constantly  increasing  percentage  of  exhaustion.  Some  day 
the  lines  must  cross,  production  will  no  longer  be  able  to 
keep  pace  with  consumption  and  we  must  seek  other  sources 
of  supply. 

Exact  Extent  of  Future  Supplies  Unknown 
Any  mathematically  exact  estimate  of  the  petroleum  yet 
to  be  extracted  from  the  rock  formations  of  the  United 
States  is.  of  course,  impossible.  Undeveloped  areas  now 
unknown  may  add  greatly  to  present  estimates.  Speaking 
broadly,  however.  I  think  I  am  safe  in  saying  that  it  is  our 
duty  to  conserve  most  carefully  our  remaining  stores. 
Locked  in  the  earth,  they  are  of  course  valueless.  Do  not 
misunderstand  me  or  imagine  that  I  am  arguing  against 
production,  against  wildcatting,  against  the  individ\ial 
effort  having  for  its  incentive  an  adequate  reward.  I 
believe  all  these  things  must  be  done.  But  I  am  also  of  the 
belief  that  increasingly  efficient  methods  of  combustion, 
lubrication  and  general  conservation  will  materially  alter 
practices  that  can  be  safely  characterized  as  wasteful. 

In  viewing  the  petroleum  industry  from  the  Govern- 
mental standpoint,  it  necessarily  means  the  viewpoint  of 
national  welfare  in  contradistinction  to  individual  gain;  it 
means  the  wise  husbanding  of  our  available  resources  so 
that  they  may  last  the  greatest  time,  in  contradistinction 
to  producing  the  greatest  quantity  in  the  least  time  and 
converting  into  money  the  treasures  of  nature's  store- 
house. 

With  the  exhaustion  of  our  oil  or  its  advance  in  price 
we  have,  of  course,  the  alternative  of  producing  oil  from 
shale.  That  there  are  enormous  areas  of  such  shales  in 
the  United  States  is  well  known  among  geologists  and 
others  who  have  taken  the  pains  to  investigate.  These 
shales  will  undoubtedly  in  time  be  mined  for  oil,  but  we 
must  remember  that  to  produce  a  quantity  of  oil  equal  to 
our  present  production  we  shall  have  to  mine  a  daily  ton- 
nage of  shale  in  excess  of  the  tonnage  of  coal  now  mined 
daily.  The  magnitude  of  such  an  undertaking  is  obvious. 
It  will  not  be  the  growth  of  a  day,  but  of  years.  And  it  is 
likely  that  because  of  plentiful  supplies  of  oil  which  may 
be  brought  to  the  United  States  by  water — cheap  oil  from 
Mexico  and  Central  America — -it  will  be  many  years  before 
these  shales  are  utilized. 

Present  Necessities  Call  for  Economic  Discipline 

The  stern  necessity  that  has  imposed  unparalleled  eco- 
nomic discipline  upon  the  people  of  Europe  will  not  dis- 
appear or  be  forgotten  with  the  coming  of  peace. 

This  is  no  time  to  quibble  over  technicalities,  no  time  to 
debate  the  power  of  the  Government  to  perform  any  pro- 
posed act.  We  are  at  war.  The  life  of  the  nation  is  at 
stake.  The  pi-eservation  of  our  national  existence  is  of 
such  paramount  importance  that  nothing  else  really  mat- 
ters, compared  with  that  duty. 

Each  month  during  the  war  the  priority  demands  of  the 
Government  will  become  more  and  more  insistent,  the  duty 
of  the  citizen  to  supply  those  demands  more  and  more 
clearly  defined. 

If  zonal  distribution  of  petroleum  products  is  necessary 
to  supply  national  needs,  zonal  distribution  will  be  ac- 
complished. If  pooling  of  tank  cars  and  ships  will  more 
efficiently  meet  national  demands,  those  facilities  will  be 
pooled.  If  well-drilling  supplies  must  be  allocated  to  pro- 
duce the  greatest  quantity  of  oil  to  meet  the  increasing 
demands  for  oil,  well-drilling  supplies  will  be  allocated. 
If  licensing  of  jobbers  and  others  is  necessary,  they  will 
be  licensed.  If  the  petroleum  industry  or  any  part  of  it 
is  so  unwise  as  to  engage  in  profiteering,  ways  and  means 
will  be  found  to  correct  that  condition.  In  short,  what- 
ever the  national  needs  may  be,  everything  that  is  nece» 
sary  will  be  done  to  meet  those  requirements. 


April  16.  1918 


POWER 


5(57 


Twent> -Million-Dollar  Power 
Extensions  Urged 

Recommending  extensive  hydro-electi-ic  development  in 
the  southern  part  of  California  at  an  expenditure  of  $20,- 
000,000  within  the  next  two  years,  to  meet  the  increasing 
demands  for  power  and  light  and  for  the  conservation  of 
fuel,  the  Railroad  Conimission  of  California  has  issued  a  de- 
cision in  its  investigation  of  the  construction  and  operation 
of  electric  utilities  during  the  emergency  created  by  the 
war, 

Specificially,  the  commission  i-ecommends  that  the  South- 
ern California  Edison  Co.  take  immediate  steps  for  the  car- 
rying' out  of  a  comprehensive  plan  for  the  financing  of 
appi-oximately  !fl.'),000,000  for  building  power  plants,  that 
the  Southern  Sierras  Power  Co.  construct  its  Rush  Creek 
Bishop  line,  and  the  San  Joaquin  Light  and  Power  Corp. 
msure  the  building  of  additional  planti-  for  the  increase  of 
facilities,  or  by  purchase  agi'eement,  the  maintaining  of 
an  adequate  power  supply  for  agricultural  and  iiidustrial 
needs. 

The  Railroad  Commission's  investigation  was  state-wide, 
but  the  present  decision  deals  only  with  the  territory  south 
of  JVIerced,  the  northern  part  of  the  state  to  be  considered 
later.  The  decision  says  that  though  considerable  economy 
of  oil  would  result  from  more  complete  interconnection  and 
cooperation  of  hydro-electric  plants,  yet  the  war  emergency 
demands  that  the  corporations  take  immediate  steps  to  build 
additional  power  plants  to  meet  the  constantly  growing 
needs  for  power  made  by  normal  increase  of  manufacturing 
and  agriculture  and  the  special  needs  of  war  industries 
which  are  rapidly  multiplying  in  California. 

The  southern  part  of  the  state,  which  is  considered  in 
the  commission's  recommendations,  comprises  that  portion 
of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  south  of  Merced  and  served  by 
the  San  Joaquin  Light  and  Power  Corp.  and  the  Mt.  Whit- 
ney Power  and  Electric  Co.,  and  southern  California,  which 
is  served  by  the  Southern  California  Edison  Co.,  the  South- 
ern Sierras  Power  Co.,  the  San  Diego  Consolidated  Gas  and 
Electric  Co.,  the  Los  Angeles  Gas  and  Electric  Corp.  and 
the  City  of  Los  Angeles. 

The  power  produced  by  these  companies  in  1915  was  ap- 
proximately 930,000,000  kw.-hr.,  in  1916,  1,010,000,000  kw.- 
hr.  and  in  1917,  1,146,000,000  kw.-hr.  Of  this  last  amount 
911,000,000  kw-hr.  was  pi-oduced  by  hydro-electric  plants, 
the  remainder  by  steam,  requiring  a  total  oil  and  gas  con- 
sumption equivalent  to  1,316,000  bbl.  of  oil.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  growth  in  business  due  to  the  normal  de- 
velopments and  the  special  war  industries  will  approximate 
140,000,000  kw.-hr.  per  year,  and  a  requirement  of  plant 
capacity  of  about  25,000  kw.  and  then,  in  order  to  keep  down 
the  oil  consumption  of  electric  utilities  to  that  existing  in 
1917,  will  require  that  amount  of  development  each  year. 

Economical  Effects  of  Interconnection 

The  report  shows  that  considerable  economy  will  result 
from  the  interconnections  now  existing  and  those  contem- 
plated by  the  companies,  but  even  with  that  saving  it  will 
be  necessary  to  increase  the  hydro-electric  facilities  at 
least  20,000  kw.  of  useful  capacity  a  year,  and  increase  the 
energy  output  approximately  140,000,000  kw.-hr.  under  or- 
dinary rainfall  conditions.  Consideration  was  given  to  the 
City  of  Los  Angeles  existing  and  proposed  developments  in 
connection  with  the  aqueduct,  where  it  appears  that  at  a 
cost  of  between  $2,500,000  and  $3,000,000  the  city  would 
produce  an  additional  peak  capacity  of  36,000  kw.-hr.  and 
an  output  of  at  least  150,000,000  kw.hr.  a  year,  resulting  in 
a  reduction  of  oil  consumption  of  600,000  bbl.  a  year. 

The  commission  states  that  the  development  by  the  city 
would  be  largely  completed  within  twelve  months  if  pri- 
ority orders  were  obtained  for  equipment,  but  that  difficul- 
ties exist  which  apparently  make  it  impossible  at  this  time 
to  count  on  the  development  of  the  plant.  These  difficul- 
ties arose  from  the  fact  that  the  City  of  Los  Angeles  con- 
tends that  it  cannot  utilize  bonds  already  authorized  for 
the  development  of  hydro-electric  plants,  but  that  this 
money  must  be  used  for  the  construction  of  distribution 
systems.  The  city  believes  that  if  a  satisfactory  agree- 
ment could  be  entered  into  with  the  Los  Angeles  Gas  and 


Electric  Corp.  whereby  that  company  would  lease  to  the 
city  its  entire  system,  such  agi-eement  to  contain  an  option 
for  purchase  by  the  city,  the  money  authorized  would  be 
used  for  hydro-electric   plants. 

The  Los  Angeles  Gas  and  Electric  Corp.,  however,  de- 
clines to  consider  the  plan,  which  it  contends  constitutes 
a  complete  surrender  of  the  possession  of  its  distribution 
system  to  a  competitor,  and  also  that  its  trust-deed  pro- 
visions make  such  a   plan  a  legal   impossibility. 

The  commission  states  that  special  pains  were  taken  to 
attempt  a  solution  of  the  problem,  but  that  failure  at- 
tended such  efforts.  It  says  that  it  has  no  authority  or 
desire  to  order  the  city  to  develop  the  plants  or  deliver  the 
power  to  the  Los  Angeles  Gas  and  Electric  Corp.,  nor 
authority  to  compel  the  Los  Angeles  Gas  and  Electric  Corp- 
to  accede  to  the  proposition  of  the  city. 

The  commission  states:  "It  is  to  be  seriously  regretted 
that  at  this  critical  period,  when  conservation  of  fuel  oil  is 
one  of  the  most  important  war  needs,  the  give-and-take 
spirit  should  not  be  more  in  evidence  and  that  all  interests 
are  not  subordinated  to  actual  war  necessity." 

Reported  Power  Possibilities 

The  commission  discusses  the  reported  power  possibili- 
ties of  the  Southern  California  Edison  Co.,  the  San  Joaquin 
Light  and  Power  Corp.,  and  the  Southern  Sierras  Power 
Co.,  stating  that  the  Southern  Sierras  Power  Co.-  has  two 
possible  developments  amounting  to  17  500  kw.  capacity  in 
Mono  and  Inyo  Counties  which  might  be  developed,  but  upon 
which  sufficient  funds  are  not  available.  It  also  states  that 
the  San  Joaquin  Light  and  Power  Corp.  has  certain  small 
developments  that  ai-e  being  installed,  but  that  definite  in- 
formation on  any  large  developments  has  not  been  pre- 
sented at  this  time.  It  urges,  however,  that  the  corporation 
give  serious  consideration  to  adding  to  its  plants  so  as  to 
meet  requirements  on   its   own   system. 

The  Railroad  Commission  has  authorized  the  San  Joaquin 
Light  and  Power  Corp.  to  issue  $767,000  six  per  cent,  first 
and  refunding  bonds  payable  in  1950.  The  money  is  needed, 
says  the  company,  to  buy  property,  construct,  expand  and 
improve   its   service   and   facilities. 

The  Sierra  and  San  Francisco  Power  Co.  has  filed  with 
the  Railroad  Commission  an  application  for  authority  to 
issue  $1,000,000  of  its  first-mortgage  5  per  cent,  bonds,  the 
proceeds  to  be  used  for  the  construction  of  additional  hydro- 
electric plant  capacity  on  the  middle  fork  of  the  Stanislaus 
River,  the  construction  of  storage  reservoirs  on  the  middle 
or  south  fork  of  that  river,  and  the  construction  of  addi- 
tional flumes,  ditches,  etc. 

The  Mt.  Whitney  Power  and  Electric  Co.  has  asked  for 
approval  of  the  Railroad  Commission  of  a  plan  under  which 
applicants  for  power  will  be  required  to  advance  a  part  of 
the  cost  of  building  the  lines  necessary  to  serve  those  making 
the  application.  The  company  states  in  its  application  that 
ic  will  have  to  expend  during  1918  upon  its  system  $108,- 
000  and  that  in  addition  to  this  sum  it  will  have  to  spend 
$216,000  for  the  construction  of  extensions  to  care  for  new 
consumers,  which  the  company  estimates  will  be  in  the 
neighborhood  of  4000  during  1918.  The  greater  part  of  the 
new  consumers  will  require  power  for  agricultural  purposes 
in  the  Counties  of  Kern,  Kings  and  Tulare.  The  company 
is  in  doubt  whether  it  will  be  able  to  dispose  of  its  stock 
and  bonds  and  says  that  it  will  have  only  Hppi-oximately 
.f600,000  available  for  the  construction  of  extensions  and 
consequently  it  is  asking  those  seeking  service  to  bear  a 
l)ortion  of  the  expense  of  installation. 

The  Southern  Sierras  Power  Co.  has  joined  with  the 
('orona  Gas  and  Electric  Co.,  the  Bishop  Light  and  Power 
Co.,  the  Rialto  Light,  Power  and  Water  Co.  and  the 
Coachella  Valley  Ice  and  Electric  Co.  for  authority  for  the 
last-named  four  companies  to  sell  tiicir  plants  to  the  South- 
ern Sierras  Power  Co. 

The  prices  for  these  are  respectively:  $135,914;  $60,- 
576;  $24,915  and  $821,687. 


Said  B.  T.  Yew  to  C.  O'Two. 

"I  work  best  when   I  work  with  vou." 

Said  C.  O'Two  to  B.  T.   Yew, 

"When  we  are  scarce  the  steam  is,  too." — Fccony. 


568 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


All  After  Higher  Rates 

Electric  light  and  power  companies  throughout  the  coun- 
try are  doing  their  best  to  obtain  a  higher  rate — not,  it  is 
believed,  that  they  are  operating  at  a  loss  below  actual 
operating  expenses,  but  because  they  require  a  greater  rev- 
enue in  order  to  maintain  their  profits  at  about  pre-war 
percentages.  In  many  cases  the  demand  for  increased  rev- 
enue has  been  granted  in  whole  or  in  part  by  the  public 
service  commissions;  in  others  the  courts  have  refused  in- 
crease, and  other  demands  are  still  to  be  decided;  fran- 
chises with  "during  the  period  of  the  war"  charges,  per- 
mitting of  an  increased  rate,  are  declined,  and  others  hold 
that  contracts  are  mere  "scraps  of  paper." 

Recently,  ?n  electric-light  franchise  was  granted  to  the 
Arkansas  Light  and  Power  Co.,  by  the  City  of  Clarendon, 
Ark.  This  franchise  carried  a  15  per  cent,  advance  for  the 
period  of  the  war  over  the  previous  rate.  It  was  rejected 
by  the  company  for  the  reason,  it  is  said,  that  the  rate  was 
not  high  enough  on  account  of  the  advanced  prices  of  ma- 
terials and  the  cost  of  operating  the  plant. 

Coming  further  east,  the  Cleveland  Railway  Co.,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  was  not  satisfied  with  existing  rates  and  con- 
templated inci-easing  trolley  fares  on  Apr.  1.  But  this  was 
not  to  be,  as  it  is  understood  that  Common  Pleas  Judge 
Pearson  has  granted  the  city  an  injunction  restraining  the 
railway  company  from  increasing  car  fare  as  it  had 
planned.  Judge  Pearson  ordered  tire  company  to  arbitrate 
with  the  city  the  necessity  for  an  increase  of  fare.  The 
increase  the  company  sought  to  make  called  for  a  four-cent 
fare,  seven  tickets  for  a  quarter,  with  the  penny  transfer 
charge  rebated.  The  present  fare  is  four  cents,  six  tickets 
for  twenty  cents,  and  a  penny  charge  for  a  transfer. 

Journeying  still  further  east,  the  transportation  com- 
panies of  New  York  City  are  desirous  of  a  six-cent  fare. 
Although  the  Cleveland  Co.  wants  to  charge  but  a  four- 
cent  fare  and  sell  six  tickets  for  twenty  cents,  New  Yorkers 
have  never  even  had  a  chance  to  purchase  tickets  at  re- 
duced rates.  If  one  city  can  operate  street  cars  for  a  four- 
cent  fare,  why  cannot  another  is  the  question  that  many 
are  asking. 

When  it  comes  to  living  up  to  contracts,  some  companies 
evidently  look  upon  them  as  mere  scraps  of  paper.  For  in- 
stance, the  Public  Service  Corporation  of  New  Jersey  has 
a  fight  on  its  hands  with  the  Manufacturers  Council  of  the 
state.  The  council,  representing  hundreds  of  manufactur- 
ers throughout  the  state,  contends  that  the  abrogation  of 
power  contracts  entered  into  by  the  corporation  with  nu- 
merous manufacturers  is  clearly  illegal  and  that  the  cor- 
poration's notice  to  many  consumers  of  the  cancellation 
of  these  contracts  is  therefore  without  force. 

The  Public  Service  Corp.,  it  will  be  remembered,  canceled 
its  contracts  for  power  last  winter  when  the  coal  shortage 
became  so  acute  that  it  was  almost  impossible  to  generate 
electricity.  There  was  no  dissension  heai-d  then,  and  it  was 
assumed  that  the  manufacturers  were  willing  to  comply. 
The  council's  action  furnished  the  first  inkling  that  there 
was   any  objection. 

It  will  be  the  aim  of  the  council  to  take  concerted  action 
in  behalf  of  those  manufactui-ers  who  feel  that  they  are 
aggrieved  and  who  have  been  compelled,  in  order  to  in- 
sure E  continuance  of  the  power  necessary  for  operating 
their  plants,  to  submit  to  greatly  increased  rates. 

Liberty  Loan  Committee  for  Machinery 
and  Machine  Tool  Trades 

A  special  Liberty  Loan  Committee  for  the  machinery  and 
machine-tool  trades  has  been  organized,  with  headquarters 
at  334  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York  City.  The  full  personnel 
of  the  committee  follows: 

J.  W.  Lane,  chairman,  President,  E.  W.  Bliss  Co.;  R.  L. 
Pattei-son,  vice-chairman,  Pres.  American  Machine  &  Foun- 
dry Co.;  Charles  B.  Houston,  secretary,  E.  W.  Bliss  Co.; 
Norman  Dodge,  director  of  speakers,  Vice-Pres.  Mergen- 
thaler  Linotype  Co.;  Charles  A.  Hirschberg,  publicity  jii- 
rector.  Publicity  Mgr.  Ingersoll-Rand  Co.  Committee:  M. 
H.  Avram,  Slocum,  Avram  &  Slocum;  L.  Barron,  Sec.  De  La 


Vergne  Machine  Co.;  Leigh  Best,  Vice-Pres.  American  Lo- 
comotive Co.;  R.  K.  Blanchard,  Neptune  Meter  Co.;  G.  D. 
Branston,  Treas.  Manning,  Maxwell  &  Moore;  Arthur  W. 
Buttenheim,  Pres.  McKiernan-Terry  Drill  Co.;  W.  L.  Cal- 
lister,  W.  L.  &  J.  T.  Callister;  De  Courcey  Cleveland,  Pres. 
Central  Foundry  Co.;  C.  Philip  Coleman,  Pres.  Worthington 
Pump  &  Mach.  Corp.;  C.  I.  Cornell,  Treas.  Pratt  &  Whitney 
Corp.;  F.  W.  H.  Crane,  Pres.  R.  Hoe  &  Co.;  J.  J.  Cuehler, 
Pres.  Columbia  Mach.  W.  &  M.  Iron  Co.;  C.  G.  Curtis,  Pres. 
Curtis  Turbine  Co.;  A.  Davis,  Pres.  Davis-Bournonville  Co.; 
F.  S.  De  Lano,  Treas.  American  Car  &  Foundry  Co.;  H.  H. 
Doehler,  Pres.  Doehler  Die  Casting  Co.;  George  Doubleday, 
Pres.  Ingersoll-Rand  Co.;  F.  F.  Fitzpatrick,  Pres.  Railway 
Steel  Spring  Co.;  Henry  Fuller,  Vice-Pres.  FairbanksrMorse 
Co.;  P.  H.  Gill,  Pres.  p!  H.  Gill  &  Sons;  R.  E.  Gilmore,  Gen. 
Mgr.  Sperry  Gyroscope  Co.;  D.  H.  Haynes,  Treas.  American 
Machine  &  Foundry  Co.;  J.  H.  Hayward,  Treasurer  Hay- 
ward  Co.;  W.  T.  Hunter,  Sec.  A.  Schrader's  Son,  Inc.;  Isaac 
B.  Johnson,  Pres.  Isaac  G.  Johnson  &  Co.;  J.  C.  Kelly,  Pres. 
National  Meter  Co.;  W.  P.  Kethart,  Sec.  H.  D.  Bemer  & 
Winterbauer  Co.;  Hy.  C.  Knox,  Treas.  American  Brake  Shoe 
&  Foundry  Co.;  John  Lidgerwood,  Pres.  Lidgerwood  Mfg. 
Co.;  T.  Frank  Manville,  Pres.  H.  W.  Johns-Manville  Go.; 
T.  J.  Menten,  Vice-Pres.  Schaeffer  &  Budenberg  Mfg.  Co.; 
Edward  T.  Morse,  Sec.  &  Gen.  Mgr.  Morse  Dry  Dock  &  Re- 
pair Co.;  C.  E.  Murray,  Pres.  Metropolitan  Engineering  Co.; 
Henry  Prentiss,  Pres.  Prentiss  Tool  &  Supply  Co. ;  Joseph 
T.  Ryerson,  De  Mant  Tool  &  Machine  Co.;  E.  A.  Stillman, 
Pres.  Watson-Stillman  Co.;  H.  R.  Swartz,  Pres.  Intertype 
Corp.;  Charles  Taylor,  Clark,  Dodge  &  Co.;  Herbert  G. 
Thomson,  Pres.  Anchor  Post  Iron  Works;  J.  M.  Turner, 
Pres.  General  Acoustic  Co.;  J.  H.  Walbridge,  Pres.  Lalance 
&  Grosjean  Mfg.  Co.;  J.  Harvey  Williams,  Pres.  J.  H.  Wil- 
liams &  Co.;  J.  B.  Wing,  Treas.  Dexter  Folder  Co. 

Progress  of  the  Public  Service 
Commission's  Rate  Hearing 

Further  evidence  to  show  the  economy  of  the  isolated 
plant  for  combined  lighting  and  heating  was  given  on  Apr. 
8  at  the  resumed  hearing  before  the  Public  Service  Com- 
mission  for  the  First  District  of  New  York.  This  evidence 
was  based  on  the  records  of  the  steam  plant  in  the  Fifth 
Avenue  Building,  of  which  David  Larkin  is  chief  engineer. 

According  to  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Larkin,  the  building 
occupies  a  plot  approximately  236  ft.  by  286  ft.  and  con- 
tains about  540,000  sq.ft.  of  floor  space.  It  is  mainly  an 
office  building,  but  the  ground  floor  is  occupied  by  stores 
and  restaurants;  in  addition,  the  Aldine  Club  is  located  in 
the  building.  The  service  demanded  of  the  plant  is  the 
furnishing  of  electric  current  for  lighting  and  steam  for 
heating,  as  well  as  the  necessity  of  supplying  live  steam 
at  a  pressure  of  40  lb.  per  sq.in.  to  the  Aldine  Club  and 
the  restaurants  all  the  year  round. 

The  relative  costs  of  operation  by  private  plant  alone 
and  by  a  combination  of  Edison  service  and  private  plant 
were  determined  from  the  records  of  the  plant  for  the  years 
1916  and  1917.  For  1916  the  balance  was  $26,000  in  favor  of 
the  private  plant,  and  for  1917  it  was  $17,000  in  favor  of  the 
private  plant.  In  other  words,  these  amounts  show  the 
additional  costs  that  would  have  been  incurred  if  the  cur- 
rent for  lighting  had  been  pui-chased  from  the  Edison  com- 
pany and  the  private  plant  had  been  used  merely  to  furnish 
the  steam  required  for  heating  and  for  the  use  of  the  res- 
taurants and  the  Aldine  Club. 

As  to  the  actual  saving  of  coal,  the  figures  were  likewise 
m  favor  of  the  operation  of  the  isolated  plant  alone.  In 
1916,  which  was  considered  an  average  year,  the  saving 
was  estimated  at  300  tons  over  that  which  would  be  required 
by  combined  Edison  service  and  private-plant  operation. 
In  arriving  at  this  result,  it  was  assumed  that  the  central 
station  would  burn  3  lb.  of  coal  per  kilowatt-hour  delivered 
to  the  customer. 

At  the  conclusion  of  Mr.  Larkin's  testimony,  the  hearing 
was  adjourned  until  Apr.  29. 


The  French   and    British   have   nobly   stood   behind   their 
governments  in  war  loans.     Where  do  you  stand? 


April  IG,   1918 


PO  W  EK 


569 


New  Publications 

B(iiitimii:uiiiii iiiiiiiiiittiiiit ittiiiiiminiiMmiinHiiniiMHimiiitiiiiimiS 

STl!l.\IM  TAKLKS  KDR  CONDKNSKli 
WORK 
The  Wheeler  ("oiulriisor  and  KngiiieerinK 
Co.,  Carteret,  N.  J.,  annouiu'es  that  the 
fourth  edition  of  its  steam-table  handbook 
is  off  the  press,  makins:  a  total  of  lid. Olid 
copies.  One  reason  wh.v  this  handliook  lias 
met  with  sueh  success  is  that  the  pressures 
below  atmosjihere  are  expres.sed  in  inches 
of  mercury  referred  to  a  :!i'-in.  barometer. 
.Vnother  is  that  it  is  complete.  It  includes 
a  discussion  of  the  mercury  column,  the 
errors  in  such  measurements,  and  con- 
stants for  their  correction.  A  complimen- 
tary copy  will  be  furnished  on  retiuest  to 
those  in  responsible  positions  who  are  not 
yet  provided  witli  a  copy  and  who  deal 
with  steam  and   its   many  problems. 


Applicants  slioukl  havi-  tralninK  and  ex- 
periciK-e  as  a  ineclianlcal  draftsman  such 
as  to  (lualify  them  for  the  position.  They 
must  have  had  ai^tual  experience  In  laying 
out,  computinK.  drafting:  or  other  related 
work  incident  to  I  lie  const  ruction  or  opera- 
tion of  liKlit  ar.d  powi'i-  or  similar  expein- 
ence.  Thw  should  havi'  a  Kood  knowledge 
of  the-  l';icelri<al  Code.  Salary  fioin  IflL'OO 
to    JlSOil    per   annum. 


Personals 


Henr.v  D.  Jackson,  formerly  of  Timothy 
W.  Sprague  and  Henr.v  D.  Jackson,  con- 
sulting' engineers.  88  Broad  St.,  Boston, 
Mass.,  has  joined  the  organization  of  Monks 
&  Johnson,  engineers  and  architects,  78 
Devonshire  St.,  Boston,  as  power  engineer, 
taking  charge  of  their  power-plant  and 
heating  work. 

R.  W.  Spofford,  general  manager  of  the 
Augusta-Aiken  Railway  and  Electric  Cor- 
poration, Augusta.  Oa..  who  is  a  retired 
otflcer  of  the  United  States  Navy.  ha.s  been 
called  to  active  service.  \V.  C.  Callaghan 
succeeds  him  as  general  manager.  Mr. 
Callaghan  has  been  with  the  J.  O.  White 
Management  organization.  New  York  Cit>-, 
the  operators  of  the  Augusta  company, 
since   1913. 


Engineering  Affairs       1 

TiiiiiMtiiiiiiiMiiiiiuiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiitiiiti iMiiiMiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiire 

The    American    Association    of    l-inpineers 

and  the  Committee  on  Engineering  Co- 
operation will  hold  a  joint  annual  meeting 
at  the  City  Club,  Chicago,  on  May  14.  All 
technical  societies  are  invited  to  send  one 
or   more   delegates   to    this    meeting. 


Miscellaneous  News 


A  Peculiar  Flywheel  Accident^ — In  a  roll- 
ing mill  a  number  of  circular  billets  were 
piled  up  in  line  with  the  pit  of  a  SO-ft. 
flywheel.  The  removal  of  one  of  the  billets 
in  the  lower  row  set  the  others  to  rolling. 
One  of  them  rolled  into  the  wheel  pit  and 
completely   wrecked   the   large    flywheel. 

A  Mortgage  Has  Been  Filed  in  the  office 
of  the  county  clerk.  Eugene,  Ore.,  and 
executed  by  the  Jlountain  States  Power  Co. 
in  favor  of  the  Illinois  Trust  and  Savings 
Co.,  of  Chicago.  The  amount  of  the  bonds 
covered  bv  the  trust  mortgage  is  $2,353.0011 
of  an  authorized  issue  of  $15,000,000.  The 
Mountain  States  Power  Co.  is  the  reorgan- 
ized Northern  Idaho  and  Montana  Power 
Co.  which  operates  it.  The  property  cov- 
ered by  the  mortgage  is  that  located  in 
various  counties  of  Oregon  and  used  by 
the   Oregon   Power  Co. 

Electric  Service  for  Camp  Perr.v — The 
Northwestern  Ohio  Railway  and  Power  Co. 
will  furnish  electric  service  for  Camp  Perry. 
The  later  news  with  reference  to  the 
camp  indicates  that  it  is  to  be  a  canton- 
ment capable  of  accommodating  approxi- 
mately 9000  soldiers  who  will  be  trained 
in  target  practice,  both  artillery  and  short- 
range  rifle  shooting,  with  moving  targets. 
It  is  also  to  be  used  as  an  aviation  train- 
ing ground.  Options  have  been  taken  on 
about  1000  acres  in  addition  to  the  land 
already   used    for  camp   purposes. 

The  Municipal  Civil  Service  ConiiniHsion 
has  announced  an  examination  for  me- 
chanical draftsmen  (electrical).  Grade  C 
(male  and  female),  for  which  applications 
will  be  received  at  Room  linO,  Municipal 
Building.  Manhattan,  until  .\pr.  25,  at  4 
p.  m.  Subjects  and  weights:  Experience, 
2 :  technical,  (>  ;  mathematics,  2.  Candi- 
dates must  be  21  years  of  age  or  over,  must 
be  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  resi- 
dents of  New  York  State;  will  be  required 
to  prepare  drawings  and  to  do  other  re- 
lated  work,  such  a-s  computing,  compiling 
data  and  plotting  in  connection  with  elec- 
trical   installations   for   power   and   lighting. 


iiiiiiiiitiiii 


Business  Items 


II.  \y.  .lohns-Manville  Co.'s  Youngstown 
(i)hio)  olHee  is  now  located  at  No.  520 
Market   St. 

Tile  IfonieNlead  Vulve  IManiifuctilrinK  Co., 

O!  Homestead.  Penn..  has  openeil  a  branch 
oHice  at  No.  1  Franklin  St.,  New   Vork  t;ity. 

The  Brown  InKtriiment  Co..  of  Philadel- 
phia, Penn.,  has  let  a  contract  for  an  addi- 
tion to  its  factory  to  cost  approximately 
.$50,000. 

The  Yarnall-WarinB  Co.,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain even  greater  benefit  from  a  widely  es- 
tablished reputation  for  eflicient  power  plant 
accessories,  has  decided  to  group  its 
several  products  under  the  family  name  of 
"Yarway." 

Tile  Maeliiner.v  Sales  Departinent,  oper- 
ated by  the  Merchants  and  Manufacturers 
Exchange  of  New  York,  is  now  establishing 
a,  permanent  machinery  exhibit  and  sales- 
room at  Grand  Central  Palace.  IBth  to  47th 
St.  and  Lexington  .Ave..  New  York  City. 
\\  here  prospective  buyers  may  be  shown 
up-to-date  maeliiner.v  and  mechanical  ap- 
pliances, get  first-hand  information  and  at 
the  same  time  place  their  business.  Ma- 
cliinery  manufacturers  and  allied  industries 
can  rent  suitable  offices  and  exhibition 
space  by  communicating  n  ith  the  Machin- 
ery Sales  Department,  Grand  Central  Pal- 
ace. New  Y'ork  L  R.  Duffield.  formerly  of 
the  Philadelphia  Boui-se,  is  now  in  charge 
here. 


Trade  Catalogs 


Kails,  Etc.  Walter  A.  Zelnicker  Supply 
Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Bulletin  237.  Pp.  17; 
'il  X  8.^  in.  ;  illustrated.  Free  copy  upon 
request. 

.'\utoitiatic  Keclosin^  Ciri'tiit  Breakers 
and  Kelays.  The  Automatic  Reclosing  i  'ir- 
cuit  Breaker  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio.  Bul- 
letin No.  30,  Pp.  20  ;  S:;  X  11  in.  ;  illus- 
trated ;  general  description,  theory  and 
application. 

The  **J>e  La  Verglle"  Counter-Current 
.\mniunia  Condenser.  He  La  Vergne  Ma- 
chine Co..  Foot  of  E.  138th  St.,  New  York. 
Bulletin  No.  174.  Pp.  83  x  11  in.;  illus- 
trated. 

Pipe  Tools.  Greenfield  Tap  and  Die- 
Corp.,  Greenfield,  Mass.  Catalog  No.  38. 
Pp.  32  ;  41  X  71  in.  Describing  and  illus- 
trating complete  line  of  pipe  tools  made  by 
the  various  divisions  of  this  corporation. 
Copy   mailed    free   upon    request. 

Link-Belt  Roller  Chain.  Link-Belt  Co. 
Chicago,  111.  Book  No.  358.  Pp.  Ifi  ;  6 
.X  9  in.  ;  illustrated.  Giving  information 
on    recent    roller-chain    developments. 

Motor  Driven  Compressors — Westing- 
hou.se  and  National  Types.  Westing- 
house  Traction  Brake  Co.,  Industrial  Dept., 
Pittsburgh.  Penn.  Publication  No.  9035. 
Pp.  113;  6',  X  91  in.  Describes  and  il- 
lustrates full.v  both  lines  of  compressors 
and  accessories,  with  complete  informa- 
tion relative  to  sizes,  capacities,  ratings 
and   dimensions,    in   tabulated    form. 

niamoiid  .Soot  Blowers.  Diamond  Power 
Specialty  Co..  Detroit,  Mich.  Bulletin  119. 
Pp.  48  ;  7"  X  103  in.  A  review  of  current 
mechanical  soot-blower  practice,  fully  il- 
lustrated; with  data  on  boiler-room  effi- 
ciency, in.suluminium.  venturi  nozzles,  etc 
A  copy  of  the  bulletin  will  be  furnished 
free    upon    request. 

Reill.v  Steant  Pumps  a.ij  Air  Compres- 
sors. National  Foundry  and  Machine  Co., 
Inc..  Louisville.  Ky..  Vogt  Bros.  Manufac- 
turing Co..  of  Louisville,  are  now  exclu- 
sive manufacturers.  Catalog  No.  12.  Pp. 
tfiO;  5.',  X  7;!  in.;  copiously  illustrated  with 
information  covering  the  various  types  of 
Iiumps  and  compressors ;  many  useful  en- 
gineering  tables  ;    indexed. 

Industrial  Storaire-llatter.v  liOconlotlves. 
The  .leffrev  Manufacturing  Co..  Columbus. 
Ohio.  Catalog  No.  231,  Pp.  24;  0  x  9 
in.  This  catalog  cont.ains  interesting  Il- 
lustrations and  description  <if  \'arinu's  in- 
stallations, and  other  useful  data.  A  free 
copy  may  be  obtained  by  writing  to  the 
company's  main  otfice  or  to  any  of  It.s 
branch   offices. 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


I^ropnsed     Work 

Mass.,  Canton — The  Springdale  Finish- 
ing ('o.  is  having  plans  prepared  by  A. 
Wright,  Arch..  73  State  St.,  Boston,  for  a 
2-story.  45  x  55  ft.,  reinforced  concrete, 
steel  and  brick  power  house  to  be  erected 
on  Pine  St.  Estimated  cost,  $20,000.  F. 
Meyer.    Mgr. 

Mass.,  Sherborn — The  State  will  soon 
i-eeei\'e  bids  for  the  erection  of  an  concrete 
power  house  and  the  installation  of  1  new 
t-ngine  generator  and  3  tubular  boilers,  etc. 
E.stimated  cost,  $08,211,  R,  D.  Kimball  Co., 
i;    Beacon  St..    Bo.ston,   Engr. 

Conn..  Bridgeport — The  LTnited  Illumi- 
nating Co,  has  been  granted  authority  by 
the  Public  Service  Commission  to  build  a 
3    conductor,    (160   volt  tran.smission   line. 

Conn.,  Tliamesville  (Norwich  P.  O.)  — 
The  Eastern  Connecticut  Power  Co.,  c/o  R. 
W,  Perkins.  Norwich,  has  had  preliminar.v 
plans  prepared  b.v  H,  M.  Hope  Eng.  Co., 
Engr,,  185  Devonshire  St.,  Boston,  Mass., 
for  the  erection  of  a  1-story.  80  x  140  ft. 
brick  power  house  here. 

N.  Y.,  Freeville — The  Groton  Electric 
Power  Corporation,  Groton.  plans  to  build 
a  new  power  plant  here. 

N,  Y.,  WatervUle — The  Waterville  Gas 
and  Electric  Co.  has  filed  a  petition  with 
the  Public  Service  i.'ommission  for  author- 
ity to  build  and  operate  an  electric  dis- 
tributing system  here.  R.  Thomas.  Ch. 
Engr. 

N.  .!.,  Trenton — City  plans  to  build  a 
new  2-story,  26  x  300  ft  boiler  plant  in 
connection  with  the  Municipal  Hospital. 
E.stimated   cost.    $85,000. 

Penn-,  Newcastle — The  Grasselli  Powder 
Co.,  589  Arcade,  Cleveland.  Ohio,  will  build 
a  1 -.story.  100  x  125  ft.  brick,  reinforced 
concrete  and  steel  power  house.  Estimated 
cost,    $100,000. 

Penn.,  Parkesburg  —  The  Parkesburg 
Iron  Works  plans  to  build  an  addition  to 
its    boiler    house.      Estimated    cost,    $18,000. 

Md.,  Baltimore — The  Consolidated  Gas. 
Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.,  Lexington 
and  Liberty  St..  Baltimore,  will  build  a 
4-story.  100  X  200  ft.,  concrete,  steel  and 
brick,  boiler  house  at  Westport.  Estimated 
cost,   $100,000.     Noted  Nov.  13. 

Md.,  Mt.  Airy — The  Mount  Airy  Ice  and 
Electric  Co.  plans  to  install  an  additional 
generating   unit.      C.    C.    Riddleraoser.    Mgr. 

N.  C,  Pine  Level — The  Citizens  Power 
and  Light  Co,  plans  to  build  an  electric 
transmission  system  connecting  2  towns 
and  a  substation  in  each  one.  C.  L.  Good- 
win,  owner. 

N.  C,  Reidsville — City  voted  $10,000 
bonds  for  extensions  and  improvements  to 
its  electric   lighting  plant. 

S.  C,  Sumter — City  plans  to  build  an 
electric  lighting  plant. 

Oa.,  Commerce — City  plans  an  election 
soon  to  vote  on  $15,000  bonds  for  the  erec- 
tion of  an  electric  lighting  plant. 

fla.,  Maeon — The  Macon  Gas  Co  will 
expend  about  $40,000  for  improvements  to 
its  plant,      A.   Magraw,  Gen,   Mgr, 

fia..  Ty  Ty — City  voted  $7000  bonds  to 
build    an    electric    lighting   plant. 

Miss.  Fondren — The  State  In.sane  Hos- 
pital is  in  the  market  for  two  250  hp. 
boilers,  water  heaters,  traps,  valves,  feed 
water  pumps,  smoke  stack,  stokers,  ash 
conveyers,  etc.  for  Its  new  boiler  house. 
R.    U' Paquette,    Box    31,   (Th.    Engr. 

Ohio.  Cleveland — City  will  soon  award 
the  contract  for  the  superstructure  of  a 
I -story.  111 9  X  175  ft,  power  house  to  be 
erected  on  East  53rd  St.  High  pressure 
boilers,  25.000  kw.  generator,  switchboards 
and  other  e<iuipnient  will  b,>  installed  Es- 
timated cost.  $525,000.  J,  Tufal,  E«ist 
53rd   St,    Station,   Eugr. 

Ohio,  Hamilton — The  Hamilton  and  Ross- 
ville  Hydraulic  Co  plans  to  build  a  power 
plant  in  connection  with  a  lew  plant  soon 
to  be  erect  i^d.  Stone  &  Webster,  Engrs. 


570 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  16 


O.,  I.owelivUle — The  Mahoning  and  She- 
nango  Ry.  and  Light  Co..  25-31  E.  Board- 
man  St.,  Youngstown,  will  build  a  trans- 
mission line  from  here  to  McDonald.  R.  T. 
SulIiTan,  Mgr. 

Olilo,  Ravenna — Portage  Co.  will  soon 
receive  bids  for  the  erection  of  an  electric 
transmission  line  from  intersection  of  Ra- 
venna-Mantua Rd.  with  east  and  west  road 
3  miles  north  of  courthouse.  Estimated 
cost.    $1,521. 

Ind.,  Attica — The  Attica  Electric  and 
Power  Co.  has  been  authorized  to  issue 
$50,000  in  stock  and  $50,000  in  bonds  for 
the  erection  of  an  electric  light  and  power 
plant  to  replace  one  recently  destroyed 
by  fire. 

.Mich..  Flint — The  Citizen.s  Hotel  Co..  El- 
licott  Sq.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  is  in  the  market 
for   complete    power   equipment.    500    hp. 

III.,  Homer — The  Homer  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Co.  plans  to  extend  its  trans- 
mission line  from  here  to  Fairmount.  W. 
S,    Thompson,    Mgr. 

III.,  Oaklawn — The  Chicago  and  Eastern 
Illinois  R.R.,  Chicago,  is  having  plans  pre- 
pared for  the  erection  of  an  addition  to 
its  power  house  here.  L.  C.  Hartley,  66th 
and   Union   Ave.,   Chicago.   Ch.   Engr. 

WiK..  Camp  Douf^las — The  Orange  Light 
and  Power  Co.  plans  to  extend  its  transmis- 
sion line  from  here  to  Hustler.  A.  M.  Pat- 
terson,   Mgr. 

Wis.,  Kau  Claire — The  Sacred  Heart 
Hospital  is  having  plans  prepared  by  Foel- 
ler  &  Schober,  Engrs.,  123  North  Washing- 
ton St.,  Green  Bay,  for  the  erection  of  a 
40  X  95  ft.  boiler  house  and  laundry. 

Wis.,  Markesan — The  Wisconsin  Power, 
Light  and  Heat  Co  ,  Milwaukee,  has  pur- 
chased the  Omro  Electric  Light  Co..  Omro. 
and  plans  to  extend  the  Kilbourn  and 
Prairie  du  Sac  transmission  lines  from  here 
to  Berlin  and  Omro  E.  B.  Hemibach, 
Supt. 

Wis.,  Orfordville — The  Orfordville  Light 
and  Power  Co.  plans  to  build  a  4?.  nii.,  S 
phase,  60  cycle,  6600  volt,  transmission 
line.      A.    E.    Tornlin,    Secy. 

Wis.,  Rewev — The  Mineral  Point  Public 
Service  Co.  plans  to  build  a  33,000  volt 
transmission  line  from  here  to  Platteville 
to  connect  with  lines  of  the  Interstate 
Light  and  Power  Co..  Galena.  111.  J  C 
Meiners.  Milwaukee.  Pres. 

Iowa.  Gddyville — City  voted  $8000  bonds 
for  improvements  to  its  electric  lighting 
plant.      Noted  Jan.    15. 

Iowa,  Sioux  Cit.v — The  Phillip  Bernard 
Co.  plans  to  build  a  heating  plant  and  fac- 
tory warehouse  north  of  its  factory  on 
Floyd    Ave.      Estimated    cost,    $100,000. 

Kan.,  Lura.v — City  will  soon  award  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  an  addition 
to  its  electric  lighting  plant.  Plans  in- 
clude the  construction  of  a  new  power 
house  and  the  installation  of  equipment. 

Kan.,  RosNville — The  Rossville  Electric 
Light  and  Power  Co.  plans  to  enlarge  its 
plant  and  extend  its  transmission  line  to 
Delia,  Silver  Lake  and  Willard.  J.  W. 
Phares,   Pres. 

Neb-,  Beaver  CroNsing — City  plans  to  is- 
111'-'  $;iOOO  bonds  for  the  installation  of  an 
I  loctric   lighting  plant. 

Neb..  Schuyler — City  is  having  prelim- 
inary plans  prepared  by  the  Electrical  De- 
velopment Co.,  Sioux  City.  Iowa,  for  im- 
provements  to    its    electric    lighting    plant. 

S.  I>,,  Blackwell — City  voted  to  issue 
bonds  for  improvements  to  its  electric  light- 
i  ig  plant  and   water- works  system. 

Mo.,  Garden  Cit.v — The  Green  Light  and 
Power  Co  .  Pleasant  Hill,  has  purchased  the 
plant  of  Kaufman  &  Son,  and  plans  to 
build   a   transmission   line   soon. 

Mo..  Kansas  City — The  Southwestern 
Milling  Co.,  Dwight  Bldg.,  is  in  the  market 
for  400   hp.   power  plant  equipment. 

Mo..  Ott«rville^ — K.  Starten  plans  to  in- 
.stall  an  electric  lighting  plant  here. 

Tex.,  Hamboldt — City  plans  to  improve 
its  electric  lighting  plant.  Plans  include 
the  installation  of  a  new  300  kw.  turbine, 
condenser  and  auxiliaries.  W.  M.  Case, 
Gen.   Mgr. 


Okla.,  Hartshorne — The  Choctaw  Power 
and  Light  Co.,  McMester,  has  been  granted 
a  francliise  to  build  and  maintain  an  elec- 
tric lighting  plant  here.  W.  H.  Vorce,  Mc- 
Alester,  Gen.   Mgr. 

Okla,,  Ryan — City  plans  to  install  a 
crude  oil  engine  in  its  electric  lighting  and 
water-works  plant.  W.  C.  Willard.  Gen. 
Supt. 

Okla.,  Shawnee — C.  Sells,  Commissioner 
of  Indian  Affairs,  Washington,  D.  C.  wih 
receive  bids  until  Apr.  30,  for  the  installa- 
tion of  a  steam  heating  system  in  the 
Shawnee   school. 

Ariz.,  Phoenix — The  State  Hospital  for 
Insane  has  plans  under  way  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  power  house 

Wash.,  Bremerton — The  Bureau  of  Yards 

and  Docks,  Navy  Dept.,  Wash.,  is  in  the 
market  for  2  turbo  generators.  Estimated 
cost,    $90,000. 

Wash.,  Hoqnaim — The  Lamb  Machine 
\Vorks  plans  to  install  an  electric  steel  fur- 
nace in  its  proposed  foundry  and  machine 
shop. 

Wash.,  Spokane — The  Loon  Lake  Copper 
Co.  plans  to  install  electric  motors  to  oper- 
ate all  mining  equipment.  F.  G.  Crane, 
Secy.-Treas. 

Ore.,  Mapleton — The  North  Star  Power 
Co.  plans  to  build  2  miles  of  transmission 
line. 

Ore.,  Portland — The  Electric  Steel  Foun- 
dry, 24th  and  York  St.,  plans  to  build  a 
transformer  station  at  its  plant  here. 

Calif.,  Corcoran — The  San  Joaquin  Light 
and  Power  Co.,  Fresno,  plans  to  install  an 
electrolier  lighting  system  on  Whitley  Ave. 
G.   Wilson,   Fresno,   Gen.   Mgr. 

Calif.,  Redding — The  Shasta  Land  and 
Timber  Co.  of  Redding  plans  to  rebuild  its 
electric  power  plant  and  planing  mill  which 
was  recently  destroyed  by  fire.  Loss  about 
$45,000. 

Ont„  Alvinston — City  plans  to  install 
power   machinery.  ^— ^-^.^^^^ 

CONTRACTS     AWARDED 

Conn.,  North  Grosvenordale — The  Gros- 
venordale  Co.  has  awarded  the  contract  for 
building,  rearranging  and  altering  its  elec- 
tric power  station,  to  the  J.  W.  Bishop 
Co.,  Worcester,  Mass.  Estimated  cost. 
$30,000. 

N,  Y.,  Rochester — The  Department  of 
Public  Works  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  a  new  power  house, 
to  J.  Friedericks  &  Son,  Rochester,  $12,739. 
Pumping  machinery,  engines,  etc.,  will  be 
installed.      Noted   Feb.    19. 

Penn,,  Clifton  Heights — The  Kent  Manu- 
facturing Co.  has  awarded  the  contract  for 
equipment  as  follows :  coal  conveyors,  to 
R.  H.  Beaumont  &  Co.,  Drexel  Bldg.. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  $7,500:  boilers,  to  the 
Union  Iron  Works  Co.,  Bourse  St..  Phila- 
delphia. Pa.,  $20,000  ;  pumps  to  the  Ameri- 
can Steam  Pump  Co..  Commercial  Trade 
Blk.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  $1600.  Noted  Mar. 
26. 

S.  C,  Charleston — The  Charleston  Con- 
.solidated  Ry.  and  Lighting  Co.  is  building 
»,  500  kw.  rotary  substation  near  the  Navy 
Yard. 

Ohio.  Cleveland — The  Steel  Products  Co., 
2196  Clarkwood  Rd..  is  ha\ing  plans  pre- 
pared by  Burchard  Roberts  &  Wales  Co., 
Engrs.,  622  Swetland  Bldg.,  for  a  1-story. 
50  X  100  ft.  heating  plant  to  be  erected 
on   East   65th   St.      Estimated   cost,    $15,000, 

Ohio,  Columbus — The  Ohio  University 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  installa- 
tion of  a  6  retort  boiler  for  the  new  power 
plant,  to  the  Underfeed  Stoker  Co.  of  Amer- 
ica, 111  West  Monroe  St.,  Chicago.  Noted 
Oct.   30. 

Ohio,  Sandusk.v — The  Good  Samaritan 
Hospital  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
installation  of  electrical  apparatus  and  fix- 
tures, to  the  Bonn  Electric  Co.  Estimated 
cost,    $10,000. 

Wis..  Ashland — The  Ashland  Light,  Power 
and  Street  Railway.  212  We.st  2nd  St..  is 
building  a  new  hydro  electric  plant  at  Su- 
perior Palls.  Estimated  cost.  $100,000, 
Noted   Oct.    16. 

Wyo.,  Lusk — The  town  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  installation  of  a  100  hp. 
semi-Diesel  oil  engine,  a  60  kv.-a.,  60-cycle. 
3  phase,  2300  volt  generator,  directly  con- 
nected, and  a  20  hp.  motor  for  water-works, 
to  the  Fairbanks-Morise  Co..  13th  and  Lib- 
erty St«    Kansas  City.   Mo. 


lllllllltllUIIIIIMUIIItlllltllinillltlllltlMlllllltlllllll 


I     THE  COAL  MARKET 

TlllllllllKlllltllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltlllllllllllllltMIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllll 


Boston — Current  quotations  per  eross  ton  de- 
livered alongside  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 


Individual 
Apr.  11,  1918 

S7.10 — 7.3.5 
6.65 — 6.90 


ANTHRACITE 

Circular 
Apr.  11,  1918 

Buckwheat     54.60 

Rice    4.10 

Boiler 3.90 

Barley    3.60 

BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous    not    on    market. 

Pocohontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hampton 
Roads.  IS  S4.  as  compai-ed  with  $2.85 — 2.00  a 
year  ago. 


6,15 — 6.40 


•All-rail   to  Boston  is  $2.60. 


tWater  coal. 


Now  York — Current  quntalions  per  gross  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  as  compared 
with  a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 

.\pr.  11.  191K  Apr.  11.  1918 

Pea    $4.90  $5.65 

Buckwheat    4.45@5.1,')  5.1005.85 

Barley    3.40@3.65  3.10@4.10 

Rice     3.90@4.10  4.10@4.85 

Boiler     3.65@3.90  

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c. 
higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.     Mine 

Gross  Price  Net  Gross 

Central    Pennsylvania.. $5.06  $3.05  $3.41 
Maryland — 

Mine-run    4.84             2.85  3.19 

Prepared    5.06            5.05  3.41 

Screenings    4.50            2.55  2.85 

•The  lower  ports  are:  Elizal)ethport.  Port  John- 
■on.  Port  Reading,  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Am- 
boy.  The  upper  ports  are :  Port  Lit)erty.  Hobo- 
ken.  Weehawken.  Edgewaler  or  Cliffeide  and  Gut- 
tenberg.  St.  George  is  in  between  and  sometiines 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  ftc.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b,  cars 
at  mines  for  hne  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

. Line V , Tide v 

Apr.  11.   One  Yr.  Apr.  11.  One  Year 

1918          Ago  1918          Ago 

Pea    $3.75        $2.80  $4.65  33.70 

Barley    2.15          1.85  2.40         3.05 

Buckwheat    ,.    3.15          3.50  3.75          3.40 

Rice     2.65          2.10  3.65          3.00 

Boiler    2.45          1.95  3.55         3.15 


Cbicaeo — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 
Prepared    sizes. .  .$2.65 — 2.80 

Mine-run    2.40 — 2.55 

Screenings     3.15 — 2.30 


$3.35 — 3.50 
3.10 — 3.25 
2.85 — 3.00 

So.  111..  Pocohontas.   Hocking. East 
Pennsylvania       Kentucky  and 


Smokeless  Coals    and  W.  Va. 
Prepared    sizes. .  .$2.60 — 2.85 

Mine-run    2.40 — 2.60 

Screenings     3.10 — 2.55 


West  Va.  Splint 

$2.85 — 3.35 

2.60 — 3.00 

2.35 — 2.75 


St.   Lonis — Prices  per  net   ton  f.o.b.  mines  a 
year  ago  as  compared  with  today  are  as  follows: 

Williamson  and       Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

April  11.       April  11.  April  11, 

1918              1918  19)8 

6-in.  lump    ..      $2.65-2.80  $2.65-3.80  $2.65-2.80 

2in.-lump     ...    2.6,')-2.80      2.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

Steam     egg...    2.65-2.80      3.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

Mine-run    2.4,'>-2.e0      2.45-2.60  2.45-2.60 

No.    1    nut 2.65-2.80      3.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

2-iJ.    screen...    2.15-3.30     3.16-2.30  2.50-2.65 

No.  5  washed..    3.15-2.,30     2.15-2.30  3.50-2.66 


Birmingham — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b. 

mines  are  as  follows: 


Lump  Slack  and 

ic  Nut  Screenings 

$2.15  »1.66 

2.40  1.90 

2.65  2.16 


Mine- 
Run 

Big  Seam   $1.90 

Pratt,  Jagger,  Corona     2.15 
Black  Creek.  Cahaba.      2.40 
Government  figures. 

Individual  prices  are  the  companj  circular*  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  regular  ci^tomers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  arc 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according  to  a  regular  schedule. 


POWER 


i.n 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIimitltll«lllll|IIIIIIIMIU>llllllllUIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII«Mllltltll1l 


Vol.  47 


NEW  YORK,  APRIL  23,  1918 


No.   17 


iiiuiiuumil:j(iiiiuiii 


iiiiuiuuiiiuuiuiiiiiiiiuuiiiiiiuuiiiiii 


N 


EARLY  every  power  station  owes  its  origin  to  men 

Who  expect  the  wealth  invested  to  return  to  them  again. 

They  are  uninformed  on  technics,  so  that  talk  of  B.t.u.'s, 

COj  and  kindred  topics  will  but  puzzle  and  confuse ; 

But  they're  clever  at  discerning  how  the  cost  of  running  trends, 

And  they  show  appreciation  of  substantial  dividends. 

Like  as  not  they  can't  identify  a  gudgeon  from  a  gland, 

But  the  dollar  talks  a  language  that  the  owners  understand. 

"you  have  done  your  best  to  show  them,  in  a  mathematic  way, 
That  you  waste  a  lot  of  fuel  through  the  ashpit  every  day, 
And  you've  put  the  fact  before  them,  just  as  plain  as  you  can  state. 
That  the  economic  method  is  to  change  the  style  of  grate; 
But  their  hearts  are  unresponsive  and  their  eyes  are  hard  and  cold 
Till  you  render  the  percentage  of  the  saving  into  gold. 
That's  the  sort  of  solar  plexus  that  will  never  fail  to  land. 
For  the  dollar  talks  a  language  that  the  owners  understand. 


■you  have  doubtless  had  occasion  to  remind  them  of  the  need 

^  Of  a  modern  form  of  heater  in  connection  with  the  feed, 
And  you've  found  that  all  your  efforts  were  a  simple  waste  of  breath. 
For  their  ears  were  deaf  as  marble  and  their  lips  were  still  as  death. 
So,  suppose  you  change  your  tactics;  jar  their  chill  indifference 
By  translating  facts  and  figures  into  quarters,  dimes,  and  cents, 
And  they'll  carry  out  your  changes  in  the  way  that  you  have  planned, 
For  the  dollar  talks  a  language  that  the  owners  understand. 

TF  a  lessening  of  labor  is  the  ground  on  which  you  rest 
In  the  scheme  of  alterations  or  additions  you  suggest. 
It  is  probable  they'll  bluster,  and  it's  safe  to  say  they'll  growl, 
And  they'll  meet  your  chain  of  logic  with  a  fierce,  forbidding  scowl ; 
But  their  icy  glance  will  soften  and  the  frost  will  disappear 
If  you  state  how  many  shekels  you  can  save  them  in  a  year. 
And  before  you  know  what's  doing,  they'll  be  feeding  from  your  hand, 
For  the  dollar  talks  a  language  that  the  ownei-s  understand. 


nil 0 mill iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiii mimiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiii mil iimiim 


572 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


VERTICAL- SHAFT 

WATER-WHEEL 

ALTERNATOR 

BY  H.D.STEPHENS 


Waterwheel-driven  alternators  may  be  classed  uiv- 
der  tvjo  types,  vertical  and  horizontaL  In  this 
article  the  author  describes  the  general  construc- 
tion, the  thrust  bearing,  methods  of  lubrication 
and  different  schemes  employed  to  drive  the  ex- 
citer, for  the  vertical  type. 

THE  scarcity  of  coal  which  we  have  been  experi- 
encing has  emphasized,  perhaps  as  no  other  agency 
could,  the  urgent  need  for  conservation  of  our 
natural  resources,  and  action  favorable  to  water-power 
development  has  been  asked  of  Congress  by  President 


Oif  Level 

Oil  Reservoir  for 

Thrust  dearin^- 

Convex  (J   Concave   Leveh 

Washers 

kr'Thick  Perforate^ 

Steel  Cover 


Cast   Cover 
Runner 

^arinej  Shoes 
Overflow    ror 


Upper-Bearing 
-Bracket, &  Arms 


Armo  ture 

Cross  Connections 


Bed  Plate 
Fioor  Line 


;  Armature/' 
Terminals 

^,y.'*\lower-Guic/e 
'  '  "'         Bearing  ■■ 
Pinion   for  (driving 
Oil  Pump -• 

Oil  Leve/ 


Oil  strainer 

Pump  beqr 

Geared  Oil  Pump 
Couplini^ 
Rincy  Key 
■Water-Wheel  Shaft 


Driving   Key 

CROSS-SECTIONAL   VIEAV   OF    VERTICAL 
^VHEEL,  GEXERATOR 


\\ATEK 


Wilson,   and  may  therefore  be  hoped  for  in  the   near 
future. 

With  the  prospect  of  considerable  activity  in  water- 
power  development  during  the  next  few  years,  the 
marked  tendency  toward  a  more  universal  adaptation  of 
the  vertical  type  of  unit  is  of  interest.  Because  of  the 
high  efficiencies  obtained  with  the  single-runner,  verti- 
cal-shaft waterwheel,  the  simplicity  of  power-house  lay- 
out and  flexibility,  as  regards  station-floor  levels,  per- 
mitted by  its  use,  this  type  of  prime  mover  becomes 
the  logical  choice  for  most  low-head  and  for  many  high- 
head  installations. 


The  vertical  type  cannot  strictly  be  considered  a  new 
one,  for  it  was  used  in  the  earliest  developments  at 
Niagara  Falls;  but  it  has  only  been  within  the  last  de- 
cade, and  in  fact  since  the  advent  of  the  high-efficiency, 
vertical,  single-runner  wheel,  that  its  application  has 
been  seriously  considered,  if  not  actually  adopted,  for 
a  majority  of  installations.  Despite  a  very  limited  ac- 
tivity in  hydro-electric  work  during  most  of  this  period, 
suffi.cient  development  has  been  going  on  to  allow  manu- 
facturers and  operators  to  work  out  those  mechanical 
problems  peculiar  to  the  vertical  unit  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  both.  While  the  wide  range  of  capacity  and 
speed  encountered  prohibits  any  absolute  standardi- 
zation of  construction,  the  general  problems  of  bearing 
supports,  lubrication,  etc.,  are  common  to  all  sizes,  and 
the  general  standards  resulting  from  a  wide  experience 
in  this  field  are  worthy  of  note.  The  information  con- 
tained in  the  following  paragraphs  deals  mainly  with 
the  product  of  the  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manu- 
facturing Company. 

A  typical  cross-sectional  view  of  a  vertical  generator 
is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  which  covers  a  self-contained  ma- 
chine; that  is,  one  with  thrust  bearing  mounted  on  top 
of  the  generator,  an  upper  and  a  lower  guide  bearing, 
one  above  and  the  other  below  the  rotor,  and  arranged 
for  connection  to  the  waterwheel  by  means  of  a  "muff" 
coupling.  Most  of  the  structural  details  of  this  type 
of  unit  are  indicated  in  Fig.  1.  The  stationary  frame 
extends,  at  both  top  and  bottom,  beyond  the  active 
section  of  the  stator  core  a  sufficient  -distance  to  form 
an  adequate  protection  for  the  end  turns  of  the  arma- 
ture winding.  The  cross-connections  and  wiring  on 
the  armature  winding  are  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
stator  for  convenience  should  any  repairs  after  the 
initial  installation  be  required.  The  leads  from  the 
armature  and  field  and  all  the  oil  piping  are  ordinarily 
brought  down  just  inside  the  stator  frame  in  order  to 
protect  from  possible  injury. 

Probably  the  most  troublesome  problem  in  early  days 
involved  the  location  of  the  thrust  bearing.  If  this 
were  mounted  below  the  waterwheel,  it  was  very  in- 
accessible and  therefore  difficult  to  keep  in  repair. 
Mounted  between  the  waterwheel  and  the  generator,  it 
usually  required  a  special  floor  and  therefore  added 
expense  to  the  cost  of  the  power  plant.     It  was  finally 


April  23,   1918 


P  O  W  E  R 


573 


decided  to  put  this  bearing  on  top  of  the  generator, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  and  today  practically  all  units  be- 
ing built  are  arranged  in  this  manner.  For  a  long 
time  the  thrust  bearing  itself  was  a  matter  of  con- 
siderable concern.  However,  the  introduction  of  the 
Kingsbury  bearing  has  gone  a  long  way  toward  elimi- 
nating, by  its  almost  universal  success  over  a  wide 
range  of  capacity,  the  feeling  of  distrust  of  the  vertical 


FIG.    2.      PARTS   OP  KINOSBURY   THRUST   BEARING 

unit  on  this  account.  The  detail  of  this  type  of  thrust 
bearing  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  bearing  runs  in  a 
bath  of  oil,  has  exceedingly  small  frictional  losses  and 
therefore  a  low-temperature  rise  in  service,  and  no 
appreciable  wear. 

As  shown  in  the  figure,  the  bearing  consists  essen- 
tially of  three  parts.  A  and  B  are  what  may  be  termed 
the  convex  and  concave  leveling  washers,  and  C  the 
runner;  all  three  parts  are  contained  in  an  oil-tight 
bearing  housing  and  are  shown  at  the  top  of  Fig.  1. 
It  will  be  seen  that  part  A  acts  as  a  supporting  cast- 
ing to  carry  the  entire  weight  of  the  revolving  element. 
The  concave  surface  on  the  lower  side  of  part  B  rests 
on  the  spherical  surface  of  part  A  to  allow  the  proper 
alignment  of  the  bearing.  On  the  upper  surface  of 
part  B  are  mounted  a  number  of  shoes  S.  Each  shoe 
is  babbitted  on  its  upper  surface  and  rests  on  a  spheri- 
cal seat  on  its  lower  surface,  which  in  turn  allows  it  to 
tip  slightly  when  in  operation.  One  of  the  shoes  is 
shown  turned  over  in  Fig.  2  to  show  the  spherical 
seat  D.  The  runner  C  is  a  special  casting  which  is 
securely  fastened  to  the  rotating  shaft  and  rests  on  the 
shoes  S,  which  tips  slightly  when  the  runner  is  revolv- 
ing and  allows  a  wedge-shaped  film  of  oil  to  form 
between  the  runner  and  shoes. 

There  are  four,  six  or  eight  shoes  to  a  bearing,  de- 
pending upon  its  size  and  the  weight  it  has  to  carry. 
There  is  no  direct  contact  between  the  shoes  and  the 
revolving  runner  except  when  the  machine  is  at  rest, 
and  it  has  actually  been  found  in  practice  that  small 
tool  marks  on  the  babbitt  surface  exist  for  many 
months  after  the  bearing  has  been  in  use.  In  other 
words,   no  appreciable  wear  can   be  detected. 

The  thrust  bearing  is  called  upon  to  carry  heavy 
loads,    from    300,000    to    400,000    lb.    with    the    larger- 


capacity  units,  this  being  due  to  supporting  not  only 
the  weight  of  the  rotating  element  of  the  generator 
proper,  all  the  shafting  and  the  waterwheel  runner, 
but  also  the  unbalanced  or  downward  force  of  the  water 
which  flows  through  the  wheel  when  in  service. 

This  necessitates  an  exceptionally  sturdy  frame  and 
a  heavy  upper  bracket  having  no  appreciable  deflection. 
A  bracket  with  a  number  of  I-beam  section  arms 
spaced  equidistant  around  the  periphery  of  the  stator 
frame  and  bolted  thereto  has  filled  the  requirements 
admirably  and  is  now  almost  universally  used  (see 
headpiece  and  Fig.  3). 

The  bracket  that  supports  the  thrust  bearing  also 
carries  a  guide  bearing,  Fig.  1,  whose  function  it  is 
to  center  the  rotor  in  the  middle  of  the  stationary  part. 
This  bearing  is  babbitt-lined.  Immediately  beneath  the 
rotor  a  bracket  similar  to  that  used  for  supporting  the 
thrust  and  upper-guide  bearing  is  employed.  This  is 
also  bolted  to  the  stator  frame,  as  in  Fig.  1.  Ordi- 
narily, this  bracket  is  employed  only  to  house  the 
lower-guide  bearing,  which  is  babbitt-lined,  but  in  many 
cases,  particularly  with  large-capacity  units,  it  must  be 
strong  enough  to  support  the  rotor  during  dismantling, 
and  in  those  cases  where  braking  is  necessary. 

It  has  been  found,  particularly  in  many  low-head  in- 
stallations, that  the  gates  that  shut  off  the  water  have 
sufficient  leakage  through  them  even  when  closed  to 
cause  the  rotor  to  operate  at  a  very  slow  speed  and 
thus  to  endanger  the  thrust  bearing.  To  prevent  dam- 
age in  such  cases,  suitably  machined  pad  supports  are 
provided  on  the  lower-bracket  arms  to  mount  brakes  or 
jacks.      These   brakes   can   be   operated   so   as  to   bear 


KK ; 


3.      VERTICAL    ALTERNATOR.    SHOWINO    I-BE.\iM 
METHOD  OF  SUPPORTING  THRUST  BE.\RING 


upon  a  machined  surface  or  circular  plate  on  the  rotor, 
to  quickly  bring,  the  rotor  to  rest.  To  the  lower  bracket 
is  also  bolted  an  oil  pan  to  catch  the  drain  from  the 
thrust  bearing  and  from  the  two  guide  bearings. 

Ordinarily,  there  is  a  break  between  the  generator  and 
the  waterwheel  shaft,  as  the  mounting  of  the  waterwheel 
runner  on  an  extension  of  the  generator  shaft  would 


574 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


involve  considerably  more  headroom  for  installation  and 
dismantling  for  repairs  than  would  otherwise  be  re- 
quired. The  advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  a 
common  shaft  seldom  compensate  for  the  increased 
power-plant  cost;  therefore  separate  shafts  are  used. 
Connection  between  the  two  is  made  by  either  a  "clamp" 
or  "mulT"  type  coupling,  in  which  two  machined  pieces 


Thrus  t-Bearii 
HouS'ng. 


rioor  Line- 


Supply  to  Upper^Ouiae   Beanng''- 
Drain  from   Upper^Ou'de  Searing 


Motor-driven   Supply  to  Lower-Guide  Searing— -> 


Drain  from  Lower-Guide  Bearingif^^ 


Valve  2  open  when 
'  and  3  are  closed^ 
i^'-Drain    Line 


Va^ve^  I  and  3  closeO 
€-■  cepr  when  fi Itertn^ 


^  To  Additional  Units 

Prn,    4. — D1.\GRAM    OF    SBPARATK    OIIjING    SYSTEM 

are  bolted  and  keyed  over  the  ends  of  the  two  shafts, 
or  half-couplings  forged  directly  on  the  generator  and 
waterwheel  shafts  and  the  two  connected  rigidly  to- 
gether by  bolts,  are  employed. 

There  are  some  cases,  where  the  distance  between  the 
generator  and  the  waterwheel  runner  is  very  small,  in 
which  the  lower-guide  bearing  can  readily  be  eliminated. 
Two  different  types  of  bearings  are  ordinarily  used 
on  the  generator  and  on  the  waterwheel.  The  generator 
bearing  is  a  babbitt-lined  one,  and  any  appreciable  wear 
of  the  bearing  surface  is  likely  to  cause  vibration  and 
trouble.  The  waterwheel  bearing  is  ordinarily  of 
lignum-vitffi  blocks  lubricated  by  water.  These  blocks 
are  in  a  more  or  less  inaccessible  place  and  are  rarely 
inspected  or  repaired.  They  can  wear  quite  appreciably 
without  causing  serious  trouble.  When  the  generator 
has  two  bearings,  these  will  often  maintain  true  align- 
ment even  with  considerable  looseness  around  the  water- 
wheel bearing.  When  only  two  bearings  are  employed, 
however,  one  on  the  generator  and  one  on  the  water- 
wheel, any  wear  is  found  to  immediately  cause  vibration 
and  trouble.  This,  I  believe,  is  the  reason  why  it  is  so 
generally  customary  to  employ  the  self-contained 
generator.  It  is  somewhat  questionable  whether  the 
danger  has  not  been  considerably  exaggerated,  since 
quite  a  number  of  installations  have  gone  into  service 
withuut  a  lower-guide  bearing,  and  such  installations 
are  operating  very  satisfactorily. 

Two  general  methods  of  lubrication  for  vertical  ma- 
chines are  employed.  On  a  machine  where  the  flow  of 
oil  to  the  thrust  and  guide  bearings  does  not  exceed 
three  or  four  gal.  per  min.,  a  self-contained  system,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  employed.  The  oil,  from  the  pan 
bolted  to  the  lower-guide-bearing  bracket,  is  forced 
through  brass  piping  by  a  small  pump,  gear  driven  from 
the  main-generator  shaft,  as  indicated.  It  flows  through 
an  oil  strainer  and  then  up  into  the  housing  holding 
the  thrust  bearing.  Here  provision  for  an  adequate 
supply  of  oil  for  the  guide  bearings  is  made,  and  for 


the  overflow.  The  drain  from  all  bearings  then  flows 
back  again  into  the  lower  oil  pan.  It  is  found  that 
where  the  required  amount  of  oil  does  not  exceed  the 
quantity  specified,  the  oil  is  cooled  sufliiciently  by  radia- 
tion and  no  further  means  need  be  provided  for  cool- 
ing. As  the  system  is  an  entirely  closed  one,  there  is 
little  likelihood  of  dust  or  dirt  getting  into  the  oil, 
and  operation  for  long  periods  of  time  without  renewal 
is  to  be  expected. 

Where  the  weight  carried  by  the  thrust  bearing  is 
very  heavy  and  where  considerable  quantities  of  oil 
are  required,  a  separate  oiling  system  is  employed,  the 
oil  circulation  through  the  machine  proper  being  the 
same  as  that  already  described,  except  that  instead  of 
it  returning  and  being  pumped  back  into  the  system 
through  a  gear-driven  pump  on  the  main  shaft,  con- 
nections are  made  at  the  base  of  the  generator  for 
piping  the  oil  into  a  common  system.  The  oil  flows 
from  the  pan  at  the  base  of  the  generator  into  a  reser- 
voir, from  which  it  is  pumped,  usually  through  a  filter, 
into  a  tank;  from  here  the  oil  is  returned  to  the  various 
machines  by  means  of  gravity.  Very  considerable 
amounts  of  money  can  easily  be  spent  on  such  a  lubri- 
cating system.  As  the  circuit  is  a  closed  one,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  continuously  filter  all  the  oil  from  all 
the  machines,  and  a  filter  having  a  much  smaller  con- 


Fir;. 


5.       VERTICAL    WATERWHEEL    ALTERNATOR    WITH 
EXCITER  MOUNTED  ON  TOP  OF  MACHINE 


tinuous  capacity  can  safely  be  installed.  Cooling  of  the 
oil  in  the  larger  systems  is  usually  accomplished  by  a 
flow  of  water  through  a  coil  of  pipe  placed  in  the  reser- 
voir or  tank. 

A  system  that  is  relatively  inexpensive  and  that  can 
be  installed  where  several  units  of  small  capacity  are 
employed,  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  Ordinarily,  the  oil  flows 
through  the  closed  system  of  each  individual  machine, 
but  at  intervals  when  it  is  desired  to  filter  the  oil  from 


April  23.  1918 


POWER 


575 


one  unit,  this  is  done  by  chcnnping  the  valves  shown  and 
runninfi  the  oil  to  be  filtered  through  the  filter  into 
the  supply  tank.  Brass  piping  throughout  the  entire 
supply  system  is  preferable  for  the  reason  that  such  pipe 
does  not  corrode  or  rust. 

By  installing  water-cooling  coils  in  the  thrust-bear- 
ing housing,  very  much  the  same  effect  can  be  gained 
as  with  the  external-oiling  system,  as  regards  keep- 
ing the  oil  sufflciently  cool  for  satisfactory  service. 
While  .such  methods  are  undoubtedly  feasible,  the  water 
piping  v\'ould  necessarily  take  up  a  considerable  space 
and  therefore  make  the  room  normally  available  in  the 
housing  for  inspection  or  repair  very  much  congested. 
Furthermore,  the  carrying  of  water  to  the  top  of  the 
generator,  where  a  leak  or  break  in  the  pipe  during 
operation  might  result  in  considerable  damage  to  the 
machine,  is  questionable. 

The  exciter  problem,  particularly  with  alternators 
that  operate  at  slow  speeds,  is  probably  the  most  diffi- 
cult of  all  the  electrical  ones  in  connection  with  the 
power-plant  design,  and  the  method  that  will  com- 
bine maximum  operating  efficiency  and  minimum  first 
cost  and  maintenance  is  found  only  after  careful 
anabasis. 

Individual  direct-connected  exciters,  as  shown 
mounted  on  top  of  the  machines.  Figs.  3  and  5,  should 
receive  first  consideration  as  giving  the  simplest  and 
cheapest  plan  layout.  In  this  consideration,  however, 
certain  fundamental  facts  concerning  both  alternating 
and  direct-current  generators  appear:  First,  that  the 
slower  the  speed  of  the  alternator  the  greater  is  its  per- 


y/atvr-Wheel  Builderi 
diahng  Housing  or 
Sub- Structure 


'Oovernor—Actuafo'' 
•.».  ■.'.•■''.'■'■  Pulhy 

When  Lower-Ouide  Bearing 
Is  amtfted.  Transmission  Snaff 

may  coine  directly  under  Bed 

Plate 


PIG.     G       GE.VR-     A.\n     BELT-nRI\EN     EXCITER 

centage  of  excitation  and  the  larger  the  exciter;  second, 
that  the  slower  the  speed  of  the  exciter  the  more  ex- 
pensive it  is;  third,  that  the  slower  the  speed  of  the 
exciter  the  greater  its  field  current  and  the  more  slug- 
gish its  operation,  thus  making  the  voltage  regulator, 
now  almost  universally  employed,  both  complicated  and 
expensive.  These  factors  may  result  in  the  direct- 
connected  exciter  being  rejected  on  account  of  high 
first  cost. 

Where  generator  capacities  are  relatively  small,  indi- 
vidual high-speed  exciters  may  still  he  employed,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  6  and  7.  Both  methods  have  certain 
disadvantages,  one  in  the  introduction  of  the  gear  and 


the  other  in  a  quarter-turn  belt.  Either  method,  how- 
ever, is  fairly  inexpensive,  and  both  seem  to  give  fairly 
satisfactory  results. 

Next,  separate  waterwheel  exciters  may  be  considered. 
Such  units  ought  not  to  be  excessive  in  cost,  but  may 
introduce  considerable  expense  in  connection  with  build- 


B'lG.     7.       QU.VRTER-TURN    BELT-DRIVEX    PiXCITER 

ing  and  wheel-pit  costs.  Also  they  may,  because  of 
the  relatively  small  capacity  of  the  wheel,  require  spe- 
cial and  more  expensive  trash  racks,  etc. 

A  method  often  used  is  a  combination  of  waterwheel 
driven  and  motor-driven  sets,  the  exciter  driven  by  the 
waterwheel  being  used  for  starting  the  plant  and  as  a 
spare,  and  high-speed  motor-generator  sets  furnishing 
the  excitation  normally. 

Any  one  of  the  foregoing  methods  may  be  considered 
as  fairly  standard,  and  the  choice,  of  course,  depends 
on  the  number  of  main  units  in  the  plant,  relative  costs 
of  each  method,  conditions  of  operation  more  or  less 
peculiar  to  the  individual  plant,  etc.  In  general,  it  may 
be  stated  that  the  larger  the  capacity  of  the  separate 
generating  units  and  the  higher  their  speed,  the  more 
favorable  becomes  the  indivdual  direct-connected  ex- 
citer layout. 

Heat  Transfer 

Radiation  of  heat  takes  place  between  bodies  at  all 
distances  apart.  Heat  rays  proceed  in  straight  lines, 
and  the  intensity  of  the  rays  varies  inversely  as  the 
square  of  their  distance  from  the  source. 

Conduction  is  the  transfer  of  heat  between  two 
bodies  or  parts  of  a  body  which  touch  each  other. 
Internal  conduction  takes  place  between  the  parts  of 
one  continuous  body  and  external  conduction  through 
the  surface  of  contact  of  a  pair  of  distinct  bodies.  The 
conduction  of  heat  through  a  stagnant  mass  is  very 
slow  in  liquids  and  almost,  if  not  wholly,  inappreciable 
in  gases.  It  is  only  by  the  continual  circulation  and 
mixture  of  the  particles  of  fluid  that  uniformity  of 
temperature  can  be  maintained  in  the  fluid  mass,  or 
heat  transferred  between  the  fluid  and  a  solid  body. 

Convection,  conveying  or  carrying  of  heat  means 
the  transfer  or  diffusion  of  heat  by  means  of  the  motion 
of  the  mass. 


Where  are  the  spendthrifts  of  yesteryear?  Buying 
Liberty  Bonds.  The  air  of  liberty,  they  find,  is  better 
than  champagne,  and  the  effect  lasts  longer. 


576 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


Stoker  Capacity  vs.  Boiler  Forcing  Rates 


By  JOSEPH   T.    FOSTER* 


This  article  suggests  ways  in  which  the  plant 
owner  can  check  his  boiler  performance  against 
any  well-defined  standard  and  ascertain  what  im- 
provements will  result  if  certain  changes  are  ef- 
fected. 


EVERY  central  station  and  plant  operating  boilers 
and  prime  movers  is  striving,  or  at  least  should 
strive  to  do  two  things :  To  get  the  maximum  out- 
put from  existing  equipment  without  loss  of  time  or  ex- 
penditure of  money  for  extensive  rearrangement  and  to 
eliminate  every  possible  item  of  waste,  particularly  the 
w'aste  of  coal,  not  only  because  of  its  present  high  price, 
bat  also  because  of  the  diminution  in  the  available 
supply.  From  present  indications  the  need  for  economy 
will  not  cease  with  the  war,  as  the  ensuing  period  will 
be  one  of  readjustment  and  will  probably  be  accom- 
panied by  high  operating  costs  in  every  branch  of  in- 
dustry. 

Many  companies  have  their  boilers  equipped  viith 
instruments  to  give  data  on  boiler  performance  and  con- 
duct boiler  tests  at  intervals  for  the  purpose  of  show- 
ing up  any  abnormal  conditions.  The  usual  boiler  test 
is  susceptible  of  a  certain  amount  of  analysis,  and  it  is 
possible  to  tell  whether  the  boiler  performance  was 
good  or  only  fair  under  the  conditions  of  test,  but  it 


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changes  were  made.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  article  to 
supply  such  a  standard  and  to  suggest  ways  to  com- 
pare a  given  performance  with  the  best.  Predictions  as 
to  economical  forcing  rates  for  boilers  have  been  based 
chiefly  on  the  square  feet  of  heating  surface  without 
sufficient  regard  to  the  square  feet  of  grate  surface  or 
the  pounds  of  coal  burned  per  square  foot. 

It  is  difficult  to  see  why  variation  in  efficiency  should 
be  so  commonly  referred  to  square  feet  of  heating  sur- 
face or,  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  to  the  per- 
centage of  the  nominal  rating.  When  a  boiler  is  prop- 
erly designed  as  regards  heating  surface,  efficiency  is  a 
function  of  the  furnace  conditions  only,  and  these  are 
in  turn  dependent  on  the  number  of  square  feet  of 
grate.  Recently  the  tendency  has  been  to  give  propter 
attention  to  this  phase  of  the  matter,  and  larger  grate 


FIG.   1.     RELATION  BETWEEN  COMBINED  EFFICIENCY 
AND  COAL  BURNED  PER  SQLTARE  FOOT  OF  GRATE 

does  not  tell  whether  a  boiler  is  doing  its  best  day  after 
day.  There  seems  to  be  no  way  in  which  the  plant 
owner  can  survey  the  whole  situation,  check  his  boiler 
performance  against  any  well-defined  standard  and  as- 
certain what  improvement  might  be  realized  if  certain 


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COMBINED    EFFICIENCIES    AT    VARIOUS    STOKER 
FORCING  RATES 


•Pubnc  Service  Electric  Company,   Newark,   N.  J. 


areas  are  becoming  more  common.  A  larger  grate 
means  a  larger  volume  of  hot  gases  and,  by  the  moving 
back  of  the  bridge-wall,  a  larger  amount  of  tube  surface 
exposed  to  the  direct  radiation  from  the  fuel  bed.  The 
gain  is  therefore  twofold. 

Formulas  have  been  developed  for  computing  com- 
bined efficiencies  at  various  forcing  rates,  but  such 
formulas  are  based  on  heating  surface  and  the  results 
obtained  from  them  are  empirical  for  a  given  size  and 
type  of  grate.  The  efficiency  formulas  were  of  greater 
service  some  ten  years  ago,  when  there  was  a  more 
definite  relation  between  heating  surface  and  grate  sur- 
face. A  definite  relation  existed  then  because  with 
hand  firing  the  depth  of  grate  was  limited  by  the  ability 
of  the  fireman  to  handle  the  coal,  and  6-  or  6i-ft.  grates 
were  the  rule.  With  a  definite  ratio  between  heating 
surface  and  grate  surface  the  empirical  formula  de- 
veloped for  one  set  of  conditions  could  be  applied  to 
ether  conditions  with  some  degree  of  accuracy.  B.t.u. 
input  is  certainly  the  governing  factor  in  boiler  output, 
and  since  the  heat  input  is  directly  dependent  on  the 
amount  of  grate  surface,  this  surface  is  the  datum 
from  which  calculations  should  be  made. 

Boiler  tests  prove  that  the  plotting  of  combined  effi- 
ciency against  the  pounds  of  coal  burned  per  square 
foot  of  grate  surface  shows  a  characteristic  curve  which 
has  a  definite  form  regardless  of  the  character  of  the 
fuel  or  the  size  of  the  boiler.  Fig.  1  shows  the  form 
of  curves  derived  from  actual  tests.  The  curves  for 
bituminous  coal  were  obtained  from  tests  on  a  battery 


April  23,  1918 


POWER 


577 


of  1400  rated  horsepower  boilers  and  the  curve  for  the 
buckwheat  is  a  composite  from  numerous  tests  on  boil- 
ers varying  in  capacity  from  1000  to  250  hp.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  the  curves  have  the  same  general  char- 
acteristics even  though  boiler  capacities  and  Itind  of 
fuel  varied  widely.  All  grades  show  best  efficiency  at  a 
rate  of  about  25  lb.  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate 
surface  per  hour.    Boiler-heating  surface  seems  to  have 


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500      400       560       £00       100 
Stoker  or  Orate  Surface  -Sq.  Ft 


Mominal  Boiler 
Morse  Power 


FIG.    3.      RELATION    OF   BOILER   HORSEPOWER   PERCENT- 
AGE   RATING.   GRATE   SURFACE   AND    EFFICIENCY 

been  pretty  definitely  fixed  at  10  sq.ft.  per  nominal 
horsepower,  and  on  this  basis  the  curve  will  be  of  value 
in  predicting  efficiencies  at  various  forcing  rates. 

Fig.  2  is  a  combined  curve  showing  efficiencies  plotted 
against  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour 
and  boiler  horsepower  per  square  foot  of  grate.  The 
effect  of  the  burning  qualities  of  the  fuel  on  the  out- 
put is  very  marked.  The  most  economical  forcing  rate 
for  the  14,000-B.t.u.  coal  is  9  boiler  horsepower  per 
square  foot  of  grate  and  for  the  buckwheat  6  hp. 
There  is  also  a  difference  of  approximately  10  per  cent, 
between  the  best  efficiencies  realized. 

Fig.  3  is  a  chart  worked  out  on  the  basis  of  test  re- 
sults and  shows  the  relation  between  combined  effi- 
ciency and  grate  surface  for  various  sizes  of  boilers 
under  different  operating  conditions  and  with  different 
kinds  of  fuel. 

Example  1:  What  efficiency  will  be  obtainable  with 
a  1400-hp.  boiler  having  290  sq.ft.  of  grate  surface  when 
operated  at  200  per  cent,  rating  with  14,000  B.t.u. 
coal? 

Solution:  Project  upward  from  290  sq.ft.  of  grate 
surface  to  the  200  per  cent,  rating  line,  then  horizontally 
to  the  right  to  the  1400  nominal  horsepower  line,  then 
vertically  to  the  curved  transfer  line  and  horizontally  to 
the  left  to  the  point  of  intersection  with  the  efficiency 
curve,  thence  vertically  downward  read  the  efficiency 
as  78.5  per  cent. 

Example  2:  A  boiler  with  a  nominal  rating  of  1000 
hp.  and  having  350  sq.ft.  of  grate  surface  is  being  oper- 
ated at  150  per  cent,  rating  on  12,000-B.t.u.  coal.  Is  it 
developing  its  best  efficiency,  and  if  not,  at  what  rating 
should  it  be  run? 

Solution:  Following  out  the  method  outlined,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  boiler  is  developing  73.5  per  cent,  effi- 
ciency. The  best  efficiency  with  this  coal  is  77.5  per 
cent.  Reversing  the  operation  by  projecting  horizon- 
tally from  the  point  of  best  efficiency  of  the  curve  for 


12,000-B.t.u.  coal  to  the  transfer  line,  downward  to  the 
nominal  rating  curve,  horizontally  to  a  vertical  line 
from  350  sq.ft.,  read  230  per  cent,  as  the  rating  at  which 
to  operate  the  boiler  for  maximum  efficiency.  Where 
a  number  of  boilers  are  on  the  line  operating  under  the 
conditions  in  the  second  example,  it  would  be  possible  to 
cut  out  one  or  more  boilers  with  a  large  fuel  saving  on 
account  of  the  increased  efficiency  of  the  remaining  boil- 
ers at  the  higher  rate  of  steaming. 

The  practical  use  of  this  method  will  be  recognized 
and  the  following  instance  is  a  case  in  point:  The 
initial  installation  in  a  certain  plant  consisted  of  a  bat- 
tery of  boilers  with  221  sq.ft.  of  grate  surface  and  rated 
at  1400  hp.  and  operated  at  79  per  cent,  efficiency  when 
developing  145  per  cent,  rating,  burning  14,000-B.t.u. 
coal.  Increased  load  on  the  plant  required  a  second  in- 
stallation, and  it  was  desirable  that  it  should  develop  its 
best  efficiency  at  a  higher  rating.  It  was  therefore  de- 
signed with  a  grate  surface  of  291  sq.ft.  and  will  de- 
velop 79  per  cent,  efficiency  at  approximately  200  per 
cent,  rating.  It  is  much  cheaper  to  develop  greater 
horsepower  by  means  of  larger  grates  than  by  increas- 
ing the  boiler-heating  surface,  for  large  heating  sur- 
face involves  high  initial  cost  not  only  of  the  boilers 
themselves,  but  of  all  the  other  items  entering  into  their 
erection.  Where  cubic  feet  of  available  space  in  the 
boiler  house  is  limited,  the  question  of  grate  surface 
is  of  importance  because  every  unnecessary  cubic  foot 
taken  up  by  the  boilers  means  a  higher  plant  cost.  The 
question  of  grate  area,  however,  is  not  limited  to  new 
plants,  but  is  of  equal  importance  where  the  boilers  are 


Uj.Coal  burned  per  Sq.  Ft  Orate  per  Hour 
feO       50       40        30        EO        10 


Load  Factor  Percent 


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Capitalized  Value  of  Yearly  Saving  in 
Thousands  of  Dollars 


Cost -of  Coal 
Dollars  per  2240  Lb. 


FIG.    4.      CAPITALIZED    VALUE    OF    SAVING    REALIZED    BY 
OPER.\TING    AT    BEST    FORCING    RATE 

already  installed.  Where  the  grate  surface  is  found  to 
be  too  small,  it  would  be  profitable  in  almost  every  in- 
stance to  spend  the  money  necessary  to  enlarge  it. 

Fig.  4  is  designed  to  show  in  dollars  the  saving  which 
will  result  from  changing  from  a  given  condition  to  the 
best  condition,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1 ;  namely,  25  lb.  of 
coal  burned  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  for  va- 
rious load  factors  and  coal  prices.  The  value  of  the 
annual  saving,  capitalized  at  from  12  to  17  per  cent., 
is  also  given.  All  values  are  calculated  for  a  1000-hp. 
load,  the  data  for  other  loads  being  proportionate.  Only 
two  grades  of  coal  are  shown  in  this  chart,  but  other 
grades,  since  they  fall  between  the  two,  can  readily  be 


578 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


interpolated.  Example:  A  boiler  is  being  forced  so 
that  40  lb.  of  coal  is  burned  per  hour  per  square  foot  of 
grate.  What  saving  would  be  realized  yearly  if  tht 
forcing  rate  were  brought  down  to  the  foregoing  stand- 
ard, 25  lb.  per  sq.ft.  per  hour,  or  the  most  economical 
value?  How  much  money  could  be  profitably  spent  for 
additional  boiler  capacity  to  bring  about  this  result  if 
coal  is  |6  per  ton  and  the  saving  is  capitalized  at  12 
per  cent.,  and  75  per  cent,  is  the  assumed  load  factor? 

Solution:  Project  downward  from  40  lb.  the  coal 
burned  per  hour  per  square  foot  of  grate  to  intersect 
with  the  14,000-B.t.u.  curve,  then  horizontally  to  the 
right  to  the  75  per  cent,  load  factor  line,  then  vertically 
down  to  the  cost  of  coal  per  ton,  $6.  From  this  point 
liorizontally  read  on  the  right-hand  scale  the  yearly  sav- 
ing, $3250,  or  horizontally  to  the  left  to  the  12  per  cent, 
line  and  vertically  downward  read  the  capitalized  value, 
$28,000,  the  amount  that  could  profitably  be  spent  for 
additional  boiler  capacity. 

The  application  of  the  curves  is  not  confined  to  prob- 
lems covering  boilers  already  equipped,  but  can  be  used 
equally  well  for  calculating  the  saving  that  would  re- 
.sult  in  some  cases  from  the  use  of  stokers  on  hand- 
fired  boilers.  Assuming  hand-fired  boilers  in  which  a 
rate  of  eight  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per 
hour  is  maintained,  the  boiler  efficiency  would  be  ap- 
proximately 60  per  cent.  With  a  stoker  that  will  burn 
25  lb.  per  sq.ft.  per  hour,  the  capitalized  value  of  the 
stoker  can  be  read  from  the  curves  in  the  same  manner 
as  described  in  the  foregoing  examples. 

Johnson  Crude  Oil  Burner 

There  are  sections  throughout  the  United  States 
where  crude  oil  is  preferable  to  coal  as  a  fuel  under 
both  heating  and  power  boilers.  In  competition  with 
coal  130  gal.  of  the  cheapest  grade  of  California  fuel 
oil,  containing  about  13,500  B.t.u.  per  lb.,  is  equal  in 


the  S.  T.  Johnson  Co.,  Grace  and  Lowell  Sts.,  San 
Francisco,  Calif.,  has  been  developed  to  burn  any  kind 
of  thick  or  thin  oil,  or  oil  containing  water  in  emul- 
sion. 

Referring  to  the  illustration,  the  burner  is  designed 
to  vaporize  heavy  crude  oil  with  an  air  pressure  of 
between  1  and  5  lb.  The  burner  has  a  1-in.  air  con- 
nection and  a  ii-in.  oil  connection  and  is  furnished  with 
an  angle-ported  valve  C,  which  closely  regulates  the 
supply  of  oil  to  the  furnace.  The  control  of  the  flame 
is  obtained  by  the  adjustment  of  the  lever  .4,  which  is 
locked  into  position  by  the  two  thumb-screws  B.  Oil 
is  fed  to  the  burner  nozzle  through  the  pipe  opening 
shown,  and  the  air  supply  going  through  the  nozzle 
head  surrounds  the  oil  pipe.  The  oil  and  air  are  mixed 
at  the  head,  and  the  flame  is  produced  close  to  the  tip 
of  the  burner. 

Where  air  pressure  is  not  available,  a  pressure  blower 
is  used,  which  furnishes  the  necessary  air  to  atomize 
the  oil  without  heating  it  before  it  reaches  the  burner. 

Rag  Washing  and  Oil  Reclaiming 

The  London  General  Omnibus  Co.,  Ltd.,  London,  Eng- 
land, has,  for  about  three  year.';,  been  working  a  central 
recoveiy  plant  for  reclaiming  the  oil  and  grease  ab- 
sorbed in  rags,  which  so  washes  the  cleaning  material 
itself  that  it  can  be  used  over  many  times. 

The  depot  is  situated  at  Riley  St.,  Chelsea,  S.  W.,  and 
the  plant  consists  of  a  horizontal  return-tubular  boiler, 
three  centrifugal  steam-driven  oil  extractors,  two  hydro- 
extractors,  three  rotary  washing  machines  and  one  ro- 
tary drying  machine,  together  with  a  calender  and  an 
ironing  machine  to  deal  with  the  washing  and  pressing 
of  women's  overalls.  The  plant,  in  effect,  is  a  typical 
laundry-machinery  equipment. 

In  connection  with  this  plant  there  are  three  steam- 
heated,  oil-cleansing  or  settling  tanks,  each  with  a  ca- 
pacity of  900  gal.,  which  deal  with  the  oil  reclaimed 
from  the  rags  and  also  with  refuse  oil  sent  from  the  unit 
cleaning  plants  installed  at  the  various  garages  of  the 
company. 

The  recovery  of  oil  from  approximately  1700  motor 
busses  works  out  on  an  average  at  360  gal.  per  week, 
apart  from  the  additional  economy  in  cleaning  rags, 
wipers,  waste,  etc.,  which  new  cost  today  350  per  cent, 
above  the  pre-war  rates.     The  recovered  oil  is  used  to 


SOMR  OF  THR  DETAILS  OF  COXSTRUCTION  OF  THK  .lOHX- 
SON    OIL    BTTRNFR 

heating  value  to  one  ton  (2000  lb.)  of  the  best  grade  of 
soft  coal.  In  burning  crude  oil  a  burner  of  proper 
construction  must  be  used. 

A  low-pressure  air  crude-oil  burner  manufactured  by 


run  two  Diesel  engines  of  80  hp.,  and  is  found  to  be  far 
more  satisfactory  than  the  ordinary  residue  oil  com- 
monly used  in  these  engines.    The  surplus  oil  is  sold. 

The  plant  cost  the  company  about  $11,000,  and  was 
paid  for  out  of  the  profit  within  approximately  three 
years. 


Liberty  bondholders  are  justly  another  Grand  Army 
of  the  Republic.  You  should  lose  no  time  in  becoming 
a  member  of  so  glorious  an  army,  even  if  you  have 
purchased  bonds  in  the  other  loans. 


April  23.  11)18 


POWER 


579 


uiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiit iimiMniiniiiniiiiirMiiiMnMiiiiiiiMiiiinrMnmiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiinitiiiiiiiiMiiihiimiiiMiiiiiimimiiitiiiMiiniiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiti iiiiiiiiiirtiiiiiiiiiiimiiMiiiiiimiimiin iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiii)iiMiimimiiMiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiii|: 


From  an  Engineer's  Notebook 


By     iM.     P.     liKllTllANDB 


DETACHABLE  I-BEAM  CLAMP 


1§+- 


„  File  off  Doned 
/  Porfion 


Tbol  Chesty  Lockers 
and  Insfrumenfs 
may  be  made  Bui 
proof,  by  filinq  i,,^ 
Heads  of  the  Screws 
Hinge  Hasp. 


DETAIL   OF   WRENCH 


ntiMiniriiiHiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiuiiirMnrtiiiiiiiniiiriiiiiMiiMiiitniiiiiiMiiitiiiniiiMnNiiriiiiMMtMHMiiriMriHiinitniiinitiiiirniiiiiirniMiiiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiiMiiiM^ 


580 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


The  Electrical  Study  Course- 
Series-Connected  Generators 


A  comparison  is  made  between  the  shunt  and 
series  type  of  direct-current  generators,  showing 
how  the  voltage  of  the  shunt  type  remains  prac- 
tically constant  with  different  load  values,  while 
the  voltage  of  the  series  varies  ivith  the  load. 

IN  THE  previous  lesson  we  saw  how  a  shunt  gen- 
erator was  capable  of  building  up  a  voltage  from  the 
residual  magnetism  in  the  fieldpoles  when  the  field 
coils  are  connected  to  the  armature  in  the  proper  re- 
lation, as  in  Fig.  1.  In  this  case  the  field  coils 
are  connected  across  the  armature,  therefore  the 
latter  is  capable  of  causing  a  current  to  flow  through 
the  former  whether  the  armature  is  suppl.ying  an 
external  load  or  not.  In  Fig.  1  the  field  circuit  is 
from  the  positive  brush  through  the  field  coils  back  to 
the  negative  brush  without  passing  through  terminals 
M  and  N,  which  lead  to  the  external  load,  hence  it  is 
evident  that  the  field  circuit  is  independent  of  the  load 
circuit. 

In  the  series-connected  generator,  as  in  Fig.  2,  it  will 
be  seen  by  following  around  from  the  brush  marked 
plus  through  the  field  coils  that  in  order  for  the  cir- 
cuit through  the  armature  and  field  coils  to  be  completed 
an  external  load  L  must  be  connected  between  terminals 
M  and  N,  as  in  Fig.  3.  In  other  words,  the  series 
generator  cannot  build  up  its  voltage  unless  it  is  con- 
nected to  a  load. 

Since  the  field  coils  of  the  series  generator  are  con- 
nected in  series  with  the  load  and  armature,  it  is  at 
once  evident  that  the  cross-section  of  the  conductors  in 
the  field  coils  must  be  large  enough  to  take  care  of  the 
full-load  current  of  the  machine.  The  field  coils  on  the 
shunt  generator  are  connected  across  the  armature  and 
are  wound  with  wire  of  a  size  that  will  make  the  coils 
of  such  a  proportion  as  to  produce  the  flux  in  the  pole- 
pieces  with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  energy.  The 
power  required  to  excite  the  field  coils  is  generally  from 
about  1  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  output  of  the  machine. 

To  generate  a  given  voltage,  the  armature  must  re- 
volve at  a  certain  speed  and  the  magnetic  field  of  the 
polepieces  must  have  a  definite  value.  To  set  up  the 
lines  of  force  in  the  magnetic  circuit,  it  is  necessary  that 
a  required  number  of  ampere-turns  in  the  field  coils,  say 
6000,  be  supplied. 

Ampere-turns  is  the  number  of  turns  in  a  coil  of  wire 
multiplied  by  the  current  in  amperes  that  flows  through 
it  when  connected  to  an  electric  circuit;  that  is,  if  a 
coil  contains  2000  turns  and  when  connected  to  a  110- 
volt  circuit,  3  amperes  flow  through  it,  then  the  am- 
pere-turns are  2000  X  3  =  6000. 

If  we  assume  the  machine  in  Fig.  1  to  require  6000 
ampere-turns  to  excite  the  field  coils  sufficiently  for  the 
armature  to  generate  110  volts,  and  further  assume  that 
the  full-load  current  of  the  machine  is  100  amperes 
and  requires  3  amperes  to  excite  the  field  coils,  then 
the  number  of  turns  in  the  field  coils  will  be  ampere- 
turns  divided  by  amperes,  or  6000  -^  3  =  2000,  and 


the  resistance  of  the  wire  in  the  field  coils  is  volts  di- 
vided by  current,  or  110  -:-  3  =  37  ohms  approximately. 

If  the  series  machine,  Fig.  3,  is  assumed  to  have  the 
same  capacity  as  the  shunt  machine,  Fig.  1,  and  re- 
quires the  same  number  of  ampere-turns  to  excite  the 
field  coils  as  the  shunt  machine  to  generate  110  volts, 
then  the  number  of  turns  of  wire  required  in  the  field 
coils,  since  the  total  current  is  flowing  through  the  field 
winding,  will  be  6000  -;-  100  =  60  turns,  or  30  turns  on 
each  coil.  Since  the  total  current  flows  through  the 
field  coils  and  load  in  series,  the  combined  resistance 
of  the  field  coils  and  load  can  only  be  volts  -^  amperes, 
or  in  this  case,  110  -f-  100  =  1.1  ohms. 

Now  if  we  are  to  keep  the  amount  of  power  expended 
in  the  field  coils  on  the  series  machine  down  to  appr"bx- 
imately  that  of  the  shunt  machine,  or  3  per  cent.,  then 
the  resistance  of  the  field  coils  can  be  only  3  per  cent, 
of  the  total  resistance,  or  1.1  X  0.03  ^^  0.033  ohm,  or 
the  resistance  of  the  field  coils  in  the  shunt  machine  is 

37 
„  „o„  —  1121  times  that  of  the  series  machine.     Herein 

lies  the  most  prominent  structural  difference  between 
the  shunt  and  series  type  of  machines.  The  field  coils 
on  the  shunt  machine  are  wound  with  a  large  number 
of  turns  of  small  wire  having  a  comparatively  high  re- 
sistance and  are  connected  in  parallel  with  the  arma- 
ture. The  field  coils  of  the  series  machine  are  wound 
with  a  small  number  of  turns  of  large  wire,  consequently 
have  a  low  resistance  and  are  connected  in  series  with 
the  armature.  However,  the  size  of  the  conductors  in 
either  case  varies  with  the  size  and  the  voltage  of  the 
machine. 

The  comparison  of  the  field  coils  in  the  foregoing  is 
not  absolutely  correct,  because,  in  the  first  case  we  as- 
sume 110  volts  at  the  brushes  and  in  the  series  machine 
we  have  assumed  that  the  total  pressure  generated  is 
110  volts.  However,  the  comparison  is  close  enough 
for  all  practical  purposes  and  eliminates  a  lot  of  cal- 
culation. 

It  is  evident  that  with  the  series  generator  if  the 
field  strength  is  to  be  maintained  constant,  consequently 
the  voltage  at  the  brushes  at  a  constant  value,  the  load 
also  will  have  to  be  maintained  at  a  constant  value. 
This  is  generally  a  difficult  thing  to  do,  since  the  load 
on  a  generator  is  usually  made  up  of  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent devices  used  for  different  purposes  and  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  and  types,  which  are  connected  to  the  cir- 
cuit when  wanted  and  disconnected  when  not  required. 
The  devices  also  require  approximately  a  constant  volt- 
age for  their  operation.  Such  a  condition  cannot  be  met 
very  successfully  by  the  series  generator. 

From  what  we  have  already  seen  of  the  shunt  gen- 
erator, it  is  evident  that  the  load  on  the  machine  does 
not  affect  the  field  circuit.  For  example,  in  Fig.  4  is 
given  a  shunt  generator  supplying  a  load  of  four  resist- 
ances, r„  r..,  r,  and  /•,  each  of  4  ohms,  in  parallel.  If  we 
assume  that  the  armature  develops  100  volts  and  neg- 
lecting the  effect  of  the  aiTnature  resistance,  the  cur- 

E 
rent  i  flowing  in  each  section  of  the  load  is  t  =  -  = 


Ajiril 


1!)18 


POWER 


581 


—    =   25  amperes,  or  a   total  of    100  amperes   in  the 
4 

loLir  circuits.  11'  one  resistance  is  disconnected  from  the 
circuit,  the  current  supplied  to  the  load  will  be  25  X  '^ 
=^  75  amperes,  and  if  only  two  are  connected,  the  cur- 
rent delivered  to  the  load  by  the  armature  is  50  amperes, 
and  for  one  resistance,  25  amperes.  Under  any  one  of 
the  conditions  the  current  tlowing  in  the  field  coils  will 


we  assume  the  machine  to  be  generating  100  volts  and 
that  100  amperes  is  flowing  in  the  circuit,  then  100  am- 
peres is  passing  through  the  field  coils.  If  one  section 
of  the  load  was  taken  off  and  if  the  voltage  at  the 
armature  terminals  remained  constant  at  100  volts,  as 
was  assumed  in  the  shunt  machine,  25  amperes  would 
flow  through  each  of  the  three  resistance  elements,  as  in 
Fig.  4.     But  with  the  series  machine  the  pressure  will 


FrG.4 


L,^^S  n,'-^ 
FIGS.    1    TO    6.       nT.\GR.\MM.\TICAL    HK,rMlK.S|.:.\T.\Tl(  l.\    OK    SHUXT    A.XP    SKUIK.S    C  KXRR.VTI  )r,.'< 


remain  practically  constant  since,  as  shown,  this  circuit 
is  independent  of  the  load.  Consequently,  the  value  of 
the  field  current  is  not  affected  by  the  load  only  as  the 
voltage  is  caused  to  vary  slightly  by  the  load  current  and 
resistance  of  the  armature.  This  latter  factor  will  be 
considered  in  the  next  lesson. 

Now  consider  what  would  happen  if  we  varied  the  load 
on  the  series  generator,  Fig.  5,  the  way  that  it  was 
changed  on  the  shunt  generator.   Fig.  4.     In  Fig.  5,  if 


decrease  since  the  current  has  been  decreased  in  the 
field  coils,  consequently  the  current  will  decrease  in  the 
different  elements  connected  across  the  armature  term- 
inals. From  this  it  is  evident  that  as  the  load  is  de- 
creased on  the  series  machine  the  voltage  is  decreased 
and  the  current  through  each  individual  load  also  de- 
creases; whereas,  on  the  shunt  generator  the  totai  load 
may  be  varied,  but  the  current  in  the  individual  loads 
and  the  voltage  remains  practically  constant. 


582 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


What  we  have  just  .seen  has  practically  eliminated  the 
series  t.vpe  of  machine  from  commercial  use  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  shunt  type  or  modifications  of  this  latter 
type. 

Direct-current  generators  are  generally  designed  so 
that,  if  the  shunt-field  winding  is  connected  directly 
across  the  armature,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  they  will  at 
rated  speed  develop  about  120  per  cent,  normal  volts, 
that  is,  a  110-volt  machine  will  generate  about  125  or 
130  volts.  The  voltage  is  then  adjusted  to  normal  by 
connecting  an  adjustable  resistance  in  series  with  the 
field  circuit,  as  in  Fig.  6.  The  current  through  the 
field  coils  is  adjusted  by  means  of  this  resistance  so 
as  to  produce  normal  volts.  Then  any  slight  variation  in 
the  voltage,  due  to  changes  in  load  or  otherwise,  can  be 
taken  care  of  by  varying  the  resistance  in  the  field  cir- 
cuit. The  resistance  connected  in  series  with  the  field 
roils  is  called  a  field  rheostat. 

Fig.  7  is  a  la.\out  of  problem  1  in  the  last  lesson.  The 
joint  resistance  of  the  circuit  is 

1 

In  the  problem  the  joint  resistance  R  is  known  and  ?•„ 
one  of  the  individual  resistances,  is  to  be  determined. 
This  may  be  found  by  transposing  the  joint-resistance 
formula  around  to  read 

1  1        _  _    1  22.5 

1~6 
6 


R 


r-2 


1 
R 


r. 


3.75 


3.75      2.25 


10  ohms 


22.5 


1       30       ^  ^,    , 
=  -K  =  ^c7  =  3.75  ohms 


The  correctness  of  this  answer  may  be  checked  by  sub- 
stituting the  values  in  the  joint-resistance  formula; 
then 

6  "  10  30 
In  Fig.  8  is  problem  2  of  the  previous  lesson.  The 
resistance  of  each  lamp  is  220  ohms  and  that  of  the 
voltmeter  10,956  ohms.  The  joint  resistance  of  the  five 
lamps  is  equal  to  the  resistance  of  one  lamp  divided  by 
the  number  of  lamps  in  parallel,  or  220  :=  5  ^  44  ohms. 
Since  the  group  of  lamps  is  in  series  with  the  voltmeter, 
the  total  resistance  of  the  circuit  is  7?  ^  44  -f-  10,956  = 

11,000  ohms,  and  the  current  /  =  P  ""  ii  nOO  ^^  ^'^^ 
ampere.      If   the    voltmeter   is    properly    calibrated,    its 


FTG. 


TWO    HF.SIST.\XCES    COX.VEc 'TEO     TX     PAR.M.LEL 


nected  across  a  110-volt  circuit  would  take  110  -=-  220 
^^  0.5  ampere,  or  0.5  X  5  ^  2.5  amperes  total  current 
for  the  group  to  make  them  burn  at  their  normal  bril- 
liancy ;  but  when  connected  in  series  with  the  voltmeter, 
only  0.01  ampere  flows  through  the  lamps,  therefore  they 


-t--/f=//i9--->l 


reading  will  be  equal  to  its  resi-stance  times  the  cur- 
rent flowing  through  it,  in  this  case  10,956  X  001  = 
109.56  volts,  or  a  difterence  of  only  0.44  of  a  volt  less 
than  line  voltage.  This  0.44  volt  is  expended  in  the 
lamps,  consequently  it  is  evident  that  the  effect  that  the 
lamps  would  have  upon  the  reading  of  the  instrument 
could  scarcely  be  detected  on  the  scale.  On  the  other 
hand,  each  lamp  has  220  ohms  resistance  and  when  con- 


LAMPS 


WL'^  METER 


FIO.    8.      (JROrp   OF   L.AMPS   CONNECTED    IN    SERIEIS   WITH 
.\     VOLTMETER 

will  remain  dark,  on  account  of  the  high  resistance  of 
the  instrument  being  in  series  with  them. 

1.  Find  the  resistance  of  1500  ft.  of  stranded  copper 
cable  made  up  of  37  wires  90  mils  in  diameter. 

2.  A  250-volt  350-kw.  two-wire  direct-current  gen- 
erator is  located  75  ft.  from  its  switchboard;  allowing 
0.5  per  cent,  drop,  find  the  size  of  the  conductors  re- 
quired to  make  the  connections  between  the  machine 
and  switchboard. 

Ancient  Conception  of  Heat 

The  early-day  theory  regarding  heat  was  that  it 
was  a  material  substance,  a  "subtle  imponderable 
fluid"  that  was  named  "caloric."  One  of  the  chief  con- 
stituents of  any  substance  that  would  burn  was  sup- 
posed to  be  "phlogiston,"  and  therefore  if  a  substance 
burned  completely  or  nearly  so,  it  was  said  to  be  a  pure 
or  nearly  pure  "phlogistate,"  and  when  burned  it  be- 
came "phlogistated." 

This  theory  was  proved  by  melting  a  given  weight 
of  lead  and  keeping  it  in  a  molten  state,  skimming  the 
surface  as  fast  as  a  film  appeared  on  it.  When  all  the 
lead  had  been  so  converted  into  what  we  now  call  lead 
oxide,  it  was  found  that  its  weight  was  greater  than 
the  original  lead — therefore  phlogiston  (heat  or  fire) 
had  entered  the  metal,  the  weight  of  which  was  the  in- 
crease in  the  weight  of  the  substance.  To  further  prove 
this  theory,  it  was  found  that  heating  this  phlogiston- 
impregnated  substance  in  the  presence  of  or  mixed 
with  powdered  charcoal  reconverted  it  into  metallic 
lead — the  phlogiston  was  driven  out.  We  now  know  that 
it  is  oxygen  from  the  air  that  attacks  the  lead  when 
melted  and  forms  lead  oxide,  and  that  when  the  lead 
oxide  is  heated  with  charcoal  (carbon),  the  charcoal 
will  rob  the  lead  of  the  oxygen,  because  of  the  greater 
affinity  of  carbon  and  oxygen  than  lead  and  oxygen, 
leaving  metallic  lead  again. 


Conscription  limits  the  age  of  the  fighting  man  to 
thirty  years,  but  there  is  no  age  limit  for  buying 
Liberty  Bonds. 


You  must  buy  or  pay — buy  a  Liberty  Bond  or  pay 
German-y.    The  $100  Bond  is  the  cornerstone  of  Liberty. 


April  23,  1918 


r  O  W  K  R 


583 


Cooperation  of  Public-Service  and 
Isolated  Plants 


By  IRA  N.  EVANS 


A  solution  of  iirufertml  application  of  the  old 
problem  of  "binjinn  rn.  prodnvitin  current." 
Cooperation  will  bring  mutual  profit,  conserve 
coal  and  reduce  investment  for  equipment. 

THE  g-eneration  of  power  in  conjunction  with 
heating  by  exhaust  steam  has  become  less  profit- 
able in  many  localities,  due  to  the  effort  of  public- 
service  companies  by  low  rates  to  control  the  business 
at  a  questionable  return  to  themselves.  Making  the 
generation  of  current  seemingly  unprofitable  for  the 
isolated  plant  and  in  some  cases  taking  over  the  busi- 
ness, still  leaves  the  heating.  In  numerous  instances 
these  heating  plants  have  grown  to  large  proportions. 
Whether  large  or  small  they  duplicate  to  a  great  extent 
the  power  requirements  of  fuel,  labor  and  unavoidable 
boiler  wastes. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  with  the  most  improved 
methods  and  equipment  only  about  15  to  20  per  cent, 
of  the  heat  of  the  fuel  is  recovered  in  current  when 
generated  by  .steam,  and  85  per  cent,  passes  up  the 
chimney  or  into  the  condenser  cooling  water.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  isolated  plant  uses  60  to  70  per  cent,  of 
the  heat  of  the  fuel  in  the  heating  system  and  could 
easily  recover  the  relatively  small  percentage  convert- 
ible into  power  with  practically  little  or  no  increase  in 
the  total  fuel  used,  provided  the  functions  were  properly 
coordinated. 

Mutual  Profit  in  Cooperation 
In  large  industrial  plants  it  is  possible  to  recover  all 
power  convertible  from  the  heating  fuel  by  cooperation 
with  the  public-service  company.  There  would  be  mu- 
tual profit,  conservation  of  fuel  to  the  community,  and 
the  central  station  would  maintain  control  of  the 
business. 

Suppose  an  industrial  plant  used  1000  hp.  in  high- 
pressure  boilers  for  heating  in  zero  weather  and  pur- 
chased all  power  used  from  the  public-service  company 
at  a  flat  rate  of  approximately  Ic.  per  kw.-hr.  The 
heating  system  would  have  a  condensing  capacity  of 
34,000  lb.  of  steam  per  hour  in  zero  weather,  and  at 
least  3400  lb.  of  coal  per  hour  would  be  burned  and  paid 
for  in  any  case.  Suppose  a  turbo-generator  of,  say, 
1000-kw.  capacity  were  installed  between  the  heating 
system  and  the  boilers  and  the  current  metered  back 
continuously  night  and  day  into  the  public-service  mains 
during  the  period  that  heating  was  required.  The  heat- 
ing system  would  be  hot  water  under  forced  circulation 
with  the  exhaust  heater  of  the  heating  system  function- 
ing as  a  condenser  for  the  turbo-generator. 

At  about  34  lb.  per  kw.-hr.  and  atmospheric  exhaust, 
900  kw.  could  be  recovered  from  the  fuel  burned  under 
the  heating  boilers,  and  by  varying  the  vacuum  on  the 
heater,  the  steam  rate  on  the  turbine  could  be  lowered 
as  the  re(juirements  of  the  heating  system  were  reduced 
hy  the  rising  outdoor  temperature.     In  this  event  there 


would  be  a  constant  power-load  recovery  throughout 
the  heating  season,  night  and  day,  at  a  ma.ximum  power 
factor.  If  100  kw.  were  deducted  for  circulating  pumps 
and  plant  apparatus,  the  remaining  800  kw.  could  be 
delivered  continuously  into  the  public-service  mains  by 
utilizing  the  isolated  plant's  heating  boilers  and  fuel. 

Records  of  the  Weather  Bureau  show  3782  hours  dur- 
ing nights,  Sundays  and  holidays  when,  in  the  average 
plant,  heating  is  required  and  the  power  is  inoperative. 
There  are  2050  hours  during  days  in  the  heating  season 
when  power  is  required,  making  a  total  of  5832  hours. 
Consequently,  if  a  turbo-generator  of  proper  size  were 
installed  in  the  heating  plant  previously  mentioned, 
there  would  be  a  net  power  recovery  of  5832  hours  X 
800  kw.  =  4,665,600  kw.-hr.  At  Ic.  per  kw.-hr  this 
would  amount  to  $46,656  for  the  season.  Allowing  $100 
per  kilowatt  as  a  war-time  price  to  cover  the  installa- 
tion of  superheaters,  generating  and  heating  equip- 
ment, interest  and  depreciation  aggregating  10  per 
cent,  would  amount  to  $10,000.  Extra  coal  over  heating 
requirements  at  $5  per  ton  would  cost  $7125  and  super- 
vision and  supplies  should  not  exceed  $2500,  leaving  a 
balance  of  $46,656— ($10,000+$7125+$2500)::=$27,031 
to  be  divided  as  mutually  agreed. 

If  the  isolated  plant  were  supplying  its  own  power 
independently  of  the  public-service  company,  it  would 
have  to  expend  from  one-half  more  to  double  the  amount 
for  equipment  to  guard  against  breakdown,  and  during 
day  periods  in  the  heating  season  would  operate  only 
2050  hours,  which  would  mean  a  net  recovery  of 
800  X  2050  —  1,640,000  kw.-hr.  This  is  less  than  one- 
half  of  the  previous  saving. 

Fuel  Conservation  Effected 
If  the  public-service  company  generated  current  on 
2  lb.  of  fuel  per  kilowatt-hour,  the  conservation  of  fuel 
to  the  community  in  the  heating  season  would  be  4,665,- 
600  X  2  ^  2000  =  4665  tons.  It  is  anticipated  that 
the  plant  would  purchase  current  on  the  same  basis  as 
before,  depending  on  the  rebate  from  current  returned 
to  the  mains  for  its  profit.  It  would  depend  on  circum- 
stances and  the  relative  economy  of  the  public-service 
plant  and  the  turbine  under  vacuum,  whether  the  ma- 
chine would  be  operated  during  the  summer  months. 
No  duplicate  machinery  would  be  necessary  in  the  iso- 
lated plant,  as  in  case  of  accident  the  load  could  be  car- 
ried for  the  time  being  by  the  central  plant,  as  the  unit 
in  the  plant  would  function  as  part  of  the  public-service 
company's  equipment. 

This  method  of  operation  would  reduce  the  load  on 
the  central  station  at  night  and  would  add  to  the  idle 
equipment.  It  will  be  found,  however,  that  the  number 
of  plants  available  in  any  one  district  would  be  com- 
paratively few  and  their  capacities  aggregate  a  small 
]K)rtion  of  the  night  load  of  the  public-service  station. 
They  would  furnish  a  source  of  cheap  current  during 
those  periods,  and  as  the  public-service  company  has 
the  mains  and  the  only  market  for  the  current  at  these 
hours,  it  would  have  control  of  the  situation. 


584 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


The  period  of  operation  of  the  turbo-generator,  5832 
hours  per  year,  would  be  greater  than  that  of  the  large 
public-service  machines  operating  on  a  typical  indus- 
trial-load curve.  Where  the  load  on  the  public-service 
station  is  heavier  in  winter  than  summer,  it  would  be  an 
advantageous  arrangement  if  the  isolated-plant  turbine 
were  discontinued  during  the  summer. 

It  is  the  writer's  belief  that  this  is  the  most  eco- 
nomical and  efficient  method  of  handling  the  isolated- 
plant  problem,  and  it  is  applicable  to  any  part  of  the 
country  for  heating  plants  having  over  500  hp.  in 
boilers. 

For  the  assumed  case,  Table  I  gives  the  hours  for 
each  10-deg.  period  of  outside  temperature,  the  steam 
required  for  heating,  the  vacua  that  would  be  possible 
with  the  water  temperatures  required  and  the  cor- 
responding steam  rates  for  the  turbine.  With  these 
data  it  is  easy  to  figure  the  total  steam  and  the  kilowatt- 
hours  recoverable.  The  column  heads  indicate  the 
method.  As  an  interesting  comparison  Column  X  gives 
the  electrical  energy  recoverable  from  the  heating  steam 
by  means  of  a  noncondensing  reciprocating  engine.  In 
moderate  weather  the  noncondensing  unit  is  outdis- 
tanced in  the  ratio  of  two  to  one. 

The  boilers  and  fuel  are  purchased  and  operated  in 
any  case  by  the  owner  of  the  heating  plant,  and   no 


as  the  heating  demand  is  reduced  by  the  rising  tem- 
perature. Use  of  superheated  steam  upsets  the  equi- 
librium somewhat,  and  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  little 
additional  coal  in  moderate  weather  to  keep  up  the 
power  output. 

As  the  turbo-generator  uses  100  per  cent,  more  steam 
under  atmospheric  pressure  than  under  high  vacuum,  it 
is  uneconomical  to  operate  in  conjunction  with  a  steam- 
heating  system  utilizing  the  exhaust  steam  for  heating. 
In  mo.st  cases,  therefore,  when  the  question  of  com- 
bining power  and  heating  in  the  isolated  plant  arises,  a 
low-pressure  vacuum  steam  system  is  assumed,  which 
compels  the  use  of  reciprocating  engines,  slow-speed 
generators  and  noncondensing  conditions  the  year 
around,  with  the  result  that  the  space  occupied  and  first 
cost  are  excessive  and  the  financial  return  less  favor- 
able. The  constant  steam  rate  on  the  noncondensing 
reciprocating  engine  with  the  widely  varying  heating 
requirements  causes  the  recovered  power  load  to  range 
from  100  per  cent,  in  zero  weather  to  less  than  50  per 
cent,  in  warmer  periods,  while  the  variation  in  the  tur- 
bine steam  rate  permits  greater  recovery.  This  is 
shown  in  Table  I. 

In  a  new  plant  the  hot-water  system  can  be  installed 
at  no  greater  cost  than  a  steam  system  and  with  no 
more  heating  surface  if  properly  designed.     The  regu- 


POWER  Rl;COVER.\BLE  FROM  HEATI.NG  FUEL  IN  INDlSTRLil.  PL.\NT  WITH    1,000  BOILER  HORSEPOWER 

FOR    HE.\TING    IN    ZERO    WE.\THER 


XV 

XVI 

X 

XI 

XIV 

steam 

Total 

VIII 

IX 

Recov. 

Turbine 

Evap. 

per 

Steam 

XVII 

I 

II 

IV 

\ 

VII 

Turbini 

Re<'OV. 

Power 

Rate 

XII 

XIII 

Factor 

Hour 

Power 

Total 

Outside 

Hours 

III 

Total 

Steam 

VI 

Av. 

Rate, 

Power 

Non- 

Const. 

Gross 

Net 

175  Lb. 

Power 

and 

Steam 

Temp. 

Nights, 

Hours 

Hours 

per 

Vac. 

Water 

Lb 

Heating 

Cond. 

Load 

Load 

Load 

100  Deg. 

Heating 

Heating 

for 

Periods 

Holi- 

Work 

Each 

Hour 

In. 

Temp.. 

per 

.■^team 

Engine 

900  Kw. 

Carried 

Carried 

F.  &  A. 

F.  &  A. 

F.  &A. 

Heat- 

Deg. F 

days 

Dajs 

Period 

Lb. 

Hg. 

Deg.  F 

Kn-Hr 

Kw. 

Kw 

Lb. 

Kw. 

Kw. 

212  Deg. 

212    Deg. 

212  Deg. 

ing 

0-10 

211 

97 

308 

30,000 

3 

194 

31    4 

956 

857 

31    4 

956 

856 

1    134 

34,041 

10,484,628 

9,240,00 

10-20 

566 

251 

817 

26,600 

9 

182 

28   4 

937 

760 

28  4 

937 

837 

1    134 

30,176 

24,653,792 

21,732,200 

20-30 

719 

423 

1,142 

23,300 

14 

170 

26   2 

889 

665 

26  2 

900 

800 

1    134 

26,740 

30,537,080 

26.608,600 

30-40 

766 

354 

1.120 

19,800 

20 

154 

22-8 

870 

565 

22  6 

900 

800 

1    134 

23,065 

25,832,800 

22,176,000 

40-50 

622 

290 

912 

16.200 

24 

135 

20  2 

802 

463 

19  8 

900 

800 

1.134 

20,208 

18.429,696 

14,774,400 

50-60 

475 

271 

746 

14,100 

26 

115 

18  8 

750 

403 

18  0 

900 

800 

1.  134 

18,371 

13,704,766 

10,518,600 

60-70 

423 

364 

787 

12,000 

27 

110 

18   8 

638 

343 

17  0 

900 

800 

1    134 

17,350 

13,654.450 

9,444,000 

137,297,212 

114.493.800 

3.782 

2,050 

5.832 

Tons  of  Coal  (Ei 
Cost  of  Power 

■ap.  8  Lb.) . 
1,425  Tons 

8,581 

7,156 

Note— Column  IX    =    Col.  V  -^  Col.  VIII;   Col.  X 
XVI  =  Col    XV  X  Col    IV.    Col   XVII  =  Col.  V  X  Col 


Cnl    V  -i-  35:     Col    XIII  =  Col    XII  -  100;    Col    XV  =  Col    XII  X  Col  XI  X  Col.  XIV;    Col 


change  in  this  arrangement  is  contemplated.  As  will  be 
shown  from  concrete  cases,  a  saving  of  fuel  will  be 
effected  for  the  owner  over  the  previous  method  of 
heating  by  low-pressure  steam  sufficient  to  pay  for  the 
changes  and  modifications  of  the  heating  system  to 
suecess.fully  operate  as  a  condenser  for  the  turbo- 
generator. 

The  ordinary  low-pressure  steam  sy.stem  is  a  good 
condenser  of  steam,  but  at  pressures  at  the  source  all 
above  atmosphere,  and  this  makes  it  inefficient  as  an 
adjunct  to  power  generation.  The  hot-water  system  is 
adapted  to  use  steam  at  pressures  above  and  below 
•itmosphere.  At  3  lb.  back  pressure  it  will  give  an 
average  water  temperature  of  about  200  deg.  for  zero 
weather.  With  a  range  of  about  80  to  120  deg.  in 
moderate  weather  it  will  do  the  heating  and  still  allow 
a  vacuum  of  26  in,  on  the  turbine.  The  arbitrary  con- 
trol of  the  vacuum  regulates  the  temperature  of  the 
heating  medium  and  determines  the  steam  rate  on  the 
turbo-generator.  When  the  power  and  heating  loads 
balance  in  zero  weather  it  is  a  fortunate  coincidence 
that  the  saturated  steam  used  by  a  turbine  decreases 
with  the  improving  vacuum  in  almost  exact  proportion 


lation  of  the  vacuum  for  maximum  power  will  at  the 
same  time  compel  regulation  of  the  heating  medium 
with  the  outside  weather,  giving  a  constant  interior 
temperature.  There  will  be  a  saving  of  25  to  30  per 
cent,  in  the  heating  steam  over  the  constant-temperature 
lovvf-pressure  .steam-heating  system,  or  more  than  suf- 
ficient to  allow  for  additional  fuel  to  raise  the  steam 
pressure  for  power  purposes.  The  power  operation  will 
give  an  opportunity  to  utilize  for  feed-water  purposes 
all  steam  from  auxiliary  pumps  of  the  heating  plant, 
which  is  generally  wasted  due  to  the  high  temperature 
of  the  return  condensation. 

In  ordinary  low-pressure  steam  plants  using  steam  at 
5  lb.  pressure,  the  boilers  are  operated  at  from  100  to 
140  lb.  pressure  and  steam  is  supplied  through  a  re- 
ducing valve.  The  total  heat  per  pound  at  140  lb.  pres- 
sure is  1194  B.t.u.,  and  the  temperature  361  deg.  F.  If 
the  steam  is  reduced  to  5  lb.  pressure,  the  temperature 
is  actually  308  deg.,  showing  that  at  this  pressure  the 
steam  is  superheated  80  deg.  The  corresponding  pres- 
sure for  the  temperature  is  nearly  61  lb.  gage.  As  the 
loss  of  heat  from  pipe  surfaces  is  proportional  to  the 
temperatures  and  not  the  pressures,  the  heating  system 


April  2:5,   I'll 8 


rUWER 


585 


ii?  actually  operatinj?  at  a  temperature  correspondiujr  to 
61  lb.  pressure  instead  of  5  lb.  and  will  use  more  steam. 
This  accounts  for  the  frequent  statement  of  many  engi- 
neers that  they  find  little  difference  in  fuel  if  they 
operate  the  engines  and  heat  with  exhaust  steam  or 
heat  by  live  steam  at  reduced  pressures,  the  power  cost- 
ing nothing.  No  one  would  wonder  at  an  increase  in 
fuel  if  told  the  system  was  operated  at  60  lb.  instead  of 
5  lb.  pressure,  and  this  is  virtually  what  happens.  The 
heat  all  goes  into  the  building,  but  is  generally  lost  in 
mains  and  nonessential  places. 

This  is  obviated  with  the  hot-water  system  owing  to 
the  use  of  the  heaters:  one  for  live  steam  with  gravity 
return  to  the  boilers  for  use  when  the  engines  are 
inoperative,  and  an  exhaust  heater  that  utilizes  the 
exhaust  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure  and  below.  The 
water  is  passed  through  both  heaters  in  series,  and  all 
steam  at  whatever  pressure  is  converted  to  water  tem- 
peratures always  the  same  for  the  same  outside 
temperature.  The  steam  is  piped  a  comparatively  short 
distance. 

A  Concrete  Case  in  Point 
In  substantiation  of  the  previous  statements  the 
writer  has  a  concrete  case  and  approximate  conditions 
in  two  other  plants  to  offer.  The  plant  first  mentioned 
is  heated  by  live  steam  reduced  to  5  lb.  pressure  and 
the  others  already  have  forced  hot-water  heating  sys- 
tems and  purchase  current.  The  steam-heated  plant 
operates  1600  hp.  in  Stirling  boilers  at  150  lb.  pressure. 
The  second  plant  is  shut  down  in  summer,  but  during 
the  heating  season  operates  800  hp.  in  boilers.  The 
third  plant  will  have  2000  hp.  in  boilers,  a  portion  to  be 
operated  throughout  the  year.  Table  I  will  serve  to 
show  the  possibilities  in  the  first  plant  if  the  steam  sys- 
tem were  changed  to  hot-water  heating  and  the  plant 
operated  as  previously  suggested.  Inasmuch  as  there 
are  turbine  feed  pumps  and  engines  to  drive  the  forced- 
draft  fans,  the  additional  fuel  for  the  higher  pressure 
and  for  heating  the  feed  water  will  be  practically 
nothing,  although  the  factor  of  evaporation  is  taken 
from  the  temperature  of  212  deg.  in  each  case  to  175  lb. 
and  100  deg.  superheat.  Table  II  summarizes  the  pos- 
sible saving  in  each  of  the  three  plants. 

In  the  three  plants  there  is  recovered  from  heating 
steam  11,078,600  kw.-hr.  At  2  lb.  of  coal  per  kilowatt- 
hour  in  the  central  station,  this  represents  11,078  tons 
of  coal  per  season.  In  the  first  plant  there  is  a  net 
saving  of  2000  tons  of  coal  for  power  and  heating  com- 
bined over  heating  alone,  and  in  the  other  two  plants  an 
addition  of  1250  tons  is  required  for  power  over  heating. 
The  net  saving  to  the  community  is  11,828  tons  of  coal, 
which  at  $5  per  ton  amounts  to  $59,140.  At  0.95c.  per 
kw.-hr.  the  recovered  current  is  valued  at  $105,247, 
which  is  nearly  60  per  cent,  of  the  total  expenditure. 

In  plant  No.  1  the  actual  fuel  purchased  for  heating 
in  1915-16  was  9000  tons,  or  2000  tons  more  than  re- 
quired to  heat  by  hot  water  and  recover  4,665,600  kw.- 
hr.  The  difference  in  fuel  pays  a  large  return  on  the 
investment  required  for  changing  the  heating  system. 
In  this  plant  two  large  air  compressors  are  operated  the 
year  around  and  only  part  of  the  exhaust  is  used  for 
heating  on  a  near-by  building.  High-pressure  steam 
for  heating  is  reduced  from  140  to  5  lb.  through  a  re- 
ducing valve.     In  summer  20  tons  per  24  hours  is  used 


to  operate  the  plant  Sundays  and  holidays  when  no  work 
is  accomplished.  The  turbine  feed  pump  and  forced- 
draft  fan  engine  practically  exhaust  to  atmosphere,  as 
all  condensation  is  returned  to  the  boiler  room  at  a 
comparatively  high  temperature.  If  vacuum  were 
carried  on  a  turbine  unit  for  power,  there  would  be 
ample  exhaust  from  auxiliaries  to  heat  the  feed  water 
to  200  deg.  at  least. 

Plant  No.  2  has  a  hot-water  plant  and  would  require 
only  a  350-kw.  machine  and  the  heaters  changed  to 
carry  a  vacuum  on  the  turbine.  The  coal  is  not  weighed 
and  the  boilers  are  operated  below  rating  under  less 
than  100  lb.  steam  pressure.  Plant  No.  3  has  a  hot- 
water  heating  system,  2000-hp.  in  boilers  and  a  large 
noncondensing  air-compressor  plant  operated  through- 
out  the   year.      Current    is   purchased   for   power  and 

TABLE  a.     TYPICAL  ILLUSTRATIUN  WHERE  LARGE  SAVINGS  ARE 
POSSIBLE 
Plant    No.    I 


Steam  HcittiiiK.    1600  Hp.  in  Boilers 

Heating  fuel  as  per  record,  191  5- 16,  9,000  tons  .at  $5 

Power  purchased,  3,336,225  liw.-lir.  at  0.95c      

Operating  cost 

Cost  changing  heating  to  hot  water    

Cost  generating  equipment,  l.OOOkw. 


$60,000 
75,000 


Int.  and  dep.,at  10  per  cent,  on 

Power  and  heating  fuel,  7,000  tons  at  $5 

Attendance  and  supplies  for  6  months 

Gross  cost 


$135,000 


Kw.-hr.  recovered  800  X  5,832  =  4,665.600 

Surplus  kw.-hr.  4,665,600  —  3,336,225  =   1,329,375  at  0  95c 

Net  operating  cost  

Net  saving  ($76,694  —  $38,871) ... 

Plant  N;  2 
Hot-Water  Heating,  800  Hp.  in  Bodcrs 
Int.  and  dep.  on  gen.  equipment  and  heaters  ( 10  per  cent,  on  $21,000) 

Extra  fuel  for  power  over  heating,  350  tons  at  $5 

Attendance  and  supplies,  6  months 


Kw.-hr.  recovered,  250  X   5,830   =    1,457,500  at  0.95c 
Net  saving  ($13,846  —  $5,850) 


Plant  Nn.  3 
Hot- Water  Heating,  2,000  Hp.  in  Boilers 
Int.  and  dep.  on  gen.  equipment  (10  per  cent,  on  $75,000) 
Extra  fuel  for  power  over  heating,  1,100  tons  at  $5     .              . 
Attendance  and  supplies,  6  months  


$45,000 
31,694 

$76,694 


$13,500 

35,000 

3,000 

$51,500 
$12,629 

$38,871 
$37,823 


$2,100 
1,750 
2,000 

$5,650 
$13,846 
$7,995 


$7,500 
5,500 
3,000 

$16,000 
$47,077 
$31,077 


Kw.-hr.  recovered  850   X  5,830  =  4,955.500  at  0.95c 
Net  saving  ($47,077  —  $16,000) 

lighting  and  there  is  probably  a  total  consumption  of 
four  to  five  million  kilowatt-hours  per  year. 

In  plants  Nos.  1  and  3  it  would  pay  the  owners  to 
generate  their  own  power  independently,  but  the  in- 
stallation would  have  to  be  at  least  1500  kw.  instead  of 
1000  kw.,  with  a  corresponding  expenditure  and  with 
little  greater  saving  than  would  be  attained  by  oper- 
ating the  heating  boilers  for  power  in  conjunction  with 
the  public-service  company. 

The  foregoing  outline,  if  adopted  in  some  form,  will 
make  the  public-service  plant  stronger  and  more  profit- 
able and  solve  the  question  of  unprofitable  rates  to  large 
consumers  who  are  shirking  the  responsibility  of 
generating  their  own  power  and  are  actually  wasting 
the  community's  fuel.  The  system  could  be  adapted  to 
office  buildings  having  over  500  hp.  in  boilers  by 
operating  a  turbine  during  the  heating  season  to  recover 
the  electrical  energy  from  the  heating  fuel,  purchasing 
all  current  required  above  this  amount  in  winter  and 
buying  all  current  during  the  summer  months.  This 
would  also  help  solve  the  district-heating  tiingle,  due  to 
the  high  cost  of  fuel,  but  with  this  difficulty — the  chang- 
ing from  steam  to  hot-water  heating. 


586 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


Exhaust  Pits  for  Low-Compression 

Oil  Engines 


By  L.  H.  MORRISON 


Forms  of  exhaust  pits  are  described,  together 
ivUh  means  for  preventing  accumulations  of  dis- 
charged oil  and  avoiding  damage  by  explosions. 

EVERY  low-compression  oil  engine,  no  matter  where 
it  is  installed,  should  be  provided  with  an  e.xhaust 
pit.  It  is  the  practice  of  some  manufacturers  to 
furnish  a  east-iron  exhaust  pot,  which  is  located  close 
to  the  engine.  While  this  assists  in  dampening  the 
noise  of  the  exhaust,  it  does  not,  by  any  means,  take 
the  place  of  a  pit. 

Low-compression  engines,  regardless  of  make,  display 
a  tendency  to  allow  part  of  the   fuel   charge  to   blow 


exhaust  ports  and  ignites  this  residue.  Many  fires,  some 
of  them  serious,  have  resulted  from  the  use  of  the 
exhaust  pot  or  muffler. 

To  -overcome  the  objection  to  the  pot,  a  concrete  ex- 
haust pit  should  be  constructed  outside  the  building. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  place  the  pit  at  least  five  feet 
from  the  building  wall.  Means  should  be  provided  for 
draining  av^ay  the  residue  that  accumulates  in  the  pit. 
If  the  contour  of  the  land  permits,  the  drain  should 
have  an  open  end.  If  not,  it  should  be  run  to  a  smaller 
pit  and  a  bucket  should  be  placed  in  this  pit  below 
the  drain.  In  this  way  the  residue  will  collect  in  the 
bucket  and  can  be  removed. 

Fig.  1  shows  a  form  of  exhaust  pit  much  used.  It 
is    provided    with   an    extra    exhaust-stack    pit    leading 


"T" 


I* 6' ^ 


A -[\j  -I 1-! r — r 1 


1   .i_4u?^ 


,.6.  §' Bolts  4' Long 


J  I ^1 ; i<- 

"-=--^;f^-r-'^- 


"k- 


■4.1  f  Pipe  6'-6 "Long 


4.  f Bolts  16" Long 


c 

r 

1 
1 

II 
— |j 

o 

zn 

[„-. . 

6  Holes  In  Plate-'    ''*V/e-H 
^4' Drill 


!<■■ 
1 

V,  \Diarn\  OROUND  LINE 

7^  v"  ?wm%^.i^v^m^:y;:y 


■rrrr .  ••fp:  MMiHOLE rfrr 


MANHOLf 

I,  'li  Boilerplate 

i?" Pipe  from 

Engine  Slanting 
I'm  10-       ■■ 


y!!0 


,     .      pn'  i    'Clean  Out 
'I'^tfi^attT  lO-Widex IB-High 


9"l< 5'- 

<   ■  e'-e"-- 


FIO.Z 


■4' Drain  Pipe 


■H/U 


F1&.  5 


FIG  1 

KIil.S    1  To  3.     FOR.MS  OF  EXH.\UST  PITS  FOR  OIL  EXGINES 


out  through  the  exhaust  ports  while  it  is  in  a  liquid 
condition.  This  is  especially  noticeable  when  an  oil 
having  a  heavy  asphaltum  base  is  used,  because  the 
cylinder  temperature  is  not  high  enough  to  vaporize  the 
heavier  portion  of  the  oil.  The  same  objection  fre- 
quently is  raised  against  heavy  fuel  when  the  engine 
is  operating  on  low  loads.  On  low  loads  the  temperature 
of  the  bulb  or  hot  ignition  device  falls  so  low  that  it 
is  unable  to  vaporize  completely  any  of  the  fuel  oils 
ordinarily  used.  As  a  consequence,  some  oil  must  enter 
the  exhaust  pipe.  The  same  condition  is  often  en- 
countered when  the  governor  and  the  injection  nozzle 
fail  to  cut  off  the  oil  supply  at  the  proper  point. 

If  the  discharged  oil  is  trapped  in  an  exhaust  pot 
located  close  to  the  engine,  it  will  accumulate  until  it 
is  set  afire.  The  exhaust  is  always  at  a  high  tem- 
perature,   and    frequently    a    flame    blows    through    the 


from  the  pit  proper.  While  this  is  of  assistance  in 
deadening  the  noise,  it  is  a  refinement  not  actually  re- 
quired. Note  should  be  taken  of  the  reinforcement  of 
the  concrete.  This  will  resist  the  ordinary  strains  to 
which  the  walls  are  subjected.  It  is  necessary  to  use 
a  manhole,  both  for  access  to  the  pit  and  for  safety 
in  case  a  violent  explosion  occurs. 

Another  good  form  of  pit  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Here 
the  exhaust  pipe  A  enters  below  the  layer  of  rock  R. 
which  is  supported  by  old  rails  or  iron  bars  and  serves 
to  deaden  the  sound  of  the  explosions.  Such  a  pit 
is  well-nigh  noiseless.  It  should  be  provided  with  a 
manhole  in  the  side,  below  the  layer  of  rock.  This 
manhole  can  be  fitted  with  a  thin  cover  held  in  place 
by  two  small  studs,  so  that,  if  a  heavy  explosion  should 
occur,  the  cover  will  blow  off  and  prevent  damage  to 
the  pit. 


April  23,  11)18 


POWER 


587 


Frequendy  a  cylindrical  exhaust  pit  like  that  shown 
in  Fig.  3  is  used.  This,  however,  is  not  of  good  design, 
as  it  does  not  even  deaden  the  noise  of  the  exhaust. 
Furthermore,  as  it  has  no  drain,  the  residue  cannot 
be  removed  readily. 

The  pit  should  be  so  located  that  its  top  will  be  a 
few  inches  below  the  ground  level.  The  exhaust  pipe 
should  be  a  size  larger  than  the  flange  on  the  engine, 
in  order  to  provide  a  free  exhaust,  and  the  pipe  from 
the  engine  should  slope  down  toward  the  pit,  in  order 
to  drain  well. 

The  exhaust  stack  from  the  pit  should  be  considerably 
larger  than  the  exhaust  piping;  for  instance,  if  an 
exhaust  pipe  8  in.  in  diameter  is  used,  the  stack  should 
be  at  least  12  in.  in  diameter.  Owing  to  initial  cost  it 
is  customary  to  use  a  sheet-steel  stack  of  from  No.  8 
to  No.  16  gage.  Corrosion  in  the  stack  is  generally 
severe,  and  as  a  consequence  the  heavy  gage  is  cheapest 
in  the  long  run. 

Large  Single-Phase  Transformers 

Four  of  the  largest  single-phase  transformers  ever 
built  were  recently  shipped  by  the  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Manufacturing  Co.  from  East  Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  to 
a  Southern  powder  company.  These  units,  one  of  which  ia 
shown  in  Fig.  1,  are  rated  at  14,000  kv.-a.  60  cycles,  and 
since  they  have  a  25  per  cent,  overload  rating,  they  have 
practically  a  17,500-kv.-a.  maximum  capacity. 

They  will  form  a  42,000-kv.-a.  bank,  which,  together 
with  a  spare  unit,  will  make  the  preliminary  installa- 
tion to  step  up  the  voltage 
of  the  waterwheel-driven 
generators  from  13,200  to 
150,000,  the  highest  trans- 
mission voltage  used  today. 
Power  will'  be  transmitted 
about  25  miles  to  an  indus- 
trial plant,  where  it  will  be 
stepped  down  by  means  of  a 
number  of  7000-kv.-a. 
single-phase  transformers  of 
similar  characteristics,  ten 
of  which  have  recently  been 
built  by  the  Westinghouse 
company. 

Owing  to  the  large  size  of 
the  14,000-kv.-a.  units  and 
the  great  amount  of  generat- 
ing capacity  that  will  ulti- 
mately be  concentrated  be- 
hind them  and  their  need  to 
be  able  to  withstand  the  ef- 
fects of  momentary  short- 
circuits,  the  shell'  type  with 
the  special  end  frames  and 
bracing  arrangement  shown 
in  Fig.  2  was  selected. 
Structural  steel  for  these 
parts  was  used  throughout, 
because  the  strength  of  the 
various  members  can  be 
depended  upon  to  a  much 
greater  degree  of  certainty  ^j^    ^     tuansformkr  pom- 

than  with  castings.    The  top  i-liotu 


and  bottom  ends  of  the  coils  are  held  against  distortion 
by  two  heavy  steel  plates,  each  reinforced  by  four 
lengths  of  angle  iron  riveted  to  them  and  held  together 
by  four  heavy  tie-rods. 

The  tanks  are  made  of  heavy  boiler  plate,  all  seams 
being  oxyacetylene-welded.  A  structural-steel  base  with 
wheels  supports  the  tank.  The  high-tension  terminals 
are  of  the  condenser  type  protected  by  means  of  a 
number  of  porcelain  rain  shields  to  adapt  them  to  out- 
door service. 

Some  idea  of  the  size  of  these  units  may  be  gained 
from  the  fact  that  their  height  measures  23  ft.  6  in. 
from  the  top  of  the  high-tension  terminals  to  the  base, 
and  each  unit  weighs  complete  with  oil  and  fittings  ap- 
proximately 110,000  pounds. 

White  Power  in  Italy 

According  to  P.  Lanino,  an  Italian  authority  who 
has  recently  published  four  volumes  on  "La  Nuova 
Italia  Industriale"  (The  New  Industrial  Italy),  Italians 
in  general  have  cause  to  be  optimistic  on  the  question 
of  the  utilization  of  water  power.  In  20  years,  he  points 
out,  about  1,000,000  hp.  of  water  has  been  harnessed, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  from  2,000,000  to  6,000,000  hp. 
is  readily  available,  while  the  potential  horsepower 
ranges  as  high  as  20,000,000.  Within  ten  years  300 
kilometers  (186.5  miles)  of  railroad  have  been  elec- 
trified, and  plans  have  been  prepared  calling  for  the 
electrification  of  2000  kilometers  (1243  miles)  more — 
one-seventh  of  the  total  mileage  in  Italy. 


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■rUA.V.SKOUMER 


588 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


Air  Lift  for  Compressor-Jacket  Water 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  how  the  air- 
lift system  of  pumping  can  be  utilized  to  form  a  simple 
and  effective  method  of  supplying  cooling  water  to  air- 
compressor  cylinder  jackets.     A  small   tank   is   placed 


Itb/fr  Level 


Supply. 


PIPING    OF    AIR-I.IPT    SYSTKM 


about  eight  feet  above  the  compressor,  which  gives  suffi- 
cient height  to  permit  the  water  to  flow  by  gravity 
through  the  jackets.  Instead  of  using  a  pump  for  this 
purpose  or  for  elevating  the  water  to  the  gravity  tank 
again,  a  needle  valve  or,  still  better,  an  air-lift  mixing 
tube  controlled  by  means  of  a  pin  valve,  is  placed  at 
the  base  of  the  riser,  just  outside  of  the  water-jacket 
discharge.  This  valve  is  connected  by  a  small  pipe  with 
the  air  receiver,  and  a  small  amount  of  air  is  thus 
forced  into  the  riser  pipe,  acting  to  carry  the  water 
from  the  cylinder  jacket  back  to  the  elevated  tank. 

The  amount  of  water  required  depends,  of  course,  on 
the  size  of  the  compressor.  A  10  .x  10-in.  single-stage 
machine,  having  a  capacity  of  213  cu.ft.  per  min.,  would 
require  about  5  gal.  per  min.,  and  for  this  a  1-in.  pipe 
would  be  sufficient. 

This  plan  of  automatic  cooling  water  circulation,  says 
Mine  and  Quarry,  was  worked  out  by  George  H.  Richey, 
one  of  the  engineers  of  the  Sullivan  Machinery  Co.  at 
Boston,  who  has  placed  it  at  several  installations  in 
New  England,  as  a  substitute  for  a  small  centrifugal 
pump  driven  by  an  electric  motor.  Excellent  results  are 
obtained,  and  the  heat  in  the  water  is  reduced  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  by  the  expansion  of  air  in  the  riser  or 
eduction  pipe.  The  sketch  shows  the  system  as  in- 
stalled for  a  two-stage  angle-compound  compressor.  It 
is,  of  course,  even  simpler  with  a  single-stage  machine. 
In  the  installations  referred  to,  no  trouble  has  arisen, 
and  the  system  has  kept  the  compressors  properly  cooled. 


Blackstone's   Roll   of   Honor 

\\.  A.  Eberman,  chief  engineer  of  the  Blackstone 
Hotel,  Chicago,  has  been  a  patriotic  worker  in  the 
campaigns  for  the  three  Liberty  Loans.  To  further 
subscriptions  among  employees  of  the  engineering  de- 
partment of  the  hotel,  he  has  instituted  a  Roll  of  Honor. 
As  soon  as  a  man  signs  up  for  a  bond  his  name  is  entered 
in  gilt  letters  on  the  board  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration.  Its  dimensions  are  about  4x6  ft.,  and  it 
is  mounted  in  the  engine  room  in  plain  sight  of  the  force. 
There  is  a  border  of  red,  white  and  blue;  the  frame  is 
gilt  and  the  roll  is  golden  literally  and  in  spirit  as  well, 
for  48  of  the  50  men  in  the  department  have  subscribed 
to  the  Third  Loan  and  the  other  two  have  agreed  to 
invest  a  definite  sum  in  Thrift  Stamps.  The  efficiency 
is  100  per  cent. 

In  looking  over  the  names  there  is  a  cosmopolitan 
variety  of  nationalities  represented:  German,  Bohemian, 


RollotHonor^' 

KimRifie D£PT.        Subscribers  to  the 


Kraft 
J-ickson 

Py 


Utesclier 

Andpreori'J' 
Douglas 
Moore 
Vmterf 

Somora 

Roberlson 

G'Comor 

Realty 


Gcskc . 
Gcodwin 


Ho  ran 

Ebcnnaii 

Jiir(3ak 

li'Lcmati 

Noyes 

Gi  irT\ski 

yanlricssclic 

Rilcy 

Zick 

Jurck 
Stanak  'S 


Aqdcrson'W 
'Block     " 
!DeSmet 


jVerbeeck 
jCornelissciy 

Kokkeleabqg 

Land 

Pakalnvis 

Johnson 

Dnrlavicii 

Faulkner 

Wilkowsky 

Brown 

Ki<?m 

M'^DtrrniJ 


Q\hv  '^V2iC\l%lOXlJ^  .'^^^^ . 


Austrian,  Belgian,  Swedish,  Russian,  English,  Irish  and 
Scotch.  All  have  shown  their  patriotism.  Not  one  has 
failed  to  subscribe.  It  is  a  gratifying  example  of  what 
can  be  done  and  is  a  leading  suggestion  to  other  large 
plants. 


At  times  nails  and  pegs  are  found  extending  from 
walls  at  face  level  to  hold  tools  and  clothing.  Such 
projections  make  dangerous  hazards  when  not  in  use, 
and  they  should  be  removed.  Clothing  should  be  hung 
in  lockers,  and  firing  tools  should  preferably  be  kept 
in  racks. 


April  23,  1018 


T  O  W  K  U 


589 


iKlilllllUlllllllllllllliiiiiiiiiullliiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiii^ 


Editorials 


illlinillllllliiHilllliiilliiiuiiiliinriiiiiiiiiiillilMililiililiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiillliliiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiMiiiMiiiiii^ 


The   Ultimate   B.t.ii. 


THE  central-station  folks  have  been  raising  a  con- 
siderable hullabaloo  of  late — to  be  particular,  since 
thf  Fuel  Administration  has  begun  to  ferret  out  the 
places  where  coal  is  going  to  waste — about  the  terrible 
inefficiency  of  the  isolated  plant  in  the  generation  of 
power.  In  the  same  breath  they  have  been  making  con- 
siderable fuss  over  the  wonderful  efficiency  of  the  central 
station  as  a  power  producer. 

The  point  at  issue  between  the  two  types  of  plants, 
so  far  as  the  Fuel  Administration  is  concerned,  is 
simply  one  of  coal  conservation,  which  may  be  expressed 
in  another  way  as  making  a  pound  of  fuel  go  just  as 
far  as  possible  in  producing  useful  effects.  Under  this 
broader  interpretation  of  the  problem,  the  isolated  plant 
has  a  strong  case  against  its  powerful  opponent. 

Observe  what  happens  to  a  pound  of  coal  in  the  central 
station.  It  goes  majestically  to  the  furnace  on  a  chain- 
grate  chariot,  flares  up  in  one  swift  burst  of  incan- 
descence, and  gives  all  its  latent  energy  to  a  swirl  of 
gases  that  sweep  the  boiler,  caress  the  tubes  of  the 
superheater  and  are  whisked  away  through  the  econo- 
mizer to  the  chimney,  while  from  the  boiler  flows  that 
aristocrat  of  heat  mediums — superheated   steam. 

The  steam — thermal  offspring  of  that  pound  of  black, 
prosaic  coal — rushes  lightly  through  the  main,  enters 
the  turbine,  flirts  daintily  with  the  flying  blades,  and 
leaves,  with  its  energy  only  slightly  diminished,  to  give ' 
up  all  its  remaining  heat  to  the  condensing  water;  and 
that  condensing  water,  carrying  with  it  about  eight- 
tenths  of  the  heat  liberated  from  the  stodgy  pound  of 
coal,  goes  merrily  seaward  to  warm  the  fishes,  who 
don't  need  warming  and  are  totally  ungrateful  for 
the  favor  so  graciously  bestowed. 

By  contrast,  see  what  happens  in  the  isolated  plant. 
The  pound  of  coal  is  heaved  unceremoniously  through 
the  fire-door  by  a  member  of  the  strong-arm  squad, 
breathes  its  last  on  an  old-fashioned  herringbone  grate, 
and  passes  its  heat  into  a  boiler  that  produces  a  slug 
of  plain,  ordinary  wet  saturated  steam — the  common 
garden  variety  discovered  by  Watt  some  decades  ago. 

That  slug  of  steam  eventually  finds  its  way  into  the 
cylinder  of  an  old-fashioned  reciprocating  engine,  where 
it  churns  to  and  fro,  spends  a  small  fraction  of  its 
energy  in  generating  power,  and  escapes  clumsily  and 
soddenly  into  the  exhaust  pipe,  still  holding  in  its 
keeping  about  nine-tenths  of  the  heat  it  received  from 
the  pound  of  coal. 

But  no  condenser  yawns  invitingly  to  receive  it.  That 
little  trip  through  the  engine  was  mere  play.  The  real 
work  is  about  to  begin.  A  houseful  of  radiators  waits 
to  claim  some  of  that  exhaust  steam  for  heating;  some 
of  it  goes  to  a  hotel  kitchen  to  aid  in  cooking;  some 
of  it  goes  to  a  laundry,  where  it  helps  to  heat  water 
and  dry  clothes;  a  part  of  it  enters  the  generator  of 
an  absorption  plant  and  furnishes  i-efrigeration  for 
cooling    and    ice-making;    and    after    all    these    varied 


interests  are  served,  if  there  is  anything  left  of  that 
slug  of  wet  steam — which  there  usually  isn't — it  escapes 
through  an  exhaust  stack,  a  mere  ghostly  wraith, 
scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Meanwhile,  the  steam 
that  has  done  this  work  is  a  collection  of  streams  of 
hot  water  that  are  collected,  drained  into  a  trap,  and 
sent  back  to  the  boiler,  carrying  with  them  the  last 
B.t.u.  that  can  be  reclaimed. 

When  it  comes  to  utilizing  the  last  heat  unit  in  a 
pound  of  coal,  the  isolated  plant  for  combined  lighting 
and  heating  need  not  take  ofl:  its  chimney  cap  to  any 
central  station. 


Launch  a  Blow  in  Defense  of  Liberty 

ALL  newspaper  readers  are  familiar  with  the  re- 
ports from  Washington  which  interpret  the  weather 
map.  We  read,  for  example,  that  an  area  of  high 
pressure  is  static  over  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  or 
we  learn  that  a  "disturbance,"  originating  in  the  far 
Southwest  and  centering  for  the  moment  over  northern 
Texas,  is  moving  rapidly  northeastward  and  within 
forty-eight  or  sixty  hours  should  bring  us  a  violent  and 
sustained  storm. 

From  the  German  point  of  view  our  Liberty  Loan 
campaign  is  ju.st  such  a  "disturbance,"  collecting  the 
elements  of  its  future  fury  thousands  of  miles  away. 
Through  the  mysterious  channels  by  which  theii  arro- 
gant leaders  are  kept  informed  of  the  activities  of  this 
land,  the  Germans  learn  of  the  gathering  storm,  and 
they  watch  its  development  with  an  anxious  intensity 
second  only  to  their  keenness  for  word  of  the  tide  of 
battle  in  France.  They  know  that  as  fast  as  these 
Liberty  Bonds  are  converted  into  guns  and  munitions 
and  put  into  the  hands  of  American  soldiers,  the  "dis- 
turbance" will  move  upon  them  with  the  inexorable 
force  of  a  cyclone  traversing  a  continent.  And  they 
know  also  that  when  it  arrives  it  will  beat  against 
them,  uprooting  and  sweeping  away  their  defenses, 
with  just  that  degree  of  violence  which  is  imparted  to 
it  in  the  beginning  by  the  will  of  its  originators. 

That  is  to  say,  it  is  the  initial  impulse  which  places 
limits  to  the  force  of  any  drive,  and  in  the  case  of  such 
an  offensive  as  that  just  described  the  initial  impulse 
comes  from  the  patriotic  hearts  and  pocketbooks  of  one 
hundred  million  Americans.  If  they  respond  to  the 
challenge,  each  to  the  limit  of  his  ability,  eagerly,  pas- 
sionately, completely,  the  Germans  will  know  that  they 
are  in  for  a  cyclone  such  as  only  America  can  breed. 

There  is  not  an  American  among  us  who  can  afford 
to  stand  by  and  watch  the  launching  of  this  tremendous 
blow  for  liberty  without  contributing  to  it  his  full  share 
of  patriotic  frenzy  expressed  in  cold  cash.  The  money 
will  come  back  increased  with  a  bountiful  interest,  but 
that  is  not  the  main  point  for  the  investor;  this  lies 
in  the  opportunity  it  will  give  him  to  get  in  his  par- 
ticular jab  against  the  barbaric  enemy  which,  with  all 


590 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


the  vicious  ferocity  of  desperation,  is  seeking  to  tram- 
ple under  foot  our  boys  "over  there,"  our  Allies'  boys, 
our  Allies'  fair  lands  and  homes  and  liberties  and,  be- 
yond them,  our  own.  There  isn't  a  man  with  a  single 
minim  of  American  blood  in  his  veins  today  who 
wouldn't  give  his  all  to  check  the  freshet  of  Boches  on 
the  western  front.  Here  is  his  opportunity.  Let  him 
join  the  storm  that  sooner  or  later  will  set  that  appal- 
ling flood  rushing  the  other  way.  Specifically,  let  him 
invest  as  much  of  his  money  in  bonds  of  the  Third 
Liberty  Loan  as  he  can  spare  from  the  necessary  daily 
expenses  of  his  existence. 

Combustion    and    Furnace    Design 

WHAT  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  bulletin  on  the 
subject  of  combustion  and  its  influence  upon  the 
design  of  furnaces  has  been  issued  recently  by  the 
Bureau  of  Mines.  A  full  review,  together  with  remarks 
on  this  bulletin,  appears  elsewhere  in  this  issue.  Ex- 
perience has  taught  that  high  boiler  settings  with 
great  furnace  volume  have  greatly  improved  combustion, 
but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  most  of  us  have  not  known 
fully  the  reasons  why.  We  have  known  that  stoker- 
fired  furnaces  of  large  volume  have  given  far  better 
mi.xtures  of  the  air  for  combustion  and  the  combustible 
gases  than  is  obtained  in  the  ordinary  hand-fired  setting. 
The  bulletin  corroborates  experience  which  tends  to 
show  that,  although  engineers  have  carried  the  ordinary 
water-tube  boiler  settings  to  a  height  of  twelve  feet 
from  the  bottom  of  the  front  tube  headers  to  the  floor 
line,  even  this  height,  great  as  it  is  compared  with 
practice  of  a  few  years  ago,  is  not  sufficient  with  or- 
dinary settings  to  insure  the  most  desirable  conditions 
for  commercially  perfect  combustion.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  investigations  of  the  authors  of  the 
bulletin  show  that  there  is  a  definite  relation  for  each 
coal  between  the  excess  of  air  supply  and  CO.. 

The  percentage  of  excess  air  that  gives  the  best 
results  in  any  steam-generating  apparatus  varies  with 
the  size  of  the  furnace  and  the  kind  of  fuel.  In  two 
furnaces  burning  the  same  fuel  but  having  different 
sizes  of  combustion  space,  the  one  with  the  smaller 
.^pace  may  receive  more  excess  air  for  the  best 
results  than  the  one  with  the  larger  combustion  space. 
Also,  of  two  furnaces  exactly  alike  in  size  but  burning 
different  coals,  the  one  burning  coal  lower  in  volatile 
matter  and  oxygen  gives  better  results  with  lower  exce.«s 
of  air  than  is  necessary  for  the  best  results  in  a  furnace 
burning  the  coal  higher  in  volatile  matter  and  oxygen. 
This  explains  why  in  one  plant  the  highest  efficiency 
may  be  obtained  with  fourteen  per  cent,  of  CO.  in  the 
gases,  and  in  another  plant  with  only  ten  per  cent,  of 
COj.  In  other  words,  the  investigation  brings  us  much 
nearer  to  a  general  understanding  of  the  reasons  why 
the  statement  which  claims  that  efficiency  is  always 
highest  with  the  higher  CO,  may  be  questioned  when 
applied  to  the  usual  boiler  setting.  It  is  likely  true 
that  if  one  could  design  a  furnace  to  give  a  thorough 
mixture  of  the  air  for  combustion  and  the  combustible 
gases,  maximum  furnace  efficiency  would  occur  when 
the  COj  was  at  a  maximum;  but  in  the  usual  boiler 
furnace  we  must  depend  in  great  measure  upon  an  ex- 
cess of  air  to  obtain  the  best  mixture  of  air  and  com- 
bu.stible  gases  under  the  local  conditions.     We  direct 


particular  attention  to  the  pages  of  the  bulletin  which 
deal  with  the  subject  of  soot  formation.  The  authors 
point  out  that  soot  is  formed  at  the  surface  of  the 
fuel  bed  by  heating  the  hydrocarbons  distilled  off  from 
the  volatile  in  the  coal  in  the  absence  of  air;  it  is  not 
formed  by  the  hydrocarbon  gases  striking  the  cooler 
surfaces  of  the  boiler.  It  is  pointed  out  that  only  a  very 
small  trace  of  the  hydrocarbon  gases  ever  reaches  the 
surface  of  the  boiler.  In  other  words,  the  cooling  sur- 
faces do  not  cause  or  promote  the  formation  of  soot, 
but  they  merely  act  as  collectors  of  it. 

Pages  134  to  137,  the  last  in  the  bulletin,  are  es- 
pecially interesting.  In  these  pages  the  authors  point 
out  that  the  volatile  matter  in  soft  coal  may  be  distilled 
off  and  converted  into  liquid  fuel  for  motor  purposes,  in 
which  form  it  has  a  value  from  twenty  to  thirty  times 
as  great  as  that  in  the  form  of  coal.  As  the  supply  of 
bituminous  coal  is  enormous,  the  uses  of  the  oil  are 
practically  unlimited  and  the  margin  of  profit  in  the 
conversion  is  large.  It  would  seem  that  the  development 
of  highly  productive  methods  would  be  rapid.  By  itself 
the  coke  residue  from  such  reduction  plants  would  ha\e 
considerable  commercial  value,  and  if  its  price  were 
made  equivalent  to  coal,  it  would  doubtless  find  a  wide 
market  for  house  heating  and  steaming  purposes.  The 
authors  say  that  vague  reports  from  Europe  indicate 
that  after  the  war  the  world  will  be  informed  of  some 
e.xtraordinary  developments  in  the  utilization  of  bitu- 
minous coals  in  certain  countries,  and  that  these  devel- 
opments will  be  of  pressing  importance  to  American 
manufacturers.  One  notices  that  two  or  three  different 
companies  have  been  formed  recently  for  the  purpose  of 
distilling  the  highly  volatile  matter  out  of  bituminous 
coal,  using  the  residue  for  steaming  purposes,  while 
the  distillates  are  to  be  used  for  chemical  and  motor 
fuel  purposes.  Power  has,  from  time  to  time,  pointed 
out  that  some  day  it  would  be  the  chemist  who  would 
reveal  to  the  public  the  wasteful  manner  in  which  the 
engineer  uses  coal  by  giving  the  people  a  truer  con- 
ception of  the  intrinsic  value  of  bituminous  coal.  This 
seems  to  be  the  beginning. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Fuel  Administration's  zone 
system  for  the  distribution  of  bituminous  coal  will  effect 
considerable  saving  in  transportation  and  will,  if  en- 
tered into  in  the  right  spirit  by  the  mine  owners,  deal- 
ers and  the  people,  help  to  avoid  such  deplorable  short- 
ages as  occurred  last  winter  That  the  country  as  a 
whole  may  be  benefited  some  consumers  must  be  incon- 
venienced. Many  plants  in  Illinois,  for  example,  long 
accustomed  to  the  West  Virginia  low-ash,  low-volatile 
coal,  must  now  use  the  high-ash,  high-volatile  coals  of 
Illinois.  Consumers  in  Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri  and  Ne- 
braska, particularly,  can  no  longer  get  the  West  Vir- 
ginia coals,  but  must  use  the  coals  produced  in  their 
own  districts.  The  whole  Middle  West  and  Northwest 
is  thus  affected.  For  these  people  many  new  combus- 
tion problems  will  arise.  Power  hopes  soon  to  begin 
the  publication  of  articles  written  especially  to  help 
these  consumers  solve  such  problems. 


The  engineering  world  is  still  waiting  for  the  report 
of  the  committee  of  scientists  who  were  to  determine 
whether  the  Garabed  should  receive  a  laurel  crown  or 
merely  a  casket  bouquet. 


April  2;!.   i;)l8                                                               row  KI!  591 

Jitiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiii Hill iiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiM^ 


Correspondence 


^iiiiiniiiniiiiuiiiiiniiiiiiuiiiiiMiHiinMliiiiiiiHiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiMinHiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


Hand)'    Extension    Lamp   Cord 

The  illustration  shows  a  drop-light  arrangement  that 
1  have  found  very  convenient  for  use  in  places  where  a 
light  is  needed  for  inspecting  the  interior  of  ice  tanks 
and  the  like,  and  that  at  other  times  is  available  for 


SPRIXO  SUPPORT  OR  HOLDER  FOR  DROP  LIGHT 

general  illumination.  It  consists  of  a  spring  taken 
from  a  shade  roller  fastened  to  a  drop-light  cord,  which 
should  be  of  suitable  length  so  that  the  light  will  be 
lifted  out  of  the  way  when  not  in  use  within  the  tank. 
St.  Louis,  Mo.  Arnold  James. 


Fatal  Explosion  of  Home-Made  Boiler 

In  the  local  morning  paper  several  days  ago  I  saw  in 
large  headlines,  "Boiler  Explodes,  Frozen,  Kills  One 
Man."  Anxious  to  learn  the  details  of  the  case,  I  went, 
in  company  with  another  inspector,  to  the  scene  of  the 
accident.  How  the  writer  of  the  article  knew  that  the 
boiler  was  frozen  still  puzzles  me,  for  we  could  not 
obtain  enough  information  from  our  investigation  to 
arrive  at  such  a  conclusion,  as  not  a  particle  of  the 
boiler  proper  could  be  found.  The  fire-door  frame  was 
found  about  a  block  away,  and  there  was  no  one  about 
the  plant  at  the  time  of  the  accident  except  one  young 
man  who,  unfortunately,  was  instantly  killed. 

A  boy  about  16  told  us  he  had  seen  the  boiler  in- 
stalled, and  upon  questioning  him  regarding  its  design, 
he  .said  that  they  had  taken  an  ordinary  kitchen  hot- 
water  tank  suspended  it  w!th  iron  bars,  built  a  furnace 
of  rock  under  it  and  used  it  to  produce  steam  to  sterilize 


milk  cans  and  for  other  cleaning  about  the  dair\'.  As 
to  whether  there  was  a  steam  gage,  water  column  or 
safety  valve,  no  one  knew,  but  I  doubt  it.  Judging  from 
the  damage  done,  there  was  a  tremendous  pressure  on 
the  boiler  at  the  time  of  the  explosion.  The  building 
was  completely  wrecked,  and  rock  from  the  setting  was 
scattered  over  a  radius  of  five  hundred  yards ;  and  one 
of  the  fireman's  feet  was  found  two  hundred  yards  from 
the  plant  and  in  almost  the  opposite  direction  from  that 
in  which  the  body  was  hurled. 

This  boiler  was  within  the  city  limits  and  should  have 
been  inspected  by  the  city  inspector.  It  is  stated  on 
good  authority  that  it  had  been  in  service  for  .several 
years,  but  the  city  had  no  record  whatever  of  it  or  it 
probably  would  have  been  eliminated.  It  appears  to  me 
that  the  life  of  this  promising,  able-bodied  young  man 
was  lost  because  the  people  of  the  State  of  Washington 
have  not  seen  to  it  that  laws  under  which  steam  boilers 
must  be  properly  designed  and  operated  are  enacted  and 
enforced. 

By  far  too  many  of  us  say  nothing  until  after  such  an 
accident  and  then  jump  at  the  conclusion  that  the  boiler 
was  frozen  or  that  the  fireman  was  to  blame  for  various 
reasons. 

I  have  inspected  boilers  in  eight  states,  some  of  them 
having  no  boiler  laws,  and  the  probability,  in  my 
opinion,  is  that  more  lives  will  be  lost  if  all  states  do 
not  promptly  wake  up  to  the  fact  that  there  should  be 
standard  boiler  designs,  compulsory  inspection  and 
licensing  of  engineers  and  firemen.  R.  S.  Hart. 

Spokane,  Wash. 

Alternating  Current  Cannot  Cause 
Corrosion 

The  only  effect  of  eddy  currents  that  would  cause 
the  water-pipe  joint  to  corrode  as  mentioned  in  the 
article  "Lighting  Circuit  Caused  Water-Pipe  Joint  to 
Corrode,"  in  Poiver,  Feb.  5,  would  be  of  a  thermal 
nature.  Such  effects  require  that  a  large  current  be 
induced  in  the  pipe,  which  in  turn  requires  that  the  in- 
ducing ciicuit  have  considerable  ampere  turns  and 
high  frequency.  This  is  true  since  the  induced  currents 
are  proportional  to  the  induced  potential  and  the  pipe 
resistance,  the  former  being  dependent  on  the  flux 
changes. 

The  small  amount  of  energy  involved  in  a  lighting 
circuit  would  at  once  eliminate  it  as  a  cause  of  cor- 
rosion. It  is  highly  probable  that  stray  direct  current 
from  a  railway  is  entering  the  building  through  the 
water  line  and  that  the  trouble  is  due  to  a  high  resist- 
ance joint  at  the  point  of  corrosion.  If  electrolytic 
action  is  due  to  an  electric  current,  then  it  must  be 
direct  current  since  an  alternating  current  will  not 
cause  such  action.  (See  Bureau  of  Standards  "Tech- 
nologic Paper"  No.  72.)  H.  E.  Weightman. 

Chicago,  111. 


592 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


Broken  Cast  Piston  Repaired 

The  piston  of  a  large  vertical  engine  had  a  hole 
"punched"  in  it  when  the  "keeper"  key,  holding  the 
nut  in  place  on  the  rod  broke  and  got  over  into  the 
clearance  space.  The  engine  was  urgently  needed  and 
had  to  be  repaired  as  quickly  as  possible.  Welding 
would  necessitate  heating  the  entire  piston  to  some 
extent  and  might  distort  it.  It  was  therefore  decided 
to   "sew"   the   piece   back    in.     We   drilled   and   tapped 


HOW    A    BROKK.V    PISTdX    W.\.S    IIKI'.VIRKP 

holes  along  the  crack  and  put  in  '-in.  cap  bolts  and 
sawed  the  heads  off.  One  bolt  overlapped  the  other 
so  that  they  could  not  unscrew  and  work  out.  The 
job  was  completed  in  a  short  time  and  was  entirely 
satisfactory.  George  H.  Diman. 

Lawrence,  Mass. 

Static   Electricity  from   Gasoline 

In  the  issue  of  Jan.  22,  page  130,  D.  R.  Gibbs  states 
that  gasoline  flowing  from  a  spigot  into  an  ungrounded 
can  will  produce  sufficient  static  electricity  to  ignite 
itself.  This  will  also  occur  if  the  liquid  used  under  the 
same  conditions  is  benzine  or  naphtha. 

In  the  manufacture  of  paints  and  the  grinding  of 
pigments,  where  the  solvent  or  vehicle  is  naphtha,  gas- 
oline or  turpentine,  the  ignition  of  the  liquid  is  liable 
to  occur,  especially  with  high-speed  apparatus,  and  I 
have  known  fires  to  be  caused  by  an  operator  touching 
the  metal  tank  sides  with  a  steel  scraping  knife. 
Grounding  the  apparatus  is  not  always  a  preventive 
for  if  the  tank  be  of  considerable  size  its  entire  area 
ma.v  become  charged  and  act  as  a  storage  of  low  poten- 
tial, and  there  may  not  be  sufficient  difference  of  poten- 
tial between  it  and  the  earth  to  cause  discharge. 
Grounding  is,  as  a  rule,  satisfactory  in  conducting  to 
earth  a  static  discharge  where  a  considerable  difference 
of  potential  exists;  as,  for  example,  in  a  fast-traveling 
belt. 

In  theory  the  earth  is  regarded  as  at  zero  poten- 
tial, but  in  practice  it  is  claimed  that  with  a  difference 
of  less  than  4000  volts  potential  grounding  static  dis- 
charges is  ineffective,  and  other  means  are  resorted  to, 
as  follows:  Humidification  will  so  dissipate  the  static 
charges  that  they  will  not  build  up  sufficiently  to  pro- 
duce sparks  hot  enough  to  raise  even  inflammable  gases 
to  the  ignition  point.      Humidification  may  be  produced 


by  a  steam  .jet,  or  in  the  absence  of  steam,  water  sprink- 
led around  will  produce  enough  moisture  to  secure  relief. 
If  humidification  is  objectionable,  and  it  is  in  many  of 
the  processes  of  manufacture,   circulating  currents  of 
air,  preferably  hot,  will  be  found  advantageous. 

In  printing-press  work  and  where  heavy,  fast-moving 
machinery  is  employed,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  in- 
stall a  static  neutralizer.  This  is  a  device  that  pro- 
duces an  alternating-current  field,  therefore  having  both 
positive  and  negative  impulses.  A  static  charge  of  pos- 
itive sign  is  thereby  neutralized  by  an  impulse  of  oppo- 
site sign  as  generated  by  the  neutralizer,  consequently 
a  static  charge  of  negative  sign  is  neutralized  by  one 
of  positive  value.  This  device  is  on  the  market  and  is 
used  by  many  industries.  Mathew  King. 

Passaic,  N.  J. 

Ventilating  the  Side  Wail   Was 
Unsuccessful 

One  of  the  principal  sources  of  annoyance  to  all 
stoker  operators  is  the  tendency  of  the  clinker  to  stick 
to  the  side  walls,  which  cuts  down  the  available  grate 
area  and  causes  injury  to  the  bricks  when  cleaning  the 
fires. 

The  method  illustrated  was  tried  in  conjunction  with 
the  Westinghouse  stoker  under  a  250-hp.  B.  &  W.  type 
boiler,  the  setting  being  arranged  as  shown  in  the  ili'us- 
tration.  The  total  air  for  combustion  was  brought  in 
from  the  outside  of  the  setting  underneath  the  boiler- 
room  floor  and  conducted  up  along  the  side  walls  in  the 
box  as  shown  and  finally  discharged  underneath  the 
stoker.  The  three  sides  of  this  box  were  made  in  one 
casting,  while  the  cover  was  made  in  three  sections. 
To  increase  the  heat-absorbing  surface  of  the  cover  it 


HOLDfR-- 


atp- 


<^ANbLC 


CLIP 


mUNlD  FROm  WALL  BRICKS 
ML?  SUPPORT 


AIR  FROM  FAN 
HOW   THK    SIOK   W.\LI>S   WERK    COOLED 

was  constructed  as  shown.  The  covers  on  the  box  were 
made  of  a  good  grade  of  cast  iron. 

When  this  method  was  applied  and  the  boiler  put 
in  operation,  trouble  was  discovered  almost  immediately 
with  the  cover  plates  burning  through.  Increasing  the 
velocity  of  air  through  the  boxes  did  not  remove  this 
difficulty,  and  finally  the  whole  plan  was  abandoned. 

The  method  of  supporting  the  brick  in  the  inclined 
front  wall  is  also  shown.    This  method  was  satisfactory. 

Pittsburgh,  Penn.  L.  B.  Breed  Lex's. 


April  23,   1918 


POWER 


593 


Material  for  Dump-Plate  Bearing  Bar 

I  have  noticed,  in  articles  in  recent  issues  of  Power, 
several  references  to  the  operation  of  inclined  under- 
feed stokers.  One  thing  essential  to  the  successful  oper- 
ation of  these  stokers,  or  in  fact  any  of  the  ram-type 
stokers,  is  the  removal  of  the  clinker  that  forms  on 
the  side  wall  of  the  furnaces. 

Some  of  the  coal  shipped  these  days  contains  a  high 
percentage  of  ash  and  clinker-forming  material  which 
accumulates  on  the  side  walls  of  the  furnace.  This 
formation  is  sometimes  so  hard  that  it  is  necessary 
to  let  out  the  fires  and  to  cut  the  clinker  loose  with 
pickaxes  and  bars.  If  it  is  allowed  to  accumulate,  great 
strain  is  thrown  on  the  ram-feeding  mechanism,  causing 
breaks  and  compelling  frequent  repairs. 

The  bearing  bar  under  the  dumping  grates,  which 
supports  the  grate  sections,  is  regularly  supplied  in 
,'x2^-in.  wrought  iron,  which  sometimes  bends  under 
the  heat  coming  from  the  recently  dumped  ashes.  I 
have  been  using  sleigh-shoe  steel  for  making  these 
bars,  as  it  is  slightly  higher  in  carbon  than  the  stock 
bars,  making  it  stiffer  under  heat. 

I  think  these  bars  should  be  made  of  cast  iron  about 
11  in.  thick  and  6  or  7  in.  wide  with  holes  properly 
spaced  cast  in  for  the  cotter  pins  which  hold  each  gratj 
bar.  It  also  pays  to  watch  the  hand-operated  shaking 
extension  grates  to  see  that  no  ashes  or  clinkers  get 
under  them  to  make  them  unhook  the  supporting  shaft 
and  burn  the  ends  in  the  fire.  H.  G.  BURRILL. 

Herkimer,  N.  Y. 

Nut-Lock  Plate 

There  are  many  ways  to  lock  or  secure  nuts  against 
slacking  back,  and  the  "lock  plate"  .>;hown  in  the  illus- 
tration is  submitted,  adding  to  the  collection.  The  slot 
at  A   should   be  cut  to  within   one-fourth   inch   of  the 


Slip-Ring  Insulation  Repair 

The  micanite  insulating  tube  around  one  of  the  con- 
ductors to  the  outer  slip,  or  collector,  ring  on  one  of  our 
250-kw.  Westinghouse  rotary  converters  in  a  traction 
substation  broke  down  under  the  edge  of  the  middle 
slip  ring,  resulting  in  a  dead  short-circuit  across  the 
two  rings.    The  rings  and  conductors  were  not  damaged 


•5//^  Rings 


SPECIAL   PL.\TE  TO   SRCURE   NUTS 

bolt  hole,  and  when  the  plate  is  on  and  the  nuts  up 
solid,  the  ear  or  tab  is  bent  up,  as  shown  at  B,  with 
a  blunt  chisel  and  a  hammer.  C.  H.  WiLLEY. 

Concord,  N.  H. 


I.VSUI>ATIOX   ON   CONDUCTOR  TO   SLIP   RING  RENEWED 

much  as  the  high-tension  oil  switch  had  only  a  small 
time  lag,  but  the  insulating  tube  was  practically  de- 
stroyed. 

To  remove  the  rings  and  replace  the  insulating  tube 
is  a  big  job  as  the  cast-iron  bush  with  all  three  slip 
rings  and  the  conductors  are  assembled  together  before 
being  placed  on  the  shaft;  besides,  outside  of  the  bear- 
ing on  this  machine  there  is  a  small  rotor  and  slip  rings 
for  the  synchronous  booster  which  forms  part  of  the 
combined  set.  It  looked  as  if  there  was  no  other  way 
but  to  send  the  armature  back  to  the  makers  for  repair, 
but  this  would  have  been  a  difficult  job  in  any  event 
and  unusually  so  in  this  case  since  the  machine  is  in- 
stalled under  a  gallery  with  very  little  headroom.  Be- 
sides, conditions  due  to  the  war  make  the  smallest  re- 
pair take  six  months  or  more  to  get  through  the  shops, 
so  we  decided  to  undertake  the  job  ourselves. 

The  copper  conductors,  four  to  each  ring,  are  screwed 
tightly  from  the  inside  into  their  respective  rings,  and 
there  is  just  room  enough  to  screw  them  out  clear  of  the 
ring  before  they  foul  the  armature  spider.  As  the  in- 
sulation in  the  rings  1  and  2  and  around  all  four  con- 
ductors to  the  outer  ring  (3)  was  badly  charred,  they 
were  screwed  out  and  the  holes  in  ring  3  were  en- 
larged by  means  of  an  adjustable  reamer  until  the 
regular  insulating  tube  would  just  pass  through  and 
into  rings  2  and  1.  The  holes  in  3  were  then  tapped  out 
with  a  taper  pipe  tap  that  happened  to  be  the  right  size, 
four  brass  nipples  were  turned,  threaded  and  screwed 
in  and  the  inside  bore  was  a  good  fit  on  their  re- 
spective rods.  New  lengths  of  insulating  tube  were  then 
cut  and  placed  in  position  and  the  rods  and  nipples 
screwed  tightly  home.  The  whole  connection  was  as 
solid  as  when  new.  No  special  tools  were  made  for  the 
job  except  a  piece  of  flat  steel  cut  to  fit  the  slots  cut  in 
the  nipples,  across  the  outer  end,  by  ineans  of  which 
they  were  screwed  in,  as  an  ordinary  screwdriver  was 
too  narrow. 

The  job  was  finished  and  the  machine  on  the  line 
again  the  next  day  at  noon,  being  out  of  commission  27 
hours — and  the  repair  shop  was  two  miles  away  from 
the  substation  at  that.  D.  S.  Regan. 

Yorkshire,  England. 


594 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


An   Electrical   Phenomenon 

I  have  read  with  much  intere.st  the  article  Viy  H.  S. 
Whiteley,  "An  Electrical  Phenomenon,"  published  in 
Power,  Feb.  12.  Similar  phenomena  may  frequently 
happen,  but  it  is  not  so  often  that  they  are  observed, 
and  it  is  very  seldom  they  are  reported  and  described. 

The  electrical  effect  observed  was  a  discharge  of 
blue  sparks  of  static  electricity  produced  by  the  fric- 
tion of  dry  steam  slightly  superheated,  passing  through 
cold  dry  air  at  a  high  velocity,  this  discharge  taking 
place  where  the  expansion  of  steam  was  visible.  Con- 
sidering Lhese  phenomena  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
electron  theory,  which  ascribes  an  atomic  structure  to 
all  electrical  charges,  may  be  of  interest. 

When  a  very  fine  spray  of  water  is  directed  on  the 
plate  of  an  electroscope,  the  leaves  diverge,  showing  that 
the  plate  is  electrified  by  the  spray.  The  charge  on  the 
plate  is  positive  and  the  air  around  the  spray  negatively 
electrified.  In  fact,  whenever  there  is  a  splashing  of 
water,  electrification  results,  the  two  kinds  of  electricity 
being  separated.  Such  electrical  conditions  can  exist, 
for  instance,  at  the  foot  of  a  waterfall,  and  it  can  be 
shown  that  the  v/ater  is  positively  electrified  and  the 
air  negatively.  However,  the  kind  of  water  and  certain 
impurities  it  may  contain  have  a  decided  influence  upon 
the  amount  of  electrification  produced.  It  has  been 
shown  that  when  a  drop  of  water  is  broken  up  into 
a  spray  while  suspended  in  the  air,  the  water  becomes 
positively  electrified  and  the  surrounding  air  negatively. 
Hence,  any  process  by  which  drops  of  water  are  broken 
up  into  a  spray,  whether  by  clashing  against  one 
another  or  in  other  ways,  constitutes  a  potential  source 
of  electricity,  and  as  soon  as  the  strength  of  the  field 
is  large  enough,  a  discharge  takes  place. 

A  few  words  regarding  the  separation  of  the  elec- 
tricities, namely,  the  positive  electrification  of  the  water 
and  the  negative  electrification  of  the  air: 

A  water  molecule  consists  of  a  nucleus  around  which 
electrons  are  rotating.  There  is  only  one  kind  of  elec- 
tron, and  this  has  a  mass  of  is'.mi  that  of  a  hydrogen 
atom  and  carries  a  constant  charge  of  negative  elec- 
tricity. The  water  nucleus,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
positively  charged.  The  two  charges  are  equal  in 
magnitude  but  opposite  in  sign,  so  that  a  water  mole- 
cule is  electrically  neutral.  To  charge  a  water  mole- 
cule positively  means,  therefore,  that  one  of  the  electrons 
which  it  contains  is  taken  out  of  it. 

Now,  when  water  or  vapor  molecules  collide  with 
the  molecules  of  the  air,  electrons  are  pushed  away 
from  the  water  molecules,  which  by  loosing  electrons 
keep  only  their  positive  charge;  namely,  the  charge  of 
their  nucleus.  A  detached  electron,  on  the  other  hand, 
unites  with  a  molecule  of  the  air  and  then  revolves 
about  this  air  molecule.  But  when  such  an  air  mole- 
cule, which  has  taken  on  another  electron,  comes  into 
contact  with  or  near  to  a  water  molecule  that  has  lost 
an  electron,  the  formerly  detached  electron  goes  back 
to  the  water  nucleus,  thus  establishing  electrical 
neutrality.  It  is  just  this  establishing  of  the  electrical 
neutrality  that  we  see  in  the  form  of  a  spark  or  a  silent 
electric  discharge. 

A  molecule  that  has  lost  or  gained  an  electron  is 
called  an  ion.  A  gaseous  ion,  in  our  case  a  water- 
vapor  ion  and  an  air  ion,  has  the  power  of  attraction 


through  which  a  number  of  molecules  that  are  not  in 
the  ionic  state  are  collected  around  an  ionic  or  elec- 
tronic center.  This  fact  corre.sponds  to  the  observation 
of  Mr.  Whiteley  that  the  discharge  took  place  where 
the  expansion  of  steam  was  visible. 

By  velocity  measurements  it  has  been  shown  that 
the  ions  in  air  at  atmospheric  pressure  consist  of 
single  charges  (electrons)  associated  with  about  20  to 
30  molecules  of  oxygen  or  nitrogen. 

Discussion  of  Turbine  Wreck 

Allow  me  to  comment  on  the  wreck  of  the  35,000-kw. 
turbine  of  the  Boston  Elevated  Ry.,  an  account  of  which 
appeared  in  the  issue  of  Mar.  19,  page  390.  At  the  out- 
set let  me  give  due  and  generous  credit  to  the  maker 
and  his  engineers  for  the  prompt  and  frank  publication 
of  some  of  the  details.  It  is  just  ten  years  ago  that  a 
10,000-kv.-a.  waterwheel  generator,  designed  by  tlie 
writer,  who  was  then  chief  engineer  of  the  electrical 
department  of  Allis-Chalmers  Co.,  was  destroyed  during 
an  overspeed  test  at  Niagara  Falls.  The  experience 
served  as  a  most  remarkable  object  lesson,  with  the 
result  that  no  accident  of  a  similar  nature  has  occurred 
during  the  last  ten  years  on  machines  with  which  he  has 
had  anything  to  do.  This  justifies  an  optimistic  view 
in  regard  to  the  future  of  single-cylinder  turbines  of 
the  impulse  type,  if  the  lessons  from  this  accident  are 
properly  utilized. 

The  editorial  remarks  are  judicious  and  fair.  The 
disks  are  not  the  weak  element.  A  disk  construction  for 
the  largest  types  of  turbo-generators  has  been  developed 
that  has  marked  an  important  advance  in  electric-gener- 
ator design.  The  weakness  lies  in  the  method  of  holding 
the  blades  and  in  the  distortion  of  the  diaphragm.  The 
use  of  cast  steel  would  diminish  distortion,  but  rotation 
of  the  diaphragm  due  to  seizing  on  the  shaft  must  be 
forestalled,  as  no  material  at  these  high  speeds  could 
resist  the  stresses  in  a  disk  shaped  as  the  diaphragm 
is.  This  leads  to  the  consideration  of  the  advisability 
of  greater  clearance  with  this  type  of  construction. 

Power  has  rendered  a  public  service  by  the  publica- 
tion of  this  accident;  let  us  hope  that  this  policy  of 
frankness  will  find  imitation  in  other  quarters. 

B.  A.  Behreno. 

Boston,  Mass. 


Tamarack   Mills   Power   Plant 

I  have  read  with  much  interest  the  article  in  the 
Mar.  26  issue  of  Power  on  the  Tamarack  Mills  power 
plant,  and  would  like  to  call  attention  to  an  error  which 
I  think  should  be  corrected.  It  is  stated  that  "the  man- 
agement got  a  price  of  92c.  per  barrel  of  42  gal.  of 
oil  delivered."  This  is  not  correct,  the  price  actually 
being  $1.15  per  barrel  delivered. 

The  price  you  give  is  near  that  which  this  company 
is  paying  on  their  fuel-oil  contract  for  the  Jenckes 
Spinning  Co.  mill,  which  contract  was  made  in  1915, 
and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  after  operating  with  oil 
for  a  year  and  a  half,  they  were  willing  to  pay  over 
20  per  cent,  more  for  their  oil  on  the  new  contract. 

New  York  City.  Frederic  Ewing, 

Engineer,  Mexican  Petroleum  Corp. 


April  28.   I'.US  POWER  595 

gllUllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllimillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illlllllllllllllllllllllllll Illllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illlllllllllll MIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Illllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illlllllllllllllllllllimillllllllllllillii!!: 


1 


Inquiries  of  General  Interest 


Riiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.iii I iiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii II mil mn luiu n iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiii i i i; 


Small  Bypass  Around  Main  Stop  Valve — How  can  wate^- 
hainmer  shocks  be  prevented  in  a  G-in.  steam  line  when  the 
stop  valve  is  opened  very  slowly  and  the  line  is  drained 
at  the  discharge  end  through  a  l'/4-in.  drip  connection? 

T.  P. 

The  line  should  be  warmed  up  by  means  of  a  small  by- 
pass to  control  admission  of  steam  moiv  gradually.  This 
will  also  permit  of  easier  and  safer  opening  of  the  main 
valve  by  equalizing  pressure  on  its  opposite  sides. 

Effect  of  Rocker  Out  of  Plumb — If  the  rocker-arm  of  a 
Corliss  valve  gear  oscillates  %  in.  more  to  one  side  than  the 
other  of  a  vertical  position,  what  effect  would  it  have  on 
the  operation  of  the  steam  valves?  J.  L. 

With  a  rocker-arm  and  connections  of  usual  length,  the 
difference  of  oscillation  would  make  no  appi'eciable  differ- 
ence in  adjustment  or  operation  of  the  valves,  provided  the 
oscillation  of  the  wristplate  was  the  same  on  each  side  '>f 
the  center. 

Blistering  of  Boiler  Shell — What  causes  blistering  of  a 
boiler  shell?  W.  R.  B. 

Blistering  is  separation  and  puffing  out  of  layers  of  the 
material  that  have  not  been  thoroughly  welded  in  the  proc- 
ess of  manufacture.  When  the  shell  is  heated  or  cooled, 
the  different  rate  of  expansion  or  contraction  causes  the 
layers  to  separate.  When  blistering  is  confined  to  a  very 
thin  surface  skin,  its  effect  on  the  strength  of  the  plate 
may  be  unimportant,  but  if  the  scaling-off  process  con- 
tinues after  the  outside  skin  has  been  removed,  it  is  an  in- 
'  dication  of  defective  structure  of  the  material  that  may 
seriously  impair  the  safety  of  the  boiler. 

Required  Size  of  Steam  Header — What  should  be  the 
size  of  a  main  steam  header  where  the  sizes  of  pipes  from 
five  boilers  are  respectively  4,  5,  6,  6  and  8  in.?       B.  P.  S. 

Ordinarily,  the  size  would  be  taken  of  an  area  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  feeders  or  the  size  of  header 
would  be 


1/  4^  -f  5=  -1-  (2  X  6^)  -I-  8^  =  13.3 

or,  nominally,  a  14-in.  pipe  would  be  used.  But  for  the  same 
pressure  the  flow  of  steam  in  pipes  of  different  diameters 
is  as  the  square  root  of  the  fifth  power  of  the  diameters 
and,  calling  the  required  diameter  d, 

|,  ~d^  =  i/T=  -I-  1    5"=  -I-  2i     6=  -1-1     8=  or  d  = 

'p'  4'-°  +  52-=  -I-  (2  X  6=-5)  -t-  8^-=  =  11.47  m.  diameter 

and  a  header  of  12-in.  pipe  would  answer. 

Valve  Travel  Unaffected  by  Diameter  of  Eccentric — Will 
the  valve  travel  of  a  slide-valve  engine  be  affected  by  re- 
ducing or  enlarging  the  diameter  of  the  eccentric  ?      J.  B. 

It  would  not,  because  the  eccentric  is  the  exact  equiva- 
lent of  a  common  crank  arm  in  which  the  crankpin  is  suf- 
ficiently enlarged  to  include  the  shaft,  so  it  may  be  placed 
anywhere  along  the  shaft.  The  valve  travel  depends  on 
the  length  of  the  arm  or  the  distance  from  the  center  of 
the  shaft  to  the  center  of  the  eccentric,  commonly  called 
its  eccentricity;  and  just  as  the  length  of  stroke  with  a 
crank  is  independent  of  the  diameter  of  the  crankpin,  the 
length  of  valve  travel  is  independent  of  the  diameter  of  the 
eccentric. 

Kilovolt-Amperes  and  Kilowatts — What  is  the  difference 
between  kilovolt-amperes   (kv.-a.)  and  kilowatts  (kw.)  ? 

W.  C.  L. 

Alternating-current  machinery  and  systems,  excepting  in- 
duction-motors, are  usually  rated  in  kilovolt-amperes  (kv.- 
a.)  and  not  kilowatts  (kw.).  In  a  single-phase  system 
kv.-a.  =  volts  X  amperes  -=-  1000;  in  a  two-phase  system 
kv.-a.  =  volts  X  amperes  X  2  -=-  1000;  and  in  a  three-phase 
system  kv.-a.   =  volts  X   amperes   X    1.732   ^   1000.     In  all 


cases,  kw.  =  kv.-a.  x  power  factor.  Kilovolt  =  amperes  is 
frequently  termed  the  apparent  power,  and  kilowatts  is 
called  the  true  power,  or  load  on  an  alternating-current  ma- 
chine or  circuit.  The  term  kilovolt-ampere  is  never  used 
in  reference  to  the  rating  of  direct-current  systems. 

Wetting  Down  Fine  Coal — In  hand-firing  is  there  advan- 
tage or  disadvantage  in  wetting  down  fine  sizes  of  bitumi- 
nous coal  ?        -  C.  R 

Wetting  down  makes  cleaner  handling,  permits  of  betti'r 
spreading  and  is  accompanied  by  much  less  annoyance  from 
back  draft,  and  less  combustible  material  is  carried  over  by 
the  draft  into  the  combustion  chamber.  The  tendency  of 
fine  coal  to  pack  in  the  furnace  is  overcome  by  wetting  the 
coal;  as  the  steam  thus  generated  opens  the  mass,  the  coal 
is  burned  more  uniformly  and  more  completely  and  with 
fewer  cracks  and  large  holes  in  the  fire.  The  principal  dis- 
advantage is  that  the  water  used  for  wetting  down  the  fuel 
requires  heat  for  its  evaporation  into  steam  which  is  dis- 
charged to  the  chimney  as  superheated  steam  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure;  but  with  good  spreading  of  the  moistened 
fine  fuel  this  loss  will  generally  be  more  than  offset  by  the 
requirement  of  less  excess  air  to  burn  the  coal  on  account 
of  the  more  uniform  distribution  of  draft  passages  through 
the  fuel  bed. 

Density  and  Volume  of  Steam — What  is  the  meaning  of 
the  density  and  volume  of  steam  ?  A.  H. 

The  density  of  a  body  is  its  mass  per  unit  of  volume,  and 
the  customary  unit  is  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  The  density  of 
steam,  therefore,  is  its  weight  in  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
The  density  of  steam  or  weight  per  cubic  foot  varies  with 
the  pressure.  Thus,  as  shown  by  tables  of  properties  of 
steam,  the  density  of  dry  saturated  steam  at  0  gage  oc 
atmospheric  pressure  (taken  at  14.7  lb.  per  sq.in.  abso- 
lute) is  0.3732  lb.,  at  50  lb.  gage  (or  about  65  lb.  absolute) 
it  is  0.1503  lb.,  and  at  100  lb.  gage  (or  about  115  lb.  abso- 
lute) it  is  0.2577  lb.  per  cu.ft.  The  specific  volume  is  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  per  pound.  Therefore  the  specific 
volume  is  the  reciprocal  of  the  density.  Thus  if  the  weight 
of  1  cu.ft.  of  steam  at  100  lb.  gage  is  0.2577  lb.,  then  the 

volume,  or  space  occupied  by  a  pound,  is   .,  „,.--  =  3.88  cu.ft. 

per  lb.  Steam  tables  generally  give  both  specific  volume  and 
density  for  different  pressures. 

Induction- Motor  Winding  Connections — Why  is  the  sec- 
ondary winding  of  a  wound-rotor  induction  motor  generally 
connected  in  star  instead  of  delta?  R.  A. 

What  is  true  of  the  rotor  winding  may  also  be  applied 
to  the  stator  winding.  Where  possible  both  windings  are 
connected  in  star.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that  with  a 
given  weight  of  copper  in  the  winding  the  star-connected 
winding  is  173  per  cent,  as  effective  as  the  delta-connected 
winding.  Expressing  this  another  way,  the  star-connected 
machine  requires  only  58  per  cent,  of  the  copper  of  a  delta 
connected  machine  of  the  same  type  and  capacity.  Tht 
voltage  generated  in  the  secondary  winding  when  star  con 
nected  will  be  1.73  times  as  great  as  that  generated  in  th.. 
same  winding  when  delta-connected,  and  the  current  wil- 
be  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  voltage.  This  lower  curren- 
for  the  star  connection  will  generally  simplify  the  design 
of  the  controller.  There  are  also  other  factors  in  favor  of 
the  star-connected  winding  such  as,  the  coil  requi-er.  a 
smaller  number  of  turns,  less  time  to  place  the  winding  on 
the  core  and  the  winding  can  be  more  easily  insulated. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  ad- 
dresses. This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of 
the  communications  and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  atten- 
tion.— Editor.] 


596 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


Combustion  of  Coal  and  Design  of  Furnaces 


A  review  of  Bureau  of  Mines  Bulletin  No.  135, 
which  deals  tvith  the  combustion  of  coal  and  the 
influence  of  furnace  design  upon  combustion. 
The  bulletin  is  one  of  a  number  issued  btj  the 
Bureau  and  dealing  with  the  economical  utiliza- 
tion of  the  nation's  fuel  resources.  The  tests  ivith 
which  the  bulletin  deals  were  made  in  a  Murphy 
stoker  furnace  of  special  design,  at  the  end  of 
which  ivas  a  Heine  boiler.  The  fuels  used  were 
Pocahontas,  Pittsburgh  and  Illinois  coal.  Exceed- 
ingly interesting  data  relative  to  the  combustion 
space  or  volume  required  for  the  different  coals 
and  different  rates  of  combustion  are  given.  Dif- 
ferent furnaces  and  different  fuels  require  differ- 
ent percentages  of  excess  air  to  give  the  best 
results;  some  furnaces  and  some  fuels  may  give 
the  best  results  with  high  percentages  of  CO., 
whereas  others  may  have  to  operate  with  a  com- 
parative low  CO,  content. 


ABOUT  a  year  ago,  the  Bureau  of  Mines  issued  a 
technical  paper  of  considerable  importance  under  the 
title,  "Combustion  in  the  Fuel  Bed  of  Hand-Fired 
Furnaces."  This  was  practically  a  virgin  field,  inasmuch 
as  little  or  no  experiments  or  investigations  of  the  be- 
havior of  gases  in  the  fuel  bed  of  a  furnace  had  been  made. 
The  astonishing  fact  revealed  was  that  the  COa  reached 
its  maximum  at  about  4  in.  above  the  grate  in  a  6-in. 
fuel  bed,  the  fuel  bed  being  presumably  free  of  ash.  All 
the  free  oxygen  in  the  air  admitted  under  the  grate  was 
shown  to  be  consumed  in  the  6-in.  fuel  bed  4  in.  above 
the  grate,  or  2  in.  below  the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed.  This 
paper  was  fully  reviewed  in  Power  for  May  8,  1917,  p. 
640.  The  Bureau  in  carrying  out  its  investigations  made 
its  next  step  the  investigation  of  the  behavior  of  the  gases 
in  the  combustion  space  of  the  boiler  furnace,  and  the 
results  of  these  investigations  are  presented  in  Bulletin 
13.5  by  Henry  Kreisinger,  C.  E.  Augustine  and  S.  K.  Ovitz, 
who  are  the  authors  also  of  the  Technical  Paper  No.   137. 


The  present  bulletin.  No.  135,  is,  we  believe,  the  most 
valuable  publication  the  Bureau  has  yet  issued  on  the  sub- 
ject of  combustion.  Certainly  no  publication  contains  a 
similar  wealth  of  data  for  the  man  who  designs  furnaces 
or  who  must  operate  them  economically.  The  tests  were 
made  with  Pocahontas,  Pittsburgh  and  Illinois  coals  burned 
in  a  Murphy  stoker  (side-feed)  furnace  of  special  design. 
The  furnace  was  exceedingly  long,  being  43  ft.  4  in.  in 
length  from  the  boiler  to  the  front  wall  of  the  furnace. 
The  firebox  itself  is  5  ft.  wide  by  5  ft.  deep.  The  fur- 
nace is  essentially  a  brick  tunnel  3  x  3  ft.  in  cross-section, 
the  stoker  having  2.5  sq.ft.  of  projected  grate  area.  The 
arch  over  the  grate  surface  contains  an  air  space  thi-ough 
which  air  is  delivered  to  the  tuyeres  supplying  air  over 
the  fuel  I  "d.  Observj  tion  holes  were  placed  every  5  ft. 
apart  along  I'le  length  of  the  furnace.  Although  the  data 
were  obtained  from  experiments  with  a  Murphy  furnace 
and  are  therefore  particularly  applicable  to  furnaces  of 
that  type,  it  is  believed  that  they  may  be  of  value  as  a 
guide  in  the  proportioning  of  other  furnaces.  When  apply- 
ing the  data  to  other  furnaces,  the  designer  should  give 
full  consideration  to  the  method  of  introducing  secondary 
air  and  the  facility  for  mixing  it  with  the  combustible  rising 
from  the  fuel  bed.  For  best  results  the  secondary  air  should 
be  introduced  as  near  to  the  fuel  bed  as  practicable,  and 
the  air  should  be  supplied  in  a  large  number  of  streams 
at  high  velocity. 

The  gases  rising  from  the  fuel  bed  of  a  Murphy  stoker 
contain  10  to  28  per  cent,  by  volume  of  combustible.  If 
the  gases  flowed  through  the  combustion  space,  they  mixed 
with  the  air  added  over  the  fuel  bed  and  burned.  Be- 
cause of  this  combustion,  the  percentage  of  combustible 
decreases  along  the  path  of  the  gases,  the  rate  of  decrease 
being  rapid  at  first,  but  slowing  down  as  the  gases  move 
farther  from  the  fuel  bed.  Inasmuch  as  the  gases  rising 
from  the  fuel  bed  contain  10  to  28  per  cent,  of  combustible 
and  practically  no  free  oxygen,  additional  air  must  be 
supplied  over  the  fuel  bed  to  insure  complete  combustion. 
That  this  additional  air  may  flow  into  the  furnace,  the 
pressure  of  gases  in  the  furnace  must  be  below  that  of  the 
outside  air.  The  composition  of  the  furnace  gases  at  vari- 
ous distances  from  the  fuel  bed  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The 
rate  of  combustion  in  this  case  was  35.6  lb.  of  coal  per 
sq.ft.  of  grate;  the  coal  was  Pittsburgh  screenings.  The 
curves  show  that  the  gases  leaving  the  fuel  bed  contain 
over  25   per  cent,  of  combustible  gases,  about   1    per   cent. 


FIc;.    1.      lO.XPKRIMKXTAL  FURX.A.CK,    SIDK-FEED   STOKER;    Fl'R.V.XCK   i'.    FT.    BY    5    FT.    SEOTIl  l.X 


April  23,  1918 


r  O  VV  E  K 


597 


of  0,  and  7  per  cent,  of  COs.  Before  these  pases  reaclu-d 
section  .1  of  the  furnace,  which  is  a  point  about  6  ft.  from 
the  inside  front  furnace  wall  or  a,  point  about  1  ft.  beyond 
the  firebox  proper,  enough  air  >vas  added  to  malte  the 
total  air  supply  exceed  the  amount  theoretically  required 
by  19  per  cent.  Most  of  this  ;iir  was  added  through  the 
tuyeres  near  the  surface  of  tlie  fuel  bed  and  in  a  way 
that  facilitated  its  mixing  with  the  combustible  gases  rising 
from  the  fuel  bed.  In  view  of  all  that  has  been  said  about 
the  value  of  hiB'h  boiler  settings  and  great  furnace  volume, 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  this  figure  little  combustible 
gas  is  left  after  a  distance  of  13%  ft.  from  the  grate 
is  traveled  through  and  by  the  gases.  If  we  refer  to 
commircial  practice  in  furnace  design,  we  observe  that 
erigineers  have  been  increasing  the  height  of  boiler  settings 
or  inci'easing  the  furnace  volume.  Those  who,  five  to  six 
years  ago,  allowed  but  8  ft.  from  the  bottom  front  header 
of  an  ordinary  B  &  W  boiler  to! the  floor  line  allowed  10 
ft.  in  later  design,  and  in  still  later  design  they .  have 
allowed  as  much  as  12  ft.  It  would  seem,  from  the  ex- 
periments told  of  in  this  bulletin  that  inasmuch  as  the  com- 
bustion rate  greatly  influences  the  furnace  volume  required, 
and  inasmuch  as  high  rates  of  combustion  are  required  to 
cr.rry  peak  loads,  the  12  ft.,  which  probably  represents  the 
maximum  in  modern  practice,  is  still  short  of  the  most  de- 
sirable height.  Of  course,  volume  .alone  is  not  sufficient  in 
commercial  boilers,  and  the  authors  mention  this  fact. 
There  also  should  be  provisions  for  mixing  the  combustible 
gases  and  the  air  for  combustion.-  ' 

In  the  most  recent  installations  of  the  "W"  type  Stirling 
boilers  by  the  Detroit  Edison  Co.,  the  distance  from  the 
bottom  of  the  middle  drum  to  the  dump  plate  is  33  ft. 
It  is  28  ft.  in  the  old  Delray  boilers.  Vertically  baffled  boil- 
ers are  now  being  set  12  ft.  from  floor  to  front  headers. 

The  authors  say  that  the  length  or  volume  of  the  com- 
bustion space  required  for  practically  complete  combustion 
seems  to  depend  chiefly  upon  the  percentage  of  excess  air, 
the  rate  of  comhustion   and  the  kind  of  coal. 

Influence  of  Excess  Air 

Comparison  of  different  curves  plotted  by  the  authors 
show  that  for  the  same  rate  of  combustion  when  the  ex- 
cess air  is  large,  the  proportion  of  combustible  gases  is 
less  at  any  given  cross-section  (distance  from  the  firebox) 
of  the  furnace  and  the  combustion  is  practically  complete 
in  a  smaller  combustion  space  than  when  the  excess  air  is 
small.  Investigations  show  that  as  the  size  of  combustion 
space  increases,  the  minimum  losses  are  obtained  with  a 
lower  excess  of  air  and  a  higher  percentage  of  CO2  in 
the  furnace  gases.  The  minimum  losses  in  the  furnace 
having  a  small  combustion  space  are  much  larger  than 
the  minimum  losses  in  the  furnace  equipped  with  a  large 
combustion  space.  However,  with  a  large  combustion  space 
the  minimum  losses  extend  over  a  much  smaller  range 
of  excess  air  than  they  would  with  a  smaller  combustion 
space.  This  means  that  with  a  furnace  having  a  large  com- 
bustion space,  more  skill  is  required  to  keep  its  performance 
within  the  narrow  range  of  minimum  losses  or  maximum 
efficiency  than  to  operate  a  small  furnace  at  its  best.  With 
the  furnace  having  a  small  combustion  space  a  variation  of 
50  to  100  per  cent,  in  the  excess  of  air  makes  little  difference 
in  the  performance  of  the  furnace.  However,  the  maximum 
efficiency  of  the  furnace  having  the  large  combustion  space 
is  so  much  higher  than  that  of  the  furnace  with  the  small 
space  that  there  is  little  doubt  left  as  to  which  is  prefer- 
able. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  at  the  surface  of  the  fuel 
bed  the  combustible  gases  represent  35  to  65  per  cent,  of 
the  total  heat  value  of  the  coal.  This  means  that  under 
ordinary  operation  of  the  side-feed  furnace  about  one-half 
of  the  total  heat  in  the  coal  is  developed  in  the  fuel  bed, 
the  other  half  being  developed  in  the  combustion  space. 
Among  other  factors,  it  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  com- 
bustion space  how  much  of  the  50  per  cent,  of  heat  left  in 
the  combustible  rising  from  tlie  fuel  bed.  is  developed. 
There  then  follow  in  the  bulletin  a  number  of  curves  show- 
ing the  relation  between  the  completeness  of  combustion 
and  the  length  and  volume  of  the  combustion  space;  also 
the  effect  of  the  excess  of  air  and  the  rate  of  firing  on  the 


completeness  of  combustion  at  the  various  sections  of  the 
combustion  space.  , 

Figs.  3  and  4  (Figs.  29  and  30  of  the  bulletin)  may.be 
used  for  determining  the  size  of  the  combustion  space 
required  for  given  conditions  in  the  following  manner: 
Suppose  that  it  is  desired  to  design  a  furnace  that  will  burn 
Illinois  coal  at  the  rate  of  40  lb.  per  sq.ft.  of  grate  per  hour 
with  50  per  cent,  excess  of  air,  and  with  an  incomplete 
combustion  of  only  2  per  cent,  of  the  heat  in  the  coal  as 
fired.  For  the  solution  of  this  problem  the  left  half  of 
Fig.  3  can  be  used.  Refer  to  the  group  of  curves  desig- 
nated by  2  per  cent,  (undeveloped  heat)  at  the  left  margin. 
From  the  intersection  point  of  the  horizontal  line  of  40  lb. 
rate  of  combustion  with  the  curve  of  50  per  cent,  excess 
of  air,  a  vertical  lino  is  followed  to  the  bottom  of  the  figure, 
where,  in  the  second  scale,  the  size  of  the  combustion  space 
is  found  to  be  5.8  cu.ft.  to  every  square  foot  of  grate.  The 
first  scale  indicates  that  the  length  of  gas  traveled  for  this 

^ r- ,,,,,,,,,    ,600 


Surface  of    Fuel    Bed 

FIG.    2.      PROGRESS    OF   COMPOSITION   OF  GASES   AT 

VARIOUS    DISTANCES   PROM   THE   FUEL   BED 

condition  should  be  about  18  ft.  The  first  scale  at  the  bot- 
tom indicates  that,  with  the  experimental  furnace,  about 
145  cu.ft.  of  combustion  space  was  needed  to  satisfy  the 
given  conditions,  the  space  extending  to  within  1  ft.  of 
section  B  of  the  furnace,  which  is  at  a  distance  approxi- 
mately 10  ft.  from  the  front  wall  of  the  furnace  or  firebox. 

If  Pocahontas  coal  is  to  be  burned  under  the  same  con- 
ditions, the  required  size  of  the  combustion  space  is  ob^ 
tained  from  the  group  of  curves  designated  by  2  per  cent, 
undeveloped  heat  in  the  right  half  of  the  same  figure. 
From  the  intersection  point  of  the  horizontal  line  a  rate 
of  combustion  of  40  lb.  with  the  curve  of  50  per  cent,  of 
excess  air  in  the  vertical  line  is  followed  to  the  bottom  of 
the  figure,  where  the  second  scale  indicates  that  about 
3.2  cu.ft.  of  combustion  space  is  needed  for  every  square 
foot  of  grate  area  and  that  the  length  of  the  gas  path 
should   be   about   10   feet. 

When  Pittsburgh  run-of-mine  coal  is  to  be  burned,  it 
is  found  in  the  same  manner  from  the  left  half  of  Fig.  4 
that  the  best  results  can  be  obtained  with  a  rate  of  volume 
to  grate  area  of  about  3.9  to  1  and  an  average  length  of 
gas  travel  of  about  12  feet. 

Thus,  the  three  coals,  Pocahontas,  Pittsburgh  and  Illinois, 
require  3.2,  3.9  and  5.8  cu.ft.  of  space  per  square  foot  of 
grate,  respectively,  to  burn  40  lb.  of  coal  per  square  foot 
of  grate  per  hour,  50  per  cent,  excess  of  air.  and  incom- 
plete combustion  of  2  per  cent,  of  the  total  heat 'in  the  coal 
as  fired.  According  to.  the  right  half  of  Fig.  4,  when 
burning  ,  Pittsburgh    screenings,    only    about    3.1    cu.ft.    of 


598 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


combustion  space  is  required  per  square  foot  of  grate  to 
burn  the  coal  with  the  same  results.  Tliis  is  about  the  same 
combustion  space  required  per  square  foot  of  grate  to  burn 
Pocahontas   coal. 

When  considering  the  volume  of  combustion  space,  it 
is  well  to  add  that  the  length  of  the  gas  travel  is  probably 
an  important  factor.  It  seems  that  a  long  narrow  com- 
bustion space  is  more  efficient  in  burning  the  gases  than 
a  short  wide  one  having  the  same  cubical  space.  In  the 
long  narrow  space,  the  gases  travel  with  a  higher  velocity. 


f 


I      1      I 


B 


100 
I    Niblume   Cubic  Feet 
6     I     ibl      1E|2         i|        <o 
Volume  of  Volume  to  Grote  Areo 
?i       M      34     595      9      14        19      £4      S9      34 
I  Distance    Teet  |         |        |         I         I 

E      fohAbc      DEfe 
Section 


the  combustion  space  from  Pittsburgh  to  Illinois  coal  is 
much  larger  than  the  increase  from  Pocahontas  to  Pitts- 
burgh coal.  Roughly  speaking,  under  the  same  conditions 
Pittsburgh  coal  requires  about  20  per  cent,  larger  com- 
bustion space  than  Pocahontas  coal,  while  Illinois  coal  re- 
quires about  40  per  cent,  larger  combustion  space  than 
Pittsburgh  coal.  That  the  size  of  the  combustion  space 
does  not  increase  in  direct  proportion  to  the  percentage  of 
volatile  matter  in  the  coal  is  shown  graphically  in  another 
curve  of  the  bulletin  designated  as  Fig.  31,  which  curve 
does  not  appear  here.  If  the  relation  of  the  size  of  the 
combustion  space  to  the  percentage  of  volatile  matter  were 
a  direct  proportion,  the  relation  would  be  represented  by  a 
straight  line.  The  curves  are  far  from  straight  lines  and 
become  more  and  more  curved  as  conditions  of  less  complete 


FIG.    3.      COMBUSTION    VOLUME   REQUIRED    FOR    ILLINOIS 
AND    POCAHONTAS    COALS 

Shows  the  relation  between  the  required  combustion  volume, 
given  completeness  of  combustion,  rate  ot  flrmg  and  excess  air. 
Figure  on  each  curve  indicates  percentage  of  excess  air. 

which  promotes  mixing  and  therefore  quickens  the  com- 
bustion. In  the  short  wide  space,  the  gases  remain  the 
same  length  of  time,  but  travel  slower.  On  account  of  this 
slower  movement,  the  gases  are  less  agitated  and  tend  to 
travel  in  stratified  streams.  Therefore,  there  is  less  mixing 
and  the  combustion  is  slower.  It  is  advisable  that  in  using 
the  data  of  Figs.  3  and  4  in  designing  a  furnace,  the  path 
of  the  gases  be  made  nearly  as  long  as  in  the  experimental 
furnace  as  practicable. 

Table  V  of  the  bulletin  (here  Table  I)  is  one  which 
undoubtedly  should  be  of  practical  value  to  the  designer  of 
furnaces  or  to  the  man  responsible  for  furnace  alterations. 
The  table  gives  the  size  of  the  required  combustion  space 
for  the  three  coals  and  several  sets  of  conditions  indicated 
by  columns  1,  2  and  3  of  the  table.  Examination  of  the 
values  in  columns  4,  5  and  6  shows  that  the  size  of  the  com- 
bustion space  does  not  increase  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
percentage  of  volatile  matter  in  the  coal.     The  increase  in 


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FIG.    4.      COMBUSTION    VOLUME   REQUIRED    FOR 

PITTSBURGH  COALS 

Figures    on    curves    denote    excess    air 

combustion  are  considered  and  the  combustion  space  becomes 
smaller.  However,  in  the  opposite  direction  toward  com- 
plete combustion  the  curves  seem  to  approach  a  straight 
line. 

That  the  size  of  the  required  combustion  space  under 
ordinary  degrees  of  completeness  of  combustion  does  not 
vary  in  direct  proportion  as  the  quantity  of  volatile  matter 
even  if  the  quality  of  the  latter  remains  constant  can  be 
deduced  from  Table  V  by  comparing  the  two  rates  of  com- 
bustion of  the  same  coal.  Thus,  when  the  rate  of  com- 
bustion is  doubled,  the  quantity  of  the  volatile  matter  dis- 
tilled per  unit  of  time  is  doubled.  However,  to  burn  this 
double  quantity  of  volatile  matter  with  the  same  excess  of 


April  23,  1918 


POWER 


599 


air  to  the  same  completeness,  the  combustion  space  is 
increased  only  about  '20  per  cent. 

The  following  paragraph  is  quite  significant  in  view  of 
the  experience  that  \vc  have  had  in  the  burning  of  coal  in  a 
practical  way.  It  explains  why  some  settings  fail  in  one 
place  and  succeed  in  another. 

The  quality  of  the  volatile  combustible,  as  far  as  the 
ease  of  burning  is  concerned,  is  perhaps  best  expressed 
by  item  0  in  Table  I,  showing;  the  ratio  of  volatile  carbon 
to  available  hydrogen.  These  values  were  obtained  by 
dividing  the  volatile  carbon  by  the  available  hydrogen  and 
are  probably  fair  indicators  of  the  burning  qualities  of 
the  coals.  The  amount  of  volatile  carbon  was  computed  by 
subtracting  the  amount  of  fixed  carbon  from  that  of  the 
total  carbon.  The  available  hydi-ogen  is  equal  to  the  hydro- 
gen content  on  a  moisture  and  ash-free  basis  minus  one- 
eighth  of  the  oxygen  content.  The  ratio  shows  that  the 
volatile  matter  of  the  Pittsburgh  coal  contains  nci^rly  twice 
as  much  carbon,  and  that  of  the  Illinois  coal  three  times  as 
much  carbon,  as  the  Pocahontas  coal.  These  ratios  indicate 
the  probability  that  in  burning  Pocahontas  coal,  the  vola- 
tile combustible  is  distilled  mostly  as  light  gases  which  are 
easily  burned  in  the  diluted  furnace  atmosphere,  whereas. 


TABLE  I. 


CO.MBUSTION   SPACE   REQl'IRED   FOR  POCAHONTAS, 
PITTSBURGH  AN'D  ILLIN'OIS  COALS 


Cubic  Feet  of  Combustion 
.Space  per  Sq.Ft  Orate 
Poca-  Pitts- 

hontas  burgh  Illinois 

4.  5  5 


2  7 

3  2 
3,6 
4.0 

4  8 
2  0 
2  3 

2  7 

3  4 
4.0 


2  9 
3.7 
4.4 
5.6 
6  8 
2  2 
2.7 
3.  I 
4  0 
5.0 


Completeness  of  Rate  of 

Comiiustion,  Combustion,  Excess  of 

per  Cent,  of  Lb.  per  Sq.  Air, 

Undeveloped  Ft.  of  Grate  per 

Heat  perHr.  Cent 

1  2  3 
5  50  50 
3  50  50 

2  50  50 

1  50  50 
0.5  50  50 
5  25  50 

3  25  50 

2  25  50 
1  25  50 
0  5  25  50 

in  burning  Illinois  coal  the  volatile  combustible  leaves  the 
fuel  bed  mostly  as  heavy  hydrocarbons  in  the  form  of  tars, 
which,  in  the  diluted  oxygen  of  the  furnace  atmosphere, 
are  first  decomposed  into  the  lighter  hydrocarbons  and 
carbons,  the  latter  being  precipitated  as  soot.  This  mixture 
of  soot,  tar  and  gases  burns  slowly  and  requires  a  large 
combustion  space  for  its  complete  combustion. 

In  general,  the  higher  the  carbon  content  in  the  carbon- 
hydrogen  compound  the  more  time  is  required  for  their 
combustion.  Therefore,  it  may  be  expected  that  as  the 
ratio  of  volatile  carbon  to  available  hydrogen  increases, 
the  size  of  the  combustion  space  required  for  a  given  degi'ee 
of  completeness  also  increases.  In  a  rough  way,  when 
nearly  complete  combustion  is  desired,  the  size  of  com- 
bustion space  varies  directly  as  the  product  of  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  volatile  matter  as  the  two  are  given  in 
items  1  and  6  of  Table  IV  (here  Table  I).  As  the  com- 
bustion becomes  less  complete,  the  curve  showing  the  rela- 
tion between  this  product  and  the  size  of  the  combustion 
space  is  fai-ther  from  a  straight  line.  Distillation  at  low 
temperatures  favors  the  formation  of  light  hydrocarbons 
of  the  paraifin  series,  which  contain  more  hydrogen  and 
less  carbon  than  the  hydrocarbon  of  the  aromatic  group, 
which  are  distilled  at  high  temperature.  The  hydrocarbons 
of  the  paraffin  series  are  more  stable  at  high  temperatures 
and,  on  account  of  their  higher  hydrogen  content,  are  more 
likely  to  burn  completely  without  depositing  soot.  It  re- 
quires one  molecule  of  oxygen  to  burn  completely  one  atom 
of  carbon,  whereas  one  molecule  of  oxygen  burns  com- 
pletely four  atoms  of  hydrogen.  Thus,  of  two  compounds 
having  the  same  number  of  atoms  in  a  molecule,  the  one 
having  more  hydrogen  requires  less  oxygen  for  its  com- 
bustion, and  therefore,  in  the  same  concentration  of  oxygen, 
will  burn  more  readily.  The  authors  here  go  into  quite  a 
detailed  statement  relative  to  the  composition  of  the  vari- 
ous hydrocarbons,  and  the  discussion  shows  the  advantage 
of  distilling  volatile  matter  at  low  temperatures,  producing 
mostly  paraffin  or  other  hydrocarbons  of  this  group.  The 
furnace  should  be  so  designed  that  distillation  takes  place 
at  low  temperature.  After  the  volatile  matter  is  distilled, 
air  should  be  added  and  the  mixture  thus  passed  through 
a  hot  chamber,  especially  with  the  smoky  coal,  for  the 
reason  that  slow  and  uniform  heating  of  the  coal  occurs 


when  the  coal  is  highest  in  volatile  contents,  or  in  other 
words,  when  it  is  admitted  to  the  furnace  distillation  taking 
place  in  a  low  temperature  and  in  the  presence  of  oxygen. 
With  most  of  the  common  types  of  mechanical  stokers  the 
distillation  of  volatile  matter  occurs  in  the  presence  of 
oxygen,  whereas  in  hand-fired  furnaces  distillation  is  almost 
in  entire  absence  of  oxygen,  all  of  the  latter  being  con- 
sumed as  it  passes  through  the  fuel  bed.  Even  if  there 
should  be  some  tendency  to  decomposition  with  the  me- 
chanical stokers,  the  presence  of  large  percentages  of 
oxygen  at  the  point  of  distillation  makes  it  possible  for  the 
hydrocarbons  to  react  with  oxygen  before  the  deposition 
of  carbon  can  really  take  place.  High  temperatures,  such 
as  exist  in  boiler  furnaces  and  in  the  absence  of  oxygen, 
promote  the  decomposition  of  all  hydrocarbons,  including 
methane,  the  lightest  of  the  paraffin  series,  one  of  the 
products  of  decomposition  being  soot.  When  methane  is 
burned  with  insufficient  air  supply,  it  burns  with  a  yellow 
flame  and  deposits  soot.  It  should,  therefore,  be  burned 
with  some  excess  of  air  and  with  provision  for  obtaining 
a  good  burning  mixture,  otherwise  soot  will  be  deposited. 

The  authors  devote  considerable  space  to  a  discussion 
of  soot  and  its  formation.  The  subject  is  interesting  and 
important  enough  to  warrant  mention  here.  Tests  show 
that  the  combustible  matter  rising  from  the  fuel  bed  was 
roughly  12  per  cent,  in  the  form  of  tar  and  soot.  The  coal 
was  Pittsburgh  screening.  Immediately  at  the  surface  of 
the  fuel  bed  the  quantity  of  tar  is  largest,  but  decreases 
rapidly  as  the  gases  pass  through  the  combustion  space. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  soot  increases  during  the  first  foot 
of  gas  travel.  In  general,  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  com- 
bustion and  in  the  excess  of  air  is  accompanied  by  a  de- 
crease in  the  quantity  of  soot,  particularly  in  the  quantity 
of  tar.  With  all  rates  of  combustion  and  all  excess  of  air, 
there  is  a  large  decrease  in  the  quantity  of  tar  and  a 
moderate  increase  in  the  quantity  of  soot,  during  the  first 
foot  of  the  length  of  gas  travel. 

This  decrease  in  the  quantity  of  tar  and  increase  in 
the  quantity  of  soot  seems  to  indicate  that  the  volatile 
matter  leaves  the  fuel  bed  as  heavy  hydrocarbon  mostly 
in  the  form  of  tar.  These  tars  are  decomposed  by  the  high 
furnace  temperature  and  in  the  absence  of  oxygen  into  soot 
and   lighter,  more   gaseous   hydrocarbons.     The   process   of 

TABLE  II.  CHEMICAL  CHARACTER  I.STICS  OF  THREE  COALS  TESTED 

Illinois 
Coal 


Pocahontas  Pittsburgh 
"     ■  Coal 


Coal 
05 


L  Volatile  matter  in  moisture  and  ash-fre 

coal,  per  cent 18  05  34. 77 

2.  Fixed  carbon  in  moisture  and  ash-free 

coal,  per  cent 81   93  65.  23 

3.  Carbon  in  moisture  and  ash-free  coal,  per 

cent   90.50  85  7 

4.  Volatile  carbon  in  moisture  and  ash-free 

coal,  per  cent 8.55  20  47 

5.  Available  hydrogen  in  moisture  and  ash-  ^ 

free  coal,  per  cent 3  96  4.70 

6.  Ratio    of    volatile    carbon    to    available 

hydrogen,  per  cent 2.16  4.  35 

7.  Oxygen  in  moisture  and  ash-free  coal,  per 

.cent 3.32  5.59 

8.  Nitrogen  in  moisture  and  ash-free  coal, 

percent 1    19  I    73 

9.  Moisture  accompanying  100  per  cent,  of 

moisture  and  ash-free  coal,  per  cent. .  .        2.53  2  88 

10.  Volatile   matter   times   ratio   of   volatile 

carbon  to  available  hvdrogen  (product 

of  items  I  and  6) 39  0  15100 

11.  Ratio    of    oxvgen    to    total    carbon,    in 

moisture  and  ash-free  coal 0  0367  0.0652 

1 2.  Total  moisture  in  furnace  per  lb.  of  coal 

reduced  to  moisture  and  ash-free  basis, 

lb 0  409  0,501 


46  52 

53  48 

79  7 

26  22 

3  96 

6  5 

10  93 

I  70 

22  07 

307  00 
0  137 

0    70 


the  decomposition  of  the  hydrocarbons  very  likely  consists 
of  a  number  of  consecutive  reactions  each  step  of  which 
is  accompanied  by  the  deposition  of  soot  and  formation  of 
lighter  hydrocarbons.  This  process  of  decomposition  is 
complicated  by  the  presence  of  COj,  which  reacts  with  the 
soot  and  combustible  gases  and  is  itself  reduced  to  CO.  The 
decomposition  and  reduction  proceed  toward  the  simple 
gases  CO  and  H~. 

The  length  of  tim.e  in  which  the  tars  are  decomposed  into 
soot  and  gases  is  short.  At  the  rate  of  combustion  of  30 
lb.  per  sq.ft.  of  grate  per  hour,  the  gases  travel  with  a 
velocity  of  about  10  ft.  per  second.  As  most  of  the  tar  dis- 
appears during  the  first  foot  of  the  gas  travel  from  the 
fuel  bed,  the  time  taken  for  the  decomposition  of  the  tar 
is  about  one-tenth  of  a  second.     This  high  rate  of  decom- 


600 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


position  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  high  temperature  near 
the  fuel  bed,  which  in  the  test  was  probably  not  less  than 
1.500  deg.  C,  or  2732  deg.  F.  This  is  a  dazzling  white  heat. 
In  the  light  of  the  preceding  discussion  it  appears  that  soot, 
which  is  the  main  constituent  of  visible  smoke,  is  formed 
at  or  very  near  the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed  and  not  at  the 
place  where  the  furnace  gases  strike  the  heating  surface 
of  the  boiler.  The  heating  surfaces  merely  cool  the  gases 
sui-rounding  the  soot,  thereby  preventing  its  combustion. 
The  formation  of  soot  at  the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed  is 
caused  by  the  high  furnace  temperature  and  absence  of 
o.xygen.  It  is  possible  that  if  oxygen  was  present  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  at  the  time  of  distillation  of  volatile  matter, 
the  heavy  hydrocarbons  would  burn  directly  to  products  of 
complete  combustion,  CO2  and  HiO,  without  first  decom- 
posing and  depositing  soot.  After  the  soot  has  once  been 
formed,  it  is  difficult  to  burn  it  in  the  atmosphere  of  the 
furnace.  This  fact  has  been  observed  by  many  inves- 
tigators, and  some  of  the  early  writers  on  combustion  even 
considered  soot  as  noncombustible.  At  present  no  support 
can  be  found  for  this  extreme  view.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
all  combustible  substances  burn  slowly  in  an  atmosphere 
of  highly  diluted  oxygen,  but  in  the_  case  of  soot  this  slow- 
ness is  much  more  pronounced.  The  reason  for  the  very 
slow  combustion  of  soot  in  highly  diluted  oxygen  probably 
lies  in  its  complex  molecular  structure.  The  chances  of  the 
molecule  of  soot  finding  the  12  molecules  of  oxygen  pre- 
sumably required  to  burn  it  are  small. 

Cracking  of  Tar  in  the  Furnace 

Tar  exists  in  the  furnace  in  the  form  of  vapor,  an  ideal 
condition  for  cracking.  The  small  globules  present  a  large 
surface  for  absorption  of  heat  from  the  gases  and  hot 
furnace  walls  and  are  quickly  heated  to  a  high  temperature 
which  favors  the  formation  of  carbon. 

On  account  of  the  complex  nature  of  tar,  a  great  many 
reactions  are  involved  in  its  decomposition.  In  general,  the 
cracking  is  similar  to  that  of  hydrocarbon  gases,  but  many 
more  compounds  are  Involved,  and  the  result  is  a  com- 
plicated equilibrium  among  a  large  number  of  hydro- 
carbons. Little  experimental  data  are  available  on  equilib- 
rium and  the  velocity  of  these  reactions;  however,  the  high 
temperature  in  the  furnace  and  the  fact  that  the  tar  is  in  a 
state  of  subdivision  favor  rapid  cracking  and  the  forma- 
tion of  lai'ge  amounts  of  carbon.  This  view  Is  supported 
by  the  results  shown  in  Fig.  44  of  the  bulletin,  but  not  given 
here.  The  greatest  amount  of  tar  is  found  with  a  larger 
proportion  of  soot.  The  amount  of  tar  and  the  gases  de- 
creases rapidly  as  the  distance  from  the  fuel  beds  increases; 
at  an  average  distance  of  5  ft.,  the  tar  has  nearly  dis- 
appeared. The  velocity  of  combustion  of  hydrocarbon  is 
faster  than  the  velocity  of  decomposition;  therefore,  com- 
bustion will  take  precedence  over  decomposition  for  this 
reason.  Air  supplied  over  the  fuel  bed  should  be  admitted 
as  near  to  the  surface  of  the  bed  as  possible  and  mixed 
with  the  hydrocarbons  so  that  they  will  be  burned  before 
they  are  decomposed  by  heat  and  form  smoke,  which  is 
difficult  to  burn  in  the  diluted  oxygen  of  the  furnace. 

Pages  125  to  134  are  devoted  to  an  interesting  explana- 
tion of  the  chemistry  of  combustion  as  carried  on  in  a  boiler 
furnace.     These  pages  ai'e  omitted  in  this  review. 

What  the  authors  have  to  say  relative  to  the  future 
method  of  using  bituminous  coal  is  interesting.  Difficulty 
in  burning  bituminous  coal  in  industrial  furnaces  is  due 
almost  entirely  to  the  volatile  matter  because  this  leaves 
the  fuel  bed  as  gases  and  tars  and  must  be  burned  in  the 
conibustion  space  of  the  furnace.  Unless  enough  air  is 
introduced  immediately  at  the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed  and 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  volatile  combustible,  the  tars 
and  more  complex  combustible  gases  are  quickly  decom- 
posed or  cracked  into  soot  and  simple  gases.  The  soot 
thus  formed  is  difficult  to  burn  in  a  dilute  furnace 
atmosphere  and  is  likely  to  pass  out  of  the  furnace  as  black 
smoke,  particularly  if  the  furnace  is  hand-fired.  The  fixed 
carbon  is  easy  to  burn  because  it  stays  on  the  grate.  It 
burns  partly  to  COs,  partly  to  CO,  which  in  turn  can  be 
burned  to  CO2  with  additional  air  introduced  above  the  fuel 
bed.  The  authors  here  point  out  that  the  various  measures 
tried  by  individuals  and  cities  to  prevent  smoke  have,  on 
the  whole,  done  but  little  to  solve  the  problem.    In  view  of 


what  is  known  of  the  chemistry  of  fuels  and  the  possible 
advancement  of  such  knowledge  in  the  near  future,  it  is 
questionable  whether  the  method  used  in  attacking  the 
smoke  problem  was  the  best  as  regards  fuel  economy,  the 
authors  say.  The  persistence  of  smokiness  in  burning 
bituminous  coal  shows  that  there  is  room  for  improvement 
in  methods  of  burning.  The  volatile  matter  of  bituminous 
coal  would  have  greater  economic  value  if  converted  into 
gas  or  liquid  fuel  than  if  burned  under  steam  boilers. 
Under  present  market  conditions  heat  in  the  form  of  coal 
gas  brings  eight  to  sixteen  times  the  price  of  an  equivalent 
amount  of  heat  in  the  form  of  coal.  Gas  is  an  extremely 
convenient  fuel  and  can  be  used  to  advantage  for  many 
purposes,  such  as  cooking,  lighting  and  heating  buildings, 
municipal  lighting  and  in  some  industrial  plants  for  ob- 
taining a  uniformly  high  temperature  and  clean  products 
of  combustion.  The  residue  from  the  coking  coals  should 
find  a  ready  market  for  househeating  and  for  steaming 
purposes. 

By  the  application  of  proper  processes,  it  seems  possible 
to  reduce  a  large  part  of  the  volatile  matter  to  liquid,  of 
which  an  appreciable  percentage  could  be  obtained  in  the 
form  of  light  oils  suitable  for  motor  fuels.  Benzol  has 
been  obtained  at  byproduct  plants  for  many  years  without 
any  special  effort  to  produce  it.  There  is  no  doubt  that- 
with  well-developed  methods  the  yield  of  benzol  and  similar 
oils  could  be  greatly  increased.  The  value  of  heat  in  the 
form  of  motor  fuel  is  twenty  to  thirty  times  as  great  as 
that  of  heat  in  the  form  of  coal. 

As  the  supply  of  bituminous  coal  is  enormous,  the  uses 
of  the  oil  are  practically  unlimited  and  the  margin  of  profit 
in  the  conversion  is  large,  it  would  seem  that  the  develop- 
ment of  highly  productive  methods  would  be  rapid.  By 
itself,  the  coke  residue  from  such  plants  would  have  con- 
siderable commercial  valuS,  and  if  its  price  were  made 
equivalent  to  that  of  coal,  it  would  doubtless  find  a  wide 
margin  for  house-heating  and  steaming  purposes.  The 
higher  the  percentage  of  volatile  combustible  the  higher 
will  be  the  commercial  value  of  the  coal.  The  time  may 
come  when  our  views  of  the  relative  values  of  different  coals 
will  change,  and  we  shall  consider  anthracite  as  of  minor 
importance  as  compared  with  the  high-volatile  bituminous 
coals. 

The  authors  say  that  reports  from  Europe  indicate  that 
after  the  war  the  world  will  be  informed  of  some  extraor- 
dinary developments  in  the  utilization  of  bituminous  coal 
in  certain  countries,  and  that  these  developments  will  be 
of  striking  importance  to  the  manufacturers  of  the  United 
States. 

The  bulletin  is  one  that  every  engineer  concerned  with 
furnaces,  stokers  and  combustion  should  include  in  his 
library.  It  may  be  had  free  by  addressing  the  Director, 
Bureau  of  Mines,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Engine  Wreck  from  Unusual  Cause 

An  item  in  the  Swiss  engineering  journal,  Schweizerische 
Bauzeitung,  tells  of  the  breakage  of  a  cylinder  head  due 
to  an   unusual   cause,  bad  lubricating  oil. 

The  rear  cylinder  cover  of  a  500-hp.  uniflow  steam  en- 
gine was  forced  out  during  operation  but  not  by  water- 
hammer,  the  usual  cause.  The  cause  of  the  break  was 
found  to  be  in  the  bad  quality  of  the  cylinder  oil  (tar  oil) . 
The  deposit  from  this  very  thick  oil,  which  also  contained 
various  mechanical  impurities,  accumulated  on  the  piston 
and  cylinder-head  surfaces  in  a  continually  thickening 
crust  which  finally  filled  the  entire  clearance  space  at  the 
back  end  of  the  cylinder  and  in  time  began  to  strike,  com- 
pressing the  substance  more  and  more  solidly  and  finally 
forcing  the  cylinder  head  out. 


A  saving  of  25  per  cent,  in  ammonia  consumption  by 
ice  and  refrigeration  plants  will  mean  several  million 
pounds  annually  for  munitions.  A  pound  of  ammonia  will 
make  20  hand  grenades.  Ice  cream  and  refrigeration  con- 
cerns are  asked  to  do  everything  in  their  power  to  stop 
waste  and  leakage  of  ammonia,  and  report  on  the  first  of 
each  month  what  is  being  done  to  conserve  it. 


April  23,  li)18 


POWER 


601 


Steam-Electric    Power-Plant    Design* 

By  a.  S.  Loizeaux 

IN  THIS  lecture  the  speaker  genernlizes  on  principles  that 
may  be  used  as  a  guide  in  power-plant  design.  It  is  most 
important  for  an  engineer  to  consider  and  understand 
principles  rather  than  individual  facts,  because  every  engi- 
neer's work  presents  problems  of  its  own,  which  can  be  best 
solved  only  by  applying  genei-al  principles  to  decide  the 
best  design  for  the  case. 

It  is  necessary  to  pass  the  circulating  water  through 
screens  located  in  the  intake  tunnel,  to  eliminate  foreign 
materials.  Friction  through  the  screens  will  be  a  consider- 
able item.  The  drop  in  head  should  be  modest,  perhaps  not 
more  than  one  or  two  feet,  in  order  to  reduce  the  lift  re- 
quired by  the  circulating  pump.  Stationary  screens  may 
be  satisfactory  where  the  water  is  exceptionally  good,  but 
where  any  considerable  amount  of  foreign  matter  exists, 
revolving  screens  are  required.  Stationary  screens  were 
used  at  Westport,  but  they  became  clogged  at  frequent 
intervals.  In  some  cases  clogging  resulted  in  a  three-foot 
drop  of  head  through  the  screen.  This  would  take  place 
in  a  few  hours,  the  resultant  pressure  damaging  the  screens 
by  bending.  On  raising  the  screens  they  would  be  found 
stopped  with  foreign  matter  and,  in  some  cases,  several 
wheelban-ow  loads  of  fish  and  crabs.  Revolving  screens 
have  eliminated  these  difficulties  and  give  entire  satisfac- 
tion. They  are  not  operated  continuously,  but  only  at  such 
intervals  as  the  conditions  require.  The  washing  of  these 
screens  is  automatically  done  by  means  of  a  pipe  with 
high-pressure  water  impinging  on  the  screen  after  it  turns 
over  the  top  guide. 

Bunker  Capacity  Neehded 

The  coal  bunker  should  have  a  storage  capacity  for  at 
least  48  hours'  operation  or  more  to  provide  for  interrup- 
tion of  the  coal  supply.  Automatic  coal  scales  are  now 
generally  used  to  feed  all  stokers.  Boiler-house  records 
can  then  readily  check  the  coal  used  by  the  plant,  the  duty 
of  each  boiler,  and  an  efficiency  test  can  be  made  on  any 
boiler  when  desired. 

The  water-tube  boiler  practically  holds  the  entire  field  in 
large  power-plant  work.  Both  straight-tube  and  curved- 
tube  boilers  are  used. 

Boiler  horsepower  has  been  by  common  agreement  taken 
to  be  10  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface,  this  being  approximately 
the  heating  surface  required  in  old  designs  to  produce  one 
boiler  horsepower  of  34.5  lb.  of  water  evaporated  from  and 
at  212  deg.  F. 

It  has  been  found,  however,  that  boiler  capacity  has  been 
limited  only  by  furnace  capacity  under  the  boiler  and  that 
with  modern  types  of  stokers  the  boiler  capacity  can  be 
increased  to  double  or  even  three  times  its  normal  rating. 
For  the  sake  of  uniformity,  the  normal  boiler  horsepower 
remains  as  before. 

Economical  boiler-house  design  today  must  provide  for 
stokers,  as  may  be  readily  seen  by  considering  the  invest- 
ment required  for  a  definite  output.  A  hand-fired  boiler 
will  develop  rated  boiler  capacity  continuously,  and  under 
the  best  conditions  may  reach  150  per  cent.  A  good  stoker 
will  deliver  continuously  twice  rated  boiler  capacity  and 
over  peaks  three  times  rated  capacity,  thus  producing  with 
the  same  boiler  twice  the  output  of  the  hand-fired  boiler. 
It  is  evident  that  this  is  equivalent  to  cutting  boiler-house 
investment  nearly  in  half  by  the  use  of  stokers. 

The  boiler  setting  required  for  underfed  stokers  must  be 
higher  than  for  hand-fired  boilers,  a  space  of  ten  feet  from 
the  stoker  surface  to  the  tubes  being  required  for  thorough 
combustion. 

Draft  through  the  fuel  bed  is  provided  by  blowers  in 
connection  with  stokers  as  before  mentioned.  It  is  not 
feasible  to  provide  sufficient  draft  by  this  means,  however, 
to  carry  the  gases  through  the  boilers,  because  a  positive 
pressure  in  the  furnace  as  compared  with  the  atmosphere 
would  produce  a  movement  of  the  heated  gases  through 
the  boiler  setting  to  the  outside  and  would  soon  destroy 


•Abstract  from  a  lecture  delivered  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, Baltimore,  Md.,  Mar.  13,  1918,  as  one  of  the  J.  K  Aldred 
Lectures  on  Enerineering  Practice. 


even  the  best  firebrick.  A  slight  negative  pressure  should 
be  maintained  in  the  combustion  chamber,  and  this  negative 
pressure  or  suction  will  therefore  be  increased  throughout 
the  several  pusses  of  the  boiler  and  through  the  breechings 
to  the  stack.  To  provide  this  draft  or  negative  pressure  a 
chimney  must  be  provided. 

The  draft  available  with  given  stack  temperature  is 
roughly  proportional  to  the  height  of  the  chimney  except 
that  friction  cuts  down  this  proportion.  The  capacity  in 
cubic  feet  per  minute  is  roughly  proportional  to  the  cross- 
section  of  the  chimney.  Steel  chimneys  are  sometimes  used, 
but  their  upkeep  is  greater  than  for  brick  chimneys.  A 
steel  chimney  should  be  lined  all  the  way  to  the  top  to  pre- 
vent corrosion  on  the  inside,  and  it  requires  frequent  paint- 
ing on  the  outside.  Masonry  chimneys  are  made  of  per- 
forated radial  tile  to  conserve  heat  and  material,  and  they 
are  designed  to  be  stable  at  various  sections  throughout 
their  height.     Their  upkeep  is  negligible. 

Mechanical  Exhausters  Unsatisfactory 
Mechanical  exhausters  have  been  tried  in  lieu  of  chim- 
neys, but   have   been  unsatisfactory  owing  to  the   lack   of 
reliability   of  fans   working   in   high   temperature.     In   de- 
signing  breechings   three   points   should   be   kept  in   mind: 

(1)  Connections  to   stack   should  be   as   short  as  possible; 

(2)  as  few  as  possible  changes  in  direction  and  use  bends 
where  this  is  unavoidable;  (3)  practically  uniform  speed 
of  gas,  requiring  cross-section  proportional  to  the  gas 
carried. 

A  three-pass  boiler  has  a  distinct  advantage  in  draft  con- 
nections as  compared  vrith  four-pass  boilers  because  of 
lower  friction  and  larger  passes  available. 

Superheat  of  100  to  200  deg.  F.  is  used  to  improve  the 
economy  of  generation.  This  also  avoids  water  in  the  steam 
delivered  to  the  turbine.  The  use  of  superheated  steam 
requires  the  use  of  cast  steel  for  all  valve  bodies  and  fit- 
tings, as  cast  iron  under  the  greater  heat  will  expand  or 
grow  until  sometimes  rupture  occurs. 

Pipes  for  high-pressure  steam  are  made  of  vsrrought  steel 
of  about  the  same  grade  as  boiler  steel.  The  size  of  piping 
is  determined  by  the  speed  of  steam  through  piping  to 
supply  normally  a  maximum  load.  A  few  years  ago  engi- 
neers were  using  velocities  of  10,000  ft.  per  min.  and  higher 
for  normal  load.  It  was  found  that  these  velocities  pro- 
duced a  greater  drop  in  pressure  than  was  expected,  the 
loss  occurring  possibly  to  a  large  extent  in  bends  and  fit- 
tings. Our  present  practice  is  to  allow  8000  ft.  per  min. 
for  normal  load.  When  overloads  are  carried  higher  veloci- 
ties may  be  produced,  but  as  these  periods  are  of  short  dura- 
tion, they  will  not  be  serious. 

Heaters  Should  Be  Well  Above  Pumps 
The  use  of  a  feed-water  heater  with  water  carrying  solid 
matter  in  solution  often  acts  as  a  purifier  in  causing  this 
solid  matter  to  separate  out  and  be  deposited,  in  the  heater, 
as  its  temperature  is  raised.  Heaters  should  be  located 
well  above  boiler-feed  pumps  to  provide  positive  heads. 
This  requirement  is  due  to  the  fact  that  hot  water  cannot 
be  lifted  by  suction  without  breaking  the  water  column  due 
to  liberation  of  steam.  The  temperature  of  water  vapor  at 
different  negative  pressures  as  compared  with  atmospheric 
pressure  determines  the  critical  point  for  any  condition  of 
suction  with  hot  water. 

The  day  when  an  engineer  designs  his  own  engine  is 
passed.  Today  manufacturers  are  asked  for  bids  and  speci- 
fications on  units  of  specified  size.  Alternative  designs  are 
often  available,  some  being  more  efficient  and  costly  than 
others.  The  choice  of  proper  equipment  then  is  determined 
by  the  cost  of  output  when  fixed  cost  as  well  as  operating 
cost  is  included.  In  general  the  choice  between  high- 
efficiency,  high-cost  apparatus  and  low-cost,  low-efficiency 
equipment  is  determined  by  the  load  factor,  or  hours  of 
service  per  year.  The  higher  the  load  factor  on  apparatus 
or  plant  the  more  will  the  effect  of  higher  efficiency  make 
itself  felt.  A  plant  that  is  held  simply  as  stand-by  in  case 
of  emergency  and  may  operate  only  a  few  hours  per  year 
is  evidently  a  case  where  lower  cost  would  justify  the  use 
of  low-efficiency  apparatus. 


602 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


It  is  important  that  apparatus  should  be  uniform  in  any 
plant  to  reduce  the  necessary  stock  of  repair  parts  and 
make  it  simpler  for  the  operating  forces.  There  is  a  temp- 
tation in  adding  to  a  power  plant  to  use  apparatus,  such 
as  boilers,  stokers  and  pumps,  and  different  things,  because 
of  some  slight  advantage  in  design  or  cost.  Some  plants 
might  almost  be  termed  museums,  due  to  the  variety  of 
apparatus.  The  designer  should  use  the  utmost  care  in 
first  choosing  type  and  make  of  equipment  and  then  adhere 
to  the  standard  set  throughout  the  plant  unless  some  great 
advantage  unquestionably  makes  it  wise  to  change.  One 
advantage  of  standardizing  is  the  greatly  reduced  engi- 
neering cost  of  adding  to  a  plant  by  using  additional  dupli- 
cate units. 

One  of  the  fundamental  lessons  of  practical  power-house 
experience  is  the  imperative  need  of  spare  equipment.  One 
boiler  in  every  five  or  six  should  be  spare  to  provide  for 
cleaning  and  repair  and  also  for  repairing  the  stokers.  A 
spare  turbo-generating  unit  is  required  in  a  power  house 
whether  the  load  calls  for  one  or  more  units.  The  prac- 
tical capacity  of  a  plant  is  therefore  its  continuous  capacity 
with  one  unit  out  of  service.  Thus  a  plant  designed  to 
carry  100,000  kw.  should  have  the  following  number  of 
units : 


Each    Unit 
1 0,000  kw 
15,000  kw 
20,000  kw 
25,000  kw.. 


Number 

of 

Units 

n 

8 
6 
5 


Total 
Rating, 

Kw. 
110,000 
120.000 
120,000 
125,000 


Safe  Capacity 
One  Unit  Out 
of  Service,  Kw. 

100,000 

105.000 

100,000 

100,000 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  larger  the  individual  unit  the 
greater  capacity  must  be  provided  for  spare,  unless  the 
number  of  units  becomes  large,  and  then  more  than  one 
would  be  required  for  spare.  The  same  principle  of  spare 
equipment  is  applied  to  the  use  of  auxiliaries,  the  common 
design  being  to  provide  for  two  circulating  pumps  with 
each  generating  unit,  also  two  air  pumps  and  two  con- 
densate pumps.  These  auxiliaries  are  frequently  supplied 
with  both  steam  and  electric  drive  for  the  double  purpose 
of  insuring  reliability  and  also  of  controlling  at  will  the 
amount  of  exhaust  steam  available  for  feed-water  heating. 


Those  Damaged  German  Ships 

When  the  history  of  this  audacious  war  is  fully  written, 
there  should  be  no  more  interesting  chapter  than  that  which 
deals  with  the  interned  German  ships  and  their  reappear- 
ance in  a  few  months  as  auxiliary  transports  of  the  United 
States  Navy.  And  this  notwithstanding  the  damage  in- 
flicted upon  them  by  Prussian  orders  was  such  as  was  cal- 
culated to  keep  them  out  of  service  for  two  years  or  what 
the  Germans  had  figured  as  the  period  within  which  the  war 
would  terminate. 

Thirty-seven  German  ships  of  700,000  aggregate  tons  had 
their  74  engine  cylinders  so  broken  that  repairs  within  any 
reasonable  time  seemed  out  of  the  question.  The  biggest 
ships  appeared  to  call  for  new  castings  entirely  beyond  the 
capacity  of  any  foundry  works  in  the  United  States. 

When  the  Shipping  Board  got  down  to  close  estimates,  it 
figured  the  repair  bill  at  $2,600,000  and  time  required  18  to 
24  months.  But  American  enterprise,  combined  with  Amer- 
ican invention,  concentrated  capital  and  industrial  organiza- 
tion in  large  units  accomplished  the  job  in  six  to  eight 
months  at  an  expense  of  only  $273,000.  Every  one  of  these 
ships  has  been  for  many  weeks  most  effectively  in  Uncle 
Sam's  service  except  possibly  the  "Armenia,"  lost  off  the 
Irish  coast. 

The  Navy  Department,  says  the  Boston  News  Bureau, 
has  figured  that  the  saving  in  time  at  the  going  rate  of 
tonnage  had  a  value  of  not  less  than  $240,000,000.  One  of 
the  first  ships  tackled  had  four  cylinders  broken  and  it  was 
estimated  that  18  months  would  be  required  for  repairs.  In 
two  months  the  engines  were  tui-ning  over,  and  in  less  than 
three  months  the  ship  was  finished  and  ready  for  sea. 

Indeed,  the  striking  feature  of  the  whole  situation  is  the 
fact  that  the  repairs  on  all  the  ships  were  made  within  the 
time  required  to  overhaul  the  ships,  clean  their  bottoms  and 
otherwise  make  them  ready  for  sea.    The  Gevmans  had  all 


their  labor  for  their  pains.  What  is  also  well-nigh  in- 
credible, the  ships  are  stronger  than  before  and  the  largest 
of  them  are  more  economically  operated  and  are  actually 
working  better  in  the  American  than  in  the  German  hands. 

Take  the  "Vaterland"  for  example.  She  is  the  biggest 
and  most  beautiful  thing  afloat.  Stood  up  on  Broadway, 
she  would  tower  200  feet  above  the  Woolworth  Building. 
She  has  18  decks,  18  elevators,  5  kitchens,  530  clocks  all 
timed  from  the  main  bridge,  hot  and  cold  water  in  every 
room,  and  many  miles  of  piping,  wiring  and  electric  con- 
trols. This  vessel  was  damaged  as  directed  by  the  govern- 
ment to  insure  her  being  out  of  commission  for  at  least  two 
years.  There  were  no  foundries  on  this  side  of  the  ocean 
that  could  give  the  "Vaterland"  new  cylinder  castings  of  70 
tons  each,  and  no  drydock  that  could  receive  her  on  this 
side  of  the  ocean  except  at  the  Panama  Canal. 

It  was  found  that  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation 
had  developed  just  the  right  wire  soldering  with  the  proper 
mixture  of  manganese  and  that  the  railroad  repair  shops 
around  New  York  had  developed  the  electric  welding  pro- 
cess of  the  General  Electric  Co.  to  a  higher  efficiency 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  The  railroad  shops  and 
the  General  Electric  Co.  were  able  to  furnish  the  ap- 
paratus and  the  crews  to  repair  the  machinery  of  the 
"Vaterland"  within  the  time  required  for  general  overhaul- 
ing and  cleaning  of  the  ship's  bottom  by  a  half-dozen  sub- 
marine divers  who,  among  other  things,  took  280  bushels 
of  oysters  off  the  "Vaterland's"  bottom. 

The  "Vaterland"  was  equipped  with  both  Curtis  and 
Parsons  furbine  engines,  but  the  Germans  have  never 
been  able  to  work  them  to  full  efficiency.  Indeed,  on  the 
last  trip  to  this  country  under  German  engineers,  the 
"Vaterland"  was  able  to  use  only  part  of  her  machinery. 
The  American  engineers  adjusted  everything,  improved  the 
machinery  and  the  draft  to  her  46  boilers,  improved  the 
piping  and  valves  and  sent  the  giant  forth  in  a  few  months 
at  above  a  21-knot  speed  and  using  200  tons  of  coal  a 
day  less  than  before. 

The  Germans  had  figured  that  the  "Vaterland"  could 
never  be  repaired  in  the  United  States  and  if  repaired  was 
such  a  complicated  piece  of  mechanism  that  it  could  never 
be  operated  by  Americans  or  any  new  official  staff.  The 
oflftcers  of  the  big  German  ships  have  to  be  in  training  at 
least  a  year  with  their  ships  during  construction.  Now  on 
the  "Vaterland"  in  place  of  five  German  captains  of  the 
unlimited  license  class,  there  is  but  one  American  captain; 
and  instead  of  a  chief  engineer  and  five  assistant  engi- 
neers, there  is  just  one  American  chief  engineer,  and  he  is 
only  32  years  of  age. 

The  Genera!  Electric  Co.,  the  New  York  Central  and  the 
Erie  Railroads  all  cooperated  with  electric  workers  and 
electric  welding  devices  and  what  it  was  estimated  would 
require  five  months  on  this  ship  was  done  in  ten  days. 
Thirteen  breaks  or  cracks  in  the  "Vaterland's"  cylinders  were 
mechanically  patched  by  the  electric  welding  system  and 
made  stronger  than  before,  yet  without  a  single  rivet  hav- 
ing to  be  put  through  the  3  Va  inches  of  metal. 


It  is  said  that  Indian  coal  is  the  cheapest  in  the  world. 
The  coal  now  being  worked  is  comparatively  near  the  surface 
and  labor  is  cheap.  One  of  the  difficulties  in  mining  seems 
to  be  that  a  sufficient  supply  of  labor  is  not  always  available 
when  wanted,  as  the  majority  of  the  workmen  follow  the 
vocation  of  agriculture  as  well  as  mining  and  return  to  their 
homes  during  the  periods  of  sowing  and  reaping.  During 
the  last  10  years  the  use  of  machinery  has  been  rapidly 
extending,  especially  at  the  larger  collieries.  About  145,000 
persons  are  employed  in  coal  mining. — Gas  and  Oil  Power. 


The  War-Savings  Stamps  project  is,  in  reality,  a  two- 
billion  dollar  loan  launched  among  the  masses  of  the  people 
and  is  intended  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  cannot  afford  to 
buy  the  larger  bond  issues.  It  is  a  most  democratic  plan 
in  that  it  reaches  the  entire  population  from  coast  to  coast, 
men,  women  and  children,  rich  and  poor  alike,  and  there 
certainly  is  not  a  person  in  this  prospei-ous  land  so  humbly 
placed  that  he  or  she  cannot  buy  a  25c.  Thrift  Stamp  as  a 
tribute  of  loyalty  toward  Uncle  Sam. 


April  23,  1918 


POWEK 


60S 


A.  I.  E.  E.  Discusses  Single-Phase 
Induction  Motors 

The  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engfineers  held  its 
o39th  meeting  in  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  Building,  Pitts- 
burgh, Penn.,  Tuesday  evening,  Apr.  9,  and  in  the  Engi- 
neering Societies  Building,  New  York  City,  Friday  evening, 
Apr.  12,  1918.  At  New  York  a  buffet  dinner  was  served 
prior  to  the  meeting,  under  the  auspices  of  the  New  York 
Membership  Acquaintance  Committee. 

The  New  York  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  8:15  by 
Vice  President  B.  A.  Behrend.  Two  papers  were  presented: 
"No  Load  Conditions  of  Single-Phase  Induction  Motors  and 
Phase  Converters,"  by  R.  E.  Hellmund;  and  "A  Physical 
Conception  of  the  Operation  of  the  Single-Phase  Induction 
Motor,"  by  B.  G.  Lanime.  Mr.  Lamme  presented  his  paper 
in  abstract  and  illustrated  his  remarks  by  diagrams  on  the 
blackboard.  The  paper  covers  a  method  of  studying  the 
action  of  the  single-phase  induction  motor,  which  the  author 
has  found  to  be  very  convenient  from  the  educational  stand- 
point. It  is  based  on  the  assumption  of  two  equal  and 
opposite  rotating  primary  magnetomotive  forces  combined 
with  a  synchronously  rotating  secondary  magnetomotive 
force,  such  as  would  be  produced  by  direct-current  excita- 
tion. A  comparison  is  made  between  s  two-motor  unit  con- 
sisting of  two  similar  polyphase  motors  coupled  together 
and  connected  for  opposite  rotation  and  the  straight  single- 
phase  induction  motor. 

In  the  absence  of  the  author  Mr.  Hellmund's  paper  was 
presented  in  abstract  by  A.  M.  Dudley,  who  explained  its 
Important  details  by  the  use  of  a  number  of  lantern  slides. 
In  this  paper  methods  are  shown  and  formulas  derived  for 
the  determination  of  the  fields,  the  stator  and  rotor  magne- 
tizing currents,  and  tertiary  voltages  for  phase  converters 
and  single-phase  induction  motors.  The  paper  is  of  con- 
siderable length,  occupying  some  85  pages  of  the  proceed- 
ings, and  involves  considerable  mathematical  analysis. 
However,  it  is  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  read  to  good 
advantage  without  going  through  the  major  portion  of  the 
mathematics.  The  importance  of  the  subject  was  demon- 
strated by  the  large  number  of  prominent  engineers  who 
took  part  in  the  discussion.  These  were  B.  A.  Behrend, 
Dr.  Michael  I.  Pupin,  E.  F.  W.  Alexanderson,  L.  W.  Chubb, 
Alexander  M.  Gray,  C.  A.  M.  Weber,  Prof.  C.  P.  Scott  and 
Selby  D.  Harr. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  features  brought  out  at  the 
meeting  was  the  lack  of  some  simple  method  of  presenting 
the  action  of  the  single-phase  induction  motor.  The  discus- 
sion of  the  paper  was  closed  by  B.  G.  Lamme. 

Test  of  World's  Largest  Turbine 
a  Success 

Electrification  of  the  Coast  section  of  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee &  St.  Paul  Ry.  took  a  long  step  forward  recently 
with  the  turning  over  for  the  first  time  of  its  big  turbine 
generator,  the  largest  in  the  world,  at  the  White  River, 
or  Lake  Tapps,  generating  station  of  the  Puget  Sound  Trac- 
tion, Light  and  Power  Co.,  which  has  the  contract  for  fur- 
nishing the  power. 

The  turbine  into  which  water  was  turned  recently  is  one 
of  25,000-hp.  capacity,  and  it  constitutes  the  third  unit 
in  the  White  River  plant.  This  plant  is  on  the  east  side 
of  Stuck  River  valley,  five  miles  from  Auburn,  Wash.,  be- 
tween Seattle  and  Tacoma,  and  is  the  largest  and  most 
important  of  the  hydro-electric  plants  of  the  Puget  Sound 
Traction,  Light  and  Power  Co.  and  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable in  the  world.  It  is  built  at  the  base  of  a  high 
plateau  between  the  Stuck  and  White  Rivers,  on  which 
Lake  Tapps  is  situated.  White  River  was  diverted  above 
Buckley  and  emptied  into  the  series  of  lakes  of  which  Lake 
Tapps  is  the  largest,  and  which  form  the  natural  storage 
reservoir.  The  water  is  taken  from  this  reservoir  through 
penstocks  of  inch  steel  8  ft.  in  diameter  at  the  intake  and 
6V2  ft.  at  the  power  house.  The  penstocks  are  2500  ft.  long, 
and  the  water  is  fed  to  the  turbines  at  a  head  of  4(;5  feet. 
There  are  three  units,  each  of  one  turbine,  directly  con- 


nected by  shaft  to  the  generator  it  drives.  The  first  two 
turbines  are  of  20,000  hp.  each.  The  new  turbine  is  of 
25,000  hp.  and  is  the  largest  in  the  world.  The  total  ca- 
pacity of  the  plant  with  the  added  unit  is  65,000  hp.  This 
gives  the  traction  company  a  combined  capacity  of  all  its 
plants  supplying  Seattle  of  110,000  horsepower. 

The  Milwaukee  road  will  require  a  little  more  than  50 
per  cent,  of  the  additional  power.  The  current  will  be  de- 
livered to  the  railroad  at  a  voltage  of  100,000,  alternating 
current,  and  transformed  into  direct  current  at  a  voltage 
of  3000  for  use  on  the  motors  of  the  Milwaukee  electric 
locomotives.  The  traction  company's  contract  with  the  rail- 
road calls  for  the  delivery  of  10,000  kw.  of  100,000  volts, 
alternating  current.  The  railroad  has  yet  to  install  sub- 
stations and  overhead  trolley  wires  on  the  division  between 
Othello  and  Tacoma.  The  trolley  poles  are  now  being  placed 
in  position,  though  operation  electrically  will  be  delayed 
for  some  time  owing  to  a  shortage  in  some  classes  of  equip- 
ment. When  this  section  of  the  Milwaukee  electrification 
is  completed,  the  road  will  be  operated  by  electricity  between 
Tacoma  and  eastern  Montana. 

War  Convention  of  the   Machinery, 
Tool  and  Supply  Industry 

The  enormous  problem  of  manufacturing  and  supplying 
machinery  and  tools  sufficient  for  the  carrying  out  of  the 
Government  program  for  the  production  of  ships,  shells, 
guns  and  aircraft  will  be  the  subject  considered  at  the  gi'eat 
"War  Convention"  of  the  machinery,  tool  and  supply  indus- 
try of  the  country  to  be  held  in  Cleveland  the  week  of 
May  13. 

One  thousand  men  who  are  bearing  the  brunt  of  the 
unprecedented  demand  for  machinery  will  gather  from  all 
parts  of  the  country  to  lay  out  a  plan,  with  the  aid  of  Gov- 
ernment officials,  to  keep  the  great  munition  program  going 
at  top  speed.  The  big  war  convention  will  be  a  joint  meeting 
of  four  great  national  associations — the  American  Supply 
and  Machinery  Manufacturers'  Association,  the  National 
Supply  and  Machinery  Dealers'  Association,  the  Southern 
Supply  and  Machinery  Dealers'  Association  and  the  Na- 
tional Pipe  and  Supplies  Association — which  will  meet 
together  in  order  to  coordinate  their  efforts  toward  one 
goal — "more  ships,  more  shells." 

"No  industry  has  a  greater  responsibility  at  this  moment 
than  the  machinery  men,"  said  H.  W.  Strong,  president 
of  the  National  Supply  and  Machinery  Dealers'  Association. 
"We  must  have  men,  but  behind  the  men  must  be  ships  and 
munitions,  and  behind  the  ships  and  munitions,  machinery 
— more  machinery — still  more  machinery.  We  are  in  this 
fight  to  a  finish.  The  Germans  have  convinced  us  that  the 
only  way  out  of  the  war  is  straight  through,  and  the  Amer- 
ican machinery  industry  is  ready  to  carry  on  to  a  knockout." 

The  part  played  by  drills  in  the  game  of  war  is  shown 
by  the  computation  that  70  drilled  holes  are  required  in 
every  3-inch  shrapnel  shell,  in  every  rifle  90,  machine  gun 
350,  torpedo  3466,  war  plane  4089,  war  truck  5946,  war 
ambulance  1500,  3-inch  field  gun  1280,  gun  caisson  594, 
and  anti-aircraft  gun  1200. 

"  'Carry  on'  will  be  the  watchword  of  the  convention," 
said  R.  F.  Valentine,  president  of  the  Maufacturers'  Asso- 
ciation. 

New  Power  Development  in 
Pennsylvania 

Public-utility  companies  at  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  and 
vicinity  are  conferring  with  Government  representatives  for 
the  development  of  the  electric  generating  stations  in  the 
Lehigh  Valley  section  of  the  state,  supplemented  by  the 
construction  of  new  transmission  lines  to  connect  with  ex- 
isting high-tension  systems  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
New  York  and  Delaware. 

The  proposed  project,  devised  as  a  war  measure  and 
arranged  with  an  idea  of  fuel  conservation,  will  place  the 
resources  and  ability  of  the  different  companies  at  the  dis- 


604 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


posal  of  the  Government.  The  Philadelphia  Electric  Co., 
Philadelphia,  and  the  Electric  Bond  and  Share  Co.,  New 
York,  the  latter  operating  electric  plants  at  Harwood  Mines, 
Penn.,  and  neighboring  sections  in  this  mining  district 
for  light  and  power  service,  are  the  two  principal  utility 
companies  interested. 

It  is  proposed  to  build  extensions  to  a  number  of  the 
existing  generating  stations  to  provide  an  increased  output 
of  at  least  100,000  hp.  Following  this  two  or  three  new 
plants  will  be  constructed,  with  total  generating  capacity 
of  about  100,000  kw.  The  different  stations  will  be  tied 
in  with  a  network  of  transmission  lines,  and  a  new  high- 
tension  system  will  be  constructed  to  Philadelphia.  Here 
it  is  planned  to  connect  with  the  present  lines  of  the 
Philadelphia  Electric  Co.  and  those  of  the  Public  Service 
Electric  Co.,  operating  in  New  Jersey,  as  well  as  with  the 
system  of  the  American  Railways  Co.,  which  operates  light- 
ing and  power  properties  in  Pennsylvania,  South  Jersey 
and  Delaware.  The  plan  also  includes  a  proposition  to 
connect  the  ne"w  system  with  the  lines  of  the  Public  Serv- 
ice Electric  Co.  at  Newark  and  vicinity,  and  with  New 
York  City  power  lines. 

Estimates  of  cost  are  now  being  made  and  different 
phases  of  the  work  investigated.  While  it  is  possible  that 
the  cost  of  the  enterprise  will  be  financed  by  the  Govern- 
ment, this  has  not  as  yet  been  decided.  The  entire  plan 
is  designed  to  be  of  mutual  benefit  and  not  to  the  individual 
interest  of  any  of  the  particular  companies.  William 
Potter,  Pennsylvania  State  Fuel  Administrator,  and  Charles 
E.  Stuart,  public-utility  engineer  for  the  Fuel  Administra- 
tion in  the  state,  are  representing  the  Government  in  the 
development  plans. 

Rights  in  Waters  of  Streams 

A  late  decision  of  the  North  Dakota  Supreme  Court, 
handed  down  in  the  case  of  McDonough  vs.  Russell-Miller 
Milling  Co.,  165  Northwestern  Reporter,  504,  shows  that  an 
owner  of  land  bordering  a  river  has  no  unqualified  right  to 
object  to  use  of  waters  of  the  stream  by  an  upper  land- 
owner for  manufacturing  purposes. 

Plaintiff  complained  that  defendant's  use  of  the  stream 
by  returning  waters  to  it  somewhat  contaminated  in  their 
use  rendered  plaintiff's  use  less  valuable,  especially  for  the 
purposes  of  harvesting  ice.  But  the  court  found  that  his 
rights,  as  governed  by  the  following  stated  legal  principles, 
had  not  been  invaded: 

The  right  of  a  riparian  owner  to  have  a  natui'al  stream 
continue  to  flow  through  or  by  his  premises  in  its  natural 
quantity  and  quality  is  subject  to  the  right  of  each  riparian 
owner  to  make  reasonable  use  of  the  waters  of  the  stream 
while  remaining  on  his  land.  "Manifestly,  running  streams 
cannot  be  used  for  commercial,  manufacturing  or  agricul- 
tural purposes  and  retain  their  pristine  clearness  and 
purity." 

The  question  whether  a  reasonable  or  uni'easonable  use  of 
the  water  is  being  made,  having  regard  to  the  common 
rights  of  others,  is  to  be  determined  by  the  circumstances 
of  each  particular  case,  due  consideration  being  given  to 
the  character  and  size  of  the  water  course,  its  location  and 
the  uses  to  which  it  may  be  applied,  as  well  as  the  general 
usage  of  the  country  in  similar  cases.  .  .  Upon  the  ques- 
tion of  reasonableness  of  the  use  by  the  upper  proprietor, 
the  character  and  extent  of  his  business,  as  well  as  the  use 
to  which  the  lower  proprietor  is  putting  the  water,  may  be 
taken  into  consideration. 

Waste   from   Water   Leakage 

Water  wasters  cause  unnecessary  pumping  that  requires 
the  use  of  100,000  tons  of  coal  annually  in  C  i.cago,  in 
pumping  and  sterilizing  2V2  times  as  much  water  as  the 
consumers  actually  use,  the  waste  and  leakage  amounting 
to  more  than  the  combined  consumption  of  Milv.'aukee,  Bos- 
ton, Cleveland  and  St.  Louis.  The  coal  required  for  pu.'.ip- 
ing  this  waste  during  one  year  amounts  to  more  than 
enough  to  heat  all  its  public  schools  during  the  winter.  This 
useless  pumping  adds  about  half  a  million  dollars  a  year  to 
the  operating  expenses.  Furthermore,  three  and  a  half 
million  dollars  is  spent  annually  in  an  attempt  to  keep  the 


plant  adequate  for  the  extravagantly  excessive  service,  and 
even  this  amount  is  not  sufficient.  If  the  waste  could  be 
stopped,  no  further  additions  need  be  made  for  more  than 
thirty  years  to  come.  The  waste  of  water  so  reduces  the 
pressure  in  the  mains  that  for  more  than  three-fourths  of 
the  area  of  the  city  it  is  less  than  half  of  that  recommended 
by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  and  in  only 
one  of  the  35  wards  does  it  equal  the  recommended  pres- 
sure. With  approximately  2,500,000  population,  Chicago  is 
pumping  into  its  water  mains  14  per  cent,  more  water  than 
New  York  receives  by  gravity  (with  no  pumping  costs)  for 
the  use  of  a  population  of  5,500,000.  It  supplies  more  water 
than  any  other  water-works  system  in  the  world. 

The  startling  facts  here  given  are  derived  from  a  report 
entitled  "The  Water-Works  System  of  the  City  of  Chicago," 
that  has  just  been  published  by  the  Chicago  Bureau  of 
Public  Efficiency.  The  purpose  of  the  report  is  to  make 
public,  and  emphasize  the  enormous  waste,  and  the  un- 
doubted increase  in  this  waste  of  public  funds  which  will 
occur  unless  radical  methods  are  carried  out  for  greatly 
reducing  it. — Municipal  Journal. 

Thrift-Stamp  SelHng  Machine 

The  War  Savings  Committee  of  Greater  New  York  re- 
cently announced  the  placing  of  an  order  for  1500  Thrift 
Banks.  These  are  roally  Thrift-Stamp  selling  machines 
which  not  only  sell  stamps  for  25  cents  but  also  register 
each  sale. 

The  New  York  committee  feels  that  this  machine  will 
greatly  increase  the  sale  of  Thrift  Stamps,  and  facilitate  the 
handling  of  the  stamps  by  merchants.  The  machines  are 
meeting  with  great  popularity  everywhere.  Frank  Van- 
derlip,  chairman  of  the  National  War  Savings  Committee, 
recently  placed  his  stamp  of  approval  upon  them,  express- 
ing his  hope  that  they  would  be  adopted  generally  by  the 
committees  all  over  the  country.  Closely  following  Mr. 
Vanderlip's  approval,  the  Treasury  Department  was  so 
greatly  impressed  that  it  decided  to  put  up  the  stamps  in 
rolls  of  one  hundred  each  at  a  little  less  than  one  cent  per 
roll,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  feeding  of  the  machine. 

These  machines  are  ideal  for  factories  on  payday  or 
for  any  place  where  money  changes  hands  or  people  con- 
gregate. Their  use  does  not  eliminate  the  personal  solici- 
tations, which  are  necessary  if  the  War  Savings  Stamp  cam- 
paign is  to  be  a  success.  The  first  shipment  of  the  New 
York  Committee's  order  has  already  been  started,  and  it 
is  expected  that  within  a  few  days  everyone  in  New  York 
will  be  able  to  purchase  Thrift  Stamps  from  this  automatic 
salesman  of  Uncle  Sam. 

Full  particulars  regarding  the  machine  will  be  furnished 
on  application  to  the  New  York  War  Savings  Committee, 
51  Chambers  St.,  New  York  City. 

Conflicting  Water  Claims 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  practically  all  Connecticut 
streams  available  for  municipal  water  supply  were  long  ago 
utilized  for  water  power,  either  directly  or  through  con- 
necting waters,  it  must  be  supposed  that  a  municipal 
charter,  amended  in  1901  and  reaffirmed  in  1909,  empow- 
ering the  municipality  to  condemn  the  waters  of  certain 
streams,  contemplated  appropriation  of  waters  of  streams 
that  might  already  be  used  for  water-power  purposes  at 
least  when  such  water  powers  are  not  already  employed 
in  some  other  public  use  at  the  time  of  the  proposed  taking 
by  the  municipality.  Respondent  power  company,  although 
authorized  to  exercise  the  flowage  rights  of  individuals  and 
to  use  a  brook  to  generate  electricity,  and  although  possessed 
of  rights  in  the  stream  acquired  for  that  purpose,  is  not 
tititled  to  defeat  condemnation  of  waters  of  the  stream  by 
a  municipality  for  water-supply  purposes  under  statutory 
authority;  the  power  company's  property  not  being  pres- 
ently devoted,  nor  about  to  be  devoted,  to  public  use,  within 
the  general  principle  of  law  that  property  already  appro- 
priated to  one  public  use  cannot  thereafter  be  condemned 
for  an  inconsistent  public  use.  (Connecticut  Supreme  Court 
of  Errors,  East  Hartford  Fire  District  vs.  Glastonbury 
Power  Co.,  102  Atlantic  Reporter,  592.) 


April  23,  1918 


POWER 


605 


New  Publications 


IIIMIIIMIIIIimilllllllllllMlf 


I'UN ni Ni ;    AiXn    sr* > r im n*;    wastk    in 

IVU)I)KUX  HOIIJ-:!!  KUOMS.  By  JOii- 
g'lneers  of  thi>  lljirrison  Safety  Bailer 
Works.  PhihultMphia.  IVmi.  Cloth;  -li 
X  7  in.  ;  270  pages ;  213  illustrations. 
Price  $1. 
The  material  contained  in  this  book  Is 
both  informative  and  timely.  It  is  not  orig- 
inal, but  is  a  compilation  of  statements, 
tables  and  charts  froin  various  sources,  the 
references  beinp  Kiven  in  the  majurity  of 
oases.  Taken  as  a  wliole.  it  forms  an  au- 
thoritative treatment  of  the  entire  range  of 
subjects  relating"  to  combustion  and  the 
economical  management  of  steam-boiler 
plants,  and  is  of  value  to  owners,  managers, 
engineers  and  firemen.  The  work  is  divided 
into  five  sections,  the  first  of  which  dealw 
with  coal,  its  classification,  analysis,  heat- 
ing value,  purchase  by  specification,  wash 
in&.  storage  and  weathering,  together  with 
a  brief  notice  of  oil  and  gas  as  fuels.  The 
second  section  takes  up  the  chemistry  of 
combustion,  air  required,  grates,  hand-fir- 
ing methods,  stokers  and  their  operation, 
clinker,  draft,  stack  proportions,  draft 
gages,  dampers,  flue-gus  analyses,  excess 
air  and  smoke  prevention.  The  tliird  sec- 
tion treats  of  heat  transmission,  economiz- 
ers, air  heaters  and  superheaters,  relation 
between  heating  surface  and  boiler  capac- 
ity, boiler  setting,  firebrick,  soot,  scale,  soft- 
ening feed  water  and  feed-water  heating. 
The  fourth  section  covers  heat  absorbed  by 
boiler,  heat  losses,  efficiencies,  boiler  capac- 
ity and  boiler  trials.  The  fifth  section  dis- 
cusses various  arrangements  of  auxiliaries 
with  regard  to  their  effect  upon  feed  heat- 
ing and  also  describes  the  Polakov  func- 
tional system  of  boiler-room  management. 


uiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiii 


IIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIII 


iiiiMiiiiMiriiiiiiiiiiii 


Personals 


uiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiNitiiiiiiii'  17 

Robert  S.  Blake,  formerly  representing  the 
Condit  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co..  of 
Boston,  in  Pittsburgh,  is  now  district 
manager  of  thf-  Cliicago  ottice  of  the 
Duquesne  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co., 
at   230   So.   LaSalle   St. 


JIDIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIII 


"■■ '■'"' 


Engineering  Affairs 


The  Bridgeport  (Conn.)  Section  of  the 
A.  S.  M.  E.  will  meet  on  Apr.  24.  and  the 
New  Haven  Branch  will  meet  on  May  10. 

The    American    Water-Works    Associattan 

will  hold  its  annual  convention  at  the 
Planters  Hotel,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  May  13, 
1918. 

George  A.  Orrok  talked  on  Tuesday  even- 
ing, Apr.  17,  to  the  Student  Branch  of  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 
at    Yale,    on    Internal    Combustion    Engines. 

The  Association  of  Iron  and  Steel  Elec- 
trical Engineers  announces  the  following 
meetings:  The  Cleveland  Section  on  Apr. 
27  at  the  Union  League  Rooms  of  the 
Statler  Hotel.  T.  F.  Bailey,  president  of 
The  Electric  Furnace  Co..  will  present  a 
paper  on  "Electric  Soaking  Pits.  Annealing 
and  Heat-Treating  Furnaces  and  Furnaces 
for  Melting  Nonferrous  Metals."  The 
Philadelphia  Section,  at  the  Majestic  Hot*d. 
on  May  4.  at  which  H.  A.  Lewis  and  W.  H. 
Burr  will  present  a  paper  on  "Electrically 
Operated  l5oor  Hoists  for  Openhearth  Fur- 
naces." In  addition  to  this  Major  William 
A.  Garret  will  address  the  meeting  on 
"Some  of  My  Observations  in  France."  The 
Pittsburgh  and  Cleveland  District  Sections 
will  hold  a  joint  technical  session  at 
Youngstown.  Ohio,  on  May  18.  and  make 
an  inspection  of  McDonald  and  Ohio  Works, 
Carnegie  Steel  Co. 


Miscellaneous  News 


IIIIIIIIIIIINIIIII 


iiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 


Tlie    Ooininereia!    and    Industrial    IMuseuni 

of  Montreal.  Canada,  has  i>een  established 
as  an  annex  to  the  Faculty  of  Commerce, 
to  furnish  Can.idian  manufacturers  and 
dealers  information  of  interest  to  them  iri 
their  business,  and  as  a  nn-dium  of  udvn-r- 
tising  to  Canadian  and  American  customei'S. 
Manufacturers  and  exporters  may  get  f!*eG 
space  to  exhibit  tiieir  goods  by  communi- 
cating with  the  Museum  at  399  Viger  Ave,, 
Montreal,  Canada. 

CoinTete  ShipH — Edward  N.  Hurley, 
chairman  of  the  Ifnited  States  Shipping 
Hoard,  has  recommended  to  the  Seen-larv 
o£  the  Treasury  that  the  sum  of  5!50,OO(l,(H)0 


be  aullmri/.ed.  of  which  some  .1i  1  rLUIMI. 111)11 
shall  111'  iipprripri.-ili'il  I'lir  the  acquisition  or 
establislnnrnl  of  jilanls  suitable  for  con- 
I'.ri'te  shipbuilding,  (u-  of  materials  essential 
thereto,  or  for  the  enlargement  or  extension 
of  such  plants  as  are  now  or  ma.v  Iiereafter 
be  acquired  or  establishi'd,  and  for  the  cost 
t)f  constructing,  purch.asing,  retpiisitioning 
or  otherwise  acquiring  such  concrete  ships. 
Tlie  House  Niivnl  Approprhltion  Bill  for 
the  jH'ar  ending  .Imu'  .'Ut,  1919,  as  reijorted 
from  the  Connniltee  on  Naval  ,\lfa,irs,  con- 
tains numerous  large  a|>propriations  for  im- 
provements and  extensions  to  central  power 
plants  and  distributing  s.vstems  as  follows: 
Navy  Yard,  I'ortsmouth,  N.  H.,  $!,')(). IIOI)  ; 
Boston,  Mass.,  $75,000  ;  New  Yoi<l<. 
$20(1.000;  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  $300,000; 
Norfolk,  Va.,  $300,000;  Naval  .\cademy, 
$32,5,000  ;  Naval  Station,  New  Orleans,  La., 
$280,000;  Mare  Island,  Calif.,  $100,000; 
Puget  Sound,  Wash.,  $200,000  ;  Marine  Bar- 
racks. Peking,  China  .(power  plant),  $25,000. 
Other  items  of  g:eneral  interest  are  as 
follows:  For  an  inve.stigation  of  fuel  oil 
and  gasoline  adapted  to  naval  require- 
ments, $60,000  ;  for  aviation  for  naval  pur- 
poses, $188,042,969  ;  for  expenses  in  con- 
nection with  the  civilian  Naval  Consulting 
Board.   $100,000. 

Two  Applieations  for  Permits  to  appro- 
priate Avater  which,  combined,  represent  an 
outlay  of  $6,000,000  were  recently  filed  in 
the  othce  of  State  Engineer  Lewis.  Salem. 
Ore.,  by  H.  S.  McUowan.  of  Pacific  County. 
Washington.  The  application  asks  for  a 
year  in  which  to  prepare  plans  and  speci- 
fications of  the  proposed  projects,  and  it 
is  believed  that  the  initial  .step  that  has 
been  taken  is  in  preparation  for  a  possible 
legislation  in  Congress  throwing  open  the 
waters  to  public  development. 

One  application  is  to  appropriate  the 
waters  of  the  Deschutes  River  to  the  extent 
of  45.000  eu.ft.  a  second.  The  proposed  proj- 
ect is  in  Sherman  and  Wa.sco  Counties, 
the  river  forming  the  boundaries  between 
the  two  counties,  and  the  purpose  stated  in 
tlie  application  is  Iiydro-electric  develop- 
ment and  transmission  for  manufacturing 
purposes  and  general  use.  A  dam  which  is 
being  planned  would  be  118  ft.  high.  800  ft. 
long  at  the  top.  300  ft.  long  at  the  bottom, 
built  of  reinforced  concrete  with  wasteway. 
The  estimated  cost  of  the  project  is  $2,- 
000.000. 

The  other  application  states  the  same 
purpose.  The  project  proposed  is  in  Jeffer- 
.son  County  and  would  require  3500  cu.ft. 
per  second.  The  estimated  dimensions  of  the 
dam  necessary  are  236  ft.  high.  420  ft.  long 
at  the  top.  90  ft.  long  at  the  bottom,  built 
of  reinforced  concrete  of  the  overflow  type. 
The  estimated  cost  of  the  project  is  $4.- 
000.000. 

The  Puffet  Sound  Traction,  Light  anid 
Power  Co.,  Seattle,  Wash.,  will  have,  when 
its  present  development  is  completed,  hydro- 
electric plants  supplying  Seattle  and  Ta- 
coma  witli  power  for  industrial  needs  witli 
a  combined  capacity  of  107,997  hp.  divided 
as  follows:  White  River,  63,000;  Electron, 
18,667;  and  Snoqualmie  Falls,  26,^30  bp. 
The  .steam  plant's  capacity  will  aggi'egate 
38,264  hp.,  24,000  at  the  Georgetown  plant, 
6667  at  Western  Avenue,  4267  at  Po.st 
Street,  and  3330  in  the  Tacoma  steam 
plants.  The  total  capacity  will  then  be 
146,261  hp.,  which  will  be  ample  for  some 
time.  To  the  traction  company's  develop- 
ment must  be  added  the  hydro-electria 
and  steam  auxiliary  plants  of  the  Seattle 
municipal  electric  system,  having  a  com- 
bined capacity  of  24.000  hp.  The  White 
River  or  Lake  Tapps  development  is  the 
largest  power  project  in  the  Northwest, 
and  is  still  far  from  fully  developed  It 
was  made  by  diverting  the  flow  of  White 
River  at  a  high  point  in  its  channel  into 
three  natural  lake  beds  lying  high  on  the 
plateau  overlooking  the  lo>ver  White  River 
\-alIey.  Twelve  dams  were  constructed  to 
create  a  reservoir  and  channel  cut  from 
the  upper  river  to  this  reservoir.  Before 
the  work  was  done  the  company  had  to 
purchase  36  miles  of  riparian  riglits  ex- 
tending on  both  sides  of  the  stream  from 
the  point  of  divergence  28  miles  down  to 
the  point  where  the  water  again  enters  the 
river  bed.  By  this  means  2,500,000,000  cu. 
ft.  of  water  is  impounded.  The  station  is 
located  on  the  valley  level  of  the  lower 
river,  and  the  water  enters  the  penstocks 
from  an  outlet  on  top  of  the  plateau. 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


:.„H 


:>iiiiiiiiniiiiiiiii>iiiiiii.<tiiiiiriiiiiii 


iiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 


Business  Items 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilllliiiiiinTiiiiiiiliiiiiiT 


The  Power  Turbo-Blower  Co.,  will  move, 
on  May  1,  from  17  Battery  Place  to  347 
Madison  Ave,,  New  YorI«  City. 

The  Whitloek  Coll  Pipe  C«,'h  Philadelphia 
offlce  is  now  at  1009  Commercial  Trust 
Building.  William  Wilcox,  the  district  en- 
gineer, is  in  cliarge  of  the  otiice. 


Proposed  Work 
N.  II,,  PorismouMi — The  Bureau  of  Sup- 
plies and  Accounts,  Wash,,  D.  C,  will  soon 
receive  bids  for  furnishing  under  Schedule 
No.  1766.  at  Navy  Yard,  here,  13.000  It. 
plain  rubber  air  hose  for  pneumatic  tools 
and  5(Hio  ft,  2 J  in.,  rubber  lined,  cotton, 
fire  hose;  Schedule  No.  1767,  1000  ft.  12i 
in.  engineers  department  hose,  1000  ft, 
bright  HnLsh,  brass,   wood  hose, 

Vt,,  Middiebiiry — The  Hortonia  Power 
Co.,  Gr.vphon  Corner  BIdg.,  Rutland,  is 
having  plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of 
a  l-stor.\',  28  x  90  ft.  power  house  here, 
Grover  &  Connor,   Rutland,   Engrs. 

Vt,,  Sprinefleld — The  Colonial  Light  and 
Power  Co.  has  had  plans  prepared  by  W. 
S.  Barstow  Co.,  Inc.,  Engr.,  50  Pine  St.. 
New  York  City,  for  the  erection  of  a  sub- 
station, garage,  etc.     G.  F.  Sanderson,  Supt. 

Mass.,  Boston — The  U.  S,  Government 
plans  to  build  a  power  plant.  Estimated 
cost,    $35,000. 

Mass.,  Grafton — The  State  Commission 
on  Mental  Diseases  is  in  the  market  for 
a  new  boiler  to  cost  $8000  ;  also  setting  up 
and  connecting  same  with  a  battery  and 
mto  the  stack  tQ  furnish  light,  heat  and 
power. 

N.  Y.,  Brooklyn — The  Edison  Electric 
Co.,  360  Pearl  St.,  has  had  plans  prepared 
for  alterations  and  additions  to  its  1 -story 
power  hou.se  on  Gold  St.  G.  L,  Kniglit, 
13   Willoughby  St.,   Arch, 

N.  Y,,  Brooklyn — The  Kings  County  Elec- 
tric Light  and  Power  Co..  360  Pearl  St.. 
has  applied  to  the  Public  Service  Commis- 
sion for  permission  to  issue  $1,000,000 
bonds ;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  build 
additions  and  make  improvements  to  its 
plant.     W.  P.  Wells.  Gen.  Mgr. 

N.  Y..  Dunkirk — City  plans  to  install  a 
new  lighting  system  in  the  business  sec- 
tion.     Estimated   cost.    $5000. 

N.  Y.,  .Jamestown — The  Crescent  Tool 
Co..  200  Harrison  St..  soon  receives  bids 
for  a  1 -story.  100  x  200  ft.,  power  house 
on  Harrison  St.  Estimated  cost.  $200,000. 
Equipment  including  1500  kw.  gas  driven 
generators  and  1500  kw.  steam  turbine 
driven  generators  will  be  installed.  P.  A. 
Shoemaker.  Builders  Exchange,  Buffalo, 
Engr.     Noted  Apr.   9. 

X.  Y„  !Mohawk — W.  W.  Wotherspoon, 
Supt.  of  Public  Works,  Capitol,  Albany,  is 
having  plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of 
hydraulic  power  plants  under  Barge  Canal 
Contract  No.    176. 

N,  Y,,  ITtiea — The  Adirondack  Power  Co., 
Glen  Falls,  plans  to  build  a  power  house 
near  here.  Estimated  cost,  $100,000.  W. 
A.    Buttrick.   Glens  Falls.   Mgr. 

X.    .1,,    Mountain    Lakes — The    Board    of 

Education,  Hanover  Township,  plans  to 
install  a  new  heating  system  in  the  local 
school    building. 

N.  .J.,  Plainfleld — The  International  Power 
Corporation  plans  to  build  a  power  plant 
in  Freeville  near  Iiere. 

N.  ,J.,  Trenton — The  Crescent  Insulated 
Wire  and  Cable  Co..  Olden  and  Taylor 
St.,  will  soon  receive  separate  bids  for  an 
entire  steam  heating  system,  electric  elc 
vator  and  eh-ctric  ligliting  system.  Peuc- 
kert  &  Wundr.  310  Chestnut  St.,  Philadel- 
phia,  Arch. 

Penn.,  Birdsboro — The  E.  &  G.  Brooke 
Iron  Co.  iilans  to  build  a  6  mi.  electric  trans- 
mission line  froni  here  to  iron  and  copp  r 
mines  ,it  Elverson  to  suppl.v  current  for 
the   electrical    equipment   used    in   the  mine. 

Md..  Myersville — City  plans  to  install  an 
electric  lighting  plant  and  a  water-works 
system, 

Ga.,  DallaH — The  Dallas  Utility  Co..  re- 
cently incorporated,  plans  to  install  an 
electric  iX)\\'er  plant  on  Pumpliin  \'tno 
Creek,  Paulding  County.     J.  S.  Boges,  Mgr. 

Ohio.  Itrvan — The  Village  plans  to  ex- 
pend about  $10,000  for  extensions  to  its 
electriv;   lighting  and   water-works  systems. 


606 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  17 


Ohio,  Cleveland — City  has  had  plans  pre- 
pared by  the  City  Engineer,  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  3-story,  169  x  175  ft.  elec- 
tric lighting  plant.  Estimated  cost,  ?256,- 
000. 

Ohio,  Cleveland — The  Steel  Products  Co., 
2196  Clarkwood  Rd.,  has  had  plans  pre- 
pared for  the  erection  of  a  1-story,  50  x 
60  ft,  heating  plant  to  be  erected  on  Cedar 
Ave.  Estimated  cost,  $50,000.  Burchard, 
Roberts  &  Wales,  Bngr.,  622  Swetland 
Bldg.,  receives  bids  until  May  18.  Noted 
Apr.   16. 

Ohio,  East  Cleveland — (Cleveland  P.  O.) 
— The  Board  of  Education,  Shaw  High 
School  Bldg..  plans  to  install  a  low  pres- 
sure boiler  for  steam  heat,  also  a  central 
heating  plant  in  Technical  High  School  on 
Prospect  Ave.  W.  H.  Nicklas,  Engr.,  1900 
Euclid  Ave.,  receives  bids  for  same. 

Ohio,  Ea.st  I/iverpooI — City  is  receiving 
bids  for  the  installation  of  a  new  lighting 
system   on   Main   St.    from    3rd    to    ISth    St. 

Ohio,  Holsate — The  Pleasant  Light  and 
Water  Co..  recently  organized  with  $10,- 
000,  will  take  over  the  municipal  plant  and 
install   additional    equipment   in   same. 

Ohio,  Springfield — The  Springfield  Light, 
Heat  and  Power  Co.  has  petitioned  the 
State  Utility  commision  for  authority  to 
issue  $100,000:  the  proceeds  will  be  used 
to  purchase  boilers  and  mechanical  equip- 
ment. 

Ind.,  ConnersvUle — The  Rex  Manufac- 
turing Co.  has  had  plans  prepared  for  the 
erection  of  a  1-story.  58  x  120  ft.  power 
house.  E.  C.  Bacon.  Engr..  617  Merchants 
Bank  Bldg.,  Indianapolis,  is  receiving  bids 
for  same. 

Mich.,  Flushing — The  Hart  Milling  and 
Power  Co.  is  having  preliminary  plans  pre- 
pared for  the  erection  of  a  power  plant, 
pumping  station,  etc.     L.  T.  Sayre,  Pres. 

Wis.,  Brodheart — The  City  Council  will 
receive  bids  until  .\pr.  30  at  the  office  of 
R.  F.  Leger.  Attorney,  for  the  erection  of 
a  brick  power  plant.     Noted  Apr.   9. 

Wis..  Cedarburs — The  Cedarburg  Can- 
ning Co.  has  had  plans  prepared  for  the 
erection  of  a  2-story  20  x  80  ft,  boiler  and 
storage  room  addition  to  its  plant.  Esti- 
mated cost,    $10,000.      W.   F.    Helgen,   Arch. 

Wis.,  Fond  du  Lac — The  F.  Rueping 
Leather  Co.  is  having  preliminary  plans 
prepared  by  E.  Kottke.  Engr.,  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  po\\'er  plant. 

Wis.,  Sheboygan — The  Badger  State 
Tanning  Co..  3  Water  St.,  has  had  plans 
prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  1-  and  2- 
storv,  76  X  130  ft.  power  house,  machine 
shop.  etc.  Juul  &  Smith,  Engr.,  805  North 
8th  St.,  receiving  bids.      Noted  Jan.    22. 

Wis.,  Superior — The  Superior  Iron 
Works,  3rd  St.  and  (Irand  Ave.,  plans  to 
build  a  2-storv.  60  x  96  ft.  boiler  shop. 
Estimated   cost,    $5,000. 

Iowa,  Keoknk — The  E.  I.  duPont  de 
Nemours  Co  .  Wilmington,  Del.,  is  improv- 
i"g  and  building  an  addition  to  its  power 
plant  at  Mooar.  Estimated  cost.  $200,000. 
C.    K.    Weston,    Wilmington,    Publicity   Agt. 

S.  D.,  Sherman — Bim  Bros,  has  been 
granted  a  franchise  for  an  electric  lighting 
system. 

Tex.,  Bremont — The  Calvert  Water,  Ice 
and  Electric  Light  Co.,  Calvert,  plans  to 
install  an  electric  lighting  system  here  and 
extend  its  transmission  line  from  here  to 
Calvert.      A.   E.    Stoltz,   Calvert,   Ch.    Engr. 

Okla.,  Pragne — City  voted  $15,000  bonds 
for  electric  lights.     Noted  Feb.   5. 

Okla.,  YaIe.^City  election  soon  to  vote 
on  bond  issue  for  electric  lights 

Que..  Montreal — O  P.  Tremblay.  291 
Prud  'Homme  Ave..  Notre  Dame  de  Grace, 
is  in  the  market  for  20-25  hp.  electric  motor 
and  three  7  or  2-10  hp.  transformers. 

Ont.,  Sudbury — The  "O'ater  and  Light 
Committee  is  in  the  market  for  an  electric 
pump  with  12,000  gal.  capacity  and  a  175 
hp.,  2  phase  induction,  direct  drive,  220 
volts,  a.c.   motor.     W.   J.   Rose,   town  elk. 

Ont,  Toronto — The  Veterinary  Specialty 
Co.,  Ltd..  1595  Dundas  St.,  W.,  is  in  the 
market  for  a  100  hp.  boiler,  a  75  hp.  en- 
gine and   1-ton  power  elevator. 

Man.,  Winnipeg — The  Board  of  Control 
plans  to  build  a  gas  plant  here.  Address 
A.    Puttee,   Controller. 

B.  C,  Nelson — The  Town  plans  to  build 
an  electro  melting  plant.  A.  Thomas,  city 
engr. 


COXTR.VCTS    AWARDED 

Mass..  Boston — The  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  R.R.,  New  Haven,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of 
a  1-storj-,  20  x  140  ft.,  electric  battery 
building,  C.  W.  Murdock,  185  Church  St., 
New    Haven. 

Mass.,  Cambridge — The  Cambridge  Elec- 
tric Light  Co.,  46  Blackstone  St.,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
1-storv.  44  x  69  ft.  addition  to  its  boiler 
house,  to  the  J.  F.  Griffin  Co.,  17  Milk  St., 
Boston.      Estimated   cost,    $20,000. 

Mass.,  Springfield — The  United  Electric 
Light  Co..  73  State  St..  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  improvements  to  its  plant,  to 
Stone  &  Webster,  147  Milk  St.,  Boston.  Es- 
timated cost,  $300,000.  Work  includes  in- 
stallation of  new  switching  equipment 
throughout  the  plant ;  also  a  25,000  hp. 
steam  turbine. 

N.  Y.,  Brooklvn — The  U.  S.  Government 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  a  1-story, 
48  X  80  ft.  steel  pow'er  house  to  be  erected 
at  the  Navy  Yard,  here,  to  the  Westing- 
house.  Church,  Kerr  Co.,  37  Wall  St.,  New 
York  City. 

N.  Y.,  Rochester — The  Board  of  Contract 
and  Supply  has  awarded  the  contract  for 
the  erection  of  a  power  plant,  to  A.  Fried- 
erich  &  Sons  Co.,   710  Lake  ,-Vve. 

N.  Y..  Yonkers — The  National  Sugar  Re- 
fining Co..  Main  St.,  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  boiler  house,  to 
Lynch  &  Larkin.  127  Downing  St.  Esti- 
mated   cost,    $40,000.      Noted    Jutie    26. 

N.  J.,  Newark — The  Northern  Leather 
Works  and  Produce  Co.,  Inc.,  377  Broad- 
way, New  York  City,  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  power  house,  to 
H.  W.  Franklin,  110  Fort  Green  PI.,  Brook- 
lyn. 

Peiin.,  .AUentown — The  Allentown  Beth- 
lehem Gas  Co..  a  subsidiary  of  the  United 
Gas  Improvement  Co..  Broad  and  .\rcn 
St..  Philadelphia,  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  a  generator  and  boiler 
house  addition,  to  the  Ochs  Constr.  Co., 
442  Wire  St. 

Penn.,  Grove  City — The  Grove  City 
Creamerv  Co.  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  a  3-story  power  plant, 
to  Rose  &  Fisher,  1719  Pennsylvania  Ave., 
Pittsburgh.      Noted    Oct.    23. 

Penn..  Philadelphia — The  Atlantic  Refin- 
ing Co.,  3144  Passyunk  Ave.,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  alterations  and  improve- 
ments to  its  power  house,  to  Metzger  & 
Fisher,   Otis   Bldg.   Estimated  cost.    $11,300. 

Md.,  linthicum — The  Con.=olidated  Gas, 
Electric  Light  and  Power  Co..  Lexington 
St.  Bldg..  Baltimore,  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  26  x  40  ft.  addi- 
tion to  its  power  station,  to  the  Coggswell 
Koether  Co..  406  Park  Ave.,  Baltimore. 
Noted    Mar.    26. 

Va.,  Norfolk — The  Virginia  Railway  and 
Power  Co.  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  a  1-story,  50  x  100  ft  substation, 
to  Nicholas  &  Linderman.  Seaboard  Bank 
Bldg.     Estimated  cost,  $11,700.  Noted  Oct.  7. 

W.  Va.,  Parkersburg — The  Parkersburg 
Iron  and  Steel  Co.  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  1-story.  30  x  42 
ft.  power  house,  to  the  Rust  Eng.  Co.. 
Farmers  Bank  Bldg..  Pittsburgh,  Penn.  Es- 
timated   cost,    $12,000. 

Ohio,  .Vlliance — The  Dougherty  Operating 
Co.  is  building  a  large  plant  here  to  supply 
current  to  two  cities.  Estimated  cost,  $2.- 
225,000.      M   R    Bunt,   Ch.    Engr. 

Ohio,  lorain — The  American  Ship  Buill- 
ing  Co.  is  building  a  large  power  plant 
here.  Estimated  cost.  $200,000. 

HI,,  East  St.  Louis — B.  Gratz.  c/o  the 
American  Manufacturing  Co.,  1026  South 
11th  St.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  a  1-story.  51 
X  88  ft.  power  plant,  to  L.  H.  Gron.  Benoist 
Bldg.,  St.  Louis.  Mo.  Estimated  cost,  $40,- 
000.      Noted   Dec.    4. 

Wis..  Eau  Claire — The  Eau  Claire  Boiler 
and  Laundry  Co.  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  a  boiler  house  and  laun- 
dry, to  The  Hoeppner  and  Bartlett  Co. 

Minn.,  Duluth — The  McDougall  Duluth 
Shipbuilding  Co.,  15th  A\e..  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  large 
boiler  shop,  to  McLeod  &  Smith,  705  Sell- 
wood   St. 

Ore..  Portland — The  Northwestern  Elec- 
tric Co.  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  an  auxiliary  steam  plant,  to 
C    C.  Moore  &  Co..  San  Francisco.   Cal. 

Calif..  Richmond — ^City  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  furnishing  a  5-ton  electric 
crane  at  the  wharf,  to  the  Cyclops  Iron 
Works.  837  Folsom  St..  San  Francisco,  cost, 
$75.000 ;  furnishing  an  electric  motor,  to 
the  United  Electric  Vehicle  Co.,  1239  Sutter 
St.,  San  Francisco,   $4383. 


:illlllllllIIIMItlllltlMIIIIIIIIMIItllllllllllll 


I      THE  COAL  MARKET      j 

Boston — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  de- 
livered aIong"side  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  as:o  are  as  follows; 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 

Apr.  18.  1918     Apr.  18.  1918 

Buckwheat    $4.60  $7.10 — 7.35 

Ric-e    4.10  6.65 — 6.90 

Boiler 3.90                  

Barley    3.60  6.15 — 6.40 

BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous    not   on    market. 

Pocohontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hampton 
Roads,  is  $4.  as  compai'ed  with  $S.S5 — 2.00  a 
year  ago. 

iWater  coal. 


•All-rail  to  Boston  is  $2.60. 


New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

ANTHRACITE 

Cirrular  Indi-sidual- 

Apr.  18.  1918  Apr.  18.  1918 

Pea    $4.90  $5.65 

Buckwheat    4.45@5.15  -4.80(515.50 

Barley    3.40(5)3.65  3.80(5' 4. .lO 

Rice     3.90(&>4.10  3.00@4.00 

Boiler    3.65(5)3.90  

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c. 
higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.  Mine 

Gross  Price  Net  Gross 

Central    Pennsylvania.. $5.06  $3.05  $3.41 
Maryland — 

Mine-run    4.84             2.85  3.19 

Prepared    5.06            5.05  3.41 

Screening's    4.50            2.55  2.85 

•The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport.  Port  John- 
son, Port  Reading:.  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Am- 
boy.  The  upper  ports  are;  Port  Liberty.  Hobo- 
ken,  Weehawken,  Edpewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut- 
tenberg.  St.  Georgre  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5c.  higrher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  line  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 


-Line— 


-Tide- 


Apr.  18.  One  Yr.  Apr.  18.  One  Year 

1918  Ago  1918  Ago 

Pea    $3.45  $2.80  $4.35  $3.70 

Barley    2.15  1.50  2.40  1.75 

Buckwheat    ..    3.15  2.50  3.75  3.40 

Rice     2.65  2.00  3.65  3.00 

Boiler    2.45  l.SO  3.55  2.90 


Chicago — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 
Prepared    sizes..  .$2.65—2.80  $3.3.5 — 3.50 

Mine-run    2.40 — 2.55 

Screening's     2.15 — 2.30 


3.10 — 3.^ 
2.85 — 3.00 


So.  111..  Pocohontas,  Hockingr.East 
Pennsylvania        Kentucky  and 
Smokeless  Coals    and  W.  Va.         West  Va.  Splint 
Prepared    sizes..  .$2.60 — 2.85  $2.8,5—3.35 

Mine-run 2.40 — 2.60  2.60 — 3.00 

Screeningrs     2.10 — 2.55  2.35 — 2.75 


St.   Louis — Prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  mines  are 
3  follows: 


Williamson  and 

Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton 

Standard 

April  18, 

April  18. 

April  18, 

1918 

1918 

1918 

6-in.  lump S'Mi.i-Ji.OO 

?2. 65-2. 80 

82. 65-2.80 

2-in.  lump  ....    t:.(i.->..-?.00 

2.65-2.80 

2.25-2.50 

Steam    egg:....    'I.KS-S.SO 

2.35-2.50 

2.25-2  40 

Mme-run    •;.4r)-2.60 

2.45-2. HO 

2.45-2.60 

No.  1  nut •;.n.->.:i.oo 

2.65-2.80 

2.65-2.80 

2-in.   screen....    ':.ir>-'.:.40 

2.15-2.40 

2.15-2.40 

No.  5  washed..    2.15-2.30 

2.15-2.30 

2.15-2.30 

Birmingham — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b. 
mines  are  as  follows: 

Mine- 
Run 

Biff  Seam   $1.90 

Pratt.   Jagffer.   Corona     2.15 
Black  Creek.  Cahaba.      2.40 
Government  figures. 

Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  reg-ular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according  to  a  regular  schedule. 


Lump  Slack  and 

&  Nut  Screenings 

$2.15  $1.65 

2.40  1.90 

2.65  2.15 


POWER 


bH 


iiiiiKii iiiiiiMiitiriiiii 


Vol.  47 


NEW    YORK,    APRIL    30,    1918 


iiriiiiiiiNiiin <i 

No.  18 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiililiiliiiimiXKir 


608 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


Combustion  of   North  Dakota   Lignites  With 
Suggestions  for  Design  of  Furnaces 


By  HENRY  KREISINGER 

Engineer,    United    States    Bureau    of    Mines 


Convinced  thai  those  adjacent  to  the  great  lignite 
fields  should  learn  how  best  to  use  this  fuel  and 
not  draw  upon  the  coal  from  distant  mines, 
"Power"  some  time  ago  requested  Dr.  Manning, 
of  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  to  permit  Mr.  Kreisinger 
to  write  for  "Power"  an  article  in  which  he  ivould 
present  the  results  of  his  investigations  in  the 
commercial  use  of  lignites  in  which  the  West  and 
Northivest  abounds.  The  article  is  therefore  pub- 
lished by  permission  of  Dr.  Manning,  Director  of 
the  United.  States  Bureau  of  Mities,  and  is  in  part 
from  a  report  to  he  submitted  to  the  Director. 
Mr.  Kreisinger  points  out  that  combustion  is  lim- 
ited to  about  the  first  three  inches  of  the  fuel  bed 
and  that  the  CO,  is  rapidly  and  completely  re- 
duced to  CO  at  about  four  inches  from  the  grate, 
necessitating  the  introduction  of  oxygen  (air) 
above  and  against  the  fuel  bed.  Because  of  the 
heat-absorbing  effect  of  CO.,  reducing  to  CO  and 
because  of  the  high  moisture  content,  the  flame 
should  sweep  forward  over  the  fuel  bed.  The  hor- 
izontal grate  is  unsuited  to  lignite,  a  step-grate 
with  large  air  openings  being  best  adapted.  The 
article  should  help  those  who  will  burn  lignite 
because  of  the  Fuel  Administration's  zone  system 
for  the  distribution  of  coal. 


THE  natural  lignite  of  North  Dakota  is  of  a  brown 
color  and  has  a  distinct  woody  structure.  Approx- 
imate analysis  shows  it  to  contain  40  per  cent, 
moisture,  25  per  cent,  volatile  matter,  28  per  cent,  fixed 
carbon  and  7  per  cent.  ash.  The  heating  value  of  natu- 
ral lignite  is  very  low,  being  only  about  6300  B.t.u.  per 
pound.  When  exposed  to  weather,  the  moisture  evapo- 
rates rapidly  and  the  lignite  crumbles  into  small  flat 
pieces,  or  flakes.  Similar  crumbling  also  takes  place,  to 
a  large  extent,  in  the  fire  and  is  one  of  the  chief  objec- 
tions to  burning  lignite.  The  high  moisture  content  and 
the  crumbling  when  exposed  to  weather  are  serious 
drawbacks  to  transportation  of  the  lignite  over  long 
distances,  thus  limiting  the  use  of  this  fuel  to  compara- 
tively small  districts  around  the  lignite  mines. 

To  avoid  these  objections  attempts  are  being  made  to 
carbonize  the  lignite  in  coke  ovens  or  in  gas  retorts  and 
use  the  carbonized  residue  as  fuel.  The  residue  has 
much  lower  moisture  and  much  higher  heat  value,  and 
for  this  reason  there  seem  to  be  possibilities  that  it 
could  find  use  over  wider  territories.  The  residue  ana- 
lyzes about  14  per  cent,  moisture,  9  per  cent,  volatile 
matter,  66  per  cent,  fixed  carbon  and  11  per  cent.  ash. 
Its  heating  value  is  10,400  B.t.u.  per  pound.  It  con- 
sist mostly  of  small  pieces,  all  of  which  pass  through 
i-in.  screen  and  about  40  per  cent,  through  1-in.  screen. 
It  is  dull  gray,  almost  black  in  color,  and  under  a  low- 
power  microscope  appears  to  be  of  homogeneous  struc- 


ture, somewhat  like  some  of  the  hard  bituminous  coals. 
Its  specific  weight  is  about  0.8  that  of  anthracite  of  sim- 
ilar size. 

Combustion  Qualities  of  Lignite  and  Its 
Carbonized  Residue 

In  the  ordinary  furnace  with  horizontal  grate  the 
lignite  of  North  Dakota  is  very  diflScult  to  ignite.  The 
surface  of  the  fuel  bed  is  rather  dark  and  uncheerful, 
with  flames  appearing  only  in  spots.  The  flames  are  of 
bluish  yellow  color  and  clean,  containing  little  soot.  The 
crumbling  of  the  lignite  makes  a  rather  dense  fuel  bed, 
offering  high  resistance  to  the  flow  of  air.  Some  of  the 
small  pieces  sift  through  the  grate  and  continue  to 
burn  in  the  ashpit,  especially  if  the  fire  is  disturbed. 
With  careless  handling  of  the  fire  so  much  burning  lig- 
nite may  be  sifted  through  the  grate  that  the  ashpit  may 
have  more  fire  than  the  furnace.  In  the  fuel  bed  the 
processes  of  combustion  are  largely  limited  to  the  first 
three  inches  from  the  grate.  This  is  probably  partly 
due  to  the  compactness  of  the  fuel  bed  and  partly  to 
the  high  activity  of  the  carbon  in  the  lignite.  The  com- 
pactness of  the  fuel  bed  breaks  the  current  of  air  pass- 
ing up  through  it  into  many  small  streams,  so  that  the 
oxygen  and  the  products  of  combustion  come  in  close 
contact  with  the  hot  carbon.  The  carbon  may  be  in  such 
form  that  it  combines  rapidly  with  the  oxygen  and 
also  with  CO,,  which  acts  as  an  oxidizing  agent.  The 
carbon  combines  with  the  oxygen  passing  up  through 
the  layer  next  to  the  grate  and  forms  CO,.  The 
CO,  itself  is  rapidly  and  almost  completely  reduced 
to  CO  three  to  four  inches  from  the  grate  so  that  at 
the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed  there  is  practically  no 
oxygen  and  little,  frequently  less  than  1  per  cent.,  of 
COj.  The  reduction  of  CO,  to  CO  is  a  heat-absorb- 
ing process,  consequently  a  large  part  of  the  heat  gen- 
erated in  the  layer  next  to  the  grate  is  absorbed  in 
the  upper  layers  of  the  fuel  bed  by  the  reduction.  This 
heat  absorption  by  the  reduction  process  is  partly  a 
cause  of  the  darkness  of  the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed. 
The  high  moisture  content  of  the  lignite  causes  this  fuel 
to  absorb  large  quantities  of  heat  and  is  a  further  cause 
of  the  darkness  at  the  top  of  the  fuel  bed.  The  processes 
of  combustion  in  the  fuel  bed  are  shown  graphically 
in  Fig.  1,  which  shows  the  results  of  some  combustion 
experiments  made  at  the  Bureau  of  Mines. 

The  rapid  oxidation  limits  the  high  temperature  to  a 
thin  zone  near  the  grate,  where  most  of  the  ashes  accu- 
mulate, and  because  of  the  heat  tend  to  fuse  into  clinker. 

The  gases  rising  from  the  fuel  bed  consist  mostly  of 
CO,  hydrogen  and  light  hydrocarbons,  all  of  which  are 
easily  burned.  There  seem  to  be  no,  or  little,  hydrocar- 
bons which  are  likely  to  decompose  and  produce  smoke; 
consequently  the  lignite,  compared  with  bituminous 
coals,  can  be  considered  as  a  smokeless  fuel.  Complete 
combustion  is  further  aided  by  the  fact  that  the  dis- 
tillation of  volatile  matter  is  nearly  uniform  through- 


April  30,  1918 


P  O  W  E  11 


609 


out  a  firing  cycle,  provided  the  firings  are  not  too  far 
apart  in  point  of  time;  the  distillation  being  uniform,  it 
is  easy  to  supply  the  right  amount  of  air  to  burn  lig- 
nite completely  without  large  excess  of  air.  When  burn- 
ing lignite,  there  are  no  such  high  peaks  of  combustible 
gases  immediately  after  firing,  demanding  large  air  sup- 
ply, as  is  the  case  with  bituminous  coals;  in  fact,  the  de- 
mand for  air  is  about  as  uniform  as  it  is  in  hand-firing 
iuithracite  coal.  This  feature  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  which 
gives  the  percentages  of  CO.  in  the  furnace  gases  taken 
at  15-  to  20-sec.  intervals  during  several  firings  when 
burning  lignite,  anthracite,  Pocahontas  and  Pittsburgh 
coals,  the  length  of  the  firing  cycle  being  the  same  in 
all  cases. 

The  carbonized  residue,  being  of  small  size,  lies  com- 
pactly on  the  grate  and  offers  high  resistance  to  the 
flow  of  air  through  the  fuel  bed;  high  draft  is  required 
even  with  a  4-in.  fuel  bed  and  moderate  rates  of  com- 
bustion. This  high  resistance  to  the  passage  of  air  is 
probably  the  greatest  drawback  to  burning  the  carbo- 
nized residue  on  a  horizontal  grate.  The  high  draft  is 
likely  to  blow  holes  through  the  fuel  bed  and  make  an 
uneven  fire. 

The  draft  required  for  given  rates  of  combustion  of 
natural  lignite  and  the  carbonized  residue  is  shown 
graphically  in  Fig.  3.  As  indicated  in  the  figure,  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  obtain  rates  of  combustion  of 
20  to  30  lb.  with  a  6-in.  fuel  bed  of  the  residue  with  a 
chimney  draft. 

Behavior  of  the  Fuel  Bed 

The  activity  of  the  carbon  to  combine  with  oxygen 
and  CO,  is  even  greater  than  that  of  the  carbon  in  the 
natural  lignite.  The  oxygen  passing  up  through  the 
grate  is  all  consumed  in  burning  the  carbon  to  CO,,  and 
the  CO,  reduced  to  CO  in  the  first  two  or  three  inches 
above  the  grate;  the  upper  layers  in  the  fuel  bed  re- 
main practically  inactive.  The  reducing  process  keeps 
the  gases  comparatively  cold  and  the  top  of  the  fuel 
bed  dark,  unless  the  rates  of  combustion  are  increased 
beyond  30  lb.  On  ordinary  grates  such  high  rates  of 
combustion  would  require  high  draft.  When  the  rate  of 
combustion  of  about  40  lb.  of  fuel  per  square  foot  of 
grate  per  hour  is  approached,  there  is  started  a  strong 
agitation  in  the  fuel  bed ;  the  particles  of  fuel  are  mov- 
ing so  that  the  whole  surface  of  the  fuel  bed  appears 
like  a  boiling  liquid.  When  this  stage  is  reached,  fur- 
ther increase  in  the  rate  of  combustion  is  not  accom- 
panied by  a  proportional  increase  in  the  draft  re- 
quired to  produce  this  rate  of  combustion.  This  is 
shown  in  Fig.  3,  particularly  by  the  curve  for  carbonized 
residue  for  a  6-in.  fuel  bed. 

The  high  temperature  resulting  from  the  intensified 
combustion  near  the  grate  tends  to  melt  the  ash  into 
clinker.  The  clinker  is  dense  and  impervious  to  air,  and 
it  is  doubtful  that  rates  of  combustion  between  20  and 
30  lb.  could  be  maintained  more  than  two  or  three  hours 
before  it  would  be  necessary  to  remove  the  clinker.  The 
clinkering  tendency  is  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  on 
account  of  the  small  size  of  the  fuel,  a  grate  with  small 
air  spaces  must  be  used,  the  air  spaces  not  being  suffi- 
ciently large  to  insure  continual  riddance  of  ash.  The 
main  cause  of  the  clinkering  is  the  low  fusing  tempera- 
ture of  the  ash,  which  is  only  about  2000  deg.  F. 


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FIG.    1.      RESULTS   OF  COMBUSTION   TESTS 


610 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


The  gases  rising  from  the  fuel  bed  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  combustible  gas,  mostly  CO,  with  no  oxygen 
and  practically  no  CO,.  Judging  by  the  rapidity  of  the 
reactions  in  the  fuel  bed,  it  would  seem  that  the  natural 
lignite,  as  well  as  the  carbonized  residue,  would  make  a 


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5  10 

Time,  Minu+es 

CO.   WITH   VARIOUS    FUELS 


15 


good  fuel  for  gas  producers,  the  tendency  to  clinker,  of 
course,  being  the  only  drawback  to  this  fuel  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

Requirement  of  a  Furnace  for  Burning  Lignite  and 
Its  Carbonized  Residue 

Any  furnace  that  will  burn  the  lignite  and  its  car- 
bonized residue  successfully  must  fulfill  the  following 
conditions:  It  must  have  a  provision  for  rapid  igni- 
tion; it  must  supply  enough  air  with  ordinary  draft  to 
produce  a  reasonably  high  rate  of  combustion  and  make 
a  hot  fire ;  it  must  have  a  grate  of  such  design  that  will 
prevent  sifting  of  combustible  into  the  ashpit  and  at  the 
same  time  permit  of  cleaning  the  fire  without  impair- 
ing its  function.  A  special  furnace  was  designed  and 
constructed  in  accordance  with  these  requirements  and 
with  particular  application  to  house-heating  purposes. 
The  essential  features  are  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

Rapid  ignition  is  obtained  by  the  rear  arch,  which 
turns  the  hot  gases  and  flames  back  over  the  fuel  bed. 
Thus,  the  incoming  fresh  fuel  is  heated  not  only  by  con- 
duction through  the  fuel  and  radiation  from  the  arch, 
but  mainly  by  convection  by  coming  in  contact  with  the 


hot  gases  and  flames  from  the  already  burning  fuel.  If 
a  long  front  arch  is  used  with  no  rear  arch,  the  flames 
and  hot  gases  flow  away  from  the  incoming  coal  and 
the  fire  has  a  tendency  to  be  moved  from  under  the 
arch  and  extinguished. 

To  heat  lignite  having  35  per  cent,  moisture  to  igni- 
tion temperature  takes  more  than  twice  as  much  heat 
as  is  required  to  heat  bituminous  coal  containing  10  per 
cent,  of  moisture.  It  is  therefore  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  supply  enough  heat  by  radiation  from  the 
ordinary  front  arch  to  ignite  the  lignite.  The  rate  of 
heat  transmission  by  radiation  depends  almost  entirely 
on  the  temperature.  Therefore,  to  supply  more  than 
twice  the  heat  by  radiation  from  the  arch  would  require 
that  the  arch  be  kept  at  considerably  higher  tempera- 
ture when  burning  lignite  than  when  burning  ordinary 
bituminous  coal.  But  with  lignites  it  is  not  possible  to 
obtain  temperatures  nearly  as  high  as  with  bituminous 
coals.  Therefore,  it  is  plain  that  another  factor  in  the 
heat  transfer  must  be  brought  into  action,  and  that  is 
the  heat  transmission  from  the  hot  gases  by  convec- 
tion. 

The  grate  is  inclined  and  has  wide  horizontal  air 
spaces  which  can  be  easily  kept  open,  permitting  free 
flow  of  air  through  the  grate.  Additional  air  is  ad- 
mitted through  the  clinker-removing  door  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  grate.  As  this  air  passes  up  between  the  arch 
and  the  fuel,  it  scrubs  against  the  surface  of  the  fuel 
bed  and  a  large  part  of  it  is  used  in  burning  or  gasify- 


O  10  eo  30  40  50  60  70 

Rate  of  Combustion,  Pounds  of  Fuel  per  Square  Foot  of  Grate  per  Hour 

FIG.   3.      DRAFT    REQUIRED    FOR    LIGNITE 

ing  solid  fuel,  thus  making  it  unnecessary  to  force  all 
the  air  needed  for  the  gasification  of  the  fuel  through 
the  fuel  bed. 

Experiments  showed  that  the  scrubbing  action  of  the 
additional  air  caused  a  rapid  and  a  rather  complete 
oxidation  at  the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed,  indicated  by  the 
bright-red  heat,  which  was  practically  absent  on  the 


April  30,  1918 


POWER 


611 


tests  made  in  an  ordinary  furnace  with  horizontal  grate. 
Thus,  there  were  two  oxidation  zones,  one  next  to  the 
grate  and  one  at  the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed,  probably 
with  a  small  reducing  zone  between  them.  Because  the 
air  which  enters  through  the  cleaning  door  against  a 
low  resistance  burns  or  gasifies  solid  fuel,  higher  rates 
of  combustion  can  be  obtained  with  ordinary  natural 
draft. 

The  air  spaces  in  the  grate  are  horizontal,  and  the 
successive  steps  or  grate  bars  are  overlapping  in  such 
a  way  that  there  is  no  sifting  of  the  combustible  into 
the  ashpit.  The  inclination  of  the  grate  is  such  that  the 
fuel  is  fed  from  the  magazine  down  the  grate  by  gravity. 
The  rate  of  feeding  can  be  increased  by  a  slight  agi- 
tation or  rocking  of  the  grate  bars.  The  fuel  does  not 
cake,  and  therefore  the  gravity  feed  is  not  interfered 
with  as  is  the  case  with  most  bituminous  coals.  Most 
of  the  ash  slides  down  the  step  grate  with  the  fuel  and 
finally  reaches  the  horizontal  portion  of  the  grate,  after 
most  of  the  combustible  has  burned  off.  The  horizontal 
part  of  the  grate  has  small  air  openings  through  which 
the  ash  can  be  shaken  into  the  ashpit.  Any  clinker  that 
accumulates  on  this  horizontal  portion  of  the  grate  can 
be  removed  through  the  door  provided  for  this  purpose 
or  by  dumping  the  grate,  without  disturbing  the  fire 
on  the  inclined  grate. 

The  thickness  of  the  fuel  bed,  and  to  some  extent  the 


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PIO.    4.      EXPERIMENTAL  HOUSE-HEATING   FURNACE  FOR 
LIGNITE 

rate  of  feeding,  are  controlled  by  the  opening  of  the 
gate  of  the  fuel  magazine. 

A  fire  was  started  in  this  furnace  by  building  a  small 
wood  fire  on  the  horizontal  portion  of  the  grate  and 
covering  the  inclined  portion  with  a  bed  of  lignite  about 


four  inches  thick.  As  the  flames  from  the  wood  fire 
passed  over  the  bed  of  lignite,  they  set  it  afire,  so  that 
in  less  than  an  hour  the  lignite  over  the  entire  grate 
was  burning.  With  a  draft  of  0.1  to  0.15  in.  of  water, 
the  lignite  made  a  bright,  red-hot  fire,  although  the 
arch  never  became  visibly  red-hot.     There  seemed  to 


PIG.   5. 


PROPOSED    ROUGH    DESIGNS    OF    FURNACES    FOR 
BURNING  LIGNITE  UNDER  BOILERS 


have  been  considerable  combustion  at  the  surface  of  the 
fuel  bed,  due  to  the  air  entering  through  the  cleaning 
door  and  scrubbing  the  surface. 

When  the  lignite  was  broken  to  pieces  not  exceeding 
about  two  inches,  the  feeding  of  the  fuel  was  nearly 
automatic.  With  larger  pieces  the  fuel  had  to  be  oc- 
casionally moved  down  by  moving  the  grate  bars  or 
by  poking  the  large  pieces  through  the  magazine  gate. 
The  fuel  contained  a  considerable  amount  of  slack, 
which,  however,  did  not  seem  to  cause  any  particular 
trouble.  Some  clinker  was  found  on  and  near  the  hori- 
zontal portion  of  the  grate.  This  clinker  was  very 
porous  and  floated  in  the  free  ash  without  touching 
the  grate,  and  seemed  to  have  been  formed  near  the 
surface  of  the  fuel  bed.  It  was  removed  by  hooking  it 
out  from  the  horizontal  portion  of  the  grate,  and  the 
fine  ashes  were  shaken  through. 

The  carbonized  residue,  on  account  of  its  uniform 
size,  flowed  down  the  inclined  grate  without  any  help 
and  made  a  rather  intense  fire  wholly  out  of  compari- 
son with  the  sluggish  fire  that  could  be  obtained  on  a 
horizontal  grate.  In  fact,  it  seems  that  the  carbonized 
residue,  when  burned  in  this  special  type  of  furnace, 
would  make  an  ideal  fuel  for  house-heating  purposes. 

The  principles  embodied  in  the  design  of  the  special 
furnace  shown  in  Fig.  4  can  be  applied  to  boiler  fur- 
naces with  a  promise  of  success.  Fig.  5,  diagram  A, 
suggests  the  design   of  an   inclined   step-grate   boiler 


612 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


furnace.  The  fuel  can  be  fed  down  the  grate  by  grav- 
ity aided  by  hand  regulation,  or  it  can  be  pushed  out  of 
the  magazine  mechanically  by  a  pusher  plate.  The  hori- 
zontal air  spaces  between  the  step-grate  bars  can  be  kept 
open  easily  by  hand  poker  or  by  rocking  the  grate  bars. 
The  clinker  can  be  removed  through  the  side  cleaning 
door,  or  it  can  be  dropped  by  the  dumping  grate.  The 
fine  ashes  accumulate  on  the  dumping  grate  through 
which  they  can  be  shaken  into  the  ashpit.  The  air  is 
admitted  through  the  horizontal  air  spaces  between  the 
step-bars  of  the  grate  and  through  the  special  openings 
at  the  end  of  the  grate.  Probably  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  air  needed  for  combustion  should  be  in- 
troduced at  the  end  of  the  grate,  so  that  as  the  air  passes 
between  the  fuel  bed  and  the  arch  it  scrubs  over  the 
surface  of  the  fuel  bed  and  burns  the  coal.  This  air 
enters  the  furnace  against  a  very  small  resistance,  there- 
fore a  comparatively  small  draft  may  bring  large  quan- 
tities of  air  into  the  furnace  and  produce  a  fairly  high 
rate  of  combustion.  The  air  entering  through  the 
air  spaces  between  the  grate  bars  has  to  pass  through 
the  fuel  bed  against  a  comparatively  high  resistance, 
and  it  would  require  high  draft  to  supply  enough  air  to 
gasify  the  solid  fuel. 

Air  Admission  to  the  Fuel  Bed 

There  should  be  as  little  air  as  possible  entering 
through  the  coal  magazine  or  through  the  plate  in  front 
of  the  coal  magazine,  where  the  fuel  is  merely  being 
dried  and  does  not  burn.  The  completeness  of  combus- 
tion should  be  controlled  by  regulating  the  air  admitted 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  grate  and  not  by  regulating  the 
admission  of  air  through  the  magazine.  The  air  ad- 
mitted through  the  magazine  does  not  help  in  burning 
solid  coal,  but  merely  assists  in  burning  the  gases  ris- 
ing from  the  lower  portion  of  the  fuel  bad.  The  gases 
rising  from  a  fuel  bad  of  lignite  consist  mostly  of  car- 
bon monoxide  and  hydrogen,  which  are  comparatively 
easy  to  burn,  so  that  the  flames  would  not  extend  too 
far  beyond  the  top  of  the  arch.  The  comparatively 
narrow  space  between  the  rear  arch  and  front  arch 
would  help  in  bringing  the  air  and  combustible  gases 
together,  and  cause'  intimate  mixing.  There  would 
probably  be  a  considerable  amount  of  the  fluffy  ash 
carried  with  the  gases.  As  soon  as  the  gases  pass  be- 
yond the  contraction  between  the  two  arches,  they  ex- 
pand and  their  velocity  slows  down,  causing  the  ash 
to  be  deposited  on  top  of  and  beyond  the  rear  arch ; 
so  that  comparatively  little  ash  would  be  carried  into 
the  boiler. 

The  special  openings  for  introducing  air  at  the  end 
of  the  grate  would  not  fuse  over  because  they  do  not 
come  in  contact  with  the  hot  gases  and  the  slag  which 
the  gases  contain. 

Diagram  B,  of  Fig.  5,  shows  the  application  of  the 
principles  to  a  chain  grate.  The  diagram  shows  the 
grate  in  horizontal  position,  but  it  is  believed  that 
better  results  could  be  obtained  if  the  top  of  the  grate 
were  inclined  about  20  deg.  to  the  horizontal. 

The  motion  of  the  grate  feeds  the  fuel  into  the  fur- 
nace, and  the  thickness  of  the  fuel  bed  is  controlled  by 
the  opening  of  the  gate.  The  air  needed  for  combustion 
is  introduced  through  the  openings  in  the  grate  bars 
and  in  the  rear  of  the  grate  where  the  ashes  are  dis- 


charged into  the  ashpit.  In  this  case  the  air  which 
enters  the  furnace  between  the  end  of  the  grate  and  the 
bridge-wall  is  used  to  burn  the  solid  fuel  on  the  grate  as 
it  is  made  to  pass  between  the  arch  and  the  fuel  bed 
toward  the  front  of  the  grate,  and  therefore  helps  both 
in  the  rate  and  the  completeness  of  combustion,  and 
is  not  detrimental  to  efficiency,  as  it  is  with  the  ordinary 
chain-grate  furnace. 

Provisions  should  be  made  to  stop  the  admission  of 
air  through  the  coal  magazine  and  through  the  front 
part  of  the  grate,  where  the  lignite  is  being  dried. 
When  burning  lignites,  it  is  improbable  that  the  fur- 
nace temperature  will  be  high  enough  to  injure  the 
arch.  With  the  CO,  (carbon  dioxide)  averaging  be- 
tween 13  and  14  per  cent.,  the  furnace  temperature  will 
not  exceed  2200  deg.  F.,  and  with  the  top  of  the  arch 
exposed  to  radiate  heat  to  the  boiler  above  it,  the  arch 
would  probably  never  get  above  2000  deg.  F.  There  are 
plenty  of  refractory  materials  that  will  hold  under  si^ch 
temperatures.  When  burning  carbonized  residue,  which 
does  not  contain  such  a  high  percentage  of  moisture  as 
natural  lignite,  higher  temperatures  might  be  obtained. 
If  these  temperatures  would  be  too  high  for  the  material 
in  the  arch,  the  latter  could  be  constructed  of  special 
tiles  suspended  from  water  tubes,  which  could  be  made 
a  part  of  the  boiler.  Similar  construction  is  used  on 
arches  in  locomotive  furnaces.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that,  since  the  arches  are  inclined,  only  the  hori- 
zontal component  of  the  weight  of  the  arch  acts  in  pull- 
ing the  arch  down. 

These  furnaces  can  probably  be  used  for  burning 
other  low-grade  fuels  that  are  difficult  to  ignite. 

Something  About  Pumps 

One  Saturday  afternoon  as  Willis  was  on  his  way 
home  after  shutting  down  for  the  week's  end,  he 
dropped  into  the  engine  room  of  the  Stahley  Manu- 
facturing Co.'s  plant,  where  an  engineer  by  the  name 
of  Williams  was  in  charge.  He  found  Williams  work- 
ing on  a  pump  that  was  used  for  returning  the  water 
of  condensation  to  the  boilers,  and  a  much  disgusted 
person  he  was  at  that  particular  instant. 

"How  is  she  coming,"  asked  Willis,  as  he  moved  over 
toward  the  pump.  "You  seem  to  be  up  to  your  eye-teeth 
in  trouble  this  afternoon." 

"Trouble's  no  name  for  it.  Here  I  am  stuck  for  the 
day,  while  the  rest  of  the  fellows  are  off  until  Monday 
morning,  just  because  this  blamed  pump  won't  work 
any  better  than  a  dog's  front  legs  when  it  comes  to 
scratching  fleas." 

"Well,  a  little  thing  like  a  pump  should  not  keep  you 
here  very  long.  What  seems  to  be  the  matter  with  it 
first  and  last?" 

"She  won't  handle  the  hot  water  for  a  cent.  I  don't 
know  what's  the  matter  with  the  dum  thing." 

During  this  little  conversation  Willis  had  been  in- 
specting the  rings  of  packing  that  Williams  had  re- 
moved from  the  water  end  of  the  pump  and  discovered 
that  they  were  designed  for  cold  water  and  not  at  all 
fitted  to  pump  hot  water  such  as  the  pump  had  been 
handling. 

"Where  did  you  get  this  packing,"  he  asked  as  Wil- 
liams straightened  up  to  get  the  kinks  out  of  his  back. 
"Get  it  at  a  rummage  sale?" 


April  30,  1918 


POWER 


613 


"No,  I  got  it  a  few  days  ago  from  a  fellow  who  said 
his  packing  was  just  as  good  as  what  we  had  been  using 
and  a  little  cheaper.  I  fell  for  his  line  of  talk  and  have 
had  trouble  ever  since.  What's  the  matter  with  the 
stuff?  Do  you  know?"  he  asked  as  he  noted  the  amused 
look  of  Willis. 

"Surest  thing  you  know,"  replied  Willis.  "This  pack- 
ing might  be  all  right  for  cold  water,  but  for  hot  water 
such  as  you  are  trying  to  make  this  pump  handle  you 


FIO.   1.      "WHERE  DID  YOU  GET  THIS  PACKIXO?" 

might  just  as  well  pack  it  with  cheese  cloth  and  be  done 
with  it.  You  put  in  some  packing  that  is  made  to  work 
with  hot  water  and  I  calculate  the  pump  will  get  down  to 
business  in  no  time.  Williams,"  said  Willis,  "you  can 
make  up  your  mind  to  one  thing  if  not  another,  and  that 
is  that  when  a  machine  won't  do  its  work  there  is  a  good 
reason,  and  when  it  has  been  working  all  right  for  a  spell 
and  then  suddenly  goes  wrong,  you  can  gamble  that 
some  simple  thing  has  taken  place  that  can  be  easily 
remedied.  The  best  thing  a  fellow  can  do  in  such  a  case 
is  to  think  a  little  and  see  if  he  hasn't  done  something 
that  might  be  responsible  for  the  trouble. 

"Now  in  your  case  if  you  had  got  in  a  think  or  two 
you  would  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  something 
must  have  happened  to  the  packing,  seeing  it  was  the 
only  thing  on  the  pump  that  was  different  from  the 
regular  state  of  affairs,  and  then  you  would  have  found, 
if  you  had  read  the  label  on  the  box,  that  the  packing 
was  not  the  kind  for  the  work.  Of  course  you  can 
generally  tell  by  the  looks  of  a  packing  what  kind  of 
water  it  will  handle,  although  it  might  be  a  little  diffi- 
cult in  some  cases,  but  this  box  is  plainly  marked  'For 
use  with  cold  water,'  as  I  have  observed  since  I  dropped 
in  here.  Now  I  didn't  mean  to  preach  you  a  sermon, 
but  carelessness  usually  is  responsible  for  most  of  our 
troubles  and  don't  you  forget  it." 

"Maybe,  maybe,"  answered  Williams,  "but  that  ain't 
always  the  case,  not  by  a  long  shot." 

"I  never  told  you  about  Silas  Wetherbee,  did  I?  Well, 
Silas  had  a  new  pump  come  one  day,  and  after  he  had 
got  it  piped  up  as  spruce  as  a  young  feller  going  court- 
ing for  the  first  time,  he  started  it  up  and  the  pump  was 
as  dry  as  a  one-year  old  brindle  bull.  All  the  prominent 
engineers  around  about  were  called  in  to  set  matters 
right,  but  although  the  pump  piston  would  shoot  back 
and  forth  there  wasn't  any  water  coming  out  of  the 
discharge  pipe. 

"The  pump  was  of  good  make;  in  fact,  Silas  had 
another  one  that  had  never  given  any  trouble,  and  he 


couldn't  imagine  why  the  new  one  wouldn't  pick  up  and 
go  on  about  its  business  the  same  as  any  decent  pump 
should. 

"As  it  happened,  I  strolled  into  the  plant  when  about 
everyone  had  condemned  the  pump  to  the  hottest  place 
they  could  think  of  and  Silas  asked  me  to  try  my  luck 
at  it.  He  told  me  about  every  thing  that  had  been  done 
to  get  it  started,  and  I  decided  there  wasn't  any  use  in 
going  over  the  same  road  the  others  had  traveled. 

"Well,  to  make  a  long  story  short  I  got  Silas  to  break 
the  suction  pipe  pretty  close  up  to  the  pump  and  then  got 
a  pail  of  water  and  stuck  the  short  end  of  the  suction 
pipe  in  it.  Silas  started  up  the  pump  and  that  water 
disappeared  quicker  than  you  can  say  scat.  We  tried 
it  again  and  the  same  thing  happened,  and  I  told  Silas  I 
calculated  that  if  the  pump  could  get  water  there 
wouldn't  be  any  trouble  about  its  throwing  a  stream 
out  of  the  discharge  pipe  to  wherever  he  wanted  it  to 
go." 

"What  was  the  matter  with  the  pump  that  it  wouldn't 
take  water?  Another  case  of  using  packing  that  wasn't 
fit  for  the  work?" 

"Nothing  of  the  sort.  The  dom  idiot  had  connected 
the  suction  pipe  to  an  old  one  that  ran  to  a  pond  a 
little  distance  away,  but  which  for  some  reason  or  other 
had  been  abandoned  and  the  suction  end  left  about  a 
foot  above  the  water.  Naturally,  the  water"  wasn't  go- 
ing to  make  no  hop,  skip  and  a  jump  that  distance  into 
ths  suction  pipe  just  to  please  Silas  or  anyone  else. 

"Silas  said  the  cigars  were  on  him,  and  I  guess  they 
were  for  I  never  saw  any  of  them.    However,  that  little 


IfcigjiaiJ^^^ 


FIG.    2.      "WE  PUT  A  PET-COCK  IN  THE  SUCTION  PIPE" 

incident  goes  to  show  that  a  feller  can  put  up  an  awful 
holler  when  the  fault  is  his  own." 

"I  don't  see  why  anyone  would  pipe  up  a  pump  to 
an  old  suction  pipe  without  knowing  whether  it  was  in 
good  condition  or  not." 

"You  wouldn't  think  it  any  more  than  that  a  fellow 
would  use  cold-water  packing  to  pump  hot  water," 
answered  Willis  with  a  grin. 

"Sometimes  a  fellow  gets  a  surprise  when  a  pump 
won't  work.  I  remember  some  years  ago  in  one  plant 
where  I  worked  a  large  pump  that  was  used  only  occa- 
sionally was  always  supposed  to  be  in  good  condition. 
The  suction  pipe  was  fitted  with  a  foot  valve,  and  it  had 
always  worked  to  perfection.  One  day  I  wanted  that 
pump  in  a  hurry,  and  when  steam  was  turned  on  there 
was  nothing  doing. 


614 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


"Naturall.v,  I  went  over  the  thing  and  could  find 
nothing  out  of  order.  Finally,  the  foot  valve  was  ex- 
amined, when  we  found  that  the  pump  valves  were  dry 
and  the  cause  of  the  trouble  was  discovered  to  be  due 
to  leaves  that  had  lodged  against  the  foot  valve  and  so 
prevented  water  from  getting  up  into  the  pump.  Of 
course  the  pump  had  run  down,  which  accounted  for  the 
dry  valves. 

"Foot  valves  have  caused  me  some  trouble,  but  on 
the  whole  I  take  it  that  they  are  better  than  nothing 
on  the  end  of  the  pipe,  as  they  keep  fish,  eels  and  other 
rubbish  from  getting  into  the  pipe.  I  always  have  'em 
on  my  suctions  unless  the  water  is  coming  from  a  well 
where  there  is  but  little  danger  of  the  pipe  taking  any- 
thing large  enough  to  get  stuck  in  the  pump  valves." 

"Yep,  I  know,"  answered  Williams,  "but  just  the  same 
that  foot  valve  came  off  the  pipe  and  mighty  quick  at 
that.  I  don't  see  what  there  was  to  prevent  the  pump 
from  running  down  without  the  foot  valve  just  as  easily 
as  it  did  with  it  on  and  the  clapper  stuck  open." 

"If  you  will  only  give  me  a  chance,  I'll  tell  you  what 
was  done.  You  see,  we  ran  the  suction  pipe  up  to  a 
point  a  little  above  the  top  of  the  pump-valve  deck  and 
then  capped  it  with  an  elbow  in  which  a  long  nipple  was 
screwed.  On  the  other  end  of  the  nipple  another  ell 
was  fitted  and  the  other  end  of  it  was  fitted  to  a  pipe 
that  connected  with  the  pump.  This  arrangement  gave 
two  legs  to  the  suction  pipe,  and  as  the  long  nipple  was 
fitted  with  an  air  valve  it  was  an  easy  matter  to  cut 
the  pipe  into  two  sections,  so  that  when  the  water  in  the 
pipe  from  the  supply  started  to  run  down,  the  water  in 
the  pipe  connected  to  the  pump  would  remain  where  it 
was,  and  it  was  there  when  we  wanted  to  start  up.  The 
only  thing  we  had  to  remember  was  to  open  the  air- 
cock  when  shutting  down  the  pump,  just  to  cut  the  water 
into  two  separate  bodies." 

"Well,  I  suppose  pumps  are  necessary  about  a  steam 
plant,  but  I  wish  that  someone  would  get  up  something 
that  would  work  without  valves  and  pistons  in  handling 
hot-water  returns.  Then  there  would  be  less  gloom,  for 
m.e  at  least.    A  pump  is  a  nuisance  anyway." 

"Why,  Williams,  you  don't  mean  to  say  that  you  don't 
know  of  a  way  to  get  your  returns  back  into  the  boiler 
without  a  pump,  do  you?  Didn't  you  ever  hear  of  the 
return  loop?  No?  Well,  I  ain't  got  the  time  to  tell  you 
about  it  just  now,  as  I  have  got  to  get  home  so  as  to 
keep  peace  in  the  family;  but  the  next  time  I  get  a 
chance  I'll  drop  in  and  give  you  a  few  pointers  on  the 
loop  that  may  come  in  handy  some  time  or  other.  Now 
I  guess  I'll  meander  along  and  see  what  the  old  lady's 
got  for  dinner." 


Whitewash  and  Fire-Retarding  Mixture 

Following  is  the  formula  for  what  is  known  as  the 
United  States  Government  whitewash  mixture,  which 
also  acts  as  a  fire-retarding  coating  over  interior 
wooden  surfaces:  Slake  i  bushel  of  quicklime  with 
boiling  water,  keeping  it  covered  during  process;  strain 
and  add  1  peck  of  salt  dissolved  in  warm  water;  put  3 
lb.  ground  rice  in  water  and  boil  to  a  thin  paste;  J  lb. 
of  powdered  Spanish  whiting;  1  lb.  of  clean  glue  dis- 
solved in  hot  water.  Mix  well  and  let  stand  for  several 
days.  Keep  in  kettle  or  receptacle  and  apply  as  hot 
as  possible  with  a  whitewash  or  paint  brush.  -  ■ 


Anderson  Fuel-Oil  Burner 

In  burning  fuel  oil  its  atomization  must  be  thorough, 
and  in  order  to  attain  this  result  a  proper  burner  must 
be  used  and  the  more  simple  its  construction  the  better. 
Oil  burners  are  of  two  types,  inside  and  outside  mix- 
ing. In  the  former  the  oil  and  steam  come  in  contact  in- 
side of  the  burner  and  the  mixture  is  atomized  in  pass- 
ing through  the  burner  nozzle.  In  the  latter  type  the 
steam  passes  through  a  narrow  slot  oi  through  a  series 
of  small  holes  below  a  similar  slot  through  which  the 
oil  flows,  the  oil  being  picked  up  by  the  steam  outside 
of  the  burner  and  thus  atomized  by  it. 

An  oil  burner  of  the  inside-mixing  type  has  recently 
been  perfected  by  the  N.  C.  Davison  Gas  Burner  and 
Welding  Co.,  -3145  Penn  Ave.,  Pittsburgh,  Penn. 

The  device  consists  of  a  central  cone  A  with  an  oil 
opening  B  through  the  center.  The  oil  is  atomized  by 
air  or  steam  that  is  admitted  through  the  cone-shaped 
opening  C  surrounding  the  oil  cone.  The  air  or  steam 
crosses  the  oil  just  at  the  mouth  of  the  nozzle  A  and 
atomizes  the  oil,  so  that  immediate  combustion  takes 
place  without  smoke,  even  in  a  cold  furnace.    The  flames 


SECTION  THROUGH  THE  AXDERSOX  OIL  BURNER 

can  be  cut  down  to  1  ft.  in  length  or  increased  to  as 
much  as  18  ft.  The  burner  is  simple  in  construction  and 
is  easily  operated.  The  needle  valves  D  and  E  are  for 
hand-controlling  the  oil  and  air  supply  respectively. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  three  types  of  oil  burners  are 
made.  The  first  is  a  straight  oil  burner  in  which  air 
or  steam  is  used  for  atomizing.  For  this  purpose  a 
pressure  of  from  30  to  100  lb.  of  air  or  steam  is  used 
and  an  oil  pressure  of  from  5  to  .50  lb.  Then  there  is 
a  combination  oil  and  gas  burner  for  use  where  gas  can 
be  had  part  of  the  time.  Air  for  gas  is  supplied  at 
from  4  to  8  oz.  and  high-pressure  air  or  steam  when 
using  oil.  The  third  type  of  burner  is  for  oil  when 
air  at  low  pressure  is  used  for  atomizing.  This  air  can 
be  used  at  a  pressure  of  from  6  to  10  oz.  This  burner 
is  made  either  for  straight  oil  burning  or  for  a  combina- 
tion of  oil  and  gas,  both  fuels  being  supplied  with  the 
low-pressure  air. 

These  burners  are  suitable  for  use  under  steam 
boilers,  with  openhearth  furnace-ingot  and  billet  fur- 
naces, core  ovens  and  all  types  of  down-draft  kilns  and 
ovens.  Wherever  coal,  coke  or  gas  is  used,  the  burner 
is  adaptable. 


April  ;?0,   1018 


POWER 


615 


From   Superheated   Steam  to   B last- 
Furnace  Gas  Kngines 

By  a.  L.  Fritz 

Converting  an  experienced  steam-engine  operator 
into  a  blast-furnace  gas-engine  operator  cannot  be 
thoroughly  accomplished  in  a  few  days'  time.  From 
superheated  steam  to  blast-furnace  gas  is  a  long,  hard 
jump,  and  having  measured  the  distance,  so  to  speak, 
I  know  that  it  is  a  hard  proposition. 

After  operating  cross-compound  horizontal-vertical 
steam  engines  for  five  years,  I  was  suddenly  transferred 
to  a  blast-furnace  gas-engine  room  containing  four 
3000-kw.  units,  and  that  yellow  transfer  card,  once  it 
became  effective,  turned  out  to  be  a  round-trip  ticket  to 
His  Satanic  Maje.sty'.s  winter  resort. 

I  was  put  to  break  in  with  an  experienced  gas-engine 
operator,  and  his  only  fault  was  his  creed,  for  it  was  his 
personal  contention  that  every  gas  engineer  could  find 
out  things  for  himself,  because  that  was  how  he  got  his. 
Such  reasoning  is  good  enough  if  it  is  not  carried  to  ex- 
tremes, but  that  was  what  he  did,  with  the  result  that 
when  I  began  to  fight  those  engines  alone  I  soon  found 
that  there  were  a  number  of  little  kinks  in  my  new  job 
that  I  would  have  to  unravel,  and  do  it  mostly  on  my 
own  initiative. 

Of  course  I  was  told  and  shown  how  to  start  and  stop 
a  unit  and  also  in.^tructed  as  to  the  running  position  of 
the  ignition  under  nomial  conditions,  but  I  was  not  told 
anything  about  some  of  the  abnormal  conditions  that 
eventually  made  their  appearance. 

Left  Alone  With  Units  in  Service 

After  four  days  of  breaking  in,  I  found  myself 
alone  with  three  units  in  service  and  the  pilot  light 
signifying  that  the  switchboard  operator  required  the 
fourth  one.  This  unit  had  been  idle  about  eight  hours, 
and  as  blast-furnace  gas  is  very  irregular,  when  I  got 
started  up  and  got  the  machine  in  phase,  the  needle  on 
the  indicating  meter  forgot  to  stop  at  its  usual  position, 
but  passed  it  going  and  coming;  in  other  words,  the 
needle  went  from  pin  to  pin,  from  nothing  to  4000  kw. 
It  required  only  about  five  minutes  of  that  swinging 
load  to  make  the  switchboard  operator  a  raving  maniac, 
so  to  speak. 

I  tried  to  quiet  the  engine  down  by  changing  the  air 
intake  on  the  mixing  chambers,  but  the  more  air  levers 
I  moved  the  more  the  engine  bucked  the  load.  With 
prematuring  and  nonexplosions  it  took  but  a  short  time 
to  acquire  a  severe  gas  headache,  and  I  began  to  wish 
someone  else  had  my  work  card  for  the  time  being. 

Conditions  got  far  below  anything  they  were  used  to 
(on  account  of  my  swinging),  and  to  get  me  out  of  a 
bad  hole  my  former  instructor  was  called  in.  He  made 
two  trips  around  the  engine,  pulled  his  cap  to  one  side 
of  his  head,  gazed  at  the  meter  needle  and  it  suddenly 
stopped  its  wild  rampage  and  indicated  2800  kw.  I 
asked  the  gentleman  what  was  wrong  and  what  he  did 
to  rectify  it,  and  he  curtly  replied,  "nothing." 

I  knew  right  then  that  he  didn't  carry  a  paid-up 
membership  in  any  "Hone.st  Jawn  Club,"  and  I  also 
knew  that  it  was  up  to  me  to  "get  onto"  what  1  didn't 
know. 

After  weeks  of  hard,  bitter  scrambling,  coupled  with 


many  a  gas  head,  I  learned  to  really  handle  the  engines. 
During  this  time  I  learned  something  of  the  ill  temper 
of  such  a  machine,  and  it  dawned  on  me  that  the  gas 
engineer  really  earned  his  extra  dollar  per  turn  above 
the  steam  operator's  rate. 

My  relief  was  an  experienced  operator,  and  although 
he  told  me  very  little,  he  always  left  the  watch  ship- 
shape, and  I  acquired  the  blue-chalk  habit.  For  in- 
stance, I  had  a  chalk  mark  on  all  the  air  levers  on  the 
mixing  chambers,  and  if  a  unit  got  to  swinging,  I  could 
change  the  air;  and  if  it  didn't  get  results,  I  could  put 
it  back  where  it  belonged.  In  this  way  I  usually  found 
the  trouble  before  1  got  around  to  the  last  lever. 

Locating  the  Cause  of  Trouble 

Sometimes  it  would  be  a  dirty  brush  on  the  ignition, 
a  grounded  ignitor,  or  a  fuse  blown  out,  and  once  in  a 
while  a  unit  would  swing  on  account  of  too  much  cold 
circulating  water.  Again,  it  might  swing  on  account  of 
a  shoe  slipping  down  on  a  multiplying  lever  on  an  air- 
inlet  valve;  a  brush-holder  might  work  loose,  letting  the 
brush  get  out  of  line  with  the  commutator,  thus  making 
the  contact  too  early  or  too  late  on  that  ignitor  and 
therefore  causing  a  jerk  in  the  load. 

I  gradually  learned  to  judge  conditions,  and  event- 
ually I  got  the  whip  hand  over  the  operating  kinks  that 
go  to  make  the  gas-engine  log  sheet  look  good  to  the 
"Old  Man."  I  found  out  that  by  keeping  the  circulating 
water  at  a  normal  temperature  in  the  pistons  and 
cylinder  jackets  and  a  regular  oil  feed  for  cylinder 
lubrication,  my  trouble  invariably  dwindled  down  to  air 
mixture. 

It  is  important,  in  gas-engine  operation,  to  govern 
the  amount  of  lubrication  closely  and  to  be  sure  it  is 
not  fed  hit-and-miss,  but  a  drop  in  each  spray  to  everj' 
three  turns  of  the  layshaft,  for  instance.  Furthermore, 
increase  the  oil  feed  on  a  cylinder  if  it  gets  to  back- 
firing very  much,  as  backfiring  causes  dry  spots  on  the 
cylinder  walls  and  pistons;  but  do  not  flood  a  piston  to 
remove  a  black  spot;  use  a  few  applications  of  kerosene 
and  then  adjust  the  lubricating  oil  to  that  individual 
unit. 

Watch  the  clearance  on  the  inlet-  and  the  exhaust- 
valve  lifts  and  see  that  there  is  at  least  a  .'.j-in.  clear- 
ance. Keep  the  gas  lift  equalized  on  all  inlet  valves  and 
also  keep  the  ignition  equalized  on  both  sides  of  the 
engine.  See  that  the  swing  joints  do  not  leak  and  ruin 
the  oil  circulation.  Try  both  oil  pumps  every  day  on 
each  unit  to  see  that  they  are  in  order  and  keep  the 
expansion  joints  tight. 

Operator  Must  Learn  Pulse  of  Engine 
It  is  up  to  the  operator  to  learn  the  pulse  of  each 
engine,  for  the  natural  circumstance  under  which  a  gas 
engine  operates  tends  to  work  things  loose — a  great  deal 
more  so  than  the  even  pulsing  stroke  of  a  steam  engine 
— and  it  pays  to  thoroughly  inspect  each  unit  frequently. 
And  last  but  not  least,  by  all  means  cultivate  the 
good  will  of  the  switchboard  operator;  cater  to  his 
professional  hobbies  relative  to  gas  engines.  His  job  is 
no  sinecure,  for  gas  engines  make  his  a  hard  task,  and 
if  his  ethics  of  cooperation  are  the  least  bit  below  par, 
he  can  make  life  miserable  for  the  unfortunate  who 
happens  to  be  the  man  behind  the  throttle  on  a  blast- 
furnace gas  engine. 


616 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


Current-Transformer  Connections 

By  W.  R.  woodward 

Engineer.  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing   Co.,    Bast   Pittsburgli,    Penn. 

— ~ to  make  it  portable.    Terminals  P  are  the  primary  and 

S  the  secondary.  A  maximum  voltage  rating  is  usually 
given  on  the  nameplate,  which  merely  indicates  the 
strength  of  the  insulation,  and  the  transformer  must 


A  description  is  given  of  two  types  of  current- 
transformer  construction,  and  then  the  reverse 
"V"  and  the  star  connections  of  this  type  of 
apparatus  are  discussed. 


CURRENT  transformers  are  used  for  one  or  both 
of  two  purposes;  namely,  to  reduce  the  current 
in  the  circuit  to  a  value  suitable  for  use  with  in- 
struments or  to  insulate  the  instruments  from  the  high- 
tension  circuit.  They  are  so  designed  that  the  second- 
ary current  is  a  definite  proportion  of  the  primary 
current  for  practically  any  value  of  primary  current 
which  may  flow. 

The  current  transformer  is  simple  in  construction, 
consisting  of  a  primary  and  a  secondary  winding,  both 
of  which  inclose  a  laminated  iron  core.  The  primary 
winding  consists  of  a  large  number  of  turns  of  com- 
paratively small  wire,  when  the  transformer  is  built 
for  a  low  current  (say  10  to  5  amperes)  and  of  a 
small  number  of  turns  of  heavy  wire  or  strap  when  built 
for  a  large  current  (say  100  to  5  amperes).  The 
secondary  is  usually  wound  for  5  amperes  and  has  a 
large  number  of  turns  of  about  No.  12  wire. 


czS 


WINDING 


SCCOflDAW 
niNDINO 


m 


moN  cons 


/////////////A 


FIG.   1. 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  THROUGH  A  COMMON  TfPE  OF 
CURRENT  TRANSFORMER 


If  the  primary  winding  is  to  be  used  in  a  high-tension 
line,  it  is  insulated  from  both  the  core  and  secondary 
winding,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  which  gives  a  cross-sec- 
tional view  of  a  typical  transformer.  Figs.  3  and  4  are 
general  views  of  the  same  piece  of  equipment.  Fig.  3  is 
for  stationary  service,  and  Fig.  4  is  a  similar  piece  of 
equipment  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  3,  fitted  with  a  handle 


lW7^r. 

''VT/, 

pl^j 

^Ivv 

r^tjj  • 

vOQ'' 

v^^^'vN  > 

jQfY/ 

y  SOq/ 

/30Q'' 

lY^' 

boo'' 

im 

m' 

W'- 

'.mLamMM. 

^^m 

B 

PIG.   2.     SECTION  THROUGH  CURRENT  TRANSFORMER 
USED  FOR  EITHER  LOW  OR  VERY  HIGH  VOLTAGES 

not  be  used  on  voltages  above  that  rating,  but  may  be 
used  on  any  voltage  below  it.  For  instance,  a  trans- 
former marked  6900  volts  maximum  may  be  used  on  a 
2300-  or  110-volt  circuit,  but  not  on  an  11,000-volt 
circuit. 

In  a  particular  type  of  current  transformer,  such  as 
shown  in  Figs.  1  and  3,  the  number  of  secondary  turns 
is  practically  the  same  for  any  ratio,  the  only  difference 
between  transformers  of  different  ratios  being  the  num- 
ber of  primary  turns  and  size  of  primary  conductors. 

Figs.  2  and  5  are  a  cross-sectional  view  and  a  general 
view  of  another  type  of  current  transformer  having  a 
different  arrangement  of  winding  and  core  to  that  in 
Figs,  1,  3  and  4.  This  type  is  commonly  used  for  low- 
voltages,  2300  or  less,  and  also  for  very  high  voltages, 
33,000  and  above.  It  is  suitable  only  for  designs  where 
the  primary  leads  can  both  be  conveniently  brought  out 
from  the  same  end  of  the  transformer,  as  in  house  wir- 
ing, where  a  transformer  is  installed  on  low  voltage 
for  a  watt-hour  meter  or  for  high-voltage,  oil-insulated 
transformers.  The  type,  Fig.  3,  is  better  where  the 
primary  leads  are  arranged  to  come  out  at  opposite  ends 
and  is  convenient  for  switchboard  mounting. 

The  action  of  a  current  transformer  can  best  be 
understood  by  remembering  that  in  any  transformer 
the  current  flowing  in  the  secondary  winding  flows 
around  the  core  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  flowing 
in  the  primary  and  that  the  secondary  ampere-turns 
(current  X  turns)  are  practically  equal  to  the  primary 
ampere-turns.  The  reason  they  are  not  equal  is  that 
the  primary  winding  also  carries  the  exciting  current. 
In    the    current    transformer    the    proper    ratio    is 


April  30,  1918 


POWER 


617 


obtained  by  changing  the  primary  turns  as  mentioned 
in  the  foregoing,  and  the  error  due  to  the  exciting  cur- 
rent is  reduced  to  a  small  value  by  working  the  iron 
circuit  at  a  much  lower  magnetic  density  than  is  com- 
mon practice  in  ordinary  constant-potential  transform- 


PIGS.   3  TO  5.      TYPES  OF  CURRENT  TRANSFORMERS 

ers.  The  magnetic  density  in  the  iron,  and  consequently 
the  exciting  current  and  ratio  value,  depend  upon  the 
impedance  of  the  meter  load  connected  to  the  secondary 
of  the  transformer. 

If  a  large  number  of  meters  having  a  high  resistance 
or  impedance  are  connected  to  the  transformers,  a  con- 


the  meter  load.  If  the  secondary  resistance  be  increased 
to  infinity  (.that  is,  becomes  open-circuited),  the  second- 
ary voltage  will  rise  to  the  maximum  (that  is,  the  iron 
will  become  saturated).  This  will  cause  the  iron  to 
heat  up,  and  the  voltage  across  the  secondary  terminals 
becomes  very  dangerous. 

A  single-phase  circuit  having  a  current  transformer 
T  is  shown  in  P'ig.  6,  where  L  represents  the  load  of  the 
circuit  and  /  the  current  flowing  in  the  direction  shown 
by  the  arrowheads  at  a  particular  instant.  The  meter 
M,  connected  in  the  secondary  of  the  current  trans- 
former, has  a  scale  marked  to  indicate  the  current 
flowing  through  the  load,  thereby  taking  account  of  the 
ratio  of  transformation  in  the  current  transformer. 
The  meter  M  therefore  reads  exactly  the  same  current 
a  direct-reading  meter  would  if  connected  in  the  line  at 
point  A. 

The  connections  of  current  transformers  on  polyphase 
circuits  are  in  some  cases  rather  complicated;  in  this 
article,  however,  the  more  common  connections  will  be 
considered  in  detail. 

The  most  common  connection  for  three-phase  three- 
wire  circuits  is  the  reversed  "V"  connection  shown  in 
Fig.  7,  in  which  two  current  transformers  T  and  T'  may 
be  used  to  indicate  the  current  in  all  three  wires.  The 
current  from  the  transformer  in  phase  A  flows  through 
instruments  L  and  M  and,  so  far  as  instrument  L  is 
concerned,  is  essentially  a  single-phase  connection, 
therefore  instrument  L  will  indicate  the  current  in  the 
line  A.  Similarly,  the  current  from  the  transformer  in 
phase  C  flows  through  instruments  A^  and  M,  therefore 
instrument  A^  indicates  the  current  in  line  C.    The  com- 


POWER  SUPPLY 


POWER  SUPPLY 


POWER  SUPPLY 


FIG. 
FIG.S.    6 


6 


B-^ 


FIG.  9 


<y 


CURRENT-TR.'INSFORMEK   CONNECTIONS,   A.\U    N'ECTOR   DIAGRA.MS   SHOWINO    THE  CURRKXT  REL,A- 
TIOXS    OP   CURRENT    TR.\NSFORMKRS    CONNECTED    IN    A   THREE-PHASE  CIl'i'l'lT 


siderable  voltage  is  necessary  to  make  the  current  flow 
through  the  meters.  To  develop  this  voltage  a  certain 
flux  must  pass  through  the  magnetic  circuit,  which  in 
turn  requires  primary  exciting  current  or  ampere-turns 
which  are  not  reproduced  in  the  secondary  winding.  If 
the  number  of  meters  be  reduced,  the  voltage  developed 
in  the  secondary  winding  becomes  less,  thereby  reducing 
the  exciting  current  and  improving  the  ratio.  The 
secondary  voltage  developed  will  always  be  only  the 
amount  required  to  force  the  secondary  current  through 


bination  of  the  currents  flowing  through  meters  L  and 
N  passes  through  meter  M :  this  will  cause  the  latter 
to  indicate  the  current  in  line  E.  This  fact  is  illustrated 
by  the  vector  diagram  in  Fig.  8. 

In  considering  the  vector  diagram,  Fig.  8,  let  it  be 
assumed  that  when  the  arrows  point  to  the  right  the 
current  is  flowing  in  a  particular  direction  which  will 
be  called  positive,  and  when  the  arrows  are  pointing  to 
the  left  it  is  flowing  in  the  opposite  direction,  or  neg- 
ative.    When  the  arrows  point  up  or  down,  the  current 


618 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


will  therefore  be  zero,  and  the  value  of  current  in  any 
line  will  be  proportional  to  the  distance  from  the  vertical 
line  drawn  through  0  to  the  point  of  the  arrow. 

The  currents  in  the  lines  A  and  C  are  represented  in 
Fig  8  as  both  being  positive  and  each  to  be  one-half 
their  maximum  value;  that  is,  their  projection  on  the 
horizontal  axis,  or  distance  OD.  The  current  in  line  B 
is  represented  as  being  negative  and  at  its  maximum 
value.  Now  the  law  of  electric  currents,  known  as 
KirchhoflF's  Law,  is  that  at  a  junction  of  conductors, 
such  as  at  0,  the  sum  of  the  positive  and  negative  cur- 
rents is  zero;  that  is,  any  current  flowing  into  this  point 
on  one  or  more  conductors  is  equal  to  the  current  flow- 
ing out  of  the  same  point  on  one  or  more  other  con- 
ductors. The  current  in  B,  being  negative,  flows  toward 
the  point  0,  and  is,  therefore,  equal  to  currents  A  and  B, 
flowing  away  from  this  point.  Therefore  the  current 
in  line  B  is  the  vector  sum  of  the  currents  in  the  lines 
A  and  C.  Now,  since  the  currents  in  the  instruments 
L  and  N  are  exactly  proportional  to  the  currents  in  the 
lines  A  and  C,  the  current  in  M  must  be  proportional 
to  the  current  in  B. 

In  Fig.  9  the  current  in  C  is  illustrated  as  being  zero, 
and  at  that  instant  the  currents  in  B  and  A  are  equal. 
The  current  in  instrument  N  is,  therefore,  zero,  and 
since  the  current  from  A  flows  through  the  meters  L 
and  M,  their  readings  are  necessarily  equal,  which,  as 
can  be  seen  from  the  diagram,  is  necessarily  the  case, 
since  the  projections  of  OA  and  OB  on  the  horizontal 
are  equal. 

This  connection  for  instruments  may  be  used  for 
ammeters,  relays,  trip  coils,  the  current  coils  of  watt- 
meters or  power-factor  meters,  and,  in  fact,  any  current 
carrying  coil  whatsoever.  However,  there  are  some 
objections  to  using  this  connection  for  protective  relays 
and  trip  coils,  which  will  be  considered  later  in  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  "Z"  connection. 

Meter  Indication  Also  Correct  for  Unbalanced 
Condition 

In  the  foregoing  we  have  considered  that  the  three- 
phase  load  was  perfectly  balanced.  The  indication  of 
the  meters,  however,  will  be  correct  as  well  for  any 
unbalanced  condition.  The  worst  unbalancing  possible 
is  to  have  a  single-phase  load  on  two  wares,  with  no  load 
on  the  third.  Suppose  a  single-phase  load  is  connected 
across  wires  A  and  B,  the  currents  in  the  two  legs  of 
the  circuit  will  then  be  in  direct  opposition  to  each 
other;  that  is,  if  the  current  in  A  is  positive,  the  current 
in  B  will  be  negative  and  of  the  same  value.  The  cur- 
rent from  transformer  T  will  flow  through  instruments 
L  and  M,  indicating  an  equal  load  on  wires  A  and  B, 
and  no  current  will  flow  in  N,  indicating  no  current  in  C. 

Suppose,  again,  that  a  single-phase  load  is  connected 
to  lines  A  and  C.  The  current  from  line  A  will  flow 
through  instruments  L  and  M  as  before,  and  current 
from  line  C  will  flow  through  instruments  M  and  N. 
These  currents  tend  to  flow  through  instrument  M  in 
opposite  directions  and,  being  equal,  are  canceled.  In- 
strument M,  therefore,  indicates  zero  current  in  line  B, 
which  is  correct. 

In  case  of  a  three-phase  four-wire  system,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  three  transformers,  which  are  usually  con- 
nected in  "Y"  or  star,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10.  Since  it  is 
possible  for  some  load  to  be  connected  between  one 
phase  and  the  neutral,  such  as  between  A  and  N  as 


shown,  the  current  on  the  other  phases  is  thereby 
unbalanced  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  use  three  trans- 
formers. With  the  connections  as  shown,  each  instru- 
ment being  connected  to  a  transformer  in  each  phase, 
the  operation  is  essentially  the  same  as  for  single-phase. 
The  current  which  flows  in  A  does  not  necessarily  flow 
in  B  and  C,  but  a  portion  may  be  carried  off  on  the 
line  A^.  The  instrument  at  M  will  indicate  the  value 
of  current  flowing  in  the  neutral  wire  N. 

Burning  Rhode  Island  Anthracite 

According  to  a  report  issued  by  the  Locomotive  Pul- 
verized Fuel  Co.,  of  New  York  City,  tests  were  recently 
made  at  Olyphant,  Penn.,  with  regard  to  the  utilization 
of  pulverized  Rhode  Island  anthracite  in  comparison 
with  Pennsylvania  anthracite.  The  Rhode  Island  coal 
used  was  mined  near  the  surface  and  before  being  pre- 
pared for  the  test  had  been  lying  exposed  to  winter 
weather,  so  that  the  moisture  content  was  high. 

The  tests  were  conducted  on  a  465-hp.  Stirling  boiler 
that  had  been  in  regular  service  with  pulverized  Penn- 
sylvania anthracite  as  fuel.  About  six  tons  of  the  pul- 
verized Rhode  Island  coal  was  sub-stituted  during  the 
regular  operation  of  the  boiler,  with  no  changes  in  the 
furnace,  feeding  equipment  or  operating  adjustments, 
to  compare  the  combustion  results.  No  difficulty  was  ex- 
perienced and  the  combustion  was  satisfactory. 

A  second  test  was  made  to  determine  the  relative  com- 
bustion and  boiler  efficiency,  under  approximately  the 
same  operating  conditions,  with  Pennsylvania  anthracite 
bird's-eye  and  Rhode  Island  anthracite.  The  latter  fuel 
burned  in  practically  the  same  manner  as  the  former, 
but  there  was  a  greater  accumulation  of  ash  in  the  slag 
pit.  The  relative  properties  of  the  two  fuels  may  be 
seen  from  the  following : 

Pennsylvania        Rhode  Island 
Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Moisture 0  92  0  42 

Vol  -lile  matter 6  82  6  65 

Fixed  carbon 74.55  62.75 

Ash     18.53  3J.60 

Sulphur 0  82 

Fineness,  through  105-mesh 98  00  99  00 

Fineness,  through  200-mcsh 90  00  93  00 

Healing  value  (calculated)  B.t.u.  per  lb.  dry  coal  11,830  9,785 

The  comparative  results  obtained  in  the  tests  of  the 
two  fuels  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

RESULTS  OF  PULVERIZED  FUEL  TESTS 

Pennsylvania  Rhode    Island 

Anthracite  Anthracite 

Duration  of  test Continuous  4  hr.  20  min. 

Average  boiler  pressure,  gage 1 4  Mb.  1 40  lb. 

Factor  of  evaporation 0.  978  0  991 

Horsepower  developed 460  386  5 

Weight  of  fuel  used. 46,0961b.  87211b. 

Weight  of  water  evaporated 388,3561b.  58,3001b. 

Actual  evaporation  per  pound  of  coal 8.42  lb.  6.681b. 

Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at   212 

deg.  F.  per  pound  of  coal 8.241b.  6.621b. 

Boiler  efficiency,  per  cent 67.3  65.65 

The  Rhode  Island  coal  used  in  the  tests  was  some  of 
the  byproduct  from  mine  operations  on  a  tract  of  graph- 
itic anthracite,  which  is  being  worked  primarily  for 
graphite.  It  pulverized  and  was  dried  with  less  difficulty 
than  the  Pennsylvania  anthracite. 

Every  Liberty  Bond  you  buy  is  a  safe  financial  in- 
vestment in  the  future  happiness  and  self-respect  of 
your  children.  Buy  as  many  as  you  can  and  let  them 
inherit  as  good  a  country  as  you  did. 

Bondholders,  don't  shout  until  you  are  out  of  the 
war  woods.  The  danger  is  still  here.  Buy  bonds  until 
the  war  is  over. 


April  30,  1918 


POWER 


619 


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From  an  Engineer's  Notebook  | 


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620 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


The  Boiler  Inspector's  Work 


By  M.  T.  GLENN 


There  are  many  occupatioyis  of  ■which  the,  general 
public  knows  practically  nothing  and  of  the  details 
of  which  men  in  kindred  pursuits  have  only  a 
vague  idea.  One  such  is  that  of  the  boiler 
inspector.  While  boiler  inspection  has  been  prac- 
ticed in  this  country  for  more  than  a  half  cen- 
tury and  in  Europe  for  a  still  longer  period,  very 
few,  even  among  the  steam-engineering  profes- 
sion, know  much  about  the  boiler  inspector;  how 
he  tvorks,  what  tools  he  uses,  what  he  looks  for 
in  order  to  determine  whether  a  boiler  is  safe 
or  otherwise. 


NATURALLY,  a  boiler  inspector  is  supposed  to 
inspect  boilers  and,  in  a  vague  sort  of  way,  he  is 
expected  to  be  able  to  predict  when  a  boiler  is 
going  to  blow  up.  This  latter  supposition  is  not  exactly 
correct,  for  sometimes  an  old  vessel  will  display  the 
perversity  of  inanimate  objects  and  refuse  to  explode 
even  though  it  is  continued  in  service  long  after  the 
inspector  "condemns"  it  and  the  insurance  is  cancelled. 
That  the  inspector  does  give  timely  warning  of  the 
impending  danger  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  compara- 
tively few  boilers  explode  notwithstanding  the  increas- 
ing number  in  service.  Not  all  boilers  are  insured  or 
inspected,  and  it  is  among  those  not  inspected  that  a 
large  pei'centage  of  the  explosions  occur. 

How  THE  Inspector  Goes  About  His  Duties 
When  a  boiler  user  signs  an  application  for  insur- 
ance, the  insurance  company  notifies  one  of  its  inspec- 
tors, and  it  is  his  duty  to  examine  the  boiler  or  boilers 
in  question  and  report  upon  the  construction  and  con- 
dition, stating  the  safe  working  pressure.  The  in- 
spector notifies  the  plant  of  the  date  of  his  expected 
arrival  early  enough  to  permit  preparation  for  the  in- 
spection. He  finds  his  way  to  the  plant  (which  fre- 
quently is  a  difficult  task),  proceeds  to  the  boiler  room 
to  see  if  everything  is  in  readiness  for  him,  then  inquires 
where  he  can  change  his  clothes  and  is  often  shown  into 
the  engine  room,  where  a  greasy  chair  or  workbench 
serves  for  a  clothes  rack.  Here  he  disrobes  and,  since 
safety  is  second  nature  to  him,  takes  care  to  leave  no 
money  or  other  valuables  in  his  clothes  (in  at  least  one 
instance  an  inspector's  clothes  disappeared  during  his 
absence  and  he  had  to  return  to  his  headquarters  in  his 
overalls).  He  dons  an  inner  suit  of  light-weight  ma- 
terial which  is  highly  absorbent  and  readily  laundered, 
a  pair  of  socks  and  rough  shoes ;  then  a  special  oversuit 
that  has  boot  straps  to  prevent  the  legs  "riding"  up 
and  interfering  when  he  is  backing  out  of  a  manhole, 
and  an  attached  hood  to  keep  the  hair  and  back  of 
neck  free  from  soot  and  ashes.  A  pair  of  gauntlet  gloves 
completes  the  uniform,  and  he  is  an  object  to  attract 
attention  whenever  he  ventures  out  on  the  street  in 
this  attire,  as  he  sometimes  does  in  order  to  go  from 
one  plant  to  another  near-by. 

For   an    internal    inspection   the    following    outfit    is 
required:     A  small  cross-peen  hammer,  a  test  pump  and 


gage,  and  a  light.  The  best  type  of  light  to  use  for 
this  work  is  a  subject  of  much  controversy,  and  it  might 
be  well  to  digress  a  few  moments  and  look  into  the 
merits  and  demerits  of  some  of  them.  Some  inspectors 
prefer  the  old-style  "tallow  dip" ;  others  use  the  candle, 
but  with  a  special  holder  which  feeds  by  a  spring  in 
the  handle  so  that  the  light  remains  about  twelve  inches 
from  the  hand  and  can  thus  be  introduced  into  out-of- 
the-way  places.  There  is  a  serious  objection  to  the 
candle  aside  from  the  fact  that  it  is  becoming  more 
and  more  difficult  to  obtain  and  does  not  give  a  very 
brilliant  light,  it  sometimes  melts  very  quickly  in  an 
extremely  hot  boiler  and  leaves  one  in  the  dark  just  at 
a  time  when  he  needs  a  light  badly  to  see  how  to  get  out 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  Another  type  of  light  that-  is 
still  used  by  some  who  have  inspected  boilers  for  many 
years  is  a  home-made  kerosene  torch  consisting  of  a 
piece  of  gas  pipe  capped  at  one  end  and  stuffed  with 
waste  at  the  other.  Kerosene  oil  is  obtainable  at  prac- 
tically every  boiler  room,  and  this  "flambeau"  has  the 
advantage  just  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  special 
candle  holder — it  can  be  poked  into  narrow  crannies, 
but  it  is  "smelly"  and  shines  in  the  inspector's  eyes  as 
well  as  on  the  object  at  which  he  wishes  to  look.  Most 
inspectors  prefer  either  the  flash  light  or  the  miner's 
acetylene  lamp.  They  both  throw  a  good  light  in  the 
desired  direction  without  any  back  glare.  The  former 
is  rather  expensive  to  use,  and  batteries  are  less  easily 
obtained  in  small  towns  than  is  carbide  for  the  miner's 
lamp ;  but  it  does  not  have  to  be  cleaned  and  filled  every 
time  it  is  used,  as  is  the  case  with  the  gas  light. 

Other  Things  Needed  for  a  First  Inspection 

But  to  return  to  the  inspector's  outfit,  if  it  is  a  "first 
inspection,"  he  will  require,  in  addition  to  the  articles 
mentioned,  a  rule,  a  thickness  gage  and  a  pad  and  pen- 
cil, there  being  no  less  than  75  items  to  be  filled  in  on 
the  data  sheet  for  an  ordinary  horizontal-tubular  boiler. 
It  is  a  matter  of  habit  with  an  inspector  which  portion 
of  the  boiler  he  examines  first  and  what  sequence  he  fol- 
lows, hence  the  following  method  or  order  is  given  only 
as  an  illustration  without  being  set  up  as  an  example 
of  the  best  procedure.  Let  us  assume  that  he  first  crawls 
through  the  fire-door  onto  the  grates  and  looks  for  such 
defects  as  burned  or  blistered  plates,  cracks  or  leaks. 
In  the  case  of  a  water-tube  boiler  he  strikes  the  tubes 
to  ascertain  if  any  are  getting  dangerously  thin,  notes 
the  condition  of  walls,  baffles,  etc.,  to  be  sure  that  no 
great  amount  of  cold  air  enters  except  through  the 
burning  fuel  and  that  the  gases  are  directed  along  the 
path  the  designer  intended  them  to  take.  He  then  enters 
the  rear  clean-out  door,  gives  the  same  attention  to  the 
fire  surfaces  and  setting  as  at  the  front  end,  then  enters 
the  boiler  by  the  upper  manhole  and  e.xamines  the  shell, 
heads,  tubes  and  braces  for  such  conditions  as  scale, 
traces  of  oil,  corrosion  in  its  various  forms  and  any 
other  defects,  cracks,  missing  rivet  heads,  broken  braces 
and  the  like.  Before  leaving  this  part  of  the  boiler,  he 
examines  the  feed  pipe  to  see  that  the  opening  in  its 
end  is  clear  and  that  it  does  not  discharge  near  a  seam, 
plate  or  tube,  and  also  inspects  the  other  openings  to 


April  30,  1918 


POWER 


621 


outer  attachments.  When  he  enters  the  lower  manhole, 
he  looks  for  sediment  or  scale,  oil  and  corrosion,  also 
for  indications  of  burned  or  cracked  plates,  which  are 
sometimes  seen  better  from  the  inside  on  account  of  the 
soot  on  the  fire  surfaces,  sees  that  braces  are  not  slack 
and  that  the  blowoff  opening  is  clear.  If  there  are 
water  tubes,  the  caps  of  some  of  them  at  least  should 
be  removed  so  that  he  may  obtain  an  idea  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  whole. 

Finishing  the  boiler  proper,  he  turns  his  attention  to 
the  attachments.  The  steam  gage  is  taken  down  and 
tested;  if  found  incorrect,  it  is  adjusted  if  possible  or 
a  new  one  ordered.  Before  the  gage  is  replaced,  he 
blows  through  the  small  pipe  and  connecting  valve  to  be 
sure  that  they  are  unobstructed.  The  safety  valve  can 
be  examined  only  superficially  at  best  when  there  is  no 
pressure  on  the  boiler,  but  the  inspector  endeavors  to 
see  the  spring,  if  it  is  a  pop  valve,  to  assure  himself 
that  it  has  not  been  compressed  too  closely  and  that  the 
valve  should  perform  its  function.  Fortunately,  a  pop 
valve  seldom  gets  out  of  order,  and  the  best  way  to  "fix" 
a  defective  one  is  with  a  new  one  and  thus  be  on  the  side 
of  safety. 

The  inspector  calculates  the  safe  working  pressure, 
taking  into  consideration  age  and  condition,  which  enter 
largely  when  a  boiler  has  been  in  operation  for  consid- 
erable time  unless  the  conditions  are  practically  ideal. 
Mailing  in  his  report  and  data  with  a  recommendation 
completes  the  first  inspection. 

The  Proper  Way  to  Prepare  a  Boiler  for  Inspection 

In  making  ready  for  inspection  the  fire  is  first  drawn 
and  the  pressure  permitted  to  fall  to  15  lb.  or  less, 
while  the  ashes  and  clinkers  are  removed  from  the 
grates  and  bridge-wall  and  the  soot  and  ashes  from  the 
combustion  chamber.  When  the  setting  is  sufficiently 
cool  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  damaging  the  empty 
boiler,  and  after  the  tubes  have  been  blown  and  fire 
surfaces  swept,  the  blowoff  valve  is  opened  wide  and  all 
the  water  is  blown  out.  Next  in  order  comes  the  re- 
moval of  the  manhole  plates ;  the  top  one  should  be  taken 
off  first  if  the  boiler  is  of  the  water-tube  type,  and  the 
blowoff  valve  should  not  be  closed  until  this  plate  is  off, 
unless  the  boiler  is  vented  by  some  other  means  to  pre- 
vent a  vacuum  being  formed.  In  opening  a  horizontal- 
tubular  boiler,  the  following  method  should  be  followed 
to  avoid  scalding  the  one  who  removes  the  top  manhole 
plate :  Open  the  lower  manhole,  close  the  flue  doors  and 
open  the  damper.  The  top  manhole  may  now  be  removed 
with  impunity  as  the  stack  draft  will  draw  the  steam 
dovraward  as  soon  as  the  joint  is  broken.  Finally,  the 
rear  clean-out  door  and  fire-doors  are  closed,  the  ashpit 
doors  opened  and  the  boiler  left  to  cool.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  with  this  arrangement  the  stack  draft  draws 
a  current  of  air  through  the  top  manhole  and  then  cools 
much  of  the  water  surfaces  on  its  way  to  the  stack  via 
the  lower  manhole,  while  another  air  current  enters  the 
ashpit  doors  and  cools  the  setting  and  fire  surfaces  of 
the  boiler.  As  there  is  no  way  to  induce  this  air  current 
except  by  the  aid  of  the  stack  draft,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  large  doors  in  front  be  kept  closed.  Since  there 
is  no  connection  between  the  water  surfaces  and  the 
draft  in  the  case  of  the  water-tube  type  of  boiler,  it 
requires  more  time  to  cool,  but  the  same  method  applies 
regarding  the  air  cooling  of  the  setting  and  fire  surfaces. 


Referring  to  the  attention  attracted  by  a  boiler  in- 
spector while  in  his  suit,  the  writer  was  once  mistaken 
for  a  highwayman,  although  he  did  not  know  it  at  the 
time  and  only  learned  of  it  through  conversation  with  a 
relative  of  the  other  party.  After  inspecting  several 
boilers,  he  received  a  message  from  the  office  of  the  mill 
to  come  up  and  answer  a  long-distance  telephone  call, 
lie  went  to  the  office  and,  entering  through  the  back 
door,  found  himself  in  a  reserved  enclosure  where  the 
only  person  in  the  place  was  making  out  the  payroll, 
having,  spread  out  on  his  desk,  several  hundred  dollars 
in  currency.  It  was  not  till  some  months  later  that  the 
in.spector  was  told  that  the  cashier  confessed  that  the 
unexpected  appearance  of  the  boiler  inspector  nearly 
caused  him  to  have  an  attack  of  heart  failure,  as  he 
mistook  him  for  a  robber  and  was  resigned  to  his  fate. 

The  Inspector  Finds  Himself  in  an 
Embarrassing  Position 
The  writer  was  once  mistaken  for  an  inmate  of  an 
institution  known  as  the  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane, 
although  this  time  he  was  not  dressed  in  the  suit  de- 
scribed, but  was  clothed  in  his  street  garb  and  right 
mind.  Only  a  fortunate  chance  prevented  his  having  to 
spend  the  night  in  a  ward.  After  calling  the  gentleman 
in  charge  of  the  buildings  and  equipment  by  telephone 
and  making  arrangements  to  inspect  a  couple  of  the 
boilers,  the  inspector  walked  into  the  grounds  through 
the  only  gate  available,  spoke  to  the  gateman  and  asked 
where  Mr.  Blank  could  be  found.  Following  directions, 
he  found  that  gentleman  and  was  intrusted  with  a  key 
to  a  spare  room  in  which  to  change  his  clothes  and 
was  told,  "Just  leave  the  key  with  the  gateman,  I  will 
probably  be  gone  for  the  day."  After  finishing  his  work 
and  changing  to  his  street  clothes,  the  inspector  started 
for  home  and  was  a  little  disturbed  to  note  from  a  dis- 
tance that  the  gateman  had  been  changed  since  he  en- 
tered. As  he  approached  the  gate,  the  attendant  walked 
out  from  his  shady  bench  and  intercepted  him.  He 
proffered  the  key  and  told  the  man  that  Mr.  Blank  had 
requested  him  to  leave  it  with  the  gateman  when  he 
left.  That  worthy  had  had  plenty  of  experience  with 
the  wiles  of  inmates  and  their  cunning  attempts  to 
escape,  so  without  appearing  to  think  it  at  all  strange 
he  accepted  the  key  and  promised  to  see  that  Mr.  Blank 
got  it  when  he  came  in  the  morning,  but  without  in  the 
least  relaxing  his  vigilance  or  letting  the  inspector  get 
between  him  and  the  open  gate.  The  inspector,  in  his 
turn,  was  careful  to  make  no  false  move  which  might 
lead  the  gateman  to  think  he  belonged  inside,  hence 
when  the  gateman  suggested  that  he  go  over  and  have  a 
seat  in  the  shade  and  take  a  drink  (water — this  hap- 
pened in  a  "bone-dry"  state),  he  accepted  with  as  good 
grace  as  possible  and  even  accepted  the  proffered  after- 
noon paper,  although  he  used  it  more  to  hide  his  growing 
uneasiness  while  forming  schemes  for  outwitting  the 
man  near-by  and  affecting  his  "get-away"  than  for  read- 
ing. Fortunately,  a  diversion  occurred  which  he  guessed 
might  give  him  time  to  think  more  clearly.  A  medical 
student  serving  as  an  interne  at  night  came  in  and 
stopped  to  pass  the  time  of  day  with  the  gateman.  See- 
ing the  suspect  sitting  near-by,  he  said,  "Good  evening." 
The  inspector  returned  the  greeting  but  without  much 
spirit,  and  when  the  gateman  asked  the  student  if  he 
knew   "this   man",   the   inspector   thought,    "Why,    he 


622 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


wouldn't  know  me  from  Adam,"  but  was  agreeably 
surprised  when  the  student  replied,  "Yes,  I  know  him. 
He  is  the  boiler  inspector.  I  met  him  and  Mr.  Blank 
along  the  boiler-room  walk  several  days  ago."  Thus 
the  situation  was  suddenly  relieved  for  both  the  in- 
spector and  the  gateman,  who  hastily  apologized. 

The  following  is  an  illustration  of  how  little  some 
men  know  about  boilers.  An  insurance  company  sent  a 
telegram  instructing  their  inspector  in  the  district  to 
investigate  damage  to  a  boiler  at  an  oil  mill  in  a  small 
town,  appending  the  words,  "See  Mr.  Light."  On  arriv- 
ing at  the  oil  mill,  the  inspector  accordingly  asked  for 
the  gentlemen  named  and  was  invited  into  the  back 
office  for  a  confidential  talk  in  which  he  was  told  that  the 
mill,  which  was  owned  by  the  speaker,  had  been  leased 
to  a  corporation  by  which  he  was  employed  as  manager. 
He  had  retained  his  insurance  policy  on  the  boilers,  and 
now  that  one  of  them  was  leaking  badly  around  the  tubes 
at  the  rear  end,  he  feared  that  the  engineer  had  neg- 
lected his  business  and  that  the  water  had  been  allowed 
to  get  low.  Mr.  Light  asked  the  inspector  to  examine 
the  boiler  and  report  to  him,  saying  nothing  to  the  other 
employees  around  the  plant.  Upon  investigating  the  in- 
terior of  the  offending  vessel,  the  inspector  found  scale 
caked  between  the  tubes  several  feet  from  the  rear,  mak- 
ing a  solid  mass  all  the  way  back  to  the  head,  thus  pre- 
venting water  from  circulating  around  the  tubes  and 
cooling  them  and  the  head.  When  he  reported  to  Mr. 
Light  that  the  water  had  not  been  allowed  to  get  low 
and  that  scale  accumulating  between  the  tubes  had 
caused  the  trouble  and  must  be  removed  before  the 
boiler  was  fired  any  more,  that  gentleman  thanked  him 
and  said,  "I'm  mighty  glad  to  know  that  it  was  not  neg- 
lect on  the  part  of  the  engineering  force.  We  will  have 
the  scale  removed." 


Why  Coils  Sometimes  Fail  To  Heat 

When  pipe  coils  are  used  for  heating,  in  conjunction 
with  radiators,  it  is  sometimes  noticed  that  circulation 
through  the  coils  is  not  good,  especially  if  they  are  long 
and  made  of  small  pipe  connected  up  with  return  bends 
instead  of  headers.  The  reason  is  the  greater  resistance 
of  the  coil,  since  the  steam  must  traverse  a  greater  dis- 
tance. Sometimes  a  coil  will  heat  at  both  ends  but  not 
all  over.  This  is  because  steam  enters  from  the  return 
piping  as  well  as  from  the  supply  and  the  air  is  trapped 
between  the  two.  The  location  of  the  air  vent  becomes 
an  important  matter  in  such  cases. 


Waterproofing  Porous  Material 

Brick,  stone  or  cement  walls  may  be  rendered  water- 
proof by  one  or  more  applications  of  gasoline  in  which 
5  to  10  per  cent,  of  paraflSn  wax  has  been  dissolved  or  cut. 
The  fluid  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  or  spray  pump. 
It  is  colorless  unless  an  excessive  amount  of  wax  has 
been  used,  in  which  case  it  will  leave  a  gray  color  or 
coating,  but  coloring  matter  such  as  lampblack  may  be 
added.  The  joints  of  a  brick  wall  may  be  penciled,  then 
the  whole  wall  gone  over  with  uncolored  fluid.  The  sur- 
face should  be  as  dry  as  possible  when  the  waterproofing 
is  applied,  to  allow  it  to  penetrate,  since  the  gasoline 
simply  acts  as  the  vehicle  to  carry  the  wax  into  the  pores 


of  the  material  to  seal  them  up.  This  means  of  sealing 
the  small  pores  is  also  beneficial  in  reducing  air  leaks 
from  concrete  fan  ducts,  etc.  The  disintegration  of 
porous  material  when  exposed  to  moisture  and  then  to 
freezing  temperature  is  caused  by  the  irresistible  ex- 
pansive force  exerted  by  the  entrapped  water  in  freezing. 
This  of  course  applies  to  cement  walks  and  roofing  as 
well,  so  that  waterproofing  is  beneficial  in  many  ways. 

Turner  Baffle-Wall  Construction 

The  shapes  of  the  vertical  passes  in  water-tube 
boilers  have  been  determined  largely  by  the  fact  that 
loose  tile  placed  against  flame  plates  were  used  for  the 
haffie  walls.  Effort  to  build  an  inclined  wall  to  give 
the  theoretically  perfect  pass  resulted  in  the  dislodg- 
ment  of  the  tile  under  the  vibration  of  the  tubes,  due 
to  the  tube  cleaners  or  to  the  release  of  the  steam  bub- 
bles and  from  the  action  of  soot  blower,  etc. 

Replacing  loose  tile  is  a  difficult  matter,  as  tile  of  the 
original  size  cannot  be  used  without  spreading  the  tubes 
temporarily  to  get  the  tile  in  place,  and  the  alternative 
is  to  use  smaller  tile  which  results  in  wide-open  joints 
through  which  the  hot  gases  short-circuit. 

With  the  development  of  the  Turner  baffle  wall,  by 


FIG.    1.       DET.\ILS    OF    BAFFLE- WALL    CONSTRUCTION 

the  Engineer  Co.,  17  Battery  Place,  New  York  City,  a 
construction  is  provided  that  eliminates  these  objection- 
able features.  This  wall  is  built  by  introducing  in  the 
diagonal  alleys  between  the  tubes  a  molded,  corrugated 
tile,  dovetailed  at  the  ends.  The  pockets  thus  formed 
by  the  tubes  and  the  adjacent  rows  of  tile  are  filled 
with  a  plastic  material  which  fills  the  space  no  matter 


April  30,  1018 


POWER 


623 


how  irreirular.  This  plastic  material  does  not  grip  the 
tubes  as  it  shrinks  in  hai-dening  and  leaves  a  small  an- 
nular space  around  them.  A  tube  can  be  withdrawn 
when  cold  and  replaced  by  another.  The  filling  cannot 
be  displaced,  however,  as  it  bonds  with  the  corruga- 
tions A  in  the  tile,  and  the  latter  dovetail  at  each  end 
with  each  other  as  at  R.  Fig.  1. 

„25r 


PIG.  2.     TOP  CURVE  SHOWS  RELATION  OF  GAS   TEMPER.^- 

TURE  AND  VOLUME;  LOWER  CURVE,  AREA    OF  GAS 

PASS;   EACH  FOR  PERCENTAGE   OP  HEATING 

SURF-VCB    CROSSED 

It  is  therefore  possible  to  build  a  practically  gas- 
tight  wall  at  any  desired  slope  through  which  tubes  can 
be  withdrawn  and  replaced  without  damage  to  the  wall. 
No  flame  plates  are  necessary. 

It  has  been  found  an  advantage  in  boiler  design  to 
give  the  gases  of  combustion  as  near  a  uniform  velocity 
through  the  passes  as  possible.  A  study  of  the  curve 
showing  the  decrease  in  volume  of  these  gases  due  to 
the  cooling  effect  of  the  surfaces  over  which  they  pass 
(Fig.  2)  shows  that  with  40  per  cent,  of  the  heating 
surface  in  the  first  pass,  the  area  of  its  outlet  should  be 
about  60  per  cent,  of  the  area  at  the  bottom.  As  the 
cooling  effect  of  the  drum  and  the  superheater  are  com- 
paratively small,  the  area  at  the  top  of  the  second  pass 
should  be  somewhat  less  than  that  at  the  top  of  th 
first  pass  and  the  second  pass  should  also  taper. 

The  third  pass  shows  little  cooling  effect,  and  its 
shape  is  not  so  material,  so  long  as  ample  space  is  pro- 
vided for  the  exit  of  the  gases. 

The  elevation  of  the  boiler  shown  in  Fig.  3  illustrates 
the  application  of  these  principles.  The  bridge-wall  is 
moved  back  to  enlarge  the  furnace  chamber  and  to  keep 
down  the  furnace  temperature.  By  the  location  of  the 
bridge-wall  the  opening  of  the  first  pass  was  estab- 
lished. The  Turner  wall  starts  from  the  bridge-wall 
and  slopes  forward  at  such  an  angle  as  to  make  the  top 
area  60  per  cent,  of  the  bottom,  the  heating  surface  ex- 
posed in  first  pass  being  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  total. 

The  rear  wall  is  carried  down  at  right  angles  to  the 
tubes,  it  being  a  matter  of  judgment  as  to  its  slope 
and  how  far  down  to  extend  it.  Some  engineers  claim 
it  is  an  advantage  to  contract  the  lower  end  of  the 
second  pass  so  as  to  increase  the  velocity  of  the  gases 
at  this  point  and  shoot  them  well  down  over  the  lower 


rows  of  tubes  and  toward  the  rear  end  of  the  boiler. 
The  expansion  of  the  gases  on  their  release  also  helps 
to  this  end,  and  the  reduction  in  velocity  due  to  the 
change  from  passage  across  the  tubes  to  passage  along 
the  tubes,  as  well  as  the  mushrooming  into  the  space 
back  of  the  bridge-wall,  tends  to  drop  into  that  space 
any  cinders  or  soot  that  would  otherwise  be  carried  up 
the  stack. 

The  advantage  over  the  alternative  use  of  a  short 
section  of  horizontal  baffle  on  the  lower  row  of  tubes 
running  forward  from  the  top  of  the  bridge-wall  to  the 
bottom  of  the  ordinary  baffle  wall.  Fig.  3,  is  evident 
First,  a  larger  tube  surface  is  exposed  in  the  first  pass 
to  the  radiant  heat  of  the  fire  and  to  the  gases  when 
hottest,  tending  to  increase  the  capacity  and  at  the 
same  time  lower  the  furnace  temperature,  since  the 
heat  goes  into  the  water  instead  of  the  setting.  Second, 
;i  flat  surface  and  not  an  elbow  with  a  joint  impossible 
to  keep  tight  with  the  inevitable  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  the  horizontal  baffle  is  presented  to  the 
flames.  Third,  the  difficulty  of  renewing  the  lower 
tubes,  which  are  most  frequently  burned  out,  is  lessened 
as  they  carry  no  horizontal  baffles.  Fourth,  there  is  no 
dead  angle  at  the  bottom  of  the  second  pass  where  the 
vertical  and  the  horizontal  baffles  join.  Fifth,  there  is 
no  leakage  as  there  would  be  through  the  horizontal 
and  transverse  joints  of  the  horizontal  baffles. 

Another  application  of  the  sloping  baffle  wall  is  the 
downward  extension  of  the  rear  baffle  to  lessen  cinder 


mfifM- 


FIG.    3.      CONSTRUCTION   OF    BAFFLE    WALLS    FOR    MAIN- 
TAINING    UNIFORM     GAS     VELOCITIES 

carrying  by  reason  of  the  change  in  the  velocity  and 
by  the  momentum  of  the  cinders  shooting  them  clear 
of  the  gases  when  the  latter  turn  upward.  This  action 
does  not  take  place  readily  when  the  turn  is  made  among 
the  tubes,  as  the  cinders  hit  the  tubes,  rebound,  are 
caught  up  and  carried  away  by  the  gases. 

As  a  nation  we  have  drafted  men  to  fight  for  us. 
That  means  we  have  chosen  them  to  suffer  hardship  and 
to  sacrifice  life,  if  need  be,  to  protect  us  and  our  in- 
terests. This  places  upon  each  one  of  us  an  equal  obli- 
gation to  suffer  whatever  hardships  are  necessary  to 
give  them  all  the  equipment  they  need  for  success. 


624 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


FINANCING  THE   SECOND  YEAR   OF  THE   WAR 

Share  of  Yearly  Incomes  Contrihutahle  in  Taxes  and  Bond  Purchases 


Distribution  of  incomes  o 

$3,000  and  over  based  on  income  tax  returns  for  1916;  below  $3,000  on  caref 

ully  made  estimates 

Column  I 

II 

in 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

Family  Income  Group 

Average 

Percentage 
Contribut- 

Amount  Contri- 

Number  of 

Total  Income  of 

Total  Contributable 

Family  Income 

able  by  Each 
Family 

butable  by  Each 
Family 

Families  in  Group 

Families 

by  Families 

Under  $850* 

7,288,000* 

$4,703,217,000 

$102,773,000 

$780    —        $910 

$850 

9.60 

,^82 

3,590,000 

3,051,500,000 

294,380,000 

911     —        1,040 

1,000 

9.90 

99 

3,525,000 

3,525,000,000 

348,975.000 

1,041    —        1,170 

1,100 

10.30 

"3 

2,737.000 

3,010,700,000 

309,281,000 

1,171    —        1,300 

1,250 

10.80 

135 

2,262,000 

2,827,500,000 

305,370,000 

1,301     —        1,430 

i,3.So 

11.20 

151 

1,826,000 

2,465,100,000 

275,726,000 

1,431     —        1,560 

1,500 

11.70 

175 

1,602,000 

2,403,000,000 

280,350,000 

1,561     —        1,690 

1,600 

12.20 

195 

1,228,000 

1,964,800,000 

239,460,000 

1,691     —        1,820 

1,750 

12.60 

220 

710,000 

,242,500,000 

156,200,000 

1,821     —        1,950 

1,900 

13.20 

251 

475,000 

902,500,000 

119,225,000 

1,961     —        2,080 

2,000 

13.50 

270 

385,000 

770,000,000 

103,950,000 

2,081     —        2,210 

2,150 

14.03 

301 

306,000 

657.900,000 

92,106,000 

2,211     —        2,340 

2.275 

14.60 

330 

243,000 

552,825,000 

80,190,000 

2,341     —        2,470 

2,400 

15.00 

360 

189,000 

453,600,000 

68,040,000 

2,471     —        2,600 

2,5.'>o 

16.40 

393 

142,000 

362,100,000 

55,806,000 

2,601     —        2,860 

2,750 

16.10 

443 

200,000 

550,000,000 

88,600,000 

2,861     —        3,000 

3.000 

16.90 

507 

167,000 

501,000,000 

84,669,000 

3,001     —        4,000 

3.500 

18.80 

658 

85,000 

297,500,000 

55.930,000 

4,001     —        6,000 

4.500 

22.40 

1,008 

72,000 

324,000,000 

72,576,000 

5,001     —        6,000 

5.500 

26.80 

•.419 

52,000 

286,000,000 

73,788,000 

6,001     —        7,000 

6,500 

29.40 

1,911 

36,500 

237,250,000 

69,751,000 

7,001     —        8,000 

7.500 

32.80 

2,460 

26,500 

198,750,000 

65,190,000 

8,001     —        9,000 

8,500 

36.40 

3.094 

20,000 

170,000,000 

61,880,000 

9,001     —      10,000 

<3,500 

49.00 

3,800 

15.500 

147,250,000 

58,900,000 

10,001     —      15,000 

12,500 

42.00 

5,250 

45.309 

.566,362,000 

237,872,000 

15,001     —      20,000 

17.500 

46.00 

7,870 

22,618 

395,815,000 

178,003,000 

20,001     —      25,000 

22,500 

46.60 

10,460 

12,953 

291,442,000 

135.488,000 

25,001     —      30,000 

27,500 

48.00 

13.200 

8.055 

221,512,000 

106,326,000 

30,001     —      40,000 

35.000 

51.00 

17,850 

10,068 

352,380,000 

I79.7I3,C30 

40,001     —      60,000 

45,000 

55.60 

25,000 

5.6n 

252.495.000 

140,275,000 

60,001     —      60,000 

55.000 

69.10 

32.500 

3.621 

199.155.000 

117,682,000 

60,001     —      70,000 

65,000 

61.60 

40,000 

2,548 

165,620,000 

101,920,000 

70,001     —      80,000 

75,000 

64.00 

48,000 

1.787 

134,025,000 

85,776,000 

80,001     —      90,000 

85,000 

64.70 

55.000 

1,422 

120,870,000 

78,210,000 

90,001     —    100,000 

95,000 

66.30 

63,000 

'.074 

102,030,000 

67,662,000 

100,001     —    150,000 

123,000 

69.10 

85,000 

2,900 

356,700,000 

246,500,000 

150,001     —    200,000 

174,000 

71.60 

124,400 

1,284 

223,416,000 

159,729.000 

200,001     —    250,000 

225,000 

72.20 

162,500 

726 

163,350,000 

117.975,000 

250,001     —    300,000 

277,000 

73.00 

202,210 

42/ 

118,279,000 

86,343,000 

300,001     —   400,000 

345.000 

73.70 

254,400 

469 

161,805,000 

119,313,000 

400,001     —    500,000 

448,000 

74.60 

333.700 

245 

109,760,000 

81,756,000 

500,001     —1,000,000 

683,000 

76.20 

513,800 

376 

256,770,000 

193,188,000 

1,000,001     —1,500,000 

1,106,000 

76.00 

840,500 

97 

107,282,000 

81,528,000 

1,500,001     —2,000,000 

1,701,000 

76.70 

1,305,500 

42 

71,442,000 

54,831,000 

2,000,001     —3,000,000 

2,459,000 

77.50 

1,905,700 

34 

83,606,000 

64,793,000 

3,000,001     —4,000,000 

3,459,000 

78.20 

2,706,600 

14 

48,426,000 

37,892,000 

4,000,001     —5,000,000 

4,514,000 

79.00 

3,566,000 

9 

40,626,000 

32,094,000 

5,000,001        and  over 

10,284,000 

79.70 

8,201,500 

10 

102,840,000 

82,015,000 

Reported  non-taxable  incomes  not  apportioned  in  reports — 50% 

estimated  conlributabl 

e 

2,000,000,000 

1 ,000,000,000 

Family  Groups  and  individuals — their  estimated  total  incomes 

and  ability  to  contribute 

27.304.199 

$38,250,000,000 

$7,250,000,000 

Corporations  and  other  business  enterprises — their  estimated 

total  incomej  and  ability  to  contribute  after  dividend  distri- 

butions        

11,750,000,000 

2,750,000,000 

Total  estimated   National   Income  and  amount  realizable 

therefrom 

$50,000,000,000 

$10,000,000,000 

Banks — the  share  of  the  burden  which  they  probably  must  carry. 

This  is  not  the  estimated  peak  load,  but  a  conservative  esti- 

mate of  the  average  minimum  burden 

3,500,000,000 

Estimated  receipts  from  direct  taxation  and  bond  sales  . 

$13,500,000,000 

Estimated  receipts  from  indirect  taxes,  such  as   customs, 

excise  taxes,  stamp  taxes,  including  sundry  receif 

>ts 

1,500,000,000 

Cost  of  Second  Year  of  the  War,  estimat 

id 

$15,000,000,000 

*Tbis  group  is  largely  composed  of  individuals. 

HOW  TO  USE  THE  TABLE:     Find  your  income  in  Column  I. 

Multiply  this 

by  the  "percentage 

contributable, "  — 

Column  HI.     The  result  is  the  total  amount  which  you  should 

contribute  dur 

ing  a  year.     Deduct 

the  amount  which 

you  pay  in  taxes — the  remainder  is  the  amount  of  Liberty  Bon 

ds  which  you  sli 

ould  buy  from  incon 

e  during  a  year. 

Illustration:    $5,000  income.               -     Less  tax,  say 

$80 

$10,000  inco 
$10,000  X  40 

me.                 Less  tax 
%  =  $4,000     Bonds  t 

,  say                 $675 
3  be  bought  $3,325 

$5,000  X  22 

4%  =  $i,i20      r 

ionds  to  be  t 

ought  $1,040 

PUBLISHED  THROUGH  THE  COURTESY  OF  THE  BANKERS  TRUST   CO.,   NEW    YORK   CITY.      COPYRIGHT.    1918. 


April  30,  1918 


POWER 


625 


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Editorials 


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What  Is  My  Share  of  the  Cost  of 
the  War? 

HJS  or  her  share  in  the  cost  of  carrying  on  this 
great  conflict  to  make  the  world  a  decent  place  to 
live  in  is  one  of  the  questions  that  should  be  foremost 
in  the  minds  of  every  man  and  woman  in  this  country 
today.  The  Bankers  Trust  Company,  of  New  York  City, 
recently  issued  a  pamphlet,  "What  is  my  Share  of  the 
Cost  of  the  War,"  in  which  the  problem  of  financing  the 
second  year  of  the  war  is  discussed.  The  analysis  set 
forth  in  this  pamphlet  brings  the  problemi  home  so 
vividly  that  it  should  make  every  American  do  more 
than  think;  it  should  make  him  act.  The  table  on  page 
624  of  this  issue  is  taken  from  this  pamphlet  and  gives 
a  very  comprehensive  presentation  of  the  task. 

According  to  the  pamphlet,  "During  the  first  year  of 
the  war  the  expenditures  of  the  Government  have 
amounted  to  over  nine  and  a  half  billion  dollars,  or  more 
than  fourteen  times  the  average  expenditures  of  the 
seven  years  previous  to  the  war.  The  advances  which 
we  made  to  our  Allies  for  the  purchase  of  materials  and 
supplies  have  accounted  for  nearly  one-half  of  our  total 
expenditures. 

"The  expenses  for  the  next  twelve  months  will  prob- 
ably be  considerably  larger.  Congress  voted  appropria- 
tions for  the  current  fiscal  year  ending  June  13,  next, 
of  eighteen  and  three-quarter  billion  dollars,  but  the 
Government  has  not  found  it  possible  to  expend  this 
amount  of  money,  and  we  doubt  if  such  a  large  amount 
can  be  expended  in  the  coming  twelve  months.  We  be- 
lieve that  it  is  safe  to  estimate  the  total  expenditures'" 
for  the  next  twelve  months  at  about  fifteen  billion  dol- 
lars ;  therefore,  to  raise  this  amount  is  the  task  we  are 
facing." 

Regarding  the  use  of  the  table  the  pamphlet  points 
out  several  things  that  it  is  important  to  keep  in  mind. 
One  of  these  is:  "The  calculations,  except  for  incomes 
below  eight  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  are  based  on 
family  incomes.  This  seems  fair  because  most  of  us 
live  in  families  and  perforce  think  and  act  in  terms  of 
family  income  and  outgo.  It  goes  without  saying,  how- 
ever, that  an  individual  without  family  responsibilities 
can  contribute  proportionately  more  from  a  given  in- 
come than  the  head  of  a  family  can  contribute  or  than  a 
given  family  group  having  the  same  income  can  con- 
tribute." In  other  words,  one  is  not  only  to  contribute 
the  part  set  forth  in  the  table,  but  all  that  it  is  possible 
for  him  to  contribute. 

The  authors  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  "in  no 
better  way  can  there  be  brought  home  to  one  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  burden  of  this  war  and  what  it  means  than 
to  consider  conscientiously  what  constitutes  ones  fair 
share  of  the  burden.  It  is  no  use  to  blink  at  the  facts 
of  the  case.  We  may  as  well  face  them  now  and,  if  we 
have  not  already  done  so,  prepare  to  adjust  our  affairs 
so  that  we  can  take  up  the  burden.     Not  for  this  year 


alone,   but  perhaps  for   next  year  and  then   for  other 
years  to  follow. 

"It  is  obvious  that  business  and  methods  of  living 
heretofore  customary  cannot  go  on  as  usual.  In  the 
last  analysis  what  the  Government  needs  is  not  money 
but  goods  and  service.  Therefore,  to  the  extent  that 
each  one  of  us  curtails  his  wants  and  thus  releases  in- 
dustrial operatives  and  goods  for  war  work,  he  is  to 
that  degree  giving  the  greatest  assistance  to  the  Gov- 
ernment. In  this  way  also  individual  expenditure  is 
automatically  decreased  with  a  corresponding  increase 
available  to  the  Government.  It  behooves  us,  therefore, 
to  take  stock  of  our  resources  and  to  determine  thought- 
fully and  methodically  what  is  the  greatest  amount  of 
bonds  for  which  we  can  arrange  to  subscribe." 

Using  the  Nation's  Lignite  Supply 

IF  YOU  will  look  at  the  coal  map  of  the  United  States 
you  will  see  that  the  Southwest  and  the  Northwest, 
particularly  the  Dakotas,  North  Dakota  especially,  con- 
tain considerable  deposits  of  lignites.  The  North  Dakota 
natural  lignite  has  about  the  following  average  composi- 
tion :  Moisture,  forty  per  cent. ;  volatile  matter,  twenty- 
five  per  cent. ;  fixed  carbon,  twenty-eight  per  cent. ;  ash, 
seven  per  cent.,  the  heating  value  being  about  6300 
B.t.u.  per  pound.  These  sections  of  the  country  are 
remote  from  the  coal  fields  of  the  East,  and  they  are 
distant  from  the  Illinois  and  Indiana  coal  fields.  When 
these  sections  of  the  country  use  coal  either  from  the 
Kentucky,  Tennessee  or  West  Virginia  fields,  or  the 
Pennsylvania  field,  and  from  the  coal  fields  of  the  Middle 
West,  the  coal  must  be  transported  long  distances  by 
rail  and  the  lakes  and  at  considerable  cost,  which  be- 
comes more  than  a  monetary  loss  during  a  time  of  rail 
congestion.  National  economics,  therefore,  seems  to  dic- 
tate that  the  industries  adjacent  to  the  lignite  fields 
should  learn  how  to  burn  this  fuel.  Lignite  in  a  natural 
state  cannot  be  transported  even  short  distances  from 
the  mines  for  the  reason  that  the  moisture  evaporates, 
causing  the  lignite  to  break  up  into  small  chunks  and 
flakes  and,  if  subjected  to  much  jarring,  it  disintegrates 
into  powder,  all  of  which  makes  the  fuel  inconvenient 
to  handle. 

While  commendable  progress  Las  been  made  in  the 
use  of  lignites,  they  are  not  used  on  a  large  scale,  even 
by  the  industries  adjacent  to  the  lignite  fields.  Experi- 
ence has  shown,  however,  that  lignites  can  be  burned 
under  boiler  furnaces  without  insurmountable  difficulty. 
An  electric  company  in  Colorado,  for  example,  has  been 
successful  in  burning  natural  lignites  on  an  underfeed 
stoker,  the  stoker  enabling  the  boiler  to  develop  I'atings 
up  to  300  per  cent,  of  normal,  and  to  be  able  to  put  the 
boiler  on  the  line  under  full  boiler  pressure  from  a  fire 
at  dead  bank  in  five  to  seven  minutes.  This  is  a  boiler 
instiUlation  of  the  usual  kind;  that  is,  the  boiler  is  not 
over.stokered.     Altogether,  experience  in  this  Colorado 


626 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


station  has  shown  that  even  with  the  ordinary  type  of 
underfeed  stoker  in  a  boiler  setting  not  especially  do- 
signed  for  lignite  fuels,  great  flexibility  in  boiler  output 
is  possible.  During  the  fuel  crisis  of  last  winter,  the 
people  of  North  Dakota  successfully  burned  lignite  in 
house-heating  boilers  and  stoves.  The  experience  in 
Colorado  and  North  Dakota,  together  with  that  in  Texas, 
where  lignites  abound,  shows  that  the  lignites  may  be 
burned  under  boilers  used  for  power  purposes. 

It  is  likely  that  experience  will  dictate  that  the  natural 
lignites  be  carbonized;  that  ic,  that  the  moisture  par- 
ticularly be  driven  off  before  the  fuel  is  transported 
long  distances.  The  carbonized  lignite  presents  no  diffi- 
culty in  burning  under  power  boilers. 

Elsewhere  in  this  issue  Henry  Kreisinger,  engineer 
of  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  and  well  known  for  his  work 
on  combustion  in  boilers,  has  a  most  interesting  article 
on  the  combustion  of  North  Dakota  lignite,  with  sug- 
gestions for  the  design  of  furnaces  to  bum  this  fuel. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  combustion  is  limited  to 
the  first  three  or  four  inches  of  the  fuel  bed  of  a 
lignite  fire  and  that  the  CO^  is  rapidly  and  completely 
reduced  to  CO  within  the  first  four  of  the  fuel  bed. 
This,  of  course,  makes  necessary  the  introduction  of 
oxygen  or  air  above  and  against  the  fuel  bed  in  order 
that  the  CO  may  be  burned  to  CO,.  It  is  interesting  to 
note,  also,  that  the  reduction  of  the  CO,  to  CO  near 
the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed  is  such  a  heat-absorbing 
process  that  the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed  under  ordinary 
conditions  is  a  dull  red.  With  a  natural  lignite,  the 
absorption  of  heat  by  the  moisture  is  a  factor  in  causing 
combustion  to  be  slow  at  the  surface  of  a  lignite  fuel  bed. 

It  is  of  particular  interest  to  note  that  the  author 
is  of  the  opinion  that  an  ordinary  horizontal  grate  is 
unsuited  to  lignite  and  that  a  step  grate  should  be  used. 
The  step  grate  is  best  adapted  for  the  reason  that  the 
ash  may  find  its  way  down  the  grate  and  will  not  plug 
the  air  spaces  which,  in  a  separate  grate,  may  be  made 
very  large,  as  they  must  necessarily  be  to  bum  the  lig- 
nite with  success.  The  step  grate  also  avoids  dropping 
the  ash  and  combustible  into  the  ashpit  where,  with  an 
Drdinary  horizontal  grate,  the  ashpit  may,  when  burn- 
ing lignite,  contain  more  fire  than  the  grate  itself. 

It  is  Mr.  Kreisinger's  opinion  that  a  chain  grate, 
if  inclined  about  fifteen  degrees  toward  the  refuse  end, 
and  set  in  a  furnace  having  a  long  combustion  arch  ex- 
tending from  the  rear  far  forward  in  order  to  drive  the 
flame  down  upon  the  incoming  coal  which,  of  course,  is 
high  in  moisture,  will  successfully  burn  natural  lignite. 
Directing  the  flame  forward  is  intended  to  drive  off 
the  moisture  from  the  incoming  green  coal.  We  are 
sure  that  Mr.  Kreisinger's  article  will  add  appreciably 
to  the  literature  on  this  subject  and  that  the  results  of 
his  investigations  will  prove  of  material  value  to  these 
engaged  in  designing  furnaces  for  successfully  burning 
the  lignite  fuels. 

It  is  up  to  the  builders  of  stokers  and  furnaces  to 
take  advantage  of  the  experiments  of  the  Bureau  of 
Mines  and  supplement  them  with  research  of  their  own 
to  the  end  that  stokers  and  furnaces  particularly  adapted 
to  lignites  may  be  available  to  industries  in  and  near 
the  vast  lignite  fields. 

We  should  not  be  unmindful  of  the  apparent  possibili- 
ties of  burning  lignite  in  powdered  form,  particularly 
so  in  view  of  the  low  fusing  temperature  of  the  ash. 


namely,  two  thousand  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Just  what 
success  have  the  powdei:ed-fuel  exponents  had  burning 
lignite  in  pulverized  form? 

Coal-Saving  Nostrums 

STILL  again  we  are  forced  to  call  attention  to  the 
numerous  nostrums  which  are  being  urged  upon  the 
public  as  fuel  savers.  There  are  usually  a  few  sporadic 
cases  in  evidence,  but  the  present  exceptional  conditions 
with  regard  to  fuel  have  engendered  a  veritable  epidemic 
of  them.  "Kologen"  will  save,  according  to  the  adver- 
tisement, from  twenty-five  to  forty  per  cent,  of  your 
coal  bills,  and  you  can  get  enough  for  fifty  cents  to 
treat  a  ton  of  coal.  A  patriot  by  the  name  of  Schoen 
will  give  you  a  formula  for  effecting  the  same  result. 
The  formula  is  water,  salt,  and  "one  common  chemical," 
the  name  of  which  he  sells  ordinarily  for  one  dollar. 
But  as  every  ton  of  coal  saved  now  helps  win  the 
war,  he  considers  it  a  patriotic  duty  to  spread  these 
instructions  as  widely  as  possible;  so  during  the  pres- 
ent emergency  a  silver  quarter,  "to  cover  cost,"  gets  it 
by  return  mail.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred  to 
the  aforenamed  patriot  that  it  would  not  take  so  much 
space  in  the  advertisement  to  name  the  ingredient  as 
to  call  it  "a  common  chemical,"  and  if  it  were  any  good 
any  paper  would  be  glad  to  print  it  for  its  news  value. 
Meyers'  patent  compound  for  saving  coal  is  another. 
We  have  analyzed  and  exposed  many  of  these  nostrums. 
There  is  no  substance  which,  sprinkled  upon  coal,  can 
save  one-third,  one-quarter,  one-tenth,  or  any  appreciable 
proportion  of  it,  except  through  the  psychological  process 
of  leading  the  fireman  to  expect  an  improvement  and 
unconsciously  to  bring  it  about;  and  there  is  no  need 
of  paying  twenty-five  or  fifty  cents  for  a  canful  of  cheap 
chemicals  in  order  to  do  this. 

Will  the  Coal  Shortage  Continue? 

WASHINGTON  cannot  conceal  the  fact  that  the 
Fuel  Administration  and  the  Railroad  Administra- 
tion are  at  loggerheads.  As  a  result  there  is  an  alarm- 
ing shortage  of  bituminous  output  because  of  car  short- 
age. Goodness  knows,  we  went  through  enough  distress 
last  winter,  some  of  it  unavoidable,  much  of  it  avoid- 
able. Are  we  to  face  it  again?  If  so,  is  it  to  be  because 
some  oflRcials  want  to  make  a  showing  on  cost  sheets? 
If  these  men  do  not  want  to  appear  as  selfish  children, 
let  them  cease  to  be  childish.  The  public  is  sick  of 
needless  messes.  It  wants  coal,  it  needs  it ;  miners  want 
to  work  steadily,  car  builders  are  not  holding  back.  Let 
the  Railroad  Administration  drop  the  bludgeon  it  holds 
over  Mr.  Garfield. 


During  the  period  of  agitation  on  the  daylight-saving 
law,  which  went  into  effect  April  1,  many  objections 
were  raised  against  it.  However,  the  reports  coming 
from  different  quarters  would  indicate  that  the  evening 
peak  of  the  central  stations  is  being  considerably  re- 
lieved without  adding  anything  to  the  moming  peak,  a 
coal  saving  is  obtained,  and  furthermore,  what  was  not 
expected,  it  has  proved  to  be  a  public  safety  and  defense 
feature — so  much  so  that  the  executive  committee  of 
the  United  States  Chamber  of  Commerce  at  a  recent 
meeting  was  unanimous  in  its  agreement  that  the  meas- 
ure should  be  made  a  permanent  one  to  operate  through 
the  year. 


April  30,  1918  POWER  827 

^Llllll II [[iiii[iiiiiiiiiiMiii||i|iiiiiiiiiiiriiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiimumiiuuuiuiiuiimuiinMiuiuiiiiiiuiuiiuiuuiiiiinuiiuiiiuiimiiiiiimimilllliimuiuiiiiiifiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiimiiiniiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiirrii||||||||||iiii iririiirriiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinif|i 


Correspondence 


iiiwiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii[»iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiitiiiiiiiiiniiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiniiDi^ 


niiuiiiniiiniig 


Something  To  Be  Proud  Of 

I  am  sure  that  Potver  readers  will  be  interested  in  some 
figures  on  running  an  ordinary  500-hp.  plant  during  the 
unusual  year  of  1917.  This  is  an  old  plant,  started  in 
1850  as  a  mill,  now  furnishing  power  to  eleven  tenants, 
using  individually  from  3  to  109  hp.,  and  scattered  over 
a  property  400  ft.  square.  Until  March  we  were  run- 
ning both  shaft  and  electric  drives,  but  at  that  time  we 
cut  off  all  the  shaft  drive  and  are  now  all  on  electric 
transmission.  During  the  last  year  we  delivered  an 
average  of  365  hp.  to  the  tenants,  at  a  cost  of  $23,750, 
or  $65  per  hp.  These  figures  are  so  unusually  high  for 
those  which  anyone  is  willing  to  publish  that  readers 
would  be  interested  in  some  of  the  incidental  things  that 
go  to  make  up  this  result. 

All  the  employees  of  the  plant  have  had  their  wages 
increased  about  25  per  cent,  this  past  year;  our  payroll 
was  $80  a  week  for  regular  running  and  $9  a  week  for 
overtime  on  maintenance  and  repairs,  making  a  total  of 
$89  a  week,  or  $4632  for  the  year.  Our  coal  bill  was  for 
2564  tons  at  $6.10,  or  $15,640;  our  bills  for  supplies  and 
repairs  were  $1688.  Some  of  the  items  of  this  amount 
are  as  follows :  Boiler  repairs,  $451 ;  oils  and  grease, 
$135;  boiler  compound,  $65;  building  repairs,  $32; 
water,  $257;  stoker  and  furnace  repairs,  $138;  engine 
repairs,  $16;  packing,  $37;  electrical  supplies  and  re- 
pairs, $144;  pipe,  valves  and  fittings,  $109.  Taxes  and 
insurance  amounted  to  $900. 

We  are  equipped  with  water-tube  boilers  and  overfeed 
stokers,  and  slide-valve  automatic  engines,  and  furnish 
direct  current  at  115  volts  for  both  power  and  lighting. 

We  burn  bituminous  slack,  which  during  1916  cost  us 
$3.10  a  ton  on  the  boiler-room  floor.  During  1917  this 
coal  or  other  coal  bought  to  fill  our  requirements  cost 
$6.10  per  ton  on  the  boiler-room  floor.  In  addition  to  this 
condition,  the  water  evaporation  fell  from  10  to  8  lb.  on 
account  of  poor  coal,  poorly  prepared  coal  or  coals  of 
qualities  strange  to  us,  which  puzzled  us  to  find  the  best 
method  of  firing.  It  was  also  necessary  for  six  months 
to  put  an  extra  man  in  the  boiler  room  on  account  of 
these  conditions. 

Our  engines  are  using  40  lb.  of  steam  per  indicated 
horsepower-power,  and  the  efficiency  from  the  indicated 
horsepower  to  the  tenant's  recording  wattmeters  is  75 
per  cent.  We  delivered  317  hp.  to  these  wattmeters, 
which  was  423  i.hp.  at  engines.  On  a  steam  consumption 
of  40  lb.  this  equaled  564  hp.  at  the  boilers  at  30  lb.  per 
boiler  hp.  In  addition  to  this  we  delivered  48  boiler 
hp.  of  live  steam,  which  we  recorded  with  condensation 
meters.  This  612  boiler  hp.  did  not  include  steam  used 
in  feed  pumps  and  stoker  engines  or  condensation  in 
mains.  Our  boilers  were  run  at  about  rating,  on  an 
average. 

Notwithstanding  the  high  costs  of  power,  caused 
principally  by  inefficient  engines,  along  with  some  35- 
year  old  equipment  which  I  have  not  as  yet  been  able 
to  get  rid  of,  and  with  high-priced  coal,  one  of  our  large 


central  stations,  which  has  30,000  kw.  turbines,  has  been 
unable  to  make  an  interesting  proposition  to  us,  prac- 
tically failing  on  the  one  point  of  heating  the  buildings. 
Exhaust  steam  for  heating  has  saved  us  where  our 
engines  would  have  thrown  us  down. 

Our  figures  for  building  maintenance  were:  Repair 
and  supply  bills,  $1382;  payroll,  $4196;  coal,  $3910; 
taxes  and  insurance,  $1500;  Total,  $10,988. 

We  have  180,000  sq.  ft.  of  rentable  floor  space,  which 
makes  the  maintenance  costs  less  than  7c.  per  sq.ft. 
In  proportioning  the  boiler-room  costs,  including  coal,  we 
proportion  80  per  cent,  to  power  and  20  per  cent,  to 
buildings. 

Regardless  of  these  unvarnished  figures,  which  are 
truly  "something  awful,"  we  are  proud  of  what  we 
accomplished  last  year.  By  "we"  I  mean  my  men,  who 
have  backed  me  up  so  well,  our  manager,  who  has  done 
the  same,  and  myself — cooperation  which  is  hard  to  beat. 
Surrounded  by  unfavorable  conditions,  we  have  made  a 
determined  effort  to  make  the  most  out  of  them,  and 
feel  that  we  have  done  our  "bit,"  as  over  three-fourths 
of  our  power  was  used  for  strictly  Government  essen- 
tials, and  the  balance  was  utilized  for  various  good 
purposes.  Arthxjr  Summers. 

Philadelphia,  Penn. 


Synchronoscope  Operated  Sluggishly 

Synchronizing  indicators  are  intended  to  be  con- 
nected to  the  circuit  only  during  the  period  that  they 
are  actually  in  use.  If  these  instruments  are  left  con- 
nected to  the  circuit  permanently,  there  is  danger  that 
they  will  be  overheated  and  injured.  In  a  certain 
instance  a  synchronizer  had  for  some  time  evinced  a 
tendency  to  act  sluggishly.  The  sluggish  action  of  the 
instrument  apparently  did  not  suggest  to  the  operator 
that  its  indications  might  not  be  dependable,  since 
it  was  not  until  two  machines  had  been  connected 
together  while  out  of  phase  that  the  operator  awakened 
to  the  possibility  of  an  investigation  being  in  order. 
Testing  failed  to  reveal  any  open-circuits  or  other 
external  irregularities,  and  as  the  synchronizing  lamps 
continued  to  be  normal  in  their  indications,  it  appeared 
that  the  trouble  must  be  located  within  the  synchronizer 
itself. 

The  instrument  was  removed  from  the  switchboard 
and  partly  disassembled,  when  it  was  discovered  that, 
owing  to  overheating,  insulating  compound  had  run 
out  of  the  windings  and  clogged  the  air  gap  between 
the  rotating  member  and  the  polepieces,  so  that  the 
former  was  practically  prevented  from  turning.  How- 
ever, the  winding  appeared  not  to  have  been  injured, 
and  after  cleaning  the  air  gap,  a  trial  of  the  instrument 
proved  its  indications  to  be  normal.  The  heating  was 
found  to  be  caused  by  the  operator  leaving  the  instru- 
ment connected  to  the  circuit  continuously. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  E.  C.  Parham. 


628 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


A  Peculiar  Wiring  Trouble 

Recently,  a  friend  of  mine  took  charge  of  a  power 
plant  that  was  in  a  somewhat  neglected  condition. 
Among  other  troubles  one  of  the  fuses  on  one  side  of 
a  lamp  circuit  kept  blowing  frequently.  Finally,  the 
circuit  was  fused  with  copper  wire,  and  this  solved 
the  problem  as  far  as  that  particular  circuit  was  con- 
cerned. Soon  after  the  circuit  lighting  the  boiler  room 
started  the  same  trouble;  the  fuse  blew  on  one  side 
of  it.  This  circuit  was  also  fused  with  solid  copper, 
which  ended  difficulties  as  far  as  fuse  blowing  was 
concerned. 

A  signal  bell  in  the  engine  room  had  been  giving  con- 
siderable trouble  from  the  contact  point  on  the  vibrator 
burning  so  badly  as  to  render  it  inoperative  a  number 
of  times.  A  short  time  after  the  boiler-room  circuit 
had  been  fused  with  copper  wire,  the  same  trouble 
happened  to  the  bell  again,  and  it  was  also  found  that 
the  push-buttons  were  so  badly  burned  as  to  be  useless. 
New  push-buttons  were  put  in,  and  in  a  short  time 
the  bell  and  buttons  were  found  to  be  burned  out  again. 

Push    Button..  F  0 


-% 


X 


Ground' 

m  doi/er 

Room 


tii 


s 


L 


Waters 
Pipe    ■ 


iIiIiHb- 


Fuses 


\l 


A  Bus. 


DIAOR.\M     OP    BEI^L    AND    LIGHTING    CIRCUITS 


It  is  quite  evident  that  the  bell  wire  was  in  contact 
with  110-volt  lighting  circuit  at  some  place.  Testing 
the  bell  wire  failed  to  locate  anything  wrong,  however. 
It  was  therefore  decided  to  arrange  a  telltale  light  to 
indicate  whenever  the  lighting-circuit  voltage  might 
be  present  on  the  bell.  One  lamp  was  connected  across 
the  bell  circuit  close  to  one  of  the  push-buttons,  and 
another  was  connected  across  the  bell  wire  near  the 
bell  in  the  engine  room.  The  sketch  illustrates  the  con- 
nections, and  L  and  L  indicate  the  location  of  the  tell- 
tale lamps.  The  next  morning  after  the  lamps  were 
installed  they  lighted. 

To  find  the  circuit  on  which  the  trouble  originated, 
che  fuses  of  each  circuit  were  removed  and  replaced 
one  at  a  time.  When  the  fuse  on  the  negative  side  of 
circuit  No.  4  was  removed,  the  light  went  out.  This, 
by  the  way,  was  the  side  that  was  fused  with  copper 
wire.    When  the  fuse  was  replaced,  the  lamps  lit  again. 

When  the  positive  fuse  of  circuit  No.  1  was  removed, 
the  lights  went  out  again.  This  was  the  boiler-room 
circuit  and  did  not  come  anywhere  near  the  bell  wire. 
In  tracing  out  the  wires  on  circuit  No.  4  we  found 
that  a  tap  had  been  taken  off  one  side  of  the  circuit 
and  run  between  the  beams  of  the  ceiling  to  one  side 
of  the  bell  circuit,  indicated  at  C.     From  this  it  will 


be  seen  that  one  side  of  the  bell  wire  was  connected 
to  the  negative  side  of  a  lighting  system.  Following 
the  bell  wire  back  to  the  engine  room,  near  the  ele- 
vator shaft  one  side  of  the  bell  circuit  was  found 
connected  to  a  water  pipe,  as  shown  at  B.  When  this 
wire  was  removed,  the  telltale  lights  went  out. 

In  the  engine  room,  connected  to  another  water  pipe, 
was  found  a  short  wire  that  had  apparently  been  dis- 
connected from  the  bell  some  time  before,  as  the  end 
was  hanging  near  the  bell.  Another  wire  was  connected 
to  the  bell  wiring  at  point  E  and  ran  along  the  ceiling 
through  a  lamp  socket  S  to  positive  side  of  circuit  No.  4. 

Evidently,  at  some  time  an  attempt  had  been  made 
to  operate  the  bell  on  a  circuit  taken  from  the  lighting 
system,  and  to  cut  down  the  expense  of  wire  the  use 
of  the  water  pipes  had  been  resorted  to.  Under  the 
conditions  shown,  whenever  a  ground  occurred  on  the 
positive  side  of  a  system,  it  is  plainly  evident  that  there 
would  be  full  voltage  across  the  bell,  as  the  circuit 
would  be  complete  from  the  ground  in  the  boiler  room 
through  connection  B  between  the  point  F  and  the 
water  pipe,  around  to  the  bell  and  battery  and  through 
C  to  the  negative  side  of  the  line.  This  is  what  burned 
off  the  contact  point  of  the  bell.  After  this  occurred 
full  lighting-circuit  voltage  existed  across  the  push- 
buttons. Closing  the  push-buttons  practically  amounted 
to  a  short  circuit. 

The  trouble  on  the  boiler-room  circuit  was  due  to 
one  of  the  wires  coming  loose  from  the  knob  on  which 
it  had  been  fastened  and  swinging  down  from  the 
ceiling.  The  plant  was  provided  with  a  damper  regu- 
lator, and  when  the  damper  was  wide  open  the  vnre 
became  squeezed  between  the  arm  of  the  regulator  and 
a  wooden  post.  This  also  explained  the  intermittent 
action  of  the  trouble.  Unless  the  damper  was  wide 
open,  the  wire  would  not  be  grounded  and  no  trouble 
would  be  experienced.  E.  W.  MILLER. 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Ash-Handling    Machinery 

Herbert  E.  Birch,  in  his  article  on  "Buying  an  Ash 
Handling  System,"  in  your  issue  of  Feb.  5,  page  186, 
mentions  the  liability  to  explosion  with  the  pipe  con- 
veyor sy.stem,  as  referred  to  in  the  Apr.  3,  1917,  issue 
of  Power.  In  this  connection  I  would  like  to  call 
attention  to  the  fact  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  have 
an  explosion  in  the  tank  connected  with  a  steam-jet 
system,  although  the  writer  knows  of  several  explosions 
that  have  occurred  where  the  air  system  was  used. 

There  seems  to  be  in  the  construction  of  the  article 
a  thinly  veiled  effort  to  discredit  the  steam-jet  system, 
and  I  am  satisfied  that  if  the  author  of  this  article 
had  investigated  the  latter  conclusively,  he  would  not 
consider  the  prices  advertised  in  your  journal  as 
handling  a  ton  of  ashes  by  this  system  as  "salesmen's 
hot  air."  It  is  generally  conceded  that  conveyors  of 
any  class  are  more  efficient  than  man-power  pushing 
a  wheelbarrow  or  other  device.  As  to  the  cost  of 
systems,  I  believe  that  the  specific  price  of  $2200  is 
rather  ill-advised  for  the  reason  that  I  am  personally 
familiar  with  systems  costing  considerably  less  and  at 
the  same  time  have  known  systems  including  the  bin 
for  the  reception  of  ashes  that  have  cost  less. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.  Robert  H.  Miller. 


April  30,  1918 


POWER 


629 


The   Boston   Turbine  Accident 

In  reading  the  description  of  the  wrecking  of  the 
35,000-kw.  turbine  at  Boston,  in  the  Mar.  19,  1918,  is- 
sue of  Power,  the  facts  and  evidence  as  given  suggest 
an  apparently  clear  and  logical  process  of  demolition 
through  which  the  exhaust  end  of  the  turbine  may  have 
passed. 

The  first  indication  of  trouble,  according  to  the  article, 
was  when  the  machine  was  heard  to  rub  and  observed 
to  vibrate,  and  this  came  in  the  nature  of  a  shock. 
Simultaneously  the  turbine  was  heavily  overloaded.  The 
operators  tried  to  stop  the  rubbing,  but  were  unable  to 
do  so.  These  facts  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  distor- 
tion of  the  18th  diaphragm,  probably  in  the  nozzle 
vanes,  due  to  increased  pressure  drop  between  the  18th 
and  19th  stages,  allowing  the  diaphragm  disk  to  rub  the 
inlet  side  prongs  of  the  blade  forks  of  the  18th  wheel, 
causing  heating  in  these  prongs.  When  a  sufficiently 
high  temperature  had  been  reached,  with  the  conse- 
quent reduction  of  the  tensile  strength  of  the  blade  mate- 
rial, these  prongs  parted  and  allowed  the  blades  to  foul 
the  nozzle  vanes  of  the  19th  diaphragm.  This  fouling 
would  cause  the  second  shock  and  commotion.  The  time 
required  for  heating  the  prongs  would  be  the  reason  for 
the  time  which  elapsed  between  the  first  and  second 
shocks.  The  18th  wheel  blade  debris  shows  that  the  in- 
let side  prongs  were  burned  blue  and  fused,  and  frac- 
tured near  the  root. 

The  18th  wheel  blades  fouling  the  19th  diaphragm 
nozzle  vanes  would  partly  sever  these  vanes  and  allow 
the  19th  diaphragm  disk  to  drop  down  on  the  hubs  of 
the  18th  and  19th  wheels  and  begin  to  revolve,  com- 
pletely parting  the  disk  from  its  ring.  The  19th  wheel 
blades  would  be  fouled  by  the  19th  diaphragm  nozzle 
vanes,  which,  in  turn,  wouuld  foul  the  nozzle  vanes  of 
the  20th  diaphragm.  The  disk  of  the  20th  diaphragm 
would  be  parted  from  its  ring  and  begin  revolving  in 
a  manner  similar  to  the  19th  diaphragm  disk.  When 
a  sufficiently  high  speed  was  attained,  the  diaphragm 
disk  would  burst  and  begin  throwing  off  pieces.  One 
of  the  diaphragm  disks  evidently  started  disrupting  first, 
and  in  doing  so  pieces  were  probably  projected  against 
the  diaphragm-supporting  cone  and  deflected  toward 
the  generator  end.  The  five  pieces  that  went  through 
the  building  wall  near  the  generator  end  of  the  shaft 
uphold  this  supposition.  The  lapse  of  time  between  the 
second  shock  and  the  instant  pieces  began  coming 
through  the  turbine  casing,  when  the  operating  crew 
were  seeking  cover,  would  allow  the  severed  diaphragm 
disks  to  reach  their  bursting  speeds. 

These  diaphragm  disk  pieces  in  striking  the  dia- 
phragm-supporting cone  would  possibly  break  it  up. 
The  probable  weakest  section  for  resisting  such  blows 
would  be  through  the  18th  diaphragm  groove — the  sup- 
porting cone  being  held  to  the  shape  by  the  17th  dia- 
phragm and  the  adjacent  external  flange.  The  upper 
factured  piece  or  pieces  of  the  cone  would  drop  down  on 
the  wheels,  be  whirled  around,  possibly  demolish  the 
exhaust  end  bearing  bracket  of  the  turbine,  and  finally 
land  among  the  condenser  tubes.  The  other  revolving 
diaphragm  disk  probably  let  go  after  the  supporting 
cone  had  been  destroyed.  The  diaphragm  pieces  that 
were  thrown  off  radially  suggest  this  action. 


Nothing  is  said  of  the  18th  diaphragm  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  accident.'  It  would  also  be  of  interest  to 
know  to  which  diaphragm  disk  the  five  pieces  found 
near  the  generator  end  of  the  shaft  belonged.'  It  would 
appear  that  the  primary  cause  of  the  accident  was  in 
the  18th  diaphragm,  and  a  secondary  cause  the  absence 
of  a  protective  rubbing  surface  on  the  rim  of  the  18th 
wheel,  although  the  18th,  19th  and  20th  wheels  all  have 
the  forked  blading. 

In  the  comment  on  the  windage  test  of  the  last  stage 
wheel  of  the  25,000-kw.  turbine  it  would  appear  that 
the  medium  in  which  this  test  was  run  was  air  at 
atmospheric  pressure.  Whether  the  wrecked  turbine 
at  Boston  was  supplied  with  a  vacuum  breaker  the  de- 
scription does  not  say,  but  a  vacuum  breaker  operating 
in  conjunction  with  the  emergency  trip  throttle  valve 
would  be  a  means  of  braking  a  turbine  wherein  the 
blade  velocities  are  high,  after  the  generator  had  been 
disconnected  from  its  load  and  before  the  air  pump 
could  be  shut  down.  C.  H.  Watson. 

Portland,  Ore. 

Compound  Mixing  and  Feeding  Tank 

There  are  many  arrangements  of  tanks  for  mixing 
and  feeding  boiler  compound,  but  I  think  I  have  a  better 
one  than  any  I  have  seen  or  read  about,  therefore  1 


BOILER-COMPOUND     FEEDER 

submit  it.  The  illustration  will  show  at  a  glance  its 
good  points.  Circulation  through  the  tank  is  regulated 
by  partly  closing  the  valve  in  the  main-feed  line  to  the 
boilers.  The  piping  arrangement  shown  is  only  in- 
tended to  convey  the  general  idea  and  may  be  modified 
to  suit  conditions.  B,  Dan  De  Pass. 

Hudson  Heights,  N.  J. 


'"All  wheels  and  diaphragnns  up  to  and  including  the  17th  stage 
are  Intact."  Sec  paragraph  under  Fig.  4.  page  393,  "Power," 
Mar.   19. 

=Spe  top  of  second  column,  page  392  of  "Power,"  Mar.  19: 
"When  this  frame  broke  It  is  probable  that  the  19th  and  20th  dia- 
phragm.s  let  down  on  the  shaft,  .  .  The  significant  fact  Is  that 
these  diaphragms  are  the  only  large  pieces  of  melal  to  complote- 
Iv  break  up  and  leave  the  turbine.  It  was  some  of  these  pieces 
that  went  through  the  roof  and  terra-cotta  temporary  end  wall 
of  the  building." 


630 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


Drying  Out  Electric  Motors 

During  a  high-water  period  in  the  Ohio  River  one 
part  of  our  plant  was  submerged,  putting  many  of  the 
motor-driven  machines  out  of  commission.  We  cleaned 
the  machines  as  quickly  as  possible,  but  drying  out  the 
motors  proved  to  be  a  somewhat  difficult  proposition. 
After  trying  several  schemes,  the  method  shown  in  the 
illustration  was  devised  and  used  successfully. 


METHOD  OP   HE.\TING   AIR   IN   A   PIPE 

Referring  to  the  figure,  A  is  a  i-in.  pipe  leading 
from  a  compressed  air  receiver.  A  reducing  valve  was 
placed  in  the  pipe  line  before  entering  the  plug  P.  This 
valve  reduced  the  air  pressure  down  to  about  30  lb.  per 
sq.in.,  which  we  found  more  satisfactory  than  a  higher 
pressure.  B  is  a  piece  of  3-in.  iron  pipe  with  open- 
ings 0  to  allow  the  gas  flames  to  heat  the  air  in  the 
pipe  A.  Several  gas  jets  may  be  used,  if  necessary  to 
work  on  more  than  one  motor  at  a  time. 

A  tee-joint  may  be  placed  at  D  for  branch  pipes 
leading  to  different  motors.  The  whole  heating  appa- 
ratus can  be  placed  on  the  floor,  and  by  using  flexible- 
hose  branches,  the  scheme  makes  a  very  convenient 
arrangement. 

We  left  the  motors  on  the  floor  and  blew  the  air 
through  them,  regulating  the  gas  flame  so  that  the 
air  was  kept  at  a  temperature  that  may  be  called  warm. 
Flexible  nozzles  covered  with  asbestos  paper  were  used, 
as  the.v  were  found  to  be  better  than  solid  metallic 
nozzles  for  getting  into  the  diiferent  parts  of  the  motors 
easily.  G.  E.  MICHAEL. 

Pittsburgh,  Penn. 

Repair  the  Liberty  Bell 

Having  become  acquainted  with  the  wonderful  versa- 
tility of  the  oxyacetylene  welding  torch,  the  picture  of 
the  Liberty  Bell  on  the  cover  of  Power,  Mar.  26,  sug- 
gests, "Why  not  repair  the  Liberty  Bell  and  have  it 
ready  to  ring  when  the  Prussians  are  beaten  and  the 
war  comes  to  an  end?"  There  certainly  must  be  some 
welder  who  would  undertake  the  job  and  who  is  skillful 
enough  to  insure  its  success.  I  have  welded  large  gongs 
and  small  dinner  bells  of  bronze  that  resounded  just 
as  melodiously  as  when  new,  before  developing  any  de- 
fect. Welding  seems  to  restore  the  tone  of  a  bell  com- 
pletely. If  the  welding  is  done  from  the  inside  of  the 
Liberty  Bell,  there  will  be  nothing  to  show  that  there 
ever  had  been  a  crack. 


Think  of  the  old  Liberty  Bell  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  lifting  up  its  voice  again,  speaking  once  more  for 
Liberty  in  a  glad  peal  resounding  from  one  end  of  the 
land  to  the  other.  Sentiment  might,  it  is  true,  be  aroused 
against  restoring  the  voice  to  the  bell,  but  as  well  refuse 
to  restore  the  sight,  hearing  or  voice  of  some  cherished 
one  who  had  become  afflicted,  when  the  surgeon  offers  a 
cure.  There  may  perhaps  be  a  reason  why  welding  this 
bell  is  impossible.  At  least  it  ought  to  be  put  up  to  an 
expert  before  the  glorious  old  bell  is  abandoned  to  per- 
petual dumbness.  M.  MEIGS. 

Keokuk,  Iowa. 


Keeping  Oil  Out  of  Feed  Pump 

We  were  troubled  with  oil  in  our  boilers  following  the 
time  the  receiving  tank  got  pumped  dry.  A  repetition 
of  the  accidental  pumping  dry  was  remedied  in  a  satis- 
factory and  inexpensive  way,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. 

The  original  suction  pipe  extended  straight  in, 
while  the  new  arrangement  has  a  tee  on  the  end  of  the 
pump  suction  pipe,  and  an  open-end  standpipe  extending 
above  the  overflow  level,  so  that  when  the  water  level 
reaches  the  suction  level,  air  is  admitted  to  the  pump 
through  the  standpipe  and  the  pump  gets  no  more  wa- 
ter, leaving  a  seal  of  several  inches.    The  oil  is  disposed 


l.VSIDE    PIPING    KEEPS    SURFACE    OIL    FROM    PUMP 

of  through  the  overflow  by  allowing  the  tank  to  fill  and 
overflow  occasionally,  so  it  goes  outside  instead  of  into 
the  boilers.  This  arrangement  is  cheaper  than  float 
valves,  etc.,  and  is  sure  to  work. 

Oil  City,  Penn.  T.  A.  Marshall. 

An  Electrical  Phenomenon 

On  page  594,  Apr.  23  issue,  the  discussion  letter  "An 
Electrical  Phenomenon"  should  have  been  signed,  Dr. 
K.  Becker,  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J. — Editor. 


April  30,  1918  POWER  681 

^luuiiiimiiiiuuiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim i iiiiiiiiiiiniiii iiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiii iiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiii mi i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuii: 

Inquiries  of  General  Interest  f 

SlllllllllllllllllllllllinillllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIUIIIIlrlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIMI^  IIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIimilllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIli 


Cleaning;    Water-LeR    of    Vertical    liniler — How    can    the 

water-leg    of    a    vertical    fire-tube    boiler    be    thoroughly 
deaned?  B.  W. 

Fasten  a  chain  to  the  end  of  a  wire,  having  each  of  suf- 
ficient length  to  pass  around  the  inside  of  the  boiler  from 
one  handhole  to  the  next.  Then  draw  the  chain  into  the 
water-leg  and  pull  it  back  and  forth  while  washing  out  the 
loose  dirt  with  water  from  a  hose. 

Negative  Exhaust  Lap  —  In  a  D  slide  valve  what  is 
negative  exhaust  lap  and  what  is  its  effect  on  operation 
of  an  engine  ?  T.  J.  M. 

Negative  exhaust  lap  is  the  amount  by  which  the  exhaust 
edge  of  the  valve  fails  to  cover  the  port  when  the  valve 
is  in  its  central  position.  The  effect  of  negative  exhaust 
lap  is  to  hasten  the  opening  and  delay  the  closing  of  the 
ports  to  the  exhaust. 

Breakage  of  Spring  of  Shaft  Governor — What  would  re- 
sult if  the  spring  of  a  shaft  governor  should  break  while  in 
use  on  a  high-speed  engine?  W.  F. 

The  office  of  the  spring  is  to  oppose  the  action  of  the  cen- 
trifugal force  on  the  governor  weight  in  causing  shorter  cut- 
off. With  the  centrifugal  force  unrestrained,  cutoff  would 
take  place  at  the  earliest  point,  the  speed  would  immedi- 
ately be  reduced,  and  un'.ess  the  engine  were  relieved  of  tht? 
load  it  would  slow  down  or  stop. 

Indications  of  Carrying  Water  Too  Low — What  are  indi- 
cations that  water  has  been  carried  too  low  in  a  boiler? 

E.  T. 

Low  water  causes  tubes  to  leak  at  their  ends  and  burn- 
ing of  heating  surfaces  that  have  been  uncovered  by  water. 
Examination  of  the  interior  of  the  boiler  will  show  red 
coloration  of  the  material  at  the  point  where  the  water 
has  been  too  low  and  scale  will  be  cracked  off  down  to  the 
level  at  which  the  water  was  carried. 

Parabolic  Governor — What  is  a   pai-abolic   governor? 

F.  J.  M. 

A  parabolic  governor  is  one  in  which  the  governor  bads 
are  constrained  to  move  in  the  path  of  a  parabola  whose 
principal  axis  is  the  vertical  axis  of  rotation.  The  height  of 
an  equivalent  pendulum  suspension  of  the  balls  is  constant 
for  all  positions,  the  governor  is  in  equilibrium  at  but  one 
speed  and  is  said  to  be  isochronous.  Such  a  governor  can- 
not be  used  successfully  on  an  engine  without  checking  its 
action  with  a  spring  or  dashpot,  for  the  slightest  increase 
in  speed  above  the  normal  causes  the  balls  to  rise  to  their 
highest  position  with  sudden  decrease  of  speed,  alternating 
with  promptly  falling  and  increase  of  speed. 

Movement  of  Main  Bearing  on  Bedstone — How  can  move- 
ment of  the  low  pressure  side  main  bearing  of  a  cross  com- 
pound engine  on  the  bedstone  be  remedied?         W.  P.  S. 

If  the  nuts  on  the  foundation  bolts  cannot  be  set  down 
hard  enough  to  hold  the  stand  from  slipping,  it  may  be 
that  the  bolts  are  not  t!  readed  long  enough  and  washers 
are  required,  or  that  the  anchorages  are  not  holding.  If 
the  bolts  are  smaller  than  the  bolt  holes  in  the  bedstone, 
filling  the  cavities  with  a  thin  grouting  of  neat  cement  may 
improve  the  anchoring  or  at  least  hold  the  bolts  steadier. 
If  the  anchorages  are  secure,  then  with  the  nuts  of  all 
foundation  bolts  set  down  hard  thei'e  should  be  no  move- 
ment over  the  bedstone  if  the  engine  is  in  good  alignment. 

Testing  Accuracy  of  Vacuum  Gage — How  is  the  accuracy 
of  a  vacuum  gage  tested  ?  R.  A. 

A  vacuum  gage  is  generally  provided  with  a  dial  and 
pointer  for  indicating  inches  of  mercury  pressure  below 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  A  gage  of  this  kind 
usually  is  tested  by  connecting  it  to  one  end  of  a  U-shaped 
glass  tube  of  which  both  legs  are  about  30  in.  long  and 
tilled  about  half  their  length  with  mercury.    For  calibrating 


the  gage  one  end  of  the  U-tube  and  the  gage  are  connected 
to  the  receiver  of  an  air  pump  or  an  ejector  operated  by 
steam  or  water.  If  the  gage  is  correct,  its  readings  will 
agree  \^-ith  the  number  of  inches  difference  in  level  of  the 
mercury  in  the  legs  of  the  U-tube  for  different  degrees  of 
exhaustion.  If  a  condensing  engine  is  operating  when  the 
calibration  is  to  be  made,  the  gage  and  U-tube  may  be 
connected  to  the  condenser  and  a  comparison  of  the  read- 
ings will  show  the  errors  of  the  gage  for  the  condenser 
pressures  that  are  present. 

Pump-Piston  Speeds  and  Relative  Capacities — What  is 
considered  good  practical  piston  speed  for  reciprocating 
pumps  of  various  lengths  of  stroke?  Having  two  pumps 
of  the  same  diameter  and  different  lengths  of  stroke,  would 
the  pump  of  longer  stroke  be  considered  to  have  greater 
capacity?  B.  F.  K. 

Good  working  piston  speeds  for  reciprocating  pumps  of 
various  strokes  are  as  follows:  3-in.  stroke,  40  ft.  per 
min.;  4-in.,  50  ft;  5-in.,  60  ft.;  6-in.,  65  ft.;  8-in.,  75  ft.;  10- 
in.,  80  ft.;  12-in.,  90  ft.;  15-in.,  100  ft.  Many  pump  manu- 
facturers rate  capacities  at  somewhat  higher  speeds.  A 
pump  with  shorter  stroke  can  run  with  more  frequent  re- 
versals, but  the  higher  piston  speed  obtained  with  longer 
stroke  gives  greater  capacity  for  the  same  diameter. 

Effect  of  Ash  on  Steaming  Value  of  Coal — Is  the  value 
of  coal  for  steaming  purposes  in  proportion  to  the  heat 
value  of  the  combustible  ingredients  of  the  coal  ?    W.  L.  J. 

Ordinarily,  the  efficiency  of  combustion  decreases  with  the 
increase  in  percentage  of  ash.  The  greater  the  ash  content 
the  greater  the  labor  and  cost  of  managing  the  fire  and 
handling  the  ashes  and  the  less  the  efficiency  and  capacity. 
When  the  ash  is  in  excess  of  20  per  cent,  of  the  dry  coal, 
che  commercial  value  as  fuel  falls  so  rapidly  with  increase 
of  ash  that,  for  use  in  ordinary  fui-naces,  coals  which  con- 
tain 40  per  cent,  of  ash  are  comparatively  worthless.  A 
high  percentage  of  ash  may  clinker  and  clog  the  fuel  bed, 
thus  requiring  a  higher  draft,  while  the  incombustible  in- 
gredients form  insulating  layers  that  hinder  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  supply  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  com- 
bustible elements  of  the  coal,  thus  requiring  a  larger  air 
supply  and  greater  loss  from  excess  air  for  combustion 
of  the  fuel. 

Equalizing  Cutoff  without  Indicating  Engine — After  set- 
ting the  valves  of  a  Corliss  engine,  how  can  the  equality  of 
cutoff  be  tested  and  corrected  without  indicating  the  en- 
gine? T.  E.  H. 

Make  a  mark  on  the  crosshead  and  a  corresponding  mark 
on  the  guide  when  the  crosshead  is  at  each  end  of  its  travel. 
To  test  the  correctness  of  cutoff,  block  up  the  governor  to 
about  the  medium  height.  Then  with  the  wristplate  hooked 
in  gear  with  the  eccentric,  turn  the  engine  slowly  in  the 
direction  it  is  to  run,  and  when  the  cutoff  hook  is  detached 
by  the  cam,  stop  tui'ning  the  engine  and  measure  on  the 
guide  the  distance  traveled  by  the  crosshead.  Continue 
turning  the  engine  and  note  the  distance  traveled  from  the 
other  end  of  the  stroke  when  the  steam  valve  of  that  end 
is  tripped.  If  the  distance  traveled  is  the  same,  cutoff  will 
be  equal  for  the  particular  height  to  which  the  governor 
was  blocked  and  will  be  approximately  equal  for  other 
positions  of  the  governor.  If  the  distance  is  not  equal, 
adjust  the  length  of  the  governor  reach  rods  until  the 
points  of  cutoff  are  alike. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  thefr 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention.- - 
Editor.] 


632 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


Latent  Heat  of  Vaporization  of  Ammonia 

By  NATHAN  S.  OSBORNE  AND  MILTON   F.  VAN  DUSEN 


The  authors,  who  are  physicists  with  the  Bureau 
of  Standards,  Washington,  D.  C,  have  completed 
experiments  in  the  determination  of  the  latent 
heat  of  vaporization  of  ammonia,  and  have  com- 
piled a  table  both  in  calories  per  gram  and  B.t.u's 
per  pound  with  a  range  of  40  deg.  below  zero  to 
110  deg.  above.  The  ammonia  used  in  the  deter- 
minations was  prepared  by  Messrs.  McKelvy  and 
Taylor  of  the  Chemical  Division  of  the  Bureau 
from  commercial  anhydrous  ammonia  manufac- 
tured by  the  synthetic  method.  A  statement  of 
previous  determinations  is  made  and  these  deter- 
minations are  plotted  on  a  chart  accompanying 
the  article. 


IN  tables  of  the  heat  content  of  ammonia,  such  as  engineers 
require,  the  latent  heat  of  vaporization  constitutes  the 
major  part.  Nevertheless  the  direct  measurements  of 
this  property  are  among  the  rarest  of  the  available  experi- 
mental data.  This  is  attributable  probably  to  the  fact  that 
the  latent  heat  of  vaporization  may,  by  thermodynamic 
formulas,  be  computed  from  other  properties  more  easily 
measurable;  however,  the  data  which  have  heretofore  been 
available  for  this  calculation  have  not  been  of  a  precision 
such  as  to  yield  satisfactory  values  for  the  latent  heat.  The 
measurements  here  presented  have  been  carried  out  in  re- 
sponse to  the  request  of  the  associations  of  refrigerating 
engineers    of   this    country    for    more    accurate    data    upon 

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FIO.    1.       RESULTS    OP    PREVIOUS    DETERMINATIONS    OP 
LATENT  HEAT   OP  VAPORIZATION   OF  AMMONIA 

which  to  base  calculations  for  machinery  using  ammonia  in 
the  production  of  artificial  refrigeration. 

Results  of  previous  determinations  of  the  latent  heat  of 
vaporization  of  ammonia  are  represented  graphically  in 
Fig.  1.  The  three  curves  also  shoviTi  in  this  figure  repre- 
sent the  values  computed  from  other  data  by  Keyes,  Good- 
enough  and  Mosher  and  Hoist.  Regnault  published  a  record 
of  twelve  experiments  saved  from  the  ruins  of  his  labora- 
tory destroyed  during  the  Siege  of  Paris  in  1870.  The 
apparatus  consisted  of  two  calorimeters — the  first,  or 
evaporization,  calorimeter  in  which  the  ammonia  was  al- 
lowed to  evaporate  from  a  steel  container  and  flow  through 
a  chamber  containing  baffle  plates,  and  the  second,  or 
expansion,  calorimeter  in  which  the   ammonia  vapor  from 


the  first  calorimeter  was  allowed  to  expand  to  atmospheric 
pressure.  The  capacity  of  the  liquid-ammonia  container  of 
the  first  calorimeter  was  246  c.c,  but  it  was  filled  with 
various  amounts  ranging  from  17  to  134  grams  in  different 
experiments.  In  each  experiment  the  ammonia  was  com- 
pletely evaporated  and  all  vapor  expanded  to  atmospheric 
pressure.  The  observed  fall  in  temperature  in  the  water  in 
the  first  calorimeter  varied  from  1.7  deg.  to  13  deg.,  and  in 
the  second  it  was  usually  less  than  1  deg.     From  the  data 


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SPECIFIC  HEAT  LIQUID  AMMONIA 

UPPER  CURVE  -  AT COIiSTAtlT  PRES- 
SURE EQUAL  TO  SATURATION  PRESSURE 

o      OBSERVED  POIhTi 
LOWER  CURVE  -  AT  SATURATION - 

COtlDITICiS                                       ,..„ 
MEATIEOUATION  Fr.3l.565-000057ef  {/S^ 
o  OBXRVED  POINTS  -FIRST METHOD    ^'^^'^ 
X         •■           ■■        SECOND    - 

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A 

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4^ 

- 

<^ 

^ 

Jl? 

^ 

^ 

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< 

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40        30        20         10  0  10         20        50        40        50        eO 

Degrees  Centigrade 

FIG.    2.      SPECIFIC   HEAT   OF   LIQUID   AMMONIA 


obtained  in  the  first  calorimeter  Regnault  calculated  a 
quantity  t,,  which  is  the  heat  required  to  change  one  gram 
of  saturated  liquid  ammonia  at  the  initial  temperature  and 
pressure  to  vapor  at  the  mean  temperature  of  the  experi- 
ment and  at  a  pressure  equal  to  a  pressure  in  the  expansion 
chamber  in  the  first  calorimeter. 

The   calorimeter   used    in    making   the   experimental    de- 
terminations given  in  this  bulletin  is  of  the  aneroid  type 

TABLE    I.     L.\TENT    HEAT    OF    VAPORIZATIOM    OF    AMMO.N'IA 


Calories  per 

n 

rant 

Tempera 

ture 

C 

—40 

0 

1 

2 

i 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

331    7 

332 

1 

333  0 

33? 

6 

334 

3 

334   9 

335   5 

336  2 

336  8 

337   5 

—30 

324   8 

37S 

5 

326  2 

326 

9 

327 

6 

328   3 

329  0 

329  7 

330  3 

331    0 

—20 

317  6 

318 

3 

319   1 

319 

« 

320 

6 

321    3 

322  0 

322  7 

323   4 

324    1 

—  10 

309  9 

310 

7 

311   5 

312 

2 

313 

0 

313  8 

314  6 

315  3 

316    1 

316  8 

—  0 

301    8 

302 

6 

303  4 

304 

3 

305 

1 

305  9 

306  7 

307  5 

308   3 

309    1 

+  0 

301    8 

300 

9 

300    1 

299 

2 

298 

4 

297  5 

296  6 

295  7 

294  9 

294  0 

-t-IO 

293    1 

792 

2 

291    3 

290 

4 

289 

5 

288  6 

287   6 

286   7 

285   7 

284  8 

-t-20 

283  8 

787 

R 

281    8 

280 

9 

279 

9 

278  9 

277  9 

276  9 

275  9 

274  9 

-H30 

273  9 

777 

8 

271    8 

270 

7 

269 

7 

268  6 

267   5 

266  4 

265   3 

264   2 

+  40 

263    1 

262 

0 

260  8 

259 

7 

258 

5 

257  4 

256  2 

255  0 

253  8 

252  6 

F 
—   40 

Bl 

u. 

per  Pound 

597  0 

597 

7 

598   3 

599 

0 

599 

6 

600  3 

600   9 

601   6 

602  2 

602  9 

—  30 

590   2 

S90 

9 

591    6 

592 

3 

59  2 

9 

593  6 

594    3 

595  0 

595  6 

596  3 

—   20 

583   3 

584 

0 

584  7 

585 

4 

586 

1 

586  8 

587   5 

588    1 

588  8 

589  5 

—    10 

576    1 

576 

8 

577  6 

578 

3 

579 

0 

579  7 

580  4 

581    1 

581    9 

582  6 

—     0 

568.7 

569 

4 

570  2 

570 

9 

571 

7 

572,4 

573   2 

573  9 

574  6 

575  4 

-V     0 

568  7 

567 

9 

567  2 

566 

4 

565 

7 

564  9 

564.1 

563  3 

562  6 

561   8 

+    10 

561    0 

S60 

7 

559  5 

558 

7 

557 

9 

557    1 

556  3 

555   5 

554  7 

553  9 

-1-   20 

553    1 

SSI 

3 

551   5 

550 

7 

549 

9 

549    1 

548   2 

547   4 

546  6 

545  8 

4-   30 

544   9 

544 

1 

543   3 

542 

4 

541 

6 

540  7 

539  9 

539   0 

538,2 

537  3 

+   40 

536   5 

S3S 

6 

534  7 

533 

8 

533 

0 

532    1 

531    2 

530  3 

529   5 

528.6 

+   50 

527  7 

526 

8 

525   9 

524 

9 

524 

0 

523    1 

522  2 

521    2 

520  3 

519  4 

-1-   60 

518   5 

517 

5 

516  6 

515 

6 

514 

7 

513  7 

512  8 

511    8 

510  9 

509  9 

+   70 

508  9 

508 

0 

507  0 

506 

0 

505 

0 

504   1 

503   1 

502   1 

501    1 

500   1 

+   80 

499   : 

498 

1 

497  0 

496 

0 

495 

0 

494  0 

493  0 

491   9 

490  9 

489  8 

+  90 

488  8 

487 

7 

486  7 

485 

6 

484 

6 

483  5 

482  4 

481    3 

480  2 

479   1 

+  100 

478  0 

476 

9 

475  8 

474 

7 

473 

6 

472  5 

471    3 

470  2 

469  0 

467  9 

+  110 

466  7 

465 

6 

464  4 

463 

3 

462 

1 

460  9 

459  7 

458  5 

457   3 

456   1 

•Scientific  Paper  No.  315,  Bureau  of  Standards,  Washington,  D,  C. 


and  was  specially  designed  to  meet  ths  requirements  of 
this  investigation.  At  this  point  the  authors  go  into  a 
thorough  description  of  the  calorimeters  used,  the  methods 
of  use  employed,  the  theory  of  the  methods  and  the  experi- 
mental details. 

The  ammonia  used  in  the  determinations  was  prepared 
by  Messrs.  McKelvy  and  Taylor,  of  the  Chemical  Division 
of  the  Bureau  of  Standards,  by  methods  to  be  described  in 
detail  in  an  independent  paper.     The   sample  used   in   the 


April  30,  1918 


POWER 


68S 


determinations  of  latent  heat  of  evaporation  was  prepared 
in  May,  1916,  from  commercial  anhydrous  ammonia  manu- 
factured by  the  synthetic  method.  Tests  of  the  purified 
sample  showed  about  one  part  in  ten  thousand  by  volume 
of  noncondensiny:  pases  in  the  vapor  phase  and  about  one 
part  in  ten  thousand  by  weight  of  water. 

The  latent  heat  of  vaporization  of  ammonia  is  given  in 
calories    per    gram,    Centigrade    degrees,    and    B.t.u.    per 

r.\Bl>K  11       IllvM    111-  VM'OKIZATrON  OF  AMMONIA  IN  TAI-OKIES 

I'F.H  c;i(AM  ciiMin  rioi)  uy  \Aiuors  wiuteus  and  gi\kx  in 

rilEIl!    A.MMONIA    TABLES 
Tlip  rrtiultb  of  the  prouciit  work  arc  iiKliidt'd  for  compariBoii 


ri'mpcratiirc 
D.-ir. 


—  40 

—  22 

—  4 
+  U 
+  32 
+  50 
+  68 
+  86 
+  104 
+  122 
+  140 
+  200 
+  250 
+  270 


40 
30 
20 
10 
0 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 


Lecfoiis,  f',' 
1878 
■>15  2 
HO  5 
?25  3 
319  7 
313  6 
307  2 
300  3 
293  0 
285  3 


il>..,lv,    Wood, 
1889  1889 


Zt'uner,    Mtillicr, 
1895 


332 
324 
3f6 
308 
500 
292 
284 
27b 


+  93  " 
hl2l  I 
-rl32  . 


322  0 
316  0 
309  9 
303  8 
297  6 
291  3 
284  8 
278  4 
271  9 
265  3 
258  6 


1890 
333  0 
329  9 
325  8 
320  8 
314  9 
308  0 
300  1 
291  3 
281  6 


332  7 
330  6 

327  2 
322  3 
316  I 
308  6 
299  9 
289  7 
278  0 


Di.- 

terici,    Wobsa, 
1904  1908 

324  3 
317  0 
309  0 


309  7 
298  4 
285  4 
272  2 
258,3 
243  6 
227  9 
165  2 


300 
290. 
280 
269 
257 
244 


Temperature 

Deg. 
F.  C. 


+ 


40 
22 
4 
14 
32 

+  50 
+  68 
+  86 
+  104 
+  122 
+  140 
+  200 
+  250 
+  270 


—  40 

—  30 

—  20 

—  10 

0 

+  10 

+  20 


Hybl. 
1911 

325  2 

318  2 

310  7 

302  6 

293  7 

284  2 

274  0 

263  0 


Macin- 
tire, 
1911 

327  9 

320  8 

313  0 

304  4 

295  0 

284  7 

273  5 


Lucke,  Mosher,  Hoist, 
1912    1913    1915 


Osborne 
and 

Van 

Keves.  Duf^en, 

1916    1917 


+  121 
f  132 


335  3 
328  1 
320  9 
313  1 
304  6 
294  8 
284  6 
273  5 
261  4 
248  3 
234  7 
176  7 


334  4 

327  I 

319  6 

311  8 

303  6 

295  0 

285  9 

276  4 

266  2 

255  4 

243  7 

195  3 

127  6 

6!  2 


328.5 
322  5 
316  0 
309  0 
301  4 
293  2 
284  4 
274  8 
264  2 


342  0 
333  6 
324  9 
315  7 
306  0 
296  0 
285  5 
274  4 
262  7 
250  2 
236  8 
181  9 


331  7 

324  8 
317  6 
309  9 
301  8 
293  1 
283  8 
273  9 
263  I 
251  4 


pound,  Fahrenheit  degrees  in  Table  I.  Table  II  gives  the 
vaporization  of  ammonia  in  calories  per  gram  computed  by 
various  writers  and  given  in  their  ammonia  tables.  The 
results  of  the  present  authors  are  included  for  comparison. 
In  Bulletin  No.  313  the  same  authors  give  the  results 
of  experiments  in  the  determination  of  the  specific  heat  of 
liquid  ammonia.  The  same  type  of  calorimeter  was  used 
as  in  the  determination  of  the  latent  heat,  and  the  specific 


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SPECinC  HEAT  LIQUID 
AMMONIA  AT  SATURATION 

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50     40    30     JO     10 


0      10     JO     50    40     60    eO     70    90     <»    100 
Degrees  Centigrade 


FID. 


3.      PREVIOUS  AND   PRESENT   DETERMINATION   OF 
THE  SPEOIPTr  HEAT  OP  LIQUID  AMMONIA 


heat  of  the  saturated  liquid  ammonia  has  been  determined 
throughout  the  temperature  interval  — 45  deg.  to  +45 
deg.  C.  Two  distinct  and  independent  methods  were  used, 
each  of  which  avoids  sources  of  air  present  in  the  other. 
In  the  first  method  the  heat  added  to  a  fixed  amount  con- 
fined in  the  calorimeter  under  saturation  conditions  and  the 
resulting  change  in  temperature  is  measured.  By  using  data 
for  the  specific  volumes  of  the  two  phases  and  the  latent 
heat  of  vaporization,  the  corrections  for  the  vapor  are  ap- 


plied, giving  the  specific  heat  of  the  liquid  when  saturated 
In  the  second  method  the  calorimeter  is  kept  full  of  liquid 
with  a  constant  pressure.  The  heat  added  to  the  variable 
amount  in  the  calorimeter  and  the  resulting  change  in 
temperatures  are  measured.  A  correction  for  the  heat  with- 
drawn and  the  expelled  liquid  is  determined  by  special 
experiments.  The  greatest  difference  betv/een  the  mean 
results  of  both  methods  and  the  result  of  either  method  is 
represented  by  an  empirical  eciuation  which  is  less  than 
one  part  in  one  thousand.  In  Fig.  2  the  results  of  all  deter- 
minations by  both  methods  are  shown  graphically.  Fig.  3 
shows  the  present  and  previous  determinations  of  the 
specific  heat  of  ammonia. 

Table  III  gives  the  specific  heat  of  liquid  ammonia  under 
satui-ation  conditions  expressed  in  calories  per  gram  ijer 
degree  C.  Table  IV  gives  the  heat  content  of  the  saturated 
liquid  ammonia  reckoned  from  the  temperature  of  melting 
ice  in  calories  per  gram  and  B.t.u.  per  pound. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  result  of  34  separate 
determinations   agree   with   the   mean   within    one   part   in 

TABLE  III.     SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  LIQUID  A.MMONIA   UNDER 
SATURATION    CONDITIONS 


Temp.. 

n.>K  C 
-40 
—30 
—  20 
-10 
0 
+  0 
+  10 
+  20 
+  30 
+  40 


Expressed  in  Calories  per  Gram  per  Deg.  C 


0  1  2 

1   062  I  061  1  060 

1   070  1  069  1  068 

1   078  I  077  1  076 

1   088  1  087  1  086 


3 
1    059 
1    067 
1    075 
1   085 


—  0        1   099    1   098    I   097    1   096 


1  099 
1  112 
I  126 
1  142 
I    162 


1  100  1  101 

1  113  1  114 

1  128  1  129 

1  144  I  146 

I  164  1  166 


4 
I  038 
1  066 
1  074 
\  084 
I   094 


5 
I   058 
1    065    1    064 
1.074    I    073 


6 
057 


1  103  1  104 

1  116  1  117 

1  131  1  132 

1  148  I  150 

I  169  I  171 


1.083 
1.093 
I  105 
I  118 
I  134 
1  152 
1.173 


1  082 

1  092 

1  106 

I  120 

1  136 

1  154 

1  176 


7 
I  056 
I  064 
1  072 
I  081 
1  091 
1  108 


1  055 
1  063 
1  071 
1  080 
1  090 
1  109 


I  122  1  123 

1  137  I  139 

1  156  I  158 

1.178  1  181 


9 
1  055 
1  062 
I  070 

079 
1  089 
1  110 
1  125 
1  141 
I  160 
I  183 


TABLE  IV.     HEAT  CONTENT  OF  SATURATED  LIQUID  AMMONIA* 


Reekoned  from  the  temperatui'e  of  melting  ice. 


Temp., 
Deg.  C 

-40 
-30 

-20 

—  10 

—  0 
+  0 
+  10 
+  20 
+  30 
+  40 


Cillories  pFr^rnn 


0  I 

43.3  —44.3 
32.6  33.6 
22.9 
12.1 
1.0 
+  1.1 
12  2 
23.5 
350 
46.7 


21.8 
11.0 
0.0 
+  0,0 
11.1 
22.4 
33.9 
45.5 


2 

—45.4 

34,7 

24.0 

13,1 

2,2 

+  2,2 

13.4 

24.7 

36.2 

47.9 


3 

—46.4 

35.8 

25.1 

14.2 

3,3 

+  3,3 

145 

25.8 

37.4 

49.1 


4 

—47  5 

36.8 

26.2 

15,3 

4,4 

+  4,4 

15.6 

27.0 

38.5 

50  3 


5 

—48.6 

37  9 

27.2 

16.4 

5.5 

+   5.5 

167 

28.1 

39.7 

51  5 


6     ! 

-49.6 

39.0 

28.3 

17.5 

6  6 

+  6.7 
179 
29.3 
40.8 
52.7 


I     7 

-507 

40.0 

29.3 

18.6 

7.7 

+  7,8 
19.0 
30.4 
42.0 
53.8 


-51.7 

41.1 

30,4 

19,7 

8,8 

+  8,9 
20,1 
31,6 
43,2 
550 


9 

—52,8 

42.2 

31.5 

20  8 

9.9 

+  10.0 
21.3 
32.7 
44.4 
56.2 


H.t.ii.  per  Pound 


Temp. 
Deg.  F.      0 
—   40  —77.9 


1 


8 

—86.4 
75.8 
65.1 
54,4 
43,6 
26.3 
15,4 
4.4 

+  6.7 
17.8 
29.0 
40.3 
51.8 
63.'' 
74  9 
86.7 
98.7 


-85.3 

747 

64.0 

533 

42.6 

27.4 

16.5 

5.5 

f  5.5 

16.7 

27.9 

39  2 

50.6 

62.1 

73.8 

85,5 

97,5 
=  «  +  p» 

ature  of  melting  ice. 
Tcpressed  in  the  same 


—87  4 
76.8 
66.2 
55.5 
44.7 
25,2 
14.3 
3,3 

+  7.8 
18,9 
30,1 
41.5 
52,9 
64.4 
76  1 
87,9 
99.9 


2  3  4  5  6 

789  —80.0  —81.1  —82.1  —83.2  —84.3  - 

30       67.2       68.3       69  4  70.4  71,5  72.6  73.6 

20       56.5       57  6       587  59.8  60.8  61.9  63.0 

-  10       45.8       46  9       48  0  49.0  50.1  51  2  52.3 

-  0  35.0  36  1  37.2  38  2  39.3  40.4  41.5 
+  0  35.0  33.9  32.8  31.7  30.7  29.6  28.5 
+  10  24.1  23.0  21.9  20.9  19.8  18.7  17.6 
+  20  13.2  121  11.0  9.9  8.8  7.7  6.6 
+  30  -  2.2  -  1.1  0.0  +  1.1  +  2.2  +  3.3  +  4.4 
+  40  +  8.9  +10.0  +11.1  12.2  13.3  14.4  15.6 
+  50  20.0  21  1  22  3  23.4  24.5  25  6  26.8 
+  60  31.3  32  4  33.5  34,7  35,8  36  9  38  1 
+  70  42.6  43.8  44.9  46.0  47,2  48.3  49.5 
+  80  54,1  55.2  56.4  57.5  58.7  59.8  61.0 
+  90  65.6  66.8  67  9  69,1  70,3  71.4  72  6 
+  100  77.3  78.5  79.6  80.8  82,0  83.2  84.3 
+  110       89,1       90.3       91  5  92.6  93.9  95,1  96,3 

*Heat  content  as  used  here  is  defined  by  the  relation:  H 

Where   H  =  heat  content,  taken  as  zero  at  the  temper 
e  =  internal  or  "intrinsic'*  energy,  and  H,  e,  and  p''  are  all 
units. 

one  thousand.  Both  of  these  papers  are  now  on  sale. 
No.  315  costing  5c.  and  No.  313  costing  5c.;  address  the 
Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C. 

In  Scientific  Paper  No.  314  the  same  authors  give  the 
results  of  experiments  in  the  determination  of  the  latent 
heat  of  pressure  variation  of  liquid  ammonia  for  a  tem- 
perature range  of  —40  to  +40  deg.  ('.  This  paper  may  be 
obtained  free  by  addressing  the  Director,  Bureau  of 
Standards,  Washington,  D.  C. 


The  War-Savings  Stamp  plan  is  a  means  of  directing  the 
nickels,  dimes  and  quarters  of  the  ordinary  man  into  the 
United  States  Treasury  for  safe-keeping  so  that  at  the  end 
of  the  war  the  poor  man  may  find  hiii'self  no  less  poor,  if 
not  richer,  than  he  was  at  the  beginning.  It  means  "post- 
poned" prosperity,  and  thus  from  the  business  point  of  view 
is  a  most  desirable  asset. 


634 


f  u  W  ER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


Manning  the  New  Merchant  Marine 


By  henry  HOWARD 

Director  of  Recruiting  Service,  U.  S.  Shipping  Board 


The  Director  of  the  Recruiting  Service,  United 
States  Shipping  Board,  tells  of  how  America  is 
meeting  the  problem  of  manning  her  great  mer- 
chant fleets.  The  Recruiting  Service  is  respon- 
sible for  providing  the  whole  human  side  of  the 
ships  built  for  the  Shipping  Board.  Qualifications 
required  of  applicants  to  engineering  schools; 
names  and  addresses  of  the  section  chiefs  to 
vjhom  applications  should  be  made. 


PRESENT  construction  plans  for  our  merchant  marine 
call  for  more  than  8,000,000  tons  of  new  shipping,  to 
be  completed  within  two  years.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  world  war,  in  August,  3914,  seven  nations  were 
credited  with  more  than  1,000,000  tons  of  shipping  each. 
Great  Britain  headed  the  list,  with  19,799,119  tons;  the 
United  States  stood  next,  with  7,928,688  tons,  and  Germany 
third,  with  4,892,416  tons.  The  other  nations  stood:  France, 
2,173,544;  Norway,  2,425,476;  Sweden,  1,114,048,  and  Japan, 
1,167,264.  Austria  had  998,130  tons.  Of  the  tonnage  of 
the  United  States  something  more  than  2,000,000  tons  was 
available  for  deep-water  service  in  the  Atlantic. 

The  first  year  of  the  war  was  sufficient  to  show  the 
United  States  that  the  process  of  attrition  in  the  world's 
supply  of  tonnage,  due  to  normal  war  causes  and  to  the 
illegal  use  of  the  submarine  by  Germany,  was  creating 
a  shortage  of  ships.  This  shortage  became  acute  when 
the  United  States  entered  the  war  in  April,  1917,  thereby 
adding  to  the  already  pressing  problem  of  logistics  this 
country's  vast  needs  of  sea  transportation  for  troops  and 
supplies  and  the  quickened  need  of  sending  more  and  yet 
more  supplies  to  our  Allies. 

Coincident  with  the  sudden  awakening  of  the  nation  to 
the  vital  need  for  more  cargo  ships  and  the  energetic  ini- 
tial steps  of  the  Shipping  Board  to  produce  them  came 
forward  the  question  of  manning  the  new  merchant  marine 
so  soon  to  come  into  being.  The  country  as  a  whole 
not  having  been  accustomed,  in  recent  times,  to  think  in 
terms  of  shipping,  appeared  doubtful  of  its  ability  to 
produce  the  mariners  needed  to  handle  its  new  fleets.  We 
were  no  longer  a  seagoing  people,  said  the  doubtful; 
we  had  lost  the  art  of  the  sailor  when  the  American 
square-rigged  ship  went  out  of  use  as  a  leader  among  the 
world's  cargo  carriers.  Surely,  our  war  need  was  press- 
ing enough  to  appeal  to  the  patriotism  of  Americans  with 
a  liking  for  the  sea. 

By  establishing  free  schools  in  navigation  at  important 
ports  and  free  classes  in  marine  engineering  at  some  of 
the  leading  technical  colleges,  I  proposed  to  train  enough 
men  of  the  types  indicated  to  meet  the  forthcoming  in- 
creased demand  for  American  deck  and  engine-room  of- 
ficers for  the  new  American  cargo  ships. 

On  May  29,  1917,  I  was  authorized  by  the  Shipping  Board 
to  inaugurate  the  training  plan,  and  on  June  1  was  sworn 
in  as  Director  of  Recruiting  Service  for  the  board.  Three 
days  later  the  first  free  navigation  school  to  be  conducted 
under  the  direction  of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board 
was  opened,  with  20  students,  at  the  Student's  Astronomical 
Laboratory,  Harvard  University,  kindly  loaned  by  the  col- 
lege faculty.  Later,  this  school  was  transferred  to  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  where  it  has  since 
been  maintained. 

The  work  of  organizing  additional  schools  went  on  until 
41  in  all  were  established  on  the  Atlantic,  Gulf  and  Pacific 
Coasts  and  the  Great  Lakes.  The  response  of  men  quali- 
fied to  enter  the  schools  was  quick  and  gratifying  as  to 
numbers  and,  nothwithstanding  that  no  man  was  accepted 
as  a  student  who  had  not  served  two  years  on  a  deep-water 
vessel,  the  percentage  of  men  who  qualified  for  admission, 


out  of  the  total  number  of  applicants  called  for  preliminary 
examination,  was  large.  Many  of  the  applicants,  actuated 
by  patriotism,  expressed  a  willingness  to  leave  lucrative 
positions  ashore  in  order  to  fit  themselves  for  service  in 
the  merchant  marine  in  war  time.  Others  frankly  hailed 
with  delight  an  opportunity  to  get  back  to  the  sea,  which 
they  had  left  because  of  unpromising  conditions  in  the 
decade  preceding  the  opening  of  the  gi'eat  war. 

National  headquarters  of  the  new  training  service  were 
established  at  Boston,  where  a  floor  in  the  Boston  Custom 
House  was  set  apart  for  its  use  by  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment. For  administrative  purposes  in  establishing  and 
maintaining  the  schools  the  country  was  divided  into  sec- 
tions, following  closely  the  geographical  divisions  employed 
by  the  United  States  Steamboat  Inspection  Service,  which 
from  the  first  cooperated  heartily  with  the  Recruiting  Serv- 
ice of  the  Shipping  Board  in  maintaining  the  standard  set 
by  the  regulations  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  a§  to 
the  experience  required  of  a  candidate  for  a  merchant 
oflScer's  license. 

Each  section  was  placed  in  charge  of  an  official  desig- 
nated as  section  chief,  in  whose  hands  were  placed  all  de- 
tails as  to  the  administration  of  the  schools  in  that  section. 
The  board  was  fortunate  in  securing  as  section  chiefs  men 
of  professional  or  business  training,  whose  patriotism  led 
them  to  donate  their  time  to  this  service,  their  compensa- 
tion being  merely  nominal — in  most  instances  $5  a  month. 
Important  positions  at  national  headquarters  also  were 
filled  by  volunteers  with  special  capacity  for  administrative 
work. 

The  section  chiefs  of  the  service  are  as  follows:  Section 
I,  Horatio  Hathaway,  Jr.,  twelfth  floor.  Custom  House, 
Boston,  Mass.;  Section  II,  John  F.  Lewis,  108  South  Fourth 
St.,  Philadelphia,  Penn.;  Section  III,  Hardy  Croom,  130 
Riverside  Ave.,  Jacksonville,  Fla.;  Section  IV,  Ernest  Lee 
Jahncke,  814  Howard  Ave.,  New  Orleans,  La.;  Section 
V,  Farnham  P.  Griffiths,  465  California  St.,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Calif.;  Section  VI,  William  J.  Crambs,  860  Stuart 
Building,  Seattle,  Wash.;  Section  VII,  Capt.  Irving  L. 
Evans,  933  Guardian  Building,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

System  of  Instruction 

Direction  of  instruction  in  the  navigation  schools  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  Prof.  Alfred  E.  Burton,  dean  of 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  who  formerly 
was  connected  with  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  and 
who  is  a  practical  navigator  of  wide  scientific  knowledge. 

The  system  of  instruction  perfected  for  the  schools  was 
in  accordance  with  the  most  approved  methods  of  teaching 
navigation.  It  was  therefore  possible  to  impart  to  a  student 
in  six  weeks'  study  a  groundwork  of  the  theory  and  practice 
of  navigation  to  enable  him  to  pass  the  examinations  of 
the  United  States  Steamboat  Inspection  Service,  entitling 
him  to  a  license  as  a  second  or  third  mate.  The  examina- 
tions were  conducted  without  any  modification  of  the  regu- 
lations applying  to  ordinary  applicants  for  a  license.  After 
they  had  been  passed,  the  student  in  need  of  practical  ex- 
perience on  a  steamer  was  sent  to  sea  in  the  capacity  of 
a  reserve  officer,  for  a  period  of  two  months  to  learn  the 
ropes  before  actually  assuming  the  full  responsibilities 
of  the  position  for  which  he  was  licensed.  During  this 
period  he  was  paid  $75  a  month.  Afterward  he  received 
the  usual  pay  for  his  grade  in  the  merchant  service. 

Since  the  opening  of  the  first  school  in  navigation  by 
the  Recruiting  Service  of  the  Shipping  Board,  39  others 
have  been  opened.  The  graduates  from  these  schools,  in 
the  ten  months  from  June  1  to  Apr.  1,  numbered  1500. 

Engineering  Schools 
The  development  of  the  engineering  schools  was  con- 
temporaneous with  that  of  the  schools  in  navigation.  The 
training  of  engineers  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Prof. 
Edward  F.  Miller,  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, and  classes  were  established  at  the  following  places; 


April  30.  1918 


POWER 


686 


Massachusetts  Institute  of  TechnoloRy,  Cambridge,  Mass.; 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J.;  Bourse 
Building:,  Philadelphia,  Penn.;  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Baltimore,  Md.;  Tulane  University  of  Louisianai,  New 
Orleans,  La.;  Case  Schools  of  Applied  Science,  Cleveland, 
Ohio;  Armour  Institute  of  Technology,  Chicago,  111.;  Uni- 
versity of  Washington,  Seattle,  Wash.  The  school  at 
Hoboken  was  later  discontinued,  and  one  was  started  at 
the  Seamen's  Church  Institute  in  New  York  City. 

The  course  in  the  engineering  schools  is  of  one  month's 
duration.  The  qualifications  for  admission  to  these  schools 
differ  slightly  from  those  required  for  admission  to  the 
navigation  schools,  as  men  with  proper  technical  expe- 
rience are  admitted  who  may  require  as  much  as  si.\ 
months  added  training  at  sea  before  becoming  eligible  for 
licenses. 

Experience  required  for  an  applicant  to  qualify  for 
admission  to  enter  one  of  these  Shipping  Board  Engineer- 
ing Schools  is  classified  as  follows:  Three  years  as  fire- 
man, on  ocean  or  coastwise  steam  vessel;  two  years  as 
oiler  or  water  tender  (or  combined  service  of  two  years 
in  these  positions)  ;  six  months  as  chief  or  assistant  engi- 
neer, on  lake,  bay  or  sound  steamer;  one  year,  chief  or 
assistant,  river  steamer;  one  year  as  locomotive  or  station- 
ary engineer  (with  six  months'  sea  service,  which  may 
be  obtained  after  finishing  school  course)  ;  graduation  from 
engineering  class  of  nautical  schoolship;  graduation  in 
mechanical  engineering  from  a  technical  school  (with  six 
months'  sea  service)  ;  one  year  in  charge  of  stationary  plant 
of  not  less  than  1000  hp.;  three  years  as  apprentice  to 
machinists'  trade   (with  six  months'  sea  service). 

About  1200  marine  engineers  were  graduated  from  the 
Shipping  Board  free  engineering  schools  in  the  first  ten 
months  of  their  existence.  Like  the  dock  officers  grad- 
uated, all  were  American  citizens. 

One  noticeable  effect  of  the  Recruiting  Service's  call  for 
Americans  qualified  to  serve  as  officers  in  the  new  mer- 
chant marine  was  the  stimulation  given  men  qualified  to 
take  examinations  for  licenses,  without  special  schooling. 
Large  numbers  of  such  men,  excellent  mariners  and  citi- 
zens, secured  licenses  on  their  own  initiative,  without  at- 
tending the  Shipping  Board  schools,  as  is  shown  by  the 
unprecedented  number  of  licenses  granted  from  June  1, 
1917,  to  Feb.  1,  1918,  by  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service. 
Not  less  than  3600  original  licenses  were  issued  in  that 
period — including  those  issued  to  the  men  specially  trained 
by  this  service — while  not  less  than  900  licenses  were  ex- 
tended or  transferred  from  fresh  waters  to  salt;  while 
to  Apr.  1,  1918,  the  number  of  new  and  extended  licenses 
was  more  than  5000. 

The  Sea  Service  Bureau 

As  a  necessary  adjunct  to  its  training  service  for  officers, 
the  Recruiting  Service  in  July,  1917,  established  a  depart- 
ment whose  functions  are  indicated  by  its  title,  the  Sea 
Service  Bureau. 

Graduates  of  the  schools  were  placed  on  board  ship  by 
this  department,  at  first  entirely  through  the  cooperation 
of  private  steamship  interests,  and  later  also  on  ships  con- 
trolled directly  by  the  Shipping  Board. 

Training  Merchant  Crews 

By  the  autumn  of  1917  the  construction  program  of  the 
United  States  Shipping  Board,  by  which  considerably  more 
than  1000  new  ships  will  be  commissioned  under  our  flag, 
had  advanced  sufficiently  to  warrant  the  development  of 
the  second  phase  of  the  training  plan  originally  submitted 
to  the  board  for  manning  the  new  merchant  marine ;  namely, 
the  training  of  crews. 

Much  thought  was  given  by  the  Recruiting  Service  staff 
to  working  out  a  system  of  intensive  training  for  crews, 
by  the  use  of  a  squadron  of  training  ships.  In  December 
the  Shipping  Board  approved  the  resulting  detailed  plans, 
and  on  Dec.  12,  1917,  announcement  was  made  in  the  press 
that  the  Recruiting  Service  was  prepared  to  receive  ap- 
plications from  young  Americans  between  21  and  30  who 
wished  to  be  trained  for  service  on  merchant  ships  as  sailors, 
firemen,  coal  passers,  oilers,  water  tenders,  cooks  and 
stewards.  In  the  three  months  following  this  announce- 
ment more  than  7500  applicants  sent  their  names  to  the 


Recruiting  Service  headquarters.  Custom  House,  Boston, 
Mass. 

The  number  of  men  required  for  this  branch  of  the 
training  service  was  at  first  estimated  to  be  85,000;  but 
events  subsequently  led  to  a  modification  of  this  figure. 
The  transportation  of  an  immense  American  army  to  France, 
and  of  its  supplies,  called  for  the  taking  of  a  great  many 
ships  from  the  merchant  marine.  The  need  of  arming  all 
ships  entering  European  waters  with  naval  guns  led  to  a 
proposal  that  all  ships  crossing  the  submarine  zone  be 
manned  by  the  Navy.  After  several  conferences  on  this 
point  between  oflScials  of  the  Navy  Department,  the  War 
Department — then  operating  the  troop  ships — and  the  Ship- 
ping Board,  a  decision  was  reached  by  which  control  of 
troop  ships,  animal  transports  and  freighters  carrying 
unbroken  cargoes  of  munitions  and  supplies  for  military 
uses  were  placed  in  control  of  the  Navy,  to  be  manned  by 
Naval  crews,  while  Atlantic  passenger  liners,  freighters 
with  general  cargoes  for  our  Allies  and  all  merchantmen 
plying  outside  the  war  zone  were  left  in  the  control  of 
the  Shipping  Board. 

Work  in  training  the  new  crews  was  begun  the  day  the 
board's  authority  was  granted  me  to  proceed  with  the 
plan.  To  administer  the  training  service,  a  department 
was  created,  termed  the  Sea  Training  Bureau,  with  a  super- 
visor of  training  in  charge. 

For  the  training  squadron  two  steel  screw  steamers  were 
at  once  secured,  the  "Calvin  Austin"  and  "Governor  Ding- 
ley,"  twin  ships,  formerly  in  the  passenger  trade  on  the 
New  England  coast,  each  being  of  3800  tons  gross  register, 
299  ft.  long  and  60  ft.  wide,  with  reciprocating  engines 
and  2700  i.hp.  Each  vessel  had  a  rated  capacity  for  783 
passengers.  Being  speedily  converted  into  training  ships, 
the  vessels  each  had  capacity  from  500  to  600  apprentices. 
Because  of  the  large  number  of  applicants  it  was  possible 
to  select  superior  material  for  their  complements,  which 
f.lled  rapidly  in  the  first  weeks  of  1918. 

While  these  two  ships  were  being  filled,  a  third  was  being 
fitted  out  at  Newport  News.  This  was  the  former  trans- 
port "Meade,"  ex-"City  of  Berlin,"  a  graceful  old  Atlantic 
liner,  with  a  sound  hull  and  capacity  for  more  than  1200 
apprentices.  It  was  planned  to  take  this  ship  also  to  Bos- 
ton, to  be  used  as  a  station  ship,  while  the  other  two  made 
frequent  training  trips  to  sea.  Later,  a  fourth  ship,  the 
"Governor  Cobb,"  of  the  type  of  the  two  first-named,  was 
put  into  the  training  squadron,  and  plans  were  put  on  foot 
for  placing  a  training  ship  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  another 
at  New  Orleans. 

The  training  course  is  of  an  intensive  character.  There 
is  an  instructor  to  each  ten  apprentices,  and  he  is  held 
responsible  for  the  progress  of  his  group.  The  apprentices 
virtually  go  to  school  all  day,  and  every  day  except  Sun- 
day, during  their  stay  on  the  ship,  which  is  not  less  than 
a  month  in  any  case,  and  will  probably  exceed  two  months 
in  few. 

When  the  apprentices  have  finished  their  intensive  train- 
ing, they  are  added  to  regular  crews  in  the  merchant  marine, 
on  a  given  ratio  to  the  experienced  men  carried.  By  this 
method  it  is  expected  that  no  difficulty  will  be  experienced 
in  securing  full  crews  for  all  ships  added  to  the  merchant 
fleet  by  the  Shipping  Board,  as  well  as  for  any  existing 
ships  that  may  need  men. 

In  perfecting  a  plan  for  enrolling  apprentices  for  its 
training  ships,  the  Recruiting  Service  availed  itself  of  the 
offer  of  a  patriotic  citizen  of  Boston,  Louis  K.  Liggett, 
head  of  large  interests  in  the  drug  trade,  controlling  nearly 
6900  drug  stores  in  6393  cities  and  towns. 

The  young  men  accepted  for  training  by  the  Shipping 
Board  Recruiting  Service  are  placed  on  pay  at  $30  a  month 
for  their  period  of  training  and  are  exempt  from  military 
service  as  long  as  they  remain  in  tie  merchant  marine, 
either  as  apprentices  or  as  members  of  regular  crews. 

[Those  applying  for  service  as  engineers  aboard  ships 
of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board  or  for  training  at 
the  various  engineer  schools  of  the  board  should  address 
their  applications  to  the  headquarters  of  the  section  chiefs 
nearest  their  homes,  or  to  United  States  Shipping  Board, 
Recruiting  Service,  Custom  House,  Boston.  This  does  not 
apply  to  the  Navy  or  the  Naval  Reserve. — Editor.] 


b36 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


Centrifugal  Pumps  for  Mine  Service 


The  experience  of  many  years  with  a  large 
variety  of  pumps  forms  the  basis  of  this  article. 
Although  the  theory  of  the  centrifugal  pump  as 
usually  set  forth  by  writers  on  this  subject  is 
someiuhat  complicated,  the  machine  itself  is  sim- 
ple. Its  successful  installation  and  operation  re- 
quire only  care  and  judgment. 


FOR  anyone  wishing;  to  study  th?  theory  of  centrifugal 
pumps,  there  are  three  or  four  books  in  the  English 
language  devoted  to  the  subject  upon  which  he  can 
devote  as  much  energy  as  he  desires.  There  are  a  few 
rules,  however,  that  it  is  well  to  remember;  namely,  for 
equal  efficiencies  the  power  required  to  drive  the  pump 
varies  as  the  cube  of  the  speed,  the  head  as  the  square  of 
the  speed,  and  the  capacity  directly  as  the  speed.  The  head 
in  feet  that  any  impeller  will  work  against  is  approximately 
the  diameter  of  the  impeller  in  inches  times  the  revolutions 

(d  X  r.  p.  m.  \2 
—  .(JJ, )  • 

The  most  distinctive  part  of  the  whole  machine  is  the 
impeller,  the  function  of  which  is  to  take  the  slowly  moving 
water  in  the  suction  pipe  and,  by  revolving  create  by  cen- 
trifugal force  a  velocity  head  in  the  water  convertible  into 
a  pressure  of  sufficient  intensity  to  overcome  the  static  and 
friction  heads  of  the  discharge  pipe.  The  Impeller  is 
mounted  on  a  shaft  carried  by  bearings,  and  is  inclosed  in 
a  casing.  The  shaft  is  connected  to  the  driving  element. 
This  is,  in  a  general  way,  all  there  is  to  a  centrifugal  pump. 

The  casing  should  be  so  designed  as  to  be  readily  opened, 
giving  access  to  the  entire  inside  of  the  pump.  This  is  most 
readily  accomplished  by  employing  the  so-called  horizontally 
split  casing  that  has  the  suction  and  discharge  openings  on 
the  bottom  half  which  is  bolted  to  the  baseplate.  Such  an 
arrangement  permits  the  top  half  of  the  casing  to  be  re- 
moved without  breaking  any  pipe  joints  or  disturbing  the 
alignment  of  the  pump — considerations  that  are  of  great 
importance  when  repairs  have  to  be  made  in  a  hurry. 

Vertical  Split  Superior  to  Horizontal 

The  horizontal  split  is  not  so  good  mechanically  and 
structurally  as  the  so-called  "vertical  split,"  in  which  the 
annular  portion  of  the  casing  is  in  one  piece  and  the  in- 
ternal parts  are  withdrawn  from  the  end,  after  removing 
the  end  plate  which  usually  forms  the  suction  pump-head. 
But  this  procedure  necessitates  the  breaking  of  the  suction- 
pipe  joint.  Furthermore,  the  parts  must  be  pulled  out  one 
at  a  time — first  the  impeller,  then  the  diffusion  ring,  next 
that  part  of  the  casing  forming  the  return  guide  for  the 
water  to  the  second  impeller,  then  the  second  impeller  and 
so  on — a  long,  tedious  job,  especially  in  large  units. 

In  putting  the  parts  together,  the  reverse  order  must  be 
followed  and  care  must  be  taken  to  insure  that  all  the  parts 
come  to  place  properly,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  over- 
lapping and  partly  closing  the  water  passages  in  the  cas- 
ing. In  such  cases  reliance  must  be  placed  entirely  upon 
careful  measurements;  and  it  is  very  hard  to  make  men  to 
whom  a  foot  more  or  less  is  good  enough  understand  the 
importance  of  measuring  to  i'  or  .';  in.  or  less.  With  the 
horizontal  split,  as  before  stated,  after  lifting  the  top  half 
off  the  machine  all  internal  parts  are  in  view  and  can  be 
removed  readily.  Furthermore,  before  the  top  half  of  the  cas- 
ing is  replaced  one  can  see — not  feel — that  everything  is 
as  it  should  be. 

The  ends  of  the  casing  through  which  the  shaft  projects 
are  provided  with  stuffing-boxes  and  glands.  The  stuffing- 
boxes  should  be  deep  enough  to  take  not  less  than  four  or 
five   rings   of  good   soft  packing.     The   glands,   preferably 


•Abstract  of  an  article  by  Herbert  Axford.  pump  inspector, 
Coal  Department,  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  R.R.,  Scran- 
ton,  Penn,,  in  Cool  Age. 


made  in  halves,  should  fit  tight  in  the  box  but  be  about  .'.. 
in.  larger  than  the  shaft.  To  the  back  of  the  stuffing-box 
renewable  rings  should  be  fitted,  so  that  if  they  become 
worn  and  allow  the  packing  to  be  squeezed  into  the  pump, 
they  can  be  replaced.  The  stuffing-box  on  the  suction  side 
particularly  when  the  pump  is  working  under  a  suction  lift, 
should  be  provided  with  a  water  seal  to  prevent  air  being 
drawTi  into  the  pump  and  also  to  lubricate  the  packing 
with   water. 

Removable  rings  should  be  provided  around  those  parts 
of  the  casing  in  which  the  impeller  or  other  moving  parts 
revolve,  so  that  in  case  of  wear — which  is  bound  to  occur 
even  under  the  best  conditions  and  quite  rapidly  when 
pumping  acidulous  mine  water — these  rings  can  be  replaced. 

One  of  the  chief  causes  of  loss  in  efficiency  of  centrifugal 
pumps  is  internal  leakage  between  a  stationary  and  a 
revolving  element,  prevented  only  by  a  close  running  fit. 
There  are  several  types  of  labyrinth  rings  used,  the  idea 
being  that  the  water  has  to  traverse  a  narrow,  tortuous 
passage  which  it  can  follow  only  with  difficulty.  These 
rings  may  have  merit  when  good,  clear  water  is  pumped, 
but  for  mine  use  a  plain  straight  ring  is  preferable.  This 
should  have  a  width  of  %  to  2  in.,  with  a  running  clearance 
of  0.006  to  0.01  in.,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  impeller 
and,  except  for  the  larger  sizes  when  fresh  water  is  used, 
should  be  of  bronze. 

In  modern  pumps  the  impellers  are  of  the  inclosed  type, 
with  the  blades  or  vanes  curving  backward,  making  an 
angle  of  from  12  to  24  deg.  with  the  outer  diameter. 

Thin  Blades  Corrode  Quickly 

Originally  pump  builders  thought  that  the  impeller  blades 
should  be  as  thin  as  possible,  with  the  tops  cut  to  a  knife- 
edge,  but  this  was  found  to  be  a  fallacy,  especially  in  bad 
water,  for  the  thin  blades  corroded  quickly  and  the  knife- 
edges  doubled  over  and  closed  the  port  openings.  The 
impeller  walls  and  blade  should  be  il  in.  thick  for  12-in. 
diameter  impellers  and  %  in.  thick  for  24-in.  and  larger 
impellers.  With  such  impellers  higher  initial  efficiency,  far 
better  average  efficiency  and  much  longer  life  are  obtained 
than  with  thinner  blades.  Impellers  should  be  provided  with 
renewable  wearing  rings  where  they  fit  into  the  casing. 
These  rings  can  be  shrunk  on,  and  all  rotating  elements 
should  be  balanced. 

Some  builders  claiiii  tiiat  diffusion  vanes  are  essential  to 
obtain  high  efficiency  with  multistage  pumps.  Others  assert 
that  they  can  get  just  as  high  efficiency  without  them. 
Diffusion  vanes,  which  are  stationary  plates  with  guide 
vanes  curved  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  impeller  blades, 
are  arranged  to  encircle  the  impeller  and  receive  the  water 
discharged  from  the  impeller  tips  at  high  velocity,  and  by 
reducing  its  speed  convert  velocity  head  into  pressure  head. 
The  usefulness  of  diffusion  vanes  is  not  always  apparent, 
since  by  actual  tests  of  different  makes  of  two-stage  pumps, 
under  about  the  same  operating  conditions  (one  with  and 
one  without  diffusion  vanes)  their  efficiencies  were  found 
to  be  practically  the  same.  If  diffusion  rings  are  used,  they 
should  be  of  bronze;  and  provision  should  be  made  to  pre- 
vent their  turning  in  the  casing  and  to  prevent  leakage 
around  the  vanes. 

The  pump  shaft  should  be  of  steel  protected  by  cast- 
bronze  sleeves  or  bushings  placed  over  all  parts  of  the 
shaft  that  come  in  contact  with  the  water.  The  end  bush- 
ings should  project  through  the  stuffing-boxes  and  form 
the  nuts  that  keep  the  impeller  in  place  laterally.  Pro- 
vision should  also  be  made  to  prevent  leakage  along  the 
axis  of  the  pump  shaft,  which  can  be  done  by  inserting 
fiber  gaskets  i'j  in.  thick  between  the  impeller  hubs  and 
the  ends  of  the  bushings. 

Impellers  should  fit  snugly  on  the  pump  shaft,  but  need 
not  necessarily  be  a  driving  fit,  and  they  should  be  secured 
from  turning  by  bronze  (not  steel)  feather  keys.  The 
pump  shaft,  when  hung  in  its  bearings,  should  be  large 
enough  in  diameter  to  support  the  weight  of  the  impellers 
and  the  column  of  water  without  perceptible  defiection,  so 
that  the  internal   sealing  rings   and   bushings   will   not  be 


April  30,  1913 


POWER 


637 


required  to  support  any  wciprht.  In  many  instances  the 
undue  wear  of  sealing  rings  has  been  directly  due  to  the 
pump  shait  deflecting  under  load. 

Bearings  should  be  of  the  ring-oiled  type  with  renewable 
liners  in  halves.  Bearing  boxes  should  be  provided  with 
bolted  caps,  so  that  the  bearing  liners  may  bo  renewed  or 
rebabbitted  without  removing  the  shaft;  and  so  that  when 
the  top  half  of  the  casing  is  removed  together  with  the  bear- 
ing caps,  the  complete  rotating  element  can  be  lifted  from 
the  pump. 

One  of  the  most  important  details  in  a  centrifugal  pump 
is  the  thrust  bearing.  Unbalanced  end  thrust  causes  a 
great  deal  of  trouble  to  the  operator  and  it  is  oftentimes 
difficult  to  locate  and  remedy  the  defect.  Theoretically, 
■^•ery  pump  leaving  the  factory  is  hydraulically  balanced. 
The  double  suction  impeller  has  inlets  of  the  same  diameter 
on  each  side  and  the  impellers  thus  having  the  same  pres- 
sure on  each  side  are  perfectly  balanced — on  paper.  But 
let  one  side  get  choked  or  one  side  take  more  water  than  the 
other,  or  the  leakage  through  the  sealing  rings  on  one  side 
be  more  than  on  the  other,  then  an  unbalanced  condition 
is  immediately  established. 

This  unbalanced  pressure  has  to  be  carried  by  the  thrust 
bearing.  There  is  also  the  single-suction  Impeller,  wherein 
the  water  enters  on  one  side  only.  This  is  balanced  by 
putting  a  duplicate  set  of  sealing  rings  back  of  the  impeller. 
Holes  drilled  in  the  rear  wall  of  the  impeller  connect  with 
the  inner  chamber  formed  by  the  sealing  rings  and  thus 
balance  the  pressure  in  this  chamber  with  that  of  the 
suction.  Sometimes  some  of  these  holes  have  to  be  plugged 
or  enlarged  in  order  to  equalize  the  end  thrust. 

There  is  also  the  "back-to-back"  type  of  impeller,  where 
the  suction  on  one  impeller  or  one  set  of  impellers  is  on  the 
left-hand,  while  the  suction  of  the  other  (or  the  other  set) 
is  on  the  right-hand  side.  This  arrangement  should  form  a 
perfect  end  balance,  and  yet  the  thrust  bearing  may  get  red 
hot  after  a  few  minutes'  run. 

Large  Marine-Type  Thrust  Bearings  Satisfactory 

The  most  satisfactory  bearing  for  all  ordinary  pu~poses 
is  the  marine  thi-ust  type — that  is,  a  series  of  steel  collars 
running  between  babbitted  collars,  plentifully  supplied  with 
oil.  Such  a  bearing  is  preferably  run  in  a  bath  of  oil  with 
the  thrust  box  water-cooled  to  keep  the  lubricant  at  normal 
temperature.  Furthermore,  this  thi-ust  bearing  should  be 
made  large. 

Several  companies  are  building  pumps  in  which  hydraulic 
balance  is  effected  by  water  leaking  from  the  discharge 
side  of  the  impeller  into  a  balancing  chamber  and  then  out 
past  a  balancing  disk,  which  rotates  with  the  pump  shaft, 
into  the  suction  side  of  the  pump.  This  device  works  auto- 
matically and  gives  satisfactory  service  where  the  water  is 
clear  and  free  from  grit  and  acid,  but  it  soon  becomes  use- 
less when  pumping  acidulous  or  gritty  water. 

The  couplings  which  connect  the  pump  and  motor  shafts 
should  not  be  any  heavier  than  necessary,  and  should  be 
of  the  pin-and-buffer  type  to  allow  a  certain  amount  of  end 
play  without  putting  stress  on  the  thrust  bearing  of  the 
pump. 

The  baseplate  should  be  of  cast  iron,  heavy  enough  to 
resist  distortion  if  the  pump  be  subjected  to  careless  han- 
dling during  erection,  or  if  the  foundation  settles  a  little. 

Although  some  of  the  points  mentioned  may  seem  trivial 
and  others  self-evident,  they  must  all  be  watched  carefully. 
If  the  front  or  inner  bearing  of  some  pumps  should  burn 
out — an  occurrence  by  no  means  uncommon — it  would  be 
necessary,  in  order  to  replace  the  bearing,  to  move  the  whole 
pump  from  its  base,  break  the  suction  and  discharge  connec- 
tions and  remove  the  coupling  from  the  shaft.  If  the  men 
who  designed  such  pumps  were  compelled  to  repair  them  in 
a  mine  while  the  water  was  rising  over  their  shoetops  at 
the  rate  of  an  inch  a  minute,  there  would  soon  be  a  radical 
reform  in  the  design. 

Another  matter  for  investigation  is  the  use  of  small 
screws,  dowels  or  pins  on  the  inside  of  the  pump.  Some 
builders — in  fact  the  majority — can  think  of  only  a  small 
screw  or  dowel  to  prevent  a  ring  or  bushing  from  turning, 
but  acidulous  mine  water  eats  these  small  parts  out  so 
quickly  that  they  are  useless,  and  when  they  give  way  they 


seem  to  have  the  habit  of  lodging  between  some  stationary 
and  rotating  element,  thereby  cutting  grooves  and  ridges 
and  almost  ruining  the  machine. 

The  best  speed  to  drive  centrifugal  pumps  is  a  much- 
debated  question.  Just  now  builders  of  pumps  and  motors 
seem  to  be  advocating  high  rotative  speeds  to  secure  effi- 
ciency, but  for  mine  use  moderate  speed  is  preferable  wher- 
ever possible,  as  less  trouble  is  then  experienced  with  both 
pump  and  motor.  Elsewhere  the  higher-speed  pumps  ap- 
parently give  good  service.  For  75  or  100  hp.  and  upward 
900  r.p.m.  is  satisfactory;  for  30  to  50  or  75  hp.  1200  r.p.m., 
and  for  smaller  pumps  1500  to  1800  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  head  per  stage  is  another  open  question;  but,  in 
general,  pumps  working  under  100  ft.  per  stage  have  a 
longer  life  than  those  working  over  100  ft.  per  stage.  Con- 
sequently, until  further  evidence  is  produced,  it  seems  best 
to  keep  close  to  100  ft.  per  stage  as  the  maximum. 

The  centrifugal  is  about  the  simplest  pump  to  operate 
when  a  few  conditions  are  complied  with.  For  example, 
means  must  be  provided  for  priming  or  filling  the  machine 
with  water.  Where  the  pump  is  placed  below  the  source 
of  water  supply,  it  is  primed  as  soon  as  the  valve  in  the 
suction  pipe  is  opened  and  all  entrained  air  is  allowed  to 
escape  from  the  casing;  but  when  the  pump  is  placed  above 
the  water  supply,  some  provision  must  be  made  for  filling 
it,  somewhat  as  follows: 

Where  pumps  are  to  work  under  heads  of  less  than  400 
ft.,  a  foot  valve  is  placed  on  the  suction  pipe  near  to,  and 
preferably  submerged  in,  the  water  (not 'necessarily  at  the 
deepest  or  lowest  point  of  the  suction  pipe,  where  it  would 
be  hard  to  reach  in  case  of  any  trouble)  and  water  is 
admitted  into  the  discharge  pipe  at  a  point  sufficiently 
above  the  pump  to  completely  fill  the  pump  casing.  This 
method  is  usually  adopted  around  mines,  since  when  the 
pump  is  shut  down  a  valve  in  the  discharge  pipe  is  closed. 

The  tail  pipe,  an  important  part  of  the  installation,  must 
be  air-tight  and  laid  so  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  air 
pockets;  it  must  also  be  of  sufficient  diameter  to  avoid 
excessive  friction.  No  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  size 
of  the  suction  opening  on  the  pump,  for  it  will  usually  be 
found  that  such  openings  are  one  or  two  sizes  too  small 
except  for  short  suction  lines  and  light  suction  lifts.  To 
start  a  motor-driven  pump  it  is  necessary  only  to  prime  it 
and  start  the  motor. 

Don'ts  for  Pump  Runners 

The  following  don'ts  for  pump  runners  cover  all  ordinary 
operating  points: 

Do  not  run  a  pump  ivithout  water. 

The  numerous  bushings  and  sealing  rings  on  the  inside 
of  a  pump  depend  on  water  for  lubrication,  and  if  the 
pump  is  run  without  being  first  filled  with  water  these 
parts  will  get  hot  and  "freeze,"  doing  great  damage  to  the 
pump. 

Do  not  run  without  oil  in  all  the  hearings. 

Do  not  run  ivith  dirty  oil  in  the  hearings. 

Do  not  let  water  get  into  the  bearings. 

Before  starting  up,  see  that  the  bearings  are  full  of  clean 
engine  oil  and  that  there  is  no  water  in  the  boxes.  This 
can  be  done  by  loosening  the  drain  plug  on  the  bottom  of 
the  box  to  see  if  clean  oil  comes  out  and  by  measuring  the 
depth  of  oil  in  the  box.  Do  not  rely  altogether  on  the  oil- 
level  gage,  as  this  sometimes  gets  choked  up.  To  keep 
the  bearings  clean,  drain  all  oil  out  of  the  boxes  once  a 
week  and  thoroughly  wash  out  with  two  or  three  bucketfuls 
of  water.  The  old  oil  should  be  filtered  and  used  over  again 
if  it  is  not  too  gummy. 

Do  not  rvn  the  stuffing-hox  glands  tight. 

This  produces  unnecessary  friction,  causing  the  boxes  to 
heat  up  and  the  packing  to  burn  out.  Having  the  glands 
loose  and  allowing  them  to  leak  a  little  keeps  the  packing 
lubricated  and  the  stuffing-boxes  cool. 

Do  not  run  with  leaky  joints  around  pump. 

This  is  unnecessary,  and  if  not  stopped  in  time  will  ruin 
the  joint  faces. 

Do  not  allov}  ivater  to  collect  around  the  motor. 

Keep  the  baseplate  of  the  pump  clean,  for  when  the  motor 
is  running  the  air  suction  produced  draws  the  dirt  and 
moisture  into  the  motor. 

Do  not  run  a  pump  or  motor  that  vibrates  excessively. 

This  is  caused  by  the  machines  not  being  in  balance  or 
line.    It  should  be  reported  at  once. 


638 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


Do  not  run  unless  yon  are  satisfied  that  all  parts  are  in 
good  condition. 

Do  not  alloii'  oil,  grease  or  dirt  to  accumulate  anywhere 
in  the  pumproom. 

If  properly  cared  for,  a  centrifugal  pump  will  run  with 
little  trouble. 

The  advantages  of  centrifugal  pumps  are  briefly  as  fol- 
lows: Small  floor  space  is  required,  therefore  they  can  be 
installed  in  a  small  pumpi'oom.  The  machine  is  light  in 
weight,  therefore  it  is  easily  handled  in  close  places  and 
requires  no  expensive  foundation;  in  fact  it  can  be  set  on 
skids.  It  can  be  quickly  installed  and  can  be  direct-con- 
nected to  an  electric  motor,  dispensing  with  noisy  and 
troublesome  reduction  gearing.  It  has  no  valves  or  plunger 
packing,  therefoie  will  have  no  packing  or  valve  troubles. 
It  gives  a  steady  flow  of  water  without  shocks,  can  be 
started  with  the  column  line  full,  and  furthermore,  cannot 
do  itself  or  pipe  lines  harm  should  the  line  become  blocked 
or  if  someone  forgets  to  open  the  valve  on  the  discharge 
line  before  starting.  Last,  but  by  no  means  least,  it  is  a 
reliable  pump,  with  a  minimum  cost  of  maintenance,  except 
possibly  where  the  water  is  extremely  acidulous  or  gritty. 

Pumps  Should  Be  Accurately  Aligned  with  Motors 

Centrifugal  pumps  should  be  set  on  a  fairly  good  base 
and  accurately  lined  with  their  motors.  Although  pumps 
are  usually  coupled  to  their  motors  by  so-called  "flexible" 
couplings,  these  are  not  flexible  in  the  sense  that  they  are 
a  sort  of  universal  joint.  They  simply  permit  end  motion, 
and  although  they  permit  operation  with  the  pump  and 
motor  slightly  out  of  line,  trouble  will  eventually  follow. 
Piping  should  be  connected  to  the  pump  squarely  and 
accurately,  for  it  is  possible  to  strain  and  distort  the  pump 
casing  if  force  is  Used  to  bring  the  piping  and  pump  con- 
nections in  line.  As  stated  previously,  provision  should  be 
made  for  priming  the  pump.  Check  valves  should  be 
installed  in  the  column  pipe  with  a  bypass  around  so  as  to 
drain  the  line.  When  the  capacity  has  to  be  regulated  by 
throttling,  a  gate  valve  must  also  be  installed  in  the  dis- 
charge pipe  line;  in  fact,  when  the  water  is  not  highly 
acidulous,  it  is  wise  to  install  both  a  gate  and  check  valve 
in  all  column  pipes.  But  where  the  water  is  extremely 
acid,  it  has  been  found  that  the  gate  valves  wear  out  quickly 
and  that  good  leather-faced  check  valves  last  so  much  longer 
that  the  gate  valve  is  omitted  and  reliance  is  placed  entirely 
on  the  check  valve. 

The  strainer  on  the  end  of  the  suction  pipe  should  have 
the  mesh,  or  size,  of  the  holes  so  small  that  nothing  will 
pass  through  which  is  likely  to  lodge  in  and  block  the 
impeller.  The  total  area  of  the  holes  should  be  two  or  three 
times  that  of  the  suction  pipe.  There  should  be  no  less  than 
four  feet  of  water  over  the  strainer,  for  it  is  possible  to 
draw  air  bubbles  down  through  even  four  feet  of  water, 
especially  if  the  velocity  is  high.  Provision  should  be  made 
for  water-cooled  bearings,  water  seals  on  the  suction  glands, 
and  the  air  vents  should  be  piped  properly.  With  the  larger 
machines,  provision  should  be  made  for  handling  the  heavy 
parts — that  is,  for  taking  off  the  top  half  of  casings,  and 
removing  the  shaft  and  impellers  by  means  of  a  hand  crane 
or  chain  hoist.  If  these  few  common-sense  directions  are 
followed  and  good  water  is  pumped,  the  machine  will  run 
satisfactorily  for  years.  If  the  water  is  acidulous  it  is 
necessary  merely  to  change  the  sealing  rings;  on  the  quality 
of  the  water  the  frequency  of  such  renewals  depends.  If 
gritty  the  grit  gets  in  between  the  fast-moving  internal 
pa/ts  and  acts  like  a  grindstone,  cutting  the  normal  working 
clearance  of  -,i„  in.  to  Vs  or  V*  in.  in  a  very  few  days. 

The  maintenance  of  pumps  is  a  simple  matter  as  the 
parts  most  subject  to  wear  are  the  shaft  bearings,  the  shaft 
sleeves  in  the  stuffing-boxes,  the  sealing  rings  on  the  im- 
pellers, together  with  the  distance  and  stage  bushings  in 
multistage  pumps.  These  last-mentioned  parts  generally 
wear  rapidly,  and  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  keep  an  extra 
pump  rotor  on  hand — that  is,  a  shaft  with  impellers,  rings 
and  shaft  sleeves — also  an  extra  set  of  bearing  liners. 
Then,  when  the  pump  declines  in  capacity  (which  is  a 
general  sign  that  the  sealing  rings  are  worn,  allowing  too 
much  internal  leakage  or  short-circuiting  of  the  water)  it 
is  an  easy  matter  to  open  the  machine,  remove  the  old  rotor, 


put  in  the  new  one  and  bring  the  pump  back  to  its  original 
capacity  and  efficiency.  The  old  rotor  is  then  sent  to  the 
shop  to  be  rebushed  and  held  in  readiness  for  further  use 

If  this  is  done  before  the  pump  gets  too  badly  worn,  the 
operation  can  be  repeated  many  times  and  the  cost  of 
repairs  reduced,  but  the  i-epairing  must  be  done  in  a  careful 
and  painstaking  manner  or  the  repair  costs  and  troubles 
will  more  than  double. 

A  restricted  suction  will  cut  down  the  capacity  of  the 
pump  and  give  excessive  end  thrust.  A  leaky  suction  pipe 
will  also  cut  down  the  capacity  and  give  an  unsteady  and 
fluctuating  pressure  and  flow  and  produce  excessive  vibra- 
tion and  noise  in  the  pump. 

If  the  holes  in  the  strainer  are  so  large  that  chips  of 
wood,  coal  and  other  substances  enter  the  pump  and  block 
the  impeller  vanes,  trouble  ensues. 

Thrust-bearing  troubles  can  be  greatly  reduced  if  large 
thrust  bearings  provided  with  an  efficient  oiling  system  are 
used.  When  abnormal  thrust  occurs,  as  before  mentioned, 
examine  the  suction  line  first;  then  if  the  trouble  is  not 
located,  open  the  pump  and  see  if  one  set  of  sealing  rings 
is  worn  more  than  another. 

Efficiency  of  Centrifugal  Pumps  Low 

Centrifugal  pumps  are  not  recommended  as  a  rule  for 
capacities  of  less  than  300  gal.  per  min.,  and  even  for  this 
capacity  the  head  should  not  exceed  60  ft.  For  heads  of 
100  to  150  ft.  .500  gal.  per  min.  is  considered  the  minimum, 
but  for  capacities  of  1000  gal.  per  min.  it  can  be  used  for 
almost  any  head  with  fairly  good  efficiency.  Two  1500-gal. 
eight-stage  pumps  working  against  a  total  head  of  820  ft. 
have  been  in  successful  operation  for  two  years,  giving  a 
pump  efficiency  of  about  68  per  cent.  The  efficiency  of  the 
centrifugal  pump  is  generally  low.  A  300-gal.  pump  gives 
about  50  per  cent.,  a  500-gal.  pump  about  55  per  cent,  and 
larger  pumps  give  anywhere  from  55  to  72  per  cent,  effi- 
ciency. This  latter  eflSciency  is  the  highest  of  which  the 
virriter  has  actual  knowledge,  and  that  was  secured  fron  a 
machine  of  large  capacity  working  under  a  moderate  head. 

Each  centrifugal  pump  must  be  built  for  a  certain  capac- 
ity and  head  at  a  given  speed,  and  it  is  herein  that  the 
maximum  efficiency  lies,  because  the  capacity  and  head 
cannot  vary  materially  from  these  fixed  conditions  without 
a  considerable  loss  in  efficiency.  This  means  that  a  cen- 
trifugal pump  built  for  a  certain  head  and  driven  by  a 
constant-speed  motor  cannot  be  used  for  any  other  head, 
much  greater  or  less,  without  sacrificing  efficiency,  and  the 
capacity  when  driven  at  a  constant  speed  cannot  be  changed 
or  varied  except  by  the  uneconomical  method  of  throttling. 
These  points  should  always  be  taken  into  consideration. 

The  steam-turbine-driven  centrifugal  boiler-feed  pump 
has  been  well  received,  but  is  not  recommended  for  boiler 
plants  of  less  than  3000  rated  horsepower,  since  small  ones 
are  unusually  run  at  such  high  speed  that  it  does  not  take 
much  to  put  them  out  of  order.  Furthermore,  the  first  cost, 
steam  consumption  and  upkeep  will  be  high.  For  plants  of 
8000  hp.  or  over,  they  are  superior  to  the  plunger  pump, 
but  between  3000  and  8000  hp.  the  selection  hinges  largely 
upon  local  conditions  and  individual  preference. 


The  Latent  Heat  of  Steam 

The  latent  heat  of  steam  at  standard  pressure  and  tem- 
perature is  a  fundamental  constant,  the  value  of  which  has 
long  been  less  satisfactorily  known  than  was  desirable.  The 
values  given  in  Kaye  and  Laly's  "Physical  and  Chemical 
Constants"  differ  appreciably,  ranging  from  the  537  calories 
of  Regnault  obtained  in  1847  to  the  540  calories  found  by 
Joly  in  1895.  In  Callendar's  steam  tables  the  value  539.3 
is  adopted.  A  new  determination  is  described  in  a  paper 
by  T.  Carlton-Sutton,  published  in  a  recent  issue  of  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society.  The  plan  of  the 
experiments  consisted  in  weighing  the  quantity  of  steam 
condensed  upon  a  bulb,  both  when  empty  and  when  filled 
with  water.  From  the  two  obsei-vations  the  latent  heat  can 
be  deduced,  the  value  found  being  538.88  mean  calories.  It 
is  claimed  that  this  figure  is  correct  to  the  fourth  significant 
figure. — Engineering. 


April  30.  1918 


POWEK 


639 


Some  Fundamental  Considerations  of  Power- 
Factor  Correction* 


By  r.  a.  Mccarty 

Rneincfr.  Wosl  inelioiisp  Kloitiic  .mil  .Manufacturing  Company 


What  the  power  factor  of  an  alternating-current 
circuit  is  and  its  effects  upon  the  capacity  of  gen- 
erating and  transmitting  equipment  are  dis- 
cussed, and  the  use  of  synchronous  machines  as 
a  means  of  correcting  the  power  factor  is  con- 
sidered. 


THE  power  factor  of  an  alternating-current  circuit 
may  be  defined  as  the  ratio  of  tlie  actual  energy  in 
kilowatts  to  the  apparent  energy  in  kilovolt-amperes, 
expressed  in  percentage.  For  example,  if  the  kilowatt  load 
on  a  circuit  is  1000  and  the  kilovolt-ampere  load  1250,  then 
the  power  factor  of  the  circuit  is  1000  -^  1250  =  0.80,  or 
80  per  cent.  This  relation  between  actual  and  apparent 
energy  is  dependent  on  the  relative  "phase"  position,  with 
respect  to  time,  of  the  current  and  voltage  of  the  circuit, 
which  in  turn  is  fixed  by  the  chai'acteristics  of  the  circuit 
and   the   connected   apparatus,  as   will   be  mentioned   later. 

In  any  alternating-current  circuit  if  both  the  voltage  and 
current  pass  through  corresponding  instantaneous  values, 
that  is,  pass  through  zero  and  maximum  points,  simulta- 
neously, they  are  said  to  be  "in  phase."  When  this  con- 
dition exists,  the  actual  and  apparent  energies  are  equal 
and  the  power  factor  is  100  per  cent.  If,  however,  the 
voltage  passes  through  any  given  instantaneous  value  be- 
fore or  after  the  current  passes  through  the  corresponding 
value,  the  two  are  "out  of  phase."  When  this  condition 
exists,  the  true  energy  is  less  than  the  apparent  energy 
and  the  power  factor  is  something  less  than  100  per  cent. 
If  curve  A,  Fig.  1,  represents  voltage  and  curve  B  the 
current  in  phase  with  the  voltage,  then  curve  D  will  repre- 
sent a  current  out  of  phase  with  the  voltage. 

The  latter  condition  is  the  immediate  result  of  the  re- 
active, or  wattless,  current  present  in  the  circuit.  In  any 
alternating-current  circuit  having  a  power  factor  less  than 
100  per  cent.,  the  current  that  flows  is  made  up  of  two 
parts,  the  energy  component  in  phase  with  the  voltage  and 
the  reactive  component,  which  leads  or  lags  behind  the 
voltage  90  electrical  degrees.  These  two  components  of 
the  current,  therefore,  bear  a  90-deg.  relation  to  each  other 
and  combine  geometrically  to  give  a  resultant  current  that 
lags  or  leads  the  voltage  by  an  angle  less  than  90  degrees. 

Again  referring  to  Fig.  1,  if  curve  A  represents  the  volt- 
age and  curve  B  the  energy  component  of  the  current,  then 
curve  C  will  represent  the  reactive  component  and  curve  D 
the  current  that  results  from  the  combination  of  B  and  C. 
Assuming  a  direction  of  phase  rotation  from  right  to  left, 
the  current  represented  by  curve  D  lags  behind  the  volt- 
age A. 

The  reactive  current  in  any  circuit  is  due  to  inherent 
characteristics  of  certain  apparatus  such  as  induction 
motors,  transformers,  reactance  coils,  arc  lamps,  etc., 
which  make  them  draw  from  the  source  of  supply,  not  only 
tlie  work  current  which  transmits  the  useful  energy  but 
reactive-magnetizing  current  as  well.  Since  the  reactive 
current  not  only  transmits  no  useful  energy  but  has  the 
detrimental  effect  of  causing  increased  losses,  which  appear 
in  the  form  of  heat,  in  the  transmission  line,  transformers 
and  generating  apparatus,  thereby  reducing  their  useful 
capacity,  it  is  obviously  desirable  to  reduce  to  a  minimum 
or  neutralize  the  effect  of  such  current.  The  very  marked 
increased  heating,  for  a  given  rating,  or  the  reduction  in 
rating,  of  the  generating  apparatus,  which  results  from 
low-power-factor  loads  will  be  mentioned  later. 


In  practically  all  commercial  circuits  the  demand  for 
lagging  reactive  current  predominates  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  is  seldom  if  ever  necessary  to  consider  the  case  of 
leading  current  in  connection  with  power-factor  correction 
alone.  For  that  reason  all  further  reference  will,  unless 
otherwise  stated,  presuppose  a  condition  of  lagging  power 
factor. 

There  is  at  the  present  time  but  one  commercially  suc- 
cessful type  of  apparatus  for  general  application  of  neu- 
tralizing the  effects  of  lagging  reactive  current.  This 
apparatus  consists  of  overexcited  synchronous  motors  used 
either  to  deliver  part  of  their  capacity  in  mechanical  load 
and  the  remainder  in  corrective  effect,  or  their  full  capacity 
as  corrective  kilovolt-amperes.  Under  the  latter  condition 
they  are  usually  termed  synchronous  condensers. 

Any  synchronous  motor,  when  operated  with  a  field  exci- 
tation just  sufficient  to  set  up  the  flux  required  to  generate 
a  counter-electromotive  force  which  equals  the  impressed 
electromotive  force  minus  the  ohmic  and  reactance  voltage 
drops  in  the  armature  winding,  will  draw  from  the  line  a 
current  in  phase  with  the  voltage,  therefore  operates  at 
100  per  cent,  power  factor.  Other  things  remaining  con- 
stant, if  this  field  adjustment  is  varied  the  motor  will  in 
addition  to  taking  the  energy  current  required,  draw  from 
the  supply  a  reactive  current  which  either  opposes  or  assists 
the  current  in  the  motor's  field  winding  in  maintaining 
the  flux  required  for  the  counter-electromotive  force.  With 
the  motor's  field  underexcited,  the  reactive  current  drawn 
from  the  line  is  a  magnetizing  current,  in  the  same  sense 
as  that  drawn  by  an  induction  motor;  that  is,  it  lags  be- 
hind the  line  voltage,  thereby  tending  to  still  further  reduce 


•A  paper  presented  before  the  Iron  and  Steel  Electrical  lOii- 
glneers  and  the  Pittsburgh  Section  of  the  American  In.-itltute  of 
Electrical  Engineers  at  Pittsburgh,  January  12,  1918. 


l-'Ki.    1.      CURVES    SHOWIXi:    Ulil^ATlu.X    BETWEEN    AN 
ALTERNATING  CURRENT  AND   Vdl.TAOE 

the  power  factor  of  the  total  sy.stcm.  For  this  reason  it  is 
very  important  that  the  field  excitation  of  a  synchronous 
motor  should  always  be  adjusted  to  its  proper  value.  If, 
however,  the  field  is  overexcited  the  reactive  current  drawn 
from  the  line  is  a  demagnetizing  current  and  leads  the 
line  voltage.  Therefore  it  is  possible  to  neutralize  the  eff'ect 
of  any  lagging  reactive  cui'rcnt  by  introducing  into  the 
system  a  like  amount  of  leading  current.  As  previously 
indicated,  the  required  leading  reactive  current  may  be 
introduced  into  the  system  by  using  a  synchronous  motor 
of  the  proper  capacity,  operating  with  an  overexcited  field. 
The  questions  of  proper  corrective  capacity,  its  location 
in  the  system,  whether  it  shall  be  in  one  or  more  units  and 


640 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  18 


whether  the  machines  shall  deliver  both  mechanical  energy 
and  corrective  effect  or  only  the  latter,  have,  of  course,  to 
bo  determined  for  each  particular  case.  The  detail  con- 
ditions which  ordinarily  determine  the  decisions  in  regard 
to  these  points  are  beyond  the  scope  of  this  discussion,  but 
one  or  two  principal  factors  may  be  mentioned.  There  are 
several  accurate  but  more  or  less  involved  methods  for  de- 
termining the  required  corrective  capacity  for  any  given 
case,   but   all   this   becomes    unnecessary    and    the    problem 


Fie.  2-  FIG.  3 


corrective  effect  is  to  be  obtained  from  a  machine  that  is 
to  deliver  mechanical  energy  as  well  as  the  corrective  effect, 
the  rating  of  this  machine  is  found  as  follows: 

Assume  that  the  motor  is  to  deliver  500  hp.  and  at  the 
same  time  supply  350  kilovolt-amperes  corrective  effect; 
determine  the  capacity  of  the  motor  and  the  final  total 
l<ilovolt-amperes  of  the  system.  Allowing  for  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  motor,  it  would  have  a  kilowatt  input  of  400. 
Combining  this  as  before  at  right  angles,  with  the  350 
kilovolt-amperes  (Fig.  5)  the  corrective  kilovolt-amperes 
rating  of  the  motor  is  found  to  be  532.  The  total  kilovolt- 
amperes  of  the  system  then  becomes  the  resultant  of  1000 
kw.  (sum  of  original  600  kw.  and  additional  motor  400  kw.) 
and  the  uncompensated  reactive  kilovolt-amperes  of  450. 
These,  combined  as  before  at  right  angles,  give  a  total 
system  kilovolt-amperes  of  approximately  1100,  Fig.  6.  It 
should  then  be  noted  that  the  addition  of  the  400  kw.  energy 
load,  in  addition  to  the  350  kilovolt-amperes  corrective 
capacity  has  resulted  in  raising  the  power  factor  of  the  total 
system  to  1000  -^  1100  =  0.91,  or  91  per  cent. 

The  location  in  the  system  of  the  machine  delivering  the 
corrective  effect  should,  to  obtain  the  greatest  gain,  be  at 
or  near  the  source  of  the  lagging  reactive  current.  Other- 
wise the  reactive  currents  have  to  be  transmitted  over  the 
intervening  lines,  and  through  transformer,  switches,  etc., 
causing  additional   losses. 

The  question  of  using  synchronous  condensers  or  partly 
mechanically  loaded  motor  for  this  service  largely  depends 
on  the  questions  of  capacity  required  and  the  relative 
locations  of  the  demands  for  mechanical  energy   and   cor- 


400  K>*^  lOOO  1-iv 

FIG.  S  FIG.e 

FIGS.     2  TO  6.       SHOW  THE  RELATION  BETWEEN  ENERGY, 
REACTIVE  AND  RESULT.\NT  CURRENTS 

extremely  simple  if  we  keep  in  mind  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples; namely,  that  the  leading  and  lagging  reactive  cur- 
rents are  in  opposition,  hence  the  resultant  reactive  current 
is  the  algebraic  difference;  that  the  reactive  current  is  90 
deg.  out  of  phase  with  the  energy  current;  that  the  result- 
ant current  is  the  geometrical  sum  of  these  two;  and  that 
the  power  factor  of  the  system  is  the  ratio  of  the  kilowatt 
to  the  kilovolt-amperes. 

Expressed  geometrically,  the  energy  current,  reactive  cur- 
rent and  resultant  current  form  a  right-angle  triangle. 
Fig.  2,  in  which  the  base  represents  the  energy  current, 
the  vertical  line  the  reactive  current  and  the  hypotenuse 
the  resultant  current,  as  indicated.  Since,  if  the  currents 
in  the  system  bear  these  relations  to  each  other,  the  kilo- 
watt, reactive  kilovolt-amperes  and  resultant  kilovolt- 
amperes  must  bear  the  same  relations,  we  will  for  con- 
venience use  the  same  triangle  to  indicate  the  latter  quan- 
tities. 

Assume,  then,  a  system  having  a  load  of  1000  kilovolt- 
amperes  at  a  power  factor  of  60  per  cent,  and  it  is  re- 
quired to  find  the  corrective  kilovolt-amperes  to  raise  the 
power  factor  to  80  per  cent.,  and  the  resultant  total  kilo- 
volt-amperes of  the  system.  To  determine  the  lagging  re- 
active kilovolt-amperes  of  the  system,  refer  to  the  triangle. 
Fig.  3,  the  hypotenuse  or  total  kilovolt-amperes  is  1000, 
the  base  or  energy  is  60  per  cent,  of  this  value  or  600  kw. 
and  the  vertical  side  or  reactive  kilovolt-amperes  is  found, 
by  solving  the  triangle,  to  be  800  kilovolt-amperes.  Re- 
peating this  construction  for  the  system  with  a  power  fac- 
tor of  80  per  cent.,  the  kilowatt  will  of  course  remain  con- 
stant at  600,  Fig.  4.  Since  the  power  factor  can  be  ex- 
pressed as  the  cosine  of  the  angle  between  the  resultant 
kilovolt-amperes,  and  the  kilowatts,  or  in  this  case  equals 
0.80,  the  angle  between  the  resultant  kilovolt-amperes  and 
kilowatts  will  be  that  having  a  cosine  corresponding  to  0.80. 
or  approximately  37  deg.  Then  drawing  the  hypotenuse 
at  an  angle  of  37  deg.  to  the  kilowatt  line  and  completing 
the  right  triangle,  it  will  bs  found  that  the  resultant  total 
kilovolt-amperes  will  be  750  and  the  reactive  kilovolt- 
amperes  450.  Obviously,  then,  the  required  corrective  kilo- 
volt-amperes to  produce  this  result  is  the  difference  be- 
tween 800  and  450  or  350  kilovolt-amperes.  If  this  cor- 
rective kilovolt-amperes  is  obtained  by  a  synchronous  con- 
denser,  its   rating  will   be   350   kilovolt-amperes.      If   this 


160 

150 

140 

130 

1TO 

110 

4.100 
c 

C  90 
O 

i.  60 
(U 
Q-  70 

W 

50 

40 

30 

zo 

10 
0 


Curve  B  -  \fciri(3tion  of  Field  Voltage  with — 

I  I   Constant   KV.A     |        |        | 

Curve  C-  Variation  of  Field  Current  with 

I  I    Constant  K.V.A.    |       | 


Curve  D-  Vbriaf ion  of  K.V.A. Output  with 
Constant  Field   Current  _ 


FIG. 


10    ZO    30   40    50    60    70    60  90    100 
Power  roctor,  Per  Cent 

7.      SHOWS   VARIATION  IN  ALTERN.\TOR  PERFORM- 
ANCE  WITH   CH.'^NGE   IN    POWER    F.\CTOR 


rective  effect.  In  general,  if  the  two  are  combined,  the  first 
cost  of  the  required  apparatus  is  less  and  the  cost  of  build- 
ings and  maintenance  is  less. 

To  show  this  point  in  a  concrete  way,  the  relative  cost 
of  a  motor-generator  set  consisting  of  a  1000-kw.  250-volt 
direct-current  generator  driven  by  a  2200-volt  three-phase 
14-pole  60-cycle  80  per  cent,  power-factor  synchronous 
motor  was  compared  to  the  cost  of  a  set  of  the  same 
capacity  except  driven  by  a  100  per  cent,  power-factor 
motor  with  a  separate  8-pole  synchronous  condenser  having 
the  same  corrective  capacity  as  the  80  per  cent,  power- 
factor  motor  (approximately  850  kv.-a.).  This  compari- 
son showed  that  the  80  per  cent,  power-factor  motor  set 
has  a  first  cost  of  90  per  cent,  of  the  other  machines  and 
only  80  per  cent,  of  the  losses.  A  notable  installation  of 
this  kind  is  now  building  for  the  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and 


April  30.  1918 


POWER 


641 


Railway  Co.,  consisting  of  five  750-kvv.  dii-ect-current  gen- 
erators driven  by  1500-kv.-a.  motors.  These  motors,  in  ad- 
dition to  driving  the  gcnerator.s,  supply  approximately 
1200  kv.-a.  each  in  corrective  capacity. 

The  question  is  sometimes  raised  regarding  the  use  of 
synchronous  converters  for  power-factor  correction.  Ma- 
chines of  this  class  as  normally  designed  are  not  adapted 
for  this  service,  by  reason  of  the  limits  from  heating  both 
in  the  armature  and  field  windings.  Owing  to  the  diffi- 
culties of  obtaining  satisfactoi-y  commutation  under  load 
conditions  with  the  flux  distribution  that  results  from  the 
presence  of  the  reactive  current  in  the  armature,  design- 
ing machines  with  sufficient  heating  capacity  for  this  serv- 
ice is  looked  upon  with  disfavor. 

To  emphasize  the  desirability,  particularly  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  generator,  of  maintaining  system  power 
factors,  at,  say,  80  per  cent,  or  higher,  the  curves.  Fig.  7, 
have  been  worked  up  for  a  normally  designed  generator 
rated  at  6000  kv.-a.  at  500  r.p.m.,  showing  the  variations  in 
performances  with  varying  power  factors.  These  curves 
show,  basing  all  performances  on  80  per  cent,  power  factor 
as  the  normal  condition  and  assuming  constant  kilovolt- 
ampere  output,  that  if  the  power  factor  drops  to  60  per 
cent.,  the  exciting  amperes  become  111  per  cent.,  the  ex- 
citing voltage  116  per  cent.,  and  the  field  temperatures  rise 
126  per  cent,  of  those  quantities  at  80  per  cent,  power  factor. 
On  the  basis  of  reducing  the  output  to  maintain  the  same  field 
heating,  a  change  froin  80  per  cent,  power  factor  to  60  per 
cent,  reduced  the  generator  rating  to  86  per  cent,  of  the 
original  output. 


Special    Joint    Committee    Hearing   on 
Administration  Water-Power  Bill 

THE  Special  Joint  Water-Power  Committee  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  held  another  hearing  on 
the  Administration  bill  on  Apr.  15,  with  Sir  Adam 
Beck,  chairman  of  the  Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission 
of  Ontario,  as  the  speaker.  Sir  Adam  delivered  an  exhaus- 
tive analysis  from  his  own  point  of  view  of  conditions  re- 
lating to  water-power  development  in  the  Dominion,  and 
the  sale  of  hydro-electric  energy  in  Ontario,  as  compared 
with  what  he  knows  of  conditions  in  the  United  States. 
He  made  a  strong  plea  for  monopoly  in  public  utilities  and 
presented  figures  tending  to  show  that  under  government 
control  in  Toronto  the  rate  for  electricity  is  about  half  the 
rate  at  Buffalo,  and  made  other  comparisons  between  rates 
in  the  United  States  and  in  Ontai'io. 

Secretaries  Baker  and  Houston  To  Be  Heard 
The  hearings  before  the  joint  committee  will  not  be  closed 
until  the  committee  has  heard  Seci-etary  Baker  of  the  War 
Department,  Secretary  Houston  of  the  Agricultural  De- 
partment, and  any  members  of  Congress  who  desire  to  be 
heard.  The  framing  of  the  final  bill  will  therefore  be  de- 
layed in  the  committee. 

Sir  Adam  Beck  has  been  identified  with  water-power 
matters  in  Ontario  "since  190.3  or  1905."  He  traced  the 
growth  of  legislation  in  Canada,  saying  franchises  were 
originally  granted  to  generate  power  at  Niagara  Falls  on 
the  Canadian  side,  as  follows:  To  the  Canadian-Niagara 
Power  Co.,  100,000  hp. ;  to  the  Electric  Development  Co., 
125,000  hp.,  and  to  the  Ontario  Power  Co.,  180,000  hp.  He 
said  the  object  of  the  boards  of  trade,  merchants'  associa- 
tions, etc.,  in  Ontario  was  to  make  this  power  available  gen- 
erally to  the  people  of  the  district,  and  because  of  the  great 
advance  in  the  art  of  transmitting  energy  at  high  voltage, 
economically,  to  great  distances,  a  desire  was  created  in 
manufacturing  districts  to  have  this  power  available  for 
them.  Sir  Adam  pointed  out  that  Ontario  has  no  known 
coal  fields  at  this  time,  and  that  one  of  the  power  diffi- 
culties there  is  the  necessity  for  long  transportation,  and 
a  duty  on  coal.     That  difficulty  has  long  continued. 

In  1902,  he  said,  various  civic  bodies  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  confer  with  the  legislature  on  steps  to  enable 
municipalities  to  undertake  the  generation  of  electricity. 
The  legislature  had  two  years  previously  refused  the  city 


of  Toronto  a  franchise  to  develop  power,  and  instead  had 
granted  such  a  franchise  to  the  Electric  Development  Co., 
which  had  affiliated  with  it  the  Toronto  Electric  Light  Co. 
and  the  Toronto  Street  Railway  Company. 

Finally,  the  legislature  passed  an  act  allowing  municipali- 
ties to  borrow  money  on  their  own  account  for  power  and 
light  development,  and  a  commission  was  appointed  to  in- 
vestigate, which,  after  eighteen  months'  work,  practically 
said  that  power  could  be  delivered  at  cost;  but  the  practi- 
cal difficulty  of  raising  money  was  encountered,  and  further 
rights  for  development  were  granted  to  the  Electric  Develop- 
ment Company. 

Sir  Adam  then  told  of  changes  in  the  government  fol- 
lowing elections  and  of  the  passage  of  the  present  acts 
and  amendments.     He  said : 

We  have  power  to  acquire  by  purchase  or  otherwise,  on 
any  terms,  and  hold  shares  in  any  incorporated  company 
carrying  on  the  business  of  developing,  supplying  and 
transmitting  electrical  energy.  We  have  power  to  appro- 
priate the  land,  waters,  water  privileges  or  water  powers  or 
works,  machinery  and  plants  or  portions  thereof  of  any 
person  owning  or  operating  under  lease  or  otherwise  or 
operating  or  using  water-power  privileges  or  transmitting 
electrical  power  or  energy  in  Ontario  which  in  the  opinion 
of  the  commission  should  be  purchased,  acquired,  leased, 
taken,  expropriated  and  developed  or  used  by  the  com- 
mission for  the  purposes  of  the  act.  Now,  that  is  pretty 
drastic,  but  it  is  all  subject  to  arbitration. 

At  the  present  time  the  Ontario  Commission  has  con- 
tracts with  225  municipalities.  They  pay  all  interest 
charges  at  4  per  cent,  and  a  sinking  fund  of  1.8  per  cent., 
which  retires  in  thirty  years.  They  pay  all  charges  of 
depreciation,  operation,  administration,  etc.  The  chair- 
man continued: 

We  operate  at  the  present  time  twelve  systems.  They 
will  become  interconnecting  eventually  and  form  one  great 
trunk  system.  In  this  way  we  are  attaining  the  object 
of  the  whole  scheme;  namely,  that  there  should  be  one  con- 
trol only.  .  .  .  We  want  to  create  a  real  monopoly  be- 
cause we  believe  all  these  service  undertakings  should  be 
a  monopoly.  There  is  little  satisfaction  in  having  compe- 
tition in  a  telephone  system,  or  a  telegraph  system,  or  even 
a  railway  system,  and  certainly  not  in  an  electric  system 
in  any  community.  The  obnoxious  poles  and  wires,  the 
great  dual  cost  of  everything,  and  the  great  dual  invest- 
ment that  results  because  of  the  diversity  created  by  these 
various  corporations  covering  the  same  field  are  undesirable 
from  every  standpoint. 

The  Power  Situation  at  Niagara 
As  to  the  Niagara  situation,  Sir  Adam  said  the  princi- 
ple laid  down  by  the  International  Waterways  Commission 
is  that  there  should  be  an  equal  division  of  water  for  power 
purposes  on  all  international  streams,  and  pointed  out  that 
there  is  now  pending  an  application  that  the  United  States 
Government  shall  confer  with  the  Dominion  authorities 
regarding  a  proposal  to  allot  another  10,000  ft.  per  sec. 
to  each  government.  This,  he  pointed  out,  is  advanced  as 
a  war  measure,  and  will  be  justified  even  though  the  most 
efficient  use  is  not  made  of  the  water.  Sir  Adam  said  he 
believes  that  if  this  measure  is  carried  through  it  will  not 
be  canceled  after  the  war  and  will  stimulate  production 
after  peace  comes.  He  presented  figures  to  show  that 
the  total  power  now  being  generated  on  both  sides  of 
Niagara  is  653,500  hp.  Of  this  amount  265,000  hp.  is  gen- 
erated in  the  United  States,  which  also  receives  110,000  hp. 
exported  from  the  Canadian  side,  making  a  total  of  375,000 
hp.  available  in  the  United  States.  This  amounts  to  40 
per  cent,  more  for  the  United  States  than  for  Canada,  al- 
though the  latter  country  generates  100,000  hp.  more  than 
the  United  States. 

There  is  no  intention  on  the  part  of  either  the  Canadian 
government  or  the  commission  to  interfere  with  the  present 
export  arrangement,  even  though  Canada  is  now  short 
100,000  hp.  In  order  to  permit  a  continuance  of  the  export, 
Canada  has  arranged  to  do  away  with  all  sign  lighting, 
window  lighting  and  other  uses  of  energy  which  in  some 
quarters  have  been  characterized  as  less  essential.  The 
power  generated  by  the  province  of  Ontario  has  reduced 
coal  consumption  between  5,000,000  and  6,000,000  tons  per 
annum.  Motive  power  has  been  saved,  use  of  cars  has 
been   saved,   and   duty  on   coal   has   been   saved.     The  esti- 


642 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  18 


mated  potential  horsepower  of  hydro-electric  energy  in 
Canada  is  about  50,000,000,  and  in  Ontario  alone  about 
5,000,000  or  6,000,000,  with  but  700,000  developed.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  commission's  work,  in  1910,  only  750  hp. 
was  being  delivered  to  the  twelve  municipalities  interested. 
The  commission  has  acquired  up  to  date  about  86  corpora- 
tions, through  friendly  negotiations,  and  without  resort- 
ing to  the  drastic  powers  given  to  it  under  the  act. 

Coal-Car  Situation  Serious 

The  Unitd  States  Fuel  Administration  is  gravely  con- 
cerned over  the  serious  falling  off  in  coal  production  which 
has  become  apparent  since  the  beginning  of  the  coal  year 
on  Apr.  1.  Despite  the  many  measures  adopted  by  the 
Fuel  Administration  to  increase  production  and  facilitate 
distribution,  the  supply  of  bituminous  coal  of  the  country 
fell  off  1,500,000  tons,  or  14  per  cent.,  during  the  week 
ended  Apr.  6,  as  compared  with  the  preceding  week,  accord- 
ing to  the  reports  of  the  Geological  Survey. 

Some  part  of  this  loss  was  due  to  failure  of  mine  labor 
on  Apr.  1,  Mitchel  Day,  the  anniversary  of  the  enactment 
of  the  eight-hour  law.  With  the  exception  of  two  weeks 
during  the  hardest  weather  of  the  winter,  the  daily  bitu- 
minous production  was  lowered  during  the  week  ending  Apr. 
6  more  than  at  any  time  since  the  Fuel  Administration  was 
organized. 

A  large  part  of  this  falling  off  in  production,  however, 
is  due  to  the  continued  lack  of  transportation  service  as 
evidenced  by  the  shortage  of  cars  placed  at  the  mine  to  be 
loaded.  This  is  due  to  the  general  pressure  of  war  traffic 
on  the  railroads.  Car  shortage  reports  for  the  week  ended 
Apr.  6  are  not  yet  available,  but  for  the  week  ended  Mar. 
30  the  mines  throughout  the  country  showed  an  average 
loss  in  production  due  to  car  shortage  of  23.3  per  cent. 

In  the  fields  of  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio  the  average  loss 
due  to  car  shortage  was  22.6  per  cent.  In  one  of  these,  the 
northern  and  central  Ohio  field,  the  loss  was  34.2  per  cent. 
In  the  Pennsylvania  fields  the  loss  in  production  due  to  car 
shortage  averaged  32.4  per  cent.  In  the  New  River  and 
Winding  Gulf  and  Pocahontas  fields,  which  supply  the 
low-volatile  coal  vitally  needed  by  the  Navy  and  the  mer- 
chant marine  for  bunker  purposes,  loss  in  production  due 
to  car  shortage  was  24.4  per  cent.  In  the  high-volatile  fields 
of  southern  West  Virginia  and  the  Fairmont,  the  average 
loss  in  production  due  to  car  shortage  was  50.3  per  cent.; 
the  southern  high-volatile  fields  lost  41.6  per  cent,  and  the 
Fairmont  fields  59.1  per  cent.  Cumberland  Piedmont  field 
showed  a  loss  of  production  of  15.6  per  cent.,  and  the  mine 
fields  in  Kentucky,  the  Southern  Appalachian  fields  and  the 
southwestern  Virginia  fields  an  average  loss  of  29.7  per 
cent.,  due  to  car  shortage. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Alabama,  Kansas,  Missouri, 
Oklahoma,  Arkansas,  Iowa,  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific 
Coast  fields  the  car  service  was  within  5  per  cent,  of  nor- 
mal. Except  for  Alabama  the  bulk  of  the  output  of  these 
mines  goes  into  domestic  consumption  and  is  utilized  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  It  does  not  enter  into  the  trans- 
portation problem  in  the  congested  Eastern  territory. 

This  continued  shortage  of  cars  at  the  mines  in  the  fields 
supplying  the  Eastern  industrial  territory  has  had  the  effect 
of  keeping  mine  labor  idle  for  days  at  a  time,  and  in  some 
of  the  fields  has  cut  the  working  time  to  one  or  two  days  a 
week.  Under  these  conditions  the  mine  workers,  unable  to 
maintain  themselves  and  their  families  on  their  curtailed 
pay,  have  been  tempted  by  the  steady  employment  offered 
by  the  war  industries  in  the  manufacturing  centers. 

The  Fuel  Administration  is  gravely  apprehensive  lest  this 
condition  result  in  the  complete  demoralization  of  the  labor 
supply  of  the  bituminous  mining  industry.  Even  a  short 
continuance  of  these  car-supply  conditions  will  result  in 
the  forcing  out  of  the  mining  fields  the  labor  which  the 
mining  operators  and  the  Fuel  Administration  may  find 
it  impossible  to  replace,  even  if  the  railroads  are  unable  to 
offer  a  full  car  supply  to  the  mines  later  in  the  summer. 
Reports  to  the  Fuel  Administration  give  evidence  of  un- 
rest and  dissatisfaction  among  the  mine  workers  who 
throughout  the  past  year  have  given  patriotic  service,  even 
when  it  meant  a  personal  sacrifice. 


Among  the  causes  of  disturbance  curtailing  production 
is  the  unsettled  situation  regarding  contracts  for  railroad 
fuel.  This  question  is  under  consideration  by  the  Railroad 
and  Fuel  Administrators  and  will  be  settled  at  the  earliest 
moment  possible. 

The  Fuel  Administration  is  convinced  that  unless  there 
is  immediate  and  material  improvement  in  car  supply  effi- 
ciency, the  country  faces  the  certainty  of  a  serious  shortage 
of  bituminous  coal. 

The  Fuel  Administration  will  undertake  to  see  that  the 
preferred  classes  included  in  Preference  List  No.  1,  of  the 
Priority  Committee  of  the  War  Industries  Board  are  the 
first  to  receive  their  quota  of  the  limited  supply.  This  pri- 
orities list  includes  domestic  consumers  of  coal. 

Patriotic  cooperation  by  the  domestic  users  of  the  country 
in  the  effort  of  the  Fuel  Administration  to  secure  the  "early 
ordering"  of  next  winter's  domestic  coal  supply  has  filled 
up  many  of  the  retail  dealers  of  the  country  with  orders 
that  cannot  be  delivered  for  weeks  or  possibly  months. 
These  consumers  will  be  given  their  proper  preference,  how- 
ever, and  their  coal  will  be  delivered  just  as  rapidly  as  the 
railroads  can  move  it.  The  uncertain  state  of  the  supply 
makes  it  imperative  that  every  domestic  consumer  should 
have  his  order  in  the  hands  of  his  dealer  at  the  earliest 
possible   moment. 


National  and  State  Conventions 


American  Order  of  Stejim  Engineers        .  Philadelphia. 

Canadian  Assn.  of  Stationary  Ensineers. . .        London 

Univergal  Craftsmen  Council  of  Engineers. .  .  Cleveland 
National  Association  of  Stationary  Engineers. Cincinnati.    . 
Int.  Union  of  Steam  &  Operating  Engineers. .  .Cleveland 


California 
Illinois. . . 
Indiana 


N.  A.  S.  E.  STATE  ASSOCIATIONS 

San  Diego 

Ottawa     

Indianapolis 

Iowa Cedar  Rapids ,  . 

Kansas    Topeka 

Kentucky     

Michigan     Flint 

Minneapolis   Duluth 

Missouri      

New  England  States Bridgeport,  Conn. . 

New  Jersey Perth  Amboy 

New  York Brooklyn 


Ohio, 

Pennsylvania   . 

Texas 

West  Virginia. 

Wisconsin 


Cincinnati. 

.Chester 

Dallas 


June 
June 

Aug. 
Sept. 
Sept. 


June 
June 
June 
June 
May 

July 
Aug. 

July 
June 
June 
Sept. 
June 


Appleton     July 


11-13 

25-27 

12-17 

9-M 

9-M 


14-16 
5-  7 

26-28 

12-14 

I-  3 

10-12 
14-16 

10-12 
I-  2 

14-16 
8-  9 

20-21 


I&-20 


Section 


TArm^e 


This  photograph,  received  from  Poiver's  correspondent 
in  France,  shows  an  improvised  waterwheel  for  generating 
current  to  light  the  dugouts  of  a  French  battery. 


April  80,  1918 


POWER 


643 


IMrMltMIIMIIIIIIIII 


New  Publications 


GUAPIIICS.  By  H.  W.  SpaiiRlor  Pub- 
llslioil  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New 
Yorli  Cltv.  Cloth,  e  X  9i  in.,  95  pages. 
Price,  *1.25. 

The  book  contains  the  substance  of  lec- 
tures on  the  subject  of  graphics  given  to 
the  students  in  mechanical,  electrical  and 
chemical  eiiKineering  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  They  are  intended  to  cover 
only  fundamental  iirinciples,  and  those  fa- 
miliar with  the  suliject  will  rccogniuo  that 
the  methods  of  trealmcnt  used  by  the  many 
writers  have  been  utilized  in  their  prepara- 
tion. Many  of  the  short-cuts  in  common 
use  are  not  referred  to  in  the  text  as  the 
time  allotted  to  this  work  is  limited,  .and 
while  such  short-cuts  ai'e  of  special  value  in 
special  work,  they  are  readily  grasped  by 
(»ne  who  has  a  fundamental  knowledge  of 
Ihc  entire  subject 

The  author  states  th^'  it  is  intended  that 
the  book  shall  be  used  .s  a  reference  work. 
It    should    serve    this    purpose    well. 

RrCFRIGERATION  By  Milton  W.  Arro- 
wood.  Published  by  the  American 
Technical  Society,  Chicago.  Flexible 
leather.  7  x  45  in.,  272  pages  exclu- 
sive of  the  index. 
This  little  book  has  the  appearance  of  a 
handbook,  but  cannot  be  said  to  be  a  hand- 
book of  the  usual  type  as  the  author  has 
endeavored  to  treat  the  subject  more  from 
a  practical  than  from  a  theoretical  view- 
point, giving  only  enough  physical  theory 
on  the  problems  of  heat  measurements, 
pressure,  etc..  to  make  the  text  understand- 
able. On  the  whole  the  illustrations  in  the 
book,  which  are  mostly  line  drawings,  are 
well  done  Good  descriptions  of  the  va- 
rious systems  of  refrigeration  are  given, 
and  the  descriptions  of  commercial  ma- 
chines are  very  good.  In  that  part  of  the 
book  treating  of  ice  making  the  author 
deals  with  the  various  systems,  with  stor- 
ing and  selling  ice  and  with  ice-plant  in- 
sulation. About  38  to  40  pages  are  de- 
voted to  cold  storage.  Pages  143  to  160 
are  devoted  to  meXhods  of  refrigeration, 
proportions  between  tlie  parts  of  a  refriger- 
ating plant,  testing,  operation  and  man- 
agement of  the  plant. 

COAL:   THE  RESOURCE  AND  ITS  FUIiL 
UTILIZATION 

The  Division  of  Mineral  Technology, 
United  States  National  Museum  (Smith- 
sonian Institution),  is  producing  a  set  of 
papers  entitled  "The  Mineral  Industries  of 
the  United  States,  six  in  all,  the  aim  being 
to  present  a  constructive  analysis  of  the 
fuel  situation  in  the  United  States.  This 
series  is  known  as  Bulletin  102,  Parts  1  to 
6  inclusive.  Those  already  issued  are : 
Part  1,  Coal  Products:  An  Object  Lesson 
in  Resource  Administration.  Part  2.  Fer- 
tilizers: An  Interpretation  of  the  Situation 
in  the  United  States.  Part  3,  Sulphur:  An 
Example  of  Industrial  Independence.  Part 
4  (just  out).  Coal:  The  Resource  and  Its 
Full  Utilization.  Part  5  (in  preparation). 
Power:  Its  Significance  and  Needs.  Part 
6  (in  prepai-ation).  Petroleum:  A  Re- 
source   Interpretation. 

Part  4.  just  to  hand,  is  a  splendid,  dis- 
passionate analysis  of  the  fuel  situation, 
pointing  out  in  nontechnical  language  the 
things  that  are  necessary  and  must  ulti- 
mately be  done  to  correct  the  inherent  de- 
ficiencies in  the  utilization  of  coal.  In  spite 
of  ample  supplies  in  the  ground,  coal  in- 
adequately meets  its  obligations:  first, 
because  of  the  competitive  manner  in  which 
it  is  mined ;  second,  the  unnecessary  ex- 
tent to  which  it  is  transported  ;  and,  third, 
the  improper  way  in  which  it  is  used. 
The  Bulletin  contains  26  pages.  6  by  9  in  , 
and  is  worthy  of  careful  reading. 


StIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIDIIItllltl 


Personals 


viniiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiii 


O.  S.  Maple,  formerly  purchasing  assist- 
ant of  the  United  Kt;ites  Shipping  Board. 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C..  has  recently  been  appointed 
assistant  purchasing  officer  of  that  corpo- 
ration. 

W.  Nelwan  Smith,  who  was  for  some 
years  electric  traction  engineer  with  Wcst- 
inghouse  Church  Kerr  &  Co.,  and  more  re- 
cently efiicienc.v  engineer  of  the  American 
Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  is  at  present 
with  Sydney  E.  Junkins  &  ("o.,  engineers 
and  constructors,  of   Vancouver,   B.   C. 

riinrles  1*Iiilip  C'ftleniiin.  who  has  been 
vice-president  of  the  Worthington  Pimip 
and     Machinery     Corporation     since     May, 


iniG,  and  prior  to  that  was  receiver  of  the 
International  Steam  Pump  Co.  and  associ- 
ate companies,  which  have  since  been  re- 
organized Into  the  present  corporation,  has 
been  elected  president. 

J.  C.  RiK'ltwrll  has  been  promoted  from 
manager  tif  the  light  and  power  department 
to  general  manager  of  the  Manila  (P.  I.) 
Electric  Railroad  and  Light  Co.  He  joined 
the  operating  organization  of  the  J.  G. 
White  Management  Corporation,  New  York 
City.  In  l:tll.  and  was  assigned  to  the 
Manila  Electric  Railroad  and  Light  Co.  as 
manager  of  the  light  and  power  depart- 
ment. He  has  been  on  a  visit  to  the  United 
States  and  is  now  returning  to  Manila. 

dllllllllllllllllllllll I MM ml IIIIIIIIIIMIIIMII Illlllllllll|j 

I       Engineering  Affairs       [ 

riant  Kaitliieers'  Club — The  entertain- 
ment committee  made  a  trip  to  Providence 
on  Wednesday.  Apr.  24.  to  visit  the  Nar- 
ragansett  Electric  Light  Co..  and  to  inspect 
the  new  60,000-kw.  generator  set  and  the 
new  Leblanc  conden.ser.  In  the  evening. 
at  the  Boston  City  Club,  they  discussed  the 
question  of  proper  fire  and  police  protection 
in  large  manufacturing  plants. 

The   New  York   Chapter  of  the  American 

Association  of  Kncineera  concluded  its  flr.st 
year's  activity  with  a  dinner  and  speeches 
at  the  Grand  Hotel  on  the  evening  of  Apr. 
20.  The  speakers  were  R.  H.  Vanderbrook. 
retiring  chairman  of  the  chapter;  S.  J. 
Stone,  chairman-elect;  1.  L.  Birner,  secre- 
tary ;  William  Serton.  H.  H.  Bubor,  W.  J. 
Ash,  C.  H.  Nordell,  A.  C.  Davis  and  J.  P. 
Jones. 

The  Combined  .Associations  of  Greater 
Xew  York  N.  A.  S.  K.,  through  the  New 
York  State  Educational  Committee  an- 
nounce a  lecture  by  Mr.  Forde.  of  the 
Westinghouse  company,  on  the  evening  of 
May  4.  on  "Steam  Turbines  and  Auxiliary 
Apnaratus."  at  Ionic  Hall.  Terrace  Garden, 
155  E.  58th  St.,  New  York  City.  Through 
the  courtesy  of  Charles  S.  Bavier  a  visit 
will  be  made  to  the  power  plant  of  the 
Metropolitan  Insurance  Co.  Building.  Madi- 
son Ave.  and  23rd  St.,  New  Y'ork.  on  the 
evening  of  May  2. 

Boston  Eiigrineers'  Dinner — The  ninth  an- 
nual dinner  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers,  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  and  the  American  Institute  of 
Electrical  Engineers  will  be  held  at  the  Bos- 
ton City  Club.  Tuesday,  Apr.  30.  6:15  p  m. 
James  W.  Rollins  will  be  toastmaster  So 
far,  two  speakers  have  been  engaged.  W. 
H.  Blood,  Jr..  of  the  American  International 
Shipbuilding  Corporation,  will  speak  on 
"The  Greatest  Shipyard  in  the  World"  ;  Al- 
fred D.  Flynn,  secretary  of  the  Engineering 
Council,  will  speak  on  "The  Engineering 
Council.  Its  Progress  and  Changes."  Other 
speakers  likely  will  follow.  The  presidents 
of  the  societies  represented,  also  representa- 
tives of  the  Army  and  Navy,  have  been  in- 
vited as  guests. 

±IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIII)IMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItlli IIMIII null iiiiii 

I       Miscellaneous  News       I 


iiiiiiiitiiiiii' 


IIIIIIIMIIIMII 


lllllltlllllllllllr 


Tlirift-Stamp    Day    Advanced   to    Monday, 

May  tt — It  has  beon  decided  to  advance 
Thrift-Stamp  Day  in  the  United  States  from 
May  1  to  May  6.  in  order  to  avoid  conflict- 
ing" with  the  wind-up  of  the  Liberty  Loan 
drive,  which  ends  May  4.  So  remember 
your  new  slogan  is  "Sixth  of  May.  Thrift- 
Stamp  Day  in  the  U.  S.  A."  This  gives  you 
more  time  to  put  it  over  bigger  and  better 
than  ever.    Keep  hustling. 


SiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiMiir.iiiMiiiiiiiiiiMiii 


K-iiiiii'MiiiiiiiiiiirriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiii:       = 


Business  Items 


riiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiir     iiiiMiiiii 


iiiiMitiMiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiinn 


luiiiiiiimiimiiiiiMiii'  P 


The  Jolins-Pratt  Co.,  of  Hartford.  Conn.. 
has  appointed  Lucas  Blanco  &  Co.,  as  its 
agents  for  Porto  Rico,  Virgin  Islands.  Do- 
minican Republic  and  the  Republic  of  Haiti. 


IIIIMIMIIIIiniMllllllllllllllltlllllMIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIKIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIlim 

Trade  Catalogs  1 


•liimiiiiiiiMiiiiii 


IIMIIIIIII  lillllllillllll^ 


CeiitrifuKiil  Piinips — The  Wheeler  Con- 
denser and  Etiginecring  Co..  Carteret,  N.  J. 
Bulletin  108-B.  Pp.  SxlOJ  in.  Shows  the 
latest  Wheeler  turbtne-dri\'en  geared  centrif- 
ugal pumps,  for  either  scries  or  parallel 
operation ;  and  special  slow-speed  engine- 
driven  pumps. 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION    i 


Proposed   Work 

MasH.,  Canton^ — The  Springdale  Finishing 
Co.  will  build  a  1  story,  50x50  ft.  engine 
house  on  Pine  St..  Springdale.  A.  H.. 
Wright,  G3  State  St.,  Boston.  Arch.  Noted 
Apr.   16. 


N.  Y.,  RufTalo — The  Donner  Steel  Co.,  475 
Abbott  Rd.,  has  had  plans  prepared  for  the 
erection  of  a  2  story,  brick  and  steel  boiler 
shop,  locker,  etc.      Estimated  cost,  $20,614. 


N.  Y.,  KlmJra — The  Elmira  Water,  Light 
and  Power  Co.  has  been  authorized  by  the 
Public  Service  Commission  to  build  an  elec- 
tric transmission  line  from  here  to  Montour 
Falls.      F.  H.  Hill,  Supt. 


N.  Y.,  Newark — The  Board  of  Managers, 
State  Custodial  Asylum,  plans  to  build  ad- 
ditions and  alterations  to  its  heating  plant ; 
new  equipnient  will  be  installed.  Estimated 
cost,  $35,000. 


JJ.  Y.,  Niagara  Falls — The  Board  of  Di- 
rectors of  the  Niagara  Falls  Gas  and  Elec- 
tric Co.,  306  Niagara  St.,  will  soon  receive 
bids  for  a  gas  plant  to  be  erected  on  the 
Riverway.  Gas  making  machinery  in- 
cluding gas  holders,  etc.,  will  be  installed. 
Estimated  cost.  $500,000.  W.  L.  Adams. 
311  Falls  St.,  Engr. 

N.  Y.,  Ogdensburgr — The  New  Jersey  Zinc    ^ 
Co    plans  to  rebuild  its  power  house  which 
was  recently  destroyed  by  fire.     Loss  about 
$fOO,000. 


N.  Y.,  Thiells — The  Board  of  Managers, 
Letehworth  Village,  plans  to  build  an  addi- 
tional central  heating  plant  and  install 
equipment.      Estimated  cost,  $225,000. 

N.  Y.,  utica — The  Board  of  Managers, 
Utica  State  Hospital  Comm.,  Albany,  plans 
to  install  new  boilers  and  make  all  neces- 
sary changes  in  the  central  heating  plant 
at  Utica  State  Hospital.  Estimated  cost. 
$130,000. 

N.  J.,  Cape  May — The  Vulcan  Heat,  Light 
and  Power  Co.  plans  to  improve  the  equip- 
ment in  its  plant.     H.  H.  Ross,  Supt. 

jr.  .J.,  Newark — The  Board  of  Freehold- 
ers, Essex  Co..  will  receive  bids  until  May 
1  for  alterations  and  additions  to  the  heat- 
ing, piping  and  mechanical  equipment  in  the 
power  house  and  throughout  the  various 
buildings  of  the  Essex  County  Hospital, 
Overbrook.  Runyon  &  Carey,  845  Broad 
St.,  Newark,  Consult  Engr.     Noted  June  28. 

Penn.,  Bristol — The  Town  Council  plan:, 
to  change  tiie  motive  power  of  the  pumping 
station  from  steam  to  electricity. 


Penn.,  Harwood  Mines — The  Philadel- 
phia Electric  Co.,  10th  and  Chestnut  Sts., 
Philadelphia,  and  the  Electric  Bond  ant" 
Share  Co..  71  Bway..  New  York  City,  plans 
to  extend  their  electric  power  stations  here 
and  build  3  new  ones. 


Penn.,  Maueli  Chunk — The  Town  Council 
has  plans  under  consideration  for  improve- 
ments to  its  electric  street  lighting  system. 


Penn.,  Pliiladelpliin — The  Bureau  of 
Yards  and  Docks,  N'avy  Dept..  Wash.,  will 
soon  awjird  the  contract  for  the  installation 
of  3  electrically  operated  traveling  cranes 
foi'  its  air  craft  factory.  Estimated  cost, 
$56,000. 


l*enn..  Heading — The  Reading  Ry.  plans 
to  build  a  power  house  on  Tulip  and  Somer- 
set Sts  S.  T.  Wagner.  Reading  Terminal, 
Philadelphia,  Ch.  Engr. 


Ala..  Headland — City  voted  $10,000  bonds 
to  improve  its  electric  lighting  and  water- 
works systems. 


Ala..  Mobile— The  Moran  Shipbuilding 
Co.  plans  to  enlarge  its  electric  lighting 
plant  and  shipyards. 


644 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  18 


K.V..  Mount  Olivet — The  Mount  Olivet 
I'Jlectric  Light  and  Power  Co  plans  to  in- 
stall either  a  storage  battery  or  a  small 
engine  and  a  10  kw.,  220  volt,  d.  c.  gen- 
erator.     J.  H.  Kain,  Owner. 

Ohio.  Massillon — Massillon  Electric  and 
Oa.s  Co.  plans  to  rebuild  its  electric  lighting 
plant  which  was  recently  damaged  by  fire. 
Loss  about  $250,000.     P.  L.  O'Connor,  Supt. 

ni.,  Cliicago — The  Illinois  Central  plans 
(o  build  a  .$fiO,000  power  house  at  its  Bum- 
side  plant,  95th  and  Cottage  Grove  Ave.  A. 
S,   Baldwin,  35  East  11th  Place,   Ch.  Engr. 

m.,  Springfleld — The  St.  Johns  Hospital 
plans  to  install  wiring  and  a  heating  sys- 
tem. Estimated  cost,  $3000  and  $10,000  re- 
-spectively.  Helme  &  Helme,  Springfield, 
,\rch. 

lU.,  Springfield — The  Springfield  Light, 
Heat  and  Power  Co.  has  applied  to  the 
State  Utility  Commission  for  permission  to 
issue  $100,000  in  bonds;  the  proceeds  will 
bo  used  to  extend  its  mains  and  purchase 
boilers  and  mechancial  equipment.  J.  B. 
Lialby,  1157  North  3rd  St.,  Supt. 

Wis..  Butternut — The  Butternut  Electric 
Light  and  Power  Co.  plans  to  install  an  ad- 
ditional 3  wire  generator,  with  15  kw.  ca- 
paciy.     W.  J.  Schultz,  Mgr. 

Wis..  Milwaukee — The  C.  Ansted  Leather 
Co..  560  Commerce  St.,  plans  to  install  an 
additional  150  kw,  steam  generating  unit 
and  16  electric  motors  of  an  aggregate  of 
165  hp.      Estimated  cost  $10,000. 

Slinn.,  Tommald — City  has  plans  utider 
consideration  for  the  installation  of  an 
electric  lighting  system. 

Kan.,  Fern — City  plans  to  install  an 
electric  lighting  plant  here. 

Kan.,  Winchester — The  .Automatic  Elec- 
tric Light  Co.  of  Kansas  City  plans  to  in- 
stall an  electric  lighting  and  power  plant 
near  here. 


S.  D..  Bradley — The  Dakota  Northern 
Power  Co.  plans  to  build  a  steam  plant  and 
install  a  300  kw.  reciprocating  unit.  E.  H. 
Lewis,  Secy. 

N.  D„  FarKo — City  plans  to  install  an 
electric  lighting  plant  at  the  water  works 
station.      J.  J.  Jordan.  City  Engr. 

Mo.,  Kansas  City — The  Kenwanee  Boiler 
Co.,  1420  McGee  St..  is  in  the  market  for  a 
hand  power  or  electrically  driven  traveling 
crane  on  tracks,  similar  to  locomotive  type, 
with  20,000  lb.  capacity. 

Tex.,  Calvert— The  Calvert  Water.  Ice 
and  Electric  Co.  plans  to  e.xtend  its  electric 
power  transmission  line  from  here  to  Ere- 
mond.     A.  E.  Stoltz,  Mgr. 

Tex.,  Cl.vde — R.  Cook  plans  to  build  an 
electric  lighting  and  power  plant  here. 

Tex.,  Dallas — Smith  &  Whitney,  1405 
Southwestern  Life  Bldg.,  is  in  the  market 
for  a  300  kw.,  250  volt.  WX  2  or  3  wire  di- 
rect current  generating  set,  cross  compound, 
non  condensing,  non  releasing  Corliss  type 
engine :  an  engine  type  generator  without 
engine  but  for  direct  connection  to  engine 
of  above  type  would  be  considered. 

Tex.,  Nixon — ^The  Nixon  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Co  .  recently  incorporated  with 
}  12,000  capital  stock,  plans  to  build  an 
electric  light  and  power  plant.  J.  F.  Wood, 
interested. 

.Via.,    Birmingham — ^The   Tennessee   Coal. 

Iron  and  R.R .  Co.  plans  to  improve  its 
power  station  at  the  Ensley  blast  furnaces. 
Equipment  including  a  7500  IvW.  turbo  gen- 
erator.    J.  H.  Kain,  Owner. 


Vb.,  WUIiamsluirg — The  Williamsburg 
T'ower  Co.  has  inci-eased  its  capital  stock 
from  $25,000  to  $150,000  ;  the  proceeds  will 
be  used  to  build  additions  and  make  im- 
provements to  its  plant. 

Tex.,  Pleasanton — The  City  Council  has 
taken  o\'er  the  plant  of  the  Pleasant  Ice 
and  Electric  Co.  and  plans  to  install  addi- 
tional equipment  and  machinery.  F.  H. 
Burmeister.  Mgr. 


Tex.,  Round  Rock — S.  E.  Bergstron. 
Kerns,  plans  to  build  an  electric  lighting 
and  power  plant  here. 

Okla.,  Cyril — City  plans  to  build  an  elec- 
tric lighting  plant. 

N.  M.,  Clevis — City  voted  $25,000  bonds 
for  electrical  improvements. 

Wash.,  Chehalis — O.  E.  Ander.'son  and  as- 
sociates plan  to  build  a  power  plant  here 

Wash.,  Mondovi — The  Washington  Water 
Power  Co.  plans  to  install  electric  lights 
here. 


Wash.,  Snohomish — The  Snohomish  DatrA' 
Products  Co.  plans  to  install  an  electric 
motor  in  several  departments. 

Que-,  Montreal — ^Lamontague,  Ind.,  33S 
Notre  Dame  St.,  W.,  plans  to  build  a  power 
house.  Estimated  cost,  $10,000.  E.  Laurie 
&  Co.,  243  Bleury  St.,  Engr. 

Out.,  Cobalt — The  Mining  Corporation  of 
Canada.  Ltd.,  plans  to  install  electric  driv- 
en pumps  on  scows  and  will  purchase  mo- 
tors, pumps,  pipe,  etc. 

Sask.,  Areola — The  Areola  Light  and 
Power  Co.  plans  to  change  its  system  from 
single  phase  110  volts,  to  3  phase  2300 
volts.     G.  F.  Robert,  Mgr. 

Ont...  Haileybury — ^The  Dickson  Creek 
Mining  Co.  plans  to  install  electrically  driv- 
en drills  at  its  property  on  Dickson  Creek. 


CONTBACT.S   AWARDED 


X.  H.,  Goffstown — The  Manchester  Trac- 
tion. Light  and  Power  Co.  is  building  a  new 
power  house  and  a  dam  in  the  Greggs  Falls 
district  here.      E.  F.^rrell,  Engr. 

Mass.,  Boston — The  Bureau  of  Yards  & 
Docks,  Navy  Dept.,  Wash.,  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  a  new  power 
plant  at  the  Navy  Yard,  here.  Estimated 
cost,  $35,000. 

N.  J.,  Trenton — The  Crescent  Insulated 
Wire  and  Cable  Co.,  Olden  and  Taylor  Sts.. 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  a  3  storv. 
83  X  103  ft.  factory,  to  the  Barclav  White 
Co.,  1713  Sansom  St.  Estimated  cost,  $100.- 
000.  The  company'  will  install  an  entire 
steam  heating  system,  electric  elevator  and 
electric  lighting  system. 

Penn..  Philadelphia — The  G.  W.  Smith 
Co.,  49th  and  Botanic  Ave.,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  an  addition 
to  its  boiler  house,  to  J.  N.  Gill  and  Co., 
Otis  Bldg.     Estimated  cost.  $35,000. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  L.  Walther 
Manufacturing  Co..  Torresdale  Ave.  and  N 
St.,  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  erec- 
tion of  an  addition  to  its  boiler  plant,  to  G. 
H.  Thirsk,  1910  West  Berks  St.  Esti- 
mated cost,  $21,000. 

Ky.,  Nortonville — The  Norton  Coal  Min- 
ing Co.  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  an  addition  to  its  central  power 
plant,  to  the  Ruby  Lumber  Co.,  Madison- 
ville. 


Neb.,  I.lncoln — The  State  Board  ot  Con- 
trol has  awarded  the  contract  for  a  power 
house  to  be  erected  at  the  penitentiary, 
to  R.  C.  Stake.      Estimated  cost,  $13,380. 

Okla.,  Park  Hill — C.  Sells.  Commissioner 
of  Indian  Affairs.  Wash.,  D.  C.  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  installation  of  a  steam 
heating  plant  in  the  Cherokee  Training 
School,  to  the  Bradley  Heating  Co.,  St. 
Louis,  Mo. 


Ore.,  Helix — The  Helix  Mill  Co.  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  wiring  for  the 
installation  of  electric  light  i)ower  plant 
in  the  mill,  to  J.  Vaughn,  206  Ea-st  Cort  St., 
Pendleton. 


Calif.,  Fresno — The  San  Joaquin  Light 
and  Power  Co.  is  building  a  new  substa- 
tion east  of  the  Standard  reservoir  farm. 
New  equipment  including  four  1000  kva. 
transformers,  switches,  etc.,  will  be  install- 
ed.     A.  G.  Wishon,  Gen.  Mgr. 


THE  GOAL  MARKET 


Itoston — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  de- 
livered alongrside  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  ag-o  are  as  follows: 


\NTHBACITE 

Cirv.ulav 

.\:r.:  ■::,.  jins 

Individual 

Buckwheat     ,  . 
Rice    

S4.60 

S7.10— T..-!.-, 

Boiler   

Barlc.v     

.■!  (id 

li.ir, — H.4(l 

BITI'MINOUS 

BiUuiinious 

not    on    market 

Pocohontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hamp.ton 
Roads,  is  S4.  as  compared  with  $':3.85 — '2.00  a 
year  ago. 


*  All-rail   to  Boston  is  S;*?.60. 


t Water  coal. 


Nwv  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 

Apr.25.1i>18  Apr.  25.  1H18 

Pea    $4.90  $5.65 

Buckwheat    ■iAo(8>o.lo  4.80@5.r)0 

Barley    3.40 @ 3.65  3.80  0  4.50 

Rice    3.90@4.10  3.00@4.00 

Boiler    3.65  @  3.90  

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c. 
higheiv 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.     Mine 

Gross        Price  Net      Gross 


Central    Peinisylvania. .  $5.0ij 

Maryland — 

Mine-run    4.84 

Prepared    5.06 

Screening's    4.50 


$3.05 


$3.41 


2.85  3.19 

5.05  3.41 

3.55  2.85 


*The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabeth  port.  Port  John- 
son, Port  Reading,  Perth  Aniboy  and  Souih  Am- 
boy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Fort  Liberty,  Hobo- 
ken.  Weehawken.  Edg^ewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut 
tenber^.  St.  George  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ralte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5e.  hipher  than  to  the  lower  ports 


Philadelphia — Prire-=  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  line  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich 
mond  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

,, Line ^  / Tide ^ 

Apr.  35.  One  Yr.  Apr.  25,  One  Year 

1918           Aso  1918           Ago' 

Pea    $3.45        $2.80  $4.35        $3.70 

Barley    2.15          1.50  2.40          1.75 

Buckwheat    ..   3.15          3.50  3.75         3.40 

Rice     2.65          2.00  3.65          3.00 

BoUer     2.45          1.80  3.55          2.90 


Chicago — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
niinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

$3.35 — 3.50 


Prepared    sizes..  .S2.f).^ — 2.80 

Mine-run    2.40 — 2.55 

Screeningrs     2.15 — 2.30 


3.10 — ;i.2 


t.OO 


So.  111.,  Pocohontas.   Hockingr.Ea.st 
Pennsylvania        Kentucky   and 
Smokeless  Coals    and  W.  Va.         West  Va.   Splint 
Prepared    sizes  .  .$2.60 — 2.85  $2.85 — 3.35 

Mine-run   2.40 — 2.60  2.60 — 3.00 

Screenings     3.10 — 2.55  2.35 — 2.75 

St.   Louis — Prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  mines  are 
as  follows: 

Williamson  and  Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

April  25.  April  25,  April  2.^>. 

1918  1918  1918 

6-in,  lump $3.fi5-3.00  $2.65-2.80  $2.65-2.80 

2-in.  lump  ....    2.65-3.00  2.65-3.80  3.35-2.50 

Steam    egs 2. 65-2. so  2.35-2.50  2.25-2.40 

Mine-run    3.45-2.60  2.45-2.60  2.45-2.60 

No.    1    nut 3.65-3.00  2.65-2.80  2.65-2.8(1 

3-in.    screen....    2.15-2.40  3.15-3.40  3.15-2.4(1 

No.  5  washed..    3.15-2.30  3.15-3.30  3.16-3.30 


Biiniiiigliiim — Current  prices  per  net  ton  fob. 
mines  are  as  follows: 

Mine-        Lump    Slack  and 


&  Nut  Screenings 

$2.15  $1.65 

3.40  1.90 

3.65  3.15 


Run 

Bi?  Seam $1.90 

Pratt,    Ja?per,    Corona     2.15 
lilack  Creek.  Cahaba.      2.40 
Government  fig-ures. 

Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  reg-ular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
S'enerall.v  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according-  to  a  regular  schedule. 


POWER 


L' 


itiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiini 


iiiMHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiirniDiiii 


iitiKimmiiiiii 


VoL  47 


NFAV  YORK,  MAY  7.  1918 


I IMIUIMItllllMlllli 


No.  19 

II iMIIIilltltllMllliailllllllU' 


What  Real  Effort  Can  Do 


A  POORLY-DRESSED  young  man  stood  outside 
a  massive  brick  buiidinR  listening  to  the  dull 
humming  sound  that  emerged  from  the  inside, 
and  watched  for  the  approach  of  a  big  blue  touring 
car  that  he  knew  would  soon  pause  to  let  out  a  big, 
keen-eyed  individual,  the  general  superintendent  of 
one  of  the  largest  central  stations  in  the  Middle 
West.  The  young  man,  whom  we  will  call  Mr. 
Lane,  approached  the  superintendent  and  asked  for 
a  "job."  "Got  a  trade?"  asked  the  superintendent. 
"No,  sir,"  replied  Lane,  "but  I'd  like  a  chance.  I 
am  interested  in  electricity."  Lane's  sincerity  of 
manner  appealed  to  the  superintendent  and  he  was 
told  to  come  inside. 

Once  inside,  Lane  was  stunned  at  the  magnitude 
of  the  place.  Powerful  electric  generators  were 
driven  by  massive  steam  engines  and  turbines;  an 
overhead  electric  crane  was  lifting  a  huge  casting 
off  the  floor  to  be  put  in  its  place  in  the  assemlling 
of  a  new  unit;  engineers  and  oilers  were  moving 
about,  and  up  and  down  the  machinery  on  the  gal- 
leries, which  wei'e  connected  by  narrow  gangways 
with  brass  guard  rails.  There  were  whistles  and 
bells,  and  colored  lights  and  what  not,  and  Lane's 
fondest  hope  was  to  help  handle  these  monsters 
whose  constant  motion  fascinated  him. 

"Well,  young  man,"  said  the  superintendent,  "what 
do  you  want  to  do?"  Lane  replied:  "I  am  not  par- 
ticular about  what  I  do;  what  I  want  is  an  oppor- 
tunity to  learn  and  get  ahead."  "Any  education?" 
asked  the  superintendent.  "I  only  completed  the 
eighth  gi-ade  in  public  school,"  replied  Lane;  "I 
have  been  working  on  a  farm  for  my  brother." 
"Humph!"  exploded  the  superintendent;  "not  very 
much  experience  behind  you,  young  man,  but  I'll 
put  you  to  work."  So  Lane  was  put  on  the  payroll 
at  one  dollar  per  day  and  was  told  to  report  for 
work  the  next  day. 

Lane  eagerly  waited  for  his  first  day  among  those 
big,  noisy  machines.  When  he  appeared  at  the  office, 
he  was  immediately  put  to  work — washing  windows. 
Dirty,  greasy,  grimy  windows  they  were,  too,  but 
he  did  a  thorough  job;  he  cleaned  every  window  in 
that  station,  wiped  the  glazed  brickwork  and  cleaned 
up  some  of  the  out-of-the-way  corners  around  the 
station.  He  also  found  time  to  clean  the  oflSce  fur- 
niture and  the  glasswork  about  the  superintendent's 
office  every  day.  He  kept  his  eyes  and  ears  open 
and  used  his  work  as  a  stepping  stone  to  something 
better.  He  was  soon  put  in  the  repair  gang,  where 
he  handled  big  sledgehammers  and  wrenches  ten 
hours  a  day.  He  kept  plugging  along,  developing 
his  acquaintance  with  the  operating  crews.  He  got 
to  know  Jansen,  chief  operator  on  the  switchboard, 
pretty  well.  Jansen  had  worked  his  way  up,  and 
he  admired  Lane  and  his  bulldog  tenacity.  As  time 
went  on  Lane  got  pretty  well  acquainted  with  the 
power-house  gang.  He  worked  in  the  "gang"  on 
repairs  for  over  two  years,  and  became  a  first-class 
handy  man;  he  got  to  know  every  pipe  line  in  the 
place,  and  he  knew  just  how  to  go  about  it  to  start 
overhauling  the  machines.     By  this  time  he  decided 


to  drop  the  niecnanicai  ena  oi  the  gang  and  special- 
ize on  electricity,  so  he  asked  for  a  chance  on  the 
switchboard.  He  was  enrolled  as  one  of  the  switch- 
board crew  and  put  to  work  cleaning  generators, 
wiping  switchboards  and  oil  switches.  One  day 
each  week  he  was  helper  to  the  regular  switchboard 
operator — here  is  where  he  began  to  develop.  When 
one  of  the  substation  operators  quit,  Lane  got  his 
place.  After  a  year  in  the  substation  he  was  put 
back  in  the  power  house  as  regular  board  operator. 
He  now  started  to  do  things;  he  recommended  little 
improvements  that  began  to  show  the  superintendent 
his  capacity.  After  a  couple  of  years  on  the  board 
as  operator  he  was  a  well-trained  employee. 

About  this  time  Jansen,  the  chief  operator,  re- 
signed to  accept  a  better  position  elsewhere.  He 
recommended  Lane  for  his  place,  and  Lane  got  to 
be  chief  operator.  Here  is  where  his  troubles  began, 
and  he  was  called  on  to  use  extraordinary  judg- 
ment in  the  discharge  of  his  duties.  Some  of  the 
other  operators  had  longed  to  get  Jansen's  berth, 
and  it  did  not  increase  Lane's  prestige  with  his  men 
when  they  saw  him  go  around  them  in  promotion. 
There  was  a  reason  for  his  promotion,  but  they 
couldn't  or  didn't  see  it.  He  studied  hard,  worked 
hard  and  did  not  know  the  latest  cabaret  singer  or 
how  many  ingredients  there  were  in  a  good  cocktail ; 
but  he  did  know  the  value  of  work.  He  put  every 
ounce  of  energy  that  he  possessed  into  his  work, 
and  his  love  of  impartiality  and  equal  justice  soon 
won  over  his  subordinates.  He  knew  the  value  of 
concentrated  effort  and  self-reliance.  He  was  chief 
operator  for  three  years,  then  became  load  dis- 
patcher. Here  he  again  showed  his  master  mind 
by  countless  new  methods  of  load  manipulation,  es- 
pecially during  peak  loads.  From  this  he  went  into 
electric  repairs,  then  to  electric  construction.  He 
became  foreman  of  electric  construction  with  100 
men  under  him.  He  had  personal  charge  of  the  con- 
struction of  two  new  stations,  in  the  electrical  end, 
and  since  then  has  been  promoted  to  electrical  super- 
intendent of  one  of  the  largest  electrical  syndicates 
in  America.  He  has  a  thoroughly  organized  depart- 
ment of  250  men  under  him,  a  corps  of  assistants 
who  have  been  trained  just  as  he  was,  from  the  bot- 
tom round  of  the  ladder.  Discipline  is  one  of  his 
mottoes,  and  his  department  shows  it. 

Fearless,  loyal  and  true  as  steel,  severely  strict, 
yet  patient  when  essential — Lane  has  rounded  into 
a  grand  old  man.  Loved  by  one  and  all  who  come 
in  contact  with  him,  a  born  leader  among  men,  he 
owes  his  success  to  his  keen  realization  of  the  value 
of  hard  and  conscientious  labor.  Not  a  college  man, 
but  a  natural-born  thinker,  abnormally  developed 
through  his  keen  insight  and  experience  as  he 
traveled  through  the  college  of  life.  He  is  today 
an  acknowledged  authority  in  his  profession,  has 
patent  rights  on  some  complicated  electrical  devices 
and  is  filling  one  of  the  really  large  electrical  posi- 
tions of  today.  He  never  sat  down  and  wished  for 
success — he  got  busy,   and   commandeered    it. 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiin 


646 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  19 


Central-Station  Heating  in  Detroit 

By  J.  H.  WALKER 

Superintendent  of  Central  Heating,  Detroit  Edison  Company 


Features  of  the  live-steam  heating  plants  and 
system  of  the  Detroit  Edison  Co.  Reasons  ivhy 
live  steam  replaced  exhaust  steam  for  district 
heating. 


CENTRAL  heating  as  a  public  utility  was  originally 
conceived  upon  the  idea  of  utilizing  exhaust  steam 
from  electric  generating  units.  The  majority  of 
the  systems  in  operation  to- 
day, excepting  the  numer- 
ous hot-water  installations, 
use  exhaust  steam  as  the 
distributing  medium  and  by 
combining  the  heating  and 
electrical  systems  secure 
high  thermal  efficiency.  In 
some  instances,  however,  it 
has  proved  more  desirable 
from  a  broader  economic 
standpoint  to  distribute  for 
heating  live  steam  at  a  rel- 
atively high  pressure  in- 
stead of  exhaust  steam  and 
to  operate  independently 
condensing  generating 
plants.  Such  was  the  case 
in  Detroit,  and  it  is  the 
purpose  of  this  article  to 
describe  some  of  the  fea- 
tures of  the  live-steam  heat- 
ing plants  and  systems  of 
the  Detroit  Edison  Co.  and 
to  discuss  the  reasons  that 
led  to  the  abandonment  of 
exhaust-steam  heating  in 
favor  of  the  live-steam 
method.  The  present  heat- 
ing system  in  Detroit  is  a 
combination  of  the  systems 
of  the  Central  Heating  Co. 
and  the  Murphy  Power  Co., 
which  were  taken  over  by 
the  Edison  company  in  1910 
and  1914,  respectively.  The 
district  served  is  about  two 
miles  long  and  one-half 
mile  wide  and  includes  the 
central  business  district 
and  what  was  formerly  an 
exclusive  residential  dis- 
trict, although  now  gradu- 
ally changing  to  an  apart- 
ment-house and  business 
section.  The  total  length  of 
mains  is  about  22  miles, 
and  approximately  17  0  0 
customers  are  served,  the 
buildings    heated    being 


FIG, 


shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  amount  of  radiation  connected 
aggregates  about  2,600,000  sq.ft.  There  are  four  boiler 
plants  having  in  all  17,470  rated  boiler  horsepower.  In 
the  year  1917  a  total  of  ], 769.000,000  lb.  of  steam  was 
sold.  The  steam  is  used  principally  for  heating  build- 
ings, but  a  considerable  amount  is  used  for  cocking 
and  water-heating  purposes.  Only  a  small  quantity  is 
sold  for  power  uses,  and  this  service  is  being  gradually 
discontinued. 

The  pressure  carried  on  one  section  of  the  distribution 

mains  constituting  about 
one-third  of  the  total  sys- 
tem is  approximately  30  lb., 
while  the  pressure  on  the 
remaining  sections,  which 
were  originally  operated  as 
exhaust-steam  systems,  is 
now  from  6  to  12  lb.  and  is 
necessarily  increased  from 
year  to  year  as  the  load  in- 
creases. It  is  expected 
that  eventually  the  entire 
system  will  be  operated  at 
a  pressure  of  30  lb.  or 
higher.  The  pressure  is 
limited  at  present  by  the 
low  allowable  pressure  of 
the  expansion  fittings  and 
in  some  cases  by  the  lack 
of  reducing  valves  in  the 
consumers'  buildings.  All 
new  construction  is  built 
for  125  lb.  nominal  work- 
ing pressure.  In  the  part 
of  the  system  on  which  the 
pressure  is  nominally  30  lb., 
only  10  lb.  is  guaranteed 
at  the  consumer's  service 
valve,  this  minimum  pres- 
sure having  been  found  to 
be  entirely  adequate  for 
cooking  purposes.  Thus 
there  is  available,  under  ex- 
treme conditions,  a  pres- 
sure gradient  throughout 
the  system  of  20  lb.  This 
adds  considerably  to  the 
flexibility  of  operation  and 
to  the  capacity  of  the  dis- 
tribution mains.  The  boiler 
pressure  carried  in  the 
plants  is  130  lb.,  and  the 
steam  is  delivered  direct  to 
the  heating  system  through 
reducing  valves.  In  com- 
paring the  relative  advan- 
tages of  exhaust-steam  and 
live-steam  operation,  the 
obvious  advantage  of  the 
DETROIT  EDISON  CO-    formcr  method  is  the  ther- 


May  7,  1918 


POWER 


647 


f^ 


Willie  Av9.  Plant 


Corx'^YGjy  yt.'  Pldr\t 


Pcirk  PldCG  Plant 


Fcirmer  >/\.  Pknt 


FIG.    2.      HEATING   PLANTS    OF  THK    DETROIT    EDISON    COMPANY 


648 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  10 


mal  economy  made  possible  by  utilizing  the  heat  in  the 
exhaust  steam  instead  of  throwing  it  away,  as  is  done  to 
a  great  extent  in  a  condensing  plant.  Or,  looking  at  the 
matter  from  the  opposite  viewpoint,  to  carry  the  steam 
through  electric  generating  units  before  delivering  it 
to  the  heating  system  makes  possible  the  generating 
of  electrical  energy  at  a  low  fuel  cost.  One 
great  disadvantage  in  distributing  exhaust 
steam,  however,  is  the  size  of  the  distribution 
mains  required.  If  turbines  are  installed,  ex- 
hausting into  the  heating  sy.stem  at  a  relatively 
low  pressure,  the  pressure  differential  through- 
out the  system  is,  of  necessity,  very  small,  and 
this,  together  with  the  higher  specific  volume 
of  the  steam,  requires  the  use  of  much  larger 


out  as  an  exhaust-steam  system,  has  several  hundred 
feet  of  20-  and  16-in.  pipe  and  the  pipes  throughout 
are  considerably  larger  than  in  the  live-steam  system. 
The  two  systems  cover  nearly  equal  areas  and  serve 
about  equal  amounts  of  radiation. 

The  much  greater  investment  in  underground  lines 
required  in  an  exhaust-steam  system,  due  to 
their  large  size,  is  perhaps  the  most  potent  ar- 
gument in  favor  of  live-steam  operation.  A 
further  phase  of  the  matter  has  developed  in 
Detroit  during  recent  years.  Owing  to  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  heating  load  the  original 
exhaust  steam  mains,  once  thought  to  be  of 
ample  size,  have  become  in  many  cases  entirely 
inadequate  at  exhaust-steam  pressures.    The  re- 


FIG.    3.      SECTION.A.L    ELEVATION    OF   THE  CONGRESS  STREET  HEATING  PLANT 


pipes  than  is  the  case  when  steam  at  a  higher  pressure 
is  used. 

A  good  example  of  this  condition  exists  in  Detroit. 
The  largest  pipes  in  the  portion  of  the  system  operated 
at  30  lb.  pressure  are  12  and  10  in.,  while  the  system 
formerly  operated  by  the  Murphy  Power  Co.  and  laid 


cent  change  to  live-steam  operation  with  a  higher  pres- 
sure gradient  has  increased  the  capacity  of  the  system. 
Had  this  not  been  done,  it  would  have  been  necessary 
to  replace  the  large  trunk  mains  with  still  larger  ones. 
The  installation  of  high-pressure  feeders,  as  will  be 
described  later,  has  also  been  of  inestimable  value  in 


May  7,  1918 


POWER 


649 


the  transmission   of  steam,   and   their   use   would   be 
impossible  with  complete  exhaust-steam  operation. 

Another  equally  important  point  against  exhaust- 
steam  operation  concerns  the  investment  in  plant  equip- 
ment. The  amount  of  generating  capacity  that  could 
be  installed  in  the  heating  plants  might  aggregate,  at 
the  outside,  5000  kw.  This  capacity  would  not  affect 
in  the  slightest  degree  the  actual  size  of  the  company's 
main  generating  stations,  in  which  the  unit  most  re- 
cently added  is  of  45,000  kw.  capacity.  The  investment 
represented  by  the  units  in  the  heating  plants,  together 
with  the  building  space  occupied,  would  therefore  rep- 
resent additional  investment,  the  annual  charges  for 
which,  because  of  the  poor  annual  load  factor  of  tha 
units,  would  be  relatively  high  per  kilowatt-hour  gen- 
erated. Nor  would  the  investment  in  transmission  lines 
from  the  main  generating  stations  be  in  any  way  re- 
duced. These  factors,  together  with  the  cost  of  th? 
necessary  attendance  per  kilowatt-hour — much  greater 
than  that  in  the  main  generating  stations — would  also 
tend  to  offset  the  saving  due  to  the  lower  fuel  cost  of 
the  current  generated. 


engineer,  and  the  operation  of  the  plant  is  controlled  al- 
most entirely  from  the  firing  floor.  Fig.  3  is  a  cross- 
section  of  the  plant,  and  Fig.  4  is  a  plan  view  of  the 
present  section. 

In  any  steam-power  plant  an  appreciable  economy  can 
be  gained  if  the  power  for  driving  the  auxiliaries  is  ob- 
tained from  a  prime  mover  whose  exhaust  is  utilized  in 
heating  the  feed  water.  Ordinarily,  this  is  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  steam-driven  auxiliaries.  The  advantages 
of  motor  drive,  however,  as  regards  speed  regulation, 
low  maintenance  cost  and  little  attendance  are  well  rec- 
ognized. In  the  Congress  Street  plant  the  advantages  of 
both  kinds  of  drive  will  be  secured  by  means  of  a  house- 
service  turbo-generator  whose  exhaust  will  be  utilized  in 
heating  the  feed  water  and  which  will  supply  current  to 
the  motor-driven  auxiliaries.  The  size  of  the  unit,  750 
kw.,  is  such  that  a  good  annual  load  factor  will  be  se- 
cured, when  the  plant  is  completed,  with  all  the  exhaust 
used  in  heating  the  feed  water.  A  considerable  amount 
of  current  in  excess  of  the  requirements  of  the  auxil- 
iaries will  be  generated  and  will  be  fed  to  the  Edison 
distribution   system.     The  load  on  the  generator  will 


Temporary    Waff--. 


Con  trol 
Sage 
Board--.. 


y-Boifer   Control.^ 
1        Boards  1 


750  KtV.  GENERATOR 


FIG.     4.       PLAN    OP    PRESENT    SECTION   OP   CONGRESS    STREET    STATION 


The  four  heating  plants  are  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The:- 
are  equipped,  for  the  most  part,  with  Stirling  boilers 
and  underfeed  stokers.  The  newest  is  the  Congress 
Street  plant,  the  first  boiler  unit  of  which  was  put 
into  service  in  December,  1917.  This  plant  is  designed 
to  contain,  eventually,  10,000  rated  boiler  horsepower, 
consisting  of  four  1300-hp.  units  and  two  of  2400  hp., 
capable  of  being  operated  at  200  per  cent,  of  rating 
continuously.  The  present  section  contains  the  first 
two  of  the  smaller  boilers.  They  are  Stirling  boilers 
of  the  "W"  type,  quite  similar  in  cross-section  to  the 
large  Delray  and  Connors  Creek  boilers.  They  are  fired 
from  both  sides  with  Taylor  stokers. 

In  the  design  of  the  plant  an  effort  was  made  to  select 
and  arrange  the  equipment  so  that  the  size  of  the  oper- 
ating crew  would  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  To  this  end 
the  various  auxiliary  machines  are  located  in  so  far  as 
possible  so  as  to  be  within  easy  reach  of  the  operating 


be  adjusted  as  required,  so  as  to  furnish  the  proper 
amount  of  exhaust  steam.  By  this  means  a  large  quan- 
tity of  electrical  energy  will  be  generated  at  a  low  unit 
cost,  without  the  disadvantages  of  an  exhaust-steam 
distribution  system.  The  size  of  the  unit  is  not  such  that 
any  additional  attendance  will  be  required,  nor  will  it 
occupy  any  considerable  building  space. 

The  turbo-generator  and  the  boiler-feed  pumps  are  lo- 
cated on  the  firing  floor.  Both  motor-driven  and  turbine- 
driven  pumps  are  provided,  the  former  being  the  ones 
ordinarily  in  use  and  the  steam-driven  pumps  being  re- 
served for  emergency  service.  No  injectors  are  pro- 
vided. 

Like  the  others,  the  Congress  Street  plant  is  de- 
pendent for  its  water  supply  upon  the  city  mains.  To 
insure  against  interruption  of  the  supply  in  case  of 
failure  of  the  city  water  pressure,  "booster"  pumps 
are  provided  to  augment,  when  necessary,  the  pressure 


650 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


in  the  mains,  sufficiently  to  raise  the  water  to  the 
boiler-feed  pumps.  The  booster  pumps  are  in  the  sub- 
basement  and  are  driven  through  vertical  shafts  by 
vertical  turbines  and  motors  on  the  firing  floor.  As 
long  as  the  city  mains  are  full  of  water,  even  though 
the  pressure  be  low,  the  plant  will  not  be  without  water. 


t 

\nilp 

-   Pr 

es<:ii 

rp 

U- 

ressure  Droo  thr 

Red 

icin^ 

Val 

u 

D 

^ 

_,   /S-/^  . 

■il^y 

^ 

^°iL 

a. 

"-V 

"% 

t 

— 

.L/G 

NT 

„— Z. 

oao 

N 

4- 



— — 

^ 

Dis 

'ribu 

fion 

Ft 

edit 

9  A 

mt' 

P 

'essL 

ire 

Distance       along       Pipe 
FIG.   5.     PRESSURE  DROP  IN  FEEDER 

Storage  tanks  of  a  capacity  sufficient  to  supply  the 
plant  for  about  one  hour  when  operating  at  maximum 
capacity  are  provided  as  an  additional  safeguard. 

As  very  little  of  the  condensation  is  returned  to  the 
plant  from  consumers'  buildings,  purification  of  the 
large  amount  of  raw  water  was  considered  advisable. 
The  Detroit  River  water  is  not  a  bad  boiler  water, 
containing  but  seven  grains  of  total  solids  per  gallon. 


RANsmnER 


RECORDCP  FIG.  7 

Loco  fed  at  Boiler 
Plant 


37&W  FifE55uRl 
CONNEaiON 


Ell 


IB  RISEff  TO 
SURFACE  MAINS 


tiiuuuiu 


..-;a J ^^^FtEOER 


SUP  JOINT 


__  -  F1S.8 

FIG  6 
PIG.  6.     BOX  FOR  TRANSMITTER.     FIG.  7.     LONG-DIST.\NCK 
GAGE.      FIG.    8.      ENLARGEMENT  OF   FEEDER  AT 
FEEDING   POINT 

Live-steam  purifiers,  two  to  each  boiler,  are  employed 
to  precipitate  the  scale-forming  materials.  Careful  re- 
search in  one  of  the  older  plants  has  demonstrated  that 
there  is  a  small  amount  of  additional  precipitation  of 
calcium  sulphate  in  the  boiler  itself  due  to  the  concen- 
trating action  that  takes  place.  Though  relatively  small 
in  amount,  the  scale  deposited  on  the  tubes  has  been . 
sufficient, .at -high  evaporation  rates  and  under  certain 
extreme  conditions,  to  cause  overheating  and  failure  of 
the  tubes.  In  all-the  plants  sodium  carbonate  is  now  in- 
jected into  the  boiler-feed  water  in  carefully  graduated 
amounts  just  sufficient  to  insure  the  complete  conver- 


sion of  the  scale-forming  sulphate  to  the  nonscale-form- 
ing  carbonate  which  is  removed  in  the  blowoff. 

Since  the  plants  are  situated,  perforce,  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  railroads,  it  is  necessary  to  haul  the 
coal  to  them  by  motor  truck.  The  fuel  is  received  at  two 
coaling  stations  located  on  railroad  sidings  and  is  there 


600       1000      1500 


FIG.  9    STEAM  DISTRIBUTIO.V  SYSTEM.  SHO'mNG  FEEDERS 

crushed  and  raised  to  overhead  bunkers,  from  which  it 
is  taken  by  the  trucks.  Each  truck  carries  a  bucket 
of  six  tons  capacity  and  pulls  a  trailer  similarly  loaded. 

At  the  Congress  Street  plant  the  buckets  are  hoisted 
by  an  overhead  traveling  crane  and  are  emptied  into 
hoppers  from  which  belt  conveyors  distribute  the  coal 
to  the  overhead  bunkers. 

Elimination  of  all  ash-conveying  machinery  is  made 
possible  at  Congress  Street,  by  the  placing  of  the  boil- 
ers at  a  sufficient  height  to  permit  the  ash  hoppers  be- 
neath them  to  be  emptied  directly  into  the  trucks  that 
haul  the  ashes  away. 


May  7.  1918 


POWER 


651 


One  rather  unusual  feature  of  the  Detroit  system  us 
the  method  employed  for  distributing  the  steam.  Al- 
though the  first  mains  were  installed  but  fifteen  years 
ago  and  the  majority  of  them  much  more  recently,  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  city  and  the  connecting  of  large 
buildings  at  remote  parts  of  the  system  have  rendered 
the  mains  entirely  inadeciuate.     To  meet  this  condition 


FIG.        10.         SIX-FOOT 
TUNNKl. 


-  -    6'-IO' A 

FK!  11.         EIGHT-FOOT 

Tl'NNKL 


the  original  pipes  are  treated  as  distribution  mains, 
from  which  the  service  connections  are  made,  and  feed- 
ers are  installed  to  transmit  the  steam  from  the  plants 
to  certain  points  in  the  distribution  network.  No  build- 
ings whatever  are  served  from  these  feeders,  their  func- 
tion being  simply  to  transmit  steam  to  the  various  cen- 
ters of  load.  The  scheme  may  be  compared  to  that 
used  in  electrical  distribution  in  which  feeders,  radiating 
from  the  generating  station,  carry  current  with  a  large 
voltage  drop  to  various  points  in  the  network  of  mains. 

In  selecting  the  pipe  sizes  for  such  feeders,  advan- 
tage is  taken  of  the  large  differential  between  boiler 
pressure  and  distribution  pressure  to  i-educe  the  size  of 
the  pipes  by  allowing  the  pressure  drop  to  take  place 
largely  along  the  pipe  itself.  In  fact,  under  maximum 
conditions  the  entire  pressure  drop  could  be  allowed  to 
take  place  in  the  pipe  instead  of  in  the  reducing  valve. 
This  greatly  increases  the  capacity  of  the  feeder  and 
allows  the  use  of  relatively  small  pipes.  The  steam  is 
delivered  from  the  boiler  header  to  each  feeder  through 
a  reducing  valve,  and  the  pressure  carried  is  adjusted 
so  as  to  maintain  the  required  distribution  pressure 
at  the  remote  end  of  the  feeder.  The  pressure  drop  in 
such  a  feeder  is  illustrated  graphically  in  Fig.  5.  For 
a  light  load  the  pressure  drop  takes  place  largely  in  the 
reducing  valve,  while  for  a  heavy  load  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  total  drop  occurs  in  the  pipe  itself. 

A  record  of  the  pressure  existing  at  the  feeding  point 
is  furnished  to  the  engineer  at  the  plant  by  means  of  an 
electrically  operated  long-distance  recording  gage,  and 
the  pressure  on  the  feeder  is  adjusted  as  required  so  as 
to  maintain  the  proper  pressure  at  the  feeding  point. 
A  gage  of  this  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The  street  box 
in  which  the  transmitter  is  placed  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

The  velocity  of  the  steam  in  feeders  of  this  kind  be- 
comes extremely  high  under  conditions  of  heavy  load, 
reaching,  in  some  actual  cases,  75,000  ft.  per  min.  Ow- 
ing to  the  large  quantities  of  steam  flowing,  the  radia- 
tion loss  per  pound  of  steam  is  practically  negligible 
and  the  expansion  is  nearly  adiabatic,  the  steam  reach- 
ing the  feeding  point  in  a  superheated  condition.  It  is 
possibly  due  to  this  fact  that,  in  spite  of  the  high 
velocities  attained,  there  has  been  no  noticeable  erosion 
of  the  pipe. 


To  reconvert  some  of  the  velocity  head  of  the  steam 
into  static  head,  the  velocity  of  flow  is  reduced  iit  the 
end  of  the  feeder  by  a  gradual  enlargement  of  the 
pipe.  A  typical  connection  of  this  sort  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8. 

There  are,  in  all,  six  of  these  high-velocity  feeders  in 
service,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9.  Each  is  equipped  with  a 
long-distance  gage  and  is  operated  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed. 

The  heating  system  includes,  in  all,  about  10,000  ft. 
of  walking  tunnels.  Tunnels  are  almost  a  necessity 
where  several  pipes  are  to  be  installed,  particularly  in 
the  congested  districts  where  the  blockading  of  streets 
for  the  construction  or  maintenance  of  the  pipes  would 
be  a  burden  upon  the  public.  The  tunnels  are  all  of 
brick  with  concrete  floors  and  are  built  in  the  horseshoe 
shape,  as  in  Fig.  10.  They  are  from  30  to  40  ft.  below 
the  surface.  The  greater  part  of  the  tunnels  is  about  6 
ft.  high  by  6  ft.  wide,  and  they  contain  from  one  to  three 
steam  pipes  and  a  return  line.  One  section  is  8  ft.  high 
by  8  ft.  wide  and  contains  room  for  several  pipes,  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  11.  Under  the  rather  favorable  soil 
conditions  existing  in  Detroit,  waterproofing  of  the  tun- 
nels, except  in  a  few  locations,  is  unnecessary. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  total  length  of  surface  mains 
is  installed  in  wood  casing  and  the  remainder  in  a  con- 
crete conduit  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  12.     The  latter 


-  -    i\ 


Tar  Paper 


FIO.    12.     CONCRETR  CONDinT  FOR  TIXDERGROUND  IMPF.S 

type  of  construction  has  proved  very  satisfactory  and  is 
being  used  on  all  new  work.  It  is  made  of  common  ma- 
terials, is  simple  to  install  and  is  undoubtedly  long-lived. 
Though  not  entirely  waterproof,  it  is  sufficiently  so  for 
ordinary  conditions. 

A  test  was  made  in  1913-14  to  determine  the  amount 
of  condensation  formed  in  the  distribution  mains.  In 
a  part  of  the  system  operated  at  that  time  at  a  pressure 
of  about  5  lb.,  the  condensation  per  hour  per  .square  foot 
of  external  pipe  surface  was  0.0511   lb.     For  a  section 


652 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


operated  at  25  lb.  pressure,  the  corresponding  figure  was 
0.0593  lb.  Both  sections  were  laid  partly  in  wood  casing 
and  partly  in  the  concrete  construction. 

Expansion  is  taken  care  of  by  slip  joints  in  all  recent 
construction.  The  older  lines  have  joints  of  the  copper- 
diaphragm  type. 

Consumers'  installations  are  of  no  standard  design, 
any  well-constructed  system  being  acceptable  to  the  com- 
pany, subject  to  certain  regulations.  New  installations 
are  provided  with  reducing  valves.  Consumers  are 
urged  to  install  economizing  coils  to  utilize  the  latent 
heat  in  the  condensation.  These  are  constructed  in  the 
form  of  an  indirect  radiator  or  as  a  preheater  for  the 
domestic  water.  The  steam  is  sold  entirely  on  a  con- 
densation-meter basis. 

Luitwieler  Single-Plunger  Double 
Acting  Pump 

Almost  any  engineer  would  be  skeptical  if  he  were 
told  that  a  single-cylinder  double-acting  pump  could  be 
designed  to  operate  as  high  as  100  r.p.m.  and  deliver  a 
steady  stream  of  water.  He  knows  that  a  simplex  pump 
delivers  its  water  in  a  pulsating  stream,  the  water  com- 
ing from  the  discharge  at  its  lowest  velocity  and  volume 
when  the  piston  is  reversing  its  stroke,  and  he  also 
knows  that  when  a  pump  is  run  at  a  high  speed  it  will 
pound. 

Readers  of  Poiver  will  remember  that  nearly  five 
years  ago  a  description  of  a  Luitwieler  double-acting 
triplex  pump  was  published  (p.  53,  July  8,  1913).  A 
similar  pump  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  1.    It  differs  in  that 


PIG.   2. 


TRIPLE-PLUNGER    PUMP    OPERATING    ON 

SUSPENDED   PLATFORM 


it  has  a  single  cylinder  and  plunger.  The  mechanism, 
however,  is  the  same;  that  is,  the  plunger  derives  its 
motion  through  a  cam  that  is  secured  to  the  driven 
shaft.  Rollers  carried  by  the  crossheads  work  against 
this  cam  from  opposite  sides,  and  the  cam  is  so  shaped 
as  to  cause  the  plunger  to  produce  an  even  flow  of  wa- 
ter at  the  discharge  throughout  the  cycle.  This  pump 
is  manufactured  by  The  Luitwieler  Pumping  System 
Company  of  New  York,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

An  idea  of  the  steadiness  of  the  discharge  stream 
can  be  obtained  from  Fig.  1,  where  a  cam-driven,  single- 
cylinder,  double-acting  pump  is  shown  in  operation.  The 
bore  is  5  in.,  the  stroke  5  in.  and  the  revolutions  48  per 
minute;  discharge  pressure,  70  lb.  The  pump  and  motor 
are  mounted  on  skids  which  rest  on  6-in.  blocking  spaced 
5  ft.  apart.  A  4-in.  wire  nail  is  shown  standing  on  end 
at  the  top  plate  at  A,  thus  indicating  the  absence  of 
vibration.  This  pump  has  been  operated  at  a  speed  of 
100  r.p.m.  Water  is  taken  from  the  reservoir  below  the 
pump. 

One  can  hardly  conceive  of  a  reciprocating  pump  be- 
ing operated  without  being  bolted  ro  a  solidly  con- 
structed foundation,  because  of  the  jar,  and  yet  this 
has  been  done  with  the  Luitwieler  design,  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  where  the  pump  is  suspended  from  a  chain 
above  a  tank  of  water.  This  pump,  which  is  of  the 
triple-plunger  design  with  3  x  3-in.  cylinders,  is  shown 
delivering  82  gal.  of  water  per  minute  with  a  pressure 
that  throws  a  stream  100  ft.  through  a  IJ-in.  nozzle. 
The  motor  speed  is  1600  r.p.m.,  and  the  pump  is  running 
at  150  r.p.m.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  no  air 
chamber  on  the  water  end.  The  weight  of  the  unit  is 
1020  lb.  The  absence  of  vibration  is  indicated  by  the 
5-in.  wire  spike  shown  standing  on  end  at  B. 


FIG.     1.       SINGLE-PLUNGER    DOUBLE-ACTING    PUMP 


Before  you  spend  money  for  yourself,  think  whether 
your  country  can  afford  to  have  j'ou  spend  that  money. 
Every  dollar  saved  helps  twice,  first  when  you  refrain 
from  spending  it  for  nonessentials,  and  again,  when  you 
lend  it  to  the  Nation. 


May  7,  1918 


POWER 


663 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — Compound- 
Wound  Generators 


It  is  shown  that,  owing  to  the  resistance  of  the 
armature  windings,  the  voltage  at  the  terminals 
of  a  shunt  generator  will  decrease  as  the  current 
increases,  and'  this  oariation  can  he  compensated 
for  by  the  addition  of  a  series  winding  on  the 
polepieees,   makinci  a   rnmpound-ivound   machine. 

IN  FIG.  .'?  is  a  diagram  of  a  shunt  generator  or  motor. 
In  this  all  that  is  indicated  is  the  circuits;  the  arma- 
ture is  indicated  as  a  segmental  ring  and  the  field 
winding  as  a  spiral.  However,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
field  circuit  in  Fig.  3  is  in  parallel  with  the  armature, 
as  in  Fig.  1.     In  Fig.  4  the  field  winding  i.s  connected 


FIG.     ].    .SHITNT-CONNRrTKn    GENKRATOR 

in  series  with  the  armature  as  in  Fig.  2,  making  one 
circuit  through  the  machine  in  either  case.  The  dia- 
grams, Figs.  3  and  4,  provide  a  convenient  means  of 
representing  the  circuit  through  electrical  machinery, 
and  will  be  used  many  times  in  future  lessons. 

In  Fig.  5  the  field  coils  are  shown  excited  from  a 
source  separate  from  the  armature,  so  that  any  variation 
in  the  voltage  at  the  armature  terminals  will  not  affect 
the  strength  of  the  magnetic  field.  Assume  that  the 
armature  has  0.23  ohm  resistance  and  generates  115 
volts  on  open  circuit,  as  in  Fig.  3  Now,  if  a  resistance 
of  R'  =  5  ohms  is  connected  across  the  terminals  of 
the  generator,  as  in  Fig.  5,  the  total  resistance  of  the 
circuit  will  be  R  equals  that  of  the  armature  and  ex- 
ternal circuit  in  series,  or  R  =  r  -{■  R'  =  0.23  -|-  5  ^ 
5.23  ohms,  and  the  current  that  will  flow  in  the  circuit  is 
j_E_  115 
'  —  R       5.23 

As  has  been  explained  in  previous  lessons,  part  of  the 


voltage  produced  in  the  armature  will  be  used  up  in  the 
armature  winding  to  cause  the  current  to  flow  through 
this  section  of  the  circuit.  This  voltage  e  is  equal  to 
the  resistance  of  the  armature  times  the  current;  that 
is,  e  =  /•/  =  0.23  X  22  =  5.06  volts.  From  this  we  see 
that  when  22  amperes  is  flowing  in  the  circuit,  there  is 
5.06  volts  drop  in  the  armature  winding.  Hence  the 
available  voltage  at  the  armature  terminals  in  Ea  =^  E 
—  e  =  115  —  5.06  =-  109.94  volts,  as  shown. 

Consider  what  would  be  the  eft'ect  of  connecting  a  sec- 
ond resistance  of  5  ohms  across  the  generator  terminals, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  The  joint  resistance  of  r'  and  r" 
is  R'  equals  one-half  that  of  r,  or  7?'  =  5  h-  2  =;  2.5  ohms. 
Then  the  total  resistance  of  the  circuit  is  the  joint  re- 
sistance of  the  external  circuit  and  that  of  the  armature 


,Ml     N 

Kll!,    L'       SERnOS-CONNECTIOn  GRNRRATOR 

winding,  from  which  /?  =  /?'  -i-  r.  ^  2.5  X  0-23  =  2.73 


ohms,  and  the  current  I  =: 


E       115 


=  42  amperes  ap- 


=  22  amperes. 


proximately.  To  cause  the  current  to  flow  through  the 
armature  will  require  a  voltage  e  =  rl  =  0.23  X  42  ^ 
9.66  volts.  This  will  leave  a  voltage  of  Ea  =  E  —  e  ^ 
115  —  9.66  =  105.34  volts  available  at  the  armature  ter- 
minals, as  indicated. 

From  what  we  have  seen  in  Figs  5  and  6,  it  is  evident 
that  as  the  load  is  increased  on  a  shunt  generator  the 
voltage  at  the  armature  terminals  decreases.  The  vol- 
tage generated  by  the  armature  would  also,  to  a  certain 
extent,  decrease  if  the  field  coils  are  connected  to  the 
brushes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  For  the  reason  that  as 
the  voltage  decreases  across  the  armature  terminals  the 
current  will  be  decreased  in  the  field  coils,  consequently 
the  number  of  lines  of  force  will  be  reduced.  In  Fig.  5 
with  a  resistance  of  5  ohms  connected  across  the  arma- 
ture 22  amperes  flowed  through  the  circuit,  while  in 


654 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  19 


Fig.  6,  where  two  resistances  of  the  same  value  are  con- 
nected in  parallel,  only  21  amperes  is  sent  through  each 
resistance,  showing  that  as  the  load  increases  on  a 
shunt  generator,  unless  some  means  is  taken  to  maintain 
the  voltage  constant,  the  current  will  decrease  in  each 
circuit  as  more  load  is  connected  to  the  generator. 

One  way  of  maintaining  the  voltage  practically  con- 
stant would  be  to  design  the  generator  for  about  20  per 
cent,  over  voltage  and  connect  a  rheostat  in  series  with 
the  field  winding,  as  in  Fig.  7,  to  reduce  the  field  current 
to  a  value  where  normal  voltage  would  be  generated  at 
no  load;  then,  as  the  voltage  falls  off  because  of  an 
increase  in  load,  sections  of  the  rheostat  can  be  cut  out 
of  circuit  so  that  the  field  current  will  increase  to  a 
value  that  will  cause  the  generator  to  produce  sufficient 
pressure  to  maintain  the  voltage  at  the  armature  ter- 
minals constant. 

For  example,  with  the  field  rheostat  cut  out  of  cir- 
cuit, as  in  Fig.  8,  assume  that  the  machine  will  generate 


Therefore,  for  the  armature  to  maintain  115  volts  at  its 
terminals  with  a  23-ampere  load,  it  will  not  only  have 
to  generate  the  115  volts  available  at  its  terminals,  but 
also  5.29  volts  to  cause  the  current  to  flow  through  the 
resistance  of  the  windings,  or  a  total  of  E  =  £'a  +  e  = 
115  +  5.29==  120.29  volts. 

After  the  voltage  had  been  adjusted  to  115  at  the 
armature  terminals  with  a  load  of  23  amperes,  if  the 
load  was  taken  off  and  the  field  rheostat  not  changed, 
the  voltage  would  increase  to  120.29  volts,  or  the  total 
of  that  generated  in  the  armature.  Although,  in  Fig. 
10,  only  115  volts  is  available  at  the  armature  ter- 
minals, nevertheless,  the  machine  is  generating  120.29 
volts ;  5.29  volts  is  used  up  in  the  armature  winding.  As 
soon  as  the  load  is  taken  off,  there  is  no  current  flowing 
through  the  winding  to  use  up  the  5.29  volts  and  it 
becomes  available  at  the  brushes.  To  bring  the  volts 
back  to  normal  again  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  the  re- 
sistance back  into  the  field  circuit,  as  in  Fig.  9. 


II 

Jl. 


ARMATURE 


r/ELD  COILS 


ARMATUREi 


FIELD  COILS 


FIS.  3 


FI6.4 


riELD  COILS 


FIG. a 


Fie.9 


FIG.  lO 


FIG.S.    3    TO    10.      DIAGRAMS    OP    SHUNT-CONNECTED    AND    SERIES-CONNECTED   DIRECT-CURRENT  MACHINES. 


135  volts,  and  with  part  of  the  rheostat  cut  in  series 
with  the  field  windings,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7,  the  voltage 
decreases  to  115.  Then,  neglecting  the  effect  of  the  de- 
crease in  voltage  at  the  armature  terminals,  due  to  in- 
crease of  load,  on  the  field  winding  and  connecting  a 
5-ohm  resistance  across  the  armature  terminals,  as  in 
Fig.  9,  the  current  in  the  circuit  will  be  appro.ximately 
22  amperes  and  the  voltage  will  drop  to  109.94,  as  in 
Fig.  5.  Now  to  bring  the  voltage  back  to  normal,  some 
of  the  field  rheostat  can  be  cut  out,  as  in  Fig.  10.  This 
will  increase  the  current  in  the  field  coils  and  in  turn 
increase  the  field  strength,  so  that  the  armature  con- 
ductors will  be  cutting  a  greater  number  of  lines  of 
force  and  producing  a  great  voltage ;  as  is  shown  in  the 
figure,  the  voltage  has  been  increased  to  normal,  or  115. 
With  115  volts  available  at  the  armature  terminals. 


the  current  in  the  external  circuit  is  / 


amperes,  instead  of  22  as  in  Fig.  9,  and  the  volts  drop 
in  the  armature  is  e  =  rl  =  0.23  X  23  =  5.29  volts. 


From  what  we  have  seen  it  is  evident  that  if  the 
load  on  a  shunt  generator  is  varying,  the  voltage  will 
fluctuate  according  to  the  load.  Of  course,  these  fluctua- 
tions, if  they  do  not  occur  too  rapidly,  can  be  taken  care 
of  by  the  operator  adjusting  the  field  rheostat.  How- 
ever, a  better  way  of  doing  this,  if  possible,  would  be 
to  incorporate  some  automatic  means  in  the  construction 
of  the  machine  to  maintain  the  voltage  constant. 

In  the  last  lesson  we  found  out  that  if  the  load  is 
increased  on  a  series-connected  generator  the  voltage 
will  increase,  and  decrease  as  the  load  decreases.  Taking 
advantage  of  this  fact  provides  a  means  of  obtaining  a 
close  voltage  regulation  on  direct-current  generators. 
This  is  done  by  constructing  what  may  be  called  a  com- 
bination of  a  shunt  and  series  machine,  or,  as  it  is 
known,  a  compound-wound  generator.  This  connection 
is  shown  in  Fig.  11.  From  this  figure  it  will  be  seen 
that  one  field  winding  is  connected  in  series  with  the 
armature,  as  in  Fig.  2,  and  a  second  field  winding  con- 
nected across  the  armature,  as  in  Fig.  1.  The  shunt-field 


May  7,  1918 


POWER 


655 


winding  provides  the  flux  to  generate  about  110  to  115 
per  cent,  normal  voltage,  the  10  or  15  per  cent,  excess 
volt*  being  taken  by  the  field  rheostat.  The  series- 
field  winding  sets  up  the  flux  necessary  to  generate  the 
additional  voltage  to  compensate  for  the  volts  drop 
through  the  armature  due  to  the  load  current  and  the 
resistance  of  the  winding. 

In  Fig.  11,  if  the  armature  is  revolved  in  the  direction 
of  the  curved  arrow,  a  voltage  will  be  generated  in  the 
winding  of  a  polarity  as  indicated  and  a  current  will 
flow  through  the  shunt-field  windings  in  the  direction 
shown  by  the  arrowheads.  This  voltage  can  be  regulated 
to  normal  by  adjusting  the  field  rheostat,  or  as  we  will 
assume,  to  115  volts.  With  no  load  on  the  machine  no 
current  is  flowing  through  the  series-field  winding,  al- 
though some  machines  are  connected  so  that  the  shunt- 
field  current  flows  through  the  series-field  winding. 

If  a  resistance  is  connected  across  terminals  M  and  A^, 
as  in  Fig.  12,  of  such  value  as  will  allow  a  current  of, 
say,  25  amperes  to  flow,  as  indicated,  this  current  passes 


FIG.    11.   COMPOUND-WOUND    GENERATOR 

through  the  series-field  winding  and  will  increase  the 
number  of  lines  of  force  entering  and  leaving  the  arma- 
ture, consequently  the  voltage  generated  in  the  arma- 
ture conductors  will  be  increased.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  current  flowing  through  the  armature  will  cause  a 
certain  voltage  drop  in  the  winding.  Now  if  5  volts  is 
required  to  cause  the  current  to  flow  through  the  arma- 
ture winding,  and  the  series-field  amperes-turns  cause 
the  magnetic  field  to  increase  in  value  to  where  the  arma- 
ture will  generate  120  volts,  then  the  5  additional  volts 
will  just  compensate  for  the  loss  in  the  armature  and  the 
volts  at  the  armature  terminals  will  be  maintained  con- 
stant. If  the  current  supplied  to  the  load  is  increased 
to  50  amperes,  then  the  current  through  the  series-field 
winding  will  increase  to  50  amperes,  which  in  turn  will 
increase  the  number  of  lines  of  force  entering  and  leav- 
ing the  armature  and  again  cause  the  volts  generated 
to  build  up  and  compensate  for  the  drop  in  the  armature, 
thus  maintaining  the  e.m.f.  constant  at  the  brushes. 


The  foregoing  characteristic  of  the  compound  genera- 
tor, which  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  shunt  gener- 
ator, having  in  addition  to  the  shunt  winding,  a  series- 
field  winding  on  its  polepieces,  to  automatically  maintain 
the  voltage  approximately  constant  at  its  terminals,  has 
caused  this  type  of  machine,  with  certain  modifications, 
to  be  adopted  almost  universally  for  generating  direct 
current.  Due  to  the  iron  in  the  polepieces  becoming 
saturated,  the  lines  of  force  do  not  increase  in  proportion 
to  the  ampere-turns  on  the  field  coils,  thus  making  it  im- 
possible to  design  a  compound  generator  that  will  main- 
tain absolutely  con.stant  voltage  from  no  load  to  full 
load.    This  subject  will  be  discussed  in  the  next  lesson. 

In  problem  1  of  the  last  lesson  the  copper  cable  was 
1500  ft.  long  and  made  up  of  37  wires  90  mils  in  diame- 
ter. The  cross-section  in  circular  mils  of  such  a  cable 
is  equal  to  the  cross-section  of  one  strand  times  the  num- 
ber of  strands.  The  cross-section  of  any  round  con- 
ductor in  circular  mils  is  equal  diameter  in  mils  squared. 


j.^  SHUNT-FIELD 
>    WINDINO 


FIG.  12.   COMPOUND  GENERATOR  CONNECTED  TO  LOAD 

or  in  this  case,  90  X  90  =  8100  cir.  mils,  and  the  cross- 
section  of  the  cable  is  8100  X  37  =  299,700,  approxi- 
mately 300,000  cir.  mils.  The  conductor's  resistance  is 
10.7  lOJ  X  1500 

300,000 


R  = 


=  0.0535  ohm 


cir.  mils 

In  problem  2  the  sizes  of  the  conductors  were  required 

to  transmit  350  kw.  75  ft.  at  250  volts,  with  0.5  per  cent. 

drop.    The  current 

,      kw.  X  1000      350  X  1000       ,  ,^„ 

/  = p = gcQ —  1400  amperes 

Volts  drop  Ei  —  E  X  per  cent,  drop  -^  100  =  250  X 

0.5  -f-  100  =  1.25  volts.    Then 

n-        •;        21.4Di      21.4  X  75  X  1400      ,  ...  ^. 
Cir. mils  =  — p —  = r-^r =  1,800,000 

In  transmitting  540  amperes  over  a  circuit  425  ft. 
long,  there  is  a  drop  of  16.4  volts  in  the  line.  How  large 
is  the  conductor  in  cross-section?  By  how  much  would 
these  conductors  have  to  be  increased  in  cross-section 
to  transmit  the  same  current  with  a  drop  of  10  volts? 


(^56 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


Capitalization  Value  of  Steam  Leaks 


By  R.  von  FABRICE 


Proper  consideration  of  the  capitalization  values 
of  thermal  losses  in  poiver  plants  are  too  often 
neglected,  although  they  are  ever  existent  in  the 
best  of  plants  and  represent  staggering  results. 
Leaky  joints  in  steam  lines  are  given  considera- 
tion primarily  because  of  the  inherent  dangers 
from  explosions  and  destruction  of  life  and  equip- 
ment. The  most  numerous  steam  leaks  are  from 
stufflng-boxes,  gaskets,  leaky  valves  and  free- 
blowing  drips. 


THE  cost  of  generating  steam  represents  the 
greater  part  of  the  ultimate  cost  of  power  pro- 
duction, and  therefore  its  conservation  is  of  prime 
importance  in  reducing  the  cost  of  the  station  output. 
Economical  operation  represents  a  value  or  bears  a 
direct  relation  to  capitalization,  so  that  an  outlay  that 
results  in  the  elimination  of  losses  can  be  classified  as 
an  investment.  Steam  is  the  product  of  expenditures, 
and  the  cost  is  dependent  upon  the  cost  of  fuel  and 
water,  the  boiler  efficiencj'^  and  fixed  charges  made 
up  of  interest,  taxes,  insurance  and  depreciation. 
Therefore  in  a  year  a  pound  of  steam  saved  per  hour 
represents  a  considerable  capitalization  value  to  the 
station;  or  in  other  words,  it  would  justify  a  certain 
expenditure  in  order  to  save  the  steam. 

To  ascertain  the  capitalization  value  of  a  pound  of 
steaiji  the  cost  of  the  steam  must  first  be  determined. 
Let-:  • 

C 
A' =  Cost  of  steam  per  1000  \h.=j^+  W; 

H  =  B.t.u.   in   one  ton    (2240  lb.)    of  coal  =  2240 

X  Ir, 
fe^B.t.u.  in  one  pound  of  coal  ^  13,500  B.t.u. ; 
C  =  Cost  of  coal  per  ton  (2240  lb. )  =  $4 ; 
L  =  Latent  heat  or  B.t.u.  required  to  evaporate  one 

pound  of  water  from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  = 

970.4  B.t.u.; 

F  =  Boiler  efficiency  =  70  per  cent. ; 

h  W 
e  =  Evaporation  per  pound  of  coal  = 


e  = 


hF 


13,500   X   0.70 


L' 

=  9.74  lb.  of  water 


L  970.4 

evaporated  per  pound  of  coal; 

£■  =  Evaporation  per  ton  of  coal  (2240  lb. )  ^ 
2240  X  e  =  2240  X  9.74  =.  21,818  lb.  of 
steam ; 

VF=Cost  of  water  (lOc.  per  1000  gal.  :=  approxi- 
mately 1.2c.  per  1000  lb.)  ; 


^  =  ^  -'    ^  -  21,818  +  ^-2 


19.53c.  per  1000 

lb.  of  water  from  and  at  212  deg.  F. 
Having  determined  the  cost  of  the  steam,  in  order  to 
find  the  capitalization  value  the  following  conditions  and 
assumptions  must  be  kept  in  mind :  (1 )  Assume  a  load 
factor  of  100  per  cent.,  that  is,  that  the  leak  is  a  con- 
tinuous drain  on  the  station  both  day  and  night:  <2) 
working  year  to  be  taken  as  8640  hours  or  360  days  of 


W^ 


24  hours;  (3)  fixed  charges,  17  per  cent,  of  investment 
per  year.  The  amount  of  steam  lost  by  a  leak  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  pressure  of  the  steam  and  the  size 
of  the  contracted  orifice  through  which  the  steam 
escapes. 

According  to  Napier's  approximate  formula  for  the 
outflow  of  steam  through  an  orifice  into  the  atmosphere 

Fa 
70 
where 

W  =^  Weight  of  steam  in  pounds  per  second ; 
P  =  Absolute  pressure  of  steam ; 
a- ^  Contracted  orifice   (area  in  sq.in.)  ; 
70  =  Constant. 
Prof.  C.   H.  Peabody  conducted  a  series  of  tests  to 
check  the  foregoing  formula  with  pipes  !  to  1 1  in.  long, 
and  the  results  were  close  to  those  obtainable  with  the 
Napierian  approximate  formula. 

To  illustrate  the  capitalization  value  of  a  steam  leak, 
the  following  assumptions  will  be  made:  (1)  Con- 
tracted  area,   or   summation   of   leaks,   0.5   sq.in.;    (2) 


boiler  pressure,  250  lb.  gage.     Then  W  = 

264.7  >    0.5 


Pa 


(weight 


of  steam  per  second) 


70 
:  264.7;  a  = 


70 

1.89  lb.,  since 

0.5  sq.in.;  70  =  con- 


P  =  2.50  +  14.7 
stant. 
Then  the  loss  of  steam  per  hour  is  1.89X3600  = 
6804  lb.  and  for  one  year  of  8640  hours  is  8640  X  6804 
~—  58,786,560  lb. ;  and  the  cost  per  year  at  19.53c.  per 
1000  lb.  is  .58,786.56  X  19-53  =  $11,481.  The  capitali- 
zation value  of  the  steam  lost  can  be  determined  as 
follows : 

C  =  Capitalization  value; 

F  =  Fixed  charges,  assumed  to  ;=  17  per  cent. ; 
K^  =  Total  cost  of  steam  lost. 
Hence 

K 


c  =  -^= 


11,481 


=  $67,535 


F        0.17 

The  accompanying  chart  has  been  worked  out,  by 
means  of  which  similar  problems  may  be  readily  solved, 
and  to  illustrate  its  use  the  foregoing  problem  has  been 
plotted  on  it.  Beginning  with  the  upper  left-hand  sec- 
tion, selecting  the  B.t.u.  or  heating  value  of  the  coal, 
say  13,500  B.t.u.,  follow  vertically  down  to  the  diagonal 
line  representing  the  over-all  boiler  efficiency  (70  per 
cent.),  thence  horizontally  to  the  right,  crossing  the 
vertical  scale,  showing  the  pounds  of  water  evaporated 
per  pound  of  coal,  which  in  the  problem  given  is  9.74 
lb.;  then  continue  to  the  upper  right-hand  section  to 
the  intersection  of  the  curve  giving  the  cost  per  ton 
(2240  lb.)  of  coal  ($4)  and  thence  downward  parallel 
with  the  vertical  lines  at  the  top  of  which  is  given  the 
cost,  in  cents,  of  evaporating  1000  lb.  of  water  from 
and  at  212  deg.  F.  (in  this  case  18.33c.).  Then  con- 
tinue downward,  intersecting  the  diagonal  line  in  the 
middle  right-hand  section,  representing  the  cost  of  water 
(in  this  case  10c.  per  1000  gal.),  thence  to  the  left  to 
the  vertical  scale,  where  the  cost  of  one  pound  of  steam 
per  hour  per  year  (of  8640  hours)  is  given  as  $1.69 ;  then 


May  7,  1918 


POWER 


657 


Heating  Value  of   Fuel 
in    1000    B.+.  u.    per  Lb. 
a  9         10         II         12 


13 


14 


Cost   of  Tuel  in  Cents  to  Evaporate 
1000  Lbs.    of  Water  from  and  at  -212  °F. 
0  5  10         15        20        25        50       35       40       4-5 


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piyor  LINES 

f^ 

m^ 

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A< 

^ 

f> 

^ 

■^"y^ 

"^ 

#S 

■ — ^~ 

N^ 

ti 

-' 

^s- 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

r— " 

= 

r— 1— 

^ 

\— 

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^ 

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.— 

^3 
1 . 



— 

o 
o 
o 
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<o 


o 

CVJ 


o 


o 

o 
o 
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o 
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o  s 

o  o 

o  o 

9.  o 

O  ■<}■ 


-It 


1010 


IrtO 


Size  of   Contracted  Areo 
of  Orifice  in  Sq.  In. 


Total    Capitalization  Value 
of  steam  lost  per  Year 


CHART    SHOWS    ANNUAL.   LOSS    FROM    STKAM   LEAKS  ANP  ITS  r.VPITALIZATION  VALUE 


continue  to  the  left  to  the  diagonal  lines  representing 
the  fixed  charges  (taken  at  17  per  cent.),  thence  down- 
ward to  the  horizontal  base  line,  giving  the  capitaliza- 
tion value  per  pound  of  steam  per  hour  per  year  of 


8640  hours  (which  is  $9.94).  From  this  point  of  is.ter- 
section  draw  a  diagonal  line  through  the  lower  left-hand 
section  of  the  chart  to  the  point  of  intersection  of  the 
vertical  scale,  or  center  line.    Then  start  on  the  base  of 


658 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


the  lower  right-hand  section  of  the  chart  at  the  point 
giving  the  contracted  area  of  orifice  (or  the  sum  of  all), 
which  in  this  case  is  i  sq.in.,  and  follow  upward  to  the 
intersection  of  the  diagonal  line,  giving  the  steam 
pressure  in  pounds  gage  (in  this  case  250  lb.).  From 
thi=  intersection  turn  to  the  left,  intersecting  the  verti- 
cal scale  between  the  lower  section.'^,  giving  the  pounds  ot 
steam  per  hour  (6804  lb.  in  this  case),  then  continue 
across  to  the  diagonal  pivot  line  previously  referred  to 
(drawn  from  the  capitalization  value  per  pound  of  steam 
per  hour  for  a  year  to  the  apex)  and  drop  dovm  to  the 
horizontal  base  of  the  lower  left-hand  section,  giving 
the  total  capitalization  in  thousands  of  dollars,  which 
in  the  given  case  is  $67,535. 

The  heat  values  for  the  foregoing  problem  have  been 
reduced  to  feed  water  at  212  deg.  and  steam  at  212  deg. 
F.,  or  "cost  of  steam  from  and  at  212  deg.,"  as  is  done 
in  boiler-evaporation  tests,  because  proper  corrections 
must  be  made  for  the  additional  B.t.u.  absorbed  for  the 
given  conditions.  The  factor  for  reducing  the  weight 
of  water  actually  converted  into  steam  at  any  given 
pressure  and  feed-water  temperature  to  the  equivalent 
evaporation  "from  and  at  212  deg.  F."  is  called  the 
"factor  of  evaporation,"  which  is  the  ratio  of  the  total 
heat  necessary  to  produce  one  pound  of  steam  "from 
and  at  212  deg.  F."  to  the  heat  used  in  heating  the  feed 
water  from  a  lower  temperature  to  steam  at  the  tem- 
perature corresponding  to  the  higher  pressure,  or  is  the 
difference  between  the  total  heat  of  evaporation  under 
different  conditions.  Thus  in  the  given  case,  for  feed 
water  at  160  deg.  F.  and  steam  at  250  lb.  gage  (264.7 
lb.  absolute)  the  factor  of  evaporation  is  found  to  be 
1.1073,  as  per  tables,  or  it  can  be  determined  by  the 
following  formula 


.^  =  ^ 

970.4 


when 


F-- 
H 


Factor  of  evaporation ; 

:  Total  heat  of  steam  above  32  deg.  F.  (from 
steam  tables) ; 
h  ^  Sensible  heat  of  feed  water  above  32  deg. 
F.; 
970.4  =  Latent  heat  of  evaporation   "from  and  at 
212  deg.  F." 

Lyons  Atlas  Heavy-Oil  Engine 

A  new  type  of  heavy-oil  engine  has  recently  been 
placed  on  the  market  by  the  Lyons  Atlas  Co.,  Indian- 
apolis, Ind.  This  engine,  in  contradistinction  from 
many  other  types  of  heavy-oil  engines,  uses  no  air 
compressors  or  fuel  pumps.  The  figure  gives  a  cross- 
sectional  view  of  the  cylinder  head,  showing  the  position 
of  the  air,  fuel  and  exhaust  valves  and  the  location  of 
the  piston  at  the  end  of  the  compression  or  the  begin- 
ning of  the  power  stroke. 

On  the  first  outward  stroke  the  air  valve  .-1  opens, 
and  a  charge  of  pure  air  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder 
during  this  stroke.  Simultaneously  with  th's  operation, 
the  fuel  valve  F  opens  and  allows  a  small  quantity  of 
fuel  oil  to  flow  into  the  primary  cup  P,  located  in  the 
combustion  chamber  attached  to  the  cylinder  head.  The 
oil  flows  by  gravity  into  the  opening  O,  the  amount  being 
controlled  by  the  governor  according  to  the   load  and 


speed.  On  the  return  stroke  all  valves  are  closed  and 
the  charge  of  air  in  the  cylinder  is  compressed  into  the 
combustion  chamber  to  a  pressure  of  aoout  450  lb.  per. 
sq.in.  This  increases  its  temperature  to  about  900  deg. 
Fahrenheit. 

When  the  piston  has  about  completed  its  return 
stroke,  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  combustion 
chamber  becomes  high  enough  to  vaporize  the  lighter 
hydrocarbons  in  the  fuel,  in  the  primary  cup  P,  exactly 
the  same  way  as  in  an  oil-refinery  still.  This  vapor  is 
ignited  by  the  high  temperature  and  expands,  creating 
a  high  pressure  on  the  oil  in  the  primary  cup  at  almost 
the  same  instant  that  the  piston  reaches  the  end  of  the 
combustion  stroke  and  is  about  to  start  on  the  power 
stroke.     The  pressure  created  in  the  primary  cup,  due 


SECTION   THROUGH   ENGINE-CYLINDER   HEAD 

to  the  burning  of  the  lighter  hydrocarbons,  is  sufficient 
to  force  the  remaining  liquid  in  the  primary  cup  out 
through  small  holes  H  in  the  cup,  causing  the  fuel  to 
be  broken  up  into  fine  spray  as  it  enters  the  combustion 
chamber.  Here  the  atomized  fuel  encounters  the  high 
temperatures  due  to  compression,  ignites  and  burns 
during  the  entire  power  stroke.  The  oxygen  in  the  air 
admitted  to  the  cylinder  on  the  previous  suction  stroke  is 
sufficient  to  result  in  very  efficient  combustion  during 
the  entire  power  stroke. 

The  combustion  is  gradual,  no  explosion  taking  place. 
Indicator  diagrams  show  that  the  pressure  in  the  com- 
bustion chamber  rises  very  little  above  that  due  to 
compression  of  the  air  on  the  first  return  stroke.  The 
force  on  the  piston  during  the  power  stroke  is  similar 
to  that  on  the  piston  of  a  steam  engine. 

During  the  second  return  stroke,  or  last  stroke  of  the 
cycle,  the  exhaust  valve  E  opens  and  the  piston  drives  the 
burnt  gases  out  to  the  atmosphere,  thus  completing  the 
cycle  when  the  piston  reaches  the  end  of  the  stroke.  The 
amount  of  vapor  burned  in  the  primary  cup  is  small, 


May  7.  1918 


POWER 


659 


and  its  effect  upon  the  pressure  in  the  combustion 
chamber,  as  shown  by  an  indicator  diagram,  is  scarcely 
perceptible. 

These  engines  are  built  in  two  sizes,  20  and  30  hp., 
and  will  burn  crude  and  fuel  oil.  kerosene  and  inter- 
mediate distillalje.s  of  such  characteristics  as  to  be 
thoroughly  combustible  and  sufficiently  liquid  to  flow 
freely  at  ordinary  temperatures  to  the  primary  cup 
by  gravity  under  a  head  of  two  feet.  The  fuel  con- 
."umption,  based  upon  a  minimum  net  or  effective  heat 
content  of  18,500  B.t.u.  per  lb.,  is  guaranteed  not  to 
exceed  0.6  lb.  at  full  load.  0.66  lb.  at  75  per  cent,  full  load 
and  0.78  lb.  at  50  per  cent,  full  load. 

The  engines  are  started  by  compressed  air  from  a 
storage  tank,  on  the  oil  they  use  for  fuel,  without  any 
preheating  or  other  preparation,  and  can  start  from  a 
cold  stardstill  and  attain  full  speed  in  less  than  two 
minutes,  regardless  of  climatic  conditions. 

A   Breakdown  Aboard  Ship 

By  John   Melville 

The  following  account  of  a  breakdown  which  hap- 
pened to  the  engines  of  a  steamer  on  which  I  was  chief 
engineer  may  be  of  interest  to  Poiver  readers  in  view 
of  the  active  interest  being  taken  in  marine  engi- 
neering at  the  present  time. 

We  left  Rotterdam  (pre-war  days)  with  a  cargo  of 
coal  and  proceeded  down  the  river,  everything  run- 
ning smoothly  and  well.  Shortly  after  we  had  dropped 
the  pilot  and  were  heading  at  full  speed  for  the  Straits 
of  Dover,  a  tremendous  bumping  caused  me  to  rush  to 
the  engine  room,  where  the  second  engineer  already 
had  the  engines  stopped.  It  had  all  happened  so  sud- 
denly that  there  was  no  chance  to  locate  the  cause  of  the 
trouble,  and  nothing  unusual  showed  to  give  us  a  clue. 
Being  satisfied  that  something  was  wrong  inside  one  of 
the  cylinders,  we  proceeded  to  open  them  up.  Their  di- 
mensions were:  High-pressure,  25  in.;  intermediate, 
41  in.;  low  pressure  67  in.;  stroke,  45  in.  As  far  as 
the  second  engineer  could  judge,  the  noise  came  from 
the  intermediate  cylinder,  but  on  opening  it  we  found 
it  in  good  condition.  On  opening  up  the  high-pres- 
sure cylinder,  however,  we  found  a  sorry  mess;  the  pis- 
ton was  smashed  into  "a  thousand  and  one"  pieces, 
caused  by  one  of  the  junk-ring  bolts  breaking  at  the  end 
of  the  thread.  There  being  insufficient  clearance  be- 
tween the  piston  and  cylinder  cover,  something  had  to 
go,  and  apparently  the  piston  was  the  weakest  part. 
Fortunately,  after  a  few  strokes  the  broken  bolt  got  op- 
posite one  of  the  core  plugs  on  top  of  the  piston,  and 
on  the  next  stroke  the  core  plug  was  forced  in  and 
the  broken  bolt  jammied  in  the  hole,  thus  preventing 
any  further  damage. 

To  operate  the  engines  as  a  triple-expansion  set  was 
out  of  the  question,  so  we  made  ready  to  run  on  two 
cylinders.  The  pieces  of  the  broken  piston  were  re- 
moved, but  the  piston  rod  with  the  crosshead  and  guide 
shoes  was  left  in  place,  the  piston  rod  thus  serving  to 
keep  the  gland  steam-tight.  With  the  piston  valve  and 
valve  gear  removed  and  the  covers  replaced,  we  were 
ready  to  proceed.  The  boiler  pressure  was  reduced 
from  175  to  100  lb.  No  trouble  was  experienced  in 
starting  the  engines,  and  we  headed  for  Deal,  where  we 
could  report  the  accident  to  headquarters.    Orders  were 


received  there  to  proceed  to  Plymouth,  where  a  new 
piston  would  be  sent  us. 

The  trip  down  the  English  Channel  was  uneventful 
though  somewhat  slow,  but  the  engines  gave  no  trouble, 
even  though  they  were  somewhat  out  of  balance  due  to 
the  cranks  being  at  120  deg.  The  coal  consumption  on 
the  "pounds  per  indicated  horsepower"  basis  was 
largely  increased,  but  that  was  to  be  expected  with  a 
reduced  initial  pressure  and  the  consequent  reduction  in 
the  number  of  expansions  by  the  loss  of  one  cylinder. 
The  limits  of  the  valve  gear  prevented  us  cutting  off 
early  enough  in  the  new  high-pressure  cylinder  to  give 
the  previous  ratio  of  expansion. 

On  arriving  at  Plymouth,  the  first  job  was  to  get  the 
piston  rod  out  to  find  out  whether  it  had  become  bent 
in  the  smash.  The  limited  mleans  we  had  on  board  ship 
for  testing  proved  that  the  rod  was  damaged,  so  it  was 
sent  ashore  to  a  repair  shop.  When  placed  in  the  cen- 
ters of  a  lathe,  a  double  bend  was  found  at  the  tapered 
part  which  fitted  into  the  piston.  The  straightening  of 
the  rod,  which  was  63  in.  diameter,  proved  to  be  a  diffi- 
cult job,  but  by  means  of  a  charcoal  fire,  wooden  blocks 
and  mallets  the  blacksmith  managed  to  get  it  nearly 
true  and  comparatively  free  from  marks  and  scaling. 
When  tested  in  the  lathe  again,  only  a  slight  cut  was 
required  to  bring  the  tapered  part  true.  This  allowed 
the  piston  to  go  i  in.  farther  on  the  rod,  but  there  was 
sufficient  clearance  in  the  cylinder  to  allow  for  this. 

Having  got  the  new  piston  fitted  to  the  rod,  no  time 
was  lost  in  having  it  placed  on  board,  where  everything 
was  ready  to  handle  the  job  with  dispatch.  It  was  2 
p.m.  when  the  piston  and  rod  were  on  deck,  but  we 
were  ready  to  sail  by  10  p.m.  On  the  voyage  out  and 
home  again  no  defects  developed,  and  so  far  as  I  know 
the  same  engines  are  doing  duty  still. 

Some  of  the  things  we  did,  or  rather  the  things  we 
omitted  to  do,  in  connection  with  this  job  are  open  to 
criticism,  such  as  neglecting  to  close  up  the  steam  ports 
in  the  high-pressure  cylinder  and  not  changing  the 
cranks  to  90  deg.;  but  the  distance  we  had  to  travel  to 
the  nearest  port  was  not  great,  and  we  were  anxious  to 
get  under  way  again  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 

Another  Coal  and  Liquid  Fuel  Mixture 

A  substitute  for  coal  has  been  patented  by  the  Indus- 
trial Fuel  Corporation,  of  Long  Island  City,  N.  Y.  The 
underlying  scientific  theory  is,  as  outlined  in  the  letters 
patent,  the  first  claim  being  as  follows: 

A  fuel  composition  consisting  of  loose  coal  dust  or 
screenings  and  a  high  boiling  liquid  fuel  having  low  viscosity 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  the  amount  of  such  liquid  being 
merely  such  as  will  wet  the  faces  of  the  coal  particles  with- 
out filling  the  voids  therebetween  to  a  substantial  extent, 
and  such  liquid  fuel  being  of  sufficiently  high  boiling  point 
to  insure  persistence  of  a  substantial  amount  of  liquid  fuel 
in  the  mixture  until  such  mixture  is  at  or  near  the  ignition 
point  of  the  coal. 

The  composition  is  fired  loose,  the  same  as  ordinary 
coal. 

In  other  words,  a  liquid  having  the  easy  flowing  quali- 
ties of  water  is  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  20  with 
anthracite  screenings.  Because  of  the  high  boiling 
point  of  the  liquid,  it  remains  with  the  screenings,  keep- 
ing the  mass  moist,  up  to  the  point  at  which  the  carbon 
in  the  coal  ignites,  and  once  the  loose  material  actually 


660 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


begins  to  burn,  the  problem  of  stability  in  the  fire  is 
solved. 

Accoi-ding  to  the  New  York  Smi,  th's  idea  of  burning 
low-grade  fuel  was  anticipated  by  the  New  York  Archi- 
tectural Terra-Cotta  Co.,  of  Long  Island  City. 

Many  months  ago  this  company  was  unable  to  buy  any 
soft  coal  in  the  New  York  market,  but  had  no  difficulty  in 
securing  culm.  Prior  to  that  time,  an  officer  of  the  com 
pany  had  found  that  by  mixing  about  5  per  cent,  of  a  special 
liquid  fuel  with  95  per  cent,  of  this  coal  dust  a  fuel  might 
be  obtained  of  such  consistency  that  it  would  neither  fall 
through  the  grate  bars  nor  go  up  the  chimney  under  forced 
draft. 

The  experiment  was  tried  out  in  practical  use  and  proved 
to  be  a  complete  success.  For  many  months  this  company 
has  used  no  other  fuel  under  its  boilers  and  has  obtained 
a  maximum  of  efficiency  with  a  saving  of  nearly  50  per  cent, 
in  expense. 

The  new  fuel  was  examined  by  Dr.  C.  E.  Davis  in  the 
laboratories  of  the  Columbia  University  Department  of 
Chemical  Engineering  and  upon  calorimeter  test  showed  a 
calorific  value  of  13,950  B.t.u.  to  the  pound,  or  a  heating 
value  about  equal  to  that  of  anthracite. 

The  special  liquid  referred  to  is  a  byproduct  obtained 
in  the  manufacture  of  carburetted  water  gas  and  has  always 
been  considered  of  minor  importance.  Millions  of  gallons 
are  produced  annually  in  the  United  States. 

It  would  seem  from  the  foregoing  that  this  fuel  is 

along  the  line  of  similar  fuels   in  which  a  binder  is 

mixed  with  fine  coal  before  it  is  pressed  into  briquets. 

In  this  instance,  however,  the  coal  and  binding  mixture 

is  fired  in  a  loose  state. 


Oil  Lantern  Jammed  on  Piston  Rod 

By  E.  W.  Miller 

The  machine  was  of  50-ton  capacity,  having  two 
double-acting  ammonia  compressors  with  the  steam 
cylinders  between  the  two,  the  entire  unit  being  vertical. 
A  knock  developed  and  gradually  grew  worse,  sounding 
like  that  produced  by  striking  a  large  piece  of  metal 
with  a  light  hammer. 

The  engineer  concluded  that  it  was  in  one  of  the 
compressor  valves.  He  had  expected  by  the  sound  of 
the  machine  to  find  that  one  of  the  springs  had  broken 
or  become  too  weak,  but  was  surprised  to  find  that 
the  valve  and  spring  were  in  good  order.  He  oiled 
the  valve  liberally  and  took  particular  care  in  replacing 
it  to  make  sure  that  there  should  be  nothing  to  inter- 
fere with  its  operation. 

When  he  started  the  machine,  the  knock  was  as  bad 
as  before.  It  seemed  impossible  to  find  the  source — 
so  much  so  that  he  thought  at  times  that  it  was  some- 
where in  the  steam  cylinder  or  its  valve  gear.  Finally, 
he  shut  the  machine  down  and  went  over  every  part 
of  the  compressor,  removing  the  valves,  testing  the 
clearance  and  keying  up  on  all  the  bearings  and  taking 
up  all  lost  motion. 

The  knock  was  still  there  when  he  started  the  com- 
pressor again,  and  the  machine  was  once  more  shut 
down  and  pumped  out  and  the  piston  removed  from 
both  the  one  ammonia  compressor  and  the  engine. 
The  engine  piston  was  removed  first  and  nothing  wrong 
was  found.  When  he  came  to  remove  the  compressor 
piston,  he  found  that  it  came  out  with  difliculty,  and 
to  facilitate  its  removal  it  was  decided  to  remove 
the  packing. 

When  the  packing  had  been  removed  up  to  the  oil 
lantern,  it  was  found  that  the  lantern  refused  to  budge. 
The  piston  was  lowered  in  the  cylinder,  and  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  men  maintained  a  steady  pull 


on  the  lantern.  It  came  down  without  any  trouble. 
When  the  piston  was  lowered  sufficiently  to  bring  the 
lantern  out  of  the  stuffing-box,  it  was  found  that  the 
lantern  was  jammed  fast  on  the  piston  rod  at  this 
point.  The  lantern  had  been  babbitted  and  turned  to 
a  snug  fit  on  the  rod,  and  at  some  time  the  rod 
had  become  hot  enough  to  partly  melt  the  babbitt. 
At  the  same  time  some  shreds  of  packing  had  worked 
through  some  of  the  holes  in  the  center  of  the  lantern 
and  squeezed  into  the  molten  babbitt,  and  when  the 
babbitt  set  again,  probably  due  to  a  sudden  cooling 
of  the  machine  from  a  slug  of  liquid  in  the  suction 
gas,  it  had  formed  a  tight  fit  on  the  rod.  The  packing 
had  wedged  between  the  rod  and  lantern  and  practically 
clamped  the  lantern  on  the  rod. 

When  the  lantern  had  finally  been  removed  from  the 
rod,    the    engineer   turned    his    attention    to    removing 


■  Bushing  Jommed 
on  Rod  of  this  End 
carrying  the  Lanfem 
Tta  ihe  Bottom  of  the 
Stuffing  Box  at  each 
up  Stroke. 

STUFFING-BOX    FOR    AMMOXIA    COMPRESSOR 

the  rest  of  the  packing  that  should  be  above  the 
lantern  in  the  stuffing-box.  To  his  surprise  there  was 
not  a  shred  of  it  left.  The  reason  for  the  pound  or 
knock  was  now  plain  to  him.  With  no  packing  in  the 
top  half  of  the  stuffing-box  and  the  lantern  jamming 
hard  on  the  rod  at  the  crank  end,  the  lantern  had 
struck  the  bottom  of  the  stuffing-box  at  every  up  stroke 
of  the  compressor,  and  of  course  the  knock  resulted. 

The  engineer  was  at  first  badly  puzzled  to  account 
for  the  disappearance  of  the  packing  above  the  lantern, 
but  when  the  rod  was  a?ain  inserted,  he  found  that 
there  was  nearly  i  in.  clearance  between  the  rod  and 
the  neck  of  the  stuffing-box.  The  rod  had  been  turned 
down  some  time  previous  to  this,  and  no  provision  had 
been  made  to  make  up  for  the  reduced  diameter.  This 
was  now  provided  for  by  making  a  junk  ring  f  in. 
thick  and  a  snug  fit  in  the  stuffing-box  and  J^  in. 
larger  inside  diameter  than  the  rod.  This  was  slipped 
over  the  rod  and  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  box.  It 
prevented  the  packing  from  working  out  between  the 
rod  and  the  neck  of  the  stuffing-box  and  ended  the 
trouble  with  this  stuffing-box  as  well  as  eliminating  the 
puzzling  knock. 


May  7,  1918 


POWER 


661 


Future  Location  of  Central  Power  Stations 


By  DEVRR  C.  ASHMEAD 


The  coal  mincK  arc  able  to  produce  all  the  coal 
rcqirired,  but  the  transportation  facilities  are  not 
adequate;  therefore,  it  is  suggested  that  the 
country  be  divided  into  districts,  each  served 
with  electric  power  generated  by  central  stations 
located  at  the  sources  of  fuel  supply.  The  ad- 
vantages of  the  plan  are  oiitliried,  and  estimates 
of  the  probable  saving  are  given. 

THE  fuel  problem  does  not  lie  in  the  inability  of 
the  mines  to  produce  the  coal,  but  rather  in  the 
inability  of  the  railroads  to  transport  it.  The 
matter  is  one  of  transportation  instead  of  production. 
The  country  requires  600,000,000  tons  of  coal  per  year, 
and  the  mines  can  furnish  750,000,000  tons  in  that 
time;  but  the  railroads  cannot  handle  more  than  550,- 
000,000  tons  a  year,  or  50,000,000  tons  less  than  the 
normal   demand. 

The  failure  of  the  railroads  to  handle  the  required 
quantity  of  coal  is  due  to  three  factors:  First,  lack 
of  motive  power;  second,  shortage  of  cars;  and  third, 
delay  of  the  consignee  in  unloading  cars.  This  article 
is  not  concerned  with  the  last  of  the  foregoing  causes, 
but  it  is  vitally  concerned  with  the  other  two.  Any 
practicable  method  of  relieving  the  shortage  of  loco- 
motives and  cars  must  be  of  interest  to  the  whole 
country;  therefore,  it  will  be  advisable  to  investigate  at 
least  one  phase  of  the  situation. 

Increase  in  Use  of  Electrical  Energy 

According  to  the  United  States  Census  Reports,  the 
electrical  energy  generated  in  1907  is  estimated  as 
10,621,407,000  kw.-hr.,  and  in  1912  as  17,585,622,000 
kw.-hr.  In  1917,  according  to  careful  estimates,  over 
27,000,000,000  kw.-hr.  was  sold  by  central  stations, 
which  is  16.378,593,000  kw.-hr.  more  than  was  gen- 
erated in  1907,  or  an  increase  of  approximately  155 
per  cent,  in  ten  years.  It  is  realized  that  the  figures 
for  1907  represent  current  generated  and  those  for 
1917  represent  current  sold,  so  that  they  are  not  strictly 
comparable.  However,  the  amount  of  energy  generated 
in  1907  is  not  obtainable;  and  furthermore,  if  losses 
were  included,  the  value  27,000,000,000  kw.-hr.  would 
be  considerably  increased.  This  increase  would  serve 
only  to  strengthen  the  argument  put  forth  in  this 
article ;  consequently,  the  two  values  are  compared  as 
shown. 

It  is  not  unreasonable  to  assume  that  in  the  next 
ten  years  the  use  of  electricity  v/ill  increase  in  the 
same  ratio,  which  means  that  in  1927  the  output  would 
be  68,850,000,000  kw.-hr.  About  one-third  of  the  elec- 
trical output  in  1917  was  produced  by  hydro-electric 
plants;  therefore,  at  the  same  ratio,  46,000.000,000 
kw.-hr.  would  be  generated  by  steam  in  1927.  It  re- 
quires from  2  to  10  lb.  of  coal  to  produce  a  kilowatt- 
hour.  If  an  average  of  3  lb.  is  assumed,  which  certainly 
is  conservative  enough,  it  follows  that  the  18,000,000,000 
kw.-hr.  produced  in  1917  required  54,000,000,000  lb. 
of  coal,  or  27,000,000  short  tons. 


To  handle  this  tonnage,  the  railroads  had  to  move 
675,000  carloads  of  coal  averaging  40  tons  to  the  car. 
By  1927  these  figures  will  have  increased  to  138,000,- 
000,000  lb.  of  coal,  or  69,000,000  short  tons;  and  esti- 
mating 50  tons  of  coal  to  the  car,  since  by  that  time 
all  the  small  cars  will  be  scrapped,  there  will  be  1,380,- 
000  carloads. 

In  1917  there  were  approximately  950,000  coal  cars  in 
the  United  States  and  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
number  were  required  to  make  one  trip  from  the  mines 
to  the  power  plants  to  furnish  the  needed  coal.  The 
money  paid  to  the  railroads  for  freight  on  this  coal, 
taking  a  freight  rate  cf  $1.50  a  ton,  amounted  to  $40,- 
500,000,  which  is  interest  at  5  per  cent,  on  $810,000,000. 

Assuming  the  same  freight  rate,  producers  of  elec- 
tricity in  1927  would  pay  the  railroads  $103,500,000  a 
year,  which  is  the  interest  at  5  per  cent,  on  $2,070,- 
000,000.  If  the  latter  sum  were  used  to  develop  the 
electrical  industry,  a  wonderful  advance  could  be  made. 
It  is  advisable,  therefore,  to  investigate  the  distribution 
of  the  use  of  electricity  and  its  relation  to  the  coal 
fields  of  the  United  States. 

Generation  of  Power  at  Coal  Mines 

Table  I  gives  the  production  of  coal  and  coke  in 
the  several  states  in  1916.  Table  II  shows  the  amoun' 
of  current  generated  in  the  several  states  and  the  copI 
required  to  produce  this  current,  in  1917  and  1027 
The  greater  part  of  the  electrical  production  is  com- 
paratively near  the  different  coal  fields,  which  naturally 
suggests  the  idea  of  generating  current  at  the  source 
of  fuel  supply  instead  of  at  the  point  where  the  power 
is  used.  In  these  days  of  high-tension  electrical  trans- 
mission over  long  distances,  this  suggestion  has  greater 
force. 

As  shown  on  the  accompanying  map,  the  writer 
divides  the  country  into  23  districts,  each  supplied 
with  electricity  generated  from  one  or  more  central 
stations,  which  are  indicated  by  black  dots.  Table  III 
gives  the  total  kilowatt-hours  and  the  quantities  of  coal 
to  produce  them  in  these  districts,  for  both  1917  and 
1927.  Of  course  the  actual  working  out  of  a  plan  of 
this  kind  would  probably  differ  greatly  from  the  dis- 
tricting here  shown,  but  the  latter  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  idea. 

Objections  to  Plan  as  Outlined 

The  first  objections  to  such  a  plan  would  probably  be 
the  cost  of  the  necessary  transmission  lines  and  the 
loss  due  to  the  abandonment  of  existing  central  sta- 
tions. Approximately  100,000  miles  of  transmission 
lines  at  about  $15,000  a  mile  would  be  required,  involving 
the  huge  sum  of  $1,500,000,000.  Plants  now  in  operation 
would  be  worth  only  their  scrap  value,  which  would 
entail  a  loss  of  another  $1,500,000,000.  Thus,  the  total 
investment    required    would    be    $3,000,000,000. 

It  was  shown  that  the  saving  in  the  cost  of  trans- 
porting coal  in  1917  would  have  amounted  to  $40,500,- 
000,  and  that  in  1927  it  would  amount  to  $103,500,000 
if  the  power  were  generated  at  the  mines.  In  Penn- 
sylvania,  88,312,000  tons   of  anthracite  was  mined   in 


662 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


1916,  of  which  8  per  cent,  was  too  fine  to  ship.  This 
8  per  cent.,  amounting  to  7,000,000  tons,  would  generate 
one-fourth  of  the  electricity  used  in  the  United  States 
in  1917.  This  grade  of  fuel,  which  can  be  burned  suc- 
cessfully on  chain-grate  stokers,  could  be  flushed  with 
water  and  pumped  through  pipes  from  the  mines  to  the 
power  stations,  where  the  water  could  be  drained  oS 
and  the  coal  dried  for  burning.  Such  silt  could  be 
obtained  at  the  central  station  for  appro.ximately  75c. 
a  ton  less  than  No.  2  buckwheat  or  bird's-eye  coal  at 
the  mine,  and  its  use  would  save  $5,250,000  a  year. 

Another  saving  could  be  made  in  the  coke  regions. 
In  1916  approximately  37,000,000  tons  of  coke  was 
produced  from  beehive  ovens.  Each  ton  of  coke 
produced  about  5  per  cent,   of  coke  breeze,   or   nearly 


tons  remain,  and  if  it  were  screened  out  of  the  coal 
and  used  for  the  production  of  power,  the  value  of  the 
remainder  of  the  coal  would  be  increased.  If  the  saving 
amounted  to  only  10c.  a  ton,  the  saving  in  1917  would 
be  about   $3,400,000. 

Further  saving  would  result  from  the  more  economical 
burning  of  fuel  and  generation  of  power,  since  electricity 
can  be  generated  more  cheaply  in  a  large  plant  than  in 
a  small  one.  At  present  there  is  great  waste  of  coal 
in  hand-fired  plants;  much  is  wasted  by  the  old  types 
of  mechanical  stokers,  and  more  is  wasted  by  the  use 
of  unsuitable  grates.  The  reduction  of  these  losses 
would  probably  save  millions.  The  reduction  in  cost 
of  labor  and  supervision  by  substituting  a  few  large 
plants  for  many  small  ones  would  also  run  into  millions. 


MAP   SHOWING   TENTATIVE   DISTRICTING,    WITH    LOCATIOXS   OF  CKNTRAI.   ST.-VTK  ).\S   SUPPLYING   VARIOUS 

DISTRICTS  WITH  POWER  GENERATED  AT  MINES 


1,900,000  tons,  in  1916.  Manufacturers  of  coke  now 
pay  to  have  it  hauled  away;  but  if  it  were  sold  for 
even  40  or  50c.  a  ton,  replacing  coal  at  $2.50  a  ton, 
there  would  be  a  saving  of  about  $3,800,000  a  year  to 
the  fuel  user. 

Further  saving  would  be  effected  by  reducing  the  loss 
of  coal  in  transportation,  due  to  leakage,  wrecks  and 
stealing.  This  loss  may  run  from  2  to  5  per  cent. 
Taking  the  lower  value,  the  loss  in  1917  was  540,000 
tons  and  in  1927  it  would  be  1,380,000  tons.  Assuming 
a  price  of  $2.40  a  ton  at  the  mine,  the  loss  would 
be  $1,300,000   in   1917  and   $3,300,000   in    1927. 

In  mining  bituminous  coal  by  machines,  an  undercut 
about  6  in.  deep  is  made,  and  the  fine  coal,  or  "bug 
dust,"  thus  formed  is  about  8  per  cent,  of  the  coal 
mined,  or  39,500,000  tons  in  1917.  Subtracting  the 
5,500,000  tons  used  in  the  production  of  coke,  34,000,000 


The  various  estimates  that  have  thus  far  been  con- 
sidered may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1917  1927 

Tons  of  coal  required  forVstinmtedkw.-hr 27,000.000  59,000.000 

Freight  paid  to  railroads                        $40,500,000  $103,500,000 

Saving  by  using  anthracite  silt 5,250,000  5,250,000 

Saving  by  using  coke  breeze 3,800,000  3,800,000 

Saving  by  using  bug  dust 1,750,000  3,400,000 

Reducing  loss  of  coal  in  transportation 1,300,000  3,300,000 

Total $52,600,000       $119,250,000 

Equivalent  principal,  taking  interest  rate  of  5  per 

cent  .  .  $1,052,000,000    $2,385,000,000 

If  the  foregoing  economies  could  be  put  into  effect 
at  once,  the  saving  would  pay  the  interest  at  5  per 
cent,  on  more  than  a  billion  dollars,  while  in  1927  it 
would  pay  the  interest  on  almost  two  and  a  half  bil- 
lions. These  figures  do  not  take  into  account  the  other 
savings  mentioned.  If  their  values  were  added,  the 
total  saving  in  1927  would  probably  be  more  than  enough 
to  pay  the  interest  on  the  required  three  billions  of 


May  7.  1918 


POWER 


663 


investment.  The  feasibility  of  the  scheme,  from  a  finan- 
cial viewpoint,  is  thus  demonstrated.  It  remains  to  see 
whether  it  is  practicable. 

A  careful  study  of  Tables  I  and  IV,  in  connection 


TABLE  I.     PRODUCTION  OF  COAL  AND  COKE  IN    1916,  I.N 
.SHORT  TONS 

Colli 


Alabama 

ArkanBas , 

California 

Colorado    

Georgia    

Illinois   

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky   

Maryland   

Massaehusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota      

Missouri    

Montana   

New  Mexico 

North  Dakota 

Ohio      

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  (bit.)  .  . . 
Pennsylvania  (anth.) 
South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah   -.    ... 

Virginia   

Washington 

West  Virginia 

Wyoming 


30, 
3, 

170, 


250,000 
000,000 
12,000 
260,948 
140,000 
500,000 
738,256 
600.000 
000,000 
106,500 
930,000 


000,000 
688,307 
893,185 
620,000 
500,000 
053,543 

39,230 
270,000 
312,000 

14,000 
589,915 
300,000 
621,935 
300,000 
000,000 
989,000 
650,000 


Coke 
4,250,000 


1.320,000 

25,000 

2,500,000 

3,100.000 


980,000 
395,000 
600,000 


479,153 
725,000 


275,000 

224,294 

700,000 

140,000 

1,900.000 

2,300.000 


582.435,212     50,909,447 

with  the  districts  shown  on  the  map,  indicates  that  each 
district  produces  enough  coal  of  the  right  grade  or 
quality  to  meet  its  demand  for  power.  Table  IV  gives 
the   coal   and  coke  production,   by   districts,   in    1916. 

TABLE  II.  CURRENT  GENER.\TED  BY  STEAM,  AND  SHORT 
TONS  OF  COAL  BURNED,  BY  STATES 


-1917- 


Kw.-Hr. 
202,000,000 
8.000.000 
63.000.000 


Alabama 

.\j-izona 

.\rkansas 

California  * 

Colorado 316.000.000 

Connecticut 179.000.000 

Delaware      39,000,000 

Dist.  of  Columbia . .  1 79. 000, 000 

ribrida 78.000,000 

Georgia 116.000,000 

Idaho  t 

Illinois 2,070,000,000 


Indiana 

Iowa .  .  

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland    ,  . . 
Massachusetts. . . 

Michigan     

Minnesota 

Mississippi    . 
Missouri 

Montana    

Nebraska     

Nevada  t 

New     Hampshire 
New     Jersey ... 
New  Mexico.  . . . 

New  York 

North  Carolina.   . 
North  Dakota - 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania   . 
Rhode  Island .  . 
South  Carolina. . . 
South  Dakota .... 

Tennessee - 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont.  . . 
Virginia. . . . 

Washington 

West  Virginia.  .    . 
Wisconsin . . 

Wyoming 

*  Coal  consmnption 


700,000,000 

185,000,000 

142,000,000 

229,000,000 

163,000,000 

100,000,000 

358.000.000 

1,200,000,000 

329,000,000 

232,000,000 

58,000,000 

772,000,000 

17,000,000 

147,000,000 

62,000,000 

640,000,000 

9,000,000 

3,350,000,000 

50,000,000 

19,000,000 

1,459,000,000 

100,000,000 

293,000,000 

1,895,000,000 

191,000,000 

60,000,000 

10.000,000 

158,000,000 

315,000,000 

76,000,000 

31.000.000 

227,000,000 

579,000,000 

113,000.000 

349,000,000 

18,000,000 

for  KcncratinK 


Coal 
303,000 
12,000 
95,000 

474,000 
268.000 
59,000 
265,000 
117,000 
174,000 

3,105,000 

1,050,000 
278,000 
213,000 
343,000 
245,000 
150,000 
537,000 

1,800,000 

495,000 

348,000 

87,000 

1,158,000 

26,000 

220,000 

93,000 

960,000 

14,000 

5,025,000 

75,000 

29,000 

2,188,000 

150,000 

439,000 

2,843,000 

286,000 

90,000 

15,000 

237,000 

473,000 

114,000 

46,000 

340,000 

869,000 

169,000 

524,000 

27,000 

Icctrit 


1927- 


Kw.-Hr. 
515,100,000 

20.400,000 
160,650.000 

805.800,000 
456.450,000 
99,450,000 
456.450.000 
198,900,000 
295,800,000 

5,278,500,000 

1.785,000,000 
471,750,000 
362,100,000 
583,950,000 
415,650,000 
255.000,000 
912,900,000 

3,060,000,000 
838.950,000 
591,600.000 
147.900,000 

1,968,600.000 

43,350,000 

374,850,000 

158,100.000 

1.632,000.000 

22,950,000 

8.542,500.000 

127,500,000 

48,450,000 

3.720,450,000 

255,000,000 

747,150,000 

4,832.250,000 

487,050,000 

153,000,000 

25,500.000 

402,900.000 

803,250,000 

193,800.000 

79,050,000 

578,850,000 

1.476.450.000 

288.150,000 

889,950,000 

45,900,000 


power    IS    practically 


Coal 
772,650 
30,600 
242,250 

1,208,700 
683,400 
150,450 
683.400 
298,350 
443,700 

7,917,750 

2,677,500 

708,900 

543,150 

874.650 

624.750 

382,500 

1,369,350 

4,590,000 

1,257,150 

887,400 

221,850 

2,952,900 

66,300 

561.000 

237,150 

2,448.000 

35,700 

12,813,750 

191,250 

73,950 

5,579,400 

382,500 

1,1  19,450 

7,249,650 

729,300 

229,500 

38,250 

604,350 

1.206,150 

290,700 

117,300 

867,000 

2,215,950 

430,950 

1,336,200 

68,850 

nothing. 


t  Coal  consumption  for  generating  electric  power  is  negligildc 

Table  V  shows  the  length  of  transmission  lines  needed 
in  each  district. 

The  arrangement  of  the  central  stations  is  a  matter 
of  study  for  each  individual  district,  but  some  sug- 
gestions can  be  made.     In  some  districts  it  might  be 


better  to  have  a  number  of  small  stations  located  at 
the  different  mines  und  supplying  power  to  a  main 
transmission  line.  In  the  Indiana  district,  for  example, 
the  coal  field  is  a  long,  narrow  strip  on  the  western 
border,  and  there  are  a  number  of  mines  with  an  output 
of  500,000  tons  of  coal  a  year  each.  A  central  station 
could  be  located  at  each  of  these  mines  and  take  its 

TABLE  III.  CURRENT  GENERATED  BY  STEAM,  AND  SHORT 
TONS  OF  COAL  BURNED,  BY  DISTRICTS 

District 

1  ,,    , 

2  ... 

3  ..    . 

4  ... 

5  ... 

6  ... 

7  .    . 

8  ... 

9  .    . 

10  . 

11  .... 
12 

13      .... 
14 

15         . 
16 

17       . 
18 
19 

20  . 

21  .... 
22 
23     .... 

entire  output,  and  each  would  produce  about  330,000,000 
kw.-hr.  a  year. 

Another  example  may  be  found  in  the  anthracite 
field.  There  might  be  three  large  central  stations, 
one  in  each  part  of  the  field.  As  these  plants  could 
bum  silt  and  fine  coal,  their  fuel  could  be  pumped  from 
the  various  breakers  to  the  central  plants,  relieving 
the  railroads  from  handling  it. 

Still  another  example  is  the  eastern  Kentucky  field, 
containing  three  main  railroad  lines  on  which  the  coal 


Kw-Hr. 

Coal 

Kw.-Hr. 

Coal 

6,701,000,000 

10.051,500 

17,087,550,000 

25.631,325 

1,340,000,000 

2,010,000 

3,417,000,000 

5,125,500 

632,000,000 

948,000 

1,61  1,600,000 

2,417,400 

295,000,000 

442,500 

752,250,000 

1,128,375 

59,000,000 

88,500 

150,450.000 

225,675 

812,000,000 

1,218,000 

2.070,600,000 

3,105,900 

123,000,000 

184,500 

313,650,000 

470,475 

782.000,000 

1,173,000 

1,994,100,000 

2,991,150 

479.000,000 

718,500 

1,221,450,000 

1,832,175 

475,000.000 

712.500 

1,211,250,000 

1.816,875 

448,000.000 

672,000 

1,142,400,000 

1,713,600 

.  .     2,654,000,000 

3,981,000 

6,767,700,000 

10,151,550 

17,000.000 

25,500 

43,350,000 

65,025 

634,000,000 

951,000 

1,616,700,000 

2,425,050 

721,000.000 

1,081,500 

1.838,550,000 

2,757,825 

205,000,000 

307.500 

522,750,000 

784,125 

210,000,000 

315.000 

535,500,000 

803,250 

18,000,000 

27.000 

45,900,000 

68,850 

316,000,000 

474,000 

805,800,000 

1,208,700 

76,000,000 

114,000 

193,800,000 

290,700 

579.000.000 

868.500 

1,476,450,000 

2,214,675 

293.000.000 

439,500 

747,150.000 

1,120,725 

17.000.000 

25,500 

43,350,000 

65,025 

TABLE  IV.     COAL  AND  COIvE  PRODUCTION  IN   SHORT 

1916.  BY  DISTRICTS 
District  Coal  Coke  District  Coal 


TONS,    IN 
Coke 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
II 
12 
13 


128.312,000 

149,270,000 

4,930,000 

33,300,000 

44,989,000 

30,500,000 

1,056,393 

18,738,256 

11,000,000 

22,979,915 

16,106,500 

63,500,000 

4,308,307 


2,600,000* 
28,746,000 
395,000* 
2.600,000 

725,000* 

3,100,000* 
980,000* 
4,550,000 

2,750,000* 


14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 


7,614,000 
12,000,000 
3,053,543 
2,300,000 
7,650,000 
10,260,948 
3,621,935 
3,000,000 
39,230 
3.893,185 

582,423,212 


2,300,000 

1,320,000 

224,294 

140,000 


479,153 


50,909,447 


*  Byproduct  coke. 

is  produced.  It  might  probably  be  best  in  this  field 
to  have  three  main  power  plants,  one  on  each  of  the 
three  railroads. 

In  the  bituminous  field  it  would  probably  be  better  to 
have  a  number  of  smaller  plants  located  at  convenient 


TABLE  v. 
District 
1 

2 
3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
II 
12 
13 
14 


Miles 

14,300 
5.900 
1,800 
6,700 
2,100 
4,800 
4,000 
6,300 
2,500 
9,500 
8,500 

15,500 
1,000 

14.300 


JN   LINES. 

BY 

DISTRICTS 

District 

Miles 

15 

8.500 

16 

4,000 

17 

4,000 

18 

600 

19 

2,000 

20 

1,000 

21 

2,000 

22 

1,000 

23 

3,000 
123.300 

Less  21, 

22  and 

73 

. . .    6,000 

117,300 


points,  so  that  the  slack  coal  would  need  to  be  carried 
a  minimum  distance  by  the  railroads.  Such  a  plan 
would  be  better  than  having  one  or  two  large  plants, 
as  the  latter  would  involve  a  longer  haul. 

It  has  been  shown  that  electric  companies  and  users 
of  power  would  benefit  by  electric-power  generation  at 


664 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


the  mines.  Now  it  remains  to  be  shown  how  the  rail- 
roads would  be  benefited  by  the  reduction  of  the  burden 
of  transportation.  In  1915  there  were  about  900,000 
railroad  cars  in  use  in  the  United  States  for  hauling 
coal,  and  344,119,502  tons  were  hauled.  At  40  tons  to  a 
car,  there  was  a  total  of  8,602.988  carloads,  so  that  each 
car  made  92  trips  a  year  from  the  mines  to  the  consumer. 
As  there  were  675,000  cars  of  coal  handled  in  1917  for 
electric  plants  alone,  it  was  necessary  to  keep  about 
71,000  cars  in  this  service.  In  1927,  assuming  the  same 
number  of  trips  per  car,  but  50  tons  to  a  carload,  there 
would  be  1,380,000  carloads,  requiring  145,000  cars. 
The  locomotives  needed  to  handle  these  cars,  assuming 
50  cars  to  a  train  in  1917  and  60  in  1927,  would  be 
1400  in  1917  and  2890  in  1927.  The  reduction  in  the 
amount  of  coal  handled,  by  generating  the  power  at 
the  mines,  would  be  enormous.  Of  course  the  revenue 
from  the  freight  on  this  coal  would  be  lost  to  the 
railroads,  but  the  equipment  thus  released  could  be 
turned  to  the  carrying  of  other  commodities,  so  that 
their  income  would  not  necessarily  be  affected  adversely. 

Precedents  for  Long-Distance  Transmission 

At  the  present  time  there  are  a  number  of  precedents 
for  the  long-distance  transmission  of  power  and  for 
the  establishment  of  central  stations  at  the  source  of 
the  fuel  supply,  and  it  might  be  well  to  show  what  has 
been  done.  A  number  of  examples  of  long-distance 
transmission  of  power  exist  in  the  West,  particularly 
in  California,  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  being  that 
of  the  Stanislaus  system.  This  is  a  hydro-electric 
plant  in  the  Stanislaus  Mountains.  It  has  a  capacity 
of  100,000  kw.  and  transmits  power  at  110,000  volts 
to  San  Francisco,  more  than  150  miles  away.  This 
plant  has  been  in  operation  since  1907. 

There  are  a  number  of  plants  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  which  have  their  central  stations  at  the  mines 
and  distribute  power  over  a  considerable  extent  of 
territory.  The  Rochester  &  Pittsburgh  Coal  Co.,  at  one 
of  its  operations  in  Indiana  Co.,  Penn.,  transmits  power 
for  a  distance  of  about  30  miles  at  22,000  volts.  This 
plant  is  typical  of  those  which  use  waste  fuel,  as  it 
burns  bone  coal.  Such  coal  is  commercially  worthless, 
due  to  high  ash  content  and  lack  of  luster,  but  it  has 
to  be  removed  from  the  mines.  This  plant  has  an 
installation  of  12,000  kilowatts. 

At  Cabin  Creek  Junction,  W.  Va.,  the  Virginia  Power 
Co.  has  installed  a  plant  of  20,000-kw.  capacity  and 
arrangements  have  been  made  to  increase  it.  Current 
is  transmitted  at  44,000  volts  to  hundreds  of  coal 
mines  within  a  radius  of  50  miles  and  the  company  is 
now  considering  extension  of  the  lines. 

At  Hauto,  Penn.,  a  plant  of  37,500-kw.  capacity, 
which  is  to  be  enlarged  to  100,000  kw.,  has  been  built 
by  the  Lehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  Co.  The  current 
is  transmitted  at  110,000  volts  for  distances  up  to  50 
miles.  The  plan  is  to  extend  the  lines  eventually  to 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  98  and  73  miles  away, 
respectively.  This  current  is  used  to  supply  a  large 
number  of  mines  and  manufacturing  plants,  and  a  very 
small   grade   of   coal   is   used. 

Near  Wilkes-Barre,  Penn.,  the  D.,  L.  &  \V.  R.R.  at  its 
Loomis  mine  has  an  installation  of  10,000  kw.  and  trans- 
mits the  current  at  22,000  volts  to  a  number  of  mining 
operations.     Silt  is  used  for  the  generation  of  steam. 


At  Peoria,  111.,  there  is  a  central  station  with  a 
capacity  of  10,500  kw.  supplying  a  population  of  140,- 
000  people  in  five  counties  having  27  cities  and  towns. 
Two  mines  very  near  the  central  station  furnish  the 
coal,  and  the  current  is  transmitted  at  33,000  volts. 

The  Christopher  Coal  Mining  Co.,  Christopher,  111., 
has  an  installation  of  5000  kw.,  and  all  the  surplus 
power  is  stepped  up  to  33,000  volts  and  supplied  to  a 
public-utilities  company. 

The  Kentucky  Utilities  Co.  has  a  plant  in  the  Pocket 
near  St.  Charles,  Va.,  and  another  at  Varilla,  Ky.  The 
Pocket  plant  is  of  10,000  kw.  and  the  Varilla  plant  of 
5000  kw.  The  Varilla  plant  is  supplied  with  coal  by 
a  company  whose  tipple  is  about  500  ft.  away,  while 
the  Pocket  plant  is  supplied  by  the  coal  mines  at  St. 
Charles  and  the  washer  at  the  Pocket.  These  plants 
are  connected  by  more  than  50  miles  of  transmission 
lines,  and  they  supply  a  territory  more  than  150  miles 
long,  which  is  being  extended  monthly  33,000  volts 
is  used  for  the  transmission  of  the  current. 

The  Clearfield  Bituminous  Coal  Corporation  has  a 
2000-kw.  plant  at  Clymer,  Penn.,  and  a  5000-kw.  plant 
at  Rossiter,  Penn.  The  Clymer  plant  is  tied  in  with 
the  Pennsylvania  Public  Service  Corporation  lines,  and 
the  one  at  Rossiter  is  about  to  be.  The  service  cor- 
poration supplies  a  number  of  counties  in  the  central 
part  of  Pennsylvania  with  22,000-volt  current.  At 
present  the  lines  are  more  than  150  miles  long  and  are 
being  extended. 

Packing   Water-Pistons   of    Pumps 

Packing  the  water  end  of  an  internally  packed  pump 
is  considered  a  comparatively  simple  job,  but  the  life 
or  service  of  the  packing  is  greatly  influenced  by  the 
way  it  is  put  in  and  adjusted.  The  one  big  requisite 
is  that  the  packing  be  pinched  or  clamped  firmly  be- 
tween the  flange  and  the  follower  plate.  WTien  so 
clamped,  it  can  withstand  the  action  of  the  water  with- 
out being  washed  away.  This  is  especially  noticeable 
when  the  pump  cylinder  has  become  worn  large  in  the 
middle  so  that  there  is  more  or  less  water  slip  toward 
midstroke.  If  the  packing  is  not  solidly  gripped,  it 
will  not  stay  long,  will  be  washed  away;  if,  however. 
it  is  held  as  in  a  vise,  it  will  withstand  the  erosion  and 
"tugging"  effect  a  much  longer  time. 

The  packing  cannot  be  expected  to  expand  to  suit 
the  worn  part  and  compress  to  pass  into  the  smaller 
portion  at  the  ends,  as  the  rings  in  the  steam  end  do, 
and  still  last  a  reasonable  time,  because  of  its  fibrous 
nature. 

A  split  ring  should  be  put  in,  if  necessary,  just  ahead 
of  the  last  ring  so  that  the  packing  will  extend  slightly 
beyond  the  plunger  and  the  follower  plate  will  pinch 
it  hard  before  coming  against  the  face  of  the  plunger. 


By  doing  without  needless  luxuries  you  can  save 
mone.v.  And  by  investing  that  money  in  War  Savings 
Stamps,  you  automatically  release  to  the  Government 
the  labor  and  material  that  it  needs  for  winning  the 
war.  The  Government  doesn't  ask  you  to  give  your 
money,  or  to  do  without  luxuries  forever.  Uncle  Sam 
simply  wants  your  game  of  pleasure  and  luxury  post- 
poned on  account  of  the  rain  of  bullets  that  the  Huns 
are  directing  at  our  fighting  lads. 


May  7,  1918  POWER  665 

'lUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIUIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIU 


Editorials 


iiiniiiiniifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii:iiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


"We'll  Stand  Fast" 

Words  of  Inspiration  from  "Poiver's"  Paria  Correspondent 

IN  THE  world  crisis  precipitated  by  the  German  on- 
slaught in  Picardy  and  Flanders  the  faith  of  France 
in  her  own  armies  and  those  of  her  allies  remains  ab- 
solutely unshaken.  This  is  the  clear-cut  impression 
gained  by  the  observer  in  Paris  today.  There  is  no 
panic  here  as  Teuton  propagandists  would  have  the 
world  believe,  nor  are  there  discernible  even  the  symp- 
toms of  a  general  uneasiness. 

Long-range  shelling  by  day,  bombing  raids  from  the 
air  by  night,  and  the  threat  of  a  German  advance  upon 
the  French  Capital,  far  from  demoralizing  the  spirit  of 
the  civil  population,  have  lifted  it  to  new  heights  of 
determination  and  confidence.  The  daily  news  from  the 
front  is  even  more  encouraging,  and  there  are  just  be- 
ginning to  drift  back  hints  of  the  heroic  part  which  the 
engineers  of  the  allied  forces  are  playing  in  the  great- 
est war  drama  of  all  time. 

When  the  full  story  is  told  of  how  they  have  been 
performing  day  after  day  seemingly  impossibh  feats  in 
transporting  reserve  troops  and  material  and  in  main- 
taining lines  of  communication,  it  will  form  the  grand- 
est epic  in  the  annals  of  engineering. 

From  the  picture  of  public  fesling  here  I  will  pick 
out  a  single  detail.  At  the  pension  de  famille,  where  I 
stay,  lives  the  aged  widow  of  a  French  general.  Amid 
the  bursting  shells  of  the  long-range  gun,  bombs 
dropped  in  the  night  and  early  rumors  of  an  over- 
whelming German  attack,  her  friends  attempted  to  per- 
suade the  old  lady  to  leave  Paris.  I  saw  her  eyes 
flash,  her  bent  shoulders  straighten  back,  and  as  she 
snapped,  "Je  reste  ici,"  she  seemed  to  embody  in  those 
three  words  the  spirit  of  France — "We'll  Stand  Fast." 


The  large  power  plant  is  capable  of  producing  energy 
at  a  lower  cost  than  the  small  plant  working  under 
like  conditions,  so  that  the  plan  proposed  has  the  addi- 
tional advantage  of  economizing  in  the  use  of  fuel. 
This,  too,  has  been  brought  prominently  into  notice  of 
late. 

The  author,  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  his  argu- 
ment, divides  the  country  into  a  number  of  districts, 
each  of  which  contains  one  or  more  coal  fields  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  furnish  the  power  for  that  district.  The 
division  shown  is  made  arbitrarily,  and  any  definite 
attempt  to  put  such  a  plan  into  operation  would  prob- 
ably alter  the  boundary  lines  considerably. 

The  current  generated  at  the  district  central  stations 
is  transmitted  to  various  parts  of  the  district  by  high- 
tension  transmission  lines.  The  lengths  of  these  lines 
in  some  cases  would  be  great,  but  there  are  a  sufficient 
number  of  long-distance  transmission  lines  now  in 
operation  to  furnish  the  necessary  precedents. 

A  further  step,  not  mentioned  by  the  author  in  his 
discussion,  would  be  the  recovery  of  byproducts  from 
the  coal  before  it  is  utilized  as  fuel.  This  point  is  now 
under  consideration  in  Great  Britain,  in  connection  with 
a  plan  to  divide  that  country  into  some  sixteen  dis- 
tricts, each  containing  electric  generating  stations  as 
centers  of  supply  of  power.  The  idea  is  to  build  the  by- 
product plant  in  close  proximity  to  the  power  plant 
and  to  extract  from  the  coal  all  desirable  byproducts 
before  using  it  to  produce  heat  for  power,  where  such 
extraction  proves  justifiable. 

All  these  plans  for  the  utilization  of  the  greatest  pos- 
sible percentage  of  the  value  of  coal  are  straws  showing 
that  the  trend  of  modern  engineering  is  in  the  direction 
of  greater  efficiency  and  increased  conservation  of  nat- 
ural resources. 


Mine-Mouth  Generation  of  Power 

THE  plan  outlined  in  the  article  on  page  661  of  this 
issue  suggests  locating  large  electric  power  sta- 
tions in  the  heart  of  the  coal-mining  districts  of  the 
country,  generating  electrical  energy  there  and  trans- 
mitting it  by  high-tension  lines  to  the  points  where 
power  is  required.  The  idea  is  not  a  new  one,  for  it 
has  been  put  forth,  in  one  form  or  another,  in  times 
past.  But  the  exigencies  brought  about  by  war  condi- 
tions lend  fresh  emphasis  to  the  proposal. 

It  is  at  once  apparent  that  the  utilization  of  coal  for 
power  generation  at  the  mine  does  away  with  the  neces- 
sity of  transporting  that  coal  to  distant  points  and  so 
relieves  the  railroads  of  a  vast  amount  of  tonnage. 
So  far  as  the  past  season  is  concerned,  the  congestion 
of  traffic  on  the  railroads  was  due  to  lack  of  motive 
power  to  handle  the  increased  quantity  of  freight.  Ob- 
viously, any  arrangement  by  which  a  large  percentage 
of  the  freight  traffic  could  be  eliminated  would  afford 
a  solution  of  the  transportation  problem. 


The  Coal  Situation 

THE  problem  of  supplying  every  coal  consumer  in 
this  country  with  sufficient  fuel  to  meet  his  needs 
for  the  coming  winter  hinges  entirely  on  transportation, 
and  the  Fuel  Administration  gives  assurance  that  there 
are  enough  cars  and  locomotives  to  transport  the  neces- 
sary quantity  of  coal,  provided  that  every  car  and 
every  locomotive  are  used  to  their  maximum  capacity 
every  day  in  the  year.  Also,  there  are  enough  mine 
workers  to  furnish  the  required  output,  if  they  are  kept 
busy  every  day  in  the  year  and  if  the  cars  and  loco- 
motives are  available. 

The  full  coal-carrying  capacity  must  be  utilized  all 
the  time,  and  to  attain  this  end  it  is  necessary  that  the 
coal  operators  be  supplied  with  orders.  If  orders  are 
delayed,  or  are  small,  the  output  at  the  mines  will  be 
curtailed  correspondingly,  resulting  in  idle  workmen; 
but  still  worse,  the  number  of  coal  cars  delivered  to  the 
mine  will  be  reduced  to  suit  the  demand,  and  coal-carry- 
ing equipment  will  be  idle. 


666 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


There  is  no  elasticity  in  the  transportation  of  coal. 
The  movement  must  be  continuous  and  always  at  full 
capacity,  if  a  fuel  famine  like  that  of  last  year  is  to 
be  averted.  The  aggregate  demand  for  coal  is  so  great 
that  a  slump  in  production  during  a  week  or  a  month 
cannot  be  made  up  in  a  succeeding  period. 

The  Fiiel  Administration  is  doing  everything  in  its 
power  to  keep  all  the  machinery  for  the  production  and 
distribution  of  coal  working  at  maximum  capacity.  The 
reduction  of  thirty  cents  a  ton  to  the  domestic  consumer 
is  made  in  the  hope  that  orders  for  the  winter's  coal 
will  accumulate  to  such  an  extent  that  both  the  mines 
and  the  railroads  will  be  kept  busy  continuously 
throughout  the  year. 

The  producer  is  not  able  to  mine  the  coal  and  store 
it  in  anticipation  of  a  future  demand.  Few  mines  have 
storage  space  or  equipment;  and  even  if  these  were 
available,  there  would  be  an  unnecessary  expense  in- 
curred in  the  double  handling  of  the  coal.  The  most 
economical  and  rapid  method  is  to  mine  the  coal,  load 
it  directly  into  cars  and  ship  it  to  the  points  where  it  is 
to  be  used,  there  to  be  stored  until  it  is  needed. 

The  Fuel  Administration  will  cooperate  with  any  com- 
munity that  desires  to  provide  storage  for  emergency 
stocks  of  coal  to  be  laid  in  during  the  summer  months ; 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  storage  capacity  of  the 
country  is  made  up  of  the  bins  of  the  individual  con- 
sumers, and  these  are  the  logical  places  for  the  accumu- 
lation of  stocks  of  fuel. 

The  Government  has  established  a  schedule  of  fixed 
prices  for  coal  at  the  mines;  it  has  put  into  effect  a 
zone  system  of  distribution  to  facilitate  transportation ; 
it  encourages  the  production  of  clean  coal  by  allowing 
higher  prices  to  producers  who  take  extraordinary  pains 
in  preparing  their  output;  and  it  penalizes  in  price 
those  coals  that  contain  undue  amounts  of  foreign 
matter.  In  view  of  these  measures  the  prompt  and 
complete  cooperation  of  the  consuming  public  by  the 
placing  of  orders  is  needed  to  insure  the  successful  dis- 
tribution of  the  year's  coal. 

Home  Army  Must  Supply  Power 

THERE  are  two  fields  of  battle  in  the  war  against 
German  autocracy  and  militarism,  and  to  win  the 
war  we  must  conquer  on  both  those  fields.  One  is  in 
France  and  Belgium  and  extends  from  the  North  Sea 
to  the  Swiss  border.  The  other  is  here  in  America.  It 
extends  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  and  from  the 
Canadian  border  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  covers  every 
city,  town  and  village,  every  farm,  field  and  woodland 
in  the  country. 

In  France  our  soldiers,  standing  shoulder  to  shouldei 
with  the  British,  French  and  Italians,  repeat  the  great 
French  battle  cry  of  Verdun,  "You  shall  not  pass!" 
Their  breasts  are  a  wall  of  steel  against  the  charging 
masses  of  the  Kaiser.  Amid  the  roar  of  cannon,  the 
rattle  of  machine  guns  and  the  clash  of  bayonets,  they 
stand  firm. 

Over  here  it  is  the  noisy  clang  of  the  riveters  in  the 
shipyards,  the  busy  hum  of  the  factory,  the  whirring 
wheels  of  smoothly  running  engines,  the  silent  efficiency 
of  the  great  office  force,  the  push  of  the  plow  in  soft 
earth  and  the  swift  stroke  of  the  woodman's  ax. 

All  are  fighting  in  the  great  battle  that  (lemocracy 


may  live — those  whose  part  is  played  here,  as  well  as 
those  who  sail  across  the  sea  to  offer  their  lives  in 
France.  And  it  is  as  essential  for  final  victory  that  the 
army  here  shall  stand  firm — the  army  of  workingmen 
and  workingwomen — that  no  part  of  the  long  line  shall 
give,  that  every  man  shall  put  forth  the  last  ounce  of 
his  strength,  that  they  shall  fight  with  their  backs  to  the 
wall,  as  it  is  that  that  line  in  France  shall  hurl  back 
the  German  hordes.  For  our  men  over  the  sea  cannot 
win  without  us  at  home.  They  look  to  us  to  back  them 
up,  to  keep  a  steady  stream  of  men  and  munitions  and 
supplies  of  all  kinds  crossing  the  Atlantic,  to  build  the 
ships  that  will  bridge  the  ocean. 

Our  duty  is  as  stern  as  is  that  of  the  soldiers  in 
France,  and  our  fate  is  as  unrelenting.  Our  choice  is 
unremitting  labor  and  unquestioning,  willing  sacrifice, 
or  defeat  and  subjugation  to  the  iron  despotism  of 
Germany.     There  are  no  other  alternatives. 

The  Third  Liberty  Loan  campaign  is  ended,  and  the 
loan  well  oversubscribed.  The  response  of  the  people 
of  America  has  been  more  than  equal  to  the  present 
demand.  They  have  done  well,  but  this  is  not  all.  Let 
us  now  concentrate  our  energies  to  putting  the  War 
Savings  Certificates  over  the  top,  for  they  are  also  a 
liberty  investment  that  our  Government  is  depending 
upon  to  provide  the  sinews  of  war.  The  line  on  the 
battlefields  of  America  must  not  waver,  so  that  the  line 
in  France  will  hold  firm,  because  our  men  in  France  put 
their  faith  in  us  in  America.  Let  us  not  fail  them. 
Let  us  be  equal  to  any  call  that  is  made  upon  us.  Let  us 
now  buy  War  Savings  Certificates  to  the  limit  of  our 
resources,  and  then  strain  our  resources  to  buy  more 
Government  securities.     In  that  way  lies  victory. 


Boilers  not  built  in  conformity  with  the  Code  may  be 
carried  into  Pennsylvania,  but  may  not  be  operated,  ac- 
cording to  an  opinion  recently  rendered  by  the  Attorney- 
General's  Department  to  the  Department  of  Labor  and 
Industry.  The  board  had  ruled  that  boilers  not  built  in 
conformity  with  its  boiler  code  may  not  be  brought  into 
Pennsylvania.  The  Legal  Department  is  of  the  opinion 
that  such  a  ruling  cannot  be  enforced,  but  that  the  board 
can  prevent  the  operation  of  the  boiler  until  it  is  made 
to  conform  with  its  code. 


Which  will  you  choose  V  The  Government  needs  all 
the  money,  material  and  labor  it  can  get,  and  more. 
This  is  a  war  of  equipment.  No  matter  how  brave  our 
men  are,  they  cannot  face  the  greatest  military  organi- 
zation the  world  has  ever  known  with  bare  hands.  There 
is  not  enough  labor  and  material  in  the  country  for 
our  usual  comforts  and  luxuries  and  for  our  fighters' 
necessities.    We  must  choose  which  it  shall  be. 


There's  an  old  saying  that  it's  better  to  have  tried 
and  failed  than  never  to  have  tried  at  all;  but  while  it 
may  be  right  to  look  at  some  things  in  that  way,  it 
cannot  be  applied  to  all  tasks  and  problems  that  one 
meets  with  in  the  power-plant  field.  Overconfidence 
in  one's  ability  will  as  surely  bring  failure  as  would  lack 
of  sufficient  courage  to  tackle  the  job. 


Farley  G.  Clark,  of  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  proposes  to 
pump  coal  from  mines  to  centers  of  consumption  through 
pipe  lines.     The  idea  is  worthy  of  study. 


May  7,  1918 


POWER 


667 


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Correspondence 


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Meeting  an  Emergency 

The  plant  of  which  I  have  charge  supplies  light  and 
heat  to  a  large  railway  terminal  hotel,  station  buildings, 
etc.  We  have  two  boilers,  but  use  only  one  at  a  time, 
the  other  being  kept  clean  and  ready  to  fire  up  at  a 
moment's  notice.  We  bum  oil  pumped  directly  to  the 
burners  from  the  underground  storage  tank,  which  is 
about  200  ft.  from  the  boiler  room.  One  3  x  2  x  4-in. 
duplex  pump  is  used  at  a  time,  supplied  from  a  com- 
mon 3-in.  suction  line.  This  line  comes  out  of  the 
tank  above  the  level  of  the  pumps,  drops  considerably 
below  their  level,  then  rises  through  the  boiler- 
room  floor  to  the  pumps  after  making  a  number  of 
right-angled  turns.  The  pumps  run  very  slowly,  con- 
trolled by  a  governor,  to  supply  the  oil  as  fast  as  it  is 
burned.  We  have  no  trouble  as  long  as  the  oil  tank  is 
not  less  than  half  full,  as  the  oil  is  above  the  level  of  the 
pumps;  but  below  this  the  pump  frequently  loses  the 
oil,  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  get  it  to  pick  up 
again. 

Recently,  I  had  a  new  man  on  the  midnight  to  8  o'clock 
shift.  He  had  specific  instructions  what  to  do  and  how 
to  manipulate  the  pumps  in  case  they  lost  the  oil,  and 
was  told  to  call  me  in  case  of  trouble.  One  morning 
about  3  o'clock  the  pump  lost  the  oil  and  the  man  evi- 
dently lost  his  head  altogether,  for  when  I  got  to  the 
plant  the  fire  was  out  and  the  steam  down  to  20  lb. 
The  dampers  were  wide  open,  allowing  a  cold  draft 
through  the  boiler.  The  engine  was  running  with 
full  load  on,  though  at  such  reduced  speed  that  the 
lights  could  barely  be  seen.  I  shut  down  the  engine, 
closed  the  damper  and  cut  out  a  live-steam  heating  cir- 
cuit. By  this  time  the  steam  was  down  to  15  lb. 
I  started  the  spare  pump,  which  was  in  perfect  con- 
dition, but  the  steam  was  too  low  to  run  the  pump 
fast  enough  to  pick  up  the  oil.  The  case  seemed  hope- 
less. There  was  no  means  of  raising  steam  except  with 
oil  and  steam  of  at  least  30  lb.  pressure  was  re- 
quired to  pump  the  oil.  It  was  very  cold  and  im- 
patient inquiries  w«re  coming  in  thick  and  fast;  so  I 
disconnected  the  pump  suction  pipe,  put  in  a  tee,  then 
a  nipple  and  valve,  and  in  the  valve  I  screwed  a  piece 
of  3-in.  pipe  about  3  ft.  long.  1  then  attached  ropes 
to  two  pails,  and  with  these  we  drew  oil  from  the  tank, 
carried  it  to  the  boiler  room  and  filled  the  suction  line 
and  pump  through  my  improvised  standpipe.  By  that 
time  there  was  only  10  lb.  of  steam  pressure,  barely 
enough  to  move  the  pump  and  atomize  the  oil  in 
the  burner.  I  certainly  felt  relieved  when  the  gage 
on  the  oil  line  to  the  burners  showed  pressure  enough 
to  start  the  fire.  We  kept  carrying  oil  until  we  had 
40  lb.  steam  and  succeeded  in  getting  the  pump 
to  take  oil  from  the  tank.  In  an  hour  from  the  time 
I  arrived  we  had  the  full  load  on  the  engine  and  steam 
heat  on  in  all  departments. 

This  incident  convinced  me  that  in  all  oil-burning 
plants  the  burner  pump  should  take  oil  from  an  overhead 


tank,  so  I  am  installing  a  small  overhead  tank  to  be 
kept  filled  by  piping  the  discharge  oil  from  the  over- 
pressure valve,  on  the  oil  line  between  the  pumps  and 
burners.  From  this  overhead  tank  I  will  run  an  over- 
flow pipe  to  the  storage  tank  instead  of  the  present 
layout  where  the  overflow  pipe  runs  directly  back  to 
the  storage  tank.  From  the  bottom  of  this  auxiliary 
tank  I  will  run  a  pipe  to  the  pump  suction  line  so  that 
it  will  only  be  necessary  to  open  a  valve  to  prime  the 
pump,  since  the  overhead  tank  will  always  be  kept  full 
by  the  discharge  from  the  overpressure  valve. 

Ash  Fork,  Ariz.  W.  G.  CAMP. 

Easily  Attached  Toolholder 

The  bracket  shown  in  Fig.  1  is  made  of  machine  steel 
and  hardened  on  the  corners  for  gripping  on  pipes  or 
poles  for  holding  the  tool  basket.  Fig.  2,  or  the  wire  and 
tape  holder.  Fig.  3,  thus  enabling  the  electrician  to  have 


FIG  3 

FKLS.    I    To    3,      PARTS    ANM)    ASSRMBI.V    OF    TOOI,IU)Lr)KU 

everything  within  easy  reach.  The  part  A,  Fig.  1,  is 
hinged  to  give  access  to  the  pipe  or  pole.  The  rivet  B 
is  made  tight  enough  to  keep  the  part  A  closed  when 
the  bracket  is  in  place.  M.  P.  Bertrande. 

Ozone  Park,  N.  Y. 

A  Suggestion  to  Advertisers 

Although  the  pages  of  Power  are  interesting  from 
the  front  to  the  back  and  are  full  of  useful  information, 
there  is  one  thing  more  your  advertisers  might  do 
(some  do  it  now  but  others  do  not)  ;  that  is,  to  mention 
their  representatives  in  the  principal  Canadian  cities. 
We  have  often  written  to  advertisers  only  to  be  referred 
by  them  to  a  firm  within  a  hundred  miles  of  here. 

Granby,  Que.,  Canada.  J.  DRUM  MONO. 


668 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


Starting  Synchronous  Motors 

In  Mr.  Gray's  article,  "Starting  Synchronous  Motors," 
in  the  Mar.  12  issue  of  Power,  it  is  stated  that  when 
an  attendant  was  not  at  hand  to  help  the  operator  put 
the  motor  in  service  he  tied  the  starting  lever  on  the 
compensator  in  the  starting  position  and  then  threw 
in  the  oil  switch  at  the  switchboard. 

Some  time  ago  I  worked  in  a  plant  where  there  were 
two  large  synchronous  motors  with  a  similar  starting 
equipment  to  that  described  by  Mr.  Gray.  In  starting 
the  machines,  we  first  closed  the  oil  switch  at  the 
switchboard  and  then  went  to  the  compensator  and 
threw  it  to  the  starting  position.  When  the  motor  had 
come  up  to  speed,  the  compensator  was  closed  to  the 
running  position,  after  which  the  operator  went  to  the 
switchboard,  closed  the  field  switch  and  made  the  neces- 
sary adjustments. 

This  may  not  be  any  better  way  of  starting  the 
motor  than  Mr.  Gray's,  but  it  seem.s  to  be  somewhat 
simpler.  D.  G.  Simmons. 

Beaver,  Penn. 

Snifting  Valves  on  Pumps 

By  inference  from  the  letter  by  A.  L.  Haas,  on  page 
410  in  the  issue  of  Mar.  19,  it  would  seem  that  it  is 
the  practice  in  England  to  fit  snifting  valves  to  pumps 
of  all  kinds  to  admit  a  small  amount  of  air  at  each 
suction  stroke.  If  this  is  the  case,  I  am  wondering 
what  effect  is  observed  in  the  boilers  from  this  intro- 
duction of  air.  We  are  in  the  habit  of  believing  that 
air  (oxygen)  in  water  is  a  fruitful  cause  of  pitting 
in  pipe  systems  and  boilers,  and  often  considerable 
trouble  and  expense  are  incurred  in  eliminating  it,  as 
against  this  deliberate  introduction.  Then  again,  if 
the  plant  is  operated  condensing,  the  extra  air  has  to 
be  got  rid  of  from  the  condenser  at  the  cost  of  power, 
not  to  mention  the  other  mischief  it  does. 

If  the  entrained  air  is  drawn  out  at  the  air  chamber 
or  elsewhere  before  it  gets  beyond  the  pump,  it  would 
seem  to  be  a  useless  expenditure  of  power  to  compress 
any  small  amount  of  air  and  then  discharge  it.  Surely, 
a  pump  should  operate  right  without  snifting  valves. 

New  York  City.  J.  Lewis. 

Compressed  Air  for  Cleaning  Motors 

In  the  issue  of  Poiver  for  Mar.  12  appeared  an  article 
by  D.  R.  Shearer,  on  "Compressed  Air  for  Cleaning  Mo- 
tors." The  following  on  the  same  subject,  but  on  some- 
what broader  lines,  may  be  of  interest.  As  it  is  often 
necessary  to  clean  equipment  carrying  potentials  of 
2300  volts  and  lower,  it  is  advisable  to  safeguard  the 
operator  as  well  as  the  apparatus.  The  nozzle  of  the 
cleaning  tool  should,  therefore,  if  of  metal,  be  well  in- 
sulated with  cambric  and  friction  tape,  otherwise  short- 
circuits  may  occur  between  ground  and  live  parts  or 
live  parts  of  opposite  polarity.  In  any  case  the  operator 
may  be  subjected  to  danger  of  shocks.  A  nozzle  made  of 
one  of  the  insulating  compounds  now  on  the  market  is 
satisfactory,  but  should  have  a  metallic  lining  on  account 
of  the  erosive  effect  of  high-velocity  air. 

An  air  line  should  be  allowed  to  blow  off  for  several 
minutes  before  the  nozzle  is  placed  near  the  insulation. 


There  is  usually  oil  and  dirt  and  often  water  in  the 
tank  or  pipe  line,  and  if  this  is  not  blown  out  into  the 
air  it  may  be  blown  into  the  insulation  of  the  machine, 
covering  the  windings  with  oil  and  dirt,  both  of  which 
are  conducive  to  short-circuits  and  grounds.  The  dirt, 
moreover,  at  high  pressures  such  as  100  lb.  per  sq.in. 
may  be  forced  into  the  insulation  and  cause  failures. 

Mr.  Shearer  recommends  an  air  pressure  of  100  lb. 
per  sq.in.  This  pressure  is  too  high  for  most  cases,  for 
blowing  out  rotary  converters,  generators  and  motors — 
a  pressure  of  60  to  80  lb.  is  the  maximum  and 
should  not  be  exceeded.  At  100-lb.  pressure,  with  the 
nozzle  close  to  the  insulation,  pieces  of  grit  are  easily 
forced  into  the  insulating  materials.  On  old  apparatus 
or  that  which  has  carried  heavy  loads,  the  insulation 
has  a  tendency  to  rise  up  from  the  conductor,  caus- 
ing air  bubbles;  high-pressure  air  blows  these  open, 
tends  to  fray  wrappings  and  may  even  blow  pieces  of 
insulation  off  entirely,  while  always  tending  to  craclc 
the  insulating  varnishes.  A  pressure  above  70  lb.  per 
sq.in.,  unless  the  nozzle  is  held  at  least  6  in.  away 
from  the  insulation,  is,  in  my  opinion,  a  dangerous 
practice. 

Every  compressed-air  tank  should  be  fitted  with  a 
pressure  gage  and  a  safety  valve.  The  air  pressure 
should  preferably  be  automatically  controlled;  that  is, 
the  air  compressor  should  automatically  shut  down 
when  the  safe  working  pressure  is  reached. 

Where  500-volt  direct  current  is  available,  as  it  is  in 
all  rotaiy-converter  railway  substations,  I  have  used 
discarded  air  compressors  from  street  cars.  These  out- 
fits occupy  about  one  foot  in  height  and  a  floor  space  of 
about  one  and  one-half  by  two  feet.  They  are  automati- 
cally controlled,  and  the  series  motor  is  started  direct 
from  the  line  without  the  complication  of  starting  re- 
sistance. 

These  sets,  although  small,  answer  the  purpose  for 
an  8000-kw.  station  provided  a  fairly  large  tank  is  used, 
are  economical  of  space  and  are  of  low  cost. 

Chicago,  111.  R.  K.  Long. 

License  Internal-Combustion  Engine 
Opeiators 

I  am  a  licensed  steam  engineer  and  machinist,  and 
also  run  gas  and  oil  engines  and  have  had  several 
years'  experience  in  testing,  erecting,  etc.,  in  the  gas- 
and  oil-engine  business.  It  has  often  occurred  to  me 
that  there  should  be  some  way  provided  for  gas  engi- 
neers to  secure  a  license  that  would  show  their  profi- 
ciency. It  seems  to  me  that  it  would  be  profitable  to 
all  concerned,  when  understood.  The  engineers  would 
get  their  license  and  possibly  more  pay,  and  last,  but 
not  least,  the  employers  would  know  how  to  get  com- 
petent men. 

The  safety  departments  do  not  seem  to  think  it  neces- 
sary to  license  gas-engine  operators,  but  these  men 
should  know  as  much  about  lining  up  engines,  setting 
valves,  adjusting  bearings,  etc.,  as  the  steam  engineer. 
I  believe  that  there  are  a  large  number  of  operators 
that  would  be  glad  to  avail  themselves  of  such  an  op- 
portunity. I  would  like  to  have  an  expression  of  opinion 
on  this  matter  from  the  readers  of  Power. 

Philadelphia,  Penn.  T.  A.  Marshall. 


May  7,  1918 


FO  WER 


669 


Accident  to  Turbo- Alternator 

We  have  been  hearing  considerable  about  turbine 
and  turbo-alternator  failures  during  the  last  year  or 
so.  The  following  is  a  description  of  ii  peculiar  accident 
that  happened  to  a  2000-kw.  3G00  r.p.m.  2200-volt  two- 
phase  alternator,  causing  a  heavy  explosion  and  com- 
pletely burning  out  the  field  and  armature  windings 
of  the  machine.  One  of  the  steel  end  shrouds  on  the 
rotor  became  loose  and  worked  endwise  sufficiently  to 


PART   OF   ROTOR   SHOWING   HOW  E.XD   SHROUD   WORKED 
FORWARD 

allow  the  ends  of  the  brass  wedges  in  the  slots  to  bend 
out  by  centrifugal  force  and  cut  through  the  winding 
of  the  stator.  From  all  appearances  the  cutting  of  the 
armature  coils  was  gradual  and  no  damage  was  done 
until  one  of  the  wedges  was  broken  off  and  thrown  into 
the  windings,  this  doing  the  final  damage.  There  ap- 
peared to  be  two  explosions  coming  very  close  together, 
probably  caused  by  one  phase  winding  being  short- 
circuited  slightly  before  the  other.  The  figure  .shows 
how  the  end  shroud  C  worked  endwise,  allowing  the 
brass  wedges  A  to  bend  out  by  centrifugal  force  and 
finally  break  off  and  fly  into  the  stator  winding.  B 
and  B  are  small  screws  that  were  threaded  into  the 
polepieces  to  help  hold  the  ring  in  place. 

Herkimer,  N.  Y.  H.  G.  Burrill. 

Improvement  in  Boiler  Economy 

I  am  not  an  engineer,  only  a  boiler  operator,  but 
the  following  may  be  of  interest  to  readers  of  Power. 
I  once  had  charge  of  three  return-tubular  boilers  for 
over  four  years.  When  I  took  charge  of  them  thsy 
were  burning  from  eight  to  nine  tons  of  coal  a  day 
on  the  high-pressure  boiler  and  eight  tons  on  the  low- 
pressure  boiler,  only  two  in  operation  at  a  time  in  the 
winter  season.  I  got  busy  trying  to  improve  things 
after  looking  the  situation  over.  The  boiler  settings 
were  full  of  air  leaks.  In  the  back  end  you  could  throw 
a  dog  through,  and  there  was  no  insulating  covering 
on  the  boiler  tops  and  no  way  to  clean  the  tubes. 
Inside  they  were  coated  with  scale  from  4  to  4  in.  thick. 

I  went  to  the  general  manager  and  told  him  if  he 
would  permit  me  to  make  some  changes  it  would  make 
a  large  saving  in  coal.  He  told  me  that  if  I  could 
do  anything  to  save  coal  to  "go  to  it"  and  that  he 
would  get  me  whatever  was  needed.  I  relined  the  fire 
wall  in  the  fireboxes,  put  in  new  door  frames  and  new 
grates  and  patched  up  the  other  parts  of  the  boiler 
settings.  We  got  a  new  feed  pump,  and  I  made  a  tight 
wooden  top  for  the  water  tank  and  piped  the  pump  ex- 


haust into  the  tank,  and  the  returns  from  all  steam  lines 
were  also  piped  back  to  the  tank.  They  had  been  run- 
ning into  the  sewers  for  years.  This  was  a  big  saving 
for  we  used  city  water  through  a  meter.  I  then  got 
busy  inside  of  the  boilers  with  a  pick  and  hammer  and 
got  rid  of  the  scale,  so  I  made  a  saving  of  eight  tons  of 
coal  a  day,  and  the  whole  thing  cost  only  $250,  feed 
pump  and  all.  M.  V.  B.  POTTS. 

Massillon,  Ohio. 

Fastening  a   Loose  Crank 

On  page  264  in  the  issue  of  Feb.  19  there  are  illus- 
trations, at  the  lower  part  of  the  page,  of  what  I,  and 
others,  consider  the  wrong  method  of  trying  to  make  a 
loose  crank  tight;  for  it  is  plain  that  the  looseness  of 
the  crank  is  divided  all  around  the  shaft  (purposely 
shown  exaggerated  in  the  illustration)  and  that  the 
taper  pins  have  the  load  and  strains  to  carry.  In  other 
words,  the  shaft  supports  the  pins  and  the  pins  the 
crank;  while,  if  the  job  was  done  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration herewith,  the  lost  motion  or  looseness  would 
be  taken  up  all  in  one  direction  and  the  crank  would 
fetch  up  against  the  shaft  for  nearly  half  of  its  cir- 
cumference, would  have  a  perfect  grip  and  would  retain 
the  original  alignment;  and  the  pins  would  only  be 
called  on  to  hold  it  in  position.  I  have  fixed  several  in 
this  way  and  none  that  I  have  heard  of  has  worked 
loose.     I  have  also  refitted  two  that  someone  had  pinned 


Oversize 
i^OOSK   PRANK   PINNKP   ON   ONE   STPE   ONLY 

all  the  way  round.  1  do  not  make  taper  holes  or  pins, 
but  make  the  pins  about  one-thousandth  of  an  inch 
larger  than  the  holes,  and  drawfile  them  on  two  sides 
at  the  points  A  and  B.  I  pack  the  pins  in  ice  before 
driving,  but  do  not  always  heat  the  crank.  I  make  the 
pins  about  three  inches  longer  than  I  expect  to  use,  mark 
the  point  on  them  to  show  when  they  are  "home"  and 
also  make  some  sort  of  vent  to  let  the  air  out  of  hole. 
I  do  not  grease  the  pins,  but  drive  them  with  a  battering 
ram  made  of  a  piece  of  shaft  hung  by  a  rope  block. 
E.xeter,  N.  H.  L.  Johnson. 


670 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


Watch  Your  Step! 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  much  has  been 
said  and  done  in  the  field  of  industrial  management,  and 
the  managerial  mechanism  developed  has  proved  beyond 
doubt  that  it  is  nothing  but  a  mechanism  and  as  such 
may  or  may  not  produce  the  desired  results,  depending 
on  how  and  by  whom  this  mechanism  is  used.  The 
management  of  power  plants  drags  in  the  tail  of  the 
procession  probably  for  two  reasons:  First,  belief  in 
the  fallacy  that  good  equipment  necessarily  produces 
good  results;  second,  because  financial  interests  con- 
sider the  cost  of  power  an  insignificant  item  of  the  total 
expense.  When,  however,  we  feel  the  pinch  of  the 
shortage  of  fuel  and  when  this  shortage  not  only  en- 
hances the  cost  of  power,  but  endangers  the  very  e.xist- 
ence  of  the  various  industries,  even  the  health  and  well- 
being  of  communities,  these  fallacies  must  be  disposed 
of  at  once. 

It  is  not  the  equipment  and  supplies  that  produce  re- 
sults, but  the  mode  of  their  use.  When  this  is  realized, 
two  problems  present  themselves  to  power  engineers: 
First,  to  secure  mechanism  for  modern  management; 
and,  second,  to  make  proper  use  of  it.  The  success  of  a 
managerial  mechanism  involves  certain  responsibility 
by  plant  ovmers,  since  it  is  obviously  their  task  to  pro- 
vide the  plants  with  the  means  to  study  the  causes  and 
eff'ects,  to  standardize  and  to  keep  adequate  and  depend- 
able records.  This  in  turn  involves  the  education  and 
training  of  the  employees  to  make  proper  use  of  the 
available  knowledge.  Furthermore,  they  must  have 
permanent  and  sufficient  incentive  for  learning  and  liv- 
ing up  to  the  better  way  taught  them  by  the  expert 
management.  Under  such  conditions  the  executive  is 
relieved  of  all  the  worries  as  to  routine  details,  as  these 
are  standardized  and  can  be  well  taken  care  of  by  sub- 
ordinates. The  major  part  of  the  time  of  the  executive 
may  thus  be  devoted  to  solving  special  problems  and 
inaugurating  improvements. 

The  results  accomplished  in  the  plants  that  have 
adopted  these  principles  are  permanent  since  they  are 
worked  out  from  the  bottom  up,  and  the  economy  accom- 
plished varies  all  the  way  from  15  per  cent,  to  50  per 
cent.,  depending  upon  the  conditions  originally  found 
in  the  plant. 

To  meet  the  present  contingency  both  as  to  men  and 
fuel,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  put  the  house  in  order 
after  a  thorough  study,  so  that  the  methods  may  be 
based  on  facts,  not  on  opinions  and  traditions.  When 
this  is  done,  enough  room  will  be  found  in  which  to 
build  up  efliciency  without  resorting  to  "better  equip- 
ment" and  a  lot  of  patent  cures. 

New  York  City.  Walter  N.  Polakov. 

The  Engineers'  Unions 

I  have  read  with  interest  the  few  letters  which  have 
"passed  the  censor"  and  have  been  published  in  Power 
recently,  in  regard  to  engineers'  unions,  and  wish  to 
express,  briefly,  a  few  of  my  sentiments  on  the  subject. 
I  have  been  a  member  of  one  such  union  for  years  and 
must  disagree  with  the  statement  by  Mr.  Dye,  in  the 
issue  of  Jan.  1,  1918,  that  anyone  can  get  into  the  union 
and  suggesting  that  candidates  be  examined. 

Before  I  was  accepted,  I  was  required  to  produce  my 


license  to  prove  that  I  was  an  engineer,  and  in  order  to 
get  that  license  I  had  to  undergo  a  rigid  examination. 
The  possession  of  that  paper  was  good  evidence  that  I 
was  an  engineer  without  the  necessity  of  any  further 
examination  on  the  part  of  the  union,  but  I  was  also 
examined  orally  by  a  committee  in  a  thoroughly  prac- 
tical way. 

Personally,  I  have  never  been  directly  benefited 
through  being  a  member  of  the  engineers'  union,  but 
indirectly  I  have,  as  I  am  in  the  Federal  service  and 
it  is  a  fact  that  it  was  primarily  due  to  the  activities  of 
union  labor  among  the  Senators  and  Congressmen  that 
Congress  was  induced  to  pass  the  eight-hour  law,  which 
limits  the  hours  of  labor  of  Government  employees  to 
eight  hours  in  twenty-four,  with  one  day  off  in  seven 
and  an  annual  vacation  and  sick  leave  on  full  pay. 
At  present  union  labor  is  working  very  hard  for  a  sub- 
stantial increase  in  the  wages  of  Government  employees 
to  offset  in  part  the  increased  cost  of  living,  and  from 
all  indications  it  will  be  granted.  This  will  affect  engi- 
neers as  well  as  other  employees  in  the  Government 
service. 

The  Government  as  an  employer  does  not  recognize 
unions  as  an  organization  except  in  a  few  cases  such  as 
the  navy  yards.  It  is  a  fact  that  the  lower-paid  Gov- 
ernment employees,  clerks  and  mechanics  who  were 
until  a  year  or  two  ago  unorganized,  had  not  had  an 
increase  in  wages  for  many  years  until  Congress  in 
1917  granted  a  temporary  increase  of  from  5  to  10  per 
cent,  for  one  year  only,  an  inadequate  increase  in  the 
face  of  the  present  conditions.  But  largely  owing  to 
the  activities  of  the  Federal  Employees'  Union  cooper- 
ating with  the  heads  of  the  various  departments,  a  bill 
has  been  introduced  in  Congress  to  grant  an  increase 
of  from  30  per  cent,  on  the  salaries  less  than  $1000  to 
5  per  cent,  on  salaries  up  to  $2500  per  annum,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  present  high  cost  of  living. 

Referring  again  to  the  engineers'  case,  if  there  are 
no  state  laws  requiring  engineers  to  take  an  examina- 
tion and  secure  a  license  to  operate  a  plant,  or  where 
existing  laws  are  lax,  the  union  naturally  can  demand 
further  evidence  or  examination,  and  to  rectify  this 
matter  every  engineers'  organization,  union  or  not,  as 
well  as  trade  organizations  should  demand  more  rigid 
license  laws  where  they  are  not  up  to  the  recognized 
standard  required  in  Massachusetts,  Ohio  and  some 
other  states. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  there  are  isolated 
cases  where  some  individual  member  has  used  his  in- 
fluence with  the  union  to  hold  a  position  which  he 
otherwise  might  not  be  able  to  hold,  but  these  cases  are 
rare  and  should  be  eliminated.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  unions  certainly  have  been  instrumental  in  securing 
uniformity  in  the  scale  of  wages  for  engineers  in  the 
same  localities,  doing  the  same  class  of  work. 

Columns  could  be  written  setting  forth  the  advant- 
ages and  disadvantages  of  unions,  but  having  in  mind 
the  editorial  in  Pou-er  recently  and  the  editor's  reluc- 
tance to  allow  anything  of  this  sort  to  "pass  censor," 
I  can  only  say  that  the  motto  of  "Learn  more,  earn 
more"  should  be  changed  to  read,  "To  earn  more,  learn 
more  and  take  the  necessary  steps  to  see  that  you  get 
it."  To  which  end  the  engineers'  union  will  be  found 
of  great  assistance.  J.  C.  HAWKINS. 

Hyattsville,  Md. 


May  7,  1918  POWER                                                                              671 

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i  g 

Inquiries  of  General  Interest           | 


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Compensating  Variation  from  Scale  of  I'lanimcter — How 

i3  a  planimeter  used  for  measuring  the  mean  effective  pres- 
sure shown  by  an  indicator  diagram  made  with  a  16- lb. 
spring-  where  the  planimeter  scale  is  intended  to  show 
m.e.p.  for  a  oU-lb.   spring?  C.  L.  J. 

Operate  the  planimeter  as  though  a  30-tb.  spring  had 
been  used  and  take  16/30  of  the  result. 

Air-Space  Walls  for  Boiler  Settings — What  is  the  ad- 
vantage of  air  space,  or  cavity  walls,  for  boiler  settings? 

A.  R.  W. 

An  air  space  acts  as  a  nonconductor  for  retarding  loss 
of  heat  from  radiation,  and  when  cavity  walls  are  properly 
designed  and  constructed,  the  spreading  of  the  material 
adds  to  the  strength  and  stability  of  the  setting.  If  the 
outer  walls  are  stayed  to  the  inner  walls  by  good  forms 
of  slip  and  expansion  joints,  the  outer  wall  will  be  little 
affected  by  expansion  and  contraction  from  changes  of 
temperature  causing  cracks  for  infiltration  of  excess  air 
with   detriment  to  furnace   economy. 

Angle  of  Advance  with  Negative  Lap — When  a  D  slide 
valve  has  negative  steam  lap,  will  the  eccentric  require 
positive  or  negative  advance  to  close  the  steam  port  before 
the  end  of  the  stroke?  T.  J.  M. 

With  negative  lap  the  valve  has  the  port  uncovered  dur- 
ing moi-e  than  one-half  a  revolution  of  the  shaft,  and  if 
the  eccentric  should  be  set  at  90  deg.  with  the  crank,  the 
port  would  be  uncovered  both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the 
end  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  Hence  to  have  the  port 
covered  before  the  end  of  the  stroke  the  eccentric  must 
have  positive  advance,  that  is,  must  be  set  ahead  of  the  90- 
deg.  position,  which  also  would  increase  the  lead  or  port 
opening  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  and  hasten  all  of 
the  valve  events 

Single  Shear  and  Double  Shear — What  is  meant  by  a 
boiler  rivet  being  in  single  shear  or  in  double  shear? 

F.  A.  P. 

A  rivet  is  said  to  be  in  single  shear  when  it  is  subject  to 
shearing  action  that  tends  to  produce  cleavage  at  a  single 
cross-section  of  the  rivet,  as  when  used  in  a  riveted  lap- 
joint  for  holding  together  two  plates  that  pull  in  opposite 
directions.  A  rivet  is  said  to  be  in  double  shear  when  sub- 
ject to  shearing  action  that  tends  to  produce  cleavage  at 
two  cross-sections  of  its  length,  as  when  the  rivet  is  used  in 
a  riveted  butt-and-double-strap  joint  for  holding  together 
a  main  plate,  sandwiched  between  an  inside  and  outside 
cover  plate  whose  direction  of  pull  is  opposite  to  that  of 
the  main  plate. 

Height  of  Pumping  Water — A  direct-acting  steam  pump 
with  steam  piston  12  in.  diameter  and  water  piston  8  in. 
diameter  is  operated  with  steam  at  110  lb.  per  sq.in.  gage 
pressure.  To  what  height  in  feet  can  the  pump  raise  water, 
assuming  70  per  cent,  efficiency?  G.  G.  M. 

If  the  total  pressure  exerted  on  the  steam  piston  is 
transmitted  to  the  water  piston,  110  lb.  per  sq.in.  gage 
pressure  acting  on  the  steam  piston,  opposed  by  back  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere,  would  exert  a  pressure  of  (12^  -=- 
10')  X  110  —  158.4  lb.  per  sq.in.  on  the  water  piston;  one 
foot  head  of  water  exerts  a  pressure  of  0.433  lb.  per  sq.in., 
and  vdthout  friction  of  water  in  the  pump  or  pipes  the 
pump  could  raise  the  water  to  a  height  of  158.4  ■—  0.433 
=  365.8  ft.  above  the  level  assumed  by  the  suction  water 
under  atmospheric  pressure.  With  70  per  cent,  efficiency 
the  height  would  be  0.70  of  365.8  =  256  feet. 

Transmissive  Capacity  of  Steel  Shafting — What  is  the 
rule  for  estimating  the  approximate  horsepower-transmit- 
ting capacity  of  the  ordinai-y  sizes  of  steel  shafting? 

S.  M. 

The  approximate  number  of  horsepower  capable  of  being 


transmitted  with  safety  by  ordinary  sizes  of  turned  steel 
line.shafting,  when  well  supported,  with  pulleys  near  to  the 
bearings  and  with  the  hangers  so  spaced  that  the  deflection 
will  not  exceed  0.01  in.  per  foot  of  span,  is  equal  to  the 
cube  of  the  diameter  of  the  shaft  in  inches  for  100  r.p.m. 
and  directly  in  proportion  for  other  speeds.  The  safe  load 
for  head  shafts  may  be  taken  as  75  per  cent,  and  for  bare 
transmission  shafts  as  175  per  cent,  as  much  as  for  ordi- 
nary line  shafting.  Cold-rolled  shafting  may  be  taken  a.s 
one-third  stronger  than  turned   steel   shafting. 

Guarantee  Test  of  Oil  Engine — How  would  a  test  ba 
made  of  the  guaranteed  oil  consumption  of  a  40-hp.  oil 
engine  running  a  25-kw.  220-voIt  direct-cun-ent  generator 
used  for  lighting  ?  H.  P.  K. 

To  make  the  test  conclusive  the  economy  and  regulation 
should  be  determined  as  nearly  as  possible  for  the  different 
loads,  speeds  and  other  conditions  specified  in  the  guarantee. 
If  constant  loads  of  the  given  magnitude  are  not  obtainable 
supplying  power  to  the  regular  load  circuit,  the  desired 
loads  can  be  obtained  by  use  of  a  temporai-j'  water-rheostat 
such  as  illustrated  and  described  on  pages  180  and  181  of 
Aug.  7,  1917,  issue  of  Power.  If  the  generator  is  not  to  be 
included  in  the  guarantee,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  into 
account  the  efficiency  of  the  generator  at  the  different  test, 
loads.  These  data  are  generally  obtainable  of  the  manufac- 
turer. For  reliable  results  each  test  should  nin  for  a 
period  of  at  least  three  hours,  noting  the  weight,  kind, 
source,  and  analysis  of  oil  used;  and  readings  should  be 
taken  at  five-minute  intervals  of  the  speed  of  the  engine 
and  of  the  volts  and  amperes  of  electrical  output.  For  an  .• 
test  period  the  average  (volts  x  amperes)  -i-  1000  will  hi 
the  average  kilowatt  output,  and  the  number  of  pounds 
of  oil  used  per  hour  divided  by  the  average  kilowatts  gener- 
ated will  be  the  oil  consumption  per  kilowatt-hour. 

Placing  New  Piston  Rod  in  Engine — In  putting  in  a  new 
piston  rod  to  replace  an  old  one  on  a  simple  engine  with 
V-shaped  guides,  what  is  the  proper  method  of  centering 
the  rod  ?  J.  K. 

In  providing  a  new  piston  rod,  the  centering  of  the  rod 
vnth  the  stuffing-box  is  likely  to  become  misplaced.  First 
of  all,  extend  a  line  through  the  center  of  the  cylinder  past 
the  guides  and  determine  whether  the  faces  of  the  guides 
are  parallel  with  the  cylinder  center  line,  for  that  purpose 
measuring  from  the  cylinder  center  line  to  a  short  round 
shaft  or  mandrel,  placed  in  the  V  of  the  guide,  and  of 
suitable  diameter  to  touch  the  sides  of  the  V  at  about  the 
middle  of  the  wearing  surfaces.  If  not  parallel,  the  guides 
need  to  be  made  so  by  adjustment  or  as  a  repair  or  altei"a- 
tion  of  the  engine.  When  the  guides  are  parallel  to  the 
engine  center  line,  place  the  new  piston  rod  in  the  piston 
and  with  the  piston  in  the  crank  end  of  the  cylinder  and  the 
end  of  the  rod  parallel  with  the  guides,  adjust  the  packing 
rings  so  the  rod  will  be  in  the  center  of  the  piston-rod 
stuffing-box.  Then  put  the  crosshead  in  place  with  neces- 
sary adjustment  of  the  crosshead  slippers  to  make  the 
piston  rod  parallel  with  the  guides  when  the  rod  is  con- 
nected to  the  crosshead.  If  all  adjustments  have  been 
properly  made,  the  rod  will  travel  centrally  through  the 
stuffing-box.  If  it  does  not,  the  vei-tical  and  horizontal  ad- 
justment of  the  crosshead  should  be  made  so  there  will 
be  no  movement  of  the  stuffing-box  gland  when  the  engine 
is  running,  otherwise  the  rod  will  become  scored  and  it  will 
be  difficult  to  make  the  packing  hold  tight. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  communi- 
tions  and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention. — Editor.] 


672 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


Power  Plants  of  Modern  Ships 


By   ESKIL  berg 


For  the  power  plants  of  modern  .iliips  turbo- 
generators are  built  ivith  an  efficiency  of  over  SO 
per  cent.,  which,  with  motors  of  95  per  cent,  effi- 
ciency and  boiler  efficiency  of  80  per  cent.,  pro- 
duce a.  shaft  horsepoicer-hour  tvith  0.825  lb.  of 
coal  of  li,000  B.t.u.  Six  new  battleships  for  the 
Navy,  requiring  33,000  hp.  each  and  five  large 
battle  cruisers  requiring  180,000  hp.  each  will  be 
electrically  driven.  Steam  consumption  of  11.1  lb. 
per  shaft  horsepower-hour  is  guaranteed  for  the 
new  battleship  "New  Mexico,"  ivhich  will  be 
driven  electrically. 


IN  a  paper,  "Propulsion  of  Ships,"  by  Eskil  Berg,  engi- 
neer. General  Electric  Co.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  before  a 
joint  meeting  of  the  electrical  section  of  the  Franklin 
Institute  and  the  Philadelphia  Section,  American  Institute  of 
Electrical  Engineers,  the  following  interesting  figures  were 
given  relative  to  the  power  plants  of  modern  ships;  the 
abstract  is  from  the  March  Jourtml  of  the  Franklin  In- 
stitute. 

Speaking  of  the  cautious  advance  in  marine  engineering, 
Mr.  Berg  said:  Some  of  the  Hudson  River  boats  still  have 
side  wheels  and  use  boilers  with  about  30-lb.  steam  pressure, 
producing  a  brake  horsepower  with  about  .30  or  40  lb.  of 
steam.  Steam  engines  were  built  as  early  as  1765,  but 
it  was  not  until  1807  that  one  was  used  to  propel  a  boat. 
Electricity  was  used  for  power  transmission  as  long  ago 
as  1876,  but  its  application  as  a  medium  for  transmitting 
power  to  the  propeller  of  a  ship  did  not  take  place  until 
1908.  This  goes  to  show  that  progress  in  marine  propul- 
sion is  very  slow,  the  tendency  being  to  follow  the  old  and 
beaten  paths. 

The  turbine  is  preferable  to  the  reciprocating  engine  as 
a  prime  mover  for  ships,  because  it  gives  simple  rota- 
tion and  admits  the  possibility  of  a  large  range  of  ex- 
pansion. At  present  the  best  steam  engines  are  the  triple 
and  quadruple-expansion  types;  but  on  account  of  the  size 
of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  an  expansion  ratio  of  more 
than  16  to  1  or  20  to  1  is  not  possible.  In  the  turbine, 
however,  there  are  practically  unlimited  possibilities  of 
expansion,  depending  almost  entirely  upon  the  temperature 
of  the  condensing  water.  A  vacuum  of  29  in.  is  not  at  all 
unusual,  and  29..5  in.  is  being  recorded  in  some  of  the 
large  central  stations  during  the  winter  months.  What 
this  means  may  be  better  understood  when  we  consider 
the  available  energy  of  a  pound  of  steam  when  expanded 
from  boiler   pressure  to   various   degrees  of   vacuum. 

200-lh.  pressure  to  24  in.  vacuum,  220,000  ft.-Ih 
200-lb,  pressure  to  26  in.  vacuum.  238.000  ft  -lli. 
200-111.  pressure  to  28  in.  vacuum.  265.000  ft,-lh, 
200-lb.  pressure  to  29  in.  vacuum,  289,000  ft.-lb. 

In  other  words,  a  turbine  can  realize  about  25  per  cent, 
more  in  the  energy  of  steam  than  the  reciprocating  en- 
gine, which  means  a  saving  of  about  25  per  cent,  in  fuel, 
boilers,  etc. 

Turbines,  when  used  for  direct  connection  to  the  propel- 
ler shaft,  must  necessarily  be  designed  to  operate  at  a 
speed  that  is  too  low  for  the  economical  use  of  steam,  and 
even  then  cannot  be  conveniently  designed  for  a  speed  low 
enough  to  secure  efficient  propeller  action.  Sir  Charles  Par- 
sons realized  this  and  advocated  the  use  of  direct-con- 
nected turbines  only  for  high-speed  ocean  liners  requir- 
ing a  large  amount  of  power,  and  the  "Mauretania"  is 
probably  one  of  the  best  examples  of  ships  using  this 
method  of  propulsion.  The  horsepower  of  the  "Maure- 
tania" is  68,000,  the  speed  about  26  knots,  and  about  23.5 
tons   of   coal    per   hour    is    required.      The   water    rate   ob- 


tained is  about  11.5  or  12  lb.  and  the  coal  consumption 
about   1.5   lb.    per   shaft   horsepower-hour. 

Three  years  ago,  when  the  White  Star  Line  decided  to 
build  the  "Olympic"  and  the  "Titanic,"  which  were  slow- 
speed  ships  requiring  about  25,000  hp.,  Mr.  Parsons  ad- 
vocated a  combination  of  two  reciprocating  engines  ex- 
hausting into  a  low-pressure  turbine,  which  gave  an  economy 
about  comparable  with  the  "Mauretania." 

The  steam  engine  is  an  efficient  prime  mover  when  op- 
erating at  the  higher  temperature  ranges;  that  is,  an 
engine  may  have  as  high  as  80  per  cent,  thermodynamic 
efficiency  when  operating  from  boiler  pressure  to  atmos- 
phere, whereas  if  it  was  operated  down  to  a  28-in.  vacuum, 
the  efficiency  would  not  be  greater  than  40  or  50  per  cent. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  turbine  works  efficiently  in  the 
low-pressure  end  of  the  cycle,  so  that  by  using  a  recipro- 
cating engine  in  the  upper  ranges  in  combination  witlv  a 
turbine  to  utilize  the  turbine  in  the  low-pressure  ranges, 
an  over-all  efficiency  is  obtained  which  may  be  above  that 
obtainable  with  either  the  reciprocating  engine  or  the  tur- 
bine when  working  alone.  In  the  "Olympic"  all  reversing 
and  maneuvering  is  done  with  the  recipi'ocating  engine, 
making  it  possible  to  build  a  simple  and  efficient  low- 
pressure   turbine. 

With  electric  transmission,  high  steam  pressure  and  su- 
perheat can  be  used,  and  the  gain  in  fuel  economy  by  its 
use  has  proved  to  be  very  appreciable.  A  steam  tempera- 
ture of  700  deg.  F.  is  now  successfully  used  in  Europe, 
which,  with  500-lb.  steam  pressure,  would  give  223  deg. 
F.  superheat.  The  heat  available  for  work  would  then 
be  about  36.3  per  cent.,  whereas  under  ordinary  steam 
conditions  with  200  lb.  pressure  and  50  deg.  superheat, 
you  would  have  only  30.75  per  cent,  available  and  a  gain 
of  18  per  cent,  in  fuel,  which  would  more  than  compen- 
sate for  any  additional  weight  or  cost  of  the  electrical 
equipment. 

Shaft  Horsepower  on  0.825  Lb.  Coal 

Turbo-generators  are  now  built  with  an  efficiency  of 
over  80  per  cent,  which,  with  motors  of  95  per  cent,  effi- 
ciency and  a  boiler  efficiency  of  80  per  cent,  would  pro- 
duce a  shaft-horsepower-hour  with  0.825  lb.  of  coal,  con- 
taining 14,000  B.t.u.  per  lb.  or  0.61  lb.  of  oil  of  19,000 
B.t.u.  per  lb.,  the  latter  figure  comparing  favorably  with 
Diesel  engines  when  lubricating  oil  is  taken  into  con- 
sideration. 

Owing  to  the  wonderfully  fine  performance  of  the  col- 
lier "Jupiter,"  which  has  now  been  in  service  for  about  four 
years,  the  Navy  Department  decided  to  install  electric 
propelling  machinery  in  the  battleship  "New  Mexico,"  which 
is  now  nearly  completed  in  the  New  York  Navy  Yard, 
and  the  apparatus  for  which  has  recently  passed  all  Gov- 
ernment tests  at  the  Schenectady  works  of  the  General 
Electric  Co.  The  Navy  Department  has  also  decided  to 
install  electric  propelling  machinery  in  six  other  new  bat- 
tleships, requiring  about  33,000  hp.  each  and  in  five  large 
battle  cruisers  requiring  180,000  hp.  each. 

The  third  instance  of  electric  propulsion  is  the  battle- 
ship "New  Mexico."  This  installation  provides  conditions 
vifhere  the  advantages  of  electric  propulsion  can  be  realized. 
The  "New  Mexico"  is  the  largest  and  most  powerful 
battleship  that  has  been  laid  down  by  our  Navy  up  to  the 
present.  She  will  have  a  displacement  of  32,000  tons  and 
a  designed  speed  of  21  knots,  requiring  about  28,000  hp. 
The  propelling  machinery  is.  however,  designed  to  deliver 
a  maximum  of  37,000  hp.,  and  it  is  believed  that  this  will 
give  her  a  speed  of  22  knots. 

The  equipment  will  consist  of  two  turbo-generating  units, 
four  propelling  motors  (one  for  each  shaft),  switching  ap- 
paratus, cables,  instruments,  etc.  The  contract  also  calls  for 
two  300-kw.  noncondensing  direct-current  turbo-generators, 
which  will  furnish  excitation  and  power  to  drive  the  auxili- 
ary machinery.     As  the  General  Electric  Co.  was  required 


May  7,  1918 


POWER 


673 


to  guarantee  the  steam  consumption  of  the  propelling  ma- 
chinery, including  that  of  the  auxiliary,  the  greatest  care 
was  taken  in  their  selection,  and  they  are  all  to  be  elec- 
trically driven.  The  exhaust  steam  from  the  direct-current 
generating  sets,  operating  noncondensing,  will  be  used  for 
heating  the  feed  water,  and  steam  that  may  not  be  required 
for  this  purpose  will  be  exhausted  into  the  main  turbine. 
The  generators  for  the  "New  Mexico"  are  bipolar  alterna- 
tors, and  the  motors  are  arranged  to  be  connected  for  either 
24  or  3G  poles.  For  economic  cruising  at  a  speed  of  15  knots 
or  less,  only  one  generating  unit  will  be  required  with  the 
motors  on  the  36-pole  connection.  For  higher  speed  the  24 
polar  motor  connection  will  be  used  with  both  generators 
One  generator,  however,  will  be  capable  of  driving  the  boat 
up  to  a  speed  of  about  19  knots. 

The  steam-gDnsumption  guarantees  as  made  to  the  Govern- 
ment cover  the  total  amount  of  steam  used  by  both  the 
main  generating  units  and  the  auxiliaries,  and  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

steam  pressure  250  lb.  gage  at  the  throttle 
10  knots,  14,  6  lb.  per  shaft,  horsepower-hour 
15  knots,  11,4  lb.  per'shaft  horsepower-hour 
19  knots,  11    1  lb.  per  shaft  hors  power-hour 
Maximum  speed,  1  1 .  9  lb-  per  .-.■haft-hoi-sepower-hour 

Very  heavy  penalties  are  attached  to  the  guarantees  in 
case  they  are  not  met;  namely,  $25,000  per  lb.  for  the  two 
lower  speeds  and  $20,000  per  lb.  for  the  two  higher  speeds. 

To  be  able  to  correctly  judge  the  relative  economy  of  dif- 
ferent methods  of  propulsion,  it  may  be  interesting  to  com 
pare  the  water  rate  per  effective  horsepower,  taking  for 
example  such  different  methods  as  the  battleships  "Florida" 
and  "Utah,"  which  are  equipped  with  Parsons  turbines;  the 
"Delaware,"  which  has  reciprocating  engines;  and  the 
"New  Mexico"  with  electric  drive: 

Water  Rate  per  EfTective  Horsepower 

Propeller  per  Hour 

Speed  12  Knots  19  Knots  21  Knots 

Florida                                            328                 31.8  24.0  23  0 

Utah                                                    323                   28  7  20,3  21    0 

Delaware                                         122                 22  0  18  7  21  0 

New  Mexieo                                       175                   17   3  15  0  16  4 

That  electric  propulsion  can  be  profitably  applied  to  a 
small  boat  is  proved  by  Mr.  Ljungstrom,  of  Sweden,  in  the 
case  of  the  small  coastwise  steamer  "Mjolner,"  which  is 
only  225  ft.  long,  56  ft.  beam  and  15  ft.  draft,  requiring  900 
hp.  Two  sister  ships  were  built,  namely,  the  "Miner"  and 
the  "Mjolner."  The  former  was  equipped  with  triple-ex- 
pansion engines  and  Mr.  Ljungstrom  guaranteed  a  saving 
of  30  per.  cent,  in  fuel  in  his  method  of  electric  propulsion 
in  the  "Mjolner"  over  the  "Miner,"  equipped  with  engines. 
The  boats  have  now  been  built  and  tested  and  the  electric- 
ally driven  boat  showed  a  saving  of  42.3  per  cent  in  fuel 
consumption.  This  is  indeed  a  remarkable  record,  but  might 
be  partly  explained  by  the  increase  in  efficiency  of  the 
boiler  plant.  For  this  electric  drive  Ljungstrom  uses  218  lb. 
steam  pressure  and  235  deg.  superheat,  and  this  alone 
would  effect  a  saving  in  coal  over  the  "Miner"  of  about 
15  per  cent. 

Emergency  War  Training 

Emergency  War  Training  for  Gas-Engine,  Motor-Car 
and  Motor-Cycle  Repairmen,  is  the  title  of  Bulletin  No.  li), 
recently  issued  by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Edu- 
cation, Washington,  D.  C.  This  bulletin  contains  78  pages 
and  gives  an  outline  and  suggestions  for  courses  designed 
to  train  men  to  repair  motor-trucks,  motor-cars,  motor- 
cjcles  and  airplane  motors.  As  pointed  out  in  the  fore- 
word: 

There  is  a  critical  and  constantly  growing  need  for  many 
thousands  of  mechanics  and  technicians  for  army  occupa- 
tions carried  on  in  and  behind  the  lines  of  the  United 
States  Army.  Many  of  these  workers,  already  experienced 
in  similar  occupations  of  civil  life,  will  be  secured  through 
the  draft,  and  possibly  through  voluntary  enlistment.  It 
is  recognized  by  those  in  a  position  to  know,  that  the  quota 
thus  gained  will  not  be  sufficient  and  that  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  train  many  thousands  of  men  in  various  ways  for 
various  occupations.  The  War  Department  has  taken  defi- 
nite steps  to  provide  for  this  training  systematically 
through  army  schools,  in  some  instances  at  cantonments, 
but  largely  at  the  industrial,  trade  and  engineering  schools 
of  the  country. 


I<  or  some  months  the  Federal  Board  has  been  making  in- 
tensive investigations  and  studies  of  the  demands  of  these 
army  occupations.  A  series  of  bulletins  for  the  guidance 
of  those  giving  this  training  has  resulted  from  these 
studies.  The  courses  and  methods  suggested  in  these  bul- 
letins have  been  carefully  checked  by  experienced  army  of- 
hcers  and  represent  the  consensus  of  opinion  as  to  what 
training  should  be  given  and  how  it  should  be  given. 

Bulletins  thus  far  published  are:  No.  1,  Statement  of 
Policies;  No.  2,  Training  Conscripted  and  Enlisted  Men 
for  Service  as  Radio  and  Buzzer  Operators  in  the  United 
States  Army  (International  Code,  ;  No.  3,  Emergency 
Training  in  Shipbuilding— Evening  and  Part-Time  Classes 
for  Shipyard  Workers;  No.  4,  Mechanical  and  Technical 
Training  for  Conscripted  and  Enlisted  Men  (Air  Divi- 
sion, United  States  Signal  Corps)  ;  No.  5,  Vocational  Re- 
habilitation of  Disabled  Soldiers  and  Sailors  (also  printed 
as  S.  Doc.  No.  166)  ;  No.  6,  Training  of  Teachers  for  Oc- 
cupational Therapy  for  the  Rehabilitation  of  Disabled  Sol- 
diers and  Sailors  (also  printed  as  S.  Doc.  No.  167)  ;  No  7 
Emergency  War  Training  for  Motor-Truck  Drivers  and 
Chauffeurs;  No.  8,  Emergency  War  Training  for  Machine- 
Shop  Occupations,  Blacksmithing,  Sheet-Metal  Working 
and  Pipe  Fitting;  No.  9,  Emergency  War  Training  for 
Electricians,  Telephone  Repairmen,  Linemen  and  Cable 
Splicers;  No.  10,  Emergency  War  Training  for  Gas-Engine 
Motor-Car  and  Motor-Cycle  Repairmen;  No.  11,  Emergency 
War  Training  for  Oxyacetylene  Welders;  No.  12,  Emergency 
War  Training  for  Airplane  Mechanics— Engine  Repairmen, 
Woodworkers,  Riggers  and  Sheet-Metal  Workers-  No  13 
(Agr  Ser.,  No.  1)  Agricultural  Education— Orgknization 
and  Administration. 

Persons  desiring  to  secure  copies  of  any  or  all  of  these 
bulletins  can  readily  do  so  by  applying  to  the  Federal  Board 
for  Vocational  Education,  Ouray  Building,  805  G  Street 
N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Consolidation   of   Power   Companies 
Proposed 

There  is  on  foot  a  proposition  to  consolidate  the  hydro- 
electric power  companies  at  Niagara  Falls.  This  is  at 
the  request  of  and  in  cooperation  with  the  War  Depart- 
ment as  a  necessary  war  measure  to  provide  sufficient  elec- 
trical energy  for  war  industries  in  and  about  the  Citv  of 
Buffalo. 

The  companies  to  be  consolidated  are  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Co.,  the  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  and  the  Cliff  Electric 
Distributing  Co.  If  carried  out,  this  consolidation  will 
call  for  an  expenditure  of  about  $15,000,000  for  the  con- 
struction of  an  additional  plant  and  equipment,  whereby 
it  is  hoped  to  increase  the  output  by  170,000  hp.  above 
the  amount  now  being  generated  by  the  independent  opera- 
tion of  these  companies. 

Engineers  are  also  occupied  with  the  proposed  power 
coordination  plans  of  Dr.  Garfield,  and  they,  representing 
the  utility  interests  throughout  the  United  States,  are 
working  out  rates  for  transmission  line  for  tying  in  and 
estimating  of  costs. 

Fuel  and  water-power  experts  are  considering  linking 
up  the  Lehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  plants  at  Lansford 
and  Hauto  with  the  Philadelphia  Electric  Co.  in  supply- 
ing power  to  Hog  Island,  League  Island,  Eddystone,  West- 
inghouse,  Bethlehem,  Midvale  and  all  other  large  industrial 
establishments. 

Moreover,  there  is  a  possibility  that  three  or  more  power 
plants  of  100,000  hp.  will  be  erected  at  other  points  in 
the  anthracite  region  to  supply  energy  to  other  industrial 
establishments  throughout  Pennsylvania  so  as  to  link  up 
a  chain  of  such  units  which  would  afford  a  better  supply 
for  munition   work. 

It  is  also  understood  that  plans  are  contemplated  for 
linking  up  power-generating  plants  from  New  England  to 
the  District  of  Columbia  in  units  that  will  be  able  to  supply 
tiansmission  facilities  with  a  view  to  affording  relief  wheii 
difficulties  may  incapacitate  the  service  at  any  section. 
This  would  prevent  the  crippling  of  power  and  lighting 
circuits  which  might  occur  due  to  one  cause  or  another. 


674 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


Modifications  of  Coal  Prices 

Owing  to  a  reclassification  of  the  coal  fields  in  several 
districts  in  West  Virginia,  in  part  of  Kentucky,  and  in  the 
coal-mining  districts  of  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Virginia,  the 
selling  prices  of  some  coals  are  slightly  changed.  The  new 
prices,  which  are  now  effective,  are  as  follows: 

Run-of-        Prepared        Slack  or 
State  Mine  Sizes         Screenings 

West  Virginia: 
No.   10  district:    Coal  and  coke  and  Gauley 

districts:     Taylor,  Barbour,  Lewis,  Buck- 

hannon,  Randolph.  Gilmer,  Braxton,  Web- 
ster, and  Greenbrier  Counties;    operations 

in  Nicholas  County  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 

Meadow  Branch  of  the  Gauley  River  and 

coal  and  coke  district  in  Kanawha  and  Clavl 

Counties  north  of  Charleston $2,30  $2.55  $2.05 

Fairmont  district:    Monongalia,  Marion  and 

Harrison  Counties 2   15  2.40  190 

Thacker  district:      Operations  in  McDowell 

County  west  of  Panther  on  the  Norfolk  & 

Western  and  in  ^  ingo  County  west  along 

the  Tug  Fork  of  the  Big  Sandy  River  to 

Williamson  on  the  Norfolk*  Western.    .  2.30  2.55  2.05 

New  River  district:  Fayette  County  south  of 

Hawk's  Nest  on  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio 

and  Fayette  and  Raleigh  Counties  south  of 

Paintsville  on  the  Virginian  Railroad  and 

Wyoming  County  north  of  Herndon  on  the 

Virginian  Railroad 2.35  2.60  2.10 

Logan  district:  Logan  County  and  operations 

in  B(  on '  County  south  of  Danville  on  the 

Chesapeake  &  Ohio  and  Lincoln  County 

south  of  Gill  on  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio 2.15  2.40  190 

Putnam  County 2.50  2.75  2.25 

Kenova  district:  Operations  on  the  watershed 

of  the  Tug  Fork  of  the  Big  Sandy  River 

V  est   of   Williamson    on    the    Norfolk     & 

Western,  and  W.ayne  County 2.30  .2.55  2  05 

Kanawha  district:    Nicholas  County  west  of 

the  mouth  of  the  Meadow  Branch  of  the 

Gauley    River,    Fayette   County    west    of 

Hawk's  Nest  on  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio, 

and  north  of  Paintsville  on  the  Virginian 

Railroad,  and  operations  in  Raleigh  and 

Boone  Counties  on  the  watershed  of  the 

Clear  Fork  Pranch  of  Coal  River,  Boone 

County,  north  of  Danville  on  the  Chesa- 
peake &  Ohio,  Kanawha  County  south  of 

Charleston,  and  Lincoln  County  north  of 

GiU  on  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio 2.25  2.50  2.00 

Kentucky: 
Thacker  district:  Operations  in  Pike  County 

on  the  watershed  of  the  Tug  Fork  of  the  Big 

Sandy   River  east  of  Williamson   on   the 

Norfolk  &  Western  Railroad   2.30  2.55  2.05 

Keno-\'a  district:    Operations  in  Pike  County 

and  Martin  County  on  the  watershed  of  the 

Tug  Fork  of  the  Big  Sandy  River  west  of 

Williamson  on  the  Norfolk  &  Western  Rail- 
road        2.30  2.55  2.05 

Missouri: 
District  No.    I :     Audrain,  Bates,  Calloway, 

Henry,  .Johnson,  Monroe,  Randolph,  Ralls, 

St.    Clair,    Schuyler,    Vernon    and    Mont- 
gomery  Counties.   Adair   County,   except 

operations  of  the  Star  Coal  Co.,  and  Macon 

County,  east  of  New  Cambria  r  nd  mining 

operations  not  covered  by  other  rulings 2.70  2.95  2.45 

District  No.  2:  Boone,  Clay,  Cooper,  Chari- 
ton, Carroll,  D.ade,  Harrison,  Linn,  Lafa- 
yette, Putnam,  Hay,  and  Sullivan  Counties 

and  Macon  County  west  of  New  Cambria 

and    the    long-wall    thin-seam    mines    in 

Randolph  County 3.15  3.40  2.45 

Grundy  County:  Operations  of  the  Star  Coal 

Co.,  in  ,\dair  County  and  ^haft  workings  in 

the  Lightning  Creek  or  upper  thin  vein  in 

Barton,  Bates,  and  Vernon  Counties.. 3.65  3.95  2  45 

PlatteCounty 3.40  3.65  2  45 

Kansas: 
Cherokee    and    Crawford    Counties,    except 

shaft  mines  in  Liglitning  Creek  or  upper 

thin  vein  and  any  mining  operations  in  the 

State  not  covered  by  other  rulings 2.70  2.95  2  45 

Shaft  workings  in  the   Lightning  Creek  or 

upper  thin  vein,  in  Cherokee  and  Crawford 

Counties       3.65  3.95  2,45 

Osage,  Franklin  and  Linn  Counties 3.50  4  50  2  80 

Leavenworth  County 3. 40  3.65  2.90 

Virginia: 
Mines  operated  near  St.  Charles,  Lee  County, 

by  the  Darby  Coal   Mining  Co.;     Black 

Mountain  Mining  Co.;    Virginia  Lee  Co.; 

Old  Virginia  Coal  Co.;     L^nited  Collieries 

Co.;    Benedict  t'oal  Corporation,    and  the 

Imperial  Mine  of  the  Virginia  Iron,  Coal 

and  Coke  Co.,  Roanoke,  Va 2.65  2.90  2.40 

These  prices  do  not  include  the  allowance  to  operators  of  45c.  a  ton  who  have 
complied  with  the  wage  increase  agreement. 

The  Fuel  Administration  has  also  issued  a  ruling  on  the 
prices  of  coal  from  wagon  mines,  which  are  mines  that 
are  not  located  on  railway  lines,  so  that  the  coal  must  be 
transported  from  the  mine  mouth  to  the  railroad  in  wagons. 

Operators  of  wagon  mines  will  not  be  allowed  to  add  the 
cost  of  hauling  to  the  Government  price  when  the  coal  is 
loaded  into  open-top  cars,  except  when  such  coal  is  bought 
by  a  railroad  for  its  own  use. 


This  decision  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration 
affirms  the  rulings  promulgated  by  it  Oct.  6,  1917,  under 
which  operators  of  wagon  mines  are  permitted  to  make  a 
charge  of  not  more  than  75c.  in  addition  to  the  Govern- 
ment price  when  delivering  direct  to  the  consumer  or  when 
loading  into  box  cars. 

Representatives  of  the  wagon-mine  operators  sought  to 
induce  the  Fuel  Administration  to  make  a  similar  allow- 
ance for  loading  into  open-top  cars.  They  based  their  re- 
quest upon  the  claim  that  congestion  of  the  railroads  has 
been  relieved  sufficiently  to  justify  the  use  of  open-top  cars 
by  wagon  mines,  and  that  the  cost  of  hauling  was  the  same 
whether  the  coal  was  loaded  into  box  cars  or  open-top  cars. 

Investigation  of  the  situation,  however,  has  satisfied  of- 
ficials of  the  Fuel  Administration  that  the  demand  for 
open-top  cars  by  mines  that  can  load  only  into  that  kind 
of  cars  still  exceeds  the  supply.  Under  the  circumstances, 
therefore,  it  was  decided  that  production  would  be  stimu- 
lated best  by  restricting  the  allowance  for  hauling  to  those 
wagon  mines  loading  into  box  cars. 

Ammonia  Oil   Separator   Explodes  - 

About  10  o'clock  Saturday  morning,  Apr.  27,  a  high- 
pressure  ammonia  oil  separator  in  the  Chicago  Cold  Storage 
Co.'s  plant  at  Sixteenth  and  South  State  Sts.  exploded,  in- 
juring ten  men.  The  separator  was  located  between  the 
compressor  and  the  condenser  on  the  roof,  on  a  railroad 
loading  platform  adjoining  the  building.  The  men  working 
in  its  vicinity  at  the  time  of  the  explosion  were  injured, 
most  of  them  being  overcome  by  the  escaping  ammonia 
fumes.  It  is  believed  that  none  of  the  injuries  will  prove 
fatal. 

In  the  plant  there  are  three  175-ton  vertical  compressors, 
each  with  two  single-acting  cylinders.  Each  compressor  is 
protected  by  a  safety  valve  set  to  blow  at  250-lb.  gage  pres- 
sure. Depending  upon  the  load  and  other  operating  con- 
ditions, the  condenser  pressure  varied  from  145  to  180  lb. 
At  the  time  of  the  explosion  the  plant  log  showed  it  to  be 
175  lb.  gage,  and  the  suction  pressure  2  lb.  gage.  The  suc- 
tion line  to  the  compressor  was  5  in.  diameter,  which  is 
small  for  pressures  as  low  as  2  lb.  gage.  It  is  quite  prob- 
able that  the  vapor  came  back  to  the  machine  super- 
heated, and,  in  being  compressed  to  175  lb.,  the  temperature 
would  be  abnormally  high. 

The  separator  was  cast  of  ferro-iron  to  a  diameter  of 
16  in.  and  a  length  of  42  in.  The  bottom  was  convex,  while 
the  top  head  was  flanged  and  fastened  to  the  body  by  six- 
teen 1%-in.  bolts.  While  no  blowholes  or  flaws  in  the  cast- 
ing could  be  detected,  it  was  noticed  that  the  cylinder  walls 
were  of  uneven  construction,  the  thinnest  part  of  the  metal 
being  an  inch  thick.  Assuming  30,000-lb.  tensile  strength 
for  the  ferro-iron,  the  16-in.  cylinder  would  carry  a  safe 
working  pressure  of  375  lb.  per  sq.in.,  based  on  a  factor  of 
safety  of  ten  instead  of  the  eight  generally  assumed.  It  is 
evident  that  the  separator  was  fully  protected  by  the  safety 
valve  and  that  temperature  rather  than  pressure  was  the 
initial  cause  of  the  accident. 

Thomas  Andresen,  cooling-plant  inspector  for  the  city, 
investigated  the  explosion  and  advances  the  following  theory 
as  to  the  cause  of  the  accident:  The  machines  were  operated 
with  a  low  suction  and  a  high  condenser  pressure.  Through 
a  leaky  stuffing-box  suflicient  air  may  have  found  its  way 
into  the  cylinder  and,  in  combining  with  the  evaporated 
hydrocarbon  gas  from  the  lubricating  oil,  formed  a  danger- 
ous and  explosive  mixture  which  was  ignited  by  the  unusually 
high  temperature  induced  by  the  superheated  state  of  the 
incoming  vapor  and  the  high  condenser  pressure.  No  ma- 
chine or  system  was  ever  built  to  withstand  the  instantaneous 
pressure  of  a  hydrocarbon  explosion,  and  as  a  matter  of 
course  the  weakest  part  gave  way  first.  In  this  case  it 
was  the  oil  separator. 

In  an  explosion  of  this  kind  safety  valves  are  of  no  avail. 
The  cause  of  the  accident  must  be  laid  to  the  unfortunate 
conditions  that  build  up  while  the  compressor  is  apparently 
operating  under  normal  conditions.  Similar  explosions  have 
occurred  frequently  when  systems  that  have  been  in  opera- 
tion are  being  tested  under  air  pressure.    To  avoid  these  pos- 


l\Iay 


1918 


POWER 


675 


sible  air  explosions,  as  they  are  termed,  the  new  rules  issued 
by  the  City  of  Chicago  prescribe  that  when  testing:  an> 
existing  plant  with  air,  the  pressure  must  not  exceed  100 
pounds. 

Courses   for   Training   Mechanics   and 
Technicians  for  the  Army 

Last  February  the  Secretary  of  War  appointed  the  Com- 
mittee on  Education  and  Special  Tvaininp:,  charging  it  with 
tlie  responsibility  of  training  90,000  men  of  the  National 
Army  for  various  technical  and  skilled  work.  The  army  is 
in  need,  for  example,  of  motor-truck  drivers,  airplane 
mechanics,  carpenters  and  blacksmiths.  The  selective  draft 
methods  proving  inadequate  to  supply  this  demand,  the 
committee  was  formed  to  arrange  for  intensive  training. 

Educational  plants  equipped  for  handling  large  numbers 
of  students  were  obviously  the  machinery  that  should  be 
adapted  to  this  work.  So  rapidly  has  the  committee  pro- 
ceeded that  25  schools  are  now  under  contract  to  take  the 
men,  14  schools  have  begun  their  work  and  7500  National 
Amiy  men  are  under  instruction.  The  number  of  schools 
will  be  increased  until  30,000  men  can  be  handled  at  one 
time.  The  courses  are  of  eight  weeks  duration  and  the  final 
lot  of  30,000  men  (for  army  needs  as  planned  at  the  minute) 
will  go  to  the  schools  Sept.  1. 

In  arranging  for  the  work  institutions  were  preferred  that 
could  accommodate  at  least  500  men.  The  institutions  in- 
clude engineering  colleges,  universities,  and  mechanics'  in- 
stitutes, while  in  one  city  the  public-school  system  is  being 
used.  The  number  of  different  courses  given  at  an  insti- 
tution depends  on  various  conditions — the  number  of 
students,  the  chai-acter  of  school  equipment,  location,  etc. 
One  school,  the  University  of  Virginia,  will  specialize  on 
the  training  of  motor-truck  drivers  and  will  take  600  men 
at  a  time.  For  the  truck-driving  courses  such  automobile 
equipment  will  be  used  as  is  available,  and  the  Government, 
in  addition,  will  furnish  one  army  truck  for  each  20  men. 

Army  officers  'vill  be  located  at  each  school,  and  military 
diill  will  be  carried  along  simultaneously  with  the  technical 
instruction.  The  technical  staff  will  be  supplied  by  the  in- 
stitutions and,  with  the  army  officers,  will  form  a  board  to 
direct  the  administration. 

The  Cun-icula  used  are  those  outlined  for  intensive  ti'ain- 
ing  by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  though 
the  staff  at  each  school  is  given  much  latitude  in  the  pre- 
sentation of  the  essential  matter.  At  some  schools  coopera- 
tion with  the  local  industries  is  being  arranged,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  instruction  on  rubber  vulcanizing  at  Akron, 
Ohio.  At  present  the  following  courses  are  arranged  for: 
Auto  driving  and  repair,  bench  woodwork,  general  carpen- 
try, electrical  communication  (telephone  and  telegraph 
work) ,  electrical  work,  forging  and  blacksmithing,  gas 
engines,  machine  shop,  sheet  metal. 

While  the  men  at  the  schools  are  National  Army  men 
and  come  through  the  draft  boards,  they  volunteer  for  this 
special  training.  The  Provost-Marshal-General  sends  out 
a  call  to  the  boards  for  men  with  experience  fitting  them 
for  the  lines  in  which  the  training  is  to  be  given,  and  are 
asked  to  certify  volunteers  from  their  rolls.  In  other  words, 
the  men  go  to  the  schools  directly  from  their  homes  and  are 
not  drawn  from  the  cantonments.  As  a  result  of  this  volun- 
teer system  a  very  good  grade  of  men  has  been  secured. 

The  men  are  required,  in  addition  to  their  experience,  to 
have  had  a  common  school  education — though  this  is  not 
a  hard-and-fast  rule.  Aptitude  and  ability  to  learn  are  the 
chief  requirements. 

In  the  courses  themselves  the  aim  will  be  to  push  men 
along  as  fast  as  their  abilities  warrant.  Journeymen  ma- 
chinists, for  example,  will  immediately  be  put  on  highly 
specialized  work,  such  as  airplane  repairs. 

All  men  are  ranked  as  enlisted  privates  and  are  paid 
accordingly,  and,  of  course,  are  outfitted  by  the  Govern- 
ment. The  schools,  as  a  rule,  contract  for  the  housing,  feed- 
ing and  instruction  in  a  lump  sum  per  man,  per  day,  but 
in  some  cases  the  housing  and  feeding  will  be  done  by 
other     parties.       In     arranging     for     accommodations     the 


Quartermaster's  Department  has  been  of  invaluable  assist- 
ance, furnishing  cots  and  other  eiiuipraent  to  institutions 
having  the  buildings,  but  lacking  the  necessary  dormitories 
and  dining-room  equipment.  All  sorts  of  expedients  have 
been  used  in  places  where  building  space  was  lacking  except 
for  the  actual  instruction.  Armories  have  been  converted, 
and  ill  several  cases  fair  grounds  have  been  used. 

To  facilitate  the  work  the  country  has  been  divided  into 
ten  districts,  the  institutions  in  each  coming,  as  to  the  tech- 
nical instruction,  under  the  direct  supervision  of  a  dis- 
trict director.  These  in  turn  are  under  the  direction  of  the 
general  educational  director,  C.  R.  Dooley,  formerly  of  Pitts- 
burgh. The  committee  itself  consists  of  ihree  army  officers, 
Lieut. -Col.  J.  H.  Wigmore,  Lieut.-Col.  R.  I.  Rees  and  Major 
Grenville  Clark.  Assisting  them  is  an  advisory  board  con- 
sisting of  Hugh  Frayne,  representing  labor,  and  the  fol- 
lowing representatives  of  educational  interests;  J.  R.  Angell, 
the  colleges;  S.  P.  Capen,  Federal  bureau  of  education;  J. 
W.  Dietz,  corporation  schools;  C.  R.  Mann,  schools  of  pure 
science;   Dean  Herman   Schneider,  engineering  schools. 

Chicago  Engineers  Hold  Joint  Meeting 

On  Apr.  23,  C.  F.  Kittering,  president  of  the  Society  of 
Automotive  Engineers,  gave  a  most  interesting  address  on 
"The  Automobile  Power  Plant."  The  occasion  wa*  the 
first  joint  meeting  of  the  Chicago  Section  of  the  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  with  the  American  In- 
stitute of  Electrical  Engineers  and  the  Western  Society  of 
Engineers,  and  the  place  was  the  rooms,  in  the  Monadnock 
Block,  of  the  society  last  named.  The  attendance  ap- 
proximated 250.  The  interest  in  the  subject  and  the  great 
success  of  the  meeting  generally  mean  that  there  will  be 
more  of  them  and  that  active  sectional  cooperation  is  in 
sight. 

A.  D.  Bailey,  president  of  the  Chicago  Section  of 
the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  presided. 
In  his  talk,  Mr.  Kittering  explained  very  simply  the  con- 
struction and  working  of  the  internal-combustion  engine, 
his  remarks  applying  primarily  to  the  four-cycle  type.  He 
discussed  carburetion,  gas  feeding,  ignition,  and  gave  an 
elementary  conception  of  fuels  and  their  action  in  burning. 
Best  of  all,  he  refuted  the  pessimistic  press  reports  of  the 
airplane  situation  and  reacclaimed  the  Liberty  motor  as  a 
wonderful  engine,  maintaining  that  in  lightness,  economy 
and  simplicity  it  has  no  superior  in  Europe.  An  important 
outstanding  feature  was  a  single  design  for  many  services 
as  compared  to  at  least  thirty  different  makes  in  France 
or  in  England.  The  advantage  in  supplying  repair  parts 
is  self-evident.  Dimensions  of  cylinders  and  parts  are 
standard  throughout.  To  increase  the  power  is  merely  a 
question  of  adding  more  cylinders.  The  speaker  gave  a 
clear  idea  of  the  conditions  in  service,  distinguished  be- 
tween the  different  types  of  airplane,  and  at  the  end  was 
flooded  with  a  variety  of  questions  pertinent  to  the  subject 
under  discussion. 


Ninth   Annual    Dinner  of   the   Boston 
Engineers 

The  Engineers  of  Boston  held  their  ninth  annual  dinner 
at  the  Boston  Ciub  on  the  evening  of  Apr.  30  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  the  Amer- 
ican Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  and  the  American 
Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers.  Mayor  A.  J.  Peters  was 
pi-esent  and  made  a  short  address.  William  H.  Blood,  Jr., 
of  the  American  International  Shipbuilding  Corp.,  gave  a 
description,  illustrated  by  lantern  slides  and  moving  pic- 
tures, of  the  Hog  Island  shipyards.  Arthur  D.  Flinn,  seci-e- 
tary  of  Engineering  Council,  told  of  the  organization  of  the 
council,  its  purposes  and  processes.  Maj.-Gen.  E.  F.  Hodges 
spoke  briefly,  and  A.  M.  Westendorf  showed  films  of  a  22-ft. 
motor  boat  which  could  be  maneuvered,  reversed  and  steered 
both  backward  and  fonvard  by  a  simple  manipulation  of 
the  rudder,  without  altering  the  direction  or  speed  of  fhe 
engine.  Prof.  Charles  M.  Spolford  was  chairman  of 
the  committee,  and  James  W.  Rollins  toastmaster. 


(576 


POWEI} 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


Interior   Surface    Defects   as   Cause   of 
Condenser-Tube  Corrosion* 

By  W.  Reuben  Webster 

It  is  the  belief  of  some  engineers  that  defects  on  the 
interior  surfaces  of  brass  condenser  tubes  act  to  accelerate 
corrosion  and  that  accordingly  their  presence  even  to  a 
small  degree  should  not  be  tolerated.  Extended  observa- 
tion has  failed  to  furnish  a  basis  for  such  a  belief.  Many 
observations  have  developed  the  fact  that  the  variety  of 
corrosion  that  exhibits  itself  in  local  pitting  resulting  in 
perforation  takes  place  independently  of  any  interior  de- 
fects that  may  exist.  No  tendency  of  the  pitting  to  localize 
on  or  penetrate  the  tube  at  a  surface  defect  has  been 
observed. 

It  is  a  common  experience  to  find  clauses  in  specifications 
that  have  been  adopted  by  the  writer  thereof  because  the 
requirements  which  they  demand  appear  to  be  reasonable 
but  which  have,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  no  basis  either  in  theory 
o.-  cxp3ri€nce. 

Certain  users  of  brass  condenser  tubes  have  been  im- 
pressed with  the  belief  that  interior  surface  defects  operate 
to  produce  corrosion  which  exhibits  itself  in  the  formation 
of  local  pitting,  terminating  in  perforation.  The  writer  at 
one  time  held  this  belief  and  took  occasion  to  make  a  care- 
ful examination  of  every  case  of  corrosion  of  this  character 
which  came  under  his  notice,  with  a  view  to  observing 
whether  there  was  any  evidence  in  support  of  it.  No  case, 
however,  has  ever  been  found  by  him  which  would  support 
any  such  view.  It  has  not  been  found  possible  to  show  that 
tubes  that  contained  such  interior  surface  defects  were  any 
more  subject  to  corrosion  than  those  that  were  free  from 
tliem. 

It  has  further  been  observed  that  there  is  no  tendency 
whatever  for  areas  of  corrosion  to  localize  in  the  vicinity 
of  such  defects.  Moreover,  many  cases  have  been  found  in 
which  severe  pitting  had  occurred  in  the  vicinity  of  such 
defects,  but  no  tendency  of  the  corroded  areas  to  follow 
along  the  lines  of  defect  has  been  noticed. 

A  recent  case  of  severe  corrosion  was  observed  which 
furnishes  strong  evidence  that  no  such  connection  exists.  The 
tubes  had  been  in  service  in  the  condenser  of  a  large  sta- 
tionary plant  for  a  period  of  six  months,  and  were  removed 
because  of  perforations  caused  by  local  corrosion  on  their 
interior  surfaces.  Of  a  lot  of  eleven  tubes,  eight  were  found 
to  be  free  from  surface  defects  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cor- 
roded areas,  while  three  samples  were  found  to  contain  such 
defects.  These  tubes  were  sawed  longitudinally  and  opened 
out  flat  so  as  to  show  the  interior  surfaces.  Three  charac- 
teristic samples  from  the  unblemished  tubes  were  photo- 
graphed for  comparison  with  three  containing  surface  de- 
fects. 

Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  even  where 
a  corroded  area  crosses  a  defect,  no  tendency  whatever  for 
corrosion  to  follow  the  defect  is  observable.  In  most  of  the 
samples  the  corroded  area  was  confined  to  a  distance  not 
over  four  inches  from  the  inlet  end  of  the  tube;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  tube  being  as  free  therefrom  as  when  first 
made.  In  one  or  two  cases  the  corroded  area  was  similarly 
confined  to  a  short  distance  in  the  length  of  the  tube,  but 
was  some  distance  from  its  end. 

The  eft'ect  that  temperature  has  upon  corrosion  was  well 
siiown  by  the  fact  that  the  corroded  area  in  most  cases 
stops  quite  abruptly  on  reaching  that  portion  of  the  tube 
in  contact  with  the  tube  sheet.  There  would  be  a  con- 
siderable difference  in  temperature  between  the  portion  of 
the  tube  in  contact  with  the  tube  sheet  and  that  in  contact 
with  the  steam. 

It  is  not  intended  that  the  evidence  herewith  presented 
should  be  considered  as  arguing  in  favor  of  the  presence 
of  defects  of  this  character.  It  is,  however,  a  fact  that 
evidence  of  their  existence  can  be  largely  removed  by  treat- 
ment that  detracts  from  the  resistance  of  the  tube  to  cor- 
rosion, while   on   the   other   hand   they   are    rendered    more 


highly  visible  by  treatment  that  tends  materially  to  increase 
this  resistance. 

As  a  consequence,  tubes  treated  in  a  manner  tending  to 
decrease  their  serviceability  will  frequently  be  accepted 
under  specifications  containing  restrictions  of  the  character 
in  question,  but  would  be  rejected  when  made  in  accordance 
with  methods  calculated  to  give  them  the  maximum  en- 
durance. 

It,  therefore,  follows  that  a  rigidly  interpreted  clause  of 
this  nature  may  operate  to  weaken  rather  than  strengthen 
the  specifications  of  which  it  is  a  part. 


Charles  Jenkins 


Charles  Jenkins  died  May  1,  1918,  at  his  summer  home 
at  Winthrop  Heights,  Mass.  He  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1852,  the  son  of  Nathaniel  Jenkins,  the  inventor  of  the 
well-known  Jenkins  valve.  After  the  death  of  their  father 
in  1872,  the  brothers,  Alfred  and  Charles,  formed  a  part- 


CHARLKS    JENKINS 

nership  under  the  name  Jenkins  Brothers,  to  continue  the 
business  of  their  father.  Charles  remained  a  member  of 
the  firm  until  1896,  when  he  sold  his  interest  to  his  brother 
and  retired  to  devote  his  time  to  his  real-estate  interests  in 
Boston,  residing  at  847  Beacon  Street. 

Submarine  Engineer  Officers  Wanted 

The  Navy  is  in  need  of  professional  engineers  for  sub- 
marine duty,  not  over  35  years  old  and  physically  strong. 
The  qualifications  include  citizenship  in  the  United  States, 
the  degree  of  mechanical,  electrical  or  mining  engineer  from 
a  university  of  recognized  technical  standing  and  at  least 
two  and  one-half  years'  practical  engineering  experience. 
The  candidates  selected  will  be  commissioned  Ensign  in 
the  U.  S.  Naval  Reserve  Force,  and  will  be  sent  to  the  Naval 
Academy  and  to  the  Submarine  School  in  New  London  for 
a  special  technical  course. 

Engineers  subject  to  the  Selective  Draft  Law  and  those 
now  in  the  Army  are  eligible.  Letters  from  at  least  three 
responsible  personal  acquaintances  must  accompany  each 
application.  Address  the  American  Engineering  Service 
of  the  Engineering  Council,  Room  903,  29  West  39th  St., 
New  York  City.     Early  responses  are  requested. 


•From  a  paper  before  the  American   Society  for  Testing  Mate- 
rials. 


A  book  will  tell  you  how  to  open  or  close  a  throttle,  but 
that  operation  is  not  all  there  is  to  starting  and  stopping 
an  engine.  You  can  get  information  from  books,  but  never 
skill. — Marine  Engineering. 


May  7,  1918 


POWER 


677 


Personals 


C.  A.  Uinz,  fonut-rb'  luanasi'i'  of  tlu' 
iiiftii-  cloiiartiiiont  of  \  aiiiall-WarlTit;;  Co.. 
is  now  sales  nianasfr  of  the  company. 

Albert  Tiitc  Smitli  has  loturmd  to  Tho 
Pt'iimitit  Co.,  with  whicli  hi;  wa.s  fornurly 
coMiK'ctfcl.  to  (alio  the  position  of  assistant 
manager  of  sales. 

Thomas  C.  r.rerii,  of  the  Garlock  Pack- 
ing Co.,  PitlsburKh  liianeh,  has  rt'ccntly 
hevu  ajipointt'd  soerctary  of  the  National 
Kxhibitors'  Association  connected  with  the 
N.  A.  S.  K.  in  place  of  J.  William  Peterson, 
of  the  Kichardson-Phenix  Co.,  resigned. 

Latirit  <i.  Kdwiirds,  who  was  connected 
with  the  advertising  department  of  the 
National  Tuhe  Co.  in  Pittsburgh  and  Ke- 
wanee  foi"  over  1 2  years,  resigned  to  enter 
upon  a  broader  opportunity  in  the  publicity 
department  of  the  A.  IVI.  Byers  Co.  on 
Apr.  1.  . 

F.  W.  Fischer  has  resigned  as  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  Standard  Knitting  Co..  of 
Knoxville,  Tenn.,  to  accept  a  position  with 
the  Air  Nitrates  Corporation.  After  a  few 
weeks  spent  in  studying  the  processes  at 
Niagara  and  elsewhere,  he  will  assist  in 
the  installation  of  the  U.  S.  Nitrate  Plant 
No.  2  at  Muscle  Shoals.  Ala. 

Prof.  F.  H.  Newell,  head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Civil  Engineering  at  the  University 
of  Illinois  and  organizer  and  director  of 
the  United  States  Reclamation  Service,  has 
been  awarded  the  Cullom  Geographical 
Medal  by  the  Geographical  Society  of  New 
York.  Professor  Newell  Is  a  prominent 
member  of  the  American  Society  of  Me- 
chanical Engineers  and  of  the  American 
Association  of  Engineers. 

liiiiiiitiiiiiiiiititiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiit iiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiirii.. 

I       Engineering  Affairs       1 

Perth  Amboy  No.  13,  N.  A.  S.  E.,  will 
hold  its  27th  annual  'state  convention,  June 
1-2.      Exhibits   will    open    on    May    31. 

The  Southeastern  Section  of  the  Nationftl 
Electric  Light  Association  will  hold  its  an- 
nual   meeting   at    Atlanta,    Ga.,    June    19-20. 

The  American  Institute  of  Chemical  Eni- 
eineers  will  hold  its  summer  meeting  at 
Berlin,  N.  H.,  June  19-22,  with  headquarters 
at  Mt.  Madison  House,  Gorham. 

The   New   Haven    Section   of   the   A.   S.  M. 

E.  will  hold  a  meeting  on  May  10.  There 
will  be  papers  and  informal  talks  l)y  engi- 
neers of  local  companies  on  "Munitions 
Manufacture." 

The  Power  Section  of  the  Providence  En- 
gineering: Societv  will  hold  a  meeting  on 
the  evening  of  May  8,  1918.  at  which  L.  B. 
McMillan,  of  New  York,  will  give  a  talk  on 
"Thermal  Insulation." 

The  New  Orleans  (La.)  Section  of  the 
A.  S.  M.  E.  will  hold  a  joint  meeting  with 
the  Louisiana  Engineering  Society  on  May 
13.  Dr.  Winship  will  present  a  paper  on 
"Power  Plants  of  the  Oil  Tankers  Bsing 
Built  at  New  Orleans  " 

The  American   Order  of  Steam   Engineers 

will  hold  its  32nd  annual  convention  at  tho 
Parkway  Building.  Broad  and  Cherry  Sts.. 
Philadelphia.  June  10-12.  Owing  to  general 
existing  conditions,  there  will  be  no  exhibit 
held  in  connection  with  the  convention  this 
year. 

The    National    Electric    Ligrht    Association 

will  hold  its  regular  annual  meeting  this 
year  in  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  with  the  Hotel 
Traymore  as  headquarters,  June  13  and  14. 
The  sessions  will  be  devoted  entirely  to  a 
consideration  of  vital  war  problems  as  re- 
lated to  the  industry.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  practically  all  member  companies  are 
short-handed  and  th^'ir  officers  have  their 
time  taken  up  not  only  with  general  prob- 
lems of  the  industry,  but  also  with  local 
problems  and  difficulties  that  come  upon 
them  as  patriotic  citizens,  it  is  believed  that 
the  attendance  will  inevitably  be  much 
smaller  and  more  restricted  than  would 
occur  in  normal  times  and  under  the  usual 
conditions,  ail  other  subjects,  however  im- 
portant, being  swallowed  up  for  the  time 
being  in  the  fundamentally  vital  and  essen- 
tial one  of  winning  the  war. 

The     National     Oas     Engine     Association 

Will  hold  its  eleventh  annual  meeting  at 
the  Sherman  Hotel.  Chicago,  June  .1-4.  The 
subjects  to  be  discussed  on  Monday  are  as 
follows:  "The  Ircm  and  Steel  Situation"; 
"Government  Requirements  on  Gas  lOnglnos 
and  tho  Method  of  Handling  Those  Matters 
at  Washington"  :  "The  Labor  Situation"  ; 
"The  Fuel  Problem,"  which  will  be  handled 


by  a  representative  of  the  Federal  Fuel 
Administration.  On  Tuesday  forenoon  the 
following  paper  will  be  read :  "What  Is 
the  Future  of  the  Farm  Oas-Engine  Busi- 
nes.s" ;  "Sizes  of  Maiuifacture  from  tho 
Manuf.acturing  and  Sales  Standpoint" ; 
"The  Present  Condition  and  Future  of  tlie 
Gas-Engine  Export  Trade."  On  Tuesday 
afternoon  there  will  i>e  a  technical  session 
in  connection  with  the  Mid-West  Section 
of  the  Society  of  Automotive  Engineers,  at 
whicli  several  papers  of  a  technical  nature 
will  be  presented  and  discussed. 

The  American  Institute  of  Electrical   En- 

Kineers  will  hold  its  34tn  annual  conven- 
tion at  the  Marllrarough-Blenheim  Hotel, 
Atlantic  City.  N.  J..  June  2(i-28.  1918.  Six 
technical  sessions  are  contemplated.  The 
convention  will  open  at  10:30  a.  m.  on 
Wednesday  June  26,  with  President  E,  W. 
Rice.  Jr.'s,  address.  This  will  be  followed 
by  the  technical  comnuttee  reports.  The 
following  papers  will  be  presented  Wednes- 
day. 2:30  p.  m. :  "Split-Conductor  Cables — 
Balanced  Protection."  by  William  H.  Cole  : 
"Overhead  Transmission  Cables."  by  E.  B. 
Meyer ;  "The  Application  of  Theory  and 
Practice  to  the  Design  of  TransmLision 
Line  Insulators,"  by  G.  I.  Gilchrist.  Thurs- 
day, 10:30  a.  m. :  "Lightning-Arrester 
Spark  Gaps,"  by  C.  T.  Allcutt ;  "The  Oxide- 
Film  Lightning  Arrester,"  by  C.  P.  Stein- 
metz:  "Design  of  Transpositions  for 
Parallel  Telephone  and  Power  Circuits," 
by  H.  S.  Osborne.  Thursday.  2:30  p.  m. : 
Members  and  section  delegates  conference. 
Thursday.  8.30  p.  m. ;  "Fixation  of  Ni- 
trogen." by  E.  Kilburn  Scott ;  "America's 
Power  Supply,"  by  C.  P.  Steinmetz.  Fri- 
day. 10:30  a.  m. :  "Precharged  Condensers," 
by  V.  Karapetoff ;  "Method  of  Symmetrical 
Coordinates  Applied  for  the  Solution  of 
Polyphase  Networks,"  by  C.  L.  Fortescue : 
"Flux  Distribution  in  Alternators  LTnder 
Sustained  Short-Circuit  Conditions  and  Dif- 
ferent Loads,"  by  N.  S.  Diamant.  Friday, 
2:30  p.  m. :  "Protection  from  Flashing  in 
D.  C.  Apparatus."  by  J.  J.  Linebaugh  and 
J.  L.  Burnham ;  "The  Automatic  Hydro- 
Electric  Plant."  by  J.  M.  Drabelle  and  L.  B. 
Barnett. 

liatiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiMiiiii iMiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiDiiiiiiiiitiiiMiiiitni. 

I       Miscellaneous  News       \ 

niiiuiiiitiirniiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiitiiiitiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiili" 

The  New  Transmission  Line  from 
Windsor.  Vt.,  to  Claremont,  N.  H..  has  been 
completed  and  is  now  in  operation.  Some 
economics  in  operation  and  better  service 
should  be  effected  through  this  new  line. 

Excavation  Work  for  the  new  10,000-kw. 
turbine  to  be  installed  at  the  Dock  Street 
plant.  Easton.  Penn.,  has  been  startled. 
Provided  no  unusual  difficulties  are  met 
with,  this  turbine  should  be  in  operation 
by  Aug.  1,  next. 

A  Boiler  Exploded  at  a  grist  mill  on 
White  Oak  Creek,  in  Estill  Co.,  Ky.,  on 
Apr.  5,  instantly  killing  two  men  and  in- 
juring half  a  dozen,  one  of  whom  died 
later  from  injuries  and  another  lay  at  the 
point  of  death  at  the  time  this  report  was 
received.  The  mill  was  blown  some  dis- 
tance from  its  foundation,  and  every  one 
in  it  was  more  or  less  seriously  injured. 

The  Eighth  Kdison  Medal  has  been 
awarded  by  the  Edison  Medal  Committee  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers to  Col.  John  Joseph  Carty  for  his 
work  in  the  science  and  art  of  telephone 
engineering.  The  medal  will  be  presented 
to  Colonel  Carty  at  the  annual  meeting  of 
the  Institute  to  be  held  in  the  Auditorium 
of  the  Engineering  Societies  Building.  Fri- 
day, May  17,  1918,  at  8:30  p.  m.  Presi- 
dent E,  W.  Rice.  Jr..  will  preside  and  the 
program  will  be:  Address  by  A.  R.  Ken- 
nelly,  outlining  the  origin  and  purpose  of 
the  Edison  Medal  ;  addre.ss  by  Michael  1. 
Pupin,  giving  history  of  Colonel  Carty's 
work  in  regard  to  telephone  engineeiing : 
presentation  of  medal  by  President  Rice : 
acceptance  of  the  medal  b.v  Colonel  Carty. 

The  Output  of  Bituminous  Coal  increased 
36tl,000  net  tons,  or  3.4  per  cent,  during  the 
week  ended  Apr.  27,  compared  with  the  week 
previous.  We  are  not,  however,  getting 
out  the  large  production  that  we  should,  in 
order  to  provide  for  the  excessive  demand 
of  tho  coming  winter.  A  part  of  the  falling 
off  is  due.  to  lack  of  cars,  many  of  which 
have  been  diverted  to  meet  the  demand  of 
the  army  on  account  of  the  drive  on  the 
West  front.  Some  of  the  mines  which 
could  get  cars  are  actually  idle  for  lack  of 
orders.  It  is  no)  known  to  what  extent 
cars  are  lacing  added  to  the  railroad  equip- 
ment. Tho  way  that  the  consumer  can 
help  inost  is  to  get  in  orders  for  all  th.at 
he  is  going  to  need  next  winti-r  as  eai'ly  as 
possible,  and  to  take  and  store  all  that  he 
can,  but  not,  of  course,  in  excess  of  his 
probable   requirements. 


iiiiiniiiiiiiniiMiiMiDi 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIXIIIII 


Proposed  Work 

Mass.,  Newbiiryiiort — The  Newburyport 
Gas  and  Electric  Co..  49  Plea.sant  St., 
plans  to  build  an  addition  to  its  new  elec- 
tric plant  on  the  former  Fiberloid  wharf. 
C.  Spaulding,  Supt. 


Mass.,  Westfleld — City  plans  to  appropri- 
ate $42,000  to  purchase  equipment  for  its 
light  department  to  enable  it  to  utilize 
power  from  the  Turners  Falls  plant. 


N.  Y.,  Geddes — The  Syracuse  Lighting 
Co.,  plan  to  build  a  brick  electric  plant. 
B.  H.  Shepard.  514  City  Bank  Bldg., 
Syracuse,  Pres. 


N.  Y.,  Groton — The  Groton  Electric  Co.^  is 
having  plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of 
an  electric  power  plant.  P.  J.  McGee,  622 
Bast  113th  St.,  New  York  City,  Pres.  Noted 
Oct.   7. 


N.  Y.,  Marshall — The  Waterville  Gas  and 
Electric  Co.  plan  to  build  an  electric  plant 
B.  H.  Shepard.  514  City  Bank  Bldg., 
Syracuse,    Pres. 


N.  Y.,  Mohawk — State  is  having  plans 
prepared  by  F.  M.  Williams,  Engr.,  Capitol, 
Albany,  for  the  erection  of  a  hydraulic 
power  plant  on  the  State  Barge  Canal  here. 


N.  Y.,  New  York — The  Bellevue  and  Al- 
lied Hospitals  plan  to  build  a  new  power 
plant  at  the  foot  of  East  26th  St. 


N.  J.,  Camden — Kind  &  Lantesmann,  5th 
St.,  has  had  plans  prepared  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  new  boiler  plant. 


N.   J.,  Jersey   City — Swift  &  Co.,   154    9th 

St.,  plan  to  build  a  2-story  addition  to 
its  engine  and  power  plant  on  Henderson 
St.      Estimated  cost,   $23,700. 


N.  J.,  Newark — A.  Fink  and  Son,  810 
Frelinghousen  Ave.,  has  had  plans  pre- 
pared for  the  erection  of  an  addition  to 
its  engine  house  in  connection  with  its 
factory. 


N.  J.,  Pompton  Lakes — City  has  voted 
$46,900  bonds  for  the  erection  of  an  electric 
power  plant  on  Corning  Lake. 


N.  Y..  Brooklyn — The  State  Hospital 
Commission,  Albany,  will  receive  bids  until 
May  22,  for  installing  underground  con- 
nections and  building  an  addition  to  its 
boiler  house.     E.  S.   Elwood,  Secy. 


Penn.,  Germantown — City  plans  to  build 
an  electric  lighting  plant  on  Duval  and 
McCallum  St. 


Penn..  McKeesport — The  Atlantic  Refin- 
ing Co..  Gth  Ave..  Pittsburgh,  plan  to  build 
a  service  station  on  Walnut  St.  and  8th 
Ave.      Estimated  cost,   $15,000. 

Penn.,  Steelton — The  Bethlehem  Steel 
Co.  plan  to  install  four  250  hp  boilers 
each,  in  its  new  addition  now  under  con- 
struction. 


Va.,  Richmond — Hackley  Morrison.  Moore 
Bldg,,  16  North  9th  St.,  Is  m  the  market 
for  a  75  kw.,  125  volt,  direct  current  gen- 
erator directly  connected  to  a  generator. 


(ia..  Commerce — City  voted  to  issue 
$15,000  for  the  erection  of  electric  lighting 
plant.  C.  A.  Goodin,  ClerK  and  Treas. 
Noted  Apr.  16. 


Ga..  .lefferson — City  issued  $16,000  bonds 
for  an  electric  lighting  plant  and  water 
works  system.     Noted  Feb.   19. 

Flo.,  Olrtsmnr — The  Oldsniar  Electric 
and  Ice  Co..  recently  incorporated,  plati 
to  Install  an  electric  lighting  plant  and  Ice 
factory.     J.  Bornsteln.  I'res. 


678 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


S.  C.  BranchviUe — P  Ott  is  in  tlie  market 
for  equipment  for  an  electric  ligiiting  plant. 

MisB..  Purvis — City  retained  X.  A. 
Kramer.  Engr..  Magnolia,  to  prepare  plans 
for  the  installation  of  an  electric  lighting 
system  here. 

lift.,  Monroe — The  Standard  Gin  Co..  re- 
cently organized  with  $60,000  capital  stock, 
is  in  the  market  for  power  plant,  and 
cotton  gin  equipment.  .1.  P,  Parker.  S. 
Schienker   and   J.    T.    Austin,    incorporators. 


l,a.,  Powliattan — The  Yarborough  Co 
plans  to  purchase  .Scotch  boilers  and  other 
power  plant  equipment. 

Ohio.  Columbus — The  Columbus  Anvil 
and  Gorging  Co.  plan  to  build  a  new  power 
plant  in  connection  with  its  factory  on 
West   Frankfort   St.      T.   N.   Long.   Mgr. 

Ohio,  Lowellvllle — The  Sharon  Steel  Hoop 
Co.  is  in  the  market  for  a  15-ton  electric 
crane  for  its  finishing  mills  here. 

Ohio.  Mansfield — The  City  f'chool  District 
will  receive  bids  until  May  1.=).  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  heating  a'ld  ventilating 
system  in  the  Brinkerhoof  School  on  Marion 
Ave.      J.    H.   Bristor,   Clerk. 

Ohio.  St.  Paris — City  voted  $5500  bonds 
for  improvements  to  its  electric  lighting 
plant. 

Ind..  Indianapolis — The  Ross  Power 
Equipment  Co..  Merchants  Bank  Bldg.,  is 
in  the  market  tor  a  250  kv.-a.,  240/440  volt. 
60  cycle,  3  phase  engine  type  generating 
unit  for  125-150  lb.  steam.  3-5  lb.  back 
pressure,  one  400  kv.-a.  generating  unit, 
same  as  above,  one  150  kw.,  250  volt  com- 
pound generating  unit  directly  connected 
and  one  250  and  one  500  kw.,  either  simple 
or  tandem,  compound  engines. 

IIL.  Pecatonlca — City  plans  to  install  an 
electrically  operated  pump  at  its  pumping 
station  after  July  1. 

Wis.,  Eau  Claire — The  Standard  Oil  Co 
of  Indiana,  plans  to  build  a  complete  ser- 
vice and  distributing  group  here.  Esti- 
mated co.st,  $30,000.  W.  W,  Holcomb.  La 
Crosse,  Dist.  Mgr,  R.  M.  Adams.  72  West 
Adams  St.,  Chicago.  Archt. 

Wis.,  Mehesha — City  is  considering  the 
installation  of  an  additional  engine  in  its 
electric    lighting   and    water   works   plant. 

Wis.,  Winneconne — The  Winnebago  Elec- 
tric Co.,  recently  incorporated,  plans  to  es- 
tablish an  electric  lighting  plant  here.  R. 
W.  Button,  interested. 

Iowa.  Eldora — Hardin  Co.  receives  bids 
about  June  11  for  brick  boiler  house,  smoke 
stack,  etc  About  $15,000.  C.  Boylan,  Co. 
Aud 

Iowa.  Bert  Oak — The  Red  Oak  Electric 
Co.  has  applied  to  the  Board  of  County 
Supervisors  for  a  franchise  to  build  and 
operate  an  electric  transmission  line  on 
certain  roads  in  Pleasant  Township. 

Minn..  Virginia — City  plans  to  build  heat- 
ing plant. 

Kan.,  BrookviUe — City  voted  to  issue 
bonds  for  the  erection  of  an  electric  dis- 
tribution system. 

■Veb.,  I^ynrh — City  voted  $7800  bonds  for 
the  installation  of  an  electric  lighting  plant. 

Ark.,  Uttle  Rock — The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion will  soon  award  the  contract  for  the 
installation  of  a  heating  and  lighting 
system  in  the  grade  and  junior  high  school. 
L.  Thompson  and  T.  Harding,  504  Southern 
Trust  Bldg.,   Archs. 

Tex.,  Beaumont^ — The  Kansas  City  South- 
ern R.  R.  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  plans  to 
install  electrical  equipment  to  operate  the 
drawbridge  over  the  Neches  River  here. 
J.  M.  Wier,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Ch.  Engr. 

Okla.,  Blocker — The  Tri  State  Coal  and 
Coke  Co..  recently  incorporated  with 
$100,000  capital  stock,  is  in  the  market  for 
mining  and  power  plant  equipment. 


Okla..  Gotebo — City  plans  to  rebuild  its 
electric  lighting  plant  recently  destroyed 
by  fire. 

Okla.,  Kiowa — The  Kiowa  Ice.  Light  and 
Water  Co.,  recently  incorporated  with 
$50,000  capital  stock,  plans  to  install  an 
electric  plant  and  an  ice  factory.  T.  L. 
Sammons  and  M.  T.  Crane,  interested. 

Okla..  Savannah — The  Savannah  Lighting 
and  Milling  Co..  incorporated  with  $2000. 
plans  to   install  a  lighting  plant. 

Wash  ,  Kphrata — The  Ruff  Lighting  Co. 
has  petitioned  the  Commissioners  of  Grant 
Co.  for  authority  to  build  an  electric  -trans- 
mission line  along  the  highway  in  Grant 
County.  S.  R.  Nelson  and  C.  Reeder.  in- 
corporators. 

Calif..  I-os  Angeles — F  W.  Stinkard,  1437 
Wright  St.,  is  in  the  market  for  2.')-30 
motors.  440  3  phase  vertical  centrifugal 
pump   with   frame.    No.    7. 

N.  S.,  Berwick — City  plans  to  build  an 
electric  lighting  and  power  plant.  E.sti- 
niated  cost,  $50,000.  H.  A.  Cornwall, 
Clerk, 

N.  S..  Halifax — The  Nova  Scotia  Tram- 
ways and  Power  Co.  plans  to  purchase  new 
equipment  including  electric  streets  can's, 
electrical  equipment  and  generating  ma- 
chinery. G.  A.  Fowler.  Lower  Water  St.. 
Engr. 

Que.,  Makamik — Boisclalr  Bros,  is  in  the 
market  for  sawmill  and  steam  power 
equipment. 

Que..  Shawinigan  Falls — The  Laurentide 
Power  Co.  plans  to  install  3  additional  units 
in  its  plant.  J.  E.  Aldred,  24  Exchange  Pi., 
New  York  City,  Pres. 

Ont.,  Dunwich  Twp. — The  Dominion 
Natural  Gas  Co.,  Ltd.,  Bank  of  Hamilton 
Bldg.,  plans  to  lay  mains  and  establish  a 
distributing  system  throughout  the  town- 
ship. 

Ont.,  Wallaceburg — The  Dominion  Glass 
Co  plans  to  install  a  gas  producer  plant 
Estimated   cost.    $200,000. 

Alta.,  Calgary — City  is  in  the  market  for 
a  motor  generator  set. 

B.  C,  North  Vancouver — City  is  consider- 
ing plans  for  the  erection  of  a  hydro  elec- 
tric plant  on  the  property  of  the  Nairn 
Falls  Power  Co. 

B.  C.  Revelstoke — The  Lanark  Mines  Co. 
plans  to  build  a  power  plant  and  dam  in 
connection  with  its  mine  and  mill  here. 
E.stimated  cost  between  $25,000  and  $30,000. 

CONTRACTS   AWARDED 

N.  H.,  Plymouth — The  Plymouth  Electric 
Light  Co.  is  building  a  2-mile  electric 
transmission  line  from  here  to  Livermore 
Falls.  J.  A.  Walls.  Lexington  St.  Bldg.. 
Baltimore.   Md.,   Engr 

Mass.,  Cambridge — The  Technology  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
1-story,  43  x  190  ft.  engine  building,  to 
Stone  and  Webster  Engineering  Corpora- 
tion. 147  Milk  St..  Boston.  Estimated  cost. 
$12,000. 

N.  y.,  Binghamton — The  Binghamlon 
Light.  Heat  and  Power  Co.  is  building  an 
addition  to  its  electric  power  plant. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  E.  F.  Benson 
Co.,  926  North  Delaware  Ave.,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  an  engine 
plant,  to  W.  Steele  &  Sons  Co.,  31  South 
15th   St. 

Penn.,  Pittsburgh — The  Heppenstall 
Forge  and  Knife  Co.,  47th  and  Hatfield 
.St..  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  new  boiler  plant  to  C.  Huntsinan. 
Pittsburgh.     Estimated  cost,  $23,000. 

Wash.,  D.  C. — The  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Docks,  Navy  Dept..  Wash.,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  frequency 
changer  house  and  a  substation,  to  tlic 
Dawson  Constr.  Co..  May  Bldg.,  Pittsburgh. 
Penn.     Estimated  cost.  $52,520 

Calif.,  San  Pedro — The  Seacoast  Canning 
Co..  Los  Angeles,  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  a  cannery  and  a  brick 
boiler  house  here,  to  F.  W.  Colegrove,  573 
7th  St.     Estimated  cost,  $23,000. 


I     THE  COAL  MARKET     | 

fiiiiiiiiriiiii nil I mil Ill I I iiiiii iiiiiiiiiT 

Boston — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  de- 
livered alongside  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  agro  are  as  follows; 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 

May  2.   1918     May  2.    1918 

Buckwheat    84.60  $7.10 — 7.35 

Rice    4.10  6.85 — 6.90 

Boiler .'3.90                 

Barley    3.60  6.15 — 6.40 

BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous    not    on    markol, 

Pocohontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hamptoi 
Roads,  is  S4.  as  compared  with  S2.85 — 2.00  a 
year  ago. 


•All-rail  to  Boston  is  $3.60. 


tWater  coal. 


New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 

May  2.   1918  May  2.   1918 

Pea    $4.90  $5.65 

Buckwheat    4.45@5.15  4.80(gl5..)0 

Barley    3.40@3.65  3.80@4..')0 

Rice     3.90@4.10  3.00@4.00 

Boiler     3.65  @  3.90  

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c. 
higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.     Mine 

Gross       Price  Net  Gross 

Central    Pennsylvania.  .$5.06  $3.05  $3.41 
Maryland — 

Mine-run    4,84             3.85  3.19 

Prepared    5.06             5.05  3.41 

Screenings    4.50            3.55  3.85 

•The  lower  ports  are;  Elizabethport.  Port  John- 
son, Port  Reading-.  Perth  Amboy  and  South  .A.m- 
boy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty.  Hobo- 
Ueii.  Weehawken.  Eclgewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut- 
tenber^.  St.  George  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5c.  lugher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Philadelphia — Price?  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  line  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

, Line ,  . Ti'^" 

May  2,   One  Yr.    May  2,    One  Year 

liUN  Ago  IDIH  A^  J 

Pea    $3.4.5  S--80  $4.35  $3.70 

Barley    2.13  1.50  3.40  1.75 

Buckwheat    ..    3.15  2.150  3.75  3.40 

Rice     3.65  3.00  3.65  3.00 

Boiler    3.45  1.80  3.55  2.90 


Chicago — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 
I>repared    sizes. .  .$3.65 — 3.80  $3.3.5 — 3.50 

Mine-run    2.40 — 3.55 

Screenings    2.15 — 2.30 


3.10 — 3.25 
!.85 — 3.00 


So.  111..  Pocohontas.  Hocking, East 
Pennsylvania       Kentucky  and 
Smokeless  Coals   and  W.  Va.         West  Va.  Splint 
Prepared    sizes. .  .$2.60 — 2.85  $2.85 — 3.35 

Mine-run    2.40 — 3.60  2.60 — 3.00 

Screenings    3.10 — 2.55  a.35 — ^2.75 

St.   I.ouis  — Prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  mines  are 
as  follows: 


6-in.  lump  . .  . 
3-in.  lump  . .  . 
Steam  egg .  .  . 
Mine-run  . .  .  . 
No.  1  nut, .  .  . 
2-in.  screen..  . 
No.  5  washed 


Williamson  and 

Franklin  Counties 

M  a.v  3 . 

1918 

.$3.6,5-3.00 

.    3.65-3.00 

.    3. 65-3. SO 

.    3.45-3.60 

.    3.65-3.00 

.    3.15-3.40 

.    3.15-3.30 


Mt,  Olive 

&  Staunton  Standard 

May  3.  May  3. 

1918  1918 

$3.65-3.80  $3.65-3,80 

3.65-3.80  3.35-3.60 

3.35-3.50  3.25-2.40 


!.45-2.60 
3.65-3. SO 
3.15-2.40 
2.15-3.30 


3.45-3.00 
3.65-3.80 
2.15-3.40 
2.16-3.30 


Birmingham — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b. 

mines  are  as  follows: 

Mine- 
Run 

Big  Seam  $1.90 

Pratt.  Jagger.   Corona     3.15 
Black  Creek.  Cahaba.      2.40 
Government  figures. 

Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  regular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  martlet  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according  to  a  regular  schedule. 


Lump  Stack  and 

&  Nut  Screenings 

$3.15  $1.65 

2.40  1.90 

2.65  2.15 


May  7,  1918  POWER  679 

giiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 

I  Prices — Materials  and  Supplies  | 

liiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiin 

These     are     prices     to     the     power     plant     by     Jobbers    in    the    larger    buying    tenters    east    of    the 
MUslsatppi.    Elsewhere  the  prices  will  be  modined  by  increased  freight  charges  and  by  local  conditions. 


ELECTRICAL  SUPPLIES 

KNIFE    SWITCHES — i'"'ollowing   are    net   prices   each  in   cities 

named  for  knife  switches  mounted  on  slate  base,  front  connected, 
punched  clip  type,  250  volts: 

.'iO  Amp.  GO  Amp.        100  Amp.  200  Amp. 

D.  P.   S.  T.   Juseless $0.32  80.93              $1.00  $3.43 

D.  P.   S.   T.   fused 81  1.37                 2.70  5.14 

D.   P.   D.  T.   tuseless 88  l..-)3                 3.42  5.70 

D.    P.    D.   T.    fused 1.67  3.38                   5.02  9.88 

T.    P.    S.   T.    fuseless 78  1.40                 2.88  3.14 

T.   P.    S.    T   .fused 1.22  2.0;                  4.18  7.70 

T.   P    D.   T.    (useless 1.37  2.33                 3.34  8.82 

T.  P.   D    T.   fused 3.68  4.13                8.99  13.80 

Lots  $23  and  more.  list. 


COPPER    WIRE — Prices    per    1000    ft.    tor    rubber-covered    wire    in 
following    cities: 


No. 

14 

10 

8 


1 

0 

00 

000 

0000 


Single 

Braid 

$l.-i.00 

22.15 

31.40 

49.40 

71.30 

108.00 

140.40 

170.85 


Denver >, 

Double 

Braid  Duplex 

$15.00  $31.00 

25.23  50.05 

34.85  00.50 

53.30       

70.15       

113.65       

147.85       

170.83       

239.45       

293.15       

357.00       


Single 

Braid 

*l:i.30 

23.00 

34,85 

59.75 

84.40 

135.50 

103.00 

210.00 

2U3.00 

320.00 

388.30 


St.  Louis ^    f Birmingham s 

Double  Single    Double 

Braid  Duplex  Braid     Braid    Duplex 

$16.25  $31.35  $13.50  $17.40  $38.30 

38.50  56.40  30.30     .34.30      07.80 

38.85  74.70      43.80      46.83      

64.25       63.60      74.10      

84.90       101.75   106.55      

132.00       151.50   163.00      

171.15       301.00  309.50      

225.00       370.00   283.00      

273.50       317.00   330.00      

331.50       417.00  428.00      

400,30       308.00   310,00      


FUSES — Following    are    net    prices    of    250-volt    inclosed    fuses 
each,  in  standaid  packages,  in  cities  named: 

0-30   amperes    $0.11 '^    each    110-200   amperes    $0.90  each 

31-60    amperes 13%   each    233-400    amperes    1.62  each 


.40       each 


[-00M- 


'/4 
% 

% 


-Price  per  100  ft.. 

Ft.  in  Coil 
350 


250 
200 
300 


$3.35 
3.50 
4.50 
5.75 


1 

l'/4 

IMj 


Ft.  in  Coil 
.  .  .  ,    130 
.  .  .  .    100 
. . . .    100 
. . . .    100 


$7.00 
10.00 
12.00 
13.00 


FUSE  PLUGS    (MICA  CAP)    PER  100 

0-30  amperes.  .    4c.  each  in  standard  package  quantities    (300) 

0.30  amperes.  .    3f.  each  for  less  than  standard  package  quantities    (300) 


SOCKETS,  B.   15.   FINISH — Following  are   net   prices  in   cents  each   in 
standard  packages : 

V4-IN.    OR    PENDANT    CAP  %-IN.   CAP 

Key  Keyless  Pull  Key  Keyless  Pull 

23.10c.  31.00c.  42.00c.  37.30c.  36.30c.  48.30c. 

Note — Less    than    standard    package    quantities.    13  %    off    list. 


CUT-OUTS — Following  are  net  iirices  ea'-h   in   standard-package  quan- 
tities : 


CONDUITS,    ELBOWS    .AND    COUPLINGS — Following    are    warehouse 
net  prices  per  1000  ft.  for  conduit  and  per  unit  for  elbows  and  couplings: 


S.  P.  M.  L. 
D.  P.  M.  L. 
T.  P.  M.  L. 
D.  P.  S.  B. 
D.   P.    D.    B., 


CUT-OUT.*     PLUG 

$0.11  T.   P.  to  D,   P,   S,   B, 

18  T.  P.  to  D.   P.  T.  B. 

36  T.    P.    S    B 

19  T.    P.   D.   B 

37 

CUT-OUTS.    N.    E.    C.    FUSE 


$0.24 
.38 
.33 
.54 


0-30  Amp.  31-60  Amp.         60-100  Amp. 


D.    P.  M.  L $0.33 

T.    P.  M.  L 48 

D.    P.  S.  B 43 

T     P,  S.  B 81 

D.    P.  D.  B 78 

T.    P.  D.  B 1.33 

T.   P.  to   D    P     D.   B 90 


$0.84 
1.20 
1.05 
1.80 
2.10 
3.60 


$1.68 
2.40 


ATTACHMENT   PLUGS — Price  each,   in    standard   packages: 

Standard  Package 

Hubbell    porcelain     $0.21  250 

Hubbell    composition     .13  50 

Benjamin    swivel     .12  100 

Current  taps    .35  50 

FLEXIBLE  CORD — Price  per  1000  ft.  in  coils  of  230  ft.: 

No.  18  cottcn  twisted $20.00 

No.  16  cotton   twisted 34.50 

No.  18  cotton   parallel 31.00 

No.  1 6  cotton   parallel 38.00 

No.  18  cotton   reinforced  heavy 28.50 

No.  16  cotton    reinforced   heavy .38.00 

No.  18  cotton   reinforced    light 24.00 

No.  10  cotton    reinforced   light .33.00 

No  18  cotton   Canvasite   cord 2.5.00 

No.  16  cotton   Canvasite   cord 32.00 


RUBBER-COVERED  COI'PKR  WIRE — Per  1000   ft.  in  New  York: 

Solul.  Solid.  Stranded. 
No.                                      Single  Braid     Double  Braid     Double  Braid     Duplex 

14  $10.50  $13.30  $15.00  $33.50 

13  14.33  10.93  19,48  .32,25 

10  18.92  22.83  23  81  45.00 

8  37.65  31.40  33.30  81.00 

6 ....  50.00  .... 

4 ....  70,10  ,  .  .  . 

2  112,43  .... 

I ....  132.20  .... 

0 ....  182.90  .... 

00 ....  323.00  .... 

000 .  .  271.24  .... 

0000 333.40                


In. 

, Conduit ^ 

Enameled  Galvanized 

, Elbows , 

Enameled  Galvanized 

r Couplings ^ 

Enameled  Galvanized 

\k  ■  ■ 

$66.56 

$71.66 

$0,1603 

$0.1716 

$0,039 

$0.0632 

■Yi.. 

87.75 

94.65 

,3108 

.3358 

.0843 

0903 

1      .. 

129.71 

139.91 

.3119 

.3341 

.1096 

.1174 

1  'A  .  . 

175.49 

189.29 

.4019 

.4289 

.1518 

.163 

1%-. 

209.83 

236.33 

.5358 

.5718 

.1875 

.2001 

282.31 

304.51 

,9833 

1.05 

.26 

.2868 

3  %  .  . 

446.36 

481.46 

1.61 

1.71 

.3573 

.3813 

3       .  . 

583,70 

039.00 

4.38 

4.57 

.5358 

.5718 

■.i%.. 

729,56 

784.70 

9.47 

10.10 

.7144 

.7634 

4 

880.17 

951,57 

10.93 

11.67 

.893 

.95.1 

Fl 

om  New  York  Warehouse — Less  3% 

cash. 

Standard  lengths  rigid.   10  ft.     Standard  lengths  flexible.    ^ 
Standard  lengths  flexible.    %   to  2  in..  50  ft. 


100 


Flexible  Conduit 

^ocknuts 

Bushings 

Box  Connections 

Per  100 

Per  100 

Per  100 

$1.02 

$1.68 

$5.63 

1.75 

4.00 

7.12 

3.00 

6.15 

10.50 

5.00 

8.30 

15.00 

7.50 

10.25 

23.50 

10.00 

16.40 

30.00 

12  .30 

24  80 

67.50 

LOCKNUTS   AND   BUSHINGS — Following   are   net   prices   in    standard 
packages,  which  are:    Vi-in..  1000:    %-  to  l^in..  100:   114-  to  3-in..  50: 


% 
1 

1V4 
1V4 


ARMORED  CABLES  AND  BOX  CONNECTORS — Following  are  net 
prices  per  1000  ft.  cable  and  standard  package  of  100  bax  connectors  in 
single  and  double  strip: 

f — Twin  Conductor — ^  , — Three  Conductor — ^ 

Wire  Gage                                   Cable         Connectors  Cable        Connectors 

14      $63.00              $4.50  $103,30           $4.50 

13    101.35               4.50  137.50            4.50 

10    138.75                4.75  176.25              4.75 

8    178.20                3,75  347,50              6.00 

6    377.30                6.35  363.40              7.50 

4    431.35  7.30  ....  

LAMPS — Below  are  present  quotations  in  less  than  standard  pacbnge 
quantities: 


Straight-Side    Bulbs 


Pear-Shape    Bulbs 


Mazda   B — 

No,  in 

Mazda   C— 

No.  in 

atts       Plain 

Frosted 

Package 

Watts       Clear 

Frosted 

Package 

10        $0.30 

$0.33 

100 

73         $0,70 

$0,75 

30 

13                .30 

.33 

100 

100            1,10 

1.15 

24 

33              .30 

,33 

10(1 

150            1.83 

1.70 

34 

40               .30 

.33 

100 

300           3.20 

2  37 

34 

50               .30 

,:i3 

100 

300           3.35 

3.35 

34 

00               .35 

.39 

100 

400           4. .30 

4.45 

12 

Oil               .70 

24 

500            4.70 

4.86 

13 

730            0,50 

0.75 

8 

1000            7,30 

7.75 

8 

Standard  quantities  are  subjtvt  to  discount  of  10%  from  list.  Annual 
contracts  ranging  from  $130  to  $300,000  net  allow  a  discount  of  17  to 
40%   from  hst, 

WIRING  SUPPLIES — New  York  prices  for  tape  and  solder  are 
as  follows: 

Friction    tape.     H -lb.    rolls 35c,  per  lb 

Rubber  tape.    Vj  -lb,    rolls .  .    45c.  per  lb. 

Wire    solder.    50-lb.    pools 45c.  per  lb. 

Soldering  paste.    1-lb.   cans 60c.  per  lb. 

FANS — It  is  prophesied  that  there  will  be  a  scarcity  of  electric  fans 
this  summer. 


680 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  19 


HOSE- 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Fire 


50-Ft.  Lengths 

Dnderwriters'    2%-in "5c.  per  ft. 

Common,    2  hi  -in. :ys},'7t 

Air 

First  Grade     Second  Grade     Third  Grade 

SO. 60  SO. 35  S0.30 

Steam— Discounts  from  list 
25  %        Second  grade ....   30  %        Third  grade ....  40  % 


%-in.   per   ft. 
First  g-rade.  .  . 


RUBBER  BELTING — The  following  discounts  from  list  apply 
to  transmission  rubber  and  duck  belting: 

Competition 40  ^c     Best  g-rade 15  % 

Standard    303<. 

LEATHER  BELTING — Present  discounts  from  list  in  the  fol- 


lowing cities  are  as  follows : 

Medium  Grade 

New    York    40  % 

St.    Louis    45  % 

Chicago    30  +  10% 

Birmingham    :io% 

Denver    35% 

RAWHIDE   LACING — 40%. 

P.VCKING — Prices    per    pound ; 

Rubber   and  duck   for  low-pressure   steam    

Asbestos    for    high-pressure    steam 

Duck   and   rubber  for  piston   packing 

Flax,    regular    

Flax,    waterproofed    

Compressed  abestos  sheet    

Wire   insertion    asbestos   sheet    

Rubber    sheet     

Rubber    shefet.     wire    insertion     

Rubber    sheet,    duck    insertion     

Rubber     sheet,     cloth     insertion      

Asbestos  packing,   twisted  or  braided  and  graphited.   for  valve 

stems    and    stuffing    boxes     

Asbestos  wick.    Vj  -   and    l-lb<  balls 


Heavy  Grade 
33% 
40% 
40  +  5% 
40% 
30% 


SO, on 
1.60 

i.no 

.90 

1.10 

1.00 

1.20 

.60 

.90 

.50 


1.10 
.70 


PIPE    AND    BOILER    COVERING- 

dtandard  lists; 


PIPE 

COVERING 

Standard  List 

ipe  Size 

Per  Lin.Ft. 

1-in. 

SO. 37 

2 -in. 

.36 

Bin. 

.80 

4.in. 

80 

3-in. 

.45 

8-in. 

1.10 

10-in. 

1.30 

85%   magnesia  high  pressure. 


BLOCKS  AND    SHEETS 

Price 

Thickness  per  Sq.Ft. 

yo-in.  SO  27 

1  -in.  .30 
IH-in.  .45 

2  -in.  .60 
3y.-in.  76 

3  -in.  .90 
3V4-in.  1.05 

5  %  oft 

f  4.ply .i8%  off 

For  low-pressure  heating  and   return   lines  ^  3-pIy 60%  off 

I  3-ply 62%  off 

GREASES — Prices  are  as  follows  in  the  following  cities  in  cents 
per  pound  for  barrel  lots; 

Cincinnati     Chicago  St.  Louis  Birmmghani     Denver 

Cup      7                    5  %  6.9  7V2  10  % 

Fiber   or  sponge 8                  6  '^A  7V^  15 

Transmission 7                    6  7.4  7%  13 

Axle     4V.                 4  3.6  3  5 

Gear    Hi               4  %  7.0  7  ".4  6 

Car  journal    22  (gal.)       3^4  4.5  3  6 

COTTON  WASTE — The  following  prices  are  in  cents  per  pound ; 


Chicago 
Colored    mixed. .  12.00  to  13.50 
White    10.00  to  11.00 


-New  York- 


8.50  to  13.00 
11.00  to  13.00 


10.00  to  13.00 
13.00  to  15.00 


Cleveland 
13.50 


Current  One  Year  Ago 

16.00 
In  Cleveland  the  jobbers'  price  per  1000  is 


WIPING  CLOTHS- 

as  follows ; 

131/4x13%    S45.00       13>4x30i4    So3.00 

In  Chicago  they  sell   at  S30®33  per  1000. 


LINSEED    OIL — These   prices  are   per  gallon: 


. — New  York- 
Current  One 


Year  Ago 

SI. 13 

3  33 


:ieveland- 
Current        One 


Year  Ago 

SI. 13 

1  33 


^ Chicago s 

Current        One 

Vear  Ago 

$1.65  SI. 05 

1.75  1.1.-) 


Raw  per  bai-rel....    S1.55'        SI. 13       S1.6i 

,5-gal.  cans    1.65*  3  33  1^0 

•  Nominal. 

WHITE  AND  RED  LEAD  in  500-lb.  lots  .sell  as  follows  in  cents 
per  pound; 

-Red- 


1  Year  Ago 


Dry 
10.50 
10.75 
11.00 
12.50 


In  Oil 
11.00 
11.35 
11.50 
12.50 


Current 
Dry 

and  In  Oil 
10.50 
10.75 
11.00 
13.00 


Cleveland 
35% 
35% 


1  Yr.  Ago 
Dry 

and  In  Oil 
10.50 
10.75 
11.00 
13.50 


Chicago 

40%* 
40  %• 


New  York 

S30.00  to    55.00 

45j00  to     .3.3.00 

135.00  10  145.00 

S5!6o  to  96!66 


Chicago 
S50.00 


Current 

Dry        In  Oil 
25-   and    50-lb.    kegs  11.30      11.00 

12Vi-lb.    keg    11.75      11.25 

1001b.    keg    11.35      11..50 

1-    to    5-lb.    cans...    13.35      13.00 
Note — Pi'ice  change  imminent. 

RIVETS — The   following  quotations   are   allowed    for   fair-sized   orders 
from  warehouse : 

New  York 

Steel  ,'a  and  smaller 30  % 

Tinned 30% 

•For  less  than  keg  lots  the  discount  is  35%. 

Button  heads.    %     %,  1  in.  diameter  by  2  in.  to  5  in.  sell  as  follows 
per   100  lb.: 
New    York $6.09  Mi      Cleveland $5.85     Chitago $5.50 

Coneheads.    same  sizes; 
New    York $6.19%      Cleveland S5.95     Chicago $5.60 


60.00  to  80.00 


FIRE  BRICK — Quotations  on  the  different  kinds  in  the  cities  named 
are  as  follows,  f.o.b.  works; 

Silica  brick,    per   1000 

Fire  clay  brick,  per  1000,  No.  1 

Magnesite   brick,    per   net   ton 

Chrome  brick,    per   net   ton 

Deadburned  magnesite  brick,  per  net  ton 
Special  furnace  chrome  brick,  per  net  ton 

Standard  size  lire  brick.  9x4%  x  2  %  in.  The  second  quality  is  $4 
to  $3   cheaper  per  1000. 

St.  Louis — High  grade,  S55  to  $65:  St.  Louis  grade,  $40  to  $53. 

Birmingham — Fire  clay,  $35. 

Chicago — Second   duality.   $35   per  ton. 

Denver — Silica,   $35  per   1000. 

FVEL  OIL — Price  variable,  depending  upon  stock.  New  York  quota- 
tions not  available  owing  to  this  fact.  In  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  the 
following  prices  are  quoted: 

Chicago         St.  Louis 

Domestic  light.  23-36  Baurn^ 5c.  None 

Mexican    heavy.    12-14    Baume 7c.  7i^jC. 

Note — There  is  practically  no  fuel  oil  in  Chicago  at  present  time. 

SWEDISH  (NORW.4Y)  IRON — The  average  price  per  100  lb.,  in 
ton  lots,  is: 

Current  One    Year  Ago 

New  York $15.00  $9.50 

Cleveland 15.00  7.00 

Chicago 15.00  8.25  - 

In    coils   an    advance   of   50c.   usually   is   charged. 

Note — Stock  very  scarce  generally. 


POLES — Prices  on  Western  red  cedar  poles: 

New  York       Chicago       St.  Louis 


-Below    are    discounts    and    part    of       g  jjj 


6  in.  by  ,30   ft $5.59  S4.94 

7  in.   by   .30   ft 7.40  6.60 

7  in.   by  .33    ft 10.70  9.60 

8  in.  by  35  ft 12.30  10  90 

7  in.  by  40  ft 12.35  11  00 

8  in.   by  40   ft 13.75  13.15 

8  in.  by  45  ft 18.20  16.30 

8   in.  by  50   ft 21.85  19.45 


S4.94 
6.60 
9.60 
10.90 
11.00 
12.15 
16.20 
19.45 


Denver 

$4  32 

3.80 

8.55 

9.65 

9.75 

10.65 

14.30 

17.15 


10c.  higher  freight  rates  on  account  of  double  loads 


For  plain  pine  poles,  delivered  New  York,  the  price  is  as  follows: 

10-in.   butts,   5-in.   tops,   length  20-,30   ft $  8  00 

tops,   length   30-40   ft 1 1 .50 

tops,   length  41-50   ft 13.50 

tops,  length  31-60   ft 21.00 

tops,   length   61-71    ft 23.50 

PIPE — The  followmg  discounts  are  for  carload  lots  f.o.b.  Pittsburgh, 
basing  card  in  effect  July  2.  1917.  for  iron,  and  May  1  for  steel: 


13-in. 

butts. 

6-in 

12-in. 

butts. 

6-1  n 

14-in. 

butts. 

6-in 

14-in. 

butts. 

6-in 

Inches 
1     to    3. 


BUTT  WELD 
Steel 

Black  Galvanized         Inches 


Iron 

Black   Galvanized 


49% 


3     42  % 

2  %     to    6 45  % 

7    to    12 43  % 

13    and    14 32  %  % 

13     30% 

BUTT  WELD. 

%    to  1% 47% 

2   to  3 48% 

LAP  WELD. 


33  %  7»        94    to  1  % 33  % 

LAP   WELD 

29%  %        3     36% 

.32  %  %       2  %     to    4 28% 

28  %  %        ■  ■  ■  "  - "    ■ 


4%     to    6 38% 


to    8. 


20% 


EXTRA   STRONG  PLAIN  ENDS 
%   to  1  % 33  % 


to    4. 


.      40% 
.       43%, 

4  %     to    6 42  % 

-    -       -  .      38  7o 

33% 


7    to    8. 
9   to   12. 


34  %  % 

35  %  % 

EXTRA  STRONG  PLAIN  ENDS 

38  %  %       3     27  % 

31  %  %       9    to    12 15  % 

30%  %        7    to    13 35% 

24%  %       3'~    to  4 29%, 

19%  %        4%    to  6 28% 


17% 

12% 

15% 

13% 

8% 


18% 


14% 
3% 
12% 
17% 
16% 


From   warehouses  at  the  places   named   the   following  discounts  hold 
for  steel  pipe : 

-Black- 


New  York 

?4    to  3  in.  butt  welded 38  %> 

3%    to  6  in.  lap  welded 18% 

7  to  13  in.  lap  welded 10  %• 


New  York 

%    to  3  m.  butt  welded 22% 

3%   to  6  in.  lap  welded List 

7  to  13  in.  lap  welded Li3t  +  30<;; 

Malleable  fittings.  Class  B  and  C,  from  New  York  stock  sell  at  5  and 
5%    from  list  prices      Cast  iron,   standard  sizes.   ;J4  and  5%. 


Chicago  St.  Louis 

43%  34.37% 

38%  31.37% 

35%  31.37% 

■Galvanized s 

Chicago  St.  Louis 

22%  19.27% 

18%  13.37% 

30%  6.37% 


BOILER  TUBES — The  following  are  the  iirices  for  carload  lots  f.o.b. 
Pittsburgh,  announced  Nov.  13,  as  agreed  uiion  by  manufacturers  and 
the  Government: 


Lap   Welded   Steel 

3%    to  -il  %   in 34 

2%   to  314   in 24 

31,4    in 17% 

X%   to  J  in 13 


Charcoal  Iron 

3%   to  4%  in 12  V4 

3  to  3  V4   in +   5 

2%   to  3%   in +   7% 

2  to  3V,    in +22% 

194    to  1  Ts   in +35 


Standard  Commercial   Seamless — Cold  drawn    or  hot   rolled: 
Per  Net  Ton 
1   in $340    1 94 


i.%  in. 
1%  in. 
1%    in. 


380 


2  to  2%   in 

270    294   to  3  94   in 

330    4   in 

4%   to  5  in 

These  prices  do  not  apiily  to  special  specifications  for  locomotive 
tubes  nor  to  special  specifications  for  tubes  for  the  Navy  Department, 
which   will  be  subject  to  special  negotiation. 


Ptr  Net  Ton 

$220 

190 

180 

300 

230 


IIINIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIINIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^^ 


« 


POWER 


nniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiniiii  iniiiiiniiiiiiniiiiiiiiMiniiin  n  ii    iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^^ 

Vol.  47  NEW  YORK,  MAY  14,  1918  No.  20 

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIN^ 


Seemed  sort  of  hard,  at  first,  I  couldn't  go 

To  fight  beside  the  boys  acrost  the  sea, 
I  tried,  all  right,  but  sergeant  he  says,  "No. 

You're  over  age  for  soldierin',"  says  he. 
"Look  here,"  says  I,  "I  may  be  over  age. 

But  see  this  chest,  these  muscles,  an'  these  hands- 
I  ain't  too  old  to  earn  a  fireman's  wage, 

Why  won't  I  do  to  fight  in  furrin'  lands? 


So  I  goes  back  to  work — not  feelin'  gay, 

An'  thinkin',  "'Hell,  it's  fierce  to  be  so  old!" 
But  then  it  sort  of  comes  to  me  next  day 

That  after  all,  the  guys  that  are  enrolled 
As  soldiers  ain't  the  only  ones  that  serve, 

An'  us  at  home  can  do  our  bit,  all  right. 
I  guess  a  man  can  use  his  strength  an'  nerve 

To  work  for  Uncle  Sam,  as  well  as  fight. 


"The  kids  is  growed,"  I  says,  "an'  Jim  an'  John 

Is  over  there;  I  got  a  bit  laid  by, 
The  wife  she  wouldn't  starve  while  I  was  gone, 

I'd  like  to  fight  with  my  two  boys,  an'  I 
Could  do  my  bit,  I  know."    The  sergeant  smiles, 

"I  know  you  could,"  he  says,  "but  man  alive, 
I'd  get  called  down  in  fifteen  diflF'runt  styles 

If  I  took  you — you're  over  forty-five." 


So  now  I  watch  my  fires  an'  save  my  coal 

(That's  helpin',  when  you  think  what  fuel  means). 
An'  do  my  job  with  all  my  heart  an'  soul 

Makin'  the  steam  that's  drivin'  our  machines; 
For  it's  machines  that's  gonta  win  this  war 

Cuttin'  an'  shapin'  guns  an'  other  things 
That's  used  to  aid  our  boys  who're  fightin'  for 

The  old  U.  S.  against  them  Prussian  Kings. 


Here  in  the  basement  where  the  boilers  hum 

I  have  enlisted  till  the  war  is  won. 
There  ain't  no  music  of  a  fife  an'  drum 

To  cheer  my  spirits  while  my  work  is  done, 
But  with  my  shovel  an'  my  slice-bar,  too, 

I  toil  an'  sweat  an'  never  make  a  yelp, 
I'm  in  the  service  till  the  game  is  through. 

Too  old  to  fight,  but  not  too  old  to  help! 


UiiliiiiiiiiiiiliiimiiiiiiiniiniiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiniiiiiiimiiiiiiiMiimiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiniin 


682 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


Georgre  7/enri/  Corltss 


Bt/H.  F:  Mueller 

CH/EF  £Na/H£ER  of  WASHBURN-CKOSBY  M/US,  MINNEAPOl/S,    M/f/N. 


llllllllllMlllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllltlllllBillllJllMllllllBdlllllllllllllllll 


GEORGE  HENRY 
CORLISS  was 
born  in  Easton,  N. 
Y.,  June  2,  1817.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  doctor,  and  although 
he  did  not  follow  the  footsteps 
of  his  father,  trying  to  make 
people  healthy,  he  became 
nevertheless  a  doctor  indeed, 
a  doctor  of  the  engineering 
profession.  He  was  a  man  of 
strong  and  determined  char- 
acter, who  could  not  only 
make  decisions  but  carry  them 
out  in  spite  of  difficulties  and 
resistance.  He  was  a  religious 
man  and  always  polite  and 
kind  and  anticipatory  in  his 
manners.  He  lived  in  a  plain 
cottage  near  his  factory  and 
devoted  his  spare  time  to  his 

family.  There  alone  he  sought  and  found  recreation 
and  enjoyment.  He  was  very  fond  of  the  lawn  around 
his  house  and  took  great  care  of  it.  "Such  a  lawn  as 
mine,"  he  would  declare  boastfully,  "cannot  be  found  in 
the  whole  United  States."  Corliss  received  many  honors 
and  appreciations.  At  every  exposition  he  received  the 
highest  awards  even  if  he  had  no  exhibit  at  all;  for 
instance,  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Vienna,  he  received  the 
Gold  Medal  for  the  reason  that  most  of  the  engines  ex- 
hibited were  built  after  the  Corliss  patents.  In  1870 
The  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  awarded 
Corliss  the  Rumford  Medal. 

Since  James  Watt's  time  no  name  has  been  so  often 
or  so  intiniatelj'  connected  with  the  steam  engine  as  the 
name  of  Corliss.  The  work  of  this  great  American 
marked  a  new  step  in  the  development  of  the  steam 
engine.  His  improvements  revolutionized  the  steam- 
engine  business  and  gave  his  name  an  everlasting 
fame. 

He  died  in  February,  1888,  after  a  short  illness, 
thirty  years  ago,  but  his  engine  has  held  its  place  at 
the  head  for  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  century.  Many 
and  various  and  some  fearful  and  wonderful  attempts 
have  been  made  at  various  times  to  produce  an  engine 
to  supersede  it,  but  so  far  with  little  success,  and 
through  all  these  years,  the  Corliss  engine  has  main- 
tained its  proud  position  as  the  standard  mill  and  fac- 
tory engine.  We  first  find  young  Corliss  working  as 
a  clerk  in  a  store.  Next  it  is  reported  that  he  erected 
a  general  merchandise  outfit  of  his  own  in  a  small 
country  town,  but,  at  about  22  years  of  age,  realizing 
that  the  monotony  of  the  village  threatened  to  dull 
his  senses,  he  shut  dowm  that  plant,  dismantled  it,  went 


"""■'''""'' "' «M"'l" """"i' '"»*''■■'»"'«' iiUli'llillllllilllMIIIIIII 


to  a  larger  city  and  found 
employment  in  a  shoe  fac- 
tory. The  noise  of  the 
factory,  the  humming  sound 
of  the  moving  machinery  was 
classic  music  in  the  ears  of 
young  Corliss.  He  remairted 
in  the  shoe  factory  about  four 
years,  and  his  remarkable 
ability  for  technic  and  con- 
struction soon  became  known. 
He  made  here  his  first  inven- 
tion, a  sewing  machine,  and 
it  was  to  get  it  built  that  Cor- 
liss left  the  shoe  factor^'  and 
went  to  Providence,  R.  I.,  the 
only  place  at  that  time  where 
such  work  could  be  done.  He 
arranged  with  the  firm  of 
Fairbanks  &  Bancroft,  then 
doing  a  machine  and  engine 
business,  and  started  at  once  with  the  perfection  of 
his  sewing  machine.  Fairbanks  &  Bancroft,  how- 
ever, soon  discovered  that  Corliss  was  a  man  they 
could  use  to  great  advantage  in  their  own  employ, 
and  as  they  did  not  care  to  manufacture  sewing 
machines  they  closed  the  dampers  on  that  work  and 
persuaded  Corliss  to  disconnect  himself  from  the 
sewing  machine  and  devote  his  time  and  attention 
to  projects  which  they  had  on  hand.  Corliss  changed 
over  and  started  in  a  new  direction.  He  made  good, 
so  splendidly  good  that  inside  of  a  year  Fairbanks 
&  Bancroft  riveted  young  Corliss  solidly  to  their 
shops  by  making  him  one  of  their  partners.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  Corliss  conceived  the  improvements  which 
revolutionized  the  steam-engine  business  and  made  his 
name  a  household  word  to  every  engineer  in  the  coun- 
try. He  made  a  radical  departure  from  the  customary 
engine  design  of  those  days  by  constructing  a  cylinder 
with  two  valve  chests,  one  for  the  steam  inlet  and  one 
for  the  exhaust  outlet.  He  used  four  valves  in  his  cyl- 
inder, one  at  each  corner.  He  designed  a  wristplate 
oscillated  by  an  eccentric,  to  which  the  four  valves 
were  connected.  He  designed  a  valve-releasing  gear 
with  dashpots  to  close  the  steam  valves  quickly.  He 
attached  the  governor  to  the  valve  mechanism  and  de- 
signed an  entirely  new  engine  frame. 

The  first  engine  of  Corliss  design,  started  in  Febru- 
arj',  1848  (Corliss  was  then  31  years  old),  was  a  260- 
hp.  walking-beam  engine;  the  cylinder,  shown  in  Fig.  1, 
measured  22  in.  diameter  by  72-in.  stroke.  The  inlet 
valves  are  at  the  left  and  the  exhaust  valves  at  the  right. 
The  inlet  valves  on  the  first  few  Corliss  engines  were 
flat  and  were  opened  and  closed  by  small  shafts  with 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


683 


racks  and  pinions  operated  from  the  central  wristplate. 
The  motion  rod  effecting  the  opening  had  a  hook  on  one 
end,  held  by  a  spring  against  the  valve  shaft,  which 
connected  to  the  lever  and  so  opened  the  valve.  After 
the  motion  rod  had  traveled  a  certain  distance,  it  struck 
a  wedge-shaped  arrangement  which  disengaged  the 
hook,  and  the  valve  was  closed  by  a  weight  attached 
to  the  valve-shaft  or  hook  lever.  The  cutoff  was  not 
under  the  influence  of  the  governor,  but  set  by  hand. 
The   first   engine   having   the   cutoff   controlled   by   the 


factory.  The  springs  broke  frequently  and  were  some- 
times replaced  by  weights.  A  few  engines  were  built 
with  coil  springs  to  close  the  valves,  but  the  springs  all 
gave  trouble  and  Corliss  fell  back  to  the  old  crab-claw 
gear.  Fig  7  shows  Corliss'  latest  design.  Here  the 
valves  are  closed  neither  by  weights  nor  by  springs,  but 
by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  a  dashpot  that 
has  a  differential  piston.  The  lower,  or  smaller,  end, 
packed  with  a  cup  leather,  acts  as  a  vacuum  pump; 
the  upper  or  larger  piston  serves  as  an  air  cushion.     A 


n 

l3 

q 

\ 

\? 

^ 

FIG. 3 


FIG.  6 


PIGS.    1    TO    8.      EARLY   TYPES   OF   CORLISS    VALVE   GEARS 


Fig.  1— The  first  Corliss  cylinder  and  valve  gear,  184S.  Fig.  2— Valve  gear  of  IS.'iO.  Fig.  3— -Valve  gear  of  Ib.^l.  dashpot  taking 
shape  Fig  4 — The  inclined  gear  of  1852.  Fig.  .i — "Crab-claw"  gear  of  1858.  Fig.  6 — Known  as  the  spring-lever  gear,  put  out  in  1859. 
Fig    7 — Corliss'   latest  design.   1S75.     Fig.    8 — Familiar   Corliss  cylinder  and  valve  shown  in  section. 


governor  and  having  cylindrical  oscillating  valves.  Fig. 
2,  was  built  in  1850. 

In  Fig.  3  the  springs  holding  the  inlet  motion  rods 
in  their  respective  places  are  fastened  directly  to  the 
rods.  The  valves  are  closed  by  weights  in  smooth 
cylinders,  but  cushioned  by  air  entrapped  at  the  bottom 
of  the  little  cylinders. 

For  a  long  time  the  gear  shown  in  Fig.  4  was  con- 
sidered the  best  Corliss  valve  gear,  and  many  engines 
were  built  of  that  design.  Fig.  5  is  the  so-called  crab- 
claw  gear.  Corliss  very  seldom  used  this  gear,  but  some 
other  engine  builders  did,  especially  William  Harris,  of 
Providence,  R.  I.  It  was  frequently  called  the  Harris- 
Corliss  gear.  Weights  were  used  to  close  the  valves  on 
this  gear. 

Fig.  6  is  the  so-called  spring-lever  gear,  intended  to 
do  away  with  weights.     This  gear  did  not  prove  satis- 


small  check  is  located  at  the  lower  end  of  the  vacuum 
cylinder  for  the  escape  of  air  leakage.  To  prevent  the 
cast-iron  piston  striking  hard  metal  against  metal 
in  case  the  vacuum  is  too  strong  and  not  enough  air 
is  admitted  for  cushioning,  a  leather  washer  is  placed 
underneath  the  dash  piston.  This  was  the  first  valve 
gear  designed  permitting  adjustment  of  the  valves  while 
the  engine  is  in  operation.  The  motion  rods  are 
threaded  right  and  left.  Fig.  8  is  a  sectional  view  of 
the  Corliss  cylinder  showing  the  position  of  the  valves. 
Engineers  laughed  at  the  new  machine  and  ridiculed 
Corliss  and  his  inventions.  They  had  a  couplet  in  cir- 
culation running  this  way: 

Levers,  links  and   motions  various, 
Endless    jimcracks    all    precarious. 

But  by-and-by  the  Corliss  inventions  were  appreciated 
and  Corliss  was  praised  to  the  skies. 


684 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


Within  the  year  1848  or  early  in  1849  Corliss  had 
completed  and  had  in  operation  two  more  engines  like 
the  first.  Those  three  engines  were  so  successful  that 
tracts  of  land  were  purchased  and  extensive  shops 
erected  for  the  manufacture  of  engines.  The  engines 
installed  gave  excellent  satisfaction,  and  the  prospects 
for  more  and  greater  business  were  splendid,  everything 
worked  so  nicely;  then  something  serious  happened 
which  almost  shut  down  the  whole  plant.  Corliss  took 
out  a  patent  in  1849,  after  he  had  built  three  engines, 
but  with  this  first  patent  troubles  of  large  dimensions 
arose.  Seven  years  prior  to  this  a  man  by  the  name  of 
Sickles  had  taken  out  patents  on  steam-engine  improve- 
ments ai.''  when  he  heard  of  the  Corliss  patent  and  the 
wonderful  success  of  his  engine,  he  started  to  investi- 
gate and  seemed  to  discover  that  the  Corliss  patent 
was  very  much  like  that  of  his  own.    Legal  proceedings 


motion  of  the  valve  is  arrested;  it  can  pass  over  the 
ports  and  close  them  at  full  speed,  and  whether  it  stops 
a  little  sooner  or  a  little  later  is  of  no  consequence.  Cor- 
liss brought  his  valves  to  rest  by  means  of  weights  and 
cushioned  the  weight  simply  by  an  air  cushion.  Theo- 
retically, the  Sickles  invention  was  all  right,  but  the 
Corliss  invention  was  the  most  practical  one.  A  promi- 
nent engine  designer,  a  man  of  the  theory,  connected 
with  the  Allis-Chalmers  Co.,  once  relieved  his  mind  as 
follows:  "Damn  practice,  it  always  interferes  with 
theory."  The  theory  that  Corliss  possessed  never  inter- 
fered with  practice.  Corliss'  head  was  not  filled  with 
theory,  he  was  a  practical  fellow,  without  college  or 
technical  training.  He  did  not  know  anything  about 
algebra,  but  he  knew  how  to  build  useful  engines  right 
and  left  and  put  them  on  the  market.  Frederick  E. 
Sickles   was  a  marine   engineer  who   fought    for  his 


FIQ.9 


FI.O.  U 


PIGS.   9  TO   11.      SOMK  E.\RLY  TYPES  OF  CORLISS  ENGINE   FRAMES.     SHOWING    THE    GRADUAL.    EVOLUTION    FROM 

BEDPLATE    TOWARD    THE    GIRDER    FRAME 


were  the  consequence,  and  before  young  Corliss  realized 
the  situation  he  was  confronted  with  a  high-pressure 
lawsuit. 

Sickles,  in  his  legal  proceedings,  not  only  tried  to 
prevent  Corliss  from  manufacturing  these  engines,  but 
also  directed  his  threats  against  those  using  the  engines, 
so  Corliss  had  to  defend  himself  and  his  custom.ers  at 
the  same  time.  He  had  both  hands  full.  Lawyers  of 
the  highest  ability  were  employed  on  both  sides,  and  the 
litigation  was  carried  on  with  much  bitterness.  The 
case  was  tried  before  various  juries  and  judges,  and 
the  fight  extended  over  a  term  of  15  years.  Finally, 
the  Corliss  patents  were  fully  sustained  in  all  points, 
and  thenceforth,  until  their  expiration  in  1870,  Corliss 
had  the  field  to  himself.  The  legal  fight  cost  Corliss 
$100,000. 

Many  feel  a  certain  sympathy  for  Sickles,  who  came 
so  near  achieving  a  great  success  yet  missed  it.  The 
inventions  of  Sickles  and  Corliss  were  as  different  as 
the  two  men.  Sickles  invented  an  improved  method  of 
lifting,  tripping  and  cushioning  poppet  valves.  It  seems 
that  he  had  no  other  valve  in  mind;  in  fact,  his  claims 
are  so  drawn  as  to  exclude  all  others.  In  the  CorUss 
invention  the  valve  does  not  leave  its  seat,  it  slides 
back  and  forth.  As  a  poppet  valve  is  dropped  to  its  seat, 
it  is  necessary  to  bring  the  valve  to  rest  in  an  extremely 
short  distance  in  order  to  prevent  slamming  and  de- 
struction. Sickles  used  for  that  purpose  a  water  dash- 
pot.     With  the  Corliss  valve  it  matters  little  when  the 


theory,  but  a  theory  that  interfered  with  practice.  As 
stated  before,  Corliss  got  his  first  patent  in  1849  for  a 
term  of  14  years.  In  1851  and  again  1859  the  patent 
was  renewed  and  at  that  time  divided  into  six  patents, 
each  one  covering  a  certain  part  of  the  Corliss  engine. 
One  patent  was  for  the  wristplate,  one  for  the  libera- 
tion of  the  valves,  one  for  the  air  cushion,  one  for  the 
positive  closing  of  the  valves,  one  for  the  claws  and  one 
for  the  combination  of  the  governor  with  the  cutoff. 


nB^^a 


FIG.   12.     THE   rORLISS   GIRDER-FR.\ME  ENGINE 

There  was  no  patent  on  the  four-valve  cylinder,  and  the 
credit  of  originating  it  has  been  claimed  by  others. 
William  Wright,  at  one  time  foreman  of  the  Corhss 
shops,  was  one  who  claimed  it. 

Engine  Frames  Designed  by  Corliss 

Corliss  not  only  developed  the  valve  gear  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection,  but  all  other  parts  of  his  engine 
also.    Under  the  hands  of  this  genius  the  whole  engine 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


685 


soon  had  a  diflferent  appearance  in  every  detail.  The 
old-style  engine  bed,  which  looked  like  a  coffin  with  two 
low  sides  and  a  crosspiece  at  each  end,  he  discarded  al- 
together. Figs.  P,  10,  11  and  12  show  the  gradual  devel- 
opment of  the  final  standard,  the  familiar  girder  frame. 
First  came  the  box-type  frame,  which  had  the  shape 
of  the  letter  U.  The  front  end  served  as  a  bearing  for 
the  crankshaft,  and  the  rear  end  carried  the  cylinder 
on  one  side  and  the  valve  gear  on  the  other.  The  guides 
were  bolted  to  the  side  of  the  frame.  The  open  top 
of  the  frame  was  closed  with  a  polished  mahogany  cover. 
It  is  said  that  engineers  found  it  convenient  to  lay  tools 
and  things  inside  of  the  U  frame,  and  when  more  than 
full  they  had  some  bother  to  make  the  lid  fit  nicely. 
Corliss  later  changed  the  design,  turned  it  upside  down. 


right.  One  of  the  first,  a  180-hp.  unit,  was  installed  in 
a  flour  mill  and  the  mill  people  agreed  to  give  Corliss 
the  savings  over  the  old  engines  for  a  period  of  five 
years.  Corliss  realized  from  this  outfit  the  sum  of 
$19,734.22.  A  few  more  such  contracts  put  him  in 
shape  to  pay  for  his  $100,000  lawsuits. 

After  the  first  success  in  economy,  Corliss  made  the 
most  daring  guarantees  for  his  engines  the  world  had 
ever  heard  of.  In  1852  he  got  a  contract  for  an  en- 
gine to  drive  a  rail  mill  that  he  guaranteed  would  de- 
velop one-third  more  power  than  the  old  engine  and 
at  the  same  time  reduce  the  daily  coal  bill  frpm  five 
tons  to  two  tons,  and  in  case  of  failure  he  would  pay 
a  penalty  of  not  less  than  $1  for  each  pound  of  coal 
used  in  excess  of  his  guarantee.    A  still  bolder  guaran- 


FIG.  15 


SICKLES-     DIA.GRAM 


FIG.  13 

FIGS,    13   TO   15. 


FIS.  14 
EARLY  AND  LATER  DESIGNS    CONTRASTED 


Fig.   13 — One  Corliss  engine  tliat  supplanted  a  Sickles.     Pig.   14 — Shows  an   indicator  diagram   from  each.      Fig.    15 — A  typical 

Corliss  of  late  design 


and  the  worry  of  the  engineer  in  fitting  the  lid  prop- 
erly was  done  away  with.  Then  came  the  girder,  a 
frame  extending  between  the  main  bearing  and  the 
cylinder,  and  carrying  also  the  crosshead  guide;  the 
whole  engine  standing  on  the  foundation  instead  of 
lying  doviTi,  showing  good  proportions  and  graceful 
lines.  Fig.  13  shows  a  32  x  84-in.  engine  installed  in 
1853,  in  a  cotton  mill,  to  replace  a  Sickles  poppet-valve 
engine  that  had  been  in  operation  only  2*  years,  and 
guaranteed  to  effect  a  saving  of  50  per  cent,  at  the 
coal  pile.  Fig.  14  shows  indicator  diagrams  from  the 
competing  engines  and  why  Corliss  effected  the  big 
saving.  If  Sickles  had  studied  the  poppet  engines 
abroad  and  improved  on  his  design,  he  could  have  made 
the  road  for  Corliss  far  more  difficult.  Fig.  15  shows 
a  highly  developed  horizontal  engine. 

Corliss  met  with  considerable  difficulty  in  finding  cus- 
tomers for  his  first  engines;  people  were  prejudiced 
against  the  new  machine.  The  valve  gear  was  con- 
sidered too  complicated,  and  fear  was  expressed  that 
it  would  not  stand  up  under  the  working  strain.  No- 
body believed  in  the  advantages  claimed  by  Corliss.  To 
overcome  this  terrible  resistance  and  secure  orders  for 
his  shop,  Corliss  introduced  his  engines  by  giving  them 
away  and  receiving  as  payment  therefor  only  the  sav- 
ings effected  over  and  above  the  old-time  machines. 
This  plan  of  introducing  his  engine  proved  to  be  all 


tee  was  made  in  another  case.  He  furnished  a  200- 
hp.  engine  for  a  certain  concern  for  the  modest  price 
of  $7100  (almost  seven  times  as  much  as  what  an  en- 
gine of  that  size  could  have  been  purchased  for  a  few 
years  ago)  to  replace  an  old  one  of  the  same  size  which 
was  using  over  nine  tons  of  coal  per  day.  Corliss 
guaranteed  that  his  engine  would  not  use  more  than 
four  tons,  and  he  would  pay  $5000  for  every  ton  of  coal 
used  in  excess  of  his  guarantee.  Those  daring  guaran- 
tees soon  established  such  a  reputation  for  the  engine 
that  almost  any  price  that  Corliss  asked  would  be  paid. 
These  fabulous  guarantees  would  look  suspicious  to  en- 
gineers of  today,  but  notice  that  Corliss  never  guaran- 
teed that  his  engine  would  save  a  certain  amount  in 
steam  consumption  per  indicated  horsepower-hour.  He 
guaranteed  the  saving  at  the  coal  pile  only.  He  was  wise 
in  doing  so,  for  if  based  on  the  steam  consumption  his 
guarantee  would  never  have  been  so  big  and  blustering. 
Corliss  was  not  only  a  remarkably  great  engineer,  but 
also  a  remarkably  shrewd  business  man.  The  way  he  in- 
troduced his  engine  and  the  manner  he  advertised  are 
proof  of  that.  He  had  a  keen  eye  for  the  things  going  on 
in  the  boiler  room.  He  knew  then,  as  we  know  now,  that 
when  a  boiler  is  forced  by  unskilled  hands,  much  fuel 
is  wasted,  that  when  a  boiler  is  fired  moderately  the 
chances  for  obtaining  drier  and  consequently  less  costly 
steam  are  far  better;  therefore  he  knew  that  when  his 


686 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


engine  would  be  hitched  to  a  battery  of  overworked 
boilers  those  boilers  would  be  greatly  relieved  and  a 
great  saving  effected  right  there  in  the  boiler  room. 

It  is  a  recorded  fact  that  Corliss  believed  in  ample 
boiler  capacity,  believed  in  "lots  of  boiler  capacity." 
Boilers  furnishing  steam  to  his  engines  generally  had  a 
snap.  In  those  plants  installed  and  guaranteed  by  Cor- 
liss only  from  one-half  to  one-third  as  much  steam  per 
square  foot  of  heating  surface  was  generated  as  in  boil- 
ers of  other  plants.  He  also  believed  in  superheated 
steam,  and  all  boil^s  furnished  by  him  were  arranged 
for  that  purpose.  Another  condition  that  existed  in 
those  days  when  Corliss  made  his  bewildering  guaran- 
tees was  that  the  old  engines  were  too  small  to  handle 
the  load  economically,  a  condition  naturally  in  favor  of 


he  saw  to  it  that  his  engine  rapidly  became  the  stand- 
ard mill  engine.  The  first  engines  built  by  Corliss  were 
of  the  walking-beam  type,  but  he  soon  devoted  himself 
to  the  development  of  the  horizontal  type  and  achieved  a 
v/onderful  success.  He  also  built  a  number  of  pumping 
engines;  the  first  one  was  for  the  City  of  Providence, 
R.  I.  This  machine  had  five  horizontal  steam  cylinders 
and  five  horizontal  double-acting  pumps,  evenly  spaced 
around  one  central  vertical  shaft.  There  was  no  dead- 
center,  no  flywheel  and  no  limit  to  the  slow  speed  which 
the  pump  could  run.  It  could  run  as  slow  as  one  revolu- 
tion in  five  minutes.  In  1857  Corliss  built  his  first 
cross-compound  engine  with  steam-jacketed  cylinders. 
In  1870  the  Corliss  patents  became  public  property, 
and  a  number  of  firms  throughout  the  land  began  to 


FiQ.  le 


Fie.  EO 


PIGS.   16  TO  20.     SECTIONAL,  VIEWS  OP  THE  CENTENNIAL  ENGINE.    CYLINDER.   VALVES   AND    AIR   PUMPS 
Fig-    16 — General   outline.      Pig.    17 — Cylinder,  showing  position  of  valves.     Fig.   18— Design  of  valves.      Fig.    19 — Two  views 
of  condenser  and  air  pump.     Fig.   2  0 — Wooden  packing  for  air-pump  plungers. 


the  new  Corliss  engine  replacing  such  overloaded  units. 
From  this  consideration  we  see  that  the  enormous  sav- 
ing guaranteed  and  fulfilled  by  Corliss  was  not  alto- 
gether due  to  the  Corliss  engine  alone,  but  that  a  good 
portion  of  it  must  be  credited  to  the  changes  in  the 
boiler  room  and  to  the  old  engines  being  overloaded. 

Corliss  not  only  made  unusual  guarantees  as  to  econ- 
omy but  also  as  to  perfect  regulation  of  speed,  which 
merit  was  of  almost  as  much  value  to  a  cotton  mill  as  the 
saving  of  fuel.  The  spindles  of  a  spinning  machine  re- 
volve with  great  rapidity,  and  a  variation  of  speed  at  the 
engine  will  be  many  times  multiplied  by  the  time  the 
motion  reaches  the  fast-running  spindle.  If  the  spindle 
is  driven  faster  than  intended,  bad  work  is  the  result, 
if  it  is  driven  too  slow,  diminished  production  is  the 
consequence.  The  old-fashioned  engines  were  not  very 
satisfactory  in  governing.  The  Corliss  engine  was  su- 
perior, and  Corliss  was  not  slow  in  guaranteeing  it,  and 


build  Corliss  engines.  A  few  shops  had  been  licensed 
by  Corliss,  but  comparatively  few  engines  were  built 
outside  of  his  works.  He  charged  a  license  fee  not  only 
to  outside  builders,  but  also  to  the  fiiTn  in  which  he  was 
a  partner.  The  fee  was  a  dollar  and  a  half  per  square 
inch  piston  area  of  cylinders  over  24  in.  diameter,  and 
two  dollars  per  square  inch  area  for  cylinders  under  24 
in.  To  save  the  50c.  on  each  square  inch,  the  first 
cylinders  had  large  diameters  and  short  strokes,  but 
after  the  expiration  of  the  patents  a  marked  increase 
in  the  length  of  the  stroke  with  a  corresponding  de- 
crease in  bore  is  noted. 

Fig.  16  is  a  line  drawing  of  the  Centennial  Engine 
of  1876,  and  Figs.  17,  18,  19  and  20  are  sectional  details. 
This  is  no  doubt  the  most  famous  engine  ever  built 
and  was  considered  when  new  the  most  magnificent 
piece  of  work  in  the  art  of  steam  engineering.  It  was 
enthusiastically  praised  by  all  who  saw  it,  and  the  Euro- 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


687 


pean  engineers  credited  it  an  unsurpassed  masterpiece 
of  human  possibility  and  the  most  excellent  representa- 
tive of  American  steam  engineering.  The  engineering 
press  has  referred  to  this  engine  times  innumerable.  I 
shall,  therefore,  make  mention  of  only  such  parts  as 
will  be  of  general  interest. 

The  "Centennial"  was  a  vertical  twin  engine  of  the 
walking-beam  type.  Each  side  could  develop  about  700 
hp.,  at  36  r.p.m.,  but  in  Philadelphia  it  was  not  called 
upon  to  do  more  than  400  hp.  altogether,  and  it  was 
operated  with  a  steam  pressure  of  from  15  to  22  lb.  per 
sq.  in.,  although  it  was  intended  to  use  45  lb.    The  whole 


in.  long,  cored  hollow  and  operated  by  T-head  valve 
stems.  The  ends  of  the  valves  were  cylindrical  for  a 
short  distance  to  serve  as  guides.  Port  area  was  Vr 
of  the  piston  area  for  the  steam  valves  and  twice  that 
amount  for  the  exhaust  valves.  Each  half  of  the  en- 
gine had  its  own  conden.ier  and  air  pump,  of  the  vertical 
type.  36  in.  diameter  and  24  in.  stroke,  operated  from 
the  walking  beams.  The  packing  was  made  of  wood, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  20,  pieces  being  joined  together  in  a 
peculiar  manner  to  break  the  joints. 

1  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  this  engine  in  opera- 
tion one  whole  day  in  the  Pullman  works.     It  stood  in 


FIG.   ai.      THE  CENTENNIAL  EMGIIVB  AT  THK    l-'ULLMAN   WORKS 


engine  weighed  607  tons,  and  it  required  a  train  of  35 
cars  to  ship  it.  The  walking  beams,  of  elegant  design, 
had  the  form  of  wings,  were  27  ft.  long  and  9  ft.  high 
in  the  center,  and  weighed  11  tons  each.  The  flywheel 
was  a  gear-wheel,  the  largest  ever  made,  almost  30  ft. 
in  diameter.  It  had  216  teeth  and  weighed  56  tons.  The 
connecting-rods  were  25  ft.  long,  10  in.  thick  in  the 
center,  and  were  forged  out  of  9500  old  horseshoes. 
The  cranks  were  made  of  solid  bronze  highly  polished 
and  weighed  5  tons  each.  The  cylinders  were  40  in. 
diameter  and  10  ft.  stroke,  steam  jacketed.  The  valves 
were  in  the  heads  and  clearance  space  was  reduced  to  a 
minimum.     The   valves  were   12   in.   diameter  and   52 


a  room  84  ft.  square  by  66  ft.  high  kept  like  a  palace. 
The  engine  generally  delivered  1400  or  1500  hp.,  but 
one  time  it  was  called  upon  to  deliver  2500  hp.  One 
man's  time  was  continually  occupied  in  keeping  the 
engine  oiled.  To  refill  the  oil  cups  on  the  four  extreme 
pins  of  the  walking  beams,  it  was  necessary  to  shut 
the  engine  down  every  six  hours.  The  engineer  stopped 
the  engine  at  a  certain  position  and  the  oiler  refilled 
two  cups,  then  he  turned  the  engine  half  a  turn,  and 
the  other  two  cups  were  filled.  In  the  fall  of  1910  this 
famous  engine,  after  a  continuous  service  of  over  30 
years,  was  shut  down  for  the  last  time  and  forever. 


688 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


Zone  System  for  the  Distribution  of 

Bituminous  Coal 


By  order  of  the  Fuel  Administration,  the  distri- 
bution of  bituminous  coal  for  the  year  beginning 
April  1,  1918,  will  be  controlled  by  a  zone  system, 
which  is  intended  to  reduce  the  burden  on  the 
railroads,  facilitate  shipment  of  coal,  and  keep 
all  the  mines  working  at  full  capacity. 


THE  factor  that  loomed  largest  in  the  fuel  crisis 
of  last  winter  was  the  lack  of  adequate  transporta- 
tion  facilities.      Under  the   plan   of   distribution 
then  followed,  a  consumer  in  any  part  of  the  country  was 
free  to  order  his  coal  supply  from  any  producing  district, 
regardless  of  the  length  of  haul  involved.     As  a  conse- 
quence, it  often  happened  that  cars  and  locomotives  were 
engaged  in  delivering  coal  to  distant  regions  that  could 
have  been  served  far  more  quickly  from  fields  near  by. 
Obviously,  this  complete  freedom  of  choice  as  to  the 
source  of  coal  used  led  to  cross-hauling  in  addition  to 
the  utilization  of  railroad  equipment  in  unnecessarily 
long  hauls,  the  result  being  a  great  waste  of  transporta- 
tion power.     To  prevent  this  needless  waste  and  make 
possible  an  increased  production  to  meet  the  war  de- 
mands, the  United  States  Fuel  Administration,  in  con- 
junction with  the  Director  General  of  Railroads,  has  an- 
nounced a  zone  system  for  the  control  of  bituminous- 
coal  distribution  for  the  year  beginning  Apr.  1,   1918. 
The  zone  system  was  adopted  only   after  prolonged 
conferences  with  coal  producers,  jobbers  and  consumers, 
as  well  as  with  the  traffic  and  operating  officials  of  the 
railroads.    Briefly  explained,  it  divides  the  country  into 
a  number  of  zones,  each  of  which  must  obtain  its  coal 
supply  from  mines  that  are  relatively  near,  thus  pre- 
venting  abnormal   and   wasteful   transportation   move- 
ments, insuring  more  nearly  equal  distribution  of  cars 
to  the  mines  and  more  steady  emploj-ment  of  mine  labor. 
Of  course,  so  radical  a  change  in  the  methods  of  con- 
ducting the  coal  business  will  cause  some  inconvenience 
to  producers  and  consumers,  and  will  involve  additional 
expense  in  some  cases.     For  example,  the  producers  of 
Pocahontas   coal   may   no   longer   ship   their   output  to 
Chicago  and  Western  points  by  rail;  as  a  result,  they 
must  find  new  markets  in  the  East.     Those  plants  in 
and  around  Chicago  that  have  been  burning  West  Vir- 
ginia coal  will  be  compelled  to  substitute  Illinois  coal, 
which  can  be  obtained  with  less  than  half  as  long  a  haul. 
As   the   two    fuels    are    of   very    different    characters, 
changes  in  the  boiler  settings  and  methods  of  firing  will 
have  to  be  made,  which  will  entail  expense. 

It  is  the  hope  of  the  Fuel  Administration,  however, 
that  the  consumer  and  the  producer  will  bear  these  un- 
avoidable inconveniences  in  the  realization  that  the  re- 
adjustment of  the  distribution  of  coal  is  for  the  welfare 

KEY  TO  CONSUMING  ZONES 


of  the  nation.  In  other  words,  they  are  appealed  to 
on  the  grounds  of  patriotism. 

There  are  exceptions  to  the  conditions  imposed  by  the 
zone  system.  Certain  industries  require  coals  of  par- 
ticular quality  or  characteristics,  as,  for  example,  by- 
product, gas,  blacksmith  and  metallurgical  coals.  If  a 
consumer  needs  coal  of  one  of  these  kinds  and  is  unable 
to  obtain  it  from  the  producing  districts  that  are  per- 
mitted to  ship  into  the  zone  in  which  he  is  located,  per- 
mits will  be  issued  to  allow  the  special-purpose  fuel  to 
be  brought  in  from  other  districts. 

The  zone  system  does  not  affect  the  following  bitu- 
minous coal: 

1.  Coal  for  railroad  fuel,  for  which  special  arrange- 
ments will  be  made  by  the  Fuel  Administrator  and  the 
Director  General  of  Railroads. 

2.  Coal  for  movement  on  inland  waterways,  which  is 
in  no  way  restricted  by  the  system. 

3.  Coal  delivered  to  Canada,  which  is  subject  to  regu- 
lations of  the  Fuel  Administrator. 

To  enable  the  consumer  of  bitum.inous  coal  to  deter- 
mine the  districts  from  which  he  may  obtain  his  fuel 
and  to  show  the  producer  the  zones  in  which  he  may 
sell  his  output,  the  map  has  been  prepared. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  entire  territory  of  the  United 
States  has  been  divided  into  a  large  number  of  irregu- 
lar zones  or  sections,  colored  differently  so  that  they 
may  readily  be  distinguished  one  from  another,  and  each 
marked  with  a  key  number.  Each  of  these  separately 
numbered  zones  has  certain  definite  boundary  lines  and 
is  restricted  to  the  use  of  coals  from  certain  districts. 
The  Key  to  Consuming  Zones  gives  a  complete  list  of 
all  the  zones  shown  on  the  map,  states  the  districts 
from  which  they  may  obtain  coal,  and  defines  the  bound- 
aries of  each  zone. 

If  a  consumer  wishes  to  find  out  what  coals  are  avail- 
able for  his  use,  he  locates  on  the  map  the  zone  in  which 
he  lives  and  notes  its  number.  Then,  in  the  Key  to  Con- 
suming Zones,  under  that  zone  number,  he  will  find  the 
list  of  producing  districts  from  which  he  can  obtain 
coal.  In  case  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  number  of  the 
zone  in  which  he  lives,  reference  to  the  boundaries  given 
in  the  key  will  at  once  decide  the  point.  Following  this 
key  is  a  list  of  the  meanings  of  the  abbreviations  and 
terms  used  in  the  key. 

The  Key  to  Producing  Districts  is  intended  to  show 
the  producer  the  several  zones  in  which  he  may  market 
his  product.  He  knows  the  district  in  which  his  mine 
is  located,  and  on  referring  to  this  key  he  finds  the 
numbers  of  the  zones,  as  shown  on  the  map,  into  which 
the  output  from  his  mine  may  be  sent. 

A  wall  map  of  large  size,  showing  the  same  zoning  in 
fuller  detail,  may  be  obtained  from  the  Coal  lone  Map 
Co.,  Glen  Echo,  Md. 


ZONE  NO.  1 
BESTRICTKD  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 

— North  Dakota.   South  Dakota,   docks. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Western: 
Lake  Superior  and  Canada ;  North  Dakota 
state  line  and  South   Dalcota  state   line    lo 


Ortonville.  Minn.  Southern  and  Eastern: 
From  Ortonville  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry. 
through  Granite  Palls  and  Benton  Junc- 
tion to  Minneapolis,  thence  via  M  St.  P. 
&  S.  S.  M.  Ry.  through  Chippewa  Falls  and 
Abbotsford  to  Amherst  Junction,  thence 
via   G    B    &   W    R  R.    to   Kewaunee.    Wis.  ; 


western  banks  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron. 
ZONE    NO.    2 
RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOWING    COAES 

Illinois  (summer  only),  docks,  North  Da- 
kota. South  Dakota,  Iowa  (to  points  in 
Iowa  only). 


Muy   14,  1918 


POWER 


689 


IIOl'NI>ARIKS — Nflrtlirrn:  F'roni  Ke- 
H-auriee.  Wis..  vi:i  (^.  B.  &  W.  R.  H.  to  Am- 
herst Junction.  tl\iiicc  via  M.  SI.  1'.  &  S.  S. 
M.  Ry.  throusH  Abbotsford  and  I'liiinjew.i 
Falls."  Wis.,  to  Minneapolis,  Miiui,.  tlionre 
via  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.  through  Benton 
Junction  and  Ortonville,  Minn.,  to  the  Min- 
nesota-South Dakota  state  line.  Western: 
Minnesota-South  Oalsota  state  line,  Suutli- 
ern:  Commencing  at  South  Uakota-Minne- 
.sota-Iowa  state  line  east  to  the  C.  R.  I. 
&  r.  Ry.  line  running:  through  Oordonsville, 
Minn.,  and  Northwood.  Iowa,  thence  south 
via  that  line  to  Mason  City.  Iowa,  theace 
east  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.  through  Mc- 
Gregor. Iowa.  Madison  and  Watertown  to 
Milwaukee,  Wis.  Eastern:  Lake  Michigan 
from  Kewaunee  to  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

ZONK    NO.    S 
BESTRICTKI)   TO    FOLLOWING    COALS 

—Illinois,  Kentucky  CWtstern),  Indiana, 
docks. 

BOt'NDAKIKS — Northern    and    Western: 

Prom  Milwaukee,  Wis..  A'ia  C.  M.  &  St.  P. 
Ry.  to  Waukesha,  thence  via  M.  St.  P.  & 
S.  S.  M.  Ry.  to  Illinois-Wisconsin  state  line. 
Eastern  and  JSouthern:  From  Milwaukee. 
Wis.,  via  Lake  Michigan  (west  bank)  to 
Illinois-Wisconsin  state  line,  thence  via 
that  line  to  M.   St.  P.  &  S.  S.  M.  Ry. 

ZONE  NO.  4 
RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 

— Illinois,    Kentucky    (Western),   docks. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern:  Via  C.  M.  & 
St.  P.  Ry.  from  Milwaukee.  Wis.,  through 
Watertown  to  Madison,  Wis.  Southern: 
Via  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.  from  Milwaukee. 
Wis.,  through  Milton  Junction  to  Madison, 
Wis. 

ZONE    NO.    4A 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— Illinois,   docks. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  anil  Western: 
From  Milwaukee.  Wis.,  via  C.  M.  &  St. 
P.  Ry.  through  Milton  Junction  to  Madison, 
was.,  thence  via  I.  C,  R.  R.  to  Dixon,  111. 
Eastern  and  Southern:  From  Milwaukee. 
Wis.,  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.  through  E'k- 
horn  to  Belolt,  Wis.,  thence  via  C.  &  N.  \V. 
Ry.  through  Belvidere  and  Sycamore  to 
Dixon,  111. 

ZONE  NO.  6 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COAL3 
— Iowa,  Kansas,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Okla- 
homa, Arkansas. 

BOUND.ARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P. 
Ry.  through  Rock  Valley  and  Spencer  to 
Nora  Junction,  thence  via  C.  R.  I.  &  P.  Ry. 
to  Cedar  Rapids,  thence  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P. 
Ry.  through  Sigournev  to  Ottumwa.  thence 
via  C.  R.  I,  &  P.  Ry.  to  Keokuk,  Iowa, 
thence  via  Missisippi  River  to  Missouri- 
Arkansas  state  line.  Western  and  South- 
em:  From  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  via  C.  M.  & 
St.  P.  Ry.  through  Manilla  and  Adel  to 
Des  Moines.  Iowa,  thenc"-  via  C.  B.  &  Q. 
R.  R.  xo  Albia.  thence  via  W.  Ry.  to  Mo- 
ra\'ia.  Iowa,  thence  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry. 
to  Chillicothe,  Mo.,  thence  via  W.  Ry.  to 
Moberly,  thence  via  M.  K.  &  T.  Ry.  throui<h 
New  FYanklin  to  North  Jefferson  City, 
thence  via  western  boundary  of  Cole,  Mil- 
ler and  Pulaski  Counties  to  St.  L.  S.  P. 
Ry..  thence  via  St.  L  S.  F.  Ry.  through 
Springfield  and  Neosho  to  Missouri-Okl?.  ■ 
homa  state  line,  thence  south  to  Arkansad- 
Missouri-Oklahoma  state  line,  thence  east 
v'leL  Arkansas-Missouri  state  line  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi   River. 

ZONE    NO.    S 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWINCf  COALS 
— Illinois,   Kentucky    (Western). 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Western: 
— Prom  Arthur,  111.,  via  P.  C.  C.  &  St. 
L.  R.  R.  to  Decatur,  111.,  thence  via  I.  C. 
R.  R.  through  Centralia  to  Cairo.  111. 
thence  via  Mississippi  River  to  Memphis. 
Tenn.  Eastern  and  Southern:  From  Ar- 
thur. Ill  .  via  C.  &  E.  I.  R.  R.  through  Ma- 
rion to  Jonpa,  111.,  thence  via  Ohio  River 
to  Cairo.  Ill,,  and  thence  via  T.  C.  R.  R 
through  Clinton  and  Fulton.  Ky.,  and  Dyers- 
burg.   Tenn.,   to   Memphis,   Tenn. 

ZONK    NO.    6A 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 

— Illinois,  Kentucky  (Western),  docks. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern:  From  Madi- 
son. Wis.,  to  Woodman,  Wis.,  via  C.  M.  & 
St.  P.  Ry.  Southern:  From  Madison.  Wis,, 
to  Woodman,  Wis.,  via  C.  &  N.  W.  Ry 

ZONE  NO.  7 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 

— Illinois.    Iowa    (to    points    in    Iowa   only). 
BOUNDARIES — Northern    and    Eastern: 

From  Nora  Junction,  Iowa,  via  C.  M.  & 
St.  P.  Ry.  to  Woodman.  Wis.,  thence  via 
C.  &  N.  W.  Ry.  to  Madison.  Wis.,  thence 
via  I.  C.  R.  R.  to  Freeport,  111.,  thence  via 
I.  C.  R.  R.  to  Dixon,  111.,  thence  via  C.  &  N. 
W.  Ry.  through  Nelson  to  Peoria,  thence 
via   P.    C.    C.    &   St.    L.    R.    R.    to    Decatur. 


thence  via  I.  C,  R,  R.  through  Centralia  to 
t-'uiro.  111.  Southwestern:  From  Nora 
Junction.  Iowa,  via  C.  R.  1.  &  V.  I^y.  to 
Cedar  Kapids.  thence  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P. 
Ry.  to  nttuniwa,  thence  via  C.  R.  T.  &  P. 
Ry.  to  Keokuk.  Iowa,  thence  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River  to  Cairo.  111. 

ZONE   NO.   8 
RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOWING    COALS 

— Illinois,    Indiana. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern    and    Eastern: 

From  Dixon,  111.,  via  I.  C.  R.  R.  to  De- 
catur, 111,  Western  and  Southern:  From 
Dixon,  111.,  via  C.  &  N.  W.  Ry.  through 
Nelson  to  Peoria,  111,,  thence  via  P.  C.  G, 
&   St.    L.   R.    R.  to   Decatur,    III. 

ZONE   NO.  9 
RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Illinois.    Indiana.   Kentucky    (Western). 

BOUNDARIES — Northern    and    Western: 

From  Waukesha,  Wis.,  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P. 
Ry.  to  Beloit.  WLs.,  thence  via  C.  &  N.  W. 
Ry.  through  Belvidere,  Sycamore,  DeKalb, 
to  Dixon,  III.,  thence  via  I.  C.  R.  R.  to 
Decatur.  III.,  thence  via  P.  C.  C.  &  St.  L, 
R.  R.  to  Arthur,  thence  via  C.  &  K.  I.  R.  R. 
through  Mt.  Vernon  to  Joppa.  111.  Eastern 
and  Southern:  From  Waukesha.  Wis.,  via 
M.  St.  P.  &  S.  S,  M.  Ry.  to  Wisconsin- 
Illinois  state  line,  thence  via  this  line  to 
Lake  Michigan,  thence  via  Lake  Michi- 
gan to  Michigan  City,  Ind.,  thence  via  I'. 
I.  &  L,  Ry.  to  San  Pierre,  thence  via  N. 
Y.  C.  R.R.  to  WTieatfield,  thence  via  C.  & 
E.  I.  R.  R  through  Brazil  and  Otter  Creek 
,lunction  through  Vincennes  to  Evansville. 
Ind..  thence  both  sides  of  the  Ohio  River, 
Evansville.    Ind.,   to  Joppa,   111. 

ZONE    NO.    10 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING  COALS 

— Indiana,  Illinois  (Danville  district  on 
Wabash  Ry.  only).  Kentucky  (Western^  to 
Jeffersonville   and   New  Albany  only). 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Western: 
From  San  Pierre,  Ind.,  via  N  TS  C.  R  R. 
to  ^Vl^eatfleld,  thence  via  C.  &  E,  I.  R  R. 
through  Brazil.  Otter  Creek  Junction  and 
Vincennes  to  Evansville.  Ind.  Eastern  and 
Southern:  From  San  Pierre.  Ind..  via  C. 
I.  &  L.  Ry.  to  New  Albany,  Ind..  thence 
along  northern  bank  of  Ohio  River  to 
Evansville.  Ind. 

ZONE    NO.    11 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    COALS 

— Virginia  (L.  &  N.  R.R).  Tennessee  (M. 
R.R),  West  Virginia  (Southern).  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Kentucky  (Eastern  and  \Vestern). 
BOUNDARIES — Southeastern:  From  San 
Pierre,  Ind.,  via  N.  Y.  C.  R.R  north  to 
South  Bend,  Ind.,  thence  via  M.  C.  R.R. 
to  Michigan-Indiana  state  line.  Western 
and  Northern:  Froin  San  Pierre.  Ind., 
north  to  Michigan  City,  thence  along  Lake 
Michigan  and  Indiana-Michigan  state  line 
to  M.  C.  R.  R.  from  South  Bend.  Ind.,  to 
Niles,  Mich. 

ZONE    NO.    12 
RESTRICTED    TO   FOLLOWINCi    COALS 

— Indiana.  Illinois  (Danville  district  on 
Wabash    Ry.    only). 

BOUNDARIES  —  Northeastern  —  Fro-.n 
Monon.  Ind..  via  C.  I.  &  L.  Ry.  to  In- 
dianapolis. Ind..  thence  via  C.  C."  C.  &  St. 
L.  Ry.  through  Greensburg  to  North  Ver- 
non. Ind..  thence  via  P.  C.  C.  &  St.  L. 
R.R.  to  Madison.  Ind.  Sojthwestern: 
From  Monon.  Ind..  via  C.  I.  &  L  Ry.  to 
Louisville,  Ky.,  thence  via  Ohio  River  to 
Madison.    Ind. 

ZONE    NO.    13 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    COALS 

— -Kentucky    (Western). 

BOUNDARIES — Northern    and    Eastern: 

From  Cairo,  111.,  along  Ohio  River  (north 
bank)  to  Louisville,  Ky.,  thence  south  via 
L.  &  N.  R.R.  from  Louisville  througii 
Bowling  Green.  Ky..  including  Glasgow  and 
Scottsville  branches,  to  Kentucky-Tennes- 
see state  line.  Western  and  Southern:  From 
Cairo,  111.,  via  1.  C.  R  R.  through  Fulton. 
Ky..  to  Kentucky-Tennessee  state  line, 
thence  east  via  state  line  to  L.  &  N.  RR. 
running  from  Franklin,  Kv..  to  Mitchell- 
ville,   Tenn. 

ZONE    NO.    14 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— Indiana.  Kentucky  (Ea-^tem),  West  Vir- 
ginia (Northern  and  Southern),  Virginia 
(L.  &  N.).  Tennessee  (M.  RR.),  Michigan. 
Ohio   (on  G.  R.  &  I.  Ry.  only). 

BOUNDARIES. — Nnrtherh  and  Weslerii: 
From  Mackinaw  City,  east  bank  of  Lake 
Michigan,  to  Benton  Harbor.  Mich.,  thence 
via  C.  C,  C,  &  St.  L,  Ry,  to  Niles,  thence 
via  M.  C.  R  I{  to  Michigan-Indiana  state 
line.  Eastern  and  Sontliern:  Fl'orn  Macki- 
naw City  via  G.  R.  &  1.,  Rv.  and  branches 
to  MlchlgJin-Indiana  state  line,  thence  west 
vi.a  sLate  line  to  M  C,  R.R.  running  from 
•N'lles  to  South    Hciul.    Ind 


ZONE    NO.    ir. 
RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOWING    COALS 

—  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kentucky  (Eastern  and 
Western),  West  Virginia  (Northern  and 
•Southern),  Virginia  (L.  &  N.),  Tennessee 
(M.    R.R,).    Michigan. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern    and    Western: 

Prom  Kenton  Harbor.  Mich,,  via  Lake 
Michigan  to  Indiaiui-Michigan  state  line. 
Eastern  and  Soutliern:  From  Benton  Har- 
bor. Mich,  via  C.  G.  C.  &  St.  L.  Ry.  to 
Niles,  thence  via  M.  C.  R.R.  to  Indiana- 
Michigan  state  line,  thence  west  via  state 
line   to    Lake   Michigan. 

ZONE    NO.    10 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Indiana.  Illinois  (Danville  district  on 
Wabash  Ry.  only),  Kentucky  (Eastern), 
West    Virginia    (Southern). 

BOUNDARIES— Norlhem:  Michigan-In- 
diana state  line  from  G.  R.  &  I.  Ry.  west  to 
M.  C.  R.  R.  running  from  Niles.  Mich,  to 
South  Bend.  Ind.  Western:  Via  N.  Y.  C. 
R.  R.  South  Bend  to  .San  Pierre,  thence  via 
C.  I.  &  L.  Ry.  through  Monon  to  Indian- 
apolis, thence  via  C.  C.  C.  &  St.  L.  Ry., 
Indianapolis  to  Greensburg,  Ind.  Eastern: 
G.  R.  &  I.  Ry.  from  Michigan  state  line 
south  to  Richmond.  Ind.,  thence  via  P.  C.  C. 
&  St.   L.  R.   R.   to  Greensburg.   Ind. 

ZONE    NO.    17 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    COALS 

— Virginia  (L.  &  N.  R.R.),  Kentucky  (East- 
irn),  Tennessee  (M.  R.R.),  West  Virginia 
(Southern). 

ISOUND.iRIES— From  Cincinnati  north 
\ia  P.  C,  C.  &  St.  L.  Ry.  to  Richmon  i, 
Ind..  thence  west  to  Rushville,  Ind..  thence 
south  via  C.  C.  C.  &  St.  L.  R.R.  through 
Greensburg,    thence    east    to    Cincinnati,    O. 

ZONE    NO.    18 
RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Virginia  (L.  &  N.  R.R.),  Kentucky 
(Southern),  Tennessee-    (M.   R.R. ). 

BOITNDARIES — Northern    and    Western: 

Cincinnati.  Ohio,  via  C.  C.  C.  &  St.  L.  Ry. 
th  -ough  Greensburg.  to  North  Vernon.  Ind,. 
thence  via  P.  C.  C.  &  St.  L.  R.R.  to  Madi- 
son, Ind.  Eastern  and  Southern:  North 
bank  Ohio  River,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  to  Madi- 
son,  Ind. 

ZONE    NO.    19 
RESTRICTED  TO   FOLLOWING  COALS 

— Kentucky  (Eastern),  Tennessee  (M. 
R.R.).  West  Virginia  (Southern,  also  East- 
ern, to  points  on  C.  &  O.  Ry.  from  Cat- 
lettsburg,  Ky.,  to  Cincinnati,   Ohio). 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern, 
Prom  Louisville,  Ky..  via  Ohio  River  ani 
Big  Sandy  River  to  Kentucky-Virginia- 
West  Virginia  state  line  Western  and 
Southern:  From  Louisville.  Ky.,  to  Le- 
l>anon  Junction  to  Bowling  Green,  Ky.,  to 
Mitchellville,  Tenn.,  including  Glasgow  and 
Scottsville  (Kentucky)  branches,  thence 
via  Kentucky-Tennessee  state  line  and 
Kentucky-Virginia  state  line  via  Tug  River 
to  Big  Sandy  River. 

ZONE    NO.    30 
RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Virginia  (L.  &  N.  R.  R.).  Kentucky. 
(Eastern),  Tennessee  (M.  R.R.),  West  Vir- 
ginia (Northern  and  Southern).  Indiana. 
Illinois  (Danville  district  on  Wabash  Ry. 
to  points  in   Indiana  only).  Ohio,   Michigan. 

BOUNDARIES — Southern     a^id    -fiastern: 

From  Richmond.  Tiid,,  east  via  P.  C.  C. 
&  St.  L.  R.  R.  to  Ohio  state  line,  thence 
north  via  state  line  to  Michigan  state  line, 
thence  via  N.  Y.  C.  R.  R.  to  Jackson.  Mich,, 
thence  via  M.  C,  RR.  to  Lansing,  thenco 
via  P.  M.  Ry,  through  Ionia  to  Howard 
City,  Mich.  Western:  Prom  Howard  Citv, 
Mich.,  via  G.  R.  &  1.  Ry.  through  Port 
Wayne  to  Richmond,   Ind. 

ZONE    NO.    •-!! 

restricti<;d  to  following  coals 

— Virginia  (L.  &  N.  R.R,),  Kentucky  (East- 
ern), Tennessee  (M,  R  R  ).  West  Virginia 
(Northern    and    Southern).    Ohio,    Michigan 

BOIIND.ARIKS — Norlhem    and     Eastern: 

From  Mackiri;iw  City,  Mich.,  along  the  east- 
ern boundary  of  Michigan  (lower  jieninsula) 
iiiid  Ohio  to  Toledo.  Ohio,  thence  via  C.  C.  C. 
H  St.  L,  Ry,  through  R.llefontainc  to  Day- 
ton. Ohio  Western  and  Southern:  Fron 
Mackinaw  City,  Mich.,  via  G.  R.  &  I.  Ry. 
to  Ilinvard  City,  thence  via  P,  M.  Ry. 
through  Ioni;i  to  Lansing,  Mich.,  thence 
via  M.  C  R.R.  to  Jack.«on.  thence  via  N. 
Y.  C  R.R.  to  lndi:\tuv-Michigan-Ohio  state 
line,  thence  south  along  state  line  and  P.  C. 
C.  &  St.  L.  R.  R.  running  from  Richmond. 
Ind.,  to  Dayton,  Ohio. 

ZONK    NO.    2'J 

RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOWING    COALS 

— Virginia  (L.  &  N    RR  ).  Kentucky.  (East- 


69ft 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


em),  Tennessee  (M.  R.RJ,  West  Virginia 
(Southern),    Oliio. 

BOUNDAKIES — From  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
north  via  C.  C.  C.  &  St.  L.  Ry.  to  Dayton. 
Ohio,  thence  via  P.  C.  C.  &  St.  L.  R.R. 
west  to  Richmond.  Ind..  thence  southeast 
via  P.  C.  C.  &  St.  L.  R.R.  to  Cincinnati. 
Ohio. 

ZONE    NO.    23 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— Kentuclty  (Northeastern).  West  Vir- 
ginia (Northern  and  Southern,  also  East- 
em,  along  main  lines  of  C.  &  O  Ry.  and 
N.  &  W.  Ry.  to  ColumbU3  and  Cincinnati, 
Ohio)   Ohio. 

BOUNDARIE.S — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Toledo,  Ohio,  via  south  banl^  ot  Lake 
Erie  to  Sandu.skv,  Ohio,  thence  via  P.  ''!■ 
C.  &  St.  L,.  R.R.  through  Columbus,  thence 
via  N.  &  W.  Ry.  through  Circleville  'o 
Chillicothe.  Western  and  Southern :  From 
Toledo,  Ohio,  via  C.  C.  C.  &  St.  L.  Ry. 
through  Springfield  to  Dayton,  Ohio,  thence 
via  B.  &  O.  R.  R.  through  Washington  C. 
H.    to   Chillicothe,   Ohio. 

ZONE    NO.    34 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— Kentucky  (Northeastern),  West  Virginia 
(Southern,  also  Eastern,  along  main  lines 
of  C.  &  O.  Ry.  and  N.  &  W.  Ry.  to  Colum- 
bus  and    Cincinnati,    Ohio),    Ohio. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Davton,  Ohio,  via  B.  &  O.  R.R. 
through  Washington  C.  H.  to  Chillicothe, 
thence  via  N.  &  W.  Rv.  to  M'averly,  thence 
via  C.  &  O.  Northern  Ry.  to  Portsmouth. 
Western  and  Southern:  From  Dayton,  Ohio, 
via  C.  C.  C.  &  St.  L,.  Ry.  to  Cincinnati.  Ohio, 
thence  %ia  north  bank  of  Ohio  River  to 
Porstmouth,  Ohio. 

ZONE    NO.    25 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    COALS 

— West  Virginia  (Northern,  aKo  Eastern, 
aloig  main  lines  ot  C.  &  O.  Ry.  and  X. 
&  W.  Ry.  to  Columbus  and  Cincinnati, 
Ohio).    Ohio. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Easteri: 
From  Bucyrus.  Ohio,  via  T.  &  O.  C.  Ry 
to  Thurston,  Ohio,  thence  via  Z.  &  W.  Ry. 
through  Fultonham  to  Zanesville,  thence 
via  Z.  &  W.  Ry.,  K.  &  M.  Ry.  to  .-Vthens 
Western  and  Southern:  From  Bucyrus. 
Ohio,  via  P.  C.  C.  &  St.  L.  R  R.  to  Marion, 
Ohio,  thence  via  H.  V.  Ry.  to  Columbus, 
thence  via  N.  &  W.  Ry.  to  Chillicothe. 
thence  via  B.  &  O.  Ry.  to  Athens,  Ohio. 
ZONE    NO.    26 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— Ohio. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Sandusky.  Ohio,  via  south  bank  of 
Lake  Erie  to  Lorain,  thence  via  W.  &  L. 
B.  Ry.  through  Wellington  to  Pittsburgh 
Junction,  thence  via  P.  &  W.  V.  Ry. 
through  Mingo  Junction  to  Ohio  River. 
Southern  and  Western:  From  Sandusky, 
Ohio,  via  P.  C.  C  &  St.  L.  R.R.  to  Bucyru.?, 
Ohio,  thence  via  T.  &  O.  C.  Ry.  to  Thurstorr. 
thence  through  Zanesville  to  .\thens.  thence 
via  K.  &  M.  Rv.  through  Athens  to  Middle- 
port,  thence  via  Ohio  River  (north  bank) 
to  P.  &  W.  V.  Ry.  opposite  Mingo  Junction. 

ZONE    NO.    27 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Pennsylvania,    Ohio. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern    and    Western: 

Along  south  bank  Lake  Erie  from  Con- 
neaut,  Ohio,  to  Lorain,  Ohio,  thence  via 
W.  &  L.  E.  Ry.  through  Wellington  to 
Pittsburgh  Junction,  thence  via  P,  &  W. 
V.  Ry.  through  Mingo  Junction  to  Ohio 
River.  Eastern  and  Southern:  From  Con- 
neaut,  Ohio,  via  Pennsylvania-Ohio  state 
line  to  East  Liverpool,  Ohio,  thence  via 
Ohio  River  to  P.  &  W.  V.  Ry.  at  a  point 
opposite    Mingo    Junction. 

ZONE    NO.    28 

RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Vn  change  contemplated  in  this  plan, 
except  that  low- volatile  coal  in  the 
Pocahontas,  Tug  River  and  New  River 
districts  on  the  N,  &  W.  R.  R.  and 
the  C.  &  O.  Ry.  and  the  Virginian  Ry.,  and 
Clinch  Valley  districts  in  Tazewell  and 
eastern  Russell  Counties  along  the  N.  & 
W  R.  R..  also  high-volatile  east  of  Charle.s- 
ton,  W  Va.,  on  C.  &  O.  Ry.  and  east  nf 
laeger.  W.  Va.,  on  N.  &  W.  R.  R.  will  be 
restricted  to  the  Di.strict  of  Columbia,  (e.x- 
oept  C.  &  O.  Ry.)  Virginia,  (including  tide- 
water terminals)  also  points  m  West  Vir- 
ginia on  the  direct  line  of  the  C.  &  O^ 
Ry.  and  N.  &  W.  R.  R.  east  and  west  bound 
and  Virginia     Ry.   east     bound. 

BOUNDARIES — All  territory  east  ani 
northeast  of  Ohio,  Kentucky  and  Virginia, 
including  New   England. 

ZONE    NO.    29 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING   COALS 

-Ohio,      West      Virginia      (Northern,      also 


Eastern,  to  points  on  the  direct  lines  of 
the  C.  &  O.  Ry.  and  N.  &  W.  Ry.). 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Chillicothe.  Ohio,  via  B.  &  O.  R  R. 
to  Athena,  thence  via  K.  &  M.  Ry.  to  Mid- 
dleport.  thence  via  Ohio  River  (north  bank) 
to  Ironton,  Ohio.  Western  and  Southern: 
From  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  via  N.  &  W.  Ry.  to 
Waverlv,  thence  via  C.  &  O.  N.  Ry.  to 
Portsmouth,  thence  via  Ohio  River  (north 
bank)    to    Ironton,    Ohio. 

ZONE    NO.    30 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— No  change. 

.  BOUND.4RIES — All  territory  west  of  the 
following  state  lines:  North  Dakota,  South 
Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and 
Texas. 

ZONE    NO.    31 

RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    COALS 

— North  Dakota,  Wyoming,  Montana  and 
other  fields  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
docks. 

BOUNDARIES — All    territory    in    North 
Dakota  west  of  the  Missouri  River. 
ZONE    NO.    32 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— North  Dakota.  South  Dakota.  Wyoming. 
Montana,   docks. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern.  Western  and 
Southern:  North  boundary  of  North 
Dakota  to  Montana,  thence  south  to  and 
via  Missouri  River  to  Mobridge,  S.  D.. 
thence  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.  through 
Aberdeen  to  Bigstone  Citv,  S.  D.  Eastern: 
East  boundary  of  North  Dakota,  thence  via 
Minne.sota-South  Dakota  state  line  to  Big- 
stone  City,  S.  D. 

ZONE    NO.    33 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— South  Dakota,  Wyoming,  Montana  and 
other  fields  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
North  Dakota,   docks. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Montana-North  Dakota-South  Da- 
kota state  line  to  the  Missouri  River,  thence 
via  Missouri  River  to  South  Dakota-!Je- 
braska  state  line.  Western  and  Southern: 
Western  and  southern  state  boundary  of 
South  Dakota. 

ZONE    NO.    34 
RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOM'ING   COALS 

— North  Dakota.  South  Dakota,  Wyoming, 
Montana,    Illinois    (surmner).    docks. 

BOUNDARIES  —  Southwestern:  From 

Mobridge,  S.  D.,  via  Missouri  River  to 
Sioux  Citv.  Ta.  Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Mobridge,  S.  D.,  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P. 
Rv,  through  Aberdeen.  S.  D.,  to  Bigsto.ie 
City,  S.  D..  thence  via  Minnesota-South 
Dakota  state  line  and  Iowa-South  Dakota 
state  line  to  Sioux  City,  la. 
ZONE    NO.    35 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  CO.-VLS 
— Iowa.  Kansas,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Okla- 
homa, Colorado  and  other  fields  east  of  the 
Rocky   Mountains,    Wyoming. 

BOUNDARIES — Entire  state  of  Ne- 
braska. 

ZONE    NO.    36 

RESTRICTED    TO   FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Kan-sas.  Missouri.  Iowa,  Arkansas,  Okla- 
homa,  Colorado    (Southern). 

BOUNDARIES — Entire    state  of   Kansas, 

ZONE    NO.    37 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Oklahoma,  Missouri,  .Arkansas,  Kansas, 
Colorado,    New    Mexico,    Texas. 

BOUNDARIES — Entire  state  of  Okla- 
homa, 

ZONE    NO.    38 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COAL^ 

-New   Mexico,    Colorado,    Texas. 

BOUNDARIES — All  Texas  territory  west 
of  Pecos  River. 

ZONE    NO.    39 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  C0.4LS 
— Colorado.  New  Mexico.  Arkansas,  Okla- 
homa,   Texas. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  New  Mexico-Oklahoma-Texas  state 
line  east  along  northern  border  of 
Texas  to  ..Vrkansas-Louisiana-Texas  stat" 
line,  thence  south  to  Logansport,  La., 
thence  via  H.  E.  &  W.  T.  Ry.  to  Houstoi, 
via  G  H.  &  H.  RR.  to  Galveston,  thence 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Rio  Grande  River. 
Southwestern:  From  New  Mexico-Okla- 
homa-Texas state  line  to  Pecos  River, 
thence  via  Pecos  River  to  Rio  Grande  River 
thence  via  Rio  Grande  River  to  the  Gulf  of 
Alexico. 

ZONE    NO.    40 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— Kentucky    (Western),   Alabama.   Texas. 

BOUNDARIES — Northwestern  :  From 

Logansport.    La  ,   via    H    E.    &   W.    T.    Ry. 


to  Houston,  Texas,  thence  via  G.  H.  &  H. 
R.  R   to  Galveston.    Eastern  and  Southera: 

From  Logansport,  La.,  along  Louisiana - 
Texas  state  line  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

ZONE    NO.   41 
RESTPICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    CO.'VLS 

— Arkans  is,  Illinois  (summer),  Iowa,  Kan- 
sas,  Missouri.    Oklahoma,   docks. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern    and    Western: 

From  Minnesota-Io\va  state  line  directly 
south  of  Gordonsville,  Minn.,  to  Iowa-Minn2- 
.sota-South  Dakota  state  line,  thence  direct- 
ly south  along  Iowa-South  Dakota  state  lias 
to  Rock  Valley.  la.  Eastern  and  Southent: 
From  Iowa-Minnesota  state  line  directly 
south  of  Gordonsville.  Minn,,  via  C.  R,  I.  & 
P,  Rv.  to  Mason  Citv,  la.,  thence  via  C.  M. 
&  St.  P.  Ry.  to  Rock  Valley,  la. 

ZONE   NO.   42 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    C0.4LS 

— Arkansas,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Okla- 
homa. 

BOUNDARIES — Northeast:  From  Sioux 
City,  la.,  via  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.  through 
Manilla  and  Adel  to  Des  Moines,  thence  via 
C.  B.  &  Q.  R.  R.  through  Chariton  to  Albia, 
thence  via  W.  Rv  to  Moravia,  la.,  thence 
via  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.  through  Seymour  to 
Missouri-Iowa  state  line.  Western  and 
Southern:  From  Sioux  City,  la.,  via  Mis- 
souri River  (east  bank)  to  lowa-Mlssouri 
state  line,  thence  via  Mis.souri  state  line, 
north  boundary,  to  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.  line 
running   south    from    Seymour,    la. 

ZONE   NO.   43 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    COALS 

— Iowa,  -Jirkansas.  Kansas,  Missouri,  Okla- 
homa 

BOUNDARIES — Northeastern  and  South- 
ern: lo^va-Mlssouri  state  line  from  Missouri 
River  to  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.  running  south 
from  Moravia.  la.,  through  Chillicothe,  Mo., 
thence  via  W.  Ry.  through  Huntsville  to 
Moberly,  thence  via  M.  K.  &  T.  Ry.  through 
New  Franklin  to  North  Jefferson  City, 
thence  via  western  boundary  of  Cole,  Miller 
and  Pulaski  Counties,  Mo.,  to  St.  L.  S.  F. 
Ry.  thence  via  St.  L.  S.  F.  Ry.  through  Le- 
banon, Springfield,  to  Mis.souri-Oklahoma 
state  line.  Western:  Western  boundary 
of  Missouri, 

ZONE    NO.    44 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    COALS 

— Arkansas,  Illinois,  Kan.sas,  Missouri,  Ok- 
lahoma, Texas. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern    and    Eastern; 

From  Arkansas-MissouH-Oklahoma  state 
line  east  to  Mississippi  River,  thence  via 
Mississippi  River  (west  bank)  to  Memohis. 
Tenn.  Western  and  Southern;  From  Arkan- 
sas-Missouri-Oklahoma state  line  south  to 
C.  R.  I  &  P  Rv.  running  from  Howe,  Okla., 
through  Mansfield.  Danville  and  Little 
Rock,   Ark.,    to   Memphis,   Tenn. 

ZONE   NO.   45 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Alabama,  .\rkangas,  Illinois  '(only  on 
lines  of  St.  L  S.  W.  Ry.  and  St.  L.  I.  M.  & 
S.  Ry).  Kansas,  Missouri,  Oklahoma,  Ken- 
tucky  (Western),   Texas. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Arkansas-Oklahoma  state  line  via 
C.  R.  I.  &  P.  Rv.  running  from  Howe,  Okla., 
through  Mansfield,  Danville  and  Little  Rook. 
Ark.,  to  Memphis,  Tenn.,  thence  via  Mis- 
sissippi River  (west  bank)  to  Arkansas- 
Louisiana  state  line.  Western  and  South- 
ern: South  along  .\rkansas-Oklahoma  state 
line  from  C.  R.  I.  &  P.  Ry.  Howe.  Okla., 
to  Mansfield,  Ark.,  to  Arkansas-Louisiana- 
Texas  .state  line,  thence  east  along  Arkan- 
sas-Louisiana state  line  to  the  Mississippi 
River. 

ZONE    NO.    46 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— .•Mabama,  Arkansas.  Illinois  (only  on 
lines  of  St.  L.  S.  W.  Rv,  and  St.  L.  I.  M. 
&   S.    Ry),   Kentucky    (Western),   Texas 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  .\rkansas-Louisiana-Texas  state  line 
east  to  the  Mississippi  River,  thence  along 
Mississippi  River  (west  bank)  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  Western  and  Southern:  Louis- 
iana-Texas state  line  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
thence    to    Mississippi    River. 

ZONE    NO.    47 
RESTRICTED   TO    FOLLOWING    COALS 

— Kentucky   (Western). 

BOUND.*RIES — Northern    and    Eastern: 

Prom  Kentucky-Tennessee  state  line  south 
of  Fulton.  Ky..  east  to  L  &  N.  R.  R  pass- 
ing south  through  Mitchellville,  Tenn., 
through  Nashville  and  Columbia  to  Iron 
City,  Tenn.,  including  Scottsville  and  Harts- 
ville.  Kv.,  branches.  %Vestern  and  Southern: 
Prom  Kentucky-Tennessee  state  line  south 
of  Fulton.  Kv.,  via  I.  C  R  R.  to  Memphis, 
thence  east  \-ia  N.  C.  &  St.  L   Ry.  to  Perry 


Copyrighted,    191>!,  by   Coal   Zoiiu   Map  Comiiany. 


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Supplement  to  Power,  May  18,  1918 


Mai'  14,  1918 


POWER 


691 


vlllc.  thence  alons  Tennossoe  River  (east 
bank)  to  Alal>ani:i-Mississippi-Tennessee 
state  line,  thonco  via  Alabania-Tenness'^e 
state  line  to    Iron   City.   Tenn. 

ZONK   NO.   48 
RE.STRICTKl)   TO   FOLLOWING    COAI.S 

— Alabama. 

BOINDARIES — Northern  and  Hastern: 
From  Memphis,  Tenn.,  via  N.  C.  &  St.  L.  Hy. 
to  Perryville.  thence  via  Tennessee  Itivrr 
(west  ijanli)  to  Alabania-Mi.sslssippi-Ten- 
nessee  state  line.  Western  and  Southern: 
From  Memphis  to  Arkansas-Mississippi-Ten- 
nessee state  line,  thence  east  along  Missis- 
sippi-Tennessee state  line  to  the  Tennessee 
River. 

ZONE  NO.  49 
RESTKICTKD   TO   FOLLOWING    COALS 
— Alabama.     Kentucky     (Western). 

BOUNDARIES — Northern    and    Eastern: 

Tennessee-Mississippi  state  line  and  Ala- 
bama-Mississippi state  line.  Western  ami 
Southern:  East  bank  Mississippi  River  tJ 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

ZONE    NO.   50 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    COALS 

— Kentucky  (Southern).  Virginia  (all  Black 
Mountain  and  Stonega  aistricts  in  Lee, 
Dickenson,  Wise,  and  western  Russell  Coun- 
ties of  Viririnla).  Kentucky  (Western).  Ten- 
nessee,  Georgia. 

BOUNDARIES — Northeastern:  From  Co- 
lumbia, Tenn.,  via  L.  &  N.  R  R  to  Baugh, 
Tenn.  Western  and  Southern:  From  Colum- 
bia. Tenn.  via  L.  &  X.  R.  R.  through 
Lawrenceburg  to  Iron  City,  thence  east  via 
Alabama-Tennessee  state  line  to  Baugti, 
Tenn. 

ZONE  NO.  51 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 

— Alabama,  Kentucky  (Southern),  Virginia 
(all  Black  Mountain  and  Stonega  districts 
in  Lee,  Dickenson,  Wise,  and  western  Ru.=!- 
sell  Counties  of  Virginia),  Tennessee,  Geor- 
gia. 

BOUNDARIES  —  Northern:  Tennessee- 
Alabama  state  line.  Southwestern  and  East- 
em:    Tennessee    River. 

ZONE   NO.   i>3 
RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Alabama. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
Tennessee  River  to  Alabama-Georgia  state 
line,  thence  south  along  state  line  to  Apa- 
lachicola  River,  thence  via  said  river  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Western  and  Southern: 
Alabama-Mississippi  state  line  to  the  Gulf 
of   Mexico. 

ZONE  NO.  uS 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— Kentucky  (Southern,  also  Western,  to 
points  on  N.  C.  &  St  L.  and  T.  C.  R.  R. 
Nashville  to  Old  Hickory  and  Hermitage, 
Tenn.  inclusive).  Virginia  (all  Black  Moun- 
tain and  Stonega  districts  in  Lee,  Dicken- 
son. Wise,  and  western  Russell  Counties 
of  Virginia,  also  Clinch  Valley  district  in 
ea.stem  Russell  and  Tazewell  Counties), 
West  Virginia  (Eastern,  also  Southern,  on 
C.  &  O.  Ry.  east  of  Charleston  and  N.  &  W. 
Ry.  east  of  laeger,  W.  Va.),  Georgia,  Ten- 
nessee. 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Mitchellville.  Tenn.,  east  along  Ten- 
nssee-Kentucky  state  line  to  A'irginia  stare 
line,  thence  via  L.  &  N.  R.  R.  to  Norton. 
thence  via  N.  &  W.  R.  R.  through  Roanok?. 
Petersburg  (and  branches  of  N.  &  W.  R.  R. 
at  Petersburg)    to  NorfolK,  thence  south  to 


Virginia-Carolina  state  line.  Western  and 
Southern:  From  Mitchellville,  Tenn..  via 
L.  &  N.  R  H  through  Nashville  and  Co- 
lumbia to  Baiigh.  Tenn..  including  Scotts- 
vlUe,  Ky.,  branch,  thence  along  Alabama- 
Tennessee-Georgia  state  lini'.  thoiice  via 
North  Carolina-Tennessee  state  line,  thence 
\  ia  .Vorth  Carolina-Virginia  state  line  to  the 
.Atlantic    Ocean. 

ZONE   NO.  54 
RESTRICTED  TO   FOLLOWING   COALS 

— Kentucky  (Southern).  Tennessee,  Vir- 
ginia (all  Black  Mountain  and  Stonega  di.s- 
tricts  in  Lee.  Dickenson.  Wise,  and  western, 
Russell  (rounties  of  Virginia).  Alabama, 
Georgia. 

BOUNDARIES — State  of  Georgia  and  all 
of  Florida  east  of  Apalachicola  River. 

ZONE  NO.  BH 
RESTRICTED   TO   FOLLOWING    CO.\LS 

■ — Tventucky  (Southern),  Virginia  (all  Black 
Mountain  and  Stonega  districts  in  Lee, 
Dickenson,  Wise,  and  western  Russell 
Counties  of  Virginia),  Tennessee,  Georgia, 
AVest   Virginia    (Eastern). 

BOUNDARIES — Northern  and  Eastern: 
From  Georgia-North  Carolina-South  Caro- 
lina state  line  to  the  line  of  the  Sou.  Ry. 
running  south  from  Charlotte.  N.  C.  through 
Chester  to  Columbia,  S.  C.  thence  via  S.  A. 
L.  Ry.  to  Denmark,  thence  via  Sou.  Ry.  to 
Charleston,  S.  C.  Western  and  Southern: 
South  Carolina-Georgia  state  line  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean. 

ZONE  NO.  66 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— Kentucky  (Southern).  Tennessee.  Vir^ 
ginia  (all  Black  Mountain  and  Stonega 
Districts  in  Lee  Dickenson.  Wise  and  west- 
ern Russell  Counties  of  Virginia,  and  Clinclt 
Valley  districts  in  Tazewell  and  easteri 
Russell  Counties  along  the  N.  &  W  .Ry  ), 
West  Virginia  (Eastern,  on  C.  &  O.  Ry". 
and  N.  &  W.  Ry.  and  Virginian  Ry. ). 

BOUNDARIES^All  of  North  Carolina, 
and  that  portion  of  South  Carolina  on  and 
east  of  the  line  of  the  Sou.  Ry.  Charlotte, 
N.  C.  through  Chester  to  Columbia,  thence 
via  S.  A.  L.  Rv.  to  Denmark,  thence  via 
Sou.  Ry.  to  Charleston,  S.  C. 
ZONE   NO.   57 

RESTRICTED  TO  FOLLOWING  COALS 
— No  change  contemplated.  Coal  to  be  sup- 
plied  generall.v   from   low-volatile   fields. 

BOUND.4RIES — That  portion  of  Virginia 
on  and  north  of  the  N.  &  W.  R.R.  Graham, 
Va..  to  Norfolk.  Va.,  Including  branches  at 
Petersburg. 

EXPLANATION    OF    ABBREVIATIONS 
AND   TERMS   USED 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.  R. 
Coal  &  Coke  Ry. 
Chicago  &  Eastern   Illi- 
nois   R.  R. 
Chicago  &  Northwestern 

Ry. 
Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Rv. 
Chesapeake        &        Ohio 

Northern  Ry. 
Chicago,     Burlington     .% 

Quincy    R.  R. 
Carolina.     Clinchfield    & 

Ohio    Ry. 
C.  C.  C.  &  St  L.      Cleveland,        Cincinnati. 

Chicago    &    St.    Louis 

Ry. 
Chicago.    Indianapolis  ,^ 

Louisville    Ry. 
Chicae'o.     Milwaukee      & 

St.  Paul  Ry. 


B.  &  O. 

C.  &  C. 

C.   &  B.    I. 

C.  &  N.   W. 

C.  &  O. 

C.  &  O.  N. 

C.  B.  &  Q. 
C.  C.  &  O. 


C.  I.  &  L. 

C    M.  &  St.  P. 


C.  R    I.  &  p. 

R.  R.  R 

G.    B.  &  W. 

G.   H.  &  H. 

G.   R.   &  I 

H.  E.  &  W.  T. 

H.   V. 

I.   C. 

K.  &  M. 

K.  &  W.  V. 

L.  &  N. 

L.  F. 
M.  C. 
M.   K.   &  T. 

M.  R.  R 

M.  St.  P.  &  S.  S. 

N.  &  W. 

N.  C.  &  St.  L. 

N.  Y.  C. 
P.   &  W.  V. 

p.  C.  C.  &  St  L. 

P.   Co. 

P.  M. 
Q.  &  C. 

S.  A.  L. 
Sou.  Ry. 
St.  L.  I.  M.  &  S. 

St.   L.   S.   F. 

St.  L.  S.  W. 

T.  &  O.  C. 

T.  C. 

V.  Ry. 

W.  &  L.  E. 

W.   M. 
W.    Rv. 
Y.  &  O.  R. 

Z.    &   W. 

.Summer 


Chicago,    Rock    Island  & 
Pacific   Ry. 

Erie  R.  R. 

Green    Bay    &    Westen 
R.  R. 

Galveston,     Houston     & 
Henderson   R.  R. 

Grand    Rapids    &    Indi- 
ana R.v. 

Houston    East    &    West 
Texas    Ry. 

Hocking  Valley  Ry. 

Illinois  Central  R.  R. 

Kanawha  &  Michigan  Ry 

Kanawha    &    West    Vir- 

•     ginia    R.  R. 

Louisville    &     Nashville 
R.  R. 

Long   Fork    R.  R. 

Michigan    Central    R.  R. 

Missouri  Kansas  &  Texas 
R  R. 

Middlesborough  R.  R. 
M.Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  & 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  Ry. 

Norfolk   &  Western    Ry. 

Nashville,  Chattanooga* 
St.   Ijouis  Ry. 

New  York  Central  R.  R. 

Pittsburgh  &  West  Vir- 
ginia Ry. 

Pittsburgh.      Cincinnati. 
Chicago  &  St. Louis  Rv- 

Pennsylvania   Co. 

Pere  Marquette   Ry. 

Queen  &  Crescent  Route. 

Seaboard    Air    Line    Ry. 

Southern    Ry. 

St.     Louis.     Iron    Moun- 
tain &   Southern   Ry. 

St.   Louis-San  Francisco 
Ry. 

St.     Louis-Southwestern 
Rv. 

Toledo    &    Ohio    Centra! 
Ry. 

Tennessee  Central   R.  R. 

Virginian  Ry. 

Wheeling    &    Lake    Erie 
Ry. 

Western  Maryland  Ry. 

Wabash  Ry. 

Youngstown       &       Ohio 
River    R.  R. 

2an'-'sville  &  Western  Rv 

From  Apr.    1   to  and  in- 
cluding Sept.   30. 
Winter  From  Oct.   1    to  and   in- 

cluding Mar.   31. 

KENTUCKY 

Eastern  All  mines  in  eastern  Kentucky 

on  Sou.  Ry.   (Q&C).  L   &  N., 

„       ,  C.  &  O..  N.   &  W.  and  L.  F. 

Northeastern  Sandy  Valley  &  Elkhorn  Ry 
L.  F.,  C.  &  O  .  and  N.  &  W. 
in   Thacker,   Big  Sandjr  and 
Elkhorn   districts. 

Northern  L.    &   N.    In    Hazard    and   El.;- 

hom   districts. 

Southern  Sou.  Ry.  (Q.&C.)  and  L.  &  N. 

in  Harlan.  Jellico  and  South- 
em   .Appalachian   districts. 

Western  L.  &  N.  and  I.  C.  west  of  Liouis- 

ville,   Ky. 


Eastern 

Noi'thern 
Southern 


WEST   VIRGINIA 

C.  &  O  and  N.  &  W.  in  low- 
volatile  fields  of  Pocahontas, 
Tug  River  and  New  River 
districts. 

K.  &  M..  K.  &  W.  V.  and  C.  & 
C.   west  of  Dundon. 

C.  &  O.  and  N.  &  W.  in  Kana- 
wha. Kenova  and  Thacker 
districts. 


KEY  TO  PRODUCING  DISTRICTS 


Location    of 
Producing  Districts 

Alabama    

Arkansas 


California. 
Colorado 


Docks' . 


Georg-la    

Illinois  (summer) . 
Illinois    


Indiana 
Iowa  .  . . 
Kansas 


Kentucky; 
Eastern 


Northeastern 
Southern    ,  , . , 


Numbers  of  Consuming 

Zones    to    which 

restricted 

.40,    45.    46,    48,    49,    5t. 

52.    54. 
.5,    35,    36,    37.    39.    41. 

42,  43,  44,  45.  46 
.  30. 

.30,    31,    33,    35.    36.    37. 

38.   39. 
.  1.    2,    3,    4.    4A.    6A.    31. 

32,    33.    34.    41. 
.50,  51,  53,  54,  65. 
.2,    34.    41. 
.  3.    4.    4A.    5,    6,    6A,    7. 

8,  9,  10',  11,  12',   15. 

16=,   20-,    44.   45'.   4f.». 
.3,    8,    9,    10.    11,    12.    14. 

15,    16,    20. 
.2',  5,  7',  35,  36,  41,   42. 

4  3. 
.5,    35,    36,    37.    41,    42. 

43,  44,   45. 

•  11,    14.    15.    IS,    17,    19, 

20,  21,  22. 
.23,    24. 
.18,    50,    61,    63,    54,    55, 

56. 


Western 


Maryland 
Michigan 
Missouri   . 


Montana  .... 
New  M-^xico  . 
North  Dakota 
Ohio    


Oklahoma 


(Jregon    

Pennsylvania    

South  Dakota 

Tennessee  (M.  R.  R. ) 


Tennessee 
Texas    .  .  .  . 


TTtah    

Virginia  (L.  &  N.) 

Virginia*    

Virginia"    

West  Virginia : 


3.   4.   6.   6A.   9,   10,   11, 

13.  15,  40.  45,  46.  47, 

49,  50,  53^ 
67. 

14.    15.    20.    21. 
5.  35,  36.  37.  41.  42,  43. 

44.    45. 
30.    31.    33.    33.    34.    35 
30,  35.   37,  38.  39. 
1.    2,    31.    32.    33     34 
14".    20.    21,    22.    23.    24. 

25.   26.   27.   28',   29. 
5,    35,    36,    37,    39,    41, 

42,   43,  44,  45. 
30. 
27.   28,  57. 

I,  2,     32,     33,     34. 

II.  14.    15.    17,    IS.    19. 

20.  21.   22. 

50,    51,    53,    54.    65,    36. 
37.    38,    39,    40,    44.    45. 

46. 
30.    31.    33.    35,    36. 
11,    14.    16.    17.    IS.    20. 

21.  22. 

50.    61,    53.    54,    56,    56. 
63,   56. 


Eastern    19,   23",   24'",   26"    29"' 

53,    55,    66. 


Northern 
Southern 


14.    15,    20,    21,    23,    25 

29. 


11,    14.    15.    16.    17.    19, 

20.  21,  22,  23,  24,  63. 
W.voming 30.    31.    32.    33.    34,    35. 

•South  bank  Lake  Superior  and  west  banit 
L.ake   Michigan. 

-'From  Danville  district  on  Wabash  Rv. 
onlv. 

•'Only  on  lines  of  St.  L.  I.  M.  &  S.  and  St. 
L.   S    W.  Rys. 

*To   ixiints   in   Iowa  onh*. 

"To  iiolnts  on  N.  C.  &•"  St.  L.  and  T.  C. 
Nashville  to  Hermitage  and  Old  Hickory. 
Tenn.,    inclusive. 

'On  G.   R.   &  I.  only. 

^From  mines  In  Columbiana  County.  O.. 
only. 

»AII  Black  Mountain  and  Stonega  districts 
In  Lee.  Wise.  Dickenson  and  western  Rus- 
sell  Counties. 

"Clinch  Valley  districts  In  Tazewell  .and 
eastern  Russell  Counties. 

'"Along  linos  of  C.  &  O.  and  N.  &  W.  to 
Cincinnati   and  Columbus,   O. 


692 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


^^  Govej'nTTient 
and  '77ieT/)ate7' Powers 

J^7t  Ijitei'vi'ew  rvt'th 
3^n.  Fra?ikltn  K.  Lane 

SECRETARY  OF  THE   /NTER/Olt 


r 


IN  THE  hearings  before  the  Special  House  Committee 
on  the  Administration's  Water-Power  Bill,  Chairman 
Sims  asked  a  number  of  questions  which  involved 
the  right  or  the  probable  disposition  of  the  Federal 
Government  to  take  over  and  operate  the  properties 
upon  the  expiration  of  the  license.  At  that  time,  under 
the  measure  before  t'lie  committee,  the  Government 
would  have  its  choice  of  three  courses: 

To  take  the  property; 

To  transfer  the  privilege  to  another  licensee; 

To  renew^  the  license  to  the  original  holder. 

Suppose,  as  likely  to  be  the  case,  that  there  is  no 
other  applicant  for  the  privilege;  then  the  Government 
must  either  renew  the  license  or  take  the  project  over 
and  operate  it.  If  the  Government  has  no  use  for  the 
power  for  purely  governmental  purposes  such  as 
making  nitrates  or  munitions  or  operating  possibly 
government-owned  railways,  could  it  make  current  for 
sale?  Has  it  the  right  under  the  Constitution  to  go 
into  the  business  of  supplying  electricity  for  light, 
?ieat  and  power,  and  water  for  irrigation  commercially  ? 
If  so,  is  it  entitled  to  do  so  at  a  profit  or  would  it 
have  to  furni.sh  the  current  at  cost?  Would  it  be 
possible  against  powerful  opposing  influences  to  get 
Congress  to  vote  a  huge  appropriation  for  the  purpose 
of  going  into  business  in  competition  with  an  industry 
the  recent  growth  of  which  is  significant  of  what  it  will 
come  to  be  in  fifty  years? 

Would  License  Be  in  Effect  a  Grant  in  Perpetuity  .^ 

If  the  Government  were  found  to  be  unauthorized 
to  take  over  such  a  project  and  operate  it  commercially 
or  if  the  objections  to  doing  so  were  insuperable,  would 
it  not  be  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  renewing  the  license 
to  the  original  holder  and  that  upon  his  own  terms? 
Would  not  the  license  under  such  circumstances  be  in 
effect  a  grant  in  perpetuity? 

This  phase  of  the  question  evoked  so  much  interest 
and  discussion  among  those  present  at  the  hearings 
and  others  that  we  sought  an  expi-ession  from  Secre- 
taiy  Lane,  whose  experience  in  former  connections  as 
well  alfe  in  his  present  administrative  position  gives 
especial  weight  to  any  utterance  of  his  upon  the  subject. 

The  Secretaiy  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  license 
would  not,  in  effect,  be  a  grant  in  perpetuity,  for  the 
reason  that  the  bill  provides  that  a  renewal  in  such 
case  shall  be  upon  such  terms  and  conditions  as  may 
be  prescribed  by  the  then  existing  laws,  affording 
Congress  ample  opportunity  to  impose  such  new  terms 


or  conditions  as  the  public  interest  shall  then  be  deemed 
to  require.  The  Government  will  not  be  required  to 
renew  the  license  upon  the  original  holder's  "own 
terms,"  because  if  the  United  States  does  not  take 
over  the  properties  itself  or  find  another  applicant 
who  will  take  them,  the  original  licensee  must  accept 
any  condition  offered  or  abandon  his  property  and  lose 
his  whole  investment. 

As  to  the  right  of  the  Government  to  acquire  and 
operate  such  a  project,  Mr.  Lane  thought  there  could 
be  no  doubt.  The  Salt  River  reclamation  project,  he 
said,  "which  I  have  turned  over  to  the  water  users  for 
operation,"  is  practically  paying  its  own  way  out  of 
the  power  developed  under  the  Roosevelt  dam.  The 
Shoshone  reclamation  project  in  Wyoming,  built  by 
the  Department,  is  furnishing  water  for  irrigation  and 
electricity  to  towns  and  industries  within  a  wide  radius, 
as  is  also  the  project  at  Minidoka,  Idaho. 

Government  Right  to  Sell  Water  and  Electricity 

"Has  the  right  of  the  Government  to  sell  water  and 
electricity  ever  been  questioned?"  we  asked. 

"Never,"  replied  the  Secretary.  "If  it  were,  how 
would  you  justify  it?  There  is  probably  no  inhibition, 
but  it  is  urged  by  the  opponents  of  Government 
activities  of  this  sort  that  among  the  powers  conferred 
upon  the  Federal  Government  by  the  constituent  states 
there  are  none  which  can  be  construed  to  warrant  such 
undertakings. 

"I  know  of  no  inhibition  in  the  Constitution  or 
elsewhere  upon  the  right  of  the  Federal  Government 
to  develop  water  power  and  dispose  of  the  product  to 
the  public,"  said  the  Secretary.  "Under  the  Constitu- 
tion, the  Federal  Government  has  jurisdiction  and 
authority  over  the  navigable  waters  of  the  United 
States,  under  which  authority  dams  and  other  works 
for  the  improvement  of  navigation  are  constantly  being 
constructed.  Many  of  these  structures  involve  the  in- 
cidental development  of  water  power,  and  there  can 
be  no  question,  I  think,  of  the  right  of  the  Government 
to  utilize  this  incidental  value  for  the  benefit  of  the 
public  and  to  secure  a  return  to  the  Federal  Treasury 
of  a  part  of  the  expenditures  made  for  such  improve- 
ments. 

Right  of  Congress  to  Dispose  of  Public  Lands 

"As  to  the  public  lands,  the  Constitution  vests  in 
Congress  full  authority  to  'dispose  of  the  same.  The 
Supreme  Court  has  stated  that  Congress  may  deal  with 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


693 


these  lands  precisely  as  an  ordinary  individual  may 
deal  with  his  property,  and  that  as  the  lands  are  held 
in  trust  for  the  people  of  the  whole  country,  it  is  for 
Congress  to  determine' how  they  shall  be  handled.  For 
instance,  Congress  has  a  right  to  establish  forest  and 
other  reservations  for  public  purposes,  or  to  devote 
lands  to  some  other  national  or  public  purpose.  These 
are  rights  incident  to  proprietorship,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  power  of  the  United  States  as  a  sovereign  over 
the  property  belonging  to  it.  Furthermore,  the  so- 
called  general  welfare  clause  of  the  Constitution  has 
been  given  a  very  liberal  construction  and  indicates 
the  intention  of  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  to 
confer  verj"  broad  powers  upon  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment for  the  public  good.  The  Government  was  created 
by  the  people  and  is  operated  for  their  benefit.  If  the 
public  interest  warrants  or  requires  the  development 
of  electrical  power  and  its  sale  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, the  Constitution  seems  to  fully  warrant  the 
undertaking. 

"But,"  continued  the  Secretary,  "would  not  the 
probable  outcome  be  that  the  municipality,  which  would 
naturally  grow  up  about  one  of  these  developments, 
would  acquire  it  on  the  expiration  of  the  license?  A 
project  too  large  for  a  municipality  or  a  drainage  or 
other  district  could  be  acquired  by  the  state.  There 
is  no  doubt  of  the  competency  of  any  state  to  enter  upon 
such  an  undertaking,  and  the  competency  of  a  munici- 
pality or  district  is  a  matter  of  state  legislation  In 
view  of  the  present  tendency  of  public  opinion  one  can 
well  imagine  a  general  disposition  on  the  part  of  com- 
munities to  own  their  own  public  utilities  by  the  time 
these  licenses  begin  to  expire." 

Public  Ownership  of  Public  Utilities 

We  acknowledged  our  sympathy  with  the  tendency 
and  the  probability  of  the  suggested  outcome  so  far 
as  public  utilities  were  concerned.  "But  what,"  we 
asked,  "would  happen  in  the  case  of  a  project  which 
served  only  special  industries;  big  metallurgical  works, 
for  example?  If  a  license  were  granted  to  a  syndicate 
of  paper  manufacturers  to  develop  a  power  for  the 
manufacture  of  paper,  what  could  the  Government  do 
with  that  on  the  expiration  of  the  license,  and  would 
it  have  any  control  of  the  project  in  the  meantime? 
Not  being  a  public  utility,  would  it  come  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  public-utility  commission  or  similar 
body?  Could  the  Federal  commission  control  it?  If 
the  commission  undertook  to  recover  exorbitant  profits 
by  the  imposition  of  a  high  rental,  they  would  simply 
pass  the  charge  on  to  the  consumer." 

Secretary  Lane  thought  that  this  would  be  a  very 
exceptional  case.  "A  community  would  undoubtedly 
grow  up  about  such  an  industry  and  the  water  power 
would  supply  the  needs  of  that  community  and  so  be- 
come to  an  extent  a  public  utility,  sufficiently  so  perhaps 
to  warrant  the  community  in  taking  it  over.  Most 
public  utilities  furnish  power  as  well  as  light,  and  their 
status  as  public  utilities  is  not  determined  by  the  pro- 
portion of  their  output  sold  for  power  or  the  number 
of  their  power  customers.  As  to  rate  control  during 
the  term  of  the  license,  the  syndicate  would  have  to  sell  in 
competition  with  other  manufacturers  and  the  growing 
sentiment  in  favor  of  restricting  prices  to  cost  plus 
a  fair  profit  and   legislation   against  control   of  pro- 


duction and  distribution  could  be  depended  upon  to 
prevent  an  abuse  of  the  privilege  or  its  use  for  specu- 
lative purposes.  The  time  is  long  past,  and  wise 
men  see  that  it  is  past,  when  there  is  a  speculative 
value  in  these  things.  The  right  of  the  community, 
of  the  nation,  of  the  collective  body  of  citizens  that  we 
call  the  people  of  the  United  States,  their  right  is 
superior  to  any  right  that  you  or  I  may  have  to  specu- 
late upon  those  things  that  are  primary  resources." 

"What  is  your  attitude,  Mr.  Secretary,"  we  asked, 
"toward  the  initial  development  of  the  powers  by  the 
Federal  Government?" 

"If  we  had  money  enough,"  said  Mr.  Lane;  "if  this 
were  not  a  time  of  war;  if  we  could  think  in  the  terms 
of  money  that  we  are  now  thinking  of;  or  if  four  or 
five  years  ago  Congress  had  been  willing  to  expend 
hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  in  the  development  of 
water  power  as  it  is  forced  now  to  spend  billions  of 
dollars  for  war — then  it  would  be  a  wise  thing  to  put 
a  large  part  of  the  public  revenues  into  such  projects 
where  they  are  found  to  be  needed.  I  have  no  doubt 
in  my  own  mind  that  such  schemes  as  water-power 
developments  are  perfectly  practicable  from  a  govern- 
mental standpoint,  no  matter  what  your  sympathies 
may  be  respecting  Government  ovraership,  as  a  rule, 
of  large  utilities.  A  thing  that  is  as  well  standardized 
as  a  water-power  scheme  can  be  operated  successfully 
by  the  Government.  But  I  do  not  think  that  this  is 
practicable  at  this  time  nor  probably  will  it  be  for 
many  years  to  come,  and  it  is  necessary  that  there 
should  be  real  development,  and  that  soon. 

"The  water  powers  should  be  given  into  the  hands 
of  the  men  capable  of  developing  them  under  such 
conditions  as  will  warrant  large  investment.  We  cannot 
save  things  for  men  who  have  no  capital,  or  men  who 
go  about  things  with  a  spade  where  a  steam  shovel 
is  needed.  The  conditions  under  which  these  privileges 
are  granted  should  guard  against  extortion  during  their 
use  and  insure  the  return  of  the  resource  to  the  people 
at  the  termination  of  the  license  if  the  people  want 
to  take  it  back  by  refunding  the  net  investment.  The 
term  of  the  grant  should  be  long  enough  to  afford  the 
promoter  or  entrepreneur  an  opportunity  to  make  a 
profit  commensurate  with  his  risk  and  enterprise,  and 
to  attract  the  necessary  interest,  talent  and  capital 
to  get  some  good  out  of  these  powers  for  the  present 
generation  and  stop  our  extravagant  incursions  upon 
the  supply  of  fuel  that  is  of  increasing  value  for  other 
than  power  purposes.  The  bill  before  Judge  Sims' 
committee  is  designed  to  do  this  and  seems  to  promise 
to  do  it  better  than  any  measure  previously  offered." 


Our  Government  wants  to  spend  19  billion  dollars  this 
year,  a  sum  so  vast  that  it  cannot  be  comprehended. 
From  1791  to  Jan.  1,  1917,  a  period  of  126  years,  the 
Government  spent  only  26  billion,  300  million  for  all 
purposes — for  wars  and  in  times  of  peace,  for  pensions, 
for  the  Panama  Canal,  and  for  every  other  expense  of 
the  Government.  This  is  only  about  five  billion  dollars 
more  than  has  been  appropriated  by  Congress  to  be 
spent  in  one  year  to  provide  for  the  tremendous  de- 
mands of  the  war.  This  sum  cannot  be  borrowed  ex- 
cept from  the  people.  It  cannot  be  raised  except  by  tax- 
ation or  loans  from  the  current  income  of  the  people. 
We  must  save  and  lend  our  savings  to  the  Government. 


694 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


What  is  the  Capacity  of  a  Turbine? 


In  "Power"  for  Mar.  19  appeared  an  editorial  on 
the  question  which  forms  the  title  above.  There 
is  reneived  interest  in  the  subject.  In  the  editorial 
those  interested  luere  invited  to  express  their 
opinions.    Some  are  given  in  this  article. 

THE  Power  Test  Code  of  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers,  page  30,  paragraph  23, 
reads  as  follows:  "The  commercial  rating  of 
capacity  determined  on  for  power-plant  apparatus, 
whether  for  the  purpose  of  contracts  for  sale,  or  other- 
wise, should  be  such  that  a  sufficient  reserve  capacity 
beyond  the  rating  is  available  to  meet  the  contingencies 
of  practical  operation ;  such  contingencies,  for  ex- 
ample, as  the  loss  of  steam  pressure  and  capacity  due 
to  cleaning  fires,  inferior  coal,  oversight  of  the  attend- 
ants, sudden  demand  for  an  unusual  output  of  steam 
or  power,  etc." 

Needless  to  say,  this  paragraph  is  controversial, 
and  is  the  subject  of  serious  consideration  by  the  Power 
Test  Committee  of  the  society,  which  committee  is 
now  revising  the  code. 

The  Prime  Movers  Committee  of  the  National  Elec- 
tric Light  Association  has  not  expressed  itself  on  this 
question  of  turbine  capacity.  The  Association  of  Edison 
Companies  has  not  declared  what  it  accepts  or  agrees 
is  the  capacity  of  a  turbine,  neither  has  the  American 
Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  so  far  as  the  writer 
can  learn.  This  much  may  be  said:  Most  engineers 
responsible  for  the  selection  and  operation  of  large 
turbines,  particularly,  agree  that  if  a  turbine  guaran- 
teed to  give  a  specified  capacity  at  specified  conditions 
of  steam  pressure,  superheat  and  vacuum  gives  the 
specified  capacity,  the  builder  has  fulfilled  his  obliga- 
tions though  not  one  kilowatt  more  than  that  capacity 
can  be  got,  the  steam  pressure,  superheat  and  vacuum 
being  the  same. 
I  The  expressions  which  follow  are  by  men  prominent 

in    turbine    and    power-station    development;    all    are 
anonymous. 

From  a  user:  The  writer  has  closely  followed  turbine 
development  practically  from  its  start,  and  was  not 
aware  that  there  was  any  active  question  about  turbine 
rating  at  this  time.  If,  however,  this  question  is  active, 
the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  should 
investigate  and  report  upon  the  subject. 

Another  procedure  which  I  would  suggest  is  to  sub- 
mit this  matter  to  the  consideration  of  the  Prime 
Movers  Committee  of  the  National  Electric  Light  Asso- 
ciation and  the  Steam  Plant  Committee  of  the  Asso- 
ciation of  Edison  Illuminating  Companies.  Both  of 
these  bodies  are  composed  of  the  leading  men  in  the 
electrical  industry,  all  of  whom  have  given  much 
thought  to  turbine  matters. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  turbine  development  it  was 
customary  to  apply  two  ratings  to  a  machine;  namely, 
normal  capacity  and  maximum  capacity.  This  double 
rating  was  objectionable  and  has  been  abandoned. 
Today,  turbines  are  rated  on  maximum  capacity  based 
on  steam  pressure  at  the  throttle,  or  in  the  bowl,  super- 
heat and  vacuum.     These  conditions  are  applied  to  a 


steam  engine,  and  there  is  no  uncertainty  in  the  mind 
of  anyone  about  the  performance  of  the  engine.  They 
apply  just  as  well  to  the  turbine.  When  these  conditions 
are  complied  with  by  the  purchaser  and  the  guaranteed 
kilowatt  load  is  developed  by  the  turbine,  the  purchaser 
is  getting  what  he  purchased,  and  he  has  no  more 
grounds  for  asking  that  he  should  get  a  greater  output 
than  he  would  have  to  expect  a  grocer  to  sell  him  a 
pound  and  a  quarter  of  sugar  when  he  ordered  a  pound. 

The  character  of  the  station  load  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  capacity  of  the  turbine.  Load  fluctuations 
vary  with  different  stations,  and  they  vary  from  hour 
to  hour  in  any  station.  The  turbine  manufacturer  does 
not  know  and  is  not  concerned  about  this;  that  is  a 
matter  of  engineering  on  the  part  of  the  purchaser. 
If  the  latter  does  not  properly  do  his  engineering  the 
turbine  manufacturer  should  not  be  blamed. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  I  think  the  thought  that  in- 
spired the  editorial  was  not  the  determining  of  the 
capacity  of  a  given  turbine  when  steam  conditions  are 
fixed,  but  determining  what  capacity  turbine  should 
be  installed  to  meet  load  conditions  in  a  given  station. 
This  is  a  matter  that  cannot  be  governed  by  any  set 
of  rules,  but  must  be  determined  for  each  specific  case. 


From  a  designer:  It  is  not  surprising  that  there 
should  be  revived  the  question,  "what  is  the  Capacity 
of  a  Turbine,"  notwithstanding  all  that  has  been 
written  on  the  subject.  The  bald  statement  of  so  many 
kilowatts  capacity  means  nothing  without  more  ex- 
planation, and  if  one  desires  to  state  the  capacity, 
more  explanation  is  necessary.  This  is  rightly  so,  for 
in  accordance  with  the  required  service  some  turbines 
are  designed  to  have  very  large  and  others  very  small 
capacities  above  the  point  at  which  their  steam  con- 
sumption is  best,  all  depending  upon  the  load  factor. 
This  perhaps  has  been  rendered  more  aggravating  by 
a  tendency  on  the  part  of  salesman  and  purchaser  alike 
to  say  their  turbine  is  as  big  as  they  can  stretch 
it.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  turbine  and  generator 
to  be  called  upon  to  sustain  a  load  100  per  cent,  in 
excess  of  the  average  load  for  a  limited  time;  which 
gives  opportunity  for  a  wide  disparity  of  rating. 

The  old  Corliss  engine  practice  of  giving  an  engine 
an  arbitrary  overload  capacity  of  50  per  cent,  would  seem 
to  have  no  place  today  because  of  the  varying  load 
factors  that  obtain;  for  example,  in  large  lighting 
systems  on  the  one  hand,  where  a  turbine,  if  operating 
at  all,  is  operating  close  to  its  point  of  best  steam 
consumption,  a  very  small  percentage  capacity  above 
this  is  needed.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  other 
plants,  railroads,  for  example,  where  the  turbine  is 
called  upon  to  sustain  heavy  peak  loads  and  swings, 
sometimes  requiring  a  capacity  100  per  cent,  in  excess 
of  the  point  of  best  steam  consumption. 

It  is  certainly  convenient  to  specify  the  rating  of 
the  generator  at  its  maximum  continuous  capacity,  and 
so  far  as  the  generator  itself  is  concerned,  there  need 
never  be  confusion.  With  the  turbine  the  matter  is 
more  diflRcult,  and  this  is  made  doubly  so  by  its  extreme 
flexibility.  A  turbine  designed  to  pass  a  given  number 
of  pounds  of  steam,  if  designed  with  proper  regard 
to  the  volumes  of  steam,  will  give  the  best  performance 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


696 


with  a  How  of  this  quantity.  It  requires  no  particular 
ingenuity  on  the  part  of  the  designer  to  find  means 
of  passing  a  much  larger  cjuantity  of  steam  through 
the  turbine,  permitting  much  greater  loads,  with  some 
impaired   efficiency. 

If  your  question  is  prompted  by  considerations  of 
the  safety  of  the  turbine  under  overload,  as  seems  to 
be  implied,  then  it  may  be  said  that  with  full  specified 
pressure  behind  all  the  nozzles  with  which  the  turbine 
is  equipped,  or,  if  bypassing  is  resorted  to  with  full 
pressure  at  these  secondary  points  of  admission,  no 
dangerous  pressure  should  obtain  in  any  of  the 
lower  stages.  In  other  words,  the  turbine  is  defective 
if  it  cannot  be  caused  to  slow  down  by  an  excessive  over- 
load without  injury  to  the  tui'bine.  This  also  with 
allowance  for  a  reasonable  increase  of  pressure  beyond 
that  specified  and  also  with  a  simultaneous  loss  of 
vacuum  which  in  itself  will  cause  increase  of  pressure 
in  certain  of  the  low-pressure  stages. 

It  may  be  thought  desirable  by  some  people  to  state 
in  a  word  the  capacity  of  a  machine  which  rather 
more  expresses  its  monetary  value,  or  its  [physical 
dimension  for  the  same  reason  that  many  years  ago 
prompted  the  use  of  the  term   "nominal  horsepower." 

Is  not  the  matter  entirely  covered  and  made  clear 
by  merely  stating  the  kilowatts  capacity  at  the  point 
of  best  steam  consumption,  and  in  addition  the  maxi- 
mum continuous  kilowatts  capacity;  the  latter  being 
the  extreme  load  the  turbine  is  warranted  to  sustain 
when  operating  under  the  specified  operating  conditions? 
The  former  in  a  measure  expresses  the  size  of  the 
machine.  To  describe  the  complete  unit  one  should 
further  amplify  this  by  quoting  the  maximum  con- 
tinuous rating  of  the  generator,  which  is  not  necessarily 
the  maximum  capacity  of  the  turbine. 


From  a  user :  Before  the  days  of  large  steam  turbines 
the  commercial  rating  of  reciprocating  engines  was 
established  by  common  practice  at  about  85  per  cent, 
of  their  maximum  capacity,  which  gave  considerable 
overload  capacity  to  meet  the  swings  which  might  de- 
mand capacities  above  the  commercial  rating. 

When  turbines  entered  the  field  it  quite  naturally 
followed  that  their  rating  should  be  calculated  on  the 
same  basis,  and  in  addition,  the  turbine  designers,  lack- 
ing in  experience  and  data  combined  with  a  desire  to 
produce  the  required  horsepower  in  their  machines,  very 
much  underestimated  their  capacity,  and  in  comparison 
with  the  generators  turbines  were  much  overpowered 
and  furnished  almost  unlimited  overload  capacity. 
Sometimes  the  capacities  were  as  high  as  100  per  cent. 
above  builder's  rating.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that 
this  condition  would  eventually  adjust  itself  to  a  more 
accurate  basis  for  calculating  capacities  when  the  ex- 
perience in  operation  had  demonstrated  that  turbines 
were,  in  comparison  with  reciprocating  engines,  much 
underestimated,  with  the  result  that  today  machines 
are  rated  at  7500  kw.  which  in  former  years  were  sold 
for  5000-kw.  machines.  The  former  has  led  to  con- 
fusion when  referring  to  turbine  capacities,  producing 
a  new  term,  "maximum  capacity,"  to  denote  the  physical 
limit  of  output  as  compared  with  the  old  commercial 
rating. 

At  present  contracts  for  turbines  are  drawn  with 
the  understanding  that  with  a  given  steam  pressure, 


superheat  and  vacuum  they  will  develop  their  maximum 
rating.  As  it  is  difficult  to  design  a  turbine  so  that 
it  will  develop  its  rated  capacity  and  no  more,  there  is 
generally  a  slight  reserve  capacity  above  tlie  rated 
capacity.  Should  a  turbine  purchased  as  a  10,000-kw. 
machine  on  test  develop  11,000  kw.,  the  purchaser  has 
a  10,000-kw.  rated  machine  with  capacity  of  11,000-kw. ; 
but  it  does  not  follow  that  all  10,000-kw.  machines  will 
carry  11,000  kw.  Under  the  same  contract  conditions 
should  the  turbine  develop  10,000  kw.  only  as  its  maxi- 
mum load,  the  contractor  has  met  his  obligations. 
Should  the  turbine  fail  to  carry  the  rated  load  when 
the  conditions  of  pressure,  temperature  and  vacuum 
are  not  met  with,  the  machine  does  not  in  any  sense 
become  one  of  lower  capacity. 

As  all  turbine  installations  should  include  recording 
instruments  to  measure  the  load,  vacuum,  pressure 
and  temperature,  the  question  of  conditions  under  which 
a  machine  might  fail  to  maintain  its  speed  is  easily  de- 
teiTnined. 

The  load  to  be  reported  to  the  public  service  commis- 
sion from  the  operating  .station  should  be  maximum 
hour,  maximum  of  15  min.  and  the  maximum  swing. 


The  writer  of  the  first  communication  mentions  that 
the  que.stion  of  what  capacity  turbine  should  be  in- 
stalled to  meet  load  conditions  in  a  given  plant  may 
have  been  the  thought  which  prompted  the  editorial. 
While  the  questions  of  capacity  of  a  particular  turbine 
and  of  what  capacity  turbine  or  turbines  should  be  in- 
stalled for  given  load  conditions  are  separable,  they 
are,  of  course,  closely  related,  one  greatly  influencing 
the  other. 

This  latter  question  has  always  been  a  controversial 
one;  but  since  the  introduction  of  turbines  of  large 
capacity — units  of  30,000  and  35,000  kw.  are  becoming 
numerous  and  some  of  60,000  kw.  are  being  built — it 
has  become  more  unsettled.  This  question,  which  is 
that  of  what  reserve  capacity  to  allow,  also  is  one  de- 
manding consideration  by  individuals  and  the  engineer- 
ing societies. 


How   Is  This  for  Red  Tape? 

Considerable  has  been  said  about  the  water-power 
developments  of  this  country  being  tied  up  with  gov- 
ernmental red  tape,  but  how  about  Italy?  E.  Strachan 
Morgan,  writing  in  the  London  Electrical  Review  on, 
"Electrical  Developments  in  Italy,"  says: 

There  were  a  short  time  ago  lying  in  the  Minister©  delle 
Finanze  2G00  demands  for  water-power  concessions,  some 
of  wliich  had  been  on  file  for  more  than  20  years.  Even  by 
the  provisions  of  the  Villa  Bill,  drafted  with  a  view  to 
simplifying  procedure,  every  demand  goes  through  twelve 
stages.  It  goes  to  the  Prefetto,  to  the  Genio  Civile,  to  the 
Magistrato  Supi-emo  delle  Acque  in  Rome,  then  back  to  the 
Prefetto,  to  the  Deputazione  Provinciale,  then  back  to  the 
Genio  Civile,  which  at  last  orders  a  survey  of  the  local 
conditions,  then  back  to  the  Magistrato  Supremo  in  Rome, 
then  to  the  Ministei'O  dei  Lavori  Pubblici,  then  back  to  the 
Magistrato  Supremo,  then  to  the  Ministero  delle  Finanze. 
at  whose  recommenclation  the  concession  may  be  granted 
by  a  Decreto  Reale.  It  does  not  take  nmcli  knowledge  of 
bureaucratic  procedure  to  realize  what  considerable  possi- 
bilities of  delay  there  are  even  in  this  "express"  treatment 
of  a  demand. 


Show  your  patriotism  by  contributing  to  the  Ameri- 
can Red  Cross  Fund. 


696 


POWEK 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


Determining  of  Load  Centers  of  Circuits' 


By  TERRELL  CROFT 


The  abject  of  this  article  is  to  explain  the  loca- 
tion of  load  centers  of  electric  circuits  in  a  ivay 
that  it  can  be  readily  understood.  The  results 
given  by  the  methods  indicated,  are  not  ab- 
solutely accurate,  but  they  are  sufficiently  so  for 
all  practical  purposes. 

THE  location  of  the  load  center  of  a  circuit  with 
a  distributed  load  must  be  determined  before  any 
wiring  formula  can  be  correctly  used  for  it.  The 
load  center  of  a  circuit  is  that  point  at  which  the  total 
load  on  the  circuit  can  be  assumed  to  be  concentrated 
when  making  wiring  calculations.  An  electrical-load 
center  is  somewhat  analogous  to  a  center  of  gravity  of 
a  body.  To  illustrate,  in  Fig.  1  all  of  the  eight  lamps 
are  of  the  same  size  and  equal  distances  apart.  The 
load  center  for  the  branch  circuit  lying  between  switch 
S  and  the  last  lamp  B  is  at  AA;  that  is,  it  is  at  the 
middle  of  the  group  of  lamps.  The  distance  from  the 
starting  point  S  of  the  circuit  to  the  load  center,  de- 
noted by  D,  would  be  used  for  the  distance  D  in  the  di- 

22ID 
rect-current   formula,   cir.mils.   ^      „    .      The  voltage 

drop  E,i  in  the  formula  would  be  the  drop  in  the  cir- 
cuit from  the  switch  S  to  the  last  lamp  B.  The  cur- 
rent /  of  the  formula  would  be  the  total  current  taken 
by  all  of  the  eight  lamps,  or  for  any  condition  the  sum 
of  the  amperes  taken  by  all  the  elements  on  the  cir- 
cuits. If  the  conductors  were  calculated  for  a  drop  of 
5  volts,  the  drop  between  S  and  B  v^'ould  be  5  volts. 
Then  if  the  electromotive  force  impressed  at  S  is  110 
volts,  the  pressure  at  lamp  B,  with  all  lamps  burning, 
will  be  110  —  5  =  105  volts.  The  other  seven  lamps 
in  the  group  would  be  subjected  to  somewhat  greater 
voltages.  The  pressure  would  increase  slightly  at  each 
successive  lamp  in  the  direction  of  the  switch;  lamp  C 
would  receive  the  highest  pressure  of  the  group. 

In  practice  the  location  of  the  load  center  is  seldom 
determined  by  calculation.  An  approximate  location  is 
assumed,  the  position  of  which  is  determined  by  inspec- 
tion of  the  loads  on  the  circuit  and  their  positions.  Con- 
siderable experience  is  necessary  before  the  center  can 
be  thus  located  by  inspection  with  a  fair  degree  of  ac- 
curacy. The  beginner  should  compute  several  cases 
until  he  is  famiUar  with  the  principles  involved.  A  high 
degree  of  accuracy  in  the  location  of  the  load  center 
is  not  essential,  because  there  are  other  factors  enter- 
ing into  wiring  calculations  that  usually  cannot  be  ac- 
curately determined. 

The  load  center  of  a  group  of  receivers  symmetrically 
arranged  and  all  of  the  same  capacity  will  be  in  the 
middle  of  the  group,  as  indicated  in  Figs.  1  and  2. 
The  distance  denoted  by  D  in  the  wiring  calculation 
formula  is  the  distance  from  the  beginning  of  the  cir- 
cuit under  consideration  to  the  load  center,  measured 
along  the  circuit. 

The  load  center  of  a  group  of  receivers  unsymmetric- 
ally  located  or  of  unequal  capacities  is  found  by  first 


multiplying  the  normal-ampere  capacity  of  each  receiver 
by  its  distance  from  the  beginning  of  the  circuit  under 
consideratioa,  second,  adding  all  these  products  to- 
gether, and  third,  dividing  this  sum  by  the  total  current 
of  the  circuit.  The  quotient  thus  obtained  will  be  the 
distance  in  feet  of  the  load  center  from  the  starting 
point  of  the  circuit.  In  Fig.  3  there  are  three  loads 
of  100,  40  and  20  amperes  located  80,  100  and  150 
ft.  respectively  from  the  switch  S  at  the  source  of  sup- 
ply. To  find  the  location  of  the  load  center  as  explained 
in  the  foregoing,  first  multiply  the  distance  in  feet  each 
load  is  from  the  beginning  of  the  circuit,  by  the  normal 
amperes  of  the  load  corresponding  to  each  distance. 
Thus: 

80  ft.  X  100  amp.  =  8,000  amp.-ft. 
100  ft.  X  40  amp.  =  4,000  amp.-ft. 
130  ft.  X     20  amp.  =     2,600  amp.-ft. 

Total,       160  amp.        14,600  amp.-ft. 

Then  the  total  ampere-feet  divided  by  the  total  cur- 
rent is  14,600  ~  160  =  91.25  ft.,  equals  the  distance 
the  load  center  is  from  the  beginning  of  the  circuit  as 
shown  in  the  figure. 

Instead  of  measuring  all  the  distances  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  circuit,  they  can  be  measured  from  the 
first  receiver  of  the  group;  then  the  resulting  distance 
to  the  load  center  will  be  measured  from  the  first  re- 
ceiver of  the  group.  The  example  Fig.  4,  illustrates 
this  method.  Multiplying  the  distance  in  feet  of  each 
receiver  from  the  first  load  by  each  load  in  amperes,  the 
result  is: 

0  ft.  X   100  amp.  =  0  amp.-ft. 

20  ft.  X     40  amp.  =      800  amp.-ft. 
50  ft.  X     20  amp.  =    1,000  amp.-ft. 

Total,     160  amp-        1,800  amp.-ft. 

Then  dividing  the  total  ampere-feet  by  the  total  am- 
peres, 1800  -^  160  =  11.25  ft.,  equals  the  distance  in 
feet  from  the  first  load  to  the  load  center.  This  value 
plus  the  distance  from  the  beginning  of  the  circuit  to 
the  first  load  is  the  distance  that  the  load  center  is  from 
the  supply  end  of  the  circuit,  in  this  case  equals  80  + 
11.25  =  91.25  ft.,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  4.  This  result 
is  the  same  as  that  obtained  with  the  method  given  in 
Fig.  3.  However,  it  should  be  noted  that  these  methods 
are  not  absolutely  correct,  because  they  assume  that 
each  receiver  takes  its  normal  current.  This  assump- 
tion is  not  a  true  one,  because  the  voltage  at  the  farther 
end  of  a  circuit  is  lower  than  that  at  the  near  end. 
Consequently,  the  same  lamps  or  other  receivers  will 
pass  more  current  if  located  at  the  near  end  of  the  cir- 
cuit than  at  the  far  end.  Nevertheless,  these  values 
are  accurate  enough  for  use  in  wiring  calculations. 

Where  no  energy  is  taken  from  a  circuit  except  at  its 
end,  the  distance  D  used  in  the  formula  for  circular 
mils,  is  the  entire  length  of  the  circuit.  This  is  illus- 
trated by  the  example  in  Fig.  5.  Here  the  only  load  on 
the  circuit  is  one  of  100  amperes  at  the  end  of  the  line, 
250  ft.  from  the  supply  main.  Then  the  load  center  is 
at  the  point  AA  in  the  circuit,  or  where  the  load  is 
located.  With  a  100-ampere  load  and  a  5-volt  drop  in 
the  line,  the  size  of  conductors  required  is 


•Copyright,   liUS,  by  Terrell  Croft. 


cir.mils  = 


22DI     22  A  250  X  100 
Ed    ~  5 


=  110,000 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


697 


The  problem,  Fip.  6,  will  further  illustrate  how  a 
load-center  value  is  used  and  is  typical  of  those  which 
are  often  encountered  in  practice: 

A  direct-current  circuit  is  to  supply  a  total  load  of  155 
amperes.  This  load  is  subdivided  into  minor  loads  of 
35,  15,  60  and  45  amperes,  located  respectively  180,  200, 
280  and  325  ft.  from  the  source  of  energy,  as  indicated 
in  the  figure.  The  permissible  drop  in  the  circuit  is 
5  volts.  Where  is  the  load  center  located?  What  size 
conductors  should  be  used  to  insure  that  the  drop  to  the 
last  load  on  the  circuit  (the  45-ampere  load)  will  not 
exceed  the  permissible  drop  Ed  —  b  volts? 

To  find  the  location  of  the  load  center  the  procedure 
indicated  in  Fig.  3  may  be  followed,  thus: 

180  ft.  X  35  amp.  =  6,S00  amp.-fl, 

200  ft.  X  15  amp.  =  3,000  amp.-ft. 

280  ft.  X  60  amp.  =  16,800  amp.-ft. 

325  ft.  X  45  amp.  =  14,625  amp.-fl. 


the  circuit,  the  distances  and  the  voltage  at  each  re- 
ceiver, are  shown  on  the  figui-e.  The  total  drop  to  the 
last  load  is  4.48  volts.  The  drop  in  each  section  was 
computed  by  the  formula: 

cir.mun 
where  D  is  the  length  in  feet  of  each  section.    Hence  the 

22  X  180  X  155 


volts  drop  in  the  first  section  is  Ed  =  — 


200,000 


3.07  volts, 

in  the  second  section, j&d  ■ 


22  X  20  X  120 
200;000 


0.27  volt, 


•     .u     .u-  A        ^-       IP       22  X  80  X  105      „„,,      ,, 
in  the  third  section,  £^rf  = sTmniv^ =  O-"-^  volt, 


200,000 


155  amp.  40,725  amp.-ft. 


s 

1 

1 

- 

k 

1 

J) 

A 

■i 

'} 

^? 

t^H" 

'^-Sm/cA 

V-- LOAD  CENTER 

-Of?: 

<y\% 


o 


F\e.  I 


$ 

1 

-/oo'- 


-BO 


"A 


k\< 80'-  - 

I 


'Y  W'^'^-Xl 


WAmpA 


^'\i?     h 


k- -" -n=9I.S5'-  --- >J     '40Amp.       'W/^ty; 

F16.  3 


^-A 


1 

-^ 

r- 


.  100  Amp:- 


-D=9;.Z5'- 
FI&.  4- 


:§  k— • -D'BSO''- 

■S  k E^'SVolfs  - 


-'-\->\    40/lmp.       '^O/lmp. 
'AUIslt^.-LOAD  CENTER- 

A 


A 

-H 


lOOAmp.- 


WOVoHs      ;  mOOO -Cin-  M!/ Caniucfvrs . 


-WPAmp. 


Fie.  6 


!pc;a. 


% 
I 


3SS'-        

-0~SS2,7i 

4,4^  Yo/fs 

'Ec^'3.07 -•A-Ed'OZf^^- Ed-0.9Z 

■  --/so''—--— >\^20'--A<- 30'-— 


155  ^mp. 


,-f1/Pn^.'\  105 /^mp. > 


9&.93yo/t5\(t)^  (rl(^  )g6.e6YoH5        %Jfyi  (  60  )(3) 

I 


■  155  Amp. 


'^/eoA.  jjr 


■105  Amp. 


45  Amp.- — >-    ]>>, 

(4)(^)g5.SBVoHs 


.1^ 


Fie.  6 

FIGS.  1  TO  6.     DIAGRAMS  SHOWING  THE  LOAD  CENTER  OP    DIFFERENT   I-OAD   GROUPINGS 


'^-LOAD  CENTER 

!a 


The  total  ampere-feet  divided  by  the  total  amperes 
is  40,725  -h-  155  =  262.7  ft.  approximately.  Therefore, 
the  load  center  is  the  distance  B  =  262.7  ft.,  as  shovra  in 
the  figure,  from  the  source  of  energy.  The  current  / 
is  155  amperes,  then  the  size  of  the  conductors  required 
to  not  exceed  the  5  volts  drop  in  the  line  is 

22pi 

Ed   ' 


cir.mils 


22^262.7X155^^^^^^^^ 
5 


The  next  size  larger  standard  conductor  is  200,000 
cir.mils.  and  is  the  size  that  will  have  to  be  used.  This 
size  conductor  will  give  a  slightly  less  volts  drop  in  the 
line  than  the  size  calculated  on  account  of  having  less 
resistance. 

The  volts  drop  and  current  in  the  different  sections  of 


22  X  45  X  45 

and  in  the  fourth  section,  £",/  =  — ^qq  qqq —  "^  ^•"  ''""-• 

The  difference  between  the  voltage  at  the  switch  and 
the  volts  drop  in  the  first  section  will  give  the  volts  at 
load  No.  1,  or  100  —  3.07  =  9G.93;  the  difference  be- 
tween the  voltage  at  the  first  load  and  the  volts  drop  in 
the  second  section  will  give  the  volts  impress  at  the 
second  load,  or  96.93  —  0.27  =  96.66  volts;  at  the  third 
load  the  volts  equal  96.66  —  0.92  =:  95.74  volts ;  and  at 
the  last  load  the  volts  equal  94.74  —  0.22  =  95.52  volts. 
This  makes  the  volts  drop  in  the  line  4.48  instead  of  5, 
as  assumed  at  the  beginning  on  account  of  the  con- 
ductors being  slightly  larger  than  the  theoretical  size 
calculated. 


693 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


"John  Crane"  Flexible  Metallic  Packing 

Flexibility  and  compressibility  are  necessary  features 
in  a  packing  which  must  also  possess  the  ability  to 
prevent  pressure  from  leaking  past  it.  In  order  to  meet 
these  requirements,  the  "John  Crane"  flexible  metallic 


FIG.  l.N    LUBRICATING  THE  METAL,  STRIPS.     FIG.  2. 
^PACKING.      PIG.    3.      SPIR.'VI,    P.^CKING 


RING 


packing  is  made  by  taking  long  thin  continuous  strips 
of  metal  foil  and  wrapping  them  spirally  around  and 
around  and  back  and  forth  and  coating  each  sheet  with 
a  layer  of  lubricant.  Fig.  1,  the  purpose  of  which  is 
to  permit  the  metal  strips  to  slide  on  each  other  and 


to  allow  bending  about  the  smallest  diameter  rod  and 
at  the  same  time  giving  it  compressibility  sufficient  to 
compensate  for  wear  and  to  control  any  leakage  at 
ordinary  pressures. 

The  antifriction  metal  of  which  the  packing  is  made 
is  so  soft  that  it  can  be  easily  cut  with  a  knife  and 
it  will  take  any  shape.  This  packing,  made  by  the 
Crane  Packing  Co.,  29  South  Clinton  St.,  Chicago,  111., 
is  in  a  large  number  of  forms,  such  as  straight  lengths, 
rings,  and  spirals,  from  gV  in.  to  2  in.  in  size.  It  is 
.suitable  for  steam,  ammonia,  hot  and  cold  water,  both 
high-  and  low-pressure;  hydraulic,  oil  and  acid  service. 
The  ring  and  the  spiral  forms  of  packing  are  shown  in 
Figs.  2  and  3,  respectively.  The  rings  are  generally 
preferred  for  large  plungers,  and  the  spiral  coils  are 
used  on  small  work,  such  as  valves  and  small  steam  rods. 

Removing  Main-Bearing  Quarter  Blocks 

Lacking  the  right  "twist  of  the  wrist,"  a  simple  job 
sometimes  becomes  an  ordeal.  For  example,  it  became 
necessary  to  remove  the  quarter  blocks  from  the  main 
bearing  of  a  Buckeye  engine.  After  taking  off  the 
cap  and  dropping  the  three  adjusting  wedges  as  far 
as  they  would  go,  the  bearing  would  not  lift  out. 
The  wedges  were  "big  end  down"  and  would  not  come 
out,  of  course;  the  governor  was  over  too  close  to 
allow  them  to  come  out  sidewise,  and  to  shift  the 
governor  over  on  the  shaft  was  "some  job" — ^this  was 
done  once,  but  was  not  bragged  about  later  when  the 
right  way  was  found.  The  fact  that  this  (shifting 
the  governor)  was  done  by  the  engineering  staff  of  a 
steel  company  seems  to  justify  writing  this.  All  there 
is  to  getting  the  wedges  out  of  the  way  is  to  move 
two  of  them  over  to  one  side  enough  to  allow  the  other 
to  be  laid  over  on  its  side  (small  end  toward  the  others) 
then  the  middle  one  can  be  laid  over  alongside  of  it 
(small  end  toward  the  large  end  of  the  first  one)  and 
pushed  over  enough  to  allow  the  third  one  to  be  laid 
over  on  its  side.  This  leaves  "all  kinds  of  room"  to 
handle  the  quarter  block. 


ORMAr  PROCESS,  F*T. 


ADJUSTING  WEDGES  LAID  OVER  ON  SIDES  OUT  OF  THE  WAY 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


699 


Favorable  Performance  of  High  Setting 

By  H.  L.  Strong 

Though  modern  practice  has  proven  the  desirability 
cf  setting  boilers  well  up  from  the  fire  and  leaving 
ample  room  for  the  complete  burning  of  the  gases,  it 
seems  difficult  for  many  to  grasp  the  idea  and  apply  it 
in  practice,  especially  when  applied  to  horizontal  tubular 
boilers. 

I  have  found  that  low  settings,  especially  for  boilers 
that  are  forced,  give  the  following  troubles:  Reduced 
capacity,  less  efficiency,  smoke,  severe  conditions  for  the 
fire  sheets,  rear  tube  sheets  and  tube  ends,  also  severe 
service  for  the  firebrick  linings,  and  excessive  deposits 
of  ash  in  the  combustion  chamber,  which  become  fused 
and  difficult  to  remove.  New  River  coal  is  used.  We 
have  in  our  plant  four  90-in.  return-tubular  boilers  set 
38  in.  above  the  grate,  and  it  requires  careful  firing  to 
obtain  12  per  cent.  CO,.  The  flow  meters  will  register 
800  hp.  on  heavy  driving.  The  outside  lap  of  the  first 
girth  seam  on  all  four  boilers  became  burned  and  cracked 
and  it  was  necessary  to  electrically  weld  the  seams  and 
rivets. 

The  combustion  chambers  fill  rapidly,  and  we  have 
to  loosen  the  deposit  with  a  pick  and  clean  it  out  at 
least  every  fourth  week.  The  firebrick  linings  deteri- 
orate rapidly,  and  ash  deposits  fuse  onto  the  walls  back 
to  and  including  the  rear  wall  and  have  to  be  broken  off 
with  picks  and  bars.  These  are  hand-fired  boilers  hav- 
ing shaking  grates,  set  level.  With  the  exception  of 
the  height  of  setting  and  level  grates,  these  boilers  are 
identical  with  the  setting  of  the  fifth  one  of  this  type, 
which  we  installed  during  the  summer  of  1917  and 
which  is  described  here.  The  new  boiler  is  set  5  ft.  4 
in.  above  the  dead  plate.  The  grate  is  of  the  shaking 
type,  built  in  four  sections,  and  half  of  each  section 
shakes  separately.  The  grate  is  7  ft.  deep  and  12  ft 
wide,  the  furnace  design  being  such  that  the  grate  pro- 
jects 2  ft.  3  in.  beyond  the  boiler  on  each  side.  The 
grate  pitches  to  the  rear  one  inch  to  the  foot,  or  seven 
inches  in  all.  The  height  from  the  rear  end  of  the 
grate  to  the  shell  is  5  ft.  11  in.;  height  of  bridge-wall, 
2  ft.  3  in.  A  considerably  higher  bridge-wall  was  tried 
in  connection  with  a  hand  stoker  grate  having  1  ft.  8  in. 
pitch  in  7  ft.,  but  the  heat  was  so  intense  that  it  melted 
out  this  bridge  about  as  fast  as  we  could  repair  it.  The 
distance  from  the  bridge-wall  to  the  shell  is  3  ft.  8  in.; 
extreme  height  of  furnace,  8  ft.  9  in.;  distance  from 


combustion-chamber  floor  to  shell,  G  fl;.  6  in. ;  from  rear 
head  to  rear  wall,  2  ft.  8  in. ;  width  of  combustion  cham- 
ber, or  setting  beyond  grate,  practically  the  same  as  the 
diameter  of  boiler,  or  90  in. 

Unfortunately,  we  made  no  test  of  this  boiler,  and 
some  valuable  information  is  therefore  not  available. 
This  boiler  raises  steam  from  cold  water  quicker  than 
the  lower-set  boilers.  The  capacity  is  greater  when 
driving  on  peak  loads;  for  under  conditions  where  the 
others  do  800  hp.,  the  new  one  frequently  shows  1000  hp. 
on  the  flow  meter.  Any  reasonably  good  firing  will 
maintain  15  per  cent.  CO,  on  the  recorder,  and  I  have 
never  yet  found  more  than  a  trace  of  CO.  The  extreme 
variation  of  load  and  consequent  draft  irregularity 
(0.25  in.  to  0.5  in.  over  the  fire)  is  favorable  to  CO 
production,  too.  The  accompanying  CO,  chart  was  made 
on  an  ordinary  run.  Between  6:15  and  7:15  p.m.  the 
fire  was  cleaned,  which  accounts  for  the  condition  shown. 
We  allow  one  hour  from  the  time  cleaning  is  started 
until  the  fire  is  again  in  working  order.  When  it  is 
understood  that  this  fire,  burning  New  River  run-of- 
mine  coal  and  carrying  0.5  in.  draft  over  the  fire,  is 
about  twelve  inches  thick,  it  will  be  appreciated  that 
cleaning  84  sq.ft.  of  grate  and  trimming  off  the  clinker 
is  not  an  easy  job. 

When  in  doubt  about  the  accuracy  of  our  recorders, 
we  check  them  with  the  Orsat,  and  at  the  time  this 
chart  was  made  the  recorder  agreed  exactly  with  the 
Orsat.  Some  years'  experience  with  gas  analysis  has 
convinced  me  that  a  high  percentage  of  CO,  is  not  so 
dangerous  to  economy  as  many  think,  especially  when 
there  is  careful  and  eflicient  supervision.  I  have  found 
the  worst  cases  of  CO  in  samples  having  12  to  13  per 
cent.  CO,  If  a  recorder  shows  15  to  17  per  cent.  COj,  it 
is  fairly  safe  to  say  that  there  is  not  much,  if  any,  CO 
present.  I  do  not  recall  that  I  ever  found  over  1  per 
cent.  CO  in  a  sample  of  15  to  17  per  cent.  CO,  and  more 
frequently  none;  I  have,  however,  found  4  per  cent.  CO 
in  samples  containing  12  or  13  per  cent.  CO,.  During 
the  24-hour  period  of  this  CO,  chart,  the  lowest  uptake 
temperature  (aside  from  the  cleaning  period)  was  400 
deg.  F.,  the  highest  525  deg.  F.  and  the  average  474.2 
deg.  F. ;  the  average  temperature  of  the  fireroom,  75.7 
deg.  F. 

[The  performance  between  3  a.m.  and  12.30  p.m. 
that  is,  15  per  cent.  CO,  or  better  without  a  break,  is 
indeed  commendable  for  a  hand-fired  plant;  in  fact,  it 
is  a  remarkable  performance. — Editor.  | 


•/o  CO  2  record. 
Vlp...VII     VIII    IX 


X 


Boiier  Na 

XI      XII     Ia.«. 


2^ 


Average  for  24  hrs     N-  " 
IV     V      VI      VII    VIII    IX 


-V. 


DM^     .IAN  10  1918 


I 


XI      XIInooii  If.  m.     II 


IV     Vp, 


i»- 


4  9- 


llllllllllllllllllllllllll 

!!  :;;;:!!  !:!!!:i[:!!!!!i!!!  .i— ..  n.  ...... 

:::::;:::::;:  ii!!!i!i.!:!i!!!;!!!i!i!!;  :::  :;!!!!!!!;!;;!!!!:;!:! 


••.■••■••■iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.iii.il. 


Averages. /A.P.. 


..^....a<^. 


ja 


.rir^ri. 


ILJ. 


.£:.. 


CO:  CH.\RT,  !10  IN.  HORIZONTAL  RKTITRN-TUKUUAR  BOII,l'3R  BURNING  NI'^A'  RIVKR  COAL 


700 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


What  Your  Red  Cross  Dollars  Do 


LESS  than  a  year  ago  the  Red  Cross  called  upon 
the  American  people  for  a  fund  of  $100,000,000 
with  which  to  finance  the  tremendous  work  of 
relief  and  reconstruction  that  was  vital  to  our  Allies 
and  ourselves,  if  the  German  terror  was  to  be  beaten 
back. 

And  so  the  call  came  for  the  First  War  Fund,  and  in 
one  week  America's  answer  went  echoing  back  to  Europe 
— more  than  a  hundred  million  was  freely  given  to 
make  the  world  fit  for  democracy.  At  that  time  the 
membership  of  the  Red  Cross  was  less  than  two  million. 
In  six  months  it  had  increased  to  five  million  and  with 
the  Christmas  membership  drive  the  enrollment  sprang 
in  one  mighty  bound  to  22,000,000  loyal  supporters  of 
this  perfect  embodiment  of  the  nation's  puiTDOse  in  this 
war. 

Today  the  American  Red  Cross  is  the  largest  organi- 
zation of  any  kind  in  the  world  and  the  greatest  force 
for  good.  In  the  black  welter  of  warring  nations  it  is 
the  one  bright  spot  of  Hope — Humanity's  Light. 

With  such  a  vast  working  force  behind  it  there  will 
never  be  any  doubt  that  the  tremendous  work,  which 
in  the  la^t  twelve  months  has  been  barely  started,  will 
be  upheld  and  continued  throughout  the  war  until  its 
ravages  have  been  restored.  For  this  purpose  the 
American  people  are  going  to  be  asked  to  contribute 
$100,000,000  more  during  what  is  known  as  the  Second 
Red  Cross  War  Fund  Week,  May  20-27. 

But  with  each  call  for  funds  the  question  naturally 
arises  as  to  where  these  millions  go,  and  since  twenty- 
two  million  members  have  a  right  to  know  how  their 
money  is  being  spent,  the  following  gives  in  brief 
what  the  first  War  Fund  has  been  appropriated  for  up 
until  Mar.  1,  1918. 

France,  $30,936,103.04 

Established  infirmaries  and  rest  stations  along  all  routes 
followed  by  the  American  troops  in  France. 

Built  canteens  for  use  of  French  and  American  soldiers 
at  the  front,  also  at  railroad  junctions  and  in  Paris. 

Supplied  American  troops  with  comfort  kits  and  sent 
them  Christmas  gifts. 

Established  a  hospital  distributing  service  that  supplies 
3423  French  military  hospitals  and  a  surgical  dressing  serv- 
ice that  supplies  2000. 

Provided  an  artiflcial-limb  factory  and  special  plants  for 
the  manufacture  of  splints  and  nitrous  oxide  gas. 

Established  a  casualty  service  for  gathering  information 
in  regard  to  wounded  and  missing. 

Opened  a  children's  refuge  hospital  in  the  war  zone  and 
established  a  medical  center  and  traveling  dispensary  to 
accommodate  1200  childi-en  in  the  reconquered  sections  of 
France.  Fifty  thousand  childi'en  throughout  France  are 
being  cared  for  in  some  measure  by  the  Red  Ci'oss. 

Planned  extensive  reclamation  work  in  the  invaded  sec- 
tions of  France  from  which  the  enemy  has  been  driven;  this 
work  now  being  carried  out  with  the  cooperation  of  the 
Society  of  Friends  and  an  alumni  unit  from  Smith  College. 

Established  a  large  central  warehouse  in  Paris  and 
numerous  distribution  warehouses  at  important  points  from 
the  sea  to  the  Swiss  border  for  storing  hospital  supplies, 
food,  soldiers'  comforts,  tobacco,  blankets,  clothing,  beds  and 
other  articles  of  relief. 

Secured  and  operate  400  motor  vehicles  for  the  distri- 
bution of  supplies. 

Opened  a  hospital  and  convalescent  home  for  the  repatrie 
children  at  Evian;  also  established  an  ambulance  service  for 
the  adult  repatries  who  are  now  returning  from  points 
within  the  German  lines  at  the  rate  of  1000  a  day. 

Organized  a  nurses'  sei'vice  for  American  Army  use. 

Established  twenty  dispensaries  in  the  American  Army 


*Compiled  from  American  Red  Cross  Reports. 


zone  to  improve  health  conditions  in  that  section  before  the 
coming  of  American  troops. 

Belgium,  $2,086,131 

Erected  warehouses  and  stores  to  serve  as  centers  of 
relief  distribution. 

Started  reconstruction  work  in  reconquered  territory, 
supplying  repatriates  with  temporary  dwellings,  tools,  fur- 
niture, farm  animals  and  supplies  essential  to  giving  them 
a  fresh  start  in  life. 

Appropriated  $600,000  for  the  relief  of  Belgian  children, 
covering  their  removal  from  territories  under  bombardment 
and  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  them  in  colonies. 

Provided  funds  for  the  operation  of  a  hospital  for  wounded 
Belgian  soldiers  and  for  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  typhoid 
hospital. 

Italy,  $3,588,826 

Provided  the  Italian  Army  with  three  complete  motor- 
ambulance  sections  comprising  sixty  ambulances,  forty 
trucks  and   100  American  drivers. 

Contracted  for  10  field  hospitals  complete  for  use  by  the 
Sanita  Militaire  and  the  Italian  Red  Cross. 

Supplied  1,000,000  surgical  dressings.  Opened  relief  head- 
quarters in  nine  regional  districts  of  Italy. 

Established  a  hospital  for  refugees  at  Rimini. 

Planned  and  made  appropriations  for  extensive  work 
among  the  refugees  in  all  parts  of  Italy. 

Rumania,  $2,676,369 

Rushed  moi-e  than  $100,000  worth  of  medical  supplies  and 
foodstuffs  into  Rumania  immediately  after  the  retreat  to 
Jassy. 

Carried  general  relief  work  into  every  part  of  the  stricken 
country  not  invaded  by  the  Teuton  and  Bulgarian  forces. 

United  States,  $8,589,899 

Organized  and  trained  45  ambulance  companies,  totaling 
5580  men,  for  service  with  American  soldiers  and  sailors. 

Built  and  maintained  four  laboratory  ears  for  emergency 
use  in  stamping  out  epidemics  at  cantonments  and  training 
camps. 

Started  work  of  eradicating  unsanitary  conditions  in  the 
zones  immediately  surrounding  the  cantonments. 

Established  camp-service  bureaus  to  look  out  for  comfort 
and  welfare  of  soldiers  in  training. 

Supplied  two  million  sweaters  to  soldiers  and  sailors. 

Mobilized  14,000  trained  nurses  for  care  of  our  men. 

Established  a  department  of  Home  Service  and  opened 
training  schools  for  home  service  workers. 

Planned  convalescent  houses  at  all  cantonments  and  train- 
ing camps.  Increased  membership  from  a  scant  half  million 
to  approximately  22,000,000. 

Other    Disbursements 

For  War  Relief  in  other  countries,  including  Great  Britain, 
Russia  and  Serbia,  $7,581,075. 

To  supply  food  to  American  prisoners  in  Germany,  $343,- 
304. 

For  supplies  purchased  for  shipment  abroad  and  for 
advances  to  chapters  for  material,  $15,000,000. 

Equipment  and  expenses  in  United  States  of  personnel 
for  Europe,  $113,800. 

Restricted  as  to  use  by  donors,  $2,500,410. 

Working  cash  advanced  for  France  and  United  States, 
$4,286,000. 

Making  a  grand  total  of  approximately  $78,000,000. 

To  those  who  care  to  study  the  details  of  how  each 
penny  has  been  spent,  printed  statements  covering  all 
War  Fund  appropriations  are  obtainable  from  Chapter 
chairmen. 

The  foregoing  covers  some  of  the  principal  battle 
grounds  in  the  Red  Cross  War  against  want  and  misery, 
but  other  millions  are  being  constantly  appropriated 
to  meet  new  needs  as  they  arise,  and  the  War  Fund 
must  be  replenished,  for  it  is  inconceivable  that  such 
work  should  ever  be  allowed  to  suffer  for  the  lack  of 
mere  money. 

Give  to  your  Red  Cross  until  your  heart  says  stop — 
it  is  the  Heart  of  the  World. 


May  14,  1918  POWER  701 

sill I Illlll Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllll Ill Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll I Illllllllllllllllllllllll IllilllllllllllllllUllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllli^ 


Editorials 


iiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiMi mil II iiiiMiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiniii iii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiniiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimnmnniiii: 


How   About   Next   Winter? 

IF  REPORTS  are  any  indication,  the  coal  situation  is 
far  from  satisfactory.  To  say  the  least,  conditions 
are  anj-thing  but  reassuring,  and  the  possibilities  of  ex- 
periencing a  fuel  shortage  during  the  coming  winter,  as 
we  did  last,  have  not  by  any  means  been  entirely  re- 
moved. The  Fuel  Administration  has  been  putting  into 
effect  very  elaborate  and  no  doubt  effective  plans  and 
probably  is  doing  all  that  is  possible  to  meet  the  emer- 
gency so  far  as  getting  coal  out  of  the  mines  and  de- 
livering it  to  the  consumer.  However,  there  is  another 
side  to  the  question — how  the  coal  is  utilized  after  be- 
ing delivered  to  the  consumer — and  this  is  just  as  im- 
portant to  think  about  just  now  as  the  delivery  of  the 
coal,  since  every  ton  saved  during  the  summer  is  a  ton 
available  next  winter. 

Almost  simultaneously  with  an  announcement  that  the 
coal  situation  was  critical,  the  restriction  on  the  use  of 
advertising  illumination  was  removed.  Would  it  not 
have  been  more  in  keeping  with  the  seriousness  of  the 
fuel  problem  to  have  continued  the  restrictions  until 
such  times  as  we  might  look  forward  with  some  feeling 
of  certainty  that  coal  would  be  forthcoming  ne.xt  winter, 
when  it  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  human  existence  in 
cold  climates? 

Preston  S.  Millar,  in  a  paper  presented  before  the 
Illuminating  Engineering  Society  in  New  York  City, 
February  15,  pointed  out  that  the  net  coal  saving 
thought  desirable  through  curtailment  of  lighting  was 
equivalent  to  seven  per  cent,  of  twelve  million  tons  used 
for  the  production  of  light  by  electricity,  or  eight  hun- 
dred and  forty  thousand  tons.  The  author  expresses  the 
opinion  that  the  saving  possible  through  the  curtailment 
of  light  is  so  small  compared  with  the  coal  saving  pos- 
sible by  other  adjustment  as  to  make  that  obtained  by 
the  curtailment  of  lighting  of  little  consequence. 

However,  we  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  this 
saving  is  obtained  after  increasing  industrial  lighting 
fifty  per  cent,  above  the  standard  at  that  time,  and 
increasing  protective  lighting  two  hundred  per  cent.  If 
industrial  lighting  had  not  been  increased  as  suggested 
by  Mr.  Millar,  but  maintained  at  its  present  standard, 
it  would  have  made  possible  a  total  saving  of  approxi- 
mately sixteen  per  cent.,  or  two  million  tons  of  coal  per 
year.  But  allowing  that  it  is  possible  to  save  only  eight 
hundred  and  forty  thousand  tons  per  year  by  lighting 
curtailment,  this  is  something  more  than  an  insignifi- 
cant item.  If  this  amount  of  additional  coal  had  been 
available  last  winter  and  had  been  used  for  heating 
homes,  at  least  eight  hundred  and  forty  thousand  fami- 
lies could  have  been  kept  warm  for  a  month.  Or  if  used 
for  industrial  lighting  and  power  purposes,  many  of  the 
industries  that  were  forced  to  shut  down  or  curtail  their 
output  for  considerable  periods  last  winter  could  have 
run  at  full  capacity. 

The  fact  that  if  each  family  in  this  country  would  de- 
crease by  one  .shovelful  its  daily  use  of  coal  the  result 


would  be  an  annual  saving  of  fifteen  million  tons  looks 
simple  at  first  thought,  but  we  must  not  overlook  the 
fact  that  last  winter  tens  of  thousands  of  families  in 
this  country  did  not  have  the  one  shovelful  to  save 
and  would  have  been  only  too  glad  to  have  had  some  of 
the  six  hundred  thousand  tons  used  for  advertising 
illumination. 

Let  us  not  forget  that  there  is  another  winter  not  very 
far  ahead  of  us,  ar.d  that  all  the  time  the  demands  for 
light  and  power  in  industries  essential  to  the  winning  of 
the  war  are  increasing.  If  the  high  rate  of  production 
that  these  industries  have  been  establishing  this  last 
month  or  so  is  to  be  kept  up  the  year  around,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  they  have  an  uninterrupted 
coal  supply  for  light,  heat  and  power  and  that  the 
employees  have  comfortable  homes  during  the  cold 
season  as  well  as  in  the  summer.  Until  it  is  abso- 
lutely certain  that  the  coal  supply  is  adequate  to  meet 
this  demand,  it  would  seem  that  we  can  do  with  some- 
what dimmed  white  ways,  which  have  become  a  part  of 
our  city  life. 

Pseudo  Data 

CE.  STROMEYER  is  reported  in  Engineering  to 
•  have  said  during  discussion  of  a  meeting  of  the 
Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  London,  that  per- 
sonally he  disliked  associating  boiler  insurance  with 
boiler  inspection.  As  an  instance  of  how  insurance 
worked,  he  stated  that  in  America  there  was  no  asso- 
ciation which  corresponded  to  those  in  England  whose 
first  duty  is  to  inspect.  The  American  boiler-insurance 
companies  he  said,  published  at  intervals  a  leaflet 
giving  the  number  of  boiler  explosions,  the  standard 
being  the  number  of  deaths  caused.  In  England,  for 
insured  and  inspected  boilers,  there  were  ten  deaths 
per  annum  as  against  two  hundred  in  America.  That 
illustrated  the  significance  of  inspection. 

As  reported,  the  figures  are  significant  of  nothing. 
We  do  not  question  but  that  per  unit  number  of  boilers 
in  service,  we  in  America  have  more  boiler  explosions 
than  occur  in  England.  The  excellent  supervision  by 
the  Board  of  Trade  and  the  service  to  members  by  the 
Manchester  Steam  Users'  Association,  for  which  Mr. 
Stromeyer  is  chief  engineer,  are  influential  factors  in 
preventing  boiler  accidents.  But  data,  or  more  cor- 
rectly, perhaps,  statistics,  given  or  reported  in  such 
loose  manner  were  better  unsaid.  The  reader  or 
listener  should  know  what  is  considered  as  an  explo- 
sion, what  relation  the  terms  of  the  ratio  10:  200  deaths 
per  annum  bears  to  the  total  number  of  boilers  installed 
or  in  service  in  the  two  counti-ies  respectively. 

The  trend  of  business  makes  it  increasingly  import- 
ant that  engineering  data  be  comprehensible  as  well 
as  exact.  This  applies  not  only  to  such  cases  as  the 
one  cited,  which  is  used  merely  as  an  example,  but  to 
data  in  general,  and  especially  those  presented  in  society 
papers.     No  national  good  can  come  of  giving  informa- 


702 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


tion  that  is  subtle  and  that  is  used  to  achieve  victory 
in  argumentation  for  some  proposals  or  practice  re- 
gardless of  their  engineering  truth  either  as  pure  science 
or  as  related  to  other  conditions  necessary  to  their 
industrial  application. 

Pseudo  facts  may  well  be  used  by  lawyers  (though 
by  every  consideration  of  justice  and  honesty  they  should 
not  he)  ;  but  these  are  wrong  in  engineering — wrong 
ethically  and  socially.  In  his  most  interesting  book, 
"The  Great  News,"  which  contains  so  many  captivating 
phi'ases,  but  which  one  may  gently  criticize  as  a  little 
too  intangible,  Charles  Ferguson  has  a  statement  that 
applies  well  here,  namely:  "...  there  is  abso- 
lutely no  social  will-power  directed  to  the  upkeep  and 
improvement  of  the  apparatus  of  civilization."  The 
point  is  that  each  of  us  is  too  much  concerned  about 
making  good  our  particular  case,  however  much  harm 
may  be  done  or  confusion  created  broadly. 

The  Golden  Rule  must  be  dragged  out  of  a  musty 
book,  sincerely  embraced  and  frankly  applied  by  the 
professions  and  the  trades — not  in  parlor  discussions 
and  philanthropical  endeavors  alone,  but  all  during 
the  working  day.  It  must  dull  the  narrow,  personal  and 
selfish  conscience  and  stimulate  the  broad,  national 
conscience  to  which  the  war's  hardships  and  magnitude 
have  given  new  life.  Certainly  the  great  blessing  of 
the  war  will  be  the  honest,  altruistic  cooperation  and 
coordination  of  the  forces  of  civilization  to  make  the 
world  a  better  place  to  live  in.  When  each  nation, 
bleeding,  hungry  and  poor,  emerges  from  the  long  strug- 
gle and  turns  to  look  over  its  shoulder  at  the  fields 
and  seas  where  lie  its  young  and  honored  dead,  it  will 
resolve  that  nevermore  shall  science  be  the  handmaid 
of  holocaust ;  but  rather  that  it  shall  serve  the  peaceful 
arts  so  well  that  the  incentive  which  gives  birth  to 
wars  will  starve  into  extinction.  To  even  make  a  good 
beginning,  facts  must  be  presented  so  as  to  be  exposed 
top,  bottom  and  all  sides. 


Looking  Ahead 


FROM  coal  heaver  to  general  manager  seems  a  long 
uphill  climb — a  journey  that  many  begin  and  few 
finish — yet  it  is  supprising  how  quickly  some  make  the 
trip.  It  seems  but  yesterday  that  they  were  heaving 
coal  and  sweeping  tubes,  yet  ten  years  have  slipped  by, 
and  today  they  are  directing  the  management  of  the 
whole  plant  and  ever  planning  for  improved  conditions 
and  greater  things.  These  men  kept  their  eyes  front. 
By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  they  dared  not  glance  side- 
ways, but  that  they  had  a  fixed  goal — a  beacon  ahead 
upon  which  they  kept  their  eyes  fixed  in  order  to 
steer  the  course  that  they  knew  would  shorten  their 
trip  to  that  harbor  of  Success.  These  fellows  were 
never  afraid  to  tackle  a  job,  no  matter  how  much  energy 
it  required.  To  be  sure,  they  must  have  had  times 
when  they  questioned  themselves  as  to  whether  they  were 
capable  of  doing  it — ^this  is  just  what  gave  them  confi- 
dence. 

Never  before  in  the  history  of  this  great  nation  has 
there  been  such  a  demand  for  men  who  can  handle 
big  tasks.  Some  of  the  ablest  men  in  the  field  have 
gone  to  Washington  and  into  the  service  of  the  country. 
Their  posts  in  the  plant  had  to  be  filled  by  their 
trained  subordinates,  which  in  turn  meant  a   general 


shake-up  all  through  the  various  grades  in  the  plant, 
and  those  who  were  capable  and  ready  were  boosted 
up  a  step — sometimes  two. 

Our  great  merchant  marine  is  incessantly  calling  for 
engineers  with  ability  and  courage;  already  it  has 
made  large  inroads  on  the  staffs  of  the  power  plants 
throughout  the  country. 

Great  shops  and  industrial  centers  have  developed 
with  astounding  rapidity.  One  stops  to  wonder  where 
they  got  the  men  with  ability  to  fill  the  many  positions 
of  responsibility.  It  does  not  require  much  study  to 
find  where  they  came  from.  They  were  ready  to  answer 
the  call — up  from  the  ranks  to  take  command.  They 
were  men  who  had  faith  in  their  ability  to  develop 
themselves  by  study  and  increasing  work.  Where  are 
you  in  this  great  change  that  is  being  wrought?  Surely, 
you  cannot  be  still  thinking  that  there  is  no  show-vRO 
opening  for  you — no  chance  to  get  into  a  better  job. 
The  only  bid  you  can  make  for  that  better  job  is  to  out- 
grow your  present  one. 

You  would  not  now  be  reading  this  article  if  all  your 
ambition  were  dead.  You  would  not  have  this  maga- 
zine in  your  hands  if  you  were  not  tiying  to  find  some- 
thing that  would  help  you.  Men  don't  read  technical 
papers  for  pastime — they  do  it  to  keep  informed  and 
to  better  themselves. 

The   Coal-Zoning   Plan 

THE  importance  of  an  adequate  coal  supply  in  the 
winning  of  the  war  cannot  be  minimized  or  ignored. 
Decreased  or  interrupted  production  may  result  in  stop- 
page of  industries  engaged  on  war  contracts,  the  en- 
forced idleness  of  labor,  and  eventually  a  condition 
similar  to  that  of  last  winter,  when  thousands  of  homes 
found  themselves  without  heat. 

The  zone  system  of  coal  distribution  put  into  effect 
by  the  order  of  the  United  Staters  Fuel  Administration 
represents  a  serious  and  at  the  same  time  an  ambitious 
attempt  to  cope  with  the  difliculties  of  the  fuel  situation. 
It  is  not  the  outcome  of  ill-advised  haste  or  snap  judg- 
ment, but  rather  a  plan  resulting  from  months  of  study 
and  careful  consideration. 

It  would  be  futile  to  expect  that  a  scheme  so  far- 
reaching  in  its  scope  could  be  put  into  effect  without 
some  disruption  of  established  relations.  The  urgent 
necessity  for  diminishing  the  burden  on  transportation 
facilities  involved  restrictions  and  prohibitions  that  had 
previously  been  unknown ;  but  wherever  it  could  be  done, 
long-established  trade  relations  were  preserved,  since 
this  would  reduce  the  confusion  and  disorganization 
attendant  upon  the  adoption  of  the  new  plan. 

So  many  interests  must  be  considered  in  the  working 
out  of  a  successful  scheme  of  fuel  regulation  that  the 
situation  is  exceedingly  complex,  and  so  it  becomes 
necessary  to  provide  for  a  certain  measui'e  of  flexibility 
in  order  to  meet  changing  conditions  and  unforeseen 
emergencies.  This  has  been  done  by  providing  for  a 
system  of  special  permits  to  be  issued  by  the  Fuel  Ad- 
ministration whenever  circumstances  warrant.  Thus, 
while  the  zone  system  as  announced  may  show  faults 
and  imperfections  as  it  comes  to  be  more  widely  applied, 
the  special-permit  provision  makes  possible  a  prompt 
adjustment  to  prevent  injustice  or  unnecessary  hard- 
ships. 


May  14,  1018                                                                 POWER  703 

luiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ijiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii)!: 


Correspondence 


ii 


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Second-Hand   Boilers  in   Bad  Shape 

A  few  months  ago  I  took  charge  of  a  plant  where  they 
were  installing  a  second-hand  Scotch  marine  boiler  that 
had  been  purchased  by  the  general  manager  from  a  sec- 
ond-hand dealer  who  represented  that  it  had  been  in- 
spected by  a  state  and  also  by  an  insurance  inspector 
and  passed  to  carry  110  lb.  pressure.  I  made  a  thorough 
inspection  of  it  and  found  things  in  good  condition  until 
I  crawled  into  the  combustion  chamber,  and  there  I  saw 
a  sight. 

The  ends  were  burned  off  from  about  three-fourths 
of  the  tubes,  and  some  of  them  were  so  badly  corroded 
that  they  only  stuck  halfway  through  the  tube  sheet. 
The  leakage  had  been  so  bad  that  sediment  almost 
choked  up  some  of  the  tube  ends.  How  inspectors  could 
have  passed  the  boiler  if  they  inspected  it  at  all,  and 
I  don't  believe  they  did,  is  more  than  I  can  say.  We 
had  to  remove  the  tubes,  have  ends  welded  on,  and  re- 
place them  again  before  the  boiler  was  fit  for  service. 
This  cost  the  company  about  two  hundred  dollars  besides 
the  trouble  and  delay  in  getting  the  boiler  into  service. 
It  is  in  good  condition  now  and  giving  satisfactory  serv- 
ice, but  the  incident  goes  to  show  that  it  is  mighty  dan- 
gerous and  expensive  for  a  man  without  practical  knowl- 
edge of  boilers  to  buy  second-hand  ones  without  having 
a  thorough  inspection  made.  S.  A.  Reilly. 

Orrville,  Ohio. 

Saving  Ammonia  and  Coal 

Nearly  all  engineers  know  that  they  should  not  try 
to  save  ammonia  by  not  putting  in  the  proper  charge 
at  the  beginning  of  the  season.  One  can  make  up  for 
a  weak  or  insufficient  charge  only  at  the  expense  of 
the  coal  pile.  This  applies  to  absorption  machines 
particularly.  They  are  commonly  run  with  insufficient 
ammonia,  as  it  is  so  easy  to  get  the  capacity  by  circulat- 
ing a  little  more  weak  liquor  per  pound  of  anhydrous 
needed  to  do  the  refrigeiating. 

This  is  bad  practice.  The  weight  of  weak  liquor 
circulated  per  pound  of  anhydrous  should  be  kept  a.s 
low  as  possible,  say  6  to  7  lb.;  12  or  14  lb.  is  not 
unusual  in  some  plants. 

The  speed  of  the  aqua  pump  should  be  as  steady  as 
possible.  Most  manufacturers  furnish  a  regulator  to 
care  for  this  pump. 

With  coil  absorbers  with  the  separate  mixer  on  each 
coil  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  liquid  to  "dump"  or 
come  in  irregularly.  When  this  happens,  there  occurs 
a  loss  due  to  not  having  the  strong  liquor  from  the 
pump  to  the  generator  at  as  high  a  temperature  as 
it  would  have  if  it  had  passed  in  a  steady  flow  through 
the  exchanger  and  analyzer.  The  flow  of  weak  liquor 
from  the  generator  through  the  exchanger  is  almost 
constant,  and  for  the  exchanger  to  heat  the  strong 
liquor  as  much  as  possible  and  cool  the  weak  liquor 
also,  both  must  pass  in  a  steady  flow. 


Although  machines  fitted  with  this  type  of  absorber 
have  a  large  aqua  receiver  which  helps  to  take  care  of 
irregularities,  the  men  will  often  give  the  pump  too  much 
steam,  causing  too  fast  a  flow  of  liquid.  Where  such 
conditions  obtain,  I  would  disconnect  the  regulator  and 
let  the  men  control  the  pump  by  hand;  they  will  soon 
j;et  it  set  so  it  will  not  stop  and  race. 

I  know  of  one  plant  where  the  irregular  speed  of  the 
aqua  pump  caused  the  temperature  of  the  exchanger  to 
vary  so  that  one  of  the  head  gaskets  blew  out,  with 
a  loss  of  some  ammonia  and  loss  of  the  machine  for 
four  days  during  the  summer's  rush.  Keep  the  pump 
operating  steadily  and  watch  the  liquid  seal  on  the  am- 
monia receiver  so  as  not  to  blow  any  gas  over  in  the 
cooler  or  ice  tank.  Every  pound  of  gas  carries  with 
it  the  latent  heat  plus  the  superheat. 

Keep  the  strong-liquor  pump  rod  packed  so  as  not 
to  leak  ammonia  out  and  air  into  the  system  and  you 
will  have  little  trouble  with  non-condensable  gases, 
which  always  cause  some  loss  of  ammonia  when  purging. 

Make  it  a  rule  when  you  go  on  watch  to  look  things 
over,  then  take  your  sulphur  stick  and  examine  the 
machines  for  leaks,  for  many  small  leaks  will  go  un- 
noticed if  one  depends  only  on  one's  nose  to  find  them, 
especially  if  coils  are  located  on  the  roof. 

Machines  with  double-pipe  or  submerged  cooling  coils, 
where  the  ammonia  from  a  leak  will  be  absorbed  by 
the  water  or  brine,  make  it  necessary  to  test  this  brine 
and  water  with  Nessler's  reagent.  This  should  be  done 
at  least  three  times  a  week. 

The  formula  for  making  Nessler's  reagent  was  pub- 
lished in  the  Jan.  15,  1918,  issue  of  Potver  and  may  be 
found  in  most  handbooks  on  refrigeration.  Sensitive 
paper  is  useful  for  locating  leaks  on  the  water  side  of 
the  machine,  but  cannot  be  depended  upon  in  calcium 
brine,  as  such  brine  turns  the  paper  red  whether  the 
brine  does  or  does  not  contain  ammonia. 

Jersey  City,   N.  J.  Bernard  Lamb. 

Horseshoe  Magnet  a  Handy  Tool 

The  suggestion,  by  W.  H.  Bennett,  page  447  in  the 
issue  of  Mar.  26,  for  removing  drill  chips  is  a  good 
one.  I  have  also  found  that  a  horseshoe  magnet,  one 
taken  out  of  an  old  house  telephone  for  instance,  is 
mighty  useful  for  the  same — and  many  other  purposes. 
If  the  magnet  is  too  large  to  go  into  the  hole,  it 
can  be  put  in  contact  with  a  small  rod  as  an  extension  or 
the  rod  can  easily  be  magnetized  if  near  a  plant  that  has 
magnetizing  coils. 

Two  or  three  magnets  tied  together  will  be  found 
useful  to  wiremen  when  a  knife,  screwdriver,  pliers 
or  other  tool  is  accidentally  dropped  down  an  open  parti- 
tion as  sometimes  happens.  Just  lower  the  magnet 
on  a  string  until  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  tool,  then 
"haul  away."  R.  L.  Peterson. 

Knoxville,  Iowa. 


704 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


Home-Made  Pipe  and  Drilling  Vise 

A  handy  pipe  vise  that  can  be  made  by  any  engineer 
who  is  not  in  a  position  to  purchase  one  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustrations.     The  grip  on  pipes  should 


teeth  for  gripping  purposes.  The  movable  jaw  D  is 
made  from  a  U-shaped  strap,  in  the  center  of  which  is 
riveted  a  solid  block  E.  This  upper  jaw  is  guided  be- 
tween the  two  lower  jaws  by  means  of  a  bolt  pivoted 


PIG. 


1.       DETAILS    OF    CON- 
STRUCTION 


FIG, 


VISE   SHOWN   IN   THE 
OPEN     POSITION 


FIG.    3. 


CLAMPED    BETWEEN 
VISE    J.\WS 


be,  as  much  as  possible,  around  the  entire  cylindrical 
surface,  otherwise  the  pipe  is  easily  scored.  The  device 
described  was  built  in  three  sizes.  The  largest  size, 
fitted  with  brass  jaws,  is  used  for  gripping  small  pipe 
or  rods  for  various  light  operations.  When  mounted 
on  a  block,  Fig.  2,  it  serves  as  a  handy  vise  for  drilling 
round  stock.  It  can  be  attached  directly  to  the  bench, 
Fig.  1,  or  gripped  in  the  vise,  Fig.  3,  for  threading,  or 


PIG.    4.      VISE    CLAMPED    TO    DRILL-PRESS    BED 

clamped  to  a  drill-press  bed  for  drilling  holes  in  round 
stock,  Fig.  4.  The  vise  is  composed  of  two  plates. 
Plate  A,  Fig.  1,  is  made  of  angle  iron  for  fastening  to 
a  block  or  bench ;  B  is  of  steel  plate  of  the  same  length 
and  can  be  used  for  fastening  to  a  bench  or  for  being 
gripped  between  the  jaws  of  a  bench  vise.  Both  pieces 
are  reinforced  on  the  upper  edge  by  a  piece  of  steel,  C, 
riveted  on.  In  the  center  of  these  assembled  plates  a 
V-shaped  way  is  sawed,  which  is  provided  with  fine 


between  them,  as  shown.    A  handle  nut  is  also  provided 
for  quick  action  in  opening  or  closing. 
New  York  City.  J.  A.  Lucas. 

Burning  Fuel  Oil 

Wliy  do  we  not  get  more  articles  on  the  subject  of 
burning  crude  oil?  Plants  in  both  Texas  and  California 
are  large  users  of  fuel  oil,  and  in  a  great  many  small 
plants  it  is  burned  very  inefficiently.  Engineers  of  large 
plants  are  beginning  to  realize  that  large  combustion 
chambers  give  the  best  results,  and  when  setting  new 
boilers,  raise  them  from  two  to  three  feet  higher  than 
the  old-style  setting.  The  bridge-wall  is  placed  about 
ten  feet  back  from  the  doors,  and  the  grates  are  covered 
with  loose  firebrick.  Most  of  the  air  should  be  admitted 
under  and  on  each  side  of  the  burner,  with  just  enough 
admitted  under  the  flame  to  raise  it  away  from  the 
grate  and  keep  the  grate  cool. 

As  every  engineer  knows,  an  excess  of  air  means  a 
loss  in  economy  and  all  brickwork  is  more  or  less  leaky. 
By  using  the  damper  to  control  the  air  supply,  the 
difference  in  pressure  between  the  inside  and  outside  of 
the  setting  can  be  kept  at  the  lowest  point. 

With  from  3i  to  4  sq.in.  of  clear  air  space  through  the 
grates  for  each  normal  horsejKiwer  rating,  a  draft  from 
0.05  to  0.1  in.  of  water  next  to  the  damper  is  sufficient 
to  give  air  enough  to  carry  better  than  normal  rating 
on  the  boiler,  and  certainly  there  won't  be  as  much  air 
leakage  as  when  the  ashpit  doors  are  used  to  control  the 
air  supply  and  a  difference  of  from  0.3  to  0.4  in.  is 
maintained  between  the  inside  and  outside  by  leaving 
the  damper  wide  open.  L.  D.  Harris. 

Houston,  Tex. 

[We  welcome  and  pay  well  for  contributions,  articles 
and  letters  on  the  subject  of  oil  burning — as  well  as  on 
all  subjects  of  value  to  power-plant  engineers  and  others 
interested  in  the  generation  and  distribution  of  power. 
—Editor.] 


May  14.  1918 


I'O  WK  R 


70r) 


Fires  in  Turbo-Generators 

M.  A.  Walker's  article  on  "Fires  in  Turbo-Generators," 
in  Power,  issue  of  Jan.  22,  is,  I  believe,  a  live  subject 
and  one  worthy  of  serious  consideration.  As  Mr.  Walker 
points  out,  the  modern  turbo-generator  contains  material 
that  will  burn  and,  once  ignited,  makes  a  difficult  fire 
to  fight  on  account  of  its  location  and  the  great  amount 
of  blinding  and   suft'ocating  smoke   given   off. 

My  experience  has  convinced  me  that  one  of  the  best 
preventives  of  these  fires  is  to  get  the  machine  off 
the  line  and  kill  the  field  at  the  first  sign  of  trouble. 
I  have  seen  four  or  five  cases  where  doing  this  prevented 
a  fire,  and  others  where  it  was  not  done  caused  serious 
fires,  totally  destroying  the  .insulation  on  the  ends  of 
the  stator  coils,  besides  damaging  the  tie  rings  and 
laminations. 

The  first  cases  that  came  under  my  observation  were 
on  4500-kv.-a.  13,200-volt  three-phase  60-cycle  machines. 
On  the  first  machine  to  give  trouble,  the  insulation 
broke  down  on  the  top  coil  in  a  slot,  and  burned  this 
coil  off,  damaging  the  insulation  of  the  bottom  coil  and 
the  top  coil  in  an  adjacent  slot.  These  three  coils 
had  to  be  taken  out;  two  were  reinsulated  on  the  job 
and  put  back,  and  a  third  had  to  be  replaced  by  a 
new  coil.  In  three  other  cases  in  this  plant  we  lost 
from  one  to  three  coils  in  like  manner,  all  of  these 
breakdowns  being  near  the  center  of  the  slot  length. 

Practically  all  these  burnouts  were  preceded  by  line 
trouble  causing  a  heavy  surge,  and  as  there  were  no 
reactances  in  the  line,  the  generators  received  the 
whole  strain.  The  first  indication  of  trouble  would 
be  a  groan  from  the  generator,  then  a  few  sparks 
mixed  with  dust.  As  these  machines  had  an  air  outlet 
on  top  that  was  easily  seen  by  the  switchboard  oper- 
ator, he  generally  discovered  the  trouble  when  it  first 
started  and  cleared  the  machine. 

In  one  case  there  was  a  new  operator  on  the  board; 
two  machines  were  in  parallel  when  the  trouble  started. 
The  switchboard  attendant  tried  to  prevent  interrupt- 
ing the  load  by  holding  the  defective  unit  on  the  line 
until  the  engineer  brought  another  machine  up  to  speed. 
The  result  was  that  both  coils  in  one  slot  were  com- 
pletely burned  out,  copper  and  all,  and  the  insulation 
at  each  end  of  the  winding  was  set  on  fire. 

These  generators  had  small  plates  near  the  top  of 
each  end  bell,  giving  access  to  the  inside  of  the  machine. 
Although  these  covers  got  almost  red-hot,  we  succeeded 
in  removing  them  and  in  a  short  period  had  the  fire  out 
by  the  use  of  two  J-in.  water  hose — but  not  before 
the  insulation  was  entirely  ruined  on  both  ends  of  the 
winding,  and  the  tie  rings,  which  were  wood,  were  also 
consumed.  The  arc  in  the  slot  welded  the  laminations 
together  so  that  the  stator  core  had  to  be  taken  down 
and  the  iron  restacked,  and  between  three  and  four 
tons  of  laminations  replaced  by  new  stock. 

Two  other  cases  that  came  under  my  notice  were 
of  5000-kw.  vertical  units  which  burned  out  within 
ten  minutes  of  each  other.  The  cooling  air  for  these 
units  was  drawn  in  at  the  top  of  the  housing  and 
discharged  at  the  bottom,  on  top  of  the  turbine  casing. 
This  made  it  very  difficult  to  get  at  the  fire.  In  one 
unit  the  burnout  occurred  right  over  the  side  where 
the  throttle  valve  was  located,  so  that  the  operating 
crew  could  not  get  to  it  to  shut  the  steam  off.     The 


melted  copper,  iron,  etc.,  from  the  burnt-off  colli 
clogged  the  valve  gear  in  the  open  position  so  that 
things  were  in  excellent  shape  for  a  speed  wreck,  but 
fortunately  the  flame  was  so  intense  that  it  melted  off 
the  trip  rod,  from  the  emergency  governor,  thus  re- 
leasing the  throttle  and  allowing  it  to  close. 

These  were  old  units  which  had  seen  hard  service 
and,  at  the  time  they  failed,  were  carrying  heavy  loads 
on  account  of  another  larger  unit  being  out  of  service 
owing  to  a  similar  burnout.  This  latter  unit  failed  at 
the  end  of  a  slot,  doing  some  damage  to  the  laminations 
as  well  as  burning  the  ends  of  the  coil  on  that  end 
of  the  winding. 

Another  burnout  that  comes  to  mind  was  that  of  a 
large  machine  in  which  the  trouble  started  at  the  end 
of  one  slot.  The  first  indications  of  trouble  were  a  few 
sparks  for  a  short  time  before  the  actual  burnout,  which 
took  the  form  of  an  explosion,  shooting  flame  and  smoke 
out  of  the  air  outlet  on  top  of  the  generator.  It  re- 
quired over  two  hours  to  put  this  fire  out.  In  this 
instance  the  laminations  were  not  injured,  but  all  the 
coils  were  damaged  and  most  of  the  tie  rings  were 
burned  or  cracked  so  that  they  had  to  be  replaced.  I 
believe  that  if  this  generator  had  been  cut  out  at  the 
first  sign  of  fire,  the  trouble  would  have  been  localized 
and  only  one  or  possibly  two  coils  damaged. 

From  these  experiences  I  believe  the  surest  way  to 
localize  the  trouble  is  to  kill  the  machine  at  the  first 
sign  of  sparks  or  smoke.  This  may  cause  a  .shutdown 
for  a  short  time,  but  that  is  better  than  burning  out 
a  machine,  putting  it  out  of  service  from  two  to  eight 
weeks,  depending  on  its  size  and  the  extent  of  the 
damage ;  besides,  the  cost  of  repairs  may  easily  run  up  to 
several  thousand  dollars  on  large  units. 

Mr.  Walker's  suggestion  for  fire-fighting  inlets  or 
connections  is  an  excellent  one  and  should  be  adopted 
for  all  units.  It  appears  to  me  that  an  effective  scheme 
could  be  worked  out  by  placing  a  ring  of  pipe  around 
the  ends  of  the  stator  just  back  of  where  the  coils  leave 
the  slots,  or  in  any  suitable  location  where  there  is 
room,  with  sprinkler  heads,  such  as  are  used  with  auto- 
matic sprinkler  systems,  at  intervals  of  six  or  eight 
inches  along  the  pipe  so  that  they  point  in  toward  the 
coils;  the  melting  point  of  the  head  to  be,  say,  50  deg. 
F.  above  the  maximum  allowable  temperature  of  the 
generator,  and  the  pipe  line  to  be  carried  outside  of 
the  generator  to  a  valve  and  connected  to  the  water 
supply.  There  should  be  a  drain  opening  between  this 
valve  and  the  sprinkler  ring,  which  should  be  kept 
open  so  that  any  leakage  of  the  main  valve  may  be 
detected. 

The  pressure  should  not  be  kept  on  the  sprinkler  sys- 
tem all  the  time,  as  something  might  cause  it  to  leak 
and  damage  the  generator.  In  case  there  was  a  burn- 
out or  the  attendant  saw  sparks  or  smoke  coming  from 
the  generator,  he  could  turn  the  water  into  the  sprinkler 
system.  If  there  was  a  fire  at  any  point,  one  or  more 
of  the  heads  would  be  open  and  the  water  would  be 
played  on  that  point  and  not  all  over  the  machine  as 
from  a  hose.  If  there  was  no  fire  serious  enough  to  open 
the  sprinkler  heads,  no  water  would  reach  the  windings 
to  cause  damage.  If  the  fire  tended  to  spread  around 
the  armature,  additional  heads  would  open  up  to  ex- 
tinguish it. 

This  system  could   also  be   used   in   connection   with 


706 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


carbon  tetrachloride  or  carbon  dioxide,  as  suggested 
by  Mr.  Walker,  for  fighting  these  fires,  by  connecting 
the  system  to  tanks  containing  these  chemicals  under 
suitable  pressure,  instead  of  to  a  water  supply. 
When  using  these  chemicals,  smaller-sized  piping  could 
be  used  to  advantage. 

I  do  not  know  whether  this  scheme  has  ever  been 
used,  but  I  see  no  reason  why  it  would  not  work  out 
satisfactorily,  and  the  cost  of  installing  the  apparatus 
would  be  little  compared  to  the  expense  of  rebuilding 
a  generator  and  the  loss  of  service  during  the  repairing. 

The  use  of  shutoff  doors  or  dampers  in  the  air  inlets 
and  outlets  to  the  generator  is  another  important  detail, 
since  with  a  turbo-generator  with  the  field  open,  there 
is  from  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  an  hour  in  which  the 
rotor  will  be  turning  and  forcing  air  through  the  gener- 
ator if  these  openings  are  not  closed.  These  dampers 
should  be  controlled  from  the  floor,  where  the  engineer 
could  reach  them  without  leaving  the  throttle  of  the 
turbine.     They  should  not  be  automatic  in  operation. 

All  of  us  who  are  in  the  business  are  interested  in 
this  subject,  and  I  feel  that  it  is  very  important  to  do 
what  we  can  to  help  prevent  these  fires.  They  are 
not  only  a  loss  in  profits  to  our  companies,  but  are  a 
waste,  and  at  this  time  it  behooves  all  of  us  to  prevent 
such  waste,  whether  of  fuel,  food,  labor  or  material. 

Claymont,  Del.  Everett  Palmer. 


Reusing  a  Cotter-Pin 

The  next  time  you  try  to  replace  a  used  cotter-pin  that 
is  spread  at  the  end  (as  shown  in  the  illustration  at  A), 
instead  of  trying  to  hammer  the  ends  together,  which 
cannot  be  done,  try  kink  B.     This  produces  a  cotter  of 


MAKING  A  COTTER   PIN  EASY  TO   ENTER 

the  shape  shown  at  C,  which  is  easily  reentered.  This  is 
a  simple  kink,  and  no  doubt  many  readers  will  say,  "Any 
fool  oughter  know  that,"  but  it  has  como  to  my  notice 
that  a  lot  of  wiseheads  do  not  make  use  of  it,  so  I  am 
passing  it  along.  C.  H.  WiLLEY. 

Concord,  N.  H. 


High  and  Low  Water  Alarm 

I  have  made  a  successful  high  and  low  water  alarm 
out  of  a  couple  of  dashpots  taken  from  old  arc  lamps 
and  partly  filled  with  mercury.  A  lever  is  pivoted,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  so  that  when  the  long  end 
is  depressed  or  elevated  by  a  knot  on  the  float-cord  pass- 
ing through  the  eye  at  the  end,  contact  will  be  made 
between  the  points  on  the  lever  and  the  mercury,  com- 


MAKE-AND-BREAK   PL0.4T   ALARM 


pleting  the  electric  circuit,  which  lights  a  pilot  lamp 
or  rings  a  bell.  The  lever  is  held  in  a  central  or 
neutral  position  by  the  coiled  spring  until  one  of  the 
knots  forces  it  one  way  or  the  other,  and  the  difference 
in  the  water  level  in  the  tank  before  an  alarm  is  given 
depends  on  the  distance  between  the  knots. 
Paxton,  111.  S.  R.  Rodgers. 

Pump  Strokes  Irregular 

In  the  plant  where  I  am  employed  one  5^  x  3*  x  5-in. 
Worthington  boiler-feed  pump  began  giving  trouble 
on  one  side.  The  right  side  would  make  the  stroke  all 
right,  but  the  left  would  jerk  and  pound.  At  first  I 
tried  adjusting  the  valves,  but  this  did  no  good,  so  I 
took  the  head  off  the  water  end  and  found  that  the 
night  engineer  in  repacking  the  right  side  had  put  in 
four  rings  of  packing  instead  of  three,  causing  more 
friction  on  that  side.  So  I  added  one  ring  to  the  left 
side  and  the  trouble  stopped. 

The  14-in.  by  30-ft.  leather  belt  from  a  75-hp.  motor 
to  an  air  compressor  had  been  burned  on  one  side,  caus- 
ing that  side  to  stretch,  and  it  fiapped  every  time  that 
part  went  over  the  motor  pulley.  I  turned  the  belt 
over  and  the  noise  and  disagreeable  fiapping  stopped. 

Provo,  Utah.  0.  W.  Mann. 


Six  new  authorized  United  States  battleships  are  de- 
signed to  be  of  41,500  tons,  the  largest  battleships  in 
the  world. 


May  14.  1918  POWEB  707 

siiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniuiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiuuiuiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii^ 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  f 


iiiiiiilliiiiiiiliiiiiiilli illlllliliiMii r iiiiiilim iiiiiillliliiiii I iiiir i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiii i iiiiiiiimiiiiiiiillimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiilillllllllllli: 

Use  of  Piston  Valves  on   Compound  Engines— For  com-  Taking   Gas-   or   Oil-Engine    Suction-Stroke    Diagrams — 

pound  engines,  why  are  piston  valves  frequently  used  for  Diagrams  made  with  the  ordinary  stiff  spring  necessary  for 

the   high-pressure  and   flat  slide  valves   used   for  the  low-  use  for  indicating  gas  and  oil  engines  afford  little  informa- 

pressure  cylinders?                                                               D.  L.  tion  of  the  action  of  the  valves  during  the  suction  stroke. 

For  the  high-pressure  side,  piston  valves  are  preferable  How  can  appropriate  diagrams  be  obtained?            A.  E.  R. 

because  they  can  be  balanced  and  operated  with  little  fric-  The  events  in  the  suction  stroke  must  be  obtained  sepa- 

tion,  and  although  repairs  for  making  this  type  of  valve  rately  with   a   weak   spring   in  the   indicator.     The   spring 

steam-tight  are  more  difficult  than   repairs  to  flat  valves,  should  be  protected  from  excessive  pressure  of  the  explo- 

tightness  against  valve  leakage  is  of  less  importance  on  the  sion  stroke  by  inserting  a  suitable  stop  to  prevent  undue 

high-pressure  than  on  the  low-pressure  side  of  the  engine.  compression   of  the   spring.     For  that  purpose  a   distance 

Trapping  Returns  Discharged  Below  Boiler-Our  heating  P^^^e  may  be  made  of  a  small  brass  tube  slipped  over  the 

systeni   is   supplied   with   steam   at   reduced   pressure   from  P'^ton  rod   of  the   indicator  or.  for   an   md.cator   with   an 

boilers  that  carry  high-pressure  steam  for  power  purposes.  '"f^'^tv,'^.""!;  ^      ^       "^  piece  may  consist  of  a  thm  brass 

The  returns  from  the  heating  system  must  be  discharged  tube  that  will  freely  pass  over  the  outside  of  the  spring  and 

about  10  ft.  below  the  boiler.     How  can  the  return  water  '"^ide  of  the  indicator  cylinder  while  resting  on  the  top  of 

be  trapped  to  the  boiler?                                                J.  E.  H.  ^^e  piston. 

Place  a  return  trap  below  the  returns  of  the  heating  system  Scale-Forming    Impurities    in    Feed    Waters — What    are 

and  have  this  trap  discharge  to  another  return  trap  placed  the  usual  scale-forming  impurities  in  boiler  feed  waters? 

above  the  boiler  for  returning  the  condensate  to  the  boiler.  C.  N.  D. 

The  most  rapid  operation  will  be  obtained  for  the  purpose  Those  most  often  present  and  in  largest  quantities  are: 

by  employing  return  traps  whose  receivers   are  vented  to  ..,.,,,                              ^  ^^ 

.,           ,              ,                 .-I       ^iJ-  Calrium  carbonate  (lime),  cheniicalformula,  .                                  taCOj 

the    atmosphere    while    hlling.  Magnesium  carbooate,  chemical  foimula.    .                                   MgCO, 

Water-Hammer  in  Pump  Suction  Line-How  can  water-  '^;:::,^i^^^:7t^i^^^,ul..^.:V.                          Mgiot 

hammer  be  prevented  in  a  pump  suction  pipe?              A.  H.  m,      •            ..■      i        j?             n     *       j       j  „„„„ii.,  ;„  ^^„u 

Water-hammer    results    from    sudden    checking    of    the  The  impurities  less  frequently  found  and  usually  in  small 

velocity  of  the  water  at  each  reversal  of  the  pump.     It  can  amounts  are . 

be  prevented  by  connecting  an  air  chamber  to   the   pump  Iron  carbonate,  chemical  formula^ ^?^'^» 

rl  ...  ii.    i.        1.  iu  I  J?  Calcium  chloride,  chemical  formula  UaL/la 

suction    pipe    in    such    a    manner    that    when    the    column    of  Magnesium  chloride,  chemical  formula MgCU 

water    is    stopped    or    checked    by    action    of    the    pump,    the  Potassium  chloride,  chemical  formula KCl 

,.         ,.  J./?  i-  i.  ii,  1-  1.  Sodium  chloride,  chemical  formula naui 

direction  of  flow  may  continue  past  the  pump  suction  cham- 
ber or  valves  to  the  air  chamber.  The  energy  of  the  moving  Some  iron  oxides,  calcium  phosphate,  silica  and  organic 
column  of  water  can  thus  be  expended  directly  on  the  con-  matter  also  may  be  found,  though  usually  in  small  quantities, 
fined  air;  but  an  air  chamber  will  be  of  little  benefit  if  Effect  of  Clearance  on  Air  Compressor — What  effect  has 
connected  to  the  side  or  top  of  the  suction  pipe  so  the  water  cylinder  clearance  on  the  capacity  and  power  required  by 
passes  under  or  at  right  angles  to  its  connection.  an  air  compressor?                                                         S.  E.  M. 

Intrinsic  or  Internal  Energy  of  Steam — What  is  the  dif-  In   single-stage   compression,   clearance   reduces   the   vol- 

ference   in   signification   of   the   terms   total   heat,  intrinsic  umetric  efficiency  or  ratio  of  the  volume  of  free  air,  actually 

energy,  internal  energy  and  intrinsic  heat  of  steam  ?  admitted    and    compressed    in    the    intake    cylinder,    to    the 

A.  D.  B.  volume  of  piston  displacement.  The  percentage  in  reduc- 
The  term  "total  heat  of  steam"  in  any  given  state  is  un-  tion  of  capacity  is  greater  than  the  percentage  of  cylinder 
derstood  to  mean  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  heat  at  clearance,  as  the  piston  must  travel  back  a  larger  percent- 
constant  pressure,  a  unit  weight  of  water  from  the  tempera-  age  of  the  return  stroke  before  the  air  previously  coni- 
ture  of  melting  ice  to  the  state  under  consideration.  During  pressed  into  the  clearance  spaces  has  expanded  to  atmos- 
the  period  of  vaporization  the  volume  of  a  pound  of  water  pheric  pressure,  permitting  the  free  air  supply  to  flow  into 
is  changed  to  the  much  larger  volume  of  steam  and  the  ex-  the  cylinder.  Since  the  volume  which  the  expanded  clear- 
temal  work  done  in  order  to  reach  the  state  of  the  steam  ance  air  occupies  increases  as  the  pressure  increases,  the 
is  called  the  "constant  pressure  external  work."  The  loss  in  capacity  by  clearance  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
terms  intrinsic  energy,  internal  energy  and  intrinsic  heat  pressure.  The  loss  of  volumetric  efficiency  due  to  clearance 
are  each  used  to  signify  the  same  thing,  meaning  the  heat  is  less  for  two-stage  than  for  single-stage  compression  be- 
energy  contained  within  the  steam  above  32  deg.  F.,  and  cause,  for  given  capacity,  the  low-pressure  cylinder  of  two- 
it  is  equal  to  the  total  heat  less  the  constant-pressure  ex-  stage  compressors  is  practically  of  the  same  size  and  has 
ternal  work.  the  same  percentage  of  clearance  as  the  cylinder  of  a  single- 
Delta-Connected  Transformer  Banks  Connected  in  Parallel  stage  compressor,  and  the  terminal  pressure  of  the  two- 
— Would  there  be  any  objection  to  connecting  two  trans-  stage  machine  is  much  lower  with  less  expansion  of  the 
former  banks  in  parallel,  each  bank  being  grouped  in  delta  compressed  clearance  air  back  into  the  cylinder  volume.  The 
on  both  the  primary  and  secondary?  One  bank  consists  of  work  required  for  compressing  the  clearance  air  to  receiver 
three  75-kw.  units  and  the  other  bank  of  three  100-kw.  pressure  in  expanding  back  to  atmospheric  pressure  helps 
units.  D.  C.  A  '-o  move  the  piston  on  the  return  stroke  and  as  the  loss  of 
It  would  not  be  considered  good  practice  to  parallel  two  heat  during  expansion  is  negligible  there  is  practically  no 
banks  of  transformers  of  different  capacity  such  as  indi-  'oss  of  power  from  clearance  excepting  that  its  presence 
cated  in  the  question.  The  chief  objection  to  this  practice  increases  the  size  of  compressor  required  to  deliver  a  stated 
Is  the  difficulty  that  would  be  experienced  to  get  the  load  amount  of  air,  thereby  requiring  more  power  for  its  oper- 
to  divide  in  the  proper  proportions  between  the  two  banks.  ation. 
To  a  certain  extent  this  difficulty  could  be  taken  care  of  by 

connecting  a  resistance  in  series  with  the  leads  of  the  bank  [Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
that  has  a  tendency  to  take  more  than  its  share  of  the  load,  communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  ad- 
Even  if  the  banks  were  the  same  capacity,  it  would  not  be  dresses.  This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of 
good  practice  to  operate  them  in  parallel.  If  possible,  each  the  communications  and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  atten- 
bank  should  supply  a  separate  load.  tion. — Editor.] 


708 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


Notes  on  the  Operation  of  Submarine 

Diesel  Engines' 


By  LIEUT.  F.  C.  SHERMAN,  U.S.N. 


The  folloic  171(1  notes  have  been  made  as  the  re- 
sult of  practical  experience  in  operating  sub- 
marine Diesel  engines  of  the  tico-stroke-cyclc 
Niirnberg  type  of  New  London  Ship  and  Engine 
Co.  mayo  (fact  lire.  They  are  particularly  applicable 
to  that  engine,  but  it  is  felt  that  some  of  the  ideas 
evolved  may  be  adaptable  to  engines  of  other  types 
u-hcn   similar    troubles    have    been    experienced. 


IN  spite  of  the  widespread  reports  of  unreliability  of  sub- 
marine Diesel  engines  of  the  past  few  years,  the  writer 
has  always  maintained  that  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  make  the  material  operate  satisfactorily  before  condemn- 
ing it  as  unsatisfactory  and  unreliable.  In  many  cases  fur- 
ther investigation  has  shown  that  inexperienced  personnel 
are  to  blame  and  not  the  long-suffering  and  almost  always 
blamed  material. 

In  the  type  of  engine  upon  which  this  discussion  is  based, 
the  crank  case  is  totally  inclosed  and  the  oil  from  the 
lubricating  system,  after  cooling  the  piston  heads,  is  drained 
into  the  crank  case,  from  which  it  runs  into  the  settling 
tank  and  is  used  over  again.  The  scavenger  air  for  the 
working  cylinders  is  compressed  in  a  scavenger  cylinder  in 
tandem  with  the  working  cylinder,  and  the  piston  is  of  the 
stepped  type,  the  lower  step  working  in  the  scavenger  cylin- 
der and  compressing  the  scavenger  air  which  is  forced  into 
a  housing  around  the  scavenger  cylinder  and  above  the 
crank  case.  The  scavenger  cylinder  makes  a  joint  between 
the  crank  case  and  the  scavenger  housing. 

Crank-Case  Explosions 

Now,  in  every  case  of  crank-case  explosions  it  was  found 
that  there  was  a  leak  from  the  scavenger  housing  to  the 
crank  case.  This  joint  was  packed  with  soft  packing  and 
proved  to  be  very  difficult  to  keep  tight,  due  to  the  scavenger 
cylinder  holding-down  bolts  working  loose  from  continual 
shock.  But  in  every  case  of  crank-case  explosion,  a  leak  of 
scavenger  air  to  the  crank  case  was  found,  and  when  it  was 
corrected  the  explosions  stopped.  The  permanent  care 
taken  following  this  discovery  was  to  test  the  scavenger 
housing  at  frequent  intervals  for  tightness  with  air  pres- 
sure and  to  examine  frequently  the  scavenger  cylinder  hold- 
ing-down bolts  and  to  keep  them  set  up  tight  every  time 
they  came  loose.  These  tests  were  made  about  once  a 
month,  and  following  this  care,  practically  all  crank-case 
explosions  and  their  destructive  results  were  eliminated. 

Another  remedy  adopted,  not  as  a  cure  but  to  reduce  the 
effect  of  a  crank-case  explosion,  was  to  install  a  vent  to 
the  crank  case.  The  ci'ank  case  is  totally  inclosed  only  to 
retain  the  oil  used  in  the  lubricating  system  and  prevent  its 
being  splashed  about  in  the  engine  room.  The  result  was 
that  when  a  crank-case  explosion  occurred  the  gas  had  no 
place  to  escape  without  wrecking  something,  blowing  off  the 
crank-case  doors  or  housing.  To  prevent  this,  a  2V2-in.  pipe 
was  led  from  one  end  of  the  crank-case  housing  and  left 
entirely  open.  The  main  purpose  of  the  pipe  was  to  furnish 
an  opening  to  the  crank  case  to  allow  the  expanding  gases 
of  the  explosion  to  get  out  without  blowing  something  out. 

Another  feature  of  the  leak  in  the  scavenger  housing  was 
found  to  be  that  the  scavenger-housing  temperature  in- 
creased unduly,  especially  when  running  at  higher  powers. 
This  undue  rise  of  temperature  probably  resulted  from 
slight  burning  of  the  oil  vapor  ai'ound  the  leak  causing  an 
increase  of  the  temperature  without,  however,  causing  an 


•Abstract  from  thf   "Journal  of  the  .American   Soci'ty  of  N'aval 
Engineers." 


explosion.  A  correction  of  the  air  leak  always  resulted  in 
a  decrease  of  scavenger-housing  temperatures.  These  leaks 
from  the  scavenger  housing,  it  must  be  understood,  were  not 
sufficient  to  cause  trouble  from  drop  in  scavenger-air  pres- 
sure and  would  ordmarily  not  be  expected  to  give  any 
trouble. 

Closely  allied  with  the  crank-case  explosions,  but  of  an 
entirely  different  nature,  were  scavenger-housing  explosions. 
These  were  found  to  be  due  to  two  causes;  namely,  presence 
of  a  superfluity  of  oil  in  scavenger  housing  and  leaky  or 
defective  scavenger  valves.  If  there  was  too  much  oil  in 
the  scavenger  air  and  the  scavenger  valve  to  the  working 
cylinder  remained  open  an  instant  too  long  or  leaked  after 
it  was  closed,  the  compression  temperature  or  flame  from 
the  working  cylinder  would  be  transmitted  to  the  scavenger 
housing  and  set  off  the  oil  and  vapor  in  that  chamber, 
resulting  in  an  explosion  liable  to  wreck  the  housing,  as 
relief  valves  fitted  there  were  never  efficient  in  quickly 
releasing  the  excessive  pressure  formed.  The  remedy  for 
this  form  of  explosion  was  to  keep  excessive  oil  out  of  the 
scavenger  housing  through  drains  fitted  at  the  bottom  and 
to  keep  the  scavenger  valves  to  the  working  cylinders  func- 
tioning properly. 

Piston  and  Cylindbk  Troubles 

Cracked  piston  heads,  cracked  cylinders,  cracked  pistons 
and  piston  seizures  are  almost  all  traceable  to  defective 
cooling  of  the  piston  head.  On  the  particular  type  of 
engine  in  question,  the  pistons  were  cooled  by  lubricating  oil 
forced  up  from  the  lubricating  system  through  the  connect- 
ing-rod and  wristpin  and  then  up  through  a  pipe  leading  to 
the  hollow  piston  head  and  thence  down  on  the  opposite  side 
through  a  drain  pipe  to  the  crank  case,  whence  it  drains  by 
gravity  to  the  settling  tanks. 

The  most  frequent  cause  of  defective  cooling  of  the  piston 
heads  was  the  presence  of  salt  water  in  the  lubricating 
oil  which  remained  in  the  piston  head  owing  to  the  location 
of  cooling-water  inlet  and  outlet.  Due  to  the  temperature 
to  v/hich  the  oil  was  subjected,  the  water  would  quickly 
evaporate,  leaving  a  salt  deposit  in  the  oil  which  was  black 
in  color,  giving  the  appearance  of  carbon.  For  a  long  time 
this  deposit  was  thought  to  be  carbon,  on  account  of  its 
color,  but  an  analysis  showed  it  to  be  over  90  per  cent.  salt. 
This  salt  would  form  a  black,  gummy  mass  and  would  soon 
collect  in  the  piston  heads  and  the  pipes  leading  to  them  and 
result  in  decreasing  or  blocking  altogether  the  supply  of 
cooling  oil  to  the  piston  heads,  which  would  instantaneously 
get  hot  and  either  crack  or  seize,  or  heat  would  travel  to 
the  cylinder  or  piston  itself,  resulting  in  cracking  the  cylin- 
der with  its  cooling  water  outside  or  the  piston  seizing  and 
cracking. 

Obviously,  the  remedy  for  this  is  to  keep  salt  water  out 
of  the  oil.  However,  with  an  engine  using  salt  water  for 
its  cylinder-cooling  and  oil-cooling  medium,  this  is  not  as 
easy  to  do  as  it  sounds;  but  it  can  be  done  if  proper  rare 
is  exercised.  On  the  vessel  on  which  the  writer  served  it 
was  never  completely  accomplished  until  the  circulating 
water  pumps  were  removed  from  over  the  crank  case  where 
water  leaking  slightly  past  the  plungers  and  stuffing-boxes 
found  its  way  into  the  crank  case  and  there  mixed  with 
the  oil. 

Troubles  from  Oil  Coolers 

Another  frequent  source  of  trouble  were  the  oil  coolers, 
where  the  oil  is  cooled  by  circulating  water  before  being 
again  used  in  the  engine  system.  The  oil  passed  through 
nests  of  tubes  surrounded  by  cooling  water,  and  trouble  was 
experienced  in  preventing  tubes  from  pitting  through  and 
gaskets  from  leaking.  Whereas  the  oil  pressure  when  the 
engine  was  running  was  greater  than  the  water  pressure, 
the  leak  would  become  eflfective  when  the  engine  was  shut 
down  and  the  lubricating-oil  pumps  stopped.     Water  would 


May  14.  1918 


POWER 


^59 


then  leak  in  and  causi'  trouble  on  the  next  run  of  the  engine. 
Another  source  of  leaks  was  from  slight  cracks  in  cylinders, 
sometimes  quite  imperceptible  to  the  eye  when  the  cylinder 
was  cold,  but  allowing-  slight  leaks  of  cooling  water  to  crank 
case  when  warm.  All  these  leaks,  wherever  they  may  be, 
must  be  prevented  to  insure  proper  cooling  of  piston  heads 
and  to  prevent  troubles  ensuing  from  this  source. 

Wristpin  Troubles 

Wristpin  troubles,  in  brief,  are  due  to  insufficient  lubri- 
cation, insufficient  cleai'ance,  undue  wear  on  bushing  or  pin 
and  heating  resulting  fi'om  hot  piston  or  piston  head.  The 
trouble  due  to  insufficient  lubrication  is  sometimes  traceable 
to  the  salt  water  in  the  oil.  In  other  cases,  however,  it 
may  be  due  to  improper  grooving  of  the  wristpin  bushing 
or  bearing  surface,  ^his  subject  must  be  studied  in  con- 
nection with  the  approved  forms  of  oil  grooves  for  bearings, 
and  steps  taken  to  insure  that  the  oil  is  being  properly  dis- 
tributed on  the  wristpin  bearing. 

On  engines  with  forced-lubrication  pumps  operating  from 
the  main  engine  shaft,  hot  wristpins  frequently  develop  on 
first  starting  up  an  engine.  This  is  probably  caused  by  lack 
of  lubricating  oil  in  the  wristpin  bearings,  the  highest  part 
of  the  system,  when  the  engine  is  first  turned  over.  This 
can  be  prevented  on  engines  with  an  independent  lubricating 
pump  by  starting  up  the  auxiliary  lubricating  pump  several 
minutes  before  attempting  to  turn  over  the  main  engines 
and  running  it  long  enough  to  insure  getting  lubricating 
oil  to  all  parts  of  the  system.  This  should  always  be  done 
before  starting  up,  as  frequently  wristpins  will  run  hot  and 
wipe  in  the  few  minutes  before  oil  from  the  attached  pumps 
can  get  to  them. 

Insufficient  clearance  on  wristpin  bushings  sometimes  re- 
sults in  not  allowing  sufficient  lubricating  oil  to  form  a 
good  film  on  the  bearing  and  causes  wiping  or  heating  of 
the  wristpin.  Good  practice  is  to  allow  about  0.002  in. 
vertical  clearance  between  the  pin  and  bushing  and  about 
0.006  to  0.008  in.  clearance  on  the  sides.  This  additional 
side  clearance  gives  no  more  play  in  the  bearing,  as  the  pres- 
sure is  always  vertical,  but  gives  the  oil  a  better 
chance  to  circulate  in  the  bearing  and  form  the  oil  film 
or  lubrication. 

Undue  wear  on  wristpin  bushings  results  in  loss  of 
lubricating  oil  from  the  bearing  due  to  leakage,  and  also 
in  loss  of  compression  in  the  cylinders  from  the  dropping 
down  of  the  pistons.  Consequently,  anything  that  can  be 
done  to  prevent  undue  wear  on  the  wristpin  bushings  is  im- 
portant. In  addition,  loss  of  compression  in  the  cylinders 
causes  inefficient  combustion  of  the  fuel,  reducing  the  econ- 
omy of  the  engine,  and  necessitates  frequent  overhaul 
and  insertion  of  liners  under  connecting-rods  to  increase 
compression,  or  frequent  renewal  of  wristpin  bushings. 

The  bushings  should  be  of  phosphor  bronze,  of  as  tough 
and  durable  a  composition  as  possible.  The  wristpins  are 
of  steel,  hardened  on  their  wearing  surface  by  either  the 
bone  or  cyanide  process.  The  WTistpins  furnished  us  origi- 
nally were  bored  out  from  one  end  only  and  that  end  plugged 
with  a  threaded  brass  plug.  We  found  that  the  pins  would 
take  a  more  uniform  heat  and  better  hardening  if  the  pins 
before  hardening  were  bored  clear  through  and  both  ends 
plugged  with  the  threaded  brass  plugs.  This  was  a  slightly 
more  costly  process,  but  resulted  in  much  better  pins,  and 
is  recommended  for  all  wristpins  for  Diesel  engines. 

Air-Compressor  Troubles 

Diesel  engine  air-compressor  troubles  comprise  valve 
trouble,  cooler  leaks  and  explosions.  They  are  due  to  the 
high  temperatures  created  when  the  air  is  compressed  in 
two  or  more  stages  from  atmospheric  pressure  to  approxi- 
mately 1000  lb.  per  sq.in.  In  the  type  of  engine  mentioned 
at  the  beginning  of  this  paper,  the  compressor  was  designed 
to  take  its  suction  from  the  scavenger-air  housing,  and  it 
was  then  compressed  in  two  stages  in  tandem  to  800  lb.  to 
1000  lb.  per  sq.in.  This  air  was  cooled  from  each  stage  in 
a  cooler  consisting  of  nests  of  small,  straight  tubes  around 
which  circulated  cooling  water.  The  air  from  the  second- 
stage  cooler  passes  to  the  spray-air  bottle  which  acts  as  a 
reservoir  on  the  way  to  the  spray-air  line  of  the  engine. 
It  will  be  seen  that  when  the  two-stage  air  compressor  takes 
its  suction  from  the  scavenger  housing  containing   air  at 


7  lb.  pressure  (above  atmosphere)  it  virtually  makes  a 
three-stage  compression.  On  our  engine,  however,  there  was 
always  so  much  oil  in  the  scavenger  housing  that  it  was 
considered  dangerous  to  compress  air  containing  so  much 
oil  and  subject  it  to  the  temperatures  reached,  and  in  prac- 
tice it  gave  considerable  trouble.  So  the  suction  to  the 
scavenger  housing  was  disconnected  and  a  suction  direct 
to  the  atmosphere  substituted  which  gave  a  straight  two- 
stage  compression  from  atmospheric  pressure  to  1000  lb. 
per  sq.in.  This  worked  much  more  satisfactorily  as  re- 
gards presence  of  oily  vapor  in  the  compressed  air  and  oc- 
currence of  cooler  explosions. 

A  common  practice  in  Diesel-engine  design  seems  to  be 
to  have  a  restriction  in  the  spray-air  line  between  the  reser- 
voir and  the  engine.  The  only  object  of  this,  that  I  have 
been  able  to  discover,  is  to  enable  a  higher  pressure  to  be 
carried  in  the  reservoir  than  is  needed  on  the  spray-air  sys- 
tem, so  as  to  build  up  a  reserve  for  starting  after  the  en- 
gine has  been  shut  down.  If  this  is  its  purpose,  it  never 
was  successful  for  us,  and  only  resulted  in  reducing  the 
amount  of  spray  air  we  were  able  to  get  through  to  the 
fuel  valves.  Furthermore,  it  would  frequently  clog  up  and 
catch  dirt  and  oil  to  further  reduce  the  opening,  so  that 
in  general  it  was  more  of  a  nuisance  than  anything  else. 
Acting  on  this  belief,  the  restriction  on  the  spray  air  was 
removed  entirely  and  much  better  results  in  every  way 
were  obtained.  Whereas,  before  poor  fuel  combustion  had 
been  obtained  when  carrying  800  lb.  to  900  lb.  pressure  on 
the  spray  air,  after  removing  the  restriction  perfect  com- 
bustion was  obtained  with  as  low  as  550  lb.  to  600  lb. 
pressure  on  the  spray  air. 

Another  point  in  regard  to  air-compressor  trouble  is 
cylinder  lubrication.  The  principal  danger  is  too  much  lubri- 
cation, allowing  oil  to  be  carried  into  the  compressed  air 
and  causing  high  temperatures  or  explosions  from  burning 
or  combustion  of  the  oil  vapor.  The  best  practice  is  to 
eliminate  direct  cylinder  lubrication  entirely  and  depend 
on  the  moisture  and  oily  vapor  in  the  engine-room  atmos- 
phere to  furnish  sufficient  lubrication.  In  practice  this 
worked  very  well  for  us,  and  we  had  no  trouble  from  lubri- 
cation while  using  no  oil  whatsoever  directly  on  the  air 
compressors. 

Valve  Troubles 

The  principal  valve  trouble  which  we  experienced  was  due 
to  the  valve  springs  losing  their  temper  after  a  few  hours' 
running,  due  to  the  high  temperatures  of  the  uncooled  air 
to  which  they  were  subjected.  The  second-stage  suction 
valve  was  the  principal  source  of  trouble,  and  when  its 
spring  gave  out  it  would  leak,  allowing  second-stage  pres- 
sure to  back  up  in  the  first-stage  receiver  and  increase  the 
work  on  the  first  stage  and  in  general  raise  hob.  Another 
source  of  valve  trouble  was  the  gradual  collection  of  carbon 
deposits  on  the  valve  seats  due  to  the  presence  of  oil  in  the 
air  and  causing  the  valves  to  leak. 

Cutting  off  the  oil  used  for  cylinder  lubrication  helped 
both  troubles.  But  the  greatest  assistance  to  correct  these 
faults  was  a  water  cup  installed  on  the  first-stage  air  suc- 
tion and  set  to  feed  a  small  quantity  of  fresh  water  into 
the  compressor  with  the  air.  This  water  cup  was  simply 
a  large  oil  cup  arranged  for  drop  feed,  filled  with  fresh 
water  instead  of  oil.  A  fairly  rapid  feed  was  set  on  it, 
about  two  to  four  drops  per  second,  and  this  water  was 
dropped  through  the  top  of  the  aii'-suction  pipe  and  drawTi 
into  the  compressor  with  the  air.  The  action  of  this  fresh 
water  was  found  to  be  as  follows:  It  helped  to  lubricate 
the  valves  and  cylinder  walls  and  prevented  the  deposit  of 
carbon.  The  high  temperature  almost  immediately  turned 
it  into  steam,  absorbing  some  of  the  heat  without  rise  of 
temperature  in  the  form  of  latent  heat,  and  thus  keeping 
down  the  temperatures  developed  due  to  compression.  In 
addition  the  steam  kept  the  carbon  from  collecting  and 
gumming  up  the  valves,  and  the  reduced  temperatures  re- 
sulting prevented  the  springs  from  losing  their  temper. 
This  fresh-water  cup  was  a  fine  thing,  and  I  strongly  advise 
other  Diesel-engine  operators  to  try  it  on  their  air  com- 
pressors. 

Cooler  leaks  were  probably  caused  by  high  temperatures 
and  possibly  some  electrolytic  action  on  the  tubes.  The 
installation  of  the  water  cups  kept  down  the  temperatures 


710 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


and  also  kept  carbon  and  oil  from  collecting  in  the  coolers 
and  restricting  the  heat  transference.  To  prevent  electro- 
lytic action  the  outside  of  the  copper  tubes  was  tinned  and 
small  zincs  were  placed  in  the  cooler.  These  precautions 
eliminated  almost  all  of  our  air-compressor  troubles.  In 
addition  all  clearances,  were  kept  down  to  a  minimum,  about 
1-64  in.  on  both  stages. 

Auxiliaries 

The  principal  troubles  experienced  with  auxiliaries  were 
with  those  geared  to  the  main  shaft.  These  pumps  were 
the  reciprocating  type  and  comprised  a  fuel-feed  pump,  a 
lubricating-oil  pump  and  a  circulating-water  pump,  all 
driven  by  one  large  crosshead  operated  by  a  crankshaft 
geared  to  the  mainshaft.  The  first  trouble  experienced  was 
with  the  fuel-oil  supply  pump,  which  leaked,  in  spite  of 
efforts  to  keep  it  tight,  a  small  amount  of  fuel  oil  into  the 
crank  case.  After  mixing  with  the  lubricating  oil  this 
caused  rapid  deterioration  of  the  latter  for  lubricating  pur- 
poses, as  well  as  scavenger  and  crank-case  explosions  from 
its  low  flash  point  and  volatility.  To  obviate  this  trouble 
the  fuel-pump  was  removed  and  a  gravity  fuel  feed  substi- 
tuted, the  gravity  fuel  tank  being  supplied  by  a  small 
motor-driven  rotary  pump,  secured  to  the  bulkhead.  This 
removed  all  possibility  of  getting  fuel  oil  into  the  lubricat- 
ing oil  and  prevented  recurrence  of  its  evils. 

The  lubricating-oil  and  circulating-water  pumps  were  the 
next  to  give  trouble.  They  were  high-speed  reciprocating 
pumps,  and  it  was  almost  impossible  to  keep  salt  water 
from  leaking  from  the  circulating-water  pump  and 
finding  its  way  to  the  crank  case  and,  ultimately  mix- 
ing with  the  lubricating  oil,  causing  all  the  troubles  already 
enumerated.  In  addition,  mechanical  difficulties  with  these 
reciprocating  pumps  caused  by  momentary  high  pressures 
when  the  pump  became  air-bound  or  through  defective  valve 
action,  resulted  in  frequent  stripping  of  gears  and  breaking 
of  pump  crankshafts.  These  breakdowns  finally  became 
so  frequent  that  independent  motor-driven  rotary-type 
pumps  were  installed  for  both  lubricating  oil  and  circulating 
water.  The  reoiprocating-pump  connecting-rod  was  discon- 
nected and  lashed  clear,  and  the  salt-water  connections  were 
blank-flanged  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  salt  water 
leaks,  and  these  pumps  were  not  used  but  were  kept  avail- 
able for  connecting  up  in  case  of  failure  of  the  independent 
pumps.  In  nearly  two  years  of  operating  they  were  never 
needed,  the  independent  pumps  operating  entirely  satisfac- 
torily. As  a  result  of  this,  we  became  strong  advocates  of 
independent  auxiliaries  for  submarine  Diesel  engines. 

The  fuel-measuring  pumps  were  of  the  plunger  type, 
driven  by  an  eccentric  off  the  mainshaft.  The  regulation 
was  by  means  of  the  suction  valves  being  held  open  for  a 
part  of  the  discharge  stroke  to  control  the  quantity  of 
fuel  oil  discharged  to  the  fuel  valves.  This  regulation  was 
made  by  the  operator  through  a  handwheel  controlling  the 
rocker  arm  operating  the  valves.  These  pumps  gave  very 
little  trouble  except  from  wear,  and  it  was  necessary  to  re- 
new the  plungers  and  bai-rels  about  every  six  months  to  a 
year  on  this  account.  The  plungers  were  required  to  fit  the 
barrels  very  closely  on  account  of  loss  of  pressure  through 
leakage  past  the  plungers.  Aside  from  this  amount  of  wear 
these  pumps  gave  no  trouble,  and  the  method  of  control 
was  entirely  satisfactory. 

Inspection  of  Governors 

Ninety  per  cent,  of  flywheel  accidents  arc  due  to  a  failure 
of  the  governor  mechanism,  therefore  the  following  points 
should  be  carefully  observed:  (a) That  the  governor  mech- 
anism works  freely  and  does  not  stick  in  any  way;  (b)  that 
the  governor  belt  is  of  ample  strength,  and  does  not  slip, 
due  to  oil  or  other  cause  (do  not  use  an  old  oil-soaked  belt)  : 
(c)  that  the  governor  pulley  or  gears  are  tight  on  their 
shafts. 

Engines  have  run  away  due  to  a  key  dropping  out  of  the 
bevel  gear  on  the  vertical  spindle  of  the  governor,  or  to  the 
loosening  of  a  setscrew  on  the  governor  pulley. 

Do  not  under  any  circumstances  remove  or  set  back  the 
safety-cams  on  a  releasing  valve  gear  or  block  the  governor, 
so  that  the  governor  stop  is  made  inoperative. 


Always  remove  the  stop-pin  from  the  governor  stand 
immediately  after  starting  up.  This  precaution  is  so  often 
forgotten  or  neglected  that  the  adoption  of  a  simple  semi- 
automatic device  is  strongly  recommended.  It  may  consist 
of  a  small  lever  pivoted  to  the  governor  standard  and  so 
balanced  that  it  drops  out  of  place  automatically  when  the 
momentum  of  the  balls  becomes  sufficient  to  lift  the  gov- 
ernor-rod off  it. 

A  refinement  of  the  same  idea,  which  obviates  the  neces- 
sity of  the  engineer  holding  the  "pin"  in  place  when  shut- 


PIG.    1.      HA.VDY    AND    SAFE    STOP    PIN 

ting  down,  or  else  of  lifting  the  governor  rod  up  on  the 
"pin"  after  the  engine  has  stopped,  is  shown.  This  ap- 
peared in  Power  and  the  Engineer  for  Feb.  2,  1909,  from 
which  the  following  description  is  quoted: 

The  device  is  simple  and  any  engineer  can  make  and 
attach  one  himself.  The  illustration  shows  three  positions. 
The  first  is  that  in  which  the  stop  is  placed  just  after  clos- 
ing the  throttle  and  before  the  speed  is  much  reduced.  It 
will  be  noted  that  the  fork  is  not  directly  under  the  end  of 
the  rod  that  comes  down  from  the  collar.  As  this  rod  drops 
the  fork  centers  and  allows  the  small  dog  to  drop,  as  shown 
in  the  second  view.  When  the  engine  is  again  brought  up 
to  speed,  the  rod  rises,  and  the  fork  is  pulled  over  to  one 
side  out  of  the  way  by  the  weighted  end  as  shown  in  the 


FIG.    :;.      MODIFIED   FORM    OF   S,\FKTV    STOI"    PIN 


third  view.  This  leaves  a  clear  path  for  the  rod  should 
anything  happen  to  stop  the  governor. 

Never  put  heavy  grease  in  the  oil  pot  of  the  governor. 

Examine  all  screws  at  frequent  intervals,  especially  those 
in  the  cutoff  and  safety  cams,  to  make  sure  that  they  do 
not  work  loose.  The  working  loose  of  the  lower  screw  in 
a  cutoff  cam  some  time  ago  was  the  cause  of  a  flywheel 
wreck. 

Be  sure  the  stop  collar  of  the  governor  is  in  such  position 
that  steam  is  cut  off  when  the  balls  drop  near  the  low  limit. 
Also  be  sure  that  when  the  governor  balls  are  at  the  upper 
limit,  the  knockoff  cams  shut  off  all  the  steam  and  do  not 
pass  clear  under  the  crab  claw  and  get  caught.  This  was 
the  cause  of  a  flywheel  wreck  not  long  ago. — National 
Safety  Council. 


May  14.  1918 


P  0  W  E  R 


711 


Plant   Records  and  the  Importance  of 
Keeping  Them 

The  following  is  from  a  lecture  prepared  by  Prof.  L. 
P.  Breckenriiige  as  part  of  his  fuel  conservation  work  for 
the  Fuel  Administration : 

Unless  records  are  kept,  it  will  be  impossible  to  know 
whether  the  boiler  plant  is  operating  at  a  good  or  a  bad 
economy.  Well-kept  records  ai'e  valuable,  and  reference 
to  them  from  month  to  month,  or  even  from  year  to 
year,  frequently  reveals  some  unsuspected  and  waste- 
ful method  of  operation  or  shows  the  value  of  one  kind  of 
coal  as  compared  with  another.  Where  records  are  kept, 
it  gives  the  fireman  a  chance  to  watch  the  effect  of  different 
methods  of  running;  and  this  of  itself  will  often  lead  to 
economy  sufficient  to  repay  fully  any  cost  of  installing  suit- 
able facilities  for  keeping  the  records  as  well  as  the  slight 
cost  of  recording  the  necessary  daily  observations.  When 
it  is  known  that  records  are  kept,  the  operating  staff  begin 
to  take  more  interest  in  securing  good  records. 

Records  for  the  Small  Plant 

It  might  be  well  to  classify  steam-power  plants  arbitrarily 
according  to  their  size,  and  the  writer  would  suggest  the 
following:  The  small  plant,  10  to  100  hp.;  the  medium 
plant,  100  to  500  hp.;  the  large  plant,  500  to  5000  hp.;  the 
commercial  plant,  5000  to  300,000  hp. 

It  is  in  the  small  plants  that  is  usually  found  the  great- 
est waste  of  both  coal  and  steam.  Frequently,  in  these 
plants  as  much  as  ten  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  is  used 
to  produce  one  horsepower.  This  is  much  too  large  an 
amount.  There  may  be  conditions  of  operation  that  would 
sometimes  justify  this  large  consumption,  but  such  cases 
need  not  be  many,  and  the  coal  consumed  to  produce  one 
horsepower  should  not  exceed  five  pounds  per  hour  even 
for  the  small  plant.  For  the  small  plant  the  following  daily 
records  should  be  kept  in  connection  with  the  operation  of 
the  boiler:  (a)  The  kind  and  size  of  coal  used;  (b)  the 
steam  pressui-e;  (c)  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water; 
(d)  the  weight  of  coal  burned;  (e)  the  weight  of  water 
evaporated;   (f)   the  weight  of  ash. 

In  the  medium  plant,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing  rec- 
ords, the  following  should  be  kept:  (g)  The  temperature 
of  the  escaping  gases;  (h)  the  temperature  of  the  boiler 
room;  (i)  the  composition  of  the  escaping  gases;  (j)  the 
draft  pressure  in  furnace  and  base  of  stack;  (k)  the  quality 
of  the  steam;   (1)  the  heating  value  of  the  coal. 

It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  have  the  dimensions  of 
boilers  and  furnaces  in  order  to  make  the  necessary  cal- 
culations for  which  these  records  are  kept. 

For  the  large  plant  and  for  the  commercial  plant  a  few 
additional  records  are  desirable,  but  for  these  plants  the 
records  as  now  usually  kept  are  quite  complete,  and  for 
many  plants  the  records  are  continuously  recorded. 

The  coal  consumption  per  horsepower  per  hour  in  a  me- 
dium plant  varies  greatly,  but  it  is  probable  that  if  a  large 
number  of  plants  were  taken  as  they  are  running  today  it 
would  be  found  that  at  least  five  pounds  of  coal  was  used 
for  one  horsepower,  when  it  ought  easily  to  be  possible 
to  reduce  this  to  three  pounds  per  horsepower  per  hour. 

In  the  large  plant  and  in  the  commercial  plant  the  possi- 
bilities for  economy  increase  with  the  size  of  the  plant; 
here  the  coal  consumption  per  hour  should  never  exceed 
three  pounds  per  horsepower,  should  usually  be  well  under 
two  pounds,  and  in  some  plants  operating  under  best  con- 
ditions the  consumption  may  soon  be  as  low  as  IV*  pounds 
per  horsepower  per  hour. 

How  Records  Should  be  Obtained 
It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  lecture  to  explain  in 
detail  how  the  specified  records  should  be  obtained.  There 
are  available  numerous  excellent  laboratory  manuals  giving 
full  instructions  for  the  installation  and  use  of  instruments 
necessary  or  useful  in  connection  with  any  plan  for  keep- 
ing records.  It  should,  however,  be  observed  that  the  rec- 
ords suggested  for  this  small  plant  are  very  simple  and 
may  easily  be  obtained;  for  example,  the  steam  pressure 
is  read  from  the  gage  on  the  boiler,  a  special  thermometer 


is  procurable  which  may  be  screwed  into  a  fitting  in  the 
feed  line,  or  a  mercury  well  with  a  simple  glass  thermometer 
may  easily  be  arranged  for  the  purpose  of  reading  the 
temperature  of  the  feed  water.  The  weight  of  coal  and 
ash  will  require  a  pair  of  scales,  but  a  record  of  wheel- 
barrow loads  properly  trimmed  off  to  a  known  weight  is 
better  than  no  record  at  all.  The  weight  of  water  fed 
to  the  boiler  can  best  be  determined  by  installing  a  meter 
on  the  feed  line.  Meters  are  made  for  hot  or  cold  water. 
They  are  not  always  accurate,  but  are  easily  checked  up 
once  or  twice  a  year  and  for  comparative  purposes  are 
quite  satisfactory.  With  this  simple  equipment  much 
valuable  information  may  be  obtained.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested already  that  consumers  of  coal  must  know  how  it 
is  used,  that  in  the  future  extreme  waste  may  be  pro- 
hibited. 

How  To  Use  the  Records 

There  are  two  ways  of  making  good  use  of  the  records: 
(a)  Compare  your  results  with  the  best  records  obtained 
with  similar  equipment  elsewhere;  (b)  compare  your  daily, 
weekly  or  monthly  records  with  one  another,  with  the 
object  of  increasing  economy  or  reducing  cost  of  operation. 
The  records  should  be  inspected  by  someone  whose  duty 
it  is  to  look  after  "waste."  If  a  graphic  chart  is  made 
from  the  records,  it  will  often  show  at  once  the  influence 
of  some  unseen  leak,  the  defect  of  equipment  by  breakage 
or  improper  setting,  poor  method  of  operation  or  change 
of  coal.  Corrections  may  then  be  made  before  the  "waste" 
has  continued  a  month  or  more.  Someone  in  charge  of 
power-plant  operation  must  submit  a  monthly  report  to 
the  general  manager  or  owner,  and  this  report  must  be  given 
some  interest  and  attention.  The  fireman  must  be  shown 
his  records  from  month  to  month  and  encouraged  to  fire 
in  accordance  with  the  best-known   methods. 

Any  attempt  to  reach  a  conclusion  as  to  what  is  a  satis- 
factory performance  leads  to  endless  discussion.  This  is 
natural  because  of  the  commercial  importance  which  neces- 
sarily must  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  problem.  When 
a  power  plant  is  manufacturing  electrical  energy  for  dis- 
tribution and  sale,  the  cost  of  the  coal  used  may  constitute 
60  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  entire  cost  of  producing  its 
product.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  power  plant  is  generating 
300  hp.  for  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  it  may 
bo  found  that  the  cost  of  coal  I'equired  for  power  generation 
and  heating  is  less  than  1  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion, so  that  frequently  manufacturers  have  not  given 
much  attention  to  their  power-plant  operation. 

The  table  is  presented  with  the  hope  that  it  may  be 
some  indication  of  what  economies  may  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected in  the  operation  of  several  types  of  power  and  heat- 
ing plant  boilers  both  for  the  production  of  steam  and  the 
generation  of  power. 

REASONABLE  ECONOMIC  PERFORMANCE 
(Stationary  Steam  Plants) 


Efficiency  of  Coal  per  Hour, 

Boiler  and  Furnace  Lb, 

Per  Cent.  Per  Kw. 


Type  of  Plant 

1.  Central  .Stations; 

(a)  Larce,  10,000  kw.  and  up 70-76  3-2 

(b)  Small,  2,000-10,000  kw 68-74  4-2i 

2.  Manufacturing  power  plants;  Per  I,Hp. 

la)    Small  plants  up  to  100  hp   ..  60-70  8-5 

(b»     Medium  plants  100   500 hp  68-72  5-3 

(c)  LarKe  plants  500-2,000  hp,    .  68-74  4-21 

3.  Heating  plants;  Per  Boiler  Hp. 

(a)  Central  1,000  hp.  and  up       .  68-74  4-3 

(b)  Office  buildings,  public  bldga.  50-70  6-? 

(c)  Residences        50-65  .... 

Even  better  results  than  those  indicated  are  now  fre- 
quently found,  but  it  is  a  fair  question  if  plants  should  be 
allowed  to  operate  under  conditions  which  give  efficiencies 
below  the  low  points  indicated. 

In  order  to  stanc'ardize  the  form  of  report  submitted  by 
engineers  and  also  to  suggest  approved  methods  of  testing 
the  different  kinds  of  equipment,  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers  appointed  in  1909  a  Power  Test  Com- 
mittee. This  committee  has  prepared  the  "Power  Test 
Code"  of  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  This  code  was  printed  in  1915 
and  is  available.  It  is  being  revised  and  extended  and  will 
soon  be  in  excellent  form  for  general  use  for  all  engineers 
and  manufacturers.     It  is   hoped   that  all   important  tests 


712 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


will  conform  to  this  code.  In  it  will  be  found  not  only 
forms  and  methods,  but  also  much  detailed  information  as 
to  the  installation  and  use  of  the  various  instruments  of 
precision  employed  in  connection  with  tests  of  all  kinds. 
All  students  of  engineering  should  become  familiar  with 
this  "Code  of  Rules  for  Conducting  Performance  Tests  of 
Power  Plant  Apparatus." 


The  Fuel  Administration's  Regulations 
as  to  Clean  Coal 

The  order  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration 
regarding  the  production  of  clean  coal  went  into  effect  Mar. 
11,  1918.  According  to  its  terms,  district  representatives  of 
the  Fuel  Administration  are  authorized  to  appoint  inspec- 
tors in  sufficient  numbers  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the 
order. 

The  duty  of  each  inspector  is  to  make  frequent  and  thor- 
ough inspections  of  the  coal  mmed  in  the  particular  territory 
to  which  he  is  assigned  and  to  observe  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  mined  and  produced.  If  he  finds  the  coal  in  any 
part  of  a  mine  to  be  naturally  of  such  character  as  to  be 
unfit  for  market,  the  district  representative  may  order  min- 
ing suspended  in  that  part  of  the  mine  until  proper  cleaning 
methods  are  adopted;  but  work  cannot  be  so  suspended  if  it 
endangers  life  or  if  it  may  result  in  flooding  or  squeezing. 

The  inspector  must  make  a  daily  report  to  the  district 
representative  of  the  Fuel  Administration,  stating  the  num- 
ber of  mines  inspected,  the  condition  of  the  coal  as  loaded, 
the  methods  used  to  prepare  and  clean  the  coal,  and  whether, 
in  his  judgment,  the  product  being  shipped  to  market  is  a 
well-prepared  and  merchantable  product. 

If  an  inspector  finds  coal  loaded  in  railroad  cars  at  the 
mines  and  is  not  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  properly  prepared, 
he  may  condemn  it.  But  he  must  immediately  notify  the 
disti'ict  representative  and  the  operator  by  wire  or  in  person 
and  in  writing,  giving  the  car  numbers  and  initials  of  any 
and  all  cars  so  rejected  and  stating  the  reasons  for  his 
action. 

If  the  district  representative  approves  the  inspector's 
report,  he  must  notify  the  operator  at  once.  If  the  operator 
does  not  unload  the  rejected  coal  at  once  and  reprepare  it, 
the  consignee  is  permitted  to  deduct  50  cents  per  ton 
from  the  authorized  price  for  the  grade  of  coal  in  the  car; 
but  the  consignee,  after  examining  the  coal,  may  at  his 
option  pay,  and  the  operator  may  receive,  the  full  author- 
ized price. 

Each  invoice  covering  the  sale  of  condemned  coal  must 
bear  a  notation  to  the  effect  that  the  reduced  price  is  fixed 
by  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration  as  a  penalty  for 
improper  preparation.  The  operator  must  immediately 
report  to  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration  at  Wash- 
ington and  to  the  district  representative  how  he  disposed 
of  the  condemned  car  or  cars  of  coal  and  a  copy  of  the 
invoice  must  accompany  his  report. 

The  terms,  conditions  and  validity  of  existing  contracts 
are  not  affected  or  altered  by  the  clean-coal  regulations; 
but  all  new  contracts  are  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the 
order. 

The  object  of  the  order,  of  course,  is  to  discourage  the 
marketing  of  slate,  bone  and  other  impurities  at  the  same 
price  as  clean  coal.  But  the  regulations  apparently  contain 
a  "joker."  For,  after  stating  that  the  consignee  may  pur- 
chase the  condemned  coal  at  a  reduction  of  50  cents  a  ton, 
they  add: 

.  .  .  provided,  however,  the  consignee,  after  examining 
the  coal,  may,  at  his  option,  pay  and  the  operator  receive  the 
full  authorized  price. 

Commenting  on  this  provision,  a  writer  in  Fecony  perti- 
nently remarks: 

Why  were  such  pains  taken  to  permit  a  producer  of  poor 
coal,  a  waster  of  our  National  resources,  to  receive  "the  full 
authorized  price?"  The  coal  market  is  a  "sellers'  market," 
and  it  will  be  for  some  time  to  come.  Every  coal  producer 
knows  that  most  manufacturers  have  very  small  reserves, 
and  that  once  a  car  of  coal  is  on  a  consumer's  side-track,  it 
is  ten  to  one  that  he  will  not  reject  the  coal,  especially  as 
he  has  nrobably  been  counting  on  the  aiTival  of  that  car. 


How  easy  it  will  be  to  insist  on  "the  full  authorized  price." 
Even  if  the  original  consignee  is  in  a  position  to  reject  a 
particular  car,  every  coal  producer  knows  it  is  a  safe  bet 
that  there  is  at  least  one  near-by  plant  that  will  be  glad  to 
take  anything  to  tide  over  a  temporary  shortage  at  any 
price.  What  chance  is  there  of  an  operator  actually  suffer- 
ing any  penalty  for  poor  preparation,  and  besides  how  many 
of  the  seven  or  eight  million  carloads  shipped  to  manufac- 
turers and  retail  dealers  are  going  to  be  "inspected"? 

Careful  provision  is  made  in  the  order  for  notifying 
almost  everybody  by  telegram  of  the  condemnation  of  a  car, 
except  the  consignee.  If  the  Fuel  Administration  is  really 
interested  in  the  maximum  manufacturing  efficiency,  why 
wasn't  provision  made  for  prompt  notice  to  the  consumer 
that  a  car  of  condemned  coal  is  on  the  way  ?  Is  the  operator 
going  to  do  it  voluntarily?  Is  he  going  to  rush  off  by 
special-delivery  mail  the  invoice,  showdng  that  the  car  con- 
tains condemned  coal,  so  that  the  consumer  can  make  other 
arrangements  for  coal  to  take  its  place? 

Carbocoal 

A  paper  prepared  by  Charles  T.  Malcolmson,  president 
of  the  Malcolmson  Briquette  Engineering  Co.,  Chicago,  for 
presentation  at  the  Colorado  meeting  of  the  American  In- 
stitute of  Mechanical  Engineers  in  September  of  this  year, 
describes  a  process  for  the  manufacture  of  smokeless  fuel 
from  high-volatile  coals  and  for  the  recovery  and  refine- 
ment of  the  coal-tar  products  derived  therefrom.  The 
products  of  the  process  are  a  fuel  called  carbocoal,  which, 
for  convenience  in  handling,  is  prepared  in  briquet  form; 
a  yield  of  tar  more  than  double  that  obtained  in  the  ordinary 
byproduct  coking  process;  ammonium  sulphate  in  excess 
of  that  normally  recovered  in  the  ordinary  byproduct  coking 
process;  and  gas  in  amount  approximately  9000  cu.ft.  per 
ton  of  coal  carbonized,  which  is  at  present  used  in  the 
process. 

The  raw  coal,  after  being  crushed,  is  first  distilled  at  a 
temperature  of  850  to  900  deg.  F.,  and  the  volatile  contents 
are  thereby  reduced  to  the  desired  point.  The  result  of 
this  first  distillation  is  a  large  yield  of  gas  and  tar  and  a 
product  rich  in  carbon,  termed  semi-carbocoal.  This  product 
is  mixed  with  a  certain  proportion  of  pitch  obtained  from 
the  tar  produced  in  the  process,  and  the  mixture  briquetted. 
The  briquets  are  then  subjected  to  an  additional  distilla- 
tion at  a  temperature  of  approximately  1800  deg.  F.,  re- 
sulting in  the  production  of  carbocoal,  the  recovery  of  ad- 
ditional tar  and  gas,  and  a  substantial  yield  of  ammonium 
sulphate. 

The  carbocoal  represents  more  than  72  per  cent,  of  the 
weight  of  the  raw  coal,  the  exact  percentage  depending  upon 
the  volatile  content  of  the  latter.  It  is  dense,  dustless,  uni- 
form in  size  and  quality,  and  can  be  handled  and  transported 
long  distances  without  disintegration.  It  is  grayish  black 
in  color,  slightly  resembling  coke,  but  in  density  more  nearly 
approaches  anthracite.  It  is  applicable  to  about  the  same 
kind  of  service  as  anthracite  would  be,  one  of  its  most 
valuable  characteristics  being  that  of  smokelessness. 

Uruguay  Requires  Use  of  Metric  Units 

One  of  the  measures  recently  adopted  by  the  Government 
of  Uruguay,  says  Commerce  Reports,  makes  the  use  of 
metric  units  in  all  trade  transactions  obligatory.  A  decree 
of  Feb.  8  provides  that  merchants  dealing  in  articles  sus- 
ceptible of  being  sold  by  weight  or  measure  must  adhere 
to  the  metric  system  and  forbids  them  to  sell  by  the  piece 
or  package  or  for  a  fixed  sum  of  money,  even  when  the  cus- 
tomer so  demands.  Where  merchandise  is  sold  in  sealed 
wrapping,  cans,  boxes,  packages,  bottles,  demijohns,  etc., 
the  net  contents  or  weight  contained  must  be  indicated  on 
the  wrapping  in  an  easily  visible  manner.  In  books  of 
account  and  invoices  the  weight  or  measure  of  merchandise 
sold  must  be  stated.  Merchants  dealing  in  articles  of  prime 
necessity  must  post  in  their  places  of  business  the  daily 
prices  of  such  articles,  stating  the  weight  or  measure. 


It  is  very  advisable  to  have  more  than  one  way  of 
getting  out  of  a  boiler  or  engine  room,  even  if  one  of 
them  is  not  very  handy. — Marine  Engineering. 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


713 


Power   for   the   Nitro    Powder   Plant 

The  United  States  Government  has  not  only  entered  into  a 
contract  with  the  Virg'inian  Power  Co.  of  Charleston,  W.  Va., 
to  furnish  power  from  its  plant  at  Cabin  Creek  Junction,  near 
that  city,  for  the  mammoth  powder  plant  at  Nitro,  about 
16  miles  below  Charleston,  but  has  arranged  for  an  inter- 
change of  current  between  the  Vii-ginian  Co.  and  the  Appa- 
lachian power  concerns,  the  two  largpest  power  companies 
in  the  state. 

To  insure  adequate  current  for  the  Government  needs  at 
Nitro,  the  producing  capacity  of  the  Virginian's  plant  is 
being  trebled,  and  an  expenditure  said  to  be  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  $1,000,000  will  be  necessary  to  cover  all  the  im- 
provements. Some  time  ago,  the  company  actually  began 
to  install  new  machinery  sufficient  to  double  the  capacity  of 
the  plant,  but  owing  to  the  condition  of  the  money  market 
was  unable  to  finance  the  completion  of  such  improvements. 
Not  long  ago  officers  of  the  company  presented  to  the  Gov- 
ernment the  proposition  of  assisting  in  the  enlargement  of 
facilities  without  waiting  for  an  easier  money  market.  It 
is  believed  that  the  negotiations  led  to  the  contract  that  has 
been  made  between  the  Government  and  the  Virginian  com- 
pany. 

General  Manager  H.  G.  Scott  has  made  this  statement  in 
connection  with  the  new  arrangement: 

It  was  announced  to  the  Public  Service  Commission  that 
the  Virginian  Power  Co.  has  concluded  a  contract  with  the 
United  States  Government  whereunder  all  the  electric- 
power  requirements  of  the  power  plant  at  Nitro  will  be 
taken  care  of  by  the  Virginian  Power  Co.  from  its  plant  at 
Cabin  Creek  Junction. 

The  contract  provides  that  two  circuits  over  two  separate 
and  distinct  routes  shall  be  constructed  for  the  service  of 
the  powder  plant  only.  The  contract  was  so  arranged  by 
the  Government  as  to  provide  for  the  full  power  require- 
ments of  the  coal  mines.  The  equipment  now  being  installed 
at  the  company's  plant  is  practically  the  same  which  the 
company  has  had  ordered  for  about  a  year.  This  contract, 
however,  provides  not  only  for  the  completion  of  the  instal- 
lation, but  that  it  shall  be  done  immediately. 

It  is  planned  to  physically  connect  the  power  systems  of 
both  the  Virginian  Power  Co.  and  the  Appalachian  Power 
Co.  in  order  that  these  companies  may  interchange  power  for 
the  purpose  of  sustaining  the  service  in  the  most  continuous 
and  economical  manner.  This  plan  has  been  successfully 
carried  out  in  California,  where  all  the  larger  companies 
are   interconnected. 

Injury  by   Defectively  Repaired  Boiler 

"A  steam  boiler  is  inherently  dangerous,  and  one  who 
repairs  it  owes  a  duty  of  proper  care  to  avoid  injury,  not 
only  to  the  property  and  employees  of  the  purchaser,  but 
to  all  persons  who  may  be  thereby  subjected  to  injury,  and 
to  that  end  must  perform  his  work  properly."  This  lan- 
guage was  lately  used  by  the  Appellate  Division  of  the  New 
York  Supreme  Court  in  the  recent  case  of  Rosenfeld  vs. 
Albert  Smith  &  Son,  Inc.,  et  al.;  168  New  York  Supplement, 
214.  The  court  affirms  judgment  for  death  of  a  youth 
who  was  standing  near  a  boiler  in  the  power  plant  of  a 
hotel  building  when  the  rear  boiler  head  bulged  out  and 
steam  escaped  in  fatal  volume. 

A  hotel  company  holding  a  lease  on  part  of  the  building 
contracted  with  the  appellant,  Albert  Smith  &  Son,  for  the 
replacing  by  the  latter  of  tubes  in  two  boilers,  the  work 
to  be  done  in  a  first-class  manner  and  to  be  "perfectly 
tight."  In  the  process  of  doing  the  work,  appellant's  em- 
ployees used  shims  1/32  in.  thick  to  fill  the  spaces  between 
the  ends  of  the  tubes  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  boiler 
heads.  But  the  shims  were  not  continued  all  the  way 
around  each  tube,  being  tapered  or  scarfed  at  the  ends 
and  extending  only  about  halfway  around  the  tubes.  Ap- 
parently it  was  not  claimed  that  there  was  any  negligence 
in  failing  to  bead  the  tubes,  instead  of  using  shims,  but 
plaintiflT  offered  evidence  tending  to  show  that  the  shims 
should  have  been  extended  all  the  way  around,  and  that 
they  should  have  projected  beyond  the  boiler  heads  instead 
of  being  flush  as  they  were,  and  sliould  have  been  flared 
with  the  tube  ends  so  that  they  would  tend  to  resist 
the  pressure  from  within  and  prevent  the  bulging  out  of 


the  boiler  heads.  It  was  found  after  the  accident  that 
the  i-ear  boiler  head  had  bulged  out  on  a  vertical  line  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch,  resulting  in  27  tubes  in  the  center 
dropping  inside  the  boiler  and  the  other  tubes  being  left 
barely  holding. 

The  assistant  engineer  testified  that  the  gage  registered 
oidy  97  lb.  a  few  minutes  before  the  accident,  although  after 
the  tubes  had  been  installed  the  boiler  had  been  subjected 
to  hydrostatic  tests  of  160  and  190  pounds. 

Appellant  contended  in  the  suit  that,  even  if  it  were 
conceded  that  the  boiler  was  negligently  repaired  by  its 
workmen,  still  the  engineer  in  charge  of  the  plant  had  tested 
and  accepted  the  boiler  as  being  in  satisfactory  condition. 
But  the  court  decided  that,  under  the  facts  established,  it 
did  not  appear  that  the  engineer  was  authorized  to  waive 
any  defects  in  the  boiler,  and  that  the  only  bearing  the 
tests  had  was  as  evidence  on  the  question  whether  the 
boiler  was  skillfully  repaired  or  not. 

The  court  further  held  that  the  jury's  finding  that  the 
work  was  negligently  performed  was  partly  sustained  by 
testimony  showing  that  on  the  first  test  29  tubes  were 
found  to  be  leaking  and  sweating,  and  other  testimony 
tending  to  show  that  the  final  test,  made  after  further  re- 
pair, was  not  properly  or  sufficiently  made.  Concluding, 
the  court  said: 

The  appellant  is  chargeable  with  notice  of  the  fact  that 
the  tubes  were  not  merely  intended  as  conduits  for  heat, 
but  that  they  were  intended  to  support  and  sustain  the 
boiler  heads,  and  it  failed  to  install  them  in  such  manner 
that  they  would  afford  proper  support  in  that  regard.  The 
appellant  was  chargeable  with  knowledge  of  the  dangers 
to  those  lawfully  on  the  premises  in  the  event  that  the 
boiler  head  gave  way,  owing  to  its  negligence  in  making 
the  repairs.  A  steam  boiler  is  inherently  dangerous,  and 
one  who  repairs  it  owes  a  duty  of  proper  care  to  avoid 
injury,  not  only  to  the  property  and  employees  of  the  pur- 
chaser, but  to  all  persons  who  may  be  thereby  subjected 
to  injury,  and  to  that  end  must  perform  his  work  properly. 

Perhaps  You   Can   Render  Valuable 
Service  to  Your  Country  * 

Important  chemical  and  other  technical  engineering  work 
necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  this  war  is  being  carried 
on  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines  Experiment  Station,  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  The  services  of  trained  men  of  the  follow- 
ing classifications  are  urgently  needed :  Bacteriologists, 
biologists,  chemists  (inorganic,  organic,  physical  and  elec- 
tro-), chemical  engineers,  draftsmen,  electrical  engineers,  in- 
strument makers,  laboratory  assistants,  laborers,  machin- 
ists, physiologists,  plumbers,  steamfitters,  stenographers, 
skilled  labor  of  various  kinds. 

If  your  training  fits  you  for  any  of  these  occupations, 
send  to  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  American  University  Ex- 
periment Station,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  blank  forms.  When 
properly  executed  and  returned,  these  forms  will  be  placed 
on  file,  and  when  a  vacancy  occurs  you  will  be  considered 
for  it  and  will  be  notified  if  your  services  are  desired. 

If  you  are  a  registrant  in  the  draft  and  have  not  yet  been 
ordered  to  camp,  it  may  be  possible  to  have  you  immediately 
inducted  into  the  service  for  work  here. 

If  you  are  not  in  the  draft,  but  feel  that  you  wish  to 
serve  your  country  in  the  present  crisis,  you  can  enlist  or 
serve  as  a  civilian.  Serve  your  country  where  you  can 
serve  it  best. 


A  Washington  contemporary  says  it  leaked  out  in  the 
Department  of  the  Interior  that  the  commission  of  eminent 
scientists  appointed  by  Secretary  Lane  to  judge  whether 
the  inventor,  Garabed  Giragossian,  is  right  or  wrong,  the 
names  of  whom  have  been  kept  a  secret,  will  be  headed  by 
James  Ambrose  Moyer,  of  Norristown,  Penn.  Professor 
Moyer  is  Director  of  the  State  Department  of  University 
Extension  in  Massachusetts  and  has  been  in  charge  of  the 
Department  of  Mechanical  Engineering  at  the  Pennsylvania 
State  College;  also  an  engineer  with  Westinghouse  Church 
Kerr  &  Co.  and  engineer  of  the  Steam  Turbine  Department 
of  the  General  Electric  Co.  He  is  the  author  of  works  upon 
Steam  Turbines,  Thermodynamics  and  Powcr-Plant  Testing. 


714 


POWER 


Vol  47,  No.  20 


Tube    Thickness    Considered    at 
Massachusetts   Hearing 

A  recommendation  that  the  minimum  thickness  of  tubes 
in  water-tube  boilers  be  standardized  in  accordance  with 
the  A.  S.  M.  E.  Code  and  inserted  as  an  additional  section 
in  the  Massachusetts  Code  of  Boiler  Rules  was  presented 
at  Boston,  May  2,  to  the  Board  of  Boiler  Rules  by  the  Mutual 
Boiler  Insurance  Co.,  Boston.  This  matter  and  a  petition 
that  the  rules  be  altered  to  permit  the  use  of  the  Breakey 
type  of  automatic  gage-glass  cutoff  were  the  only  subjects 
brought  before  the  board  at  the  semiannual  hearing,  at 
which  George  A.  Luck,  deputy  chief  of  the  Boiler  Inspection 
Department  of  the  Massachusetts  District  Police,  presided. 

The  first  petition  urged  the  addition  of  Sec.  7  to  Part  3 
of  the  1917  Rules,  to  read  as  follows: 

Tubes  for  Water-Tube  Boilers 

The  minimum  thicknesses  of  tubes,  circulating  pipes  and 
nipples  used  in  water-tube  boilers,  measured  by  Birming- 
ham wire  gage  for  maximum  allowable  working  pressures 
not  exceeding  165  lb.  per  sq.in.  shall  be  as  follows: 

Diameters  under  3  in     .    ,                                                            No.  12  B.w.g. 

Diameters  of  3  in.  or  over,  but  under  4  in     ,                           No.  1 1  B.w.g. 

Diameters  of  4  in.  or  over,  but  under  5  in.    -  No.  10  B.w.g. 

Diameter  of  5  in No.  9  B.w.g. 

The  above  thicknesses  shall  be  increased  for  maximum 
allowable  working  pressures  above  165  lb.  as  follows: 

Above  165  \h.,  but  not  over  235  lb 1  gage 

Above  235  lb.,  but  not  over  285  lb 2  gages 

Above  285  lb.,  but  not  over  400  lb 3  gages 

Tubes  over  4  in.  in  diameter  shall  not  be  used  for  maxi- 
mum allowable  working  pressures  above  285  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

John  A.  Collins,  secretary  of  the  Mutual  company,  urged 
the  above  incorporation  on  the  ground  of  increased  safety. 
He  said  that  water-tube  boilers  are  now  being  built  in 
Massachusetts  for  200  lb.  pressure,  using  No.  10  B.w.g. 
tubes.  For  the  past  fifteen  years  the  Mutual  company  has 
been  recommending  even  heavier  tubes  than  are  called  for 
in^its  petition.  Nothing  was  included  in  the  section  rela- 
tive to  tube  quality,  but  in  answer  to  an  inquiry,  Mr.  Collins 
stated  that  seamless-drawn  tubes  are  greatly  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  lap-welded.  This  was  not  incorporated  in  the 
recommendation  because  of  the  great  difficulty  today  in 
obtaining  seamless-drawn  tubes. 

J.  F.  Molloy,  chief  inspector  of  the  Mutual  company,  said 
that  he  knew  of  a  public-utility  company  in  Massachusetts 
which  is  installing  ordinary  standard-gage  No.  10  tubes  in 
water-tube  boilers  for  200  lb.  pressure;  and  it  is  not  known 
what  the  actual  thickness  of  the  tubes  is.  These  tubes  may 
run  as  small  as  No.  11  or  No.  12  for  all  that  the  inspecting 
company  can  tell.  Another  plant,  soon  to  be  operating  at 
300  lb.  pressure,  is  putting  in  No.  7  gage.  Under  the  present 
Massachusetts  rules  the  use  of  No.  25  gage  would  be  pos- 
sible in  this  case.  Mr.  Molloy  said  that  most  accidents  his 
company  had  noted  in  water-tube  boilers  came  from  the 
rupture  of  the  tubes.  No  trouble  has  been  experienced  from 
the  collapsing  of  fire  tubes.  The  company  has  issued  speci- 
fications for  No.  11  gage  tubes  in  boilers  operating  at  175 
lb.,  in  some  of  its  practice.  It  is  an  open  boast  today  among 
boilermakers  that  they  would  rather  bid  on  the  Massachu- 
setts Code  than  on  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  There  was  no  opposition 
to  the  proposed  new  section. 

L.  I.  Breakey,  Marshall,  Mich.,  petitioned  the  board  for 
a  change  in  Rule  No.  27,  Part  3,  Sec.  6,  page  98,  Rules 
of  1917,  which  prohibits  the  use  of  an  automatic  shutoff 
valve  on  a  water-glass  connection.  The  petition  stated  that 
a  large  number  of  states  have  changed  this  rule  so  as  to 
admit  the  use  of  automatic  shutofTs,  of  which  there  are  now 
several  makes.  The  Breakey  shutoff  is  indorsed  by  the  Ohio 
State  Board  of  Boiler  Rules  and  the  Pennsylvania  Indus- 
trial Board  as  applied  to  steam  boilers,  and  it  meets  the 
A.  S.  M.  E.  Code  as  governing  water  gages.  The  proposed 
change  in  the  rule  reads  as  follows: 

No  water-glass  connection  shall  be  fitted  -.vith  an  auto- 
matic shutoff  valve  except  where  the  automatic  shutoff 
valves  are  so  constructed  that  the  two  connections  to  the 
water  glass  can  be  blown  through  and  the  steam  connec- 
tion cannot  be  entirely  closed  thereby;  means  must  also  be 


provided  for  the  renewal  and  inspection  of  the  upper  and 
lower  ball  check  valves  while  the  boiler  is  under  working 
pressure. 

There  was  practically  no  discussion  of  this  recommenda- 
tion with  the  exception  of  a  comment  by  James  Stewart, 
Stewart  Boiler  Works,  Worcester,  Mass.,  who  queried  the 
continuous  reliability  of  any  spring-actuated  device  and  who 
emphasized  the  great  importance  of  making  such  equipment 
foolproof.     The  hearing  was  then  closed. 

Government  Will   Open  Up   Fuel 
Oil  Reserve 

The  naval  fuel-oil  reserve  in  California  will  be  opened 
up  by  the  Government  immediately  to  prevent  an  oil  famine. 
Assurance  to  this  effect  was  given  to  a  delegation  of  promi- 
nent newspaper  publishers  from  the  Pacific  Coast  after 
conferences  with  Secretary  of  the  Navy  Daniels,  Bernard 
M.  Baruch,  chairman  of  the  War  Industries  Board;  Mark 
L.  Requa,  director  of  the  oil  division  of  the  United  States 
Fuel  Administration,  and  representatives  of  eighty  litigants 
who  have  numerous  claims  against  the  property  now  in- 
cluded in  naval  reserve  No.  2. 

Requa,  the  oil  director,  after  the  conference  served  notice 
upon  the  litigants  that  if  they  do  not  adjust  their  differences 
with  the  Government  within  two  weeks  so  amicable  settle- 
ment of  disputes  can  be  made  after  the  war,  the  fields  will 
be  commandeered  as  a  war  measure. 

Secretary  Daniels,  who  took  the  precaution  four  years 
ago  to  conserve  the  great  oil  fields,  gave  his  hearty  consent 
to  the  opening  up  of  the  naval  fuel-oil  reserves. 

Baruch  said  he  not  only  could  see  the  great  and  pressing 
need  for  it,  but  would  suggest  to  President  Wilson  the  com- 
mandeering of  the  entire  Pacific  Coast  oil  industry,  if  such 
steps  were  necessary. 

The  publishers,  who  were  headed  by  F.  W.  Kellogg,  of 
the  San  Francisco  Call,  first  went  to  see  Baruch.  They 
explained  the  serious  fuel-oil  situation  that  faced  not  only 
the  coast  but  the  whole  country. 

They  said  fuel  commissioners  had  told  them  there  were 
in  storage  on  Jan.  1,  19,000,000  bbl.  of  fuel  oil.  There  will 
be  produced  under  the  present  maximum  conditions  78,000,- 
000  bbl.  of  oil  this  year.  The  consumption  at  the  present 
rate  will  require  96,000,000  bbl.  This  would  leave  only 
1,000,000  bbl.  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  reserves  are  de- 
creasing at  the  rate  of  1,500,000  bbl.  a  month. 

Of  the  2,400,000  hp.  produced  on  the  coast,  nearly  75  per 
cent.,  or  1,500,000,  is  developed  by  fuel  oil,  380,000  by  water 
100,000  by  coal  and  100,000  by  gas. 

Fifty-seven  per  cent,  of  all  the  fuel  oil  is  now  used  by 
railroads  and  vessels,  including  naval  ships.  The  shipping 
board's  program  contemplates  the  use  of  fuel  oil  in  about 
35  per  cent,  of  the  merchant  fleet.  Unless  this  is  met  by 
additional  and  immediate  increase  in  production  industries 
depending  on  fuel  oil  will  be  paralyzed. 


According  to  Commerce  Reports,  a  new  syndicate  has 
been  formed  by  Einar  Steensrud,  of  Skien,  Norway,  for  the 
consolidation  and  developing  of  a  number  of  small  water- 
falls, aggregating  200,000  hp.  The  present  intention  is  to 
utilize  this  power  for  the  manufacture  of  nitrate,  aluminum 
or  carbide,  according  as  the  demand  develops.  The  annual 
report  of  the  Norsk  Hydro  has  appeared,  covering  the 
year  ended  June  30,  1917.  The  net  profit  was  $6,650,000, 
compared  with  $4,900,000  in  the  previous  year.  The  capital 
stock  is  $15,450,000.  This  company  operates  waterfalls  of 
about  300,000  hp.  for  the  production  of  electrochemical 
commodities  like  nitrates  and  carbide.  In  the  production 
of  all  of  these  commodities  great  heat  is  generated,  and 
heretofore  much  of  it  has  been  wasted.  By  a  new  ar- 
rangement the  waste  heat  is  now  to  be  utilized  for  the  pro- 
duction of  low-pressure  steam  to  operate  turbines. 


The  noncompressibility  of  water,  coupled  with  the  thick- 
ness of  some  men's  heads,  has  helped  the  repair  shops 
to  several  millions  of  dollars  of  work.  We  cannot  change 
the  nature  of  water,  but  we  can  do  something  with  the 
men's  heads. — Marine  Engineering. 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


715 


Detroit  Engineering  Societies* 
Joint  Meeting 

The  Detroit  EngineeririK  Society  and  the  Detroit  Sec- 
tion of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  held 
a  joint  meetinR-  Friday  evening,  May  3,  in  the  Board  of  Com- 
merce Auditorium.  Dean  Cooley,  of  Michigan  University, 
announced  a  course  in  elementary  drawing  and  training  for 
women  at  the  summer  school  this  year,  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  the  drafting  room.  These  women  will  be  taught 
to  do  the  more  elementary  work,  thus  relieving  the  regu- 
lar draftsmen  and  designers.  The  movement  was  prom- 
ised the  hearty  cooperation  of  both  societies,  which  passed  a 
resolution  to  place  the  graduates  and  give  the  matter  the 
necessary  publicity  to  interest  other  schools  in  this  line  of 
endeavor. 

The  paper  of  the  evening  was  by  R.  H.  Kuss,  consulting 
engineer,  of  Chicago,  on  "Coal  Conservation  as  Applied  to 
Boiler-Room  Operation."  Mr.  Kuss  pointed  out  that  coal 
is  the  greatest  factor  in  this  war,  one-third  of  the  cost  of 
living  reverting  to  this  product.  A  table  of  the  use  of  coal 
was  shoviTi. 

ESTIMATED  EFFICIENCY  WHEN  BURNING  BITUMINOUS  COAL 
Stationary  Plants 

High  Low  Locomotive    Domestic 

Poor  practice,  per  cent 50  40  60  30 

Fair,  per  cent 64  56  66  40 

Good,  per  cent,     72-74  62  70  50 

Available,  per  cent 76  68  72  55 

Available  decrease,  per  cent 12  14  9  15 

Available  saving,  tons 25,800,000  17,100.000     20,250,000 

Total  available  saving,  63, 150,000  tons  on  I9l7basis. 

These  figures  are  based  on  obsei-vations  and  statistics  for 
1917.  The  available  percentage  is  not  a  theoretical  saving, 
but  is  based  on  actual  practice  in  carefully  watched  plants. 
The  available  decrease  is  the  percentage  that  could  have 
been  saved  by  careful  methods,  with  improvements  in  pres- 
ent equipment.  Considering  that  the  output  of  bituminous 
coal  for  1917  was  540,000,000  tons  and  the  estimated  re- 
quirement for  1918  is  619,000,000  tons,  the  necessity  of 
preventing  this  waste  may  readily  be  seen. 

Mr.  Kuss  put  the  problem  to  the  engineers  as  their  own. 
He  showed  that  under  new  district  regulations  coal  would 
be  burned  in  fireboxes  not  fitted  for  its  proper  combustion 
and  that  it  is  the  engineers'  duty  to  see  that  janitors  and 
oypers  of  homes  are  taught  to  fire  properly. 

He  pointed  out  the  steps  to  be  followed  in  good  practice, 
such  as  tight  fireboxes;  the  necessary  combustion-chamber 
construction  so  that  the  air  and  distilled  gases  may  have 
time  to  mix  and  combine  before  coming  in  contact  with  the 
relatively  cold  surfaces;  frequent  cleaning  of  both  sides 
of  heating  surfaces.  Great  stress  was  laid  on  the  draft 
control  and  the  proper  supply  of  air,  it  being  as  wasteful  to 
use  too  much  air  as  to  use  too  little.  Mr.  Kuss  spoke  of  the 
difficulties  the  efficiency  engineers  would  encounter  and  sug- 
gested ways  of  overcoming  them,  such  as:  Keep  in  touch 
with  the  chief  operator,  he  knows  the  conditions  better  than 
anyone  else;  study  the  plant  over  a  long  period;  talk  to  the 
men  so  that  the  suggestions  for  improvement  may  come  from 
them,  and  in  some  cases  use  opposition  so  that  the  operator 
will  work  hard  to  prove  his  point. 

The  engineers  were  warned  that  in  the  near  future  the 
Government  would  compile  a  classification  list  of  the  boiler 
plants  in  an  attempt  to  show  the  grade  of  equipment,  and 
that  coal  will  be  distributed  on  virtue  of  existing  boiler 
plants. 

The  societies  passed  a  resolution  to  maintain  a  joint  com- 
mittee to  aid  the  Fuel  Administration  along  the  lines  of  good 
practice. 

Responsibility  for  Injury  in  Horse-Play 

If  a  fireman  employed  in  a  boiler  room  left  his  employer's 
premises  to  chase  a  man  who  had  called  him  "Turkey," 
and  was  injured  while  so  engaged,  there  can  be  no  award 
under  the  New  York  Compensation  Act  on  a  theory  that 
the  accident  occurred  in  the  course  of  the  fireman's  em- 
ployment. (New  York  State  Industrial  Commission's  De- 
cember, 1917,  Bulletin,  p.  82.  Sullivan  vs.  Beach  Gasper 
Company.) 


Thermal  Values  of  Soft  Coals 

From  Selfotfd  Froo-Burning  and  CukinK  Soft  Fuels.    From  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey  Bulletin  No.  332  iind  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines  Bulletin  No.  23. 


Teat 
State  No. 

Alabama 375 

Alabama 484 

Arkansas 293 

Arkiinsas 308 

Arkansas 340 


GeorKJa  . 

481 

Illinois. 

448 

Illinois 

511 

.    509 

Indiana. 

.    428 

Indiana 

435 

Indiana 

464 

Indian  Territory 

437 

Indian  Territory 

.    449 

Kansas 

311 

Kentucky. 

434 

Maryland 

490 

Maryland 

518 

Missouri      

319 

Montana. 

.    477 

New  Mexico. 

392 

New  Mexico. 

387 

Ohio.. 

483 

Pennsylvania. 

473 

Pennsylvania. 

499 

Pennsylvania 

.    514 

Tennessee 

409 

Tennessee 

.    368 

Tennessee 

.    363 

Texas 

.    291 

Utah 

.    404 

Virginia 

482 

Virginia 

507 

Washington 

,    290 

Washington 

.    359 

West  Virginia 

305 

West  Virginia 

439 

Wyoming 

399 

Wyoming 

.    400 

B.t.d. 

Kind  of  Fuel  County               per  Lb 

Soft— caking Bibb 13,671 

Soft— free-burning Jefferson 14,447 

Soft— raking Sebastian 13,705 

Semi-anthracite — caking..  .   Johnson 14,125 

*  ignite Ouachita 9,549 


Soft — free-burning 
Soft — free-lniining 
Soft  briquets.    . 
Soft — caking. 


Chattooga 12,865 

Williamson 12,920 

St.  Clair 13,271 

Saline 13,621 


Soft — free-burning Greene 13,099 


Soft — caking. 
Soft  briquets 
Soft — free-burnintj;. 
Semi-anthracite.  . 
Soft — free-burning , 
Soft — free-burning , 


Pike 13.545 

Parke 11,930 

13,932 
14,682 

Linn 12,343 

Union 14.026 


Soft — free-burning Allegany 1 4. 5 1 5 

Soft  briquets .  Allegany 14,717 

Soft— caking Randolph 1 1,747 

Lignite — free-burning Carbon 1 1.628 


Soft — ^caking 
Soft — free-burning 
Soft — free-burning 
Soft — caking- . 
Soft — free-burning 

Soft  briquets Westmoreland 

Soft  briquets Claiborne 


Colfax 13,059 

Colfax 12.721 

Belmont 13.381 

Indiana 14,240 

Cambria .  .     14,119 

14,382 
14.092 


Soft— free-burning Campbell 14,008 

Soft— caking Grundy 13,257 

Lignite — free-burning Wood 11,131 

Soft — fre"-burning Summit 12,586 

Anthracite — free-burning .  .  Montgomery 1 2,679 

Soft — caking Tazewell 1 4, 1 77 

Sub-bit. — free-burning King 1 1,772 

Soft — free-burning Kittitas 1 2,996 

Soft — free-burning Marion 13,964 

Soft— caking Kanawha 13,995 

Soft — free-burning Carbon 12,222 

Sub-bit. — free-burning Uinta 12,488 

These  values  give  in  B.t.u.  the  theoretical  thermal  value  of  soft  coals  as 
obtained  at  the  St.  Louis  Testing  Plant  from  139  samples  of  coal,  and  were 
established  by  "actually  burning  one  grain  of  the  air-dried  coal  in  oxygen  in  a 
Mahler-bomb  calorimeter." 


Melting  Points  of  Different  Metals 


Deg.  F. 

Aluminum 1,400 

.\ntimony 810 

Bismuth 476 

Brass 1,900 

Bronze 1,692 

Copper   1.99(1 

Glass      2,377 

Gold  (pure)      2,590 


Deg.  F. 

Iron  (cast) 2,450 

Iron  (wrought)  . 2,912 

Lead 608 

Platinum 3,080 

.Silver  (pure) 1,873 

•Steel 2,500 

Tin 446 

Zinc    680 


B.ll.<in  B..rd  S.ri. 


f4rm\  Bulletins  Are  Read  by4,500,000Workfflea  Each  Week  A^^IBh 
VMjBy  NATIONAL  SAFETY  COUNCIL,  Chicago,  Ilu  Vjijpl/ 

REPAIRMEN 


Never  do  any  work  on  Steam  Pipes 
While  They  Are  Under  Pressure 


716 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


Compensation  Act  Applied 

A  novel  question  was  presented  to  the  Connecticut 
Supreme  Court  of  Errors  in  the  late  case  of  Richards  vs. 
Indianapolis  Abattoir  Co.,  102  Atlantic  Reporter,  604.  Plain- 
tiff, an  employee  engaged  in  work  disconnected  from  the 
company's  power  plant,  found  it  necessary  to  wait  for 
about  fifteen  minutes  before  he  could  use  an  elevator  in 
proceeding  with  his  work,  and  sat  down  on  a  near-by  keg 
in  the  power  plant,  close  to  a  firebox  and  boiler.  Being 
tired,  he  dozed  off  to  sleep  and  awakened  a  few  minutes 
later  to  find  that  his  clothing  had  caught  fire,  either  from 
radiated  heat  of  the  firebox  or  from  a  flying  spark.     His 


demand  for  compensation  to  cover  resulting  injury  was 
resisted  on  the  ground  that  he  was  not  injured  in  the 
course  of  his  employment,  but  the  court  permitted  recovery, 
saying:  "The  falling  asleep  of  the  claimant  was  natural 
in  the  case  of  a  man  who  has  been  engaged  in  hard  work 
for  the  whole  morning  in  the  cold,  and  who  at  the  time 
was  sitting  in  a  hot  place.  The  falling  asleep  was  not  the 
result  of  any  conscious  effort  on  the  part  of  the  claimant, 
but  came  simply  from  drowsiness  which  crept  over  him 
as  the  result  of  his  previous  exertion.  The  accident  oc- 
curred when  the  claimant  was  at  a  place  where  he  might 
reasonably  be.  There  was  no  turning  aside  on  his  part, 
no  attempt  to  serve  ends  of  his  own." 


New  Publications 


kl,h:m?:xtary  mechanics  for  enoi- 

NRERS.       By    Clifford     Newton    MilLs. 
Published    by    D.    Van    Nostrand    Com- 
pany,   New    Yorlv   City.      Clotli.    5    x   71 
in.  ;  127  pages.     Price  $1. 
This   is   another   of   a    number   of   similar 
books    which    have    appeared     in     the     last 
three    or    four    years    and    is    arranged    for 
students  who  have  previously  studied  trigo- 
nometry.     It   is  intended  as   a  basis   for   a 
semester's   work   of    three    hours   per   week. 
The    subject    matter    is    divided    into    three 
parts — kinematics.      kinetics      and      statics. 
Throughout      many      problems      have      been 
given,  so  that  the  students  may  master  the 
subject   by  working  on   the   many  problems 
given        The    problems    are    well    presented 
and    for    the    man    who    has    been    through 
trigonometry,  the  book  is  well  worth  a  dol- 
lar. 

HANPROOK   OF   ENGINEERING  MATH- 
EMATICS.     By  Walter  E.   Wynne  and 
William    Spraragen.      Published    by    D. 
Van     Nostrand    Co.,     New    York    City. 
Flexible    leather,    4Jx7    in.  ;    220    pages. 
Price,  $2. 
Many  engineers  and  students  will  greatly 
appreciate  this  little  book,  which,  as  the  in- 
troduction   by    Prof.    Ernest    J.    Berg,    con- 
sulting    engineer.      General      Electric      Co, 
Schenectady.    N.    Y.,   states   is   intended   pri- 
marily  for' students   in    engineering   schools 
and    colleges    and    should    serve    as    a    con- 
venient  reminder  of  things   that  are  easily 
forgotten,    but    are    likely    to    be    needed    in 
their  later  work.     This  is  certainly  the  most 
useful  purpose  of  the  book. 

The  authors  have  endeavored  to  supply 
a  read.v  means  of  reference  to  theoretical 
and  applied  mathematics  as  used  in  engi- 
neering, and  it  includes  the  underlying  engi- 
neering data  and  applications  as  well  as  the 
mathematical  formulas.  The  first  89  pages 
are  devoted  to  pure  mathematics  includ- 
ing everything  from  algebra  to  calculus 
and  theoretical  mechanics,  the  latter  em- 
bracing gravity,  inertia,  impact  forces,  fric- 
tion, etc.  The  remaining  chapters  treat  of 
the  mechanics  of  materials,  hydraulics,  flow 
of  liciuids.  electricity,  to  measurement  and 
physical  and  chemical  constants.  Pages 
1,S5-213  are  devoted  to  tables  of  circum- 
ferences and  areas  of  circles ;  powers,  re- 
ciprocals ;  common  logarithms ;  natural 
logarithms  ;  trigonometric  functions  ;  hyper- 
bolic sines  and  cosines. 

It  is  a  mighty  good  little  book  to  have 
around  to  refresh  the  memor.v,  and  we  shall 
be  glad  to  keep  it  on  the  shelf  near  our 
desk. 

STEAM      TURBINES.         By      AVilliam      J. 
Goudie.         Published       by       Longmans, 
Green    &    Co.,    New    York    City.       Siza, 
6  X  9  in.  ;  519  pages;  illustrated.     Price 
$4, 
This  is  one  of  two  unusually  good  books 
on     steam     turbines     to     appear     in     recent 
months,      fThe   other   is    "Steam    Turbines," 
bv  G.  .1,  Meyers,  I-ieut.  Comm.  I^.   S.   Navy. 
and  published   by   the   I'nited    States   Naval 
Institute ;    it   will    be    re\ii.nved    in    an    early 
l.ssue    of    "Power",!       It    has    been    the    aim 
of  Mr.   GoVKlie  to  ]>resent  a  volume  to   suit 
the    recpiirements    of    engineering    students, 
chiefly,  though  there  is  indeed  much  to  in- 
terest  the    designer    and    operator ;    in    fact, 
the  book  is  one  that  should  be  of  consider- 
able help  to  anyone  interested  in  steam  tur- 
bines.      Condensers    and    condensing    appa- 
ratus are  not  discussed. 

The  chapter  on  classification  of  turbines 
has  some  diagrams  showing  the  behavior 
of  velocit.v  and  pre.ssure  in  turbines  of  the 
\arlous  types,  which  we  are  glad  to  see  in 
a  book  of  this  kind.  Such  diagrams  are  of 
<'onsideral)le  aid  to  the  student  particularly. 
Throughout   the    book   there   are   many   ex- 


cellent line  drawings  of  sections  of  tur- 
bines of  x'arious  tj'pes ;  in  these  drawings 
("etails  are  well  illustrated. 

The  book  is  particularly  pleasing  because 
one  finds  something  of  what  one  looks  for 
— and  one  looks  for  many  data,  drawings, 
tables,  etc..  on  turbines  these  da>'s  This 
thoroughness,  which  is  true  of  all  the  six- 
teen chapters,  makes  the  volume  the  kind 
one  wants  within  reach.  We  have  had  our 
review  volume  a  long  time,  using  it  for 
reference  and  checking — the  best  way  to 
review  a  book,  of  course.  The  chapter 
headings  are:  Classification  of  Turbines: 
Impulse  Turbines ;  Reaction  Turbines ; 
Combmation  Turbines  ;  Properties  of  Steam  ; 
Entropy  Diagrams ;  Nozzles ;  Blading ; 
Rotors ;  Mechanical  Losses ;  Reheat  Fac- 
tors ;  Steam  Consumption  ;  Determination  of 
General  Proportions  of  Turbines  There 
are  three  chapters  dealing  with  this  last 
subject,  and  in  them  the  author  has  given 
many  excellent  formulas.  The  last  chapter 
deals  with  governing, 

ELEMENTS  OP  FUEL  OIL  AND  STEAM 
RN'GIXEERING.  By  Robert  Sibley 
and  Charles  H.  Delany  First  Edition 
Published  by  the  Technical  Publishing 
Co  ,  San  Francisco,  Calif.  Cloth,  6x9 
in.;  320  pages;  illustrated.  Price,  $3 
The  authors  have  had  considerable  ex- 
perience in  fuel-oil  burning,  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  particularly.  In  their  preface  they 
state  that  it  has  been  their  underlying 
aim  to  study  fuel-oil  power-plant  operation 
and  the  use  of  evaporative  tests  in  increas- 
ing the  efficiency  of  oil-fired  plants.  To 
accomplish  this  end,  the  subject  matter  has 
been  ti-eated  in  three  main  divisions :  First, 
an  exposition  of  the  elementary  laws  of 
steam  engineering ;  second,  the  processes 
involved  in  the  utilization  of  fuel  oil  in 
the  modern  power  plant ;  third,  the  test- 
ing of  boilers  when  oil-fired-  In  treating 
the  first  subdivision,  the  elementary  laws 
of  steam  engineering  are  set  forth  in  a 
new  manner  in  that  the  viewpoint  is  taken 
fi'om  that  of  the  oil-fired  instead  of  the 
coal-fired  plant  operator.  In  the  second 
division  the  results  of  considerable  labor 
and  analyses  are  set  forth  from  the  collect- 
ing and  collating  of  data  involved  in  boiler- 
furnace  and  fuel-oil  tests,  many  of  which 
lia\e  ai)peared  heretofore  in  disconnected 
form  and  in  widel.v  varying  sources.  In  the 
first  subdivision  the  authors  have  given 
definite  suggestions  for  fuel-oil  tests — 
largely  suggestions  recently  presented  per- 
sonally by  them  at  the  invitation  of  the 
IKiwer  test  committee  of  A.  S.  M,  R.  The 
matter  which  deals  altogether  with  fuel 
oil  does  not  begin  until  Chapter  12  is 
leached  ;  but  from  here  on  the  authors  have 
lilaced  much  that  is  of  value  on  the  sub- 
ject, which  for  the  East  particularly,  grows 
in  importance.  One  can  justly  criticize 
some  of  the  illustrations  used  in  the  book 
because  of  their  smudg.v  appearance,  which 
is  not  due  to  printing.  The  text  matter  is 
so  well  ari'.anged  that  it  seems  unfortunate 
that  so  many  of  the  illustrations  should 
have  been  reproduced  from  cuts  that  were 
evidently  made  direct  from  other  printed 
matter.  "  There  are,  however,  some  excellent 
Iialftones  throughout  the  book,  among  which 
are  the  views  of  the  economy  measuring 
apparatus  installed  at  the  Long  Beach  plant 
of   the  Southern   California  Edison   Co, 

.Altogether  the  book  is  a  desirable  ad- 
dition to  the  few  volumes  now  available 
on  this  subject. 

ELECTRIC  WELDING  MANUAL 
The  Wilson  Welder  and  Metals  Co..  New 
York  City,  has  issued  a  45-page  booklet 
devoted  in  part  to  instructions  for  in- 
stalling and  using  its  system  of  electric 
welding.  Wiring  diagran\s  and  tables,  di- 
mensions of  motor  generators,  brackets, 
etc,  are  given  Tables  showing  the  melting 
points  of  various  metals  and  alloys,  and 
instructions  for  the  care  of  metals  appear 
In  the  booklet.  Pages  37-39  show  typical 
examples  of  prepared  and  finished  work. 


PURCH.ASING  COAL  BY  SPECIFICA- 
TION AND  METHODS  OF  SAMPLING 
The  Pennsylvania  State  College,  Engi- 
neering Experiment  Station,  has  completed 
a  reprint  from  the  annual  report  of  1913- 
14  in  which  are  set  forth  methods  of  pur- 
chasing coal  by  specification  and  of  sa-rn- 
pling  coals  for  analyses.  The  subject  is 
treated  of  by  J.  A.  Moyer  and  J.  B  Calder- 
wood.  The  pamphlet  contains  158  pages 
and  gives  the  methods  of  gathering  coal 
samples  as  used  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines, 
Interboro  Rapid  Transit  Co  ,  New  York 
City,  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  Gen- 
eral Electric  Co  ,  and  Detroit  United  Rail- 
ways. Methods  of  coal  sampling  and 
analyses  of  the  American  Chemical  .Society 
and  of  the  American  Society  of  Meehanicail 
Engineers,  also  are  given.  Discussion  of 
the  determination  of  volatile  matter  in 
coal  is  given  on  pa^e  149  of  the  bulletin 
and  is  of  interest.  We  understood  that  the 
bulletin   is   for   distribution   free 


U  S,  STEEL  CORPORATION'S  METHODS 
FOR   SAMPLING   AND  ANALYZING 

GASES 

The  second  edition  of  this  valuable 
pamphlet  (6x9  in.,  60  pages)  by  the 
Chemists'  Committee  of  the  corporation, 
has  been  completed.  In  the  methods  set 
forth  in  the  bulletin  there  has  been  an  un- 
wavering purpose  to  eliminate,  as  far  as 
possible,  tedious  analytical  procedure  and 
the  use  of  cumbersome  forms  of  appa- 
ratus. It  has  been  desired  to  adopt  meth- 
ods correct  in  principle  which,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  simplified  apparatus,  will  in- 
sure the  requisite  expediency  at  times  so 
necessary  in  commercial  work  without  an 
appreciable  sacrifice  in  accuracy  of  results 
The  pamphlet  deals,  of  course,  with  all  the 
gases  met  with  by  the  various  companies  in 
the  corporation  Among  these  are  blast- 
furnace gas,  the  analysis  of  which  be- 
comes of  increasing  importance  because  of 
the  extensive  use  of  this  gas  in  waste  heat 
boilers  ;  producer  gas  ;  byproduct  gas  ;  flue 
eas ;  and  natural  gas 

On  page  48  an  interesting  table  is  given: 
The  products  of  combustion  from  burning 
pure  carbon  would  contain  20.9  per  cent, 
carbon  dioxide,  since  it  has  the  same  vol- 
ume as  the  oxygen  used.  The  bM>roducts 
of  combustion  of  coal  contain  less  CO; 
than  20  9  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hydrogen 
of  the  coal  requires  oxygen  from  the  air, 
resulting  in  more  nitrogen  than  if  pure 
carbon  were  burned  The  percentages  of 
carbon  dioxidr  in  the  products  of  combus- 
tion resulting  from  perfect  combustion  of 
various  coals  have  been  calculated  and 
are   given  here   for  comparison. 

Per  Cent. 

Anthracite  culm,   Sci-anton,  Penn 19.5 

Semi-anthracite,     Coalhill,     Ark 19.0 

Semi-bitumirious.    W.    \'a 18.8 

Bituminous  coking.  Connellsville,  Penn.  18.8 
Bituminous  noncoking,   Hocking  Valley, 

Ohio     18.7 

Sub-bituminous,  Unita  County,  Wyo.    ..18.9 
Lignite,    Milan    County,    Tex 19,2 

The  latter  pages  of  the  booklet  have  three 
valuable  tables  giving  the  chemical  symbol, 
specific  gravity,  weight,  heat  of  combustion, 
volume  of  oxygen  necessary  for  combustion, 
and  the  products  of  combustion.  The  sec- 
ond table,  on  atiueous  vapor,  gives  the 
pressure  in  inches  of  mercur.v  for  different 
degrees  F,  and  the  weight  in  grains  per 
cubic  foot  The  third  table  gives  factors 
for  reduction  of  the  volume  of  gas  at 
standard  conditions  of  62  deg  30  in. 
mercury. 

The  booklet  is  the  best  to  come  to  our 
attention  on  the  subject  of  gas  sampling 
and  analyzing. 

.T.  N.  Camp  is  chairman  of  the  Chem- 
ists' Committee,  Ignited  States  Steel  Cor- 
poration, Carnegie  Building,  Pittsburgh, 
Penn. 


May  14,  1918 


POWER 


717 


liiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiri 


liillitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiis 


Obituary 


Miscellaneous  News 


iiiiiii;     niiiiiiiMii 


K.  C.  Meier,  prosidont  of  the  Heine 
Safety  Boiler  Co..  died  of  heart  failure  at 
the  Manufacturers'  Club.  I'hiladelphia.  Tues- 
day afternoon.  May  7.  aged  51).  Mr.  Meier 
was  attending  a  meeting  of  oHicials  of  the 
lOmergenoy  Kleet  Corporation  for  wliieh 
his   company    i.s    making    many    hoiler.i. 


Personals 


E.  E.  .Maher  has  been  appointed  Chicago 
district  manager  of  the  Terry  Steam  Tur- 
bine Co..  with  ottices  at  1328-29  McCor- 
mick   Building. 

Norman  G.  Reinieker,  formerly  with  the 
New  York  Edison  Co.,  is  now  with  the  Du 
Pont  interests  in  charge  of  the  power  plant 
at    Nashville.    Tenn. 

John  n.  .stout  has  been  appointed  New 
York  district  manager  of  the  ferry  Steam 
Turbine  Co.  Mr.  Stout  has  been  assisting 
Mr.  Herbert,  formerly  in  complete  charge 
of  the  district,  but  who  will  now  have  to 
devote  his  entire  time  to  navy  and  marine 
requirements. 

W.  W.  Erwin,  for  the  past  18  years  con- 
nected with  the  New  York  Edison  Co..  suc- 
cessively as  mechanical  draftsman,  chief 
draftsman  and  superintendent  of  construc- 
tion, has  been  appointed  chief  operating  en- 
gineer of  the  company  to  .succeed  the  late 
J.    P.    Sparrow. 

The  Association  of  Iron  and  Steel  Electri- 
cal Engineers  announces  the  following  meet- 
ings: The  Cleveland  District  Section  on 
May  25  at  Hotel  Statler.  A.  E.  Hogrebe 
will  discuss  the  subject  of  Cranes.  The 
Philadelphia  Section  will  meet  on  June  15 
and  will  hold  its  annual  outing  on  this  date 
at  Valley  Forge  to  take  the  place  of  the 
regular  monthly  technical  session. 

I       Engineering  Affairs       ! 


The  Anierican  Society  for  Testing  Ma- 
terials will  hold  its  twenty-flrst  annual 
meeting  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  June  25-28, 
with  headquarters  at  the  Hotel  Traymore. 

Tlie  National  Association  of  Master  Steam 
and  Hot-Water  Fitters  will  hold  its  twenty- 
ninth  annual  convention  in  Chicago,  June 
3-5,  with  headquarters  at  the  Hotel  Sher- 
man. 

The  American  Society  of  Heating  and 
Ventilating  Engineers  will  hold  its  summer 
meeting  at  Buffalo.  N.  Y..  June  26-28.  This 
meeting  is  being  held  earlier  than  usual, 
partly  to  accommodate  the  members  of  the 
National  District  Heating  Association, 
which  association  will  not  hold  a  meeting 
this  year. 

The  American  Society  of  Meciianical  En- 
gineers will  hold  its  spring  meeting  at  Wor- 
cester, Mass.,  June  4-7.  The  meeting  will 
open  and  registration  take  place  at  the 
Hotel  Bancroft  on  Tuesday  forenoon.  Wed- 
nesday will  be  New  England  Day.  In  the 
forenoon  George  H.  Haynes  will  read  a 
paper  on  "The  Small  Industry  in  a  Democ- 
racy," and  J.  E.  Rousmaniere  one  on 
"The  Textile  Industry  in  Relation  to  the 
War."  These  will  be  followed  by  visits  to 
Crompton  &  Knowles  Loom  Works  and  to 
the  plant  of  the  Royal  Worcester  Corset 
Co.  In  the  afternoon  papers  will  be  pre- 
sented upon  subjects  relating  to  New  Eng- 
land's industries  under  war  conditions,  and 
the  following  at  the  general  session: 
"Foundry  Cost  and  Accounting  System," 
by  W.  W.  Bird ;  "The  Public  Interest  as 
the  Bed  Rock  of  Professional  Practice," 
by  Morris  L.  Cooke  ;  "Moisture  Re-absorp- 
tion of  Air-Dried  Douglas  Fir  and  Hard 
Pine,  etc.,"  by  In'ing  H.  Cowdrey ;  "A 
High-Speed  Air  and  Gasi  Washer,"  by 
Lieut.  J.  L.  Alden ;  "Investigation  of  the 
Uses  of  Steam  in  the  Canning  Industry," 
by  J.  C.  Smallwood.  On  Thursday  fore- 
noon at  the  general  session  will  be  given 
the  following  papers:  "Efflciency  of  Gear 
Drives,"  bv  C.  M.  Allen  and  F.  W.  Roys; 
"Self-Adjusting  Spring-Thrust  Bearing,"  by 
H.  G.  Reist  ;  "Air  Propulsion,"  by  Morgan 
Brooks ;  "The  Elastic  Indentation  of  Steel 
Balls  Under  Pressure."  by  C,  A.  Briggs, 
W.  C.  Chapin  and  H.  G.  Hell ;  "Electric 
Heating  of  Molds,"  by  Harold  E.  White  ; 
"Stresses  in  Machines  When  Starting  or 
Stopping,"  by  F,  Hymans,  At  the  F\icl 
Session  the  paper  will  be:  "An  Investiga- 
tion of  the  Fuel  Problem  in  the  Middle 
West,"  by  A.  A.  Potter,  and  topical  discus- 
sion on  fuel  economy,  to  be  arranged  for 
by  the  Fuel  Conservation  Committee  of  the 
Engineering  Council.  The  various  sessions 
will  be  held  at  the  Worcester  Polytechnic 
Institute. 


A  Boiler  Exploded  at  the  Houston  and 
Texas  Central  Hallway  shops  at  Ennis,  Tex., 
on  Apr.  13,  killing  one  young  man  and 
seriously    injuring  another   man. 

Wulcrvlict  .\rscnal  is  in  urgent  need  of 
machinists  for  the  conduct  of  its  establish- 
ment and  calls  for  the  assistance  of  all  In- 
strumentalities which  are  available.  One 
thousand  skilled  mechanics  must  be  pro- 
cured before  Sept.  1.  The  character  of  the 
work  and  the  high  rates  of  pay  should 
prove  attractive  to  machinists. 

Although  6800  Volts  of  electricity  ap- 
parently passed  through  the  body  of  John 
Hanifan,  a  lineman  for  tne  Virginia  West- 
ern Power  Co.  at  Ronceverte,  he  survived. 
When  Hanitan's  foot  slipped  his  body  came 
in  contact  with  the  high-power  wire  and  a 
monkey  wrench  he  carried  came  in  contact 
with  a  guy  wire,  establishing  a  circuit.  The 
"circuit-breaker"  in  a  substation  worked 
promptly,   shutting  oft  the  current. 

The  l*otomac  Light  and  Power  Co.,  of 
Martinsburg.  W.  Va..  according  to  the 
statement  of  a  matt  connected  with  the 
compatiy,  is  expending  $250,01)0  for  ma- 
chinery and  transmission  lines  for  a  plant 
at  Dam  No.  5  on  the  Potomac  River,  about 
10  miles  northwest  of  Martinsburg.  By 
the  improvements  to  be  made  the  company 
expects  to  increase  its  capacity  2500  hp. 
In  addition  to  the  steam-power  plant  at 
Martinsburg.  a  plant  will  he  built  at  dam 
No.  4  and  negotiations  have  been  completed 
with  the  Hagerstown  &  Frederick  Railway 
Co.  under  the  terms  of  which  the  latter 
company  will  use  the  suri)lus  power  of  the 
Potomac  company  when  needed,  and  vice 
versa. 


Business  Items 


The  Clarage  Fan  Co.,  of  Kalamazoo. 
Mich.,  announces  the  removal  of  its  Chicago 
office  to  the  Conway  Building,  111  West 
Washington  St..  Room  1666,  with  Gardner 
J.  Thomas  in  charge. 

The  Sprague  Electric  Works,  announces 
the  removal  of  its  St.  Louis  office  from  the 
Chemical  Building  to  the  Pierce  Building, 
Room  1352  ;  and  the  removal  of  its  Boston 
office  from  201  Devonshire  St.,  to  84  State 
St.,  Room  906. 

The  Alberger  Pump  and  Condenser  Co. 
announces  the  election  of  its  officers  as 
follows:  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  direc- 
tors, George  Q.  Palmer ;  president, 
William  S.  Doran ;  vice-president,  William 
R.  Wilson  ;  secretary,  Richard  C.  Williams ; 
treasurer,  Frederick  A.  Brockmeir. 

The  Vulcan  Soot  Cleaner  Sales  Co.'s  re- 
moval of  main  offices  from  Chicago  to  Du 
Bois,  Penn.,  does  not  affect  the  Vulcan 
Fuel  Economy  Co..  which  controls  boiler- 
room  and  fuel-conservation  appliances,  and 
remains  at  230  South  La  Salle  St..  Chicago, 
with  representatives  in  the  chief  manufac- 
turing centers. 

The  Havard  Coal  Meter,  which  has  been 
in  general  use  for  a  number  of  years  for 
measuring  coal  in  boiler  rooms  as  fed  to 
boilers,  has  been  awarded  the  Certificate 
of  Merit  by  the  Franklin  Institute  of  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania.  The  award  reads 
as  follows :  "In  consideration  of  the  inven- 
tion of  a  meter  for  the  measurement  of 
granular  mateiial,  which  combines  simplic- 
ity of  construction  wifn  reliability  in  opera- 
tion, is  automatic  in  action  and  accurate 
in  measurement  within  a  reasonably 
small  limit,  the  Institute  awards  the  Cer- 
tificate of  Merit  to  Oliver  D.  Havard.  of 
Allentown,  Penn.,  for  his  invention  of  The 
Havard  Coal  Meter. 


iiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


lllllltllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIi 


Trade  Catalogs 


A  Business  Trip  With  a  Kailwa.v  Presi- 
dent. Perolin  Railway  Service  Co.,  St. 
Louis,  Mo.  Pp.  16;  9  x  12  in.  The  story 
of  Perolin  as  a  boiler-metal  treatment  at- 
tractively presented  as  a  drama  in  three 
acts,   under  the  above  title. 

Lower  Pumping  Costs  with  E-M 
Synchronous  Motors.  Electric  Machinery 
Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minn.  Bulletin  183.  Pp. 
23  ;  8i  X  11  in.;  illustrated.  Outlines  in  a. 
general  way  the  subject  of  centrifugal- 
pump  development  ;  the  selection  of  a  motor 
to   drive  a   putnp,   etc. 

The  Smooth-On  Manufacturing  Co,,  of 
Jersey  City,  ."V.  J.,  will  send  to  anybody 
who  requests  it.  a  copy  of  the  If'.th  edition 
of  its  new  instruction  "hook,  witlch  contains 
144  pages  of  InterestinK  and  illustrated 
reading  matter,  showing  how  the  different 
.Smooth-On  iron  cements  are  used  for  re- 
pairing purposes. 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


Proposed    Work 

N.  H.,  Manchrsler — The  Manchester  Trac- 
tion, 1-ight  and  Power  Co.  has  had  plans 
prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  boiler  house 
near  Mast  St.     L.  J.  Farrell,  Engr. 

N.  Y.,  Alban.v — The  Chasm  Power  Co. 
of  Chateaugay.  plans  to  issue  $25,000;  the 
proceeds  will  be  used  to  build  an  auxil- 
iary power  house  and  install  and  equip 
sanie  with  necessary  machinery.  W.  T. 
Thayer,  Gen.   Mgr. 

N  Y.,  New  York — The  United  Electric 
Light  and  Power  Co..  515  West  141st  St., 
has  purchased  a  site  on  West  97th  St.  and 
plans  to  build  a  power  station  on  same. 

N.  \'.,  Utica — The  Augusta  Knitting  Mills, 
307  Niagara  St..  will  soon  award  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  2  stoiT  factory. 
Fstimated  cost.  $30,000.  Motors,  blowers, 
etc.,    will    be    installed    in    same. 


N,  ,J.,  Newark — The  Heller  and  Merz  Co., 
Hamburg  Place,  will  soon  receive  bids  for 
the  erection  of  a  power  house.  R.  G.  Corey, 
39   Cortland   St.,    New    York   City,    Arch. 

Md.,  Cumberland — The  Kelly  Spring- 
Held  Tire  Co..  Cook  St.,  Akron,  is  building 
a  new  plant  here.  Work  includes  the  con- 
struction of  a  power  station.  Estimated 
cost,    $1,000,000. 

W.  Va.,  Charleston — The  Virginia  Power 
Co.  plans  to  build  a  16  mile  transmission 
l.ne  from  here  to  Nitro.  H,  G.  Scott,  Gen. 
Mgr. 


W.  Va.,  Harpers  Ferrj — The  Northern 
Virginia  Power  Co.  plans  to  issue  $500,000 
bonds ;  the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  build 
a  hydro  electric  plant.  D.  M.  Swink,  Win- 
chester,  Va.,   Gen.   Mgr. 

Ga.,  Reidsville — City  voted  to  issue  $10,- 
000  bonds  for  the  installation  of  an  elec- 
tric lighting  plant. 

Fla.,  Sarasota — City  plans  to  install  an 
electinc  lighting  and  power  plant. 

Ala.,  Goodwater — The  Central  of  Georgia 
Ry.  plans  to  build  a  coal  chute  and  install 
electric  power  equipnient.  C.  K.  Lawrence, 
Ch.   Engr. 

Miss.,  Purvis — City  will  soon  receive  bids 
for  the  erection  of  an  electric  lighting 
plant.  X.  A.  Kramer,  Magnolia,  Engr. 
Noted  May   7. 

La.,  Ciuevdan — City  plans  to  install  an 
electric  lighting  plaitt.  About  $15,000  is 
available  for  the  project. 

Ohio,  Cincinnati — The  Andre%vs  Steel  Co. 
9th  and  Lowell  Sts..  Newport,  plans  to 
build  a  6000  kw.  electrical  unit  at  its  plant. 
W.   N.   Andrews.   Secy. 

Ohio,  Cleveland — The  .\rmy  and  Navy 
Post.  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  care  J. 
J.  Sullivan.  Central  .N'ational  Bank,  Rocke- 
feller Bldg..  plans  to  build  a  memorial 
building  and  install  low  pressure  boiler 
for  steani  heat. 

Ohio,  Cleveland — The  J.  P.  Stotter  Co., 
Leader  News  Bldg..  plans  to  build  a  hotel 
on  Euclid  .\ve  and  lOast  71st  St..  and  in- 
stall elevators,  heating  boilers,  etc.  Total 
cost.    $200,000. 

Ohio,  Columbus — City  Is  having  plans 
in-epared  for  the  installation  of  a  new  heat- 
ing system  in  the  city  hall.  About  $19,- 
000   has  been  appropriated  for  this  project. 

Ohio.  GamhrinuH — (Canton  P.  O.) — The 
Wheeling  and  Ijike  Erie  H.  1?.,  Electric 
Bldg.,  Cleveland,  plans  to  build  power  and 
round  houses  here,  .\bout  $95,000.  W.  R. 
Rohbock,    Electric    Bldg..    Cleveland.    Engr. 

Ind..  Indianapolis — The  Citizens  Gas  Co., 
4  7  Soutli  Penn  St.,  plans  to  Improve  and  ex- 
tend its  i>lant.     Estimated  cost,  $750,000. 


718 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  20 


Wis.    Peshtigo — T.    A.    Pamerin    ha-s   pur-  N.    S.,    BarrinBton — The    Town    plans    to 

cha=!ed  the  local   electric  lighting  plant  and  huild  an   electric  lighting  and   power  plant 

plans    to    install    additional    equipment    and  Fstimated  cost,    $8000, 
build  a  dam. 


Wis.,  Steventi  Point — The  Jackson  Mill- 
ing Co.,  Grand  Rapids,  plans  to  build  a 
2  story,  hydro  electric  plant  About  $500.- 
COO.      L.  A.   Geers,   Grand    Rapids.    Kngr 

Iowa,  Alontirello — The  Monticello  Elec- 
tric Co.  plans  to  extend  its  electric  trans- 
mission lines  from  here  iTito  Linn  Count\- 
G.  Adamson,   Ch,    Kngr, 


Kan,,  Alden — N.  L.  Jones  has  been 
granted  a  franchise  by  the  City  for  the 
construction,  maintenance  and  operation  of 
an  electric  light  and  power  distributing 
system. 


Kan.,  Garnett — City  plans  an  election  to 
vote  on  $65,000  bonds ;  the  proceeds  will 
be  used  to  improve  its  electric  lighting  plant 
and  water  works  system.  Black  &  Veatch, 
Inter  State  Bldg.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Engrs. 

Kan.,  Topeka — The  St,  Frances  Hospital 
will  soon  award  the  contract  for  the  erec- 
t'on  of  a  brick  and  reinforced  power  house 
and  laundry.  Estimated  cost,  $20,000  E 
Forsblom,    Topeka,    Arch, 


Neb.,  Norfolk — The  Board  of  Directors 
of  the  State  Insane  Plospital.  will  soon 
award  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
power  house  and  ward  building.  Estimated 
cost,   $70,000.      J.    C.   Stitt,  Arch. 


Mo.,  Kansas  Cit.v — The  Kansas  City  Rail- 
ways, 30.3  Montgall  St..  will  soon  award 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  sub- 
station on  Oak  St.  Estimated  cost,  $25,000 
C.  E.  FVitts.  15th  and  Grand  Ave.,  Engr. 
Noted   Oct.    7 


Mo.,  Lees  .Summit — The  Green  Light  and 
Power  Co.  plans  to  extend  its  transmission 
lines  from  here  to  Little  Blue. 


Mo..  West  Plains — The  Missouri  Iron 
and  Steel  Corporation  plans  to  build  a 
large  power  plant  near  Henderson.  Esti- 
mated cost,  $750,000, 


Tex.,  Denison — City  plans  to  build  an 
electric   lighting  plant, 

Tex.,  Nixon — The  Nixon  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Co.,  plans  to  install  an  alter- 
nator,    W.   L    Hoover.  Mgr. 

Okla.,  Bixby — City  plans  to  install  an 
electric  lighting  plant. 

Okla.,  Jennings — City  plans  an  election 
soon  to  vote  on  $25,000  bonds  for  an  elec- 
tric lighting  plant. 


N.  .s„  Berwick — Town  plans  to  build  an 
electric  lighting  and  iK)wer  plant.  H.  A. 
Cornwell.   Clerk. 


X,  B.,  St.  .lolin — T.  Mc.\vity  and  .Sons. 
Ltd.  plans  to  install  a  new  550  hp.  .steam 
power  plant  in  its  plant  now  being  built. 


Out..  Hamilton — The  Board  of  Governors 
of  the  Citv  Ho.spital  has  plans  under  con- 
sideration for  the  con.struction  of  a  power 
plant   here. 


Ont.,  Toronto — Milton  &  Prentice  Trad- 
er.s'  Bank  Bldg.,  is  in  the  market  for  two 
250   hp.    vertical    steam   engines 


CONTR.4CTS    AWARDED 

Mass.,  Middleton — Essex  County  Com- 
missioners. Salem,  have  awarded  the  con- 
tract tor  the  installation  of  a  central  heat- 
ing plant,  to  Lynch  &  Woodward,  287  At- 
lantic Ave..  Boston.  Estimated  cost,  $35.- 
7G4. 


R  I.,  Kast  Greenwich — The  Andrews 
Mill  Co..  221-4th  Ave..  New  York  City,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of 
a  2  storv.  45  x  80  ft.  brick  and  steel  power 
house  and  a  brick  and  steel  weave  shed, 
to  be  erected  here,  to  the  C.  I.  Bigney  Con- 
str.  Co..  89  VVevbosset  St..  Providence. 
Estimated   cost,    $200,000. 


Conn.,  BridEcport — The  United  Illumi- 
nating Co.  has  awarded  the  contract  for 
alterations  and  improvements  to  its  local 
l)"wer  house,  to  the  New  England  Iron 
Works.    94   Commerce   St.,    New   Haven, 


N.  Y.,  Buffalo — The  Delaware.  Lacka- 
wanna and  Western  R.R.  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  a  pon-er  house 
at  East  Buffalo,  to  J.  W.  Cowper.  Fidelity 
Fldg. 

N.  Y.,  Mohawk — The  Elastic  Spring  Knit 
Corporation,  East  Main  St.,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  knitting 
mill  to  F.  R.  Edick.  West  Main  St.  Esti- 
mated cost  $30,000.  A  steam  heatin.g  plant 
will  be  installed  in  same. 


Penn.,  Krie — The  Board  of  Education  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
new  school,  to  Sutherland  Building  and 
Contracting  Co..  Syndicate  Trust  Bldg.. 
St.  Louis.  Boilers  and  a  vacuum  heating 
system   will  be   in.stalled. 


.Vri/..,  Snou'flake — The  Snowflake  and 
Taylor  Irrigation  Co.  plans  to  build  a 
hydro  electric  plant.  Plans  for  the  proj- 
ect will  mature  about  July  8. 

Wash.,  Seattle — The  Board  of  Public 
Works  plans  to  build  a  sanatorium  and 
will  install  a  steam  heating  plant  in  same 
About  $60,000.     A.  H.  Dimock,  City  Engr. 

Ore.,  Kstacada — The  Portland  Ry.  Light 
and  Power  Co..  Portland,  has  been  granted 
permission  by  the  Government  to  build  a 
Ijirge  power  plant  .'ind  dam  here.  About 
$1,000,000,  O,  B,  Coldwell.  Bwav  and 
Alder    Sts,,    Portland,    Gen.    Supt. 


Ore.,  Salom — The  Crown  Willamette 
Paper  Co..  Pittock  BIk.,  Portland,  has  ap- 
plied for  permission  to  develop  200  second 
feet  of  water  from  Youngs  River,  near 
A.'-toria.  Plans  include  the  construction 
of  a  power  house,  dam.  etc.  Estimated  cost. 
$150,000. 

Ore.,  Toledo — The  Lincoln  County  Light 
and  Power  Co  plans  to  enlarge  its  capacity 
by  installing  a  20011  hp.  turbine  and 
dynamo.  J.  Paquet.  112  East  12th  St. 
Portland.  Pres. 

Calif.,  Modest^i — The  .Sierra  and  San 
Francisco  Power  Co  plans  to  build  a  hydro 
electric  plant  on  the  Middle  Fork  of  the 
Stanislaus  River.  M.  C.  McKay.  58  Sut- 
ter St.,   San  Francisco.   .Supt. 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


Boston — Current  Quotations  per  gross  ton  de- 
livered along^side  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  ag^o  are  as  follows: 


ANTHRACITE 

Circular 
Current 

Buckwheat     $4.60 

Ri«e    4.10 

Boiler .3.90 

Barley    3.60 


BITUMINOUS 

Bituminous    not    on    market. 


Individual 
Current 


$7.10 — 7.35 
U.O.j — 0.90 


6.15 — 6.40 


Pocohontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hami>t<jn 
Roads,  is  S4.  as  compared  with  $;i.85 — 'i.OO  a 
year  ago. 


•All-rai!   to   Boston   is  S'^.60. 


t Water  coal 


N*nv  York — Currt-nl  quotations  per  gross  to:i 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  are  as^fol- 
lows : 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual  - 

Current  Current 

Pea    S4.90  $."..6r> 

Buckwheat    4.45®.^.. ]5  4.S0fa)5.50 

Barley    ;j.4nrdi;j.6r>  3.80(^4.50 

Rice     3.00f(iy4.10  3.00<^4.00 

Boiler     3.65'(i'3.90  

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c 
higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y  Mine 

Gross  Price  Net  Gross 

Central    Pennsylvania. .  55.06  §3.05  53.41 
Maryland — 

Mine-run    4.84  '1.85  3.19 

Prepared    5.06  5.05  3.41 

Screenings    4.50  2.55  'i.85 

'The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabeth  port.  Port  John- 
son. Port  Reading^,  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Am 
boy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty.  Hobo 
ken,  Weehawken,  Edg^ewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut 
tenbery.  St.  George  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5c.  hig-her  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Phihidelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  Une  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond lor  tide  shipment  are  as  follows; 


-Line- 


One  Yr 

Ag-o 

Cur- 
rent 

One  Yr 

Ago 

$-:.80 
L.-iO 
3.50 
3.00 
1.80 

S4.35 
2.40 
3.75 
.■!.65 
3.55 

$3.70 
1.75 
3.40 
3.00 
3.90 

Del.,  Wilmincton — The  Muliins  Store.  Co 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  installa- 
tion of  a  heating  plant,  to  Gawthrop  & 
Bro,    Co,      K.stimated  cost,    $11,270. 

Va.,  Richmond — The  Virginia  Ry.,  and 
Power  Co,  has  awarded  the  contract  for 
improvements  and  alterations  to  its  sub 
station,  to  Nicholas  &  Lindermann,  522 
Sea  Board  Blk.,  Norfolk.  Estimated  cost, 
$11,700. 


Ohio.  Hamilton — The  Shuler  and  Ben- 
ninghofen  Mills  Co..  Lindenwald  St..  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of 
an  addition  to  its  boiler  house,  to  G.  Ling- 
ler.      Estimated    cost.    $7500. 


Neb.,  Sidney — The  Town  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  impro^■ements  to  its  elec- 
tric lighting  and  water  works  plant,  to 
the  O'Fallan  Supply  Co..  Denver,  Colo. 
Estimated  cost,   $30,592, 


Ariz.,  Snowflake — The  Snowflake  and 
Taylor  Irrigation  Co.  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  installation  of  an  electric 
lighting  and  power  plant,  to  H.  T.  Loyd. 
V.  ickenberg.      Noted    Oct.    16. 


Wash.,  Chenr.v — F.  M.  Martin  Grain  and 
Mining  Co.,  Hutton  Bldg.,  Spokane,  h^s 
swarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of 
a  concrete  mill  to  Huetter  Construction 
Co.,  Spokane.  Equipment  including  motors, 
electric  lighting  outfit,  etc.  will  he  in- 
stalled. 


Cur- 
rent 

Pea    $3.45 

Barley    3.15 

Buckwheat    ..    3.15 

Rice    3.65 

Boiler    3.45 


Chicago — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines; 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 
Prepared    sizes. .  .$3.85 — 3.80  $3.3.'> — 3.50 


Mine-run 
Screening's 


;.40 — 3.55 
!.15 — 3.30 


3.10 — :).35 
3.85 — 3.00 


So.  111..  Pocohontas.  Hocking.East 
Pennsylvania        Kentucky  ami 


Smokeless  Coals   and  W.  Va. 
Prepared    sizes. .  .$3.60 — 3.85 

Mine-run    3.40 — 3.60 

Screenings    3.10 — 3.55 


West   Va.   Splint 

$3.85 — 3.35 

3.60 — 3.00 


.St,  i.ouis — Pi-iees  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  mines  are 
as  follows; 

Williamson  and  Mi.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

6-in.  lump    ....$3.65-3.35  $3.65-3.80  $3.65-3.80 

3-in.    lump   ....    3.65-3.00  3.65-3.80  3.35-3.60 

Steam     eg-g:....    3.6.5-3.80  3.35-3.50  3.35-3.40 

Mine-run    3.4.5-3.00  3.45-3.60  3.45-3.60 

No.    1    nut 3.65-3.00  3.1:5  3.80  3.65-3.80 

3-in.    screen....    3.15-3.40  3.15-3.40  3.15-3.40 

No.  5  washed.  .    3.15-2.50  3.15-2.35  2.15-2.35 

Ittrmineham — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b. 
mines  are  as  follows: 

Mine-  Lump  Slack  and 

Kun  &  Nut  Screenings 

Big  Seam $1.00  $3.15  $1.65 

Pratt.   Ja^rger.   Corona     3.15  2.40  1.90 

Bla<k  Creek.  Cahaba.      3.40  2.65  2.15 
Government  fig"Ures. 

3  [.dividual  jirices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  resrular  cu.^tomers  irrespect- 
ive cf  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
g-enc-alLv  the  same  at  the  same  periovjs  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according  to  a  regular  schedule. 


POWER 


1  '  M 


Vol.  47 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim iiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiMtiitiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiimimiiii 


llllllllllllllllllllllllll nil 


NEW  YORK,   MAY  21,   1918 


No.  21 


Pointers  to  Success 


il 


■v  ,;r" 


W^ 


JC 


P1'".RHAPS  one  of  the  most  convincing  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  education  can  be  found 
in  the  large  percentage  of  young  men  who 
are  today  fiUing  the  liiglier-up  executive  po- 
sitions in  all  lines  of  business.  While  recently 
inspecting  one  of  the  largest  central-station 
plants  in  New  England,  the  writer  was  particu- 
larly impressed  with  the  comparative  youth  of 
the  executive  personnel.  .Many  of  them  were 
men  from  the  ranks,  who,  b\'  close  observation 
and  study,  had  fitted  themselves  for  their  present 
duties.  Onh  three  were  college  or  university 
men  with  degrees.  I  asked  the  thirty-five  year 
old  superintendent  of  power,  who  has  climbed 
the  ladder  by  way  of  the  boiler  room,  just  how 
he  had  fitted  himself  for  his  position,  and  his 
reply  is  food  for  thought  for  many  of  the  young 
fellows  in  the  field  today.     He  said: 

"My  lieart  and  brain  were  in  my  work,  and 
the  best  textbooks,  papers  and  journals  were  my 
companions  in  most  of  my  leisure  time.  I  always 
solicited  help  in  an)-  problem  froin  my  fellow 
engineers,  superiors  and  others  who  were  able 
and  willing  to  assist  me.  I  had  confidence  in 
myself  and  never  was  content  to  remain  at  a 
standstill  after  I  had  made  ready  for  the  next 
step. 

The  secret  of  this  man's  success  lay  in  the 
fact  that  he  had  made  a  decision  early  in  his 
youth  to  have  confidence  in  his  ability  to  never 
stand  still  too  long — to  keep  on  climbing  and  to 
get  help  from  the  other  fellows  with  which  to 
boost  himself  up  another  rung  on  the  ladder. 

Look  right  about  you  among  fellows  you  used 
to  know.  Some  of  them,  no  abler  than  you,  are 
climbing,  and  what  they  are  accomplishing  you 
can  accomplish.  Studying  alone — trying  to 
teach  oneself  in  spare  time  at  home — is  the  hard- 
est kind  of  work.  Of  course  it  is  discouraging 
not  to  have  assistance  when  you  get  stuck  on 
some  problem.  Your  studies  can  be  lightened 
a  great  deal  and  made  more  interesting  if  you 
have  the  right  kind  of  reading  matter.  The 
technical  press  is  the  workman's  teacher,  and 
some   papers    will   even    res]iond    to   appeals   for 


help  in   understanding  the  principles  of  working 
problems. 

A\-ail  yourself  of  the  privilege  of  laying  your 
perplexities  before  some  of  the  best  men  in  the 
field,  who  will  gladly  help  you  through  the  pages' 
devoted  to  plant  problems.  Often  there  are 
talks  or  lectures  that  you  can  attend,  or  perhaps 
there  is  an  association  of  engineers  to  which  you 
should  belong  and  get  some  of  the  benefits  of 
the  discussions  which  take  place.  You  will  get 
some  pointers  at  each  meeting,  and  the  personal 
contact  with  the  local  engineers  is  valuable. 
There  are  lots  of  problems  to  argue  about,  and 
this  battle  of  wits  will  stimulate  increased  inter- 
est in  your  study  of  books  and  journals,  for, 
when  you  get  cornered  in  an  argument,  you 
will  always  look  up  the  subject  in  the  book  or 
consult  your  trade  journal,  if  you  are  a  real  en- 
gineer. 

There  are  unlimited  ways  for  you  to  train 
j'ourself  for  the  bigger  job  if  you  are  willing  to 
sacrifice  a  portion  of  your  time,  energy  and 
money.  Nobody  can  push  you  ahead;  your  em- 
ployer can  open  a  path  for  you  only  when  he 
is  able  to  see  increased  value  in  your  ability  to 
handle  the  work.  He  may  take  a  special  sort  of  in- 
terest in  you — but  even  this  is  of  little  help  if  he 
finds  you  are  not  training  or  assisting  yourself. 
So  it's  up  to  you  to  make  good.  Many  a  man  has 
been  able  to  make  himself  so  \'aluable  that  his 
services  are  always  in  demand,  and  this  sort  of 
man,  you  will  always  notice,  is  a  close  student 
of  his  calling. 

Character,  energ)',  brains,  initiative  and  ca- 
pacity for  responsibility  are  the  factors  that  make 
modern  engineers  command,  instead  of  seek 
their  positions.  The  envious  attribute  success 
to  luck.  Not  every  man  can  reach  the  top,  for 
there  are  not  enough  places  to  go  around.  Some 
fellows  soothe  their  minds  with  such  thoughts, 
which  are  but  lame  excuses,  for  they  are  too  lazy- 
to  study.  They  get  just  about  so  far  and  then' 
plod  along  in  a  rut  during  their  remaining  years. 
The  very  sight  of  such  men  should  stimuhile 
a  desire  in  vou  to  avoid  following  in  their  path. 


Ciiitlrihuliul  /')'   C.   II.    If'ilUy 

I  m    iiimiiim iiiiimii i iii iiiiiiiiiiniii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiin iiiniiiiiiiiiiniii 


720 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


Interconnected  Power  Systems  of  the  South 


Hydro-electric  systems  of  independent  companies 
operating  in  five  states  are  connected  int'o  one  vast 
transportation  system.  These  plants  are  mainly 
hydro-electric,  hut  several  steam  stand-by  plants 
%re  incbided.  The  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey has  estimated  the  available  poiver  in  the 
headwaters  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  at  2- 
800,000  hp.,  and  the  estimate  for  all  the  systems 
of  the  South  is  about  5,000,000  horsepower. 

HYDRO-ELECTRIC  power  is  a  resource  that  will 
attract  to  a  community  a  line  of  manufacturing 
that  usually  seeks  cheap  power  as  the  prime  req- 
uisite. The  development  of  high-tension  transmission 
.systems  has  become  common  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States,  but  it  was  in  the  South  that  the  logical 
and  obvious  thing  was  first  done  by  interconnecting 
a  number  of  systems  with  resultant  advantages  and 
economies.  By  this  interconnecting  of  power  plants  the 
Southern  States  can  boast  a  high-tension  line  approxi- 
mately 1000  miles  long  from  Nashville,  Tenn.,  to  Hen- 
derson, N.  C.  This  ties  to- 
gether the  hydro-electric  sys- 
tems of  five  companies  operat- 
ing in  four  states.  In  other 
words,  all  the  great  transmis- 
sion systems  of  the  South  with 
the  exception  of  that  con- 
trolled by  the  Alabama  Power 
Co.  are  interconnected.  It  is 
probably  only  a  question  of 
time  until  all  properties  will 
not  only  be  interconnected 
but  possibly  owned  and  con- 
trolled by  a  master  organi- 
zation. 

Among  the  advantages 
which  follow  from  the  inter- 
connection of  such  systems 
none  is  greater  than  the  im- 
provement in  the  diversity 
factor.  The  difference  of  one 
hour  in  time  between  Hen- 
derson,    N.     C,     and     Nash- 


ville, Tenn.,  adds  to  the  normal  diversity  factor  of  each 
system. 

The  United  States  Geological  ^irvey  has  estimated 
the  available  power  in  the  headwaters  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  at  2,800,000  hp.  The  estimate  for 
all  the  systems  of  the  South  is  about  5,000,000  hp. 
The  Appalachian  region  has  an  enormous  rainfall  with 
a  topography  that  is  favorable  to  the  development  of 
low-head  power  plants.  The  illustration  at  the  head 
of  this  article  is  typical  of  the  Southern  water  powers. 
High  heads  as  a  rule  do  not  exist  and  flumes  and  pen- 
stocks are  little  used.  The  absence  of  lakes  in  the 
region  makes  natural  storage  of  water  impossible. 

Among  the  power  companies  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  having  yearly  outputs  in  excess  of  lOO,- 
000,000  kw.-hr.,  there  are  three  Southern  concerns, 
according  to  data  given  in  the  Electrical  World,  March 
23,  1918. 


Yearly  Load 

Peak  Lo;ul, 

Yearly  Output, 

Factor 

System 

Kvv. 

Kw-Hr. 

Per  Cent. 

Tennessee  Power  Co 

Alabama  Power  Co 

Georgia  Railway  &  Power 

Co. 

85,200 
58,250 
78.200 

547,945,475 
289,715,125 
258,607,882 

73  41 
56  7 

•"Metallurgical 
Engineering." 


and       Chemieal 


FIG.    1.       INTAKE    DAM    AT    TALL,UX^A.H    FALLS,    GEORGIA    R.VILWAY  AXD  POWER  CO. 


May  21,  1918 


POWER 


721 


The  properties  owned  by  the  Alabama  Power  Co. 
iiu'liide  several  sites  on  the  Coosa  River,  one  site 
on  the  Talli'poosa  River,  one  on  Little  River,  and  sites 
at  Muscle  Shoals  on  the  Tennessee  River.  On  these  sites 
approximately  500,000  hp.  can  be  developed.  The  hy- 
dro-electric stations  of  the  company  at  present  in 
operation  are  located  at  Lock  12  on  the  Coosa  River, 
where  a  head  of  G8  ft.  is  available,  and  at  Jackson 
Shoals,  on  Choccolocca  Creek,  where  a  head  of  22  ft. 
is  available.  Sixty-cycle  three-phase  energy  is  gener- 
ated at  6G00  volts  in  the  Coosa  River  plant  and  2300 
volts  in  the  Jackson  Shoals  plant.  The  company  has 
at  present  in  operation  180  miles  of  steel-tower  trans 
mission  lines  equipped  with  suspension-type  insulators 
and  00  stranded  copper  cable  for  transmitting  energy 
at  110,000  volts  to  four  substations  over  private  rights- 
of-way.  The  substations  are  situated  at  Gadsden, 
Anniston,  Jackson  Shoals  and  Magella,  near  Birming- 
ham. Substations  operated  at  22,000  volts  are  in  oper- 
ation at  Talladega,  Leeds,  Lovick,  Alexander  City,  Gads- 
den and  Attalla.  The  high-tension  substations  are 
of  the  outdoor  type.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  company 
to  standardize  these  as  to  size  and  type  on  3000-,  6000 
and  10,000-kv.-a.  ratings.  At  present  45,300  kv.-a.  is 
installed  in  the  four  substations.    The  company  has  25,- 


^^^^H^^^^*>' 

a^KSL~: 

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PIG.   2.      COLUMBUS  POWER  CO. 

000  kw.  of  available  steam  auxiliary  apparatus,  com- 
prising a  12,500-kw.  steam-turbine  station  at  Gadsden', 
containing  two  6250-kv.-a.  units,  and  a  15,000-kw. 
steam-turbine  and  reciprocating-engine  plant.  With 
the  available  steam  auxiliary  of  25,000  kw.  operating 
as  required  and  furnishing  approximately  7.55  per  cent, 
of  the  total  kilowatt-hour  output,  62,400  kw.  of  pri- 
mary power  at  50  per  cent,  load-factor  can  be  deliv- 
ered as  soon  as  another  hydro-electric  unit  is  installed. 
The  Anniston  substation  is  a  switching  station  for  two 


'Gadsden  Steam   Powtr   Plant.   "Powt-r,"   Aug.    1,    PHI. 


FIG.     4.       YADKIN    RIVER    POWER    CO..    BLEWETT     FALLS. 
N.   C,  HYDRO-ELECTRIC  PLANTS  FROM  NORTHEAST 


110,000-volt  lines  which  pass  through  it.  The  Jackson 
Shoals  substation  is  also  a  switching  station  for  three 
110,000-volt  circuits  from  the  north,  south  and  west. 
The  Magella  substation  will  have  an  ultimate  rating 
of  67,000  kilowatts. 

Carolina  Power  and  Light  Company 

The  Carolina  Power  and  laght  Co.,  in  addition  to 
the  property  owned  and  directly  operated,  also  controls 
the  Yadkin  River  Power  Co.  and  the  Asheville  Power 
and  Light  Co. 

The  last-named  company  operates  the  electric  light 
and  power  service  in  Raleigh,  Goldsboro,  Henderson, 
Oxford,  Sanford  and  Jonesboro,  furnishing  electric  light 
and  power  service  for  manufacturing  properties  in  Fay- 
etteville,  Clayton,  Smithfield,  Selma,  Franklinton.  Pine 
Level  and  Cumberland.  It  also  supplies  under  contract 
the  entire  requirements  of  the  municipal  electric  light 
and  power  systems  in  Smithfield,  Selma  and  Clayton 
and  all  the  privately  owned  electric  light  and  power 
systems  in  Franklinton  and  Pine  Level.  The  company 
operates  188  miles  of  high-tension  transmission  line 
connecting  two  hydro-electric  and  three  steam  plants 
with  distributing  systems  in  all  the  communities  served. 
The  larger  of  the  hydro-electric  plants  is  located  at 
Buckhorn  Falls  on  the  Cape  Fear  River  and  has  an  in- 
stalled capacity  of  3300  hp.  The  smaller  is  a  plant  of 
530  hp.  on  the  Neuse  River  near  Raleigh.  The  com- 
pany has  also'  in  reserve  a  modern  steam  plant  of  5000 
ihp.  capacity  at  Raleigh,  one  of  950  hp.  at  Goldsboro 
land  one  of  300  hp.  at  Henderson.  It  operates  nine  sub- 
stations with  an  aggregate  capacity  of  23,000  hor»e- 
power. 

The  properties  of  the  Carolina  Power  and  Light  Co. 


FIG.   :i.     THE  GRE.\T   I'WLI.S    I'LANT  OK  Til  10   SOr'I'H  I01!N    POWER  CO. 


722 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


FIG.  5. 


90.000-HP.  GENERATORS — COOSA  RIVER  INTERIOR 
VIEW   LOCK  NO,    12   POWER   HOUSE 


are  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  North  Carolina  indus- 
trial district.  A  large  part  of  the  electric  energy  sold 
bj'  the  company  is  supplied  to  cotton  mills,  cotton  gins, 
cottonseed-oil  mills,  fertilizer  works,  veneer  mills,  fur- 
niture factories,  machine  shops,  brick  plants  and  other 
manufacturing  establishments,  and  to  municipalities  for 
pumping  water. 

The  Yadkin  River  Power  Co.  owns  and  operates 
a  hydro-electric  development  on  the  Yadkin  River,  at 
Blewett  Falls,  near  Rockingham,  N.  C,  with  an  initial 
installed  capacity  of  32,000  hp.  It  has  in  operation  184 
miles  of  high-tension  transmission  lines,  located  on  pri- 
vate right-of-way,  and  49  miles  of  distributing  lines, 
five  substations,  with  a  total  capacity  of  4100  hp. ;  light- 
ing and  power  systems  in  Rockingham,  Hamlet,  Wades- 
boro  and  Lilesville,  N.  C,  and  Cheraw,  S.  C,  and  an 
electric-power  service  in  Lumberton,  N.  C,  The  trans- 
mission lines  are  connected  with  those  of  the  Carolina 
Power  and  Light  Co.  and  the  Southern  Power  Co.  The 
power  station  at  Blewett  Falls  is  one  of  the  most  modern 
in  the  South.  It  is  285  ft.  long  by  70  ft.  wide,  three 
stories  in  height,  and  is  built  of  steel  and  brick  with 
concrete  foundations,  floor  and  roof.  The  dam  is  of 
solid  concrete  construction.  It  has  a  total  length  of 
1470  ft.  and  a  maximum  height  of  50  ft.  The  dam 
has  created  a  reservoir  eight  miles  in  length  with  a  total 
area  of  2500  acres.  The  station  was  placed  in  regular 
operation  in  June,  1912. 

Like  the  properties  of  the  Carolina  Power  and  Light 
C(f.,  those  of  the  Yadkin  River  Power  Co.  are  situated 
in  the  Carolina  cotton-mill  district,  and  a  large  part  of 


the  electric  energy  sold  by  the  company  is  supplied 
to  cotton  mills,  cotton  gins  and  cottonseed-oil  mills. 
It  also  supplies  power  to  numerous  other  industrial 
plants,  such  as  fertilizer  works,  veneer  mills,  furniture 
factories,  brick  plants  and  railroad  shops,  and  to  munici- 
palities for  pumping  water. 

Columbus  Power  Company 
The  Columbus  Power  Co.  has  three  hydro-electric 
developments  on  the  Chattahoochee  River,  two  at  Co- 
lumbus having  an  aggregate  rating  of  9000  kv.-a.  and 
one  at  Goat  Rock,  15  miles  north  of  Columbus,  having 
13,750  kv.-a.  installed,  making  the  total  available  22,- 
750  kv.-a.  The  City  Mills  development  at  Columbus 
comprises  five  generators  with  an  aggregate  rating  of 
1000  kw.,  the  head  being  10  ft.  The  North  Highlands 
development  has  six  generators,  with  an  aggregate  rat- 
ing of  6900  kw.,  and  waterwheels  operating  under-  a 
head  of  42  ft.  The  Goat  Rock  development,  where  a 
head  of  72  ft.  is  available,  has  three  generators,  two  of 
which  are  rated  at  3750  kw.  and  the  other  at  5000  kw. 
Three-phase  60-cycle  energy  is  generated  at  5500  volts 
and  11,000  volts.  Two  4000-kw.  transformers  step  up  the 
potential  to  66,000  volts  for  transmission.  A  11,000- 
volt  line  on  wooden  poles  with  pin-type  insulators  con- 
nects the  Columbus  and  Goat  Rock  properties,  and  a 


FIG. 


DUNL.A.P    PLANT,    GEORGIA    RT.    AND    POWER   CO. 


60-mile  steel-tower  line  equipped  with  suspension-type 
insulators  and  operating  at  66,000  volts  extends  from 
Goat  Rock  at  Newnan.  There  is  18  miles  of  wooden- 
pole  line  operating  at  11,000  volts  connecting  Newnan 
and  Hogansville.  Four  main  substations  are  connected 
to  the  system:  One  at  Columbus,  rated  at  1600  kw. ; 
one  at  West  Point,  rated  at  1875  kw. ;  one  at  La  Grange, 
rated  at  1875  kw. ;  and  the  fourth  at  Newnan,  rated  at 
4000  kw.  The  system  operates  continuously  on  a  40 
per  cent,  load-factor  basis,  and  auxiliary  steam-generat- 
ing apparatus  of  the  capacity  of  3000-kw.  turbo-gen- 
erators is  available.  Provision  is  made  for  the  transfer 
of  3000  kw.  between  the  Columbus  Power  Co.'s  system 
and  the  system  of  the  Georgia  Railway  and  Power  Co. 


^-^■: 


..r.^^sC/, 


FIG.  6.   THE  ROCKY  CREEK  PLANT  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  POWER  COMPANY 


Mav  21.  1018 


POWER 


723 


PIG.   8.      LOCK   12.  HYDRO-ELECTRIC   PLANT— DOWNSTREAM  VIEW 


Georgia  Railway  and  Power  Company 

The  present  coal-supply  conditions  emphasize  the  im- 
portance of  existing  water-power  generating  plants  and 
the  vital  need  of  additional  developments. 

The  100,000-hp.  plant  of  the  Georgia  Railway  and 
Power  Co.  at  Tallulah  Falls'  was  barely  finished  when 
the  rapid  increase  in  the  demand  for  hydro-electric 
power  forced  the  company  to  undertake  the  construction 
of  additional  water-power  developments,  which,  when 
completed,  will  nearly  double  the  present  capacity  of 
its  existing  water-power  plants. 

The  growth  of  the  business  in  the  last  six  years  is 
shown  in  the  following  table  of  yearly  outputs  in  kilo- 
watt-hours : 

1912  

1913 

1914   


68,400.642 

1915, 

179,976,596 

80,763,025 

1916 

.  211,872,638 

145,684,803 

1917 

258,607,802 

This  shows  an  increase  in  that  period  of  nearly  300 
per  cent. 

The  water  power  furnished  by  the  company  to  its 
customers  in  1917  would  have  required  approximately 
475,000  tons  of  coal  if  generated  by  them  by  steam. 
The  additional  water  power  which  it  is  estimated  will 
be  generated  at  the  new  plants  now  under  construction, 
and  which  has  already  been  largely  sold,  will  take  the 
place  of  and  save  approximately  400,000  tons  of  coal 
annually — a  total  combined  saving  of  approximately 
875,000  tons  of  coal  per  annum. 

The  new  developments  now  being  constructed  are  as 
follows : 


=TaUulali  Falls   Development,    "Power,"   .Tan.    27,    1914. 


The  Burton  storage  reservoir,  to  be  in  service  by  the 
end  of  year  1918,  is  three  miles  north  of  the  present 
Mathis  storage  reservoir  and  will  flood  approximately 
3000  acres  of  land.  It  requires  the  construction  of  a 
dam  700  ft.  long  and  100  ft.  high  of  cyclopean  masonry. 
The  reservoir  will  store  approximately  five  billion  cubic 
feet  of  water.  The  water  contained  in  this  reservoir, 
exclusive  of  the  average  flow  of  the  river,  will  produce 
at  the  Tallulah  Falls  and  Tugaloo  generating  plants 
65,000,000  kw.-hr.  and  will  increase  the  annual  capacity 
of  those  plants  to  that  extent.  This  reservoir  will  also 
make  possible  the  equalization  of  the  river  flow,  or  in 
other  words,  the  even  distribution  of  all  available  rain- 
fall run-off  from  its  contributary  watershed  through- 
out every  month  in  the  year,  the  stored  water  being 
drawn  out  for  use  in  the  dry  months  and  replaced  in 
the  wet  season.  The  water  that  can  be  stored  in  this 
reservoir  is  equivalent  to  the  available  energy  in  130,- 
000  tons  of  coal. 

The  Tugaloo  development  is  about  two  miles  below 
the  present  Tallulah  Falls  power  house  on  the  Tuga- 
loo River  where  the  Tallulah  and  the  Chattooga  Riv- 
ers come  together  and  form  the  Tugaloo.  The  water 
available  at  this  point  for  power  purposes  comes  from 
both  the  Tallulah  and  the  Chattooga  Rivers.  The  aver- 
age flow  of  the  river,  including  the  effect  of  the  Mathis 
storage  reservoir,  it  is  estimated  will  produce  at  this 
plant  approximately  120,000,000  kw.-hr.  It  will  re- 
quire only  11  miles  of  transmission  line  to  connect  this 
development  with  the  present  Tallulah  Falls  transmis- 
sion lines.     The  Tugaloo  dam  of  cyclopean  masonry  is 


KUl,    :i.      LOCK    12,    HYDRO-ELECTRIC   PLANT— UPSTREAM   VIEW 


724 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


FIG.  10. 


METHOD  (N.  C.)  OUTDOOR  SUBSTATION  LOOKING  NORTH 
POWER  AND  LIGHT  CO. 


800  ft.  long  and  140  ft.  high.  The  Tugaloo  plant  will 
develop  appro.ximately  65,000  hp.,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  two  year-s  time  will  be  necessary  in  which  to  com- 
plete it. 

The  Tallulah  Falls  power  plant  was  constructed  and 
designed  for  six  units  of  12,000  kw.,  or  about  17,000 
hp.  each.  Five  units  are  now  installed.  The  sixth  has 
been  ordered  and  will  be  ready  for  service  some  time 
during  the  summer  of  1918. 

Contracts  were  let  for  all  the  required  equipment  for 
the  three  developments  during  the  summer  of  1917  and 
construction  is  now  actively  under  way. 

The  estimated  total  cost  of  this  construction  is  $5,- 
000,000.  The  necessary  financing  to  carry  on  the  work 
was  completed  in  June,  1917.  The  company  was  fortu- 
nate in  this  respect  because  the  war  has  since  brought 
such  changed  financial  condi- 
tions that  the  necessary  capi- 
tal could  not  be  secured  at  the 
present  time  and  this  has  been 
continuously  true  since  the 
financial  arrangements  were 
concluded. 

The  Georgia  Railway  and 
Power  Co.  upon  completion  of 
the  plants  now  under  construc- 
tion will  have  waterpower 
plants  of  approximately 
200,000  hp.  developed  and  in 
service.  The  comjiany  con- 
trols approximately  300,000 
undeveloped  horsepower  in 
addition,  or  a  total  developed 
and  undeveloped  of  approxi- 
mately 500,000  horsepower. 

A  large  part  of  the  power 
generated  by  the  company  is 
used  by  enterprises  making 
war  materials  or  supplies 
necessary  to  the  successful 
prosecution  of  the  war.  This 
shows  how  doubly  vital  it  is 
in  war  times  that  monev   for 


such  developments  should  be 
available.  It  also  points  the 
lesson  that  many  of  us  appre- 
ciated years  ago;  namely,  the 
necessity  of  a  broad  and  gen- 
erous policy  on  the  part  of  the 
Government  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  water  powers  of 
the  nation.  Water  power 
should  be  provided  to  meet  the 
increasing  demand  due  to  the 
war.  But  war  conditions  have 
made  money  unobtainable 
through  the  usual  banking 
channels.  From  now  on  and 
as  long  as  present  conditions 
exist  such  developments  can- 
not be  made  unless  the  Na- 
tional Government  will  fur- 
nish the  needed  capital  with 
which  to  carry  on  the  work. 
The  French  government  realized  early  in  the  war  the 
vital  need  of  largely  increasing  the  available  power  for 
industrial  purposes  from  other  sources  than  coal  and  is 
now  constructing  water-power  developments  in  South- 
ern France  on  a  large  scale  under  the  direction  of  an 
American  engineer. 

The  power  actually  furnished  by  the  Georgia  Railway 
and  Power  Co.  in  1917,  if  generated  by  its  customers 
by  steam,  would  have  required  11,875  cars  of  coal  of 
40  tons  capacity  each,  and  the  estimated  power  which 
will  annually  be  generated  by  the  plants  now  being  con- 
structed, will  be  the  equivalent  of  10,000  cars  of  coal  of 
40  tons  capacity  each  additional,  or  a  combined  saving 
in  coal  consumption  per  annum  of  21,875  cars  of  coal 
of  40  tons  capacity  each,  or  a  total  of  875,000  tons.  If 
the  remaining  300,000  hp.  of  undeveloped  water  power 


CAROLINA 


I'MG.   11.     THE  TALLASSEE  POWER  CO..  YADKIN  RIVER,  BADIN.   N.   C. 


May  21.  1918 


POWER 


726 


Fill.    Ii;       YADKIN  RIV'ER  POWKR  CO.    ^HRKE  4500   Kv.-A.,     11 1 1 :  lOh:  ildn"    Kv.-A, 
VOI^T    fiO   CYCLE   O.    E.    GENERATORS 


controlled  by  the  company  could  be  developed  .and  put  to 
work,  the  saving  would  be  two  and  one-half  times  as 
great,  or  a  total  of  54,687  cars  of  coal  of  40  tons 
capacity  each,  or  2,187,480  tons  of  coal  conserved  with 
all  its  collateral  economies. 

If  capital  were  now  available  for  the  construction  of 
the  necessary  generating  plants  sufficient  to  utilize  the 
undeveloped  water  power  controlled  by  the  Georgia  Rail- 
way and  Power  Co.,  and  the  National  Government  would 
bring  about  the  electrification  of  the  steam  railroads,  all 
the  important  railroad  mileage  in  Georgia  would  be 
operated  by  electric  power  generated  by  that  company. 
The  operating  e.xpenses  of  the  railroads-  themselves 
would  be  materially  reduced,  their  service  much  im- 
proved, and  in  addition  the  coal  now  consumed  by  them 
conserved,  and  the  present  regular  business  of  the  com- 
pany supplied  and  developed  as  at  present.  This  under 
present  and  past  conditions  i.-! 
worth  while. 


connected  to  the  system  65 
h  i  g  h-voltage  transformers 
having  an  aggregate  ratir^g 
of  169,400  kv.-a.  The  lines 
of  the  company  cover  a  ter- 
ritory of  300  miles  in  a 
northeasterly  and  southwest- 
erly direction  and  100  miles 
in  a  northwesterly  and  south- 
easterly direction.  The  first 
transmission  system  of  the 
company  is  designed  for 
11,000  volts.  With  the  expan- 
sion of  the  cop^pany  and  its 
activities,  a  44-000-volt  trans- 
mission system  was  built, 
and  all  of  the  recent  trans- 
mission lines  erected  by  the 
company  have  been  designed 
for  100,000  vnlts.  All  lines  are  looped  in  together,  and 
the  11,000-volt  and  100,000-volt  systems  are  tied  togethei 
with  tie-ill  transformers.  Aluminum  and  copper  are 
both  used  for  conductors,  the  size  ranging  from  No.  4 
solid  copper  to  No.  000  stranded.     By  far  the  greatest 

DATA  ON  SOUTHERN  POWER  COMPANY'S  STATIONS 

Location  Maximum  Rating        Head,  Ft 

Great  Falls,  S.  C 

Roelcy  Creek,  S.  C ,,    , 

Ninety-nine  Islands,  S.  C 

Catawba.  S.  C 

Lookout  Shoals,  N.  C.  (under  construction) .... 

Greenville,  S.  C.  (steam) 

Greensboro,  N-  C.  (steam) 

Mount  Holly,  N.  C.  (steam) 


24,000  Kw. 

72 

24,000  Kw. 

63 

18,000  Kw. 

72 

6,600  Kw. 

25 

24,000  Kw. 

76 

8,000  Kv.-a. 

8.000  Kv.-a. 

8,000  Kv.-a. 

amount  of  the  lines  are  of  No.  00  copper  stranded  and 
No.  00  equivalent  aluminum  stranded.  This  is  run  on 
both  steel  towers  and  wooden  poles  with  pin-type  and 
suspension-type  insulators,  depending  upon  the  voltage. 
There  are  103  substations  connected  to  the  system,  con- 


SouTHERN  Power  Company 

The  Southern  Power  Co.  is 
connected  to  the  Carolina 
Power  and  Light  Co.  at  a 
point  between  Durham  and 
Raleigh,  N.  C,  and  with  the 
Georgia  Railway  and  Power 
Co.  of  Tallulah  Falls.  The 
location  and  maximum  rat- 
ings of  the  company's  various 
stations  are  given  in  the 
accompanying  table. 

Electricity  is  generated  at 
2200,  6600  and  11,000  volts, 
three-phase,  si.xty-cycle,  there 
being  one  8000-kv.-a.  2300-volt 
and  two  8000-kv.-a.  11,000- 
volt  steam-driven  generators, 
twenty-two  3000-kv.-a.  3000- 
volt  generators,  three  7800- 
kv.-a.  6600-volt  generators, 
four  900-kv.-a.  and  750-kv.-a, 
11,000-volt  generators.  The 
last  33  units  are  of  the  water- 
wheel  type.      There  are   also 


KIG.   lit    MA-l-llKS   DAW,  GIOOUGLX  RAILWAY   AND  POWER  CO. 


726 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2i 


FKi'"  iV.'      YAriKIX"RIVER*Pn\rER'<"(1-.    BIJCWKTT    FAI.I-S.    DAJt   A.N'D   POND 


taining  352  transformers,  with  an  aggregate  rating  of 
241,162  kv.-a. 

The  circuits  of  the  Southern  Power  Co.  are  con- 
nected on  the  north  with  those  of  the  Carolina  Power 
and  Light  Co.  with  two  100,000-volt  lines.  The  amount 
of  power  that  can  be  transferred  is  limited  only  by  the 
carrying  capacity  of  these  lines,  as  no  transformers  are 
required  in  order  to  effect  this  connection.  On  the  south 
the  Southern  Power  Co.'s  system  is  connected  with  that 
of  the  Georgia  Railway  and  Power  Co.  of  Tallulah  Falls, 
with  two  100,000-volt  lines,  and  the  power  which  can  be 
transferred  between  the  two  companies  at  this  point 
is  limited  only  by  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  lines. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  rating  of  the  hydro- 
electric stations  of  the  Southern  Power  Co.  is  based 
upon  the  continuous  rating  for  the  continuous  amount 
of  12-hour  power  which  the  .station  can  generate  for 
eight  months  in  the  year.  The 
company  maintains  three 
8000-kv.-a.  t  u  r  b  o-generator 
steam  plants  for  emergency 
and  supplementary  service. 
The  fires  under  the  boJers  are 
banked,  and  all  three  stations 
can  be  got  under  way  to  feed 
energy  to  the  lines  within 
fifteen  minutes. 

Tennessee  Power  Co. 

The  present  hydro-electric 
stations  owned  and  operated 
by  the  Tennessee  Power  Co. 
are  as  follows : 

Ocoee  No.  1,  located  in  Polk 
County  at  Parksville,  Tenn., 
on  the  Ocoee  River,  approxi- 
mately 50  miles  from  Chatta- 
nooga. The  equipment  in  this 
plant  consists  of  five  hori- 
zontal direct-connected  water- 
wheel-driven  generators,  each 
one  having  a  capacity  of  3750 
kw.,  the  total  station  capacity 
being  18,750  kw.  The  dam  at 
this  plant  backs  up  the  Ocoee 
River,  forming  a  lake  approxi- 
mately eight  miles  long.  Suffi- 
cient water  is  impounded  to 
operate  the  station  over  a 
period  of  two  or  three  weeks 


during  reduced  stream  flow. 
Ocoee  No.  2,"'  located  in  Polk 
County  on  the  Ocoee  River, 
about  ten  miles  east  of  Parks- 
ville. This  plant  is  equipped 
with  two  horizontal  water- 
wheel-driven  generators,  each 
having  a  capacity  of  7500  kw., 
the  total  capacity  of  the  sta- 
tion being  15,000  kw.  This 
plant  uses  the  stream  flow 
from  the  Ocoee  River,  which 
is  diverted  by  means  of  a  low 
dam,  five  miles  above  the 
power  station,  from  which  the  water  is  conveyed  by 
means  of  a  flume  to  a  forebay  above  the  power  house. 
The  operating  head  at  this  plant  is  255  feet. 

Great  Falls  Stafton,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  War- 
ren County,  about  halfway  between  Nashville  and  Chat- 
tanooga. This  plant  uses  the  flow  of  the  Caney  Fork 
and  Collins  Rivers.  Just  below  the  confluence  of  the  two 
rivers  a  low  concrete  dam  diverts  the  two  streams, 
which  are  conveyed  to  the  waterwheel  by  means  of  a 
tunnel  and  penstock.  The  plant  is  equipped  with  one 
vertical  waterwheel-driven  generator,  the  capacity  be- 
ing 9750  kilowatts. 

Hales  Bar,'  on  the  Tennessee  River  about  20  miles 
we.st  of  Chattanooga.  This  plant  is  equipped  with  four- 
teen 3000-kw.  vertical  turbines,  the  total  capacity  of  the 


■'Completion  nf  the  Hales  Bar  Work.s,   "Power,"  Dec.  2.   1913. 
*Hvdro-Electric    Plants    of   the    Tennessee    Power    Co.,    "Power." 
May  17.  I!il4, 


Vir,.    IR.      TALLULAH    FALLS   POWER    Hi  U'.SK.    liKoRClA    RAILWAY   A.XIi   P()-\VER  CO. 


May  21,  1918 


POWER 


727 


FIG.    Itt.      SUBaTATiuN— ALABAMA    POWER   CO.,    COOSA   RIVER  HYDRO-ELECTRIC   PLANT 


station  being  42,000  kw.  The  concrete  dam  across  the 
river  at  the  power-house  site  backs  up  the  water  and 
makes  the  river  navigable  to  Chattanooga.  The  spill- 
way is  1200  ft.  long.  The  dam  is  cf  necessity  provided 
with  a  boat-lock  which  is  operated  by  the  Government. 

The  combined  capacity  of  the  present  hydro-electric 
stations  is  85,000  kilowatts. 

Additional  developments  have  been  considered,  and 
rights  obtained  for  three  more  stations  on  the  Ocoee 
River,  to  be  known  as  Ocoee  Nos.  3,  4  and  5.  The  ad- 
ditional capacity  from  these  three  stations  will  be  in  the 
neighborhood  of  35,000  kilowatts. 

The  Tennessee  Power  Co.  has  an  arrangement  with 
the  Chattanooga  Railway  and  Light  Co.,  the  Nashville 
Railway  and  Light  Co.  and  the  Knoxville  Railway  and 
Light  Co.  whereby  the  steam  plants  at  these  three  cities 
may  be  operated  at  the  direction  of  the  Tennessee  Co. 
to  supplement  the  output  from  the  hydro  plants  during 
low  water.  The  capacities  of  the  steam  stations  are  as 
follows : 

Kilowatts 

ChattanoogH      5,000 

Nashville 15.000 

Knoxville -. 4,000 

Total 24.000 

The  Tennessee  Power  Co.  generates  the  electrical 
energy  used  in  Chattanooga,  Nashville,  Knoxville  and  a 
large  number  of  the  small  cities  in  eastern  Tennessee. 
In  addition  it  supplies  power  to  the  Aluminum  Com- 
pany of  America  at  Mar>-ville,  Tenn.,  16  miles  south 
of  Knoxville,  and  also  to  the  American  Zinc  Co.  at 
Mascot,  Tenn.,  15  miles  northeast  of  Knoxville.  The 
total  transmission-line  mileage  of  this  system  is  approx- 
imately 600. 

The  rates  for  electrical  energy  are  in  accordance  with 
the  following  tabulation  : 

A  fixed  charee  of  $1.25  per  month  per  kilowatt  of  maxi- 
mum demand  based  on  the  highest  fifteen  minute  demand 
during  the  month,  but  in  no  event  shall  the  fixed  charge 
be  less  than  60  per  cent,  of  the  total  kilowatt  capacity  con- 
tracted for. 


In  addition  to  the  above  demand  charge,  the  foUovdng 
kilowatt-hour  charge  for  electrical  energy  consumed  during 
the  month : 


4c.  per  kw.-hr.  for  the  first . 

2c.  per  kw.-hr.  for  the  next , 

1  jc.  per  kw.-hr.  for  the  next- 

Ic.  per  kw.-hr.  for  the  next 

0,  7o.  per  kw.-hr.  for  all  over 


Kilowatt-Hours 

500 

1,000 

1,500 

17,000 

20.000 


A  discount  of  5  per  cent,  will  be  allowed  upon  all  bills 
paid  within  ten  d.^ys  from  their  date. 


FIG.   17.     GENERATOK.S.  TALLULAH   FALLS  I'OWER  HOUSE. 
GEORGIA    HAILWAY    AXr>    POWER    CO. 


728 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


Coals  of  the  United  States 


Gives  the  proximate  analyses  on  the  "as  received" 
basis  of  typical  coals  of  the  United  States.  These 
analyses  are  given  as  the  first  of  some  articles  on 
fuels,  and  types  of  stokers  and  furnaces  best 
adapted  to  them,  published  to  assist  consumers 
who  are  confronted  with  the,  to  them,  unusual 
combustion  problems  by  reason  of  the  zone  system 
for  the  distribution  of  bituminous  coal  recently 
put  into  effect  by  the  Fuel  Administration. 

TO  GREATLY  cut  down  transportation  of  coal  on 
the  railroads  and  to  insure  a  larger  supply  of  the 
Eastern  bituminous  coals  to  the  states  of  the 
Atlantic  Seaboard,  the  zone  system  for  the  distribution 
of  bituminous  coal  has  been  put  into  effect  by  the 
Fuel  A.dministration.  Nearly  all  the  states  of  the  Mid- 
dle West,  heretofore  large  consumers  of  the  high-grade 
coals  of  West  Virginia  and  the  East,  must  learn  to 
burn  the  high-volatile,  high-ash  coals,  also  the  lignites, 
in  which  the  Middle  West,  North  Dakota  and  Texas 
abound. 

Poiver  for  May  14  gave  full  particulars  about 
the  zone  system  as  it  affects  power  plants  particularly. 
See  that  issue  to  learn  what  coals  are  permitted  to  come 
into  your  state  or  zone.  Knowing  the  coal  you  have 
been  using,  you  can,  by  reference  to  ther  table  here, 
find  the  chief  differences  between  the  coal  or  coals 
you  now  use  and  those  you  will  hereafter  use. 

The  analyses  are  selected  from  Bulletin  No.  22  of 
the  Bureau  of  Mines.  The  names  on  the  same  lines 
with  the  figures  are  those  of  the  mined  or  towns. 


TABLE  OF  PROXIMATE  ANALYSES— Continued 


ALABA.XiA 

BihbCoiinty 

Belle  EUen 3   12 

,,  (3  03 

Gamsey {  2  72 

Blount  County 

Lehigh 2.93 

Jefferson  County 

Cardiff   2  88 

Dolomite   3.16 

ARKAX.SAS 

Franklin  Cuunty 
Denning   2  91 

.lohnson  County 
Coal  Hill 1    38 

Ouachita  County 
Lester 39  43 

Sebastian  County 

Bonanza 1 .  99 

Burma     0  80 

Huntington 3  24 

T-   J  ;  0  95 

Jenny  Lmd 12   19 

COLORADO 

Boulder  County 

Lafayette 19   15 

Delta  County 

Bowie 3   29 

El  Pa»o  County 
Colorado  Springs. ..  .      22   19 
Fremont  County 

Canon  City     H    19 

Garfield  County 

Cardiff 12  20 

Newcastle 3  51 

South  CaiSon 7  44 

Gunnison  County 

Crested  Butte 2  98 

Somerset 5  49 

Pitkin  County 

Coal  Basin 0  96 

Rio  Blanco   Count!/ 

Meeker 9   41 

Rmitt  County 
Axi.il  13   15 


TABLE  OF  PROXIMATE  ANALYSES 
Volatile       Fixed 
Moisture     Matter      Carbon         Ash 


31  41 
30  94 
29  46 

29  06 

29  56 
25  40 


12  65 


14   76 


Carbon 
-Per  Cent. 

59  70 

55  31 
53  4o 

65   28 

56  91 
67  75 


66  93 


24   37 


British 
Sulphur  Thermal 
->      Units 


5  77 

10  72 

14  36 

2  73 

10  65 

3  69 


17  51 


6   95 


9    71 


I  24 
0  49 
0   55 


2   04 
0  56 


14.031 
13,034 
12,461 


13,459 
14,616 


3   12        12,312 


6,356 


15   90 
17  80 
17  46 
17  91 
19  47 

75  05 
72   71 
66  69 
71    52 
66  71 

7  06 

8  69 
12  61 

9  62 
11    63 

1    05 
1    95 

1  24 

2  07 
1    28 

14.087 
14,281 
13,129 
14,096 
13,464 

30  82 

44   27 

5   76 

0   25 

9,61 

39  74 

52    16 

4   81 

0   62 

13,379 

34  58 
36  77 

34  23 
38   38 

36  18 

33  62 

35  65 

21    49 

37  97 

36  44 


37   40 


48  60 
53  17 
53  90 

56  16 
55  79 

68  93 


47  54 


5  83 

6  29 

4   97 
4   94 

2  48 

7  24 

3  07 

8,62 
7   24 


D  92         11,286 


0  48 
0  54 
0   47 

0  39 
0   60 


0   75 


0   57 


11,104 
13,266 
12,685 

13,428 
13.217 


11,324 


11,390 


Moisture 

Volatile 
Matter 

Fixed 

Carbon 

Per  Cent. 

Ash 

Sulphur 

British 

Thermal 

Units 

ILLINOIS 

Franklin  County 
Zeigler 

9  58 

29 

18 

50  24 

II    00 

0  52 

11,428 

Logan  County 
Lincoln        

14  77 

32 

90 

39  75 

12.58 

3  95 

10.406 

Mad)son  County 
Collins\Tlle 

II   87 
14  25 

36 
35 

57 
57 

39  98 

40  79 

1  1    58 
9   44 

4  75 
3  72 

10,768 
10,892 

Saline  County 
Harrisburg   

7.81 

33 

54 

50  27 

8  38 

2  36 

12,418 

INDIANA 

Greene  County 

/  13  53 
\  10  30 

.    10  57 

33 

36 

35 

54 

31 

03 

45  38 

41  64 

42  75 

7  55 

II    75 

II   65 

0  95 
4  23 

3  87 

11,738 

Pike  County 
Hartwell 

1  1,218 
11,266 

Sullivan  County 
Mildred 

,    13  25 

35 

81 

41    78 

9    16 

1   87 

1  1,360 

Vigo  County 
Terre  Haute 

10  68 

37 

17 

39  91 

12  24 

4   38 

11,261 

Warrick  County 
Boonville 

10  41 

39 

18 

41    96 

8  45 

3  51 

11,819 

IOWA 

Lucas  County 
Chariton .  .  .  . 

18   69 

31 

80 

41    78 

7.73 

2  39 

10.505 

Marioji  County 
Hamilton     

.     14   21 

33 

17 

37  40 

15.22 

4  66 

IU,0I9 

Wapello  County 
Laddsdale 

11    35 

38 

65 

39.49 

10.31 

4  72 

n,345 

KANSAS 

Cherokee  County 
Scammon     

2  54 

35 

31 

52  28 

9  87 

4  47 

13,340 

Crawford  County 
Yale 

2,44 

35 

16 

51   80 

10  60 

5  63 

13,043 

Linn  County 
Jewett 

11    13 

28 

83 

47.44 

12  60 

2  4! 

11,219 

KENTUCK\- 

Bell   County 
Straight  Creek 

2  91 

36 

01 

57  55 

3  53 

0  89 

14,322 

Hopkins  County 

Barnsley . 

Earlington 

7  98 

8  49 

37 
38 

55 

05 

45  17 

46  36 

9  30 
7.  10 

4  03 
3  53 

11,965 
12,344 

Johnson  County 
Van  Lear 

.      6  43 

36 

20 

54    13 

3  24 

1    17 

13,455 

Ohio  County 

.    10  03 

36 

06 

46  24 

7  67 

2  56 

12,07b 

Pike  County 
Hellier 

3  41 

32 

08 

58  78 

5  73 

0  53 

13.928 

Webster  County 
Wheateroft. 

6  29 

31 

97 

54   13 

7  61 

1   35 

12,874 

MARYLAND 

Alleghany  County 
Eckhart 

2  3 
.      2  31 
.      3  06 
.      2  47 

2  54 

14 
17 
17 
18 
18 

5 

49 

01 

17 

22 

75  0 

71  51 
73   54 
73  06 

72  01 

8  2 

8  69 
6  39 

6  30 

7  23 

1    10 
1   62 
0  96 
0  79 
0  92 

14,020 
14,022 

Frostburg 

Lord    

Midland 

14,274 
14,328 
14,283 

MISSOURI 

Adair  County 

Kirks\'ille 

Novinger 

14   59 
17    19 

32 
34 

05 
05 

39  45 
39  48 

13  91 
9  28 

3  69 
2  76 

10.260 
10,598 

Audrain  County 
Vandalia     

10  36 

39 

28 

38  03 

12  33 

4  89 

11,347 

Bates  County 
New  Home 

4  92 

38 

28 

42  28 

14  52 

5.34 

11,975 

Henry  County 
Windsor .    

13  51 

33 

24 

41    88 

II    37 

4.08 

10,779 

Lafayette  County 
Corder 

.    12  34 

34 

36 

41    97 

11    33 

4  55 

10,998 

Macon  County 
Bevier 

14  74 

38 

53 

38   95 

7  78 

3  79 

11,185 

Randolph  County 
Higbee 

13   38 

34 

17 

42   43 

10  02 

4  48 

11,084 

Ray  County 
Camden 

15  83 

32 

80 

41    46 

9  91 

2  97 

10,622 

MONTANA 

Broadwater   County 
Lombard 

2  78 

24 

53 

42  95 

29  74 

8  23 

10,062 

Carbon  County 

10  05 
14  83 

11  05 

37 
26 
35 

22 
93 
90 

46   71 
44   89 
42   08 

6  0! 
13  35 
10  97 

1   44 
0  33 
1.73 

11.194 

Bridget 

Red  Lodge 

10.037 
10,539 

Cascade  County 

Belt     

Eden 

Stockctt ,  . 

6  37 
4  54 
6  01 

27 
27 
28 

55 
44 
43 

45  20 
47  95 
51    42 

20  88 
20  07 
14   14 

2  04 
4  09 
2  38 

9,866 
10,472 
11,153 

Ch-iuteau  County 

Chinook 

Havre 

.    21    41 
22  84 

28 
29 

00 
31 

41   60 
34  61 

8  99 
13  24 

0  58 
0  80 

8,937 
7.898 

Custer  County 
Miles 

29  21 

26 

15 

35   45 

9   19 

0  75 

7.668 

Dawson  County 
Glendive 

34  55 

35 

34 

^2  91 

7  20 

1    10 

7.090 

May  21,  1918 


POWER 


720 


T.Mti.h; 

OK  I'HOXIMATE 

ANALYSES— Continued    ,' 

Moisture 

Volatile 
MattiT 

F'ixed 
Carbon 

Per  Cent. 

43.83 
51   31 

73.22 

45  48 

Ash 

Sulphur 

British 
Thermal 

Units 

8,894 
1  1.149 

Fprj/it.f  County 
Buffalo 

.    17  03 
12  31 

2.05 
.      4  01 

27  34 

28  41 

16  42 
34    54 

n   80 
7  97 

e  31 
15  97 

4   14 
3  88 

0  86 
0   51 

Oaliitin  County 
Chestnut .... 

14  092 

Storrs , 

11.860 

MH^,^flsht'll  Conntu 
Aldridgc   

1   1.7 

10  71 

54   74 

23  60 

0  44 

11.320 

Sweet  Crass  County 
Nye 

6  75 

32  37 

44   47 

16  41 

0   53 

10,679 

Yelloustonf  County 

16  95 
.    22  77 
13  4 

30  78 

27  00 

28  0 

39   64 
45   58 
52  4 

12  63 
4  65 
6  2 

0  49 
0  32 
0  40 

8  597 

Musaelshpll 

Rouudup    

8,863 
11,050 

NEW  MEXICO 

Colfcx  Cnuutu 
Blossburi; 

Brilliant      

Raton     

Yankee        

2  25 
2   19 
2    12 
5  02 

33    19 

35  95 

36  06 
36  78 

52   19 
50  75 
50  22 
46  20 

12  37 

II    11 

11  60 

12  00 

0  75 
0  57 
0  64 
0  56 

13,030 
13.063 
12.965 
12,064 

M'  Kintey  Cmmty 
ClarkviUe 

Gallup 

14  49 

1     9  68 
\  II   00 

37  08 

41  42 

42  63 

44  58 
40  82 
42  44 

3  85 
8  08 
3  93 

0,41 
1   55 
0  55 

11,468 
11,623 
11,885 

San  Jtian  County 
Putnam 

15  79 

34  99 

)9  85 

9  37 

1    78 

9,970 

Santa  Ff  County 

5  70 

2    18 

86    13 

5  99 

0  69 

13,268 

Sot'orro  County 
Carthage      

3  9! 

38  87 

46  82 

10  40 

0  70 

12,742 

N'ORTH  DAKOT.\ 

Billiuijs  County 
Medora 

38  45 

28  02 

27  84 

5  69 

0   54 

Botfman  County 
Scran ton 

41   43 

23  86 

28   45 

6  26 

0   74 

6,241 

M'Ltan  County 
Wilton     

40.53 

27  05 

27   37 

5   05 

0   76 

6,644 

Stark  County 
Lehigh 

42   Ob 

24  55 

25  73 

7    66 

1    13 

6,158 

Ward  Coufity 
Tasker 

.    36   64 

22.64 

JO   74 

9  98 

0,45 

6,394 

WiUiams  Cotiuty 
Williston 

36   60 

32  93 

25  69 

4  78 

0  48 

6.824 

OHIO 

Belmont  Comity 
Bellaire 

3    10 
3   '>9 

40   7t. 
38.77 

50   11 
49    17 

6  03 
8  07 

3  42 
3  49 

13  595 

Neffs 

13,102 

Guernsey  County 
Danford 

6  28 

35  81 

50  61 

7  30 

3  55 

12.701 

•Jackson  County 
Wellston 

7  71 

38  32 

42  02 

1  1    95 

4  61 

11,515 

.lefferson  County 
Bradley     

4.06 
4  34 

38  49 
35  53 

49  70 
52  83 

7  75 

7  30 

3    67 

1   72 

13  147 

13,178 

Perry  County 

Dude 

Shawnee 

8  92 
10  78 

.38  58 
34  86 

46  65 
48,23 

5  85 

6  13 

3  00 
1    II 

12,328 
11,993 

Vinton  County 
Clarion 

6   79 

40  01 

45  54 

7  66 

3  34 

12,514 

OKLAHOMA 

Coal  County 
Lehigh 

6   SO 

39  01 

45    18 

9   31 

3  67 

11,842 

Baakell  County 
Chant 

2  37 

19  26 

69   54 

8  83 

1   03 

13,840 

Latimer  County 
Wilburton   

2  96 

35  97 

55  95 

5   12 

1   05 

13,707 

Okmulgee  County 
Henryetta 

8.87 

34  82 

47   68 

8  63 

1   62 

12,096 

Pittsburg  County 
Hartshorne 

4  45 

36   15 

48  40 

II    00 

1    52 

12,607 

OREGON 

Coos  County 
Beaver  Hill 

14  27 

20.84 
19.7 

34  46 
34  04 
31.5 

43  20 
36  75 
35.0 

8  07 
8  37 
13.8 

0,74 
1    17 
0.80 

9,626 
10,348 
8,400 

Libby 

Marshfield 

PENNSYLVANIA 

Allegheny  County 
Bruce  ton 

3  67 

34.03 

56.84 

5  46 

1    37 

13,874 

Cambria  County 
Bakerton 

3  3 

2.7 
2  03 

1  13 

2  1 
2,4 

16  5 
19  5 

14  47 

15  95 
15  0 
14  5 

74  6 
71    1 

75  31 
75  2 
77  7 
75.0 

5  6 

6  7 
8   19 

7  72 
5  2 

8  1 

1    10 

1  70 

2  26 
1   35 

1    II 
1   90 

14,422 
14,160 
14,081 
14,387 
14,630 
14,200 

Johnstown 

South  Fork 

Stineman 

Windbcr 

Clear/irU    County 
Grampian 

4    1 
2  4 

23  0 
20  5 

66.8 
70  8 

6,  1 
6  3 

1   91 
I    66 

14,000 
14,330 

13,991 
13,268 

Fayette  County 

Connellsville 

East  Millsboro 

2  82 
4  08 

29  97 
32  44 

59  84 
53  98 

7  37 
9  50 

1.22 
1   64 

Lackawanna  County 
Scranton,     anthracite 
culm          

5   41 

7  02 

71    79 

15  78 

0   74 

12  047 

i^omerset  County 

3  67 

15  62 

72  84 

7  87 

0  77 

13  808 

Washitttltnn  County 

2  60 
1,70 

3  01 

32  46 
37  20 

33  46 

59  31 
55.83 
58  70 

5  63 
5   27 
4  83 

1    19 
1    13 
0  73 

14,184 
14,335 
14,197 

Anderson 

Ellsworth 

TABLE  OF  PROXIMATE  ANALYSES— Concluded 

Volatile       Fixed  British 

Moisture     Matter      Carbon         .Vsh        Sulphur  Thermal 

Per  Cent. ,      Units 

TENNESSEE 
Campbell  County 

Gatliflf 4.25         35.31          56  31            4   13         0  93         13,666 

Lafollette 3.03          34   01           58   05            4  91           I    77         13,858 

Marion  County 

Ornie     3.31         31   71         51   87         13.11         I   30        12,193 

TEXAS 
IJtiuston  County 

Croekett 33.50          39   50          16  25           10   75          0   56           7,142 

Milam  County 

Olsen    36  01          27  95         28  66           7  38         0  77          7,132 

Wooil  County 

Hoyt 28  86         35.96         27.26           7  92         0  50          7,996 

UTAH 

Carbon  County 

CastlpKate .,    .,  5  42         36  32         52   |6           6   10         0  54         12,220 

Emery  County 

Woodside 9  01          31    78          31   0}           8   18         0  46        10,863 

Iron  County 

Cedar  City 10  35         36  33         43  70           9  62          5  82         10,874 

Summit  County 

Coalville 14  07          37  21          42  46           6  26          I   28        10,471 

VIRGINU 
Montgomery  County 

Blacksburg 2  98          10  94         64    14         21   94         0  68         11.669 

Russell  County 

Dante 2  28         35  69         55  03           7  00         0  66         13,936 

Tazewell  County 

I  1,63  17   17         75  34  5  86         0  75         14,672 

Pocahontas,  Baby  .  i  5  89          17  26         72  61            4  24         0  79         14  256 

13  8  15  5  77  8  2  92         0  63         14,860 

WiseCoimty 

Toms  Creek 3.05         31   65         60  82           4  48         0  67         14,470 

WASHINGTON 

King  County 

""^""^      \  5  35         33  03         47    II          14  51          0  70         11,590 

Black  Piamond 7  98         37  69         45.95           8  38         0  45         11732 

Coal  Creek 12.05         36  82         40.72          10  41          0  34         10414 

Ravenadale II    15         39  72         45   13           4  00         0  52         11768 

Renton 14  73         33    19         40  49          1 1    59         0  47          9,868 

Taylor 5  6           36  0           44  0            14  4           0  94         11,550 

Kittitns  County 

Eoslyu 3  68         34  33         48  59          13  40         0.36         12,253 

Pierre  County 

Carbonado 2  74         36.31          52.83           8   12         0  49         13.538 

WEST  VIRGINU 

Fat/ette  County 

BaUinger 3.7            23  0            70  8              2  47          0   59         14,590 

Claremont 3.54          17  03         73  28           6   15         0  51         14,099 

Derryhale 3.33          17  34         75  68           3  65         0  83         14,593 

East  Sewell 3.34         2125         73,18           2,23         0  56        14,821 

Lavland 2.72          16  3           75  49           5.49         0  66        14,440 

GlenJean 3  7            16  0           75  2             5   1            I    15         14,310 

Kilsyth 2,86          17  63         75   16           4  35         0  94         14,539 

Macdnnald 2  96         22  74         69  29           5  01          0  89         14,425 

Minden 3.4            210            72  4              3   2            0   60         14.670 

Prudence 3.85          19  08         72  05            5  02         0  84        14,256 

Harrison  County 

Clarksburg I   98         40  54         48  40           9  08         4  20        13,466 

M' Powell  County 

.\shland 2  8            14  5           77  4              5  33         0  64         14,550 

Bijj  Sandy 4   1            15  0           77    I              5  78         0  64         14,580 

Coalwood 2.19          13  91          75  25           8  65         0  57         13,995 

Da\T     3.7            13   5           78  9             3  85         0  60        14,620 

Eckman 3.3            13  5           78  0             5   17         0  59        14.480 

Elkhorn 3.24          13   13         79  00           4  63         0.49        14,598 

Crozer 2.74          13  94         78  38           4  94         0  59         14,643 

Norfolk 3.73          14  62         78  22           3  43         0  53         14,632 

Powhatan 3.3           14.5           77  7            4  49         0  55        14,630 

Switchback 4.1           14  5           77  3            4  1           0.52        14.510 

Vivian 2.3           12.5          80  8            4  44         0  58        14,720 

Mercer  County 

Goodwill 2.9             14   0            79  4               3   68          0   53         14,830 

Simmons 3.8            13  5           79  4             3  34         0  80        14,670 

Raleigh  County 

Raleigh 3  6            15  5           76   1              4  75         0  79         14.460 

Slab  Fork 2.7            13  0           78  5              5  76         0  55         14.450 

Tucker  County 

Thomas 2  39         22  39         70  04           5   18         0  67         14,557 

WY'OMING 

Bighorn  County  • 

Kirby     16   11          32  96         48  09            2  84         0  50         11,211 

Carlton  County 

Fort  Steele 8  85         36  58         50  99           3  58         0  92        12,062 

Hanna 1145         42  58         39  33'         6  64         0  38        10.890 

Iron 18.41         34.50         43.38           3  71         0  28         9.130 

Crook  Cmmty 

Oxus 28.55         29  43         38  31           3  71         0  28         8.23J 

Johnson  County 

HulTalo 29  05         29  07         34  67           7  21          0   19          7.627 

Sheridan  County 

Diet?. 24  70         37   55          33  04           4  71          0  39          8.903 

Monarch 22  63          35  68         37   19           4  50         0  59          9,73.< 

Sweetwater  County 

Black  Butt es 18  86         29   17         47  85           4  12        0  49        10,283 

Uoek.Springs 1164         36  37         48  58           3  41          OBI         11.768 

Superior 13.67         32  43         5100           2  90         0  72        11,563 

Uouduraut 14  36         32  48         48  73            4  43         3   56        ia3D3 


730 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — Characteristic 
Curves  of  Shunt  and  Series  Generators 


The  effects  of  varying  the  load  on  a  shunt  and 
a  series  generator  are  discussed,  and  the  external 
characteristic  curves  shoivn. 


ELECTRIC  generators  and  motors  act  in  certain 
ways  under  given  conditions;  for  example,  as  the 
current  is  increased  in  the  field  coil  of  a  shunt  gen- 
erator, the  voltage  will  increase  in  value  until  the  iron 
in  the  polepieces  becomes  saturated.  Beyond  the  satu- 
ration point  the  voltage  remains  practically  constant 
irrespective  of  the  value  of  the  current  in  the  field  coils. 
By  plotting  the  volts  at  the  armature  terminals  against 
the  amperes  in  the  field  coils,  as  explained  in  the  lesson 
in  the  Apr.  9  issue,  the  result  will  be  a  curve  similar  to 
that  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

Similarly,  the  effect  of  the  load  on  the  voltage  of  a 
generator  may  be  shown  in  a  curve.     This  is  done  by 

150 


125 

\_ 

D 
■I- 

o 

ElOO 

< 

C 

a  75 
<a 


o  50 

in 

§25 


02  0-4  Ob  0.8  1  1.2 

Amperes   in    Field   Coiis 

FIO.    1.      DIRECT-CURRENT  GENERATOR   VOLTAGE   CURVK 


a 


connecting  a  voltmeter  across  the  armature  terminals 
and  an  ammeter  in  series  in  the  circuit,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  3;  and  after  adjusting  the  voltage  to  normal,  say 
110  volts,  put  a  load  on  the  machine  of,  assume,  30 
amperes,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  4.  This,  as  shown  in  the 
last  lesson,  will  cause  the  voltage  to  drop  at  the  arma- 
ture terminals:  First,  owing  to  the  resistance  of  the 
armature,  and  second,  the  current  in  the  field  coils  will 
also  be  slightly  reduced  because  of  the  decrease  in  volts 
at  the  armature  terminals.  Assume  that  the  volts  at 
the  armature  terminals  decrease  1.5,  this  will  leave 
Ea  =  108.5  volts  available  at  the  load  and  will  give 
point  a  on  curve  A,  Fig.  2,  which  is  obtained  by  taking 
the  30-ampere  division  at  the  base  of  the  curve  and  run- 
ning up  vertically  until  it  intersects  the  horizontal  line 
running  out  from  the  108.5-volt  division,  as  indicated 
by  the  dotted  lines. 

If  the  load  is  now  increased  to  60  amperes,  the  volts 


at  the  armature  terminals  will  further  decrease,  say  to 
107;  then  plotting  the  load  current  of  60  amperes 
against  the  voltage  at  the  armature  terminals,  107  volts, 
gives  point  b  on  the  curve.  Increasing  the  load  to  90 
amperes  will  cause  the  voltage  to  drop  accordingly,  or, 
as  shown  at  point  c  on  the  curve,  to  be  105.5.  Now,  if 
the  load  is  further  increased,  a  corresponding  decrease 
in  voltage  is  obtained.  However,  it  is  evident  that  this 
process  cannot  keep  on  indefinitely,  because  if  it  did, 
eventually  a  point  would  be  reached  where  an  infinitely 
large  current  would  be  obtained  on  an  infinitely  small 
voltage. 

What  actually  happens  in  a  shunt  generator  is- that 
the  voltage  decreases  as  the  current  is  increased  up  to 
a  certain  value  and  then  both  volts  and  current  decrease 
to  zero  or  approximately  so.  This  is  shown  on  the  curve; 
when  the  current  has  increased  to  241  amperes,  the  volts 
have  dropped  to  about  55.  At  this  point,  if  the  resist- 
ance of  the  circuit  is  further  decreased  to  increase  the 


120 
liO 
100 


o 

I  > 


eo    40 

FIG.  2.   LOAD-VOLTAGE  CURVE  OF  SHUNT  GENERATOR 


eo    60    lOO  >io    140   iM  leo  wo  ^eo  m  m 

Amperes 


current,  the  voltage  and  current  begin  to  decrease  and 
come  back  to  zero,  or  theoretically  so.  However,  on 
account  of  the  residual  magnetism  in  the  polepieces 
maintaining  a  small  voltage  at  the  armature  terminals, 
the  volts  and  current  will  only  approximate  zero. 

What  has  just  been  stated  regarding  the  shunt 
machine  indicates  that  if  it  was  short-circuited,  the  volt- 
age and  current  would  drop  to  zero  and  no  harm  would 
be  done.  This  is  true  of  the  self-excited  shunt  genera- 
tor, but  not  of  the  other  types,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
following : 

If  the  field  coils  of  the  shunt  machine  are  energized 
from  an  outside  source,  as  in  Fig.  5,  then  the  field  cur- 
rent will  be  maintained  constant  irrespective  of  the 
load.  Consequently,  the  voltage  generated  in  the  arma- 
ture will  remain  practically  constant,  and  the  volts  drop 
at  the  armature  terminals  will  be  due  to  the  armature 
resistance    only.      Therefore,    the    volts    at    the    arma- 


May  21,  1918 


POWER 


731 


ture  terminals  will  not  decrease  so  rapidly  as  when  the 
field  coils  aro  connected  in  parallel  with  the  armature. 
The  resultant  curve  for  a  separate-excited  shunt  gen- 
erator will  be  similar  to  the  curve  B,  Fig.  2. 

In  the  series-connected  generator,  Fig.  6,  the  machine 
cannot  produce  any  voltage  when  it  is  disconnected  from 
the  load  except  that  generated  due  to  the  residual  mag- 
netism in  the  polepieces.     Consequently,  at  no  load  the 


F16.6 


Fie.7 


PIGS.   3     TO     7.      DIAGRAMS     OF     SHUNT-CONNECTED 
SERIES-CONNECTED    GENERATORS 


AND 


voltage  of  a  series  machine  is  approximately  zero,  as 
against  the  shunt  machine  in  which  the  voltage  is  at  a 
maximum  value  at  no  load.  By  connecting  a  voltmeter 
and  an  ammeter  to  the  series  machine,  as  in  Fig.  7,  and 
taking  readings  for  different  loads,  a  curve  will  be 
obtained  as  in  Fig.  8.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  shape  of 
the  curve  from  zero  to  point  a  approximates  the  shape 
of  the  saturation  curve,  Fig.  1,  from  zero  to  point  a. 

The  series  generator  as  its  voltage  builds  up  with  the 
load  has  not  only  to  produce  pressure  to  cause  the  cur- 
rent to  flow  through  the  external  circuit,  but  also 
through  the  armature  and  field  windings.  The  volts 
drop  in  the  armature  and  field  windings  varies  as  the 
product  of  the  current  in  amperes  and  the  resistance 
of  the  windings  in  ohms.  However,  the  total  voltage 
generated  in  the  armature  winding  does  not  increase 
as  the  current  in  the  field  winding.  Referring  to  Fig.  1, 
it  will  be  seen  that  up  to  point  a  on  the  curve,  the 
increase  in  volts  is  quite  rapid  as  the  field  current 
is  increased,  but  beyond  this  point  the  increase  is  very 
slow,  being  practically  zero  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
curve.  It  is  this  latter  fact  that  makes  the  voltage  of 
the  series  generator  decrease  above  a  certain  load. 

In  Fig.  8  the  first  20-ampere  load  energizes  the  field 
coils  to  the  extent  that  50  volts  is  generated  at  the 
armature  terminal.  When  the  load  is  increased  to  40 
amperes,  the  volts  only  increase  to  about  73  and  at 
60  amperes  about  91  volts,  until  at  130  amperes,  the 
maximum,  or  114  volts,  is  developed  at  the  armature 
terminals.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  the  volts  at  the 
armature  terminals  increase  rapidly  at  first,  but  that 
the  increase  Ijecomes  less  for  a  given  number  of  amperes 
increase  until  an  increase  in  load  does  not  cause  the 
volts  to  become  greater  but  less,  as  in  this  case,  when 
the  load  is  made  higher  than  130  amperes. 

Now,  if  we  assume  the  resistance  of  the  armature 
and  field  windings  to  be  0.2  ohm,  then  with  a  20-ampere 
load  on  the  machine  the  volts  drop  will  equal  amp2res  X 
ohms,  or  20  X  0.2  ==  4  volts;    that  is,  the  armature  is 


actually  generating  54  volts  when  supplying  20  amperes 
to  the  external  circuit,  but  4  volts  is  used  up  to  cause 
the  current  to  flow  through  the  armature  and  field  wind- 
ings; therefore,  only  50  volts  is  available  at  the  arma- 
ture terminal.  At  a  60-ampere  load  the  volts  drop  in 
the  armature  is  60  X  0-2  =  12  volts.  Hence,  the 
armature  is  generating  a  total  voltage  at  this  load  of 
91  -f-  12  =  103  volts.  When  the  load  has  increased 
to  130  amperes,  the  volts  drop  in  the  armature  is  130  X 
0.2  =  26  volts,  and  there  is  generated  114  +  26  =  140 
volts.  However,  26  volts  is  used  up  in  the  machine's 
windings,  consequently  only  114  is  available  at  the 
armature  terminals.  Assume  that  the  load  is  increased 
from  130  to  180  amperes.  Then,  the  drop  in  the  arma- 
ture will  be  180  X  0.2  =  36  volts.  Further  assume  that 
this  increase  of  load  only  causes  the  total  voltage  to 
increase  to  143.5.  Then,  the  available  volts  at  the  arma- 
ture terminals  is  143.5  —  36  ^  107.5.  Hence,  it  is 
seen  that  the  increased  volts  generated  in  the  armature 
due  to  the  increased  load  is  not  enough  to  compensate 
for  the  increased  drop  in  the  windings,  and  the  available 
volts  decrease  with  an  increase  in  load.  Hence,  it  is 
evident  that  the  volts  at  the  armature  terminals  on  a 
series  generator  will  increase  in  value  with  an  increase 
in  load  until  the  iron  in  the  magnetic  circuit  is  near 
saturation  ;  beyond  this  point  the  volts  begin  to  decrease 
with  an  increase  of  load. 

The  curves.  Figs.  2  and  8,  are  sometimes  referred  to 
as  external  characteristic  curves  of  the  generator,  from 
the  fact  that  they  are  plotted  from  conditions  existing 
outside  the  machine.  If  the  voltage  values  existing  in 
the  armature  windings  were  used  in  the  curves,  we 
would  have  to  add  the  volts  drop  in  the  armature  ft 

leo 
no 
100 


g  90 


80 


70 


(60 


"*   50 
o 
ui   40 


>    30 


^o 


10 


^ 

g 

-^ 

y 

/ 

^ 

\, 

^ 

\ 

s_ 

/ 

S 

/ 

/ 

/ 

i 

/ 

/ 

f 

20     40      eo     60      100     120    140     160    180    200    220    £40    260 
Amperes 

FTG.    8.      I.,OAD-VOLTAGE    CiniVK    OF    SERIES    GENERATOR 

the  different  loads  to  the  voltage  at  the  bruches  corre- 
sponding to  these  loads,  which  would  have  given  a 
higher  pressure  than  that  indicated  on  the  curves  in  the 
figures.  A  load-voltage  curve  plotted  by  using  the  total 
voltage  generated  in  the  armature  instead  of  that  at 
the  brushes  is  called  an  internal-characteristic  curve. 

The  problem  given  in  the  last  lesson  was:  "In  trans- 
mitting 540  amperes  over  a  circuit  425  ft.  long  one  way, 
there  is  a  drop  of  16.5  volts  in  the  line.    How  large  are 


732 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


the  conductors  in  cross-section?  Pow  much  will  the 
conductors  have  to  be  increased  in  size  to  reduce  the 
line  drop  to  10  volts?" 

The  size  of  the  conductors  is  obtained  by  the  formula, 
21.1  Dl      21.4  X  425   V  540 


Cir.mils 


299,469 


E.i  16.4 

which  is  approximately  a  300, 000-cir.mil  conductor.  The 
size  of  a  conductor  that  would  cause  only  a  10-volt  drop 
under  the  foregoing  conditions  can  also  be  determined 
by  the  circular-mil  formula,  or  in  this  case. 


water-leg,  a  6-in.  space,  is  continued  completely  under 
the  wagon  top,  and  that  the  water  level  scarcely  reaches 
within  18  in.  of  the  top  of  the  boiler  as  would  be  indi- 
cated by  Fig.  2. 

We  are  all  forced  to  alter  our  preconceived  opinion.^ 
somewhat  at  times,  and  after  finding  this  type  of  boiler 
in  use  and  watching  it  under  operation,  I  have  gotten 
rid  of  a  pre-established  prejudice  and  dislike,  as  I  have 
known  them  to  be  operating  under  severe  conditions  for 
about  fifteen  vears. 


C/r.  m/7t>  = 


21.4  A  425   ■•  540 
10 


=  497,130 


or  approximately  500,000  cir.mils.  Then  the  size  of  the 
conductor  would  have  to  be  increased  500,000  —  300,000 
-—  200,000  cir.mils. 

A  voltnieter  has  12,000  ohms  resistance,  and  when 
connected  to  two  points  of  a  circuit  reads  36  volts.  Find 
the  current  taken  by  the  instrument.  If  3.6  amperes  is 
passing  through  the  section  of  the  circuit  that  the 
instrument  is  connected  across,  find  the  resistance  of 
the  section. 

If  the  resistance  of  a  voltmeter  is  15,000  ohms  and 
when  connected  across  a  given  circuit  0.01  ampere 
flows  through  it,  does  the  instrument  indicate  the  cor- 
rect voltage  of  the  circuit  if  the  needle  points  to  140 
on  the  scale? 


Dry  Crown-Sheet  Firebox  Boiler 

By  S.  p.  Black 

The  illustrations  show  a  type  of  boiler  that  most 
readers  would  say  was  unfeasible  if  they  were  asked 
their  opinion  as  to  utility  and  safety  without  previous 
knowledge  that  hundreds  of  these  boilers  have  been 
used  for  years  with  no  disastrous  results.  I  remember 
being  in  one  of  the  large  boiler  shops  of  the  Middle 
West  when  the  specifications  for  one  of  these  boilers 
came  in  and  figures  were  asked  regarding  its  construc- 
tion.    Our  opinion  at  that  time  was  that  whoever  knew 


FIG.   1.     EXTERIOR  OF  DRY   CROWN-SHEET   BOILER 

Most  of  US  can  remember  the  popular  fallacy  and  gen- 
eral belief  not  long  since  prevalent  of  red-hot  crown- 
sheet,  low  water,  turning  on  the  feed  and  an  explosion 
from  sudden  generation  of  steam.  We  used  to  believe 
that  cold  water  on  a  red-hot  crown-sheet  would  generate 
sufficient  steam  to  cause  an  explosion,  but  experiments 
have  proved  the  contrary  and  have  shown  that  it  was  a 
difficult  matter  to  bring  about  an  explosion  under  such 
conditions. 

In  the  boiler  shown  in  Fig.  1,  although  it  was  not 
designed  to  be  foolproof  and  even  though  the  crown- 
sheet  is  at  all  times  bare  of  water  and  entirely  dry, 
such  a  thing  as  burning  the  crown-sheet  has  never  oc- 


-f^Xt 


Section  A-A       Section  B 


FIG.   2.      SECTION    THROUGH    DRY'    CROWTJ-SHEET   BOILER 


no  better  than  to  design  such  a  boiler,  expecting  it  to 
work  in  safety,  needed  a  guardian  and  that  would  be 
putting  it  mildly. 

An  examination  of  Fig.  2  would  at  first  suggest  that 
the  design  is  a  contradiction  of  all  known  boiler  rules 
in  the  deliberate  use  of  a  dry  crown-sheet,  one  that  is 
not  covered  by  water;  for  it  may  be  observed  that  the 


curred  to  my  knowledge.  Furthermore,  this  type  of 
boiler  is  one  that  has  the  reputation  of  being  impossible 
to  bum,  low  water  not  affecting  it  until  the  water  gets 
below  the  arch  tube  and  exposes  the  upper  portion  there- 
of, at  which  time  the  tubes  will  blow  out.  This  boiler 
was  designed  for  175  lb.  pressure,  a  fairly  high  pres- 
sure for  this  type  of  boiler. 


May  21.  1918 


■p'OWER 


"rss 


Supporting  Effect  of  Boiler  Heads 


By  NEIL  M.  MACDONALD 


Should  the  strenqth  of  the  unsupported  head  he 
added  to  the  strength  of  the  stays  to  find  the  al- 
lowable pressure  in  a  boiler?  The  author  answers 
the  question  in  the  negative. 


THE  tendency  of  modern  engineering  practice  is 
toward  larger  boiler  units  and  high  pressures.  This 
tendency  makes  it  imperative  that  serious  consid- 
eration be  given  to  the  bracing  and  stay-bolting  of  the 
boiler  surfaces.  A  number  of  engineers  contend,  no 
doubt  without  giving  the  subject  proper  consideration, 
that  the  strength  of  the  braces  or  stay-bolts  should  be 
added  to  the  strength  of  the  sheet  which  they  presumably 
support,  and  that  the  sum  of  these  two  values  should  be 
taken  as  the  strength  of  that  portion  of  the  boiler.  At 
first  sight  this  theory  may  appear  logical,  but  careful 
consideration  clearly  illustrates  the  fallacy  of  the  con- 
tention. 

There  are  four  boiler  surfaces  which  will  be  considered 
one  by  one,  to  indicate  wherein  the  foregoing  method  of 
figuring  is  erroneous.  The  first  case  is  the  braced  por- 
tions of  the  heads  of  a  horizontal  return-tubular  boiler 
and  particularly  that  portion  above  the  tubes.  Assume, 
by  way  of  illustration,  a  72-in.  by  18-ft.  horizontal-tubu- 
lar boiler  having  a  distance  of  26  in.  between  the  top  of 
the  tubes  and  the  shell  plate.  The  area  to  be  braced  in 
this  case  is  the  area  of  a  segment  inclosed  by  lines  drawn 
3  in.  from  the  shell  and  2  in.  from  the  tubes,  or  an  area 
of  936  sq.in. 

First  find  the  strength  of  the  unbraced  flat  head. 
There  is  no  authentic  formula  for  figuring  accurately  the 
strength  of  an  unbraced  flat  head,  and  what  is  knovvTi  of 
the  subject  is  based  on  theory  combined  with  a  few  prac- 
tical experiments.  However,  as  absolutely  accurate  re- 
sults are  not  essential  for  the  purpose  of  this  discussion, 
the  strength  of  the  unstayed  head  will  be  calculated  in 
accordance  with  Nichols'  formula,  which  is  based  on  his 
experiments  and  is 

TX  SX  C 
^         AX  F 
in  which 

P  =  Safe  working  pressure,  in  pounds  per  square 
inch; 

T  =  Thickness  of  plate,  in  inches; 

S  =  Tensile  strength  of  plate,  in  pounds  per  square 
inch ; 

C  =  Constant  =  10 ; 

A  =  Area  to  be  stayed,  in  square  inches; 

F  =  Factor  of  safety  =  8. 

Assuming  that  the  boiler  head  is  j-in.  thick  and  that 
the  material  has  a  tensile  strength  of  55,000  lb.  per 
sq.in,,   and   substituting   these   values   in   the   formula. 


P  = 


\  X  55,000  X  10 


=  37  lb.  per  sq.in.  nearly 


936  X  8 

The  bursting  pressure  is,  then,  37  X  8  =  296  lb.  per 
sq.in. 

Now,  in  accordance  with  the  foregoing  erroneous 
theory,  if  the  boiler  was  to  be  designed  for  a  safe  work- 
ing pressure  of    125   lb.    per  sq.in.,    it   would   only   be 


necessary  to  add  bracing  good  for  125  —  37  =  88  lb.,  or 
the  difference  between  the  strength  of  the  unbraced  head 
and  tlie  strength  required.  Following  this  theory-,  if  the 
factor  of  safety  on  the  unbraced  head  was  8  and  on  the 
braces  6,  the  bursting  pressure  of  the  braced  head  would 
be  37  X  8  +  88  X  6  =  824  lb.  per  sq.in.  This  is  abso- 
lutely wrong,  and  the  attempt  will  be  made  to  prove, 
by  illustration,  that  the  real  bursting  pressure  of  the 
head  is  only  the  value  of  the  strongest  portion,  which  in 
this  case  is  the  braces,  and  is  88  X  6  =  528  lb.  per  sq.in. 
The  safe  working  pressure  is  the  bursting  pressure 
divided  by  the  factor  of  safety,  or  528  -^  6  =  88  lb.  per 
square  inch. 

To  illustrate  the  fallacy  of  the  theory,  assume  a  solid 
stone  wall  capable  of  withstanding  a  pull  of  1000  lb.,  and 
a  second  solid  stone  wall  directly  oposite  the  first  one, 
able  to  withstand  any  pull  up  to  296  lb.  It  is  assumed 
that  these  walls  are  so  constructed  that  if  a  pull  of  296 
lb.  is  applied  to  the  stronger  wall,  it  will  not  be  affected, 
but  if  the  same  pull  is  applied  to  the  weaker  wall,  it  will 
collapse. 

Now,  join  the  two  walls  by  a  rope,  fastened  so  that 
it  cannot  slip,  and  capable  of  standing  any  pull  up  to 
528  lb.  Apply  a  pressure  between  the  two  walls  tending 
to  push  them  apart  and  strain  the  rope.  Let  the  pressure 
start  at  one  pound  and  increase  gradually,  and  then 
analyze  the  behavior  of  the  two  walls  and  the  connect- 
ing rope.  The  pressure  rises  slowly  until  296  lb.  is 
reached,  which  is  greater  than  the  weaker  wall  can 
stand,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  rope  holding  it  up,  the 
wall  would  collapse;  but  there  is  no  perceptible  change 
in  conditions,  as  both  walls  still  stand  and  the  rope  is 
still  intact.  When  the  pressure  reaches  528  lb.,  which  is 
the  ultimate  strength  of  the  rope,  the  rope  breaks,  al- 
lowing the  full  load  of  528  lb.  to  come  on  the  weaker 
wall.  As  the  latter  can  stand  only  296  lb.,  both  the  rope 
and  the  wall  must  necessarily  let  go.  It  is  therefore 
obvious  that  the  addition  of  the  strength  of  the  weaker 
wall  did  not  add  to  the  strength  of  the  rope,  and  the 
strength  of  the  wall  and  rope  combined  was  only  that  of 
the  stronger  member,  or  the  strength  of  the  rope. 

Now  substitute  the  assumed  boiler  for  the  walls  and 
the  rope.  The  stronger  wall  is  equivalent  to  the  shell  of 
the  boiler  to  which  the  pad  ends  of  the  diagonal  braces 
are  attached,  the  weaker  wall  is  equivalent  to  the  head 
of  the  boiler  to  be  braced,  and  the  rope  is  equivalent  to 
the  braces. 

The  boiler  head  is  supposedly  designed  to  burst  at 
824  lb.  The  unbraced  head  will  burst  at  296  lb.,  and  the 
bracing  has  an  ultimate  value  of  528  lb.,  and  by  adding 
the  strength  of  the  unbraced  head  to  the  strength  of 
the  braces,  the  result  is  a  bursting  pressure  on  the 
braced  head  of  supposedly  824  lb.  Following  the  same 
line  of  reasoning  as  was  used  with  the  stone  walls  and 
the  rope,  as  soon  as  a  pressure  equal  to  the  value  of  the 
braces  is  applied,  the  head  will  give  way.  That  is  to 
say,  when  a  pressure  of  296  lb.  has  been  reached,  the 
value  of  the  unbraced  head  is  gone,  and  when  a  pressure 
of  528  lb.  has  been  reached,  the  braces  give  way,  carry- 
ing the  head  with  them.  It  therefore  follows  that  the  as- 
sumed boiler  is  designed  to  burst  at  528  lb.  and  not  824 


734 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


lb.  a.s  it  was  supposed  to  be.  This  is  based  on  the  strength 
of  the  braces,  and  dividing  the  bursting  pressure  of  528 
lb.  by  the  factor  of  safety  of  6,  it  is  found  that  the 
boiler  is  designed  for  a  safe  working  pressure  on  the 
heads  of  88  lb.  and  not  125  lb.  To  make  the  heads  safe 
for  125  lb.  working  pressure,  they  would  have  to  be 
braced  for  125  lb.  and  the  value  of  the  unbraced  head 
ignored. 

The  same  argument  applies  to  the  stay-bolted  furnace 
sheet  of  a  vertical-tubular  boiler,  with  a  slight  differ- 
ence when  the  furnace  sheet  proper  is  stronger  than  the 
stay-bolts.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  not  permissible  to 
figure  the  safe  strength  of  the  furnace  and  then  add  that 
of  the  stay-bolts  and  consider  the  sum  as  the  desired 
working  pressure.  Assume,  for  instance,  that  the  actual 
collapsing  pressure  of  a  cylindrical  furnace  is  625  lb. 
and  that  an  actual  collapsing  pressure  of  1075  lb.  is  de- 
sired and  that  stay-bolts  to  the  value  of  1075  —  625  = 
450  lb.  are  installed  to  bring  the  actual  collapsing 
.strength  of  the  furnace  up  to  the  desired  pressure.  Com- 
paring this  with  the  .stone-wall  illustration,  the  furnact 
is  equivalent  to  the  weaker  wall  and  the  stay-bolts  are 
equivalent  to  the  rope.  When  a  pressure  of  450  lb.  is 
applied,  there  will  be  no  perceptible  change  in  conditions, 
as  the  walls  can  withstand  that  pressure ;  but  when  the 


load  reaches  625  lb.,  the  weaker  wall  starts  to  collapse, 
transferring  the  load  to  the  rope,  which  is  good  for  only 
450  lb. ;  therefore,  the  wall  and  the  rope  give  way.  So  it 
is  obvious  that  the  strength  of  the  stay-bolts  cannot  be 
added  to  the  strength  of  the  furnace  sheet  and  the  sum 
considered  as  the  strength  of  the  stay-bolted  furnace. 
If  the  example  just  given  is  reduced  to  safe  working 
pressures  by  dividing  each  item  by  a  factor  of  safety  of, 
say,  6,  the  unstayed  furnace  will  have  a  safe  collapsing 
pressure  of  104  lb.  and  the  stay-bolts  alone  will  be  safe 
for  75  lb.,  making  the  stay-bolted  furnace  good  for  only 
104  lb.  If  a  safe  working  pressure  of  200  lb.  is  desired, 
the  furnace  must  either  be  strong  enough  in  itself  foi 
200  lb.  or  else  the  stay-bolts  must  be  good  for  200  lb.  It 
is  incorrect  to  add  them  together  and  call  the  combined 
value  the  safe  working  pressure. 

The  same  argument  applies  to  the  stay-bolting  of  a 
cone  top  in  a  submerged  vertical-tubular  boiler  and  to 
the  flat  firebox  sides  of  a  locomotive-type  boiler. 

Summing  up  the  entire  subject,  a  braced  or  stay- 
bolted  portion  of  a  boiler  is  no  stronger  than  its  strong- 
est part,  and  on  no  account  should  the  strength  of  the 
braces  or  stay-bolts  be  added  to  the  strength  of  the  plate 
and  their  sum  considered  the  strength  of  that  portion  of 
the  boiler. 


Some  Notes  on  Turbine  Bearings  and 

Their  Lubrication 


Compiled  by  CHARLES  H.  BROMLEY 


The  data  given  in  this  article  are  from  the 
author's  loose-leaf  notebook  and  have  been 
gathered  from  mani/  sources  during  recent  years. 
Some  engineers  may  desire  them  for  their  note- 
books. 


IT  IS  the  consensus  of  opinion  that  the  coefiicient  of 
friction  slightly  decreases  with  increasing  speed.  In 
high-speed  bearings  the  coefiicient  is  independent  of 
the  load. 

Bearing  Pressure — With  slow-running  bearings  the 
pressure  per  square  inch  usually  is  not  more  than  70  to 
80  lb.,  with  white  metal  and  forced  lubrication.  Bauer, 
Lascher  &  Swallow  give  57  to  114  lb.  per  sq.in.  for 
forced  lubrication. 

Temperature  of  the  Oil — About  165  deg.  F.  should  be 
considered  the  limit  for  turbine  bearings,  although  con- 
stant temperature  of  195  deg.  F.  may  not  give  trouble, 
but  the  safety  margin  is  cut  down.  When  the  oil  reaches 
a  temperature  above  160  deg.,  it  is  likely  that  it  will 
carbonize,  therefore,  120  to  140  deg.  is  good  practice; 
250  deg.  F.  is  tVie  limit  at  which  most  oils  have  enough 
viscosity  to  be  of  any  value  in  turbine  lubrication. 

Influence  of  Viscosity. — Pressure  in  bearings  experi- 
mented on  by  Tower  was  625  lb.  due  to  oil  being  dragged 
in  by  the  journal;  that  is,  dragged  in  between  the  jour- 
nal and  the  bearing.  This  teaches,  of  course,  that  the 
oil  should  be  fed  into  the  bearing  at  a  point  where  the 
pressure  is  lowest. 

Value  of  Viscosity — It  is  well  to  cite  that  in  stern 


tubes  of  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  where  water  is  the 
lubricant  used,  mean  bearing  pressure  is  limited  to  20  to 
25  lb.  per  sq.in.  of  projected  area.  Railway  axles  using 
grease  go  as  high  as  600  lb.  per  sq.in.  of  projected  area. 

Viscosity  must  be  such  that  the  oil  film  is  carried 
completely  around  the  journal  without  breaking  down 
and  without  squeezing  out  of  the  bearing. 

Stability  of  Oil  Film — A  remarkable  demonstration 
of  the  stability  of  an  oil  film  is  shown  by  tests  of  the 
Westinghouse  Co.  (Pittsburgh)  on  segmental  thrust 
blocks  of  a  Kingsbury  bearing,  where  with  a  mean  sur- 
face speed  of  54  ft.  per  sec.  pressure  could  be  (and 
was)  increased  to  10,000  lb.  per  sq.in.  before  failure 
occurred;  but  it  was  the  white-metal  facing  of  the 
bearings  that  flowed  and  not  the  oil  film  that  broke 
down,  as  no  serious  heating  of  the  oil  took  place. 

Relative  Position  of  Lubricated  Surfaces — In  high- 
speed lubrication  the  journal  is  never  concentric  with  its 
bearings.  This  is  the  ideal  condition,  as  the  experi- 
ments of  Osborne  Reynolds  and  others  have  shown  that 
opposing  surfaces  must  never  be  parallel  to  each  other 
for  successful  lubrication. 

Specific  Heat  of  Oil — In  practice,  the  specific  heat  is 
usually  taken  as  0.31  and  the  specific  gravity  as  0.88. 
Battle's  "Lubricating  Engineers'  Handbook,"  page  138, 
gives  the  specific  heat  of  petroleum  lubricating  oil  at 
60  deg.  as  0.4175. 

The  Coefficient  of  Friction — The  coefficient  of  fric- 
tion, or  ratio  of  the  resistance  of  the  oil  film  to  the  load 
may  vary,  according  to  Stoney,  from  0.0008  to  0.003, 
but  "he  suggests  0.002  as  suitable  for  usual  cases  where 
the  unit  pressure  is  about  500  lb.  per  sq.in. 


May  21.  1918 


POWER 


735 


Oil  Consumption  and  Costa — Returns  from  a  large 

number  of  users  of  Westinjrhouse  turbines  show  that 
only  about  one-quarter  gallon  of  oil  is  required  for  the 
bearings  pen  kilowatt  per  year — "Steam  Turbines,"  by  L. 
G.  French,  p.  7.  H.  G.  Scott  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  January, 
gave  the  lubrication  charges  per  kilowatt-hour  of  recip- 
rocating engines  as  1.77c.  and  of  the  turbines  as  0.35c. 
This  was  back  in  1896,  when  turbines  were  of  small  ca- 
pacity, comparatively. 

Cooling  Bearings  with  Water — At  the  plant  of  the 
Buffalo  General  Electric  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  water  is 
supplied  from  the  boiler-water  makeup  evaporators, 
which  are  60  ft.  above  the  turbine  floor  and  receive 
their  supply  from  the  hotwell  pumps.  From  here  the 
pipes  are  led  to  the  turbine  bearing,  giving  a  head  of 
60  ft. ;  therefore,  no  extra  pumps  are  used  to  handle  the 
water  which  cools  the  turbine  bearing. 

Surface  Speed — Land.  30  to  60  ft.  per  sec;  marine, 
15  to  30  ft.  per  sec. 

Ratio  of  Length  to  Diameter — Land,  2  to  3:1;  marine 
1:1  to  2:1. 

Parsons  Elastic  Sleeve  Bearings — For  turbines  with 
speeds  of  3000  to  4000  r.p.m.  Par.sons  uses  an  elastic 
sleeve  bearing,  consisting  of  concentric  sleeves  slipped 
endwise  over  the  shaft.  Instead  of  the  top  and  bottom 
brasses,  the  concentric  sleeves  are  used.  The  clearance 
between  one  sleeve  and  another  varies  from  0.002  to 
0.006  in.  The  inner  sleeve  is  really  the  bearing  brass 
and  is  flanged  at  one  end  and  has  a  ring  nut  at  the 
other.  The  inner  sleeve  is  thus  fixed  loosely  in  the 
bearing  block;  the  other  sleeves,  usually  two,  are  slipped 
on  over  the  inner  one,  which  has  oil  grooves  and  radial 
holes  to  let  oil  get  to  the  other  sleeve,  which  also  has 
small  holes  in  it  to  let  the  oil  through.  The  bearing 
forms  a  hydraulic  cushion  which  admirably  stands 
vibration.  This  type  of  bearing  should  eliminate  bear- 
ing trouble  where  chronic  vibration  of  the  machine 
causes  a  hot  bearing,  as  may  happen  when  severe  vibra- 
tion is  caused  by  an  unbalanced  rotor.  A  similar  bear- 
ing is  used  on  Westinghouse  turbines  of  speeds  around 
3600  r.p.m. 

High-Speed  Zoelly  Machine — The  high-speed  Zoelly 
machines  use  a  spherical  bearing  in  which  a  sleeve  fits 
over  the  journal,  the  sleeve  being  held  in  by  segments 
resting  upon  spherical-headed  screws. 

Oil  Consumption  and  Bearing  Pressures — For  high- 
speed bearings  B.  C.  K.  Balfrey,  in  a  paper  on  "High 
Speed  Bearings,"  Proceedings  of  the  Rugby  Engineer- 
ing Society,  Vol.  10,  1912-13,  gives  the  practice  of  three 
English  makers  as: 


Gal.  per  Sq.In.  per  Min. 

Pressure  Lb.  per  Sq.ln. 

0.05 
0.05 
0.01 

45  to  60 
5  to  10 

Heat  Loss  at  Turbine  Bearings — The  loss  of  heat  in 
the  bearings  of  well-lubricated  turbines  of  large  out- 
put is  less  than  1  per  cent.,  reckoned  on  the  total  avail- 
able heat. 

Thrust-Bearing  Clearances — Thrust  bearings  of  the 
ring  and  collar  types  usually  have  clearance  between 
rings  and  collars  of  from  0.002  to  0.003  inch. 

Influence  of  Temperature  on  Chemical  Reactions — 
Broadly,  the  higher  the  temperature  the  more  rapid  the 
chemical  reaction  between  the  constituents  of  the  oil. 


At  120  deg.  F.,  common  in  turbine  work,  chemical  reac- 
tions go  on,  though  slowly  when  pure  mineral  oil  is  used. 
The  most  common  trouble  is  that  caused  by  paraffin  sep- 
arating out  of  the  oil  in  the  form  of  a  pasty,  jelly-like 
substance  adhering  to  the  cooling  coils  of  the  oil  cooler, 
greatly  decreasing  the  rate  of  heat  transmission  through 
the  coils.  This  trouble  is  mo.st  noticeable  with  oils  of 
high  viscosity,  says  the  Westinghouse  Co.  An  oleline- 
base  oil  avoids  this  trouble ;  but  the  cost  is  high.  Rus- 
sian oils  are  of  olefine  base. 

Heat  Transmission  in  Oil  Coolers — The  following 
data  are  from  tests  by  M.  Boella,  of  the  Italian  Corps 
of  Naval  Architects,  and  were  given  by  him  in  an  article 
in  Rivista  Marittima. 

Explanation  of  types  of  oil  coolers : 

A:  Cylindrical  shell  with  two  rows  of  U-tubes;  water 
passing  in  series  through  tubes;  oil  surrounding  tubes 
entering  at  bottom  of  shell,  discharging  at  top;  single 
pass,  no  bafHes;  gravity  oil  circulation. 

B:  Horizontal  shell;  straight  tubes;  water  in  single 
pass  through  tubes;  oil  surrounding  tubes;  three  passes; 
counter-current. 

C:  Horizontal  cylindrical  shell;  oil  through  helical 
coils,  one  coil  inside  the  other  (not  one  pipe  inside  an- 
other), oil  inlet  to  inside  coil  returning  through  out- 
side coil ;  water  in  one  pass  through  shell. 

D :  Condenser  type ;  straight  horizontal  tubes ;  oil,  two 
passes;  water,  two  passes;  oil  and  water  flow  in  same 
direction,  that  is,  bottom  to  top. 

E:  Cylindrical  vertical  shell;  short  flattened  tubes; 
oil  through  tubes  in  one  pass,  inlet  at  top,  outlet  at 
bottom;  water,  single  pass,  inlet  bottom,  outlet  top. 

off  -  «  f-i  **  .""^r-iW-Bt, 

sTr^                 Q)  2  3d  '^r'?'  S'^  1  sato^j-  s-j;  d  *^ 

h"               ^  S  X"  C&"  O"^  ^  %^      ^HMOhCC 

A               772  31   5  39  4  17  7  28  00  27  6  0  53           33  to    5? 

B             1.234  13  8  110  3  9  5  484  00  2  56  0  02 

r'                 992  15   7  118.1  13   4  215   00  4   61  0  05^          66  to     73 

I'              1.543  23  6  65.9  17  0  204   52  7   54  0   084          25  to     35 

!■:                255  12  5  15  7  2  3  62  00  4  26  0  038        136to  180 

Note  that  the  cooler  E  gives  hich  )ii-!it  transfer  i-oefBeient  n-ith  small  weight 

and  volume. 

In  a  paper,  "Performance  of  Lubricating  Oil  Coolers," 
by  M.  C.  Stuart,  in  the  May  17  Journal  of  the  American 
Society  of  Naval  Engineers,  some  interesting  results  of 
tests  were  reported  on  three  types  of  oil  coolers,  here 
designated  A,  B  and  C. 

A:  Plain  tube;  oil  in  shell  in  multipass  arrangement; 
water  through  tubes  in  single  pass. 

B:  Plain  tubes,  fitted  with  retarders;  oil  through  the 
tubes  in  multipass  arrangement;  water  in  shell  in 
multipass  arrangement. 

C:  Special  corrugated  concentric  tubes;  oil  between 
tubes  in  single  pass;  water  in  shell  in  single  pass. 

The  coolers  used  were  of  practically  the  same  weight 
and  volume. 

A  summary  of  the  tests  follows: 

Coaler  A  B  C 

Heat  transfer  eoeflieient  (based  on  unit  surfaee) 

at  equal  eapaeities,  H.t.u.  per  hr.  per  sq.ft.  per 

deg.  mean  lernperature  ditlerenee 82  00         39  00  125  00 

llelalive  heat  transferred  (based  on  unit  volume) 

at  equal  eapaeities,  B.t.u     1.000  00       4  50  00         450  00 

Canueiliea.  based  on  equal  temperature  drops, 

lb.  oil  per  niin      195   00  85   00  27.00 

Oil-frirlion  drop,  based  on  equal  capacities,  lb. 

per  sq  in.  (pressure) 7  80  2  00  2.'  5 

Weight  per  square  toot  of  surfaee,  lb        10   87  7   95  loQO 

Volume  per  square  foot  of  surfaee,  cu.ft....  049  05}  015 


Tse 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  ai 


These  tests  showed  that  the  relative  friction  drops 
are  in  the  same  order  as  the  relative  heat-transfer  fac- 
tors and  furthermore  that  the  weights  per  square  foot 
of  cooling  surface  are  in  the  order  of  the  heat-transfer 
factors. 

The  summary  strikingly  shows  that  when  consider- 
ing the  relative  merits  of  oil  coolers,  all  features  of 
design  should  be  taken  into  account. 

Separating  Water  from  Oil — The  oil  from  the  bear- 
ings may  be  heated  for  a  considerable  time  to  a  tem- 
perature of  200  deg.  F.  without  impairing  the  quality  of 
the  oil,  when  separating  water  from  oil. 

Testing  Oil  for  Water — The  following  method  is  in 
use  by  some  engineers  of  the  United  States  Navy.  Draw 
a  small  quantity  of  oil  to  be  tested  into  an  ordinary  test 
tube;  mix  with  the  oil  an  equal  quantity  of  gasoline  and 
shake  the  contents  of  the  test  tube.  The  water  will 
settle  to  the  bottom.  With  a  graduated  tube  the  per- 
centage of  water  may  be  determined,  the  quantity  of 
oil  and  gasoline  being  known. 

The  Michell  Thrust  Bearing — The  bearing  surface  is 
made  up  of  adjustable  segments,  each  pivoted  to  auto- 
matically produce  a  pressure  oil  film  between  the  collar 
and  bearing  surface.  The  body  of  the  bearing  forms  the 
oil  well,  and  in  large-sized  bearings  is  water  cooled. 
The  coefficient  of  friction  is  about  0.0015  as  against  0.03 ; 
the  factor  of  safety  at  300  lb.  pressure  per  square  inch, 
projected  area  is  greater  than  multi-collar  bearings  give 
at  50  lb.  per  square  inch.  The  friction  is  about  one 
twenty-fifth  that  in  multi-collar  bearings. 

The  Michell  Journal  Bearing — This  bearing  for  large 
sizes  has  12  segments  forming  the  bearing  surface.  Each 
segment  is  faced  with  white  metal  and  rests  in  a  spher- 
ical seat.  The  body  of  the  bearing  forms  an  oil  well, 
the  oil  passing  to  the  journal  through  holes,  admitting 
oil  between  each  segment  at  their  seats.  The  following 
table  gives  the  results  of  tests  of  experimental  Michell 
journal  bearing  conducted  by  Cammell,  Laird  &  Co., 
Birkenhead,  England: 


Square  D  Motor-Starting  Switches 

The  illustration  shows  a  steel- inclosed  starting 
switch  made  for  three-phase  motors  of  5  hp.  capacity 
or  less.  It  was  designed  by  the  Square  D  Co.,  of  De- 
troit, to  afford  protection  against  accidental  contact 
with  live  parts,  to  protect  the  operator  from  being 
burned  by  the  flash  while  operating  the  switch  and  to 
prevent  tampering  with  circuits. 

The  switch   is  of  the  double-throw  knife-blade  type 


MOTOR-STARTING   SWITCH   WITH    COVER  OPEN 

with  the  running  side  arranged  for  fuses.  It  is  com- 
pletely inclosed  in  a  metal  box  provided  with  a  hinged 
cover. 

The  switch  is  operated  by  a  handle  on  the  out- 
side of  the  box,  name-plates  on  the  cover  designating 
the  position  of  the  switch.  Means  are  provided  to  lock 
the  cover  shut  to  prevent  unauthorized  persons  from 
cverfusing  the  switch  or  in  any  way  tampering  with  the 
connections.  A  safety  lock  for  the  handle  is  also  pro- 
vided to  prevent  the  careless  closing  of  the  switch  when 


TEST  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  MICHELL  JOURNAL  BEARING 


Dura- 

Bearing 

Surface 

tion 

Pres- 

Speed. 

of 

Total 

sure, 

Revs. 

Ft. 

Horse- 

Test, 

Load, 

Lb.  per 

per 

per 

Am- 

power 

Min. 

Lb. 

Sq.In. 

Mm. 

Min. 

peres 

Volts 

Input 

45 

585 

1,84C 

•(. 

5 

406 

9  2 

105 

2,400 

145 

620 

1,951 

14 

5 

403 

7  9 

105 

3,600 

220 

615 

1,930 

16 

0 

395 

8  6 

60 

4,800 

290 

605 

1,900 

16 

6 

382 

8  6 

40 

6,000 

370 

615 

1,930 

16 

9 

395 

9   1 

75 

7,300 

440 

607 

1,907 

18 

9 

391 

10  0 

45 

8,500 

520 

605 

1,900 

19 

0 

395 

10  2 

60 

9,800 

600 

618 

1,940 

20 

4 

395 

10  9 

90 

11,700 

700 

611 

1,920 

21 

0 

391 

111 

30 

14,800 

900 

620 

1,950 

26 

5 

400 

14  4 

30 

1,315 

4,130 

23 

0 

390 

12  2 

60 

2,400 

145 

1,320 

4,140 

27 

8 

392 

14  8 

45 

5,500 

330 

1,320 

4,140 

29 

8 

390 

15  8 

60 

8,500 

520 

1,303 

4,100 

40 

0 

398 

21   6 

60 

11,700 

700 

1,324 

4,140 

50 

0 

382 

26  0 

105 

11,700 

700 

1,317 

4,140 

42 

0 

390 

21    2 

30 

14,800 

900 

1,320 

4,140 

45 

5 

400 

24  7 

Oil  Supply 

Friction 

Final 

Final 

Rise 

Flow 

Horse- 

Inlet 

Outlet 

of 

of 

power 

Co- 

Temp., 

Temp.. 

Temp., 

Oil. 

from 

efficient 

Actual 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

I.b. 

Heat 

of 

Friction 

F 

F 

F. 

Min. 

to  Oil 

Friction 

Lb. 

68 

84 

16 

12  6 

1   9 

79 

99 

20 

14  8 

2  8 

0  0099 

47  5 

84 

101 

17 

14  3 

2  3 

0  0054 

39  2 

83 

100 

17 

15  6 

2  5 

0  0045 

43  7 

84 

102 

18 

17  6 

3  0 

0  0043 

51   6 

84 

102 

18 

18  7 

3  2 

0  0038 

55.4 

83 

99 

16 

19  0 

2  9 

0  0029 

50  1 

71 

93 

22 

19  0 

4  0 

0  0034 

67  6 

76 

100 

24 

19  7 

4  5 

0  0033 

77  2 

77 

102 

25 

22  7 

5.4 

0  0031 

91  7 

76 

95 

19 

23  0 

4  1 

74 

96 

22 

26  4 

5.5 

0  009i 

43:  7 

77 

104 

27 

25.2 

6.4 

0  0046 

51.1 

82 

117 

35 

33  0 

10  9 

0  0051 

87  5 

76 

111 

35 

37  3 

12  2 

0  0042 

98  3 

73 

112 

39 

31   2 

115 

0  0039 

91    2 

76 

117 

41 

33  0 

12  7 

0  0034 

100.4 

Westinghouse  Thrust  Bearings — The  segmental 
thrust  bearings  have  red-metal  packing  rings;  the  ef- 
fective bearing  surface  is,  roughly,  55  per  cent,  on  the 
thrust  or  outer  side  and  45  per  cent,  on  the  inner  side. 
The  45,000-kw.  two-cylinder  compound  turbine  at  Prov- 
idence, R.  I.,  has  effective  bearing  surface  of  69  sq.  in., 
thrust  side,  54.5  sq.in.,  back.  The  maximum  bearing 
speed  at  1800  r.p.m.  is  100  ft.  per  second. 

Data  on  this  subject  are  meager  and  widely  scat- 
tered, and  a  really  satisfactory  compilation  is  yet  to  be 
presented. 


anyone  is  working  on  the  line  or  the  equipment  con- 
trolled by  the  switch.  Inside  the  cabinet  a  steel  latch 
prevents  throwing  the  switch  from  the  off  to  the  run- 
ning position  without  its  first  being  thrown  into  the 
starting  position.  The  latch  also  makes  necessary  a 
quick  change  from  starting  to  running  position.  The 
switch  can  be  furnished  with  either  straight-induction 
or  star-delta  connections.  With  the  latter  a  separate 
main-line  switch  must  be  installed  ahead  of  the  starting 
switch  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  Na- 
tional Electrical  Code. 


May  21.  1918 


POWER 


787 


Why    Bill    Reads   "Power" 

By  HiMSEXF 

The  whistle  had  sounded,  the  day's  work  was  done, 
And  engine  and  boilei-  had  ended  their  run, 
And  fireman  Bill,  with  the  place  spick  and  span, 
Was  waitinf?  to  hear  from  the  blooming  night  man. 
While  watching  and  waiting,  to  kill  a  half-hour, 
From  out  of  the  refuse  he  dug  an  old  Power. 

Then,  seating  himself  in  his  rickety  chair, 

He  studied  the  pages  with  painstaking  care. 

One  article  told  how  to  pack  a  feed  pump. 

"That's  rotten!"  said  Bill.    "Gee!     That  fellow's  a  chump!" 

But  his  brow  quickly  cleared,  and  he  quit  looking  sour. 

As  he  muttered,  "By  gum!     I'll  write  something  for  Power." 

Bill  wrote  out  his  letter — some  job  for  a  toiler — 

As  hard  on  religion  as  firing  a  boiler. 

He  told  just  how  tight  they  should  set  up  the  glands, 

And  how  to  pack  steam  ends  and  not  burn  their  hands. 

"What's  doing?"  inquired  his  wife,  with  a  glower. 

"Oh,  nothing,"  said   Bill.     "I'm  just  writing  to  Power." 

Now,  after  the  letter  was  well  on  its  way. 

Poor  Bill  recalled  things  he'd  forgotten  to  say. 

And  after  he'd  waited  in  vain  for  reply, 

Bill  almost  forgot  it,  as  time  scurried  by. 

But  one  night  his  wife,  with  her  hands  deep  in  flour, 

Said,  "Bill,  there's  a  letter.     I  think  it's  from  Power." 

Bill  tore  off  the  end,  and  his  hardened  hands  shook. 
For  what  it  contained  made  his  wife  stop  and  look — 
Just  a  long  yellow  slip,  very  classy  and  nifty, 
Telling  someone  to  hand  Bill  the  sum  of  two-fifty. 
"Eureka!"  yelled  Bill.     "That's  as  good  as  a  dower, 
For  it  gives  me  the  chance  for  subscribing  for  Power." 

Said  Bill,  "I'll  invest  it  in  reading,  by  heck!" 
So  back  to  New  York  went  the  long  yellow  check, 
And  when,  at  the  end  of  a  twelve-month  or  more. 
Bill's  wages  were  raised,  Mrs.  Bill  wasn't  sore. 
"Good  fortune,"  she  said,  "came  to  us  in  a  shower 
Not  long  after  Bill  started  in  to  read  Power." 

Bill  climbed  some,  for  now  he's  the  boss  of  the  shift 

And  always  on  hand  when  the  boys  need  a  lift; 

He  knows  when  the  engine  is  wasting  her  steam. 

Can  scrape  in  a  bearing  or  calk  a  bad  seam. 

He's  the  friend  of  the  men,  and  the  Super's  right  bower. 

But  he  isn't  self-made — he's  a  man  made  by  Power. 


Pressure  Governor  for  Gas  and 
Liquid  Systems 

The  General  Electric  Co.  has  developed  a  new  pressure 
governor  to  control  standard  self-starters  for  motor- 
operated  pumps  and  compressors  for  maintaining  air, 
gases  or  liquids  under  pressure.  The  governor  main- 
tains a  pressure  between  predetermined  limits  on  any 
gas  or  liquid  system  that  will  not  corrode  the  Bourdon 
tube.  This  governor  can  be  used  on  any  standard 
alternating-  or  direct-current  circuit.  It  is  rated  for 
pressures  of  80,  100,  160,  300,  or  500  lb.  and  operates 
within  settings  of  from  3  to  12  lb.  between  high  and 
low  pressures.  Governors  for  higher  pressures  can  be 
supplied  if  desired. 

The  governor  consists  of  a  Bourdon  tube,  an  indi- 
cating needle,  a  graduated  pressure  scale,  adjustable 
high-  and  low-pressure  stops  to  determine  the  desired 
pressure  range  and  a  relay  which  actuates  the  contacts 
in  the  control  circuit  of  the  self-starter,  all  inclosed 
within  a  dustproof  case,  easily  opened  for  inspection. 


Action  of  the  governor  is  dependent  on  the  Bourdon 
tube,  which  should  be  connected  to  an  independent  dis- 
charge pipe  from  the  pressure  tank.  The  free  end  of 
the  tube  T  in  the  figure  is  mechanically  connected  to 
the  indicator  needle  N,  moving  it  over  the  scale  as 
changes  of  pressure  affect  the  tube.  After  the  settings 
for  the  pressure  range  have  been  made,  the  governor 
will  automatically  maintain  pressure  within  tho.se  Kmits. 
The  operation  of  the  pressure  governor  is  as  follows: 

Assuming  that  the  pressure  is  at  the  low  value,  as 
indicated  by  the  left-hand  indicator  /,  then  contact  C 
on  needle  A^  completes  the  circuits  through  contact  C 
on  movable  arm  M,  which  at  the  low-pressure  point  rests 
against  stop  P'.  When  this  contact  is  made,  the  cir- 
cuit is  completed  through  the  relay  coil  R,  causing  its 
armature  to  close.     Attached  to  this  armature  is  contact 


PllKH.SljRE    GOVKRXOR    WITH    COVER    REMOVED 

D,  which  upon  closing,  completes  the  control  circuit 
to  the  self-starter,  causing  the  motor  to  start.  The 
armature  is  also  attached  to  a  spring  which  holds  contact 
C  firmly  against  C  until  the  contact  is  broken  at  P. 

As  the  pressure  increases,  the  needle  pointer  moves  to 
the  right,  but  its  lower  part,  to  which  contact  C  is 
attached,  moves  to  the  left  and  is  followed  by  the  mov- 
able arm  M.  When  the  high-pressure  point  is  reached, 
the  movable  arm  is  prevented  from  traveling  farther 
by  stop  P  and  the  needle  continues  its  course,  breaking 
the  circuit  by  separating  contacts  C  and  C.  The  in- 
stant the  circuit  is  broken,  relay  R  is  deenergized  and  its 
armature  falls,,  releasing  the  tension  of  the  latter's 
spring,  and  because  the  movable  arm  M  is  counter- 
weighted,  it  returns  to  stop  post  P'. 

When  the  pressure  has  decreased  to  the  minimum  value 
contact  C  again  completes  the  relay-coil  circuit  by  en- 
gaging contact  C  and  the  cycle  of  operation  is  repeated. 
The  case  is  tapped  and  drilled  at  the  bottom  for  the 
pressure-pipe  and  electrical-conduit  connections. 


Every  dollar  put  into  the  Red  Cross  make  not  only 
for  victory,  but  for  everlasting  peace  between  the  great 
nations  now  fighting  together  in  this  war. 


738 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


As  It  Is  in  Holland 

By  Y.  Brouwers* 

When  the  postman  brings  the  paper  on  Saturday 
evening,  the  mistress  eagerly  scans  it  to  see  what  is 
to  be  had  from  the  grocer,  the  butcher,  the  milkman, 
etc.,  for  we  are  rationed  in  every  way.  One  of  the 
most  urgent  questions  at  present  is,  "What  shall  we 
eat  and  drink  and  what  shall  we  burn?"  Our  national 
mines  do  not  supply  what  coal  the  country  needs,  so 
we  depend  upon  importation  from  Germany  and  Eng- 
land. However,  the  Gennans  themselves  are  in  want 
of  coal  because  they  cannot  spare  men  enough  for  the 
mines,  and  this  is  also  the  case  in  England  I  suppose. 
Notwithstanding  that,  our  Eastern  neighbors  are  will- 
ing to  furnish  us  with  a  limited  quantity  if  we  pay 
handsomely  and  provide  the  necessary  facilities.  So 
the  last  contract  contains  the  conditions  that  we  have 
to  pay  for  each  wagon  load  of  about  20,000  lb.  450 
guilders' ($180)  and  have,  moreover,  to  furnish  for 
every  wagon  load  a  credit  to  Germany  of  a  like  amount. 
Before  the  war  the  price  for  the  same  quantity  was 
about  $40.  The  import  from  England  is  hampered  by 
the  want  of  ship  capacity,  and  communication  is  danger- 
ous on  account  of  mines  and  submarines.  Hence  the 
greatest  economy  is  necessary,  for  not  only  in  the  in- 
dustries but  also  for  private  use  coal  is  rationed.  The 
industries  that  are  most  indispensable  to  our  common- 
wealth, among  them  the  factories  that  produce  food- 
stuffs, receive  a  sufficiency.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
factories  have  been  forced  to  suspend  operation  of  late 
owing  to  want  of  coal. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  many  ways  have  been 
proposed  and  some  adopted  to  diminish  coal  consump- 
tion. One  of  these  was  to  limit  railway  traffic  and  not 
to  heat  the  railway  cars.  It  is  only  on  very  cold  days 
that  cars  have  been  heated.  It  was  proposed  by  an 
engineer  in  a  paper  at  the  confederation  of  dairy  pro- 
ducers to  replace  all  steam  pumps  in  cheese  and  butter 
factories  by  belt-driven  pumps,  keeping  the  steam  pumps 
in  reserve,  estimating  that  the  relative  steam  consump- 
tion would  only  be  about  1  to  8.  He  claimed  that  the 
saving  would  be  about  6  million  pounds  of  coal  a  year. 

A  similar  case  of  economizing  was  discussed  in  our 
engineering  journal  De  Ingenieur  in  regard  to  auxiliary 
engines  on  board  ships.  As  a  rule  small  condensing 
engines,  consuming  about  22  lb.  of  steam  per  indicated 
horsepower  are  used.  One  of  the  members  of  the  Royal 
Institute  of  Engineers  proposed  to  apply  more  econom- 
ical engines ;  for  instance,  a  small  vertical  steam  engine 
of  the  uniflow  type  such  as  has  been  constructed  by 
one  of  the  professors  at  the  Technical  University  at 
Delft,  which  consumes,  when  working  condensing,  only 
7*  lb.  of  steam.  Another  engineer  argues  in  a  follow- 
ing number  of  De  Ingenieur  that,  strange  though  it 
may  seem,  it  is  more  economical  to  use  a  less  economical 
noncondensing  engine  because  the  waste  steam  is  used 
to  heat  the  feed  water  and  is  almost  always  insufficient 
even  for  that  purpose. 

He  calculates  as  follows,  assuming  that  only  the  main 
engine  and  circulating  pump  engine  are  in  operation: 
Assume  that  the  circulating  pump  is  driven  by  an 
engine  using  45  lb.  of  steam  per  indicated  horsepower. 


Steam  consumption  of  the  main  engine,  3750  i.hp.  X 
12  lb.  ^=  45,000  lb.  per  hour;  circulating  engine,  40 
i.hp.  X  45  lb.  steam  =  1800  lb.  per  hour;  total  boiler 
feed  water  =  46,800  lb.  per  hour;  temperature  of  hot- 
well,  104  deg.  F.  Assuming  that  the  exhaust  steam 
from  the  circulating  engine  still  contains  970.4  B.t.u. 
per  lb.  then  it  will  give  to  the  feed  water  970.4  X 
1800  =--  1,746,720  -^  46,800  =  37.3  deg.  F.  rise  in 
temperature  of  the  total  amount  of  the  feed  water. 
Assume  that  the  circulating  engine  uses  only  7^  lb. 
of  steam,  then  40  X  7.5  =  300  X  970.4  =  291,120  -^ 
45,300  =  6.4  deg.  rise  in  the  feed-water  temperature. 
This  difference  mu.st  be  made  up  from  some  other 
source,  so  that  there  is  no  real  economy  in  using  a  highly 
efficient  circulating-pump  engine  in  this  case.  Every 
case  should  be  calculated  separately  on  its  own  merit. 

To  show  the  widespread  interest  in  fuel  and  food 
conservation  here,  I  may  say  that  two  subjects  for  prize 
competitions  were  published  recently  by  some  of  the 
foremost  men  of  our  technical  and  commercial  world, 
in  which  competitors  are  asked  to  propose  methods 
for  economy  of  heat  force  and  food  supply.  The  papers 
have  not  yet  been  published. 

Reverse-Current  Relays 

A  new  form  of  reverse-current  relay.  Figs.  1  and  2, 
has  been  developed  by  the  Automatic  Reclosing  Circuit- 
Breaker  Co.  These  relays  are  of  the  circuit-opening  type 
and  are  so  designed  that  the  relay  will  open  either  upon 
reversal  of  current  or  with  zero  current  at  abnormally 
low  voltage.  The  relay  is  closed  and  held  closed  by  a 
shunt-polarizing  coil  P.  A  high  resistance  is  connected 
in  series  with  this  coil.  To  close  the  relay  a  push-button 
switch  is  provided  which  temporarily  short-circuits  the 
high  resistance.  The  high  resistance  limits  the  current 
in  the  shunt  winding  to  just  sufficient  value  to  hold 


•Rijks-Landbouwingenieur.  Wageningen.   Holland. 


FTG.   1.     RELAY.   1200  to  2000-    PIG.   2.     RELAY,     400     to     800- 
AMP.    SIZE  .\MP.    SIZE 

the  relay  closed.  A  reversal  of  current  or  failure  of 
voltage  will  thus  cause  the  relay  to  open.  These  relays 
are  designed  for  mounting  on  the  rear  of  the  circuit- 
breaker  panel.  The  1200-  and  2000-amp.  size.  Fig.  1,  has 
a  magnetic  yoke  Y,  which  surrounds  the  upper  stud  of 
the  breaker,  while  the  400-  and  800-amp.  size.  Fig.  2, 
is  provided  with  a  series  winding  W,  one  terminal  of 
which  connects  directly  to  the  upper  stud  of  the  circuit- 
breaker.  The  other  terminal  of  this  winding  connects 
to  a  stud  S,  through  which  connection  to  the  external 
circuit  is  made. 


May  21,  1918  P  O  W  E  R  739 

JUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM 


Editorials 


iniiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


This  Time  It  Is  Give,  Not  Lend 

WITHIN  less  than  a  year  the  American  people  have 
responded  to  the  call  of  their  country  three  differ- 
ent times  and  have  oversubscribed  three  of  the  largest 
loans  ever  floated  in  the  history  of  the  world,  each  time 
with  an  increased  response  as  evidenced  by  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  subscribers  from  about  four  million 
to  the  first  loan  to  upward  of  twenty  million  in  the 
third.  The  sale  of  War  Savings  Certificates  is  also 
meeting  with  a  hearty  response  and  by  the  end  of  the 
year  will  show  that  the  American  people  are  willing  to 
back  their  Government  to  the  last  dollar.  But  all  this 
money  is  only  being  loaned  to  the  Government  at  a  good 
rate  of  interest  and  will  be  paid  back  in  full  to  each 
holder  of  these  securities  when  they  mature,  and  our 
enemies  might  have  accused  us  of  doing  this  simply  be- 
cause it  was  good  financial  policy  had  it  not  been  for 
what  the  great  American  Red  Cross  has  been  doing  on 
every  battle  front  in  the  world,  as  briefly  outlined  on 
page  700  of  last  week's  issue  of  Power. 

In  fact,  when  we  entered  the  war  part  of  the  German 
propaganda  in  France  was  to  create  the  impression  that 
we  were  a  nation  of  money  grabbers,  that  we  never  did 
anything  except  for  the  money  we  could  get  out  of  it, 
that  the  vast  sums  we  were  investing  in  France  for 
great  military  bases,  railways  and  disembarkation  ports 
were  not  for  the  interest  of  France  but  to  use  against 
that  country  after  the  war  to  further  our  own  selfish 
interests.  This  propaganda  might  have  succeeded,  but 
the  call  was  sent  forth  to  the  people  of  this  country  less 
than  a  year  ago  by  the  American  Red  Cross,  not  for  a 
loan  at  a  good  rate  of  interest,  but  to  give  outright 
$100,000,000  to  create  a  War  Fund  with  which  to  finance 
the  tremendous  work  of  relief  and  reconstruction  that 
was  so  vital  to  our  Allies  and  ourselves  in  Europe,  and 
that  call  was  answered  in  a  way  that  sent  a  message 
back  to  Europe  that  the  American  people  had  donated 
over  $100,000,000  to  the  Red  Cross  War  Fund,  thus  giv- 
ing the  lie  to  our  enemies,  the  enemies  of  right  and 
liberty,  that  we  are  a  lot  of  wealth  worshipers. 

Before  this  war  it  was  looked  upon  as  the  duty  of  the 
Red  Cross  to  take  care  of  the  wounded,  but  conditions 
have  changed  and  now  it  has  become  their  work  to  pro- 
vide everything  that  human  beings  need  in  a  war-dev- 
astated country.  This  was  very  clearly  shown  in  the 
previously  mentioned  report  and  is  further  emphasized 
by  the  following  paragraphs  taken  from  a  Red  Cross 
leaflet.  "What  Does  the  Red  Cross  Do?"  by  William  Allen 
White,  a  copy  of  which  can  be  secured  by  applying  to 
any  Red  Cross  Chapter: 

"Over  in  France  where  French  soldiers  are  coming 
back  from  the  trenches  on  furlough,  canteens  have  been 
erected  by  the  Red  Cross  in  order  that  the  men  might 
have  lodging,  food  and  bath,  and  a  clean  resting  place. 
Such  men  return  home  clean  and  happy  instead  of  wet 
and  hungry.     They  come  back  from  their  homes  to  the 


trenches  to  fight,  not  in  a  sullen  but  in  a  happier  frame 
of  mind  because  of  this  Red  Cross  work.  In  France,  too, 
the  Red  Cross  supplies  fuel  and  food  and  shelter  to  the 
soldier's  families  so  that  the  men  are  prepared  to  stick — 
stick — and  stick  to  the  end,  full  of  courage  and  ginger. 

"Less  than  a  week  after  the  Italian  breakdown  the 
American  Red  Cross  was  in  Italy  with  long  lines  of 
freight  cars  loaded  with  surgical  supplies,  food  and 
clothing  for  civilians  and  distributing  this  aid  to  the 
hospitals  and  to  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  refugees, 
men  women  and  children,  fleeing  from  the  German  in- 
vaders and  making  America  felt  for  brotherhood  in 
Northern  Italy  as  no  other  country  was  ever  able  to 
make  itself  felt  in  the  world  before." 

Since  the  first  call  the  demands  upon  the  Red  Cross 
War  Fund  have  been  tremendous,  the  work  accom- 
plished staggers  the  imagination,  but  the  first  fund  is 
nearing  e.xhaustion,  therefore  the  American  people  have 
again  been  asked  to  give  $100,000,000  more,  during  the 
week  May  20-27,  to  create  a  second  War  Fund  so  that 
the  magnificent  work  that  has  been  started  may  be  con- 
tinued. Let  the  answer  to  this  appeal  go  echoing  back 
to  Europe  from  one  hundred  million  loyal  Americans 
that  they  have  again  cheerfully  given  over  $100,000,000, 
to  create  a  Second  War  Fund. 

Give  to  your  Red  Cross  until  your  heart  says  stop; 
it  is  "A  great  net  of  mercy  drawn  through  an  ocean 
of  unspeakable  pain." 

Tube  Failure  in  Water-Tube  Boilers 

TIME  and  experience  have  pretty  well  demonstrated 
that  liability  to  complete  disruption,  with  the  de- 
struction of  property  and  loss  of  life  that  attends  an  old- 
fashioned  boiler  explosion,  is  much  reduced  in  the  water- 
tube  boiler.  The  casualty  statistics,  however,  show  this 
type  to  be  quite  liable  to  local  injury  by  rupture  of  the 
tubes,  the  bursting  of  a  water  tube  being  a  much  more 
frequent  mishap  than  the  collapse  or  failure  otherwise 
of  a  fire  tube.  While  most  cases  of  bursting  of  water 
tubes  undoubtedly  result  from  overheating  on  account 
of  oil  or  sediment  preventing  proper  water  contact,  still 
there  have  been  many  such  accidents  that  were  appar- 
ently due  to  a  breakdown  of  the  strength  and  durability 
of  the  material  under  the  stresses  of  long  service.  The 
latter  cause  may  be  wrongly  ascribed  for  a  tube  failure 
on  the  strength  of  an  absence  of  foreign  matter  from 
the  surface  of  the  tube,  as  revealed  by  an  inspection  fol- 
lowing the  explosion.  The  fact  that  no  incrustation  is 
found  inside  an  exploded  water  tube  is  no  indication  that 
the  rupture  was  not  due  to  overheating.  The  shock  at 
the  instant  of  the  explosion  is  pretty  certain  to  jar  the 
deposits  loose,  allowing  the  current  of  water  and  steam 
rushing  at  high  velocity  toward  the  opening  to  thorough- 
ly wash  them  out. 

When  a  tube  failure  results  from  overheating,  the 
rupture  is  preceded  by  a  softening  and  Ijulging  of  the 


740 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


overheated  area  and  a  consequent  distention  of  the 
metal,  so  that  when  it  finally  rips  open,  the  edges  of  the 
fissure  are  drawn  down  to  a  knife-edge.  Of  course  a 
thin  edge  along  the  rip  might  also  indicate  a  wasting 
away  of  the  material  by  corrosion  and  abrasion;  but  if 
such  be  the  case  there  will  be  corroborative  signs  that 
will  be  absent  if  the  injury  has  resulted  simply  from 
overheating.  One  of  these  signs  is  that  if  the  tube  is 
measured  roundabout  from  edge  to  edge  of  the  rupture, 
the  distance  will  be  found  to  equal  the  normal  circum- 
ference of  the  tube.  If  the  failure  has  resulted  from 
overheating,  the  preliminary  stretching  to  which  the 
metal  was  subjected  will  be  shown  by  the  measurement 
roundabout  at  the  place  of  rupture  being  greater  than 
the  normal  circumference. 

A  particularly  insidious  cause  of  injury  to  water 
tubes  is  the  oil  that  gets  into  the  boilers  in  plants  where 
proper  means  are  not  used  to  separate  the  oil  from  the 
exhaust  steam  that  goes  to  heat  the  feed  water.  A  verj' 
small  quantity  of  oil  thus  misplaced  can  do  an  immense 
amount  of  damage.  It  may  also  prove  very  elusive.  It 
may  spread  out  on  the  metal  surface  in  a  film  so  tenu- 
ous, or  may  combine  so  unobtrusively  with  the  solid  im- 
purities to  form  sludgy  deposits,  as  to  escape  even  the 
practical  sye  and  touch  of  the  inspector.  Overheating 
on  account  of  oil  usually  extends  over  a  larger  area,  and 
the  resulting  rupture  is  more  violent  in  its  effects  than 
where  the  destructive  agent  comprises  simply  the  ordi- 
nary scale-making  ingredients,  and  these  indications 
furnish  the  only  guide  in  assigning  the  true  cause  of 
failure  in  many  cases. 

Scrupulous  care  should  be  exercised  to  keep  oil  out  of 
steam  boilers.  Very  often  those  responsible  appear  to 
be  lacking  in  appreciation  of  the  injury  it  can  do,  if  one 
is  to  judge  by  the  indifference  manifested  toward  the  oily 
scum  that  is  to  be  seen  on  top  of  the  water  in  many  gage- 
glasses.  When  a  grease  line  shows  in  the  water  glass, 
it  is  high  time  to  do  some  industrious  figuring  on  the 
problem  of  purifying  the  exhaust  steam  befoi'e  it  mingles 
with  the  feed  water.  Oil-extracting  apparatus  is  to  be 
had,  which,  if  intelligently  installed  and  cared  for,  will 
eliminate  danger  from  this  source. 

But  the  tubes  of  a  water-tube  boiler  may  be  free  from 
scale  and  oily  deposits,  and  still  burning  and  bagging 
will  develop  by  reason  of  the  extremely  hot  fires  common- 
ly carried  in  large  power  stations.  The  bottom  rows  of 
tubes  invariably  suffer  in  such  service,  notwithstanding 
exti-eme  vigilance  to  keep  them  clean.  It  is  possible  that 
the  water  coursing  through  these  tubes  is  heated  so 
rapidly  that  it  cannot  pass  out  quickly  enough  to  carry 
away  the  globules  of  steam  as  fast  as  generated,  with 
the  result  that  they  gather  momentarily  in  pockets  next 
the  surface  of  the  tube,  thus  excluding  the  water  from 
contact  with  the  metal.  It  is  presumed,  of  course,  that 
the  accumulation  of  steam  bubbles  is  of  very  short  dura- 
tion ;  but  with  the  fierce  heat  of  the  furnace  impinging 
directly  upon  the  tubes  with  the  concentrated  intensity 
of  a  blow-torch,  it  requires  but  little  time  to  soften  the 
thin  area  of  e.xposed  metal  to  the  bulging  point,  and  a 
bag  is  the  immediate  result.  Often  a  tube  is  found 
bagged  along  the  sides.  This  seems  to  substantiate  the 
theorjf  of  burning  on  account  of  steam  pockets,  since  the 
natural  precipitation  of  foreign  particles  in  the  water 
would  evidently  result  in  bags  due  to  this  source  appear- 
ing along  the  bottom  of  the  tube. 


A  variety  of  causes  may  contribute  to  the  deteriora- 
tion of  water  tubes.  Of  these  the  corrosive  action  of 
acids  in  the  feed  water  internally  and  of  sulphurous  com- 
pounds externally  are  perhaps  the  most  common.  The 
fine  fly  ash  that  collects  around  the  ends  of  the  tubes  and 
works  in  beneath  the  baffle  tiles  is  also  a  prevalent  source 
of  decay.  Removal  of  these  deposits  is  an  item  that  is 
generally  neglected  when  the  boiler  is  gone  over  at 
cleaning  time.  Great  care  will  be  observed  to  keep  the 
insides  of  the  tubes  clear  of  corrosive  agents,  but  little 
attention  will  be  given  to  the  outside.  With  some 
makers  of  water-tube  boilers  the  water  that  is  splashed 
around  while  washing  out  works  in  between  the  headers 
and  through  hollow  stay-bolts,  thus  saturating  the  de- 
posits of  fine  ash  and  initiating  a  rapid  process  of  cor- 
rosion, perhaps  utterly  spoiling  some  of  the  tubes  if  the 
boiler  stands  idle  for  a  considerable  space  of  time.  In- 
stances have  also  been  reported  of  baffled  tubes  having 
been  worn  dangerously  thin  by  rubbing  on  the  tiles  due 
to  the  constant  changing  of  form  in  the  boiler. 

Sometimes  a  water  tube  lets  go  on  account  of  an  im- 
perfect weld.  In  such  cases  there  can  be  no  room  for 
conjecture,  the  evidence  of  deficiency  in  a  broken  weld 
being  so  plain  that  the  cause  of  the  failure  is  never  in 
doubt.  There  can  be  no  absolute  certainty  about  the 
security  of  a  weld.  Despite  the  utmost  precaution  in  the 
manufacture  of  lap-welded  tubes  and  rigid  inspection  of 
the  product  as  it  comes  from  the  mill,  defects  in  the 
welding  will  now  and  then  crop  out.  Instances  of  imper- 
fectly welded  tubes  continuing  in  service  for  months  be- 
fore bursting  open  have  been  reported. 

The  fluctuation  of  pressure  and  temperature  in  the 
ordinary  working  of  a  boiler,  by  producing  a  succession 
of  molecular  stresses  that  tend  to  crystallize  the  materi- 
al, is  also  an  active  cause  of  deterioration,  although  its 
effects  are  never  manifest  to  ordinarj'  inspection.  Loss 
of  tenacity  and  ductility,  and  of  the  essential  property 
of  resilience  or  springiness  is  the  inevitable  penalty  of 
age  in  a  steam  boiler.  In  water-tube  boilers  the  tubes 
have  practically  the  whole  burden  of  service,  since  they 
comprise  almost  the  entire  heating  surface  of  the  struc- 
ture; they  fulfill,  in  fact,  so  far  as  absorption  of  heat  is 
concerned,  the  same  purpose  as  the  more  substantial 
furnace  sheets  of  fire-tube  boilers.  The  tubes  should 
therefore  be  the  objects  of  critical  inspection.  As  the 
boiler  ages,  even  though  the  tubes  be  kept  free  from  oil 
and  scale  and  .show  no  visible  signs  of  decay,  it  might 
still  be  the  part  of  prudence  to  cut  one  out  once  in  a 
while  so  as  to  determine  by  te.st  just  what  the  condition 
of  the  material  may  be. 

The  most  unfortunate  thing  about  a  water-tube  ex- 
plosion is  that  it  generally  means  death  or  painful  in- 
jury by  scalding  to  the  fireman  or  stoker  attendant,  and 
perhaps  to  others  who  may  be  near-by ;  the  damage  to  the 
boiler  and  setting  in  most  cases  is  small  and  easily  re- 
paired. The  menace  to  human  life  that  is  involved  is 
certainly  the  outstanding  reason  why  every  precaution- 
ary measure  available  should  be  applied  to  minimize 
these  accidents. 


The  most  hopeful  item  of  news  bearing  on  the  possi- 
bility of  a  coal  shortage  next  winter  is  the  announce- 
ment of  an  order  by  the  Government,  with  deliveries 
promised  through  the  summer,  of  1025  locomotives  and 
100,000  freight  cars. 


May  21,  1918 


POWER 


741 


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Correspondence 


n iiiiiiiiimiiiiiimi I iMiiiiiiiiiiii miiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiimi i mihmiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiii imij 


A  Talk,  to  Firemen  on  Saving  Coal 

I  read  with  interest  the  lecture  by  Mr.  Bromley  at 
the  Baltimore  City  Club,  as  published  in  Poiver  some 
time  ago  (Jan.  22  issue).  The  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers  deserves  praise  for  bringing 
about  such  a  meeting.  More  should  be  done  in  that 
direction. 

"Employers  Need  Education"  reads  a  subhead  in  the 
article.  This  is  true,  indeed.  As  every  engineer  knows, 
when  he  asks  his  employer  for  a  new  device,  one  that 
invariably  is  sure  to  save  coal,  he  is  usually  told  to 
wait,  that  labor  and  material  are  too  high  at  present. 
The  engineer  usually  concludes  then  something  like  this; 
"Very  well,  Mr.  Employer,  if  you  do  not  want  to  listen 
to  me,  you  can  go  on  wasting  coal.  I  do  not  have  to 
pay  for  it  directly."  But  this  attitude  is  as  disagree- 
able to  the  engineer  as  to  anyone  else. 

Here  are  some  suggestions  on  coal  saving  that  engi- 
neers may  find  applicable  without  the  use  of  new 
apparatus. 

When  a  plant  of  any  size  is  started  in  the  morning, 
generally  engines,  pumps,  etc.,  are  started  some  time 
before  the  working  day  begins;  that  is,  before  the  load 
comes  on.  The  engineer  should  have  the  machines 
warm,  but  start  them  as  near  the  beginning  of  the 
working  day  as  conditions  permit.  Do  not  have  ma- 
chinery running  before  it  is  needed.  At  noon  be  ready 
to  shut  down  as  soon  as  the  whistle  blows.  In  the 
evening  perhaps  some  of  the  engines  or  other  machines 
may  be  shut  down  before  quitting  time.  Do  not  wait 
until  you  shut  down  all  the  other  machines  just  to 
save  a  trip.  Send  the  oiler  or  helper  to  do  it  if  you  are 
too  busy.  The  heads  of  the  different  departments  should 
coopei'ate  with  the  engineer  and  notify  him  immediate- 
ly when  they  can  spare  an  engine;  also  they  should  not 
allow  their  men  to  waste  steam. 

The  engineer  should  keep  in  close  and  constant  touch 
with  his  fireman,  should  let  him  know  when  the  heavy 
load  is  about  to  come  on  or  be  taken  off.  If  the  fire- 
man is  treated  that  way,  he  will  no  doubt  like  his 
engineer  and  take  more  interest  in  the  work.  During 
the  time  the  plant  is  in  full  operation,  the  fireman 
should  not  be  called  to  do  work  other  than  caring  for 
the  fires  and  the  boilers.  William  L.  Keil. 

Philadelphia,  Penn. 

Setting  the  Clock   Back  Again 

The  editorial  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  9  on  daylight  sav- 
ing seems  timely,  and  I  hope  the  solution  will  put  all 
sections  of  the  country  on  a  more  equal  basis  with  ref- 
erence to  the  sun.  The  Central  and  Mountain  Standard 
zones  are  too  wide  at  present  to  give  all  parts  of  the 
zones  an  equal  chance  to  get  the  most  benefit  from  the 
available  daylight.  To  illustrate,  consider  two  strips 
of  territory — the  eastern  and  the  western  fourths  of 


the  Central  zone.  The  recent  change  of  the  clock  puts 
the  western  strip  one  and  one-half  hours  ahead  of  the 
sun,  which  is  excessive,  as  it  will  necessitate  the  use  of 
light  in  the  mornings  till  well  toward  summer  and  for  a 
period  in  summer  it  will  be  bedtime  by  the  clock  while 
yet  daylight,  both  of  which  factors  tend  to  defeat  the 
purpose  of  the  law;  while  the  eastern  strip  is  merely 
advanced  to  the  position  formerly  held  by  the  western, 
and  as  far  as  daylight  saving  is  concerned,  the  eastern 
strip  is  doing  no  different  under  war  conditions  than 
has  normally  been  done  in  the  western  strip  ever  since 
standard  time  was  adopted. 

Another  feature  is  this:  Under  the  old  way  the  day- 
light comes  so  close  to  6  p.m.  in  the  western  strip  that 
the  peak  before  6  p.m.  is  negligible,  while  in  the  eastern 
strip,  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  coal-consuming  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  they  have  had  the  extra  burden 
of  an  enormous  peak  load  for  some  time  before  6  p.m. 
every  day.  I  have  often  wondered  why  more  of  the 
cities  in  that  section  have  not  adopted  local  time  to  do 
away  with  the  burden,  but  the  reason  probably  is  that 
habit  has  such  a  hold  on  men. 

As  to  keeping  the  clock  as  at  present  the  year  round, 
it  would  put  the  eastern  strips  of  the  Central  and  Moun- 
tain zones  in  the  positions  formerly  held  by  the  western 
strips,  or  local  time  would  be  about  half  an  hour  ahead 
of  the  sun,  which  I  consider  almost  the  ideal.  Perhaps 
45  minutes  ahead  of  the  sun  would  be  a  little  better  as 
it  puts  the  sun  on  the  meridian  almo.st  exactly  midway  of 
the  working  day.  It  would  do  away  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  peak  load  before  6  p.m.  in  winter  and  in 
summer  would  give  all  the  extra  daylight  needed.  It 
would  produce  an  increase  of  load  in  the  morning,  but 
not  nearly  as  much  as  to  offset  the  gain  caused  by  the 
drop  of  the  early  evening  load. '  If  it  is  decreed  that  the 
clock  shall  not  be  put  back,  I  hope  that  the  Central  and 
Mountain  zones  will  be  split  into  several,  for  unless  that 
is  done  the  inhabitants  of  this  strip  will  be  groping  in 
the  dark  "of  mornings"  for  three-fourths  of  the  year. 

Exeter,  Neb.  W.  M.  Alexander. 


Burning  Slack  Containing  Excessive 
Moisture 

In  my  article  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  2  on  "Burning 
Slack  Containing  Excessive  Moisture,"  an  error  in  the 
printed  figures  has  been  brought  to  my  notice,  the 
stoker  speed  in  our  test  being  stated  as  averaging  2 
ft.  per  min.  This  is  obviously  a  mistake,  and  I  find 
my  original  copy  reads  "No.  2  Stoker  Speed,"  which  is 
the  record  of  the  indicator  connected  to  the  stoker 
grate.  In  case  this  should  not  be  clear,  I  recently 
checked  the  actual  speed  of  this  grate  at  the  speed 
given,  and  find  it  moves  1  ft.  in  5  min.  The  grate 
frontage  is  7  ft.,  and  the  thickness  of  the  fire  4  inches. 

Calgary,  Alta.,  Canada.  James  F.  McCall. 


742 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  21 


Easily  Made  Pipe  Covering 

The  illustration  shows  how  a  fairly  good  pipe  cover- 
ing can  be  easily  made.  To  lengths  of  building  or 
tarred  paper  three  or  four  feet  long  (the  usual  width 
of  the  roll)  nail  strips  of  wood  equally  spaced  and  about 
three  inches  short  of  the  edges  of  the  paper,  as  shown. 
This    completes    the   outside   of    the    covering.      Wrap 


COVERING  APPLIEI>  TO  PIPE 

asbestos  paper  around  the  pipe  to  be  covered  and  tie 
it  on  with  stout  twine,  then  put  on  the  strips  of  wood 
and  tarred  paper  and  tie  them  on  with  a  few  turns  of 
wire.  This  makes  a  fairly  good  insulator  at  a  low  cost. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  outside  paper  joints 
overlap  at  the  sides  and  ends  and  that  there  are  no  holes, 
as  the  efficiency  of  the  insulation  depends  to  a  large 
extent  on  the  dead-air  space.  Painting  the  covering 
over  occasionally  with  hot  pitch  will  improve  its  quality 
and  life.  James  E.  Noble. 

Portsmouth,  Ont.,  Canada. 


How  Pat  Saved  a  Barge  by  Sinking  It 

His  name  was  Pat  and  his  hair  was  as  red  as  his 
wit  was  spontaneous.  He  was  a  shoveler  on  a  coal 
barge  on  one  of  the  steel  company's  routes  up  the  Alle- 
gheny. The  particular  coal  barge  on  which  Pat  was  sta- 
tioned was  "docked"  for  the  winter  above  the  Sharps- 
burg  bridge,  and  it  was  Pat's  duty  (and  his  pleasure  be 
it  said)  to  board  the  barge  every  morning  and  see  if  it 
was  dry  and,  if  not,  to  pump  it  out. 

Pat  was  fulfilling  his  responsible  duties  one  day  while 
a  carpenter  was  busy  at  work  repairing  the  footboards 
of  the  barge,  and  all  the  while  the  water  was  rising 
in. the  river  at  the. rate  of  about  a  foot  every  two  hours. 
About  noontime  Pat  said  to  the  carpenter:  "It  is  me.solf 
that's  thinkin'  that  the  wather  is  low  enough  to  rise 
higher  and  if  the  ice  comes  dovm  from  up  beyant,  this 
old  boat  will  be  our  coffin,  begum." 

The  carpenter,  looking  upstream,  saw  a  white  streak 
coming  around  the  .point  at  Aspinwall  and  shouted  to 
Pat  to  pull  the  barge-to  shore,  knowing  from  experi- 
ence that  this  white ;Streak  meant  ice  and  that  ice  with 
a  current  meant — well,  not  death,  but  as  near  to  it  as 
he  wanted  to  be.  •  Pat  tugged  on  the  lines  forward  and 
the;  carpenter  pulled  on  the  lines  astern,  but  with  the 
current  in  the  river  about  six  miles  per  hour,  the  ice 
came  down  on  the  barge,  tearing  it  from  its  mooring.s 
with  Pat  and  the  carpenter  still  on  duty  at  their  respec- 
tive posts. 

As  Pat  was  forward  at  first  and  the  carpenter  astern 
downstream,  Pat  thought  it  his  duty  to  be  subordinate 


to  his  superior;  but  as  the  ice  took  the  barge  with  Pat 
at  the  stern,  as  it  were,  he  became  captain  and  forth- 
with commanded  the  other  to  keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  a 
iumping-off  place.  When  they  neared  the  P.  R.R. 
bridge,  the  lookout  yelled:  "Pat,  we  are  done;  the  wa- 
ter is  so  high  that  we  can't  go  under  the  bridge,  and 
the  two  of  us  and  the  barge  will  go  to  hell  in  ten  min- 
utes." 

Pat,  the  captain,  yelled :  "Take  your  domn  auger  and 
bore  some  holes  in  her  bottom  to  let  the  water  in  and 
get  her  low  enough  to  go  under  the  bridge;  then  plug 
the  holes."  It  was  done,  with  the  result  that  Captain 
Pat  and  the  carpenter  were  taken  off  the  barge  at  East 
Liverpool  and  the  barge  was  salvaged  at  New^jort,  Ken- 
tucky. G.  E.  Michael. 

Pittsburgh,  Penn. 


Keeping  Oil  Out  of  Feed  Pump 

The  same  principle  involved  in  the  piping  arrangement 
shown  by  T.  A.  Marshall  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  30,  page 
6.30,  that  makes  it  impossible  to  entirely  empty  a  receiv- 
ing tank  or  heater  by  accident  and  get  the  oil  and  scum 
that  is  always  found  floating  on  the  top  of  the  water 
into  the  feed  pump  and  boilers,  may  also  be  applied,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  to  open  heaters,  etc.,  in  which 
there  are  trays  and  the  like  in  the  way  of  internal  pip- 
ing. The  pump  suction  from  the  heater  should  be  ar- 
ranged somewhat  as  shown  to  form  a  seal,  and  a  small 
vapor  pipe  connected  from  the  tee  at  the  top  of  the  sea! 


OUTSIDE  PIPING  TO  KEEP  SURFACE  OH.  FROM  PUMP 

to  the  steam  space  of  the  heater  or  tank.  The  action  is, 
of  course,  the  same  as  that  described  by  Mr.  Marshall. 
It  is  not  safe  to  allow  the  vapor  pipe  to  be  simply  open 
to  the  atmosphere  in  case  of  a  closed  tank,  because,  in  the 
event  of  even  a  slight  pressure  in  the  heater,  all  the 
water  may  be  discharged  from  it  before  the  pump  gets 
air  or  vapor.  Connecting  a  vapor  pipe  into  the  side  of 
a  tee,  as  I  have  seen  tried,  won't  do  either,  for  obvious 
reasons. 

New  York  City.  J.  LEWIS. 


May  21,  1918 


POWER 


743 


Fitting  a  New  Piston  Valve 

My  experience  in  putting  a  new  piston  valve  in  a 
Buckeye  engine  may  be  of  value  to  some  brother  engi- 
neer, so  I  give  it  for  what  it  is  worth. 

After  pulling  in  the  new  valve-chest  bushing,  which 
necessitated  the  removal  of  the  crank-end  valve-chest 
head  and  stuffing-box,  my  assistant  replaced  the  head, 
and  upon  attempting  to  insert  the  new  valve  I  found 
it  rather  a  snug  fit;  in  fact,  it  would  go  only  about 
halfway  in.  I  discovered  that  the  valve  rod  was  binding 
on  the  top  where  it  passed  through  the  stuffing-box. 
The  shoulder  on  the  chest  head,  intended  to  fit  the 
counterbore  of  the  chest,  was  about  one-eighth  inch 
smaller  than  the  bore,  which  allowed  the  head  to  drop 
down  out  of  line;  the  slack  of  the  studs  in  the  holes 
also  allow  this.  Loosening  the  stud  nuts  and  raising 
the  chest  head  slightly  so  the  stuffing-box  would  be 
central  with  the  valve-chest  bore  corrected  the  difficulty, 
and  the  valve  entered  properly.  W.  D.  Wakeman. 

Deposit,  N.  Y. 

Single-Phase  Motor  Would  Not 
Carry  Its  Load 

Some  time  ago  I  had  occasion  to  investigate  trouble 
in  a  single-phase  motor  of  the  split-phase,  clutch  type 
that  would  not  carry  its  load.  It  would  start  and  in- 
crease in  speed  ,  until  the 
clutch  began  to  grip,  and  at 
this  speed  it  would  remain 
until  all  the  load  was  taken 
off,  when  it  would  come  up 
to  full  speed.  If  the  load 
was  put  on  again,  it  would 
slow  down  until  the  clutch 
slipped.  Considerable  work 
was  done  on  the  clutch  as 
the  electrician  thought  the 
trouble  was  in  this  part  of 
the  equipment.  However, 
when  I  investigated  the  mat- 
ter, I  found  many  of  the 
rotor  bars  loose,  and  upon 
resoldering  these,  the  motor 
ran  as  satisfactorily  as  when 
new.  The  reason  for  the 
motor  slowing  down  is  as 
follows : 

The  action  in  a  single- 
phase  motor  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  a  poly- 
phase machine.  In  the  latter 
the  revolving  magnetic  field 
is  independent  of  the  rotor's 
speed.  A  resistance  in  the 
rotor  circuit  will  have  the 
effect  of  changing  the  speed 
at  which  the  maximum 
torque  will  take  place,  the 
maximum  torque  being  of 
practically  the  same  value 
regardless  of  whether  it 
occurs  at  standstill  or  near 
full  speed.  AN  Ki..vB(n;ATi.: 


In  the  case  of  the  single-phase  motor  the  revolv- 
ing field  is  dependent  on  the  rotor's  speed,  being  max- 
imum at  full  speed  and  becoming  simply  a  pulsating 
field  as  the  rotor  comes  to  rest.  In  this  type  a  rotor 
resistance  not  only  has  the  effect  of  reducing  the  speed 
at  which  the  maximum  torque  will  be  developed,  as  in 
a  polyphase  machine,  but  also  it  reduces  the  amount 
of  torque  until  at  standstill  the  torque  becomes  zero. 

Adams,  Mass.  ALBERT   Carpenter. 

Cylinder-Draining  System 

The  illustration  shows  a  rather  elaborate  cylinder- 
draining  outfit  that  may  be  interesting.  The  glohe  valves 
on  the  drr.in  lines  above  the  floor  are  not  shown ;  C  and 
D  are  check  valves,  A  is  a  cast-iron  receiver  and  5  is  a 
trap. 

Considerable  water  came  over  with  the  steam  at 
times,  but  by  leaving  the  draining  valves  above  the  floor 
open,  the  water  got  away  all  right.  It  was  found  that 
the  cylinder  oil  soon  closed  up  the  trap  discharge,  so  the 
ouJlet  was  drilled  out  to  about  twice  its  former  diameter, 
and  it  did  not  choke  up  any  more.  The  trap  discharged 
into  an  open  tank  with  a  discharge  overflow  as  shown, 
and  most  of  the  oil  was  skimmed  from  the  top  of  the 
water  in  the  tank  and  after  being  passed  through  a 
filter  was  used  for  oiling  shafting,  etc. 

Portsmouth,  Ont.,  Canada.  James  E.  Noble. 


744 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


Burning  Slack  Containing  Excessive 
Moisture 

The  stoker  setting  described  in  J.  F.  McCall's  article 
in  the  issue  of  Apr.  2,  page  472,  is  by  no  means  new, 
being  generally  similar  to  a  standard  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
Limited  chain-grate  stoker  setting  for  low-volatile  coals, 
which  has  been  used  for  many  years  in  England  and 
Europe.  In  1913  one  of  these  B.  &  W.  stokers  was 
installed  at  the  University  of  Alberta,  Edmonton,  which 
has  proved  very  satisfactory  in  burning  the  Edmonton 
lignites,  and  a  series  of  tests  were  being  carried  out 
by  C.  Robb,  professor  of  mechanical  engineering,  when 
the  war  broke  out  and  the  work  was  held  up.  Some 
changes  in  the  settings  of  the  chain-grate  stokers  along 
the  same  lines  have  been  made  at  the  city  power  plants 
of  Edmonton  and  Saskatoon  by  their  city  engineers. 

While  Mr.  McCall's  setting  includes  the  essential 
center  arch  with  an  opening  behind  it,  which  is  the 
best  arrangement  possible  without  more  extensive 
changes  to  the  standard  bituminous-coal  setting,  still 
better  results  would  probably  be  obtained  by  the  regular 
B.  &  W.  setting  in  which  the  back  arch  is  set  at  a 
slope  to  obtain  the  maximum  reflecting  power,  the  grate 
inclined  and  a  larger  combustion  space  obtained  by  in- 
creasing the  furnace  height.  The  horizontal  front  arch 
is  of  little  value,  and  as  sub-bituminous  and  lignite 
coals  do  not  take  long  to  bum  out,  the  length  of  the 
grate  need  not  as  a  rule  be  over  ten  feet,  the  front  of 
the  stoker  being  set  closer  into  the  front  of  the  boiler. 
This  type  of  setting  will  prove  satisfactory  when 
burning  the  better  grades  of  lignite.  For  lignites 
containing  a  high  percentage  of  moisture,  a  special 
extension  is  employed  at  the  front  of  the  grate  for 
partially  drying  the  fuel  before  passing  on  to  the  chain 
grate  proper. 

In  view  of  its  present  importance  the  question  of 
the  most  satisfactory  way  to  burn  the  Canadian  lignites 
is  engaging  the  general  attention  of  engineers,  and 
the  Canadian  government  recently  passed  a  special 
grant  for  an  experimental  plant  in  Saskatchewan. 
While  some  valuable  investigations  have  been  carried 
out  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines,  it  would  be 
of  additional  interest  to  hear  from  others  who  have 
had  experience  in  burning  lignite  containing  over  25 
per  cent,  moisture  under  boilers.  F.  A.  COMBE. 

Montreal,  Que.,  Canada. 

Combustion  in  Boiler  Breechings 

1  read  with  interest  the  experiences  of  Mr.  Sonntag 
in  regard  to  the  gas  burning  in  the  breeching  of  boilers 
equipped  with  forced-draft  apparatus,  in  the  issue  of 
Mar.  26,  page  448,  and  having  had  experience  with  high- 
volatile  coals  and  various  kinds  of  furnaces,  I  think 
possibly  the  following  may  be  of  interest.  I  feel  sure 
that  Mr.  Sonntag's  conclusions  are  correct — that  the  gas 
burning  in  the  breeching  is  the  result  of  insufficient 
oxygen  to  support  combustion,  which  causes  the  flame 
to  reach  out  for  more.  A  kerosene  lamp  will  demon- 
strate this  condition,  as  any  slight  reduction  of  air 
through  the  burner  will  cause  the  flame  to  lengthen. 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  successful  forced-draft 
installation  depends  on  a  restricted  and  uniform  air 
supply  to  the  fire.     Eliminating  excess  air  is  vital  to 


good  efficiency,  so  that  the  foregoing  condition  warrants 
a  lot  of  consideration,  as  there  is  a  possibility  that  the 
condition  that  did  exist  in  this  case  could  be  made  to 
produce  remarkably  good  results  if  a  few  minor  changes 
and  experiments  had  been  made.  For  such  a  condition 
I  would  suggest  a  few  encircling  tile  directly  over  the 
bridge-walls  to  give  the  gas  an  incandescent  surface  to 
impinge  on,  creating  a  zone  of  much  higher  temperature 
than  can  be  obtained  otherwise,  and  then  by  firing 
alternate  doors  there  is  a  chance  for  the  fire  to  get 
sufiicient  free  oxygen  well  mixed  and  ignited  at  this 
point,  so  that  the  gases  will  be  consumed  in  the  combus- 
tion chamber  instead  of  in  the  breeching.  A  still  better 
method  is  to  construct  arches  of  short  spans,  approxi- 
mately four  feet  wide,  over  the  bridge-walls,  which,  on 
account  of  being  narrower  than  the  boiler,  will  make 
a  much  better  mixing  medium. 

I  have  records  of  tests  on  Heine  boilers  with  properly 
arranged  forced-draft  grates  and  furnaces,  using  South- 
ern Kansas  coal  of  a  very  rich  volatile  content,  where 
the  temperature  in  the  combustion  chamber  reached  over 
2000  deg.  F.  when  carrying  heavy  loads,  and  the  stack 
temperatures  reached  but  a  fraction  over  600  deg.,  with 
the  waste  gases  showing  only  a  trace  of  carbon  monox- 
ide. I  have  also  made  exhaustive  experiments  at  a  re- 
duction works  in  Colorado  City,  where  Colorado  lignite 
coal  is  burned  with  a  forced-draft  furnace  especially 
designed  for  that  fuel,  in  which  preheated  air  is  intro- 
duced between  the  furnace  and  the  combustion  chamber ; 
and  by  controlling  this  air,  the  length  of  the  flame  on 
the  hearth  can  be  changed  from  20  ft.  to  as  high  as  70 
ft.  The  flame  can  be  controlled  in  the  same  way  under 
the  boilers,  which  are  similarly  equipped  in  this  plant. 
Forced  draft  is  getting  to  be  the  favorite  method  of 
burning  slack  and  high-volatile  coals  on  account  of  the 
high  boiler  efficiencies  maintained.  My  experience  has 
taught  me  that  it  is  much  easier  to  add  a  little  air  at 
the  proper  place  in  a  furnace  under  slight  pressure  than 
to  fight  the  eternal  excess  that  filters  through  boiler  set- 
tings and  fuel  beds  in  poor  condition  caused  by  poorly 
designed  grates.  WiLLiAM  J.  Manhire. 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Volumetric  Efficiency  of  Air 
Compressors 

The  apparent  volumetric  efficiency  of  an  air  compres- 
sor is  the  apparent  volume  of  free  air  drawn  in  divided 
by  the  piston  displacement;  the  cylinder  clearance  is, 
of  course,  considered  in  the  calculation  or  determina- 
tion. This  efliciency  is  usually  about  96  to  97  per  cent, 
with  modern  valves. 

Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem  there  is  a  two-stage  steam- 
driven  air  compressor  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  that  shows  a 
volumetric  efficiency  of  116.8  per  cent,  as  shown  in  the 
records  of  tests  on  file  in  Washington.  You  don't  be- 
lieve it?  Neither  did  I  when  it  was  first  brought  to 
my  notice,  but  I  believe  it  now.  Here  is  the  reason : 
The  cold-air  inlet  is  a  long  pipe  extending  to  the  river 
bank,  and  when  suction  starts  in  the  compressor  it 
sets  in  motion  the  long  column  of  air  in  the  inlet  pipe, 
the  momentum  of  which  partly  compresses  the  air  in 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  before  the  inlet  valves  are 
completely  closed.     Do  you  believe  it  now? 

Pittsburgh,  Penn.  G.  E.  MICHAEL. 


May  21,  1918  POWER  745 

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I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  f 


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Effect  of  Superheating  on  Valve  Leakage — What  effect 
has  the  use  of  superheated  steam  on  the  leakage  of  engine 
valves?  W.  R. 

In  all  forms  of  valves  the  tendency  to  leakage  is  in- 
creased, as  the  higher  temperature  of  the  steam  causes 
greater  distortion  of  the  parts  and  at  the  same  time  the 
steam  is  less  dense. 

Quick  Rise  of  Compression  Line  of  Indicator  Diagram — 
What  causes  the  quick  rise  in  the  compression  line  frequently 
observed  in  steam-engine  indicator  diagrams?        W.  R.  S. 

A  quick  rise  of  the  compression  line  may  be  due  to  the  com- 
pression steam  taking  up  heat  from  the  cylinder  and  also 
may  be  due  to  the  addition  of  steam  that  has  leaked  past 
the  inlet  valve. 

Expansion  Tank  for  Hot-Water  Heating — What  size  of 
expansion  tank  would  be  suitable  for  a  hot-water  heating 
system  having  about  750  sq.ft.  of  radiation  ?  S.  F. 

Expansion  tanks  for  hot-water  systems  containing  500  to 
1000  sq.ft  of  radiation  should  have  a  capacity  of  about  1  gal. 
ner  40  ft.  of  radiation.  For  750  ft.  of  radiation  a  tank  of 
20  to  25  gal.  capacity  would  be  sufficient. 

Ratio  of  Expansion — What  is  meant  by  ratio  of  expansion 
in  a  simple  engine  and  in  a  compound  engine?  J.  L. 

The  ratio  of  expansion  of  the  steam  used  in  a  simple 
engine  is  the  quotient  derived  by  dividing  the  final  volume 
of  steam  found  in  the  cylinder  by  the  initial  volume.  By 
initial  volume  is  meant  the  volume  of  steam  admitted  to  the 
cylinder  up  to  the  point  of  cutoff  plus  the  clearance  volume, 
and  by  final  volume  is  meant  the  volume  of  the  cylinder, 
plus  the  clearance  volume.  In  a  compound,  triple  or  any 
other  form  of  stage-expansion  engine  just  as  in  a  simple 
engine,  the  total  ratio  of  expansion  is  the  ratio  of  the  final 
volume  of  steam  found  in  the  last  cylinder  to  the  initial 
volume  in  the  first  cylinder. 

Dry  Pipe  Preferable  to  Steam  Dome — Why  is  a  dry  pipe 
for  a  horizontal  return-tubular  boiler  preferable  to  a  steam 
dome?  S.  P. 

A  steam  dome  takes  up  headroom,  affords  a  large  surface 
for  loss  of  heat  and  the  construction  impairs  the  safety  of 
the  shell.  The  strength  of  the  riveting  and  staying  of  a 
dome  to  the  shell  is  uncertain,  as  it  depends  on  the  holding 
power  of  rivet  heads,  and  the  unequal  expansion  of  the 
dome  flanging  and  boiler  shell  is  likely  to  cause  leakage 
that  cannot  be  stopped  by  calking.  None  of  these  disad- 
vantages is  present  from  use  of  a  dry  pipe,  and  when  it  is 
properly  designed  and  placed  within  a  boiler,  mechanical 
separation  of  water  that  is  entrained  in  the  steam  may  be 
obtained  as  effectually  as  by  use  of  a  dome  of  ordinary 
dimensions. 

Changing  Direct-Current  Motor's  Voltage — What  changes 
are  necessary  to  be  made  in  the  windings  of  a  4-pole  240  volt 
compound-wound  motor,  running  1350  r.p.m.,  to  operate  on 
115  volts  and  run  at  one-half  its  original  speed,  or  675 
r.p.m.?  T.  A.  M. 

The  only  changes  necessary  are  in  the  shunt-field  windings. 
The  shunt-field  coils  must  be  arranged  in  two  groups  of  two 
coils  in  series  in  each  and  the  two  groups  connected  in 
parallel.  To  obtain  the  same  amount  of  compounding  as 
when  the  machine  was  operating  on  240  volts  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  make  any  change  in  the  series-field  windings. 
The  machine  will  take  the  same  current  at  full  load  on  115 
volts  as  it  did  on  240  volts  and  develops  one-half  the  num- 
ber of  horsepower.  On  account  of  115  volts  being  slightly 
less  than  one-half  of  240,  or  120  volts,  the  speed  on  the 
new  connection  will  be  slightly  less  than  one-half  that  on 
the  higher  voltage.  The  ventilation  will  not  be  quite  so 
good  on  the  lower  speed,  therefore  the  full-load  tempera- 
ture may  be  somewhat  higher  at  the  low  speed. 


Value  of  Two  Alternating  Currents — An  alternating  cur- 
rent of  10  amperes  is  out  of  phase  by  30  deg.  with  a  second 
current  of  15  amperes.  What  is  the  lesultant  value  of  the 
two  currents  ?  H.  F.  S. 

The  resultant  of  two  or  more  alternating  currents  in  a 
circuit  is  always  equal  to  their  vectorial  sum.  The  angle 
between  the  two  currents  in  this  case  is  30  deg.,  hence  the 


angle  0,  between  AB  and  AC  representing  the  two  currents 
in  the  figure,  is  made  30  deg.,  and  by  completing  the  paral- 
lelogram the  resultant  AD  is  obtained,  which  represents 
to  scale  what  an  ammeter  would  read  when  the  two  cur- 
rents were  flowing  through  it.  This  resultant  may  be  cal- 
culated by  the  formula, 


y    If  -f  If  -H  21 J ^  cos  0 


=  1     10=  +  15=  -H  (2  X  10  X  15  X  0.866)  =  24.2  amperes 

Determining  Advantage  of  Speeding  Up  Engine — How  is 

it  determined  whether  there  would  be  an  advantage  from 
speeding  up  a  Corliss  engine  with  the  present  load? 

W.  V.  B. 

As  the  advantage  would  depend  on  the  superior  economy 
from  shorter  cutoff  combined  with  increased  piston  speed, 
the  first  step  would  be  to  determine  the  mean  effective  pres- 
sure necessary  and  from  that  to  determine  the  new  point  of 
cutoff"  and  the  relative  steam  economy  at  the  proposed  speed. 
For  the  same  load,  the  m.e.p.  to  be  realized  with  differ- 
ent speeds  is  inversely  as  the  speeds,  and  the  required 
m.e.p.  would  be  found  by  multiplying  the  present  m.e.p. 
by  the  present  speed  and  dividing  the  product  by  the  pro- 
posed speed.  Adding  the  m.e.p.  to  the  average  absolute 
back  pressure  gives  the  average  absolute  forward  pressure 
and  this  divided  by  the  absolute  initial  pressure  will  be 
the  average  forward  pressure  to  be  realized  per  pound  of 
the  initial. 

Inspection  of  a  table  of  mean  pressure  per  pound  of 
initial  with  different  clearances  and  points  of  cutoff  (such 
as  given  on  page  115  of  Low's  "Steam  Engine  Indicator") 
will  show  the  point  of  cutoff  required.  The  relative  amount 
of  steam  admitted  with  the  present  point  of  cutoff  and 
number  of  strokes  per  minute  can  be  compared  with  that 
required  by  the  new  point  of  cutoff  and  proposed  number  of 
strokes  per  minute.  Such  a  comparison  can  only  be  ap- 
proximate, however,  as  in  tlie  different  cases  there  is  likely 
to  be  dift'erent  variation  of  the  actual  from  the  theoretical 
diagrams  made  by  the  engine.  A  closer  estimate  of  rela- 
tive economy  could  be  made  from  comparison  of  actual 
diagrams  obtained  with  the  present  speed  for  the  average 
load  and  with  the  engine  loaded  only  sufficiently  for  obtain- 
ing the  m.e.p.  that  will  be  I'equired  by  the  jiroposed  speed. 
If  the  proposed  increase  of  speed  is  within  limits  of  safety 
and  certainty  of  operation  of  the  engine,  feed-water  tests  of 
economy  of  steam  required  per  horsepower  per  hour  for  the 
present  average  m.e.p.  and  for  a  load  that  requires  approxi- 
mately the  proposed  m.e.p.  vt  the  present  speed  would  give 
results  near  enough  for  all  practical  purposes  to  be  regard- 
ed as  identical  with  relative  results  of  tests  made  at  the 
actual  speeds. 


[Correspondents    sending   in    inquiries   should    sign   their 
communications     with     full     names     and     post     office     ad- 
dresses.    This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of 
the  communications  and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  atten 
tion. — Editor.] 


746 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


Washington  &  Idaho  Water  Power  Co. 
Valuation 

In  the  hearings  being  conducted  by  the  public-service 
commissions  of  Washington  and  Idaho  at  Spokane  relative 
to  the  value  of  the  Washington  &  Idaho  Water  Power  Co., 
R.  H.  Thomson,  former  city  engineer  of  Seattle,  gave  the 
properties  a  substantial  boost  in  value. 

Called  as  an  expert  on  power-site  values,  he  has  given 
two  months  since  the  adjournment  of  the  hearing  in  Feb- 
ruary to  a  study  of  the  company's  power  sites,  water-storage 
system,  power  plants  and  their  relative  costs  as  compared 
with  other  plants  similarly  situated.  The  total  value  of 
the  company's  properties  is  given  as  $26,000,000. 

Engineer  Thomson  found  that  the  power  development  of 
the  Washington  Water  Power  Co.  was  installed  at  a  much 
less  cost  than  that  usually  estimated,  and  for  that  reason 
he  placed  a  valuation  on  the  company's  power  plants,  over- 
How  rights  and  impounding  systems  of  approximately 
$5,000,000  more  than  its  book  costs  show.  He  called  this 
the  "value  of  opportunity,"  which  he  held  entitled  the  com- 
pany to  a  valuation  which  it  would  expect  to  ask  were  it 
about  to  sell  its  property  to  an  outside  purchaser.  Should 
the  joint  commission  accept  the  views  of  Thomson,  it  will 
mean  an  addition  of  20  per  cent,  to  the  value  of  the  com- 
pany's property  as  given  in  former  testimony  and  will  en- 
title the  company  to  increase  its  rates. 

The  Washington  Water  Power  valuation  hearing  is  being 
held  preliminary  to  rate  making  by  the  public-service  com- 
missions of  Washington  an3  Idaho.  The  appraisal  by  the 
engineers  of  the  Washington  and  Idaho  commissions  has 
been  in  progress  more  than  three  years.  The  greater  part 
of  the  testimony  of  the  engineers  for  the  two  states  was 
taken  in  February,  at  which  time  R.  H.  Thomson  was 
retained  for  a  further  inquiry  as  to  power-site  values  by 
the  Washington  commission,  and  the  City  of  Spokane  re- 
tained Otto  A.  Weille,  former  city  engineer,  for  testimony 
in  behalf  of  the  city.  J.  C.  Ralston,  former  city  engineer, 
appeared  as  an  additional  expert  for  the  Washington  Water 
Power  Co.,  making  three  engineers  representing  the  com- 
pany, the  others  being  Carl  F.  Uhden,  chief  engineer  for 
the  company,  and  Henry  L.  Gray.  J.  B.  Ingersoll,  former 
chief  electrical  engineer  for  the  Inland  Empire  system, 
attended  the  hearings  !n  consultation  with  counsel  for 
the  city. 

For  the  Washington  commission  are  appearing  E.  F. 
Blaine,  chairman;  F.  I.  Spinning,  and  Harry  Lewis.  The 
members  of  the  Idaho  commission  in  attendance  are  John 
W.  Graham,  chairman;  George  E.  Erb  and  L.  A.  Freehafer. 
Hans  Cleland,  assistant  attorney  general,  appears  as  coun- 
sel for  the  state,  and  J.  P.  Pope,  assistant  attorney  general 
of  Idaho,  is  counsel  for  the  commission  of  that  state.  Frank 
T.  {"ost  is  counsel  ior  the  Washington  Water  Power  Co., 
anJ  Mayor  C.  M.  Fassett,  J.  M.  Geraghty,  corporation  coun- 
sel, and  A.  IVi.  Winston,  assistant  corporation  counsel,  appear 
for  the  city.  D.  F.  McCurrach,  acting  chief  engineer,  and 
J.  S.  Simpson,  former  chief  accountant,  appear  as  technical 
experts  for  the  Washington  Commission.  W.  G.  Swensden, 
chief  engineer  for  the  Idaho  commission,  is  in  attendance. 

R.  H.  Thomson,  the  first  witness  called,  said  that  power 
sites  installed  under  similar  conditions  as  those  that  obtained 
A^ith  the  Washington  Water  Power  Co.  cost  $225  per  hp.  The 
great  Montana  plants,  the  closest  competitors  of  the  Wash- 
ington Water  Power  Co.,  he  said,  cost  $215  per  hp.  He  was 
surprised  at  the  comparatively  low  cost  of  horsepower  devel- 
opment shown  in  the  invoice  costs  of  the  Washington  Water 
Power  Co.,  which  is  lower  than  the  average  costs  over  the 
country.  He  said  that  this  difference  is  due  to  the  advanta- 
geous location  of  the  company's  four  plants  on  the  Spokane 
River,  with  common  impounding  of  water-storage  facilities  in 
Cceur  d'Alene  Lake.  The  company  appears  to  have  exercised 
prudence  and  close  supervision  in  the  building  of  its  plants, 
as  disclosed  by  its  book  costs.  He  claimed  that  the  company 
in  determining  the  value  of  its  property  is  entitled  to  the 
difference  in  what  its  development  has  cost  per  horsepower 
as  compared  with  what  similar  developments  have  cost  else- 
where.   Allowing  ordinary  conditions  of  growth  and  a  favor- 


able field  in  so  far  as  competition  is  concerned,  he  would 
place  this  value  of  opportunity  at  $4,931,251. 

Engineer  Thomson  produced  the  cost  of  power  develop- 
ment per  horsepower  for  the  plants  of  the  Washington 
Water  Power  Co.,  together  with  the  credit  due  each  plant 
compared  with  the  going  costs  of  such  development  for  other 
companies: 

Cost  per  Hp.   De-  Credit 

Plant                                            Hp.  velopment  Due 

Post  Falls $168  5,930  $278,710 

♦Spokane   151  26,700  1,708,000 

Long  Lake  Plant 147  42,918  2,918,220 

Little  Falls  Plant 120  18,130  1,722.350 

*  Estimated  on  basis  of  proposed  new  $3,000,000  plant. 

He  stated  that  this  makes  a  total  excess  value  of  $6,628,080 
over  and  above  what  might  be  styled  invoice  value  of  water 
rights  and  sites,  including  lands  for  impounding  purposes, 
belonging  to  the  Washington  Water  Power  Co.  This  sum 
plus  the  invoice  value  will  be  at  par  at  such  time  as  the 
market  demands  of  the  territory  will  consume  the  normal 
output  of  the  plant.  Figuring  on  the  basis  of  ten  years  being 
required  for  the  territory  to  absorb  the  full  output  of  the 
company,  $4,931,251  would  be  a  conservative  figure  as  to 
the  excess  value. 

Engineer  McCurrach,  for  the  Washington  Commission, 
presented  a  supplemental  report,  bringing  the  appraisal  of 
the  Washington  Water  Power  Co.,  to  December,  1916,  as 
compared  to  June  30,  1915,  the  date  covered  in  his  first 
report.  This  subsequent  appraisal  is  based  on  additions 
actually  made  to  the  properties  since  June  30,  1915,  as 
shown  by  the  books  of  the  company.  Prices  are  based  on 
the  five-year  average  from  1910  to  1915.  Following  are  the 
figures: 

WASHINGTON  PROPERTIES 

June  30,  1915  December,  1916 

Railway  system $5,502,422  00  $5,593,214  00 

Light  and  power  system 13,505,694  00  13,834,977  00 

Nonoperating  property ""'  a*;';  oa 


893,855  00 


893.785  00 


Totals $19,901,971   00  $20,321,976  00 

Land  railway 447,004  00  438,453  00 

Land-light  and  power 1,114,90400  1,114,23200 

Totals $1,561,908.00  $1,552,685.00 

IDAHO  PROPERTIES 

Light  and»power  systems $2,326,669  00  $2,478,890  00 

Nonoperating  property 42,586  00  42,586  00 

Totals  $2,369,255  00  $2,521,476  00 

Land-light  and  power 123,560  00  143,203  00 

Grand  totals  Washington  and  Idaho...  $23,956,694  00  $24,519,340  00 

Another  table  of  appraised  values  was  presented  by 
Engineer  McCurrach,  prepared  at  the  request  of  F.  P.  Post, 
attorney  for  the  power  company,  based  on  prices  prevailing 
from  1912  to  1916,  a  period  in  which  materials  and  labor  cost 
more.    These  figures  showed: 

Washington  totals   $23,490,484  00 

Idaho  totals 2,839,626  00 

Grandtotal $26,330,110.00 

Increase  over  regular  appraisal  figures. 1.81 0,770  00 

The  appraisal  of  Engineer  McCurrach  on  the  railway 
property  of  the  company  to  December,  1916,  on  the  1910-15 
basis  shows: 

Spokane  Street  Railway ^^■^H'lll  9S. 

Interurban  System 5tS'S?r  XS 

Lands— Spokane  Railway ?59';°1  ?5 

Lands— Interurban          176,692  00 

Total..  $6,022,667.00 

A  calculation  of  what  he  thought  was  a  fair  system  of 
annual  depreciation  allowances  to  be  made  on  the  property 
of  the  Washington  Water  Power  Co.  was  presented  by  Mr. 
McCurrach,  showing: 

Per  Cent  .\mount 

Spokane  Street  Railway 3  99  $I9U85.00 

Interurban  railway      .      3  85  ",613  00 

Light  and  power.  Washington 3  51  480,862.00 

Light  and  power,  Idaho 3.49  86,067.00 


Total  annual  deiireciatioii 


3  71        $790,727.00 


Remember,  oil  is  lazy  and  very  unobliging;  it  will  never 
accommodate  you  by  working  to  the  center  of  a  bearing, 
but  will  always  work  from  the  center  out. — Marine  Engi- 
ne ering. 


May  21,  1918 


POWER 


747 


Fuel   Conservation   by   Off-Peak   Rates 
for  Isolated   Plants 

The  testimony  presented  at  the  resumed  hearing  before 
the  Public  Service  Commission  for  the  First  District  of  New 
York,  on  May  13,  was  of  a  character  intended  to  establish 
the  superiority  of  the  isolated  plant  over  the  central  station 
under  certain  conditions  of  operation  and  to  bring  out  the 
idea  that  fuel  can  be  saved  to  a  community  by  permitting 
isolated  plants  to  purchase  current  from  public-service 
plants  during  the  nonheating  season  and  generate  their  own 
electricity  during  the  heating  season. 

The  plant  of  Saks  &  Co.,  Broadway  and  34th  St.,  furnishes 
light  and  heat  to  a  seven-story  building,  as  well  as  steam 
for  operating  elevator  pumps.  For  about  a  year  after  the 
building  was  opened,  in  1902,  the  plant  was  run  to  furnish 
light,  heat  and  power.  From  December,  1903,  to  November, 
1914,  the  plant  discontinued  the  generation  of  electricity 
and  purchased  the  necessary  current  for  lighting  from  the 
Edison  company.  At  the  end  of  this  period,  however,  elec- 
tric generation  in  the  plant  was  resumed. 

A  comparison  of  the  costs  of  operation  in  1913  and  1915 
is  interesting.  In  1913  the  purchased  current  cost  $21,000 
and  the  cost  of  operation  of  the  plant  to  supply  steam  for 
heating  and  for  running  the  elevator  pumps  was  $17,000, 
making  a  total  of  $38,000.  In  1915,  with  the  plant  supply- 
ing light,  heat  and  power,  the  total  cost  of  operation  was 
528,850,  representing  a  saving  of  $9150  over  the  expense  of 
operation  in  1913. 

Dm-ing  the  heating  season,  the  exhaust  steam  from  the 
elevator  pumps  is  sufficient  to  supply  practically  two-thirds 
of  the  heating,  the  remainder  being  made  up  by  live  steam. 
In  the  nonheating  season,  there  is  no  way  of  utilizing  the 
exhaust  steam,  and  consequently  it  goes  to  waste.  If  a 
summer  rate  for  current  could  be  obtained,  equal  to  or 
less  than  the  cost  of  production  in  the  plant,  the  plant  could 
be  shut  down  in  the  nonheating  period  with  a  resultant 
saving  to  the  community  of  about  360  tons  of  coal.  Approxi- 
mately 180,000  kw.-hr.  is  needed  during  the  nonheating 
season,  and  the  generation  of  this  current  by  the  central 
station  instead  of  the  isolated  plant  could  be  done  on  at 
least  4  lb.  of  coal  less  per  kilowatt-hour,  amounting  to  a 
saving  of  720,000  lb.,  or  360  tons.  During  the  heating 
season,  however,  the  central  station  would  have  no  such 
advantage  over  the  isolated  plant,  as  the  latter  would  use 
its  exhaust  for  heating. 

The  plant  of  Bonwit  Teller  &  Co.,  Fifth  Avenue  and  38th 
St.,  supplies  steam  for  the  operation  of  engines  driving 
electric  generators,  for  running  refrigerating  machinery  and 
for  heating.  Comparison  of  the  cost  of  generating  current 
in  this  plant,  as  taken  from  the  plant  records,  and  buying 
it  from  the  Edison  company  shows  that  the  former  is  about 
half  as  large  as  the  latter.  The  reason  is  that  no  exhaust 
steam  is  wasted,  in  the  heating  season,  as  it  can  all  be  used 
in  supplying  heat  to  the  seven-story  building  in  which  the 
plant  is  situated. 

The  shutting  down  of  the  electric-generating  part  of  the 
plant  would  have  little  value  as  a  coal-saving  scheme. 
About  14  tons  a  day  is  required  for  heating,  and  if  current 
for  lighting  is  generated,  the  coal  consumption  is  only  about 
17  tons  a  day.  The  number  of  kilowatt-hours  generated, 
however,  is  much  greater  than  the  central  station  could 
produce  with  the  3  tons  of  coal  representing  the  increase 
of  coal  consumption,  because  the  isolated  plant  obtains  the 
'•urrent  as  a  byproduct  of  the  heating  system. 

The  Columbia  Trust  Co.,  60  Broadway,  installed  a  private 
electric  plant  in  1915.  Before  that  time  current  had  been 
purchased  from  the  Edison  company,  and  an  isolated  steam 
plant  had  furnished  the  heating  and  run  the  elevators.  The 
result  is  that  the  electric  plant  has  saved  enough  to  pay 
for  the  cost  of  installation  and  all  interest  charges.  The 
saving  for  the  year  ending  Oct.  15,  1916,  was  $10,171  and 
for  the  year  ending  Oct.  15,  1917,  was  $11,396.  These 
savings  were  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  Edison  rate  for 
current  before  the  electric  plant  was  installed.  For  example, 
in  the  year  ending  Oct.  15,  1916,  the  electric  current  used 
would  have  cost  $19,494  at  the  Edison  rate.  The  heating 
would  have  cost  $7938  more,  making  a  total  expense  of 


$27,432.  The  actual  operating  expense  for  that  year  was 
$17,261,  so  the  amount  saved  was  $10,171. 

Percival  R.  Moses,  who  has  had  a  wide  experience  in 
designing  private  plants  for  buildings,  appeared  in  behalf 
of  the  isolated  plant.  He  advocated  cooperation  of  the  public- 
service  utility  and  the  isolated  plant  as  the  solution  of  the 
coal-conservation  problem.  His  plan  would  be  to  shut  down 
the  private  plants  during  the  nonheating  season,  when  they 
have  no  use  for  exhaust  steam  and  could  therefore  operate 
only  wastefully,  and  to  establish  a  low  rate  whereby  they 
could  purchase  current  for  lighting  during  this  period  from 
the  public-service  plants. 

The  views  expressed  by  Mr.  Moses  are  given  at  consid- 
erable length  in  an  article  by  him  in  the  Mar.  26,  1918, 
issue  of  Power.  He  said  in  his  testimony  that  the  Chicago 
Edison  Co.  has  established  rates  for  off-peak  service  to 
isolated  plants  during  the  nonheating  season,  as  follows: 
3c.  per  kw.-hr.  for  the  first  25,000  kw.-hr.;  1.3c.  per  kw.-hr. 
for  the  next  25,000  kw.-hr.;  1.1c.  per  kw.-hr.  for  the  next 
70,000  kw.-hr.,  and  0.9c.  per  kw.-hr.  for  all  in  excess  of  the 
last  figure.  It  was  his  impression  that  the  City  of  Mil- 
waukee had  a  similar  off-peak  rate. 

It  will  be  remembered,  in  this  connection,  that  at  a  pre- 
ceding hearing  John  W.  Lieb,  of  the  New  York  Edison  Co., 
made  the  statement  that  under  the  conditions  existing  in 
New  York  City  there  was  no  such  thing  as  off-peak  service, 
because  a  sudden  demand  might  arise  to  tax  the  entire 
capacity  of  a  station. 

Mr.  Moses  was  asked  whether  he  could  account  for  the 
paradoxical  statement  that  in  some  plants  less  coal  was 
burned  for  heating  and  generating  current  than  for  heating 
alone.  He  said  that  where  live  steam  was  used  for  heating 
it  was  quite  probable  that  too  high  a  temperature  was 
remedied  by  opening  windows;  whereas,  in  a  plant  using 
exhaust  steam  for  heating,  the  supply  available  is  only  that 
which  comes  through  engines  and  pumps,  at  a  fairly  uniform 
rate,  and  therefore  there  is  likely  to  be  less  waste  of  heat 
because  of  excessively  high  temperatures. 

The  hearing  was  adjourned  until  June  10,  1918. 

Record  Coal   Production 

A  week's  record  production  of  bituminous  coal  is  indi- 
cated by  reports  received  by  the  United  States  Fuel  Admin- 
istration covering  the  week  ended  Apr.  27.  During  that 
week  the  total  output  is  estimated  by  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  at  11,803,000  net  tons,  an  increase  of  6.1 
per  cent,  over  the  preceding  week.  The  average  produc- 
tion per  working  day  was  1,946,000  net  tons  compared  to 
1,840,000  net  tons  the  previous  week  and  1,680,000  net  tons 
during  April,  1917. 

The  output  for  the  month  of  April,  1918,  is  estimated  at 
36,478,000  net  tons,  an  increase  of  10  per  cent,  over  April, 
1917.  Production  for  the  four  months  ended  April,  1918,  is 
estimated  at  181,992,000  net  tons,  an  increase  over  5,000,- 
000  net  tons,  or  about  3  per  cent,  over  ihe  same  four  months 
of  1917.  The  week  ended  Apr.  27  recorded  not  only  the 
highest  rate  of  production  for  the  past  12  months,  but  was 
the  third  successive  week  of  rising  production.  The  reports 
to  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  showed  a  gradual  improve- 
ment in  car  service  conditions  at  the  mines  during  the  week 
ending  Apr.  20.  Loss  of  production  due  to  car  shortage 
throughout  the  country  was  reported  as  16.2  per  cent,  as 
against  18.1  per  cent,  for  the  preceding  weeks.  Loss  due 
to  labor  shortage  was  4.8  per  cent,  as  against  2.6  per  cent, 
during  the  preceding  weeks. 

There  is  quite  a  loss  due  to  "no  market"  all  through  the 
Middle  West,  the  loss  running  from  5.8  per  cent,  for  the 
Rocky  Mountain  States  to  30.7  per  cent,  for  mines  in  Iowa. 

During  the  week  ended  May  4  bituminous  output  declined 
slightly  after  three  successive  weeks  of  rising  production, 
the  total  production  being  estimated  at  11,559,000  net  tons, 
a  decrease  of  2  per  cent,  from  the  week  previous. 

The  continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  turbine  is  ideal 
for  certain  drives,  but  the  crank  is  still  the  ideal  drive 
for  an  air  compressor,  as  it  gives  the  mechanical  ad- 
vantage of  power  application  just  when  it  is  needed. — 
Marine  Engineering. 


748 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


Changes  in  Coal-Zoning  Plan 

Under  an  order  modifying  the  zone  system  issued  by  the 
Fuel  Administration,  bituminous  coal  originating  on  the 
Broad  Top  Mountain  railroads  and  their  short-line  connec- 
tions, in  the  States  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia  and 
Maryland,  when  routed  via  the  Pennsylvania  R.R.,  is  em- 
bargoed from  Baltimore  and  Washington  markets. 

To  meet  this  situation  the  Fuel  Administration  will 
arrange  for  the  essential  supply  to  the  points  designated 
from  mines  on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  Western  Maryland 
and  their  connections,  which  lines  afford  a  much  more  direct 
route  to  these  points.  As  a  consequence  a  vast  amount  of 
time  and  mileage  will  be  saved  to  the  Pennsylvania  lines, 
thus  assuring  an  increased  movement  of  coal  to  points  in 
eastern  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and  New  England. 

Consumers  of  the  classifications  named  in  Preference  List 
No.  1,  of  the  priority  board,  will  receive  coal  in  preference 
to  any  other  individual  or  class  of  consumers. 

Under  the  modified  order,  which  became  effective  on  Apr. 
20,  producers  in  the  sections  named  will  be  prohibited  from 
selling,  shipping  or  distributing  coal  to  dealers  and  con- 
sumers at  Washington  and  Baltimore  and  at  all  stations  on 
the  Baltimore  &  Sparrows  Point  R.R.  when  routed  via  the 
Pennsylvania. 

The  order  forbids  the  shipment  of  bituminous  coal  over 
the  railroads  named  for  railroad  delivery  or  transshipments 
to  vessels  in  Baltimore,  at  President  Street,  Highlandtown, 
Jackson's  Wharf,  Calvert,  Bolton,  Frederick  Road  and 
Gwynns  Run  station;  and  points  of  delivery  between  any 
two  of  such  stations;  all  stations  and  points  of  delivery  on 
the  Baltimore  division  of  the  Pennsylvania  R.R.  from  Lou- 
don Park,  Md.,  to  Catonsville,  Md.,  inclusive,  and  Arbutus, 
Md.,  to  Washington,  D.  C,  and  Rosslyn,  Va.,  including 
Popes  Creek  branch,  running  from  Bowie,  Md.,  to  Popes 
Creek,  Md.,  inclusive. 

Consumers  located  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  Baltimore  & 
Sparrows  Point  railroads  will  continue  to  receive  their  coal 
at  their  regular  points  of  delivery,  the  coal  moving  via  the 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  Western  Maryland  being  delivered  to 
the  Pennsylvania  at  junctions  near  destinations. 


Navy  Steam  Engineering  School 

The  United  States  Navy  Department  has  perfected  plans 
for  the  enrollment  and  training  of  considerable  numbers  of 
engineering  oflicers.  A  school  for  this  training  known  as 
the  United  States  Navy  Steam  Engineering  School,  has  been 
established  at  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  under  the  guidance  of  Dean  F.  L.  Pryor  as  Civilian 
Director. 

The  course  consists  of  five  months'  training  divided  as 
follows:  One  month  of  military  training  at  the  Naval  Train- 
ing Camp,  Pelham  Bay  Park,  New  York;  one  month  at  the 
U.  S.  Navy  Steam  Engineering  School;  tv/o  months'  prac- 
tical training  on  board  ships  and  in  repair  shops  in  the 
vicinity  of  New  York;  one  month  finishing  course  at  the 
U.  S.  Navy  Steam   Engineering  School. 

The  school  is  open  to  men  between  21  and  30,  who  ai-e 
physically  qualified,  of  thorough  ability  and  officer-like 
character,  and  who  have  completed  the  engineering  course 
a*-  any  recognized  technical  school. 

This  school  presents  particularly  desirable  opportunities 
to  the  young  technical  man,  both  in  affording  him  a  proper 
outlet  for  his  trained  fficilities  during  the  war  and  in  round- 
ing out  his  college  work  with  a  practical  course  and  school 
experience  which  will  be  of  value  to  any  engineer. 

The  service  that  a  graduate  from  the  school  will  perform 
will  be  that  of  an  engineer-officer  in  the  auxiliary  service 
of  the  Navy.  A  graduate  of  the  school  will  be  commissioned 
an  ensign  in  the  Naval  Reserve  Force. 

Information  has  been  sent  to  all  registered  technical 
schools  and  should  be  on  file  at  the  President's  office.  For 
any  additional  details  application  can  be  made  to  the  Civilian 
Director,  U.  S.  Navy  Engineering  School,  Stevens  Institute, 
Hoboken,  N.  J. 

Any  men,  graduates  or  undergraduates,  who  are  regis- 
tered in  the  draft  can  enroll  with  the  proper  enrolling  oflJi- 


cer  by  securing  from  the  draft  board  a  letter  of  release, 
which  in  all  probability  can  be  obtained  for  this  purpose, 
provided  the  men  are  not  included  in  the  current  draft 
quota. 

Special  provision  has  been  made  for  the  continuance  of 
the  school  with  proper  material  by  a  Navy  regulation  which 
permits  undergraduates  of  the  freshman,  sophomore  and 
junior  classes  in  recognized  engineering  schools  to  enroll 
in  the  Navy  with  a  rating  seaman  second  class  and  continue 
their  courses  at  the  institutions  where  they  have  matricu- 
lated. Such  men  will  be  called  into  active  service  after 
their  graduation  and  can  at  that  time,  if  they  are  physically 
qualified  to  pass  an  officer's  physical  examination,  enroll 
for  the  course  at  the  United  States  Navy  Steam  Engi- 
neering School. 

Trained   Engineers   for   Naval    Service 

The  Bureau  of  Navigation,  Navy  Department,  is  desirous 
of  securing  trained  engineers  for  general  service  in  the  Navy 
in  steam  and  electrical  engineering  and  radio  duties. 

Applicants  will,  if  accepted,  be  enrolled  as  ensigns  in  tho 
Naval  Reserve  Force  and  will  be  sent  to  the  reserve  officers' 
school  at  Annapolis  for  a  special  course  of  about  four 
months,  after  which  those  who  finir;h  this  course  iuccess- 
fully  will  be  placed  in  further  training  ashore  or  afloat,  and 
then  become  available  for  regular  sea  or  shore  duty  as  the 
exigencies  of  the  service  may  demand. 

Applicants  for  this  general  service  should  have  the  follow- 
ing qualifications:  A  degree  in  mechanical,  electrical  or 
mining  engineering,  conferred  by  a  college  of  recognized 
standing;  at  least  two  and  one-half  years'  practical  engi- 
neering experience  subsequent  to  graduation  (exclusive  of 
time  spent  as  sales  agent)  ;  not  over  thirty-five  years  of  age; 
physically  strong  and  sound  in  health. 

The  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  American 
Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  Naval  Consulting  Board  and  National 
Research  Council  have  each  been  requested  to  submit  a  list 
of  fifty  names  equally  proportioned  among  personnel  trained 
in  steam-engineering  duties,  electrical-engineering  duties 
and  radio  duties;  but  the  exact  engineering  duties  to  be 
performed  in  general  service  by  each  applicant  will  be 
decided  after  completion  of  the  training  under  Naval  super- 
vision. 

It  is  probable  that  from  among  the  applicants  selected,  a 
class  will  be  formed  at  the  Naval  Academy  about  the  middle 
of  June.  Each  applicant  should  without  delay  forward  to 
the  Engineering  Council,  which  is  acting  for  the  five  organi- 
zations named,  a  resume  of  his  education  and  engineering 
experience,  together  with  a  small  photograph,  if  practic- 
able, and  such  letters  of  recommendation  as  it  may  be  pos- 
sible to  submit,  addressed  to  29  West  39th  St.,  New  York 
City. 

Government  Wants  Business  Diplomats 

The  Government  is  looking  for  big-caliber  men  with 
foreign  trade  experience  to  serve  as  commercial  attaches 
for  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce,  and  announces  that  appointees  will  be 
accredited  to  American  embassies  or  legations  abroad  and 
will  be  expected  to  meet  in  a  creditable  manner  the  most 
important  Government  officials  and  business  men  in  such 
countries  and  make  trade  reports.  A  rigid  examination 
will  be  held  on  June  6,  and  those  interested  are  urged 
to  write  at  once  to  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce,  Washington,  for  further  details. 

The  salary  of  the  Commercial  Attaches  ranges  from  $4000 
upward,  and  there  are  transportation  and  other  allowances. 
The  Department  of  Commerce  is  also  planning  to  appoint 
trade  commissioners  to  Europe,  South  Africa  and  the  Far 
East  in  the  near  future. 


Many  engineers  forget,  or  never  knew,  that  in  a  non- 
reversing  engine  only  one  side  of  the  crankpin  gets  any 
wear.  Think  this  statement  over,  and  you  will  find  it 
true. — Ma  rine  Engineering. 


May  21,  1918 


POWER 


749 


Maximum    Production   with    Minimum 
Waste 

The  United  States  Fuel  Administration  has  announced 
the  appointment  of  Thomas  R.  Brown,  of  Pittsburgh,  as 
administrative  engineer  for  the  Pittsburgh  district,  and 
C.  P.  Billings  as  special  staff  assistant.  These  appoint- 
ments were  made  as  a  preliminary  step  toward  putting  into 
operation  a  general  plan  for  fuel  conservation  in  power 
plants. 

This  plan  is  the  result  of  conferences  with  the  Federal 
Fuel  Administrators  and  their  committees  for  the  group  of 
states  which  together  consume  about  70  per  cent,  of  all 
the  coal  used  in  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  railroads. 
The  plan  has  received  the  indorsement  of  the  fuel  admin- 
istrators of  all  these  states,  as  well  as  the  approval  of 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines  and  a  committee  repre- 
senting the  Engineering  Council  of  the  four  national  engi- 
neering societies. 

The  slogan  of  the  campaign  is  "Maximum  production  with 
minimum  waste."  In  other  words,  the  object  is  to  operate 
all  industries  at  full  capacity,  but  at  the  same  time  to  make 
a  pound  of  fuel  perform  its  maximum  service  in  power, 
light  and  heat. 

In  laying  the  foundations  for  the  organization  it  has  been 
anticipated  that  this  work  should  become  a  permanent  serv- 
ice of  the  Government. 

Ten  to  twenty  per  cent. — that  is,  from  25  to  50  million 
tons  of  coal  per  year — can  be  saved  by  the  correct  opera- 
tion of  steam  power  plants,  using  their  present  equipment, 
in  the  industries,  in  office  buildings,  hotels,  apartment 
houses,  etc. 

It  is  considered  most  important  that  all  existing  fuel- 
conservation  committees,  committees  of  chambers  of  com- 
merce and  national  defense,  manufacturers'  associations, 
and  other  bodies  be  continued  in  full  force,  and  that  the 
work  of  such  organizations  be  consolidated  with  the  national 
program,  which  comprises  certain  fundamentals  as  follows: 

Fundamentals  of  the  Program 

Personal  inspection  of  every  power  plant  in  the  country. 

Classification  and  rating  of  every  power  plant,  based  on 
the  thoroughness  with  which  the  owner  of  the  plant  con- 
forms to  recommendations. 

Responsibility  of  rating  the  plants  will  fall  upon  an  en- 
gineer in  each  district,  the  rating  to  be  based  on  reports 
of  inspectors,  who  will  not  express  opinions,  but  will  collect 
definite  information.  The  State  Fuel  Administrator,  in  his 
judgment,  may  entirely  or  partially  shut  off  the  consump- 
tion of  coal  to  any  needlessly  wasteful  plant  in  his  territory. 

Inspectors  are  to  be  furnished  from  one  or  more  of  the 
following  sources:  Inspectors  of  the  steam-boiler  insurance 
companies;  state  factory  inspectors;  engineering  students 
from  technical  colleges;  volunteers. 

The  ratings  will  be  based  en  recorded  answers  to  ques- 
tions, each  of  which  will  be  given  a  value  depending  upon 
its  relative  importance  to  the  other  questions.  Depending 
on  the  efficiency  of  methods  in  use  in  any  plant,  it  may  be 
rated  in  Class  1,  2,  3  or  4. 

The  ratings  will  be  based  on  existing  equipment.  The 
difficulty,  delay  and  expense  involved  in  the  installation 
at  this  time  of  improved  power  equipment  is  fully  recog- 
nized, but  experience  has  proved  that  10  to  20  per  cent,  of 
fuel  now  used  in  power  plants  can  be  saved  by  improvements 
in  operation  alone. 

In  advance  of  the  first  inspection  a  questionnaire  will 
be  sent  to  every  power  plant  in  each  district,  with  notice 
to  the  owner  that  within  60  or  90  days  his  plant  will  be 
inspected  personally  and  the  questionnaire  will  be  checked 
up  by  the  inspector  upon  his  visit.  This  action  will  tend  to 
prepare  the  minds  of  plant  owners  for  what  will  follow. 
It  will  operate  to  induce  proper  care  in  furnishing  infor- 
mation and  will  also  tend  to  produce  a  desire  to  improve 
their  plants,  if  necessary,  so  that  they  may  be  rated  in  a 
high  class  by  the  time  the  inspector  calls. 

It  is  recommended  that  a  board  of  competent  engineers 
be  attached  to  the  conservation  committee  in  each  state; 
also  a  corps  of  lecturers  to  arouse  public  interest  and  dis- 
seminate engineering  information. 


The  Fuel  Administration  has  prepared  a  50-minute  film 
of  moving  pictures  showing  good  and  bad  operation  in  the 
steam-boiler  plant,  methods  of  testing  boilers,  fuels,  etc. 
These  pictures  will  be  available  for  each  state  in  connec- 
tion with  its  educational  propaganda. 

The  administration  is  also  preparing  a  series  of  official 
bulletins  on  engineering  phases  of  steam  and  fuel  economies. 
Some  of  these  are  now  ready  for  printing.  They  will  in- 
clude: Boiler  and  Furnace  Testing;  Flue  Gas  Analysis; 
Saving  Steam  in  Heating  Systems;  Boiler- Room  Account- 
ing Systems;  Saving  Steam  and  Fuel  in  Industrial  Plants; 
Burning  Fine  Sizes  of  Anthracite;  Boiler  Water  Treat- 
ment; Oil  Burning;  Stoker  Operation. 

In  addition  to  this  service  a  list  of  competent  engineers 
has  been  prepared  in  Washington  for  each  state  and  is 
available  for  use  of  each  local  administration.  As  the  work 
develops,  still  further  constructive  assistance  is  contem- 
plated for  helping  owners  to  bring  their  plants  up  to  a 
high  plane  of  economic  operation. 


Opposing  Hun  Force  with  Engineering 
Intelligence 

Preparations  by  American  engineers  for  leadership  in 
the  coming  industrial  development  of  Russia  are  being  urged 
by  the  Russian  Society  of  Engineers  of  Chicago.  This 
organization  was  formed  to  help  introduce  modern  achieve- 
ments of  American  engineering  into  Russia  and  to  develop 
friendly  relations  between  the  two  countries.  These  aims 
are  of  special  importance  at  the  present  time,  as  Russia  is 
beginning  to  emerge  from  its  chaotic  conditions  and  to 
show  increased  resistance  to  the  German  invaders.  To 
strengthen  this  resistance  means  to  keep  the  vast  natural 
resources  of  Russia  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  Ger- 
many. This  as  well  as  the  great  prospective  market  into 
which  Russia  will  ultimately  develop  should  interest  the 
American  business  man  and  especially  the  engineer  who  is 
the  modern  industrial  pioneer.  To  promote  this  work  a 
series  of  lectures  by  Russian  and  American  engineers  on 
the  industrial  needs  of  Russia  and  the  mutual  benefits  to 
be  derived  by  commercial  intercourse  is  being  arranged 
for  all  Chicago  engineers  by  the  society. 

With  a  spirit  of  cooperation  in  this  international  patriotic 
endeavor  the  Western  Society  of  Engineers  is  in  accord, 
and  the  first  meeting  will  be  held  May  22  in  its  rooms. 
W.  J.  H.  Strong,  Strong  Engineering  Co.,  will  talk  on 
"Industrial  Developments  in  America  as  Compared  With 
Those  in  Russia,"  and  W.  W.  DeBerard  on  "Engineering 
Publicity."  The  Young  Men's  Committee  of  the  latter 
society  has  already  begun  to  study  international  subjects 
intensively,  having  spent  two  nights  on  the  "Situation  in 
Colombia,  South  America,"  and  one  on  "Russia." 

It  is  certain  that  the  American  engineer's  horizon  will 
not  be  to  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States  hereafter, 
and  studies  of  foreign  development  problems  must  be  under- 
taken if  the  engineer  is  to  keep  in  the  foreground  of  obvious 
opportunities. 


Control  Over  Power  Companies 

Upholding  an  order  of  the  New  York  Public  Service  Com- 
mission, Second  District,  restraining  the  Oneonta  Light  and 
Power  Co.  from  continuing  to  operate  within  certain  terri- 
torial limits  in  Otsego  County,  N.  Y.,  the  Appellate  Division 
of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court  holds  that  where  an  elec- 
tric-power company's  charter  makes  its  right  to  exercise  its 
powers  within  the  limits  of  a  town,  village  or  city  condi- 
tional upon  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  municipal  authori- 
ties, there  is  no  right  to  do  business  within  such  limits  in 
the  absence  of  such  consent,  although  the  owners  of  private 
property  to  be  served  consent  to  the  stringing  of  poles, 
wires,  etc.,  across  their  property.  It  is  further  decided  in 
the  same  case  that  the  fact  that  an  electric-power  company 
may  acquire  a  private  right-of-way  for  its  transmission 
lines  does  not  defeat  supervisory  control  of  the  construction 
work  by  the  Public  Service  Commission.  (167  New  York 
Supplement,  486.) 


750 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


Frederick  Remsen  Hutton 


IT  IS  with  deep  regret  that  we  announce  the  death  of 
Frederick  Remsen  Hutton,  well-known  engineer,  educator, 
and  distinguished  member  of  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  at  his  home,  New  York  City,  Tues- 
day, May  14.     Death  was  due  to  heart  trouble. 

P*rofessor  Hutton  was  bom  in  New  York  City,  May  28, 
1853;  he  died  in  his  sixty-fifth  year.  After  preparation  in 
a  private  school,  he  entered  Columbia  University,  receiving 
the  degree  of  A.  B.  in  1873.  After  graduation  he  entered  the 
School  of  Mines  and  was  given  its  degree  in  1876.  Later 
he  became  an  instructor,  and  was  assistant  to  the  late 
Professor  Trowbridge,  entering  the  faculty  as  adjunct 
professor  in  1881  and 
professor  in  1890.  Pro- 
fessor Hutton  sei"ved 
as  head  of  the  depart- 
ment of  mechanical 
engineering  until  his 
resignation  in  July, 
1907,  when  he  was 
elected  professor  em- 
eritus. From  1899  to 
1905  he  was  Dean  of 
the  Schools  of  Engi- 
neering. 

In  1911  he  served  as 
consulting  engineer  to 
the  Department  of 
Water,  Gas  and  Elec- 
tricity, New  York  City, 
and  from  1905  to  1911 
was  vice  chaii-man  of 
the  Museum  of  Safety. 
He  was  consulting  en- 
gineer to  the  Automo- 
bile Club  of  America 
and  chairman  of  its 
Technical  Committee 
since  1912,  in  which 
capacity  he  supervised 
the  important  testing 
work  conducted  by  the 
club  in  its  laboratory. 

It  is  as  a  member 
of  the  American  Soci- 
ety of  Mechanical  En- 
gineers that  Professor 
Hutton  was  most  widely 
known.  He  was  made 
president  of  that  soci- 
ety as  the  culmination 
of  twenty-four  years  of 
service  as  its  secretary. 
He  had  the  honor  of 
presiding  at  the  first 
meeting  of  engineers  in 
the  splendid  auditorium 
of  the  Engineering  So- 
cieties Building  in  1907. 
He  represented  the 
American     Society     of 

Mechanical  Engineers  at  the  formal  ceremonial  days  of  the 
dedication  of  the  new  building,  a  noteworthy  event  in 
the  annals  of  American  engineering  society  history.  It  was 
in  1883  that  Professor  Hutton  became  secretary  of  the 
A.  S.  M.  E.,  three  years  after  its  organization.  The  offices 
were  then  at  17  Cortlandt  St.,  and  more  than  once  in  those 
early  days  he  paid  the  office  rent  out  of  his  own  pocket. 

Professor  Hutton  was  of  great  influence  in  giving  inter- 
national recognition  to  the  society.  He  was  connected  with 
arrangements  of  the  European  trip  in  1889,  one  of  the  note- 
worthy events  in  the  society's  history.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Conference  and  Building  Committee  of  the  United 
Engineering  Society  which  planned  the  present  Engineering 
Societies  Building  at  29  West  39th  St.;  he  also  was  one  of 
the  Board  of  Trustees  holding  the  corporation  for  the  United 


FREDERICK  REMSEN  HUTTON 


Engineering  Society,  29  West  39th  St.,  New  York  City. 
Professor  Hutton  contributed  much  to  scientific  literature. 
His  most  important  books  are:  "The  Mechanical  Engineer- 
ing of  Power  Plants,"  "Heat  and  Heat  Engines"  and  "The 
Gas  Engine."  The  first  is  used  as  a  te.xtbook  in  some  of  the 
technical  institutions  of  Japan.  He  conti-ibuted  considerable 
to  encyclopedias,  dictionaries  and  the  technical  press.  His 
speech  at  Washington  before  the  American  Uniform  Boiler 
Code  Congress  early  last  year  struck  a  new  note  in  indus- 
trial-governmental relationship.  Although  an  individualist 
by  theoi-y  and  preference,  he  recognized  that  the  growing 
complexity  of  the  social  fabi-ic  would  sooner  or  later  compel 

significant  changes  in 
the  relation  of  individ- 
uals, corporations  and 
the  state.  At  this  con- 
gress he  pointed  out 
that  a  boiler  explosion 
was  a  community  loss, 
and  not  alone  a  loss  to 
the  purchaser,  builder 
and  insurance  company. 
He  supplemented  this 
speech  with  an  article 
published  in  Power  for 
June  5,  1917,  p.  774, 
and  in  this  he  asked 
the  significant  question: 

" is     there     any 

logical  pausing  stage 
before  the  community 
demands  economy  and 
efficiency  in  the  use 
of  increasingly  precious 
fuel  in  the  generation 
and  distribution  o  f 
power,  with  a  view  to 
lowering  the  cost  to 
the  community  of  such 
commodities  as  call  f,.>r 
power  in  their  produc- 
tion?" 

To  quote  further  from 
this  article:  "First, 
evei-y  machine  (and  a 
power-house  boiler  and 
engine  and  generator 
are  in  this  class)  should 
be  functioning  continu- 
ously if  possible,  to 
earn  the  interest  on  its 
cost  and  pay  the  proper 
share  of  overhead 
chai-ges.  Second,  an 
accident  that  involves 
the  machine  or  disables 
its  operator,  or  both 
machine  and  opei^ator, 
breaks  into  this  conti- 
nuity of  earning  and 
involves  losses.  These 
losses  fall  into  several  groups:  First,  the  cost  of  repair; 
second,  the  losses  of  idleness;  third,  the  costs  of  compensa- 
tion for  bodily  injuries,  or  of  insurance  against  this  cost; 
fourth,  the  costs  in  wasted  stock  and  defective  work,  due  to 
teaching  a  new  operator,  also  in  the  slow  and  inferior  pro- 
duction of  the  worker  as  yet  inexpei-t;  and  fifth,  the  costs 
of  the  slackened  speed  of  all  woi-kers  in  the  department 
while  the  memory  of  it  is  fresh  in  the  minds  of  those  who 
witnessed  the  accident.  There  are,  furthermore,  indirect 
losses  from  the  accident,  which  reach  the  community  only 
through  the  heavy  losses  borne  in  the  narrow  circle  affected 
when  its  wage-earner  is  disabled." 

Among  the  societies  and  clubs  to  which  Professor  Hutton 
belonged  are  the  Engineers'  Club,  New  York,  and  the  New 
York  State  Society  of  Cincinnati. 


May  21,  1918 


POWER 


751 


Final   Figures   for   Rainbow    Division 

Finalfigurps  for  the  Raiiihow  Division  piven  out  by  the 
Advisory  Trades  Coiiimittoe  of  the  Liberty  Loan  Committee, 
May  11,  showed  tluit  the  total  subscriptions  for  all  the  8G 
business  and  pi'ofessional  organizations  comprising  this  divi- 
sion was  $564,767,950.  The  grand  total  for  the  Second  Loan 
was  $409,367,150. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Third  Loan,  an  allotment  of 
$450,000,000,  one-half  the  total  for  the  entire  Second 
Federal  Reserve  District,  was  given  the  Rainbow  Division. 
During  the  first  two  weeks  of  the  campaii^n  it  looked  as 
if  the  Division  was  falling  behind  the  schedule  laid  out  by 
the  Central  Committee.  Emergency  meetings  wei'e  held 
and  an  intensified  plan  of  action  was  begun. 

One  week  after  this,  on  Apr.  27,  the  total  for  the  Second 
Loan  was  passed  and  on  May  3  the  figure  aimed  for,  $450,- 
000,000,  v.'as  also  passed. 

Seventy  committees  reached  and  passed  their  total  for 
the  Second  Loan.     Of  these  the  one  that  made  the  greatest 


percentage  increase  was  the  Electrical  Committee.  Its 
total  for  the  Second  Loan  was  $80'j,000  and  for  the  Third, 
$9,457,000.  This  committee  was  awarded  an  Industrial 
Bull's-eye  Honor  Flag  containing  21  stars,  each  star  indi- 
cating an  increase  of  50  per  cent,  over  the  preceding  total. 

Standing  out  as  one  of  the  best  things  in  the  entire 
campaign  was  the  splendid  support  of  the  workers.  Not 
only  did  the  employees  buy  in  greater  amounts  and  in 
larger  numbers  than  in  the  two  preceding  loans,  but  the 
labor  unions  gave  their  fullest  support  and  also  bought 
more  bonds  than  ever  before. 

How  well  the  men  and  women  workers  supported  the 
Third  Loan  can  be  seen  by  the  fact  that  fully  5000  Industrial 
Honor  Flagr.  were  awarded  to  firms  where  60  per  cent,  and 
more  of  their  omployees  bought  the  third  issue  of  bonds. 
Nearly  1500  of  these  were  100  per  cent,  flags,  meaning  that 
every  worker  in  each  factory,  firm  and  company  bought  a 
bond.  It  is  expected  that  the  total  of  100  per  cent,  flag 
winners  may  reach  and  pass  the  2000  mark  when  all  the 
applications  have  been  received  and  verified. 


Personals 


Miscellaneous  News 


? iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM tiiii t iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiin 

Frederick  Ray,  consulting  engineer,  an- 
nounces the  removal  of  liis  office  from  95 
Liberty  St.  to  tlie  Mills  Building,  15  Broad 
St.,   New   York  City. 

Cyrus  Garnsey.  Jr.,  has  been  appointed 
assistant  fuel  administrator.  He  n'ill  be 
in  general  charge  of  the  administrative 
work  of  the  Fuel  Administi-ation. 

J.  M.  Biordan.  until  recently  sales  en- 
gineer of  the  Grant  Lees  Gear  Co.  of  Cleve- 
land, and  formerly  representing  the  Fellows 
Gear  Shaper  Co..  of  Springfield.  Vt.,  in  the 
Central  States,  is  now  connected  with  the 
sales  organization  of  the  Cleveland  Milling 
Machine  Co.,  18,511  Euclid  Ave.,  Cleveland. 
Ohio. 

John  A.  Stevens  and  associated  engineers, 
of  Lowell.  Mass..  were  presented  the  medal 
by  the  National  Association  of  Cotton 
Manufacturers,  at  the  Hotel  Biltmore,  New 
York,  on  May  3,  for  their  paper  on  "The 
Evolution  of  the  Steam  Turbine  in  the 
Textile  Industry,"  presented  at  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  association  which  was  held 
in  Boston,  Apr.  25-26,  1017. 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiif 


9IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 


Engineering  Affairs 


The  International  Kailwa.v  Fuel  Aysoci.i- 
tion  will  hold  its  tenth  annual  convention 
at  the  Hotel  Sherman,  Chicago,  May  23-24. 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  Ttail- 
road  Administration  and  the  United  States 
Fuel  Administration  will  take  a  large  part 
in   the  activities. 

The  !New  York  Chapter  of  the  American 
Association  of  Engineers  will  hold  its 
annual  election  of  officers  at  the  Hotel 
McAlpin  on  May  22,  at  8  p.m.  G.  A.  Harris, 
chief  engineer  of  the  American  Steel  Ex- 
port Co.  will  deliver  an  address  on  "The 
Opportunities  for  the  American  Engineer  in 
the  Export  Field." 

Tlie  Society  for  Electrical  Development, 
Inc.,  held  its  annual  meeting  on  Tuesday. 
May  14,  at  the  offices  of  the  society  in  New 
York.  James  R.  Strong  presided.  The 
general  manager  read  his  annual  report, 
reviewing  the  work  of  the  society  during 
the  past  year  and  suggesting  activities  for 
the  coming  year.  At  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors' meeting  which  followed  the  annual 
meeting,  it  was  decided  to  continue  the 
work  of  the  society  for  another  year  upon 
the  present  Vjasis  and  to  conduct  a  "Con- 
venience Outlet"  campaign  as  suggested 
by  the  general  manager.  An  appropriation 
was  made  to  carry  on  the  campaign  along 
national  lines,  similar  to  the  "Wire  Your 
Home"  and  "America's  Electrical  Christ- 
mas" campaigns.  The  officers  elected  for 
the  ensuing  year  were:  Henry  L.  Doherty, 
reelected  president;  Joseph  E.  Montague, 
vice  president  and  as  a  member  of  tha 
executive  committee ;  Gerard  Swope,  chair- 
man of  the  executive  committee  ;  James  M. 
Wakeman.  reappointed  general  manager ; 
James  Smicton,  jr.,  secretary  and  treasurer. 


.\  High-rressure  Steam  Pipe  exploded  in 
tViA  testing  room  of  tlie  Sturtevant  Blower 
Works  at  Hyde  Park,  Mass.,  on  May  9, 
killing  one  man  and  injuring  three  others. 
The  men  were  testing  a  turbine  engine, 
forcing  steam  into  it  through  a  pipe  2  J  in. 
in  diameter,  which  broke,  one  section  of  it 
going  through  the  wall  of  the  building. 

rlll>Mtllllllllll1llllllt1l|llllllttlllltllllllll,llllillllllllillllllllllllllllttMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII|U 

I  Business  Items  I 


The  Brown  Instrument  Co.,  of  Philadel- 
phia, will  open  a  new  office  at  2086  Railway 
E.xchange  Building,  St.  Louis,  June  1,  in 
charge   of   Paul   H.    Berggreen. 

The  Lichigh  Foundry  Co.  and  the  Lehigh 
Car,  Wheel  and  Axle  Works,  of  Pullerton, 
Penn.,  have  been  merged  into  one  organiza- 
tion to  be  known  as  the  Fuller-Lehigh  Co., 
with  office  and  works  at  Fullerton.  The 
properties  of  the  two  companies  are  ad- 
joining and  have  been  under  the  same 
management  for  a  number  of  years.  The 
change  therefore  is  one  of  name  only,  the 
executive  personnel  remaining  the  same. 
J.   W.   Fuller  is  president. 

The    Josepli     Di.xon     Crucible     Co.    at    its 

annual  and  regular  meetings  on  Apr.  15 
elected  the  following  directors  and  officers: 
Directors:  George  T.  Smith,  George  E. 
Long,  William  G.  Bumsted,  Edward  L. 
Young,  J.  H.  Schermerhorn,  Harry  Dailey, 
Robert  N.  Jennings.  Officers ;  George  T. 
Smith,  president.  George  E.  Long,  vice  pres. 
ident,  J.  H.  Schermerhorn.  vice  president, 
Harry  Dailey,  secretary,  William  Koester, 
treasurer,  Albert  Norris,  assistant  secre- 
tary and  assistant  treasurer.  The  American 
Graphite  Co.,  Inc.,  is  a  subsidiary  of  the 
Joseph  Dixon  C!rucible  Co  and  on  the 
same  day  elected  the  following  offioerr. : 
George  T.  Smith,  president.  George  E.  Long, 
vice  president,  J.  H.  Schermerhorn,  treas- 
urer, Harr.v  Dailey,  secretary.  The  direc- 
torate is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Joseph 
Dixon   Crucible   Co. 


iiiiiMiiriiiiiniiiiiiiiii iiitt)iit,iiiiiiiiiiii,iiii,iiiiiiiii,iii)iii„iiiiiiiifTiriiiii)ii 

NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


Proposed    Work 

N.  H.,  Manchester — The  Manchester  Trac- 
tion Light  and  Power  Co.  is  receiving  bids 
for  the  erection  of  a  25  x  45  ft.  addition 
to  its  power  house.  P.  W.  Gray,  Elm  St., 
Arch.     Noted  May   14. 

Mass.,  Boston — The  Board  of  Education 
will  receive  bids  until  May  24  for  the  in- 
stallation of  a  heating  system  in  2  schools. 
About   $10,000. 

Mass.,  Canton — The  Sprlngdale  Finish- 
ing Co.,  Pine  St.,  will  build  a  2  story,  45  x 
50  ft.  reinforced  C()ncrete,  steel  and  bricl« 
power  house.  Estimated  coat,  $26,000, 
Noted   Apr.    30. 


.Mass  ,  Dedham — The  Coe.'irane  Manu- 
facturing Co..  56  Barrett  Ave..  Maiden,  will 
soon  receive  bids  for  the  erection  of  a 
power  house,  transmission  line  and  dam 
here.      E.   Worthington,    Engr. 

N.  Y..  Buffalo— The  Buffalo  Cereal  Co., 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  is  having  plans  pre- 
pared for  the  erection  of  a  40  x  40  ft. 
power  house  in  connection  with  its  new 
plant. 

N.  Y.,  Buffalo — The  Lamoka  Electric 
Water  Power  Corporation  has  been  given 
a  franchise  by  the  State,  permitting  it  to 
use  the  waters  of  Little  and  Lamoka  Lakes 
to  generate  electric  power. 

N.    T.,    New    York — The    B.    L.    M.    Bates 

Corporation,  Hotel  Belmont,  is  in  the  mar- 
ket for  boilers  and  superheaters.  Estimat- 
ed cost  between  $66,000  and  $70,000.  War- 
ren   &    Wetmore,    16    East    37th    St.,    Arch. 

N.  Y.,  New  York — The  United  Electric 
Light  and  Power  Co.,  130  East  15th  St.. 
has  purchased  a  site  and  plans  to  build 
an  electric  power  station.  J.  G.  Swallow, 
Supt. 

N.  Y.,  Olcan — The  Clean  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Co.  plans  to  purchase  addi- 
tional equipment.  F.  G.  Tennant.  Gen. 
Supt. 

N.  \..  Schenectady — The  American  Lo- 
comotive Co.,  North  Jay  St.,  is  having 
plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  120 
X   175    ft.   addition   to    its   boiler   house. 

N.  Y.,  Syracuse — The  Syracuse  Lighting 
Co.  is  having  plans  prepared  for  the  erec- 
tion of  an  electric  lighting  plant  on  South 
Warren   St. 

N.  .1.,  Bayonne — The  Elco  Works.  .\ve. 
A  and  North  St.,  plans  to  build  a  new  pow- 
er plant  and  install  equipment  including 
2  direct  connected  engines,  400  hp.  each; 
direct  current  generators,  250  kw.,  25  volts 
with  four  250  hp.  boilers,  etc. 

N.  J.,  Mays  I>andinR: — The  Bethlehem 
Loading  Co.  will  build  a  power  plant  near 
the  South  River  in  connection  with  itf 
plant.     C.  J.   Sittinger,   Power  ISngr. 

N.  J.,  Ogdensburg: — The  New  Jersey  Zinc 
Co.  plans  to  build  .a  1  storv  power  house 
here.  Estimated  cost.  $15.0(i0.  .\.  Lee,  55 
Wall  St.,  New  York  City,  Purchasing  .Vgent. 

N,  J..  South  Plainfletd — The  Spicer  Manu- 
facturing Co.  has  plans  undei"  considera- 
tion for  the  erection  of  a  new  power  house 
in  connection  with  its  plant. 

Penn.,  Bethlehem — The  Bethlehem  Elec- 
tric Co.  plans  to  issue  $50,000  bonds;  the 
proceeds  will  be  used  to  build  additions  gjid 

make   improvements. 

Penn.,  KIwood  City— The  Pennsylvania 
Power  Co.  has  T>urchased  .a  5  mile  site 
on  the  water  front  in  the  Turkey  Hill  sec- 
tion,   and    plans    to    build    a    dam.      L,    B. 

Round.    Sufit. 

Penn.,  Philndelplila — J.  Bromley  &  Sons 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  <'rection 
of  additions  ;ind  improvements  to  its  boiler 
plant  at  Front  and  Dauphin  St..  to  G.  W. 
.Stewart   ,*t    Co..    2123    Germanto%,ii    Ave. 

IVnn.,  rhiladdphin — City  will  soon  award 
the  contract  for  improvemt^nts  to  its  pow- 
er iilant.  W.  II.  Wilson,  Director  of  Pub- 
lic Safety. 


752 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  21 


Penn..  Pittsburgh — The  Pittsburgh  Mod- 
ern Laundry  Co.  is  having  plans  prepared 
for  the  erection  of  a  new  power  plant  in 
connection  with  its  proposed  plant.  Es- 
timated cost,  $60,000.  P.  W.  Irwin,  Ren- 
shaws  Bldg.,   Arch. 

Penn..  Wescoesville — The  Commissioners 
of  Lehigh  County  are  considering  the  erec- 
tion of  a  boiler  plant.  T.  Moyer,  834 
Hamilton    St.,    Allentown,    Arch. 

N.  C,  Gibsonville — The  Gibsonville  Mill- 
ing Co.  plans  to  build  an  electric  power  sys- 
tem from  here  to  Summers  Mill. 

V.  C,  Gliden — R.  O.  Blanchard  is  in  the 
market  for  electrical  and  water  power  ma- 
chinery. 

La.,  Ville  Platte — The  Town  will  receive 
bids  until  June  4.  for  the  erection  of  an 
addition  to  its  electric  lighting  plant  and 
line.  Estimated  cost.  $5000.  Work  will 
include  the  installation  of  a  35  kw.  alter- 
nator, setting  1  motor  driven  pump,  switch- 
board, series  lighting  transformer  and  regu- 
lator, moving  and  repairing  1  Mietz  and  1 
Weiss  engine  and  General  Electric  genera- 
tor.    Address  A.  C.  Jones.  Opelousas,  La. 

Tenn.,  Rutherford — City  voted  to  issue 
$10,000  bonds  for  the  installation  of  an 
electric    lighting   plant. 

Ohio,  Cincinnati — The  Union  Gas  and 
Electric  Co.  plans  to  install  a  third  gen- 
erating unit. 

Ohio,  Marion — The  Delaware  and  Marion 
Ry.  Co.  has  geen  granted  a  franchise  by 
Marion  Co.  Commissioners,  to  erect  a  10- 
mile  transmission  line  from  here  to  Cale- 
donia. 

Ohio,  Yonngst«wn — The  Hydraulic  Gas 
Power  Co.  has  increased  its  capital  stock 
from  $200,000  to  $300,000  ;  the  proceeds  will 
be  used  to  build  additions  to  its  plant. 

HI.,  Chicago — C.  A.  Brown,  c/o  C.  E. 
Frazier,  30  North  Darborn  St..  is  in  the 
market  for  a  low  pressure  steam  heating 
plant  for  its  truck  body  factory  on  35th 
and   Shields   Sts. 

.  .ni.,  Chicago — The  Chicago  United  Thea- 
ters Incorporated,  c/o  W.  W.  Alschuler. 
Arch.,  Ill  We.st  Washington  St..  plans  to 
Install  a  low  pressure  steam  plant  in  its 
2  story.  136  x  150  ft.  theater  on  63rd  and 
Union    Sts. 

Wis..  Milwaukee — City  is  in  the  market 
for  one  125  brake  hp.  alternate  current  mo- 
tor and  one  20  in.  centrifugal  pump.  Es- 
timated cost,    $2000. 

Minn.,  Caledonia — The  Root  River  Power 
and  Light  Co.,  Preston,  plans  to  extend  its 
electric  system  from  here  to  Houston.  A. 
H.   Hanning,   Preston,  Mgr. 

Kan  .  Baxter  Springs — E.  D.  Nix,  L.  D. 
Knight  and  C.  M.  Mitchell,  mine  owners, 
plan  to  install  equipment  in  their  zinc 
mine.  The  installation  includes  engines, 
boilers,  etc.     C.   M.   Mitchell,  Supt. 

Kan.,  Wichita — The  St.  Francis  Hospital 
is  having  plans  prepared  by  E.  Forsblom. 
Arch.,  403  Winne  Bldg.,  for  the  erection  of 
a  2  story,  49  x  68  ft.  power  house  and 
laundry.      Estimated  cost,    $20,000. 

Mont.,  Scoby — School  District  No.  1  will 
receive  bids  about  June  15.  for  the  instal- 
lation of  a  heating  plant  here.  Estimated 
cost,    $15,000. 

Mo.,  Seneca — The  Oklamo  Mining  Co. 
plans  to  install  engines,  boilers,  etc..  in 
its  lead  mine.  C.  B.  Bettis,  Joplin,  Pres. 
C.  T.  Jobes,   Supt. 

Ark.,  L,amar — The  Peoples  Service  Co., 
312  Barnes  Bldg.,  Muskogee.  Okla.,  has  se- 
cured a  franchise  to  establish  an  electric 
lighting  plant   here. 

Tex..  Del  Rio — City  plans  to  install  an 
electric  lighting  plant. 

Okla.,  Jennings — City  voted  to  issue  $25,- 
000  bonds  for  the  installation  of  an  electric 
lighting  plant.      Noted   May   14. 

Okla.,  :\Iianii — City  plans  to  build  a  pow- 
er and  water  plant.  Estimated  cost,  $250.- 
000.  Bids  are  now  being  received  for  the 
new  equipment   for  same. 

N.  M.,  Portales — City  plans  an  election 
soon  to  vote  on  $20,000  bonds  for  the 
erection  of  an  electric  light  and  power 
plant.     W.  H.   Braley.  Clerk. 

Ariz.,  Nogalps — The  .Arizona  Gas  and 
Electric  Co.  has  petitioned  the  State  Cor- 
poration Commission  for  authority  to  issue 
$100,000  bonds;  the  proceeds  will  be  used 
for  the  in-^tallntinn  of  an  additional  gen- 
erating unit,   etc. 


Ore.,  Klamath — The  Pacific  Gas  and 
Electric  Co.,  445  Sutter  St..  San  Fran- 
cisco, Calif.,  the  Northern  California  Pow- 
er Co.  and  the  California  Oregon  Power 
Co.  plan  to  build  a  300  mi.  transmission 
line  from  the  Klamath  River  plant  of  the 
California  Oregon  Power  Co.  to  San  Fran- 
cisco bay  district.  This  work  and  many 
other  improvements  will  cost  about  $1,- 
000,000. 

Ont.,  Bridgeburg — The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion plans  to  install  a  heating  system  in 
the  Phipp  Street  school.  An  appropriation 
for  $10,000  is  before  the  aldermanic  board 
for  same. 

Sask.,  Regina — A.  Beach.  City  Clerk,  is 
in  the  market  for  electrical  equipment  for 
lighting.     About   $200,000  will  be  expended. 

CONTRACTS   AWARDED 

R.  I.,  Pawtucket — F.  W.  Taylor,  4  38 
Main  St.,  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  a  1  story,  65  x  80  ft.  boiler 
house  in  the  rear  of  Oak  Hall  Bldg..  to  J. 
W.  Bishop  Co.,  Butler  Ex,  ;  4  new  boilers 
will  be   installed. 

N.  y.,  Albion — The  Western  House  of 
Refuge  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  an  addition  to  its  boiler  plant, 
to  H.  C.  Belson.  Albion. 

N.  T.,  Brooklyn — The  Arabol  Manufac- 
turing Co.,  100  William  St.,  New  York 
City,  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  an  addition  to  its  boiler  plant, 
to  J.  H.  Deeves  &  Bro..  103  Park  Ave., 
New  York  City.     Noted  Mar.  19. 

N.  T.,  Brooklyn — The  Brooklyn  Gas  Co.. 
176  Remsen  St..  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  a  30  x  40  ft.  addition 
to  its  boiler  plant,  to  J.  H.  Deeves  &  Bro., 
103  Park  Ave.,  New  York  City. 

N.  Y.,  Brooklyn — The  Flatbush  Gas  Co., 
Clarkson  St.  and  Kingston  Ave.,  has  award- 
ed the  contract  for  a  1  story,  30  x  40 
addition  to  its  boiler  house,  to  J.  H. Deeves 
&  Bro.,  103  Park  Ave.,  New  York  City. 

N.  T.,  New  York — The  Interborough  Rap- 
id Transit  Co.,  120  Bway.,  is  building  a 
transformer  station  on  East  57th  St,  Es- 
timated  cost,    $45,000. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  Germantown 
Steam  Heating  Co..  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  alterations  and  additions  to  its 
power  house  on  Pelham  Rd.  and  Hortter 
St.,  to  W.  O.  Springer,  349  West  Hortter 
St. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  Philadelphia 
and  Reading  R.R.,  Reading  Terminal,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of 
a  1  story,  44  x  78  ft.,  brick,  concrete  and 
steel  power  house  at  Tulip  and  Somerset 
St.,  to  Pringle  Borthwick.  8018  Germantown 
.A.ve.  Estimated  cost,  $30,000.  Noted  Nov. 
27. 

Md.,  Baltimore — Roberts  Bro*,  Wolfe 
and  Preston  St..  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  a  cannery,  to  P.  J. 
Cushen.  117  St.  Paul  St.  Estimated  cost. 
$13,065.  The  work  includes  the  construc- 
tion of  a  boiler  house,  warehouse,  etc. 

Ohio,  Akron — The  Wellman  Seaver  Mor- 
gan Co.,  260  Kenmore  Blvd.,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  power 
house,  to  the  G.  A.  Fuller  Co.  Estimated 
cost,    $30,000. 

Ohio,  Columbus — The  U.  S.  Government 
has  warded  the  contract  for  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Columbus  Quartermaster  In- 
terior Depot,  to  Hunkin  Conkey  Co.. 
321  Cuyahoga  Bldg..  Cleveland.  The  work 
includes  the  erection  of  an  electric  light 
and  power  plant,  etc. 

111..  Chicago— P.  J.  Hursen.  4446  West 
Madison  St..  has  awarded  the  contract  for 
the  erection  of  an  undertaking  establish- 
ment to  McCarty  Bros.,  10  South  La  Salle 
St.  A  new  steam  heating  plant  will  be  in- 
stalled. 

111.,  Chicago — The  Illinois  Central  R.R. 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection 
of  a  new  electric  power  plant  at  98th  St. 
and  Cottage  Grove  Ave.,  to  J.  E.  Nelson  & 
Sons,  118  La  Salle  St.  Estimated  cost, 
$60,000. 

Neb.,  Falls  City — City  let  contract  build- 
ing 1  story,  50  x  110  ft.  power  house,  to 
Bohrer  Bros.,  Falls  City.     Noted  Feb.  8. 

Que.,  Drummondville — The  Southern  Can- 
ada Power  Co.,  on  St.  Francis  River,  has 
aw'arded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of 
a  power  house  and  dam.  to  Morrow  & 
Beatty,  Ltd.,  Peterboro.  Work  includes  the 
erection  of  an  80-mile  transmission  line. 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


Boston — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  de- 
lirered  along^side  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  ag:o  are  as  follows: 


ANTHRACITE 

Circular 
Current 

Individual 
Current 

jckwheat 

$4.60 

4.10 

$7.10—7.35 
6.63      6.90 

ailer   . .  . 

3  90 

irley    .  . 

3.60 

6.15—6.40 

BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous    not    on    market. 

Pocohontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hampton 
Roads,  is  $4.  as  compared  with  S2.85 — 2.00  a 
year  ago. 


i 


•All-rail  to  Boston  is  $2.60. 


t Water  coal. 


Now  York — Current  quotations  per  grrosg  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  are  aa  fol- 
lows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 

Current  Current 

Pea    $4.90  $5.65 

Buckwheat    4.45@5.15  4.80@5.50 

Barley    3.40@3.65  3.80@4.50 

Rice     3.90@4.10  3.00@4.00 

Boiler    3.65@3.90  

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c. 
hig"her. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.  Mine 

Gross  Price  Net  Gross 

Central    Pennsylvania.  .£5,06  53.05  53.41 
Mar.vlanri — 

Mine-run    4.84  2.85  3.19 

Prepared    5.06  5.05  3.41 

Screeningrs    4.50  2.55  2.85 

•The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport,  Port  John- 
son. Port  Reading^,  Perth  Araboy  and  South  Am- 
boy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty.  Hobo- 
ken.  Weehawken.  Edg^ewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut- 
tenberg.  St.  George  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  rat  e  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  line  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

, Line ^  ^ Tide ^ 

Cur-  One  Yr.        Cur-  One  Yr. 

rent  Ago  rent          Ago 

Pea    53.15  53.00  54.35  53.90 

Barley    2.15  1.50  2.40          1.75 

Buckwheat    ..    3.15  2.50  3.75          3.40 

Rice     2.65  2.00  .    3.65           3.00 

Boiler     2.45  l.SO  3.55          2.90 


Chicngo — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 
Prepared    sizes..  .$2.65 — 2.80  53.35 — 3.50 


Mine-run 

Screenings 


:.40 — 2.i>D 
:.15 — 2.30 


3.10 — 3.25 
:.85 — 3.00 


So.  111,.  Pocohontas,   Hocking. East 
Pennsylvania        Kentucky  and 
Smokeless  Coals    and  W.  Va.         West  Va.   Splint 
Prepared    sizes..  .52.60 — 2.85  52.85 — 3.35 

Mine-run 2.40 — 2.60  2.60 — 3.00 

Screenings     2.10 — 2.55  2.35 — 2.75 


St.    l^ouis — Prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  minei  are 
as  follows: 

Williamson  and      Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

6-in.  lump  ....52.65-3.00  52.65-2.80  52.65-2.80 

2-in.  lump   ....    2.65-3.00     2.65-2.80  2.25-2.50 

Steam    e%% 2.65-2.80     2.35-2.50  2.25-2.40 

Mme-run    2.45-2.60     2.45-2.60  2.45-2.60 

No.    1    nut 2.65-3,00      2.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

2-in.    srrepn..  .  .    2.15  2.40      2.15-2.40  2.15-2.40 

No.  5  washed..    2.15-2.50     2.15-2.35  2.15-2.35 


Birmingham — Current  prices  per  net  ton  l.o.b. 
mines  are  as  follows : 


Lump  Slack  and 

&  Nut  Screenings 

52.15  $1.65 

2.40  1.90 

2.65  3.16 


Mine- 
Run 

Big  Seam   51.90 

Pratt.   Jagger,    Corona     2.15 
Bl»^.'k  Creek.   Cahaba.      2.40 
Government   figures. 

Iiidividual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  regular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according  to  a  regular  Gchedule. 


G) 


Vol.  47 


POWER 


iiriiiiiiiiiiiMiMiiiriiriiiiitiii iiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHii iiiiiiiiriiiii 

NEW  YORK,  MAY  28,  1918 


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No.  22 


IIII1IIIIIIIIII iiiitDMtitiiiiiiiiiii iiiMiiim 


R.E  TA 1  N  t  D 


THESE    indicator   diagrams    tell    three   separate    and 
distinct  stories  graphically.     Road  No.   1   shows  how 
an  engineer  may  be  "raised."   Road  No.  2  shows  how  he 
may  be  content  to  keep  things  going  as  they  are  without  improv  _ 
ing  anything.    Road  No.  3  shows  how  the  same  diagram  with  which 
the  other  two  engineers  started  goes  from  bad  to  worse.      The  dis- 
charge of  the  engineer  is   inevitable. 

The  engineer  who  came  out  "on  top"  first  improved  the  card,  making  it 
as  perfect  as  he  could  under  existing  pressure  conditions.  Later,  he  increased 
the  steam  pressure  and  reset  the  valves  to  make  full   use  of  compression,  ex- 
pansion,  and   the   higher  efficiency   of  greater  temperature  variation. 

The  engineer  who  was  "retained"  did  not  realize  that  improvement  was  possib 
own  and  carefully  took  cards  periodically.    As  long  as  the  shape  of  the  card  remained  the  same  and  as  long  as  the 
engine  pulled  full  load  without  knocking,'  the  "retained"  engineer  was  satisfied. 

The  engineer  (?)  who  traveled  Road  No.  3  did  not  believe  in  indicators.  He  believed  in  setting  an  engine  valve 
by  "sound."    The  engine  knocked  badly,  of  course,  but  the  "engineer"  knocked  things  m  general  even  worse.     Tn 
his  case  the  "boss"  or  "somebody  else"  was  always  to  blame. 
iiiHii mini iiniiiiiii iniiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiii iiiiraiiiii iiiiiiiiffliiiiiiil mm iiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiii nm ii«ii:iii w n iiiimiiiiiiiH iiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiii: n 


He  IkuI  an  indicator  of  his 


754 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


Meeting  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 


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PERSONS   .A.ND  PLACES  OF  INTEREST  TO  THOSE  ATTENDING   THE  SPRING 

Pig.    1 — Boynton    Hall     (Administration),    Polytechnic    Institute;    sessions    will    be    held    here.      Fig.    2 — Worcester   Trade    School. 
Figr.    5 — Major  General   Hodges    (third   officer   seated)    and   Staff.   Camp  Deven,  Ayer,  Mass.  ;  the  camp  will  be  visited 

Fig.    8       New    Boiler   House,   The   Norton   Co.      Fig.    9 — General   View  of  Part  of  the 


WORCESTER  is  the  home  of  two  past  presidents 
of  the  society,  namely,  Charles  H,  Morgan  and 
Dr.  Ira  N.  Mollis.  The  city  owes  its  place  as  a 
manufacturing  center  to  the  several  buildings  where 
power  was  furnished  to  tenants  who  eventually  built 
factories  for  themselves  in  the  city  as  their  business 
grew.     Some  of  these  old  buildings  are  still  standing, 


and  from  one  of  them  the  other  day  an  old  Corliss 
engine,  built  in  1852,  was  removed.  The  Worcester 
Polytechnic  Institute  was  started  with  the  assistance 
of  John  Boynton,  who  made  his  money  as  a  peddler  and 
who  contributed  liberally  to  the  fund  that  built  old 
Boynton  Hall.  The  lock  system  of  the  Panama  Canal 
is  said  to  be  patterned  after  the  locks  in  connection 


May  28,  1918 


POWER 


755 


Enmneers,  Worcester,  Mass.,  June  4,  5,  6  and  7 


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MEETING   OP   THE   AMERICAN    SOCIETY  OP  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS 

Pig.   3 — Electrical   Laboratory,   Worcester   Polytechnic   Institute.     Pig.  4 — Mechanical  Engineering  Laboratory.  Polytechnic  Institute. 

Fig.   6 — Bancroft  Hotel  where  those  attending  will  register.      Pig.   7 — New     Plant,     Worcester     Electric    Light    Co. 

Works  of  the  Norton  Co.   which  will  be  visited  by  those  attending. 


with  Clinton  Dam,  near  Worcester,  which  those  attend- 
ing the  meeting  will  visit.  Worcester  has  high-  and 
low-pressure  water  systems,  both  of  the  gravity  type; 
high-pressure,  150  lb.,  low  pressure  85  lb.  Camp  Deven 
is  but  twenty-six  miles  from  Worcester  and  is  one  of 
the  large  army  cantonments.  Worcester's  population 
is  200,000,  and  3.000,000  people  are  within  fifty  miles. 


The  Fuel  Session,  scheduled  for  Thursday,  June  6, 
promises  to  be  a  most  interesting  one;  it  was  arranged 
for  by  the  Fuel  Conservation  Committee  of  the  En- 
gineering Council.  A.  A.  Potter,  Dean  of  the  En- 
gineering Schools,  University  of  Kansas,  will  read  a 
paper  on  "An  Investigation  of  the  Fuel  Problem  in  the 
{Continued  on  page  762) 


756 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


Figuring  Furnace-Grate  Area 


Various  more  or  less  confusing  ideas  are  held  by 
engineers  and  stoker  mayiufacturers  regarding 
the  figuring  of  grate  area.  Every  manufacturer 
has  some  rule  based  upon  his  experience  with 
his  particular  equipment.  This  article  sets  forth 
the  rules  followed  by  a  number  of  manufacturers 
as  to  what  is  considered  active  grate  and  as  to 
whether  actual  or  projected  grate  area  is  used  in 
figuring  the  grate  area  of  their  stokers. 

IF  A  boiler  containing  5000  sq.ft.  of  heating  surface 
were  to  be  installed,  how  much  grate  area  would  you 
put  in  the  furnace  and  how  would  the  grate  area  of 
the  various  types  of  stokers  manufactured  be  figured? 
In  the  general  run  of  power  plants  the  ratio  of  grate 
area  to  the  boiler-heating  surface  averages  about  1  to 
56.  This  ratio  is  as  low  as  1  to  48  and  as  high  as  1  to 
69  in  individual  cases.  One  power  plant  now  in  opera- 
tion is  so  overstokered  that  the  ratio  is  about  1  to  27. 
From  the  prevailing  custom  it  would  appear  that  a 
boiler  plant  is  designed  for  so  many  square  feet  of  heat- 
ing surface  per  boiler  horsepower  (usually  10  sq.ft.) 
and  that  the  grate  area  is  put  in,  not  in  accordance  with 
any  standard  usage,  but  to  conform  to  whatever  ratio 
the  designer  may  favor. 

However,  assuming  that  one  square  foot  of  grate  area 
is  allowed  for  each  50  sq.ft.  of  boiler-heating  surface, 
how  is  the  area  of  the  grate  to  be  figured? 

The  view  of  one  stoker  manufacturer  is  that  most  of 
them  seem  to  hold  to  some  rule  based  upon  their  ex- 
perience with  their  particular  equipment,  and  it  would 
seem  that  for  any  particular  make  of  stoker  whatever 
the  manufacturer  considers  as  grate  surface  should  be 
considered  as  the  grate  area  of  the  stoker  in  engineer- 
ing problems.  The  manufacturer's  rules  for  stoker  area 
apply  to  the  amount  of  coal  that  can  be   burned  per 


PIG.    1.      ORniNARY    HAND-PIRED    FURN.\rK 

square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour  with  varying  con- 
ditions of  draft,  and  these  rates  of  burning  are  com- 
monly used  in  proportioning  a  stoker  for  the  load  con- 
ditions to  be  met. 

Taking  the  double  inclined  type  of  stoker,  if  the  man- 
ufacturer makes  a  practice  of  estimating  30  lb.  of  coal 
per  square  foot  of  projected  area  of  the  grate  surface, 
and  assuming  that  the  data  on  this  basis  are  the  most 
reliable  source  of  information  that  can  be  obtained, 
therefore  on  figuring  up  stoker  sizes  where  the  manu- 


facturer's datum  of  30  lb.  of  coal  is  used,  the  stoker 
should  be  rated  or  considered  on  its  projected  area. 
Under  these  conditions  where  but  one  stoker  is  con- 
sidered, it  appears  that  it  makes  no  great  difference 
what  is  considered  as  grate  area  so  long  as  the  same 
area  is  used  as  when  computing  the  pounds  of  coal 
burned  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour. 

Another  feature  of  the  question  of  grate  surface  is 
the  comparison  of,  say,  100  sq.ft.  of,  say,  a  single  in- 
clined gravity  fuel  stoker  with,  for  instance,  100  sq.ft. 
of  chain-grate  area.  There  would  be  an  extreme  differ- 
ence in  the  nature  of  the  fuel  bed  of  the  two  stokers  and 
in  the  difference  in  air  spaces,  and  for  these  reasons 
there  cannot  be  any  just  comparison  as  to  the  perform- 
ance of  a  square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour  of  one  of 
these  stokers  with  a  square  foot  of  the  other  type.    One 


PIG.    2.      INCLINED    CHAIN-GRATE    STOKER 

chain-grate  stoker  manufacturer  states  that  under  simi- 
lar conditions  his  stoker  can  burn  twice  as  much  bitu- 
minous coal  per  square  foot  of  area  as  can  be  burned 
with  either  a  single  or  double  inclined  stoker,  and  this 
regardless  of  how  the  grate  area  is  computed. 

This  statement  emphasizes  what  has  been  said — that 
ihe  important  thing  is  the  performance  that  can  be  se- 
cured with  a  unit  of  grate  area.  This  is  emphasized 
by  a  consideration  of  the  underfeed  stoker  which  is 
rated  on  the  performance  of  the  retorts  of  specified 
dimensions. 

Figuring  the  grate  area  of  a  chain-grate  stoker  is  the 
same  as  calculating  that  for  an  ordinary  horizontal 
hand-fired  grate;  that  is,  the  width  times  the  length, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  the  width  of  the  grate  being  6  ft. 
and  the  length  9  ft.  The.  grate  area  would  therefore 
be  6  X  9  =  54  sq.ft.  Although  the  dead-plate  is  with- 
in the  furnace  walls,  it  is  not  figured  as  grate  area. 

In  the  case  of  the  chain-grate  stoker  the  normal 
length  of  the  grate  is  figured,  the  normal  length  being 
the  distance  from  the  inside  of  the  stoker  feed  gate  to 
the  front  side  of  the  bridge-wall  or  water-box  when 
so  equipped,  or  to  the  flexible  bridge-wall  of  other  de- 
sign. The  normal  length  of  the  grate  times  the  width 
between  the  furnace  walls  at  the  fire  line  equals  the 
grate  area.  Thus  if  the  grate  is  13  ft.  long  between  the 
feed  gate  and  the  water-back  and  the  width  of  the  grate 
is  10  ft.,  the  grate  area  would  be  10  X  ^3  =  130  sq.ft. 
Some  chain-grate  stokers  are  placed  level  and  others  are 
on  an  incline,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  pitch  being  ap- 
proximately 3  in.  to  the  foot.  Thus  a  grate  10  ft.  long 
would  be  7.5  in.  lower  at  the  rear  end  than  at  the  front. 
The  difference  in  length  due  to  the  inclined  grate  over 


May  28i,  1918 


POWER 


757 


one  set  level  is  so  small  that  no  difference  is  made  in  cal- 
culating the  area. 

The  type  of  stoker  having  both  Hat  and  inclined  sur- 
faces presents  another  phase  in  area  calculation.  Both 
are  figured  as  active  grate  area,  the  actual  area  being 
considered.  For  instance,  in  Fig.  3,  assume  that  the  flat 
grate  is  4  x  6  ft.  and  each  of  the  inclined  is  2  x  6  ft., 
then  the  total  area  of  the  grates  would  be  (4  X  6)  + 
(6  X  2  X  2)  =  48  sq.ft.  This  method  of  figuring  is  in 
accordance  with  the  assumption  that  active  grate  area, 
whether  flat  or  inclined,  is  that  part  that  is  provided 
with  air  available  for  burning  fuel. 

Considering  the  front  inclined  type  of  stoker,  Fig.  4, 
the  total  grate  surface  with  the  approximate  dimensions 
is  8  X  10  ft.  This  is  all  grate  surface  between  the  front 
wall  and  the  vertical  portion  of  the  bridge-wall  including 
the  dump  plate.  The  effective  grate  surface  includes 
the  full  width  of  the  grate,  which  is  8  ft.,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  the  top  grate  bar  to  the  bottom  grate  bar 
measured  on  the  inclined  plane  or  the  length  9  ft.  or 
8  X  9  -=  72  sq.ft.     In  the  type  of  stoker  shown  the 


FIG.    3.      COMBINED    FLAT    AND    INCLINED    GRATE 

area  of  the  dump  plate  is  not  considered  as  effective 
grate  surface,  which  is  as  it  should  be. 

One  would  suppose  that  the  method  of  figuring  a  front 
gravity-feed  stoker  would  be  the  same  as  with  a  gravity 
side  feed.  However,  the  substance  of  what  a  manu- 
facturer of  the  latter  type  says  is  to  the  effect  that  in 
stating  the  grate  surface  either  the  projected  or  the 
actual  grate  surface  is  specified.  To  figure  the  former 
the  actual  flat  area  is  taken  the  same  as  with  a  flat 
grate.  In  figuring  the  actual  area  the  length  of  the 
grate  from  the  feed  opening  to  the  lower  end  of  the 
grate  is  taken  and  this  is  multiplied  by  the  depth  of  the 
furnace.  This  company  uses  one  method  about  as  fre- 
quently as  the  other.  In  drawing  up  specifications  engi- 
neers usually  specify  either  actual  or  projected  area  and 
the  manufacturers  specify  accordingly.  The  actual  area 
is  approximately  25  per  cent,  greater  in  the  side  gravity- 
feed  stoker  than  the  projected  area.  Fig.  5  shows  the 
type  of  stoker  and  the  difference  between  the  method 
of  calculating  the  area.  With  the  figures  given  the  pro- 
jected area  would  be  11.5  X  10  =  US  sq.ft.  and  the 
actual  area  would  be  10  X  7  X  2  =  140  sq.ft.,  a  differ- 
ence of  25  sq.ft.,  or  22  per  cent,  greater  actual  than  the 
projected  area.  The  clinker-grinding  portion  of  the 
stoker  should  not  be  included  in  the  actual  grate  area. 

In  considering  the  underfeed  stoker,  Fig.  6,  a  dif- 
ference of  opinion  seems  to  exist.  One  type  makes  use 
of  dump  plates,  and  these  are  included  as  projected  area 
which  is  used  in  figuring  this  type  of  grate,  as  the  slant 


of  the  grates  at  either  side  of  the  feeding  trough  is  but 
slight. 

A  similar  type  of  stoker  does  not  take  into  considera- 
tion the  grate  area  of  the  furnace  as  related  to  the  coal- 
burning  capacity.     Each  underfeed  stoker  is  usually  fig- 

yj — r:4i 


FK",.    4.       FRONT    GRAVITY-FEED    INCLINED    STOKER 

ured  on  the  coal-burning  capacity  of  the  retort  and  the 
tuyere  area,  and  this  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  grate 
area.  Furnace  width,  however,  is  taken  into  consider- 
ation in  connection  with  the  kind  of  coal  burned,  as  if 
the  fuel  is  high  in  refuse  a  greater  furnace  width  is  de- 
sired. The  coal-burning  capacity  of  an  underfeed-stoker 
retort  is  dependent  upqn  the  quality  of  the  coal  and  the 
percentage  of  refuse.  The  relation  of  fixed  carbon  and 
volatile  matter  is  also  important.  In  underfeed  stokers, 
combustion  is  due  to  the  tuyere  area  itself  and  not  to 
any  auxiliary  grate  area  or  to  any  combustion  that  may 
take  place  on  any  dumping  plates.  The  underfeed  prin- 
ciple involves  the  distillation  of  the  gases  at  the  poirt 
below  the  incandescent  bed  of  fire  and  not  on  top  of  the 
grates  or  dump  plates.  Where  these  are  resorted  to  in- 
crease the  coal-burning  capacity,  the  stoker  system  be- 


^-^wnV/'  V^ 


FIG. 


sini';  Gi;.\viTY-FEi':n  .stokioii 


comes  a  combination  of  underfeeding  and  overfeeding 
as  the  combustion  on  the  grates  and  dump  plates  is  the 
same  as  on  any  other  system  of  overfeed  fires. 

An  inclination  of  the  tuyere  line  does  not  affect  the 


758 


POWER 


Vol.  4Z,  No.  22 


coal-burning  capacity,  and  therefore  there  is  nothing 
but  the  actual  area  of  the  air  space  of  the  tuyere  to  be 
taken  into  consideration.  When  using  an  underfeed 
stoker,  any  lack  of  furnace  area  due  to  a  narrow  fur- 
nace can  be  compensated  for  by  securing  increased  room 
for  combustion  by  elevating  the  boilers.  From  this  it 
IS  evident  that  the  area  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  coal- 
burning  capacity  of  an  underfeed  stoker. 

Considering  the  front-feed  inclined  type  of  under- 
feed stoker,  Fig.  7,  the  part  of  the  stoker  that  supports 
the  fuel  and  delivers  air  under  pressure  for  the  burn- 
ing of  coal  should  be  considered  as  grate  area;  and  as 
has  already  been  stated,  grate  surface  is  a  somewhat 
meaningless  term  and  one  that  is  misleading  when 
used  in  connection  with  this  type  of  stoker. 

One  manufacturer  states  that  ordinarily  when  speci- 
fying grate  area,  it  refers  to  the  projected  area  of  the 
stoker  on  a  horizontal  plane  and  includes  the  entire  area 
bounded  by  the  brick  walls.  Of  course  every  portion 
of  this  area  is  available  for  the  burning  of  some  com- 
bustible. However,  in  his  own  practice  for  the  purpose 
of  design  quite  a  different  area  is  used.  For  instance, 
an  imaginary  line  is  established  above  the  air  openings 
which  it  is  assumed  represents  the  surface  that  is 
reached  by  the  air  discharged  from  the  tuyeres  and 
grate  openings.  This  line  establishes  an  imaginary 
active  grate  surface,  and  the  projected  area  of  this 
grate  surface  is  what  is  termed  active  grate  surface. 

Grate  surface  actually  means*  but  little,  as  the  im- 
portant factor  is  the  admission  and  distribution  of  air, 
and  the  method  of  determining  grate  area  as  outlined 
in  the  foregoing  seems  to  be  fairly  consistent  in  so  far 
as  the  type  of  stoker  with  which  it  is  used  goes.  The 
imaginary  surface  is  approximately  13  in.  from  the  air 
openings  and  on  a  line  with  them  and  makes  each  retort 
of  the  stoker  practically  131  sq.ft.  projected  area. 

One  builder  of  this  type  of  stoker  uses  a  double-leaf 
dump,  of  which  there  are  two  types.    In  one  design  the 


\7///////^W<^. 


FIG.    6.      OXE   TYPE    OF   UNDERFEED    STOKER 

rear  leaf  of  the  dump  is  not  supplied  with  air  under 
pressure,  and  the  grate  area  should  stop  at  the  end  of 
the  forward  dump;  the  rear  dump  is  not  considered  as 
grate  surface.  The  other  type  has  a  rear  dump  designed 
to  supply  air  under  pressure  from  a  main  air  duct,  and 
since  this  dump  can  be  covered  with  fuel,  the  manufac- 
turers consider  it  active  grate  surface.  Where  crushing 
roils  are  used  for  removing  ash  from  the  furnace,  they 
should  not  be  included  as  active  grate  surface. 

One  manufacturer,  when  making  a  statement  as  to  the 
grate  area  of  the  front  gravity  fuel  underfeed  stoker, 
;Iways  specifies  whether  the  projected  or  the  actual  area 
is  given  because  there  is  no  standard  method  of  deter- 


mining the  grate  surface  and  the  figures  may  be  mis- 
leading unless  it  is  specified  whether  actual  projected 
area  is  being  considered. 

Another  manufacturer  of  the  last  type  of  stoker 
under  consideration  holds  views  contrary  to  the  other, 
as  regards  considering  the  dump  plate  as  grate  area. 
In  this  instance  the  usual  practice  in  figuring  the  square 
feet  of  grate  surface  is  to  use  the  projected  area  of  the 
stoker  including  the  dump,  as  it  is  claimed  that  the  com- 


FI(j. 


FRONT-FSED  INCLIxXED   UNDERFEED  STOKER 


bustion  actually  takes  place  from  the  front  wall  clear 
back  to  the  bridge-wall.  The  reason  for  including  the 
dump  as  grate  area  is  because  the  path  of  least  resist- 
ance for  the  air  through  the  fuel  bed  is  generally  toward 
the  bridge-wall,  and  even  if  there  is  no  definite  air 
supply  at  the  rear  end  of  the  stoker,  there  is  still  ample 
air  coming  through  from  the  fuel  bed  above  to  main- 
tain active  combustion.  For  this  reason  the  makers  of 
this  stoker  claim  that  it  is  legitimate  to  include  the 
dump  as  grate  area  when  figuring  the  grate  surface  of 
the  underfeed  stoker. 

In  considering  the  underfeed  type  of  stoker,  the  vol- 
ume of  coal  in  the  retort  below  the  end  of  the  tuyeres, 
the  throat  under  the  front  of  the  plungers  and  the  total 
volume  of  coal,  which  includes  that  in  the  retorts,  and 
the  thickness  of  the  fire  over  the  surface  of  the  stoker, 
are  of  importance.  The  fuel  total  volume  thickness  aver- 
ages about  1  ft.,  an  average  ranging  from  18  to  24  in. 
at  the  thickest  part  of  the  fuel  bed  to  6  or  8  in.  at 
the  lower  end  and  dump  plate.  The  most  satisfactory 
comparison  of  an  underfeed  stoker  is  to  get  the  ratio 
between  the  retort  volume  and  the  total  volume,  or  be- 
tween the  retort  volume  and  the  grate  surface. 

Boiler  Capacity  Depends 

The  active  heating  surface  in  a  boiler  will  evaporate 
from  3  to  6  lb.  of  water  from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  per 
square  foot  per  hour,  and  34.5  lb.  of  water  per  hour 
"from  and  at"  is  the  standard  rate  of  evaporation  per 
boiler  horsepower;  therefore  anywhere  from  5J  to  12 
sq.ft.  of  heating  surface  is  required  per  boiler  horse- 
power. This  great  variation  in  evaporative  capacity  is 
not  necessarily  inherent  in  type,  design  or  installation. 
A  boiler  capable  of  the  best  performance  may  under  un- 
favorable conditions  be  doing  no  better  than  the  poorest. 
Neglect  of  the  heating  surface,  inside  and  outside,  is  one 
of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  reduction  in  capacity. 


The  dollar  that  you  contribute  to  the  Red  Cross  Fund 
mav  save  the  life  of  one  of  our  boys  in  France. 


May  28,  1918 


POWER 


759 


"Resisto"  Furnace  Paint  and  Putty 

One  of  the  certainties  of  boiler-room  practice  is  that 
the  fire-brick  lining  of  the  furnace  will  burn  out  sooner 
or  later,  depending  upon  the  intensity  of  the  fire.  Re- 
newing the  lining  is  expensive,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
loss  of  the  boiler  while  the  work  is  being  done.  The 
need  for  a  furnace  material  that  will  withstand  the 
high  temperatures  now  maintained  is  well  known,  and 


PIG.   I. 


P.-\RT  OF   BULT   NUT  t:OVEUEU   WrPH    THK 
FITSED   AND   BURNED 


'UTTV 


although  there  has  been  a  great  advancement  in  the 
construction  of  such  material,  there  still  remains  much 
to  be  desired. 

Although  there  are  several  fire-resisting  compounds 
on  the  market,  one  known  as  Dunbar's  "Resisto,"  and 
manufactured  by  Wm.  Clifford  &  Sons  Co.,  358  Union 
Ave.,  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  seems  to  have  the  necessary 
qualifications  for  protecting  firebrick,  fire  tile  and  iron 
from  the  effect  of  high  temperatures.  This  fire-resisting 
compound  comes  in  the  form  of  a  paint  and  a  putty, 
and  when  used  on  furnace  brick  requires  no  drying  out 
before  starting  the  fires  after  the  application. 

Not  only  can  this  material  be  used  for  laying  up  new 
furnace  brickwork  in  which  ordinary  fireclay  is  com- 


FIG. 


BRICT- 


THAT  HAS  BEEN   PAINTliD  ANO  EXPOSRO 
TO   HIGH   TEMPERA  TTUR 


monly  used,  but  the  putty  is  adaptable  for  pointing  up 
old  brickwork  and  for  covering  such  metal  as  might 
be  exposed  to  the  furnace  heat. 

In  laying  up  new  firebrick,  they  can  be  either  dipped 
in  the  material  or  "buttered"  in  the  usual  manner.     It 


is  necessary,  however,  that  they  be  clean,  dry  and  free 
from  grease  or  oil.  After  the  work  has  been  com- 
pleted, it  is  coated  with  the  paint  and  the  furnace  i.s 
then  ready  for  use.  When  the  brickwork  is  exposed  to 
exceptionally  high  temperature,  two  coats  of  paint  are 
advisable.  When  pointing  up  old  brickwork  the  old 
joints  must  be  cleaned  out  not  less  than  one-half  inch, 
given  a  coat  of  paint  and  then  filled  with  enough  putty 
to  make  a  smooth  surface. 

Some  idea  of  the  heat-resisting  properties  of  this 
compound  and  paint  can  be  gathered  from  the  illus- 
trations. In  Fig.  1  is  shown  what  is  left  of  a  common 
v/rought-iron  bolt.  The  nut  and  threads  were  covered 
with  a  i!-in.  thickness  of  putty  and  the  whole  put  in  a 
blacksmith's  forge  and  brought  to  a  white  heat.  The 
part  of  the  bolt  not  covered  was  fused  and  burned  as 
shown.  As  the  melting  point  of  wrought  iron  is  about 
2550  deg.  F.,  it  shows  that  the  bolt  was  subjected  to  a 


PIG.  3.  BALL  OF  PUTTY  AFTER  BEING  IN  TEST  FURNACE 

greater  heat  than  obtains  in  the  average  boiler  furnace 
under  average  conditions. 

The  action  of  the  paint  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  2,  which 
shows  a  piece  of  brick  taken  from  a  furnace  bridge- 
wall  after  four  days'  exposure  to  a  temperature  of  about 
2500  deg.  F.  The  brick  was  given  a  coat  of  "Resisto" 
paint,  which,  when  subjected  to  heat,  vitrifies  and  forms 
a  glazed  surface,  as  shown  by  its  slag-like  appearance. 
Although  the  brick  is  in  two  pieces,  the  joints  cannot 
be  easily  distinguished,  thus  showing  that  the  furnace 
brickwork  joints  are  protected  against  rapid  deteriora- 
tion. 

Another  example  of  the  heat-resisting  properties  of 
"Resisto"  is  shown  in  Fig.  3,  which  is  a  photograph  of 
a  2-in.  diameter  ball  of  putty  that  has  been  subjected 
to  about  3000  deg.  temperature  in  a  test  furnace.  The 
test  had  to  be  discontinued  before  any  effects  detri- 
mental to  the  putty  could  be  noticed,  as  the  furnace 
began  to  melt. 

It  would  appear  that  where  this  material  is  used  for 
furnace  construction,  it  will  strengthen  the  brickwork 
considerably,  which,  together  with  its  heat-resisting 
properties,  should  obviate  the  necessity  of  rebuilding 
the  furnace  brickwork  at  such  frequent  intervals  as 
has  been  the  common  practice. 


7tJ0 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


Boiler  Settine 


By  CHARLES  H.  BROMLEY 

Assooiatf   lOflitor  of   "Power" 


One  of  a  number  of  articles  on  boiler  settings  for 
various  stokers  under  the  many  different  boilers 
adapted  to  high-volatile  coals. 


IT  WOULD  be  well,  at  the  beginning:  of  these  articles, 
to  broadly  consider  boiler  settings  or,  better,  com- 
bustion volume,  that  one's  perspective  may  be 
broadened,  if  need  be.  So  much  has  been  written  on 
this  subject  that  most  engineers  are  convinced  of  the 
need  of  large  combustion  volume.  But  these  articles 
are  intended  primarily  to  convince  those  who  are  not 


At  least  until  very  recently  no  really  scientific  thought 
was  given  to  the  relationship  that  should  exist  be- 
tween combustion  volume,  kind  of  coal,  combustion  rate 
and  excess  air.  In  fact,  few  gave  but  the  most  super- 
ficial consideration  to  the  subject.  An  example  of  this 
is  illuminating:  Within  the  month  the  writer  asked  two 
engineers  what  combustion  volume  per  square  foot  of 
active  grate  surface  they  allowed  in  their  boilers,  vola- 
tile content  of  coal  considered.  One  of  these  engineers 
Is  distinguished  for  his  boiler  work;  the  other  has 
conspicuously  contributed  to  power-station  design  and 
operation.  The  former  did  not  knov/;  the  latter  haa 
"never   looked   at   it   that   way."      He   sets   his   boilers 


lOO   no     leO    130    140     150    I6O    IVO     ISO    190   200    210  ??0   230  S40  250  2SO  E70    e60  290  500  310    320  330  340  350  360 

Per-  Cent-,  Boiler     Ro-t-ing 

3320O  Aasoo  es,400  eSjOoo  99,600  n6,E00 

Pounds  of  Wafer  Evoporotea,  250lfc).  Pressure,  250  Deg.Superheot,  lOO  Deg.  Fsed   Wofer 
1252  1093  2524.  3155  3786  4417 

Horsepower     Developed 

FIG.   1.      PERFORMANCK  Cl'RVES.   14-RKT()RT    UNDERFEED   ( WESTIXGHOUSE)    STOKER 


convinced,  either  because  they  are  unfamiliar  with  the 
subject  or  because  they  are  plainly  obstinate.  There 
are  more  of  these  people  than  most  of  us  have  allowed 
ourselves  to  believe  there  are.  The  secondary  purpose 
is  to  present  the  most  modern  practice  of  setting  boilers 
as  related  to  improving  combustion. 


•For  previous  articles  of  this  series  see  the  fallowing  issues  of 
"Power"  :  "Zone  System  for  the  Distribution  of  Bituminous  Coal." 
Mav  14.  1918      "Coals  of  the  United  States."  May  21.  1918. 


as  high  as  he  can  and  lets  it  go  at  that.  Obviously, 
this  is  working  in  the  dark.  Contrast  this  unscientific 
method  with  the  elaborate  research  made  to  develop 
greatest  efliciencies  in  turbine  nozzles  and  ship  pro- 
pellers. Yet  in  the  boiler  the  action  is,  for  the  most 
part,  chemical  and  highly  complex,  while  in  both  of  the 
other  cases  it  is  mechanical.  The  first  scientific  attempt 
to   determine   the   most   suitable   ratios   of   combustion 


May  28,  1918 


P  O  W  R  R 


761 


volutue  and  combustion  rate  for  particular  coals  that 
1  know  of  were  the  experiments  by  Kreisinjrer,  Aurus- 
tine  and  Ovitz  for  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  reported  in 
Bulletin   No.    L*?5,   recently  distributed.      [This   bulletin 


FIO.    2. 


SKroXnARV   ARCH   ASSISTS    IN    MIXING   AIR  AND 
COMBUSTIBLE  GASES 


was  reviewed  by  the  writer  in  Power  for  Apr.  23,  1918.] 
E.  H,  Peabody,  in  that  excellent  paper,  "Oil  Fuel," 
presented  before  the  International  Engineering  Con- 
gress, San  Francisco,  September,  1915,  has  three  inter- 
esting paragraphs  on  the  subject  of  furnace  volume 
and  combustion  rate,  on  pages  103  and  104.  But  as 
to  ratios  or  their  eciuivalents,  he  merely  points  out  that 
some  relation  exists  between  the  heat  liberated  and  the 
combustion  volume,  but  is  not  specific  as  to  these  ratio3. 
Tables  I  and  II  are  from  Bureau  of  Mines  Bulletin 
135;  both  are  unusually  interesting  in  combustion-vol- 
ume studies. 

TABLE  I.    CHEMICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THREE  COALS  TESTED 


1.  Volatile  matter  in  moisture  and  asli-frcp 

coal,  per  cent   

2.  Fixed  carbon  in  moisture  and  ash-free 

coal,  per  cent 

3.  Carbon  in  moisture  and  ash-free  coal,  pt  r 

cent 

4.  Volatile  carbon  in  moisture  and  ash-free 

coal,  per  cent 

5  Available  hydrogen  in  moisture  and  ash- 

free  coal,  per  cent   

6  Ratio    of    volatile    carbon    to    available 

hydrogen,  per  cent        

7.  Oxygen  in  moisture  and  ash-free  coal,  per 

cent   

8.  Nitrogen  in  moisture  and  ash-free  coal, 

pt*r  cent 

9.  Moisture  accompanying  1 00  per  cent,  of 

ni  listure  and  ash-free  coal,  per  cent. 
10,    Volatile    matter    times    ratio  of  volatile 

carbon  to  available  hydrogen  (product 

of  items  I  and  k) 

1 1     Ratio    of    oxygen    to    total    carbon,    in 

moisture  and  ash-free  cual 

\2     Total  moisture  in  furnace  per  lb.  of  cou! 

reduced  to  moisture  and  ash-free  baslt*. 

lb 


ocahontas 
Coal 

Pittsburgh 
Coal 

Illinois 
Coal 

18  05 

34 

77 

46  52 

81    95 

65 

23 

53  48 

90  50 

85 

79  7 

8  55 

20 

47 

26.22 

3  96 

4 

70 

3.96 

2    15 

4 

35 

6    , 

3  32 

5 

59 

10  93 

1    19 

1 

73 

1    70 

2  53 

2 

88 

22  07 

39   00 

151 

00 

307  00 

0  C367 

0 

0652 

0   137 

U   409 


0    501 


0    70 


That  furnace  volume  alone  will  not  nece.s.sarily  Rive 
the  most  efficient  combustion  commercially  is  widely 
known.  Complete  mi.vture  of  air  with  the  combustible 
gase.s  is  the  all-important  factor.  This  is  shown  by 
Bone's  surface-combustion  experiments;  it  is  shown 
in  the  gas  engine,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  the  under- 
feed stoker  with  its  thick  fuel  bed.  Above  a  limit  of 
temperature,  say  1200  to  1800  deg.  F.,  mixture  of  air  and 


combustible  gases  exerts  a  far  greater  influence  upon 
the  efficiency  of  combustion  than  temperature  and  fur- 
nace volume.  In  fact,  furnace  volume  is  merely  an 
expedient  to  insure  good  mixture  by  lengthening  the 
time  of  contact  of  gases  and  air. 

If  immediately  above  the  fuel  bed  of  an  underfeed 
stoker  there  were  placed  a  zone  of  high  heat-resisting 
refractory  material,  broken  in  pieces  and  not  so  dense 
as   to   offer  objectionable   resistance   to   gas    flow   and 


TAni.E    II. 

CO 

VIBUSTION 

SPACE 

REQUIRED 

FOR   POCAHONTAS, 

PITTSBURGH  AND  ILLINOIS  COALS 

Completeness 
Combustion, 

of  Rate  of 

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of 

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protected  against  too  rapid  burning  ".way  by  means 
of  resting  on  water  tubes  integral  with  the  boiler — 
in  other  words,  using  the  stoker  as  a  gas  producer 
and  passing  the  gas  through  an  incandescent  zone — 
it  would  likely  be  found  that  furnace  volume  could  be 
materially  decreased  below  present  requirements  with 
high-volatile  coal  and  high  combustion  rates.  Provision 
for  further  air  admission  and  distribution  between  the 
fuel  bed  and  refractory  zone  would  of  course  be  neces- 

600 


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sary ;  but  it  would  be  merely  the  presence  of  air  that 
would  be  necessary,  the  broken  refractory  zone  would 
insure  good  mixing  because  of  the  character  of  its 
porosity — and  this  zone  would  of  course  be  very  hot. 

Most  of  us  have  regarded  heat  as  the  all-essential 
facte r  in  combustion.  Even  now,  unless  we  stop  to 
check  our  thought,  we  regard  the  sole  function  of  fur- 
nace  arches   as   heat-radiating   or   reflecting   surfaces. 


762 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


We  likely  will  soon  universally  see  that  except  for  short 
coking  arches,  the  really  important  thing  they  do  is  to 
roll  or  scrub  the  gases  and  air  and  promote  an  intimate 
mixture  of  them  in  the  presence  of  high  temperature. 

There  is  no  question  that  this  is  the  fact.  Everyday 
boiler-room  experience  confirms  it.  Why  is  it  that  the 
underfeed  stoker  gets  its  efficient  performance  with 
no  arches  at  all?  Because  the  character  of  the  fuel 
bed  and  air-admission  areas  insures  a  thorough  mixing 
of  air  and  gases  within  the  fuel  bed  and  in  the  presence 
of  high  temperature.  With  no  arches  whatever,  an 
underfeed  stoker  will  give  an  almost  flat  combined 
boiler-efficiency  curve  between  100  and  300  per  cent,  rat- 
ing, and  with  economizers  one  can  say,  without  being 
charitable,  that  it  is  flat.    See  Fig.  1. 

Secondary  Arches  Sometimes  Superfluous 

Secondary  arches  are  usually  at  a  considerable  height 
above  the  fuel  bed.  Here  they  merely  reflect  heat  and 
do  not  contribute  appreciably  to  mixing  the  air  and 
gases.  They  are  sometimes  superfluous,  and  when  far 
removed  from  the  fire  in  an  ordinary  boiler  setting,  are 
probably  wholly  superfluous.  This  is  borne  out  by  the 
gradual  abandonment  of  the  secondary  arches  on  Stir- 
ling boilers  of  the  usual  class.  Here  the  secondary 
arch  is  far  from  the  fire  and  cannot  exert  an  appreci- 
able influence  upon  the  fuel  bed  because  of  its  dis- 
tance from  it,  and  does  no  good  whatever  in  coking 
the  coal,  unless  the  grate  is  run  too  fast,  because  of 
the  curtain  wall  between  the  coking  and  secondary 
arches. 

That  we  too  generally  overlook  the  mixing  function 
of  arches  is  brought  out  by  a  statement  to  me  by  Mr. 
Stowe  of  the  Laclede-Christy  Clay  Products  Co.,  who, 
in  discussing  secondary  arches  in  Stirling  boilers, 
says  that  they  have  had  no  little  difficulty  in  getting 
away  from  the  secondary  arch,  customers  insisting  on 
their  use  until  made  thoroughly  familiar  with  per- 
formance without  them.  And  yet  we  chide  marine 
engineers  because  Ihey  are  slaves  to  precedent  and 
custom ! 

A  secondary  arch  may,  however,  in  some  settings, 
be  useful  for  mixing  the  air  and  gases,  provided  the 
bridge-wall  is  continued  high  enough  to  form  a  narrow 
passage  between  the  end  of  the  bridge,  wall  and  the 
end  of  the  secondary  arch,  as  in  Fig.  2. 

Chicago  Hand-Fired  Fxjknaces 

The  excellent  work  of  the  Chicago  Smoke  Inspection 
Department  under  Monnett  gave  a  memorable  impetus 
to  intelligent  combustion  under  boilers.  Though  Mon- 
nett, Vial  and  Misostow,  all  of  the  Chicago  department, 
did  not  aim  to  determine  what  ratios  of  furnace  vol- 
umes and  combustion  rates  were  most  suitable,  they 
early  found  that  smokelessness  and  economy  were 
greatly  improved  by  their  attempts  to  obtain  intimate 
mixture  of  air  and  gases  in  a  high-temperature  zone. 
Witness  the  hand-fired  boiler  settings  developed  while 
Monnett  was  chief  of  the  Chicago  Smoke  Department. 
In  all  of  these  the  chief  function  of  the  arches  is  that 
of  mixing  air  and  gases. 

The  curves.  Fig.  3,  show  the  effect  of  furnace  vol- 
ume upon  efficiency  of  combu.stion.  They  are  from 
Bureau  of  Mines  Bulletin  135,  already  referred  to. 
The  stoker  used  was  the  Murphy  set  in  a  special  fur- 


nace of  5  ft.  square  section  beyond  the  stoker  and  43 
ft.  4  in.  long.  The  coal  burned  was  Pittsburgh  screen- 
ings, and  the  combustion  rate  was  35.6  lb.  coal  per 
hour.  Notice  that  at  13*  ft.,  average  length  of  travel 
from  the  surface  of  the  fuel  bed,  there  is  little  combusti- 
ble gas  left.  The  usual  boiler  settings  do  not  begin 
to  approach  the  ideal  as  nearly  as  this  one,  and  the 
combustion  rates  at  peak  loads  are  usually  much  higher 
than  in  these  tests.  In  modern  boiler  settings  for  un- 
derfeed stokers,  the  space  directly  above  the  fuel  bed 
is  about  10  ft.  wide  and  a  mean  of  about  8  ft.,  for  a 
500-hp.  B.  &  W.  type  boiler  set  with  the  bottom  of 
the  front  header  12  ft.  from  the  floor.  The  space  is 
clear,  unobstructed,  with  no  wing  walls,  arches  or 
other  objects  to  give  a  rolling,  mixing  or  scrubbing 
action  to  air  and  gases.  It  is  likely  that  the  results  for 
the  same  length  of  gas  travel  at  the  same  combustion 
rate  would  be  much  less  favorable  for  this  later -set- 
ting than  they  were  in  the  special  setting  used  by  the 
Bureau  of  Mines.  It  should  be  remembered  however, 
that  narrow  gas  passages  without  arches  or  wing  walls 
conduce  to  gas  and  air  stratification  at  too  high  combus- 
tion rates  and  high  gas  velocities. 

The  value  of  combustion  volume  is  widely  appreci- 
ated, however,  as  shown  by  the  progress  made  in  set- 
ting boilers  high  above  the  floor  line.  Eight  feet  was 
the  highest  a  few  years  ago;  those  who  had  set  boilers 
(B.  &  W.  type)  this  high,  went  to  10  and  12  ft.  on 
later  installations.  Today  12  ft.  is  common,  and  one 
finds  13  and  14  ft.  in  the  very  latest  installations. 

In  the  articles  that  are  to  follow,  the  latest  and  best 
boiler  settings  for  the  various  boilers  will  be  shown. 
All  chief  dimensions  will  be  given.  These  settings  are 
well  suited  to  the  high-volatile  coals  of  the  Middle  West 
and,  successfully  burning  these,  they  will  burn  any  high- 
volatile  coal  obtainable  on  this  continent.  The  next 
article  will  treat  of  settings  for  chain-grate  stokers. 


Spring  Meeting  of  the  A.  S.  M.  E. 

(Continued  from  page  755) 

Middle  West."  In  the  topical  discussion  during  this 
session  some  unusually  interesting  papers  are  expected. 
Other  papers  to  be  presented  include:  "Foundry  Cost 
and  Accounting  System,"  by  W.  W.  Bird;  "The  Public 
Interest  as  the  Bedrock  of  Professional  Practice,"  by 
Morris  L.  Cooke;  "Moisture  Reabsorption  of  Air-Dried 
Douglas  Fir  and  Hard  Pine,  etc.,"  by  Irving  H.  Cow- 
drey;  "A  High  Speed  Air  and  Gas  Washer,"  by  Lieut. 
J.  L.  Alden ;  "Investigation  of  the  Uses  of  Steam  in  the 
Canning  Indu-stry,"  by  J.  C.  Smallwood.  On  Thursday 
forenoon  at  the  general  session  will  be  given  the  follow- 
ing papers:  "Efficiency  of  Gear  Drives,"  by  C.  M.  Allen 
and  F.  W.  Roys;  "Self-Adjusting  Spring-Thrust  Bear- 
ing," by  H.  G.'Reist;  "Air  Propulsion,"  by  Morgan 
Brooks;  "The  Elastic  Indentation  of  Steel  Balls  Under 
Pressure,"  by  C.  A.  Briggs,  W.  C.  Chapin  and  H.  G. 
Heil;  "Electric  Heating  of  Molds,"  by  Harold  E.  White; 
"Stresses  in  Machines  When  Starting  or  Stopping,"  by 
F.  Hymans.  Wednesday  afternoon  tea  will  be  served 
at  the  Tatnuck  Country  Club,  and  on  Thursday  dinner 
will  be  served  at  the  Worcester  Country  Club,  followed 
by  a  lecture  by  Dr.  S.  I.  Bailey,  on  "Harvard's  Contri- 
bution to  Astronomy." 


May  28,  1918 


POWER 


763 


Co-operation   of   Public-Service  and 
Isolated   Plants 
By  Harold  L.  Alt 

A  rather  original  solution  of  the  difficulty  between 
the  central  station  and  the  isolated  plant  was  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Evans  in  the  Apr.  23  issue  of  Power, 
and  all  credit  is  due  him  for  a  unique  suggestion 
which  no  one  else  has  thus  far  conceived.  In  fact, 
the  proposition  seemed  so  unusually  good  that  an 
endeavor  to  check  his  figures  was  made ;  but  here  dif- 
ficulties arose.  To  clear  up  the  matter,  1  append  the 
figures  I  have  obtained,  in  the  hope  that  Mr.  iiivans 
will  point  out  the  reasons  for  the  discrepancies. 

The  heating  season  is  usually  considered  as  extend- 
ing from  Oct.  15  to  Apr.  15,  a  period  of  180  days,  or, 
in  other  cases,  200  heating  days.  Allow  210  days  for 
the  sake  of  liberality,  or  30  weeks,  t'rom  this  must 
be  deducted  30  Sundays  and  the  holidays  of  Thanks- 
giving, Christmas,  New  Year  ana  Election  Day,  or 
34  days  in  all,  leaving  176  actual  working  days.  Heat- 
ing, of  course,  must  be  provided  on  all  days. 

Assuming  a  working  day  of  9  hours  and  a  heating 
day  of  18  hours,  there  must  be  176  X  9  =  1584  hours 
requiring  power  and  210  X  18  =  3780  hours  requir- 
ing heating,  so  that  there  will  be  3780  —  1584  =  2196 
hours  of  heating  without  power.  Mr.  Evans,  how- 
ever, claims  a  total  of  5832  hours,  of  which  205O 
require  power  and  3782  require  heat  without  power. 
Where  does  the  larger  amount  come  from? 

The  industrial  plant  assumed  by  him  contained  1000 
hp.  in  high-pressure  boilers  for  heating  in  zero  weather. 
This  1000  hp.  apparently  means  developed  boiler  horse- 
power, which  is  roughly  1000  X  32  =  32,000  lb.  of 
high-pressure  steam  produced  per  hour  in  zero 
weather  only.  At  other  times  the  amount  is  propor- 
tionately less,  depending  on  the  outside  temperature. 

Mr.  Evans  claims  34,000  lb.,  but  it  is  not  clear  where 
he  gets  the  larger  amount,  as  one  boiler  horsepower 
is  33,479  B.t.u.  At  150  lb.  gage,  with  feed  water  at 
200  deg.  F.,  the  heat  required  to  produce  1  lb.  of  steam 
is  1195  —  (200  —  32)  =  1027  B.t.u.,  and  33,479  s- 
1027  =:  32.6  pounds. 

As  the  average  temperature  for  the  heating  season 
is  35  deg.  F.,  or  half  the  maximum  temperature  dif- 
ference, the  amount  of  steam  developed  for  heating 
per  year  will  be  3780  X  32,000  ---  2  =  60,480,000 
pounds. 

If  the  heating  water  from  the  combined  converter- 
condenser  is  supplied  to  the  buildings  at  180  deg.  F., 
with  a  maximum  drop  of  10  deg.  in  the  transmission 
lines,  it  must  leave  the  converter-condenser  at 
180  +  10  =  190  deg.  F.  As  it  would  hardly  be  prac- 
ticable in  a  surface  condenser  to  have  the  water 
approach  the  steam  temperature  within  10  deg.,  the 
maximum  exhaust  temperature  on  the  coldest  days 
will  be  190  -f  10  =  200  deg.  F.,  which  corresponds  to 
a  vacuum  of  6  in.  of  mercury.  As  the  limit  of  vacuum 
practicable  for  regular  work  is  about  28  in.,  it  follows 
that  the  exhaust  from  the  turbine  would  fluctuate 
between  6  in.  of  vacuum  on  the  coldest  days  and  28  in. 
on  the  mildest  days,  or  an  average  of  17  in.  for  the 
heating  season. 

No  superheat  is  considered,  as  it  is  not  mentioned. 


A  large  turbo-generator  operates  on  from  15  to  18  lb. 
of  steam  per  kilowatt-hour,  with  steam  at  190  lb.  gage, 
125  deg.  F.  of  superheat  and  a  vacuum  of  28  in.  A 
decrease  of  1  in.  of  vacuum  increases  the  steam  con- 
sumption about  3.5  per  cent.,  and  a  decrease  of  10  deg. 
of  superheat  increases  the  steam  consumption  1  per 
cent.  With  17  in.  vacuum  as  an  average,  the  reduction 
of  vacuum  is  28  —  17  =  11  in.,  which  would  increase 
the  steam  consumption  11  X  3.5  =  38.5  per  cent.  The 
lack  of  superheat  would  increase  it  125  -h  10  ;=  12.5 
per  cent.  So  the  total  increase  of  steam  consumption 
would  be  51  per  cent.,  or  1.51  times  as  great. 

Under  the  conditions  assumed,  the  minimum  steam 
consumption  would  be  15  X  1-51  =  22.65  lb.  per  kw.- 
hr.  and  the  maximum  woula  be  1&  X  1-51  =  27.18  lb. 
per  kw.-hr.,  giving  an  average  of  approximately  25 
lb.  per  kw.-hr  As  the  turbine  must  run  under  all 
sorts  of  tractianai  loads,  the  rate  would  probably  be 
at  least  30  lb.  per  kw.-hr.,  especially  with  steam  at 
150  lb.  or  less,  insteaa  ot  the  190  lb.  on  which  the 
foregoing  figures  are  based. 

With  a  production  of  60,480,000  lb.  of  steam  in  a 
season,  it  would  be  possible  to  develop  60,480,000  -^  30 
=  2,016,000  kw.-hr.  As  the  inaximum  steam  produc- 
tion on  a  zero  day  is  32,000  lb.  per  hour,  and  the  turbo- 
generator takes  about  30  lb.  per  kw.-hr.,  the  size  of 
unit  required  to  utilize  all  the  steam  will  be  32,000 
-f-  30  ~=  1066  kw.,  or  about  1000  kw.,  as  suggested  by 
Mr.  Evans. 

Ill  the  normal  power  plant,  about  15  per  cent,  of 
the  power  produced  is  required  for  the  operation  of 
the  plant  accessories — forced  draft,  boiler  feed, 
vacuum  pumps,  stoker  engfnes,  etc.  In  this  case 
probably  another  10  per  cent,  will  be  required  to  drive 
the  circulating  pumps  for  hot-water  heating,  which 
are  usually  of  the  centrifugal  type  and  have  a  low 
efficiency. 

A  loss  of  15  +  10  =  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  power 
generated  would  leave  75  per  cent,  available,  or 
2,016,000  X  0.75  =  1,512,000  kw.-hr.  At  Mr.  Evans' 
figure  of  Ic.  per  kw.-hr.  this  would  amount  to  $15,120 
per  season,  as  compared  with  his  figure  of  $46,656.  At 
$100  per  kilowatt,  the  1000-kw.  plant  would  cost 
$100,000  and  the  interest  and  depreciation  at  10  per 
cent,  would  be  $10,000.  At  $0.0033  per  kw.-hr.  the 
supplies  and  other  expenses  would  be  1,512,000  X 
$0.0033  =  $4990.  The  total  cost  of  running  the  plant 
would  then  be  $14,990  a  year,  and  the  saving  "to  be 
divided  as  mutually  agreed"  would  be  $15,120  —  $14,- 
990  =  $130  per  year. 

Mr.  Evans  has  an  item  oi  $7125  which  further  sub- 
tracts from  the  value  of  the  current  produced  and  he 
explains  this  charge  as  "extra  coal  over  heating  re- 
quirements at  $5  a  ton."  This  is  equivalent  to  charg- 
ing up  $7125  --  $5  =  1425  tons  of  additional  coal.  If 
(according  to  his  figures)  it  takes  34,000  lb.  of  steam 
per  hour  in  zero  weather  and  he  heats  for  a  total 
period  of  5832  hours,  then  his  yearly  steam  consump- 
tion for  heat  must  be  (34,000  -f-  2)  X  5832  =  99,- 
144,000  lb.  At  8  lb.  of  steam  per  pound  of  coal,  this 
is  equivalent  to  12,303,000  lb.  of  coal,  or  about  6196 
tons,  burned  to  provide  heat. 

To  run  the  1000-kw.  turbo-generator  at  full  load  at 
all  times  cV.-.rirs'  the  heating  scasou  would   require 


764 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


approximately  a  steam  production  equal  to  the  maxi- 
mum heating  requirement  at  all  times,  or  just  about 
twice  the  heating  coal,  which  is  6196  tons,  based  on 
his  figures.  Therefore,  the  purpose  of  the  additional 
1425  tons  is  not  clear,  as  it  does  not  represent  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  coal  to  run  the  turbine  on  full  load  for 
5832  hours. 

Now  as  to  the  fuel  consumption.  All  power  is  being 
purchased  from  the  central  station,  where  it  i.s  gener- 
ated at  2  lb.  of  coal  per  kilowatt-hour,  according  to  Mr. 
Evans'  supposition.  If  the  1000-kw.  machine  requires 
30  lb.  of  steam  per  kilowatt-hour  and  the  evaporation 
is  8  lb.  of  steam  per  pound  of  coal,  then  each  kilowatt- 
hour  produced  by  the  machine  means  30  -:-  8  =  3.75 
lb.  of  coal.  Accordingly,  every  hour  the  1000-kw. 
machine  is  run  on  steam  not  generated  for  heating 


purposes,  there  is  an  increased  fuel  consumption  of 
(3.75  —  2)  ---  2  =  0.875,  or  87.5  per  cent. 

This  proves  that  the  turbine  in  order  to  economize 
fuel  consumption  must  be  run  on  the  steam  that  would 
otherwise  be  generated  for  heating  only  and  must  be 
run  so  as  to  utilize  this  steam  alone  and  at  such  times 
and  at  such  load  as  this  quantity  of  steam  makes  it 
possible  to  carry. 

The  foregoing  figures  are  not  quite  fair,  however, 
as  the  central  station  uses  about  2.9  lb.  per  kw.-hr. 
and  probably  loses  10  per  cent,  in  transmission  to  the 
building,  so  that  the  actual  figure  for  the  central  sta- 
tion will  be  2.9  -;-  0.90  =  3.22  lb.  as  compared  with 
3.75  for  the  isolated  plant.  The  isolated  plant  would 
then  be  in  excess  of  the  central  station  by  (3.75  — 
3.22)  ~  3.22  =  0.164,  or  16.4  per  cent. 


Operation  and  Maintenance  of  Elevators- 
Arrangement  of  Cables 


By  R.  H.  whitehead 


Different  schemes  of  raping  up  the  winding- 
drum  type  of  elevator  machine,  for  both  over- 
head and  basement  installations,  are  described. 
The  limitations  of  these  installations  are  also 
pointed  out. 

THE  standard-elevator  installations.  Figs.  1  and 
2,  have  two  ropes  from  the  winding  drum  to  the 
car  and  two  from  the  winding  drum  to  the  drum 
counterweight.  Each  of  these  pairs  of  ropes  lead  cflf 
from  diametrically  opposite  sides  of  the  drum,  as 
shown  at  A  and  B,  Fig.  1.  A  is  the  car-hoisting  cables 
and  B  the  drum-counterweight  cables.  The  vibrating- 
sheave  shaft  and  one  bearing  pedestal  have  been  cut 
away  to  show  the  way  the  cables  come  down  to  the 
drum. 

The  grooving  in  the  drum  is  generally  arranged  so 
that  both  sets  of  ropes  use  the  same  grooves ;  that  is, 
when  the  car  is  traveling  up  the  hoistway,  the  car- 
hoisting  ropes  wind  on  the  drum  and  occupy  the  grooves 
that  are  vacated  by  the  drum-counterweight  cables, 
simultaneously  unwinding  off  the  drum,  and  vice  versa 
for  the  dovraward  travel  of  the  car.  This  arrangement 
enables  the  drum  to  care  for  almost  twice  the  rise  that 
would  be  possible  otherwise,  since  the  rise  of  this  type 
of  elevator  is  limited  by  the  amount  of  rope  that  can 
be  wound  on  the  drum. 

For  a  standard  installation  where  the  elevator 
machine  is  located  below,  as  in  Fig.  1,  the  drum  is 
generally  continuously  and  spirally  double-grooved  in 
one  direction  and  this  double  grooving  may  be  either 
right-hand  or  left-hand.  It  is  important  that  the  angle 
at  which  the  ropes  lead  off  the  drum  be  kept  very 
small.  This  angle  is  denoted  by  A  in  Fig.  3.  As  shown 
in  the  figure,  the  angle  is  made  minimum  by  locating 
the  machine  so  that  the  cables,  as  they  wind  on  and 
unwind  off  the  drum,  will  be  vertical  when  the  car  and 
counterweight  are  in  mid-position  in  the  hoistway. 

When   the  car  is  at  the  top  of  the   hoistway,   the 


maximum  amount  of  car-hoisting  rope  is  wound  on  the 
drum,  but  allowance  is  always  made  on  the  drum  for 
winding  additional  rope  in  case  the  car  travels  beyond 
the  top  landing.  As  the  car  descends,  the  hoisting 
ropes  unwind,  until  finally,  wdien  the  car  is  at  the 
bottom  of  the  hoistway,  there  remain,  as  a  safety  fea- 
ture, about  two  complete  turns  on  the  drum  to  take 
care  of  any  condition  where  the  car  might  happen  to 
run  below  the  bottom  landing.  The  drum-counterweight 
ropes  lead  off  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  drum,  as 
shovra  in  Fig.  1,  and  are  fastened  to  the  extreme  left 
of  the  drum,  as  at  R. 

When  the  car  is  at  the  top  of  the  hoistway,  the  drum 
counterweight  is  at  the  bottom,  consequently  there  are 
only  a  few  turns  of  drum-counterweight  rope  on  the 
drum  for  this  position.  As  the  car  descends,  the  car- 
counterweight  ropes  are  wound  on  the  drum  a  few 
turns  after  the  grooving  has  been  vacated  by  the 
unwinding  of  the  car-hoisting  ropes.  For  low-rise 
machines,  however,  one  half  of  the  drum  may  be  used 
exclusively  for  the  car-hoisting  ropes,  and  the  other  half 
for  the  drum-counterweight  ropes. 

The  different  methods  of  roping  up  the  counter- 
weights are  also  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  In  Fig.  1, 
with  the  machine  located  in  the  basement,  the  drum- 
counterweight  cables  come  down  between  the  car- 
counterweight  cables,  pass  through  the  center  of  this 
counterweight  and  are  fastened  to  the  center  of  the 
drum  counterweight  at  E.  For  the  overhead  machine 
the  drum-counterweight  ropes  come  down,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  car-counterweight  ropes,  pass  down  through 
the  car  counterweight  near  its  ends  and  are  fastened 
to  the  drum  counterweight  at  E  and  E. 

In  Fig.  7  a  view  is  shown  looking  down  the  hoistway 
from  above  when  the  counterweights  are  located  at 
right  angles  to  the  machine.  The  location  of  the  over- 
head sheaves  is  shown  and  the  general  outline  of  the 
machine  below.  The  length  of  the  drum  in  a  basement 
installation  cannot  be  greater  than  the  width  of  the 
hoistway,  consequently,  as  the  amount  of  rope  that  can 
be  wound  on  the  drum  depends  on  the  length  of  the 


May  28,  1918 


POWER 


765 


m 


ffltt 


.gsanii""i 


Xjf 


CAR 
COUNTER- 
WEIQHTS 


DRUM 
COUNTER- 
WEIGHTS 


g'l 


3' I 


fa> 


Fi<;.   1. 


BASKMBNT    INSTALI.ATION    OF    WTNOING-DRUM       Fin.     2.      OVFTRHEAn    INSTALLATION    OK    WINDING-DRUM 
TYPE    ELEVATOR    MACHINE  TYPK    lOLEVATOR    MACHINE 


766 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


latter,  the  possible  rise  of  the  car  is  limited  by  this 
factor.  The  diameter  of  the  drum  of  such  a  machine 
Ts  limited  by  consideration  of  elevator  speed  and  space 
conditions. 

When  the  elevator  is  overhead,  as  in  Fig.  2,  the 
grooving  becomes  a  different  proposition.  Fig.  4  shows 
the  rope  lead  when  a  continuously  double-grooved  drum 
machine,  normally  used  on  a  lower  floor  or  in  the  base- 
ment, is  placed  overhead.    When  the  car  is  near  the  top 


drum  is  spirally  grooved  right-hand  and  the  other  left- 
hand,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  With  this  arrangement  the 
side  thrust  on  the  car  caused  by  one  of  the  ropes  is 
offset  by  that  of  the  other.  In  Fig.  5,  when  the  car 
is  at  the  top  of  the  hoistway,  the  lead  of  the  hoisting 
rope  must  be  as  shown — that  is,  from  a  position  near 
the  center  of  the  drum^ — and  as  the  car  descends,  the 
two  car-hoisting  ropes  travel  in  opposite  directions 
along  the  face  of  the  drum  toward  the  flanges.     The 


<  yS^eui^e  ct-f-  Top 
of  ha^h  from 
which  Rope-5 
leaof  io  Car 


Y  "^^/e  "^  " 


Drum  turns 
to  Hoist 


Cotr-Hoish'ncj  Ropes 
leacf  Verfioalty 
when  Car  is  at 
Top  Landing 


TbpLanatnq 


Ropes  when 
Car  is  of  Top 
Lanainof 


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Halfway  iretween 
Top  and  Bottom 
Lanc/inofs 


Ropes  \vhenCar 
is  at  Bottom 
Landings 


CTl 


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turns 

io 
Moist 


Ropes  when 
n_  ,  Counterweiatri 

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^  OOn/S  err  fOD  cu/^j-  Xj:  -nx^,,^/^'. 


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J 


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Lanct/rra^ 


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\i^Landing 


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Counferweiaht  1 

is  at  Lowest  "Point   \ 

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Landing 


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PIGS.   3  TO   fi       DIFFERENT  ARRANGEMENTS   OF  CABLES    FOR  ELEVATOR  MACHINES 


of  the  hoistway,  the  length  of  car-hoisting  ropes  from 
the  drum  to  the  car  may  be  only  three  or  four  feet. 
Therefore,  for  this  position  of  the  car,  in  order  to  have 
a  good  lead  on  the  ropes,  the  .latter  must  come  down 
vertically  from  the  drum  to  the  car.  As  the  car  de- 
scends, the  ropes  lead  off  from  the  car  crosshead  at 
an  increasing  angle  to  the  vertical,  as  at  A.  Where  the 
distance  is  greater  than  about  35  ft.,  this  arrangement 
causes  an  undesirable  side  thrust  on  tha  car,  and  fric- 
tion between  the  car  shoes  and  the  guide  rails. 

To  avoid  this  disadvantage  for  high  rises,  a  single 
spiral  groove  is  used  on  the  drum.     One  half  of  the 


ropes  are  fastened  to  the  opposite  ends  of  the  drum's 
face.  This  arrangement  gives  the  best  rope  lead  for 
all  conditions.  Both  drum-counterweight  ropes  are 
fastened  at  the  center  of  the  drum's  face. 

When  the  car  is  at  the  top  of  the  hoistway,  there 
are  three  or  four  turns  of  the  drum-counterweight  rope 
wound  on  each  set  of  grooving  between  the  car-hoisting 
ropes;  the  latter,  for  this  position,  are  fully  wound  up 
on  the  drum.  As  the  car  descends  and  the  car-hoisting 
ropes  unwind,  the  drum-counterweight  ropes  occupy  the 
vacated  grooving  on  the  drum  as  it  revolves.  This  per- 
mits of  the  maximum  economy  of  drum  surface,  and 


May  '^X,  r.ilS 


f  O  W  K  K 


767 


thus  with  an  overhoiid  machino  it  is  possible  tn  havp 
the  same  rise  as  with  a  machine  located  below. 

Fly:.  ()  shows  how  the  proper  lead  of  drum-counter- 
weight rope  is  maintained.  The  width  of  the  counter- 
weight is  approximately  the  same  as  the  length  of  the 
drum,  so  that  when  the  counterweight  is  near  the  top 
of  the  hoistway,  the  counterweight  ropes  will  lead 
vertically  from  the  face  of  the  drum  to  the  counter- 
weight, and  each  of  the  ropes  is  at  the  same  time  about 
a  maximum  distance  from  its  central  position  along  the 
face  of  the  drum.  The  ropes  are  therefore  attached  to 
the  countenveights  at  points  spaced  apart  equal  to  the 
maximum  distance  they  are  separated  on  the  drum,  when 
the  counterweights  are  at  the  top  of  the  hoistway.  For 
high  rises  wide  counterweights  are  required,  but  for 
all  rises  the  proper  proportion  of  width  to  the  length 
of  the  counterweight  must  be  maintained  to  avoid  a 
condition  that  would  cause  them  to  jam,  similar  to  that 
effect  which  sometimes  occurs  on  opening  a  bureau 
drawer. 

With  an  overhead  machine  the  drum  diameter  is 
limited  by  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  car  to 
the   center  of   the   counterweight.      This    is    shovra    in 


j   MOTOf? 


DRUM-CPUNTERWEI6HT 
mPES  OVERHEAD  |      n 
SHEA/E- 


COUNTERWEieHT\ 

su/VEPmLS-  i. 


CAR- 

COUNTERWeiSHT 

ROPES 

OVERHEAD 

SHEAVE 


__J 


BRAHE   I 


6EAR\ 
\CASE  \ 


'iCAR-HO/5TJN6 
ROPES  OVERHEAD 
SHEAVE 


ENTRANCE  TO  CAR 


FIG.    7.      IjOCATION    OF    OVERHE\I)    SHEAVE.S    WHEN    MA- 
CHINE  IS    PLACED   AT    RIGHT    ANGLES    TO 
COUNTERWEIGHTS 

Figs.  8  and  9.  If  the  machine  does  not  span  this  dis- 
tance, as  in  Fig  8',  then  a  pair  of  detached  vibrator 
sheaves  must  be  used  for  the  drum-counterweight  ropes 
which  move  along  a  shaft  parallel  with  the  drum.  If  the 
drum  does  span  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  car 
to  the  center  of  the  counterweight,  as  in  Fig.  9,  no 
vibrator  sheaves  are  needed  for  the  drum-counterweight 
ropes.     Such  an  installation  is  also  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

There  are  some  cases  with  machines  of  either  the 
overhead  or  basement  type,  where  four  car-hoisting 
ropes  are  required.  With  a  basement-type  machine  it 
is  not  practical  to  groove  the  drum  continuously  with 
quadruple  grooving,  so  that  the  ropes  can  travel  side 
by  side,  owing  to  the  large  pitch  of  grooving  that 
would  be  required,  ("onsequently,  when  four  ropes  are 
required  with  machines  of  either  type,  the  machine 
is  grooved  as  in  Figs.  5  and  6,  excepting  instead  of 
single  grooves,  double  grooves  are  used,  and  a  pair  of 


hoisting  ropes  is  used  on  each  end  of  the  drum  instead 
of  a  single  rope  as  shown.  The  drum-counterweight 
ropes  are  cared  for  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  6. 

The  winding-drum  machine,  as  explained,  has  certain 
definite  limitations  and  cannot  on  this  account  be  used 
for  the  high  rises  met  with  in  our  modern  high  build- 
ings.    Its  use  is  generally  limited  to  about  a  15-story 


FIG.  9 


FIGS.    8    AND    9.      LAYOUTS    OP   OVERHEAD   MACHINES 

building  although,  as  explained,  this  depends  on  the 
particular  characteristics  of  the  installation.  The  next 
article  will  deal  with  the  operation  of  traction-type 
elevator  machines,  which  have  practically  no  limitations 
as  far  as  the  length  of  the  rise  is  concerned. 

Something  About  the  Steam   Ivoop 

A  few  nights  after  the  Saturday  afternoon  chat  Willis 
had  with  Williams  at  the  Stahley  plant,  he  dropped 
in  again,  as  he  was  on  his  way  home  for  supper,  to  have 
another  talk  about  the  action  of  the  steam  loop.  Wil- 
liams was  washing  up  when  Willis  breezed  into  the 
engine  room  with  the  remark,  "1  got  here  just  in  time 
to  keep  you  on  the  job  a  little  longer  than  the  law  de- 
mands.   I  guess  you  don't  mind,  do  you?" 

"Not  so  as  you  would  notice  it,  seeing  it's  you.  What's 
on  your  mind  tonight?"  replied  Williams. 

"Well,  last  Saturday  afternoon  we  had  a  little  confab 


768 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


about  pumps,  and  you  was  cussin'  'em  up  hill  and  down 
and  wished  that  some  fellow  would  get  up  something 
that  would  handle  hot  water  without  any  moving  parts. 
I  told  you  that  I  would  give  you  a  few  pointers  about 
the  steam  loop,  and  here  I  am  to  carry  out  my  part  of 
the  contract." 

"All  right,  go  to  it.  Better  take  a  chair  and  be  as 
sociable  as  you  can  while  I  get  into  my  street  togs.  I 
can  listen  just  as  well  as  not  while  I  am  changing." 

"All  right,  here  goes.  A  steam  loop  is  a  device  for 
returning  condensation  from  steam  pipes,  separators, 
radiators  and  other  parts  of  a  steam  plant  to  a  boiler, 
when  there  is  not  an  excessive  pressure  between  the 
boiler  and  the  different  parts  of  the  system.  To  do  that, 
water  has  to  be  carried  from  some  part  of  the  system 
of  less  pressure  than  is  carried  in  the  boiler  and  deliv- 
ered to  the  boiler  where  there  is  a  higher  pressure  than 
is  carried  in  the  piping  system  of  the  plant." 

"Why  the  drop  in  pressure?  If  you  turn  steam  into 
a  pipe  line,  you  will  get  the  same  pressure  all  along  its 
length,  won't  you?" 

"Not  so  as  you  would  notice  it,"  replied  Willis.  "If 
you  don't  believe  it,  you  put  a  gage  on  the  steam  pipe 
next  to  your  engine  and  you  will  find  that  there  is  a  few 
pounds  less  pressure  there  than  at  the  boiler;  this  is 
due  to  the  length  of  the  pipe  and  the  number  of  fittings, 
the  velocity  of  the  steam  flow  and  the  amount  of  con- 
densation that  takes  place.  Now  to  get  the  water  of 
condensation  back  to  the  boilers,  it  is  generally  neces^ 
sary  to  overcome  the  drop  in  pressure  and  also  the 
weight  of  the  water  or  hydraulic  head  if  you  want  to 


FIG.    1. 


■  I    GOT    HERE    JUST    IN    TIME    TO    KEEP    YOU    OX 
THE    .lOB    A    I.ITTLE    LONGER" 


be  technical,  so  to  speak.  The  beauty  of  a  steam  loop 
is  that  it  will  handle  water  with  pretty  near  no  atten- 
tion, and  all  of  the  work  done  by  it  is  due  to  the  con- 
densation of  steam  in  the  apparatus." 

"That  may  all  be;  but  how  is  the  thing  made?"  asked 
Williams. 

"It  is  simple  in  construction  and  consists  of  but  three 
parts — two  vertical  pipes  and  one  horizontal.  Perhaps 
I  had  better  make  a  sketch  so  as  to  make  the  matter 
plain."  (See  Fig.  2.)  "The  pipes  I  will  mark  A,  B  and 
C.  The  vertical  pipe  .4  is  called  the  drop  leg,  the  con- 
necting pipe  C  the  horizontal  and  the  pipe  B  the  riser. 


the  last  being  connected  to  the  steam  separator  D  of  the 
engine." 

"That's  a  funny  arrangement,"  said  Williams  as  he 
examined  the  sketch.     "What  does  it  do?" 

"Just  what  I  have  been  telling  you.  It  will  take  the 
vapor  that  collects  in  the  separator  just  as  fast  as  it 
accumulates  and  return  it  to  the  boiler,  and  it  won't 


-r^^ 


Water  Lei/el 


^ 


^^5^^^^?5^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


FIG.  2.     LAYOUT  OP  A  STEAM-LOOP  SYSTEM 

allow  a  lot  of  water  to  collect  in  the  separator  before  it 
begins  to  operate.  Now  to  have  the  system  work  as  it 
should,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  pipes  proportioned 
right.  Added  to  that,  the  vertical  pipes  should  be  cov- 
ered with  some  insulating  material,  but  the  horizontal 
pipe  C  should  be  left  bare.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
the  pipe  C  will  act  as  a  condenser  and  the  loop  E  pre- 
vents the  water  from  running  back  into  the  riser  B." 

"I  don't  believe  the  thing  will  work,"  Williams  ex- 
claimed after  examining  the  sketch  once  more;  "that 
is,  I  don't  believe  it  will  the  way  you  have  got  it  drawn. 
Where  is  the  steam  coming  from  to  be  condensed  in  the 
horizontal  pipe  C?  You  haven't  made  any  connection 
to  the  steam  space  of  the  boiler." 

"Well,  I  declare,  that  was  careless  of  me,  wasn't  it?" 
replied  Willis.  "Of  course,  if  that  pipe  is  going  to  act 
as  a  condenser  it  has  got  to  have  steam  to  condense  and, 
as  you  say,  it  can't  come  from  the  boiler  because  there 
ain't  no  steam  connection  and  it  can't  come  from  the 
blowoff  connection  because  there  is  water  in  it  up  to 
the  water  level  in  the  boiler,  and  a  check  valve  prevents 
it  from  going  higher.  I  swan,  I  don't  see  how  I  came 
to  make  that  mistake,  but  perhaps  there  is  another 
way  for  that  pipe  to  get  steam  for  condensing  purposes," 
and  Willis  indulged  in  a  slight  grin  as  he  continued: 

"The  condensation  and  entrained  water  in  the 
separator  are  in  the  form  of  a  moist  vapor,  with  a  low 
specific  gravity,  which  rises  to  the  condenser  C  and  is 
turned  into  water.  This  will  go  on  as  long  as  there  is 
vapor,  and  when  the  water  running  into  the  drop  leg  A 
reaches  a  height  sufficient  to  overcome  the  pressure  on 
the  check  valve  F,  it  will  run  into  the  boiler.  The  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  depends  on  its  temperature.  At 
60-lb.  gage  pressure  the  temperature  would  be  about 
307  deg.,  using  round  numbers,  and  at,  say,  110-lb.  pres- 


May  28,  1918 


POWER 


769 


sure  it  would  be  about  344  deg.  The  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot  of  water  at  the  corresitonding  temperatures  would 
be  about  57  and  5(>  lb.,  respectively.  Now,  a  column  of 
water  I  in.  square  and  1  ft.  high  weighs,  at  your  pres- 
sure of  110  lb.,  which  equals  344  deg.  temperature,  56  -f- 
144  =  0.388  lb.  That  being  a  fact,  the  height  of  the 
column  of  water  in  the  pipe  A  with,  say,  a  4-lb.  differ- 
ence in  pressure  between  the  boilers  and  the  engine 
would  be  4  -=-  0.388  =^  10.3  ft." 

"All  right,  I  will  take  your  word  for  it,  so  go  to  it." 

"If  the  water  in  the  pipe  A  is  to  run  into  the  boiler, 
you  can  see  that  the  height  of  the  water  must  be  enough 
to  overbalance  the  difference  in  pressure,  as  well  as  what 
friction  there  may  be.  In  order  to  do  this  the  pipe  A 
has  got  to  be  about  30  per  cent,  higher  than  the  height 
of  the  column  of  water  that  we  found  was  necessary  to 
balance  the  difference  in  pressure  due  to  the  drop  be- 
tween the  boiler  and  the  engine,  or  10.3  ft.  Then  10.3  X 
0.30  =  3.09  ft.,  which,  added  to  the  height  of  the  water 
necessary  to  overbalance  the  difference  in  pressure,  will 
be  10.3  +  3.09  =  13.39  ft.,  or  13.5  ft.,  the  height  of  the 
pipe  A  above  the  water  level  in  the  boiler.  The  head  of 
water  tending  to  force  the  check  valve  F  open  is  equal 
to  the  height  of  the  pipe  A,  less  the  height  necessary  to 
balance  the  difference  in  pressure.  You  get  this  by  mul- 
tiplying by  0.388,  the  weight  of  a  column  of  water  1  in. 
square  and  1  ft.  high,  as  we  have  already  found.  Then 
13.5  —  10.3  X  0.388  =  1.24  lb." 

"Does  it  make  any  difference  where  the  pipe  A  enters 
the  boiler;  that  is,  below  the  water  level?" 

"If  you  will  stop  to  think  a  moment,  you  will  see  that 
it  does  not.  In  the  sketch  the  water  enters  through  the 
blowoff  pipe.  It  could  have  entered  the  boiler  at  the 
point,  say,  X,  just  as  well,  as  it  does  not  affect  the  work- 
ing of  the  system." 

"I  don't  see  why  it  won't  make  a  difference,  because 
the  column  of  water  is  higher  with  the  lower  connec- 
tion than  with  the  higher  one." 

"Well,  well,  it  does  look  as  if  that  were  so,  don't  it, 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  water  in  the  pipe  A 1  But  ,on 
the  other  hand,  with  either  a  lower  or  higher  connection, 
the  height  of  the  horizontal  pipe  C  above  the  water  level 
in  the  boiler  will  be  the  same,  because  its  height  is  al- 
ways measured  from  the  water  level  in  the  boiler. 

"Don't  you  see  that  the  total  difference  in  pressure 
is  balanced  by  the  height  of  water  column  in  the  drop 
leg  and  as  the  horizontal  pipe  is  a  condenser  the  vapor 
is  drawn  into  it  when  it  condenses  and  runs  down  into 
the  drop  leg?  Then,  just  as  soon  as  the  column  of  water 
reaches  a  height  sufficient  to  overcome  the  balance,  the 
check  valve  opens  and  the  water  flows  into  the  boiler, 
and  that  is  about  all  there  is  to  it." 

"That  sounds  easy.  I  wonder  that  there  are  not  more 
of  them  working  in  steam  plants." 

"Now  you  come  to  mention  it,  there  are  a  lot  of  them 
operating  in  power  plants.  They  take  up  so  little  room 
that  a  fellow  don't  see  them  when  he  goes  through  a 
plant  where  they  are.  One  thing  that  should  be  remem- 
bered is  to  have  the  check  valve  F  of  large  area,  because 
if  there  is  much  difference  in  area  between  the  top  and 
the  bottom  it  will  prevent  the  check  from  lifting  until  a 
;?reater  column  of  water  has  gathered  in  the  drop  leg 
than  is  necessary  for  its  operation  after  the  check  does 
lift." 


"What's  the  odds  if  it  does  get  more  water  than  is 
necessary  to  operate?    Can't  do  any  harm,  can  it?" 

"The  only  harm  that  it  would  do  would  be  to  flood  the 
horizontal  pipe  C  and  that  would,  of  course,  prevent  the 
system  from  operating.  Another  thing  that  will  pre- 
vent the  system  from  operating  is  when  it  gets  air- 
bound.  That  is  what  the  valve  G  is  put  on  for  so  as  to 
let  the  steam,  water  and  air  blow  out  when  it  is  opened 
and  so  clear  the  system  of  air.  Then  close  the  valve 
and  away  the  system  will  go  as  slick  as  a  brindle  pup 
chasing  a  tomcat." 

High-Temperature  Alarm 

By  Herbert  B.  Brand 

The  device  shown  in  the  illustration  is  for  giving  an 
alarm  when  the  temperature  of  the  cooling  water,  from 
the  jacket  of  an  oil  engine  or  air  compressor  or  the  oil 
in   the   lubricating   system   of  an   engine   or  turbine, 


BELL  CIRCUIT  CLOSED    BY   RISE   IN  TEMPERATaRB 

reaches  a  predetermined  point.  It  consists  of  a  J-in. 
copper  tube  (iron-pipe  size)  20  in.  long,  one  end  of 
which  is  screwed  into  a  li-in.  pipe  cap  (or  other  size 
to  suit  the  piping  used).  A  l-'m.  steel  rod  23  in.  long 
is  screwed  into  a  i-in.  pipe  cap  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
copper  tube.  The  free  end  of  the  steel  rod  where  it 
projects  from  the  copper  tube  at  the  top  is  threaded  for 
about  one  inch  of  its  length.  The  arrangement  for  in- 
creasing or  multiplying  the  motion  consists  of  two 
pieces  of  brass  i  by  S  in.  The  movable  member  of  this 
multiplying  device  carries  a  brass  screw  and  locknut; 
the  screw  and  lower  contact  preferably  have  platinum 
contact  points.  The  action  depends  on  the  difference  in 
the  coeflicient  of  expansion  of  copper  and  steel,  so  that 
when  the  copper  pipe  lengthens  from  a  rise  in  the  tem- 
perature of  the  fluid  flowing  in  the  large  circulating  pipe 
and  the  steel  rod  does  not  lengthen  so  much,  the  contacts 
will  be  brought  together,  closing  the  electric  circuit  and 
ringing  the  bell. 


770 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


Radojet  Air  Pump 

The  satisfactory  performance  of  a  condenser  depends 
largely  on  how  the  air  and  the  condensates  are  removed, 
as  air  is  a  nonconductor  of  heat  and  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  it  rapidly  from  the  condenser  as  the  steam  is 
condensed;  if  not,  it  will  collect  and  form  a  nonconden- 
sing  element  around  the  condenser  tubes  and  impair  the 
heat's  transfer. 

With  reciprocating  engines  operating  with  a  vacuum 
of  about  26  in.,  the  reciprocating  air  pump  performed 
its  function,  but  with  the  adoption  of  the  steam  turbine 
and  its  high  vacuum,  a  demand  for  a  condenser  that 
would  maintain  a  high  vacuum  was  necessary  and  this, 
of  course,  required  a  further  development  of  the  water 
and  air  pumps. 

An  ideal  air  pump  would  be  one  in  which  there  are  no 
moving  parts,  simple  in  construction  and  operation,  to- 
gether with  a  low  steam  consumption,  combined  with  the 
additional  features  of  minimum  space  and  weight,  no 
foundation,  noiseless  operation  and  no  attention  during 
operating  period,  quick  starting,  continuous  service  and 
safety  of  operation.  Such  an  air  pump  has  been  devel- 
oped by  the  C.  H.  Wheeler  Manufacturing  Co.,  18th  St. 
and  Lehigh  Ave.,  Philadelphia,  Penn.  It  is  called  Radojet 
and  is  used  in  connection  with  surface,  jet  or  barometric 
condensers,  as  well  as  in  combination  with  other  appa- 
ratus, wherein  a  vacuum  has  to  be  produced  and  main- 
tained. 

The  principal  characteristic  of  the  Radojet  air  pump, 
Fig.  1,  is  the  use  of  the  steam  jets  for  the  removal  of 


FIG.    1.      TWO   VIEWS    OP   THE    RADOJET   AIR    PUMP 

air.  Although  this  method  of  removing  air  is  not  orig- 
inal with  this  pump,  it  has  never  before  been  developed 
to  produce  high  vacuum  commercially.  The  Radojet 
consists  of  two  steam  ejectors  working  in  series,  Fig. 
2,  the  top  ejector  being  called  the  first  stage  and  the 
lower  one  the  second  stage. 

A  study  of  Fig.  2  will  show  how  the  pump  operates. 
Live  steam  at  boiler  pressure  enters  through  the  flanged 
connection  A  and  strainer  B  to  the  expansion  nozzles  C, 
the  path  being  through  the  pipe  D,  angle  valve  E  and 
strainer  F.   From  the  expansion  nozzles  the  steam  flows 


across  the  suction  chamber  G  of  the  first-stage  ejector, 
which  is  connected  to  the  condenser  through  the  flanged 
opening  H.  As  the  steam  expands  in  the  nozzles  C,  it 
leaves  them  at  a  very  high  velocity,  and  in  crossing  the 
suction  chamber  G,  it  entrains  the  air  and  vapor  coming 
from  the  condenser.     The  mixture  of  steam,  air  and 


FIG. 


SECTIOX   THROUGH   RADOJET   AIR   PUMP 


vapor  passes  into  the  diffuser  tube  /,  from  which  it  is 
discharged  at  a  higher  absolute  pressure  than  that  of 
the  air  entering  at  the  opening  H,  into  a  double  annular 
passage  /  which  communicates  with  the  suction  cham- 
bers K  of  the  second-stage  ejector. 

Steam  is  simultaneously  delivered  through  the  strainer 
B  into  the  passage  L,  which  communicates  with  the  an- 
nular e.xpansion  nozzle  formed  between  the  two  circular 
disks  M  and  A^.  The  disk  N  can  be  adjusted  toward  or 
away  from  the  disk  M  by  the  adjusting  screw  0.  This 
is  to  vary  the  cross-section  of  the  nozzle  passage  and 
thereby  change  the  expansion  ratio  of  the  steam. 

The  steam  from  the  chamber  L  is  delivered  radially 
by  the  annular  nozzles  M  and  N  and  expanding  leaves  it 
as  a  jet  of  high  velocity  in  the  form  of  a  sheet,  and  in 
passing  the  suction  chamber  K  entrains  the  air  and 
steam  coming  from  the  first-stage  nozzle  and  carries 
them  into  the  annular  diffuser  P,  thus  compressing  the 
mi.xture  to  atmospheric  pressure  and  discharging  it  into 
the  casing  Q  and  out  through  the  discharge  opening  R. 
The  discharge  from  the  outlet  R  may  be  delivered  into  a 
vented  tank  supplied  with  fresh  water  for  boiler  heating 
where  the  steam  contained  in  the  mixture  is  condensed. 

The  air  frees  itself  from  the  water  and  escapes 
through  the  vent  to  the  atmosphere.  If  an  open  feed- 
vi'ater  heater  is  used,  the  discharge  from  the  air  pump 
is  led  directly  to  it. 


May  28,  1918 


POWER 


771 


In  Fig.  3  is  shown  a  surface-condenser  installation 
fitted  v/ith  Radojet  air  pumps  arranged  on  a  common 
air-suction  header  for  removing  the  air.    This  arrange- 


the  designed  pressure,  it  will  maintain  continuous  serv- 
ice. When  starting,  the  valve  controlling  the  steam 
supply  is  opened  and  that  is  all  there  is  to  it. 


RADOJETS 


CI/KULATINO 
PUMP 


HOTWELL     PUnPS 


CIPCOLAT/NO    PUMPS 

FIG.    3.      END  AND   SIDE  VIEW   OF   SURFACE   CONDENSER   EQUIPPED    WITH    R,\DOJET   AIR   PUMPS 


ment  provides  for  different  loads  and  for  cutting  out 
one  or  more  air  pumps  when  desirable.  It  also  prevents 
a  total  shutdown  due  either  to  an  unexpected  leak  or  a 
breakdown. 

This  type  of  air  pump,  when  used  with  the  jet  type  of 
condenser,  has  the  advantage  of  independent  operation 
and  being  separated  from  the  removal  pump  in  that  the 
air  pump  is  started  independently  of  and  prior  to  the 
removal  pump;  and  because  of  its  ability  to  handle  a 
large  volume  of  free  air  even  at  low  vacuum,  it  quickly 
creates  the  pressure  difference  necessary  to  lift  the  injec- 
tion water.  The  action  of  this  air  pump  is  such  that 
within  one  to  three  minutes  from  the  start  (depending 
on  the  size  of  condenser)  the  main  injection  valve  can 
be  opened,  and  simultaneously  putting  the  removal  pump 
in  operation,  the  condenser  is  ready  for  service.  This 
independence  of  the  air  pump  makes  it  possible  to  vary 
the  speed  of  the  removal  pump  according  to  the  varia- 
tions in  the  discharge  heads,  thereby  obtaining  the  most 
economical  results. 

Fig.  4  shows  the  application  of  this  design  of  air  pump 
to  a  low-level  jet  condenser.  When  used  on  large-sized 
condensers,  two  or  more  air  pumps  working  in  parallel 
are  arranged.  This  gives  the  advantages  mentioned  in 
connection  with  surface  condensers.  This  air  pump  will 
work  with  the  barometric  type  of  condenser  equally  as 
well  as  with  those  of  the  surface  and  jet  types. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  moving  parts,  this  air  pump 
does  not  require  attention  during  operation,  and  when 
once  adjusted  and  supplied  with  dry  saturated  steam  of 


RADOJET   AIR    PUMP   ATTACHED   TO   A    JET 
CONDENSER 


772 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


Purifying  Water   for    Sealing   Steam 
Turbine  Glands 

B\  J.  B.  Linker 

In  a  steam-turbine  installation,  the  glands  should  be 
sealed  with  soft  or  purified  water.  This  is  easily  ob- 
tained in  a  plant  where  condensed  steam  is  available; 
but  in  many  plants  such  a  supply  is  not  at  hand,  and 
other  means  must  be  found  to  keep  the  glands  from  be- 
coming clogged  with  scale.  If  the  glands  clog  with 
scale,  the  runners  are  liable  to  be  broken,  and  a  kinked 
or  unbalanced  spindle  may  result.  Many  turbine  own- 
ers and  operators  do  not  attach  proper  importance  to  the 
use  of  gland  water  that  is  free  from  impurities.  The 
manufacturers  of  turbines  offer  arrangements  for  chem- 
ically treating  gland  water  that  contains  impurities, 
and  yet  many  customers  will  disregard  this  important 
matter. 

The  writer  was  called  upon  to  start  up  a  turbine,  and 
on  arriving  at  the  plant  found  that  no  provision  had 


TV  TURBINE  OIAUDSi^ 


WATER-SOFTENING 


APPARATUS 
GLANDS 


FOR     STKAM-TURBINE 


been  made  for  using  purified  or  soft  water  on  the 
glands.  The  owner  wanted  the  turbine  to  be  put  into 
immediate  service  and  ordered  the  machine  started  up 
by  using  well  water  that  contained  considerable  mag- 
nesia. The  writer  informed  the  owner  of  the  impor- 
tance of  using  purified  water,  but  owing  to  the 
necessity  of  getting  the  plant  started,  the  water  that  con- 
tained the  magnesia  was  used.  After  two  weeks'  opera- 
tion the  glands  became  so  clogged  with  scale  that  the 
turbine  was  shut  down  for  two  days  to  clean  the  gland 
casings  and  runners.  This  owner  doubted  that  two 
weeks'  run  with  hard  water  would  cause  a  shutdown,  but 
it  did,  and  he  is  now  thoroughly  convinced  that  it  was 
a  great  risk  to  run.  A  system  for  using  purified  water 
was  immediately  installed. 

On  starting  up  another  plant,  the  same  problem  of  a 
lack  of  purified  water  was  encountered.  It  was  de- 
cided that  this  turbine  would  not  be  started  until  some 
means  was  found  to  supply  soft  water  for  the  glands. 
It  would  have  required  several  days  to  construct  tanks 
and  do  the  necessary  pipe  work  for  installing  the  chem- 
ical-feeding arrangement  recommended  by  the  turbine 


builders.  To  assist  the  ovraer  to  get  the  machine  go- 
ing as  quickly  as  possible  and  at  the  same  time  take  no 
chance  of  clogging  the  gland  casings,  a  temporary  ar- 
rangement was  rigged  up  to  treat  the  gland  water  with 
chemicals.  The  owner  was  using  a  small  tank  arrange- 
ment for  feeding  boiler  compound  to  the  feed  water.  It 
happened  that  an  extra  tank  was  available,  and  it  was 
piped  up  as  shown  in  the  figure,  to  feed  chemicals  to  the 
gland  water.  It  took  only  a  few  hours'  work  to  install 
this  tank  and  get  the  turbine  in  service.  The  result  was 
that  any  desired  quantity  of  chemical  could  be  fed  to 
the  gland  water.  The  chemical  used  was  the  product  of 
the  manufacturer  of  the  tank,  which  is  designed  par- 
ticularly for  use  in  treating  boiler-feed  water. 

In  starting  the  turbine,  the  two  valves  A  and  B  were 
opened  wide  and  the  water  pressure  to  the  glands  was 
controlled  by  the  valve  C.  By  having  the  two  valves  A 
and  B  open,  and  manipulating  the  valve  C,  water  -was 
forced  through  the  tank,  where  it  dissolved  the  chemical. 
The  line  pressure  was  about  40  lb.  at  the  valve  C  and 
somewhat  less  at  the  discharge  side  of  this  valve.  By 
regulating  the  opening  of  the  valves  A  and  B,  any 
strongth  of  solution  desired  could  be  obtained. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  writer  to  introduce  a 
new  arrangement  for  treating  gland  water,  but  it  is  de- 
sired to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  keeping  scale  from 
forming  in  the  gland  casings  and  on  the  gland  runners 
of  turbines  requiring  water  seals.  Once  the  owners  and 
operators  of  steam  turbines  are  convinced  of  the  im- 
portance of  this  matter,  no  trouble  will  be  experienced 
with  clogged  glands. 

Trials   of   Marine   Fuels 

Among  the  efforts  to  relieve  the  exceptional  present 
demand  upon  the  liquid-fuel  resources  of  the  world  is 
an  attempt  to  burn  a  colloidal  mixture  of  Navy  fuel  oil 
and  pulverized  coal.  Successful  runs  have  been  made 
with  the  mixed  fuel  off  New  Haven  upon  a  vessel  which 
has  been  assigned  to  the  Submarine  Defense  Associa- 
tion for  this  and  similar  purposes. 

A  material  is  in  a  colloidal  condition — as  that  term 
has  of  late  been  used  with  regard  to  graphite  mixed 
with  oil,  etc. — when  it  remains  suspended  in  the  con- 
taining fluid  and  will  not,  by  reason  of  the  fineness  to 
which  it  has  been  reduced,  settle  out.  About  3  parts 
by  weight  of  coal  can  be  carried  in  this  way  by  7  parts 
of  oil,  giving  a  mixture  of  about  the  same  calorific  value 
per  cubic  foot  as  the  oil  itself.  This  mixture  can  be 
used  in  the  same  burners  as  the  plain  oil  and  affords 
a  means  of  replacing  30  per  cent,  of  the  liquid  fuel  by 
the  more  abundant  coal  and  of  burning  the  latter  smoke- 
lessly  and  without  any  complication  of  the  apparatus. 
The  tests,  which  are  being  run  by  Haylett  O'Neill, 
combustion  engineer,  of  the  Submarine  Defense  Asso- 
ciation, will  comprise  trial  runs  to  determine  the  prac- 
tical and  comparative  steaming  values  for  marine  prac- 
tice of  the  following  fuels:  A  combination  fuel  con- 
sisting of  a  colloidal  mixture  of  Navy  fuel  oil  and  pul- 
verized coal;  Navy  fuel  oil;  pulverized  coal  with  instal- 
lations by  various  companies;  pulverized  coal  and  Navy 
fuel  oil  burned  simultaneously  in  respective  burners 
under  the  same  boiler;  pulverized  coal  and  colloidal  fuel 
burned  simultaneously  in  respective  burners  under  the 
same  boiler. 


May  28,  1918  POWER  773 

eiuuiuiuiiuiiuMnuiuuiiiuiiiiuiiimiimuuiiiiiJiiiiuiimiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiuiiiiuiiuiiiuiiuiiiuiiiiiiiuiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


Editorials 


iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiniiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiinmiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiii^ iiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinriiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii?; 


Some  Benefits  of  the  War 

GIGANTIC  catastrophe  as  it  is,  the  world  war  brings 
in  its  train  a  few  effects  which  may  be  added  to 
the  credit  side  of  the  account. 

One  of  the  smaller  of  these  is  the  effect  which  it  has 
had  upon  the  mental  habits  of  the  people.  We  know 
more  of  geography,  of  peoples  and  their  history;  we 
pay  more  attention  to  the  utterances  of  the  leaders  of 
the  world's  thought ;  we  have  a  keener  perception  of  the 
social  and  industrial  problems  of  life.  The  proletariat 
has  taken  to  serious  reading  and  thinking. 

The  war  has  forced  upon  us  a  demonstration  of  the 
possibilities  of  thrift.  We  have  been  a  nation  of  spend- 
thrifts. President  Wilson  said  in  his  address  to  the 
War-Savings  Committee:  "I  suppose  not  many  fortu- 
nate byproducts  can  come  out  of  a  war,  but  if  the 
United  States  can  learn  something  about  saving  out  of 
this  war,  it  will  be  worth  the  cost  of  the  war;  I  mean  the 
literal  cost  of  it  in  money  and  resources.  I  suppose 
we  have  several  times  over  wasted  what  we  are  now 
about  to  spend.  We  have  not  known  that  there  was  any 
limit  to  our  resources;  we  are  now  finding  out  that 
there  may  be  if  we  are  not  careful."  Many  a  person 
who  would  have  spent  his  all  as  he  got  it  will  come  out 
of  the  war  with  a  snug  little  sum  in  Savings  Stamps  or 
Liberty  Bonds,  and  even  if  enforced  economies  have 
demonstrated  how  much  one  can  go  without  and  in- 
culcated the  saving  habit,  it  will  be  worth  something. 

Closely  akin  to  enforced  economy  is  enforced  efficiency. 
Shortage  in  materials  and  man-power  has  driven  us  to 
making  better  use  of  what  we  have.  The  carelessness 
in  the  use  of  coal  of  the  old  plentiful  days  is  no  longer 
tolerated.  The  possibilities  of  cheaper  fuels  are  demon- 
strated, wastes  are  discovered  and  stopped,  fuel-saving 
devices  are  sought  and  used,  and  a  premium  has  been 
put  upon  efficiency  in  the  power  plant.  Owners,  engi- 
neers and  firemen  are  alive  as  never  before  to  the  sav- 
ings that  can  be  made,  and  a  standard  of  efficiency  is 
being  established  that  will  set  a  new  pace  when  the  war 
is  over.  The  same  thing  applies  in  a  broad  sense  to 
all  industrial  operations. 

To  those  who  participate  in  its  various  activities  the 
war  will  bring  many  advantages  in  an  enlarged  experi- 
ence of  the  world,  in  contact  with  other  people  and  other 
lands,  in  associations  and  acquaintances  and  friendships, 
in  honors  achieved,  in  an  outgrown  provincialism  and  a 
sense  of  duty  done. 

It  will  greatly  improve  the  physical  powers  of  mil- 
lions of  men.  The  systematic  regime  of  the  training 
camps,  the  regular  routine  of  the  cantonments,  and 
service  in  the  field  and  in  the  trenches  will  strengthen 
and  temper  the  country's  manhood,  the  fiber  of  which 
had  been  in  danger  of  becomin'r  asthenic  through  ease 
and  luxury.  Similarly,  the  widespread  employment  of 
women  in  the  industries  will  result  in  a  decrease  of 
idle  and  purposeless  living  and  an  improvement  in  phys- 


ical well-being.  So  there  must  necessarily  follow  a  tre- 
mendous expansion  of  our  biological  capital,  the  benefit 
of  which  the  nation  will  receive  in  the  coming  gen- 
eration. 

The  war  will  put  America  on  an  independent  basis 
with  regard  to  many  things  for  which  we  have  been  de- 
pendent upon  others.  It  has  forced  us  into  new  lines  of 
manufacture,  such  as  dyes,  chemicals,  glass  for  optical 
instruments,  nitrates.  It  is  forcing  us  to  develop  our 
neglected  resources,  as  the  soda  deposits  of  Utah,  the 
water  powers,  the  beds  of  lignite  and  peat.  It  has  in- 
tensified the  search  for  oil  and  compelled  new  methods 
of  refining  its  most  demanded  products.  It  has  stimu- 
lated invention  and  research  and  has  led  to  the  per- 
fecting of  numerous  industrial  processes  of  permanent 
value. 

The  war  revived  our  drooping  industries  and  has 
made  us  the  creditor  nation  of  the  world.  It  has  made 
work  plentiful  even  though  it  has  made  living  dear.  It 
has  opened  to  us  the  markets  of  the  world  and  com- 
pelled us  to  build  a  merchant  marine  to  reach  them  and 
financial  and  commercial  organizations  to  cultivate 
them.  It  has  given  us  a  chance  to  demonstrate  the  in- 
tegrity of  our  purposes,  the  unselfishness  of  our  motives 
and  the  beneficence  of  our  intentions  toward  all  man- 
kind, has  allayed  the  distrust  of  our  neighbors,  dis- 
armed the  enmities  which  were  brewing  against  us  and 
bound  us  with  new  ties  of  sympathetic  friendship  to  our 
Allies.  It  will  win  us  the  respect  of  an  erstwhile  con- 
temptuous assailant. 

It  will  sound  the  knell  of  attempts  at  empire  building 
by  conquest,  by  diplomatic  duplicity,  by  spying,  in- 
triguing, the  shameless  abrogation  of  solemn  pledges, 
bribery,  trickery  and  the  force  of  arms.  It  may  lead  to 
the  substitution  of  the  processes  of  civilization  for  the 
savage  arbitrament  of  arms  in  the  settlement  of  inter- 
national disputes.  It  may  lead  several  paces  toward  the 
Federation  of  the  World,  when  all  the  wealth  and  energy 
and  ingenuity  which  nations  now  expend  in  preparing 
for  attack  or  defense  can  be  devoted  to  the  common  good 
of  that  federation. 

But  perhaps  the  greatest  good  that  can  come  to  this 
country  from  the  war  is  the  impetus  which  it  has  given 
to  the  concept  of  national  efficiency.  The  mobilization 
of  the  industrial,  the  agricultural,  the  transportation  fa- 
cilities of  the  nation  for  the  purposes  of  war  will  sug- 
gest their  mobilization  and  organization  and  system- 
atization  and  correlation  for  the  purposes  of  peace.  The 
possibilities  of  intelligent,  systematic,  scientific  regula- 
tion of  the  fond  and  fuel  supply,  of  a  unified  system  of 
transportation,  of  business  conducted  with  a  view  to 
the  greatest  over-all  efliciency  and  the  common  good 
rather  than  to  exorbitant  profit  and  unnecessary  oppor- 
tunity for  gain,  will  be  so  forcibly  apparent  that  either 
by  the  voluntary  cooperation  of  the  participants  or  by 
the  forceful  imposition  of  the  conmion  will  they  will  be 
realized. 


774 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


The  Engineer  Coming  Into  His  Own 

EVER  since  the  beginning  of  the  development  of 
engineering  science  the  engineer  has  been  willing 
to  work  along  quietly,  seeking  his  reward  only  out  of 
the  joy  of  his  accomplishments.  Great  as  these  achieve- 
ments were,  only  recently  has  it  occurred  to  the  engineer 
and  the  man  of  science  that  they  were  entitled  to  greater 
recognition  in  the  affairs  of  state.  For  years  the  legis- 
lative bodies  enacted  laws  both  wisely  and  unwisely 
without  even  a  semblance  of  approval  or  protest  from 
the  engineers  of  the  country. 

However,  times  have  changed  and  the  engineering 
profession  is  coming  into  its  own ;  the  engineer  is  begin- 
ning to  speak  for  himself.  He  has  learned  the  value 
of  cooperative  effort  and  coordinated  action  on  the  part 
of  engineers  of  all  classes.  As  a  medium  of  cooperation 
between  the  engineering  societies,  the  Engineering 
Council  was  formed  last  June,  consisting  of  twenty-four 
representatives  from  the  American  Society  of  Mechani- 
cal Engineers,  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical 
Engineers,  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers, 
the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  and  the 
United  Enginesring  Society,  to  speak  authoritatively 
for  the  member  societies  on  all  public  questions  of  in- 
terest or  concern  to  engineers. 

H.  W.  Buck,  past  president  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Electrical  Engineers,  said  in  his  presidential  address, 
June,  1917:  "It  is  an  encouraging  beginning  toward  uni- 
versal cooperation  among  engineers  in  all  branches  of 
work.  In  this  Engineering  Council  we  have  for  the 
first  time  an  engineering  body  representing  some  thirty 
thousand  engineers  of  sufficient  scope  and  standing  to 
create  an  engineering  public  opinion.  Its  influence  is 
likely  to  be  far  reaching  in  building  up  the  prestige 
of  engineers  in  both  technical  and  civil  affairs." 

That  the  Engineering  Council  is  making  itself  felt 
and  through  it  the  engineer  as  a  force  in  affairs  of 
government  is  evidenced  by  the  resolution  adopted  by 
this  council  and  presented  recently  to  the  National  In- 
dustrial Conference  Board,  that  the  council  was  opposed 
to  certain  Navy  and  Army  bills  being  considered  by  Con- 
gress, which  contained  proposals  detrimental  to  well-tried 
industrial  methods  for  improving  efficiency  and  increas- 
ing production  in  manufacturing  plants.  It  is  gratify- 
ing to  note  that  after  expressing  the  opinion,  "It  appears 
that  the  members  of  the  great  engineering  societies  of 
the  United  States  are  peculiarly  qualified  by  virtue  of 
their  knowledge  and  experience  to  express  an  opinion 
upon  the  present  efficiency  of  our  production  and  the 
most  practical  means  of  increasing  the  productive  ca- 
pacity of  both  management  and  men  and  to  call  to  public 
attention  questionable  proposals  threatening  our  effi- 
ciency as  a  nation  and  therefore  our  capacity  to  perform 
■jur  full  duty  in  this  great  struggle,"  the  National  In- 
dustrial Conference  Board  in  a  resolution  "respectfully 
requested  the  engineering  societies  of  the  United  States 
to  investigate  and  to  publicly  express  themselves  as  to 
whether  or  not  we  are  losing  or  gaining  in  industrial 
efficiency,  and  to  state  what  causes,  if  any,  in  their 
opinion  are  influencing  the  condition,  in  what  manner 
broadly  they  believe  our  industrial  efficiency  can  be  fur- 
ther stimulated." 

Is  not  this  and  many  other  instances  that  have  taken 
place  during  the  past  year  only  the  beginning  of  the 


important  part  that  our  engineers  are  destined  to  take 
in  our  Government  in  the  future,  a  part  that  is  justly 
theirs  by  virtue  of  their  training  and  qualifications, 
such  as  judgment,  character,  human  understanding, 
resourcefulness,  etc.? 


The   Opinion   of   An    American 

ANOTHER  great  American  engineer.  Dr.  John  J. 
Carty,  has  been  awarded  the  Edison  Medal,  as 
reported  on  another  page  of  this  issue.  Dr.  Carty  no 
doubt  is  the  greatest  genius  in  the  science  of  telephone 
engineering  today,  having  attained  his  high  position 
without  a  college  education.  Although  the  American 
people  may  well  be  proud  to  honor  him  as  an  engineer 
and  scientist,  they  should  be  even  more  proud  of  his 
thorough  American  spirit  and  his  confidence  in  the 
genius  of  the  American  people.  This  magnificent  spirit 
of  Dr.  Carty  is  most  eloquently  expressed  in  his  address 
on  accepting  the  Edison  Medal,  in  which  he  says : 

We  hear  a  great  deal  about  the  German  scientist  and  the 
wonderful  things  he  has  done  and  has  been  planning.  Many 
years  ago,  when  German  "Kultur"  was  interpreted  by  many 
to  mean  German  culture,  it  was  suggested  to  me  that  we 
should  send  to  Germany  to  get  some  of  the  Herr  doctors  to 
teach  us  the  high  science.  I  always  opposed  that,  believ- 
ing that  the  Yankee  mind,  the  Yankee  boy,  when  his  atten- 
tion was  turned  to  scientific  problems,  would  surely  outdis- 
tance a  German.  I  concluded  that  our  work  could  be  trusted 
to  these  young  Yankee  minds  and  that  they  should  be  trained 
in  oi'r  work  and  that  through  them  we  would  undertake  to 
outdistance  anything  that  has  been  done  in  Germany.  That 
policy  has  worked  out  successfully.  The  young  men  who 
have  collaborated  with  me  all  these  years  are  graduates 
of  over  one  hundred  universities,  all  here  in  America. 

When  at  the  opening  of  the  war  there  was  a  searching 
of  hearts,  and  a  census,  and  a  taking  account  of  stock  to 
find  out  who  was  loyal  and  who  was  to  be  suspected,  I 
know  you  will  all  be  pleased  to  hear  that  among  all  of  these 
scientists  and  all  of  these  engineers  all  working  in  the  Bell 
System  all  over  the  United  States  we  were  not  able  to  find 
one  single  Hun;  they  were  all  true  Americans  to  the  core. 

If  this  is  successful  in  Dr.  Carty's  case,  can  it  not  be 
made  so  in  every  American  industry?  Have  we  not  in 
the  past  been  overlooking  the  great  genius  at  home  for 
the  lesser  abroad? 


On  May  17,  Theodore  M.  Knappen,  in  an  article  in 
the  daily  press,  said:  "Tomorrow  the  one  hundredth 
De  Haviland  'plane  equipped  with  a  Liberty  motor  will 
be  shipped  to  France.  The  De  Haviland  Four,  with  its 
Liberty  motor  installed,  is  the  fastest  flying  machine 
in  the  world.  It  can  be  seen  daily  at  the  field  of  the 
Dayton  (Ohio)  Wright  Company  flying  circles  around 
the  Rolls-Royce  in  the  same  sort  of  'plane,  and  the  Rolls- 
Royce  is  admittedly  the  most  powerful  aerial  engine 
that  the  Old  World  has  produced."  Yes,  the  Yanks 
are  coming. 


Our  publication  of  the  Blackstone  Roll  of  Honor  in 
our  issue  of  April  23  has  got  us  into  trouble,  for  it 
has  produced  an  avalanche  of  lists  from  other  plants. 
It  would  be  impossible,  of  course,  to  reproduce  all  of 
these.  One  of  these  letters  from  E.  C.  Bingham,  chief 
engineer  of  the  Waldorf-Astoria,  contains  134  names 
from  his  department.  We  wish  that  we  could  print 
every  name,  not  only  in  this  but  in  all  of  the  other 
patriotic  groups. 


May  28,  1918  POWER  775 

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Correspondence 


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Smokelessness   and   Fuel   Saving 

On  page  565  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  16  are  given  a  num- 
ber of  prize-winning  posters  designed  to  encourage  the 
abatement  of  smoke  in  Pittsburgh.  The  poster  awarded 
the  second  prize,  at  the  top  right-hand  corner  of  the 
page,  and,  to  a  lesser  degree,  that  at  the  bottom  right- 
hand  corner,  appear  to  the  writer  to  call  for  a  little 
friendly  criticism.  While  an  admirable  design  and 
"eloquently  practical,"  the  top  poster  might  appear  to 
give  a  wrong  impression,  yet  a  common  one.  It  says 
"20%  of  Coal  is  lost  in  Smoke."  But  this  is  not  quite 
true.  The  losses  up  the  stack  are  about  20  per  cent., 
sometimes  more,  but  this  is  not  smoke,  but  the  total 
losses  of  heat,  due  either  to  incomplete  combustion  on 
the  one  hand  or  excess  air  on  the  other  and  the  neces- 
sary loss  chargeable  to  draft,  and  so  on. 

Koughly  speaking,  the  loss  due  to  visible  smoke  is 
perhaps  between  1  and  2  per  cent,  in  carbon  and  hydro- 
carbon particles.  In  addition  there  is  the  loss  due  to 
carbon  monoxide  or  combustible  gases  carried  away  un- 
burnt,  amounting  perhaps  to  13  per  cent,  (to  be  added  to 
those  of  actual  heat  carried  away).  These  are  losses  due 
to  incomplete  combustion.  Then  there  is  the  loss  due  to 
excess  air  because  of  air  infiltration,  a  loss  usually  con- 
sidered as  being  greater  than  that  due  to  incomplete 
combustion  and  deficiency  of  air,  because  with  excess 
air,  if  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  gases  of  combustion, 
the  stack  tends  to  smoke  less  and  does  not  attract  at- 
tention, thus  leading  to  carelessness  in  firing  and  failure 
to  maintain  the  fuel  bed  and  apparatus  in  good  condi- 
tion. 

Smoke  may  be  due  to  insufficient  air,  insufficient  fur- 
nace space,  insufficient  furnace  temperature  and  insuf- 
ficient intermixing  of  air  and  combustible  gases.  Too 
many  plants,  lacking  proper  settings  and  furnace  pro- 
portions, resort  to  excess  air  as  the  simplest  method  of 
conforming  to  civic  smoke  ordinances,  and  thus  smoke  is 
reduced  by  resorting  to  excess  air  and  inefficient  com- 
bustion, increasing  the  invisible  but  decreasing  the  visi- 
ble losses  up  the  stack.  It  is  well  known  that  to  obtain 
smokelessness  without  on  the  one  hand  having  excess 
oxygen  and  on  the  other  hand  too  little,  forming  carbon 
monoxide,  is  difficult.  In  fact,  one  always  suspects  a 
stack  that  never  gives  off  smoke  at  some  time  as  in- 
dicating an  inefficient  plant,  where  the  setting  and  fur- 
nace proportions  are  favorable,  but  where  excess  air  is 
occurring.  It  is  also  often  found  that  higher  evapora- 
tion, with  some  settings,  can  be  obtained  with  a  smoking 
stack  than  without  smoke,  because  in  such  cases  incom- 
plete combustion  is  less  wasteful  than  excess  air.  Ex- 
cess air  is  the  arch  enemy  of  efficient  combustion,  be- 
cause, unlike  smoke,  it  may  occur  unseen  and  persist  in- 
sidiously, instead  of  attracting  attention. 

There  are  too  many  plants  attempting  to  overcome 
their  smoke  troubles  and  keep  within  the  law  by  using 
excess  air.    But  as  a  rule  conservation  of  fuel  and  smoke 


abatement  go  together,  since  accomplishment  of  the 
former  must  comprise  the  latter,  while  the  reverse  of 
this  is  not  necessarily  true  and  unfortunately,  too  rarely 
is  it  true.  Conservation  means  efficiency  and  smokeless- 
ness. Smoke  means  waste  and  so  also  may  smokeless- 
ness. 

I  believe  that  many,  in  attempting  to  live  up  to  the 
creed  of  the  posters  mentioned,  will  waste  coal  instead  of 
saving  it.  They  will  attempt  to  prevent  smoke  by  in- 
creasing the  air  supply,  and  while  reducing  smoke,  will 
lower  the  efficiency  of  combustion  and  thereby  waste 
coal.  Moreover,  of  the  20  per  cent,  or  more  loss  up  the 
stack,  that  actually  due  to  visible  smoke  is  very  small. 

The  writer  believes  he  is  voicing  the  opinions  of  many 
of  Power's  readers  when  he  suggests  that  the  poster 
awarded  the  second  prize  by  the  Smoke  and  Dust  Abate- 
ment League  of  Pittsburgh  be  changed  to  read  "20  per 
cent,  of  the  Coal  is  lost  up  the  Stack"  instead  of  "20  per 
cent,  of  the  Coal  is  lost  in  Smoke."  The  reasons  for  the 
change  are  twofold:  First,  the  losses  up  the  stack  due 
to  smoke,  and  even  resulting  from  sooted  boiler-heat- 
ing surfaces,  constitute  only  a  small  portion  of  the  total 
loss ;  second,  if  a  fireman  bases  his  conclusions  upon  the 
degree  of  smoke  emitted  to  indicate  combustion  per- 
formance, while  trying  to  eliminate  smoke  by  excess  air, 
a  lower  efficiency  will  be  likely  to  follow,  althougli  the 
stack  does  give  a  good  indication  of  performance  under 
some  conditions.  Smoke  means  fuel  wasted.  But  for 
the  majority  of  plants  a  smokeless  stack  also  suggest ; 
fuel  wasted.  A  fireman  who  accomplishes  combustic  i 
efficiency  will  have  little  worry  about  smoke.  It  seems 
worth  while  to  emphasize  the  difference  at  this  time  and 
avoid  anything  that  tends  to  give  a  wrong  impression. 

Chicago,  111.  K.  K.  Long. 

Troubles  and  Their  Remedies  in  Gas- 
Engine   Ignition  Systems 

Referring  to  Mr.  Brennan's  article  on  "Troubles 
and  Their  Remedies  in  Gas-Engine  Ignition  Systems," 
Feb.  19,  1918,  issue  of  Power,  it  is  hardly  fair  to  com- 
pare high-  and  low-tension  ignition  systems  without 
showing  where  each  is  used  at  its  best  advantage.  On 
motors  running  at  high  speed  the  high-tension  system 
has  proved  itself  the  better,  but  on  stationary  engines 
of  large  piston  displacement  and  low  speeds,  low-ten- 
sion ignition  is  used  almost  exclusively. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  lew-tension  arc  gives 
off  considerable  more  heat  than  the  high-tension  jump 
spark  and  therefore  gives  a  more  satisfactory  ignition 
in  the  large  cylinder,  especially  where  low-grade  fuels 
are  used.  On  low-speed  engines  the  mechanical  make- 
and-break  igniters  give  practically  no  trouble.  On 
engines  of  large  piston  displacement  and  relatively 
high  speeds  low-tension  magnetos  and  magnetic  plugs 
have  been  used  quite  successfully. 

Canton,  China.  Harold  B.  Wilson 


776 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


Obstruction  in  Steam   Separator 

On  taking  charge  of  a  power  plant,  I  found  that 
(here  was  considerable  drop  in  steam  pressure  between 
the  boiler  and  engine  at  full  load.  Soon  afterward, 
the  cover  was  removed  from  the  steam  separator,  and 
on  the  boiler  side  and  partly  filling  the  spaces  were 
found  numerous  pieces  of  hard-rubber  valve  disks  that 
had  come  from  the  5-  and  6-in.  outlet  valves  on  the 
boilers  at  different  times  and  had  been  carried  along 
the  main  and  finally  lodged  in  the  separator.  When  a 
disk  gave  out  on  a  valve,  a  new  one  would  be  put  on, 
and  the  idea  had  prevailed  that  the  missing  parts  of 
the  old  disk  had  been  reduced  to  small  particles  and  found 
their  way  out  of  the  main.  When  the  separator  was 
cleared,  the  engines  operated  at  full  load  without  undue 
drop  in  steam  pressure.  This  is  the  first  time  a  case 
of  this  kind  has  come  to  my  notice,  and  it  may  be  of 
intere.st  to  others.  JOHN  James. 

Kingston,    Ont.,    Canada. 

Handy  Socket  Wrench 

The  illustration  shows  some  easily  made  attachments 
for  a  socket  wrench  that  will  adapt  it  to  a  wide  range 
of    work.      The    piece    A    is    for    use    with    a    bar,    B 


SOCKET  WRENCH   WITH   V.-^RIOUS  ATTACHMENTS 

is  an  extension,  and  the  tapered  or  drill  shank  C 
permits  the  wrench  being  used  in  an  air  drill,  saving 
considerable  time  and  labor  where  a  large  number  of 
nuts  such  as  on  condenser  heads  are  to  be  put  on. 
The  final  tightening,  of  course,  is  to  be  done  as  usual. 
Concord,  N.  H.  C.  H.  Willey. 


Elevator  Drum  Shaft  Broke 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence  for  elevators, 
especially  the  older  type  of  machines,  to  drop  several 
stories  without  setting  the  safety  devices.  Although 
they  may  not  fall  fast  enough  to  cause  any  very  serious 
damage,   nevertheless   they   come   down   out  of   control 


of  the   operator   and   hit  the   bumpers   at   the  bottom 
of  the  hatchway. 

In  the  figure  is  shown  in  section  the  hoisting  drum 
and  gear  of  a  belt-driven  elevator  machine,  the  car 
of  which  dropped  without  setting  the  safety  devices. 
On  inspecting  the  machine  the  only  defect  noticeable 
was,  the  limits  did  not  stop  the  car  at  the  top  floor 


SECTION    THROUGH    DRUM,    SHOWING  BREAK    IN    SHAFT 

as  they  did  before  the  accident,  and  on  the  down  motion 
the  car  would  stop  about  two  feet  above  the  basement 
landing.  This  was  corrected  by  resetting  the  limit  on 
the  threaded  end  of  the  drum  shaft  C. 

Two  hours  after  this  accident  I  was  called  again  by 
the  mechanic,  who  stated  that  he  could  not  get  the 
worm  of  the  driving  shaft  to  mesh  into  the  gear  on 
the  winding  drum.  The  teeth  of  the  gear  G  were 
resting  on  the  outside  edge  of  the  thread  of  the  worm 
B.  On  trying  to  reset  the  slack  cable  safety  device, 
I  noticed  that  the  drum  seemed  to  be  raised  up  at  the 
gear  end.  It  was  then  decided  to  dismantle  the  ma- 
chine and  remove  the  drum  shaft,  which  appeared  to 
be  either  sprung  or  broken.  When  the  bearing  cap  was 
removed  from  the  gear  end  of  the  shaft,  it  was  found 
that  the  end  of  the  shaft  could  be  easily  moved  in 
any  direction,  showing  it  to  be  broken  just  inside  of 
the  end  of  the  drum,  as  at  A  in  the  figure.  The  machine 
had  carried  loads  of  1000  to  1500  lb.  with  the  shaft  in 
this  condition,  but  when  sufficient  weight  was  placed  on 
the  car  the  drum  was  lifted  high  enough  to  clear  the 
worm.  When  the  drum  was  in  this  position,  it  was 
rubbing  on  the  ceiling,  the  friction  of  which  acted  as 
a  brake  to  prevent  the  drum  from  unwinding  rapidly 
enough  to  release  the  safety  clutch  on  the  top  of  the 
car,  consequently  the  car  went  to  the  bottom  of  the 
hatchway  before  it  stopped. 

All  elevator  cars  and  machines  should  be  inspected 
each  day  for  any  possible  defects,  as  eternal  vigilance 
is  the  price  of  safety.  However,  the  foregoing  is 
something  that  could  not  be  very  easily  detected  by 
an  inspection.  R.  A.  Cultra. 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

Sand  for   Extinguishing   Fires 

I  saw  a  suggestion  the  other  day  that  a  number 
of  buckets  filled  with  water  and  some  filled  with  sand 
should  be  placed  in  a  convenient  place  in  the  electric 
station  for  use  in  case  of  fire.  "Buckets  filled  with 
water"  doesn't  look  good  to  me,  as  we  all  know  what 
water  and  electricity  will  do,  and  although  careful 
as  possible,  somebody  is  apt  to  get  hold  of  the  wrong 
bucket,  especially  if  he  comes  from  outside  the  operating 
room.  D.  R.  HiBBS. 

New  York  City. 


May  28,  1918 


POWER 


777 


Recharging   Dry  C^ells 

It  is  impossible  to  recharge  dry-battery  cells  Dy 
passing  an  electric  current  through  them  as  is  done 
with  secondary  cells,  because  the  chemical  action  in  the 
cell,  while  in  use,  deteriorates  and  wastes  the  elements. 
Drj'  cells  can,  however,  be  partly  recuperated  by  the 
following  method,  although  the  economy  in  doing  this 
is  doubtful  in  most  cases,  since  new  cells  can  be  ob- 
tained more  cheaply  than  the  cost  of  material  and 
time  expended  in  recovering  the  old  ones. 

If  the  zinc  containers  of  the  cells  are  free  from  holes 
and  in  good  condition,  a  sal  ammoniac  solution  (0.25 
lb.  of  sal  ammoniac  to  about  a  quart  of  water)  can 
be  poured  into  the  cell  and  allowed  to  soak  into  the 
porous  compound  between  the  carbon  electrode  and  the 
zinc  container,  through  holes  bored  in  the  asphaltum 
seal.  When  the  solution  has  penetrated  thoroughly, 
the  cells  should  be  resealed  to  prevent  evaporation. 

Another  method,  is  to  punch  a  number  of  holes  in  the 
zinc  container  and  place  the  cell  in  a  glass  jar  con- 
taining a  sal   ammoniac  solution,   using  the  dry  cell 


DRY  CELL  PLACED  IN  GLASS  CONTAINER 

as  the  carbon  and  zinc  electrodes  of  the  so-called  wet 
battery,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Those  who  have 
occasion  to  renew  their  wet  batteries  can  follow  out 
this  scheme  to  good  advantage.  Old  dry  cells  can 
be  obtained  free  of  charge  from  most  garages;  then 
all  one  has  to  do  in  renewing  the  battery  is  to  make 
a  new  solution  and  place  the  cell  in  it  as  stated  in 
the  foregoing.  V.  J.  KUBANYI. 

New  York  City. 

Filing   Record   Charts 

The  subject  of  keeping  and  filing  recording-instru- 
ment charts  is  one  to  which  considerable  discussion 
has  been  devoted.  The  illustration  shows  a  convenient 
way  to  file  the  record  sheets  of  various  curve  drawing 
instruments  so  that  they  are  always  easy  of  access.  A 
piece  of  brass  pipe  small  enough  to  slip  through  the 
hole  in  the  center  of  the  chart  is  threaded  into  a  flange 
as  shown  and  mounted  on  the  wall,  as  at  A.  The  outer 
end  of  the  pipe  is  threaded  on  the  inside  to  receive 
the  movable  part  B,  which  is  made  of  a  small  rod 
threaded  into  a  bushing  that  can  be  screwed  into  the 
tapped  end  of  the  pipe.  On  the  other  end  of  the  bushing 
is  threaded  a  knob  and  collar.  The  charts  can  be 
placed  on  the  pipe  and  the  rod  screwed  into  the  end 


of  it,  the  collar  keeping  the  charts  from  coming  off. 
When  any  particular  record  sheet  is  wanted,  all  that 
has  to  be  done  is  to  unscrew  the  rod  and  slide  the 
charts  to  the  right  of  the  one  wanted  onto  the  rod 
as    it   is   withdrawn,   and   then   the   desired   chart   can 


PARTS   OP   CHART-PILING   DEVICE 

be  removed  and  the  others  replaced.  If  it  is  desired 
to  mark  the  place  where  the  removed  chart  came  from, 
a  piece  of  blank  cardboard  the  size  of  the  chart  can  be 
used  for  that  purpose.  W.  H.  NOSTAN. 

Philadelphia,  Penn. 


Keeping   Engine   Bearings   Cool 

Some  time  ago  a  neighboring  engineer  had  on  one 
of  his  engines  a  bearing  that  ran  hot  no  matter  what 
ordinary  measures  were  taken  to  keep  it  cool.  As  the 
machine  could  not  be  shut  down,  he  tried  the  scheme 
shown  in  the  figure  with  good  results.  A  piece  of  old 
belting  four  or  five  feet  long  was  placed  around  the 
shaft  and  the  ends  laced  together.  A  bucket  of  water 
was  then  placed  under  the  shaft  and  the  belt  allowed 


ENGINE    BEARING    AND    WATER    BtlCKET 

to  hang  into  it.  The  weight  of  the  belt  on  the  run- 
ning shaft  caused  it  to  travel  through  the  water  and 
carry  enough  of  the  latter  to  the  shaft  to  keep  the 
temperature  near  normal.  Of  course  water  worked  into 
the  bearing,  but  that  was  better  than  destroying  it 
and  the  water  did  no  harm  until  the  machine  could 
be  shut  down.  W.  T.  BROWN. 

Philadelphia,   Peiui. 


778 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


Repairs  by  Oxyacetylene  Torch 

I  was  interested  in  the  way  Mr.  Oakley  repaired  the 
worn  valve  stem,  as  described  in  the  issue  of  Feb.  12, 
page  230,  because  the  same  day  that  I  received  that 
issue  I  was  repairing  a  valve  stem  worn  in  the  same 
way,  but  I  repaired  it  differently.  About  eight  years 
ago  I  became  interested  in  the  utility  of  the  oxyacety- 
lene torch  as  part  of  my  engine-room  equipment,  and  it 
has  saved  me  a  lot  of  work  and  expense.  I  have  done 
many  kinds  of  jobs  with  it  such  as  repairing  broken 
parts  of  machinery  and  filling  up  worn  parts,  tapping 
steam  lines,  and  welding  cracks  in  steam  pipes  while  in 
place. 

A  short  time  ago  I  put  in  a  new  air  compressor  that 
required  a  4-in.  steam  connection,  so  I  tapped  a  5-in. 
pipe  that  was  close  by.  I  first  cut  a  flange  out  of  1- 
in.  plate  with  my  cutting  torch  and  welded  the  flange 
to  a  piece  of  pipe  6  in.  long.  Then  I  shut  the  steam  off 
the  5-in.  line  and,  with  the  torch,  cut  a  hole  in  the  pipe 
and  set  the  4-in.  nipple  into  it  in  a  straight  line  toward 
the  air  compressor  and  welded  it  in,  doing  away  with  a 
tee  and  two  elbows.  The  actual  welding  time  was  an 
hour  and  a  half,  and  a  lot  of  labor  was  saved  on  this 
job.  Many  such  jobs  can  be  done  with  a  welder's  torch 
around  an  engine  or  boiler  plant.  About  three  years 
ago  a  crack  developed  near  a  handhole  plate  in  a  tube 
header  of  a  B.  &  W.  boiler,  but  I  welded  it  up  and  have 
never  "heard  from  it"  since.  The  welding  time  was 
fifteen  minutes,  and  the  expense  was  trifling  compared 
with  what  it  would  cost  to  take  the  header  out  and  put 
a  new  one  in.  I  would  like  to  see  brother  engineers  get 
to  using  the  welding  torch  and  save  themselves  a  lot 
of  time,  labor  and  money.  I  have  just  finished  putting 
in  a  part  of  a  firebox  in  a  locomotive  boiler,  as  showoi 
in  the  illustration.     I  have  repaired  three  in  this  way. 


and  one  has  been  in  use  three  years,  one  a  year  and  a 
half  and  the  last  one  about  a  year,  and  none  of  them 
has  ever  shown  a  leak  although  working  every  day.  I 
would  be  pleased  to  see  in  PowE^R  descriptions  of  re- 
pair jobs  done  by  brother  engineers.  All  that  is  re- 
quired is  practice  and  common  sense. 
Felton,  Cuba.  John  I.  Cranford. 

Different  Rate  of  Scale  Formation 

My  attention  was  engaged  by  the  letter  by  Thomas  J. 
Pascoe  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  9,  page  521,*  describing  the 
scale  conditions  found  in  the  boilers  under  his  charge. 
The  method  of  blowing  soot  from  the  tubes  undoubtedly 
accounts  for  the  different  quantities  of  scale  found  in 
the  tubes  on  the  two  sides  of  the  boiler.  Cleaning 
soot  with  the  hand  steam  lance  through  the  side  doors 
would  clean  only  part  way  across  the  boiler,  and  some 
of  the  soot  blown  from  the  tubes  close  to  the  dusting 
doors  will  be  redeposited  on  the  tubes  on  the  far  side, 
consequently,  the  rate  of  heat  transmission  is  much 
higher  on  the  side  of  the  boiler  near  the  dusting  doors. 
With  a  uniform  feed  the  amount  of  scale-forming 
material  per  gallon  of  water  will  be  the  same.  If, 
however,  on  account  of  a  difference  in  the  amount  of 
soot  on  the  outside  of  the  tubes,  the  rate  of  evaporation 
is  two  or  three  times  as  great  in  one  tube  as  in  another, 
the  total  amount  of  scale  deposited  will  of  course  be 
greater. 

After  a  certain  amount  of  scale  is  deposited  on  the 
inside  surface  of  the  tubes  near  the  dusting  doors,  the 
rate  of  heat  transfer  through  different  tubes  across 
the  width  of  the  boiler  will  tend  to  equalize,  because 
the  greater  resistance  of  the  soot  on  the  far  tubes 
will  be  balanced  by  the  greater  resistance  of  the  scale 
on    the    tubes    nearest    the    dusting    doors.      The    soot 

deposit  accumulates  more 
rapidly  than  the  scale,  how- 
ever, and  on  account  of  the 
dead  gas  film  surrounding 
the  soot  deposit,  the  insulat- 
ing effect  of  the  soot  is  much 
worse  than  that  of  the  scale. 
For  this  reason  the  rate  of 
s  t  e  a  m-m  a  k  i  n  g  and  the 
amount  of  scale  in  the  soot- 
covered  tubes  can  never 
catch  up  to  those  that  have 
been  cleaned  from  soot. 

I  believe  that  if  Mr.  Pas- 
coe will  clean  all  the  soot 
from  each  of  his  boiler  tubes, 
he  will  find  that  the  amount 
of  scale  deposited  in  each 
tube  of  one  horizontal  row 
will  be  very  nearly  the  same 
across  the  full  width  of  the 
boiler.  The  condition  he  has 
found  is  proof  of  inefficient 
soot  removal  by  the  hand 
steam  lance  by  side  dusting 
doors.  Charles  DeVed. 
New  York   City. 


WORK  THAT  CAN  BE  DONE  WITH  THE    OXYACETYLENE    TORCH 


•See  also  page   559,  April   16, 
1918. 


May  28,  1918  POWER  779 

gmmimiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiii iiiii i iiiii iiiiii i mi Miiiimiiiiiiimiiiiiiiii miiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii: 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  | 


ii 


IIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIinillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^ 


I 


Cross-Sectional  Area  of  Smoke  Uptake — For  a  horizon- 
tal return-tubular  boiler  should  not  the  smoke  uptake  have 
the  same  areas  as  the  united  areas  of  the  flues  ?  T.  E. 

For  good  results  from  the  flues  as  heating  surfaces,  th'i 
smoke  area  of  the  flues  usually  is  made  one-seventh  to  one- 
eighth  the  area  of  the  grate,  but  with  tight  connections,  easy 
courses  for  the  smoke  and  good  stack  draft,  an  uptake  area 
one-tenth  of  the  area  of  the  grate  will  be  sufficient. 

Operation  of  Blowofif  Valves  in  Series — What  is  the 
proper  manner  of  operating  the  blowoff  valves  on  a  boiler 
when  it  is  equipped  with  two  valves  in  series?       R.  M.  H. 

There  will  be  more  wear  and  cutting  of  the  inner  valve, 
and  it  will  be  nearly  the  same  whether  the  outer  valve  is 
opened  before  or  after  the  inner  valve;  and  as  the  outer 
valve  will  be  least  injured  when  wide  open,  in  blowing  off 
it  is  better  to  first  open  the  outer  valve  fully  and  leave  it 
wide  open  until  the  inner  valve  has  been  fully  closed. 

Rerolling  of  Boiler  Tubes — Is  there  any  danger  of  run- 
ning return-tubular  boilers  too  long  without  rerolling  the 
tubes  provided  they  have  never  leaked  ?  The  tubes  of  my 
boilers  have  been  used  for  about  four  years  without  leaking 
and  have  not  been  rolled  during  that  time.  W.  P.  S. 

If  the  tubes  have  been  properly  flared  or  beaded  over  at 
the  ends,  rerolling  them  should  not  be  done  with  the  pur- 
pose of  increasing  their  hold  on  the  tube  sheets  as  rerolling 
has  the  effect  of  weakening  the  tube  material  and  should  be 
performed  only  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  leaks.  To  dis- 
turb the  present  setting  of  the  tubes  might  start  leaks. 

Burning  Wood  and  Coal  Together — Can  boiler  firing  be 
performed  economically  by  burning  wood  and  coal  to- 
gether? "  C.   R.   F. 

Much  better  results  are  to  be  obtained,  both  for  fuel  econ- 
omy and  boiler  capacity,  by  burning  the  different  kinds  of 
fuel  separately.  When  wood  and  coal  are  fired  alternately, 
or  together,  the  light,  rapidly  formed  ash  of  the  wood 
blankets  the  coal  and  prevents  a  free  supply  of  air,  requir- 
ing frequent  stirring  of  the  fuel  bed,  which  retards  progres- 
sive combustion  of  the  coal  and  results  in  waste  from  drop- 
ping of  unburned  fuel  through  the  grates. 

Composition  of  Ash  in  Coal — What  does  the  ash  in  coal 
consist  of?  W.  H.  L. 

The  ash  in  coal  may  be  considered  to  be  derived  from  the 
original  vegetable  material  or  substances  deposited  during 
the  laying  down  of  the  coal  bed,  or  subsequently.  The  in- 
gredients as  ash  exist  as  a  mechanical  mixture  of  silicates, 
oxides  and  sulphates;  the  different  percentages  vary  greatly, 
usually  with  predominance  of  the  silicates,  and  composed 
largely  of  silica  (SiOO,  oxide  of  aluminum  (Al.Oj),  oxide 
of  iron  (FeO  or  Fe^Oj),  oxide  of  lime  (CaO)  and  oxide  of 
sulphur  (SO:).  Smaller  percentages  are  contained  of  oxide 
of  magnesium  (MgO),  oxide  of  sodium  (Na^O)  and  oxide  of 
potassium   ( KjO ) . 

Adiabatic  and  Isothermal  Expansion  and  Compression — 

What  is  the  difference  between  adiabatic  expansion  or  com- 
pression and  isothermal  expansion  or  compression?    B.  H. 

When  a  gas  expands  and  neither  receives  nor  parts  with 
heat  during  the  expansion  excepting  the  loss  of  heat  due  to 
the  external  work  performed  by  its  expansion;  or  when 
compressed  it  neither  receives  nor  parts  with  heat  during 
compression,  excepting  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat 
received  for  its  compression,  such  expansion  or  compression 
is  said  to  be  adiabatic.  If  a  gas  expands  and  receives  dur- 
ing expansion  the  exact  amount  of  heat  that  it  expends  in 
performing  work,  or  when  compressed,  if  it  rejects  the 
amount  of  heat  equivalent  to  the  mechanical  energy  spent 
upon  it,  and  there  is  no  other  heat  received  or  lost,  the 
temperature  remains  constant  and  the  expansion  or  com- 
pression is  called  isothermal. 


Injector  Will  Not  Feed  Boiler — An  injector  that  until 
recently  operated  all  right  for  feeding  a  boiler  will  lift  but 
will  not  discharge  water  to  the  boiler.  What  is  suggested 
to  remedy  the  trouble  ?  S.  A. 

The  injector  should  be  supplied  with  dry  steam  taken 
from  a  separate  connection  out  of  the  top  of  the  boiler.  If 
any  other  supply  is  taken  out  of  the  steam  connection  it  is 
likely  to  reduce  the  pressure  too  much.  The  steam-supply 
and  water-discharge  pipes,  valves  and  fittings  should  be  ex- 
amined and  cleaned  of  any  rust  or  scale.  If  the  injector  will 
not  operate  with  clear  connections  to  the  boiler,  it  should 
be  taken  apart  and  cleaned  of  scale  and  carefully  exam- 
ined. The  tubes  or  passages  may  be  badly  worn  from  cut- 
ting action  of  the  steam  or  from  gritty  water,  requiring 
the  renewal  of  defective  parts. 

Lining  Up  Crankshaft  from  Guides— Would  it  be  practi- 
cal to  line  up  the  crankshaft  of  an  engine  by  taking  the 
line  from  the  V-guides  in  the  frame?  J.  F. 

For  proper  working  conditions,  the  wearing  surfaces  of 
the  guides  should  be  parallel  with  the  cylinder  center  line 
and  it  would  be  practical  to  line  up  the  crankshaft  from  the 
wearing  surfaces  of  the  guides  if  they  are  known  to  be  in 
proper  alignment.  It  is  better  to  refer  all  alignments  to 
the  cylinder  center  line,  for  this  always  is  derivable  from 
the  cylinder  counterbore  which  is  not  subject  to  wear  and 
bears  a  constant  relation  to  the  framework  of  the  engine; 
besides,  greater  accuracy  in  relative  alignment  of  different 
parts  of  an  engine  is  obtainable  by  referring  all  adjust- 
ments in  as  direct  a  manner  as  possible  to  a  single  perma- 
ment  base-line. 

Loss  of  Heat  Value  from  Moisture  in  Coal — What  would 
be  the  percentage  of  loss  of  heat  due  to  12  per  cent,  mois- 
ture in  coal  if  the  dry  coal  contains  13,500  B.t.u.  per 
pound?  J.  w.  L. 

The  water  in  the  coal  must  be  evaporated  from  the  tem- 
perature as  fired  and  discharged  as  steam  superheated  to 
the  temperature  of  the  uptake  gases. 

The  loss  in  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  the  moist  coal  would  be 
W  [212  —  t  +  9704  +  047  (T  —  212)}, 
in  which 

W  —  Percentage  of  moisture; 

t     —  Temperature  of  the  coal  as  fired; 

T    =   Temperature  of  the  uptake  gases; 

0.47  =  the  mean  specific  heat  of  superheated  steam. 

Assuming  t  =  60  deg.  F.  and  T  =  500  deg.  F.,  the  heat 
loss  per  pound  of  the  moist  coal  due  to  the  presence  of  12 
per  cent,  moisture  would  be  0.12  [212  —  60  +  970.4  -f  0.47 
(500  —  212)]   =  150.9  B.t.u. 

With  13,500  B.t.u.  per  lb.  of  dry  coal  and  12  per  cent,  of 
moisture,  each  pound  of  the  moist  coal  would  contain  88 
per  cent,  of  13,500  =  11,880  B.t.u.,  so  that  the  loss  due  to 
the  presence  of  12  per  cent,  of  moisture  would  be 
150.9  X  100 

=   1.27  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical  heat  value 

11,800 

of  the  moist  coal.  The  heating  value  of  the  coal  reduced 
to  a  dry  coal  basis  would  be  equivalent  to  11,880  —  150.9  = 
11,729.1  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  the  moist  coal,  so  that  the  pres- 
ence of  12  per  cent,  moisture  renders  the  coal  of 
(13,500  —  11,729.1)  X  100 

=  13.1  per  cent,  less  commercial 

13,500. 

value  than  if  the  coal  were  dry. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  addresses. 
This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of  the  com- 
munications and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  attention.— 
Editor.] 


780 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


National  Cooperative  Convention  A.  A.  E. 


MAY  14  at  the  City  Club,  Chicago,  the  American  Asso- 
ciation of  Engineers  held  its  fourth  annual  conven- 
tion. Delegates  from  all  engineering  societies  in  the 
country  had  been  invited  jointly  by  the  Committee  of  Engi- 
neering Cooperation  and  the  association,  as  the  question  of 
cooperation  was  to  receive  further  consideration.  Represen- 
tatives from  appro.\imately  fifty  societies  attended.  Practi- 
cally all  were  local  associations,  or  chapters  of  the  national 
societies.  President  E.  T.  Perkins  called  the  convention  to 
order  and  the  delegates  were  made  welcome  by  John  Ericson, 
city  engineer.  To  conserve  time  the  convention  was  split 
up  into  five  special  sessions  as  follows:  No.  1,  under  W.  D. 
Gerber,  to  review  return  reports  of  a  questionnaire  that  had 
been  sent  out  to  all  societies;  to  consider  how  they  can 
avoid  duplication  and  coordinate  activities,  and  to  report 
on  the  advisability  of  uniform  legislation  for  licensing 
engineers.  Session  No.  2,  headed  by  F.  R.  Low,  was  to  re- 
view publicity  given  the  profession  due  to  its  activities  in 
the  war.  No.  3,  with  W.  H.  Finley  in  the  chair,  considered 
the  demand  for  and  the  supply  of  technical  men  for  war 
work  and  the  advisability  of  a  central  cooperative  employ- 
ment agency  to  prevent  the  tax  of  commissions  on  engineers 
employed  for  Government  work.  G.  W.  Heald  headed 
session  No.  4,  which  was  to  consider  what  has  been  done 
by  engineers  to  increase  the  distribution  and  conservation 
of  fuel.  In  session  No.  5  Prof.  R.  C.  Yeoman  conducted  the 
discussion  on  the  advisability  of  standardizing  engineering 
education.  Summaries  of  the  discussions  in  the  individual 
sessions  were  reported  back  to  the  convention  at  the  after- 
noon  meetings. 

Session  No.  1  Reviews  Questionnaire 

The  questionnaire,  which  session  No.  1  reviewed,  con- 
sisted of  24  different  questions  divided  into  five  distinct 
groups,  as  follows:  Society  activities,  war  programs,  em- 
ployment features,  education  and  publicity.  A  summary  of 
the  returns  from  64  societies  having  a  total  membership 
of  31,500  scattered  throughout  all  parts  of  the  country,  but 
not  including  the  four  big  national  societies,  may  be  of 
interest. 

The  number  of  members  in  active  military  service  aver- 
aged 15  per  cent.,  those  who  still  desire  to  enter  military 
service,  10  per  cent.,  and  the  members  available  for  emer- 
gency government  work,  50  per  cent.  The  general  opinion 
was  that  the  status  of  the  engineer  will  be  better  after  the 
war.  Only  two  societies  are  at  present  organiz^  so  as  to 
give  systematic  service  in  securing  employment  for  engi- 
neers who  return  from  the  war.  Other  societies  will  be 
willing  to  do  all  that  they  can.  The  present  demand  con- 
siderably exceeds  the  supply  of  technical  men  in  all  local- 
ities except  the  South.  The  demand  is  primarily  for  engi- 
neers in  positions  below  that  of  an  assistant  engineer.  Many 
war  industries  are  suffering  for  want  of  this  class  of  men. 
The  individual  efficiency  of  technical  men  can  be  raised 
through  improved  education,  through  individual  concentra- 
tion, through  united  societies  and  through  more  active  part 
in  public  life,  through  mixing  and  through  earnest  coopera- 
tion. Considering  the  increased  living  expenses,  the  senti- 
ment of  all  societies  is  that  the  technical  profession  is  paid 
from  50  to  75  per  cent,  too  low;  that  its  members  are  not 
paid  sufficient  for  what  is  expected  of  them  when  compared 
with  what  other  classes  of  men  receive.  The  war  has  re- 
duced the  amount  of  work  for  engineers  in  private  practice 
for  all  except  chemical  engineers.  The  compensation  has 
remained  about  the  same. 

The  societies  generally  favor  licensing  engineers,  espec- 
ially if  license  laws  are  made  uniform  by  Federal  action  and 
if  proper  investigation  is  made  so  that  the  law  provided  is 
just.  The  societies  are  unanimously  opposed  to  reducing  the 
present  four-year  engineering  courses,  as  even  this  is  inade- 
quate training.  They  think  that  the  year  should  be  50 
weeks,  and  the  work  more  concentrated,  so  as  to  reduce  the 
time  element.  Special  short  courses  are  also  advocated  for 
those  who  desire  to  go  into  war  service  immediately.  The 
majority  of  the  societies  favor  standardizing  engineering 
courses,  so  as  to  obtain  uniformity  throughout  the  country, 


standardization  to  be  done  only  in  a  general  way  and  so  as 
not  to  interfere  with  individual  specialization.  The  socie- 
ties have  had  only  limited  success  in  securing  publicity,  that 
obtained  being  in  the  technical  press  and  in  a  few  instances 
in  the  local  papers.  The  societies  that  expressed  an 
opinion  recommended  coordination  of  society  activities 
through  some  national  body,  but  as  a  whole  there  was  no 
consensus  of  opinion  as  to  what  that  body  shall  be  or  how 
coordination  shall  be  worked  out. 

Coordination  of  Society  Activities 

Discussion  at  the  session  centered  in  coordination  of 
society  activities.  Hunter  McDonald  presented  the  Nash- 
ville plan  as  an  answer  to  question  24.  It  was  his  opinion 
that  there  were  at  least  200,000  engineers  in  the  country 
and  only  about  30,000  were  enrolled  in  the  four  big  national 
engineering  societies.  The  plan  of  pi-ocedure,  having  nine 
subdivisions,  follows:  (1)  Determine  what  shall  constitute 
an  engineer.  (2)  Take  a  census  of  these  in  each  state. 
(3)  Perfect  organizations  in  each  state  on  a  common  con- 
stitution. (4)  Determine  upon  an  equitable  representation 
of  each  state  organisation.  (5)  Arrange  a  central  govern- 
ment of  delegates  in  cooperation  with  the  Engineering 
Council,  delegated  representatives  to  have  a  majority  vote. 
(6)  Local  organizations  to  continue  autonomous,  but  to 
become  a  working  part  of  state  organizations  upon  a  basis 
to  be  worked  out.  (7)  All  local  organizations  in  any  one 
locality  to  be  combined.  (8)  National  societies  to  retain 
their  organization  and  autonomy  for  technical  purposes 
only,  surrendering  all  other  activities  to  the  central  body. 
(9)  All  other  organizations  intermediate  between  the  na- 
tional or  central  body  and  the  membership  or  state  organi- 
zation to  be  disbanded. 

A  second  plan  to  bring  about  close  unity  and  fellowship 
among  engineers  in  each  community  was  presented  by 
C.  A.  Drayer,  of  Cleveland.  It  had  been  prepared  by  the 
administrative  committee  of  the  Committee  on  Cooperation, 
and  while  professedly  incomplete,  owing  to  lack  of  uniform- 
ity in  dues  and  standards  of  membership,  it  was  offered  as 
a  model  that  might  be  expanded  to  suit  conditions.  Some 
of  the  organization  principles  in  the  intersociety  relation 
problems  were  enumerated  as  follows: 

Existing  oi-ganizations  shall  be  encouraged  to  study  their 
own  efficiency,  shall  be  strengthened  by  all  possible  aid  and 
no  new  ones  created  in  fields  already  occupied. 

Work  shall  be  divided  among  existing  organizations  so 
there  shall  be  no  duplications  or  waste  of  effort. 

Existing  organizations  shall  be  closely  knit  together  by 
a  workable  relation  capable  of  vigorous  growth  and  useful- 
ness to  the  profession  and  to  the  public. 

Within  the  community  unity  shall  be  brought  about  as 
in  National  and  state  governments  by  each  engineer  belong- 
ing to  the  local  society  rather  than  by  affiliation  of  local 
chapters  or  sections  of  the  national  societies  with  one  another 
or  with  the  local  society.  This  is  the  essentially  American 
ideal. 

The  first  principle  shall  be  the  good  of  the  whole. 

Joint  Memberships 

It  was  recommended  that  arrangements  be  made  between 
any  two  societies  that  members  in  either  society  at  the  time 
the  agreement  is  made  may  be  admitted  to  the  proper  grade 
of  the  other  society  without  further  payment  of  initiation 
fees  and  without  further  payment  of  dues  until  the  time 
has  expired  for  which  dues  have  been  paid  to  either  society, 
but  not  to  exceed  one  year.  Thereafter  one  initiation  fee 
shall  admit  an  applicant  to  the  local  society  and  one 
national  society,  provided  he  make  application  to  both  at 
one  time  and  is  eligible  by  pi-ofessional  qualifications;  and 
thereafter  dues  in  amount  agreed  upon  by  the  parties  to  the 
agreement,  but  less  than  the  sum  of  the  separate  dues,  shall 
be  paid  to  the  local  society,  which  will  remit  the  agreed 
part  to  the  national  society.  When  any  member  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  local  society  has  joined  only  one 
society  after  the  conclusion  of  the  arrangement  and  desires 
to  take  out  joint  membership,  there  shall  be  favorable  ar- 


May  28,  1918 


POWER 


781 


rangements  for  him  to  do  so,  but  such  arrangements  shall 
be  less  favorable  than  in  either  of  the  situations  mentioned. 

Reference  was  made  to  the  coordination  that  had  been 
effected  already  in  Ohio  and  Minnesota. 

In  a  paper  on  the  same  topic  presented  at  the  afternoon 
session.  Major  Gardner  S.  Williams  considered  ideal  an 
organization  by  states  or  districts  from  which  members  of 
a  central  council  would  be  selected  or  elected  and  by  this 
central  council  an  executive  board  be  chosen  with  authority 
to  act  and  to  direct  the  energies  of  the  whole  membership. 
This  is  virtually  the  organization  of  the  Engineering 
Council,  e.xcept  that  its  authority  is  not  clearly  established. 
So  far  as  a  representative  body  for  the  30,000  members  of 
the  four  great  national  societies  is  concerned,  the  delegation 
of  authority  would  meet  the  case,  but  it  was  questionable 
that  it  would  fill  the  needs  of  the  much  greater  number  who 
we:  e  today  outside  of  these  national  societies. 

Major  Williams  considered  it  desirable  to  persuade  the 
Engineering  Council  to  provide  for  a  general  organization, 
to  have  them  invite  the  several  strong  local  or  state  socie- 
ties to  send  delegates  and  with  its  aid  to  build  up  in  every 
state  in  the  Union  an  effective  organization  of  the  engineers 
therein. 

It  was  the  latter  counsel  that  prevailed.  The  convention 
voted  that  a  committee  be  appointed  to  confer  with  the 
Engineering  Council  and  work  out  a  plan  satisfactory  to 
all  concerned.  The  discussion  on  licensing  engineers  was 
postponed,  as  there  was  not  sufficient  time  to  do  justice  to 
a  question  of  so  much  importance.  It  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  committee  to  investigate  and  report  at  the  next 
convention. 

Discussion  at  the  Other  Sessions 

At  session  No.  2  the  discussion  turned  to  the  backward- 
ness of  the  engineer  in  public  life  and  his  undue  modesty  in 
not  claiming  the  credit  due  the  profession  for  the  great 
engineering  achievements  in  war  and  civil  work.  It  was  a 
defect  that  must  be  remedied  if  the  engineering  profession 
ever  expected  to  take  its  place  in  the  sun. 

Session  No.  3  brought  in  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that  the 
matter  of  fees  being  paid  to  private  employment  agencies 
for  employment  by  the  Government  be  brought  to  the  at- 
tention of  the  proper  authorities  in  Washington  to  the  end 
that  the  practice  be  discontinued  and  the  service  be  obtained 
from  the  Public  Service  Reserve. 

A  summary  of  the  discussion  at  session  No.  4  follows: 
To  increase  the  distribution  of  fuel,  the  Fuel  Administration 
has  divided  the  United  States  into  zones  in  order  to  elimin- 
ate long  hauls  and  increase  the  useful  service  of  coal  cars. 
Industries  have  also  been  graded  in  order  that  those  most 
essential  in  the  conduct  of  the  war  shall  have  preference  in 
order  of  their  importance.  Engineers  should  use  and  en- 
courage others  to  use  as  far  as  possible  coal  produced  near- 
est the  point  of  consumption.  It  was  also  recommended 
that  engineers  wherever  possible  urge  the  prompt  unload- 
ing of  coal  cars  within  twenty-four  hours  as  ordered  by  the 
Fuel  Administration.  Violations  of  this  order  should  be 
reported  to  the  nearest  local  representative  of  the  Fuel 
Board.  Industries  were  urged  to  maintain  a  storage  supply 
of  at  least  sixty  days. 

To  increase  the  conservation  of  fuel,  engineers  should  be- 
come familiar  with  and  encourage  the  use  of  bonus  systems. 
Domestic  users  should  be  reminded  to  heat  only  such  rooms 
as  are  absolutely  needed,  to  70  deg.  or  less  and  humidify  as 
much  as  possible.  Fire  lightly  and  often,  half  of  the  fire 
bed  at  a  time,  when  burning  bituminous  coal.  Sift  the  ashes 
and  recover  the  unburned  coal  if  anthracite  is  burned. 
Watch  the  draft.  Industrial  users  should  be  reminded  that 
steam  leaks  are  fuel  leaks,  so  also  are  radiation  losses.  Both 
are  preventable  and  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Where  heating  is  done  by  steam,  make  the  steam  first  do 
work.  The  power  developed  is  a  byproduct  and  the  en- 
gine or  turbine  is  a  reducing  valve.  Make  full  use  of  the 
exhaust  steam.  It  was  the  belief  of  the  delegation  that  the 
greatest  possible  conservation  of  fuel  could  and  should  be 
acomplished  by  the  carbonization  of  bituminous  coal  in  by- 
product coke  ovens  in  conjunction  with  electric  power  gen- 
erating plants,  using  the  resultant  coke  and  gas  in  place  of 
coal  as  fuel  and  recovering  the  valuable  byproducts,  which 


are  wasted  when  the  combustion  of  coal  takes  place.     Coke 
plants  should  be  located  at  the  mine  where  feasible. 

It  was  suggested  that  all  legal  holidays,  national  or  local, 
be  observed  on  the  nearest  Monday,  if  said  holiday  should 
fall  on  any  other  day  except  Sunday.  This  would  avoid  a 
double  stop  and  start  each  week  should  a  holiday  occur  in 
the  middle  of  the   week. 

Session  No.  5  on  standardizing  engineering  education, 
suggested  the  appointment  of  a  committee,  supplied  with 
funds,  to  make  up  a  detailed  questionnaire  to  be  sent  to  all 
societies,  schools  and  individuals  who  were  interested,  the 
results  to  be  analyzed  and  reported  at  the  next  convention. 
A  resolution  to  this  effect  was  laid  on  the  table. 

In  the  discussion  following,  the  proposed  American 
Academy  of  Engineers  was  subjected  to  severe  criticism. 
It  was  considered  undemocratic  and  not  representative. 
Self-creation  and  self-perpetuation  were  the  main^objec- 
tions.  Before  making  the  criticism  official,  a  referendum, 
stating  both  sides  of  the  question  fairly,  was  ordered  by 
the   convention. 

Realizing  that  the  time  is  ripe  for  an  inspiring  code  of 
ethics  that  would  be  a  credit  to  the  engineering  profession, 
Isham  Randolph  was  asked  to  prepare  one  and  present  it 
at  the  next  convention.  Other  matters  of  importance  acted 
upon  at  the  afternoon  session  were  a  resolution  favoring 
universal  military  training  and  a  telegram  to  Director- 
General  McAdoo  to  the  effect  that  railway  technical  engi- 
neers did  not  think  it  just  to  base  the  wage  increase  on 
the  rate  of  1915.  They  favored  the  1918  rate  as  a  basis, 
and  even  then  it  would  not  compensate  for  the  increase  in 
living  expenses. 

The  Evening  Meeting 

A  dinner  meeting  in  the  evening  was  the  last  session  of 
the  convention.  Isham  Randolph,  who  was  toastmaster, 
first  called  upon  E.  T.  Perkins,  retiring  president.  The 
work  of  the  association  during  the  past  year  was  reviewed 
briefly.  The  rapid  growth  was  gratifying.  Several  new 
chapters  had  been  organized  and  every  month  100  new 
members  had  been  added.  Service  was  the  watchword  of 
the  association  and  was  the  secret  of  its  success. 

Samuel  Insull  delivered  a  most  interesting  and  instiuc- 
tive  address  on  Illinois  War  Work.  Mr.  Insull  is  chair- 
man of  the  State  Council  of  Defense  of  Illinois,  which  has 
made  such  an  enviable  record  in  organizing  and  carrying 
on  the  work  made  necessary  by  the  war. 

James  A.  Davis,  chairman  of  Speakers  Bureau,  National 
War  Savings  Committee,  spoke  on  the  topic  "Financing 
the  War."  To  show  the  necessity  of  winning  the  war  he 
enumerated  in  detail  the  natural  resources  in  the  con- 
quered territory  now  in  the  possession  of  Germany,  the 
great  population  that  would  be  under  her  control  and 
the  possibilities  of  the  future  with  these  resources  back  of 
her.  The  financial  status  of  this  country  was  reviewed,  and 
the  great  possibilities  of  savings  were  emphasized.  An 
army  of  savers  must  stand  back  of  the  men  at  the  front, 
and  with  their  contributions  this  country  could  spend  30  to 
35  billion  dollars  per  annum  for  twenty  years  and  be  no 
poorer  than  today. 

Alfi-ed  D.  Flinn,  secretary  of  the  Engineering  Council, 
reviewed  the  efforts  to  draw  together  the  four  large  na- 
tional associations  and  the  present  activities  of  the  body 
he  represented,  its  aim  being  "the  engineering  profession 
united  to  serve  America." 

Following,  representatives  from  various  chapters  located 
in  Indiana,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Virginia,  Georgia,  Penn- 
sylvania, Texas,  Oklahoma  and  even  as  far  west  as  Califor- 
nia, spoke  briefly.  All  showed  enthusiasm  and  interest  in 
the  organization,  which  if  properly  directed  should  result 
in  great  things  for  the  association. 

Officers  for  the  ensuing  year  were  announced  as  follows: 
W.  H.  Finley,  president;  H.  W.  Clausfen,  first  vice  presi- 
dent; G.  F.  Vivian,  C.  A.  Gacnsslcn  and  J.  T.  MuUin,  na- 
tional auditing  committee;  Harold  Almert,  F.  K.  Bennett, 
T.  M.  Chapman,  J.  N.  Hatch,  Alexander  Potter  and  J.  H. 
Prior,  directors. 


When  wood  alcohol  is  to  be  used  to  any  extent,  have 
the  room  very  well  ventilated,  as  it  affects  the  eyes  and 
even   produces  blindness. — Marine   Enginering. 


782 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


Colonel  Carty  Receives  Edison  Medal 

Dr.  .John  J.  Carty,  Colonel  in  the  United  States  Army 
Sigrnal  Corps  and  Chief  Engineer  of  the  American  Tele- 
phone and  Telegraph  Company,  has  been  awarded  the 
Edison  Medal  in  recognition  of  his  meritorious  achieve- 
ments in  the  science  and  art  of  telephone  engineering. 

The  medal  was  presented  on  Friday  evening,  May  17,  at 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical 
Engineers  in  the  Engineering  Societies  Building  in  West 
39th  St.,  New  York.  Colonel  Carty  is  the  eighth  American 
scientist  to  be  honored  in  this  way,  the  others  being  Elihu 
Thomson,  Frank  J.  Sprague,  George  Westinghouse,  William 
Stanley,  Charles  F.  Brush,  Alexander  Graham  Bell  and 
Nikola   Tesla. 

A  statement  of  the  history  and  significance  of  the  medal 
was  made  by  Dr.  A.  E.  Kennelly,  professor  of  electrical 
engineering  at  Harvard  University  and  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  who  was  chairman  of  the  Insti- 
tute's 1917  Edison  Medal  Committee.  Dr.  Michael  I.  Pupin, 
of  Columbia  University,  told  of  the  work  of  Colonel  Carty, 
the  foremost  telephone  engineer  in  the  world.  The  medal 
was  delivered  by  the  president  of  the  Institute,  E.  W.  Rice, 
Jr.,  also  a  scientist  of  note,  who  is  president  of  the  General 
Electric  Company. 

The  Edison  gold  medal  was  founded  in  1904  by  the  Edison 
Medal  A  cociation,  an  organization  composed  of  old  asso- 
ciates and  friends  of  Thomas  A.  Edison.  It  is  awarded 
annually  by  a  committee  of  24  members  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  the  iirst  recipient  being 
Elihu  Thomson  in  1909. 

President  Rice  said  in  part: 

More  than  any  other  man.  Colonel  Carty  is  responsible 
for  the  development  of  telephone  engineering  as  it  is  known 
today,  and  it  is  peculiarly  fitting  that  he  should  receive  this 
new  honor  at  a  time  when  he  is  working  day  and  night  to 
promote  the  best  military  use  of  mediums  of  communica- 
tion which  have  been  developed  largely  through  his  efforts 
in  time  of  peace  for  the  advancement  of  the  nation's  social, 
commercial  and  industrial  activities. 

Colonel  Carty  is  well  known  as  the  engineer  of  the  great 
transcontinental  telephone  line,  the  longest  in  the  world, 
and  as  the  engineer  who  made  possible  wireless  telephon- 
ing over  distances  up  to  5000  miles. 

He  entered  the  telephone  business  when  it  was  in  its 
infancy,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  phase  of  its  de- 
velopment which  does  not  bear  some  imprint  of  his  genius. 
His  technical  achievements  are  so  numerous  as  to  prevent 
full  recounting.  He  first  pointed  out  the  correct  theory  of 
induction  between  telephone  circuits,  showing  how  to  obtain 
a  balanced  metallic  circuit  and  devising  methods  for  cor- 
rectly transposing  phantom  telephone  circuits.  That  was  in 
1887. 

In  1888  he  developed  the  bridging  bell  and  pointed  out 
the  importance  of  the  bridging  principle  of  telephone 
construction  in  obtaining'  efficient  operation  of  telephone 
systems  and  in  constructing  balanced  metallic  circuits.  In 
1889  he  invented  the  principle  of  the  best  and  most  gener- 
ally used  common  battery  system,  by  which  a  number  of 
telephone  instruments  may  be  simultaneously  operated 
from  a  single  central  battery.  During  this  period  he  also 
devised  important  improvements  pertaining  to  switchboard 
circuits  having  to  do  with  the  busy  test  feature  and  the 
connecting  in  of  operators'   instruments. 

In  1912  the  telephone  engineering  force  built  up  and 
directed  by  Colonel  Carty  had  so  far  overcome  the  difficul- 
ties in  the  way  of  underground  telephony  as  to  make  pos- 
sible all-underground  talking  between  New  York  and 
Washington,  and  by  1913  they  had  extended  the  range  of 
underground  telephony  to  connect  Washington  and  Boston. 

The  year  1914  witnessed  the  fruition  of  the  efforts  of 
these  engineers  to  bring  transcontinental  telephony  into 
existence,  and  in  191.')  Colonel  Carty  was  able  to  present  to 
the  world  important  developments  in  wireless  telephony, 
which  made  possible  the  hurling  of  words  through  space 
across  the  American  continent  from  Washington  to  Mare 
Island,  California,  from  Washington  to  Hawaii,  4900  miles 
distant,  and  from  Washington  to  Paris,  bringing  Europe 
and  America  into  speaking  distance  of  each  other  for  the 
first  time. 

Then  came  the  threat  of  war  with  Germany,  and  in  1916 
Colonel  Carty  cooperated  with  the  Signal  Corps  of  the 
Army  and  with  the  various  departments  of  the  Navy  in 
making  arrangements  which  would  insure  the  readiness  of 
the  Bell  Telephone  System  for  military  service  in  case  this 


country  did  become  involved  in  the  great  conflict.  In  1917 
these  plans  were  put  into  active  use  with  a  marvelous  de- 
gree of  success. 

Colonel  Carty's  technical  telephone  achievements  alone 
would  entitle  him  to  his  preeminent  position  in  his  field,  but 
he  also  occupies  an  equally  high  place  in  the  regard  of 
scientists  because  of  the  character  of  his  work  in  directing, 
developing   and   coordinating  telephone    engineering. 

He  has  always  insisted  upon  the  importance  of  determin- 
ing the  requii-ements  of  the  service  before  undertaking  to 
develop  specific  ideas.  He  has  always  emphasized  the  ne- 
cessity for  getting  the  full  set  of  facts  in  each  case  and  of 
studying  the  effects  of  growth  so  that  a  new  device  may  not 
only  be  satisfactory  at  the  start,  but  may  fit  into  the  sys- 
tem as  it  develops.  The  several  hundi-ed  engineers  engaged 
by  the  Bell  System  in  conducting  researches,  testify  to  the 
value  which  Colonel  Carty  places  upon  this  phase  of  tele- 
phone work,  just  as  they  do  the  emphasis  he  puts  upon  the 
importance  of  keeping  bad  devices  and  methods  out  of  the 
telephone  plant.  Colonel  Carty  is  known  also  for  his 
marked  ability  to  make  friends  with  and  inspire  confidence 
in  those  with  whom  he  comes  into  contact,  so  that  his  name 
is  one  to  conjure  by  among  those  for  whom  he  works,  those 
with  whom  he  works  and  those  who  work  for  him. 

Dr.  Pupin  said: 

Carty's  life  is  filled  with  romance.  He  never  went  to 
college.  At  the  age  of  18  when  other  boys  entered  college 
he  entered  the  service  of  the  American  Bell  Telephone  Co. 
and  at  the  age  of  25  became  chief  engineer  of  the  great 
New  York  Telephone  Co.  He  started  without  getting  honors, 
titles,  and  now  he  is  a  doctor  I  do  not  know  how  many 
times  and  on  the  top  of  these  titles  colonel  of  the  United 
States  Army.  If  General  Pershing  has  his  way  Carty  will 
be  a  general  before  many  a  day.  General  Pershing  under- 
stands that  Carty  is  made  of  stuff  of  which  great  generals 
are  made. 

Colonel  Carty  in  his  speech  of  acceptance  gave  credit  for 
the  American  Telephone  achievements  to  the  engineei's  who 
have  been  associated  with  him  in  the  Bell  System  and  paid 
a  ti'ibute  to  Maj.  Gen.  George  O.  Squier,  chief  signal 
officer  of  the  United  States  Army  for  his  work  in  planning 
before  the  United  States  entered  the  war  for  the  rapid 
mobilization  of  telephone  wires  and  telephone  men  for  Sig- 
nal Corps  work.  Referring  to  the  Bell  System  engineers, 
Colonel  Carty  said: 

We  hear  a  great  deal  about  the  German  scientist  and  the 
wonderful  things  he  has  done  and  has  been  planning.  Many 
years  ago,  when  German  "Kultur"  was  interpreted  by  many 
to  mean  German  culture,  it  was  suggested  to  me  that  we 
should  send  to  Germany  to  get  sonie  of  the  Herr  doctors  to 
teach  us  the  high  science.  I  always  opposed  that,  believing 
that  the  Yankee  mind,  the  Yankee  boy,  when  his  attention 
was  turned  to  scientific  problems  would  surely  outdistance 
a  German.  I  concluded  that  our  work  could  be  trusted  to 
these  young  Yankee  minds  and  that  they  should  be  trained 
in  our  work  and  that  through  them  we  would  undertake  to 
outdistance  anything  that  has  been  done  in  Germany.  That 
policy  has  worked  out  successfully.  The  young  men  who 
have  collaborated  with  me  all  these  years  are  graduates  of 
over  on    hundred  universities  all  here  in  America. 

When  at  the  opening  of  the  war  there  was  a  searching 
of  hearts  and  a  census  and  a  taking  account  of  stock  to  find 
out  who  was  loyal  and  who  was  to  be  suspected,  I  know  you 
virill  all  be  pleased  to  hear  that  among  all  of  these  scientists 
and  all  of  these  engineers  all  working  in  the  Bell  System  all 
over  the  United  States  we  were  not  able  to  find  one  single 
Hun;    they  were  all  true  Americans  to  the  core. 

Cottonseed  Oil  Cake  as  Fuel  in  Eg>'pt 

The  high  price  of  coal  and  the  shortage  of  ocean  freight 
space  have  produced  a  condition  in  Egypt  under  which  cot- 
tonseed oil  cake  is  being  used  as  a  substitute  for  coal  as  fuel, 
according  to  Cnmmerre  Reports.  The  high  price  of  coal  in- 
duced experiments  with  oil  cake.  The  relation  of  the  calo- 
rific value  of  cake  to  coal  was  found  to  be  1%  tons  of  cake 
to  1  ton  of  north  country  large  coal. 

The  present  price  of  coal  in  Egypt  is  about  .$80  per  ton. 
The  price  of  oil  cake  at  various  times  during  the  last  two 
years  ranging  betvifeen  .$32.50  per  ton  and  the  present  price 
of  $15.  Cake  is  now  being  largely  used  in  place  of  coal  in 
boiler  plants,  in  hotels,  restaurants,  and  private  houses. 
One  large  concern  saves  two  men  per  boiler  in  burning 
cake  instead  of  coal.  Cake  ash  has  a  value  as  fertilizer  of 
about  $25  per  ton. 


May  28.  1918 


POWER 


783 


"Coal  Week"  from  June  3  to  8 

Coal  week,  the  period  from  June  3  to  8,  has  been  se- 
lected by  United  States  Fuel  Administrator  Garfield  for 
an  intensive  and  specific  drive  on  the  early  ordering  of 
coal.  The  fuel  organizations  of  the  various  states,  the 
county  chairmen  of  fuel  committees  throughout  the  nation, 
coal  dealers,  chambers  of  commerce,  mine  operators  and 
others  are  all  called  upon  to  do  their  utmost  to  make  this 
week's  drive  a  big  success. 

From  some  states  has  come  the  objection  that  the  trouble 
about  the  ccal  supply  does  not  come  from  the  consumers, 
industrial  or  domestic,  but  from  the  dealers,  who  complain 
that  they  can  not  get  sufficient  coal  to  deliver.  In  spite  of 
this,  the  Fuel  Administration  is  anxious  that  the  early  order- 
ing campaign  be  vigorously  pushed. 

By  accumulating  a  large  volume  of  orders  in  the  hands 
of  the  dealers  it  is  expected  that  there  will  be  demonstrated 
to  every  agency  concerned  in  the  distribution  of  coal  the 
universality  and  urgency  of  the  demand  and  this,  in  turn, 
will  give  rise  to  a  steady  and  increasing  pressure  for  rapid 
and  equitable  distribution.  This  is  particularly  true  as  to 
the  railroads  and  other  transportation  agencies.  Every  un- 
filled order  for  coal  will  at  once  become  an  active  and  press- 
ing argument  for  increased  distribution  efficiency.  By 
keeping  coal  orders  constantly  accumulating,  the  resulting 
pressure,  it  is  believed,  will  have  the  effect  of  maintaining 
production  at  the  highest  possible  point  during  the  summer 
months. 

It  is  also  felt  that  with  the  bulk  of  the  year's  supply  of 
coal  ordered  well  in  advance,  the  various  distribution 
agencies  of  the  Government  will  be  in  a  position  equitably 
and  properly  to  adjust  the  demands  as  between  different 
communities.  It  will  be  possible  accurately  to  gage  the 
increased  demand  and  properly  to  divide  the  available 
supply. 

It  is  pointed  cut  that  it  is  obvious  that  the  entire  coal 
output  of  the  country  cannot  all  be  delivered  at  once;  but 
at  the  same  time  it  is  clear  that  no  matter  what  the  con- 
dition of  the  supply  may  be  those  orders  that  are  on  the 
books  of  the  dealers  will  be  filled  prior  to  those  received 
later  in  the  year. 

The  state  branches  of  the  National  Council  of  Defense 
are  being  asked  to  aid  in  this  "early-ordering"  drive,  and 
the  Fuel  Administration  believes  that  if  the  bulk  of  orders, 
both  domestic  and  industrial,  are  in  hand  by  July  1  there 
will  result  a  marked  improvement  in  railroad  facilities,  es- 
pecially as  by  that  time  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  the 
new  equipment  ordered  by  the  Director  General  of  Railroads 
will  have  come  into  use. 

While  particular  pains  are  to  be  taken  in  this  campaign 
to  reach  the  domestic  consumer  in  an  effort  to  ward  off  any 
possible  coal  shortage  in  the  homes  next  winter,  it  is  plain 
that,  after  all,  the  greatest  help  toward  the  plans  of  the 
United  States  Fuel  Administration  must  come  from  the 
large  industrial  consumers  who,  by  getting  in  early  their 
orders  for  the  bulk  of  the  fuel  their  plants  will  need,  can 
lend  a  tremendous  impetus  toward  speeding  up  production 
at  the  mines  and  delivery  that  shall  employ  to  the  fullest 
all  transportation  facilities. 

Although  the  "early  ordering"  campaign  has  practically 
only  begun,  its  effects  are  already  being  felt  in  increased 
production.  The  week  ending  Apr.  27  showed,  according 
to  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  a 
total  production  of  11,668,000  net  tons,  an  increase  of  5.7 
per  cent,  over  the  preceding  week.  The  average  production 
per  working  day  was  1,946,000  net  tons,  compared  with 
1,840,000  net  tons  the  week  previous  and  1,680,000  net  tons 
during  April.  1917. 

The  week  ending  Apr.  27  recorded  not  only  the  highest 
rate  of  production  for  the  past  12  months,  but  was  the  third 
successive  week  of  rising  production. 

There  was  also  a  gradual  improvement  in  car  service  con- 
ditions in  the  mines  during  the  week  ending  Apr.  20.  Loss 
of  production  due  to  car  shortage  throughout  the  entire 
country  was  16.2  per  cent,  as  against  18.1  per  cent,  in  the 
preceding  week.  The  loss  due  to  labor  shortage  was  4.8 
per  cent.,  as  against  3.8  per  cent,  in  the  preceding  week. 

The  reports  showed  an  improvement  in  the  demand  for 


coal,  due  to  the  cooperation  of  coal  consumers  with  the  Fuel 
Administration's  campaign  for  early  ordering.  The  loss 
of  production  due  to  "no  market"  in  the  week  ended  Apr. 
20  was  only  1.8  per  cent.,  for  the  country  as  a  whole,  as 
against  2.8  per  cent,  in  the  preceding  week. 

The  loss  due  to  "no  market,"  however,  is  still  large  in 
the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  where  summer 
production  must  be  maintained  if  the  consumers  are  to 
avoid  a  serious  coal  shortage  next  winter.  The  mines  in 
these  states  have  ample  capacity  to  care  for  the  consum- 
ing territory  allotted  them  under  the  zone  system  of  dis- 
tribution, but  these  mines  must  be  kept  at  work  at  maxi- 
mum capacity  throughout  the  year  in  order  to  provide  a 
proper  supply. 

The  mines  of  Kansas  and  Missouri  showed  a  loss  of  pro- 
duction of  7.5  per  cent,  due  to  lack  of  demand.  Those  of 
Oklahoma  and  Arkansas  showed  a  falling  off  of  9.3  per 
cent,  due  to  the  same  cause.  Iowa  mines  lost  30.7  per  cent, 
of  their  production  because  buyers  were  not  available,  the 
Pacific  Coast  States  showed  a  loss  of  5.8  per  cent,  due  to 
this  cause,  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  States  a  loss  of  12.3 
per  cent. 

While  all  these  figures  showed  an  improvement  as  com- 
pared with  previous  weeks,  the  Fuel  Administration  v/ill 
make  a  determined  effort  to  eliminate  all  loss  of  production 
due  to  lack  of  market. 


Richmond,  Va.,  To  Save  Electric 
Current 

The  Fuel  Administrator  of  the  City  of  Richmond,  Va.,  has 
requested  the  city  to  sell  its  surplus  electric  energy  to  the 
Virginia  Railway  and  Power  Co.  If  this  idea  is  carried  out, 
it  will  save  a  matter  of  6000  tons  of  coal  annually. 

Fuel  Administrator  Byrd  states  that  an  investigation  by 
electrical  experts  disclosed  that  4,000,000  kw.-hr.  of  power 
generated  by  water  without  cost  by  the  electric  plant  owned 
by  the  City  of  Richmond  is  not  being  utilized  and  is  being 
permitted  to  go  to  waste.  The  commercial  sale  of  this  power 
is  prohibited  under  an  existing  city  ordinance.  The  sale  of 
this  surplus  power  to  the  Virginia  Railway  and  Power  Co. 
will  enable  the  release  of  an  estimated  quantity  of  from 
5000  to  6000  tons  of  coal  annually.  The  City  of  Richmond 
will  benefit  by  receiving  the  fair  market  prices  of  the  power 
for  which  they  are  not  now  receiving  any  return. 

Before  the  intercommunication  is  established  between  the 
municipal  electric  plant  and  the  power  house  of  the  Virginia 
Railway  and  Power  Co.,  an  ordinance  must  be  passed  per- 
mitting the  city  to  buy  and  sell  electricity.  After  the  pas- 
sage of  the  ordinance  the  administrative  board  would  deter- 
mine whether  the  city  desired  to  sell  its  sui-plus  current,  and 
whether  it  would  sell  to  the  Virginia  Railway  and  Power  Co., 
or  to  some  other  consumer.  The  request  of  the  Fuel  Admin- 
istration is  taken  in  certain  quarters  to  mean  the  initial  step 
toward  the  conservation  of  coal,  and  if  such  action  is  neces- 
sary the  administration  will  direct  that  the  surplus  current 
be  sold  to  the  commercial  company.  There  exists  at  the 
municipal  plant  from  time  to  time  surplus  water  power 
which,  under  present  conditions,  goes  to  waste.  By  connect- 
ing the  two  systems  all  surplus  energy  generated  by  the 
water  power  station  of  the  city  plant  would  be  thrown  into 
the  feed  main  of  the  Virginia  Railway  and  Power  Co.,  and 
would  thereby  enable  a  corresponding  reduction  in  fuel  con- 
sumption at  the  steam  plant  of  the  traction  company. 
Through  this  interconnection  there  would  be  added  to  the 
power  supply  of  the  city  a  needed  surplus. 

If  this  proposition  is  carried  through,  it  will  create  a  valu- 
able precedent  for  many  similar  cases  throughout  that 
section  of  the  country. 

It  is  understood  that  the  intercommunication  between  the 
two  plants  would  exist  only  for  the  duration  of  the  war, 
and  the  individuality  of  the  power  houses  would  in  no  way  be 
disturbed.  The  Fuel  Administration  suggests  that  a  Board 
of  Arbitration  be  formed  to  adopt  a  fair  rate  at  which  the 
surplus  electricity  will  bo  sold  to  the  traction  company,  and 
offers  to  place  priority  orders  for  all  equipment  neodod  to 
effect  the  connection.  It  is  estimated  that  the  revenue  to 
the  city  would  be  about  .$40,000  per  year. 


784. 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


Students  To   Have   Military  Standing  Women  for  the  Drafting  Room 


To  provide  military  instructions  for  the  college  students 
of  the  country  during  the  present  emergency,  a  comprehen- 
sive plan  will  be  put  into  effect  by  the  War  Department,  be- 
ginning with  the  next  college  year,  September,  1918.  The 
details  remain  to  be  worked  out,  but  in  general  the  plan 
will  be  as  follows: 

Military  instruction  under  officers  and  noncommissioned 
officers  of  the  Army  will  be  provided  in  every  institution  of 
college  grade  which  enrolls  for  the  instruction  100  or  more 
able-bodied  students  over  the  age  of  18.  The  necessary 
military  equipment  will,  so  far  as  possible,  be  provided  by 
the  G'^'ernment.  There  will  be  created  a  military  training 
unit  in  each  institution.  Enlistment  will  be  purely  volun- 
tarily, but  all  students  over  the  age  of  18  will  be  encouraged 
to  enlist.  The  enlistment  will  constitute  the  student  a 
member  of  the  Army  of  the  United  States  subject  to  active 
duty  at  the  call  of  the  President.  It  will,  however,  be  the 
policy  of  the  Government  not  to  call  the  members  of  the 
training  units  to  active  service  until  they  have  reached  the 
age  21,  unless  urgent  military  necessity  compels  an  earliei 
call.  Students  under  18,  and  therefore  not  obliged  to  enlisl. 
will  be  encouraged  to  enroll  in  the  training  units.  Pro- 
vision will  be  made  for  coordinating  the  Reserve  Officers 
Training  Corps  system,  which  exists  in  about  one-third  of 
the  collegiate  institutions,  with  its  broader  plan. 

This  policy  will  accomplish  a  twofold  object:  First,  to 
develop  as  a  great  military  asset  the  large  body  of  young 
men  in  the  colleges;  and  second,  to  prevent  unnecessary  and 
wasteful  depletion  of  the  colleges  through  indiscriminate 
volunteering  by  offering  to  the  students  a  definite  and  im- 
mediate military  status. 

High-Grade   Men   Wanted  for  Army 
Ordnance 

An  urgent  call  for  high-grade  technical  men  and  opera- 
tives to  fill  war  positions  in  industrial  establishments  was 
made  May  13,  through  the  Civil  Service,  by  the  United 
States  Army  Ordnance.  Salaries  ranging  from  $1600  to 
$6000  a  year  will  be  paid  the  men  who  qualify  for  the 
places. 

Chemists  and  chemical  engineers,  men  experienced  in  the 
manufacture  of  gas,  mechanical  engineers  on  high-pressure 
apparatus,  engineers  to  take  charge  of  power  houses  and 
foremen  of  machine  shops  are  needed.  Persons  of  military 
age  accepting  appointment  will  not  avoid  the  obligations 
of  the  Selective  Service  Law. 

No  applications  will  be  accepted  from  Government  em- 
ployees or  employees  of  firms  or  corporations  engaged  in 
contracts  for  the  Government  or  its  Allies  unless  written 
assent  to  -such  application  is  given  by  the  head  of  the  es- 
tablishment that  might  be  seriously  handicapped  in  its  war 
work  by  the  loss  of  the  man. 

Salaries  ranging  from  $1600  to  $2400  will  be  paid  junior 
mechanical  engineers  on  high-pressure  apparatus.  Experi- 
ence in  the  operation  and  control  of  high-pressure  hydraulic 
and  gas  machinery  is  necessary.  At  least  one  year  of  such 
experience  will  be  required  of  graduates  in  mechanical-en- 
gineering courses  from  recognized  colleges.  Four  years' 
experience  is  required  of  high-school  graduates. 

Power-house  engineers  will  be  paid  $1800  to  $2400  a  year 
while  working  for  the  Ordnance  Department.  Supervision 
of  operation  of  water-tube  boilers,  condensers,  pumps, 
steam  turbines  and  alternating-  and  direct-current  genera- 
tors and  motors  are  among  the  duties  of  these  men.  Ma- 
chine-shop foi-emen  with  salaries  from  $1800  to  $2400  also 
are  wanted.  Ten  years'  experience  as  machinists,  three 
T,ears  in  a  responsible  supervisory  capacity,  is  required. 

Assistant  operatives  in  the  manufacture  of  water  gas 
and  producer  gas,  mechanics  experienced  on  high-power  ap- 
paratus, and  operatives  of  acid  and  chemical  apparatus  are 
needed.  Many  positions  are  open.  The  needs  of  the  serv- 
ice are  so  imperative  that  applications  will  be  received  in- 
definitely. Further  information  is  obtainable  of  the  Civilian 
Personnel  Section,  U.  S.  Army  Ordnance,  1330  F  St.,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 


In  response  to  an  appeal  from  the  Government  to  help  find 
engineering  designers  and  draftsmen,  Dean  M.  E.  Cooley, 
of  the  University  of  Michigan,  has  suggested  the  plan  of 
fitting  women  for  tracers  and  as  inspectors  of  materials. 
This  would  relieve  men  for  the  more  important  duties  of 
draftsmen  and  designers  and  help  fill  places  made  vacant 
by  the  draft.  Inquiries  among  engineers  developed  the 
fact  that  those  who  had  employed  women  in  such  capacities 
were  enthusiastic.  They  were  particularly  neat  in  their 
work,  accurate  and  dependable.  Due  to  shortage  of  help, 
other  engineers  were  anxious  to  give  them  a  trial.  As  a 
result,  the  University  of  Michigan  has  arranged  as  a  war- 
time measure  a  summer  course  to  prepare  women  for  this 
new  work.  Similar  action  might  well  be  taken  by  other 
engineering  colleges  of  the  country,  and  it  should  be  to 
the  interest  of  engineers  to  support  the  movement  and  help 
it  along  by  employing  the  girls  when  they  have  received 
their  training.  In  this  connection  the  following  resolution, 
passed  at  a  joint  meeting  of  the  Detroit  Engineering  Society 
and  the  Detroit  Section  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechani- 
cal Engineers,  shows  that  the  possibilities  of  employing 
women  in  the  drafting  room  and  allied  work  are  appre- 
ciated, and  that  there  is  the  desire  to  allow  them  to  give 
direct  help  in  winning  the  war: 

Whereas,  The  demands  of  the  country  for  men  and  means 
to  fight  the  war  have  resulted  in  a  deficiency  of  skilled 
workers  in  the  trades  and  professions;   and 

Whereas,  The  women  of  this  country  could  with  a  short 
period  of  training  fit  themselves  to  fill  these  positions,  as 
women  have  done  in  other  countries  at  war;  and 

Whereas,  Among  the  things  that  women  could  do  ad- 
vantageously are  drafting  and  tracing,  inspection  and  test- 
ing of  materials,  both  physically  and  chemically;  therefore 
be  it 

Resolved,  That  the  universities,  colleges  and  technical 
schools  throughout  the  land  be  asked  to  consider  the  ques- 
tion of  meeting  this  demand  by  providing  special  courses 
of  instruction  open  to  women  students  qualified  to  pursue 
such  courses;  and  further 

Resolved,  That  employers  who  could  use  such  skilled  help 
exert  their  influence  with  their  universities,  colleges  and. 
technical  schools,  and  cooperate  with  them  in  developing 
and  making  available  a  great  body  of  intelligent  and 
adaptable  women  who  are  as  eager  and  willing  to  serve 
their  country  as  their  brothers;  thereby  bringing  about  not 
only  increased  effectiveness  in  fighting  the  war,  but  also 
a  greater  mutual  respect  and  saner  relationship  of  our  men 
and  women. 


Control  of  Ice 

New  York  State  Senate  Bill  No.  605,  an  amendment,  ap- 
proved by  the  Governor  and  now  law,  states  the  following, 
in  part: 

The  ice  comptroller  is  hereby  given  power  to  regulate 
and  control  the  manufacture  of  artificial  ice  in  the  City 
of  New  York,  on  Long  Island,  or  in  the  counties  bordering 
on  the  Hudson  River,  up  to  and  including  the  Counties  of 
Albany  and  Rensselaer;  to  regulate  and  control  the  storage 
and  transportation  of  natural  and  artificial  ice  in  said  lo- 
cality; and  to  regulate  and  control  the  sale,  delivery  and 
distribution  of  natural  and  artificial  ice  in  any  city  having 
more  than  one  million  inhabitants.  A  person,  partnership 
or  corporation  shall  not  manufacture  artificial  ice,  for  sale 
or  any  other  purpose,  in  the  City  of  New  York,  on  Long 
Island  or  in  the  counties  bordering  on  the  Hudson  River 
up  to  and  including  the  Counties  of  Albany  and  Rensselaer, 
nor  shall  a  person,  partnership  or  corporation  engage  in 
the  business  of  selling  and  delivering  or  distributing  arti- 
ficial or  natural  ice  in  any  city  having  more  than  one 
million  inhabitants  after  Mar.  1,  1918,  or  before  Feb.  1, 
1918,  without  first  obtaining  a  license  to  be  issued  by  the 
ice  comptroller  in  a  form  and  upon  terms  and  conditions  to 
be  prescribed  by  him. 

Heavy  penalties  are  provided  for  violation  of  this  law. 


Area  and  surface  are  not  synonymous,  and  sometimes 
men  mix  them  up  as  did  the  man  who  corrugated  a  piston, 
thinking  that  in  so  doing  he  was  increasing  area  and  making 
his  engine  more  powerful. — Marine  Engineering. 


May  28,  1918 


POWER 


785 


West  Virginia  Water-Power  Legislation 

It  seems  higrhly  probable  that  there  will  be  water-power 
legislation  at  the  next  session  of  the  West  Virpinia  legis- 
lature which  will  convene  in  January,  1919.  During  the 
special  session  of  May,  1917,  the  Senate  adopted  a  resolu- 
tion requesting  Governor  Cornwell  to  appoint  a  committee 
of  three  to  investigate  the  water-power  situation  and  to 
submit  a  report  to  the  next  legislature,  with  such  recom- 
mendations as  to  future  legislation  to  encourage  develop- 
ment as  the  committee  might  deem  necessary.  The  gov- 
ernor appointed  as  members  of  that  committee  the  Hon. 
Wells  Goodykoontz,  president  of  the  Senate,  and  Senators 
Fred  L.  Fox,  of  Sutton,  and  C.  C.  Coalter,  of  Hinton.  Re- 
cently that  committee  held  its  first  meeting  but  went  no 
farcher  than  to  make  arrangements  to  study  the  present 
laws  and  to  take  up  at  a  later  date  the  drafting  of  new 
water-power  statutes. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  present  water-power 
laws  of  the  state  are  prohibitory  so  far  as  any  development 
is  concerned.  This  has  been  fully  attested  to  by  the  fact 
that  since  the  present  statutes  were  enacted  in  1915  there 
has  been  no  water-power  development  except  on  a  very 
limited  scale,  although  there  are  in  the  state  many  streams 
that  will  furnish  all  the  power  needed  for  years  to  come. 
Owing  to  present  conditions,  therefore,  a  valuable  resource 
is  not  being  utilized  and  is  in  fact  being  allowed  to  go  to 
waste.     As  this  is  a  time  when  every  resource  and  every 


ounce  of  energy  must  be  utilized,  sentiment  for  legislation 
which  will  encourage  water-power  development  and  yet 
fully  protect  the  rights  of  the  state  is  pronounced,  ecps- 
cially  in  the  New  River  and  other  sections  where  water 
power  is  available  and  only  needs  to  be  harnessed. 

Thrift   Stamp    Day   a   Huge   Success 

Thrift  Stamp  Day  in  the  United  States  has  come  to  stay. 
The  results  of  the  first  Thrift  Stamp  Day,  May  6,  were  so 
satisfactory  that  the  National  War  Savings  Committee  of 
Greater  New  York  has  decided  to  hereafter  set  aside  every 
first  day  of  each  month  as  Thrift  Stamp  Day,  and  all  busi- 
ness houses  throughout  the  Greater  City  have  been  asked 
to  cooperate  and  make  a  special  drive  to  boost  the  sales  of 
Thrift  and  War  Savings  Stamps  on  those  days.  The  results 
of  the  first  big  Thrift  Stamp  Day  has  convinced  the  woi-kers 
and  the  managers  in  charge  of  the  drive  that  the  setting 
aside  of  one  day  each  month  for  a  War  Savings  offensive 
would  be  a  splendid  idea. 

The  question  of  setting  aside  the  first  day  of  each  month 
for  Thrift  Stamp  Day  was  broached  to  the  leading  business 
men  of  the  city,  and  they  all  received  the  idea  with  great 
enthusiasm.  Special  literature  has  been  prepared  for  the 
occasion,  and  the  thirty-odd  thousand  authorized  agents  of 
the  Treasury  Department  ha\^e  been  asked  to  do  at  least  as 
well  on  future  Thrift  Stamp  days  as  they  did  on  the 
first  day. 


UKnillllllllllllillllllllltllllllli 


MiiiiinMiniiMiiiMii I Ill 


i         New  Publications         [ 

liltllllirilllllllllllllMIIMIIIIIIIIIt I tlllltl Illlllllllllll Illtllll IIMIIE 

ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING.  By  Carl  L. 
Svensen.  Published  by  D.  Van  Nos- 
trand  Co..  New  York.  Cloth,  2no 
pages;  6  x  9  in.  ;  450  illustrations. 
Price.  $1.50. 
As  a  book  prepared  especially  for  the 
evening  technical  school  it  seems  to  be  well 
suited  for  that  purpose.  The  treatment  of 
the  various  subjects  is  somewhat  brief,  as 
it  is  expected  that  persona!  instruction  is 
also  to  be  given.  It  is  therefore  not  a 
strictly  "self-instruction"  book,  but  a  guide 
for  both  student  and  instructor. 
HANDBOOK  ON  PIPING.  By  Carl  L. 
Svensen.  Published  by  D.  Van  Nos- 
trand  Co..  New  York.  Cloth,  359 
pages;  6  x  9  in.  ;  359  illustrations  and 
8  folding  plates.  Price.  $3. 
An  orderly  presentation  of  the  subject 
beginning  with  a  short  introductory  chap- 
ter of  ten  pages,  giving  an  insight  into  the 
history  and  manufacture  of  pipe,  followed 
by  six  others  treating  of  "dimensions  and 
strength  of  pipe,  pipe  threads,  pipe  fittings, 
pipe  joints,  standard  valves  and  special 
valves."  Chapters  8  to  15  deal  with  piping 
systems  under  the  following  heads:  Steam 
piping,  drip  and  blowoff  piping,  exhaust 
piping  and  condensers,  feed-water  heaters, 
piping  for  heating  systems,  water  snd  hy- 
draulic piping,  compressed  air.  gas  and  oil 
piping,  erection,  workmanship  and  miscel- 
laneous. Chapter  16  is  on  piping  insula- 
tion. Chapter  17  on  piping  drawings,  and 
the  closing  chapter — specifications — con- 
tains the  Stone  &  Webster  standard  piping 
specifications  and  a  model  specification  by 
the  Walworth  Manufacturing  Co.  The 
eight  folding  plates  referred  to  are  repro- 
ductions of  the  piping  drawings,  by  Stone 
&  Webster,  for  the  Cannon  Street  Station 
of  the  New  Bedford  (Mass.)  Gas  and  Edi- 
son Light  Co.  While  this  book  is  frankly 
a  compilation  of  information  and  tables 
considered  standard  and  the  illustrations 
are  mainly  from  manufacturers'  catalogs, 
it  contains  much  information  that,  when 
brought  together  in  this  manner,  is  readily 
accessible  when  needed  by  the  engineer  or 
student. 

UMiiiiii iiiiiirtiitriiiiMiiiniiiiiiriiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiit rtiiii _ 


Personals 


Kdw.  A.  CorclPH  has  teridercd  his  resigna- 
tion to  take  'effect  July  1,  as  master  me- 
chanic for  the  Babcocl<  &  Wilcox  Co.,  at 
Barberton.  Ohio.  He  will  locate  in  Chicago. 
111. 

H.  H.  VVriKlit,  who  has  been  manager  of 
the  .San  F'rancisco  office  of  the  Brown 
Hoisting  Machinery  Co..  has  been  appointed 
Pacific  Coast  representative,  succeeding  the 
Colby  Engineering  Co.  In  the  northwest  ter- 
ritory. 


Engineering  Affairs 


The  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engi- 
neering Education  will  hold  its  twenty-sixth 
annual  meeting  at  the  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity, Evanston.  111.,  June  26-29.  The 
subject  of  discussion  will  be  "The  Engi- 
neering School  and  the  War." 

The  Iowa  .Section  of  the  National  Electric 
Liglit  .\sHociation  will  hold  its  convention 
May  31  and  June  1.  at  Des  Moines.  The 
subjects  to  be  discussed  are  as  follows: 
The  Labor  Situation,  by  T.  Crawford,  Clin- 
ton, Iowa ;  Isolated  Plants,  by  Austin  B.ur- 
ton,  Waterloo.  Iowa ;  Rate  Increase,  by  F 
A.  Warfield,  Peoria,  III.  ;  The  Coal  Situa- 
tion, by  P.  W.  Linebaugh,  Boone,  Iowa : 
Boiler-Room  Economy,  by  E.  S.  Hight, 
Peoria.   Ill 


Miscellaneous  News 


A  Furnace  Boiler  Exploded  in  the  base- 
ment of  the  Russell  House.  Montreal. 
Canada,  on  May  11,  injuring  five  persona 
who  happened  to  be  in  or  near  the  hotel 
at  the  time.  It  is  said  the  explosion  was 
caused  by  someone  having  turned  off  the 
water  from  the  furnace. 

The  First  Commercial  Shipment  of  coal 
from  the  mine  operated  by  the  Alaskan 
Engineering  Commission  was  made  in  the 
last  week  of  April.  A  consignment  of  100 
tons  from  the  Chickaloon  field  went  to 
Seattle,  Wash.,  on  the  steamship  "Alameda." 
The  coal  was  shipped  in  sacks  under  a 
freight  rate  of  $5  per  ton  for  shipments  of 
100  tons  or  more  and  $7.50  per  ton  on  .ship- 
ments less  than  100  tons. 

A  Wire  from  Folsom  to  the  Washington 
State  Fuel  Administrator,  dated  May  10. 
announces  that  "We  are  advised  tliat  a 
largo  number  of  tankers  are  to  be  with- 
drawn from  the  Pacific  Ocean  for  Atlantic 
service  within  six  months.  This  will  neces- 
sitate changing  of  Northwestern  industries 
to  coal  wlierever  possible,  regardh-ss  of 
cost."  It  is  understood  that  oil  consumers 
in  the  Northwest  who  cannot  change  to  coal 
will  be  required  to  submit  by  .lune  10  a 
statement  giving  the  nature  of  their  l)usi- 
ne.ss  and  reasons  for  not  making  the  change. 

Tile  City  of  ]*uNadena  and  the  Southern 
California  Edison  Co.  have  filed  a  joint 
application  with  the  California  Railroad 
Commission  asking  for  permission  to  lease 
the  company's  distributing  system  to  the 
city  for  two  years  with  an  option  of  pur- 
chase. The  city  is  to  pay  rental  on  a  basis 
of  8  per  cent,  on  the  valuation  of  $513,102, 
with    an    additional    rental    for    extensions 

I 


made  after  Dec.  31.  1918.  Under  the 
terms  of  the  lease  the  city  is  to  purchase 
power  from  the  company  for  a  price  rang- 
ing from  0.0095c.  per  kw.-hr.  for  the  flr.st 
250,000  kw.-hr.  to  0.0075c.  for  all  over  750.- 
000  kw.-hr.  Pasadena  agrees  to  lease  all 
of  its  lines  and  distributing  system  outside 
of  the  city  for  a  rental  basis  of  8  per  cent, 
on  a  valuation  of  $27,928. 

At  tile  Del  Monte  Convention  a  letter 
from  the  Pacific  Coast  Petroleum  .Adminis- 
trator, D.  M.  FoLsom.  was  read,  which  stated 
that  even  with  the  most  careful  economies, 
the  oil  stored  on  the  Pacific  Coast  will  be 
exhausted  within  a  year  and  the  curtail- 
ment of  consumption  may  be  exp-  cted 
within  six  months  or  less.  There  has  been 
a  decline  in  drilling  operations  thus  far 
this  year  of  40  per  cent,  as  compared  to 
last  year.  All  fuel-oil  consumers  will  prob- 
ably be  classified  and  only  those  entitled 
to  priority  rating  will  he  supplied  with  oil. 
In  the  case  of  companies  which  use  oil  for 
generating  power,  the  oil  supply  will  be 
continued  only  if  consumers  served  are  en- 
titled to  priority  rating  and  the  burden  of 
proof  that  consumers  are  entitled  to  such 
rating  will  rest  upon  the  power  companies. 

Cleveland      Plants      Interconnected  —  An 

agreement  recentl>-  made  between  the  Cleve- 
land Municipal  Light  plant  and  the  Cleve- 
land Electric  Illuminating  Co.,  through  the 
National  Council  of  Defense,  will  result  In 
the  interchange  of  power  output  between 
the  two  stations.  An  overhead  connection 
is  to  be  built  immediately  between  the  East 
53rd  Street  Municipal  plant  and  the  Cleve- 
land Illuminating  Co.  at  East  72nd  St.  to 
provide  interchange  of  power  in  case  either 
plant  breaks  down.  This  practically  guar- 
jintees  war  plants  against  stojipage  of  work 
through  accident.  The  connection  will  cost 
$90,000.  It  will  be  financed  by  the  CouTicil 
of  National  Defense.  Government  officials 
agree  to  speedy  delivery  of  the  city's  new 
10.000-kw.  generator,  so  that  it  will  be 
ready  to  increase  the  municipal  plant's  cur- 
rent b.y  fall  instead  of  by  Jan.  1. 

The  V.  S.  Circuit  Cnurt  of  .Appeals  re- 
cently reversed  the  decision  of  a  lower  court 
in  the  famous  lOlk  Hills  suit  betweeti  the 
Southern  Pacific  and  the  Government  on 
the  ownership  of  Californi.'i  oil  tields.  In 
discussing  this.  Paul  Shoup.  president  of 
the  Pacific  Electric  Hallway  Co.,  Los 
Angeles,  who  has  recently  been  at  Wii-sh- 
ington.  said  that  a  compromise  on  the  suit 
for  the  duration  of  the  war  is  to  he  fortli- 
coming  very  soon  atid  thnl  these  lands 
\\-hieh  have  so  U)ng  been  tied  up  in  litiga- 
tion will  probably  be  opened  up  and  de- 
veloped at  an  early  date  in  the  most  exiiedi- 
lious  manner.  Ni'vei-theiess  drastic  mea- 
sures in  curtailing  the  consimiption  of  oil 
will  doubtless  be  put  into  effect.  Em- 
bargoes and  restrictions  of  oil  shipments 
and  oil  consumption  generally  may  be  ex- 
pected. 


786 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  22 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


Proposed    Work 
N.   H.,   Derr.v — The   Derry    Electric   Light 
Co.    plans    to    extend    its    electric    transmis- 
sion  line  from  here  to  East  Derry.     D.  P. 
Griffith,    Supt. 

Mass.,  Bostoa — The  Board  of  Education 
will  soon  award  the  contract  for.  the  in- 
stallation of  a  direct  radiation  sy.stem  in 
the  public  and  high  school.  Estimated  cost, 
$20,000.  J.  J.  Mahar,  City  Hall  Annex, 
Consulting    Engr. 

Mass.,  Brookline — The  Town  is  in  the 
market  for  equipment  for  its  incinerator 
including  a  steel  apron  conveyor  complete 
with  steel  chute,  motor  and  connections, 
2  paper  baling  presses  with  motors  and 
connections,  etc.      A.   Varney,    Engr. 

N.  Y.,  Buffalo — Cousins  &  Co.,  74  Wabash 
St.  will  .soon  award  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  a  1  story,  95  x  125  ft.,  rein- 
forced concrete  steel  and  brick  boiler  plant. 
Estimated  cost,  $35,000.     Noted  Dec.  11. 

N.  Y.,  Brooklyn — The  Bureau  of  Supplies 
and  Accounts.  Navy  Dept..  Wash.,  will  soon 
receive  bids  for  furnishing  at  Navy  Yard, 
here,  under  Schedule  No.  1812,  Klinger  type, 
water  gage,  refiex  glasses  ;  under  Schedule 
No.  1808,  mechanical  thermometers,  mer- 
cury for  thermostats  thermometers,  4000 
common  mercurial  thermometers,  2000  wa- 
ter thermometers.  2000  maximum  and  mini- 
mum thermometers  and  1000  mercury, 
storage    battery    thermometers. 

N.  Y.,  Brooklyn — The  Bush  Terminal  Co.. 
100  Bway.,  New  York  City,  plans  to  build 
an  addition  to  its  local  transformer  sta- 
tion. 

N.  J.,  Hoboken — The  Remington  Arms  Co. 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection 
of  a  1  story,  81  x  160  ft.  factory,  to  the 
Austin  Co.,  16,112  Euclid  Ave.,  Cleveland. 
Ohio,  $40,000.  A  low  pressure  boiler  for 
steam  heat  will  be  installed  by  owner. 

N.  J.,  Jersey  City — The  Central  Railroad 
of  New  Jersey.  Communipaw  Ave.,  has  had 
"lans  prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  local 
power  house.  Estimated  cost,  $50,000.  A. 
E.  Owens,   New  York  City,   Ch.    Engr. 

N.  J..  Newark — The  Heller  and  Merz 
Co.,  Hamburg  Place,  will  soon  award  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  a  power  house. 
R.  G.  Corey,  39  Cortland  St.,  New  York 
City,   Archt.      Noted   May   14. 

N.  J.,  Newton — The  Su.ssex  Print  Works 
will  soon  award  the  contract  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  50  X  50  ft.  addition  to  its  power 
plant.  Estimated  cost,  $10,000.  A.  Kidd. 
Jr.,    95   Liberty   St.,   New  York  City,   Arch. 

N.  J.,  WoodbridEe — Bids  will  be  received 
until  June  3,  by  the  Township  Committee 
for  the  installation  of  a  heating  system  in 
its  new  municipal  building.  A.  Keyes, 
Clerk. 

Penn.,  McKeesport — The  McKeesport  Tin- 
plate  Co.  plans  to  install  a  steam  power 
plant  in  its  mills  here.  Estimated  cost, 
$1,200,000. 

Penn ,  Philadelphia — The  Bureau  of 
Yards  and  Docks,  Navy  Dept.,  Wash.,  D. 
C,  is  receiving  bids  for  the  erection  of 
a  new  power  plant  at  the  aircraft  factory 
on    League   Island. 

Wash.,  D.  C. — The  Bureau  of  Supplies 
and  Accounts,  Navy  Dept.,  Wash.,  D.  C. 
will  soon  receive  bids  for  furnishing  at 
various  Na\'y  Yards,  under  Schedule  No. 
1806,   steam   pressure  gages. 

Va.,  Norfolk — The  Bureau  Yards  and 
Docks,  Navy  Dept.,  Wash.,  D.  C,  is  hav- 
ing plans  prepared  for  the  installation  'of 
an  electric  lighting  and  power  system  in 
Shipbuilding  Slip  No.  1.  Estimated  cost, 
$15,000. 

W.  Va.,  Junior — The  Gage  Coal  and 
Coke  Co.  plans  to  install  a  150  k\v.  250-275 
volt  generator   in   its  mine. 

S.  C,  Charleston — The  Bureau  of  Sup- 
plies and  Accounts.  Na\'y  Dept.,  Wash., 
will  soon  receive  bids  for  furnishing  at 
Navy  Yard  here  under  Schedule  No.  1817, 
regular,  steam  and  water,  seamless  drawn, 
b. ass  pipe;  extra  strong,  steam  and  water, 
seamless  drawn,  brass  pipe  ;  regular  seam- 
less drawn  copper  pipe  ;  hard  drawn,  seam- 
less brass  tubing  in  commercial  lengths  and 
hard  drawn,  seamless  copper  tubing  in  com- 
mircial  lengths. 

Ga.,  Acwortli — The  Acworth  Hosi«»-y 
Mills  is  considering  plans  for  the  installa- 
tion of  electrically  driven  knitting  ma- 
chines.    Estimated  cost.   $10,000. 

Tenn.,  Lenoir  City — The  Public  Light  a^d 
Power  Co.  of  Chattanooga  plans  to  re- 
build its  electric  transmission  line  from 
here  to  Rockwood.  W.  R.  Stern,  Win- 
chester,  Mgr. 

Ohio.  Cincinnati — The  G.  B.  Curd  Co., 
602  Merchants  Library  BIdg..  plans  to 
build  a  1  story.  40  x  60  ft.  boiler  shop 
on   Highland   Ave. 


ArU.,  Helena — The  A.  M.  Richardson 
Lumber  Co..  recently  incorporated,  is  in  the 
market  for  power  plant  equipment. 

Tex.,  Brackettsville — The  City  plans  to 
extend  and  improve  its  electric  lighting 
plant. 

Tex.,  Knippa — C.  A.  Lindsay.  203-4th 
Natl.  Bank  Bldg.,  Wichita,  Kan.,  and  asso- 
ciates, are  having  preliminary  surveys  made 
for  a  hydro  electric  plant  and  an  irriga- 
tion system  on  the  Frio  River  near  hers. 

Tex.,  Mercedes — The  Mercedes  Water, 
Light  and  Power  Co.  is  in  the  market  for  a 
new  100   hp.  engine  and  new  generator. 

Okla.,  Miami — The  Lightfoot  Oil  and 
Mining  Co.  is  in  the  market  for  engines, 
boilers,  etc..  to  install  in  its  proposed  con- 
centration mil!  soon  to  be  erected.  Total 
estimated  cost,  $100,000.  W.  Lightfoot. 
Supt. 

Okla.,  Oklahoma — The  Chickasaw  Hosiery 
Mill  plans  to  build  a  large  plant.  Plans  in- 
clude the  installation  of  150  hp.  steam  and 
electric  power  plant,  etc. 

Okla.,  Prague — The  City  will  soon  award 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  22  mile 
transmission  line  south  and  west  of  here 
to  connect  with  the  system  of  the  Oklahoma 
Power  and  Transmission  Co.  The  work  in- 
cludes the  construction  of  a  sub-station  and 
the  installation  of  three  75  kva.  33,000  to 
2300  volt,  60  cycle,  single  phase,  trans- 
formers, two  500  gpm.,  220  ft.  lift,  direct 
connected,  motor  driven,  centrifugal  pumps, 
etc.     R.  Parks.  Mayor. 

Idaho,  Sandpoint — The  Falls  Creek  Min- 
ing Co.   plans  to  install  a  power  plant. 

Wash.,  Seattle — The  Northwest  Trading 
Co.,  L.  C.  Smith  Bldg.,  is  in  the  market  for 
electric  lighting  and  power  plant  equip- 
ment including  a  turbine  generating  set 
directly  connected,  a  three-phase,  6600  volts, 
5  cycles,  electrical  system,  etc. 

Wash,,  Waterville — The  Chelan  Falls 
Power  Co.  has  petitioned  the  Douglas 
County  Commissioners  for  authority  to 
build  a  transmission  line  here. 

Ore.,  Astoria — The  Hammond  Lumber  Co. 
plans  to  install  additional  electric  power 
equipment  including  a  turbine  and  generator 
and  four  600  hp.  water  tube  boilers. 

Ore.,  Portland — The  Pacific  Power  and 
Light  Co.  plans  to  build  a  660  volt,  3  phase 
transmission  line  from  here  to  the  plant,  of 
the  Utah  Idaho  Sugar  Co.  I.  C.  Martin. 
Engr. 

Ore.,  Reedsport — The  Umpqua  Light  and 
Power  Co.  is  having  preliminary  plans  pre- 
pared for  the  erection  of  a  transmission  line 
over  the  Umpqua  River. 

Calif.,  Bolinas — The  Chetco  Mining  Co 
plans  to  install  electrically  driven  pumping 
equipment  in  its  plant  here. 

N.  S..  New  Watford — The  Dominion  Coal 
Co.,  Sydney,  plans  extensive  power  develop- 
ments including  the  erection  of  a  central 
power  station  here. 

Que..  Grand  Mere — The  Laurentide  Power 
Co,  plans  to  install  3  additional  units. 
20,000  hp.  each.     J.  Ruddick,  Beaupre,  Engr. 

Ont.,  Sault  Ste.  Marie — The  Great  Lakes 
Power  Co.  plans  to  rebuild  its  power  plant 
which  was  recently  destroyed  by  fire.  A. 
E.   Pickering,  Mgr. 

Ont..  Thedford — The  Town  plans  to  in- 
stall a  lighting  and  power  system.  W. 
Brookes,  Clerk. 

Sask.,  Resina — The  City  is  in  the  market 
for  a  5000  kw.  electric  unit.  Estimated 
cost  between  $175,000  an  $200,000.  G. 
Beach,  Clerk. 

B.  C,  Revelstoke — The  Lanark  Mines  Co. 
plans  to  build  a  power  plant  and  install 
equipment  in  same.  W.  B,  Dornberg, 
Spokane,  Wash.,  Mgr. 

H.  T.,  Pearl  Harbor — The  Bureau  of 
Yards  and  Docks.  Navy  Dept.,  Wash.,  D.  C. 
is  having  plans  prepared  for  additions  a-'d 
improvements  to  the  power  plant  here.  Esti- 
mated cost,   $150,000. 

CONTRACTS  AWARDED 

Ohio,  Cleveland — The  Illuminating  Co., 
Illuminating  Bldg.,  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  1-story.  35  x  168 
ft.  addition  to  its  power  house  on  East  70th 
St.,  to  the  National  Concrete  and  Fireproof 
Co.,  1315  Citizens  Bldg.,  $60  000.  The 
owner  is  in  the  market  for  electric  equip- 
ment, switch  boards,  etc. 

Ohio.  Columbus — The  Board  of  Education 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  a  heating  and 
lighting  system  in  the  shop  school  wins,  t" 
the  HufEman-Conklin  Plumbing  Co..  669 
North  High  St..  Erie,  Penn.  Estimated  cost, 
$27,500. 

Okla.,  Miami — The  Mint  Mining  Co  is 
buildi*ig  a  concentration  plant.  Estin^^ited 
cost.  $100,000.  Work  includes  the  installa- 
tion of  boilers,  engines,  etc.  J.  Labsap, 
Supt. 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


Boston — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  de- 
livered Llon^side  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  ugo  are  as  follows: 


.ANTHRACITE 

Circular 
Current 

Individual 
Current 

Buckwheat    . 
Rite 

S4.60 

4  10 

$7.10 — 7.35 
6.65 — 6.90 

3.90 

Barley    

3.60 

BITUMINOUS 

6.15—6.40 

Bituminous  not    on    market. 

Pocohontas  and    New    River,    f.o.b.    Hampton 

Roads,   is   S4.  as  compared   with   S'2.85 — 2.00   a 
year  ag"0. 


*AU-rail  to  Boston  is  S2.60. 


tWater  coal. 


New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton 
i.o  b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports'  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 
Current  Current 

Pea    »4.90  $5.65 

Buckwheat    4.45@5.15  4.80@5.50 

Barley    .'t.40@.3.65  3.80@4.50 

Rice     :i.90@4.10  3.00@4.00 

Boiler    3.65  @ 3.90  

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c. 
higher. 

BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.     Mine 

Gross       Price  Net  GrosB 

Central    Pennsylvania. .  $5.06  $3.05  $3.41 
Maryland — 

Mine-run    4.84             2.85  3.19 

Prepared    5.06            5.05  3.41 

Screeningrs    4.50             2.55  2.85 

•The  lower  ports  are;  Ehzabethport,  Port  John- 
son. Port  Reading-,  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Am- 
boy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty.  Hobo 
ken.  Weehawken.  Edgrewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut 
tenberg-.  St.  George  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  line  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

^ Line s  ^ Tide % 

Cur-  One  Yr.        Cur-  One  Yr. 

rent  Ago            rent          Ago 

Pea    $3.45  $3.00        $4.36  $3.90 

Barley    2.15  1.50          2.40          1.75 

Buckwheat    ..    3.16  3.50          3.75          3.40 

Rice     2.65  2.00          3.65          3.00 

Boiler     2.45  1.80          3.55          2.90 


Chicago — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

Prepared    sizes..  .$2.65 — 2.80  $3.36 — 3.50 

Mine-run    2.40 — 2.55  3.10 — 3.25 

Screenings     3.16 — 2.30  2.85 — 3.00 

So.  111.,  Pocohontas.   Hocking.East 
Pennsylvania       Kentucky  and 
Smokeless  Coals   and  W.  Va.         West  Va.  Splint 
Prepared    sizes..  .$3.60 — 2.85  $3.85 — 3.35 

Mine-run 3.40 — 2.60  2.60 — 3.00 

Screenings     2.10^—2.55  2.35 — 2.75 

St.   i.onis — Prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  minei  are 
as  follows: 

Williamson  and  Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

6-in.  lump  ....$3.65-3.00  $2.65-2.80  $2.65-3.80 

2-in.   lump  ....    2.65-3.00  2.65-2.80  2.25-3.50 

Steam     egg 3.65-2.80  2.35-2.50  2.25-3.40 

Mme-run    3.45-2.60  3.45-2.60  3.45-3.60 

No.    1   nut 3.65-3.00  3.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

3  in.    screen 2.15-3.40  3.15-3.40  2.16-2.40 

No.  5  washed..    3.15-3.50  3.15-3.35  2.15-3.35 

Itirmtngham — Current  prices  per  net  ton  l.o.b. 

mines  are  as  follows: 


Lump    Slack  and 

&  Nut  Screeningi 

$2.15        $1.65 

3.40  1.90 

3.65  3.15 


Mine- 
Run 

Big  Seam $1.90 

Pratt.   Jagger.    Corona     2.15 
Bla^k  Creek.  Cahaba.      2.40 
Government  figures. 

Ii;dix'idual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  regular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions  Circular  prices  are 
generallv  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  aL>J  are  fixed  according  to  a  regular  schedule. 


Vol.  47 


POWER 


NEW  YORK,  JUNE  4,  1918 


i«f7 


No.  23 


The  Fellows  Who  Know 

By  RuFUS  T.  Strohm 

SADLY  enough,  in  this  era  of  trickery, 
Humans  are  trying  to  be  what  they're  not, 
Heedless  that  coffee  compounded  with  chicory 
Seldom  can  pass  through  the  test  of  the  pot. 
Thus,  though  pretenders  may  capture  the  galleries 

And  by  audacity  garner  the  dough. 
Still,  in  the  long  run,  the  choicest  of  salaries 
Drop  in  the  jeans  of  the  fellows  who  know. 

SOME  of  the  ignorant,  wantonly  venturing. 
Knowing  they're  either  dead  right  or  dead  wrong, 
Blind  to  the  danger  and  deaf  to  the  censuring, 

Trust  to  their  bluffing  to  help  them  along; 
Thus,  while  they're  constantly  fearful  and  quavering, 

Wondering  whether  they'll  stay  or  they'll  go. 
No  such  alarms  or  suspicions  of  wavering 
Trouble  the  lives  of  the  fellows  who  know. 

BLUFF  and  deception  may  win  temporarily, 
Leaving  Old  Honesty  far  in  the  rear. 
Still,  prudent  folks  will  consider  them  warily. 

Choosing  instead  to  be  strictly  sincere. 
No  reputations  of  worth  and  solidity 

Out  of  imposture  and  knavery  grow, 
Yet  recognition  with  pleasing  rapidity 

Comes  to  the  doors  of  the  fellows  who  know. 

GUESSWORK  is  weakness — a  sand  rope  whose  rottenness 
Millions  of  toilers  still  stupidly  try. 
Though  it  betrays  into  lasting  forgottcnness 

Those  who  so  foolishly  on  it  rely. 
Knowledge  is  power,  and  men  of  sagacity, 

Yearning  for  honors  the  world  can  bestow. 
Ceaselessly  striving  for  increased  capacity. 
Share  the  rewards  of  the  fellows  who  know. 


I 


iiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiitiiHMiiiiMiiiMfiDd riiMiiiitMitriiitiiKtiiiiiMitiiiimiitrirnnmintiiiniiiinniiiinniiiiiiiiiirnmTtinnm 


inninirmnnniiiiminntnitnTni-nimmtmniiHiMiiiiiiniiiiiitiMUiiimi 


788 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


toiler  Settings 
Chain  Grate  Stokers 

'       by  CMARLES    H.    BROMLEY 


AsiSocicite    editor   a-f    Pov^^en 


One  of  several  articles  on  boiler  settings  for  vari- 
ous boilers  and  types  of  stokers  most  suitable  for 
the  different  coals.  The  chief  purpose  of  the 
articles  is  to  assist  those  in  the  Middle  West  and 
Northwest  who  are  confronted  with  combustion 
problems  by  rcaso7i  of  the  zone  system  for  the 
distribution  of  bituminous  coal  enforced  by  the 
Fuel  Ad7ninistration.  Several  excellent  chain- 
grate  settings  are  shoiun  in  this  article. 


ONE  does  not  have  to  argue  the  adaptabiKty  of  the 
chain-grate  stoker  for  the  coals  of  the  Middle 
West  and  Northwest,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  Eastern  Interior  coals.  They  have  demonstrated 
it.  The  writer  does  not,  however,  indorse  the  statement 
that  this  type  alone  is  most  suitable  for  these  coals. 
This  claim  defied  refutation  until  recently  because  the 
underfeed  stoker  had  not  shown  what  it  could  do  with 
them.  The  chain  grate  is  admirably  suited  to  these 
coals  where  the  load  conditions  do  not  impose  boiler 
ratings  of  more  than  250  per  cent,  of  builders'  rating. 
The  chain  grate,  like  all  other  stokers,  frequently 
suffers  because  of  poorly  adapted  boiler  settings.  Some- 
times these  arc  unavoidable;  that  is,  in  places  where 
sufficient  headroom  is  not  available  for  raising  the 
boilers,  where  conditions  prohibit  lowering  the  stoker 
or  floor  line,  or  because  the  purchaser  is  obstinate  or 
wants  "something  nearly  as  good  for  less  money."  The 
builder,  therefore,  cannot  always  put  in  his  ideal  setting. 
The  seriousness  of  this  is  felt,  especially  during 
times  like  these  when  coals  of  considerably  poorer 
grades  than  those  for  which  the  setting  is  at  all  adapted 
find  their  way  into  th^  plant.     High  settings  with  cor- 


•For  previous  articles  see  tl\e  following-  is=:ues  "Power":  "Zone 
System  for  the  Distribution  of  Bituminous  Coal."  May  14  ;  Coals 
of  the  United  States."  May  21  ;  "Boiler  Settings,"  May  28. 


rect  arches  originally  installed,  avoid  troubles  due  to 
using  coals  of  widely  varying  volatile  content,  and  where 
high  combustion  rates  are  necessary  or  may  become  so. 

Some  excellent  chain-grate  settings  are  shown  here- 
with. Notice^that  no  secondary  arch  is  used  with  this 
particular  stoker,  the  arch  being  very  long.  Fig.  1 
shows  a  Stirling  boiler,  and  what  strikes  the  observer  as 
unusual  is  the  absence  of  a  secondary  arch,  simplifying 
construction,  though  not  appreciably  increasing  main- 
tenance charges. 

Where  secondary  arches  are  provided,  they  do  not 
always  exert  any  appreciable  effect,  at  least  upon  the 
incoming  coal,  owing  to  the  curtain  wall  between  the 
two  arches.  The  arch  in  Fig.  1  is  effective  over  the 
whole  fuel  bed.  This  is  important  where  smokelessness 
and  high  combustion  rates  are  needed,  because  with  a 
chain-grate  stoker  the  resistance  to  the  fuel  bed  is 
comparatively  small  and  the  thickness,  density  and  po- 
rosity of  the  fuel  bed  do  not  conduce  to  such  thorough 
mixture  of  air  and  gases  in  the  fuel  bed  as  with  an 
underfeed  fire,  high  combustion  rates  considered.  The 
arch  is,  of  course,  ventilated. 

The  height  of  a  Stirling  boiler  setting  is  taken  as  the 
distance  from  the  center  of  the  bottom  drum  to  the 
floor  line.  The  setting.  Fig.  1,  would  be  improved  for 
Middle  Western  coals  if  this  was  6  ft.  instead  of  5 
ft.,  as  shown.  Have  in  mind  that  this  applies  to  the 
chain  grate;  for  the  underfeed  stoker  it  should  be  at 
least  Ij  ft.  higher.  For  lignite  combustion  would  be 
improved  if  the  setting  were  not  less  than  8  ft.  The 
author  bases  this  opinion  upon  recent  performances  of 
underfeed  stokers  burning  lignite. 

Broadly,  it  may  be  said  that  the  tubes  of  a  Stirling 
boiler  should  always  be  exposed  to  the  direct  heat  of  the 
furnace  gases  and  fuel  bed.  In  fact,  it  is  the  writer's 
opinion  that  tubes  immediately  above  the  fire  should 
never  be  covered  with  C  tile  or  with  any  other  material 


June  4,  1918 


P  O  W  E  R 


789 


-■■>(< 6'-Sf- 


\ 


LX.^,^_-.V. 


FlC.    1.      KXCliLLENT    CllAlN-G  KATK    STOKJOll    SIOTTING    FOU  BolIJ'lUS  Ol''  STl  KLINC,  'I'YrK 
The  setting  would  be  improved  if  tlie  distance  between  centii-  of    luid   drum   and   fitHir  was  6  ft.   instead  ot   5   ft.      Notice   tlia 

secondary  arch  is  used. 


7D0 


P  0  V/  E  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  £3 


/3*Vh 


FI&.3 


FIGS.    2    .\XD   3.      CHAIX-OR.-VTE    .STOKER   .SETTINO.S,    BOILERS   HORIZOXT.^LLY   BAFFLED 
Fig.  2— The  objection  is  tliat  the  setting  is  too  low  and  thut  the  baffle   is  on   the  lowest   row   of   tubes.      Fig    3 — A   good   setting; 

notice  Ijattle  is  on  tile  fit'tii  row  of  tubes 


June  4,  1918 


POWER 


791 


that  completely  covers  them,  shutting  out  the  radiant 
heat  of  the  (ire.  This  applies  to  any  boiler.  Some 
tubes  should  be  exposed  to  the  direct  heat;  this  avoids 
excessive  tube  failures  and  better  distributes  the  evapo- 
ration per  square  foot  of  tube  surface  of  the  boiler. 

The  setting:  shown  in  Fig.  1  is  installed  in  a  famous 
soap  manufactory  in  Kansas  City,  Kan.  Notice  that  no 
water-back  is  used ;  bauxite  tile,  furnished  by  the  stoker 
builder,  is  provided.  The  number  referring  to  the 
bricks  denotes  the  trade  designation. 

Fig.  8  shows  an  excellent  setting  for  water-tube  boil- 
ers of  the  type  illustrated.  The  boiler  is  9  ft.  above  the 
floor,  insuring  large  combustion  volume.  Combustion 
would  be  improved  if  it  were  10  ft.,  and  for  lignite,  12 


any  boiler  of  this  general  type.  All  the  important 
dimensions  are  given. 

Where  lignite  or  slack  high  in  moisture  is  to  be 
burned  on  a  chain  grate,  the  reflecting  arch  is  to  be  rec- 
ommended. Some  excellent  settings  using  these  arches, 
the  function  of  which  is  to  throw  the  flame  forward  so 
that  the  heat  may  assist  in  evaporating  the  moisture 
from  the  coal  as  the  latter  comes  onto  the  grate,  were 
shown  in  Poiuer  for  Apr.  2,  1918,  p.  472,  and  Apr.  30, 
1018,  p.  611. 

The  Standardization  Committee  of  the  Smoke  Preven- 
tion Associations  recently  recommended  the  following: 

Water-tube  boilers  are  constructed  of  tubes  having  1  in. 
pitch  to  the  foot,  1%  in.  pitch  to  the  foot  and  3^/4  in.  pitch 


FIG.    4.     AN     11-FT.     SETTING    FOR    HIGH-VOL.\TILE    CQAL. 

ft.  The  arch  is  the  same  as  in  Fig.  1.  The  bottom  tile 
is  on  the  fifth  row  of  tubes.  This  seems  a  little  high; 
but  it  is  probable  that  there  will  soon  be  a  universal 
abandonment  of  tile  on  the  very  bottom  row.  It  is  the 
writer's  belief  that  the  boiler  manufacturers  would  wel- 
come this  change.  Fig.  2  shows  a  setting  for  a  hori- 
zontal baffle  boiler  with  the  tile  on  the  bottom  row  of 
tubes. 

The  setting  in  Fig.  4,  for  a  vertical  baffled  boiler,  is 
good  practice.  The  boiler  is  set  high,  being  11  ft.  above 
the  floor,  and  the  arch  and  bridge-wall  insure  a  fairly 
good  mixture  of  air  and  combustible  gases. 

The  baffling  is  designed  to  give  an  approximately 
uniform  gas  velocity  throughout  the  entire  flame  travel. 
The  setting  is  adapted  for  any  Middle  Western  coal. 
Notice  that  the  flame  plunges  directly  among  the  tubes 
from  the  incandescent  zone.  The  high  setting  permits 
of  this,  but  only  a  high  setting  permits  of  i' 

Fig.  5  shows  a  good  setting  for  an  Erie  City  boiler  or 


.i4'.^^< ->| 

FIG.   5.      FOli    ERIK   CITY   AND    SIMILAR   BOILERS 

to  the  foot.  Chain  grates  are  of  two  kinds,  the  horizontal 
and  the  inclined  grate,  and  the  height  of  the  boiler  setting 
is  determined  from  tlie  vertical  line  immediately  back  of 
the  front  boiler  header  to  the  water-back  of  the  stoker.  This 
distance  we  propose  as  being  five  feet,  and  means  that 
the  water-back  is  located  five  feet  back  of  the  inner  side 
of  the  front  header.  Three  feet  in  fi'ont  of  the  water- 
back  a  line  is  drawn  that  measures  seven  feet  from  the 
under  side  of  the  lower  tube  [row  of  tubes?]  to  the  top  of 
the  grate.  This  standardizes  all  chain-grate  stokers  on  all 
liorizontal  water-tube  boilers,  and  is  applicable  to  all  set- 
tings requiring  only  .'iO  per  cent,  overload.  [50  per  cent, 
more  than  builders'  rating?]  If  larger  overloads,  such  as 
200  or  2.'j0  per  tent,  rating,  are  required,  this  line  should 
be  extended  about  three  feel. 

The  dimensions  given  will  be  found  satisfactory  for 
the  coals  of  the  Middle  West,  but  it  is  probable  that  for 
lignite  the  settings  should  be  2  ft.  higher.  Experience 
indicates  that  lignite  needs  extraordinarily  high  setting. 

If  the  moisture  is  15  per  cent,  or  more,  a  reflecting 


792 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


arch,  after  the  fashion  of  Fig.  6,  will  be  found  a  valu- 
able aid  to  combustion,  as  such  an  arch  sweeps  the 
flame  forward,  evaporating  the  moisture  in  the  coking 
region,  thus  avoiding  serious  loss  of  temperature  at  the 
surface  of  the  fuel  bed.  In  Fig.  6  A  shows  the  arch 
applied  to  a  step-grate  stoker,  J5  to  a  chain-grate  stoker. 


no.   6.     REFLECTING    ARCHES    FOR    LIGNITE    AND    HIGH 

MOISTURE    CO/LS    SUGGESTED    BY    KREISINGER    OF   THE 

BUREAU  OF  MINES  ;  A,  STEP-GRATE  ;  B.  CHAIN  GRATE 

Fig.  7  shows  a  .setting  recently  developed  by  the 
American  Radiator  Co.  for  burning  lignite  in  heating 
boilers.  Notice  there  are  no  grates,  that  the  coal  feeds 
down  when  a  shovelful  or  two  of  ash  is  removed.  The 
writer  does  not  have  any  performance  data  on  this  set- 
ting, but  it  may  suggest  something  to  those  interested 
in  furnace  design  for  lignite  under  power  boilers.  The 
distribution  of  air  is  interesting. 

Condenser  Was  Full  of  Ammonia 

By  T.  T.  Grover 

After  having  operated  without  trouble  for  two  years, 
a  small  packing-house  refrigerating  plant  showed  ex- 
cessive head  pressure.  The  trouble  started  in  the  early 
spring  while  the  condensing  water,  which  was  taken 
from  a  river,  was  something  like  38  deg.  It  was  evident 
that  if  the  pressure  was  more  than  normally  high  at 
this  time,  it  would  practically  render  the  plant  inoper- 
ative in  summer  when  the  water  temperature  went  up 
to  80  to  85  degrees. 

The  plant  had  been  superficially  overhauled  during 
the  winter,  and  the  condenser  coils,  which  were  of  the 
atmospheric  type,  had  been  scraped  and  the  scale  re- 
moved. The  only  reasonable  conclusion  was  that  consid- 
erable air  had  been  drawn  into  the  system  during  the 


overhauling  and  the  operators  forthwith  proceeded  to 
purge  the  condenser. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  ammonia  charge  had 
disappeared ;  the  condenser  pressure  remained  nearly  as 
high  as  before  and  gradually  got  higher  as  the  water 
temperature  increased. 

The  heavy  summer  load  was  coming  on,  and  the  oper- 
ators were  at  their  wits  end  as  to  what  to  do  about  it. 
Finally  it  was  concluded  that  the  only  remedy  was  to 
increase  the  condenser  capacity  by  adding  more  stands 
to  the  ten  already  in  service.  Before  deciding  on  this 
point,  however,  the  chief  called  in  the  writer  to  investi- 
gate the  problem  and  if  necessary  add  more  weight  to 
the  request  for  a  larger  condenser  when  it  was  put  up  to 
the  management. 

After  purging  the  condenser  once  more  and  testing 
the  pressure  gages  and  doing  everything  else  that  I 
could  think  of,  the  head  pressure  still  remained  much 
too  high.  After  roughly  estimating  the  amount  of  gas 
handled  by  the  condenser,  I  found  that  it  was  doing 
only  about  two-thirds  of  its  normal  capacity,  based  on 
the  manufacturer's  rating  and  from  my  experience. 

I  went  over  the  condenser  a  second  time,  putting  my 
hand  on  each  stand  to  see  if  all  the  coils  were  working — 
something  I  had  neglected  to  do  the  first  time.  To  my 
surprise  one-half  of  them  were  at  the  temperature  of 
the  condensing  water.    This  pointed  to  the  coils  being 


FIG.   7. 


FURNACE    FOR    BURNING    LIGNITE    IN    HEATING 
BOILERS:    NO   GRATES   ARE    USED 


airbound,   and   I   at   once   got   busy   and   purged   them 
again. 

To  my  surprise  there  was  practically  no  sign  of  air; 
after  it  had  been  blowing  for  a  few  seconds,  there  was 
the  unmistakable  crackling  of  the  water  in  the  barrel 
that  I  was  purging  the  coils  into,  that  is  always  an  in- 


Juno  -1,  1!)18 


P  O  W  E  K 


793 


dication  that  mainly  all  ammonia  is  coming  from  the 
coil  that  is  purged.  It  had  no  effect  on  the  condenser 
pressure.  Evidently,  it  was  not  air  or  foul  gases  in  the 
condenser  that  was  causing  the  trouble.  Furthermore, 
if  there  was  no  air  in  the  coils,  it  was  a  foregone  con- 
clusion that  they  were  full  to  the  top  with  liquid,  as 
otherwise  the  dead  coils  would  have  been  of  the  same 
temperature  as  the  others. 

The  only  logical  explanation  was  that  the  outlet  from 
the  coils  to  the  liquid  line  was  blocked  in  some  way,  and 
this  assumption  was  not  unreasonable  after  I  investi- 
gated the  connections  at  the  bottom  where  each  coil  con- 
nected to  the  liquid  line.  The  coils  of  the  condenser 
were  made  up  of  2-in.  pipe,  and  at  the  bottom,  where 
they  connected  to  the  liquid  line,  this  had  been  reduced 
to  h-in.  by  means  of  a  reducing  elbow.  Evidently,  scale 
or  other  foreign  matter  had  accumulated  in  the  coil  and 
collected  at  the  reduced  point  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
entirely  block  the  passage. 

The  remedy  was  quite  simple.  I  shut  off  all  the  dead 
coils  at  both  ends  and  pumped  them  out  until  the  pres- 
sure was  dovra  to  atmosphere.  The  rest  of  the  system 
was  pumped  down  so  that  when  the  dead  coils  finally 
were  pumped  down  to  near  atmospheric  pressure,  there 
was  about  225  lb.  pressure  on  the  coils  that  were  work- 
ing. Leaving  the  pump-out  connection  to  the  dead  coils 
open  and  the  valve  on  the  discharge  end  of  the  coils 
shut,  I  quickly  opened  the  valve  in  the  connection  be- 
tween the  coil  and  liquid  line  for  a  few  moments.  This 
put  a  pressure  of  about  225  lb.  on  the  blocked  section 
and  in  the  reverse  direction  of  the  normal  flow,  and  it 
cleared  it  immediately  as  was  evidenced  by  the  coil 
frosting  at  once  and  the  suction  pressure  "taking  a 
jump." 

When  the  plant  was  settled  down  to  normal  opera- 
tion again,  the  head  pressure  was  down  to  125  lb.  as 
against  175  lb.  Also,  there  was  an  abundant  supply  of 
ammonia.  With  the  coils  blocked,  the  liquid  had  accu- 
mulated in  the  coils  every  time  they  had  been  purged 
until  they  probably  were  full  up  to  the  top  at  the  time 
the  trouble  was  discovered.  At  first,  when  there  was 
considerable  air  in  the  condenser,  this  accumulated  in 
the  dead  coils  and  prevented  a  large  accumulation  of 
liquid,  but  as  this  was  gradually  blown  out,  the  coil's 
slowly  filled  up,  and  this  explained  the  gradual  disap- 
pearance of  the  ammonia. 

Power   Loss   in   Waterwheel    Pit 

By  David  R.  Shearer 

Scattered  throughout  the  country  there  are  numerous 
small  water-power  developments  representing  practically 
every  type  or  design  of  waterwheel,  operating  under 
various  conditions.  Some  of  these  installations  are 
equipped  with  all  the  refinements  of  engineering  prac- 
tice, while  others  are  nothing  more  than  crude  make- 
shifts. 

Considered  from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  in 
power  production  about  90  per  cent,  of  these  plants 
show  one  serious  fault — a  fault  not  easily  corrected  in 
existing  installations,  though  easily  obviated  at  the  time 
of  installation.  This  is  "water  reaction"  in  the  wheelpit 
under  the  turbine,  which  may  decrease  the  hydraulic 
efficiency  to  a  marked  extent.    In  many  cases  the  trouble 


is  caused  by  not  allowing  a  sufficient  depth  of  dead 
water  directly  under  the  draft  tube  of  the  wheel,  or  it 
may  be  caused  by  the  inadetiuate  size  of  the  wheelpit 
or  tailrace. 

To  secure  the  maximum  efficiency  from  a  water- 
wheel, it  is  necessary  that  the  flow  of  water  from  the 
draft  tube  and  through  the  tailrace  should  be  slow  and 
quiet,  somewhat  as  shown  in  Fig  1.  The  water  level  in 
the  wheelpit  should  also  be  at  practically  the  same  point 
of  elevation  as  the  tail  water  of  the  stream  into  which 
it  discharges.     A  loss  of  even  a  few  inches  head  in  the 


DR/trr 

TUB£ 


EFFICIENT    SETTING 


TAIL 

WATER 


tailrace  may  seriously  affect  the  power  of  a  low-head 
development.  Frequently,  the  utmost  care  is  used  to 
conserve  all  the  available  head  above  the  wheel  and  then 
a  serious  loss  is  allowed  to  occur  in  the  tailrace  or 
wheelpit. 

Some  months  ago  a  small  hydro-electric  plant  was 
tested  to  determine  what  had  caused  a  marked  decrease 
in  the  available  power.  The  head  was  eleven  feet  and  the 
wheel  was  supposed  to  develop  about  150  hp.,  but  at  the 
time  of  the  test  the  maximum  output  was  only  about 
100  horsepower. 

After  some  investigation  it  was  found  that  a 
recent  flood  had  partly  filled  the  wheel  pit  with  gravel 
and  had  so  choked  the  tailrace  that  eighteen  inches  of 
the  original  head  was  lost.  In  this  case  the  remedy  was 
easy,  for  it  was  only  necessary  to  clean  out  the  gravel 
to  the  bedrock  in  order  to  secure  normal  power.  How- 
ever, in  many  small  plants  the  original  excavation  has 
not  been  carried  to  a  proper  depth,  as  in  Fig.  2,  and  the 
water  is  choked  at  the  end  of  the  draft  tube  and  boils 
forth   like  a   small   geyser,   dissipating   in   this   watery 

IMPKOPER  SETT/N6 


Virtua/  Ta//  Wcrfer  Leve/ in  Drcrff  Tube  ,    1 

Wcrfer  Level  in  Wheel Pif       ^-^  ' 
VL  PACE  ' 


^;..^jf^'>^r^-™'t<~\XV\-W^N. 


Fin.    2.      TAILRAOIO  TOO   SHALLOW   .■W'T)   SM.M.I. 

ebullition  much  of  the  energy  which  should  be  given 
to  the  wheel  and  turned  to  practical  purposes. 

At  this  particular  time,  when  all  the  water  power  is 
urgently  needed  to  save  coal,  it  is  of  vital  importance 
that  erticiency  investigations  be  made  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  how  to  increase  power  production  and  that 
corrections  be  applied  where  possible.  Some  slight 
changes  in  the  wheelpit  or  tailrace  at  little  expense  may 
add  considerably  to  the  output  of  the  plant. 


794 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


Emergency  Fleet  Engines 


THE  attack  of  German  submarines  on  the  shipping 
of  the  allied  and  neutral  countries  has  resulted  in 
the  sinking  of  a  large  number  of  cargo  steamers, 
the  lost  tonnage  of  which  must  be  made  good.  Because 
of  these  losses  and  the  advisability  of  getting  the  great- 
est efficient  movement  from  the  available  tonnage,  the 
United  States  Shipping  Board  has  complete  charge  of 
all  the  merchant  ships  afloat  flying  the  American  flag. 
The  American  Fleet  Corporation  is  a  subsidiary  of 
the  United  States  Shipping  Board,  and  its  duty  is  to 
build  ships.  As  a  result  of  the  Shipping  Board  activities, 
it  has  the  supervision  of  the  output  of  more  than  150 
shipyards  throughout  the  United  States,  which  are  all 
engaged  in  the  greatest  shipbuilding  program  that  any 
nation  has  ever  undertaken.  Some  of  the  ships  laid  down 
in  these  yards  are  completed,  others  are  nearing  com- 
pletion, and  the  next  few  months  will  bring  about  the 
launching  of  a  large  number  of  merchant  ships  that  will 
be  engaged  in  carrying  supplies  for  our  own  and  our 
allied  soldiers.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  under  direction 
of  the  Shipping  Board  there  have  already  been  launched 
something  like  236  steel  and  wooden  vessels,  with  ag- 
gregate tonnage  of  1,440,627.  There  are  now  operat- 
ing 157  shipyards  with  753  ways  in  use,  with  a  pre- 
dicted launching  of  four  ships  per  day. 


Engineers  are  interested  in  the  general  type  of  engine 
that  is  to  be  used  in  these  ships  that  are  being  built. 
One  of  the  fore  and  aft  triple-expansion  engines,  built 
by  the  Buckeye  Engine  Co..  Salem,  illustrated  herewith, 
shows  the  general  arrangement,  the  line  cut  showing  a 
front  and  end  view.  It  is  of  700  hp.  capacity  and  has 
a  15A-in.  diameter  high-pressure  cylinder,  a  26-in.  inter- 
mediate and  a  44-in.  low-pressure  cylinder.  The  stroke 
is  26  in.  Piston  valves  are  to  be  used  on  all  cylinders 
and  are  7,\t,  14-|\r  and  15  in.  in  diameter  respectively, 
and  are  3  ft.  },":  in.  long. 

The  columns  on  which  the  cylinders  are  secured  are  7 
ft.  1  in.  high  and  are  7  ft.  wide  at  the  base.  The  frame 
consists  of  a  front  and  back  column,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
This  front  column  is  41  in.  in  diameter  and  the  back 
column  is  an  A-shaped  form  when  looked  at  from  the 
forward  end.     These  columns  carrj^  the  guide  bars. 

As  is  common  practice,  the  crank  rod  and  eccentric 
rod  are  made  with  the  well-known  type  of  boxes.  The 
crankpins  are  84  in.  and  the  wristpins  4i  in.  in  diam- 
eter. The  shaft  is  8 IS  in.  in  diameter,  and  the  cranks 
are  placed  at  120  deg.  apart. 

Two  engines,  port  and  starboard,  will  be  the  equip- 
ment of  each  ship  in  most  instances  in  which  these  en- 
gines are  placed. 


June  4,  191 S 


POWER 


795 


•'•***'  -'-"!lt"WtM 


796 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — Characteristic 
Curves  of  Compound  Generators 


The  voltage  characteristics  of  compound  gener- 
ators under  varying  loads,  the  method  of  adjust- 
ing the  series  windings  to  obtain  the  correct 
amount  of  compounding,  also  the  long-shunt  and 
short-shunt  connections,  are  discussed. 

WITH  a  series  winding  on  the  polepieces  along 
with  a  shunt  winding,  as  in  the  compound  gen- 
erators, P'ig.  3,  the  load-voltage  curve  will  to  a 
certain  extent  be  a  combination  of  the  shunt  character- 
istic curve.  Fig.  2,  and  the  series  curve.  Fig.  8,  in  the 
previous  lesson,  issue  of  May  21.  In  the  compound-con- 
nected machine,  Fig.  3,  current  is  flowing  through  ths 
shunt-field  winding  only,  and  this  is  adjusted  by  the 


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portion  the  series-field  winding  so  that  it  will  just 
compensate  for  the  drop  in  the  armature  circuit.  A 
further  consideration  of  the  curve.  Fig.  1,  will  show 
that  this  is  impossible.  If  point  A  indicates  the  no- 
load  voltage  and  point  B  the  volts  generated  in  the 
armature  at  full  load,  point  C,  half-way  between  A  and 
B,  will  indicate  the  volts  at  half  load.  But  from  A  to  C 
the  voltage  has  increased  from  110  to  120,  whereas  from 
i?  to  C  it  has  only  increased  from  120  to  124,  or  4  volts, 
against  10  on  the  first  half  of  the  load.  The  volts  drop 
in  the  armature  is  proportional  to  the  amperes,  conse- 
quently if  full-load  current  causes  a  drop  of  14  volts, 
then  half  full-load  current  will  cause  7  volts  drop."  But 
with  half  full-load  current  flowing  in  the  series-field 
winding,  in  this  case,  it  caused  10  volts  increase,  there- 
fore, the  voltage  at  the  brushes  is  3  volts  higher  than 


110 
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field  rheostat  to  give  normal  voltage  at  the  armature 
terminals.  When  a  load  is  connected  to  the  machine,  as 
in  Fig.  4,  the  current  p.issing  through  the  armature  will 
tend  to  cause  the  voltage  at  the  brushes  to  decrease, 
but  the  total-load  current  flowing  through  the  series 
winding  will  increase  the  strength  of  the  magnetic  field 
and  cause  a  greater  voltage  to  be  produced  to  compen- 
sate for  the  drop  in  the  armature  and  series-field  wind- 
ing. If  we  assume  that  the  machine  is  normally  gen- 
erating 110  volts  at  no  load,  the  density  of  the  magnetic 
circuit  would  correspond  to  point  A  on  the  magnetiza- 
tion curve,  Fig.  1.  When  the  machine  is  carrying  full 
load,  if  the  current  flowing  in  the  series-field  winding 
increases,  the  magnetic  density  to  correspond  to  point  B 
on  the  cui-ve,  then  the  armature  will  be  generating  about 
124  volts ;  that  is,  the  voltage  generated  in  the  armature 
has  increased  from  110  to  124,  or  14  volts.  Now,  if 
the  volts  drop  in  the  armature,  from  no  load  to  full- 
load,  is  only  14,  then  the  volts  at  the  armature  termi- 
nals at  full  load  will  be  the  same  as  at  no  load. 

At  first  thought  it  may  seem  an  easy  matter  to  pro- 


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100    lEO     WO     160    160    £00  ££0   £40  £60 


FIG.    1.      DIRECT-CURREXT  GENERATOR  VOLTAGE   CURVE       FIG 


COMPOUND-GE.XER.\TC)R     LOAD-VOLTAGE     CURVE 


at  no  load  What  has  really  happened  to  the  voltage  of 
the  compound  generator  from  no  load  to  full  load  is 
indicated  in  curve  B,  Fig.  2,  assuming  200  amperes  full 
load.  Here  it  is  shown  that  although  the  voltage  is 
the  same  at  full  load  as  at  no  load,  nevertheless,  it  has 
not  been  constant  between  these  points,  increasing  in 
value  during  the  first  half  of  the  load  and  then  decreas- 
ing to  normal  again  during  the  last  half.  Further- 
more, it  is  not  possible  to  design  a  compound  generator 
that  has  a  constant  voltage  from  no  load  to  full  load. 
However,  conditions  similar  to  that  indicated  by  curve 
B,  Fig.  2,  can  be  approximated. 

A  compound  generator  that  develops  the  same  voltage 
at  full  load  as  at  no  load  is  said  to  be  flat-compounded. 
It  is  possible,  by  proportioning  the  shunt-  and  series- 
field  winding,  to  design  a  compound  machine  where  the 
voltage  will  increase  from  no  load  to  full  load,  as 
indicated  by  curve  A,  Fig.  2.  For  example,  we  assume 
that  the  full-load  current  causes  14  volts  drop  in  the 
armature.  Now,  if  the  current  flowing  through  the 
series-field  winding  caused  a  20-volt  increase  in  the 


June  4,  1918 


POWER 


797 


armature,  then  the  voltage  at  the  armature  terminals 
will  be  20  —  14  =  6  volts  higher  at  full  load  than  at 
no  load.  When  the  voltage  of  a  compound  generator 
increases  from  no  load  to  full  load,  the  machine  is  said 
to  be  over-compounded. 

On  the  other  hand,  suppose  that  when  full-load  cur- 
rent is  flowing  in  the  series-field  winding  it  caused  only 
8'  volts  increase;  then,  since  there  is  14-volts  drop  in 
the  windings  at  full  load  and  only  eight  of  these  volts 
are  compensated  for,  the  pressure  will  decrease  at  the 
brushes,  14  —  8  =:  6  volts.  Such  a  condition  is  repre- 
sented by  curve  C,  Fig.  2.  A  compound  generator  the 
voltage  of  which  decreases  from  no  load  to  full  load  is 
known  as  being  under-compounded. 

Another  feature  in  obtaining  the  proper  amount  of 
compounding  of  the  generator  is  the  proper  number  of 
turns  in  the  series  winding.  This  winding  in  the  large- 
sized  machine  is  made  of  a  heavy  copper  bar,  as  in 
Fig.  5,  therefore,  the  terminals  will  have  to  come  out 
on  opposite  sides,  so  that  the  connection  can  be  made 


of  a  machine  it  is  found  to  give  the  proper  amount  of 
compounding,  that  3.8  turns  will  be  required  in  the 
series  winding  In  this  the  designer  has  the  choice  of 
using  only  3.5  turns  and  having  the  machine  slightly 
under-compounded,  or  using  4.5  turns  and  over-com- 
pounding the  machine.  The  latter  is  the  best  course 
for  several  reasons.  Due  to  imperfections  in  the  mate- 
rials and  workmanship,  the  machine  may  vary  some- 
what from  what  was  expected  of  it.  In  fact,  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  build  two  machines  after  the 
same  design  and  from  the  same  lot  of  stock  and  have 
them  both  possess  the  same  characteristics.  Therefore, 
it  is  good  policy  to  use  a  liberal  design  in  the  series- 
field  winding,  since  there  is  a  simple  means  for  adjust- 
ing the  ampere-turns  of  this  winding  when  the  machine 
is  over-compounded.  This  consists  of  connecting  what 
is  known  as  a  compounding  shunt  directly  across  the 
series-winding  terminals,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

After  the  machine  is  built  and  in  operation  in  the 
shop,  a  test  is  made  to  find  out  the  amount  of  resistance 


n<5.3 


£'110  S 

1    LOAD 

\mmr 


COMPOUND-GENERATOR  CONNECTIONS  AND   SERIES-FIELD  COIL, 


PIGS.   3  TO  6. 

Fig.   3 — Diagram  of  Compound  Generator.     Fig.   4 — Diagram  of  Compound   Generato:-  Connected   to   Load.      Fig.    5 — Large-Capacity 
Series-Field   Coil.      Fig.   6 — Compound   Generator  Showing  Location  of  Compounding  Shunt 


conveniently  between  the  coils.  This  means  that  the 
minimum  number  of  turns  in  the  coil  must  be  1.5. 
Then,  to  maintain  the  proper  position  of  the  coil's 
terminals  the  number  of  turns  will  have  to  be  1.5,  2.5, 
3.5,  etc.  One-half  turn  in  the  series-field  winding  at 
first  thought  may  not  seem  to  be  of  any  serious  import- 
ance. However,  when  it  is  considered  that  in  a  200- 
kw.  110-volt  machine  the  normal  full-load  current  is 
approximately  2000  amperes,  and  this  current  flowing 
through  one-half  turn  gives  1000  ampere-turns,  the 
effect  that  only  a  small  fraction  of  a  turn  in  the  series 
winding  will  have  upon  the  voltage  of  such  a  machine 
at  once  becomes  apparent. 

Here  again,  in  the  design  of  the  series  winding,  it 
is  impossible,  except  by  a  coincidence,  that  the  correct 
number  of  turns  can  be  obtained.  The  result  is  that 
as  the  series-field  winding  is  designed  on  most  com- 
pound generators,  the  machine  is  over-compounded. 

For  example,  assume  that  in  working  out  the  design 


that  must  be  connected  across  the  series-field  terminals 
to  give  the  required  compounding,  and  then  a  shunt  is 
made  for  this  purpose  and  connected  to  the  terminals 
of  the  series  winding.  Then,  instead  of  all  the  load  cur- 
rent passing  through  the  series  winding,  only  part  of 
it  does,  depending  upon  the  resistance  of  the  shunt.  If 
the  full-load  current  of  the  machine  is  1000  amperes  and 
only  800  amperes  are  required  to  compensate  for  the 
volts  drop  in  the  series  and  armature  windings,  at  full 
load,  then  the  shunt  is  made  to  have  a  resistance  four 
times  as  great  as  that  of  the  series  winding,  so  that 
when  it  is  connected  in  parallel  with  the  series  wind- 
ing one  part  of  the  current  will  pass  through  the  shunt 
and  four  parts  through  the  series  winding,  or  any  de- 
gree of  over-compounding  may  be  obtained  up  to  the 
maximum  by  increasing  the  resistance  of  the  shunt. 
Direct-current  generators  have  been  built  for  railway 
work  in  which  the  voltage  increased  from  500  at  no 
load  to  550  at  full  load,  this  increase  in  voltage  being 


798 


P  0  W  E  R— Section 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


used  to  compensate  for  the  volts  drop  in  the  feeders. 
In  passing,  attention  may  be  called  to  the  way  that 
the  shunt-field  windings  are  connected.  In  Figs.  3  and 
4  the  shunt  winding  is  connected  directly  to  the  arma- 
ture terminals.  This  is  known  as  a  short-shunt  con- 
nection. In  Fig.  6  the  shunt  winding  is  connected 
directly   across   the  series   winding   and   armature   in 

/  "3.003 


R=l?.000 

i<:p^\  voltmeter 


KK;.    7.      VOLTMETKR     CONNKCTED    ACROSS     SECTIUN     OF 
RESISTANCE 

series,  so  that  in  this  case  the  shunt-field  current  passes 
through  the  series  winding  also.  This  is  known  as  a 
long-shunt  connection.  Since  the  shunt-field  current  is 
only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  total  load  of  the 
machine,  it  is  evident  that  it  makes  little  difference 
•which  connection  is  used,  the  choice  being  more  a  mat- 
ter of  convenience  than  anything  else. 

Fig.  7  gives  the  layout  of  the  first  problem  in  the 
last  lesson.  This  problem  is  solved  by  Ohm's  law.  The 
current    flowing   through    a   voltmeter    is    in   all    cases 


equal  to  the  volts  impressed  across  its  terminals  divided 
by  its  resistance,  or  in  this  case  equals  36  -h-  12,000  = 
0.003  ampere.  The  resistance  of  the  section  of  the 
circuit  that  the  voltmeter  is  connected  across  is  equal 
to  the  volts  drop  across  the  section  (the  voltmeter 
reading),  divided  by  the  current,  or  36  -^  3.6  =  10 
ohms.  The  total  current  in  the  remaining  part  of  the 
circuit  will  be  that  taken  by  the  voltmeter  and  that 
flowing  in  the  section  the  voltmeter  connects  to,  or 
0.003  +  3.6  =  3.603  amperes. 

The  second  problem  was,  if  the  resistance  of  a  volt- 
meter is  15,000  ohms  and  when  connected  across  a  given 
circuit  0.01  ampere  flows  through  it,  does  the  instru- 
ment indicate  the  correct  voltage  of  the  circuit  if  the 
needle  points  to  140  on  the  scale? 

In  all  cases  the  correct  reading  of  a  voltmeter  is 
equal  to  the  resistance  of  the  instrument  times  the 
current  passing  through  it,  in  this  problem,  15,000  X 
0.01  =  150  volts.  In  this  case  the  instrument  reads 
140;  therefore,  it  is  indicating  150  —  140  ^  10  volts 
low. 

A  given  compound  generator  develops  125  volts  at  no 
load,  the  armature  and  its  external  connection  has 
0.075  ohm  resistance,  the  series  field  winding  0.045 
ohm.  Neglecting  the  effect  of  the  load  upon  the  shunt 
field,  what  will  be  the  voltage  across  the  armature 
terminals  at  a  150-ampere  load,  also  across  the  line 
terminals,  if  the  load  current  of  150  amperes  through 
the  series  winding  causes  the  armature  to  generate  20 
volts  more  than  at  no  load? 


A  Day  With  the  Refrigerating  Troubleman 


By  E.  W.   miller 


The,  troubleman  takes  the  reader  along  on  two 
hurry  calls  for  help  from  plants  where  the  re- 
frigerating machines  refuse  to  properly  perform 
the  work. 


A  REFRIGERATING  plant  of  15  tons  capacity  had 
/\  been  installed  in  a  large  department  store.  The 
X  A-equipment  for  the  building  was  electrically 
driven,  and  the  heat  was  supplied  from  an  adjoining 
building;  so  the  plant  was  operated  by  the  electricians. 
After  the  refrigerating  plant  was  installed,  a  man  was 
left  with  the  chief  electrician  for  a  short  while. 

A  month  after  the  man  had  left,  we  received  a  rush 
order  from  the  chief  electrician  to  come  at  once;  the 
crankshaft  of  the  machine  had  been  broken.  It  was 
plainly  not  a  case  of  defective  material.  I  asked  the 
chief  electrician  what  had  taken  place,  and  he  ap- 
peared to  be  as  much  in  the  dark  as  I  about  it.  He 
said  he  was  out  of  the  engine  room  at  the  time  of  the 
accident  and  when  he  came  in  the  belt  was  on  the  floor 
and  the  machine  had  stopped. 

I  was  unable  to  find  anything  wrong,  and  to  keep 
peace  in  the  family  we  sent  out  another  crankshaft. 
This  was  in  the  latter  part  of  February.  About  the 
middle  of  April  we  received  another  complaint  from  this 
plant.  I  was  sent  out  again,  and  this  time  the  elec- 
trician informed  me  that  he  could  not  maintain  the 
required  temperatures  in  the  various  rooms. 


I  first  turned  my  attention  to  the  compressor,  with 
which,  of  course,  I  was  thoroughly  familiar.  Judging 
from  the  sound  of  the  valves,  the  load  indicated  by  the 
wattmeter  and  the  suction  and  discharge  pressures,  I 
was  sure  that  the  compressor  was  not  to  blame. 

The  compressor  was  running  very  hot;  the  suction 
line  was  bare,  and  there  was  not  a  sign  of  frost  as 
far  back  as  where  the  line  passed  out  through  the  wall 
to  the  coolers.  The  condenser  pressure  was  lower  than 
I  would  expect  for  the  temperature  and  speed  of  the 
compressor,  and  the  suction  pressure  was  also  low  for 
the  temperatures  carried  in  the  coolers,  which  were 
liberally  piped. 

On  entering  the  cooler  room,  I  found  that  the  coils 
were  only  slightly  frosted;  the  sharp  frost  line  that  is 
always  present  on  an  expansion  valve  that  is  working 
properly  was  missing,  and  the  liquid  line  leading  to  the 
valves  was  warm — considerably  warmer  than  it  should 
be  according  to  the  water  temperature  and  the  head 
pressure  carried. 

Everything  pointed  to  a  shortage  of  ammonia.  The 
problem  was  to  account  for  its  disappearance,  as  we 
had  provided  a  liberal  charge  when  the  plant  was 
started.  The  electrician  said  there  had  been  no  blow- 
outs and  he  had  never  detected  a  leak  except  at  the 
stuffing-box. 

The  entire  system  was  pumped  down  to  vacuum,  after 
which  I  cut  in  the  coils  one  at  a  time.  In  this  way 
one  could  determine  just  about  what  proportion  of  the 


June  4,  1918 


POWER 


799 


ammonia  had  been  lost  by  seeing  how  many  coils  could 
be  operated  with  the  ammonia  on  hand. 

Expansion  cocks  had  been  provided  instead  of  valves. 
When  I  opened  the  first  one,  after  pumping  down,  I 
was  surprised  that  there  was  no  sound  of  liquid  pass- 
ing the  valve.  There  was  no  sign  of  frost  on  the  valve. 
Always,  after  pumping  down  in  this  way  the  expan- 
sion valve  will  frost  at  once  it  is  opened.  This  coil  was 
entirely  dry  and  had  evidently  not  been  used.  Upon 
inquiry  the  chief  informed  me  that  it  had  not  been 
in  service  since  the  plant  had  been  started.  This  led 
to  further  investigations,  and  I  had  a  hunch  where 
all  the  ammonia  had  gone  to.  The  suction  valve  was 
shut. 

Coil  Full  of  Liquid 

I  casually  asked  the  chief  if  he  had  ever  had  this 
coil  in  service  and  if  so,  for  how  long.  This  brought 
forth  the  information  for  which  I  had  been  looking: 
He  said  that  he  had  cut  it  in  on  the  day  he  found  the 
crankshaft  broken  and  had  shut  it  off  again  and  had 
not  used  it  since. 

I  had  him  get  one  of  the  men  to  open  the  valve  slowly 
after  we  were  back  in  the  engine  room.  1  then  partly 
closed  the  suction  stop  valve  on  the  machine  and  awaited 
developments.  There  was  a  succession  of  thumps  in  the 
machine,  and  the  belt  nearly  came  off  and  screeched 
as  it  slipped  on  the  pulleys.  I  gave  the  suction  stop 
valve  a  spin  that  sent  it  shut  at  once  and  the  racket 
stopped  as  suddenly  as  it  had  started.  The  thumps  were 
so  severe  that  it  jarred  the  floor  of  the  engine  room  and 
made  the  pipes  connected  to  the  compressor  dance  in 
the  hangers ;  two  of  the  joints  started  to  leak. 

It  was  then  explained  to  him  that  this  was  what  hap- 
pened when  he  had  opened  up  this  coil  at  the  time  the 
crankshaft  had  broken;  that  the  coil  evidently  was  full 
of  liquid,  that  he  likely  opened  the  valve  quite  lively 
and  sent  a  slug  of  liquid  of  large  volume  into  the' suction 
line,  the  shock  twisting  off  the  shaft. 

The  suction  stop  valve'  was  then  gradually  opened 
until  the  entire  mass  had  been  worked  through  the  com- 
pressor. The  system  was  pumped  out  and  the  bonnet 
removed  from  the  expansion  cock  of  the  coil  that  had 
caused  the  trouble.  Here  I  found  that  a  piece  was 
broken  out  large  enough  so  that  when  the  valve  was 
closed  as  far  as  it  would  go,  it  would  not  quite  shut  off 
the  flow  to  the  coil.  A  new  cock  was  put  in  and  the 
plant  started.  It  went  along  splendidly  and  did  the 
work  easily. 

Suction  Valve  Should  Have  Been  Open 

The  leaking  cock  had  allowed  the  coil  to  gradually 
fill  with  liquid  ammonia.  The  weather  was  cold  at 
first,  and  sufficient  ammonia  was  left  in  the  rest  of  the 
system  to  keep  the  temperatures  down  until  the  weather 
became  warmer.  When  he  had  attempted  to  open  the 
valve  and  cut  in  the  coil  at  the  time  the  crankshaft 
broke,  the  large  amount  of  liquid  had,  as  stated  before, 
rushed  into  the  suction  line  and  back  to  the  compressor, 
causing  the  accident.  He  had  then  shut  off  the  valve, 
and  the  coil  had  gradually  filled  again,  removing  a  large 
portion  of  the  ammonia  from  the  active  part  of  the  sys- 
tem, and  when  the  weather  warmed  up  there  was  not 
enough  to  do  the  work.     If  the  suction  valve  had  been 


left  open  all  the  time,  as  it  should  have  been,  none  of 
this  trouble  would  have  happened  and  the  leaking  ex- 
pansion cock  would  have  been  detected  in  a  short  time 
by  the  inability  to  close  it  tightly. 

In  another  case  a  25-ton  plant  had  been  installed  in 
a  hotel.  About  two  months  later  we  received  a  call 
to  come  and  "straighten  out  the  plant,"  as  it  refused 
to  work.  Arriving,  I  was  informed  by  the  engineer  that 
the  cooler  temperatures  were  "scooting  up,"  the  com- 
pressor was  ice-cold,  the  suction  pressure  was  down  be- 
low atmosphere,  and  the  expansion  valves  were  barely 
cracked  open. 

Cooling  was  done  by  brine  circulated  from  the  en- 
gine room.  A  triple-pipe  brine  cooler  was  used,  and  a 
centrifugal  pump  circulated  it.  At  first  I  could  dis- 
cover nothing  wrong.  The  brine  pump  was  spinning 
along  merrily,  and  to  all  appearances  everything  was 
working  nicely.  The  temperature  of  the  brine  as  it 
left  the  cooler  was  much  higher  than  usual,  and  judging 
from  this  in  connection  with  the  low  suction  pres- 
sure and  the  cold  machine,  it  looked  as  though  the  cooler 
was  not  doing  the  work. 

Thermometers  in  the  inlet  and  outlet  of  the  cooler 
showed  the  temperatures  were  about  the  same.  Evi- 
dently the  cooler  was  out  of  commission.  I  opened  one 
of  the  drain  valves  at  the  bottom  of  one  of  the  coils  to 
see  if  there  was  any  circulation;  nothing  came  out.  I 
removed  one  of  the  return  bends  and  found  ice.  The 
rest  of  the  coils  were  more  or  less  in  the  same  con- 
dition. 

Thawing  Out  the  Cooler 

The  machine  and  pump  were  shut  down  and  a  steam 
hose  used  to  thaw  the  ice.  Burlap  and  bags  were  used 
tc  wrap  the  cooler  and  hot  water  from  the  feed-water 
heater  run  over  it.  This  thawed  it  out  rapidly.  All 
the  return  bends  were  removed;  heated  rods  driven  into 
the  center  pipes. 

When  I  thought  most  of  the  brine  was  out,  I  opened 
up  the  valves  in  the  inlet  between  the  cooler  and  the 
pump  and  also  the  suction  valve  to  the  latter,  intending 
to  utilize  the  head  on  the  pump  to  force  out  the  re- 
mainder of  the  ice  in  the  bottom  pipes.  To  my  sur- 
prise nothing  happened.  I  ran  the  rod  clean  through 
the  pipe,  and  a  little  brine  trickled  out. 

Opening  the  pet-cock  on  the  top  of  the  pump  showed 
there  was  no  pressure  on  it.  But  brine  flowed  freely 
from  a  drain  valve  on  the  other  side  of  the  suction  stop 
valve.  Evidently  there  was  something  wrong  with  the 
suction  stop  valve  to  the  pump.  On  removing  the  bon- 
net from  this,  we  found  that  it  had  dropped  the  gate; 
remained  closed,  and  as  there  then  was  no  circulation 
through  the  brine  cooler,  the  brine  froze.  As  soon 
as  the  cooler  was  frozen,  there  was  i  othing  to  boil  the 
ammonia,  and  it  came  back  to  the  machine  and  froze  it ; 
the  suction  pressure,  of  course,  also  came  down,  as  there 
was  no  ammonia  evaporated. 

To  prevent  further  recurrence  of  the  trouble,  an- 
other thermometer  was  provided  for  the  inlet  to  the 
cooler  and  the  temperatures  read  every  half-hour.  If 
this  had  been  done  before,  the  trouble  would  have  been 
noticed  before  the  cooler  froze  and  an  investigation 
would  have  located  the  trouble  before  any  damage  had 
been  done. 


800 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


Stets  Boiler-Feed  Controller 

The  function  of  a  controlling  element  on  a  boiler  feed- 
water  line  is  to  maintain  the  water  level  in  the  boiler  at 
a  predetermined  height  and  to  do  so  by  maintaining  a 
continuous  flow  of  water  to  the  boilers.  Numerous  de- 
signs of  regulators  have  been  devised  of  both  the  float 
and  the  thermostatic-control  type.  The  more  simply  a 
feed-water  regulator  is  constructed  the  less  likely  it  is 
to  get  out  of  order  and  the  more  dependable  it  will  be. 
It  has  been  difficult  to  make  the  float  of  the  float-con- 
trolled regulator  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  high 
steam  pressure  now  carried  and  at  the  same  time  buoy- 
ant and  powerful  enough  to  operate  the  controlling 
valve. 

The  design  of  the  water-controlling  valve  is  also  an 
important  matter,  and  the  proper  type  of  valve  seems 
to  have  been  adopted  in  the  new  Stets  boiler-feed  con- 
troller, which  is  manufactured  by  the  Williams  Gauge 
Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Penn.  This  controller  is  self-contained, 
and  the  float-control  principle  is  used.  It  is  made  of  two 
types,  as  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  3. 

The  controller.  Fig.  1,  consists  of  a  horizontally  split 
casing  containing  a  copper  float  which  actuates  the  feed 
valve  by  means  of  a  lever,  as  shown.  As  the  working 
parts  are  all  in  the  pressure  space,  stuffing-boxes  have 
been  omitted.  The  float  and  the  control  valve  are  the 
interesting  features  of  the  controller. 

The  copper  float  is  heavy  enough  to  withstand  a  cold- 
water  pressure  of  five  times  the  working  pressure. 
When  the  boiler  is  in  service,  the  upper  half  of  the  float 
is  surrounded  by  steam  of  a  temperature  corresponding 
to  the  pressure  of  the  steam   in  "".he  boiler,  but  the 


' 


'-U_.;   .'WM/Z/Z/A 


FIG. 


SKCTJON  THROUGH  TYPE-A   CONTROLLER 


lower  half  is  surrounded  by  water  that  does  not  have  a 
temperature  equal  to  the  pressure.  Therefore,  the  tem- 
perature inside  the  float  is  a  mean  between  that  of  the 
steam  above  and  of  the  water  below  the  floating  line  of 
the  float.  As  the  float  contains  a  certain  amount  of 
volatile  liquid  having  a  boiling  point  lower  than  that  of 
water,  it  vaporizes  at  the  mean  temperature  existing  in- 


side the  float  and  builds  up  a  pressure  approximately 
equal  to  the  boiler  pressure  on  the  outside  of  the  float. 

A  balanced  piston  type  of  valve  is  used,  both  pistons 
being  of  the  same  diameter.  This  piston  fits  in  a  sleeve 
in  which  there  are  four  V-shaped  ports  near  its  upper 
and  lower  ends.  The  central  portion  of  the  sleeve  has 
three  large  openings,  the  area  of  which  is  considerably 


4CO%RfiTIN6 

RATING 
lQp%RATfNG 


iijl 


FIG.   2.      DETAILS  OF 
THE  VALVE 


in  excess  of  that  of  the  upper  V-ports.  As  the  lower  end 
of  the  valve  sleeve  only  is  threaded  to  its  seat,  it  can  be 
withdrawn  without  disturbing  the  valve  or  breaking 
any  of  the  pipe  connections. 

The  valve  does  not  seat,  but  is  designed  to  control  a 
continuous  flow  of  water  through  the  V-ports.  Fig.  2 
shows  the  piston  disks  in  three  positions  and  gives  a 
general  idea  of  the  different  degrees  of  valve  opening 
required  to  feed  a  boiled  at  the  rating  indicated  and 
with  a  normal  excess  pressure  on  the  inlet  side.  About 
i';.-in.  lift  takes  care  of  the  feed  requirements  for  usual 
loads. 

The  movement  of  the  valve  stem  is  directly  propor- 
tional to  the  movement  of  the  water  in  which  the  float 
rides,  but  the  flow  of  water  through  the  ports  is  pro- 
portional to  the  amount  that  they  are  uncovered  by  the 
piston. 

The  controller  shown  in  Fig.  3  operates  on  the  same 
principle  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  casing,  however, 
instead  of  being  split  horizontally,  is  provided  with  two 


June  4,  1918 


POWER 


801 


top  openings  through  which  tho  float  lever  and  counter- 
weight are  placed  in  position.  Instead  of  putting  the 
counterweight  on  top  of  the  valve  stem,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1,  a  housing  is  provided  on  the  end  of  the  controller 
casing  and  the  counterweight  is  placed  in  a  horizontal 
position  instead  of  in  a  vertical  one.  This  casing  is  de- 
signed for  high  pressures  up  to  350  lb.  and  for  the 
higher  pressures  is  constructed  of  cast  steel.  The  cas- 
ing shown  in  Fig.  1  is  for  pressures  up  to  250  lb.  and 
is  made  of  cast  iron. 

The  controller  may  be  set  at  the  corner  of  the  boiler 
setting  and  connected  to  the  boiler  with  the  usual  steam 


on  in  order  to  watch  the  water  gages  from  an  elevated 
platform  constructed  in  front  of  the  boilers. 

A  condition  existed  which  resembled  the  blowing  of 
one's  breath  into  cold  air  in  the  winter  time,  and  it 
seemed  to  me  that  the  logical  thing  to  do  was  to  bring 
the  incoming  air  up  to  the  temperature  of  the  room  or 
possibly  a  little  higher,  so  it  could  carry  off  some  of 
the  vapor.  Proceeding  along  these  lines,  a  large  heater 
and  multivane  fan  were  installed,  which  drew  the  air 
from  the  room,  mixed  it  with  some  fresh  air  from 
outside  and  forced  it  through  a  duct  system  leading 
along  the  sides  of  the  room  and  down  each  side  of 


'         WJ        ' 


FIG.   3       END  VIEW  AND  SECTION  THROUGH  TTPE-B  CONTROLLER 


and  water  piping.  The  controller  showTi  in  Fig.  1  is 
used  in  conjunction  with  a  water  column ;  that  shown 
in  Fig.  3  is  in  itself  a  water  column  and  is  fitted  with 
the  usual  try-cocks  and  gage-glass. 

Atmospheric  Vapor-Absorption  System 

By  G.   C.   Derry 

In  a  power  plant  at  Port  Henry,  N.  Y.,  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Champlain,  a  troublesome  vapor  condition 
existed  in  cold  weather  from  cold  air  coming  in  and 
condensing  the  moisture  in  the  warm  air  in  the  boiler 
room,  which  caused  a  fog  so  dense  that  the  firemen 
could  scarcely  see  their  steam  gages  and  water  glasses 
from  the  floor  of  the  boiler  room.  Several  plans  for 
getting  rid  of  the  vapor  were  tried  without  success. 
The  coal  supply  was  just  outside  the  boiler  room,  and 
there  was  a  continual  opening  and  closing  of  doors  as 
the  firemen  brought  the  coal  in.  The  fog  was  so  dense, 
in  fact,  that  when  the  firemen  started  in  with  the  coal, 
they  had  to  shout  in  order  to  avoid  running  into  each 
other,  and  it  was  difficult  to  get  men  to  stay  and  work 
under  such  conditions.     Water  tenders  had  to  be  put 


each  door  and  up  against  the  cold  surface  of  the  win- 
dows. The  fan  and  heliter  were  installed  on  an  inclosed 
platform  over  the  door  which  led  to  the  coal  pile,  and 
advantage  was  taken  of  this  platform — making  it  a 
ceiling  of  a  room  into  which  to  pour  a  large  amount  of 
heated  air. 

The  fan  had  a  capacity  of  33,000  cu.ft.  of  air  per 
minute,  and  the  air  in  the  room  was  changed  eveiy 
three  minutes.  The  heater  was  capable  of  heating  this 
amount  of  air  from  10  deg.  to  158  deg.  when  supplied 
with  steam  at  60  lb.  pressure.  The  system  had  the 
fidvantage  of  removing  the  steam  in  the  winter  and 
also  providing  a  means  of  ventilation  in  the  summer. 

The  owner  has  advised  us  that  the  system  worked 
satisfactorily,  removing  every  trace  of  the  vapor  even 
during  the  extremely  cold  weather  last  winter. 


Most  engineers  would  have  a  fit  if  cast-iron  nuts  were 
furnished  for  the  valve  chest  and  cylinder  covers,  yet  one 
end  of  these  studs  is  always  in  a  cast-iron  nut.  But  on 
that  account  there  are  no  fits,  showing  that  it  makes  a 
mental  difference  which  end  of  the  stud  you  are  thinking 
about. — Marine  Enjfineeriuff. 

Not  because  he  loves  cast  iron  less,  but  steel  more. 


802 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


Conditions  in  the  Power  Industry 


By  LUDWIG  W.  SCHMIDT 


A  digest  of  the  reports  of  the  United  States  con- 
suls on  the  power  situation  in  the  various  parts 
of  the  tvorld  and  the  influence  of  the  war  upon 
this  important  industry.  Also,  see  "Power," 
March  5,  1918. 

THE  electrical  power  development  of  the  world  out- 
side the  United  States  has  been  influenced  by  two 
distinct  factors  during  the  last  three  months.  One 
has  been  the  increasing  demand  for  electrical  power  and 
the  other  the  lack  of  funds  to  make  the  urgently  needed 
extensions.  As  a  result,  most  of  the  existing  central 
stations  report  increased  business  and  all  say  that  they 
could  do  more  if  they  had  the  necessary  installation. 

In  Europe,  where  the  immediate  needs  seem  to  have 
been  largest,  extensions  have  been  made  where  urgently 
wanted  so  as  not  to  cripple  the  activity  of  the  national 
industries.  Outside  Europe,  however,  development  has 
been  held  back,  and  there  is  plenty  of  evidence  that  many 
projects  which  should  have  been  carried  out  during  the 
present  year  have  been  deferred  to  a  later  time.  Cen- 
tral stations  in  all  parts  of  the  world  report  that  they 
have  difficulty  in  making  contracts  for  additional  equip- 
ment and  that  where  it  has  been  possible  to  place  the 
orders  the  contractors  remain  behind  with  their  de- 
liveries. 

Norway  seems  to  be  an  exception  to  the  rule.  The  ex- 
pansion of  hydro-electric  enterprise  which  has  been  char- 
acteristic of  the  economic  life  of  that  country  during  the 
last  year  continues  during  the  present.  Commercial  At- 
tache Erwin  W.  Thompson  writes  from  Copenhagen 
(C.  R.  1.)',  that  it  is  proposed  to  develop  100,000  hp. 
from  the  Gaudefaldene  waterfalls  near  Stavanger.  The 
power  to  be  obtained  will  be  used  principally  for  the 
production  of  carbide  and  for  other  electrochemical  in- 
dustries. To  provide  for  the  labor  essential  to  the  new 
industries  it  is  intended  to  build  a  village  near  the  falls. 

Utilizing  Water  Power  for  Smelting  Iron  Ore 

The  same  consul  reports  a  scheme  to  utilize  water 
power  for  the  smelting  of  iron  ore.  Norway  has  large 
iron-ore  fields  which  yield  more  iron  than  can  be  used 
in  the  country.  This  ore  at  the  present  time  is  exported 
to  be  smelted,  but  it  is  thought  feasible  to  smelt  it  in 
the  country.  The  beginning  will  be  made  with  ore  pro- 
duced in  the  Braastad  mines,  near  which  2500  hp.  can 
be  created  (C.  R.  3).  As  there  is  a  lack  of  hydraulic 
and  electrical  machinery,  it  is  expected  that  large  quanti- 
ties will  have  to  be  imported.  Electrical  smelting  also 
will  be  re.sorted  to  in  a  new  steel  mill  which  is  to  be 
built  in  Risor,  near  Christiania.  This  mill  is  expected 
t'l  turn  out  from  30,000  to  40,000  tons  of  steel  every 
year.  The  power  for  smelting  will  be  taken  from  the 
Hoge  Falls,  where  from  150,000  to  200,000  hp.  can  be 
obtained.  Only  22,000  hp.  will  be  needed  for  the  begin- 
ning (C.  R.  64). 

If  the  utilization  of  hydro-electric  power  for  smelting 
should  become  more  general  in  Norway,  it  is  certain  that 


'C.    R.    indicates    "Commerce   Reports"   of    1918. 


this  country  will  be  in  need  of  much  machinery  which, 
for  a  while  at  least,  she  most  likely  will  buy  either  from 
England  or  from  this  country.  The  machinery  for  the 
Gaudefaldene  scheme  is  to  be  supplied  by  England. 

Most  of  the  Norwegian  electrochemical  enterprises 
seem  to  have  been  operated  with  considerable  success 
during  the  last  year.  The  annual  report  of  the  Norsk 
Hydro,  which  controls  300,000  hp.  and  has  a  capital  of 
$15,450,000,  shows  that  this  company  has  increased  its 
net  profit  from  $4,900,000  during  1916  to  $6,650,000 
during  1917.  The  business  year  covered  by  the  report 
runs  from  July  to  June  for  each  year  (C.  R.  33). 

England  Making  Preparations  for  Post-War 
Development 

In  England  all  electrical-power  development  at  pres- 
nt  is  influenced  by  the  preparations  made  for  the  re- 
organization of  all  power  supply  which  is  expected  to 
follow  the  war.  With  the  possibility  that  great  changes 
will  be  made  in  the  production  and  distribution  of  power, 
local  enterprises  show  little  inclination  to  invest  in  new 
installations.  Only  the  most  urgent  additions  are  made. 
New  installation  work  is  also  hampered  a  good  deal  by 
lack  of  labor  and  materials  which  are  needed  more  ur- 
gently somewhere  else. 

In  the  meantime  the  local  power  and  traction  com- 
panies are  doing  good  business.  The  Glasgow  Corpora- 
tion tramways,  lor  instance,  have  to  report  an  increase  in 
takings  of  $391,618  for  the  period  from  June  1  to  Nov. 
30,  1917,  in  comparison  with  the  same  period  of  1916. 
During  the  six  months  of  1917,  212,961,987' passengers 
were  carried  as  against  only  192,399,712  in  1916  (C.  R. 
4).  No  new  enterprises  of  any  extent  are  reported,  but 
Consul  J.  S.  Armstrong,  Jr.,  writes  from  Bristol  that 
the  municipal  authorities  will  be  compelled  to  extend  the 
local  electrical  plant  by  installing  a  6000-kw.  turbo-alter- 
nator, four  water-tube  boilers  and  switch  gear.  The 
additional  installation  is  made  necessary  by  the  in- 
creased demand  for  electrical  power. 

Lack  of  Electrical  Engineers  in  Spain 

During  the  last  year  Spain  has  had  a  fair  share  of 
the  so-called  war  prosperity,  which  in  many  cases  has 
made  necessary  additions  to  the  existing  generating  sta- 
tions. It  seems  to  be  generally  realized  that  that  coun- 
try in  the  future  will  have  to  rely  more  than  ever  on 
its  own  industrial  resources,  which  in  turn  will  necessi- 
tate the  provision  of  better  electrical-power  facilities 
than  heretofore.  So  far  there  has  been  a  lack  of  suffi- 
ciently trained  Spanish  electrical  engineers.  This  de- 
ficiency will  now  be  eliminated  by  giving  increased  op- 
portunities for  the  study  of  electrical  engineering.  The 
City  of  Barcelona  therefore  has  added  a  special  Insti- 
tute of  Electrical  Industries  to  the  Industrial  School  of 
that  city,  the  influence  of  which  should  very  soon  be  felt 
in  the  electrical  industry  of  the  country  (C.  R.  11). 

Italy  has  made  good  use  of  its  great  hydro-electric 
possibilities  during  the  war.  Consul  Joseph  E.  Haven 
in  Turin  points  out  in  this  respect  that  many  factories 
in  Italy  which  formerly  were  operated  by  steam  power 
are  now  using  electrical  power  and  that  electricity  has 


June  4,  1918 


POWER 


803 


become  the  standard  motive  force.  This  change  has 
been  made  possible  by  the  erection  of  bic;  electrical 
central  stations,  which  in  some  instances  supply  power 
over  distances  of  hundreds  of  miles.  Before  the  war 
Germany  supplied  most  of  the  electrical-power  ma- 
chinery in  use  in  Italy.  Since  Italy  entered  the  war, 
connection  with  Germany,  of  course,  has  been  broken 
off,  and  now  American,  English  and  Swiss  machinery 
is  used  in  preference.  Also  the  Italian  electrical  in- 
dustry has  made  considerable  progress  (S.  C.  R.,  Feb. 
8,  1918).' 

The  industrial  census  of  Africa  for  the  year  1915-16 
has  shown  again  the  great  progress  made  in  the  use  of 
electrical  power  in  that  country.  There  were  in  South 
Africa  proper  1214  establishments  using  electrical  power 
to  the  extent  of  121,229  hp.,  as  against  only  689  using 
564,664  hp.  generated  by  steam,  440  using  5985  hp. 
generated  by  oil  engines,  181  using  6266  hp.  generated 
by  gas  and  152  using  3759  hp.  generated  by  water.  In 
the  Transvaal  430  establishments  used  84,634  hp.  gener- 
ated by  electricity  and  226  used  294,956  hp.  generated  by 
steam  (C.  R.  6). 

Electrical  Power  Industry  in  South  America 

The  last  year  has  brought  much  activity  to  the  elec- 
trical power  industry  of  South  America.  Many  new 
industries  have  sprung  up  to  supply  those  articles  which 
the  South  American  countries  cannot  buy  any  longer 
from  Europe  owing  to  the  war,  and  these  industries  had 
to  be  supplied  with  cheap  and  reliable  power.  So  an 
increased  use  has  been  made  of  electricity.  In  Vene- 
zuela an  attempt  will  be  made  to  use  one  of  the  water- 
falls in  proximity  to  Caracas.  Consul  Homer  Brett  in 
La  Guaira  says  that  this  development  will  be  carried 
out  by  American  capital.  The  water  power  to  be  used 
is  that  of  Naiguata  Falls,  which  have  a  drop  of  3373  ft., 
and  it  is  expected  that  8000  hp.  will  be  created  from 
this  source.  The  necessary  investment  will  amount  to 
approximately  $1,000,000,  which  will  be  obtained  with 
the  assistance  of  American  banks  (C.  R.  6). 

State  ownership  of  electrical  enterprises  has  advanced 
another  step  in  Uruguay,  where  the  government  just 
now  has  acquired  its  sixth  electrical  power  plant.  The 
station  in  question  is  that  of  Mercedes,  which  was  the 
property  of  the  firm  of  Preve  y  Hermanos.  The  gov- 
ernment also  owns  electrical  central  stations  in  Monte- 
video, Colonia,  Canelones,  Maldonado  and  Pando.  All 
government  plants  are  under  the  control  of  the  Admin- 
istracion  General  de  las  Usinas  Electricas  del  Estado 
(C.  R.  40). 

Consul  William  Dawson  in  Montevideo  reports  in  the 
same  connection  (C.  R.  41)  that  all  the  state  electrical 
plants  are  burning  oil  fuel,  which  under  a  special  con- 
tract is  supplied  by  the  West  India  Oil  Co.  Under  its 
agreement  with  the  company  the  state  has  the  right  of 
preferential  treatment  as  to  supplies  and  has  just  now 
made  an  order  that  the  company  keep  a  reserve  of  5000 
tons  of  oil,  to  be  held  for  use  of  the  government. 

Consul  Charles  L.  Latham  in  Kingston,  Jamaica,  says 
that  there  is  a  demand  in  that  island  for  small  individual 
power  plants  to  be  installed  in  country  houses.  Elec- 
trical power  so  far  is  available  only  in  the  cities.  Farm- 
ers and  planters  realize  well  the  great  advantages  to  be 


-S.   C.   R,   indicates   "Suppiomunt,   Cominerce  Report.^.' 


derived  from  the  employment  of  electricity  in  the  opera- 
tion of  farm  machinery,  the  lighting  of  houses,  etc. 
Power  outfits  should  consist  of  a  kerosene  engine,  a  dy- 
namo mounted  on  the  same  shaft  preferably,  and  a  bank 
of  storage  batteries.  The  price  should  be  approximately 
.?400  (C.  R.  38). 

INDUSTRL\L   ACTIVITY    IN   JAPAN   AND   CHINA 

The  enormous  increase  in  industrial  activity  in  Japan 
resulting  from  the  war  has  caused  a  great  demand  for 
electrical  power,  which  has  necessitated  the  erection  of 
many  new  power  stations.  Although  there  is,  strictly 
speaking,  no  boom  in  power  development,  business  never- 
theless has  been  very  active  and  the  number  of  electrical 
enterprises  has  increased  50  per  cent.  There  are  now 
674  electrical  stations  in  Japan  having  a  combined  capi- 
tal of  1339,422,119.  The  combined  power  supplied  by 
these  stations  has  a  daily  average  of  922,940  kw.,  of 
which  700,870  kw.  is  generated  by  hydro-electric  sta- 
tions. The  remainder  is  generated  mostly  by  steam. 
During  the  last  year  steam  generation  has  made  greater 
progress  than  water-power  generation.  There  was  a 
total  increase  of  the  average  daily  power  supply  of  131,- 
706  kw.  (C.  R.  36). 

The  activity  in  the  electrical  industry  in  eastern  Asia, 
however,  is  not  confined  to  Japan  only.  From  a  report 
by  Consul  General  P.  S.  Heintzlman  in  Canton,  China, 
it  appears  that  China  has  had  its  share.  There  has  been 
apparently  a  good  deal  of  difficulty  in  securing  the  sup- 
ply of  electrical-power-station  machinery  in  China  dur- 
ing the  last  three  years,  which  has  hampered  considera- 
bly the  development  of  the  industry.  The  Kwangtung 
Electric  Supply  Co.,  for  instance,  has  contemplated  an 
extension  of  its  power  equipment  for  a  long  time.  It 
has  now  been  possible  to  place  a  contract  with  a  firm  of 
American  engineers  for  the  purchase  of  two  American 
high-pressure  condensing  turbo-alternators,  rated  2500 
kw.  three-phase  60-cycle  2300-volt;  one  American  high- 
pressure  noncondensing  turbo-generator,  35  kw.  125- 
volt  direct-current;  and  switchboards,  pumps  and  other 
accessories.  The  contract  also  provides  for  four  750-hp. 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers.  In  all,  $433,500  in  gold  will 
be  spent  for  the  new  equipment. 

The  Kwangtung  Electric  Supply  Co.  is  a  Chinese  en- 
terprise which  was  established  during  1909  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $480,000,  American  money.  Its  monthly  takings 
are  now  approximately  $60,000.  The  plant  has  been 
a  success  from  the  start,  and  will  be  the  second  of  im- 
portance in  China  after  the  completion  of  the  extensions 
now  ordered. 

Central  Stations  in  South  China 

South  China  contains  a  number  of  electrical  central 
stations.  As  the  most  prominent  of  these  the  consul 
mentions  the  following:  Kowkong,  Kongmoon,  Sainam, 
Taileung,  Sheklung,  Chanchuen,  Sunning  City,  Suncheng, 
Fatshan,  Shin  Hing,  Siulam,  Shekki  and  Kiungchow, 
all  in  the  Kwangtung  Province,  and  Wuchow  and  Nan- 
ning,  in  the  Kwangsi  Province.  Most  of  the  electrical 
equipment  of  these  stations  is  of  American  manufac- 
ture, though  most  of  the  machines  were  purchased  from 
England.  The  plant  in  Sunning  City  is  equipped  with 
Swedish  machinery.  Most  of  the  stiitions  in  question 
are  private  enterprises.  Those  in  Fatshan,  Sainam, 
Shin  Hing,  Nanning  and  Wuchow  are  owned  by  the 


804 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


Chinese  government.  The  motive  power  is  provided 
practically  everywhere  with  the  help  of  internal-com- 
bustion engines.  Now  experiments  are  made  with  native 
coal,  and  the  new  plant  in  Canton  will  be  the  first  burn- 
ing Chinese  coal  under  its  boilers  (C.  R.  4). 

The  war  also  has  brought  much  business  to  the  cen- 
tral stations  of  India.  Southern  India  to-day  has  three 
large  electric-power  companies,  says  Consul  Lucien  Mem- 
minger,  of  Madras  (C.  R.  44).  These  are  at  Madras, 
Bangalore  and  Hyderabad.  So  far  only  one  electric  rail- 
road is  operated  in  the  district  of  the  consulate,  which 
is  that  in  Madras.  This  is  28  miles  long,  but  the  war 
has  made  necessary  an  extension  of  the  system  which 
may  be  taken  in  hand  very  soon.  The  report  tells  of  sev- 
eral new  electric  railroad  schemes.  One  of  these  refers 
to  a  line  from  Kulaskharapatnam  to  Tiruchendur  in 
South  India.  This  line  will  have  a  length  of  29  miles 
and  it  will  be  built  by  an  English  firm.  Electrical  ex- 
pansion in  India  suffers  as  anywhere  else  from  the  lack 
of  available  capital.  So  it  seems  that  two  projects — one 
to  establish  railways  in  Mysore  and  the  other  to  extend 
the  power  station  at  the  Cauvery  Falls — both  of  which 
have  been  worked  out  by  S.  G.  Forbes,  an  American 
engineer  and  chief  electrical  engineer  of  the  Mysore 
government,  will  have  to  wait.  The  estimated  cost  of 
these  undertakings  will  be  $3,147,000.  The  Mysore  pow- 
er undertaking  has  just  received  permission  from  the 
government  to  install  an  electric-lighting  system  in  Ma- 
dura. Orders  have  been  placed  in  the  United  States  for 
hydro-electric  machinery  at  a  value  of  over  $1,000,000 
to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  Andhra  Valley  devel- 
opment executed  by  the  Tata  Hydro-Electric  Power 
Supply  Co. 

Evertite   Sta-Lok   Nut 

A  nut  that  is  likely  to  work  loose  is  a  source  of 
danger,  trouble  and  anxiety  to  the  user.  Numerous 
devices  have  been  employed  to  prevent  nuts  from  loosen- 
ing, some  being  home-made  and  others  patented.  A  re- 
cent addition  to  the  number  is  known  as  the  "Sta-Lok" 
Nut,  manufactured  by  the  Evertite  Nut  Corporation, 
Detroit,   Mich. 

This  nut  will  not  loosen  under  heavy  stress,  nor  from 
violent  or  prolonged  vibration,  such  as  is  experienced 


FIG.   1.  THE    NUT.       FIG.   2.   UNLOCKING.      FIG.    3.  LOCKING 

with  some  types  of  high-speed  machinery.  It  looks  like 
any  other  nut  from  the  outside.  On  the  interior,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  hardened  steel  ball  that  runs  in  a 
groove  between  the  bolt  threads.  Fig.  1.  This  ball  is 
kept  in  contact  with  the  threads.  Fig.  3,  by  a  spring, 
and  when  the  nut  tends  to  unscrew  the  spring  forces 
the  ball  to  wedge  in  the  threads,  which  tightens  the  nut 
and  so  prevents  it  from  working  loose. 


The  only  way  to  remove  the  nut  is  to  release  the  ball 
from  its  lock  position,  which  is  done  by  inserting  a  pin 
through  the  keyhole  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Should  the  key- 
hole become  filled  with  dirt  it  is  easily  cleaned  by  in- 
serting a  small  pin  or  wire. 

Lindsay  Low-Pressure  Oil  Burner 

The  Lindsay  oil  burner  has  recently  been  placed  on  the 
market,  and  although  it  was  primarily  designed  for  use 
in  assay  and  metallurgical  plants   it  will  doubtless  be 


SECTION  THROUGH  LINDSAY   LOW-PRESSURE 
OIL  BURNER 

found  suitable  for  use  by  engineers  for  heating  small 
furnaces,  etc.  It  has  a  central  channel  A  through  which 
the  oil  flows;  the  oil  is  discharged  through  an  enlarged 
orifice  B  in  a  thin  circular  film.  It  is  caught  by  a  rotat- 
ing blast  of  air  and  thrown  from  the  nozzle  as  a  fine 
swirling  mist.  The  burner  is  manufactured  by  the  Mine 
and  Smelter  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Part  of  the  air  supply  passes  through  the  tip  of  the 
innermost  orifice  at  C,  thus  preventing  the  clogging  of 
the  oil  line.  The  burner  will  work  successfully  on  any 
oil  from  a  heavy  one  of  18  deg.  Baume  to  the  lightest 
gas  oil.  As  there  are  no  delicate  parts  to  clog,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  take  the  burner  apart  frequently  for  clean- 
ing, although  all  parts  are  accessible  if  for  any  reason  it 
is  desirable  to  open  the  burner.  The  oil  consumption 
is  low,  running  from  1  to  IJ  gal.  per  burner  per  hour  for 
the  smaller  sizes,  up  to  2  gal.  and  up  for  the  larger  ones. 

The  air  pressure  required  for  the  Lindsay  low-pres- 
sure burner  is  from  6  to  8  oz.  On  account  of  the  burner 
construction  this  pressure  gives  perfect  atomization, 
while  the  oil  is  fed  to  the  burner  by  gravity.  The  air 
supply  is  controlled  by  merely  turning  a  regulating  ad- 
justment situated  on  the  side  of  the  burner  and  which 
does  not  get  hot.  This  can  be  done  instantly  and  while 
the  burner  is  in  use. 

As  the  adjustment  is  turned  that  reduces  the  quantity 
of  air,  a  movable  cone  E  decreases  the  area  of  the  air 
vent,  so  that  the  pressure  remains  constant,  though  the 
volume  is  less.  This  prevents  loss  of  efficiency,  which 
wouid  occur  if  a  less  quantity  of  air  were  permitted  to 
go  through  the  same  sized  orifice.  This  movable  cone  is 
regulated  from  the  adjustment  on  the  side  of  the  burner 
through  a  rack  and  pinion  D,  and  is  held  in  position  by 
a  pawl  and  spring  so  that  the  adjustment  will  not  change. 


June  4,  1918 


POWER 


805 


Where  Does  the  Heat  Go? 


Of  the  total  amount  of  heat  energy  represented 
by  the  coal  fired  in  a  boiler  furnace,  only  from 
6  to  15  per  cent,  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  useful 
work  at  the  belt  ivheel  of  the  engine.  This 
article  shows  where  and  how  the  heat  is  lost. 


ONE  pound  of  good  coal  has  a  heating  value  of 
13,500  B.t.u. ;  but  when  that  coal  is  burned  under 
a  boiler  and  the  steam  produced  by  it  is  used  in 
an  engine,  the  work  obtained  at  the  belt  is  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  energy  contained  in  the  fuel.  The 
reason  is  that  the  greater  part  of  the  heat  is  lost  in 
various  ways. 

A  part  of  each  pound  of  coal  drops  through  the  grates 
and  is  carted  away  with  the  ashes.  As  this  coal  is 
not  burned,  its  heating  value  is  not  given  up,  and  heat 
is  thus  thrown  away.  The  loss  in  any  particular  case 
will  depend  on  the  kind  and  grade  of  coal,  the  form 
of  grate  and  the  skill  of  the  fireman.  As  an  average, 
the  loss  may  be  taken  as  1  per  cent.,  or  135  B.t.u. 

The  furnace  is  inclosed  in  brick,  and  the  steam  drum 
is  protected  by  a  nonconducting  covering;  but  even 
these  precautions  cannot  wholly  prevent  heat  from 
being  radiated  from  the  boiler.  The  amount  thus  lost 
may  be  assumed  to  be  5  per  cent.,  or  675  B.t.u. 

The  two  losses  just  mentioned,  however,  are  small 
when  compared  with  the  loss  due  to  the  escape  of  the 
hot  gases  at  the  top  of  the  chimney.  About  2970  B.t.u., 
or  22  per  cent,  of  the  heating  value  of  the  coal,  passes 
away  through  the  chimney. 

Of  the  2970  B.t.u.  thus  lost,  much  is  used  in  heating 
the  air  supplied  to  burn  the  coal.  The  air  entering 
the  ashpit  has  a  temperature  of,  say,  60  deg.  F.,  but 
the  gases  escaping  at  the  top  of  the  chimney  have  a 
temperature  of  500  or  600  deg.  F.  This  large  increase 
of  temperature  requires  heat,  which  is  taken  from  that 
developed  by  combustion  of  the  coal. 

The  chimney  gases  also  contain  steam,  formed  by  the 
combustion  of  the  hydrogen  in  the  coal  as  well  as  by 
the  vaporizing  of  the  moisture  in  the  coal  and  in  the 
air  supply.  A  part  of  the  2970  B.t.u.  is  accounted  for 
by  the  escape  of  this  steam. 

Further  than  this,  there  may  be  unburnt  carbon  and 
hydrogen  in  the  chimney  gases.  If  all  the  carbon  is  not 
burned  to  carbon  dioxide  (CO.)  and  all  the  hydrogen 
is  not  burned  to  steam,  the  escape  of  these  unburnt 
combustibles  represents  a  loss  of  heat.  The  loss  due  to 
combustibles  in  the  chimney  gases  accounts  for  the  re- 
mainder of  the  2970  B.t.u. 

The  three  items  of  loss  thus  far  considered  total  28 
per  cent.,  which  represents  the  boiler  loss.  The  differ- 
ence between  this  and  100  per  cent,  is  72  per  cent., 
which  is  the  boiler  efficiency;  that  is,  the  boiler  puts 
into  the  steam  72  per  cent,  of  the  heat  it  receives  from 
the  coal.  At  this  efficiency,  therefore,  the  boiler  utilizes 
13,500  X  0.72  —  9720  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  coal  burned. 

A  part  of  the  heat  in  the  steam — say  10  per  cent., 
or  about  1000  B.t.u. — is  needed  to  run  the  feed  pump 
and  other  auxiliaries;  but  when  these  are  run  non- 
condensing,  it  is  possible  to  reclaim  about  780  B.t.u.  by 


passing  the  exhaust  steam  through  a  feed-water  heater. 
In  this  way  the  amount  of  heat  put  into  the  steam  for 
each,  pound  of  coal  burned  is  10,500  B.t.u.  When  the 
steam  is  conveyed  through  the  main  pipe  to  the  engine 
and  pumps,  there  is  a  further  loss  due  to  radiation  and 
leakage,  amounting  to  about  210  B.t.u. 

The  pipes  and  cylinders  of  the  auxiliary  apparatus 
are  often  left  bare  or  are  not  well  covered,  and  of  the  1000 
B.t.u.  delivered  to  them,  about  3  per  cent.,  or  30  B.t.u., 
is  lost  by  radiation.  As  780  B.t.u.  is  reclaimed  in  the 
heater,  it  follows  that  1000  —  (780  +  30)  =  190  B.t.u. 
is  lost  in  the  exhaust  from  the  heater. 

Of  the  10,500  B.t.u.  in  the  steam,  1000  +  210  = 
1210  B.t.u.  is  accounted  for  by  the  radiation  losses  and 
the  demands  of  the  auxiliaries.  The  remainder,  or 
10,500  —  1210  =  9290  B.t.u.,  is  delivered  to  the  engine. 
Leakage  and  radiation  from  the  steam  chest,  cylinder, 
etc.,  will  cause  a  loss  of  about  3  per  cent.,  or  280  B.t.u., 
so  that  the  heat  left  to  be  converted  into  work  is  9290 
—  280  =:  9010  B.t.u. 

A  good  modern  condensing  engine  will  probably  pro- 
duce a  horsepower  on  2  lb.  of  coal  per  hour,  or  half 
a  horsepower  on  1  lb.  of  coal  per  hour.  A  horsepower 
is  33,000  ft.-lb.  per  min.,  or  1,980,000  ft.-lb.  per  hour, 


/S6%   071%   140%     ZOa%  S7}/% 

DIAGRAM   SHOWING  HEAT  LOSSES 

and  as  778  ft.-lb.  is  equivalent  to  1  B.t.u.,  a  horsepower 
requires  1,980,000  h-  778  =  2545  B.t.u.  per  hour.  As 
the  engine  is  assumed  to  produce  half  a  horsepower,  it 
will  use  2545  -;-  2  =  1272.5,  or,  say,  1273  B.t.u.  per 
hour.  If  only  1273  B.t.u.  is  utilized  in  producing  power, 
the  remainder,  9010  —  1273  =  7737  B.t.u.,  represents 
the  heat  discharged  into  the  condenser  and  carried  away 
by  the  circulating  water  and  the  condensate. 

Not  all  of  the  1273  B.t.u.  converted  into  work  is 
available  at  the  belt  wheel,  for  friction  will  waste  about 
8  per  cent.,  even  in  a  good  engine.  If  the  engine  is 
assumed  to  have  the  high  mechanical  efficiency  of  92 
per  cent.,  therefore,  the  heat  equivalent  of  the  work 
available  at  the  belt  will  be  1273  X  0.92  =  1171  B.t.u. 
Thus,  from  13,500  B.t.u.  put  into  the  furnace  in  a 
pound  of  coal,  only  1171  B.t.u.  is  converted  into  useful 
work.  This  is  equivalent  to  1171  --  13,500  =  0.0867, 
or  8s  per  cent.,  of  the  heat  in  the  coal. 

The  accompanying  diagram  shows  graphically  the 
various  heat  losses,  expressed  as  percentages  of  the 
heating  value  of  the  coal.  It  is  evident  that  the  largest 
losses  are  those  due  to  the  hot  chimney  gases  and  the 
exhaust  steam  from  the  engine,  and  wherever  the  losses 
are  greatest,  opportunity  for  saving  is  greatest. 


806 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


Federal  Inspection  of  Power  Plants 

Power  Plants  Must  Be  Efficient  As  Well  As  Safe 
The   Needlessly   Wasteful   the   Last   To   Get   Fuel 


IT  HAS  been  definitely  determined  by  the  United 
States  Fuel  Administration  to  institute  a  system  of 
classification  of  power  plants,  based  upon  the  care 
and  efficiency  with  which  they  are  operated,  and  the 
idea  has  received  the  approval  of  fuel  administrators  in 
New  England,  Connecticut,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 
The  details  have  been  worked  out  by  David  Moffat  Myers, 
Advisory  Engineer  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Adminis- 
tration. 

It  is  estimated  that  from  25,000,000  to  50,000,000  tons 
of  coal  per  year  can  be  saved  in  power  plants,  simply 
by  the  more  careful  and  intelligent  use  of  existing  ap- 
paratus and  the  elimination  of  easily  preventable  waste. 
To  effect  this  purpose  an  Administrative  Engineer  will 
be  appointed  in  each  industrial  state,  to  be  attached  to 
the  office  of  the  State  Fuel  Administrator.  W.  R.  C. 
Corson,  of  the  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Inspection  and 
Insurance  Co.,  is  to  be  the  engineer  for  Connecticut; 
E.  N.  Trump,  vice  president  of  the  Solvay  Process  Co., 
for  New  York;  Thomas  R.  Brown,  of  the  Westinghouse 
Air  Brake  Co.,  of  the  Pittsburgh  district;  and  Walton 
Clark,  vice  president  of  the  U.  G.  I.,  ot  the  Philadelphia 
district  of  Pennsylvania.  Other  states  will  be  organized 
as  fast  as  possible.  A  questionnaire  will  be  sent  by 
these  engineers  to  the  ovraer  or  operator  of  each  fuel- 
operated  power  plant  in  the  state,  asking  him  to  furnish 
the  administrator  within  a  stated  number  of  days 
such  information  as  the  type  and  number  of  boilers; 
kind  of  service  or  product;  kind  of  draft  and  method 
of  firing;  amount  and  kind  of  coal  burned  during 
the  preceding  12  months;  proportion  used  tor  power, 
heating  and  process  work;  amount  of  purchased 
power;  whether  records  of  coal  consumed,  water 
evaporated  and  flue-gas  analysis  are  kept ;  type  and  size 
of  steam-using  units;  what  provisions  are  made  for 
weighing  coal  and  water,  and  what  records  are  kept; 
what  provision  is  made  for  heating  feed  water ;  if  means 
are  provided  for  measuring  the  draft  over  the  fire  and 
for  determining  excess  air  by  gas  analysis;  if  dampers 
are  provided  for  equalizing  the  draft  in  the  furnaces; 
if  there  is  a  convenient  means  for  regulating  the  draft 
by  the  main  or  uptake  dampers ;  if  there  is  an  automatic 
damper  regulator  in  working  order;  what  provision  is 
made  for  keeping  soot  and  ashes  from  boiler-heating 
surfaces;  whether  the  grates  are  warped,  broken  or 
otherwise  defective;  whether  there  are  leaks  in  boiler 
settings,  openings  between  boiler  and  setting,  badly 
warped  fire-doors,  etc.;  if  heat-radiating  surfaces  are 
covered;  if  the  exhaust  steam  from  noncondensing 
engines  is  used  and  to  what  extent ;  if  live  steam  at  low 
pressure  is  used  in  the  plant  and  for  what  purposes;  if 
a  competent  man  is  detailed  to  supervise  the  work  of  fuel 
conservation  in  the  boiler  and  engine  rooms  and  the 
transmission  and  use  of  power  in  the  factory. 

Arrangements  have  been  made  whereby  inspectors  of 
the  steam-boiler  insurance  companies,  state  factory  in- 
spectors, engineering  students  from  technical  colleges, 
volunteers  and  others  will  visit  these  plants  and  verify 
the  answers   given   in   the   questionnaire.     Each   plant 


will  be  given  a  rating,  based  upon  the  data  so  obtained. 
The  ratings  will  be  divided  into  five  classes,  and  in  case 
of  a^fuel  shortage  the  plant  that  has  been  found  to  be 
needlessly  wasteful  will  be  one  of  the  last  to  be  allowed 
to  draw  upon  the  available  supply. 

It  is  recognized  that  plants  must  be  dealt  with  as 
they  are  found.  No  extensive  and  expensive  installa- 
tions of  more  eflScient  apparatus  will  be  expected,  but 
there  are  many  economies  that  can  be  brought  about  by 
stopping  leaks  in  boiler  settings,  repairing  bafl[les,  cover- 
ing heat-radiating  surfaces,  trapping  outlets,  returning 
drips  and  making  an  intelligent  use  of  the  exhaust.  A 
plant  will  be  judged,  not  on  its  inherent  efficiency  as  a 
plant,  but  by  the  use  which  it  makes  of  its  own  conditions 
and  opportunities.  The  whole  attitude  of  the  adminis- 
tration will  be  one  of  suggestive  helpfulness  rather  than 
of  coercion.  The  inspectors  who  visit  the  plants  to 
verify  the  questionnaires  will  in  many  cases  be  able  to 
give  sound  advice,  and  the  State  Administrator  will  be 
furnished  with  a  list  of  approved  professional  consulting 
engineers  to  whom  power-plant  owners  may  turn  for 
more  extensive  consultation. 

The  Fuel  Administration  is  also  preparing  a  series 
of  officia!  bulletins  on  Steam  and  Fuel  Economics.  These 
will  include  boiler  and  furnace  testing,  flue-gas  analysis, 
saving  steam  in  heating  systems,  boiler-room  accounting 
systems,  saving  steam  and  fuel  in  industrial  plants, 
burning  fine  sizes  of  anthracite,  boiler-water  treatment, 
oil  burning,  stoker  operation. 

Burning  Natural  Gas  Under  Boilers 

By  Charles  Jablow 

On  account  of  the  present  interest  in  fuel  conservation 
it  may  be  interesting  to  note  the  saving  effected  in  one 
plant  from  a  study  of  the  operating  conditions. 

The  plant,  containing  770  rated  boiler  horsepower, 
was  using  as  fuel  natural  gas,  at  a  pressure  of  over 
fifteen  pounds.  Three  of  the  boilers  had  four  burners 
each.  It  was  found  by  several  evaporation  tests  that 
by  reducing  the  pressure  to  about  two  or  three  pounds 
the  equivalent  evaporation  was  changed  from  0.471  to 
0.494  lb.  per  cu.ft.  of  gas,  the  highest  heating  value  of 
which  was  619  B.t.u.  p;er  cu.ft.  But  with  this  pressure 
reduction  there  was  a  reduction  in  the  boiler  horsepower 
from  212  to  148,  partly  because  the  gas  main  leading  to 
the  plant  is  only  3  in.  in  diameter  and  the  pressure 
change  was  made  at  a  gas  regulator  about  1000  ft. 
distant,  so  that  with  the  lower  pressure  the  capacity 
of  the  line  was  reduced  too  much.  I  recommended  that 
the  regulator  be  moved  to  the  plant  and  that  the  3-in. 
line  be  subjected  to  the  high  pressure  of  the  main. 
An  additional  burner  was  put  under  each  boiler  at  the 
same  time,  and  our  expectations  relative  to  the  perform- 
ance of  the  boilers  were  fulfilled  and  the  rating  of  the 
boilers  was  easily  developed. 

The  fuel  bill  for  the  last  few  years  has  been  about 
$10,000  annually,  and  the  saving  by  these  changes 
amounts  to  about  $450  per  year. 


June  4,  1918  POWER  807 

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Editorials 


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I 


Government  Insistence  Upon 
Power-Plant  Efficiency 

EVER  since  its  foundation  Power  has  insisted  upon 
Governmental  regulation  of  power  plants.  It  holds 
that  the  owner  of  a  factory  or  a  department  store  has 
no  right  to  invite  the  public  into  a  building  in  the 
cellar  of  which  are  boilers  upon  the  safety  of  which  no 
competent  authority  has  passed,  operated  by  laborers 
selected  for  their  willingness  to  work  for  meager  pay 
rather  than  for  their  knowledge  of  the  forces  with 
which  they  are  dealing.  Regulation  and  inspection  ex- 
ercised by  foreign  governments  have  reduced  casualties 
until  the  number  of  those  in  the  United  States  is  by 
comparison  lamentably  high  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  boilers  in  use. 

It  appears  to  be  axiomatic  that  it  is  not  only  the 
right  but  the  duty  of  the  Government  to  look  after 
the  safety  of  the  citizen.  Several  years  ago  we  ventured 
a  suggestion  that  the  time  might  come  when  the  Gov- 
ernment would  insist  upon  efficiency  as  well  as  safety 
in  the  operation  of  power  plants.  If  a  boiler  explosion 
is  a  communal  disaster,  adding,  through  its  destruc- 
tion of  buildings,  plant  and  material,  its  interrup- 
tion in  production  and  reduction  of  output,  in  increased 
rent  and  insurance  and  prices  of  product,  and  in  care 
of  the  injured  and  dependent,  to  the  burdens  of  the  com- 
munity, how  much  more  of  a  communal  disaster  is  a 
sustained  waste,  going  on  year  after  year,  using  up  the 
resources  of  the  country  and  paid  in  the  final  analysis 
by  the  ultimate  consumer.  The  idea  has  found  expres- 
sion by  others  and  would  have  found  justification  and 
adoption  in  the  course  of  ordinary  events. 

But  the  war  has  produced  a  condition  of  fluxibility 
in  which  the  fixed  patterns  and  formulas  of  an  old 
conservatism  are  torn  loose  and  jostled  about  with  a 
chance  of  setting  down  upon  lines  which  are  sound  and 
right  and  capable  of  producing  results.  And  so,  quite 
naturally,  when  the  scarcity  of  fuel  becomes  pressing 
the  people — that  is  the  Government — say :  "Why  should 
this  man  be  allowed,  through  simple  carelessness,  to 
burn  twice  as  much  coal  as  he  needs,  making  his  product 
(if  its  selling  price  is  based  on  its  cost  as  it  should  be) 
cost  more  to  its  users,  using  up  man-power  and  railway 
facilities  to  get  coal  to  waste  while  others  suffer  for 
the  want  of  it?" 

Over  forty  per  cent,  of  the  coal  mined  is  used  in 
industrial  plants.  A  saving  of  even  ten  per  cent,  in 
this  field  would  go  a  long  way  toward  making  up  the 
shortage.  The  Fuel  Administration  has  resolved  to  put 
this  saving  into  effect.  An  engineer  will  be  accredited 
to  the  Fuel  Administrator  of  each  of  the  industrial 
states,  and  under  his  direction  a  questionnaire  will  be 
sent  to  the  owner  or  operator  of  every  fuel-operated 
power  plant  in  the  state.  The  replies  to  this  question- 
naire will  enable  the  state  engineer  to  determine  whether 
the  plant  is  being  operated  with  care  and  intelligence  or 


needlessly  wastefully.  Inspectors  will  visit  the  plants, 
verify  the  answers  returned  and  offer  helpful  sugges- 
tions. No  insistence  will  be  put  upon  the  installing  of 
more  efficient  apparatus,  but  an  effort  will  be  made  to 
get  the  best  results  out  of  present  equipment  with  such 
simple  improvements  as  can  be  made  under  existing  con- 
ditions and  improved  methods  of  operation.  In  the  light 
of  the  information  thus  obtained,  the  plants  will  be 
classified,  and  those  which  use  their  fuel  with  the  least 
care  and  intelligence  will  be  the  last  to  get  any  when  the 
shortage  comes.  The  attitude  of  the  Administration 
will,  however,  be  suggestive  and  helpful  rather  than 
coercive.  The  inspectors  will  not  be  called  upon  to 
advise  as  to  possible  improvements  in  apparatus  and 
methods.  The  state  administratoVs  will  be  prepared  to 
recommend  reliable  professional  engineers  for  those  who 
care  for  more  extensive  advice. 

One  of  the  beneficial  results  of  this  action  will  be 
to  direct  the  attention  of  the  office  to  the  power  plant. 
In  the  interim  allowed  between  the  receipt  and  the  filing 
of  the  questionnaire,  the  owner  or  his  representative 
will  be  interested  to  get  the  plant  into  as  creditable  a 
condition  as  possible  so  as  to  get  as  far  as  possible 
from  that  lower  stratum  which  will  be  the  first  to  be 
deprived  of  coal.  This  will  be  the  opportunity  of  the 
engineer  to  get  much-needed  apparatus  and  to  have  re- 
pairs and  overhauling  done,  his  recommendations  for 
which  have  not  met  with  a  favorable  response  in  the 
past. 

The  movement  ought  to  result  in  the  improvement  of 
a  multiplicity  of  plants  and  the  saving  of  many  tons 
of  coal,  and  .should  receive  the  hearty  approval  and  co- 
operation of  plant  owners  and  operators  and  of  fuel 
administrators  everywhere. 


Work  or   Fight 


THE  latest  amendment  to  the  selective  draft  law, 
recently  announced  by  Provost  Marshal  General 
Crowder,  whereby,  after  July  1,  every  man  of  draft  age 
must  either  go  to  work  in  employment  essential  to  win- 
ning the  war  or  join  the  fighting  forces  in  Fiance,  is 
the  most  encouraging  news  that  has  come  frc.n  the 
Provost  Marshal's  office  for  some  time  and  should  be 
received  by  every  American  with  red  blood  in  his  veins 
as  a  wholesome  change  in  our  military  policy.  Accord- 
ing to  the  order  gamblers,  race-track  and  bucket-shop 
attendants,  fortune  tellers  and  idlers  head  the  list,  fol- 
lowed by  waiters,  bartenders,  theater  ushers  and  attend- 
ants, passenger-elevator  operators,  attendants  at  clubs 
and  hotels,  domestics,  clerks  in  stores,  baseball  players, 
jockeys,  professional  golfers,  and  other  professional 
sportsmen.  Looking  this  list  over,  it  would  appear  that 
the  Provost  Marshal  has  an  excellfnt  insight  into  non- 
essential industries  as  far  as  men  in  their  prime  are 
concerned,  since  many  of  those  listed,  especially  the  first 
five,  the  nation  can  well  do  without  not  only  in  times  of 


808 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


war,  but  in  peace  also,  with  i.jofit  to  itself.  The  other 
occupations  might  be  considered  healthy  men's  jobs 
when  the  nation  is  at  peace,  but  they  certainly  can  all  be 
filled  by  women  or  men  too  old  to  enter  the  industries 
or  the  fighting  ranks  or  dispensed  with  entirely  when 
the  nation  is  facing  a  shortage  in  its  man  power  like 
the  present. 

We  have  long  pa.«sed  the  time  when  we  can  afford  to 
allow  able-bodied  men  to  loaf  away  their  time  in  pool- 
rooms, on  park  benches,  in  dance  halls  and  cabaret 
shows,  while  millions  of  others  are  working  overtime  in 
our  industries  to  supply  the  sinews  of  war  for  other 
millions  we  are  sending  to  the  battle  front  to  suffer  all 
the  privations  of  modern  warfare  and  die  if  need  be  to 
make  the  world  safe  for  democracy. 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  as  to  what 
are  nonessential  industries  and  who  is  able  to  distin- 
guish between  the  nonessential  and  essential.  However, 
General  Crowder  seems  to  have  attacked  the  problem  by 
a  process  of  elimination  and  has  excluded  the  least 
essential  at  first.  Although  his  first  step  is  a  modest 
one,  there  is  no  doubt  that  if  the  war  continues  for  a 
(considerable  period  longer  this  ruling  will  be  extended 
to  other  industries  until  every  able-bodied  American 
citizen  will  be  either  in  the  military  forces  of  the  coun- 
try or  engaged  in  industries  essential  to  the  war  ma- 
chine. This  latest  ruling  should  give  assurance  to  many 
that  whatever  may  be  termed  semiessential  industries 
of  the  country  will  not  be  robbed  of  their  employees 
until  at  least  every  able-bodied  loafer  has  been  put  to 
work  or  fighting,  and  that  the  Provost  Marshal  intends 
to  meet  the  emergency  with  as  little  hardship  to  the 
country's  industries  as  possible. 

Boiler  Settings 

WITH  the  advent  of  high  combustion  rates  on  stok- 
ers and  the  quest  for  economical  production  of 
steam,  to  say  nothing  about  smoke  abatement,  the  mat- 
ter of  boiler  furnace  design  became  one  of  the  important 
factors  in  power-plant  practice.  The  wider  use  of  the 
Middle-Western  coals  and  lignites,  both  high  in  volatile, 
together  with  the  desire  in  many  quarters  to  burn  these 
fuels  at  high  combustion  rates,  gives  added  significance 
to  the  boiler  setting  or  combustion  volume. 

In  1913,  when  the  water-tube  boilers  in  the  Two  Hun- 
dred and  First  Street  station  of  the  United  Electric 
Light  and  Power  Company,  New  York  City,  were  set  ten 
feet  from  bottom  of  front  header  to  the  floor  line,  there 
was  general  explanation.  Today,  engineers  will  do  much 
to  overcome  any  obstacle  that  stands  in  the  way  of  set- 
ting this  type  of  boiler  less  than  twelve  feet  above  the 
floor,  even  for  Eastern  low-volatile  coal  and  a  combus- 
tion rate  of  250  per  cent,  builder's  rating  of  the  boiler. 
One  finds  boilers  set  thirteen  and  even  fourteen  feet 
here  in  the  East,  while  boilers  of  the  Stirling  and  Con- 
nelly types  are  being  set  with  the  center  of  the  mud 
drum  anywhere  from  eight  feet  for  high-volatile  coal  to 
over  eleven  feet  for  lignite,  when  burned  on  underfeed 
stokers.  Not  only  do  engineers  recognize  the  value  of 
large  combustion  volume,  but  one  fii.ds  all  builders  of 
.stokers  urging  a  minimum  height  for  settings,  varying 
with  the  boiler  and  coal  and  combustion  rate.  In  those 
plants  which  change  over  from  hand-firing  to  stoker- 
firing,  nearly  all  builders  of  stokers  will  refuse  the  job 


if  the  prospective  purchaser  insists  on  too  small  com- 
bustion volume. 

The  articles  now  appearing  in  Power  on  the  subject  of 
boiler  settings  are  valuable  not  only  because  they  show 
what  is  current  and  excellent  practice  for  high-volatile 
coal  particularly,  but  because  the  numerous  drawings 
carry  all  important  dimensions,  and  in  addition  numer- 
ous performance  data  will  be  presented. 

Concrete   Boilers  Next 

CONCRETE  construction  has  entered  many  fields 
of  commercial  enterprise,  and  although  at  one  time 
opinions  might  have  been  held  that  it  was  suitable  only 
for  sidewalks  and  not  any  too  good  at  that,  the  art  of 
concrete  construction  has  developed  into  broad  channels, 
so  much  so  that  entire  buildings  are  made  of  it.  Its 
latest  application  is  that  of  concrete  ships.  Now,"  ac- 
cording to  the  San  Francisco  Chronicle,  cement  may  be 
used  in  the  construction  of  boilers  in  the  near  future, 
as  it  is  understood  that  an  experiment  will  be  made  at 
the  Union  Iron  Works.  The  report  says  that  consider- 
able figuring  has  been  done  and  numerous  sketches  have 
been  made,  and  that  a  boiler  will  be  constructed  shortly. 
It  is  stated  that  it  is  expected  that  with  the  exception 
of  the  boiler  shell  there  will  be  but  little  change,  and  in- 
stead of  one  thick  boiler  sheet  the  new  construction  of 
shell  is  to  consist  of  two  thin  sheets  of  steel,  probably 
one-quarter  inch  in  thickness,  and  these  will  be  fast- 
ened together,  leaving  between  them  two  or  three  inches 
of  space,  which  will  be  filled  with  a  high-grade  cement. 

In  these  days  of  progress  and  invention  one  is  not 
safe  in  asserting  that  this  or  that  proposed  idea  will  not 
work  out  satisfactorily.  It  is  only  a  few  years  ago  that 
the  practicability  of  the  steam  turbine  was  earnestly  dis- 
puted. It  is  only  a  few  months  ago  that  the  practicabil- 
ity of  building  a  concrete  ship  was  seriously  doubted, 
and  although  it  is  early  to  state  whether  the  concrete 
ship  will  be  a  success  as  compa'red  with  steel-ship  con- 
struction, the  odds  are  in  its  favor.  So  to  condemn  the 
concrete  boiler  before  the  idea  has  been  tested  out 
would  be,  perhaps,  premature,  although  one  is  inclined 
to  wonder  what  will  occur  to  the  concrete  when  the 
boiler  expands  from  a  cold  state  to  the  temperature  it 
will  have  when  under  working  pressure. 


There  are  2,078,222  now  in  the  Army;  a  million  men 
ready  to  embark;  ninety  thousand  sailed  in  the  first 
ten  days  of  May.  All  thoroughly  equipped.  Amer- 
ica can  raise  an  army  of  five  million  this  year  without 
going  outside  of  Class  One. — Representative  Caldwell, 
of  the  Military  Affairs  Committee,  to  the  House. 

The  American  shipyards  are  averaging  one  steel  ship 
a  day.  May  output  more  than  200,000  tons.  Two  ships 
just  launched  were  completed  from  keel  to  aerial  in  fifty- 
five  days,  and  one  in  fifty-seven  days.  In  the  next  eight- 
een months  six  hundred  ships  will  be  put  in  commission 
on  the  West  Coast  alone.  Ten  steel  ships  were  finished 
and  eighteen  others  launched  in  one  week. 

Yes,  indeed,  the  Yanks  are  coming. 


The  latest  advices  from  Boston  are  to  the  effect  that 
Garabed  Giragossian  is  suffering  from  an  attack  of 
constipation  of  energy. 


June  4    1918  POWER  809 

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Correspondence 


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I 


North   Dakota  Lignite  for  Boilers 

Your  editorial  and  Henry  Kreisinger's  article  on  the 
combustion  of  North  Dakota  lignites,  in  Po^ver,  Apr.  30, 
are  interesting  and  instructive.  To  those  not  familiar 
with  the  fuel  it  may  appear  that  our  lignite  is  not  suit- 
able for  steam  coal  except  with  a  specially  designed 
furnace  and  grate.  All  the  power  plants  in  the  western 
part  of  this  state  are  using  lignite  successfully  in  ordi- 
nary furnaces  provided  with  suitable  grates,  and  we  are 
obtaining  efficiencies  equal  to  those  had  when  burning 
bituminous  coal  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  where, 
I  have  noticed,  it  required  78,000  B.t.u.  in  the  coal  for 
generating  one  kilowatt-hour.  Under  the  same  condi- 
tions with  lignite  we  are  generating  a  kilowatt-hour 
on  61,000  B.t.u.  These  figures  are  based  on  units  that 
consume  40  lb.  of  water  per  kilowatt-hour  delivered  to 
the  circuits  and  Eastern  coal  containing  13,000  B.t.u. 
and  lignite  7000  B.t.u. 

The  same  conditions  prevail  in  flour  making  when 
comparing  heat  units  required  per  barrel  in  Minneap- 
olis with  mills  operated  by  lignite  in  this  part  of  our 
state.  It  will  therefore  appear  that  here  is  a  reason 
for  suggesting  a  furnace  for  burning  bituminous  coal 
more  efficiently. 

The  reason  that  our  lignite  is  not  used  more  exten- 
sively in  the  eastern  part  of  North  Dakota  and  neigh- 
boring states  is  the  cost  of  transportation.  It  seems 
that  the  railroads  have  not  favored  it,  as  the  rates  on 
lignite  from  the  mines  to  the  eastern  border  of  the 
state,  a  distance  of  about  210  miles,  is  $1.25  the  ton; 
and  in  the  next  zone  east  of  the  border  line  the  rate  is 
$2.15  the  ton;  the  freight  on  lignite  to  St.  Paul  and 
Minneapolis,  a  distance  of  about  500  miles,  was  about 
equal  to  the  cost  of  Pennsylvania  slack  coal  laid  down 
there  before  the  war. 

On  the  border  line  the  prices  of  Pennsylvania  slack 
and  our  lignite  were  about  equal  and  nobody  would 
give  the  latter  any  consideration.  No  doubt  the  rail- 
roads took  the  advantage  of  shipping  all  our  grain  and 
stock  to  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and  Duluth  and  had  cars 
returned  this  way  loaded  with  coal  from  the  harbor  at 
Duluth.  The  rates  on  coal  from  Buffalo  to  Duluth  via 
the  lakes  is  very  low.  There  was  no  market  for  our 
lignite,  but  since  the  shortage  of  the  Eastern  coal  and 
congestion  in  transportation  had  been  severely  felt, 
people  living  in  these  zones  have  begun  to  look  in  our 
direction  for  their  next  winter's  fuel  supply. 

The  railroads  now  have  the  lignite  rates  under  con- 
sideration, and  the  real  value  of  our  low-grade  fuel  will 
soon  come  to  its  right. 

In  this  part  of  our  state  the  poor  man's  fuel  for 
domestic  use  is  lignite.  Those  who  can  afford  to  burn 
anthracite  do  so  regardless  of  its  cost.  Some  would 
abuse  lignite  to  a  great  extent  even  if  we  have  beds 
8  to  18'  ft.  thick,  covering  over  30,000  square  miles. 
Some  of  this  is  surface  coal  that  contains  about  6000 
B.t.u.  per  pound. 


The  largest  mine  in  the  state  is  in  Burleigh  County, 
the  coal  from  which  runs  on  an  average  of  7000  B.t.u. 
The  best  coal  known  to  the  writer  is  in  Mercer  County 
and  runs  on  an  average  of  7500  B.t.u.  A  recent  sample 
showed  a  commercial  heating  value  of  8058  B.t.u.,  30.6 
per  cent,  moisture,  5.3  per  cent,  ash,  31.9  per  cent,  vola- 
tile matters,  32.2  per  cent,  fixed  carbon  and  no  sulphur. 
The  same  coal  dry  showed  11,611  B.t.u.,  7.7  per  cent, 
ash,  45.9  per  cent,  volatile  matter  and  46.4  per  cent, 
fixed  carbon. 

Under  fair  conditions  one  pound  of  this  will  evapo- 
rate 6.25  lb.  of  water  from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  This 
is  equal  to  evaporating  10.86  lb.  of  water  from  one 
pound  of  coal  containing  14,000  B.t.u.,  but  to  obtain 
such  eflficiency  from  lignite  the  volatiles  or  gases  must 
be  ignited  in  the  furnace  during  their  course  of  travel 
over  the  bridge-wall  and  through  the  combustion  cham- 
ber. Forced  draft  and  a  near  balanced  draft  is  re- 
quired, but  the  force  of  the  draft  under  the  grate  is 
the  most  essential  point  to  be  adjusted. 

Mr.  Kreisinger  suggests  a  large  air  space  for  grates 
of  the  inclined  type.  The  same  idea  appealed  to  me,  but 
I  had  to  reverse  myself,  and  I  am  now  constantly  cut- 
ting down  the  air  space;  I  am  now  burning  lignite  on 
a  flat  sawdust  grate  having  only  11  per  cent,  air  space, 
and  by  doing  so  can  maintain  a  higher  air  pressure 
under  the  grate.  Lignite  does  not  require  a  large  volume 
of  air  for  its  combustion — about  75  cu.ft.  of  air  per 
pound  of  lignite  is  sufficient.  The  clinkers  accumulating 
on  the  grate  from  a  lignite  containing  little  sulphur  are 
porous,  and  air  passes  through  them  quite  freely  with 
high  air  pressure  under  the  grate.  By  keeping  a  few 
inches  of  water  in  the  ashpit,  there  is  little  fire  below 
the  grates.  The  first  set  of  sawdust  grates,  installed 
12  years  ago,  is  still  in  service. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  fire  a  boiler  above  its  rated 
capacity  when  efficiency  is  considered,  and  with  a  ratio 
of  1  sq.ft.  of  grate  surface  to  50  sq.ft.  of  heating  sur- 
face 40  lb.  of  lignite  can  be  burned  economically  per 
square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour.  With  such  con- 
ditions a  flue-gas  temperature  of  about  450  deg.  F.  with 
an  average  of  12  per  cent.  CO,  can  be  maintained. 
Boilers  equipped  with  economizers  may  be  forced  to  a 
great  extent  as  the  excess  heat  in  flue  gases  would  not 
all  be  wasted. 

When  burning  lignite  the  combustion  chamber  fills 
up  rapidly  with  small  particles  or  sparks  from  the  fuel 
on  the  grate,  and  it  has  been  discovered  that  the  highest 
efficiency  is  not  obtained  until  there  has  accumulated  a 
3-  to  4-in.  coating  of  those  slow-burning  particles  all 
through  the  combustion  chamber  and  over  the  bridge- 
wall;  therefore,  when  one  receives  a  carload  of  lignite 
for  a  test  and  is  not  familiar  with  the  characteristic  of 
the  fuel  one  generally  gets  disappointing  impressions. 

The  cost  of  lignite  f.o.b.  the  mines  set  by  our  Fuel 
Administrator  is  $2.50  per  ton  for  screened  lump.  $2.25 
for  screened  6-in.  coal,  $2  for  mine-run  and  $1.25  for 


810 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2a 


screenings  that  have  passed  through  a  2-in.  .screen.  The 
screenings  give  the  most  suitable  size  of  coal  for  boiler 
use,  although  they  often  contain  a  large  amount  of  dirt. 
In  mining  our  coal  an  undercutting  machine  is  used, 
the  cuttings  from  this  machine  go  into  the  screenings 
and  if  the  operator  of  the  machine  is  not  careful,  he  is 
liable  to  cut  into  the  dirt  or  clay  below  the  coal  bed; 
this  mixed  with  the  coal  makes  it  an  unsatisfactory 
fuel.  On  the  other  hand,  6-in.  coal  is  too  large  a  lump 
for  a  steam  coal;  much  of  our  lignite  breaks  up  in  slabs 
similar  to  sandstone,  and  such  slabs  lying  flat  on  the 
burning  coal  smother  the  fire  below  them.  Those 
familiar  with  burning  lignite  in  stoves  and  heating  fur- 
naces will  place  those  slabs  up  edgeways  and  pack  the 
firepot  full  of  it  and  get  results.  As  this  cannot  be 
done  under  boilers,  the  coal  must  be  broken  or  crushed 
to  3  in.  and  less  to  get  efficiency. 

In  your  editorial  you  speak  of  pulverizing  lignite  for 
use  in  the  furnace.  That  process  has  been  under  much 
discussion  through  the  columns  of  Power,  and  from 
what  I  learned  from  reading  those  columns  there  is  no 
gain  in  burning  a  high-grade  powdered  coal  when  con- 
sidering the  cost  of  drying,  pulverizing,  maintaining 
the  furnace  walls  and  the  excess  air  admitted  to  the 
fuel  in  the  process  of  burning  it.  The  cost  to  pulverize 
a  pound  of  low-grade  coal  is  practically  the  same  as  a 
pound  of  high-grade  coal,  and  the  moisture  must  also 
be  disposed  of  before  the  lignite  is  pulverized. 

Lignite  will  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere 
after  it  has  been  dried;  therefore,  I  doubt  the  possi- 
bility of  burning  it  in  that  form.  You  also  say  that 
lignite  in  a  natural  state  cannot  be  transported  even 
short  distances  from  the  mines  for  the  reason  that  the 
moisture  evaporates,  causing  the  substance  to  break  up 
in  small  chunks  and  flakes  and  if  subjected  to  much 
jarring  it  disintegrates  into  powder,  all  of  which  makes 
the  fuel  inconvenient  to  handle. 

Lignite  will  slack  to  some  extent  when  exposed  to 
heat,  but  nobody  here  worries  about  that.  We  are  now 
advised  by  our  fuel  administrator  and  governor  to  fill 
up  our  coal  bins  so  the  mines  can  be  kept  in  full  opera- 
tion during  the  summer.  We  will  then  be  able  to  send 
South  Dakota  and  Minnesota  lignite  next  winter. 

Bismarck,  N.  D.  C.  P.  Larsen. 

Different  Rate  of  Scale  Formation 

In  the  issue  of  Apr.  16,  page  559,  Mr.  Lewis  suggests 
that  scale  formation  is  greatest  on  the  side  of  the  boiler 
nearest  the  soot-blowing  openings  because  there  is  less 
soot  on  the  tubes  on  that  side,  etc. 

We  have  trouble  here  with  scale  forming  in  nine  tubes 
out  of  eighteen,  and  these  nine  tubes  are  not  always 
those  nearest  the  soot-blowing  openings,  while  in  the 
letter  by  Thomas  Pascoe  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  9,  page 
521,  he  states  that  it  is  always  the  tubes  next  to  the 
soot-blowing  openings  that  scale  most.  We  use  oil  fuel, 
have  three  burners  in  each  furnace,  have  the  dampers 
exactly  alike  and  run  with  the  stop  valves  for  the  feed 
water  full  open  on  all  drums,  but  there  are  always  nine 
tubes  with  scale  (of  course  that  is  the  number  for  each 
drum) ,  and  always  the  same  ones.  It  is  not  likely  that 
burners  in  certain  locations  always  give  out  much  more 
or  less  heat  than  the  others ;  besides,  changing  the  posi- 
tion of  burners  is  a  common  occurrence. 

Anyox,  B.  C,  Canada.  J.  B.  Tait. 


Plugged  Holes  in  Piston 

I  recently  had  an  experience  with  an  engine  that  may 
be  of  interest.  I  first  noticed  a  rather  dull  thumping  in 
the  cylinder  as  the  piston  came  to  the  head  end  of  the 
stroke.  I  realized  that  something  was  wrong,  and  at 
the  first  chance  I  removed  the  cylinder  head  and  to  my 
surprise  found  a  hole  in  the  piston  about  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  with  a  crack  extending  on  each 
side.  I  reamed  out  the  hole  and  screwed  in  a  li-in. 
flush  pipe  plug  and  drilled  a  J-in.  hole  at  each  end  of  the 
crack  to  prevent  its  extending  further,  and  have  had  no 
trouble  since.  C.   RICHARD  WARD. 

Willsboro,  N.  Y. 


Feed-Water   Heater  and  Filter 

The  illustratipn  shows  a  heater  and  filter  of  my  own 
design,  which  can  be  built  of  quarter-inch  boiler  plate 
or  cast-iron  plates  and  may  be  either  round  or  square, 
although  I  prefer  the  latter.  A  live-steam  connection, 
with  a  reliable  pressure-reducing  valve  attached,  supplies 
steam  for  heating  the  water  when  there  is  no  exhaust 


HOME-MADE   FEED-WATER  HE.^TER  .\XD   FILTER 

steam.  Traps  discharging  clean  condensate  from  live 
steam  can  be  connected  into  part  C,  but  if  the  con- 
densate contains  any  oil  it  should  go  to  compartment  A. 
There  are  manholes  in  each  compartment  for  cleaning, 
and  drains  to  the  sewer  are  provided,  also  an  over- 
flow M  to  the  sewer,  in  case  the  makeup  cold-water  sup- 
ply control  should  get  out  of  order.  The  back-pres- 
sure valve  F  is  set  at  a  pressure  just  enough  to  cause 
steam  to  circulate  up  through  the  coils  into  the  tank. 
In  the  center  compartment  there  is  a  deep  bed  of  coke, 
on  top  of  which  are  several  thicknesses  of  burlap  bags 
and  over  these  about  ten  inches  of  excelsior. 

The  water  supply  enters  compartment  A,  passes  up 
pipe  J,  down  through  compartment  B  and  into  C  at  the 
bottom,  thence  to  the  pump.  Most  of  the  sediment  will 
settle  in  A  and  the  oil  will  float  to  the  top,  but  if  any 
does  escape  it  will  be  collected  in  the  filter.  Part  A 
will  require  cleaning  quite  often,  but  B  only  once  in 
about  three  months  and  C  once  in  six  months.  Pipe 
N  acts  as  a  relief  to  guard  against  an  accumulation  of 
pressure  should  the  valve  F  be  set  too  heavy. 

Portsmouth,  Ont.,  Canada.  James  E.  Noble. 


June  4,  1918 


POWER 


811 


An  Easily  Made  Draining  Valve 

The  illustration  shows  a  simple  valve  for  draining 
tubs  and  tanks.  The  disk  is  cast  iron  with  a  .'-in. 
cloth  insertion  rubber  packing  riveted  to  it,  and  the 
seat  is  similar  to  that  of  a  pump,  as  shown,  fastened 
to  the  bottom  inside  of  the  tank  with  screws  counter- 


ORMAV   PROCESS,  "AT. 

OUTLET  VALVE  FOR  BOTTOM  OF  TANK 

sunk  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  seat.  I  have  made  a 
number  of  4-in.  valves  of  this  type,  and  they  were  en- 
tirely satisfactory.  The  sheets  of  soft-rubber  packing 
make  a  tight  joint  that  will  give,  and  close  around  any 
small  object  that  may  get  under  the  disk. 

New  Bedford,  Mass.  H.  K.  WiLSON. 

Cleaning  Condenser  Tubes  with 
Muriatic  Acid 

Regarding  cleaning  condenser  tubes  with  muriatic 
acid,  as  noted  by  Mr.  McKeehan  on  page  504  in  the  Issue 
of  Apr.  9,  we  have  found  here,  in  Grand  Rapids,  that  the 
method  is  effective,  economical  and  not  injurious  to  the 
tubes. 

The  city  is  supplied  with  a  lime-softened  water 
averaging  about  six  grains  of  scale-forming  matter  per 
cubic  centimeter  and,  like  all  lime-softened  waters  under 
certain  conditions  of  heat  and  pressure,  tends  to  deposit 
a  small  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which  in  time 
becomes  more  or  less  serious  on  the  surface  of  condenser 
tubes.  At  the  city  pumping  station  two  of  the  pumps 
are  equipped  with  condensers  containing  approximately 
1400  one-inch  tubes  about  seven  feet  long.  In  a  year's 
time  these  tubes  become  so  coated  over  as  to  drop  the 
vacuum  from  about  28  to  24  in.,  a  matter  serious  enough 
to  require  attention. 

For  the  last  two  years  the  method  of  cleaning  these 
tubes  has  been  to  disconnect  the  condensers  and  swing 
them  clear  of  the  suction  connections,  apply  blind  flanges 
to  the  inlet  and  outlet  sides  and  fill  them  up  with  water  to 
which  has  been  added  a  first  dose  of  20  to  25  gal.  of 
muriatic  acid.  Steam  lines  are  connected  in  and  this 
charge  is  boiled  two  hours  or  so  till  the  acid  has  been 
used  up,  then  more  water  and  acid  added,  say  five  to 
seven  gallons,  till  the  tubes  are  boiled  clean.  Usually 
we  have  found  about  55  gal.  of  acid  sufficient,  and  boiling 
greatly  hastens  the  work ;  a  day  is  usually  ample  time  to 
do  a  good  job.  This  method  has  worked  equally  well  in 
cleaning  the  oil-cooling  tubes  of  our  turbo-generators. 


For  the  last  three  years  an  acid  cleaning  method  has 
been  used  in  the  condensers  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  where  the 
water  supply  is  similar  to  that  of  Grand  Rapids,  and 
the  type  of  the  condensers  does  not  readily  admit  of 
their  being  removed.  In  this  case  the  acid  is  sprayed  on 
with  a  force  pump,  a  small  fan  being  set  up  behind  the 
men  manipulating  the  spray  to  carry  the  fumes  of  the 
acid  through  to  the  other  side  and  away.  I  understand 
that  this  method  also  works  satisfactorily. 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  Walter  A.  Sperry. 

Some  Emergency  Valve  Repairs 

In  the  plant  where  I  am  operating  I  recently  had  a 
little  trouble  with  a  2i-in.  throttle  valve  on  a  pump.  The 
valve  had  broken  at  the  yoke,  due  to  water-hammer.  As 
I  did  not  care  to  use  this  pump  as  much  as  I  did  another 
one  on  the  same  line,  I  obtained  two  2  x  4-in.  pieces  of 
iron  and  drilled  holes  through  them,  and  placing  one 
piece  below  the  valve  body  and  the  other  against  the  nut 
on  the  valve-wheel  stem,  the  two  were  drawn  together, 
and  the  cracked  yoke  back  to  place  with  the  long  bolts 
and  nuts,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

A  few  days  ago  one  of  the  pumps  worked  badly,  be- 
coming air-bound;  when  stopped,  there  was  a  continu- 
ous stream  of  water  coming  from  the  pump,  which  could 
not  be  stopped  unless  the  glands  were  screwed  up  very 
tight.  An  examination  showed  that  a  5-in.  check 
valve  was  unseated,  the  bottom  guide  having  been 
broken  off'  and  the  top  guide  badly  worn  on  one  side. 
Not  having  another  valve  of  that  size  in  stock,  I  pro- 
ceeded to  repair  the  broken  one  as  follows: 

I  took  the  top  half  of  the  valve  to  which  the  guide  for 
the  bottom  is  fastened,  drilled  a  J-in.  hole  through  it, 
and  then  resurrected  an  old  valve  stem  J  in.  diameter 


CRACKED  YOKE  DR.\.WN  TOGETHER 

and  cut  it  to  the  proper  length  and  riveted  it  in  the 
place  of  the  one  that  had  been  broken  off.  The  worn 
upper  guide  was  cut  off  with  a  hacksaw  and  treated  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  lower  guide.  The  valve  was 
back  in  place  in  less  than  one-half  hour,  and  it  has 
worked  as  well  as  a  new  one  ever  since. 

Fort  Apache,  Ariz.  ROBERT  E.  LEECH. 


812 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


Radiator  Connections 

One  type  of  steam-heating  system  uses  a  small 
expansion  trap  on  the  outlet  of  each  radiator,  a  return 
trap  to  put  the  water  back  into  the  boiler,  and  one 
air  valve  to  let  air  out  of  the  whole  return  system. 
The  small  traps  on  the  radiators  let  air  and  water  pass, 
but  close  against  steam.  The  common  air  and  water 
return  must  be  above  the  water  level  of  the  boiler. 

In  one  instance  it  was  necessary  to  connect  some 
wall-type  radiators  below  this  common  return  line,  but 
still  above  the  boiler-water  level.  They  were  first  con- 
nected as  radiator  1  shown  in  the  illustration  (the  others 
being  marked  2,  3  and  4).  The  air  was  expected  to  go 
to  the  air  and  water  return  and  the  water  to  go 
down  through  the  radiator  trap  into  the  drain  from 
the  steam  mains;  but  steam,  blowing  through  these 
radiators  and  backing  up  to  the  radiators  on  the  upper 
floors,  shut  the  outlet  traps  and  closed  the  air  valve 


XfllCff  yAiVf  AT  BOIUR 

RADIATOR  CONNECTIONS  TRIED  OR  SUGGESTED 

at  the  boiler,  so  the  air  could  not  clear  from  the 
system  and  the  water  would  not  return  from  the 
radiators — the  system  became  steam-  and  air-bound. 

The  connections  were  then  changed  as  shown  in  the 
next  case  (radiator  2),  but  on  the  first  cold  day  the 
steam  pressure  forced  the  water  out  of  the  drip  line, 
along  the  floor,  and  caused  water-hammer.  Connec- 
tion 3  was  considered  as  a  remedy,  but  as  the  traps 
do  not  close  against  water  unless  it  is  near  the  boiling 
point,  this  plan  was  discarded  and  connection  4  adopted. 
As  steam  is  lighter  than  air,  it  passes  across  the  top 
of  the  radiator  and  closes  the  air  valve  while  the  lower 
half  of  the  radiator  is  cold,  but  by  letting  the  air  valve 
blow  a  little  steam,  the  radiator  gradually  clears  of 
air  and  the  small  blow  of  steam  does  not  interfere 
with  the  rest  of  the  system.  Discussion  and  any  sug- 
gestions for  improvement  will  be  welcome. 

Washington,  D.  C.  Morris  Ellison. 

Weight  of  Ashes  in  Conical  Pile 

The  angle  of  repose  for  ashes  in  a  conical  pile,  that 
is,  the  angle  made  by  the  sloping  side  of  the  cone  with 
the  horizontal,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tion, averages  40  deg.  The  average  weight  of  ashes  per 
cubic  foot  is  40  lb.  Based  on  these  two  figures,  it 
follows  that  a  formula  can  be  developed  suitable  for  de- 
termining the  weight  of  any  conical  pile  of  ashes.  All 
that  is  necessary  is  to  measure  the  diameter  of  the  base. 
The  formula  is  as  follows: 


W  --  4.4  (f  r=  weight  of  conical  pile  of  ashes  in  pounds, 
where  d  is  the  diameter  of  base  pile  in  feet. 

To  illustrate:     The  diameter  of  a  pile  of  ashes  is  8 
ft.    Then  8"  ^  (8  X  8  X  8)  X  4.4  =  2253  lb.  of  ashes 


40  Deg. 


\t. Diameter,   Feet >J 

AVEIl.XGE   ANGLE   OF   CONICAL.   ASH    PILE 

in  a  conical  pile  having  a  diameter  at  the  base  of  8  ft. 
The  accompanying  table  gives  the  weight  of  ashes  in 

WT;IGHT  of  ASHES  IN  CONICAL  PILE 


)iameter  of 
Ash  Pile, 
Feet 
1              

Weight 
of  Ashes, 
Pounds 

Diameter  of 
Ash  Pile. 
Feet 
10          

Weight 
oLAshes, 
Pounds 
4,400 

35 

15                     .    .  . 

14,850 

119 

20          

35,200 

282 

25                .    .    . . 

68,750 

. ..    .                  550 

30          

118,800 

5.5     

730 

35          

188,650 

.    .                      950 

40                

281,600 

6  5       

1,210 

45          

400,950 

1  509 

50                ... 

550,000 

7  5       

1,857 

60         

950,400 

8 

2  253 

70                ... 

1,509,200 

8  5     

.    .  .                 2,702 

80         

2,252,800 

9          

3,208 

90          

3.207,600 

9,5            

3,771 

100             

4,400,000 

conical  piles  from  1  up  to  100  ft.  in  diameter,  and  any 
intermediate  diameter  of  ash  piles  not  shown  in  the 
table  can  be  easily  computed.  W.  F.  ScHAPHORST. 

New  York  City. 


Boiler  Firebox  Improved 

The  illustration  shows  a  top  view  of  an  improvement 
in  the  shape  of  the  furnace  under  a  return-tube  boiler 
fitted  with  stationary  grates.  The  bricks  on  the  side 
wall  and  front  were  chipped  out,  and  others  were  placed 
so  as  to  cut  off  or  fill  in  the  sharp  corners  of  the  box, 
at  the  same  time  cutting  off  but  little  of  the  space. 
The  object  is  to  make  it  possible  to  clean  the  fire  more 


BETTER  RESULTS  WITH  CORNERS   FILLED  IN  AS  SHOWN 

quickly  and  to  avoid  the  loss  if  these  comers  are 
neglected  when  cleaning  or  left  uncovered  when  firing. 
The  space  behind  the  bricks  was  filled  with  pieces  of 
brick  and  fireclay,  and  the  top  was  sloped  so  that  no 
coal  or  ashes  can  gather  there. 

Flushing,  N.  Y.  WILLIAM   F.  WILLIAMSON. 


June  4,  1918  POWER  813 

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I  I 

Inquiries  of  General  Interest 


i^iiiniiiniiiiiiiniMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiii^ 


I 


Melting  Point  of  Firebrick — What  temperature  will  in- 
jure boiler-furnace  firebrick  ?  B.  H. 

When  firebrick  contains  moisture  or  materials  that  have 
a  higher  coefficient  of  expansion  than  the  binding  material, 
the  brick  spawls  and  cracks  with  comparatively  low  tem- 
peratures. The  melting  point  of  ordinary  commercial  fire- 
clay brick  ranges  from  about  2700  deg.  F.  to  3200  deg.  F., 
depending  on  the  ingredients. 

Pressure  of  Atmosphere  from  Height  of  Barometer — How 
may  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  be  known  in  pounds 
per  square  inch  from  the  height  of  the  barometer  ?        W.  G. 

At  ordinary  atmospheric  temperatures  the  weight  of  a 
cubic  inch  of  mercury  may  be  taken  as  0.491  lb.  and  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  in  pounds  per  square  inch  may 
be  found  by  multiplying  the  height  of  the  barometer  in 
inches  by  0.491. 

Heat  Required  To  Raise  Temperature  of  Air — How  many 
B.t.u.  per  hour  would  be  required  to  heat  55  cu.ft.  of  air 
per  min.  from  62  to  300  deg.  F.?  J.  C.  E. 

At  62  deg.  F.  there  are  13.14  cu.ft.  of  air  per  pound.  The 
specific  heat  of  air  is  about  0.25,  and  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  a  cubic  foot  from  62  deg.  F.  to  300  deg.  F.  would 
require  (300  —  62)  0.25  ^  13.14  —  4.52  B.t.u.,  and  for  heat- 
ing 55  cu.ft.  per  minute  would  require  4.52  X  55  x  60  = 
14,916  B.tu.  per  hour. 

Adding  Heat  to  Constant  Volume  of  Steam — If  heat  is 
added  to  steam  in  a  closed  vessel,  would  the  temperature 
as  well  as  the  pressure  rise?  C.  T.  B. 

The  addition  of  heat  would  cause  a  rise  of  both  tempera- 
ture and  pressure.  The  addition  of  sufficient  heat  would 
first  convert  any  water  present  into  dry  saturated  steam 
which  would  be  of  higher  temperature  and  pressure  than 
the  original  steam,  and  further  addition  of  heat  would  still 
further  raise  its  temperature  and  pressure  to  a  superheated 
condition. 

Iron  Ball  Pyrometer — How  is  the  temperature  of  a  boiler 
furnace  obtained  by  heating  a  piece  of  cast  iron  in  the  fur- 
nace and  afterward  cooling  it  in  water?  G.  R. 

A  piece  of  cast  iron  weighing  4  or  5  lb.  and  preferably 
of  spherical  or  other  compact  form  is  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  furnace  until  it  has  attained  the  temperature  of  its  sur- 
roundings. It  is  then  suddenly  plunged  in  a  vessel  con- 
taining a  knoviTi  weight  and  tempei-ature  of  water  and 
cooled  while  the  water  is  being  stirred  rapidly  until  the 
piece  of  cast  iron  and  the  water  attain  the  same  tempera- 
ture. The  vessel  may  consist  of  a  large  bucket  filled  about 
three-fourths  full  of  water  and  provided  with  a  cover  hav- 
ing a  hole  in  it  through  which  a  perforated  pipe  extends  to 
the  bottom  for  the  insertion  of  a  thermometer.  The  hole 
in  the  cover  may  be  large  enough  to  use  the  pipe  for  stir- 
ring the  water.  If  W  =  the  weight  of  water,  lu  =  the 
weight  of  cast  iron,  i  the  original  and  T  the  final  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  and  S  the  specific  heat  of  the  cast  iron, 
then  the  temperature  of  the  piece  of  iron  when  placed  in 
the  water  is  found  by  the  formula, 

""  wS        +  ^ 

For  example,  if  the  weight  of  the  piece  of  cast  iron  is  5 
lb.,  the  weight  of  the  water  20  lb.,  the  temperature  of  the 
water  before  the  immersion  60  deg.  F  and  after  immersion 
120  deg.  F.,  and  allowing  the  specific  heat  of  cast  iron  at 
the  furnace  temperature  to  be  0.13,  by  substituting, 

.  =  2011|^M  +  120  =  1966  deg.  F. 

Oil  for  Journal  Bearings    of    Steam    Dry    Cans — In    the 

textile-finishing  business  a  machine  is  used  that  has  steam- 
heated  revolving  cylinders  called  dry  cans  for  which  the 
steam  used  is  conducted  through  the  hollow  journals  on 
which  the  cans  run.    The  bearings  often  attain  a  high  tem- 


perature, and  difficulty  is  experienced  in  keeping  the  bear- 
ings properly  lubricated.  What  kind  of  oil  would  be  suit- 
able? 0.   M.   W. 

Most  refiners  of  mineral  oils  are  prepared  to  furnish 
lubricating  oils  suitable  for  use  at  ordinary  temperatures  of 
steam  and,  when  informed  of  the  pressure  of  steam  sup- 
plied to  the  dry  cans  as  an  index  of  the  temperature,  would 
be  enabled  to  select  a  product  adapted  to  the  conditions. 

Testing  Boiler-Feed  Pump — How  can  a  boiler-feed  pump 
be  tested  to  show  that  it  is  in  fair  working  order? 

S.  L.  A. 

Connect  a  steam-pressure  gage  to  the  steam-chest  cover 
and  a  water-pressure  gage  with  stop-cock  on  the  delivery 
side  of  the  pump.  Then  with  a  steam-chest  pressure  of 
about  50  lb.  it  should  be  possible  to  obtain  a  full  bore  of 
the  delivery  pipe  when  delivering  against  an  equal  water 
pressure.  The  pressure  on  the  water-end  gage  is  obtained 
by  regulating  the  stop  valve,  and  the  discharge  of  water 
should  be  visible,  and  with  equal  steam  and  water  pres- 
sure the  water  pressure  gage  should  be  reasonably  steady. 
If  the  delivery  of  water  stops  while  the  pump  is  running, 
the  fault  will  be  due  to  leaky  suction  valves  or  piston  slip- 
page. Violent  pulsations  of  the  water-pressure  gage  usually 
will  be  an  indication  of  leaky  suction  valves.  When  running 
slowly,  if  a  piston  travels  suddenly  to  the  end  of  the  cylin- 
der, the  suction  valve  on  that  end  will  probably  be  the  one 
that  leaks  most. 

Determining  Cylinder-Clearance  Volume — How  is  the  cyl- 
inder-clearance volume  of  an  engine,  determined  ?       H.  N. 

The  cylinder-clearance  volume  is  determined  from  the 
volume  of  water  that  can  be  contained  by  the  clearance 
space  when  filled  from  the  piston  at  the  end  of  the  stroke 
back  to  the  valve  seats.  An  opening  needs  to  be  provided 
at  the  top  of  each  end  of  the  cylinder  for  introducing  the 
measuring  water,  or  it  may  be  introduced  by  the  indicator 
connections  provided  suitable  provision  is  made  for  the 
escape  of  air  from  the  cylinder  during  the  process  of  filling 
the  cylinder  with  the  measuring  water.  Place  the  engine 
on  dead-center  at  the  head  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  after 
removing  the  valves,  cover  each  valve  seat  with  a  rubber 
gasket  held  dovra  tight  by  a  block  of  wood  wedged  or  bolted 
in  place.  Remove  the  cylinder  head  and  pack  candlewicking 
around  the  piston  to  prevent  excessive  leakage  of  water 
past  the  piston. 

Provide  two  vessels  each  filled  with  clean  water  and  take 
the  weight  of  each.  With  the  cylinder  head  in  place,  the 
clearance  space  of  the  head  end  is  to  be  filled  from  one 
vessel  and  a  note  made  of  the  time  required.  As  soon  as 
the  space  is  filled,  the  first  vessel  is  to  be  set  to  one  side 
for  subsequently  determining  the  weight  of  water  thus  used, 
and  the  clearance  space  is  to  be  kept  filled  against  leakage 
for  five  minutes  by  adding  water  from  the  second  vessel. 
The  vessels  are  then  again  weighed  and  the  weight  of  water 
used  from  each  determined. 

The  average  rate  of  leakage  while  filling  the  space  may 
be  assumed  to  be  one-half  of  the  rate  during  the  filling.     If 

W  =   Weight  of  water  in  pounds  used  to  fill  the  clearance 
space, 
t  =   Number  of  minutes  required  to  fill   the  clearance 

space,  and 
w  =  The  weight  of  water  in  pounds  per  minute  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  space  filled  against  leakage, 
then  the  leakage  during  filling  is  approximately  (W  X  t) 
H-  2,  and  the  clearance  space  will  contain  W  —  [{w  x  *) 
-;-  2]  lb.  of  water  and  this  multiplied  by  0.036  will  give  the 
space  in  cubic  inches.  The  clearance  for  the  crank  end  of 
the  cylinder  is  found  in  the  same  general  manner. 


[Correspondents  sending  us  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with   full  names  and  addresses. — Editor.] 


814 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


The  Storage  of  Bituminous  Coal' 


By  H.  H.  STOEKt 


An  unusualhj  valuable  paper  on  why  coal  should 
be  stored;  the  practicability  of  storage  and  ef- 
fect of  storing  on  the  coal;  systems  of  storage 
employed;  cost  per  ton,  and  precautions  to  be 
observed. 


ALTHOUGH  the  storage  of  coal  has  become  of  un- 
usual importance  under  war  conditions,  it  should 
not  be  considered  only  as  a  war  expedient,  and  plans 
for  storage  should  be  made  by  every  householder  and  in  con- 
nection with  every  industry  that  uses  coal  as  one  of  the 
adjustments  necessary  to  stabilize  a  fundamental  industry 
of  the  country. 

The  demand  for  coal  varies  with  the  weather  condi- 
tions and  is  largely  a  seasonal  one,  not  only  as  regards 
domestic  fuel,  but  in  connection  with  fuel  used  for  power 
purposes.  As  a  result  of  the  unequal  requirements  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year,  and  the  failure  to  store  coal 
during  periods  when  small  amounts  are  used,  the  mines 
of  the  United  States  operate  only  about  200  days  per  year 
and  the  demands  upon  the  railroads  for  handling  coal  are 
unequally  distributed,  the  greatest  demand  coming  during 
the  fall  when  railway  equipment  is  needed  for  handling 
crops  and  during  the  winter  months  when  operating  ex- 
penses  are   greatest. 

As  a  result  of  the  reduced  time  of  working  of  the  mines, 
an  extra  daily  wage  must  be  paid  the  miner  and  other 
employees  if  they  are  to  make  a  yearly  living  wage,  and 
there  must  be  also  an  excessive  number  of  mines  to  take 
care  of  this  peak  load  during  a  part  of  the  year. 

A  reason  often  advanced  against  storage  is  the  increased 
cost  involved,  but  a  suitable  readjustment  of  mining  and 
transportation  conditions  should  mean  a  lower  cost  for 
mining  and  transportation  that  would,  at  least  partly,  off- 
set the  additional  necessary  cost  for  storage  and  should  not 
increase  the  cost  to  the  consumer  much,  if  any. 

Storage  Should  Add  but  Little  to  Cost  to  Consumer 

The  effect  of  storage  upon  coal  may  be  considered  under 
the  heads  of  appearance,  loss  in  heat  value,  difference  in 
firing  qualities  of  stored  coal,  change  in  coking  properties, 
change  in  gas-making  properties,  and  degradation,  or  the 
increase  in  the  amount  of  fine  coal  and  dust  due  to  break- 
age from  handling  and  the  slacking  or  weathering  due  to 
exposure  to  the  air. 

With  reference  to  appearance  the  exterior  of  a  pile 
of  certain  kinds  of  coal  frequently  becomes  covered  with 
a  white  coating  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  it  may  be  rusty 
and  dirty  in  appearance.  Usually,  this  change  in  appear- 
ance is  only  "skin-deep,"  and  the  interior  is  not  changed 
in  appearance  to  any  extent,  excepting  with  certain  slack 
coals.  Some  coals  have  a  much  dirtier  appearance  in  the 
piles  after  being  in  storage,  and  although  the  heating  value 
is  not  reduced  thereby  the  sale  value  may  be  decreased  be- 
cause, to  the  domestic  user  particularly,  the  appearance  of 
the    coal   means   much. 

Loss  in  heat  value,  due  to  storage,  is  much  less  than  is 
commonly  thought.  It  varies  with  different  coals  and  is 
greater  for  screenings  than  for  screened  coal.  Experiments 
by  Prof.  S.  W.  Parr,  University  of  Illinois,  show  a  loss  of 
only  3  to  3%  per  cent,  tor  screenings  and  also  that  coals 
vary  in  this  respect.  Those  from  southern  Illinois  show 
less  change  than  those  from  central  Illinois;  also  coals 
that  show  a  small  decrease  at  first  continue  to  have  only 
a  small  decrease  as  time  goes  on. 

There",  is  a  general  and  widespread  opinion  that  stored 


•Abstract  of  paper  read   before  the  Western   Society  of  Engi- 
neers,_  Chicago.  April  15.  1918. 

.tProfessor  of  Mining  Engineering,   University  of  Illinois. 


coal  is  dead  when  put  on  the  fire  and  is  often  considered 
and  condemned  as  being  "no  good."  Although  there  is  no 
great  decrease  in  calorific  power,  it  is  quite  probable  that, 
due  to  the  oxidation  of  the  surfaces  of  the  lumps  of  coal, 
they  burn  less  freely,  but  experiments  made  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  on  a  stationary  boiler  showed  that  the 
stored  coals  tested  had  an  equal  evaporating  power  with 
the  fresh  coal,  provided  a  thinner  bed  was  carried  and 
greater  draft  furnished. 

Spontaneous  Ignition  of  Stored  Coal 

The  greatest  objection  to  storing  coal  is  the  liability  to 
spontaneous  combustion,  which  is  due  mainly  to  the  oxida- 
tion of  the  carbon  and  other  organic  materials  in  the  coal 
and  to  a  less  extent  to  the  oxidation  of  the  sulphur  in  the 
iron  pyrites  contained  in  most  coals.  Freshly  mined  -coal 
has  a  tendency  to  oxidize  and  heat,  and  while  this  property 
varies  with  different  coals,  the  general  rule  apparently 
holds  for  all  coals.  The  finer  the  coal  the  greater  the  sur- 
face exposed  to  the  air  and  the  greater  the  tendency  to 
oxidation  and  heating.  Lump  coal  is  not  so  likely  to  fire 
as  fine  coal,  slack  or  run-of-mine.  Any  method  of  storage 
must  either  prevent  or  check  the  absorption  of  oxygen  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  generation  of  heat  may  not  pro- 
ceed so  rapidly  as  to  exceed  the  heat  lost  by  radiation.  The 
greater  the  time  between  mining  and  storing  the  less  the 
liability  to  firing. 

High-volatile  matter  does  not  increase  the  liability  to 
spontaneous  combustion,  according  to  the  experiments  of 
Porter  and  Ovitz,  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines.  The  high- 
volatile  coals  in  the  West  are  liable  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion, but  Porter  and  Ovitz  conclude  that  this  is  due 
more  to  the  nature  of  the  volatile  than  to  its  amount.  Sul- 
phur in  coal  assists  in  spontaneous  combustion  by  oxidizing 
and  breaking  it  up  so  as  to  produce  greater  fines,  and  also 
in  its  oxidation,  heat  is  produced.  In  selecting  a  coal  for 
storage  a  low-sulphur  coal  is  to  be  preferred. 

The  effect  of  moisture  on  spontaneous  combustion  is  an 
unsettled  question,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  safer  practice  not 
to  wet  coal  for  storage;  if  it  can  be  avoided,  do  not  store 
a  layer  of  dry  coal  on  a  wet  layer.  The  effect  of  water 
in  helping  to  disintegrate  high-sulphur  coals  is  undis- 
puted. 

Data  on  the  effect  of  storage  on  the  coking  properties  of 
coal  are  scarce,  but  the  general  opinion  is  that  unless  the 
coal  heats  and  thus  changes  in  character,  its  coking  prop- 
erties are  not  materially  influenced.  According  to  the  ex- 
periments of  White,  the  gas-making  qualities  of  Eastern 
coals  are  not  decreased  by  storage. 

There  is  often  thought  to  be  a  loss  in  weight  of  stored 
coal,  but  this  is  more  apparent  than  real  and  may  be  due 
to  the  evaporation  of  moisture. 

Nearly  All  Coals  Can  Be  Stored  if  Properly  Piled 

There  is  an  erroneous,  misleading  but  vndespread  opinion 
that  the  locality  from  which  the  coal  comes  determines 
whether  or  not  it  can  be  stored.  One  frequently  hears 
such  remarks  as  "Eastern  coals"  (meaning  those  from 
Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia)  can  be  easily  stored,  but 
Western  coals  (meaning  those  from  Illinois  and  Indiana) 
cannot  be  and  they  are  much  more  liable  to  spontaneous 
combustion."  Both  parts  of  this  statement  are  too  broad, 
for  scientific  research  and  experience  have  shown  that 
nearly  any  coal  can  be  stored  if  it  is  properly  piled  and 
nearly  any  coal  improperly  stored  will  heat  and  may  fire. 

Coal  should  be  stored  preferably  during  the  spring  and 
summer  so  as  to  help  the  railroad  and  mining  situations; 
labor  costs  are  usually  less.  The  disadvantage  of  sum- 
mer storage  is  that  the  coal  maintains  this  temperature 
for  a  long  time. 

The  size,  shape  and  depth  of  piles  depend  mainly  upon 
the  appliances  used  for  storing.  There  is  a  great  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  the  height  to  which  coal  can  be  safely  piled 
and  stored.     Many  would  limit  the  pile  to  10  ft.  in  height, 


Juno  4,  1918 


POWER 


815 


although  many  dock  piles  are  50  to  60  ft.  high,  and  the 
chief  objection  to  high  piles  is  the  difficulty  in  handling 
and  moving  the  coal  quickly  in  case  the  temperature  rises 
and  also  the  difficulty  of  testing  for  an  increase  in  tem- 
perature. The  idea  that  firing  takes  place  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pile  due  to  the  pressure  and  crushing  on  account  of 
the  height  is  not  borne  out  by  the  facts,  as  many  fires 
seem  to  start  near  the  top  as  near  the  bottom  and  near 
the  outside  as  the  inside  of  a  pile.  Since  the  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  broken  coal  is  about  40  lb.,  a  column  50  ft. 
high  weighs  only  2000  lb.,  which  gives  a  weight  of  only 
about  14  lb.  per  sq.  in.  at  the  bottom  of  the  pile.  This  is 
small  compared  with  the  crushing  strength  of  most  coal 
even  when  it  is  considered  that  the  coal  does  not  rest  on 
a  solid  base,  but  is  supported  in  many  cases  on  the  points 
of  the  pieces  of  coal.  Heating  due  to  pressure  is  certainly 
overestimated,  probably  also  pressure  due  to  the  weight 
of  the  overlying  coal. 

It  is  generally  accepted  that  if  the  air  supply  is  shut  off 
from  the  coal,  as  is  the  case  with  under-water  storage, 
spontaneous  combustion  cannot  occur,  and  also  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  assume  that  if  ample  ventilation  can  be  fur- 
nished to  carry  off  the  heat  and  keep  down  the  temperature 
in  a  coal  pile,  spontaneous  combustion  will  not  occur.  It 
is  the  intermediate  condition  that  is  dangerous.  On  the 
other  hand,  run-of-mine  coal  often  cannot  be  safely  stored, 
because  not  only  is  there  then  present  an  excessive  amount 
of  fine  coal  that  will  oxidize  readily,  but  the  openings  be- 
tween the  lumps  contain  considerable  fine  coal,  which  shuts 
off  a  free  circulation  of  air. 

This  also  explains  why  alternate  stratification  of  coarse 
and  fine  coal  is  undesirable  and  why  air  passages  due  to 
large  lumps  rolling  to  the  bottom  of  the  pile  should  be 
avoided,  because  they  form  a  duct  or  chimney  for  an  amount 
of  air  to  reach  the  fine  material  inside  the  pile,  sufficient 
to  promote  oxidation  but  insufficient  to  keep  down  the  tem- 
perature. 

Ventilating  a  Coal  Pile 

The  practicability  of  properly  ventilating  a  coal  pile  has 
been  disputed,  and  while  the  consensus  of  opinion  in  the 
United  States  is  against  ventilation  by  pipes,  it  is  prob- 
able that  many  of  the  opinions  expressed  are  based  upon 
unfavorable  results  secured  through  improperly  installed 
and  inadequate  ventilation  schemes.  Many  of  the  so-called 
pipe  ventilation  schemes  have  been  little  more  than  the 
occasional  placing  of  a  pipe  into  which  a  thermometer  can 
be  inserted  to  read  temperatures.  There  are  few  records 
in  the  United  States  of  a  systematic  and  adequate  ventila- 
tion scheme  being  installed,  because  such  a  scheme  is  ex- 
pensive and  it  also  undoubtedly  interferes  with  the  rapid 
handling  of  the  coal.  It  is  contended  by  many  that  closely 
packed  coal  is  so  poor  a  conductor  of  heat,  fire  can  start 
very  close  to  a  ventilating  pipe. 

Several  instances  of  successful  ventilation  have  been  cited 
to  the  writer  in  connection  with  railroad  work  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Dr.  J.  B.  Porter,  of  McGill  University, 
is  convinced  that  the  method  of  ventilation  used  by  the 
Canadian  Pacific  R.R.  and  others  in  Canada  is  efficient  and 
entirely  practicable.  It  is  questionable  whether  the  cooler 
climate  of  Canada  has  anything  to  do  with  the  effective 
ventilation  noted  by  Dr.  Porter.  Data  upon  this  subject 
for  Illinois  conditions  are  certainly  not  yet  conclusive,  and 
ventilation  is  a  questionable  experiment. 

The  common  methods  for  testing  heating  coal  piles  are: 
Watching  when  the  pile  begins  to  steam,  the  odor  which 
is  either  that  of  burning  bituminous  matter  or  burning  sul- 
phur; by  means  of  an  iron  rod  inserted  into  the  pile  and 
when  drawn  out  tested  by  feeling  with  the  hand;  by  means 
of  the  thermometer  inserted  into  a  pipe  driven  into  the  pile; 
and  by  spots  of  melted  snow. 

Opinions  differ  widely  in  regard  to  when  the  temperature 
reaches  a  critical  or  danger  point.  Parr  says,  "Bituminous 
coal  can  be  stocked  without  appreciable  loss  of  heat  value 
pi-ovided  the  temperature  is  not  allowed  to  rise  above  180 
deg.  F."  How  close  to  this  temperature  a  pile  should  be 
allowed  to  heat  is  largely  a  matter  of  judgment,  for  if  the 
rise  seems  to  be  decreasing  rather  rapidly,  it  may  be  safe 
to  allow  it  to  approach  the  180-deg.  point;  but  if  it  is  steady 


and  regular,  it  is  wise  to  load  out  the  pile  before  the  danger 
point  is  reached.  This  rise  also  depends  upon  the  means 
available  for  loading  out,  for  at  a  point  equipped  with  large 
grab  buckets  and  means  for  rapidly  handling  the  coal,  a 
higher  temperature  can  be  permitted  than  when  consider- 
able time  may  be  required  to  load  out  the  coal.  A  person 
in  charge  of  a  certain  kind  of  coal  under  certain  climate 
conditions  will  soon  learn  what  is  the  danger  point,  and  it 
is  impossible  to  set  any  critical  temperature  that  will  apply 
to  all  coals  under  varying  storage  conditions.  The  only  safe 
rule  is  to  watch  the  temperature  closely  and  get  ready  to 
load  out  when  the  temperature  reaches  150  deg.  and  to 
move  the  coal  if  the  temperature  reaches  175  degrees. 

Water  Not  Effective  in  Putting  Out  Fires 
Water  generally  has  not  proved  effective  in  putting  out 
fires,  probably  because  it  cannot  be  applied  or  is  not  applied 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  thoroughly  cool  the  entire  mass. 
It  is  the  general  opinion  that  except  for  quite  small  piles 
which  can  be  completely  soaked,  water  will  aggravate  rather 
than  put  out  a  fire.  Water  frequently  cannot  reach  the 
fire  because  of  a  layer  of  coke  that  has  formed  a  protection 
about  it.  One  large  pile  in  Chicago  was  soaked  as  com- 
pletely as  possible  with  streams  from  river  fire  tugs,  and 
while  the  fire  was  apparently  out,  within  two  or  three  days 
it  was  burning  as  fiercely  as  ever.  If  the  coal  can  be  spread 
out  thinly  and  thoroughly  saturated  with  water,  the  fire 
can  be  put  out,  but  very  often  there  is  not  sufficient  ground 
available  to  permit  proper  spreading,  for  which  reason  most 
of  the  efforts  to  use  water  have  been  unsuccessful. 

Inert  gases,  such  as  carbon  dioxide,  have  been  tried,  but 
no  successful  results  have  been  reported,  because  with  an 
outdoor  pile  it  is  impossible  to  confine  such  gases,  and  even 
with  inclosed  piles  where  this  has  been  tried,  the  same  dif- 
ficulty has  been  met  with. 

The  author  enumerated  the  points  to  be  considered  in  the 
choice  of  a  storage  system  and  the  requirements  of  an  ideal 
plant.  Following,  brief  descriptions  were  given  of  the  prin- 
cipal methods  of  storing,  such  as  hand  storage,  storage  by 
means  of  a  motor  truck,  trestle  storage,  storage  with  side- 
dump  cars,  side-hill  storage,  mast-and-gaflf  storage,  loco- 
motive-crane storage,  circular  storage,  steeple  storage, 
bridge  storage  and  under-water  storage.  For  more  com- 
plete details  reference  was  made  to  the  speaker's  paper  on 
"Storage  of  Coal,"  Circular  No.  6,  Engineering  Experi- 
ment Station,  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana. 

Locomotive  Crane  Storage 

Under  the  heading  of  "Locomotive  Crane  Storage,"  ref- 
erence was  made  to  the  practice  of  the  Commonwealth 
Edison  Co.,  of  Chicago,  and  the  following  conclusions  by 
W.  L.  Abbott  based  upon  storage  of  all  varieties  of  Illinois 
coal  over  long  periods: 

"Nearly  any  coal  that  has  gone  over  a  l^A-in.  screen  can 
be  stored.     Coal  of  any  size  with  duff  left  in  it  will  heat. 

"Pea  coal  (over  %-in.  through  %-in.)  has  been  in  storage 
for  more  than  a  year  without  heating.  Coal  with  screen- 
ings removed  has  been  kept  in  storage  eight  years  without 
firing." 

The  coal  is  stored  on  the  ground  in  continuous  pyramidal 
piles  25  ft.  high,  each  pile  being  between  two  pairs  of  rail- 
road tracks. 

Cost  figures  for  storage  and  reclaiming  from  a  number 
of  different  companies  were  presented.  Some  of  the  figures 
given  include  only  labor  and  supplies,  with  no  allowances 
for  overhead,  insurance,  rental  for  the  land,  depreciation 
and  interest  on  the  investment.  For  hand  storage  the 
cost  per  ton  varied  from  15  to  64  cents;  with  the  locomo- 
tive crane,  from  5  to  50  cents;  with  the  steam  shovel, 
20  cents;  with  bridge  storage,  11  to  60  cents;  and  with 
under-water  storage,  9  to  22.5  cents. 

As  the  result  of  a  rather  detailed  study  of  a  number  of 
storage  plants  and  as  a  digest  of  the  opinions  expressed  in 
answer  to  a  questionnaire  sent  to  a  large  number  of  those 
who  have  had  extended  experience  in  storing  coal,  the  fol- 
lowing have  been  decided  upon  as  conclusions  that  are  justi- 
fied by  present  storage  practice: 

It  is  practicable,  advisable  and  advantageous  to  store 
bituminous  coal  not  only  during  war  times,  but  also  under 


816 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


normal  conditions  either  at  the  mines,  near  the  point  where 
it  is  to  be  used,  or  at  some  intermediate  point.  It  is  well 
to  store  coal  as  near  the  point  of  consumption  as  possible 
to  avoid  rehandling. 

The  danger  from  spontaneous  combustion  is  due  more 
to  improper  piling  of  coal  than  it  is  to  the  kind  of  coal 
stored.  Most  varieties  of  bituminous  coal  can  be  stored 
in  the  air  if  of  proper  size  and  if  free  from  fine  coal  and 
dust.  The  coal  must  be  so  handled  that  dust  and  small 
coal  are  not  produced  in  excessive  amounts  during  the  stor- 
ing, because  spontaneous  combustion  is  due  mainly  to  the 
oxidation  of  the  coal  surface. 

All  varieties  of  bituminous  coal  can  be  stored  under  water, 
which  excludes  the  air  and  prevents  spontaneous  combustion. 

The  danger  of  spontaneous  combustion  in  storing  the  coal 
is  greatly  reduced  if  not  entirely  eliminated  by  storing 
only  lump  coal  from  which  the  dust  and  fine  coal  have  been 
removed.  Of  two  coals  the  less  friable  should  be  chosen 
for  storage. 

Spontaneous  combustion  may  be  guarded  against  by  pre- 
venting air  currents  through  the  pile  by  means  of  a  closely 
sealed  wall  built  around  the  pile,  and  by  closely  packing 
the  fine  coal.  Such  a  coal  pile  must  be  closely  watched  for 
heating.  The  only  absolutely  safe  way  to  store  slack  or  fine 
coal  is  under  water. 

Fine  coal  or  slack  has  sometimes  been  successfully  stored. 
Many  varieties  of  mine-run  coal  cannot  be  stored  safely 
because  of  fine  coal  and  dust  mixed  with  the  lumps. 

Coal  exposed  to  the  air  for  some  time  may  become  "sea- 
soned" and  thus  may  be  less  liable  to  spontaneous  combus- 
tion, due  to  the  oxidation  of  the  surface  of  the  lumps  of 
coal,  but  opinions  upon  this  point  are  not  unanimous. 

It  is  believed  by  many  that  damp  coal  stored  on  a  damp 
base  is  peculiarly  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion,  but  the 
evidence  is  not  conclusive. 

Am  Should  Circulate  Freely  Through  the  Coal 

To  prevent  spontaneous  combustion  coal  should  be  so  piled 
that  air  can  circulate  through  it  freely  and  thus  carry  off 
the  heat  due  to  oxidation  of  the  carbon,  or  else  it  should 
be  so  closely  piled  that  air  cannot  enter  the  pile  and  oxidize 
the  fine  coal. 

Stratification  or  segregation  of  fine  and  lump  coal  should 
be  avoided  since  an  open  stratum  or  a  chimney  of  coarse 
lumps  of  coal  gives  a  passage  for  air  to  enter  and  come  in 
contact  with  fine  coal  and  thus  to  oxidize  it  and  start  com- 
bustion. 

If  space  permits,  low  piles  are  preferable. 

Coal  of  different  varieties  should  not  be  mixed  in  storage 
if  this  can  be  helped,  for  one  coal  more  susceptible  to  spon- 
taneous combustion  than  the  other  may  jeopardize  the  safety 
of  the  pile. 

The  heating  value  of  a  coal  is  decreased  little  by  storage, 
but  the  belief  is  widespread  that  storage  coal  burns  less 
freely  when  fired  in  a  furnace.  Experiments  indicate  that 
much  of  this  can  be  overcome  by  keeping  a  thinner  bed  on 
the  grate  than  is  kept  with  fresh  coal  and  by  regulating  the 
draft. 

Pieces  of  wood,  greasy  waste  or  other  easily  combustible 
material  mixed  in  a  coal  pile  may  form  a  starting  point  for 
a  fire,  and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  keep  such  mate- 
rial from  the  coal  as  it  is  being  put  in  storage. 

J.  L.  Hecht,  mechanical  engineer  of  the  Public  Service 
Co.  of  Northern  Illinois,  never  had  a  fire  in  a  storage  pile 
of  lump  coal;  that  is,  coal  that  had  been  screened.  No 
attention  had  been  paid  to  the  height  of  the  pile  except 
from  the  standpoint  of  convenience  of  handling.  The  com- 
pany never  stored  screenings,  but  had  stored  No.  3  nut 
coal  for  three  or  four  years  without  signs  of  heating. 

Screenings  had  been  stored  successfully  at  the  University 
of  Illinois  by  packing  the  fuel  closely  and  excluding  the  air 
as  much  as  possible.  Coal  from  a  truck  was  dumped  on  a 
former  tennis  court,  which  offered  a  hard  foundation.  When 
the  fuel  reached  a  certain  height,  it  was  smoothed  over  and 
pressed  down  into  a  compact  mass  by  means  of  rollers. 
Plank  roads  were  then  laid  on  the  pile  so  that  the  truck 
could  distribute  another  layer  of  coal  and  this  in  turn  was 
rolled  down  as  before.  To  prevent  air  circulation  from  the 
sides,  a  board  fence  surrounded  the  pile.    Heating  developed 


in  a  couple  of  places  where  other  coal  had  been  mixed  with 
the  screenings,  but  otherwise  this  method  was  satisfactory. 
The  cost  for  storing  and  reclaiming  had  averaged  about 
40c.  per  ton. 

James  Macdonald,  president  of  the  Macdonald  Engineer- 
ing Co.,  had  developed,  for  a  plant  in  Michigan,  a  vertical 
method  of  storage,  which  appeared  to  possess  advantages 
over  the  various  horizontal  plans  universally  used.  He  was 
a  firm  believer  in  the  exclusion  of  air  and  this  was  effected 
in  the  present  case  by  storing  the  coal  in  two  vertical 
reinforced-concrete  tanks  resembling  the  farm  "silo."  The 
tanks  were  28  ft.  diameter  by  70  ft.  deep.  Depending  upon 
the  foundation,  it  was  easy  to  vary  the  dimensions  to  suit 
the  requirements.  The  storage  was  fireproof,  occupied  little 
space  and  was  convenient  to  the  power  house.  Slack  coal 
had  been  stored  so  successfully  that  a  duplicate  installation 
was  now  being  made.  In  case  of  heating,  conveyors  had 
been  provided  so  that  the  bottom  coal  could  be  removed  and 
transferred  to  the  top  and  water  pipes  had  been  laid  so 
that  the  tanks  could  be  flooded.  Neither  of  these  precau- 
tions had  to  be  used  as  the  coal  never  fired. 


Weights  and  Measures  in  Venezuela 

The  use  of  the  metric  system  in  all  business  transac- 
tions is  not  only  legal  but  compulsory  throughout  Vene- 
zuela. The  law  of  Feb.  13,  1857,  prescribed  that,  beginning 
Jan.  1,  1858,  the  metric  system  should  be  used  in  all  the 
government  offices  and  for  all  public  acts,  and  that  a  year 
later  it  should  be  used  by  all  Venezuelans.  Evidently  the 
last-named  proviso  was  not  enforced  for  the  old  system  of 
weights  and  measures  continued  in  almost  universal  use 
among  the  people  until  the  issuance  of  the  decree  of  May  18, 
1912,  which  was  based  on  the  old  law  and  took  rigorous 
steps  to  put  it  into  effect.  Under  date  of  Feb.  13,  1914, 
the  Federal  Executive  prescribed  rules  for  the  use  and 
practice  of  the  metric  system.  A  pamphlet  was  published 
in  Caracas  in  1916  under  government  auspices  and  shows 
in  detail  the  steps  that  have  been  taken  to  make  the  use 
of  the  metric  system  compulsory  and  to  uproot  the  old 
methods  which  had  survived. 

The  strict  measures  taken  have  compelled  the  adoption  of 
the  metric  system  for  all  business  transactions  of  any 
importance.  Not  only  is  it  illegal  to  use  any  other  weights 
and  measures,  but  a  merchant  is  subject  to  punishment 
even  for  having  them  in  his  possession.  The  use  of  units 
indicating  another  system  in  addition  to  the  metric  is  also 
illegal.  The  importation  of  weights  and  measures  other 
than  the  legal  is  prohibited,  and  as  the  authorities  have 
destroyed  the  old  ones  wherever  possible,  distinct  prog- 
ress toward  the  universal  adoption  of  the  new  system  has 
been  made. 

In  spite  of  the  stringency  of  the  laws,  the  people  at  large, 
especially  in  the  country,  still  cling  to  old  units  in  their 
everyday  life  and  talk  c.nd  think  in  terms  of  them.  This 
will  only  be  finally  remedied  by  the  growing  up  of  a  new 
generation. 

The  units  of  weight  and  measurement  formerly  in  use  in 
Venezuela  were  varied  as  well  as  variable.  Many  of  the 
measures  differed  according  to  the  article  and  the  locality. 
Thus  the  fanega,  which  was  widely  used,  and  for  much 
the  same  purposes  as  in  the  bushel  in  the  United  States 
today,  weighed  from  110  to  864  lb.,  depending  on  the  prod- 
uct measured  and  the  locality  concerned.  The  quintal  of 
100  Spanish  pounds,  equivalent  to  101.4  English  pounds, 
was  formerly  much  employed  in  the  sale  of  coffee,  cocoa  and 
other  products;  and  this  usage  still  survives,  although  the 
transactions  are  officially  reported  as  "per  46  kilos,"  which 
is  the  equivalent  of  the  quintal. 

It  is  generally  agreed  here  that  the  compulsory  adoption 
of  the  metric  system  was  a  wise  measure  and  that  its  use  has 
simplified  and  facilitated  the  transaction  of  business.— 
Commerce  Reports. 


A  little  more  care  in  cutting  out  gaskets  from  sheet 
packing  will  make  a  big  saving  in  that  commodity.  It 
is  time  that  more  attention  was  paid  to  this  miportani;  if 
minor,  detail. — Marine  Engineering. 


Juno  4,  1918 


POWER 


817 


National  Coal  Conference 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  United  States  Railroad  Admin- 
istration and  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration  the  In- 
ternational Railway  Fuel  Association  held  its  tenth  annual 
convention  in  Chicago  on  May  2;l  and  24.  Hotel  Sherman 
was  headquarters  for  the  convention,  and  the  meetings  were 
held  at  Cohen's  Grand  Opera  House.  Upward  of  1500  at- 
tended, including  mine  operators,  representatives  of  the 
mine  workers,  railway  executives  an]  employees,  railroad 
and  fuel  administration  representatives  and  heads  of  indus- 
tries that  make  large  demands  on  fuel  and  ti-ansportation. 
It  was  an  enthusiastic  meeting,  held  with  a  view  of  better- 
ing the  coal  situation,  to  impress  on  each  factor  the  neces- 
sity for  maximum  efforts  and  the  need  for  cooperation. 
Those  attending  were  pledged  to  carry  home  the  spirit  of 
the  meeting  and  inspire  the  vast  army  of  workers  respon- 
sible for  results.  Nearly  a  million  copies  of  the  proceedings 
will  be  distributed  to  these  men. 

Expressing  the  sentiments  of  those  addressing  the  con- 
vention, American  miners  must  get  out  more  and  cleaner 
coal.  American  railroad  men  must  furnish  the  locomotives 
and  the  cars  to  haul  it,  and  in  their  use  of  fuel  must  make 
every  pound  count.  The  consumer  can  also  do  his  part  by 
ordering  now  to  relieve  the  situation  later  on.  It  was  made 
apparent  that  there  was  no  lack  of  miners  and  that  if  they 
were  employed  full  time  as  in  other  trades,  there  would  be 
no  coal  deficiency. 

In  his  opening  address  E.  W.  Pratt,  president  of  the  As- 
sociation, summed  up  the  railroad  coal  problem  as  one  of 
hauling  more  coal  with  fewer  cars.  It  was  a  question  of 
doing  the  maximum  amount  of  work  with  the  facilities  at 
hand.  Regional  Director  Aishton,  of  the  United  States  Rail- 
road Administration,  declared  that  the  only  thing  that  mat- 
tered for  all  of  us  now  is  the  maintenance  of  that  line  "over 
there."  He  begged  the  miners  and  railway  men  of  Amer- 
ica to  "strip  to  the  waist"  and  do  their  utmost  to  help 
maintain  that  line.  Trooper  Scott,  of  the  Anzacs,  told  how 
he  pleaded  with  the  coal  miners  to  supply  the  fuel  to  win 
the  war,  and  how  when  they  realize  what  their  work  means, 
they  go  to  it  harder  than  ever  to  increase  the  output.  His 
plea  to  the  miners  was,  "Load  all  the  coal  you  can  and  load 
it  clean." 

Thomas  Britt,  general  fuel  agent  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Ry.,  spoke  for  Canada,  emphasizing  the  importance  of  coal 
loaded  clean  and  free  from  slate,  dirt  or  other  nonburning 
substances.  Troopships  burning  dirty  coal  are  slowed  down 
in  the  U-boat  zone,  doubling  the  danger  of  the  thousands 
of  soldiers  carried  to  the  front. 

R.  Quayle,  general  superintendent  of  motive  power  and 
car  department  of  the  Chicago  &  Northwestern  Ry.,  urged 
that  every  man  make  it  a  personal  matter  to  cut  out  waste 
of  coal  in  railway  operation.  In  a  paper  prepared  by  W. 
S.  Carter,  labor  director  of  the  United  States  Railroad  Ad- 
ministration, and  read  by  Eugene  McAuliffe,  it  was  stated 
that  in  the  spring  of  1919  American  railroads  must  be 
ready  to  haul  cargo  and  bunker  coal  for  8,000,000  tons  of 
army  shipping,  supplying  2,000,000  American  troops  in 
France.  Th's,  in  addition  to  the  present  great  fuel  demand, 
would  necessitate  that  the  eight-hour  work  day,  desirable  in 
peace,  yield  to  the  Nation's  need,  and  that  railway  men 
must  prepare  to  work  as  many  hours  as  the  job  may  call 
for  up  to  the  limit  of  their  power.  Better  maintenance  of 
locomotives  as  a  means  of  saving  coal  was  urged  by  Frank 
McManamy,  director  of  the  locomotive  maintenance  division 
of  the  United  States  Railroad  Administration.  It  was  esti- 
mated that  defective  and  neglected  motive  power  would 
cost  the  American  railways  this  year  $50,000,000  worth  of 
coal,  besides  the  great  loss  of  efficiency. 

On  Thursday  evening  the  feature  was  a  motion  picture 
dealing  with  the  conservation  of  railway  fuel.  The  picture 
had  been  prepared  by  and  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
States  Fuel  and  Railroad  Administrations  and  was  viewed 
with  a  great  deal  of  interest  by  thosij  in  attendance. 

At  the  opening  session  Friday,  P.  B.  Noyes,  director  con- 
servation division,  United  States  Fuel  Administration,  said 
that  it  was  impossible  for  the  railways,  with  their  burden 
of  war  traffic,  to  haul  the  200,000,000  tons  of  coal  in  excess 
of  the  requirements  of  1914,  that  will  be  needed  this  year. 


Coal  users  must  save  the  situation  by  saving  coal,  or  the 
country  would  suffer  a  disastrous  stoppage  of  industries. 
The  Fuel  Administration  would  try  to  keep  the  non-war  in- 
dustries supplied  with  coal,  because  these  are  the  vital  in- 
dustries of  peace,  and  their  serious  interruption  would  cause 
a  nation-wide  commercial  panic.  At  least  $20,000,000,000 
of  capital  is  invested  in  legitimate  manufacturing  enter- 
prises not  strictly  needed  for  the  war.  Ten  million  men  sup- 
port their  families  from  the  work  they  do  in  these  factories. 
Cutting  off  their  fuel  supplies  would  mean  bankruptcy  on 
a  scale  that  would  precipitate  the  greatest  panic  ever  seen 
in  the  United  States,  and  the  sudden  and  forcible  unemploy- 
ment of  at  least  5,000,000  men.  All  responsible  agents  of 
the  Government  now  realize  that  keeping  labor  reasonably 
employed  and  only  taking  it  away  from  non-war  work  as 
fast  as  it  can  be  employed  on  war  work  is  nearly  as  im- 
portant for  success  in  this  war  as  the  manufacture  of  muni- 
tions and  s'lips. 

Peace  in  American  coal  fields  for  the  duration  of  the  war 
was  pledged  for  miners  and  operators  by  John  P.  White, 
former  president  of  the  United  Mine  Workers  of  Amer- 
ica, and  now  labor  advisor  for  the  United  States  Fuel  Ad- 
ministration. He  declared  that  700,000  American  coal 
miners  were  eager  to  work  every  day,  Sundays  and  holidays, 
getting  out  the  extra  200,000,000  tons  of  coal  needed  this 
year.  It  was  a  question  of  the  railways  furnishing  the  cars 
and  the  consumers  placing  their  orders  so  that  consecutive 
employment  in  the  mines  would  be  possible.  Mr.  White 
said  that  the  87,000  miners  of  Illinois  alone,  who  work  on 
the  average  only  160  days  per  year  and  mine  60,000,000 
tons  of  coal,  could  get  out  150,000,000  tons  of  coal  this  year 
if  enabled  to  work  full  time.  If  the  railroads  would  quit 
haggling  over  price  and  start  buying  their  coal,  everybody 
else  would  follow  suit,  production  would  rise  and  there 
would  be  no  coal  famine  next  winter.  The  one  big  mistake 
that  had  been  made  was  in  talking  price  instead  of  pro- 
duction. 

H.  N.  Taylor,  of  Kansas  City,  a  big  coal  operator,  won 
hearty  applause  when  he  agreed  with  Mr.  White  that  if  the 
country  had  a  coal  shortage  next  winter,  it  would  not  be 
due  to  a  wage  war  in  the  coal  field.  The  mine  operators 
have  been  hampered  by  loss  of  men  and  the  wearing  out  of 
machinery  which  could  not  be  replaced  or  repaired.  They 
have  to  make  the  best  efforts  they  can  with  what  they  have. 
The  consumer  has  not  wakened  up  to  his  responsibilities. 
Most  of  the  coal  mines  in  the  Central  West  and  the  South- 
west are  working  only  half  time,  because  the  large  buyers 
are  holding  back  for  a  lower  price.  There  is  need  of  co- 
operation and  coordination  among  the  operators,  the  miners, 
the  railway  men  and  the  consumers.  Last  year  there  was 
a  shortage  of  50,000,000  tons  of  bituminous  coal.  Even  to 
keep  even  with  last  year,  this  much  extra  coal  must  be 
mined.  The  operators  could  produce  it  if  the  necessary 
cars  were  available.  There  are  two  ways  of  increasing  the 
coal  output:  One  is  to  produce  more  coal  and  the  other  to 
save  coal.  If  maximum  results  are  obtained  from  both 
there  will  be  no  coal  shortage. 

Eugene  McAuliife,  manager  of  the  fuel-conservation  sec- 
tion of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration,  intimated 
that  the  Government  might  find  it  necessary  to  take  over 
the  coal  mines  for  the  period  of  the  war.  According  to 
Claxton  E.  Allen,  deputy  fuel  administrator  for  Illinois, 
records  of  all  coal  sales  are  being  kept,  so  that  if  necessary 
the  administrator  can  take  coal  from  those  who  have  a 
surplus  and  allot  it  to  others  who  have  none. 

"Fuel  Oil  and  the  War"  was  discussed  in  a  paper  sent  by 
M.  L.  Requa,  director  of  the  oil  division  of  the  Fuel  Admin- 
istration. Diversion  of  all  tankers  from  coastline  to  trans- 
atlantic army-supply  service  required  the  railways  to  haul 
an  extra  100,000  bbl.  of  oil  a  day  from  Southwestern  fields 
to  the  north  Atlantic  war  industrial  centers.  Pipe-line  de- 
liveries are  to  be  increased  by  20,000  bbl.  daily  and  the 
maximum  number  of  tank  cars  have  been  placed  in  service. 
Fuel-oil  users  arc  urged  to  increase  their  storage  capacity 
and  lay  in  as  much  of  their  winter  supply  as  possible  be- 
fore the  summer  is  over. 

The  convention  closed  Friday  afternoon  with  a  business 
session  at  the  Hotel  Sherman,  at  which  the  following  offi- 
cers were  elected:  President,  L.  R.  Pyle;  vice  presidents,  C. 


818 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


M.  Butler,  H.  B.  MacFarland  and  J.  B.  Hurley;  members  of 
executive  committee  for  two  years,  B.  Pemberton  Phillippe, 
A.  N.  Willsie,  T.  Duff  Smith  and  R.  R.  Hibben;  members 
of  executive  committee  for  one  year,  H.  B.  Brown,  L.  J. 
Joffray  and   H.   Woods. 

Joint  Meeting  of  the  Chicago  Section 
A.S.  M.  E.  and  W.  S.  E. 

Officially,  the  last  meeting  of  the  season  for  the  Chicago 
Section  of  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  was  held  Friday  evening.  May  24. 
It  was  a  joint  dinner  meeting  with  the  Western  Society  of 
Engineers,  held  at  the  Hotel  La  Salle.  Notwithstanding,  an- 
other joint  meeting  will  be  held  on  June  17  at  the  rooms 
of  the  Western  Society,  the  topics  being  "Modern  Con- 
densers" and  "The  Benefits  To  Be  Obtained  in  the  Power 
Plant  from   High-Pressure  and  High-Temperature  Steam." 

Preliminary  to  the  paper  of  the  evening,  the  question  of 
training  women  for  drafting  work  was  brought  up  and  re- 
sulted in  arrangements  for  a  meeting  between  educational 
sources  and  business  men  to  see  if  such  help  was  needed 
in  this  section  and  the  possibility  of  introducing  suitable 
courses.  It  developed  that  Armour  Institute  had  already 
established  a  short  intens'-e  course  to  train  women  for 
drafting  work. 

Calvin  W.  Rice,  national  secretary,  was  a  welcome  visitor. 
His  presence  was  explained  as  a  continuation  of  the  plan 
for  the  national  oiRcers  to  visit  the  local  sections  to  relieve 
the  impression  that  the  organization  is  local  to  New  York 
and  not  national  in  its  interests.  Mr.  Rice  had  made  an 
extended  trip  and  had  been  impressed  with  the  advance  in 
thought  among  engineers.  He  had  been  particularly  im- 
pressed by  the  motto  of  the  new  Engineers'  Club  at  Day- 
ton, Ohio.  The  speaker  wanted  to  see  cooperation  between 
national  and  local  bodies  and  between  the  various  societies. 
Each  engineer  should  do  somet?iing  altruistic  and  make  the 
profession  an  instrument  for  the  com.mcn  good.  He  wanted 
to  see  engineers  identified  with  the  Board  of  Trade  or  simi- 
lar bodies.  They  must  be  good  citizens  and  help  guide  civic 
matters,  but  as  a  body  should  not  take  sides  in  politics. 
At  the  present  all  meeting  topics  should  relate  in  some  way 
to  the  war,  so  that  in  its  winning,  the  services  of  the  engi- 
neering societies  would  be  preeminent. 

In  his  retiring  address  President  Bailey  expressed  the 
opinion  that  the  best  thing  the  executive  committee  of  the 
section  had  arranged  for  during  the  past  year  was  the  joint 
meetings.  They  had  proved  a  decided  success  and  should 
be  continued.  The  new  officers  elected  were:  Chairman,  G. 
E.  Lord;  vice  chairman,  P.  A.  Poppenhusen;  secretary,  A. 
L.  Rice;  member  of  executive  committee,  J.  J.  Merrill. 

John  Ericson,  city  engineer,  reviewed  the  construction  of 
the  Wilson  Avenue  tunnel  and  the  Mayfair  pumping  station. 
The  tunnel,  which  is  eight  miles  long  from  the  crib  in  the 
Lake  to  Mayfair  pumping  station,  has  been  completed  suc- 
cessfully and  at  a  big  saving  by  day  labor.  The  finer  sec- 
tions of  the  stone  removed  from  the  tunnel  were  used  in 
the  concrete  lining  it.  By  the  use  of  special  screening  and 
conveying  machinery,  the  concrete  was  mixed  in  the  tunnel, 
and  it  had  not  been  necessary  to  follow  the  usual  procedure 
of  removing  the  stone  from  the  tunnel  and  then  taking  it 
back  again  for  the  concrete.  Excavation  and  lining  were 
carried  on  simultaneously. 

The  design  and  erection  of  the  intake  crib,  specially  de- 
signed by  the  city,  were  discussed  and  the  equipment  of  the 
station  outlined.  It  was  laid  out  for  seven  units,  but  only 
five  have  been  contracted  for.  Three  were  designed  for  a 
head  of  140  ft.  and  two  for  a  head  of  200  ft.  The  capacity 
of  each  of  the  former  units  is  25  million  gallons  and  of  the 
latter  17.5  million  gallons  per  24  hours.  The  pumping 
engines  are  of  the  Reidler  triple-expansion  type  employed 
at  the  Lakeview  Station.  Six  boilers  equipped  with  under- 
feed stokers  have  been  provided.  The  operating  pressure 
is  to  be  190  lb.  gage  and  the  superheat  200  deg.  Complete 
coal-  and  ash-handling  facilities  are  being  installed.  It  is 
the  tenth  large  pumping  station  built  for  the  City  of  Chi- 
cago. The  estimated  cost  is  $1,570,000,  and  that  of  the 
tunnel  $3,856,000,  so  that  the  total  cost  of  the  system  wrill 
approximate  $5,426,000. 


Price  of  Bituminous  Coal  Reduced 

For  a  long  time  there  has  been  a  difference  of  opinion 
between  the  Fuel  Administration  and  the  Railroad  Admin- 
istration as  to  the  price  of  coal  to  the  railroads.  By  agree- 
ments with  certain  mines  the  railroads  had  been  obtaining 
their  coal  at  prices  much  lower  than  those  to  other  con- 
sumers. The  dispute  has  been  settled  conclusively  by  an 
order  of  the  President,  effective  on  May  25,  1918,  by  which 
the  price  of  bituminous  coal  is  reduced  10c.  a  ton  and  the 
railroads  are  forced  to  pay  the  Government  price.  The 
text  of  the  order  is  as  follows; 

The  United  States  Fuel  Administration,  acting  under  au- 
thority of  an  executive  order  of  the  President  dated  Aug. 
23,  1917,  appointing  said  Administrator,  and  of  subsequent 
executive  orders  and  in  furtherance  of  said  orders  and  of 
the  act  of  Congress  therein  referred  to  and  approved  Aug. 
10,  1917,  hereby  orders  and  directs  that  all  prices  for  bi- 
tuminous coal  f.o.b.  mines  in  the  coal-producing  districts 
throughout  the  United  States  fi.xed  by  the  said  executive 
order  of  the  President,  dated  Aug.  21,  1917,  and  subsequent 
orders  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administrator,  and  in  effect 
at  7  a.m.  on  the  25th  day  of  May,  1918,  shall  be  and"  the 
same  hereby  are  reduced  as  to  all  shipments  made  after 
7  a.m.  on  the  25th  day  of  May,  1918,  by  the  sum  of  10c. 
for  each  net  ton  of  2000  pounds. 

This  order  shall  in  no  way  affect  the  increase  contained 
in  the  executive  order  of  the  President  dated  Oct.  27,  1917, 
adding  the  sum  of  45c.  to  the  prices  fixed  for  bituminous 
coal  under  the  terms  and  provisions  set  forth  in  said  last- 
mentioned  order. 

Regarding  this  order,  the  Fuel  Administration  has  issued 
the  following  statement: 

The  reduction  will  mean  an  annual  saving  to  consumers 
of  a  sum  estimated  by  the  Fuel  Administration  at  $60,000,- 
000.  The  President  has  directed  that  the  railroads  pay  the 
Government  price  for  coal.  The  increased  cost  of  railroad 
fuel  thereby  occasioned  is  also  estimated  at  $60,000,000  per 
annum.  The  reduction  of  10c.  per  ton  on  all  coal  vdll,  how- 
ever, reduce  the  net  increased  cost  to  the  railroads  from 
$60,000,000  per  annum  to  $45,000,000  per  annum.  Under 
the  President's  plan  the  railroads  will  furnish  cars  to  all 
coal  mines  alike,  without  discrimination  except  as  dictated 
by  the  prior  requirements  of  the  railroads  for  operating  pur- 
poses and  the  needs  of  domestic  consumers  and  of  the  war. 

Under  the  present  war  demands  the  maximum  output  of 
every  mine  working  at  full  time  would  still  be  insufficient 
to  meet  the  country's  coal  needs.  The  principle  of  equal 
car  supply  has  accordingly  been  adopted  so  as  to  make 
for  as  steady  an  operation  as  possible  of  all  properties  and 
for  continuous  employment  of  men,  thus  making  for  maxi- 
mum output. 

The  introduction  of  the  principle  of  even  car  supply  will 
reduce  the  general  average  overhead  of  mine  operation  and 
thereby  justifies  the  Administration  m  putting  out  a  price 
reduction  order.  It  is  undei-stood  that  the  mine  prices  thus 
fixed  will  remain  undisturbed  until  the  United  States  Fuel 
Administrator  has  before  him  the  cost  returns  for  the  twelve 
months  ending  Aug.  31,  1918. 

The  returns  thus  far  in  are  being  carefully  studied  by 
Fuel  Administration  accountants  and  engineers,  with  a  view 
to  making  the  utmost  saving  to  the  public  that  is  consistent 
with  a  maximum  production  of  coal. 

The  order  issued  tonight  will  have  no  effect  on  the  price 
of  anthracite,  which  forms  the  bulk  of  the  domestic  con- 
sumption fuel  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country. 

Consumers  of  bituminous  coal  who  have  already  entered 
their  orders  for  the  year's  coal  supply,  but  whose  coal  has 
not  yet  been  delivered,  will,  of  course,  receive  their  supplies 
at  the  reduced  price.  This  price  applies  to  all  coal  which 
leaves  the  mines  after  7  a.  m..  May  25,  no  matter  how  long 
the  order  for  the  delivery  of  the  coal  has  been  standing. 

Coal  delivered  after  7  a.  m..  May  25,  under  contracts 
which  have  been  entered  into  since  Dec.  29,  1917,  will  be 
billed  at  the  new  price.  Under  the  regulation  of  the  Fuel 
Administration  all  such  contracts  call  for  the  delivery  of 
coal  at  the  Government  price  effective  at  the  time  of  delivery. 

Organizing  a  Division  of  Inspection 
To  Insure  Clean  Coal 

To  guard  against  the  waste  and  serious  loss  result- 
ing last  winter  from  the  shipments  of  dirty  coal,  which 
occupied  car  space  and  also  seriously  decreased  indus- 
trial-plant efficiencies,  the  Fuel  Administration  has  organ- 


June  4,  1918 


POWER 


819 


ized  a  division  of  inspection,  with  C.  M.  Means  as  mana- 
ger. A  chief  inspector  has  been  appointed  in  each  of  21 
representative  districts,  and  where  necessary  assistant  in- 
spectors will  be  added.  These  inspectors  will  examine 
coal  in  the  mines,  also  as  dumped  from  mine  to  tipple, 
watch  the  picking;  tables  and  again  inspect  the  coal  as  it 
is  loaded  in  cars  for  shipment. 

Standards  will  be  established  for  insuring  proper  prepa- 
ration according:  to  use,  so  that  all  coal  shipped  must  be 
of  the  quality  required  for  its  particular  purpose.  By 
condemning  coal  at  the  mine,  a  great  improvement  in  the 
transportation  situation  should  result  in  that  the  railroads 
will  in  effect  be  hauling  heat  units,  not  ash.  Miners  who 
get  out  dirty  coal  will  be  penalized,  and  a  bonus  system 
is  being  developed.  Mines  that  cannot  supply  properly 
prepared  coal  will  not  be  allowed  to  ship  by  rail. 

Committee  Studying  Potomac  River 
Power  Project 

A  committee  consisting  of  Brig.  Gen.  W.  L.  Marshall, 
chairman.  Reclamation  Service,  Department  of  the  Interior; 
Col.  H.  C.  Newcomer,  Corps  of  Engineers,  War  Depart- 
ment: A.  L.  Parsons,  Bureau  Yards  and  Docks,  fv'avy 
Department,  and  Nelson  S.  Thompson,  Supervising  Archi- 
tect's Office,  Treasury  Department,  appointed  several  weeks 
ago,  is  making  a  study  of  the  data  at  hand  looking  to  the 
development  of  power  from  the  Potomac  River  to  supply 
electric  current  for  various  Federal  and  municipal  uses.  Two 
tentative  plans  have  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Thompson.  One 
involves  building  a  large  dam  between  the  hills  above  Great 
Falls  and  conducting  the  water  to  a  point  near  the  Chain 
Bridge,  where  a  fall  of  180  ft.  could  be  obtained.  The  esti- 
mated cost  is  about  $40,000,000.  The  other  plan— to  baild 
two  smaller  dams,  one  above  Great  Falls  and  another  near 
Chain  Bridge — would  cost  about  half  as  much  as  the  ^rst 
plan,  but  would  involve  flooding  considei-able  inhabited  area 
and  relocating  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Canal  at  this  point. 

Any  plan  must,  however,  take  into  consideration  the  water 
supply  for  the  district,  with   its   ever-increasing  demands, 


taken  from  the  Potomac  at  Great  Falls.  This  was  originally 
a  gravity  system  built  by  and  under  the  control  of  the  War 
Department.  The  development  of  the  city  toward  the  north- 
west, higher  ground,  and  the  completion  of  a  filtering  sys- 
tem in  recent  years  have  made  pumping  necessary.  A  special 
report  by  Colonel  Fiske,  engineer  in  charge  of  the  District 
water-supply  system,  points  out  the  necessity  for  an 
increased  water  supply  on  account  of  the  increased  popula- 
tion and  industrial  activity.  The  problem  therefore  becomes 
more  complicated  than  the  usual  water-power  or  water- 
supply  project  alone. 

University  of  Illinois,  Summer  Session 

The  1918  Summer  Session  of  the  University  of  Illinois 
will  offer  special  advanced  courses  planned  especially  for 
instructors  in  mechanics  in  trade  schools  and  technical 
schools,  for  chemists  who  wish  to  fit  themselves  to  take  posi- 
tions involving  the  physical  testing  of  materials,  and  for 
men  who  wish  to  fit  themselves  for  positions  in  commer- 
cial or  Government  testing  laboratories.  Three  special 
courses  will  be  offered: 

1.  Advanced  Mechanics  of  Materials.  Advanced  problems 
in  strength  of  materials.  A  knowledge  of  elementary 
mechanics  of  materials  is  a  prerequisite  for  this  course. 

2.  The  Properties  of  Engineering  Materials.  Lectures 
and  assigned  reading  on  the  properties  of  iron,  steel,  other 
metals,  wood,  brick  and  concrete.  A  knowledge  of  ele- 
mentary mechanics  is  a  prerequisite  for  this  course. 

3.  Laboratory  Work  in  Testing  Materials.  Study  of  test- 
ing machines  and  strain-measuring  apparatus;  practice  in 
standard  methods  of  testing  and  tabulation  of  test  results. 
A  course  in  elementary  mechanics  of  materials  accompanied 
by  work  in  the  laboratory  is  a  prerequisite  for  this  course. 

The  extensive  equipment  of  the  materials  testing  labora- 
tory of  the  university  will  be  available  for  this  work,  which 
will  be  under  the  direct  charge  of  H.  F.  Moore,  research 
professor  of  engineering  materials.  Further  information 
concerning  the  courses  and  expenses  may  be  obtained  from 
the  Director  of  the  Summer  Session,  University  of  Illinois, 
Urbana,  Illinois. 


,  Personals 


fftiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiitiiiiiiitiiiii I iiiiiiiii 

W.  V.  Houck  has  tendered  his  resignation 
as  worlds  manager  with  the  Sterling  En- 
gine Co.  to  accept  a  factory  managership, 
and  also  an  interest  in  the  Buffalo  Metal 
Goods  Co. 

Julius  Alsberg  has  opened  consulting  en- 
gineering offices  in  the  Tribune  Building,  7 
S.  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago.  He  is  prepared 
to  make  investigations  and  reports  on  me- 
chanical, industrial  and  chemical  engineer- 
ing problems,  to  design  plants  and  to  super- 
vise their  installation. 

Robert  Li.  Bninet,  for  the  last  five  years 
public-service  engineer  of  the  City  of  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  and  previously  power  engineer 
of  the  Essex  Division,  Public  Service  Cor- 
poration of  New  Jersey,  has  resigned  from 
the  former  to  become  industrial  and  effi- 
ciency engineer  of  the  Jenckes  Spinning  Co., 
Pawtucket,  R.  I. 


Engineering  Affairs 


Universal  Craftsmen,  Council  of  Enjri- 
neers.  will  hold  its  sixteenth  annual  con- 
vention at  Detroit.  Mich.,  Augu.st  5-10,  with 
headquarters  at  the  Statler  Hotel.  This  i.s 
to  correct  error  on  page  642,  April  30  issue. 

New  York  State  Convention  N.  A.  S.  K., 
will  be  held  at  Coney  Island,  Brooklyn, 
.June  14-16,  with  headquarters  and  exhibits 
at  the  Shelbourne  Hotel.  Upwards  of  (!0 
booths  have  already  been  sold,  and  there  is 
every  promise  of  a  .successful  meeting. 
Brothers  McGowan,  Casey,  Downey  and 
Cole  are  members  of  the  hustling  arrange- 
ment committee. 

American  Order  of  Steam  KnKinccrM  will 
hold  its  annual  meeting  at  rhil.-Klclphia, 
June  U-LI.  The  meetings  of  the  dilc  uates 
will  be  held  in  the  Parkway  Building  on 
Broad  St.  Because  of  the  unsettled  condi- 
tions, the  display  will  be  limited  to  a  tiilil" 
exhibit.  A  large  room  has  been  provided 
(or  the  get-together  of  the  engineers  and 
Bupplymen. 


The   National   License   Law   Committee   of 

the  National  Association  of  Stationary  En- 
gineers has  had  drafted  and  printed  in 
pamphlet  form  a  model  state  license  law, 
as  well  as  a  set  of  instructions  explaining 
and  drafting  a  license  measure.  Informa- 
tion concerning  these  may  be  obtained  by 
addressing  the  secretary  of  the  Committee, 
F.  W.  Piaven,  at  417  So.  Dearborn  St., 
Chicago,    111. 

The  Trustees  of  United  Engineering  So- 
ciety at  the  regular  meeting  held  May  33, 
elected  the  following  men  to  the  Engineer- 
ing Foundation  Board :  Calvert  Townley,  of 
Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing 
Co.,  New  York,  succeeding  Gano  Dunn.  The 
following  are  additional  members:  Silas  H. 
Woodard,  Consulting  Engineer,  M.  Am.  Soc. 
C.  E.  ;  Dr.  Joseph  W.  Richards,  Professor 
ol  Metallurgy,  Lehigh  University.  South 
Bethlehem,  Penn.  ;  Dr.  David  S.  Jacobus, 
Advisory  Engineer.  Baboock  &  Wilcox  Co., 
New  York  ;  H.  Hobart  Porter,  of  Sander- 
son &  Porter,  Consulting  Engineers,  New 
York. 

Tlie  American  Institute  of  Electrical  En- 
gineers at  its  annual  meeting  held  in  New 
York  on  Friday,  May  17,  elected  the  follow- 
ing officers  for  the  administrative  year 
beginning  Aug  1,  1918:  President,  Prof. 
Comfort  A.  Adams.  Harvard  University, 
and  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
Cambridge,  Mass.  Vice  presidents.  Alien 
H.  Babcock,  San  Francisco,  Calif.  ;  William 
B.  Jackson,  Chicago,  ill.  ;  Raymond  S. 
Kelsch,  Montreal.  Quebec ;  F.  B.  Jewett. 
New  York  City :  Harold  Pender,  Philadel- 
phia, Penn.  :  John  B.  Taylor,  Schenectady. 
N.  Y.  Managers,  G.  Faccioli,  Pittsfleld, 
Ma.is.  ;  Frank  D.  Newbury,  Pittsburgh. 
Penn.  ;  Walter  I.  Slichter,  New  York  City. 
Trea.surer,  George  A.  Hamilton,  Elizahctli, 
N.  J.  These  officers  together  with  the  fol- 
lowing holdover  members,  will  constitute 
the  Board  of  Directors:  K.  W.  Rice,  Jr.. 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.  :  H.  W.  Buck,  New  York 
City :  C.  E.  .Skinner,  East  Pittsburgh, 
Penn.  ;  John  B.  I'Msken,  Spokane,  Wash.  ; 
N.  A.  Carle,  Newark,  N.  J.  ;  Ch;irles  S. 
Ruffner,  St.  Tjouis.  Mo. ;  Charles  Bobbins, 
lOast  Pittsburgh,  Penn.  ;  E.  H.  Martindale. 
Cleveland,  Ohio;  Walter  A.  Hull,  West 
Lynn,  Mass.  :  William  A.  Del  Mar,  New 
York  City  and  Wilfred  Sykes,  East  Pitts- 
burgh, Penn. 


Miscellaneous  News 


Coal    Production    Sliglitly    Increased — The 

report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey on  coal  production  for  tlie  week  ended 
May  11,  shows  the  bituminous  yield  to  have 
been  11,806,000  net  tons,  which  was  an  in- 
crease over  the  preceding  week  of  252,000 
tons,  or  2.2  per  cent.  The  anthracite  pro- 
duction declined  during  the  week  more  than 
5  per  cent.  The  shipments  amounted  to  38,- 
314  carloads,  as  against  40.570  carloads 
during   the  previous   week. 

Big  Turbine  for  New  York  City — ^The 
United  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co..  of 
New  York  City,  has  recently  placed  an 
order  %vith  The  Westinghouse  Electric  and 
Manufacturing  Co.  for  a  23,000-kw.  turbo- 
generator set.  The  generator  will  be  rated 
at  25,900  kv.-a.,  at  85  per  cent,  power  fac- 
tor, 8000  volts,  three-phase  62J  cycles. 
It  will  be  direct-connected  to  a  Westing- 
house 22,000  turbine.  The  order  includes  a 
40.000-sq.ft.  surface  condenser  and  the 
usual  auxiliaries. 

IMust  Keep  Oil  Prices  Steady — A  com- 
munication just  issued  by  the  Oil  Division  of 
the  United  States  Fuel  Administration 
warns  oil  producers  that  the  Government 
will  not  at  this  time  view  with  approval  any 
further  .advance  in  the  price  of  crude  oil. 
Competition  in  the  form  of  payment  of 
bonus  is  also  to  bo  restrained.  By  this  it 
is  not  meant  that  varying  prices  should  not 
be  paid  for  oils  of  varying  quality,  but  these 
differentials  once  established  should  not  be 
further  advanced. 

The  Penberthy  Injector  Co.  is  offering  to 
stationary  engineers'  associations  an  artis- 
tically framed  photograph  showing  the  in- 
terior construction  of  their  automatic  in- 
jector, on  which  also  is  given  a  complete 
aiul  concise  explanation  of  its  working. 
This  should  Vie  of  exceptional  educational 
value  and  when  lunig  in  the  association 
room  it  will  be  a  jiermanent  an.swer  to  the 
question,  "Why  does  an  injector  work?" 
We  suggest  that  the  .secretary  of  each 
association  write  at  once  to  the  PenVierthy 
Injector  Co..  Detroit,  Mich.,  for  tlie  photo, 
a.ssuring  them  that  it  will  be  hung  in  the 
local   rooms. 


820 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


^iiilllliilitiiiitiiiiiii 


■II itiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiilitniiitMiniiiMiniiMiiiitiMinr 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


N.  Y.,  Black  River — The  Northern  New 
York  Utilities  Co..  137  Arsenal  St.,  Water- 
town,  plans  to  build  a  plant  on  the  Black 
River  here,  for  the  development  of  power. 
lOstimated  cost,  $500,000.  J.  Brownell, 
Strickland  Block,  Carthage,  Engr. 

N.  Y.,  Broadalbin — The  Broadalbin  Knit- 
ting Co.  will  soon  receive  bids  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  3-story.  75  x  100  ft,  mill.  Esti- 
mated cost.  $65,000  Equipment,  including 
electric  motors,  pumps,  etc.,  will  be  in- 
stalled.    H.   S.  MquI,  Gloversville.   A.rch. 

N.  Y..  Fairport — A.  S.  Crocker,  Engr., 
Mechanics  Institute.  Rochester,  will  receive 
bids  until  June  11,  for  the  erection  of  a 
2-story,  100  x  125  ft.  factory  and  power 
plant  here  for  the  Douglas  Packing  Co., 
John  St.  Estimated  cost,  $25,000.  Pojver 
equipment  will  be  installed. 

N.  Y.,  Jamestown — The  Art  Metal  Con- 
struction Co.,  Jones  St.  and  G  Ave.,  has  had 
plans  prepared  by  P.  A.  Shoemaker,  Kngr., 
Builders  Ex.,  Buffalo,  for  remodeling  and 
extending  its  boiler  house. 

N.  Y.,  Olean — J.  A.  Coffey,  Secy.  Board 
of  Armory  Comnaission,  158  State  St.. 
Albany,  will  receive  bids  until  June  12,  for 
the  installation  of  a  complete  heating  sys- 
tem in  its  propos3d  2-story,  52  x  110  ft. 
armory.     Total  cost,   $100,000. 

N.  J.,  Gloucester  City — The  Pussy  and 
Jones  Co.  plans  to  build  a  new  electric 
power  plant  to  supply  power  to  several 
large  shipbuilding  plants. 

N.  J.,  Ponipton  takes — The  City  has  had 
plans  prepared  by  S.  Firestone.  Engr..  Gran- 
ite Bldg.,  Rochester.  N*.  Y.,  for  the  erection 
of  a  hydro  electric  plant  here.  Estimated 
cost,  $45,000.     Noted  May  7. 

N.  J.,  Trenton — The  City  plans  to  install 
2  new  pumps  with  generators  for  pumping 
station  with  30,000.000  and  10,000,000  gal. 
capacity  respectively.  Estimated  cost,  $100,- 
000.  J.  R.  Fell,  134  North  Clinton  Ave., 
Engr. 

N.  J.,  Verona — The  Board  of  Education 
will  soon  award  the  contract  for  the  instal- 
lation of  a  power  .and  heating  system  in  its 
proposed  4-story  brick  school  on  Laning 
Ave.  Guilbert  &  Betell,  665  Broad  St., 
Newark,  Arch. 

Penn.,  Greenville — Mercer  Co.  Commis- 
sioners are  contemplating  the  erection  of  a 
brick  power  plant  to  be  used  for  heating 
purposes.  Plans  include  the  installation  of 
two   150-hp.  boilers,  a  pump.  etc. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  United  States 
Government  has  received  bids  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  1-story,  57  x  154  ft.  aircraft  fac- 
tory on  League  Island.  A  steam  heating 
plant  is  to  be  installed  in  same.  Estimated 
cost,   $20,000.     Noted  May  28. 

Md..  Baltimore — The  Maryland  Creamery 
Co.,  1726  East  Pratt  St.,  plans  to  build  a 
4-story,  50  x  90  ft.,  reinforced  concrete, 
steel  and  brick  ice  manufacturing  plant  and 
cold  storage  building.  Estimated  cost, 
$55,000. 

Va.,  Fieldale — The  Caroline  Cotton  and 
Woolen  Mill  Co.  is  having  plans  prepared  by 
F.  P.  Sheldon  &  Sons,  Arch..  Industrial 
Trust  Bldg.,  Providence,  R.  I.,  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  weave  shed  and  spinning  mill. 
Motors,  etc.,  will  be  installed. 

Fla.,  Pompano — The  Cypress  Creek  Lum- 
ber Co..  Ft.  Lauderdale,  recently  incorpor- 
ated with  $30,000  capital  stock,  plans  to 
build  a  plant  here.  New  machinery  includ- 
ing power  equipment,  etc.,  will  be  installed. 

Ohio,  Cincinnati — The  Dixie  Terminal  Co., 
1st  Natl.  Bank  Bldg.,  will  purchase  a  bat- 
tery of  200-hp.  boilers  for  the  main  building 
to  be  constructed  on  3rd  St. 

Ohio,  Minster — The  City  will  soon  receive 
bids  for  the  erection  of  a  1-story,  50  x  70  ft. 
power  plant.  Estimated  cost.  $50,000.  V. 
I.  Gray,  518  Nasby  Bldg.,  Toledo,  Engr. 

Ind.,  .Jeffersonviile — The  Quartermasters 
Dept..  Wash.,  D.  C,  plans  to  appropriate 
$50,000  for  a  hospital,  water  pumping  plant 
and  an  electric  power  plant  here. 

Ind.,  Maryland — The  Evansville  Tool  Co  . 
9th  Ave.  and  W'^st  Maryland  St..  Evans- 
ville, is  having  plans  prepared  by  C.  Bross- 
man,  Engr..  1618  Merchants  Bank  Bldg.. 
Indianapolis,  for  the  erection  of  a  1-story, 
45  X  65  ft.  power  house.  F.  Lohoft,  Evans- 
ville, Pres. 

Wis.,  Depere — The  Depere  Manufacturing 
Co.  has  had  plans  prepared  for  the  erection 
of  an  addition  to  its  boiler  works.  Esti- 
mated cost,  $35,000.     E.  S.  Clark,  Mgr. 

Wis.,  Whitewater — The  State  Board  of 
Normal  Regents,  Madi'on.  plais  in  b\rM  a 
heating  and  pov.er  pUnt  here.  J.  Ii.  White, 
Madison,  Kngr, 


Minn..  Glen  l,ake — Sund  &  Dunham. 
.\rch.,  514  Essex  Bldg.,  Minneapolis,  will 
receive  bids  until  May  31,  for  a  built-in  re- 
frigerator and  machinery  for  same  at  the 
Hennepin    Co.    tuberculosis    sanitarium. 

Minn.,  St.  Paul — The  State  Board  of 
Control  will  receive  bids  June  1.  for  the 
erection  of  a  2  story.  36  x  46  ft.  power 
plant  and  laundry  for  the  Home  of  Crippled 
Children,  Phalen  Park.  Estimated  cost. 
$40,000.  New  equipment  will  be  installed. 
C.  L.  Pillsbury  Co.,  805  Metropolitan  Life 
Bldg.,  Minneapolis,  Engr. 

N.  n,,  Pembina — The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion will  receive  bids  until  June  11,  for  the 
installation  of  a  heating  system,  etc.,  in 
the  grade  and  high  school  here.  W.  D. 
Gillespie.   Fargo.   Arch. 

Mo.,  St,  Ix>uis — The  S.  S.  Kresge  Co., 
Detroit,  Mich.,  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  a  3-story.  125  x  150  ft. 
store,  to  the  G.  A.  Fuller  Co  ,  540  Penobscot 
Bldg.,  Detroit,  Mich.  Estimated  cost 
$350,000.  A  two  pipe  vacuum  system  will 
be  installed  by  the  owner. 

Calif.,  Ontario — The  Ontario  Power  Co. 
plans  to  build  a  new  pow'er  house.  Esti- 
mated cost,  $60,000.  G.  D.  Smith.  Gen. 
Mgr. 

Ont.,  Perth — The  local  hydro  commis.sion 
has  been  granted  $35,000  for  improvements 
to  its  distributing  system.  Work  includes 
the  installation  of  a  transformer,  erection 
of  new  lines,   etc. 

.Sask.,  Gull  Lake — The  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  plans  to  build  a  power  house  here, 
and  will  install  equipment,  etc.  J.  M.  Cam- 
eron, Calgary,  Alta.,  Gen.  Mgr. 

Alta.,  Liloydmlnster — W.  and  E  Johnson 
plan  to  build  an  electric  lighting  and  power 
plant.      Estimated  cost,   $60,000. 

B.  C,  Cloverdale — The  Whitlock  Water- 
works, Ltd.,  plans  to  transform  its  plant 
from  gasoline  to  electric  motive  power.  New 
equipment   will   be   installed. 


CONTRACTS    AWARDED 

R.  I..  Woonsocket — The  Andrews  Mills 
Co..  Frankford.  Philadelphia.  Penn.  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
2-story.  45  x  50  ft.  boiler  house,  and  a  1- 
storv.  157  X  244  ft.,  weave  shed,  etc.,  to 
the  C.  I.  Bigney  Constr.  Co.,  898  West- 
minster St.,  Providence.  Estimated  cost. 
$120,000. 

Conn..  ThamesviUe  (Norwich  P.  O.) — The 
Eastern  Connecticut  Power  Co.,  care  R.  W. 
P^skins.  Norwich,  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  1-,  3-  and  4-story 
80  X  140  ft.  power  plant  here,  to  F.  T.  Ley 
&  Co..  Inc..  Springfield,  MassL  Noted, 
Apr.   16. 

N.  Y'.,  Gloversville — The  Gloversville 
Knitting  Co.  Beaver  St.,  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  a  2-storv.  219  x 
230  ft.  knitting  mill.  Estimated  cost.  $150. 
000.  New  equipment  including  pumps, 
motors,  etc.,  will  be  installed. 

N.  J.,  Jersey  City — Hudson  Co.  let  con- 
tract wiring  Passaic  River  bridge  on  Lincoln 
Highway,  to  W.  J.  Coleman.  29  Willow 
Court      Estimated  cost,   $6000. 

N.  J.,  Newark — Mass  &  Walstein.  Inc.. 
Ave.  R..  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  a  boiler  and  nitrating  room  addi- 
tion to  its  plant,  to  H.  M.  Doremus  &  Co. 
Noted   Apr    9. 

Penn..  Philadelphia — The  Bellevue  Wor- 
sted Mills.  Wi.ster  and  Reading  Rds.,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
1-storv,  30  X  89  ft.  brick  power  house  at 
16th  and  Huntington  Park  Ave.,  to  W.  E.  S. 
Over.  Land  Title  Bldg.  Estimated  cost. 
$10,000, 

Penn.,  Philadelpiiia — The  Bureau  of  Yards 
and  Docks.  Navy  IDept.,  Wash.,  D.  C,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
power  house  and  2  transformer  houses  to  T. 
Rilev,  Philadelphia.  Estimated  cost,  $130,- 
078, 

Md.,  St.  Helena — The  LT.  S.  Shipping 
Board,  Housing  Division.  Wash.,  D.  C,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
power  house,  bakery,  etc.,  to  the  Consoli- 
dated Eng.  Co.,  Calvert  Bldg.,  Baltimore. 
Estimated  cost,   $800,000. 

111.,  Chicago — The  Fleischman  Co..  427 
Plum  St..  Cincinnati.  Ohio,  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  a  4-story.  62  x 
85  ft,  steel  and  briok  factory.  Estimated 
cost.  $90,000.  A  new  boiler  and  refriger- 
ators are  to  be   installed. 

ni..  Chicago — Wilder  &  Co.,  228  West 
Lake  St..  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  a  5-story,  50  x  125  ft,  leather 
factory  on  Hawthorne  St.  Additions  to  the 
present  steam  heat  and  power  plants  will 
be  built.      Total   cost.   $75,000, 

Que..  Montford — The  Montford  Orphan- 
age has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  hydro  electric  plant  here,  to  Arsen- 
niilt  &  Plamondon,  70  St.  James  St.,  Mon- 
treal.    Estimated  cost,  $15,000. 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


Boston — Current  quotations  per  ^oss  ton  de- 
livered alongside  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 


ANTHRACITE 

Circular 
Current 

Individual 
Current 

lok 
re 

wheat 

$4.60 

4.10 

$7.10 — 7.35 
6.65 — 6.90 

3  90 

irlft 

V    

3.60 

6.15 — 6.40 

BITUMINOUS 

Bituminous    not    on    market. 

Pocohontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hampton 
Roads,  is  $4.  as  compared  with  $2.85 — 2.00  a 
year  ag'o. 


•All-rail  to  Boston  is  $2.60. 


t Water  coal. 


New  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  are  a^  fol- 
lows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 
Current  Current 

Pea    $4.90  $5.65 

Buckwheat    4.45@5.15  4.80@5.50 

Barley    3.40@3.65  3.8a@4.50 

Rice     3.90@4.10  3.00@4.00 

Boiler    3.65  @  3.90  

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are   about   5c. 

higher, 

BITUMINOUS 

Fob.  N.  Y.  Mine 

Gross  Price  Net  Gross 

Central    Pennsylvania. .  $5.06  $3.05  $3.41 
Maryland — 

Mine-run    4.84             2.85  3.19 

Prepared    5.06             5.05  3.41 

Screening's    4.50            2.55  2.85 

•The  lower  ports  are;  Elizabethport.  Port  John- 
son, Port  Reading:.  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Am- 
boy.  The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty.  Hobo- 
ken.  Weehawken,  Edffewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut- 
tenberg"-  St.  Georg-e  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5c.  higrher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
at  mines  for  Une  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 

,. Line ^  ^ Tide s 

Cur-  One  Yr.        Cur-  One  Yr. 

rent  Ago            rent         Ag:o 

Pea    $3.45  $3.00        $4.35  $3.90 

Barley    2.15  1.50          2.40          1.75 

Buckwheat    ..    3.15  2.60          3.75          3.40 

Rice     2.65  2.00          3.65          3.00 

Boiler     2.45  1.80          3.55          2.90 


Chicago — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  lUinois  Northern  Illinois 


Prepared  s 
Mine-run  . , 
Screenings 


.$2.65 — 2.80 
.  2.40 — 2.55 
.    3.15 — 2.30 


$3.35^3.50 

3.10^3.25 
2.85 — 3.00 


So.  111.,  Pocohontas.  Hocking:. Ea.8t 
Pennsylvania        Kentucky  and 
Smokeless  Coals    and  W.  Va.         West  Va.  Splint 
Prepared    sizes..  .$2.60 — 2.85  $2.85 — 3.35 

Mine-run    2.40 — 2.60  2.60 — 3.00 

Screening's     2.10 — 2.55  2.35 — 3.75 


St.   Liouis — Prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  minei  are 
as  follows: 

Williamson  and      Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

6-in.  lump    ....$2.65-3.00   $2.65-3.80  $2.30-2.40 

2-in.  lump    ....    3.65-3.00      3.65-2.80  3.30-2.40 

Steam    egg 2.65-2.80     2.35-2.50  2.30-3.40 

Mine-run    3.45-2.60      3.45-3.60  2.00-2.15 

No.   1   nut 2.65-3.00      2.65-2.80  2.65-2.80 

3-in.  screen.  .  .  .    3.15-2.40      3.15-2.40  1.50-1.65 

No.  5  washed.  .    2.15-2.30     2.15-2.30  3.15-3.30 


Birmingham — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b. 

mines  are  as  follows: 


Lump    Slack  and 
&  Nut  Screening's 

$2.15        $1.65 
3.40  1.90 

2.65  2.15 


Mine- 
Run 

Bis  Seam $1.90 

Pratt.    Jagger.    Corona     3.15 
BIsK^k  Creek.  Cahaba.      2.40 
Government  fig'ures. 

Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  regular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
g-enerally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according  to  a  regular  schedule. 


June  6,  1918  POWER  821 

|IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIH  IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^' 

I  .  .  i 

j  Prices — Materials  and  Supplies         | 

I  i 

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These     are     prices     to     tlie     power     plant      li.v      Jol>liers    In    the    larcer    huyin!;    eeiiters    east    of    the 
.Mississiiipi.    KIsewhere  the  priies  will  he  modified  hj  iiiereused  freisht  eharces  and  hy  loeal  eunditions. 


ELECTRICAL  SUPPLIES 

KNIFE  SWITCHKS — r'ollowing  are  net  prices  each  in  cities 
named  for  knife  switches  mounted  on  slate  base,  front  connected. 
punched  clip  type.  250  volts: 

S.  T.   fuselesa SO 


D.   P 
D.  P 


S.   T,  fused.  .  . 

D.   T.  f useless. 

D.   T.  fused . .  . 

S.  T.  f useless. 

S.   T  .fused.  .  . 

D.    T.  fuselesi. 

D.   T.  fused.  .  . 


Amp. 

60  Amp. 

100  Am 

0..-.3 

$0.03 

$1..00 

.81 

1.37 

3.70 

.88 

l..'')3 

3,43 

l.ti7 

3..'J8 

5.63 

.78 

1.40 

3.86 

1.32 

3.03 

4.18 

1.37 

3.3.-. 

5.34 

3.88 

4,1.-! 

8.99 

$3.43 
.->.14 
5.70 
9.88 
5.14 
7.70 
8.83 

15.80 


Lots  $35  and  more.  list. 

Fl'SES — Following    are    net    prices    of    250-voIt    inclosed    fuses 
each,  in  standard  packages,  in  cities  named: 

0-30   amperes    $0.11 ',i    each    110-300    amperes    $0.90  each 

31-60    amperes 15%   each    335-400    amperes    1.63  each 

61-100    amperes 40       each 

FUSE  PLUGS    (MICA  CAP)   FEB  100 

0-30  amperes.  .    4e.  each  in  standard  package  quantities    (500) 

0.30  amperes.  .    5c.  each  for  less  than  standard  package  quantities    (500) 

SOCKETS,  B.  B.   FINISH — Following   are  net  prices  in  cents  each  in 
standard  packages: 

%-IN.    OR    PENDANT    CAP  % -IN.   CAP     . 

Key  Keyless  Pull  Key  Keyless  Pull 

33.10e.  31.00e.  43.000.  37.30c.  35.30c.  4«.30e. 

Note — Less    than    standard    package    quantities.    15%    off    list. 

CUT-OUTS — Following  are  net  prices  each  in  standard-package  quan- 
tities : 


S.  P.  M.  L 

D.  P.  M.  L.  .  . 
T.  P.  M.  L..  .  . 

D.  P.   S.   B 

D.  P.   D.  B 


CUT-OUTS,    PLUG 

.  .       $0.11  T.   P.   to  D.  P.  S.   B. . 

.18  T.  P.   to  D.  P.  T.   B.. 

.36  T.    P.    S    B 

.19  T.    P.   D.   B 

.37 


CUT-OUTS.    N.    E.    C.    FUSE 


D.  P.    M.    L 

T.  P.    M.    L 

D.  P.    S.    B 

T  P.    S.    B 

D.  P.    D.    B 

T.  P.    D.    B 

T.  P.   to   D.   P.   D.   B. 


0-30  Amp. 
.  $0.33 
.48 
.43 
.81 
.78 
1.33 
.90 


31-60  Amp. 
$0..S4 
1.30 
1.05 
1.80 
3.10 
3.60 
2.53 


$0.34 
.38 
.33 
.54 


1-100  Amp. 
$1.68 
3.40 


ATTACHMENT   PLUGS — Price  each,   in   standard   packages: 


Hubbell    porcelain     $0.31 

Hubbeli    composition    .13 

Benjamin    swivel     .13 

Current   taps    .3.5 


Standard  Package 
250 

50 
100 

50 


FLEXIBLE  CORD — Price  per  1000  It.  in  coils  of  350  ft. 

No.   18  cotton  twisted 

16  cotton  twisted 

18   cotton  par.illel 

1  6  cotton  r)arallel 

15  cotton  reinforced   heav.v 

16  cotton  reinforced  he.-]vy 

18  cotton  reinforced   light 

1 6   cotton  reinforced   light 

18   cotton  Canvasite   cord 

16   cotton  Canvasite   cord 


No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No 
No. 


$20.00 
34.50 
31.00 
38.00 
28.50 
38.00 
34.00 
32.00 
25.00 
32.00 


RUBBER-COVERED  COPPER  WIRE — Per   1000    ft.   in   New  York: 


Solid. 
No.                                        Single  Braid 
14    $11.00 


13 
10 
8 
6 
4 
2 

1 
0 

00 

000 
0000 


COPPER     WIRE- 

following    cities: 

f Denver 

Single  Double 
Braid  Braid 
$13.00   $15.00 


14.33 
16.93 
37.65 


Solid, 
Double  Braid 
$13.50 
16.92 
23.83 
31.40 


Stranded. 

Double  Braid 

$15.00 

19.48 

25.81 

35.50 

56.00 

70.4  0 
113,15 
15:J,3I) 
183.90 
223.60 
371.34 
333.40 


Duplex 

$34,35 

33.35 

45.00 

61.00 


-Prices    per    1000    ft.    for    rubber-covered    wire    in 


No. 

14 

10 

8 

6 

4 

{ 
0 

00 
000 


^  f St.  Louis ^ 

Single    Double 
Duplex-    Braid      Braid    D\iplex 


33.15 

31.40 

49.40 

71.30 

108.00 

140.40 

176. 8S 


^ Birniingha 

Single    Double 

Braid      Urriid 

$:U.Oil  $11.00  $30.00  $:(i.50  $I3.(I()  $17. 40 


:i4.K5 

53.30 

76.15 

113.65 

147.85 

178.85 

339.45 

393.15 

0000 357.00 


50,05   35.40 
69.50  35.45 


;i).oo 

35.00 
61.0(1 
86.00 
130.00 
176.00 
333.00 
370.00 
330,00 
40000 


1,00 
73,50 
130.00 


:io.:!0 

4-:.:):i 

64.60 

101.75 

151.50 

:oi.oo 


;M.;io 

4li.K5 

74.10 

lOli.55 

163.00 

309.50 


m , 

Duplex 

$:i6.30 

IW.HO 

07.00 


376.00  385.00 
317,00  330,00 
417,00  428,00 
508,00   516,00 


LOOJI — Price  per  100  ft.,  in  coils: 


Ft.  in  Coil 

,  .  .  .   250 

,  .  .  .   350 

...    200 

...    200 


3.50 
4.50 

5.75 


1 

iy4 
1% 


Ft.  in  Coil 

150 

100 

.  .  .  .    100 
.  .  .  .    100 


$7.00 
10.00 
13.00 
15.00 


CONDUITS.    ELBOWS    AND    COIiPLINGS — Following    are    warehouse 
net  prices  per  1000  ft,  for  conduit  and  per  unit  for  elbows  and  couphngs: 


-Conduit- 


■  Elbows  - 


1 

I'/i. 
1  Vj  . 

2  % : 

3 

3%  . 
4 


Enameled  Galvanized  Enameled  Galvanized 
$66.56  $71.66        $0,1(!03        $0.1710 


-Couplings- 


87.75 
139.71 
175.49 
300,83 
383,31 
446,36 
583,70 
739.56 
886.17 


94.65 
139.91 
189.39 
336.33 
304.51 
4fil.46 
639.60 
784.76 
951.57 


.3108 
.3119 
.4019 
.5358 
.9833 

1.61 

4.38 

9.47 
10.93 


From  New  York  Warehouse — Less  5  % 


138 
.3341 
.4289 
.5718 
1.05 
1.71 
4.57 
10.10 
11.67 
cash. 


Enameled  Galvanized 
$0,059  $0.0633 


.0843 

.1096 

.1518 

.1875 

.35 

.3573 

.5358 

.7144 

.893 


0903 
.1174 
.163 
.3001 
.366.S 
.3813 
.5718 
.7624 
.95.1 


Standard  lengths  rigid.    10  ft. 
ft.     Standard  lengths  flexible.    % 


Standard  lengths  flexible,    14 
to  3  in..  50  ft. 


LOCKNUTS   AND   BUSHINGS — Following   are   net   prices   in    standard 
packages,  which  are:    ^4-in..  1000;    »4  -  to  114in..  100:   1%-  to  3-in..  50: 


1 

ly. 
iH 


Flexible  Conduit 

Locknuts 

Bushings 

Box  Connections 

Per  100 

Per  100 

Per  100 

$1.03 

$1.68 

$5.62 

1.75 

4.00 

7.13 

3  00 

6.15 

10.50 

5.00 

8.20 

15.00 

7.50 

10.25 

33.50 

10.00 

16.40 

30.00 

1230 

24.60 

67.50 

ARMORED  CABLES  AND  BOX  CONNECTORS — Following  are  net 
prices  per  1000  ft.  cable  and  standard  package  of  100  box  connectors  in 
single  and  double  strip: 


Wire  Gage 


-Twin  Conduetor- 


-Three  Conductor- 


14 $65.00 

13   

10    

8 

6    

4 


Cable 

Connectors 

Cable 

Connectors 

$65.00 

$4.50 

$103.50 

$4.50 

101.35 

4.50 

137.50 

4.50 

138.75 

4.75 

176.25 

4.75 

176.30 

6.73 

347.50 

6.00 

377.50 

6.35 

363.40 

7.50 

431.35 

7.50 

L.\MPS — Below  are  present  quotations  in  less  than  standard  raclCEge 
Quantities: 


Straight-Side    Bulbs 


Pear-Shape    Bulbs 


Mazda  B — 
Watts  Plain 
$0.30 
.30 
.30 
.30 
.30 
.35 
.70 


10 
15 
35 
40 
50 
60 
100 


No.  in 

Mazda    C — 

No.  in 

sted 

Package 

Watts        Clear 

Frosted 

Package 

33 

100 

75         $0.70 

$0.75 

50 

33 

100 

100            1.10 

1.15 

34 

33 

100 

150            1.65 

1.70 

34 

33 

100 

300            3.30 

3  37 

34 

33 

100 

300            3.35 

3.35 

34 

39 

100 

400            4.30 

4.45 

13 

77 

34 

500            4.70 

4.85 

13 

750            6.50 

6.75 

8 

1000            7.50 

7.75 

8 

Standard  quantities  are  subject  to  discount  of  10  Cp  from  list.  Annual 
contracts  ranging  from  $150  to  $300,000  net  allow  a  discount  of  17  to 
40  7(,    from  hst, 

WIRING  SUPPLIES — New  York  prices  for  tape  and  solder  are 
as  follows: 

Friction    tape.     ^  -lb.    rolls 35c,  per  lb. 

Rubber   tape.    ^  -lb,    rolls 45c,  per  lb. 

Wire    solder.    50-lb,    pools 45c,  per  lb. 

Soldering  paste.    1-lb.   cans 50c.  per  lb. 


FANS — Following  are  prices  of  fans  in  New  York : 


6 

9 

0 

13 

12 
Iti 
11) 


1. — Universal  D. 

•  — 110  volt    D. 

■  — 110  volt    D. 

•  . — 110  volt   D. 

■  — 110  volt   D. 

■  — 110  volt   D. 

■  — 110  volt   D. 


DIRECT   CURRENT 
&   A.    C.    Diobl. 


S&T  Dichl  or  Sprague 

Osc.    Du'hl   or  Sprague 

S&T  Dichl  or  Sprague  or  Eck  . 
Osc.  Diclil  or  Sprague  or  Eck  . 
S&T  Dichl   or  Spragtle  or  Eck  . 

Osc.    Kck    or   Sprague 

ALTERNATING  CURRENT 


$  6 
11 
13 
14 
18 
17 
31 


in. — 110  volt   60 

■■  — 110  volt   60 

"  — 110  volt   60 

" — 110  volt   00 

'■  — 110  volt    60 

" — 110  volt   60 

For 

Tlinso  prtcea  are 


Sprague $11 

14 


cvclc   A.  C.     S&T     Dich 

cycle  A.  C.     Osc,     Dichl   or  Sprague 

cycle  A,  C.     S&T    Dichl   or  Sprague 14 

cycle  A,  C,     Osc,     Dichl  or  Sprague 18 

evcle  A.  C,     S&T    Dichl  or  Sprague 18 

cycle  A,  C,    Osc,     Dichl  or  Sprague 23 

330  volt  Winding — $1,00  additional 

for  fans  0  or  more,  less  than  this  quantity  add  10 


00 
00 
75 
50 
55 
25 
35 


00 
,00 
75 
,50 
35 
50 


822 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  23 


HOSE — 


Cnderwriters'     3% -in. 
Common,    '2  ^-in.    .  .  . 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Fire 


50-Ft.  Len^hs 
75c.  per  ft. 
.      33  J  % 


Air 
First  Grade     Second  Grade     Third  Grade 

% -in.  per  ft SO. 60  JO.:!.")  So. 31) 

Steam — Discounts  from  list 
Fil-st  grade.  .  .  .   25%        Second  grade.  ...   30%        Tliird  grade.  ...   40% 

RUBBER  BP;ltING — The  following  discounts  from  list  apply 
to  transmission  rubber  and  duck  belting: 

Competition 40  %     Best  grade 15  % 

Standard    30  % 

LEATHKR  BELTING — Present  discounts  from  list   in  the  fol- 
lowing cities  are  as  follows : 

Medium  Grade       Heavy  Grade 

New   York    40  %,  35  % 

St.    Louis    .■ 45  %  40  % 

Chicago    30  +  10%  *0±5% 

Birmingham    -35%  40% 

Denver    35%   .  30% 

RAWHIDE   LACING^40%. 

P.'VtKINO — Prices    per    pound: 

Rubber  and  duck  for  low-pressure  steam    ^?'2n 

Asbestos    for    high-pressure    steam Tnr, 

Duck  and  rubber  for  piston   packing l-.OO 

Flax,    regular    -"O 

Flax,    waterproofed    110 

Compressed  abestos  sheet    1.00 

Wire   insertion    asbestos   sheet    ;  .  .  .  .  l._-0 

Rubber    sheet     "O 

Rubber    sheet,     wire    insertion     -_'0 

Rubber    sheet,    duck    insertion     .ijO 

Rubber     sheet,     cloth     insertion      .23 

Asbestos  packing,   twisted  or  braided  and  graphited,   for  valve 

stems    and    stiifling    boxes     I.IJJ 

Asbestos  wick,    Vi-   and   l-lb|  balls ."0 

PIPE   AND   BOILER   COVERING — Below'  are   discounts    and    part    of 
standard  lists: 

PIPE    COVERING 

Strindard  List 
Pipe  Size  Per  Lin.Ft. 

1-in.  S0.37 

'3-in.  .36 

6-in.  .80 

4-in.  .60 

3-in.  .45 

8-in.  1.10 

10-in.  1.30 

85%   magnesia  high  pressure 5%  off 

f  4-ply 58  %  off 

For  low-pressure  heating  and  return  lines  i  3-ply 60  %  off 

[  T-ply 63%  off 

GREASES — Prices  are  as  follows  in  the  following  cities  in  cents 


BLOCKS  AND    SHEETS 

Price 

Thickness  per  SaFt. 

Vi-in.  80  37 

1  -in.  .30 
1%-in.  .45 

2  -In.  .60 
3^4 -in.  .75 

3  -in.  .90 
3 14 -in.  1.05 


per  pound  for  barrel  lots : 

Cinciiuiati  Chicago 

Cup     7  5H 

Fiber  or  sponge 8  b 

Transmission 7  6 

Axle    4  '.-i  4 

Gear   4%  4% 

Car   jornal    33ieal.)  S'^ 


St.  Louis    Birmmgham    Denver 

0.9  7%  10% 

7.4  7Vj  15 

7.4  7  •A  13 
3.6  4  5 
7.0  4  6 

4.5  4  ti 


COTTON  WASTE — The  following  prices  are  in  cents  per  pound: 

^ New  York > 

Current          One  Year  Ago  Cleveland  Chicago 

White                ..     .11.00  to  13.00     10.00  to  13.00  16.50  13.011  to  16.50 

Color"id    mixed..    8.50  to  13.00      10.00  to  13.00      13.00  ll.aO  to  14.00 

WIPING  CLOTHS — Jobbers'  price  per  1000   is  as  follows. 

13  V4  X  1314     131,4  x30i.i 

Cleveland    *^S'251  *5^-99 

Chicago -4800 


50.00 


LINSEED  OIL — These  prices  are  per  gallon: 


REFRACTORIES — Following  prices   are   fob.    works,    Pittsburgh: 

Chrome  brick   net  ton  $175.00 

Chrome   cement    net   ton  75.00 

Clay  brick,   1st  quaUty   fireclay per  1000  50.00-  55.00 

Clay  brick,  3nd  quahty per  1000  35.00-  40.00 

Magnesite,    raw   ton  30  00-  35.00 

Magnesite,  calcined ton  33.00-  35.00 

Magnesite.   dead  burned net  ton  33.00-  35.00 

Magnesite  brick.   9  x  4  Vj    x  3'/.    in net  ton  110.00-125.00 

Silica  brick    per   lOUO  50.00-  60.00 

Standard  size  fire  brick.  9  x  4  VS   X  2%  in.     The  second  quality  is  84 
to  $7)   cheaper  per  1000. 

St.  Louis — High  grade,  $55:  St.  Louis  grade,  $40, 
Birmingham — Fire  clay,   $55-60;   silica,  $55-60. 
Chicago — Second  quality.   $35   per  ton. 
Denver — Silica.  $35  per   1000. 

BABBITT  .METAL — Warehouse  prices  in  cents  per  pound: 


, New  York ,    , —  Cleveland ,  , Chicago . 

Current        One        Current        One        Current        One 

Year  Ago  Yeai-  Ago  Year  Ago 


$1.55  • 
1.05* 


$1.31 
1.41 


$1.65 
1.80 


$1.3'; 
1.43 


$1.65 
1.75 


$1.38 
1.33 


Raw   per   barrel . 
5-gaI.    cans    .... 
•  Nominal. 

WHITE  AND  RED  LEAD  in  500-lb   lots  sell  as  follows  in  cents 
per  pound : 


-Red- 


White V 

Current   1  Yr.  Ago 
Dry 
and 
In  Oil 
11. .50 
11.75 
12.00 
13.50 


Best   grade 
Commercial 


f New  York 

Current  One 

Year  Ag( 
.135.00  70.00 

.    70.00  40.00 


, Cleveland ^  f Chicago ^ 

Current        One  Current  One 

Year  Ago  Year  Ago 

118.00  74.00         110.00  65  00 

33.00  33.00  33.00  35.00 


SWEDISH     (NORWAY)     IRON — The    average    price    per    100    lb.,    in 
ton  lots,  is: 

Current  One    Year  Ago 

New   York    $15.00  $13.00 

Cleveland     15.00  13.00 

Chicago    17.00  11.50 

In   coils   an   advance  of  50c.   usually  is  charged. 

Note — Stock  very   scarce  generally. 

POLES — Prices  on  Western  red  cedar  poles: 

New  York      Chicago  St.  Louis  Denver 

6  in.  by   30   ft $5.59              $4.94  $4.94  $4.33 

7  in.   by   30   ft 7.40                6.60  6.60  5.80 

7  in.   by  35   ft 10.70  9.60  9.60  8.55 

8  in.  by  35   ft 13,20  10.90  10.90  9,65 

7  in.  by  40  ft 13.35  11.00  11.00  9.75 

8  in.  by  40  ft 13.75  12.15  12.15  10.65 

8  in.  bv  45  ft 18.30  16.30  16.20  14.30 

8  in.  by  50  ft 21.85  19.45  19.45  17.15 

10c.  higher  freight  rates  on  accoimt  of  double  loads. 

For  plain  pine  poles,  delivered  New  York,  the  price  is  as  follows: 

lOin.  butts,   5-in,  tops,   length  30-30   ft $  9.00 

13-in.  butts,   ein.  tops,   length   .3040   ft 11.50 

]3.in.  butts,   6-in,  tops,   length  41-50  ft 12,50 

14-in.  butts,    6-in,  tops,   length   51-60   ft 31.00 

14-in.  butts,    6-in.  tops,   length   61-71   ft 23,50 

PIPE — The  following  discounts  are  for  carload  lots  f.o.b.  Pittsburgh, 
basing  card  in  effect  July  3,  1917.  for  iron,  and  May  1  for  steel: 

BUTT  WELD 
Steel 
Inches  Black  Galvanized         Inches 

%     to    3 49%        351/2%        ?4toiy2. 


Chicago 

40  7»' 
40%* 


Iron 

Black  Galvanized 
.  .      33%  17% 


26%  13% 

38%  15% 

28  %  15  % 

30%  8% 


Dry 
25     and  BO-lb.  kegs  11.35 

13i';.-lb.    keg    11.47  Vj 

lOO-lb.    keg    11,03% 

5-lb,  cans 11,83% 

1-lb,  cans 13,73  % 

RIVETS — The   following  quotations  are  allowed  for  fair-sized 
orders  from  warehouse : 

New  York     Cleveland 

Steel  A  and  smaller 30  %  40  % 

Tinned     30%  40% 

•For  less  than  k<!g  lots  the  discount  is  35%. 

Button  heads,  3,  I.  1   in.  diameter  by  2  in,  to  5  In,  sell  as  fol- 
lows per  100  lb, : 
New  York.    $0.09%    Cleveland.  .85.35  Chicago.  .$5.50  Pittsburgh.    $4.65 

Coneheads,  same  sizes: 
New  York.  .$6.19%    Cleveland  .  .$5.45  Chicago  ..  $5.60   Pittsburgh  ..  $4.75 


LAP  WELD 

2  43  %         39  %  %        3     

3  %     to    6 45  %         33  %  %        3  %     to    4 .  .  . 

7  "to    13 43%        38  V.  %       4%     to    6... 

13    and    14 33%%       7    to    8 

15     30%  .... 

BUTT  WELD.      EXTRA  STRONG  PLAIN   ENDS 

y.    to  1% 47%         34%%        %    to  1% 33%  18% 

J    to   3 48%         35%  % 

LAP  WELD.     EXTRA  STRONG  PLAIN  ENDS 

3  ....      40  %        38  %  %       3     27  %  14  % 

3%     to    4 43%        31%%,      9  to  13 15%  3% 

4%     to    6 43%        30%%       7    to    13 2o%  13% 

7    to    8  38%         34%%       3%    to  4 29%  17% 

^  to  l-y. '.'.'.'.'.'.  .      33%         19%%       4%   to  0 38%  16%, 

From  warehouses  at  the  places  named  the  following  discounts  hold 
for  steel  pipe:  „, 

, Black s 

New  York         Chicago  St,  Louis 

%    to  3  in.  butt  welded 38%  42%  ^HZt' 

3%    to  6  in.  lap  welded 18%  38%  Bfl^ 

7  to  13  in.  lap  welded 10%  3d%  21.27% 

^- Galvanized n 

New  York         Chicago  St.  Louis 

%    to  3  in.  butt  welded 32%  '3-3%  \%?,1%' 

3%    to  6  in.  lap  welded ^  .List  18%  ''.<r,lff 

7  to  13  in,  lap  welded List +  30%        30%  b.J,  % 

Malleable  fittings.  Class  B  and  C,  from  New  York  stock  sell  at  5  and 
5%   from  list  prices.     Cast  iron,  standard  sizes,   34  and  o7o. 

BOILER  Tl'BES — The  following  are  the  prices  for  carload  lots  fob. 
Pittsburgh,  announced  Nov.  13.  as  agreed  upon  by  manufacturers  and 
the  Government : 


Lap    Welded   Steel 


3%    to  4%    in. 
3%   to  3Vi   in. 


1%   to 


Charcoal  Iron 

.34         3%   to  414   in 

34         3  to  314   in 

17%     3%    to  2%   in 

13         2  to  3  Vi   in 

1%   to  1  %  in 


12% 
+    5. 


Standard  Commercial   Seamless — Cold  drawn   or  hot  rolled: 

Per  Net  Ton                                                Pt  Net  Ton 
1   in     8340     1  -y^    in 8230 


1  Vi  in 
1%  in 
1%    in 


80    3  to  3%   in 190 

_70    2%    to  3?i    in 100 

230    4   in. 


300 


330 


4%    to  5  in 

These  prices  do  not  apply  to  special  specifications  for  locomotive 
lubeTnOT  t?  Ipecial  speciflcations  fir  tubes  for  the  Navy  Department, 
which  will  be  subject  to  special  negotiation. 


POWER 


■i?  -v-  'is 


Vol    47 


NEW   YORK    JUNF  11    1918 


No    24 


Success — On  Things  in  General,  Personal 

and  Otherwise 


"I  would  like  to  study,  but  haven't  the  time." 
This  is  a  familiar  complaint.  But  consider  the 
man  who  always  has  some  educational  literature 
with  him,  reading  at  spare  moments,  waiting 
for  his  dinner  order,  on  train,  trolley  or  ferry, 
homeward  bound.  Many  possible  moments  exist 
for  all  of  us;  like  the  pennies,  in  the  end  they 
count  and  should  be  saved.  One's  time  has  a 
cash  value. 

Do  you  ridicule  the  man  who  studies  up, 
saying  "Work  can  be  learned  only  by  contact"? 
When  he  attains  that  position  which  you  had 
thought  to  be  yours  simply  by  virtue  of  long 
service,  do  you  complain  and  berate  your  luck? 
The  man  too  valuable  to  longer  occupy  the 
lower  position  is  given  the  one  ahead;  though 
not  working  at  it,  still  he  had  acquired  by  study 
the  fundamentals  of  the  undertaking.  He  who 
does  not  progress  surely  goes  backward. 

Think  not  of  the  pleasures  others  have  dur- 
ing social  hours  while  yours  is  only  study. 
Endurance  wins.  In  games  of  skill  a  fair  degree 
of  proficiency  is  to  be  admired;  beyond  that, 
it  is  a  waste  of  time,  and  no  one  cares  to  play 
with  a  professional. 

Do  not  let  personalities  interfere  with  your 
progress.  But  some  other  fellow  may.  Study 
your  own  to  avoid  friction;  no  one  advances 
on  merit  alone.  Personality  and  temper  control 
are  gained  by  the  preservation  of  health.  One 
should  not  study  to  the  detriment  of  health,  but 
maintain  that  course  compatible  with  progress 
which  conserves  the  health  necessary  to  enjoy 
the  fruits  of  labor. 


Money  is  not  always  a  measure  of  success. 
Reasons  of  existence  give  each  his  part  in  the 
world's  undertakings.  Though  you  only  have 
a  ditch  to  dig  and  dig  it  well,  success  is  yours; 
dig  it  better  and  a  goal  is  defined  for  the  other 
man.  Branch  out  with  success  and  extend  it  to 
all    things,    even    to    your    leisure    moments. 

Is  it  impossible  to  advance?  Are  there  neces- 
sary restrictions  or  limitations  beyond  which 
you  may  not  go?  This  is  your  individual 
problem.  Nothing  is  perfect ;  never  complain ; 
strive  to  make  right,  that  is  the  purpose  of  your 
existence.  Work  cheerfully  or  choose  an  environ- 
ment suited  to  your  temperament;  someone 
specially  fitted  may  win  in  the  place  you  vacate. 

A  fair  appearance  consistent  with  your  posi- 
tion is  commendable.  Harmony,  with  utility  in 
design,  sells  goods,  so  your  good  appearance 
impresses  others,  commanding  respect  and 
results. 

You  save  for  your  employer  a  small  amount 
and  lift  your  head  with  pride,  little  realizing 
that  your  salary  is  his  investment — you  the 
instrument  of  service  to  economize  for  him. 
Equal  results  could  be  obtained  by  others;  your 
salary  should  be  the  small  percentage  of  your 
economies,  otherwise  you  have  lost  where  there 
is   no   reasonable   return   upon  the   investment. 

Command  the  attention  of  those  above,  but 
not  in  a  spectacular  manner,  advertising  your 
ability  in  a  modest  way.  Work  well,  even  if 
not  appreciated ;  others  are  watching,  and  even 
those  in  minor  positions  may  at  some  future 
time  recommend  or  employ. 


Contributed  by    T.  W.   Reynnlds 


iiiiiiiiiii<iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiNiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininiin^ 


824 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  £4 


Soot  and  Soot  Blowers 


Nature  of  soot  and  its  effect  on  heat  transfer 
through  boiler  heating  surface.  Relative  steam 
consumption  of  mechanically  operated  soot  blow- 
ers versus  hand  cleaning.  Effect  on  the  coal  pile, 
labor  required  and  maintenance  cost  of  meclmni- 
cal  blower  as  given  by  a  number  of  users. 


DURING  recent  years  the  boiler  room  has  gradu- 
ally emerged  from  a  position  of  secondary  im- 
portance to  a  primary  element  in  the  cost  of 
power  generation.  Boilers  have  been  growing  in  size, 
combustion  rates  have  increased,  and  greater  loads  per 
unit  of  steam-making  surface  are  being  carried.  With 
the  operating  conditions  becoming  more  severe  and  fuel 
cost  high  above  the  normal  level  of  years  past,  closer 
scrutiny  is  being  given  all  factors  affecting  economy. 

Of  all  the  preventable  losses,  that  caused  by  the  for- 
mation of  soot  on  the  fire  surfaces  of  the  boiler  is  per- 
haps the  most  troublesome.  Cracks  in  the  setting  may 
be  detected,  and  the  leakage  of  air  into  the  setting  may 
be  stopped.  Proper  insulation  will  reduce  radiation,  and 
scale  on  the  water  surfaces  may  be  eliminated  to  a  large 
extent  by  the  use  of  pure  or  softened  water.  The  for- 
mation of  soot  and  ash,  however,  is  universal  and  con- 
tinuous as  long  as  there  is  an  active  fire  under  the 
boiler.  Depending  upon  the  degree  of  combustion  and 
arrangement  of  the  setting,  the  quantity  of  soot  varies 
and  its  character  differs  with  the  fuel,  but  there  is  no 
stopping  of  its  formation.  Even  if  conditions  were 
ideal  and  combustion  complete,  a  heat-insulating  coating 
composed  largely  of  ash  would  form  on  the  tube  surface. 


^^ 

/ 

TOO 

M 

k 

^ 

y 

600 

od 

/ 

? 

f 

600 

^ 

r 

>/ 

f^ 

400 

^ 

/ 

^ 

k 

300 

^ 

/' 

K 

B  6  T  8  9  10  II  12  5  14 

Time      in      Minutes      per    Blow 

FIG.   1.     TOTAL  STEAM  REQUIRED  FOR  PERIODS  BLOWER 
IS   IN   OPERATION 

As  a  rule  the  soot  found  in  boilers  is  not  pure  soot 
or  carbon.  It  contains  a  varying  proportion  of  ash,  so 
that  the  color  may  be  light  gray,  red,  brown  or,  where 
conditions  are  particularly  unfavorable  to  good  combus- 
tion, black.  In  coming  from  the  furnace,  the  soot  par- 
ticles are  more  or  less  plastic  and  readily  adhere  to  the 
metal  surface  of  the  tubes.  Unless  the  deposit  is  quickly 
removed,  the  carbon  on  the  tubes  near  the  fire  will  burn 
out  in  part,  fusing  the  various  ingredients  into  a  hard 
coating,  which  increases  rapidly  as  the  gas  temperature 
rises  due  to  the  insulation  of  the  tubes.     In  water-tube 


boilers  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  on  the  heating  sur- 
face near  the  fire  hard  clinker-like  formation  in  some 
cases  bridging  the  tubes.  Even  with  efficient  and  fre- 
quent cleaning  it  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  the 
lower  tubes  near  the  fire  entirely  free  of  this  slag-like 
formation.  Farther  back  the  soot  does  not  contain  so 
large  a  percentage  of  ash.  It  is  usually  darker  in  color, 
and  the  formation  is  not  cemented  together.  Loose 
deposits  rest  on  all  retaining  surfaces,  such  as  the 
upper  portions  of  the  tubes. 

With  all  kinds  of  fuel  then  there  is  formation  of  soot. 
Anthracite  contains  a  low  percentage  of  volatile  matter, 


1500 


5l300 
^1200 
gl  100 

Siooo 

"^  900 
"S800 
„  700 
c  600 
o  500 
400 
300 


>^ 

y 

y^y 

^ 

<! 

e^:^^ 

y^ 
<- 

i:^ 

<- 

^^^i^ 

y 

-1*1 

■^ 

^ 

< 

:^ 

-IzSLj 

^ 

' 

yi^. 

^ 

1^0 

'A 

^ 

:^ 

■^ 

•y 

\i 

y^ 

^ 

^ 

4 

^ 

^ 

u 

^ 

J 

6 .      ■'. 

Time 


8  9 

Minutes 


10 
per 


11  12 

Blow 


FIO.    2.      STEAM   CON'SUMPTION   OF    2-IN.    BLi  IWER   FOR 
VARIOUS  PRESSURES 

but  may  run  high  in  ash,  so  that  the  deposit  is  largely 
the  latter  constituent  and  is  usually  of  a  light  powdery 
character.  With  bituminous  coal,  high  in  both  volatile 
and  ash,  there  is  a  large  percentage  of  carbon  in  the 
soot,  particularly  if  the  furnace  conditions  are  not 
favorable  to  good  combustion.  In  waste-heat  boilers 
deposits  of  fine  powdered  dust  carried  along  with  the 
gas  are  to  be  found,  and  even  with  oil  fuel  there  is 
some  formation  of  soot.  Due  to  excellent  combustion 
the  quantity  is  small,  but  as  the  deposit  is  pure  soot 
of  high  insulating  value,  its  removal  is  important  from 
an  efficiency  standpoint.  The  soot  evii  also  extends  to 
the  economizer,  the  deposits  resembling  the  boiler  soots. 
Due  to  the  lower  temperatures  the  formation  is  more 
profuse  and  its  interference  with  heat  transmission 
relatively  greater  as  the  difference  in  temperature  be- 
tween gas  and  water  is  less. 

It  has  been  commonly  stated  that  next  to  loose  wool, 
loose  lampblack  or  soot  is  the  best  insulator  known. 
In  this  capacity  it  is  ahead  of  hair  felt,  and  is  more 
than  five  times  as  effective  as  fine  asbestos.  All  this 
may  be  true,  but  boiler  soot  is  not  all  lampblack.  The 
varying  percentages  of  ash  and  the  density  and  struc- 
ture of  the  deposit  will  naturally  affect  the  insulating 
properties.  Besides,  the  coating  is  not  evenly  distrib- 
uted so  that  part  of  the  surface  at  least  will  be  com- 
paratively clean.  If  the  maximum  heat  transfer 
through  the  boiler  tubes  is  to  be  maintained,  however, 
all  the  heating  surface  must  be  kept  clean,  and  this  is 
particularly  true  where  boilers  are  forced  over  normal 
rating,  as  is  the  practice  in  modern  plants.  If  the  soot 
is  allowed  to  remain,  another  bad  feature  is  the  forma- 
tion of  carbonic  and  sulphuric  acids,  which  act  on  the 
metal  of  the  boiler,  causing  leaky  tubes   and   general 


June  11.  1918 


POWER 


825 


deterioration  that  will  shorten  the  useful  life  of  the 
boiler.  It  is  quite  evident,  then,  that  soot  must  be  re- 
moved if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained,  and  the 
question  at  issue  is  the  easiest  and  most  efficient  method 
of  doing  it. 

For  the  purpose  there  are  the  hand  lance  and  the  me- 
chanical blower.  The  former,  consisting  of  a  rubber 
hose  and  nozzle,  was  the  first  device  to  be  used.  It  is  of 
course  simple  and  the  initial  cost  is  small.  Two  men 
are  required  to  operate  it:  one  at  the  boiler  to  handle 
the  nozzle  and  the  other  at  the  steam  valve.  The  work 
is  naturally  hot,  dirty  and  disagreeable  and  on  a  me- 
dium-sized boiler  takes  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes. 
Usually  there  is  not  more  than  one  and  at  most  two 
blowings  per  day  of  twenty-four  hours.     The  lance  is 


^°%      5       10      15     20     25     30     55    40     45     60     66    60    65    70 
Time       in       Minutes- 

FIG.   3.      STEAM  CONSUMPTION   WITH    HAND   LANCE 

inserted  through  dusting  doors  in  the  setting,  and  there 
is  no  opportunity  for  the  operator  to  see  the  result  of 
his  work.  Unless  he  is  conscientious  beyond  the  aver- 
age, the  surface  may  be  poorly  cleaned  and  some  sec- 
tions are  neglected  entirely.  Usually,  the  lance  does  not 
reach  all  the  heating  surface,  the  area  covered  being 
determined  by  the  kind  of  dusting  doors,  the  width  of 
alley  space  at  the  side  of  the  boiler  and  the  range  of 
the  lance  due  to  the  angle  of  the  dusting  door.  Another 
objection  commonly  advanced  against  hand-blowing  is 
the  fact  that  when  soot  is  blown  across  the  tops  of  the 
tubes  it  strikes  the  battery  wall  and  tends  to  pile  up 
on  the  far  tubes,  contrary  to  the  argument  that  the 
draft  will  carry  it  off. 

There  is  the  additional  objection  of  large  quantities  of 
cold  air  being  drawn  into  the  setting  during  the  pe- 
riod the  steam  lance  is  in  operation.  This  means  less 
efficient  combustion.  As  expressed  by  A.  W.  Conklin,  in 
Power,  July  13,  1915,  the  time  required  to  clean  a  boiler 
with  a  steam  or  air  lance  is  about  three  umes  that  nec- 
essary with  a  mechanical  blower,  and  the  results  ob- 
tained are  about  one-third  as  good.  In  a  series  of  com- 
parative tests  in  soot  blowing,  it  was  found  that  the 
amount  of  steam  required  for  one  operation  of  the  me- 


chanical blower  was  about  the  same  as  that  used  in 
blowing  the  boiler  by  hand.  In  other  words,  the  amount 
of  steam  used  by  the  blower  in  6  minutes,  the  time  re- 
quired to  clean  the  boiler,  was  nearly  the  same  as 
that  used  by  the  steam  lance  in  25  minutes  for  the  same 
operation.  The  mechanical  blower,  however,  showed  a 
saving  of  5  per  cent,  over  hand-blowing,  because  the 
heating  surfaces  were  more  thoroughly  cleaned.  This 
figure  appears  to  be  conservative  and  when  in  average 
practice  neglect  or  less  frequent  cleaning  are  factors, 
the  saving  may  easily  be  more. 

Continuing  with  the  results  obtained  by  Mr.  Conklin, 
Fig.  1  shows  the  steam  consumption  of  a  soot  blower 
equipped  with  li-in.  piping  to  the  blowing  elements. 
The  steam  pressure  was  139  lb.  gage  and  the  superheat 
about  20  deg.  Between  the  main  steam  header  and  the 
nozzle  plugs  there  was  a  drop  of  about  10  lb.  pres- 
sure when  the  blower  was  in  operation.  The  test  was 
made  on  a  300-hp.  water-tube  boiler  vertically  baffled 
for  three  passes.  Two  blowing  elements  in  each  pass 
cleaned  the  tubes.  In  addition  an  element  served  the 
superheater  and  another  was  placed  in  the  rear  combus- 
tion chamber.  Fig.  2  shows  the  steam  consumption  of  a 
2-in.  blower  at  different  steam  pressures  and  20  deg. 
superheat  on  a  500-hp.  boiler  of  the  same  type  served 
by  the  same  number  of  blowing  elements.  Fig.  3  gives 
the  steam  consumption  of  a  hand  lance  on  the  smaller 
boiler.  With  the  latter  the  superheater  tubes  were  not 
blown,  nor  was  the  rear  combustion  chamber  cleaned, 
but  the  steam  consumption  was  about  the  same  as  that 
required  for  one  blow  with  the  mechanical  blower.  The 
blower  required  29  min.  and  the  steam  at  138  lb.  pres- 
sure was  used  25  min.  at  the  rate  of  16  lb.  per  min. 
Temperature  readings  taken  at  the  top  row  of  tubes, 
third  pass,  showed  that  the  gases  from  the  mechan- 
ically cleaned  boilers  were  anywhere  from  80  to  100 
deg.  lower,  say  520  deg.,  as  compared  to  620  deg.  for  the 
hand-cleaned  boiler.  This  corresponds  to  a  saving  of 
from  4  to  5  per  cent,  made  possible  by  more  efficient  and 
more  frequent  cleaning. 

Drop  in  Uptake  Temperature 

From  general  observations  and  figures  from  various 
tests  a  general  rule  has  been  figured  out  that  for  every 
20  deg.  drop  in  the  uptake  temperature  due  to  the  re- 
moval of  soot  from  the  heating  surface,  there  is  a  saving 
of  approximately  1  per  cent,  in  fuel.  It  is  well  to  bear 
in  mind  that  a  drop  in  flue-gas  temperature  may  mean 
better  absorption  of  heat  or  it  may  mean  a  temporary 
cooling  of  the  surface  by  the  blowing  steam.  The  time 
element  in  the  return  of  the  temperature  to  that  before 
blowing  is  the  deciding  factor.  A  rapid  recovery  indi- 
cates cooling  while  a  ;low  gradual  rise  in  the  tempera- 
ture shows  efficient  cleaning.  Fig.  4  is  an  example  of 
the  latter  condition.     The  curve  is  a  plot  of  flue  tem- 


FIG.   4.      EFFECT  OF  .SOOT  BLOWINCi   ON    FbU 


TEMPERATURE   IN    .\   HORIZONTAL   VERTICALLY    BAFFLED   BOILER 


826 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


peratures  in  a  horizontal  vertically  baffled  water-tube 
boiler  burning  Illinois  coal  in  an  underfeed  stoker. 
After  the  blowing  at  2:45  p.m.  there  ^s  a  sudden  drop  in 
temperature  of  70  deg.  The  succeeding  rise  in  tem- 
perature is  gradual,  as  the  curve  does  not  reach  the 
original  level  until  midnight,  about  nine  hours  later. 

Labor  is  another  item  entering  into  the  comparison. 
The  mechanical  blower  required  but  one  man  and  the 
time  of  blowing  is,  say,  one-fourth  as  long,  so  that  the 
ratio  in  this  case  was  8  to  1,  and  with  vei-y  large  boilers 
it  may  be  considerably  higher.  Local  conditions,  size  of 
plant,  etc.,  determine  whether  the  saving  in  time  will  be 
sufficient  to  dispense  with  the  services  of  employees  re- 
tained for  this  work. 

Objections  offered  to  the  mechanical  blower  are  initial 
cost,  running  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the 
boiler,  the  burning  out  of  the  elements  exposed  to  the 
hottest  gases  direct  from  the  furnace,  and  warping. 
The  objection  last  named,  warping,  has  always  been  a 
serious  problem.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  metal 
begins  to  warp  long  before  it  reaches  a  temperature 
that  will  cause  corrosion  or  burning  of  the  metal.  For 
that  reason  it  is  necessary  to  construct  the  element  so 
that  it  will  have  strength  to  resist  the  waiTjing,  for  as 
soon  as  this  action  begins,  the  element  will  be  thrown 
out  of  line,  it  will  bind  in  the  bearings  and  the  operator 
will  be  unable  to  turn  it. 

Initial  Cost  Small 

The  initial  cost  is  comparatively  small  when  compared 
to  a  5  per  cent,  saving  in  the  fuel  bill,  the  reduction  in 
labor  and  the  convenience  of  operation.  Destruction 
of  the  elements  near  the  fire  has  been  obviated  to  some 
extent  by  the  use  of  special  metal  having  high  heat-re- 
sisting qualities,  and  by  so  placing  the  elements  that 
they  are  protected  from  the  direct  heat  of  the  furnace 
when  in  the  nonoperating  position.  Corrosion,  due  to 
back  suction  of  the  boiler  gases  into  the  blowing  ele- 
ments, has  been  reduced  by  the  use  of  special  air  valves, 
and  special  precautions  have  been  taken  to  drain  the 
piping  system  of  the  blower  to  prevent  condensation  be- 
ing forced  out  onto  the  heating  surface  to  interfere 
with  soot  removal  and  to  corrode  the  metal.  These  va- 
rious improvements,  better  placing  of  the  elements  and 
nozzles  of  improved  design  have  so  perfected  the  me- 
chanical blower  that,  according  to  reports  from  numer- 
ous users,  the  services  rendered  are  excellent  and  the 
maintenance  charges  are  comparatively  small. 

While  users  of  the  mechanical  soot  blowers  realize 
that  they  are  getting  better  heat  transfer,  that  the  flue 
gases  are  lower  in  temperature  and  that  the  boiler  effi- 
ciency has  been  improved,  there  is  a  lamentable  lack 
of  specific  data  showing  the  saving  actually  effected  and 
the  average  cost  of  maintenance.  The  blowers  have 
been  installed.  They  are  giving  satisfaction.  The  boil- 
ers will  carry  more  load,  and  it  is  known  that  the  flue 
temperatures  are  considerably  lower  than  previous  to 
the  installation.  During  the  first  two  or  three  years  of 
use  repair  parts  are  required  occasionally.  Depending 
upon  the  sei'vice  the  average  life  of  the  blower  is  at 
least  five  or  six  years.  The  labor  of  blowing  has  been 
reduced,  and  as  the  work  is  less  arduous,  it  is  performed 
more  frequently  and  with  better  results. 

Such  was  the  gist  of  replies  from  a  large  number  of 


power-plant  owners  and  engineers  to  whom  inquiries 
had  been  sent  by  the  writer  concerning  the  saving  in 
fuel  and  labor  effected  by  the  installation  of  mechani- 
cal blowers,  the  cost  of  maintenance  and  the  degree  of 
satisfaction  the  blowers  gave  in  service.  The  substance 
of  some  of  the  replies,  more  specific  than  others,  are 
presented  in  the  following: 

The  Iowa  Falls  Electric  Co.  had  equipped  three  Edge 
Moor  water-tube  boilers  of  the  four-pass  type  with  soot 
blowers.  Two  of  the  boilers  were  ratea  at  410  hp.  and 
the  other  at  550.  The  boilers  had  previously  been 
blown  by  hand,  and  the  work  required  the  full  time  of 
one  man  at  a  cost  of  $850  per  year.  In  their  opinion  it 
took  a  remarkably  good  man  to  stand  up  beside  a  hot 
boiler  and  blow  every  tube.  Frequently  some  of  the 
tubes  were  missed,  and  the  result  was  a  reduction  in  effi- 
ciency. Besides,  a  man  could  not  hold  a  hose  carrying 
175-lb.  steam  pressure.  It  had  taken  the  company  two 
months  to  get  all  the  old  scale  off  the  tubes,  caused  by 
blowing  them  with  wet,  low-pressure  steam.  The  prin- 
cipal advantages  of  the  mechanical  blower  in  their  esti- 
mation was  the  fact  that  full  boiler  pressure  could  be 
used  and  that  better  results  were  obtained.  Since  the 
installation  of  the  blowers  the  services  of  the  man  pre- 
viously mentioned  had  been  dispensed  with,  and  the 
firemen  were  blowing  the  tubes  twice  on  every  shift. 
The  saving  in  coal  was  placed  at  15  per  cent.  The  blow- 
ers had  been  in  service  one  year,  and  the  maintenance 
expense  had  been  the  cost  of  one  pint  of  oil  to  lubricate 
the  swing  joints. 

Make  a  Saving 

The  Iowa  Railway  and  Light  Co.,  of  Cedar  Rapids, 
had  installed  mechanical  soot  blowers  on  29  Edge  Moor 
water-tube  boilers  during  a  period  extending  from  1909 
to  1918.  The  company  knew  that  the  blowers  were  a 
great  help  both  in  labor  and  economy,  but  could  give 
no  definite  figures.  It  had  been  found  that  the  blow- 
ers would  not  keep  clinkers  off  the  first  row  of  tubes. 
There  was  a  chance  for  improvement  here. 

In  the  plant  of  the  Indianapolis  Light  and  Heat  Co. 
14  boilers,  ranging  in  size  from  500  to  800  hp.,  were 
equipped  with  mechanical  blowers.  If  properly  oper- 
ated, the  blowers  saved  approximately  15  per  cent,  in 
fuel  and  labor.  About  121  per  cent,  of  this  saving  was 
attributed  to  higher  boiler  efficiency  and  2i  per  cent,  to 
a  reduction  in  labor  cost.  The  maintenance  had  been 
approximately  $5  per  installation  per  month. 

The  Richmond  Light  and  Railroad  Co.  had  blowers  on 
ten  606-hp.  B.  &  W.  boilers  equipped  with  stokers.  The 
maintenance  on  the  blowers,  which  had  been  installed 
from  one  to  two  years,  had  been  practically  nothing. 
The  company  had  no  accurate  data  to  show  the  saving  in 
coal  and  labor,  but  was  satisfied  that  the  blowers  were  a 
good  investment. 

The  Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Co.  of  Brooklyn 
had  in  use  blowers  on  17  B.  &  W.  boilers  averaging 
650  hp.,  and  45  additional  units  were  being  installed. 
Installation  work  had  begun  in  November,  1916,  and  no 
definite  figures  as  to  fuel  saving  were  available,  as  the 
majority  of  the  boilers  were  still  blown  by  hand.  In 
the  opinion  of  the  operating  engineer  there  was  no 
question  that  the  boilers  were  much  cleaner  by  the 
use  of  the  mechanical  soot  blowers,  and  that  a  saving 
in  fuel  must  result.     When  all  the  soot  blowers  were 


June  11.  1918 


POWER 


827 


installed,  the  labor  saving  would  eliminate  the  services 
of  five  men  and  would  amount  to  about  $13  per  day. 

Soot  blowers  on  4900  hp.  of  Stirling  boilers  are  in  use 
at  the  plant  of  the  Indiana  Railways  and  Light  Co.,  of 
Kokomo,  Ind.  No  tests  had  been  made  to  determine  the 
percentage  of  saving.  Cleaner  tubes  so  clearly  indi- 
cated a  saving  that  the  question  had  not  been  analyzed. 
It  had  been  their  experience  that  the  soot  blower  com- 
plete had  to  be  removed  in  from  five  to  six  years. 

Four  750-hp.  Bigelow-Hornsby  boilers  in  the  plant  of 
the  Salem  Electric  Lighting  Co.,  of  Salem,  Mass.,  had 
been  equipped  with  soot  blowers  in  1915;  five  blowers 
were  installed  on  280-hp.  Heine  boilers  in  the  plant  of 
the  Rockland  Light  and  Power  Co.,  of  Nyack,  N.  Y., 
in  1914,  and  in  the  same  year  a  600-hp.  B.  &  W.  boiler 
of  the  Maiden  Electric  Co.,  of!  Maiden,  Mass.,  was 
equipped  with  a  blower.  In  the  plant  first  mentioned 
the  saving  in  labor  was  $675  per  year;  in  the  second 
plant  $411  per  year,  and  in  the  Maiden  plant  the  labor 
saving  was  undetermined.  Blower  repairs  in  the  three 
plants  had  been  negligible.  In  the  opinion  of  the  en- 
gineering manager  controlling  the  three  properties, 
there  was  no  question  but  that  there  had  been  a  saving 
in  fuel  on  all  the  boilers  equipped  with  mechanical  soot 
blowers,  as  it  was  possible  to  clean  the  tubes  twice  in 
twenty-four  hours  so  that  the  heating  surface  was  main- 
tained in  much  better  condition.  No  exact  data  were 
available. 

Better  Than  Air  Blowers 

The  Central  Hudson  Gas  and  Electric  Co.,  of  Pough- 
keepsie,  N.  Y.,  had  equipped  six  of  eight  Stirling  boilers 
with  mechanical  blowers.  These  blowers  were  much 
more  effective  than  the  compressed  air  they  had  pre- 
viously used,  and  there  was  a  considerable  reduction  in 
labor. 

Installation  of  soot  blowers  on  two  400-hp.  Heine  wa- 
ter-tube boilers  in  the  plant  of  the  Chester  Valley  Elec- 
tric Co.,  of  Coatesville,  Penn.,  in  the  year  1911,  had 
resulted  in  a  saving  in  the  operation  of  the  plant 
roughly  estimated  at  5  per  cent.  This  figure  was  con- 
sidered conservative  and  was  divided  into  1  per  cent,  in 
labor  and  4  per  cent,  in  fuel.  The  maintenance  charges, 
which  had  been  small,  were  placed  at  $100  in  seven 
years. 

With  blower  installations  on  two  350-hp.  Heine  boil- 
ers and  two  Stirling  boilers  for  several  years,  the  Texas 
Power  and  Light  Co.  placed  the  cost  of  upkeep  at  $5 
per  blower  per  year,  and  over  hand-blowing  estimated 
a  saving  in  fuel  of  approximately  10  per  cent. 

The  public  lighting  plant  of  the  City  of  Detroit  had 
installed  soot  blowers  on  two  685-hp.  Stirling  boilers 
Apr.  21,  1916.  To  clean  the  soot  from  two  400-hp. 
Stirling  boilers  by  means  of  a  steam  hose  from  ladders 
required  the  labor  of  two  men  for  about  three  hours. 
With  the  mechanical  blowers  the  battery  of  two  685-hp. 
boilers  was  cleaned  by  one  man  in  one-half  hour,  the 
ratio  being  12  to  1  in  favor  of  the  mechanical  blower. 
So  far  there  has  been  no  expense  for  maintenance. 

One  of  the  large  central  station  companies  of  the 
country  has  equipped  55  boilers  with  mechanical  soot 
blowers.  These  are  of  competitive  types,  and  a  few 
of  home  manufacture.  Fifteen  of  the  installations  have 
been  made  on  Stirling  boilers  rated  at  2365  hp.  that 
operate  between  bank  and  about  200  per  cent,  of  rating. 


On  overload  the  temperatures  are  high  and  the  condi- 
tions severe,  so  that  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
assist  in  the  further  development  of  the  blowers.  To 
clean  one  of  the  large  boilers  by  hand  requires  twelve 
to  fourteen  hours'  time  with  two  men  operating.  These 
men  receive  38  cents  per  hour,  so  that  the  labor  cost  for 
hand-blowing  averages  about  twenty-six  hours  of  38-cent 
time,  or  just  under  $10  per  2500  boiler  horsepower  per 
twenty-four  hours. 

With  soot  blowers  installed  two  men  blow  a  boiler 
in  about  one  hour.  They  blow  each  boiler  three  times 
a  day  so  that  the  total  labor  cost  approximates  $2.30 
per  2500  boiler  horsepower  per  twenty-four  hours.  Thus 
the  labor  item  is  reduced  to  less  than  one-fourth,  and 
the  boiler  has  the  advantage  of  three  cleanings  a  day. 
The  job  is  much  better  done,  and  no  useless  air  is  ad- 
mitted through  open  doors.  The  effect  of  this  factor 
will  be  appreciated  when  it  is  noticed  that  it  takes  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  hours  to  blow  one  of  the  boilers  by 
hand. 

To  clean  one  of  the  big  boilers  with  a  mechanical 
blower  required  about  3500  lb.  of  steam  per  blow. 
Three  operations  per  day  would  require  about  10,500  lb. 
of  steam  per  2500  boiler  horsepower  every  twenty-four 
hours. 

The  maintenance  charges  on  soot  blowers  had  not 
been  separated  from  certain  other  somewhat  similar 
costs,  but  it  was  estimated  that  soot  blowers  properly 
installed  could  be  kept  in  good  operating  condition  with 
a  maintenance  expenditure  of  not  over  $200  per  2500 
boiler  horsepower  per  year.  The  average  charge  had 
been  higher  than  this,  but  it  was  due  to  the  fact  that 
certain  parts  as  originally  designed  and  installed  had 
given  out  frequently  and  had  to  be  replaced.  Because  of 
imperfect  methods  used  for  measuring  flue-gas  tem- 
peratures, accurate  data  were  not  available  to  indicate 
the  thermal  advantage  obtained  from  the  use  of  soot 
blowers.  It  was  believed  safe  to  assume,  however,  that 
mechanical  soot  blowing  maintained  a  flue-gas  tempera- 
ture about  30  to  40  deg.  lower  than  could  be  maintained 
with  hand-blowing,  and  unless  the  latter  operation  was 
completely  and  conscientiously  done,  the  difference 
would  be  more  nearly  of  the  order  of  80  to  100  deg.  less. 

Loss  of  Flowage  Rights 

Under  the  laws  of  New  York,  right  to  dam  a  stream, 
when  acquired  and  held  under  an  express  deed  or  grant, 
cannot  be  lost  by  mere  nonuse  unless  the  disuse  has  con- 
tinued for  at  least  twenty  years.  And  when  a  dam  has 
been  maintained  at  a  given  height  for  that  period  or 
longer,  a  prescriptive  right  is  acquired,  irrespective  of 
any  express  grant.  Where  there  has  been  no  relinquish- 
ment of  an  acquired  right  to  flood  lands,  through  express 
relinquishment  or  continued  nonuse  for  twenty  yeai-s, 
the  owner  of  the  dam  is  entitled  to  reconstruct  it  at  such 
height  as  to  overflow  upper  lands  to  the  full  extent  per- 
mitted under  the  original  grant  of  right.  Hence,  the 
fact  that  an  old  dam  may  have  leaked  for  many  years, 
less  than  twenty,  will  not  affect  the  right  of  the  owner 
to  repair  the  leaks,  or  rcK'onstruct  the  dam,  so  long  as 
no  more  land  is  overflowed  than  was  overflowed  in  the 
original  enjoyment  of  the  right.  (New  York  Supreme 
Court,  Ulster  County;  Geiger  vs.  Divine,  167  New  York 
Supplement,  263.) 


828 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Augustine  Rotary  Two-Cycle  Super-Induction 

Gas  Engine 


ONE  of  the  most  widely  used  engines  for  airplane 
work  is  the  revolving  air-cooled  motor,  of  which 
there  are  several  designs,  operating  on  the  four- 
stroke  cycle.  The  distinguishing  feature  of  this  type  of 
engine  is  that  the  crankshaft  and  cranks  are  stationary 
and  the  cylinders  revolve  about  this  shaft.  This  pro- 
duces the  same  "relative  motion  of  the  piston  to  the 
cylinder  as  if  the  cylinder  were  stationary  and  the  crank 
revolved,  as  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  reciprocating 
engine.  These  engines  are  generally  made  with  5,  7,  9 
or  14  cylinders  and  range  from  about  50  to  100  hp.  each. 

A  new  design  of  rotaiy  gas  motor  is  the  Augustine 
rotary  two-cycle  super-induction  air-cooled  engine,  Fig. 
1,  which  has  been  developed  by  the  Augustine  Automatic 
Rotary  Engine  Co.,  1862  Elmwood  Ave.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Figs.  2  and  3  illustrate  the  general  design  of  this 
engine;  the  former  is  a  sectional  view  through  the  mo- 
tor in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  driving 
shaft  and  centrally  through  the  cylinders,  also  showing 
the  relative  positions  of  the  pistons  in  the  radial  cyl- 
inders and  the  stationary  shaft,  bearings  and  connect- 
ing-rods. Fig.  3  is  a  sectional  view  in  the  plane  of  the 
axis  of  both  the  stationary  and  driving  shafts,  showing 
the  assembled  parts  and  how  the  lubricating  oil  is  car- 
ried in  copper  tubes  to  the  bearings  and  how  the  oil  is 
kept  cold  by  the  incoming  charge  of  gas. 

The  fuel  gas  is  drawn  from  the  carburetor  through 
the  hollow  shaft  A,  Fig.  3,  by  the  pumping  action  of  the 
piston  and  is  delivered  to  the  crank  casing,  where  it  is 
put  under  slight  compression,  the  degree  of  compres- 
sion being  controlled  by  the  throttled  condition  of  the 
carburetor.  The  passage  of  the  fuel  gas  is  from  the 
hollow  shaft  A  through  the  stationary  controlling  valve 
B  and  intake  pipe  C  to  the  space  D  in  the  cylinder  be- 
tween the  piston  and  the  cylinder  head,  as  shown  by  the 
arrows.  As  the  sleeve  valve  E  has  closed  the  exhaust 
ports  when  the  piston  is  at  the  compression  position,  the 
gas  in  the  space  D  is  forced  back  through  the  pipes  C 
and  F,  past  the  valve  B  and  into  the  crank  casing  of  the 
engine  when  the  piston  begins  its  outward  stroke,  the 
valve  B  having  moved  to  permit  of  its  passage  and  so 
has  cut  off  the  supply  of  gas  from  the  carburetor  from 
the  cylinder  that  has  reached  the  compression  stroke. 

Fig.  4  is  a  sectional  view  of  the  stationary  controlling 
disk  valve  showing  the  alternately  intaking  and  dis- 
charging pipes  that  lead  to  the  different  cylinders.  It 
also  shows  by  the  arrows  the  intaking  of  the  charge 
from  the  carburetor  and  the  discharging  of  the  gas 
charge  into  the  inner  chamber  by  positive  cutoffs  above 
and  below,  the  engine  rotating  in  the  direction  of  the 
curved  arrow.  As  shown,  the  gas  passes  to  the  cham- 
ber D,  Fig.  3,  at  the  same  time  and  is  being  forced  into 
the  crank  casing  from  two  opposite  cylinders  during  the 
same  period. 

The  fuel  gas  passes  directly  from  the  crank  casing  to 
the  cylinders,  entering  through  the  intake  ports  G,  Fig. 
3,  which  are  at  the  inner  ends  of  the  cylirders.  A 
separate  view  of  the  piston,  ports  and  cylinder  is  shown 
in  Fig.  5,  which  also  shows  how  the  super-induction  is 
effected,  the  sleeve  E,  Figs.  3  and  5,  having  closed  the 


exhaust  ports  and  the  full  pressure  of  the  inner  chamber 
being  admitted  into  the  cylinder  before  cutoff  and  com- 
pression begin. 

With  the  piston  at  the  inner  end  of  the  cylinder,  Fig. 
G,  and  the  exhaust  ports  closed,  the  cylinder  is  filled 
with  fuel  gas  drawn  from  the  carburetor  through  the 
hollow  shaft  and  intake  pipe  leading  to  the  outer  end 
of  the  cylinder.  The  greater  piston  area  on  the  pump 
side  is  responsible  for  the  super-charge  that  is  brought 
in  and  then  transferred  to  the  inner  chamber  as  the 
piston  reaches  the  other  end  of  the  stroke.  Compression 
is  effected  between  the  inner  face  of  the  piston  and  the 
inner  end  of  the  cylinder  before  exploding  and  expand- 
ing, and  the  spark  plug  H  is  located  in  the  center  of  the 
charge.  The  screen  on  the  intake  ports  /  is  to  prevent 
backfiring. 

After  the  explo.sion  in  any  one  of  the  six  cylinders 
takes  place,  the  burnt  gases  are  expelled  through  the  ex- 


FIG.   1.     THE   AUGUSTINE    ROTARY    ENGINE    RUNNING   AT 
HIGH  SPEED 

haust  ports  J,  Fig.  3,  at  the  outer  end  of  the  cylinders. 
These  exhaust  ports  are  controlled  by  a  sleeve  which  is 
positively  moved  by  the  cams  and  push-rods  K  and  L, 
the  movement  of  the  sleeve  being  so  timed  as  to  close  the 
exhaust  ports  prior  to  the  closing  of  the  intake  ports  G. 
By  chis  super-induction,  brought  about  through  the  clos- 
ing of  the  exhaust  ports  and  the  pumping  capacity  of 
the  piston,  which  can  deliver  a  large  volume  of  gas  to 
the  cylinders,  a  very  high  volumetric  efficiency  is  ob- 
tained, even  at  high  altitudes  in  airplane  service  where 
low  atmospheric  pressures  are  encountered. 

An  idea  of  the  action  of  the  gases  in  each  cylinder 
may  be  obtained  from  an  examination  of  Figs.  7  and  8. 
The  former  shows  the  piston  position  just  as  the  exhaust 
gases  are  released  by  the  piston  uncovering  the  ports 
and  thereby  relieving  any  pressure  before  the  inlet 
ports  are  open.  Fig.  8  is  a  similar  view,  showing  the 
intake  ports  open  and  the  cylinder  fully  scavenged  of 
the  burnt  gase.-s  and  the  sleeve  at  the  point  of  closing  the 
exhaust  ports.  It  also  illustrates  how  the  spark  plugs 
H  have  a  complete  scavenge  with  the  new,  clean  charge 
of  dry  gas,  insuring  easy  ignition.  As  the  exhaust  ports 
are  at  the  outer  end  of  the  cylinder  and  the  inlet  ports 


June  11,  1918 


POWER 


H'^d 


at  the  inner  end  of  the  piston  cylinder,  this  prevents 
cycloning  of  the  inrushing  gases  and  causes  natural 
scavenging,  owing  to  a  "uniflow"  of  the  gases. 

In  Fig.  0  is  shown  a  partial  view  through  the  upper 
portion  of  a  cylinder  at  one  .side,  with  the  piston  just 
closing  the  exhaust  ports  and  the  sleeve  for  the  closing 
of  the  exhaust  ports  about  to  move  and  uncover  them. 
At  this  position  of  the  piston  there  is  no  pressure  on  the 
sleeve,  therefore  it  is  moved  practically  without  friction. 
Fig.  10  is  a  similar  view  showing  the  e.xhaust  ports  un- 
covered by  the  sleeve  and  the  piston  just  reaching  the 


space  of  the  piston,  forcing  it  outward  and  pulling  on 
the  fixed  crank  to  turn  the  engine  rather  than  thrusting 
against  the  crank.  The  expanding  force  of  the  gas 
against  the  piston  operates  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
centrifugal  force  and  is  added  thereto,  and  does  not  de- 
.stroy  the  balance  of  one  piston  against  the  other.  In 
this  connection  another  advantage  is  accomplished  in 
that  the  thrust  of  the  expanding  gases  against  the  cyl- 
inder forces  the  cylinder  against  the  crank  casing,  so 
that  the  only  necessary  connection  between  the  cylinder 
and  the  crank  casing   is  to  overcome   the  centrifugal 


PIG. 


lOND  .SIOCTIONAL,  VIKW  THROUGH  THE  AUGU.STINIO  KNGINU 


ports,  which  it  also  uncovers  and  thereby  effects  the  ex- 
haust. After  the  compressed  charge  has  been  exploded 
and  the  piston  has  moved  to  its  outer  stroke,  the  sleeve 
valve  E,  Figs.  3,  9  and  10,  uncovers  the  ports  J  and  the 
incoming  charge  of  fresh  gas  from  the  crank  casing 
forces  the  burnt  gases  out  through  the  ports  J  into  the 
exhaust  pipes  U,  Figs.  2  and  3.  This  cycle  of  events 
takes  place  in  each  cylinder  in  rotation. 

In  the  operation  of  the  rotary  type  of  engine  centrif- 
ugal force  has  to  be  contended  with,  and  this  becomes 
an  enormous  factor  in  a  high-speed  engine.  The  Augus- 
tine engine  overcomes  this  difficulty  by  arranging  the 
expansion  and  compression  chambers  for  the  fuel  gases 
so  that  the  expanding   gases  work  against  the   inner 


action  on  the  cylinder.  Records  show  that  many  acci- 
dents have  occurred  by  the  cylinder  breaking  loose 
through  the  tremendous  pressure  of  the  expanding  gases 
combined  with  centrifugal  effect,  which  tends  to  force 
the  cylinder  outward.  In  this  engine,  however,  this  is 
overcome  because  the  pressure  of  the  expanding  gases 
against  the  inner  end  of  the  cylinder  tends  to  hold  it 
seated  against  the  crank  casing. 

An  essential  feature  in  an  airplane  engine  is  extremely 
light  weight.  In  this  engine  each  cylinder  is  divided 
by  the  piston  into  a  pumping  chamber  and  an  expansion 
and  compression  chamber  for  the  fuel  gases,  as  already 
mentioned.  The  gases  are  pumped  by  the  same  piston 
that  is  acted  upon  by  the  expanding  gases,  thus  making 


830 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


the  piston  double-acting.  By  using  the  one  cylinder 
both  for  pumping  gases  and  for  the  expansion  of  the 
gases  in  turning  the  engine,  the  latter  may  be  made 
very  light,  because  the  expansion  of  the  gases  is  against 
the  inner  end  of  the  cylinder  and  the  crank  casing,  and 
the  outer  end  of  the  cylinder  is  only  subjected  to  the 
suction  and  the  discharge  of  the  gases.  In  other  words, 
the  force  of  the  expanding  gases  is  practically  taken  up 
by  the  piston  head  and  the  crank  casing  itself.    As  the 


ports  are  at  the  extreme  inner  end  of  the  cylindrical 
portion  carried  by  the  piston,  the  moist  gases  are  car- 
ried by  the  centrifugal  force  past  the  intake  ports  and 
gasified,  and  only  dried  gas  passes  through  the  intake 
ports  to  the  cylinder.  Furthermore,  the  fuel  gases  come 
in  contact  with  the  inner  central  portion  of  the  piston 
head,  and  at  the  same  time  the  fuel  gases  in  the  pump- 
ing chamber  come  in  contact  with  the  outer  face  of  the 
piston  head.     This  tends  to  keep  the  piston  head  cool 


H  T  MAljNETO  WIRE 


ANNULAR  BALI.  BEAR1NS3 
AND  THRUST  6EARI N6S 


PIG.   3.      SIDE  SECTIONAL.  VIEW  THROUGH  THE  TWO-CYCLE  ROTARY  ENGINE 


sleeve  that  controls  the  gas  ports  is  also  timed  to  cover 
the  exhaust  ports  when  the  outer  end  of  the  cylinder 
operates  as  a  pumping  chamber,  this  not  only  obviates 
the  loss  of  fuel  gases  being  pumiped,  but  also  prevents 
the  burnt  gases  from  being  thrown  back  into  the  pump- 
ing chamber. 

The  cylindrical  projection  N,  Fig.  3,  extends  inwardly 
from  the  piston  head  and  from  the  housing  from  the 
piston-rod  connection  and  also  contains  the  intake  port. 
This  cj'lindrical  projection  is  opened  to  the  crank  casing 
so  that  the  cooled  fuel  gases  pass  up  into  them  and  the 
moist  gases,  particularly,  are  carried  by  centrifugal 
force  into  the  cylindrical  projection,  which  becomes  in 
a  way  a  vaporizer  for  gasifying  the  fuel.    As  the  intake 


while  the  heat  units  tending  to  accumulate  therein  are 
utilized  for  gasifying  the  fuel. 

The  piston  with  its  cylindrical  projection  has  a  two- 
point  bearing,  one  at  each  end  of  the  expansion  cham- 
ber. As  the  piston  travels,  the  connecting-rod  assumes 
a  position  at  an  angle  to  the  longitudinal  center  line  of 
the  cylinder,  and  this  has  caused  considerable  difficulty  in 
previous  engines,  owing  to  the  side  thrust  or  twist  of  the 
piston  wearing  the  cylinder  wall.  By  this  construction, 
however,  where  the  piston  has  a  two-point  bearing,  as  at 
0  and  P,  Fig.  3,  this  side  thrust  or  lateral  twist  in  the 
piston  is  taken  care  of  with  little  or  no  wear  of  the 
piston  on  the  cylinder  wall.  Furthei-more,  by  this  two- 
point  bearing  the  extent  of  the  contact  surface  between 


1!»18 


I'  C)  W  K  K 


831 


the  piston  and  the  cylinder  wall  is  reduced  to  a  iiiini- 
nnini  and  the  friction  incident  to  the  travel  of  the  piston 
is  thereby  reduced. 

The  exhaust  ports  are  large  and  are  disposed  about 
the  end  of  the  cylinder.  The  intake  ports  are  disposed 
about  the  cylindrical  portion  carried  by  the  piston  and 


PIG.   4. 


SRCTION    THROUGH    THE    STATIONARY    CONTROI.- 
LrXG  DISK  VALVE 


are  in  line  with  the  exhaust  ports.  As  a  result,  when 
the  exhaust  ports  are  open  and  the  intake  ports  uncov- 
ered, the  gases  rush  through  the  latter  and  force  the 
burnt  gases  out  of  the  former,  thus  scavenging  the  cyl- 
inder. As  already  stated,  the  central  portion  project- 
ing from  the  piston  prevents  cycloning  of  the  inrushing 
gases  and  intermixing  with  the  burnt  gases. 

Each  piston  rod  is  connected  to  a  pair  of  rings,  and 
these  rings  are  nested  and  engage  two  floating  sleeves 
mounted  on  a  fixed  crank.  By  having  a  pair  of  rings, 
all  side  thrust  on  the  piston  rod  is  avoided.  The  end 
cups  surround  the  ends  of  the  connecting  bars  carrying 
the  rings.  A  compression  ring  is  slipped  over  the  con- 
necting bars  and  engages  the  groove  therein.  This  com- 
pression ring  also  engages  the  inner  surface  of  the 
cups  and  thereby  forms  in  each  cup  a  lubricating 
pocket.  The  oil  for  lubricating  the  crank  is  carried  by 
a  copper  tube  through  the  hollow  fixed  shaft  as  at  M, 
Fig.  3,  and  passes  out  through  oil  grooves  in  and  about 
the  floating  sleeve  into  the  end  cups  and  also  out  through 
the  connecting-rod  to  the  wristpin  and  to  oil  ducts  lead- 
ing to  the  cylinder  walls.    This  arrangement  gives  lubri- 


cation foi-  every  desired  part  of  the  engine,  and  also  in- 
sures that  the  fuel  gases  are  free  from  the  lubricating 
oil. 

A  side  elevation  through  the  center  of  the  self-align- 
ing bearing  is  given  in  Fig.  11,  in  which  the  two  inner 
sleeves  and  the  oil  channels  are  shown,  also  the  end  cap 
bearings  that  inclose  the  outer  section  of  the  bearing. 
The  two  expansion  rings  on  the  inner  ends  of  the  caps 
are  for  retaining  the  oil  film.  Fig.  12  is  an  end  view 
showing  the  various  sections  of  the  self-aligning  bear- 
ing and  the  oil  ducts  leading  up  through  the  connecting- 
rods  to  the  wristpin,  through  which  the  oil  is  equally 
distributed  by  centrifugal  force  through  all  parts  while 
the  engine  is  in  operation.  The  ensemble  of  this  self- 
aligning  bearing  insures  alignment  of  the  piston  rods 
between  the  crank  and  the  wristpin  centers  and  at  the 
same  time  constitutes  the  center  along  which  all  pistons 
and  their  rods  revolve  in  a  balanced  centrifugal  condi- 
tion, with  no  reversal  of  direction  of  pull  on  the  con- 
necting-rods. Fig.  13  is  a  perspective  view  of  two  of 
the  self-aligning  bars  with  annular  rings,  which,  when 
assembled,  are  mounted  on  inner  creeping  sleeves. 

As  the  engine  is  of  the  two-stroke  cycle  type,  the  cyl- 
inders are  fired  in  rotation  one  after  the  other.  This 
gives  a  constant  torque  and  permits  of  the  use  of  a  very 
simple  ignition  device;  for  example,  in  a  six-cylinder 
engine  a  two-point  magneto  may  be  used,  driven  at  a 
speed  of  three  to  one  with  a  single  wire  leading  to  a 
brush-holder  cooperating  with  spaced  contacts  connected 
to  the  respective  spark  plugs  in  each  cylinder.  The 
brush  engages  these  contacts  in  rotation.  The  spark 
plugs  are  directly  in  front  of  the  incoming  gas,  which 
assures  perfect  scavenging  and  allows  the  motor  to  be 
throttled  to  a  very  low  speed  and  at  the  same  time  in- 
sures that  the  spark  plug  shall  be  in  the  region  of  the 
fresh  fuel  gas.  A  diagram  showing  the  inlet  and  ex- 
haust cycles  of  the  motor  and  the  section  of  the  box  cam 
that  closes  the  exhaust  ports  in  each  revolution  is  shown 
in  Fig.  14. 

Following  are  given  data  of  the  more  essential  fea- 
tures of  this  engine:  Number  of  cylinders,  6,  having 
six  double-acting  pistons  utilized  both  as  power  pistons 
and  pumps ;  bore  of  working  cylinder,  equivalent  in  area 
to  a  4j;-in.  conventional  piston;  stroke,  4  in.;  area  of 
piston,  16.7  sq.in. ;  area  of  pump,  23.76  sq.in. ;  connect- 
ing-rod crank  ratio,  4  to  1 ;  bore  of  crank  case,  101  in.; 
over-all  diameter  of  motor,  26  in. ;  over-all  length  of 
motor,  24  in. :  two-spark  magneto,  driven  3  to  1,  giving 
six  sparks  per  revolution ;  approximate  weight  of  motor, 
2  lb.  per  hp. ;  compression,  from  90  to  100  lb.  per  sq.in.; 
positive  system  of  force-feed  lubrication. 


1 — :^= — — 

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I'ISTON   PORTS    AMI 

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i;.      PISTON      AT      INMOli      V\i 
ICNO  OF""CYLTNnRR 


riSTON  AT  K.XIIAIIST 
AND    RKLKASK 


I'OKTS 


832 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


The  engine  is  started  by  turning  the  switch  of  the 
magneto  and  pressing  the  button  of  the  self-starter. 
When  the  engine  is  stopped  by  turning  off  the  switch 
all  the  cylinders  are  charged  with  fresh  fuel  from  the 


X^\\sW\\^\^ 


is  a  hard  thing  to  repair  and  it  is  difficult  to  get  some- 
thing to  work  as  a  substitute. 

The  illustration  shows  how  a  sight-feed  arrangement 
can   be   made   out   of   two   pipe-reducing   bushings,    a 


Fie.  9 


FIG.  13 


FIGS.   9  TO  13.      SECTION  OF  CYLI.XDER,  PISTON,  SLEEVE  VALVE  AND  SELF-ALIGXIXG  BEARING 
Fig.   9 — Piston    just    closing    exhaust    ports.      Fig.    10 — Exhaust  ports    uncovered    by    sleeve    ring.      Fig.    11 — Section    through    self- 
aligning  bearing.      Fig.    12 — End  view  of  bearing.      Fig.   13 — Two  of  the  self-aligning  bars 


inner  chamber  and  are  ready  for  the  next  operation. 
The  engine  can  be  started  with  a  coil  and  battery  if  de- 
sired.    It  is  made  reversible  by  simply  adding  a  sleeve 


coupling  and  a  piece  of  tubular  glass.  Most  reducing 
bushings  have  an  unthreaded  recess  on  the  inside,  the 
threads  not  extending  entirely  through,  which  affords 
an  excellent  shoulder  for  retaining  the  glass  at  both 
ends.  A  hole  is  drilled  through  the  coupling  of  ap- 
proximately the  same  size  as  the  outside  diameter  of 
the  glass.  The  two  bushings  can  be  screwed  firmly 
down  into  the  coupling  and  the  distance  measured,  which 
will  give  the  necessary  length  for  the  glass.  The  glass 
can  be  set  with  cement  or  putty. 


SECTION   TMROUOH  A-B 


FIG.    14.      DIAGRAM  OF  INLET  AND  EXHAUST  CYCLE.  ALSO 
A  SECTION  OF  THE  BOX  C.A.M 

to  reverse  the  inlet  and  transfer  ports.  The  engine  is 
practically  fool  proof  for  the  reason  that  there  are  no 
•  adjustments  to  be  made. 

Sight  Feed  for  Oil  Cups 

By  F.  W.  Bentley,  Jr. 

The  lower,  or  sight-feed,  portion  of  heavy  oil  cups 
is  frequently  broken,  due  to  lightness  in  the  construct- 
tion  of  the  average  frame  holding  the  glass — heavy 
enough,  of  course,  to  support  the  lubricator  under  or- 
dinary circumstances,  yet  too  easily  broken  in  case 
of  accident.  The  lower  end  of  the  oil  cup  or  lubricator 
can  in  most  cases  be  retapped  and  fitted  again  to  give 
service,  but  the  sight-feed  glass  retainer  or  receptacle 


OIL-CUP  SIGHT  FEED  M.-VDE  OF  PIPE  FITTINGS 

Where  a  new  fitting  cannot  be  secured  or  a  cup  hav- 
ing no  sight  feed  is  used,  this  little  kink  can  be  resorted 
to  and  will  afford  a  strong  and  easily  constructed  sight 
feed.  The  one  shown  is  of  a  S-in.  coupling  for  J-in. 
connections,  a  short  piece  of  l-in  lubricator  glass  being 
set  in  place  with  cement. 


June  11,  1918 


POWER 


833 


Operation  and  Maintenance  of  Elevators- 
Care  and   Lubrication 


By  R.  H.  whitehead 


AttentioH  is  called  to  the  fact  that  elevator  ma- 
chinery, like  any  other  equipment,  must  be  given 
proper  care.  Certain  important  features  in  the 
maintenance,  care  and  lubrication  of  modern 
drum-type  elevator  machines  are  pointed  out. 

EVERY  operating  engineer  knows  the  necessity  of 
careful  maintenance  of  machinery  to  avoid  trouble 
and  get  the  proper  results.  The  writer  finds 
that  elevator  machinery  is  very  likely  to  be  neglected. 
Sometimes  this  is  because  tlie  elevator  is  cared  for  only 
when  there  is  nothing  else  to  do  and  this  happens  at 
infrequent  intervals,  and  in  other  cases  it  is  due  to 
lack    of    familiarity    with    the    equipment.      The    only 


FIG.  1.  DOUBLE-GKARED  ELEVATOR  MACHINE 

proper  way  to  maintain  an  elevator  is  to  make  thor- 
ough inspections  of  the  various  parts  of  the  installation 
at  regular  intervals.  Several  elevator  manufacturers 
furnish  just  such  service  on  what  is  termed  a  "Main- 
tenance Contract."  In  the  following,  attention  is  called 
to  certain  features  in  the  maintenance  and  care  of  the 
drum  type  of  elevators. 

1.  Open  the  main-line  switch  and  take  care  that  no 
one  closes  it,  so  as  to  prevent  accidents  when  prepar- 
ing to  clean,  oil  or  repair  any  part  of  the  machinery. 
Keep  all  parts  of  the  machine  and  controlling  device, 
motor  room  and  pit  clean ;  a  pair  of  hand-bellows  should 
be  used  to  blow  the  dust  from  the  motor,  controller  and 
other  parts  of  the  apparatus  that  cannot  be  conveniently 
reached.  Where  possible,  the  parts  should  be  wiped 
clean,  and  cement  and  brick  dust  not  allowed  to  get  on 
the  machinery  and  into  the  lubricants. 

2.  Self-oiling  motor  bearings  have  rings,  which 
should  always  turn  freely,  and  the  oil  chambers  must 
be  kept  sufficiently  full  of  motor-bearing  oil  to  insure 
the  oil  rings  dipping  into  it.    Attention  should  be  given 


"the  rings  while  the  machine  is  running  to  see  that  they 
carry  the  lubricant  from  the  oil  well  to  the  top  of  the 
shaft. 

3.  Use  only  worm-gear  lubricant  for  the  worm  and 
gear  and  keep  the  gear  case  filled  to  a  point  just  above 
the  top  of  the  wormshaft  W,  Fig.  1 ;  the  standpipe  A  on 
the  side  of  the  gear  case  should  be  used  to  determine  the 
height  of  the  oil.  To  remove  sediment  and  grit,  drain 
the  oil  from  the  gear  case  three  or  four  times  a  year 
and  refill  with  fresh  lubricant.  If  the  oil  gets  below  the 
wormshaft  level,  the  bearings  will  seize  and  expensive 
repairs  will  be  necessitated.  Do  not  use  dirty  or  poor 
lubricant,  as  the  worm  and  wormwheel  will  wear  quickly, 
and  for  that  reason  it  is  poor  economy. 

4.  The  wormshaft  bearings  B  and  B,  Figs.  1  and  2, 
E.re  automatically  oiled  from  the  gear  case,  and  oil 
should  be  allowed  to  drip  slowly  through  the  wormshaft 
gland  C,  Fig.  2,  to  insure  perfect  lubrication  of  the  in- 
board bearing.  Use  a  pan  to  catch  the  oil,  but  do  not 
use  the  oil  again  without  straining  and  then  only  once. 

5.  The  wormshaft  stuffing-box  D,  Fig.  2,  must  be  kept 
packed  with  square-braided  flax  packing.  The  gland- 
adjusting  nuts  E  must  be  tightened  evenly  to  prevent 


KIG. 


SINGLE    WORM    AND    GEAR   SHOWING    BALL 
THRUST  BI']AR1NG 


binding  of  the  wormshaft,  but  not  tight  enough  to  pre- 
vent the  drip  of  oil. 

6.  Drumshaft  bearings  should  be  lubricated  every 
day  or  be  provided  with  automatic  grease  cups  or  lu- 
bricators. 

7.  All  parts  of  the  governor  must  be  kept  well  lu- 
bricated so  that  they  work  freely  and  easily,  and  this 
includes  the  tension  sheave  in  the  pit. 

8.  Vibrator  sheaves  F,  Fig.  1,  should  be  lubricated  by 
means  of  grease  cups  G  filled  with  compression-cup 
grease  and  sufficiently  compressed  to  properly  feed  the 
lubricant.     If  automatic  grease  cups  are  used,  be  sure 


834 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


that  the  cups  feed     Remove  the  entire  cup  occasionally 
and  see  that  grease  feeds  slowly  through  its  nipple. 

9.  Overhead-sheave  bearing  boxes  should  always  be 
packed  with  compression-cup  grease.  The  grease  must 
be  pushed  against  the  shaft  once  or  twice  a  week,  as 
sufficient  heat  is  not  generated  in  the  bearings  to  cause 
the  grease  to  run  as  in  the  case  of  continuously  oper- 
ated machinery. 

10.  Ropes  should  occasionally  be  coated  with  elevator- 
rope  compound  to  preserve  them  and  prevent  rusting. 
This  may  conveniently  be  applied  with  a  brush. 

11.  Safety  devices  on  the  car  frame  and  safety  plank 
under  the  car  should  be  examined  at  frequent  intervals 
and  all  working  parts  kept  clean,  well  lubricated  and 
free  from  rust. 

12.  On  the  guides  use  guide  lubricant  and  occasion- 
ally clean  down  the  guides  with  kerosene  to  remove  grit. 
If  lubricators  are  used,  see  that  they  are  kept  clean  and 
filled. 

13.  Adjust  the  brake  springs  S,  Fig.  1,  to  properly 
hold  the  car  under  maximum  load  and  to  give  a  smooth 
stop.  Set  the  brake  shoes  so  that  they  just  clear  the 
brake  drum  when  released.  If  a  piece  of  thin  paper  can 
be  passed  between  the  shoes  and  brake  drum,  the  clear- 
ance is  sufficient.  In  case  the  clearance  of  the  brake 
shoes  is  too  great,  they  should  be  reset  to  give  the 
proper  lift.  The  brake  drum  and  brake  shoes  must  be 
kept  dry  and  clean.  Under  no  circumstances  allow  oil 
on  the  brake  drum  or  brake-shoe  lining.  In  the  case  of 
an  alternating-current  machine  the  brake-magnet  case 
must  be  kept  well  filled  with  brake-magnet  oil.  When 
necessary  to  remove  the  brake  shoes  for  cleaning  or  re- 
pairs, the  empty  car  should  be  left  at  the  top  landing 
with  the  counterweights  securely  blocked  up  in  the  pit. 
Oil  the  brake-lever  pins  frequently  where  oil  holes  are 
provided. 

14.  On  direct-current  machines,  to  prevent  sparking 
at  the  commutator,  when  adjusting  or  renewing  the 
brushes,  fit  them  to  a  full  bearing  with  a  strip  of  fine 
sandpaper- — never  use  emery  cloth.  This  may  be  done 
by  placing  the  paper  between  the  commutator  and  the 
brush  (sand  side  against  the  carbons)  and  drawing  it 
back  and  forth  by  hand,  at  the  same  time  keeping  the 
smooth  side  against  the  surface  of  the  commutator. 
The  carbons  must  always  project  beyond  the  holder  so 
that  the  latter  will  not  bear  on  the  commutator.  Brushes 
should  be  staggered  to  distribute  wear  evenly  on  the 
commutator.  In  case  the  commutator  becomes  rough, 
it  may  be  made  smooth  by  holding  a  piece  of  fine  sand- 
paper— never  emery  cloth — against  the  surface  while 
the  machine  is  running,  after  which  it  should  be  wiped 
clean.  A  canvas  pad — never  use  waste — should  always 
be  used  for  cleaning  the  commutator.  Sandpapering 
the  commutator  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 
Polishing  when  new  with  canvas,  after  being  sure  that 
the  brushes  do  not  spark  and  are  bearing  properly  on 
the  commutator,  brings  about  the  burnished  finish 
which  renders  the  commutator  less  liable  to  damage. 

It  is  most  essential  to  keep  the  commutator  free 
from  dirt  and  oils.  This  applies  to  the  head  of  the 
commutator  and  the  mica  insulating  ring  at  the  base 
of  the  bars,  as  well  as  to  the  surface  of  a  commutator. 

On  alternating-current  machines  keep  the  collector 
rings  on  the  motor  clean  and  free  from  dirt  and  oil  and 
see  that  all  brushes  have  a  good  even  bearing  on  rings. 


15.  The  contacts  of  the  slack-rope  switch  and  of  the 
hatchway-limit  switches  should  be  frequently  cleaned. 

16.  The  car  should  be  frequently  tried  on  the  atuo- 
matic  stop  to  see  if  it  is  properly  adjusted,  as  the  auto- 
matic is  thrown  out  of  adjustment  through  the  stretch- 
ing of  the  ropes.  Frequently  remove  the  cover  H,  Fig. 
1,  of  the  automatic  switch  on  the  machine  and  clean 
the  contacts  thoroughly  and  oil  its  mechanism. 

17.  The  ropes  should  be  shortened  as  may  become  nec- 
essary and  never  allowed  to  lengthen  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  car  will  not  open  the  hoistway-limit  switch  at 
the  top  of  the  hoistway  before  the  counterweights  bot- 
tom in  the  pit. 

18.  Controller  parts  should  be  kept  clean  and  well 
lubricated  so  that  they  work  freely.  Keep  the  metal  and 
carbon  contacts  on  the  controller  clean  and  free  from 
pits  and  blisters.  They  should  be  frequently  dressed 
with  sandpaper  and  have  a  good  even  bearing  when  in 
contact. 

Although  the  foregoing  was  written  as  applying  to 
Otis  Elevator  Co.'s  machines,  nevertheless  the  major 
portion  of  it  applies  to  elevator  machinery  in  general. 

Tuxeda  Swing  Joint 

Swing  joints  are  made  in  various  types,  but  to  be 
really  serviceable  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  leak- 
proof.  A  swing  joint  with  this  quality  appears  to  have 
been  found  in  the  Tuxeda,  manufactured  by  Franklin 
Williams,  39  Cortlandt  St.,  New  York  City.  The  joint 
is  made  with  a  male  and  a  female  member,  A  and  B. 


d 

L 

fymi 

^ 

■  ■«  ]  Si  ***°*' 

c 

^ 

1 

1: 

i 

_ 

■J) 

SEMl-INTKRIOn    VIEW    (W    TU.XEDA    SWING    JOINT 

The  male  member  has  a  collar  C  against  which  the 
packing  is  forced  by  the  pressure  exerted  upon  the  loose 
collar  B  by  the  compressed  spring  E,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  The  joint  is  held  together  by  a 
shoulder  nut  F,  which  screws  on  the  outside  of  the  B 
member.  The  spring  E  automatically  compensates  for 
wear  of  the  packing  and  keeps  the  joint  tight.  When 
worn  out,  the  packing  is  easily  removed  and  replaced. 
This  joint  is  made  in  standard  sizes  from  i  to  3  in., 
but  larger  sizes  are  available. 


Water  Commissioner  George  C.  Andrews  of  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  reports  that  during  the  month  of  April,  water 
pumpage  was  reduced  millions  of  gallons  with  a  saving 
Df  415  tons  of  coal,  worth  $1850.  Pitometer  e.xperts 
Kave  been  at  work  searching  for  underground  leaks 
which  do  not  show  on  the  surface  of  the  streets.  Several 
large  leaks  have  been  located  and  repaired. 


June  11,  I'JIS 


POWER 


835 


Pipe-Line  Transportation  of  Coal 


Some  of  the  chief  features  of  a  proposed  plan  for 
increasing  the  transportation  facilities  of  the 
United  States,  preventing  fuel  famines,  and  sav- 
ing a  billion  dollars  a  year. 

THE  pressing  necessity  for  an  ample  supply  of  coal 
to  meet  the  greatly  augmented  demands  of  the 
war  industries  and  at  the  same  time  provide  for 
all  normal  requirements  in  the  matter  of  heating,  light- 
ing and  power  has  focused  an  extraordinary  amount  of 
attention  on  the  present-day  methods  of  distributing 
and  utilizing  fuel.  As  a  result,  numerous  schemes  have 
been  suggested  with  a  view  to  eliminating  wasted  effort 
and  thus  ameliorating  the  difficulties  that  at  present  con- 
front the  coal  consumer. 

One  of  the  most  ambitious  of  these  plans  is  that  pro- 
posed by  Farley  G.  Clark,  of  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.  Al- 
though it  relates  specifically  to  bituminous  coal,  its  ap- 
plication would  save  both  hard  and  soft  coal  and  would 
relieve  the  railroad  situation,  at  the  same  time  produc- 
ing a  stupendous  saving  of  money.  The  plan  contem- 
plates : 

1.  The  preparation  of  bituminous  coal  at  the  mines 
by  pulverizing  and  the  removal  of  a  large  part  of  the 
impurities  by  washing. 

2.  The  transportation  of  the  prepared  coal  mixed  with 
water  through  pipes  laid  along  railroad  lines. 

3.  The  storage  of  such  coal  in  quantity,  properly  pro- 
tected against  deterioration,  near  the  centers  where  it  is 
to  be  used. 

4.  The  utilization  of  pulverized  coal  in  locomotives, 
for  steam  generation  and  for  general  use. 

5.  The  manufacture  of  byproduct  coke  and  gas  at  or 
near  large  metropolitan  districts,  the  coke  to  be  used  in 
metallurgical  processes  and  mixed  with  pulverized  coal 
and  tar  as  briquets  to  replace  anthracite,  and  the  gas 
to  replace  soft  coal,  water  gas  and  anthracite. 

Use  of  Water  To  Flush  Coal  Through  Pipes 

The  chief  feature  of  this  scheme  is  the  pumping  of  the 
prepared  coal  through  pipe  lines  from  the  mines  to 
centers  of  distribution.  Water  is  used  as  the  vehicle  for 
carrying  the  coal,  because  it  is  cheap  and  abundant. 
The  coal  as  it  comes  from  the  mine  is  sent  through 
crushers,  in  which  it  is  reduced  to  i-in.  lumps,  and  then 
passes  by  gravity  to  the  pulverizers,  in  which  it  is  re- 
duced to  such  a  fineness  that  all  of  it  will  pass  through 
100-mesh  and  50  per  cent,  through  200-mesh. 

Magnetic  and  gravity  separators  remove  impurities 
and  the  coal  is  then  run  into  jiggers,  in  which  it  is  thor- 
oughly agitated  with  water,  resulting  in  the  dissolving 
of  most  of  the  sulphur  and  some  of  the  other  impurities. 
Centrifugal  separators  then  remove  most  of  the  water, 
and  the  fairly  dry  coal  is  washed  and  delivered  to  wet 
grinders,  from  which  it  issues  as  a  slime.  The  slime 
passes  over  concentrating  tables,  where  it  is  divided  into 
two  grades,  one  to  be  sent  to  the  boiler  room  for  im- 
mediate use  and  the  other  to  be  sent  to  the  pipe-line 
pumps. 

The  slime  to  be  pumped  is  mixed  with  fresh  water  in 


agitating  tanks,  from  which  it  is  drawn  by  centrifugal 
pumps  and  forced  through  the  pipe  lines.  The  mix- 
ture in  tlie  pipes  consists  of  from  30  to  40  per  cent,  of 
water  and  from  57  to  67  per  cent,  of  coal,  the  remainder 
being  ash  and  other  foreign  matter.  The  entire  cost 
of  this  preparation  will  not  increase  the  cost  of  the 
coal  more  than  $1  a  ton  in  extreme  cases,  and  in  some 
cases  only  about  25c.  a  ton. 

The  pipe  lines  are  run  along  the  rights-of-way  of  the 
railroads  and  are  placed  underground  wherever  possible. 
The  main  lines  are  supplied  by  branch  feeders  from  the 
producing  centers  and  branch  distributors  lead  oflf  to  the 
distribution  centers.  A  network  of  such  pipe  lines,  with 
suitable  storage  reservoirs,  coke  ovens  and  briquetting 
plants  would  handle  70  per  cent,  of  all  the  bituminous 
coal  mined. 

Pumping  Stations  and  Storage  Reservoirs 

Pumping  stations  at  intervals  of  12  miles  or  more 
would  need  to  be  provided  on  the  main  pipe  lines,  and  at 
each  station  an  emergency  reservoir  would  have  to  be 
supplied  to  allow  the  pipe  line  to  be  drained  to  pre- 
vent freezing  or  to  make  repairs.  At  the  distribution 
plants  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  large  storage  reser- 
voirs, one  for  each  gi-ade  of  coal  pumped.  These  ac- 
cumulations would  tide  over  any  reasonable  emergency 
that  might  arise  and  would  enable  a  demand  for  a  cer- 
tain grade  to  be  met  immediately. 

At  or  near  the  distributing  plants  the  byproduct  coke 
ovens  or  coal-gas  plants  would  be  erected.  These  would 
convert  the  coal  sludge  into  coke  and  gas  and  recover 
the  usual  byproducts.  The  gas  would  be  piped  through 
mains  to  supply  the  district.  The  coke  would  be  shipped 
to  foundries  and  furnaces,  while  the  breeze  could  be 
mixed  with  pulverized  coal  and  briquetted. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  cost  of  pumping  the  coal  would 
be  comparatively  low.  A  pipe  line  20  in.  in  diameter 
would  handle  25,000  tons  per  day  at  a  cost  of  50c.  per 
1000  ton-miles  of  actual  coal  transported,  this  figure 
including  operation,  maintenance  and  10  per  cent,  in- 
terest on  investment.  The  present  rate  for  transporting 
coal  by  car  is  more  than  $4  per  1000  ton-miles. 

Mr.  Clark's  plan  does  not  contemplate  the  immediate 
changing  over  of  all  boiler  plants  so  as  to  use  dry 
pulverized  coal.  That  is  considered  as  a  possibility  to 
be  reached  eventually.  For  the  present  the  pipe-line 
coal  would  be  used  in  boiler  furnaces  as  they  exist  or  as 
they  could  readily  be  adjusted  without  seriously  disturb- 
ing industries.  The  coal  would  be  deprived  of  moisture 
to  10  per  cent,  or  less  by  centrifugal  driers  and 
spread  over  the  grate  by  suitable  devices ;  or,  it  may  be 
burned  by  the  existing  types  of  underfeed  and  chain- 
grate  stokers.  The  moisture  remaining  in  the  coal  will 
hold  the  fine  particles  together  until  the  volatile  matter 
is  driven  oflf  and  the  coke  remains.  As  there  is  ver\' 
little  ash  or  impurity  in  the  fine  coal,  the  tendency  to 
clinker  will  be  practically  eliminated.  The  ash  in  pipe- 
line coal  would  never  exceed  3  per  cent,  and  the  average 
would  be  much  lower. 

The  railroads  distribute  over  80  per  cent,  of  all  coal 
and  this  constitutes  35  per  cent,  of  the  total  freight 
handled.     The  pipe-line  distribution  of  coal  would  re- 


836 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2  4 


ducc  the  freight  congestion  on  the  railroads  by  reliev- 
ing them  of  at  least  one-fourth  of  their  present  burden, 
thus  enabling  the  equipment  to  be  used  for  other  com- 
modities. 

The  greater  part  of  the  domestic  coal  consumed  is 
anthracite.  Under  the  pipe-line  system,  heating  and 
cooking  would  be  carried  on  largely  by  the  use  of  gas 
from  coke  ovens  and  gas  plants  burning  pulverized  coal, 
supplemented  by  the  use  of  briquets  and  anthracite, 
with  a  resultant  enormous  saving. 

The  estimated  saving  in  tons  of  coal  in  various  lines 
is  given  in  Table  I,  and  the  value  of  the  saving  is  given 
in  Table  II. 

TABLE  I.    ESTIMATE  OF  COAL  SAVING 


Used  in  1917 

Millions    of  Tons 

Bit.      Anth.  Total 

Railroad   180           5  185 

Steam 195         20  215 

Coke 75  75      —45 

Domestic- 25         45  70           20 

Export 25           5  30            5 

Bunker 20  20 

Miscellaneous   20           5  25             5 


Possible  Saving 

Millions  of  Tons 

Bit.        Anth.       Total 

103 

35 

-45 

55 

5 


100 
20 


3 
15 


35 


Totals 
Per  cent,  saved 


540 


80 


520 


105  53 

17,4       66  2 


158 

25  4 


TABLE  n.     VALUE  OF  COAL  SAVING 


$400,000,000 

30.000,000 

10,000,000 

400.000,000 

$840,000,000 

40.000,000 

200,000,000 


Bituminous  railroad  coal.  100  million  tons  at  $4   

Bituminous  general-use  coat,  5  million  tons  at  $6 

■Anthracite  railroad  coal,  3  million  tons  at  $3^ 

.\nthracite  general-use  coal,  50  million  tons  at  $8 , 

Total 

Substitutinjr  $6  coal  for  oil  at  $4  per  bbl.  saving  $2perbbl.,  on  20 

million  bbl  

Substituting  byproduct  for  coal  and  water  gas,  saving  25c.  per 

1 .000  cu.ft.  on  800  billion  cu.ft 

Total  value  of  s.^ving  per  year  -     $1,080,000,000 

This  saving  of  over  a  billion  dollars  a  year  is  neces- 
.'larily  only  an  estimate,  but  it  is  based  on  conditions 
with  regard  to  which  reasonable  predictions  can  be 
made.  Moreover,  it  does  not  take  into  account  the  re- 
lief to  the  railroads  and  to  industry  in  general,  while  the 
value  of  storage  at  the  points  of  consumption  cannot 
be  reduced  to  dollars. 

In  developing  his  idea,  Mr.  Clark  has  counted  on  ob- 
jections from  various  quarters.  For  example,  mine 
workers  and  owners  may  find  fault  with  some  provisions 
of  the  scheme,  particularly  those  that  relate  to  the  re- 
covery of  a  greater  percentage  of  the  coal  from  the 
earth,  even  at  the  risk  of  including  more  dirt,  since 
the  subsequent  washing  and  grinding  removes  the  im- 
purities. 

Objections  From  Railroads  and  Others 

The  railroads  may  be  expected  to  object  to  a  change 
that  would  remove  a  large  part  of  their  freight  busi- 
ness; but  with  the  increased  demand  for  transportation 
of  other  materials  than  coal,  it  would  seem  as  though 
the  net  result  would  be  to  the  advantage  rather  than 
the  disadvantage  of  the  railroads. 

The  coke  industry  might  interpose  some  objections, 
because  the  Clark  plan  contemplates  the  use  of  by- 
product ovens  only,  and  the  obliteration  of  the  beehive 
type.  Some  engineering  objections  might  be  raised  in 
connection  with  the  utilization  of  pipe-line  coal,  but  it 
is  believed  that  there  are  no  obstacles  of  an  engineering 
character  that  cannot  be  overcome. 

Of  course,  the  complete  adoption  of  a  plan  of  this 
magnitude  would  cause  considerable  change  in  the  meth- 
ods of  utilizing  coal,  and  expense  would  be  incurred;  but 
for  the  sake  of  so  great  a  saving,  it  would  be  proper  to 


go  to  considerable  initial  outlay.  The  fuel  problem  must 
be  settled  sooner  or  later,  for  it  grows  more  acute 
each  year,  and  such  plans  as  the  one  proposed  by  Mr. 
Clark  indicate  a  healthy  interest  in  the  solution  of  this 
important  matter. 

Superheat  in  Forced-Draft  Stoker 
Installations 

By  H.  R.  Greene 

In  designing  boiler  plants,  as  in  the  case  of  all  engi- 
neering installations,  there  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration by  the  engineer,  the  relation  between  the 
first  cost  of  the  various  apparatus  and  their  perform- 
ances. Coal  is  much  more  expensive  than  formerly  and, 
unquestionably,  in  this  country  within  a  short  period 
of  time  we  shall  be  compelled  to  select  all  the  com- 
ponent apparatus  with  a  view  to  the  highest  efficiency 
in  the  production  of  power  in  the  complete  installation. 
This  being  the  case,  it  is  axiomatic  that  the  economical 
performance  of  various  apparatus  is,  except  in  ex- 
treme cases  of  excessive  cost  and  where  certain  pre- 
determined performances  must  result  regardless  of  eco- 
nomical operation,  the  determining  factor  in  the  decision 
as  to  selection. 

In  the  competitive-sales  problem  of  multiple-retort 
stokers,  the  economical  operation  of  the  necessary 
auxiliaries  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  determin- 
ing the  advisability  of  selection  in  comparison  with 
natural-draft  stokers.  This  is  necessary  to  justify  the 
high  first  cost  of  the  former  and  also  the  excessive 
additional  expense  of  the  forced-draft  equipment  to 
supply  air  for  predetermined  results  exclusive  of  the 
higher  combined  efficiencies  obtained  and  the  net  eco- 
nomical results  of  the  boiler-stoker  combination.  In 
the  large  power  stations  where  great  fluctuations  of 
load  occur,  the  forced-draft  system  of  air  supply  must 
always  prevail,  on  account  of  the  elasticity  required, 
but  in  manufacturing  plants  operating  under  nonvari- 
able  loads,  the  sales  problem  becomes  one  of  compara- 
tive efficiency,  all  things  being  taken  into  consideration. 

Here  is  where  superheating  is  of  value.  We  may 
compare  the  steam  necessary  for  stoker  driving  as 
about  equal  between  the  forced-  and  natural-draft  sys- 
tems ;  but  all  the  steam  necessary  for  the  forced-draft 
equipment  must  be  charged  against  the  efficiency  of 
the  stoker  requiring  it.  Superheating  is,  of  course, 
raising  the  heat  of  saturated  steam  above  the  tempera- 
ture normal  to  its  pressure.  We  then  have  a  gaseous 
element,  following  the  laws  of  perfect  gases,  and  no 
moisture  can  exist  while  superheat  rp-^iains;  thus  pipe 
and  cylinder  condensation  losses  are  eliminated. 

The  problems  of  proper  packing  and  lubrication  in 
reciprocating  engines  have  been  largely  solved,  and  with 
turbines  lubrication  is  not  necessao'  and  packing  com- 
plications have  been  satisfactorily  overcome. 

As  we  use  both  turbines  and  simple  engines  for  fan 
prime  movers  and  the  latter  for  stoker  driving  also,  it 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  saving  in  the  former  at 
100  deg.  F.  superheat  would  reach  approximately  8 
to  10  per  cent,  and  in  the  latter  over  12  per  cent.  The 
importance  of  such  savings  in  water  rates  can  readily 
be  realized  in  computing  comparative  net  efficiencies 
with  natural-draft  stokers  in  competition. 


June  II,  litis 


POWER 


837 


Useful    Kinks   for   Engineers 
By  Frank  R.  Williams 

The  so-called  self-marking  paper  for  indicator  dia- 
grams and  other  uses  is  a  plain  chemically  coated  paper 
that  is  easily  marked  by  the  touch  of  a  plain  brass  or 
aluminum  point.  It  is  much  used  for  taking  indicator 
diagrams  instead  of  the  conmion  paper  card  and  lead 
pencil,  which  are  often  troublesome  and  unsatisfactory. 
The  paper  can  be  bought  in  large  sheets  or  it  may  be 
prepared  easily  and  cheaply  at  home  as  wanted,  by  tak- 
ing ordinary  zinc  white,  which  can  be  bought  at  any 
drug  store  or  paint  shop,  and  mixing  with  common  thin 
mucilage  into  a  thin  paint  and  lightly  coating  the  paper 
with  it.  When  dry  it  may  be  used  as  ordinary  indicator- 
card  paper,  using  a  brass  or  aluminum  point  instead  of 
a  lead  pencil. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  make  holes  in  glass,  but  few 
persons  know  how  to  do  this.  It  may  be  done  easily 
and  conveniently  without  special  appliances  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  For  small  holes  take  an  ordinary  three- 
cornered  file,  such  as  is  used  for  sharpening  saws,  and 
grind  all  flat  sides  to  a  three-cornered  shai-p  point. 
Then  put  some  spirits  of  turpentine  on  the  glass  and 
rotate  the  drill  with  a  moderate  pressure.  One  will  be 
surprised  at  the  slow  but  satisfactory  progress  that  will 
be  made  through  the  glass.  The  cutting  edge  of  the 
drill  should  be  kept  wet  with  turpentine  while  cutting. 
The  old  receipt  says  add  camphor  dissolved  in  spirits 
of  turpentine ;  but  I  find  that  the  drill  works  well  with- 
out the  camphor. 

To  make  large  holes,  take  a  copper  tube  the  size 
desired  and  rotate  it  upon  the  glass  with  moderate  pres- 
sure, and  keep  it  wet  with  fine  emery  and  oil.  It  is 
best  to  cut  from  both  sides,  meeting  in  the  center,  but 
one  should  be  careful  to  keep  the  drills  rotating  freely 
and  easily,  as  any  pinch  or  jam  may  break  the  glass. 
Finish  the  hole  with  a  half-round  file  wet  with  spirits 
of  turpentine. 

An  ordinary  twist  drill  can  be  used  to  drill  glass, 
but  it  must  be  ground  with  considerable  clearance,  both 
on  the  cutting  edge  and  on  the  circumference,  as  the 
least  pinch  will  break  the  glass.  Keep  the  drill  wet 
with  spirits  of  turpentine. 

Engineers  do  more  or  less  soldering,  and  a  strong 
solder  can  be  had  by  using  pure  tin.  It  will  be  about 
twice  as  strong  as  common  tin  and  lead  solder  and 
never  turns  black  or  disintegrates.  I  have  used  it  ex- 
clusively, where  greater  strength  is  required  than  is 
obtained  with  ordinary  solder  and  where  brazing  or 
silver  solder  would  not  do  because  of  the  high  tem- 
perature. 


A  safe  li(|uid  flux  for  electrical  soldering  is  made  by 
dissolving  rosin  in  alcohol.  A  similar  paste  flux  is  made 
by  taking  chloride  of  zinc,  which  can  be  bought  at  any 
drug  store,  and  rubbing  it  into  a  thick  paste  with  com- 
mon vaseline  or  petrolatum. 

Worn  or  warped  rubber  valves  may  be  refaced  and 
made  to  do  additional  duty  by  tacking  a  sheet  of  sand- 
paper on  a  smooth  board  and,  with  the  hands  holding 
the  valve  flat  and  steady  on  the  sandpaper  with  gentle 
pressure,  rubbing  the  valve  back  and  forth.  This 
will  gradually  cut  down  the  rubber  so  as  to  make  a  true 
face. 

To  remove  broken  taps  or  drills,  wet  for  a  few  hours 
with  ordinary  muriatic  acid  which  will  slightly  dissolve 
the  steel  and  make  the  broken  tool  smalter,  thus  making 
it  more  easily  removable. 


The  Coal  Supply 

The  illustrations  below  are  from  a  paper  by  R.  H. 
Fernald  before  the  Engineers'  Club  of  Philadelphia. 
With  their  aid  one  is  able  to  visualize  the  coal  supply 
of  the  world  and  to  get  a  good  conception  of  the  coal 
available  in  the  United  States  compared  with  what  has 
been  used  up  to  date. 


A=  Tofal    Cc 

B=       "   Exhaustion^  = 


RT  T 


18,000.000,000 


TOTAL  AVAILABLE  COAL  IN  UNITED  STATES  AND 
EXHAUSTION  TO  CLOSE  OF  1017 


Short  .  To  n  s 


-UNITED   STATES  -4,231,352,000,000 

2- CANADA-  -^       1,360,535,000,000 

3,- CHINA    -      1,097,436,000,000 

4-GERMmY-  466,665,000,000 

5-GREAT  BRITAIN 

6  -    SIBERIA 

1      -  RUSSIA 

■  8  -  FRANCE 


206.922,000,000 

1  9  i;667. 000,000 

66,255,000,O.QP 

-   19,362,000,000 


COAL   TtlO.SIOnX'l'IS   OK  TH 10  WOULD   AND  TTllOIll    Ol  STKI HUTION 


838 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Plastic  Refractory  Boiler  Baffles 

The  principal  loss  of  heat  from  a  boiler  furnace  is 
in  the  flue  gases,  and  is  measured  by  the  product 
of  their  weight,  specific  heat  and  excess  of  temperature 
over  atmospheric.  High  temperature  of  gases  may  be 
due  to  their  coming  in  contact  with  too  little  heating 
surface,  to  coatings  of  soot  or  scale  on  the  heating  sur- 
face which  prevent  the  absorption  of  heat  from  the  gases, 
but  most  commonly  it  is  caused  by  defects  in  the  baffling. 


I L '  \iXJ 


a"^^ 


i 

FIG.    1.      PLACING  THE  M.\TERIAL  BACK  OF  CRISSCROSS 
SLATS 

Baffles  may  be  improperly  located,  producing  dead  spaces 
where  the  gases  do  not  circulate  in  the  tube  banks  of 
water-tube  boilers,  or  the  baffling  may  not  provide  for  a 
sufficiently  high  velocity  and  long  path  of  the  gases  of 
combustion. 

Defective  baffling  is  the  most  common  cause  of  high 
chimney  temperatures.  The  baffles  may  have  fallen 
down,  or  bricks  or  blocks  may  have  slipped  out  from 
between  the  boiler  tubes,  allowing  the  short-circuiting 
of  a  large  amount  of  gas. 

Baffles  for  water-tube  boilers  have  in  the  past  con- 
sisted of  tile,  bricks  or  blocks  of  refractory  material 
fitted  in  between  the  tubes.  In  cross-baffled  boilers 
these  tiles  are  introduced  between  the  tubes  by  spring- 
ing the  latter,  and  naturally  do  not  always  form  tight 
joints  with  one  another  or  with  the  tubes,  especially 
after  the  latter  have  warped  or  sprung,  as  they  in- 
variably do  in  service.  It  is  also  difficult  to  insure  that 
blocks  will  remain  where  they  are  placed  and  will  not 
slip  or  fall,  leaving  large  openings.  Owing  to  the 
manner  in  which  baffles  are  inserted  in  boilers,  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  cement  them  together;  moreover, 
the  difference  in  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
boiler  and  baffling  would  break  the  joints  apart. 

The  illustrations  show  how  jointless,  gas-tight  baffles 
can    be   made   by    the    use   of   a    refractory   known    as 


plastic  firebrick  and  manufactured  by  the  Betson 
Plastic  Fire  Brick  Co.,  of  Rome,  N.  Y.  This  material 
is  compounded  of  refractory  substances  so  prepared  as 
to  practically  eliminate  expansion  and  contraction  with 
changes   in  temperature. 

In  forming  a  cross-baffle  for  a  water-tube  boiler  of 
the  B.  &  W.  type,  the  ordinary  cast-iron  baffle  plate 
is  used  as  one  side  of  the  mold,  while  the  other  is  made 
by  thrusting  slats  in  through  the  diagonals  between  the 
tubes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  plastic  material  is 
then  poked  down  through  the  diagonals  to  fill  the  space 
between  the  cast-iron  baffle  plate  and  these  slats.  It 
is  sufficiently  plastic  so  that  it  can  be  forced  out  side- 
wise  around  the  tubes,  fitting  the  latter  snugly. 

When  this  work  has  been  completed,  the  boiler  is 
fired  up  slowly,  the  crisscross  of  slats  burns  out,  and 
the  plastic  material  is  dried  and  vitrified  in  place. 
This  operation  occupies  only  a  few  hours,  after  which 
the  full  load  may  be  put  upon  the  boiler.  Inasmuch 
as  the  boiler  comes  up  to  full  steam  pressure  before 
the  material  is  thoroughly  set,  the  expansion  of  the 
metal  pushes  away  the  soft  material  to  the  position 
it  should  occupy  when  the  boiler  is  hot,  and  while 
the  boiler  will  draw  away  from  the  material  in  cooling 
off  again,  the  baffles  will  fit  tightly  when  the  boiler 
is   under   steam. 

In  forming  a  longitudinal  baffle.  Fig.  2,  blocks  of 
wood  are  placed   in  between  the  tubes,  above  and  be- 


FIG. 


HOW    MATERIAL    IS    PL.A.CED    FOR    HORIZONTAL 

BAFFLES 


low  the  space  which  it  is  desired  that  the  baffle  shall 
occupy,  thus  confining  the  plastic  material,  which  is 
shoved  in  from  the  side  in  the  case  of  baffles  in  the 
middle  of  the  tube  bank  or  from  underneath  or  over- 
head in  the  case  of  the  baffles  at  the  bottom  or  top  of 
the   tube   bank. 

Where  this  material  is  used,  there  is  no  restriction 
upon  the  shape  or  size  of  the  baffle,  and  the  latter 
can  therefore  be  arranged  in  any  form  desired.  In 
cross-baffled  boilers,  for  example,  it  is  becoming  the 
practice  to  slope  or  incline  the  baffles  so  that  the  gas 


June  11,  1018 


POWER 


839 


passag'e  will  contract  progressively  from  the  point 
where  the  gases  enter  the  tube  to  the  point  where  they 
leave,  in  order  to  maintain  a  uniform  gas  velocity,  in 
spite  of  the  shrinkage  of  gas  volume  with  cooling.  This 
is  easily  accomplished  with  the  plastic  material. 

This  material  also  finds  use  as  a  substitute  for 
special  forms  of  bricks  or  blocks;  as  for  example, 
where  the  front  headers  of  horizontal  water-tube 
boilers  rest  upon  the  front  arch.  It  is  used  for  lining 
furnace  and  combustion  chambers,  including  front  arch, 
side  walls,  bridge-wall,  rear  arch,  etc. 

Refinite  Water  Softener 

When  boiler-feed  water  contains  a  scale-forming  ele- 
ment, two  conditions  must  be  met — the  boiler  shell  and 
tubes  will  have  to  be  cleaned  of  scale  at  intervals,  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  scale  formed,  and  if  the  forma- 
tion is  to  be  prevented  the  water  must  be  treated  before 
it  goes  into  the  boiler. 

Numerous  systems  of  water-softening  plants  are  em- 
ployed for  boiler-feed  water,  some  being  installations 
of  considerable  size,  and  are  generally  used  with  steam 
plants  of  medium  and  large  capacity.  A  system  de- 
signed for  both  small-  and  large-capacity  power  plants 
is  manufactured  by  the  Refinite  Co.,  Omaha,  Neb.,  and 
is  known  as  the  Refinite  water  softener. 

The  illustration  shows  a  60-in.  water-softener  sys- 
tem, consisting  of  a  closed  tank  in  which  the  soften- 
ing mineral  bed  of  filter  gravel  is  placed.  Raw  water 
enters  the  softener  tank  through  the  pipes  A  and  B 
and,  striking  a  baffle  plate,  is  sprayed  over  the  mineral 
softening  bed.  The  treated  water  leaves  the  softener 
through  the  pipe  and  meter  C  after  it  has  passed 
through  the  Refinite  mineral  bed. 

The  operation  of  the  system  depends  upon  this  min- 
eral bed,  which  is  composed  of  a  clay  product  having 
zeolite  properties.  It  is  put  out  in  a  form  suitable  for 
the  commercial  use  of  softening  water,  and  the  mineral 
is  furnished  with  the  apparatus,  which,  as  shown,  is 
constructed  much  the  same  as  the  ordinary  pressure 
filter.  The  mechanical  operation  of  softening  water  is 
one  of  simple  filtration,  or  just  passing  the  water 
through  the  mineral  bed,  the  same  as  water  is  passed 
through  a  sand  filter.  After  a  time  all  the  original 
sodium  in  the  Refinite  will  have  been  given  up  in  this 
exchange.  When  this  occurs,  the  softening  action 
ceases,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  replace  the  mineral 
or  to  remove  it  from  the  softener  container. 

By  a  reverse  action,  called  regeneration,  in  which 
ordinary  salt  is  the  reagent,  the  softening  action  of 
the  Refinite  may  be  restored.  Common  salt,  sodium 
chloride,  is  dissolved  in  water  in  a  tank,  and  the  brine 
run  into  the  softener  and  allowed  to  stand  therein  for 
a  few  hours,  after  which  the  softener  is  ready  for  the 
next  run. 

Hardening  salts  in  water  vary  considerably,  and  can 
be  actually  determined  and  weighed.  A  pound  of  Refinite 
mineral  has  the  ability  to  take  up  a  certain  amount  of 
these  hardening  salts  by  actual  weight.  Therefore,  the 
capacity  of  one  pound  of  the  mineral  in  gallons  would 
depend  on  the  weight  of  the  hardening  salts  in  the 
total  quantity  of  water  handled. 

One  pound  of  Refinite  mineral  has  the  ability  to  take 
up  54  grains  of  hardness.     If  the  water  contains    18 


grains  per  gallon,  one  pound  of  Refinite  mineral  will 
handle  three  gallons,  and  the  time  required  for  the 
action  is  ten  hours.  From  three-fourths  of  a  pound  to 
one  pound  of  salt  is  required  to  eliminate  each  grain 
of  hardness  in  a  thousand  gallons  of  water  by  the 
Refinite  process.  If  the  water  contains  18  grains  of 
hardness,  for  instance,  18  lb.  of  salt  would  be  required 
to  treat  1000  gal.  The  average  cost  of  the  salt  used  is 
about  a  half-cent  per  pound. 

Thus  the  capacity  of  any  sized  softener  in  which  a 
stipulated  amount  of  mineral  is  used,  depends  on  the 


S^WJ^   TANn 


SKMISECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  THE  REFINITE  W.\TER 

SOFTENER 

hardness  of  the  water  treated.  If  the  water  is  18  grains 
hard,  a  certain  number  of  gallons  can  be  handled.  If 
the  water  is  only  9  grains  hard,  twice  the  amount  can 
be  handled,  and  the  capacity  in  any  case  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  hardness  in  the  water. 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  regenerate  after  each 
capacity  of  softening  has  been  run.  If  the  machine  is 
designed  to  handle  10,000  gal.  in  10  hours,  it  is  regen- 
erated after  each  10-hour  run,  and  the  time  required 
for  regeneration  is  usually  from  8  to  10  hours.  The 
operation  takes  place  at  night  while  the  softener  is  not 
in  operation. 


840 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Ouestionnaire  Which  Owners  of  Power  Plants  Will 

Questionnaire  for  Power  Plants.     General   Information  To  Be 
Supplied  by  the  Owners.    Not  to  Be  Used 
for  the  Rating  of  Plant 


Date  of  Report . 
Name  of  company,  concern  or  owner.  .  . 

Address   of   Central   Office 

Name  and  location  of  plant  inspected .  .  . 
Character  of  product  or  service 


Stationary  Boilers 

WATER-TUBE  BOILERS 


Kind  of  Df-aft 

How  Fired 

Total  Hp 

Number 

Hp. 

Nafl 

Forced 

Induced 

Stoker 

Hand 

Remarks 

FIRE-TUBE  BOILERS 

Hp. 

Kind  of  Draft 

How 

Fired 

Total  Hp. 

Number 

Nafl 

Forced 

Induced 

Stoker 

Hand 

Remarks 

Movable  Boilers* 

Number 

Hp 

Type 

Remarks 

*  In  the  rating  of  the  plant  movable  boilers  will  be  considered  separately     The 
questionnaire  does  not  call  for  information  regarding  movable  boilers  except  as 

ger  above  table.    The  influence  of  movable  boilers  on  the  rating  of  the  plant  will 
e  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  Administrative  Engineer. 


Kind  of  coal . 
Size 


Bituminous         Semibituminous         Anthracite 


Tons  of  coal  of  2000  lb.  used  during  twelve  months 
ending  May  1,  1918 

Months  of  operation  of  plant  during  the  same 
year 

Approximately  what  percentage  of  live  steam  is  used 
for: 


Winter       Summer 
Per  Cent.    Per  Cent. 


(ti)  Making  power 
(h)    Heatint;  building 
(r)   Process  work .... 


Is  purchased  electric  power  used? 

If  so,  how  many  kilowatt-hours  consumed  during 
twelve  months  ending  May  1,  1918?   

Records 
Are  records  tcept  to  show  any  of  the  following  infor- 
mation?    Answer  "Yes"  or  "No"  in  table. 


Water  evaporated  by  boilers. .  .  . 

Coal  consumed  by  boilers 

Flue -gas  analysis     

Electrical  output  or  consumption 
kw.-hr 


By  Shift         Daily  Weekly       Monthly 


Engine  Equipment 
steam  units— engines,  turbines,  pumps 


No. 

Initial 
Pressure 

Rating 

Type 

Hp, 

Kw.orGal. 
Per  Min. 

Con-       Noncon- 
densing  j    densing 

Type   of 
Valve  Gear 

Simple 

Compound ,  .  . 

- 

Turbine 

Steam  Pumps. 

' 

1            ;                 i 

What  changes  have  you   in  progress  which  are  ex- 
pected to  reduce  your  fuel  consumption? 

When  will  they  be  in  effect? 

Further   remarks   by   owner: 

Note  to  Owner:  If  sufficient  space  is  not  available  in 
the  questionnaire,  please  attach  an  extra  sheet  with  the 
additional  information. 

Recommendations  by  the  Fuel  Administration 

That  provision  be  made  for  weighing  and  record- 
ing of  the  fuel  used  each   shift  or  day. 

That  feed  water  be  heated  and  measured. 

That  provision  be  made  for  an  adequate  supply  of 
air  to  the  fuel  and  convenient  means  provided  for  the 
measurement  and  control  of  the  draft. 

That  provision  be  made  to  keep  boiler  surfaces  clean 
inside  and  out. 

That  the  grates  be  in  good  repair,  that  settings, 
breeching  and  access  doors  be  free  from  air  leakage, 
and  that  boiler  surfaces  wasting  heat  be  covered  with 
insulation. 

That  the  surfaces  of  steam  piping,  drums  and  feed- 
water  heaters  which  waste  heat  or  steam  by  radiation 
be  properly  covered  with  insulating  material. 

That  exhaust  steam  be  utilized  wherever  possible,  to 
the  exclusion  of  direct  steam  from  the  boilers.  The 
plant  should  be  so  designed  that  no  more  exhaust  steam 
will  be  produced  than  can  be  efficiently'  utilized  in 
heating  or  process  work. 

That  a  competent  man  in  the  plant  be  detailed  for 
the  work  of  fuel  conservation  in  the  boiler  and  engine 
rooms. 

That  a  competent  man  or  committee  be  detailed  for 
the  work  of  fuel  conservation  in  the  building  or  shop 
outside  of  the  power  plant. 


June  11,  1918 


POWER 


841 


Be  Asked  by  the  Fuel  Administration  to  Fill  Out 

Outline  of  Standard  Questionnaire  Covering   Operation   of    Steani- 

Power    Plants.    Questions  to  Be  Marked  to  Form 

Basis  of  Rating  of  Plant 

Question  2.    Check  air  leaks  observed,  as  follows : 


(a)     Fuel:     Value  of  question,  9.     Mark  rec'd 

Question    1.    What   provision    is   made   for   weighing 

fuel  used  each  shift  or  day? 
Question  2.    What  records  are  made  of  fuel  used  each 

shift  or  day? 
Question  3.    What  grate  surface  is  in  use  each  shift, 

exclusive  of  banked  fires? 
Question  4.    Total  coal  used  each  shift  exclusive  of 

banked  fires? 


Leaks  in  boiler  settiiiK  

Openings  between  boiler  and  sotting. 

Badly  warped  fire-doors 

Badly  warped  eleaning  or  access  doors 
Leaks  around  blowoff  piping 


(f)      Insulation:     Value    of    question,    7.     Mark    re- 
ceived     

Check  any  of  the  following  items  where  saving  could 
be  made  by  covering  surfaces  with  insulation : 


(b)     Water:     Value  of  question,  15. 
Question  1.    What  provision  is  made  for  heating  and 
continuous    measuring    of    feed    water 
(check  answer  in  table  below)  ? 

Heating  Means   Used   for   Measuring 

Open  feed-water  heater 

Closed  feed-water  heater     

Exhaust  steam 

Direct  steam 

Waste  beat  economizer 


Exposed  drums  of  boil  rs  

Mark  rec'd Exposed  shells  of  boilcis  

Steam  piping  in  boiler  room 

Steam  piping  in  engine  room 

Feed-water  heater 

l']xhaust-steam  piping  where  fuc!  could  be' conserved  by  covering. . 
Feed  lines 


(c)      Air    Supply:      Value    of    question,    12.      Mark 

received    

Are  means  provided  for  measuring  the 
draft  over  the  fire? 

Are  means  provided  for  determining  the 
excess  air  by  flue-gas  analysis? 
Are  dampers  provided  for  equalizing  the 
draft  in  the  furnaces? 
Is  there  a  convenient  means  for  regulat- 
ing the  draft  by  main  or  uptake  damper? 
Is  there  an  automatic  damper  regulator 
in  working  order? 


Question  1. 

Question  2. 

Question  3. 

Question  4. 

Question  5. 


(d)     Clean   Heating   Surfaces:     Value  of  question, 

12.     Mark  received 

Question  1.  What  provision  is  made  for  keeping  soot 
and  ashes  from  boiler-heating  surfaces 
(mark  answer  in  table  below)  ? 

steam  lance  for  blowing  soot  by  hand 

Mechanical  soot  blower 

Brushes  or  scrapers 


Question  2. 
Question  3. 


How  often  are  the  soot  and  ash  cleaned 
from  the  boiler-heating  surface? 
What  provision  is  made  for  keeping  scale 
and  sediment  out  of  the  boiler  (check  an- 
swer in  table  below)  ? 


chemical  treatment  of  feed  water  in  the  boiler 

Chemical  treatnient  of  feed  water  ou'side  of  boiler.... 
Filtration  of  feed  water  in  open  feed-water  heater.  .  . 

Filtration  by  means  of  feed-water  pressure  filter 

Other  means 

Water  is  free  from  scale  or  sediment  without  treatment 


Question  4.    What  means  are  used  for  removing  scale 
from  the  boiler? 


UaDd 


Mechanical . 


(e)     Boiler  and  Furnace  Setting:     Value  of  ques- 


Question  1.    Are  the  grates  warped,  broken  or  other- 
wise defective? 


Engine-Room  and  Heating  Systems:    Value  of 

question,  15.    Mark  received 

Is  exhaust  steam  used:    Entirely 

partly not  used  ? 

State   service   for   which   this   steam    is 

employed:     Heating Cooking 

Dry  room Tank  heating Low- 
pressure  turbines Other  purposes 


(g) 
Question  1. 
Question  2. 


Question  3.    Is  there  an   excess  of  exhaust  over  re- 
quirements? 

Day  Night 


Winter 

Summer - 


Question  4. 


Is  there  any  low-pressure  live  steam  used 
in  the  plant? At  what  pressure? 

...  .lb.  gage.    For  what  purpose? 

Heating Cooking Dry  room 

Tank  heating Other  pur- 
poses   

(h)     Supervision:     Value  of  question,   10.     Mark  re- 
ceived     

Question  1.  Has  the  owner  detailed  a  competent  em- 
ployee to  supervise  the  work  of  fuel 
conservation  in  the  boiler  and  engine 
plants  with  directions  to  report  weekly 
on  measures  for  economy  and  progress 
in  conservation  of  fuel? 
Name  and  title  of  this  employee 


Question  2. 


Has    the     owner     appointed     a     man     in 
charge  of  the  work  of  fuel  conservation 
outside  of  the  boiler  and  engine  rooms 
described  under  Recommendations? 
Name  and  title  of  this  employee 


842 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Let's  "Can"  the   Bellyache* 

This  country — your  country,  our  country — is  at  war. 

Let's  cut  out  the  bellyache. 

We  are  at  war  with  a  powerful,  relentless  foe — a 
foe  lusting  for  dominion.  We  are  at  war  to  save  our 
own    "hide" — our   own    individual   hides. 

By  "making  the  world  safe  for  democracy,"  we  are 
making  it  "a  decent  place  to  live  in" — for  you  and 
yours  and  me  and  mine.  We  are  at  war  to  perpetuate 
those  things  that  stand  for  our  own  daily  happiness. 
Let's  not  forget  that.  We're  in  this  thing  in  self-de- 
fense.   So,  let's  "can"  the  bellyache. 

There  are  a  few  people  who  think  this  war  isn't  worth 
while,  and  most  of  them  are  keeping  their  mouths  dis- 
creetly shut.  But  there  are  a  host  of  flyspeckers,  calam- 
ity howlers,  and  woe-betiders  that  are  barnacles  on  the 
Ship  of  State.  At  heart  most  of  them  are  loyal,  good 
American  citizens,  but  their  tongues  are  loose.  If  you 
think  this  war  is  worth  while,  then  join  a  movement 
to  stop  the  mouths  of  those  sobbers.  Let's  "can"  the 
bellyache. 

Our  sympathy  goes  out  to  the  man  whose  business 
has  been  hit  a  hard  wallop  by  this  war.  We  are  sorry 
for  the  man  who  can't  get  cars;  can't  borrow  money; 
can't  ship  goods,  or  can't  make  'em.  We  are  sincerely 
sorry  to  see  a  man  suffer,  even  when  his  suffering  may 
be  necessary  to  further  the  chief  business  in  which 
we  are  all  engaged — the  business  of  winning  the  war. 

Let's  "can"  the  bellyache. 

If  our  public  servants  are  sometimes  wrong;  if  they 
misjudge  conditions,  men,  measures,  then  those  who 
suffer  unjustly — while  the  nation  trains  off  its  fat  and 
girds  itself  for  war — let  those  with  a  common  griev- 
ance get  together,  do  some  constructive  thinking  and 
planning  and  show  our  public  servants,  not  with  sobs 
and  whines,  J3ut  constructively,  how  things  should  be 
done.  Let's  cut  out  the  fault-finding.  "Can"  the  belly- 
ache. 

There  are  four  things  worth  having  in  mind  all  the 
time: 

1.  The  seriousness  of  the  war — the  necessity  that  it 
be  prosecuted  as  the  chief  activity  of  the  nation,  at  the 
cost  of  individual  needs  and  preferences. 

2.  The  fallibility  of  all  men  and,  therefore,  all  public 
servants;  the  unescapable  fact  that  no  man  or  body 
of  men  could  run  even  a  little  war  and  please  everybody 
— and  this  war  is  the  biggest  war  the  world  has  ever 
seen. 

3.  The  fact  that  our  Government  recognizes  the  ne- 
cessity that  business  proceed  so  that  the  difference  be- 
tween income  and  outgo  shall  be  as  great  as  possible  on 
the  credit  side — so  that  there  may  be  profits  and  sav- 
ings out  of  which  to  pay  for  the  war. 

4.  The  fact  that  in  times  like  these  the  individual  is 
of  small  consequence;  the  private  need  or  preference 
is  swallowed  up  in  the  public  necessity — to  the  end  that 
private  needs  and  preferences  and  individual  freedom 
may  eventually  survive. 

We  give  up  individualism  to  the  end  that  we  shall 
ultimately  retain  it.  We  shall  not  dare  to  clutch  at 
our  private  wants  or  they  must  be  torn  from  us.  We 
give  them  up  so  that  we  may  gratify  them  tomorrow. 


We  grasp  the  hand  of  the  man  whose  business  goes 
to  ballyhack — we  are  sorry.  But  this  is  war.  It  is 
inevitable  that  the  activities  of  peace  shall  be  disar- 
ranged. Let  us  all  help  by  silence  and  reproach  to  "can" 
the  bellyache. 

Let's  organize,  as  we  must,  to  criticize  constructively; 
do  the  best  we  can,  but  mostly  let's  drive  the  dam  ma- 
chine of  war  until  our  enemies  have  had  enough.  Let's 
"can"  the  bellyache;  stop  the  footless  chatter  of  the 
street,  the  cheap  mouthings  of  the  malcontents.  We 
are  not  overrun  by  the  Hun.  Our  country  is  not  dev- 
astated. Its  people  are  not  outraged  nor  its  homes 
made  desolate.  The  only  sobs  our  country  has  an  ear 
for  are  the  sobs  of  those  whose  hearts  are  torn,  those 
who  have  seen  the  war  come  to  their  homes,  to  demand 
the  supreme  sacrifice. 

Providing   Ample   Clearance   Space 

By  M.  a.  Saller 

A  very  important  factor  in  the  satisfactory  operation 
of  power-plant  equipment,  and  one  frequently  overlooked 
by  the  designing  engineer,  is  the  matter  of  providing 
sufficient  space  around  the  equipment  to  permit  the 
replacement  of  worn  parts.  Every  operating  engineer  at 
some  time  has  been  confronted  with  the  necessity  of 
knocking  a  hole  in  the  wall  in  order  to  remove  the  tubes 


*An  editorial  written  by  Harvey  Wtiipple  and  printed  in  "Con- 
crete,"   Detroit,   Mich.,   May,    li)18. 


PROVIDING  SPACE  TO  MAKE  REPAIRS 

from  a  boiler,  or  has  had  to  move  some  auxiliary  appara- 
tus or  piping  in  order  to  obtain  sufficient  clearance  to 
remove  and  replace  tubes  in  a  condenser.  Another 
common  mistake  is  to  so  locate  motors  or  engines  that 
when  occasion  arises,  for  changing  the  pulley  even,  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  machine  from  the  foundation 
to  secure  the  necessary  clearance  space. 

An  easy  way  to  minimize  trouble  from  this  source 
would  be  for  the  manufacturer  to  place  on  all  standard 
drawings  a  notation  as  to  the  clearance  space  that  should 
be  provided  about  a  machine  or  outline  the  space  graph- 
ically on  the  drawing.  Being  thus  noted,  the  point 
would  receive  attention  by  the  designing  engineer  who 
would  probably  avoid  the  common  error.  This  is  done 
by  a  few  manufacturers  whose  example  could  be  followed 
to  advantage  by  all. 


June  11.  1918  POWER  843 

eiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiuiiiiuiiiiuiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiii  mia 


Editorials 


illllllllllllllllllirilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIII  Illllllr: 


For  the  Duration  of  the  War 

ONE  of  the  most  striking  things  in  a  war  replete 
with  amazing  happenings  has  been  the  remarkable 
adaptability  displayed  by  the  peoples  of  all  nations. 
Under  the  pressure  of  great  necessity  and  the  urge  of 
patriotic  impulse  they  have  voluntarily  subjected  them- 
selves to  conditions  that  before  the  war  were  undreamed. 

In  our  own  country,  where  the  individual  has  been 
accorded  freedom  of  action  and  opportunity  such  as  no 
other  nation  can  boast,  we  have  imposed  rules,  regula- 
tions and  restrictions  that  often  savor  of  autocracy 
rather  than  democracy.  But  though  in  so  doing  we  have 
shattered  scores  of  precedents,  our  people  have  re- 
sponded instantly  and  whole-heartedly  to  every  change, 
convinced  that  no  demand  is  too  unreasonable  to  be 
met  if  it  promotes  the  one  great  task  of  the  present 
moment — the  winning  of  the  war. 

In  the  name  of  efficiency  and  conservation  we  have 
turned  over  the  railroads  to  the  management  of  the 
Government,  arbitrarily  restricted  the  use  of  certain 
coals  to  certain  prescribed  localities,  fixed  the  prices 
of  fuel  and  food  products,  conferred  upon  the  Presi- 
dent the  power  to  commandeer  any  public  or  private 
resource  for  the  use  of  the  nation  in  the  conflict,  set 
a  guard  armed  with  blue-pencils  at  the  doors  of  the 
public  press  and  in  a  hundred  other  ways  limited  and 
proscribed  the  operations  of  public  and  private  enter- 
prises. 

Only  the  absolute  need  for  coordinated  effort  and  the 
wisest  use  of  our  resources  could  have  brought  about 
so  radical  a  change  in  our  methods  of  conducting 
affairs,  and  there  are  many  who  believe  that  when 
the  pressure  of  necessity  is  removed,  there  will  be 
a  general  reversion  to  pre-war  conditions  and  modes 
of  doing  business. 

Piffle  and  poppycock!  Likewise  fudge  and  fiddle- 
sticks! The  human  race  is  not  a  crab.  It  does  not 
progress  backward.  The  war  has  thrown  the  spot- 
light, as  nothing  else  could  have  ♦done  so  effectively, 
on  our  criminal  wastefulness  and  our  unnecessary 
duplication  of  effort.  We  have  realized  that  we  have 
been  working  largely  at  cross-purposes,  spending 
energy  lavishly  and  to  no  good  purpose.  No  reason- 
able person  will  deliberately  return  to  a  practice  that 
he  has  found  to  be  inefficient  or  contrary  to  the  public 
welfare. 

If  the  war  has  forced  us  to  adopt  plans  that  have 
resulted  in  better  service  at  decreased  cost,  with  smaller 
drains  upon  material  and  labor,  there  is  going  to  be 
no  retracing  of  steps  when  the  war  is  over.  What- 
ever has  been  found  to  be  productive  of  the  greatest 
good  for  the  greatest  number  will  be  retained  as  a 
part  of  our  system.  Any  individual  or  group  of  individ- 
uals who  for  selfish  purposes  would  attempt  to  restore 
obsolete  and  slipshod  methods  must  be  regarded  as  an 
enemy  of  the  public.    If  this  war  is  accomplishing  any- 


thing at  all,  it  is  teaching  the  gospel  of  teamwork  and 
wiping  out  the  heresy  of  self-interest. 

Once  they  have  proved  their  value  and  have  been 
properly  appreciated,  economic  policies  will  become  a 
part  of  the  habits  of  thought  and  action  of  the  people. 
"For  the  duration  of  the  war"  is  a  refrain  sung  by 
selfish  interests  to  revive  their  hopes  and  reinforce 
their  courage.  It  is  like  the  quavering  whistle  of  the 
small  boy  who  passes  a  cemetery  at  dead  of  night. 


Celebrate  Flag  Day 

IN  1775,  two  years  before  the  Stars  and  Stripes  came 
into  use  as  our  National  Flag,  George  Washington 
wrote,  "Please  fix  on  some  flag  by  which  our  vessels 
may  know  each  other."  Two  years  later,  June  14,  1777, 
Congress  met  in  Old  Independence  Hall  in  Philadelphia 
and  adopted  the  following  resolution: 

Resolved,  that  the  flag-  of  the  thirteen  United  States  be 
thirteen  sti'ipes,  alteinate  red  and  white;  that  the  union 
be  thirteen  stars,  white  in  a  blue  field,  representing  a  new 
constellation.     The  stars  to  be  arranged  in  a  circle. 

Since  that  time  the  number  of  stars  has  been  in- 
creased as  the  number  of  states  has  increased,  until 
today  there  are  48.  June  14  has  come  to  be  known  as 
the  Flag's  Birthday,  and  it  is  this  date  that  we  cele- 
brate as  Flag  Day. 

We  have  thrown  this  country  open  to  millions  of 
emigrants  from  practically  every  nation  of  the  world, 
to  come  and  live  within  our  borders,  saying  this  is  a 
land  of  freedom  and  equal  opportunity,  without  teach- 
ing the  meaning  of  these  terms.  For  years  we  have 
gone  along  in  our  peace-loving,  idealistic  way  without 
giving  very  serious  consideration  to  what  the  Stars 
and  Stripes  really  mean  to  us,  what  a  precious  thing 
this  liberty  is,  which  we  have  held  up  as  symbolical  of 
our  national  attitude.  Too  long  have  we  been  doing 
this,  therefore  is  it  no  wonder  that  many  whom  we 
have  invited  to  our  shores  have  been  inclined  to  take 
the  duties  of  citizenship  here  lightly  and  in  many  cases 
have  entirely  neglected  to  assume  these  responsibilities. 

Flag  Day  offers  to  every  employer  in  this  country  the 
opportunity  to  bring  home  to  his  foreign-born  employees 
what  it  means  to  be  an  American;  how  that  the  Stars 
and  Stripes  have  greater  significance  to  them  than 
ever  before,  since  for  the  first  time  in  our  history  men 
of  all  nations  who  have  adopted  America  as  their 
country  are  fighting  under  the  American  Flag  on  the 
great  battlefronts  of  France  to  make  the  world  a  safe 
place  for  freedom,  right  and  equal  opportunity,  to 
enjoy  which  they  came  to  our  shores.  There  are  thou- 
sands of  foreign-born  workers  in  our  industries  that 
have  those  near  and  dear  to  them  in  our  militai-y  and 
naval  forces,  who  would  welcome  the  opportunity  to 
join  with  the  American-born  to  pledge  their  loyalty 
to  the  Flag  and  to  the  great  cause  we  are  fighting  for, 
and  it  is  the  patriotic  duty  of  every  employer  in  this 


844 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


country  to  see  to  it  that  his  employees  have  the  oppor- 
tunity on  June  14  to  get  together  for  a  flag  raising. 

This  is  a  timely  occasion  for  the  employer  to  get 
the  idea  across  to  his  employees  that  they  are  working 
for  their  country  and  for  the  boys  at  the  front.  This 
idea,  when  once  instilled,  will  make  strikes,  sabotage 
and  restricted  output  a  thing  of  the  past  and  develop 
a  loyal  spirit  among  native-  and  foreign-born  employees 
by  making  them  realize  that  America  is  the  land  of 
the  square  deal  and  equal  opportunity. 

The  employer,  in  addition  to  producing  the  materials 
essential  to  winning  the  war,  must  also  help  develop 
a  new  American  spirit.  This  was  very  eloquently  ex- 
pressed recently  by  Secretary  of  the  Interior  Franklin 
K.  Lane,  in  an  address  before  an  educational  conference 
in  Washington,  D.  C. 

And  we  who  are  not  permitted  to  fight,  what  shall  be  our 
part?  Let  it  be  our  resolution  that  when  our  sons  return 
they  shall  find  a  new  spirit  in  America,  a  deeper  insight 
into  the  problems  of  a  striving  people,  a  stronger,  firmer, 
more  positive  and  purposeful  sense  of  nationality.  We 
shall  make  America  better  worth  while  to  Americans  and 
of  higher  service  to  the  world. 

Flag  Day  offers  an  opportunity  to  help  make  this 
resolution  a  reality. 

Cent-a-Gallon  Gasoline  a  Dream 

WHILE  we  are  waiting  for  the  report  of  the  five 
internationally  known  scientists,  who  we  under- 
stand have  been  appointed  by  Garabed  T.  K.  Giragos- 
sian  and  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  to 
investigate  the  former's  sources  of  free  energy  and  learn 
whether  the  said  Giragossian  is  to  be  a  great  benefactor 
to  humanity  or  whether  his  claims  are  just  plain  bun- 
combe, the  story  of  the  doings  of  Louis  Enricht,  of 
Farmingdale,  L.  I.,  and  his  "Cent-a-Gallon  Gasoline," 
published  in  the  New  York  Tribune,  May  5,  an  abstract 
of  which  appears  on  page  854  of  this  issue,  will  help  in 
provide  fuel  for  our  speculative  imaginations. 

Gasoline  at  one  cent  per  gallon,  if  such  a  thing  were 
possible,  would  seem  to  be  about  the  equivalent  to  tap- 
ping the  inexhaustible  reservoir  of  energy  in  the  atmos- 
phere. However,  as  far  as  we  know,  the  T.  K.  Giragos- 
sian free-energy  motor,  or  "Garabed,"  as  he  calls  it,  ex- 
ists only  in  the  would-be  inventor's  imagination,  while 
Louis  Enricht  has  managed  to  put  his  mysterious  some- 
thing across  in  such  a  way  as  to  interest  Henry  Ford, 
B.  F.  Yoakum  and,  according  to  his  own  statements,  the 
governments  of  two  or  three  countries,  without  revealing 
his  method  of  doing  it. 

No  doubt  many  of  our  readers  have  speculated  upon 
what  would  be  the  results  if  all  this  was  a  reality  and 
not  a  dream  or  a  hoax;  how  some  day  all  the  millions 
invested  in  pipe  lines,  oil-refining  and  oil-pumping  equip- 
ment would  cease  to  earn  dividends ;  how  gasoline,  which 
is  becoming  one  of  the  most  expensive  and  essential 
fuels,  would  some  day  be  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most 
commonplace;  how  the  fortunes  of  the  millionaires  of 
the  oil  industry  would  fade  away — but  you  need  not 
speculate  any  longer,  for,  according  to  Louis  Enricht's 
own  words,  he  has  had  to  abandon  the  idea  of  his  "Cent- 
a-Gallon  Gasoline,"  and,  on  account  of  the  great  increase 
in  the  cost  of  chemicals  during  the  last  two  years,  his 
mysterious  motor  fuel  will  now  cost  the  public  "twelve 


cents  per  gallon."  When  it  comes  to  war  profiteering, 
Louis  Enricht  appears  to  be  a  joy  rider. 

However,  this  would-be  "green-fluid  wizard"  seems  to 
be  a  sort  of  a  generous  creature  after  all,  for  according 
to  his  own  statements  he  has  had  a  conference  with  Sec- 
retary Baker  and  Attorney  General  Gregory,  and  this 
Government  wants  his  secret  for  war  use  only,  while  he 
wants  the  Government  to  protect  him  after  the  war  and 
license  him  to  manufacture  his  compound  and  make  it 
illegal  for  anyone  else  to  produce  it.  On  this  plan  he 
will  sell  his  fuel  to  the  Government  at  ten  cents  a  gallon, 
and  the  extra  two  cents  charged  the  public  he  is  willing  to 
pay  the  Government  as  a  tax.  This,  according  to  his  esti- 
mate, would  enrich  the  Government  by  seventy  million 
dollars  per  year,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  two-cent  tax  on 
three  and  a  half  billion  gallons.  Louis  must  expect  to  do 
some  business  when  he  gets  started,  since  the  total  gas- 
oline production  in  the  United  States  in  1917  was  only 
about  two  and  a  half  billion  gallons. 

Like  Giragossian,  Enricht  has  always  held  up  the  dif- 
ficulty of  protecting  his  idea  as  a  reason  for  not  reveal- 
ing his  secret,  if  he  has  one;  and  by  this  subterfuge  he 
has  managed  to  cover  himself  at  every  turn  from  his 
first  public  demonstrations  in  1916  to  what  he  claims  to 
be  his  latest  offer  for  his  fuel  from  the  Government. 

Now  that  "Cent-a-Gallon  Gasoline"  has  increased  to 
twelve  cents  in  the  last  two  years,  it  should  be  enough 
to  convince  the  trusting  public  that  whatever  Enricht 
may  have  is  a  hoax,  and  that  it  is  only  one  more  of  the 
something-for-nothing  schemes  breathing  its  last  and 
about  to  pass  into  oblivion.  Is  it  not  about  time  that  at 
least  those  who  are  supposed  to  be  familiar  with  the 
laws  of  physics,  chemistry  and  engineering  cease  to  lend 
their  attention  to  schemes  that  are  so  far  removed  from 
all  laws  of  reason? 


Soot-Blower    Data   Solicited 

ON  OTHER  pages  of  this  issue  is  an  article  dealing 
with  mechanical  soot  blowers,  giving  experience 
from  a  number  of  plants  as  to  the  saving  effected  in  coal 
and  labor  and  the  character  of  the  service  rendered.  As 
far  as  they  go  the  various  reports  are  favorable,  but 
for  the  most  part  they  lack  definite  data  to  back  up  the 
assertions  made.  Those  published  are  only  a  few  of  the 
responses  received.  The  others  merely  state  that  no 
data  on  the  subject  are  available. 

A  loss  that  may  account  for  two  to  eight  per  cent,  of 
the  fuel  is  surely  worth  analyzing.  It  would  be  inter- 
esting to  know  the  amount  of  steam  required  to  blow 
different  sizes  and  types  of  boilers,  the  relative  effi- 
ciencies of  mechanical  and  hand  cleaning  and  the  cost  of 
maintenance  in  various  plants.  With  these  points  in 
view  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  obtain  data  sufficiently 
accurate  for  the  purpose  in  hand.  We  would  welcome 
other  contributions  to  the  subject.  A  general  knowl- 
edge that  a  thing  is  good  is  not  sufficient.  Those  inter- 
ested in  a  device  of  this  character  should  know  how  good 
and  at  what  expense. 


There  are  few  engineers  and  technical  men  who  do  not 
view  the  move  to  abolish  the  study  of  German  language 
in  the  schools  as  a  piece  of  downright  foolishness. 


June  11,  1918  POWER  845 

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Correspondence 


illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIHIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIinMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^  Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illllllllllllllllll 111,1 


Texas  Also  Needs  a  License  Law 

The  account  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  2,  pages  463-4,  of 
a  boiler  explosion  in  a  laundry  at  Providence,  R.  I., 
resulting  in  the  death  of  three  men,  and  the  editorial 
comment,  "Does  Rhode  Island  Need  a  License  Law?" 
lecall  an  incident  that  I  observed  a  few  years  ago  in 
this  state. 

I  stopped  overnight  in  a  small  town  in  central  Texas 
and  next  morning  before  train  time,  I  decided  to  walk 
around  and  see  some  of  the  plants.  The  first  one  I 
came  to  was  a  small  laundry.  The  boiler  room  opened 
on  the  sidewalk,  so  I  stepped  in  to  have  a  chat  with 
the  engineer,  but  there  was  no  one  in  sight.  The 
boiler  was  of  the  horizontal-tubular  type,  about  35  hp., 
and  judging  from  its  general  appearance,  it  was  of 
a  "very  indefinite  age."  The  steam  gage  registered 
85  lb.,  and  glancing  at  the  water  column,  I  saw  that 
there  was  no  water  in  the  glass.  I  had  a  feeling  that 
as  an  engineer  it  was  my  duty  to  "stick  around." 
While  I  was  looking  the  outfit  over  a  boy  came  into 
the  boiler  room  from  the  laundry,  and  I  asked  for  the 
engineer. 

He  said,  "Why,  the  boss  generally  looks  after  the 
engine,  but  he's  gone  up  town  and  told  me  to  'sorter' 
look  out  for  her  until  he  got  back."  "Well,"  I  said, 
"someone  had  better  be  'looking  out  for  her'  pretty 
soon,  as  your  boiler  don't  seem  to  have  any  too  much 
water  in  it."  He  blew  the  column  and  only  dry  steam 
came  out.  He  became  very  much  excited  and  asked 
what  I  thought  he  had  better  do.  I  looked  in  the  fur- 
nace and  saw  that  he  had  very  little  fire  (lignite  was 
being  used  as  fuel)  but  plenty  of  ashes.  So  I  told  him 
I  thought  the  best  thing  to  do  would  be  to  cover  his  fire 
with  a  few  shovels  of  wet  ashes,  let  the  steam  drop  back, 
shut  everything  down  and  wait  for  the  boss. 

I  left  him  shoveling  ashes  on  the  fire  and  have  often 
wondered  what  the  boss  had  to  say  when  he  finished 
his  "political  argument"  up  at  the  post  oflfice  and  re- 
turned to  "generally  look  after"  the  boiler.  This  is  only 
one  of  many  instances  where  the  boss  "generally  looks 
after  the  boiler"  in  small  isolated  plants,  and  it  shows 
that  Texas  as  well  as  Rhode  Island  needs  an  engineer's 
license  law.  S.  F.  Farley. 

Galveston,  Tex. 

Greater  Efficiency  in  Internal 
Combustion 

Your  editorial  in  the  issue  of  April  16  on  "Internal- 
Combustion  Economy"  is  timely  and  I  trust  will  bring 
out  some  comparative  efficiencies  between  engines  of 
this  type  working  under  the  average  and  best  condi- 
tions. While  a  hot  cylinder  wall  is  conducive  to  a  mini- 
mum jacket  loss,  the  greatest  field  for  improving  ther- 
mal efficiency  is  found  in  expanding  the  working  charge 
to  a  greater  degree. 


The  power  stroke  is  now  of  shorter  duration  than 
the  compression  stroke,  but  if  the  working  stroke  were 
prolonged  until  the  terminal  pressure  approached 
the  initial  pressure  of  compression,  a  larger  amount  of 
heat  would  be  converted  into  work  before  release.  The 
indicated  work  with  such  expansion  is  from  23  to  26 
per  cent,  greater  for  the  same  amount  of  fuel,  br.t  like 
a  single-cylinder  steam  engine,  there  is  a  limit  to  the 
terminal  pressure,  as  nothing  is  gained  by  expanding 
steam  lower  than  18  to  19  lb.  absolute  because  the  mean 
eflfective  pressure  of  further  expansion  is  less  than  that 
required  to  overcome  the  mechanical  friction  of  the 
moving  parts;  so  in  an  internal-combustion  engine, 
ordinarily  twice  as  heavy  per  unit  of  output,  it  has 
been  found  that  there  is  a  net  increase  in  fuel  consump- 
tion with  expansion  before  release  to  about  23  lb.  abso- 
lute. The  pressure  of  release  at  full  load  is  usually  25 
to  30  lb.  absolute,  or  above  the  pressure  of  initial  com- 
pression, and  the  temperature  is  about  1500  deg.  F., 
while  an  expansion  reducing  this  pressure  to  23  lb.  abso- 
lute will  reduce  the  temperature  of  release  about  1000 
deg.  and  will  increase  the  total  efficiency  12  to  16  per 
cent. 

Of  course,  an  engine  with  a  long  stroke  has  more  fric- 
tion than  one  with  less  piston  displacement,  but  a 
compound  noncondensing  steam  engine  has  in  many 
cases  double  the  friction  of  a  simple  engine  of  the 
same  output,  yet  the  saving  in  cylinder  condensation 
exceeds  the  frictional  losses,  and  noncondensing  com- 
pound steam  engines  are  commercially  successful. 

If  there  were  no  cylinder  condensation  of  the  working 
medium  in  a  steam  engine,  the  same  number  of  expan- 
sions in  a  single  cylinder  would  show  a  greater  efficiency 
than  when  carried  out  in  two  or  more  cylinders.  It  is 
the  writer's  opinion  that  in  its  ultimate  development 
the  internal-combustion  engine  will  have  a  working 
stroke  of  longer  duration  than  the  compression  or  in- 
duction stroke.  C.  E.  SARGr,NT. 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Excessive  Compression   Lifted  Valve 

We  had  a  distressing  experience  for  a  couple  of  days 
after  putting  a  new  piston  rod  in  a  20  by  32-in.  mill 
engine.  Whenever  the  throttle  was  closed,  there  would 
be  a  terrible  clattering  racket  set  up  in.'^ide  of  the  valve 
chest,  continuing  as  long  as  the  engine  was  in  motion. 
If,  however,  some  steam  was  f.llowed  to  enter  while  the 
engine  was  slowing  dowi\  th'j  noise  vas  not  nearly  so 
bad. 

Tho  cause  was  found  io  be  that  the  new  rod  wa3  slight- 
ly longer  than  the  old  one,  so  that  the  piston  traveled 
up  close  to  the  head  end,  causing  enough  compression  to 
lift  the  balanced  slide  valve  off  its  seat,  but  as  soon  as 
the  valve  lifted,  the  pressure  was  released  and  the 
springs  slammed  the  valve  back  against  the  seat. 

New  York  City.  J.  Lewis. 


846 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Automatic    Control    for    Belt-Driven 
Pump 

A  plant  of  which  I  once  had  charge  used  large 
(juantities  of  water  pumped  from  a  well  into  an  over- 
head tank  to  be  heated.  The  duplex  belt-driven  power 
pump  with  hand  control  proved  unsatisfactory  as  the 
tank  was  often  either  empty  or  overflowing  and  wasting 
hot  water,  and  to  overcome  this  difficulty  I  made  the 
control  automatic  by  the  following  means:  I  extended 
the  belt  shifter  along  the  wall  back  of  the  pump  with 
two  supports  for  it  to  slide  in.  The  pump  discharge 
line  had  a  balanced  valve,  operated  by  a  float  in  the 


;  Branch  of 
Pump  Discharge 


Removing  Piston-Rod  Packing 

I  have  a  way  of  my  own  of  removing  packing  from 
piston  rods  of  engines,  which  may  be  new  to  some 
engineers.  Place  the  engine  on  the  center  toward  the 
cylinder,  remove  the  nuts  which  hold  the  gland  in  the 
stuffing-box,  open  the  cylinder  cock  at  the  head  end  and 
close  the  one  at  the  crank  end,  then  give  the  engine 
a  quick  turn  of  about  half  a  revolution  and  the  air 
compressed  in  the  cylinder  will  blow  the  packing  out. 

This  of  course  applies  only  to  engines  that  are  smal' 
enough  to  be  turned  over  by  hand,  but  it  is  preferable 
to  blowing  the  packing  out  with  steam,  as  it  leaves 
the  cylinder  cool  to  repack  and  there  is  no  danger  of 
breaking  the  gland  as  when  using  steam.  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  not  to  let  the  engine  turn  a  complete 
revolution  or  the  gland  may  be  jammed  or  broken. 

Binghamton,  N.  Y.  Edward  J.  Dowd. 


Fireroom  Load  Telegraph 

It  is  convenient  for  the  firemen  to  know  what  load 
is  being  carried  in  the  engine  room,  but  sometimes 
rather  inconvenient  tc  keep  them  informed.  Various 
devices  are  employed  for  this  purpose.  The  one  shown 
was  used  in  a  power  plant  where  I  once  worked.  A 
box  with  numbers  from  1  to  3  and  1  to  9  painted  on  its 
glass  front,  with  a  small  lamp  back  of  each  number, 
was  placed  in  plain  view  of  the  firemen  in  the  boiler 
room,  and  a  bank  of  twelve  single-pole  switches,  each 
one  corresponding  to  a  number  on  the   board   in  the 


BELT    SHIFTED    BY    HYDRAULIC    PPESSURE 

tank,  so  that  when  the  tank  was  full  this  valve  closed 
and  of  course  the  pressure  would  build  up  in  the  pipe 
line.  I  connected  a  branch  to  this  line  and  led  it  back 
of  the  pump  to  where  the  shifter  was  and  connected 
to  it  a  cylinder  made  of  lA-in.  brass  pipe.  The  piston 
rod  was  made  of  J-in.  iron  rod  with  a  cup  leather 
washer  on  the  end  to  fit  into  the  cylinder;  the  other 
end  was  connected  to  the  belt  shifter,  which  was  counter- 
weighted,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

When  the  tank  filled  and  the  valve  closed,  the  extra 
pressure  would  force  the  piston  and  rod  outward  and 
shift  the  belt  to  the  loose  pulley,  stopping  the  pump. 
When  the  float  valve  opened  and  the  pressure  was 
released,  the  belt  was  thrown  on  the  tight  pulley  by 
the  counterweight.  This  arrangement  was  an  improve- 
ment over  hand  control,  but  it  was  too  sensitive,  for 
the  pump  would  start  too  often,  sometimes  making  less 
than  one  revolution  before  stopping  again.  To  over- 
come this,  I  arranged  a  jointed  brace,  as  shown,  so 
that  when  the  shifter  moved  to  the  off  position,  the 
jointed  part  would  drop  a  little  past  a  straight  line, 
"toggle  locking"  the  shipper  until  the  toggle  was 
tripped  again.  This  was  done  by  a  second  float  in 
the  tank,  connected  to  the  toggle  and  a  small  weight 
by  a  wire.  When  the  water  level  dropped  eight  or  ten 
inches  the  float  would  trip  the  toggle,  allowing  the  pump 
to  start  and  fill  the  tank,  after  which  it  would  .stop 
and  be  locked  in  the  off  position  again.  The  pump 
starts  and  stops  pretty  often,  but  it  receives  no  atten- 
tion for  months  at  a  time  beyond  an  occasional  oiling. 
New  Bedford,  Mass.  H.   K.  WILSON. 


ENGINE-ROOM    SWITCHES    AND    BOILER-ROOM    LIGHTS 

boiler  room,  was  placed  handy  to  the  engine-room  oper- 
ator, the  upper  row  to  show  the  load  in  thousands  and 
the  lower  row,  in  hundreds.  As  the  switches  were 
turned  on,  the  corresponding  lamps  lit  up,  informing  the 
firemen  of  the  load  carried. 

A  handy  bank  of  switches  may  be  made  out  of  an  old 
rheostat  with  a  lamp  connected  to  each  contact  button 
and  to  a  common  return  wire  at  the  lamp  bank.  There 
are  enough  contact  points  so  that  the  numbers  can  pro- 
gress all  the  way  by  hundreds.  D.  R.  HiBBS. 

New  York  City. 


JuiU'   11,   1!)1S 


r  0  W  K  R 


847 


Brick-Lined  Ash  Hopper 

In  some  automatic  stokers  the  ashes  from  the  fire 
tail  into  a  receiver  or  hopper  below.  These  ashes  may 
be  left  in  the  hopper  two  or  three  hours  before  being 
removed  and  carted  away.  The  hopper  is  made  of  cast- 
iron  plates  which,  if  not  insulated,  come  in  direct  con- 


BRICK-LINED  ASH  HOPPER 

tact  with  the  hot  ashes  and  become  warped  and  are 
soon  put  out  of  commission.  The  illustration  shows 
an  ash  hopper  fitted  with  a  firebrick  lining  built  ac- 
cording to  the  writer's  own  ideas  and  used  in  a  local 
plant.  M.  E.  Duggan. 

Kenosha,   Wis. 

Induced-Draft   Fan   Puzzle 

I  once  had  an  interesting  experience  in  connection 
with  an  induced-draft  fan  placed  on  the  roof  of  a  large 
hotel  and  used  in  connection  with  two  marine-type 
boilers.  The  construction  of  the  building  prevented 
placing  the  fan  near  the  base  of  the  stack,  and  the 
only  available  space  was  on  the  roof  within  20  ft.  of 
the  top  of  the  stack;  the  flue  had  a  great  many  crooks 
and  turns  and  was  divided  into  two  parts,  one  from 
the  boilers  and  the  other  evidently  a  ventilating  flue. 

When  tested,  it  was  found  that  there  was  no  apparent 
increase  in  draft  over  the  fires,  and  the  fan  was  taking 
considerably  more  power  than  was  originally  figured 
on.  The  temperature  readings  at  the  boilers  and  at 
the  fan  inlet  showed  a  large  drop,  which  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  fan  was  handling  a  lot  of  cold  air  from 
somewhere.  This  was  puzzling,  but  it  was  decided  that 
the  flue  had  a  great  many  small  leaks. 

In  order  to  determine  if  there  were  any  large  openings 
between  the  stack  and  ventilating  flue,  a  newspaper  was 
torn  into  small  pieces  and  thrown  into  the  ventilating 
flue  while  the  fan  was  running.  A  few  seconds  after 
they  went  in  they  came  flying  out  from  the  outlet  of 
the  fan,  proving  in  a  very  striking  manner  that  there 
was  a  hole  somewhere  in  the  stack  and  that  the  fan 
was  drawing  air  through  it  and  consequently  handling 
nearly  all  cold  air.  This,  of  course,  accounted  also  for 
the  wide   difference    in    temperature    and    for   the    fan 


taking  an  excessive  amount  of  power.  A  hole  12  in.  in 
diameter  was  found  about  one-third  the  way  up  the 
stack.  Before  its  discovery  the  owner  of  the  building 
was  positive  there  was  no  hole  in  the  stack,  so  to 
square  him.self  the  check  in  payment  for  the  installation 
was   sent  at  once.  Q.   C.   Derry. 

New  York  City. 

Engine-Oiling  System 

The  illustration  shows  the  general  plan  of  an  auto- 
niatic  engine-oiling  system  of  the  "home-grown  variety" 
somewhat  on  the  order  of  the  one  described  by  Mr. 
-Morrison  on  page  60  in  the  issue  of  Jan.  8,  1918.  Oil 
from  the  crank  case  was  originally  discharged  into  a  pail, 
but  by  the  new  arrangement  the  pipe  was  extended  to 
the  end  of  the  bedplate  supporting  the  outboard  pedestal 
bearing,  and  connected  to  a  home-made  pump,  from 
which  the  oil  is  discharged  to  a  reservoir  and  filter 
located  above  the  engine  and  drains  by  gravity  to  the 
regular  distributing  tank  on  the  engine.  All  of  which 
is  "according  to  Hoyle,"  but  the  construction  of  the 
pump  might  be  described  as  something  "fearful  and 
wonderful,  to  wit: 

The  pump  body  was  a  nondescript  piece  of  brass 
threaded  inside  at  one  end  for  a  stufiing-box  and  outside 
at  the  other  end  for  the  oil-pipe  connections.  A  1-in. 
drill  was  run  through  from  end  to  end,  forming  a  work- 
ing barrel.  The  piston,  piston  rod  and  pump  head  were 
originally  the  stem,  disk-holder  and  bonnet  of  a  bath 


A  -  C//  F//fer 

B  =  0/7  Dfsfn'buf/n^  Tank 

C  =  Oil  Pipe  Return  to  Filter 

D  =  Oil  Pipe  Intake 

E  =  Oil  Pump 


AUTOMATIC  OIL  FILTER  AND  RETURN  SYSTEM 

cock  fitted  to  the  size  and  thread  of  their  respective  new 
mates.  Motion  is  imparted  from  a  S-in.  capscrew  tapped 
into  the  shaft  center  with  a  steel  pin  located  il-in.  off 
center,  making  a  :i'-in.  stroke  crank.  The  pump  body  is 
attached  to  a  cast-iron  plate  with  U-bolts,  and  that  in 
turn  is  fastened  to  the  outboard  bearing  pedestal  with 
studs. 

The  description  may  read  like  that  of  the  remains  of 
a  steam  calliope,  but  the  pump  does  the  work  just  as 
well  as  one  bought  for  the  purpose  and  the  "automatic 
oiling  system"  saves  a  lot  of  time  and  attention. 

Kay  Brook,  N.  Y.  J.  J.  BREWER 


848 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Entering  Leather  Pump  Cups 

We  had  considerable  difficulty  replacing  the  plunger 
in  a  Davidson  pump,  with  a  set  of  new  leathers  on  it. 
Using  sheet  iron  proved  of  no  avail,  but  we  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  the  following  manner:  The  edges  of  the  cups 
were  very  tightly  wound  with  strong  thread  and 
smeared  with  grease.  The  plunger  then  entered  easily. 
Of  course  after  a  few  strokes  the  thread  was  worn  off, 
leaving  the  cup  "lips"  to  serve  their  proper  function. 


STRONG    THREAD    WRAPPED    ON    LIP    OF    LEATHER    CUP 

Another  good  stunt  pulled  off  lately  was  as  follows: 
We  have  only  one  brine  pump,  and  when  one  of  the 
round  notched  packing  gland  nuts  on  a  steam  piston 
rod  broke  one  day,  it  meant  shutting  down  the  entire 
refrigerating  system  unless  it  was  repaired  promptly. 
The  engineer  on  watch  found  that  a  2i  x  li-in.  reduc- 
ing sleeve  would  take  the  place  of  the  packing  nut,  so 
he  put  it  on  and  had  the  plant  running  again  in  an 
hour.  R-  J-  Dalton. 

Woodhaven,  L.  I. 


Water-Heating  System 

In  a  silk  mill  where  there  was  a  heavy  demand  for 
hot  water  for  boiling  the  silk,  they  used  to  draw  cold 
water  into  the  tubs  and  bring  it  to  a  boiling  tempera- 
ture with  live  steam  through  a  "full-open"  li-in.  pipe. 
To  boil  250  gal.  it  took  15  to  20  minutes.  With  ten 
tubs  in  operation  there  was  a  noticeable  extra  demand 
on  the  boilers  and  the  coal  pile.  After  considerable 
argument  I  was  allowed  to  put  in  the  following  equip- 
ment. 

The  boiler  room  had  a  monitor  extending  along  the 
middle  of  the  roof,  below  which  ran  the  exhaust  pipe 
of  the  main  engine.  In  this  I  built  a  1200-gal.  tank 
and  put  in  a  closed  feed-water  heater  with  6-in.  steam 
connections  and  connected  the  water  side  to  a  centrif- 
ugal pump  with  la-in.  connections  from  the  bottom  of 
the  tank  to  the  pump,  then  to  the  bottom  of  the  heater. 
From  the  top  of  the  heater  another  pipe  discharged 
into  the  tank  to  circulate  the  water  from  the  tank 
through  the  heater  and  back  to  the  tank.  With  the 
centrifugal  circulating  pump  in  operation  the  water 
was  soon  heated  and  kept  at  from  150  to  212  deg.  F. 

In  this  room  there  were  two  driers,  one  having  5600 
ft.  and  the  other  2800  ft.  of  II -in.  pipe  operating  under 
boiler  pressure  (70  lb.).  These  were  trapped  and 
the  discharge  led  into  the  hot-water  tank,  thus  saving 
both  heat  and  water.  Water  was  supplied  to  the  tank 
by  means  of  a  balanced  float  valve.     After  this  system 


was  placed  in  operation,  it  was  a  common  thing  to  see 
a  tub  of  water  boiled  in  two  minutes,  and  the  saving 
in  coal  amounted  to  about  a  ton  a  day,  which  is  pretty 
good  interest  on  a  $600  investment.  H.  K.  WILSON. 

New  Bedford,  Mass 

Screw-Type  Wire  Cutter 

A  handy  tool  for  cutting  heavy  copper  wire  up  to  0.5 
in.  diameter  is  shown  in  the  figure.  The  body  of  the  de- 
vice is  made  in  four  parts  and  assembled.  Two  pieces, 
one  right  and  the  other  left,  are  made  similar  to  that 
shown  at  A,  and  two  other  pieces  B  and  C.  The  parts 
are  assembled  and  riveted  together  as  indicated  at  D, 
after  which  a  A-in.  tap  hole  is  drilled  and  tapped  so 
that  it  will  pass  through  the  center  of  the  recess  E 


f-B^^^-- 


ll" ' IIIIIiIii....^m|_  6  JUl'lll « .3 


Machine  5teeJ-^ 
(TwOBfthese.oneryhtiyKleft-) 


PARTS    AND    ASSEMBLY    OP   CUTTING    TOOL 

in  part  B.  The  holes  should  e.xtend  well  down  through 
parts  A,  as  indicated  in  the  figure.  The  recess  E  in 
part  B  forms  a  pocket  for  the  cutter  F  when  the  tool 
is  assembled.  In  operation  the  screw  G  is  turned  back 
and  cutter  F  dropped  into  the  pocket,  thus  allowing  the 
wire  to  be  placed  in  the  tool,  as  shown  at  D.  The  screw 
is  now  turned  and  the  cutter  shears  the  wire  between 
the  cutting  sides  of  the  shoulders  A,  as  indicated  at  H. 
The  parts  are  made  of  tool  steel  and  hardened  on  the 
cutting  edges.  This  little  implement  can  easily  be  car- 
ried around  in  the  tool  kit.  M.  P.  Bertrande. 
Ozone  Park,  N.  Y. 


June  11,  1918  POWER  ^  849 

eiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii>imiiiiiiii II iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Hiiii III! I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiii mill niiiin niiin i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiui;^ 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest 

E 

lllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllll llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illllllllllllllllllllllllllll I I nil Illlllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII^ 


Relative  Loss  of  Draft  in  Square  and  in  Round  Flues — 

What  is  the  relative  loss  in  force  of  draft  in  square  and  in 
circular  smoke  flues?  S.  R. 

The  draft-retarding  effect  of  a  square  flue  is  about  12  per 
cent,  greater  than  of  a  circular  one  of  the  same  cross-sec- 
tional area. 

Charles'  Law  of  Gases — What  is  Charles'  law  of  the  ex- 
pansion of  gases?  C.  R.  D. 

The  law  of  Charles,  sometimes  attributed  to  Gay  Lussac, 
asserts  that  all  gases  have  the  same  coefficient  of  expansion, 
and  this  coefficient  is  the  same  whatever  the  pressure  sup- 
ported by  the  gas.  Hence,  for  each  degree  of  rise  or  fall 
of  temperature  at  constant  pressure,  its  volume  will  be  in- 
creased or  diminished  by  a  fixed  fraction  of  its  original 
volume.  This  fraction  has  been  computed  to  be  jjj  = 
0.0020284  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale,  the  temperature  of  the 
original  volume  being  that  of  melting  ice. 

Heat  Lost  in  Chimney  Gases — What  percentage  of  heat 
in  coal  is  lost  in  boiler  chimney  gases?  W.  N.  R. 

The  loss  depends  on  the  quality,  quantity  and  temperature 
of  the  gases.  In  ordinary  boiler  practice  with  natural  draft 
it  is  customary  to  supply  about  100  per  cent,  excess  of  air 
in  order  to  insure  complete  combustion.  With  complete 
combustion  of  coal  and  such  excess  of  air,  the  losses  with 
different  temperatures  of  chimney  gases  are  about  17.5  per 
cent,  for  400  deg.  F.;  21  per  cent,  for  500  deg.  F.;  25  per 
cent,  for  600  deg.  F.;  29  per  cent,  for  700  deg.  F.;  and  33 
per  cent,  for  800  deg.  F. 

Chattering  of  Pressure-Reducing  Valve — What  can  be  done 
to  stop  chattering  and  hammering  of  a  pressure  regulator 
used  on  the  steam  supply  to  a  steam  pump  near  the  steam 
chest?  F.  L. 

Locate  the  regulator  far  enough  from  the  pump  so  that 
the  volume  of  steam  contained  in  the  pipe  between  the 
regulator  and  the  steam  chest  provides  a  cushion  for  the 
action  of  the  valve  without  sudden  changes  of  the  discharge 
pressure.  This  usually  will  be  attained  by  placing  the 
valve  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  steam  pump  to  obtain 
a  volume  of  supply  pipe  equal  to  the  volume  of  the  steam 
cylinder  of  the  pump. 

Laying  Up  Heating  Boiler — Should  a  return-tubular  boiler 
that  is  used  for  heating  be  laid  up  filled  or  emptied  of 
water?  R.  L.  D. 

The  boiler  should  be  emptied  and  after  being  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  dried  should  be  closed  up  tight.  Leaving  a 
boiler  stand  entirely  filled  with  water  during  the  summer 
months  will  prevent  rapid  rusting  at  the  ordinary  water 
line,  but  will  cause  the  exterior  of  the  shell  and  the  in- 
terior of  the  fire  tubes  to  rust  more  rapidly  from  condensa- 
tion of  moisture  out  of  the  atmosphere.  Whether  the  boiler 
is  left  filled  or  dry,  the  smoke  uptake  should  be  disconnected 
and  sealed  and  furnace,  ashpit  and  all  cleaning  doors  closed 
tight,  to  prevent  external  rusting  from  circulation  of  air 
over  the  heating  surfaces. 

Clinker  Trouble — Our  present  coal  contains  considerable 
slack  and  clinkers  badly.  What  is  suggested  to  prevent  the 
trouble?  W.  B.  G. 

Keep  the  fuel  bed  only  about  5  in.  thick  and  fire  small 
charges  at  frequent  intervals.  Promptly  cover  the  brighest 
spots  with  fresh  fuel  to  prevent  holes  from  burning  out 
that  will  allow  coal  to  drop  through  to  the  ashpit.  Avoid 
excessive  stirring  of  the  fire.  Any  working  of  the  fire  bed 
that  may  be  necessary  should  be  done  from  the  bottom. 
Keep  the  bed  level  by  stoking.  Leveling  the  fuel  bed  with  a 
rake  or  other  firing  tool  is  likely  to  cause  clinker  by  lifting 
the  ash  to  the  fuel  bed.  Keep  ashpit  doors  open  and  regu- 
late the  draft  with  the  uptake  or  stack  damper.  Promptly 
quench  any  ashes  or  coal  falling  through  the  gri.tes.  If 
ashpit  is  water-tight,  keep  water  standing  in  it.     If  that 


is  impractical,  blow  steam  under  the  grate.  The  exhaust 
of  a  pump  or  any  other  supply  of  waste  steam  will  be  bene- 
ficial. 

Testing  Steam  Consumption  of  Engine — How  is  the  steam 
consumption  of  an  engine  determined?  W.  G.  R. 

The  steam  consumption  while  driving  a  stated  load  can 
be  determined  by  a  steam  meter  that  has  been  calibrated 
for  the  conditions,  but  more  generally  such  tests  are  made 
by  actually  weighing  the  feed  water  used  for  generating 
the  steam  supplied  or  by  condensing  the  exhaust  and  weigh- 
ing the  condensate.  For  condensing  the  exhaust,  an  ordi- 
nary surface  condenser  may  be  used,  or  a  series  of  closed 
feed-water  heaters  may  be  connected  together  for  obtain- 
ing suliicint  condensing  surface.  Measurement  of  the  con- 
densate is  usually  to  be  preferred  to  feed-water  measure- 
ment as  less  likely  to  introduce  eiTors  from  irregularity  of 
working  conditions,  leakage  or  use  of  steam  for  other  pur- 
poses than  for  supplying  the  engine  under  test.  For  estab- 
lishing uniformity  of  conditions  and  reducing  the  percentage 
of  en-ors,  a  feed-water  test  should  have  a  duration  of  at 
least  five  hours,  but  with  the  condenser  method  an  hour's 
test  is  sufficient  after  the  normal  working  conditions  have 
bee^  established. 

Quality  of  Steam  Shown  by  Calorimeter  Test — What  is  the 
quality  of  steam  determined  by  a  throttling  calorimeter  test 
from  the  following  data:  Pressure  of  steam  in  the  pipe 
from  which  the  sample  is  taken,  120  lb.  gage;  temperature 
in  calorimeter,  as  indicated  by  the  thermometer  in  the  well, 
241  deg.  F.;  pressure  in  calorimeter  as  indicated  by  the 
manometer,  3%  in.  of  mercury;  barometer  28  in.? 

R.  G.  C. 

With  a  barometer  reading  of  28  in.  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  was  28  X  0.491  =  13.75  lb.  per  sq.in.  and  the 
absolute  pressure  of  the  steam  was  120  -f-  13.75  =  133.75,  or 
about  134  lb.  per  sq.in.  absolute;  and  with  a  pressure  in  the 
calorimeter  of  31/2  in.  of  mercury,  or  3%  X  0.491  =  1.72 
lb.  per  sq.in.  above  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  the  ab- 
solute pressure  in  the  calorimeter  was  1.72  -f-  13.75  =  15.47, 
or  about  16  lb.  absolute.  The  heat  of  one  pound  of  steam 
in  the  pipe  would  be  equal  to  the  heat  of  1  lb.  of  the  steam 
in  the  calorimeter. 

In  one  pound  of  the  steam  in  the  pipe  at  the  pressure  of 
134  lb.  absolute,  if 

h  =z   The  heat  of  the  liquid, 

q  =   The  quality  or  fraction  of  dryness, 

L  =  The  latent  heat,  then  the  heat  of  1  lb.  of  the  original 
steam  would  be  h  -j-  qL,  and  if 

H  —   The  total  heat  in  1  lb.  of  saturated  steam  at  the 
pressure  which  existed  in  the  calorimeter, 

T  =   Temperature    of    the    superheated    steam     in    the 
calorimeter  as  indicated  by  the  thermometer. 

0.48    =    The   specific   heat  of   superheated    steam   at  the 
pressure  in  the  calorimeter, 

t  —  The  temperature  of  saturated  steam  at  the  pressure 
which  existed  in  the  calorimeter, 
then  the  heat  in  the  calorimeter  =  H  +  0.48   (T  —  t) ,  and 
h  +  qL  =  H  +  0.48  (T  —  t) ,  or 
H  +  0.48(r  -  t)  -  h 
1 1— 

From  observations  and  the  steam  table,  H  =  1152  B.t.u.; 
T  =  241  deg.  F.;  t  =  216.3  deg.  F.;  h  =  321.1  B.tu.;  and 
L  =  870.4  B.t.u.  and  by  substituting, 
1152  +  0.48(241  -  216.3)  -  321.1 


870.4 


0.968  =  96.8  per  cent. 


[Correspondents  sending  in  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  ad- 
dresses. This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of 
the  communications  and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  atten- 
tion.— Editor.] 


850 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Annual  Meeting  Boston  Section,  A.S.M.E. 


THE  importance  of  fuel  conservation  and  the  remarli- 
able  progress  in  the  production  of  ships  in  the  United 
States  were  featured  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
Boston  section  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  En- 
gineers, held  at  the  Engineers'  Club,  Boston,  Mass.,  on  the 
evening  of  May  29.  Chairman  Albert  C.  Ashton  presided, 
and  the  principal  speakers  were  Dr.  Ira  N.  Hollis,  past 
president,  and  President  Charles  T.  Main,  of  the  national 
society,  and  Dr.  Charles  A.  Eaton,  of  the  United  States 
Shipping  Board.  The  meeting  marked  the  climax  of  one 
of  the  best  engineering-society  seasons  ever  enjoyed  in  the 
New  England  metropolis.  The  sessions  of  the  Boston  sec- 
tion have  been  keyed  to  a  high  patriotic  note;  some  of  the 
most  distinguished  officers  in  the  field  service  of  our  Allies 
have  addressed  it,  and  the  attendance  and  discussions  have 
reflected  a  general  desire  among  the  members  to  be  of  the 
utmost  possible  service  to  the  country  in  this  critical  period. 

Doctor  Hollis'  Address 

Dr.  Hollis,  who  is  chairman  of  the  recently  appointed 
Fuel  Conservation  Committee  in  Massachusetts,  under  New 
England  Fuel  Administrator  James  J.  Storrow,  was  the 
first  speaker.  He  referred  briefly  to  the  vital  necessity  of 
backing  up  our  military  and  naval  efforts  by  campaigning 
at  home  against  every  form  of  waste.  America  has  wasted 
her  natural  resources  for  generations,  and  the  time  has 
come  to  call  a  halt.  "The  subject  of  conservation,"  he  said, 
"has  come  to  assume  a  certain  religious  aspect,  and  it  is 
our  sacred  duty  to  preserve  what  the  good  God  has  given 
us,  for  the  welfare  of  those  who  come  after  us  no  less  than 
for  present-day  needs.  It  is  the  desire  of  every  genera- 
tion to  lift  the  race  a  little  higher  than  it  found  it.  Democ- 
racy bids  fair  to  fade  away  if  we  continue  to  waste  our 
resources."  Dr.  Hollis  pointed  out  that  coal  saving,  im- 
portant as  it  is,  is  not  the  whole  end  and  aim  of  conserva- 
tion ;  the  soil,  the  forests  and  other  resources  must  be  main- 
tained for  the  general  welfare.  The  speaker  said  that  we 
must  all  learn  to  work  together  as  good  neighbors  and 
friends.  In  doling,  he  cited  an  example  of  teamplay  from 
the  battle  of  Santiago.  The  firemen  on  the  battleship 
"Oregon"  heard  little  and  saw  nothing  of  the  sea  fight,  and 
during  the  long  pursuit  of  the  Spanish  ships  gradually 
became  weary  of  their  arduous  tasks  at  the  furnaces.  See- 
ing this,  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  fireroom  sent  a  request 
up  the  speaking  tube  that  the  commander  of  the  vessel 
authorize  the  firing  of  a  13-in.  gun  to  hearten  the  force 
below  decks.  Captain  Clark  agreed,  and  presently  a  13-in. 
shell  went  sailing  through  the  air  toward  the  enemy.  In- 
stantly there  came  a  scraping  of  shovels  on  the  floor  and 
an  Irish  fireman  who  had  become  a  bit  weary  in  well  doing 
seized  a  big  shovelful  and  with  a  "Take  that,  you  dirty 
Dago!"  hurled  home  his  charge.  Such  was  the  effect  of  a 
cooperative  stimulus  upon  tired  muscles  and  minds  previ- 
ously out  of  touch  with  the  stirring  events  above  decks. 
Every  American  must  take  a  personal  interest  in  helping 
the  country  at  this  time,  the  speaker  declared,  as  he  took 
his  seat. 

President  Main  on  the  Fuel  Situation 

President  Main  briefly  outlined  the  serious  fuel  situation 
which  New  England  is  facing  with  respect  to  next  winter's 
supply.  The  New  England  Fuel  Administration  estimates  that 
33,400,000  tons  of  coal  will  be  needed  in  the  year;  the  Fed- 
eral Administration  at  Washington  has  reduced  this  estimate 
to  30,000,000  tons.  There  are  not  enough  vessels  available 
to  carry  the  water-borne  share  of  even  the  smaller  amount 
mentioned.  It  is  estimated  that  386,000  tons  of  shipping 
would  be  required  to  transport  the  water-borne  coal  to  New 
England,  on  the  basis  of  100  per  cent,  efficiency  in  trips 
and  cargo  loading  and  unloading.  On  Jan.  1,  1918,  there 
were  only  200,000  tons  available,  and  a  week  ago,  276,000 
tons.  It  is  anticipated  that  60,000  tons  more  of  shipping 
facilities  will  be  added  this  year,  so  that  the  total  estimated 
tonnage  available  will  be  336,000  tons.  The  necessity  for 
saving  fuel  in  New  England  is  therefore  extreme,  and  the 
problem  is,  How  is  the  manufacturing  to  be  done  with  the 


coal  which  the  plants  will  receive?  To  answer  this  ques- 
tion an  organized  attempt  is  being  made  to  bring  home  to 
the  mind  of  every  plant  owner  in  the  state  the  importance 
of  fuel  economy,  and  a  booklet  has  been  prepared  by  the 
New  England  Fuel  Administration  showing  how  this  has 
been  taken  up  by  four  representative  plants  through  the 
organization  of  shop  fuel  and  efficiency  committees,  with 
savings  effected  during  the  past  winter,  and  the  suggestion 
that  other  plants  follow  suit.  Members  of  the  Fuel  Ad- 
ministration and  engineers  in  private  practice  stand  ready 
to  assist  plant  owners  in  realizing  the  maximum  benefits 
from  their  fuel.  Extracts  from  the  reports  of  four  plants 
follow : 

Crompton  &  Knowles  Loom  Works,  Worcester,  Mass. 

As  a  result  of  various  steps  an  economy  of  not  less  than 
15  per  cent,  in  the  use  of  fuel  has  been  effected.  On  ac- 
count of  the  very  unusual  winter  conditions  it  is  impossible 
to  ascertain  the  exact  amount. 

On  taking  up  the  matter  at  the  beginning  of  the  winter 
we  appointed  from  our  foremen  and  executives  a  so-called 
Shop  Fuel  Commission.  A  little  later  we  appointed  a  Shop 
Fuel  Administrator,  whose  business  it  was  to  follow  up 
the  various  methods  inaugurated,  to  see  that  the  best  re- 
sults were  accomplished  therefrom,  and  also  to  see  that 
continued  interest  was  maintained. 

The  several  points  covered  may  be  listed  under  four 
headings:  Improvement  in  boiler-house  practice;  improve- 
ment in  use  of  power;  improvement  in  use  of  heat;  im- 
provement in  use  of  lights. 

Improveynent   in  Boiler-House  Practice 

1.  Raising  temperature  of  feed  water  by  return  of  con- 
densation. We  succeeded  in  raising  the  temperature  of 
feed  water  entering  the  boilers  from  180  deg.  F.  to  200 
deg.  F. 

2.  The  burning  of  all  wood  scrap  and  shavings  produced 
in  the  plant,  amounting  to  five  or  six  tons  a  day  of  this 
material. 

3.  The  establishment  of  better  boiler-room  practice  by 
putting  observers  in  the  boiler  rooms  day  and  night  for 
several  days  and  nights  to  determine  rate  and  efficiency 
of  firing.  The  usage  of  coal  by  half-hour  periods,  as  fired, 
was  recorded  for  many  days  and  plotted,  from  which  was 
evolved  a  better  practice  as  to  uniform  and  more  economical 
firing. 

4.  The  weighing  of  all  coal  supplied  to  the  boiler  i-oom 
and  only  allowing  a  certain  amount  to  be  used  in  definite 
periods.  The  remainder  of  the  coal  was  locked  up,  so  that 
the  fireman  had  to  be  economical  in  the  use  of  the  portion 
that  was  issued  to  him. 

5.  Installation  of  pinhole  grates  and  under-grate  blowers 
to  allow  use  of  screenings.  While  the  screenings  have  not 
been  very  high  grade,  we  have  been  able  to  conserve  appre- 
ciably our  soft-coal  supply.  We  are  analyzing  our  screen- 
ings and  discontinuing  the  use  of  all  that  show  an  unusual 
percentage  of  dirt  and  ash. 

Improvement  in  Use  of  Power 

1.  Under  the  direction  of  our  Shop  Fuel  Commission,  an 
inspector  observed  the  number  of  idle  machines  on  which 
belts  had  not  been  thrown  off.  Vigorous  action  resulted  in 
the  number  of  machines  running  idle  and  wasting  power 
being  reduced  to  an  absolute  minimum. 

2.  Where  the  load  was  not  sufficient  to  get  the  maximum 
effi.ciency  from  a  motor,  conditions  were  changed  to  make 
this  possible.  All  cases  of  motors  working  underloaded 
were  eliminated. 

3.  All  overtime  that  involved  the  inefficient  operation  of 
machinery  was  stopped. 

4.  The  use  of  large  elevators  was  restricted  to  actual 
needs. 

5.  Our  entire  requirements  of  power  had  been  purchased 
from  the  Worcester  Electric  Light  Co.  up  to  last  December, 
obliging  us  to  use  live  steam  for  heating.  Since  the  need 
of  fuel  conservation  became  critical  we  reduced  the  Wor- 
cester Electric  Light  Co.'s  load,  at  their  request,  40  per 
cent.,  by  operating  our  own  engines  and  using  only  exhaust 
steam  for  heating.  This  has  been  accomplished  with  prac- 
tically no  increase  in  the  use  of  fuel. 

Improvement  in  Use  of  Heat 

1.  Using  only  exhaust  steam. 

2.  Under  the  Shop  Fuel  Commission  a  thorough  inspec- 


June  11,  1918 


POWER 


851 


tion  was  made  of  all  doors,  windows,  transoms,  etc.,  through- 
out the  plant.  These  were  promptly  fixed  up,  and  every 
time  the  shop  shuts  down  a  de.sijjnated  committee  goes 
around  immediately  after  the  shutdown  and  sees  that  all 
places  are  closed.     This  has  saved  considerable  fuel. 

3.  On  all  doors  that  opened  to  the  outside,  automatic 
door  closers  were  installed. 

4.  By  the  appointment  of  a  special  inspector  we  have 
been  able  to  cut  off  every  day  from  20  to  50  per  cent,  of 
our  heating:  surface.  This  has  been  done  by  listing  the 
number  of  jfeet  of  heating  pipe  in  the  various  departments 
and  by  having  the  inspector  follow  the  sun,  so  to  speak, 
in  turning  off  the  steam  in  the  various  departments,  as 
the  temperature  rose  in  the  morning.  This  saving  has 
been  very  heavy,  as  it  meant  from  200,000  to  500,000  heat- 
ing foot  hours  per  day.  We  have  upwards  of  twenty  acres 
of  floor  space  and  about  twenty  miles  of  pipe  for  heating. 

6.  The  covering  of  all  exposed  steam  piping. 

improvement  in  the  Use  of  Lights 

The  saving  in  fuel  in  connection  with  the  use  of  lights 
was  large  and  accomplished  in  three  ways,  particularly: 

1.  The  development  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  fore- 
men in  connection  with  the  problem  and  actual  inspection 
at  various  times  of  the  day  of  lights  used,  which  resulted 
in  the  cutting  out  of  a  large  number  of  unnecessary  lamps. 

2.  Carbon  lamps  are  replaced  with  tungsten  lights. 

3.  Reducing  the  wattage  of  lamps  in  places  where  heavy 
illumination  seemed  unnecessary. 

Dennison  Manufacturing  Co.,  Framingham,  Mass. 

Study  was  made  in  the  power  house  to  increase  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  plant,  and  a  considerable  gain  was  made  in 
the  number  of  pounds  of  steam  evaporated  per  pound  of 
coal.  Study  of  the  power  and  lighting  load  was  made,  and 
a  considerable  improvement  in  conditions  was  brought  about 
by  the  following  changes  made  in  the  manufacturing  de- 
partments : 

Heating  of  the  factory  was  put  into  the  hands  of  men 
appointed  in  each  section,  who  carried  out  instructions 
which  were  given  by  the  Conservation  Committee.  A 
schedule  of  proper  temperatures  was  posted  in  each  room, 
and  the  results  of  their  work  was  checked  up  from  time  to 
time. 

Outside  of  working  hours  the  watchman  received  specific 
instructions  as  to  the  proper  temperature  to  be  maintained, 
and  steam  was  turned  on  in  the  various  departments  at 
specified  times  in  the  early  morning  hours. 

Thermometers  were  installed  all  through  the  working 
departments  for  the  purpose  of  observation,  -so  that  the 
heat  in  the  department  could  be  kept  at  the  proper  point 
without  opening  the  windows  or  using  more  steam  than  was 
necessary. 

Heating  coils  in  bridges  and  isolated  parts  of  the  plant 
which  were  not  sprinkled  were  discontinued,  and  the  valve 
wheels  removed  so  that  they  could  only  be  turned  on  by 
authorized  parties,  in  case  of  necessity.  This  applies  to 
the  garage  and  stable,  stair  tower,  toilets,  etc. 

Steam  was  shut  off  the  boarding  house  while  rooms  were 
vacant. 

Office  work  was  moved  in  some  cases  to  warmer  locations 
in  rooms  where  it  was  not  necessary  to  keep  the  high  tem- 
perature, and  protections  were  arranged  around  the  desks 
so  that  these  locations  could  be  heated  to  a  greater  extent 
than  the  remaining  parts  of  the  room. 

Any  orders  for  steam  in  unusual  places  or  outside  of 
working  hours  had  to  have  the  approval  of  the  man  at  the 
head  of  the  department. 

A  study  of  the  use  of  hot  water  was  made  in  all  depart- 
ments, and  where  it  was  only  used  for  convenience  it  was 
shut  off.  Self-closing  faucets  were  installed  in  some  cases 
and  the  number  of  outlets  decreased  was  over  30  per  cent. 
The  use  of  hot  water  was  discontinued  in  the  main  office 
as  well  as  in  the  manufacturing  departments. 

A  reduction  in  the  general  illumination  around  the  plant 
was  made;  the  amount  of  light  used  under  the  existing  con- 
ditions was  cut  down  to  the  minimum,  and  in  some  places 
discontinued.  Lamps  of  lower  candlepower  were  substi- 
tuted in  many  cases  for  a  larger  sized  lamp.  The  time 
when  lights  were  turned  on  was  curtailed.  The  sign  light- 
ing was  discontinued  and  the  street  lighting  and  factory- 
yard  lights  were  reduced  to  a  minimum  consistent  with 
the  safety  of  the  plant  and  the  prevention  of  accidents  to 
employees. 

The  watchmen  were  instructed  to  see  that  unnecessary 
lights  were  not  left  burning  where  night  work  was  going 
on  or  at  any  time  outside  of  working  hours.  All  electric 
and  gas-heating  applications  were  turned  off  from  10  to  15 
minutes  before  closing  time.     Lamps  of  less  candlepower 


were  used  for  all  indicating  lamps,  and  on  instruments  in 
the  power  house. 

In  order  that  the  peak  load,  due  to  lights,  should  be  elimi- 
nated, all  passenger  service  on  elevators  was  discontinued 
when  the  lighting  load  came  on,  and  certain  heavy  machines, 
such  as  the  coal  carrier  in  the  power  house,  paper  calenders, 
machinery  in  the  carpenter  shop,  and  certain  elevators, 
were  shut  down  at  4  o'clock  or  thereabouts,  and  in  this 
manner  the  peak  load  due  to  lighting  was  largely  eliminated. 

The  total  power  and  lighting  load  showed  practically  a 
Hat  curve  throughout  the  day. 

Many  receiving  doors  and  entrance  doors  were  protected 
by  storm  porches  and  by  weather-stripping  the  cracks 
around  the  doors  to  prevent  a  large  amount  of  cold  air 
from  coming  into  the  building.  The  space  between  the 
box  frames  and  the  brickwork  in  all  the  buildings  was 
closed  up  to  prevent  too  much  air  entering  in  this  manner, 
and  weather  strips  were  put  on  the  window  sash  in  many 
cases  where  there  was  bad  exposure.  In  all  departments 
after  the  lights  were  turned  on  the  window  shades  were 
pulled  down  to  minimize  transference  of  heat  through  the 
glass. 

A  study  was  made  of  the  use  of  steam  for  process  work, 
and  exhaust  steam  was  substituted  for  live  steam  wher- 
ever possible.  Instructions  were  given  operators  to  keep 
vent  pipes  closed.  More  careful  inspection  was  made  of 
all  traps,  and  in  many  cases  automatic  return  valves  were 
installed  to  do  away  with  hand  control  in  such  cases.  The 
steam  was  shut  off  machines  some  time  before  closing  in- 
stead of  waiting  for  the  closing  gong.  In  many  of  the 
departments  the  work  was  laid  out  so  that  for  certain  pe- 
riods of  the  day  machine  work  could  be  done,  and  at  other 
times  the  power  was  shut  down. 

The  use  of  compressed  air  was  studied,  especially  with 
a  view  to  discontinuing  its  use  wherever  possible,  and  the 
use  of  the  compressed   air  for  cleaning  was  discontinued. 

In  obtaining  these  results  it  was  necessary  to  interest 
everyone  in  the  proposition,  and  means  were  taken  to  keep 
the  different  groups  of  employees  informed  of  the  savings 
which  had  resulted  from  the  changes  in  operation. 

According  to  the  best  estimate  we  could  make,  taking  into 
consideration  our  production  figures,  outside  temperatures 
and  quality  of  coal,  we  made  a  comparative  saving  of  15 
per  cent,  during  the  year.  At  our  1916  rate  of  consumption 
this  would  amount  to  approximately  1350  tons.  During  the 
winter  months,  when  we  have  our  greatest  coal  consump- 
tion, we  attained  by  various  economies  or  greatest  savings, 
in  some  weeks  there  being  as  high  a  reduction  as  32  per 
cent,  in  our  use  of  fuel. 

In  reaching  these  results  we  reduced  the  power  demand 
by  about  16  per  cent,  largely  through  reduction  in  the  light- 
ing load.  The  reduction  in  the  power  load  was  largely  ac- 
complished by  rearrangement  of  working  schedules. 

Atlas  Tack  Co.,  Fairhaven,  Mass. 

Our  first  step  was  to  make  all  windows  and  doors  as 
nearly  airproof  as  possible  and  to  instruct  our  watchmen, 
especially  the  man  who  attends  to  the  heating,  to  look  for 
all  steam  and  air  leaks  and  to  report  at  once  in  case  any 
of  these  should  exist,  that  they  might  receive  immediate 
attention.  The  factory's  temperature  was  usually  from  55 
to  67  deg.,  according  to  the  character  of  the  work  done  in 
each  department.  We  installed  in  our  heating  steam  pipe 
a  steam-recording  gage  and  allowed  only  a  certain  pres- 
sure, according  to  weather  conditions.  In  this  way  the 
man  attending  to  the  heating  shifted  the  heat  from  one 
room  to  another  in  order  to  keep  the  factory  comfortable 
to  work  in. 

We  repaired  all  steam  traps  thoroughly,  so  that  all  con- 
densation was  returned  to  our  boilers,  and  we  also  covered 
all  exposed  steam  pipes  with  80  per  cent,  magnesia. 

In  our  pickling  and  scaling  department  we  installed  a 
steam-reducing  valve  lowering  the  steam  pressure  from 
150  to  60  lb.,  and  also  placed  in  the  pickling  tubs  automatic 
temperature-control  valves,  making  hand  regulation  un- 
necessary. 

In  the  eyelet  department  automatic  control  valves  and 
thermostats  were  applied  to  all  japanning  ovens  to  admit 
only  sufficient  steam  to  keep  the  necessary  oven  tempera- 
ture, all  condensation  being  returned  to  the  boilers  by 
gravity,  and  eliminating  all  pumping  that  would  otherwise 
call  for  considerable  power.  We  covered  the  tops  of  br>il- 
ers  with  asbestos  cement  2V2  in.  thick,  lowering  the  outside 
temperature  10  deg.  We  have  installed  on  all  boilers  water 
columns,  high-  and  low-water  alarm,  preventing  wide  fluctu- 
ation of  water  level  and  assuring  much  better  economy. 
We  have  also  on  each  of  our  boilers  a  boiler-efficiency  meter. 
This  shows  the  firemen  at  all  times  the  condition  of  their 
fires,  and  has  proved  a  useful  and  economical   instrument 


852 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


We  installed  a  V-notch  recording  and  indicating  water 
meter  to  measure  accurately  the  water  pumped  to  our  boil- 
ers and  show  to  the  boiler-room  force  the  amount  of  water 
evaporated   per   pound  of  coal. 

On  account  of  the  limited  tube  area  in  our  former  feed- 
water  heater,  we  were  unable  to  get  the  best  results  from 
our  exhaust  steam.  These  tubes  have  been  replaced  by  a 
more  efficient  set,  resulting  in  20  deg.  increased  tempera- 
ture. At  present  our  feed-water  temperature  leaving  the 
heater  is  130  deg.  and  leaving  our  economizer  to  boilers, 
230  deg.  Our  boiler  feed  pumps  were  repaired  and  put 
in  first-class  condition. 

In  the  engine  room  all  valves  are  set  for  the  highest 
economy,  and  we  have  installed  three  switchboard  record- 
ing watt-hour  meters.  We  are  about  to  install  a  5-hp. 
motor  to  take  the  place  of  our  steam  engines  to  run  the 
economizer  scrapers. 

We  are  installing  hand  stoker  grate  bars,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  builders'  rating,  will  give  us  about  50  per  cent, 
more  boiler  rating  and  about  25  per  cent,   saving  in  coal. 

We  have  abandoned  our  old  cooling  tower  and  are  install- 
ing a  spray-pond  condensing  equipment  with  motor-driven 
<;cntrifugal  circulating  pumps. 

All  boiler  settings  and  brickwork  are  examined  for 
necessary  repairs   and  tubes  in  boilers   scraped. 

I  believe  that  in  1918  our  increased  efficiency  will  net  us 
a  saving  of  at  least  20  per  cent,  in  fuel. 

The  George  E.  Keith  Co.,  Brockton,  Mass. 

V/e  have  a  peculiar  plant,  in  that  the  buildings  are 
widely  separated  and  there  is  a  great  deal  of  heating  radi- 
ation in  all  the  buildings.  The  buildings  are  of  wood  frame 
construction  and  not  as  tight  as  they  might  be.  We  ap- 
pointed one  man  to  patrol  these  buildings  three  times  a  day 
and  to  record  the  temperature  in  each  room.  This  man 
was  made  responsible  for  turning  on  and  shutting  off  the 
steam  in  each  department,  and  in  this  way  we  kept  the 
temperatures  down  to  a  minimum,  so  that  there  was  no 
extra  radiation  loss. 

We  have  covered  every  pipe  in  the  entire  plant  that  was 
carrying  high-  or  low-pressure  steam.  We  have  even  made 
it  a  practice  to  cover  the  return  pipes.  We  have  experi- 
mented to  some  extent  with  asbestos  covering  on  the  brick- 
work of  the  boiler  settings.  We  have  covered  one  boiler 
to  see  how  the  proposition  worked  out,  and  undoubtedly  will 
apply  this  covering  to  the  other  boilers.  This  covering  not 
only  cuts  down  the  loss  due  to  heat  radiation,  but  also  stops 
any  air  leakage,  which  in  the  opinion  of  the  combustion 
engineer  is  the  most  serious  loss  in  the  entire  plant.  Air 
leakage  causes  a  dilution  of  gases,  and  we  do  not  get  the 
percentage  of  CO2  which  gives  us  maximum  efficiency. 
Consequently,  anything  which  will  cut  down  air  leakage 
around  the  settings  will  save  coal  more  than  any  other 
method  of  boiler  efficiency. 

We  were  driven  to  the  burning  of  screenings  because  we 
"culd  not  obtain  soft  coal.  In  fact,  we  have  been  burning 
screenings  in  some  of  our  boilers  for  two  or  three  years 
with  good  results.  We  had  to  install  small  forced-draft 
blowers  to  get  results,  but  have  succeeded  in  burning  as 
high  as  70  per  cent,  maximum  of  screenings  and  soft  coal. 

We  have  placed  traps  on  every  drip  or  outlet  in  the  entire 
plant  and  on  the  ends  of  all  heating  coils.  We  have  ar- 
ranged our  return  system  of  piping  so  that  there  is  no  loss 
from  any  of  the  piping.  All  the  returns  come  back  to  our 
boiler  room  and  are  used  for  boiler  feed.  This  eliminates 
the  expense  of  makeup  water  and  of  course  gives  us  a 
boiler  feed  temperatuj'e  of  about  206  degrees. 

We  have  installed  a  thermometer  system  whereby  the 
firemen  can  tell  what  the  temperature  is  in  any  building 
merely  by  pressing  a  button.  This  thermometer  is  an  elec- 
tric apparatus  operated  by  means  of  an  electrical  contact 
placed  in  each  building. 

We  have  made  it  a  practice  to  burn  all  the  scraps  and 
waste  from  the  factories. 

We  have  sevei'al  items  for  future  development,  in  that 
plans  are  being  started  for  a  new  central  heating  plant. 
We  now  have  three  isolated  heating  plants  which  cause 
more  or  less  inefficiency,  in  that  the  boilers  are  old  and 
coal  cannot  be  burned  to  good  advantage.  We  intend  to 
install  automatic  stokers,  weighing  devices  for  recording 
the  amount  of  coal  used,  and  coal  and  ash  handling  appara- 
tus. We  intend  to  lay  out  our  steam  mains  and  steam 
piping  so  that  all  losses  will  be  cut  to  a  minimum. 

We  have  outlined  a  system  of  work  through  our  entire 
plant;  are  casing  up  all  the  windows,  making  all  of  the  doors 
tight,  and  arranging  doors  so  that  they  will  close  auto- 
matically, thus  doing  away  with  any  loss  from  leaving 
them  open.  We  have  placed  vestibules  inside  the  factories 
where  we  have  any  shipping  doors. 


Skilled  Enlisted  Men  To  Be  Returned  to 
;;  Necessary  Industries 

In  response  to  appeals  from  all  over  the  country,  the 
War  Department  has  decided  upon  a  policy  that  will  per- 
mit th?  return  to  necessary  industries  of  highly  skilled 
men  taken  from  such  industries,  under  a  system  of  fur- 
lough which  will  be  automatic  and  which  will  not  in  the 
future  as  in  the  past  leave  to  the  discretion  of  company 
and  other  subordinate  commanders  the  question  of  whether 
such  furloughs  shall  be  granted.  Thousands  of  applica- 
tions for  such  furloughs  are  now  being  sent  out  of  Wash- 
ington by  various  branches  of  the  War  Department,  in 
response  to  the  appeals  of  manufacturers  and  other  pro- 
ducers of  war  material  whose  draftsmen,  mechanics  and 
other  employees,  engaged  in  the  past  and  now  upon  Gov- 
ernment orders  for  war  work,  have  been  taken  from  them 
by  operation  of  the  draft. 

The  application  blank  is  as  follows: 

.\PPLIC.\T*[(  i.X    Ff>R    RETUR.V   OF   E.VLISTED    MAX 

IN  HIGHLY   .SKILLED   CLASS   OP  LABOR  TO 

NECESSARY    INDUSTRY' 

Dated    at 191 

Application  is  hereby  made  for  the  return  ot  roliowing  enli.fted 
man  : 

Name Residence 

Exact    description    of    trade 

Registered  local  board Order  No Serial  No 

Last    reported    to    camp Unit 

Taken    into   Army 191,    because 


We  ask  that  he  be  directed  to  report  to. 


We  have  the  following  direct  Government  contracts; 

Date       Gov.   Order  No.  Quantity  Description        Dept.   of  Gov. 


We  are  under  contract  with  the  following,   who  have  direct  Gov- 
ernment  contracts   from Dept 


We    have    established    our    status    as    "necessary"    industry    with 
District  Board  No of  State located  at 


By (Title) 

Sworn    to    before    me    at 

this day    of 191 


Title  ot  official  administering  oath. 
I  have  checked  the  foregoing  statements  and  have  found  them  to 
be  correct. 


Local     representative     of Dei>t. 

The  adoption  of  the  new  policy  means  that  enlisted  men 
are  to  be  returned  to  industry  only  in  cases  where  the 
drafted  man's  employer  is  willing  to  swear  that  the  man 
is  badly  needed  and  that  no  one  can  take  his  place.  The 
Government  department  for  which  the  manufacturer  or 
other  employer  is  working  will,  upon  application,  send  one 
of  the  blank  forms  to  the  employer,  which  he  must  fill  out, 
swear  to  before  a  notary,  and  have  a  Government  inspector 
who  is  conversant  with  the  facts  also  sign.  The  signed 
application  then  goes  to  the  Adjutant  General's  office,  with 
request  from  the  interested  Government  department  that 
the  man  wanted  be  granted  an  indefinite  furlough,  without 
pay,  with  the  promise  that  after  the  need  for  the  man's 
service  has  passed  he  will  be  returned  to  the  Army. 

While  such  men  are  on  furlough  they  are  not  to  be  al- 
lowed to  wear  the  uniform.  The  company  employing  them 
must  furnish  the  Government  each  month  a  report  that 
they  are  still  in  employment  and  the  class  of  work  engaged 
in.  In  case  such  men  leave  their  employment,  the  employers 
must  immediately  notify  the  Government. 

Thousands  of  applications  for  furloughs  for  enlisted  men 
in  necessary  industries  have  recently  reached  Washington, 
and  Washington  has  been  unable  to  grant  permission  for 
the  necessary  furloughs  because  company  commanders  and 
other  subordinate  officers  could  not  be  convinced  that 
certain  of  their  men  might  be  more  necessary  in  civil  life 
than  in  the  ranks.  The  Adjutant  General's  office  has  sent 
a  circular  to  heads  of  War  Department  divisions  permitting 
the  new  system.  The  Government  is  protected,  from  the 
army-in-the-ranks  point  of  view,  by  the  fact  that  wherever 
a  fraud  is  perpetrated  or  attempted  a  sufficient  number  of 
persons  will  be  familiar  with  the  circumstances  to  result  in 
the  War  Department  being  notified. 


June  11,  1918 


POWER 


853 


Skagit  Ri\cr  Development 

The  Seattle  City  Council  has  definitely  decided  to  pro- 
ceed with  the  development  of  the  Skagit  River  power  site, 
which  has  been  offered  to  the  city  free  of  cost,  and  all  bids 
for  the  sale  of  other  sites  and  the  construction  of  plants 
for  the  city  have  been  rejected.  As  soon  as  the  necessary 
plans  can  be  completed,  bids  for  the  work  will  be  called 
for  by  the  Board  of  Public  Works,  C.  B.  Bapfley,  secretary. 

Covering  in  every  detail  the  construction  of  the  proposed 
hydro-electric  power  project  on  Skagit  River,  Superintendent 
of  Lighting  J.  D.  Ross  has  submitted  to  the  Board  of  Pub- 
lic Works  a  report  which  shows  the  initial  cost  of  the  first 
development  to  be  $4,712,080.  These  figures  include  the 
103-niile  transmission  line  necessary,  with  an  estimated 
cost  of  $1,214,000.    The  summary  of  the  report  follows: 

The  total  available  power  on  this  river,  without  storage 
at  the  lower  or  Gorge  Creek  plant,  is  900  cu.sec.ft.,  capable 
of  developing  25,000  hp.  continuous  350-ft.  head.  The 
total  available  on  the  stream  for  three  plants  without 
stsrage  is  900  cu.sec.ft.,  capable  of  developing  65,000  hp. 
continuously. 

After  impounding  the  water  by  Ruby  dam,  the  equalized 
flow  of  the  river  is  estimated  to  be  4000  cu.sec.ft.,  capable 
of  developing  289,000  hp.  About  350  square  miles  out  of 
the  drainage  area  of  1100  or  1250  square  miles  is  on  the 
Canadian  side. 

As  far  as  known  none  of  this  can  be  economically  diverted, 
but  no  data  have  as  yet  been  obtained  on  the  Canadian 
side.  For  this  reason  and  to  be  sure  of  possible  low-water 
years  we  base  our  estimates  on  200,000  continuous  horse- 
power instead  of  289,000.  The  drainage  area  is  the  largest 
of  any  Washington  power  site,  being  estimated  at  the 
lowest  to  be  1090  square  miles  and  the  highest  estimate  gives 
1250  square  miles. 

The  total  available  fall  of  the  river  is  950  ft.  and  the 
site  lends  itself  admirably  to  a  successive  development  in 
three  steps. 

The  transmission  line  is  103  miles  to  the  north  city 
limits.  The  voltage  would  be  110,000,  and  the  loss  in 
transmission  with  both  lines  operating  will  be  5  per  cent, 
at  full  load  of  50,000  hp.  Our  estimate  includes  two  lines 
on  steel  towers  the  entire  distance.  The  entire  works  of 
the  three  plants,  including  foundations,  tunnels,  the  three 
concrete  dams  and  all  reservoir  capacity,  is  set  in  rock. 
The  tunnels  are  flow-line  tunnels  only,  being  under  less 
than  100  per  cent,  pressure  at  any  place. 

The  lowest  tentative  bid  received  on  this  project  is 
$2,381,000  for  50,000  hp.  installed,  being  a  price  of  $47.62 
per  horsepower.  The  Cedar  original  plant,  one  of  the  most 
economical  in  America,  cost  $57.74  per  horsepower.  Esti- 
mating $1,240,000  for  two  transmission  lines  on  steel  towers 
and  $275,000  for  substations,  the  cost  per  horsepower  on 
this  bid  would  be  $81.52  per  horsepower  in  Seattle.  The 
Cedar  River  plant,  including  substation,  cost  $95.55  per 
horsepower. 

This  estimate  includes  a  diverting  dam  25  ft.  high  and 
a  flume  and  tunnel  12,000  ft.  long. 

The  dam  can  be  raised  to  elevation  850  ft.,  making  it 
about  100  feet  high.  The  rock  is  exposed  on  both  sides  at 
the  best  location.  The  plant  then  becomes  entirely  per- 
manent. This  permanent  plant  will  cost  about  $3,499,000 
for  50,000  hp.  This  is  $69.98  a  hp.,  installed.  With  trans- 
mission lines  and  substation  all  permanent  steel  and  con- 
crete construction,  the  cost  will  be  $4,998,080,  or  $105.01 
per  horsepower  ready  for  distribution  at  Seattle. 

The  report  of  City  Engineer  A.  H.  Dimock  on  the  same 
project  states: 

The  average  cost  a  delivered  horsepower  of  the  various 
projects  considered  by  the  city,  as  follows:  Stillaguamish 
River,  $124;  Wallace  "River,  $132;  Packard  Lake,  $224,  and 
Skagit  River,  $105. 

Considering  the  merits  of  the  Skagit  River  power  propo- 
sition, however,  due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  value 
of  the  undeveloped  power.  On  the  most  conservative  basis 
there  is  available  in  this  river  a  total  of  289,000  hp.,  or  230,- 
000  hp.,  in  addition  to  the  50,000  hp.  to  be  considered  in 
this  statement.  It  is  entirely  probable  that  further  study 
of  the  capacities  of  this  river  may  show  a  still  larger 
amount. 

The  above  is  based  en  the  lowest  flow  record  obtainable. 
The  value  of  a  horsepower  installed  of  undeveloped  power 
is,  of  course,  difficult  to  determine.  In  a  discussion  on  the 
development  and  operation  of  hydroelectric  plants  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers for  the  year  1909,  it  is  stated  that  the  value  of  land 
and    water    rights    would    average    about    10    per    cent,    of 


the  cost  of  a  horsepower  installed,  or  in  this  case  $10  per 
horsepower.  If  this  assumption  be  correct,  the  value  to 
the  City  of  Seattle  of  the  power  possibilities  on  the  Skagit 
River,  which  may  be  obtained  without  any  cost  whatever, 
will  be  nearly  $3,000,000. 

All  the  items  entering  into  these  plants  will  be  of  the 
most  permanent  and  durable  character.  The  dams  would 
be  of  concrete  on  rock  foundations  and  with  rock  sidewalls. 
The  water  would  be  conveyed  from  reservoirs  to  power 
house  by  tunnels  through  the  mountains,  also  constructed 
in  solid  rock.  The  power  houses  and  equipment  would  be 
of  the  safest  possible  construction. 

It  has  been  shown  by  the  foregoing  figures  that  the 
present  cost  of  the  development  of  the  Skagit  River  is  lower 
than  that  of  any  other,  and  that  it  has  possibilities  for 
future  development  and  for  supplying  the  power  needs  of 
the  city  for  many  years  to  come. 

The  acquisition  of  this  project  and  its  development  as 
needed  will  enable  the  City  of  Seattle  to  supply  power  to 
its  customers  at  the  lowest  possible  rates.  There  can  be 
no  question  that  the  Skagit  River  affords  the  finest  oppor- 
tunity to  the  City  of  Seattle,  both  for  present  and  future 
needs. 

N.E.L.A.  Convention  at  Atlantic  City 

The  National  Electric  Light  Association,  as  announced  in 
a  previous  issue,  will  hold  its  annual  convention  at  Atlantic 
City,  June  13  and  14,  the  tentative  program  of  which  is  as 
follows: 

Thursday  Morning,  June  13 — Presidential  address;  re- 
ports of  secretary,  treasurer,  membership  committee;  re- 
ports Commercial,  Technical,  Accounting  and  Electric  Ve- 
hicle Sections;  new  business.  Thursday  afternoon — Report 
of  National  Commitee  on  Gas  and  Electric  Service;  report 
of  committee  on  public  utility  conditions — war  financing  of 
utilities,  rate  increase  activities,  etc.;  report  of  puDlic 
policy  committee;  discussion  of  central-station  aspects  of 
the  labor  problem;  female  employment;  meter  reading  and 
testing;  economized  accounting.  Thursday  evening — Patri- 
otic addresses  on  the  broader  national  topics  of  imme- 
diate importance  to  ths  industry,  by  distinguished  speakers 
(details  in  the  hands  of  the  president).  Friday  morning, 
June  14 — Address  and  general  discussion  on  the  coal  situa- 
tion ;  important  war-time  topics  introduced  by  the  Techni- 
cal and  Hydroelectric  Section.  Friday  afternoon — Im- 
portant war-time  topics  introduced  by  the  Commercial, 
Accounting  and  Electric  Vehicle  Sections.  Friday  evening — 
Round-table  discussions  and  films  of  war  activities  of  spe- 
cial interest  .to  member  companies,  with  other  appropriate 
features. 

Convention  headquarters  will  be  at  the  Hotel  Traymore. 
Hotel  reservations  are  in  the  hands  of  Frank  W.  Smith 
of  the  convention  committee,  130  E.  15th  St.,  New  York. 

Pleasure  Yachts  May  Be  Deprived 
of  Fuel 

It  is  probable  that  the  United  States  Fu?l  Administration 
will  issue  soon  an  order  prohibiting  the  use  of  coal  and  fuel 
oil  by  private  yachts — meaning  any  vessel  operated  not  for 
profit. 

Incomplete  figures  now  in  hand  show  an  average  in  com- 
mission for  the  last  thi-ee  years  of  282  private  yachts  driven 
by  steam  and  more  than  1000  driven  by  gasoline.  The 
total  fuel  used  in  these  vessels  has  been  deemed  worthy  of 
consideration  at  a  time  when  a  shortage  of  fuel  is  inevit- 
able. The  elimination  of  these  craft  would  also  release  a 
considerable  number  of  men  for  work  in  the  war  industries. 

It  has  been  shown  that  hundreds  of  vessels  formerly  oper- 
ated as  private  yachts  have  been  turned  over  to  the  Gov- 
ernment for  use  in  the  war. 

Navy  Needs  at  Once  One  Thousand 
Gas-Kngine  Men 

The  Naval  Reserve  Force  must  enroll  at  once  1000  men 
experienced  in  the  operation  and  maintenance  of  gasoline 
engines.  This  is  an  urgent  call.  The  men  are  required 
for  immediate  duty.  They  will  be  rated  as  machinist's  mates. 

Age  limits  are  18  to  35  inclusive.  Applicants  must  be 
American  citizens.  Draft  ni^strants  with  letters  from 
their  local  boards  will  be  accepted. 

Apply  at  Naval  Reserve  Enrolling  Office,  51  Chambers 
St.,  New  York  City,  or  any  navy  recruiting  station. 


S54 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Cent-a-Gallon  Gasoline   Dream   Ended 

Robert  H.  Rohde,  in  the  New  York  Tribune,  May  5,  1918, 
gives  a  very  illuminating  and  lengthy  history  of  Louis  En- 
richt,  of  Farmingdale,  L.  I.,  and  his  "One  Cent-a-Gallon 
Gasoline,"  under  the  title,  "The  Amazing  Tale  of  a  Cent- 
a-Gallon  Sorcerer.'  No  doubt  many  of  the  readers  of 
Power  will  remember  how  this  Louis  Enricht  sprung  into 
public  attention  overnight,  back  in  1916,  when  he  announced 
to  the  world  that  he  had  discovered  how,  by  mixing  a  small 
amount  of  a  green  liquid,  compounded  by  himself,  into  a 
quantity  of  water,  the  latter  was  immediately  converted  in- 
to a  motor  fuel  equal  to  gasoline.  According  to  Mr.  Rohde's 
narrative,  the  early  demonstrations  of  Mr.  Enricht's  inven- 
tion were  made  on  a  so-called  cycle  car,  and  were  of  a 
nature  as  follows: 

A  bucket  of  water  would  be  supplied  from  an  old  pump, 
then  the  witness  would  be  invited  to  drink  of  the  contents 
of  the  bucket,  which  invariably  proved  to  be  plain  water. 
This  same  water  was  used  to  fill  the  tank  of  the  cycle  car. 
A  small  bottle  containing  a  green  fluid  would  be  shaken 
over  the  mouth  of  the  tank.  The  mixture  in  the  tank  would 
be  stirred  and  the  cap  affixed.  A  twist  of  the  crank  would 
start  the  engine  with  a  curl  of  vapor  that  smelt  vaguely 
sweet  shooting  from  the  exhaust.  Your  attention  wa-s  in- 
vited to  the  odor  of  the  vapor.  Then  off  you  went  to  ex- 
perience just  the  same  sort  of  ride  you  would  have  had  if 
you  had  been  covering  the  same  road  in  a  cycle  car  by 
gasoline. 

Perhaps  there  would  be  a  little  of  the  fuel  left  in  the 
tank  when  you  returned.  Enricht  would  drain  it  at  once 
through  a  pet  cock  and  watch  it  disappear  into  the  earth. 
"I  must  be  careful,"  he  would  say,  "if  a  few  drops  of  the 
fluid  gets  into  other  hands,  my  secret  is  gone.  It  is  easy 
to  analyze,  and  I  do  not  know  how  I  shall  protect  it."  When 
you  talked  it  out  writh  him  and  considered  the  problem  from 
the  inventor's  view,  this  was  one  of  the  great  arguments 
for  secrecy,  a  valid  reason  why  there  might  be  delay  to 
giving  the  boon  of  "Cent-a-Gallon  Gasoline"  to  the  public. 
How  could  the  secret  be  protected?  That  was  the  ques- 
tion. The  ingredients,  Enricht  explained,  were  simple. 
They  could  be  bought  at  any  drugstore.  A  child  could  mix 
them  in  the  proper  proportions.  There  was  nothing  to  pre- 
vent automobile  owners  from  doing  that  very  thing. 

Then  along  came  Henry  Ford,  who  "joyrided"  many  a 
mile  under  the  impulse  of  the  Enricht  fluid.  He  hunted 
and  hunted  for  the  joker  but  couldn't  flnd  it.  He  put  En- 
richt in  possession  of  a  brand  new  flivver,  straight  from 
the  shops;  and  Enricht  poured  water  into  its  in'ards  and 
added  a  little  of  the  green  stuff,  stirred  the  mixture,  turned 
the  crank  and  off  he  and  Henry  went.  But  one  day  found 
this  a  closed  incident.  Henry  had  seen  "Cent-a-Gallon 
Gasoline"  in  operation.  He  had  been  for  a  time  convinced 
of  its  revolutionary  merits.  He  had  openly  referred  to 
Louis  Enricht  as  a  great  man.  It  was  said  he  had  made  a 
magnificent  offer  for  the  secret,  planning  perhaps  to  pub- 
lish the  full  history  as  a  benefaction  to  motor  drivers. 
Maybe  the  offer  wasn't  magnificent  enough;  maybe  Ford 
suffered  a  change  of  heart  and  mind  and  withdrew  it. 

He  and  Enricht  parted.  They  were  not  friends.  Ford 
sued  Enricht  for  the  return  of  the  flivver  which  had  figured 
in  the  demonstrations.  OflScers  of  the  law  under  due  process 
removed  the  flivver  from  Enricht.  The  old  inventor  im- 
mediately began  action  against  his  erstwhile  crony.  It 
seems  he  had  substituted  for  the  Ford  engine  one  of  his 
own,  so  the  replevined  flivver  wasn't  really  Ford's  property 
at  all.  And  in  that  litigation  Enricht  dropped  out  of  sight 
once  more.  Some  weeks,  or  some  months,  passed,  then 
entered  B.  F.  Yoakum. 

Enricht  and  Yoakum  had  been  neighbors.  Yoakum  was 
the  rich  man  of  Farmingdale.  The  National  Motor  Power 
Co.  was  organized  with  Enricht  and  Yoakum  in  control. 
To  the  company  Enricht  assigned  his  secrets  in  exchange 
for  stock.  Now  he  says  that  stock  was  all  he  got — and  all 
the  company  had.  He  insists  that  the  whole  capital  of  the 
enterprise  lies  in  the  value  of  the  secret  he  had  to  sell. 

As  he  had  fallen  out  with  Ford,  so  Enricht  fell  out  with 
Yoakum.  In  this  case  a  formal  offer  appears  to  have  been 
made  by  the  British  Government  after  a  protracted  period 
of  tests.    It  was  because  of  a  secret  sympathy  with  Ger- 


many, the  plaintiflf  alleges,  that  Enricht  would  not  deal  with 
Great  Britain. 

The  affidavits  filed  at  Mineola  were  most  interesting. 
They  recited  how  in  months  of  demonstration  in  the  labora- 
tories of  the  Automobile  Club  of  America  Enricht  had  run 
engines  he  had  never  seen  before,  engines  that  could  not 
possibly  have  been  tampered  with,  on  this  fuel.  Experts 
had  watched  every  move  he  made.  Moreover,  it  was  as- 
serted that  the  fluid  was  no  longer  the  complete  mystery 
of  the  early  days.  Yoakum  had  kept  pressing  Enricht,  de- 
manding as  a  business  associate,  his  closest  confidence.  He 
insisted  that  the  secret  should  become  the  property  of  the 
National  Motor  Power  Co.  And  in  a  measure  Enricht  had 
given  way.  He  had  made  public,  at  least  within  the  circle 
in  which  sat  Yoakum  and  the  British  experts,  a  list  of  in- 
gredients entering  into  the  compound,  withholding  only  one 
element. 

The  ingredients  were,  as  he  said,  common.  The  experts 
had  bought  them  and  compounded  them,  leaving  it  for  the 
inventor  to  complete  the  fuel  by  shaking  into  each  tankful 
a  few  drops  of  liquid  from  a  little  vial  that  never  left  his 
possession.  Without  this  liquid  the  compound  gave  only 
slight  evidence  of  motive  power. 

That  little  private  bottle  never  left  Enricht's  possession, 
but  one  day  it  almost  did.  According  to  his  own  story, 
he  had  been  lured  into  a  deserted  road  near  Farmingdale 
one  day  and  had  found  himself  confronted  with  armed  men 
who  demanded  the  bottle,  which  Enricht  at  length  produced. 
However,  it  seems  that  Enricht  had  been  prepared  for  some 
such  contingency  as  he  met  on  that  lonely  road,  for  accord- 
ing to  his  story  he  had  provided  himself  with  a  duplicate 
bottle  and  it  was  the  dummy  he  surrendered  to  the  holdup 
men. 

The  foregoing  is  just  another  one  of  the  questions  that 
keep  cropping  up  at  every  turn  with  Enricht  and  his  fuel. 
However,  at  every  turn  he  has  kept  himself  covered. 

Within  the  near  future  the  case  of  Yoakum  vs.  Enricht 
must  be  coming  up.  Then  it  will  rest  with  the  courts 
whether  Enricht  shall  be  ordered  to  give  to  the  National 
Motor  Power  Co.  his  full  secret. 

In  the  pendency  of  the  suit,  Enricht,  by  his  own  state- 
ment, has  been  in  conference  with  Secretary  Baker  and 
Attorney  General  Gregory.  He  asserts  the  United  States 
Government  has  made  him  an  offer  in  excess  of  that  made 
by  the  British  Government,  contingent,  of  course,  on  his 
fluid  being  all  he  claims  it  to  be. 

"The  Government  wants  my  secret  only  for  war  use. 
What  I  want  the  Government  to  do  is  to  protect  me  after 
the  war.  I  propose  that  I  should  be  especially  licensed  to 
manufacture  the  compound,  and  that  it  be  illegal  for  any- 
one else  to  make  it.  On  that  plan  I  was  ready  to  sell  my 
fuel  to  the  Government  for  10c.  a  gallon  and  to  sell  to  the 
general  public  at  12c.  a  gallon,  of  those  sales  pay  a  tax  of 
2c.  a  gallon  and  enriching  the  Treasury  at  the  rate  of  some- 
thing like  $70,000,000  a  year." 

So  the  "Cent-a-Gallon  Gasoline"  idea  has  been  aban- 
doned. Enricht  explained  that  the  cost  of  chemicals  he 
needs  has  greatly  advanced  within  the  last  two  years. 

"They  have  had  the  wrong  idea  from  the  first,"  he  says. 
"Their  theory  is  that  I  change  the  chemical  composition  of 
water,  and  they  say  truly  that  I  must  spend  more  energy 
in  the  process  than  would  be  produced.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  water  is  just  a  carrier.  It  takes  minute  quantities  of 
my  high  explosive  through  the  carbureter  into  the  cylinder. 
Simple?  Eh?" 

Thus  ends  the  dream  of  "One-Cent-a-Gallon  Gasoline." 

John  Coats  Takes  a   Bath 

According  to  the  Electrical  Experimenter,  all  institutions 
depending  upon  the  Marion  (Ind.)  Electric  Light  and  Power 
Service  were  without  current  for  a  minute  recently,  and  all 
because  John  Coats,  who  takes  his  regular  Saturday  evening 
bath  at  his  home,  got  hold  of  a  live  wire  in  attempting  to 
shake  into  life  a  defunct  electric-light  globe,  and  could  not 
let  go.  Standing  in  the  water  with  a  110-volt  current  cours- 
ing through  his  body,  all  Coats  could  do  was  to  yell  for 
help.  A  neighbor  quickly  discovered  his  plight,  and  tele- 
phoned the  light  company,  who  turned  off  all  current.  Coats 
was  injured  only  in  feelings. 


June  11,  1918 


POWER 


855 


Tar  Oils  for  Use  in  Internal-Combustion 
Engines* 

By   a.   Vincent   Cij^rk 

The  different  classes  of  both  solid  and  liquid  fuels  vary 
jrreatly  in  their  calorific  value.  Some  crude  oils  have  a 
calorific  value  of  about  20,000  B.t.u.,  whereas  the  heat  value 
of  tar  oil  is  only  approximately  l(i,000  B.t.u. 

The  various  groups  of  liquid  fuels  show  great  differences 
during  the  process  of  combustion,  and  those  rich  in  hydro- 
gen are  much  more  readily  combustible  than  those  deficient 
in  this  constituent,  which  is  the  case  with  tar  oil,  with  the 
result  that  it  cannot  have  a  perfect  gasification  and  com- 
bustion. Crude  tar  and  the  thick  tar  of  gas-works  are  really 
intermediate  between  liquid  fuels  and  coal,  and  usually  the 
liquid  requires  some  refining  before  being  suitable  for  use 
as  fuel  for  internal-combustion  engines. 

The  accompanying  table  gives  a  comparison  of  the  com- 
position of  various  fuels  as  regards  their  pei'centage  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen. 

COMPARISON  OF  COMPOSITION  OF  V.\RIOUa  FUELS 

Free  Molen- 

C  O  H  H  ular 

Per  Per  Per  Per  Ratio 

<>n1^  Cent.  Cent.  Cent.  H/C 

Benzine 84  5  0  5  15  0  15  0  2   13 

Petroleum-oil  gas 85  0  2  0  13  0  13  0  I   84 

BenzoUCH.) . ,                                           92  3           7.7  7  7  1.00 

Taroil 87  0  5  5           7  5  6  8  0.94 

Heavvtar 86  0  9  0           5  0  3  9  0  54 

Coal '"flaming) 85  0  9  5  5  5  4  3  0  60 

Coal(eaking) 88  0  7  0  5  0  4   1  0  56 

Lignite 64.0  30  0  6  0  2  2  0  41 

Anthracite 94.0  3,0           3  0  2  6  0.33 

Wood 50  0  44  0  6  0  0  5  0   12 

Cellulose 44  4  49  4  6  2  0  0  0  00 

Tar  oil  suitable  for  use  in  Diesel  engines  should  have  a 
specific  gravity  at  60  deg.  F.  not  to  exceed  1.1,  calorific 
value  not  less  than  15,700  B.t.u.,  fluid  at  60  deg.  F.,  and 
a  maximum  content  of  water,  coke  and  ash  not  exceeding 
2,  5  and  0.1  per  cent,,  respectively. 

Tar  oils  have  been  successfully  used  on  some  makes  of 
Diesel  engines  without  alteration  being  necessary  to  the 
engine,  but  more  frequently  cleaning  is  usually  required 
when  this  oil  is  used  and  the  pulverizers  should  be  cleaned 
about  every  100  hours.  The  carbon  deposit  is  generally 
not  very  diflScult  to  remove  and  can  easily  be  cleaned  off 
with  a  blast  of  air. 

It  has  been  found  that  engines  work  better  on  the  tar 
oil  when  the  load  is  fairly  uniform,  and  less  cleaning  is 
required  if  they  are  able  to  keep  running  continuously  at 
about  full  load.  It  is  always  necessary  to  start  the  engines 
on  I'efincd  or  light  crude  oil,  and  if  they  have  to  run  with 
a  light  load,  this  oil  must  be  continued  until  the  load  is 
increased.  No  alterations  are  needed  to  the  setting  of  the 
valves  whether  the  engines  run  on  petroleum  or  tar  oil, 
but  in  some  cas;s  it  has  been  necessary  to  alter  the  flame 
plate  of  the  injection  valve  to  give  a  sharp  edge  around 
the  orifice.  It  is  advisable  not  to  turn  on  tar  oil  until  the 
jacket-water  temperature  has  reached  at  least  120  deg.  F., 
and  in  cold  weather  it  is  advisable  to  pre-heat  the  tar  oil 
before  it  enters  the  fuel  pump. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  run  engines  with  mixtures 
of  refined  or  crude  petroleum  and  tar  oil,  but  such  mixtures 
have  been  found  liable  to  produce  trouble,  probably  because 
of  the  oils  separating  out  in  the  tank  or  distributing  pipes, 
owing  to  the  difference  in  their  specific  gravity,  so  that 
the  actual  fuel  passing  into  the  cylinders  is  not  of  uniform 
quality.  This  has  been  found  to  be  especially  the  case  in 
cold  weather,  but  the  difficulty  is  quite  overcome  by  using 
separate  pumps  and  pipes  for  delivering  the  Uvo  oils  sepa- 
rately right  up  to  the  injection  valve,  and  this  system  has 
been  successfully  employed  on  the  Mirrlees  Diesel  engines. 

The  Mirrlees  engine  has  been  adapted  to  run  on  tar  oil 
by  the  employment  of  what  may  be  termed  an  ignition  oil, 
which  may  be  refined  or  light  crude,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  this  latter  oil  is  admitted  before  the  tar  oil  in  order  to 
start  combustion.  This  ignition  oil  is  only  about  5  per 
cent,  of  the  amount  supplied.     Combustion  begins,  and  the 

•Ab.stract  from  an  article  in  llie  April  i.ssue  oC  "Oas  and  Oil 
rower,"  London,  England. 


temperature  of  the  gas  inside  the  cylinder  is  raised  by  the 
burning  of  the  ignition  oil,  so  that  as  the  heavier  tar  oil 
is  immediately  afterward  injected  into  the  combustion  space 
it  is  at  once  ignited,  the  temperature  being  high  enough 
to  allow  proper  combustion.  The  method  which  is  adopted 
involves  the  using  of  two  separate  pumps,  one  supply- 
ing ignition  oil  and  the  other  tar  oil,  the  latter  being 
under  the  control  of  the  other.  The  two  oils  enter  the  fuel 
valve  by  different  passages,  and  the  ignition  oil  is  ad- 
mitted as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  bottom  of  the  needle. 
By  this  means  the  lighter  fuel  is  first  injected  into  the 
cylinder  and  the  arrangement  gives  quite  satisfactory  com- 
bustion of  the  tar  oil,  so  that  practically  an  invisible  ex- 
haust is  obtained.  This  method  of  injecting  the  fuels  also 
i-educes  the  amount  of  carbon  deposit  in  the  combustion 
space,  and  the  valves  and  pistons  show  remarkable  free- 
dom from  deposits,  so  that  they  do  not  require  much  more 
attention  than  is  ordinarily  given  to  these  parts. 

The  engines  of  the  semi-Diesel  type  may  also  be  run 
successfully  with  tar  oil  as  fuel  by  using  an  ignition  oil, 
but  these  engines  need  an  increased  amount  of  the  latter, 
varying  according  to  the  design,  up  to  approximately  30  per 
cent.  Upon  running  them  on  tar  oil  it  is  found  that  after 
they  have  been  working  for  some  time  at  about  full  load, 
the  amount  of  ignition  oil*  can  be  reduced,  provided  the 
load  remains  constant,  and  in  some  cases  entirely  cut  out. 
Probably  this  feature  can  be  explained  by  the  formation 
of  carbon  in  the  combustion  chamber  remaining  incan- 
descent, and  thus  serving  to  ignite  the  incoming  charges  of 
tar  oil. 

Generally  speaking,  the  hot  bulbs  need  cleaning  every  day, 
as  a  large  amount  of  deposit  accumulates  in  them,  which 
if  not  removed  will  make  the  engine  difficult  to  start  and 
there  is  a  possibility  that  the  bulbs  will  eventually  become 
completely  choked.  In  addition  these  engines  are  much 
more  susceptible  to  changes  in  the  quality  of  tar  oil  than 
engines  employing  high  compression. 


Applications  for  Water  Appropriations 

Applications  have  been  filed  with  the  California  State 
Water  Commission  for  the  appropriation  of  water  for  the 
generation  of  power  by  the  following: 

The  Nevada-California  Power  Co.,  of  Riverside,  Calif.,  has 
applied  for  12  sec. ft.  of  Birch  Creek  in  Inyo  County  for 
the  generation  of  electric  energy  to  be  developed  at  exist- 
ing power  plants  Nos.  2,  3  and  4,  by  falls  913,  791  and  995 
ft.,  respectively,  the  horsepower  to  be  developed  being  1244, 
1079  and  1356,  respectively.  After  use  it  is  proposed  to 
return  the  water  to  the  Hillside  Water  Co.  The  estimated 
cost  of  the  works  is  $42,500. 

The  Southern  Sierras  Power  Co.,  of  Riverside,  Calif.,  has 
applied  for  12  sec. ft.  of  Birch  Creek  when  said  water  may 
be  available,  for  the  generation  of  electric  power  at  ex- 
isting plants  Nos.  5  and  6  of  this  company.  It  is  proposed 
to  develop  500  and  513  hp.  by  falls  of  366  and  230  ft.,  re- 
spectively, the  water  to  be  returned  after  use  to  the  Hill- 
side Water  Co.    The  estimated  cost  of  the  works  is  $42,500. 


Chicago  Edison  Company's  Off-Peak 
Rates 

Some  of  the  figures  given  on  page  747  of  Poirer  for  May 
21  do  not  correctly  represent  the  off-peak  rates  of  the  Com- 
monwealth Edison  Company  of  Chica.go.  George  H.  Jones, 
power  engineer  of  that  company,  states  that  for  off-peak 
business  a  limited-hour  contract  is  offered,  modified  by  a 
rider  which  provides  for  an  annual  guaranty  of  $24  per  kilo- 
watt of  demand  required.  The  contract  is  on  the  demand 
basis,  the  off-peak  demand  charge  being  $1.40  per  month 
per  kilowatt  for  the  first  25  kilowatts  and  90c.  per  month 
per  kilowatt  for  excess.  The  energy  charge  is  3c.  per  kilo- 
watt-hour for  the  first  5000  kw.-hr.  of  consumption  per 
month;  1.3c.  for  the  next  25,000  kw.-hr.;  1.1c.  for  the  next 
70,000  kw.-hr.;  and  0.9c.  for  over  100.000  kw.-hr.  A  cash 
discount  of  10  per  cent,  is  allowed  on  the  energy  charge. 


856 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Men  Wanted  for  Submarine  Duty        Will  Tie-In  Three  Electric  Companies 


It  is  desired  to  call  the  attention  of  young  men  who 
have  had  technical  training  and  experience  to  the  fact  that 
their  abilities  can  best  be  put  at  the  service  of  the  country 
by  selecting  a  branch  of  service  in  which  their  special 
qualifications  will  be  of  the  greatest  use. 

The  Submarine  Force  of  the  United  States  Navy  requires 
the  services,  as  officers  on  board  submarines,  of  young  men 
who  have  had  technical  training  in  mechanical  and  electri- 
cal engineering  and  who  have  had  experience  in  these  pro- 
fessions. It  is  intended  to  enroll  a  number  of  such  men 
as  provisional  ensigns  in  the  Naval  Reserve  J'orce,  give 
them  a  course  of  instruction  in  deck  duties  at  Annapolis 
and  a  course  in  submarine  work  at  New  London.  Those 
who  successfully  pass  these  courses  will  then  be  sent  on 
board  submarines  for  regular  duty. 

It  is  requested  that  any  men  who  desire  this  duty  and 
who  are  qualified  as  below  outlined,  send  their  names  and 
addresses  to  the  Commander  Submarine  Force,  U.  S.  S. 
"Chicago,"  care  of  Postmaster,  New  York.  Qualifications 
required:  Desire  to  serve  in  submarines;  degree  of  M.  E., 
E.  E.  or  E.  M.;  2%  years'  practical  experience  in  profes- 
sion; not  over  35  years  old;  physically  strong  and  sound. 
Candidates  should,  if  practicable,  receive  the  indorsement 
of  one  of  the  following  organizations:  Naval  Consulting 
Board,  National  Research  Council,  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  American  Institute  of  Electrical 
Engineers,  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers. 

Government  Calls  for  Thousands  of 
Technical  Men 

You  may  hit  the  Hun  without  going  to  France.  In  other 
words,  the  great  army  of  specialists  behind  the  men  behind 
the  guns,  working  in  connection  with  the  production  of 
the  material  of  war,  are  quite  as  necessary  as  the  actual 
fighting  forces  in  the  prosecution  of  the  nation's  greatest 
undertaking.  The  United  States  Civil  Service  Commission, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  recruit  the  civilian  forces,  announces 
that  the  War  and  Navy  Departments  are  badly  in  need  of 
large  numbers  of  technically  trained  men.  The  commis- 
sion urges,  as  a  patriotic  duty,  that  qualified  persons  offer 
their  services  to  the  Government  at  this  time  of  great 
need.     Among  the  positions  now  open  are  the  following: 

Usual  Entrance  Salary 


Autoniot  ivc  engineer 

.Automotive  designer 

Automotive  draftsman 

Automotive  tracer .■■■.■ 

Expert  in  motor-vehicle  standardization 

Mechanical  engineer 

Junior  mechanical  engine  er  on  high-pressure  apparatus. 
Mechanic  experienced  on  high-pressure  apparatus. 

Inspector  of  mechanical  equipment 

Inspector  of  structural  steel.  .' 

Inspector  of  laundry  machinery 

Operative  in  gas  manufacture 

Assistant  operative  in  gaa  manufacture ,    

Superintendent  of  high-explosive  and  acid  plant 

Marine-[  ngine  and  boiler  draftsman 

Metal-furniture  draftsman 

Engineering  draftsman 

Mechanical  draftsman 

Apprentice  draftsman 

Refrigerating  engineer 


$2,400  to 
1,800  to 
1,400  to 
1.000  to 
1.600  to 

1.600  to 
3.00  to 


1,600  to 

3  00  to 
1,500  to 
3.28  to 

4  00  to 

3  04  to 

4  00  to 


$7,200 
3,000 
2,000 
1,400 
3,000 
3,500 
2,400 
5  00 
2,700 
2,400 
1,800 
2,400 

5  00 
1,800 
7  04 

6  00 

7  04 

8  00 
480 

3,000 


a  year 
a  year 
a  year 
a  year 
a  year 
a  year 
a  year 
a  day 
a  year 
a  year 
a  year 
a  year 
a  day 
a  year 
a  day 
a  day 
a  day 
a  day 
a  year 
a  year 


A  further  long  list  of  technical  positions  in  the  War, 
Navy  and  other  departments  are  to  be  filled.  For  the 
positions  named  applicants  are  not  required  to  report  at 
any  place  for  examination,  but  are  rated  upon  their  edu- 
cation, training  and  experience,  and  in  some  cases  on  work 
submitted  with  the  application.  Physical  ability  is  also 
considered  in  some  instances.  Ratings  are  arrived  at  from 
information  set  out  in  the  application  blank  and  from 
corroborative  evidence. 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  calls  particular  attention 
to  the  fact  that  all  necessary  information  concerning  civil- 
service  positions,  and  application  blanks  therefor,  may  be 
obtained  free  of  any  cost  by  applying  to  the  commission's 
representative  at  the  post  office  in  any  important  city,  or 
by  addressing  the  United  States  Civil  Service  Commission, 
Washington,  D.  C.  Many  of  the  drafting  positions  are 
open  to  women. 


At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  representatives  of  the  Pacific 
Gas  and  Electric  Co.,  the  Northern  California  Power  Co. 
and  the  California-Oregon  Power  Co.  and  the  members  of 
the  California  Railroad  Commission,  at  Sacramento,  Calif., 
the  details  were  completed  for  the  "tie-in"  of  the  three  com- 
panies to  effect  a  full  utilization  of  the  hydro-electric  facili- 
ties of  Northern  California.  As  a  result,  the  three  com- 
panies will  immediately  start  construction  on  transmission 
lines  to  connect  up  the  systems  of  their  respective  companies 
at  a  total  cost  of  $640,000. 

The  California-Oregon  Power  Co.  will  connect  its  system 
up  with  that  of  the  Northern  California  Power  Co.  by  re- 
constructing its  transmission  line  from  the  plant  at  Copeo 
to  Castella  and  by  building  a  70,000-volt  transmission  line 
from  Castello  to  Kennet,  a  distance  of  90  miles.  The  esti- 
mated cost  of  this  work  is  placed  at  $330,000.  The  North- 
ern California  Power  Co.  is  to  reinforce  its  lines  from  Col- 
man  to  Hamilton,  a  distance  of  80  miles,  by  the  addition 
of  copper  conductor  of  sufficient  capacity  to  handle  a  load 
of  8000  kw.  throughout  the  year.  The  work  to  be  done  by 
the  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric  Co.  includes  the  construction 
of  a  60,000-volt  transmission  line  from  Colusa  Corners, 
near  Colusa,  to  Drum-Cordelia,  a  distance  of  40  miles,  and 
the  installation  at  their  substation  of  from  60,000  to  100,- 
000  volts  capacity  to  deliver  power  into  that  line. 

The  entire  project  is  to  be  completed  by  Sept.  1,  accord- 
ing to  the  present  plans,  and  it  is  estimated  that  as  soon 
as  the  surplus  power  from  the  northern  part  of  the  state 
becomes  available  the  load  taken  from  the  steam-generat- 
ing plants  will  be  such  as  to  effect  an  economy  in  the  use 
of  fuel  oil  to  the  extent  of  240,000  bbl.  per  year. 

As  soon  as  the  "tie-in"  is  effected,  the  Pacific  Gas  and 
Electric  Co.  will  be  required  to  rerou  e  power  from  cer- 
tain of  its  existing  plants  over  Wise-Stockton-Mission-San 
Jose  line  to  the  southern  district  now  served  by  the  com- 
pany. 

Steam  and  Water  Packing  and  Rubber 
for  Chile 

Consul  John  R.  Bradley  states  in  Commerce  Reports  that 
the  American  consulate  at  Punta  Arenas,  Chile,  is  desirous 
of  being  supplied  with  catalogs  of  steam  and  water  pack- 
ing, sheet  rubber  and  sheet  asbestos.  There  is  quite  a  large 
demand  there  for  all  kinds  of  packing.  This  is  the  home 
port  for  some  20  small  steamers  plying  in  the  coasting 
trade,  besides  which  there  are  five  meat  freezing  and  pack- 
ing plants,  several  sawmills,  an  electric-light  plant,  and  a 
canning  works;  also  a  coal  mine.  The  purchasing  agents 
in  most  cases  understand  English,  and  catalogs  may  be 
furnished  in  that  language.  To  prevent  delay  in  making 
these  firms  acquainted  with  American  products  a  list  of 
users  of  steam  and  water  packing  and  sheet  rubber  in 
Punta  Arenas,  to  whom  catalogs  should  be  sent  direct,  may 
be  procured  from  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce  or  its  district  and  cooperative  offices  upon  re- 
ferring to  file  No.  99693. 

Use  of  Bran  for  Fuel  in  Argentina 

According  to  the  Commerce  Reports  one  milling  company 
in  Argentina  at  present  has  a  daily  production  of  about 
280  tons  of  bran,  but  there  is  practically  no  local  market 
for  it  as  stock  food,  and  it  cannot  be  exported  because  of  the 
lack  of  shipping.  Nearly  all  of  it  is  used  for  fuel.  The 
company  itself  burns  about  100  tons  per  day,  and  this  re- 
places some  60  tons  of  coal,  which  was  formerly  used. 
According  to  Mr.  J.  Buelinckx,  general  manager  of  the 
company,  bran  gives  about  the  same  result  as  wood.  The 
remainder  of  the  output  of  this  establishment — about  180 
tons  a  day — is  sold  to  various  concerns  for  fuel.  The 
present  price  is  28  pesos  per  metric  ton,  and  this  is  some- 
what cheaper  than  wood.  The  company  is  experimenting 
in  making  briquets  of  bran,  but  as  yet  has  not  commenced 
their  manufacture  upon  a  large  scale. 


June  11,  1918 


POWER 


857 


The  Future  of  Water  and  Steam  Power 

The  following  is  from  lectures  prepared  by  Prof.  L.  P. 
Breckenridge  as  part  of  his  fuel-conservation  worii  for  the 
Fuel  Administration. 

The  development  of  water  power  in  this  country  will  be 
gradual.  Our  coal  supplies  are  vast,  and  we  shall  use  coal 
for  power  production.  We  shall  need  50,000,000  hp.  by  the 
year  1930,  and  of  this  amount,  one-fifth  should  be  water 
power,  or  10,000,000  hp.,  leaving  40,000,000  hp.  to  be  made 
by  burning  coal.  This  power  is  probably  in  excess  of  our 
total  available  potential  water  power.  The  writer  believes 
that  we  might  increase  our  production  of  power  by  12,- 
000,000  hp.  without  the  consumption  of  any  additional  coal. 
To  accomplish  this,  we  should  expect  to  assign  to  water 
power  a  development  of  4,000,000  hp.  This  would  leave 
8,000,000  hp.  to  be  developed  by  burning  coal.  It  would 
mean  the  adoption  of  more  economical  equipment  on  the 
one  hand  and  more  economical  methods  of  procedure  and 
operation  on  the  other. 

From  a  chart,  "Power  Development  in  the  United  States," 
the  following  figures  were  taken : 

POWER  DEVELOPMEMT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Millions  of  Horsepower 

Gas 


Year 
1870  

Water 
1    10 

Steam 
1   35 

1880 

1    12 

2  40 

1890  

1 ,  25 

5.00 

1900 

1910 

1920* 

*  Extended. 

2.20 

5  25 

(9  00) 

14.00 
23  50 
(33  00) 

0.4 


While  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  with  great  accuracy 
figures  such  as  given,  it  is  sufldcient  to  indicate  the  fact 
that  the  total  power  development  in  the  United  States  is 
very  great,  and  that  the  percentage  of  the  total  power  now 
being  developed  from  water  fortunately  is  increasing. 

As  an  indication  of  present  tendencies,  it  may  be  well 
to  mention  a  few  of  the  more  important  water-power  de- 
velopments that  have  been  completed  within  recent  years, 
including  also  the  installations  at  Niagara  Falls: 


Power  Companies  at  Niagara  Falls 

On  American  side: 
Hydraulic  Power  Co.,  of  Niagara  Falls 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co 

On  Canadian  side: 

Ontario  Power  Co.,  of  Niagara  Falls,  Ontario 

Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co 

Electrical  Development  Co.,  of  Ontario  (limited)  .  .  . . 
International  Railway  Co 

Total 


Installation, 
Horsepower 

144.000 
118,300 

120,000 

62,500 

52,000 

3,000 

499,800 


The  "Salmon  River,"  N.  Y.,  30,000  hp.,  under  235-ft.  head. 

The  "Tallulah  Falls,"  Ga.,   70,000   hp..   under  580-ft.   head. 

The  "Ocoee  River,"  Tenn.,  one  of  27.000  hp.,  under  110-tt.  head, 
and  another  30,000  hp.,  under  272-ft,   head. 

The  "McCall  Ferry,"  Susquehanna  River,  ultimate  capacity 
135,000   hp. 

The  "Coons  River,"  13  miles  above  Minneapolis,  3500  hp.  under 
17  5-ft.  head.  "Keokuk,"  Iowa,  Mississippi  River,  present  120,000 
hp,,   ultimate   capacity    300,000    hp.    under    20-39-ft.    head. 

The  "Pitt  River,"  Mt.  Shasta,  Redding.  Calif.,  ultimate  ca- 
pacity  200.000   hp.,   under  939-ft,   head. 

The  "Klamath  River,"  Thrall,  Calif.,  present  10,000  hp..  ulti- 
mate  53.000    hp.      Head    not    given. 

"Big  Creek."  P.  L.  and  P.  Co.  to  Los  Angeles,  present  60,000 
hp.,  ultimate  400,000  hp.,  1900-ft.  head,  15,000  volts,  241  miles 
transmission. 

The  price  at  which  power  is  sold  to  the  consumer  depends 
upon  several  important  factors:  (a)  The  cost  of  produc- 
ing the  power,  (b)  the  cost  of  distributing,  (c)  the  amount 
purchased  by  the  consumer,  (d)  the  amount  available  at 
any  one  time  for  the  consumer,  (e)  the  time  at  which  the 
power  must  be  used,  (f)  the  extent  of  cooperation  between 
the  producers  and  users  of  power,  (g)  the  cost  of  admin- 
istration. 

At  Niagara  Falls  large  quantities  of  power  are  sold  at 
$20  per  hp.  per  year,  which  is  about  0.3c.  per  kw.-hr.  This 
power  is  sold  near  the  falls,  and  the  distributing  cost  is 
therefore  small. 

In  Toronto,  90  miles  from  Niagara  Falls,  the  city  buys 
large  blocks  of  power  at  $18.50  per  hp.  and  sells  10-hour 
power  at  $28. 

In  Norway,  where  the  great  air-nitrate  industries  con- 
sume large  amounts  of  power,  the  price  is  said  to  range 
from  $1.90  to  $12  per  hp.  per  year. 

In  this  country  steam-generated  power  is  made  and  sold 


at  prices  ranging  from  $30  to  $150  hp.  per  year  for  10-hour 
power.  If  the  plant  capacity  is  1000  hp.  or  over,  the  cost 
of  power  need  not  be  more  than  $25,  with  the  price  of  coal 
at  $4.  The  cost  will,  of  course,  increase  for  the  smaller 
plants,  but  may  be  as  low  as  $15  for  larger  plants  (3000 
hp.)  and  coal  at  $2  a  ton. 

Test  Electric  Welding  for  Ships 

A  report  of  the  purposes  and  possible  benefits  of  the  ship- 
welding  test  now  being  conducted  by  the  Emergency  Fleet 
Corporation  at  the  Federal  Shipbuilding  Co.  plant  at  New- 
ark, N.  J.,  under  the  direction  of  Arthur  J.  Mason,  has  been 
made  to  Charles  Piez,  vice  president  of  the  corporation. 

The  text  of  Mr.  Mason's  report  follows  in  part: 

Electric  welding  in  its  various  phases  has  for  years  been 
employed  in  shipyards  and  in  the  arts  generally,  but  for  a 
number  of  reasons  the  work  has  been  confined  to  odd  jobs 
and  repairs  and  the  test  itself  will  take  the  form  of  build- 
ing part  of  a  hull  at  the  Federal  Shipbuilding  Co.'s  plant, 
Newark. 

It  has  been  necessary  to  design  a  ship  to  suit  the  material 
available,  without  encroaching  on  that  needed  for  the  regu- 
lar ship  construction  at  the  plant.  This  has  been  done.  The 
hull  will  have  the  outline,  dimensions  and  strength  conform- 
ing to  the  ships  the  Federal  company  is  building. 

Briefly,  the  program  is  to  assemble  a  hull  rapidly  by  spot 
welding,  tacking  the  ship  together.  After  the  material  is 
thus  assembled  and  fastened  with  spot  welds,  so  that  it  is 
sufficiently  strong  to  hold  its  shape,  the  work  is  completed 
by  arc  welding  all  seams  to  insure  strength  and  render  the 
work  water-tight.  Roughly,  the  spot  welds  are  expected  to 
be  about  10  in.  apart. 

Electric  welding  offers  a  great  field  for  lightening  a  ship. 
In  this  design  various  views  of  this  opportunity  will  be  tried 
out.  The  field  here  is  very  great — ultimately  10  per  cent. 
of  the  steel  may  be  eliminated. 

The  manufacture  of  the  spot-welding  yoke  and  appliances 
is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Universal  Electric  Welding  Co. 
of  Long  Island  City.  The  design  of  the  yoke  is  completed, 
the  patterns  are  made  and  steel  castings  will  be  forthcoming 
in  a  few  days.  The  early  stages  of  the  arc  welding  are 
to  be  accomplished  by  the  Wilson  Electric  Co.,  which  was 
so  successful  in  the  work  on  the  German  ships'  repairs,  but 
it  is  the  intention  to  call  in  all  men  with  ideas  and  apparatus 
and  to  give  them  a  field  to  test  out  in  actual  work.  To  this 
end  Professor  Adams'  committee  is  searching  out  all  avail- 
able talent. 

An  adequate  system  of  testing  the  work  when  done  is 
under  consideration.  The  primary  test  will  consist  of  filling 
the  hull  with  water  and  shifting  the  points  of  support  under 
continual  and  close  scrutiny,  as  one-quarter  of  the  whole  will 
be  riveted  in  the  normal  manner.  There  will  be  always  a 
gage  of  comparison  with  that  portion  which  is  welded. 

Likewise  there  will  be  a  chance  for  comparison  of  the  two 
forms  when  subjected  to  abuse  by  bumping  with  rams  and 
in  various  other  ways. 

Queer  Notion  of  Factor  of  Safety 

On  a  recent  trip  to  a  remote  part  of  the  state,  one  of 
the  boiler  inspectors  of  the  Industrial  Accident  Commission 
found  an  installation  which  was,  to  say  the  least,  unique. 
The  boiler  was  of  the  vertical  tubular  type,  30  in.  in 
diameter,  and  was  fitted  with  a  ball-and-lever  safety  valve. 
In  addition  to  the  ball  weight,  the  lever  carried  four  large- 
sized  horseshoes.  Upon  inquiry  it  developed  that  the  oper- 
ator of  the  boiler  thought  he  had  a  factor  of  safety  of  5, 
since  he  carried  only  40  lb.  pressure,  and  the  steam  gage 
was  graduated  to  200  lb.  Any  idea  that  the  horseshoes  were 
a  symbol  of  good  luck,  was  soon  dispelled  by  the  inspector, 
who  pointed  out  the  grave  danger  of  "loading"  the  safety 
valve. — California  Safety  News. 


According  to  Mr.  Knudsen,  manager  of  Burmeister  & 
Wain,  builders  of  Diesel  motors  in  Copenhagen,  fish  oil 
will  make  an  excellent  fuel  for  Diesel  engines  used  as  prime 
movers.  Further,  this  oil  will  be  practicable  for  small  fish- 
ing boats  where  explosion-type  motors  are  used  for  motive 
power.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  experiments  have 
already  been  made,  using  fish  oil  as  fuel  in  fishing-boat 
engines,  and  that  these  experiments  have  proved  successful. 
— Commerce  Reports. 


858 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


Heating  Values  of  Fuels 

The  following  tables  are  from  lectures  prepared  by  Prof. 
L.  P.  Breckenridge  as  part  of  his  fuel  conservation  work 
for  the  Fuel  Administration. 

TABLE  I.     RELATIVE  HEATLNG  \  ALUK  OF  WOOD  AND  COAL 


Kind  of  Wood 


Ash 

Beech 

Birch 

Cherry 

Chestnut. . . . 

Elm 

Hemlock . . 

Hickory 

Maple,  hard. . 
Oak.  live. .  . 
Oak,  white 
Oak.  red 
Pine,  white . . 
Pine,  yellow . . 

Poplar 

Spruce 

Walnut,  .  . 
Willow 


Weight 
per  Cord 

in  lb, 

3520 

3250 

2880 

3140 

2350 

2350 

1220 

4500 

3310 

3850 

3850 

3310 

1920 

2130 

2130 

1920 

3310 

1920 


Heating  \'aiue 
B  t  u 
per  lb, 
5450 
5400 
5580 
5420 
5400 
5400 
6410 
5400 
5460 
5460 
5400 
5460 
6830 
6660 
6660 
6830 
5460 
6830 


Equivalent 
Weight  of  Coal 
of  13,500  B.t.u 
1420 
1300 
1190 
1260 

940 

940 

580 
1800 
1340 
1560 
1540 
1340 

970 
1050 
1050 

970 
1340 

970 


TABLE  IL    APFROXIM.'VTE  HE.\TING  VALUES  OF 
DIFFERENT  COALS 


Fuel 


Wood  (dry) 
Peat  (air-dried) . 

Lignite 

Bituminous  coal. . 

Anthracite 

Straw 

Corn 

Tanbark  (dry) . . 

Hydrogen 

Crude  oil 

Kerosene 

Gasoline 

Natural  gas 

Producer  ga.s 

Blast-furnace  gas. 


Heating  Values 
B.t.u.  per  Pound 

(varies) 
5  500-7.500 
about  7,500 
5,200-7,500 
9.500-14,500 
1  1,500-14,000 
about  5,100 
7,200-8,200 
about  6,100 
62,000 
17,500-21,000 
0.863  spg.- 18,700 
0.710  spg,-18,50O 
About  850  per  cuft, 
.\bout  I  25  per  cu  ft. 
.\bout     95  per  cu-ft. 


Constants  for  Heat  Transmission 

B.t.u.  transmitted  per  square  foot  per  hour  per  degree 
difference  in  temperature  between  inside  and  outside  air  are 
as  follows: 

CONSTANTS    FOR    BRICK    WORK 


4  in.  thick  =  0  68 
8  in.  thick  =  0  46 
12  in.  thick  =  0  33 


16  in.  thick  =  0  27 
20  in.  thick  =  0  23 
24  in.  thick  =  0  20 

.MISCELLANEOUS   CONSTANT.? 


28  in.  thick  =  0  18 
32  in.  thick  =  0  16 
36  in.  thick  =  0  15 


Reinforced  concrete,  20  per  cent,  more  than  brick.    Add  one-third  more  for 
Btone.  Add  one-half  more  for  cement  or  concrete  walls. 


1  sq.ft.  of  wood  as  flooring. , .  0  083 

I  sq  ft,  of  wood  as  ceiling.. . .  0   104 

I  sq  ft.  of  wood  as  wall., . .  0  220 

I  sqft,  fireproof  flooring 0   124 

I  sqft,  fireproof  ceiling,...  0   143 

I  sq  ft.  cement  as  flooring.    ,  0  310 

I  sq.ft.  dirt  as  flooring  0  230 
I  sq.ft.  wood,    under   slate,    or 

composition  roof 0  300 

I  sq.ft.  wood,  under  iron,    ,  0   170 

1  sq.ft.  tile  (no  bds. underneath)  I    250 

1  sq,ft,  cement  roof 0  600 

I  single  window 1    090 

1  single  monitor 0  950 


1  single  skylight 1118 

1  double  window 0  560 

1  double  skylight 0  621 

1  door 0  420 

Cor.  iron  wall 0  840 

Wood  wall.. 0  280 

Copper,    silver-plated     and 

polished 0,02657 

Copper,  polished 0,03270 

Zinc  and  brass,  polished.  0  04906 

Sheet  iron 0  08585 

(?ast  iron,  new 0  6480 

Cast  iron,  rusted 0  6868 

Oil  or  varnish 1   4800 


The  anicunt  in  square  feet  of  each  kind  of  surface  is  to 
be  multiplied  by  its  respective  constant  shown,  and  by  the 
difference  in  temperature  between  inside  and  outside  air. 
The  sum  gives  the  loss  of  heat  in  B.t.u.  by  exposure  then 
add  to  the  foregoing  as  follows: 

Ten  per  cent,  for  northern  exposure  and  where  the  winds 
are  to  be  counted  on  as  an  important  factor. 

Ten  per  cent,  if  heated  day  time  only,  and  the  location 
of  the  building  is  not  exposed. 

Twenty  per  cent,  when  the  buildinc:  is  heated  day  time 
only,  and  the  location  of  the  building  is  exposed. 

Thirty  per  cent,  when  the  building  is  heated  during  win- 
ter months  intermittently  with  long  intervals  of  non-heating. 
— From  the  "Ideal  Fitter,"  compiled  from  well-known 
authorities. 


When  the  engineer's  requisitions  are  not  honored  in 
full,  it  is  time  to  get  a  new  chief  or  a  new  man  in  the 
supply  department.  Trust  a  man  or  fire  him. — Marine 
Engineering. 


A  Good  Suggestion  for  All 

Do  you  ride  all  the  bumps  or  bumpers  of  the  war  news 
from  day  to  day?  Many  good  patriots  do.  Each  morning 
brings  its  passing  changes  in  the  war  situation;  now  gloom 
in  the  form  of  a  setback  on  the  western  front,  or  further 
disintegration  in  Russia,  or  rumors  of  delay  in  our  own 
war  preparations.  Next  morning,  like  as  not,  there  will 
be  something  of  a  hopeful  nature,  such  as  the  checking  of 
the  Huns'  drive  in  Italy,  or  a  raid  by  the  British  or  French, 
or  good  news  here  at  home.  To  follow  and  feel  all  these 
glees  and  glooms  from  day  to  day  is  human  and  exciting. 
But  it  involves  much  useless  wear  and  tear  of  the  spirit. 
There  is  another  viewpoint — that  of  disregarding  the  daily 
shifts  and  changes  in  the  war  situation,  keeping  one's  atten- 
tion concentrated  on  the  long  haul  of  war  and  the  final 
result. 

That  haul  is  still  a  long  one.  For  Germany  is  not  beaten 
yet,  but  the  results  are  sure,  because  we  have  right  on  our 
side,  and  also  the  largest  battalions.  If  you  grow  warm 
and  then  cold,  and  alternate  between  enthusiasm  and  de- 
pression with  the  daily  news  changes,  you  not  only  w^ste 
your  energy,  but  are  likely  to  fluctuate  in  your  policy  as 
a  business  man  and  your  determination  as  a  patriot.  The 
good  resolution  to  save  food,  support  Uncle  Sam  financially 
and  cheerfully,  adjust  your  business  and  habits  to  the  war 
program  will  be  stiffened  on  the  morning  that  you  read 
about  some  Hun  atrocity  against  our  own  soldiers  in 
France.  But  in  a  week  there  may  be  news  of  a  different 
character,  which  leads  you  to  let  down  a  little,  on  the  as- 
sumption that  Germany  has  begun  to  crack  and  that  the 
war  is  about  over.  It  is  good  business,  good  patriotism 
and  good  conservation  to  forget  most  of  the  headlines  in 
the  morning  paper  and  concentrate  strictly  upon  the  long, 
hard  grind  between  today  and  the  final  result.  That  will 
save  your  spirit,  buck  up  your  resolution  and  enable  you  to 
do  your  utmost  in  winning  the  war. 

Moreover,  it  will  enable  you  to  get  out  of  the  war,  as  a 
business  man  and  a  patriot,  the  utmost  benefit  from  war 
adjustments.  Those  adjustments  make  for  wiser  and  more 
economical  personal  habits,  as  well  as  a  business  grounded 
if.  sound  economy.  Even  should  peace  come  tomorrow,  you 
can  never  go  back  to  the  old  heedless  wasteful  ways  either 
in  business  c«'  livelihood.  Don't  ride  the  bumps  of  the  war 
news! 

Settle  down  in  harness  for  the  long  grim  haul  that  counts. 
— James  H.  Collins,  Editor  "Weekly  Bulletin." 

Modern  Towers  of  Babel 

One  of  the  distinct  hazards  in  employment  in  this  country 
rests  on  the  coworking  of  men  of  different  nationalities  who 
do  not  understand  the  language  of  one  another,  and  the 
question  has  been  frequently  raised  in  the  courts  as  to 
when  an  employer  becomes  liable  for  injury  to  one  of  his 
workmen  caused  by  negligence  of  another  who  has  not  be- 
come "acclimated"  to  our  language. 

Very  recently  this  question  was  presented  to  the  New 
York  Court  of  Appeals  in  the  case  of  Barber  vs.  Smeallie, 
117  Northeastei-n  Reporter,  611,  where  a  non-English  speak- 
ing employee  started  a  pump  while  a  coeniployee  was  known 
to  him  to  be  in  a  perilous  position,  resulting  in  injury  to 
the  latter.  The  injured  man,  in  suin,"-  his  employer,  sought 
to  fix  liability  under  the  rule  of  law  that  an  employer  is 
responsible  for  injuries  inflicted  by  a  fellow  employee  who 
was  previously  known  to  be  so  incompetent  for  the  work 
assi.gned  to  him  as  to  make  the  employer  guilty  of  negli- 
gence in  retaining  him  to  the  peril  of  other  workmen.  But 
the  court,  reversing  judgment  which  had  been  awarded  in 
the  injured  man's  favor,  decided  that  a  worker  cannot  be 
said  to  be  incompetent  mei-ely  because  he  does  not  under- 
stand English,  and  that  the  employer  cannot  be  held  in  such 
instances  unless  there  was  a  direct  and  natural  connection 
between  his  uiifamiliarity  with  English  and  the  accident. 
This  unfamiliarity  could  not  be  said  to  be  the  cause  of  the 
accident  in  this  case;  the  direct  cause  was  mental  deficiency 
of  the  negligent  man,  apart  from  his  linguistic  ignorance, 
and  it  was  not  claimed  that  the  employer  previously  knew 
of  that  deficiency. 


June  11,  1918 


POWER 


859 


lllllllllllllMIIMIItMnilllllllllB C 


Personals 


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIir  I 


J.  C.  Iliilvcy  has  lesiBUod  his  position  as 
master  iiiechaiiic  with  the  A.  H.  Crist  Co.. 
Cooi)erstowii,  N.'.  Y.,  to  acoipt  a  position 
with  the  Air  Nitrates  Corporation,  and  af- 
ter spending  some  time  sludying*  the  pro- 
cesses at  Niagara  Kails,  he  will  proceed  to 
Muscle   Shoals.   Ala. 

Frederick  I).  Herbert,  who  has  for  years 
been  identlfleil  with  the  marine  industry 
and  for  the  last  ten  years  New  York  man- 
ager of  the  Terry  Steam  Turbine  Co.,  has 
been  elected  president  and  general  manager 
of  the  Kearfott  Engineering  Co.,  Inc.  He 
will  continue  to  handle  the  marine  work  of 
the  Terry  Steam  Turbine  Co.,  at  95  Liberty 
St.,  New  York,  which  is  the  office  of  the 
Kearfott    Kngineering   Co..    Inc. 

J.  A,  Kinkead,  who  has  been  the  New 
York  representative  of  the  Parliesburgh 
(Peun.)  Iron  Co.  for  the  past  ten  years. 
leaves  shortly  to  locate  in  San  Francisco  to 
look  after  the  interests  of  the  same  com- 
pany and  also  the  Chicago  Railway  Equip- 
ment Co.  there.  On  finishing  his  course  in 
the  University  of  Ilhnois.  Mr.  Kinkead  was 
employed  as  chief  inspector  of  material  for 
the  North«'estern  Kailroad  and  later  had 
general  charge  of  the  inspection  of  mate- 
rial for  the  American  Locomotive  Co.  He  is 
a  well-known  member  of  many  technical 
and  engineering  societies  and  clubs. 


f.iiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiii 


Engineering  Affairs 


The  Pennnylvania  State  Association  of 
the  N.  A.  .S.  E.  will  hold  its  annual  conven- 
tion at  Chester.  Penn..  June  20.  21.  Indi- 
cations point  to  a  successful  meeting. 

The  Canadian  \ssoeiation  of  Stationary 
Engineers  will  hold  its  twenty-ninth  annual 
convention  at  London.  Ont.,  June  25-27. 
The  meetings  of  the  delegates  and  the  dis- 
play of  the  exhibtors  will  be  held  at  Hy- 
men's Hall,  Queens  Ave.  and  Clarence  St. 
A  hustling  local  committee  assisted  by  G. 
C.  Keith,  Secretary  of  the  Exhibitors'  Asso- 
ciation,  are  completing   final   arrangements. 

The  National  District  Heating  .-Vssocia- 
tion  will  not  hold  its  regular  convention 
this  year,  but  the  executive  committee,  to- 
gether with  the  chairmen  of  the  standing 
committees,  and  as  many  members  as  pos- 
sible, have  decided  to  meet  at  the  Breakers 
Hotel.  Cedar  Point,  Ohio,  July  8-9.  to  dis- 
cuss various  matters  now  affecting  the 
heating  companies  and  to  receive  reports 
of  the  standing  committees  for  the  year. 

ifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Ill iiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiii II 

1       Miscellaneous  News       1 

Production  of  Coal  was  somewhat  cur- 
tailed in  the  Charleston.  (W.  Va. )  section 
last  \vt  ek,  oiierators  of  the  mines  claiming" 
that  a  part  of  the  loss  of  production  was 
due  to  the  failure  of  the  Logan  Power  Co. 
to  furnish  sufficient  current  to  them. 

United  States  Fuel  Administrator  Gar- 
field announced  recently  the  appointment 
of  John  P.  White.  Labor  Advisor  to  the 
Administration,  as  the  representative  of 
the  Administration  on  the  Labor  Policy, 
of  which  Felix  Frankfurter  is  chairman. 
It  is  the  task  of  the  Labor  Policy  Board 
to  find  out  what  the  needs  of  labor  are 
so  that  a  labor  budget  can  be  made.  The 
Government  departments  having  indus- 
trial-service bureaus  independent  of  each 
other  have  given  rise  to  some  confusion 
and  waste,  variations  in  wages  leading 
workmen  to  leave  one  job  for  another.  In 
one  sense  the  Labor  Policy  Board  will  con- 
stitute a  centralized  employment  agency 
for  the   United   States. 

SiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiMiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiM 

I  Business  Items  f 

■■•llillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltl IIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIMIIIIIIItl lie 

The  H.  W.  Jolins-Manville  Co's.  Houston 
(Tex.)  office  will  be  located  at  424-42C 
Washington   Ave.   on   and   after   July    1. 

Tlie  Colonial  Supply  Co.,  Pittsburgh, 
Penn.,  because  of  its  increasing  i)usiness 
has  purchased  and  moved  into  the  building 
at  217  Water  Street. 

The  A.  Oiilowsen  A/S  of  Christianla,  Nor- 
way, manufacturers  of  the  "Grei"  heavy 
oil  engine,  has  incorporjited  the  (lulowsen 
Grei  Engine  Co.  at  Seattle,  Wash,  and  is 
erecting  a  large  factory  where  these  en- 
gines will  be  manufactured  for  sui)i)lying 
the  American  trade. 


The  Crane  I'nelunB  Co.'s  New  Yory  City 
othce  has  ino\'ed  to  larger  quarters  in  the 
Park  J{ow  Building,  with  Julian  N.  Walton 
as  manager.  A.  W.  Payne,  for  some  ti.me 
manager  of  this  district,  has  been  made 
sales  manager  ox  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  with  headquarters  at  the  iiome 
office  in  Chicago.  The  Pittsburgh  oltices 
are  located  in  the  May  Building,  thi'  I'hila- 
delphia  office  in  the  Colonial  Trust  Build- 
ing. 

The  Keeves  Engineering  Co.,  Trenton,  N. 
J.,  has  been  incorporated  to  act  in  the 
capacity  of  constructing  and  efficiency 
engineers  and  to  specialize  in  the  design 
and  construction  of  power  and  industrial 
plants.  The  business  and  assets  of  the 
Reeves-Cubberly  Engine  Co.,  Trenton,  N. 
J.,  have  been  absorbed  by  the  Reeves  En- 
gineering Co.,  which  will  continue  the  manu- 
facture of  the  Reeves  steam  and  gas  en- 
gines. 

Parr  Terminals  Co.,  Wilfred  N.  Ball. 
Engineer.  225  First  National  Bank.  Oak- 
land. Calif.,  wants  catalogs  and  other  data 
from  manufacturers  of  materials  or  equip- 
ment used  in  the  construction  of  piers, 
warehouses,  industrial  buildings,  belt  line 
railway  and  street  work  and  cargo  han- 
dling equipment ;  coal  bunkering  and  han- 
dling equipment ;  floating  drydock  and 
marine  railway  equipment ;  general  ship- 
yard   machinery    and    equipment. 

Peerless  No.  4810  Air  Hose  was  used  in 
a  remarkable  record  at  driving  rivets 
made  under  handicap  at  the  Morse  Dry 
Dock  and  Repair  Co.'s  plant  in  South 
Brooklyn  recently.  Bertram  Bieher.  rivet- 
er, and  his  holder-on.  Eddie  Hesse,  with 
four  heater  boys,  drove  1480  regulation- 
size  3-in.  button-head  rivets  in  4  hours  and 
HI  minutes.  For  a  record  of  thii:  kind  it 
is  ol)vious  that  air  hose  plays  an  important 
part  in  rivet  driving.  It  would  not  do  to 
have  to  stop  to   make  repairs. 


Trade  Catalogs  1 

QllllllllMIII llllllllilllMIIMilllllillllllllllllllillllillll IIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIlA 

Monthly      Stock     L,ist     of      Cutters. — The 

Cleveland    Milling   Machine   Co.,    Cleveland, 
Ohio.     Pp.   36  ;   3J   X  6  in. ;   illustrated. 

The  Stoker  for  the  Higher  Volatile  Coals. 

Laclede-Christy      Clay     Products     Co.,      St. 
Louis,  Mo.     Pp.  12  ;  8J  X  11  in.;  illustrated. 

Buffalo  Forges.  Buffalo  Forge  Co.,  Buf- 
falo. N.  Y.  Pp.  Ill  ;  5  X  7i  in.  Illustrating 
and  describing  complete  line  of  portable  and 
stationary   forges. 

Coxe  Stoker.  Combustion  Engineering 
Corp..  New  York  City.  Bulletin  CI.  Pp. 
29:6x9  in.  Showing  the  application  of 
the  traveling  grate  idea.  Copy  free  on 
request. 

Zelnicker's  Bulletins.  Nos  241  and  243. 
Walter  A.  Zelnicker  Supply  Co.,  St.  Louis, 
Mo.  Listing  bargains  in  rails,  cars,  loco- 
motives, general  power-plant  equipment  and 
machinery. 

Link-Belt  Silent  Chain.  Link-Belt  Co., 
Chicago,  111.  Book  No.  312.  Pp.  40  ;  6  x 
9  in.  C;iving  illustrations  and  reasons 
why  the  silent  chain  drive  is  the  most 
efficient  transmission  for  operating  ma- 
chine   tools. 

Pulverized  Coal  Equipment.  Lehigh  Car, 
Wheel  and  Axle  Works,  Cata.sauqua.  Penn. 
Catalog  No.  71.  Pp.  28  ;  8  x  lOJ  in.  De- 
scriptions and  illustrations  of  various  units 
used  for  the  production  of  pulverized  coal 
attractively   presented. 

Skinner  Automatic  Engines.  Skinner  En- 
gine Co..  Erie.  Penn.  Pp.  47;  84  x  llj  in. 
An  attractive  illustrated  catalog  devoted  en- 
tirely to  the  exposition  of  single-valve  cen- 
ter- and  side-crank  Skinner  engines,  in 
single-cylinder  type  from    50   to   600   hp. 

Light  for  the  Clotliing  Industry.  Edison 
Lamp  Works  of  the  General  Electric  Co., 
Harrison,  N.  J.  Bulletin  No.  43,410  con- 
tains the  latest  information  on  the  correct 
methods  of  lighting  industrial  plants.  It 
is  well  illustrated,  showing  various  lighting 
schemes  most  suitable  for  industrial  pur- 
poses. 

Wlieeler-Balcke  Cooling  Towers.  Wheeler 
Condenser  and  Engineering  Co..  C^arteret. 
N.  J.  Bulletin  109-B.  Pp.  28.  Shows 
Wheeler-Baicke  cooling  towers  of  nmnerous 
designs  in  capacities  varying  from  a  few 
thousand  gallons  per  hour  to  nearly  a 
million  g.allons  per  hour.  It  is  shown  "bet- 
ter, in  some  cases,  to  combine  natui-al  and 
forced  draft.  Two  pages  are  devoted  to 
Wheeler-Barnard  forced  draft  cooling 
lowers,  which  are  at  thnes  found  prefer- 
able to  the  Wheeler-Baicke.  Wherever  suf- 
tlcient  ground  area  is  available,  however, 
the  Wheeler-Baicke  Is  usually  considered 
by  consulting  engineers  as  the  standard 
natural-draft    tower. 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


Proposed  Work 

9. 

Me.,  Waterville — The  Lockwood  Co,  is 
having  plans  prepared  by  I.  W.  Jones. 
Arch.,  Milton.  N.  H.,  tor  the  erection  of  a 
new    hydroelectric   i)Ower  plant   here. 

Mass.,  Boston — The  Bureau  of  Yards  & 
Docks,  Navy  Dept.,  Wash.,  D.  C,  has  re- 
ceived low  bids  for  improvements  to  its 
power  plant  at  the  Navy  Y'ard,  here,  from 
Rideout,  Chandler  &  Joyce,  178  High  St., 
$31,000  (ISO  days)  ;  W.  G.  Cornell  Co., 
923  12th  St.,  Wash.,  D.  C,  $35,884  (100 
days)  ;  Lynch  &  Woodward,  287  Atlantic 
Ave.,   $37,764    (100  days). 

Mass.,  Wellesley — Wellesley  College  is 
having  plans  prepared  by  French  &  Hub- 
bard. Engrs.,  88  Pearl  St.,  Boston,  for  the 
erection  of  a  35  x  45  ft.  addition  to  the 
boiler  house  here. 

Conn.,  Danielson — The  Goodyear  Cotton 
Mills,  Inc.,  plans  to  build  a  brick  power 
house  and  install  steam  turbine  engines. 
Estimated   cost.    $100,000. 

N.  y..  Auburn — The  I'^minre  Gas  and 
Electric  Co.  plans  to  issue  $1,717,000  bonds; 
the  proceeds  will  be  used  to  improve  and 
extend  its  system.  H.  S.  Coleman,  Geneva, 
Gen.  Mgr. 

N.  Y.,  Buffalo — The  Buffalo  General 
Electric  Co.,  206  Electric  Bldg.,  has  had 
plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  1- 
story,  95  x  106  ft.  sub  .station  addition  to  its 
plant.     Estimated  cost,   $17,000. 

N,  Y.,  Ossining — The  Comniission  of 
New  Prisons,  Hall  of  Records.  New  York 
City,  will  receive  bids  for  the  erection  of 
5  buildings  at  Sing  Sing ;  heat  and  power 
systems  will  be  installed  underground  in 
tunnel.  Machinery  includes  two  400  hp. 
boilers,  piping,  25  hp.  motors,  etc. 

N.  Y.,  Otisco — The  Otisco  Light  and 
Power  Co.  has  petitioned  the  Public  Service 
Commission  for  authority  to  build  and 
operate  an  electric  lighting  plant. 

N.  Y.,  Warsaw — The  Warsaw  Elevator 
Co.  has  had  plans  prepared  for  repairs  to 
its  1-story  power  house.  C.  E.  Ketchum. 
Pres. 

N.  J..  Newark — The  Board  of  Education 
w'ill  soon  award  the  contract  for  the  instal- 
lation of  heating  and  power  in  the  proposed 
Hawkins  St.  School. 

N.  J.  Ogdensburg — The  Wharton  Steel 
Co.  plans  to  rebuild  its  boiler  plant  at  the 
limestone  quarry  which  was  recently  de- 
stroyed by  fire. 

Penn.,  Enola — The  Pennsylvania  R.  R. 
plans  to  improve  and  alter  its  power  plant 
and  engine  house  here.  A.  C.  Shand. 
Broad   St.    Station,    Philadelphia,    Ch.    Engr. 

Penn.,  Meadville — The  Northwestern 
Electric  Service  Co.  plans  to  build  an  elec- 
tric transmission  line  from  here  to  Kear- 
sage.  A.  E.  Rickards,  Commerce  Bldg.. 
Erie.  Mgr. 

Penn.,  Philadelphia — The  Mifflin  Chemi- 
cal Corporation.  Delaware  and  Tasker  St.. 
has  had  plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of 
an  addition  to   its  boiler  plant. 

VVash..  n.  C. — The  Bureau  of  Yards  & 
Docks,  Navy  Dept..  Wash.,  D.  C,  has  re- 
ceived low  bids  for  the  construction  of  an 
electric  duct  system  between  the  Navy 
Yard,  here  .and  the  Capitol  Power  plant  at 
Garfield  I'ark  (a)  work  coniiilete  (bO  work 
comiilete  according  to  bidder's  plans  and 
siieci  Heat  ions,  from  N.  W.  Kvan.  New  Y'ork 
Citv.  (,i)  $14,904  (60  davs)  ;  G.  M.  Oest. 
1330  Woolworth  Bldg..  New  York  City  (a) 
$16,500  (75  days);  F.  S.  Smith,  612  14th 
St.,   (a)   $28,043   (60  days). 

Wash..  I>.  C. — The  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Docks.  Navy  Dept  .  plans  to  build  a  power 
house  at  St.  Jullens  t^reek.  V.a.  ;  Sneciflca- 
tion  No.  3072.      Estimated  cost,   $7500. 

Va.,  Norfolk — The  Bureau  of  Y'ards  and 
Pocks.  Navy  Dept..  Wash..  D.  C.  will  soon 
awai'd  the  contract  for  the  installation  of 
an  electric  lighting  and  power  system  In 
shipbuilding  slip  No.  1.  EstlilJited  cost. 
$15,000.      Noted   May   28. 


8G0 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  24 


VV.  \a.,  Slanninston — The  Rachel  Coal 
Co.  plans  to  rebuild  its  power  house,  ven- 
Lilation  system,   etc..  at  its  mine. 

N.  C,  HenderBon — The  Henderson  Box 
and  Lumber  Co.  plans  to  Install  a  150  hp. 
boiler,  engines  and  a  150  kw.  direct  con- 
nected generator. 

Teim.,  Bipley — The  Ripley  Oil  Mills  is 
in  the  market  for  a  second-hand  20  x  42  in. 
left-hand,  rope-drive  Corliss  engine  and 
also  a  75  hp.  crude-oil  engine. 

Tenn.,  Rockwood — The  Public  Light  and 
Power  Co..  Chattanooga,  plans  to  rebuild 
transmission  line  from  here  to  Lenoir  City. 
W.   R.  Stern,  Winchester.  Mgr. 

Tenn.,  Spring  City — Dayton  Light  and 
Power  Co.  plans  to  build  transmission  line 
from  here  to  Dayton. 

Kv.,  Fulton — A.  S.  Baldwin,  Chief  Engr. 
of  Illinois  Central  R.  R..  135  Kast  11th  St., 
Chicago,  will  soon  award  the  contract  for 
the  erection  of  various  units  here,  includ- 
ing a  40  X  150  ft.  boiler  house;  two  150  hp. 
boilers,  one  85  ft.  electric  turntable,  etc., 
will  be  installed.     Total  cost.    $225,000. 

Ky  ,  White-burg — The  Ulkhorn  Superior 
Block  Coal  Co  lias  increased  its  capital 
stock  from  $.'i5.000  to  $100,000;  the  pro- 
ceeds will  be  used  to  install  new  electrical 
machinery. 

Oliio,  Canton — The  Canton  Gas  and  Elec- 
tric Co.  has  petitioned  the  State  Public 
Utilities  Commission  for  authority  to  build 
a  high  tension  transmission  line  along  the 
right  of  way  of  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
and  Quincy  R.  R. 

Ohio,  Cleveland — The  National  Woolen 
Co.  is  having  plans  prepared  by  A.  Gairing, 
Arch.,  for  the  erection  of  a  2-story  power 
plant.  H.  W.  Stecher.  3131  West  ;;3rd  St., 
Pres. 

Ohio,  CreekHville — The  Central  Power  Co. 
plans  to  build  a  transmission  line  from  here 
to      Bearfield      Twp  10.      T.      Wagenhals, 

Newark,  Supt. 

Ohio,  Fremont — The  City  Council  is  con- 
sidering the  installation  of  a  gas  and  elec- 
tric lighting  plant  to  be  erected  here. 

Ohio,  Norwood — City  will  sell  bonds  for 
improvements  and  extensions  to  its  electric 
lighting  and  water  works  systems.  W.  R. 
Suhr,  Auditor. 

Mirh.,  Homer — The  Homer  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Co.  plans  to  build  additions  to 
its  plant.     G.   H.  Rising.  Engr. 

111.,  Amboy — A.  S.  Baldwin,  Chief  Engr., 
of  the  Illinois  Central  R.  R..  135  Bast  11th 
St..  Chicago,  will  soon  award  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  various  units  here,  m- 
cludirg  a  40  x  150  ft.  boiler  house,  etc.  ; 
two  150  hp.  boilers,  one  85  ft.  electric  turn- 
table, etc.,  will  be  installed.  Total  cost. 
$250,000. 

111.,  Carbondale — A.  S.  Baldwin.  Chief 
Engr.  of  Illinois  Central  R.  R..  135  East 
11th  St.,  Chicago,  will  soon  awai-d  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  various  units  here. 
Including  a  40x150  ft,  boilei-  house,  two 
150  hp.  boilers,  one  85  ft.  electric  turn- 
table, etc.,  will  be  installed.  Total  cost, 
$250,000. 

HI.,  'laekNonville — City  plans  to  vote  on 
bond  issue  to  ''uMd  a  dam.  control  station, 
etc.  About  $75,000.  S.  Greeley,  64  We.st 
Randolph  St.,  Chicago,  Engr. 

111.,  Mounds — A.  S.  Baldwin.  Chief  Engr. 
of  the  Illinois  Central  R.  R..  135  East  11th 
St..  Chicago,  will  soon  award  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  various  units  including 
an  addition  to  the  boiler  ho.use ;  two  150 
hp.  boilers,  one  85  ft,  electric  turntable, 
etc.,  will  be  in.stalled.     Total  cost,   $250,000. 

Wis.,  Wau.sau — City  plans  to  establish  a 
central  lighting  and  heating  plant  here. 

Iowa,  Neola — City  plans  to  improve  its 
electric  lighting  and  power  plant.  Esti- 
mated cost,   $lfi.oO0, 

Iowa,  Sioux  Cit.v — The  Midland  Packing 
Co.  plans  to  build  a  boiler  and  power  plant 
in  connection  with  its  proposed  packing 
plant.  Gardner  &  Lindberg,  140  South 
Dearborn  St.,   Chicago.   Engr. 


iMinn.,  St.  Paul — The  Northern  Pacific 
Mutual  Beneficial  Association  is  having 
plans  prepared  for  the  erection  of  a  hoipi- 
tal  and  power  plant.  Total  cost.  $300,000. 
H.  S.  Smith,  203  Railroad  Bldg..  Pre.s.  L. 
Bassindale,   Capital   Bank   Bldg..   Arch. 

S.  D.,  Bradley — Dakota  Northern  Power 
Co.  plans  to  build  a  power  .station.  K.  H. 
Lewis.  Secy. 

Mo.,  JIaysTille — City  has  plans  under 
consideration  for  improvements  to  its  elec- 
tric lighting  plant. 

Okla.,  Miami — The  Luck  Jenny  Mining 
Co.  will  build  a  c' jncentration  plant  at  its 
mine  in  Hockerville.  Equipment  including 
engines,  boilers,  etc.,  will  be  installed.  Esti- 
mated cost,  $60,000.    W.  P.  Cooper.,  Supt. 

Utah,  Salt  Lake  City — Salt  Lake  Co.  will 
soon  award  the  co.itract  for  the  installation 
of  a  heating  system  in  the  courthouse.  S. 
G.    Clark.    Clerk. 

Nev..  Falisade — The  Union  Mines  Co. 
plans  to  install  a  large  quantity  of  electric 
machinery  in  its  proposed  concentrating 
plant. 

Ariz..  Kingman — The  .Schuylkill  Mining 
Co.  plans  to  install  a  po%ver  plant  in  con- 
nection with  its  milling  plant  now  under 
construction. 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


Boston — Current  Quotations  per  gross  ton  de- 
livered alontraide  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  ago  are  as  follows : 


ANTHRACITE 

Circular 
Current 

Buckwheat    $4.60 

Eice    4.10 

Boiler 3.90 

Barley    3.60 


BITUMINOUS 


Bituminous    not    on    market. 


Indiviriual 
Current 


$7.10 — 7.35 
6.O.") — ti.90 


6.15 — 6.40 


Poeohontas  and  New  River,  f.o.b.  Hamp.ton 
Roads,  is  $4.  as  eoniruu-ed  with  S'^.S.n — '1. 00  a 
yeal"  ago. 


•All-rail  to  Boston  is  S'Z.dO. 


t  Water  eoal. 


Ariz.,  Plinenix — The  .State  Hospital  for 
the  Insane  has  had  plans  prepared  for  the 
erection  of  a  power  house.      Noted   Api-.    16. 

Wash.,  Bellingliam — The  Boundary  Red 
Mountain  Mine  plans  to  rebuild  Its  power 
plant   which  was  recently  destroyed  by  fire, 

Calif.,  Lonipoc — The  Lompoc  Light  and 
Power  Co,  plans  to  improve  its  plant  and 
distribution  sy.stem.  Estimated  cost,  be- 
tween $5000  and  $10,000.  A.  H.  Wishon, 
Fresno.  Mgr. 

Calif.,  Los  Angeles — The  California 
Edison  Co.  has  been  granted  a  franchise 
by  the  Board  of  Supervisors,  for  the  erec- 
tion and  maintenance  of  an  electric  dis- 
tributing system  in  Los  Angeles  County. 

8ask.,  Lloydminster — W.  and  E.  Johnson 
plan  to  build  an  electric  lighting  plant. 
Estimated   cost.    $60,000. 


CONTR.4CTS    ."VWARDED 

R.  I.,  Lonsdale — The  Lonsdale  Co.  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
transformer  station,  to  The  J.  W.  Bishop 
Co.,  109  Foster  St.,  Worcester,  Ma.ss. 

N.  y.,  Albany — H.  A.  Biggs.  Commis- 
sioner of  Health,  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  installation  of  a  ln-ating  systeni  to 
the  Merrill  Co..  19  Pearl  St..  Boston.  M.iss.. 
$45,083  ;  the  electric  lighting  .system,  to 
Gagen  &  Butler,  Inc..  1402  Bway..  New 
York  City,   $10,484.     Noted  Apr.   9. 

N.  J.,  .lersey  Cit.i — The  Elks  Club  Asso- 
ciation has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
installation  of  lighting  and  power  for  its 
building  on  Hudson  Blvd..  to  L.  Fort.  428 
Hoboken  Ave.      Estiinated  cost,   $9000. 

Ohio,  Columbus — The  Smith  Agricultural 
Chemical  Co..  Champion  and  Leonard  Sts.. 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection 
of  an  addition  to  its  power  house,  to  the- 
Frankenburg  Constr.  Co.,  705  Columbus 
Business  Savings  aiid  Trust  Bldg. 

Ohio,  North  Canton — The  Hoover  Sta- 
tion Sweeper  Co..  c  o  H.  W.  Hoover,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
1-story.  40x50  ft.  addition  to  its  boiler 
house,  to  Custer  Bros,.  141  Smith  .\ve.. 
X,    W.   Canton.      Estimated  cost.    $8000. 

.Mieh.,  Cheboygan — The  Cheboygan  Elec- 
tric Light  and  Power  Co.  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  a  new  power 
house  at  the  Black  River  dam,  to  W. 
Moody,  Cheboygan. 

Mich.,  Detroit — The  D.  Stott  Flour  Mills 
Co.,  Warren  and  Grand  River  Ave.,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a 
1-storv,  35  X  50  ft.  boiler  house,  to  the  Wis- 
consin Bridge  and  Iron  Co.,  1362  Penobscot 
Bldg.      Estimated   cost.    $10,000. 


Neftv  York — Current  (luotatioiis  tier  gi'oss  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ijorls*  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 

Current  Current 

Pea      $4.90  $5  6.5 

Buckwheat    4.45185.1.5  4.80@6.50 

Barley    3.40@3.65  3.80@4.50 

Rice     3.90@4.10  3.00@4.00 

Boiler     3.65(g3.90  

Quotations  at  the  upper  ports  are  about  5c 
Ing-her. 


BITUMINOUS 

P.o.b.  N.  Y.     Mine 


Gross       Price  Net     Gross 


$3.05 


$3.41 


2.85 

3.19 

5.05 

3.41 

2.55 

2.85 

Central    Pennsylvania. .  $5.06 
Maryland — 

Mine-run    4.S4 

Prepared    5.06 

Screening's    4.50 

*The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport.  Port  John- 
son. Port  Reading-,  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Am- 
boy. The  upper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty.  Hobo- 
ken. Weehawken,  Edfrewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut- 
tenberg:.  St.  George  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  the 
upper  ports  is  5c.  hig-her  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
nt  mines  for  line  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows: 


-Tide- 


rent 

Pea    »3.45 

Barley    '2.15 

Buckwheat    ..    3.15 
Rice     2.65 


Cur-       One  Yr.        Cur-       One  Yr. 


Ag-o 
$3.00 
1.50 
2.50 
2.00 


rent 
$4.35 


Boiler     '  2.45  1.80  3.55 


Ag-o 
$3.90 
2.40  1.7d 

3.75  3.40 

3.65  3.00 


;.90 


Cliiengo — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 

$3.25 — 3.40 
3.00 — 3.15 
2.75 — 2.90 


Prepared  sizes 
Mine-run  ,  .  .  . 
Screening's    .  .  . 


.$2.55 — 2.70 
.  2.35 — 2.50 
.    2.05 — 2.20 


St.    i.ouis — Prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  minei  are 
as  follows: 

Williamson  and       Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  St-.indard 

e-in.    lump     ...$2.55-2.90   $2.55-2.70  $2.55-2.70 

2-in.    lump    .  .  .    2. 55-2. 90      2.55-2.70  2.55-2.70 

Steam    e^^    - 2.20-2.40 

Mine-run    - 2.35-2.50  2.00-2.20 

No.    1    nut 2.55-2.90     2.55-2.70      - 

2-in.    screen     ..    2.05-2.20     2.05-2.20  ......... 

No.    r.    washed.    2.05-2.20      2.05-2.20      - 


Ith-Diingliiiui — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b. 

mines  are  as  follows: 


Lump  Slack  and 

&  Nut  Screenings 

$2.15  $1.65 

2.40  1.90 

3.65  2.15 


Mine- 
Run 

Big:  Seam   $1.90 

Pratt.   .Tairper.   Corona     3.15 
Ult»'-k  Creek.  Cahaba.      2.40 
Government  figrures. 

Ii:dividual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  reg^ular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
g-enerally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according^  to  a  regular  schedule. 


POWER 


?t./ 


iiiiiii II iiiiiMiiMi iiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiii Mill limit lilt 11 


Vol.  47 


NEW   YORK.    JUNE    18,    1918 


No.    25 


MltllMIMIMnilllllMllllllllill 


llillltlllllllllllllllllllllllliii 


imttiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


Confidence  in  Employers 


IT  is  the  confidence  whicli  even  tlie  lium- 
blest  worker  has  in  his  employers  and  the 
"""product  he  helps  to  make  that  goes  toward 
general  success.  Too  often  we  see  and  hear 
of  engineers  and  others  in  power-plant  work 
who  lack  confidence  in  their  employers. 

For  instance,  an  engineer  wants  some 
new  appliance,  a  new  piece  of  apparatus  or 
some  supplies.  He  wants  them  immediately 
whether  they  are  of  great  necessity  or  not. 
Well,  perhaps  owing  to  expenditures  in  other 
lines  or  departments,  the  firm  is  not  in  a 
position  to  buy  these  things  just  at  the  time 
the  engineer  wants  them. 

As  a  result,  the  engineer  loses  confidence 
in  his  employers — not  that  the  loss  of  con- 
fidence is  deserved,  for  generally  the  engi- 
neer views  only  one  side  and  that  is  his.  He 
finally  decides  that  the  firm  is  too  cheap  to 
lay  out  a  few  dollars,  so  what  is  the  use  of 
trying  to  do  things.  He  neglects  what  old 
apparatus  he  has — to  his  own  undoing. 


An  engineer  had  a  cold-water  pump  in  his 
plant,  drawing  water  from  a  deep  well  and 
pumping  to  a  high  pressure.  The  pump 
was  not  placed  in  a  very  suitable  position — it 
was  exposed  to  all  sorts  of  dirt  and  grit. 
Of  course  it  was  running  under  hard  service, 
and  with  a  little  extra  care  could  have  been 
made  to  hold  out  awhile  longer.  Instead, 
the  engineer  wanted  a  new  pump  and  a  larger 
one.  He  could  not  get  one,  so  he  made  up 
his  mind  that  the  firm  was  too  cheap  a  firm 
for  him  to  work  for,  and  he  quit.  The  new 
engineer  came  and  gave  a  lot  of  time  and 
patience  to  the  old  pump,  and  it  was  not 
very  long  before  he  had  a  nice  increase  in 
salary,  besides  getting  just  the  pump  he 
wanted. 

Engineers,  realize  that  there  are  other  ex- 
penses in  an  isolated  plant  besides  the  power 
house,  and  your  employer  has  to  meet  them 
all.  Let  your  employers  see  that  you  have 
full  confidence  in  what  they  are  doing,  and 
they  will  surely  place  confidence  in  you. 


Contributed  by  .1.  C.  Ihihfy,  Cooiicrytuwii,  N.  Y. 
Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIII Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIII1 


862 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


FIG.   1.      INTERIOR   VIKW   OF  THE   PRESENT   BADEN   STATION  BOILER  ROOM 

Remodeling  the  St.  Louis  Baden  Station 


By  K.  TOENSFELDT 


The  remodeled  station  will  contain  four  boilers 
from  an  old  station  and  four  new  boilers  of  the 
same  type  and  size,  making  a  total  of  3300  boiler 
horsepower.  Chain-grate  stokers  will  be  used. 
The  total  investment  will  be  $177,500,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  the  yearly  saving  in  operating  ex- 
penses will  be  about  $11,797. 


THE  Baden  Station  or  High-Service  Station  No. 
3  is  situated  in  the  northernmost  part  of  the 
City  of  St.  Louis  and  was  built  in  1806.  The 
growth  of  the  city  westward,  leading  farther  from  the 
original  pumping  station  and  into  the  higher  parts  of 
the  surrounding  country,  necessitated  additional  pump- 
ing capacity  and  a  higher  main  pressure.  The  Baden 
Station,  the  water  mains  from  which  in  general  cir- 
cumscribe the  older  central  or  downtown  parts  of  the 
city  and  supply  the  outlying  western,  southern  and  the 
higher  districts,  pumps  a  pressure  of   125  lb.   into  a 


closed  system.  The  high-service  stations  Nos.  1  and  2, 
supply  the  central  and  lower  districts  and  pump  against 
a  pressure  of  85  pounds. 

The  high-service  stations  Nos.  1  and  2,  and  the  low- 
service  station  No.  2  have  been  reconstructed  with 
modern  equipment  and  were  completed  during  the  sum- 
mer of  1916,  and  in  the  fall  of  last  year  an  ordinance 
was  passed  appropriating  funds  for  the  reconstruction 
of  the  Baden  Station.  Although  the  present  time  is 
most  inopportune  for  such  an  undertaking,  the  physical 
condition  of  the  plant  is  such  that  the  change  is  a 
necessary  one.  Fortunately,  the  Water  Division  is  able 
to  make  use  of  much  rf  the  equipment  from  another 
station  where  the  equipment  of  two  engine  houses  was 
connected  to  the  boilers  of  one  remodeled  boiler  room, 
leaving  the  machinery  of  the  abandoned  boiler  room 
available. 

In  the  engine  room  there  is  little  to  be  done.  The 
six  original  vertical,  triple-expansion  pumps  are  in  good 
condition,  some  revealing  better  duties  on  recent  tests 
than  were  obtained  oii  the  acceptance  tests.     The  re- 


June  18, 1918 


P  O  W  E  R 


863 


n;odeling  of  the  engine  room  will  merely  involve  the 
installation  of  a  sin^^rle  new  10-in.  steam  header  and 
loop  to  replace  the  present  three  10-in.  mains.  The  re- 
newal of  these  is  necessitated  by  the  anticipation  of 
usin}>:  hijrher  steam  temperatures,  which  mean  the  use 
of  heavier  cast-steel  valves  and  fittings  in  place  of  the 
present  light  cast-iron  ones. 

There  will  be  a  resultant  saving  in  the  engine  room 
due  to  the  uss  of  superheated  steam  in  the  pumps  and  u 
saving  in  radiation  loss  due  to  the  single  header  re- 
placing the  three  present  headers.  A  series  of  tests  were 
made  on  pump  No.  13  at  the  high-service  station  No.  2 
to  determine  the  savin;'  effected  by  superheating.  Fig. 
3  shows  the  results  graphically. 

It  is  of  interest  to  mention  that  superheated  steam 
has  caused  cracks  of  de.structive  extent  in  the  old  un- 
annealed  high-pressure  cylinder  heads  of  the  pumping 
engines  at  the  high-service  station  No.  1.  These  were 
renewed  with  new  annealed  heads  with  properly  pro- 
portioned reinforcing  ribs. 


the  boiler  plant,  based  on  the  actual  operating  and  coal 
costs  for  the  year  1916-17: 

Total  noal  burnotl,  tons 22,750 

('o.4t  of  egg  coul  unloaded  at  $1.65  per  ton                                       ,  $37,537 

1 6  firemen  at  $90  per  month           .  17,280 

16  coal  passers  at  $65  pi-r  riMnitli  12,480 

I  boiler-room  foreman  at  $75  per  niuutli  900 

I  boiler  washer  at  $90  per  nicmlli  1,080 

Total  $69,277 

Cost  per  10,000  lb.  uf  steam  $0  24 
Total  water  evaporated,  lb                                                                                   288,000,000 

Cost  of  proposed  new  tunnel                                $10,000 

Cost  of  pro[)ose(l  new  bunker,  foal  and  ash-handling  equipment... .  60,000 

Cost  of  four  new  400-hp.  I  oilers               35,200 

Cost  of  four  new  superheaters             7,5uO 

C^ost  of  mo\'inc  four  400-hp.  boilers  from  Bisscll's  Point  to  Baden. ...  3,200 

Cr)st  of  brick  settings  for  eight  boilers      9,600 

Cost  of  stokers  for  eight  boilers                   16,000 

Changes  in  steam  headers  and  feed  lines 3.000 

Cost  of  new  brreching                                              5,000 

Cost  of  proposed  new  stack                          28,000 

Total  investment  $177,500 

To  evaporate  288,000,000  lb.  of  water  with  screenings 
containing  10,000  B.t.u.  per  lb.  would  require 
288,000,000  X  970  >  1.07      ^„  ^^^  ^^  ,, 

10,000"^0:65 =  46.000,000  lb. 

where   1.07   =  factor  of  evaporation  and  0.65   =^  effi- 


Kli;.    J.      1  LAN  .A.ND  ELEVATION  UF  TIIK  SK\\    BADK.X   STATIO.V  BOILIOH   ROOM 


The  boiler  room  of  this  station  was  completed  in  1398. 
The  equipment  consist  of  fcur  batteries  of  two  each,  or 
eight  277-hp.  water-tube  boilers  each  of  which  is 
equipped  with  down-draft  type  of  furnaces.  The 
boiler  plant  at  present  is  well  taxed  to  its  capacity  dur- 
ing periods  of  n.aximum  pumping,  and  is  in  immediate 
need  of  enlargement.  The  boilers  are  in  their  twentieth 
year  of  service,  havin:^  done  duty  practically  continu- 
ously day  and  night,  and  they  have  already  been  run- 
ning longer  than  wh:;t  is  considered  the  usual  life  of 
boilers  of  thi.s  type.  In  Fig.  1  is  shown  an  interior  of 
the  present  boiler  room  and  indicates  the  attendant 
requirements  in  man-power  with  these  old-type  hand- 
fired  boilers  for  handling  coal  and  ashes.  The  tube 
spacing  of  the  down-draft  furnaces  is  such  that  the 
large-sized  coals  must  be  bought  for  fuel. 

The  following  is  taken  from  the  annual  report  of  1917 
and  showT  the  saving  that  can  be  effected  by  remodtling 


ciency.     Hence  with  the  new  equipment  we  would  have 


Total  coal  burned,  tons 

Price  per  ton 

Cost  of  screenings 

6  firemen  at  $90  per  month 

8  coal  passers  at  $65  per  month 

1  boiler-room  fireman  at  $75  per  month 

2  boiler  washers  at  $90  per  month 
Interest  on  investment  at  6  per  cent 

Total  cost  to  generate  steam 
Cost  per  1.000  lb.  steam 
Vearii'  sming  possible 


23,000 

$1  35 
$31,050 
6,480 
6.240 
900 
2,160 
10.650 


$57,480 

$0  199 

...... ^  , $11,797 

This  represents  a  saving  on  the  Investment  ($177,- 
500)  of  6.6  per  cent,  even  during  these  times  of  high 
prices. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  relate  some  of  the  symptoms 
of  age  in  the  boilers.  Each  unit  has  two  36-in.  drums 
which  were  originally  of  material  ,"',,  in.  thick  with  longi- 
tudinal, triple-riveted  lap  joints.  The  old  tubes  are  re- 
(juiring  continual  renewal,  as  hydrostatic  tests  to  150 
lb.  after  turbining,  invariably  reveal  leaks,  with  the 
consequent  removal  of  from  two  to  eight  tubes.     These 


864 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


1 — I j 1 — j 1     I     rpf 

^/C J 

^— ^    .  


tubes,  when  cut  to  pieces,  have  commonly  shown  weak 
spots.  During  the  last  year  a  tube  rupture  which  oc- 
curred in  the  sixth  bank  caused  a  temporary  shutdown 
of  the  entire  station.  If  it  were  not  for  the  immediate 
reconstruction  of  the  plant  the  boilers  would  all  have  to 
be  retubed. 

The  plant  will  furnish  steam  at  150  lb.  pressure  and 
150  deg.  superheat.     The  type  and  size  of  new  boilers 

100 

90 

+-60 
0 

v° 

|eo 

lfi50 

0) 

D20 

to 

"^170    I7E     r/4     176     TO     180    tZ     IM    IS6    166"  190    19?    W    fUb    198    fOO  202 
Dut-y  in  Millions  of  Foot-,  Pounds  per  lOOO  lb.  of  Steam 

FIG.   3.      CURVE   SHOWING   THE   RESULT  OP   TESTS 

determined  upon  for  the  remodeled  Baden  station  was 
governed  by  the  water-tube  boilers  that  were  removed 
from  the  high-service  station  No.  1,  due  to  connecting 
the  engines  of  this  station  to  the  boilers  of  the  high- 
service  station  No.  2,  as  already  mentioned.  These  boil- 
ers, four  in  number,  are  in  good  condition,  each  of  410 
hp.  capacity,  and  will  be  dismantled  and  reinstalled 
together  with  their  superheaters  at  the  Baden  station. 
In  order  to  maintain  uniformity  of  parts  throughout  the 
boiler  room,  four  new  boilers  of  the  same  type  and  size 
will  be  added.  The  total  plant  capacity  will  be  3300 
boiler  horsepower  which,  it  is  estimated,  will  serve  the 
pumping  demands  for  the  life  of  the  boilers. 

The  boilers  will  be  fired  by  chain-grate  stokers  with  a 
ratio  of  boiler-heating  surface  to  grate  area  of  48.  This 
ratio,  with  a  properly  designed  furnace,  will  drive  the 
boiler  efficiently  at  below  rating  and  at  30  per  cent,  and 
more  over  capacity.  The  chain-grate  stoker  was  selected 
as  being  best  adapted  for  the  purpose,  considering  the 
extent  and  nature  of  the  load,  the  grade  of  coal  to  be 
burned  and  the  amount  of  money  invested.  The  daily 
peak  of  the  maximum  pumping  periods  at  this  plant, 
which  pumps  into  a  closed  system,  varies  about  from  1.1 
to  1.3  of  the  average  and  from  1.2  to  2.0  of  the  minimum. 
The  chain-grate  stoker  meets  these  load  demands  nicely, 
and  it  was  considered  unwise  to  go  into  a  more  costly 
and  elaborate  type  of  stoker  with  all  attendant  auxil- 
iaries, especially  in  a  water-works  boiler  plant  where  the 
reserve  capacity  in  the  equipment  is  larger  than  in  most 
commercial  plants. 

The  question  of  installing  an  economizer  was  also  con- 
sidered, and  although  a  fair  return  on  the  investment 
might  be  realized,  over  the  life  of  the  economizer,  yet 
with  the  present  load  and  cost  of  economizers,  and  for  a 
few  years  to  come,  it  was  questionable  whether  any  gain 
would  be  realized.  Provision  has  been  made,  however, 
in  the  planning  of  the  boiler  plant  and  in  the  breeching, 
should  occasion  arise  in  the  future  for  the  installation 
of  economizers. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  plan  of  the  boiler  room.  Coal  is  dumped 


from  the  railway  track  into  the  track  hopper,  passes 
through  a  crusher  and  reciprocating  feeder  into  a  con- 
tinuous pivoted  bucket  conveyor,  which  elevates  it  and 
dumps  it,  with  the  aid  of  a  traveling  tripper,  into  the 
desired  bunker.  The  same  conveyor  receives  the  ashes 
from  the  boilers  and  delivers  them  to  the  ash  hopper 
over  the  track  hopper.  Ashes  may  be  deflected  through 
a  chute  to  a  car  on  the  side  track  or  may  be  stored  in  the 
hopper.  A  conveyor  of  the  same  type,  handling  both 
coal  and  ashes,  has  been  in  service  at  the  low-service 
station  No.  2  for  three  years,  and  no  appreciable  wear 
due  to  handling  ashes  in  the  same  conveyor  has  been 
noticed.  The  storage  capacity  of  the  bunkers  was  made 
as  large  as  possible,  this  feature  having  manifested 
itself  as  very  desirable  during  the  past  winter. 

Fig.  4  shows  a  transverse  section  through  a  boiler 
setting.  Coal  may  feed  from  the  bunker  through  auto- 
matic weighing  scales  into  the  stoker  hopper,  or  it  may 
be  shunted  by  means  of  a  long  spout  (with  the  scales 
pushed  aside)  from  the  bunker  past  the  stoker  hopper 
into  the  siftings  hopper  and  down  onto  the  conveyor, 
whence  it  may  be  elevated  and  dumped  into  another 
hopper. 

All  coal  is  weighed  as  used,  and  the  boiler-feed  water 
is  measured  by  a  venturi  meter  with  integrating  and  in- 
dicating recorders.  A  weekly  efficiency  record  showing 
the  relative  station  performances  is  bulletined  at  all  sta- 
tions.    Each  boiler  is  equipped  with  indicating  steam- 


FIG.   4. 


SECTION    THR(^)UGH    ONE    OF    THE    BOILERS 
AND  SETTING 


flow  meter  and   CO,  apparatus.     Stack-breeching  tem- 
peratures are  recorded  on  a  continuous  chart. 

The  steam  piping  was  designed  on  the  loop  plan  so 
that  both  in  the  engine  and  boiler  rooms  there  will  be 
two  ways  of  getting  steam  to  the  engines  or  from  the 
boilers.  Fig.  2  shows  the  piping  in  the  new  boiler 
room  in  both  plan  and  elevation.  The  maximum 
velocity  in  the  10-in.  header  alone  will  approximate  7600 
ft.  per  minute.  All  valves  and  fittings  will  be  of  extra- 
heavy  cast  steel  with  all  joints  male  and  female  faced. 


June  18,  1918 


POWER 


865 


A  new  reinforced  brick-veneer  smoke-stack,  235  ft. 
hii>h  and  9  ft.  G  in.  mean  diameter,  will  maintain  a  1  in. 
draft  at  the  breeching  of  the  farthe.st  boiler.  The  design 
was  treated  to  conform  with  the  style  of  the  architecture 
of  the  -station  buildings. 

During  the  reconstruction  of  the  station  the  service 
must  be  uninterrupted,  and  for  this  reason  the  new 
boilers  face  opposite  to  the  present  ones.  This  permits 
the  new  breeching  and  stack  to  be  erected  while  the  old 
boilers  are  in  service  and  throws  the  major  part  of  re- 
construction work  out  of  the  way  of  the  firing  aisle  of 
the  old  boilers. 

It  is  expected  to  have  the  Baden  station  well  toward 
completion  by  the  summer  of  1919. 

Some  Characteristics  of  Babbitt  Alloys 

The  melting  point  of  both  genuine  babbitt  and  strictly 
lead-base  babbitt  is  around  500  deg.  F.,  and  this  is 
about  as  high  a  melting  point  as  can  be  obtained  in  a 
babbitt  alloy.  The  melting  point  of  a  babbitt  is  always 
lower  than  the  arithmetical  mean  of  the  melting  points 
of  the  metals  forming  the  compositions,  and  variations 
from  certain  rules  in  mixing  reduces  the  melting  point 
of  the  mixture  below  that  of  the  most  fusible  metal  in 
the  alloy. 

As  an  illustration,  take  a  mixture  of  87  per  cent, 
lead  and  13  per  cent,  antimony.  Since  the  melting 
point  of  lead  is  619  deg.  and  of  antimony  834  deg. 
F.,  it  would  be  natural  to  suppose  that  adding  antimony 
to  lead  would  bring  the  mixture  to  a  higher  melting 
point  than  that  of  lead,  say  to  the  mean  melting  point 
of  the  two,  about  645  deg.  F.  At  any  rate,  it  would 
not  be  unreasonable  to  expect  to  obtain  a  higher  melting 
point  than  that  of  lead  (619),  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  melting  point  of  this  alloy  is  477  deg.  F.  This  is 
the  lowest  melting  point  of  the  series  of  lead  and  anti- 
mony mixtures. 

A  tin  and  lead  mixture  consisting  of  about  60  per 
cent,  tin  and  40  per  cent,  lead  melts  at  about  336  deg. 
F.,  representing  the  low  limit,  while  another  of  about 
60  per  cent,  lead  and  40  per  cent,  tin  melts  at  about  412 
deg.  F.,  representing  the  high  limit.  This  latter  mix- 
ture is  known  commercially  as  "wiping  solder"  and  is 
used  for  that  purpose  by  plumbers  because  it  remains 
in  a  pasty  stage  while  cooling  through  a  range  of  70 
deg.  F. 

There  is,  however,  a  widespread  belief  that  the  cost 
of  a  tin-base  babbitt  can  be  cheapened  without  injury 
to  its  quality  by  the  addition  of  lead,  and  also  that  the 
quality  of  a  lead-base  metal  can  be  improved  by  increas- 
ing the  tin  content — this  latter  idea  being  based  no 
doubt  on  the  assumption  that  if  a  little  tin  is  good 
more  is  better.  But  without  knowledge  of  the  effect 
produced  in  alloying  certain  kinds  and  proportions  of 
metals,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  fall  into  grave  error  in 
compounding  babbitts.  Intermediate  grades  of  bab- 
bitts have  their  use,  but  they  can  only  be  used  success- 
fully under  most  favorable  conditions,  and  they  gen- 
erally fail  under  heavy  pressure,  high  speed  and  scant 
lubrication,  chiefly  because  of  their  low  fusibility,  which 
makes  them  highly  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  fric- 
tional  or  initial  heat.  As  far  as  outer  appearances  go 
these  intermediate  grades  seem  to  be  most  desirable, 
and  they  will  also  stand  the  usual  physical  tests  of  ham- 


mering, cutting  and  bending;  but  when  put  in  service, 
they  are  apt  to  give  trouble.  This  is  generally  attrib- 
uted to  some  mechanical  defect  or  to  the  lubrication,  as 
users  are  in  the  dark  as  to  other  possible  causes,  the 
chief  one  being  the  low  melting  point,  influenced,  as 
shown,  by  the  mixtures. 

Safety  Latch  for  Furnace  Door 

By  C.  W.  Howard 

The  illustration  shows  a  safety  latch  for  boiler- 
furnace  doors,  which  I  designed  and  put  on  the  Heine 
boilers  of  the  Celina  (Ohio)  Municipal  Electric-Light 
and   Water-Works   plant.     These   latches  have  been   in 


i" Drill 


^1J 


^Vf(_l \-\-\   -t £_  J 


'■"Drill:        r-ix 


I      Y 


:^"    I    \  <f    I  y  I 
u 10" >i 


GKNER.M,    WVW    .A.N'O    DKTAILS    OF    S.VFKTV    I.ATCH 

continued  use  for  two  years,  and  in  that  time  have 
given  no  trouble  and  h?.ve  required  no  repairs.  The 
pai-ts  are  shown  in  suflicient  detail,  with  dimensions, 
to  permit  anyone  to  order  or  construct  others  from 
them. 

The  object,  of  course,  is  to  provide  a  latch  that 
will  hold  the  door  closed  and  prevent  the  fire  from 
being  blown  out  into  the  fireroom  in  case  of  a  tube 
failure,  and  at  the  same  time  one  that  is  not  cumber- 
some to  manipulate.  This  device,  I  believe,  meets  these 
requirements  and  is  at  the  same  time  inexpensive  to 
make.  A  slight  pressure  on  the  handle  above  the  spring 
raises  the  latch  so  that  the  door  can  swing  open. 


866 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


Interpreting  Steam -Turbine  Test  Curves 


By  H.  E.  BRELSFORD 


A  brief  description  of  standard  turbine  data 
curves,  and  hoio  they  are  derived  and  used  in 
interpreting  turbine  characteristics  is  given. 

THE  following  curves  are  all  based  on  a  constant 
number  of  -jets  or  nozzles  in  operation.  Fig.  1,  a 
power-pressure  curve,  is  plotted  to  show  the  in- 
crease of  power  with  increase  of  pressure  at  a  constant 
speed    (approximately  so,  varying  only  with  governor 


first  set  of  nozzles  and  it  is  controlled  by  the  governor. 
With  a  given  speed  it  takes  a  certain  amount  of  pres- 
sure to  run  the  turbine  at  no  load.  This  readily  shows 
that  with  atmospheric  exhaust  the  power-pressure  line 
will  not  pass  through  the  0  gage-pressure  point.  As  a 
general  case  this  may  be  stated  in  this  way :  When  the 
power-pressure  line  is  plotted,  the  point  at  which  it  in- 
tersects the  pressure  line  will  be  at  a  pressure  greater 
than  the  exhaust  pressure,  the  magnitude  of  the  dif- 
ference representing  the  sum  of  the  no-load  or  rotation 
and  radiation  losses  in  the  turbine.    This  form  of  curve 


cn 
O 
O 


100 


80 


60 


40 


^o 


o 

z 


O) 
0 
OlOO 

m 

^  eo 

0 
a 

u  60 

i_ 
D 

in 
S40 

Q. 

0120 

ir 
I 

2    O 

N 

Z 


POU 
EXPER 

'tR 
ME 

-PRESSURE 
NTAL,  ATI 

CURVt 
^OSPI 

f/?/C 

y^ 

-- 

--- 

■- 

" 

EX  HAL 

ji>i 

-- 



- 

y 

'^ 

^ 

y' 

1 
1 

^ 

y 

1 
I 

^ 

/ 

1 

1 

y 

k 

^ 

y 

1 
1 

^■^ 

y' 

1 

y\ 

y 

J 

y 

1 
J — 

10 


20 
Bra 


30 
k  e 


40 
Mors 


50  60 

e  p  o  w  e  K 


70 


SO 


FIG.  1 


1 — 

/ 

TOTAL    STE An- t^RtHiiURC     (.UhtVC 
EXPERIMENTAL,  ATMOSPHERIC 

/^ 

t: 

X.H/ 

\ut 

1 

/ 

-- 

— 

-- 

-- 

^ 

-- 

-- 

/ 

A 

J 

/ 

1 
1 

/^ 

1 

/ 

/ 

1 

1 

/ 

A 

1 

/ 

/ 

1 

V 

/ 

1 
1 

^ 

^ 

V 

1 
1 

/ 

y 

1 
1 

%J50'^\^ACUUM 

1 

1 

1000 
steam 


2000 
Pounds 

FIG.  2 


3000 
per     Hour 


4000 


60 


:50 


40 


120 


-- 

hs 

>s_ 

s 

k 

s^ 

^ 

~J 

1"^ 

c 

ECONOMY   CURVE  ' 

'At  rm  ATFn    PPDM    f/ia\/ec 

1   FIG.  1  AND 

FIG.  2, 

Cy  UA/ICT 

■ 

10 


eo       30 

Brake 


40 
H  o  r 

FIG.  3 


50         60 
s  e  p  o  w  e  »* 


70 


80 


60 


^50 
0) 

J 

0  40 

a 

0) 

^■30 

0 

r 

20 


X 

0 

CD 


10 


1 

SPPFn  - 

; 
Rl?AH'F 

!      1      1      1 

-  HnR.'iFPnWFR 

CUR)/ 

f) 

FOR    60-LB.  RING   PRESSURE 
A  -  ^Hnu/c   Mn<:T  ffficifnt  spff 

EXPERI 

MENTA 

L 

A 

1 

•^ 

f 

y' 

oi 

f\ 

y 

^) 

] 

b 

/ 

/ 

500       lOOO      1500      2000      2500      3000      3500      400C 
Revolu1-ions     per        Minute 

FIG.  A 


PIGS.   1   TO   4.      CURVES  SHOWING   DIFPEREXT   CHAUACTERISTICS  OF  STE.-\M  TURBINES 


regulation).  Used  simply  as  an  indication  of  the  tur- 
bine's power  capacity,  this  curve  shows  the  maximum 
power  of  the  turbine.  As  the  initial  steam  pressure  is 
generally  a  fixed  quantity,  the  maximum  ring  pressure 
is  determined,  hence  the  horsepower  at  this  pressure  is 
determined.  This  horsepower  may  be  increased  or  di- 
minished by  using  larger  or  smaller  nozzle  areas,  and  of 
course  using  more  or  less  steam  proportionally.  Ring 
pressure  may  be  defined  as  the  pressure  existing  on  the 


is  valuable  as  it  may  be  used  as  a  chart  to  show  the 
horsepower  being  developed  by  the  turbine  at  any  given 
ring  pressure  while  in  operation.  This  curve  is,  of 
course,  determined  experimentally  by  an  actual  test  and 
is  a  straight  line. 

Fig.  2,  a  steam-flow-pressure  curve,  is  plotted  to  show 
the  rate  of  flow  of  steam  with  any  pressure.  This  curve 
is  also  a  straight  line  except  in  the  region  where  the  ab- 
solute exhaust  pressure  (back  pressure  on  the  jets)   is 


June  18.  1918 


P  O  \V  i<:  R 


867 


less  than  58  pei'  cent,  of  the  absolute  nozzle-riniir  pres- 
sui'e  (initial  pressure  on  the  jets).  In  a  sinKle-stage 
turbine  or  a  single-element  Cu'-tis  turbine  with  atmos- 
pheric exhaust,  with  jets  discharging  into  atmosphere, 
the  initial  pressure  must  be  more  than  10.63  lb.  gage  or 
the  points  on  this  power-pressure  curve  will  not  be  in  a 
straight  line.  A  multi-stage  turbine  has  the  same  char- 
acteristic straight-line  pressure  curve,  but  here  the 
break  is  detennined  by  the  relation  of  the  ring  pressure 
to  the  pressure  in  the  first  stage.  There  is  hardly  a 
perceptible  difference,  however,  from  the  straight 
single-stage  turbine.  On  a  multi-stage  turbine  the  ex- 
haust pressure  can  be  carried  through  a  very  consider- 
able range  before  altering  the  steam-flow  rate. 

With  any  nondiverging  nozzles  the  steam  flow  per 
hour  is  calculated  from  the  formula 

W=-    "^^      - 
^       0.04F 

where 

pr=;  Pounds  steam  per  hour; 

S  ^=  Velocity  in  feet  per  second  of  steam  issuing 

from  the  nozzle; 
.A  :=  Area  of  nozzle  throat  (also  mouth)   in  square 

inches ; 
V  =  Specific  volume  of  steam  at  the  pressure  into 
which  the  jet  discharges; 

0.04  =  A  constant  which  takes  into  account  the  time 
and  space  factors  of  the  different  quantities. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  on  a  multi-stage  turbine  if 
the  exhaust  pressure  is  increased  it  raises  :he  back  pres- 
sure against  each  set  of  jets  or  nozzles.  Each  stage 
then  can  be  considered  as  an  individual  single-stage 
turbine,  and  its  characteristic  pressure-flow  line  would 
be  identical  with  the  first  case  discussed.  It  should  be 
noted,  though,  that  the  ratio  of  back  pressure  to  initial 
pressure  on  the  last  stage,  and  hence  the  ratio  of  specific 
volume  to  velocity,  is  slightly  different  from  the  ratio  of 
first-stage  pressure  to  ring  pressure.  The  lower  end  of 
a  flow  curve  is,  however,  not  of  any  consequence,  as  the 
real  operating  conditions  are  always  at  least  above 
quarter  load. 

The  curve.  Fig.  2,  at  the  lower  end  shows  where  the 
line  curves  to  the  left  and  passes  through  0  gage  pi-es- 
sure.  If  this  curve  was  plotted  to  absolute  pressures, 
it  would  pass  through  absolute-zero  pressure  the  same  as 
if  the  straight  portion  is  produced  in  Fig.  2.  If  plotted 
to  gage  pressure  the  straight  part  produced  will  pass 
through  absolute  zero  the  same  as  when  plotted  to  ab- 
solute pressure,  14.7  below  zero  gage.  If  the  throat 
area  of  an  expanding  nozzle  is  known,  this  curve  can  be 
computed  according  to  Napier's  formula,  but  ordinarily 
it  is  determined  by  test  and  this  serves  as  a  check  on 
nozzle  or  jet  dimensions.  One  point  determines  this 
line,  as  it  can  be  drawn  through  absolute  zero  and  the 
given  point.  It  is  also  an  interesting  fact  that  the  steam 
flow  is  independent  of  the  speed  as  far  as  can  be  de^ 
termined  in  commercial  testing.  This  fact  makes  it 
possible  to  make  a  steam-flow  test  with  the  turbine's 
rotor  locked  so  that  it  cannot  rotate.  There  is,  however, 
a  small  difference  existing,  theoretically,  due  to  the  re- 
heating effect  of  the  greater  relative  velocity  between 
the  steam  and  the  blading. 

An  economy,  or  brake-horsepower-water-rate  curve,  is 
given  in  Fig.  3  and  is  plotted  to  show  the  variation  of 
the  economy  or  steam  rate  with  the  output  at  constant 


speed.  It  is,  of  course,  a  well-known  fact  that  the  econ- 
omy at  partial  loads  is  not  as  good  as  at  full  load,  or  at 
the  load  for  which  the  turbine  was  designed  to  operate 
with  best  economy.  An  economy  curve  v/ill  therefore 
show  an  improvement  with  increase  of  load,  the  speed 
remaining  constant,  until  a  point  is  reached  where  the 
quantity  of  steam  is  the  maximum  for  which  the  turbine 
was  designed,  and  then  the  rate  per  horsepower  will 
usually  increase.  This  curve  is  derived  directly  from 
curves  1  and  2.  For  instance,  if  it  is  desired  to  deter- 
mine how  much  steam  is  required  per  horsepower- 
hour  when  the  output  is  60.75  hp. :  Then  on  curve  1 
at  60.75-hp.  pass  vertically  to  the  power  line  and  from 
the  intersection  pass  horizontally  to  the  pressure  line 
and  read  the  pressure  required  to  produce  60.75  hp.  On 
curve  2  at  this  same  pressure,  80  lb.,  pass  horizontally 
to  the  flow  line  and  at  the  intersection  drop  straight 
down  and  read  the  quantity  of  steam  flowing  at  this 
pressure,  namely,  2460  lb.  per  hour.    This  value  divided 


80   ( 
c 

70 
60  : 
50 
40 


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1500   2000 

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Fir;     5.      COMBINATION  OF   CURVES  FIGS.    1.   2    .A.ND    3 

by  the  brake  horsepower  gives  the  pounds  per  brake- 
horsepower-hour;  that  is,  2460  --  60.75  =  40.5  pounds. 

These  curves  are  shown  combined  in  standard  form  in 
Fig.  5  together  with  an  indication  of  the  way  one  point 
was  determined  on  the  economy  curve.  The  steam  per 
brake-horsepower-hour  at  75-hp.  load  is  determined  by 
finding  75  on  the  brake-horsepower  line  at  the  bottom 
of  the  figure  and  following  vertically  to  the  brake-horse- 
power-pressure line,  then  horizontally  to  the  total-steam- 
pressure  line  and  up  vertically  to  the  total-steam-per- 
hour  line  at  the  top  of  the  figure,  and  reiid  2900  lb.  total 
steam  per  hour.  The  steam  per  brake-horsepower-hour 
equals  2900  -^  75  =  38.7  lb.  Find  38.7  on  the  pounds 
of  steam  per  brake-horsepower-hour  line  on  the  right 
of  the  figure,  and  run  horizontally  to  the  left  until  the 
vertical  line  running  from  75  brake-horsepower  is  in- 
tersected, which  will  give  this  point  on  the  economy 
curve. 

A  power-speed  curve.  Fig.  4,  is  plotted  to  show  the 
variation  of  power  with  speed  at  a  constant  pressure. 
This  curve  is  made  from  tests  and  is  used  principjilly  to 
show  the  point  of  maximum  efficiency.  Sometimes  many 
such  curves  are  drawn  at  Viirying  pressures  and  thus  in- 
dicate the  range  of  the  given  turbine.     As  the  pressure 


868 


POWEK 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


increases,  the  velocity  of  the  steam  issuing  from  the  jets 
or  nozzles  increases,  so  also  the  point  of  maximum  effi- 
ciency would  be  at  a  higher  speed,  exhaust  conditions 
remaining  constant.  Windage  and  friction  losses,  in- 
cluding also  steam  friction  on  the  buckets,  increase  with 
increased  steam  and  wheel  velocity,  hence  with  a  given 
design  a  limiting  pressure  will  be  reached  where  further 
increase  does  not  make  the  point  of  maximum  efficiency 
lie  at  a  higher  speed.  It  is,  of  coui'se,  desirable  to  make 
the  pressure  and  velocity  conditions  such  that  this  max- 
imum efficiency  comes  at  the  point  of  operation.  The 
operating  point  is  not  always  the  full-load  point  for  this 
reason : 

In  many  cases  the  turbine  will  operate  at  les^ 
day,  hence  it  is  desired  to  have  this  the  best  economy 
condition.  Full  load  would  be  for  such  a  small  percent- 
age of  the  time  that  some  allowance  could  be  made  in 
the  matter  of  economy. 

Improved  Rim  for  Chain-Operated 
Valve 

A  recent  improvement  on  the  Babbitt  rim  for  chain- 
operated  valves,  a  description  of  which  was  published  tn 
page  560  of  the  Jan.  11,  1916,  issue  of  Power,  is  illus- 
trated herewith.  By  means  of  this  rim,  valves  may  be 
adapted  for  operation  by  chain,  the  sprocket  rim  being 
adjustable  to  fit  different  sizes  of  valve  wheels.  The 
improvement    consists    of    a    guard    having    two    arms 


CH.\I\  (U'lOK  Fdll  V.VLVK  WIll':i':i. 

through  which  the  chain  passes.  In  any  ordinary  in- 
stallation a  guard,  to  prevent  the  chain  from  jumping 
off  the  wheel,  is  unnecessary,  but  on  shipboard  or  where 
the  valve  stem  is  not  horizontal  or  where  other  unusual 
conditions  exist,  such  a  dsvice  is  sometimes  advisable. 
These  rims  ai-e  made  by  the  Babbitt  Steam  Specialty  Co., 
New  Bedford,  Mass. 


Krantz  Auto-Lock  Switch 

Wherever  the  workmen  have  little  knowledge  of  elec- 
tricity, it  is  desirable  to  use  switches  having  no  live 
parts  exposed  or  accessible  in  the  ordinary  operation  of 
the  switches  or  when  replacing  fuses.  To  accomplish 
this  the  Krantz  auto-lock  switch,  illustrated,  marketed 


THIS  SIDE  DEAD 


rtii:  SIDE  aiiV! 


^Vkv^. 

,^ 

B 

mm^w 

1?^B 

IHISSIOE  DEAD 

THts  Slot  *uve 

SICCTIOX    THROUGH    AUTO-LOCK    SW^ITCH.      TOP — SWITCH 

OPEN" ;  COVER  CLOSED.     BOTTOM — SHOWS  THAT  LIVE 

P.A.RTS  CANNOT  BE  REACHED  WHE.N  COVER  IS  OPEN 

by  the  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co., 
East  Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  has  been  dsveloped  and  is  in- 
tended for  use  on  main  circuits  or  wherever  an  ordi- 
nary knife  switch  is  applied.  The  switching  parts  and 
fuses  are  inclosed  in  a  steel  box  the  cover  of  which 
is  in  two  parts,  one  being  screwed  on  to  form  a  perma- 
nent covering  for  that  end  of  the  box  containing  the 
switch,  and  the  oth:r  part  being  hinged  so  as  to  swing 
back  and  permit  the  renewal  of  fuses,  as  shown  in 
the  figures.  A  latching  mechanism  makes  it  impossibla 
to  open  the  cover  without  first  throwing  the  switch  to 
the  "off"  position  and  rendering  all  fuses  and  other 
accessible  parts  dead.  As  long  as  ths  door  of  the  case 
13  open,  the  switch  contacts  cannot  be  closed. 

Two  padlocks  can  be  used  independently  of  each 
other,  so  that  the  switch  cover  can  be  locked  shut  with 
the  switch  either  "on"  or  "off,"  or  the  switch  can  be 
locked  in  the  "off"  position  with  the  cover  either  locked 
or  open.  Contact  is  made  by  means  of  a  laminated 
spring-copper  brush  B,  double-ended,  with  auxiliary 
arcing  contacts  at  each  end.  ( 

The  doubk-ended  brushes  provide  a  double  break, 
dividing  the  arc  between  the  two  ends,  each  of  which 
is  provided  with  a  separate  arcing  tip.  In  the  closed 
-position  the  switch  is  held  in  positive  contact  by  throw- 
ing a  toggle  over  center.  A  spring  provides  a  quick- 
break  for  opening,  the  mechanism  being  independent  of 
the  operating  handle.  These  switches  are  supplied  for 
250,  500  and  600  volts,  for  eii;her  alternating-  or  direct- 
current  service,  and  in  capacities  up  to  2000  amperes. 


The  apparent  consumption  of  crude  oil  in  April  was 
4.3  per  cent,  greater  than  in  March,  1918,  and  19.9 
per  cent,  greater  than  in  April,  1917. 


June  18,  1918 


POWER 


869 


The  Engine  as  a  Reducing  Valve 

We  often  see  the  statement  that  an  engine  taking 
steam  at  high  pressure  and  exhausting  into  a  low-pres- 
sure heating  system  simply  acts  as  a  reducing  valve. 
While  this  is  true  in  one  sense,  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind 
the  difference  between  the  two  in  the  effect  on  the  qual- 
ity or  quantity  of  the  steam.  In  order  to  do  any  v/ork 
the  engine  must  abstract  some  heat  from  the  steam. 
This  may  demonstrate  itself  in  the  form  of  water  in 
the  exhaust  steam,  being  steam  that  has  given  up  all  its 
latent  heat.  Under  other  conditions  the  exhaust  may 
still  be  dry  saturated  steam,  but  the  steam  supplied  to 
the  engine  in  this  case  must  have  been  superheated  to 
a  greater  or  less  deijree  or  the  steam  carried  late  in  the 
stroke,  but  there  is  a  loss  of  heat  just  the  same. 

With  the  reducing  valve,  however,  the  case  is  differ- 
ent; the  steam  does  no  work  except  upon  itself.  The 
work  done  in  overcoming  the  friction  or  resistance  "to 
the  passage  of  the  steam  through  the  contracted  orifice 
may  be  thought  of  as  producing  frictional  heat  that  is 
in  turn  absorbed  by  the  steam  in  passing,  producing 
superheated  steam  at  the  lower  pressure,  just  as  air  or 
water  carries  away  the  heat  from  a  brake  shoe.  There 
is,  of  course,  no  gain  in  heat  in  the  reducing  valve,  for 
it  is  apparent  that  it  has  no  means  of  generating  heat; 
nor  is  there  any  loss  of  heat  (.except  the  slight  radia- 
tion), so  there  is  nowhere  else  for  all  of  the  heat  pres- 
ent in  the  higher-pressure  steam  to  go  except  to  be  car- 
ried onward  by  the  lower-pressure  but  slightly  super- 
heated steam. 

This  difference  should  be  kept  in  mind  concerning  thi 
use  of  exhaust  steam  for  heating  as  against  steam 
from  a  high-pressure  boiler  passed  through  a  reducing 
valve  or  a  contracted  orifice  such  as  a  partly  opened 
valve.  For  each  horsepower-hour  of  work  done  by  the 
engine  there  has  disappeared  from  the  steam  not  less 
than  2545  B.t.u.  of  heat.  If  an  engine  takes  only  15  lb. 
of  steam  to  develop  one  horsepower  for  an  hour,  it  will 
be  seen  that  about  170  B.t.u.  taken  from  each  pound  of 


.steam  passing  through  is  enough  to  account  for  all  the 
power  developed.  If  the  engine  takes  30  lb.  of  steam, 
half  as  many  (85)  B.t.u.  will  be  taken  from  each  pound 
of  steam.  To  determine  the  percentage  of  the  total  heat 
taken  from  the  steam  in  the  form  of  useful  work,  it  is 
necessary  to  divide  2545  (the  B.t.u.  equivalent  of  one 
horsepower-hour)  by  the  pounds  of  steam  passing 
through  the  engine  per  hour  (the  engine's  water  rate). 
This  gives  the  B.t.u.  taken  from  each  pound  of  steam; 
this  (with  two  decimal  places  added)  divided  by  the 
total  heat  in  the  steam  for  the  given  pressure  and  de- 
gree of  superheat,  if  any,  as  shown  by  the  steam  tables, 
gives  the  percentage  of  heat  taken  from  the  steam  for 
each  horsepower  of  measured  work. 

Friction  and  radiation  loss  is  not  taken  into  account. 
For  example,  a  water  rate  of  30  lb.  per  hp.-hr.  gives 
2545  -f-  30  ^  85  B.t.u.  per  lb.  taken  from  the  steam, 
and  if  saturated  steam  at  150  lb.  gage  is  used,  the  total 
heat  of  which  is  1195,  then  85.00  -^  1195  =  7.1  per  cent. 
If  a  separator  attached  to  the  exhaust  pipe  took  out  all 
the  water,  there  would  be  discharged  from  it  about  li 
lb.  of  water  per  horsepower-hour  (plus  that  from  radia- 
tion), since  30  lb.  of  steam  has  given  up  heat  to  the 
extent  of  the  difference  between  1195  B.t.u.  in  steam  at 
150  lb.  gage  (substitute  any  other  pressui'e)  and  1150 
B.t.u.  in  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure,  or  45  B.t.u. 
per  pound  times  30  lb.  (or  substitute  the  water  rate  of 
the  engine)  =  1350,  a  little  more  than  half  the  total 
B.t.u.  (2545)  called  for;  the  remaining  1195  B.t.u.  must 
come  from  some  of  the  stearn  giving  up  its  latent  heat 
and  returning  to  a  liquid  state,  to  water.  In  doing  so 
each  pound  will,  of  course,  give  up  970.4  B.t.u.,  so  that 
1195  ^-  970.4  =  1Mb.  (approximately)  of  water  would 
result.  The  radiation  loss  is  no  greater  than  would  re- 
sult from  an  equal  surface  and  temperature  difference, 
and  leakage  may  or  may  not  be  considerable.  The  28- 
odd  pounds  of  dry  saturated  exhaust  steam  from  this 
engine  is  therefore  of  the  same  value  for  heating  or 
like  purpose  as  saturated  steam  generated  at  the  same 
pressure  in  a  low-pressure  boiler. 


jfa-  • '  : '—1 


U.    S.   S.   "GEM,"  SCOUT  PATHOL   NO.    41,   ASSIGNED  TO  THE  SUBMAKINK  DEFENSE  ASSOCIATION.    ONE  OF  ITS 
PRESENT  USES   IS  THE  TESTING   OF  VARIOUS   SORTS  OF  FtlELS 
[It  was  our  privilof?e  recently  to  talte  part  in  a  cruise  during  wliich   Ih.'   fuel    u.seel   was  powdefoil   coal   luirned    in   an   apparatus 
installed   t.y  the  Fuller  Engineerins  Co.      So  far  as   we  knnw   tins  is   tlie   tlrs     boat   to  be   run   will,    this  kn.d   of   luel       1  li,    I.  st    ol 
"colloidal  fu.l"   which   is  powdered  coal  suspended    in   tin-  ,-olloidalronditi..n   in   In.'l  oil.  described   m  our  issue  ol  May  -S.   I.MS.  w.i. 


also   made 


U\f   "riem." — Editor.] 


870 


POWEK 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


Compulsory  Co-operation   of   Central  Station 

and  Isolated  Plant 


By  S.  R.  SAGUE 


Correspondence  with  city  officials  of  Cleveland. 
Ohio,  the  Fuel  Administration  and  others,  con- 
cerning the  advisability  of  enforced  cooperation 
of  public-service  and  privately  owned  plants,  so  as 
to  avoid  duplication  of  distributing  systems  and 
prevent  icaste  of  coal. 


RECENT  experience  indicates  that,  if  a  statement 
is  repeated  often  enough,  people  will  come  to  be- 
lieve it  This  seems  to  be  the  crux  of  the  central- 
station  controversy  with  the  isolated  plant.  The  central 
station  has  declared  again  and  again  that  it  is  cheaper 
to  buy  power  than  to  make  it  in  individual  plants,  and 
it  is  astonishing  to  note  the  inroads  that  such  propa- 
ganda has  made  into  good  engineering. 

In  urging  the  adoption  of  purchased  power  the  mo- 
tives of  the  central  station  are  ulterior.  The  question  as 
to  whether  it  is  better,  from  a  financial  viewpoint,  for 
the  client  to  operate  his  own  plant,  is  never  considered 
Therefore,  the  writer  for  several  years  has  endeavored 
to  bring  about  an  arrangement  whereby  such  a  matter 
could  be  handled  as  an  engineering  problem  and  solvea 
to  the  best  advantage  of  all.  But  such  cooperation  does 
not  exist  in  the  policy  of  the  central  station. 

Happily,  I  believe  that  the  day  is  here  when  such  co- 
operation must  be  effected.  The  large  commercial  coal  re- 
quirements of  the  United  States  are  north  of  the  Mason 
and  Dixon  line,  and  all  factories,  with  but  few  excep- 
tions, north  of  this  line  require  heating  in  the  winter. 
In  line  with  the  idea  of  cooperation,  I  wrote  the  mayor 
of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  on  July  10,  1917,  the  subjoined  letter. 
Cleveland  operates  a  municipal  central  station  erected 
to  compete  with  the  privately  owned  plant  of  the  Cleve- 
land Electric  Illuminating  Co.,  and  the  rate  for  service 
was  fixed  at  one  cent  minimum  and  three  cents  max- 
imum. 

I  wish  to  call  your  attention,  at  this  time,  when  con- 
servation seems  to  be  the  watchword,  to  a  matter  whereby 
considerable  saving  could  be  effected  in  this  community  in 
the  conservation  of  coal.  A  manufacturing  city  such  as 
ours,  situated  in  a  climate  subject  to  the  rigors  of  winter, 
must  have  three  commodities,  inseparably  associated; 
namely,  heat,  light  and  power,  and  all  three  are  derived 
from  coal.  To  obtain  light  and  power  we  must  produce 
heat,  and  to  burn  coal  to  produce  heat  only  we  lose  energy 
which  could  be  converted  to  light  and  power  and  still  leave 
as  much  heat  for  heating  as  before.  To  make  light  and 
power  and  dissipate  the  exhaust  steam  to  the  atmosphere 
or  condensers  is  to  lose  the  heat  value  of  the  exhaust  steam. 

The  campaign  of  the  Illuminating  company  and  the 
municipal  light  plant  to  obtain  power  users  is  a  campaign 
of  inefficiency,  at  least  for  the  winter  months,  and  one 
prompted  entirely  by  selfish  motives.  Both  the  Illuminat- 
ing company  and  the  municipal  light  plant  are  a  necessity, 
but  they  do  not  take  a  sufficiently  wide  view  of  all  the 
requirements  of  the  city  for  light,  heat  and  power.  They 
emphasize  the  power  and  light  features  to  the  neglect  of 
the  heating,  and  consequently  there  is  pai'tial  duplication  of 
the  coal  requirements  of  the  city  as  a  whole.  The  large 
central  stations  can  make  current  for  power  and  light 
cheaper  than  the  small  isolated  plant;  but  in  the  winter- 
time it  is  not  possible  in  a  majority  of  cases  for  them  to 
furnish  light  and   power  and  have  the  manufacturer  fur- 


nish heat,  and  have  the  combined  cost  of  light,  heat  and 
power  as  low  as  though  the  manufacturer  fired  his  own 
boilers  and  obtained  light  and  power  to  the  extent  of  his 
requirements,  and  had  his  heat  besides. 

In  some  cases  the  coal  requirement  for  heating  certain 
factories  is  in  excess  of  the  requirements  of  those  factories 
for  power,  in  which  case  the  excess  current  generated  would 
be  disposed  of  advantageously;  for  if  all  boiler  plants  for 
heating  purposes  would,  in  the  winter  at  least,  pass  their 
steam  through  engines  to  the  extent  of  the  heating  require- 
ment, the  generators  these  engines  would  drive  could  be 
paralleled  with  the  distributing  system  so  as  to  pump  back 
on  the  line  any  excess  power  over  the  particular  factory's 
requirements,  which  would  then  be  available  somewhere 
else,  where  less  heat  but  more  power  would  be  required. 

The  central  stations  would  act  to  smooth  out  the  system, 
just  as  the  reservoirs  on  our  water  systems  take  the  come 
and  go  of  daily  varying  requirements.  In  the  summer  all 
coal  would  be  burned  most  advantageously  at  the  central 
stations.  This,  as  regards  factory  requirements,  would 
taper  off  in  the  spring  and  fall  to  a  minimum  in  the  winter. 
In  the  summer,  most  chimneys,  except  where  process  steam 
is  required,  would  be  smokeless,  aiding  the  housekeeper 
and  keeping  our  city  clean  when  we  want  cleanliness  most. 
We  would  not  mind  our  usual  soot  in  the  wintertime.  By 
this,  25  per  cent,  less  coal  would  be  burned  and  real  efficiency 
obtained. 

Furthermore,  the  two  power  companies  are  duplicating 
transmission  and  going  into  the  same  territory.  One  line 
or  distributing  system  could  be  made  to  do  if  the  municipal 
light  plant  and  the  Illuminating  company  were  hooked  in 
parallel  and  both  delivered  power  to  the  same  distributing 
system,  just  as  railroads  operate  over  each  other's  tracks 
on  an  agreed  compensation  per  car  mileage,  or  as  oil  wells 
pump  into  a  common  pipe  line.  The  oil  the  pipe  line  de- 
livers to  the  owner  at  the  terminal  is  not  the  actual  oil 
he  pumped,  but  is  oil  of  the  same  gravity  and  test,  just 
as  the  electricity  would  be  of  the  same  cycle  and  voltage. 
There  is  no  more  need  for  two  electric  distributing  systems 
than  there  would  be  for  two  water  systems  or  two  gas 
systems. 

For  the  city  to  buy  a  coal  mine  and  bi-ing  in  power  and 
light  over  high-tension  transmission  lines  would  not  re- 
lieve the  coal  shortage  except  as  regards  the  use  of  coal  by 
the  light  plant,  because  the  same  amount  of  coal  for  heat- 
ing must  be  spent  as  heretofore,  and  there  lies  the  great 
bulk  of  the  manufacturer's  real  coal  problem.  This,  how- 
ever, would  also  help  the  Illuminating  company  in  case  of 
shortage,  if  both  systems  were  tied  together. 

This  communication  was  acknowledged  by  the  mayor, 
who  referred  it  to  the  commissioner  of  light  and  heat. 
I  next  received  a  letter  from  the  commissioner  of  light 
and  heat,  which,  for  various  reasons,  I  prefer  to  with- 
hold in  this  communication,  but  its  context  may  be  sur- 
mised from  my  reply  of  July  27,  1917,  as  follows: 

I  am  afraid  you  overlooked  the  main  point  in  my  letter, 
namely,  heat  as  well  as  light  and  power;  also,  it  was  my 
intention  to  treat  of  power  users  or  factory  loads  entirely, 
and  not  domestic. 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  heat  either  a  factory  or  a 
home  with  electric  current,  no  matter  how  cheaply  you  get 
your  coal.  One  unit  of  electricity  costing  one  cent  is  equiva- 
lent to  3413  B.t.u.  One  pound  of  coal  contains,  say,  13,000 
B.t.u.,  and  one  ton  would  then  contain  26,000,000  B.t.u., 
and  using  arbitrarily  an  efficiency  of  50  per  cent.,  which 
is  low,  you  would  get  13,000,000  B.t.u.  from  a  ton  of  coal, 
which  would  be  equivalent  to  3809  units  of  electricity  cost- 
ing $38.09  on  a  basis  of  one  cent  per  unit.  With  coal  at 
even  $10  a  ton  the  domestic  user  could  not  afford  to  heat 
electrically,  much  less  a  factory  using  even  cheaper  steam 
coal. 

Any  proposition  covering  the  generating  of  current  either 
here  or  at  a  mine  must  be  on  the  basis  of  power  and  light 
only — not  heating.  You  will  see  that  the  point  of  my  letter 
dwelt  largely  on  the  question  of  heat  in  combination  with 
light  and  power.  They  cannot  be  separated,  as  all  originate 
from  coal,  and  any  factory  requiring  heat  makes  a  potential 


June  18. 1918 


POWER 


871 


lipht  and  power  equivaloiit  wliethtr  it  knows  it  or  not.  In 
other  words,  if  paili  pound  of  coal  could  bo  made  to  deliver 
its  total  equivalent  in  heat  as  wel?  as  in  li^ht  and  power, 
we  would  make  enormous  savings. 

You  lose  siiijht  entirely  of  my  suggestion  of  one  distribut- 
ing system  for  both  plants.  This  would  immensely  im- 
prove the  load  factor,  which  you  say  is  desirable.  The 
stand-by  losses  and  reserve  apparatus  necessary  for  sud- 
den increases  in  load  would  be  reduced  by  one  common  dis- 
tributing system,  as  these  items  are  now  in  duplicate, 
whereas  only  one  set  need  be  held  for  emergencies.  In  fact, 
by  an  equitable  arrangement  with  the  Illuminating  com- 
pany, the  municipal  light  plant  could  be  run  at  a  maximum 
at  all  times,  whether  generating  here  or  at  a  mine,  pump- 
ing its  current  into  a  common  distributing  system. 

You  state  that  the  immense  heating  load  comes  on  in 
winter,  requiring  enormous  capacity.  This  is  not  so  if 
you  arrange  one  distributing  system  and  have  each  factory 
make  current,  using  exhaust  steam  therefrom  to  an  amount 
necessary  to  heat,  and  pumping  any  excess  current  gene- 
rated back  on  the  line  for  use  elsewhere.  I  still  feel  you 
have  missed  the  point  of  my  letter  and  the  thought  con- 
tained therein,  and  your  solution  still  must  consider  heat, 
light  and  power  inseparably  in  the  commercial  field  at 
least,  which  in  turn  will  aid  the  domestic  field  on  light  and 
power  only.     Electric  heating  is  a  mirage. 

To  this  I  received  no  reply — central  stations  do  not 
like  to  discuss  heating — but  it  illustrates  how  any  effort 
is  smothered.  Along  this  line,  I  sent  a  circular  letter  to 
a  list  of  power  users.  One  of  these  letters  was  forward- 
ed to  some  central  station,  with  the  result  that  I  received 
a  letter  from  the  Society  for  Electrical  Development, 
Inc.,  as  follows : 

Our  attention  has  been  called  to  a  circular  letter  sent 
out  over  your  name,  advocating  +he  installation  of  isolated 
industrial  plants,  and  claiming  that  it  is  more  economical 
to  burn  coal  in  such  isolated  plants  than  it  is  to  take  cen- 
tral-station service,  the  claim  being  made  that  this  is  one 
way  of  conserving  coal.  The  letter  speaks  of  statistics 
proving  this.  We  are  very  much  interested  in  the  subject 
and  would  appreciate  it  if  you  would  kindly  send  us  the 
figures  upon  which  this  statement  is  based. 

To  this  I  replied  under  date  of  Mar.  13,  1918,  as  fol- 
lows: 

The  writer  was  interested  to  receive  your  communication. 
We  are  rather  under  the  impression  that  your  society  is, 
as  the  letterhead  states,  a  corporation  for  cooperation,  but 
only  so  far  as  it  benefits  the  central  station.  We  may  be 
misinformed  in  connection  with  this  and,  if  so,  would  ap- 
preciate your  setting  us  straight. 

We,  in  our  work,  have  endeavored  to  view  the  positions 
of  the  central  station  and  the  isolated  plant  from  an  engi- 
neering standpoint,  and  make  no  eff'ort  to  encourage  the 
installation  of  an  isolated  plant  where  we  believe  central- 
station  service  is  the  best.  However,  we  believe  that  the 
central  stations  do  not  take  this  attitude,  but  claim  that 
the  installation  of  central-station  service  is  always  best, 
speaking  from  the  user's  standpoint.  With  this  position 
we  cannot  agree. 

We  cannot  conceive  that  central-station  sei'vice  is  more 
economical  where  the  heating  load  is  the  principal  item  to 
be  considered.  The  central  station  has  made  an  effort  to 
shut  down  many  power  plants  where  the  coal  consumption 
for  heating  has  been  equal  to  or  greater  than  the  actual 
amount  of  coal  required  for  power  purposes.  During  the 
winter  months,  this  requires  the  plant  so  served  to  burn  the 
same  amount  of  coal  as  previous  to  its  connection  to  the 
central  station,  and  also  compels  the  central  station  to  burn 
additional  coal  for  supplying  the  power  formerly  supplied 
in  the  isolated  plant,  which  still  retained  exhaust  steam  for 
heating. 

You  are  entering  into  a  discussion  which  has  a  great 
many  ramifications,  and  the  answer  to  the  argument  is 
the  particular  installation  under  discussion  at  the  time. 
A  general  blanket  answer  cannot  be  formed. 

The  average  manufacturer  is  less  posted  on  his  power 
plant  than  on  any  other  department  of  his  establishment 
and  is  subject  to  the  influence  of  a  salesman  who  can  often 
put  before  him  figures  which  are  not  borne  out  by  facts. 
We  are  sorry  to  say  that  many  installations  in  this  terri- 
tory have  been  made  for  central-station  connections  on  this 
basis,  rather  than  on  the  basis  of  engineering.  It  is  also  a 
question  as  to  where  the  central  station  becomes  large 
enough  to  have  economies  such   as  will  enable  it  to  sell 


advantageously  to  a  user  whose  isolated  plant  is  of  such 
size  that  reasonable  economies  could  be  secured  in  it. 

We  believe  that  the  Society  for  Electrical  Development, 
Inc.,  should  establish  a  policy  and  recommend  to  its  asso- 
ciates the  inadvisability  of  having  solicitations  made  for 
the  purpose  of  getting  central-station  connection  regardless 
of  the  actual  figures  entering  into  the  engineering  require- 
ments. You  must  admit  that  power  generated  from  the 
coal  required  for  heating  during  the  winter  months  is  a 
byproduct  of  considerable  value,  particularly  in  the  face  of 
the  present  price  of  coal,  and  this  value  is  a  national  asset 
which  should  be  conserved,  even  if  it  does  not  tend  to  the 
direct  interests  of  the  central  stations  to  conserve  it. 

We  have  had  the  pleasure  of  recommending  central- 
station  service  in  a  great  many  instances,  and  probably 
have  as  much  apparatus  connected  on  the  central-station 
sei'vice  as  any  company  in  the  United  States,  from  our 
motor  sales  department;  but  we  must  consistently  recom- 
mend either  central-station  connection  or  the  installation 
of  an  isolated  plant  on  the  basis  of  the  best  interests  of  the 
person  served. 

In  response  I  received  a  very  courteous  letter  of  ac- 
knowledgment, to  which  I  replied  as  follows: 

Most  certainly  we  believe  in  central  stations.  They  are 
as  necessary  to  our  economic  development  as  water-works 
or  street  cars;  but  we  do  take  issue  with  central  stations 
v/hen  they  endeavor  to  secure  connections  which,  upon  care- 
ful investigation,  show  not  to  be  to  the  advantage  of  the 
subscribers.  When  we  speak  of  central  stations,  we  mean 
such  large  installations  operating  condensing,  as  can  show 
economies  superio  to  the  average  isolated  plant,  when  the 
cost  of  generating  current  alone  is  considered;  but  we  do 
not  believe  that  the  average  central  stations,  so  called,  in 
some  of  the  smaller  towns,  are  in  position  to  compete  with 
isolated  plants  of  sometimes  approximately  equal  capacity, 
particularly  when  the  reclaimed  value  of  the  exhaust  steam 
is  available  for  heating.  With  the  small  central  station, 
running  noncondensing,  such  heat  is  thrown  into  the  atmos- 
phere or,  if  running  condensing,  into  the  condensers.  This 
heat  is  a  manifest  loss  and  should  be,  as  far  as  po.  ?ible, 
conserved  with  the  idea  of  cutting  down  the  coal  require- 
ments of  the  country  to  the  lowest  possible  point. 

However,  this  was  referred  to  the  Fuel  Administra- 
tor, and  I  was  in  due  time  written  by  him,  whereupon 
I  replied  as  follows: 

To  answer  your  question,  let  me  ask  you  another:  If  a 
firm  requires  100  boiler  horsepower  to  heat  a  factory  (say 
3300  lb.  of  steam  per  hour  at  5  lb.  pressure)  and  is  buying 
from  the  central  station  1000  kw.-hr.  per  10-hour  day  to 
operate  machinery,  what  is  the  national  coal  loss  in  that 
individual  case  per  day? 

Answer:  The  amount  of  coal  used  by  the  central  station 
to  generate  the  1000  kw.-hr. 

You  will  agree  that  the  following  statements  are  perti- 
nent to  the  discussion  for  the  northern  section  of  this 
country,  which  is  the  large  coal-using  as  well  as  manufac- 
turing section  of  the  nation: 

1.  In  this  latitude  for  five  months  we  positively  must  heat 
our  factories. 

2.  Fuel  transportation  during  the  heating  season  is  more 
difficult  than  during  the  nonheating  period. 

3.  Complete  recovery  of  all  values  (heat,  light  and  power) 
from  every  pound  of  coal  is  necessary,  particularly  during 
the  heating  season. 

4.  The  isolated  plant  during  the  nonheating  months  may 
lose  some  of  the  gain  made  during  the  heating  months. 

5.  Eliminate,  as  much  as  possible,  during  heating  months 
the  enormous  heat  values  dumped  into  condensers  by  central 
stations  to  make  low  generating  costs. 

6.  Burn  coal  economically  in  isolated  plants  to  heat  by  ex- 
haust steam  and  use  current  generated  as  well  for  power. 

7.  Admit  the  economic  necessity  of  central  stations  and 
isolated  plants. 

8.  Connect  to  the  central  station  where  economies  can  be 
shown  to  be  in  its  favor. 

9.  Operate  isolated  plants  where  coal  savings  warrant. 

10.  Review  the  entire  matter  from  an  engineering  stand- 
point. 

11.  Prevent  solicitation  of  commercial  enterprises  as 
power  users  by  central  stations  for  .selfish  gain,  regardless 
of  the  national  coal  pile. 

12.  Prohibit  central  stations  from  taking  on  power  users 
at  a  lower  rate  than  cost  to  produce  current  for  the  purpose 
of  keeping  up  volume  in  central  station. 

13.  Compel  isolated  plants  to  arrange  to  burn  coal  eco- 


872 


P  O  W  E  R 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


nomically.  Allot  isolated  plants  only  such  coal  as  they 
would  require  if  operated  economically,  thereby  compelling- 
savings  by  the  installation  of  economical  apparatus. 

No  acknowledgment  was  received,  so  I  wrote  again: 

We  had  the  privilege  of  writing  you  with  reference  to 
isolated  plants  versus  central  stations  as  power-producing 
units,  and  their  advantages  from  the  coal-saving  standpoint. 
Up  to  the  present,  the  writer  has  not  had  the  pleasure  of 
hearing  from  you  further,  and  wonders  if  he  can  be  of  any 
assistance  to  you  in  this  matter. 

We  recognize  that  it  is  not  advantageous  for  the  central 
station  to  name  a  rate  for  short-time  connection,  such  as 
the  summer  months;  but  if  the  central  station  were  paid 
an  amount  for  the  nonheating  season  for  power  on  the 
basis  of  the  cost  of  pi-oducing  the  power  in  each  individual 
isolated  plant,  it  would  be  decidedly  to  the  advantage  of 
the  central  station  to  accf-t  such  a  connection,  and  it  would 
not  be  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  proprietor  of  the  isolated 
plant  to  pay  to  the  central  station  the  amount  which  he 
otherwise  would  have  paid  anyhow. 

In  this  way  we  would  throw  the  load  on  the  central  sta- 
tion, with  a  minimum  of  coal  consumed  in  the  summertime, 
and  throw  the  load  on  the  isolated  plants  and  conserve  the 
heating  value  of  the  exhaust  steam  in  the  wintertime,  and 
make  a  Iremendous  saving  all  around. 

So  far,  no  acknowledgment  has  been  received. 

Now,  the  whole  system  is  one  of  inherited  policy — a 
selfish  policy,  a  policy  of  "get  while  the  getting's  good"; 
but  a  foolish  policy,  a  policy  founded  upon  apparatus 
in  isolated  plants  of  a  design  and  pressure  of  thirty 
years  ago,  a  policy  which  the  central  station  thinks  is 
advantageous  to  them  when,  in  fact,  it  is  not,  if  they 
would  view  it  from  the  standpoint  of  good  engineering. 

The  central  station  should  get  some  load  from  all. 
If  such  a  policy  had  been  in  effect  prior  to  the  war,  how 
fle.xible  would  have  been  our  response!  We  could  quickly 
arise  to  the  requirements,  instead  of  having  thousands 
of  important  industries  hanging  upon  the  hope  that 
nothing  will  happen  to  the  central  station.  A  flash  on 
some  turbine  would  shut  down  thousands,  while  trouble 
with  an  isolated  plant  is  more  quickly  repaired  and 
affects  only  those  workmen  in  the  one  plant. 

Saving  coal  is  possible  only  to  the  e.xtent  that  we  can 
recover  all  values  of  heat,  light  and  power,  and  charters 
for  public  utilities  should  require  a  filed  report  of  all 
conditions  of  each  prospective  central-station  user,  from 
an  engineering  standpoint.  This  report  would  be  re- 
ferred to  a  properly  constituted  committee  of  disinter- 
ested engineers  who  would  issue  a  permit  for  a  given 
number  of  units  from  the  central  station  per  year,  which 
would  be  the  total  amount  required  less  the  number  of 
units  that  could  be  generated  by  the  coal  used  to  heat  by 
apparatus  of  maximum  economy. 

[Through  the  influence  and  the  financial  assistance  of 
the  National  Council  of  Defense,  an  agreement  has  been 
entered  into  between  the  Cleveland  municipal  light  plant 
and  the  Cleveland  Electric  Illuminating  Co.,  providing 
for  an  exchange  of  power  between  the  two.  The  elec- 
trical connection  of  the  two  stations  will  practically 
guarantee  war  plants  against  shutdowns  due  to  failure 
of  power. — Editor.] 

Air-Bound  Steam  Traps 

By  m;  a.  Samer 

In  a  woodworking  plant  a  number  of  live-steam  coils 
were  used  for  drying  lumber,  and  these  coils  were 
drained  by  high-pressurp  steam  traps.  Because  of  the 
air  which  found  its  way  into  the  coils;  the  traps  be- 
came airbound  and  sluggish  in  operation.  Instructions 
were  given  to  open  the  pet-cocks  and  blow  out  the  air 


from  the  traps  at  frequent  intervals,  but  as  is  often 
the  case,  the  instructions  were  soon  overlooked.  The 
engineer  equipped  each  of  the  traps,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration,  with  an  extra  chamber  made   of  pipe  fit- 


Ain    CHAMBER    ATTACHED    TO    STE.\M    TR.A.P 

tings,  giving  added  space  for  the  air  so  that  the  traps 
would  operate  a  longer  period  without  attention.  Such 
an  auxiliary  chamber  might  be  used  to  advantage  in 
other  cases  where  similar  trouble  occurs. 

Method  of  Squaring  Mixed  Numbers 
and  Extracting  Square  Roots 

By  John  S.  Carpent^^-r 

No  claim  of  originality  is  made  for  the  following 
method  of  squaring  or  extracting  the  square  root  of 
mixed  numbers,  as  it  is  an  application  of  the  binomial 
theorem,  but  in  fifteen  years  of  practice  I  have  never 
seen  it  introduced  by  anyone  else.  It  is  used  with 
accuracy  on  the  slide  rule  when  thei-e  are  decimals  to 
be  obtained.  To  the  average  operating  engineer  the 
conventional  method  has  its  terrors.  This  way  involves 
very  simple  operations  which  are  easily  checked,  at  a 
glance  in  many  cases.  Most  tables  do  not  have  squares 
of  fractions. 

Let  it  be  required  to  square  such  an  awkward  number 
as  14}.  From  a  table  or  the  slide  rule  we  have  as 
the  square  of  14  the  answer  196.  Now  to  this  add 
twice  fourteen  times  1,  which  is  7;  also  add  the  square 
of  I,  which  is  ,',; ;  the  total  is  then  203 ,',).  Try  another, 
say  30J.  The  square  of  30  is  900;  twice  30  times  i  is 
7.5;  i  squared  is  cV.  or  0.015625;  adding,  we  have 
907.515625  exactly. 

Let  it  be  required  to  extract  the  square  root  of 
1121.56.  Looking  down  the  column  of  squares  in  a  table, 
we  see  that  the  square  of  33  is  1089;  deducting  this 
from  1121.56  leaves  32.56;  dividing  this  by  twice  33 
gives  0.493;  the  answer  then  is  33.493.  If  we  quibble 
over  the  last  figure,  square  0.493  and  deduct  it  from 
:>2.56.  which  is  then  32.32 ;  divide  anew  by  twice  33,  and 
we  have  33.490,  a  little  closer.  For  most  puiiDoses  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  deduct  the  second  square. 

In  a  drafting  room  where  the  grade  of  help  was  not 
of  the  best,  men  who  fell  dowm  repeatedly  on  the  conven- 
tional method  mastered  this  one  with  eas2. 


June  18,  li)18 


POWER 


873 


About  Preventable  Boiler- Room  Losses 


The  sliadnw  of  the  central  station  looms  over  the 
head  of  an  engineer  of  an  isolated  plant.  He  is 
told  of  a  few  things  that  could  be  done  to  better 
the  condition  of  his  boilers  and  is  promised  a 
surprise  in  tl:e  difference  in  fuel  consumption 
if  the  sucigestinns  are  carried  out. 


ONE  evening  as  Willis  wa^  making  his  way  home 
from  his  plant  ho  went  by  a  roundabout  way  and 
stopped  in  to  visit  with  Joe  Beards,  ths  engineer 
at  the  Bartlett  Tool  Works.  The  plant  consisted  chiefly 
of  four  return-tubular  boilers,  and  a  Corliss  entjine 
drove  a  generator  that  supplied  p3wer  and  light  for  the 
plant. 

"How  goes  things?"  asked  Willis,  as  he  helped  him- 
self to  a  chair  and  lit  his  favorite  pipe.  "You  got 
through  the  coal  shortage  without  getting  down  and 
out,  I  hope." 

"Just  about  and  no  more,"  answered  Joe,  seating 
himself  in  another  chair.     "Some  days  I  was   on  the 


FIG.    1. 


-I    NKVER   R.\N    A    BOILER   TEST   AND   NEVER 
EXPECT   TO."   SAID   .lOE 


ragged  edge  cf  nothing,  as  you  might  say,  and  the  boss 
was  about  1o  throw  up  hi?  hands,  shut  down  the  plant 
and  run  with  central-station  service.  He  says  they  have 
.given  him  figui-es  that  about  convince  him  it  would  be 
cheaper  in  the  long  run.  If  he  doss  that,  it  will  let  me 
out,  that's  sure,  but  I  don't  see  that  I  can  do  anything 
about  it,  do  you?" 

"Joe,  if  it  were  my  plant,  I  believe  that  I  would 
have  considerable  to  do  about  it.  If  it  were  my  plant, 
I  would  take  figures  to  the  'old  man'  and  show  him  that 
he  could  run  his  own  plant  cheaper  than  he  could  buy 
outside  current." 

"You  might  do  it  with  your  plant,  but  1  can't  with 
mine  because  I  don't  know  what  the  operating  costs 
are." 

"Well,"  repHed  Willis,  "if  I  were  you  1  would  get 
busy  and  get  some  inkling  as  to  what  it  was  costing 
to  run  this  place.  You  certainly  can  stop  all  preventable 
waste  whether  y(ju  know  what  it  13  costing  each  year 
to  operate  or  not.    Take,  for  instance,  your  boiler  room. 


How  great  are  the  preventable  losses?  You  say  you 
don't  know,  but  I  take  it  that  your  plant  is  no  better 
than  the  average,  and  if  that  is  so  about  8  per  cent,  of 
your  furnace  losses  in  fuel  consumption  could  be  cut 
out.  Because  you  burn  a  lot  of  coal  is  no  reason  to 
assume  that  you  are  making  a  lot  of  steam.  Some  fur- 
naces can  make  a  boiler  evaporate  an  average  of,  say, 
9  lb.  of  water  per  pound  of  coal,  and  the  best  that  is 
obtained  from  others  is  about  6  lb.  of  water  per  pound 
of  coal.  Now  with  which  do  you  think  your  outfit 
averages  up?" 

"I  don't  know,"  answered  Joe.  "I  never  ran  a  boiler 
test  and  never  expect  to;  in  fact,  I  don't  know  how. 
What  good  would  it  do,  anyway?" 

"Well,  seeing  that  you  have  mentioned  it,  a  boiler 
test  wouldn't  amount  to  much  unless  your  boilers  and 
furnaces  were  in  fit  condition  in  the  first  place.  There 
wouldn't  be  much  use  in  starting  anything  of  that  sort, 
because  a  satisfactory  test  cannot  be  had  unless  the 
furnace  is  in  shape,  and  furthermore,  when  it  comes 
to  evaporation  tests,  the  kind  of  boiler  that  is  put  over 
a  furnace  cuts  a  big  figure,  and  more  than  that,  the 
condition  of  the  boiler  cuts  still  another  figure." 

"Hold  on  a  minute  before  you  get  all  out  of  breath," 
interrupted  Joe.  "You  just  said  that  some  tests  will 
show  an  evaporation  of  9  and  some  6  lb.  of  water  with 
each  pound  of  coal  burned.    What's  the  reason?" 

"Generally,  it  is  because  one  furnace  is  better  than 
another,  although  the  quality  of  the  coal  will  have  a  lot 
to  do  with  it,  as  well  as  the  condition  of  the  boilers.  A 
furnace,  to  be  efficient,  must  be  one  that  will  burn  the 
most  combustible  with  the  least  surplus  of  air." 
•  "How  are  you  going  to  find  out  what  is  the  proper 
amount  of  air?"  was  Joe's  next  question.  "You  can't 
see  how  much  air  is  going  into  the  furnace." 

"By  gum,  that's  right,  I  hadn't  thought  about  that; 
but  for  all  that  you  can  tell  all  right  if  you  only  know 
how,  and  that  is  by  a  flue-gas  analysis.  When  you 
burn  a  fuel  in  a  boiler  furnace,  you  will  get  two  prin- 
cipal gases,  carbon  dioxide  (CO,)  and  carbon  monoxide 
(CO),  and  the  amount  of  each  in  the  flue  gases  is  de- 
termined by  the  amount  of  air  that  gets  into  the  boiler 
furnace.  The  greater  the  volume  of  excess  air  the 
lower  the  percentage  of  CO,  and  the  greater  will  be 
the  loss  in  fuel.  Reasonably  good  practice  will  call  for 
about  40  per  cent,  excess  air,  which  would  give  about 
14.5  per  cent.  CO..  If  the  excess  air  is  raised  to,  say, 
100  per  cent.,  the  percentage  of  CO^  will  decrease  to 
about  10,  and  the  fuel  loss  will  be  about  17  per  cent., 
and  the  more  excess  air  that  gets  into  the  furnace  the 
lower  the  CO,  and  the  greater  the  fuel  loss." 

"A  fellow  was  telling  me  something  about  CO,  awhile 
ago,"  remarked  Joe.  "He  said  that  a  smoking  chimney 
meant  low  CO..  If  that  is  the  case,  I  guess  Joe  Sim- 
mons over  at  Skinner's  factory  must  be  having  a  steady 
run  of  low  CO..  because  his  chimney  smokes  about  all 
the  time." 

"I  calculate  you  ain't  making  any  mistake  in  your 
assumption,  but  don't  you  kid  yourself  into  believing 
that  it's  the  smoking  chimney  only  that  indicates  poor 
furnace  conditions.  A  clean  chimney  may  show,  and 
at  the  same  time  four  or  five  times  the  proper  amount 


874 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


FIG.    2.   HOME-MADE 
DRAFT    O.AGK 


of  air  may  be  passing  through  the  furnace  and  over  the 
boiler-heating  furnace  with  the  corresponding  low  CO,.' 

"As  far  as  I  can  see,"  said  Joe,  "you  have  to  have 
an  instrument  to  find  out  what  the  CO,  is  in  the  flue 
gases,  and  it  costs  money.  In  this  plant  I  don't  see  that 
I  will  get  very  far  as  an  expert 
operator  of  a  CO,  machine." 

"Perhaps  not  just  at  present; 
but  if  you'll  do  your  part,  I  don't 
think  you'll  have  any  diflSculty  in 
getting  any  apparatus  to  assist 
you  in  running  the  plant  cheaper. 
One  thing  you  can  do  for  a  starter 
is  to  either  buy  a  draft  gage  or 
make  one.  They  don't  cost  much, 
but  if  the  company  can't  raise  the 
price,  you  can  make  one  by  bend- 
ing a  piece  of  glass  tube  into  the 
form  of  U-tube"  (Fig.  2)  "and 
connect  one  end  of  the  tube  to 
the  furnace.  The  draft  in  the 
furnace  is  of  more  importance 
than  most  engineers  seem  to  think, 
and  it  has  a  good  deal  to  do  with 
the  amount  of  coal  you  burn. 
Then  you  should  also  have  a  ther- 
mometer for  taking  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  gases  going  to  the 
chimney.  The  furnace  ten"pera- 
ture   of   a   boiler   will   be  around 

2400  deg.  The  more  heat  that  is  absorbed  by  the  boiler 
heating  surface  the  lower  the  temperature  of  the  gases 
going  to  the  chimney.     Now,  what  do  you  get?" 

"Search  me,  I  never  had  a  thermometer  in  the  place. 
About  what  should  I  be  getting?" 

"I  take  it  that  you  are  getting  close  to  600  deg-. ; 
probably  higher.  You  likely  have  scale  on  the  shell 
and  tubes  of  your  boilers,  soot  on  the  inside  of  the  tubes 
and  cracks  in  the  brick  setting.  Outside  of  that  and  a 
leaky  safety  valve  and  a  blowoff  valve,  I  guess  your 
boilers  ai-e  about  on  the  average." 

"How  do  you  know  that  there  is  scale  in  my  boilers, 
soot  in  the  tubes,  leaky  valves  and  cracks  in  the  boiler 
setting?"  asked  Joe  in  surprise. 

"Deduction,  Joe,  nothing  else.  I  know  the  rest  of  us 
engineers  in  town  have  scale  and  enough  of  it  to  fight, 
and  it  keeps  us  on  the  jump,  so  to  speak;  but  in  the 
la.st  six  months  you  haven't  cleaned  your  boilers — you 
told  me  so — therefore  they  must  have  scale.  As  to 
soot,  you  haven't  anything  but  a  piece  of  pipe  to  blow 
tubes  with  and  it  is  covered  with  cobwebs.  I  saw  them 
when  I  came  through  the  boiler  room,  as  I  also  saw  the 
cracks  in  the  boiler  setting.  The  cobwebs  show  that 
the  blower  had  not  been  used  for  some  time,  and  the 
cracks  show  no  signs  of  any  attempt  having  been  made 
;it  stopping  them  up.  The  escape  pipes  of  the  safety 
valves  were  dripping  water  and  leaking  steam,  and  the 
blowoff  pipes  were  hot  when  I  passed  them;  both  sure 
indications  that  they  leak,  and  that  is  about  enough  for 
one  time. 

"The  thing  for  you  to  do  before  you  begin  to  bother 
with  CO,  is  to  stop  up  the  cracks  in  the  boiler  settings, 
clean  out  the  scale  in  the  boilers,  blow  the  tubes  every 
day  and  scrape  them  at  least  once  a  week.  Don't  for- 
get to  grind  in  the  safety  valves  as  well  as  the  blowoff 


valves.  I  know  your  safety  valves  are  of  the  old  ball- 
and-lever  type  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  be  used, 
but  they'll  have  to  go  for  awhile,  I  take  it.  I'll  bet  you 
a  bag  of  peanuts  that  you'll  see  a  difference  in  the  coal 
bill  if  you  will  fix  things  up  as  they  should  be.  If  your 
chimney-gas  temperatures  are  high  now,  and  I  guess 
they  are,  you  will  find  that  with  clean  boilers  they  will 
be  lower;  yes,  considerably  lower. 

"Then  you  will  find  that  your  fireman  won't  have  to 
force  the  fires  so  hard.  You  see,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  combustible  gases  high 
enough  to  allow  of  their  combustion.  An  extremely 
high  temperature,  while  it  has  advantages,  also  has 
disadvantages  due  to  the  danger  done  to  the  furnace 
lining.  High  temperature  in  the  rear  of  the  combustion 
chamber  is  not  an  evidence  of  efficiency,  as  it  may  be 
caused  by  the  gases  being  burned  in  the  rear  connection, 
and  striking  the  cooler  heating  surfaces  of  the  bpilei', 
these  gases  will  pass  to  the  chimney  but  partly  con- 
sumed. The  hotter  the  gases  entering  and  leaving  the 
tubes  the  more  heat  is  wasted  in  the  chimney. 

"Then  for  a  change  you  might  go  into  the  boiler 
room  a  little  more  frequently  and  jack  up  the  firemen 
once  in  a  while  just  to  let  them  know  who  is  boss.  I 
noticed  as  I  came  past  the  ash  pile  that  there  were 
some  mighty  big  clinkers." 

"Yes,  I  have  noticed  that  myself.  It  must  be  the 
coal  we  have  been  getting." 

"Perhaps  it  is,"  answered  Willis,  "but  I'll  make  a 
guess  that  it's  because  the  firemen  carries  thick  fires  and 
keeps  stirring  them  up.  That  will  do  it,  and  running 
with  the  ashpit  doors  closed,  which  preheats  the  air  in 
the  ashpit  before  it  goes  up  through  the  grate,  will 
help  make  them." 

"I  don't  see  what  a  thick  fire  has  to  do  with  making 
clinkers,"  said  Joe,  as  he  glanced  at  the  clock  to  see 
how  near  shutting-down  time  it  was.  "We  have  to  carry 
enough  fire  to  take  care  of  the  load,  that's  certain." 

"I'll  tell  you  what  it  does.  A  thick  fire  cuts  down 
the  air  supply  and  so  lets  the  ashes  become  heated.  If 
plenty  of  air  passes  through  the  fuel  beds  the  air 
absorbs  the  heat  in  the  grate  and  ashes  and  keeps  them 
comparatively  cool.  When  the  fireman  runs  a  bar  under 
his  fire  to  break  it  up,  he  brings  ashes  up  into  the  fuel 
bed  where  it  fuses  and  forms  clinkers.  This  lifting  of 
the  ashes  and  clinkers  from  the  grate  allows  the  live 
coal  to  fall  upon  them  and  this  will  overheat  the  grate. 
The  thicker  the  ash  bed  and  clinker  the  greater  is  the 
air  supply  cut  down.  It  is  better  to  carry  a  thin  fire 
because  a  better  air  supply  is  possible  if  you  do." 

"All  right,  Willis,  you  have  had  quite  a  whack  at 
lecturing  on  do  and  don'tless  things.  You  told  me  to 
get  a  draft  gage.  Now,  tell  me,  what  shall  I  do  with  it 
after  I  get  it?  What  work  will  it  do  in  the  first  place 
or  any  other  place?" 

"Well,  you  lunkhead,  a  draft  gage  will  tell  you  how 
much  draft  measured  in  inches  of  water  you  are  get- 
ting. For  two  cents  you  can't  tell  whether  the  draft 
is  poor  or  good,  as  the  case  might  be.  A  draft  gage 
will  tell  you  what  draft  you  are  carrying,  and  it  is  of 
considerable  importance.  If  there  wasn't  draft,  there 
wouldn't  be  much  of  a  fire  in  the  furnace.  If  ther-^  is 
too  much  draft,  there  is  the  danger  of  getting  too  much 
air,  which  would  reduce  the  CO,  we  have  been  talking 
about. 


June  18, 1918 


POWER 


875 


"To  burn  coiil  to  the  best  advantage,  the  r'.raft  must 
be  re^Tulated.  You  cannot  regulate  your  draft  unless 
you  know  what  it  is,  and  if  you  will  try  it  out  you  will 
be  surprised  at  the  difference  such  a  small  item  as  a 
twentieth  of  an  inch  in  a  draft  will  make  in  the  amount 
of  coal  burned. 

"With  the  boiler  run  at  its  rating,  the  approximate 
draft  will  be  about  0.25  in.  of  water,  but  you  would 
have  to  experiment  to  find  out  what  would  he  the  best 
draft  to  carry  with  your  load  and  boilers.  The  least 
draft  that  you  can  carry  and  still  make  steam  for  the 
load  to  be  carried,  the  better,  although  this  can  be  'Car- 
ried to  extremes  in  cases  where  the  grate  area  is  ex- 
cessive. The  only  proper  way  to  know  the  correct  draft 
is  to  analyze  the  flue  gases,  which  you  can't  do  as  yet. 
The  damper  is  the  proper  method  of  regulating  the 
draft,  although  many  firemen  will  do  so  largely  by  clos- 
ing the  ashpit  door,  and  in  doing  this  the  air  pressure 
is  increased  on  every  other  part  of  the  boiler  settings 
where  cold  air  reaches  them,  and  the  more  cracks  in 
the  boiler  settings  the  more  air  is  drawn  into  the  fur- 
nace through  them. 

"You  take  my  advice  and  get  after  a  few  of  the 
things  around  the  plant  that  are  helping  to  prevent 
Uncle  Sam  from  licking  Kaiser  Bill  and  at  the  same 
time  are  working  you  out  of  a  job,  and  see  if  things 
don't  look  a  little  brighter  as  far  as  keeping  your  plant 
going  is  concerned  if  no  more.  Now  don't  throw  up 
your  hands  and  say  it  can't  be  done.  Think  it  over, 
and  while  you  are  doing  that  I'll  toddle  along  home  and 
shake  my  fist  at  the  table." 

Purchasing   Power-Plant   Equipment 

Cases  are  all  too  common  where  the  purchaser  is 
seemingly  unaware  of  the  operating  characteristics 
of  the  machinery  being  bought,  when  considered  in 
relation  to  its  operation  with  machinery  previously 
installed,  and  where  the  builder's  representative  gives 
the  desirable  features  only  of  the  new  equipment  and 
says  nothing  about  the  changes  in  the  existing  plant 
that  he  knows  will  be  absolutely  necessary  to  the  oper- 
ation of  the  plant  as  a  whole  after  the  proposed 
machinery  is  installed.  One  instance  in  mind  will 
emphasize  the  need  of  a  more  candid  exchange  of 
engineering  knowledge  between  the  manufacturer's 
representative  and  the  purchaser,  especially  when  it 
is  evident  that  the  latter  is  not  technically  up  on  the 
problem  under  consideration. 

Previous  to  my  connection  with  my  present  em- 
ployer, the  management  bought  a  motor-generator  set, 
which  was  installed  in  one  of  the  plants  being  gradu- 
ally changed  over  from  direct  to  alternating  current. 
The  plant  at  that  time  contained  three  direct-con- 
nected 220-volt  direct-current  units,  all  of  which  were 
compound  wound.  These  units  were  operated  on  a 
110-  to  220-volt  three-wire  system,  with  the  neutral 
taken  from  a  motor-generator  balancer  set. 

The  new  motor  generator  consisted  of  a  2300-volt 
three-phase  60-cycle  synchronous  motor  driving  a  220- 
volt  interpole  compound-wound  three-wire  direct- 
current  generator,  with  collector  rings  outside  of  the 
commutators  to  which  the  star-connected  compensator 
for  the  neutral  was  connected. 


The  purchaser  undoubtedly  did  not  know  and  the 
builder  did  not  mention  the  probable  trouble  ahead 
until  the  machine  was  installed  and  attempts  were 
made  to  parallel  it  with  the  220-volt  compound  units 
and  balancer  set.  The  result  was  so  disastrous  that 
the  erector  cut  out  the  split  series-field  winding,  mak- 
ing the  machine  a  shunt  interpole  three-wire  gener- 
ator, with  the  result  that  it  could  not  be  made  to  carry 
its  rated  load  even  when  all  the  shunt-field  resistance 
was  cut  out  and  the  brushes  shifted  to  a  point  where 
destructive  sparking  occurred. 

An  expert,  sent  out  by  the  manufacturing  company 
to  investigate  the  trouble,  spent  several  days  testing 
the  machine  and  reported  that  it  worked  perfectly  as 
a  compound  generator,  and  for  the  first  time  called  the 
purchaser's  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  other  com- 
pound-wound machines  to  operate  in  parallel  with  the 
new  one  should  have  their  series-field  winding  split, 
and  additional  cables,  switches  and  circuit-breakers 
would  be  necessary  and  additional  busses  would  have 


I'UNNKCTIONS    OF    THREK-WIRK    IIENKRATOR 

to  be  installed.  This  meant  considerable  expense  at 
a  time  when  an  effort  was  being  made  to  change  over 
to  alternating  current,  and  the  matter  was  dropped 
with  hard  feelings  all  around,  the  machine  being  oper- 
ated as  a  shunt  machine  under  partial  load  until  such 
time  as  enough  of  the  direct-current  load  was  con- 
nected to  the  alternating-current  system  for  the 
motor-generator  set  to  take  care  of  the  direct-current 
service.  Then  the  series-field  winding  was  connected 
back  into  circuit  with  a  switch  mounted  in  each  ter- 
minal block,  as  shown  at  S  in  the  figure,  so  that  the 
series-field  winding  could  be  short-circuited  whenever 
it  was  necessary  to  operate  this  machine  with  other 
direct-current  units. 

With  the  switches  closed  the  machine  operates  as  a 
direct-current  shunt  generator,  and  with  the  switches 
open  the  armature  current  passes  through  the  com- 
pound winding,  giving  good  voltage  regulation  and 
making  the  machine  available  for  a  full  load. 

The  six  heavy  lines  A  and  A  in  the  figure  show  the 
main  leads  as  it  was  intended  to  connect  up  the 
machine.  B  and  B  are  positive  and  negative  leads  as 
run  by  the  manufacturer's  engineers,  thus  leaving  the 
series-field  winding  cut  out  of  circuit.  The  dotted 
lines  C  and  C  show  positive  and  negative  leads  as  now 
run  to  the  switchboard,  and  the  dotted  section  d  and 
d  shows  the  connection  between  the  series'field  and 
the  interpole  windings. 


876 


POWEK 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


The  Electrical  Study  Course — Losses  in 
Direct-Current  Machinery 


The  losses  in  direct-current  machines  are  friction, 
excitation,  armature-copper  losses  and  core  losses. 
These  losses  are  discussed,  and  the  method  of  de- 
termining the  efficiency  of  a  generator  is  given. 


WHENEVER  energj^  is  changed  from  one  form  to 
another,  there  i.s  always  a  loss  in  the  transfor- 
hiation.  For  example,  the  amount  of  energy 
transmitted  by  the  steam  to  the  cylinder  of  an  engine  in 
the  form  of  heat  is  not  all  available  at  the  flywheel  to  do 
useful  work.  A  large  percentage  of  the  energy  actually 
supplied  to  the  engine  is  lost  in  the  exhaust,  in  radia- 
tion from  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  and  in  overcoming 
the  friction  of  the  moving  parts,  etc. 

What  has  taken  place  in  the  engine  is,  the  energy  in 
the  steam  has  been  converted  into  a  mechanical  form  of 
energy  which  may  be  used  to  do  the  mechanical  work  of 
driving  any  kind  of  machinery.  If  the  engine  is  used  to 
drive  an  electric  generator,  then  wa  will  have  another 
transformation  of  energy;  that  is,  the  mechanical  energy 


is,  they  represent  mechanical  power  that  has  been  sup- 
plied to  the  generator  and  that  has  not  been  converted 
into  electrical  power,  but  has  been  expended  in  doing  the 
mechanical  work  of  overcoming  the  friction  of  the  gen- 
erator. 

The  current  that  is  used  to  excite  the  field  coils  repre- 
sents electrical  power  that  has  been  generated  in  the 
armature,  but  is  used  up  within  the  machine  to  energize 
the  field  coils,  therefore  is  not  available  for  doing  work 
outside  of  the  machine.  The  amount  of  power  required 
to  energize  the  field  coils  of  direct-current  machines  is 
about  6  per  cent,  of  the  total  output  for  machines  of 
1-kw.  capacity  to  about  1.4  per  cent,  in  1000-kw.  sizes. 

Since  the  energy  expended  in  the  field  rheostat  is  also 
charged  up  against  field  losses,  the  power  loss  in  the 
shunt-field  winding  is  practically  constant,  being  only 
changed  slightly  by  the  hand  adjustment  of  the  rheostat. 
The  losses  in  the  shunt-field  winding  are  therefore  equal 
to  the  volts  at  the  armature  terminal  times  the  current 
supplied  to  the  field  coils. 

The  energy  expended  in  the  field  coils  is  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  as  the  excitation  losses  or  TR  losses  in  the 


FIG.  I 


3333333333333333 
3333333333333333 


Fl©    £ 


N 

/(»9393*»a39Q 

A  39ija39(>»3a3|  B 

\(»(J9«99999»a 

M9333»3a 
>33333C 


Fia.3 


FIGS.    1  TO  5. 


ILLUSTRATE  HOW  IRON  MOLECULES  ARE   SUPPOSED    TO     ARRANGE 
THE    INFLUENCE    OF    A    M.\GNETIC    FIELD 


THEMSELVES     AVHEN     UNDER 


transmitted  to  the  engine's  shaft  or  flywheel  will  bs  con- 
verted into  electrical  energy  and  transmitted  through 
the  circuits  to  the  devices  supplied  by  the  generator. 
In  this  transformation  from  a  mechanical  to  electrical 
energy  there  is  also  a  loss  just  as  in  the  steam  engine; 
that  is,  if  the  energy  delivered  to  the  engine's  flywheel 
is  capable  of  developing  100  hp.,  then  less  than  100  hp. 
will  be  delivered  to  the  circuits.  Part  of  the  power  de- 
veloped at  the  engine  shaft  will  be  expended  in  over- 
coming the  friction  of  the  moving  parts  of  the  generator, 
exciting  the  field  coils,  the  losses  due  to  the  resistance 
of  the  armature  circuits  and  eddy-current  and  hysteresis 
losses. 

The  friction  losses  in  a  direct-current  machine  consist 
of  the  friction  of  the  bearings,  brushes  on  the  commu- 
tator and  the  friction  of  the  air  upon  the  revolving  ele- 
ment. The  last  item  is  usually  known  as  the  windage 
losses.  The  total  friction  losses  amount  to  about  6  per 
cent,  of  the  capacity  of  the  machine  for  a  1-kw.  unit  to 
about  3  per  cent,  for  a  1000-kw.  unit.  These  may  be 
considered  as  the  mechanical  losses  of  the  machine ;  that 


shunt-field  winding;  that  is,  the  loss  in  the  field  coils  is 
equal  to  the  square  of  the  current  times  the  resistance 
of  the  field  coils  and  that  of  the  section  of  rheostat  in 
series  with  the  coils.  For  example,  the  total  resistance 
of  a  shunt-field  circuit  is  R  ^  27.5  ohms,  and  the  voltage 
at  the  armature  terminal  is  E  =  110;  then  the  current 


flowing  in  the  field  coils  is 


£•  ^  100 
R~  27.5 


4  amperes, 
The  watts 


and   the  watts   IT  =  £"/  =^  110  X  4  =  440 

are  also  W  =  PR  =  A' X  27.5  =  4  X  4  X  27.5  =  440, 

which  gives  the  same  result  as  the  former  method. 

In  the  previous  lesson  we  found  out  that  a  part  of  the 
voltage  generated  in  the  armature  was  used  up  in  over- 
coming the  resistance  of  the  armature  windings  to  the 
flow  of  the  current.  This  also  represents  a  loss  of  power 
supplied  by  the  prime  mover  to  the  generator.  This 
loss  is  usually  called  the  armature  copper  loss,  or  YR 
loss,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  increasing  the 
temperature  of  the  machine.  The  power  loss  in  the 
armature  copper  is  equal  to  the  voltage  drop  through 
the  armature  winding  times  the  current  supplied  by  the 


June  18.  1918 


POWER 


877 


armature;  it  is  also  equal  to  the  square  of  the  current 
times  the  resistance  of  the  armature  winding. 

For  example,  the  resistance  on  a  given  armature  is 
R  =  0.1  ohm,  and  the  total  current  supplied  to  the  load 
and  shunt-field  winding  is  7=150  amperes;  then  the 
volts  drop  in  the  armature  is  Ea^  IR=  150  X  0.1  =  15 
volts,  and  the  watts  loss  in  the  armature  is  ly  =  E,il  = 
15  X  150  =  2250  watts.  The  watts  loss  is  also  W  =  PR 
=  150  X  150  X  0.1  =  2250. 

The  losses  in  the  armature  copper  vary  from  about 
4  per  cent,  of  the  capacity  of  the  machine  in  1-kw. 
units  to  1.8  per  cent,  for  units  of  1000-kw.  capacity. 
These  losses  vary  as  the  square  of  the  current  supplied 
by  the  armature  and  are  practically  zero  at  no  load, 
being  only  those  due  to  the  shunt-field  winding  current, 
and  at  a  maximum  value  at  maximum  load.  The  resist- 
ance of  the  armature  circuit  is  usually  considered  as 
that  of  the  aiTnature  windings,  brushes,  series-field 
windings  if  the  machine  is  compound-wound,  and  the 
machine  leads  and  terminals. 

In  the  lesson  on  direct-current  armature  constructions 
in  the  Jan.  13,  1918,  issue,  it  was  shown  that  when  the 
armature  core  is  revolved  between  the  polepieces.  it  cuts 
the  lines  of  force  and  therefore  generates  a  voltage  the 
same  as  the  windings  do.  It  was  also  shown  that  the 
current  caused  to  circulate  around  in  the  core  by  this 
voltage,  or  eddy  current  as  it  is  called,  created  a  pull 
that  opposed  the  turning  effort  of  the  prime  mover 
driving  the  generator,  consequently  represented  a  direct 
loss  of  power.  The  eddy-current  losses  are  usually  com- 
bined with  the  hysteresis  losses  and  are  called  the  iron 
or  core  losses. 

The  hysteresis  losses  are  those  which  are  due  to  the 
friction  of  the  molecules,  of  the  iron  in  the  armature 
core,  on  each  other  as  they  align  themselves  with  the 
lines  of  force  when  the  armature  is  revolved.  This  is 
illustrated  in  Figs.  3  to  5.  In  the  lesson  "Elements  of 
Magnetism — II,"  in  the  Jan.  30,  1917,  issue,  it  was  ex- 
plained that  a  piece  of  iron  acted  as  if  each  molecule 
was  a  magnet  having  a  north  and  a  south  pole,  and  that 
under  noi-mal  conditions  the  molecules  arrange  them- 
selves so  that  the  N  and  S  poles  of  one  molecule  were 
neutralized  by  the  N  and  S  poles  of  other  molecules  and 
thus  form  a  neutral  condition,  as  in  Fig.  1.  When  the 
piece  of  iron  is  brought  under  the  pole  of  a  magnet,  this 
pole  will  attract  the  opposite  pole  of  the  molecules  of  the 
iron  and  cause  them  to  be  arranged  in  a  systematic 
group,  as  in  Fig.  2,  thus  producing  a  N  pole  at  one  end 
of  the  bar  and  a  S  pole  at  the  other.  In  the  same  way, 
when  the  field  poles  of  an  electrical  machine  are  mag- 
netized, they  cause  the  molecules  in  the  armature  core  to 
arrange  themselves  systematically  as  in  Fig.  3.  Now 
if  the  armature  core  is  turned  90  deg.  from  the  position 
in  Fig.  3,  as  in  Fig.  4,  it  will  be  seen  that  although  the 
core  as  a  whole  has  revolved  90  deg.  to  the  left  as  indi- 
cated by  AB,  the  field  magnets  have  held  the  molecules 
of  the  iron  core  in  the  same  position  in  each  case.  For 
this  to  be  possible  the  molecules  have  done  what  is  equiv- 
alent to  turning  to  the  right  90  deg.  If  they  had  re- 
mained in  a  fixed  position  in  the  core,  the  condition  that 
would  exist  is  that  in  Fig.  5,  from  which  it  is  seen  that 
if  each  molecule  turns  90  deg.  to  the  right  from  the  posi- 
tion in  the  figure,  a  condition  exists  in  the  core  corre- 
sponding to  that  in  Fig.  4.     This  is  just  what  appears 


to  be  going  on  in  the  armature  core  all  the  time  that  it  is 
revolving  and  the  field  poles  are  magnetized.  As  the 
armature  revolves  as  a  whole  in  one  direction  the  mole- 
cules are  revolving  about  their  axis  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  molecules  revolve  at  the  same  rate  as 
the  armature  core  in  a  two-pole  machine,  or  one  revolu- 
tion for  one  pair  of  poles.  The  latter  statement  con- 
forms to  the  condition  existing  in  all  multipolar  ma- 
chines; that  is,  the  molecules  make  a  complete  revolution 
about  their  axis  for  each  pair  of  poles  in  the  machine. 
In  a  four-pole  machine  they  would  be  revolving  twice  as 
fast  as  the  armature,  in  a  six-pole  machine  three  times 
as  fast,  etc. 

To  cause  the  molecules  to  revolve  about  their  axis  re- 
quires a  certain  amount  of  power.  The  power  that  is 
expended  in  changing  the  position  of  the  molecules  is  the 
hysteresis  losses  in  the  core.  This,  combined  with  the 
eddy-current  losses,  is  called  the  core  losses,  and  amounts 
to  about  4  per  cent,  in  machines  of  1-kw.  capacity  to 


Fie.6 


FIGS.    6    AND 


FIG. 7 
DIAGRAMS    OF    COMPOUXD    OEXER.\TORS 


about  1.2  per  cent,  in  1000-kw.  machines.  If  an  attempt 
is  made  to  turn  the  armature  of  an  electrical  machine  by 
hand,  with  the  field  poles  dead,  it  should  turn  very  easily, 
but  when  the  field  poles  are  magnetized,  it  will  be  found 
that  a  greater  effort  must  be  developed  to  turn  the  arma- 
ture. This  increased  effort  required  under  the  latter 
condition  is  due  almost  entirely  to  hysteresis,  or  in  other 
words,  to  rotating  the  molecules  of  the  core. 

The  total  losses  at  full  load  in  a  1-kw.  machine  amount 
to  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  output,  while  in  the  1000-kw. 
machine  they  are  about  4.5  to  5  per  cent.  In  other 
words,  when  a  1-kw.  machine  is  delivering  its  full-rated 
load  (1-kw.)  it  will  require  about  1.2  kw.  to  drive  it,  and 
when  a  1000-kw.  machine  is  delivering  its  full  rated  load 
(1000  kw.1  it  will  require  about  1050  kw.  to  drive  it. 

The  ratio  of  the  output  of  a  given  machine  to  the  in- 
put is  called  the  efficiency  and  is  usually  expres.sed  in  a 

output   ■    100 


percentage,   thus:    Per   cent,   efficiency 


input 


878 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  25 


input  X  per  cent,  efflciency  , 


100 


trom  which,  output  ^ 

_      output  >    100 
input       pg^  cent,  efficiency' 

For  example,  a  given  generator  requires  50  hp.  to 
drive  it  when  supplying  32  kw.  to  a  lighting  system.  Find 
the  percentage  of  efficiency  that  the  machine  is  operat- 
ing at. 

The    input    in   this    case    is    horsepower,    kilowatt  = 

hp-  >^  '^46  _  5^^J46  _  37  3     ^j^g,^       ^  cent,   efficiency 

1000  1000 

^outpuO<_100^32X100_gg     p^^    ^^^^      ^pp^^^_ 

input  37.3 

imately.  That  is,  only  86  per  cent,  of  the  power  sappliid 
to  the  machine  is  available  for  doing  useful  work  in  the 
lighting  system. 

The  problem  given  in  the  last  lesson  is  shown  in  Figs. 
6  and  7.  The  resistance  of  the  armature  and  series-field 
winding  is  /?  =  r  -f  r'  =  0.075  -f  0.045  =  0.12  ohm.  At 
no  load  the  machine  develops  125  volts.  When  the  arma- 
ture is  supplying  a  current  I  =  150  amperes  to  an  ex- 
ternal circuit,  as  in  Fig.  7,  the  volts  drop  through  the 
armature  and  series-field  winding  is  E,i  ^=  RI  ^  0.12  X 
150  =  18  volts.  The  load  current  flowing  through  the 
series-field  winding  was  assumed  to  have  caused  the 
armature  to  generate  20  volts  more  than  at  no  load,  or 
a  total  £■  =  125  -|-  20  =  145  volts.  The  load  current 
caused  18  volts  drop,  then  the  volts  across  the  line  ter- 
minals is  Ea  =  145  —  18  =  127,  or  an  increase  of  127  — 
125  =  2  volts. 

A  given  shunt  generator  when  supplying  a  constant 
load  requires  175  hp.  to  drive  it,  and  the  voltage  at  the 
armature  terminal  under  this  condition  is  115.  The  core 
losses  of  this  machine  amount  to  4.5  hp.,  the  field  wind- 
ing resistance  is  11.5  ohms,  the  armature  copper  losses 
are  3500  watts,  and  to  overcome  the  friction  on  the  ma- 
chine requires  1.5  hp.  Find  the  percentage  of  efficiency 
at  which  the  machine  is  operating. 

Commutator  Was  Strained 

By  E.  C.  Parham 

The  general  practice  in  tightening  commutators  is  to 
heat  them  first  so  as  to  soften  the  insulation  and  thereby 
make  it  more  yielding  to  the  pressure;  the  resistance 
then  offered  to  the  tightening  of  the  nuts  gives  an  indi- 
cation of  how  tight  the  construction  is.  One  method  of 
heating  large  commutators,  after  the  machine  has  been 
installed,  is  to  apply  a  number  of  gasoline  torches  around 
the  periphery  while  the  armature  is  kept  rotating  fast 
enough  to  prevent  overheating  in  spots.  Another  meth- 
od is  to  operate  the  machine  with  load  and  with  the 
brushes  shifted  to  a  position  that  causes  considerable 
sparking. 

A  large  generator  gave  trouble  by  sparking  at  the 
brushes,  which  was  attributed  to  loose  commutator  bars. 
According  to  the  operator's  statement,  the  commutator 
when  the  machine  was  installed  was  a  little  out  of  round, 
as  indicated  by  the  brushes  riding  up  and  down  once  per 
revolution.  Slight  eccentricity  of  the  commutators  of 
an  engine-driven  generator  is  not  at  all  unusual,  nor  is 
it,  as  a  rule,  objectionable  on  this  type  of  machines,  and 
there  are  hundreds  of  machines  operating  satisfactorily 


in  this  condition.  The  commutator  is  finished  in  the 
shop  after  being  installed  on  the  armature,  but  even  at 
that,  when  the  armature  is  installed  on  the  engine  shaft 
the  commutator  frequently  runs  with  a  slight  eccen- 
tricity which  can  best  be  removed  by  truing  it  up  while 
the  armature  turns  in  its  own  bearing. 

The  operator  in  this  case  had  tightened  the  commu- 
tator without  heating  it,  and,  to  make  sure  that  it  was 
tight,  applied  all  the  pressure  that  three  men  could  exert 
with  a  six-foot  length  of  pipe  on  a  wrench.  The  result 
of  this  treatment  was  that  the  commutator  was  so  tight 
that  the  heat  due  to  normal  operations  caused  the  com- 
mutator bars  to  bend  out  in  the  middle — this  caused 
poor  brush  contact,  and  the  sparking  became  worse  than 
ever.  By  loosening  the  commutator,  heating  it  and  re- 
tightening,  using  the  pressure  of  two  men  with  a  two- 
foot  length  of  pipe  on  the  wrench,  and  then  grinding  the 
surface  with  a  stone,  commutation  became  perfect,  al- 
though the  commutator  was  still  eccentric. 

Blowoff   Pipe   Scaled 

The  engineer  who  has  no  trouble  with  scale  in  his 
boilers  is  a  fortunate  individual.  The  scale-forming 
salts  in  boiler-feed  water,  as  is  well  known,  coat  the 
boikr  shell  and  tube,  frequently  to  such  an  extent  that 
in    the    case   of    return-tubular    boilers   the    tube    ends 


FIG.    1.      SCALE  IN   HORI- 
ZONTAL    PIPK 


FIG.     1.       SCALE    IN    THE 
VERTICAL    PIPE 


become  burned  and  are  prevented  from  leaking  seriously 
only  by  the  hsavy  deposits  of  scab  around  the  tube 
and  on  the  boiler  heads.  In  water-tube  boilers  the 
scale  problem  is  so  serious  in  many  localities  that  some 
of  the  tubes  become  practically  stopped  up  with  a 
hardened  lime  deposit. 

The  boiler  blowoff  pipe  is  not  exempt  from  scale 
deposit,  and  sometimes  the  formation  presents  an  in- 
teresting study.  For  instance,  Fig.  1  shows  a  piece  that 
was  cut  from  the  horizontal  section  of  a  blowoff  pipe 
on  a  72-in.  boiler.  This  pipe  had  been  in  use  for  four 
years,  and  the  boikr  was,  so  far  as  known,  blown  down 
at  least  once  each  day.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
built-up  layers  of  scale,  as  shown  by  the  variation  in 
colors.  Although  the  inside  diameter  of  the  pipe  is 
approximately  21  in.,  the  opening  through  the  scale 
is  but  IfV  in.  at  its  greatest  diameter. 

In  Fig.  2  is  shown  a  piece  of  the  pipe  that  was  cut 
out  of  the  vertical  section,  and,  as  may  be  seen,  the 
scale  formation  is  but  about  ,\,  in.  thick,  and  evenly 
distributed  at  that.  An  interesting  question  is.  Why 
did  the  horizontal  pipe  scale  so  much  more  than  the 
vertical    section? 


June  18,  1918 


POWER 


I'liiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiii iiiijiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiimiii iiiyiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijiiiiiiiiiiiii 


"""""""""""""""""iiimiiimimiiiiimiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


879 

"iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinmmji 


Editorials 


^' " ' ' """""" ' ' f""" "— - ' " "- "— ,„ „„„ „,„„ „ „„„„„„„„„„„ „„„„J 

been 


/  """"""'"""""""nniiiiHiiMliiiiiiiiilliiiiilllliiiiiilim 

What  Are  You  Doing  WitlA^OUr  Coal?     economy   in  the   use  of  coal  than  has  even  now 
q^HE    United    States    must   furni^  634,594,000    net     J'^^^^  achieved.     With  the  Fuel  Administration  classi 


T 


7  ,  VI  I    "    u-  ^"  "^^  6ven  now  been 

HE    United    States    must   furni^  634,594,000    net     J'^^^^  achieved.     With  the  Fuel  Administration  classi- 
A    tons  of  bituminous  coal  to  feed/e  ever-increasing       yins  Power  plants  and  giving  priority  of  coal  to  those 
demand  of  the  war  machine  for  ft/  and  to  keep  the  °  ^"  ^^^^  <=^"  to  economize,  engineers  must  not 

country  warm  during  the  present  c/ year.  Estimates  t^^^^,  *  '""^^  increase  their  vigilance  in  and  about 
compiled  by  the  Fuel  AdniinistraP  indicate  an  in-  ^  ^  ' 
creased  demand  for  79,866,000  nJons  of  bituminous 
coal,  which  must  be  met  either  /  an  increased  pro- 
duction or  by  conservation  and  citation  in  the  use 
of  coal.  To  meet  this  demand/  full  by  production 
would  mean  an  increased  cutputf  14.4  per  cent,  over 
the  production  for  the  yeir  lOf  which  amounted  to 
554,728,000  tons.  / 

The  estimates  are  base!  ufV  figures  submitted  by 
the  various  departments  if  thpovernment  indicating 
their  increased  demands  for/el   during   the   current     ^ 
year.    In  some  cases  the  'uelPministration  has  found     j^ 

•l  I  _1? .l__l/lVl/1I10^-v»inl         ^  ^ 1 


it  necessary  to  go  direcly  jflndustrial  consumers  to 
ascertain  the  amount  of  hepquirements.  To  secure 
an  output  of  634,594,00  td  during  the  coal  year  it 
would  be  necessary  to  rairy"  an  average  weekly  pro- 
duction of  more  than  tvalv/iiHion  tons.    This  amount 


has 


the  plant. 

No   engineer   could    do    better   than    spend    an    hour 

ptn  of'the  f'  T\J  °^^^  "^*  ^™  ^^''  classificat "n 
fhe  matter  I  Administration.  The  argument  that 
the  matter  of  power  costs  is  insignificant  compared 
with  the  cost  of  the  product  made  at  the  mill  or  To  ks 

or  smair  To tt  ?''  '^  "^^"^'^^'  "'  "'^  -«*  ^-t 
show  that  i?;.  •  •";  ^^"^°"^'^'^  "'"e  a  plant  must 
Show  that  It  IS  using  it  economically.     The  plant  man 

ITT  '""f  Z'^— t  --rt  or  promise  or  proTrt" 
but  show-that  it  is  using  it  efficiently.     Our  readers 

IZ  'VrV'f  ''^  "^"^^  AdministraJon  means  ts" 
ness.  The  coal-mine  operators,  particularly  those  of 
Pennsylvania,  have  been  shown  recently,  and  Tn  a 
surprisingly  forcible  manner,  that  the  Fuel  Admrnis^ 
tration  means  business.  ^aminis- 

If  you  keep  no  account  of  the  performance  of  your 

::;Strst??L^---^-^»-doso^;^ 


ion  oi  more  iiiaii  uwivr— ""'^  -vjno.      xms  ainoum;        ,      .  "  "-^   "'^  pexiurmance  of  your 

not  been  producedin/y  single  week  during  the  ^  ^"^'Particularly  the  boiler  room,  begin  to  do  so  im 

Dry  of  the  bitumiJu/'al  mining  industry.     The  ,      J ^  f  .       ^^  ^^  high-class  scales  and  meters  as  von 

,     ,      ..  .     y;rnv ,4- ,      ,    .       .  wish,     but     use     snmotVur.^     „;„i.i.     _  .  •'"" 


has  not  Peen  producecun/'-'   '''"K'c  weeK  auring  the     „„!•  <.  ,       ,7 •'  """ci  room,  oegin  to  do  so  im- 

history  of  the  bitumiJu/>al  mining  industry.     The  •  ^    f  1           ^^  high-class  scales  and  meters  as  you 

nearest  approach  to  thir/irement  was  reached  during  ^J,     ,u          "^^    something    right    away.      A    record    of 

the  week  of  Mav  25.»'Wthe  week's  production  was  ^  "^^'^^rrow  or  dump-cart  or  carloads  of  cnal  ;=  K.f.,.- 


nearest  approach  to  thirtf^emeiu  was  reached  during 
the  week  of  May  25,  >'l/*e  week's  production  was 
estimated  at  11,811,0(1 
The  demands  for  su 

on  foreign  service  sK  -        . o-  ^^  ^n- 

The    Shippirfoard    has    estimated    that    to 


tons. 

ships  from  American  ports 
he  largest  percentage  of  in- 


crease.          ^^  .„ 

supply  bunkers  to  sif'"  the  foreign  trade  will  re- 
quire thirty  per  ceF''^  coal  than  in  1917.  The 
industrial  requiremr^  the  country,  augmented  by 
the  tremendous  ex'F   of  war  manufactures,   will 


Wheelbarrow  or  dump^rt  or^cTrloadfof  coalTblel 
han  no  record  at  all;  but  such  crude  means  should  be 
temporary  only.  The  time  is  here  when  the  manage 
ment  must  see  the  necessity  of  providing  thTSt" 
selection  of  meters,  instruments  and  equipment  for  Se 
Pbnt.    Having  got  them  on  the  recommendation  o    tL 

to  usTth     "  ''r.f  *'^*  *'^  ^"^'-^^  l^»ows  how  bes 
to  use  them  and  that  he  will  so  use  them. 


demand  eighteen  \>4^-  "^ore  fuel  during  1918  than  Firp«?    in    T,,,.k      n 

during  1917.     The  K  utilities  of  the  country  will     ,^^rrr.^l  -^  UrDO-LrCneratOrS 

need  a  fifteen  perf   increase,   domestic  consumers 


p..,  -.   - ^  ...ou....x»     T^HERE  are  numerous  ways  in  which  a  turbo-gener- 

a  thirteen  per  cent''ease  and  the  railroads  a  seven     ^t  "^f  ^^^^  '"  service,  and  for  periods  of  from 

per  cent,  increase  r^e  requirements  of  last  year.  •      ^^'^^"ds,  where  the  steam  end  opens  inadvertently 

In  addition  to  ti^creases,  new  requirements  for     „„  .^    °  t/ie  overspeed  device  operating  or  a  mistake 
al  will  demand  ditional  nine  million  tons.     Two     ^^r^JJ^^  operator,  to  several  weeks  when  the 

"  -^  allotted  as  a  substitute  in  the     ^„^"''f°'^^  ^"J-n^  "P  ^nd  must  be  rewound.     The  steam 

end  of  a  turbo-generator  causes  lesser  delays,  but  mor^ 
frequent  ones  than  the  electrical  end.     Worn  beLrgs 
stripped   or  eroded   blades   may   be   renewed   in  a   fS 

of  the  New  En  States.     The  regular  allotment  to     ^^dnv   Z    ,  \*^°".^^^'  '"^tead  of  being  localized  and 
New  England  pvide  for  thirty   days   additional     „„rts    nth!,   /if      '.f  ""'"^   '■"'   "^'^«««'tates   disturbing 

rea'^LTthem  °"   ''"'^''   ^"'   "^"'^^   --'^   ^ 

inufacture  of  beehi've"'coke"o7  for     deJetJlf '"/^V"'^''"^^'  °^  ""  ""'"'^'"^  ^^^  ^''^^ter  the 
^hips,  including  those  on  the  Great     therTfr^^  J  !!!lS J^ /.'^'  ^'''•'^'}-  '^'  '"^Portance. 

the  more 
ified  with 


coal  will  demand 

million  tons  of  t.  .-  „.  „„^ 

West  for  oil.  \vb"^y  "ot  be  available  because  of 
ocean  transport:i/'_^cu'ties,  and  seven  million  tons 
will  go  to  give  i^itional  ten  days'  storage  supply 
to  the  industiia^^^™s  and^  public   utilities   outsid: 


storage  in  tho^^- 

There  will  Increase  in  the  amounts  allowed  for 
exports,   for 
bunker 
Lakes. 


exports,    lor  y-— ™--"'v   ^^    Mccmve    coKe   or   tor     denendenre  nU-art  „„„„   -t    xu  *^  ' 

bunkering  do^ips,  including  those  on  the  Great  herefc^r  of  m.inH  n       '  •        ^'''•'''''  '''  '"'' 

Lakes  tnereioie    of  maintaining  it  in  service  and  t...  ,„ure 

The   indus/>"«umption    of   coal   will   be   about  aTe^'Lit's  ttt' '1,^^'^!,°"'  "'•''  ''  ^"^'"^^'^  ^'*^ 

eighteen  pefeeater  for  this  current  year  than  mal  e^ones    nl   wol  tt     f'T  ^°"^f  ^^'^  -'th 

it  was  last]  But  this  presupposes  still  greater  UndouS^theT^st ^r^ou:  atlS^it'^fnln^be- 


880 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


fall  a  turbo-generator,  which  is  not  only  the  most 
expensive  to  repair  but  also  of  the  most  protracted  de- 
lay, is  that  of  a  burn-out.  Rarely  is  but  one  coil  alone 
damaged,  but  generally  several.  Often  the  core  is 
damaged  too,  necessitating  replacement.  In  any  case 
taking  out  and  replacing  the  damaged  coils  require  that 
other  coils  also  be  removed  in  reaching  those  injured. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  coils  are  usually  damaged, 
if  not  by  the  actual  short-circuit  and  accompanying 
arc,  by  bending  and  movement  in  the  slots  under  the 
enormous  magnetic  stresses  set  up  by  the  short-circuit 
current.  When  a  generator  short-circuits  internally, 
a  fire  may  follow,  though  not  necessarily,  and  a  sus- 
tained internal  fire  may  cause  a  short-circuit,  although 
the  cause  cannot  always  be  easily  determined  after  the 
event,  since  the  consecjuence  removes  the  cause  in  many 
cases. 

A  few  years  ago,  when  one  of  the  leading  central- 
station  companies  installed  a  large  turbo-generator,  an 
occurrence  of  world-wide  interest  at  that  time,  the 
matter  of  internal  fires  and  possible  modes  of  protec- 
tion were  considered,  it  being  felt  by  some  that  the 
chance  of  conflagration  occurring  was  a  very  real  one, 
accompanied  by  very  extensive  damage.  However,  at 
that  time  the  ruling  opinion  was  that  the  large  modern 
furbo-generator  contained  nothing  that  would  burn,  and 
that  such  machines  were  amply  protected.  Since  that 
time  several  serious  fires  have  occurred  in  turbo-genera- 
tors— one  in  the  station  already  referred  to — that  re- 
sulted in  extensive  damage  to  the  units  involved,  heavy 
expense  for  repairs  and  perhaps  an  even  greater  cost 
due  to  loss  of  capacity  and  operating  smaller  and  less 
efficient  machines. 

The  incidents  cited  in  the  discussion  letter,  "Fires  in 
Turbo-Generators,"  on  page  705  of  May  14  issue,  clearly 
indicate  that  the  modern  turbo-alternator  is  far  from 
being  fireproof,  and  if  fires  do  occur  they  are  rarely 
quenched  before  the  windings  are  destroyed.  Although 
experiments  have  been  carried  on  recently,  as  pointed 
out  on  page  883  in  this  issue,  to  find  out  the  best 
method  of  extinguishing  fires  in  large  generators  and 
motors,  this  subject  has  not  received  the  attention  that 
it  merits,  as  evidenced  by  the  large  number  of  machines 
that  have  been  destroyed  by  fire,  with  no  special  means 
of  extinguishing  the  fire  at  hand.  This  seems  to  be  one 
feature  in  the  design  and  operation  of  large  electrical 
machines  that,  if  given  the  proper  attention,  holds 
forth  possibilities  of  greatly  increasing  the  reliability  ol 
this  class  of  equipment. 

Duty  of  the  Employer  in  Reconstruction 
of  the  Crippled  Soldier 

ALMSGIVING  tends  to  make  the  recipient  more 
dependent.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  same  indi- 
vidual is  provided  the  wherewithal  to  earn  his  own 
living  and  made  to  feel  that  he  is  earning  it,  ha  will 
be  put  in  a  fair  way  to  achieve  success  and  become 
an  asset  to  the  community.  It  is  with  this  fact  in  mind 
that  the  American  Red  Cross  has  undertaken  the  re- 
construction work  for  our  crippled  soldiers,  thousands 
of  whom  will  return  from  the  battlefronts  before  the 
termination  of  the  war.  The  employar's  side  of  this 
work  is  clearly  outlined  in  an  article,  "Duty  of  the  Em- 


ployer in  tie  Reconstruction  of  the  Crippled  Soldier," 
by  W.  C.  McMurtrie,  on  page  890  of  this  issue. 

It  is  well  known  that  our  pension  system,  in  so  far  as 
constructive  ends  are  concerned,  has  been  a  failure. 
The  pension  did  not  provide  suflficient  means  to  sup- 
port the  disabled  soldier  in  decency,  and  instead  of 
arousing  in  the  cripple  a  desire  to  help  himself,  it 
was  an  incentive  to  idleness  and,  not  infrequently, 
worse.  From  the  experience  gained  in  foreign  countries 
it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  only  sound  method 
of  dealing  with  the  disabled  soldier  is  to  train  him 
for  a  trade  in  which  his  physical  disabilities  do  not 
incapacitate  him.  The  work  carried  on  in  Europe 
has  shown  that  it  is  practically  possible  to  train  every 
cripple  in  some  class  of  work  so  as  to  make  him  an 
independent  and  useful  citizen. 

The  problem  of  making  not  only  the  military  cripple 
but  also  the  industrial  cripple  useful  should  be -con- 
sidered, for  we  cannot  afford  to  allow  a  healthy  man 
to  be  a  dependent  on  the  nation  when  a  little  in- 
telligent effort  on  the  part  Of  an  employer  might  make 
him  a  productive  worker  and  an  independent  citizen. 

According  to  the  plan  under  way  in  this  country, 
the  Government  will  provide  the  necessary  medical 
treatment,  supply  artificial  limbs,  conduct  the  training 
for  an  occupation  and  find  the  job.  It  will,  however, 
rest  with  the  people  whether  they  will  encourage  the 
soldier  to  accept  the  advantages  of  training  which  will 
refit  him  for  a  life  of  usefulness  and  self-respect.  There 
is  a  general  feeling  that  the  nation  should  maintain 
the  crippled  soldier  in  idleness  for  the  rest  of  his  natural 
life.  Nobody  will  deny  that  the  disabled  soldier  is 
entitled  to  every  consideration,  but  maintaining  him 
in  idleness  or  in  a  charity  job  is  generally  the  last 
thing  that  tends  toward  maintaining  him  as  a  self- 
respecting  citizen.     As  Mr.  McMurtrie  has  pointed  out. 

Too  many  employers  are  ready  to  give  the  crippled  alms, 
but  not  willing  to  expend  the  thought  necessary  to  place 
him  in  a  suitable  job.  This  attitude  has  helped  to  make 
many  cripples  dependent.  With  our  new  responsibilities  to 
the  men  disabled  in  fighting  for  us,  the  point  of  view 
must  certainly  be  changed.  What  some  cripples  have  done 
other  cripples  can  do  if  only  given  an  even  chance.  If  the 
employer  will  do  the  returned  soldier  the  honor  of  offering 
him  real  employment  rather  than  proffering  him  the  igno- 
miny of  a  charity  job,  it  will  be  a  great  factor  in  making  the 
complete  elimination  of  the  dependent  cripple  a  real  and 
inspiring  possibility. 


Garabed  Giragossian,  who  was  going  to  pluck  energy 
out  of  the  vast  unknown,  has  failed  at  this  writing 
to  exhibit  an  operating  machine.  He  told  the  writer 
that  he  has  had  a  machine  in  operation  and  has  run 
it  from  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  until  two  in  the 
morning  continuously  and  many  other  times  for  shorter 
periods;  that  he  can  stop  and  start  it  any  time  at  will 
and  can  demonstrate  the  practicability  of  his  plan  in- 
side of  a  week  after  the  appointment  of  the  investigating 
committee.     Come  on,  Garabed,  step  on  the  gas! 


".  .  .  We  have  added  to  the  American  flag  since  our 
war  against  Germany  began,  nearly  4,500,000  tons  of 
shipping.  We  have  today  under  contract  and  construc- 
tion 819  shipbuilding  ways  including  wood,  steel  and  con- 
crete, which  is  twice  as  many  shipbuilding  ways  as  there 
are  in  all  the  rest  of  the  shipyards  of  the  world  com- 
bined."— Chairman    Hurley    of    the    Shipping    Board. 

Indeed  the  Yanks  are  coming! 


June  18,  1918 

^„,,,,,,,,ii,,,i,,„,,,,„,,,,,,i,,,,,,,u,,„„,,,iiuiu..iiuuiimiiiniiiiiiiiii"i""""""' "f""""""' "i"""""'" i"""""""""!"!! Illllllliiiiiuiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiimiiimmi iiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiu, , „, „,p 


^iiiumiiuiiimiiimiiimiiUMi 


Corr^pondence 


|,.iiiuiiiiuiiiniiimiiniiHiiiiiminmiiniiinminiuniniuiniuiiiiuiiimiiiuiinuiimiiiniiiuiimiiiumiiii| 

Wooden  Pliers  for  Replacing 

The  illustration  shows  a  pair  of  wooden  p] 


for  replacing   blown-out  high-voltage 
former  fuses  with  safety  to  the  operator. 


handy 
trans- 
ade  of 


,.^x 


\ 


\. 


HANDT    PLIERS    FOR 


OWER 


881 


llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMllllllinilllllllllllllltlllllMIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 


fix  ]-in.  hard 

ceive  the  maple 

11  find  it  handy 

green  help. 


I 


an  ordinary  broom  handle  and  a 
maple.    The  broom  handle  is  slot 
piece.    Anyone  can  make  this 
around  the  switchboard,  especia^j^^^^^  Dewar. 
Hoosick  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Burning  Wood  tor 

,'of  late  that  we  of 
It  has  been  suggested  f^erf^gj.  ^^  conserve  the 
the  Southern  States  burn  wc^g^^^j  particularly  in 
supply  of  coal.     I  have  beej^^jg  ^^  burning  this 
the  descriptions  of  diflEerey^jj^^.  g^^^^^  ^.^^^j^^  ^^ 
fuel.    I  believe,  to  be  cons^jQj.j^^  ^^^  generating 
the  steam  plants  in  the  Stfj.Qj^  ^^le  larger  plant;; 
steam  with  wood  as  fuel.  .^^^  ^^j.  ^-^^   g^,^^g   ^^ 
the   same  proportion   w'iiearer  to  the  coal  fields 
Georgia.    Alabama,  of  co    r^Yiere  seems  to  be  a 
and  therefore  burns  n.c^^i  jg  plentiful  in  these 
general  impression  tha<  ^j.^  burning  slabs  and 
three  states,  but  man^/j^gj.  impossible  to  get  or 
strips  because  cord  "Prohibitive,   which   would 
so  expensive  as  to  iLq^  g^  plentiful  after  all. 
seem  to  indicate  that^  gj,ijj^jjj^j  ^.^  ^^g^^  ^  ^j^q^_ 
In  my  opinion  it  h   and  the  present  methods 
sand  B.t.u.  in  wood^  economical  way  of  burn- 
are  most  wasteful./'  j^^  qj,  gj-ind  it  to  :l-  or  1-in. 
ing  wood  or  slabs,  i  storage   bin    and   feed   di- 
size,    store   in   an,Jth  dutch  oven.s.    In  this  way 
rectly  to  boiler.s  e^e  hogged,  stored  and  burned 
all  the  fuel  recei/onomy  resulting  from  an   in- 
as  needed.     Thi^i^  be  a  closer  regulation  and 
stallation  of  thj  combustion,  as  the  fire-doors 
a  more  uniforjened  so  often,  admitting  large 
would  not  hay 
t. 


IIIIIIIIIJIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIJJIIIIIIIIIIllllig 

volumes  of  cold  air,  and  less  damage  would  be  done  to 
the  boiler  setting.  A  motor-driven  chain  conveyor  could 
be  used  to  deliver  the  hogged  fuel  to  the  firing  floor  or 
directly  to  the  furnace. 

I  would  like  to  see  more  discussion  on  wood  as  fuel. 
Aside  from  the  reasons  why  I  should  burn  it,  I  am  in- 
terested in  any  suggestions  as  to  how  I  can  use  it  to 
better  advantage.  W.  Walton  Cranford. 

Fort  Myers,  Fla. 

Repairs  to  Broken  Gear  Wheel 

The  machine  to  which  a  large  gear,  broken  as  shown 
in  the  illustration,  belongs  should  be  in  use  every  day, 
so  when  it  broke  it  was  up  to  the  master  mechanic  to 
make  quick  repairs,  for  under  present  conditions  the 
delivery  of  a  new  one  or  having  the  broken  one  welded 
would  mean  the  loss  of  valuable  time. 

We  found  the  web  cracked  through  and  the  rim  partly 
through  at  A.  The  hub  and  arms  were  broken  through 
at  B  and  the  rim  at  C,  and  the  gear  was  forced  around 
on  the  shaft  until  the  key  was  about  at  A'.  We  drew  the 
key  and  removed  the  wheel  from  the  shaft,  then  drew 
the  gear  together  with  rods  and  bolts  as  closely  as 
possible.  Next,  three  rings  were  shrunk  on  the  hub, 
two  on  one  side  and  one  on  the  other,  and  plates  made 
to  fit  the  inside  of  the  rim,  as  shown  by  the  heavy  lines. 
These  were  drilled  and  put  on  with  capscrews  after  the 
hub  was  drawn  up  by  the  bands.     The  arms  were  stif- 


^  ^JX/VA^YT^"-"— 


iiUOKi.;x  (jKAii  wiiicKi.  r1':pairi':d  and  returned  to 

.srouvTcio 

fencd  by  means  of  rods  from  the  strap  D  hooked  over 
two  good  arms  and  on  the  other  side,  where  the  hub  was 
long  enough  to  receive  it,  by  a  large  band.  The  gear 
was  then  replaced,  keyed  up  tight  and  the  machine 
started,  and  it  ran  as  well  as  ever.  John  Drummond. 
Granby,  Que.,  Canada. 


882 


POWEK 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


Instruments  Improve  Plant  Economy 

In  the  plant  in  which  the  writei-  is  chief  engineer,  two 
372-hp.  water-tube  boilers  equipped  with  chain-grate 
stokers  were  installed.  One  of  first  questions  to  arise 
was  that  of  damper  regulation.  It  was  decided  to  con- 
trol the  dampers  from  the  fronts  of  the  boilers,  using 
straight  pieces  of  shafting  and  rocker-arms  to  complete 


quantity  of  green  coal  was  fed  onto  the  grates.  They 
would  also  open  up  the  damper  and  allow  a  rush  of  cold 
air  into  the  furnace,  lowering  the  temperature  of  the 
combustion  chamber  as  well  as  carrying  50  per  cent,  of 
the  volatile  gases  up  the  chimney  unburned. 

Instructing  the  firemen  to  continue  to  operate  the 
boilers  as  they  had  in  the  past,  I  connected  up  the  CO., 
analyzer  and  took  a  reading  when  the  combustion  was 


FIU.    1.      PRESSl'RE    CHART    BEFORE    PURCHASE    OP 
INSTRUMENTS 


FIG. 


COMPARATIVE    PRESSURE    RECORDS    TAKEN 
FEB.   7.  1917,  AND  FEB.   8.   1918 


FTC.    3. 


VENTURI-METER   READINGS    SAME    DAT    IN    CON- 
SECUTIVE   YE.ARS 


the  connection  with  a  ratchet  lever  mounted  at  the  side 
of  the  setting.  This  arrangement  worked  satisfactorily 
until  a  draft  gage,  a  recording  steam-pressure  gage  and 
a  hand  CO,  outfit  were  purchased.  The  recording- 
pressure  gage  began  to  tell  tales.  Fig.  1  will  give 
an  indication  of  what  was  happening.  The  firemen 
would  allow  the  steam  pressure  to  drop  10  or  15  lb., 
then  open  up  the  feed  on  the  stokers  so  that  a  large 


FIG.     4,       RECORDING-THERMOMETER     CHART.     SHOWING 
INCREASE    IN    FEED-W\\TER    TEMPERATURE 

good  and  the  steam  pressure  normal.  The  result  was 
12  per  cent.  CO,.  When  the  steam  pressure  began  to 
drop,  the  fireman  as  usual,  proceeded  to  admit  a  large 
quantity  of  green  coal  and  open  up  the  damper.  A 
sample  of  gas  showed  only  5  per  cent.  CO,.  Evidently 
a  change  in  firing  methods  was  in  order  to  stop  the 
fluctuation  in  pressure,  and  it  wa.s  apparent  that  the 
draft  was  not  regulated  as  it  should  be. 


June  18.  1918 


ER 


883 


A  damper  regulator  was  purchased  and  this  instf- 
ment  worked  to  perfection.  Still  there  was  not  pro| 
control  of  the  stoker  engine.  This  difficulty  was  o| 
come  by  taking  off  the  governor,  putting  a  1-in.by*^ 
around  the  main  throttle  and  opening  the  valve  1st 
enough  to  keep  the  engine  turning  over.  An  arm  fh^'^ 
the  damper-regulator  shaft  was  then  connected  to  the 
throttle  valve,  and  the  regulator  was  set  to  oper^  at 
a  small  variation  in  pressure.  The  outer  circle  in  »S-  2 
shows  the  result  of  the  first  attempt,  and  theJinei- 
circle  indicates  what  is  now  being  done  in  the  plant. 
The  variation  in  steam  pressure  is  very  small  ajd  the 
CO.  seldom  goes  below  11  per  cent.  m 

It  is  worthy  of  mention  that  the  recording  charts  are 
being  conserved  by  using  them  from  year  to  year  on 
corresponding  days  by  changing  the  color  of  the  ink. 
The  records  shown  in  Fig.  2  were  taken  on  Feb.  7, 
1917,  and  Feb.  8,  1918.  The  plan  is  not  so, much  to 
conserve  the  paper  charts  as  to  create  comparative 
records  of  corresponding  days  in  two  or  more  years, 
depending  upon  the  number  of  times  the  charto'are  used. 
This  is  a  great  help  in  operating  the  plaot  at  high 
efficiency.  Take  for  example  the  venturi-meter  chart 
in  Fig.  3.  It  shows  how  much  the  load  has  increased  in 
a  year's  time,  and  Fig.  4,  a  chart  from  the  recording 
thermometer,  indicates  the  relative  feed-water  tempera- 
tures. The  last-named  instrument  is  a  great  improve- 
ment over  putting  your  hand  on  the  discharge  pipe  of  the 
boiler-feed  pump  to  learn  the  temperature  of  the  water. 
Besides,  it  helps  to  locate  any  trouble  that  may  develop 
in  the  pump.  When  the  latter  begins  to  give  trouble, 
it  is  not  always  easy  to  tell  whether  the  water  is  too  hot 
or  whether  the  pump  is  airbound.  With  a  thermometer 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  making  the  proper  decision. 

In  the  plant  under  discussion  the  use  of  a  recording 
thermometer  resulted  in  a  considerable  saving  in  coal. 
It  was  impossible  to  get  the  feed-water  temperature 
above  170  deg.  If  it  could  be  raised  to  200  deg., 
calculation  showed  that  a  saving  of  $1.83  per  day  in  coal 
could  be  effected.  The  trouble  was  in  the  location  of 
the  feed-water  heater.  It  had  been  placed  on  a  dead  end 
from  the  exhaust  heating  line,  so  that  there  was  no 
circulation  through  it,  and  the  only  way  to  remove  the 
air  was  to  open  the  roof  valve,  which  of  course  was  a 
waste  of  heat.  Remodeling  the  piping  connections  so  that 
all  the  exhaust  steam  passed  through  the  heater  on  its 
way  to  the  heating  system  made  a  feed-v/ater  tempera- 
ture of  200  deg.  possible,  and  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  this 
temperature  has  been  exceeded.  J.  J.  Spangler. 

Mooseheart,  111.  ^ 

Operated  Turbine  with  Stripped  Blading 

I  have  read  with  interest  some  of  the  articles  in  Power 
regarding  steam-turbine  accidents  and  I  wish  to  relate 
an  experience  due  to  losing  six  rows  of  the  low-stage 
blading  on  a  500-kw.  unit  in  the  plant  in  which  I  am 
3mployed.  The  accident  occurred  with  about  40  per  cent, 
load  on  the  turbine  just  after  the  generator  had  been 
synchronized  with  another  unit  and  at  the  time  the 
attendant  was  building  up  the  vacuum  on  the  condenser. 

I  was  not  at  the  i)lant  when  the  accident  occurred,  but 
arrived  about  fifteen  minutes  afterward,  and  from  evi- 
dence and  from  information  gathered  from  the  operat- 
ing engineer  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  stripping  of 


the  blading  was  caused  by  water  being  forced  up  into  the 
low-pressure  end  of  the  turbine  by  the  priming  pump 
after  the  circulating  pump  had  stopped  owing  to  a 
blown  fuse  on  the  motor  drive,  a  jet  type  of  condenser 
being  used. 

After  removing  the  stripped  and  distorted  blading 
from  the  cylinder  and  spindle,  we  put  the  turbine  back  in 
service  and  operated  it  for  several  months  before  renew- 
ing the  low-stage  blading,  being  able  to  pull  the  full  rated 
capacity  of  the  generator,  although  at  a  considerable 
increase  in  steam  consumption.  HoMER  I.  Reeder. 

Emporia,  Kan. 

Fires  in  Turbo-Generators 

The  article  "Fires  in  Turbo-Generators,"  by  M.  A. 
Walker,  appearing  in  the  Jan.  22  issue  of  Poiver,  and 
the  letter  by  Everett  Palmer  in  the  May  14  issue  com- 
menting upon  this  article,  show  conclusively  that  the 
problem  of  extinguishing  fires  in  turbo-generators  is 
one  that  should  cause  every  power-plant  operator 
serious  concern.  The  number  of  turbo-generators  in 
this  country  that  have  been  completely  destroyed  by 
fire  and  that  might  have  been  saved  with  only  the 
loss  of  one  or  two  coils  had  the  proper  facilities  been 
provided  to  take  care  of  such  emergencies,  should  make 
both  operators  and  manufacturers  consider  such  protec- 
tion seriously.  These  fires  have  cost  thousands  of  dol- 
lars for  repairs,  and  even  larger  sums  due  to  the  long 
period  required  to  make  the  repairs,  which  in  many 
cases  require  practically  rebuilding  the  whole  core  and 
winding  of  the  generator.  At  first  it  was  thought  that 
the  high-voltage  turbo-alternator  did  not  contain  much 
that  could  burn,  but  today  we  know  by  many  experiences 
that  short-circuits  in  these  machines  will  not  only  cause 
the  insulation  to  be  destroyed,  but  will  also  destroy  the 
winding  and  core  themselves. 

Recently,  a  series  of  experiments  was  conducted  by 
the  General  Electric  Co..  as  reported  in  the  January. 
1918,  issue  of  the  General  Electric  Revieiv,  as  to  the 
best  means  of  extinguishing  fires  in  high-speed  totally 
inclosed  motors  and  turbo-generators.  As  a  result  of 
these  experiments  the  conclusion  was  reached  that 
steam,  if  supplied  in  sufficient  quantities,  will  put  out 
any  fire  that  may  occur  by  burning  insulation;  fur- 
ther, that  the  insulation,  if  properly  dried  out  after 
a  steam  bath,  will  not  be  materially  damaged.  This 
method  has  the  further  advantage  of  relieving  the 
boilers  of  some  of  their  steam  when  practically  the 
whole   load    of   the   unit   is   suddenly   thrown    off. 

Carbon  tetrachloride,  while  not  as  effective  as  steam, 
will  put  out  such  fires  if  used  in  sufficient  quantities. 
It  has  the  disadvantage,  however,  that  it  will  attack 
and  destroy  the  insulation;  furthermore,  its  fumes  are 
very  injurious  when  breathed. 

Carbon  dioxide  seems  to  be  equally  effective  in  put- 
ting out  these  fires,  but  it  is  hard  to  apply.  It  has 
to  be  kept  in  containers  under  high  pressure,  and 
there  are  instances  where,  when  these  gases  were  re- 
leased, the  outlet  nozzles  were  quickly  frozen  up,  owing 
to  the  refrigerating  action. 

As  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Walker  and  Mr.  Palmer,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  machine  be  made  dead  and  dis- 
connected from  the  line  immediately  when  the  trouble 


884 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2.5 


occurs,  which  can  probably  be  best  accomplished  auto- 
matically, after  which  the  steam  should  be  turned  on 
as  soon  as  possible. 

Another  feature  is  the  ventilating  air.  This  must 
be  cut  off  and  the  dampers  at  both  intake  and  dis- 
charge must  be  closed,  for  the  admission  of  large 
quantities  of  air  will  have  a  very  marked  effect  in 
causing  the  fire  to  spread.  In  my  opinion  steam  is 
far  superior  to  water  for  putting  out  these  fires,  not 
only  by  reason  of  the  advantages  already  pointed  out, 
but  alsc  because  the  use  of  water  is  attended  with 
some  uncertainty  as  regards  both  its  application  and 
its  effect  on  the  rotating  parts.  Steam  readily  pene- 
trates to  all  parts  of  the  windings  and  will  readily 
reach  a  fire  in  any  remote  part  of  the  windings,  where 
it  might  be  impossible  to  reach  it  with  water  unless 
a  considerable  quantity  is  used.  B.  A.  Briggs. 

New  York  City. 


Analyses  of  No.  2  Buckwheat  Coal 

In  the  May  21  issue  of  Power,  page  728,  under  the 
title,  "Coals  of  the  United  States,"  are  given  the  proxi- 
mate analyses  of  a  number  of  coals  from  representa- 
tive districts,  the  authority  being  Bureau  of  Mines 
Bulletin  No.  22. 

In  the  coals  listed  only  one  analysis  of  an  anthracite 
is  given.  This  is  reported  as  being  from  an  anthracite 
culm,  but  the  results  of  this  one  analysis  are  so  good 
compared  with  the  anthracite  received  at  the  plant 
where  I  am  employed  that  I  ask  you  to  give  the  in- 
closed analyses  room  in  your  publication  so  that  others 
may  see  that  all  anthracite  steam  fuel  is  not  as  good 
as  the  article  referred  to  would  indicate.  These  analyses 
have  not  been  chosen,  but  are  the  consecutive  results  of 
occasional  samples  taken  and  analyzed  by  a  capable 
chemist. 

PROXIMATE  ANALYSES  OF  ANTHRACITE  NO.   2  BUCKWHEAT  ■ 
(RICE)   COAL 


Date  Car 

Volatile 

Fixed 

Coal  Received 

Unloaded 

Matter 

Carbon 

Asli 

Sulpliur 

B.T.U. 

From 

Per  Cent,  of  Dry  Coal 

Dec. 

29, 

1917 

4   10 

72  85 

23 

05 

Mine  A 

Dec. 

29. 

1917 

4  85 

75  90 

19 

25 

Mine  B 

Jan. 

1, 

1918* 

4  05 

62  60 

33 

35 

Boiler  room 

H 

Jan. 

1. 

I9I8» 

4  30 

66.35 

29 

35 

Boiler  room 

S 

Jan. 

3, 

1918* 

4  05 

76  50 

19 

45 

Boiler  room 

H 

Jan. 

3, 

1918* 

4  95 

69  95 

25 

10 

Boiler  room 

S 

Mar. 

1, 

1918 

5  70 

71    00 

23 

30 

Mine  B 

Mar. 

1. 

1918 

5  70 

66  70 

27 

60 

Mine  B 

.Mar. 

n. 

1918» 

7  00 

73   10 

19 

90 

Boiler  room 

s 

Apr. 

II, 

1918 

6  40 

73  20 

20 

40 

Mine  C 

Apr. 

II. 

1918 

6  60 

75  00 

18 

40 

Mine  B 

Apr. 

16. 

1918 

6   50 

70   50 

23 

00 

Mine  A 

.\pr 

16. 

1918 

6  70 

72  70 

20 

60 

Mine  A 

Apr. 

20. 

1918 

8  00 

74  30 

17 

70 

0  65 

11,399 

.Mine  C 

Apr. 

20. 

1918 

5  90 

75  50 

18 

60 

0   85 

11,379 

Mine  A 

Apr. 

25. 

1918 

7.40 

68  40 

24 

20 

0  62 

10,208 

Mine  D 

.-Vpr 

25, 

1918 

5   65 

69  55 

24 

80 

0  68 

10,352 

-Mine  B 

May 

3. 

1918 

5  35 

74  85 

19 

80 

0  92 

11,358 

Mine  A 

Mav 

3. 

1918 

5  40 

77  30 

17 

30 

0  78 

11,557 

Mine  A 

May 

8. 

1918 

6  80 

71   80 

21 

40 

0  82 

11,169 

Mine  B 

Mav 

8. 

1918 

6   10 

66  50 

27 

40 

0  90 

10,173 

Mine  B 

May 

16, 

1918 

6  85 

72  55 

20 

60 

0  76 

11.370 

Mine  B 

May 

16. 

1918 

6  80 

74  90 

18 

30 

0  68 

11,612 

Mine  B 

*  Samples  were  taken  from  the  supply  in  the  hoilcr  rooms. 

Anthracite  culm  is  generally  understood  to  be  in- 
ferior to  No.  2  buckwheat  (rice).  We  are  now  using 
about  8000  tons  of  this  No.  2  buckwheat  per  month,  and 
if  we  could  have  the  analysis  equal  that  given  in  the 
Government  bulletin  quoted  by  you,  we  could  do  with 
about  seven  or  eight  less  cars  per  month  based  on  the 
reduction  of  ash  only,  not  considering  the  increased 
efficiency  of  boiler  operation  with  the  better  fuel. 

Pottsville,  Penn.  W.  W.  Pettibone 


Gas-Engine    Cycle    Indicator 

The  figure  shows  a  diagram  of  a  cycle  indicator  for 
a  three-cylinder  four-stroke-cycle  internal-combustion 
engine  which  I  designed.  To  engineers  familiar  with 
the  cycle  the  indicator  is  self-explanatory.  The  circular 
scale  represents  the  four  strokes  of  the  cycle,  or  two 
revolutions  of  the  crankshaft  and  one  revolution  of 
the  camshaft.  The  pointers  1,  2  and  3  on  the  rotating 
member  represent  the  cylinders  and  their  working  parts. 

The  pointers  are  numbered  in  the  firing  order  of  the 
cylinders,  and  the  center  piece  must  always  contain  as 
many  pointers  as  there  are  cylinders  in  the  engine. 
The  center  portion  may  also  be  made  round  and  of  the 
diameter  of  the  inner  circle  of  the  scale,  and  in  place 
of  the  pointers  lines  may  be  drawn  and  numbered 
accordingly.  No  matter  how  many  cylinders  there  may 
be  in  the  engine,  the  pointers  will  always  show  the 
relative  positions  of  the  vital  working  parts. 

The  indicator  may  be  used  for  practical  and  educa- 
tional purposes.     If  geared  to  the  engine  so  that  the 


/ 

4 

i  r- 

J   1 

/ 

1 

\ 

-— 

Li 

{ 

\ 

-->!-f- 


FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE,    IXTERXAL-COMBUSTION   ENGINE 

CYCI.K  INDICATOR 

center  portion  revolves  at  camshaft  spieed,  the  engineer 
can  tell  at  a  glance  how  the  engine  stands  and  what 
adjustments  must  be  made,  and  by  turning  the  engine 
two  revolutions  every  valve  and  igniter  can  be  set. 

In  looking  at  the  diagram,  No.  3  piston  stands  at  top 
dead-center  for  ignition.  Xn  1  and  2  show  the  position 
during  exhaust  and  intake  respectively.  Turning  the 
engine  a  little  farther,  Nn.  2  intake  closes  with  about 
36  deg.  delay  at  the  lower  end  of  the  stroke.  A  little 
farther  turning  closes  No.  1  "vhanst  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  stroke.  For  demoi.M  lation  purposes  the  indi- 
cator may  be  used  as  a  hand  in.strUment. 

Pittsburgh,  Penn.  John  Fetzer. 


Surplus  electric  power  produce  i  by  the  Stimson  Mill  Co. 
at  Ballard,  Wash.,  by  the  burnin;,'  of  waste  material  will 
be  sold  to  the  City  of  Seattle  at  0.004c.  per  kw.-hr.  The 
mill  company  agrees  to  deliver  ':<■  the  city  1300  kw.  for 
12  hours  and  300  kw.  for  the  otli^.i   12  hours  of  the  day. 


June  18,  1918  p  dV  E  R 

3IIIII miiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I iiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiii iiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiJiii i» iiimmmiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiimiiiiiiiimiim iiii iiiiii i uiiiiuiuuiiuill 


885 


Inquiries  of  general  Interest 


SlimillUlllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 


hiiiiiji iiiiiuiiiiiii miiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii: 


Advantages  of  Throttling  Wet  Steam — How  is  the 
tion  of  an  engine  improved   by  partly  closing  the  tl 
when  the  supply  of  steam   is  from  a  boiler  that  is 
ing  ?  D. 

By  partly  closing  the  throttle  the  process  of  wiredJ 
the  steam  reduces  its  pressure,  and  the  heat  contaj 
the  initial  wet  steam  is  sufficient  to  convert  the 
into  dry  steam  at  the  reduced  pressure,  with  the  advjltaftes 
of  removing  danger  of  a  smash  of  the  cylinder  from  jjesciice 
of  a  large  amount  of  water  and  of  obtaining  worjof  ex- 
pansion from  a  larger  proportion  of  the  boiler  oufut. 

Radial  Valve  Gear — What  is  meant  by  the  telB  radial 
valve  gear?  R.  G. 

The  name  radial  valve  gear  has  been  applied  to  i  number 
of  reversmg  gears  that  are  quite  different  in  design  but 
agree  in  deriving  the  mid-gear  motion  of  the  valTe  from  a 
source  that  is  equivalent  to  an  eccentric  with  90  deg.  ad- 
vance combined  with  another  motion  that  is  equivalent  to 
that  of  an  eccentric  with  no  angular  advance.  The  general 
principle  of  operation  of  radial  gears  is  that  of  obtaining 
from  some  reciprocating  or  revolving  piece  of  the  engine, 
an  arrangement  of  radius  bar  and  link  work,  a  point  in 
which  shall  describe  an  oval  curve,  and  by  altering  the 
direction  of  the  axes  of  this  cui-ve  to  produce  a  valve 
motion  adapted  to  variable  cutoff,  reversal  or  stoppage 
of  the  engine. 

Diameters  of  Mating  Cone  Pulleys — With  stepped  or  cone 
pulleys  used  for  belt  ti-ansmission  at  variable  speeds,  should 
the  sum  of  diameters  of  corresponding  drivers  and  followers 
be  constant  for  a  constant  length  of  belt  ?  F.  W. 

When  the  belt  is  run  crossed,  a  constant  length  of  belt 
will  be  required  for  a  constant  sum  of  diameters,  but  for  an 
open  belt  of  constant  length,  the  sum  of  diameters  of  mating 
steps  cannot  be  constant  because  there  is  a  changing  belt 
angle  to  alter  the  length  of  belt  required.  The  discrepancy 
is  not  perceptible  for  ordinary  lengths  of  open  belts  re- 
quired for  countershafts,  but  for  such  cases  as  foot-lathe 
drives  and  speed  cones,  where  the  cones  are  closer  together 
and  there  is  a  wide  difference  of  diameters,  the  sum  of 
diameters  must  be  varied  to  compensate  the  varying  belt 
angle. 

Fuse  Blown  on  3-Phase  Circuit— If  one  fuse  blows  on  a 
3-phase  line  supplying  a  3-phase  mot6r,  will  the  motor  be 
operating  2-phase  or  single-phase?  N.  E.  A. 

If  one  fuse  blows  on  a  3-phase  line  that  is  supplying  a 
3-phase  motor,  the  motor  will  then  be  operating  single-phase. 


-i!r& 


Consider  the  three  lines  A  .  B,  and  C  o  *  the  :'.-phase  circuit  in 
the  figure,  one  phase  ficm  A  to  B,  another  from  B  to  C,  and 
the  third  from  C  to  -4.  Then  if  the  fuse  blows  in  line  A, 
the  phases  from  A  to  /.'  and  C  to  .1  are  dead,  the  one  from 
B  to  C  being  the  only  mie  that  is  alive. 

Water  Handled  by  I'limp — What  <iuantity  of  water  would 
be  handled  by  a  14-iii.  x  36-in.  dupUx  pump  making  12  revo- 
lutions per  minute?  J.  D. 

Neglecting  the  rcdiK  tion  of  cioss-sectional  area  of  plung- 
ers or  water  cylinders  due  to  piston  rods,  the  displacement 
per  stroke  would  be  I  1  x  14  X  n.7854  x  3C  -  5541.78  cu.in. 
There  would  be  four  singlf!  strokes  per  revolution  and  with 


makes  a  pressure  of  0.433  lb.  per  sq.in.,  the  height  of 
"suction  lift"  in  feet  would  be  [14.7  —  (inches  of  vacuum 
at  pump    X    0.491)]    -^   0.433. 

12  revolutions  per  minute  the  total  plunger  or  piston  dis- 
placement would  be  12  X  4  X  5541.78  =  266,005  cu.in.  or 
266,005  ^  231  =  1151.5  gal.  per  min.  The  actual  discharge 
will  depend  on  the  amount  of  slip  or  reduction  of  the  amount 
of  water  actually  handled,  due  to  defective  piston  packing, 
leaky  stuffing-boxes  or  valves,  the  delayed  closing  of  the 
valves  and  the  amount  of  air  carried  into  the  pump  body 
by  the  water.  For  a  pump  of  this  size  and  speed  in  good 
condition  and  working  at  moderate  pressure,  the  slip  should 
not  exceeed  2  per  cent.,  and  the  amount  of  water  handled 
should  be  98  per  cent,  of  1121.5  =  1128.5  gal  per  min. 

Conversion  of  Vacuum  Readings  to  Standard  Barometer — 
If  a  mercury  vacuum-gage  reading  is  26.5  in.  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  80  deg.  F.,  with  the  barometer  reading  29.3  in.  at  a 
temperature  70  deg.  P.,  what  would  be  the  equivalent 
vacuum  with  30  in.  barometer  at  62  deg.  F.  ?         G.  A.  W. 

For  practical  purposes,  and  within  moderate  differences 
of  temperature  and  barometer,  the  equivalent  vacuum  would 
give  the  same  variation  from  the  barometer ;  that  is,  26.5  in. 
vacuum  with  29.3  barometer  might  be  considered  to  be 
equivalent  to  30  —  (29.3  —  26.5)  =  27.2  in.  vacuum  with 
30  in.  barometer.  When  temperatures  are  considered  the 
coefficient  of  expansion  of  mercury  may  be  taken  as  0.0001 
per  degree  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale  and  26.5  in.  of  the 
vacuum  gage  would  be  equivalent  to  26.5  —  [26.5  x  (80  — 
62)  X  OIOOOI]  -  26.4523  in.  at  62  deg.  F.,  and  the  actual 
barometer  reading  of  29.3  in.  at  the  temperature  of  70  deg. 
F.  would  be  equivalent  to  29.3  —  [29.3  X  (70  —  62)  x 
0.0001]  =  29.27656  in.  at  62  deg.  F.  Therefore  the  unbal- 
anced pressure  would  be  29.27656  —  26.4523  =  2.82426  in. 
of  mercury  at  62  deg.  F.  and  used  for  30  in.  barometer  at 
62  deg.  F.  this  would  be  30  —  2.82426  =  27.17574  in.  vacuum. 
Estimating  Height  of  Suction  Lift — When  a  pump  oper- 
ates with  a  suction  lift,  how  can  a  vacuum  gage  inserted  in 
the  suction  pipe  at  the  pump  show  the  height  of  the  pump 
above  the  water  supply?  W.  G.  S. 

Water  is  forced  up  in  a  pump  suction  pipe  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere  acting  on  the  surface  of  the  suction 
water  with  sufficient  pressure  to  overcome  the  inertia  and 
friction  of  the  water  entering  and  moving  along  the  pipe, 
plus  the  pressure  due  to  the  height  of  the  suction  lift,  plus 
the  pressure  acting  on  the  water  at  the  pump.  When  a  pump 
moves  only  just  fast  enough  to  keep  the  water  in  motion, 
there  will  be  little  pressure  lost  in  overcoming  friction  and 
inertia  and  the  atmospheric  pressure  will  have  to  overcome 
little  more  than  the  pressure  due  to  the  height  or  head  of 
water  plus  the  pressure  not  removed  by  the  pump. 

A  vacuum  .gage  connected  with  the  suction  pipe  at  the 
pump  will  show  how  much  lower  than  atmospheric  pressure 
the  pump  has  reduced  the  pressure  at  that  point  and  each 
"inch  of  vacuum"  vrill  represent  0.491  lb.  per  sq.in.  less  than 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  A  vacuum  gage  placed 
at  the  level  of  the  suction  water  would  indicate  0  inches  of 
vacuum,  because  the  pressure  would  be  equal  to  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere.  When  no  part  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure  is  employed  for  overcoming  friction  or  inertia  of 
the  water  (as  would  be  practically  the  case  when  a  pump 
is  running  only  just  fast  enough  to  "hold  suction")  then 
the  pressure  created  by  the  head  of  water  in  the  suction  pipe 
would  be  equal  to  atmospheric  pressure  less  0.491  times 
the  "inches  of  vacuum"  at  the  pump,  because  the  sum  of 
these  pretesures  would  Balance  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere. Atmospheric  pressure  may  oi-dinarily  be  taken  as 
equal  to  14.7  lb.  per  sq.in.  and,  as  one  foot  head  of  water 


[Correspondents   sending   us   inquiries    should   sign   their 
communications   with   full   names   and   addivsses. — Editor.] 


886 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


^-^  SprmgrAeeting^  ^ 

AMERICAN  SOCIETY 


O; 


MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERS 


THE  semiannual  meeting  of  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  held  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  June 
4-7,  was  the  largest  spring  meeting  in  the  history 
of  the  society,  the  registration  reaching  one  thousand.  The 
opening  session  was  held  in  the  ballroom  of  the  Hotel  Ban- 
croft en  Tuesday  evening.  R.  Sanford  Riley,  president  of 
the  Worcester  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  a  member  of 
the  society,  greeted  the  visitors  and  introduced  His  Honor, 
Pehr  G.  Holmes,  mayor  of  Worcester,  who  welcomed 
them  to  the  city.  President  Charles  T.  Main  acknowledged 
the  welcome  in  a  few  well-chosen  words,  and  Charles  G. 
Washburn  delivered  an  address  upon  "The  Growth  of  an 
Industrial  City."  This  was  followed  by  a  reception  at 
the  Worcester  Art  Museum,  after  which  dancing  and  re- 
freshments were  enjoyed   in  the  nearby  Tuckerman   Hall. 


FIG.   1.     LOCATION  OF  OIL-Brn.XING  PLANTS   IN  NEW 

EXGL.\ND 

Wednesday  forenoon  was  devoted  to  a  business  session 
in  the  gymnasium  of  the  Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute, 
at  which  constitutional  amendments  dealing  with  the  pro- 
cedure of  nominating  the  officers  of  the  society  were  con- 
sidered, and  the  reports  of  committees  on  Screw-Thread 
Tolerances,  Weights  and  Measures,  and  Steel  Roller  Chains 
were  received.  Worcester  R.  Warner  delivered  an  address 
eulogistic  of  Past  President  and  Honorary  Secretary  Fred- 
erick Remsen  Hutton,  and  George  H.  Haynes  presented 
a  paper  on  "The  Small  Industry  in  a  Democracy."  Past 
President  Ira  N.  Hollis  made  a  plea  for  consecration  to  the 
task   of   winning   the   war. 

In   the   afternoon   three   simultaneous   sessions   were   held 


in  various  halls  of  the  Polytechnic  Institute.  Many  of  the 
papers  dealt  with  munitions  and  other  war  subjects.  That 
of  particular  interest  to  Power  readers. 

Oil  Fuel  in  New  England  Power  Plants 

by  Henry  W.  Ballou,  said  that  oil  fuel  was  now  in  use 
ip.  at  least  60  power  plants  in  New  England  having  a  total 
of  some  83,000  hp.  and  in  about  100  low-pressure  steam 
plants  for  supplying  heating  systems.  A  list  of  the  power 
plants  and  a  map  of  their  locations.  Fig.  1,  are  given: 

OIL-BURNING  POWER  PL.\NTS  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


Type,  Number 

and  Hp.  of 

Boilers 


)  (350), 


Plant 
International  Paper  Co.,  Liverniore 

Falls,  Me   B  &  W  , 

10  (600) 
International    Paper    Co.,    Rumford 

Falls,  Me B.  &  W..  12  (600) 

Jenckes  Spinning  Co.,  No.  1,  Paw- 
tucket,  R.I B.  &  W..  3  (400) , 

1  (250) 
Jenckes  Spinning  Co.,  No.  2,  Paw- 
tucket.  R.I B.  A-  W.,  4  (400) 

.\merican     Woolen    Co .     Riverside 

.Mills,  Providence,  li.  I Manning,  20  (200)    4000     1915 

.\merican    Woolen    Co..    Bay    State 

-Mills.  Lowell,  Mass   H.  R.  T.,  *4(150) ; 

Manning,  1  (200) 
.American  Woolen  Co.,  Wood  Mill, 

Lawrence,  Mass H.  R.  T.,  44  (200) 


Oil-storage 
Total  Capacity, 

Hp.     Year       Gal. 


SlOO  1915 

7200  1915 

1450  1915 

1600  1917 


800 
8800 


1915 


300,000 
300,000 

50,000 
46.000 
10,000 

50,000 


.\merican  Woolen  Co.,  Washington 
Mill,  Lawrence,  Mass 


1918  Concrete, 
500,000 


Elmwood 


International    Braid    Co., 
Mill.  Providence,  R.  I.  . 


International  Braid  Co..  Fletcher 

Mill,  Providence.  R.  I 

-Atlantic  Mills,  Providence.  K.  1 

Manville  Company,  Manville,  K.  I... 


H.R.T.,  3(300): 
Heine,  4  (275); 
11  (300):  Gun- 
boat, 4 (600) 

B.&W., 2(1.50), 
1  (250) 

Manning,  7  (175) 

Manning,  7(175) 

H.R.T.,  10(150): 

B.  &W.,3(250) 


7700     1918        125,000 


550     1915 


1225  1916 
1225  1916 


2250  1916 


Manville    Company,    Bernon    Mill, 

Georgiaville,  R.  I H.  R.  T..  4  (150)         600     1916 

Manville    Company,    Nourse    Mill, 

Woonsocket,  R.  I B.  &W.,4(250)        1000     1917 

Manville     Company,     Social     Mill, 

Woonsocket,  R.  I .   H.  R.  T.,  16  (150)     2400     1917 

Manville     Company,     Globe     Mill, 

Woonsocket,  R.  I Manning,  7  (175)      1225     1917 

Jos.  Bennstfe  Sons,  Greystone,  R.  1     ..  Manning.  5  (175), 

1  (125) :  StirUng, 
1(300),  3  (275)        2125      1916 
Rhode  Island  Hospital,  Providence,  B.  &  W.,  1  (250), 

1  (175),  2  (150)  725     1916 
Rhode  Island  School  of  Design,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I Keeler,  2  (250)  500     1916 

Sayles  Memorial  Hospital,  Pawtucket, 

R.  I H.  R  T.,  1(200), 

2  (50) 
Mexican  Petroleum  Corp.,  Portland, 

Me II,  R.T,,2(150) 

Mexican    Petroleum    Corp.,    Aliens' 

Avenue,  Prov.dence,  R.I H.  R.  T.,  2  (75) 

Mexican    Petroleum    Corp.,    Kettle 

Point,  East  Providence.  R.  I H.  R.  T.,  2  (175) 

Peace   Dale  Mfg.   Co.,   Peace  Dale, 

^R  I    B.&W.,  4(250) 

Gorham   Manufacturing  Co.,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I    Stirling,  4(250)         1000     1915 

ritzgeraldBuilding.Providence,  R.  I.    Manning,  2  ( 150)         300      1916 
Shcpard  Company,  Providence,  R.I. .   H.RT, 2(150)         300     1916 

Newman  Hotel,  Providence.  R.  I H.R  T.,2(75)  150     1916 

Boston  Store,  Providence,  R.  I. . 


35,000 

25,000 
50,000 

125,000; 
(165,000 
being 
added) 

50,000 
150,000 
320,000 

70,000 

190,000 

25.000 

7,000 


300     1916  22,000 

300     1915  8,505,000 

150     1915  3,885,000 

1917  6,930,000 

1916  50,000 


3,50 
1000 


H.R  T,  2  (75) 
Scotch  marine,  3 
(105) 
B.&W,  10(350) 


50,000 
6,500 
7,500 
4,000 


Lonsdale  Bleachery,  Lonsdale,  R.  I 
RoyalWeavingCo,  Pawtucket,  R.I.   B.*W  ,  6(350) 
^Horizontal  returr:-tubiil:ir 


315 

3500 


2100      1017 


1916  11,000 

1917  Concrete 
130.000 

75,00C 


June  18,  1918 


POWER 


887 


OIL-BURNING  POWER  PLANTS  IN  NEW  ENGLAND— Concluded 


Plant 
Lorraine  Mfg.  Co.,  Pawtueket.  R.  I.... 

Orant  Mills,  Providence,  R.I 

J.  D,  Lewis  Dye  Works,  Providence, 
R.  I.. 


Type,  Number 
and  Hp.  of        Total 
Huilers  Hp. 

ManninE,  4(300), 
9(175)  2775 

Manning,  4  ( I  50) , 
1  (200) 


Year 


Oil-storage 

Capacity, 

Gal. 


1916 
ml  1917 


800      1916 


H.R.  T,  2(150); 
ManniuK,  1  ( I  50)      450 
RcvercRubberCo,  Providence,  R.I.   Edge  Moor,2(250),   2200 

I  (500);  Aultman- 


Slater  Yarn  Co.,  Pawtueket.  K.  I. . 

Grant  Yarn  Co.,  Fitchhurg,  Mass   . . 
Providence  Journal  Co.,  ProWdence, 

R.  I 

River  Spinning  Co.,  Woonsocket,  U.I. 


Taylor,  I  ( 500) ; 

Manning,  4  (  175) 
Stirling,  3(250), 

I  (175) 
Manning,  7(150) 

B.&W.,  3(250) 
H.R.T,  2(150), 
1  (300) 


Mexican  Petroleum  Corp.,  Chelsea, 

Mass H.R.  T,  2(175) 

Gerald  Cooper,  Providence,  R.  I H.  R  T  ,  I  (75); 

-^  Manning,  I  ( 175) 

Merrimac  Chemical  Co.,  South  Wil- 
mington. Mass H.R.T.  I  (300) 

Merrimac    Chemical    Co.,    Everett, 

Mass B.&W.. 3(250) 

The  Thomas  G.  Plant  Co.,  Boston, 

Mass   B.  &  W.  3  (250) 

Dimond  Store,  Providence,  R.  I H.  R.  T.  3  ( 1 50) 

Waite-Thresher  Building,  Providence, 

R.  I Scotch  marine,  2 

(200) 

Union   Hand    Laundry,    Providence, 

R   I H.R.T,  1  (100) 

Louttit   Home   Hand  Laundry  Co., 

Providence,  R.  I H.  R.  T,  1  (1 50) 

What   Cheer    Laundry,    Providence, 

R.  I   H.R.T,  2(150) 

.Springdale    Finishing    Co.,    Canton, 

Mass B.&W.,  2(400) 

Anco  Mills,  Wilkinsonville,  Mass H.  R.  T.,  5  ( I  50) 

Versailles  Sanitary  Fibre  Co.,  Ver- 
sailles, Conn Manning,  2(150) 

.Tones  &  Lamson  Machine  Co.,  Spring- 
field, Vt ,-.    StirUng,  3  (250) 

Jones  &  Lamson  Machine  Co.,  Spring- 
field, Vt H.R.T.,  1(300), 

I   (150) 

Claremont    Paper    Co.,    Claremont, 

N.  H        Manning,  4  (300) 

I  (200) 

Robinson  Bleach  &  Dye  Works,  New 

Milford,  Conn , H.  R.  T. 

Young  Bros.  Box  Shop,  Providence, 

R.  I H.R.T. 

Woodlawn  Finishing  Co.,  Pawtueket, 

R.  I H.R.T. 

Hennessey  Laundry,  Providence,  R.  I.  H.  R.  T. 

D.  Go£f&  Sons,  Pawtueket.  R  I     H.R.T 


925 
1050 


750 
600 


350 
250 


300 
750 


750 
450 


100 

150 

300 

800 
750 


300  1918 


750  1916 


450  1917 


1400 

1918 

215,000 

3(219) 

657 

1917 

I'nknown 

1(100) 

100 

1917 

3,500 

2(75) 

2(125) 

5(250) 

150 
250 

1250 

1917 
1916 
1915 

23,500 
5.000 
10.000 

room  costs  are  in  fuel,  leaving  little  to  be  saved  in  labor. 
Crude  petroleum  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — that 
with  a  paraffin  base  and  that  with  an  asphalt  base.  The 
first  is  so  valuable  for  its  derivatives  that  its  price  will 
always  be  prohibitive  for  fuel.  The  extremely  heavy 
grades  of  asphalt-base  oils  from  Mexico  are  practically 
the  only  fuel  oils  now  available  to  New  England.  The 
present  rapid  increase  in  their  use  is  but  a  lucky  incident 
in  the  marketing  of  a  great  natural  product.  Immense  as 
\&  its  absolute  volume,  the  insignificance  of  its  relative 
volume  as  a  source  of  world-wide  fuel  has  thus  far  been 
the  main  obstacle  to  the  adoption  of  Mexican  fuel  oil 
on  the  high  seas.  That  obstacle  is  rapidly  disappearing 
and,  regrettable  though  it  be,  it  is  inevitable  that  its  very 
virtues  'or  this  purpose  will  ultimately  deprive  the  power 
plants  of  New  England  of  fuel   oil. 

A  commander  of  the  Navy  questioned  a  statement  in  the 
paper  that  the  fireman  could  indulge  in  naps  when  fuel 
"'*  oil  was  used.     Greater  vigilance  and  more  constant  atten- 

000  tion  to  changing  conditions  were  necessary  than  with  coal. 
Otherwise  the  fireman  would  blow  oil  worth  many  times 
his  wage  up  the  stack.  George  H.  Diman  told  of  the  suc- 
cessful use  of  oil  at  the  mills  of  the  American  Woolen 
Co.,  at  Lawrence,  Mass. 

In  the  evening  a  general  war  session  was  held  in  the  ball- 
rooiTi  of  the  Bancroft,  among  the  speakers  being  Paymaster 
C.  E.  Parsons,  of  the  Navy,  and  Dr.  Irving  W.  Clark,  lately 
retur'  ed  from  the  hospitals  in   France. 

The  feature  of  the  meeting  of  the  most  interest  to  Power 
readers  was  a  fuel  session  held  in  the  gymnasium  of  the 
institute  on  Thursday  morning  and  continued  in  the  audi- 
torium of  the  Administration  Building  of  the  Norton  Com- 
panies in  the  afternoon.  This  will  be  reported  in  full 
in   future    issues. 

Though  scheduled  to  last  but  two  hours,  the  fuel  ses- 
sion continued  through  the  day  except  for  the  interval 
when  a  most  excellent  lunch  was  given  the  society  by  the 
Norton  Co.  The  following  topical  questions  were  ilown  for 
discussion,  but  so  interesting  were  the  papers  and  the  oral 
discussion  that  items  1  to  7  were  all  that  could  be  taken 
up  in  the  time  available: 

1.  What  are  the   Economic  Effects  of  Impurities   in  Coal? 

2.  To   What   Extent   is   Fuel    Oil   Likely   to   be    Used   as   a 
Substitute  for  Coal? 


1915 
1917 


1917 
1918 


1917 
1917 


1917 
1917 


1917 
1915 


1917 
I9IB 


1918 
1917 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1917 
1918 


90,000 
20.000 


8.000 
135.000 


46,000 
40,000 

6,000 

4.60U 

9,240,000 
25,000 


70.000 

Concrete 

7,000 


Concrete 
7,000 

Unknown 

Unknown 

16,000 

46,000 
46,000 

3,000 
Kerosene 

25,000 
20,000 


OitTruc/c.ZOOOGal.  ^iryerrf-.-'r'^ 


About  one-half  of  the  boiler 
horsepower  served  by  oil  is  in 
Rhode  Island.  An  outline  draw- 
ing, Fig.  2,  shows  a  typical 
power-plant  equipment.  Insur- 
ance requirements  have  ceased 
to  be  burdensome.  No  difficulty 
is  experienced  in  pumping  oil  as 
warm  as  130  deg.  F.  with  a  10- 
ft.  lift.  About  nine-tenths  of 
these  fuel-oil  installations  are 
substitutes  for  coal  in  existing 
plants.  There  is  no  other  method 
of  increasing  the  capacity  of  a 
boiler  plant  so  quickly  and 
cheaply  as  by  substituting  oil 
for  fuel.  In  a  number  of  cases 
the  change  to  oil  has  made  it 
possible  to  shut  down  one  'or 
more  boilers.  The  simplicity 
and  automatic  action  of  oil 
meters  as  compared  with  the 
cumbersome  methods  of  weigh- 
ing coal  are  appreciated,  and  the 
keeping  of  power-plant  records 
is  simplified.  A  few  plants  have  accomplished  automatic 
regulation  of  the  oil  feed,  but  hand  control  is  almost  uni- 
versal. It  is  inspiring  to  contemplate  the  probability  that 
automatic  regulation  of  the  oil,  the  atomizing  steam  and 
the  draft  pressure  will  become  a  standard  reality  within 
a  few  years.  The  saving  of  labor  due  to  oil  firing  as  com- 
pared with  coal  has  been  given  an  exaggerated  importance. 
Other  than  fixed  charges,  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  boiler- 


Twitt  7ixSx6  Duplex  Pumps 
IS-  251b.  Pressure.  Heater 
Temp.,  160  to  ISO  %  Strainers. 
Meters,  Bypass,  Relief 
Valves.  Pump  Sorer  nor 


400 Up.  BILW.  Boilers 


I 


SECTION    OF    TYPICAL    OIL- 
BURXIXO  PLANT 


3.  How  Can  Soft  Coal  be  Burned  Without  Smoke  in  Marine 

Boilers? 

4.  What  Are  the  Possibilities  in  the  Direction  of  the  Utili- 

zation  of   Anthracite   Wastes? 

5.  What    Instruments    Are    Useful    and    Desirable    in    the 

Boiler  Room  as  Aids,  Etc.? 

6.  What  Is  Essential  to  the  Economical  Operation  of  Hand- 

Fired  Boiler  Furnaces  When  Using  Soft  Coal? 


888 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


7.  To  What  Kinds  of  Plants  and  Coals  Are  the   Different 

Types  of   Mechanical    Stokers   Adapted,   and    What   Is 
the  Limiting  Factor  to  Their   Use  in  Small   Plants? 

8.  What  Experience  Have  you  Had  in  the  Use  of  Wood  as 

Fuel?     To  What  Extent  Is  Wood  Available  as  a  Fuel? 

9.  What    Coal    Economies    Can    be    Effected    in    Residence 

Heating? 

10.  What   Coal    Economies   Can   be    Effected   in    the   Small 

Steam   Plants? 

11.  What  Experiences  Have  You  Had  with  the  Storage  of 

Coal? 

12.  A  Few  Additional  Topics:      (a)   To  What  Extent  and 
Where    Will    the    Gas    Producer    be    Used    to    Produce 

Economies?  (b)  To  What  Extent  Is  Natural  Gas  Being 
Used  as  Fuel  for  Power  Purposes?     (c)   What  Is  the 
Relative    Economy    of    the    Locomotive    of    1900    and 
Today?    (d)    What   Proportion   of  the   Coke   Is    Made 
in   Byproduct   Ovens?      (e)    What   Are   New   and   Im- 
portant  Developments   in    Methods   of   Burning   Coal? 
(f)    What    Economies    Have    Resulted    from    Recent 
Practice  in  Making  Brick  Settings  Leakless?     (g)   To 
What  Extent  Is  Coke  Being  Used  for  Residence  Heat- 
ing?  (h)    Is  Automatic  Air  Supply  Correctly  Propor- 
tioned to   Coal   Supply   Possible? 
The  dynamic  address  of  the  session  was  made  by  E.  L. 
Cole,  secretary   of  the   Pennsylvania   Fuel   Administration, 
who  spoke,  following  David   Moffat  Myers,  advisory  engi- 
neer, Fuel  Administration,  Washington,  D.   C. 

R.  J.  S.  Pigott  offered  a  resolution,  which  was  adopted, 
in  which  the  Fuel  Administration  was  urged  to  do  its 
utmost  to  reduce  the  impurities  in  coal.  Prof.  L.  P.  Breck- 
enridge  presided  at  the  morning  session  and  F.  R.  Low 
at  the  afternoon  session. 

It  is  the  intention  of  the  society  to  publish  these  fuel 
papers  as  a  supplement  to  the  Journal;  this  will  make  a 
valuable  publication   indeed. 

Friday  many  of  those  attending  the  meeting  rode  out  to 
Camp  Deven  despite  the  rain. 

New  Jersey  N.A.S.E.  Convention 

The  convention  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Association  of 
the  National  Association  of  Stationary  Engineers  was  held 
in  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  June  2  and  3.  The  attendance  was 
unexpectedly  large  in  view  of  the  modest  exhibit  of  engi- 
neering equipment  and  supplies.  The  new  officers  are: 
President,  James  S.  Heath,  Elizabeth,  N.  J.;  vice  president, 
Val.  V.  Secor,  Phillipsburg,  N.  J.;  secretary,  A.  B.  Meincke, 
Newark,  N.  J.;  conductor,  Henry  Vail,  Plainfield,  N.  J.; 
doorkeeper,  J.  Mack,  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.  The  convention 
nominated  John  J.  Reddy,  the  retiring  president,  for  state 
deputy,  Mr.  Reddy  having  so  successfully  filled  that  office 
two  years  ago.  National  Secretary  Fred  W.  Raven  agree- 
ably surprised  the  delegates  by  attending  the  convention. 


The  association  received  with  acclaim  the  report  of  its 
educational  committee,  credit  for  the  year's  work  of  which 
is  due  chiefly  to  C.  L.  Johnson.  This  committee  was  voted 
the  usual  appropriation.  A  publicity  committee  was 
created,  and  this  work  may  be  performed  by  the  educational 
committee.  A  mimeograph  machine  will  be  purchased  by 
the  educational  committee  and  by  this  means  every  mem- 
ber of  each  association  in  the  state  may  be  provided  with 
study  papers  issued  by  the  committee. 

A  resolution  of  confidence  in  the  Wilson  Administration 
was  ordered  sent  to  President  Wilson.  Another  resolu- 
tion, directed  to  Commissioner  of  Labor  Bryant,  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  requested  him  to  try  to  more  thoroughly  enforce  the 
engineers'  license  law. 

Pleasant  entertainment  was  provided  by  Bobby  Jones 
and  Billy  Murray,  of  Jenkins  Bros.,  and  Jack  Armour,  of 
Power.   Next  year's  convention  will  be  held  at  Bayonne,  N.  J. 

New  York  City  Electric  Rates 

The  maximum  electric  rate  in  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx, 
New  York  City,  during  1916  was  8c.  per  kw.-hr.  As  a 
result  of  the  activities  of  the  Mayor  and  the  Public  Service 
Commission  of  New  York  City,  the  New  York  Edison  Co. 
and  the  United  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co.  reduced  their 
maximum  rate  to  7%c.  on  Jan.  1,  1917,  and  to  7c.  on  July 
1,  of  the  same  year.  This  agreement  was  reached  with  the 
understanding  that  the  Edison  companies  would  continue 
this  rate  after  a  six-months'  trial,  provided  it  was  found 
possible  to  do  so,  with  the  prevailing  price  of  fuel,  labor,  etc. 

On  June  3,  1918,  representatives  of  the  New  York  Edi- 
son Co.  and  the  United  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co. 
appeared  before  the  Public  Service  Commission  and  an- 
nounced that  the  7c.  maximum  rate  per  kilowatt-hour  for 
electric  current  would  be  continued  after  July  1  of  this 
year,  despite  the  fact  that  the  companies  have  suffered  a 
decrease  in  revenue  due  to  war  conditions.  However,  the 
practice  of  supplying  free  lamps  to  their  customers  is  to 
be  abandoned  and  a  minimum  charge  of  30c.  made  for  the 
small-sized  lamps  and  more  for  the  larger  sizes. 

J.  W.  Lieb,  vice  president  of  the  New  York  Edison  Co., 
stated  that  the  operating  revenue  of  the  companies  had 
been  reduced  $941,654  during  the  first  four  months  of  this 
year,  as  compared  with  the  same  period  of  last  year,  and 
the  reduction  of  the  current  sold  amounted  to  4.5  per  cent, 
for  the  same  period.    Mr.  Lieb  said: 

We  believe  that  these  conditions  would  justify  the  com- 
pany in  going  back  to  the  8c.  rate.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
not  absolutely  certain  that  the  decrease  in  output  will  con- 
tinue for  the  rest  of  the  year.  We  believe  that  probably  the 
best  solution  would  be  a  continuance  of  the  present  arrange- 
ment with  the  commission,  maintaining  the  status  quo  for 
another  six  months,  say,  and  reserving  such  rights  as  we 
have  under  the  present  agreements.  This  proposal  has  been 
accepted  by  the  Public  Service  Commission. 


.SOMK  OF  THOSK   ATTENDING   THK   XKW   .IKH.SRY  N.   A.   S.    K.   CONVKNTION.   PKRT?I   AMBOY.  N.  .J.,  JUNK  2   AND  3 


June  18,  1918 


POWER 


889 


Western  Society  Holds  Fuel-Supply 
Meeting 

On  the  evening  of  June  3  the  Western  Society  of  Engi- 
neers devoted  its  attention  to  the  subject  of  fuel  supply. 
Members  of  the  Coal  Conservation  Committee  of  the  United 
States  Fuel  Administration  for  Illinois  were  present  to 
discuss  the  subject,  and  they  were  fortunate  to  have  with 
them  David  Moffat  Myers,  consulting  engineer  for  the 
Fuel  Administration  at  Washington.  Prof.  H.  H.  Stoek, 
chairman,  opened  the  discussion.  From  the  best  informa- 
tion that  could  be  obtained  it  had  been  estimated  that  the 
additional  fuel  requirements  for  this  year  would  be  about 
15  per  cent.  An  increase  of  production  of  7%  per  cent, 
was  the  best  that  could  be  done,  leaving  a  deficit  of  7V2 
per  cent.  The  plan  would  be  to  ti-y  and  keep  all  industries 
going  and  if  need  be  cut  off  a  little  of  the  fuel  supply 
from  each  one  rather  than  shut  down  any  of  the  nonwar 
plants,  as  had  been  proposed  at  one  time.  It  was  of  the 
greatest  importance,  then,  to  economize  in  fuel,  and  if 
each  coal  burner  did  his  part  there  was  a  possibility  that 
the  deficit  would  be  wiped  out. 

Mr.    Myers   Presents   the   Coal-Saving   Plan 

David  Moffat  Myers  presented  the  coal-saving  plan  that 
had  been  prepared  recently  at  Washington,  and  invited 
those  present  to  join  whole-heartedly  in  the  work.  In 
the  past  the  manufacturer  has  paid  very  little  attention 
to  the  fuel  cost  and  the  amount  of  fuel  burned,  as  it  was 
a  very  small  item  in  the  total  cost  of  production,  amount- 
ing to  1,  2,  3  or  4  per  cent.,  depending  on  the  product. 
To  make  a  saving,  the  manufacturer  usually  investigated 
the  larger  items,  including  labor,  mechanical  equipment, 
raw  products,  etc.,  and  except  where  power  was  the  chief 
product,  as  in  central  stations,  the  power  plant  received 
attention  last.  In  order  to  interest  the  manufacturer  in 
reducing  his  fuel  consumption,  it  is  necessary  to  create 
an  incentive,  and  in  the  plan  now  being  adopted  by  many 
of  the  states  the  underlying  motive  is  patriotism.  In  many 
cases  this  will  be  enough.  There  are  other  provisions  in 
the  plan  to  take  care  of  those  who  neglect  to  save. 

The  national  plan  of  organization  for  fuel  conservation 
in  power  plants  is  the  result  of  conference  with  the  United 
States  Fuel  Administrators  and  their  committees  for  a 
group  of  states  which  together  consume  about  70  per  cent, 
of  all  the  coal  used  in  the  country,  exclusive  of  railroads. 
The  plan  has  been  approved  also  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Mines  and  the  committee  of  consulting  engineers 
on  conservation  and  publicity  representing  the  Engineer- 
ing Council  of  the  four  large  national  engineering  societies. 
The  object  is  to  establish  a  Government  service  for  the 
elimination  of  needless  waste  of  fuel  in  all  power  plants, 
including  those  in  the  industries,  in  office  buildings,  hotels, 
apartment  houses,  etc.,  and  in  laying  the  foundation  for 
the  proposed  organization,  it  has  been  anticipated  that  this 
branch  of  work  should  become  a  permanent  service  of 
the  United  .*^'„ates  Government. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  10  to  20  per  cent.,  that  is, 
from  25  to  50  million  tons  of  coal  per  year,  can  be  saved 
by  the  correct  operation  of  steam-power  plants,  using 
their  present  equipment.  The  effort  must  be  made  on 
this  basis,  as  manufacturing  and  transportation  facilities 
will  not  permit  of  reequipping  the  plant.  It  is  considered 
highly  important  that  all  existing  fuel  conservation  com- 
mittees, committees  of  chambers  of  commerce,  and  na- 
tional defense,  manufacturers'  associations  and  other 
bodies  be  continued  in  full  force,  and  that  the  woi'k  of 
such  organizations  be  consolidated  with  the  national  pro- 
gram.    The  plan  comprises: 

1.  Personal  inspection  of  every  power  plant  in  the 
country. 

2.  Classification  and  rating  of  every  power  plant,  based 
on  the  fairness  with  which  owners  of  plants  conform  to  the 
recommendations  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Adminis- 
tration. 

3.  Responsibility  of  rating  the  plant  will  fall  upon  the 
administrative  engineers  to  be  appointed  by  the  United 
States  Fuel  Administration  in  each  state  or  district,  the 
rating  to  be  based  on  information  collected  by  a  force  of 


inyp^'ctors  who  will  not  use  their  judgment  nor  express 
opinions,  but  merely  collect  certain  definite  information 
included  in  a  questionnaire  that  has  been  sent  to  the 
plants.  After  classification  and  rating  of  plants  ac- 
cording to  efficiency  of  operation,  this  information  will 
be  submitted  by  the  engineer  to  the  state  fuel  adminis- 
trator, who  shall,  in  accordance  with  his  judgment,  en- 
tirely or  partly  cut  off  the  consumption  of  coal  to  any 
needlessly  wasteful  plant  in  his  territory.  Those  plants 
that  follow  the  recommendations  of  the  F'uel  Administra- 
tion will  thus  receive  the  advantage  due  them  for  saving 
coal. 

4.  Work  of  the  administrative  engineers  will  be  to 
supervi.se  fuel  conservation  in  power  plants,  including  both 
mechanical  and  electrical  problems  connected  with  the 
generation  and  use  of  steam,  power,  light  and  heat,  and 
to  supervise  the  inspection  of  all  power  plants  in  their  dis- 
tricts. Inspection  will  be  effected  by  inspectors  of  the 
steam-boiler  insurance  companies,  state  factory  inspectors, 
engineering  students  from  technical  colleges  and  volun- 
teers. The  rating  of  each  client  will  be  based  on  the  in- 
formation contained  in  the  questionnaire.  Each  question 
will  be  given  a  numerical  value  depending  on  its  relative 
importance  to  the  other  questions,  and  when  the  answers 
are  obtained  they  will  be  averaged  in  the  same  way  as  an 
examination   paper. 

It  is  further  proposed  that  a  standard  questionnaire 
uniform  for  all  states  be  sent  as  soon  as  possible  to  every 
power  plant  in  each  state  or  district  with  notice  to  the 
owners  that  within  a  certain  time,  say  60  or  90  days,  his 
plant  will  be  inspected  personally  and  the  questionnaire 
will  be  checked  by  the  inspector  upon  his  visit  to  the  plant. 
This  action  should  tend  to  prepare  the  minds  of  plant 
owners  for  what  will  follow  and  will  operate  to  induce 
proper  care  in  furnishing  the  information  called  for  by 
the  questionnaire.  It  should  also  create  a  desire  to  improve 
the  plants  so  that  they  may  be  rated  as  high  as  possible 
by  the  time  the  inspector  calls  to  obtain  the  information 
which  shall  determine  the  class  in  which  the  plant  will  be 
rated.  The  actual  rating  of  plants,  however,  is  to  be 
made  by  the  administrative  engineer  only  after  verifica- 
tion and  collection  of  the  questionnaires  by  the  inspectors. 

Board  of  Engineers  Recommended 

In  addition  to  the  census  of  power  plants  thus  obtained 
it  is  recommended  that  a  board  of  competent  engineers 
be  attached  to  the  conservation  committee  in  each  state 
in  a  volunteer  advisory  capacity  to  assist  the  administra- 
tive engineer  in  his  work.  In  addition  to  numerous  other 
functions,  a  member  of  such  a  board  could  render  valuable 
service  by  a  personal  interview  with  the  owner  of  the 
plant  that  has  been  given  a  low  rating,  pointing  out  the 
general  causes  of  inefficiency  and  aiding  the  owner  in 
securing  the  services  of  a  good  engineer.  Each  state  should 
also  have  available  a  corps  of  lecturers  who  may  arouse 
public  interest  and  disseminate  engineering  information. 
To  assist  in  this  work  the  United  States  Fuel  Adminis- 
tration has  prepai'ed  a  fifty-minute  film  of  moving  pictures 
showing  good  and  bad  operations  in  the  steam-boiler  plant, 
methods  of  testing  boilers,  fuels,  etc.  The  administration 
is  also  preparing  a  series  of  official  bulletins  on  engineer- 
ing phases  of  steam  and  fuel  economics.  Also,  a  list  of 
competent  engineers  for  each  state  has  been  prepard  in 
Washington  and  is  available  for  use  by  the  local  admin- 
istration. 

The  slogan  of  the  campaign  is  maximum  production 
with  minimum  waste.  In  other  words,  the  object  is  to 
operate  all  industries  at  full  capacity,  but  at  the  same 
time  to  make  a  pound  of  fuel  perform  its  maximum  service 
in   power,  light  and   heat. 

Dr.  F.  C.  Honnold,  fuel  distributor  of  Illinois  coa),  spoke 
of  the  zoning  system  and  how  it  had  affected  the  distri- 
bution of  coal  from  the  mines.  Illinois  had  been  asked  to 
supply  5,000,000  tons  out  of  the  state  in  substitution  for 
Eastern  coal.  To  do  the  same  work  it  required  from  15 
to  25  per  cent,  more  Illinois  coal  owing  to  the  higher  ash 
and  lower  heat  value.  Recently,  many  Government  orders 
have  been  placed  in  the  West  requiring  more  fuel  for 
war    work,    and    due    to    the    fact    that   the    Govcrnmont    is 


890 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


going  farther  and  farther  west  to  get  smokeless  coal  for 
the  transports  and  naval  vessels,  there  will  be  shortage 
of  coal  for  Lake  movement  so  that  Illinois  will  have  to 
step  in  and  supply  much  of  the  coal  to  the  Northwest. 

Primarily,  the  speaker  had  been  directed  to  care  for 
railway  work  first,  war  work  second,  and  householders 
third.  In  purchasing  coal,  the  householders  have  shown 
the  proper  spirit.  They  have  placed  orders  for  their  coal 
promptly  as  requested,  and  as  a  result  the  mines  are  ship- 
ping more  coal  for  householders  than  in  any  previous 
month  in  their  history.  There  has  been  delay  in  the  rail- 
way situation.  The  question  of  ear  supply  to  the  mines 
has  not  been  settled.  Thei'e  are  not  cars  enough  to  go 
around  to  supply  fully  all  the  mines.  The  average  pro- 
vision in  the  Illinois  territory  has  been  65  per  cent,  and 
in  the  East  the  supply  is  considerably  less.  The  price  that 
the  railways  are  to  pay  for  coal  will  be  settled  within  a 
few  days. 

C.  W.  Naylor  expressed  impatience  over  the  delay  in 
formulating  the  plan  for  coal  conservation.  He  said  they 
had  been  waiting  since  January  for  this  plan  and  to  follow 
it  out  as  outlined  would  mean  such  a  tremendous  amount 
of  work  that  all  the  engineers  in  the  country  could  not 
carry  it  oUt  in  time  to  influence  this  year's  consumption 
of  coal.  People  were  ordering  coal  now,  but  could  not  get 
it.  It  was  his  opinion  that  if  the  Fuel  Administration 
would  spend  less  time  in  zoning  and  in  the  preparation  of 
such  plans  as  the  one  presented,  and  devote  moi'e  time  to 
loading,  shipping  and  to  the  car  supply,  it  would  be  much 
more  to  the  purpose.  The  consumer  would  take  care  of 
the  coal  when  he  got  it. 

Osborn  Monnett  limited  his  remarks  to  low-pressure 
heating,  and  A.  L.  Langtry  spoke  on  coal  specifications. 
He  referred  to  Government  supervision  of  all  contracts 
and  the  restriction  that  coal  companies  shall  not  contract 
with  their  customers  for  more  than  65  per  cent,  of  last 
year's  requirements.  The  Fuel  Administration  can  take 
the  remaining  35  per  cent.,  if  needed,  and  place  it  some- 
where else.  Variations  in  coal  last  winter  had  been  partly 
caused  by  the  coal  coming  from  different  districts,  and 
not  from  the  same  mine.  Data  were  presented  to  show 
that  in  some  cases  there  was  wide  variation  in  ash  and  in 
others  there  was  very  little  diff'erence.  The  tendency,  how- 
ever, is  toward  more  ash  and  slate,  and  this  is  due  to  min- 
ing conditions  which  have  now  been  corrected. 

Educational  Work  in  Iowa 

Royal  H.  Holbrook,  of  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  spoke  of  the 
educational  work  that  had  been  conducted  in  that  state  last 
winter.  A  half  dozen  of  the  best  operating  engineers  in 
the  state  visited  every  plant  that  gave  them  an  invitation. 
Owing  to  the  shortage,  it  had  been  necessary  to  burn  more 
Iowa  coal  than  usual,  and  it  was  necessary  to  teach  users 
how  to  burn  it.  In  visiting  a  plant  they  always  called 
in  the  owner  so  that  he  could  learn  first-hand  the  results 
of  the  inspection.  Their  method  was  to  look  first  for  the 
absence  of  pipe  covering,  then  to  inspect  the  system  and 
apparatus  for  cleaning  flues,  see  that  the  blowoflf  was 
working  properly  and  test  the  setting  for  air  leaks.  At 
the  close  of  the  season  they  had  a  fairly  good  record  of 
all  plants  visited.  The  weakness  was  that  they  could  not 
enforce  their  suggestions.  Next  faTl  they  will  be  ready 
to  start  work  again  to  complete  the  data  required  by  the 
new  Government  plan.  It  was  the  speaker's  opinion  that 
without  an  immense  number  of  volunteers  the  Government 
plan  could  not  be  cai-ried  out  successfully  in  Illinois.  There 
are  100,000  plants  in  Chicago  alone,  and  throughout  the 
state  there  are  many  more.  It  is  an  enormous  task  and 
will  require  the  services  of  a  great  many  competent  en- 
gineers. 

A.  Bement  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  greatest  difficulty 
would  be  experienced  in  the  miscellaneous  small  plants 
where  CO:  machines  were  not  in  favor.  A  large  number 
of  instruments  would  be  required  and  many  difficulties 
would  arise.  In  his  opinion  the  better  plan  would  be  to 
employ  experienced  men  who  could  inspect  the  fire  and 
the  plant,  diagnose  conditions  and  prescribe  the  remedy. 
Not  many  men  would  be  competent  for  such  work,  and  if 
all  the  combustion  engineers  in  the  country  were  employed 


they  would  still  be  short  of  help.  In  explanation  Mr. 
Myers  stated  that  the  incentive  would  be  all  that  was 
necessary  in  eight  out  of  ten  cases.  The  mere  fact  tnat 
the  plant  was  to  be  inspected  and  its  rating  determined 
from  the  result  of  this  inspection  would  induce  the  owner 
to  put  it  in  the  best  possible  condition. 

Robei't  Kuss  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  engineer 
would  come  across  in  the  big  patriotic  way  desired  and 
that  as  soon  as  the  plan  goes  out  he  will  be  ready  to  back 
it  up.  According  to  estimate  it  takes  49%  tons  of  coal 
to  keep  one  soldier  going  for  the  period  of  a  year  and  with 
such  tx'emendous  requirements  as  our  growing  army  will 
impose,  it  will  be  necessary  for  all  to  give  their  undivided 
support  to  the  movement. 

Duty  of  the  Employer  in  Reconstruction 
of  the  Crippled  Soldier 

By  Douglas  C.  McMurtrie 

Director   Red    Cross    Institute    for    Crippled    and    Disabled    Men, 
New  York  City  ^ 

We  must  count  on  the  return  from  the  front  of  thou- 
sands of  crippled  soldiers.  We  must  plan  to  give  them  on 
their  return  the  best  possible  chance  for  the  future.  De- 
pendence cannot  be  placed  on  monetary  compensation  in 
the  form  of  a  pension,  for  in  the  past  the  pension  system 
has  proved  a  distinct  failure  in  so  far  as  constructive 
ends  are  involved.  The  pension  has  never  been  enough  to 
support  in  decency  the  average  disabled  soldier,  but  it  has 
been  just  large  enough  to  act  as  an  incentive  to  idleness  and 
semidependence  on  relatives  or  friends.  The  only  com- 
pensation of  real  value  for  physical  disability  is  rehabilita- 
tion for  self-support.  Make  a  man  again  capable  of  earn- 
ing his  own  living,  and  the  chief  burden  of  his  handicap 
drops  away.  Occupation  is,  further,  the  only  means  for 
making  him  happy  and  contented. 

Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  the  European 
countries  began  the  establishment  of  vocational  training 
schools  for  the  rehabilitation  of  disabled  soldiers.  They 
had  both  the  humanitarian  aim  of  restoring  crippled  men 
to  the  greatest  possible  degree  and  the  economic  aim  of 
sparing  the  community  the  burden  of  unproductivity  on 
the  part  of  thousands  of  its  best  citizens.  The  movement 
had  its  inception  with  Mayor  Edouard  Herriot,  of  the  City 
of  Lyons,  France,  who  found  it  difficult  to  reconcile  the 
desperate  need  for  labor  in  the  factories  and  munition 
works  while  men  who  had  lost  an  arm  or  a  leg  but  were 
otherwise  strong  and  well  were  idling  their  time  in  the 
public  squares.  He  therefore  induced  the  municipal  coun- 
cil to  open  an  industrial  school  for  war  cripples  which  has 
proved  the  example  and  inspiration  for  hundreds  of  simi- 
lar schools  since  founded  throughout  France,  Italy,  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain  and  Canada. 

The  disability  of  some  crippled  soldiers  is  no  bar  to 
returning  to  their  former  trade,  but  the  injuries  of  many 
disqualify  them  from  pursuing  again  their  past  occupa- 
tion. The  schools  of  training  prepare  these  men  for  some 
work  in  which  their  physical  handicap  will  not  materially 
interfere  with   their   production. 

The  education  of  the  adult  is  made  up  largely  of  his 
working  experience.  The  groundwork  of  training  in  his 
past  occupation  must  under  no  circumstances  be  aban- 
doned. The  new  trade  must  be  related  to  the  former  one 
or  be,  perhaps,  an  extension  or  specialization  of  it.  For 
example,  a  man  who  had  done  manual  work  in  the  build- 
ing trades  may  by  instruction  in  architectural  drafting  and 
the  interpretation  of  plans  be  fitted  for  a  foreman's  job, 
in  which  the  lack  of  an  arm  would  not  prove  a  serious 
handicap.  A  trainman  who  had  lost  a  leg  might  wisely 
be  prepared  as  a  telegraph  operator,  so  that  he  could  go 
back  to  railroad  work,  with  the  practice  of  which  he  is 
already  familiar.  Whatever  training  is  given  must  be 
thorough,  for  an  adult  cannot  be  sent  out  to  employment 
on  the  same  basis  as  a  boy  apprentice.  He  must  be  ade- 
quately prepared  for  the  work  he  is  to  undertake. 

The  one-armed  soldier  is  equipped  with  working  ap- 
pliances which  have  supplanted  the  old  familiar  artificial 
limb.     The  new  appliances  are  designed  with  a  practical 


June  18.  1918 


POWER 


891 


aim  only  in  view;  they  vary  according  to  the  trade  in 
which  the  individual  is  tu  engage.  For  example,  the  ap- 
pliance for  a  machinist  would  be  quite  different  from  that 
with  which  a  wood  turner  would  be  provided.  Some  ap- 
pliances have  attached  to  the  stump  a  chuck  in  which 
various  tools  or  hooks  can  interchangeably  be  held.  The 
wearer  uses  these  devices  only  while  at  work;  for  evenings 
and  holidays  he  is  provided  with  a  "dress  arm,"  which  is 
made  in  imitation  of  the  lost  natural  member. 

An  important  factor  in  the  success  of  reeducational 
work  is  an  early  start,  so  that  the  disabled  man  shall  have 
no  chance  to  go  out  unemployed  into  the  community.  In 
even  a  short  period  of  exposure  to  the  sentimental  sym- 
pathy of  family  and  friends,  his  "will  to  work"  is  so 
broken  down  that  it  becomes  difficult  again  to  restore  him 
to  a  stand  of  independence  and  ambition.  For  this  rea- 
son, therefore,  the  plan  for  his  future  is  made  at  as  early 
a  date  as  his  physical  condition  admits,  and  training  is 
actually  under  way  before  the  patient  is  out  of  the  hospital. 

In  the  readjustment  of  the  crippled  soldier  to  civilian 
life,  his  placement  in  employment  is  a  matter  of  the 
greatest  moment.  In  this  field  the  employer  has  a  very 
definite  responsibility.  But  the  employer's  duty  is  not 
entirely  obvious.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  almost  diametri- 
cally opposite  to  what  one  might  superficially  infer  it  to 
be  The  duty  is  not  to  "take  care  of"  from  patriotic 
motives,  a  given  number  of  disabled  men,  finding  for  them 
any  odd  jobs  which  are  available,  and  putting  the  ex- 
soldiers  in  them  without  much  regard  to  whether  they  can 
earn  the  wages  paid  or  not. 

Yet  this  method  is  all  too  common.  A  local  committee 
of  employers  will  deliberate  about  as  follows:  "Here  are  a 
dozen  crippled  soldiers  for  whom  we  must  find  jobs.  Jones, 
you  have  a  large  factory;  you  should  be  able  to  take  care 
of  six  of  them.  Brown,  can  you  not  find  places  for  four 
of  them  in  your  warehouse?  And  Smith,  you  ought  to 
place  at  least  a  couple  in  your  store." 

Such  a  procedure  cannot  have  other  than  pernicious  re- 
sults. In  the  first  years  of  war  the  spirit  of  patriotism 
runs  high,  but  experience  has  shown  that  men  placed  on 
this  basis  alone  find  themselves  out  of  a  job  after  the  war 
has  been  over  several  years,  or  in  fact,  after  it  has  been 
in  progress  for  a  considerable  period  of  time. 

A  second  weakness  in  this  method  is  that  a  man  who  is 
patronized  by  giving  him  a  charity  job  comes  to  expect 
as  a  right  such  semigratuitous  support.  Such  a  situation 
breaks  down  rather  than  builds  up  character,  and  makes 
the  man  progressively  a  weaker  rather  than  a  stronger 
member  of  the  community.  We  must  not  do  our  returned 
men  such  injury. 

The  third  difficulty  is  that  such  a  system  does  not  take 
into  account  the  man's  future.  Casual  placement  means 
employment  either  as  a  makeshift  job  as  watchman  or  ele- 
vator operator  such  as  we  should  certainly  not  offer  our 
disabled  men  except  as  a  last  resort — or  in  a  job  beyond 
the  man,  one  in  which,  on  the  cold-blooded  considerations 
of  product  and  wages,  he  cannot  hold  his  own.  Jobs  of 
the  first  type  have  for  the  worker  a  future  of  monotony 
and  discouragement.  Jobs  of  the  second  type  are  fre- 
quently disastrous,  for  in  them  a  man,  instead  of  becom- 
ing steadily  more  competent  and  building  up  confidence  in 
himself,  stands  still  as  regards  improvement  and  loses 
confidence  every  day.  When  he  is  dropped  or  goes  to  some 
other  employment,  the  job  will  have  had  for  him  no  per- 
manent benefit. 

Twelve  men  sent  to  twelve  jobs  may  all  be  seriously 
misplaced,  while  the  same  twelve  placed  with  thought  and 
wisdom  and  differently  assigned  to  the  same  twelve  jobs 
may  be  ideally  located.  If  normal  workers  require  expert 
and  careful  placement,  crippled  candidates  for  employment 
require   it  even  more. 

"The  positive  aspect  of  the  employer's  duty  is  to  find 
for  the  disabled  man  a  constructive  job  which  he  can  hold 
on  the  basis  of  competency  alone.  In  such  a  job  he  can 
be  self-respecting,  be  happy,  and  look  forward  to  a  future. 
This  is  the  definite  patriotic  duty.  It  is  not  so  easy  of 
execution  as  telling  a  superintendent  to  take  care  of  four 
men,  but  there  is  infinitely  more  satisfaction  to  the  em- 
ployer  in   the   results   and   infinitely   greater   advantage  to 


the  employee.  And  it  is  entirely  practical,  even  in  dealing 
with  seriously  disabled  men. 

A  cripple  is  only  debarred  by  his  disability  from  per- 
forming certain  operations.  In  the  operations  which  he 
can  perform,  the  disabled  man  will  be  just  as  efficient  as 
his  nonhandicapped  colleague  or  more  so.  In  the  multi- 
plicity of  modern  industrial  processes  it  is  entirely  possible 
to  find  jobs  not  requiring  the  operations  from  which  any 
given  type  of  cripples  are  debarred.  For  such  jobs  as  they 
can  fill  the  cripples  should  be  given  preference. 

Thousands  of  cripples  are  now  holding  important  jobs 
in  the  industrial  world.  But  they  are  men  of  exceptional 
character  and  initiative  and  have,  in  general,  made  their 
way  in  spite  of  employers  rather  than  because  of  them. 
Too  many  employers  are  ready  to  give  the  cripple  alms, 
but  not  willing  to  expend  the  thought  necessary  to  place 
him  in  a  suitable  job.  This  attitude  has  helped  to  make 
many  cripples  dependent.  With  our  new  responsibilities  to 
the  men  disabled  in  fighting  for  us,  the  point  of  view  must 
cei'tainly  be  changed.  What  some  cripples  have  done,  other 
cripples   can   do   if  only  given   an  even   chance. 

The  industrial  cripple  should  be  considered  as  well  as 
the  military  cripple,  for  in  these  days  of  national  demand 
for  the  greatest  possible  output  there  should  not  be  left 
idle  any  men  who  can  be  made  into  productive  workers. 
With  thoughtful  placement  effort,  many  men  can  be  em- 
ployed directly  on  the  basis  of  their  past  experience.  With 
the  disabled  soldiei's  who  profit  by  the  training  facilities 
the  Government  will  provide,  the  task  should  be  even  easier. 

This,  then,  constitutes  the  charge  of  patriotic  duty  upon 
the  employer:  To  study  the  jobs  under  his  jurisdiction  to 
determine  what  ones  might  be  satisfactorily  held  by 
cripples;  to  give  the  cripples  preference  for  these  jobs; 
to  consider  thoughtfully  the  applications  of  disabled  men 
for  employment,  bearing  in  mind  the  importance  of  utiliz- 
ing to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible  labor  that  v/ould 
otherwise  be  unproductive;  to  do  the  returned  soldier  the 
honor  of  offering  him  real  employment,  rather  than  proffer- 
ing him  the  ignominy  of  a  charity  job. 

If  the  employer  will  do  this,  it  will  be  a  great  factor 
in  making  the  complete  elimination  of  the  dependent  cripple 
a  real  and  inspiring  possibility. 

Meeting  of  National  Coal  Association 

At  the  opening  of  the  first  annual  meeting  of  the  Na- 
tional Coal  Association  in  Philadelphia,  on  May  28,  the 
principal  address  was  made  by  J.  D.  A.  Morrow,  Director 
General  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration.  The 
following  excerpts  are  taken  from  his  address: 

Every  country  that  has  gone  into  this  war  has  promptly 
found  itself  faced  with  a  difficult  coal  problem.  In  Great 
Britain,  within  six  months  after  war  had  been  declared, 
250,000  coal  miners  had  enlisted,  and  the  production  in 
Great  Britain  fell  off  25,000,000  tons.  The  railways  were 
congested  with  traffic,  and  the  country  faced  an  industrial 
crisis. 

The  important  French  coal  fields  were  overrun  by  the 
enemy  at  the  outset  of  the  war,  and  production  was  cut 
squarely  in  two.  The  supply  there  has  been  cruelly  short, 
and  every  pound  has  been  distributed  by  the  government. 
That  has  been  the  case  also  in  Italy. 

Thus  it  is  nothing  unusual  for  us  to  have  a  coal  crisis 
in  this  country.  You  are  all  familiar  with  the  insatiable 
demand  for  coal  that  coincided  with  congested  traffic  on 
our  lines,  and  within  si.x  months  after  the  declaration  of 
war  the  United  States  had  set  up  a  Federal  Fuel  -Admin- 
istration, the  industry  was  under  Governmental  control, 
and  we  had  followed  to  that  extent  at  least  in  the  footsteps 
of  other  important  belligerents. 

When  I  took  up  the  work  of  directing  the  distribution  of 
coal,  it  appeared  to  me  that  one  of  the  first  things  we 
needed  to  know  was  what  the  requirements  for  coal  would 
be.  To  get  that  information  we  obtained  reports  from 
more  than  100,000  industrial  concerns,  stating  the  exact 
quantity  they  consumed  yearly.  We  obtained  reports  from 
40,000  retail  dealers  covering  their  annual  deliveries.  We 
obtained  reports  from  the  Shipping  Board,  the  War  and 
Navy   Departments,    and    from   other    Government   sources, 


892 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No,  25 


regarding  the  building  of  new  factories  and  extensions 
to  old  ones,  and  the  increase  of  activity  in  other  plants. 
We  also  called  upon  private  sources  of  information.  When 
we  had  those  figures  together,  we  found  that  to  run  the 
United  States  on  a  war  basis  this  year  we  need  735,000,- 
000  net  tons  of  coal. 

It  seems  likely  that  the  production  of  anthracite  can- 
not exceed  the  output  of  the  past  year,  namely  89,000,000 
gross  tons.  The  difference  must  be  made  up  out  of  the 
bituminous  mines.  The  bituminous  mines  of  the  United 
States  this  year  are  called  on  to  produce  85,000,000  more 
tons  than  they  produced  last  year,  which  was  a  record 
year. 

Under  these  circumstances,  then,  we  clearly  and  defi 
nitely  face  the  prospect  of  a  slight  shortage  of  coal  this 
year.  Under  these  conditions  we  are  trying  to  see  that 
the  domestic  consumer  is  taken  care  of;  that  the  supreme 
important  users  of  coal  get  their  supplies,  and  that  if  any 
is  left  that  can  go  to  the  less  important  consumers  there 
is  where   it  will  go. 

In  order  to  make  sure  that  an  equitable  distribution  is 
had  between  these  important  branches  we  have  to  get  some 
very  definite  information  about  where  the  coal  is  going. 
We  intend  to  require  every  industrial  consumer  of  coal 
in  the  United  States  to  register  and  to  report  weekly  his 
exact  amount  on  hand,  his  consumption,  his  receipts  and 
the  amount  that  is  moving  to  him.  If  we  have  all  this 
information  it  will  enable  us  to  act  intelligently;  for  we 
will  know,  at  any  time,  how  any  given  plant  or  industry 
or  section  of  the  country  stands  with  respect  to  its  coal 
supply,  and  it  will  then  be  possible  to  prevent  trouble 
before  it  occurs  in  many  instances,  rather  than  to  try 
to  cure  it  afterward. 

Distribution  Division  of  Fuel  Administration 
The  Fuel  Administration  is  organizing  a  conservation 
division  which  is  to  inspect  the  plants  and  teach  the  users 
of  coal  better  methods  of  burning  it  in  order  that  tonnage 
may  be  saved.  It  is  estimated  that  if  this  can  be  done 
on  a  large  scale  this  year  it  will  be  possible  to  save  per- 
haps 20,000,000  tons  of  coal.  Unless  this  is  done  many 
plants  necessarily  will  be  without  coal  and  to  some  extent 
will  have  to  curtail  operations. 

I  want  to  make  it  clear  that  the  Distribution  Division 
of  the  Fuel  Administration  intends  to  be  sufficiently  in 
control  of  the  situation  to  make  sure  that  the  domestic 
consumer  gets  his  supply,  that  the  railroads  have  theirs, 
and  that  the  important  war  plants  are  all  running,  and 
that  our  ships  get  back  and  forth  aci'oss  the  Atlantic. 
If  we  do  that,  if  we  take  care  of  the  domestic  consumer 
and  keep  these  plants  running,  it  will  be  possible  for  us 
to  avoid  the  suffering  that  occurred  last  winter  and  the 
working  machinery  of  the  United  States  will  not  lose  one 
single  stroke  for  lack  of  coal. 

The  zone  system  of  distribution  has  proved  beneficial 
to  the  railroads.  The  vice  president  of  the  Norfolk  & 
Western  R.R.  gives  some  idea  of  how  it  is  helping  that 
road.  He  says:  "A  comparison  of  the  movement  of  loaded 
coal  cars  in  our  coal  districts  during  the  seven-day  period. 
May  4  to  10,  1918,  to  determine  the  advantages  derived 
from  the  zone  regulations,  indicates  that  there  was  a  saving 
in  loaded  car  mileage  in  coal  fields  of  15.2  per  cent,  or 
6982  loaded  car-miles  in  seven  days.  This  is  simply  the 
.•saving  of  car  miles  in  the  coal  regions  on  our  lines  and 
does  not  take  into  account  the  saving  that  has  been  effected 
between  the  origin  zones  and  the  points  of  destination  by 
the  elimination  of  cross  hauls." 

This  is  indicative  of  the  important  saving  in  transpor- 
tation that  was  effected  by  the  zoning  of  coal.  That  zoning 
no  doubt  interfered  with  customary  trade  relations,  it 
interfered  with  the  customer  in  getting  his  supplies.  We 
have  this  evidence  of  the  fact  that  the  sacrifices  made  have 
greatly  helped  our  transportation  problem  at  a  time  like 
this,  when  that  is  all-important. 

To  date  we  have  been  most  admirably  supported  by  the 
coal  men  themselves.  There  have  been  times  when  we 
have  made  mistakes,  made  lots  of  them;  we  will  probably 
make  a  good  many  more.  Nobody  knows  everything  about 
the  coal  business  nor  even  a  small  part  about  all  of  it, 
but  we  are  trying  to  get  together  in   Washington   a  per- 


sonnel of  leaders  in  this  business  in  positions  of  respon- 
sibility, men  that  the  coal  industry  can  follow  with  con- 
fidence and  respect. 

We  now  understand  that  for  modern  war  to  be  anywhere 
near  successful  the  armies  in  the  field  must  be  supported 
by  equally  effective  and  magnificent  war  machines  built 
up  in  the  industrial  life  of  the  country  behind  the  armies. 
Germany  had  exactly  that  kind  of  an  industrial  machine 
completed  before  ever  this  war  began. 

It  is  equally  necessary  for  us  to  build  up  here  an  indus- 
trial war  machine  that  will  support  our  military  war  ma- 
chins  just  as  effectively  as  does  Germany's.  Just  as  the 
soldier  has  to  subordinate  his  wishes  to  the  general  plan, 
so  the  coal  man  vdll  find  it  necessary  in  many  respects 
to  lay  aside  personal  desires  and  privileges  and  submit 
his  wishes  to  the  general  plan  for  the  industry  as  a  whole 
in  support  of  the  war  program. 

Engineers  Wanted  for  the  Army 

Engineers  are  once  more  in  demand  for  officers  in  the 
army.  For  the  last  six  months  or  more  all  applicants  for 
engineers'  commissions  have  been  met  with  the  statement 
that  the  quota  was  full  and  that  except  for  special  work, 
generally  at  the  direct  request  of  General  Pershing,  no  more 
commissions  would  be  given  in  the  engineers  to  men  now  in 
civil  life.  Such  vacancies  as  would  exist  were  to  be  filled  by 
promotions  of  men  already  in  the  service.  Our  enormously 
increased  army,  both  in  being  and  in  prospect,  has  changed 
all  this.  Under  date  of  June  3,  Gen.  W.  M.  Black,  Chief 
of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,  issued  a  call  for  approximately  2000 
additional  first  lieutenants  and  captains  in  the  Engineer 
Reserve  Corps,  to  be  immediately  commissioned,  sent  to 
training  camp  and  as  soon  as  possible  thereafter  sent  over- 
seas to  the  Expeditionai-y  Forces. 

Qualification  i-estrictions  are  mainly  those  of  age.  There 
are  no  commissions  available  in  the  grade  of  major  or  higher 
or  in  that  of  second  lieutenant.  The  higher  grades  will  be 
filled  by  promotions  of  well-qualified  men  now  nearly  a  year 
in  the  service,  the  lower  grades  will  be  filled  from  the  ranks 
or  from  the  recent  college  graduates,  members  of  the 
Engineer  Enlisted  Reserve.  The  age  limits  are  32  to  36 
yeai's  for  first  lieutenant  and  36  to  42  years  for  captain. 
These  limits  may  be  slightly  increased,  or  decreased,  in 
certain  cases,  except  that  no  one  within  the  draft  age  will 
be  considered. 

No  set  rules  as  to  professional  qualifications  and  expe- 
rience have  been  established,  except  that  the  applicant  must 
be  engaged  in  the  active  practice  of  the  engineering  pro- 
fession, in  one  of  its  various  branches.  An  examining 
board  will  pass  upon  the  candidate's  fitness. 

All  applicants  accepted  by  this  examining  board  will  be 
commissioned  within  a  week  or  ten  days  of  the  examination 
and  a  few  days  thereafter  will  receive  orders  to  report  at 
an  Engineer  Officers'  Training  Camp,  either  at  Camp  Lee, 
Petersburg,  Virginia,  or  Camp  Humphries,  Virginia,  just 
down  the  Potomac  from  Washington.  After  a  course  of 
training  in  military  engineering,  they  will  be  assigned  to 
duty  with  the  engineer  ti-oops  for  eventual  service  abroad. 
The  commission  is  not  final,  however,  because  a  candidate 
may  in  camp  prove  not  to  have  the  necessai"y  qualities  of  a 
military  leader.  In  such  a  contingency  he  will  be  honorably 
discharged.  Each  man's  case  will  be  carefully  considered 
just  previous  to  the  completion  of  his  course  of  instiniction 
by  a  board  of  officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A. 

The  Government  will  allow  traveling  expenses  at  the  rate 
of  7c.  per  mile  to  applicants  who  may  be  commissioned, 
and  they  will  also  receive  while  m  training  camp  the  full 
pay  of  an  officer  of  their  i-ank.  They  must  provide  them- 
selves with  the  usual  Engineer  Officer's  uniform  outfit 
while   at  camp. 

Applications  for  these  commissions  should  be  made  as 
soon  as  possible  to  the  oflice  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers, 
Washington,  D.  C.  The  office  will  send  back  a  series  of 
blanks  to  be  filled  out  with  a  general  personal  description 
designed  to  indicate  the  fitness  of  the  applicant  for  a  more 
searching  examination  in  person  by  the  examining  board 
Those  selected  will  be  notified  when  and  where  to  appear 
before  the  board  for  the  further  examination. 


June  18,  1918 


POWER 


893 


Chicago's  Technical  Men  Unite  for 
War  Work 

Representing  an  effort  to  cooperate  effectively  and  vig-- 
oroiisly  for  war  work,  an  important  joint  war  committee 
has  been  formed  by  representatives  of  technical  societies 
centered  in  Chicago.  The  movement  was  started  by  the 
Military  Committee  of  the  Western  Society  of  Engineers, 
and,  at  the  invitation  of  that  committee,  several  meetings 
have  been  held  at  the  Chicago  Engineers'  Club.  As  the  re- 
sult, the  "War  Committee,  Technical  Societies  of  Chicago," 
to  quote  the  official  name,  was  organized  June  4,  1918. 

The  pui-pose  of  this  organization  is  "to  enable  the  tech- 
nical societies  of  the  Chicago  zone  to  call  into  play  the 
efforts  of  the  members  of  the  various  societies  herein  rep- 
resented as  occasion  may  arise,  and  to  coordinate  their 
activities  in  the  most  effectual  manner  to  help  win  the 
war."  It  is  not  intended  to  attempt  any  novel  "stunts,"  but 
rather  to  place  at  the  disposal  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, and  other  authorized  agencies,  the  combined  strength 
and  resources  of  the  Chicago  technical  societies  for  war 
work,  as  need  may  arise. 

The  following  member  societies  are  cooperating  in  the 
new  War  Committee:  Western  Society  of  Engineers; 
Structural  Engineers'  Association  of  Illinois;  Society  of 
Industrial  Engineers;  Illinois  Society  of  Engineers;  Illi- 
nois Society  of  Architects;  The  American  Railway  Engi- 
neei-ing  Association;  The  Swedish  Engineers'  Society  of 
Chicago;  Illinois  Chapter,  American  Institute  of  Archi- 
tects; Chicago  Section,  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers;  Chicago  Section,  American  Institute  of  Elec- 
trical Engineers;  Chicago  Section,  American  Chemical  So- 
ciety; Chicago  Section,  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engi- 
neers; Mid-West  Section,  Society  of  Automotive  Engineers; 
Illinois  Association  of  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers; 
Chicago  Section,  American  Society  of  Heating  and  Ventilat- 
ing Engineers;  Chicago  Section,  American  Society  of  Re- 
frigerating Engineers;  Chicago  Section,  Steel  Treating  Re- 
search Society;  Chicago  Section,  Illuminating  Engineering 
Society;  and  Chicago  Chapter,  American  Association  of 
Engineers. 

Officers  of  the  War  Committee  have  been  elected  as 
follows:  Chairman,  F.  K.  Copeland;  vice  chairman,  W.  L. 
Abbott;  secretary,  Edgar  S.  Nethercut;  treasurer,  William 
A.  Fox.  The  executive  committee  consists  of  F.  K.  Cope- 
land,  W.  L.  Abbott,  William  Hoskins,  C.  A.  Keller,  Charles 
E.  Lord,  C.  F.  Loweth,  Isham  Rpnd^^lph  and  Richard  E. 
Schmidt.  The  address  of  the  srcretary  of  the  War  Com- 
mittee is  1735  Monadnock  Block,  Chicago,  111. 

Largest  Smokeless  Powder  Plant  in  the 
United  States 

The  largest  smokeless  powder  plant  in  the  United  States, 
known  as  "Old  Hickory,"  located  near  Nashville,  Tenn., 
and  building  by  the  du  Pont  Engineering  Co.,  at  a  contract 
price  of  one  dollar,  has  swung  into  line  back  of  our  boys 
"over  there." 

The  first  sulphuric-acid  unit  has  already  been  started, 
and  the  progress  which  this  marks  assures  the  delivery  of 
powder  before  July  1,  three  months  ahead  of  the  original 
schedule,  in  quantities  sufficient  to  keep  a  steady  flow  going 
to  the  battlefront  in  France. 

This  marks  the  first  completed  step  of  a  monumental 
task  which  sets  a  record  for  engineering  and  construction 
work  in  the  United  States.  The  original  contract  with  the 
United  States  Government  for  the  building  of  this  plant 
was  signed  with  the  du  Pont  Engineering  Co.  on  Jan.  29 
of  this  year.  It  called  for  a  daily  output  of  500,000  lb. 
of  smokeless  powder  with  the  first  unit  to  operate  in 
eight  months,  or  Oct.  1,  succeeding  units,  four  in  number, 
to  come  into  commission  every  six  weeks. 

On  Mar.  23  a  new  contract  was  entered  into  which 
turned  the  plant  over  to  the  du  Pont  Engineering  Co.  as 
contractors  for  the  Government.  Under  its  terms  the 
contractors  were  to  construct  a  plant  based  on  their  knowl- 
edge and  experience  complete  in  every  detail  to  turn  out 
900,000  lb.   of  powder  a   day.     Under  this  new  arrange- 


ment the  contractor  agreed  to  bring  the  first  unit  into 
operation  on  Aug.  1,  two  months  ahead  of  the  previous 
schedule,  and  to  bring  the  other  units  in  thirty  days 
apart. 

Under  this  final  plan  the  contractors  agreed  to  do  the 
construction  work  for  a  consideration  of  one  dollar.  This 
work  included  giving  to  the  Government  the  benefit  of  all 
the  du  Pont  skill  and  knowledge  in  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  powder  plants  gained  through  long  years  of 
actual  operating  and  exhaustive  experimental  work,  and 
rendered  all  the  more  valuable  because  of  the  experience 
gained  in  the  building  of  modern  war  plants  to  supply  the 
powder  demands  of  the  Allies  before  this  country  entered 
the  war. 

With  the  freedom  of  action  obtained  under  the  final 
contract,  such  rapid  progress  was  made  that  two  months 
ago,  when  the  powder  situation  became  acute,  the  con- 
tractors promised  the  Government  to  again  put  forward 
the  schedule  and  to  produce  powder  on  July  1,  bringing 
into  operation  the  successive  units  twenty-five  days  apart. 
To  meet  this  schedule  it  would  have  not  been  necessary  for 
the  sulphuric-acid  plant,  which  started  June  1,  to  have  been 
put  in  operation  for  another  ten  days,  so  that  there  is 
every  prospect  that  some  additional  time  may  be  saved 
even  on  the  close  schedule  finally  adopted. 

Each  one  of  these  units  is  practically  complete  within 
itself  and  is  approximately  eight  times  the  size  of  the 
largest  smokeless-powder  plant  in  the  United  States  prior 
to  the  war.  The  entire  plant  is  approximately  seventy 
times  the  size  of  the  largest  smokeless  powder  plant  in 
the  United  States  prior  to  1914. 

There  will  be  a  complete  power  plant  for  generating 
electric  power  and  steam.  This  plant  will  have  eight 
stacks,  15  ft.  in  diameter  and  200  ft.  high. 

The  plant  will  consume  4500  tons  of  coal  every  operating 
day  of  twenty-four  hours.  This  is  equivalent  to  100  car- 
loads or  two  trainloads.  The  completed  plant  will  require 
100,000,000  gal.  of  water  every  twenty-four  hours,  or  as 
much  water  as  is  used  by  a  city  of  1,000,000  population; 
65  per  cent,  of  this  water  must  be  treated  and  filtered. 
The  central  power  plant  will  contain  68  boilers,  each  witli 
a  rating  of  825  hp.  These  will  be  operated  at  an  over- 
load, developing  approximately  90,000  boiler  hoi'sepower, 
supplying  steam  for  generating  12,000  kw.  of  electrical 
power  as  well  as  steam  power  for  the  treatment  of  gun- 
cotton    and   other   purposes. 

In  addition  to  the  railroad  which  is  built  into  the  plant, 
it  was  necessary  to  reconstruct  the  highways  leading  from 
Nashville,  and  within  the  plant  itself  many  miles  of 
standard  railroad  track  and  narrow-gage  lines  are  in  oper- 
ation. The  finished  plant  will  contain  approximately  33 
miles  of  broad-gage  track  and  46  miles  of  three-foot  gage 
track  for  narrow-gage  locomotives  and  cars. 

Wisconsin  Modifies  Second-Hand 


Boiler   Ruling 


It  has  come  to  the  attention  of  the  Industrial  Commission 
that  several  manufacturers  of  this  state  have  found  it 
difficult  to  obtain  new  boilers  to  assist  in  increasing  the 
production  of  the  factories,  and  this  condition  is  the  result 
of  the  scarcity  of  steel  plate  which  is  largely  being  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  war  materials.  Consequently,  buyers 
are  obliged  to  make  use  of  second-hand  boilers. 

With  this  in  mind,  the  commission  at  its  last  regular  meet- 
ing, May  20,  1918,  voted  to  modify  until  further  notice  Order 
4208,  page  12,  Code  of  Boiler  Rules,  to  the  e.xtent  that  it 
will  be  satisfactory  to  a(hiiit  for  operation  with  a  factor  of 
safety  of  (5)  any  second-hand  boiler  whose  longitudinal 
seam  is  of  the  butt  type  and  with  double  covering  plates, 
with  the  understanding  that  the  boiler  does  not  confonn 
strictly  to  all  the  requirements  of  Part  III  of  the  rules 
which  apply  to  boilers  installed  after  July   1,  1916. 

For  example,  a  second-hand  boiler  as  described  may  be  a 
trifle  short  in  bracing;  have  only  single  lugs  for  support; 
blowoff  pipe  4  in.  in  diameter;  manholes  smaller  than  re- 
quired on  new  boilers;  or  it  may  have  a  dome  which  would 
not  conform  to  Order  4348. 


894 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


Illinois  State  Convention  N.A.S.E. 

On  June  5-7  the  Illinois  State  Association  of  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  Stationary  Engineers  held  its  four- 
teenth annual  convention  at  Ottawa.  Owing  to  the  busy 
times,  when  the  engineer  in  particular  must  be  on  hand 
to  keep  the  wheels  going,  the  number  of  delegates  and 
visitors  attending  was  less  than  usual,  and  although  about 
the  same  number  of  booths  had  been  taken,  the  exhibits 
were  few  and  none  of  them  elaborate,  due  to  overcrowded 
transportation  facilities  and  the  rush  of  war  work.  Head- 
quartei's  and  the  exhibit  hall  were  at  the  Clifton  Hotel 
and  the  business  sessions  of  the  convention  were  held  in 
the  K.  of  P.  Hall. 

At  2  p.  m.  Wednesday  W.  F.  Kirschenberg  called  to  order 
the  first  session  of  the  convention.  Rev.  C.  A.  Briggs,  Jr., 
opened  with  prayer.  Mayor  E.  F.  Bradford  extended  an 
earnest  and  cordial  welcome  and  presented  a  large  gilt  key 
giving  access  to  anything  in  the  city.    He  said  that  he  had 


need  for  economy  in  this  natural  resource.  During  the 
coming  year  it  would  be  impossible  to  increase  much  if  any, 
the  output  of  coal.  Consequently  the  user  must  secure 
greater  economy,  the  mines  must  be  kept  busy  the  year 
around  and  the  coal  be  equally  distributed  in  accordance 
with  the  needs.  Each  individual  must  wake  up  to  the  sit- 
uation. The  householder  will  be  forced  to  burn  mostly 
Illinois  coal  and  it  was  up  to  him  to  order  it  now  instead 
of  waiting  with  the  hopes  of  getting  anthracite  or  Poca- 
hontas. Reference  was  made  to  ways  of  saving,  such  as  the 
elimination  of  needless  lights,  shorter  working  days  for 
those  engaged  in  nonwar  work  and  rigid  economy  in  the 
power  plant.  It  was  possible  to  get  help  from  the  fuel  ad- 
ministration. Lecturers  were  to  be  sent  all  over  the  state 
and  there  would  be  men  and  literature  to  show  how  to 
burn  Illinois  coal.  To  help  win  the  war  Mr.  Naylor  urged 
general  storage  of  fuel  during  the  summer  months  and 
made  a  special  plea  to  the  engineer  to  spread  the  gospel  of 
fuel  conservation. 


DELEGATES  AND  THEIR  GUESTS  ATTENDING  THE  FOURTEENTH  ANNL'.ilj  CONVENTION  OF  THE  ILLINOIS 


been  impressed  by  the  aims  and  objects  for  which  the  as- 
sociation had  been  formed,  that  the  idea  was  splendid  and 
should  bear  fi-uit  in  these  times  when  efficiency  in  the 
power  plant  meant  so  much.  He  expressed  the  hope  that 
their  stay  would  be  so  pleasant  and  profitable  that  Ottawa 
would  be  their  favorite  convention  city. 

In  his  response  John  F.  McGrath  expressed  the  appre- 
ciation of  the  delegates  for  the  kind  reception.  He  dwelt 
briefly  on  the  educational  features  of  the  association  and  on 
the  wonderful  success  of  the  lantem-slide  lectures.  The 
organization  tried  to  keep  the  men  abreast  of  the  times, 
not  only  mechanically  but  socially  as  well,  so  that  they 
might  feel  that  they  were  on  an  equality  with  men  in  any 
walk  of  life. 

Joe  O'Co.inell  was  always  pleasantly  impressed  by  the 
fact  that  public  men  such  as  the  mayor  or  the  governor 
never  failed  to  recognize  the  value  of  the  engineer  to  the 
community.  They  were  students  of  human  nature  and 
understood  the  engineer  better  than  most  other  men.  With 
water-works,  lighting  and  power  plants  of  all  kinds,  street 
railways,  locomotives  and  marine  plants  under  their  con- 
trol, the  engineer  had  it  in  his  power  to  create  terrible 
hard.ships,  if  he  so  willed  and  organized  for  that  purpose. 
To  the  credit  of  the  profession  the  present  organization 
had  been  formed  for  fraternal  and  educational  purposes. 

J.  F.  Farrell,  ex-mayor,  referred  to  the  previous  con- 
vention in  Ottawa  and  expressed  the  wish  that  it  might 
become  a  permanent  issue  to  meet  in  the  city  every  year. 
Upon  request  the  speaker  read  a  paper  on  "Economy  of 
Coal  and  Fuel  Conservation,"  by  C.  W.  Naylor,  who  had 
been  unable  to  attend.  It  was  Mr.  Naylor's  contention 
that  in  one  way  the  present  war  was  a  blessing.  It  had 
opened  the  eyes  of  the  people  to  the  fuel  situation  and  the 


Lee  O'Neil  Browne,  an  honorary  member  of  the  associa- 
tion and  the  representative  of  the  state  legislature  who  had 
twice  helped  the  engineers  in  trying  to  put  through  a  li- 
cense bill  for  Illinois,  spoke  briefly.  He  referred  to  the 
previous  convention  at  Ottawa  eight  years  ago  when  he 
had  become  a  member,  and  to  the  great  help  certain  engi- 
neers had  given  him  in  a  boiler  explosion  case  in  Lee 
County.  He  reviewed  the  efforts  made  to  pass  the  license 
bill  against  the  opposition  of  certain  labor  organizations 
in  Chicago  and  sawmill  and  other  small  interests  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state.  In  the  second  attempt  the  bill 
had  been  passed  in  both  the  House  and  the  Senate,  but 
had  been  vetoed  by  the  governor  for  the  averred  reason 
that  it  contained  too  many  restrictions.  In  his  opinion 
the  bill  could  be  passed  again,  but  before  it  reached  the 
governor  there  would  be  need  of  concerted  effort  to  arouse 
public  interest  and  to  create  a  demand  backed  by  powerful 
influences  that  could  not  be  overlooked. 

With  the  official  opening  of  the  convention  and  appoint- 
ment of  committees  by  John  F.  Alt,  state  president,  the 
session  closed. 

In  the  evening  the  exhibit  hall  in  the  Clifton  Hotel  was 
opened  officially,  with  J.  F.  Alt  presiding.  Short  talks 
were  made  by  Messrs.  Thayer,  Fiske,  Lane,  McGrath  and 
Roberts  on  the  educational  advantages  offered  by  the  ex- 
hibits. The  latest  equipment,  or  literature  dealing  with 
it,  was  on  display  and  valuable  information  could  be  ob- 
tained from  the  various  salesmen. 

Thursday  morning  the  session  was  given  over  to  routine 
business  and  reports.  The  secretary-treasurer's  statement 
disclosed  a  comfortable  working  balance  and  a  net  loss  in 
membership  of  23  for  the  state.  Mr.  Roberts,  of  Cleveland, 
a  member  of  the  National  License  Committee,  discussed  the 


June  18,  1918 


POWER 


895 


possibilities  of  eventually  passing  the  Illinois  bill.  He 
thought  the  conditions  favorable.  Recent  experience 
showed  what  must  be  overcome  and  they  were  fortunate 
in  having  a  representative  who  had  their  interests  at  heart. 
The  speaker  warned  against  trying  to  get  all  that  was 
wanted  in  the  bill.  It  would  be  policy  to  get  the  best  bill 
possible  on  the  statute  books  and  after  that  amendments 
would  be  comparatively  easy.  To  be  constitutional  the  bill 
must  have  uniform  application  throughout  the  state  and 
there  should  be  no  restrictions  as  to  qualifications  of  the 
chief  examiner.  It  would  be  better  to  let  the  appointive 
power  assume  the  responsibility.  Sources  of  objection  could 
be  eliminated  by.  giving  without  further  examination,  state 
licenses  to  men  who  already  possess  a  city  license  and  to 
engineers  who  have  been  operating  for  a  certain  period  and 
can  verify  it  by  a  statement  from  their  employers.  One 
of  the  causes  of  the  veto  of  the  last  bill  was  the  exemption 
clause  expressing  the  limit  below  which  a  license  would  not 
be  necessary,  in  square  feet  of  heating  surface  rather  than 


appropriate  for  towns  where  the  membership  did  not  ex- 
ceed 20  or  30,  Questions  and  answers  and  traveling  lec- 
turers had  been  tried  and  in  numerous  cases  did  not  seem 
to  meet  the  requirements. 

In  choosing  the  officers.  John  P.  Alt  and  J.  E.  Noden 
were  reelected  as  president  and  vice  president,  respectively. 
On  account  of  war  work  Gus  Anderson  was  replaced  by 
W.  E.  Hill  as  secretary-treasurer  and  M.  E.  Harris  was 
recommended  for  state  deputy.  The  officers  were  installed 
by  Past  Presidents  Parker  and  Misostow.  The  selection 
of  a  convention  city  was  left  for  later  determination  by 
the  president  and  secretary. 

The  following  firms  had  space  in  the  exhibit  hall:  Anchor 
Packing  Co.,  V.  D.  Anderson  Co.,  W.  A.  Blonck  &  Co.,  Cran- 
dall  Packing  Co.,  Dearborn  Chemical  Co.,  Oarlock  Packing 
Co.,  Hawk-eye  Compound  Co.,  Hays  Instrument  Co.,  Jen- 
kins Bros.,  H.  W.  Johns-Manville  Co.,  Lunkenheimer  Co., 
National  Atomizer  Co.,  National  Engineer,  Perolin  Co.  of 
America,  Wm.  Powell  Co.,  Power,  S.  C.  Regulator  Mfg.  Co., 


sT.VTli  ASSOCIATION  OF  THE  NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  STATIONARY  ENGINEERS  AT  OTTAWA,   ILL. 


in  horsepower.     To  the  layman  the  former  meant  nothing 
while  all  were  familiar  with  the  horsepower. 

Mr.  Roberts  had  a  pamphlet  giving  proper  information 
to  bring  before  the  public  and  a  skeleton  bill  after  the 
Massachusetts  and  Ohio  plans  which  might  serve  as  the 
fundamental  basis  for  the  Illinois  bill.  Incidentally,  the  na- 
tional license  committee  in  conjunction  with  the  national 
president,  had  decided  to  limit  their  efforts  to  those  states 
where  the  possibilities  of  license  legislation  were  most 
favorable.  For  1918-19  Illinois  and  Kansas  had  been 
selected. 

Thursday  afternoon  the  entire  delegation  had  a  most 
pleasant  outing  at  Starved  Rock  State  Park,  getting  back 
in  time  to  attend  the  smoker  that  evening  at  the  head- 
quarters hotel.  The  latter  was  a  most  enjoyable  affair  and 
the  best  attended  session  of  the  convention.  With  Fiske 
as  toastmaster  the  program  was  conducted  with  despatch. 
Patriotic  talks  by  President  Griggs,  of  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  and  ex-Mayor  Farrell  were  interspersed  with 
songs  by  the  audience.  John  Lane  responded  and  in  brief 
talks  was  followed  by  T.  W.  Roberts,  W.  E.  Hill  and 
Charlie  Fiske.  Mob  singing  led  by  Tilley  and  dancing  were 
the  final  features. 

At  the  Friday  morning  session,  State  Deputy  Hill  spoke  of 
the  difficulty  all  organizations  have  in  holding  their  mem- 
bership during  war  times.  The  draft  and  enticing  positions 
opened  up  by  the  Federal  Government  were  responsible  and 
it  required  a  great  deal  of  intensive  work  for  an  associa- 
tion to  hold  its  own. 

In  the  discussion  on  educational  work,  Messrs.  Hill, 
Misostow  and  Harris  emphasized  the  difficulty  the  state  body 
had  in  learning  what  the  smaller  associations  needed. 
Lectures  suitable  for  locals  in  large  cities  often  were  not 


Rhodes  Metallic  Packing  Co.,  John  A.  Roebling  Sons  Co., 
United  States  Rubber  Co.,  Thayer  &  Lynn,  Tilley-Gillette  Co. 

Bituminous  Coal  Consumption 

Following  is  a  statement  by  the  Fuel  Administration  on 
coal  consumption  and  requirements.  Note  the  large  in- 
crease in  coal  required  by  industrial  plants. 

ESTIMATED   CONSUMPTION   OF   BITUMINOUS   COAL   IN   THE 
UNITED    STATES    IN    1917   AND    REQUIREMENTS   FOR 
1918-19,  IN   NET  TONS 


1917 
Tons 

Industrial 204,907,000 

Domestic 66,9 1  5,000 

Gas  and  electric  utilitiea 33,038,000 

Railroads 1  55,000.000 

Exports 24,000,000 

Beehive  coke 52,450,000 

Bunker— Foreign 7,700,000 

Bunker  —   Domestic     including 

Great  Lakes ., 5.000.000 

ITsed  at  coal  mines  for  steam  and 

he,it 11.000.000 

Total 560,010,000 

Used  from  storage 4,375,000 

Exports ""'"95 

Estimated  production 554,728.000 

Substitution  of  coal  for  oil,  mainly 

in  west _ 

To  increase  stocks  of  industrial 
plants  and  public  utilities  out- 
side of  New  England  by  ten 
days'  supply ■    

Total  requirements  for  1918  _ 
without  allowance  for  esti- 
mated conservation 

rroducti(m,  1917 554,728,000 

Production,  1 9 1 8, required  for  needs  634, 594,000 

Increase  required 79,866,000 

Percentage I  ••  ^ 


Per  Cent. 

1918-19 
Tons 

Increase 

1918-19 

Over  1917 

242,024,000 
75,678,000 
37,941,000 

166,000,000 
24,000,000 
52,450,000 
10.000.000 

18 
13 
15 
7 
0 
0 
30 

5,000,000 

0 

12,500,000 

14 

625,593,000 

12 

2,000,000 


7,000,000 


634,594,000 


89G 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


Thirty-second  Convention  A.O.S.E. 

The  American  Order  of  Steam  Engineers  held  its  thirty- 
second  annual  con/ention  at  Philadelphia,  June  10-12,  with 
headquarters  at  the  Hotel  Vendig.  The  several  sessions 
were  held  at  the  Parkway  Building,  on  Broad  Street.  The 
attendance  was  not  as  large  as  usual,  owing  to  war  condi- 
tions; there  were  fifty  delegates  present.  The  business  of 
the  convention  was  conducted  with  harmony  and  dispatch. 
The  treasurer's  report  showed  that  the  organization  is  in 
a  sound  financial  condition.  The  Supplymen's  Association 
held  its  exhibit  in  a  large  hall  adjoining  the  meeting  room 
of  the  delegates.  There  were  46  firms  represented.  This 
year  a  small  table  display  took  the  place  of  the  customary 
elaborate  exhibit.  The  entertainment  features  were  a 
smoker  in  the  Parkway  Building  on  Monday  evening  and 
an  entertainment  and  dance  at  Moose  Hall  on  Tuesday 
night.  The  following  supreme  officers  were  elected:  J. 
William  Pairent,  chief;  Eugene  Enderle,  first  assistant 
chief;  Harry  Dunn,  recording  engineer;  William  S.  Wetzler, 
corresponding  engineer;  William  H.  Tyson,  treasurer; 
James  G.  Steigerwalt,  senior  master  mechanic;  C.  F.  Eisele, 
junior  master  mechanic;  Harvey  Berger,  inside  sentinel; 
John  Orean,  outside  sentinel;  James  Lightfoot,  chaplain; 
James  K.  Holland,  trustee.  The  executive  committee  con- 
sists of  George  W.  Richardson,  Clifford  P.  Williams,  and 
Franklin  R.  Moore. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Supplymen  on  Tuesday  the  fol- 
lowing officers  were  elected:  Horace  A.  Smith,  president; 
Porter  G.  Jones,  vice  president;  Roy  C.  Downs,  secretary; 
John  W.  Armour,  treasurer;  William  Lindenfelser,  Jr.,  di- 
rector of  exhibits.  The  date  and  place  of  the  next  meeting 
will  be  decided  later  by  the  supreme  chief. 

Coal  Trade  of  Southern  Chile 

Consul  John  R.  Bradley  says,  in  Commerce  Reports,  that 
at  this  time  there  are  no  stocks  of  imported  coal  in 
Magallanes.  For  domestic  consumption  a  lignite  to  the 
amount  of  about  3500  tons  per  month  is  produced  locally, 
an  analysis  of  which  (perhaps  a  picked  sample)  is:  Moisture, 
18.752  per  cent.;  volatile  matter,  37.892  per  cent.;  fixed 
carbon,  31.5  per  cent.;  and  ash,  11.785  per  cent.  I  am  told, 
however,  that  the  ash  content  is  nearer  25  than  11  per 
cent.  This  coal  retails  now  at  the  equivalent  of  $10  per 
ton.   United   States  cun-ency. 

Prior  to  the  war  (and  occasionally  since  its  outbreak) 
practically  all  steam  coal  used  here  came  fi-om  Cardiff  and 
sold  around  SI 2  per  ton.  Most  of  that  used  here  is  now 
secured  at  Coronel,  Chile,  and  is  said  to  be  a  fair  grade 
of  bituminous.  The  yearly  consumption  of  steam  coal  at 
Punta  Arenas  is  estimated  to  be  15,000  tons,  used  by  about 
twenty  small  steamers  in  the  coasting  trade,  with  this  as 
their  home  port,  and  one  freezing  works,  which  uses  about 
2000  tons  per  annum.  The  other  freezing  works  in  this 
district  burn  wood,  as  does  the  electric-light  plant,  which 
pays  about  $10  per  coi-d.  Many  of  these  plants  would  use 
coal  if  available  at  a  reasonable  price. 

There  are  no  facilities  at  Punta  Arenas  for  handling  coal, 
and  it  is  unloaded  by  means  of  canvas  slings  and  steam 
winches.  Five  or  six  hundred  tons  a  day  is  about  the 
usual  progress  made  in  unloading. 

Coal  Production  Highest  This  Year 

Bituminous-coal  production  for  the  week  ended  May  18 
was  estimated  at  11,732,000  net  tons,  compared  with  11,825,- 
000  for  the  week  ended  May  11.  The  daily  average  for  the 
week  was  1,955,000  tons,  compared  with  1,971,000  tons  for 
the  week  preceding,  according  to  the  reports  issued  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey. 

Anthracite  shipments  were  reported  as  41,011  aars  during 
the  week  of  May  18,  an  increase  over  the  previous  week  of 
2244  cars,  or  6  per  cent. 

The  reports  made  by  the  United  States  Fuel  Administra- 
tion showing  the  working  condition  at  the  mines  during  the 
week  of  May  11  are  especially  interesting  in  that  they 
reflect  the  operations   of  the  mines  for  the  weekly  period 


showing  the  highest  production  since  the  organization  of 
the  Fuel  Administration.  The  total  losses  from  all  causes 
during  the  week  is  recorded  at  22.4  per  cent.  The  losses 
were  reported  as  follows:  Car  shortage,  11.2;  labor  shortage 
and  strikes,  5.4;  mine  disability,  3.6;  no  market,  1;  all  other 
causes,  2.2.  The  percentage  of  production  to  total  capacity 
for  week  ending  May  11  was  76.6  per  cent.,  the  highest  point 
attained  this  year. 

Good  Suggestion  for  Home  Use  Also 

Every  man  that  we  send  to  France,  whether  for  the  fir- 
ing line  or  behind  it,  will  have  to  be  supplied  with  electric 
service.  The  shops  for  repairing  our  rifles  and  guns  in 
France  will  probably  be  larger  than  our  munitions  plants 
in  this  country,  according  to  the  Electrical  World.  As 
France  has  no  coal  to  spare,  we  must  either  make  use  of 
some  of  our  ships  for  transporting  our  own  fuel  to  pro- 
duce this  power  or  obtain  the  power  from  other  sources. 
The  American  way  is  pointed  out.  Hydro-electric  power 
will  not  only  provide  for  our  own  needs  in  France  better 
than  it  can  be  done  by  sending  over  American  coal,  but 
the  very  large  power  needs  of  France  herself  can  be  met 
by  American  electrical  plants. 

Present  development  of  hydro-electricity  in  France  con- 
sists chiefly  of  small  generating  stations  on  streams,  dis- 
tributing current  to  a  few  near-by  towns  and  villages.  With 
American  practice,  it  would  be  possible  to  develop  all  the 
available  water  power  on  a  range  of  mountains  and  dis- 
tribute it  through  several  provinces.  The  sum  of  money 
required  to  build  two  5000-ton  steel  colliers  would  build  a 
10,000  hp.  hydro-electric  plant  in  France,  according  to 
the  estimates.  Two  such  ships  could  easily  take  over  all 
material  required  for  construction.  A  plant  of  that  char- 
acter would  require  fewer  than  half  a  dozen  men  for  opera- 
tion. American  electrical  apparatus  is  now  so  practical 
and  diversified  that  some  of  it  can  be  set  up  outdoors  with 
little  shelter,  and  units  of  1000  to  10,000  hp.  can  be  located 
according  to  water  power  available  and  energy  needs  by 
American  emergency  construction  which  would  have  them 
in  place  and  deliver  power  in  from  six  to  nine  months. 

Fuel  Administration  Warns  Against 
Unnecessary  Lighting 

United  States  Fuel  Administrator  Garfield  has  warned 
the  public  against  prodigal  and  unnecessary  use  of  elec- 
tricity for  outdoor  advertising  purposes  and  other  display 
illumination.  Statistics  obtained  by  engineers  of  the  Fuel 
Administration  reduced  to  terms  of  coal  show  the  necessity 
for  the  utmost  fuel  economy  during  the  summer  as  well 
as  the  winter,  requiring  the  strictest  conservation  of  fuel- 
generated  electricity.  The  Administration  expects  that 
there  will  be  no  extravagant  or  unnecessary  use  of  elec- 
tricity for  display  purposes.  If  there  is,  the  so-called  light- 
less  night  order  will  be  suspended  and  even  more  stringent 
restrictions  will  be  ordered  against  all  forms  of  outdoor 
lighting  and  display  illumination.  The  consumption  figures 
just  compiled  reveal  the  necessity  for  the  utmost  economy 
in  fuel  consumption  during  the  summer  as  well  as  the  win- 
ter and  require  the  earliest  enforcement  of  the  strictest 
economy  in  all  fuel-generated  electricity. 

Ancient  Aeronautics 

When  fioods  washed  away  two  bridges  over  the  Nisqually 
River,  the  Standard  Oil  Co.  of  California  had  to  revert  to 
primitive  methods  to  get  oil  supplies  to  the  eastern  half  of 
Lewis  County.  A  large  cable  was  strung  across  the  river, 
and  for  three  weeks  this  aerial  ferry  was  the  only  line  of 
communication.  An  automobile  was  used  to  furnish  power 
at  one  end,  while  strong  men  operated  the  device  from  the 
other.  Oil  was  sent  over  in  5-gal.  cans,  and  from  these  filled 
into  barrels.  Factories  and  motorists  of  Lewis  County 
were  thereby  permitted  to  continue  using  gasoline  and  other 
oil  products  uninterruptedly.  ^  T/ie  Wall  Street  Journal 
Straivs. 


June  18,  1918 


POWER 


897 


New  Publications 


iiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiMiiiMn 


THE  STORAGE  OF  BITUMINOUS  COAL. 
By  H.  H.  Stoek.  Published  by  the 
University  of  Illinois,  Kng"ineering 
Lvxperiment  Station.  Urhana.  111. 
Paper,  6x9  in.  ;  li»L*  paees.  Price, 
4  0c. 

This  book,  which  is  a  bulletin  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  and  desigmated  as  (Circu- 
lar No.  G.  is  perhaps  the  most  comprehen- 
sive publication  yet  written  on  the  subject 
of  the  storage  of  coal.  There  are  G'-i  illus- 
trations and  7  tables.  Jt  is  the  purpose  of 
this  circular  to  present  a  review  of  modern 
practice  covering-  the  storage  of  coal  and 
a  statement  of  the  facts  Xhat  have  devel- 
oped in  the  experience  of  those  who  have 
successfully  or  otherwise  undertaken  to 
store  coal.  The  discussion  is  confined 
largely  to  bituminous  coal,  which  has  given 
so  much  trouble,  owing  to  its  tendency 
toward  spontaneous  combustion  while 
stored,  and  to  storage  systems  and  mechan- 
ical devices. 

MODERN  LOCOMOTIVE  VALVES  AND 
VALVE  GEARS.  By  Charles  L.  Mc- 
Shane.  Published  by  Griffin  &  Win- 
ters, Chicago.  Cloth.  317  pages ;  5  x 
7J   in.;    113    illustrations.      Price,    $2.50. 

In  writing  this  book  the  author  has  as- 
sumed that  the  reader  has  no  previous 
knowledge  of  valves  or  valve  gears,  and  so 
he  begins  with  fundamentals.  He  describes 
the  working  of  the  plain  slide  valve  with 
neither  lap  nor  lead  and  then  proceeds  to 
show  the  effects  produced  by  giving  lap  and 
lead  to  the  valve  end  angular  advance  to 
the  eccentric.  From  a  study  of  the  plain 
slide  valve  he  passes  naturally  to  special 
forms  of  slide  valves,  balanced  valves  and 
piston  valves.  A  striking  feature  of  the 
book  is  the  omission  of  the  valve  diagrams 
so  commonly  used  in  books  on  valve  gears 
for  the  solution  of  vaLve-motion  problems. 
Instead,  a  simplified  displacement  diagram 
is  employed  to  show  the  relative  positions 
of  valve  and  piston  at  admission,  cutoff, 
etc.  Apparently  this  diagram  does  not  take 
into  account  the  effect  of  connecting-rod 
angularity.  The  AValschaert.  Eaker-Pilliod. 
Southern  and  Young  types  of  valve  gear 
are  taken  up  in  detail  and  instructions  are 
given  for  setting  each  and  for  making  the 
necessary  repairs  in  case  of  breakdown  on 
the  road.  The  language  of  the  author  is 
simple  and  direct,  and  the  text  is  supple- 
mented and  explained  by  a  large  number  of 
excellent  illustrations.  A  commendable 
feature  is  that  the  various  diagrams  are 
pertinent  to  the  d'scussion  and  no  illus- 
trations are  used  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
adding  to  the  length  and  appearance  of  the 
book.  A  full  list  of  definitions  of  terms 
forms  part  of  the  work,  which  is  thoroughly 
practical  throughout  and  should  be  of  value 
to  apprentice,  fireman,  engineer  and  me- 
chanic. 

ELEMENTS  OF  MACHINE'  DESIGN.  By 
Henry  L.  Machman.  Published  by 
John  Wiley  &  Sons.  Inc.  New  York. 
Cloth,  245  pages ;  5|  x  9  in. ;  illus- 
trated.     Price,    $2    net. 

The  contents  of  this  volume  are  arranged 
under  three  headings,  the  first  relating  to 
the  strength  of  material,  the  second  to  fas- 
tenings, which  include  screw  fastenings, 
riveted  joints,  keys  and  cotters,  and  shrink- 
and-force  fits.  The  third  section  is  devoted 
to  transmission  machine  parts.  This  in- 
cludes the  chapters  on  shafts  and  axles, 
couplings  and  clutches,  journals  and  bear- 
ings, belts  and  pulleys,  friction  wheels, 
tooth  gears,  rope  transmission.  chain 
gearing,  pipes  and  cylinders,  valves,  fly- 
wheels, crankshafts,  crankpins.  and  eccen-* 
tries,  connecting-rods,  piston  rods  and 
c-ccentric  rods,  pistons,  crossheads  and 
stuffing-boxes,  hoisting-machinery  data  and 
springs.  There  are  22  chapters  in  all.  the 
last  one  bein^  devoted  to  the  materials  of 
machinery. 

This  book  is  intended  primarily  as  a 
classroom  textbook  and  is  of  more  use  to 
the  student  on  the  whole  than  it  is  to  the 
operating  engineer,  although  the  latter  will 
find  much  of  value  if  he  is  interested  ii> 
figuring  out  or  designing  machine  parts. 
The  author  has  developed  the  equations  for 
the  design  of  the  more  common  machine 
elements,  which  have  been  done  concisely, 
and  frequently  only  an  outline  of  the  de- 
duction has  been  given.  Empirical  formulas 
and  rule-of-thumb  methods  have  been 
avoided  as  far  as  possible. 

Illustrations  have  been  chosen  to  show 
typical  construction  rather  than  a  great 
\ariety.  Each  subject  treated  is  designated 
by  black-face  type,  which  makes  It  con- 
venient to  the  reader  when  looking  for  any 
particular  subject. 


MECHANICAL  LABORATORY  METHODS 
OF  TESTING  MACHINES  AND 
INSTUITMENTS.  Second  Edition.  By 
Julian  C.  Smallwood.  Published  by 
D.  Van  Nostrand  Co,,  New  York. 
Leather,  399  pages  ;  5  x  7i  in.  ;  114 
illustrations.       Price,    $3. 

This  second  edition  has  been  revised  and 
enlarged  to  a  considerable  extent.  As  the 
title  of  the  book  implies,  it  is  devoted  to 
methods  employed  in  testing  various  appa- 
ratus found  in  powtr  plants  as  well  as 
tor  laboratory  uses.  In  dealing  with  the 
various  classes  of  instruments  this  volume 
briefly  explains  the  principle  of  design 
and  operation.  The  illustrations  used  to 
assist  in  such  explanations  are  diagram- 
matic so  as  to  make  a  simple  presentation. 
Such  instructions  as  to  how  to  operate 
engines,  boilers,  etc.,  have  been  omitted, 
as  the  reader  is  supposed  to  know  about 
such    matters. 

In  enlarging  this  volume,  the  section 
dealing  with  instruments  contains  a  num- 
ber of  subjects  not  covered  in  the  previous 
edition,  and  this  especially  applies  to 
recorders.  Furthermore,  the  section  treat- 
ing on  valve  setting  and  steam-engine 
testing  has  been  enlarged  and  improved. 
Engineers  will  be  interested  in  the  section 
devoted  to  the  testing  of  condensers  and 
feed-water  heaters  and  other  auxiliaries ; 
also  in  the  new  section  that  has  been  added 
en  the  testing  of  refrigerating  machinery, 
ammonia,  absorption  and  compression  sys- 
tems. Another  added  feature  relates  to 
the  testing  for  the  horsepower  output  of 
electric  motors  which  should  be  convenient 
ir  connection  with  the  testing  of  motor- 
driven  units.  In  all  there  are  twelve  addi- 
tional tests. 

Owing  to  the  manner  in  which  the  text 
matter  has  been  got  together,  the  volume 
is  not  above  the  head  of  the  average  engi- 
neer, and  although  there  are  numeious 
formulas,  none  are  of  such  character  as 
to  prevent  one  with  a  common  knowledge 
of  mathematics  from  working  them  out.  In 
fact,  numerous  problems  have  been  worked 
cut  to  assist   in   their  comprehension. 

JIANUPACTURING  OPPORTUNITIES  IN 
THE   STATE    OF   WASHINGTON 

Issued  by  the  Department  of  State 
through  its  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  Im- 
migration, setting  forth  the  manufacturing 
opportunities  in  that  state.  The  book  has 
240  pages.  5^  x  8J  in.,  75  illustrations  and 
several  maps.  It  is  the  result,  as  set  forth 
in  the  preface,  of  a  more  or  less  complete 
survey  of  conditions  favoring  the  establish- 
ment of  additional  manufacturing  plants 
in  the  state,  but  the  broadness  and  diversitjf 
of  the  subjects  discussed  preclude  the  pres- 
entation of  details.  Additional  information 
and  any  possible  assistance  will  be  gladly 
furnished  by  the  State  Bureau  of  Statistics 
and  Immigration,  the  Industrial  Bureau  of 
the  State  University,  and  the  Departments 
of  Science  and  Engineering  of  the  State 
University  and  State  College. 


Personals 


■iiiiijiiiiiiiiitiiiiiii'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiti iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiii IS 

F.  "F.  Espeusehied,  who  has  been  assist- 
iTit  engrineer  with  the  Hydro-Electric  Power 
Commission  of  Ontario,  Canada,  and  pi  ior 
to  that  was  general  manager  of  the  Inter- 
state Light  and  Power  Co.,  Galena,  111,, 
has  joined  the  forces  of  the  Combustion 
Frigineering  Corporation.  11  Broadway,  New 
^  ork  City. 


Engineering  Affairs 


The  Society  of  Automotive  Kngineers  will 
hold  a  meeting  at  Dayton.  Ohio.  June  17-18. 
The  papers  will  treat  on  refining  of  petro- 
leum, aeronautic  engineering,  tractor  engi- 
neering and  the  design  of  heavy  fuel 
cnfiflnes. 

^iiiiiHiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiirMiiiiiiiiiii until ittiitiiiiiMiiiiitiiiiii^ 

Miscellaneous  News 


A  Ituiler  Kxploded  in  an  automobile  and 
bicycle  rim  factory  at  Onaway,  Mich.,  on 
May    30.    killing  one   person. 

A  lloilcr  Kxploded  on  a  mine  engine 
used  at  Jackson  mine,  Lonaconing,  Md,, 
on  June  1.  injuring  an  cngineei'  and  a 
miner   who   were   riding   to   the   mine. 

.V  liiiiler  ]!:.xploHion  in  the  plant  of  the 
Monogram  Laundry  Co.,  at  Muskegon, 
Mich  ,  on  May  30,  practically  wrecked  the 
building.  .Mthoiigh  the  e.\ploslon  occurred 
during   working  houra,   iiobod.v   was   Injured. 


A  Flywheel  Exploded  In  the  electric  light 
and  water  plant  of  Clay  Center,  Kan.,  on 
May  2G,  killing  the  chief  engineer  and 
completely  wrecking  the  electrical  and 
\\'ater-works  plants,  causing  a  damage  esti- 
mated at  nearly  $40,000.  Parts  of  the 
llywheel  were  found  one  block  from  the 
plant.  The  engine  was  a  Skinner  Unaflow. 
and  a  defective  governor  is  thought  to  ha\'e 
caused   the    trouble. 

Two  Boilers  Exploded  at  the  Hammer 
Lumber  Co.'s  mill.  25  miles  east  of  Con- 
way. S.  C.  on  May  27.  killing  five  men  and 
injuring  five  others.  The  explosion  is  the 
worst  recorded  in  the  county,  and  the 
cause  is  given  as  being  high  steam  pres- 
s'.ure.  The  boilers  were  hurled  300  yards, 
one  piece  being  thrown  nearly  a  mile. 
Beside  the  loss  of  life  considerable  damage 
was    wrought   upon   the   plant. 

A  Boiler  ExploMion  in  the  plant  of  the 
Eartlett  Lumber  Co..  at  Shelldrake.  in  an 
isolated  part  of  Chippewa  County,  Michigan, 
on  June  3,  is  reported  as  having  caused  the 
deaths  of  ten  men  and  injuries  to  a  number 
of  others.  As  there  is  no  direct  wire  com- 
nmnication  with  the  settlement  and  to  reach 
it  involves  a  boat  trip  of  nearly  50  miles, 
the  authorities,  at  thi.s  writing,  were  having 
ditticult.v  in  obtaining  definite  information 
ccncerning   the   cause   of   the   explosion. 

The      Chicago       Wireless      Institute,      the 

object  of  which  is  to  prepare  men  to  pass 
the  United  States  Government  examina- 
tion necessary  to  obtain  a  first-grade  radio 
operator's  license,  is  at  220  South  State 
St..  800  Consumers  Building.  Day  classes 
are  held  five  days  a  week  from  1  to  5 
o'clock,  and  evening  classes  from  7  to  10 
o'cloclc  The  instructing  engineer  is  R.  R. 
Ilaugh,  of  Detroit,  who  is  a  member  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Radio  Engineers. 
The  tuition  fee  is  $50  for  the  entire  course. 

The    College    of    the    City    of    New    York    is 

giving  a  special  course  in  shipbuilding  and 
navigation  under  the  direction  of  John  Mar- 
tin, formerly  nautical  expert,  Hydrographic 
Office,  U.  S.  N.,  which  began  Tuesday, 
June  18  and  will  close  Sept.  14.  In  this 
intensive  course  the  instructor  will  attempt 
to  prepare  students  who  have  had  the  neces- 
sary fundamentals  of  the  service,  mathe- 
niatics  and  elementary  mechanical  drawing, 
for  positions  of  tracers  and  draftsmen  in 
Government  shipyards.  These  workers  are 
much  needed,  and  the  pay  varies  from  $25 
to  .$40  per  week.  Those  desiring  to  take 
this  course  should  conununicate  with  the 
college.  Room  16.  Main  Building.  139th 
St.   and   Convent  Ave..   New   York  City. 


Trade  Catalogs 


"Centrifiigul     Boiler-Feed     Pumps.'*       The 

De  Laval  Steam  Turbine  Co.,  Trenton, 
N.  J.  Bulletin  N ;  8J  x  11  in.  Describes 
the  ne  Laval  combined  steam  turbine  and 
centrifugal  boiler-feed  pump,  and  also 
electric   motor-driven   units. 

Tlie  Wheeler  Condenser  and  Engineering 
Co.,  Cartaret.  N.  J.,  has.  under  agreement 
with  the  Sugar  Apparatus  Manufacturing 
Co..  acquired  the  exclusive  right  to  manu- 
facture and  sell  evaporating  apparatus 
under  the  patents  of  S.  Morris  Lillie. 
president  of  that  company. 

The  I.iilie  Evaporator.  The  first  book- 
let relating  to  the  Lillie  Evaporator,  pub- 
lished by  the  Wheeler  Condenser  and 
Engineering  Co..  Carteret.  N.  J.,  is  just 
oft  the  press.  The  device  is  now  manufac- 
tured exclusively  by  this  company  under 
agreement  with  the  Sugar  Apparatus 
Manufacturing  Co..  owners  of  the  Lillie 
patents.  This  new  booklet  calls  attention 
to  the  factors  which  make  the  evaporator 
especially  suited  to  the  concentration  of 
waste  waters  or  liquors  in  numerous  indus- 
tries. Five  pages  are  devoted  to  tables 
that  are  of  especial  value  in  the  evapora- 
tion industry.  A  folding  page  insert  gives 
instructigns  for  operating  Lillie  quadruple 
effects. 

.Seieiititle  Industrial  llliiniination  Is  the 
title  of  a  36-page  illustrated  liooklet  re- 
centlv  issued  by  the  Holopbanc  Class  Co., 
340  Kladisoii  Ave.,  New  York  City.  It  is 
divided  into  four  parts.  The  tirst  part 
shows  the  need  for  scientific  Illumination 
and  discusses  Its  economic  advantage.  Th-~ 
second  discusses  the  fundamental  princi- 
ple of  scii'ntific  illumination.  The  third 
describes  ,'ind  illustrates  new  ty!)es  of  in- 
dustrial lighting  units  manufactured  ))y 
the  company  for  shop,  factory,  oHloe  and 
drafting  room  illumination  and  for  yard 
and  proloctlve  lighting.  The  fourth  con- 
tains a  collection  of  general  engineering 
data  which  should  make  this  booklet  valu- 
able  for   read>'   reference. 


898 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  25 


NEW  CONSTRUCTION 


Proposed     Work 

Ma.sfl.,  I^awreiii-e — The  United  States 
Worsted  Co.  plans  to  build  a  steel  boiler 
house.      Estimated   cost.    $25,000. 

t  onn..  »w  Brituin — The  .State  Board  of 
lOduoation,  Capitol.  Hartford,  will  receive 
bids  until  June  18.  for  the  installation  of 
a  modulation  and  heating  system  in  the 
State  Normal  School  on  Prospect  St.  Davis 
&  Brooks,  Lewis  &  Gold  Sts.,  Hartford. 
Arch. 

>.  Y.,  .Amsterdam — J.  Kayser  and  Co.,  34 
Elk  St..  plans  to  build  an  addition  to  its 
power  plant  in  connection  with  its  pro- 
posed 4  story.  100  .h  200  ft.  silk  mill.  .W. 
Higginson,  13  Park  Row,  New  York  City. 
Arch, 

N.  v..  Central.  iHlip — The  State  Hospital 
Commission,  Capitol,  Albany,  received  an 
onl.v  bid  for  installation  of  a  heating  sys- 
tem in  the  Central  Islip  State  Hospital, 
here,  from  the  W.  B.  Armstrong  Co.,  3  Kul- 
ton  St.,  Albany.  $36,588  and  for  the  light- 
iog  system,  from  the  Baljcock  and  Wilcox 
Co.,  85  Liberty  St.,  New  York  City,  $66,933. 

N.  Y.,  Newark — A.  W.  Heaven,  Pres.  of 
the  Board  of  Managers,  New  York  State 
Custodial  Asylum  for  Feeble  Minded 
Women,  Newark,  will  receive  bids  until 
June  28,  for  the  installation  of  a  heating 
plant  and  equipment  for  same.  Noted  Apr. 
30. 

N.  Y.,  Brooklyn — The  Lasky  Motor  Car 
Co.,  17  Grahm  Ave.,  is  in  the  market  for 
electric  motors,  etc.,  to  be  installed  in  its 
garage. 

N.  Y..  I.ong  Island  City — L.  Gold,  44 
Court  .St.,  Brooklyn,  will  in.stall  a  steam 
heating  plant  in  its  proposed  2  story,  95  x 
100  ft,  garage  to  be  erected  on  Webster 
and   5th  Ave.      Total   cost,    $75,000. 

N.  Y..  Long  Island  Cit.v — The  Racich 
Asbestos  Co.,  609  West  55th  St.,  New  Y'ork 
City,  plans  to  install  a  steam  heating  and 
steam  piping  system,  t)oilers,  3  electric 
motors,  etc.,  in  its  proposed  3  story  factory 
on  Hancock  St.  and  Harris  Ave.  Total 
cost,  $60.0110.  E.  Richardson,  100  Amity 
St.,   Arch. 

N.  Y.,  V\'arwicjt — The  Board  of  Inebriety, 
300  Mulberry  St.,  New  York  City,  plans 
to  build  an  Institution  group.  Various 
units  include  dormitories,  power  house,  etc. 
Total  cost,  $200,000.  S.  LeN-y,  Pres.  C. 
B.  Meyers,  1  Union  Sq.,  New  York  City, 
Arch. 

N.  .1.,  Jersey  City — R.  W.  Sailer,  Arch.. 
76  Montgomery  St..  is  receiving  bids  for 
the  installation  of  electric  lighting,  heating 
and  power  systems  in  the  proposed  4  story 
factory  on  Montgomery  St.,  for  the  National 
Grocery   Co..   Montgomery   St. 

Md..  Bultimore — The  Mallory  Machinery 
Co.,  522-524  Light  St.,  is  in  the  market  for 
a  150  K.  W.  or  200  kw.  d.c.  direct-con- 
nected generating  set  ;  250  volt  with  field 
rheostat. 

W.  Va  ,  Kingwood — The  Hoffman  Coal 
Mining  Co..  recently  incorporated  with  $30.- 
(iiiO  capital  stock,  plans  to  build  an  elec- 
tric power  plant  in  connection  with  its 
mine.      O.   Hoffman,    Pres. 

N.  C,  Hiawasse — The  Carolina  Tennessee 
Power  Co.,  c  'o  Bertrom  Griscom  &  Co..  421 
Chesnut  St..  Philadelphia.  Penn.,  has  re- 
ceived court's  permission  to  erect  a  hydro- 
electric plant  on  Hiawasee  River.  The 
project  involves  developing  60,000  hp.  for 
transmission    by   electricity. 

La.,  Rayne — City  issued  $35,000  bonds 
to  improve  the  electric-light  plant  and  wa- 
ter-works. 

Ohio,  Lorain — The  W.  S.  Automatic  Co. 
plans  to  build  a  40  x  120  ft.  power  plant  in 
connection  with  its  proposed  new  factory. 
Total   cost,    $100,000. 

III.,  Cliifago — The  Board  of  Local  Im- 
provement is  in  the  market  for  electrical 
power  equipment  in  connection  with  its 
proposed  Michigan  Ave.  improvement  proj- 
ect. Total  cost,  $2,000,000.  C.  O.  Hill. 
Engr. 

111..  Chicago — The  Bunting  Boiler  Co.. 
Lowell  Ave.,  is  having  plans  i^repared  for 
the  erection  of  a  1  story.  75  x  200  ft.  boiler 
plant  on   16th   St.      Estimated  cost,    $30,000. 

111.,  Woodstock — The  Woodstock  Type- 
writer Co..  North  Dearborn  St..  Chicago, 
plans  to  build  a  1  storv,  power  house  here. 
Estimated   cost,    $10,000. 

Wis.,  Milwaukee — A,  C.  Downing,  787 
Shepard  Ave.,  is  in  the  market  for  boilers, 
engines,  generators,  motors,  etc..  in  con- 
nection with  its  proposed  225  x  250  ft. 
plant.  Total  cost.  $150,000.  O.  C.  I'ehling, 
511   First  National  Bank  Bldg.,  Engr. 


Colo..  I-oveland — City  issued  $79,000 
bonds  for  the  erection  of  an  electric  light- 
ing plant. 

Wash.,  Vancouver — The  Columbia  River 
Interstate  Bridge  Commission.  Clarke  Co., 
will  recei\'e  bids  until  June  28.  for  the 
erection  of  a  transformer  house  on  Wash- 
ington St. 

Man.,  Glud(»tone — City  plans  to  build  an 
electric  lighting  plant  soon.  About  $15.- 
000   is  available  for  the  project. 

<'ONTRACT.H      AWAKDEU 

Mass.,  Boston — The  Bureau  of  Yards  & 
Docks,  Na\T  Dept.,  Wash.,  D.  C,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  improvements  to 
its  power  plant  at  the  Navy  Yard,  here,  to 
Rideout  Chandler  and  Joyce,  178  High  St. 
Estimated  cost,   $31,000.      Noted   June   11. 

Mass.,  Boston — The  United  States  Gov- 
ernment has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
installation  of  electricity  in  the  Boston 
Quartermasters  Terminals,  South  Boston, 
to  E  C.  Lewis  .Inc..  21  Federal  St.  Esti- 
mated cost  between  $1,000,000  and  $1,- 
500,000. 

N.  Y'.,  Buffalo — The  Buffalo  General  Elec- 
tric Co.,  206  Electric  Bldg.,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  1  story, 
100  X  110  ft.  power  sub  station,  on  State 
St.,  to  Huntley  &  Derdinger,  Electric  Bldg. 
E.stimated    cost.    $25,000.      Noted    June    11. 

N.  Y.,  Buffalo — Cousins  &  Co..  74  Wabash 
St.,  has  awarded  tlie  contract  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  1  story.  95  x  125  ft.  boiler  shop, 
to  B.  I.  Crocker,  57  Builders  Exchange.  Es- 
timated  cost.    $35,000.      Noted   May   28. 

N.  Y.,  Mineola — The  Curtiss  Aeroplane 
Co.,  1927  Elmwood  St.,  Buffalo,  has  award- 
ed the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  1  story. 
100  X  260  ft.  factory,  to  the  J.  W.  Cowper 
Co.,  Fidelity  Bldg.,  Buffalo.  Estimated 
cost,  $35,000.  E;iectric  traveling  cranes  will 
be   installed   in   same. 

N.  J.,  Newark — The  Board  of  Education 
will  soon  award  the  contract  for  the  in- 
stallation of  heating,  ventilating  and  elec- 
tric systems  in  all  public  schools  in  the 
city. 

N.  .1.,  South  Amboy — The  Board  of  Jjdu- 
cation  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
installation  of  a  heating  system  in  its 
proposed  3  story.  90  x  150  ft.  school  on 
John  St..  to  the  Johnston  Heating  Co.,  131 
East  26th  St.,  New  York  City.  Estimated 
cost,    $10,500. 

Ohio,  Caletlonia — City  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  construction  of  an  electric 
transmission  line  from  here  to  Marion,  to 
Kelly  &  Pommert,  Caledonia. 

Ohio,  Cleveland — The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  3  story,  brick  and  concrete  shop, 
boiler  and  coal  room  addition  to  the  school 
at  2486  East  46th  St.,  to  H.  F.  Juergens 
Co..  East  49th  St.  and  Gladstone  Ave.  Es- 
timated cost.   $79,300. 

Ohio.  Cleveland — The  Steel  Products  Co.. 
2196  Clarkwood  Ave.,  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract fo»r  the  erection  of  a  1  story,  45  x 
70  ft.  power  house  at  2188  East  65th  St.. 
to  S.  W.  Emerson.  1900  Euclid  Ave.  Es- 
timated  cost,   $17,000. 

Wis.,  De  Pere — The  De  Pere  Manufac- 
turing Co.  has  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
erection  of  a  100  x  100  ft.  brick  boiler  .shop, 
to  A.  J.  Beauregard,  De  Pere.  Estimated 
cost,  $15,000.  Equipment  will  be  installed 
by  the  owner.      Noted  June   4. 

Wis..  Kenosha — The  Simmons  Manufac- 
turing Co..  Pearl  St..  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  installation  of  a  heating  sys- 
tem in  the  proposed  office  building,  to  the 
Downey  Heating  and  Supply  Co.,  613-5  Cly- 
bourn.   Milwaukee. 

Iowa,  Clinton — The  Climax  Engineering 
Co..  c/o  C.  B.  Stebbins,  foot  of  4th  St..  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of 
a  1  story,  50  x  90  ft.  power  house,  to 
Haring  Bros.,   402  Wilson  Bldg. 

Iowa,  Fonda — The  Fairburn  State  Bank 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  alterations  to 
a  2  storv,  25  x  80  ft.  bank,  to  A.  Moorman 
&  Co..  501  Minneapolis  St.,  St.  Paul.  Minn. 
A  low  pressure  steam  heating  plant  will 
be   installed    in    same. 

Iowa,  Ponieroy — The  First  National  Bank 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection 
of  a  1  story.  27  x  50  ft.  bank  building,  to 
A.  Moorman  &  Co..  501  Minneapolis  St.,  St. 
Paul,  Minn.  A  low  pressure  steam  heat- 
ing plant   will   be    installed   in    same. 

Mo.,  Carthage — The  Board  of  Education 
will  .soon  award  the  contract  for  the  in- 
stallation of  ventilating  plants  in  two  ward 
schools.  Plans  include  engines,  motors, 
fans  and  heating  coils.  Estimated  cost. 
$10,000.  J.  H.  Felt  &  Co.,  802  Grand 
Ave.,   Temple,   Kansas  City,   Mo..   Arch. 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


Boston — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton  de- 
livered alongside  Boston  poinla  as  compared  with 
a  year  ago  are  as  follows: 


ANTHRACITE 

Circular 
Current 

Buckwheat     94.60 

Rice    4.10 

Boiler   3.90 

Barley    3,60 


BITUMINOUS 
Bituminous    not    on    market. 


Individual 
Current 

S7.10 — 7.3:> 
6.65 — 6.90 

tiiid— el-io 


Pocohontas    and    New    River,    f.o.b.    Hamnton 
Roads,   is   $4.    as  compared  with  92.85 — 3.00   a 

year  ago. 


'All-rail   to  Boston   is  $3.60. 


t  Water  ^oal. 


Nwv  York — Current  quotations  per  gross  ton 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  are  as  fol- 
lows : 


ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 

Current  Current 

Pea    $4.90  $5.65 

Buckwheat    4.45@5.15  4.80f5)5.50 

Barley    3.40@3.65  3.80@4.50 

Rice     3.90@4.10  3.00@4.00 

Boiler    3.65@3.90  

Quotations  at  the   upper   ports  are   about   5c. 
higher. 


BITUMINOUS 

F.o.b.  N.  Y.      Mine 

Gross  Price  Net  Gross 

Central    Pennsylvania.. $5.06  $3.05  $3.41 
Maryland — 

Mine-run    4. 84              3.85  3.19 

Prepared    5.06             5.05  3.41 

Screenings    4.50            3.55  3.85 

•The  lower  ports  are:  Elizabethport.  Port  John- 
son, Port  Reading,  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Am- 
boy. The  ujiper  ports  are:  Port  Liberty,  Hobo- 
ken.  Weehawken,  Edgewater  or  Cliffside  and  Gut- 
tenberg.  St.  George  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  the 
upi)er  ports  is  5c.  higher  than  to  the  lower  ports. 


Philadelphia — Prices  per  gross  ton  f.o.b.  ears 
at  mines  for  bne  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mond for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows; 


Cur- 
rent 

One  Yr. 

Ago 

Cur- 
rent 

One  Yr? 
Ago 

Pea    

Barley    .... 
Buckwheat 

Bice     

Boiler    .... 

.$3.45 
.    2.15 
..    3.15 
.    2.65 
.    2.45 

S.3.10 
1.90 
2.90 
3.40 
3.20 

J4.35 
3.40 
3.75 
3.65 
3.55 

84.00 
3.15 
3.80 
3.40 
3.30 

Chicago — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northern  Illinois 
sizes. . 


Prepared 
Mine- run 
Screenings 


.$3.55 — 3.70 
.  3.36 — 3.50 
.    3.05 — 3.30 


$3.35 — 3.40 
3.00 — 3.15 
2.75 — 3.90 


St.    i^ouis — Prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  mines  are 
as  follows: 

Williamson  and       Mt.  Olive 

Franklin  Counties  &  Staunton  Standard 

6-in.    lump    ...$3.55-3.90  $3.65-3.70  $3.55-3.70 

3in.    lump    .  .  .    3.55-3.90      3.55-3.70  3.55-3.70 

Steam    egg    - -...  3.30-3.40 

Mine-run    - 3.35-3,50  3.00-3,20 

No.    1    nut 3.55-3.90     3.55-3.70      - 

3  in.    screen     ..    3.05-3.30     3.06-2.30      

No.    5    washed.    3.05-3.30      3.05-3.30 


Itirmingham — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b. 

mines  are  as  follows: 


Big  Seam 

Pratt.    Jagger    .  . 

Corona    

Black  Creek.  Cahaba.      3.75 
Government  figures. 

Individual  prices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  regular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
generally  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  according  to  a  regular  schedule. 


Mine- 
Run 

Lump 

&  Nut 

Slack  and 
Screenings 

83.05 
2.25 
2.30 
3.75 

83.35 
3.55 
2.65 
3.00 

81.75 
1.95 
1.95 
3.35 

I 


/. 


N^. 


POWER 


<(. 


^"^ 


nilllllllllNUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIINIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIinilllllllllllllllN^ 

Vol.  47  NEW    YORK,    JUNE    25,    1918  No.  26 

iiliiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


The  WAR'S  Benediction 


F 


ATE  sits  on  the  rim  of  Heaven  writing  a  New 
Genesis.  Here  a  line  with  the  blood  of  heroic  dead, 
there  a  line  with  the  tears  of  sorrowing  women. 


The  words  are  the  nebula  of  Human  Aspirations.  And 
the  composition  assumes  form  by  force  of  the  gravity  that 
is  Brotherhood. 

We  shall  read  it  by  the  light  of  a  sun  that  is  the  New 
Purpose,  for  the  past  is  Ptolemaic  and  the  future  Coperni- 
can. 

In  this  Apocalypse  there  are  no  chosen  people.  The 
rich,  the  poor,  the  toiler  and  the  master  alike  are  led  from 
the  bondage  of  the  Past's  insecurity. 

The  pathway  is  bloody  and  appalling.  Yet  from  it 
rises  a  mighty  hallelujah  of  Deliverance. 

Fear  Not, 

ye  Kittys   of   Capital! 

Strike  Not, 

ye  Tcjiliny  Millions! 

Be  Patient, 

ye  Ktigineers! 

YE  are  the  New  Trinity  that  is  come  with  one  mind, 
one  heart,  one  purpose — to  conduct  as  one  unit  this 
machine  called  Civilization;  not  for  wealth  or  vain 
aggrandizement,  but  to  make  the  world  a  better  place  to 
live  in.  And  in  the  living  and  the  service  find  the  true 
reward. 


MlltllUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlrlllllllllllllllllllllllllll^ 

By  Charles  H.  Bromley 


900 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


Operation  and  Maintenance  of  Elevators- 
Geared  Traction  Machines 


By  R.  H.  whitehead 


The  construction  and  operation  of  the  geared 
type  of  traction-elevator  machines  are  discKssed. 
Three  types  are  considered:  The  overhead  ma- 
chine using  a  secondary-idler  sheave;  basement 
type  using  a  secondary  idler  sheave;  and  over- 
head type  without  a  secondary  idler  sheave,  hut 
employing  a  traction  driving  sheave  having  V- 
shaped  grooves. 

Wl'l'H  the  winJing-drum  type  of  elevator  machine, 
the  limitation  of  car  ri.se  is  determined  by  the 
drum  dimensions  and  these  fix  the  car  travel 
to  al^out  150  ft.  To  n'-.eet  the  elevator  problems  evolving 
as  the  result  of  modern  skyscraper  buildings,  another 


ro  COUNTcR- 


FIG    1.    l',E.\REr)    TRA<"TIOX    Kl.RVATOH    .\I  .M'lTl  \'K 

type  of  elevator  machine  had  to  be  developed.  This 
is  known  as  the  trrtction  type  and  derives  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  instead  of  the  ropes  being  wound 
upon  a  drum  to  give  the  car  motion,  as  in  the  winding- 
drum  type,  motion  is  obtained  by  means  of  the  traction 
existing  between  the  driving  sheave  and  the  hoisting 
ropes. 

There  arc  two  general  types  of  traction  machines — 
geared.  Fig.  1,  and  gearless.  Fig.  2.  The  geared  type 
is  used  for  low  and  medium  rises  and  car  speeds  up 
to  about  350  ft.  per  min.,  while  the  gearless  type  is 
used  for  high  lifts  and  car  speeds  up  to  600  and  700 
ft.  per  min.  Two  of  the  gearless-traction  elevator 
machines  in  the  Woolwo?-th  Building,  New  York  City, 
have  an  actual  car  travel  of  680  ft.  Geared-traction 
machines  are  also  freouently  used  for  low  lifts  in  place 
of  the  drum  tj'pe  of  machine. 

It  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  1  that  the  geared  type  of 
traction  machines  is  similar  in  appearance  to  the 
winding-drum  type,  having  a  motor  A,  worm  and  worm 
gear  in  the  case  B,  and  a  brake  wheel  and  brake  C 
mounted   between   the   gear  and    motor.      However,    in- 


stead of  the  spirally  grooved  drum  used  on  the  winding- 
drum  machine,  a  miilti-grooved  driving  sheave  I)  is 
keyed  to  what  is  the  drumshaft  in  the  drum-type 
machine.  The  grooving  on  a  drum-type  machine  forms 
a  helix  starting  from  one  end  of  the  drum  and  run- 
ning to  the  other  erd  or  ending  at  the  center,  as  the 
case  may  be.  On  the  traction  machine  the  grooves  on 
the  sheaves  form  closed  circles  about  the  sheave,  the 
number  of  grooves  depending  upon  the  number  of 
ropes,  generally  two  grooves  for  each  rope. 

In  passing,  attention  might  be  called  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  gearless  type  of  machine,  Fig.  2.  It  will 
be  seen  that,  as  the  name  would  indicate,  no  gears 
aie  used,  the  driving  sheave  being  mounted  directly 
on  the  motor  shaft,  along  with  the  brake  wheel.  This 
means  that  a  very  slow-speed  motor  must  be  used. 
This  type  of  machine  will  be  given  further  consideration 
in    another   article. 

The  geared-type  traction-elevator  machine,  as  shown 
in  Fig.   1,  is  the  equivalent  for  load  and  speed  to  the 


FIG.  2.  GE.\RI,ES.S  TR.XCTIOX  ELEVATOR  JI.VCHI.VE 

drum-type  machine,  nsing  the  same  motor,  brake  and 
gears,  the  m.ain  difference  being,  as  previously  men- 
tioned, that  the  geared-traction  machine  uses  a  dri-'ing 
sheave  instead  of  a  spirally  grooved  drum  of  the  same 
diameter.  The  general  type  of  traction  machine  employs 
the  use  of  a  grooved  secondary  idler  sheave  F ,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  to  obtain  sufficient  tractive  effort. 

In  the  traction  type  of  installation  the  ropes  are 
continued  from  the  car  to  the  counterweights,  just  as 
the  car-counterweight  ropes  are  in  the  drum  cype, 
but  in  the  former  only  one  set  of  counterweights  is 
used.  The  roping  for  an  overhead  machine  of  the 
general  type  is  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4.     The  ropes  pass 


June  25,  I'JIS 


POWER 


901 


C0UNTEKWB6HT 


FIOS.    3   TO   6.      DIFFERENT   ARRANGEMENTS   OF  ROl'INt!   UP  TRACTION   ELEVATOR 

Kii;s.   ;i  and  4 — Cable  arrangement  when  machine   is  located  overhead.      Fig.   5 — RopinK    scheme   when    machine    is    located    In    the 

basement.     Fig.   (i — Roping  up  when  a  V-grooved  traction  sheave  is  used. 


902 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


from  the  car  over  separate  grooves  in  the  driving 
sheave  D  down  and  around  under  the  idler  sheave  F, 
up  over  the  traction  .sheave  D  again  and  then  down  to 
the  counterweights.  It  is  seen  from  this  that  the 
car  is  connected  to  one  end  of  the  cables  and  the 
counterweights  to  the  other.  This  scheme  of  roping  up 
the    car    and    counterweights    gives    sufficient    friction 


,j^^ 

K\'^ 

J 

m 

<«  WSm 

^PC 

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^BHF^Hh^^B^ 

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. 

^^jjJ^^B 

^ 

Kin.   7.     V-r,ROnVKr>     nRIVING-SHEAVE     TYPE     TR.\CTIO.V 
ET.EV.VTOR  JI.VCHIXE 

between  the  sheave  ami  rope  to  get  the  proper  tractive 
effort  for  all  conditions  of  load. 

In  Figs.  .3  and  4  there  are  six  cables.  To  accommo- 
date them  on  the  sheaves  there  must  be  twelve  grooves 
in  the  sheaves.  These  six  cables  as  they  come  from 
the  car  fall  into  every  other  groove  on  the  driving 
sheave;  that  is,  starting  from  one  end  of  the  sheave, 
say  in  grooves  1,  3,  5,  7,  9  and  11,  they  pass  dowji 
around  in  grooves  of  the  same  number  in  the  secondary 
sheave  and  up  into  the  remaining  grooves  in  the  driving 
sheave.  This  would  bring  rope  No.  1  into  grooves  1 
and  2  of  the  driving  sheave  and  in  groove  No.  1 
in  the  secondary  sheave,  leaving  groove  No.  2  in  the 
secondary  sheave  unoccupied  when  this  sheave  is  lo- 
cated directly  under  the  driving  sheave,  as  in  Fig.  3. 

Where  the  driving  sheave  spans  the  distance  between 
the  center  of  the  car  and  counterweights,  as  in  Fig.  3, 
the  use  of  the  secondary  sheave  permits  of  having 
slightly  more  than  two  complete  half-turns  of  contact 
with  each  rope  on  the  driving  sheave.  This  is  on 
account  of  the  idler  sheave  being  somewhat  smaller 
in  diameter  than  the  driving  sheave.  When  the  driv- 
ing sheave  does  not  .span  the  car  and  counterweiglil 
centers,  as  in  Fig.  4,  the  secondary  sheave  is  also  used 
as  a  deflector  sheave,  but  doing  this  results  in  losing  a 
small  amount  of  rope  contact  on  the  driving  sheave, 
consequently  some  traction.  From  Fig.  4  it  will  l)e 
seen  that  the  same  number  of  grooves  are  occupied  on 
the  secondary  sheave  as  on  the  traction  sheave. 

Experiments  made  with  well-lubricated  ropes  and 
also  with  dry  ropes  on  traction  sheaves  of  this  type 
show  that  with  an  installation  properly  designed  there 
is  no  slippage  of  rope  on  the  driving  sheave  under  any 
condition  of  loading  excepting  a  slight  slippage  which 
sometimes  occurs  when  the  car  is  suddenly  stopped  or 
started. 

In  some  cases  a  V-shaped  groove  is  used  instead  of 


the  regular  semicircular  rope-shaped  groove  on  the 
driving  sheave.  This  groove  is  shaped  like  the  letter  V 
as  implied  by  the  name,  and  the  traction  is  obtained 
on  the  driving  sheave  without  the  use  of  a  secondary 
sheave,  from  the  wedging  action  between  the  grooving 
and  the  ropes.  A  geared  traction  machine  of  this  type 
is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  This  is  similar  to  the  winding- 
drum  type  in  every  d^ftail,  except  in  place  of  the  drum 
a  sheave  having  a  number  of  V-shaped  grooves  in  its 
periphery  is  used,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  ropes  run 
directly  from  the  car  over  the  driving  sheave  down 
to  the  counterweights,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

The  V-grooved  machine  costs  less  to  build  than  the 
semicircular-grooved  type.  Figs.  1  and  2,  since  not  only 
is  the  secondary  sheave  omitted,  but  in  addition  it 
is  possible  to  use  lighter  construction  on  the  driving 
sheave  and  shaft  as  the  downward  strain  is  only  one- 
half  as  much.  The  driving  sheave  is  only  one-hglf 
as  wide,  as  the  ropes  are  not  doubled  back  as  in  the  case 
of  the  type  using  a  secondary  sheave. 

The  V-grooved  type,  however,  gradually  loses  its 
tractive  effort  due  to  the  wearing  of  the  groove  by 
the  rope.  This  wear  tends  to  make  the  grooving  semi- 
circular and  when  this  occurs,  the  ropes  will  start  to 
slip,  as  they  no  longer  wedge  in  the  groove.  With  the 
secondary-sheave  type  the  tractive  effort  does  not  de- 
crease with  increased  usage,  since  the  grooves  remain 
the  same  shape  and  the  rope  contact  therein  remains 
the  same. 

The  traction  type  of  elevator  machine  should  always 


Fli;.    S.      BASEMENT     TYPE     OF    TR.\CTI().\     lOLIOV.VTilR 
MACHINE 

be  installed  overhead  if  possible,  as  shown  in  Figs.  1 
and  2.  The  basement  type  of  geared-traction  machine 
is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  roping  of  such  a  machine  is 
given  in  Fig.  5.  A  comparison  of  Fig.  5  with  Figs. 
3  and  4,  for  an  overhead  installation,  shows  that  for 
the  same  rise  about  twice  the  amount  of  rope  is  re- 
quired for  the  basement-type  installation,  and  in  addi- 
tion the  rope  must  be  deflected  over  several  extra 
.sheaves.     This  results  in  .shorter  rope  life  and  higher 


June  25,  11) IS 


POWER 


903 


power  consumption,  and  the  first  cost  of  the  installa- 
tion is  greater,  not  (^ilj'  on  this  account  but  also  for 
the  extra   overhead   sheave. 

In  Figs.  1  to  4  it  v^'ill  be  noticed  that  there  are 
six  independent  ropes  leading  up  from  the  car  to  the 
driving  sheave,  then  to  the  secondary  sheave  and  back 
to  the  driving  sheave  and  to  the  counterweights.  These 
ropes  are  usually  steel  and  are  i  in.  to  ■;  in.  in  diam- 
eter. With  this  typo  of  installation  it  is  important 
that  the  strain  be  kept  equal  in  all  ropes  by  adjusting 
them  with  the  take-up  arrangement  provided  on  the 
car  crosshead  and  counterweight  frame.  When  any 
one  of  the  ropes  takes  less  than  its  share  of  the  load, 
this  particular  rope  loses  its  traction  and  a  loss  of 
traction  results  as  a  whole. 

Each   rope    is  provided  with   a   swivel   hitch   of  the 

ball-socket    type.     This    prevents    any    twisting    strain 

on  the  ropes  and  relieves  them  of  the  bending  strain 

at  the  hitch.     With  the  general  type  of  traction  ma- 

L-hine  using  a  secondary  sheave,  the  minimum  traction 

under  any  condition  is  such  that  the  rope  will  not  slip 

until  the  load  on  the  heavy  side  is  about  twice  that  on 

the    light    side,    which    means    that   with   the    machine 

40  per  cent,  over-counterweighted  the  load  on  the  car 

must  equal  about  200  per  cent,   rated  capacity   before 

there  is  any  danger  of  the  cables  slipping  on  the  driving 

sheave. 

« 
Slippage  a  Point  in  Favor  of  This  Type 

The  fact  that  slippage  will  occur  is  a  very  strong 
point  in  favor  of  this  type  of  installation,  because 
when  the  car  bottoms  in  the  pit  the  traction  is  lost 
and  the  counterweights  cannot  travel  farther;  even 
though  the  driving  sheave  continues  to  turn,  it  cannot 
sxert  sufficient  tractive  effort  on  the  ropes  to  haul  the 
counterweights  into  the  overhead  work.  This  also 
applies  when  the  counterweights  bottom  in  the  pit;  the 
driving  sheave  cannot  pull  the  car  up  into  the  overhead 
work. 

A  machine  automatic  like  that  used  on  the  drum 
machine  for  stopping  the  car  at  the  top  and  bottom 
landing  cannot  be  used  on  the  geared-traction  ma- 
chine, because  of  a  possible  slippage  of  the  cables  under 
the  conditions  enumerated.  Consequently,  additional 
switches  instead  are  provided,  similar  to  the  hoistway- 
limit  switches,  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  hoistway. 
These  switches  are  operated  by  the  cam  on  the  car 
that  operates  the  hoistway-limit  switches  and  fulfills 
the  same  function  as  the  automatic  located  on  the  drum 
shaft  of  the  winding-drum  type  of  machine. 

The  first  limit  brings  the  car  down  to  slow  speed, 
in  the  case  of  a  direct-current  motor,  by  opening  the 
circuit  to  the  magnet  coil,  which  weakens  the  shunt 
field,  thereby  increasing  the  field  strength  to  normal 
value,  and  with  an  alternating-current  motor  slow-down 
is  accomplished  by  disconnecting  the  high-speed  winding 
of  the  motor  from  the  line  and  in  its  place  connecting 
the  slow-speed  winding.  The  next  limit  switch  gen- 
erally opens  the  direction  switch  for  the  direction  of 
car  travel,  and  farther  travel  of  the  car  will  open 
the  hoistway-limit  switch,  which  opens  the  main 
potential  switch.  High-speed  installations,  where  the 
control  is  more  complicated,  will  be  discussed  in  a 
future  article. 

The  limit  switches,  wherever  conditions  permit,  should 


let  the  reversing  switches  open  automatically  when  the 
car  is  level  with  the  top  and  bottom  landings,  and  a 
normal  automatic  stop  with  any  load  in  the  car  should 
not  operate  the  hoistway  limits. 

The  rope  length  should  be  adjusted  so  that  the 
counterweight  does  not  bottom  until  after  the  top 
hoistway-limit  swit.-h  opens.  Conditions  of  overhead 
car  and  counterweight  clearance  sometimes  necessitate 
deviation  from  the  foregoing  and  make  it  necessary  for 
the  reversing  switches  to  open  automatically  before  the 
terminal  landings  are  reached,  the  inertia  of  the  ma- 
chinery being  depended  upon  to  bring  the  car  to  the 
landing.  This  is  objectionable  inasmuch  as  the  operator 
tends  to  stop  the  machine  on  the  limits  in.stead  of  the 
automatics,  and  if  he  uses  the  car  switch  and  stops  the 
car  before  the  floor  level  is  reached,  *he  must  go  back 
and  make  another  trial. 

Geared-traction  cars  are  sometimes  provided  with 
appliances  used  ordmarily  on  the  gearless  type;  that 
is,  stopping  switches  mounted  on  the  car,  operated 
by  a  cam  in  the  hoistway,  instead  of  the  limit  switches 
previously  described;  and  oil  buffers  instead  of  spring 
buffers   for  both   car  and   counterweight   are   used. 

Ordinarily,  however,  the  geared-traction  installation 
is  a  duplicate  of  the  winding-drum  type  except  for 
the  difference  as  shown  in  this  article,  and  with  this 
type  of  machine  it  is  possible  with  either  alteniating 
or  direct  current  to  meet  the  elevator  problems  in 
high-rise  installations  for  moderate  speeds. 

As  pointed  out  in  the  foregoing,  the  geared-traction 
machine  is  generally  used  only  for  car  speeds  up  to  350 
ft.  per  min.,  and  for  speeds  of  400  to  700  ft.  per  niin. 
the  gearless  type  is  used. 

As  in  the  winding-drum  type  of  machine,  the  driving- 
sheave  shaft  is  equipped  with  marine  collared  bearings 
in  the  outboard  stand  and  in  the  wormwheel  case  to 
resist  the  side  thrust  of  the  wormwheel.  The  geared- 
traction  machine  is  also  built  either  on  the  single-screw 
type,  Fig.  1,  or  the  double-screw  type.  Fig.  8.  Thrust 
bearings  are  provided  on  the  wormshaft  of  the  single- 
screw  machine  to  take  the  thrust  between  the  worm 
and  gear.  In  the  double-screw  type  no  thrust  bearings 
for  the  wormshaft  are  required  as  a  right  and  a  left 
worm  on  the  same  shaft  engages  a  right  and  a  left 
wormwheel,  which  in  turn  mesh  as  spiral  gears,  thus 
forming  a  three-point  drive. 

Pollution  of  Streams 

"The  court  knows  judicially  that  modern  science  has 
demonstrated  that  the  use  of  water  in  power  plants  and 
for  other  purposes  where  human  beings  must  of  neces- 
sity be  in  attendance  about  it  seriously  endangers  its 
purity,  rendering  it  unfit  for  human  consumption,"  de- 
clared the  Washington  Supreme  Court  in  the  recent  case 
of  City  of  Raymond  vs.  Willapa  Power  Co.,  167  Pacific 
Reporter,  914. 

Accordingly,  the  court  rendered  the  decision  thai 
plaintiff  city,  having  acquired  the  right  to  use  the 
waters  of  ji  stream  in  operating  a  water-supply  plant, 
was  entitled  to  enjoin  defendant  from  interfering  with 
this  right  by  impounding  the  waters  of  the  stream 
above  the  city's  intake  for  use  in  developing  electricity, 
although  the  waters  were  returned  to  the  stream  1>\- 
defendant  company. 


904 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2G 


Pitch  as  a  Fuel  for  Power  Generation 


By  JOHN  B.  C.  KERSHAW 


A  summary  of  the  most  recent  pateyits  and  ex- 
periments relating  to  the  use  of  coal-tar  pitch 
as  a  fuel  for  steam  boilers  and  for  internal- 
comhustion  engines. 


THE  great  increase  in  the  number  and  capacity 
of  the  byproduct  coke  ovens  in  the  United  States 
and  in  the  number  of  works  for  the  distillation 
of  coal  tar  (in  order  to  obtain  "toluol,"  the  chief  raw 
material  for  explosive  manufacture)  has  led  to  an 
overproduction  of  pitch  and  to  accumulations  of  this 
material  in  all  tar-distillation  works.  This  overproduc- 
tion will  continue  when  peace  is  declared  and  the  demand 
for  explosives  falls  to  its  normal  level,  for  the  products 
of  tar  distillation  will  then  be  absorbed  in  the  organic 
color  industry. 

In  the  past,  coal-tar  pitch  has  been  employed  chiefly 
as  a  roofing,  waterproofing  and  paving  material,  its 
comparatively  low  melting  point  and  high  percentage  of 
volatile  hydrocarbons  having  prevented  its  use  on  any 
considerable  scale  as  a  fuel,  with  the  one  exception  of 
its  application  as  a  binding  agent  in  the  manufacture 
of  anthracite  briquets. 

The  increase  in  the  output  of  pitch  in  the  United 
States  during  the  war  and  the  fact  that  over  two 
million  tons  of  this  solid  hydrocarbon  is  now  produced 
annually  in  the  tar-distillation  works  of  the  country 
have  led  to  a  revival  of  interest  in  the  possibilities  of 
pitch  as  a  fuel,  either  for  burning  in  the  solid  state 
under  steam  boilers  or  for  use  in  the  liquid  state  in 
internal-combustion  engines. 

Chemical  Properties  of  Pitch 

Before  dealing  with  the  practical  methods  of  utilizing 
pitch  as  a  fuel,  it  will  be  advisable  to  review  briefly  its 
chemical  and  physical  properties,  since  the  question  of 
its  successful  application  as  a  source  of  motive  power 
hinges  largely  upon  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  diffi- 
culties attending  its  proper  combustion,  either  in  the 
solid  or  the  liquid  state. 

When  coal  tar  is  heated  in  the  usual  type  of  20-ton 
still  in  order  to  separate  and  recover  the  more  valuable 
constituents,  with  boiling-points  below  270  deg.  C,  there 
remains  in  the  still  a  residue  known  under  the  trade 
name  of  pitch. 

Chemically,  pitch  is  a  mixture  of  hydrocarbons  con- 
taining o.xygen,  nitrogen  and  sulphur.  The  constitu- 
tion varies  with  the  source  of  the  tar  and  also  with 
the  temperature  to  which  the  distillation  has  been 
pushed  in  order  to  recover  the  oils  of  lower  boiling 
point.  One  ton  of  an  average  tar  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions of  distillation  will  yield  the  following  products: 
Benzol,  I  gal.;  toluol,  I  gal.;  solvent  naphtha,  11  gal.: 
heavy  naphtha,  1  gal.;  carbolic  acid  (crude),  2-3  gal.; 
crude  cresylic  acid,  2  gal. ;  creosote  oils,  20  gal. ;  anthra- 
cene oils,  34  gal.;  naphthalene,   112  lb.;  pitch,   10  cwt. 

The  light  oils  distill  at  a  temperature  below  170  deg. 
C,  the  carbolic  or  middle  oils  at  temperatures  lying 
between  170  and  230  deg.  C  .  and  the  heavy  or  creosote 


oils  from  230  to  270  deg.  C.  The  anthracene  oils  come 
over  only  at  higher  temperatures  (from  270  to  400  deg. 
C),  and  the  distillation  is  not  always  carried  so  far 
as  to  remove  these  oils  entirely  from  the  pitch.  A 
large  portion  of  the  pitch,  10  to  50  per  cent.,  consists 
of  finely  divided  carbon,  but  from  50  to  90  per  cent, 
consists  of  solid  unsaturated  hydrocarbons  of  the 
aromatic  type,  which  give  the  pitch  its  distinctive 
properties.  According  to  Martin,  the  elementary 
analyses  of  hard  and  soft  pitch  yield  the  following: 
Hard  pitch,  93.2  per  cent,  carbon,  4.4  per  cent,  hy- 
drogen; soft  pitch,  91.80  per  cent,  carbon,  4.60  per  cent, 
hydrogen. 

The  calorific  value  of  pitch  is  extremely  highv  a 
.■■■ample  tested  by  the  writer  in  the  bomb  type  of  calo- 
rimeter having  shown  15,928  B.t.u.,  or  a  higher  value 
than  that  of  the  best  Welsh  steam  coal.  This  high 
calorific  value  is,  however,  counterbalanced  by  the  pro- 
duction of  a  high  percentage  of  volatile  hydrocarbons 
when  it  is  heated,  the  following  being  an  approximate 
analysis  of  a  north-country  pitch:  Moisture,  0.05  per 
cent. ;  ash,  0.60  per  cent. ;  volatile  matter,  66.85  per 
cent.;  coke,  33.15  per  cent.;  fixed  carbon,  32.55  per  cent. 

Its  Physical  Properties 

As  regards  the  physical  properties  of  pitch,  the  specif- 
ic gravity  varies  from  1.20  to  1.35,  the  hard  pitch  pro- 
duced when  the  di.stillation  of  the  tar  has  been  carried 
to  a  high  temperature  having  the  higher  specific  gravity. 

The  melting  point  likewise  varies  within  wide  limits, 
but  it  must  be  noted  that  the  term  melting  point  when 
applied  to  pitch  is  an  arbitrary  one,  since  the  material 
when  heated  gradually  softens  and  passes  by  almost  im- 
perceptible stages  into  the  liquid  state.  The  limits  of 
melting  point  noted  are  371  deg.  C.  in  water  and  174 
deg.  C.  in  air,  but  a  pitch  melting  at  371  deg.  C.  (100 
deg.  F.)  would  hardly  deserve  to  be  classed  as  a  pitch, 
since  this  low  melting  point  would  signify  that  the  dis- 
tillation had  only  been  carried  far  enough  to  drive  off 
the  water,  lighter  oils  and  some  portions  of  the  carbolic 
oils. 

Pitch,  as  shown  by  the  analyses  previously  given,  is 
composed  chiefly  of  free  carbon  and  of  hydrocarbons 
which  become  volatile  on  heating  above  400  deg.  C. 
It  is  therefore  combustible  and  under  proper  condi- 
tions can  be  burned  to  CO.,  and  H^O  vapor,  with  the 
production  of  heat  equivalent  to  15,900  B.t.u.  per  lb.  of 
pitch  consumed.  The  very  high  percentage  of  volatile 
hydrocarbons  which  are  evolved  when  it  is  heated  above 
its  melting  point,  however,  renders  it  difficult  to  burn 
pitch  without  the  production  of  smoke,  for  even  if  the 
problem  of  keeping  the  air  supply  adequate  for  the 
proper  combustion  of  these  hydrocarbon  gases  be  solved, 
there  is  still  the  difliculty  of  securing  a  proper  admix-ture 
of  the  air  and  of  the  evolved  combustible  gases.  These 
gases  also  are  liberated  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
in  the  case  of  bituminous  fuel,  and  this  signifies  that 
they  require  further  heating  before  they  reach  the  igni- 
tion point,  otherwise  they  may  escape  from  the  furnace 
unconsumed,  without  yielding  any  of  their  heat  value. 
This  analysis  of  the  diflSculties  of  burning  pitch  as  a 


)une  25,  lillS 


i'  O  W  E  K 


'J05 


.-olid  fuel  under  steam  boilers  shows  that  special  ar- 
rangements are  necessary  and  that  it  is  useless  to  simply 
shovel  the  lumps  of  pitch  mixed  with  the  coal  into  the 
furnace  and  expect  good  results  from  the  mixture. 

In  fact,  when  such  attempts  are  made  to  burn  pitch 
in  the  ordinary  furnace  under  Lancashire  steam  boilers, 
the  pitch  softens  and  melts,  and  closes  the  air  spaces 
in  the  grates  before  the  liberation  or  the  ignition  of 
the  gases  has  occurred.  Dense  volumes  of  black  smoke 
are  therefore  produced  by  this  cutting  down  of  the 
air  supply  at  the  time  when  a  large  excess  of  air  is 
required  for  efficient  combustion,  and  the  fire  side  of 
the  tubes  of  the  boiler  and  economizers  becomes  covered 
with  a  thick,  oily  deposit  of  soot,  which  enormously 
reduces  the  transmission  of  heat  to  the  water.  The 
hydrocarbons  contained  in  coal  pass  from  the  solid  to 
the  gaseous  state  on  the  application  of  heat  vdthout 
assuming  this  intermediate  or  liquid  stage,  and  for  that 
reason  coal  is  much  more  easily  burned  than  pitch. 

The  conditions  required  for  burning  solid  pitch  are 
therefore  three  in  number:  An  adequate  supply  of 
air,  above  or  through  the  gi'ate;  an  adequate  admixture 
of  this  air  and  the  evolved  gases,  and  means  for  raising 
this  large  volume  of  air  and  hydrocarbon  gases  quickly 
to  the  ignition  point  of  the  latter. 

Burning  Pitch  Under  Lancashire  Boilers 

The  managers  of  certain  gas  works  are  reported  to 
have  solved  the  problem  of  burning  pitch  under  Lan- 
cashire steam  boilers,  with  the  aid  of  forced  draft  and 
a  special  type  of  channeled  solid  fire-bar,  known  as  a 
pitch-bar. 

Some  of  the  ordinary  fire-bars  of  the  furnace  are 
removed,  and  the  pitch-bar  substituted,  the  number  and 
distance  apart  of  the  latter  depending  upon  the  char- 
acter and  volatile  matter  contained  in  the  fuel  that  is 
being  consumed  on  the  other  portions  of  the  furnace 
grate.  The  pitch,  broken  to  a  convenient  lump  size,  is 
fed  onto  the  front  end  of  these  special  pitch-bars, 
preferably  by  some  type  of  mechanical  feed,  which  will 
maintain  a  regular  supply  without  opening  the  furnace 
door.  The  heat  of  the  surrounding  fire  causes  the 
pitch  first  to  melt  and  to  flow  down  the  channel  of 
the  bar  and  then  to  volatilize.  The  rate  of  such  volatili- 
zation is  said  to  be  controlled  by  the  form  of  the  bars, 
and  the  forced  draft  supplies  the  surplus-heated  air 
which  is  required  to  secure  the  combustion  of  the  hydro- 
carbon gases  produced  from  the  molten  pitch.  The 
partly  coked  residue  which  remains  after  the  more  vola- 
tile constituents  have  been  driven  off  and  burnt,  is 
then  pushed  to  the  rear  portion  of  the  grate,  where  its 
combustion  as  ordinary  coke  offers  no  special  difficulties. 
Details  of  this  method  of  burning  have  been  published.' 

Pitch  is  also  being  burned  in  a  tar-distillation  works 
in  the  North,  in  conjunction  with  breeze  and  coal  under 
Lancashire  steam  boilers,  in  the  proportions  of  75  per 
cent,  breeze,  18  per  cent,  pitch  and  7  per  cent,  coal, 
without  any  trouble  from  smoke.  The  boilers  in  this 
case  are  hand-fired  and  work  under  natural  draft.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  proportion  of  pitch  is  only 
about  one-sixth  of  the  total  weight  of  fuel  used,  and 
as  the  breeze  evolves  only  a  comparatively  small  amount 
of  hydrocarbon  gases,  the  final  volume  of  combustible 
gas  to  be  consumed  is  not  large. 

'•■('hi'niic;il  Tiade  .rniirnal,"  .N'nv.  4.  IMlil. 


At  one  time  a  mixture  consisting  of  45  per  cent, 
crushed  pitch  and  55  per  cent,  breeze  was  employed. 
The  steam-raising  value  of  this  mixture  was  good,  but 
it  produced  smoke,  and  in  time  resulted  in  an  oily  de- 
posit of  soot  on  the  economizer  tubes.  This  deposit 
could  not  be  removed  by  the  scrapers  and  eventually 
had  to  be  burnt  ofl:.  Probably  if  forced-draft  apparatus 
had  been  installed  with  a  preheated  air  supply,  this 
half-and-half  mixture  of  pitch  and  breeze  could  have 
been  burned  without  any  trouble,  since  a  deficient  air 
supply  was  undoubtedly  the  cause  of  the  sooty  deposit. 

The  possibilities  of  using  pitch  as  a  liquid  fuel  under 
steam  boilers  do  not  appear  to  have  been  yet  investi- 
gated upon  a  practical  scale,  although  this  method  of 
employing  pitch  would  probably  prove  the  most  efficient 
and  the  least  costly  to  work  when  once  the  necessary 
apparatus  had  been  installed.  The  distillation  of  the 
tar  in  this  case  would  be  stopped  when  the  light  and 
middle  oils  had  been  distilled  (that  is,  at  200  deg.  C.) 
and  the  soft  pitch  which  remained  in  the  still  would 
be  utilized  in  the  semi-liquid  state  in  a  modified  form 
of  the  usual  atomizing  injector,  using  superheated 
steam  or  hot  air  under  pressure,  as  motive  power.  The 
preheating  of  the  air  supply  and  the  thorough  admix- 
ture of  the  minute  globules  of  liquid  pitch  and  the  air 
could  be  most  effectively  carried  out  by  this  system  of 
combustion,  and  since  coal  tar  has  already  been  utilized 
successfully  in  this  way,  the  atomizing  of  a  material 
that  is  only  slightly  more  viscous  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures would  not  offer  insuperable  difficulties. 

In  this  connection  the  patent  of  Arnold  Philips,  an 
Admiralty  chemist  at  Portsmouth,  England,  for  re- 
ducing the  viscosity  of  thick  oils,  may  be  referred  to. 
In  this  patent  (No.  14,778  of  1913)  the  addition  of 
8  per  cent,  of  naphthalene  is  specified  for  rendering 
certain  thick  oils  more  suitable  for  fuel  purposes.  li' 
the  naphthalene  be  left  in  the  pitch,  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  it  will  also  have  the  same  effect  in 
rendering  the  latter  more  suitable  for  atomizing  pur- 
poses. Should  difficulties  from  cooling  and  partial 
solidification  occur  in  the  spraying  nozzle,  these  no 
doubt  will  be  overcome  by  inclosing  the  latter  in  a 
heat-insulating  jacket,  through  which  the  preheated  aii 
or  superheated  steam  would  be  passed  before  entering 
the  atomizing  nozzle. 

Recent  Patents  Dealing  With  the  Subject 

As  regards  recent  patents  dealing  with  this  subject 
Enghsh  patent  No.  101,444  of  1916,  granted  to  G.  H.  H 
Boiling,  of  Christiania,  describes  a  method  of  melting 
the  pitch  by  means  of  the  heat  of  a  steam  coil  and 
introducing  it  through  similarly  heated  pipes  into  the 
furnace,  where  it  is  atomized  by  a  jet  of  steam  or  air. 
The  steam  jackets,  pipes  and  valves  are  so  arranged 
that  any  incrustation  may  be  removed.  German  patent 
No.  290,708  of  1914,  granted  to  Robert  and  Trinyi. 
relates  to  the  similar  use  of  powdered  pitch  as  a  fuel, 
the  pitch  in  this  case  being  blown  into  the  furnace 
in  the  form  of  dust.  Finally,  the  English  patent  of 
G.  Heyl  (No.  110,023  of  1916)  may  be  referred  to, 
according  to  which  liquid  fuels  suitable  for  firing  fur- 
naces and  for  use  in  high-compression  oil  engines,  can 
be  manufactured  with  the  aid  of  pitch,  by  treating 
mineral  oils  and  heavy  creosote  oils  with  solid  caustic 
soda,  to  neutralize  the  acids  present  and  to  remove  sul 


906 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


phur  compounds.  The  oil  is  cooled  to  eliminate  the 
naphthalene  (a  mistaken  proceeding  in  the  light  of 
Philips'  discovery)  and  is  then  heated  with  pitch.  It 
is  stated  that  up  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  latter  by  weight 
can  be  dissolved  by  this  method  of  procedure. 

One  method  of  rendering  pitch  sufficiently  fluid  to 
be  used  in  internal-combustion  engines  is  described 
in  the  foregoing,  and  it  is  highly  significant  that  the 
Controller  of  the  Mineral  Oil  Production  Department 
of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  is  now  arranging  for 
trials  of  mixtures  of  pitch  and  creosote,  in  order  to 
test  their  suitability  for  this  particular  purpose.  The 
writer  has  been  informed,  however,  by  an  electrical 
engineer  who  has  had  some  experience  in  the  use  of 
such  mixtures  for  Diesel  engines,  that  used  in  the  or- 
dinary way  they  are  not  very  satisfactor>',  owing  to 
.starting  difficulties  and  to  incomplete  combustion  in 
the  engine  cylinder.  When  burned,  however,  with  the 
aid  of  a  pilot  ignition  apparatus,  they  give  quite  good 
results.  With  this  apparatus  5  per  cent,  of  petroleum 
oil  is  injected  into  the  cylinder  just  before  the  creosote 
and  pitch  mixture  enters,  and  this  pilot  charge  of  a 
more  easily  ignited  oil  enables  the  temperature  to  be 
kept  sufficiently  high  to  obtain  proper  combustion  of  the 
composite  heavier  oil. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  using  heavy  oils  in  gas  engines 
is  of  course  to  prevent  imperfect  combustion,  and  the 
consequent  choking  of  valves,  etc.,  with  carbon.  Should 
this  occur,  the  use  of  a  mixture  of  wood  alcohol  and 
ammonia  has  been  used  for  removing  these  deposits 
without  the  application  of  heat,  but  the  writer  is  unable 
to  state  whether  this  mixture  has  proved  satisfactory 
in  practice.  Burning  off,  the  usual  plan,  is  of  course  effi- 
cacious, but  it  is  troublesome,  and  a  liquid  agent  which 
would  act  in  the  cold  would  have  much  in  its  favor. 

Progress  Is  Being  Made 

This  summary  of  the  most  recent  patents  and  ex- 
periences relating  to  the  use  of  coal-tar  pitch  as  a  fuel 
for  steam  boilers  and  for  internal-combustion  engines, 
shows  that  some  progress  is  being  made.  The  method.^ 
of  rendering  pitch  sufficiently  fluid  to  be  used  in 
atomizers  are  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  the  more 
hopeful,  and  he  is  less  confident  that  pitch  can  be  used 
economically  in  the  solid  and  pulverized  condition  for 
firing  steam  boilers. 

The  fact  that  pitch  softens  at  a  comparatively  low 
temperature  means  that  the  heat  generated  by  friction 
in  the  pulverizing  apparatus  will  have  to  be  dissipated 
by  artificial  cooling,  to  prevent  the  grinding  surfaces 
becoming  clogged  with  half-melted  pitch,  and  this  arti- 
ficial cooling  must  add  considerably  to  the  costs  of  the 
grinding  operation.  In  the  methods  of  rendering  pitch 
more  fluid,  the  heat  added  to  the  material  is  of  direct 
service  later  in  accelerating  and  improving  the  combus- 
tion in  the  boiler  furnace  or  engine  cylinder;  conse- 
((uently,  the  heat  is  not  wasted,  but  is  preserved  and 
made  effective  at  a  later  stage  of  the  combustion  process. 

It  would  seem,  however,  a  waste  of  time  and  heat 
energy  to  first  separate  the  constituents  of  coal  tar 
by  distillation  into  four  or  five  separate  portions  and 
then  to  recombine  some  of  these  portions  in  order  to 
obtain  a  mixture  suitable  for  use  as  a  liquid  fuel. 
The  writer  considers  that  the  future  line  of  develop- 
r.'.ent  will  be  to  carry  the  distillation  only  far  enough 


to  win  the  lighter  oils  and  the  phenols  from  the  raw 
tar,  and  that  the  residue  from  the  stills,  containing 
the  heavy  creosote  oils,  the  naphthalene  and  the  pitch, 
will  be  sold  and  utilized  as  a  liquid  fuel.  The  anthra- 
cene oils,  which  are  the  last  constituents  of  the  raw 
tar  to  distill  over  (270  —  400  deg.  C),  would  in  this 
case  be  left  in  the  pitch,  and  only  when  the  demand  and 
price  offered  for  the  anthracene  made  its  extraction 
profitable  would  the  complete  distillation  of  the  raw  tar 
and  separation  of  all  the  possible  classes  of  its  con- 
stituents be  carried  out. 

The  Use  of  Metallic  Gaskets 

By  W.  B.  Haynes 

When  a  gasket  of  any  description  is  offered  to  you 
with  the  assurance  that  it  will  stand  air,  oil,  gas, 
water,  steam  of  any  temperature,  expansion  and  con- 
traction, electrolysis,  etc.,  you  smile  sweetly,  and  v^rhile 
you  try  to  be  polite  and  say  "very  interesting,"  it 
occurs  to  you  that  someone  has  a  lot  to  learn  about 
gaskets.  Let  me  set  down  my  belief  regarding  metallic 
gaskets,  their  uses  and  limitations,  reserving  the  right 
to  change  my  mind  on  these  points  if  I  am  wrong. 

The  ordinary  corrugated  copper  gaskets  are  approxi- 
mately J,  in.  thick  and  are  generally  used  as  a  ring 
inside  the  bolt  circle,  and  two  in  a  joint,  because  when 
only  one  is  used  the  flanges  are  apt  to  spring  enough 
under  the  strain  of  the  bolts  to  touch,  iron  to  iron, 
outside  the  bolts,  permitting  a  leak.  In  other  words, 
one  thin  copper  gasket  is  not  enough  for  the  ordinary 
commercial  flanges  to  "get  a  bite  on."  When  two  gaskets 
are  used,  they  should  be  meshed  the  same  way  of  the 
corrugation.  Metal  gaskets  should  be  coated  with  pipe 
cement,  graphite  and  oil,  or  lead  and  oil,  and  bolted 
up  before  the  coating  has  dried,  so  that  each  corruga- 
tion flattening  under  the  pressure  forces  a  ring  of 
this  filler  concentrically  around  the  flange,  and  the 
copper  gasket  practically  acts  as  a  binder.  There  are, 
however,  exceptions  to  this  rule  of  two  gaskets,  es- 
pecially on  low-pressure  work.  Copper  gaskets  should 
be  annealed  soft  and  pliable,  as  the  final  process,  be- 
cause in  the  process  of  corrugating  it  becomes  hard, 
stiff  and  springy.  This  is  because  in  corrugating,  the 
fibers  of  the  metal  are  strained  and  thrown  out  of 
harmony  and  mesh.  Annealing  brings  these  fibers  back 
into  harmony  and  restores  the  strength  of  the  metal, 
therefore  always  mark  orders  for  soft  gaskets  "to  be 
annealed  after  making." 

A  steam-fitting  contractor  doing  bad  work,  if  he  only 
v;ants  to  "get  an  acceptance  of  the  job,  get  his  money 
and  get  out,"  looks  with  disfavor  on  gaskets  of  the 
thin  variety  because  he  has  to  do  a  good  job  to  get 
an  acceptance. 

The  ideal  gasket  is  one  that  covers  the  pipe  ends  as 
well  as  the  flange,  if  the  pipes  are  faced  off  flush  with 
the  flange,  because  such  a  gasket  will  save  thread  leaks. 
If,  however,  the  pipe  does  not  come  out  flush  with  the 
flange,  this  cannot  be  accomplished  with  any  gasket. 
The  following  trite  saying  of  a  purchasing  agent  is 
worth  repeating:  "We  have  joints  in  our  power  plant 
that  cannot  be  opened  for  replacing  gaskets  for  a  less 
cost  than  ten  dollars.  We  cannot,  therefore,  afford  to 
put  in  a  poor  gasket  as  it  is  putting  on  a  mortgage 
that  will  be  foreclosed  with  a  blowout." 


June  25.  1918 


POWER 


907 


Conditions  in  the  Power  Industry 


By  L.  W.  SCHMIDT 


A  digest  of  the  reports  of  United  States  consuls 
on  the  power  situation  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  and  the  influence  of  the  war  on  this  im- 
portant  industry.  Also  see  "Power,"  June  it, 
WIS. 


BY  ENFORCING  increased  economic  activity  over 
practically  the  whole  world,  the  war  has  widened 
the  field  of  electric  power.  Lack  of  man  power 
has  probably  been  the  principal  factor  in  this  develop- 
ment, but  there  is  plenty  of  evidence  that  electric  power 
will  be  used  after  the  war  in  manv  places  where  before 
it  was  only  in  the  experimental  stage.  The  report 
comes  from  England  ((\  R.  78)'  that  e.xtensive  use  may 
be  made  in  agriculture  of  the  so-called  electrification 
of  crops,  which  consists  in  exposing  growing  crops  to 
electric  light.  This  treatment  adds  largely  to  the  pro- 
ductive power  of  the  plants  according  to  extensive  ex- 
periments made  before  the  war.  There  has  been  formed 
in  England  the  Electric  Discharge  Co.,  which  enter- 
prise intends  to  treat  not  only  growing  crops,  but  also 
the  seeds.  Plants  for  the  treatment  of  seeds  have  been 
erected  at  several  places  in  England,  and  it  is  said  that 
the  increase  in  the  yield  from  seeds  so  treated  is  be- 
tween 25  and  80  per  cent. 

Wind  Motors  for  Cheap  Power 

If  the  method  generally  proves  successful,  it  will 
open  a  new  field  for  the  power  industry.  Cheap  power, 
of  course,  will  be  needed  for  the  purpose,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  electric  power  generated  by  wind 
motors  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  crop  electrification. 
The  argument  in  this  case  is  that  power  generated  in 
this  way  costs  practically  nothing  beyond  the  expense  of 
the  installation  and  its  upkeep,  and  that  any  power  that 
can  be  obtained  by  wind  comes  handy  for  crop  treat- 
ment, since  there  is  no  need  for  maintaining  a  regular 
supply  of  power. 

England  feels  more  and  more  the  effect  of  the  high 
cost  of  living  on  power  production.  Following  the  ex- 
ample of  other  cities,  Birmingham  has  increased  the 
cost  of  electric  power  to  consumers.  The  rate  of  in- 
crease affects  both  light  and  power  and  amounts  to  be- 
tween 10  and  15  per  cent.  To  prevent  electrical  con- 
sumers from  changing  over  to  gas  consumption  and  so 
putting  undue  stress  on  the  gas  works  of  the  city,  the 
municipal  authorities  also  have  raised  the  gas  rates 
(C.  R.  81). 

Much  of  the  increased  cost  in  the  power  stations  has 
been  caused  by  the  rapid  rise  in  wages  necessitated  by 
the  corresponding  increase  in  the  cost  of  living.  Nearly 
all  private  and  municipal  enterprises  have  been  com- 
pelled to  add  to  their  wage  scales,  and  recently  it  be- 
came necessary  to  increase  the  wages  paid  to  the  em- 
ployees of  the  Nottingham  tramway  corporation,  fol- 
lowing arbitration  by  the  Ministry  of  Labor.  About 
450  employees  of  the  corporation  were  affected  by  the 
decision  (C.  R.  83). 


Italy  has  just  taken  a  step  that  has  already  been 
taken  b>  several  other  countries  in  the  war  and  that 
may  become  necessary  in  this  country.  It  has  made  an 
exact  census  showing  the  unemployed  machine  power 
of  all  kinds  that  may  be  put  to  use  when  needed.  The 
census  includes  locomotives,  boilers,  motors,  power 
plants  and  general  power  machinery.  The  forms  that 
had  to  be  filled  out  by  the  owners  of  the  machines 
.specified  the  kind  of  fuel  necessary  and  the  number  of 
workmen  employed  in  running  the  machines  (C.  R.  82). 
Germany  made  such  a  census  in  1915  and  many  motors 
and  other  power  machines  have  been  transferred  from 
parts  of  the  country  where  they  could  not  be  employed  to 
advantage  to  districts  where  there  was  an  urgent  need. 

Longest  Transmission-Line  Span  in  World 

In  a  preceding  article'  on  this  subject,  mention  was 
made  of  the  work  done  on  the  new  power  transmission 
line  from  Florli  to  Stavanger  in  Norway  and  the  erec- 
tion of  the  power  plant  at  Florli.  The  transmission  line 
is  now  ready,  and  the  power  plant  will  be  completed 
in  the  near  future.  In  that  way  12,000  hp.  will  be  made 
available  for  the  Stavanger  Electric  Co.  Incidentally, 
the  erection  of  the  transmission  line  involved  crossing 
the  Hogsfjord  by  a  single  span  of  1514  yd.,  which  is 
said  to  be  the  longest  in  the  world.  The  span  is  com- 
posed of  three  cables  of  crucible  steel,  since  copper  or 
aluminum  would  not  be  able  to  stand  the  strain.  Cop- 
per-sheathed cable  would  have  been  preferable  to  pre- 
vent loss  of  voltage,  but  under  present  conditions  it 
could  not  be  obtained.  Each  cable  has  a  diameter  of 
0.63  in.,  is  composed  of  19  strands  and  has  a  tensile 
strength  of  about  210,000  lb.  per  S(i.  in.,  or  a  total  of 
about  25  tons  for  the  whole  cable.  The  slack  of  the 
cable  is  87.5  yd.  and  in  a  strong  wind  it  will  oscillate 
54.7  yd. 

The  effect  of  the  new  installation  has  begun  to  show 
in  the  neighboring  cities,  especially  in  Stavanger  and 
Haugesund,  by  an  increase  in  the  demand  for  electric 
installations.  Electric  current  is  used  quite  generally 
for  domestic  purposes,  and  Consul  Henry  C.  A.  Dunn, 
in  Stavanger,  advises  American  manufacturers  of  great 
sales  opportunities  in  the  district  (C.  R.  104). 

Denmark  Begins  Electrical  Development 

The  rapid  development  of  the  natural-power  resources 
I  f  the  northern  Scandinavian  countries  also  exerts  its 
■nfluence  on  Denmark.  Not  only  is  this  country  buying 
electric  power  from  its  northern  neighbors,  but  it  has 
ulso  begun  to  develop  some  of  its  own.  Denmark  has 
little  water  power  available,  and  to  provide  cheap  elec- 
tric power  it  may  become  necessary  to  use  the  great 
peat  beds.  These  are  situated  in  the  western  part  of 
the  country  and  will  be  developed  as  soon  as  the  neces- 
sary capital  can  be  found.  In  the  meantime  steps  have 
been  taken  to  make  use  of  1000  hp.  of  water  power 
from  the  Gudenaa,  a  small  river  near  Aarhus.  The  cost 
of  this  development  is  estimated  to  be  approximately 
$1,000,000,  and  it  will  be  a  year  before  the  plant  can 
be  put  into  operation  (C.  R.  72). 


'C.   R.   indicates   "romnii-'rii-    Kiports"   of   11118. 


'"Power,"   Dec.   11.   mn. 


908 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  2fi 


Another  country  which  ha.s  felt  heavily  the  effect  of 
the  war,  although  remaining  neutral,  i.s  Switzerland. 
It  is  a  peculiar  fact  that  Switzerland,  having  possibly 
the  best  natural-power  resources  of  the  world  for  so 
small  a  territory,  has  until  recently  made  very  little  use 
of  hydro-electric  power.  For  many  years  gas  has  been 
the  mainstay  for  street  lighting  in  many  cities.  Now 
the  difficulty  of  obtaining  coal  has  impressed  upon  the 
Swiss  communities  the  necessity  of  making  better  use 
of  the  nearer  and  cheaper  resources  at  home.  So  the 
consumption  of  electric  power  is  growing  rapidly  in 
Switzerland,  and  during  the  last  year  most  of  the  exist- 
ing stations  have  reported  increasing  demands  on  their 
producing  capacity.  The  result  is  that  it  is  now  con- 
templated to  enlarge  the  existing  stations  and  to  add 
a  number  of  new  ones  in  the  near  future,  so  as  to  make 
Switzerland  increasingly  independent  of  foreign  coal. 

Future  Industrial  Activity  in  Spain 

After  the  war,  and  possibly  even  now,  Spain  should 
attract  the  attention  of  our  power  specialists  looking 
for  foreign  investments.  Spain  is  an  industrially  ac- 
tive country  which  in  the  future  will  play  a  considerable 
part  in  the  production  of  many  commodities  of  the 
cheaper  kind.  Cheap  electric  power  will  be  necessary 
for  that  purpose,  but  the  numerous  schemes  now  under 
way  may  come  to  nothing  owing  to  the  lack  of  capital. 
This  will  have  to  come  from  the  outside,  and  America 
should  be  able  to  supply  it  together  with  the  necessary 
machinery  and  equipment. 

Vice  Consul  Asel  D.  Beeler  writes  from  Bordeaux 
about  the  great  resources  of  the  Pyrenees.  What  he 
says  about  the  French  side  of  the  mountain  range  ap- 
plies also  to  the  southern  side.  "The  mountain  region 
is  supplied  abundantly  with  swift  and  powerful  cur- 
rents of  water,  readily  adaptable  to  the  development  of 
hydro-electric  power,  a  desirable  feature  where  the 
coal  supply  is  limited.  Many  of  the  industries  of  the 
cities  in  the  Pyrenean  country,  as  shoe  factories,  woolen 
mills  and  railways,  are  now  operated  by  electric  power 
which  is  abundant  in  a  considerable  area  of  the  Midi 
section.  The  general  development  and  industrial  util- 
ization of  electric  motive  power  is  more  characteristic 
of  the  industry  in  the  departments  of  Basses-  and 
Hautes-Pyrenees  where  the  most  railroads,  the  largest 
rivers  and  the  most  populous  cities  are." 

Developments  in  French  Pyrenees 

On  the  French  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  on  the  Ariege 
River  near  Las  Mijanes,  a  power  plant  of  an  aver- 
age development  of  2500  hp.  is  being  erected.  The 
owner  of  this  enterprise  is  the  Societe  Metallurgique 
de  I'Ariege  which  recentlj-  bought  the  stock  of  the 
Societe  Hydro-Electrique  des  Pyrenees,  owning  a 
plant  at  Castelet  with  a  waterfall  90  ft.  high  and  per- 
mitting the  installation  of  four  turbines  of  a  capacity 
of  800  hp.  each  (C.  R.  92)).  The  company  also  owns 
rights  to  develop  power  on  the  Nagear,  where  there  is  a 
waterfall  of  1200  feet. 

The  City  of  Sofia,  in  Bulgaria,  intends  to  build  an 
electric  central  station,  although  it  is  doubtful  whether 
American  power  interests  will  feel  much  inclined  to 
make  use  of  an  opportunity  to  extend  their  connection 
in  that  field  just  now. 

By    cutting    off    the    usual    supplies    reaching    South 


America  from  European  countries,  the  war  has  forced 
industrial  expansion  everyvi'here  in  Latin  America, 
with  the  result  that  there  has  been  an  increasing  de- 
mand for  electric  power.  This  has  been  supplied  by 
extending  existing  enterprises  and  by  adding  a  num- 
ber of  new  ones.  During  the  last  few  months  several 
of  the  leading  power  enterprises  in  South  America 
have  made  their  annual  reports,  which  in  each  instance 
seem  to  show  a  considerable  expansion  in  power  dis- 
tribution  and  also   increased  takings. 

One  of  the  most  representative  enterprises,  doubtless, 
is  the  Lima  Light,  Power  and  Tramways  Co.,  of  Lima, 
Peru.  This  company  reports  a  gross  revenue  of  $2,- 
142,480,  as  against  $1,986,360  during  the  year  1916. 
The  net  revenue  amounted  to  $964,250.  There  has  been, 
however,  a  noticeable  rise  in  the  yearly  expenses 
amounting  to  $76,740.  Increased  employment  of  elec- 
tric power  is  given  as  the  chief  reason  for  this  good 
showing  and  also  an  increase  in  the  tramway  traffic. 
High  cost  of  materials,  which  in  many  cases  had  to 
be  imported  from  the  United  States  at  any  price,  has 
added  largely  to  the  increase  in  operating  expenses. 
The  company  made  several  extensions  of  its  plant 
during  the  year  1917,  which  included  the  installation  of 
a  2500-hp.  turbo-generator  and  a  2000-hp.  Babcock  & 
Wilcox  boiler.  New  in.stallations  have  been  made  at 
Chosica,  Yanacota,  Barranco,  Chorillos,  Miraflores  and 
Lima  (C.  R.  105). 

Increased  Rates  for  South  American  Plants 

In  Chile  electrical  enterprises  have  been  suffering 
much  from  the  lack  of  coal.  Several  Chilean  power 
plants  are  burning  wood,  which  is  cheaper  than  coal. 
The  scarcity  of  fuel  and  its  high  price  have  forced 
most  of  the  power  plants  in  South  America  to  in- 
crease their  rates,  and  this  action  has  not  always  been 
accepted  in  a  very  friendly  spirit  by  the  consumers, 
already  exasperated  over  the  high  cost  of  living. 

In  Uruguay  the  government  has  just  authorized  the 
governmental  power  plant?  to  increase  their  rates.  This 
step  is  explained  to  the  public  principally  on  the  ground 
of  increased  cost  of  fuel.  Many  Uruguayan  power 
plants,  by  the  way,  are  burning  oil  imported  from  the 
United  States  (C.  R.  96). 

The  exceptional  activity  in  the  power  industry  re- 
ported from  other  parts  of  the  world  has  also  been 
noticeable  in  eastern  Asia  and  India.  In  Japan  it 
has  found  expression  in  an  increased  demand  for  hydro- 
electric power,  which  doubtless  has  been  caused  by 
the  high  prices  that  had  to  be  paid  for  coal.  The 
rising  operating  cost,  however,  so  far  has  not  allowed 
the  hydro-electric  power  companies  to  take  full  ad- 
vantage of  the  situation,  with  the  result  that  so  far 
none  of  them  report  materially  increased  earnings. 

In  China  the  electrical  industry  is  suffering  a  good 
deal  from  the  lack  of  new  machinery.  The  demand  for 
new  installations  is  great,  but  as  it  is  practically  im- 
possible to  get  new  machines,  repair  work  and  addi- 
tional construction  are  much  delayed.  This  condition 
is  leading  to  an  increase  in  the  manufacture  of  power 
machinery  in  China,  especially  in  Hongkong — a  piece 
of  news  which  doubtless  will  interest  American  manu- 
facturers. If  it  should  turn  out  that  Chinese  and 
other  Asiatic  concerns  get  into  the  habit  of  building 
complicated  power  machinery  in  their  own  plants  dur- 


Jane  25,  I'Jia 


POWER 


909 


ing  the  war,  they  may  continue  the  practice  after 
the  war,  with  the  result  that  much  trade  will  be  lost 
to  American  and  European  manufacturers  of  such  ma- 
chinery. This  is  one  of  the  dangers  caused  by  the 
present  interruption  of  foreign  trade.  However,  it 
is  not  probable  that  a  Chinese  machine-building  in- 
dustry much  better  developed  than  that  which  now 
exists  will  be  al)le  to  meet  the  demand  for  power  ma- 
chinery which  is  to  be  expected  from  China  in  the  near 
future.  Even  with  such  national  competition,  therefore, 
there  may  be  expected  a  healthy  demand  from  that 
country  after  the  war. 

In  both  Hongkong  and  Shanghai,  by  the  way,  a  con- 
siderable increase  in  takings  is  reported  by  the  local 
tramway  companies.  The  Shanghai  Street  Car  Corpora- 
tion, which  in  1909  carried  11,750,000  passengers,  is 
now  carrying  73,500.000  per  year,  and  its  takings 
have  been  trebled.  Electrical  engineers  in  China  are 
of  the  opinion  that  the  future  of  electrical  enterprise 
is  extremely  bright.  Proposals  are  now  made  for  a 
more  scientific  development  of  the  existing  opportuni- 
ties and  also  for  the  creation  of  machinery  which  later 
will  allow  the  linking  up  of  existing  systems  so  as 
to    make   them    mutually    supporting    (C.    R.    89). 

In  Madras,  British  India,  there  are  at  present  54  in- 
dustrial establishments  operated  by  electric  power. 
The  total  sale  of  current,  which  amounted  to  5,086,609 
units  during  1916,  has  now  reached  5,693,807  units, 
and  the  increased  demand  for  energy  has  led  to  the 
erection  of  two  new  substatiors.  There  are  today  126 
electric  plants  in  operation  in  the  Madras  Presidency. 

Causes  of  Vacuum  Trouble 

By  L.   F.  Forseille 

Previous  to  the  application  of  the  little  device  herein 
described,  considerable  trouble  was  experienced  at  times 
in  maintaining  a  normal  vacuum  on  a  10,000-kv.-a.  tur- 
bine unit  equipped  with  a  jet  type  of  condenser. 

The  small  turbine  driving  the  air  and  removal  pumps 
is  loaded  to  its  maximum  capacity,  thereby  affording 
very  little  reserve  for  any  additional  effort  that  it  might 
be  called  upon  to  exert.  After  carefully  watching  its 
performance,  I  found  a  number  of  causes  of  the  trouble, 
each  being  accompanied  by  a  partial  loss  of  vacuum, 
the  extent  of  this  loss  being  governed  by  the  time  re- 
quired by  the  attendant  to  correct  the  trouble.  The 
most  frequent  causes  were  obstructed  strainers  in  the 
air-pump  supply  line.  These  instances  were  invariably 
preceded  by  racing  of  the  pump  turbine. 

Following  is  a  list  and  a  brief  explanation  of  each 
of  the  contributing  causes: 

Too  much  inj'-ction  water  being  used,  thereby  over- 
loading the  pump  turbine. 

A  sudd?n  reduction  of  load  on  the  main  unit  would 
immediately  result  in  the  turbine  racing.  This  I  be- 
lieve can  be  accounted  for  as  follows:  A  reduction  in 
load  will  result  in  a  rise  in  vacuum,  increasing  the 
velocity  and  conseciuently  the  amount  of  water  entering 
the  condenser.  This  is  further  augmented  by  a  drop 
in  temperature  of  the  discharge  water  and  an  increase 
in  the  working  head.  Summing  up  the  different  changes 
that  take  place,  I  believe  that  the  reduction  in  the 
amount  of  steam  flowing  to  a  condenser  is  more  than 
compensated  for  in  the  increased  amount  of  injection 


water,  leaving  the  pump  to  discharge  as  much,  if  not 
more  water,  than  with  a  full  load  on  the  main  unit,  and 
this  at  a  greatly  reduced  temperature.  This  latter  item 
must  be  considered,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  discharge 
is  approximately  18  ft.  above  the  center  line  of  the 
pump.  Of  course  the  only  remedy,  as  in  the  preceding 
case,  is  to  cut  down  on  the  injection  water.  Too  much 
water  going  to  the  air  pump  has  about  the  same  effect 
and  can  be  overcome  only  by  cutting  down  the  amount. 

Obstructed  strainers  in  the  air-pump  supply  line  will 
cause  the  turbine  to  race  violently.  This,  I  think,  is 
caused  by  the  pump  alternately  picking  up  slugs  of 
water  and  air.  The  remedy  is  to  change  over  to  the 
clean  strainers. 

Wet  steam  coming  over  from  the  boilers  will  cause 
racing  and  a  momentary  loss  in  vacuum,  which  usually 
rights    itself   without   any    further   trouble.      However, 


ARRANGEMENT   OP   SIGNAL   WHISTLE 

in  extreme  cases  it  is  necessary  to  cut  down  on  the  in- 
jection water  until  the  trouble  has  passed,  when  it  can 
be  gradually  brought  up  to  normal  volume. 

A  vacuum  leak  in  any  part  of  the  system,  including 
the  water-supply  line,  will  also  cause  racing,  and  if 
serious,  racing  will  continue  until  the  leak  is  stopped. 
It  will  be  noticed  (as  I  have  previously  mentioned)  that 
any  irregularity  in  the  pump  turbine  is  a  sure  sign  that 
something  is  wrong.  On  the  other  hand,  as  long  as  the 
turbine  is  going  smoothly  one  can  rest  with  a  fair  de- 
gree of  certainty  that  this  part  of  the  equipment  is 
working  all  right.  This  fact  became  so  apparent  to 
the  attendants  that  they  formed  the  habit  of  watching 
the  governor  arm  on  the  pump  turbine  at  all  times  when 
not  actually  engaged  in  performing  their  other  duties. 

The  apparatus  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of  this 
article  simply  acts  as  a  warning  to  attendants  and  can 
be  heard  from  any  part  of  the  turbine  room  or  base- 
ment. It  consists  of  a  small  whistle  screwed  into  the  top 
of  the  governor  valve  and  actuated  by  the  governor  ami 
(see  illustration).  It  has  been  in  operation  about  a  year, 
and  the  results  have  been  most  gratifying,  so  good  in 
fact  that  the  vacuum  on  this  unit  has  not  been  lost 
since  from  any  of  the  foregoing  causes,  due  to  a  timely 
warning  and  good  work  by  the  attendants.  It  is  so 
constructed  that  it  can  be  adjusted  to  sound  an  alarm 
whenever  the  governor  arm  comes  within  any  desired 
distance  from  the  stop.    The  sketch  is  self-explanatory. 


910 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


Yarway  Adjustable  Spray  Head 

When  cooling  water  for  condensing  purposes  can  be 
obtained  from  a  convenient  river  or  lake,  there  is  no 
necessity  for  installing  means  for  cooling  it.  But  when 
the  supply  is  limited,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  use  the 
water  over  and  over  again,  artificial  recooling  must  be 
employed.  There  are  two  common  methods  of  cooling 
circulating  water — one  by  means  of  cooling  towers,  the 
other  by  means  of  cooling  ponds  in  which  the  water  is 
stored  after  passing  through  a  number  of  spray  nozzles 
that  break  up  the  water  that  comes  to  them  under 
pressure. 

In  Fig.  1  is  shown  a  spray  pond'  the  spray  nozzles  of 
which  are  adjustable.  They  are  known  as  the  "Yarway" 
adjustable  spray  heads  and  are  manufactured  by  the 
Yarnall-Waring  Co.,  Chestnut  Hill,  Philadelphia,  Penn. 
Details  of  their  construction  are  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The 
distinctive  feature  of  this  spray  head  is  that  it  is  ad- 
ju.stable  with  regard  to  the  fineness  of  the  spray  ob- 
tained at  any  given  pressure.  Therefore  it  can  be  set  to 
secure  the  maximum  cooling  range  under  any  condition 
of  temperature  or  humidity,  for  a  minimum  loss  of 
water  by  driftage  due  to  wind  and  for  maximum  effi- 
ciency of  partial  loads.  Because  of  these  features  the 
full  area  of  the  pond  can  be  used  with  all  of  the  nozzles 
nearly  closed,  Fig.  1,  before  it  is  necessary  to  cut  any 
of  them  out  of  service. 

Referring  to  Fig.  2,  the  head  consists  of  a  cast-iron 
body  A,  in  the  top  of  which  a  3i-in.  o.  d.  bronze  tube  B 
is  secured  which  carries  a  cap  through  the  center  of 
which  the  stem  D  passes.  A  helical  opening  of  coarse 
pitch  is  cut  in  the  tube  B,  the  water  to  be  sprayed  leav- 
ing the  nozzles  through  this  slot.  The  opening  is  cut 
at  an  angle  of  about  60  deg.  with  the  axis  of  the  tube 


so  that  the  water  is  thrown  upward  at  the  same  angle. 

The  rod  D  is  adjusted  to  the  cap  C  by  a  locknut  E  and 

moves  in  a  close  clearance  brass  bushing  F  that  is  pro- 


FIO 


DK'1'.A.1L,S    UK    THK      ■Y.VKVVAY"     SPRAY     HKAl) 


'Reproduced  liy  courtesy  of  Walter  Kidde  &  Co  ,   Inc..  engineer.^ 
and  constructors,  New  York  City. 


PIG.   1.      •YAIIWAY"   SPR.W-TTK.Vn  TN'ST.M.T.ATTON.  HICAD    COjrPRESSKD 


vided  in  the  body  casting.  A  pin  in  the  end  of  the  stem 
engages  a  bell-crank  lever  (V.  pivoted  at  H.  The  lever 
end  of  the  vertical  arm  is  attached  to  the  main  adjust- 
ing rod  at  J.  By  moving  this 
rod  one  way  or  the  other,  the 
stem  D  is  raised  or  lowered, 
thus  opening  or  closing  the 
spiral  slot  in  the  cylinder  B. 
The  result  of  this  is  to  in- 
crease or  decrease  the  fine- 
ness of  the  flow  of  water  as 
it  leaves  the  head.  The  water 
is  discharged  in  an  upwardly 
inclined  direction  in  a  con- 
tinuous sheet  which  becomes 
finer  as  it  spreads  and  finally 
breaks  up  into  a  uniformly 
fine  spray  or  mist,  or  into  a 
large  number  of  small  drops, 
depending  upon  the  size  of 
the  opening  to  which  the 
head  had  been  adjusted.  The 
method  of  connecting  the 
spray-head  levers  to  the  oper- 
ating rod  is  shown  in  Fig.  .3. 
As  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  4, 
the  spray  heads  are  secured 
to  branch  pipes  which  con- 
nect with  a  main  header,  the 
branches     being     of     succes- 


June  25,  1!)18 


POWER 


911 


siveiy  decreasing  diameters.  The  adjusting  lever  of 
each  row  of  spray  heads  is  connected  to  a  main  ;-in. 
iron  pipe,  to  the  end  of  which  is  fitted  a  saw-tooth  regu- 
lating lever,  the  saw  teeth  being  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  the  rod  for  any  adjustment  of  the  spray  head. 
This  lever  extends  to  the  shore,  and  by  a  pull  or  a  push 
on   it  all    the  heads    in   that   row  are   either   closed   or 


.Adjustablf  Spray  Hcaa 


Line 


Operating   Rod 

i''Ki.  :;.    .\1!Ka.\i;k.\ik.\t  of  thk  oI'ehati.w;  kok 

opened.  These  rods  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  4,  where  the 
spray  heads  are  adjusted  for  a  greater  .spraying  capa- 
city than  in  Fig.  1,  where  the  spray  is  throttled.  The 
spray  pond,  Fig.  4,  is  at  the  plant  of  the  Moore  Steam 
Turbine  Corporation,  Wellsville,  N.  Y. 

In  Fig.  1  there  are  shown  nine  spray  heads  with  a 
total  of  45  spray  nozzles.  The  cooling  pond  is  about  75 
ft.  wide  and  180  ft.  long.     The  main  branch  is  24  in. 


A      .SMAl^ij      l.\STAL,LATK)i\      SPl-t.\YING 
NORMAL  CONDITIOX.S 


UNDKl; 


diameter  and  the  branch  pipes  begin  at  8  in.  diameter 
;ind  reduce  to  4  in.  These  45  spray  nozzles  with  a  23-ft. 
head  take  care  of  the  water  necessary  for  condensing 
the  steam  from  three  750-kw.  turbines  at  the  plant  of 
the  American  Hard  Rubber  Co.,  Akron,  Ohio,  and  are 
sufficient  for  about  35,000-kw.  turbine  capacity. 

Gas-Engine-Valve  Problems 

By  G.  W.  Muench 

The  buying  and  selling  of  used  gas  engines  J  is  a 
business  of  enormous  proportions  at  the  present  time. 
Hundreds  of  these  engines  are  bought' by  men  i  who 
know  nothing  about  them.     A  demonstration  is  asked 


for,  the  engine  runs  without  knocking,  and  apparently 
everything  is  as  it  ought  to  be.  Even  the  man  who 
knows  something  about  internal-combustion  motors, 
however,  often  gets  misled  by  one  serious  trouble, 
the  valve  setting.  The  engine  may  be  working  very 
well  without  a  load  or  with  a  light  load,  but  will  not 
carry  anywhere  near  full  load.  There  are  many  pos- 
sible causes  for  poor  valve  settings,  such  as  wrong 
meshing  of  the  gears;  wrong  adjustment  of  the  push- 
rods  ;  worn  push-rods,  cams,  valve  stems,  gear  teeth 
and  other  parts  of  a  valve  gear.  The  valve  setting  of 
a  gas  engine  is  about  as  follows : 

The  inlet  valve  should  open  5  to  15  deg.  past  the 
inner  dead-center  and  should  close  fi-om  20  to  35  deg. 
past  the  outer  dead-center.  Exhaust  valve  should  open 
about  30  to  40  deg.  before  the  outer  dead-center  and 
should  close  at  about  inner  dead-center  to  10  deg.  past. 

Frequently,  an  attempt  is  made  to  make  a  gas  engine 
develop  a  greater  power  than  it  is  designed  for,  by 
changing  the  governor  adjustment  to  allow  the  engine 
to  operate  at  a  higher  speed.  This  can  be  done  to  only 
a  limited  extent.  After  the  speed  has  been  reached  at 
which  engines  will  develop  maximum  effort,  the  power 
of  the  engine  will  decrease  if  the  speed  is  increased 
beyond  this  point.  The  reason  for  this  is,  the  valve 
can  take  care  of  only  a  certain  amount  of  gas  in  a  given 
time,  since  the  speed  of  the  gases  passing  through  the 
valves  is  limited.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
this  limit.  One  good  authority  gives  the  limit  of  the 
ingoing  gases  at  6000  ft.  per  min.  and  the  exhaust  gases 
5000  ft.  per  min.  These  figures  refer  especially  to  sta- 
tionaiy  engines. 

Assuming  that  the  gases  in  the  c.vlinder  travel  as  fast 
as  the  piston,  it  is  eas.v  to  figure  the  velocity  of  the  gases 
through  the  valve  opening  as  follows : 

D'-V 

where  v  equals  velocity  of  gases  through  valve  passages 
in  feet  per  minute,  D  equals  diameter  of  cylinder  in 
inches,  d  equals  diameter  of  valve  passage  in  inches, 
and  V  equals  velocity  of  piston  in  feet  per  minute. 

The  foregoing  affords  a  means  of  finding  whal 
approximately  would  be  the  speed  limit  of  a  particular 
engine.  For  example,  an  11  x  12  engine  having  4-in. 
valve  openings  and  rated  at  300  r.p.m.,  is  to  be  increased 
in  speed  10  per  cent. ;  that  is,  to  330  r.p.m.  The  engine 
has  a  12-in.  stroke  and  is  to  operate  at  330  r.p.m.  This 
is  equivalent  to  a  piston  travel  of  660  ft.  per  min.  In 
calculating  the  velocity  of  the  gas  in  the  valve  chambers, 
it  is  assumed  that  in  the  cylinder  the  gas  is  traveling  at 
piston  speed,  in  this  case  660  ft.  per  min.  Then.  Uy 
substituting  the  foi-egoing  values  in  the  formula,  the 
velocity  of  the  gases  through  the  valve  opening  is 


11- 


660 


4!l!tl,/';. 


or  approximately  5000  ft.  per  min.;  therefore  this  in- 
crease in  speed  might  be  permitted,  as  it  brings-  the 
speed  about  up  to  the  allowable  figures  for  the  exhausi 
valve.  Of  course  other  factors  enter  as  to  the  advis- 
ability of  increasing  the  engine  speed,  especially  the 
.-■•afe  flywheel  speed. 

If  the  speed  of  an  engine  is  materiall.v  changed,  it 
might  also'  be  advantageous  to  somewhat  change  the 
valve  setting.    However,  this  may  not  be  an  easy  matter. 


912 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


since,  in  many  heavy-duty  stationary  engines  the 
setting  cannot  be  changed.  Sometimes  both  valves  are 
adjustable,  but  oftentimes  only  one  can  be  changed.  In 
resetting  the  valves,  it  must  also  be  remembered  that 
virhen  a  valve  is  adjusted  by  changing  the  length  of  the 
push-rods,  if  the  valve  is  made  to  open  earlier  it  will 
close  later  and  vice  versa,  but  if  the  valves  are  made  to 
open  and  close  earlier  or  later  by  changing  the  setting 
of  the  camshaft  gear,  all  the  valves  will  be  affected  the 
same  in  both  closing  and  opening. 

Another  interesting  valve  problem  is  the  division  of 
the  cycle  according  to  the  valve  setting.  Since  it  re- 
quires four  strokes  to  complete  the  cycle  of  a  4-stroke- 
cycle  gas  engine,  it  is  often  thought  that  each  perfor- 
mance of  the  cycle  requires  one  stroke.  This  is,  how- 
ever, not  the  case.  Take  for  example,  the  following 
setting.  Intake  opens  15  deg.  past  inner  dead-center, 
intake  closes  25  deg.  past  outer  center;  exhaust  opens 
40  deg.  before  outer  center  and  closes  10  deg.  after  inner 
center.  The  complete  cycle  is  720  degrees.  The  intake 
opening  at  15  deg.  after  inner  dead-center  and  closing 
25  deg.  after  outer  dead-center  is  an  angle  of  190  deg.,  or 
about  26.4  per  cent,  of  the  cycle  in  suction.  Between 
the  closing  of  the  intake  and  inner  dead-center  is  the 
compression,  155  deg.,  or  about  21.5  per  cent,  of  the 
cycle.  From  dead-center  to  the  exhaust  valve  opening 
40  deg.  before  outer  dead-center  is  the  power  stroke,  140 
deg.,  or  nearly  20  per  cent,  of  the  cycle.  From  exhaust 
opening  to  closing  at  10  deg.  past  inner  center  is  the 
exhaust  stroke,  230  deg.,  or  nearly  32  per  cent,  of  the 
cycle.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  almost  one-third  of  the 
entire  cycle  is  devoted  to  exhaust. 

Air-Compressor  Troubles 

By  Ray  J.  Bailey 
Some  time  ago  a  small  motor-driven  vertical  air  com- 
pressor was    installed   in   a  certain   boiler-room   where 


nipple.  These  parts  were  all  taken  from  used  material 
found  about  the  factory.  This  arrangement  has  worked 
satisfactorily  for  nearly  a  year,  and  it  has  never  been 
necessary  to  clean  out  the  unloader  nor  has  there  been 
any  trouble  from  poor  regulation. 

For  lubricating  the  cranks,  cros.shead  pins  and  pis- 
tons, four  or  five  gallons  of  a  certain  quality  of  engine 
oil  was  put  in  the  crank  case  when  the  machine  was  first 
installed.  After  a  few  days  the  oil  was  found  unsuitable 
for  this  class  of  work,  because,  being  thin,  it  would  work 
past  the  pi.stons — which  are  exposed  at  the  crank  end— to 
the  oil  reservoir  and  about  one  pint  per  ten-hour  run 
would  pass  through  the  valves  and  discharge  pipe,  burn- 
ing on  the  valve  stems  and  springs  and  causing  them  to 
stick  and  hold  away  from  their  seats.  A  portion  of  the 
burned  oil  would  work  into  the  unloader  and  make 
trouble. 

An  oil  separator  C  was  made  from  pipe  fittings  and 
two  3-in.  nipples,  each  6  in.  long.  A  special  air-com- 
pressor oil  was  used,  and  no  further  trouble  has  been 
experienced;  less  than  one  ounce  of  oil  gets  into  the 
separator  in  thirty  days. 

Considerable  advantage  was  gained  by  using  a  check 
valve  in  the  1-in.  discharge  pipe  D  when  it  was  neces- 
sary to  shut  the  machine  down  to  examine  the  valves 
or  to  do  work  on  the  machine  under  pressure.  It  also 
serves  to  take  the  strain  off  the  discharge  valves  due  to 
the  hammering  effect  when  closing. 

Several  swing  checks  were  used,  which  lasted  but  a 
week  or  ten  days  before  the  disk  and  seat  had  to  be 
faced  off  and  fitted  so  they  would  not  leak.  A  hori- 
zontal globe  check  valve  was  then  used,  with  the  disk 
guided  by  a  stem  above  and  another  below  the  seat. 
After  being  in  service  about  four  weeks,  an  examination 
showed  that  the  stem  and  guide  under  the  disk  had  worn 
away,  the  disk  and  upper  stem  and  guide  being  in  fairly 
good  condition. 


HOOD 


COMPRESSOR.   PIPINO   AND  HOOD 


there  was  considerable  dust  due  to  handling  coal  and 
ashes.  It  was  necessary  to  extend  the  Ij-in.  inlet  pipe 
outside  of  the  building.  As  the  unloader  A  was  of  sensi- 
tive construction  and  as  the  least  bit  of  dirt  would  make 
the  pistons  stick,  causing  poor  regulation,  considerable 
power  was  wasted  because  of  the  safety  valve  on  the 
receiver  releasing  continually. 

It  was  desired  to  connect  the  pipe  as  direct  to  the 
compressor  and  with  as  few  fittings  as  possible,  which 
located  the  end  of  the  suction  pipe  between  the  eaves  of 
three  roofs.  To  keep  it  free  from  water  and  other  ob- 
structions, a  hood  was  made,  as  shown  at  B,  from  6-in. 
galvanized  sheet-metal  pipe  with  a  2-in.  sheet-metal 
pipe  on  the  inside  soldered  to  a  2-in.   galvanized  pipe 


'^m^ 


'm^. 


A  check  valve  of  the  dashpot  type  is  recommended  as 
the  best  for  this  serv'ice,  in  which  the  upper  part  of  the 
valve  disk  is  connected  to  a  dashpot,  which  will  prevent 
its  slamming. 


Jjiie  25,  i;»18 


POWER 


913 


Ethics  of  Sales  Engineering 


By  WALTER  G.  STEPHAN 


A  sales  engineer  refjresents  both  the  purchaser 
and  the  maniifai-turer,  atid  although  it  is  his 
business  to  sell,  it  is  just  as  consistent  with  good 
ethics  to  counsel  against  a  purchase  of  his  appa- 
ratus when  conditioris  are  not  suitable  as  it  is  to 
advise  the  pui-chase  of  his  apparatus  when  it  will 
supply  the  needs  better  than  anyone  else's.  The 
ethics  of  salesmanship  is  discussed  from  vanous 
interesting  angles. 


THE  tremendous  industrial  expansion  in  the  United 
States  during  recent  years  has  brought  a  most 
interesting  and  profitable  field  of  work  to  the 
technically  educated  engineers ;  namely,  the  work  of 
the  sales  engineer.  So  many  new  devices  and  improve- 
ments in  the  various  arts  have  been  developed  that 
the  manufacturer  has  gladly  called  into  his  organiza- 
tion men  with  engineering  training,  who  have  initiative, 
confidence  in  themselves  and  the  ability  to  persuade 
others  to  buy  and  properly  use  new  things  possessing 
merit.  As  a  result  many  able  young  men  are  suc- 
cessfully following  this  profession  and  securing  through 
their  work  much  of  the  satisfaction  that  should  come 
to  a  man  through  a  useful  business  life. 

His  Duties  Different  from  Those  of  the 
Ordinary  Salesman 

This  army  of  young  salesmen  are  mostly  men  who 
wish  to  transact  business  on  a  sound  business  basis  and 
who  are  following  a  code  of  ethics  of  their  own  which 
is  more  or  less  the  result  of  their  previous  training  and 
experience.  So  far  as  is  known,  there  is  no  treatise 
on  engineering  salesmanship  that  covers  satisfactorily 
the  work  of  the  sales  engineer.  His  duties  are  some- 
times quite  different  from  those  of  the  ordinarj'  sales- 
man. For  example,  occasionally  he  has  to  deal  through 
a  consulting  engineer,  an  intermediary  between  his  com- 
pany and  the  ultimate  purchaser,  with  whom  other 
salesmen  do  not  come  in  contact. 

Sales  experience  has  gradually  formulated  a  code  of 
ethics  regarding  the  right  and  wrong  way  to  try  to 
sell  first-class  power-plant  equipment,  and  this  article 
is  an  endeavor  to  provoke  a  discussion  of  the  subject 
for  the  benefit  of  the  selling  fraternity  as  well  as  the 
buying  public. 

The  sales  engineer  represents  two  parties,  each  of 
which  is  equally  concerned  in  the  sale — the  purchaser 
and  the  manufacturer.  And  he  should  be  equally  con- 
cerned to  see  that  both  receive  fair  treatment  and  that 
neither  is  taken  advantage  of  by  the  other.  If  there 
is  to  be  any  preference,  he  should  favor  the  purchaser, 
for  the  reason  that  no  obstacles  should  be  permitted 
to  grow  up  in  the  path  leading  from  the  buyer  to  the 
sales  office.  The  door  for  future  business  should  be 
easy  for  the  purchaser  to  open,  and  he  should  feel  that 
it  is  a  pleasure  for  him  to  open  it. 

A  purchaser  is  naturally  inclined  to  buy  from  the 
seller  with  whom  it  is  pleasantest  to  do  business.  The 
same  line  of  reasoning  applies  in  the  case  of  the  hotel 


management  which  uses  as  its  motto  in  matters  of  dis- 
pute, "The  guest  is  always  right."  It  is  not  meant  by 
this  that  the  salesman  should  permit  the  purchaser 
to  take  a  great  advantage  in  the  transaction,  but  it  is 
meant  that  if  there  is  a  reasonable  question  of  doubt, 
the  purchaser  should  be  given  the  benefit  of  that  doubt. 
The  importance  of  giving  the  buyer  the  benefit  of 
a  salesman's  experience  cannot  be  emphasized  ton 
.strongly.  It  is  just  as  consistent  with  good  ethics 
for  him  to  advise  a  prospective  purchaser  not  to  buy 
his  apparatus  when  he  knows  from  experience  that  the 
conditions  are  not  suitable,  as  it  is  to  advise  the  pur- 
chase from  the  company  he  represents  when  he  knows 
he  can  supply  the  buyer's  needs  better  than  anyone 
else  or  equally  as  well.  In  fact,  it  is  frequently  found 
that  by  conscientiously  advising  a  purchaser  to  buy  just 
the  right  thing  from  a  competitor,  the  salesman  can 
and  has  immensely  strengthened  his  hold  upon  the 
buyer's  confidence. 

His  Work  Judged  by  Service  Rendered  Rather 
Than  by  Sales  Made 

If  a  salesman  is  merely  interested  in  selling  and  is 
not  desirous  of  performing  some  real  service  to  society, 
he  will  fail  to  get  all  he  could  out  of  his  work.  After 
all  is  said  and  done,  his  work  will  be  measured  by  the 
"service  rendered"  and  not  by  the  sales  made.  The 
man  who  is  concerned  only  with  making  the  sale  is  a 
mere  "peddler,"  and  not  worthy  of  the  name  of  sales 
engineer.  His  vision  is  not  broad  enough  to  see  the 
transaction  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  purchaser  as  well 
as  from  that  of  his  firm.  He  sees  only  his  own  imme- 
diate remuneration  and  not  his  ultimate  gain.  He 
should  be  quick  to  recommend  against  a  bad  purchase 
and  should  just  as  carefully  avoid  a  bad  sale.  He  should 
seek  to  carry  through  transactions  that  will  be  mutually 
advantageous  to  the  purchaser  and  the  manufacturer. 

It  sometimes  happens  that,  notwithstanding  a  con- 
scientious recommendation  against  the  purchase  of  a 
sales  engineer's  apparatus,  for  apparently  good  and 
sufficient  reasons,  conditions  obtain  later  which  would 
have  justified  the  sale.  For  example,  the  entrance  of 
the  United  States  into  the  present  war  has  already 
changed  conditions  in  many  plants  beyond  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  most  astute  business  minds.  In  such 
instances  the  salesman  can  console  himself  with  the 
knowledge  that  he  followed  the  dictates  of  his  best 
judgment. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  an  operating  engineer 
learns  that  one  of  the  plants  in  his  neighborhood  is 
about  to  purchase  certain  equipment.  Knowing  that  a 
certain  salesman's  machinery  has  given  him  splendid 
service  and  wishing  to  help  both  his  neighbor's  plant  and 
himself,  he  offers  to  assist  in  making  a  sale,  provided  the 
salesman  is  willing  to  pay  him  for  such  service.  It  is 
a  question  of  ethics  whether  it  is  right  to  agree  to  d« 
this.  If  the  engineer  can  conscientiously  recommend 
the  apparatus,  he  is  honestly  entitled  to  remuneration 
for  his  assistance  in  selling.  However,  it  is  much  better 
for  all  concerned  not  to  enter  into  such  negotiations. 
The   danger   lies   not   in   this   transaction,    but   in   pos- 


914 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


.sible  future  affairs.  Some  subsequent  negotiation  may 
come  up  between  the  engineer's  company  and  the  sales- 
man for  a  purchase,  which  will  embarrass  one  or  the 
other  and  will  make  the  engineer  feel  under  some 
obligation  to  buy  from  the  salesman  whether  it  be  fully 
to  the  advantage  of  his  employer  to  do  so  or  not. 

Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  for  the  manufacturer's 
representative  to  sell  through  the  office  of  a  consulting 
engineer,  other  problems  present  themselves  for  solu- 
tion along  ethical  lines.  It  is  taken  for  granted  that 
when  a  manager  employs  a  consulting  engineer  to  build 
or  extend  his  power  plant,  he  delegates  him  to  recom- 
mend what  kind  and  make  of  apparatus  is  to  be  bought. 
In  other  words,  he  says  to  the  consulting  engineer:  "I 
don't  know  a  thing  about  boilers,  stokers,  engines  or 
turbines.  You  do.  Tell  us  what  we  should  buy  and 
see  that  a  plant  such  as  we  will  need  is  built." 

His  Statements  to  the  Consulting  Engineer  Should 
Be  Perfectly  Frank 

The  consulting  engineer,  in  preparing  specifications 
for  bidders,  sometimes  calls  in  several  sales  representa- 
tives in  order  to  discuss  the  specifications  with  them 
or  the  limiting  features  of  his  plant  and  to  make  sure 
that  the  work  of  the  various  contracts  will  join  to- 
gether to  make  a  complete  whole. 

Under  such  circumstances  the  salesman  will  find  a 
perfectly  frank  statement  from  him  to  be  most  ac- 
ceptable to  the  broad-minded  engineer.  If  he  finds  that 
the  consulting  engineer  is  making  inadequate  provisions 
anywhere  or  that  his  apparatus  is  not  suited  to  the 
conditions,  a  free  discussion  of  the  matter  will  be  ap- 
preciated. To  a  certain  degree  the  consulting  engineer 
is  somewhat  analogous  to  the  general  practitioner  in 
medicine,  and  the  experienced  salesman  corresponds  to 
the  specialist.  He  is,  therefore,  the  specialist  or  one  of 
several  speciaUsts.  Very  few  consulting  engineers  are 
buying  all  kinds  of  power-plant  equipment  so  continu- 
ously that  they  are  able  to  keep  strictly  "up  to  the 
minute"  on  the  latest  developments  in  the  art.  The 
salesman  is,  or  should  be,  one  of  the  best-posted  men 
in  his  line,  with  some  such  motto  as  this  before  him: 

"If  a  cobbler  by  trade,  I'll  make  it  my  pride 
The  best  of  all  cobblers  to  be; 
And  if  only  a  tinker,  no  tinker  on  earth 
Shall  mend  an  old  kettle  like  me." 

A  salesman  should  not  endeavor  to  see  that  the  engi- 
neer's specifications  are  so  worded  as  to  give  him  great 
preference  or  advantage  in  the  bidding.  Specifications 
should  be  written  so  as  to  exclude  such  articles  as  are 
not  suited  to  the  plant  and  should  permit  of  a  choice 
by  the  purchaser  between  not  less  than  three  reputable 
manufacturers,  if  possible.  Honest  competition  hurts 
no  one,  and  if  an  apparatus  can't  stand  on  its  own 
merit  in  fair  and  open  comparison,  don't  waste  time 
Trying  to  sell  it.     Life  is  too  short. 

Going  Over  the  Engineer's  Head 

There  is  great  temptation,  after  specifications  have 
been  issued  by  the  consulting  engineer,  for  the  sales- 
man to  seek  an  interview  with  the  ultimate  purchaser 
in  order  to  secure  additional  influence  in  favor  of  his 
equipment.  This  is  commonly  called  "going  over  the 
engineer's  head"  and,  naturally,  is  resented  by  him. 
The  only  ethical  way  to  proceed,  if  there  is  any  reason 
whatever   for   desiring   to   talk    to   the   man    who   will 


finally  sign  the  order,  is  to  go  to  the  consulting  engi- 
neer, state  the  case  frankly  and  take  his  advice.  While 
in  some  cases  one  may  be  able  to  secure  business  by 
going  over  the  engineer's  head,  it  certainly  will  not 
help  to  get  further  specifications  to  bid  upon  from  the 
engineer's  office  Consulting  engineers  are  just  as 
human  as  are  others. 

if  for  any  reason  it  becomes  evident  to  the  sales- 
man that  he  is  repeatedly  being  discriminated  against 
by  the  engineer's  specifications,  and  he  has  endeavored 
courteously  on  several  occasions  to  dissuade  the  con- 
sulting engineer  from  this  course,  then  there  is  no 
further  reason  for  avoiding  an  interview  with  the 
ultimate  purchaser  in  which  can  be  stated  diplomatically 
but  frankly  the  reasons  for  taking  such  a  step. 

The  most  difficult  problem  for  the  sales  engineer  is 
undoubtedly  the  prospective  sale  to  a  municipality. 
Most  men  "hate  a  municipal  job."  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  so  many  incompetent  persons  are  usually 
concerned  with  the  municipal  purchase,  and  so  many 
conflicting  interests  are  involved,  that  there  is  no 
reasonable  probability  that  the  best  bidder  will  get  the 
contract.  Boards  of  public  service  composed  of  several 
men  and  sometimes  councilmen  in  addition,  interest 
themselves  in  a  large  contract  for  power  equipment — 
and  very  properly  so— but  they  do  not  leave  the  decision 
as  to  the  technical  merit  of  differing  bids  to  the  proper 
person,  namely,  their  engineer.  Consequently,  there  is 
frequent  accusation  of  graft  in  connection  with  the 
public  letting  of  contracts.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  there  is,  at  the  present  time,  very  little  of  the 
old-time  "grafting"  for  the  very  good  reason  that  a 
higher  code  of  ethics  obtains  among  both  public  offi- 
cials and  salesmen.  Engineers  in  public  office  are 
showing  a  commendable  courage  in  writing  specifica- 
tions so  as  to  permit  only  those  who  manufacture 
suitable  apparatus  to  bid.  It  is  a  weakness  on  the  part 
of  an  engineer  to  write  specifications  so  open  that 
anybody  and  everj'body  can  bid.  It  is  a  confession  of 
his  inability  to  specify. 

The  Sales  Engineer  Should  Be  Governed  by  a 
Sense  of  Public  Duty 

Furthermore,  it  is  wrong  to  encourage  a  manufac- 
turer to  spend  the  time  and  money  necessary  to  make 
up  a  bid  when  he  has  no  chance  whatever  to  benefit 
by  it.  Therefore,  a  salesman  should  urge  engineers  to 
limit  the  bidding  to  manufacturers  of  suitable  apparatus 
even  though  by  so  doing  he  excludes  his  own  company 
from  bidding.  Let  him  be  prompted  by  as  fine  a 
sense  of  public  duty  as  he  can  muster  in  matters  that 
concern  the  American  municipalities  and  frown  down 
all  attempts  to  misappropriate  public  funds. 

Finally,  let  him  bear  in  mind  that  the  work  that 
he  is  doing  is  a  splendid  work  of  education  and  that 
he  is  really  doing  pioneer  service  by  educating  able, 
wide-awake  managers  and  engineers  to  practice  better 
economies  in  natural  resources,  in  labor  and  in  time. 
Let  him  also  uphold  the  dignity  of  his  profession  by 
giving  fair  and  courteous  treatment  to  others  and  by 
insisting  upon  fair  and  courteous  treatment  himself. 


The  remarkable  effect  of  the  buying  of  War-Savings 
Stamps  has  been  the  development  of  a  finer  sense  of 
thrift  and  economy  among  the  people. 


June  25,  1918 


POWER 


915 


Effect  of  Feed -Water  Temperature  and  Rate 
of  Injection  Upon  Steam  Flow 


By  frank  G.  PHILO" 


The  author  has  plotted  an  interesting  chart 
shoiving  the  effect  on  steam  flow  of  the  feed-tvater 
temperature  and  rate  of  feeding.  Under  any 
given  condition  the  actual  oiitpvt  of  the  boiler,  ex- 
pressed in  B.t.u.  absorbed  per  unit  of  time,  is  con- 
stant regardless  of  the  rate  of  feeding  and  the 
temperature  of  the  feed  water. 

INTERESTING   data    upon   the   changes   of    rate   of 
steaming  due  to  varying  r»tes  and  temperatures  of 
feed-water  injection  are  shown  upon  consulting  the 
steam    tables    and    plotting 


results  in  graphical  form 
shown  by  the  chart  accom- 
panying this  article.  Un- 
der any  given  condition  the 
actual  output  of  the  boiler 
expressed  as  B.t.u.  absorbed 
per  unit  of  time  is  constant, 
regardless  of  the  rate  and 
temperature  at  which  the 
boiler  feed  watf  is  in- 
jected. However,  btiler  out- 
put expressed  in  p(  unds  of 
steam  per  unit  of  time 
varies  widely  with  chang- 
ing feed-water  temperature 
and  rate  of  feed-water  in- 
jection, being  highest  when 
no  water  is  being  fed  to  the 
boiler  and  lowest  when  the 
feed-water  temperature  is 
very  low  and  the  water  is 
injected  at  a  high  rate. 
When  the  feed  water  is  fed 
into  the  boiler  at  the  same 
rate  at  which  the  boiler  is 
steaming,  the  normal  condi- 
tion will  be  considered   to 


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or 


exist  and  the  amount  of  water  in  the  boiler  will  be  con- 
stant. Any  rate  of  feed-water  injection  above  or  below 
normal  will  increase  or  decrease  the  rate  of  boiler 
steaming  and  the  amount  of  water  in  the  boiler.  Shut- 
ting off  completely  the  supply  of  feed  water  will  appre- 
ciably increase  the  rate  of  steam  flow.  On  the  other 
hand,  any  increase  above  the  normal  rate  of  feed-water 
injection  will  reduce  the  rate  of  steam  flow;  in  fact,  if 
the  water  is  fed  fast  enough,  steam  flow  will  cease  en- 
tirely. A  still  greater  rate  of  injection  will  cause  a 
reversal  of  steam  flow  from  the  line  if  the  boiler  is  not 
equipped  with  nonreturn  valves.  If  nonreturn  valves 
are  used,  the  pressure  on  the  boiler  being  fed  at  this 

abnormally  high  rate  will 
drop  below  line  pressure. 
The  aforementioned  effects 
are  most  noticeable  when 
very  cold  water  is  used  and 
when  the  rate  of  steaming 
is  low.  An  interesting  ex- 
ample of  the  reverse  effect 
of  temperature  of  feed 
water  is  in  cases  where 
economizers  are  used  and 
the  temperature  of  the  feed 
water  is  equal  to  or  greater 
than,  in  some  cases,  the 
temperature  of  water  in  the 
boiler.'  When  the  feed  tem- 
perature is  the  same  as  the 
temperature  of  the  feed 
water  in  the  boiler,  feed- 
water  injection  does  not  af- 
fect the  rate  of  steaming. 
When  the  feed  water  is  ac- 
tually higher  in  temperp- 
ture  than  that  in  the  boiler, 
an  increase  in  steam  flow 
occurs  upon  feeding  water 
into  the  boiler.  The  fol- 
lowing   formulas    and    the 


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1.0 


•Chief  Engineer,  Station  A.  New 
Yorl<  Steam  Co.,  New  Yorl<  City. 


0.9    06    0.7    0.6    Q6    Q4    03    02 
Rate  of  5+eam  Flow    R=; 


0.0  -01  -0.2 


KFF'RCT    OF    FEED-WATER    IN.IECTION    OX    .ST10.\J[    FI.OW^ 


1  Possible,  due  to  the  higher 
\\':iter  pressure  in  the  econ- 
omizer. 


Feed  Water 
Temp., 
Deg.  F. 
32 
50 
75 
100 
125 
ISO 
175 
200 
225 
250 
275 
300 
325 


350 
375 
400 


B  t.u    Kt  100  Lb.  Gage 

H  L  h 


-0  20 


0  00 


0  20 


1,189 

1,171 

1,146 

1,121 

1,096 

1,071 

1,046 

1.021 

996 

971 

946 

921 

896 


871 

846 
821 


880 
880 
880 
880 
880 
880 
880 
880 
880 
880 
880 
880 


880 
880 
880 


309 

291 

266 

241 

216 

191 

166 

141 

116 

91 

66 

41 

16 


9 
34 
59 


7.36 
8  49 
10  10 
12  60 
16  91 
26  76 
67.00 


I   00 


I  00 
1  00 
I    00 


3  84 

4.03 

4  31 

4  65 

5  07 
3  60 

6  30 

7  24 

8  59 
10  67 
14  36 
22  46 
56  00 


1.20 


20  55 

6   18 
3  98 


-Rs.  Rate  of  Steaming 

0  40  0  60 
Rw,  Rate  of  Fofdiiig- 


0  80 


I    00 


3  28 

3  42 

3  64 

3  92 

4  24 

4  68 

5  24 
5  99 

7  06 

8  73 
n  66 
18  17 
45  00 


2  71 

2  81 
2.99 

3  19 


3 
3 
4 

4 

5 

6  81 

9  00 
13  88 
34  00 


44 
76 
18 
74 
55 


2  14 

2  21 

2  32 

2  4S 

2  63 

2  84 

3  12 

3  49 

4  03 
4,87 
6  33 
9  58 

23  00 


-Rs,  Rattr  of  Steartiiiig- 

1 . 40  1  60 

-  Uw,  Rate  of  Feeding  -- 

40  II     59  64 

II  36     16  54 

5  95      9  94 


1  80 


79  22 
21  71 
12  92 


I 


57 
61 
66 
73 
Bl 

1  92 

2  06 
2  24 
2  50 

2  95 

3  66 
5  26 

12  00 


2  DO 


98  77 
26  89 
15  90 


1  00 
I  00 
I  00 
I  00 
I  00 
I  00 
I  00 
I  00 
I  DO 
I  00 
I  00 
1.00 
I  00 


Rs 

1    20  When 

Rw  Is  Zero 

0  43  1   35 

0  39  1.33 

0  34  I   30 

0  27  1    27 

0   19  1    24 

0  08  I    22 
1.19 

1.16 

1.13 

1.10 

I  07 

I  04 

101 

R«  When 

Hw  ~  Zero 

0.99 

0.96 

0  93 


916 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


1.  With  feed  water  .shut  off  entirely.  R.,  ^' 


accompanying  chart  and  table  will  show  the  magnitude 
of  the  foregoing  effects. 

H  =  Total  heat  above  feed-water  te:nperature  of  one 
pound  of  steam; 

L  =;  Latent  heat  of  one  pound  of  steam  under  given 
conditions  plus  B.t.u.  for  superheating  one  pound  of 
steam   (if  superheated)  ; 

h  =  Heat  of  feed  water  from  feed  temperature  to 
boiler  temperature ; 

Rs  =  Rate  of  steaming : 

R,i  =  Rate  of  feed-water  injection. 

L       ^      L- 

2.  The  rate  of  feed-water  injection  that  would  de- 
crease steam  flow  to  the  rate  /?>  would  be  /?„=!-(- 
L-  RsL 

h       ■  

3.  The  rate  of  feed-water  injection  that  would  cause 

steam  flow  to  cease,  T?,,- =  1  +  y.       (/?.  ^=  zero.) 

4.  Under  any  given  condition  the  sum  nf  the  heat  ab- 
sorbed by  the  feed  water  and  the  heat  used  in  boiling  the 
water  equals  the  total  heat,  or  H  absorbed  by  the 
boiler.  As  a  formula  this  would  be  written  Rs  L  -\- 
R.,h  =  H. 

For  examples  of  the  foregoing  take  the  conditions  of 
100  lb.  gage,  saturated  steam,  and  60  deg.  F.  feed- 
water  temperature.  Then  H  =  U89  —  (60  —  32)  = 
1161  B.t.u. ;  L  ^  880  B.t.u. ;  and  h  =  281  B.t.u. 

H       1161 


1.  R.= 

no  feed. 

2.  Leti? 

1   +    '^ 


880 


=  1.32,  the  rate  of  steaming  with 


=  50  per  cent.,  then  R„-  =  1  + 
(0.5         880) 


L-  RsL 


281 


=  2.57,  the  rate  of  feed  re- 


quired to  reduce  the  rate  of  steam  flow  to  50  per  cent,  of 
rormal. 

T  QOA 

3.  R,r  =    l  +  r  =  l  +  S5T    =  4.13,  the  rate  of  feed 
h  281 

required  to  stop  steam  flow. 

As  shown  by  the  table  and  chart,  variable  feed-water 
injection  with  a  steady  load  is  disastrous  to  uniform 
steam  pressure.  Variable  steam  pressure,  in  turn, 
causes  juggling  of  fires  and  short  periods  of  loafing 
with  consequent  loss  in  efficiency  of  boilers  and  auxili- 
aries. However,  with  loads  that  have  a  periodic  fluctua- 
tion, as  in  rolling  mills,  variable  feed-water  injection, 
if  properly  handled,  aids  the  maintenance  of  the  steam 
pressure.  When  the  load  is  high  the  feed  is  decreased, 
anrt  as  the  load  drops  the  feed  is  increased,  utilizing  the 
heat  absorbed  by  the  boiler  and  admitting  of  fairly 
constant  furnace  conditions.  This  condenser  action  or 
heat-storage  effect  of  the  feed  water  is  (juite  appreciable 
i:nd  is  taken  advantage  of  by  intelligent  water  tenders. 
The  matter  of  correct  boiler  feeding  in  the  majority  of 
cases  is  not  given  the  attention  it  deserves,  as  the  re- 
sults of  improved  methods  of  boiler  feeding  are  felt  in 
the  operation  of  the  whole  station  as  well  as  in  the 
size  of  the  coal  pile. 

The  Fuel  Administration  points  out  the  serious  fuel 
shortage;  careful  feeding  of  water  to  boilers  has  its 
share  in  making  up  for  this  shortajfe  of  80  million  tons. 


Reminiscences  of  a  Boiler  Inspector 

By  R.  E.  McNamara 

While  on  the  road  making  boiler  inspections  in  the 
usual  way,  1  once  mailed  a  form  card  to  a  certain  boiler 
user,  giving  notice  of  my  intended  visit,  and  designat- 
ing the  boilers  I  desired  prepared  for  internal  inspec- 
tion on  a  certain  date,  about  seven  days  later.  I  named 
a  legal  holiday  and  took  special  pains  to  see  that  nothing 
should  interfere  with  my  plans. 

Arriving  in  the  village  in  the  evening  I  called  up  the 
superintendent  of  the  plant  and  asked  him  if  he  had 
received  my  card  and  if  the  boilers  would  be  ready,  also 
if  the  plant  would  be  running  next  day.  He  said  that 
the  plant  would  be  running  next  day  as  usual  notwith- 
standing the  holiday,  that  the  boilers  were  hot  and  could 
not  be  spared,  that  he  had  received  my  card,  but  that  no 
arrangements  could  be  made  for  inspection  at  that 
time.  I  therefore  decided  to  make  an  external  in- 
spection only,  so  I  walked  out  to  the  plant  next  morn- 
ing, giving  myself  just  about  time  enough  to  make  an 
external  inspection  and  catch  the  morning  train.  Pass- 
ing the  office  of  plant  on  the  way.  f  dropped  in.  The 
superintendent  was  in,  and  I  recalled  the  telephone  con- 
versation of  the  previous  evening,  remarking  that  as  it 
was  then  only  about  7  o'clock  perhaps  the  engineer  was 
not  yet  at  the  plant,  but  was  told  that  the  engineer  was 
there  and  that  there  would  be  no  trouble  in  getting  in. 
Arriving  at  the  plant  imagine  my  surprise  at  finding 
that  the  group  of  boilers  I  especially  desired  to  inspect 
were  not  only  not  hot,  but  had  been  idle  for  two  months. 
The  plant  was  not  running,  and  there  was  not  a  man 
excepting  the  watchman  to  be  on  the  premises  that 
holiday.  I  routed  the  engineer  out  by  telephone,  and 
after  his  arrival  he  informed  me  that  if  he  had  known 
of  my  visit,  the  two  remaining  boilers  could  have  been 
cooled  off  for  inspection  as  well  as  not,  for  they  were 
simply  kept  warm  for  emergency. 

It  is  hard  to  imagine  a  superintendent,  in  daily  and 
actual  contact  with  a  plant,  not  knowing  more  of  the 
details  than  that.  My  first  and  very  strong  thought 
was  that  he  had  deliberatfjly  ignored  my  card  and  wil- 
fully misled  me  in  his  statem.ents,  for  it  does  not  seem 
reasonable  that  any  sensible  and  intelligent  man  could 
or  would  try  to  give  plausible  excuses  for  apparent 
contradictions  of  this  kind.  From  what  I  afterward 
learned,  however,  I  am  convinced  that  he  was  honest 
in  his  statements  and  that  it  was  a  peculiar  combina- 
tion of  circumstances  that  need  not  now  be  entered 
into  that  caused  him  to  tell  me  v/hat  w^ere  in  reality  mis- 
statements and  gros.sly  erroneous  answers  to  my  ques- 
tions.  Marvelous  is  the  product  known  as  human  nature. 

At  another  time.  I  recall,  the  date  for  the  internal 
inspection  of  a  plant  had  been  set  for  a  certain  Sunday; 
that  is,  we  had  mailed  the  owner  a  card  giving  that 
date,  for  we  knew  that  Sunday  was  the  regular  washout 
day.  Arriving  at  the  plant  (which  was  about  four  miles 
from  the  regular  path  of  travel,  requiring  a  livery  rig 
to  reach  it),  I  found  the  place  locked  up,  with  high 
brick  walls  all  round  and  no  apparent  mode  of  entrance. 
Scouting  around  the  neighborhood,  which  was  new  to 
me,  no  information  concerning  the  superintendent  or 
engineer  could  be  had.  Returning  and  walking  around 
the  premises  again,  I  noticed  that  the  cleanout  door  of 
the   combustion   chamber   opened   directly   to   the   com- 


June  25.  1918 


POWER 


917 


mons   or   field   and   that   the   combustion    chamber   had 
been  cleaned  that  morning  or  at  least  very  recently. 

Not  wishing  to  lose  the  time  and  trip,  I  made  a 
change  of  clothes  in  the  buggy,  opened  the  combustion- 
chamber  door  and  took  the  risk  of  being  able  to  crawl 
over  the  grates  into  the  boiler  room.  Fortunately,  no 
trouble  was  experienced  and  entrance  to  the  engine 
and  boiler  room  was  easy.  The  top  manhole  was  open 
and  a  :;-in.  hose  was  pouring  city  water  into  the  boiler 
which,  from  the  appearance  of  the  floor,  had  been 
washed  that  morning,  and  judging  from  the  small 
amount  of  water  in  the  boiler  the  cleaners  had  just 
left.  I  drained  the  boiler,  made  the  inspection  and 
thought  to  myself  what  a  joke  it  would  be  on  the  man- 
agement when  they  discovered  what  I  had  accomplished 
and  how.  I  replaced  the  hose,  turned  on  the  water, 
crawled  out,  cleaned  up  the  best  I  could  and  returned 
to  the  city. 

I  suppo.se  my  readers  expect  me  to  relate  how  I 
chalked  my  name  on  the  inside  of  the  boiler  as  proof 
or  left  my  card  in  a  conspicuous  place  to  indicate  my 
visit.  I  regret  that  this  oversight  came  very  near 
leading  to  serious  complications,  for  it  transpired  that 
the  management  had  not  received  the  notification  card 
and  when  the  internal  report  reached  them,  they  re- 
ferred back  to  the  date  and  at  once  notified  the  com- 
pany that  it  was  impossible  for  an  inspection  to  have 
been  made  for  the  plant  and  boiler  house  were  locked 
up  and  although  it  was  true  that  the  boiler  had  been 
washed  on  that  date,  the  engineering  force  had  seen 
nothing  of  the  inspector.  My  company  at  once  re- 
ferred the  matter  to  me,  and  I  then  saw  what  a  mis- 
take I  had  made,  for  it  was  not  at  all  likely  that, 
ordinarily,  one  would  have  used  the  method  and  made 
the  inspection  as  I  did,  and  it  was  equally  as  improbable 
that  anyone  else  could  be  made  to  believe  that  I  had 
resorted  to  this  expedient.  I  suggested  in  my  letter 
containing  a  full  statement  of  the  case  that  the  livery- 
stable  driver  might  add  his  testimony  if  asked.  I  never 
heard  more  of  the  incident  other  than  a  warning  from 
my  company  which  at  least  indicated  a  doubt  on  their 
part.  Since  then,  whenever  I  find  myself  in  a  plant 
alone  or  without  witnesses  when  an  inspection  is  made, 
as  a  precautionary  measure  I  post  my  card  as  proof 
of  my  presence.  I  doubt  very  much,  however,  if  I  will 
ever  again  make  such  a  back-door  entrance  to  make  a 
boiler  inspection. 

Heating  System  Returns  Connected 
Wrong 

By  T.  W.  Reynolds 

Connecting  heating-system  returns  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1  caused  considerable  difficulty  in  a  certain  large  rail- 
road station.  There  was  a  6-in.  return  from  the  station 
proper  and  a  4-in.  return  from  the  express  company 
annex,  the  6-in.  main  running  under  ground  all  the  way 
around  the  building  to  drain  the  various  radiators. 
Its  elevation  was  somewhat  above  the  receiving  tank 
except  for  the  portion  that  ran  along  the  boiler-room 
floor  to  connect  with  the  receiving  tank.  Radiation  in  the 
annex  is  overhead,  and  the  4-in.  return  from  these  coils 
is  also  overhead  and  at  a  considerably  greater  elevation 
than   the  (>-in.   return  to  which   it   is  connected  at   its 


lowest  point  near  the  receiving  tank  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1.  The  boiler-feed  pumps  take  their  suction  from  this 
tank,  3  ft.  6  in.  in  diameter  and  5  ft.  high.  Any  neces- 
sary makeup  water  is  admitted  to  the  tank  by  means 
of  an  automatic  feeder.  Steam  is  circulated  through- 
out the  heating  sy.stems  without  interference;  that  is, 
there  are  no  steam  traps  or  automatic  valves  on  the 
returns  and  there  is  therefore  practically  the  same 
pressure  in  the  return  as  in  the  supply. 

The  annex  is  a  narrow,  low  building  about  500  ft.  long, 
the  front  of  which  is  practically  all  doors,  so  that 
during  the  rush  hours  from  4  to  6,  morning  and  after- 
noon, these  doors  are  all  opened  and  the  heating  re- 
quirements are  greatly  increased.  Because  of  this 
demand  for  steam  the  pressure  is  lowered,  consequently 
the  condensate  does  not  flow  back  freely  when  retarded 
by  the  higher  pressure  within  the  station  return.  This 
resulted  in  flooded  radiators  with  hot  water  as  a  heating 
medium  rather  than  steam  and  at  a  rapidly  decreasing 
temperature.  Therefore,  when  most  needed,  the  heat- 
ing system  failed  to  heat  the  annex.     Furthermore,  the 


4'*Rfturn    from   Anne 


i 


RUtlVINS. 
TANK 


To  Boiler 
Feed  Pumps 

4" Return   from 
Annex-^ 


xl 


^"Return  on 
^Boiler  Room  Floor 


Fie.  I 

':-4'Vent    to 

Atmosphere 


'^'Station 
Return 


'Station 
Return 


KIUS.    1    AND   2. 


FIG.  2 

CHANGES  IN   RETURNS   FROM  TWO 
BUILDINGS 


Fig. 


1 — Returns    join    before    entering    receiving    tank. 
Return    line.';    connected    to    tank    separately 


Fig.2— 


flooding  extended  to  the  lower  portion  of  the  station 
return  until  the  static  head  in  the  4-in.  return  balanced 
the  greater  steam  pressure  in  the  6-in.  main.  Later,  the 
flow  of  condensate  surging  back  to  the  tank  would 
cause  it  to  overflow  and  waste  through  a  pipe  leading 
to  a  sump.  This  sump  contained  a  cellar  drainer  of 
insuflficient  size  for  such  large  quantities  of  water,  so 
tliat  the  boiler-room  floor  was  soon  flooded. 

Under  such  conditions  the  colder  water  from  the 
annex  mingling  with  the  hotter  water  from  the  station 
created  extreme  water-hammer,  sometimes  extending 
to  remote  points  within  the  building,  and  the  movement 
of  the  6-in.  return  caused  a  considerable  stress.  The 
water-hammer  was  greatest  at  the  receiving  tank  and 
was  of  such  force  as  to  cause  alarm ;  the  brick  founda- 
tion under  the  tank  cracked  and  spread;  fittings  and 
joints  leaked  or  were  cracked,  requiring  frequent  re- 
newals. 

The  remedy  was  simple  and  was  made  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  An  expansion  loop  of  four  ells  was  placed  in 
the  6-in.  return;  the  brick  foundation  under  the  re- 
ceiving tank  was  replaced  with  iron-pipe  standards 
flanged  to  the  floor  and  tank.  The  two  returns  were 
connected  separately  into  the  tank,  the  one  from  the 
annex  near  the  top,  the  other,  as  before,  at  the  bottom. 
A  4-in.  vent  was  run  from  the  tank  to  the  atmosphere, 
relieving  the  back  pressure  that  slowed  up  the  returns 
and  the  water-hammer  was  eliminated. 


9j8 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


glllllMllJllililllllluluuiinilllllllllinirimniiiMiiilim ii ii i Jiiuiiiiiiiiillllllllili lllliiiiiiilllllllliiiiiiiillllllllllliiiiiiiiiri 


"""'" >""""" lliiriiililiiillllir iliimiiiillimiiillllllllil i j i imhi „„rii m,; 


From   an  Engineer's  Notebook 


By  M.  P.  Berteande 


-iiiiimnimiNiimiiiiKnimimmMinimimriumiiimmiiiiiiiinii iiinmimiiMmr iii mm mmmimmiimii. i i.miiimmmmimimr r mm r, i i miimi mmmrnx. , mu miimmi.ii 


June  25,  1918  P  O  W  K  K  aiU 

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Editorials 


nliiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiMiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiMiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiii I Ilium i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiln 


The  Vanishing  Factor 

THE  average  steam  boiler  under  pressure  possesses 
about  as  much  potential  power  for  destructiveness 
as  a  healthy  deep-sea  mine  in  the  heyday  of  its  existence, 
and  frequently  it  lets  loose  all  its  energy  on  apparently 
smaller  provocation  than  would  disturb  a  mine  of  normal 
temperament  and  placid  disposition.  To  offset  this  ten- 
dency toward  unexpected  and  undesirable  scatteration, 
we  have  adopted  the  plan  of  building  our  boilers  with 
what  we  call  a  factor  of  safety — otherwise  known  as  a 
factor  of  ignorance. 

Under  the  circumstances,  this  procedure  is  the  best 
that  can  be  devised.  We  are  not  absolutely  sure  that 
every  inch  of  the  steel  we  use  in  the  construction  of  the 
shell  has  the  same  characteristics  as  the  test  piece.  We 
are  not  at  all  certain  that  the  pressure  for  which  the  ves- 
sel is  designed  will  not  be  exceeded  considerably.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  stresses  induced  in  the  shell  material 
by  the  methods  of  construction  and  the  heat  of  the  fur- 
nace is  not  so  exact  as  we  could  wish.  So  we  wrap  up  all 
our  uncertainties  into  one  package,  label  it  "factor  of 
safety,"  make  everything  five  or  six  times  as  strong  as 
the  maximum  shown  by  our  calculations  and  trust  that 
we  have  made  the  ante  sufficiently  high  to  forestall  an- 
noying consequences. 

Too  often  our  childlike  confidence  is  shamefully  be- 
trayed. But  when  the  coroner  has  completed  his  inves- 
tigation and  we  have  managed  to  collect  the  widely  dis- 
tributed pieces  of  boiler  and  examine  them,  we  are  usu- 
ally a  little  better  informed  as  to  what  causes  boiler  ex- 
plosions. 

Of  course,  we  know  at  the  outset  that  the  sole  cause 
of  boiler  explosions  is  the  disappearance  of  the  factor 
of  safety,  leaving  no  margin  between  the  load  on  the 
shell  and  the  power  of  resistance.  The  great  trouble  is 
that  we  are  not  yet  clever  enough  to  catch  it  in  the  van- 
ishing act  in  all  cases.  Careful  periodic  inspection  fre- 
quently detects  it  gumshoeing  into  oblivion,  but  it  still 
has  a  tantilizing  way  of  taking  French  leave. 

However,  we  are  considerably  wiser  than  we  used  to 
be,  for  we  know  to  some  extent  why  and  where  the  dis- 
appearance occurs.  Plenty  of  explosions  have  their  be- 
ginning in  cracks  along  riveted  seams.  We  have  discov- 
ered, through  careful  and  methodical  tests,  that  when  a 
strip  of  metal  having  a  transverse  hole  in  it  is  subjected 
to  tension  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  the  tensile  stress 
at  the  edges  of  the  hole  may  be  two  or  three  times  as 
great  as  the  average  tensile  stress  in  the  full  cross- 
.section  of  the  strip. 

The  drilled  plates  of  a  riveted  joint  are  similar  to  the 
test  bar  just  mentioned,  and  we  are  led  to  suspect  that 
the  cracks  which  develop  into  disastrous  failures  have 
their  beginning  in  minute  fractures  along  the  edges  of 
the  rivet  holes,  due  to  excessive  stresses  at  these  points. 
If  we  admit  that  these  extraordinary  stresses  are  per- 
haps twice  as  great  as  that  considered  in  our  average 


calculations,   we   say   farewell   to   half   of   our   adopted 
factor  of  safety  on  the  instant. 

In  a  boiler  there  is  a  breathing  action  due  to  the 
change  of  pressure  with  the  periodic  drafts  of  the 
engines  or  changing  conditions  of  service,  resulting  in 
what  are  called  repeated  stresses.  The  shell  is  thus  sub- 
jected to  a  series  of  changes  of  load,  varying  between 
fairly  wide  limits,  and  we  know  from  the  results-  of  tests 
on  iron  and  steel  that  a  specimen  subjected  to  a  con- 
siderable number  of  alternately  varying  stresses,  ev^n 
though  all  of  them  are  within  the  elastic  limit,  will 
eventually  fail  at  a  stress  having  a  value  of  only  half 
or  two-thirds  the  normal  strength.  Therefore,  under 
the  long-continued  increase  and  decrease  of  pressure  of 
a  boiler,  a  point  may  be  reached  where  the  resistance  of 
the  material  is  reduced  to  half  of  what  might  ordinarily 
be  expected  of  it,  and  immediately  another  considerable 
fraction  of  our  factor  of  safety  evaporates  into  thin  air. 

We  have  made  the  discovery  that  caustic  soda  has  an 
embrittling  eflfect  on  mild  steel  such  as  is  used  in  boiler 
construction,  this  action  resulting  apparently  from  the 
occlusion  of  hydrogen  in  the  metal.  Caustic  soda  forms 
a  very  common  agent  for  the  treatment  of  feed  water, 
and  if  it  is  present  in  the  boiler  we  may  expect  it  to  have 
some  effect  on  the  steel  under  favorable  conditions.  This 
embrittling  renders  the  metal  less  able  to  withstand  the 
loads  put  upon  it.  And  so  our  factor  of  safety  takes  a 
further  decline. 

Considering  these  points — and  they  are  far  from  be- 
ing a  complete  catalog  of  the  influences  affecting  the 
strength  of  a  steam  boiler — we  begin  to  appreciate  the 
reason  for  the  reduction  of  the  factor  of  safety.  The 
unfortunate  part  of  the  whole  matter  is  that  we  have  • 
had  to  obtain  so  much  of  our  knowledge  of  the  causes  of 
explosions  from  costly  experience;  but,  after  all,  that  is 
exactly  how  the  world  has  accumulated  most  of  the  facts 
it  now  possesses. 

Camouflaged  by  Coal  Conservation 

EVERY  good  American  will  applaud  the  untiring 
efforts  of  the  United  States  Fuel  Administration  to 
conserve  the  coal  supply,  even  though  the  means  sug- 
gested for  the  attainment  of  this  end  may  put  him  to 
inconvenience  and  expense.  He  realizes  that  by  subor- 
dinating his  own  likes  and  dislikes  he  is  patriotically 
doing  his  share  to  further  the  common  cause. 

On  the  contrary,  he  is  entitled  to  voice  his  disapproval 
and  make  an  emphatic  protest  when  he  sees  a  ruling  of 
the  Fuel  Administration  made  an  instrument  for  build- 
ing up  one  group  of  interests  at  the  expense  of  another, 
in  violation  of  all  the  laws  of  fair  play  and  with  little 
or  no  regard  for  the  spirit  of  the  ruling. 

Charles  E.  Stuart,  chief  of  the  Power  and  Light 
Division  of  the  Fuel  Administration,  has  announced  a 
series  of  plans  for  the  saving  of  coal,  foremost  among 
which  is  placed  the  elimination  of  uneconomical  isolated 


920 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


plants.    Elaborating  on  this  particular  topic,  Mr.  Stuart 

says: 

The  individualistic  way  in  which  fuel  is  now  consumed 
in  cities  is  not  efficient.  A  ton  of  coal  burned  in  a  large 
central  station  will  produce  at  least  four  times  as  much 
electric  power  as  if  burned  in  the  average  small  plant,  and 
if  centralized  burning  could  be  introduced  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent, the  amount  of  fuel  required  could  be  reduced  without 
reducing  in  any  way  the  ultimate  production  of  light  and 
power. 

No  one  denies  that  the  central  station  is  able  to  pro- 
duce a  kilowatt-hour  with  a  smaller  expenditure  of  coal 
than  the  small  plant;  but  that  is  far  from  being  the 
whole  of  the  story.  Electrical  power  is  only  one  of  the 
products  of  the  heat  energy  in  coal.  There  is  a  trinity 
of  such  products — heat,  light  and  power — and  all  three 
are  essential  to  human  comfort  and  industrial  existence. 

If  the  people  of  this  country  were  like  a  race  of  moon- 
dwellers,  capable  of  enduring  the  rigors  of  winter  with- 
out discomfort,  then  there  might  be  a  general  shutting 
down  of  isolated  plants.  But  so  long  as  heating  is 
required,  just  so  long  will  the  isolated  plant  for  com- 
bined heating  and  electric  generation  have  undisputed 
sway  in  a  field  in  which  the  central  station,  with  all  its 
vaunted  efficiency,  cannot  successfully  compete. 

Continuing,  Mr.  Stuart  says: 

It  is  sometimes  the  case  that  in  buildings  where  there  are 
electric  plants  and  where  exhaust  steam  is  utilized  in  the 
heating  of  the  building  and  in  furnishing  hot-water  require- 
ments, central-station  service  can  be  adopted  without  a  loss 
of  money  and  at  a  saving  in  fuel. 

This  statement  is  diametrically  opposed  to  all  the 
results  of  experience  in  isolated  plants  using  exhaust 
steam  for  heating.  It  is  so  completely  at  variance  with 
the  facts  that  it  denotes  either  astounding  ignorance  of 
the  subject  or  a  deliberate  attempt  to  distort  the  truth. 
In  either  case  it  stamps  its  author  as  an  inaccurate 
spokesman  for  a  Governmental  department  whose 
avowed  purpose  is  to  deal  intelligently  with  the  coal- 
conservation  problem. 

The  Fuel  Administration  has  repeatedly  stated  its 
intention  to  impose  a  minimum  of  hardship  in  enforcing 
fuel  conservation.  The  wholesale  shutting  down  of 
isolated  plants  and  the  compulsory  substitution  of  cen- 
tral-station service  would  not  only  be  a  gross  repudia- 
tion of  that  policy,  but  it  would  be  a  national  disaster. 
The  oft-repeated  assertion  as  to  the  splendid  effi- 
ciency of  the  central  station  resulted  in  a  passive  ac- 
ceptance of  the  statement.  The  popular  mind  became 
largely  obsessed  with  the  belief,  just  as  it  took  for 
granted  the  much-heralded  efficiency  of  the  German. 
But,  just  as  Teutonic  efficiency  has  been  shown  to  be 
a  ridiculously  overrated  quality— in  some  cases  even  a 
negative  quantity— so  the  preeminence  of  the  central 
station  has  been  found  to  exist  largely  as  a  state  of 
mind  rather  than  as  an  engineering  fact. 

The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  central-station  service 
increases  the  coal  consumption  and  the  expense  in  any 
plant  that  has  use  for  exhaust  steam.  From  the  view- 
point of  coal  conservation,  the  universal  adoption  of 
central-station  service  would  be  a  huge  and  costly  joke, 
and  the  country  is  in  no  mood  for  that  sort  of  diversion 
at  the  present  time. 

The  Fuel  Administration,  probably  unwittingly,  is 
in  danger  of  being  used  by  the  overzealous  henchmen 
of  the  central  station  as  a  bludgeon  to  beat  the  isolated 
plant  into  a  condition  of  permanent  coma.     The  isolated 


plant  is  painfully  aware  of  its  economic  weaknesses. 
It  is  equally  aware  of  its  strong  points,  and  it  is  well 
fortified  with  facts  to  meet  the  open  onslaught  of  the 
central  station.  But  it  is  at  a  decided  disadvantage  in 
a  conflict  in  which  its  adversary  skulkingly  takes  refuge 
behind  the  bulwark  of  the  Fuel  Administration  and 
snipes  away  like  a  boche  sharpshooter  ensconced  behind 
a  crucifix. 

Those   Devil-Hounds 

-T^HE  hearts  of  all  unhyphenated  Americans  have  been 
±  thrilled  on  reading  the  accounts  of  the  splendid 
showing  made  by  our  troops  in  France  under  the  con- 
ditions of  open  warfare  brought  about  by  the  recent 
German  offensives.  It  is  a  style  of  fighting  to  which 
they  are  adapted  by  both  training  and  temperament.  It 
makes  the  conflict  a  contest  of  individual  skill  and 
courage,  in  which  the  American  soldier  asks  no  odds  of 
any  adversary. 

The  dash,  the  intrepidity,  the  disregard  of  danger  and 
punishment  displayed  by  the  marines  in  their  engage- 
ments on  the  western  front  heartened  and  cheered  the 
battle-weary  troops  of  our  Allies  and  electrified  the 
spirits  of  our  people  at  home.  The  effect  went  even 
farther  than  that.  It  taught  the  boche  a  wholesome 
respect  for  the  new  fighting  element,  which  the  Ger- 
man high  command  had  hitherto  affected  to  regard  with 
sneering  contempt ;  it  proved,  even  to  the  wilfully  blind 
and  thickheaded  Teutons,  that  the  forces  arriving  by 
the  hundreds  of  thousands  from  the  western  world  con- 
stitute a  factor  that  must  be  taken  into  account  in  the 
final  reckoning;  and  it  earned  for  those  fearless  fight- 
ers the  German  appellation  of  "devil-hounds." 

The  epithet  thus  applied  becomes  a  title  of  merit  when 
interpreted  as  shown  by  the  artist  in  the  colored  supple- 
ment to  this  issue.  The  marines  are  hounding  and 
harrying  the  German  beast,  and  its  snarls  of  rage  and 
hate  indicate  all  too  plainly  that  it  has  felt  the  fangs  of 
its  tormentor. 

It  is  this  beast — the  incarnation  of  all  things  un- 
speakable and  devilish,  glutted  with  conquest  and  lust- 
ing for  further  outrages — that  stands  as  a  hideous  men- 
ace to  the  freedom  and  happiness  of  the  peoples  of  the 
world.  For  the  safety  of  the  generations  yet  unborn 
it  must  be  cowed,  driven  back,  overwhelmed  and  slain. 
Our  marines  have  splendidly  begun  the  mighty  task. 
Our  swiftly  arming  millions  will  gloriously   finish   it. 


In  history  there  is  one  example  of  physical  force,  of 
military  might,  becoming  so  strong  that  nothing  but 
force  could  overcome  it.  The  Roman  Empire  reached 
that  stage.  It  was  not  conquered;  .c  died  of  rot;  it 
wrecked  itself  in  the  decay  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
works  of  civilization  of  the  past  were  stamped  under 
the  oppressor's  foot  and  the  world  relapsed  into  barbar- 
ism and  darkness  that  lasted  during  the  centuries  of 
the  Dark  Ages.  The  world  now  faces  a  similar  situa- 
tion; and  to  prevent  it,  the  military  might  of  Germany 
must  be  crushed ;  otherwise  it  will  die  by  slow  rot,  ever 
so  much  slower  than  the  Roman  Empire  because  of  the 
science  and  technique  of  the  oppressor. — P.  B.  Noyes, 
Director  Conservation  Division,  United  States  Fuel  Ad- 
ministration, at  annual  dinner  of  the  National  Electric 
Light  Association,  Atlantic  City. 


June  25,  1918  POWER  921 

dlllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIlrllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIMnlHIIIIIII^ 


Correspondence 


tIlllllllllllMnillMIIIMIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIII(nilllllll»llllll(IIIIHIIIIIIlnlll(UIIIUIUIIIIIIIIIIIIimil»IIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIUIIII» 


Using  a  Pitot  Tube 


Referring  to  the  articles  on  pitot  tubes  on  page 
195,  Feb.  5,  and  page  520,  Apr.  9,  there  are  graphic 
methods  often  useful  for  reducing  the  data  to  the  aver- 
age velocity  head.  One  method  that  shows  directly  the 
locations  in  the  cross-section  of  the  pipe  where  it  is 
desirable  to  take  readings  near  together,  for  the  sake 
of  accuracy,  and  that  gives  each  observation  its  proper 
influence  on  the  result,  may  be  explained  as  follows: 


g5     V       16 


?5 


56 


A  R''  0  R'=  B 

CHART    SHOWING    AREAS    PROPORTIONAL    TO 

FLOW  IN  PIPES 

Since  the  volume  passing  a  given  section  is  the  prod- 
ret  of  the  area  of  the  section  and  the  velocity,  these 

factors   being   izR'   and     1     2gH,   a  plot   laid   out  with 

values  of  R'  and  i  i/  as  coordinates  gives  an  area  that 
is  proportional  to  the  flow.  In  the  illustration,  repre- 
senting a  flow  of  air,  O  represents  the  center  of  the  pipe 
and  readings  H  are  taken  by  the  pitot  tube  at  known 
distances  R  away  from  the  center  across  the  diameter. 
Then  each  reading  gives  a  point  P  located  by  laying 
out  the   distance  R"  from   O   along  the   base-line,   and 

erecting  V  H  as  an  ordinate.  The  distance  OA  =  OB 
is.  the  square  of  the  radius  of  the  pipe.  The  closed 
figure  formed  by  the  line  joining  points  P  and  the 
base-line  has  an  area  proportional  to  the  flow,  and  the 
average  ^'  H  is  found  by  dividing  this  area,  a.s  found 
by  planimeter,  by  the  length  AB. 

The  method  is  somewhat  longer  than  the  one  in  which 
the  average  pressure  is  found  from  concentric  rings 
of  equal  area,  but  additional  points  are  more  readily 
represented.  C.  H.  Chase. 

S1;oneham,   Mass.  ' 

Charged  Steam  Pipe 

H.  S.  Whitney's  letter,  "An  Electrical  Phenomenon," 
published  in  Power,  Feb.  12,  and  Dr.  K.  Becker's  com- 
ments on  this  letter,  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  23,  bring  to 
mind  a  somewhat  similar  experience  with  static  elec- 
tricity caused  by  a  steam  leak. 

In  a  plant  in  which  I  was  working  it  became  necessary 
to  install  a  supporting  strap  on  one  of  the  steam  pipes. 
A  steam  fitter  went  up  on  a  ladder  to  do  the  jo)),  but  on 
touching  the  pipe  with  a  tool,  he  received  a  shock  that 
almost  knocked  him  down.  As  a  temporary  measure  of 
relief  a  copper  wire  was  connected  between  the  charged- 
pipe  .section  and  a  water  main,  so  that  the  electric  pres- 


sure could  not  accumulate  as  a  charge.  Later,  a  careful 
inspection  was  made  for  a  contact  between  some  live 
wire  and  a  pipe  or  iron  part  of  the  building,  but  no 
such  contact  could  be  found. 

The  cause  of  the  charged  condition  was  not  discovered 
until  a  week  or  ten  days  later,  when  a  steam  leak  in 
the  affected  section  was  .stopped;  after  repairing  the 
leak,  the  charged  condition  no  longer  existed.  •  The  blow- 
ing of  steam  through  the  leak  generated  the  electricity, 
which,  ordinarily,  could  not  have  accumulated  as  a 
charge,  because  in  most  cases  it  would  have  followed  the 
pipe  line  to  ground.  In  this  case,  however,  the  pipe  line 
had  been  installed  a  long  time,  and  the  joints  on  both 
sides  of  the  affected  section  acted  as  insulation  by  virtue 
of  rust  and  the  intervening  rubber  gaskets  between  the 
flanges.  E.  C.  Parham. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Engine  Broke  Wedge  Bolts 

The  crosshead  ends  of  the  connecting-rods  of  some  of 
our  engines  are  designed  as  shown  in  the  illustration, 
and  when  all  the  adjustment  was  taken  up  on  one  of  the 
engines,  I  raised  the  wedge,  and  as  there  was  a  thin  shim 
at  A,  I  thoughtlessly  inserted  another  in  the  same  place. 
The  engine  ran  only  a  few  hours  before  one  of  the  wedge 
bolts  broke  off  at  B  close  to  the  adjusting  wedge.  I  put 
in  a  new  bolt,  but  the  engine  broke  two  more  bolts  at  the 
same  place  in  less  than  a  week.  I  then  decided  it  was  time 
to  use  my  head  a  little  and  reasoned  that  the  shims  be- 
ing inserted  at  A  threw  the  threaded  hole  in  the  wedge 
out  of  line  with  the  hole  through  the  strap,  causing  un- 


LINERS  PUT  IN  THE  WROriG   PLACE 

due  strain  on  the  bolts,  which  broke  them.  I  took  the 
shims  out  and  put  them  in  at  C,  and  the  engine  has  never 
broken  another  bolt. 

Whether  the  shim  should  be  put  at  C  or  at  I)  depends 
on  the  travel  clearance  of  the  piston.  A  shim  at  C  will 
lengthen  the  rod  and  reduce  the  clearance  at  the  head 
end  of  the  cylinder,  while  the  reverse  will  be  true  if  the 
shim  is  put  in  at  I).  W.  G.  Camp. 

Ash  Fork,  Ariz. 


922 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


Coal  for  Live-Steam  Heating  Plant 

The  amount  of  coal  required  for  heating  and  the 
percentage  of  the  total  for  the  season  used  each  month 
are  valuable  data  in  these  days  of  coal  shortage  and  lack 
of  transportation  facilities.  In  this  connection  the 
article  by  M.  W.  Ehrlich.  on  "Average  and  Maximum 
Heating  Demand,"  in  the  Mar.  5  issue  of  Power  is 
interesting.     In  many   large  buildings  the  power  and 

1500 

1400 


Oct     Nov.   Deo.  Jan.   Feb.  Mar.   Apr.    May 
COAI/  USED  PER  MONTH   IN  TONS   AND   PERCENTAGE 

heating  are  combined,  and  with  a  scarcity  of  meters 
of  the  proper  character  it  is  difficult  to  separate  the 
coal  for  the  different  services.  Data  from  a  live-steam 
heating  plant,  where  coal  is  burned  for  heating  only, 
may  be  of  interest.  Averages  covering  the  three  years, 
1915,  1916  and  1917,  for  the  retail  department  store 
of  Marshall  Field  &  Co.  are  presented  herewith. 
The  data  apply  to  the  main  building,  which  is  380  ft. 
long,  380  ft.  wide  and  270  ft.  high,  giving  in  round 
numbers  an  interior  volume  to  be  heated  of  39,000,000 
cu.ft.  Illinois  washed  nut  coal  averaging  12,000  B.t.u. 
per  lb.  is  burned. 

Extending  from  October  into  May  the  heating  season 
averaged  200  days  of  14  hours,  or  a  total  of  2800  hours. 
The  average  coal  consumption  was  6359  tons  per  season. 
Above  the  first-floor  line  the  building  contains  215,000 
sq.ft.  of  direct  radiation,  and  the  cubical  content  is 
32,500,000  cu.ft.  This  space  is  83  per  cent,  of  the  total 
and  requires  90  per  cent,  of  the  coal,  or  11,446,200  lb. 
Thus  the  coal  consumption  per  season  for  that  part  of 
the  building  above  ground  reduces  to  53.2  lb.  per  sq.ft. 
of  direct  radiation.  Per  1000  cu.ft.  of  building  space 
the  coal  consumption  for  the  season  reduces  to  352  lb., 
and  this  in  the  writer's  opinion  is  the  better  ratio  to 
use  in  comparing  the  heating  requirements  of  various 
buildings. 

The  chart  shows  the  tons  of  coal  used  each  month, 
including  October  and  May,  and  in  each  case  the  per- 
centage of  the  total  for  the  season  is  given.  These 
figures  include  the  coal  required  to  heat  the  base- 
ments and  are  given  to  show  the  relative  quantities  of 
coal  required  in  the  different  months  of  the  season. 
The  basement  has  15,000  sq.ft.  of  indirect  surface, 
which  is  usually  conceded  to  be  equivalent  to  about 
45,000  sq.ft.  of  direct  radiation.  The  dotted  curve 
gives  the  average  of  outdoor  temperature  readings 
taken  at  8  a.  m.  and  4  p.  m.  every  day  of  the  heating 
season. 

Chicago,  111.  C.  W.  Naylor. 


Fitting  New  Sections  to  a  Warped  Boiler 

In  the  layout  of  the  heating  system  of  a  church  in 
Tarrytown,  N.  Y.,  one  boiler  of  nine  sections  was  in- 
stalled to  heat  both  the  parish  house,  which  must  be 
continually  heated,  and  the  church,  which  is  heated  only 
on  Sundays.  The  furnace  is  in  the  basement  of  the 
parish  house,  and  to  heat  the  house  and  not  the  church 
all  that  is  necessary  is  to  have  a  low  fire,  not  hot  enough 
to  force  steam  over  to  the  church  but  enough  for  the 
house.  No  valves  were  provided  to  shut  off  the  steam 
from  the  church.  This  works  fairly  well,  but  there  is 
one  trouble;  when  the  church  is  not  heated,  there  is  no 
way  to  drain  the  returns  and  they  remain  full  of  water 
and  are  in  danger  of  freezing.  In  fact  one  of  them 
did  freeze  and  burst  during  a  cold  spell  last  winter.  The 
sexton  built  a  hot  fire  under  the  boiler,  got  a  steam  pres- 
sure of .  15  lb.  about  6  p.m.  Saturday  and  then  left 
the  church  without  discovering  the  burst  pipe.  He  re- 
turned at  10:30  that  evening  and  found  that  all  the 
water  had  been  driven  out  from  the  boiler.  With  the 
very  hot  fire  and  no  water  in  the  boiler,  the  front 
section  was  warped  out  of  line  one-half  inch;  resulting 
in  damage  amounting  to  $400.  When  the  new  sections 
arrived,  the  front  section  fitted  nicely,  but  the  last  old 
section  was  warped  out  of  line  one-half  inch ;  in  fact,  at 
least  four  and  probably  five  sections  were  warped  or 
spread  at  the  bottom,  as  shown  in  the  illustration;  and 
being  cast  iron,  it  was  impossible  to  force  them  into 
place. 

Experts  were  called  in,  and  each  one  maintained  that 
it  would  be  impossible  to  fix  them  so  they  could  be  used 
and  that  new  sections  would  be  necessary  at  a  further 
cost  of  $500  to  $600.  It  seemed  to  me  that  there  must 
be  some  way  to  use  these  sections,  which  were  still 
good,  having  stood  a  cold-water  test  of  10  lb.  Careful 
measurements  were  than  made  to  determine  how  much 


OFFSET   NIPPLES    COMPENSATE    FOR    MISALIGNMENT 

the  nipple  holes  were  out  of  alignment  and  it  was  found 
that  the  difference  was  j\  in.  on  one  side  and  y\ 
on  the  other.  Two  eccentric,  or  offset,  nipples  were 
made  accordingly,  with  slightly  more  taper  than  the 
regular  nipples,  and  with  these  the  new  section  of  the 
boiler  slipped  into  place  with  the  same  ease  as  in  reg- 
ular construction.  A  tight  joint  was  made,  and  the 
boiler  is  giving  satisfaction.  The  saving  was  nearly 
$600.  As  far  as  I  can  find  out,  this  is  the  first  time  such 
a  repair  has  been  tried  out.  D.  C.  Ashmead. 

Tarrytown,  N.  Y. 


June  25,  1918 


POWER 


923 


Suggested    Steam- Jet    Ash-Conveyor 
Improvements 

The  operation  of  steam-jet  ash  conveyors  is  simple 
and  so  is  their  construction  in  the  main,  but  my  ex- 
perience with  them  indicates  that  there  are  one  or 
two  parts  that  might  be  improved.  One  is  in  relation 
to  the  method  of  placing  the  steam  nozzles  in  the  nozzl^ 
section.  In  the  system  I  am  using,  there  are  two  jets 
placed  diametrically  opposite  and  at  an  angle  of  about 


PROPOSED    ARRANGEMENT    OF    STEAM    JETS 

15  to  20  deg.  with  the  axis  of  the  pipe.  The  streams 
issuing  from  these  nozzles  come  together  at  a  point 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  pipe  and  upon  the  angle 
of  the  nozzles. 

The  indications  are  that  the  jets  coming  together 
as  they  do,  tend  to  combine  and  form  a  jet  similar  to 
that  of  the  gas  flame.  This  shape  of  jet,  together  with 
the  ashes,  causes  a  scouring  action  at  the  top  and  bot- 
tom of  the  pipe,  as  shown  in  the  sketch  at  AA.  This 
pipe  is  8  in.  diameter,  1  in.  thick  and  8  ft.  long  and 
is  of  chilled  cast  iron,  which  makes  frequent  renewals 
expensive.  The  best  way,  I  believe,  is  to  correct  the 
trouble  at  the  nozzles  by  placing  them  so  that  the  result- 
ant discharge  is  a  cone-shaped  stream.  I  believe  that 
this  could  be  done  by  adding  two  other  nozzles  placed 
as  sho\vn  at  BB,  or  90  deg.  from  the  present  nozzles, 
which  would  tend  to  prevent  this  action.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  have  the  center  line  of  the  nozzles  lie  in 
the  same  plane  with  the  axis  of  the  pipe,  or  a  spiral  or 
centrifugal  scouring  will  be  caused.  With  the  coming 
of  warm  weather  I  expect  to  change  the  nozzles  I  am 
operating,  as  suggested  herein. 

The  second  improvement  relates  to  sharp  90-deg. 
bends,  which,  from  the  point  of  economy  in  steam 
consumption  and  upkeep,  should  be  replaced  with  long- 
radius  bends  fitted  with  cast-iron  baffle  plates.  The 
long  bends  should  be  made  sectional,  as  some  of  them 
are,  so  as  to  be  easily  replaced. 

We  have  recently  installed  a  skip  hoist  and  tank 
ash-handling  system,  and  as  soon  as  possible  I  will 
forward  data  giving  a  comparison  of  the  operation  of 
both  systems.  Although  the  jet  type  of  conveyor  uses 
a  greater  amount  of  steam  during  the  time  it  is  en- 
gaged in  removing  ashes,  the  steam  is  used  but  a  short 
.  time  at  each  ash  removal,  and  the  system  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  capable  of  taking  care  of  a  great 
overload,  which  cannot  be  said  of  the  skip  hoist  un- 
less it  is  of  very  liberal  size.  H.  G.  Burrill. 

Herkimer,  N.  Y. 


Sand  Filter  for  Used  Oil 

Perhaps  other  power-plant  engineers  have  experienced 
difficulty  in  filtering  lubricating  oils  which  have  become 
heavily  laden  with  grit  and  other  foreign  substance. 
The  illustration  shows  a  primary  filter,  which  I  con- 
structed, to  take  care  of  black  and  badly  carbonized 
lubricating  oil  drawn  from  the  well  of  a  semi-Diesel 
fuel-oil  engine,  which  has  proved  entirely  satisfactory 
for  the  purpose.  I  found  that,  quite  contrary  to  the 
prevailing  opinion,  oil  can  be  filtered  through  sand 
without  danger  of  injury  to  the  most  delicate  bearings 
in  which  it  may  be  used  later.  After  the  oil  is  drawn 
from  this  filter  it  is,  as  an  extra  precaution,  put  through 
a  standard  make  of  oil  filter. 

The  upper  tank  can  be  removed  from  the  lower  tank 
or  reservoir  for  cleaning.  The  water  in  the  lower 
tank  is  not  necessary,  but  since  a  space  for  settling 
is  left  below  the  faucet,  the  use  of  water  obviates  the 
necessity  for  the  excessive  amount  of  oil  which  would 
otherwise  be  required  to  bring  it  to  the  faucet  level. 
The  construction  of  the  upper  tank  is  such  that  it  will 
fit  nicely  on  the  lower  tank  and  prevent  the  oil  from 
creeping  to  the  outer  edges  by  the  bottom  having  a 
large  hole  cut  in  the  center  and  its  edges  beaded  down, 
as  shown. 

The  plan  of  screen  arrangement  allows  for  the  ad- 
justment of  the  amount  of  sand  through  which  the  oil 
must  pass  before  reaching  the  waste,  and  by  bringing 
the   sand   up   around  the   sides   of  the   screen,   the   oil 


r         r  r  ir 'TT-fr  n    h 


r-^ 


.SAND  USED   IN   FIR.ST  STACE  OF  FILTER 

is  prevented  from  seeping  down  between  the  side  of 
the  tank  and  the  sand  unfiltered. 

I  will  appreciate  comments  in  the  columns  of  Power 
and  suggestions  for  improvements  and  also  to  know 
whether  any  engineer  has  previously  used  such  a  filter. 

Han'ard,  Neb.  Julius  E.  Person. 


924 


POWER 


Vol.  47.  No.  26 


Supporting  Effect  of  Boiler  Heads 

I  was  much  interested  in  the  article  by  Neil  M.  Mac- 
donald  in  Power  of  May  21,  wherein  it  is  shown  that 
the  strength  of  the  unsupported  head  should  not  be 
added  to  the  strength  of  the  stays  to  find  the  allowable 
pressure  in  a  boiler.  However,  I  question  Mr.  Mac- 
donald's  line  of  reasoning. 

Let  us  confine  our  argument  to  the  very  good  illus- 
tration of  the  two  walls  joined  by  a  rope.  The  author 
states  that  "when  the  pressure  reaches  528  lb.,  which 
is  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  rope,  the  rope  breaks." 
This  is  not  so,  for  the  weaker  wall  is  able  to  with- 
stand 296  lb.,  so  that  there  is  a  pull  on  the  rope  of 
only  232  lb.,  and  the  rope  will  not  break.  The  author 
admits  that  "the  pressure  rises  slowly  until  296  lb.  is 
reached  .  .  .  but  there  is  no  perceptible  change  in  con- 
ditions, as  both  walls  still  stand  and  the  rope  is  still  in- 
tact." In  other  words,  the  rope  is  not  subjected  to  any 
stress  as  long  as  the  pressure  on  the  wall  is  less  than 
296  lb.,  so  that  when  the  pressure  on  the  wall  is  greater 
than  296  lb.,  the  pull  on  the  rope  is  equal  to  the  amount 
that  the  pressure  exceeds  296  lb.  The  pull  on  the  rope 
will  equal  528  lb.  only  when  the  pressure  on  the  wall 
has  reached  824  lb.  Hence,  the  strength  of  the  unsup- 
ported head  should  be  added  to  the  strength  of  the  stays 
to  obtain  the  allowable  pressure  in  a  boiler. 

Bridgeport,  Conn.  D.  Fliegelman. 


A  hasty  first  perusal  of  the  article  in  the  May  21 
issue  of  Power,  page  733,  caused  the  writer  to  wonder 
if  the  author  of  that  article  was  serious  in  his  views 
or  merely  wanted  to  start  something.  If  Mr.  Mac- 
donald's  argument  is  a  valid  one,  then  in  every  line  of 
machine  design  much  material  has  been  added  use- 
lessly in  order  to  give  supposedly  greater  strength  to 
some  weak  member. 

It  seems  strange  that  he  did  not  go  a  step  farther 
and  assume  that  sixteen  braces  supported  the  head. 
He  should  have  assumed  that  the  total  load  to  be  carried 
by  these  sixteen  stays  was  80,000  lb.  so  that  each  stay 
would  singly  support  5000  lb.  Then,  using  his  "wall" 
argument,  when  the  load  rose  to  5500  lb.  one  stay 
would  break,  since  this  was  beyond  its  capacity;  then 
the  second,  third,  etc.,  would  successively  break  under 
this  load. 

The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  would  follow  the  con- 
clusion he  stated — the  strength  of  the  boiler  or  stone 
wall  was  the  strength  of  its  strongest  part,  namely, 
one  stay  or  brace.  Absurd,  you  will  promptly  decide. 
No  more  than  Mr.  Macdonald's  conclusion.  Why  does 
he  not  state  the  actual  conditions  existing  in  his  wall? 
If  he  loads  it  with  528  lb.,  it  can  be  assumed  either 
that  the  rope  bears  all  the  pressure  or  that  it  is  divided 
between  the  wall  and  the  rope.  Now,  the  wall  has  a 
resistance  of  296  lb.,  then  sui'ely  296  lb.  can  be  added 
before  the  combined  resistance  is  overcome. 

Philadelphia.  Penn.  E.  S.  MORRISON. 


The  article  in  the  May  21  issue  of  Power,  page  733, 
seems  correct  to  me  in  its  final  conclusion,  namely, 
that  a  boiler  head  should  be  stayed  without  taking 
into  account  the  strength  of  the  unstayed  head.  But  is 
the  author  not  mistaken  in  his  explanation  of  the 
reason  whv?     It  looks  to  me  that  with  his  weaker  and 


stronger  wall  with  a  rope  between,  the  strength  of  the 
weaker  wall  can  safely  be  added  to  the  strength  of 
the  rope  to  find  the  pressure  at  which  the  rope  will 
break  and  the  wall  topple  over,  for  both  are  rigid  and 
both  give  their  ultimate  strength  in  the  same  position 
and  at  the  same  time.  But  with  the  boiler  head  it  is 
not  the  same,  for  while  the  head  might  be  ultimately 
strong  enough  to  withstand  considerable  pressure,  the 
pressure  it  will  stand  and  remain  in  position  is  very 
much  less;  therefore,  the  stays  must  take  the  whole 
pressure,  for  the  position  the  head  will  take  under 
little  pressure  is  beyond  the  position  where  stays  will 
be  broken  off. 

To  illustrate,  take  a  .spiral  spring  with  an  eye-bolt 
in  each  end,  hook  up  one  end  and  hang  a  weight  on 
the  other  end.  Suppose  that  the  spring  will  sustain 
a  weight  of  1000  lb.  Now  take  the  weight  off,  put  a 
solid  bolt  from  eye-bolt  to  eye-bolt  through  the  center 
of  the  spring,  make  it  just  the  right  length  so  that  the 
spring  will  be  in  its  normal  unstrained  position,  and 
make  the  bolt  of  sufficient  strength  to  support  2000 
lb.  It  is  possible  that  some  might  think  that  the  com- 
bined bolt  and  spring  would  suspend  3000  lb.,  and 
they  would  but  for  the  fact  that  the  bolt  will  be  broken 
before  the  spring  begins  to  take  any  material  part  of 
the  load. 

A  wall  and  a  tight  rope,  two  bolts  or  any  other 
combination  of  materials  that  will  take  strain  at  the 
same  time,  up  to  their  ultimate  strength,  will  have 
the  resistance  of  one  plus  the  other.  With  the 
spring  and  bolt,  or  the  stayed  boiler  head,  the  strain 
it  will  stand  is  the  strength  of  the  first  to  fetch  up, 
plus  whatever  strain  is  on  the  other  element  in  the 
position  where  the  first  member  takes  up,  and  no  more. 
With  the  boiler  so  little  pressure  will  cause  the  flat 
head  to  move  away  from  the  pressure,  that  in  figuring 
the  strength  of  stays  to  keep  the  head  in  place  the 
effect  of  the  head  should  not  be  reckoned  and  is  not 
in  practice,  usually.  L.  Johnson. 

Exeter,  N.  H. 

Wood  for  Pipe  Covering  Dangerous 

On  page  742  in  the  issue  of  May  21  there  is  a  de- 
scription of  a  system  of  pipe  covering,  which  is  not 
new,  and  is  not  desirable,  as  it  is  dangerous.  Back  in 
the  early  80's  I  was  in  charge  of  a  plant  in  the  Middle 
West,  in  which  the  steam  piping  was  covered  in  a 
similar  manner  and  I  think  it  had  been  patented. 
Having  to  make  some  changes  in  the  piping  to  the 
cylinder  lubricator,  which  was  connected  into  the  steam 
pipe  just  above  the  throttle  valve,  I  had  to  remove  some 
of  the  pipe  covering  and  found  almost  all  of  the  wood 
converted  to  charcoal,  so  soft  that  it  could  be  easily 
crushed  to  powder  with  the  fingers,  and  a  spark  would 
have  started  a  blaze.  The  old  covering  was  therefore 
ripped  off,  and  a  covering  more  nearly  fireproof  sub- 
stituted. 

In  "ye  olden  times"  it  was  the  custom  also  to  lag 
engine  cylinders  with  fancy  wood,  but  wherever  this 
lagging  was  in  contact  with  the  bare  metal  it  would 
invariably  char,  and  steam  pressures  were  low  then 
compared  with  present  practice,  one  hundred  pounds 
being  considered  high.  Alonzo  G.  COLLINS. 

Philadelphia,  Penn. 


June  25,  1018                                                                 P  O  VV  E  R  925 

yjiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii mill i 'iimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiniiiii n iimiiiiihii i mmii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiig 

I  Inquiries  of  General  Interest  | 


niiiMiHii<iiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiMiimiiiiniiniiiiiiiiiMiiuiiiuiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiuiiimiMiMNiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiM|iiim^^^ 


Over-All  rfficiency  of  Pumpins  Plant — What  would  be 
the  over-all  efficiency,  or  ratio  of  water  horsepower  to  elefc- 
tric  input,  of  an  electrically  driven  pumping  plant,  where 
the  efficiency  cf  the  motor  is  85  per  cent,  efficiency  of  pump 
70  per  cent,  and  efficiency  of  pipe  lines  75  per  cent.? 

J.  H.  N. 

The  over-all,  or  combined,  efficiency  would  be  the  product 
of  the  separate  efficiencies:  namely,  0.85  X  0.70  x  0.75  = 
0.44625,  or  practically  45  per  cent. 

Height  of  Barometric  Condenser — Would  there  be  any 
gain  in  vacuum  by  raising  a  barometric  condenser  from  34 
ft.  to  38  or  40  ft.  above  the  water  in  the  hotwell?     L.  B.  R. 

The  purpose  of  havinjj  an  elevated  discharge  pipe  is  to 
obtain  a  column  of  wat-r  that  will  produce  sufficient  pres- 
sure for  the  water  to  discharge  itself  against  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  acting  on  the  water  of  the  hotwell.  Un- 
der ordinary  conditions,  34  ft.  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose, 
and  additional  height  would  be  of  no  advantage. 

I.Hp.  for  Increase  of  R.P.M.  and  M.E.P. — An  engine  run- 
ning at  75  r.p.m.  with  40  lb.  m.e.p.  develops  100  i.hp.  If 
the  speed  is  increased  to  80  r.p.m.,  what  number  of  horse- 
power would  be  developed  with  45  lb.  m.e.p.?  J.J.  H. 

The  power  developed  would  be  directly  in  proportion  to 
the  speed  and  the  mean  effective  pressure.  Therefore  with 
80    r.p.m.    and    45    lb.    m.e.p.    the    engine    would    develop 

80         45 
100   X   —   X   —  =   120  i.hp. 
75         40 

Break  in  Boiler-Feed  Line  from  Stoppage  of  Pump — My 
foreman  states  that  stopping  of  the  feed  pump  was  the 
cause  for  frequent  breaking  of  a  tee  in  the  feed  line.  How 
could  that  occur?  M.  S.  C. 

Stoppage  of  the  pump  might  be  an  indirect  cause  of  the 
breakage  from  expansion  of  the  feed  line,  as  a  result  of 
the  feed  line  becoming  heated  from  leakage  of  a  boiler 
check  valve;  but  breakage  of  the  line  from  overheating 
should  not  happen  if  the  feed  line  is  laid  out  with  proper 
allowances   for   expansion    and    contraction. 

Efficiency  of  Quadruple-Riveted  Boiler  Joint — What  is 
the  efficiency  of  a  quadruple-riveted  butt  and  double-strap 
boiler  joint  like  the  sketch,  made  of  steel  plates  of  55,000 
T.S.  and  95,000  lb.  crushing  strength,  and  having  main 
plates  Vz  in.  thick;  butt  straps  A  in.  thick;  P,  the  pitch  of 


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rivets  in  the  outer  row,  14  in.;  diameter  of  rivets  after 
driving,  *8  in.;  shearing  strength  of  rivets  in  single  shear, 
44,000  lb.,  and  in  double  shear  88,000  lb.  per  square  inch? 

I.  T. 

The  diameter  of  the  rivet  holes  and  rivets  after  driving 
would  be  tS  =  0.9375  in.,  and  each  rivet  would  have  a  cross- 
sectional  area  of  0.9375  x  0.9375  X  0.7854  =  0.6903  sq.in. 
For  each  unit  length  of  joint  =  P,  there  would  be  three 
rivets  in  single  shear  and  eight  rivets  in  double  shear  and 
for  such  unit  of  length  there  would  be, 

(A)    Strength  of  solid  plate, 

14  X  0.5  X  55,000  -  385,000  lb. 


The  strength  of  the  joint  per  unit  P  of  length  would  de- 
pend on  one  of  the  following  considerations: 

(B)  Strength  of  plate  between  rivet  holes  in  the  outer  row, 

(14  —  0.9375)  0.5  x  55,000  =  359,219  lb. 

(C)  Shearing  strength  of  eight  rivets  in  double  shear, 
plus  the  shearing  strength  of  three  rivets  in  single  shear, 

(8  X  88,000  X   0.6903)    +    (3  x   44,000   x   0.6903) 
=  577,091  lb. 

(D)  Strength  of  plate  between  rivet  holes  in  the  second 
row,  plus  the  shearing  strength  of  one  rivet  in  single  shear 
in  the  outer  row, 

[[14—  (2  X  0.9375)]  0.5  x  55,000]   -j-   (1   X 
44,000    X   0.6903)    =:  363,811  lb. 

(E)  Strength  cf  plate  between  rivet  holes  in  the  third 
row,  plus  the  shearing  strength  in  single  shear  of  two 
rivets  in  the  second  row  and  of  one  rivet  in  the  outer  row, 

[[14—  (4   X  0.9375)]  0.5   x  55,000]   -|-   (3  X 
44,000  X  0.6903)   =  372,995  lb. 

(F)  Strength  of  plate  between  rivet  holes  in  the  second 
row,  plus  the  crushing  strength  of  butt  strap  in  front  of 
one  rivet  in  the  outer  row, 

[[14—  (2  X  0.9375)]  0.5  x  55,000]   +   (0.9375  x 
0.4375   X   95,000)    =  372,402  lb. 

(G)  Strength  of  plate  between  rivet  holes  in  the  third 
row,  plus  the  crushing  strength  of  butt  strap  in  front  of 
two  rivets  in  the  second  row  and  one  rivet  in  the  outer  row, 

[[14—  (4  X  0.9375)]  0.5  x  55,000]   +    (3  x 
0.9375   X   0.4375   x   95,000)    =   398,770  lb. 
(H)   Crushing  strength  of  plate  in  front  of  eight  rivets, 
plus  the  crushing  strength  of  butt  strap  in  front  of  three 
rivets, 

(8  X  0.9375  X  0.5  X  95,000)   -f   (3  X  0.9375  X 
0.4375  X  95,000)   =  473,145  lb. 
(I)    Crushing  strength  of  plate  in  front  of  eight  rivets, 
plus  the  shearing  strength,  in  single  shear,  of  two  rivets 
in  the  second  row  and  one  rivet  in  the  outer  row, 

(8  X  0.9375  X  0.5   x   95,000)    -f    (3   x   44,000 
X   0.6903)    =  447,370  lb. 
There  would  be  least  strength  of  the  joint  from  consider- 
ation  (B)   and  the  efficiency  of  the  joint  would  be 

(B)       359,219       .„„  , 

(]4)  =  38X000  ^^^-^P^*-^^"*- 

Power  Absorbed  by  Idler  Pulley — How  much  power  is 
lost  from  the  use  of  a  28-in.  diameter  idler  pulley  on  a  2 Va- 
in, shaft  making  220  r.p.m.,  used  to  hold  a  quarter-turn  of 
a  17-in.  double  leather  belt?  A.  T.  M. 

The  power  lost  by  use  of  the  idler  consists  mainly  of  the 
bearing  friction  that  results  from  pressure  resulting  from 
the  direction  and  tension  of  the  belt  and  the  weight  of  the 
belt,  pulley  and  shaft.  The  maximum  belt  tension  prob- 
ably would  not  exceed  90  lb.  per  inch  of  belt  width,  or  about 
17  X  90  =  1530  lb.,  and  having  a  belt  angle  of  90  deg.  the 
resulting  pressure  from  belt  tension  would  be  1530  x  1.4 
=:  2142  lb.  The  horsepower  absorbed  by  friction  of  shaft- 
ing, with  continuously  oiled  bearings,  is  approximately 
equal  to 

Total  p7-essiire  in  bearings  in  pounds  x  diameter 
of  bearings  in  inches  X  r.p.m.  -j-  2,900,000. 
Allowing  the  total  pressure  on  the  beariniis  from  belt  ten- 
sion and  weight  of  belt,  pulley  and  shaft  to  be  2500  lb., 
the  power  lost  by  friction  would  be  2500  lb.  \  2.5  in. 
diameter  x  220  r.p.m.  -i-  2,900,000  =  0.47  or  about  one- 
half  horsepower. 

[Correspondents  sending  in  inquiries  should  sign  their 
communications  with  full  names  and  post  office  ad- 
dresses. This  is  necessary  to  guarantee  the  good  faith  of 
the  communications  and  for  the  inquiries  to  receive  atten- 
tion.— Editor.] 


926 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


eeting  of  National  Electric  Light  Association 

at  Atlantic  City 


THE  thirty-fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  National 
Electric  Light  Association  was  held  in  the  Hotel 
Traymore,  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  June  13  and  14. 
In  the  words  of  W.  W.  Freeman,  past  president  of  the  asso- 
ciation, it  was  "The  most  serious  and  the  most  inspiring 
convention  the  association  ever  held."  The  attendance  was 
comparatively  small,  only  a  little  over  300  being  registered, 
owing  to  many  being  away  on  and  too  busy  to  leave  war 
work. 

The  following  were  the  chief  features  of  the  address  of 
President  John  W.  Lieb,  general  manager  and  vice  presi- 
dent, New  York  Edison  Co.: 

Address  of  Mr.  Lieb 

Mr.  Lieb  pleaded  for  continuation  of  teamplay  in  the  elec- 
trical industries,  in  which  he  included  street  railways, 
telephone,  telegraph,  light,  power  and  the  manufacturing 
enterprises.  Mr.  Lieb  said  there  were  about  920,000  men 
engaged  in  the  industry  which  represents  capital  of  about 
$10,750,000,000  and  an  output  valued  at  $2,675,000,000  a 
year.  The  electric  light  and  power  industry  employs  about 
125,000  men,  the  capital  invested  is  $3,000,000,000,  and  the 
annual  business  done  amounts  to  $575,000,000. 

The  industry,  according  to  Mr.  Lieb,  is  second  only  to  the 
great  national  railway  system.  He  regards  "linking  up"  of 
systems  first  to  further  fuel  economy  as  the  most  important 
problem  now  confronting  the  industry.  The  public  utilities 
were  urged  to  take  the  initiative  in  this  and  similar  matters; 
otherwise,  he  said,  Government  control  would  follow. 

The  mounting  costs  of  conducting  business  have  left 
nothing  for  dividends  and  sometimes  have  not  covered  fixed 
charges,  and  in  any  case  have  left  barely  enough  to  cover 
operating  expenses. 

The  coal  shortage,  Mr.  Lieb  claimed,  was  due  to  labor 
shortage  at  the  mines,  transportation  breakdown,  troubles 
at  the  tidewater  terminals  and  to  lack  of  coal  cars.  Experi- 
ence in  normal  times  has  shown  it  unsafe  to  begin  the 
winter  with  less  than  30  to  45  days'  coal  supply;  now  one 
cannot  hope  to  accumulate  the  60-  to  90-day  supply  that 
the  uncertainties  of  the  present  make  necessary.  Fuel 
costs  from  75  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  current  delivered 
to  the  switchboard  and  from  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  the 
cost  delivered  to  the  customer.  Further  fuel  economy  is 
impracticable  at  this  time,  although  advantage  may  be 
taken  of  the  diversity  factor  between  systems,  operating 
with  a  common  reserve,  and  of  the  assistance  which  one 
system  may  give  another  through  interconnection. 

It  does  not  need  demonstration  to  prove  that  the  coal 
consumption  in  the  isolated  plant  is  generally  from  2%  to 
4  and  5  times  the  amount  required  to  produce  the  same 
quantity  of  electrical  energy  in  central  stations.  Parallel 
operation  of  street  systems  (central  station)  and  isolated 
plant  is  hardly  practicable,  in  Mr.  Lieb's  opinion. 

He  recommended  keeping  the  clock  advanced  one  hour  the 
year  round.  Relative  to  the  growing  shortage  of  labor,  he 
pleaded  for  exemption  from  military  service  of  those  special- 
ly trained  unless,  of  course,  they  were  going  to  use  their 
special  training  in  the  sei-vice.  The  further  employment  of 
wonen  is  now  a  live  problem,  and  one  soon  to  demand  at- 
tention is  the  training  and  employment  of  the  wounded  and 
olind  returned  soldiers. 

The  member  companies  have  purchased  to  date  $29,555,- 
250  in  Liberty  Bonds  and  $1,467,945.69  in  War  Stamps. 

Mr.  Insull's  Address 

The  next  address  of  importance  to  the  industry  broadly 
was  made  at  the  dinner,  Thursday  evening,  by  Samuel 
Insull,  president,  Commonwealth  Edison  Co.,  Chicago,  Mr. 
Insull  sounded  the  trumpet  of  hope  and  confidence  in  the 
industry.  He  said  that  relief  from  the  burdens  of  high 
cost  of  conducting  the  industry  could  be  had  if  the  reasons 
for  rate  increases  were  properly  put  before  the  people  in 
the  various  localities  where  rate  increases  were  necessary. 


He  based  his  belief  upon  the  fact  that  in  1917  out  of  467 
applications  for  rate  increases  400  decisions  in  favor  of  such 
increases  were  given  by  the  public-utility  commissions  hear- 
ing the  cases.  With  labor  increasing  its  wage,  cost  of  fuel 
increasing  as  part  of  Governmental  action,  and  v^ath  supply 
and  demand  exerting  their  usual  force,  it  does  not  seem  pos- 
sible that  the  industry  can  contemplate  the  selling  price  re- 
maining stationary.  Those  conducting  the  industry  must 
have  confidence  in  their  industry  if  investment  bankers  were 
to  be  expected  to  invest  their  money  in  it.  The  industry  must 
conduct  itself  so  as  to  get  and  to  maintain  the  confidence  of 
the  constituted  authorities  and  so  pass  this  confidence  on 
to  investment  bankers. 

Relative  to  fuel  orders  Mr.  Insull  said  that  every  order 
of  Mr.  Garfield  reduced  the  central-station  load  factor  and 
reduced  returns.  As  to  the  "lightless  niglTt"  order,  cutting 
out  all  electrical  display  advertising,  it  effected  the  indus- 
try's earning  capacity  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  coal  saved. 
But  because  of  its  awakening  effect  upon  the  people,  Mr. 
Insull  said  he  would  have  done  as  Garfield  did. 

The  speaker  urged  that  central  stations  drop  extrava- 
gances of  a  capital  character  and  of  operating  nature. 
This  is  not  the  time  to  consider  balance  sheets. 

To  make  up  for  the  shortage  of  coal  cars  all  unnecessary 
forms  of  improvements  must  be  postponed  and  the  open- 
top  car  equipment  used  to  transport  the  materials  for 
such  improvements  used  for  hauling  coal.  There  is  not 
the  time  or  the  capacity  to  make  all  the  new  equipment 
needed;  it  must  be  taken  from  other  channels  not  absolutely 
necessary. 

Address  of  Mr.  Noyes 

P.  B.  Noyes,  Direcf  or  Conservation  Division  of  the  United 
States  Fuel  Administration  pointed  out  the  enormous  phys- 
ical proportion  of  the  work  the  administration  was  do- 
ing. The  cotton  crop  of  a  whole  year  could  be  moved  in 
one  day  of  coal  movement,  and  thirty  days  of  coal  move- 
ment are  equivalent  to  the  movement  of  the  coming  second 
largest  wheat  crop.  Eighty  millions  more  tons  of  coal  will 
be  needed  by  the  industries  alone  this  year  over  last. 
America  must  mine  220  million  tons  in  excess  of  that  ever 
before  mined  in  one  year.  "We  need  100,000,000  tons  more 
coal  this  year  than  last;  if  we  mine  half  of  it  we  will  do 
well,"  said  Mr.  Noyes.  The  draft  had  taken  away  35,000 
coal  miners. 

Mr.  Noyes  says  that  classifying  industries  as  essential 
and  non-essential  cannot  be  done;  he  divides  them  as  war 
and  nonwar.  He  pointed  out  that  it  was  impracticable 
to  cut  ofl'  completely  fuel  to  nonwar  industries  even  when 
some  war  industries  must  go  without  it,  because  industrial 
dislocation,  riots,  strikes  and  great  evils  would  follow  if 
coal  was  unthinkin^gly  withheld  from  :-.iany  centers  where 
there  were  few  eTcept  nonwar  industries.  These  indus- 
tries, said  Mr.  Noyes,  use  less  than  100  million  tons  of 
coal  a  year.  One  ton  of  coal  meant  keeping  at  least  fifty 
people  at  work.  That  is  one  view  he  wishes  persons  to 
take  of  the  coal  situation. 

We,  the  administration,  must  tell  the  public  utilities  as 
we  told  the  steel  people,  namely:  make  the  utility  business 
100  per  cent.,  then  you  will  get  100  per  cent,  coal,  said  Mr 
Noyes.  The  utilities  must  refuse  service  to  those  whose 
use  of  it  is  not  more  or  less  intimately  associated  with  the 
winning  of  the  war,  and  they  must  see  to  it  that  those  using 
the  service  use  it  economically.  The  administration  e.x- 
pects  the  utilities  to  do  much  of  their  own  policing  in  respect 
to  this  field  of  conservation. 

Doctor  Wheeler's  Address 
Dr.  S.  S.  Wheeler  made  an  illuminating  address  on  train- 
ing the  blind  to  do  work  in  the  electrical  industry.  They 
are  now  successfully  winding  coils  of  stators  and  arma- 
tures at  the  same  piecework  rate  paid  sighted  persons.  Ar- 
thur Williams  also  spoke  at  the  dinner;  his  subject  was  food 
conservation. 


June  25,  lUlb 


POWER 


927 


The  Prime  Movers  Committee  was  represented  only  by 
N.  A.  Carle,  all  other  members  being  absent.  Mr.  Carle 
is  the  new  appointee  to  the  committee,  having;  taken  the 
place  of  the  late  John  P.  Sparrow,  of  the  New  York  Edi- 
son Co. 

George  A.  Orrok  gave  a  paper  on  "Location  of  Power 
Plants  at  the  Coal  Mines,"  and  Philip  Torchio,  electrical 
engineer.  New  York  Edison  Co.,  had  a  paper  on  "The 
Utilization  of  Water  Power  as  a  Measure  of  Coal  Conser- 
vation." The  chief  point  of  Mr.  Torchio's  remarks  was 
that  the  East  must  depend  upon  steam  for  the  great  heat 
unit  requirement  of  this  section,  as  adequate  water  power 
is   unavailable. 

Charles  E.  Stuart,  chief  of  power  and  light  division, 
United  States  Fuel  Administration,  read  a  paper  on  "War 
Conservation  of  Power  and  Light,"  from  which  the  follow- 
ing is  taken: 

General  plans  have  been  laid  out  for  the  conservation 
of  light  and  power  by  the  Bureau  of  Conservation  of  the 
United  States  Fuel  Administration,  of  which  P.  B.  Noyes 
is  director,  and  these  plans  will  be  carried  out  by  the  Power 
and  Light  Division.  They  will  be  developed  under  the  fol- 
lowing subdivisions:  (1)  Elimination  of  Uneconomical  Iso- 
lated Plants.  (2)  The  Application  of  the  Skip-Stop  to 
Railways  and  the  Regulation  of  Car  Heating-  and  Lighting. 
(3)  Economy  in  Utilization  of  Power  and  Light  in  Fac- 
tories. (4)  Utilization  of  Excess  Water  Power  and  Inter- 
connection of  Power  Systems.  (5)  Limiting  the  Produc- 
tion of  Power  to  the  Most  Efficient  Points  Available. 
(6)  Economy  in  the  Refrigerating  and  Ice-Manufacturing 
Industry. 

A  brief  statement  with  respect  to  each  of  these  sub- 
divisions is  developed  below. 

The  plans  will  be  carried  out  through  the  cooperation  of 
the  following:  First,  a  force  of  engineers  organized  and 
stationed  with  the  Fuel  Administration  at  Washington; 
second,  the  Engineering  Department  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey;  third,  the  Power  Division  of  the  Council 
of  National  Defense;  fourth,  a  state  fuel  engineer  attached 
to  the  office  of  the  State  Fuel  Administrator,  to  supervise 
the  activities  in  his  state;  fifth,  the  public  service  commis- 
sions and  state  regulatory  bodies;  sixth,  the  chambers  of 
commerce  and  similar  representative  business  bodies; 
seventh,  volunteer  engineers  located  thi'oughout  the  country. 

The  following  gives  the  scope  of  the  subdivisions: 

1.  Elimination  of  Uneconomical  Isolated  Plants 

The  individualistic  way  in  which  fuel  is  now  consumed  in 
cities  is  not  efficient.  A  ton  of  coal  burned  in  a  large  cen- 
tral station  will  produce  at  least  four  times  as  much  electric 
power  as  if  burned  in  the  average  small  plant,  and  if  cen- 
tralized burning  could  be  introduced  to  a  greater  extent,  the 
amount  of  fuel  required  could  be  largely  reduced  without 
reducing  in  any  way  the  ultimate  production  of  light  and 
power. 

It  Is  frequently  the  case  that  in  buildings  where  electric 
plants  are  located  and  where  exhaust  steam  is  utilized  in 
the  heating  of  the  building  and  in  furnishing  hot-water 
requirements,  such  buildings  can  adopt  central-station 
service  without  a  loss  of  money  and  at  a  saving  in  fuel. 

As  a  rule  it  may  be  stated  that  where  no  extensive  heat- 
ing system  is  operated  in  conjunction  with  the  generating 
plant,  such  a  plant  can  purchase  power  at  a  great  fuel 
saving  and  with  a  possible  reduction  in  power  cost.  In 
other  cases  it  would  be  more  economical,  from  the  view- 
point of  fuel  saving,  to  utilize  central-station  service  in  con- 
junction with  isolated  electric  plants. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  Fuel  Administration  to  devise  mean.s 
for  securing  a  curtailment  in  the  use  of  fuel  in  ways  that 
will  impose  a  minimum  of  hardship.  It  is  believed  that 
there  are  many  plants,  not  only  in  New  York  but  through- 
out the  entire  country,  which  could,  at  least  temporarily, 
shut  down  their  own  electrical  machinery  and  purchase 
power  from  others  at  a  financial  advantage  to  both  parties 
and  with  a  considerable  saving  in  fuel. 

The  Fuel  Administration  believes  that  if  even  a  com- 
paratively small  proportion  of  the  plants  throughout  the 
country  which  could  save  fuel  in  this  way  at  a  profit  to 
themselves  would  do  so,  it  would  prove  a  tremendous  help 
in  meeting  the  fuel  situation  with  which  the  country  is  con- 
fronted, and  in  winning  the  war. 

While  it  may  appear  that  the  interests  of  the  central 
station  are  being  uenefited  to  a  large  degree,  such  is  not 
of  necessity  the  case.  In  some  cases,  central  stations  may 
be  shut  down.  In  any  event  any  connection  between  a  cen- 
tral station  and  a  building  or  a  manufacturing  plant  that 
is  affected,  will,  of  necessity,  be  for  the  period  of  tlie  war 


only  or  through  the  period  where  the  coal  situation  is  criti- 
cal. The  machinery  of  the  isolated  plant  can  be  readily 
preserved  through  this  period  of  necessity.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  heavy  expense  attendant  upon  the  mak- 
ing of  the  connection  by  the  central  station  may  completely 
or  even  more  than  offset  any  profit  which  could  be  expected 
of  such  a  load  through  a  short  period. 

2.  Economy  in  Utilization  of  Power  and  Light 
IN  Factories 

The  United  States  Fuel  Administration  is  requesting,  as 
a  means  of  accomplishing  power  and  light  conservation  in 
manufacturing  and  industrial  establishments,  the  appoint- 
ment, by  the  management,  of  a  Shop  Committee,  composed 
of  those  best  suited  for  the  purpose  and  in  size  or  number 
suitable  to  the  size  of  the  plant,  one  member  of  this  com- 
mittee to  act  as  its  chairman;  the  committee  to  be  active 
with  and  have  charge  of  all  details  in  the  operation  of  the 
plant  that  would  in  any  way  contribute  to  economy  in  fuel 
or  that  in  which  fuel  is  used  to  produce,  and  report  weekly 
to  the  management  or  head  of  the  plant. 

It  is  also  suggested  that  this  committee  be  changed  from 
time  to  time,  so  that  the  spirit  and  interest  in  this  work 
may  be  maintained. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  arbitrarily  to  outline  in  detail  the 
method  for  doing  this  work,  rather  to  suggest  in  a  gen- 
eral way,  leaving  the  details  and  adoption  of  the  plan  in 
the  hands  of  the  manufacturers  interested,  as  we  realize 
that  conditions  in  different  plants  and  character  of  manu- 
facture, as  well  as  organization,  will  have  a  bearing  on 
the  size,  character  and  details  of  the  committee,  which 
must  be  suited  to  the  particular  case  under  consideration. 

As  a  typical  illustration  of  possible  waste  and  oppor- 
tunity for  conservation,  we  suggest  the  following  items: 
(1)  Lights  being  unnecessarily  burned;  (2)  lamps  of  too 
high  candlepower;  (3)  the  elimination  of  carbon  lamps  in 
favor  of  Mazda  lamps  where  practicable;  (4)  the  elimina- 
tion of  arc  lamps  and  substitution  of  nitrogen-filled  lamps, 
which  are  from  two  to  three  times  as  efficient;  (5)  the  re- 
stricted use  of  sunlight  due  to  dirty  windows;  (6)  opera- 
tion of  motors  when  machinery  is  idle;  (7)  excessive 
sparking,  heating-  or  erratic  speed  of  motors;  (8)  improper 
alignment  of  shafting;  (9)  grouping-  of  machines  so  as  to 
operate  motors  or  engines  as  nearly  loaded  as  possible: 
(10)  staggering  of  operations  so  as  to  maintain  as  flat  a 
load  curve  as  possible;  (11)  slipping  belts;  (12)  dry  bear- 
ings; (13)  overheated  or  underheated  parts  of  plant; 
(14)  excessive  drafts  due  to  lack  of  proper  protection 
about  openings  of  doors,  windows,  elevator  and  staircase 
areas;  (15)  the  reduction  of  elevator  service  or  the  appli- 
cation of  a  skip-stop  to  elevator  service;  (16)  the  testing 
out  of  power  circuits  for  relationship  of  capacity  to  load 
carried;    (17)   the  paralleling  of  power  circuits. 

We  also  suggest  that  the  work  of  this  committee  be  con- 
ducted in  such  a  manner  as  to  provide  records  of  savings, 
which  could  be  incorporated  in  reports  and  information 
desired  from  time  to  time  as  to  the  progress  of  this  work. 

3.  Utilization  of  Excess  Water  Power  and 
Interconnection  of  Power  Systems 

A  method  of  fuel  conservation  that  promises  a  certain 
amount  of  immediate  relief  and  at  the  same  time  opens  up 
a  field  with  almost  limitless  possibilities  for  future  de- 
velopment is  the  interconnection  of  the  present  power 
systems  of  the  country,  and  the  consequent  utilization  of 
considerable  excess  water  power  which  is  at  present  avail- 
able. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  duplicate  transmission 
systems  exist,  serving  practically  the  same  territory.  An 
interconnection  between  these  systems  for  the  mutual  ex- 
change of  energy  would,  in  many  cases,  result  in  marked 
economies.  In  other  cases,  the  lines  of  a  power  company 
which  derives  all,  or  nearly  all,  its  energy  from  water 
power  may  extend  very  close  to  the  lines  of  another  com- 
pany which  uses  coal  to  a  large  extent  for  the  generating 
of  power.  Since  no  company  is  so  fortunate  as  to  be  oper- 
ating with  a  100  per  cent,  load  factor,  there  are  necessarily 
times  during  light  load  when  the  water-power  company  i.^ 
forced  to  allow  unproductive  water  to  flow  over  its  dam. 
At  such  a  time  a  great  saving  in  fuel  would  be  effected 
were  the  two  companies  tied  together  and  the  load  on  the 
steam  station  transferred  in  part  or  entirely  to  the  water- 
power  plant.  Numerous  hydro-electric  companies  have  for 
a  long  time  been  carrying  out  this  idea  within  tlieir  own 
systems,  where  the  bulk  of  their  power  is  derived  from 
water,  and  at  the  same  time  they  maintain  a  steam  reserve 
to  carry  their  load  during  low-water  periods. 

In  some  cases  these  system  interconnections  would  involve 
a  considerable  expenditure  of  both  time  and  money,  in  which 


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Vol.  47,  No.  26 


event  they  would  not  be  subject  to  immediate  ag^essive 
action  by  the  administration  but  would  be  held  in  abeyance 
as  possibilities  for  future  consideration  and  developments. 

4.  Limiting  the  Production  of  Power  to  the  Most 
Efficient  Plants  Available 

We  have  been  able  to  locate  nearly  500  instances  through- 
out the  country  where  there  exists,  in  one  form  or  another, 
a  duplication  of  power  production  and  supply.  In  other 
words,  there  are  communities  where  two  or  more  central 
stations  are  furnishing  electrical  energy  with  systems  par- 
alleling one  another. 

In  certain  instances  the  results  of  such  a  condition  are 
not  serious  and  in  many  cases  probably  unavoidable.  Our 
investigations  so  far,  however,  have  proved  that  a  large 
percentage  of  these  situations  offer  an  opportunity  for  large 
fuel  conservation. 

5.  Economy  in  the  Refrigerating  and  Ice-Manufacturing 
Industry 

In  cooperation  with  the  Joint  Commission  on  Refrigera- 
tion, which  was  organized  to  assist  the  Government  during 
the  war,  the  Power  and  Light  Division  is  planning  to  get 
in  touch  with  the  entire  ice  industry  to  introduce  a  number 
of  proved  economies  in  the  operation  of  ice-and-refrigerat- 
ing  plants. 

A  number  of  suggestions  have  already  been  made  by  the 
commission  and  by  individuals  connected  with  the  industry. 
One  plan  that  possesses  merit  and  has  possibilities  of  con- 
siderable fuel  saving  is  that  of  allotting  a  definite  amount 
of  coal  to  individual  plants,  depending  upon  the  size  and 
type  of  plant,  such  allowances  being  based  upon  a  reduc- 
tion of  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  average  present  fuel  con- 
sumption. This  will  make  it  necessary  to  adopt  many  sim- 
ple measures  of  economy  that  are  now  being  overlooked. 

Another  possibility  is  that  of  producing  white  or  opaque 
ice  at  a  fuel  saving  of  5  to  20  per  cent.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  eliminating  the  power  that  is  generally  used  for 
agitation  in  raw-water  plants  and  for  producing  distillate 
in  distilled-water  plants,  both  of  which  are  merely  means 
of  producing  a  transparent  product.  This  measure  is  pos- 
sible of  adoption  in  many  territories. 

A  further  line  of  effort  which  will  be  productive  of  con- 
siderable economy  and  one  that  was  successfully  applied 
last  winter  is  that  of  operating  during  the  winter  season 
only  the  most  efficient  plant,  or  plants,  as  the  particular 
case  requires,  in  communities  where,  during  the  summer 
season,  all  plants  are  required.  This  can  be  done  and  the 
individual  business  of  each  manufacturer  will  not  be  in- 
terfered with,  as  the  arrangement  provides  that  the  oper- 
ating plant  or  plants  will  sell  at  wholesale  rates  to  those 
manufacturers  whose  plants  are  temporarily  closed  down. 

This  arrangement  also  produces  a  saving  in  ammonia, 


and  for  this  reason  was  applied  last  winter  at  the  request 
of  the  Food  Administration. 

W.  W.  Nichols,  of  Allis-Chalmers  Co.,  gave  the  follow- 
ing in  his  paper  on  "The  Development  of  Water  Power  as 
a  War  Measure": 

The  year  1917  was  one  of  inferior  demand  in  water-power 
machinery,  yet  1,058,000  hp.  of  hydro-electric  machinery 
was  built  and  installed.  This  alone  represents  a  saving  of 
8,500,000  tons  of  coal,  besides  a  saving  in  production  labor 
and  transportation.  Ten  per  cent,  of  the  estimated  coal 
shortage  of  this  year  therefore  would  be  met  if  the  in- 
dustry could  do  as  well  this  year.  Without  building  new 
plants  there  are  two  ways  of  hydro-electric  development: 

(1)  By  increasing  the  capacity  of  plants  already  built.  In 
this  connection  it  has  been  estimated  that  .300,000  hp.  can 
be  developed  in  the  next  twelve  months  by  central  stations. 

(2)  Replacement  of  machinery  installed  prior  to  1911.  This 
would  take  care  of  an  increased  horsepower  of  450,000.  By 
these  means  6,000,000  tons  of  coal  would  be  saved  in  the 
twelve  months  in  addition  to  labor  and  transportation. 
Power  is  now  more  than  ever  fundamental  to  cur  existence. 
The  power  shortage  is  a  national  calamity,  calling  for  a 
broad  national  treatment. 

The  convention  visited  the  shipyards  at  Hog  Island 
Saturday. 

W.  F.  Wells,  vice  president  and  general  manager  of  the 
Edison  Electric  Illuminating  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  was 
elected  president  of  the  association. 

New  York  State  Convention,  N,  A.  S.  E. 

The  New  York  State  Association  of  the  N.  A.  S.  E.  held 
its  twenty-third  annual  convention  at  Coney  Island,  June  IS- 
IS. The  Shelbume  Hotel  on  the  boulevard  at  Ocean  Park- 
way was  the  headquai-ters.  There  were  fully  seventy-five 
delegates  present.  The  business  sessions  of  the  convention 
were  held  in  the  balcony  on  the  second  floor  of  the  hotel. 
The  front  portion  of  the  main  dining  room  was  artistically 
decorated  and  conveniently  arranged  for  the  mechanical 
display.  From  the  exhibitors'  standpoint  the  arrangements 
for  their  convenience  and  comfort  outclassed  anything  in 
the  history  of  the  state  association.  There  were  52  com- 
panies represented.  The  meetings  of  the  delegates  were 
unusually  interesting  this  year,  and  much  important  busi- 
ness was  dispatched  in  the  three  days. 

The  opening  ceremonies  of  the  convention  took  place  on 
Thurday  evening.  John  B.  McGowan,  chairman  of  the  local 
committee,  delivered  a  brief  though  earnest  address  on  the 
needed  efficiency  of  the  members  of  the  N.  A.  S.  E.  in  the 
present  crisis.     He  then  introduced  Judge  Henry  Goldfogle, 


SOME    OF   THOSE    IN   ATTENDANCE   AT   THE    NEW   YORK  STATE  N.  A.   S.   E.   MEETING 


June  25,  1918 


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929 


who  welcomed  the  delegates  to  the  city,  congratulated  them 
on  the  preamble  of  the  organization,  and  told  them  of  the 
responsibility  which  now  rests  upon  the  engineer.  George 
Van  Vechten  responded  for  the  delegates,  and  Fred  Felder- 
inan  spoke  of  the  necessity  of  closer  attention  to  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  members  of  the  N.  A.  S.  E.  The  meeting 
was  then  adjourned  until  Friday  morning  at  8  o'clock. 

On  Friday  morning  the  ladies  wei-e  taken  on  an  auto- 
mobile sightseeing  trip,  and  in  the  afternoon  enjoyed  a 
vaudeville  show  at  Henderson's  theater. 

One  of  the  features  of  the  convention  was  the  banquet  on 
Friday  evening,  attended  by  the  delegates,  supplymen  and 
ladies;  covers  were  laid  for  two  hundred.  During  the  dinner 
Monroe  Silver,  Billy  Murray,  Bob  Jones  and  Jack  Armour 
entertained. 

At  the  final  meeting  on  Saturday  evening  the  delegates 
elected  the  following  state  officers:  P.  H.  Cassidy,  Brooklyn, 
president;  Robert  Tobin,  Troy,  vice  president;  William 
Roberts,  Yonkers,  secretary;  William  Downs,  New  York, 
treasurer;  W.  B.  Wear,  Middletown,  conductor;  F.  J. 
Desmond,  Rochester,  doorkeeper;  A.  T.  Bennett,  Brooklyn, 
chaplain;  Samuel  Thackerberry,  New  York,  state  deputy. 

Next  place  of  meeting  Troy,  N.  Y.,  in  June,  1919. 

The  retiring  state  president,  George  C.  Van  Vechten,  was 
the  recipient  of  a  mahogany  clock,  and  Mrs.  Van  Vechten 
received  a  dressing-table  set  of  cut  glass. 

The  memorial  services  were  conducted  by  the  Rev.  Arthur 
H.  Cummings. 


Annual  Convention  of  American  Boiler 
Manufacturers'  Association 

The  American  Boiler  Manufacturers'  Association  held 
its  thirtieth  annual  convention  at  the  Bellevue-Stratford 
Hotel,  Philadelphia,  on  June  17  and  18.  At  the  opening 
session  on  Monday  morning,  the  president  of  the  associa- 
tion, M.  H.  Broderick,  addressed  the  convention.  He  was 
followed  by  Dr.  E.  J.  Cattell,  city  statistician  of  Philadel- 
phia, who  welcomed  the  association  to  the  city.  D.  M.  Med- 
calf,  chief  inspector  of  steam  boilers,  of  Toronto,  was  called 
upon  to  speak  and  told  of  the  part  that  Canada  was  play- 
ing in  the  furtherance  of  war  work.  William  H.  Barr, 
president  of  the  National  Founders'  Association,  next  ad- 
dressed the  delegates,  after  which  Dr.  D.  S.  Jacobus,  of 
the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Co.,  gave  a  talk  on  furnace  and  com- 
bustion chamber  volumes,  illustrated  by  blackboard  sketches. 
Power  hopes  to  present  the  main  points  of  Dr.  Jacobus'  talk 
in  a  later  issue. 

At  Monday  afternoon's  session,  E.  R.  Fish  presented  the 
financial  report  of  the  committee  on  uniform  boiler  laws. 
The  work  accomplished  by  this  committee  during  the  past 
year  was  outlined  by  Charles  E.  Gorton,  who  said  that 
since  the  1917  convention  seven  states  had  adopted  the 
A.  S.  M.  E.  Code.  In  Kentucky  active  support  had  been 
obtained  and  a  campaign  was  being  organized  to  submit  a 
bill  to  the  state  legislature.  In  Louisiana  legislation  had 
been  introduced,  calling  on  the  governor  to  appoint  a  com- 
mittee to  investigate  the  desirability  of  adopting  the 
A.  S.  M.  E.  Code  and  to  report  its  findings  to  him.  The 
Merchants'  and  Manufacturers'  Association  of  Baltimore 
had  been  interested  in  the  matter  and  a  bill  will  be  intro- 
duced at  the  next  session  of  the  Maryland  legislature.  The 
governor  of  Missouri  has  recognized  the  importance  of 
adopting  a  uniform  boiler  law  and  favorable  action  is  ex- 
pected on  the  bill  that  is  to  be  introduced  in  that  state.  In 
South  Carolina  the  work  moves  slowly,  but  in  due  time  the 
state  may  take  up  the  matter.  In  Virginia  it  is  expected 
that  the  bill  will  be  reported  out  of  committee  at  the  next 
meeting  of  the  legislature.  Montana  appreciates  the  need 
of  such  a  law,  and  is  in  a  favorable  position  to  act  on  it, 
as  the  Industrial  Accident  Board  is  able  to  put  the  law  into 
effect.  Iowa  is  in  the  same  state  of  mind  and  the  legisla- 
ture is  expected  to  act  favorably.  Progress  is  being  made 
in  Massachusetts,  but  in  Rhode  Island  the  bill  was  not  re- 
ported out  of  committee.  In  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire 
the    prospects    are    good.      In    Georgia    the    Manufacturers' 


Association  is  pledged  to  further  the  interests  of  a  bill  to 
adopt  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  Code. 

C.  O.  Meyer,  deputy  inspector  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  pre- 
sented a  communication  from  his  department,  pointing  out 
that  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  Code  fails  to  cover  vertical-flue  boilers 
and  track  locomotive  boilers,  and  that  as  a  consequence  it 
had  been  necessary  to  ignore  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  Code  and  use 
the  rules  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  He  inti- 
mated that  Ohio  might  return  to  its  own  rules,  in  force 
before  the  adoption  of  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  Code,  and  suggested 
that  the  chairman  of  the  American  Uniform  Boiler  Law 
Society  be  a  man  who  is  neither  a  member  of  the  A.  S.  M.  E. 
Code  Committee  nor  a  boiler  manufacturer. 

A  letter  from  the  United  States  Board  of  Supervising 
Inspectors  pointed  out  that  their  own  inspection  rules  had 
been  in  use  for  sixty  years,  had  met  all  conditions,  were 
efficient  and  safe,  and  for  those  reasons  the  board  declined 
to  adopt  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  Code  instead. 

The  vice  president  of  the  association,  C.  V.  Kellogg,  gave 
an  exceedingly  earnest  and  stirring  address.  He  pointed 
out  the  folly  of  individualism  and  the  necessity  of  organiza- 
tion and  cooperation  among  boiler  manufactui-ers  to  meet 
the  industrial  conditions  that  would  follow  the  war,  par- 
ticularly the  labor  crisis  that  was  sure  to  arise.  C.  J. 
Champion,  who  followed  him,  also  took  cooperation  as  the 
theme  of  his  remarks,  and  described  how  it  could  be  obtained 
and  the  results  it  would  produce. 

Col.  F.  N.  Gunby,  U.  S.  A.,  gave  a  very  interesting  ac- 
count of  the  methods  employed  in  building  the  various 
cantonments  and  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome.  His  talk 
was  illustrated  by  lantern  slides  and  moving  pictures  show- 
ing construction  work  in  progress  and  in  various  stages 
of  completion. 

On  Tuesday  morning,  G.  S.  Barnum  presented  the  report 
of  the  committee  on  uniform  costs.  He  outlined  a  simple 
cost-keeping  System,  laying  particular  stress  on  the  method 
of  distributing  overhead  charges.  Charles  A.  Howard,  who 
spoke  next,  disagreed  with  Mr.  Kellogg  on  some  points.  He 
insisted  that  a  cost  system  had  other  uses  besides  showing 
how  much  profit  to  charge.  At  the  close  of  his  speech,  the 
president  announced  that  Charles  M.  Schwab,  director 
general  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation,  had  just 
arrived  and  would  address  the  convention.  As  Mr.  Schwab 
entered  the  convention  hall,  he  was  given  an  enthusiastic 
welcome  by  the  delegates.  In  responding  to  this  ovation, 
he  impressed  upon  the  boiler  manufacturers  the  important 
part  they  must  take  in  the  success  of  the  shipbuilding  pro- 
gram, inasmuch  as  the  lack  of  accessories  is  the  greatest 
cause  of  delay.  From  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  hulls  now 
afloat  are  waiting  for  engines,  boilers  or  other  accessories. 
Mr.  Schwab  said  that  beginning  with  July  1  he  expected 
to  publish  a  list  of  the  relative  performances  of  all  the  ship- 
yards in  the  United  States,  showing  those  which  had  done 
the  best  as  well  as  those  which  had  fallen  short  of  expecta- 
tions, so  that  the  American  people  should  know  exactly 
where  to  place  praise  or  censure.  Further,  he  said  he  in- 
tended to  ask  Congress  to  authorize  service  medals,  to  be 
awarded  for  industrial  work  to  those  concerns  that  have 
done  and  are  doing  their  best  to  aid  in  winning  the  war. 
By  this  means  he  hopes  to  give  public  recognition  of  the 
services  of  those  who  deserve  it  because  of  their  efforts  and 
achievements  in  the  industrial  promotion  of  war  tasks. 

At  Tuesday  afternoon's  session,  Hon.  Edwin  F.  Sweet, 
Assistant  Secretary  of  Commerce,  addressed  the  delegates 
on  the  subject,  "Some  Compensations  of  the  War."  He 
showed  that  as  a  nation  we  will  benefit  from  the  war  by 
becoming  more  economical;  that  we  shall  increase  produc- 
tion both  in  industry  and  in  agriculture;  that  we  shall  learn 
the  forgotten  trade  of  shipbuilding  and  develop  a  vast  mer- 
chant marine  to  serve  a  great  foreign  trade;  that  we  shall 
learn  how  to  guard  against  the  ravages  of  preventable  dis- 
eases; that  our  inventive  genius  >vill  be  spurred  to  greater 
achievements;  and  that  both  individual  and  national  char- 
acter will  receive  a  wonderful  uplift. 

W.  C.  Connelly,  chairman  of  the  committee  on  war  service, 
reported  as  to  the  work  accomplished  by  tliat  committee.  It 
had  sent  out  questionnaires  to  boiler  manufacturers 
throughout  the   country   and   had   received    responses   from 


930 


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Vol.  47,  No.  26 


95  per  cent.  From  the  information  thus  obtained,  the 
equipment  and  manufacturing  facilities  of  practically  every 
boilermaking  establishment  had  been  listed.  This  informa- 
tion was  sent  to  all  the  various  Government  departments 
to  which  it  could  be  of  service. 

The  nominating  committee  presented  the  list  of  nominees 
for  officers  of  the  association,  as  follows:  President,  W.  C. 
Connelly;  vice  president,  C.  V.  Kellogg;  secretary- treasurer, 
H.  N.  Covell;  executive  committee,  M.  H.  Broderick,  G.  S. 
Barnum,  W.  J.  Moore,  E.  C.  Fisher  and  Dr.  D.  S.  Jacobus. 
They  were  unanimously  elected.  The  place  of  the  next  con- 
vention was  left  to  the  decision  of  the  executive  committee. 

N.  A.  S.  E.  Iowa  State  Convention 

On  June  12-14  at  Cedar  Rapids  the  Iowa  State  Association 
of  the  National  Association  of  Stationary  Engineers  held  its 
fifteenth  annual  convention.  It  was  an  unqualified  success 
notwithstanding  the  busy  times  and  war  conditions.  Over 
one  hundred  engineers  were  registered  and  with  the  Ladies' 
Auxiliary  and  the  exhibitors  the  attendance  was  exception- 
ally good.  The  exhibits  were  up  to  standard  and  the 
program  made  up  by  the  convention  committee  was  carried 
through  with  enthusiasm.  Headquarters  was  at  the  City 
Auditorium,  where  the  sessions  were  held  and  the  exhibits 
displayed. 

With  F.  W.  Laas,  state  president,  in  the  chair,  the  conven- 
tion opened  Wednesday  afternoon.  Mayor  J.  F.  Rail  gave 
the  address  of  welcome.  He  was  pleased  to  notice  that  the 
organization  stood  for  education.  It  was  a  rare  exception  in 
these  days  to  find  an  institution  that  was  not  organized  for 
raising  salary.  The  mayor  spoke  of  the  Cedar  Rapids  ad- 
justment plan  which  called  for  arbitration  in  any  dispute 
between  capital  and  labor.  It  was  his  hope  that  the  visit- 
ing engineers  would  find  many  things  of  interest  in  the  city. 
F.  W.  Raven,  national  secretary,  responded.  He  informed 
the  mayor  that  he  was  facing  a  small  cog  of  a  great  organi- 
zation that  had  done  much  in  the  last  thirty-five  years  to 
conserve  national  resources.  Briefly  he  outlined  the  educa- 
tional methods  employed.  The  day  had  come  when  the 
older  engineers  must  show  the  results  of  the  training  the 
organization  had  given  them  and  the  younger  members  must 
take  full  advantage  of  the  opportunities  offered.  The  Gov- 
ernment needed  the  best  services  of  all. 

For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  organization  a 
national  president  had  visited  the  state  and  was  in  attend- 
ance at  the  convention.  The  honor  was  appreciated  and 
those  present  listened  with  interest  to  a  brief  address  by 
John  A.  Wickert.  In  his  opinion  the  engineer  had  the 
opportunity  to  be  the  man  of  the  future.  He  was  recognized 
more  than  ever  before,  as  a  man  belonging  to  a  profession. 
Those  engineers  who  did  not  wake  up  to  their  respor.sibili- 


ties  would  find  that  other  men  would  supplant  them. 
Mention  was  made  of  the  power-plant  cost-data  system  that 
had  been  added  to  the  educational  program  and  of  the  help 
it  would  be  in  filling  out  intelligently  the  Government 
questionnaire.  The  president  bespoke  a  big  attendance  at 
the  national  convention,  where  the  educational  features  were 
to  be  the  big  thing  and  the  entertainment  secondary.  Good 
delegates  were  requested— men  who  could  bring  back  intelli- 
gent reports. 

A  patriotic  address  by  James  E.  Bromwell,  of  Marion,  was 
the  event  of  the  evening  session.  It  was  of  exceptional 
quality  and  was  commented  upon  highly  by  all  present. 
•'How  many  of  you  are  true  soldiers?"  was  the  opening 
remark  of  National  President  Wickert.  "Last  year  millions 
of  tons  of  coal  were  wasted.  Are  you  doing  your  share  to 
conserve  it?"  The  whole  country  is  demanding  service  and 
none  were  better  prepared  than  the  engineer  to  give  it.  It 
was  obligatory  upon  the  engineer  to  attend  meetings  and 
better  prepare  himself  for  the  work  demanded.  Subscrip- 
tions to  the  Red  Cross  and  the  buying  of  Liberty  Bonds  was 
not  enough.  Each  engineer  must  recognize  his  responsi- 
bility and  learn  to  do  his  work  to  the  best  possible  advan- 
tage. 

National  Secretary  Raven  reminded  the  engineers  that 
all  of  them  were  drafted.  Each  had  his  work,  and  his 
efforts  had  just  as  much  to  do  with  the  results  of  the  war  as 
those  of  the  men  at  the  front.  Dancing  followed,  with 
music  by  the  Laas  orchestra. 

At  the  Thursday  morning  session  J.  H.  Coates  lectured 
on  condensers.  He  outlined  the  theoretical  possibilities  of 
the  condenser  and  told  why  maximum  results  could  not  be 
obtained  in  practice.  The  two  general  types,  surface  and  jet, 
were  discussed,  the  latter  type  including  the  low-level  or 
ejector  condenser  and  the  high-level  jet  condenser  of  the 
barometric  type.  The  construction,  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages and  the  auxiliaries  required  were  given  attention 
in  each  case,  and  some  mention  was  made  of  the  recent 
advances  in  cooling- tower  construction. 

J.  M.  Drabelle,  of  the  Iowa  Railway  and  Light  Co.,  had  an 
ascilograph  at  the  hall.  It  was  in  running  order  and  each 
engineer  had  an  opportunity  to  see  the  wave  line  of  the 
particular  circuit  to  which  it  was  attached.  At  the  meeting 
its  action  was  briefly  explained  and  the  speaker  told  how 
instantaneous  information  given  by  the  instrument,  and  not 
available  from  the  ordinary  switchboard  instruments,  helped 
to  locate  troubles  at  the  plant  or  in  the  line. 

R.  H.  Holbrook,  president  of  the  local  association,  talked 
on  fuel.  In  the  United  States  about  1,900,000  tons  of  coal 
per  day  had  been  mined,  while  2,300,000  tons  would  be  re- 
quired to  carry  on  all  industries  satisfactorily.  There  would 
be  a  daily  shortage  of  400,000  tons  of  coal,  or  120,000,000 
tons  per  year  of  .300  days.  He  enjoined  engineers  to  use 
their    heads    and    to    follow    Government    advice    given    in 


MEMBERS  AND  THEIR  GUESTS   ATTENDING   THE   FIFTEENTH  ANNUAL  COI>JVENTION  OF  THE  IOWA 


June  25,  1918 


POWER 


931 


regard  to  coal  economy.  Transportation  difficulties  and  the 
zone  system  were  reviewed  and  the  Iowa  situation  discussed. 
In  Iowa  boys'  help  was  counted  upon  to  solve  the  labor 
problem  at  the  mines.  If  handled  right  Iowa  fuel  would  give 
excellent  results.  With  the  moisture  and  ash  out  it  was 
better  than  Illinois  coal  and  as  good  as  the  fuel  formerly 
obtained  from  Kentucky.  It  was  a  question  of  learning 
how  to  use  it.  and  in  this  connection  the  campaign  of  a  year 
ago  would  be  continued. 

Thui'sday  afternoon  and  evening  were  given  over  to  the 
exhibitors.     In  the  evening  the  feature  was  a  smoker. 

The  last  session  of  the  convention  on  Friday  morning 
was  given  over  to  committee  reports  and  routine  business. 
The  license  law  committee  was  instructed  to  cooperate  with 
other  engineering  bodies  with  a  view  to  the  enactment  of 
license  legislation.  A  motion  calling  for  discontinuance  of 
the  state  convention  until  the  war  is  over,  was  lost.  State 
Deputy  Holbrook  repoi'ted  relatively  large  increases  in 
several  associations  of  the  state  and  urged  to  greater  effort 
the  locals  that  had  not  shown  a  gain.  National  Secretary 
Raven  reviewed  the  work  of  the  national  association  up  to 
date.  Up  to  the  present  the  finances  were  ahead  of  those 
of  last  year.  He  emphasized  the  necessity  for  careful  selec- 
tion of  officers  and  delegates  and  in  general  pointed  out  the 
duties  of  all. 

As  the  next  convention  city  Marshalltown  had  no  opposi- 
tion. The  following  officers  were  elected:  Robert  MuUin, 
president;  P.  H.  Heise,  vice  president;  Abner  Davis,  secre- 
tary; J.  A.  Coulson,  treasurer;  R.  Moore,  conductor;  S.  C. 
Dike,  doorkeeper;  R.  H.  Holbrook,  state  deputy. 

Firms  having  display  space  at  the  convention  were: 
American  Engineering  Co.,  American  Steam  Conveyor  Cor- 
poration, Anchor  Packing  Co.,  Baker  Valve  Co.,  Cedar 
Rapids  Pump  Co.,  Crandall  Packing  Co.,  Crane  Co.,  Dear- 
born Chemical  Co.,  The  Fairbanks  Co.,  Fisher  Governor  Co., 
Garlock  Packing  Co.,  Gustave  Lidseen,  Hawk-Eye  Compound 
Co.,  Hays  Instrument  Co.,  Hills  McCanna  Co.,  International 
Correspondence  Schools,  Jenkins  Bros.,  H.  W.  Johns-Man- 
ville  Co.,  Lunkenheimer  Co.,  Murray  Iron  Works  Co., 
Reordway  Co.,  Sinclair  Refining  Co.,  Standard  Oil  Co., 
Viscosity  Oil  Co.,  Wehlage  Electrical  Co.,  Western  Boiler 
Compound  Co. 

War  Industries  Board  Moves  to  Obtain 
Capital  for  Power  Plants 

The  War  Industries  Board  has  sent  to  Congress  the  draft 
of  a  proposed  bill  to  appropriate  $200,000,000  to  increase 
the  power  supply  in  overloaded  industrial  centers  of  the 
East,  Cities  along  the  Atlantic  Seaboard  in  which  muni- 
tions and  materials  for  war  are  being  manufactured  would 
be  the  especial  beneficiaries  under  the  measure,  which  has 


been  committed  to  the  care  for  the  present  of  Representa- 
tive Kitchin,  chairman  of  the  House  Ways  and  Means  Com- 
mittee, on  the  House  side,  and  of  Senator  Martin  of  Vir- 
ginia, chairman  of  the  Appropriations  Committee,  on  the 
Senate  side.  The  measure,  it  is  understood,  was  drafted 
by  Frederic  Darlington,  chief  of  the  Power  Plant  section 
of  the  War  Industries  Board,  at  the  request  of  Bernard 
M.  Baruch,  chairman  of  the  board,  and  it  is  said  to  have 
the  backing  of  President  Wilson. 

The  measure  is  frankly  emergency  legislation,  made 
necessary  by  the  apparent  need  of  the  industrial  section 
of  the  East  for  more  power  with  which  to  turn  out  muni- 
tions of  war.  It  is  stated  in  Washington  that  the  power 
supply  of  the  East  is  obviously  overloaded,  and  that  while 
different  sections  of  the  country  are  also  raising  the  ques- 
tion of  not  having  sufficient  power  with  which  to  turn  out 
the  munitions  and  material  needed  by  the  Government,  it 
is  the  intention  of  the  War  Industries  Board  to  see  that 
the  East  is  supplied  first,  and  then  endeavor,  perhaps  by 
additional  legislation  and  appropriations,  to  supply  other 
sections  of  the  country.  Until  recently,  it  is  stated  in  Wash- 
ington, power  companies  with  insufficient  equipment,  and 
without  sufficient  funds  to  purchase  equipment,  had  expected 
to  be  assisted  in  obtaining  capital  and  equipment  through 
the  War  Finance  Corporation,  but  now  that  that  body 
has  ruled  in  a  manner  which  makes  it  unlikely  that  power 
companies  can  be  so  supplied,  the  need  for  empowering 
legislation  of  a  specific  and  emergency  character  becomes 
apparent  as  one  of  the  necessities  for  winning  the  war. 
It  is  said  in  Washington  also  that  some  of  the  power  com- 
panies have  come  to  see  that  if  money  is  borrowed  now 
for  additional  equipment  which  might  not  be  needed  at 
the  end  of  the  war,  they  would  be  doing  themselves  more 
harm  than  good  in  so  borrowing  money  and  increasing  plant 
facilities. 

Plans  for  passing  the  legislation  desired  have  not  been 
worked  out  in  Congress,  and  until  the  proposed  emergency 
legislation  is  introduced  the  War  Industries  Board  is  not 
likely  to  be  able  to  make  plans  for  the  distribution  of  the 
capital  when  obtained.  It  is  said  in  Washington  that  much 
more  than  the  $200,000,000  now  proposed  to  be  appropri- 
ated will  be  needed,  inasmuch  as  in  the  Pittsburgh  district 
alone,  which  supplies  power  for  a  radius  of  100  miles,  it 
is  estimated  that  $40,000,000  or  $50,000,000  for  additional 
plant  facilities  might  be  needed.  The  War  Industries 
Board  is  now  making  a  census  of  the  various  power  needs 
of  the  different  localities  in  the  country  engaged  in  war 
work.  It  is  expected  by  the  Washington  correspondent  of 
Power  that  the  proposed  emergency  legislation  will  be  diffi- 
cult of  passage  in  Congress,  although  it  is  admitted  on  all 
sides  in  Government  industrial  circles  engaged  in  obtaining 
war  material  that  some  such  legislation  is  needed  at  once. 


"^^ 


STATE  ASSOCIATION  OF  THR  NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  OP  .STATIONARY  ENGINEERS  AT  CEDAR  RAPIDS 


932 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


Improving  Plant  Efficiency  at  Both  Ends 
of  the  Steam  Cycle 

On  June  17,  at  a  joint  meeting  of  the  Western  Society 
of  Engineers  and  the  Chicago  sections  of  the  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  and  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Electrical  Engineers,  two  important  papers  having 
a  bearing  on  fuel  conservation  were  presented.  The  attend- 
ance was  large  and  the  material  presented  was  received  with 
unusual  interest.  The  first  paper  on  "Advantages  of  High 
Pressure  and  Superheat  as  Affecting  Steam  Plant  Effi- 
ciency," by  Eskil  Berg,  of  the  General  Electric  Co.,  dealt 
with  the  improvements  in  economy  to  be  obtained  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  steam  cycle,  while  D.  W.  R.  Morgan,  of 
the  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  in  his 
paper  on  "Condensers"  showed  how  better  results  could  still 
be  obtained  at  the  lower  limits  of  the  cycle.  Both  papers' 
with  the  discussion  will  appear  in  later  issues  of  Power. 
Briefly,  Mr.  Berg  showed  that  a  more  efficient  turbine  was 
obtained  by  a  combination  of  high  pressure  and  superheat, 
the  latter  being  necessary  to  obviate  as  much  as  possible 
the  troubles  arising  from  condensation  in  the  turbine.  In 
Europe  steam  temperatures  of  700  deg.  and  higher  are 
common.  In  this  country  boilers  have  been  built  for  350 
lb.  pressure  and  for  a  certain  installation  in  England, 
B.  &  W.  boilers  were  designed  for  a  working  pressure  of 
500  lb.  With  a  superheat  ranging  from  200  to  300  deg., 
the  final  steam  temperature  would  reach  800  deg.  This 
would  necessitate  smaller  tubes  in  the  boilers,  redesigning 
of  the  auxiliary  equipment  and  elimination  of  joints  by 
welding  the  piping  system  solid. 

The  salient  features  of  the  two  general  types  of  con- 
denser, surface  and  jet,  were  brought  out  by  Mr.  Morgan. 
The  three  principal  losses  are  drop  in  vacuum  through  the 
condenser,  difference  in  temperature  between  the  steam  and 
condensate  and  incomplete  air  removal.  The  speaker 
pointed  out  where  improvement  is  possible  and  compared 
the  various  auxiliaries  in  common  use,  such  as  circulating 
pumps  and  air  pumps  of  the  reciprocating,  hydraulic  and 
steam-ejector  types.  Owing  to  the  shortage  of  copper  the 
Government  is  seriously  considering  the  elimination  of  the 
surface  condenser  for  the  period  of  the  war.  The  eff'ect  on 
the  coal  pile  must  of  course  be  considered,  but  the  great 
saving  in  material  by  the  use  of  jet  or  barometric  condensers 
demands  attention.  With  proper  steps  toward  eliminating 
the  action  of  the  water,  steel  tubes  might  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  surface  condensers.  In  heat  transfer  the  time  ele- 
ment would  be  an  important  factor  and  would  call  for  low 
circulating-water  velocities. 

There  Should  Be  No  Letup  During 
the  Summer  Months* 

With  the  advent  of  the  hot  weather  a  falling  off  in  the 
sales  of  Thrift  and  War  Stamps  may  be  expected  unless  the 
efforts  of  the  patriotic  workers  are  not  suffered  to  diminish. 
There  need  be  no  falling  off  in  the  sales,  however,  if  we  all 
keep  our  heads  and  continue  to  view  the  situation  sanely 
and  clearly.  Let  each  one  of  us  ask  himself  or  herself 
whether  the  need  for  our  cooperation  is  as  great  among  the 
Allies  as  it  was  and  then,  when  we  have  answered  our  own 
question  in  the  affirmative  (and  who  could  answer  it  other- 
wise?), let  us  make  up  our  minds  at  once  that  while  the 
need  exists  the  money  shall  be  supplied.  There  were  a 
million  reasons  advanced  during  the  last  Liberty  Loan 
campaign  why  everyone  should  subscribe  and  induce  others 
to  do  likewise,  and  there  was  not  a  reason  advanced  at  that 
time  that  does  not  apply  with  just  as  much  force  to  the 
War  Savings  Stamps  now. 

Someone  may  say,  "But  I've  bought  stamps  until  I'm 
almost  broke,"  and  they  may  really  ,feel  that  they  have  a 
valid  reason  for  not  buying  more,  but  people  who  talk  like 
that  have  failed  to  grasp  the  significance  of  the  situation. 
Such  people  do  not  stop  to  consider  their  sacrifices  as  com- 
pared to  the  sacrifices  that  are  being  made   daily,  hourly 

•From  .N'ew   York  "Kvening  Sun." 


by  the  young  men  of  America  who  are  on  the  firing  line  in 
Europe. 

There  really  should  be  no  need  to  plead  with  anyone  to 
buy  stamps  and  thus  have  a  part,  though  a  small  one,  in 
this  the  greatest  movement  in  the  history  of  man.  Every 
individual  should  consider  this  not  alone  a  duty,  but  a  great 
privilege.  Now,  viewing  the  matter  from  another  angle, 
divesting  the  question  of  all  sentiment,  patriotism  and  obli- 
gation, let  us  consider  it  as  a  matter  of  dollars  and  cents. 

And  let  us  remember  right  at  the  start  that  we  are  not 
giving,  we  are  receiving.  We  lend  on  the  best  security  in 
the  world  and  in  five  years  the  loan  is  returned  with  inter- 
est. But  that  is  not  all.  Let  us  also  remember  that  after 
peace  has  been  restored  and  conditions  return  to  normal 
the  purchasing  value  of  the  dollar  will  be  greater  by  far 
than  it  is  now,  so  that  every  dollar  saved  now  will  doubtless 
do  the  work  of  two  or  more  in  a  few  years. 

There  is  nothing  new  in  the  foregoing,  but  for  the  sake 
of  emphasizing  the  importance  of  the  War  Savings  Stamp 
campaign  let  us  continue  to  keep  this  important  matter  De- 
fore  the  people. 

National  War  Savings  Day 

Every  loyal  American  is  being  called  upon  to  sign  a  War 
Savings  Stamp  pledge  card  that  is  in  effect  a  renewal  of  the 
promise  of  loyalty  that  arose,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
from  the  heart  of  every  American  when  the  news  came  from 
Washington  a  year  ago  that  we  had  entered  the  conflict 
and  ranged  ourselves  on  the  side  of  civilization  against  the 
forces  of  destruction.  The  pledge  card  also  means  that  the 
signer  takes  up  anew  the  fight  against  extravagance  and 
waste,  which  are  enemies  as  deadly  to  the  cause  of  the 
Allies  as  any  bullet  that  wings  its  way  from  the  German 
lines. 

Remember  this:  You  take  no  chances  when  you  go  the 
limit  on  War  Savings  Stamps.  They  are  the  best  and  safest 
investment  in  the  world.  They  pay  you  4  per  cent,  interest, 
compounded  quarterly.  They  can't  go  below  par.  You  can 
get  back  every  dollar  you  put  into  War  Savings  Stamps 
any  time  you  need  it.  You  can  turn  them  in  at  the  Post 
Office  any  time  for  their  full  value  plus  interest. 

Uncle  Sam  is  asking  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men  to 
give  their  lives  to  their  country.  He  is  asking  you  only 
to  lend  your  money.     What  are  you  lending? 

June  28  is  National  War  Savings  Day.  That's  the  day 
we  sign  up,  telling  Uncle  Sam  just  how  much  we  can  or  will 
do  to  help  win  the  war.  You  are  expected  to  pledge  the 
full  amount  that  you  can  afford  to  use  to  buy  War  Savings 
Stamps  during  the  remaining  half  of  1918. 

In  every  state,  county,  city,  town  and  village  the  War 
Savings  committees  have  prepaj-ed  for  this  big  patriotic 
rally  day.  Unless  you  have  already  bought  W.  S.  S.  to  the 
$1000  limit,  get  busy  and  figure  out  the  utmost  you  can  do. — 
H'.  S.  S.  Committee. 

Establish  United  States  Service  Clearing 
House  for   Engineers 

Placement  of  engineers  as  civilians  in  any  and  all  Gov- 
ernment departments  as  well  as  in  private  positions  will 
be  the  function  of  the  newly  established  service  clearing 
house  in  Chicago  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service 
of  the  Department  of  Labor.  For  some  time  a  division  of 
education  has  been  operating,  and  this  week  a  division  of 
engineering  was  initiated  with  the  appointment  of  A.  H. 
Krom  as  director,  reporting  to  Dr.  P.  L.  Prentis,  district 
-superintendent.  Offices  have  been  taken  at  29  South  La 
Salle  St 

After  graduation  as  an  electrical  engineer  from  Purdue 
University  in  1910,  Mr.  Krom  was  for  three  years  with 
the  Commonwealth  Edison  Co.,  one  year  chief  engineer  of 
the  Haskins  Glass  Co.,  two  years  power  engineer  of  the 
Central  Illinois  Public  Service  Co.,  two  years  with  the  Illi- 
nois Public  Utility  Commission,  one  year  assistant  engineer 
at  Springfield  and  one  year  as  engineer  in  charge  of  the 
Chicago  office.  For  the  last  18  months  he  has  been  secre- 
tarv  of  the  American  Association  of  Engineers. 


June  25,  1918 


POWER 


938 


National  Coal  Association's  Program  To 
Increase  Coal  Output 

The  National  Coal  Association  issued  the  following  state- 
went  June  15: 

The  National  Coal  Association,  composed  of  bituminous 
operators,  whoso  annual  output  exceeds  350,000,000  tons, 
has  undertaken  a  program  of  maximum  effort  to  increase 
production  and  minimize  the  serious  results  of  the  threat- 
ened shortage  in  coal  next  winter  which  now  appears  to  be 
almost  inevitable. 

The  entire  membership  of  the  association,  consisting  of 
;ipproxiniat:ly  two  thousand  coal-mine  owners  and  oper- 
ators, is  undertaking  by  scientific  management  and  in  other 
ways  to  increase  production  to  the  greatest  possible  total. 
A  coal-production  committee,  of  which  A.  R.  Hamilton,  of 
Pittsburgh,  is  chairman,  has  been  appointed  by  the  Board 
of  Directors  with  instructions  to  cooperate  to  the  fullest 
extent  with  the  Fuel  Administration  and  to  comb  the  in- 
dustry for  practical  ideas  and  suggestions  to  increase  the 
amount  of  coal  mined  during  the  coming  summer  and  fall. 


Every  producing  field  in  the  country  is  represented  on 
the  committee.  Meetings  will  be  held  in  Washington,  be- 
ginning at  an  early  date  and  continuing  practically  with- 
out interruption.  Problems  confronting  the  industry  will  be 
studied  carefully,  and  constructive  steps  looking  toward 
greater  efficiency  will  be  put  into  effect  wherever  possible. 

At  its  annual  convention  in  Philadelphia  last  month,  the 
association  pledgeil  to  the  Fuel  Administration  its  whole- 
hearted support  and  endeavor  in  producing  a  maximum  out- 
put. The  appointment  of  the  caal-production  committee  and 
the  great  program  confronting  the  committee  are  an  earnest 
of  the  intention  to  fulfill  that  pledge. 

Mine  output  has  been  restricted  greatly  in  the  past  by 
the  shortage  of  railroad  cars  at  the  mines.  To  this  domi- 
nating factor  in  curtailing  production  have  recently  been 
added  others,  among  them  being  difficulty  in  securing  suffi- 
cient labor  and  mine  supplies.  The  coal  operators  realize 
that  the  situation  confronting  the  nation  is  a  serious  one, 
calling  for  the  best  thought  of  the  industry;  the  problem 
of  producing  more  than  12,000,000  tons  of  coal  weekly — an 
output  never  reached  before — is  no  little  one;  but  nothing 
that  can  be  done  will  be  left  undone  to  mine  coal. 


eiiiiiiiiuiiiililiiiiiiiniiiii 


New  Publications 


ititiimiiiiiniiiiiii 


FUEL  ECONOMY  IX  THK  OPERATION 
OF  HAND  FIRED  POWER  PLANTS 
The  scarcity  of  coal  Ifist  winter  and  the 
recent  warnings  of  the  Fuel  Administration 
regarding  the  possibility  of  a  shortage 
next  winter  emphasize  the  need  for  greater 
economy  hi  the  use  of  fuel.  The  present 
high  rate  of  production  is  still  insufficient 
to  supply  all  needs,  and  there  seems  to  be- 
no  possibility  of  an'  increase  hi  the  output 
of  the  mines  sufficient  to  satisfy  every  de- 
mand. There  are  two  possible  results  of  this 
fuel  shortage ;  either  certain  industries 
must  close  down  or  more  work  must  be 
done  with  the  coal  available.  The  Engi- 
neering Experiment  Station  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  has  issued  a  90-page 
booklet  printed  in  four  colors  which  shows 
that  the  average  small  power  plant  can 
save  15  per  cent,  of  its  fuel  by  the  exer- 
cise of  greater  care  in  equipment  and  oper- 
ation. This  means  a  saving  of  12  or  13 
million  tons  per  annum  if  applied  through- 
out the  country.  The  purpose  of  the  putv 
lication  is  to  present  to  owners,  managers 
superintendents,  engineers  end  firemen  cer- 
tain suggestions  which  will  help  them  in 
effecting  greater  fuel  economy  and  in  de- 
termining the  properties  and  characteris- 
tics of  the  coal  purchased.  Features  of  in- 
stallation essential  to  the  proper  combustion 
of  fuel  are  discussed,  the  practice  to  be 
observed  in  the  operation  of  the  plant  is 
outlined,  and  the  employment  of  simple  de- 
vices for  indicating  conditions  of  operation 
is  prescribed. 

Only  a  limited  supply  of  copies  of  this 
publication  is  available  for  free  distribution. 
Requests  for  copies  should  be  directed  to 
the  Engineering  Experiment  Station.  Ur- 
bana.  III.,  and  should  specify  "Circular 
No.  7." 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii I 


iiiiKTTTinnminiiiMiiis 


Miscellaneous  News 


Ao    Kconoinizer    and    Huiler    l<]x|>l(>Ued    in 

the  "central  power  plant  of  the  New  Or- 
leans (La.)  Railway  and  Light  Co.  on  June 
10,  injuring  eight  men,  two  probably  fatally, 
and  plunged  the  city  into  almost  total  dark- 
ness for  nearly  an  hour.  The  business  sec- 
tion of  the  city  was  kept  lighted  through 
sub-stations.  The  damage  is  estimated  at 
$50,000.  A  fuller  report  of  the  accident 
will    appear    in    a    coining    issue. 

Featlier  Klver  Development — The  develop- 
ment of  hydro-eU'ctric  properties  along  the 
Feather  River  is  the  principal  feature  of  the 
program  of  the  California  State  Railroad 
C'ommission  to  increase  the  electric  power 
production  of  the  state.  The  plan  suggested 
by  the  Railroad  Commission  includes  the 
joint  development  by  the  Great  Western 
Power  c:o.  and  the  I'aciflc  Gas  &  Electric 
Co.  of  the  tremendous  power  possibilities 
along  the  Feather  River.  The  work  as  pro- 
posed would  mean  the  expenditure  of  at 
least  $30.00(1.0110.  Government  linancing  for 
the  development  is  i)roposed. 

MlllionH  Saved  by  l>uyli|fht. — France,  it 
is  understood,  estimates  her  saving  in  light- 
ing and   fuel  alone  by   the   daylight  saving 


pian  at  not  less  than  $10,000,000  a  year 
England  is  reported  to  have  saved  gas  and 
electricity  to  the  extent  of  about  $12,000,- 
000.  and  actually  saved  300.000  tons  of  coal 
in  the  summer  of  1916.  Edinburgh  saved 
$50,000  in  fuel  alone.  Manchester.  Eng- 
land, decreased  lighting  cost  15  per  eent. 
over  the  previous  year,  and  Nottingham  25 
per  cent.  In  Vienna  the  saving  in  lighting 
bills  was  $142,000.  The  estimated  possible 
saving  for  the  United  States  for  the  five 
months  under  this  plan  is  placed  at  from 
$25,0(HJ.000  to  $50,000,000  hi  lighting  hills, 
and   in   fuel   several    million   more. 

Continued  Failure  of  Coal  TranHporta- 
tion — The  failure  of  car  supply  at  the  coal 
mines  still  continues  as  is  evidenced  by  con- 
ditions at  the  properties  of  the  W.  S.  Bars- 
tow  &  Co.  The  normal  supply  should  be 
at  the  rate  of  266  cars  per  month  and  at 
no  time  during  the  past  seven  months  has 
it  been  50  per  cent.  The  actual  record  is 
as  follows: 

Cars 

November     129 

December     80 

January 52 

February    70 

March    101 

April     lis 

May     124 

Unless  there  is  a  pronounced  improve- 
ment in  car  supply  in  the  next  four  months 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  coal  experience 
of  last  fall  will  be  repeated  during  the 
coming  winter,  even  though  the  winter  may 
te  a  mild  one. 

£iiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiii,iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii(iiii)iiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiM 

I  Business  Items  f 

^llllllllll Ill Ill Illllll IIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMmililHillilliHIIIII IC 

Tlie  WeNtin^hoURe  Kleotric  and  Manu- 
fHoturing  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Penn..  has  pur- 
chased the  property,  business  and  good  will 
of  the  Krantz  Manufacturing  Co.,  Inc., 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  manufacturers  of  safety 
and  semisafety  electrical  and  other  devices. 
The  supply  department  of  the  Westinghouse 
Klectric  and  Manufacturing  Co.  will  act  a.s 
exclusive  sales  agent  for  the  products  of 
the  Krantz  Manufacturing  Co.,  whose  busi- 
ness will  be  continued  under  its  present 
name.  H.  G.  Hoke,  of  the  former  company, 
will  represent  the  supply  department  at  the 
Krantz  factory. 

I   NEW  CONSTRUCTION   | 

'.I IlilMlllllllililtll II Ililllllllllllilll Ill I MIIIIIIIIMIIIi^ 

PROPO.SED    WORK 

K.  I  ,  WooiiNoeket — W.  F.  Fontaine,  Arch.. 
285  Main  St.,  is  in  the  market  tor  motprs, 
etc.,  in  connection  with  the  erection  of  a 
;!   story   spinning  mill  on   Cass  Ave. 

N.  v.,  IIuiNon — B,  Wenzel  Is  considering 
plans  for  the  erection  of  an  electric  light- 
ing plant.  Water  from  Lake  Charlotti  will 
be  used  to  generate  the  power. 

N.  Y..  KiiiKN  Park— Tlie  .State  Hospital 
Commission  received  bids  June  12,  for  the 
installation  of  a  heating  .system,  etc.,  for 
the  Kmployees'  Home  at  the  Kings  Park 
State  Hospital,  from  the  W.  I!.  .Vrmstrong 
Heating  Connections  Co.,  3  Fulton  St.,  Al- 
bany, $20,!ieG:  Murtaugh  &  Heddington,  26 
Pleasant   St,,   Rochester,    $22,!)1M1, 

N.  v..  New  Vork — The  Bureau  of  Yards 
&    Docks,    Navy    Hept.,   Wash.,    1).    C,    plans 


to  install  boilers  and  superheaters  at  the 
.Navy  Yard,  here.  K.^timated  cost.  $100,000. 
N.  Y.,  Olean — The  Board  of  Armory  Com- 
mission, 158  State  St.,  Albany,  received  low 
bids  for  the  installation  of  a  heating  system 
in  its  proposed  2  story.  5  2  x  110  ft.  armory, 
from  Hickey  Bros.,  256  North  Union  St., 
$4574  ;  W.  H.  Simpson,  184  North  Union 
St,  $4853;  Murtaugh  &  Reddington,  20 
Pleasant  St..  Rochester,  $7500.  Noted 
.Tune  4. 

N.  Y'.,  Peekskill — The  Village  is  in  the 
market  for  new  pumping  apparatus.  H.  W. 
Taylor,  26  Cortland  St.,  New  York  City, 
Consult.    Kngr. 

N.  .1.,  Newark — The  American  Oil  and 
Supply  Co.,  Lafayette  St.,  will  soon  receive 
bids  for  the  installation  of  heating,  light- 
ing and  plumbing  systems   in   the  proposed 

1  and  2  story  warehouse.  P.  B.  Taylor,  Es- 
sex  Bldg.,    Engr. 

N.  J.,  Pompton  Lakes — City  will  receive 
bids  until  July  2.  for  the  erection  of  a 
brick  and  concrete  power  plant  near  the 
Pompton   Lake  Dam.      Equipment   including 

2  turbine  engines,  electric  switchboard,  etc., 
will  be  installed.  Estimated  cost,  $42,000. 
Noted  June   4. 

Penn.,  Hillsville — The  Bessemer  Lime- 
stone Co.,  Bessemer,  plans  to  install  an 
electric  haulage  system  in  its  plant  here. 
Estimated  cost,    $60,000. 

Wash.,  D.  C. — The  Bureau  of  Accounts 
and  Supplies.  Na\-y  Dept.,  Wash.,  D.  C. 
will  .soon  award  the  contract  for  machine 
and    machine    tools    as    follows : 

(Item  1)  two  15  hp.  electric  motors,  900 
r.p.m. 

(Item  2)  one  15  hp.  electric  motor,  1200 
r.p.m.  ;  Class  397,  Schedule  No.  4704J. 

Wash.,  IJ.  c. — Bids  will  be  opened  June 
25,  by  the  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts, 
Navy  Dept.,  for  machines  and  machine 
tools : 

(Item  1)  2  motor  driven,  double  spindle, 
threading  bolt  machines;  Class  423.  Sched- 
ule No.  4733J.  delivery  Navy  Yard.  Norfolk. 

(Item  1)  1  motor  and  drum  type  con- 
troller and  pulley;  Cla.ss  427,  Schedule  No. 
4735J,   delivery   Navy  Yard,   Brooklyn. 

June  28.  (Item  1)  1  motor  driven,  cylin- 
der grinding  machines;  Class  434,  Schedule 
No.    47201,   delivery  Navy  Yard,   Boston. 

(Item  1)  10  turbo  generating  stes,  200 
kva.,  220  volt,  a.c,  3  phase,  60  cycle;  Class 
432,  Schedule  No.  4738J,  delivery  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y. 

Va.,  Hampton — The  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Docks,  .\avy  Dept..  Wash.,  D.  C,  plans  to 
install  boilers  .and  superheaters  at  Navy 
Yard,  here.      Estimated  cost,   $110,000. 

W.  Va.,  Mabie — The  Randolph  Smokeless 
(!oal  Co..  is  having  plans  prepared  for  the 
erection  of  a  new  plant  near  here.  Elec- 
trical equipment  will  be  installed.  Total 
cost,  $100,000,  A.  F.  Bennett,  Philippi, 
Pres. 

On.,  Florilln — City  plans  an  election  soon 
to  vote  on  $25,000  or  $30,000  bonds  for 
the  erei-tlon  of  an  electric  lighting  plant 
and    a    water    works    system. 

I.«..  C'beiieyvlll.' — City  plans  an  election 
.soon  til  vole  on  $li;,000  bonds  for  the  con- 
.struction  111'  an  electric  lighting  plant  and 
a  water  works  system, 

Tenn.,  NaslivllU-— Morgan  &  Hamilton, 
1400  8th  .\ve.,  N.,  plans  to  Install  motor 
driven  machinery  in  its  new  addition  now 
being  constructed. 


934 


POWER 


Vol.  47,  No.  26 


K.V..  Seargeant — The  Whitley-Elkhorn 
Coal  Co.  plans  to  install  electrical  equip- 
ment  in   it.s  plant  here. 

Ohio,  Akron — Summit  Co.  received  low 
bids  for  installing  a  heating  system  in  the 
proposed  2  story  dormitory  addition  to  the 
Children's  Home,  from  the  Akron  Plumbing 
and  Heating  Co.,  73  West  Exchange  St.. 
$3645  ;  the  Industrial  Heating  and  Engi- 
neering Co..  413  Ohio  Bldg.,  .f3785  ;  the  H. 
P.  Cahill  Plumbing  and  Heating  Co..  4 
South  Canal  St..  $3975. 

III..  Chicaeo — The  Illinois  Central  R.R.. 
135  East  11th  St..  plans  to  install  a  low 
pressure  steam  neating  system,  direct  radia- 
tion, in  its  proposed  through  depot  on  53rd 
St.      A.  S.   Baldwin.   Ch.    Engr. 

111.,  Chicago — The  Trustees  of  Sanitary 
District.  1)10  South  Michigan  Ave.,  received 
low  bids  (a)  building  a  sewage  pumping 
station,  (b)  furnishing  6  centrifugal  pumps 
with  auxiliary  machinery,  piping,  etc.,  (.c) 
one  72  in.  centrifugal  pump,  complete,  (d) 
8  .synchronous  motors,  exciters,  etc..  (e) 
switclihoard.  conduit  and  wiring,  from  T.  J. 
Forschner  Contg.  Co..  West  Pullman,  (a) 
.$922,278,  (b)  $231,000,  (c)  $65,000,  Ce) 
.$50,000;  Nash  Bros..  10  South  La  Salle  St. 
(a)  $1,547,000  ;  Nash-Dowdle  Co..  29  South 
La  Salle  St.,  (a)  $1,396,653,  (b)  $230,000, 
(c)  $16,000,  (e)  }i47,500;  Camden  Iron 
Works.  Linn  and  Coppers  Creek.  Camden. 
N.  J.  (b)  $254,300,  (c)  $46,000;  The  Elec- 
tric Machinerv  Co.,  14th  Ave.  and  Tyler  St., 
Minneapolis,  Minn,  (d)  $120,000  ;  General 
Electric  Co.,  53  West  Jackson  Blvd.  (d) 
$123,494  ;  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Mariu- 
faeturing  Co.,  Indiana  Harbor,  (d)  $131,000  ; 
Heaver  Electric  Constr.  Co.,  30  North  La 
.Salle    St.,    (e)    $49,495. 

Wis.,  West  Milwaukee  (Milwaukee) — The 
fllobe  Seamless  Steel  Co.,  Colby  Abbott 
Bldg..  is  in  the  market  for  three  10  ton 
electric  cranes  in  connection  with  its  pro- 
posed 1  story  factory.  F.  J.  O'Brien,  Gen. 
Mgi-. 

Kan.,  Baxter  Springs — The  Big  Lead 
Mining  Co.  will  build  a  concentration  plant 
and  install  air  compressor,  engines,  boilers, 
etc..  in  same.  Estimated  cost,  $60,000. 
J.   E.  Hoshal.   Supt. 

Kan..  Baxter  Springs — The  Cortez  Mining 
Co.,  .lefferson  Cily,  Mo.,  will  build  a  power 
plant,  etc.,  near  St.  Louis,  Okla.  Equip- 
ment including  a  125  hp.  boiler,  motors, 
pumps,  etc.,  will  be  installed  in  same.  Total 
co.st,   $68,000. 

Kan..  Newton — The  City  plans  to  build  a 
sewage  dispo.sal  plant  and  install  two  300 
gpm.  motor  driven  centrifugal  pumps,  etc. 
in  same.  Black  &  Veatch,  502  Inter.state 
Bldg.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Engr. 

Kun..  Pittsburg — The  .Toplin  and  Pitts- 
burg R.  K.,  1st  National  Bank  Bldg..  Kan- 
sas City.  Mo.,  plans  to  build  power  houses 
and  a  45  mi.  transmission  line  from  here 
to  Columbus,  Kan.,  and  Miami,  Okla.,  in 
connection  with  the  con.struction  of  the 
new  electric  railway.  Estimated  cost. 
$400,000.  E.  E.  Maxwell,  Pittsburg,  Ch. 
Engr. 

N.  D.,  New  Kngland — The  Aaby  Light 
and  Power  Co.  plans  to  build  an  electric 
lighting  plant  and  a  Hour  mill. 

Mont.,  Saco — D.  T.  Gilbert  plans  to  ex- 
tend and  improve  his  electric  lighting  plant 
liere. 

Mo..  Badger — The  Badger  Mining  and 
nevelopment  Co.  is  in  the  market  for  belts, 
engines,  boilers,  etc.,  for  installation  in 
its  proposed  concentration  mill  near  here. 
Total  cost,  $60,000.  T.  E.  Forester,  103 
Miners   Bank   Bldg.,    Joplin,    Supt. 

Mo..  Joplin — The  Connor  Investment  Co.. 
Miners  Bank  Bldg..  is  in  the  market  for 
lioilers  for  the  heating  system  in  the  pro- 
posed hotel  annex  on  4th  and  Joplin  Sts. 

.Mo.,  .loplin — The  Kliin  and  Stern  In- 
vestment Co.,  Frisco  Bldg.,  will  build  a  con- 
centration plant.  New  equipment  includ- 
ing engines,  boilers,  etc.,  will  be  in.stalled  in 
same.  Estimated  cost,  $35,000.  A.  Klein, 
Supt. 

Mo.  Joplin — The  Miami  Yellville  Mining 
Co  West  7th  St..  will  remodel  its  concen- 
tration plant  and  re-eciuip  same  Mashinery 
to  be  installed  includes  engines,  boilers,  etc. 
Total  cost,  $25,000.  J.  Taylor,  Main  St.. 
Supt. 

Mo.  .lopUn — The  Muskogee  I^ead  and 
Zinc  Co.  is  in  tlie  market  for  conveyors. 
^ir  compres.sors,  itc,  to  installation  in  the 
proposed  concentration  mill  near  here. 
Total  cost,  $58,000.  E.  C.  Beatty,  Spring- 
field, Supt. 

Mo.,  Joplin — The  Playter  Bros.  Mining 
and  Realty  Co.,  315  Wall  St.,  will  build 
a  concentration  plant  at  the  Silver  Fox 
Mine  near  Monarch,  Kan.  Boilers,  engines, 
belts,  etc.,  will  be  installed  in  same.  Total 
cost,   $60,000.     G.   H.   Playter,   Mgr. 

Mo.,  RieUmond — The  Missouri  Gas  and 
I'llectric  Service  Co.  plans  to  enlarge  or 
imiirove  its  plant  here.     J.  H.  Hoggs,  Engr. 


Okla..  I'ilcher — The  Southwest  Missouri 
R.R..  Webb  City,  plans  to  build  an  18  mi. 
transmission  line  from  here  to  Miami,  in 
connection  with  the  construction  of  a  new 
electric  railway.  Estimated  cost.  $150,000. 
.V.  H.  Rogers.  Webb  City,   Pres, 

Okla.,  Foteay — The  Citizens  Consolidated 
Power  and  Electric  Co.,  recently  incorporat- 
ed, has  petitioned  the  city  for  a  franchise 
to  install  and  operate  an  electric  lighting 
plant.  ■  -,,M 

Okla.,  Quapaw — The  Miami  Co.  will  build 
a  concentration  plant  near  here.  Equip- 
ment including  boilers,  air  compressors,  etc., 
will  be  installed  in  same.  Total  cost,  $250,- 
000.  J.  P.  McNaughton,  8  A  St.,  S.  B.. 
Miami.   Supt.  ■>   :   , 

Colo.,  Brighton — The  To>yn  is  in  the  mar- 
ket for  new  pumping  machinery  in  connec- 
tion with  its  proposed  water  work  exten- 
sions. Total  cost,  $50,000.  P.  O'Brien,  306 
.\merican  Banlv  and  Trust  Co..  Denver. 
Engr. 

Colo.,  Sterling — The  Presbyterian  Con- 
gregation will  soon  award  the  contract  for 
the  installation  of  a  steam  heating  system 
in  its  proposed  churcli.  Wilson  &  Wilson. 
Commonwealth  Bldg.,  Denver,  Arch. 

Wash.,  l.,a  Crosse — The  Washington  Wa- 
ter Power  Co.,  Si>okane,  may  take  over  the 
electric  lighting  plant  here,  and  extend  an 
I  lectric  transmission  line  from  here  to  En- 
(licott.     C   E.    Uhden,   SiJokane,  Ch.   Engr, 

Cal.,  Tiburan — The  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Hocks,  Navy  Dept.,  Wash.,  D.  C,  plans  to 
build  a  power  hou.se  and  a  machine  shop 
liere.     Estimated  cost.  $8000. 

CONTK.\CTS    AWARDED 

^lass.,  Boston — The  Board  of  Education 
has  awarded  the  contract  for  the  installa- 
tion of  a  direct  radiation  system  in  the 
English  and  Latin  High  Schools  on  Warren 
Ave.,  to  the  J.  L.  Hern  Engineering  Co..  68 
East  St..  $20,500.     Noted  May  28. 

N.  Y.,  Brooklyn — The  Doehler  Die  Casting 
Co.,  9th  and  Huntington  St..  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  a  7-story 
factory.  A  steam  heating  system  and 
boilers  for  same,  will  be  installed. 

N.  J.,  Kearne.v^( Arlington  P.  O.) — The 
Ford  Motor  Car  Co.,  HiglUand  Park,  Detroit. 
Mich.,  lias  awarded  the  contract  for  the 
electrical  work  in  connection  with  the  pro- 
posed factory  here,  to  the  K.  W.  Electric 
Co.,  49  Lawrence  St. 

Ky..  Fulton — The  Illinois  Central  R.  R. 
135  East  11th  St..  Chicago,  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  various  units 
including  a  40  x  50  ft.  boiler  house  here,  to 
J.  E.  Nelson  &  Son.  118  North  La  Salle  St., 
Chicago.  Total  cost,  $225,000.  The  com- 
pany is  in  the  market  for  two  150  hp. 
boilers.     Noted  June  11. 

Ohio,  Columbus — G.  Borden,  Director  of 
Public  Service,  has  awarded  the  contract 
for  the  installation  of  a  new  heating  sys- 
tem in  the  citv  hall,  to  the  Huffman-Wolfe 
Co.,  Columbus.  Estitnated  cost,  $15,233. 
Noted  May  14. 

111.,  .Vmboy — The  Illinois  Central  R.  R.. 
135  East  11th  St..  Chicago,  has  awarded 
the  contract  for  the  erection  of  various 
units  including  a  40  x  150  ft.  machine  sliop 
and  boiler  room,  an  100  ft.  electric  turn- 
table, etc,  here,  to  W.  J.  Zitterell.  Webster 
City.  la.  Total  cost.  $250,000.  The  com- 
liany  is  in  the  market  for  two  150  hp. 
Ifoilers.     Noted  June  11. 

III.,  Carbondale — The  Illinois  Central 
R.  R.,  I' 5  East  11th  St.,  Chicago,  has 
awarded  the  contract  for  the  erection  of 
various  imits  including  a  40  x  150  ft.  boiler 
room  and  machine  shop,  an  85  ft.  electric 
turntable,  etc.  here,  to  the  Leyden  &  Ort- 
seifen  Co.  53  West  Jackson  St.,  Chicago. 
Total  cost,  $250,000  The  company  is  in 
the  market  for  two  150  hp,  boilers.  Noted 
.lune  11. 

III..  Mounds — The  Illinois  Central  Ry.. 
135  East  11th  St.,  has  awarded  the  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  a  40  x  50  ft.  boiler 
hou.se,  an  electric  table,  etc.,  in  connection 
with  the  proposed  improvement  of  terminal 
facilities  here,  to  G.  B.  Swift  &  Co.,  189 
West  Madison  St.,  Chicago.  Total  co.st. 
$250,000.  The  company  is  in  the  market  for 
two  150  hp.  boilers.     Noted  June  11. 

Kan.,  Baxter  Springs — The  Board  of 
Education  has  awarded  tlie  contract  for  the 
installation  of  fans  and  ventilation  system 
in  the  Mark  Twain  and  Eugene  Field 
schools,  to  the  M.  C.  Woodlong  Heating 
and  Ventilating  Co.,  512  Reliance  Bldg 
Kansas  City,  Mo.  Estimated  cost.  $10,168. 
Plans  include  the  installation  of  electric 
motors,  fans,  belts,  wiring,  electric  switches 
and  switchboards. 

M«..  Kansas  City — The  Kansas  City  Rail- 
ways, 303  Montgall  St..  has  awarded  the 
contract  for  the  erection  of  a  43  x  82  ft. 
substation,  to  the  L.  Breitag  and  Son 
Constr.  Co..  3701  West  Prospect  PI.  Esti- 
mated cost,  $25,000.     Noted  May  14. 


MIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUDI 


THE  COAL  MARKET 


'IIIIIIIIIMMI Ill 


Boston — Current  quotations  per  grosy  ton  de- 
livered along-side  Boston  points  as  compared  with 
a  year  ag^o  are  as  follows: 


ANTHRACITE 

Circular  Individual 
Current  Current 

Buckwheat     $4.60  $7.10 — 7.3.') 

Rice    4.10  t).65 — a.90 

Boiler     :t.90  ...  .  — ...  . 

Barley     .J. 60  6.15 — 6.40 


BITUMINOUS 

Bituminous    not    on    market. 

Pocohonta.s  and  New  River,  f.o.b,  Hampton 
Roads,  is  $4.  rs  compared  with  $;i.85^'^.00  a 
year  ago. 


*  All-rail   to   Boston   is  $'^.60. 


tWater  coal. 


New  York — Current  tinotatioti.s  per  trrosa  Ion 
f.o.b.  Tidewater  at  the  lower  ports*  are  as  fol- 
lows: 


ANTHRACITE 

Circular 
Ciureni 

Individual 
Current 

Pea   

Buekwheal    . . 
Bi.rley    

$4.90 

4.8.5 

....              .1.80 
....              4.^5 

#.5.6.'-. 
.->.60 
4.0(] 
4.80 

Quotations   at   the   upper   ports   are   about    iic- 
hieher. 


BITDMINODS 


F.o.b.  N.  Y.     Mine 


Price  Net     Gross 


$3.05 


83.41 


'J. 85 

3.19 

6.05 

3.41 

■2.55 

■2.85 

Gross 
Central  Pennsylvania.  .$5.06 
Maryland — 

Mine-run    4.84 

Prepared    5.06 

Screenins's    4.50 

•The  lower  ports  are:  EUzabethport.  Port  John- 
son, Port  Reading-.  Perth  Amboy  and  South  Ani- 
boy.  The  upV)er  ports  are:  Port  Liberty.  Hobo- 
Iten,  WeehawUen,  Edgewater  or  Cliffside  ami  Gut- 
tenberg-.  St.  Georg'e  is  in  between  and  sometimes 
a  special  boat  rate  is  made.  Some  bituminous 
is  shipped  from  Port  Liberty.  The  ratte  to  tin- 
upper  ports  is  oc.  higher  than  to  the  lower  pons. 


Philadelphia — Prices  per  ^oss  ton  f.o.b.  cars 
nt  mines  for  line  shipment  and  f.o.b.  Port  Rich- 
mnnci  for  tide  shipment  are  as  follows; 


-Tide- 


rent 

Pea     $3.45 

Harley    ■;.4ti 

Bueliwheat    ..    3.40 

Rice     2.90 

Boiler     2.70 


Cur-       One  Yr.        Cur-       One  Yr 


Agro 
$3.10 
1.90 
■2.90 
■J  .40 
2. -20 


rent 
$4.70 


Aso 
$4.00 
3.:t0  2.15 

4.40  3.80 

3.80  3.40 

3.70  3.30 


Chicago — Steam  coal  prices  f.o.b.  mines: 
Illinois  Coals    Southern  Illinois  Northei-n  Illinois 
Prepared    sizes. .  .$2.55 — 2.70  $3.:!.^) 


Mine-run 
Soreeningrs 


2.35 — 2.50 
2.05 — 2.20 


-3.40 

3.00 — :i.l5 

75 — 2.90 


.St.   Louls — Prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b.  mines  are 
■as  follows: 


Williamson  and       Mt.  Olive 
Franlvlin  Counties  &  Staunton 


Standard 


li-in.    lump    ...$2.55-2.90  $2.55-2.70  $2.55-2.70 

2  in.    lump    .  .  .    2.55-2.90  2.55-2.70  2..55-2.70 

Steam    egg    - ■•■•  ■-•'i'!"";^*'! 

Mine-run    -....  2.35-2.50  2.00-2.20 

No.    1    nut 3.56-2.90  2.55-3.70  ......... 

2-in.    screen     ..    3.05-2.20  3.05-3.30  ......... 

No.    5    washed.    3.05-3.30  2.05-2.20      -.... 

Itlrniiughani — Current  prices  per  net  ton  f.o.b. 
mines  are  as  follows: 

Mine-       Lump    Slack  ami 
Run         &  Nut  Screening-ii 

Bis  Seam $2.05  $2.3B  $1.75 

Pratt,   Jagr^er    3.35  3.55  1.95 

Corona    2.30  2.65  1.95 

Black  Creek.  Cahaha.      2.75  3.00  3.35 
Government  figures. 

Ii:dividual  iirices  are  the  company  circulars  at 
which  coal  is  sold  to  reg^ular  customers  irrespect- 
ive of  market  conditions.  Circular  prices  are 
grenerallv  the  same  at  the  same  iienods  of  the 
year  and  are  fixed  aoeordin?  to  a  reg-ular  schedule. 


B»f«**" 


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1 
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