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SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
EDWARDSVILLE
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LIBRARY
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PROCEEDINGS
UNITED STATES
NAVAL INSTITUTE
VOLUME XVII.
EDITED BY
J. B. Briggs and H. G. Dresel.
PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY THE INSTITUTE.
ANNAPOLIS, MD.
Copyright, 1891, by H, G. Dresel,
Sec'y and Tr'as., U.S. Naval Institute.
PRESS OP ISAAC FRIKDENWALD CO.
BALTIMORE, MD.
The writers only are responsible for the contents of their respective articles.
CONTENTS.
Prize Essay for 1891. The Enlistment, Training, and Organiza-
tion OF Crews for our New Ships. By Ensign A. P. Niblack.
U. S. N., 3
Notes on an Experimental Ammunition Cart, constructed for
THE Ordnance Department. By Lieutenant W. W. Kimball,
U. S. N., 51
SiACCi's Ballistic Equations. By Prof. Wm. Woolsey Johnson, U. S.
Naval Academy, 57
On the Angle of Elevation in order, that the Trajectory in Air
SHALL pass through A GIVEN PoiNT. By Piof. Wm. Woolsey
Johnson, U. S. Naval Academy, ........ 61
Target Practice. By Lieutenent J. F. Meigs, U. S. N. With Discus-
sion, 67
Lieutenant J. C. Wilson, U. S. N., 82.— Lieutenant W. F. Fullam,
U. S. N., 83 — Lieutenant Kossuth Niles, U. S. N., 87. — Com-
mander C. M. Chester, U. S. N., 87.— Captain L. A. Beardslee,
U. S. N., 89.
Electrical Counter, and Shaft Revolution and Direction Indi-
cator. By W. D. Weaver, Assistant Engineer, U. S. N., . . 91
Professional Notes, 95
The Organization and Duties of Trial Boards for our new Cruisers.
Reviews, • ... 99
Bibliographic Notes, , . . . 100
Prize Essay Notice.
Advertisements.
The writers only are responsible for the contettts of their respective articles.
CONTENTS,
Instructions for Infantry and Artillery, United States Navy. Pre
pared under the direction of the Bureau of Navigation, Navy Depart
ment, by Commander C. M. Thomas, U. S. N., Lieutenant C. E. Colahan
U- S. N., Lieutenant W. F. Fullam, U. S. N., Ensign F. J. Haeseler
U. S. N., and First Lieutenant L. W. V. Kennon, U. S. A.
Prize Essay Notice. Advertisements.
569
The writers only are responsible for the contents of their respective articles.
CONTENTS
Disposition and Employment of the Fleet : Ship and Squadron
Drill. By Lieutenant R. C. Smith, U. S. N., 121
On a Method for Calculating the Stability of Ships. By Naval
Constructor D. W. Taylor, U. S. N., 157
High Explosives in Warfare. By Commander F. M. Barber, U. S. N. 231
Proposed Day, Night, and Fog Signals for the Navy, with Brief
Description of the Ardois Night System. By Ensign A. P. Nib-
lack, U. S. N., 253
Electro-Metallurgy. By Joseph W. Richards, A. C, Ph. D., . . 265
The Samoan Hurricane of March, 1889. By Everett Hayden, U. S. N. 283
Discussion of Prize Essay for 1891. The Enlistment, Training,
and Organization of Crews for our New Ships. By Ensign A.
P. Niblack, U. S. N 297
Commander G. H. Wadleigh, U. S. N., 297.— Lieutenant C. B. T.
Moore, U. S. N., 301.— Lieutenant R. C, Smith, U. S. N., 301.—
Lieutenant-Commander E. H. C. Leutze, U. S. N., 306. — Comman-
der J. B. CoGHLAN, U. S. N,, 308. — Lieutenant W. F. Fullam,
U. S. N., 312.— Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. N., 318.
Professional Notes 321
Target Practice at the Naval Academy. — Naval Messenger Pigeon
Service. — Naval B. L. Guns.— The Harvey Armor Plate: Results
of the Recent Trial at Annapolis.
Bibliographic Notes, 331
Names of Members who Joined since January, 1891, . . . 353
Prize Essay Notice. Advertisements.
The writers only are responsible for the contents of their respective articles.
CONTENTS.
Explosives and Ordnance Material. By Stephen H. Emmens, . 355
The Effect of Waterline Damage on the Stability of Unarmored
War-ships. By Charles Hemje, 447
Naval Reserve and Naval Militia. By Lieutenant J. C. Soley, U. S. N. 469
The Final Improvement of the Steam-Engine. By Dr. R. H. Thur-
ston 497
Professional Notes, 529
The Test of the Brown Segmental Wire Cylinder. — On Determining
the Inclinations of Non-Algebraic Curves from their Ordinates.
Bibliographic Notes 537
Prize Essay Notice. Advertisements.
NOTICE.
It has been deemed advisable to print the Prize Essay at once in the present
number of the Proceedings, and to publish the discussions thereon in the next
number, in order to allow ample time and full opportunity for the preparation
of criticisms or remarks.
It is earnestly desired that all MSS. of discussions be forwarded to the
Secretary and Treasurer not later than May 20th, 1891.
By direction of the Board of Control.
H. G. Dresel, Ensign, U. S. Navy,
Secretary and Treasurer.
Annapolis, Md., February 13, 1891.
Having carefully read the five essays submitted in competition for the prize
offered by the Institute for the year 1891, we have the honor to announce that,
in accordance with Section 2, Article XI, of the Constitution, the prize is
awarded to the essay bearing the motto "A man's a man for a' that," by
Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. Navy.
Honorable mention is accorded to the essay bearing the motto " Occasionem
cognosce," by Lieutenant R. C. Smith, U. S. Navy.
C. S. Sperry,
Lieutenant- Commander, U. S. Navy,
H. O. RiTTEN HOUSE,
Lieutenant, U. S. Navy.
R. G. Peck,
Lieuteiiant, U. S. Navy.
N. M. Terry,
Professor, U. S. Naval Academy.
J. K. Barton,
P.- Assist. Engineer, U. S. Navy.
C. M. Knepper,
Ensign, U. S. Navy.
H. G. Dresel,
Ensign, U. S. Navy,
Members, Board of Control.
THE PROCEEDINGS
OP THE
UiinTED States Kaval Iiststitute.
Vol. XYII., No. 1. 1891. Whole No. 57,
[copyrighted.]
Prize Essay for 1891.
Motto : — "^ man^s a man for a' that,^^
THE ENLISTMENT, TRAINING, AND ORGANIZATION
OF CREWS FOR OUR NEW SHIPS.
By Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. Navy.
The Navy offers at present a respectable and inviting- career to
only a few enlisted men, and to those only in such special ratings as
ship's writer, yeoman, printer, master-at-arms, and machinist. Petty
officer's billets of the seaman class are thoroughly unattractive, and
are filled throughout the service to-day by men who, however efficient
they may be as seamen, have had very little modern training in the
theory and practice of gunnery, have seldom been entrusted with the
handling or drilling of a squad of men, and have very little idea of
their duties and responsibilities as petty officers in a military sense.
This is more the fault, however, of imperfect enlistment laws and
defective methods of organization and training, than of any lack of
intelligence or capability on the part of the petty officers themselves.
A modern ship, being a complicated machine, requires the most
intelligent kind of men to handle and fight her effectively. On account
of the cramped living space, the number of men on each new ship
must be reduced to the lowest margin. Each man being thus a
most valuable unit, we must proceed on the theory of picking our men
and building up a trained nucleus of American men-of-wars-men,
4 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
capable of meeting the demands that will necessarily be made upon
each individual in our organization in case the service is suddenly
expanded to meet the exigencies of war. With the improved type
of enlisted men now demanded by modern conditions, we need new
Watch, Quarter, and Station bills, adapted to modern and improved
types of cruisers and battle-ships. To man and fight these ships
effectively, we need better methods of recruiting and training.
The holding out of a more attractive career to enlisted men is
not so much a question of increased pay and emoluments as we
would like to believe, nor are their shortcomings due as much to
want of intelligence on their part as to the lack of military purpose
in their training. Aside from this and from the evils in the system
of rating, promotion and rewards, there are positive faults in the
internal arrangements of our newer ships which will neutralize the
allurements of any pay-table that can reasonably be devised, and in
the end drive out of the service the very class of men and boys that
we are now so earnestly endeavoring to attract into it. The more
modern the ship and the greater the need for intelligence in her crew,
the more and more objectionable she seems to become in point of
quarters for the men, until we have about reached the point where it
is well to call a halt on certain disastrous tendencies in the direction
of the utter disregard of what intelligent men are capable of putting
up with. In the smaller cruisers, flesh and blood will not stand any
further sacrifice to illusive offensive power, particularly in the craze
for phenomenal speed and great battery power on small displacement.
Before taking up the consideration of the problems of recruiting,
training, and organization, it will be best to point out some changes
which are needed in the internal arrangements and discipline of our
ships, in order to secure the creature comforts to the men under
all conditions of service, and thus render the ships habitable and
attractive.
New Ships and Old Methods.
There is not a new steel ship built or designed for the navy since
1884 that can carry her full complement of men as intended, or that
has berthing arrangements and general accommodations which intel-
ligent men have a right to expect. Fortunately we give much more
attention to such matters than they do in foreign services, but that is
no reason why we should stop half-way. In the Chicago, Boston,
Atlanta, and Dolphin, designed before 1884, the berthing accom-
modations are not so bad. On the Chicago, which seems to be the
only gun-deck ship we are to have, the hammock-hooks are 14 inches
PRIZE ESSAY FOR IbQI. 5
apart, and the men swing " high and low." The rows of hammocks
dovetail in with those forward and abaft them, and this, the usual
arrangement, represents luxury compared to the newer ships. The
Boston and Atlanta have fair quarters in the superstructure, but,
commencing with the Yorktown, we find nothing but evil in the living
accommodations of the men. In the last named, below the spar-deck,
there are billets for twenty men in the bow compartments, for forty-
four on the berth-deck, for twenty-two in the passageways, and for
five in the alcoves and workshop. At sea, in any weather, the heat
is almost intolerable, and on long passages the berth-deck is barely
habitable. The men who sleep under the forecastle are not so badly
off. On the Philadelphia and Baltimore it was found necessary at the
Navy Yard, New York, to put up hammock-hooks in every available
compartment on the protective decks, to accommodate even the
reduced complement which each carries. The Charleston is admitted
to be a failure in her original berthing arrangements, but it is only
fair to state that the last four ships mentioned are built more or less
on English models. The tendency of our own constructors and their
attitude is shown by the following extract from the report of the Chief
Constructor for 1889, relative to the two 3000-ton cruisers, Cincin-
nati and Raleigh, building at New York and Norfolk respectively :
"The forward berth-deck, with the exception of the paymaster's
ofifice, dispensary and prison, is given up to the crew. There are
also roomy quarters for the men under the forecastle."
It is a good thing that the forward berth-deck is surrendered to
the men, for in the roomy space under the forecastle are located the
galley, crew's water-closets, the distiller, ice-machine, refrigerators,
the steam capstan, vegetable lockers, scuttle-butt, bitts, harness cask,
and hawser reels. This type of ship, begun in the Yorktown, is the
general style of all the newer ones with uncovered gun-deck. On
the Philadelphia, with an unusually " roomy " forecastle as far as
dimensions go, only eighteen men can billet under the forecastle.
What can we look for in cruisers Nos. 9, 10 and 11, of 2000 tons dis-
placement, where the design calls for water-closets, crew's wash-room,
the brig, capstan, galley, ice-machine, refrigerators, engineer's work-
shop, hawser reels, bitts, etc., under the forecastle ? This, of course,
means that the crew-berths are entirely below the spar-deck. In
port in a cool climate, with an inspection board pronouncing on the
fitness of such ships for distant and prolonged service as cruisers, the
air-ports are not closed, the ice-machine is not rattling away, the
blower engines are not humming, the ash-hoists are not buzzing, the
6 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
dynamos are interesting, and the distiller is temporarily out of use.
Put all these in the living spaces, add the phenomenal heat of modern
fire-rooms, and the noise, oily smell, cramped berthing space, bad
air, and consequent loss of sleep, and the picture is that of ordinary
cruising at sea. Prolong this for months and it means sickness, dis-
comfort, and inefficiency of the crew. The remedies for all this are
simple enough.
I St. Group as far as practicable all heat-producing objects and
auxiliary engines, such as blowers, dynamos, galley, ice-machine,
distillers, etc., in one compartment, or in adjacent compartments, as
remote as possible from living spaces, with carefully arranged
separate ventilation.
2d. Substitute electric motors for all auxiliary engines doing
constant work in or about living spaces and that cannot be grouped
as above.
This is only, in a measure, forestalling the inevitable substitution
of electric for auxiliary steam power. Aside from saving miles of
piping, with the inevitable leaks and the expensive water-tight joints
at each bulkhead that is pierced, there are the additional advan-
tages in the less danger of having the supply cut off in action, and of
compartments flooded with steam ; in the reduction in heating and
oily smell all over the ship ; in being able to use motors for ammuni-
tion-hoists, thereby reducing the need for so many men in the powder
division; in economy of power over present arrangements ; in ability
to splice a break readily ; in the ease with which the wires at vital
points can be protected with steel tubing ; and finally, in the reduc-
tion of the engineer's force by the number of men now required to
look out for auxiliary engines, and the substitution of seaman-gunners
to run the motors, thereby increasing the number of trained com-
batants on board by that many.
3d. Reduce the ship's- complement of men and officers to a mini-
mum, especially in small ships.
The necessity for a certain amount of entertainment by the officers
in time of peace calls for a considerable table space in a mess-room,
which should be, where practicable, separate from the living space,
and it should be made a regulation that all commissioned officers,
below the commanding officer, shall constitute one mess. In the
smaller ships of 2000 tons and under, junior and warrant officers'
quarters should be abolished, and if the exigencies of the service
really require the assignment of one or more cadets, they also
should mess in the ward-room. In larger ships the necessities for
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 7
reduction in officers' quarters are not so great, but still the tendency
must be towards " surrendering " to the men more living room, even
in the best of them.
4th. In smaller ships already built or designed, add a light spar-
deck, worked over the space between the poop and forecastle, to give
additional berthing space.
If the weights do not admit of adding the covered deck, then do
away with the auxiliary sail-power, which is of less importance than
the comfort and efficiency of the crew. The best plan is to stop
designing, and sending people to sea in small vessels of enormous
horse-power. It is a delusion and a snare to attempt to get high
speed on small displacement in cruising vessels, and expect to beguile
intelligent Americans into accepting, as a profession, life in such
sweat-boxes, with no place to stow clothes, and with every unsani-
tary condition carefully observed. There is almost a criminal side
to the case in the sacrifice of safety to speed in these so-called
cruisers. In the Yorktown, which has not phenomenal speed, a
double bottom was not possible. In the extremes of the type, like
the Serpent, we have a lesson that we should not be slow to learn.
The tendency is too much towards sheet-iron shells, light steel
frames, and linoleum bulkheads as they have abroad in such so-called
cruisers as the French Forbin, where only conscription can keep a
crew in her. The physical condition of the men, when it comes to
action or to conditions of war, is of greater moment than the one or
two knots extra about the twenties for which we are asked to
sacrifice so much. Great speed is all right on great displacement,
and is all wrong in small vessels really intended as cruisers.
More stowage room should be provided on board ship for the
men's clothing and outfit. Each man is required to haVe the follow-
ing, valued at a total of $56.35 :
2 suits of blue. $12.36 i white hat $ .33
2 white mustering suits... 5.32 i neckerchief. 1.06
3 white working suits 3.18 i pair leggings 60
2 blue undershirts 2.58 i pair blankets 4.36
2 pairs drawers 2.30 i mattress with covers.... 4.32
2 pairs socks 66 i suit oil-skins 2.20
1 pea-coat... 10.00 i pair rubber boots 2.50
2 pairs shoes 2.28
2 caps (one mustering)... 1.80 $56.35
I watch cap 50
8 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
This simply represents what a man requires to be presentable
under the conditions of service. Many men have four or five work-
ing suits, white hats, etc., and they certainly ought to be encouraged
to dress well ; but, for instance, on the Chicago the average capacity
of the forty-four wire lockers in which the same number of appren-
tices are required to stow all their belongings is 1.8 cubic feet. The
other men have lockers of about 2.2 cubic feet average capacity, but
the engineer's force are allowed an extra locker each for soiled
clothes. Considering that this ship is the roomiest and most
comfortable of the new ships, the first-class petty officers, who
usually wear white shirts, collars, cuffs, etc., should have more than
3.7 cubic feet for their clothing. The result is that rain-clothes are
stored where they deteriorate rapidly, pea-jackets are lashed in the
hammocks, the clothing all shows the result of tight packing, the
locker doors are sprung, and a premium is placed on shiftlessness.
In the newer ships the lockers are larger, but from four to six cubic
feet is reasonable. Separate lockers should be provided for rain-
clothes, with pigeon-hole subdivisions capable of holding a pair of
boots, southwester and oil-skins, to be stored by gun's crews, with
a separate locker or two for those watch petty ofiicers who require
them. Oil-skins of the prescribed pattern should be kept in the
paymaster's stores for issue, for it is useless to attempt to have a
boat's crew in uniform, a thing which is desirable and easily enough
accomplished if properly looked out for. Living out in all kinds of
weather, oil-skins are certainly an essential part of a man's outfit ;
and, as they are prescribed as a uniform, some official attempt
should be made to protect the men from the harassing unreasonable-
ness of requiring them to have everything of a uniform pattern and
then providing no place to stow the things they are required to have.
It is such policy as this that drives more men out of the service than
questions of life career, more pay, or seamen's savings banks, etc.
Ditty boxes are part of men's outfit, yet few ships go into commission
with any racks provided for their stowage. The holds of ships are
now so small that a great deal of the gear formerly stored there, such
as deck-buckets, stages, wash-deck gear, boat-gripes, sea-painters,
stage-ropes, etc., are crowded out. Places must be provided for
these, as well as for cleaning-gear for brightwork ; gun, hatch,
canopy, steering wheel, binnacle, search light, and other covers ;
boat cushions and cloths ; watch-tackles, straps, heaving-lines, lash-
ings, old canvas, steaming-covers, etc., which are required to be
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 9
handy for routine purposes. Top-chests and channel-chests cannot
be carried now, yet there is no allowance to take their place. The
regular allowance for ships should include deck-chests, boatswain's
mates' chests, and spar-deck lockers for the stowage of gear that
is in more or less constant use. Neglect to provide proper stowage-
room leads to tendencies on the part of the men to surreptitiously
stow gear in ventilators, guns, field carriage boxes, air ducts, capstan
barrels, hammock nettings, wash-rooms, and all the nooks which
supply the lucky bag with its daily haul. There is nothing so time-
honored as a lucky bag, and yet few ships have any place provided
for its stowage.
The ordinary conditions of cruising bring out, of course, many
defects which cannot be foreseen, but there are many things which
an inspection board should be charged with ascertaining, which are
considered trivial, but which make the difference between a happy
and an unhappy ship.
Proper drying-rooms for clothing should be provided, particularly
for the engineer's force. Standing, as they do, in three watches,
there is no such thing at sea as a chance to wash clothes in the morn-
ing watch, and opportunities should be given them at other times.
With practically mastless ships, the facilities for drying clothes for
all hands are not what they should be, and it would be of immense
advantage to have a large drying-room to be used in bad weather,
care being taken to locate it apart from the living space of the men,
on account of the heat it gives out.
In a sanitary way men have very little idea of the question of the
proper ventilation of a ship. Improved appliances are useless unless
properly looked out for. So much depends on it now-a-days that
it seems worth while to provide blowers that will work either way,
so as to force or exhaust as required. The direction of the wind in
steaming forms draughts through a ship independent of the currents
set up mechanically, and differences of temperature come somewhat
into play. It thus happens that a certain compartment of the ship
may, under certain circumstances, require both a force and an ex-
haust draught to clear it of foul air, while, under others, it would have
to have the forced or exhaust system only. If it is worth the expense
of putting in the elaborate appliances now provided, it is certainly
worth the while of some one to look after the subject carefully. This
will be spoken of later.
In thus calling attention to the necessity for providing increased
lO PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
comforts for the men and for improving the sanitary condition of
ships in the matter of berthing and ventilation, it is aimed to lay-
down the proposition that it is the small annoyances in life which
make the difference between happy and unhappy ships ; but there
is one other thing which is more important than even this, or than
the question of increased pay and emoluments tor faithful service, and
that is the administration of firm and even-handed justice. An idea
is prevalent that the discipline in our navy is very harsh, and, like
most popular ideas, is founded on the glaring exceptions which prove
the other rule. Fact is that, through one cause or another, the gen-
eral system of punishment has been so relaxed that for certain
offenses there is now no adequate punishment, which, coupled with
the entire lack of uniformity throughout the service, earnestly calls
for an inquiry into the subject by a board of officers with a view to
tautening up the whole system. Plenty of work, many privileges
and comforts, and rigid adherence to fixed, swift and well-graded
punishments, means good discipline and hence general contentment.
In each new ship designed the brig is given a more and more choice
location, until in cruisers 9, 10 and 11 it is under the forecastle in the
6-inch gun support. The fundamental principles of confinement in
a brig are restraint and removal from intercourse with others, and
solitary confinement becomes a farce when the prisoner can con-
stantly see his messmates passing to and fro, and where the noise
and bustle of the ship's routine work is interesting and diverting to
the prisoner. The light is generally good, the ventilation is excel-
lent, and the confinement admits of rest and recreation. If the brigs
were put below, where they were intended to go, and were kept dark
and isolated from all noise and intercourse with the crew, then five
days' solitary confinement would mean something. Non-intercourse,
restraint, and silence are the very elements of solitary confinement,
and its purpose is defeated in the new ships. In the Philadelphia
and Baltimore there are small brigs — one on each side of the berth-
deck in the 6 inch gun supports. To properly enforce a sentence of
bread and water there should be a sentry on each brig, as they are
separated by a fire-room trunk. This means eight sentries to prop-
erly enforce the sentence of two men. The Yorktown's brig is
under the forecastle. That of the Chicago is on the berth-deck for-
ward, where people are constantly passing to and fro. The punish-
ment of double irons is now no punishment at all. Not only do the
hand and leg irons now furnished ships admit of the greatest freedom
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. II
of motion, but such confinement becomes a rather welcome opportu-
nity for the idle, lazy and shiftless to escape work for five days or
so. The messmates of the prisoner do his work for him while he
eats the bread of idleness, and dozes away his time. To be a punish-
ment, confinement in irons should primarily imply retirement from
the public gaze, and should be made as irksome and uninviting as
possible. What is needed is the old-fashioned leg-iron with sliding-
rod through staples in the deck, and lilly-irons for the wrists. In the
interests of good discipline and in economy of sentries, the brig
should be located below the berth-deck, away from the temptation
and opportunities of the men to pass in food ; it should be as remote
from the noise and bustle of active life as possible ; it should be well
ventilated but not lighted ; and, in the passageway outside of it, leg-
irons should be fitted to the deck as described above for prisoners
.confined in irons as a punishment. The present style of irons is
admirable for the confinement of men for safe-keeping, but it is mani-
festly unfair to treat a man awaiting trial or sentence of a court-mar-
tial to the same punishment as a man confined in irons for an offense
of which he has been adjudged guilty. The man awaiting trial may
be acquitted as innocent, yet he is punished the same as the man
adjudged guilty of some minor oflTense. There should be a wide
distinction. With proper fittings in a ship for punishing men, and
with certain and unvarying punishment for specific offenses, with
additional penalties for repeated infractions of the same regulation, it
is possible to carry out the purpose and spirit of the navy regulations.
The whole subject needs investigation and revision by proper
authority, and it is just as important as questions of increased pay
and rewards.
In nothing so much as in the messing arrangements on board ship
is there more pressing necessity for a radical change. The interests
of the service demand the establishment of a general commissary
system, in place of the antiquated, uneconomical, and cumbersome
mess organization which we now have. Under any other arrange-
ment than that which now obtains on board sea-going ships the
ration of thirty cents a day would be ample, and the usual assess-
ment of from $1.50 to $3 per month in addition, which the caterers
of messes exact from each member, represents the correct measure
of the wastefulness, poor economy, and failure of the present system.
To exact such sums of money from apprentices getting $9 or $11
per month, or from landsmen getting $16, is nothing short of out-
12 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
rageous. Nor is this in any way the fault of the men themselves,
but simply demonstrates that the separate mess system is funda-
mentally wrong. To illustrate its workings let us examine into
details. Each mess consists of from eighteen to twenty-three mem-
bers, some more, some less. Each has its separate cook, caterer,
vegetable-locker, mess-locker and mess outfit. In the mess outfit
the government furnishes a coffee, tea and sugar-tin, molasses and
vinegar-breaker, a scouse-kettle, bread-kid and a mess-cloth. Each
mess buys in addition a coffee-kettle, knife, salt and pepper-boxes,
carving-knife and fork, knives, forks, spoons, coffee-tins, plates, butter-
dish, oil table-cloth, meat-dishes, frying-pan, and three baking-pans.
The rations as issued and the fresh provisions, not perishable, are
stored in tins, boxes, etc., in the mess-lockers. Each mess has its
slop-buckets, dish-pans, swabs, etc., for cleaning gear. Multiply
each outfit by the number of messes; crowd the cooks around a
galley ; see the lack of economy in space, the wastefulness in food,
and the character of the cooking; see the liability to confusion, diffi-
culties and conflicting interests that must bring constant trouble, and
then try and find one good reason for continuing a system that
stamps itself on its own face as a monumental failure. There are
always difficulties in getting men who are willing to serve as cooks ;
they must be paid extra money by the messes; confusion reigns
when a cook is absent on liberty, or sick, or confined as a punish-
ment; caterers abscond now and then with the mess funds; and
finally, the berth-deck cook is an unmitigated nuisance in the ship's
organization that causes more difficulties than any other class of
men in the ship's company. The remedy for all this is simple
enough.
Abolish separate messes; cook the issued rations as for one large
mess ; with the commuted ration-money purchase such extras as
with the fresh provisions issued by the pay department in port will
insure good living, reserving, however, some of the money as a sea-
store fund ; set aside a separate compartment or enclosed space as a
pantry, containing lockers and racks for storing the general mess-
gear, the stores for immediate use, and the various appliances and
gear needed in the preparation of food for cooking; locate here, also,
sinks with hot and cold fresh and salt water, with hand and steam-
pump connections for washing mess-gear ; merge all the vegetable
lockers into one general system of lockers ; and finally, set aside a
store-room and a space in the hold for the men's provisions and
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. I3
Stores. The rate of baker, abolished in 1883, should be revived, and
those of ship's steward, pantryman, messman and ship's cook's assist-
ant created. The pay of steward should depend on the class or rate
of the ship, but should be, at least, from $75 to $100 per month. He
should be a man of experience as a caterer and the very best man
that can be gotten for the money. He should select and order mess
supplies, and render bills to be paid in such way as will insure the
safety of mess money, or the protection of the mess against loss by
any method of fraud or dishonesty. The whole messing arrange-
ments should, however, be under the supervision of an officer whose
function will hereafter be described. The ship's cook should be
required to qualify as such at a naval rendezvous before transfer to
a sea-going ship, and for thus qualifying should receive increased
pay. It should be the duty of the pantryman to receive and have
charge of all stores, mess-gear, etc., in immediate use, and, assisted
by the assistant ship's cook and such messmen as may be needed, to
prepare the food in the pantry ready for cooking. It should be the
duty of the baker, under the direction of the pantryman, to prepare
and bake all bread and pastry. It should be the duty of the assist-
ant ship's cook to assist the pantryman in the preparation of food,
and the cook in such ways as may be necessary. It should be the
duty of the messmen to wash all mess-gear, spread mess-tables, help
in the preparation of food, clear up, clean and keep in order the
pantry and store-rooms, and in every way assist the pantryman,
baker and cook in their duties. It is confidently believed that eight
messmen could do the work now done by eighteen cooks, or that
six or seven could do that of from twelve to sixteen, being a clear
gain to the effective deck force of at least fifty per cent. The ship's
steward could certainly do the work of all the mess caterers not only
more economically, but with better judgment and intelligence. The
ship's cook, his assistant, and the baker could cook or bake all that
is required by a general mess much better than the ship's cook can
now alone cook for some sixteen separate messes. As for the pan-
tryman, the gain in economy and in time in the preparation of food
for a general mess, as contrasted with the go-as-you-please style of
preparing all sorts of dishes for a number of messes, is too apparent
to need practical demonstration. The number of messmen could
be reduced to the lowest limit b}' having a certain number of men
detailed for a week at a time to go below when mess-gear is piped,
to help set and serve tables from the galley or pantry. After meals
14 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
they could help clear off the tables and sling them overhead. Such
services would not be required for more than from fifteen to twenty-
minutes altogether, and need not in any way interfere with their
duties on deck. The ship's company should mess by gun's-crews
or divisions as now, excepting that apprentices should be organized
into separate messes presided over by first or second class petty
officers. Men going on watch should all be served at the same
table, thereby saving over the present arrangement of having half a
dozen tables or mess-cloths going for half an hour before each meal.
Petty officers' messes could very easily be furnished with extra dishes
through extra money paid into the mess fund, provided they wished
to live better than the regular mess. This general system here out-
lined is, with some necessary modifications, carried on for the cadets
bn the practice cruise, and is entirely feasible. On the receiving-ship
Independence at Mare Island it was inaugurated several years ago
by Captain Frederick Rodgers, U. S. N., under the supervision of
the executive officer. Lieutenant Daniel Delehanty, U. S. N., and
was described in the Naval Institute Proceedings about that time.
It certainly commends itself on every possible ground, and it is
worth at least a trial on a sea-going ship.
In the latest types of ships, cold storage and refrigerating rooms
are provided. These add very much to the efficiency of the ships
in the ability it gives them to carry fresh provisions for long periods
of time at sea, thereby reducing the necessity for such large store-
rooms below, and adding to the healthfulness and comfort of the
crew. It would certainly add to the efficiency of all ships now in
commission, to put in cold storage rooms as a compensation for the
reduction in store-room and hold space for the stowage of provi-
sions. Cruisers 9, 10 and 11 will be fitted with Allen's dense air ice
and refrigerating machine, capable of making 200 pounds of ice a
day, and of cooling a 60-gallon scuttle-butt, besides keeping a meat-
room of 350 cubic feet at a temperature below 34° F. It is a suffi-
cient commentary on our present system of having numerous messes,
to point out that with twelve to eighteen different cooks running to
a cold storage room to get out from twelve to eighteen different
pieces of meat, with the consequent confusion and the admission of
hot air to the room, the cold storage would be apt to prove a failure.
With a general mess and a large cold storage room there is no
reason why fresh provisions "should not be carried for thirty days as
in ocean steamers.
Plate I.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. I,
r-
ttniasting Oven
Inside View of Ui-n
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. I5
The liberality of the present ration, the extra dishes prepared, the
provisions purchased with commuted ration-money and by extra
assessments, the issue of fresh provisions in the pay department, all
lead to overcrowding the galleys now furnished ships, and bring
failure upon any type of range that can be adopted. There are many
pertinent reasons for abolishing the present type of galley. The
work required of one can best be performed by steam heat. In all
modern ships it is required that steam be kept up constantly on an
auxiliary boiler for the various purposes of electric lighting, distilling,
heating, pumping, etc. All roasting and boiling in large quantities
is best and most economically accomplished by using steam heat.
The steam roasting ovens and boilers are perfect in their operation,
convenient for shipboard, and possess every advantage over a range.
As for the self-feeding copper urns for making coffee and tea, noth-
ing can more highly commend itself to our consideration. The
present method of making coffee is for the berth-deck cook to drop
an uncertain amount of ground coffee into a big tin bucket and pour
a still more uncertain amount of hot water in with it. The water
may or may not be boiling, but that is hardly material. The coffee
steeps for ten or twenty minutes, and the result is an insipid drink
in which a great amount of excellent coffee has literally gone to pot.
In the steam self-feeding urns, on the contrary, the coffee is made on
the drip principle, and the water feeds in automatically. Unless the
coffee water is actually boiling, it will not feed over into the urn. A
sketch of such an apparatus is shown in Plate I, where the centre
urn is for hot water and the end ones for tea or coffee. They can,
of course, be made any size collectively or relatively. The opera-
tion of the coffee urn is shown in a section in the same plate. The
drip-basket, C, in which the coffee or tea is placed, is made of copper.
The bottom, D, is pierced with small holes, while below it is the
flannel strainer, E, which can easily be replaced. The cast-iron
vegetable boiler is also shown in section. The live steam enters at
A and passes around to B, being cut off by the partition C ; E is a
galvanized iron steam-pipe, perforated for steaming purposes ; G is
the strainer and outlet to the faucet. Galvanized iron baskets go in
the boilers to separate different things that may be boiling at the
same time, such as meats and vegetables. A small steam oven could
also be provided for keeping warm the meals of men away at meal
hours.
For baking bread or pastry, a sheet-iron bake-oven, burning coke
l6 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
or coal, should be provided. It would only be needed for a few
hours in the day, and requires very litde fuel. With such an oven
and any sort of a baker there would be no need for buying fresh
bread on shore in any of the officers' or men's messes.
For a crew of 450 men, a galley or range of the present type
furnished with all the accessories costs fully $1500. For $1200 the
following outfit, as shown in Plate II, can be placed in the same
amount of space as now occupied by a regular galley :
5 oblong seamless cast-iron steam roasting ovens with hinged
covers, each 24 inches by 33 inches, at $75 $375
3 seamless cast-iron steam vegetable, stew, meat, or soup
boilers, of 70 gallons capacity, with galvanized iron hinged
covers, at $75 each 225
One set of self-feeding copper urns on iron stands, with
gauges, faucets, strainers, etc., complete, of the following
sizes : water urn, 100 gallons ; coffee urn, 80 gallons ;
tea urn, 40 gallons 400
One sheet-iron bake-oven, 3 feet square, with three compart-
ments 200
Total $1200
The roasting ovens and boilers should be lagged with asbestos to
prevent radiation and to keep down the temperature of the galley
space in hot climates. The above outfit would easily go in a space
twelve feet by ten, with ample room to get around in. Whether it is
used for a general mess or a separate mess system, the advantages
of this outfit over the galley or range may be stated as follows :
1. To " start fires " requires turning on a valve or so, and in
twenty minutes the plant is in full operation.
2. If desired, only a part of the plant need be operated on occa-
sions when it is desired to practice economy.
3. The heat given off by such a plant in the tropics is much less
than by a galley, and the noise about it is very much less.
4. The oddest kind of shaped space can be utilized for erecting
such a plant, as remote from living spaces as possible, on account of
ability to fit any shaped space to order.
5. No immense and expensive bed-plate is required as in the case
of a galley.
6. The danger from fire is reduced to a minimum.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. I.
Plate II.
Roasting Ovens
Sealed'
STEAM PLANT FOR MAN-OF-WAR'S GALLEY.
In space 12 ft. x 12 ft,
For Crew of 560 Men.
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 17
7. Cooking by steam gives the best results in a culinary way, and
is more economical than burning coal in a range.
8. Once set up, a steam plant will outlast several galleys, as there
is little to get out of order, and can be replaced in part as it wears out.
9. Steam cooking plants are in successful operation at the general
recruiting depot of the army at David's Island, at Snug Harbor, and,
to a certain extent, in all the leading hotels in New York City.
The following named people are a few of the firms which are pre-
pared to make bids on erecting such a plant in whole or in part on
different men-of-war: John Ashcroft, No. 73 Gold street. New York ;
Duparquet, Huot and Moneuse Co., No. 43 Wooster street. New
York ; Bramhall, Deane & Co., No. 274 Front street, New York ;
Van & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.
This system of messing should be supplemented by a co-operative
bumboat system on the canteen principle. The profits of bumboat-
ing are enormous, and should properly accrue to the men themselves.
The economy of buying fruit, beer, etc., by wholesale instead of by
retail is a sufficient argument for undertaking such a system, at least
in large ships.
The general commissary and canteen system here briefly ouriined
is perfectly feasible and certainly desirable. The more minute
details will in a measure work themselves out in practice if the idea
is once adopted in the service.
In thus looking out for the physical comforts and welfare of the
men there need be no fear of coddling them. There is too much
routine work for every one aboard a modern ship to admit of men
being spoiled, in the ever-recurring necessity of overhauling, cleaning,
painting, scraping, and caring for the hull and armament of a cruiser
or battle-ship. The chief difficulty is to find sufficient time to
devote to drills and exercises without neglecting too much of that
attention to smart appearance which has always characterized the
vessels of the American Navy.
Recruiting.
Having called attention to several needed improvements in the
internal organization, arrangements, and discipline of our new ships
as affecting the comfort and best interests of the men, it is well to
now inquire into what special inducements we should offer, in the
shape of rewards and emoluments, as will not only attract into the
service more of the better class of Americans, but retain them in the
l8 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
navy for life. This we can only accomplish by excluding^ aliens from
the service, and by offering to the men advantages and rewards as
substantial relatively as those which officers now receive, and equal
to those offered by corresponding occupations in civil life. We
have in the service now, (i) a practically working continuous-service
system, providing a small longevity increase of pay for each three
years of service ; (2) a system of conduct grades with corresponding
monthly money allowance; (3) improved rations far better than
issued in any other service in the world ; (4) a good quality of
clothing of more or less uniform pattern, and small stores in variety
and at the lowest market prices ; (5) a government savings system
paying 4 per cent interest on money deposited ; (6) two pension
laws, one providing help from the Naval Pension Fund for disability
after ten years' service, on recommendation and finding of a board
of officers, and the other providing a regular pension, or, in lieu of
it, maintenance at the Naval Home, for disability after twenty
years' service ; (7) a fairly good apprentice system ; (8) an allow-
ance of $45 to apprentices on enlistment for clothing ; and (9) a
system of instruction for seaman-gunners which is not yet, but soon
will be, in thorough working order. These represent, outside of the
pay tables, the principal inducements now held out to enlisted men
to make a career in the navy. The results are not encouraging. It
is not that we do not get many good, bright, excellent men, but that
we do not seem to be able to retain them in the service longer than
one or two enlistments. To endeavor to remedy this, and to sup-
plement what has already been done towards making a life career
for men in the service, the following provisions should be enacted
by law :
I. No alien should be accepted for either special or continuous
service, excepting to fill vacancies in special service billets for the
remainder of a cruise on a foreign station.
In the matter of restricting all enlistments to Americans, some
difficulties may seem to present themselves in the case of getting
men for certain special service billets, such as stewards, cooks, ser-
vants, and bandsmen. Fact is, it is in these billets that we most of
all need Americans. The day has passed when foreign messmen
and bandsmen can be relegated to the powder division. The ques-
tion of the rapid supply of ammunition is serious enough without
complicating it with thoroughly non-combatant foreigners, unused
to manual labor and ignorant of our language. If we cannot get
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. I9
American servants for the pay allowed, then it will be time enough
to increase the pay. If we cannot get American bandsmen for the
same reason, let us put up with inferior music. As each non-effec-
tive man in a ship takes up as much room as an effective one, and as
few ships can carry their effective complement, it certainly follows
that in the matter of messmen and bandsmen we have a long way to
go to arrive at a satisfactory solution of the problem. Once pass
the law and the difficulties will in time vanish. The exception noted-
above, in the filling of vacancies in special service billets abroad by
foreigners, is a necessary one. As for general and continuous-service
men, there can be no doubt as to the wisdom of restricting enlistment
to Americans, or to those who have declared their intention of
becoming naturalized, as it is the height of folly for a rich and
powerful nation to have to rely on mercenaries and hirelings in the
exigencies of war, through neglecting in time of peace to train up a
picked body of her own citizens to bear arms for the national defense.
II. Unless having had previous naval experience, no men other
than effective, able-bodied men, between the ages of eighteen and
thirty-five, shall be enlisted.
III. The term of enlistment shall be for a period of four years.
Section 1418 of the Revised Statutes, enacted as far back as 1837,
provides that men " may be enlisted to serve for a period of not
exceeding five years, unless sooner discharged by direction of
the President." Three years has come to be the customary
service, and the laws relating to continuous service (Rev. Stat.
1426 and 1573) have been enacted on a three years' basis. This
change to four years will require corresponding changes in the
laws relating to honorable discharges, allowances for re-enlistment,
and increase of pay for each re-enlistment. A four years' enlistment
will enable ships to make full three-year cruises without having to
pay so much extra compensation to men held over after expiration
of enlistments, and, best of all, will permit of recruits being put
through some preliminary training at recruiting stations before they
are drafted off to cruising ships. Such modifications of the present
continuous-service laws as are needed are outlined in IV, V, VI and
VII, which follow.
IV. Every person re-enlisting for a period of four years within a
period of four months after having been honorably discharged, shall,
on presenting his honorable discharge, or on accounting in a satis-
factory manner for its loss, be entitled to pay during the said four
20 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
months, equal to that to which he would have been entitled had he
been employed in actual service.
V. Every person who, having been honorably discharged from the
navy, re-enlists within four months thereafter for a period of four
years, shall be further entitled, after four years' service, including his
first enlistment, to receive, for the period of four years next there-
after, two dollars per month in addition to the ordinary pay of his
rating; and for each successive period of four years of service, so
long as he shall remain continuously in the navy, a further sum of
one dollar per month ; the past continuous service of enlisted men
now in the navy, not to exceed four years, shall be taken into account,
and shall entitle such men to additional pay according to this rule.
Provided that one dollar per month shall be retained from the pay
of the re-enlisted men, of whatever rating, during the whole period
of their re-enlistment, to be paid to each man on his discharge, but to
be forfeited unless he shall have served honestly and faithfully to the
date of discharge.
VI. To the rates of pay which may from time to time be fixed
upon by the President, there shall be added, (i) in the case of men
enlisted for a period of not less than four years, for the third year of
enlistment one dollar per month, and two dollars per month for the
fourth year; and (2) to the rates of pay so fixed in the case of appren-
tices and boys, enlisted to serve until they shall arrive at the age of
twenty-four years, there shall be added for the second year of such
enlistment, after they shall have attained the age of twenty-one years,
one dollar per month, and two dollars per month for the last year of
such enlistment. But this increase in every case shall be considered
as retained pay, and shall not be paid to such enlisted person until
his discharge from the service, and shall be forfeited unless he serves
honestly and faithfully to the date of his discharge.
VII. Continuous-service men shall be entitled to one month's
leave for each year of service, to be granted at the convenience of the
Navy Department, and to be cumulative up to four months, which
may, however, be commuted in whole or in part on re-enlistment, if
leave is not desired, to cash payment of four m.onths' pay, or in
accordance with amount of leave surrendered. A continuous-service
man thus entitled to leave may, if he so elect, report on board any
convenient receiving-ship or any recruiting station, and, under such
rules as may hereafter be prescribed by the Navy Department, may
enjoy his leave of absence, with privilege of residence on board such
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 21
ship, or at such recruiting station, in the quarters provided for
enlisted men,
VIII. Boys between the ages of fourteen and eighteen shall here-
after be enlisted to serve until they shall arrive at the age of twenty-
four, instead of twenty-one as now provided.
IX. Any apprentice serving in either a training or a sea-going ship
may, at any time in the first three years of his enlistment, on the
finding of a board of three officers, be discharged for inaptitude or
undesirability for the service, but due notice shall be given the parent
or guardian of such apprentice, at the expiration of which time, with
the approval of the Navy Department, said apprentice shall be trans-
ferred to the nearest receiving-ship and there discharged. The dis-
charge of an apprentice for any cause before he shall reach the age
of twenty-four, shall work forfeiture of the $45 originally received for
outfit. Notification of the vacancy at any time created shall be
promptly sent to the commandant of the Apprentice Training Sta-
tion, in order that the total complement of apprentices shall be kept
full.
X. In the appointment of warrant officers, preference shall here-
after be given to graduated apprentices who, after having reached
majority, shall have served at least two years as a seaman, petty
officer, or special class petty officer on a sea-going ship, and shall
have subsequently qualified as a seaman-gunner.
XI. All enlisted men serving in the Coast Survey and Fish Com-
mission shall be called in by executive order, and authoritj' granted
these services to enlist their own men for their own purposes.
Under section 4397 of the Revised Statutes, "The heads of the
several executive departments shall cause to be rendered all neces-
sary and practicable aid to the Commissioner (of Fish and Fisheries)
in the prosecution of his investigation and inquiries." The navy prac-
tically furnishes the steamers of the Fish Commission with their men
and officers. That it is not " practicable " now to longer spare this
force from the naval service is sufficient grounds for the withdrawal
of it. That such service is of no military benefit to the enlisted men
is certain. That the men in it are a dead loss to the navy as men-
of-wars-men is of necessity a good reason for calling them into active
military service. Under section 4685 of the Revised Statutes, " The
President is authorized .... to employ all persons in the land or
naval service of the United States" to carry out the provisions of the
acts establishing the Coast Survey service; and under section 4687,
22 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
" Officers of the Army and Navy shall, as far as practicable, be
employed in the work of surveying the coast of the United States,
whenever and in the manner required by the Department having
charge thereof" This is subserving the military to the civil branch
of the government with a vengeance. The fact that the army has
dropped out of any share of the work under the Coast Survey, and
that the navy bears most of the drudgery and a large share of the
annual expense of the hydrographic work, is not in itself a hardship,
but from a military point of view it represents a grave mistake.
Untrained merchant and coasting sailors are the class of men from
which the crews of Coast Survey vessels are recruited, and they
are well adapted to such service. That so many man-of-war petty
officers and seamen are diverted from a military service where they
are absolutely needed, into a non-military service to furnish it with
the means of doing the only work for which it was originally created
and now has any nautical claims for existence (viz., surveying the
coast) is, to say the least, a queer state of affairs. The annual appro-
priation for the support of the Coast and Geodetic Survey is over a
half-million dollars, of which sum about $50,000 is for the expenses
of hydrographic work carried on by some ten or more vessels
manned and officered from the navy, and about $25,000 for the
maintenance and repairs of these vessels. The annual appropriation
for the publication of charts representing this hydrographic work, of
so much value to mariners, is less than $20,000. In other words, less
than one-fifth of the total appropriation goes to do the work for
which this branch of the government was organized, and for which it
gets the credit with the country at large. The merchant marine is
benefitted by all this superb work, and the annual appropriations for
the support of the Coast and Geodetic Surv'ey are cheerfully granted.
How many people in the United States know that the navy with its
officers and men do the work, and that it pays annually some
$200,000 for the salaries of the sixty officers and the men diverted
from military service to do this work for a civil branch of the gov-
ernment? This service undoubtedly enables the naval officers in
it to become familiar with our coast and harbors, and a moderate
amount of duty in the Coast Survey service may possibly be of great
value, but for enlisted men, drawn from an already depleted allow-
ance, such diversion is unjust to the navy, uneconomical, unmilitary,
and unnecessary. The sooner the enlisted men are called in, the
sooner a grave mistake will be rectified.
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 23
XII. The total number of persons who may at one time be
enlisted in the navy shall not exceed 10,000, of whom 1500 shall be
apprentices and boys.
XIII. When an enlisted man absents himself frorn his ship on the
eve of her sailing for a foreign port, and then gives himself up as a
" straggler " on board some receiving or other ship, he shall forfeit
three months' pay, and be further required to serve three months
beyond the regular expiration of his enlistment, before he can acquire
the right of discharge and the benefits of continuous service in case
of re-enlistment.
XIV. Whenever it is discovered that a person who has been dis-
honorably discharged from the navy has eluded detection and
re-enlisted, he shall be immediately discharged in the nearest avail-
able port, at home or abroad, and forfeit all pay that may be due
him on the books, excepting $10 for immediate expenses.
XV. The Navy Yard, New York, shall be designated as the
Central Recruiting Station for the Atlantic Coast, and the Navy
Yard, Mare Island, on the Pacific Coast. All recruits enlisted on
either coast at the various other recruiting stations now or hereafter
established shall be concentrated, as hereafter provided for, at these
two central stations, for instruction and preliminary training before
drafting them off for service.
The ordinary receiving ships at different points should serve
merely as conveniendy distributed posts for recruiting under special
conditions. At stated intervals a transport should make the rounds
and gather in recruits, concentrating them at New York for inspec-
tion and training, leaving, however, the continuous-service men on
the various receiving-ships, for such disposition as the bureau may
see fit. This system of inspecting recruits at the central stations
would lead to the detection of deserters and dishonorably discharged
men who might try to enlist. There shall be attached to the stations
at New York and Mare Island a corps of experienced and trained
petty officers, rated in such billets as master-at-arms, yeomen, and
gun-captains, constituting a body of what may be termed recruiting
and drill sergeants, and composed of men who had made excellent
records in the service on sea-going ships as petty officers. While
gaining valuable experience in drilHng and handling men, they would
aid in examinifig and keeping records of recruits and would become
personally acquainted with them. By this means and by a good
system of descriptive lists, in the course of a short period of years.
24 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
it would be almost impossible for a deserter or dishonorably dis-
charged man to escape detection on presenting himself at or on
being transferred to New York or Mare Island. By changing a few
commissioned and petty officers occasionally between New York and
Mare Island, it would not only contribute to uniformity in duties and
methods at the two stations, but would lessen the possibility of such
men as described changing their base of operations from one coast
to the other. It is notorious that men now desert and re-enlist, or
are dishonorably discharged and come right back into the service
by re-shipping at remote stations, and this evil should be put down
at once. Let men once understand that dishonorable discharge and
desertion mean severance with the service for good, and that
deserters will be followed up and brought to justice wherever pos-
sible, and there will be a great falling off in both. By going even
further and requiring men to bring certificates of good character
when they present themselves for enlistment, and by raising the
physical and mental standard in the requirements for enlistment, the
good effect would be shown in fewer desertions. Make it harder to
get in and recruits will not be so anxious to get out.
Coal-heavers and second-class firemen for the entire service should
only be enlisted at New York, where a uniform and rigid standard
should be established. There is no difficulty in getting plenty and
the best at this one station. It is easy enough in case of a scarcity
or extra demand to order special enlistment at other stations. The
enlistment of coal-heavers on this coast is now confined to New
York by recent orders, and the improvement in this class of men is
most marked. Of course, continuous-service or honorably discharged
coal-heavers and second-class firemen should be allowed to re-enlist
at the nearest recruiting station. In Section XII it is sought to
increase the total force of enlisted men to 10,000. This is admittedly
more men than we need just at present for our ships, but to be able
to keep a lot of men at New York or Mare Island for six months or
so in training, it is necessary to increase the total allowance. Where
the allowance is small, a sudden emergency might arise and a draft
of recruits be ordered off, to the breaking up of any systematic
attempt to drill them properly. With a larger total force, the pres-
sure would never be so great as to call for raw recruits who had never
received any instruction.
XVI. Any seaman or seaman-apprentice who shall hereafter qualify
as a seaman-gunner, or any seaman who, having heretofore qualified
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 25
as a seaman-g-unner, shall re-qualify by attaining excellence in small-
arm and great-gun target practice, and shall be able, as a leading
man aboard ship, to drill a squad of men in the usual routine drills,
shall receive in any rating as a petty officer of the seaman class an
increase of pay of 30 per cent over that provided in the regular pay
tables, as authorized by the President from time to time for such
rating, and in any rating of either the special or artificer class he
shall receive an increase of 10 per cent.
This will have the double effect of encouraging men to become
seaman-gunners, and of adding dignity and importance to billets of
the seaman class. To further improve the status of the seaman class
of petty officers, a considerable increase in their pay is both wise and
desirable. This class of petty officers bear the brunt of the routine
work about decks, of the military duties, and of the fighting in
action, and on their efficiency largely depends the character of the
discipline of the ship. It is through them that we must accomplish
some needed reforms in the organization and general discipline of
the service, yet these billets are now doubly unattractive through the
drudgery of their work and the small pay and great responsibility
of their position. This is so much the case that seaman-gunners and
graduated apprentices generally try to get the billets of ship's writer,
painter, oiler, or yeoman — anything, in fact, to keep out of a rating
of the seaman class or as a watch petty officer. This is admittedly
all wrong and a great misfortune to the service.
XVII. Cooks, stewards, servants, and ship messmen shall be
enlisted for special service, and on board the ships in which they are
to serve.
XVIII. Pensioners who become inmates of the Naval Home shall
hereafter be paid their pensions under certain restrictions, to be held
in trust by the Governor of the Home, or allotted to a wife, or child,
or parent living.
The fact that a pensioner takes advantage of the privileges of the
Naval Home is no reason why he should surrender his pension,
particularly if there are others dependent on him.
XIX. Transportation at government expense shall be furnished,
under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy, to such persons as
may be authorized to enter the Naval Home as beneficiaries, and
who shall be unable to pay for their transportation to the same.
XX. After thirty years' continuous service as an enlisted man or
as an appointed petty officer in the navy, any person shall be entitled
26 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
to retirement on three-fourths pay of the rank or rating held by him
at the date of retirement, by making application to the President ;
or, after having served thirty years, but not continuously, any person
shall be entitled to retirement on half-pay. Provided also, as in
case of enlisted men in the army and Marine Corps, under Act of Sep-
tember 30, 1890, active service, either as a volunteer or regular during
the War of the RebelHon, shall be computed as double time in com-
puting the thirty years necessary to entitle him to be retired.
XXI. Dishonorable discharge in any case shall work forfeiture of
all subsequent benefits of pay, pension, or retirement due to previous
honorable service.
XXII. Officers and enlisted men of the Marine Corps shall be
withdrawn from service afloat, and serve as a garrison for naval
stations and in the sea-coast defenses of the United States.
Section 1616 of the Revised Statutes reads: "Marines maybe
detached for service on board the armed vessels of the United States,
and the President may detach and appoint for service on such vessels
such of the officers of said corps as he may deem necessary." This
would seem to imply that when no longer necessary they should be
withdrawn. Section 1619 says : " The Marine Corps shall be liable
to do duty in the forts and garrisons of the United States, on the
sea-coast, or any other duty on shore as the President, at his discre-
tion, may direct." It is certainly in keeping with the march of
progress abroad to follow the example of foreign powers and place
our sea-coast defenses in the hands of a semi-naval branch of the
government. The record of the Marine Corps certainly merits the
confidence of the country, and in taking this step we are but follow-
ing out the dictates of wisdom in officering our sea-coast garrisons
ultimately with graduates of the Naval Academy, and for the present
with officers whose sea experience would be of the utmost value in
the defense of our coast.
As to the wisdom of withdrawing the marines from service afloat,
the subject has so recently been discussed that little argument is here
necessary. If, however, no other arguments were forthcoming, it
would be sufficient to show that it is demanded by the reduced
complements of our recent ships. The newer vessels exact such care
for their hull, armament, and machinery; the coaUng of them is such
a task, and the routine work required of the men is such that the
marine " who toils not " takes up too much valuable room. The
Yorktown has a guard of 18, the Baltimore and Philadelphia each
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1. 2^
36, the Boston and Atlanta 40, and the Chicago 56. Of course
some one has to do the poHce duty of a ship, and the marine does
the work acceptably enough, but he is not sufficiently versatile. In
a modern ship a man must be something more than a soldier ; he
must be a sailor besides, and a man with only one talent is out of
place on a man-of-war. Aside from the desirability of having the
police work done by the men themselves, it makes a ship's company
more homogeneous, and is more in keeping with the system which
requires our officers to perform a wider range of duties than any
similar body of men in the world. Primarily this demands intelli-
gence on the part of the individual, and, secondarily, thorough
training in all the qualifications which make a modern man-of-wars-
man. In adopting this system for the men we are simply taking a
step necessary to place our naval service at least theoretically ahead
of any other in the world. There are other immediate reasons for
the withdrawal of the marines from service afloat. The infusion into
our men of a proper military spirit, now believed to be so necessary
in modern training, is an impossibility as long as the marine guard
exists on board ship. It is idle to say that we cannot trust the men
themselves with police duty. If we cannot, then we have the
strongest argument that can be advanced for beginning at once to
remedy a defect that stamps any organization a failure in which the
fighting force is untrustworthy. If we are to make any progress in
increasing the respectability and sense of responsibility of enlisted
men, we must take this step as a fundamental one. Such police duty
is essentially military, and a proper spirit can never be cultivated in
the men as long as the marine guard, by its mere presence on board
ship, is a notice to the men that they are not trusted and respected ;
that they are incompetent to perform military duties, and that they
do not possess the confidence of the officers. The military spirit is
not difficult to acquire, particularly if exacted of men by the officers
themselves. Most of the average marine guard sent on board a ship
are raw recruits. One sees very few continuous-service stripes
amongst them, and in the annual report for 1890 the number of re-
enlistments is given as 85, while there were a total of 948 enlistments
and 520 desertions, and this in a total force of 1950, with five years
as a period of enlistment and with 918 of the total force serving on
board ship.
A full marine guard of the newer ships will never in the future,
even for a flagship, consist of more than forty men, of which one
28 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
will be orderly sergeant, two or three sergeants, four corporals, two
music, and about thirty men. The detail in port consists usually of
four admiral's and four cabin orderlies, and some three to five posts,
each taking some four men, or about twenty in all. Then there are two
cooks and a mail orderly. On gun-deck ships and the larger battle-
ships there would be needed four corporals for the gun or battery
deck, besides. In case the marine guard is withdrawn from service
afloat, it is here proposed to perform their present duties in the ship
as follows : We have now on board each ship a master-at-arms, a ship's
bugler, and a ship's corporal, with an additional ship's corporal for
a gun-deck ship. Add one more ship's bugler and four to six ship's
corporals to the ship's complement. On flagships have in the
commander-in-chief's complement an allowance of four men for flag
orderlies. On flagships and other than flagships, select four men for
cabin orderlies ; these and the flag orderlies to serve for three months
as such. Assign one man also to act as a mail orderly in port and
as a sentry at sea. Select from four to six men as compartment men
for the protective deck and lower compartments, to keep them clean,
to preserve order, and to be responsible for them in every way,
serving practically as sentries in the compartments to which they are
assigned. They should have important duties in connection with
closing water-tight doors, rigging hand-pumps, and opening or
closing proper valves for fire or other purposes; regulating the ven-
tilation under the general direction of an ofiicer, whose functions will
hereafter be described ; and above all, in being held strictly respon-
sible for the police of the compartments to which they are assigned.
They should sleep there, and only leave it for " all hands." Assign
the master-at-arms, corporals, orderlies, and compartment men to
the Powder Division, and the two buglers to the Navigator's Divi-
sion. Detail from the deck force each day a sufiicient number of
men to act as sentries for the three, four, or five posts which may be
necessary, just as they do in the army, where sentry duty is legiti-
mate military service. Aboard ship it might be well to make a detail
last for a week at a time, but not longer. The master-at-arms and two
corporals should make the rounds, and be on duty continuously from
"all hands" in the morning, or from daylight, to 10 P. M., alter-
nating in inspecting below, to suppress or report all infractions of the
regulations. The master-at-arms should occupy the same relation
to the entire force that the orderly sergeant does to the marine guard,
excepting that his duties should be more active in policing the ship
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 29
and less in drilling the men under him. He would of course have also
to do what constitutes his important duties at present as master-at-arms,
excepting that with a general mess system he would have no berth-
deck cooks to look after. The other three or four corporals should
be on the spar-deck in port, to assist the officer of the deck, some-
what as a corporal or sergeant at the gangway does now, in over-
hauling boats and looking out for details of discipline, etc. For a
quarterdeck guard in port where necessary, use as now certain men
off post, with the addition of one or more machine-gun's crew from
deck as needed, or detail a boat's crew from one of the boats that are
hoisted, with the coxswain as sergeant or corporal of the guard.
XXIII. The following table gives the present monthly pay and
ratings in the navy, and also the new ratings and new rates of pay
here proposed. The new ratings are in italics, and the new rates of
pay in the second columns. The old ratings to which stars are pre-
fixed should be abolished. Any man holding a certificate as a sea-
man-gunner (having qualified in target firing or gunnery) shall be
entitled to receive 30 per cent increase over any rate of pay shown
in the proposed table for a petty officer's billet of the seaman class,
and 10 per cent in a petty officer's billet of the special or artificer
class.
With regard to certain new rates here proposed it may be well to
make some explanation.
The rate of gun-captain should be established, and to qualify in
it a man should be able to drill a squad of men at any regular routine
drill, such as infantry, artillery, great guns, machine guns, etc. ; should
be required to pass an examination in the " duties of a gun-captain"
as laid down in the hand-book hereafter mentioned ; and should
have made at four successive quarterly target practices a prescribed
percentage hereafter fixed upon by the Navy Department. Gun-
captains should rank as second-class petty officers of the seaman
class. In case a man is rated as gun-captain without qualifying, he
shall receive $35 a month. A gun-captain, qualified, shall receive
$45 per month. The same explanation applies to ship's cooks and
machinists. To qualify in those rates requires that the candidate
shall have passed through the prescribed training at the central
recruiting station as hereafter described.
The rates of electrician and dynamo-tenders seem to be demanded,
as distinguishing them from the engineer's force in official designa-
tion.
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32 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
Our signal corps on board ship is inferior to what it should be.
Something must be done to bring it up to a proper standard. It is
proposed to establish the rate of signalman, with the pay of $27 per
month ; any ordinary seaman, seaman, or apprentice of correspond-
ing rates being eligible, where specially fitted for the position. A
hand-book for quartermasters and signalmen should be officially
gotten up for their instruction and to prescribe the duties of quarter-
masters and signalmen, and the rating of quartermaster should be
held out as an inducement to signalmen to become thoroughly pro-
ficient.
By the system of messing here proposed it is hoped to restore to
the deck force at least 50 per cent of the berth-deck cooks now
allowed. By having all commissioned officers (other than the com-
manding officers) in one mess, and by not assigning warrant officers
and naval cadets to small ships, we can do away with warrant and
junior officers' stewards, cooks and servants. By transferring the
marine guard to a higher sphere of usefulness on shore we can
largely increase the available working force on deck. The need of
doing this in new ships with their crowded living spaces is sufficient
warrant for hoping that sentiment will not stand in the way of com-
mon sense.
With increased pay, comforts and respectability, and with a fairly
attractive career offered to enlisted men, we can hope to attract
intelligent Americans into the navy. With more intelligent men we
can secure a wider range of duties from each individual. With good
raw material everything depends on training. The handling and
fighting of a ship's armament is the true modern basis of the educa-
tion and training of our men. We give too much importance to the
paint-pot, holy-stone, active-topman type of man on the one hand,
and leave all the military training to the marines. The modern
effective unit, the seaman artillerist, must be somewhat of both types,
and very much more than either, not only in military spirit and
exactness, but in professional attainments to a degree not as yet fully
realized. The improvement in the status of our men can and should
end only in placing our service in harmony with the spirit and pur-
poses of our republican institutions. This we can never do as long
as we widen the gap between the officers and men by exacting the
highest standard in the former and the very lowest in the latter.
The new types of ships have done much to emphasize this, but we
must train the men to the ship, not strive by conservatism to check
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 33
the development of the viaieriel simply because it involves radical
changes in methods of training.
Training.
There is neither sufficient time nor room aboard the new ships, in
the exigencies of cruising, to conduct the drilling of recruits system-
atically and thoroughly, particularly in the first few months of a com-
mission when there are so many other things to be looked after. It
would tend, moreover, to secure uniformity, continuity, and thorough-
ness in the preliminary training of men, and would result in the
greater economy in time and labor, if certain drills, up to fixed
standards of efficiency, were given recruits at the central recruiting
stations at New York and Mare Island before drafting them off to
cruising ships. The most serious faults to be contended with in our
service to-day are: first, lack of homogeneity in the crews of ships ;
second, lack of uniformity in drills, routines, etc. ; and third, the
absence of a strictly military purpose in the training of men. The
duties of commissioned and petty officers, and the routine and
details of drills should be thoroughly systematized. What we need
are hand-books on different drills, accessible to officers and men
alike, and a series of short and condensed text-books outlining the
duties of petty officers and what they should be required to know
to qualify in the ratings they hold. In the French service such books
are prepared under government supervision, and sold for a nominal
sum to the men. One gives, for instance, instruction to quarter-
masters and signalmen and all that they ought to know to qualify in
such ratings ; another, instructions to quarter-gunners and gunners'
mates, etc. The application of these books to the practical exami-
nation of candidates for ratings, or to men or boys advanced from
one rating to another, would tend to secure uniformity in the qualifi-
cations for ratings throughout the service. At present it is largely
a matter of the individual ship, and the qualifications demanded are
un-uniform, vague, and not at all thorough, except in special cases.
At the central recruiting stations the preliminary training of
recruits should include setting-up exercise, gymnastics, swimming,
school of the soldier and company, pistol and cutlass drill, single-
sticks, boxing, bayonet exercise, field artillery, machine-gun drill,
aiming and pointing, knowledge of accounts with paymaster, sewing,
care of clothing, and familiarity with routine naval and police duties.
Enclosed pistol-ranges for target practice should be erected at New
34 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
York and Mare Island, and in the preliminary drill in aiming and
pointing of small arms, air guns or parlor rifles should be used to
illustrate the principles of aiming and firing. At Sandy Hook, near
New York, and at the Mare Island Navy Yard, rifle ranges should
be erected, embodying the latest ideas and suited to the requirements
of individual, skirmish and company firings. Systematic firing over
the ranges should be carried on until the men attain a fair ability to
hit a target at various distances. Every endeavor should be made
to familiarize the men with the care, preservation, and use of the
arms they are called upon to handle aboard ship. The course of
instruction at the station should last some three months or more, and
should embrace from four to six hours a day.
Attached to the New York station should be four vessels to be
used in the training of recruits. One should be a transport, to make
the rounds of the recruiting stations at stated intervals, to gather in
the recruits and to take drafts of men to ships along the North
Atlantic coast. The second should be a small steamer of some sort,
mounting a six-inch rifle, and having a small secondary battery con-
sisting of a three- or six-pounder Hotchkiss, a revolving cannon,
and a Gatling, to be used as a gunnery training ship for target prac-
tice for recruits at the station, to cruise out to sea or in Long Island
Sound for a day or so at a time. The third should be either a
sailing vessel, like the Saratoga, or a steamer with practically full sail
power, like the Yantic, to serve as a training ship for recruits. From
time to time recruits should be transferred to her for a cruise of from
three to four months, for instruction in seamanship, alacrity, heaving
the lead, signals, compass, log, knotting and splicing, handling boats,
and the usual duties of a seaman as distinct from the military and
gunnery duties of a man-of-wars-man. The incidental routine gun-
nery drills on board should be somewhat the same as at the station
on shore, such as school of the soldier, small arms, machine-gun drill,
single-sticks, field artillery, etc., to familiarize the men with the drills
in service afloat. Great attention should be paid to boat drill as a
most valuable professional exercise and a most necessary training for
seafaring men. They should be taught to handle and bring boats
alongside in all weather under oars or sail, and to expose themselves
in bad weather in order to give them that confidence which only
comes with a great deal of experience, and with a real knowledge of
how to handle a boat under all conditions. They should be exer-
cised in righting a capsized boat, in jumping overboard to pick up
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 35
Other persons in the water, and in every way encouraged to that fear-
lessness which comes with trained courage rather than heedless
daring. It is easy to exaggerate the virtues of the old system of
training men aloft as compared with the really thorough, athletic and
professional training which men can be given in ordinary ships' boats
under intelligent guidance. It should be as important to train men
to handle a boat as to train a cavalryman to ride a horse.
The fourth ship, more or less attached to the central training
station at New York, should be some modern ship like the Mianto-
nomah or Terror, for the training of the recruits for the engineer's force.
A vessel of this kind, to have routine target practice, must needs put
to sea each quarter anyway, and it is certainly of sufficient import-
ance in the training of the engineer's recruits to justify frequent short
trips to familiarize men with their duties. As all coal-heavers for
the coast are enlisted at New York, and all second-class firemen
should also be so enlisted, it follows that a regular course of training
in steam engineering and preliminary military training should be
established for such recruits. It should go even further. A school
for machinists should be added, and all who qualify in it should
receive the increased pay provided for qualified petty officers. There
is quite as much, if not more call for improvement in the character
and training of men in the engineer's force than in the deck force,
and if we are wise we will wake up to an acknowledgment of the fact.
Another advantage of having thoroughly equipped recruiting
stations at New York and Mare Island is in the ability to provide
for drilling the naval reserve forces at stated periods.
With a large total allowance of 10,000 men in the service, there will
be no difficulty in carrying out this scheme. With a small allowance it
will be impossible, as unexpected demands will be made on the central
station, and men drafted off with little or no training to meet emergen-
cies that are always arising. There must be a wide margin to enable
men to receive proper training. With regard to whether or not'
recruits in service on shore should live in barracks or on receiving-
ships depends entirely on the efficiency of the ships, and whether or
not they can accommodate as many men as may be necessary. The
ships possess many advantages in respect to training, but in the course
of time barracks will have to be built. In that case, the life of the
recruit in barracks should be assimilated as nearly as possible to
service conditions. This whole scheme of preliminary training is
nothing more nor less than the application of the Apprentice Training
System to general service recruits.
36 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
As regards the apprentice training system itself, special efforts must
be made to enlarge and develop it. With the total allowance of
apprentices increased to 1500, and an earnest effort made to retain
the best products of the system in the service, it would become a
most important factor in Americanizing the navy. Modern guns and
appliances, and increased accommodations and facilities for training
are very much needed. The attachment of the Richmond to the
station is a great step in the right direction. The enlargement of the
course for apprentices to qualify in special and artificer class ratings
is demanded by new service conditions.
The seaman-gunners.of to-day are the poorest paid, most seriously
discouraged, and yet the most important class of men in the navy.
Right here must begin a new departure, as this class of men must
form the keystone of our organization. Not only should as many
men as possible be thoroughly trained, as seaman-gunners, but the
course of training should be constantly enlarged and improved, until
our petty officers shall be, as far as possible, recruited from men who
have first qualified in the rating of seaman-gunner.
The present custom is to send continuous-service men just after
re-enlistment to the Navy Yard, Washington, to qualify in ordnance
and gunnery, and to Newport to qualify in torpedoes and electricity.
The applicant must be a seaman or petty officer of the line, under 32
years of age, and be able to read, write and cipher. He is also
required to take out naturalization papers if not already a citizen of
the United States. The course at Newport is very far from what it
ought to be, and is irregular and unsystematic. The working force
at the station is so small that the men are too often utilized for
routine work for it to be profitable to the men in the way of general
training. Certain men make a specialty of learning printing, others
make torpedo fuzes and detonators, and still others run the electric
plant. All this is valuable in its way, but the course, to be a course,
must be uniform, thorough and systematic. More officers are needed
at the station, or else a good deal of the training now given can be
better accomplished at Washington in connection with the advance
and gunnery course. Men frequently qualify at Newport who have
had only a few hours' lecture on electricity and a most theoretical
course in torpedoes. After the men are transferred to sea-going
ships the present pay tables begin to cause mischief. One man gets
the rating of machinist at $70 a month ; three others become oilers
and get $36 ; while others become gunners' mates at $30, armorers
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 37
at $45, printers at $40, yeomen at $60, and writers at $45. The pay
of petty officers of the seaman class, from which these men are
selected or recruited, is so much smaller than that of the special and
artificer classes that the deck force receives little or no benefit from
the seaman-gunner course. The past training has had the effect of
fitting the men best for civil life, and the discouragement of the out-
look in the service has operated to the effect of driving most of them
out of the service at the expiration of their enlistments.
At the Washington Navy Yard great strides have been made
towards the establishment of a proper school for seaman-gunners.
With the target practice on board the Alarm with machine-guns and
six-inch rifle, and the establishment of a rifle range on the Bellvue
magazine reservation, we will soon have in the service a class of
seaman-gunners who are, as they should be, expert artillerists. The
standard should be high, and when a man qualifies he should receive
largely increased pay, especially in ratings of the seaman class. The
shops at the navy yard aflbrd every facility for the mechanical and
technical training needed, and the system of drills carried on by the
seaman-gunners themselves, under supervision of commissioned
officers, gives them the training they need as petty officers. The
discipline is excellent and the results are very promising. The
facilities should, however, be increased and the classes enlarged.
The whole course of instruction of seaman-gunners needs thorough
systematizing, and hand-books should be gotten out as soon as
possible, to aid in the instruction not only of those at Washington
and Newport, but those out in the service who need to freshen up
from time to time and to keep up with the improvements and
changes that are constantly being made.
The circulars of the Bureau of Navigation in relation to target
practice, money prizes, etc., leave nothing to be desired in that
respect excepting that they may be rigidly carried out in the
service. The principal extension of this practical training in prize
firing should now be in the application of the whole system to the
apprentice training squadron and station, the central recruiting
stations for recruits, and the seaman-gunner course at Washington.
Special preliminary training both of recruits and petty officers, with
a view to securing uniformity in the service and of freeing ship's
routine of the elementary drills, is earnestly demanded by modern
conditions.
38 prize essay for 189i.
Organization.
A consideration of the recent tendencies in naval construction
leads inevitably to the conclusion that sail-power cannot play an im-
portant part in the navy of the future. With twin screws which do
not uncouple and cannot trice up, the most we can look for is
auxiliary sail for storm purposes. The Newark is the only square-
rigged vessel of the more recent ships, and every tendency, as shown
by the report of the Policy Board and the plans of vessels contracted
for, is in the direction of restricting sail to a very limited area. The
Squadron of Evolution, in its recent cruise of 16,000 miles, had
every opportunity of testing the utility or futility of square sails,
and a study of the logs of the ships will furnish no grounds for a
return to the Brooklyn or Pensacola types of cruisers. It is not that
sails are obsolete, or that the training of officers and men with spars
and sails must be given up, but it is sacrificing too much to handicap
swift cruisers with sail-power that is only an incumbrance. Officers
and men should be trained aboard sailing ships or auxiliary steamers
at the Naval Academy, Newport, and at the central training stations,
but it is going backwards to put useless sails on swift cruisers for
doubtful advantages in training that can be infinitely better accom-
plished on regular training ships. Strong, reliable and not too com-
plicated engines, good accommodations for the men, strong hulls
with double bottoms, handy and roomy coal-bunkers, increased
ammunition capacity, and improved methods of handling the same —
these are questions alongside of which the importance of the question
of sail-power in a modern swift cruiser dwindles into insignificance.
Indeed, in the matter of coaling ship we have a long way to go.
The demand for water-tight compartments and the continuity of the
armored deck lead not only to most unhandy coal-bunker arrange-
ments, but to difficulties in getting out coal fast enough to maintain
high speeds for considerable runs, and, most important of all, to
utter inability to coal ships in anything like reasonable time. The
spectacle of a swift cruiser like the Philadelphia or Baltimore taking
some three or four days to coal, or even one day, is in itself startling.
If those last quarters of knots of speed which are added for cases
of emergency are worth to the country $50,000 each, at what are we
to value the hours wasted through absurd coaling arrangements at
a critical juncture, when each hour means a loss of 18 knots or so
underway ? Fact is, in any new organization we must frankly come
to it that the coal-bunkers and the means of filling them demand a
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
39
place in our new station bills under the heading " Coaling Ship," just
as " Making Sail " or " Reefing " were of importance in the past. The
coal-shovel, the ammunition-whip, and the lock-string must all have
live men on the ends of them, and alacrity is just as great a factor
as it ever was in naval discipline and efficiency — some think greater.
Probably nothing can show more clearly the tendency of modern
ships in the reduction of living space than the following comparison
of the complements of the Chicago and Philadelphia, each repre-
senting epochs in naval development, and each carrying a crew up to
the full limit of her berthing capacity. The full complement of the
Chicago is 442, and of the Philadelphia 368, both being flag-ships.
The men are distributed as follows :
Watch Petty Officers.
Chi.
Chief boatswain's mates. . . i
Chief quartermasters I
Boatswain's mates 3
Gunner's mates 2
Quartermasters 3
Quarter gunners 6
Ship's corporals 2
Phil.
I
18 17
Petty Officers and Idlers.
Masters-at-arms i
Equipment yeomen i
Engineer's yeomen 2
Paymaster's yeomen 2
Apothecaries i
Captains of hold 2
Ship's cooks I
Baymen 2
Ship's writers i
Barbers i
Jack-of-dust i
Tailors i
Buglers 2
Steward to com.-in-chief.. . i
Cook to " " ..I
Servant to ** " . . i
Cabin steward i
" cook. I
" boy I
Ward-room steward i
Ward-room cook
" " boys
Junior officers' steward. . .
" " cook
" " boys
Warrant officers' steward.
'* «' cook....
" " boy
44 35
Engineer's Force.
Machinists 8 8
Water-tenders 5 3
Oilers 12 12
Boilermakers o i
Blacksmiths 2 2
PMrst-class firemen 12 14
Second-class firemen 15 14
Coal-heavers 36 36
90 90
Deck Force.
Captains of forecastle 2 2
" " tops 4 2
Coxswains 11 9
Seamen 57 36
Ordinary seamen 54 36
Landsmen 26 36
Apprentices 43 4°
197 161
40
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
Mechanics and Dynamo Tenders.
Chi. Phil.
Armorers 2 i
Blacksmiths i i
Carpenter's mates i i
Sailmaker's mates i i
Painters 2 i
Carpenters and caulkers,. . 4 3
Dynamo machinists i i
Oilers for dynamo 3 3
Printers 1 i
16 13
Marines.
Chi. Phil.
Orderly sergeant i i
Sergeants 3 2
Corporals 4 3
Bugler I I
Drummer i i
Privates 46 28
Band
56 36
.21 16
Total 442 368
This comparison needs some explanation. In the first place, the
regular additional allowance for commander-in-chief is 34, distributed
as follows :
Seamen 6
Ordinary seamen 6
Landsmen 2
Band 16
Coxswain... i
Cook I
Steward i
Printer i
Total.
■34
On the Chicago there are 21 in the band, and an engineer's yeoman
is allowed for admiral's writer, making the total allowance 40. On
the Philadelphia, on the other hand, the allowance of six seamen and
six ordinary seamen is disallowed, and the total is only 22. On the
latter, therefore, the barge's crew comes out of the ship's complement.
The Chicago being a gun-deck ship has an extra boatswain's mate
and ship's corporal.
In the revised organization here proposed for our new ships of
from 1200 to 10,000 tons displacement, the principal change is in
basing the organization on the gun instead of on the sail power.
The parts of ship are abolished and gun divisions substituted. The
gun's crew is preserved intact in the entire watch, quarter and station
bill, and constitutes, with the machine-guns' crews of the division, a
section at artillery, a platoon at infantry, a running boat's crew, and
going in the same boat at " arm and away " and " abandon ship."
No special-duty men or excused men should come out of the gun
divisions, which last comprise the entire deck force. All special-
duty men are in the powder or navigator's division, and there are as
few such men allowed as possible, every eifort being made to have a
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 4I
large working deck force. In case the marines are not withdrawn
from service afloat, they should be reduced in numbers and regarded
as special-duty men, which means that they would constitute a divi-
sion of the powder division in the quarter bill, but otherwise be under
the command of their <ewn officer. However, it is assumed that the
marines are to be withdrawn. The important factor to be first dealt
with in adapting our organization to modern conditions is the powder
division. The character and distribution of the chains of ammuni-
tion supply make it obvious that a large number of men are required
to deliver the same to the numerous guns now constituting a modern
ship's battery. Men at the guns are more or less protected
by shields ; men in the ammunition supply are mostly on or above
the protective deck and entirely exposed, as the coal protection
is only furnished the boilers and engines, hence the principal
casualties will be in the powder division. On them will devolve also
largely the care of the wounded passed below in action, yet at all
times the rapid supply of ammunition is of vital importance. This
fact, coupled with the necessity for closing water-tight doors when
about to ram or in any danger of being rammed, just when ammuni-
tion is also most needed with rapidity, leads to the necessity for
drawing on the engineer's force for the reserve for the powder
division in action. Under ordinary circumstances the powder
division must be organized without counting in any of the engineer's
force, which should constitute the reserve, but of all things this
division must not be short-handed. The automobile torpedoes are
mostly handled in the region of the ammunition supply, and the
torpedo division is here included as a division in the powder division.
This brings us to a very important and very necessary change in
the assignment of commissioned officers to divisions.
A consideration of the burden imposed upon an executive officer
of a modern cruiser of large displacement, by the care of the hull
and below decks, and the ever-increasing duties of looking out for
the complicated needs of such a ship, leads inevitably to the con-
clusion that he should in a measure be indirectly relieved by a com-
petent assistant from some of the duties which now bear so hard
upon him. The senior watch officers, from their age and experience
in the service, are entitled to share in these duties, and it is here pro-
posed that, on first and second rates, the officer now corresponding
to senior watch officer hereafter be designated as first lieutenant, and
the executive officer as executive officer only. The first lieutenant
42 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
shall have charge of the powder division, but shall not keep a watch.
He shall, under the executive officer, be charged with the discipline
of the lower decks, and of the special-duty and other men who clean,
paint, and police the compartments and inside hull of the ship. He
shall have charge of the general messing system and its inspection ;
shall regulate the ventilation of the ship below decks ; shall have
charge of the water-tight doors, traps, valves, pumps, and drainage
system of the ship ; and shall have charge of the police and sentries
of the ship in the preservation of discipline and in the faithful and
efficient discharge of their duties. He shall serve as senior member
of boards of survey and inspection, summary courts-martial, board
for the examination of seamen and petty officers for ratings to higher
ratings than those held by them ; and shall have personal and direct
supervision of the instruction of landsmen, ordinary seamen, and
apprentices to fit them for higher ratings. The executive officer
shall continue to discharge the same duties as at present. The first
lieutenant is simply to be a well-qualified assistant on whose knowl-
edge and judgment, founded on experience in the service, the execu-
tive officer can rely. The work put on a modern executive officer
simply means that he does as much as flesh and blood can accom-
plish and the rest must be more or less neglected. In most cases
nothing is neglected, but the physical strain is too great and should
be shared by a competent assistant. This is the custom in other
services that might be named, and it is founded on reason and com-
mon sense.
With a modern powder division twice the size of a gun division,
with the care and manipulation of automobile torpedoes added, and
with the various chains of ammunition supply cut off from one
another by the water-tight subdivisions, not to mention the exposed
position of most of the powder division in even armored ships, it is
not too much to say that the first lieutenant should have the assist-
ance of one or more of the junior watch officers, or ensigns not
standing watch, to properly carry out the complicated duties of the
officer in charge. There being no marine officer in the ship, the
duties of such could be incidentally performed by the first lieutenant
as far as supervision and inspection of sentries, etc., is concerned.
Any officer specially qualified in torpedoes should be assigned to the
powder division as assistant in charge of the torpedo division. The
more this scheme of having an officer of rank in charge below decks
is considered, the more it will commend itself to the service at large.
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 43
It is not a new idea in any sense, but we need to adopt it. In view
of the enormous amount of clerical work required at present in the
executive and navigation departments of a ship, two writers should
be allowed, one for the executive officer as now, and the other for
the navigator and first lieutenant, between them.
With regard to the allowed complement of ships there are certain
ratings which should be increased in number. A chief gunner's
mate should be allowed each ship carrying automobile torpedoes,
whether there is a gunner aboard or not. The allowance of quarter
gunners should be one for each large gun of eight inches or over,
one for each pair of five or six inch guns, and one for the secondary
battery. The armorer should also serve with the secondary battery.
Two painters should be allowed to large ships, and the carpenter's
gang increased to six carpenters and caulkers, in addition to the
carpenter's mate, as the duties now required in the iron work and
valves, pumps, etc., are quite additional to the former work of the
gang. The commander-in-chief's additional allowance for new ships
should be as follows :
Coxswains i Cooks i
Seamen, for orderlies 4 Band 16
Landsmen 2 —
Printers i 26
Stewards i
As to the new watch, quarter, and station bill adapted to modern
cruisers and battle-ships of from 1200 to 10,000 tons displacement, a
consideration of the present allowed complements of vessels shows
that the crews are distributed about as follows :
550 to 400 men. 400 to 300 men. 300 to 200 men. 2ootoioomen.
Petty officers, mechanics
and idlers i6perct. iSperct. 22 per ct. 28perct.
Engineer's force 20 " 24 " 26 " 28 "
Marines 10 ** 10 " 10 " 10 "
Deck force 54 " 48 " 42 *' 34 "
Transferring the marines to service on shore and doing away with
as many special-duty men as possible, the new percentages should
be as follows :
44 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
550 to 400 men. 400 to 300 men. 300 to 200 men, 200 to 100 men.
Petty officers, mechanics
and idlers 22perct. 24 per ct. 28perct. 34perct.
Engineer's force 20 " 24 " 26 " 28 "
Deck force 58 " 52 " 46 " 38 "
These figures are of course approximate, but indicate at least the
relative needs of large and small ships. Special conditions will of
course call for a modification of these allowances to suit peculiar
types of ships.
As the gun divisions take the place of parts of the ship, it may be
well to first outline the changes needed in the present watch bill of our
ships. In gun-deck ships, or in turret or barbette ships also carrying
guns in an armored casemate, central citadel or superstructure, there
should be four gun divisions. In all other ships there should be
three. As these gun divisions are to constitute the parts of ship, the
watch numbers of the first division should run from loi to 200 in-
clusive, which would give for the fourth division 401 to 500 inclusive.
The numbers from i to 100 inclusive should be given to petty
officers, mechanics and idlers. Those from i to 24 inclusive should
be for petty officers, mechanics, and idlers who do not stand watch,
and should run as follows :
I. Master-at-arms, 2. Ship's steward,
3. Electrician, 4. Apothecary,
5. Equipment yeoman, 6. Pay yeoman,
7. Chief gunner's mate, 8. Engineer's yeoman,
9. Ship's writer, 10. Ship's writer,
II. Chief quartermaster. 12. Printer,
13. Captain of hold, 14. Captain of hold,
15. Bugler, 16. Bugler,
17. Painter, 18. Painter,
19. Bayman, 20. Bayman,
21. Sailmaker's mate, 22. Tailor,
23. Jack-of-the-dust, 24. Barber.
The watch numbers from 25 to 80 inclusive should embrace the
petty officers, mechanics, and idlers who stand watch at sea, or in
port, or both, as follows :
25. Chief boatswain's mate, 26. Boatswain's mate,
27. Boatswain's mate, 28. " "
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1891.
45
29. Gunner's mate,
31. Armorer,
33. Quarter gunner,
35-
37.
39. "
41.
43. Quartermaster,
45-
47. Signalman,
49.
51. Ship's corporal,
53. "
55- "
57- "
59. Dynamo tender,
61.
63. Carpenter's mate,
65. Carpenter and caulker,
67.
69.
71. Seaman, steam launch,
73. Side cleaner,
75. "
77. Messenger,
79.
30. Gunner's mate,
32, Armorer,
34. Quarter gunner,
36. "
38. "
40.
42.
44. Quartermaster,
46.
48. Signalman,
50.
52. Ship's corporal,
54- "
56. " ■ "
58. "
60. Dynamo tender,
62.
64. Carpenter and caulker,
66.
68.
70. Coxswain of steam launch,
72. Ordinary seaman, steam launch,
74. Side cleaner,
76. "
78. Messenger,
80.
The numbers from 81 to 100 should include the ship's messmen,
as follows :
81. Ship's cook,
82.
Sh:
ip's cook's assistant,
83. Pantryman,
84.
Baker,
85. Messmfen,
86.
Messmen,
87.
88.
89. "
90.
91. "
92.
93. "
94.
95. "
96.
97.
98.
...
99.
100.
...
46 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
The watch numbers from 501 to 600 inclusive should be distributed
as follows :
From 501 to 550, the marine guard, or, in case the guard is with-
drawn, those having corresponding duties should be here enrolled.
In the latter case this group should contain numbers for four flag
orderlies, four cabin orderlies, and one mail orderly. The other
numbers should be reserved for the compartment men. From 551
to 570 inclusive should be the band numbers, and from 571 to 600
inclusive the cooks, stewards and servants, exactly as in the present
watch bill.
The numbers from 600 upwards should be the engineer's force.
The quarter bill should be, in respect to names, a copy of the
watch bill for the gun divisions, with one quarter gunner added for
each division. The remainder of the crew, exclusive of the engineer's
force, should be in the powder, navigator's, or torpedo division.
There it no necessity in a modern man-of-war for a large navi-
gator's division. In action everything is now controlled from an
armored fighting-tower, and the handling of the ship is confined to
very few people. The custom now is to assign one or more machine
guns to this division. It is here proposed that the following men
compose the navigator's division : the chief boatswain's mate, chief
quartermaster, carpenter's mate, and one carpenter and caulker, four
quartermasters, four signalmen, four messengers, one ship's writer,
two buglers and an armorer, in all nineteen men as a maximum. It
will be found that these are the men most needed on the spar-deck
in emergencies likely to arise in action. The allowance of four
messengers is meant to cover the necessity in large ships for two
for the officer-of-the-deck and two for the executive officer. An
armorer should be handy in case of accident to the mechanism of
guns or gun-carriages. The carpenter's mate and assistant should
be on the spar-deck under the control of the commanding, executive,
or navigating officer, to receive directions as to trimming the ship, in
case of accident, by pumping out or letting water into certain com-
partments, under the supervision of the carpenter, who should also
be attached to the navigator's division as an aid.
The torpedo division should be incorporated in the powder divi-
sion, under the immediate control of the torpedo officer, but under
the command of the first lieutenant, as being on the protective deck.
It should consist of the following men: chief gunner's mate, one
ship's writer, two dynamo tenders, two ship's corporals, and all the
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1. 47
special compartment men, including also the mail orderly and four
side-cleaners, in all about eighteen men. While in a special way this
division will be called upon in action, at more or less close quarters,
to manipulate torpedoes, yet their general duties at all other times
should also be to close water-tight doors, rig pumps, close air-duct
valves, etc., on signal from deck, or by order of the first lieutenant,
where necessary in cases of emergency, as best determined by those
below. This division will also act as aids to the wounded sent
below or belonging to the powder division. This implies that the
torpedo division will be scattered throughout the length of the ship
on the protective deck. That is as it should be, as by special signal
the men can be called together when about to discharge one or more
torpedoes. Men in the powder division whose stations in action are
on the protective deck should also be detailed to close water-tight
doors, etc., on special signal, as it is important that two men be
assigned to perform one duty of this kind, to decrease the chances of
failure through the absence of one or the other. In case there are no
torpedoes furnished the ship, the men here named as constituting the
torpedo division would, of course, be assigned directly to the powder
division.
The powder division should be composed of those men whose
watch numbers range fromi i to 100 and 500 to 600 not otherwise
assigned to the navigator's or torpedo division. The coal-heavers
and first and second-class firemen of one division of the engineer's
force should constitute the reserve of the powder division, to be
drawn on in case of necessity. The steam launch's crew, though
assigned to the powder division, are only nominally in it. In port
the steam launch is generally busy, and at sea and in action this
crew should be stationed in the steering-engine compartment. At
sea they should stand in three watches, to oil and tend the steam-
steering gear, and to stand by to shift from steam to hand gear in
cases of emergency. In action all three should be there for the same
purpose, with the additional duties of connecting up the preventer-
tiller ropes or relieving tackles, or in assisting to ship the spare tiller
in case of accident to both the ordinary hand and steam gear.
The engineer's division in the new watch and quarter bills should
be assigned more space than is now given in the present bills.
In relation to the fire bill, only one remark seems called for in the
arrangement and running of steam hose. The latter is kept in racks
usually some Uttle distance from the fire-plugs on the steam-main,
48 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
and in the course of numerous drills the threads are stripped in
coupling up hastily. It is here suggested that the pipe leading from
the fire-main to each fire-plug be branched, with a valve on each
branch. To one fire-plug the fire-hose should always be kept
coupled and neatly made up, but handy in case of fire, with nozzle
attached ready for running. The other plug should be used for
washing decks, etc.
One boat bill should answer for " Running boats," "Arm and
away," and "Abandon ship." The same crew should go in each boat
under all three circumstances, but in other than running boats the
additional men should be indicated by watch numbers under the
sub-headings "Arm and away " and "Abandon ship." A boat's
crew should be picked from each watch of a gun division, which is
practically the same thing as assigning a gun's crew to a boat. The
steam launch and sailing launch should be manned from the powder
division. The gig's, barge's and dinghy's crews should come from
the gun divisions equally, preferably from the machine-guns' crews.
Ships should be furnished with small boats pulhng double sculls for
purposes where they readily take the place of larger boats during
drill hours and after dark. The life-rafts, etc., for abandoning ship
should belong to the navigator's, powder, and torpedo divisions.
In the organization of the battalion, the powder division should
constitute the artillery and the ammunition supply; the navigator's,
the color guard ; and the pioneer's should be taken from the
mechanics and engineer's force. Each gun division should consti-
tute a company of infantry.
In the station bill such changes in the watch numbers should be
made as to make it correspond with the new watch bill. To what
are already given in the station bill as evolutions, should be added
" Closing water-tight doors " and " Coaling ship." In coaling ship with '
the ship's company, as few should be excused from work as possible.
In summarizing what has been here proposed, it may be stated in
a general way that the object sought is to secure for our ships (i)
homogeneous crews composed of men who are Americans, or who
have declared their intention of becoming citizens of the United
States ; (2) uniformity in the organization and drills of ships, in the
training of men, and in the requirements for advancing men from one
rate to another ; (3) such improved comforts and consideration as will
increase the real efficiency of the crews, and render the service more
attractive than at present ; (4) the retention of men in the service for
life by making a career for them as men-of-wars-men.
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 49
Much remains to be done in raising the tone of first-class and other
petty officers, by weeding out and getting rid of untrustworthy and
dissolute men, and by granting to those deserving it, every privilege
consistent with the maintenance of efficiency and discipline. In the
case of second-class petty officers, their mustering uniform should be
the same as for first-class petty officers, excepting, of course, the devices
or rank marks. Men on sentry duty should wear a belt and cutlass.
This applies equally to ship's corporals at all times, and to coxswains
and quartermasters on watch. Men in the gun divisions should wear
on the sleeve, corresponding to their watch, the figures i, 2, 3, or 4, in
white, according to the number of the division they are in, and this
in place of the present white tape watch-mark. Men on the sick list
should be required to wear the white band with red cross as prescribed.
In any discussion of the needs of the service, due regard must be
had to the quiet revolution that is going on in our profession.
Whether we close our eyes or not to the inevitable, we will never have
an efficient navy until we infuse more of a military spirit into it, and
until we recognize that we must provide a career for the men, with
rewards and pensions for service as substantial relatively as those
provided for officers.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART,
CONSTRUCTED FOR THE ORDNANCE
DEPARTMENT.
By Lieutenant W. W. Kimball, U. S. Navy.
The cart was designed to illustrate an attempted solution of the
problem of " How, in these times of rapid-firing arms of precision,
shall the infantry fighting line be supplied with ammunition?"
Before discussing the device, it will be well to briefly glance at the
main limiting conditions of the problem, and incidentally at the way
they are generally met.
On the march there is, of course, no more difficulty about trans-
porting ammunition by animal draft than about moving any other
weights ; but after the fight begins, animals cannot be depended
upon to get nearer than 2000 yards to the enemy's position, while
the ammunition will be wanted well up to the front — wherever the
line may be when the regular person-borne supply begins to run out
— anywhere from 600 to 1200 yards from the hostile lines.
The Systems of the French and German armies may be quoted as
examples of the generally approved methods for supplying the
fighting lines. In these armies, apart from the ammunition regu-
larly issued to the troops, the entire field supply transported in the
battalion ammunition wagons, company baggage wagons, ammuni-
tion columns, and park reserves, amounts to 99 and 97 rounds per
man, of which 18 rounds for the French and 20 rounds for the
Germans are carried in the battalion ammunition wagons.
The German regulations provide that, " Before action is com-
menced, the ammunition wagons of a regiment are united under a
mounted officer, in a secure position about 900 yards in rear of the
fighting troops. In case of need they must be taken to the fighting
52 NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART.
line regardless of loss. The cartridges are taken to the front by
men from each company ; and supports sent on to the fighting line
should take with them cartridges for those already engaged."
In the French army the rule is, " In action the battalion ammuni-
tion wagons are grouped together not more than iioo yards to the
rear. In case of necessity they may be ordered right up to the
fighting line. Cartridge-bearers must be furnished by the companies
in reserve, and are provided with double haversacks, kept in the
wagons, and capable of containing 360 rounds. After carrying the
ammunition to the fighting line and distributing it, the bearers must
return for more."
Of these two typical systems it may be remarked that, if the line
to be supplied was up within 800 yards of the enemy, the attempt to
take animal-drawn wagons up to it in the face of the fire of fairly
good modern-armed infantry — no matter how great the need might
be that " they must be taken to the fighting line regardless of loss '
— would prove very expensive in men, animals and material, and
would result in little, if any, ammunition supply to the line.
In regard to the ammunition-bearers, it is to be noted that their
chance of arrival is better than that of the wagons, in the proportion
that the target exposed by a man is harder to strike than the one
presented by a team ; and that it requires a bearer for each 360 or
400 rounds carried from the wagons to the line.
Assuming, then, that men, not animals, must be employed within
effective ranges, the question for consideration becomes one of
advancing a given amount of ammunition from 800 to 1400 yards
across a fire-swept zone and distributing it to the line in the shortest
practicable time and with the greatest economy in the use of the
ammunition detail.
The accompanying illustrations show that the device employed in
the experimental vehicle is the using of specially constructed wheel-
barrows, capable of being coupled together to form a cart for animal-
draft on the march, and readily uncoupled for man-propulsion across
the fire-swept zone. As the barrow has but one point of contact
with the ground, it is readily passed around and between obstruc-
tions, and can be taken nearly anywhere that a loaded ammunition-
bearer can go, while it is to be borne in mind that if the barrow be
stopped by an obstacle impassable for it, but practicable for bearers,
the bearers may be used from the obstacle to the front, instead of all
the way from the train to the fighting line.
NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART. 53
In regard to economy of time and ammunition detail, it has
been found by experiment that, under ordinary service conditions of
ground, two men with a barrow can move 4000 rounds a half mile
in less time than they can carry 800 rounds the same distance.
When deep mud or very steep up-grades are encountered, the
advantage of the barrow is decreased ; on fairly firm turf, on hard
ground, and on easy down-grades, it is increased. Averaging con-
ditions of ground, the barrow has, in economy of time and men,
about 5 to I in its favor over the borne-ammunition method.
These barrows are provided with a mechanical distributing device,
by which the ammunition can be dropped at will in lots of two hun-
dred rounds for each pull on the handles, and an automatic attach-
ment by which the same distribution unit is dropped at each revolu-
tion of the wheel, so that the distribution can be made with the
barrow-men on a dead run, and their time of entire exposure to fire
decreased to a minimum.
The distributing device is a simple ratchet lever and draw-bar
arrangement which releases in succession the traps which form the
bottoms of the cells, each of which contains a unit of distribution of
200 rounds. The succession of the several releases is such that the
center of gravity of the whole barrow-load is never altered, except
by an amount due to the dropping of one unit of distribution, an
amount which is entirely corrected as the next unit falls.
The device is simple and not liable to get out of order by exposure
to v/eather, dust and mud ; still it is not wholly positive in its action,
since a return-spring is used to save the man from having to think
of a necessary movement. On the whole, the mechanical distribu-
tion, although it does save time under fire, is of doubtful utility,
because it might unexpectedly fail in its functions, and because the
use of it, no matter what may be the distribution unit employed,
demands the cellular arrangement of the barrow-caissons.
It would seem preferable to employ a light angle-steel frame
instead of the caissons, the frames arranged to receive 500 round
wooden factory boxes of the proper dimensions for use on the
barrow. In such boxes the cartridges would be collected in good
packing units for factory and depot accounting and stowage pur-
poses, in packages not too heavy for a man to pick up and carry
some distance, in convenient bulks for rail or other transport ; and
they would be always ready for quick transfer to the carts, formed
of barrows, would keep dry when so transferred for any length of
54 NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART.
time in any weather, and would never leave their factory packing
until they were delivered to the troops on the fighting line or
anywhere else.
When the boxes were placed on the carts the cover-screws would
be removed and the covers held in place by the angle-steels and
retaining bolts only ; so that, when a box was thrown off on the
line, the men could get at the cartridges without having recourse to
the always lost and much inquired-for screw-driver.
It is doubtful whether the fore-and-aft barrow-shafts are preferable
to the cross-bar arrangement shown in Plate V. The shafts allow
the barrow to pass through long, narrow spaces and separate the
barrow-men more while distributing along the line, although they
place one man directly in rear of the other in the advance to the
line; the cross-bar is simpler of construction, gives better side
support, and allows shorter turns to be made. On trial through
ordinary New England woodland there was no very noticeable
difference in the ease with which the way among the trunks and
stumps could be threaded, whether using the shafts or the bar.
As the barrows are emptied of ammunition they may be thrown
down upon the field as the detail joins the fighting line, and collected
to couple up into carts after the action. The use of the empty bar-
rows in clearing up the field reduces the stretcher detail one-half,
since with a barrow with stretchers rigged (Plate VI) a detail of two
can take two wounded to the hospital, or two dead to the trench, in
less time than it can take one on a borne stretcher. As was satis-
factorily shown on trial at Governor's Island, there is no difficulty
whatever in using the barrow with only one stretcher loaded when
collecting the wounded or dead.
The empty barrows with stretchers in place could upon occasion
be used for moving sand-bags, or fire-wood, or for any small trans-
port work about the field.
The shaft frame for animal-draft of this cart was made to take two
barrows with the folding shafts shown in the illustrations, and for
such barrows the travois-like arrangement answers the purpose
fairly well.
In a design for a trial of the barrow device abroad, a pole replaces
the shafts, the travois extension from the cross-piece is not used,
and four barrows, the two outer ones tracking with the field artillery,
are coupled to the cross-piece by eyes and bolts, and held normally
at right angles to the pole in the vertical plane by spring struts,
NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART. 55
which allow a certain amount of independent vertical motion to the
barrows, for the purpose of decreasing lateral strains when any one
of them passes over an obstruction such as a stone or a stump.
With such a battalion cart, two good horses, with the driver
mounted on the near one, can take 16,000 rounds — a 20-round
supply for a battalion 800 strong — over country impassable for a
wagon, and have the ammunition always ready for rapid distribution
by an eight-men detail.
The general design of the barrow with the large wheel, centrally
borne load and consequently small axle, was originally worked out
to provide a means for allowing a reduction in the large draft-crews
now necessary for the machine guns and one-pounders in our naval
landing parties, and for decreasing the targets presented by the
pieces in action.
Take the service one-pounder as an example. The piece, the trail
mount consisting of low support socket, pivot and recoil brace, and
100 rounds of ammunition, loaded upon a barrow, could be taken
over rougher country than is practicable for the present field carriage,
and on the march the crew of six men would be obliged to exert less
effort per man than does the present crew of double the number.
In going into action, the barrow could be rushed forward to an
ordinary shelter trench made by the advanced infantry, the piece
tripod and ammunition boxes thrown off, the barrow thrown down
on its side, the piece mounted on its low mount and served by its
crew lying down, and thus as much invisibility and cover secured
from a 22-inch shelter trench parapet as it gives to infantry.
Or the piece and mount could be placed on one very light barrow,
and the ammunition — 150 rounds — on another. On the march the
two could be coupled together, or handled separately, according to
conditions of route. In the rush forward into action, the barrows
would be manned separately with a crew of three men each, which
would allow them to arrive if each crew lost a man in the advance.
Of course, the use of barrows is applicable to any pieces which
must be gotten well forward to have them effective, and which must
expose as little target as possible in order to be able to remain well
forward. Such rifle caliber machine guns as the Maxim, the Pratt
Whitney, the Gardner, and the Nordenfelt can be handled in like
manner to that above described for the one-pounder. The Catling
and its ammunition can well be transported on the barrows, but that
gun cannot be served by a prone crew, because the mount must be
56 NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART.
waist high, and the crank-man must stand in order to be able to put
his full effort on the crank and so bring out the full power of the
piece. Although the barrow-wheel has a large diameter, the barrow
frame is so narrow that the whole device would stow better and
occupy much less available space aboard ship than does the trail-
carriage ; and the arrangement of the load is such as to allow its
separation into convenient weights for stowing in boats, or for passing
across or over streams, marshes, ditches and walls.
The system will be tried abroad, and if approved by foreign
navies, may then, possibly, be domesticated in our own service.
TITLES OF PLATES — KIMBALL AMMUNITION VEHICLE.
No. I. — "Ammunition detail to the train !" Men at the cart.
No. 2. — " Unlimber and advance to the line !" a. Unlimbering ;
d. Advancing.
No. 3. — " Obstacle ! Double the detail to pass !" a. Passing
obstacle; d. Barrow awaiting return of double detail after a has
passed obstacle.
No. 4. — " On the line and distribute !" a. Automatic distribution,
dropping 200 rounds at each revolution of the wheel ; d. Distribu-
tion at will.
No. 5. — Shafts and distributing gear carried away. " Distribute
by hand ! Forward !" a. Distributing by hand ; d. Forward.
No. 6. — After the action. " Clear up the field !" a. Barrow as
thrown down after being emptied when the detail joined the fighting
line ; d. Wounded to hospital, or dead to the trench.
SPECIAL NOTICE.
NAVAL INSTITUTE PRIZE ESSAY, 1892.
A prize of one hundred dollars, with a gold medal, is offered by the Naval
Institute for the best essay presented on any subject pertaining to the naval
profession, subject to the following rules :
1. The award for the Prize shall be made by the Board of Control, voting by
ballot and without knowledge of the names of the competitors.
2. Each competitor to send his essay in a sealed envelope to the Secretary
and Treasurer on or before January i, 1892. The name of the writer shall
not be given in this envelope, but instead thereof a motto. Accompanying the
essay a separate sealed envelope will be sent to the Secretary and Treasurer,
with the motto on the outside and writer's name and motto inside. This
envelope is not to be opened until after the decision of the Board.
3. The successful essay to be published in the Proceedings of the Institute;
and the essays of other competitors, receiving honorable mention, to be pub-
lished also, at the discretion of the Board of Control ; and no change shall be
made in the text of any competitive essay, published in the Proceedings of
the Institute, after it leaves the hands of the Board.
4. Any essay not having received honorable mention, may be published
also, at the discretion of the Board of Control, but only with the consent of
the author.
5. The essay is limited to fifty (50) printed pages of the Proceedings
of the Institute.
6. All essays submitted must be either type-written or copied in a clear and
legible hand.
7. The successful competitor will be made a Life Member of the Institute.
8. In the event of the Prize being awarded to the winner of a previous year,
a gold clasp, suitably engraved, will be given in lieu of a gold medal.
By direction of Board of Control.
H. G. Dresel,
Ensign, U. S. N., Secretary and Treasurer.
Annapolis, Md., February 13, 1891.
^ F
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
SIACCrS BALLISTIC EQUATIONS.
By Prof. Wm. Woolsey Johnson, U. S. Naval Academy.
The following is an account of the mode in which Major Siacci
derives his ballistic formulae in the second edition of " Balistica,"
published at Turin in 1888. A few changes have been made in the
notation.
It is assumed as usual that, <5 denoting the density of the air and
fl^the diameter of the projectile, the resistance of the air for similar
projectiles is proportional to Sd"^. The retardation, found by dividing
the resistance by the mass, is therefore proportional to or -^ ,
where C is the ballistic coefficient. Again, for projectiles having the
same velocity, the same diameter and weight, but different forms,
the retardations are proportional to the values of a coefficient i de-
pending upon the form of the projectile. Representing, then, the
retardation byy(z/), a function of the velocity, we may write
/Cv) = ^ F{v\
so that Fiv) is a function of v, independent of the form, weight and
dimensions of the projectile, and of the density of the air.
Now, <p denoting the inclination to the axis of x of the trajectory
at the point ix,y), the equations of motion are
d (v cos y)
di
d (v sin sp)
di
Eliminating/(z/),
-/(v) cos <p,
(I)
-f{v) sin ip -
-£■. (2)
I (v cos ?>) =
— gv cos <p di,
58 SIACCl'S BALLISTIC EQUATIONS.
and, dividing by v^ cos^ ^,
,v %m. (p _ gdt
V cos ip V cos (p
or
sec'' (p d(p ^^ — ^ sec ^ dt,
whence
gdt = — V sec f d(p. (3)
Substituting in (i), we have
gd{y cos f) =if(v')vdf, . (4)
the differential equation connecting v and ?>.
If this equation could be integrated, v would become a known
function of <p, and then / could be found from (3) by quadrature, and
in like manner x could be found from the equation
gdx = gv cos <p dt =^ — v^df, (5)
and y from
dy =. tan f dx. (6)
But, since (4) cannot be integrated, it is necessary to have recourse
to approximate integration.
First substituting in (4) the value oif{y)^ and introducing a new
variable z, such that
V cos (p = 2 COS 0, (7)
where 6 is the initial value oi <p, or "angle of projection," we have
gdz — -^ F(v)z — '- — , (8)
* C ^ ^ cos <p
and, by the change of variable from v to z, (3) and (5) become
gdt=- z cos -^ , (9)
* cos^ <P
gdx = - z" cos' -^ . (10)
* cos (p
The new variable ^ is a fixed multiple of the horizontal velocity,
and may be described as the component of the velocity in the direc-
tion of the initial tangent or line of projection when the other co7npo-
nent is vertical. It is known as the pseudo-velocity: its value
coincides with that of the velocity at the origin and at the point in
the descending branch where w = — 0; between these points its
value exceeds that of the velocity.
SIACCIS BALLISTIC EQUATIONS. 59
In order to reduce (8) to an integrable relation between the two
variables z and (f, Siacci puts
F(v) = ^F{^z)''-^^, (II)
^ ' ' "^ ' cos <p
in which /5, which in general has a very restricted range of variation,
is assumed to be constant. The equation thus becomes
, 5//3 cos'' T-, ^ '^'"
gdz = y^ zF(2)
C ^ -^ cos'' <p
d<p _ C gdz
cos^ (p ~ dij3 cos'' 6 zF(^z) '
(12)
and, substituting in (9) and (10), we have
and
Now putting
^^- dzi3 cos OF{zy ^^^^
dx=--f._^#.. (14)
in which C is assumed constant and is called the reduced ballistic
coefficient, and denoting the integrals
_ r zdz _ r 2gdz _ dz
~ ]T(z)' ~~ ]JF(^' W)'
by
respectively, the integrals (reckoned from the origin where z =^ V)
of equations (12), (13) and (14) are
tan ^ - tan 6^ = - ^-^^ [/. - /r], (15)
i= -^AT,- Ty], (16)
cos 6 ^ •' ^
X= C'lS^-Sy-]. (17)
Moreover, multiplying (15) by the differential of (17), equation (6)
gives
^ - ^;i: tan ^ = ^^ [/, - ly] dS/,
■^ 2 cos' ^ ■- -^
and writing A, for
l^^^"., or -i^^>
6o SIACCl'S BALLISTIC EQUATIONS.
the integral of this is
or, dividing by (17),
V C
Equations (15), (16), (17J and (18), together with (7), or
cos 6 ,
v = z , (19)
COS (f -^
are the ballistic formulae expressing x,y, cc, t and v in terms of the
auxiliary variable z. They are to be used in connection with Bal-
listic Tables containing the numerical values of S, A, /and T for
all values of z.
Of these equations, which were first published in 1880 (Giornale
d'Artiglieria e Genio, P. II), the author says: "The arithmetical
operations which they require are of the most simple kind; they are
besides independent of the expressions for the resistance of the air,
and therefore will not change, however much, with the progress of
studies upon the resistance of the air, it may be necessary to change
these expressions, which in fact will influence only the numerical
values in the ballistic table. This table, indeed, may be constructed
whatever be the resistance adopted, be it expressed by a single
formula of any kind for all velocities, or by several formulae according
to the limits of the velocity itself, or even be it not expressed by any
formula, but only given numerically in correspondence with the
numerical value of the velocity."
Supposing the ballistic tables to be correct, the approximative
character of the method is due entirely to the quantity /5, whose
value, defined by equation (11), is
Fjy) cosy>
^~ F{z) cos'' 5*
It is known that the retardation varies with a power of the velocity
higher than the second, except for very high and very low velocities,
in which cases it varies simply as the square of the velocity. Hence,
K(y) is generally an increasing function of z^. Substituting, we have
since v cos <p =^ z cos d.
v^^ cos^ _ K{v)
z'Kiz) cos^ - Kiz) ^^^ ^'
SIACCIS BALLISTIC EQUATIONS. 6l
At the origin ip = 6 and z = v; whence /3 = sec B, which exceeds
unity. At the vertex ^ = o and z'> v; whence /S = ^ ^ and is less
J\.\Z)
than unity. To obtain exact results we ought in each formula to
employ some mean value of /5 between the greatest and least value
which occur within the limits of the arc of the trajectory under con-
sideration. This mean value, which depends also upon the formula
used, can of course in no case be exactly obtained. Confining his
attention, however, to that which should be employed when, of the
three quantities, the range, the initial velocity and the angle of pro-
jection, two are given and one is sought, the author shows that we
may take /? = i for angles of projection less than 20° in connection
with usual initial velocities.
ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION IN ORDER THAT THE
TRAJECTORY IN AIR SHALL PASS THROUGH
A GIVEN POINT.
By Professor Wm. Woolsey Johnson.
I. Siacci's formulae for x and y, equations (17) and (18) of the
preceding resumg, are
x^ ClS,-Sy'\,
Suppose the values of x and y for a point of the trajectory, that is,
the coordinates of a point to be hit (as well as the initial velocity,
V, and the reduced ballistic coefficient, C), to be known, and let it
be required to find the value of 0. Putting s for the inclination to
the horizon of the " line of sight," or line joining {x^y') to the origin,
we have
tan s -^^ —',
X '
and the equations may be written
* n . ^' sec' FA, — Ay r~\
tan ^ ~ tan . = — ^— [-;^zr3v - ^'J ' ^^^
S,:==Sy^^, (I)
62 ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION.
Denoting by a "the angle of elevation," or angle between the line
of sight and the axis of the bore at the moment the projectile leaves
the muzzle, we have
^ = -y + «; (3)
whence
tan d — tan s
tan a = — — — .
I + tan tan ^
Therefore, dividing by i + tan tan s, equation (2) may be written
i+tan'^ C FA, — Ay ^1 /^
^^" " = I + tan ^ tan . T [^^^^ ~ d " ^^^
Put
I + tan'
I + e.
I + tan tan a
Subtracting unity from each member,
tan (tan — tan s') ^ _ ^
e = 1^^- 77- = tan 6* tan a .
I + tan tan ^
If then we put
equation (4) may be written
tan a = (i + e') tan Qj, (6)
where
e = tan a tan (a + s). (7)
These formulae give the following method of computing a: By
means of the ballistic tables we find z from equation (i), and then
tan ai from equation (5). Now beginning with an approximate value
of a (say «i, since £ is small), we compute £ by (7) and then a by (6).
If the value of a so found differs considerably from the approximate
value used in computing e, this quantity may be recomputed and so
on until the value of log (i + e) is no longer changed, and (6) then
gives the true value of a. [If a table of" addition logarithms" is at
hand, the value of log (i + e) is found directly corresponding to the
argument colog e, and will be seen to vary very slowly.]
2. The angle a is always positive, hence e in (7) is positive when s
is positive, and also when ^ is negative and numerically less than a ;
in these cases therefore a is greater than a^. When s = — a, e
vanishes and a = a^; this occurs when = 0, the origin then being
the vertex of the trajectory. For greater negative values of s, e is
negative and a less than Oj.
ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION. 63
When s = 0, equation (2) gives the usual formula for a given hori-
zontal range: namely, denoting the corresponding value of 6* by y,
this is
(8)
^^^^^=^'[3^r^'-^^]-
3. It has been usual to employ in the general case when s is not
zero, the hypothesis of the " rigidity of the trajectory." This hypo-
thesis consists in the assumption that if we find a for any horizontal
range, that is, when s = 0, and then keeping a constant let s increase
from o, the trajectory will be rotated about the origin without change
of form, so that the range upon the line inclined at the angle ^ will
remain unchanged. The value of a upon this hypothesis is there-
fore the same as that of ^ above, except that for x we should put the
actual distance
X= */(x' +y} = xsecs.
Denoting by Z the corresponding value of z as given by equation
(i), this angle, which we shall denote by a', is determined by
''=^'[t^'-^']-
(9)
This is a convenient approximation to a when a Range Table,
computed for the given values of C and V, is at hand. But it is to
be noticed that such a table may be used instead of the ballistic table
in connection with the exact method given above; for, comparing
equations (5) and (8), we see that
tan a^ = isin2r; (10)
hence, taking from the range table y instead of a' (that is, using the
horizontal instead of the actual distance^, we readily obtain tan a^,
and we can then proceed as before to find a from equations (6) and
(7). When this is done, y will be a better approximation than a^,
with which to commence the computation of e, when s has a positive
or a small negative value ; for (lo) shows that y is always greater
than ai, and, as will be shown below, y is less than a when s is positive,
being equal to a when s = o.
4. In order to discuss the degree of approximation of a' the result
of the rigidity hypothesis, we shall first compare a with y. Writing
equation (10) in the form
tan y = tan a^ sec^ y,
64 ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION.
and dividing (6) by this equation, we have
tan a __ I + tan a tan (a + s)
tan y ~ i + tan^ y '
whence
tan a — tan y = tan a tan y [tan (a + s') — tan y"] . (i i)
Since « and ?' are positive, tan (a + s) — tan /' and tan a — tan 7'
have the same sign, therefore y is not intermediate in value to a and
a + ^; and since in all practical cases tana tany <i, /' is nearer to
a than to a + s; that is to say, y is less than a whe?i s is positive, and
greater than a when s is negative.
Thus, if we put
a = r + ^,
5 has the same sign as s. The value of 5 when s is small is readily
obtained from equation (11). The first member becomes
tan y 4- tan '5 tan 0(1+ tan'' y)
tan a — tan /- = ; — tan r = r tt •
I — tan y tan o i — tan y tan 8
Making a similar reduction in the second member, we have
tan d ^ , , s.^ . I — tan r tan d
tan(o+.) = '^^ ^^ + '^ '^" ^-tanrtan (.- + .) '
which, putting s = o, and therefore d = o, gives the vanishing ratio
3 +
s-'--
U f .
Therefore,
when
s is small.
3(1-
tan' r)
= ^ tan'
r,
d =
^,sin'
cos
2r*
We may therefore write
a =
y + s-
sinV
(12)
cos 2;'
which is a very good approximation to a, being in fact the first two
terms of the development of a in powers of J.
5. Now since a' corresponds to the actual distance X, of which x
(to which y corresponds) is the minimum value when s varies, a' is
always greater than y except when j = o ; and if a' were developed
in powers of s, it would be of the form
a' = y + As- + etc., (13)
ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION. 65
containing no term of the first degree. Comparing this with equa-
tion (12), we see that for negative values of ^, «' is further from a than
Y is, and that when s is positive and small, a' is less than a, although
for larger values of ^ it may exceed a.
Moreover, the employment of equation (12), which in all cases gives
a close approximation, involves scarcely more labor, when a range
table is used, than the finding of a', supposing x and s to be given.
The locus for which y is constant is a vertical straight line. Equa-
tion (12) shows that a must increase and decrease with x in order
to hit points on this vertical line. Hence if a remains constant, the
abscissa of the point hit will decrease as s increases and increase as s
decreases ; that is to say, the locus of the point in which the trajec-
tory cuts the line of sight is a curve cutting the axis of x at an
obtuse angle. This is in conformity with the case of the unresisted
trajectory, for which this locus is known to be a parabola with its
axis vertical and cutting the axis of .;*: again at the origin. See Ext.
Ballistics, Meigs-Ingersoll, p. 15.
The hypothesis of the rigidity of the trajectory of course assumes
this locus for a constant value of a to be a circle whose centre is at
the origin, and it is possible that this circle may cut the true locus in
a point above the axis oi x.
6. As an illustration, I have computed the values of the angles
considered above by means of Ingersoll's Ballistic Tables for the
100-pound 6-inch shell of standard form, fired with an initial velocity
of 2000 f. s. to hit the point for which x = 3500 yards, jj/ = 500 yards,
the value of s being therefore tan~^ 1 or 8° 7' 48". The results are
as follows: Computing a by the method of §1, we find
«i = 3° 27' 42",
and using this to compute e, we find at first « = 3° 30' 16", and
recomputing s, finally
a = 3° 30' 18".
The computed value of y (which we should find directly in a
Range Table) is
r = 3° 28' 27";
the value of (5 is found to be i' 48", so that equation (12) gives
« = 3° 30' 15".
The value of a' is
a' =3° 31' 24".
66 ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION.
which is greater than a, a result which, as indicated above, is ren-
dered possible by the very considerable value of ^.
As a second illustration, if the sign ofy be changed, the other data
remaining the same, so that ^ = — 8° 7' 48", we have of course the
same value of «i, and computing s, we find at once
a = 3° 26' 40",
which is unchanged by a recomputation of s. The value of y is the
same as before, and d has its sign changed so that equation (12) gives '■
a = 3° 26' 39".
The value of «' is the same as before, namely,
'^' = 3° 31' 24",
which is now far out of the way.
The value of /5 in the computation was taken as unity, although
this mean value is recommended by Siacci only for the horizontal
range. We are as yet, so far as I know, without a method of cor-
recting /? when the range is not horizontal. It seems, from an inves-
tigation of these special cases, that in the first example ft should be
increased possibly to 1.008, and in the second example possibly to
1.015. The result would be to increase a at the most 40" in the first
case and i' 15" in the second case.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD,
TARGET PRACTICE.
By Lieutenant J. F. Meigs, U. S. N.
The object of target practice is to accustom men to their weapons,
and make them skilful in their use. It may be said that the ends in
view are (i) to train marksmen, and (2) to train tactical bodies of
men. The butt-firing, of which we hear so much, has for its object
the training of marksmen ; it is sought to find out to what degree of
nicety the eye and nerves of men, who have special natural skill,
can be trained by firing under conditions of great simplicity. No
one believes that the members of the rifle-teams could show anything
like the skill they exhibit if they were, with two or three other men,
crowded around a gun-port, and firing at a moving object in the
water. For such work, butt-training alone is not sufficient.
The firing of tactical bodies, such as guns' crews, ships' whole bat-
teries, ships' riflemen or boarders, companies, etc., if conducted
under circumstances which are like those which may occur in ser-
vice, will fall in accuracy far below butt-firing. But though the
firing at the butts will not alone make men good shots in the more
difficult circumstances, yet it is not useless. Indeed, in any numerous
body of men, the simpler form of firing must constitute a large part
of the training given.
Here is the right place to say that it is impossible to train men in
pure marksmanship with anything but small arms. To use guns of
the larger classes is too expensive. A round from an 8-inch B. L. R.
costs about $66, from a 6-inch about $34, from a Hotchkiss 3-pounder
$3, and from a shoulder rifle about two cents. The object then of
the great-gun quarterly allowance is not to produce marksmen, or,
to put it in a way which will be more readily accepted, this is a small
part only of its object. The men who pull the lock-string may
68 TARGET PRACTICE.
become more expert marksmen in the course of a cruise, but the
improvement will not be great. No one would be satisfied, in an
attempt to become a good shot, with some ten or eleven shots per
annum for three years. The object of the great-gun allowance is,
after drill has perfected the training of the men as much as possible,
to perfect the work of (i) the gun's crews and (2) the ship's battery.
The gun-captain should have shown some fitness for his place before
he is put there, and he and the other members of the crew should
thoroughly learn their duties in loading, pointing, and firing a gun
before they are allowed to handle it loaded.
Since skill in throwing their weights in the proper direction no
longer tells as much as formerly in gun's crews, the old drill has
lost some of its importance, or rather, it need not be so often repeated.
It is as important as ever that guns should be rapidly and surely
handled, but this end will now be attained in other ways than it was.
It is dreary work to run guns in and out every few days through a
whole commission; and as soon as a crew has learned to handle the
gun surely at top speed, the running in and out and fictitious loading
should be repeated only often enough to keep up the skill attained.
To sum this matter up, it may be said that it is a pity that all drill of
gun's crews cannot be target practice. By using sub-caliber bores
in the gun, a large part of it can be made very nearly like target
practice, and by excluding at drill everything not found necessary
when actually firing the gun, we may invest the drill with an interest
it does not always possess.
The consequences of the fact that the gun target allowance cannot
make the gun-captains marksmen are numerous. Target practice
with great guns should not be conducted without attention to the
gun's crew as a whole. If a gun is allowed to be loaded in a leis-
urely manner, and some person ordered to aim and fire it, the
mistake has been made of not attending to the gun's crew. The
drill should be enforced during target practice. For, leaving out the
matter of providing for safety, the object of the drill is to produce
rapid and effective use of the gun, and if it will not do this it should
be changed.
Here the point may be made that all tactical firing should be on
time. There can be no doubt that such firing when executed in
battle will be on time, and, therefore, it should be on time from the
beginning when preparation is going on. If a single gun's crew is
firing continuously at a target, or a body of riflemen are doing the
TARGET PRACTICE. 69
same, it is not advisable to push them into firing wildly in an attempt
to fire a great deal ; but they should be pushed to fire as fast as they
can without loss of the accuracy they can attain to in very deliberate
practice. Under ordinary circumstances, and when well mounted,
a gun of medium weight can be as well pointed, probably, in 30
seconds or less, as it can be in any greater time. One of the points
that officers should note in target practice is the degree of excitement
of the men. If they are too much excited, some steps should be
taken to restore quiet.
All tactical firing should, then, be on time, and men should be
pressed to fire as fast as they can while having a proper regard to
safety precautions in loading, and to the balance and steadiness of
the man pulling the lock-string.
Although the argument that all firing in battle will be on time, and
that our practice with tactical bodies is a direct preparation for this,
may be held to be sufficient to establish the rule that we should note
the time elapsed in all firing of tactical bodies, yet a word may be
added as to the importance of rapid fire. Sea-fights of former days
were won within point-blank range — that range for which, with the
guns and targets present, there was no need to know the range — and
it is the belief of many that sea-battles will always be fought within
point-blank. At such ranges, speed in serving the gun is of very
great importance. The gun may be kept pointed all the time, and
the lock-string pulled as often as a load can be put in. Then, too, the
volume of fire must be made as great as possible; all guns must be
fully supplied with ammunition, and the riflemen open, if the target
is at about half the point-blank range of the great guns. Guns must at
such times be worked at full speed with comparatively few men, and
those spared from the crew must aid in passing ammunition, and open
fire with rifles.
It is doubtful whether in all men-of-war of recent times as much
ammunition can be passed to the battery as can be effectively fired
at a target close aboard. It would be an interesting point to note
regarding the stationing of ships' companies at general quarters,
how great a weight of shot (from calibers of all classes) could be
kept up per man per minute for a short time. The duration of such
a trial must be made sufficient to test the supply of ammunition.
If, under such circumstances, the ammunition cannot be supplied
fast enough, measures must be taken to overcome this. There can
be no doubt that, at the very short ranges which occurred in former
70 TARGET PRACTICE.
times, the successful ship usually drove her enemies to cover — or to
a fancied cover — causing a slackening of fire, and at the short ranges
which will again occur the same thing will happen. If, as is by many
believed, the principal part of sea-conflicts will occur at short range
—ranges which, when referred to the point-blank of guns, our true
tactical unit, will not be longer than in the days of Benbow — if such
be the case, the number of bullets we fire, together with some regard
to their direction and penetrating power, will be all-important. We
might try to put a shot from a 50-ton gun through our opponent's
bottom at close range, but unless the 50-ton gun were protected much
better than is usual, it could not be reloaded under the fire of 100
J-ton guns, and its crew had better be put at some more useful work
while the range is short.
If it be true that much firing at sea will be at distances extending
not far beyond point-blank range, it follows that most of our target
practice should be similarly conducted. Under such circumstances,
the gun must be very rapidly served, everything being sacrificed to
hitting the target a large number of times.
It is essential to the success of any scheme of target practice
intended to be applied in a military organization, that, among other
things, the environment of the individuals of the organization be
carefully studied. Armies, having usually better facilities for im-
proving the skill of individual marksmen at the butts than have sea
forces, will probably always excel the latter in butt-firing with hand
rifles. We cannot in the navy, from the circumstances of our ordi-
nary peace service, pass a great deal of time in training individuals
in this way. But, as has been mentioned, this seems to be the only
way in which the marksmanship of a numerous body of men can be
materially improved, and we must, therefore, resort to it as much as
possible. An attempt is now being made to establish at each
receiving-ship a school of marksmanship depending principally upon
the use of the rifle and revolver. In order to make these thoroughly
efficient, much must be done in the way of building ranges and pro-
curing other facilities, elaborating suitable and progressive forms of
training, etc.
The great difficulty experienced on board these ships is the want
of ranges. In the case of the receiving-ship at New York, where,
from the large number of men passing through, a range is most
needed, the circumstances are most unfavorable. But this difficulty
will probably be overcome, either by the erection, at considerable
TARGET PRACTICE. 7 1
expense, of a covered range within the limits of the yard, or by-
arranging to send the men in drafts to some point where a range can
be built more cheaply. At the navy-yards in Boston, San Francisco
and Washington, at which latter place the seaman-gunners are held,
very fair ranges have been secured ; and at Norfolk, which in impor-
tance is probably second to New York, a range over which reduced
charges may be fired is in use.
Another difficulty under which the receiving-ships labor is the
very uncertain time that men are held on board them, some being
retained for a few days only. It thus becomes necessary to give men
their practice as soon as may be after coming on board, and the
embarrassment in arranging and putting into effect a good scheme
is much increased.
The details of the plans to be adopted in each receiving-ship are,
by order of the Navy Department, at present left to their com-
manding officers, it being required that they shall classify into four
classes, and being provided that men, upon transfer to cruising ves-
sels, shall receive an award diminishing from $2, according to the
class in which the man stands. It is also provided that, by an entry
in the transfer papers, the skill of each man shall be shown. The
firing is with rifles and revolvers, and the score depends upon the
results of firing with the two. This plan is now in operation. The
facilities for its convenient and efficient execution are some of them
wanting; but in its main outline it is now carried out, with the
exception of New York, where the expense which must be incurred
cannot at present be met.
Whenever proper facilities can be had at each receiving-ship, the
methods of firing can be made the same at all ; but meanwhile each
commanding officer uses the best method he can arrange with the
facilities to be had. The men then come to cruising-ships classified
in marksmanship with the rifle and revolver, having had an award
paid to them depending on the degree of their skill, and with the
same marked on their transfer papers. These marks are carried
along in each man's record for every quarter during his enlistment.
The marks and the award for each quarter are the same as already
referred to for the time of transfer from the receiving to the training
ship. The only record made or report sent forward regarding this
firing, is the entry in the man's papers. The scheme here outlined
is described at length in Order 14 of the Bureau of Navigation, of
July 20 last.
72 TARGET PRACTICE.
There is thus provided and in actual operation a plan by which
enlisted men are classified in both receiving and cruising ships, and
by which their records in shooting rifles and revolvers are carried
with them. The plan is also carried out in the training service. The '
receiving-ships, though all dividing their men into four classes — not
counting those who fail to classify at all — arrange the details of the
firing by which men reach the several classes, in the best manner
possible with what they have at command ; but cruising ships, while
having the same four classes and the same awards, to be paid quar-
terly when firing occurs, have all the same requirements for reaching
the several classes. The firing in the cruising ships is with rifles
and revolvers, and is from either a ship or a boat.
This scheme, so devised that it may be generally applied and at
the same time sufficiently elastic to allow ships whose opportunities
are very different to compete, cannot fail, if elaborated in accord
with the dictates of experience, to improve the shooting of most men
in the navy. It is true that some of our men do not remain long in
the service, but others do for considerable lengths ; and any plan,
if it serves no better purpose than to teach us that it is bad, must
result in good. The theory of naval training should contemplate
the conclusion of certain parts of men's education when they go
on board cruising ships. Our men should have some use of fire-
arms before going afloat.
One trouble is the great multiplicity of fire-arms and weapons
generally which our men must learn to handle. And when, to the
skill in caring for and using these, is added the complexity of drills
intended to provide for all cases which may arise, it appears that a
good deal is necessary. Still, there must always remain some simi-
larity in the care and use of fire-arms ; and, if the drill-manuals be
reduced to the smallest compass possible, not more, perhaps, than
most men can master will remain.
By the means now in use, the records of all enlisted men in firing
with rifles and revolvers are obtained, and are always carried with
them. At two or three of the receiving-ships, some firing with boat
guns has been undertaken; but this, because of its cost when
extended to a large number of men, must be limited in its applica-
tion. On board the Dale, where men are training for the rate of
seaman-gunner, an excellent and well-equipped range looo yards
long has been built, and here the men are required to shoot at fre-
quent intervals. When the Alarm is prepared to add to this, and to
TARGET PRACTICE. 73
the varied experience the men get in the shops in handling ordnance
material, some firing with 6-inch and 3-pounder rifles, we shall have
the ideal gunnery school. It will remain only to use the facilities to
good purpose to produce results which will commend themselves to
everybody.
In this statement of the conditions of necessities for target firing
on board the receiving-ships, the advisability of including for the men
on board them some drill should not be overlooked. All knowledge
of service drills which may be possible should be acquired by men
in receiving-ships. The men at New York, where facilities for target
practice are so unfortunately wanting, pass through very complete
schools of drill— sighting exercises, and firing with parlor rifles — and
at the Washington yard, the men training for the rate of seaman-
gunner are taught all service drills. These last, from the fact that
they have all, or nearly all, previously to their stay on board the Dale,
been petty oflicers, and because they go back to the same rates, are
very carefully taught the service drills. We need in the navy a
numerous body of men well trained in gunnery duties, and the out-
look is promising that the school at the Washington yard may be
able to furnish these in sufficient number, and with the degree of
skill and permanency of stay which we need.
The scheme of practice in marksmanship which has been described
extends to every officer and man on board ships of the navy. Four
classes of marksmen are provided, and commanding officers may
pay stated awards to persons in the several classes. Incidentally,
the history of the marksmanship of each enlisted man is obtained
and goes with him. By such a plan, if it stands the test of time, the
general skill of the navy in shooting will be improved, and the means
adopted of training men in firing their pieces immediately upon
enlistment will ensure us that all men in cruising vessels know some-
thing of the use of the weapons put in their hands. The matter of
the practice of ship and boat guns is not touched upon here. This
comes afterwards, and will be improved by the better skill of the
masses, so to speak.
Before leaving the matter of the instruction of individuals in marks-
manship, attention may be called to the fact that recruits should be
taught to handle and fire their rifles and revolvers before they spend
much time on other parts of the military drills — the stations in gun's
crews, facings, marchings, etc. The seaman side of a man-of-wars-
man is left to grow with his surroundings, and as his natural bent
74 TARGET PRACTICE.
may incline. His military training is undertaken by his divisional
officer. And certainly among the first steps in the work should be
to put a rifle into his hands, and let him learn how to use and fire it.
A man who is afraid to fire his gun is as useless as one who does not
know how to face to the right, or what to do at the order " Cast loose
and provide." It is true that, for one opportunity to let a man fire
his gun we have in the navy a thousand to tell him to face to the
right, but the plea is here made that we must get the opportunities
which do not exist.
The matter of the practice of gun's crews, riflemen, boarders — that
is, tactical firing in general — is now provided for in an order of the
Navy Department of date July 31 last. The firing of guns is marked
by cross-bearings in the horizontal plane, and of boarders and rifle-
men by counting the shot-holes in targets of stated size. Prizes are
given as commanders-in-chief of squadrons direct, and authority to
rent rifle-ranges is granted. The only limitations as to the kind of
great-gun firing selected by any ship are those necessary to secure
the possibility of recording the practice in the book of Record of
Great Gun Target Practice. It is thus possible to select in each ship
the kind of firing which will be most useful to the crew, and prizes
may be paid to gun's crews as soon after the firing as the record can
be made up. For some quarters in the years 1889 and 1890, all the
gun's crews in the navy competed for prizes under the same rules ;
the records were sent to the Navy Department, there to be made
out, and the resulting standing, together with orders awarding the
prizes, finally published. The objection to this way of doing is that
all ships, however long in commission and whatever their needs, fire
under the same circumstances, and that awards can be paid only
after the lapse of months in some cases. The plan now in use, and
the former one, have their advantages and disadvantages. Other
plans have been proposed, as laying down what a ship shall do in
each of the twelve quarters of her commission, establishing an annual
competition on the same rules, while leaving all other quarters open
to be decided by each ship, etc.
Attention may here be drawn to the danger that any scheme of
target practice may do more harm than good. They always run
the danger of becoming too refined and elaborate ; but this feature,
though causing unnecessary labor and trouble, does not prove that
a plan is a bad one. The plan is bad only when it is less good than
what would be adopted by the persons in charge if left to themselves.
TARGET PRACTICE. 75
But in order to ensure some degree of fairness and efificiency in the
use of the appropriation for gunnery exercises, now voted by Con-
gress, all ships of the navy must have certain points of resemblance
in their target practice. The great point is that they must have a
record, and that this record and the manner of getting it must be
sufficiently accurate for the purpose in view.
This brings us naturally to the matter of recording the firing of
guns. All other than that of boat and ship-guns is recorded by
observing the shot-holes in targets of stated make ; these being
either regulation targets of the army or specially designed ones.
The fall of shot from ship and boat-guns, in the case of both station-
ary and moving practice, is recorded by observing the points of fall
in the water to the nearest degree or half-degree, by observers placed
on lines which intersect at right angles at the target. The instru-
ment used by the observers is called a T-square ; and consists of an
apparatus resembling a T-square, carrying a number of vertical wires
at about 36 inches from the eye. The aperture between each
vertical wire subtends, at the observer's eye, an angle of one degree.
The most natural and in many respects the best way to record
gun-practice is to have targets sufficiently large to catch all shots we
are interested in knowing about. Thus a canvas screen representing
the broadside of a ship might be used. The T-squares fail to give
us the side-errors of guns, as will be mentioned again further on,
and this a large target would do. They would cost a good deal,
as they would frequently be broken ; but this is a matter which
probably can be provided for. The principal difficulties in the way
of the use of great-gun targets are two in number: (i) they must
be stored at certain places, and ships must go there to use them,
and (2) if made large enough to catch a large fraction of the shots
fired by a moving ship when in a seaway, they must be very high
and unwieldy. The English use a gun-target 20 feet high, but the
circumstances of the run by it while firing render the distance-
finding very simple, and the practice is consequently accurate. If a
target 20 feet high only is used, and the circumstances of the firing
are made difficult, the record of many shots will be lost.
There is no reason why the two methods should not be used : the
large canvas screen, and the observation of the points of fall in the
water. If a more accurate instrument than the T-square could be
found, a great step would be made. But the circumstances of its use
must be kept in mind. It must be held to the eye in a boat in a
^6 TARGET PRACTICE.
considerable seaway, and must give the points struck by shots as
fast as the observer can talk. The instrument must be read while
at the eye. It is necessary in some gun-practice to have a number
of guns firing, in order to cause familiarity with the noise and smoke.
The use of photography has been proposed, and some attempt to
use it been made. The T-square gives us with accuracy what we
most want — the range-error. The ammunition for the main and
secondary batteries of the Newark at her first target practice will
cost about $3000, and so large an expenditure should be made with
care.
The accuracy of the T-square is such that, admitting an error of
one degree in the observation of the point of fall, the shot is placed,
in the horizontal plane, when the observers are 1000 yards from the
target, to within 17 yards. This limit is sufficiently close so far as
the range-errors of guns go, but is wholly insufficient with regard to
side-errors, because the side-errors of guns are much less than this.
In other words, if we have observers, provided with T-squares, over
a gun which is firing at a target 1000 yards distant, and abreast of
the target and 1000 yards from it, we shall be able to place the shot
to within 17 yards of its position in range and sideways. And,
because the ordinary errors of guns afloat are in range much greater
than this and sideways much less, the accuracy of the determination
is sufficient in range, and insufficient sideways. In other words, if
the horizontal diagram is plotted by appropriate means into the
vertical plane through the target, the position of the shot-points
vertically is practically correct, while their side position has no
value. In truth it depends largely upon the liberal or illiberal
nature of the observer stationed in the plane of fire. To offset this
deficiency, the determination of the side position of the shots is not
very important, because the side-errors of guns are usually well
within the side dimensions of targets, while the reverse is true of
range-errors and the heights of targets.
Some important consequences flow from this. The desirability of
plotting gun-practice into the vertical plane becomes questionable,
because the side position on the target in this plane has no value ;
and the plan now adopted in service diagrams, of giving equal
merit to shots falling, anywhere in horizontal belts extending indefi-
nitely both ways, is justified. The complications arising in plotting
the practice of stationary guns into the vertical plane are not great ;
but if a ship moves freely about in front of a target, while firing at
TARGET PRACTICE. 77
it, the difficulty of getting the record so that the firing may be plotted
into the vertical becomes very great. And there is an objection, too,
to plotting stationary practice into the vertical plane and leaving the
moving practice in the horizontal ; this being that the diagrams made
at the two kinds of firing are not then readily comparable. The
difference between the two is that in the moving practice the range
is known and communicated only by methods which would ordinarily
be available in batUe, while in the stationary firing the range is always
known. The moving practice is always less accurate, and for this
the distance-finding arrangements are responsible.
The record of gun-fire, besides being kept in the book of Record
of Great Gun Firing, is sent to the Navy Department, where it is
plotted. The records of all ships are sent to every vessel in com-
mission ; there having been issued in this way within the last year
two pamphlets, containing 52 sheets showing the practice of main
battery guns alone, and containing, together with the names of the
gun-captains firing each shot and their average time of serving the
guns, a record of nearly 2000 shots.
The book of Record of Great Gun Target Practice is intended to
enable a ship to keep throughout her commission a record of all her
target-firing with ship and boat guns. The book is turned in to the
Navy Department when the ship goes out of commission. It was
first issued October i, 1889, and is accompanied by explanations of
its use. It consists of a series of sheets conveniently ruled, and
arranged for plotting in the horizontal and vertical plane. The scale
in the horizontal sheets is one inch to 80 yards, and in the vertical
ones one inch to 20 feet, and, to plot from the horizontal to the
vertical plane, trajectories of all the guns on board are furnished.
These are drawn on transparent paper, so that they may be super-
posed on any diagram ; and their horizontal and vertical scales are the
same respectively as those of the horizontal and vertical sheets in
the Record Book. Their coefficient of distortion is thus 12, and
this, while giving a convenient form to the trajectory, enables us in
using them, by an entirely graphical process, to plot from the hori-
zontal into the vertical plane.
There will shortly be printed a series of tables, computed by
Ensign Haeseler, which will make plotting into the vertical plane
less laborious than it now is by the use of the transparent trajectories
just described. These will enable us, by entering a table with the
reading of a T-square abreast a target, to state immediately how
much above or below the water-line of the target the shot passed.
78 TARGET PRACTICE.
Thus, by two orders of July 20 and 31 last, certain schemes
of target-firing are set in motion. The first deals with individual
rifle and revolver firing of all officers and men in the navy, both in
cruising and other vessels. This firing is recorded only in the men's
papers, and excellence in it is stimulated by the immediate payment
of an award. The second deals with gun practice, and that of rifle-
men and boarders. The reports of this are sent to the Department
on blanks issued for the purpose, and the firing of ship and boat
guns is recorded in a book retained on board the ship until the end
of the cruise. Prizes for this class of firing are paid upon the order
of commanders-in-chief of stations.
A question which arises here is whether all this firing can be com-
bined ; whether a reasonable scheme for combining firing of diflferent
kinds may be devised, so that men who exhibit skill always may be
specially rewarded. The following, for example, is a case of a man
who showed skill in several particulars :
1. In the third and fourth quarters of a certain year he qualified
first-class under the rules for individual firing with rifle and revolver.
On the first occasion only 2 men in the ship's company reached
first-class, and on the second 12.
2. In the third quarter of this year he reached a merit of 100 — the
highest possible — while firing a 37 H. R. C. at 1000 yards range.
No other gun-captain of the ship reached as high a merit on the day
in question.
3. In the competitive firing of all the first gun-captains in the navy,
in the third quarter of the same year, when firing the 60-pounder
B. L. Parrott, he reached ninth place among the 61 gun-captains
competing. On this occasion he was again the first among the gun-
captains of his own ship.
Numerous cases similar to the above might be quoted, and have
suggested that, if a plan by which each man in the navy should keep
his score, or by which the scores of men in different divisions should
be kept, a body of men skilful in the use of all kinds of fire-arms
might be developed. The difficulties in the way of getting a satis-
factory plan are many, as the weights to be assigned to accuracy in
the use of different weapons must be arbitrary at present, and must
be so even in the use of the same weapon under differing circum-
stances.
The development of good captains for the guns of ships would, of
course, be a principal object in such a scheme, but that success in
TARGET PRACTICE. 79
this respect would be reached is by no means sure; for it does not
follow that a good shot will make a good gun-captain. It appears
reasonable that, from among the men who are recognized as the
leaders in a ship's company, those who have a good record with rifles
and revolvers should first be tried as gun-captains.
The machinery which now exists provides for getting, and does
get, the record of all classes of firing in our ships, and from it may
be obtained the record of any man we please; but if this record lay
more on the surface than it does now, officers of ships would prob-
ably be aided in stationing men to the best advantage, and we
might recognize more clearly than we can now, a class of men who
are more valuable to the service than is generally believed.
On July 1, 1889, money for the payment of prizes or awards for
excellence in target practice and gunnery in the navy, first became
available by congressional appropriation; and, from the steady
pressure which the continuance of this fund will cause, it may be
expected that our plans of conducting and recording target practice
of all kinds will improve. The system now existing in the army, for
small-arm practice, has been some ten years in growing to its present
condition. In these ten years, plans of organization at posts, such as
building and equipping of ranges, appointment of officers necessary
to do the work, etc., have all been put on foot. And, in Washington,
suitable and steady appropriations of the money necessary have been
secured. Some of these details have yet to be arranged with us,
but if the officers of the navy as a body want things not now exist-
ing for the prosecution of target practice, they can get them. They
may at first be refused money which is considered necessary, or may
be unable to see how the organization of time and labor, which is
necessary, is to be reached; but all these things will come in a few
years if the matter is adhered to.
The fund for prizes and awards is more important than is at first
realized. Not only does it apply a direct stimulus to skill in marks-
manship, but, requiring as it does for its proper expenditure a record
of firing and an examination of results attained, the indirect interest
aroused is very great. The naval service expended in the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1890, about $1000 in awards for good marksman-
ship, which was at about the rate per capita of the army expenditure
during the same time. The amount of money thus put afloat, or the
money value of the badges, if these are used, is small ; but the interest
indirectly aroused in marksmanship, very great. In the navy, the
8o TARGET PRACTICE.
practice of giving awards in money has been adhered to. The usage
in military and naval services differs in this respect, some giving
money and higher rates, while others give honorary badges. The
question has hardly come up with us as yet, because, until our schemes
have further crystallized, it is better to give money, which establishes
no classes or other precedents, and thus admits of changes as deemed
expedient. In our army, badges made at the U. S. Mint are sent
to successful competitors upon a proper certificate ; while in the
English navy, money prizes are used. It may here be added that
there is much less complication caused by the use of money prizes,
particularly when the prizes are to be awarded on board ships widely
scattered.
The above has been written largely with the view of eliciting the
views of officers of the navy. Besides the various points which may
be suggested by what has been said, an expression of opinion as to
the plotting of great-gun target practice is hoped for. Should it all
be plotted into the vertical plane, should the stationary practice go
into the vertical plane and the moving remain in the horizontal
plane, or should all remain in the horizontal plane?
It is better, since the targets which we are to fire at are vertical,
to put it all in the vertical plane. But the complications which this
will require are very great, unless an approximation, presently to be
described, is adopted. If it is all left in the horizontal plane, a less
clear image than is attainable is given ; and if part is in the hori-
zontal and part in the vertical plane, the stationary and moving prac-
tices are not readily compared. When firing at looo yards range,
the two observers locate the shots in the horizontal plane to within
about 17 yards as a maximum error ; and, in the stationary firing,
the shot-points are strung out in a long line, while, in moving practice,
unless the run is directly towards or away from the target, the shot-
points are sprinkled all around the target. The position of the ship
with respect to the target must be known for every shot, both in
distance and azimuth, if we are to plot into the vertical. These
data can be obtained, but the complication will be great. There
is one way out of it. This consists in assuming that all shots in the
moving practice are line shots ; or, what is the same thing, assume
that the distance from the centre of the water-line of the target to
the point they strike is a range-error — measure the hypothenuse
erected on the range and side errors and call this the range error.
The difficulty of knowing the azimuth of the firing ship for every
TARGET PRACTICE. 8l
shot is thus got rid of; but the range, which also is necessary to
plot into the vertical, is still known imperfectly. For this the range
given the gun may be used ; but if this has been determined by esti-
mation, the diagram resulting has not much value. There can be
no doubt that the errors in distance-finding by other than good
instrumental means are considerably greater than the range errors
of guns at ordinary ranges. Thus the method of plotting just
described presents grave errors in certain cases — errors which must
be considered inadmissible. In cases where ships fire at a target
under circumstances in which they cannot themselves determine the
range by instrumental means, a boat suitably placed might deter-
mine their range at each shot.
Another point of great interest and importance, incidentally raised
by the examination of great-gun target diagrams, is the marking and
use of sight-bars. Since in some cases of firing at a moving ship
from a ship which is herself moving, the continuous motion of the
sight-bar in its sleeve, if it is kept rightly adjusted, will be visible to
the eye, it is very important to bring this matter down to its simplest
form and systematize it. The usual method is to set the bar at the
distance communicated, aim at the water-line of the target, and fire.
This, unless we presuppose some excitement or rapidity of work to
cause coarseness in the sighting, will drop one-half of the shots into
the water short of the target. The Bureau of Ordnance is now con-
sidering the fitting of a central sight on new guns, to be called a
" battle-sight." As this sight cannot be very long, the greatest
range attainable when using it will be in the neighborhood of 2000
yards ; its first mark will be at' about 800 yards — this will be its mark
when down ; and the steps by which its marks proceed will be
longer than those on the side sights.
The whole matter of the marks put on sight-bars, the steps by
which they proceed, the degree of coarseness of the sight to be
taken, and the use of the bars generally, should be as simple and
as widely understood as possible. It should also be as nearly the
same in weapons of all classes as may be. The subject is very com-
plicated, but it is suggested that, in ordinary firing at sea, the
following rules should apply :
1. The gun should always be aimed at the water-line of a target.
2. The bar shall be marked for each range, so that, when aiming
as directed in Rule i, the shot will pass five feet above the water-line
of the target.
82 TARGET PRACTICE.
3. Sight-bars shall not be capable of being lowered below (?) yards.
4. The marks on sight-bars shall proceed by large counts, as
indicated by the degree of flatness of the gun and by a target (?)feet
high.
5: All great-gun sights shall be put on coarse ; they shall be as
nearly as possible of the same pattern, and the distance between
them shall be as great as it can be made.
6. Divisional officers shall carefully watch men when firing, and
shall, at times of excitement or when the ship's motion is sharp,
lower the bars by suitable amounts.
DISCUSSION.
Lieutenant J. C. Wilson, U. S. Navy. — The paper on "Target Practice,"
by Lieutenant J. F. Meigs, offered for discussion, deals with one of the most
important matters affecting the final efficiency of war vessels.
Other things being equal between two combating vessels, success falls to
the one whose battery is served and fired with best effect. So vital a point is
target firing in the drilling of crews that too much attention cannot be paid to
it, providing, of course, that other necessary points be not neglected.
The question of rapidity and accuracy of firing the arms with which a man-
of-war is armed is the consummation of the whole ordnance question as applied
to guns. It matters not how good these may be in themselves, if they are not
served and fired with good results in time of action ; so that in bringing up
for discussion the question of how best to obtain these results, Lieutenant
Meigs has placed the service under an obligation to him.
It is a melancholy fact, known to every officer of the service, that until
recently but very little attention was given ^o target practice, which was con-
ducted on no system at all ; and it is fully time that this be changed.
There is no question but that the "recruit" should go on board a cruiser a
fairly good marksman, and to become this, opportunity for practice must be
given him. For this and other reasons I advocate a year's preliminary instruc-
tions for every "recruit " in ^a;-rac^j, where ample facilities and opportunity
could be found; such instructions to comprehend all gunnery as well as other
drills. This year should be an extra one, that is, if the regular enlistment (or
rather re-enlistment) is made four years, as it should be, the first (or recruit-
enlistment) should be made five.
Sufficient facilities for the training of men should be supplied every naval
(barrack) station. A more advanced school of instruction might be established
at Washington, for the special instruction of those considered worthy to qualify
as gun-captains, seaman-gunners, torpedo-men, etc.
Assuming that this has been provided, and systematic instruction in the use
of all arms has been given each recruit during his year of preliminary training,
he should step on board a cruising ship with a record which would show how
mcuh he was worth as a gunnery man.
TARGET PRACTICE. 83
In connection with any plan or system which may be adopted to perfect our
crews in gunnery, systematic records and incentives are of prime necessity.
Without these, no scheme would give the best results.
The method of recording must be left to those whose study and experience
in this direction have better qualified them than I feel myself or the average
naval officer to be ; but it would seem that, for purposes of comparison,
stationary and movable firing should be plotted in the same manner, and of
the two planes, the vertical would be the more graphic, or at least show the
more important errors. Accuracy in firing of course includes horizontal accu-
racy, but such errors are not nearly of as much importance as are vertical ones,
and if a practical working system to plot both cannot be devised, let us make
sure of the vertical ones at all events. It is comparatively easy to learn to
fire "in line," but not so as to elevation.
As the writer remarks, it is neither practicable nor necessary for any man to
fire enough service-charges to acquire skill as a marksman.
Sub-caliber bores are very useful in this connection, and should be used
more constantly. The greater part of the time spent by the crews at the guns
should be devoted to theoretical and practical instructions in pointing and
firing, the sub-caliber bores being used for the practical part.
Vessels on stations should rendezvous at least once a year at some con-
venient port, where suitable targets should be kept, and competitive firing
take place under the same conditions.
1 see no reason why the system of medals and money prizes should not be
combined, each medal carrying with it a certain money prize.
There might be as many medals as there are classes of arms, and in addition,
one for general excellence in firing with all classes.
There would then be :
1. Medal for excellence in revolver firing.
2. " " " small-arm rifle firing.
3. " " " secondary battery firing.
4. " " " main bjittery firing.
5. Medal for general excellence in firing with all classes of arms.
Values to be given for firing with the different classes of arms would have
to be determined, as they should not all have equal "weight" in determining
"general excellence." This last medal should carry with it a much larger
money prize than any of the others.
A more general and systematic scheme of perfecting our crews in target
firing should be adopted, and one which would not only enlist the interest both
of officers and men, but also make it a matter of honor and profit to excel in
" target firing."
Any system is better than none, as experience will suggest improvements,
and it is to be hoped that the interest Lieutenant Meigs has taken in this
important matter will lead to good results to the service.
Lieutenant W. F. Fullam, U. S. N. — The most important and practical sub-
ject within the range of naval science is that of target practice, because the
proper system of training and discipline for men-of-wars-men must be based
84 • TARGET PRACTICE.
upon the same principles that govern the development of good gun-captains
and good marksmen — the principles that win naval battles.
In demonstrating so clearly that marksmen cannot be developed by great-
gun target practice alone, owing to its necessary limitations, Lieut. Meigs calls
attention to the great importance of small-arm practice, a subject that has
been sadly neglected and underrated. Every navy-yard should have a range
— some kind of a range — where men could practice with revolvers and with
rifles, using reduced charges for the latter, if necessary. This is perfectly
possible. Even at New York a detail from the crew of the Boston fired at a
target every day for several months, and the results were excellent. Reduced
charges, a short range, and targets proportionally reduced in size, were used ;
but the principles of aiming could be taught quite as well. The cost of pro-
viding such ranges would be trifling. Thousands upon thousands of dollars
are annually expended upon objects which, in comparison with target practice,
have an insignificant bearing upon the efficiency of the navy. Ships have been
known to remain for months in port, or at a dock, and not a man has fired a
revolver or a rifle ! The most important feature of naval routine was thus
ignored.
To insure uniformity in small-arm practice, whether in the case of a single
ship or a squadron, one or more officers, with petty officers to assist, should be
appointed to superintend the practice, provide and keep the targets in order,
and do the scoring. Divisional officers should have nothing whatever to do
with such details, but should see that their men aim and pull the trigger prop-
erly, and that a spirit of rivalry is encouraged. If men never see their target
records, if no comparison of results in different divisions or in different ships
is ever made, if one bulls-eye is eight inches in diameter and another gradu-
ally grows to a diameter of sixteen inches, if when a shot strikes the paper
target four or five pasters fall off and the divisional officer selects a hole at
hap-hazard or takes the one nearest the bulls-eye in scoring, the men will lose
interest, there will be no enthusiasm, little improvement in marksmanship,
valuable opportunities will have been lost, and the only result is an expendi-
ture of time and ammunition — that is all. But if, as Lieut. Meigs advocates,
a uniform system is followed throughout the service, and records carefully
kept, compared, and published, great interest can be aroused among the men,
and they will soon be made to feel that the skillful use of weapons is the most
important requirement.
It does not always follow, by any means, that the best shot under dress
parade or peace conditions should be a gun-captain. Of two men, the one who
is the poorer marksman at target practice may be the better in action. Per-
sonal characteristics — coolness and pluck — may decide which of the two will
be most likely to hit a target that is hitting back. For this reason the man
himself, as well as his target record, must be studied before making him a gun-
captain. The qualities that enable a man to control other men will, as a rule,
be the qualities that will enable him, with proper instructions, to become a
fair if not a first-class marksman, provided he has good eyesight. A man who
is by nature a leader of men will probably be a good gun-captain and a good
marksman in action. This quality of force in handling men is very necessary
TARGET PRACTICE. 85
in great-gun practice. With small arms the man has the weapon entirely under
his own control. In the case of a great gun, however, two or three other men
assist in pointing ; the men at the elevating and training gear must be con-
trolled by the gun-captain. If the latter is a man of force who is respected by
the crew, he will inspire obedience and attention, and his chances of hitting
the target will, for this reason, be better than with one who cannot command
the respect, attention and confidence of others.
The proposition to have one man to aim the gun and another to control the
crew, is not a good one. It is perfectly possible to develop a class of men who
can do both, and thus avoid the danger of " too many cooks." A gun-captain
in the navy must be a man of force and intelligence, and a fair marksman as
well. No system should be accepted by naval officers that will not meet this
requirement.
The point made by Lieutenant Meigs, that target practice with great guns
alone must not be depended upon to develop marksmen, emphasizes the
necessity of resorting to every means of instruction that will tend to this end.
Pointing-drill is an excellent way to train marksmen. Nearly all great guns
have two sets of sights. Let the ofificer keep his eye on one set and the gun-
captain on the other. If a primer is used, the officer will know if the gun-
captain fires at the right instant. By constant practice, whenever the crew has
great-gun drill, the men will improve wonderfully in aiming. Every man in a
gun's crew should, in turn, be permitted to aim at a moving target. In this
way every man will see how necessary it is that the men stationed at the elevat-
ing and training gear should obey the gun-captain implicitly and watch him
constantly. Otherwise the gun-captain can never get his sights on the target.
If each man has personally noted this fact, he will be more careful' himself at
the training or elevating gear. This pointing-drill, using primers, will also
enable the officer to note if the gun-captain pulls the lockstring steadily, and
if he keeps his eye on the sights when he pulls. Not only will men be greatly
improved by this exercise, but it may serve to demonstrate that a man is totally
unfit to be a gun-captain. If he is nervous, excitable, and nags the crew with-
out controlling them, he is not the proper man for the place. This exercise,
better than any other, will reveal a man's strong or weak peints.
And Lieutenant Meigs is right in saying that, at target practice, men should
be taught to fire rapidly — not wildly, but rapidly. This is a rapid-firing age.
All but two or three of the heaviest guns of modern battle-ships and cruisers
are of the rapid-firing type. What is the use of a rapid-firing gun if it is not
fired rapidly? What is the use of firing rapidly unless the piece is aimed
rapidly ? And it is impossible to aim and fire rapidly if the loading is not rapid,
and this cannot be done unless the men have been taught to do it rapidly at
target practice — the only time when charges are used. Evidently the whole crew,
not the gun-captains alone, must be trained with great care. And if this result
cannot be attained at target practice alone, it must be sought in the pointing-
drill. This pointing-drill can be practiced alongside a dock or at anchor, as
well as at sea; better, in fact, because, as a rule, there are always moving
objects in sight at which to aim. In this, again, the time \w. port or at a navy-
86 TARGET PRACTICE.
yard should not be wasted. Instruction with great guns and small arms can
be kept up to great advantage.
The argument that at the first target practice after a ship is commissioned
the firing should be slow, is not sound. It displays its own weakness and the
weakness of our system of naval training — or lack of system. As Lieutenant
Meigs says, "the gun-captain should have shown some fitness for his place
before he is put there, and he and the other men in the crew should learn their
duties in loading, pointing, and firing a gun before they are allowed to handle
it loaded." "All knowledge of service-drills which may be possible should be
acquired by men in receiving-ships." " Recruits should be taught to handle
and fire their rifles and revolvers before they spend much time on other parts
of military drills." These conditions and requirements are all possible, even
now. If every man has not been taught to aim a rifle before he comes on board
a cruising ship, there has been neglect somewhere. The day after he enlists
he should be taught to aim a rifle, resting it on a sand-bag so that a petty officer
can verify his aim. After being taught, the first day to aim, the recruit should
fire at a target the second day. It has been shown that a range, for reduced
charges at least, is possible at every naval station. Thus a recruit should not
have been three days on board a receiving-ship without firing a rifle.
And before a ship has been three months in commission, before the first
target practice, every crew and gun-captain should have been thoroughly
instructed in pointing, first at fixed and then at moving targets, first deliber-
ately and then rapidly. As the day for target practice approaches, the crew
should be exercised in all the motions of firing six rounds as rapidly as possi-
ble, bringing ammunition to the gun, using primers, and the gun-captain
sighting properly. Then it would not be necessary to fire slowly at the first
target practice. The reasons for doing so are necessarily based upon the
assumption that previous instruction has been neglected, and that proper care
has not been observed in selecting gun-captains. Such objections can be
removed, and the few shots fired from great guns should be fired rapidly to
secure the best results.
The pointing-drill and rapid firing will make one thing plain to a careful
observer, that the men to handle rapid-firin'g ordnance efficiently must have
the military habits of attention, exactness and obedience, and this requirement
should govern modern naval training.
In discussing the necessity for some uniform system of target practice.
Lieutenant Meigs is right in saying that "a plan is bad only when it is less
good than would be adopted by the persons in charge if left to themselves."
It is not possible that any plan could be " less good " than no plan at all.
The idea is to establish uniformity in the navy, and arouse among officers,
petty officers, and men a spirit of rivalry by comparing the skill of different
divisions and different ships and rewarding those who win.
It is evident, however, that to reap any substantial benefit from target
practice and instruction in marksmanship, the men who have become good
gun-captains must be induced to remain in the navy for some time at least. If
instruction is to be without system or thoroughness ; if gun-captains are to be
appointed with little care ; if there is no permanency in their rates, and if they
TARGET PRACTICE. 87
leave the service soon after they become eflScient, we have, in our naval
routine, simply a wear-and-tear upon ships, a wear-and-tear upon guns, a wear-
and-tear upon the patience and zeal of ofificers and men, and no result that
tends to prepare a navy for war.
Lieutenant Kossuth Niles, U. S. Navy.— The interesting paper of Lieut.
Meigs gives assurance that the important question of target practice is
receiving a careful and systematic consideration. If much of the practice here-
tofore during a cruise has been of a perfunctory nature, it has been due, per-
haps, as much to the want of a definite system of rewards for good shots, as to
the lack of interest resulting from no uniform method of marking and keeping
permanent individual records. As the allowance for great-gun practice is
necessarily small, the few shots permitted should be made with the utmost care,
to determine not only the skill of the marksman but the efficiency of the gun
under the favorable conditions of deliberate service. To perfect the working
of the gun-crews, and at the same time afford an excellent opportunity for
improving the marksmanship, I think Mr. Meigs' suggestion as to sub-calibers
is excellent. All division gun-drill, or most of it, can be made of the nature
of target practice by using sub-caliber bores. Each gun could have its own
target; and, there being a certain number of shots allowed, the rapid service
of the piece at point-blank range would afford a practice approaching partially
the conditions of using service charges and projectiles ; the pointing would be
practically of the same nature if either the vessel or the target was moving, and
this condition should be obtained in using sub-caliber bores. The drill com-
plete should be enforced just as if service-charges were in use. It is not
likely that there will be any undue excitement during target practice, especially
with sub-calibers, and therefore a certain amount of excitement should be
encouraged, for without it there can be no vim and no definite amount of
quickness. Rapidity of fire will certainly be all-important.
The plans set forth for classifying, rewarding, and keeping the individual
records of the enlisted men, appear to be well devised under the present
facilities. As soon as the methods of firing can be made uniform at the several
stations, the value of the classification on the receiving-ships will be increased.
On cruising ships the plan ought to produce a gratifying improvement in the
marksmanship in small-arm practice.
An annual competition in tactical firing, the records to be sent to the Depart-
ment, appears to me to meet the desirability of a general competition of all
cruising ships. With regard to the plotting of great-gun practice, I think it
would be desirable to plot all shots in the vertical plane, as we obtain one
point of great value in knowing the position of the shot with reference to the
water-line although the position sideways is in error. The complications
arising from the additional labor and data required may be reduced by the use
of tables; and as the interest in the practice is increased, some better instru-
ment than the T-square may suggest itself, thus reducing the range error.
Commander C. M. Chester, U. S. Navy. — While agreeing with the lecturer
in the main on the great importance of the subject under discussion, I differ
88 TARGET PRACTICE.
with him on one or two points. Particularly would I advise against the
" time " element in a target-firing exercise. Of course, of two vessels equally
well-drilled in precision, the one firing the most shots at an enemy will do the
most injury, but it is very questionable to my mind if perfection in one of these
branches does not detract from the other. In no class of work that I know of
is the old saying of " hurry makes flurry " so applicable ; and officers will in
battle spend more energy in trying to keep the petty officers from throwing
away shot in rapid firing, than in urging the crew to quick action. The whole
tendency at such a time is for rapidity of motion, and the crew that has been
best drilled in the details of loading and firing will in the end gain the best
results.
In target practice the captain of the gun is alone to be marked. If time
enters as a part of the record, his standing depends, not upon his ability as a
marksman, but first upon the handling of the gun by the crew ; second, the
handling of the ship by the commanding officer; and, above all, upon the
handling of the vessel by the natural elements. The gun-captain has no
chance to improve his time, for, at best, he has but three or four shots during
a practice, and his mark must rest on other qualifications than his own. The
question of aiming a gun in a seaway with the ship underway is not one of
pointing in 30 seconds or less, but of laying the gun so that when the proper
moment arrives it may be fired to hit the object.
The lecturer states that " if they (the men) are too much excited, some steps
should be taken to restore quiet." What else can be done but to slow down ?
and another deduction from the score results. Furthermore, rapid firing is
too expensive. In practice it is almost impossible, where men are working on
time, to prevent shots following in quick succession, with the loss of record of
one or more shots — thus $34 or $66 and upwards is thrown away, and sometimes
the practice is at the expense of a man's life.
It has been my invariable custom, when directing practice of this kind, to
urge and insist that the captains of guns should pay no attention whatever to
the passage of time, but to fire with the greatest possible deliberation. I, of
course, knew full well that the score would be reduced by this order, but felt
that more than enough would be gained in precision to make up for it.
I also beg leave to suggest that, in my opinion, the record of target practice
should only be taken from the vertical scale. It is necessarily plotted first on
the horizontal scale, for none of the service targets are large enough to catch
but a very limited number of the shots fired. It is not a difficult matter to
transfer from the latter to the former, and the record as thus projected is
easily understood by the men who work the guns. In reading the score from
the horizontal projection, they must understand the nature of the shot's tra-
jectory for the particular gun fired, before being able to comprehend the value
of the practice.
I recall an instance in my own experience, to particularize. A shot fired
from an Vlll-inch rifle, by one of the best marksmen I ever saw, struck just
outside the 50-yard circle, giving him but 50 per cent of the maximum mark.
Another shot struck about 90 yards to the right and over the target, scoring
the same. Plotted on the vertical scale, the first shot showed close to the
TARGET PRACTICE. 89
bull's eye of the target, while the second would have entirely missed a vessel
of the size of the Galena. This latter shot was from a IX-inch S. B., and the
discrepancy is due to the difference of the trajectories of the two guns. A
third shot from a IX-inch gun struck about 50 feet from the center of the
target, and short, gaining a perfect score (100) for the captain of gun.
I would here remark that while the T-square is not inappropriate for record-
ing target practice, there are so many young officers who have had experience
in observing horizontal angles in surveying as to make a finer register of this
work practicable in most ships.
The side error should, in my opinion, always be observed, and with the
sextant. It can be done either from the ship itself, or from the observation
boats, by reading the angle from the target to the ship. If the horizontal pro-
jection is used for marking the value of the practice, it becomes necessary to
have varying areas of equal weight for each class of gun, or the rifle gun will
always be handicapped as against the old smoothbores.
Captain L. A. Eeardslee, U. S. N. — The importance of the subject so ad-
mirably treated by Lieut. Meigs will undoubtedly so commend it to the thinking
men of the navy, that there will ensue full and free expressions of views upon
several of the points presented : and of the younger men of the service, many
who have been favored with opportunity to gain personal knowledge from
practical experience with modern guns on modern ships, will contribute valu-
able opinions founded upon their facts. There remains very little for one of
the old school, whose knowledge of ordnance and cruisers is confined to a
life-long experience with old-fashioned muzzle-loaders and wooden ships,
plus the results of his study of the work of others, to justify him in entering
into the discussion ; but the references in the essay to methods and systems
on board of recruiting-ships, by which some little knowledge of gunnery is
sought to be imparted to recruits, prompts me to give a little in detail of the
method in vogue on the Vermont.
During the year ending in September last, about three thousand men had
passed into and out of my command, and our average number on board has
been about three to four hundred. Some of these men have been with us but
a few days, others for months. It seemed highly necessary that we should do
something toward carrying out the Department's views, and we did our best,
starting with obtaining a full outfit of the service-rifles and a wooden model
of an 8-inch gun, and some revolvers, with all of which we thoroughly in-
structed the men in everything but firing. Situated, as is this ship, in the
midst of a thickly populated town, it was simply impossible to fire a shotted
gun of any kind, so we had to make believe a good deal.
Then we obtained some Quackenbush air-rifles, with which, on our spar-
deck, we practiced considerably ; but such practice did not have value enough
to arouse a great deal of enthusiasm, especially as it was not considered that
records made with this little gun were fairly comparable with those made with
service-rifles of any kind. At this juncture, Lieut. Mulligan was seized with an
inspiration and invented an apparatus which, starting with his own guard, be-
9© TARGET PRACTICE,
came excessively popular and useful. As this apparatus is very simple, and
can be made and used in any ship with little trouble and expense and much
profit, I will describe " Mulligan's gun."
It consists of a cylindrical log about four inches in diameter, about 12 feet
long. At the exact corresponding position of the sights of a 6-inch and 8-inch
gun are slots, into which, when in use, sheet-brass sights, fac-similes in pro-
file to those of our service-rifles, are set when in use. A lock-string is fitted
to the rear end : the gun is mounted upon adjustable legs.
With this apparatus the men were taught to sight at a movable disk (moved
by another man and governed by signal from the firer). Each man was allowed
three shots, and the result, as shown upon a white duck-covered target, soon
developed considerable accuracy in sighting. It was noticeable that with
nearly all of the sighting the three shots formed a triangle, the length of sides
differing greatly, in accordance with the skill of the firer. To each triangle
the name of the maker was affixed, and the system grew so popular that the
men would ask for the gun when off duty, and eventually it was left standing
for them to use when they pleased, and there was hardly an hour in the day
that a group would not be found target-shooting for amusement, and the more
skilled ones instructing the others. Cards, dominos and checkers were not so
popular as Mulligan's gun.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS. MD,
ELECTRICAL COUNTER, AND SHAFT REVOLUTION
AND DIRECTION INDICATOR.
By W. D. Weaver, Assistant Engineer, U. S. Navy.
During the frequent trials of steam launches and other fast-moving
machinery at the New York Navy Yard, continual trouble was
experienced with mechanical counters, and the electrical counter, an
illustration of which accompanies this, was devised to replace the
former.
It consists essentially of an electrical escapement in combination
with a stop-timepiece. By turning the lever on the left, the time
movement is started and stopped at exactly the same instant as the
escapement, and thus we have simultaneously the time and number
of revolutions. The other two projections shown are to bring the
hands of the watch and counter respectively to zero.
The counter has proved very useful in many ways, particularly in
getting the slip of launch screws over a measured course. It could
92 ELECTRICAL COUNTER.
be arranged aboard ship to take in succession the revolutions of the
main and auxiHary engines by leading a wire from each to a switch
at the instrument, which could be placed in the most convenient
place. At the highest speed tried on a lathe, 1500 revolutions per
minute, the counter proved to be accurate, not losing a revolution in
over 10,000, as measured by a mechanical hand-counter attached
before the lathe started and read after it had b^en stopped. It is
probable that one can be made to work to several thousands of
revolutions per minute ; the present one was made from parts taken
from a scrap-heap, and its success is largely due to the mechanical
skill of Mr. J. S. Gordon of the New York Navy Yard.
The success of the counter demonstrated the feasibility of a revo-
lution indicator which the writer has long had in view, and which
has since been designed in all of its details but not yet constructed.
The accompanying diagram shows the arrangement and general
appearance of the revolution and direction indicator, and the essen-
tial principles are given in the following description : —
On each shaft of the main engines, and on as many auxiliary
engines as desired, one or more contacts are made at each revolu-
tion, each of which sends a current to any register that is open to the
circuit. On the shafts of the main engines is a simple form of com-
mutator, F, by means of which the direction' of motion of the shaft is
also shown on the register. All of the shaft circuits are led to a
clock, in connection with which is a device for changing from one
series of circuits to a second one, and vice versa, at regular intervals
of time. From the clock, circuits are led to as many registers as are
desired, the number that can be put up being practically unlimited ;
four are here shown, one of which, that in the engine-room, having
also circuits from the auxiliary machinery.
The method of working is as follows: — When a reading is desired,
it is first observed if the direction-hand, marked G, is indicating ; if
it is, it will be necessary to wait an interval of time, the maximum of
which is ten seconds, until it returns to the zero mark. When it is
at the zero mark the button A is pushed in, and after another interval,
the maximum of which is ten seconds, the revolution-hand begins to
move and stops at the figure corresponding to the number of revo-
lutions being made per minute, and remains there until B is pushed
in, when it returns to zero ready for another indication. It is thus
seen that before a reading can be taken, an interval of time between
thirty and ten seconds is required ; it is not necessary, however, to
30
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o
r
m
O
H
O
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94 ELECTRICAL COUNTER.
Stand by the register, as, after the button A is pushed in, the hand will
remain at the point at which it stops until returned to zero by B.
On the register for the bridge the direction-hand is made large
and a lever C added, by means of which it may alone be kept in the
circuit and indicate continuously as long as desired. To the engine-
room register are connected in addition, by means of a switch,
circuits from the various auxiliary engines, so that their revolutions
may be taken singly or in succession when desired.
The ideal revolution indicator is, of course, one that will show at
a glance at any time the number of revolutions the engine is making,
but of all of these that the writer knows of or has imagined, none
seems to be practicable or sufficiently accurate. On the other hand,
the apparatus here described is positive in action and accurate, and,
from the simplicity of its parts, litde liable to get out of order.
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
THE ORGANIZATION AND DUTIES OF TRIAL BOARDS
FOR OUR NEW CRUISERS.
By Lieutenant J. C. Wilson, U. S. Navy.
The writer was recently ordered as a member of a trial board on one of our
new cruisers, and remembering his hazy ideas concerning what his duties
might embrace, believes that a discussion based on knowledge gained by him
in the performance of this duty might prove interesting as well as instructive
to officers who have not as yet had any such experience.
This discussion is not a description of any actual proceedings, but merely
how, in light of my experience, I think that trial boards for our new cruisers
should be organized, and how the trial should be conducted.
As thousands of dollars depend upon the result of these trials, and much
rivalry and competition exist betwe'en contractors, it becomes very important
that the results should be not only accurately determined, but that the methods
of obtaining them should be as nearly identical in all cases as circumstances
will permit. For this reason it would seem that, were a general order issued
concerning the organization and methods governing the procedure of such
boards, it would tend to uniformity of reports, and be of great assistance to the
board in conducting the trials.
The precept accompanying the orders calls attention to the most important
points to be determined, leaving the method of determining them to the discre-
tion of the board. This may seem at first thought a very simple thing to
do, but my experience convinced me that the method of conducting the trial
of a cruiser should be well considered and planned beforehand.
It is important that the board meet and organize at the earliest practicable
date, and organization and proceedings should be based on the rules governing
" Courts of Inquiry."*
The orders and precept should be read and carefully discussed, so that no
matters of detail will be left in doubt. All officers that have been connected
with the construction or fitting out of the vessel to be tried, as well as the
officers ordered to duty in anticipation of going in commission with her, should
be invited to appear before the board and give the members the benefit of their
knowledge and views concerning the vessel. The contractors, also, should be
invited to appear, or send a representative for the same purpose.
Committees should then be appointed, and the senior members instructed
that the report of their committees would be expected before the vessel-was ready
for her trial trip, in order that any serious defect or departure from contract,
etc., could be known before her trial trip. It is possible, but not probable, that
something might exist which would render it impossible to accept the vessel,
even though she proved successf.ul as to speed. It would probably be con-
venient to appoint four committees :
* Five members and a recorder (who need not be a member) would seem to be as large a board as
convenient for working purposes. As many assistants as necessary could be ordered; but not
counting work in engine-room, not more than eight officers will be required on deck; if no angles
are to be taken, six will be enough.
96 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
1. To determine whether the vessel is sufficiently strong to carr)' armament,
ammunition and all necessary stores. This committee should take charge of,
and carry on tests for strength and manoeuvring qualities, as hereinafter
described.
2. To determine whether the hull and fittings are strong and well built and
in accordance with contract, plans, drawings and specifications, and to duly
authorize changes in the same.
3. To determine whether the machinery and appurtenances are strong, etc.
(At least one member of this committee should be in the engine-rooms during
the trial.)
4. To keep a record of all expenses connected with the trial trip.
Committees Nos. 2 and 3 will find their duties very comprehensive and
requiring much attention. It involves, first, a close examination of contract,
plans, drawings and specifications, and an overhauling of all correspondence
relative to changes. The superintending naval constructor should furnish
these committees with copies of the specifications, with all authorized changes
entered, and with these for guides, the committees must find out, as far as
practicable by investigation and inspection, whether or not the vessel is strong
and well built and in accordance with contract, etc, and duly authorized
changes.
Committee No. 4 should, as soon as possible, commence enquiries concern-
ing the expenses connected with the trial trip, and to do this should require
the contractors to furnish them with a pay-roll of vessel as ready for trial.
They should ascertain how many persons are to go on the trial trip, and agree
with contractors on a rate per diem for such persons ; and no others should be
permitted on the vessel during the trip. With the pay-roll, quantity and price
of coal, list and prices of all necessary stores, rates per diem for subsistence,
allowance for bedding, linen, crockery, etc., there would be no subsequent
trouble about the expenses to be allowed. The reports of the sub-committees
having been reviewed and discussed, the board is ready to proceed with the
trial trip.*
If practicable, the vessels to take current observations should be in or near
their stations at least one day before the trial is to commence. A day's practice
in observing the currents would be beneficial. One should be anchored exactly
on the range at one end of the course, and at a previously determined distance
from the shore signal (about 100 yards inside of the line of the course), and
the other similarly on the range at the other end of the course. Two vessels
will be enough, as the steam launches of these vessels could be anchored on
the line joining the two vessels, each ten miles distant from its own vessel. I
see no reason why these launches could not be anchored in any water likely to
be found on any trial course, and in any weather favorable for a trial trip. If
the water was very deep, a wire and light grapnel could be used. The vessels
and launches should make as much black smoke as possible, so as to serve as
a guide for the vessel on trial to steer by during the run. If practicable, signals
should be erected on shore at convenient distances sufficiently close and dis-
tinct for triangulating from the vessel during the trial run. The " range
signals " should be particularly high and well defined. An accurate projection
of the course, shore line and signals, on a good working scale, should be at
hand. Three independent sets of observers should be detailed (each set con-
sisting of two members), and stationed forward, amidships and aft. One
observer of each set should observe when the vessel crosses the range lines,
and the other to observe and record the times. There should also be one
observer to keep an accurate record of the courses steered by standard com-
*It may happen that the contractors report the vessel ready before the preliminary work of the
board is completed ; but enough would have been determined to know whether the vessel could be
accepted if successful on her trial, and the details left until after this trip. As a rule, however, the
work of examination could be completed before the vessel would be ready for" trial," and as it is im-
portant that this should be so, the board should be ordered long enough in advance to make this
practically certain.
PROFESSIONAL NOTES. 97
pass, direction, force of wind, sea, etc. If the course is staked out along
the shore by signals, as suggested, there should be two observers with sextants
to angle on the signals, and so keep the course the vessel was making graphi-
cally plotted. The commander of the vessel should be cautioned to make a
long enough sweep after crossing the second range to enable him to come on
the line as near as possible where he crossed it. This is important, particu-
larly on account of current effects. Accurate observations of wind and sea
should be recorded. Each set of observers' record times of crossing ranges
from their stations and the mean of the three time-intervals (corrected for
chronometer rates) should be taken as the correct time-interval. Chronometers
should be compared before and after trial.
As soon as the trial is over the board should meet to consider data. The
length of the course has presumably been determined and officially reported
to the board. The average strength and direction of current should have been
signaled as the vessel on trial passed the current observers, so that a close
approximation for current allowance could be made immediately after the run.
It is a question whether or not allowance should be made for poor steering.
Where the increase in the length of the course, due to poor steering, can be
accurately determined, I am of the opinion that it should be allowed, as it does
not seem just that the vessel should be credited with a less speed than she is
known to have made. With care, and the course marked by the current-
observing vessels, there should be no allowance necessary on account of
broken course ; but as a broken course may be made, the question of allow-
ance should be decided by the Department and embraced in the "General
Instructions."
Correction for Current.*
a, b, c, </, zz strength of current per hour (reduced to direction of course),
observed at stations during run of vessel with current.
a\ b', c', d', ■=. same during run of vessel against current.
Then —^ — "*" '^ "'" ■=. C-=z average strength of current per hour during run
4
with current.
■=. C z=. average strength of current per hour during run
against current.
i in time running with current.
/^i^time running against current.
Zzr length of course.
t -\- l^zz. T, total elapsed time running over course.
Then t y, C r= effect of current on vessel during run with current.
^''X C''rz effect of current on vessel during run against current.
Then L — (/" X C) z=.d ■=. distance run over with current.
-^ 4" (^'' X C') r= (f^ rz distance run over against current.
d -^ d^ z=.D-=. total distance run over by vessel.
As soon as the speed has been approximately determined, the representa-
tive of the contractors should be called in and informed of the speed made,
and asked whether or not he was satisfied with the trial. If so, he should then
be informed of the nature of the tests required, and requested to be ready for
them at as early a date as possible.
In the meantime the fire and steam pumps should be tested, as well as th
water-tight doors, valves, battle-hatches, etc In fact, everything on the vessel
which can be put to a practical test.
Being ready for steering gear and engine tests, the vessel should be put to
* Having corrected the length of course for current and steering, and ascertained the correct
elapsed time, the speed equals ^ . (Corrected length of course\
'^ ^ T \ Corrected lapsed time. /
98 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
sea, aad the strength of hull, fittings, etc., be determined by inspection while
under way, the following tests being considered desirable, not only to deter-
■ ' 'he strength of hull and fittings, but to demonstrate the manoeuvring
ies of vessel.
mine the
qualiti
First Set of Tests — (Steering Wheels, Helm, etc.).
A. With steam wheel in pilot-house. Both engines going ahead full speed
( knots). Order " Hard-a-starboard." Time to put helm hard over (number
of degrees). Time to complete half-circle. Time to complete full circle.
B. Ship still turning with starboard helm (full speed). Order " Steady,"
" Hard-a-port." Time to put helm hard over (number of degrees), during
which the vessel fell off ° to port, and started to go to starboard in
seconds.
C. Steam wheel in conning tower. Going ahead with both engines full speed
( knots). Order " Hard-a-port " and " Back starboard engine." Time to
put helm hard over (number of degrees). Time for engine to commence
backing. Time to complete half-circle. Time to complete full circle.
D. Steam wheel on quarterdeck. Going ahead full speed with both engines
( knots). Order " Hard-a-starboard," " Back port engine." Time to put
helm hard over (number of degrees). Time for engine to commence backing.
Time to complete half-circle. Time to complete full circle.
E. Hand wheel on quarterdeck (number of men on wheel). Same as //, with
time to change from steam to hand gear.
F. Steam wheel in steering-room. Same as A, with time to change from
hand to steam gear.
G. Hand wheel in steering-room same as E.
Second Set of Tests.
A. Going ahead full speed with both engines ( knots). Signal " Back."
Engines commence to back. Vessel stopped ( time), in a distance
(number of yards), (distance to be ascertained by a chip-log with a very light
line, which cannot possibly interfere with working of screws if caught).
Engines backing full speed (time), (revolutions).
B. Ship backing full speed. Signal "Ahead full speed." Engines com-
mence going ahead. Ship stopped (time). Ship going ahead (time). Engine
going ahead full speed (time), (revolutions).
The trial of the vessel being over, the board should meet to discuss the
report, the proceedings being governed by the rules for " Courts of Inquiry."
The written report should give a full record of proceedings, and all data
obtained, with conclusion of board. A list of work still remaining incom-
pleted by contractors should be appended, and also the probable time neces-
sary to complete the vessel ready to be accepted by the Government.
When the latter fact has been reported to the Department by the contractors,
the board should be ordered to convene again to report whether or not the
vessel was in every particular ready for acceptance.
The work of the board being completed, they adjourn sine die to await action
of convening authority.
REVIEWS.
Almanack der Kriegs-flotten, 1891. With 134 cuts of armored vessels.
Published by Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete des Seewesens.
Part I. is devoted to tables of measures and weights, and reduction tables
for the English and metric systems.
Part II. Artillery of the different fleets. This comprises tables of the details
of all classes of great guns, projectiles, charges, initial velocities, striking
energy, and penetration, including all kinds of ordnance in use in the navies
of Europe and of the United States ; Krupp guns, their construction and bal-
listic data ; Armstrong guns of late construction ; Canet guns ; machine-guns ;
rapid-fire guns. These tables are revised and based upon the latest data.
Part III. List of vessels of the navies of the world, giving the dimensions,
horse-power, armor, armament, speed, material, dates of launching ; followed
by 134 cuts of armored vessels. H. G. D.
Domestic Steels for Naval Purposes. By Lt.-Comr. J. G. Eaton, U. S. N.
Printed in the Proceedings of the Society of Arts, 1889-1890, Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology.
The author begins with a short history of the steel manufacture in the
United States, showing the marvellous development in the manufacture of
domestic steels which has taken place within the last eight years, owing to
the impetus received when Congress authorized the construction of our four
first ships of mild steel of domestic manufacture.
A thorough account is given of the rigid inspection and various tests required
prior to acceptance of material by the Government, the author dwelling at
length upon this important feature. The use of steel in manufacture of boiler
plates and stays, engines, anchors and chains, steel rigging, and especially in
the construction of guns, is described, and the establishment of a high stand-
ard is shown to be the result of the Government inspection and requirements.
H. G. D.
Role and Organization of Sea-coast Batteries. By V. Fabre, Captain,
French Artillery. Translated by First Lieut. E. M. Weaver, 2d U. S.
Artillery. Published by Artillery School Press.
The translation appears in a 62-page pamphlet. The subject is divided into
three parts : Part I. Role and organization of sea-coast batteries, showing the
influence of altitude on batteries from defensive and offensive points of view,
and the distinction between battering and bombarding batteries. Part 11. A
general review of the development of marine armor. Part III. Defense of the
sea-coast. H. G. D.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
MITTHEILUNGEN AUS DEM GEBIETE DES SEEWESENS.
Volume XVIII, Nos. VIII and IX. Late researches in ocean-
ography (continued), by Captain C. v. Berman. Steamship com-
panies and the auxihary service.
An interesting article on the organization of an auxiliary service. The
writer, in view of the fact that in time of war fast merchant steamers will be
called into service as transports, supply-ships, and armed cruisers, dwells
upon the necessity of a thorough organization, on the importance of contracts
between the steamship companies and the Government, of the payment of
subsidies. He advocates that in the construction of merchant steamers atten-
tion be paid to details in view of the ulterior purpose for which they will be
used in time of war — armament, equipment, and supplies to be ready at all
times; officers and crews, how to be selected; steamship companies to form
auxiliary bureaus under the Government ; gstablishment of depots.
Lessons from the English fleet-manoeuvres, by Vice-Admiral C.
Mayne, R. N. Electricity on war-ships, by S. Dana Green. The
spontaneous ignition of coal cargoes, by Prof Vivian B. Lewes. On
the under-water launching of automobile torpedoes in the line of the
keel, and on some pending questions regarding torpedoes, by Julius
Heinz. The Chinese navy. Budget of the royal and imperial navy
lor 1891. Floating of the Lloyds steamship Arciduchessa Carlotta.
English protected cruiser Blenheim. Japanese cruiser Tschiyoda.
Coast defenses of the United States. The English armored sliip
Sultan. Alterations in the new cruiser-type Centaur. The Victoria
torpedo. Trials with a torpedo-cruiser of the "Turnabout " system.
Official trials of the submarine boat Peral. Libbrecht's smokeless
powder. Late trials of the Brennan torpedo. Test of the armor-
plates of the Chilian man-of-war Capitan Prat. A Swedish hydro-
graphic expedition. Steamer Oriel of the Russian volunteer fleet.
Unsuccessful attempts to fire dynamite from ordinary guns.
Volume XVIII, No. X. Late researches in oceanography (con-
clusion). Incidents and phenomena attending the release of com-
pressed air, by Dr. P. Salcher. Launching of the Austro-Hungarian
torpedo-ram Kaiserin Elisabeth. Contracts for the new armored
and protected cruisers of the United States. Trial trip of the U. S. S.
Philadelphia. Institution of torpedo companies in Russia. Tests of
Schneider plates. Introduction of semaphores on English vessels.
A new steam life-boat. On submarine vessels. Holmer's collision-
cloth for stopping leaks. Duinker's boat-hoisting device. List &
Dick's compound propeller-blade. E. Berg's engine-room signalling
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. lOI
apparatus. Alarm belt-cable for the protection of men-of-war at
anchor. The submarine boat Peral. The English torpedo-depot
vessels Vulcan and Hecla. Association technique maritime. Stipu-
lations for the delivery of steel tubes. Trials of the Sims-Edison
torpedo. Deep-sea dredge. Use of oil in smoothing the sea.
Prizes for best method of using oil in smoothing the sea. Employ-
ment of balloons in the French navy. Signal communications
between men-of-war and merchant vessels.
Volume XVIII, No. XI. On lighting of coasts, by A. Frh. v.
Koudelka. Smokeless powder.
An interesting view of the probable effect of smokeless powder on naval
warfare. Fleet engagements in which non-smokeless powder is used are
compared with those in which the smokeless powder is the agent, and the
comparative advantages and disadvantages are brought out. The importance
of concerted action, fleet tactics, and skilful manoeuvring is enhanced, mere
chance playing a minor part. The " bataille range" will be the result. The
effects on the action of torpedo-boats, combats between cruisers, and attacks
upon coast or harbor defenses are also discussed, and the whole question is
treated in such a lucid and interesting manner as to suggest vital changes in
naval battles of the future.
Tests at the steel works of F. Krupp with the 29-cm. howitzer.
Budget of the French navy for 1891. Budget of the Swedish navy
for 1 89 1. Budget of the Danish navy, 1890 to 1891. Experiences
of naval warfare, i860 to 1889. The French cruiser Le C^cile.
Firing tests against a captive balloon in Russia. Boat-davits, Rees.
Improvements in the dynamite gun. Manipulation of water-tight
doors in the United States navy. Budget of the Norwegian navy,
1890 to 1891. Boiler tests of torpedo-boats. The Giffard rifle.
Experiments with cordite. Launch of the Spanish cruiser Infanta
Maria Teresa. Experiments with a captive balloon in the German
navy. Classification and naming of the men-of-war of the United
States. Launch of the English tug Asp. Triple-screw cruiser for
the United States. Rules for ships' boilers.
Volume XVIII, No. XII. The English and French fleet man-
oeuvres, 1890, by Ferd. Attlmayr. On the requirements of ocean
steamers, especially as regards their machinery, by J. Fassl. Com-
petitive armor tests in America. Reorganization of the artillery and
torpedo bureaus in France. The defense of Paris by floating bat-
teries. The Victoria torpedo. Electric motors for rapid-firing
guns. Japanese coast-defense vessels, type Itsu Rusima. The
Chilian torpedo-gunboat Almirante Condell. About the Turkish
navy. Literary notices : The coast and courts of Asia, by Lieu-
tenant L. V. Jedina. European armies of the present times, by Her-
mann Vogt. H. G. D.
ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS,
1889-1890, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.
Biological water analysis, by Prof. W. T. Sedgwick. The history
and theory of cohesive construction as applied especially to the
I02 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Timbrel vault, by Mr. Raphael Guastavino. The kriegsspiel as
practiced in America ; its object and place in military science, and
its relations to military and naval manoeuvres, by Major W. R.
Livermore. The history and theory of cohesive construction as
applied especially to the Timbrel vault, by Mr. Raphael Guastavino.
The development of magazine-guns for army use, by Capt. A. H.
Russell, U. S. A.
A short history of magazine-guns, and enumeration of the magazine-guns in
use, with 22 cuts.
The physical properties of iron and steel at higher temperatures,
by Mr. James E. Howard. Combination voltmeter and ammeter for
electrical measurements, by Mr. Anthony White. Domestic steels
for naval purposes, by Lieut.-Comdr. J. G. Eaton, U. S. N. (400th
meeting, 1890, February 27). The application of storage batteries
to street-car propulsion, bv Col. E. Hewins. Experiments with alter-
nating currents, by Prof. Elihu Thomson.
ANNALEN DER HYDROGRAPHIE UND MARITIMEN METEOR-
OLOGIE.
i8th Annual Series, Volume I. Influence of the velocity of
the wind on dimensions of ocean waves, by Dr. C. Borgen. Deter-
mination of deviation of the compass by observations of the sun,
moon, or other heavenly bodies, without knowledge of time, latitude,
declination, variation, or even of the heavenly body observed, by F.
Sohnke. Report of Captain C. Green of the German bark Eliza-
beth, voyage from Alias Straits to Isabela, Isabela to Manila, Ma-
nila to Sunda Straits. Taudjong Priok. Exceptionally heavy squall
on southeast coast of Africa. Report of Capt. G. Schumacher of
the German bark Augustina, voyage from Newcastle, N. S.W.,
through Torres Straits to Saigon. Currents, temperatures, and spe-
cific gravity of surface water in Gulf of Aden. On currents in Chinese
waters, by Captain P. A. Polack. Wind velocities on German coast.
Minor notices: Description of a waterspout ; Current observations
in North Atlantic ocean; Remarks on the Bay of Ambrizette, west
coast of Africa ; Landmarks for Angra Pequena ; Remarks on Mon-
goli, Roumania, Black Sea; Trip of a twin-screw steamship across
the Atlantic with one screw; Bottle-post from Sophie and Nixe.
Volume II. On classification of chronometers. Sailing direc-
tions for entering Cameroon river. Extracts from the log of Captain
Deeken, schooner Sagterland ; the Roccas ; the bar of the Rio
Grande ; the harbor of Macau ; voyage from Macau to Rio Grande
do Sul ; Porto Alegre. Report of Captain Albrand of German bark
Emma Romer ; voyage from Indian ocean to Macassar. Soundings
off the west coast of Africa. Soundings in Atlantic ocean, about the
West Indies. The winds at Keitum, Island of Silt. Contributions
to the history of meteorology. Minor notices : Use of oil for quiet-
ing the sea, tried on board H. M. S. litis ; Floating buoys on west
coast of North America ; Ice on northwest coast of Alaska ; Piloting
at Sulina, Roumania. Tables.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES, IO3
Volume III. Contributions to navigation in the neighborhood of
the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, by Commander Credner. On the
approaches to the mouth of the Congo River. Extracts from the
log of Captain Hansi of the bark Levuka. Daily changes in the
deviation of the compass caused by solar heat. On the forms of
cyclones (with plate), by E. Knipping, of Tokio. Quarterly weather
review. Measurements of velocity of winds at different heights.
Minor notices : Use of oil in quieting the seas ; Sailing directions for
Port of Spain, Trinidad ; Obstructions in the Northeast Passage,
Canary Islands ; Passage of Sombok Straits ; Bottle-posts from differ-
ent vessels.
Volume IV. Remarks on the sailing directions for the China
seas, by Captain Ascher of H. M. S. litis. Remarks on navigation
in the Bismark Archipelago ; Lord Howe and Solomon Islands.
Extracts from log of Captain Reinicke of the bark Triton, on harbors
in Australia and New Zealand. The volcanic island Falcon of the
Tonga group. Sailing directions for the Bissagos Islands. Ocean-
ography, observations in the North Sea. Soundings in the Indian
Ocean, Bay of Bengal, and in the Pacific Ocean (Coral Sea). Quart-
erly weather review (continuation). Minor notices : Meteorological
reports from the log of Captain Leopold of the bark Wega ; Cur-
rents off the coast of Dalmatia and Montenegro ; Harbor improve-
ments in the island of Corfu; Depths of water in the harbor of Port
Mula, Virginia Islands; Remarks on the harbor of Santos, Brazil,
and on Ceiba, Honduras; Currents off the island of Upolu, Samoa;
Banks of Manpango, South China Sea ; Bottle-posts from different
vessels.
Volume V. Report on the new American charts, gnomonic pro-
jections, for great-circle sailing, by Dr. G. D. E. Weyer. Remarks
on the inland sea of Japan, and on Hakata-Fukuoka, Kiusiu, by Cap-
tain Ascher of H. M. S. litis. Extracts from the log of Captain
Henne of the bark Papa ; meteorologic conditions in Punta Arenas ;
the Baker Island in the Pacific Ocean. Sailing directions for north-
east coast of Emperor William's Land, for the Los Islands, and the
Dubreka River (west coast of Africa). The north coast of Alaska,
between Point Barrow and Mackenzie Bay. Rain-fall on theSamoan
Islands. Minor notices: The anchorage of Conakry, Los Islands,
Senegambia; Harbor improvements in Buenos Ayres and La Plata ;
Sailing directions for the harbor of El Portillo, Cuba; Remarks on
Makalleh, Gulf of Aden ; Anchorage at Cochin; The Paracel Islands ;
Anchorage in the harbor of Amoy.
Volume VI. Hydrographic observations on the west coast of
Africa, on a voyage of H. M. S. Hyane from Capetown to Cameroon.
Remarks on the east coast of Africa between Mafia channel and
Kipumbwe reef, from the log of H. M. S. Schwalbe, Captain Hirsh-
berg. On some ports on the coast of Costa Rica, by Captain Gille.
Sailing directions for the north coast of Emperor William's Land
(conclusion), and for the harbor of Memel. Ice in the North Atlantic
I04 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
in the spring of 1890. Quarterly weather review (10 charts). Minor
notices : On the use of oil for quieting the seas ; Currents off the
coast of Dalmatia ; On the anchorage in Valle Malaluka, Dalmatia ;
On the anchorages of the island Merak, Java ; Straits of Sunda ;
Reefs and anchorages at Sumenep, southeast coast of Madura
Island ; Sickness after eating fish. Tables and charts.
Volume VII. Studies on the effect of the moon on the weather,
by Dr. G. Meyer. On various bays and harbors of the Samoan
Islands, by Captain Herbing of H. M. S. Sophie. Report of Cap-
tain Bruhn of the ship J. Steffen, on the voyage from Guayaquil to
the Gulf of Tehuantepec, with remarks on Rosario and Guelagichi.
Description of the Kermadec Islands. Soundings in the North
Pacific Ocean, off the west coast of America. Meteorologic observa-
tions in the roadstead and harbor of Cameroon, 1888 and 1889. The
West Indian hurricane of September, 1888. Minor notices: On the
effect of oil on the seas ; Prizes for experiments with oil in smooth-
ing the seas; On currents in the Bay of Biscay; Remarks on the
Bay of Independencia and Port Permejo, Peru ; Remarks on the
islands of St. Matthew and St. Lawrence, west coast of Alaska ; On
a tedious voyage from Singapore to Anjer ; Bottle-post from different
vessels.
Volume VIII. The winds at Keitum, Island of Silt, by Dr. H.
Meyer. Remarks on the harbors of Apia, Saluafata, and Pago Pago.
The west coast of Africa between Wadi Draa and Cape Juby. Sound-
ings in the North Pacific. Report of the thirteenth series of com-
petitive tests of chronometers at the German observatory, 1889-1890.
A new method of proving storm predictions, and results of the storm
predictions on the German coast in 1889, by Dr. W. J. Van Bebber.
Quarterly weather review, spring of 1886 (conclusion). Minor notices :
On the use of oil for quieting the seas; Changes in the currents of
the Indian Ocean; Current off the southeast coast of Nipon, between
Yokohama and Oosima; Remarks on the Gulf of Patras, Ionian
Sea ; Remarks on La Guayra, Venezuela ; Harbor improvements of
Puerto de la Plata ; The harbor of Quellon, Chili ; The establish-
ment of the correct geographic positions of several places in Chili ;
The non-existence of the Wolverine bank and Vibilia rocks, between
the Tonga and Kermadec islands; Bottle-post from H. M. S. Sophie.
Volume IX. Observations of H. M. S. Sophie in the Bismarck
Archipelago. Report of Captain Fesenfeldt of the iron bark
Auguste, on his voyage from Shields to Sta. Rosalia (Lower Cali-
fornia), and to Astoria and Portland (Oregon). Remarks on the
settlement of St. Michaels, and the Stuart and Port Clarence islands,
Alaska. The Comora Islands. Navigation of the lower Seine. The
storm of April 25-26, 1890, by Dr. W. J. Van Bebber. Determina-
tion of magnetic elements at forty stations in northwestern Germany
(extract). Minor notices : Use of oil at sea ; On the locust swarms
of the Red Sea ; On the relative levels of waters bounding Europe ;
Sailing directions for Port au Prince, Cuba ; Determination of longi-
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES, IO5
tudes of Puerto Plata, Santa Ana, La Guayra ; Remarks on various
places on the west coast of Africa ; Decrease of depths in Whale
Bay, Africa ; Position of islands off west coast of Zealous Island,
Baker group, Patagonia; Remarks on islands in the Straits of
Magellan ; Haberton harbor and Beagle channel, South America ;
The roadstead of Panama ; Salaverry, Tumbez river, Buena and
Mejillones coves, in Peru ; Darwin Channel and several harbors in
the Chonos Archipelago, Chili ; The breakwater at Colombo,
Ceylon ; Cyclones on the west coast of India and in the Arabian
Sea; Swatow ; Matautu and Savai, Samoan Islands; Newly-dis-
covered islands northeast of Sunday Island, South Pacific, north-
east of New Zealand. H. G. D.
DEUTSCHE HEERES ZEITUNG.
November 15, 1890. Ammunition supply in the French army.
November ig. Ammunition supply in the French army (con-
tinued). The ballistics of the Lebel gun. Electric signalling appa-
ratus for ships.
November 22. Proposed changes in tactics. Ammunition supply
in the French army (concluded). Direction indicator for ships.
Launch of the Russian men-of-war Gangut and Hong-Hudd,
November 29. The French territorial army.
December 3. The French territorial army (continued). Budget
of the fleet, 1891 to '92.
December 6. The French territorial army (concluded). River
and air torpedoes.
December 10. Firing drill for field artillery.
The launch of the ' 25. de Mayo' at Elswick :
A speed of 21.237 knots with 9000 H. P. was attained, and 22.43 knots with
forced draft, and 13,800 H. P. developed. Coal capacity, 600 tons.
December 13-17. Krupp's firing tests. What shall we do with
Heligoland ?
December 27. The cruiser Le C6cile. The cruiser Infanta
Maria Teresa.
January i, 1891. Open letter on the fortifying of Heligoland, by
R. Wagner.
January 3. The German auxiliary cruisers.
The estimated number of auxiliary cruisers of the Triple Alliance is 32, of
which 19 belong to Germany, being vessels of the Hamburg-American Packet
Co., and of the North German Lloyd, with tonnages ranging from 4000 to
10,000, speed from 18 to 20 knots. The intended armament for each auxiliary
cruiser is eight 15 cm. guns, four 12.5 cm. guns, two 8.8 cm. guns, two 56 mm.
R. F. guns, six revolving cannon, eight Catlings. The vessels are to carry 115
rounds for the 15 cm. guns, 210 rounds for the lighter calibers, 1200 rounds for
R. F. and machine-guns, besides two torpedo-launches and eight torpedoes.
The auxiliary fleet of Italy at present consists of eight steamers, of tonnage
from 1046 to 4826, and 16 to 18 knots speed. Armament of each, two 12 cm.
and four 3.7 cm. R. F. guns.
I06 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
The torpedo-boat question.
A short review of the torpedo question, with an enumeration of the torpedo-
boats of Germany and France. German}' possesses 6 division boats (250-350
tons), 48 Schichau boats (about 37 tons), to be increased to 60 ; 8 Vulcan, 6
Weser, 2 Thornycroft boats, besides 7 others. France possesses 9 torpilleurs
de haute-mer (over 100 tons), 14 first-class torpedo-boats (60-ico tons), 83
second-class boats (40-60 tons), 41 third-class boats (20-40 tons), 6 torpedo-
launches of less than 20 tons ; total, 23 cruising or sea-boats and 130 coast-
defenders. Attention is forcibly called to the manifold advantages of torpedo
transport vessels of the English Vulcan type, of about 7000 tons, 21 knots
speed, well armed and carrying 8 second-class torpedo-boats, fully equipped
for service, which can be launched by means of steam cranes in a few minutes.
Owing to the seaworthiness and high speed of such vessels they can keep up
with the fleet at all times, in any weather, which cannot be said of the torpedo-
boats. Heretofore, when long sea-voyages have been undertaken by torpedo-
boats, there has always been more or less anxiety evinced, and their safe
arrival looked upon as an event. When carried on a large transport vessel
they are safe, and will reach their destination in greatly less time without
exhausting the crew. The Tyne accompanied four Yarrow boats on a trip
from Plymouth to Bermuda recently ; the trip took 25 days. The Vulcan, car-
rying twice the number of boats, can make the same trip in eight or nine days,
and with crews fresh and ready for action.
The tactics in action for the torpedo-depot and transport vessel will proba-
bly be to remain outside of the melee, having the boats ready, the commander
deciding when and where to attack the enemy. Rather than take part at once
in the engagement, it will be safe to await a favorable moment to make a
decisive attack, the point of attack being communicated to each boat and
everything directed from the depot-vessel ; two boats to be kept in reserve.
The objective point of attack being settled upon, the boats are sent out, with
instructions to return, if possible, after carrying out the attack. Of course,
each boat-commander has authority to take advantage of opportunities offered
for other operations, but it must be borne in mind that the operations can be
much better determined upon and directed from the torpedo-depot vessel than
from the closed boats, especially as she takes up her position outside of the
melee. The vessel is the refuge and depot of the boats. They return to her
after the action, or when their ammunition is exhausted. The two boats in
reserve are close at hand to lend aid to any hard-pressed vessel, and to pro-
tect their own vessel against an attack by one of the enemy's protected cruisers.
England is building three vessels similar to the Vulcan, liut other nations have
not yet made the experiments.
January 7. Establishment of military telephone stations. Sta-
tions of the English fleet in i8go. The present fleet of Portugal.
H. G. D.
FRANKLIN INSTITUTE JOURNAL.
December, 1890. The product of the Eureka Tempered Copper
Company. The manufacture of tin plate. A new theory of the
propagation of waves in liquids.
January, 1891. Electricity: its past, present and future. The
continuous girder.
JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
September, i8go. The electrical transmission of power.
October, 1890. Photography applied to surveying.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES, lOy
THE STEVENS INDICATOR.
October, 1890. The fabrication of 12-inch mortars. Water
analysis to determine scale-forming ingredients. Notes on the action
of lubricants. A comparison of cut-off gear and link motion. Trac-
tive force in the locomotive. J. K. B.
THE ENGINEER.
Volume XX, No. 9. Progress in aluminium. The process of
steam in its development of power. Overheated furnace-crowns.
Safety valves.
No. 10. The trial of the hydraulic-jet boat Evolution. Steel cast-
ings. Cylinder condensation. Reports of engine performance.
No. II. Yarrow's water-tube boiler. Aluminium. Lubricating
oils. Safety valves.
No. 12. Coal endurance of cruisers. Resistance of ships. Hy-
draulic tests for boilers. Triple-screw propulsion.
Volume XXI, No. i. Lubrication of steam cylinders. Errors in
boiler testing. Cylinder condensation.
No. 2. Heat transmission in boilers. Tests for olive oil. Forced
draught. J. K. B.
THE ENGINEERING AND RAILROAD JOURNAL.
October, 1890. Electrical transmission of power. The new fast
cruiser.
An illustrated description of the new swift cruiser of 7300 tons, otificially
known as No. 12.
Steam lines across the Atlantic. The development of armor. A
new variable blast nozzle.
November. The launch of the Maine. Electricity in daily life.
Friction and lubrication of journals. United States naval progress.
The Army Ordnance Notes. The submarine mine and torpedo in
harbor defense. Description, and drawings of the engines of the
triple-screw cruiser No. 12.
January, 1891. The new geodetic survey of France. The new
cruiser Tschiyoda for the Japanese navy. Our navy in time of peace.
J. K. B.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
The Research Committee on marine engine trials. The report upon
trials of three steamers, Fusi Yama, Colchester, Tartar. J. K. B.
MECHANICS.
November, 1890. Electrotechnics, a compilation of rules, tables
and data. Pumps and pumping machinery. The theory of cen-
trifugal governors.
I08 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
December. The Serve boiler tube.
A compilation of the results in a comparative trial of two boilers of same
general dimensions, one fitted with the Serve tubes and the other with the
ordinary tubes. The results show a gain in evaporative capacity of from 11.2
per cent to 16 per cent in favor of the Serve tubes. The tubes fitted were of
steel in both cases. The experiments made in France on boilers provided
with Serve tubes made of brass showed an advantage of about 20 per cent in
their favor. The apparent advantages of these tubes will probably be offset
to some extent by their increased cost as compared with the ordinary tubes,
and by the greater difficulty of cleaning dust and soot from them.
A special report of the 22d annual convention of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
An account of the business meeting and an abstract of papers read.
January, 1891. Graphic statics and its application to construc-
tion pumps and pumping machinery. J. K. B.
THE STEAMSHIP.
October, 1890. Adiabatic expansion.
A deduction of the principal formulae used in working out questions in
adiabatic expansion.
The proposed Canadian ship railway.
A method of connecting Lake Huron and Lake Ontario at Toronto by a ship
railway, thus shortening about 400 miles of lake navigation between the head
of the lakes and Montreal.
The dynamics involved in the lines and speeds of ships. Im-
proved automatic boat-detaching apparatus. The application of
electricity to welding. The dangers of coal cargoes.
A paper read before the Royal United Service Institution on the sponta-
neous combustion and explosions in coal-bunkers, with suggestions which
would tend to minimise the risk of spontaneous ignition.
November. The development of the marine engine.
A paper by Prof. Seaton before the Iron and Steel Institute of America, in
which was made a complete survey of the progress in marine engineering dur-
ing the past fifteen years.
The Serve patent ribbed boiler-tube.
January i, 1891. The theory of propulsion and centrifugal-force
propellers.
All abstract of paper read before the Institute of Marine Engineers by Mr.
Thos. Drewry.
Increased boiler pressures and increased piston speeds.
J. K. B.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING
ENGINEERS.
Volume XVIII, 1890. Notes on the manufacture of open-hearth
bridge steel. Concentration of low-grade ores. Notes on coals of
Western Canada. Electrical accumulators or storage batteries.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. IO9
The peculiar working of a blast furnace. Notes on American cannel
coal. Aluminium in the drawing press. Aluminium bronze as a
suitable material for propellers. On the use of aluminium in the
construction of instruments of precision. Some tests of the relative
strength of nitro-glycerine and other explosives. The properties of
aluminium. Notes on fuel gas. The Herault process of smelting
aluminium alloys. Phosphorus in pig-iron. Steel and iron ores.
J. K. B.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS.
Volume XI. The use of tables of the properties of steam in
engine experiments. Cost of steam and water power. Cost of
lubricating car-journals. The philosophy of the multi-cylinder or
compound engine. Flow of steam through orifices. An experi-
mental study of the errors of different types of calorimeters.
Rolling steel rails. A new recording pressure-gauge. How to use
steam expansively. Graphic analysis of reciprocating motion.
Comparison of indicators. On the influence of steam-jackets. On
the performance of a double screw ferry-boat. The theory and
design of chimneys. Report of the committee on standard tests.
Report of the committee on standard method of conducting daily
trials of pumping engines. Tests of several types of engines as
found in practice. The mechanical theory of chimney-draught.
Notes on kerosene in steam boilers. The length of an indicator
card. The effective area of screws. Steam-engine governor.
J. K. B.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF NAVAL ENGINEERS.
November, 1890. Graphic method for determining and counter-
balancing the centrifugal action of the connecting rod. Ericsson
compound engine and Belleville boiler.
Experiments made at the Delamater Iron Works in New York by Chief
Engineer Isherwood, on a non-condensing, single-acting, compound steam
engine designed by John Ericsson, and on the Belleville boiler supplying it
with steam.
New forms of evaporators. Notes on analysis of engine trials.
The contract trial of the Philadelphia. The contract trial of the San
Francisco. A continuation of the discussion on tubular boilers.
J. K. B.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE NORTH-EAST COAST INSTITUTION OF
ENGINEERS AND SHIPBUILDERS.
Volume VI, 1890. Notes on the surveying and classification of
shipping. The construction of marine boilers with a view to the
use of higher pressure. High-speed engines for cargo boats. Boiler
furnaces. Marine engines and boilers. Report of the council on
the horse-power of marine engines. The weight of machinery in
the mercantile marine. J. K. B.
no BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Volume CII, 1890. The application of electricity to welding,
stamping, and other cognate purposes, by Sir F. Bramwell. The
screw propeller, by S. W. Barnaby. Some applications of electricity
in engineering workshops, by C. F. Jenkin. Experiments made
with boiler-plate materials at the Royal College, Berlin. A new
modification of the open-hearth steel process. J. K. B.
REVUE DU CERCLE MILITAIRE.
September 21, 1890. The Annamite language and French influ-
ence in Indo-China. Fortifications of the St. Gothard, with maps
and photographic views (continued). The latest improvements in
the European navies.
September 28. Notes upon the English army: I. The question
of armament. Fortifications of the St. Gothard (ended).
October 5. French influence in Indo-China. The latest improve-
ments in the European navies (continued). Manoeuvres of the
IX German Army Corps.
October 12. The grand manoeuvres in Switzerland. The latest
improvements in the European navies (continued).
October 19. Military short-hand writing. The German man-
oeuvres in Silesia. The latest improvements in the European navies
(continued).
October 26. Notes upon the English army: II. England's offen-
sive power. Success of the Creusot plates in the United States.
November 9. A critic study of the great German manoeuvres.
The latest improvements in the European navies (continued).
November 16. The Austrian manoeuvres in Hungary. The
latest improvements in the European navies (continued).
November 23. A visit to the military exhibit in London.
November 30. The latest improvements in the European navies
(continued).
December 7. A visit to the London military exhibition : notes
and impressions (continued). The latest improvements in the Euro-
pean navies (continued).
December 14. A visit to the London military exhibition : notes
and impressions (ended).
December 21. French influence in Indo-China (continued). The
latest improvements in the European navies (continued).
December 28. French influence in Indo-China (ended).
January 4, 1891. Training of the foot-soldier in firing on the
battlefield (continued in the next numbers).
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. Ill
January i8. The latest improvements in the European navies
(continued).
In view of the interest it presents to naval people, this study is deserving of
more than a passing notice. J. L-
REVUE MARITIME ET COLONIALE.
September, 1890. The Italian navy appropriations 1890-91.
Historical studies of the military marine of France (continued). The
last operations and ruin of the fleet of Louis XIV. Approximate
solution of the problem of ballistics for marine guns. The war
navies of antiquity and mediaeval age (2d part). Studies of com-
parative naval architecture (continued). Definitive trials of the Peral,
Spanish navy.
November. The sea-fisheries in Algeria and Tunis. Notes on
the formation of incrustation in marine boilers. The war navies of
antiquity and mediaeval age (see previous number). Naval discus-
sions in regard to the English manoeuvres of 1889.
December. Elementary explanation of the influence of the
earth's rotation upon the Fleuriai's gyroscope. The sea-fisheries in
Algeria and Tunisia (ended). The war navies of antiquity and
mediaeval age. Experiments made at Meppen with a plunging fire
against ships. J. L.
TRANSACTIONS OF CANADIAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Volume IV, Part I, January-June, 1890. Discussion on Van-
couver water-works columns, by C. F. Findlay. Generation, dis-
tribution and measurement of electricity for light and power, by A.
J. Lawson, with discussion.
Introduction : Brief history of the development of dynamo electric machines
for domestic lighting purposes. Showing growth in arc and incandescent
lighting in America. Electric lighting in Canada, engines, boilers, arc light-
ing systems, wiring, dynamos, with illustrations. Brush, Thomson-Houston,
Westinghouse, Edison, Royal Electric Co.'s A. C. Dynamo. Converters,
meters : Edison's, Avon, Shallenberger. Storage batteries. Private installa-
tion. Measuring instruments. Electric railways. Street wiring.
THE UNITED SERVICE GAZETTE.
October 4, 1890.
" During the trial of smokeless powder with various types of ordnance,
which took place during the German manoeuvres, it was found that steel guns
were injured to a much greater extent by erosion of the bore than bronze guns.
A proposal has been made to use aluminum bronze for small guns and also for
liners of heavy guns. This is very likely to be soon tried practically, as Dr.
Anderson, the Director-General of Ordnance, thinks that aluminum bronze
might prove valuable for lining guns."
Naval training. Australasian defense.
October II. Controlof artillery fire inaction. Naval training, II.
112 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
October i8. Automobile torpedoes. Important artillery experi-
ments.
" Some important experiments were made at Silloth, the artillery range of
Sir W. G. Armstrong, Mitchell & Co. The trial was that of a 6-inch quick-
firing gun of 40 calibers length, on a mounting of new design. Another feature
of this trial was the use of cordite, the new smokeless gunpowder. A velocity
of 2669 f. s. was attained with a charge of cordite, with a chamber pressure
under 20 tons. Comparative tests for rapidity of firing were made with cordite
and with non-smokeless powders, at targets distant respectively 900, 1400 and
1800 yards, the results showing the advantage of the smokeless powder. A
new quick-firing gun of 2.65 inches caliber (throwing a lo-pound projectile) was
also submitted to a successful trial."
Chief petty officers. Recruiting.
October 25. Our first line of defense.
November i.
"During the recent manoeuvres of the Italian fleet in the Mediterranean,
some very successful experiments were made in the employment of carrier
pigeons for communicating with the mainland. Although the pigeons came
from the station at Piacenza, and had to fly a considerable distance inland
after reaching the coast, very few of the birds failed to return to their lofts.
On arrival at Piacenza the despatches were deciphered and their contents
telegraphed to the various signalling stations along the coast. Some carrier
pigeons from the station at Ancona were also sent to the headquarters of the
army at Montechiaro for employment during the army manoeuvres. These
birds, after returning to Ancona (190 miles), were sent on over the Apennines
to Rome, a further distance of 125 miles, and were found on the average to
cover the whole distance in ten hours, notwithstanding occasional spells of
bad weather."
Steam reserve officers.
November 8. Notes on the Aldershot auxiliary musketry school.
Captive balloons. Three new French first-class ironclads. The
protection of ships' crews.
November 15. Loss of the Serpent. Mounted infantry. Naval
notes.
"An important trial of armor-plates has just been concluded at the Govern-
ment ranges near St. Petersburg. Five shots at each range were fired from a
35-caliber 6-inch 6-ton gun with Russian Holtzer shell, weighing 91 pounds, at
350 feet ; first, two rounds with 53 pounds of powder, giving an initial velocity
of 2000 feet, and then three with 53 pounds and a velocity of 2100 feet. There
were three plates of 10 inches each, submitted by Messrs. Brown & Co.,
Messrs. Schneider, and Messrs. Vickers. The first of these, a compound
plate, resisted the first two rounds, the shell remaining embedded in the
armor, but the last three went clean through it. The Schneider hard-steel
plate broke up three shells, and only the third penetrated as far as the backing,
but the plate suffered severely, showing cracks in all corners. The Vickers
plate, of softer steel, was more deeply penetrated by the shells ;-none of which,
however, got right through, while the cracks were comparatively insignificant."
Notes on Aldershot musketry school, II.
November 22. Entry and training of naval off.cers. Loss of the
Serpent. The magazine rifle. Protection of ships' crews, 11.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. II3
November 29. Practice at balloons, I. Launch of the Edgar.
The Edgar is one of the first-class protected cruisers which are being built
under the Naval Defense Act. There are eight similar vessels under construc-
tion. They are of 7350 tons displacement, 360 feet long, 60 feet beam, and
draw 23 feet 9 inches of water. Their engines to indicate 12,000 H. P. with
forced draft, 7500 H, P. with natural draft, giving speeds of 20 and 18 knots
respectively. Coal capacity, 850 tons. Armament, two g-inch 22 ton B. L.
rifles, ten 6-inch quick-firing rifles, sixteen 6-pounder R. F. guns, three 3-
pounder and eight machine-guns. Two above-water and two submerged
torpedo-tubes. Protective deck, greatest thickness five inches. A 6-inch
steel armor protects the machinery above the water-line. The Edgar has
vertical engines and twin screws.
Yarrow torpedo-boat Bathurst.
December 6. Launch of the Naiad. Protection of our com-
merce. Trial trips of the Bellona and the Spezzia. Trials with
armor-piercing projectiles.
December 13. Fiske's range-finder. The phonograph and its
adaptation to military uses. Education and training of naval officers.
Practice at balloons, IL Aerial locomotion. Protection of com-
merce. Engine-room lieutenants. The Russian Imperial yacht
Polar Star.
December 20. Launch of the Pique and the Thetis. The
Serpent court-martial. Army and navy convalescent and training
home. Naval notes. Steel cruisers. The magazine rifle, IL Navi-
gation in the navy. Defense expenditure of the chief powers.
December 27. Army organization in India. The naval man-
oeuvres of 1890. The Serpent court-martial. The magazine rifle,
III. Naval notes. New armament and engines for the Thunderer.
The official trials of the Spanish ironclad Pelayo, with respect to the
behavior of Vavasseur-Canet carriages. Experiments on gun-steel at
low temperatures.
January 3, 1891. Naval notes: Launch of the Capitan Prat
(Chilian armor-clad) ; Launch of the Sybille ; Estimates for the
French navy for 1891 ; Forced draft; The army in 1890; Naval
retrospect, 1890.
January 10. The development of modern cavalry action. The
" Tortoise " wagon-tent. The Vitu expedition. Foreign naval
progress and construction during 1890, I. Training naval stokers
(with discussion).
January 17. Steel as applied to armor plates. Yarrow's tubulous
boilers. Coaling ships at sea. Foreign naval progress and construc-
tion during 1890, II.
January 24. Promotion from the ranks in the navy. Boat-
hoisting machinery trials.
January 31. The recruiting difficulty. Liquid fuel.
H. G. D.
114 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
LE YACHT.
September 20, 1890. The mercantile American school-ship
Saratoga. Naval technical association : reciprocal actions of rudder
and screw (A. Normand).
September 27. Trial of the Creusot plates in the United States.
Trial of the Japanese cruiser Itsuku-Shima.
October 4. Three new French armored ships. Something
about the cruiser Le C^cile, of the French navy.
October ii. A comment on the German naval manoeuvres.
Italian naval estimates for 1891. Mercantile naval schools.
October 18. The Creusot and Cammell plates' trials at An-
napolis.
October 25. Mercantile naval schools (continued). Trials of
the third-class cruiser Surcouf, of the French navy.
November i. The yacht-club of France and the America's cup.
Launching of the armored cruiser Dupuy-de-L6me. The new Ja-
panese guard-ships (Itsuku-Shima type).
November 8. More about the mercantile naval schools. The
European boards of admiralty.
November 22. Discussion of the navy budget.
November 29. The navy. The squadron of evolution and the
torpedo-boats. The committee of thirty -three.
December 6. Armored battle-ships of great displacement.
English cruisers and their armament; the weight and position of
the guns criticised. Chemical preparation of sea-water for feeding
marine boilers.
December 13. Rules governing promotion in the European
navies. A comparison between the national (French) and foreign
torpedo-boats.
December 20. Qualities indispensable to a life-boat. A com-
parison between the French and foreign torpedo-boats (continued).
December 27. Government and private dock-yards. A pro-
peller with plane and removable blades, system Margue.
January 3, 1891. A review of the navies of the world, by E.
Weyl. Engines for multiple screws.
January 10. The second-class cruisers, by E. Weyl, Board of
the French Yacht; institution of the " Cup of France"; opening
of a public subscription. Qualities required in a life-boat.
January 17. National navy: the committee of thirty-three. The
Newfoundland fisheries. The iio-ton gun of the Sans-Pareil (E.
W.). Lieut. Fiske new telemeter. J. L.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. II5
REVISTA MARITIMA BRAZILEIRA.
August, 1890. Co-operative military. Great ranges of modern
artillery. The defenses of Bahia. The Peral. A new gun- mount-
ing (with plate). Notes on naval architecture. Floating dock.
Pyrodynamics. Naval notes.
September and October. The schistofone. Pyrodynamics.
The infancy of nautical science. Notes on naval architecture.
Various notes.
REVISTA MILITAR DE CHILE.
No. 48, September, 1890. Don Federico Errazuriz Ech^urren.
The Chilian commission to Peru. Establishment of permanent staff.
Visit to the Krupp gun foundry (concluded). Instructions for
target-firing (continued). Canet guns and Chilian republic. Gar-
rison and interior service (continued). The Giffard rifle. Subsist-
ence for the soldier (continued).
No. 49, October. The artillery of our new cruisers. The Chilian
army. Garrison and interior service (continued). A new rifle.
Desertion in the field or in time of peace. Subsistence for the soldier.
No. 50, November. What constitutes the reserve of our army ?
Lieut. -Colonel Don Severo Amengual. Marksman's manual. Mili-
tary legislation of Spain. Ballistics of the Giflard rifle. Instructions
for target-firing. Subsistence for the soldier (continued).
No. 51, December. General Baquedano. Laws for promotion.
Desertions in time of peace. Records of a commission on the Chilian
campaigns. On the enlistments in the army corps. Military legis-
lation of Germany. Competitive firing-tests between Krupp and
De Bange, at Batuco. Instructions for target-firing.
REVISTA DE LA UNION MILITAR.
No. 8, August, 1890. The army. The National Guard. Armies
of the Independence. Experiments with artillery fire. Tactics of
firing with magazine rifles.
No. 9, September and October. The army : military discipline
and subordination. Tactics of firing with magazine rifles (continued).
Infantry engagements and open order. Argentine valor. Resist-
ance of air. Information on the manufacture of powder.
H. G. D.
RIVISTA UI ARTIGLIERIA E GENIO.
October, 1890. Upon the rigorous solution of the problem of
ballistics, by F. Siacci. Description of the barracks of Passalacqua
in Novara. The fortifications on the northeast frontier of France.
The Monier system of building in iron and cement.
November. The fortifications on the northeast frontier of France
(concluded). The importance of rapidity in artillery fire in action.
On lightning conductors. Supplement to the manual of the labora-
tory of precision.
Il6 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
December. Ammunition supply to field artillery. Firing with
time-fuzes. Some notes on military stables. An electric cell with
circulating fluids.
RIVISTA MARITTIMA.
October, 1890. Study on modern naval tactics, by Lieut. G.
Ronca (continued). Fire-ships and infernal machines in naval warfare
(historical), by Lieut. Ettore Bravetta (continued). River steam navi-
gation for transporting the wounded in time of war, by F. Santini and
F. Home-Rosemberg. A month in the island of Ceylon (continued).
November, 1890. The launch of the Sardegna, by I. Sigismondi.
Study on modern naval tactics, by Lieut. G. Ronca (continued).
Fire-ships and infernal machines in naval warfare (historical), by
Lieut. Ettore Bravetta (continued). On the use of fresh water on
board the royal vessels, by N. Soliani.
Gives full description of the distillers of Normandy and Kirkaldy types, with
cuts of same.
Ships and guns.
December, 1890. Fragments of naval architecture, by Guiseppa
Rota.
The author gives experiments on the resistance of ship's under-water body,
with system adopted to graphically represent the results. Elements of resist-
ance and propulsion of a vessel when the displacement and draft forward and
aft are changed, within fixed limits.
The German merchant marine, by Salvatore Raineri. Electric
search-light projectors, by L. Pasqualini. The interior of Africa, by
Ettore Bravetta. Study on modern naval tactics, by Lieut. G. Ronca
(continued).
January, 1891. Study on modern naval tactics, by Lieut. G.
Ronca (continued). The German merchant marine, by Salvatore
Raineri (continued). Electrical units, by Lieut. A. Pouchain. The
interior of Africa, by Lieut. Ettore Bravetta (continued). Upon the
origin of meteorological observations and instruments, by G. Hell-
man, translated by A. Cancani. New engines for the Sirio, Orione,
and Perseo. H. G. D.
REVISTA TECNOLOGICO INDUSTRIAL.
September, 1890. Transportation and refining of petroleum
(continued). Theory of the steam engine (continued).
October. Theory of the steam engine (concluded). History of
mills. Agricultural plantations.
JOURNAL OF THE UNITED STATES CAVALRY ASSOCIATION.
Volume HI, September, 1890, No. 10. With the reserve
brigade (second paper), by Captain Moses Harris. Troop and
company pack-trains, by Lieutenant A. A. Cabaniss. A reconnais-
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 1,17
sance with the first Maine cavalry (with map), by Brevet Maj.-Genl.
C. H. Smith, Kilpatrick's raid around Atlanta, August i8th to 22d,
1864 (with map), by Lieutenant W. S. Scott. A new lecture on the
horse's foot (with illustrations), by Lieutenant H. J. Goldman. An
unexampled ride, from the Pacific to the Baltic on a single horse, by
A. N. Kovrigin. New drill regulations for cavalry, United States
army; evolutions of the regiment ; ceremonies. Professional notes.
Book notices and exchanges.
MILITAR-WOCHENBLATT.
December 24, 1890. The French cruiser Cecile. Launch of the
Dupuy-de-L6me.
December 31. Trial trips of the French cruiser Surcouf Gun
for throwing lines.
January 3, 1891. Flight of carrier pigeons in France. Italy's
squadrons. Trial with unforged cast-steel gun-tubes in Sweden.
January 7. A new magazine rifle for the Danish troops. The
Giffard rifle. Captive balloon on board the Formidable.
January id. New armored vessels for Japan. New American
magazine rifle.
January 14. Bayonet exercises. Firing tests from armored
turrets at Creusot.
January 17. The magazine rifle in England. Launch of the
Edgar. Inquiry into the loss of the Italian torpedo-boat 105 S.
January 21. Armor tests in Russia.
" Three plates were tested at these trials, held at Ochta, Nov. 1 1, 1890 ; viz.
a Brown compound, a Schneider steel, and a Vickers mild steel plate. More
recent tests were held at Kolpino with compound plates of Wilson's patent,
which stood the tests successfully
" Tests like those of Ochta and Annapolis are scarcely decisive, because it
is improbable that deliberate firing at armor, with guns of medium caliber, at
short range and with perpendicular impact, will ever occur in action. The
deciding point in the struggle of guns against armor during action will be the
penetration of the target by a few heavy-caliber projectiles, hitting at greater
or less angle with the normal.
"The value of the above tests lies more in giving a comparison of plates
and guns than in any tactical importance. And in this regard the important
results stand forth that the compound plates of the English firm of Camniel &
Co. have been beaten by those of Schneider et Cie. of Creusot, as well as by
thos.e of the Government works in Russia; another example, particularly in
questions pertaining to war, that inactivity is equivalent to retrogression, more
apparent to-day than ever. And it must be acknowledged that Russia's efforts,
though owing to the use of foreign improvements, deserve the highest appre-
ciation, in regard to their armor-plates as well as their projectiles, the latter
behaving as well as the real Holtzers. Russia will prove a formidable oppo-
nent, and require every effort in order to cope with her on an equal footing."
January 28. New men-of-war for the Argentine Republic.
January 31. Firing tests on the island of Fano, Denmark.
February 4. Wolfram's projectiles. Use of electric power in
French fleets.
Il8 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
SUPPLEMENT TO MILITAR WOCHENBLATT.
Nos. I and 2, 1891. The battle of Mount Val6rien, January 19,
1871, by Major Kunz. Strategic views of the question of fortifications,
by Major Scheibert.
No. 3. Plans of attack and defense of Frederick the Great in the
first two Silesian wars, by A. v. Roesgler. H. G. D.
JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION.
Volume XXXIV, No. 154. The transport of the sick and
wounded in time of war. The employment of large masses of
cavalry, of movable fortifications, and of smokeless powder, as illus-
trated by German autumn manoeuvres of 1889. Spontaneous
ignition and explosion in coal-bunkers. Notes : Gruson experiments
with smokeless powder C/89. Armed strength of Russia.
Volume XXXV, No. 155. The entry and training of naval
officers, by Rear-Admiral N. Bowden-Smith.
The consensus of opinion in England seems from this discussion to be in
favor of gaining a working knowledge of the naval profession at sea in actual
service before a professional education, properly speaking, is undertaken.
That to come afterwards, though just how, is not exactly pointed out. The
idea seems to be that being an ofHcer and a gentleman he will see the value of
an education, and in some way acquire it. The question of additional mental
training would seem to be subordinated to the necessity of becoming at an
early age accustomed to the " unnatural life " of a seafaring man. Our system
of giving a professional education, combined with enough practice to illustrate,
before the actual service at sea begins, seems to be more in consonance with
the course pursued in acquiring other professions.
Translations : Belleville boilers and their applicability to ocean-
going vessels. Cruiser-war and coast-defense. Considerations on the
employment of torpedo-boats. Tactics and vertical fire.
SCHOOL OF MINES QUARTERLY.
November, 1890. Theory of stress in a granular mass. Out-
burstsofgas in metalliferous mines. Examinationof mines. Graphical
method of showing the relative annual efficiency of a steam plant.
Wind-problem in gunnery. Part II.
JOURNAL OF THE MILITARY SERVICE INSTITUTION.
January, 1891. A practical scheme for training the regular army
in field duties for war (prize essay). A proposed change in artillery
school methods. Modern Bobadilism in the marksman's method of
defeating an army. Strategy, tactics and policy. The gyroscope
and drift education of the soldier.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL ARTILLERY INSTITUTION,
WOOLWICH.
October, 1890. Ranging and range-finding. Horse artillery
progress abroad. Battle of Dettingen. Practice at a moving target
from a low site.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. II9
November. Ranging a battery.
December. Instructions for practice over sea-ranges.
January, 1891. Changes in the Royal Artillery. The origin of
our present drill-book.
UNITED SERVICE.
January, 1891. Wellington. The Harriet Lane. Modern armor.
February. The influences of small-caliber magazine rifles and
smokeless powder on tactics. Moltke, Part I. The history of the
U. S. Marine Corps. C. M. K.
AMERICAN CHEMICAL JOURNAL.
Volume XII, No. 8, November, 1890. The acquisition of
atmospheric nitrogen by plants, by W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods.
Reviews and reports: A short account of hydrazoic acid, recently
discovered by Curtuis, who will be remembered as the discoverer of
hydrazine.
Hydrazoic acid is a gas of the formula HN3, of a fearfully penetrating odor;
soluble in water, the solution resembling hydrochloric acid; the salts are
well defined ; the silver salt AgNs having very violent explosive properties.
Volume XIII, No. i, January, 1891. Atwater and Woods con-
clude their work on the acquisition of atmospheric nitrogen by
plants. C. R. S.
REVIEWERS AND TRANSLATORS,
Lieut. -Commander C. S. Sperry, Ensign C. M. Knepper,
P. A. Engineer J. K. Barton, Prof. C. R. Sanger,
Ensign H. G. Dresel, Prof. J. Leroux.
THE PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
United States Naval Ii^stitute.
Vol. XVn., No. 2. 1891. Whole No. 58.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
Honorably Mentioned.
Motto : Occasionem cognosce.
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET
SHIP AND SQUADRON DRILL.
By Lieutenant R. C. Smith, U. S. Navy.
INTRODUCTION.
There are many considerations which influence the settlement of
a definite policy which shall comprehend the subjects in the above
title. It will not be well to limit the horizon of our view and assert
dogmatically that one thing or another is the best. Differences of
opinion are accounted for as much in the view taken of the objects
sought as in the habit of mind which decides the method. Now
there are many points of view. The politician looks at the question
in one way, the merchant in another, the seaman in a third, and the
true statesman will try to balance all these views, selecting what is
best from each, and totally rejecting what is worthless. In this
reconcilement, it is assumed that the fleet will be manned, officered,
and employed in such wise as to give the best account of itself when
called on to fight. In other words, the first object is war-efficiency.
122 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
Now, as to methods, there is more difference of opinion here than in
the objects sought. An institution long established is steeped in
conservatism — a fact which is, perhaps, not to be regretted. Con-
servatism is a balance-wheel ; it checks violent changes, but under
steady and continuous pressure it must move with the system of
which it is a part. Past experience is not to be neglected, nor is
every new idea to be hurriedly adopted. Neither are things to be
done in a certain way because they were always done that way, nor
are new ideas to be rejected simply because they are new. Merit is
to be the test, adaptability to the end. Temporary expediency must
not be overlooked in deciding these questions. Sometimes good
policy cannot be carried out for lack of means, or because other
things seem momentarily of graver necessity. The limited number
of ships and men may for some time exert an influence of this sort.
Before looking into matters of detail, perhaps it will be well to
indicate the chief duties of the fleet in peace and war, and to inquire
if service methods best enable it to perform them. If they do not, it
will then be necessary to devise a scheme which will better meet the
requirements of the case and will soonest bring the fleet to the highest
efficiency. War, we have assumed, is the ultimate object of any
armed force, whether military or naval. It is true, long intervals
may elapse when its powers are never called into play ; but when
war breaks out, that force which has the most definite notion of the
proper conduct of operations will possess an incalculable advantage
at the start. War is now a question of days and hours, and when it
arrives, it is necessary to act, and act promptly. The fleet which
waits for hostilities to begin to develop a line of action, invites grave
disaster in the very initial stages.
There is evidently, then, a state of readiness for war which it is most
important to bring about. Is there any other preparation which is
more useful for any object? Besides the war duties of the fleet,
which include the defense of the coast, the blockade and destruction
of the enemy's squadrons, attacks on his seaports, the convoy and
transportation of troops, and the destruction of hostile commerce
and protection of our own, is its purely peace employment. This
consists mainly in policing the high seas, lending aid and encour-
agement to American citizens traveling or trading abroad, protecting
our commerce and neutral rights in time of foreign war, performing
special duty, such as exploration or surveying, extending acts of
international courtesy, maintaining the national dignity in remote
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 123
parts of the world, and in inculcating respect for the country's flag.
In all of these duties, save perhaps the special scientific work, can it
be doubted that the acme of preparation is readiness for war?
Given, then, a fleet, including ships and men, it may be assumed
that the chief duty of those responsible for its care and conduct is to
prepare it to fight. With the slightest consideration this fact is
obvious, and yet it is not in many of our ships that one is impressed
with the prominence given to it. If the commanding ofiicer has a
smart-looking ship and crew, and feels that the inspection board will
be satisfied, he is apt to consider his duty finished. There is really
not much more that he can do unaided, but there is a great deal
more which ought to be done. The ship may be clean and the men
fairly efficient in all the routine drills, and at inspection they may
work like beavers, — as in fact they usually do, be it said to their
credit; still there may be something radically wrong in the efficiency
of that ship. Are the officers and men contented ; are they fond of
the service ; are the drills really such as will best prepare for fighting ;
is sufficient time given to useful drills; and is too much time given
to the mere care of the ship ? Each one of us knows the answer to
these questions.
Pass on to the executive officer. His reputation nowadays
depends almost entirely on the trimness and cleanliness of the ship.
In the days of sails and spars, organization and the skill of the crew
aloft told largely in his favor. He has still, under the captain,
mainly to do with the interior discipline of the ship ; but the state of
discipline, be it good or bad, is often not visible to outsiders.
The drills are now almost entirely in the hands of the divisional
officers, who may or may not be efficient. As a rule, they are per-
fectly capable, but if there is not a good system at the back of their
exertions, much of the effect is lost. Their reputation depends
mostly on the way they keep their watch. As our ships are not
long at sea continuously, it is their efficiency as watch-officers in port
that comes under the observation of their superiors. Be they never
so desirous to give their best efforts to what is irresistibly the first
duty of every person on board — war exercises — the opportunities
are often spasmodic, the time devoted to each drill too short, and
they themselves more or less used up with their watch. This, when
they have the desire to improve themselves and the service. As a
matter of fact, they usually feel that when their watch is finished
their day's pay is pretty well earned.
124 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
The navigator's position is an anomalous one under present con-
ditions. The third officer in command, he has next to nothing to
do with the fighting of the ship. In the old days, the first lieutenant
worked the battery, and the master handled the ship, both under the
direction of the captain. There is no place now for the executive
officer in the battery; he will probably be found in one of the fighting
positions, at a distance from but in communication with the captain.
The navigator's division is reduced to the chief boatswain's-mate,
the quartermasters, helmsmen, leadsmen, signalmen, search-light
operators, and the like ; and there is little for the navigator to do,
for the captain himself directs it all. Moreover, there seems no
reason for having the third officer on deck, where he may be killed
along with either the captain or the executive officer, but every
reason for having him below, where there is a chance of finding him
when he is wanted to take command. Even in peace times, in the
absence of the executive officer, the navigating, ordnance, and
torpedo officer, who has principally to do with scientific and war
material and scarcely comes in contact with the drill and interior
organization of the ship, seems an unsuitable person to relieve the
former officer.
Next, as to petty officers. Every person who has thought or
written on the subject in ten years acknowledges that we have none.
The rates we have, to be sure, but the men are not even leading
seamen. They have little responsibility and exercise none ; the
officers do all. When we go beyond, to the seamen and ordinary
seamen, we find they usually do after a fashion what they are made
to do, but that there is little individuality developed in the perform-
ance. The apprentices must be excepted in this statement. Here
is fine material which may be made anything of by correct methods.
It is too often wasted and returned to civil hfe, discontented in spirit,
where the example acts as a deterrent on others, who might other-
wise be attracted to the service.
It seems, then, that our way of doing duty, which is the survival
of another condition of affairs, has the effect of making every indi-
vidual, from the captain down, occupy himself largely with matters
which are not the most conducive to modern fighting efficiency.
During the years in which we had no proper materiel in which
officers and men could take a just pride, the service got into a dull
routine way of doing things, which now hangs about us like a mill-
stone. Drills were considered a hardship by three-fourths of the
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I25
service at larg;e, but mainly because it was out of the usual order to
pay much attention to them. How often was it the custom in
detached cruisers to devote not more than a half hour daily at morn-
ing quarters to a routine drill, and then dismiss the subject for
twenty-four hours !
The present system reacts painfully on the spirit and morale of the
crew. They do not feel that they are in the service for any other
object than to earn a living, and the fighting training, naturally the
most interesting, and appealing most to the average mind, does not
occupy a large enough share of their thoughts and working hours.
As long as they can drift through the day, get ashore frequently, and
draw their pay, they feel that they are doing all that is required.
How many of them love their profession ? It is somebody's fault if
many of them do not, for Americans are not lacking in patriotism
and the necessary sentiment and pride of occupation.
There can be no doubt, then, of the true object and aim of all
endt^avor. The first step must be to interest all grades of the per-
sonnel. Good work is done only by those who take pleasure and
pride in their occupation. Officers and crews must be impressed,
first, with the importance and usefulness of their work. Men will
willingly endure any amount of labor in a good cause. It is what
seems to them useless labor that irritates and becomes irksome.
Human nature must be reckoned with in every attempt. People
must be taken as they are, not as they ought to be, and their willing
work must be guided in the proper channel. It will be useless to
place them in the midst of an artificial system and say to them : " Your
duty is so and so, you are paid to do it ; if you are the right sort of
a man you will take an interest in it, and the consciousness of duty
performed is sufficient encouragement." Alas ! none of us is the
right sort of a man. With every effort to be conscientious, we per-
form best those duties which are made interesting to us, and the
utility of which we perceive.
Any plan for remedying the above state of affairs must formulate
the essential work in ship and squadron, must suggest means of
promoting the spirit and morale of the crews, and must provide for
their health, comfort, and happiness. In fact, it would not be far
wrong to place the latter considerations first ; for though fighting is
the ulterior object, no results can be accomplished until a contented
and healthful frame of mind is secured. Health can be maintained
only by systematic physical exercise. Every one knows that the
126 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
question nowadays is to supply a substitute for sails and spars. A
feasible and practical scheme is a prime requisite. With regard to
comfort, every possible consideration not inimical to fighting effi-
ciency should be strenuously insisted on. Life aboard ship is un-
natural at the best. The intelligence required for handling war
material is higher now than ever. Necessary work must be insisted
on. When that is accomplished, grant every privilege, every com-
fort, and provide every recreation that can be consistently devised.
And now, having gained a general view of the requirements, we
may take up the subject more in detail. It will be well to say at the
start that radical changes in conditions necessitate radical changes
in methods. Many officers have not as yet served in the new ships.
If they feel hurt, or of a different mind, it will be well for them to
delay judgment until they are familiar with the new conditions.
Objectors will be found to much that will be advocated ; some
because after reflection they cannot honestly endorse the views ;
others from extreme conservatism, — what was good in the past should
not be done away with recklessly ; and others again because it is
their nature to object to anything.
DISPOSITION.
Under this heading it is proposed to discuss the proper method
of distributing the available force in order to obtain from it the
maximum of efficiency at the minimum of cost. It has been for
many years our policy to maintain squadrons in the North and
South Atlantic, in the Mediterranean, in the Pacific, and on the
China Station. Their duties have been already sufficiently outlined.
In the days of sailing ships, and subsequently of steamers of limited
coal endurance, it was a matter of necessity to maintain in all parts
of the world naval forces of sufficient strength to meet any con-
tingency that might arise. The diplomatic character of the com-
mander-in-chief was also an object in the keeping up of foreign
stations. Cables and mail facilities were few ; and by having on the
spot an officer who could present his country's views, and enforce
them if necessary, much benefit might result. The ships comprising
the squadrons possessed as a rule little homogeneity, though it is
true there were fewer differences of type in the old wooden ships
than are now to be found in modern ones. They were employed
generally in cruising from port to port in furtherance of their station
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 127
duties, and were rarely combined for extensive squadron drills.
Indeed, it was not feasible to combine under ordinary circumstances,
and at the same time to perform the duties intrusted to them. An
attempt will be made later to show that squadron drills and organi-
zation are indispensable to a healthy state of efficiency. Drills
became desultory ; there was not an hour a day assigned to them
on the average, and officers and men felt hurt if more was required.
The system, therefore, does not seem to have a rational existence
under present conditions. The disadvantages are lack of homo-
geneity, isolation, loss of touch with the progressive spirit of the
day, and the absence of that valuable training which only squadron
routine supplies. With the greater part of the forces on our own
coast, fast ships could be sent where wanted in the minimum of time;
and with diplomatic representatives in all parts of the world in con-
stant communication with the home government, the necessity for
the continued presence of a naval representative seems slight. We
have no foreign possessions except the harbor of Pago Pago in the
Samoan Islands, which, in case of war, would have to be protected;
but with that exception, the proper station for the main part of the
forces is our own coast. Here the ships would be immediately
available for the defense of the sea-coast cities, or, in case an offen-
sive policy were inaugurated, for launching suddenly against the
enemy's commerce and war squadrons, or blockading and attacking
his ports. For distant cruising, flying squadrons are growing in
favor with foreign powers, all of whom have dependencies ; to a
much greater extent, then, would they seem to meet our require-
ments, who have practically none.
In the course of the current year (1891) there will be available of
the new ships, the Chicago, Boston, Atlanta, Dolphin, Yorktown,
Charleston, Petrel, Baltimore, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Newark,
Concord, Bennington, Miantonomoh, Vesuvius, Cushing. Of the
wooden ships there are still serviceable the Lancaster, Pensacola,
Omaha, Swatara, Marion, Mohican, Iroquois, Kearsarge, Alliance,
Essex, Enterprise, Tallapoosa, Thetis, Yantic, Jamestown, Ports-
mouth ; and of the iron ships, the Monocacy, Alert, Ranger, Alarm,
Michigan, Pinta, Palos. Taking out those on special service — the
Lancaster and Alarm, gunnery training ships; the Thetis and
Ranger, surveying and other duty in the Pacific; the Yantic, James-
town, and Portsmouth, apprentice training ships; and the Michigan,
on the Lakes — there remain thirty-one others, distributed at the
128 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
close of 1890 as follows : North Atlantic Station, Squadron of Evolu-
tion, and awaiting commission or assignment in eastern ports, the
Chicago, Boston, Atlanta, Dolphin, Yorktown, Petrel, Philadelphia,
Newark, Concord, Bennington, Miantonomoh, Vesuvius, Cushing,
Kearsarge, Enterprise; South Atlantic Station, the Pensacola, Essex,
Tallapoosa; in the Mediterranean, the Baltimore; Pacific Station
and fitting out at Mare Island, the Charleston, San Francisco,
Swatara, Marion, Mohican, Iroquois, Alert, Pinta ; and Asiatic
Station, the Omaha, Alliance, Monocacy, Palos.
It is assumed that for reasons of temporary expediency these
stations will be kept up for at least some time to come, though
eventually, on account of changed conditions already discussed,
foreign cruising will be done principally in small flying squadrons.
The problem is now to get the old ships home as their serviceability
expires, to keep up the stations to a certain extent, and to organize
an effective drill squadron on the Atlantic coast, and eventually a
similar one on the Pacific coast. The solution seems to be to unite all
the ships on the eastern coast in a single squadron, detaching a small
number in their first year of commission to make a short cruise in
European waters, and then proceed to the South Atlantic and relieve
the ships ready to come home; later, to send out another such
squadron in the same track, the first to proceed by way of the Cape to
the China Station, sending home in turn the unserviceable ships, and
all eventually to collect in the Pacific: when the number on that coast,
comprising the above ships and those already on the station or
fitting out, became sufficient, to organize a second squadron of exer-
cise, and thenceforth to detach at intervals small flying squadrons,
proceeding in either direction, to make the tour of the world and
stop wherever their presence was needed. The above scheme is
presented only in illustration of the working of a policy that seems
desirable. The arrangement of the details is not essential, since
there is any number of ways of arriving at the same end.
Any coast-defense ships we may eventually possess, and all the
harbor torpedo-boats should, when mobilized, be assigned to the
two squadrons of exercise for such duties as they might properly
perform. As a rule, they should keep near their own ports, but they
would always form an important fighting factor in the make-up of
the squadrons. Ships in reserve should be in a similar category.
Our development of material has not yet reached a stage to make
the reserve question a pressing one. When ships become numerous
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I29
it may be necessary to keep some of them in a kind of half-com-
mission, to reduce expenses. Two classes of reserve suggest them-
selves. In the first, the ships would be in perfect condition, with coal
and all imperishable stores aboard, and with half the full complement
of officers and men attached. The crew would live aboard, and it
would only be a question of increasing the complement and pro-
visioning to get to sea in short order — say any time within a week.
In the second class the ships would be under repair or incomplete in
some particular, would have very little aboard in the way of stores
beyond enough for current use, and would have one-fourth of a full
complement attached. The crews would live aboard the receiving-
ship or at the naval barracks, and come aboard each day to clean
and care for the public property. An appropriate watch would stay
aboard at night. This class would thus take a longer time to pre-
pare for active service. It is doubtful if it will ever be policy to put
the new ships entirely out of commission. There will always be
machinery and all sorts of delicate fittings to be looked afier, and
the saving to the property will more than offset the outlay for
attendance. Moreover, it will be absolutely essential to keep up a
nucleus of men familiar with the machinery and battery, in order to
get the full complement in working trim in the shortest time after
mobilizing. Special storehouses for ships in the second class offer
many advantages. Here will be found everything not perishable
that will be needed in fitting out. Their use evidently facilitates
mobilization as well as prevents waste. It is not generally known
that they were a feature of the organization of the French marine
under Richelieu in 1634. A disposition as above would permit of
the employment of the Nival Reserve in conformity with Secretary
Tracy's recommendation in his recent annual report.
When the system begins to work smoothly, care will have to be
exercised in selecting ships fur the flying squadrons. They should
have served long enough in one or other of the squadrons of exer-
cise to be thoroughly imbued with its methods and discipline, for in
no other way will it be possible to secure uniformity. About a year
is considered a suitable time for this purpose. The intervals at which
they were sent out, and the localities visited, would depend on
circumstances. As a rule, the squadrons should make the tour of
the world, occupying about two years on the cruise. The flagships
might with propriety be armored cruisers, and the other ships
protected or partially protected cruisers. It would conduce to
130 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
efficiency if the flag-officer of these squadrons had served for a time
in the squadron of exercise as second in command. This would be
excellent duty for commodores, who now have no sea duty except
as acting rear-admirals in command of squadrons. They could still
receive such commissions when assigned to the flying squadrons,
were it deemed important.
A disposition similar to this would require a longer time of enlist-
ment than three years ; but there is reason to hope that this draw-
back will not long exist. Should a four years' period be adopted,
crews for ships about commissioning would be made up at the
receiving-ships or barracks, of men in their first year, and they would
then remain together in the ship for a full cruise. An advantage in
the method not to be lost sight of is that the discontent now preva-
lent on undesirable stations would soon come to an end. Every
officer and man would serve his time in one or other of the squad-
rons of exercise, or partly in a squadron of exercise and partly
in a flying squadron, and all would have equal opportunities. The
saving in expense would be considerable, the gain in uniformity and
efficiency incalculable.
EMPLOYMENT.
Having made what seems a suitable disposition of the available
material, what is the best method of keeping it employed ? With a
modern navy the question of coal becomes a serious one. Extensive
cruising will scarcely be undertaken except in small squadrons, as
above, or for special objects. The coal taken on board by the
Squadron of Evolution from November, 1889, to August, i8go,
amounted to 11,000 tons. The objects of the cruise were of course
various. Had the purpose been for exercise alone, it is obvious that
the coal expenditure would have been unnecessarily great, and the
time consumed in long passages from port to port would have left
too little opportunity for evolutions and gunnery practice. It is not
proposed to criticise in any way the conduct of that cruise. The
results attained in drill efficiency were, in spite of disadvantages, in
excess of anything that had been done in previous years.
On the other hand, there is nothing so detrimental to discipline
and efficiency as long stops at navy-yards. Officers and men be-
come imbued with shore-going, and the time aboard ship is reluc-
tantly spent in tiding over intervals between trips. But few drills
can be carried on at all, especially if the season is inclement, and
many things occur to render even those few unsatisfactory.
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I3I
A safe middle-ground would seem to be to assemble the squad-
rons of exercise twice a year, selecting for them localities for both
summer and winter cruising that would permit of exercises as
uninterrupted as the nature of the work required. These localities
must evidently be near at hand to avoid excessive coal expenditure.
In the intervals between the two periods of exercise, ships in full
commission could lie at anchor in the different rivers and harbors of
the coast, according to the season, and perfect themselves in all
drills that did not involve presence with the squadron. Navy-yards
should be left as far away as possible, and the ships should anchor in
the stream where boats would have to be used in going to and fro,
and where boat exercise could be carried on uninterruptedly. Rifle
ranges should be accessible, and much preliminary work at the butts
should here be accomplished.
These requirements point to a summer cruise along the New
England coast, a winter cruise in the Gulf and West Indies, and the
intervening time at anchor in such places as Newport, New London,
the Delaware River, certain parts of the Chesapeake, Beaufort,
Charleston, Port Royal. Any necessary repairing would have to be
done at the navy-yards ; and during such stay, military efficiency
might as well be left out of consideration, though an attempt should
be made to accomplish such work as seemed possible. Convenient
rifle-ranges at every yard would be a long step towards affording
useful occupation.
On the Pacific Coast, climatic changes are not so severe. Puget
Sound and the neighborhood of Monterey, Santa Barbara and San
Diego afford summer and winter cruising grounds; though the
former locality would suffice at any season of the year. The
entrances to the Sound through the Straits of Juan de Fuca and
Washington Sound are broad expanses, where squadron manoeuvres
might be carried out without limit, and the inner waters lend them-
selves to all the operations of naval war. Anchorages could be found
at, or near, all of the above localities and in San Francisco Bay and
the Columbia River.
The flying squadrons should occupy themselves in a similar way
as much as possible, carrying on all duty that does not interfere
with the objects of their cruise. The fighting drills are in nowise
to be neglected, and squadron evolutions may be practised when
possible. The ships should remain together, unless there were
imperative reasons to the contrary, both because they are more
132 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
effective in squadron in accomplishing the objects for which the
cruise is undertaken, and because drill-routine and efficiency are
thereby much more readily maintained.
We now come to the most interesting and, at the same time, the
most important part of the whole subject. Exercises are intimately
connected with interior organization ; but this latter is beyond the
scope of the present essay. It may be said, however, that organiza-
tion by parts of the ship is becoming more and more unsatisfactory,
and that many reasons suggest the battery as the basis. After the
chief boalswain's-mate, there might be division-mates and gun-
captains as the principal petty officers. However the question is
settled — and it is most important that it should be settled — there are
duties and drills applicable to any organization ; and it is now pro-
posed to present an outline of those which are considered of most
value.
The single ship is the unit of every naval force. No scheme of
squadron exercise which does not begin with ship efficiency can have
any permanently beneficial result. This, therefore, is our starting
point. While it is possible that good material may be injudiciously
arranged, it is entirely beyond reason to effect a substantial structure
of poor material, however clever the architect. And as the ship is
the unit of the squadrons, the individual is the unit in the ships.
The first object, then, is to get our units into shape.
A ship is commissioned for sea and is assigned to the squadron of
exercise. Certain preliminary drills are absolutely essential before
she can receive the full benefit of squadron routine. Battery drill is
assumed to be the first requisite. The crew must be stationed at the
guns and torpedo-tubes and exercised incessantly until a satisfactory
efficiency has been reached. Every other exercise may be tempo-
rarily put aside, and the ship may even go dirty and unpainted
preferably to neglecting this essential in any particular. It is not
supposed, however, that such an alternative will be presented. The
morning watch will afford ample time to keep the ship clean; and
two periods a day of an hour each, systematically consecrated to the
drill, will in a very brief time effect all that can be desired. It goes
without saying that a uniform system must be followed. The divi-
sional officers, presided over by the executive officer, must compare
notes frequently and suggest to each other neglected points. Uni-
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 1 33
formity must be as much sought in all drills as it has been heretofore
in the company drill. If there is a prescribed manual, it must be
followed absolutely without deviation, and the executive officer must
assure himself that this is done. If changes seem desirable, they
must be discussed by the officers as a board, sitting as above, and
a report submitted to the captain, who forwards it to the Depart-
ment with such comments as he may wish to make. What can be
more detrimental to efficiency than the diversified methods and
spasmodic attempts at drill so frequently observed in our ships?
And yet how perfectly easy it is to inaugurate a proper system !
Instruction at the battery is at present reasonably thorough. It
might be well to formulate exactly what information is to be imparted
to the gun's crew, as a whole, in such matters as weights of projec-
tiles and charges; range, penetration, and initial velocity; character
of fuses, nomenclature of guns and carriages, principles of pointing,
sights and sliding leaves, concentration of fire. The officers in each
ship, or better, the Ordnance Bureau, might prepare a pamphlet
with an outline system of this sort as an aid to the divisional officer.
The scheme should contain in a simple form only. such information
as every man at the battery should be possessed of. With the
brighter and more intelligent of them, the instructor could enlarge
to any extent thought desirable.
The crew being proficient at the battery as regards handling the
guns and understanding all the requirements, target practice is in
order. For this purpose the allowance of ammunition is ample, but
in many cases, on account of alleged more imperative service, it is
not expended. Does it not seem that in ninety or ninety-two days
two or three might be found somewhere in which to carry on this
important work ? The Bureau of Navigation lays down each quarter
rules for the practice thought most desirable. They are carefully
formulated by officers who have spent great labor in devising the
most suitable plan. They should be as consistendy followed as pos-
sible, both because competent authorities have determined the con-
ditions, and because uniformity is necessary to give weight to the
tabulation of relative merit. Has it come within the knowledge of
any of us that divisional officers have thought they knew a better
way of doing good shooting and have instructed their crews accord-
ingly ? How inconsistent and harmful 1 And yet the fault is one of
thoughtlessness and defective methods rather than of willfulness or
lack of intelligence. It will disappear when the board system for
134 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
discussing methods of drill, as above suggested, has inculcated uni-
formity.
Before leaving the subject of the battery, it will be well to call
attention to the importance of securing rapidity in the supply of
ammunition. This is primarily a question of design ; but even with
a good design it requires study and training to perfect the system.
In a modern ship, with the vast number of guns of all calibers,
requiring different kinds of ammunition, the powder division is prob-
ably the most important of all. A hitch in the supply at a critical
moment will be fatal. At the exercises tests should be made of the
rapidity. For this purpose a number of full-weight dummies should
be supplied ; for it is clearly inadvisable to make a practice of send-
ing up and down the regular charges and projectiles, both because
it uses up the passing-boxes and cases, rendering them unsafe, and
because it is dangerous to allow ammunition to collect on the upper
decks. The English use a stout brown sole-leather case to protect
the copper tanks containing heavy charges in sending them up ; and
it might be well also to furnish for the projectiles a number of
specially made iron-strapped boxes, with beckets in the end, to be
used in exercise or action as long as the supply held out. As these
boxes were emptied they would be filled again and kept on top in
the shell-rooms. To perform well all the duties of the powder divi-
sion requires a great many men : they should be commanded by an
experienced and capable officer, with one or two assistants.
A fair battery efficiency having been attained, the next most im-
portant step is to secure a complete knowledge of the manoeuvring
powers of the ship, which includes speed and turning capacity under
varying conditions. This work can be carried on conjointly with
the established ship routine of divisional drill, of which more anon.
The speed and training trials which have been conducted at New-
port in recent years are in the right direction, but do not go nearly
far enough. It is imperative to know the maximum speed in all
weathers, and the speed at different revolutions of one or both
engines. These results must be tabulated in such wise that the
speed may be estimated from the revolutions, direction and force of
the wind, state of the sea, draught, and condition of the bottom.
Next, the tactical diameters and turning circles with different helm
angles and at varying revolutions must be determined and tabu-
lated, the data to include advance, transfer, and time ; likewise the
circles with either engine stopped or backing. It is also important
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I35
to know the effect on the turning-circle of increasing or decreasing^
the speed, the helm remaining unchanged ; the effect of backing
with or without thejielm ; the time and distance to rest by stopping
and backing at different speeds, and the time and distance to gather
way from rest. There is an old movement that was called the " touch-
and-go shave," depending on a double shift of helm and pivoting on
the bow. It may be at times very useful and should be practised.
After the full speed trials have been completed by the board
appointed for the purpose, the rest of the work will be best accom-
plished by the officers of the ship. Involving as it does trials in all
conditions of weather, advantage will have to be taken of oppor-
tunities as they occur. Having obtained all the data required for
tabulation, every deck-officer should be given full opportunities of
testing for himself the ship's capabilities. Series of buoys should be
laid down and the ship required to manoeuvre amongst them at
different speeds, and semblance of ramming should be made by
passing between fixed points representing the extremities of a sup-
posed hostile ship. If any satisfactory method can be devised for
giving motion to the target at the same time, the experience will be
all the more valuable. Rafts of light construction towed by fast
launches might answer the purpose.
While these exercises have been in progress as occasion offered,
the ship routine of drill will have been established and fully entered
upon. Drills must be recognized as of three different sorts, inter-
dependent, and all absolutely necessary. The first sort are for
developing the fighting power of the ship ; they include drill of the
battery, main and secondary ; exercise with the torpedo-tubes and
search-lights ; torpedo defense and defense nets ; clearing ship for
action ; infantry and artillery drills ; duties of sentries, patrols, and
pickets ; organization of armed boats, guard and picket-boats ;
target practice with small-arms and revolvers ; exercise with the
cutlass ; instruction at signals and at the dynamo and in electrical
wiring. The second sort pertain to ship's duties, such as making
and taking in sail ; the wheel, compass, lead and log ; knotting and
splicing ; purchasing weights ; hoisting in and out boats ; boat exer-
cise under sail and oars ; carrying out anchors ; rigging jury-rudders
and sea-anchors; construction of life-rafts; collision drill ; fire drill;
abandoning ship. The third sort are purely for physical exercise
and discipline.
In the limited nature of this essay it is hardly possible more than
136 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
to enumerate the necessary drills. Additional suggestions in regard
to some of them will be found under the head of Competition. It
will be noticed that the cutlass drill has been retained. Many
officers advocate the abolition of this arm. Instances may be
imagined in which it would stand in good stead, as in boat attacks at
night, especially as in a surprise effected in cutting out a ship;
defense of artillery pieces under certain circumstances, in a hand-to-
hand attack, after emptying the revolver chambers, and in boarding
after receiving the enemy's ram, possibly the only salvation. If the
men do not carry cutlasses they will use the butts of their revolvers
after expending all the cartridges in the chambers; they will not
stop to load. Commander Prat, of the Esmeralda, would have stood
a good chance of carrying the Huascar had he been well supported
with men armed as are our boarders. They would have used the
revolvers first and then the cutlasses, and the latter arm, well handled,
would have done ample execution. The Huascar's crew was demor-
alized, according to the admission of her own commander ; and the
sight of a lot of wild fellows with pistol in one hand and cutlass in
the other would have settled the business. The moral effect of the
arme blanche, including of course the lance under similar circum-
stances, is one of its strong points, and it is the factor to which the
cavalry owes much of its importance. More mention will be made
of the cutlass when we come to speak of physical exercise.
In all of the drills of the first two sorts above mentioned, the men
should receive regular marks from their instructors. This would
involve some extra labor, but it is believed it would be labor well
expended. Merit rolls should be made out at stated intervals and
posted on the ship's bulletin. In addition to the incentive of rivalry
thus established, there should be substantial rewards for excellence,
in the way of promotion and increased pay, of which more later.
DRILL OFFICERS.
The brunt of all this work in drill and instruction will fall on the
divisional officers. Something must be done to give them more
time for it, and to make them more interested. Leaving aside for a
moment other considerations, a man of thirty-odd years will not do
as efficient work in the daytime, if he has had a four hours' watch
three nights in four, or three nights in five, even if he has spent them
in the deck-house, as if he had had a full night's rest. Drilling and
watch-keeping are therefore inimical. Which is of most importance ?
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I37
The principal duties in the latter are carrying on routine, superin-
tending cleaning, and watching over the safety of the ship ; in the
former, preparing the crew to use effectively the weapons with which
they are provided, and the ship herself to be an efficient fighting
machine. If the latter duties are not accomplished, the former are
manifestly useless. What is needed is a system that will secure
proper attention to routine and the safety of the ship, but which will
at the same time impress on every one that drilling is the first
consideration. Day's duty seems to be the solution ; all commis-
sioned line officers, except the executive officer and navigator, to
take their turn. They would have to be about in the day when
important work was going on, and also at night in bad weather.
Ordinarily they would sleep in the deck-house with their clothes on,
ready for a call. It is reported that in the Bennington the captain is
to have an " emergency " state-room near the pilot-house. In port
this would be the place for the officer-of-the-day. There should be
something of the sort in every ship. In first- and second-rates and
in flagships it might be necessary to have at times two officers on
duty together, a lieutenant and an ensign, the former to be in charge,
the latter to look out for important deck routine and official courtesies.
There is but one opinion of this method of carrying on duty in
ships in which it has been tried, and that is, that it adds to their
efficiency. It certainly trains up the quartermasters and boatswain's
mates to be petty officers in fact as well as in name. It is possible
that commanding officers will feel safer in their ships if there is
always a commissioned officer awake on deck ready for every
emergency ; but there are some who are perfectly willing to adopt
the method, in view of its advantages, provided the Department will
make the proper regulation and not put all the responsibility on
them. With such a plan, the designation " watch and division
officer " could be with advantage changed to " duty and drill officer."
The gain in efficiency by impressing on officers that their chief
duties were drill and not watch would be decided, and it would also
be an advantage in getting officers out of the idea that they were
" off" for two or three days when their tour of duty in port watches
was finished.
This seems a proper place for remedying the anomalous position
of the navigator, as stated some pages back. Instead of assigning
his duties to the third officer in line of command, assign them to the
fifth or sixth. Make him navigation, ordnance, and torpedo officer.
138 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
and give him charge of the dynamos and of the sentry details in
ships without marines. Of course there would have to be in addition
officers of the torpedo division as there are now of the gun divisions.
The above duties, including the clerical part, would be ample for
one man ; but he could perform them with the aid of a writer as now
allowed. He should be old enough to have had reasonable experi-
ence, but not too old to have retained the activity indispensable to
the proper performance of these particular duties. This arrange-
ment leaves the senior divisional officer as the relief for the executive
officer. Give him charge of the powder division, which we have
seen is the largest and most important in modern ships, and the
solution is reached. The captain and executive officer are in their
separate fighting positions ; a vigorous young officer is about the
upper deck wherever he finds a place of safety, looking out for the
lead, signals, search-lights ; and the third officer is down in the
powder division, ready to relieve the executive officer and captain
should it be unfortunately necessary. In peace times the executive
officer alternates with the officer who next to himself is most familiar
with all the drill and interior organization of the ship.
PHYSICAL EXERCISES.
In the third sort of exercises mentioned above, those for physical
training, there is scope for a wide display of ingenuity. A well-
considered plan, taking into account the difficulties, is becoming
more and more a matter of necessity. If men cooped up aboard
ship do not have something to stir their blood and harden their
muscles, they rapidly deteriorate, become discontented, and their
usefulness is at an end. Sails and spars formerly supplied this
want. Their management in the teeth of the elements gave all the
hardiness, agility, and self-reliance necessary for efficient fighting.
Granted that they are retained in the training-ships and in some of
the cruisers, they have been already much reduced ; and in ships on
which the brunt of the work must fall they will be entirely absent.
Does the steady execution of all the drills of the first two sorts,
combined with routine ship-cleaning, give the necessary physical
development? From observation it clearly does not. The men to
be found to-day in ships without or with little canvas, and markedly
the apprentice boys, are lacking in that skill, strength, and supple-
ness which characterize the ideal sailor, and which are absolutely
essential in a well-conducted and efficient service. Of the exercises
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET, 1 39
devised for physical development, the greater part will have to be
compulsory; but the men should be encouraged in every way to
practice athletics for recreation. It is only by awaking their interest
that the best results are to be obtained. In order to insure con-
tinuous effort and uniformity of practice, it is evident that the
physical training of the crew should be in the hands of some one
individual. It is doubtful if a suitable person could be found in most
of our ships as the complements are at present made up. The best
policy would be to create a rate of athletic instructor in all ships
having a complement of a hundred men or more, and to allow an
assistant if the number exceeded two hundred. The instructor
should be an appointed petty officer of the first class, and his assistant
a petty officer of the second class.
These instructors are common in other services, the French for
instance, who have a school of gymnastics near Paris, in which men
are trained in all physical exercises and then sent out as instructors.
Such a school under an able head would be of the greatest benefit.
It might be inaugurated at Newport in connection with the training
establishment. In action, the instructor should have a fighting
station, which would probably be in the powder division. A man
of his training would be of inestimable value in handling the element
usually found below decks.
And now as to the exercises. Boxing and fencing are put at the
head, the latter to include broadsword, the bayonet exercise, and
cane drill. The present single-stick drill, so-called, should be
abolished. As now carried on, it has more resemblance to broad-
swords than single-sticks. The leather guard on the weapon sup-
plied has a way of slipping around the hilt ; the men always smile
when the instructor orders " edge to the right "; and well they may,
for no one can tell the edge from the back. For sword exercise
there should be regular cutlasses, with buttons on the tips, and
masks and gloves should be supplied. A plain hickory stick is all
that is required for cane drill, with perhaps the addition of gloves
and a thick suit of clothes.
It is not claimed that actual use will be made of these accomplish-
ments for war purposes, except perhaps in the case of the cutlasg, as
previously mentioned, and of the bayonet ; but for physical training
they are unsurpassed. For developing courage, nerve, strength,
suppleness, self-reliance, a quick eye, and in fact all the qualities
necessary in fighters, they have no superior. Every soul on board
I40 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
should take part in them, officers not excepted. Squads for instruc-
tion should be formed to receive in rotation the attention of the
instructor. Four to six hours should constitute a day's work for
the latter, but an hour at a time would be long enough for the sepa-
rate squads. During a portion of this time the different individuals
in succession should receive personal instruction. Rough weather
at sea would of course put a stop to these exercises, but during the
greater part of the time there need be no hindrance. Every facility
should be suppUed in the way of gloves, masks, foils and other
appurtenances; and a suitable wash-room, with shower-bath and
tiled floor, should be set aside for the use of the crew. The larger
the ship the more feasible all this becomes ; but even in a small ship
much can be accomplished. In these exercises the officers are not
intended to be left out of consideration. They must take their share
as faithfully as the men. They are all provided with swords ; they
must know how to use them. How mortifying it should be to an
officer to admit, if only to himself, that he would appear a perfect
guy if called on to take part in an assault-at-arms ! It is undoubtedly
true that among the officers some expert swordsmen are to be found,
but their number is small. If the sword is worn merely as a symbol
of rank, it had better be abolished. Even then, sword exercise and
fencing would be most useful in physical training.
Other practicable appliances are to be found in clubs and dumb-
bells, in pulley-weights, in the horizontal and parallel bars, and in
the vaulting-horse. Men aboard ship with the writer have been
asked if they would make use of such an outfit if provided, and they
have seemed delighted at the idea. Indeed, parts of the apparatus
suggested have been procured or contrived by the men themselves
of their own volition. The necessary instruction in these appliances
would be given by the trainer, but it is to the men themselves we
must look for the main success.
To the above exercises might be added swimming, running, and
tumbling. The former exercise should be much more encouraged
than at present, weather permitting, and everybody on board should
be taught to swim. The instructor would provide slings and bands
to be used by beginners, of whom, curiously enough, there are
always some to be found in every ship. Running could be prac-
tised only in such ships as have wide, continuous decks. A track
should be laid off, so many laps to the mile, and the men encouraged
to compete. The instructor would give lessons in the proper manner
i
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 14I
of breathing, carrying the body, and using the feet and toes. It is
curious what gawks most men are in running; usually because they
forget they were once boys and try to impart dignity to the gait.
A rubber- or felt-soled shoe with spring heel would be necessary
for this purpose ; in fact, it is a growing opinion that a shoe of this
sort is the proper habitual wear for aboard ship, a heavier shoe to
be supplied for landing. Running over the masthead is splendid
exercise and requires no special outfit. All ships will have at least
a military mast. Tumbling is said to be, by its advocates, the best
of all exercises. There is evidently room for it aboard ship. In fact,
athletics is a very simple thing if we will only recognize its necessity
and go about it with a little system.
There is a certain class in the service who will undoubtedly oppose
all this. Puerile, they will call it ; impracticable ! " Men are aboard
ship to work, not to play. We cannot be bothered with such per-
formances, and there is no time for them. The ship has to be kept
clean and the drills carried on, and when that is done the men want
to rest." Let us look at these objections. It will be necessary to go
back to the beginning. What is the object of all training? Why, to
make men fighters, of course. Do we want men who are repressed
most of the time, men who are occupied in work that is of no interest
to them, who are tired out when the cleaning is done, men who
spend their leisure moments smoking and playing cards ? Evidently
not. We want men with a light, buoyant spirit, unrepressed, boyish
if you please, with a fondness for sport, who spend their spare time
in athletic occupations, and though they turn in at night tired
physically, we do not want them tired mentally.
The Concord is about to go into commission. Imagine her crew
made up from the college football-players of the country, and her
officers from those who have taken an interest in athletics. Train
them hard for six months in all man-of-war duties, and then send
them out to meet a similar ship of no matter what nation. On which
side would lie the probability of victory ? There seems but one
answer. The present encouragement of athletics at Annapolis is
grand. What naval officer did not feel his heart thrill at the news of
the Annapolis-West Point foot-ball game in November last ? It is
not claimed that there will be time and opportunity aboard ship for
a college athletic training, but all that can be accomplished will be
in the right direction. With a good system it will be worth quite
half as much for fighting as all the other drills. What we want is
142 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
manly feeling, esprit de corps; let us incite the men to generous
competition, take an interest in their sports, go in ourselves and help
them, offer prizes, have boxing matches, assaults-at-arms, feats of
strength, boat races, rewards for the best marksmen. This is a
progressive age; we must adopt the methods in vogue about us or
we shall find ourselves behind the times. The traditions of a
generation back cannot be followed exclusively. Our predecessors
undoubtedly made the best of what they could find at the time, and
if we neglected that particular, even in copying them, they would
certainly be the last to applaud us.
COMPETITION AS APPLIED TO DRILLS.
Competition and emulation are powerful means of inciting to
excellence. The old spar and sail drills were grand in their way.
The man who had to lay aloft to the topgallant or royal yard, in
sight of the ship's company, and perform his duty as quickly as the
man on the next mast, and beat him if possible, was under the influ-
ence of a mental stimulus infrequently met with in other pursuits.
The application of the principle is not so easy in our modern occu-
pations, but it may be often used to much advantage. The time
element should not enter if it appears at the expense of thorough-
ness. Where certain definite results are sought, and it is a merit to
accomplish all that is possible in a given time, then time may be
counted ; as, for instance, in trying to hit a target as often as possible
in a given interval. ' Some possible applications will now be
mentioned.
The Bureau of Navigation, in its excellent rules for target prac-
tice, ofTers prizes for all manner of proficiency in gunnery practice,
including that of small-arms and revolvers. The compilation of
relative merit rolls is a step in the same direction. Another incen-
tive might be found in keeping a record of all the targets made with
the air-gun or small-caliber rifle now usually supplied our ships.
The powder-gun seems to be the better weapon of the two. It is
easier to keep in order and is more accurate. The cartridges could
be made with spherical bullets and the charge so reduced as to sup-
press the report, ordinarily the objectionable feature. Each man
should be required to make one target a week, which on Saturdays
should be pasted in the record-book in order of merit and exhibited
on the ship's bulletin. Of course the book would soon be filled with
these targets, but it is not essential that they should be kept longer
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I43
than a few weeks. The scores, however, should be kept perma-
nently for comparison from week to week. Some officers are
opposed to the air-gup and small-caliber rifle on the ground that
lack of recoil renders practice with them unlike service conditions.
The points to teach, however, are the principles of sighting and
steadiness of aim. A new man who has learned to make a good
target with the small gun may be surprised the first time he fires the
service rifle; but, understanding the principles, he will soon adapt
himself to the new conditions. Moreover, it is probable we shall
eventually be using a high-power rifle of a caliber very much smaller
than at present, even though we do not go as far as some conti-
nental powers, and in which reduction of recoil is one of the leading
features.
In the case of boat attack, and defense by the search-lights and
secondary battery, the principle can be applied by organizing
different parties on successive nights, sending them sometimes in
the boats, and at other times retaining them at the guns and search-
lights. The record of successes would then exhibit the relative
excellence. In the battalion the colors should go with the best
company, and the best artillery crew should occupy the right of the
battery. Distinctive marks and badges should be worn for indi-
vidual excellence in any arm ; namely, by the best great-gun, rapid-
fire, small-arm, and pistol shots, and by the best fencer and broad-
swordsman.
For proficiency in ship's duties, constituting the second variety of
drills above named, the marks given might be used in determining
the duty to be assigned to each person. Where there is a choice
among several, the more desirable duty in the same rates should be
given the man with the best marks. The marks would have to be
given regularly by the persons conducting the drills. In the matter
of ratings, a similar rule should hold, as in fact it usually does. The
most proficient men should be selected.
To promote skill in handling boats, races under sail and oars
should be encouraged on every opportunity. A board of officers,
assisted by the coxswains, should decide on the handicap allowances
to put the boats themselves on a par. Success in the races would
then depend on the skill of the crew. The winning boat should be
entitled to wear a distinctive pennant painted on the bow. For the
further encouragement of rowing, both among the officers and crew,
a light practice barge with four or six oars and outriggers, such as
144 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
may be found in any rowing club's boat-house, might find a place in
any but the smallest ships. Large ships might even carry one of
each size. In the other physical exercises, both drill and recreation,
abundant stimulus will be found in personal contests and in trials of
skill and strength. At stated periods contests should take place
under the direction of the athletic instructor, to be witnessed by the
ship's company and invited guests.
The same objections on the part of certain officers are bound to
meet these suggestions — " We have no time for such doings, and
there is no place in the ship for the contrivances advocated, espe-
cially the barges. Besides, who is going to look out for them ?
Boat races always upset discipline, and so would tournaments and
other performances." It' will be hard to impress on this class that
the spirit to be inculcated is of more importance than all the spodess
decks and shining brightwork, even if it breaks out at times in the
unruliness of exuberant spirits ; and that any little care and attention
given the necessary appliances, and sacrifice of time to the exercises,
will be repaid a hundredfold in manliness and fighting efficiency.
As a matter of fact, it is to be feared there are many people to whom
the idea of fighting efficiency is seldom present, and who are mostly
occupied in the care of the little government property they find in
their keeping, forgetful that the whole outfit is little better than
useless if not applied to its legitimate purpose.
The above class, fortunately, is not in the majority, and there is
getting to be less and less room for them each year. Even among
officers who have been zealous in the performance of all duty that
has fallen to their lot, there has not always been a clear perception of
the true calling of the officer. Our profession is arms ; not mechanics
nor engineering, not books nor philosophy, not politics nor society.
An officer, it is true, should not be ignorant of those other matters,
but he should not put them ahead of his profession. Officers should
be students, — yes ; but students of professional subjects, keeping
always at the fore the one idea that their training is to make them
fighters. They must have the physique to endure the hardships of
war, and to lead men in war. Their duties and occupations must
be such as to raise their physique, not to lower it. Their amuse-
ments should be sports and athletics, their spirit that of the men who
fought with Preble, Rodgers, and Decatur, and they should receive
substantial recognition for excellence ; if they do not, they should
keep cheerful and wait for better times. Their whole life is now far
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 145
too sedentary. Watch-standing, with attendant broken rest, fatigues
without exercising. This is beyond their control, but there are signs
of changed conditions. With a growing pride in their profession,
and a materiel in sight which will call forth all their energies, their
attention will be given more and more to those pursuits which are
par excelle7ice typical of their calling,
RECREATION.
In the matter of recreation, which is of course not properly a part
of drill routine, but which may exert a marked influence on it, the
men should be encouraged to amuse themselves aboard ship as
much as possible. It is not believed that card-playing with a lot of
dirty pasteboards is conducive to healthful amusement, even if it is
not made the cloak for gambling. The evening is the proper time
for recreation. When lying in port, the hammocks need not be
served out until just before " pipe down." The old reason for going
to hammocks just after sundown was to enable the numbers to be
read while there was yet daylight. Nowadays, by turning on the
spar-deck circuit, the numbers can be read at any time. The
men having night watches might have a separate compartment
assigned them and get their hammocks shortly after supper. The
decks could then be kept clear, tables spread, books, papers and
games got out, amateur music organized, and the men allowed
access to the gloves, foils, clubs and dumb-bells. The electric light
supplied in all our new ships would shed its rays over the scene;
and if the proper material were not attracted to the service, then
progress and self-improvement are not motives of human action.
DISCIPLINE.
Discipline also has a bearing on drills, which will be the excuse
for giving it a word in this paper. With so many people in a small
space it has to be rigid. The great points to inculcate are firmness
and consistency. Punishments do not have to be severe, but they
must be equitable and sure. Mildness in handling men when asso-
ciated with firmness loses nothing. Vituperation as a method of
discipline is a thing of the past. When an infraction is noticed, all
that is necessary is to call it to the attention of the offender and then
set in motion the train that will evolve the prescribed punishment ;
be it, in case of a first offense, only a warning. Mr. Herbert
Spencer's idea of likening punishment to the operation of the
146 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
physical law is worthy of application. A child, on putting his
finger in the flame, receives a burn, and each repetition of the
physical offense incurs a repetition of the punishment. Mind, there
is no such policy, or lack of policy, as may be illustrated by the
remark "if you do that again I will do so and so." The punish-
ment should be made as much as possible a counterpart of the
offense, as, for instance, a late hammock, to be called earlier ; slow
or inattentive on drill, extra drill. It is not necessary to go farther
in illustration; the principle may be readily carried out. Discipline
will depend, as a rule, upon the treatment of these minor offenses.
If they are effectually checked, more serious ones will not be apt to
occur. When they do occur, vigorous measures must not be
omitted. As a matter of fact, grave offenses are more readily dealt
with than light ones, as the punishment is easier of selection. It will
be in the correction of the minor infractions that all the commanding
and executive officers' tact will be required.
Aside from punishments, many other things promote discipline.
Among the most important is the holding of petty officers account-
able, and adding to their responsibilities. There is too much watching
nowadays ; everybody has to be watched. It is not only necessary
to give an order, but to send later to see if it has been executed.
In the old days, when a man was reported for not doing something
he had been told to do, the reply of the first lieutenant was, "Why
did you not see that he did it ? " This method is no longer appli-
cable. The ships are larger and more intricate in every way.
No person can occupy his time in giving numberless orders and
then going about and seeing that they are executed. There must
be a system of accountability from the captain down, be there never
so many links in the chain. In this way good petty ofiicers will be
formed, and that we should have them is a matter of the gravest
necessity.
Another point is not to try and do too many things at the same
time. Work should be portioned out and finished before other
work is taken up. Especially is this true in the case of drills.
If any absolutely necessary work is going on, omit the drill alto-
gether. Perfunctory drills should cease ; that is, drills that are
held to fill out a routine. As war efficiency is the first consideration,
very few things should be allowed to hinder the drills, and no person
should be excused from attendance. They should be sharp and
thorough, and should be progressive in their character. A division
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 147
might have the same drill for a week at a time to assure this pro-
gressive tendency, and then turn to something else. Nor should
bad weather, as a rule, interfere with quarters. The men can always
be mustered under cover and given some sort of useful instruction.
In the scheme proposed, time is too valuable to be sacrificed to such
considerations. Moreover, the men are more contented when they
have not acquired the habit of wondering if something will not
happen to interfere with the drill. The simplest policy in the end is
to make drills as regular as meals, and if only the same time is
allowed, any results may be accomplished. To get over all the
necessary ground, it is not thought that in the single ship a fixed
drill routine is advisable. There are always certain duties of more
importance than others, and there is always some one thing more
appropriate at the time than another. The executive officer should
keep a list of all the exercises it is ever intended to hold, and he
should select each day those that seem of most importance or most
fitting the occasion. He would be assisted in this work by a record
book, to be kept by the divisional officer, in which would be entered
both the sequence of drills as held in his division, and, under the dif-
ferent drill headings, the number of hours given to each, and the date.
It cannot be too much insisted on that every available person
should do something to add to the fighting power of the ship. Every
enlisted and appointed man now has some fighting station. The
firemen not on watch are usually found in the powder division.
They should be instructed, as well, in small-arm and secondary
battery work, and they should learn to pull an oar and handle a
boat. The marines cannot now be drawn up on the quarter-deck in
action. They will probably be distributed about among the main
and secondary battery crews, if retained aboard ship, and take their
rifles only when riflemen are called away. With regard to the
officers, all, except the surgeons and chaplains, who are protected
by the Geneva Cross, should understand the rifle, revolver, rapid-
fire and machine guns. The question of non-combatants is seriously
occupying foreign services, who are finding their ships too small to
sacrifice space to people who do not fight. Without discussing the
abolition of any particular corps, it is apparent that all who now find
themselves aboard ship must take their full share in the fighting
drills.
One more point intimately connected with discipline and drill
efficiency. Ships' companies should be as nearly as possible per-
148 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
manent for the cruise. Vacancies will necessarily occur, and they
will have to be filled ; but none except the gravest reasons should
authorize extensive changes. Much difficulty is met with at present
in finding suitable men for manning the new ships ; but it is hoped
that this trouble will eventually disappear. In the case of the
officers, there are as many available now in proportion to the ships
as we are ever likely to have ; and yet a ship could be mentioned in
which none of the original watch-officers was to be found fourteen
months after commissioning, and in which there had been ten watch-
officers in all in sixteen months. To mention another case, in which
the exact figures are not at hand, a ship lying, it is true, most of the
time at navy-yards, had had within three years enough officers and
men on the pay-rolls to have formed from three to four complete
crews.
In the matter of making the men comfortable, a great deal can be
done. When they know they are being looked out for in little
things, they are far more willing in all their work. The degree to
which personal comfort can be carried will depend on the ship ; and
it is left to the captain and executive officer to make the most of
what is provided. Frequent inspections of clothing and bedding, and
airing bedding as often as possible, will instill cleanliness. Mention
has already been made of a wash-room and shower-bath for the
crew. Clean water and soap are even nearer to godliness aboard
ship than they are ashore. The navy ration is excellent, and the
men appear to be satisfied with it. Better messing arrangements
seem possible, and several plans have been tried. The best one
should be determined and adopted. Meal hours are almost too
close together. It would be hard to disturb the 12 o'clock dinner;
but with the electric lights, supper could be had at 6 o'clock all the
year round ; 7.30 seems the most appropriate breakfast hour.
SQUADRON DRILLS.
We will now suppose the ship to be thoroughly drilled and dis-
ciplined. She is ready to take part in any squadron duty that may
be required. It must not be supposed, however, that this degree of
efficiency has been brought about entirely while absent from the
squadron. When the men are sufficiently instructed at the battery,
and the results of the speed and turning trials have been tabulated,
squadron duty may begin. The presence of other ships stimulates
effort to a remarkable extent; the crews sooner shake down into
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET, 149
uniform methods, and the faculties are kept more continually on a
stretch. Competition among the different ships exerts its influence
in the same beneficial way that has been already remarked in the
case of individuals. Especially is this true in such duties as sig-
naling. In fact, suitable practice in signaling is not possible except
in squadron.
But to begin: if the squadron is just formed, the sea and port
routine is the first thing to claim the admiral's attention. It is diffi-
cult at the start to co-ordinate all the different duties. The routine,
to be really serviceable, must be a growth, a development. It is the
squadron that has kept together for many months that will have
settled into the most thoroughly practical methods. For that reason,
squadrons should not be disbanded. Their experience should go
on uninterruptedly. Ships may come and go as necessary, provided
their stay is not too brief; but the squadron organization should
continue.
To illustrate this point, imagine two cases. In the first, ships
have been commissioned as they were finished and sent off to differ-
ent stations, leaving on our own coast a varying force which followed
some sort of a routine, to be sure, but which had seldom drilled as a
squadron, and in which most of the exercises were left to the
commanding officers. For some reason it becomes necessary to
organize at brief notice a strong force to operate on the coast. All
the ships at the navy-yards, fitting out and repairing, and the ships
which have been in reserve are hurried along to join the squadron.
The flag-officer and his staff have now a difficult and responsible
task. Squadron orders are issued one after the other; drills are
devised and executed ; and if time permits, the force will soon be
efficient. There is no lack of intelligence or energy in our personnel,
and they will do wonders in an emergency. With a fighting chance,
they will acquit themselves with credit.
Now for the second case. There has been for several years a
permanent squadron of exercise to which the reserve ships are
always assigned when mobilized. With gradual experience, a
scheme of drill, exercise and routine has been developed which has
been shown to produce gratifying results. All the necessary orders
and instructions are kept in pamphlet form ready to issue at once to
every new-comer, of which there may be several each year. It is
suddenly necessary to mobilize all the available force. Ships are
hurrying to join the flag. The commander-in-chief may give his
I50 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
directions almost in the language of Moltke when informed that war
existed with France: "Third portfolio on the left." That is all.
The work has been done when circumstances were favorable. There
is nothing to do now but fight. Can any one doubt which of these
two squadrons will stand the best chance with the enemy ?
The main object of routine is to regulate the kind and duration of
drills. Meal hours, times for scrubbing hammocks and clothes,
and routine signals are important, but must be subservient to neces-
sary work. The drill routine should be regulated in conformity
with the relative importance of the different exercises, as laid down
for the individual ships ; and the idea should be to bring the crews
together as much as possible, as in boats, and in landing drills. On
the occasions when combined drills are not provided for it would
be well to leave a certain freedom to the different ships, that they
may carry on individually whatever drills seem most expedient to
them at the time, as has been already explained. Port exercises
should alternate with squadron manoeuvres as opportunities offer.
In the location selected there should be facilities for great-gun and
small-arm target firing, for extended boat exercise, for landing and
encamping the naval brigade, for torpedo attack and defense, and
for the construction of booms and the laying out of mine fields. It
is not necessary to go more into the details of these exercises. They
are tolerably well understood and are often well executed. The
great thing is to have more of them. The drills of the Squadron of
Evolution at Corfu last spring are worthy of study. The situation
was almost ideal for the purposes enumerated. It was there that
the longest stop of the cruise, about three weeks, was made ; and
more was learned than in any other period of twice the length.
Competition should be brought into play in every way possible, as
in boat races, rifle matches, comparison by plotted targets of the
main and secondary battery practice of the different ships, with a
gunnery pennant, as has been the custom in the North Atlantic
squadron, for the most proficient; competitive battalion drills for the
brigade standard, which might be with propriety the admiral's flag,
and in numberless other ways that will suggest themselves whenever
the drills are carried out.
In the matter of signaling there is room for a great deal of im-
provement. The Morse code signals seem to give the most trouble
and require a great deal of practice. It is doubtful if a code that
necessitates from one to seven flag motions, or electric light flashes
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 151
for each letter or conventional sign will give sufficient rapidity for
effective work. The characters are difficult to read, for the reason
that the whole combination is not displayed to the eye at a glance,
and it requires considerable attention and memory to follow the
successive motions from beginning to end. The Morse code is cer-
tainly valuable for telegraphic use, and it is well to have people
familiar with it. Besides, it facilitates communication with the army
and coast-guard. A system can be devised that will depend on the
Morse code, but will display by day or night the whole combination
for each letter at a glance, and in which each combination will be
made by a single movement of the signalman. Experiments in this
direction would be desirable, TWe night signal system now in use
in certain foreign services, of a number of red or white lanterns in a
vertical hoist, is about to be adopted for trial in some of our ships.
It has the advantage of exhibiting the whole combination for each
"letter or sign at the same instant, but is open to the objection that it
introduces still another code.
In exercising the signal corps of the squadron, a ship could be
detailed to make a reasonably long signal through from beginning
to end without pause. It would be taken down as received by the
other ships, and the results sent aboard the flagship for comparison.
In the smoke and confusion of battle signals will be with difficulty
discerned. Those made should be as few and as simple as possible.
Lieutenant Wainwright's idea of employing small mortars to project
into the air Japanese bombs for day signals, which on explosion throw
out various shapes and combinations, might prove a very satisfactory
method.
In the execution of all squadron routine many valuable suggestions
would become available by constituting a quarterly board of three to
five officers, whose province it would be to supervise all drills and
exercises of whatever sort. They would possess no authority
except in the way of recommendations, and of reports to the com-
mander-in-chief of the efficiency observed. Their influence in pro-
moting uniformity would in itself pay for any additional labor
involved.
At sea the greater part of the time should be spent in manoeuvres.
Formations are of two sorts, for battle and for cruising. It is not
proposed here to discuss the different ones advocated. The service
is at present provided with a tentative drill-book, and it is presumed
an authoritative one will be eventually issued. What is necessary
for the squadron is to perform thoroughly all the evolutions laid
152 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
down and to accustom the officers to handle their ships. The drill
of the section of two ships will probably be the best beginning.
They should learn to act in concert, and to support each other under
varying conditions. Then they might separate and manoeuvre as if
to engage, each trying to pass within the other's turning-circle and
keep out of the danger-field. This would be delicate work, and
would have to be executed at first at low speeds and with wide
turning-circles. The Russian plan of ramming tactics with tugs
well protected with fenders and buffers is worthy of trial.
In executing squadron manoeuvres, engine revolutions and helm
angles should be made use of as indicated by the tabulated results
of the speed and turning trials. '" Too much thoroughness in this
particular cannot be insisted on. After once putting over the helm
in obeying a signal, and it is observed that the circle is too large or
too small, the error cannot be corrected. The ship is out of her
place, and it takes time to get back. What is required is to order
the proper helm angle at the start, and the ship will then keep her
station. Many people are disposed to laugh at the observation of
these exact rules and to describe them as impracticable. But they
are not impracticable ; they can be and are followed by foreign squad-
rons, notably the French, and they familiarize officers with the quali-
ties of the ships. After long experience the tables may be done away
with, but it is only because the contents have been mastered. The
officer-of-the-deck will still order the proper helm angle when a
change of course is made, and the suitable number of revolutions at
all times. If a squadron trained in this manner goes into action, it
will be prepared for any dispositions that may be ordered ; and the
tables, which have served as props in learning to walk, as it were, may
be unhesitatingly thrown aside when their assistance is no longer
needed.
Granted that free use is made of the revolution and helm angle
tables, there must still be means of correcting small variations of
speed and course when preserving a cruising or battle order for any
length of time. For this purpose, use is made ordinarily of the
sextant and dumb compass. The former only is needed in keeping
in wake of other ships, while the latter is used in maintaining
bearings. To handle these instruments, pay attention to the
steering, order the suitable revolutions, be on the lookout for
signals, regulate the speed-ball and pennant, and carry on the ship
routine, is a great deal for one officer; yet these duties must be
under a single control. The sextant is usually turned over to a
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 1 53
junior officer, and there are quartermasters and signalmen to assist
in other ways. Now there are many objections to the sextant.
Granted that it is properly handled, it is far from easy to order the
revolutions judiciously in conformity with its indications. Moreover,
the officer of the deck is never quite satisfied when he has to delegate
to another a duty which has so much to do with the proper observ-
ance of position. Nor is the sextant a very satisfactory instrument
for such use. Its indications are unnecessarily exact, and the scale,
due to the fine graduation, hard to read. The telescopes cannot be
used with any satisfaction day or night, as their field is too small.
A simpler and cheaper instrument, having a long index-arm, a
plainly marked scale, and provision for shipping a night-glass, would
be a long step in the way of simplification.
For purposes of verification and for instruction in squadron sailing,
an automatic attachment may be very easily devised in these days
of electrical appliances. To go much into detail would not be
admissible in an essay of this character. An outline of the idea is as
follows : Having set the index of the sextant, as modified above, for
the proper distance, let us connect a portable electrical card in such
wise that a variation in position of the index-arm will show on a dial
in the engine-room, by the position of a pointer, that distance is
being lost or gained. A slight change of the throttle corrects
matters, and no other signal is necessary. All the officer-of-the-deck
has to do is to assure himself that the index is properly set at the
start, and any reliable man will be able with very little practice to
follow the changes as they occur. So much for position in column.
In keeping station on a bearing, two adjustments are continually
necessary, speed and course. Two methods suggest themselves for
an automatic regulation. One is to keep the sextant connections as
above, to register in the engine-room, and thus regulate distance by
the speed, and to make a similar connection on the dumb compass
with a dial in front of the wheel for the guidance of the helmsman,
and thus regulate bearing by the helm. The other method is to
interchange these connections, regulating distance by the helm and
bearing by the speed. On a bearing of four points, either method is
applicable. At less than four points from ahead the first method
will be used ; at more than four points the second. The reason is
apparent. Thus, suppose the bearing were eight points, it is evident
that the necessity of keeping on the line regulates the speed, whereas
distance is regulated by the helm ; at zero points, or in column, the
reverse is true, and at four points, being the intermediate position,
154 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
it is a matter of indifference. This may not be the mathematical
neutral point, which will depend on the ratio between advance and
transfer at different speeds, but it is near enough for all practical
purposes.
This method of regulation was suggested by learning of a mechan-
ical device at one time in use aboard the Galena. The dumb com-
pass was mounted on the engine-room hatch, and a vertical shaft
connected the alidade with a dial in the engine-room. Electricity
is preferable, as the compass may be mounted in any desirable
position; and by combining with this attachment another for the
sextant, the whole matter is under the most simple control. It will
not be necessary or desirable to employ these devices at all times.
In each watch a great part of the time should be spent in regulating
position by the eye, giving verbal orders to the helm and engine-
room. Then at intervals the attachments could be used to check
the bearing and distance, thus giving continuous practice and instruc-
tion. Long observation of correct distances and bearings ought to
be the best possible training for the eye ; and in time of action such
experience would be invaluable. The appliances are in the same
category as the speed and helm tables. Discard them by all means
when their purpose has been subserved. As to the additional care
and attention required in keeping them in order, it is thought that
the objects to be attained are ample justification. It is true that
ships are being filled with every sort of intricate apparatus; but if
the result is better to prepare for battle, there will be no doubt of the
advisability ; and somebody will be found to assume the additional
care.
A satisfactory electrical or mechanical counter to show in the
pilot-house the engine speed at any instant without the necessity of
counting and timing, is very much needed. The ofificer-of-the-deck
not only wishes to know how many revolutions are being made at
any time, but it is very important for him to be cognizant of small
changes as they occur. Step-by-step telegraphs, or other similar
devices, should be supplied for signaling from the pilot-house or
conning-tower the desired revolutions and helm angle, the latter in
case a fighting wheel below decks is used. The dials should be
marked for number of revolutions and degrees of helm at such small
intervals as might be found necessary, and also with such legends
as a Utile faster, a little slower, meet her, steady, starboard hand-
somely, port handsomely.
One more point ; in these days of swift-moving craft, the officer-
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 155
of-the-deck should have at his own hand means of instantly changing
the helm ; and of controlling the engines, stopping and reversing,
and increasing to full speed at will. When orders have to be given
to some one else and then passed by mechanical or electrical devices,
time is lost; and that time may make just the difference between
collision and escape, ramming or being rammed.
In addition to manoeuvres in order of battle and order of cruising,
the squadron should be exercised at ramming tactics and at towing.
Buoys could be laid down representing a hostile squadron in order
of battle, and a charge through ordered. The ships could then turn
and charge back, or form in different order to illustrate tactical
points. Commander Hoff's book on the subject is full of useful
hints. In towing exercises, the commander-in-chief would designate
a ship by signal as disabled and it would become the duty of a
neighbor, according to the formation, to take her in tow. The light
craft, scouts and torpedo-catchers would assist in carrying out the
lines. There can be no doubt that a little judicious practice in this
particular might result in great benefit at some critical moment.
Manoeuvring at night should come in for a share of attention. Close
order is said to be more easily maintained at night and in a fog than
open order. The English ships during foggy weather in some of
the recent manoeuvres towed buoys astern at the proper interval as
guides for their next astern. Plans of this sort suggest themselves
in practice and sometimes prove of much value.
After ample experience in all the above duties and drills, the
squadron could be separated into two parts and exercised at block-
ading and masking tactics. Extended annual manoeuvres will prove
the crucial test, short of war itself. Their importance cannot be
overstated ; any expense incurred will be amply repaid in added
efficiency. The plan must be well prepared in advance, and the
participators fully instructed. It does not matter greatly what theme
is selected ; the chief point is to do something, and keep at it con-
tinually. In no other way is the best experience to be had.
SUMMARY.
The outline of a policy has now been presented. The subject is a
wide one, and it has not been possible to go very far into detail. If
the skeleton is thought worthy of the addition of sufficient flesh and
blood to give it vitality, and the resulting system does not prove satis-
factory in all its parts, perhaps a full discussion of its faults may
156 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
suggest a working semblance that will more fully subserve the end
proposed. After all, the great need to-day is to realize that our
methods are obsolete. Improvements must follow this realization;
for with a free expression of opinion, new ideas are bound to appear,
and it becomes then only a question of the selection of the best.
To recapitulate: the whole object of naval training is war efficiency.
Anything that promotes it is good ; that which does not is bad. To
derive the greatest benefit, a settled policy must be adopted and con-
sistently followed. The advantage of method is so great, that a poor
plan steadily adhered to conduces more to efficiency than the most
brilliant efforts if desultory and fitful. Given a naval force in which
all necessary types find their representatives, the problem is to make
that disposition which most satisfactorily and economically fulfils the
object of its creation, and makes possible a continuous and systematic
training in all war exercises. The solution arrived at is to make of
the ships available for active duty, two permanent squadrons of
exercise, one on each coast, from which at intervals small flying
squadrons of cruisers are detached to make the tour of the world. The
permanent coast-defense ships will be assigned to the squadrons of
exercise when mobilized, and will engage in whatever manoeuvres
seem appropriate. Ships not in full commission will form two orders
of reserve, and will be maintained at the navy-yards, with such of
their officers and crew attached as may be necessary to keep them in
proper condition. It will not be policy ever to put them entirely
out of commission during their period of usefulness. The squadrons
of exercise will be mobilized twice a year, in appropriate localities
near our own coast, for extended squadron drills. In the intervals,
the available ships will lie at anchor in appropriate rivers and harbors,
away from the navy-yards, and will carry on prescribed exercises.
It is to be impressed on every one that drilling is the first duty, that
unnecessary work must cease, that officers and crews are to be kept
in efficient health and spirits, that the profession of arms is their call-
ing, and that ships are to be made as comfortable and happy as
other conditions will permit.
This concludes the subject. The people are now taking a just
pride in the creation of a modern navy commensurate with the
national dignity. The reforms advocated depend for their accom-
plishment on Congress, on na\ al administration, and on naval officers.
In the words of the motto, occasionem cognosce, it is only necessary
to know and realize the occasion; and as the objects are clear,
attainment will be possible.
[COPVRIGHTKD.]
U.S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
ON A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY
OF SHIPS.
By Assistant Naval Constructor D. W. Taylor, U. S. Navy.
The word stability is commonly, though somewhat loosely, used by
naval architects to express not only the existence of a righting
tendency in a ship inclined in still water, but also the amount of such
tendency, i. e. the righting moment of the ship. The displacement
of ships being always expressed in tons, their righting moments are
naturally expressed in ton-feet.*
I propose to describe and explain a method for calculating sta-
bility ; but before taking up the method itself, shall state briefly a few
elementary facts connected with the subject.
A ship floating at rest in still water, and acted upon only by her
own weight and the buoyancy of the water, must —
1. Displace a weight of water equal to her own weight.
2. Have her center of gravity vertically above the center of
gravity of the displaced water, usually called the center of buoyancy.
When the above conditions hold, the weight of the ship, which
may be regarded as acting downward through her center of gravity,
is exactly counterbalanced by the buoyancy of the water, which may
be regarded as acting upward through the center of buoyancy.
This state of affairs is illustrated by Fig. i, which may be taken
to represent the transverse section of a ship through her center of
gravity, G, and center of buoyancy, B.
*A foot-ton is the work done in raising the weight of a ton through the
vertical height of a foot. A ton-foot is the moment exerted by the weight of
a ton acting with the horizontal leverage of a foot.
158 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Consider now Fig. 2, where the ship is shown inclined in smooth
water, at the water-line IVL, the displacement remaining- unchanged.
In this condition the weight of the ship and the equal buoyancy of
the water, while still acting in vertical lines, do not act in the same
line. There is then a couple set up, which will tend to right the
ship if the vertical through B falls outside of the vertical through G
(as in Fig. 2), and will tend to still further incline the ship if the
vertical through B falls inside of the vertical through G.
This couple is, of course, measured by the displacement multiplied
by GZ, the horizontal distance between the verticals through G and
B respectively, 6^Z is called the righting lever.
If, adopting some constant displacement, we determine values of
GZ for a number of inclinations, and plot them as ordinates of a
curve of which the inclinations are the corresponding abscissae, we
can determine from the curve the value of the righting lever corres-
ponding to any inclination at the constant displacement. Such a
curve is commonly called a curve of stability. One is shown by
Fig- 5-
The displacement being constant, a curve of righting levers is, on
a suitable scale, a curve of righting moments also, for righting
moment = displacement X righting lever.
Suppose now we give the ship a constant inclination and then
gradually immerse her, determining for each of a number of parallel
water-lines the displacement and its moment about an axis fixed in
the ship. Plotting these moments as ordinates of a curve of which
the displacements are abscissae, we have what is called the " cross
curve " of stability corresponding to the constant inclination. Fig. 4
shows a number of cross curves for a ship at intervals of 15°.
If we have cross curves for a sufficient number of inclinations, we
can take from the curve for each inclination the moment correspond-
ing to a fixed displacement, and plot a new curve for the fixed
displacement having moments for ordinates upon inclinations as
abscissae. If the center of gravity of the ship at the fixed displace-
ment falls on the axis about which the moments for the cross curves
were found, this new curve is the same as the ordinary curve of
stability explained above.
If the center of gravity of the ship does not fall on the axis, a
simple correction will be necessary in order to obtain the ordinary
curve of stability.
The center of gravity of a ship is always calculated approximately
proceedings u. s. naval institute, vol. xvii., no. 2.
Fig. 1.
OB
Fig. 2.
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A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I59
when she is designed, and is usually determined with considerable
accuracy after the ship is completed, by an " inclining experiment."
I propose to discuss a method for determining stability, on the
supposition that the position of the center of the gravity of the ship
is always known.
The explanation of the method as applied to a ship is simplified
by considering first a single section as shown in Fig. 3,
Let —go'^Pgo° denote the position of a water-line when the
section is upright. Call the point P the pole. Let A denote the
position of the axis about which the righting moment is desired.
Let r denote a radius from the pole, a subscript being used to
indicate the angle which its radius makes with the vertical. Thus
rjft denotes the radius from Px.o 90°. In the figure, radii are drawn
at intervals of 15° on each side of the vertical, as shown.
Consider now the small triangle Pa^a^, a^ and a^ denoting, in cir-
cular measure,* the angular distances of the ends of the base of the
little triangle from the vertical, as indicated.
Let
Pa^ — r-^, Pa^ = ri.
Then we have approximately,
Area oi Pa,a, = ^^±±^ X ^^^ = A, say.
Vertical moment of Pa,a, about P= A X ^ (Jl±l^ sin fL±^\
22
Suppose now a^ and a^ are very nearly equal.
Let a, — «! be denoted by da.
«1
+
0-2
2
r,
+
r^
2
Then the smaller the triangle the more nearly do we have
Area = \r"' da.
Moment = hr"^ da x \r sin a — ir* sin a da.
Evidently, then, ir' would be the element of a radial curve of
areas corresponding to the angle a, and ^r' sin a would be the cor-
responding element of a curve of moments.
♦The relation between circular measure and degrees for an angle is: —
(Circular measure) = -^-n (degrees) = .0174533 degrees.
l6o A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
By treating these elements in the ordinary manner for radial inte-
gration, we can find the area and the moment of the portion of the
section bounded by any radii. Thus, for the area and moment of
the portion between Po and P6o, we have, using the trapezoidal rule,
Area = \{^rl + r\^ + rl^ + rl^ + i^eo)
X (circular measure of interval = 15°)-
Moment =
i- i\rl sin o" + r\^ sin 15° + r|o sin 30° + rl^ sin 45° + -i- r\a sin 60")
X (circular measure of 15°).
Suppose we know the area below the water-line — Qo/'go (the
initial area, it may be called) and B^, the position of its center of
gravity. If the section is inclined 45° about /"as a fixed point, the
new water-line will be — 45/*i35, and the new vertical P^^. The
new area below the water-line is obtained by deducting from the
initial area the " emerged wedge," —90/'— 45, and adding the
" immerged wedge," goPi2,S-
i. e. Deduct
KIrigo ■\- rLti + ^ieo + i^-45) X (circular measure of 15'*).
Add i(ir^o -1- r?05 + ^m + i^L) X (circular measure of 15°).
The net result is the addition of
i {K^9o - r'_,,) + (r?„, - rL„) + (r\,, - rl.^) -f i(r?35 - rL«)|
X (circular measure of 15°).
The resulting area below the water-hne at 45° is denoted by A^^,.
Consider now the question of moments about P, with Pa^^ as the
vertical.
The moment of the area beneath the inclined water-line —45/*: 35,
is evidently to be obtained by taking the net result of the moments of —
1. The initial area beneath — 90/^90, denoted by A^.
2. The wedge of emersion, — 90P— 45.
3. The wedge of immersion, goPizS-
These moments in detail are:
1. Initial area— negative moment = —A^ X PM^
= -AoX PB, sm 45°.
2. Wedge of emersion— positive moment =
^(^risosin 135°-!- r 176 sin 120° + rieosin 105° + iri^ sin 90**)
X (circ. meas. 15").
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. l6l
3. Wedge of immersion — positive moment =
1 (I r|o sin 45° + r?05 sin 60° + r\,^ sin 75° + ^r^, sin 90°)
X (circ. meas. 15°).
Now sin 135° = sin (180° — 45**) = sin 45°.
Similarly sin 120° = sin 60°, and so on.
So the two positive moments above can be combined into a single
expression.
Positive moment =
i li (^90 + rl.o) sin 45° + (rlo, + rL,,) sin 60° +(rf,„ + rLeo) sin 75**
+ i(^i35 + ''-«) sin 90° [ X (circ. meas. 15°).
And the negative moment has been expressed as =
—A^X PB, sin 45°.
Whence the moment of the area below the 45° water-line is readily
determined about the pole P. But it is the moment about the axis
A which it is the object of our work to obtain, and for this another
step is necessary, introducing what I may call the pole correction.
Referring to Fig. 3, if B^^ is the center of gravity of the area ^«,
beneath the 45° water-line,
Moment of ^« about pole P= A^^X PN.
" axis A = A,,X AR = A,, (PN- PQ)
= ^« X PN- A,, X PA sin 45° .
Now ^45 X PN has just been found (it is the moment about the
pole), and A^^ X PA sin 45° is easily determined, since Ai^ has been
found and PA is supposed to be known.
There is one more point to be considered in connection with the
single section.
Suppose from the inclined water-line the section is sunk bodily a
short distance in the water without change of inclination. The small
increase of area acts through the center of gravity ^(see Fig. 3) of
the line —45/^135, and has the arm AS for moments about A.
Now AS= PT- PQ = PT- PA sin 45^
r^ — r"^
PA is supposed known, and PT— \ "° — =^; whence AS is
''135 + ^—46
readily determined.
The application of the methods just explained to the case of a ship
by means of a suitable number of sections is obvious.
Given the pole, the initial displacement corresponding, and the
distance below the pole of the corresponding center of buoyancy,
l62 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
we have al! the necessary data concerning the initial displacement,
which should be treated just as the initial area above.
This data may be taken directly from the displacement scale
unless the pole is at a height to which the displacement scale calcu-
lations have not extended. In such a case the calculations of the
displacement scale should be extended, at least as regards displace-
ment and the position of the center of buoyancy. We shall see that
it is desirable to extend these calculations up to complete submer-
gence of all parts of the ship that are taken into consideration when
dealing with stability.
In dealing with the moments of the wedges of immersion and
emersion of an actual ship represented by a number of sections, we
must of course take into account all the sections and the fact that we
are dealing with a solid instead of a plane area.
It will be necessary to use instead of r, r^ and r^, quantities which
I shall denote by 2>, 2V' and 2V. Zr means \ each end radius -I-
each of the intermediate radii. 2V = h the square of each end
radius + the square of each intermediate radius. A similar expres-
sion holds lor 2V\
The fact of solidity must be taken account of by the introduction
of a factor depending upon the spacing of the sections used.
It will be observed that JlV, 2'^ and Ir^ are determined by the
trapezoidal rule, which may be stated briefly to be that the area of a
curve of which a number of equidistant ordinates are known is
= {h the end ordinates -f the sum of the intermediate ordinates) X
(the interval between ordinates). I shnll discuss later the reasons
for the adoption here of the trapezoidal rule in preference to
Simpson's.
I wish now to describe and explain the forms of calculation for the
work shown in Tables I-IV inclusive.
The upper part of Table I calls for little explanation. The radial
ordinates from one pole for the various inclinations and sections are
taken from the body-plan of the ship and entered in the column
headed r. The columns headed r^ and r' are filled in from a table
of squares and cubes, and 2V, 2V^ and Ir^ obtained by addition.
Care must be taken when entering for the end ordinates at each
inclination that \ the square and \ the cube of the whole radius is
entered, and not the square and the cube of \ the radius, which is
entered under r.
When the radii are measured to the nearest tenth of a foot, the
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 163
squares and cubes should be entered to the nearest unit, as in the
example. When the radii are measured to the nearest hundredth of
a foot, the squares should be entered to the nearest tenth, and the
cubes to the nearest unit.
Taking up now the lower part of Table I, consider first the quan-
tities under the heading "legend."
The displacement factor is the quantity by which the displacement
functions, involving radii alone, should be multiplied for reduction to
tons of 35 cubic feet.*
If h denote the spacing of the sections used in feet, and a the
spacing of the radii in degrees —
Displacement factor = ^ X — X ^^-7^^ — X — = .000249333 ha.
If a = 15°, displacement factor = .00374 ^•
The polar moment factor is the quantity by which moment func-
tions must be multiplied for reduction to moments about the pole.
We have
polar moment factor = ^ X — X ^—k — X 3S = .000166222 ha.
^ 3 180 *^^
If a = 15", polar moment factor = .00249333 h.
The initial displacement corresponding to the pole and the posi-
tion of the initial C. of B. are taken from the displacement scale, as
previously explained ; the constant for initial displacement correc-
tion is their product.
In the form headed " for displacement correction," the first two
lines are filled from Table I and the third obtained by subtraction.
The "first 2 difference" is obtained by dividing by 2, The line
of "second h difference" repeats the one above, but with each entry
shifted one column to the right.
To show the object of this, let us consider the correction for an
inclination of 45°. This correction, by the way, is to be applied 7iot
to the initial displacement, but to the displacement at the preceding
angle. Then for 45** the correction desired is the difference between
the displacements at 45° and at 30*'.
For an inclination from 0° to 30° —
Immersed wedge function = \lrla + lr\^^ -f- \lr\.Q.
Emerged " " = \IrU. + i>i,5 + \Irl.^.
* As nearly as may be, 35 cubic feet of thoroughly salt sea-water weigh one
ton of 2240 pounds.
l64 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
The difference between the immersed and emerged wedges is the
addition which must be made to the initial displacement (corres-
ponding to o°) to obtain the displacement corresponding to 30°.
Subtracting, the difference of the functions = (I'r^os — I'rLu)
Similarly, for 45° the difference of the immersed and emerged
functions = (Jr^ - Jrl,,) + ( Jr?,, - Jri^o) + iCi'^L - iVi«).
Evidently the function for the correction, in proceeding from 30"
to 45**, is the difference between the functions to be added for 45"
and 30° respectively.
This difference = i(iV?,o - IrL^) + i {Irl, - JriJ.
Now in Table II, corresponding to 45*^,
First i difference = ^ CiVL - i'^i^)-
Second ^ difference = ^ (I'^uo — Ir^-e,^.
The object of the arrangement adopted is evident. Having the
displacement correction function, the displacement correction is
obtained (in tons) through multiplication by the displacement factor
found in the legend.
Considering the form for " centers of gravity of water planes," it is
evident that the radial planes in each column corresponding to the
first two lines (as at 120" and —60°, for example) form a complete
water plane, to the area of which the "sum " of the third line is pro-
portional. Also the " first h difference " in the " displacement correc-
tion " form is proportional to the moment of the water plane about the
pole. Thus, taking the planes at 120° and —60" :
First ^ difference = J {Irl^o — IrL^^.
Of course the " C. of G. from pole " (analogous to PT in Fig. 3)
is obtained from the two lines preceding it by dividing " first 2 differ-
ence" by the " sum."
The " pole correction " (analogous to PQ in Fig. 3) is the distance
of the pole below the axis into the sine of the inclination. By sub-
traction is obtained the arm of C. of G. of water plane about axis
(analogous to AS'm Fig. 3.)
In the form headed "displacement," the initial displacement is
entered opposite the inclination of o" ; and the "displacement correc-
tions" being suitably entered, as shown, and each added to the dis-
placement above, we obtain the displacements for the successive
inclinations. The " pole correction factor" is simply the distance of
the pole from the axis multiplied by the sineof the angle of inclination.
Multiplying this factor by the corresponding displacement abreast it,
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 165
we have the " pole correction for moments " which must be used to
reduce moments about the pole to moments about the axis.
In the form headed "righting moments" the I'r^ quantities are
entered and added as indicated, and the sums re-entered vertically
on the left, abreast their proper inclinations. The triangular table is
then filled by entering abreast each angle the product of its sine into
the " sum " on the same line to the left. It should be noted, how-
ever, that abreast each 90° is entered only i " sum " X sin 90°, for
this is the end ordinate, and we are using the trapezoidal rule.
The moment function sum (obtained by addition) must be multi-
plied by the polar moment factor (from the legend) to give the
moment of the wedges of immersion and emersion about the pole.
The initial displacement correction, which must now be applied, is
the " constant for initial displacement correction " X sine of inclina-
tion.
Thus is obtained the righting moment about pole. Applying the
pole correction (from the displacement form), we finally obtain the
righting moment about axis.
The righting moments obtained so far are for inclinations up to
go°. The remainder of the form is for the purpose of obtaining
displacements and corresponding righting moments for inclinations
up to 180°.
Of course the " righting moment for total displacement " (corres-
ponding to total submergence) is total displacement X distance from
axis to C. B. of total displacement X sine of inclination.
I use next the well known property of floating bodies, that if we
take for a given pole the displacement and righting moment corres-
ponding to a plane at an inclination a, and deduct them from the
total displacement and the righting moment for the total displace-
ment respectively, the remainders will be the displacement and the
righting moment corresponding to an inclination of i8o° — a.
The steps of the process are clearly indicated on the form, and
show how from displacements and righting moments up to 90° those
from 90° to 180° are obtained.
Having completed Table I for three or more poles. Table II is
filled in for the purpose of drawing the cross curves of righting
moment.
In Table II the first three lines (Z>, M, C) for each inclination at
which a curve is to be drawn are filled in at once from Table I.
The object of the next two lines is to get the inclination of each
l66 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
curve at each " spot " corresponding to an ascertained displacement
and righting moment.
Suppose the vertical through the C, of G. of a given water plane
has a leverage of / feet about the axis.
If we immerse the ship slightly without changing the inclination,
the layer of increase also has the leverage /, and one ton increase of
displacement means / tons increase of righting moment. Then the
inclination of the corresponding cross curve of righting moment at
the corresponding spot will be the angle whose tangent is /, provided
the scales for displacement and righting moment are the same.
But if, as in the case shown, the scale for righting moment is i that
for displacement, the " lever of C. of G. of water plane " ( C) must be
divided by 2 to obtain the tangent of the inclination.
Having the tangent, the corresponding inclination is taken from a
table of natural tangents and entered in its place opposite /
It should be said that for 90° inclination the displacement and
righting moment are necessarily the same for every pole. What-
ever the position of the pole, we have at 90" the same immersed
volume acting — namely, the volume on one side of the central ver-
tical longitudinal plane, called the diametral. The corresponding
displacement is of course J of the total displacement.
It is the object of the work shown in Table III to obtain two addi-
tional "spots" for the cross curve at 90". Two sections are taken
at intervals of 5' on one side of the diametral, and the area and the
position of the center of gravity of each are determined. Then the
tons per foot and ton-feet (about the axis) per foot are determined
for the two side sections, and also for the diametral. The total dis-
placement and moment of the slice between the diametral and the
outer section are readily deduced, and by addition and subtraction
to the known displacement and moment the two additional spots
desired on the 90° cross curve are obtained.
Having the data in Table II, the cross curves at 15° intervals can
be drawn. There are five known spots on each curve, corresponding
to no displacement, to the total displacement, and to the three poles
used.
For the three last spots, not only the point on the curve is known,
but also the direction of the curve at the point. The inclinations at
zero displacement and total displacement are also readily obtained
by determining from the midship section the corresponding righting
levers.
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS, 167
Fig, 4 shows the cross curves corresponding to Table II, being very
approximately those of the U.S. S. Philadelphia,
The process by which an ordinary stability curve, corresponding
to a known displacement and position of the center of gravity, is
derived, is shown in Table IV.
The displacement and position of the center of gravity used are
very nearly those of the Philadelphia when she was inclined for the
determination of her metacentric height. The righting moments
at each inclination corresponding to 5000 tons displacement are
taken directly from the cross curves. The remaining steps are
shown clearly in the table. The correction of the lever about the
axis, on account of the position of the C. of G., is, of course : Distance
from axis to C of G. X sine of inclination.
It may have been observed that much of the work in the method
of calculation which I have been explaining consists in the multiplica-
tion of numbers by sines of angles. To facilitate this work and
reduce the chances of error, I have calculated the appended tables of
products of numbers by the sines of angles. The main table extends
only to 2500, but for most purposes sufficient accuracy will be ob-
tained (when dealing with numbers above 2500) by entering the table
with the first four digits of the number being handled. For more
refined work Tables A and B have been calculated. These are six-
place multiplication tables of numbers by sines of angles extending to
one hundred. Table A is for 15° intervals. Table B for 10° intervals.
Since the sine of 30° = i, no calculations have been made for this
angle. When intending to use Table A or B, the I'r^ and I'r'
functions should be multiplied at once by the displacement and
righting moment factors respectively.
Any one familiar with stability work will have observed that the
method I have been describing is essentially a modification of
Barnes' method, the trapezoidal rule being used instead of Simpson's,
and such other changes made as are necessary in determining cross
curves. These changes have been chiefly suggested by the work of
Daymard, Elgar, and Jenkins.
The trapezoidal rule was adopted because for hollow curves, such
as are involved in determining Ir, 2V and Ir^, it is quite as reliable
as Simpson's. For the somewhat lumpy curves used in obtaining dis-
placement and righting moment, the trapezoidal rule is preferable to
Simpson's.
These curves differ radically from the parabolic curves for which
l68 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Simpson's rules give exact results. Consequently it might reason-
ably be concluded that Simpson's rules, when applied to them, give
unsatisfactory results. Comparative tests which I have made by
applying Simpson's and the trapezoidal rule to somewhat irregular
curves fully justify this conclusion, I may mention, in this connec-
tion, that it is the practice of French naval architects to employ the
trapezoidal rule in all calculations, and I am informed that this is also
the practice among our own civil engineers.
There is no doubt, however, that Simpson's rules, when applied
to curves to which they are suited, give appreciably more accurate
results than the trapezoidal, a fact quite sufficient to justify their use
in such cases when extreme accuracy is desired.
In the example of work given for the purpose of illustrating the
method I have taken no account of appendages, considering only
the main body of the ship to the upper deck. The only appendages
which would appreciably affect the result are the forecastle and the
poop. With the high freeboard of the Philadelphia, the forecastle
and poop afford buoyancy and righting moment only at large angles
of roll. When such angles are reached, the loose water which would
come on board would largely, if not entirely, neutralize any buoy-
ancy or stability afforded by poop or forecastle.
In low freeboard ships, deck erections and poops and forecastles
are of more relative importance and should be considered. The
necessary changes in the forms are simple and obvious.
In considering the accuracy to which we wish to work, it should
be remembered that a " curve of statical stability " is an entirely
imaginary thing. We cannot, by any practical appliances, exert a
twisting moment great enough to heel a large ship in still water
beyond a very small angle. When ships roll it is always in disturbed
water, and the actual righting moment at a given inclination depends
largely upon the position of the ship at the instant with respect to the
waves.
While the statical righting moment at a given inclination is a kind
of mean of all possi'ole righting moments at that inclination in dis-
turbed water, the very fact that the actual moment is liable to
material oscillations — impossible to calculate exactly — on either side
of the mean, renders it unnecessary, for any practical purpose, to aim
at minute accuracy in the determination of the mean. The method
I have been describing is most accurate for the smaller inclinations,
for which the results are practically exact. At the large inclinations,
gnijqSi^
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 169
60° and over, the results may be so much out that the righting levers
determined will differ by as much as an inch, in extreme cases, from
the exact righting levers. In the case of the Newark it was found
by careful check calculations by other methods that the righting
levers by the method just described were never in excess of the
exact levers, and that the greatest defect was about h inch.
Such an amount of inaccuracy at large angles of heel (which are
never reached in practice) is entirely negligible as regards any prac-
tical use to which curves of stability are put. I have not considered
it of sufficient importance to justify the additional work involved in
closer spacing of the radial planes, by which it could be reduced to
almost any desired extent.
The principal source of inaccuracy is the fact that the righting
moment is determined as the difference between the moment of the
wedges and the moment of the initial displacement — both much
larger quantities than their difference at large inclinations.
It would somewhat shorten the work and give smoother cross
curves for the large inclinations if a method were adopted treating
the parallel planes through equidistant poles, as the vertical sections
were treated in determining additional spots for the 90° cross curves.
I have, however, considered it preferable to obtain independent
results for each pole, leaving the method above referred to available
for fairing the cross curves if necessary. While the forms of calcu-
lation given extend beyond 90° of inclination, I have found it prefer-
able in practice to use a graphic method to obtain the cross curves
beyond this point.
Thus in Fig. 6 let 0PM he a cross curve for 60° inclination. Let
OD represent the displacement when fully submerged, and DM the
corresponding righting moment. Lay off 01/ = iOD, HC^= \DM.
Draw PCQ and lay off CQ^ equal and opposite to CP. Then Q is
a point on the cross curve for 120°, the angle supplementary to 60°.
Any number of points on the supplementary cross curve may be
thus determined and the curve for 120° drawn as shown.
Evidently the curve for 120° is simply the curve for 60° rotated
180° about an axis through C perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
It is desirable, when intending to make use of this method, to
choose the axis at the center of buoyancy of the total displacement.
If this be done, the point C in Fig. 6 is the same for every curve —
always coinciding with H.
170 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
TABLE II.
Legend, — U. S. S. Philadelphia.
Axis ig'-S above base line.
Scales for Cross Curves: I'-'mooo tons displacement,
ton-feet o£ righting moment.
Explanation of Symbols.
D denotes displacement in tons of 35 cubic feet.
M denotes righting moment in ton-feet.
C denotes lever about axis of center of gravity of water planes.
T denotes the tangent of the inclination of the cross curve.
I denotes the inclination of the cross curve.
Pole from Axis.
Inclination.
1
Ship submerged.
B
>>
CO
8'.82 below.
On.
5'.68 above.
D
1968
4439
6220
9140
M
i.>57
2089
4159
— 51
15°
C
0.02
0.71
1. 41
T
O.OI
0-355
0.705
I
0° 40''
19° 30'
35° 10'
D
2223
4549
6143
9140
M
2601
5360
7586
— 100
30°
C
0.71
1.87
0.88
T
0-3S5
0.935
0.440
I
19° 30'
43° 10'
23O50'
U
2732
4670
5895
9140
M
5014
7716
8310
— 141
45°
C
2.25
1. 01
— 0.43
T
1.125
0.505
— 0.215
I
48° 40'
26° so'
—12° 10'
D
3395
4712
5528
9140
M
6493
6910
6603
-173
60°
c
0.83
O.OI
— 0.64
T
0.415
0.005
— 0.320
I
22° 30'
o°ro'
-17° 50^
D
4010
4687
5107
9140
M
4094
3400
3014
— 193
75°
C
-0.88
— 0.68
— 0.68
T
—0.440
— 0.340
— 0.340
I
-23° 50'
-18° 50/
- 18° 50'
D
1994
4570
7146
9140
M
1898
— 100
— 2098
— 200
90°
C
0.21
— 2.14
0.21
T
0.105
— 1.070
0.105
I
6°
-47°
6°
D
5130
4453
4033
9140
M
— 4287
-3593
— 3207
— 193
105°
C
T
I
— 23° 50'
— 18° 50'
- 18° 50'
170 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
TABLE II.
Legend, — U, S. S. Philadelphia.
Axis 19^.5 above base line.
Scales for Cross Curves: I'-'mooo tons displacement,
ton-feet of righting moment.
Explanation of Symbols.
D denotes displacement in tons of 35 cubic feet.
M denotes righting moment in ton-feet.
C denotes lever about axis of center of gravity of water planes.
T denotes the tangent of the inclination of the cross curve.
I denotes the inclination of the cross curve.
Pole from Axis.
Inclination.
1
Ship submerged.
8'.82 below.
On.
5'. 68 above.
D
1968
4439
6220
9140
M
1.^.57
2089
4159
— SI
15°
C
0.02
0.71
I.41
T
O.OI
0-355
0.705
I
o°4o'
190 30'
35° 10/
D
2223
4549
1 6143
9140
M
2601
5360
7586
— 100
30°
c
0.71
1.87
0.88
T
0.355
0-935
0.440
I
19° 30'
43° 10'
23050/
D
2732
4670
5895
9140
M
5014
7716
8310
— 141
45°
C
2.25
1. 01
-0.43
T
1. 125
0.505
— 0.215
I
48° 40'
26° 50'
-12° 10^
D
3395
4712
5528
9140
M
6493
6910
6603
-173
60°
C
0.83
o.oi
— 0.64
T
0.415
0.005
— 0.320
I
22° 30'
0° 10''
— 17° 50^
D
4010
4687
5107
9140
M
4094
3400
3014
— 193
75°
C
— 0.88
— 0.68
— 0.68
T
— 0.440
— 0.340
—0.340
I
—23° 50^
-18° 50'
— 18° 50'
D
1994
4570
7146
9140
M
1898
— 100
— 2098
— 200
90°
C
0.21
— 2.14
0.21
T
0.105
— 1.070
0.105
I
6°
-47°
6°
D
5130
4453
4033
9140
M
— 4287
— 3593
— 3207
— 193
105°
C
T
I
- 23° 50'
— 18° 50'
— 18° 50'
I-I- -l-l- -l-l
'If \]:l
1 1 !i
3 1:^
dm:;
t :::
I . I . i H-l
;i; i S
Mssll =3-5
8 l:i
ill; li:]
si
-"S
,,5
i'
6.<
1
1
fas
;>£j
:^:;
:?n
51:
;iiSi
•t"
;5is
^f
:S^
•t.5
^
;3;"3
111 ' u&l
I 'If
S19.8 1 14854 358235
32646 376.3 3694 53807 ,
7480 507640 645.S
SPLACEMENT CORRECTION.
vzn
CENTRE OF GRAVITY (
00' 3(
i»=7 "SO" ;58'39
!„0 0» 3,163
'3^5
%85i!
i
198634 7S» 3S373:
3S!|91 *>=i^
9,
I
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 17]
Table II— Continued.
Inclination,
i
E
Pole from Axis.
Ship submerged.
8'.82 below.
On.
S'.68 above.
120°
D
M
C
T
I
5745
— 6666
22° 30^
4428
— 7083
0° 10'
3612
-6776
- 17° SO'
9140
— 173
135°
D
M
C
T
I
6408
-5155
48° 40^
4470
— 7857
26° 50'
3245
-8451
— 12° 10'
9140
— 141
150°
D
M
C
T
I
6917
— 2701
19° 30'
4591
— 5460
43° 10'
2997
— 7686
23° 50'
9140
— 100
165°
D
M
C
T
I
7172
— 1408
o°40^
4701
— 2140
19° 30'
2920
4210
35° 10'
9140
-SI
172 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
TABLE III.
For additional points on 90° cross curve. Sections spaced 12'. Ordinates
from 19'. 5 below axis.
Plane 5' from center.
1
Plane 10' from center.
g
Bottom.
T
op.
Bottom.
Top.
tri
Ord.
Ord.2
Ord.
Ord.2
Ord.
Ord.2
Ord.
Ord.2
I
0,0
2
18.5
68s
18.5
685
3
17.4
303
36-4
1325
18.0
648
18.0
648
4
9-3
86
36.0
1296
24-5
600
35-9
1289
5
5-4
29
35-6
1267
14-5
210
35-5
1260
6
3-3
II
35-4
1253
8.7
76
35-3
1246
7
2.1
35-'
1232
5-4
29
35-0
1225
8
1-5
34-8
1211
3-5
12
34-8
I2I1
9
I.I
34-6
1 197
2.4
6
34.6
I 197
10
0.9
34-4
I183
1.8
3
34-4
II83
II
0.6
34-3
II76
1-4
2
34-2
II70
12
0-5
34-2
II70
I.O
I
34.1
I 163
13
0.4
34-1
1163
I.O
I
34-1
1 163
14
0-3
34-1
1 163
i.o
I
34-0
1156
15
0-3
I
34.0
1 1 56
1.0
I
33-9
I 149
16
0-3
34-0
II56
1. 1
I
33.9
I 149
17
0.4
33-9
II49
1.4
2
33.8
II42
18
0.5
33-9
1 149
2.0
4
33.8
1143
19
0.9
I
34-0
II56
2-9
8
33-9
II49
20
1-4
2
34-0
II56
4.2
18
33.9
I 149
21
2-4
6
34-1
1 163
5-9
P
34-0
I I 56
22
3-7
14
34-2
1170
8.0
64
34.1
I 163
23
5-5
30
34-3
1176
10.5
no
34-2
II70
24
8.0
64
34-5
II90
13-5
182
34.4
I 183
25
II.
121
34-7
1204
17.2
296
34.6
II97
26
14.9
222
34.9
1218
22.3
497
34-8
I2II
27
lO.O
200
17-5
612
17.5
612
17-5
612
2
120.6
1783
865.5
120.6
29976
1783
) 28193
37-84
190.8
3419
826.7
190.8
28484
3419
) 25065
39-42
Tons pe
r foot,
255-5
-7- 2
218.0
-f- 2
C. of G.
from 19'
5 line.
18.92
19-50
19.71
19.50
C, of G
above a
xis,
— 0.58
- 255-5
0.21
218.0
Ton-fee
t per foot
,
-148
46
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 173
Table III. — Continued.
Plane.
Tons per foot.
S. M.
Pro.
Central.
5' out.
10' out.
305-5
255-5
4
305-5
1022.0
218.0
1545-5
xt
Displacement of slice
2576
Plane.
Ton-feet per foot.
S.M.
Pro.
Central.
5' out.
10' out.
46
Righting m
I
4
oment of si
ce
-653
~x1
-1998
Displacement.
Righting Moment.
To center.
Slice.
10' beyond center.
10' short of "
4570
2576
7146
1994
1998
2098
TABLE IV.
Displacement
C. of G. above axis
5000 tons.
0.75 feet.
0°
15°
30°
45°
60°
75°
90°
Righting moment about axis
« lever " "
C. of G. correction
2600
0.52
0.19
0.33
6180
1.24
0.36
0.88
8000
1.60
0.53
1.07
6830
1-37
0.65
C.72
3120
0.62
0.72
— 0.10
_ 790
— 0.16
0.75
— 0.91
Righting lever about C. of G.
174 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
TABLE OF NUMBERS MULTIPLIED BY SINES OF ANGLES.
umber.
H Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15«
250
125.0
241.5
216.5
176.8
125.0
64-7
251
125-5
242.4
217.3
177.5
125.5
64-9
252
126.0
243-4
218.2
178.2
126.0
65.2
253
126.5
244.4
219.I
178.9
126.5
65.5
254
127.0
245-3
219.9
179.6
127.0
65.7
255
127.5
246.3
220.8
180.3
127.5
66.0
256
128.0
247.3
221.7
181.
128.0
66.2
257
128.5
248.2
222.5
181.7
128.5
66.5
258
129.0
249.2
223.4
182.4
129.0
66.8
259
129-5
250.2
224.3
1 83. 1
129.5
67.0
260
130.0
251.1
225.2
183.8
130.0
67.3
261
130-5
252.1
226.0
184.6
130-5
67.6
262
131.O
253.1
226.9
185-3
131.0
67.8
263
131-5
254.0
227.8
186.0
131.S
68.1
264
132.0
255-0
228.7
186.7
132.0
68.3
26s
132-5
256.0
229.5
187.4
132.5
68.6
266
133-0
256.9
230.4
188.1
133-0
68.9
267
133-5
257.9
231.3
188.8
133-5
69.1
268
134.0
258.9
232.1
189.5
134.0
69.4
269
134.5
259.8
233-0
190.2
134-5
69.6
270
^35-0
260.8
233-8
190.9
135-0
69-9
271
135-5
261.8
234.7
191.6
I3S-S
70.1
272
136.0
262.7
2355
192.3
136.0
70.4
273
136-5
263.7
236.4
193.0
136.5
70.7
274
137.0
264.7
237.3
193.8
137.0
70.9
275
137-5
265.6
238.1
194.5
137.5
71.2
276
138.0
266.6
239.0
195.2
138.0
71.4
277
138.5
267.6
239-9
195.9
138-5
71.7
278
139.0
268.5
240.7
196.6
139.0
71.9
279
139-5
269.5
241.6
197.3
139-5
72.2
280
140.0
270.5
242.5
198.0
140.0
72.5
281
140.5
271.4
243.4
198.7
140.5
72.7
282
141.
272.4
244.2
199.4
141.0
73.0
283
14I-5
273-4
245.1
200.1
141.5
73-2
284
142.0
274-3
246.0
200.8
142.0
73-5
28s
142.5
275-3
246.8
201.5
142.5
73-8
286
143.0
276.3
247.7
202.2
143.0
74.0
287
143-5
277.2
248.6
202.9
143-5
74.3
288
144.0
278.2
249.4
203.6
144.0
74.5
289
144-5
279.2
250.3
204.3
144-5
74.8
290
145.0
280.1
251.2
205.1
145.0
75-1
291
HS-5
281. 1
252.0
205.8
145-5
75.3
292
146.0
282.2
252.9
206.5
146.0
75.6
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 75
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
293
146.5
283.0
253-8
207.2
146.5
75-8
294
147.0
284.0
254.6
207.9
147.0
76.1
29s
147.S
284.9
255-5
208.6
147.5
76.3
296
148.0
285.9
256.3
209.3
148.0
76.6
297
148.S
286.9
257.2
210.0
148.5
76.9
298
149.0
287.8
258.1
215.7
149.0
77.1
299
149.5
288.8
258.9
211.4
149-5
77.4
300
150.0
289.9
259.8
212.1
150.0
77.6
301
150.5
290.7
260.6
212.8
150.5
77-9
302
151.0
291.7
261.5
213-5
151.0
78.2
303
151.5
292.7
262.4
214.2
151. 5
78.4
304
152,0
293.6
263.3
215.0
152.0
78.7
305
152.5
294.6
264.1
215.7
152.5
78.9
306
153-0
295.6
265.0
216.4
153-0
79-2
307
153-5
296.5
265.9
217.I
153-5
79-4
308
154.0
297.5
266.7
217.8
154.0
79-7
309
154.5
298.5
267.6
218.5
154-5
80.0
310
155.0
299.4
268.5
219.2
155-0
80.2
3"
155.5
300.4
269.3
219.9
155-5
80.5
312
156.0
301.4
270.2
220.6
156.0
80.7
313
156.5
302.3
271.1
221.3
156.5
81.0
3U
157.0
303-3
271.9
222.0
157.0
81.3
315
157.5
304.3
272.8
222.7
157.5
81.5
316
158.0
305.2
273.7
223.4
158.0
81.8
317
158.5
306.2
274.5
224.1
158.5
82.0
318
159.0
307.2
275-4
224.8
159.0
82.3
3>9
159.5
308.1
276.3
225.6
1 59- 5
82.6
320
160.0
309.1
277.1
226.3
160.0
82.8
321
160.5
310.1
278.0
227.0
160.5
83.1
322
161.0
311.0
278.9
227.7
161.0
833
323
161.5
312.0
279.7
228.4
161.5
83.6
324
162.0
313-0
280.6
229.1
162.0
839
325
162.5
313-9
281.5
229.8
162.5
84.1
326
163.0
3M-9
282.3
230.5
163.0
84.4
327
163.5
315-9
283.2
231.2
163.5
84.6
328
164.0
316.8
284.1
231.9
164.0
84.9
329
164.5
317.8
284.9
232.6
164.5
85.2
330
165.0
318.8
285.8
233-3
165.0
85-4
331
165.5
319-7
286.7
234.0
165-5
85-7
332
166.0
320.7
287.5
234.7
166.0
85.9
333
166.5
321.7
288.4
235.5
166.5
86.2
334
167.0
322.6
289.3
236.2
167.0
86.4
335
167.5
323.6
290.1
236.9
167.5
86.7
336
168.0
324.6
291.0
237.6
168.0
87.0
337
168.5
325.5
291.9
238.3
.68.5
87.2
176 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
338
169.0
326.5
292.7
239-0
169.0
87.5
339
169.5
327-4
293-6
239-7
169.5
87.7
340
170.0
328.4
294.5
240.4
170.0
88.0
341
170.5
329-4
295-3
241. 1
170.5
88.3
342
171.O
330-4
296.2
241.8
171.0
88.5
343
171-5
331-3
297.1
242.5
171. 5
88.8
344
172.0
332.3
297.9
243.2
172.0
89.0
345
172.5
333-2
298.8
243-9
172.S
89-3
346
173-0
334-2
299-7
244.7
173-0
89.6
347
173-5
335-2
300.5
245.4
173-5
89.8
348
174.0
336.1
301.4
246.1
174.0
90.1
349
174-5
337.1
302,2
246.8
174-S
90.3
350
175.0
338.1
303-1
247-5
175-0
90.6
351
175-5
339-0
304.0
248.2
175-5
90.8
352
176.0
340-0
304.8
248.9
176.0
91. 1
353
176.5
341.0
305-7
249.6
176.5
91.4
354
177.0
341-9
3066
250.3
177.0
91.6
355
177-5
342-9
307.4
251.0
177 5
91.9
356
178.0
343-9
308.3
251.7
178.0
92.1
357
178.5
344-8
309-2
252.4
178.5
92.4
358
179.0
345-8
310.0
253.1
179.0
92-7
359
179-5
346.8
310.9
253-8
179-S
92-9
360
180.0
347.7
31I-8
254.6
180.0
93-2
361
180.5
348.7
312.6
255-3
180.S
93-4
362
181.0
349-7
313-5
256.0
181.
93-7
363
181. 5
350-6
314-4
256.7
181.5
94-0
364
182.0
351-6
315.2
257.4
182.0
94.2
365
182.5
352.6
316.I
258.1
182.5
94.5
366
183.0
353-5
317.0
258.8
183.0
94.7
367
183-5
354-5
317.8
259-5
183.5
95.0
368
184.0
355-5
318.7
260.2
184.0
95-3
369
184.5
356-4
319.6
260.9
184.5
95-5
370
185.0
357-4
320.4
261.6
185.0
95-8
371
185.5
358.4
321.3
262.3
185.5
96.0
372
186,0
359-3
322.2
263.0
186.0
96.3
373
186.5
360.3
323-0
263.7
186.5
96.5
374
187.0
361-3
323.9
264.5
187.0
96.8
375
187.5
362.2
324-8
265.2
187.5
97-1
376
188.0
363-2
325-6
265.9
188.0
97-3
377
188.5
364.2
326.5
266.6
188.5
97-6
378
189.0
365-1
327-4
267.3
189.0
97.8
379
189.5
366.1,
328.2
268.0
189.5
98.1
380
190.0
367.1
329.1
268.7
190.0
98.4
381
190.5
368.0
330-0
269.4
190.5
98.6
382
191.0
369.0
330-8
270.1
191.
98.9
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I77
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
S.n .5°
383
191. 5
370.0
331-7
270.8
191-5
99.1
384
192.0
370.9
332.6
271.5
192.0
99.4
385
192.5
371.9
333-4
272.2
192.5
99.6
386
193.0
372.9
334.3
272.9
193.0
99.9
387
193.S
373.8
335.2
273.6
193.5 •
100.2
388
194.0
374.8
336.0
274.4
194.0
100.4
389
194.5
375.8
336.9
275.1
194.5
100.7
390
195.0
376.7
337.8
275.8
195.0
100.9
391
195-5
377.7
338.6
276.5
195-5
101.2
392
196.0
378.6
339.5
277.2
196.0
101.5
393
196.5
379-6
340.4
277.9
196.5
IOI.7
394
197.0
380.6
341.2
278.6
197.0
102.0
395
197.5
381.5
342.1
279.3
197.5
102.2
396
198.0
382.5
343.0
280.0
198.0
102.5
397
198.5
383.5
343.8
280.7
198.5
102.8
398
199.0
384-4
344.7
281.4
199.0
103.0
399
199.5
385-4
345.6
282.1
199.5
103.3
400
200.0
386.4
346.4
282.8
200.0
103.5
401
200.5
387-3
347.3
283.5
200.5
103.8
402
201.0
388.3
348.1
284.3
201.0
104.0
403
201.S
389.3
349.0
285.0
201.5
104.3
404
202.0
390.2
349.9
285.7
202.0
104.6
405
202.5
391.2
350.7
286.4
202.5
104.8
406
203.0
392.2
3SI.6
287.1
203.0
105.1
407
203.5
393.1
352-5
287.8
203.5
105.3
408
204.0
394-1
353-3
288.5
204.0
105.6
409
204.5
395.1
354-2
289.2
204.5
105.9
410
205.0
396.0
355-1
289.9
205.0
106.1
411
205.5
397.0
355-9
290.6
205.5
106.4
412
206.0
398-0
356.8
291.3
206.0
106.6
413
206.5
398.9
357.7
292.0
206.5
106.9
414
207.0
399-9
358.5
292.7
207.0
107.2
415
207.5
400.9
359-4
293-4
207.5
107.4
416
208.0
401.8
360.3
294.2
208.0
107.7
417
208.5
402.8
361.1
294.9
208.5
107.9
418
209.0
403.8
362.0
295.6
209.0
108.2
419
209.5
404-7
362.9
296.3
209.5
108.5
420
210.0
405-7
363.7
297.0
210.0
108.7
421
210.5
406.7
364.6
297.7
210.5
109.0
422
211.
407.6
365.5
298.4
211.0
109.2
423
211. 5
408.6
366.3
299.1
211. 5
109.5
424
212.0
409.6
367.2
299.8
212.0
109.8
425
212.5
410.6
368.1
300.5
212.5
I 10.0
426
213.0
4". 5
368.9
301.2
213.0
110.3
427
213.5
412.5
369.8
301.9
213.5
IIO.5
178 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
^iSingoO.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60O.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
428
214.0
413.4
370.7
302.6
214.0
1 10.8
429
214,5
414.4
371.5
303.3
214.5
III.O
430
215.0
415.4
372.4
304.1
215.0
III.3
431
215-5
416.3
373-3
304.8
215.5
1X1.6
432
216.0
417-3
374.1
305.5
216.0
111.8
433
216.5
418.2
375.0
306.2
216.5
1 1 2. 1
434
217.0
419.2
375.9
306.9
217.0
112.3
435
217.S
420.2
376.8
307.6
217.5
112.6
436
218.0
421.I
377.6
308.3
218.0
112.9
437
218.5
422. 1
378.5
309.0
218.5
113.1
438
219.0
423.1
379-4
3097
219.0
113.4
439
219.5
424.0
380.2
.310.4
219.5
113.6
440
220.0
425.0
38 1. 1
311. 1
220.0
1 1 3-9
441
220.5
426.0
382.0
31I.8
220.5
1 14. 1
442
221.0
426.9
382.8
312.5
221.0
114.4
443
221.5
427.9
383.7
313.2
221.5
114.7
444
222.0
428.9
384.6
313.9
222.0
114.9
445
222.5
429.8
385.4
314.7
222.5
115.2
446
223.0
430-8
386.3
315.4
223.0
115.4
447
223.5
431.8
387.1
316.I
223.5
115.7
448
224.0
432-7
388.0
316.8
224.0
116.0
449
224.5
433-7
388.9
317.5
224.5
116.2
450
225.0
434.7
389.7
318.2
225.0
116.5
45»
225.5
435-6
390.6
318.9
225.5
116.7
452
226.0
436.6
391.5
319.6
226.0
117.0
453
226.5
437-6
392.4
320.3
226.5
"7.3
454
227.0
438.5
393.2
321.0
227.0
117.5
455
227.5
439-5
394.1
321.7
227.5
117.8
456
228.0
440.5
395.0
322.4
228.0
118.0
457
228.5
441.4
395.8
323.1
228.5
118.3
458
229.0
442.4
396.7
323.9
229.0
118.6
459
229.5
443-4
397.5
324.6
229.5
118.8
460
230.0
444.3
398.4
325.3
230.0
119. 1
461
230.5
445-3
399.3
326.0
230.5
1 19-3
462
231.0
446.3
400.1
326.7
231.0
119.6
463
231-5
447-2
401.0
327.4
231.5
119.8
464
232.0
448.2
401.9
328.1
232.0
1 20. 1
46s
232.5
449.2
402.7
328.8
232.5
120.4
466
233-0
450.1
403.6
329-5
233.0
120.6
467
233.5
451-1
404.5
330-2
233-5
120.9
468
234.0
452.1
405.3
330.9
234.0
121.1
469
234.5
453-0
406.2
331.6
234.5
121.4
470
235.0
454.0
407.1
332.3
235.0
121.7
471
235-5
4S5-0
407.9
333.0
235-5
121.9
472
236.0
455.9
408.8
333.7
236.0
122.2
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 79
umber.
XSin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 51°.
473
236.5
456.9
409.6
334.5
236.5
122.4
474
237.0
457-8
410.5
335-2
237*0
122.7
475
237-5
458.8
411. 4
335-9
237.5
122.9
476
238.0
459.8
412.2
336.6
238.0
123.2
477
238.5
460.7
413-1
337.3
238.5
123-5
478
239.0
461.7
414-0
338-0
239.0
123.7
479
239-5
462.7
414-8
338-7
239.5
124.0
480
240.0
463.6
415-7
339-4
240.0
124.2
481
240.5
464.6
416.6
340-1
240.5
124.5
482
241.0
465.6
417.4
340.8
241.0
124.8
483
241.5
466.5
418.3
341-5
241.5
125.0
484
242.0
467.5
419.2
342-2
242.0
125.3
485
242.5
468.5
420.0
342.9
242.5
125-5
486
243.0
469.4
420.9
343-7
243.0
125.8
487
243-5
470.4
421.8
344-4
243-5
126.0
488
244.0
471.4
422.6
34 5-1
244.0
126.3
489
244.5
472.3
423-5
345-8
244-5
126.6
490
245.0
473-3
424.4
346. 5
245.0
126.8
491
245-5
474.3
425.2
347.2
245.5
127.1
492
246.0
475.2
426.1
347.9
246.0
127.3
493
246.5
476.2
427.0
348.6
246.5
127.6
494
247.0
477.2
427.8
349-3
247.0
127.9
495
247-5
478.1
428.7
350.0
247.5
1 28. 1
496
248.0
479.1
429.6
350.7
248.0
128.4
497
248.5
480.1
430.4
35'.4
248.5
128.6
498
249.0
481.0
431.3
352.1
249.0
128.9
499
249.5
482.0
432.1
352.8
249.5
129.2
500
250.0
483.0
433-0
353-5
250.0
129.4
SOI
250.5
483.9
433-9
354.3
250.5
129.7
502
251.0
484.9
434.7
355-0
251.0
129.9
503
251-5
485.9
435-6
355-7
251.5
130.2
504
252.0
486.8
436-5
356.4
252.0
130.5
505
252.5
487.8
437-3
357.1
252.5
130.7
506
253-0
488.8
438.2
357-8
253.0
131.0
507
253-5
489.7
439-1
358-5
253.5
131. 2
508
254.0
490.7
439.9
359-2
254.0
13^-5
509
254.5
491.7
440.8
359-9
254.5
131-7
510
255-0
492.6
441.7
360.6
255.0
132.0
5"
255.5
493-6
442.5
361-3
255-5
132-3
512
256.0
494-6
443.4
362.0
256.0
132-5
513
256.5
495-5
444-3
362.7
256-5
132.8
514
257.0
496-5
445-1
363-4
257.0
133-0
515
257.5
497-5
446.0
364.2
257-5
133-3
516
258.0
498.4
446.9
364.9
258.0
1336
517
258.5
499.4
447.7
365.6
258.5
1338
l8o A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
M Sin 90".
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
Si8
259.0
500.4
448.6
366.3
259.0
1 34. 1
519
25'9-5
501.3
449-5
367.0
259.5
134.3
520
260.0
502.3
450.3
367.7
260.0
134.6
521
260.5
503-2
451.2
368.4
260.5
134.8
522
261.0
504.2
452.1
369.1
261.0
I35.I
523
261.5
505.2
452.9
369.8
261.5
135-4
524
262.0
506.1
453-8
370.5
262.0
135-6
525
262.5
507.1
454.7
371.2
262.5
135-9
526
263.0
508.1
455-5
371.9
263.0
1 36- 1
527
263.5
509-0
456.4
372.6
263-S
136.4
528
264.0
510.0
457.3
373-4
264.0
136.7
529
264.5
511.O
458.1
374.1
264.5
136.9
530
265.0
511.9
459.0
374.8
265.0
137.2
S31
265.5
512.9
459.9
.375-5
265.5
137-4
S32
266.0
513-9
460.7
376.2
266.0
137-7
533
266.5
S14.8
461.6
376.9
266.5
138.0
534
267.0
515-8
462.5
377-6
267.0
138.2
535
267.5
516.8
463.3
378.3
267.5
138.5
536
268.0
517.7
464.2
379-
268.0
138.7
537
268.5
518.7
465.1
379-7
268. 5
139.0
538
269.0
519-7
465.9
380.4
269.0
139-3
539
269.5
520.6
466.8
381. 1
269.5
139.5
540
270.0
521.6
467.7
381.8
270.0
139.8
541 .
270.5
522.6
468.5
382-5
270.5
140.0
542
271.0
523-5
469.4
383-2
271.0
140.3
543
271.5
524-5
470.3
384.0
271.5
140.5
544
272.0
525.5
471. 1
384.7
272.0
140.8
545
272.5
526.4
472.0
385-4
272.5
141. 1
546
273.0
527.4
472.9
386.1
273.0
141. 3
547
273.5
528.4
473.7
386.8
273-5
141. 6
548
274.0
529.3
474-6
387.5
274.0
141.8
549
274.5
530.3
475-4
388.2
274. 5
142.1
55°
275.0
531-3
476.3
388.9
275.0
142.4
551
275-5
532-2
477.2
389.6
275.5
142.6
552
276.0
533-2
478.0
390.3
276.0
142.9
553
276.5
534.2
478.9
391.0
276.5
143-1
554
277.0
535-1
479-8
391-7
277.0
143-4
555
277.5
536.1
480.6
392.4
277.5
143-7
556
278.0
. 537.1
481.5
393-1
278.0
143.9
557
278.S
538.0
482.4
393-9
278.5
144.2
558
279.0
S39-0
483.2
394.6
279.0
144.4
559
279-5
540.0
484.1
395-3
279.5
144.7
560
280.0
540.9
485.0
396.0
280.0
144.9
561
280.5
541-9
485.8
396.7
280.5
145.2
562
281.0
542.9
486.7
397-4
281.0
M5-S
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. l8l
umber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°-
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
563
281.5
543-8
487.6
398.1
281.5
I4S-7
564
282,0
544-8
488.4
398-8
282.0
146.0
565
282.5
545-7
489-3
399-5
282.5
146.2
566
283.0
546.7
490.2
400.2
283.0
146.5
567
283.5
547-7
491.0
400.9
283.5
146.8
568
284.0
548.6
491.9
401.6
284.0
147.0
569
284.5
549.6
492.8
402.3
284.5
147.3
570
285.0
550.6
493-6
403.1
285.0
147.5
571
285.5
551.5
494-5
403.8
285.5
147.8
572
286.0
552.5
495-4
404-5
286.0
148. 1
573
286.5
553-5
496.2
405.2
286.5
148.3
574
287.0
554-4
497.1
405.9
287.0
148.6
575
287.5
555-4
498.0
406.6
287.5
148.8
576
288.0
556-4
498.8
407.3
288.0
149-1
577
288.5
557.3
499-7
408.0
288.5
M9-3
578
289.0
558.3
500.6
408.7
289.0
149.6
579
289.5
559.3
501.4
409.4
289.5
149-9
580
290.0
560.2
502.3
410.1
290.0
150.1
581
290.5
561.2
503.2
410.8
290.5
150.4
582
291.0
562.2
504.0
411. 5
291.0
150.6
583
291.5
563.1
504.9
412.2
291.5
150.9
584
292.0
564.1
505-8
412.9
292.0
151.2
585
292.5
565-1
506.6
4137
292.5
151-4
586
293.0
566.0
507.5
414.4
293.0
151-7
587
293-5
567.0
508.4
415.1
293-5
151.9
588
294.0
568.0
509.2
415.8
294.0
152.2
589
294.5
568.9
510.1
416.5
294-5
152.5
590
295.0
569-9
511-0
417.2
295.0
152-7
591
295-5
570.9
511. 8
417.9
295-5
153-0
592
296.0
571.8
512.7
418.6
296.0
153-2
593
296.5
572.8
513-6
419-3
296.5
1535
594
297.0
573.8
514.4
420.0
297.0
153-8
595
297.5
574-7
515-3
420.7
297.5
154.0
596
298.0
575-7
516.1
421.4
298.0
154.3
597
298.5
576.7
517.0
422.1
298.5
154.5
598
299.0
577.6
517-9
422.8
299.0
154.8
599
299.5
578.6
518.7
423-6
299.5
155.0
600
300.0
579-6
519.6
424.3
300.0
155-3
601
300.5
580.5
520.5
425.0
300.5
155-6
602
301.0
581.5
521.3
425-7
301.0
155.8
603
301-5
582.5
522.2
426.4
301.5
156.1
604
302.0
583-4
523.1
427.1
302.0
156.3
605
302.5
584.4
523.9
427.8
302.5
156.6
606
3030
585-3
524.8
428.5
303.0
156.9
607
303-5
586.3
525.7
429.2
303-5
157.1
l82 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
608
304.0
587.3
526.6
429.9
304.0
157.4
609
304.S
588.3
527-4
430.6
304.5
157.6
610
305.0
589.2
528.3
431-3
305.0
157.9
611
305-5
590.2
529-2
432.0
305.5
158.1
612
306.0
591.2
530.0
432.7
306.0
158.4
613
306.5
592.1
530.9
433-5
306.5
158.7
614
307.0
593-1
531-7
434.2
307.0
158.9
61S
307-5
594.1
532.6
4349
307-5
159.2
616
308.0
595.0
533-5
435-6
308.0
159.4
617
308.5
596.0
534.3
436.3
308.5
159.7
618
309.0
597.0
535-2
437.0
309.0
160.0
619
309-5
597.9
536-1
437.7
309.5
160.2
620
310.0
598.9
536.9
438.4
310.0
160.5
6zi
310.5
599-8
537.8
439.1
310.5
160.7
622
31I.O
600.8
538.7
439-8
3".o
161.0
623
3"-5
601.8
539-5
440.5
3"-5
161.2
624
312.0
602.7
540.4
441.2
312.0
161.5
62s
312.5
603.7
541.3
441.9
312.5
161.8
626
313-0
604.7
542.1
442.6
313-0
162.0
627
313-5
605.6
543.0
443.4
313-5
162.3
628
314.0
606.6
543-9
444.1
314.0
162.5
629
3145
607.6
544-7
444.8
314-5
162.8
630
31S-0
608.5
545.6
445-5
315-0
163.1
631
315-5
609.5
546.5
446.2
315-5
163.3
632
316.0
610.5
547.3
446.9
316.0
163.6
633
316.5
611.4
548.2
447.6
316.5
163.8
634
317.0
612.4
549.1
448.3
317.0
1 64. 1
635
3'7-5
613.4
549-9
449.0
317-5
164.3
636
318.0
614.3
550.8
449-7
318.0
164.6
637
318-S
615.3
551.7
450.4
318.5
164.9
638
319.0
616.3
552.5
4SI.I
319.0
165. 1
639
319-5
617.2
553-4
451-8
319.5
165.4
640
320.0
618.2
554.3
452-5
320.0
165.6
641
320.5
619.2
555-1
453-3
320.5
165.9
642
321.0
620.1
556.0
454.0
321.0
166.2
643
321.5
621.1
556.9
454-7
321.5
166.4
644
322.0
622.1
557.7
455-4
322.0
166.7
64s
322.5
623.0
558.6
456.1
322.5
166.9
646
323-0
624.0
559-5
456.8
323.0
167.2
647
323-5
625.0
560.3
457.5
323.5
167.5
648
324.0
625.9
561.2
458.2
324.0
167.7
649
324.5
626.9
562.1
458.9
324.5
168.0
650
325-0
627.9
562.9
459.6
325.0
168.2
651
325-5
628.8
563.8
460.3
325.5
168.5
652
326.0
629.8
564.7
461.0
326.0
168.8
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 83
Number.
>iSin90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
653
326.5
630.8
565-5
461.7
326.5
169.0
654
327.0
631.7
566.4
462.4
327.0
169.3
65s
327-5
632.7
567.3
463.2
327-5
169-5
656
328.0
633-6
568.1
463-9
328.0
169.8
657
328.S
634-6
569-0
464.6
328.5
170.0
658
329.0
635.6
569.9
465-3
329-0
170.3
659
329-5
636.5
570.7
466.0
329-5
170.6
660
330-0
637-5
.571-6
466.7
3300
170.8
661
330.5
638-5
572.4
467-4
330-5
171.1
662
331-0
639-4
573.3
468.1
331.0
171-3
663
331-5
640.4
574.2
468.8
331-5
171. 6
664
332.0
64T.4
57S-0
469.5
332-0
171.9
66s
332-5
642.3
575-9
470.2
332-5
172.1
666
333-0
643-3
576.8
470.9
333.0
172.4
667
333-5
644-3
577-6
471.6
333.5
172.6
668
334-0
645.2
578.5
472.3
334.0
172.9
669
334-5
646.2
579-4
473-1
334.5
173.2
670
335-0
647.2
580.2
473-8
335.0
173-4
671
335-5
648.1
581.1
474.5
335-5
173-7
672
336.0
649.1
582.0
475-2
336.0
173-9
673
336-5
650.1
582.8
4759
336-5
174.2
674
337.0
651.0
583-7
476.6
337-0
174-5
675
337.5
652.0
584.6
477-3
337.5
174.7
676
338-0
653.0
585-4
478.0
338.0
175-0
677
338-5
653-9
586.3
478.7
338.5
175.2
678
339-0
654.9
587-2
479.4
339.0
175-5
679
339-5
655-9
588.0
480.1
339-5
175-7
680
340.0
656.8
588.9
480.8
340.0
176.0
681
340.5
657-8
589.8
481.5
340.5
176.3
682
341.0
658.8
590-6
482.2
341.0
176.5
683
341-S
659.7
591-5
483.0
341.5
176.8
684
342-0
660.7
592.4
483-7
342.0
177.0
685
342-5
661.7
593-2
484.4
342.5
177.3
686
343-0
662.6
594.1
485.1
343.0
177.6
687
343-5
663.6
595-0
485.8
343-5
177-8
688
344-0
664.6
595.8
486.5
344.0
178.1
689
344-5
665.5
596-7
487.2
344.5
178.3
690
345-0
666.5
597.6
487.9
345-0
178.6
691
345-5
667.5
598-4
488.6
345-5
178.9
692
346.0
668.4
599-3
489-3
346.0
179.1
693
346.5
669.4
600.2
490.0
346.5
179.4
694
347-0
67C.4
601.0
490.7
347-0
179.6
695
347-5
671-3
601.9
491.4
347-5
179.9
696
348.0
672.3
602.8
492.1
348.0
180.1
697
348.5
673-3
603.6
492.8
348.S
180.4
184 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
umber.
>^ Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
698
349-
674.2
604.5
493-6
349-0
180.7
699
349-5
675.2
605.4
494-3
349.5
180.9
700
350.0
676.2
606.2
495.0
350.0
181. 2
701
350-5
677.1
607,1
495-7
350.5
181.4
702
351-0
678.1
608.0
496.4
351.0
i8i.7
703
351.5
679.1
608.8
497.1
351.5
181 9
704
352-0
680.0
609.7
497.8
352.0
182.2
70s
352.5
681.0
610.6
498- 5
352.5
182.5
706
353-0
681.9
611. 4
499.2
353-0
182.7
707
353.5
682.9
612.3
499.9
353.5
183.0
708
354.0
683.9
613.2
500.6
354.0
183.2
709
354-5
684.8
614.0
501-3
354-5
183.S
710
355-0
685.8
614.9
502.0
355-0
183.8
711
355-5
686.8
615-7
502.8
355-5
184.0
712
356.0
687.7
616.6
503.5
356.0
184.3
713
356.5
688.7
617.5
504.2
356-5
184.5
714
357.0
689.7
618.3
504.9
357.0
184.8
715
357-5
690.6
619.2
505.6
357.5
185.1
716
358.0
691.6
620.1
506.3
358.0
185.3
717
358-5
692.6
620.9
507.0
358-5
185.6
718
359-0
693-5
621.8
507.7
359-0
185.8
719
359-5
694.5
622.7
508.4
3595
186.1
720
360.0
695-5
623-S
509.1
360.0
186.3
721
360.5
696.4
624.4
509.8
360.5
186.6
722
361.0
697.4
625-3
510.5
361.0
186.9
723
361.5
698.4
626.1
511.2
361.5
187.1
724
362.0
699-3
627.0
5"-9
362.0
187.4
725
362.5
700.3
627.9
512.7
362.5
187.6
726
363.0
701.3
628.7
513-4
363.0
187.9
727
3635
702.2
629.6
514-1
363-5
188.2
728
364.0
703.2
630.5
514.8
364-0
188.4
729
364.5
704.2
631.3
515.S
364-5
188.7
730
365.0
705.1
632.2
516.2
365.0
188.9
731
365.5
706.1
633.1
516.9
365.5
189.2
732
366.0
707.1
6339
517.6
366.0
189.5
733
366.5
708.0
634.8
518.3
366.5
189.7
734
367.0
709.0
635.7
519.0
367.0
190.0
735
367.5
710.0
636.5
519.7
367.5
190.2
736
368.0
710.9
637.4
520.4
368.0
190.5
737
368.5
7 1 1.9
638-3
521. 1
368.5
190.8
738
369.0
712.9
639.1
521.8
369-0
191.
739
369-5
713-8
640.0
522.5
369- 5
191.3
740
370.0
714.8
640.9
523.3
370.0
191.5
741
370.5
715.8
641.7
524.0
370.5
191.8
742
371.0
716.7
642.6
524.7
371.0
192.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS,
185
umber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 150.
743
371.5
717-7
643-5
525-4
371-5
192.3
744
372.0
718.6
644-3
526.1
372.0
192.6
745
372-5
719.6
645.2
526.8
372-5
192.8
746
373.0
720.6
646.1
527-5
373.0
193- 1
747
373-5
721.5
646.9
528.2
373-5
193-3
748
374.0
722.5
647-8
528.9
374-0
193.6
749
374-5
723.5
648.7
529.6
374.5
193-9
750
375-0
724.4
649.5
530-3
375-0
194. 1
7SI
375.5
725-4
650.4
531-0
375-5
194.4
752
376.0
726.4
651.3
531-7
376.0
194.6
753
376. 5
727-3
652.1
532-5
376.5
194.9
754
377.0
728.3
653.0
533-2
377.0
195.2
755
377-5
729-3
653.8
533-9
377-5
195.4
756
378.0
730.2
654-7
534-6
378.0
I9S-7
757
378.5
731-2
655-6
535-3
378.5
195.9
758
379-0
732.2
656.4
536.0
379-0
196.2
759
379-5
733-1
657.3
536.7
379-5
196.4
760
380.0
734-1
658.2
537-4
380.0
196.7
761
380.S
735-1
659.0
538.1
380.5
197.0
762
381.0.
736.0
659.9
538.8
38T.0
197.2
•763
381-S
737-0
660.8
539-5
381-S
197-5
764
382.0
738.0
661.6
540.2
382.0
197.7
76s
382.S
738.9
662.5
540.9
382.5
198.0
766
383.0
739-9
663.4
S4I.6
383-0
198.3
767
383.5
740.9
664.2
542.4
3S3-5
198.5
768
384-0
741.8
665.1
543-1
384-0
198.8
769
384.5
742.8
666.0
543-8
384-5
199.0
770
385-0
743-8
666.8
544-5
385-0
199-3
771
385-5
744-7
667.7
545-2
385-5
199.6
772
386.0
745-7
668.6
545-9
386.0
199.8
773
386.5
746.7
669.4
546.6
386.5
200.1
774
387-0
747.6
670.3
547-3
387.0
200.3
775
387.5
748.6
671.2
548.0
387-5
200.6
776
388.0
749-6
672.0
548.7
388.0
200.8
777
388.5
750-5
672.9
549.4
388.5
201. 1
778
389-0
751-5
673.8
550.1
389-0
201.4
779
389-5
752-5
674.6
550.8
389-5
201.6
780
390.0
753-4
675-5
551-5
390.0
201.9
781
390.5
754.4
676.4
552.3
390.5
202.1
782
391.0
755-4
677.2
553-0
391.0
202.4
783
391.5
756.3
678.1
553-7
391-5
202.7
784
392.0
757-3
679.0
554-4
392.0
202.9
785
392.5
758.3
679.8
555.1
392-5
203.2
786
393-0
759-2
680.7
555-8
393-0
203.4
787
3935
760.2
681.6
556-5
393-5
2037
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
788
394.0
761.2
682.4
557-2
394.0
204.0
789
394-5
762.1
683-3
557.9
394-5
204.2
790
395-0
763.1
684.2
558.6
395-0
204.5
791
395-5
764.0
685.0
559-3
395-5
204.7
792
396.0
765.0
685.9
560.0
396-0
205.0
793
396-5
766.0
686.8
560.7
396-5
205.2
794
397.0
766.9
687.6
561.4
397-0
205.5
795
397.5
767.9
688.5
562.1
397-5
205.8
796
398.0
768.9
689.4
562.9
398-0
206.0
797
398.5
769.8
690.2
563-6
398.5
206.3
798
399-0
770.8
69.. I
564-3
399-0
206.5
799
399-5
771.8
692.0
565-0
399-5
206.8
800
400.0
772.7
692.8
565-7
400.0
207.1
801
400.5
773.7
693-7
566.4
4C0.5
207.3
802
401.0
774-7
694.6
567-1
401.0
207.6
803
401.5
775-6
695.4
567-8
401.5
207.8
804
402.0
776.6
696.3
568.5
402.0
208.1
805
402.5
777-6
697.2
569.2
402.5
208.4
806
403.0
778.5
698.0
569-9
403.0
208.6
807
403-5
779-5
698.9
570-6
403-5
208.9
808
404.0
780.5
699.7
571-3
404.0
209.1
809
404.5
781.4
700.6
572.0
404-5
209.4
810
405.0
782.4
701.5
572.8
405-0
209.6
811
405-5
783.4
702.3
573-5
405.5
209.9
812
406.0
784.3
703.2
574-2
406.0
210.2
813
406.5
785-3
704.1
574-9
406.5
210.4
814
407.0
786.3
704.9
575-6
407.0
210.7
81S
407.5
787.2
705.8
576.3
407-5
210.9
816
408.0
788.2
706.7
577.0
408.0
211. 2
817
408.5
789.2
707-5
577.7
408.5
211.5
818
409.0
790.1
708.4
578.4
409.0
211. 7
819
409.5
791-1
709.3
579.1
409.5
212.0
820
410.0
792.1
7 10. 1
579.8
410.0
212.2
821
410.5
793.0
711.0
580.5
410.5
212.5
822
411.0
794.0
711.9
581.2
411.0
212.8
823
411-5
795-0
712.7
581.9
411. 5
213.0
824
412.0
795-9
713.6
582.7
412.0
213.3
825
412.5
796.9
714.5
583-4
412.5
213-5
826
413.0
797.9
715-3
584.1
413.0
213.8
827
413.S
798.8
716.2
584.8
413-5
214.0
828
414.0
799-8
717.1
585. 5
414.0
214.3
829
414-5
800.8
717.9
586.2
414.5
214.6
830
415.0
801.7
718.8
586.9
415.0
214.8
831
415-5
802.7
719.7
587.6
415-5
215.1
832
416.0
803.7
720.5
588.3
416.0
2IS-3
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 87
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
833
416.5
804.6
721.4
589.0
416.5
215.6
834
417.0
805.6
722.3
589.7
417.0
215.9
835
417.5
806.6
723.1
590.4
417.5
216.I
836
418.0
807.S
724.0
591. 1
418.0
216.4
837
418.5
808.5
724.9
591.8
418.5
216.6
838
419.0
809.5
725.7
592.6
419.0
216.9
839
419.5
810.4
726.6
593.3
419.S
217.I
840
420.0
81I.4
727.5
594.0
420.0
217.4
841
420.5
812.3
728.3
594.7
420.5
217.7
842
421.0
813.3
729.2
595-4
421.0
218.0
843
421.5
814.3
730.1
596.1
421.5
218.2
844
422.0
815.2
730.9
596.8
422.0
218.4
845
422.5
816.2
731.8
597.5
422.5
218.7
846
423.0
817.2
732.7
598.2
423.0
219.0
847
423.5
8 18. 1
733-5
598.9
423.5
219.2
848
424.0
819.1
734.4
599-6
424.0
219.5
849
424.5
820.1
735-3
600.3
424.5
219.7
850
425.0
821.0
736.1
601.0
425.0
220.0
851
425.5
822.0
737.0
601.7
425.5
220.3
852
426.0
823.0
737.9
602.5
426.0
220.5
8S3
426.5
823.9
738.7
603.2
426.5
220.8
854
427.0
824.9
739-6
603.9
427.0
221.0
8SS
427.5
825.9
740.5
604.6
427-5
221.3
856
428.0
826.8
741-3
605-3
428.0
221.6
857
428.5
827.8
742.2
606.0
428.5
221.8
858
429.0
828.8
743.1
606.7
429.0
222.1
859
429.5
829.7
743-9
607.4
429.5
222.3
860
430.0
830.7
744.8
608.1
430.0
222.6
861
430.5
831.7
745.6
608.8
430.5
222.8
862
431.0
832.6
746.5
609.5
431.0
223.1
863
431.5
833.6
747.4
610.2
431-5
223.4
864
432.0
834.6
748.2
610.9
432.0
223.6
86s
432.5
835.5
749.1
611.6
432.5
223.9
866
433.0
836.5
750.0
612.4
433-0
224.1
867
433.5
837.5
750.8
613.1
433-5
224.4
868
434.0
838.4
751.7
613-8
434.0
224.7
869
434.5
839-4
752.6
614.5
434.5
224.9
870
435.0
840.4
753.4
615.2
435-0
225.2
871
435-5
841.3
754.3
615.9
435-5
225.4
872
436.0
842.3
755-2
616.6
436.0
225.7
873
436.5
843-3
756.0
617.3
436.5
226.0
874
437.0
844.2
756.9
618.0
437.0
226.2
875
437.5
845.2
757.8
618.7
437.5
226.5
876
438.0
846.1
758.6
619.4
438.0
226.7
877
438.5
847.1
759-5
620.1
438.5
227.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
jmber.
X Sin qo°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
878
439-0
848.1
760.4
620.8
439.0
227.3
879
439-5
849.0
761.2
621.5
439.5
227.5
880
440.0
850.0
762.1
622.3
440.0
227.8
881
440.5
851.0
763.0
623.0
440.5
228.0
882
441.0
851.9
763.8
623.7
441.0
228.3
883
441.5
852.9
764.7
624.4
441.5
228.5
884
442.0
853-9
765.6
625.1
442.0
228.8
885
442.5
854.8
766.4
625.8
442.5
229.0
886
443-0
855-8
767.3
626.5
443.0
229.3
887
443-5
856.8
768.2
627.2
443-5
229.6
888
444.0
857.7
769.0
627.9
444.0
229.8
889
444-5
858.7
769.9
628.6
444.5
230.1
890
445-0
859.7
770.8
629.3
445.0
230.3
891
445-5
860.6
771.6
630.0
445-5
230.6
892
446.0
861.6
772.5
630.7
446.0
230.9
893
446.5
862.6
773.4
631.4
446.5
231. 1
894
447.0
863.5
774.2
632.2
447.0
231.4
895
447-5
864.S
775.1
632.9
447.5
231.6
896
448.0
865.5
776.0
633.6
448.0
231.9
897
448.5
866.4
776.8
634.3
448.5
232.2
898
449-0
867.4
777.7
635.0
449.0
232.4
899
449-5
868.4
778.6
635.7
449-5
232.7
900
450.0
869.3
779-4
636.4
450.0
232.9
901
450.5
870.3
780.3
637.1
450-5
233.2
902
451.0
871.3
781.2
637.8
451.0
233.5
903
451-5
872.2
782.0
638.5
451-5
233-7
904
452.0
873-2
782.9
639.2
452.0
234.0
905
452-5
874.2
783.8
639-9
452.5
234.2
906
453-0
875.1
784.6
640.6
453-0
234.5
907
453-5
876.1
785.5
641.3
453-5
234-8
908
454-0
877.1
786.4
642.1
454.0
235.0
909
454-5
878.0
787.2
642.8
454-5
235-3
910
455-0
879.0
788.1
643.5
455-0
235-5
911
455-5
880.0
788.9
644.2
455-5
235-8
912
456.0
880.9
789.8
644.9
456.0
236.0
913
456.5
881.9
790.7
645.6
456.5
236.3
914
457-0
882.9
791.5
646.3
457.0
236.6
915
457-5
883.8
792.4
647.b
457-5
236.8
916
458.0
884.8
793-3
647.7
458.0
237.1
917
458.5
885.8
794.1
648.4
458.5
237-3
918
459.0
886.7
795.0
649.1
459-0
237.6
919
459-5
887.7
795-9
649.8
459-5
237-9
920
460.0
888.7
796-7
650.5
460.0
238.1
921
460.5
889.6
797-6
651.2
460.5
238.4
922
461.0
890.6
798-5
652.0
461.0
238.6
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 189
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°-
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
923
461.5
891.6
799-3
652.7
461.5
238-9
924
462.0
892.5
800.2
653-4
462.0
239.2
925
462.5
893- 5
801.1
654-1
462.5
239-4
926
463.0
894.5
801.9
654.8
463.0
239-7
927
463. 5
895.4
802.8
655-5
463-5
2399
928
464.0
896.4
803.7
656.2
464.0
240.2
929
464-5
■ 897.4
804.5
656.9
464-5
240.4
930
465.0
898-3
805.4
657.6
465.0
240.7
931
465.5
899-3
806.3
658.3
465-5
241.0
932
466.0
900.2
807.1
659.0
466.0
241.2
933
466.5
901.2
808.0
659.7
466.5
241-5
934
467.0
902.2
808.9
660.4
467.0
241.7
935
467.5
903.1
809.7
661.I
467-5
242.0
936
468.0
904.1
810.6
661.9
468.0
242.3
937
468.5
905.1
811.5
662.6
468.5
242.5
938
469.0
906.0
812.3
663-3
469.0
242.8
939
469.5
907.0
813.2
664.0
469.5
243.0
940
470.0
908.0
814.1
664.7
470.0
243-3
941
470.5
908.9
814.9
665.4
470.5
243.5
942
471.0
909.9
815.8
666.1
471.0
243-8
943
471.5
910.9
816.7
666.8
47I-S
244.1
944
472.0
911.8
817-5
667-5
472.0
244.3
945
472.5
912.8
818.4
668.2
472.S
244.6
946
473-0
913.8
819.3
668.9
473-0
244.8
947
473-5
914.7
820.1
669.6
473.5
245.1
948
474.0
915-7
821.0
670.3
474-0
245.4
949
474.5
916.7
821.9
671.0
474-5
245.6
950
475-0
917.6
822.7
671.8
47S-0
245-9
951
475-5
918.6
823.6
672.5
475-5
246.1
952
476.0
919.6
824.5
673.2
476.0
246.4
953
476.5
920.5
825.3
6739
476.5
246.7
954
477.0
921-5
826.2
674-6
477-0
246.9
955
477-5
922.5
827.1
675-3
477.5
247.2
956
478.0
923-4
827.9
676.0
478.0
247.4
957
478.5
924.4
828.8
676.7
478-5
247.7
958
479-0
925-4
829.6
677.4
479.0
248.0
959
479-5
926.3
830.5
678.1
479-5
248.2
960
480.0
927-3
831.4
678.8
480,0
248-5
96t
480.5
928-3
832.2
679.5
480.5
248.7
962
481.0
929.2
833-1
680.2
481.0
249.0
963
481.5
930.2
834.0
680.9
481.5
249.2
964
482.0
931.2
834-8
681.6
482.0
249.5
965
482.5
932.1
835-7
682.4
482.5
249.8
966
483-0
933-1
836.6
683.1
483.0
250.0
967
483-5
934-1
837-4
683.8
483-5
250-3
igO A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Fumber.
}i Sin 90".
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
968
484.0
935-0
838.3
684.5
484.0
250.5
969
484.5
936.0
839-2
685.2
484.5
250.8
970
485.0
936.9
840.0
685.9
485.0
251. 1
971
485.5
937-9
840.9
686.6
485. 5
251.3
972
486.0
938.9
841.8
687.3
486.0
251.6
973
486.5
939-8
842.6
688.0
486.5
251.8
974
487.0
940.8
84.3-5
688.7
487.0
252.1
975
487.5
941.8
844.4
689.4
487.5
252.3
976
488.0
942.7
845.2
690.1
488.0
252.6
977
488.5
943-7
846.1
690.8
488.S
252.9
978
489.0
944-7
847.0
691.5
489.0
253-1
979
489.5
945-6
847.8
692.3
489-5
253-4
980
490.0
946.6
848.7
693.0
490.0
253-6
981
490.5
947-6
849.6
693-7
490-5
253-9
982
491.0
948.5
850.4
694.4
491.0
254.2
983
491-5
949-5
851-3
695.1
491-5
254-4
984
492.0
950. s
852.2
695.8
492.0
254.7
985
492.5
951-4
853-0
696.5
492 5
254.9
986
493-0
952-4
853-9
697.2
493-0
255.2
987
493-5
953-4
854.8
697.9
493-5
255-5
988
494.0
954-3
855.6
698.6
494.0
255-7
989
494-5
955-3
856.5
699-3
494-5
256.0
990
495.0
956.3
857.4
700.0
495-0
256.2
991
495-5
957-2
858.2
700.7
495-5
256.5
992
496.0
958.2
859.1
701. s
496.0
256.7
993
496.5
959-2
860,0
702.2
496.5
257.0
994
497-0
960.1
860.8
702.9
497.0
257.3
995
497.5
961. 1
861.7
703.6
497-5
257-5
996
498.0
962.1
862.6
704.3
498.0
257.8
997
498-5
963.0
863.4
705.0
498.5
258.0
998
499-0
964.0
864.3
705.7
499.0
258.3
999
499-5
965.0
865.2
706.4
499-5
258.6
1000
500.0
965-9
866.0
707.1
500.0
258.8
lOOI
500.5
966.9
866.9
707.8
500.5
259.1
1002
501.0
967-9
867.8
708.5
501.0
259-3
1003
501.5
968.8
868.6
709.2
501.5
259.6
1004
502.0
969.8
869.5
709-9
502.0
259-9
1005
502.5
970.8
870.4
710.6
502.5
260.1
1006
503-0
971.7
871.2
711.4
503-0
260.4
1007
503-5
972.7
872.1
712.1
503-5
260.6
1008
504.0
973-7
873.0
712.8
504.0
260.9
1009
504.5
974-6
873-8
713-5
504-5
261.2
1010
505.0
975-6
874-7
714.2
505.0
261.4
lOII
505-5
976.6
875.6
714.9
505.5
261.7
I0I2
506.0
977.5
876.4
715.6
506.0
261.9
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I9I
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1013
506.5
978.5
877-3
716.3
S06.5
262.2
IOI4
507.0
979-5
878.2
717.0
507.0
262.4
IOI5
507-5
980.4
879.0
717.7
507-5
262.7
IO16
508.0
981.4
879-9
718.4
508.0
263.0
IOI7
508.5
982.3
880.8
719.1
508.5
263.2
IOI8
509.0
983-3
881.6
719.8
509.0
263.5
IOI9
509.5
984-3
882.5
720.5
509.5
263.8
1020
510.0
985.2
883.4
721.3
510.0
264.0
1021
510.5
986.2
884.2
722.0
510.5
264.3
1022
511.
987.2
885.1
722.7
511.0
264.5
1023
5"-5
988.2
885.9
723-4
5"-5
264.8
1024
512.0
989.1
886.8
724.1
512.0
265.0
1025
512.5
990.1
887.7
724.8
512.5
265.3
1026
513-0
991.0
888.5
725-5
513-0
265.6
1027
513-S
992.0
889.4
726.2
513-5
265.8
1028
514.0
993-0
890.3
726.9
514.0
266.1
1029
5M.5
993-9
891. 1
727.6
514.5
266.3
1030
51S-0
994.9
892.0
728.3
515.0
266.6
IO3I
515-5
995-9
892.9
729.0
515.5
266.8
1032
516.0
996.8
893-7
729.7
516.0
267.1
1033
516.5
997-8
894.6
730-4
516.5
267.4
1034
517-0
998.8
895.5
731-1
517.0
267.6
1035
517.5
999-7
896-3
731-9
517.5
267.9
1036
518.0
1000.7
897.2
732.6
518.0
268.1
1037
518.5
1001.7
898.1
733-3
518-5
268.4
1038
519.0
1002.6
898.9
734.0
519.0
268.7
1039
519-5
1003.6
899.8 .
734-7
519-5
268.9
1040
520.0
1004.6
900.7
735.4
520.0
269.2
I04I
520.5
1005.5
901-5
736.1
520. 5
269.4
1042
521.0
1006.5
902.4
736.8
521.0
269.7
1043
521.5
1007.5
903-3
737.5
521-5
269.9
1044
522.0
1008.4
904.1
738.2
522.0
270.2
I04S
522.S
1009.4
905.0
738.9
522.5
270.5
1046
523-0
1010.4
905-9
739-6
523.0
270.7
1047
523.5
1011.3
906.7
740.3
523-5
271.0
1048
524-0
1012.3
907.6
741.0
524-0
271.2
1049
524.5
1013-3
908.5
741-8
524.5
271. 5
1050
525.0
1014.2
909-3
742.5
525-0
271.8
1051
525-5
1015.2
910.2
743-2
525-5
272.0
1052
526.0
1016.2
911.
743-9
526.0
272.3
1053
526.5
1017.1
911.9
744.6
526.5
272.5
1 054
527.0
1018.1
912.8
745-3
527.0
272.8
105s
527-5
1019.1
913.7
746.0
527-5
273.1
1056
528.0
1020.0
914.5
746.7
528.0
273.3
1057
528.5
1021.0
915-4
747.4
528.5
273.6
192 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}i Sin 90°,
Sin 75°-
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
1058
529.0
1022.0
916.3
748.1
529.0
273.8
1059
529-5
1022.9
917.1
748.8
529-5
274.1
1060
530-0
1023.9
918.0
749-5
530.0
274.4
1061
530.5
1024.8
918.9
750.2
530.5
274.6
1062
531-0
1025.8
919.7
750.9
531-0
274-9
1063
531-5
1026.8
920.6
751-7
531-5
275.1
1064
532-0
1027.7
921.5
752.4
532.0
275.4
1065
532.5
1028.7
922.3
753-1
532.5
275.6
1066
533.0
1029.7
923.2
753-8
533.0
275-9
1067
533-5
1030.6
924.1
754.5
533.5
276.2
1068
534.0
1031.6
924.9
755-2
534.0
276.4
1069
534-5
1032.6
925.8
755-9
534-5
276.7
1070
535-0
1033-5
926.7
756.6
535-0
276.9
1071
535-5
1034.5
927.5
757-3
535-5
277.2
1072
536.0
1035.5
928.4
758.0
536.0
277.5
1073
536.5
1036.4
929.2
758.7
536.5
277.7
1074
537.0
1037.4
930.1
759-4
537-0
278.0
I07S
537-5
1038.4
931.0
760.1
537.5
278.2
1076
538.0
1039-3
931.8
760.8
538.0
278. 5
1077
538-5
1040.3
932.7
761.5
538.5
278.8
1078
539-0
1041.3
933-6
762.3
539-0
279.0
1079
539-5
1042.2
934.4
763.0
539-5
279-3
1080
540.0
1043.2
935-3
763.7
540.0
279.5
108 1
540.5
1044.2
936.2
764.4
540.5
279.8
1082
541.0
1045.1
937.0
765-1
541.0
280.0
1083
541.5
1046. 1
937-9
765.8
541-5
280.3
1084
542.0
1047.1
938.8
766.5
542.0
280.6
1085
542.S
1048.0
939-6
767.2
542.5
280.8
1086
543.0
1049.0
940.5
767.9
543.0
281. 1
1087
543.5
1050.0
941.4
768.6
543-5
281.3
1088
544.0
1050.9
942.2
769-3
544-0
281.6
1089
544.5
1051.9
943-1
770.0
544-5
281.9
1090
545-0
1052.9
944-0
770.8
545-0
282.1
1091
545-5
1053-8
944.8
771.5
545-5
282,4
1092
546.0
1054.8
945-7
772.2
546.0
282.6
1093
546.5
1055.8
946.6
772.9
546.5
282.9
1094
547.0
1056.7
947-4
773-6
547.0
283.1
1095
547-5
1057.7
948.3
774.3
547-5
283.4
1096
548.0
1058.7
949-2
775-0
548.0
283.7
1097
548.5
1059.6
950.0
775.7
548.5
283.9
1098
549-0
1060.6
950.9
776.4
549-0
284.2
1099
549-5
1061.6
951.8
777.1
549-5
284.4
1 100
550.0
1062.5
952.6
777.8
550.0
284.7
IIOI
550.5
1063.5
953-5
778.5
550.5
285.0
1102
551-0
1064.5
954-4
779.2
551-0
285.2
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I93
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin is°.
1 103
551-5
1065.4
955-2
779-9
551-5
285.5
1 104
552.0
1066.4
956.1
780.6
552.0
285.7
iios
552.5
1067.3
957.0
781.4
552.5
286.0
1 106
Si3-o
1068.3
957.8
782.1
553-0
286.3
II07
553-5
1069.3
958.7
782.8
553-5
286.5
1 108
554-0
1070.2
959.6
783-5
554.0
286.8
1 109
554-5
1071.2
960.4
784.2
554.5
287.0
IIIO
555-0
1072,2
961.3
784.9
555-0
287.3
nil
555-5
1073.1
962.2
785.6
555-5
287.5
III2
556.0
1074. I
963.0
786.3
556,0
287.8
III3
556-5
1075.1
963-9
787,0
556.5
288.1
III4
557-0
1076.0
964.8
787.7
557.0
288.3
HIS
557-5
1077.0
965.6
788.4
557.5
288.6
1116
558.0
1078.0
966.5
789.1
558,0
288.8
1117
558.5
1078.9
967.4
789.8
558.5
289.1
1118
559-c
1079.9
968.2
790.5
559-0
289.4
1119
559-5
1080.9
969.1
791-3
559-5
289.6
1 120
560.0
1081.8
970.0
792.0
560.0
289.9
1121
560.5
1082.8
970.8
792.7
560.5
290,1
1122
561.0
1083.8
971.7
793-4
561.0
290.4
1123
561.5
1084.7
972,5
794.1
561-5
290.7
1124
562.0
1085.7
973-4
794.8
562.0
290.9
1125
562.5
1086.7
974-3
795-5
562.5
291.2
1126
563.0
1087.6
975-1
796.2
563.0
291.4
1127
563.5
1088.6
976.0
796.9
563-5
291,7
1128
564.0
1089.6
976.9
797.6
564.0
292.0
1 129
564.5
1090.5
977.7
798.3
564-5
292,2
1 130
565.0
1091.5
978,6
799.0
565.0
292.5
1131
565-5
1092.5
979-5
799-7
565-5
292,7
1132
566.0
1093.4
980.3
800.4
566.0
293.0
"33
566.5
1094.4
981.2
801.2
566,5
293-2
"34
567.0
1095.4
982.1
801.9
567.0
293-5
"35
567-5
1096.3
982.9
802.6
567.5
293-8
"36
568.0
1097.3
983-8
803.3
568.0
294.0
"37
568.5
1098.3
984.7
804,0
568,5
294.3
"38
569.0
1099.2
985-5
804.7
569,0
294.5
"39
569.5
1 100.2
986.4
805.4
569-5
294.8
1 140
570.0
IIOI.2
987-3
806.1
570,0
295.1
1141
570.5
II02.I
988.1
806.8
570.5
295-3
1142
571.0
I 103. 1
989.0
807,5
571-0
295,6
"43
571.5
I 104. 1
989-9
808,2
571.5
295.8
"44
572.0
IIO5.O
990.7
808.9
572.0
296.1
"45
572.5
1 106.0
991,6
809.6
572.5
296.3
1 146
573-0
IIO7.O
992,5
810.3
573-0
296.7
"47
573-5
1107,9
993-3
811.
573-5
296.9
194 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
dumber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1148
574.0
108.9
994.2
811.8
574.0
297.1
1 149
574-5 1
109.9
995.1
812.5
574.5
297.4
1 150
575-0 1
110.8
995-9
813-2
575-0
297.6
I151
575-5 1
III.8
996.8
813.9
575-5
297.9
1152
576.0
112.7
997-7
814.6
576.0
298,2
I153
576.5 I
"3-7
998.5
815-3
576.5
298.4
"54
577.0
1 14.7
999.4
816.0
577.0
298.7
"55
577-5 1
115.6
1000.3
816.7
577.5
298.9
"56
578.0 1
116.6
1001.1
817.4
578.0
299.2
"57
578.5 1
117-6
1002.0
818.1
578.5
299.S
1158
579-0 '
118.5
1002.9
818.8
579.0
299.7
"59
579-5
119.5
1003.7
819.5
579-5
300.0
1 160
580.0 1
120.5
1004.6
820.2
580.0
300.2
1161
580.5 1
121.4
1005.5
820.9
580.5
300.5
1 162
581.0
122.4
1006.3
821.7
581.0
300.7
1 163
581.5
123.4
1007.2
822.4
581.5
301.0
1 164
582.0
124.3
1008.1
823.1
582.0
301.3
1165
582.5 1
125-3
1008.9
823.8
582.5
301.5
1 166
583.0 ]
126.3
1009.8
824.5
583-0
301.8
1 167
583.5
127.2
1010.7
825.2
583-5
302.0
1 168
584.0
128.2
1011.5
825.9
584-0
302.3
1169
584.5
129.2
1012.4
826.6
584.5
302.6
1170
585.0 ]
130.1
1013.3
827.3
585-0
302.8
1171
585.5 1
131.1
1014.1
828.0
585.5
303.1
1172
586.0
132.1
1015.0
828.7
586.0
303-3
"73
586.5
133.0
1015.8
829.4
586.5
303-6
"74
587.0
134.0
1016.7
830.1
587.0
303-9
"75
587.5 1
135.0
1017.6
830.8
587.5
304.1
1176
588.0 )
135-9
1018.4
831-6
588.0
304.4
"77
588.5
[136.9
1019.3
832.3
588.5
304.6
1178
589.0 ]
137-9
1020.2
833.0
589.0
304.9
"79
589-5
1 138.8
1021.0
833-7
5895
305-2
1 180
590.0
1139.8
1021.9
834.4
590.0
305-4
1181
590.5
1 140.8
1022.8
835.1
590.5
305-7
1182
591.0
"41-7
1023.6
835.8
591.0
305.9
"83
591.5
[142.7
1024.5
836.5
591.5
306.2
1 184
592.0
"43.7
1025.4
837.2
592-0
306.4
1185
592.5
144-6
1026.2
837-9
592-5
306.7
1 186
593.0
"45-6
1027.1
838.6
593-0
307.0
1 187
593-5
1146.6
1028.0
839.3
593-5
307.2
1 188
594-0
1 147.5
1028.8
■ 840.1
594-0
307-5
1 189
594-5
1 148.5
1029.7
840.8
594-5
307.7
1 190
595-0
1149.5
1030.6
841-5
595.0
308.0
1191
595-5
1150.4
1031.4
842.2
595.5
308.2
1 192
596.0
1151.4
1032.3
842.9
596.0
308.5
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I95
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60.°
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
"93
596.5
"52.3
1033.2
843-6
- 596.5
308.8
1 194
597.0
"53.3
1034.0
844.3
597-0
309.0
II95
597.5
1 1 54.3
1034.9
845-0
597.5
309-3
1 196
598.0
1155-2
1035.8
845.7
598.0
309-5
II97
598.5
1156.2
1036.6
846.4
598. 5
309.8
1 198
599.0
1157.2
1037.5
847.1
599-0
310.1
1 199
599-5
1158.1
1038.4
847.8
599-5
310.3
1200
600.0
1159.1
1039.2
848.5
600.0
310.6
I20I
600.5
1160.1
1040.1
849.2
600.5
310.8
1202
601.0
161.0
1041.0
849.9
601.0
3II.I
1203
601.5
1 162.0
1041.8
850.7
601.5
3".4
1204
602.0
163.0
1042.7
851.4
602.0
311. 6
1205
602.5
1163.9
1043.7
852.1
602.5
3".9
1206
603.0
[164.9
1044.4
852.8
603.0
312.1
1207
603.5
1165.9
1045-3
853.5
603-5
312.4
1208
604.0
[1 66.8
1046.3
854.2
604.0
312.7
1209
604.5
167.8
1047.0
854.9
604.5
312.9
I2I0
605
168.8
1047.9
855.6
605.0
313.2
I2II
605.5
1169.7
1048.8
856.3
605.5
313.4
1212
606.0
[170.7
1049.6
857.0
606.0
313.7
I2I3
606.5
171. 7
1050.5
857-7
606.5
313-9
I214
607.0
172.6
1051.4
S58.4
607.0
314.2
I215
607.5
[173.6
1052.2
859.1
607.5
3M.5
I216
608.0
[ 174.6
1053.1
859-8
608.0
314.7
I217
608.5
ti7S.5
1054.0
860.5
608.5
315.0
I218
609.0
176.5
1054.8
861.3
609.0
315.2
I2I9
609.5 '
177.5
1055.7
862.0
609.5
315.5
1220
610.0
178.4
1056.6
862.7
610.0
315-8
I22I
610.5
179.4
1057.4
863.3
610.5
316
1222
611.
180,4
1058.3
864.1
611.0
316.3
1223
611.5
181.3
1059.1
864.8
61 1.5
316.5
1224
612.0
182.3
1060.0
865.5
612.0
316.8
1225
612.5
183.3
1060.9
866.2
612.5
317.1
1226
613.0 ]
184.2
1061.7
866.9
613-0
317.3
1227
613.5
185.2
1062.6
867.6
613.5
317.6
1228
614.0 ]
186.2
1063.5
868.3
614.0
317-8
1229
614.5
187.1
1064.3
869.0
614.S
318.1
1230
615.0 I
188.1
1065.2
869.7
615,0
318.4
I23I
615.5 1
189.1
1066.1
870.4
615-5
318.6
1232
616.0 I
190.0
1066.9
871.2
616.0
318.9
"33
616.5 1
191.0
1067.8
871.9
616.5
319.1
1234
617.0 ]
192.0
1068.7
872.6
617.0
319.4
1235
617.5
192.9
1069.5
873.3
617.5
319.6
1236
618.0 I
193.9
1070.4
874.0
618.0
319-9
1237
6x8.5
194.9
1071.3
874.7
618.5
320.2
196 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
1238
1239
1240
1 241
1242
1243
1244
I24S
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1 254
I2SS
1256
1257
1258
I2S9
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272 •
1273
1274
I27S
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
H Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 450.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
619.0
II95-8
IO72.I
875-4
619.0
320.4
619.5
1 196.8
1073.0
876.1
619.5
320.7
620.0
1 197.7
1073-9
876.S
620.0
320.9
620.5
1 198.7
1074.7
877.5
620.5
321.2
621.0
1 199.7
1075.6
878.2
621.0
321.4
621.5
1200.6
1076.5
878.9
621.5
321.7
622.0
I20I.6
1677.3
8796
622.0
322.0
622.5
1202.6
1078.2
880.3
622.5
322.2
623.0
1203.5
1079. 1
881.I
623.0
322.5
623.5
1204.5
1079.9
881.8
623-5
322.7
624.0
1205.5
1080.8
882.5
624.0
323-0
624.5
1206.4
1081.7
883.2
624.5
323.3
625.0
1207.4
1082.5
883.9
625.0
323.5
625.5
1208.4
1083.4
884.6
625.5
323.8
626.0
1209.3
1084.3
885.3
626.0
324.0
626.5
1210.3
1085. 1
886.0
626.5
324-3
627.0
1211.3
1086.0
886.7
627.0
324-6
627.5
1212.2
1086.9
887.4
627.5
324.8
628.0
1213.2
1087.7
888.1
628.0
325.1
628.5
1214.2
1088.6
888.8
628.5
325-3
629.0
1215,1
1089.5
889.5
629
325-6
629.5
1216.1
1090.3
890.2
629.5
325-9
630.0
1217.1
1091.2
891.0
630.0
326.1
630.5
1218.0
1092. 1
891.7
630.5
326.4
631.0
1219.0
1092.9
892.4
631.0
326.6
631.5
1220.0
1093.8
893.1
63'.5
326.9
632.0
1220.9
1094.7
893.8
632.0
327.1
632.5
1221.9
1095-5
894.5
632.5
327-4
633-0
1222.9
1096.4
895.2
633-0
327-7
633-5
1223.8
1097.3
895-9
633-5
3279
634.0
1224.8
1098.1
896.6
634-0
328.2
634-5
1225.8
1099.0
897-3
634-5
328.4
635.0
1226.7
1099.9
898.0
635-0
328.7
635-5
1227.7
1 100.7
898.7
635-5
329.0
636.0
1228.7
1101.6
899.4
636.0
329.2
636.5
1229.6
1 102.4
900.2
636.5
329-5
637.0
1230.6
1103.3
900.9
637.0
329-7
637-5
1231.6
1 104.2
901.6
637-5
330-0
638.0
1232.5
1 105.0
902.3
638.0
330-3
638.5
1233-5
1105.9
903.0
638.5
330-5
639.0
1234.5
1 106.8
903-7
639-0
330-8
639-5
1235-4
1107.6
904-4
639-5
331-0
640.0
1236.4
1 108.5
905.1
640.0
331-3
640.5
1237.4
1 109.4
905.8
640.5
331-5
641.0
1238.3-
1110.2
906.5
641.0
33t.8
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I97
lumber.
>^ Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1283
641.5
1^39-3
IIII.I
907.2
641.5
332.1
1284
642.0
1240.2
1112.0
907.9
642.0
332.3
1285
6425
I24I.2
III2.8
908.6
642.5
332.6
1286
643.0
1242.2
III3.7
909-3
643.0
332.8
1287
643-5
1 243. 1
1 114.6
910.0
643.5
333.1
1288
644.0
1 244. 1
11.5.4
910.8
644-0
333.4
1289
644.5
I245.I
1116.3
9II.5
644.5
333-6
1290
645.0
1246.0
1117.2
912.2
645-0
333-9
1291
645-5
1247.0
II18.0
912.9
645-5
334.1
1292
646.0
1248.0
11 18.9
913.6
646.0
334.4
1293
646.5
1248.9
1119.8
914-3
646.5
334.7
T294
647.0
1249.9
1120.6
915.0
647.0
334.9
1295
647.5
1250.9
1121.5
915-7
647.5
335.2
1296
648.0
1251.8
H22.4
916.4
648.0
335.4
1297
648.5
1252.8
1123.2
917.I
648.5
335.7
1298
649.0
1253-s
1124.1
917.8
649.0
336.0
1299
649-5
1254.7
1125.0
918.5
649-5
3.36.2
1300
650.0
1255.7
1125.8
919.2
650.0
336.S
1301
650.5
1256.7
1126.7
919.9
650.5
336.7
1302
651.0
1257.6
1127.7
920.7
651.0
337.0
1303
651.5
1258.6
1128.4
921.4
651.5
337.2
1304
652.0
12596
1129.3
922.1
652.0
337.5
1305
652.5
1260.5
1130.2
922.8
652.5
337.8
1306
653-0
I26I.5
113T.0
923.5
653.0
338.0
1307
653-5
1262.5
1131.9
924.2
653.S
338.3
1308
654.0
1263.4
IT32.8
924.9
654.0
338.S
13C9
654-5
1264.4
1 1 33.6
925.6
654.5
338.8
1310
655.0
1265.4
"34.5
926.3
655.0
339.1
1311
655-5
1266.3
"35.4
927.0
655.5
339.3
1312
656.0
1267.3
.136.2
927.7
656.0
339.6
1313
656.5
1268.3
1137.1
928.4
656.5
339.8
1314
657.0
1269.2
1138.0
929.1
657.0
340.1
1315
657-5
1270.2
1138.8
929.8
657.5
340.3
1316
658.0
I27I.2
1 139.7
930.6
658.0
340.6
1317
658.5
I272.I
II 40.6
931.3
658.S
340.9
1318
659.0
1 273. 1
1141.4
932.0
659.0
341. 1
1319
659.5
1 274. 1
1142.3
932.7
659.5
341.4
1320
66c.o
1275.0
1143.2
933-4
660.0
341.6
132I
660.5
1276.0
1144.0
934-1
660.5
341.9
1322
661.0
1277.0
1144.9
934-8
661.0
342.2
1323
661.5
1277.9
1145.7
935-5
661.5
342.4
1324
662.0
1278.9
1146.6
936.2
662.0
342.7
1325
662.5
1279.9
1147.5
936.9
662.5
342.9
1326
663.0
1280.8
1148.3
937.6
663.0
343.2
1327
663.5
1281.8
1149.2
938.3
663.5
343. 5
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1 341
1342
1343
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
I3SS
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°. £
sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
664.0
1282.8 1
150.1
939.0
664.0
343.7
664.5
1283.7 I
150.9
939.7
664.5
344.0
665.0
1284.7 1
1 51.8
940.5
665.0
344.2
665.5
1285.6 ]
152.7
941.2
665.5
344.5
666.0
1286.6 1
153-5
941.9
666.0
344.7
666.5
1287.6 ]
154.4
942.6
666.5
345-0
667.0
1288.5 1
155-3
943.3
667.0
345-3
667.S
1289.5 I
156.1
944.0
667.5
345.5
668.0
i2go.5 ]
157.0
944.7
668.0
345-8
668.5
1291.4 1
157-9
945.4
668.5
346.0
669.0
1292.4 ]
158.7
946.1
669.0
346.3
669.5
1293.4
159.6
946.8
669.5
346.6
670.0
1294.3 )
160.5
947.5
670.0
346.8
670.5
1295-3
ti6i.3
948.2
670.5
347.1
671.0
1296.3 1
162.2
948.9
671.0
347.3
671.5
1297.2 ]
163.1
949-6
671.5
347.6
672.0
1298.2 1
163.9
950-3
672,0
347.9
672.5
1299.2
164,8
951. 1
672.5
348.1
673.0
1 300. 1 ]
165.7
951.8
673.0
348.4
673-5
1301.1 I
166.5
952.5
673.5
348.6
674.0
1302.1 1
167.4
953-2
674.0
348.9
674.5
1303.0
168.3
953-9
674.5
349.2
675.0
1304.0
169.1
954.6
675.0
349-4
675-5
1305.0 1
170.0
955.3
675.5
349.7
676.0
1305-9
170.9
956.0
676.0
349.9
676.5
1306.9
171.7
956.7
676.5
350.2
677.0
I307-9'
172.6
957.4
677.0
350.4
677.5
1308.8
"73-5
958.1
677.5
350.7
678.0
1309.8
i 174-3
958.8
678.0
351-0
678.5
1310.8
1175-2
959.5
678.5
351-2
679.0
1311.7
[176.1
960.2
679.0
351.5
679-5
1312.7
1176.9
961.0
679.5
3SI.7
680.0
1313-7
1 1 77.8
961.7
680.0
352.0
680.5
1314-6
[178.7
962.4
680.5
352.2
681.0
1315.6
1179.5
963.1
681.0
352.5
681.5
1316.6
1180.4
963.8
681.5
352.8
682.0
1317.5
1181.3
964.5
682.0
353-0
682.5
1318.5
1182.1
965.2
682.5
353.3
683.0
1319-5
1183.0
965.9
683.0
353. 5
683.5
1320.4
1183.9
966.6
683.5
353.8
684.0
1321.4
184.7
967.3
684.0
354.1
684.5
1322.4
[185.6
968.0
684.5
354.3
685.0
1323-3
[ 186.5
968.7
685.0
354.6
685.5
1324-3
1187.3
969.4
685.5
354.8
686.0
1325-3
[ 188.2
970.2
686.0
355.1
A, METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 99
Number.
1373
1374
137s
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
I391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
I412
1413
1414
14IS
1416
1417
M Sin 90°.
686.5
6S7.O
687.5
688.0
688.5
689.0
689.5
690.0
690.5
691.0
691.5
692.0
692.5
693.0
693-5
694.0
694.5
695.0
695-5
696.0
696.5
697.0
697.5
698.0
698.5
699.0
699.5
700.0
700.5
701.0
701.5
702.0
702.5
703.0
703-5
704.0
704.5
705.0
705.5
706.0
706.5
707.0
707.5
708.0
708.5
Sin 75°.
1326.2
1327.2
I328.I
I329.I
I 330. I
I331.O
1332.0
1333.0
1333.9
1334.9
1335.9
1336.8
1337.8
1338.8
1339.7
1340.7
I34I.7
1342.6
1343.6
1344.6
1345.5
I 346. 5
1347.5
1348.4
1349.4
1350.4
1351.3
1352-3
1353.3
1354.2
1355.2
1356.2
1357-1
1358.1
1359.1
1360.0
1361.0
1362.0
1362.9
1363.9
1364.9
1365.8
1366.8
1367.8
1368.7
Sin 60°.
1 189. 1
1189.9
1 190.8
1191.7
1192.5
1193.4
1194.3
1195.1
I 196.0
1 196.9
1197.7
II98.6
1199.5
1200.3
I 20 1. 2
1202.0
1202.9
1203.8
1204.6
1205.5
1206.4
1207.2
1208.1
1209.0
1209.8
1210.7
1211.6
1212.4
1213.3
1214.2
1215.0
1215.9
I2I6.8
1217.6
1218.5
I2I9.4
1220.2
1221. I
1222.0
1222.8
1223.7
1224.6
1225.4
1226.3
1227.2
Sin 45°.
970.9
971.6
972.3
973.0
973-7
974.4
975.1
975.8
976.5
977-2
977.9
978.6
979.3
980.1
980.8
981.5
982.2
982.9
983.6
984.3
985.0
985.7
986.4
987.1
987.8
988.5
989.2
990.0
990.7
991.4
992.1
992.8
993.5
994.2
994.9
995.6
996.3
997.0
997-7
998.4
999.1
999-8
1000.6
1001.3
1002.0
Sin 30°.
686.5
687.0
687.5
688.0
688.5
689.0
689.5
690.0
690.5
691.0
691.5
692.0
692-5
693.0
693-5
694.0
694.5
695.0
695.5
696.0
696.5
697.0
697.5
698.0
698.5
699.0
699.5
700.0
700.5
701.0
701.5
702.0
702.5
703.0
703.5
704.0
704.5
705.0
705.5
706.0
706.5
707.0
707.5
708.0
708.5
Sin 15°.
355.4
355-6
355-9
356-1
356.4
356.7
356.9
357.2
357.4
357.7
357-9
358.2
358-5
358.7
359.0
359.2
359.5
359.8
360.0
360.3
360.5
360.8
361.1
361.3
361.6
361.8
362.1
362.4
362.6
362.9
363-1
363.4
363.6
363.9
364.2
364.4
364.7
364-9
365.2
365-5
365.7
366.0
366.2
366.5
366.8
200 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS,
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75^
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1418
709.0
1369.7
1228.0
1002.7
709.0
367.0
1419
709. s
1370.6
1228.9
1003.4
709.5
367.3
1420
710.0
1371.6
1229.8
1004.1
710.0
367.5
142I
710.S
1372.6
1230.6
1004.8
710.5
367.8
1422
711.O
1373.5
I231.5
1005.5
711.0
368.0
1423
711. 5
1374.5
1232.4
1006.2
711.5
368.3
1424
712.0
1375.5
1233.2
1006.9
712.0
368.6
1425
712.5
1376.4
1234.I
1007.6
712.5
368.8
1426
713.0
1377.4
1235.0
1008.3
713.0
369.1
1427
713.S
1378.4
1235.8
1009.0
713.5
369.3
1428
714.0
1379.3
1236.7
1009.7
714.0
369.6
1429
714.S
1380.3
1237.6
1010.5
714.5
.369.9
1430
715.0
1381.3
1238.4
IOI1.2
715.0
370.1
I43I
' 715.S
1382.2
1239.3
IOII.9
715.5
370.4
1432
716.0
1383.2
1240.2
1012.6
716.0
370.6
1433
716.S
1384.2
1241.O
1013.3
716.S
370.9
1434
717.0
1385.1
1241.9
1014.0
717.0
371. 1
1435
717.S
1386. I
1242.8
1014.7
717.5
371.4
1436
718.0
1387.I
1243.6
IOI5.4
718.0
371.7
1437
718.5
1388.0
1244.5
1016.1
718.5
371.9
1438
719.0
1389.0
1245.3
1016.8
719.0
372.2
1439
719.5
1390.0
1246.2
1017.5
719.5
372.4
1440
720.0
1390.9
1247. I
1018.2
720.0
372.7
144I
720.5
1391.9
1247.9
1018.9
720.5
373.0
1442
721.0
1392.9
1248.8
IOI9.6
721.0
373.2
1443
721.5
1393-8
1249.7
1020.4
721.5
373.5
1444
722.0
1394.8
1250.5
1021.1
722.0
373-7
1445
722.5
1395.8
1251.4
1021.8
722.5
374.0
1446
723.0
1396.7
1252.3
1022.5
723.0
374.3
1447
723.5
1397.7
1253.I
1023.2
723.5
374.5
1448
724.0
1398.7
1254.0
1023.9
724.0
374.8
1449
• 724.5
1399.6
1254.9
1024.6
724.5
375.0
1450
725.0
1400.6
1255.7
1025.3
725.0
375.3
1451
725.5
1401.6
1256.6
1026.0
725.5
375.5
1452
726.0
1402.5
1257.5
1026.7
726.0
375.8
U53
726.5
1403.5
1258.3
1027.4
726.5
376.1
1454
727.0
1404.5
1259.2
1028. 1
727.0
376.3
U5S
727.5
1405.4
I 260. I
1028.8
727.S
376.6
1456
728.0
1406.4
1260.9
1029.5
728.0 •
376.8
1457
728.5
1407.4
1261.8
1030.3
728.5
377.1
1458
729.0
1408.3
1262.7
1031.0
729.0
377.4
1459
729.5
1409.3
1263.5
1031.7
729.5
377.6
1460
730.0
1410.3
1264.4
1032.4
730.0
377.9
1461
730.5
1411.2
1265.3
1033.1
730.5
378.1
1462
731.0
1412.2
1266.1
1033.8
731.0
378.4
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 20I
Number.
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
I471
1472
1473
1474
1475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
i486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
M93
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1 501
1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
>^ Sin 90°
731-5
732.0
7325
733-0
733-5
734-0
734-5
735-0
735-5
736.0
736.5
737-0
737.5
738.0
738.5
739-0
739-5
740.0
740.5
741.0
741.5
742.0
742.5
743.0
743.5
744.0
744.5
745-0
745.5
746.0
746.5
747.0
747.5
748.0
748.5
749-0
749-5
750.0
750.5
751.0
751.5
752.0
752.5
7S3.0
753.5
Sin 7S°-
1413-2
I414.I
I415.I
I416.O
I417.O
I418.O
I418.9
I419.9
1420.9
I42I.8
1422.8
1423.8
1424.7
1425.7
1426.7
1427.6
1428.6
1429.6
1430.5
1431.5
1432.5
1433-4
1434-4
1435-4
1436-3
1437-3
1438-3
1439.2
1440.2
1441.2
1442. 1
1443- 1
1 444- 1
1445.0
1446.0
1447.0
1447.9
1448.9
1449.9
1450.8
1451.8
1452.8
1453-7
1454.7
1455-7
Sin 60°.
1267.0
1267.9
1268.7
1269.6
1270.5
1271.3
1272.2
1273.1
1273.9
1274.8
1275.7
1276.5
1277.4
1278.3
1 279. 1
1280.0
1280.9
1281.7
1282.6
1283.5
1284.3
1285.2
1 286. 1
1286.9
1287.8
1288.6
1289.5
1290.4
1291.2
1292.1
1293-0
1293.8
1294.7
1295.6
1296.4
1297.3
1298.2
1299.0
1299.9
1300.8
1301.6
1302.5
1303-4
1304.2
1305.1
Sin 45°.
1034.5
1035.2
1035-9
1036.6
1037.3
1038.0
1038.7
1039.4
1040.2
1040.9
1041.6
1042.3
1043.0
1043-7
1044.4
1045.1
1045.8
1046.5
1047.2
1047.9
1048.6
1049.3
1050.1
1050.8
1051.5
1052.2
1052.9
1053.6
1054.3
1055.0
1055.7
1056.4
1057.1
1057.8
1058.5
1059.2
1060,0
1060.7
1061.4
1062.1
1062.8
1063.5
1064.2
1064.9
1065.6
Sin 30°.
731.5
732.0
732.5
733-0
733-5
734.0
734-5
735-0
735-5
736.0
736.5
737.0
737-5
738.0
738.5
739-0
739-5
740.0
740.5
741.0
741.5
742.0
742.5
743-0
743.5
744.0
744-5
745-0
745-5
746.0
746.5
747.0
747.5
748.0
748.S
749.0
749.5
750.0
750.5
751.0
751.5
752.0
752.5
753.0
753.5
Sin 15O.
378.7
378.9
379.2
379.4
379.7
380.0
380.2
380.5
380.7
381.0
381.2
381.5
381.8
382.0
382.3
382.5
382.8
383.1
383.3
383.6
383.8
384.1
384.3
384.6
384.9
385.1
385.4
385.6
385.9
386.2
386.4
386.7
386.9
387.2
387.5
387.7
388.0
388.2
388.5
388.7
389.0
389.3
389.5
389.8
390.0
202 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75^
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1508
754.0
1456.6
1306.0
1066.3
754.0
390.3
1509
754.5
1457.6
1306.8
1067.0
754.5
390.6
1510
755-0
1458.5
1307.7
1067.7
755-0
390.8
1511
755.5
1459.S
1308.6
1068.4
755.5
391.1
1512
756.0
1460.5
1309.4
1069. 1
756.0
391.3
1513
756.5
I461.4
I3IO.3
1069.9
756.5
391.6
1514
757.0
1462.4
I31I.2
1070.6
757.0
391.9
1515
757.5
1463.4
I312.O
IO71.3
757.5
392.1
1516
758.0
1464.3
I312.9
1072.0
758.0
392.4
I517
758.5
1465.3
I3I3.8
1072.7
758.5
392.6
1518
759.0
1466.3
1314.6
1073.4
759.0
392.9
1519
759-5
1467.2
13^5.5
1074.1
759.5
.393.2
1520
760.0
1468.2
I316.4
1074.8
760.0
393.4
1521
760.5
1469.2
I317.2
1075.5
760.5
393-7
1522
761.0
1470. I
I318.I
1076.2
761.0
393.9
1523
761.5
I47I.I
I319.O
1076,9
761.5
394.2
1524
762.0
1472. 1
1 3 19.8
1077.6
762,0
394.4
1525
762.5
1473.0
1320.7
1078.3
762,5
394.7
1526
763.0
1474.0
1321.6
1079.1
763.0
395.0
1527
763.5
1475.0
1322.4
1079.8
763.5
395.2
1528
764.0
1475.9
1323.3
1080.5
764.0
395.S
1529
764.5
1476.9
1324,2
1081.2
764.5
395.7
1530
765.0
1477.9
1325.0
1081.9
765.0
396.0
1531
765.5
1478.8
1325.9
1082.6
765.5
396.2
1532
766.0
1479.8
1326.8
1083.3
766,0
396.5
1533
766.5
1480.8
1327.6
1084.0
766.5
396.8
1534
767.0
I481.7
1328.5
1084.7
767.0
397.0
1535
767.5
1482.7
1329.4
1085.4
767.5
397.3
1536
768.0
1483.7
1330.2
1086.1
768.0
397-5
1537
768.5
1484.6
I33I.I
1086,8
768.5
397.8
1538
769.0
1485.6
1331.9
1087.5
769.0
398.1
1539
769.5
1486.6
1332.8
1088.2
769.5
398.3
1540
770.0
1487.5
1333.7
1088.9
770.0
398.6
1541
770.S
1488.5
1334.5
1089.6
770.5
398.8
1542
771.0
1489.5
1335.4
1090.3
771.0
399.1
1543
771.5
1490.4
1336.3
1091.0
771.5
399.4
1544
772.0
I49I.4
1337. 1
IC9I.7
772.0
399.6
1 545
772.5
1492.4
1338.0
1092.4
772.5
399.9
1546
773.0
1493.3
1338.9
1093.1
773.0
400.1
1547
773.5
1494.3
1339.7
1093.8
773-5
400.4
1548
774.0
1495.3
1340.6
1094.5
774.0
400,7
1549
774.5
1496.2
I34I.5
1095.3
774-5
400,9
1550
775.0
1497.2
1342.3
1096.0
775-0
401.2
1551
775.5
1498.2
I343.I
1096.7
775-5
401.4
1552
776.0
1499-1
1344-0
1097.4
776.0
401.7
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 203
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1553
776.5
1500,1
1344.8
098.1
776.5
401.9
1554
777.0
1501.I
1345-7
098.8
777.0
402.2
1555
777.5
1502.0
1346.7
099.6
777.5
402.5
1556
778.0
1503.0
1347.5 1
100.3
778.0
402.7
1557
778.S
1503-9
1348.4
lOl.O
778.5
403,0
1558
779-0
1504.9
1349.3
101.7
779.0
403.2
1559
779-5
1505.9
1350. 1
102.4
779-5
403.5
1560
780.0
1506.8
1351.0 1
103.1
780.0
403.8
1561
780.5
1507.8
1351-9 1
103.8
780.5
404.0
1562
781.0
1508.8
1352.7
104.5
781.0
404.3
1563
781.5
1509.7
»353.6 1
105.2
781.5
404.5
1564
782.0
1510.7
1354.5 1
105.9
782.0
404.8
1565
782.5
15". 7
1355.3 1
106.6
782.5
405.1
1566
783.0
1512.6
1356.2
107.3
783.0
405.3
T567
783-5
1513-6
1357.1 I
108.0
783-5
405-6
1568
784.0
1514.6
1357.9 1
108.7
784.0
405.8
1569
784.5
1515-5
1358.8
109.5
784.5
406.1
1570
785.0
1516.5
1359.7 1
110.2
785.0
406.3
1571
785-5
1517-5
1360.5
110.9
785.5
406.6
1572
786.0
1518.4
1361.4
II1.6
786.0
406.9
1573
786.5
1519.4
1362.3
112.3
786.5
407.1
1574
787.0
1520.4
1363-1
113.0
787.0
407.4
1575
787.5
1521.3
1364.0
113.7
787.5
407.6
1576
788.0
1522.3
1364.9
114.4
788.0
407.9
1577
788.5
1523-3
1365.7 1
115.1
788.S
408.2
1578
789.0
1524.2
1366.6
115.8
789.0
408.4
1579
789.5
1525.2
1367.5
116.5
789-5
408.7
1580
790.0
1526.2
1368.3
117.2
790.0
408.9
1 581
790.5
1527.1
1369.2
117.9
790-5
409.2
1582
791.0
1528.1
1 370. 1
118.6
791.0
409,4
1583
791.5
1 529. 1
1370,9 I
119.4
791.5
409-7
1584
792.0
1530.0
1371.8
120.1
792.0
410.0
1585
792-5
1531.0
1372.7
120.8
792.5
410,2
1586
793.0
1532.0
1373-5
121. 5
793.0
410,5
1587
793.5
1532-9
1374.4
[122.2
793.5
410.7
1588
794-0
1533-9
1375-2
122.9
794.0
411.0
1589
794-5
1534-9
1376. 1
[I23.6
794.5
411-3
1590
795.0
I53S-8
1377-0
[I24.3
795-0
411.5
1591
795-5
1536-8
1377-8
1125.0
795-5
411.8
1592
796.0
1537.8
1378.7
[125.7
796.0
412.0
1593
796.5
1538-7
1379-6
126,4
796.5
412.3
1594
797.0
1539-7
1380.4
[I27.I
797-0
412.6
1595
797.5
1540.6
1381-3
II27.8
797-5
412.8
1596
798.0
IS4I.6
1382.2
II28.S
798.0
413.1
1597
798.5
1542.6
1383-0
[I29.2
798-5
413-3
204 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
^lumber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
1598
799.0
1543-5
1383-9
130.0
799.0
413-6
1599
799-5
1 544. 5
1384-8
130.7
799-5
4139
1600
800.0
1545-5
1385.6
131-4
800.0
414.1
1601
800.5
1546.4
1386.5
[132.I
800.5
414-4
1602
801.0
1547-4
1387-4
II32.8
801.0
414.6
1603
801.5
1548.4
1388.2
1 1.33-5
801.5
414-9
1604
802.0
1549-3
1 389. 1
1134.2
802.0
415-1
1605
802.5
1550-3
1390.0
134-9
802.5
415-4
1606
803.0
1551-3
1390.8
[ 135-6
803.0
415-7
1607
803.5
1552.2
I39I-7
1 136.3
803.5
415.9
1 608
804.0
1553-2
1392.6
[ 137.0
804.0
416.2
1609
804.5
1554.2
1393-4
"37-7
804.5
416.4
1610
805.0
1555-1
1394-3
1138.4
805.0
416.7
1611
805.5
1 556. 1
1395-2
1 39- 1
805.5
417.0
1612
806.0
1557-1
1396.0
1 139.8
806.0
417.2
1613
806.5
1558.0
1396.9
140.6
806.5
417-5
1614
807.0
1559-0
1397-8
141-3
807.0
417-7
161S
807.5
1560.0
1398.6
142.0
807.5
418.0
1616
808.0
1560.9
1399-5
[142.7
808.0
418.3
1617
808.5
1561.9
1400.4
H43-4
808.5
418.5
1618
809.0
1562.9
I4OI.2
1 44. 1
809.0
418.8
1619
809.5
1563.8
1402. 1
144.8
809.5
419.0
1620
810.0
1564.8
1403.0
145-5
810.0
419.3
1621
810.5
1565.8
1403.8
1146.2
810.5
419.5
1622
811.
1566.7
1404.7 ]
146.9
811.0
419.8
1623
811.S
1567.7
1405.6 I
147.6
811.5
420.1
1624
812.0
1568.7
1406.4
[ 148.3
812.0
420.3
1625
812.5
1569.6
1407.3 1
149.0
812.5
420.6
1626
813.0
1570.6
1408.2 ]
149-8
813.0
420.8
1627
813-5
1571.6
1409.0 1
150.5
813-5
421. 1
1628
814.0
1572.5
1409.9
151. 2
814.0
421.4
1629
814.5
1573-5
I4IO.8
151-9
814-5
421.6
1630
815.0
1574.5
1411.6 1
152-6
815.0
421.9
1631
815.5
1575.4
1412.5 ]
153-3
815.5
422.1
1632
816.0
1576.4
1413.4 I
154.0
816.0
422.4
1633
816.5
1577.4
1414.2
1 154-7
816.5
422.6
1634
817.0
1578.3
1415.1
155-4
817.0
422.9
1635
817.5
1579-3
I416.O 1
156.1
817.5
423.2
T636
818.0
1580.3
14 1 6.8 ]
156.8
818.0
423-4
1637
818.5
1581.2
1417.7
157-5
818.5
423-7
1638
819.0
1582.2
1418.5 1
158.2
819.0
423-9
1639
819.5
1583-2
1419.4 1
158-9
819-5
424.2
1640
820.0
1 584. 1
1420.3 1
159-7
820.0
424-5
1641
820.5
1 585. 1
1421.1 I
160.4
820.5
424.7
1642
821.0
1 586. 1
1422.0
161. 1
821.0
425.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
205
lumber.
H Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15O
1643
821.5
1587.0
1422.9
161.8
821.5
425.2
1644
822.0
1588.0
1423.7 1
162.5
822.0
425-5
1645
822.5
1588.9
1424.6
163.2
822.5
425.8
1646
823.0
I5S9.9
1425.5 1
163.9
823.0
426.0
1647
823-5
1590.9
1426.3 ]
164.6
823.5
426.3
1648
824.0
159I.8
1427.2 1
165.3
824.0
426.5
1649
824.5
1592.8
1428.1
166.0
824.5
426.8
1650
825.0
1593-8
1428.9
166.7
825.0
427.1
1651
825.5
1594-7
1429.8 ]
167.4
825.5
427-3
1652
826.0
1595-7
1430-7
[ 168.1
826.0
427.6
1653
826.5
1596.7
M3I-5
168.9
826.5
427.8
1654
827.0
1597.6
1432.4
169.6
827.0
428.1
1655
827.5
1598.6
1433-3
1 170.3
827.5
428.3
1656
828.0
1599.6
I434-I
171.
828.0
428.6
1657
828.5
1600.5
1435.0
171.7
828.5
428.9
1658
829.0
1601.5
1435-9
[172.4
829.0
429.1
1659
829.5
1602.5
1436.7
173-1
829.S
429.4
1660
830.0
1603.4
1437.6 1
173-8
830.0
429.6
1661
830.5
1604.4
1438-5
174.5
830.5
429.9
1662
831.0
1605.4
M39-3
175-2
831.0
430.2
1663
831.5
1606.3
1440.2
175.9
831.5
430-4
1664
832.0
1607.3
1441. 1
176.6
832.0
430.7
1665
832.5
1608.3
1441.9
177-3
832.5
430.9
1666
833-0
1609.2
1442.8
178.0
833-0
431.2
1667
833-5
1610.2
1443-7 1
178.7
833-5
431.5
1668
834.0
i6ir.2
1444.6 1
179-5
834.0
431.7
1669
834.5
1612.1
1445.4 ]
180.2
834-5
432.0
1670
835.0
1613.1
1446.3 1
180.9
835.0
432.2
1671
835-5
1614.1
1447.1
1181.6
835-5
432.5
1672
836.0
1615.0
1448.0
182.3
836.0
432.7
1673
836.5
1616.0
1448.9
[183.0
836.5
433.0
1674
837.0
1617.0
1449.7
183.7
837.0
433.3
1675
837-5
1617.9
1450.6
184.4
837.5
433-5
1676
838.0
1618.9
1451.5
185.1
838.0
433-8
1677
838.5
1619.9
1452.3
185.8
838.5
434.0
1678
839.0
1620.8
1453-2
1186.5
839.0
434-3
1679
839.5
1621.8
1454.1
187.2
839.5
434-6
1680
840.0
1622.8
1454.9
[187.9
840.0
434.8
168 1
840.5
1623.7
1455-8
1 188.6
840.5
435-1
1682
841.0
1624.7
1456.7
1189.4
841.0
435-3
1683
841.5
1625.7
1457.5 1
190.1
841.5
435-6
1684
842.0
1626.6
1458.4 ]
190.8
842.0
435-9
1685
842.5
1627.6
1459-3
191. 5
842.5
436.1
1686
843.0
1628.6
1460.1
1192.2
843.0
436.4
1687
843-5
1629.5
1461.0
1192.9
843.5
436-7
206 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
)6 Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15O.
1688
844.0
163O.S
1461.8
1193.6
844.0
436.9
1689
844.5
1631.4
1462.7
1194.3
844.5
437.2
1690
845.0
1632.4
1463-6
1195.0
845.0
437-4
1691
845.5
1633-4
1464.4
1195.7
845-5
437.7
1692
846.0
1634-3
1465-3
1196.4
846.0
437-9
1693
846.5
1635-3
1466.2
II97.I
846.5
438.2
1694
847.0
1636.3
1467.0
II97.8
847.0
438.4
1695
847.5
1637.2
1467.9
I198.5
847.5
438.7
1696
848.0
1638.2
1468.8
1199.3
848.0
439.0
1697
848.5
1639.2
1469.6
1200.0
848.5
439-2
1698
849.0
1 640. 1
1470.5
1200.7
849.0
439.5
1699
849-5
164I.I
1471-4
1201.4
849.5
439.7
1700
850.0
1642.I
1472.2
1202.1
850.0
440.0
1701
850.5
1643.0
1473-1
1202.8
850.5
440.2
1702
851.0
1644.0
1474.0
1203.5
851.0
440.5
1703
851-5
1645.0
1474-8
1204.2
851.5
440.8
1704
852.0
1645.9
1475.7
1204.9
852.0
441.0
1705
852-5
1646.9
1476.6
1205.6
852.5
441.3
1706
853.0
1647.9
1477-4
1206.3
853-0
44 1. 5
1707
853-5
1648.8
1478.3
1207.0
853.5
441.8
1708
854.0
1649.8
1479.2
1207.7
854.0
442.1
1709
854.5
1650.8
1480.0
1208.4
854-5
442.3
1710
855.0
1651.7
1480.9
1209.2
855.0
442.6
1711
855-5
1652.7
1481.8
1209.9
855-5
442.8
1712
856.0
1653.7
1482.6
1210.6
856.0
443-1
1713
856.5
1654.6
1483.5
1211.3
856.5
443-4
1714
857.0
1655.6
1484.4
1212.0
857.0
443-6
1715
857.5
1656.6
1485.2
1212.7
857.5
443-9
1716
858.0
1657.5
1486.1
1213.4
858.0
444.1
1717
858.5
1658.5
1487.0
1214.1
858.5
444.4
1718
859.0
1659-5
1487.8
I214.8
859.0
444-7
1719
859-5
1660.4
1488.7
1215.5
859.5
444.9
1720
860.0
1661.4
1489.6
1216.2
860.0
445.2
1721
860.5
1662.4
1490.4
I216.9
860.5
445-4
1722
861.0
1663.3
1491.3
1217.6
861.0
445.7
1723
861.5
1664.3
1492.2
1218.3
861.5
445.9
1724
862.0
1665.3
1493.0
1219.0
862.0
446.2
1725
862.5
1666.2
1493-9
I219.8
862.5
446.5
1726
863.0
1667.2
1494.8
1220.5
863.0
446.7
1727
863.5
1668.2
1495-6
1221.2
863.5
447.0
1728
864.0
1 669. 1
1496.5
1221.9
864.0
447.2
1729
864.5
1670.I
1497.4
1222.6
864.5
447.5
1730
865.0
1671.I
1498.2
1223.3
865.0
447.8
1731
865.5
1672.0
1499.1
1224.0
865.5
448.0
1732
866.0
1673.0
1 500.0
1224.7
866.0
448.3
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 207
Number.
H Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1733
866.5
1674.0
1500.8
1225.4
866.5
448.5
1734
867.0
1674.9
15OI.7
1226. 1
867.0
448.8
1735
867.5
1675.9
1502.6
1226.8
867.5
449.1
1736
868.0
1676.8
1503-4
1227.5
868.0
449-3
1737
868.5
1677.8
1504.3
1228.2
868.5
449.6
1738
869.0
1678.8
1505.1
1229.0
869.0
449.8
1739
869.5
1679.7
1506.0
1229.7
869.5
450.1
1740
870.0
1680.7
1506.9
1230.4
870.0
450.3
1741
870.5
1681.7
1507.7
1231.1
870.5
450.6
1742
871.0
1682.6
1508.6
1231.8
871.0
450.9
1743
871.5
1683.6
1509-5
1232.5
871-5
45I.I
1744
872.0
1684.6
151O.3
1233.2
872.0
451.4
1745
872.5
1685.5
1511.2
1233-9
872.5
451.6
1746
873.0
1686.5
1512.1
1234.6
873-0
451-9
1747
873.5
1687.5
1512.9
1235.3
873.5
452.2
1748
874-C
1688.4
1513.8
1236.0
874.0
452.4
1749
874.5
1689.4
1514.7
1236.7
874.5
452-7
1750
875.0
1690.4
1515-5
1237.4
875-0
452.9
1751
875.5
169I.3
1516.4
1238.1
875-5
453.2
1752
876.0
1692.3
I517.3
1238.9
876.0
453-4
1753
876.5
1693.3
1518.1
1239.6
876.5
453.7
1754
877.0
1694.2
1519.0
1240.3
877.0
454.0
1755
877.5
1695.2
I519.9
I241.O
877-5
454.2
1756
878.0
1696.2
1520.7
1241.7
878.0
454.5
1757
878.5
1697. 1
1521.6
1242.4
878.5
454-7
1758
879.0
I 698. I
1522.5
1243.1
879.0
455-0
1759
879.5
1699.1
1523.3
1243-8
879.5
455-3
1760
880.0
1700.0
1524.2
1244.5
880.0
455-5
1761
880.5
1701.0
1525.1
1245.2
880.5
455-8
1762
881.0
1702.0
1525.9
1245.9
881.0
456.0
1763
881.5
1702.9
1526.8
1246.6
881.5
456.3
1764
882.0
1703.9
1527.7
1247-3
882.0
456.6
1765
882. 5
1704.9
1528.5
1248.0
882.5
456.8
1766
883.0
1705.8
1529.4
1248.8
883.0
457.1
1767
883.5
1706.8
1530.3
1249.5
883.5
457-3
1768
884.0
1707.8
1531.1
1250.2
884.0
457.6
1769
884.5
1708.7
1532.0
1250.9
884.5
457-9
1770
885.0
1709.7
1532.9
1251.6
885.0
458.1
1771
885.5
1710.7
1533.7
1252.3
885.5
458.4
1772
886.0
1711.6
1534-6
1253.0
886.0
458.6
1773
886.5
1712.6
1535.5
1253.7
886.5
458.9
1774
887.0
1713.6
1536.3
1254.4
887.0
459-1
1775
887.5
1714.5
1537.2
1255.1
887.5
459-4
1776
888.0
1715.5
1538.1
1255.8
888.0
459-7
1777
888.5
1716.S
1538-9
1256.5
888.5
459-9
208 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
M Sin 90°.
Sin 7S°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15O
1778
889.0
I717.4
1539-8
1257.2
889.0
460.2
1779
889.5
1718.4
1540.7
1257.9
889.5
460.4
1780
890.0
1719-3
I54I-5
1258.7
890.0
460.7
1781
890.5
1720.3
1542.4
1259-4
890.5
461.0
1782
891.0
1721.3
1543-3
1 260. 1
891.0
461.2
1783
891-5
1722.2
1544-1
1260.8
891-5
461.5
1784
892.0
1723.2
1545.0
I261.5
892.0
461.7
1785
892.5
1724.2
1545-9
1262.2
892.5
462.0
1786
893.0
1725.I
1546.7
1262.9
893.0
462.3
1787
893-5
1726.I
1547-6
1263.6
893-5
462.5
1788
894.0
1727. 1
1548.5
1264.3
894.0
462.8
1789
894.5
1728.0
1549-3
1265.0
894-5
463.0
1790
895.0
1729.0
1550.2
1265.7
895-0
463-3
1791
895-5
1730.0
1551-1
1266.4
895-5
463-5
1792
896.0
1730.9
1551-9
1267. 1
896.0
463-8
1793.
896.5
1731-9
1552.8
1267.8
896.5
464.1
1794
897.0
1732.9
1553-7
1268.5
897.0
464-3
1795
897.5
1733-8
15S4-S
1269.3
897.5
464.6
1796
898.0
1734-8
1555-4
1270.0
898.0
464.8
1797
898.5
1735-8
1556.3
1270.7
898. 5
465.1
1798
899.0
1736.7
1557-1
1271.3
899.0
465.4
1799
899.5
1737-7
1558.0
1272.1
899.5
465.6
1800
900.0
1738.7
1558-9
1272.8
900.0
4659
1801
900.5
1739-6
1559-7
1273-5
900.5
466.1
1802
901.0
1740.6
1 560.6
1274.2
901.0
466.4
1803
901.5
1741.6
1561.4
1274.9
901.5
466.6
1804
902.0
1742.5
1562.3
1275.6
902.0
466.9
1805
902.5
1743-5
1563-2
1276.3
902.5
467.2
1806
903.0
1744-5
1564.0
1277.0
903.0
467.4
1807
903-5
1745-4
1564.9
1277.7
903-5
467.7
1808
904.0
1746.4
1565-8
1278.4
904.0
467.9
1809
904.5
1747-4
1566.6
1279.2
904.5
468.2
1810
905.0
1748.3
1567.5
1279.9
905.0
468.5
i8ii
905.5
1749-3
1568.4
1280.6
905-5
468.7
1812
906.0
1750.3
1569.2
1281.3
906.0
469.0
1813
906.5
1751.2
1570.1
1282.0
906. 5
469.2
1814
907.0
1752.2
1571.0
1282.7
907.0
469-5
1815
907.5
1753-2
1571.8
1283.4
907.5
469.8
1816
908.0
1754-1
1572.7
1284.1
908.0
470.0
1817
908.5
1755-1
15736
1284.8
908.5
470.3
1818
909.0
1756.1
1574-4
1285.5
909.0
470.5
1819
909.5
1757.0
1575-3
1286.2
909-5
470.8
1820
910.0
1758.0
1576.2
1286.9
910.0
471-1
1821
910.5
1759.0
1577.0
1287.6
910.5
471-3
1822
91 1.
1759-9
1577.9
1288.3
911.
471.6
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 209
Number.
}i Sin 90O.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°,
Sin 30°.
Sin is°
1823
911.S
1760.9
1578.8
1 289. 1
911,5
471.8
1824
912.0
1761.8
1579.6
1289,8
912,0
472.1
1825
912.S
1762.8
1580.5
1290,5
912.5
472.3
1826
913.0
1763.8
1581,4
I29I.2
913.0
472,6
1827
913-5
1764.7
1582,2
I29I.9
913-5
472.9
1828
914.0
1765-7
1583-1
1292,6
914.0
473-1
1829
914.5
1766.7
1584,0
1293-3
914.5
4734
1830
915.0
1767.6
1584.8
1294.0
915.0
473-6
1831
9155
1768.6
1585-7
1294,7
915-5
473-9
1832
916.0
1769.6
1586.6
1295,4
916.0
474.2
1833
916.5
1770.5
1587.4
1 296, 1
916.5
474-4
1834
917.0
1771.5
1588.3
1296,8
917,0
474-7
1835
917-5
1772.5
1589.2
1297.5
917.5
474-9
1836
918.0
1773-4
1590,0
1298,3
918.0
475.2
1837
918.5
1774.4
1590.9
1299,0
918,5
475-5
1838
919.0
1775-4
1591-8
1299.7
919,0
475-7
1839
919.5
1776.3
1592.6
1300,4
919.5
476.0
1840
920.0
1777.3
1593-5
I30I.I
920,0
476.2
1841
920.5
1778.3
1594.4
I3OI.8
920.5
476.5
1842
921.0
1779.2
1595.2
1302.5
921.0
476,7
1843
921.5
1780.2
1 596. 1
1303,2
921,5
477,0
1844
922.0
1781.2
1597.0
1303-9
922,0
477-3
1845
922,5
1782,1
1597.8
1304.6
922,5
477-5
1846
923.0
1783.1
1598-7
1305-3
923.0
477-8
1S47
923-5
1 784. 1
1599.6
1306.0
923.5
478.0
1848
924.0
1785.0
1600.4
1306.7
924.0
478.3
1849
924.5
1786,0
1601.3
1307-5
924.5
478.6
1850
925.0
1787,0
1602.2
1308,1
925.0
478.8
1851
925-5
1787.9
1603.0
1308,8
925-5
479.1
1852
926.0
1788.9
1603.9
1309,6
926.0
479-3
1853
926.5
1789,9
1604.7
I3IO.3
926,5
479.6
1854
927.0
1790.8
1605,6
I3II.0
927,0
479.9
185s
927.5
1791,8
1606.5
1311,7
927.5
480.1
1856
928.0
1792,8
1607,3
1312,4
928.0
480,4
1857
928.5
1793-7
1608.2
1313-I
928.5
480,6
1858
929.0
1794-7
1 609. 1
I313-8
929.0
480,9
1859
929-5
1795-7
1609.9
1314-5
929-5
481.2
i860
930.0
1796,6
1610.8
1315,2
930,0
481.4
1861
930.5
1797,6
1611.7
1315-9
930-5
481.7
1862
931.0
1798.6
1612.5
I316.6
931.0
481,9
1863
931-5
1799-5
1613.4
I317-3
931-5
482.2
1864
932.0
1800,5
1614.3
1318.0
932,0
482,4
1865
932.5
1801,5
1615.I
1318,8
932.5
482.7
1866
933.0
1802,4
1616,0
1319-5
933-0
483-0
1867
933-5
1803.4
1616,9
1320,2
933-5
483,2
2IO A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
STumber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°-
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1868
934.0
1804.3
1617.7
1320.9
934-0
483.5
1869
934-5
1805.3
1618.6
1321.6
934-5
483.7
1870
935-0
1806.3
1619.5
1322.3
' 935-0
484.0
1871
935-5
1807.2
1620.3
1323.0
935-5
484.2
1872
936.0
1808.2
1621.2
1323-7
936.0
484-5
1873
936. 5
1809.2
1622,1
1324-4
936.5
484-8
1874
937-0
1810.I
1622.9
1325.1
937.0
485-0
1875
937-5
1811.I
1623.8
1325.8
937.5
485-3
1876
938.0
1812.I
1624.7
1326.5
938.0
485.5
1877
938.5
1813.0
1625.5
1327.2
938.5
485.8
1878
939-0
1814.O
1626.4
1327.9
939.0
486.1
1879
939-5
1815.0
1627.3
1328.7
939. 5
486.3
1880
940.0
1815.9
1628. I
1329-4
940.0
486.6
1881
940.5
1816.9
1629.0
1330.1
940.5
486,8
1882
941.0
1817.9
1629.9
1330-8
941.0
487.1
1883
941. 5
1818.8
1630,7
133I-5
941.5
487.4
1884
942.0
1819.8
1631.6
1332.2
942.0
487.6
1885
942.5
1820.8
1632.5
1332-9
942.5
487.9
1886
943.0
182I.7
1633.3
1333.6
943.0
488.1
1887
943-5
1822.7
1634.2
1334.3
943-5
488.4
1888
944.0
1823.7
1635.1
1335.0
944.0
488.7
1889
944-5
1824.6
1635.9
1335-7
944.5
488.9
1890
94S-0
1825.6
1636.8
1336-4
945-0
489.2
1891
945-5
1826.6
1637.7
1337-1
945-5
489.4
1892
946.0
1827.5
1638.5
1337-8
946.0
489-7
1893
946.5
1828.5
1639.4
1338.6
946.5
489.9
1894
947.0
1829.5
1640.3
1339-3
947.0
490.2
189s
947-5
1830.4
1641.I
1340.0
947.5
490.5
1896
948.0
1831.4
1642,0
1340.7
948.0
490.7
1897
948.5
1832.4
1642.9
1341.4
948.5
491.0
1898
949-0
1833-3
1643.7
1342.1
949.0
491.2
1899
949-5
1834.3
1644-6
1342.8
949.5
491.5
1900
950-0
1835.3
1645-4
1343-5
950.0
491.8
I901
950.5
1836.2
1646.3
1344-2
950.S
492.0
1902
9SI-0
1837.2
1647.2
1344.9
951.0
492.3
1903
951-5
1838.2
1648.0
1345.6
951.5
492.5
1904
952.0
1839. I
1648.9
1346.3
952.0
492.8
1905
952.5
1840.1
1649.8
1347.0
952.5
493.1
1906
953-0
1841.1
1650.6
1347.7
953.0
493-3
1907
953-5
1842.0
165I.5
1348.4
953.5
493-6
1908
9S4-0
1843.0
1652.4
1349.2
954.0
493-8
1909
954.5
1844.0
1653-2
1349-9
954.5
494.1
1910
955-0
1844.9
1654.1
1350.6
955.0
494-3
1911
955-5
1845.9
1655.0
I35I-3
955.5
494.6
1912
956.0
1846.8
1655-9
1352-0
956-0
494-9
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 211
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sm 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
I913
956.5
1847.8
1656.7
1352.7
956.5
495.1
I914
957.0
1848.8
1657.6
1353-4
957.0
4^5.4
1915
957.5
1849.7
1658.5
I3S4.I
957.5
495.6
I916
958.0
1850.7
1659.3
1354.8
958.0
495.9
1917
958-5
1851-7
1660.2
1355.5
958-5
496.2
1918
959.0
1852.6
1661.I
1356.2
959-0
496.4
1919
959-5
1853.6
1661.9
1356.9
959-5
496.7
1920
960.0
1854.6
1662.8
1357-6
960.0
496-9
1921
960.5
1855-5
1663.6
1358.3
960.5
497.2
1922
961.0
1856.5
1664.5
1359.1
961.0
497.4
1923
961.5
1857-5
1665.4
1359.8
961.5
497.7
1924
962.0
1858.4
1666.2
1360.5
962.0
498.0
1925
962.5
1859-4
1667.1
1361.2
962.5
498,2
1926
963.0
1860,4
1668.0
1361.9
963.0
498.5
1927
963-5
1861.3
1668.8
1362.6
963.5
498.7
1928
964.0
1862.3
1669.7
1363-3
964.0
499-0
1929
964. S
1863.3
1670.6
1364.0
964.5
499-3
1930
965.0
1864.2
1671.4
1364.7
965.0
499-5
I931
965.5
1865.2
1672,3
1365.4
965.5
499.8
1932
966.0
1866.2
1673.2
1366.1
966.0
500,0
1933
966.5
1867.1
1674.0
1366.8
966.5
500.3
1934
967.0
1868.1
1674.9
1367.5
967.0
500.6
1935
967.5
1869.1
1675.8
1368.3
967-5
500.8
1936
968.0
1870.0
1676.6
1369.0
968.0
501.1
1937
968.5
1871.0
1677.5
1369.7
968.5
501.3
1938
969.0
1872.0
1678.4
1370.4
969.0
501.6
1939
969.5
1872.9
1679.2
1371.1
969.5
501.9
1940
970.0
18739
1680.1
1371.8
970.0
502,1
I941
970.5
1874.9
1680,9
1372.5
970.5
502,4
1942
971.0
1875.8
1681.8
1373.2
971.0
502.6
1943
971.5
1876.8
1682.7
1373.9
971.5
502.9
1944
972.0
1877.8
1683,6
1374-6
972.0
503. 1
1945
972.5
1878.7
1684.4
1375-3
972-5
503-4
1946
973.0
1879.7
1685.3
1376.0
973-0
503-7
1947
973.5
1880.7
1686.2
1376.7
973-5
503.9
1948
974.0
1881.6
1687,0
1377.4
974.0
504.2
1949
974-5
1882.6
1687.9
1378.2
974.5
504,4
1950
975.0
1883.6
1688.8
1378.9
975.0
504.7
1951
975.5
1884.5
1689.6
1379.6
975-5
505.0
1952
976.0
1885.S
1690,5
1380.3
976.0
505.2
1953
976.5
1886.5
169I.3
1381.0
976,5
505-5
1954
977.0
1887.4
1692,2
1381.7
977.0
505.7
1955
977.5
1888.4
1693.1
1382.4
977-5
506.0
1956
978.0
1889.4
1693.9
1383-1
978,0
506.3
1957
978.5
1890.3
1694.8
1383.8
978.5
506.5
212 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
;^ Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1958
979.0
189I.3
1695.7
1384-5
979.0
506.8
1959
979-5
1892.2
1696.5
1385.2
979-5
507.0
i960
980.0
1893.2
1697.4
1385-9
980.0
507-3
1961
980.5
1894.2
1698.3
1386.6
980.5
507.5
1962
981.0
1895. 1
1699. 1
1387-3
981.0
507.8
1963
981.5
1896. I
1700.0
I388.I
981.5
508.1
1964
982.0
1897-I
1700.9
1388.8
982.0
508.3
1965
982.5
1898.0
170I.7
1389-5
982.5
508.6
1966
9S3.0
1899.0
1702.6
1390.2
983.0
508.8
1967
983-5
1900.0
1703.5
1390.9
983-5
509.1
1968
984.0
1900.9
1704-3
1391.6
984.0
509.4
1969
984-5
I9OI.9
1705.2
1392.3
984-5
509.6
1970
985-0
1902.9
1 706. 1
1393-0
985.0
509.9
1971
985-5
1903.8
1707.0
1393-7
985-S
510. 1
1972
986.0
1904.8
1707.8
1394-4
986.0
510.4
1973
986.5
1905.8
1708.7
1395-I
986.5
510.6
1974
987.0
1906.7
1709.6
1395-8
987.0
510.9
1975
987-5
1907.7
1710.4
1 396. 5
987.5
511.2
1976
988.0
1908.7
171I-3
1397.2
988.0
5II.4
1977
988.S
1909.6
1712.I
1397-9
988.5
51I.7
1978
989.0
I9IO.6
1713.O
1398.7
989.0
511.9
1979
989. 5
I9II.6
I713-9
1399-4
989-5
512.2
1980
990.0
I912.5
1714.7
1400.1
990.0
512.5
1981
990.5
1913-5
1715.6
1400.8
990.5
512.7
1982
991.0
1914-5
1716.5
1401.5
991.0
513.0
1983
991-5
I915.4
1717-3
1402.2
991-5
513.2
1984
992.0
I916.4
1718.2
1402.9
992.0
513-5
1985
992.5
I917.4
1719.I
1403.6
992-5
513-8
1986
993-0
I918.3
1719.9
1404.3
993-0
514.0
1987
993.5
I919-3
1720.8
1405.0
993-5
514-3
1988
994.0
1920.3
1721.7
1405.7
994-0
514-5
1989
994-5
I92I.2
1722.5
1406.4
994-5
514.8
1990
995.0
1922.2
1723-4
1407.1
995.0
515-I
1991
995-5
1923.2
1724-3
1407.8
995-5
515-3
1992
996.0
1924. 1
1725.1
1408.6
996.0
515.6
1993
996.5
I925.I
1726.0
1409.3
996.5
515.8
1994
997-0
1926. 1
1726.9
1410.0
997.0
516.1
1995
997-5
1927.0
1727.7
1410.7
997-5
516.3
1996
998.0
1928.0
1728.6
1411.4
998.0
516.6
1997
998-5
1929.0
1729.5
1412.1
998.5
516.9
1998
999.0
1929.9
1730.3
1412.8
999-0
517.1
1999
999-5
1930.9
1731.2
1413-5
999-5
517.4
2000
1000.
193I-9
1732.1
1414.2
I 000.0
517.6
2001
1000.5
1932.9
1732-9
1414.9
1000.5
518.0
2002
1001.
1933-8
17.33-8
1415.6
lOOI.O
5,8.2
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 21 3
Number.
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
201 1
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2C23
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
. 2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
204 s
2046
2047
}i Sin 90°.
IOOI.5
1002.0
1002.5
1003.0
1003.5
1004.0
1004.5
1005.0
1005.5
1006.0
1006.5
1007.0
1007.5
1008.0
1008.5
1009.0
1009.5
lOIO.O
1010.5
1011. o
IOII.5
1012.0
1012,5
1013.0
IOI3-5
1014.0
1014.5
1015.0
1015.5
1016,0
1016.5
1017.0
1017.5
1018.0
1018.5
1019.0
1019.5
1020.0
1020.5
1021.0
1021.5
1022.0
1022.5
1023.0
1023.5
Sin 75°-
1934.8
1935-8
1936.7
1937.7
1938-7
1939.6
1940,6
1941-5
1942.5
1943-4
1944,4
1945.4
1946.3
1947.3
1948.3
1949.2
1950.2
1951-2
1952-1
1953-1
1954. 1
I9S5-0
1956.0
1957,0
1957.9
1958,9
1959.9
1960,8
1961,8
1962,8
1963.7
1964,7
1965.7
1966.6
1967.6
1968,5
1969.5
1970.5
1971-4
1972.4
1973.4
1974.3
1975-3
1976.3
1977.2
Sin 60°.
1734-6
1735-5
1736-4
1737.2
1738.1
1739-0
1739-8
1740.7
1741.6
1742.4
1743-3
1744.2
1745-0
1745.9
1746.8
1747.6
1748.5
1749.4
1750.2
1751.1
1752.0
1752.8
1753-7
1754.6
1755-4
1756.3
1757.2
1758.0
1758.9
1759-8
1760.6
1761.5
1762.4
1763.2
1764.1
1765.0
1765,8
1766.7
1767.6
1768.4
1769.3
1770,2
1771,0
1771.9
1772.8
Sin 45°.
1416.3
1417.0
1417.7
1418.5
1419.2
1419.9
1420.6
1421,3
1422.0
1422.7
1423.4
I424.I
1424.8
1425.5
1426.2
1426.9
1427.7
1428.4
1429. I
1429.8
1430.5
1431.2
1431-9
1432.6
1433-3
1434.0
1434-7
1435-4
1436.1
1436.8
1437.6
1438.3
1439.0
1439-7
1440.4
1441.1
1441.8
1442.5
1443.2
1443.9
1444.6
1445-3
1446.0
1446,7
1447.4
Sin 30°.
1001.5
1002.0
1002.5
1003.0
1003.5
1004.0
1004.5
1005.0
1005.5
1006.0
1006.5
1007.0
1007,5
1008,0
1008.5
1009,0
1009.5
lOIO.O
1010.5
1011. o
1011.5
1012.0
1012.5
1013.0
1013-5
1014.0
1014-5
1015.0
1015-5
1016.0
1016.5
1017.0
1017.5
1018.0
1018,5
1019,0
1019.5
1020,0
1020.5
1021.0
1021.5
1022.0
1022.5
1023.0
1023.5
Sin 15O.
518.4
518.7
518.9
519,2
519-S
519-7
520,0
520,2
520.5
520.7
521.0
521-3
521. 5
521.8
522.0
522.3
522.6
522.8
523-1
523-3
523-6
523-8
524.1
524.4
524.6
524.9
525-1
525-4
525.7
525.9
526.2
526.4
526.7
527.0
527.2
527-5
527-7
528.0
528.2
528.5
528.8
529.0
529-3
529-5
529.8
214 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
>i Sin 90".
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin is°.
2048
1024.0
1978.2
1773-6
1448.2
1024.0
530.1
2049 '
1024.5
1979.2
1774.5
1448.9
1024.5
530.3
2050
1025.0
1980. 1
1775-4
1449.6
1025.0
530.6
2051
1025.5
1981.1
1776.2
1450.3
1025.5
530.8
2052
1026.0
1982.1
1777.1
1451.0
1026.0
531.1
2053
1026.5
1983.0
1777.9
1451.7
1026.5
531.4
2054
1027.0
1984.0
1778.8
1452.4
1027
531.6
2055
1027.5
1985.0
1779.7
1453.1
1027.5
531-9
2056
1028.0
1985.9
1780.5
1453-8
1028.0
532.1
2057
1028.5
1986.9
1781.4
1454.5
1028.5
532.4
2058
1029.0
1987.9
1782.3
1455.2
1029.0
532.7
2059
1029.5
1988.8
1783.1
1455-9
1029.5
532.9
2060
1030.0
1989.8
1784.0
1456.6
1030.0
533-2
2061
1030.5
1990.8
1784.9
1457-3
1030.5
533-4
2062
IO31.O
1991.7
1785.7
1458.1
1031.0
533-7
2063
IO31.5
1992.7
1786.6
1458.8
1031.5
533.9
2064
1032.0
1993.7
1787.5
1459.5
1032.0
534-2
2065
1032.5
1994.6
1788.3
1460.2
1032.5
534.5
2066
1033.0
1995.6
1789.2
1460.9
1033.0
534.7
2067
1033-5
1996.6
1790.1
1461.6
1033.5
535-0
2068
1034.0
1997.5
1790.9
1462.3
1034.0
535-2
2069
1034.5
1998.5
1791.8
1463.0
1034.5
535-5
2070
1035.0
1999-5
1792.7
1463.7
1035.0
535-8
2071
1035-5
2000.4
1793-5
1464.4
1035.5
536.0
2072
1036.0
2001.4
1794.4
1465.1
1036.0
536.3
2073
1036.5
2002.4
1795.3
1465.8
1036.5
536.5
2074
1037.0
2003.3
1796.1
1466.5
1037.0
536.8
2075
1037.5
2004.3
1797.0
1467.2
1037-5
537-1
2076
1038.0
2005.3
1797.9
1468.0
1038.0
537.3
2077
1038.5
2006.2
1798.7
1468.7
1038.5
537.6
2078
1039.0
2007.2
1799.6
1469.4
1039.0
537.8
2079
I 039- 5
2008.2
1800.5
1470. I
1039-5
538.1
2080
1040.0
2009.1
1801.3
1470.8
1040.0
538.3
2081
1040.5
2010.1
1802.2
1471.5
1040.5
538.6
2082
1041.0
2011. I
1803.1
1472.2
1041.0
538.9
2083
1041.5
2012.0
1803.9
1472.9
1041.5
539-1
2084
1042.0
2013.0
1804.8
1473.6
1042.0
539-4
2085
1042.5
2013.9
1805.7
1474.3
1042.5
539-6
2086
1043.0
2014.9
1806.5
1475.0
1043.0
539-9
2087
I043-S
2015.9
1807.4
1475-7
1043.5
540.2
2088
1044.0
2016.8
1808.3
1476.4
1044-0
540.4
2089
1044,5
2017.8
1809.1
1477.1
1044.5
540.7
2090
1045.0
2018.8
1810.0
1477.9
1045.0
540.9
2091
1045.5
2019.7
1810.9
1478.6
1045.5
541.2
2092
1046.0
2020.7
1811.7
1479-3
1046.0
541.4
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 215
dumber.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2093
1046.5
2021.7
1812.6
1480.0
1046.5
541.7
2094
1047.0
2022,6
1813.S
1480.7
1047.0
542.0
2095
IO47.S
2023.6
1814.3
1481.4
1047.5
542.2
2096
1048.0
2024.6
1815.2
1482.1
1048.0
542.5
2097
1048.5
2025.5
1816.I
1482.8
1048.5
542.7
2098
1049.0
2026.5
1816.9
1483.5
1049.0
S43-0
2099
1049.5
2027.5
1817.8
1484.2
1049.5
543-3
2100
1050.0
2028.4
1818.7
1484.9
1050.0
543-5
2IOI
1050.5
2029.4
1819.5
1485.6
1050.5
543-8
2102
I051.O
2030.4
1820.4
1486.3
1051.0
544.0
2103
1051.5
2031.3
1821.2
1487.0
1051.5
544.3
2104
1052.0
2032.3
1822. I
1487.7
1052.0
544.6
2105
1052.5
2033.3
1823.0
1488.5
1052.5
544-8
2106
1053.0
2034.2
1823.8
1489.2
1053.0
545-1
2107
1053-5
2035.2
1824.7
1489.9
1053.5
545-3
2108
1054.0
2036.2
1825.6
1490.6
1054.0
545-6
2109
1054.5
2037.1
1826.4
1491.3
1054.5
545-8
2IIO
1055.0
2038.1
1827.3
1492.0
1055.0
546.1
2III
1055.5
2039.1
1828.2
1492.7
1055-5
546.4
2II2
1056.0
2040.0
1829.0
1493-4
1056.0
546.6
2II3
1056.5
2041.0
1829.9
1494. I
1056.5
546.9
2114
1057.0
2042.0
1830.8
1494.8
1057.0
547.1
2II5
1057.5
» 2042.9
1831.6
1495-5
1057-5
547.4
2I16
1058.0
2043.9
1832.5
1496.2
1058.0
547.7
2II7
1058.5
2044.9
1833.4
1497.0
1058.5
547.9
2I18
1059.0
2045.8
1834.2
1497.7
1059.0
548.2
2II9
1059-5
2046.8
1835.1
1498.4
1059.5
548.4
2120
1060.0
2047.8
1836.0
1499.1
1060.0
548.7
2I2I
1060.5
2048.7
1836.8
1499-8
1060,5
549.0
2122
1061.0
2049.7
1837.7
1500.5
1061.0
549-2
2123
1061.5
2050.7
1838.6
1501.2
1061.5
549-5
2124
1062.0
2051.6
1839.4
1501.9
1062.0
549-7
2125
1062.5
2052.6
1840.3
1502.6
1062.5
550.0
2126
1063.0
2053.6
1841.2
1503-3
1063.0
550.3
2127
1063.5
2054.5
1842.0
1504.0
1063.5
550.5
2128
1064.0
2055-5
1842.9
1504.7
1064.0
550.8
2129
1064.5
2056.5
1843.8
1505.4
1064.5
551.0
2130
1065.0
2057.4
1844.6
1506.1
1065.0
551-3
213I
1065.5
2058.4
1845.5
1506.8
1065.5
551-5
2132
1066.0
2059.4
1846.4
1507.6
1066.0
551.8
2133
1066.5
2060.3
1847.2
1508.3
1066.5
552.1
2134
1067.0
2061.3
1848.1
1509.0
1067,0
552.3
2135
1067.5
2062.3
1849.0
1509.7
1067.5
552.6
2136
1068.0
2063.2
1849.8
1510.4
1068.0
552.8
2137
1068.5
2064.2
1850.7
15". I
1068,5
553-1
2l6 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2138
1069.0
2065. 1
1851.6
1511.8
1069.0
553.4
2139
1069.5
2066.1
1852.4
1512.5
1069.5
553.6
2140
1070.0
2067.1
1853.3
1513.2
1070.0
553-9
2141
1070.5
2068.0
1854.2
1513-9
1070.5
554.1
2142
107 I.
2069.0
1855.0
I5M.6
IO71.O
554.4
2143
IO71.5
2070.0
1855-9
1515.3
1071.5
554.6
2144
1072.0
2070.9
1856.8
1516.0
1072.0
554.9
2145
1072.5
2071.9
1857.6
1516.7
1072.5
555-2
2146
1073.0
2072.9
1858.5
1517.S
1073.0
555.4
2147
I073-S
2073.8
1859.4
1518.2
IO73.S
555.7
2148
1074.0
2074.8
1860.2
1518.9 •
1074.0
555-9
2149
1074.5
2075.8
1861.I
1519.6
1074.5
556.2
2150
1075.0
2076.7
1862.0
1520.3
1075.0
556.5
2151
1075.5
2077.7
1862.8
1521.0
1075.5
556.7
2152
1076.0
2078.7
1863.7
1521.7
1076.0
557.0
2153
1076.5
2079.6
1864. 5
1522.4
1076.5
557.2
2154
1077.0
2080.6
1865.4
1523.1
1077.0
557.5
2IS5
1077.5
2081.6
1866.3
1523.8
1077.5
557.8
2156
1078.0
2082.5
1867.1
1524.5
1078.0
558.0
21 57
1078.5
2083.S
1868.0
1525.2
1078.5
558.3
2158
1079.0
2084.5
1868.9
1525.9
1079.0
558.5
2159
1079.S
2085.4
1869.7
1526.6
1079.5
558.8
2160
1080.0
2086.4
1870.6
1527.4 '
1080.0
559-1
2161
1080.5
2087.4
1871.5
1528.1
1080.5
559.3
2162
1081.0
2088.3
1872.3
1528.8
1081.0
559.6
2163
1081.5
2089.3
1873.2
1529.5
1081.5
559.8
2164
1082.0
2090.3
1874.1
1530.2
1082.0
560.1
216s
1082.5
2091.2
1874.9
1530.9
1082.5
560.3
2166
1083.0
2092.2
1875.8
1531.6
1083.0
560.6
2167
1083. 5
2093.2
1876.7
1532.3
1083.5
560.9
2168
1084.0
2094.1
1877.5
1533.0
1084.0
561. 1
2169
1084.S
2095.1
1878.4
1533.7
1084.5
561.4
2170
1085.0
2096. I
1879.3
1534.4
1085.0
561.6
2171
1085.S
2097.0
1880.1
1535.1
1085.5
561.9
2172
1086.0
2098.0
1881.0
1535.8
1086.0
562.2
2173
1086.5
2099.0
1881.9
1536.5
1086.5
562.4
2174
1087.0
2099.9
1882.7
1537.2
1087.0
562.7
2I7S
1087.5
2100.9
1883.6
1538.0
1087.S
562.9
2176
1088.0
2101.9
1884.5
1538-7
1088.0
563.2
2177
1088.5
2102.8
1885.3
1539.4
1088.5
563.5
2178
1089.0
2103.8
1886.2
1540.1
1089.0
563.7
2179
1089.5
2104.8
1887.1
1540.8
1089.5
564.0
2180
1090.0
2105.7
1887.9
1541.5
1090.0
564.2
2181
1090.5
2106.7
1888.8
1542.2
1090.5
564.5
2182
1091.0
2107.7
1889.7
1542.9
1091.0
564.7
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 217
STiimber.
}i Sin 90°.
.Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2183
IC91.5
2108.6
1890.5
1543-6
IO91.5
565-0
2184
1092.0
2109.6
1891.4
1544-3
1092.0
565-3
2185
1092. 5
2IIO.5
1892.3
1545-0
1092.5
565-5
2186
1093.0
2III.5
1893. 1
1545-7
1093.0
565-8
2187
1093- S
2112.5
1894.0
1546.4
1093-5
566.0
2188
1094.0
2II3.4
1894.9
1547.1
1094.0
566.3
21S9
1094.5
2II4.4
1895.7
1547-9
1094.5
566.6
2190
1095.0
2II5.4
1896.6
1548.6
1095.0
566.8
2191
1095-5
2I16.3
1897-5
1549-3
1095-5
567.1
2192
1096,0
.2117.3
1898.3
1550.0
1096.0
567-3
2193
1096.5
2I18.3
1899.2
1550.7
1096.5
567.6
2194
1097.0
2II9.2
1900.1
1551-4
1097.0
567.8
-2195
1097.5
2120.2
1900.9
1552.1
1097-5
568.1
2196
1098.0
2I2I.2
1901.8
1552-8
1098.0
568.4
2197
1098.5
2122. 1
1902.7
1553-5
1098.5
568.6
2198
1099.0
2I23.I
1903-5
1554-2
1099.0
568.9
2199
1099.5
2124. I
1904.4
1554.9
1099-5
569.1
2200
IIOO.O
2125.0
1905-3
1555-6
IIOO.O
569.4
2201
II00.5
2126.0
1906.1
1556-3
1100.5
569.7
2202
IIOI.O
2127.0
1907.0
1557-1
IIOI.O
570.0
2203
IIOI.5
2127.9
1907.9
1557-8
II01.5
570.2
2204
II02.0
2128.9
I90S.7
1558-5
1102.0
570.4
2205
IIO2.5
2129.9
1909.6
1559.2
1102.5
570.7
2206
1103.0
2130.8
1910.5
1559.9
1103.0
571.0
2207
"O3.5
2I3I.8
1911.3
1560.6
1103-5
571.2
2208
1 104.0
2132.8
1912.2
1561.3
1104.0
571.5
2209
II04.5
2133-7
1913.1
1562.0
1104.5
571.7
2210
1 105.0
2134-7
1913-9
1562.7
1105.0
572.0
22II
iioS-5
2135-7
1914.8
1563-4
1105.5
572.2
2212
1 106.0
2136.6 .
1915.7
1564.1
1 106.0
572.S
2213
1106.5
2137.6
1916.5
1564.8
1106.5
572.8
2214
1 107.0
2138.6
1917.4
1565-5
1107.0
573-0
22IS
1107.5
2139-5
1918.3
1566.2
1107.5
573-3
2216
1 108.0
2140.5
I919.I
1567.0
1 108.0
573-5
2217
1,08.5
2141.5
1920.0
1567.7
1108.5
573.8
:22l8
1109.0
2142.4
1920.8
1568.4
1109.0
574.1
2219
1109.5
2143-4
1921.7
1 569. 1
IIO9.5
574.3
2220
IIIO.O
2144.4
1922.6
1569.8
IIIO.O
574.6
2221
III0.5
2145-3
1923.4
1570.5
II10.5
574.8
2222
IIII.O
2146.3
1924.3
1571.2
llIl.O
575.1
2223
nil. 5
2147-3
1925.2
1571-9
nil. 5
575-4
2224
1112.0
2148.2
1926.0
1572.6
1112.0
575-6
2225
1112.5
2149.2
1926.9
1573-3
1112.5
575-9
2226
1113.0
2150.2
1927.8
1574-0
1113.0
576.1
2227
1113.S
2151.1
1928.6
1574-7
1113-5
576.4
2l8 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number. >i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°. Sin 30°.
2228
1 1 14.0
2152.I
1929.5
1575-4
1 114.0
2229
1 1 14.5
2153-1
1930.4
1576.1
[114.5
2230
[II5.0
2154.0
1931-2
1576.9
[I15-0
2231
"iS-5
2155.0
1932. 1
1577-6
1115-5
2232
II 16.0
2155-9
1933-0
1578.3
1116.0
2233
116,5
2156.9
1933-8
1579-0
ni6.s
2234
117.0
2157-9
1934-7
1579-7
[117.0
2235
[117.5
2158.8
1935-6
1580.4
117.5
2236
tiiS.o
* 2159.8
1936.4
1581.1
[1 18.0
2237
1 18. 5
2160.8
1937-3
1581.8
118.5
2238
119.0
2161.7
1938.2
1582.5
119.0
2239
[119.5
2162.7
1939.0
1583.2
119.5
2240
120.0
2163.7
1939-9
1583.9 ]
120.0
2241
120.5
2164.6
1940.8
1584.6
[ 120.5
2242
[121.0
2165.6
1941.6
1585-3
121.
2243
121.5
2166.6
1942.5
1586.0
121.5
2244
U22,0
2167.5
1943-4
1586.7 ]
122.0
2245
122.5
2168.5
1944.2
1587.5
122.5
2246
[1 23.0
2169.5
I945-I
1588.2
123.0
2247
123-5
2170.4
1946.0
158S.9
123-5
2248
124.0
2171.4
1946.8
1589.6
124.0
2249 1
124.5
2172.4
1947-7
1590.3
124.5
2250
125.0
2173-3
1948.6
1591.0 ]
125.0
2251
125.5
2174-3
1949.4
1591.7 ]
125-5
2252
126.0
2175-3
1950.3
1592.4
126.0
2253
126.5
2176.2
1951.2
1593.1
126.5
2254 ]
127.0
2177.2
1952.0
1593.8
1127.0
2255
127.5
2178.2
1952.9
1594.5
1127-5
2256
128.0
2179.1
1953-8
1595.2 ]
128.0
2257
[128.5
2180. 1
1954.6
1595.9
[128.5
2258
129.0
2181. 1
^955-5
1596.6
129.0
2259
129.5
2182.0
1956.4
1597.4
129.5
2260
[1 30.0
2183.0
1957.2
1598.1
130.0
2261
130-5
2184.0
1958.1
1598.8
130.5
2262
131.
2184.9
1959.0
1599-5
131.0
2263
131-5
2185.9
1959.8
1600.2
131-5
2264
[132.0
2186.9
1960.7
1600.9
132.0
2265
[132.5
2187.8
1961.6
1601.6 ]
132.S
2266
1133-0
2188.8
1962.4
1602.3
[1 33-0
2267
"33-5
2189.8
1963-3
1603.0
133-5
2268
[ 134.0
2190.7
1 964. 1
1603.7
1 134.0
2269
134.5
2191.7
1965.0
1604.4 1
134.5
2270
135-0
2192.7
1965.9
1605.1 ]
135-0
2271
[135-5
2193.6
1966.7
1605.8
135.5
2272
136.0
2194.6
1967.6
1606.5 ]
136.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 219
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
"36-5
2195.6
I968.S
1607.3
1136.5
588.3
II37.O
2196.5
1969.3
1608.0
1137.0
588.6
"37-5
2197.5
1970.2
1608.7
II37.5
588.8
1138.0
2198.4
1971.1
1609.4
1 1 38.0
589.1
1138.5
2199.4
1971.9
1610.1
1138.5
589-3
1139.0
2200.4
1972.8
1610.8
1139.0
589.6
"39-5
2201.3
1973.7
1611.5
"39-5
589.9
1140.0
2202.3
1974.5
1612.2
I 140.0
590.1
1140.S
2203.3
1975-4
1612.9
1140.5
590.4
1141.0
2204.2
1976.3
1613.6
1141.0
590. 6
1141.S
2205.2
1977.1
1614.3
1141.5
590-9
1142.0
2206.2
1978.0
1615.0
1142.0
591.1
1142.5
2207.1
1978.9
1615.7
1142.5
591.4
1 143.0
2208.1
1979-7
1616.4
1143.0
591-7
"43-5
2209.1
1980.6
1617.I
1 143-5
591.9
1 144.0
2210.0
1981.5
1617.9
1144.0
592.2
1144.S
2211.0
1982.3
1618.6
1144.5
592.4
1145.0
2212.0
1983.2
1619.3
1145.0
592.7
"45-5
2212.9
1984.1
1620.0
"45.5
5930
I 146.0
2213.9
1984.9
1620.7
1146.0
593-2
1146.S
2214.9
1985.8
1621.4
1146.5
593.5
1 147.0
2215.8
1986.7
1622.1
1147.0
593-7
1147-5
2216.8
1987.5
1622.8
1147.5
594.0
1148.0
2217.8
1988.4
1623.5
1148.0
594.3
1148.5
2218.7
1989.3
1624.2
1148.5
594. 5
1 149.0
2219.7
1 990. 1
1624.9
1149.0
594-8
II49-5
2220.7
1991.0
1625.6
1149-5
595-0
1150.0
2221.6
1991.9
1626.3
1150.0
595-3
1150.S
2222.6
1992.7
1627.0
1150.5
595-5
1151.0
2223.6
1993.6
1627.8
1151.0
595-8
1151.5
2224.5
1994.5
1628.5
1151. 5
596.1
1152.0
2225.5
1995.3
1629.2
1152.0
596.3
1152.5
2226.5
1996.2
1629.9
1152.5
596-6
1153.0
2227.4
1997.1
1630.6
1153.0
596.8
1153-5
2228.4
1997.9
1631.3
1153.5
597-1
1 1 54.0
2229.4
1998.8
1632.0
1154.0
597.4
1154.5
2230.3
1999.7
1632.7
1154.5
597.6
1155.0
2231.3
2000.5
1633.4
1155.0
597.9
1155.5
2232.3
2001.4
1634-1
"55-5
598.1
1156.0
2233.2
2002.3
1634.8
1156.0
598.4
1156.5
2234.2
2003.1
1635-S
1156.5
598-6
1157.0
2235.2
2004.0
1636.2
1157.0
598-9
1157-5
2236.1
2004.9
1637-0
1157.5
599.2
1158.0
2237.1
2005.7
1637.7
1158.0
599.4
1158.5
2238.1
2006.6
1638.4
1158-5
599-7
1159.0
2239.0
2007.4
1639.1
1159.0
599-9
220 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number. X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°. S
n30°.
2319 1
159-5
2240.0
2008.3
1639.8 1
159-5
2320 ]
160.0
2241.0
2009.2
1640.5 ]
160.0
2321 ]
160.5
2241.9
2010.0
1641.2 I
160.5
2322
161.
2242.9
2010.9
1641.9 ]
161.0
2323 ]
161.5
2243.9
20II.8
1642.6 ]
161. 5
2324
162.0
2244.8
2012.6
1643-3
162.0
2325
162.5
2245.8
2013.5
1644.0 1
162.5
2326
163.0
2246.7
2014.4
1644,7
163.0
2327
163.5
2247-7
2015.2
1645.4
163.5
2328
164.0
2248.7
2016.1
1646. 1
164.0
2329
164.5
2249.6
2017.0
1646.9 ]
164.5
2330
165.0
2250.6
2017.8
1647.6 ]
165.0
2331
165-5
2251.6
2018.7
1648.3
165.5
2332
166.0
2252.5
2019.6
1649.0 ]
166.0
2333
166.S
2253-5
2020.4
1649.7 ]
166.5
2334
167.0
2254.5
2021.3
1650.4
167.0
2335
167.5
2255-4
2022.2
1651.1
167.5
2336
168.0
2256.4
2023.0
1651.8
168.0
2337
168.5
2257.4
2023.9
1652.5
168.5
2338
169.0
2258.3
2024.8
1653.2
169.0
2339
169.5
2259.3
2025.6
1653-9
169.5
2340
170.0
2260.3
2026.5
1654.6
170.0
2341
170.5
2261.2
2027.4
1655-3
170.5
2342
171.0
2262.2
2028.2
1656.0
[171.O
2343
1171.5
2263.2
2029.1
1656.8
171.5
2344
[172.0
2264.1
2030.0
1657-5
[I72.O
2345
[172.5
2265.1
2030.8
1658.2
172.5
2346
[I73-0
2266.1
2031.7
1658.9
173.0
2347
[173-5
2267.0
2032.6
1659.6
173-5
2348
[174.0
2268.0
2033-4
1660.3
C174.0
2349
[174-5
2269.0
2034-3
1661.O
[174.5
2350
[175.0
2269.9
2035.2
1661.7
175.0
2351
[175-5
2270.9
2036.0
1662.4
[175-5
2352
[176.0
2271.9
2036.9
1663.1
176.0
2353
1176.5
2272.8
2037.8
1663.8
176.5
2354
1177.0
2273-8
2038.6
1664.5
177.0
2355
II77-5
2274.8
2039.5
1665.2
[177-5
2356
1178.0
2275.7
2040.4
1665.9
178.0
2357
1178.5
2276.7
2041.2
1666.6
178.5
2358
1 179.0
2277.7
2042.1
1667.4
179.0
2359
1179.5
2278.6
2043.0
1668.1
1 79. 5
2360
I 180.0
2279.6
2043.8
1668.8 ]
180.0
2361
ti8o.5
2280.6
2044.7
1669.5 ]
180.5
2362
1181.0
2281.5
2045.6
1670.2 1
181.0
2363
[181.5
2282.5
2046.4
1670.9 1
181.5
2364
[182.0
2283.5
* 2047.3
1671.6
182.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 221
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2365
I182.S
2284.4
2048.2
1672,3
I182.5
612.1
2366
1 183.0
2285.4
2049.0
1673.0
1183,0
612,4
2367
"83.5
2286.4
2049.9
1673-7
1183.5
612,6
2368
I184.O
2287,3
2050.7
1674.4
1184.0
612.9
2369
I184.S
2288.3
2051.6
1675.1
1184.5
613,1
2370
II85.O
2289.3
2052.5
1675.8
1185.0
613,4
2371
I185.S
2290.2
2053-3
1676.5
1185,5
613.7
2372
1 186.0
2291.2
2054.2
1677.3
1186,0
613,9
2373
I186.S
2292.2
2055.1
1678.0
1186,5
614.2
2374
I187.O
2293.1
2055.9
1678.7
1187.0
614.4
2375
I187.S
2294.1
2056,8
1679.4
1187.5
614.7
2376
I188.O
2295.0
2057.7
1680,1
1188,0
615.0
2377
I188.S
2296.0
2058.5
1680.8
1188.5
615.2
2378
I189.O
2297.0
2059,4
1681.5
1189.0
615.5
2379
1189.5
2297.9
2060.3
1682.2
I189.5
615-7
2380
1190,0
2298.9
2061.1
1682.9
1190,0
616.0
2381
1 190. 5
2299.9
2062.0
1683.6
1190,5
616.3
2382
1191.0
2300.8
2062.9
1684.3
1191.0
616.5
2383
1191.5
2301.8
2063.7
1685.0
II9I.5
616.8
2384
1192.0
2302.8
2064.6
1685.7
1192.0
617,0
2385
1192.S
2303.7
2065.5
1686,4
II92.S
617.3
2386
1193.0
2304.7
2066.3
1687,2
1193.0
617.6
2387
"93-5
2305.7
2067.2
1687,9
1193.5
617.8
2388
1194.0
2306.6
2068,1
1688.6
1194.0
618,1
2389
1194.5
2307.6
2068.9
1689.3
1194.5
618,3
2390
1 195-0
2308,6
2069,8
1690,0
1195.0
618.6
2391
II95-5
2309.5
2070,7
1690.7
1195.5
618.8
2392
1196.0
2310.5
2071.5
1691,4
1196.0
619.1
2393
1196.5
231I.5
2072.4
1692,1
1196.5
619.4
2394
1197.0
2312.4
2073-3
1692,8
1197.0
619,6
239s
1197.5
2313.4
2074.1
1693.5
"97.5
619.9
2396
1198.0
2314.4
2075.0
1694,2
1198,0
620.1
2397
1198.5
2315.3
2075.9
1694,9
1198,5
620,4
2398
1199.0
2316.3
2076.7
1695.6
1199,0
620.7
2399
1199.5
2317.3
2077-6
1696.4
"99-5
620.9
2400
1200.0
2318.2
2078.5
1697,1
1200,0
621,2
2401
1200.5
2319.2
2079.3
1697.8
1200,5
621.4
2402
1201.0
2320.2
2080.2
1698.5
1201,0
621.7
2403
1201.5
2321. I
2081,1
1699.2
1201,5
621,9
2404
1202.0
2322.1
2081.9
1699.9
1202,0
622.2
2405
1202.5
2323.1
2082,8
1700.6
1202.5
622,5
2406
1203.0
2324.0
2083,7
1701.3
1203.0
622,7
2407
1203.5
2325.0
2084.5
1702.0
1203.5
623.0
2408
1204,0
2326.0
2085.4
1702,7
1204.0
623,2
2409
1204.5
2326.9
2086.3
1703.4
1204.5
623.5
222 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}^ Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°-
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2410
1205.0
2327.9
2087.1
1704.1
1205.0
623.8
241 1
1205.5
2328.9
2088.0
1704.8
1205.5
624.0
2412
1206.0
2329.8
2088.9
17OS-5
1206.0
624.3
2413
1206.5
.2330.8
2089.7
1706.3
1206.5
624.5
2414
1207.0
2331-8
2090.6
1707.0
1207.0
624.8
2415
1207.S
2332.7
2091.5
1707.7
1207.5
625.0
2416
1208.0
2333-7
2092.3
1708.4
1208.0
625.3
2417
1208.5
2334.7
2093.2
1709.1
1208.5
625.6
2418
1209.0
2335-6
2094.0
1709.8
1209.0
625.8
2419
1209.5
2336.6
2094.9
171O.5
1209.5
626.1
2420
1210.0
2337-6
2095.8
1711.2
1210.0
626.3
2421
121O.5
2338-5
2096.6
1711.9
1210.5
626.6
2422
I2II.0
2339-5
2097.5
1712.6
I2II.0
626.9
2423
I2II.5
2340.4
2098.4
I713-3
I2II.5
627.1
2424
I2I2.0
2341.4
2099.2
1714.0
1212.0
627.4
2425
I212.5
2342.4
2100.1
1714.7
1212.5
627.6
2426
I213.O
2343-3
2IOI.O
1715-4
1213.0
627.9
2427
1213-5
2344-3
2101.8
1716.I
1213.5
628.2
2428
1214.0
2345-3
2102.7
1716.9
1214.0
628.4
2429
1214.5
2346.2
2103.6
1717.6
I214.5
628.7
2430
I215.O
2347.2
2104.4
1718.3
I215.O
628.9
2431
I215.5
2348.2
2105.3
1719.0
1215.5
629.2
2432
1216.0
2349.1
2106.2
1719.7
1216.0
629.4
2433
1216.5
2350.1
2107.0
1720.4
I216.5
629.7
2434
1217.0
2351.1
2107.9
1721.I
1217.0
630.0
2435
1217.5
2352.0
2108.8
1721.8
1217.5
630.2
2436
1218.0
2353-0
2109.6
1722.5
I218.O
630.5
2437
1218.5
2354.0
2110.5
1723.2
1218.5
630.7
2438
1219.0
2354-9
2III.4
1723.9
I219.O
631.0
2439
I219.5
2355-9
2112.2
1724.6
1219.5
631-3
2440
122C.O
2356.9
2113.1
1725-3
1220.0
631.5
2441
1220.5
2357-8
2114.0
1726.0
1220.5
631-8
2442
1221.0
2358.8
2114.8
1726.8
1221.0
632.0
2443
1221.5
2359.8
2115.7
1727.5
1221.5
632.3
2444
1222.0
2360.7
2116.6
1728.2
1222.0
632.6
2445
1222.5
2361.7
2117.4
1728.9
1222.5
632.8
2446
1223.0
2362.7
2118.3
1729.6
1223.0
633-1
2447
1223.5
2363.6
2II9.2
1730-3
1223.5
633-3
2448
1224.0
2364.6
2120.0
1731.0
1224.0
633-6
2449
1224.5
2365-6
2120.9
1731-7
1224.5
633-9
2450
1225.0
2366.5
2121.8
1732-4
1225.0
634.1
2451
1225.5
2367.5
2122.6
1 733- 1
1225.5
634-4
2452
1226.0
2368.5
2123.5
1733-8
1226,0
634.6
2453
1226.5
2369.4
2124.4
1734-5
1226.5
634.9
2454
1227.0
2370.4
2125.2
1735.2
1227.0
635-1
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 223
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2455
1227.5
2371.4
21 26. I
1735.9
1227.5
635-4
2456
1228.0
2372.3
2127.0
1736.7
1228.0
635-7
2457
1228.S
2373.3
2127.8
1737.4
1228.5
635.9
2458
1229.0
2374.2
2128.7
1738.I
1229.0
636.2
2459
1229.S
2375.2
2129.6
1738.8
1229.5
636.4
2460
1230.0
2376.2
2130.4
1739.5
1230.0
636.7
2461
123O.S
2377.1
2131-3
1740.2
1230.5
637.0
2462
1231.O
2378.1
2132.2
1740.9
1231.0
637.2
2463
1231.S
2379.1
2133.0
1741.6
1231.5
637-5
2464
1232.0
2380.0
2133.9
1742.3
1232.0
637.7
2465
1232.5
2381.0
2134.8
1743.0
I232.S
638.0
2466
1233-0
2382.0
2135.6
1743.7
1233.0
638.3
2467
1233.S
2382.9
2136.5
1744.4
1233.5
638.5
2468
1234.0
2383.9
2137.3
1745.1
1234.0
638.8
2469
1234.S
2384.9
2138.2
1745.8
1234.S
639.0
2470
1235.0
2385.8
2139.I
1746.6
1235,0
639.3
2471
1235.5
2386.8
2139.9
1747.3
1235.5
639. 5
2472
1236.0
2387.8
2140.8
1748.0
1236.0
639.8
2473
1236.S
2388.7
214I.7
1748.7
1236. 5
640.1
2474
1237.0
2389.7
2142.5
1749.4
1237.0
640.3
2475
1237.5
2390.7
2143.4
175O.I
1237.5
640.6
2476
1238.0
2391.6
2144.3
1750.8
1238.0
640.8
2477
1238.5
2392.6
2145. I
1751.S
1238.5
641,1
2478
1239.0
2393.6 •
2146.0
1752,2
1239.0
641.4
2479
1239.5
2394.5
2146.9
1752.9
1239.5
641.6
2480
1240.0
2395.5
2147.7
1753.6
1240.0
641.9
2481
1240.5
2396.5
2148.6
1754.3
1240.5
642.1
2482
I241.O
2397.4
2149.5
1755.0
1241,0
642.4
2483
124I.5
2398.4
2150.3
1755.7
1241. 5
642.6
2484
1242,0
2399.4
2151.2
1756.4
1242,0
642.9
2485
1242.5
2400.3
2152,1
1757.2
1242,5
643.2
2486
1243.0
2401.3
2152.9
1757.9
1243,0
643.4
2487
1243.5
2402.3
2153.8
1758.6
1243.S
643.7
2488
1244.0
2403.2
2154.7
1759.3
1244.0
643.9
2489
1244.5
2404.2
2155.5
1760,0
1244.5
644,2
2490
1245.0
2405.2
2156,4
1760.7
1245.0
644.5
2491
1245.5
2406.1
2157.3
1761.4
1245.S
644.7
2492
1246.0
2407.1
2158,1
1762.1
1246.0
645,0
2493
1246.5
2408.1
2I59-0
1762.8
1246.5
645,2
2494
1247.0
2409.0
2159.9
1763.5
1247.0
645.5
2495
1247.5
2410.0
2160.7
1764..2
1247.5
645.8
2496
1248.0
24II.O
2161.6
1764.9
1248.0 ,
646.0
2497
1248.5
2411.9
2162.5
1765.6
1248.5
646.3
2498
1249.0
2412.9
2163.3
1766.4
1249.0
646.5
2499
1249.5
2413.9
2164,2
1767.1
1249.5
646.8
2500
1250.0
2414.8
2165. I
1767.8
1250,0
647.0
224 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
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U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
By Commander F. M. Barber, U. S. N.
[Reprinted from the Jotirnal of the Franklin Iftstitute, February, 1891.]
Members of the Institute and Ladies and Gentlemen :
In commencing my paper this evening I desire to call your atten-
tion to the fact that I am dealing with a subject which, though not
theoretical, is still hardly practical, for, as a matter of fact, high
explosives cannot be said to have yet been regularly used in warfare ;
and I hope you will pardon me if, in consequence, my statements
appear in some respects unsatisfactory and my theories unsound.
My subject, however, is no more obscure than future naval warfare
generally. All civilized nations are spending millions of money for
fighting purposes, directly in opposition to the higher feelings of the
better class of their inhabitants. The political atmosphere of Europe
is the cause of this, but its consequence is the development of theo-
retical plans of ships which are no sooner commenced than the rapid
march of mechanical, chemical and electrical science shows them to
be faulty in some particular feature, and others are laid down only
to be superseded in their turn.
None of these crafts are obsolete (to use the popular expression of
the day). All are theoretically better than any which have stood
the test of battle ; but each excels its predecessor in some particular
feature. The use of high explosives is the direct cause of the very
latest transformations in marine architecture, and is destined to work
still greater changes ; but it will require a war between the most
civilized nations of the world, and a l.ong war, to either confirm or
condemn the many theoretical machines and methods of destruction
that modern science has produced. I say a war between the most
civilized nations, since it is only they that can supply the educated
232 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
intellect that is necessary to both attack and defense. Under other
circumstances, false conclusions as to weapons and results are certain
to be drawn. At the bombardment of Alexandria, the English armor-
clads, with their rifled guns, were not nearly as efficient against the
feeble chalk fortifications as our wooden ships would have been with
smooth-bore guns ; on the other hand, I saw on shore, after the
bombardment, hundreds of torpedoes and miles of cable that the
Egyptians did not understand how to use. The French war with
China was equally unsatisfactory from a military point of view. The
Chinese at Foochow were annihilated because the French opened
fire first, and the only shell that penetrated a French ironclad was
filled with lampblack instead of powder. The national riots that we
are accustomed to hear of in South America are likewise of little
instructive value ; they buy their weapons of more civilized people,
but there is always something fatally defective about the tactics pursued
in using them. It may be said in general terms that in these days of
extreme power in fighting machines, the greater the efficiency the
less the simplicity and the more knowledge required in the care of
the weapons. When powder was merely powder, the advice of the
old adage to " trust in God and keep your powder dry " was ample
to maintain the efficiency of the powder for all purposes ; but now-
adays if you keep your powder dry you will burst your gun, and if
you keep your gun-cotton dry you are liable to blow up your ship.
It is rather difficult to-day to define what high explosives are, in
contradistinction to gunpowder. Thirty years ago we could say that
powder was a mechanical mixture and the others were chemical
compounds ; but of late years this difference has disappeared.
The dynamical difference, however, still remains : gunpowder in
its most efficient form is a slow-burning composition, which exerts a
relatively low pressure and continues it for a long time and to a great
distance; high explosives, on the contrary, in their most efficient form,
are extremely quick-burning substances, which exert an enormous
pressure within a limited radius. Ordinary black gunpowder con-
sists of a mechanical mixture of seventy-five per cent of saltpetre,
fifteen per cent of charcoal and ten per cent of sulphur. The most
important of the high explosives are formed by the action of nitric
acid upon organic substances or other hydrocarbons, the compound
radical NO 2 being substituted for a portion of the hydrogen in the
substance. The bodies thus formed are in a condition of unstable
equilibrium ; but if well made from good material, they become
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 233
Stable in their instability, very much like Prince Rupert's drops, those
little glass pellets which endure almost any amount of rough usage,
but, once cracked, fly into infinitesimal fragments.
The power exerted by these nitro-substitution products is due to
the fact that they detonate, i. e., they are instantaneously converted
into colorless gas at a very high temperature, and in addition they
have almost no solid residue. Nitro-glycerine actually leaves none
at all, while gunpowder leaves sixty-eight per cent. The first depar-
ture in gunpowder from the old-time constituents of black powder
just mentioned was for the purpose of obtaining less pressure and
slower combustion than could be produced by mere granulating or
caking; this was accomplished by using underburned charcoal,
together with sugar and about one and one-half per cent of water.
This is the brown powder most generally used at present, and with
satisfactory results ; but the abstraction of its moisture increases its
rapidity of combustion to a dangerous degree, besides which the
underburned charcoal is itself unstable.
The next change demanded is smokelessness, and to accomplish it,
recourse is had to the high-explosive field, mechanically mixing vari-
ous substances with them to reduce and regulate their rapidity of
action. Just now some form of gun-cotton is most in use, mixed with
nitrate of ammonia, camphor and other articles. The tendency of
these mixtures is to absorb moisture, and the gun-cotton in them to
decompose, and there is no smokeless powder which can to-day be
considered successful. Such a powder, however, will undoubtedly
be an accomplished fact in the near future. Military men seem to be
a great deal at variance as to its value in the field, but there can be
no doubt of its value for naval purposes ; it is a necessity forced upon
us by the development of torpedo warfare. First came the simple
torpedo at the end of an ordinary boat's spar ; then came the special
torpedo-boat with its great speed ; then the revolving cannon and
rapid-fire gun to meet the torpedo-boat. At present the possible
rapidity of fire is much greater than can be utilized on account of the
smoke; hence the necessity of smokeless powder. Smokelessness is,
however, principally a martial demand that has been made upon the
science of explosives, and has attracted public attention on that
account. The commercial demands for various other properties has
been much greater than the military, and between gunpowder near
one end of the line in point' of power, and nitro-glycerine near the
other, there are now over 350 different explosives manufactured, and
most of these have been invented within the last twenty years.
234 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
The simplest application of high explosives in warfare is in con-
nection with torpedoes, since within the same bulk a much more
efficient substance can be obtained than gunpowder, and with reason-
able care there is very little danger of premature explosions by
reason of accidental shocks.
Torpedoes were made by the Chinese many years ago ; they were
tried in our war of independence, and also by the Russians during
the Crimean war ; but the first practical and successful use of them
as a recognized weapon was during our war of secession, when thirty-
seven vessels were either sunk or seriously injured by them. Gun-
powder was used in these torpedoes, though it is stated that attempts
were made to use other substances without success. Since that time
all maritime nations have made a close study of the subject, and
have adopted various high explosives, according to the results of their
experiments. In general terms itmay bestatedthatexplosivechemical
compounds have been found more suitable than explosive mixtures,
because of the uniformity of direction in which they exert their pres-
sure, and from the fact that water does not injure them. Mixtures
may be very powerful, but they are erratic, and require tight cases.
In the United States we use dynamite for harbor mines. It is com-
posed of seventy-five per cent nitro-glycerine and twenty-five per
cent silica ; but blasting gelatine and forcite-gelatine will probably
be adopted, when they can be satisfactorily manufactured here, as
they are more powerful. The former is composed of ninety-two per
cent of nitro-glycerine and eight per cent of gun-cotton, and the
latter of ninety-five per cent of nitro-gelatine and 5 per cent un-:
nitrated cellulose.
For naval use we have adopted gun-cotton as being the most
convenient. In Europe gun-cotton is generally used for both fixed
mines and movable torpedoes ; Russia, Austria and Italy use blast-
ing gelatine also.
In actual warfare but little experience has been had; two Peruvian
vessels were sunk by dynamite in the Chile- Peruvian war; one Turk
by means of gun-cotton during the Turco-Russian war of 1877, and
two Chinese by gun-cotton in the Franco-Chinese war of 1884,
In making experiments to determine the relative strength of the
different explosives under water, very curious and puzzling results
have been obtained. Nitro-glycerine being the simplest and most
complete in its chemical decomposition, and apparently the most
powerful in air, it was natural to suppose that it would be the same
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE, 235
in submarine work; but it was found by Gen. Abbot at Willet's
Point, after repeated experiments, as shown in his report of 1881,
that it was not so powerful in its effect by twenty per cent as dyna-
mite No. I, although the dynamite contained twenty-five per cent of
an absolutely inert substance. His idea was that it was too quick in
its action, and since water is slighdy compressible, a minute frac-
tion of time is required in the development of the full force of the
explosive. Gen. Abbot's results for intensity of action per unit of
weight of the most important substances, are as follows:
Blasting gelatine 142
Forcite gelatine • 133
Dynamite No. i 100
Gun-cotton, wet 87
Nitro-glycerine 81
Gunpowder , 20 to 50
Col. Bucknill, of the Royal Engineers, in his publication of 1888,
gives the following :
Blasting gelatine 142
Forcite gelatine. 133
Dynamite No. i 100
Gun-cotton, dry 100
Gun-cotton, wet 80
Gunpowder 25
In both tables, dynamite No. i is assumed as the standard of com-
parison. Col. Bucknill states that his gun-cotton results differ from
Gen. Abbot's because he experimented with much larger quantities,
viz: 500-pound charges. Gen. Abbot's experiments led him to
believe that an instantaneous mean pressure of 6500 pounds per
square inch would give a fatal blow to the double bottom of a modern
armor-clad, and he developed a formula which gives this blow with
blasting gelatine at the following distances under water, viz :
Pounds.
At 5 feet 4
10 " 17
20 " 67
30 " 160
40 " 3"
Col. Bucknill's experiments caused him to believe that a pressure
of 12,000 pounds per square inch is required, and his formula, which
is somewhat different from Abbot's, gives widely different results at
close quarters, but they approach each other as the distance increases.
236 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
His results are as follows:
Pounds.
At sfeet 22%
10 " 75
20 " 177
30 " 274
40 " 369
Regarding the comparative effects of gunpowder and the high
explosives, I think Gen. Abbot's estimate of a varying value for
powder is more admissible than the fixed value assigned by Col.
Bucknill. Gunpowder gives a push, and detonating compounds a
shock ; as the quantities increase, the push reaches farther than the
shock. According to Gen. Abbot, 100 pounds of dynamite No. i
will have a destructive horizontal range of 16.3 feet, while the same
amount of gunpowder will only have a range of 3.3 feet. Five hun-
dred pounds of dynamite, however, will have a horizontal range of
thirty-five feet, and 500 pounds of gunpowder will have 19.5 feet;
the ratio has diminished from five to two. Whether 6500 pounds
or 12,000 pounds per square inch is necessary to crush the bottom
of an armor-clad will depend largely upon how far apart the frames
of the ship are spaced and what other bracing is supplied, as well as
many local circumstances. It is difficult to judge exactly of these
matters. Some four years ago the Italian government adopted
treble bottoms for their heaviest ships as a result of experiments with
seventy-five pounds of gun-cotton (the charge of an ordinary White-
head locomotive torpedo) against a caisson which was a fac-simile of
a portion of the proposed ships. Onl}' two of the bottoms were
broken through, and when the space between the two inner bottoms
was filled with coal, only the outer bottom was broken. According
to the formulae of either Abbot or Bucknill, there should have been
a local pressure of at least 300,000 pounds per square inch on the
outer skin, and yet judicious interior arrangements rendered it harm-
less to the target. It would not, however, be safe to conclude that
the torpedo was thus vanquished — the immediate result was simply
to create a demand for larger locomotive torpedoes for local appli-
cation, and but little light was thrown upon the results which might
be anticipated from a large mine at a greater distance, whose radius
of explosive effect would embrace a larger portion of the ship, and
especially if the ship were nearly over the torpedo. The local effect
of a detonation is different from the transmitted shock. Experiments
in England have shown that 500 pounds of gun-cotton at forty feet
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 237
below any ship will sink her, and at a horizontal distance of 100 feet,
damage to the interior pipes and machinery is to be expected.
The fact that the high explosives are so much heavier than gun-
powder has an important bearing on the size of the containing case.
Their sp. gr. is as follows :
Nitro-glycerine 1.6
Blasting gelatine 1.45
Forcite gelatine 1.42
Dynamite No. i i .34
Wet gun-cotton 1.32
Dry gun-cotton 1.06
Gunpowder 0.9
Their relative efficiency under water per cubic foot, according to
Bucknill, is as follows :
Blasting gelatine i .38
Forcite gelatine i .27
Dynamite No. i i.oo
Dry gun-cotton 66
Wet gun-cotton 66
Gunpowder 14
The wet gun-cotton has twenty-five per cent of added water.
Mines for harbor defense are of two kinds — buoyant and ground.
The buoyant are usually spherical, and contain from 400 to 500
pounds of explosives. They bring the charge near to the ship's
bottom, but are difficult to manage in a tide-way, and can be easily
found by dragging. The ground mines can be made of any size, and
are not easily found by dragging, but are of little value in very deep
water. They are either cylindrical or hemispherical in shape, and
contain from 500 to 1500 pounds of explosive in from thirty to eighty
feet of water. Mines of any kind are exceedingly difficult to render
efficient when the water is over 100 feet deep. On account of the
tendency of all high explosives to detonate by influence or sympathy,
and the liability of the cases to collapse by great exterior pressure,
harbor mines are separated at a certain distance, according as they
are buoyant or ground, and according to the nature of the explosive.
Five hundred pounds buoyant gun-cotton mines require 320 feet
spacing.
Five hundred pounds buoyant blasting gelatine mines require 450
feet spacing.
Six hundred pounds ground gun-cotton mines require 180 feet
spacing.
238 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
Six hundred pounds ground blasting gelatine mines require 230
feet spacing.
Of torpedoes, other than those described, we have several modern
varieties : submarine projectiles, submarine rockets, automobile and
controllable locomotive torpedoes. The first two varieties, though
feasible, are not developed, and have not yet advanced beyond the
experimental stage. Of the automobile, we have the Whitehead,
Swartzkopf, and Howell. The first two are propelled by means of com-
pressed air and an engine ; the last, by the stored-up energy of a heavy
fly-wheel. Generally speaking, they are cigar-shaped crafts, from
10 to 18 feet long, and 15 to 17 inches in diameter, capable of carry-
ing from 75 to 250 pounds of explosive at the rate of 25 to 30 knots
for 400 yards, at any depth at which they may be set. Of the con-
trollable locomotive torpedoes, the three representative types are the
Patrick, Sims, and Brennan. They are, in general terms, cigar-boats,
about 40 feet long and 2 feet in diameter, carrying charges of 400
pounds of explosive. The Patrick and Sims are maintained at a con-
stant depth under water by means of a float. The Brennan has
diving rudders, like a Whitehead or a Howell. The Patrick is
driven by means of carbonic-acid gas through an engine, and is con-
trolled by an electric wire from shore. The Sims is driven by elec-
tricity from a dynamo on shore, through a cable to an electric engine
in the torpedo. The Brennan is driven and controlled by means of
two fine steel wires wound on reels in the torpedo, the reels being
geared to the propeller-shafts. The wires are led to corresponding
reels on shore, and these are rapidly revolved by means of an engine.
A brake on each shore-reel controls the torpedo. The speed of
all these torpedoes is about 19 knots, and their eflective range one
mile.
A Whitehead was successfully used in the Turco-Russian war of
1877. The Turkish vessel previously mentioned was sunk by one.
Blasting gelatine, dynamite, and gun-cotton are capable of many
applications to engineering purposes on shore in time of war, and in
most cases they are better than powder. They received the serious
attention of French engineers during the siege of Paris, and were
employed in the various sorties which were made from the city, in
throwing down walls, bursting guns, etc. An explosive for such pur-
poses, and indeed for most military uses, should satisfy the following-
conditions :
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 239
(i) Very shattering in its effects.
(2) Insensible to shocks of projectiles.
(3) Plastic.
(4) Easy and safe to manipulate.
(5) Easy to insert a fuze.
(6) Great stability at all natural temperatures and when used in
wet localities.
Neither blasting gelatine, dynamite nor gun-cotton fulfill all these
conditions; but they satisfy many of them, and are more powerful
than other substances. For the destruction of walls, trees, rails,
bridges, etc., it is simply necessary to attach to them small bags of
explosive, which are ignited by means of blasters' fuze and a cap of
fulminate of mercury, or by an electric fuze.
We now come to the application of high explosives to warfare in
the shape of bursting charges for shells. This is the latest phase of
the problem, and it is undoubtedly fraught with the most important
consequences to both attack and defense. Difficult as it has been to
obtain an exact estimate of the force of different explosives under
water, the problem is far greater out of the water and under the
ordinary conditions of shell-fire ; the principal obstacle being in the
fact that it is physically impossible to control the force of large quan-
tities in order to measure it, and small quantities give irregular
results. Theoretically, the matter has been accomplished by Berthe-
lot, the head of the French Government " Commission of Explo-
sives," by calculating the volume of gas produced, heat developed,
etc. ; and this method is excellent for obtaining a fair idea of the specific
pressure of any new explosive that may be brought forward, and
determining whether it is worth while to investigate it further; but
the explosives differ so much from each other in point of sensitive-
ness, weight, physical condition, velocity of explosive wave, influence
of temperature and humidity, that we cannot determine from mere
theoretical considerations all that we would like to know. Various
methods of arriving at comparative values have been tried, but the
figures are very variable, as will be seen by the following tables.
Berthelot's commission, some ten years ago, exploded ten to thirty
grams each in 300-pound blocks of lead, and measured the increased
size of the hole thus made. The relative result was :
No. I dynamite i.
Dry gun-cotton 1.17
Nitro-glycerine 1.20
Powder blew out and could not be measured.
240 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
Mr. R. C. Williams, at the Boston Institute of Technology, in the
winter of 1888 and 1889, tried the same method, but used six grams
in forty-five-pound blocks of lead. He obtained a relative result
of—
No. I dynamite i .
Dry gun-cotton i .37
Nitro-glycerine 2.51
Explosive gelatine 2.57
Forcite gelatine 2.7
Warm nitro-glycerine 2.7
Gunpowder i
The powder gave great trouble in this case, also, by blowing out.
M. Chalon, a FrencH" engineer, obtained some years ago, with a
small mortar, firing a projectile of thirty kilos and using a charge of
ten grams of each explosive, the following ranges :
Metres.
Blasting powder 2.6
No. I dynamite 31.4
Forcite of 75 per cent N. G 43.6
Blasting gelatine 45.
Roux and Sarrau obtained, by experiments in bursting small bomb-
shells, the following comparative strengths of ranges:
Powder i .
Gun-cotton 6.5
Nitro-glycerine lo.o
In actual blasting work the results vary altogether with the nature
of the material encountered, and with the result that is desired to be
accompHshed, viz: throwing out, shattering, or mere displacement.
Chalon gives for quarrying ;
Powder i
Dynamite No. 2, containing 50 per cent nitro-glycerine 3
For open blasting :
Dynamite No. 3, containing 30 per cent N. G i.o
Dynamite No. i, containing 75 per cent N. G 2.5
Blasting gelatine 3.5
For tunneling :
Dynamite No. 3, containing 30 per cent N. G i
Dynamite No. i, containing 75 per cent N. G 3
Explosive gelatine 19
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 24I
Finally, Berthelot's theoretical calculations give a specific pres-
sure of—
Powder i
Dynamite 13
Gun-cotton 14
Nitro-glycerine 16
Blasting gelatine 17
It will be observed that the practical results vary largely from the
theoretical values, but they seem to indicate that gun-cotton and
No. I dynamite are very nearly equal to each other, and that in the
nitro-glycerine compounds, except where gun-cotton is added, the
force appears to be nearly in proportion to the nitro-glycerine con-
tained. From the foregoing it seems fair to estimate roughly the
values of bursting charges of shells as follows :
Powder i
Gun-cotton and dynamite 6 to 10
Nitro-glycerine 13 to 15
Blasting gelatine IS to 17
Attention has been turned in Europe for more than thirty years
towards firing high explosives in shells ; but it is only within very
late years that results have been reached which are claimed as satis-
factory, and it is exceedingly difficult to obtain reliable accounts even
of these. Dynamite was fired in Sweden in 1867 in small quantities,
and a few years later it was fired in France. But two difficulties soon
presented themselves. If the quantity of nitro-glycerine in the
dynamite was small it could be fired in ordinary shells, but the eifect
was no better than with gunpowder. If the dynamite was stronger
in nitro-glycerine, it took but a small quantity to burst the gun. As
early as 1864, dry gun-cotton was safely fired in shells in small
quantities, but when a sufficient quantity to fill the shell-cavity was
used, the gun burst. Some few years ago it was found that if the
gun-cotton was either wet or soaked in paraffin, it could be fired with
safety from powder-guns in ordinary shells, provided the quantity was
small in proportion to the total weight of the shell, (say) five to six
per cent ; but a new difficulty arises from the fact that it breaks the
shell up into very small pieces, and it is an unsettled question among
artillerists whether more damage is done to an enemy by breaking a
shell into comparatively large pieces and dispersing them a long
distance with a bursting charge of powder, which has a propulsive
force, or by breaking it with a detonating compound into fine pieces
242 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
which are not driven nearly so far. Wheh used against troops there
is also the objection to the high-explosive shell that it makes scarcely
any smoke in bursting, and smoke at this point is useful to the artil-
lerist in rectifying his aim. In the matter of shells for piercing
armor, however, there are no two opinions regarding the nature of
the bursting charge. To pierce modern armor at all a shell must be
made of forged steel, so thick that the capacity of the cavity for the
bursting charge is reduced to one-fourth or one-fifth of what it is in
the common shell ; the result is that a charge of powder is frequently
not powerful enough to burst the shell at all ; it simply blows the
plug out of the filling-hole in the rear. In addition it is found that
in passing through armor, the heat generated is so great that the
powder is prematurely ignited. If then we can fill the small cavity
in the shell with an explosive which will not ignite prematurely, and
yec will burst the shell properly after it has passed through the
armor, the problem will be solved. Wet or paraffined gun-cotton
can be made sluggish enough to satisfy the first condition ; but at
present the difficulty is to make it explode at all. The more sluggish
the gun-cotton, the more powerful must be the fuze -exploders to
detonate it, and such exploders are themselves liable to premature
ignition in passing through the armor. The Italians and Germans
claim to have accomplished the desired result up to a thickness of
five inches of armor; gun-cotton and fuze both working well. But
the English authorities say that no one has yet accomplished it. The
Austrians claim to have succeeded in this direction within the last
year with a new explosive called ecrastite (supposed to be blasting
gelatine combined with sulphate or hydrochlorate of ammonia, and
claimed to be one and one-half times as powerful as dynamite).
With a gun of 8.24-inch caliber and an armor-piercing shell weigh-
ing 206.6 pounds, containing a bursting charge of 15.88 pounds of
ecrastite, they are said to have perforated two plates four inches
thick, and entered a third four-inch plate where the shell exploded.
There is a weak point in this account in the fact that the powder
capacity of the shell is said to be 4.4 pounds. This amount is
approximately correct, judging from our own eight-inch armor-
piercing shell ; but if this is true, there could not have been more
than nine pounds of ecrastite in the shell, instead of sixteen, or else
there is an exceedingly small proportion of blasting gelatine in
ecrastite, and if that is the case it is not one and one-half times as
powerful as dynamite. If it is weak stuff it is probably insensitive ;
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 243
and even if it were strong, one swallow does not make a summer.
The English fired quantities of blasting gelatine from a two-inch
Nordenfeldt gun in 1884, but when they tried it in a 7-inch gun in
1885, they burst the gun at once. I have only analyzed this Austrian
case because the statement is taken from this year's annual report of
the Office of Naval Intelligence, which is an excellent authority, and
to illustrate the fact that of the thousands of accounts which we see
in foreign and domestic newspapers concerning the successful use
of high explosives in shells, fully ninety per cent are totally unre-
liable. In many cases they are in the nature of a prospectus from
the inventors of explosives or methods of firing, who are aware of the
fact that it is almost impossible to dispute any statements that they
may choose to make regarding the power of their new compounds,
and thinking, as most of them do, that power alone is required.
Referring to the qualities that I have previously cited as being
required in a high explosive for military purposes, it is sooner or
later found that nearly all the novelties proposed lack some of the
essentials, and soon disappear from the advertising world only to be
succeeded by others. The most common defect is lack of keeping
qualities. They will either absorb moisture or will evaporate; or
further chemical action will go on among the constituents, making
them dangerously sensitive or completely inert, or they will sepa-
rate mechanically according to their specific gravities.
For further clearness on the subject of the shell-charges which have
so far been discussed, the following table is added of weight and
sizes of shells for U. S. naval guns, with their bursting charges of
powder :
6-inch com. cast-steel shell 2l4. to 4 cal. long, wt. 100 lbs., charge 6 lbs.
8 « «' " " " 250 " i^yi "
10 " " " «« " 500 " 27 "
12 " " " '« " 850 " 45
ARMOR-PIERCING FORGED STEEL SHELL.
6-inch, 3 calibers long, weight 100 lbs., charge i^ lbs.
8 «' « " 250 " 3
10 " " " 500 " sVi "
12 " " " 850 " II "
The chief efficiency of small quantities of high explosives having
reduced itself to the case of armor-piercing projectiles, it next
became evident that there was an entirely new field for high explo-
244 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
sives into which powder had entered but little, and this was the intro-
duction of huge torpedo-shells which did not rely for their efficiency
upon the dispersion of the pieces of shell, but upon the devastating
force of the bursting charge itself upon everything within the radius
of its explosive effect. It is in this field that we may look for the
most remarkable results, and it is here that the absolute power of the
explosive thrown is of the utmost importance, provided that it can
be safely used. Attention was at once turned in Europe to the manu-
facture of large projectiles with great capacity for bursting charges,
and it has resulted in the production of a class of shells 4^ to 6
calibers long, with walls only .4 of an inch thick. (If they are made
thinner, they will swell and jam in the gun when fired.)
These shells are used in long guns up to 6 and 8i inches caliber,
and in mortars up to 11. 2 inch. They are made from disks of steel,
3 to 4 feet in diameter and i inch thick, and are forced into shape by
hydraulic presses. The base is usually screwed in, but some 'of the
German shell are made in two halves which screw together. The
Italians were the first in this new field of investigation, but the Ger-
mans soon followed, and after trying various materials, were at length
reasonably successful with gun-cotton soaked in paraffin. Their
8.4-inch mortar shells of 5 calibers contain 42 pounds ; those of 6
calibers contain 57 pounds; and the 11.2-inch mortar shells of 5
calibers contain no pounds.
The projectile velocity used with the mortars is about 800 f. s.
The effect of these shells against ordinary masonry and earth forti-
fications is very great. The charge of forty-two pounds has broken
through a masonry vault of three feet, four inches thick, covered with
two feet, eight inches of cement, and with three to five feet of earth
over all. The shell containing fifty-seven pounds, at a range of two
and one-half miles, broke through a similar vault covered with ten
feet of earth ; but with seventeen feet of earth the vault resisted. In
1883, experiments at Kummersdorf showed that a shell containing
the fifty-seven-pound charge would excavate in sand a crater sixteen
feet in diameter and eight feet deep, with a capacity of twenty-two
cubic yards. The Italians have had similar experiences; but it is
notable that in both Germany and Italy several guns and mortars
have burst. The velocity in the guns is not believed to exceed 1200
to 1300 f. s., and it is not thought that the quantity of gun-cotton is
as great in the gun-shells as in the mortars. I have lately been
informed on good authority that the use of gun-cotton shells has
been abandoned in the German navy as too dangerous.
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 245
The French, in their investigations in this field, found gun-cotton
too inconvenient, and decided upon melenite. This substance has
probably attracted more attention in the military world than all
others combined, on account of the fabulous qualities that have been
ascribed to it. Its composition was for a long time entirely a secret ;
but it is now thought to consist principally of picric acid, which is
formed by the action of nitric acid upon phenol or phenyllic
alcohol, a constituent of coal-tar. The actual nature of melenite is
not positively known, as the French government, after buying it
from the inventor, Turpin, are said to have added other articles and
improved it. This is probable, since French experiments in firing
against a partially armored vessel, the Bellequesne, developed an
enormous destructive effect, while the English, who afterwards
bought it, conducted similar experiments against the Resistance and
obtained no better results than with powder. The proof that the
Bellequesne experiments were deemed of great value by the French
lies in the fact that they immediately laid down a frigate — Dupuy de
Lome — in which four-inch armor is used, not only on the side, but
about the gun-stations, to protect the men; this thickness having
been found sufficient to keep out melenite shell. In most armor-
clads the armor is very heavy about the vitals, but the guns are
frequently much exposed.
The best authenticated composition for melenite consi3ts of picric
acid, gun-cotton and gum-arabic, and lately it is stated that the
French have added cresilite to it. Cresilite is another product of
coal-tar. Melenite is normally only three times as strong as gun-
powder, but it is said to owe its destructive qualities in shells to the
powerful character of the exploder which ignites it. It has been
known for some years that all explosives (including gunpowder) are
capable of two orders of explosion, according as they are merely
ignited or excited by a weak fuze, or as they are powerfully shocked
by a more vigorous excitant. Fulminate of mercury has been found
most serviceable for the latter purpose. With melenite the French
have reproduced all the results that the Germans have eflfected with
gun-cotton, and have found that a shell containing 119 pounds of it
will penetrate nearly ten feet of solid cement, but will not penetrate
armored turrets six to eight inches thick. The French claim that
melenite has an advantage over gun-cotton in not being so dangerous
to handle and being insensible to shock or friction, and they have
obtained a velocity of 1300 f. s. with the 8.8-inch mortar, and claim
246 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
to have obtained 2000 f. s. in long guns up to 6.2-inch caliber.
However this may be, they are known to have had severe accidents
at the manufactory at Belfort, and at least one 5.6-inch gun was burst
at the Bellequesne experiments in firing a sixty-six-pound shell con-
taining twenty-eight pounds of melenite. The French are said to
have large quantities of melenite shells in store, but they are not
issued to service.
Probably one reason why we have so many conflicting yet positive
accounts of great successes in Europe with torpedo-shells is because
each nation wishes its neighbors to think that it is prepared for all
eventuaHties, and they are obliged to keep on hand large quantities
of some explosive, whether they have confidence in it or not. For-
tunately we are not so situated, but, singularly enough, what we
have done in the field of high-explosive projection has been accom-
plished by private enterprise, and we have attacked the problem at
exactly the opposite point from which European nations have under-
taken it. While they have assumed that the powder-gun with its
powerful and relatively irregular pressures was a necessity, and have
endeavored to modify the explosive to suit it, we have taken the
explosive as we have found it, and have adapted the gun to the
explosive. At present the prominent weapon in this new field is
the pneumatic gun, but it is obvious that steam, carbonic acid
gas, ammonia, or any other moderate and regulatable pressure
can be used as well as compressed air ; it is merely a question of
mechanical convenience. In throwing small quantities of certain
high explosives, powder-guns can be used satisfactorily, but when
large quantities are required, the mechanical system of guns possesses
numerous advantages. All the high explosives are subject to pre-
mature detonation by shock ; each of them is supposed to have its
own peculiar shock to which it is sensitive, but what this shock may
be is at present unknown. We do know, however, that premature
explosions in guns are more liable to occur when the charge in the
shell is large than when it is small ; this is due to the fact that when
the gun is fired, the inertia of the charge in the shell is overcome by
a pressure proportional to the mass and acceleration, which pressure
is communicated to the shell-charge by the rear surface of the cavity,
and the pressure per unit of mass will vary inversely as this surface.
If then the quantity of explosive in the shell forms a large proportion
of the total weight of the shell, we approach in powder-guns a con-
dition of shock to it which is always dangerous and frequently fatal.
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 247
The pressure behind the projectile varies from twelve to fifteen tons
per square inch, but it is liable to rise to seventeen and eighteen tons,
and in the present state of the manufacture of gunpowder we cannot
in ordinary guns regulate it nearer than that. It is not a matter of
so much importance so far as the guns are concerned, when using
ordinary projectiles, as the gun will endure a pressure of from
twenty-five to thirty tons per square inch ; but with high explosives
in the shell it is a vitally serious matter. From all I can learn
regarding European practice, it appears that not only are the explo-
sives made sluggish, but the quantity seldom exceeds thirty per
cent of the weight of the shell, and the velocities, notwithstanding,
are kept very low. In the pneumatic gun the velocity is low also,
but so is the pressure in the gun. The pressure in the firing reser-
voir is kept at the relatively low figure of 1000 pounds per square
inch or less, and the air is admitted to the chamber of the gun by a
balance-valve which cuts off just the quantity of air (within a very
few pounds) that is required to make the shot. The gun is long,
and advantage is taken of the expansion of the air. In no case can
the pressure rise in the gun beyond that in the reservoir.
Up to the present time there have been no accidents in using the
most powerful explosives in their natural state, and in quantities
over fifty per cent of the weight of the projectile. I have seen pro-
jectiles weighing 950 pounds, and containing 500 pounds of explo-
sives (300 pounds of the blasting gelatine and 200 pounds of No. i
dynamite) thrown nearly a mile and exploded after disappearing
under water. According to Gen. Abbot's formula, such a projectile
would have sunk any armor-clad floating within forty-seven feet of
where it struck. Apparently there is no limit to the percentage of
explosive that can be placed in the shell, except the mechanical one
of having the walls thick enough to prevent being crushed by the
shock of discharge. In the large projectiles a transverse diaphragm
is introduced to strengthen the walls and to subdivide the charge.
The development of the pneumatic gun has been attended with
some other important discoveries which may be of interest. It is
well known that mortar fire is very inaccurate, except at fixed long
distances, in consequence of the high angle, the slowness of flight of
the projectile, the variability of the powder pressure, and the inability
to change the elevation and the charge of powder rapidly. In the
pneumatic gun, the complete control of the pressure remedies the
most important of the mortar's defects, and makes the fire accurate
248 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
from long ranges down to within a few yards of the gun. It is
obvious that the pressure can be usefully controlled in two ways :
(i) by keeping the elevation of the gun fixed, and using a valve that
can be set to cut off any quantity of air according to the range
desired; (2) by keeping the pressure in the reservoir constant,
and using a valve which will cut off the same quantity of air every
time, changing the elevation of the gun according to the distance.
Another important discovery consists in the application of sub-
calibered projectiles for obtaining increased range. The gun is
smoothbored, and a full-sized projectile is a cylinder with hemi-
spherical ends, to the rear of which is attached a shaft having metal
vanes placed at an angle, which cause the projectile to revolve round
its longer axis during flight. A sub-calibered projectile, however,
being of less diameter than the bore of the gun, has the vanes on
its exterior, and is held in the axis of the gun by means of gas-
checks which drop off as the projectile leaves the muzzle. The
shock to the explosive is, of course, greater than in the full-sized
projectile, but the increase can be calculated, and so far a dan-
gerous limit has not been reached. From the fifteen-inch gun, with
a pressure of 1000 pounds per square inch, and a velocity of about
800 f. s., a range of 4000 yards has been obtained at an elevation of
30° 20, with a ten-inch sub-calibered projectile, about eight calibers
long and weighing 500 pounds. This projectile will contain 220
pounds of blasting gelatine. With improved full-sized projectiles
weighing 1000 pounds, a range of 2500 j'^ards will doubtless be
obtained. At elevations below 15° these long projectiles are liable
to ricochet, and what is now wanted is a projectile which will stay
under water at all angles of fall, and will run parallel to the surface
like a locomotive torpedo. Such a projectile has yet to be invented ;
but I have seen a linked shell which has been experimented with
from a nine-inch powder-gun that partially meets this condition.
It is made of several sections, united by means of rope or electric
wire in lengths of 100 or 150 feet. When fired, all sections remain
together for some distance ; the rear section then first begins to
separate; then the next, and so on. It is primarily intended to
envelop an enemy's vessel, and to remedy the present uncertainty
of elevation in a gun mounted in a pitching boat ; but it is found
that when it strikes the water in its lengthened-out condition, it will
neither dive nor ricochet, but will continue for some distance just
under the surface until all momentum is lost, when it will sink. This
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 249
projectile is at present crude, and has never been tried loaded, but
it will probably be developed into something useful in time.
I have confined my remarks in the foregoing discussion principally
to such methods of using high explosives in shells as have proved
themselves successful beyond an experimental degree, and prac-
tically they reduce themselves to two, viz : using a sluggish explo-
sive in small quantities from an ordinary powder-gun, and using any
explosive from a pneumatic or other mechanical gun. Naturally,
the success of the latter method will soon induce the manufacture of
powders having an abnormally low maximum pressure. There is
undoubtedly a field for the use of such powders in connection with
an air-space in the gun to still further regulate the pressure; but
nothing of this sort has yet been attempted. Many methods of
padding the shell have been devised for reducing the shock in
powder-guns, but the variability of the powder-pressure is too great
to have yet rendered any such method successful. A method was
' patented by Gruson, in Germany, of filling a shell with the two
harmless constituents of an explosive, and having them unite and
explode by means of a fulminate fuze on striking an object. He
used for the constituents nitric acid and dinitro-benzine, and was
quite successful ; but the system has not met with favor on account of
the inconvenience. The explosive was about four times as powerful
as gunpowder.
That the advantage of using the most powerful explosives is a real
one can be easily shown. The eight-inch pneumatic gun in New
York harbor, with a projectile containing fifty pounds of blasting
gelatine and five pounds of dynamite, easily sunk a schooner at
1864 yards range, from the torpedo effect of the shell falling along-
side of it. This same shell, if filled with gunpowder, would have
contained but twenty-five pounds, and have had but one-ninth the
power.
The principal European nations are now building armored turrets
sunk in enormous masses of cement, as a result of their experiences
with gun-cotton and melenite. The fifteen-inch pneumatic projectile,
which I described as being capable of sinking an armor-clad at forty-
seven feet from where it struck, would have been capable of pene-
trating fifty feet of cement had it struck upon a fortification. It was
not only a much larger quantity of high explosive than Europeans
have experimented with, but the explosive itself is probably more
than twice as strong as their gun-cotton, and five or six times as
250 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
Strong as their melenite. In the plans of Gen. Brialmont, one of the
most eminent of European engineers, he allows in his fortifications
about ten feet of cement over casements, magazines, etc. It is evident
that this is insufficient for dynamite shells such as I have described.
At Fort Wagner, a sand work built during our war, Gen. Gilmore
estimated that he threw one pound of metal for every 3.27 pounds
of sand removed. He fired over 122,230 pounds of metal, and one
night's work would have repaired the damage. The new fifteen-inch
pneumatic shell will contain 600 pounds of blasting gelatine, and
judging from the German experiments at Kummersdorf, which I have
cited, one of these fifteen-inch shells would throw out a prodigious
quantity of sand; either 500 pounds to one of shell, or 2000 pounds
to one of shell, according as the estimate of Gen. Abbot or of Capt.
Zalinski is used. The former considers that the radius of destructive
effect increases as the square root of the charge ; the latter, that the
area of destructive effect for this kind of work is directly proportional
to the charge.
The effect of the high explosives upon horizontal armor is very
great, but we have yet to learn how to make it shatter vertical
armor. No fact about high explosives is more curious than this, and
there is no theory to account for it satisfactorily. As previously
stated, the French have found that four inches of vertical armor is
ample to keep out the largest melenite shells, and experiments at
Annapolis, in 1884, showed that masses of dynamite No. i, weighing
from 75 to 100 pounds, could be detonated with impunity when hung
against a vertical target composed of a dozen one-inch iron plates
bolted together.
In conclusion, I may say that in this country we are prone to think
that the perfection of the methods of throwing high explosives in
shell is vastly in favor of an unprotected nation like ourselves, because
we could easily make it very uncomfortable for any vessels that
might attempt to bombard our sea-coast cities.
This is true as far as it goes, but unfortunately the use of high
explosives will not stop there. I lately had explained to me the
details of a system which is certainly not impossible for damaging
New York from the sea by means of dynamite balloons. The
inventor simply proposed to take advantage of the sea-breeze which
blows toward New York every summer's afternoon and evening.
Without ever coming in sight of land, he could locate his vessel in
such a position that his balloons would float directly over the city
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 25!
and let fall a ton or two of dynamite by means of clock-work attach-
ment. The inventor had all the minor details very plausibly worked
out, such as locating by means of pilot balloons the air-currents at
the proper height for the large balloons, automatic arrangements for
keeping the balloon at the proper height after it was let go from the
vessel, and so on. His scheme is nothing but the idea of the drifting
or cufrent torpedo, which was so popular during our war, transferred
to the upper air. An automatic flying-machine would be one step
farther than this inventor's idea, and would be an exact parallel in
the air to the much dreaded locomotive water-torpedo of to-day.
There seems to be no limit to the possibilities of high explosives
when intelligently applied to the warfare of the future, and the
advantage will always be on the side of the nation that is best pre-
pared to use them.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, M D.
PROPOSED DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE
NAVY, WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE
ARDOIS NIGHT SYSTEM.
By Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. N.
There seems to be some probability of a large fleet being assem-
bled this summer to carry out a programme of manoeuvres on our
coast, and this may be an opportune moment to call attention to
certain deficiencies in our means of communicating between different
vessels and between the different divisions of a fleet.
Very little advance has been made in recent years in the navy in
the matter of signalling, except in the development of various
systems utilizing the electric light. Certainly, in the wig-wag code,
we have taken a step backwards in the adoption of the American
Morse alphabet. The writer is unaware of the reasons which led
originally to changing the superb Meyer one, two, wig-wag code for
the English Morse, but it is commonly credited in the service that
the English Morse was superseded by the even less desirable Amer-
ican Morse, now in use, because the signal corps of our army use
the last-named, and it seemed desirable for both services to have the
same code. If that is the case, we have crippled ourselves in con-
sideration of a very remote advantage. The American code is used
by all operators in the United States, excepting for most exceptional
purposes, and there is an evident advantage in the army signal cqrps
adopting it. With us, the space in the letters c, r, o,y and z, and in
the conjunctive "and," is undesirable in the wig-wag, awkward in
night flashing, and very difficult in fog-whistle signals. However,
we must make the most of it. We have the American Morse code,
and we must try to overcome the difficulties it presents in actual
service, although a return to the Meyer code would not be unwel-
come to the navy at large.
254 DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
The qualities to be sought in any method or device for trans-
mitting signals of any kind between ships are simplicity, rapidity,
reliability and distinctness. As we increase the distance between
the sender and the observer, we find it necessary to exaggerate the
quaHty of distinctness, at the expense not only of rapidity, but usually
of simplicity. Indeed, as between short-distance and distant sig-
nalling, different methods of transmission are found to be necessary.
For instance, our largest signal-flags are eleven feet, and, even with
them, in from three and one-half to four miles we have the limits of
distinctness, as the colors blend ; hence we must resort to some other
method of long-distance day-signalling. Similarly, where hoists ol
lights are used at night, the lights blend at not very great distances,
and we must resort to some other means. It will, indeed, be found
necessary to have for all day, night, and even fog signals, a different
device for long-distance signalling than that used at more or less
short distances.
Any system which is proposed must take into consideration the
immense differences in the rig and type of the various ships likely to
compose a squadron. For instance, as between the Miantonomoh,
Enterprise, Philadelphia, Vesuvius, and Gushing, the differences in
the rigs and sizes of the vessels must necessarily limit the usefulness
of any system apparently of great merit, judged in its applicability
to one type of vessel alone.
DAY SIGNALS.
There are four conditions of service under which a hoist system of
flags fails. One is where the flags fly edge-on to the observer;
another is in a dead calm ; a third is where the sender is in the glare
of the sun between the receiver and the sun ; and a fourth is at long
distances where the colors blend. Now, with the eleven-foot flags
it is possible at great distances to make out the shapes of the flags
in a hoist (as between square flags and pennants) without being at
all ^ble to distinguish the colors. It therefore appears possible, by
the use of various shapes in a hoist, to increase the range of visibility
very materially over the present limit of flags, which limit is from
three and one-half to four miles. This is a much-talked-of and fre-
quently suggested method of overcoming these difficulties. The
objections to using shapes are: i. They take up too much room for
stowage ; 2. they are rather unwieldy and heavy ; and 3. to be light
enough they are seldom strong enough to retain their shape in ser-
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 255
vice. They possess, however, the supreme advantage of visibihty
at very long distances, and there are conditions in time of war which
seem to demand a system of long-range day-signals such as in one
or more vessels as scouts or pickets for a fleet, or in blockading
a port or an enemy with long distances between vessels of the block-
ading squadron, etC|^ In Plate I is given an arrangement of shapes
from which a code may be selected. Figs, i, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are sug-
gested as alternates, or for code indicators, although to prevent the
multiplication of shapes it might be well to indicate a telegraphic or
geographical signal by the ist, 2d or 3d repeater hoisted over a
signal, or displayed at a yard-arm or mast-head accordingly as the
hoist is at the mast-head or yard-arm respectively. Just as satisfac-
tory a way to indicate code signals would be to have numbers added
to the general signal-book to indicate " the code to be used in reading
the signals which follow." The necessity for the use of shapes for
distant signalling might be rare, but it is an open question whether
or not they should (in smaller sizes) replace for all purposes flags as
hoist signals. In a calm, or head to a fresh breeze where the flags
appear edge-on, or in the glare of the sun, they would be visible
where the flags fail. As regards the materials of which shapes could
be made, that is a matter for experiment. Were aluminum cheaper
the solution would be easy. Paper squeezes might be made hard
enough to offer sufficient resistance to abrasion or destruction in
ordinary service. As a matter of fact, steel wire frames and canvas
coverings are most probably the best materials. The shapes should
be painted black or green, and each should be a figure formed by
the revolution of a symmetrical body about that axis which is to be
vertical in the hoist. In this way the shape presents the same appear-
ance to observers at all points of the horizon.
A revised set of hoist signal-flags is being experimented with in
the Squadron of Evolution. A yellow flag with a black ball in the
center is substituted for the old No. 2 (white), in the interests of
visibility ; the repeaters are changed slightly ; the geographical
pennant (blue) becomes an assent flag ; a negative is added ; the
despatch flag is used to replace the geographical pennant, and a new
danger flag is substituted. These changes are, however, not so
important in themselves as is the definite adoption of almost any set
of flags for all ships in the navy. Once adopted, there is little need
for change, unless to discard the whole system in favor of the use of
shapes. There is much to be said on both sides, but the balance
seems to be in favor of the shapes.
256 DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
FOG SIGNALS.
To illustrate the disadvantages of the space in some of the letters
of the American Morse code as applied to the fog-whistle, if the
syllables ele, Hi, eli, ile, sle or els occur, there is no way to distinguish
them from the simple letters o,y, r, c, z or arn^. Furthermore, as
far as there is any official order in the matter, the general call is a
sixty-second blast ; a dot lasts less than five seconds ; a dash, from
five to ten seconds ; and a long dash, front, or space, fifteen seconds.
At this rate, with expert signalmen, five minutes would be good time
in transmitting a change of compass course. It is drawing too fine
a distinction, and above all consumes too much time to grade the
lengths of the blasts as above in order to distinguish between a dot,
a dash, a long dash, a space, and a call. The following changes are
needed : Reduce the general call from sixty to thirty seconds ;
reduce the dot to one full second ; make the dash with two toots,
each a full second, but with only a half-second between them ; use
a four-second blast for a space, and a ten-second blast for the letter
/ or the numeral o. Care must be taken to distinguish between the
letter /, which is two dots (toots), and /, which is two dots or toots
with a half-second interval. To facilitate using the whistle, make fast
the whistle-cord about one foot from the end of a squeeze handle,
and work the handle as a lever, securing one end as the fulcrum, and
applying the hand as the power at the other. In this way one can
manipulate the whistle systematically. It has been suggested in the
service that squadrons should practice as in a fog at sea, by enclosing
the captain, officer of deck, and man at the wheel in a canvas screen,
so that they cannot see around at all, and exercise with whistle,
etc., as in actually steaming in a fog. It would be excellent
practice, and is needed to familiarize people with the new code and
its difficulties. The North Atlantic squadron has been about the
only one, up to recently, where much squadron cruising has been
carried on, and some years ago. with the Meyer code, no difficulties
were experienced in the least in certain forms of tactical drill in
foggy weather.
Distant signalling in a fog beyond the limits of audibihty of the
steam whistle can only be carried on by gun-fire. In this case it is
impossible to make a dash by a prolonged sound, and it should be
represented by two blasts with a full f -second interval, and a space
by three successive fires with a full |-second interval between each.
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 257
The revolving cannon seems to offer the best solution. As the con-
tinued firing of a single gun is a generally recognized international
signal of distress, the general call should be a dot, dash arrangement,
say five dots and five dashes, alternating, first one dot then a dash, etc.
NIGHT SIGNALS.
In the matter of visibility the Very's system of night signals leaves
nothing to be desired. It can be used with accuracy up to ten miles
or more under favorable conditions, and is unexcelled. There are
certain modifications that experience calls for. In the first place,
the pistols are miserably poor affairs. It has been suggested that
short double-barreled breech -loading shot-guns be issued as pro-
jectors. They have been used in the service and been found to work
admirably. In the next place, the original code, involving the
bracket in certain numerals, should be changed for a four-element
code. The bracket leads to too much embarrassment, in that, if one
of the cartridges fails to go off, it involves repeating from the begin-
ning. With a four-element code, if a cartridge fails to go off, one can
keep on trying at least for two minutes to get another one off, as the
ammunition would have to be almost worthless to cause a repetition
of the message on account of over two minutes' delay between fires.
The four-element code now used in the Squadron of Evolution
and the North Atlantic squadron should be issued for general
service. It is as follows :
General Call, G followed by rocket.
Message Call, G. (The message call is to be habitually used as a
general call when the ships are within ordinary signal distance.)
iRRRR 2GGGG
3RRRG 4GGGR
5RRGG 6GGRR
7RGGG 8GRRR
9RGGR oGRRG
Answering, G Repeat, R
Divisional point, date pennant and designating
flag G G R G
Interrogatory pennant RGRR
Affirmative or " yes " pennant R G R G
Negative or " no" pennant G R G R
Numeral pennant GRGG
258 DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
Annulling pennant R R G R
Danger or distress..., R repeated.
Telegraph flag (R G) bracketed.
Geographical pennant (R G) bracketed.
followed by rocket.
Use Navy List ...(R G) (R G)
bracketed in pairs.
While this code involves longer time to work than the original
three-element one, in the end it saves time through the non-liability
of having to repeat. The telegraphic, geographical, and navy list
designations contain brackets, but as these precede a numeral signal,
the correction of the failure of one color in a bracket is quickly
accomplished by beginning over. With a better projector than the
present pistol, and, using the four-element code, the Very's system
possesses for distant signalling the ideal qualities of visibility and
certainty. It is, however, too slow for tactical and routine squadron
signalling at moderate distances. The Squadron of Evolution is
using at present the Ardois system of night signals, and a brief
description of it may not here be out of place. The method of sling-
ing the cable containing the wires leading to the lamps, and of sus-
pending the lamps aloft, is shown in Plate II. The cable is seized at
intervals to a backstay, or a special wire-stay, to take the strain, and
the lanterns themselves are suspended on Scotchmen, which are
seized to the cable, and further supported by a distance-line from
the lantern next above. There are five lanterns, each double, as
shown in section in Plate III, and each containing two 32-candle
incandescent lamps. The outer globe, or lens, of the lantern is in
two colors, the upper half being white and the lower red, separated
on the inside by a brass diaphragm. In any display of lights only
one light in a lantern is shown, that is, the light is either red or
white, but never both red and white in the same lantern. Practi-
cally, the Ardois code admits of a display at any one time of from
one to five lights, any one of which may be red or white. The wires
of the cable lead to a box, circular in shape, and divided on its upper
face into sixty-four segments. A top view of the box is shown in
Plate III. Each segment corresponds to a certain display of lights
which is indicated on the face of the box in that segment by dots,
colored red or white to correspond. In the center of the box, and
in the same plane as the whole top disc, is the circular turn-table,
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 2.
Plate I.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 2.
PJale II.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII.. No.
Plate III.
Diaphragm rj^JJ^ ARDOIS KEY-BOARD.
(Brass).
(Rough Sketch.)
noo
Ota
1 R
1 R
R
» R
J R
W
• W
c W
« W
• W
»C
«C
« C
i C
C
[PROPOSED LAMP
(Sectional View.)
Proposed Key-Board tliat will accomplish all that the
Ardois will and which is adaptable to almost any other
code, such as Very's Night and English and American
Morse Code.s, etc. Scale one-half of above.
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 259
a, carrying with it the pointer, c, and the vertical cylinder, d. When
it is desired to display a letter, say A, the pointer, c, is brought
opposite the segment marked A. When the catch, b, slips into a
space abreast d, the only thing that remains to be done to make the
display (in this case red, white, red) is to turn the handle, e, through
90°. The act of turning the handle, <?, is to revolve the central ver-
tical axis in the cylinder, d, which thrusts out ten little pistons, which
make contact with such terminals as will light up the proper lamps,
so that, in this case, the lamps would show red, white, red. Dis-
plays are read from the bottom upwards. The general call is the so-
called cornet, a red and two whites. There are five code-calls which
indicate which code to use. " Gen " means the general signal-book ;
"Letters," the Ardois alphabet; "Compass," a compass signal;
" Cypher," a special code, etc. Every display of lights is answered
by the ship receiving turning on the same display, each keeping it
on until the sender turns off, which is not done by the sender until
all repeat. In case a ship is so situated as not to be able to see the
display or one or more of the lights of the sending ship, this observer
takes the signal from some other ship and repeats it. In this way
absolute certainty that a message has been accurately received is
attained. It is quite a rapid system of signalling when the fact is
taken into consideration that, through repeating back the signal,
certainty is assured, and the method can be adapted to other codes
and systems. The signals are visible, under favorable circumstances,
up to about three miles. As a summary, it may Be said that the
Ardois theoretically possesses the advantages of certainty, mobility,
rapidity, and visibility for night signalling in squadron. Practically,
there are certain mechanical defects, which, however, admit of cor-
rection. Owing to sparking and the consequent fusing or burning
of the pistons or contact-studs which are thrust out from the
cylinder, d, when the handle, e, is turned, a good deal of overhaul-
ing of the signal-box is necessary. The use of platinum contacts
would obviate this. There is a serious defect, also, in the lanterns,
in the inability to shift a lamp readily in case a filament is destroyed
by burning out or otherwise. Some change could be made in the
lantern to meet this objection, and the quality of certainty be practi-
cally as well as theoretically secured.
There are, however, some serious objections to the use of the
Ardois system in our service, i. It is ever so much too complicated
mechanically, and the same advantages which it offers can be ob-
26o DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
tained much more simply. 2. Each outfit costs about $1800, where
a much less expensive device will accomplish all that it will, and
admit of being readily overhauled in case of faulty circuits, whereas
the Ardois cable is difficult to test out or repair. 3. It introduces a
new alphabet, numerals, and signal code generally, whereas a similar
but much simpler device will admit of the use of the American
Morse alphabet and the Very's code.
The device here proposed is shown in Plates II and III, and may
be described in general terms as follows : It consists of five groups
of three lights each, the groups being spaced about five yards apart,
and each group consisting of a red, a white, and a green light. The
wires running to the lights lead through a long tube, put together
in sections, which will admit of shortening the distances between
groups for special ships, and also admit of readily overhauling the
leading wire circuits in case of the development of faults. There
are, in all, fifteen lights, which, with a common return, would give
sixteen wires in the tube. The insulation of the leading wires should
be colored red, white, or green, according to the color of the light it
operates, and marked with the proper number on a brass tag. The
inside of the tube should be coated with shellac to prevent the
grounding of any wire that might by accident be bared of its insu-
lation.
The wires should lead to a key-board, conveniently located. A
rough sketch of the plan for this is shown in Plate III. The keys
should be thos^of the ordinary kind used in turning on and off an
incandescent light or a branch circuit, and should be arranged in five
sets of three each to correspond with the lights aloft, so that the
keys for the top lights should be on the left of the key-board and in
the same order as they are aloft, viz. red, white, and green. A
switch controls the current, and it is not thrown on until the proper
keys have been turned on the board to make the desired display
aloft. Then the switch is turned and all the desired lights appear
simultaneously, and should be kept on until answered by the same
display from all ships receiving. The display should be read from
the top downwards, just as a hoist of flags would be read, and not
from the bottom up, as in the Ardois. It must be remembered that
in the last-named system the central turn-table must be revolved
each time until the pointer comes opposite the desired letter or char-
acter, then the catch, b, must be sprung, and finally the handle, e,
turned through 90°. Certainly, in the time which is taken by this
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 261
operation, a display could be made by the proposed system, for it
only requires rapidly turning certain keys and then throwing on a
switch. Above the key-board, over each set of keys, should be a
group of very small low-resistance lamps, colored the same as the
lights to which they correspond aloft, and so arranged that, as a key
is turned, its tell-tale miniature light would instantly show with its
proper color. The display above the key-board would be the index
of the correctness of the signal which is about to be displayed aloft
when the switch is thrown on. This will obviate mistakes due to
accidentally turning a wrong key, and admit of placing the key-board
well under cover where the real display is not visible to the sender
or operator.
The proposed lamp is shown in Plate III. The longer the arm,
a, the less the tube, <?, however large it may have to be, will cut off
the light from an observer who has the tube in line with the light.
The arm, a, also admits of having the lamp vertical, which helps it
to shed water. The globe, c, is red, white, or green, accordingly as
we wish, and it is open below to admit of readily shifting the lamp
in case of a broken filament. The globe is held in place by a hinged
collar, d, which tightly clamps it in place. It is a simple matter to
hoist a man in a boatswain's chair. to shift a light or replace a broken
globe, and the proposed arrangement of lamp and globe admits of
both being cleaned readily.
To make a signal according to the Very four-element code : Say
the signal is 1239. Make the message-call by showing the upper
green light until answered. Display four reds, and when all answer
with four reds, turn off; then four greens, etc.; then three reds and
a green, etc. The advantages of this system are that a signal can
thus be sent in one-fourth the time that it can be by firing the colored
lights ; and, by each ship repeating, no mistake in receiving is pos-
sible. Hence for squadron purposes at ordinary distances the gain
is an immense one. To make a bracket, display the upper red and
the second green; to make two brackets, display the upper red,
second green, fourth red, and lowest green. This will leave a space
between the brackets. To make a bracket and a rocket, use the
upper bracket, followed by white, green, and red ; in other words,
make a rocket by a display of white, green, red. It will be observed
that in this device for signalling with the Very's four-element numeral
code, we have to use only four lights at one time, and if for any
reason a light fails, and it happens to be either a red or green of
262 DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
either the uppermost or the lowest group of lights, we still have four
reds or greens to work with. In other words, there are two chances
in five of not being blocked temporarily by a failure of a light. In
the cases cited of uppermost or lowest red or green failing, it does
not block us in the double bracket or the bracket and rocket, for we
can always make the alphabetical signal, G. L. U. (geographical list
use), or N. L. U. (navy list use).
To use the American Morse alphabet : This grouping of lights
proposed answers admirably for the service wig-wag code and over-
comes all difficulties. No letter has more than five elements. Call
a white light a dot, a green a space, and a red a dash. It will be
observed that in the alphabet there are spaces only between dots,
hence the green light will only be displayed with whites. For
instance, jj/ would be two whites, green, and two whites; k would be
red, white, and red. Now the numeral codeof the American Morse
contains one numeral, 6, with six dots. We have provided already
for the numeral code in the Very's signals. To use it for wig-wag
numerals, display the uppermost white light over the Very four-
element numeral, and this will signify that the Very numeral, which
appears under it, is to be read as a simple numeral. An " error" is
seven dots, and this should be changed to five reds. There yet
remains one additional feature of this proposed device which must
commend itself. If any light fails so as to apparently block a signal,
we have always recourse to the other two lights of the set in which
the break occurs. For instance, if the red hght fails, display both
the green and white; if the white fails, the green and red; if the
green fails, the red and white. This is the only case in which
two lights of the same set are displayed simultaneously. At long
distances the two lights will blend, as they are only a foot apart, but
an adjacent ship seeing the break will interpret correctly. In tactical
signals speed of signalling is everything, next to certainty, and in any
case we always have the pistols or firing code to fail back on, but in
a squadron at tactical distance there would be no difficulty up to
half a mile in seeing the two lights distinctly. It must be borne in
mind that the failures of lights, here provided against, do not on the
average occur oftener than once in two or three months, but so much
importance is given to that consideration here, because the failure is
bound to occur at a critical juncture, and the remedy must be
immediate. It will be observed that the Ardois code can be as
readily transmitted by this device as by the $1800 machine furnished
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 263
with it, with the additional provision, as above, in case of a failure of
a light. Furthermore, by cypher codes, by changing the color of
globes, by almost any combination, we can adapt this device to
almost any desired system. It will also be observed that the time
gained in displaying all the elements of a letter in one display as
against flashing the elements successively is further increased by
non-liability to having to repeat, and certainty that the message is
received as sent.
There are many details which are omitted on account of lack of
time and space. If, in the coming season, it is desired to fit all the
ships of any squadron with this device, it can be done in a very short
time. All the materials can be purchased in the open market. Any
seaman-gunner ought to be able to run the wires and arrange the
lamps and key-board, as the lamps proposed are very simple, and
the wire is No. 16 (Birmingham gauge), .05 inch in diameter, carrying
seventeen amperes to each lamp. As only two amperes are required,
it leaves a sufficient margin of safety for weathering.
This paper has been somewhat too hastily prepared, and the
illustrations are only rough sketches. Working drawings can be
furnished, but it has been the hope that the requirements of the
device are so simple that no detailed explanation would be needed.
It seems not out of place to here again call attention to the need
for increased pay, and the rating of signalmen on board ship for
those called upon to stand signal watch.
It would be a good thing just now to undertake a thorough over-
hauling of orders relating to signals and a correction of defects in the
systems in use. Anything that can be proposed has objections that
can be cited against it, but anything is better than confusion and
lack of uniformity. Doubtless the reports from the various squad-
rons throw much light on the experiments now being conducted.
It can at least do no harm to propose the following scheme :
For I. Day, ordinary: Small shapes in a hoist.
2. Day, distant : Large shapes in a hoist.
3. Fog, ordinary : Steam whistle.
4. Fog, distant: Gun-fire with revolving cannon.
5. Night, ordinary : Five groups of lights of three colors each.
6. Night, distant : Very's night code of four elements.
We have already the international code, and the above, or any-
thing else to take its place, contains enough work to make it worth
while for us to rate our signalmen and pay them better.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVaL institute, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
By Joseph W. Richards/A. C, Ph. D.,
Instructor in Metallurgy, Mineralogy and Blow-piping, at Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pa. : Member U. S. Naval Institute.
Metallurgy is the art of extracting metals from their ores and
bringing them into that state of purity which is necessary for their
industrial application. Electro-metallurgy is that branch of the
metallurgic art in which the agency of electricity is employed. We
would then define electro-metallurgy as the art of extracting metals
from their ores or of refining them, on a commercial scale, by the
agency of the electric current.
Before going into the further classification of this subject, let us in-
quire into its history. We can hardly realize, in this age of electrical
wonders, that it is less than a century since Volta discovered current
electricity. Messrs. Nicholson and Carlisle first made known, in
1800, the chemical powers of an electric current, that it would
decompose water and certain saline solutions. Kissinger and
Berzelius, in 1S03, and Davy, in 1807, enlarged upon this subject,
the latter especially achieving renown by decomposing the fixed
alkalies by the electric current and first isolating the alkaline metals.
Faraday was the first to determine accurately the laws governing the
electric deposition of metals from solution, a phenomenon to which
he gave the term of Electrolysis. It was thus known, early in this
century, that the electric current would, if properly applied, deposit
metals from solutions of their salts in water.
In 1836, De la Rue, working with Daniell's recently-devised con-
stant-current battery, discovered that when a copper plate was elec-
266 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
trically coated with a sheet of metallic copper, and the sheet stripped
from the plate, every scratch in the plate had its counterpart in the
sheet which was deposited on it. This discovery gave rise to the
very useful art of galvano-plasty, by which fac-simile impressions are
so easily obtained, and which has its widest application in the modern
methods of electrotyping.
In 1838, Messrs. Elkington and Barratt obtained patents for pro-
cesses of electrically depositing gold, silver, platinum and zinc upon
articles, to serve as a protective plating. These were the first prac-
tical electric-plating processes, which have expanded to such a
wonderful degree at the present day.
However, there are many metals which cannot be electrically
deposited from aqueous solution, and Professor Bunsen, in 1853,
devised an extremely ingenious method of treating such cases. He
was experimenting on the electrolytic production of magnesium, and
instead of a solution in water he simply fused anhydrous magnesium
chloride by heat, in a crucible, and used the molten salt as the liquid
bath or electrolyte. This device was successful, and opened a new
field for investigation of electric action. By using a similar method,
in 1855, H. Saint-Claire Deville succeeded in first producing a bar
or stick of aluminium.
As far back as 1847, Maximilian, Duke of Leuchtenberg, proved
that when impure copper containing precious metals is used as an
anode in a copper sulphate solution, the copper deposited on the
cathode is of exceptional purity, while the precious metals are left
undissolved in a concentrated form ready for further treatment. He
foresaw that a day might come when this discovery would be of great
importance.
And now, we may well ask, what obstacle prevented the inaugura-
tion of electro-metallurgic processes? The electric current deposits
many metals from aqueous solution in a very pure state ; metals not
yielding to this method can be obtained by electrolysis of a molten
bath of their salts, and an excellent process for refining copper and
extracting its gold and silver is worked out ; yet the real art of
electro-metallurgy, as I have defined its meaning, was non-existent.
The cause is not hard to find. Until the introduction of Wilde's
magneto-electric machine, in 1865, all electrolytic operations were
conducted with the current from batteries, and it needs no explana-
tion to see that the application of this electric process to the extrac-
tion of metals from their ores, or refining them, was a commercial
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 267
impossibility. The introduction of Wilde's machine may be taken
as the starting-point of all our commercial electro-metallurgic success,
for it furnished large electric currents at a cost many times less than
the battery, and rendered financially possible several methods of
electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy, as a practised art, dates from 1865.
It will be readily seen that 1 exclude from the meaning or scope of
the term electro-metallurgy the processes of electrotyping, electro-
plating, and all electric processes which are not metallurgic, in the
true sense of that word. I confine the term simply to the extraction
of metals from their ores and their refining on a commercial scale.
Many of the so-called treatises on electro-metallurgy are really
treatises on electro-plating, etc., dismissing the metallurgic side of
the question in probably one or two short chapters. The distinction
which I have made is a real one, and has been fully appreciated by
•Dr. Gore, who, in the preface to his recently published "Electric
Separation of Metals," really a work on electro-metallurgy, says :
" This volume is written to supply a want. No book entirely devoted
to the electrolytic separation and refining of metals exists at present
(1890) in any language; those hitherto written on the subject of
electro-metallurgy are more or less devoted to eleciro -plating, the
molding or copying of works of art, etc., by electro-deposition."
A division of the subject of electro-metallurgy might be made into
the science and the art ; that is, the theoretic principles of electro-
deposition on which the art is based, and the art itself, of practically
applying those principles. The theoretical principles underlying
the art are simply those of electrolysis, common to the whole subject
of electro-deposition; their practical application to metallurgic
operations constitutes the art of electro-metallurgy. The principles
were mostly well known prior to 1865, but their commercial applica-
tion dates from that time.
Electro-metallurgy falls naturally into two divisions :
I. Extraction of metals from their ores by electricity.
II. Refining of metals by electricity.
The latter division was the first to be put into practical operation.
By its nature it must be an adjunct to some other metallurgic opera-
tion for reducing the ore to metal, and constitutes only a subsidiary
part of some ordinary metallurgic process. We will, therefore, con-
sider this latter division first, in order to clear the ground for a
discussion of processes of the first division, the true, independent
electro-metallurgic processes.
268 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
REFINING OF METALS BY ELECTRICITY.
In 1865, immediately on the introduction of Wilde's electro-
magnetic machines, Mr. Elkington of Birmingham, England, started
a plant for refining copper which has been in practical operation
ever since. It has been already explained that the possibility of this
method had been proven many years before, so that Mr. Elkington's
enterprise consisted essentially in starting on a large commercial
scale what had been done on a small scale, with the battery, almost
twenty years before. The plant was commercially successful, and
was the father of the many large copper-refining plants now scattered
through Europe and America.
The rationale of the electric copper-refining is as follows : The
metallurgy of copper has always been a rather complicated afiair.
By one or two smeltings the ore can readily be reduced to an
impure copper, but the heaviest part of the work has still to be done
in refining this to pure copper. Especially is the question made
difficult when the impure copper contains silver, which is frequently
the case. In this event, the only practical way to get out the
precious metal was to dissolve up the entire mass of copper in acid
and separate the silver chemically, by precipitation. It was at this
point that the electric method of refining stepped in. It took the
impure copper, produced by ordinary dry smelting from the ores,
and converted this at one operation into the very purest copper ;
meanwhile, at the same time, extracting all the precious metals. It
is thus seen that a very wide field was open to this art of refining,
and that the financial side of the question was materially assisted by
the high price commanded by the superior quality of copper pro-
duced. The operation of refining may be briefly described as
follows: The impure copper is cast into plates about 18 inches
square and ^ inch thick, with lugs projecting from the corners at
one end. These are connected with the positive pole of the electric
generator, and hung at intervals of four to six inches in a trough
filled with solution of sulphate of copper. Between these are hung
thin sheets of pure copper of similar shape, connected with the other
pole of the dynamo, on which the pure copper is deposited. To,
ensure success, close attention has to be given to the concentration
of the bath, its temperature, and that it has free circulation. When
working properly, only pure copper will be transferred from the
anodes to the thin sheet cathodes. The impurities in the copper
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 269
behave as follows : The iron is dissolved, goes into solution as
sulphate and accumulates in the bath, not being deposited with the
copper. When the bath contains a certain amount of iron, it can be
purified by being run out, concentrated and crystallized, the iron
sulphate crystallizing out first. Bisjtitiih, Hn and arsenic also pass
into solution, but need not be deposited with the copper if the
manager attends carefully to the various details. Gold, silver,
platimim, cuprous oxide and cvpric sulphide, with most of the
bismuth and some tiyi and arsenic, remain undissolved and fall as
mud to the bottom of the bath. This residue, therefore, contains all
the precious metals present, in a very concentrated form suitable for
further treatment by ordinary cupellation methods. The deposited
copper ought to be very nearly chemically pure.
The electric refining of copper has developed into an immense
business. There are in operation twelve works in Germany, one in
Italy, five in France, six in England, and six in the United States.
Their annual production is many thousand tons, being a consider-
able proportion of the entire production of pure copper.
The only other metal to which electric refining has been applied
on a commercial scale is lead. Metallic lead can be refined with
much more ease, by ordinary furnace methods, than impure copper,
yet it is a difficult matter to extract from it the precious metals.
These are usually removed by the ancient method of cupellation, or
by de-silverizing by zinc (Parke's process). Dr. Keith of New
York devised, in 1878, an electric method of refining argentiferous
lead, whereby the silver was extracted and a very pure lead obtained.
The process was similar in most respects to the refining of copper,
the lead anodes being, however, enclosed in thin muslin bags, which
allowed the solution to pass through them but retained all insoluble
residue. The solution consisted of acetate of soda in which sulphate
of lead was dissolved. During the operation the iron and zinc
present go into solution, but are not deposited with the lead. Anti-
mony, arsenic, copper, silver and gold remain in the residue, which
is treated in a similar manner to the residue from copper-refining.
The baths were kept at about 100° F. This process was operated
for some time on a large scale at Rome, N. Y,, but it was not suffi-
ciently economical to compete with later improvements in other
methods of de-silverizing bullion, and has been abandoned.
It is thus seen that the copper-refining is the only kind of electric
refining in practical operation, and it is rendered possible by the
270 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
difficulties of the methods of refining by the ordinary furnace pro-
cesses. The chief items of expense in a refining plant are the large
number of depositing vats needed for even a small-sized works, and
interest on the large stock of metal locked up in the anodes and
being in course of deposition. In one of the largest plants in the
United States as much as 350 tons of copper are in course of treat-
ment at one time, while the plant covers several acres. The relative
slowness of deposition by electrolytic action is the chief difficulty
with which all electric processes have to contend.
EXTRACTION OF METALS FROM THEIR ORES BY ELECTRICITY.
Metallurgically, there may be distinguished three distinct methods
of applying the electric current to the extraction of metals from their
compounds or ores :
I. Electro-deposition from aqueous solution.
II. Electro-deposition from a fused electrolyte.
III. Electro-thermal reduction.
I.
This heading includes a great number of electro-metallurgic
processes. The method has been principally applied to the metal-
lurgy of copper, silver, gold and zinc, and has developed on two
distinct lines.
ist. Preparation of a solution of the metal and electrolysis of this
by means of insoluble anodes, or anodes of a metal other than that
being deposited.
2d. The use of anodes made of the metallic compound or ore, the
solution being regenerated by the acid set free attacking these anodes
and dissolving out the metal.
Operations of the first class are particularly applicable to the iso-
lation of copper or zinc, which are easily brought into solution.
Copper exists as sulphate in many mine-waters, which need only to
be concentrated by evaporation to be ready for treatment. Many of
the ores of copper and zinc can be treated so as to convert the metal
into soluble sulphate. Thus, if copper pyrites is carefully burnt,
most of the copper will form sulphate and can be washed out of the
residue. Oxide or carbonate ores can easily be brought into solu-
tion by treatment with sulphuric acid. When a solution of copper
sulphate thus formed is electrolysed, using sheet-iron anodes and
sheet-copper cathodes, copper is deposited on the latter, while the
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 27 1
anodes are dissolved and ferrous sulphate goes into solution. When
all the copper has been deposited the solution can be evaporated to
dryness, and the sulphate of iron regained and used over in the
roasting operation, converting copper oxides into soluble sulphate.
This method of electrolysis is often performed without the aid of an
outside current, the copper and iron electrodes being simply con-
nected by wires outside of the bath, the electricity generated by this
galvanic couple being sufficient to electrolyse the solution and
deposit the copper.
Zinc ores can be treated in a very similar manner. Letrange's
process consists in taking zinc sulphide (blende), roasting it so as to
convert as much as possible into sulphate, and leaching the product.
Some zinc oxide will be formed, which, with unchanged zinc sulphide,
will remain undissolved in the residue. The sulphate solution is
electrolysed, using thin plates of zinc for cathodes and lead plates
for anodes. The lead being insoluble in sulphuric acid is unattacked
by the solution, which therefore gradually becomes more acid as the
zinc is removed and the free sulphuric acid accumulates. When the
zinc has been removed to a certain extent, the acid solution is run
out and passed over the residues left from the leaching operation.
The acid extracts the rest of the zinc from these, the solution being
at the same time replenished with zinc and its acidity taken away.
The extraction of zinc from the ore is thus practically complete, a
result far from being reached by the ordinary zinc processes.
Letrange's process has been worked in France, and the whole ques-
tion of its applicability seems to be that of cost of metal, the process
being industrially quite a success.
The use of metallic compounds for anodes affords a direct method
of extracting metal from its ore in a minimum number of operations.
These kind of electric processes were evolved from the copper-
refining processes by a natural transition. In the latter, the impure
copper used as anodes is dissolved by the acid set free by electro-
lysis, and thus the solution is regenerated. Marchesi, of Genoa, had
the idea that since cuprous sulphide is attacked by free acid, that
the impure copper might be replaced by copper matte from an
earlier stage of the ordinary smelting processes, and thus one or
more of the smelting operations be rendered unnecessary. He found
the operation somewhat more difficult than with impure copper, yet
he succeeded in making it practicable and it is now used on a large
scale. The copper matte, sometimes obtained by only a single
272
ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
smelting operation direct from the ore, is cast into slabs, which are
used in a copper sulphate solution exactly as if they were impure
copper. The reactions are similar to those in refining impure
copper; the precious metals particularly being thus very easily
separated in the residues or mud.
In Luckow's zinc process, a bath is made of solution of zinc sul-
phate ; the cathode is a thin sheet of pure zinc, and the anode is a
mixture of zinc ore and coke, finely ground and well mixed together
and held in an open-work case of wood. As zinc is removed from
solution by the electrolytic action, the free acid attacks the anode,
dissolving out the zinc ore. The carbon is placed in the anode
to conduct the electricity ; for, while impure copper and even copper
matte conduct electricity, the zinc ore is practically a non-conductor
of the current.
II.
About 1854, Bunsen made a new departure in electrolytic methods
by subjecting a fused salt to the action of the current. He placed
anhydrous magnesium chloride in a crucible, melted it at a gentle
heat, and then dipped into it two electrodes of dense carbon, such as
comes from gas-retorts. Magnesium was obtained at one electrode
and chlorine gas at the other. Soon after, Deville electrolysed in a
similar manner the anhydrous double chloride of aluminium and
sodium. In such a bath, the current decomposes only the aluminium
chloride, producing aluminium and chlorine; the sodium chloride
being a more fixed compound is not decomposd if the current is
properly regulated. In this way Deville made the first masses of
aluminium which had ever been produced. He tried hard to perfect
the process. He operated on a large scale, and tried to effect the
regeneration of the bath and stop the evolution of chlorine at the
anode by making the latter of a mixture of carbon and alumina,
made by mixing the latter with pitch, moulding into shape and
coking at a high heat. The electrolysis went on easily at 500° to
600° C, but the greatest difficulty met with was the disintegration of
the electrodes, particularly the anode. A fundamental difficulty in
the way of commercial success lay in the use of the battery to gen-
erate the current, an obstacle only overcome by the introduction of
dynamo-machines many years later.
As early as 1879 it was proposed to produce aluminium by a
method similar to Deville's, yet using dynamo-currents. In 1883,
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 27.3
Dr. Richard Gratzel of Bremen obtained patents for a similar
process, which was operated for about four years by the "Aluminium
und Magnesium Fabrik" at Hemelingen, and many thousand kilos
of aluminium made. Dr. Kleiner's process for producing aluminium
consists in fusing the mineral cryolite (a double fluoride of alumin-
ium and sodium) between two carbon electrodes which touch each
other, producing a large electric arc. When the bath is well fused
the electrodes are drawn apart, and the fused mineral is electrolysed
by the current into aluminium and fluorine (the sodium fluoride
remaining unattacked if the current is properly regulated), while the
bath is maintained in fusion by the heat generated by the passage
of the current. Mr. Hall, whose process is being operated by the
Pittsburgh Reduction Company, takes a bath of fused cryolite and
stirs into it alumina until it is saturated. On passing an electric
current through this bath, by carbon electrodes, the alumina, which
is as it were dissolved in the cryolite, is the only compound attacked
by the current, because it is the weakest of the three present, and
thus the cryolite solvent remains untouched. When the alumina is
all decomposed, the bath is regenerated by simply stirring in some
more, and thus the operation is continuous. In practice only one
electrode dips into the bath, the positive one, while the carbon
lining of the iron pot holding the bath is made the negative. The
bath is kept fluid by the heat generated by the current, which can
be regulated by the distance between the positive carbons and the
bottom of the pot. A plant of 500 horse-power is now manufac-
turing about six tons of aluminium a month by this process.
We cannot take the space even to name all the different devices
used in electrolysing fused aluminium salts ; one hundred pages
would no more than suffice to describe them all.
This method of electrolysis has also been applied to the isolation
of sodium. Jablochoff devised apparatus for decomposing sodium
chloride (common salt), which consisted of a large pot in which the
salt was fused, with arrangements to feed the bath as it was used up.
Dipping into the salt were two electrodes of carbon, encased in tubes
which also dipped under the surface of the bath. The products of
electrolysis in this case were both vapors, the sodium vapor being
led into a condenser, while the chlorine gas from the positive carbon
was led into chambers where it was utilized for making bleaching
powder.
274 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
III.
The electro-thermal processes are primarily dependent on the
utilization of the enormous temperature of the electric arc, by inter-
rupting a powerful current, by this agency bringing about chemical
reactions which would not take place at temperatures attainable by
any other means.
As far back as 1853, John Henry Johnson applied for a patent in
England for "smelting iron and other ores" by electricity. He
states that the metallic ores are to be ground, mixed with charcoal,
and dropped between the poles of large electrodes, across which a
voltaic arc is established. The ore thus treated separates into molten
metal and slag, which are run out of the reduction chamber into an
exterior vessel, where they may separate. In 1873 Werderman
claimed the process of crushing the metallic ore, mixing with car-
bonaceous matter, heating to redness, and then raising the temper-
ature to the point necessary for reduction by passing an electric
current, led into the mass by terminal electrodes of carbon or other
refractory conductor of electricity. Many advantages are thus
gained by reduction in an enclosed space, where the atmosphere is
perfectly reducing and the temperature almost unlimited. Such
apparatus have been very appropriately called " electric furnaces."
It will readily be recognized that such operations are expensive, and
could not apply profitably to the production of the common metals.
They have been used almost exclusively for reducing the most
refractory ores.
Messrs. A. & E. H. Cowles, of Cleveland, Ohio, were the first to
apply the electric furnace to the reduction of aluminium compounds
on a commercial scale. Their type of furnace consists of a horizontal
fire-brick-lined cavity, in which the mixture for reduction is placed,
and through the ends of which pass two large carbon electrodes.
The charge is carbon, alumina and a metal, usually granulated copper
or iron ; and the furnace is covered with a fire-clay slab. On passing
the current from a 300 horse-power dynamo machine, and gradually
drawing the electrodes apart, an interrupted arc of several feet in
length is produced, and, at the temperature obtained, alumina melts,
copper vaporizes, carbon crystallizes, and alumina is reduced by
carbon. The product is an aluminium alloy. If the alloying metal
is left out, no quantity of pure aluminium can be obtained, since it
partly vaporizes and obstinately sticks in thin sheets to the lumps of
carbon, refusing to run together.
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 275
H^roult's furnace for reducing alumina works on the same principle,
but is arranged differently. A large iron case is filled with carbon,
a cavity hollowed out on top, and a large carbon electrode hung so
as to dip into this cavity. On placing copper in the hole and lower-
ing the carbon, the iron case being connected with the negative pole
of the dynamo, the arc formed between the carbon rod and the
copper soon melts the latter. Then alumina is thrown in, which is
also liquefied by the arc. The operation then proceeds as if it were
the simple electrolysis of a fused bath, the copper being the negative
electrode and the alumina the electrolyte. Aluminium being set
free, the copper absorbs it and forms aluminium bronze.
Several other forms of electric furnaces for reduction have been
devised. In one, the two electrodes are made of a mixture of the
ore and carbon, and when the arc is passed between their points the
reduced material falls into a crucible beneath. In another, the
carbon electrodes are made hollow, and the material to be reduced
fed through the rods into the arc, where it is reduced. Some of
these forms may yet be made serviceable, but the Cowles and
Heroult furnaces are the only ones which have so far been success-
fully operated on a commercial scale.
CALCULATIONS.
Having briefly reviewed the various kinds of electro-metallurgical
processes, we will note, by means of a few illustrations, the method
of calculating the amount of power required to decompose com-
pounds by electrolysis, and thus obtain means of estimating the
percentage of useful effect in any process for which we have the
necessary details.
An electric current has two factors — quantity and tension ; the
former measures its absolute amount, the latter its power of over-
coming resistance. The unit of quantity is an ampere (measured on
an ampere meter), the unit of tension is a volt (measured by a volt
meter). Whether the affinities of a chemical compound will be
overcome by a given current will depend on whether the current is
of sufficient tension; when a current is of the required tension, the
amount of chemical action performed will be proportional solely to
the quantity of the current. The dynamic energy of an electric
current is proportional to the product of its quantity by its tension ;
z. e. a current of one ampere at a tension of one volt has a definite
276 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
mechanical value, and if this force is exerted in one second, the unit is
called a Watt. This unit is at the foundation of all our subsequent
calculations, and its absolute value is of first importance. The mean
of the best experimental determinations make one Watt equal to
0.00024 calories of heat or to o.i kilogrammeter of work, and there-
fore nearly i-750th of a horse-power. (French measures.)
As before stated, assuming that a current is of sufficient tension,
the chemical work which it will do depends solely on its quantity.
Some unit of chemical work per unit of electrical quantity would
seem to be needed here, and this is given in the determination that
when an electric current is decomposing water, each ampere passing
sets free 0.000010352 gramme of hydrogen. The amount of oxygen
liberated at the same time is necessarily eight times as great, and we
can therefore pass directly to the law that the amounts of different
elements liberated by a current of given quantity are proportional
to their chemical equivalents. The amount of any element set free
by one ampere is its electro-chemical equivalent, and is obtained by
multiplying the electro-chemical equivalent of hydrogen by the
chemical equivalent weight of the element.
The question of the tension necessary to decompose a compound
follows immediately the statements of the two preceding paragraphs.
We know from thermal data that to liberate 0.00001035 gramme of
hydrogen from water requires an expenditure of energy represented
by 0.00001035 X 34- 162 = 0.000358 calories. But a current of one
ampere at a tension of one volt is mechanically equivalent to only
0.00024 calories, and therefore the work being done in decomposing
the water absolutely requires that the strength of the current shall
be at least -^ ^ = 1.49 volts. This is the absolute minhnum of
0.00024
electro-motive force which will operate the decomposition of water.
The force of this reasoning may appear clearer if we were to assume,
for argument's sake, that a current with a tension of i volt could
decompose water. If so, every ampere passing represents one Watt
of energy, or 0.00024 calories ; but it sets free 0.00001035 gramme
of hydrogen, which if burnt back to water would set free 0.000358
calories. We have therefore created energy, being able to get one
and a half times as much energy from the product as were expended.
Of course we consider this an impossibility, and see at once that the
one ampere must be propelled by a tension of at least i^ volts in
order that its mechanical energy may be equal to the work which
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 277
we know that it does. The tension practically required will always
be greater than this calculated minimum, for the reason that the
transfer resistance (the resistance which the current meets in passing
from the electrodes into the electrolyte) and the conduction re-
sistance (that met by the current in passing through the electrolyte)
have to be overcome. These resistances do not result in the
accomplishment of any chemical work, but cause a proportional part
of the energy of the current to be converted into heat, which warms
up the electrolyte. These latter resistances will vary principally
with the temperature of the bath (as far as it affects the conductivity
of the electrolyte) and the distance of the electrodes apart ; the
transfer resistance is apt to be abnormally increased by the elec-
trodes becoming coated over with a layer of non-conducting gas or
liquid, a phenomenon called polarisation, and which we have time
only to mention. Among all these variable resistances, that required
for decomposition is the only one which is constant, and even it is
not absolutely so, if critically examined, but decreases slightly with
an increase in temperature of the bath.
A careful application of the principles just reviewed will enable us
to discuss any of the problems presented in electro-metallurgy. In
order for electrolysis to take place at all, it is necessary that the
electrolyte be in the fluid state and that it be, when fluid, a con-
ductor of electricity. These conditions being filled, and proper
electrodes put in place, then the current passing between the elec-
trodes must be of a certain minimum tension to accomplish decom-
position. When the anode is soluble, and is gradually dissolved by
the bath, the chemical heat of its solution may be set against the
chemical work which the current does in decomposition, thus lessen-
ing the decomposition resistance. For instance, when, as in refining
copper, metal is dissolved from the anode, the action at the anode is
just the reverse of the decomposition taking place in the electrolyte,
one oft'sets the other, and the only resistances to be overcome by the
current are those of transference, conduction and polarisation.
When, as in producing aluminium from cryolite, a metallic compound
is broken up at the anode, such as alumina, its heat of formation will
be the measure of the decomposition resistance, lessened, if the
alumina is mixed with carbon, by the heat of union of the oxygen
with carbon. We will conclude these calculations by analysing an
example of each of the four kinds of electro-metallurgic processes,
viz. refining, and the three divisions of electro-metallurgic processes
proper.
278 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
Refining. — As before remarked, in refining, the decomposition
resistance becomes nil, and the current has only to overcome the
transfer resistances, etc. Since these latter are small, a very small
electric current will refine a large weight of copper, if the baths are
placed in series, the quantity deposited in each bath being propor-
tional to the number of amperes of current. The amount of anode
surface in each bath must be regulated according to the quantity of
the current. It is found that the purest copper deposits, and in
best condition for further handling, when about 5 ounces are depos-
ited per square foot per 24 hours (ij kilos per square meter). So,
while the conduction resistance in each bath would be lessened, and
the number of baths which could be used in a series increased by
enlarging the anode surface, yet the total anode surface per bath
will be regulated by the above principle.
At Elkington's works at Pembrey, near Swansea, an engine of 65
indicated horse-power ran a dynamo giving a current of 350 amperes
at no volts, equal to ^^^ ^ ^'^ = 5 1 i electrical horse-power. (Effi-
ciency of dynamo, 80 per cent.) This current was sent through a
series of 200 vats, each with an anode surface of 44 square feet, with
electrodes about two inches apart. The output was 4000 pounds in
24 hours. Looking into these figures, we see that a current of 350
amperes should deposit in 200 vats the following quantity of copper
per second :
Electro-chemical equivalent Chemical equivalent ^ No. of amperes No. of vats
of hydrogen ^ of copper ^ ■^
0.00001035 gramme X S^-^ X 35° X 200
equal to 22.887 grammes per second, or 1980 kilos, equal to 4355
pounds per day. There was therefore an efficiency in this regard of
92 per cent. The number of volts absorbed by each bath was
Ii^ = o.55, and the density of the current was 5^ =8 amperes per
200 44
square foot of anode surface. If a greater density had been used, in
order to produce more copper with a given anode surface, the quality
of the deposited copper would have suffered. The amount of copper
deposited by this current was about 7 ounces per square foot of
anode per day, an amount rather above the average.
Electric deposition from aqueous solution. — The case of deposition
with insoluble anodes may be illustrated by an experiment made
with Letrange's zinc process. With five vats in series, a current of 75
amperes at 13.05 volts, continued 4! hours, deposited 1.475 kilo-
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 279
grammes of zinc. Let us first investigate the efficiency of the deposi -
tion. The chemical equivalent of zinc is 32.5, so that 0.00001035 X
32.5 X 75 = o.025263gramme should have been deposited in each vat
per second, or 32.2 kilos in the 5 vats in 44 hours. The efficiency is
therefore but 4.6 per cent. The reason for this very small return is
to be found in considering the voltage required and used. The
separation of the electro-chemical equivalent of zinc from zinc sul-
phate represents a thermal value of 0.000566 calories, and the voltage
required to decompose zinc sulphate will therefore be this quantity
divided by 0.00024 calories, or 2.359 volts. But it requires only
1.49 volts to decompose water, therefore we see why only 46
per cent of the current isolated zinc, — the rest was used up in
decomposing the water of the bath into its elements. We see that
^' ^ = 2.61 volts were actually used to each vat. If 6 vats had
been used, the voltage for each would have been 2.17, and no zinc
would have been deposited at all, but all the current wasted in
decomposing water. If less than 5 vats had been used with this
current, a larger proportion of deposited zinc would have been
secured in each bath than 4.6 per cent of what the current might
deposit, that is, more zinc and less hydrogen would have been pro-
duced in each bath, but the gain in this respect would not have
made up in the sum-total for the dropping off in the number of
baths. It is thus seen that the decomposition of a salt in solution,
with insoluble anodes, is a very uneconomical proceeding if the de-
composition resistance is large enough to involve the decomposition
of the water.
If, on the other hand, a soluble anode is used, the decomposition
resistance may be greatly decreased, as has been before explained.
For instance, copper sulphate requires 1.25 volts for its decomposi-
tion ; but if an iron anode is used, the solution of the iron sets up an
auxiliary current of 2.01 volts. Therefore the iron helps the decom-
position to such an extent that outside help is unnecessary, for about
0.76 volt more than is required for decomposition is furnished,
enough to overcome all the other resistances of conduction, etc.
We therefore see why, if the iron and copper cathode are simply
connected by a wire outside the bath, the use of external currents is
unnecessary. If an outside current were used in such a case it
would, after supplying losses by conduction resistances, simply
increase the voltage above 2.01, and thus begin to deposit iron with
the copper.
28o ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
Electro- depodtioii from a fused electrolyte. — Let us take for illus-
tration the electrolysis of a bath of fused common salt, producing
sodium. In some experiments described by Mr. Rogers, of Mil-
waukee, the voltage absorbed by the bath was 12 volts, varying
with the temperature of the bath and the distance of the electrodes
apart, and with a current of 70 amperes the amount of sodium
obtained averaged 39 grammes per hour. This shows a yield of
0.000155 gramme of sodium per ampere per second. But the electro-
chemical equivalent of sodium, the amount which one ampere should
liberate, is 0.000238 gramme (0.00001035 X 23), therefore we see here
that about 65 percent of the sodium liberated by the current is prac-
tically obtained ; the other 35 per cent is really set free, but is lost
by recombination with chlorine in the bath, or oxidation or imper-
fect condensation. This cannot, however, be the only source of
loss in the process, for a current of 70 amperes at 12 volts represents
840 Watts or 0.205 calories per second, while the liberation of 39
grammes of sodium from sodium chloride (heat of formation 4.2474
calories per gramme of sodium) represents only 165.65 calories per
hour or 0.046 calories per second. The net proportion of useful
effect over all is therefore only 22.5 per cent. The cause of this
low return is to be found in the high voltage used. Calculating the
minimum electro-motive force necessary to decompose sodium
chloride, we have 0000238 X 4-2474 ^ ^^xxs.
0.00024
Since, then, only 4.2 volts out of the 12 volts absorbed by the bath
are used for actual decomposition, the percentage of the power of
the current used in this way is 35 per cent. But since only 65 per
cent of the work which this does is represented by the sodium
actually obtained, we should have a net utilisation over all of 65 per
cent of 35 per cent, or 22.75 P^r cent, which agrees with the result
before obtained.
Electro-thermal reduction. — Let us take for discussion some official
figures of the Heroult process for producing aluminium alloys.
Current, 8000 amperes at 28 volts tension. In 271 hours of actual
operation, during which time the crucible cooled several times, the
average production of aluminium was 6.8 kilos of aluminium per
hour. The electro-chemical equivalent of aluminium is 9, so that a
current of 8000 amperes can deposit, electrolytically, 0,000010352 X
9 X 8000 X 60 X 60 = 2,68 kilos of aluminium per hour. If, then,
there was actually produced 6.8 kilos per hour, and as much as 10
to 12 kilos are claimed when the furnace is working steadily and up
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 28l
to full efficiency, it is impossible that more than a fraction of the
aluminium is produced by electrolytic decomposition. As far as the
total energy of the current is concerned it is large enough to account
for all the thermal effects produced. A current of 8000 amperes at
28 volts is equal to 224,000 Watts, or 53.79 calories per second, or
193,644 per hour. This, if it could be applied to nothing but the
decomposition of alumina, would isolate ^^ ^^ =: 26.7 kilos of
aluminium per hour. But as 6.8 kilos were obtained, we see that about
25 per cent of the energy of the current is absorbed in setting free
aluminium, the other 75 per cent being converted into heat. This
source of heat, together with that added by the burning of the carbon
anodes, keeps the interior of the crucible at a temperature far above
any temperature ever reached by any other means, and at that tem-
perature the writer has not the least doubt that the alumina has its
oxygen abstracted from it by the chemical action of the carbon.
Similar calculations could be made with data from Cowles' furnace,
with similar results and conclusions.
In conclusion I would remark that copper, silver, gold, magnesium
and aluminium are the principal metals which are at present being
commercially treated by electro-metallurgy. But if ever the problem
of converting the energy contained in coal directly into electric
energy be solved, there are very few of the metals which might not
be cheapened by electrolytic methods. If the conversion could be
effected with an efficiency of only 50 per cent, it would still be 10 to
15 times as efficient as our present indirect methods of boilers,
engines and dynamos; and the possibiHties opened out for the art of
electro-metallurgy by such a cheapening of cost of the electric cur-
rent are so extensive that if we stated them they might appear
visionary. A comparison might be made with the revolution in the
mechanic arts which would be produced by such a discovery. We
have electric motors which turn nearly 90 per cent of the mechanical
energy of a current into rotatory motion, and if the current supplied
to them represented say only 50 per cent of the total energy of the
coal, we would get rotary motion with an expenditure of J of a pound
of coal per hour per efficient horse-power.
However, taking matters as they stand and being as moderate as
we may in our expectations as to cheap electricity, I think it reason-
able to conclude that this new art of Electro-Metallurgy, which had
its commencement within our lifetime, will become, perhaps, the
leading feature of Metallurgy in the Twentieth Century.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE OF MARCH, li
By Everett Hayden, U. S. N.,
Marine Meteorologist, U. S. Hydrographic Office.
An interval of more than two years has now elapsed since the news
of the g^reat hurricane at Samoa startled the whole civilized world
with its sad tidings of disaster to the American and German fleets in
the harbor of Apia. The story of that terrific struggle against the
fury of the northerly gale and heavy seas that swept into the unpro-
tected anchorage ; the desperate efforts of officers and men to save
their vessels from collision with each other and from destruction on
the sharp coral reefs ; the instant annihilation of the little Eber ; the
grounding of the Adler and Nipsic; the breathless pause of expecta-
tion when the gallant Calliope slipped her chains, and, urging on her
powerful engines with every ounce of steam that her boilers could
supply, crept inch by inch "out of the jaws of death," leaving the
Trenton (whose men gave her a ringing volley of cheers as she
passed), Olga and Vandalia to continue their life-or-death fight
against fearful odds ; the wreck of these vessels and the terrible loss
of life on their wave-swept decks and in the whirlpool between
them and the shore; the gallantry and self-sacrifice of natives and
sailors in the tremendous surf on the beach and reef — all of these
have been told and retold in the vivid words of eye-witnesses, and
have already become part of the history of mankind.
It is a very different task to attempt, quietly and as time and data
permit, to consider the general meteorologic conditions that preceded
and accompanied the storm, and, by collecting and comparing reports
from vessels and land-stations in various parts of the South Pacific,
to reach at least a few definite conclusions regarding the origin and
track of the hurricane, as well to derive some useful information
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD,
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE OF MARCH, i{
By Everett Hayden, U. S. N.,
Marine Meteorologist, U. S. Hydrographic Office.
An interval of more than two years has now elapsed since the news
of the g^reat hurricane at Samoa startled the whole civilized world
with its sad tidings of disaster to the American and German fleets in
the harbor of Apia. The story of that terrific struggle against the
fury of the northerly gale and heavy seas that swept into the unpro-
tected anchorage ; the desperate efforts of officers and men to save
their vessels from collision with each other and from destruction on
the sharp coral reefs ; the instant annihilation of the little Eber ; the
grounding of the Adler and Nipsic; the breathless pause of expecta-
tion when the gallant Calliope slipped her chains, and, urging on her
powerful engines with every ounce of steam that her boilers could
supply, crept inch by inch "out of the jaws of death," leaving the
Trenton (whose men gave her a ringing volley of cheers as she
passed), Olga and Vandalia to continue their life-or-death fight
against fearful odds ; the wreck of these vessels and the terrible loss
of life on their wave-swept decks and in the whirlpool between
them and the shore; the gallantry and self-sacrifice of natives and
sailors in the tremendous surf on the beach and reef — all of these
have been told and retold in the vivid words of eye-witnesses, and
have already become part of the history of mankind.
It is a very different task to attempt, quietly and as time and data
permit, to consider the general meteorologic conditions that preceded
and accompanied the storm, and, by collecting and comparing reports
from vessels and land-stations in various parts of the South Pacific,
to reach at least a few definite conclusions regarding the origin and
track of the hurricane, as well to derive some useful information
284 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE,
from it regarding the weather and storms of this great ocean. It is
the object of this paper to present briefly, but as clearly as the in-
formation at hand will allow, this general phase of the subject, and to
publish, in advance of an official publication by the Hydrographic
Office, such an outline of the facts as may serve to elicit discussion
and possibly result in the collection of still more complete data, for
use in the preparation of a final report. It may well be stated here,
for the information of those who are not familiar with the difficulties
incident to the collection of data on such a subject, that in spite of
our efforts to obtain information from every possible source there are
doubtless some vessels whose reports have not yet been received —
reports, too, that may contain important positive or negative evidence
regarding the history of the storm. Not only data from vessels, but
from land-stations, also, are still wanting: for instance, the Queensland
Weather Maps of Australasia and the Sydney Observatory Weather
Charts of Australia and New Zealand for March, 1889, should of
course be consulted, but although copies are nominally in the posses-
sion of the Signal Office, yet as a matter of fact they have been at the
government bindery for six months, and at date of writing (May 9,
1 891) they are still inaccessible. This should therefore be taken
into consideration by any one who honors this paper by more than a
mere superficial examination, and it will be interesting to note whether
conclusions drawn at the present time will be appreciably modified
by the missing data.
In the following discussion all dates used are east longitude dates,
following the custom of the Samoan islands. Although these islands
are between Ion. 168° and 173° W, and might therefore be expected
to use the same dates as ourselves, yet business and other relations
are so much more intimate with Australia and New Zealand that the
same dates are used, as a matter of convenience. Thus, for example,
at noon of Saturday, March 16, at Samoa, when the hurricane was at
its height and the Calliope had just steamed out of Apia harbor, it
was about 9 A. M. at Melbourne and 11 A. M. at Auckland, of the
same day of the week and month, but farther east (in what we know
as the Western Hemisphere) it was Friday, March 15 : at San Fran-
cisco, about 3.30 P. M.; Washington, 6.30 P. M. ; London, 11.30
P. M. Similarly, the first news of the hurricane, cabled from Auck-
land under date of Saturday, March 30, was published in Washing-
ton the morning of the same day, apparently, though really the
morning of the day following.
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 285
The excitement attending the receipt of news of the disaster will
long be remembered, and it is unnecessary to refer to it here further
than to quote a few lines from a long statement furnished to the
press, in reply to the demands of numerous reporters, by Lieut. G. L.
Dyer, U. S. N., Hydrographer. The lines referred to are as follows,
and they are of especial interest in this connection because, although
based upon general considerations only and without any detailed
information regarding this particular storm, they appear to agree
very well with what actually took place :
"The hurricane that struck Samoa with such furious intensity on
the 15th instant probably originated some 300 miles to the north-
eastward of the islands, about lat. 10° S, Ion. 165° W, and
moved rapidly southwestward, directly toward them. If the signs
characteristic of the approach of a hurricane were observed (long
feathery cirrus clouds, thickening cirrus veil, halos, and fiery tints
at dawn and sunset), no doubt all possible precautions were taken to
ride out the storm at anchor. The center of the hurricane, however,
must have passed directly over or very near the harbor, and in the
case of a very severe tropical cyclone, as this must have been, abso-
lutely nothing can resist its fury. In the great hurricane that crossed
the island of Cuba in 1844, for example, seventy-two vessels foundered
at their anchors in a few hours in the landlocked harbor of Havana,
a port almost unrivaled for the security of its anchorage."
The following letter from Rear-Admiral Kimberly, written only a
month and a half after the storm, may well be quoted here, giving as
it does a brief and concise statement of the facts as indicated by
observations during the hurricane, together with such slight addi-
tional information as had been received subsequently:
Apia, Samoa, April 29, 1889.
Commodore J. G. Walker, U. S. Navy, Chief of Bureau of Navigation.
Sir : — The hurricane of the i sth and i6th of March at Apia was peculiar, in the
fact of there being twolow barometers of about equal depression, with an interval
of 24 hours between. The indications preceding and accompanying the first
depression gave no cause for apprehending a gale of unusual violence, and
the local seamen of Apia gave it as their opinion that the weather indicated
rain rather than wind, and they anticipated no destructive storm.
Friday forenoon (15th), the barometer falling, we had squalls of moderate
force, and recognized the approach of the gale. The force of wind was logged
2 to 6. Steam had already been raised, and at i P. M., as a further precaution,
lower yards were sent down and topmasts housed. At 3 P. M. the barometer
commenced to rise, and it was thought the center of the storm had passed and
286 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
was receding. The wind had changed from the southward to the northward and
eastward in the meantime, and this fact confirmed the belief that the gale was
half over. No apprehension was felt for the ships, as it was thought the latter
part of the storm would be of no longer duration, and of but little, if any,
greater force than the first part had developed. The barometer continued
rising until nearly midnight, and it was believed that by morning the gale would
be broken. There had been no very heavy sea preceding or during the gale up
to this point.
At midnight, however, the barometer commenced falling again, the wind had
increased, and the sea was rising high. This was the beginning of that part
of the gale which accompanied the second barometric depression, and which
proved so violent and destructive. The barometer continued to fall, and the
gale developed its full strength rapidly. The seas also rose rapidly, and the
ships felt their violence. From early morning of the i6th, for nearly 24 hours,
the gale was a hurricane; and the catastrophes commenced at that time by
theloss of the Eber. The story of the fate of the several ships and their crews
during that day and night has been fully told, and is unnecessary to repeat
here.
It will be seen that the destructive effects were due to the second depression,
which followed and overlapped the first and which developed its strength so
rapidly in the night. It is difficult to ascertain the exact character and move-
ments of this remarkable storm, with the unsatisfactory data afforded by the
ships in the harbor, and by the meagre reports of the few vessels that were
outside, which I have been able to gather.
In the future, when more data can be collected, the storm maybe accurately
plotted, and its peculiar features explained.
In the meantime, several theories have been advanced. It has been thought
that two distinct storms passed by, following each other very closely, the
second storm being the violent hurricane. Another theory is that there was
but one storm, and that after passing Apia it recurved sharply to the south-
ward and eastward, and again brought Apia within its influence.
A third hypothesis is that the hurricane was generated directly over this
place, and acquired but little or no progressive movement for a long while, the
rotary force as the meteor developed increasing rapidly, and causing the
tremendous sea during the last half of the blow.
The unstable conditions of the storm during its formation may account for
the peculiar movements of the barometer, and for its marked irregularity during
the forenoon of the i6th.
I am disposed to accept this third theory; and the report that at the island
of Suwaroff, 500 miles to the eastward, no gale was felt, gives it further support.
I forward a copy of the Trenton's log-book covering the period of the storm.
Very respectfully,
L. A. KiMBERLY, Rear- Admiral, U.S.N.,
Commanding U. S. Naval Forces on the Pacific Station.
In accordance with the plan of co-operation agreed upon between
the Hydrographic Office and the Signal Office, all marine data are
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 287
collected by the former office and referred to the latter, for tempo-
rary use. With the original data relating to the Samoan hurricane,
referred to the ChiefSignal Officer ofthe army, March 10, iSgi.foruse
in preparing the Summary of International Meteorological Observa-
tions for March, 1889, a copy of a statement that I had prepared
was inclosed, and the conclusions drawn therein may be quoted at
some length here :
Division of Marine Meteorology,
Hydrographic Office, Navy Department,
Washington, D. C, March 10, 1891.
Lieutenant Richardson Clover, U. S. Navy, Hydrographer.
Sir : — I have the honor to report as follows upon a preliminary although
somewhat complete study of all the data at hand upon the Samoan hurricane
of March, 1889.
Unfortunately, certain data that ought to be available and that prove to be
very essential to any correct understanding of the situation have not yet
reached this office ; I refer especially to detailed observations from New Cale-
donia and New Zealand for the month of March, as well as reports from
vessels other than those from which we now have data.
To refer briefly to the leading features of the situation, I may say that the
hurricane that created the destruction at Apia seems to have originated east-
northeastward from the Samoan Islands, some 300 miles, on the 13th of March,
probably without very great severity until the 15th, when its center passed
directly over or a little to the north of Apia harbor, with a reduced barometric
pressure of 29.07, wind light and variable, from 2 to 3 P. M.; at 3 P. M. the
wind came out fresh from NE, shifting to north. On this date the storm com-
menced to recurve to the southward and southeastward, and it doubtless
increased considerably in intensity during this period ; to the fact that it
recurved at just this position, and that during its recurve it increased in
energy, must, I think, be attributed the destruction it caused in the harbor
of Apia.
The only data we have regarding the earlier history of the storm are, first,
the negative evidence from the statement that it was not felt at all at the little
island of Suwaroff, abouf 550 miles E by N from Apia, and, secondly, the very
brief report from the American schooner Equator, which vessel at noon of the
14th was in lat. 12° S, Ion. 170° 50'' W, and experienced thick, squally weather,
with winds shifting from S to SW, W and NW. The approach of the hurricane
to the harbor, and in fact its general character and severity, were doubtless less
clearly evident than they might have been, on account of the force of the south-
erly winds in its SW quadrant being lessened by the mountains on the island
of Upolu. In fact, there are even now no data at hand by which to judge the
actual strength of the winds in the advancing quadrants of the storm until
after the 15th, nor are there any details showing the velocity of cloud move-
ment, state of the sea off-shore, or other indications that are recognized in
every ocean as characteristic of the approach of a hurricane of great severity.
288 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
After the center of the storm passed the island on the 15th and the northerly
winds of its rear quadrants began to be felt, it naturally followed both that the
wind itself was felt with much greater violence than the previous southerly
winds (masked as they were by the hills on the island), and that very heavy north-
erly seas commenced to roll into the harbor. There can be no doubt but that
heavier winds and seas were normally to be expected in the rear quadrant of
the storm, under the particular conditions of the exposure of the harbor, but it
might with equal probability have been expected that they would not be so
much more severe than was indicated by the weather previously, nor of such
long duration as actually turned out to be the case, owing to the storm's
recurve.
The track of the storm to the southward of the island is readily traced by
means of a very good report from the American ship Hagarstown, and it seems
evident that the storm was central about lat. 17° S, Ion. 171° 30^ W, at local
noon of the 17th, the Hagarstown being not far from the center of the storm,
to the eastward. The barometric curve and the lowest reading indicated by
the Hagarstown's mercurial barometer are not very unlike the curve indicated
by observations at Apia during the passage of the center, although the lowest
reading is not quite so low by about two-tenths of an inch ; but she was doubt-
less at some distance from the center of the storm, which, as stated above,
seems to have increased in severity during the 15th and i6th. The following
day, the i8th, the hurricane passed over Nuie, or Savage Island, where great
damage is reported, caused by the high winds and storm-wave, which inun-
dated the island.
After the 19th we have as yet no very complete data by which to trace the
track of the storm. The American bark Fred. P. Litchfield encountered a
hurricane on the 23d, in lat. 34° 30'' S, Ion. 156° W, the wind shifting from ENE
to S and NW, and this may have been the same storm or it may not. Data
from New Zealand, and possibly from some vessel between the Eurasia and
Litchfield, might settle this question.
Farther to the SE we have no data of interest in this connection, and it is
therefore impossible to prolong the track of the storm.
It is of interest to note that at the time the hurricane was raging at
Apia there was another hurricane of equal or greater severity in about the
same latitude but 25° of longitude to the westward. The data relating to this
storm are contained in the report of the British bark Altcar, which vessel on
the i6th was in lat. 16° S, Ion. 161° 20' E ; at noon, G. M. T., of that day the
wind was E, force 12, bar. 28.98 (mercurial, corrected), and 24 hours later wind
S, force 10, bar. 29.58. The Signal Office reports from Rockhampton and
Moreton, Australia, seem to show that this hurricane did not go that way, and
the only data we have from New Caledonia (French transport Yarra) are too
vague to draw any inference from other than that it evidently was not experi-
enced there with any great severity. A letter from Staff-Commander R. A.
Edwin, R, N. (dated Lyttelton, N. Z., July 11, 1890) states that " the weather
experienced by the Altcar can be readily traced toward the East Cape"; in' the
absence of any complete data from New Zealand, however, I am not so sure but
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 289
that the storm off the East Cape may have been the Samoan hurricane itself,
which would have been felt there had it moved SSW, or even S by W, from its
position on the 19th. In this case the hurricane experienced by the Litchfield
on the 23d must have been a different storm. This is a question that it seems
impossible to settle without data not now available.
It will be noted from the report of H. M. S. Calliope that that vessel, when
she steamed out of Apia harbor on the i6th into the northerly gale, experienced
a gradual but steady rise of the barometer, as was naturally to be expected, but
that on the forenoon of the 17th there was a decided fall (about .30), followed
by a still more rapid rise (about .50). No such fall of the barometer is recorded
in the reports from the vessels at Apia, nor do the shifts of wind help us much
in accounting for it. The only hypothesis by which it can be even partially
explained is that a secondary, or storm of small size but considerable severity,
passed close to the Calliope and between her and the islands to the southward,
affecting her barometer but not the others. There is, of course, nothing very im-
probable about this (although one would expect the shifts of wind to have been
more marked), and the formation of this secondary, moving along a track about
SE by E, may be assumed to explain the recurve to the southward and south-
westward on the i8th and 19th of the Samoan hurricane itself, and its movement
towards the East Cape of New Zealand (if it did move that way). Moreover, the
weather experienced by the British steamship Richmond on the 20th, in lat. 18°
34^ S,lon. 1 53° 05'' W (wind backed to NW during the evening, blowing fresh ;
heavy SW sea, NW and W gale, with high sea the following day), may possibly
be explained by the approach and passage of this secondary, now a storm of
considerable size and severity. It can hardly be assumed to have been the
hurricane encountered by the Litchfield on the 23d, however, without assigning
to it a larger diameter than one would expect, or an unexpected southerly
curve to its track from its position on the 20th to its position on the 23d.
An earlier hurricane that occurred during March, and whose eastern quad-
rants passed over the Samoan Islands, can be traced with considerable accu-
racy from a position at noon of the 6th, about 200 miles north of the island of
Upolu, recurving W of the islands, to a position on the 8th about 150 miles
E of Tonga, near which position it was encountered by the Hagarstown, which
vessel experienced winds of hurricane force, and very low barometer, as indi-
cated by her report. It is interesting to note that the heavy swell sent out on
every side from this hurricane was noted on the 12th, to the southward of New
Caledonia, by both the Yarra and Altcar. The log of the Trenton can be con-
sulted for data regarding this storm, but it is of only incidental interest in
connection with the Samoan hurricane.
The general and permanent interest attaching to the history of this very
destructive storm renders it, in my opinion, very desirable to publish all the
data that have been collected relative thereto, with as complete a discussion
as possible and suitable illustration by means of maps, diagrams, and possibly
pictures illustrating the character of the harbor where this memorable catas-
trophe occurred. Such a publication seems called for by the efforts that we
have made to collect data on the subject and the cordial co-operation that
290 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
we have received from various offices and individuals. Moreover, the oppor-
tunity is an admirable one for the publication of other data of interest in this
connection, that is, regarding the general subject of storms in the South
Pacific. The log-books at hand in this office contain many very interesting
reports, and this whole subject is one of very great interest, more especially to
the commerce of our Pacific Coast. I find in the Quarterly Journal of the
Meteorological Society of London a very complete account by Mr. R. L.
Holmes of a severe hurricane that passed over the Fiji Islands in March, 1886,
and one of the unpublished reports in this office adds very materially to the
interest and value of this paper; a brief description of such a storm in the
South Pacific, considered in connection with the Samoan hurricane, would be
of great interest to masters of vessels.
I have the honor to request, therefore, that upon the return of these docu-
ments from the Signal Office you authorize me to complete the discussion of
this storm, adding thereto such data as are available regarding the storms of
the South Pacific. I beg to suggest, also, that you request the Chief Signal
Officer, U. S. Army, to make an effort to obtain from the government bindery
the copies of the Queensland Weather Maps of Australasia for March, 1889, and
the Weather Charts of Australia and New Zealand published by the Sydney
Observatory, both of which belong to the library of the Signal Office and are
very essential in this connection. Very respectfully,
Everett Hayden,
Maritte Meteorologist.
The accompanying chart illustrates graphically the tracks of three
hurricanes that occurred during the month, together with the tracks
of all the vessels from which reports have been received (except the
French transport Caledonien, from March 13, in lat. 44° 47' S, Ion.
158° 28' W, to March 19, lat. 50° 42' S, Ion. 130° 15' W) and a
diagram giving the barometric curves of various vessels and land-
stations. Broken lines on the chart indicate absence of detailed
information. The dots on the barometric curves are the data upon
which they are based.
Of the three hurricanes whose tracks are charted, the first was the
one that was felt with considerable severity at Apia on the 6th and
7th. It seems to have originated some 500 miles NNE from Apia
on the 5th, whence it moved in a southwesterly direction, recurving
in about the latitude of the Samoan islands but 150 to 200 miles to
the westward, and moving thence southeastward, between Tonga
and Nuie. The barometric curve of the Hagarstown, over which
vessel the center passed on the 8th, indicates that it was a hurricane
of great severity — probably quite as severe as the one that succeeded
it nine days later. The other tracks are those of the Samoan hurri-
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. ' 29I
cane itself, and the very severe storm encountered by the Altcar
in the Coral Sea, NW from New Caledonia,
Relative to the track of the Samoan hurricane itself, only a few
words need be added to what has been said above. Probably two
questions will at once occur to the reader, namely, how do you ex-
plain the two barometic depressions experienced at Apia the after-
noon of the 15th and i6th, respectively (shown on the curve of the
Trenton's barometer), and what caused the decided fall of the
Calliope's barometer the forenoon of the 17th (this vessel, it should
be remembered, steamed out of the harbor at about 10 A. M. Satur-
day, the 16th, and at noon of the 17th was in lat. 12° 52' S, long.
171° 00' W, or 60 miles NE from Apia).
Before attempting to reply to the first of these two questions, I
must confess that I think there is still room for a wide difference of
opinion, but I have drawn the track as seems to me most reasonable,
considering the fact that we have no data from positions near Apia
to the northward, southward and westward, while the conditions
indicated by the data from Apia itself can certainly be explained in
this way, at least quite as well as by any other hypothesis. My idea
is, briefly, that the first depression occurred as the storm passed on
its westward track, followed by the usual shift of wind to the north-
ward. Along this branch of its trajectory its severity was probably
not quite so great as it was later, and the force of its southerly winds
was masked by the mountains on the island of Upolu; possibly
careful observations of the rapidity of motion and the character of
the clouds, or of the state of the sea off the harbor, might have indi-
cated a severe storm, but this does not appear from the evidence at
hand, though well worth considering. During its recurve the hurri-
cane probably increased in intensity, the barometric depression at
the center deepening and thus causing the second depression ob-
served at Apia, which was slightly deeper than the first although
the center itself was really at a greater distance than on the previous
day.
A point of interest in this connection is the fact that storms may
be divided into the two following classes: First, where the barome-
tric gradients are steepest very near the center and the wind whirls
about a small central space where it is quite calm; this is the typical
hurricane of the tropics, with its central " bull's eye," or calm, clear
space. Second, where the central clear and comparatively calm area
is very much larger, and the steepest gradients and strongest winds
292 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
are found in an annular space around it, but at some distance. This
distinction holds good in the case of many storms in the West Indies
and the North Atlantic, and in the present instance the curve of the
Hagarstown's barometer on the 8th is typical of the former class,
although there is no equally good example of the latter. The second
plate, however, entitled " Barometer Diagrams from Two Typical
Hurricanes," illustrates the distinction very clearly by means of two
examples, namely, the Fiji hurricane of March 3 and 4, 1886, and
the Sable Island hurricane of December i, 1890. The Trenton's
curve is added, for comparison, and it will be seen that the indica-
tions are that theSamoan hurricane (on the 15th and i6th, at least)
was of the second type, although during the 17th and i8th it doubt-
less became more like the first. It is interesting to note on this
plate the difference between the Trenton's curve, as plotted on the
two diagrams.
From amongst the various opinions that I have heard expressed
by those who have studied this subject, I may be allowed to quote
the following: Lieut. H. M.Witzel,U. S. N., who is thoroughly familiar
with all the data, is inclined to the opinion that the second depres-
sion was caused by a storm that originated in the immediate vicinity
(possibly over the island of Savaii) after the passage of the first, and
remained almost stationary for some time. Mr. Arthur H. Dutton,
formerly an assistant in this office, who also has studied the data
relating to this storm, thinks that from its position at noon on the
15th it recurved to the W and NW, and during the following
night again recurved sharply, describing a loop north of Savaii
and then returning toward Upolu, whence it moved southward and
southeastward. It is thus evident that from the data at hand several
hypotheses can be made that will satisfy the conditions.
As regards the decided fall of the Calliope's barometer on the 17th,
we have to call to our aid, as stated above, what has been aptly
termed a " convenient secondary," or local storm — a whirl within a
whirl. In the absence of other information, however, I have refrained
from the attempt to indicate either its origin or track.
The Altcar hurricane, as it may he called, was one of great severity,
although its track, as plotted on the chart, is almost entirely hypo-
thetic, the data at hand not indicating with any certainty whence it
came or whither it went. It is of especial interest because of its
relation to, or reaction upon, the Samoan hurricane, as it seems
probable that its effect was to repel the latter and make it recurve
PROCEEDINGS U.S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVI!, NO.Z.
30.00
29.50
2aoo
2aoo -.
,^^
S. S. "Suva " (In BucaBay) was on the track of the center of the hurricane.
Delanasau (Vanua Levu), 80 miles from center.
S. S. "Zealandia" (at sea), ISO miles.
k
Barometer Diagrams from Two Typical Hurricanes,
With the record of the "Trenton's" barometer at Samoa, March 15-16, 1889.
, To face p . 232
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 293
earlier and at a sharper angle than it might otherwise have done. I
am inclined to think that its true section, as it would have been given
by a barometer at a land-station over which the center passed, was very-
different from the curve shown by the Altcar's barometer. It seems
evident from her report, although it is not expressly so stated, that she
ran before the wind and was compelled to remain in the storm so
long that her barometric curve is deceptive, unless her action be
taken into consideration and its real meaning thus explained. This
hurricane may prove to have been one of those stationary cyclones
that disappear near the region where they originate.
Although I have already exceeded the limits assigned, I must say
a few words about the general meteorologic conditions preceding and
during these three great hurricanes, likely, as they are, to be forever
memorable amongst South Pacific storms. The data, if carefully
studied, allow this to be done with considerable confidence, the
Signal Office reports from four Australian stations supplying, to some
extent, the place of the missing Australian and New Zealand weather
maps.
The normal conditions during the month of March in the South
Pacific, as indicated by one of the charts accompanying Buchan's
exhaustive Report on Atmospheric Circulation (published with the
Results of the Challenger Expedition), are as follows. The two
isobars (29.90) that inclose the equatorial belt of low pressure run
nearly due east from Manila to Colon and from Central Australia to
Peru, respectively. The western and wider part of the region thus
inclosed has its central low area (29.75) close to the northern coast
of Australia, and the isobar of 29.85 extends eastward from northern
Borneo to mid-ocean (about lat. 5° S, Ion. 137° W), and thence
about W by S to and across Australia, passing a little to the southward
of Samoa, where the normal reduced (corrected) pressure is about
29.83 during the month. Farther south, between Australia and Chile,
stretches the high-pressure belt of the temperate zone, with one very
decided anticyclonic system to the eastward, the isobar of 30.00
including a large oval area from the west coast of South America to
Ion. 140° W (pressure at center 30.25), and another similar but less
decided system to the westward, where the isobar of 30 00 extends
from Newcastle eastward to beyond New Zealand, and thence back
over Middle Island to northern Tasmania. The southeast trades
blow from this high-pressure belt toward the equatorial or low-pres-
sure region, where, during the summer months of the Southern
294 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
Hemisphere, tropical hurricanes originate, enormous whirlwinds
rotating clockwise (or " with the sun," as the expression is ordinarily-
used) and moving gradually away from the equator along a great
parabolic orbit, concave to the east, that half encircles the per-
manent anticyclone already referred to, west of South America.
We thus see that here, as in the North Pacific and North Atlantic —
in fact, as in every ocean — it is the western portion that is most sub-
ject to hurricanes, and they rarely occur farther east. To the south-
ward of this high-pressure belt of the temperate zone, toward and
perhaps to the South Pole itself, pressures decrease very rapidly and
uniformly, the isobar of 29,30 coinciding almost exactly with the 6oth
parallel. This is the region of almost continuous westerly gales,
varied by an occasional storm or hurricane. The normal or average
conditions are, of course, greatly modified occasionally by disturb-
ances which, although not of frequent occurrence in the tropics even
in summer, are sometimes very severe.
The conditions during the early part of March, 1889, seem to have
been about normal up to the 4th, when British Meteorological Office
reports from Suva, Fiji, and Nukalofa, Tonga, indicate that an anti-
cyclone extended southward toward New Zealand. As this system
moved slowly eastward and a cyclonic storm passed southeastward
along the south coast of Australia and Tasmania, the first of the
three hurricanes described above formed north of the Samoan
islands and an apparently feeble depression developed over the
Coral Sea. This last depression disappeared as the hurricane
moved south of Samoa on the 7th and 8th,- and a strong anticyclone
appeared over South Australia and moved slowly to the southward
and eastward with apparently increasing intensity, becoming cen-
tral on the 13th in the vicinity of Tasmania, with corrected baro-
metric pressure as high as 30.47 at Melbourne.
It was on the 12th that the very earliest signs of the hurricane's
approach were observed at Samoa. To quote from notes made by
Lieutenant R. G. Davenport, U. S. Navy, the navigator of the Nipsic,
"there was a peculiar, coppery-red sunset the evening of the 12th
and the weather was clear the first part of the 13th, but overcast
toward evening, when the barometer stood .21 below its reading the
preceding day. Calm and light southerly breezes prevailed, force o
to 2."
On the 14th the weather grew still more threatening and the
barometer continued its steady fall, now slowly, as the time of the
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 295
daily maximum approached, and now more rapidly, as the fall due
to the influence of the approaching storm combined with the daily
ebb of the barometric tide (always such a marked phenomenon in
the tropics). Toward evening the ships got up steam in their
boilers, that their engines might aid their anchors in keeping them
off the reefs and preventing colHsions with other vessels in the crowded
harbor. It was doubtless an anxious moment for the commanders
of the naval forces of the three great nations, responsible, as they
were, not only for lives and ships but for the prompt execution of
their instructions and the faithful guardianship of public interests
committed to their care. To most of the others on board, 'both
officers and men, free from at least some of the cares and responsi-
bilities of their superiors, the actual danger of the situation was
probably not fully evident till after the shift of wind to the north-
ward Friday evening, when the long battle with the elements com-
menced in earnest.
But to resume and to conclude : Whilst the hurricane was ap-
proaching Samoa on the 15th theTasmanian anticyclone had moved
toward New Zealand and the Altcar hurricane had probably already
formed in the Coral Sea. On the i6th both hurricanes were raging
with terrific intensity, and the Samoan, recurving and almost
doubling on its tracks, was playing havoc in the harbor of Apia. It
was on this day, Saturday, that the greatest destruction occurred,
and it was this and the following day that saw those scenes of
heroism, self-sacrifice and devotion that for months made the
wreck-strewn ledges and -beaches of Apia harbor the focus of public
attention and that must for centuries elicit the praise and admiration
of mankind.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, M D.
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 1891.
The Enlistment, Training, and Organization of Crews for
OUR New Ships.
By Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. N.
Commander G. H. Wadleigh, U. S. Navy. — While concurring in the main
with most of the views advanced in the essay, which, though perhaps not new,
are presented in a form which should attract the attention and receive the
thanks of the entire navy, there are some points on which I differ from the
essayist, also some to which I think attention has not been drawn.
That the more complicated the fighting machine called a ship, the more
intelligent and skillful should be the men to handle and fight it, is an evident
fact, and in order to obtain such men the inducements must be equal to those
offered in other occupations.
It time of war patriotism and prize-money will bring us all the men we need;
at other times the pay and opportunities for advancement will be the
motives of most of the men who enter the service, as they are of those who
enter the employ of corporations and individuals. That the pay of the seaman
class is too small is shown by the fact that many of the best seamen, those who
have been trained in the service, leave it and obtain better pay in civil life.
The pay in the navy should be more than is given in the merchant service, and
I would suggest $30 a month for seamen, and $22 for ordinary seamen ; at
present many desirable landsmen work for the rate of coal-heaver instead of
ordinary seaman, because of the greater pay of ^$3 a month which the former
receives.
The point that I consider of the highest importance, however, is that the
young American who enters the navy should feel like Napoleon's soldier,
" who carried a marshal's baton in his knapsack," that the highest rank in the
navy is within his reach if he has the ability to obtain it. It is believed that
the navy is the only service in the United States, public or private, where the
boy who commences at the foot of the ladder cannot climb to the top if he has
it in him so to do. It is admitted that he may do so in case of war, but with
wars growing less and less frequent as weapons and explosives are made more
298 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
deadl}', the chance for an admiral's commission looks very slight to the recruit
of 1891. Give every American boy or man of good character who has quali-
fied as seaman-gunner, has five years' service and is under the age of 28, the
right to apply for examination for the grade of ensign, with the knowledge
that it is the same examination given the Naval Academy graduate, and that
if he passes a commission as ensign will be the reward, and a great step will
have been taken to improve the character and skill of the men in the service.
Should all those that apply and fail to pass leave the service they will not
leave the country, and will be available in war-time. In the opinion of the
writer, every man or boy who has served creditably for three years is worth to
the country ten times what he may have cost it.
The apprentice system is good as far as it goes, but it should be extended,
and enlistments be made up to the age of 20, all to serve to the age of 24, with
the privilege of discharge at 21, if so desired, and upon refunding a certain
part of the pay, which should be reserved for that purpose. Under present
conditions few boys would care to enlist to serve until the age of 24, but with
the knowledge that they could obtain a discharge at 21 it is thought they
would enlist, and that not many would take advantage of the privilege.
There are a large number of boys or young men in the country, over 18
years of age, who have been at work for a few years, and who would make
good seamen, but who do not enlist because their chances of promotion are
even less than those of the apprentices. They are not like many of the boys,
seeking an opportunity to get out of school and away from home, but having
done so, and been obliged to work, can appreciate steady employment and a
good home. It is not to be expected that all who enter the service will remain,
nor is it desirable that they should, as in that case the service would soon be
clogged with old men, and we want a constant reinforcement of young
blood. As a matter of fact, very few boys stick to the occupation first selected ;
most of them, from choice or necessity, drift from one to another, and we
cannot expect the contrary from our recruits. Although believing in all the
comforts possible for the men, it is thought that the essayist places too much
stress upon them. The old saying might be slightly changed to read, " He
who goes to sea for comfort ought to go to for pastime "; given good pay
and prospects for advancement, and young men will cheerfully give up comfort.
Recruiting should be continuous and consistent ; desirable boys and men
always enlisted when possible to obtain them, others never, no matter what
the emergency, except in case of war, when everything must give way to " food
for powder," and an increase to 12,000 men and boys should be allowed, not
that so many are needed at all times, but in order that good men may not be
rejected because the quota is full.
The recommendation to send all recruits to one or two central stations for
examination should be adopted, and they might be retained at such station
three months, not longer, since new men will shake down much faster on
board ship among old hands than by themselves. If the navy had a large
training squadron and enough men, I should advocate passing all recruits
through such a squadron ; as we have not, and probably never shall have such
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE FSSAY, 189I. 299
advantages, all cruisers should be bark-rigged, with light spars, for training
purposes, as well as to be able to make long passages under sail and for use
in emergencies ; recruits should be put on board such cruisers and sent to
foreign stations in order to obtain a "sea-stomach," and no recruit should
make his first cruise on the home station.
Stewards and cooks should receive more pay, and they and the attendants
should be given the benefits of continuous service and honorable discharge
under proper restrictions ; desirable men for such positions are hard to find
and harder to keep, and the necessity for good men in the powder division is
evident.
The board to recommend ratings should be abolished. The commanding
officer is the responsible person, and the executive is all the board that is
desirable or necessary.
I regret that the essayist, while recognising the master-at-arms as the chief
petty officer, continues in the proposed pay-table to give him less pay than
some others, a practice that obtains nowhere else that I am aware of; the
f/«y/" petty officer should receive more pay than any other petty officer. The
name petty officer should be abolished and some such name as subordinate
officer or rated officer substituted. The v^ox^ petty is generally understood as
meaning small or trivial, and it is submitted that petty officers of a vessel
should be neither.
The remarks in regard to punishments, brig and irons, are most appropriate,
and if the whole power of the Government could be exerted "to arrest and
bring to punishment all offenders," the percentage of desertions would be
very small. At present, it may be said that a premium is almost offered for
desertion. A man is dissatisfied with his ship, or belongs to one ordered to
the tropics in hot weather ; he has two years or more to serve, and being out of
debt is allowed liberty ; he thinks the matter over somewhat in this way : If I
stay in this vessel I shall have an uncomfortable time, or perhaps get the
yellow fever ; I will go on liberty and keep out of the way for three months, after
that time I shall not be arrested on account of Circular No. 9 of March 28, 1878,
and if I should be caught within three months I shall only get one year at the
Boston Navy Yard prison, where I shall live better than on board ship, have
nothing to do but lie on my back and read, and at the end of a year, if not
sooner, get my discharge with $25 to start with. I'll take the chances. If the
man knew he would be caught sooner or later and would then spend the
remainder of his enlistment and a year or two. more in prison, at hard labor, he
would not be so likely to run.
That the executive of the large modern vessels needs an assistant is con-
ceded, but it is thought that the proper officer to fill the billet is the next in
rank, the present navigator. The latter often falls heir to the position of
executive with less knowledge of the men and routine of the ship than the
youngest watch-officer possesses. The navigator is no longer needed on deck
to look after the steering and sails; he is the ordnance officer, and is supposed
to be on board when the executive goes out of the ship. It seems apparent
that, as assistant to the executive, he would be more in the line of succession
300 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
and much better qualified to take charge in case of necessity ; he should have
the charge of the powder division, and should have a junior officer to do the
greater part of the clerical and mathematical work which now takes up so
much of his time.
In this connection it is suggested that if many of the reports and returns
now required were abolished, officers would have more time for study and
practical work. When the general storekeeper system was revived it was
supposed that returns would be condensed and reduced in number ; the prac-
tical working has been that, on board ship, most heads of departments who
formerly made one return now make two, one exception being the general
storekeeper himself. If the unnecessary returns were abolished and all money
values on board ship, outside the pay office, done away with, several of the
yeomen and writers who are now " in everybody's mess and nobody's watch "
could be dispensed with and room gained for working men.
A similar system of messing to the one proposed in the essay has been tried
for two years on board the Michigan with excellent results, more and better
food and better cooking ; how it would work away from markets is at least
doubtful, and still more doubtful the working of a canteen bumboat except for
receiving-ships. Cooking by steam was in use on board the Boston receiving-
ship in 1874 and may be now ; it worked exceedingly well at that time.
In regard to the much-discussed marine question, I am compelled to the
conclusion that the marine must be available for all work on board ship or else
remain on shore, if only to gain the space required to stow his helmet and full-
dress hat. Next to drilling, the principal work is now coaling, from which the
marine is by regulation exempt ; therefore, as excepting the non-commissioned
officers, the guard is mainly composed of recruits and men that for some reason
are not wanted in barracks, it would seem that the same number of desirable
landsmen would be more useful, always supposing that the number of men to
be allowed the navy is enough without the marines; until that time comes a
guard must be retained to help fill up the complement. It is, however, sug-
gestive that very recently, at a meeting of the Royal United Service Institution
of Great Britain, a paper was read and well supported advocating a large
increase in the number of marines on board ship. It is believed, however,
that the British marine is available for all kinds of work. The non-commis-
sioned officers of the guard are now promoted from headquarters and can only
be reduced by sentence of court-martial. This authority should rest with
commanding officers until after two terms of service as non-commissioned
officer. A man may make a fairly good non-commissioned officer in barracks
and be of little use on board ship, and still not come within reach of a court-
martial.
A modified form of the old system of ordinary men at navy-yards should be
adopted, by which the continuous-service man, after two cruises, could be en-
titled to a year or more at a yard, and after a certain number of years' service
could be permanently attached to such yard as he might elect, to live on board
the receiving-ship, and to be available for such work in the yard as he was
able to perform; he would also be a first reserve in case of war. This system,
DISCUSSION lOF PRIZE ESSAY, 1 89 1. 3OI
in part, has been often tried and as often has failed ; but, with the proposed
reform in the yards, by which politics are to give place to efificiency, may we
not hope that the day is near when the old " blue-jacket" will not be the first
to be dropped from the pay-roll of a yard in order that the emigrant of yester-
day, who will vote to-morrow, may be taken on ; for which good time coming all
who have served at a navy yard, and have the good of the service at heart, will
ever pray.
Lieutenant C, B. T. Moore, U. S. Navy. — I have read Mr. Niblack's essay
with much pleasure, and feel, as all must, greatly obliged to him for the addi-
tion he has made to the data for the solution of the problem he seeks to solve.
One point he makes seems to me to be particularly well taken ; it is worthy
of the very thoughtful consideration of all ofiScers who seek to promote the
good of the service. I refer to his classing "lack of uniformity in training"
among the evils of the service. While I believe that the full discussion of
every system of training should be not only encouraged, but invited, in view
of the changes to be made, I am convinced, by my meagre experience as a
divisional officer, that so far as individuals are concerned, the liberty of officers
should end there. How frequently an officer runs against unauthorized sys-
tems of training we all know. Our present Ordnance Instructions may not be
up to the times; Upton's Infantry Tactics may not be up to the most modern
ideas ; the new drill-book from the Bureau of Ordnance may have faults ; but
they are the authorized standards, they have been adopted "by authority."
Any other system of training, however good, rests only on the ideas of an
individual.
I think the first step towards securing the uniformity of training, which must
come before the new navy reaches its highest efficiency, is for all officers to
conform strictly to the authorized standards, confining their activity in reform
to respectful suggestions to those in authority, or to discussion such as that in
Mr. Niblack's very able essay. When this reform at the top shall have been
effected, one of the troubles of the service, and that one a source of consider-
able inconvenience to both officers and men, will be entirely removed.
Lieutenant R. C. Smith, U. S. Navy. — Having competed this year for the
Institute prize, I feel a hesitancy in offering comments on the excellent paper
of the winner. The fact that our subjects were different will be my justifica-
tion. Following the order of the essay, I should like first to make one other
recommendation looking to the surrender of more living space to the crews in
small ships. It is usually the custom to consider that ship-duty requires just
so many officers — a captain, an executive officer, a navigator, four or five watch
officers, and a quota of staff officers. Some concession has been made to lack
of space in small ships by omitting junior and warrant officers, and by reducing
to a certain extent the number of staff officers. In making assignments to the
different ships, would it not be policy to fix at once in each corps a certain
ratio of officers to number of crew ? This would reduce materially the com-
plement of officers in small ships, but it ought to leave enough for the duty.
302 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
Then, by following the essayist's suggestion of one officers' mess — other than
that of the captain — it would be possible, in single-deck ships, to quarter all
the officers under the poop and surrender the whole of the lower deck to the men.
Every one must be in sympathy with Ensign Niblack's remarks on rain-
clothes and sea-boots. It is with the greatest difficulty that the men can be
kept provided with them ; they are of all sorts and patterns, and half the oil-
skins are found "burned" when broken out after a long dry spell. This
means to the owner a loss of $2.20, according to the price-list printed. Rubber
boots are an abomination, are altogether uncomfortable and harmful, and are
unnecessary if a suitable substitute is made a part of the paymaster's issue.
Every man who has been shipped any length of time has at present about
three pairs of shoes, of various sorts, and a pair of rubber boots. I think it
would be a good plan to replace this assortment as follows : For wet weather
aboard ship and for landing drills supply a high calf-shoe coming well over
the ankle, with thick sole and low, broad heel, of natural-colored leather,
unblacked, lacing in front, the quarters overlapping the vamp, which is con-
tinued up in the form of a loose, wide tongue, stitched at each side, rendering
the shoe water-tight to the top ; a suitable water-proof dressing to be supplied
for preserving the leather. For ordinary wear aboard ship, supply a light
natural-colored leather shoe, with rubber or felt sole and spring heel. For
the tropics, white canvas would replace the leather. In either case there
should be a leather insole, thick enough to prevent sweating. Brogans should
be supplied for use in the fire-room, to be shifted for the ordinary wear before
coming on deck. On liberty, the men might be permitted to wear an ordinary
black shoe. This outfit would be less extensive than the one usually found,
would be cheaper, more serviceable, more comfortable, and would look better.
The nuisance of trying to black and shine wet shoes would be done away with,
and it would be possible to tell at a glance whether men coming from the fire-
room had changed their foot-wear. The rubber or felt sole has many charms
for ship use. It is noiseless, does not injure paint-work, keeps out ordinary
moisture, and affords an excellent foothold. The heavy shoe worn under oil-
skin trousers should keep the feet dry in any weather.
For stowing oil-skins and shoes it might be possible to assign each man a
pigeon-hole in the lower part of the hammock-nettings. It would be necessary
to arrange the nettings differently, but that would not be difficult. Many
foreign ships have already thin iron doors on each compartment in lieu of the
hammock cloth, and on the inside are found painted the numbers of the eight
or ten hammocks that stow in that compartment. In the lower part could be
fitted a separately ventilated pigeon-hole for each man, large enough for his
oil-skins and shoes. The advantages are numerous ; the articles would be
at hand when wanted, could be easily got at to sun and air, and the clothing-
lockers and lower decks would be relieved of much unpleasant odor.
There is absolutely no criticism to make on the essayist's treatment of the
questions of discipline and messing. Give the men wholesome, well-served
meals, and do it economically, and the question of discipline is already half
solved. Good meals, plenty of exercise, all the privileges admissible, and
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 303
certain punishment for offenses, make a happy ship. They are all possible.
The failure of the present messing system has been periodically pointed out
for years. Several better plans have been proposed; one of them should be
adopted.
I do not think Mr. Niblack makes enough revision of the pay-table. There
is no one thing that causes more heartburnings than the present scheme of
pay. There are no plums for the bone and sinew of the fighting force, the
seaman class of petty ofiflcers. The present rates are a survival, with slight
improvements, of a condition of affairs now absolutely passed. Seamen were
numerous. Any merchant sailor who enlisted in a man-of-war was in three
months entirely familiar with the new surroundings. The gunnery drills were
simple and easily learned. The qualifications which made him valuable were
those of the seaman pure and simple, a knowledge of ships and the sea, of
sails, masts and spars. He was not a man of education ; he was fortunate to
be able to write. The supply of such men was large; the wages offered
were sufficient to attract them. With steam came the machinist and the fire-
room force. The old rates could not secure the class of men required. Simi-
larly with the writers and yeomen found necessary to keep the system of
accounts, continually growing in complication. Education was at a premium,
and all these men demanded and received higher wages. The change still
going on has not yet forced a complete recognition. It is the change from
the wooden to the steel ship, from the smooth-bore to the high-power rifle,
from the howitzer to the Hotchkiss, from the musket to the magazine rifle,
from the spar-torpedo and the Harvey to the Whitehead and the Howell.
Will the same intelligence suffice for the attendant duties, and are the neces-
sary men to be picked up in every seaport, as easily as the stage-driver
becomes the engine-driver? No; the requirements and intelligence of the
seaman class aboard ship are higher now than ever before. It is all right to
keep the accounts straight and to see that the engines are equal to the task of
bringing the ship into action; but once in, there is something else to be done,
and the men who are to do it need a little encouragement. They need a good
deal more than they now get, if we are to have the men we want. Where do
the apprentices go, who are the best element we have in the service ? Most of
them into civil life after their training is finished. This can easily be cor-
rected at small total expense. It is the question of a few more dollars added
to the many already spent which is to make the difference between failure
and brilliant success.
I should give the chief boatswain's-mate, the chief quartermaster, and the
chief gunner's-mate the same pay as first-class petty officers of the artificer
class. They are men of fully as much value aboard ship, and require long
training added to rare natural gifts. I should give them $70. Boatswain's
mates, quartermaster's and gunner's mates are also valuable men, and should
get as much pay as, for instance, a ship's writer — $45. Quarter-gunners have
to-day much more difficult duties than formerly, and should be expert, capable
men. Their pay is at present only $27, and might be raised to that of fireman,
for instance, $35. It is needless to say that all these men should be subject to
304 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, I89I.
a very strict qualifying examination. The material is at hand, and only needs
encouragement to come to the front.
The suggestion for a special rate of signalman is well-timed. The practice
now in vogue is to detail apprentice-boys for the purpose. However intelli-
gent and capable, they are only boys after all, and are often trifling and inat-
tentive. Signaling has become with the present fast ships a matter of the
utmost importance and should be in the hands of responsible men. A special
rate seems a necessity.
In the special class, the bugler's pay of $33, which is higher than that of any
second or third-class petty ofl5cer of the seaman class except the coxswain to
the commander-in-chief, presents one of the anomalies of the service. The
marine buglers seem equally well trained, and get only $13 and a small cloth-
ing allowance. Whatever is the reason for discriminating to such an extent,
the bugler's high pay causes discouragement to the seaman class. In the
Boston, the chief boatswain's-mate and the chief quartermaster are the only
two petty oflScers of the seaman class who get higher pay, and it is only $2
higher. How different are the requirements in the two cases ! In addition to
possessing marked special aptitude, the seaman petty ofBcers must undergo
years of training, whereas any person who can whistle a tune and has lungs
can be taught to play a bugle in three months.
Coming to the artificer class, I should call the electrical machinist, who is a
first-class petty officer, chief electrician, and establish a rate of electrician,
second class, at $50, to replace the present dynamo-oiler. These men would
come from the same source, but the chief electrician would be a man of longer
experience and would be in charge, having as many of the others as assistants
as the size of the plant demanded. Next I would increase the pay of armorer.
To care for modern ordnance he should have the highest possible mechanical
training. He now gets less than either a blacksmith or a boiler-maker. I
would make him a first-class petty officer, and raise his pay from J45 to $70.
These petty officers of the artificer class are most important men at present.
Having given them adequate pay, they must be subject to rigid qualification.
They will probably have to be specially trained in government schools. There
are already courses for the seaman class, and there is talk of special training
for the fire-room force. The machinists should have regular courses in the
government shops.
If the increase of pay I have proposed seems too extensive, it is only neces-
sary to reflect that it does not concern many persons in the total complement,
but that those few set the tone of the whole system. The increase is mainly
in the seaman class, but it is only just that men of the intelligence now
demanded, and from whom we shalT expect so much in the next war, should
have some encouragement. To take a single ship, the Boston, the total
increase of pay would amount to $298 a month, a sum which dwindles into
insignificance in comparison with the gain in efficiency to be expected.
This brings us to the training and status of seaman-gunners. Mr. Niblack
strikes the keynote of a great deal of their present discontent in his analysis
of their troubles. Their highest prize is the rating of. machinist at $70, but in
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 305
each ship there is only one who gets it. There is so great a difference between
this pay and the average of the other available rates, that it is only natural
for the rest to be discouraged and seek higher wages in civil life. It seems
to me a mistake to make these men machinists at all. They have not had the
necessary training, nor anything like it. It is spoiling a very good seaman-
gunner to make an indifferent machinist. The present course comprises all
that is necessary in electricity and the handling of tools to secure good ord-
nance and torpedo work, but it does not make the men expert electricians or
expert mechanics. The increased pay that I have recommended for petty
officers of the seaman class, leaving out of consideration the ratings in the
special and artificer classes, would offer inducements to retain all of these men
in the service, and in rates for which they are specially fitted by their previous
training.
To secure good electrical machinists, or electricians as we propose to call
them, and armorers who are to be expert mechanics, will require other means.
The following plan seems feasible. In each class of seaman-gunners, as it
qualifies, select some few who have shown marked aptitude for electricity or
mechanics, and take them through a further extended course in these branches
until they shall have attained an excellence that will admit of no doubt when
they begin their duties on board ship. This will be no injustice to the remain-
der of the class, who, it has been seen, will have equally desirable positions
opened to them in the seaman class. The ordnance factory at Washington
will naturally be the place to perfect the armorers. I do not think two years
would be too long to keep them there. They would be rendering useful service
all the time, and the delay and expense would be fully justified by their
increased value aboard ship.
Next as to electricians. The government has at present no school where
they can be trained in practical electrical machinery and dynamo construction.
I think, however, the navy might eventually find it advantageous to manu-
facture its own electrical machinery of standard pattern for all ships. This
would avoid a great deal of inconvenience from diversity of types, would
facilitate repairs, and would in the end be cheaper. Such a plan could not
have been adopted in the earlier days of the science; but now that types are
becoming standardized, and the needs of the service are more apparent, it
would be entirely practicable. Indeed, I will venture to say that the officers
of the navy at present employed on electrical duty are far more competent to
design machinery adapted to ship's use and superintend its construction than
persons who are familiar with shore installations only. Instance the Wash-
ington gun factory, if a precedent is needed. The plan proposed, in addition
to vastly simplifying the present tedious method of equipping ships, would
provide a school in which officers and men could receive all the practical
training needed in handling any sort of electrical machinery.
As it would be desirable to have the armorers and electricians finish their
training at as early an age as convenient, it would be policy to begin the training
of seaman-gunners at the age of 19, selecting for the purpose such of the
apprentices as showed marked aptitude for the higher duties of the different
306 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
classes. They could then be graduated at 21 as seaman-gunners, and those
selected for the artificer class begin their special training at once.
Mr. Niblack's organization on the basis of the battery seems well thought
out. Something of the kind will, without doubt, soon be the rule. The general
idea is already followed in several of the new ships. I approve thoroughly
his suggestion of substituting the division number for the watch-mark on the
sleeve. If some way could be devised to keep officers and divisions longer
together than is now the rule, and let them feel their responsibility one to the
other, I think a great improvement in drill and esprit would result.
Lieutenant-Commander E. H. C. Leutze. — As the writer of the prize essay
advocates a new organization of a ship's company, and as many of the features
he proposes have been in force on the U. S. S. Baltimore for more than one
year, and on this vessel (U. S. S. Philadelphia) for nine months, it may not be
out of place to give an abstract of the organization of this vessel.
The basis of the entire organization is the quarter-bill. It has been found,
however, that in practice we cannot at the present time do away entirely with
the " parts of the ship," as men from the navigator's division who have special
duties in port have to be "watched" at sea. The same applies to the berth-
deck cooks. We have, therefore, forecastlemen and topmen, two parts of
each, and each part practically one gun division, one artillery section, one
company, two running boat's-crews, two armed boat's-crews, and two messes.
I am not quite decided, however, if it is best to retain the running boat's-crews
from the divisions, as it is often inconvenient, as for instance in the morning
watch, to have 13 men away from one division, the cleaning of the vessel
being so arranged that the gun's crews clean around their own guns, and
division officers are responsible for the good condition of the parts of the ship
in which their divisions are situated. Men from the divisions are also sta-
tioned to clean the compartments below their part of the vessel, and others
clean any engine situated in the neighborhood of their guns. As there are
only two captains of the forecastle and two captains of the top allowed, one of
them is assigned to each division and is generally called the "captain of the
division." He has charge of all the men of both watches in his division, and
is made to superintend the cleaning, painting, etc., on both sides. At sea, at
night, a coxswain has charge of one watch. It may be mentioned here that
the men see the tendency of this organization, for amongst themselves they
jocularly speak of the "sergeant" instead of captain of the top, he being first
sergeant of the company, and they speak of the coxswains as the "north" or
" south corporal." This plan of having one man in charge of a division is
found to work excellently, and I think it will be always necessary to have such
a man. The board of organization, the originators of the organization with
the quarter-bill as basis, recognized this fact, by proposing the rate of "divi-
sion mate." There being more than one gun-captain in any division, it would
lead to a conflict of authority if one was singled out to perform the duty of
captain of division. And here I would ask to be allowed to digress again, as
I would like to say a word in regard to the rate of " gun-captain." I think it
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 307
will be almost impossible to find men possessing all the attributes for a gun-
captain required by the author of the prize essay. My experience is and has
been that the best marksmen are generally found amongst men who have very
little or no qualification for the position of petty officer, I would establish the
rate of "marksman," and the men holding such rate would not necessarily be
tlie captain of the gun ; the latter might handle the elevating gear and see that
the orders of the marksman are instantly obeyed. I would free the marksmen
from all duties at the gun excepting aiming and firing it. The navigator's
division on board of this vessel consists of i chief boatswain's-mate, i chief
quartermaster, i coxswain of barge, 4 quartermasters, 4 signalmen, i coxswain
steam launch, 3 crew of steam launch, 4 bargemen, 4 side-cleaners, 4 dynamo
men, i armorer, 2 ship's writers, i blacksmith, i carpenter and caulker, i cap-
tain of head, i bugler, i messenger; total, 36 men. And this is not too many
to fill the stations at different steering wheels, at search lights, etc. I think
the number 19, proposed by the author, inadequate, although no guns are
manned by the navigator's division. I will add here that the steam launch's
crew stands watch in steering engine-room at sea in four watches, and one of
them has the entire care of that engine as far as cleaning is concerned. The
men stationed in the conning tower at general quarters belong to the helms-
men, of which there are eight, and go to the wheel when all hands are called
on going in or out of port.
The powder division, from which the artillery company of the battalion is
formed, is composed as follows: 12 berth-deck cooks, 4 gunner's gang, 3
carpenter's gang, i master-at-arms, i ship's corporal, i equipment yeoman,
I painter, i barber, i jack-of-dust, i captain hold, i sailmaker's mate, i printer,
5 stewards, 5 cooks, 13 servants, 24 coal-heavers; total, 75 men. The senior
watch-officer is in charge and the bandsmen are added as supernumeraries.
If the marines are to continue on duty on shipboard, I would station them in
the powder division, so as to avoid calling on any of the engineer's division.
At present it is necessary to have two-thirds of the coal-heavers in the powder
division, or in other words, two fire-room divisions. The third fire-room
division is a shifting one and takes the place of either of the others that may
be on watch at the time of quarters or drill.
In order to bring the battalion companies of this vessel to their proper
strength, we have to add some second-class firemen and coal-heavers to each
company. The fourth division generally remains on board when the battalion
is landed, though the organization is such that any other division could do so.
Although somewhat out of place, I would mention here that the engineer's
division is not required to do any cleaning outside of their own bulkheads.
I thoroughly agree with the writer that the executive officer of a large vessel
should have an officer of experience as assistant, as it is impossible for one
person to properly attend to all the duties required of the executive officer.
In conclusion I would say that to my mind the proper organization of a
modern man-of-war is that of the ancient galley; we have the sailors in the
navigator's division, the sea-soldiers in the gun divisions, and the engineer's
division takes the place of the oarsmen.
308 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
Commander J. B. Coghlan, U. S.Navy. — I must congratulate Ensign Niblack
upon his very able essay, published in the Proceedings of the Institute ; it shows
study and a knowledge of the needs of a good service. He, however, has one
very grave fault, which, in my opinion, is altogether too common even among
line officers, and that fault is, he exalts the non-combatant to the detriment of
the combatant class. I cannot understand why it is that the primary object of
a man-of-war's existence is so lost sight of, at the present time, and by the
people whom one would naturally suppose would be the very ones to uphold it.
We all know that the whole aim and object of a man-of-war is to carry guns
and to use them well.
Of late years the navy and its friends have seemed to run away with the idea
that the object of a man-of-war was to steam away from a fight ; and every
energy and every inducement has been directed towards that end. Since the
very object of a man-of-war is to carry guns and to use them effectively, and
the greatest aid to that effect is perfect discipline, why should not the principal
petty officers charged with that very necessary discipline, and those charged
with the use of the guns, be as well or even better paid than those petty officers
whose duties are merely secondary in comparison ? Suppose a vessel could
be gotten to a certain place in extraordinary time, what purpose would it sub-
serve unless her gunnery and discipline were good?
I have always maintained that the master-at-arms, the chief petty officer of
the ship, should be paid more than any other petty officer. No matter how
small the amount in excess might be, still it should be more. And, as his assist-
ants rank in authority every one but himself, and sometimes act in his stead,
they should be paid at least as much as the other appointed petty officers. The
duty of a gun-captain being much more important than that of a water-tender,
he should be paid a much higher rate of pay. We must come back to the proper
idea, that the battery is the important part of a man-of-war, to which all others
are subservient, and that the important men at the battery deserve the greatest
care in their selection, and a rate of pay which will keep good men in those
places. Until we do so, the best men will continue to gravitate to the engine
department, where they get better pay and easier times. In times of peace
our men do not have the incentive of patriotism, nor the esprit of command
which actuates the officers, to keep them in a particular branch of the service ;
and consequently, to keep the best men in the responsible deck positions, we
must make up in pay for the extra hazard and extra hard work. For the deck
work is the hardest of all on board a man-of-war.
I would, therefore, change Mr. Niblack's proposed rates of pay about as
follows, viz :
Master-at-arms, first class, $75; second class, $70.
Machinists, first class, I70 ; second class, $65.
Ship's corporals, first class, $65; second class, $60.
Yeomen, apothecaries, ship's writers, schoolmasters, first class, $60; second
class, $55.
All the above to be enlisted or appointed in the second class ; first-class
rates to serve in the first and second-rate ships, and second-class rales to serve
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 1 89 1. 309
in the third and fourth-rate ships, and all of them should be enlisted or
appointed in the same way. At present we see the yeomen and apothecaries
holding their positions by a much better tenure than do the masters-at-arms.
This, of course, tends to the latter's degradation, more or less. So I say all
sack-coat petty officers should be enlisted or appointed in the same way, and
should hold office by the same tenure. If they were enlisted in the second
class, they could then, under the present law, be disrated below that grade only
by a sentence of a court-martial.
Give the ship's corporals a uniform corresponding to that of the masters-at-
arms, and the ship's writer and schoolmaster one similar to those of yeomen.
Every executive officer knows how important it is to have a good writer, and
how very difficult it is to get such a one under the present conditions. With
proper pay and a proper uniform there would no longer be any such trouble to
contend with. Why should not the masters-at-arms have the same privilege of
becoming qualified as Mr. Niblack would hold out to the machinists? Their
duties and responsibilities are by far more important than that of machinists,
who are at all times under the eye and control of an engineer officer. Gun-
captains should be paid at least $50 per month ; those of the second class to
get $45 per month ; half the number allowed a vessel to be of the first class,
the others of the second class. But ship's corporals are the most neglected of
the deck force, and should be brought to a higher plane, by means of better
pay and a proper uniform. And since it seems to be settled that the days for
marines afloat have about gone by, and their retention on shore merely a
matter of time, ships should be allowed more ship's corporals, so there could
be one on duty, actively so I mean, at all times. At present these officers are
simply an aggravation to the men, as their poor pay and lack of uniform seem
to imply a poor-caste employe, and every one knows how the men resent their
control. Call them as now, or "assistant master-at-arms," or any other proper
title, only give them proper support by pay and uniform commensurate with
their duties.
I was struck with the force with which the idea of the utter uselessness of
sail-power was advanced, and then by the idea that the third vessel attached
to a recruiting station should be a sailing vessel upon which the recruits could
be taught "seamanship, alacrity, signals, etc." Why should they be taught
seamanship when it is so utterly useless? Why take up such valuable
time from boats, guns, etc., to give it to obsolete training? Oh, no! Do away
with that expense, as signals, lead, knotting, splicing and every other thing
except useless seamanship can as readily be taught on board a monitor.
If the days of seamanship have gone by, drop it and at once take up some
useful exercise, for we have no time to spare. As the essay says, alacrity can
as easily be taught in the boats.
In my opinion, Mr. Niblack has advanced the only really sensible ideas and
arguments in favor of keeping the marines ashore that I have ever seen in
print or heard uttered. We no longer have room for extra men, and if we
cannot trust the sailor-men now, the sooner we train them so they can be so
trusted the sooner we will be better off. Of course I only refer to such trust
3IO DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
as implies that they can do all the duties required on board ship, for when it
comes to trusting them not to desert or not to get drunk, the records show that
it is a case of " pull Dick, pull devil " between the two classes of men.
The argument of degraded feelings, etc., I look upon as very puerile, and I
cannot believe there are a half-dozen good men in the service who have ever
felt that way. Of course we all know
" No thief e'er felt the halter draw
With good opinion of the law."
Every time we take a walk ashore in a large city we meet policemen, city
marshals, constables or other oflScers of the law who are placed there for the
purpose of arresting offenders, and yet I am very positive none of us ever felt
the least degradation from having to see these men ready to arrest us should we
commit a breach of the peace. Of course this only tends to show that it is
those who fear them who feel any degradation from the presence of marines on
board ship.
But the matter of quarters is becoming a very serious question indeed.
With our extra large engine force — and it seems as though we are always to
have more than any other nation or service to do the same amount of work — we
must, with the reduced space, do away with some one, and of course the regular
man-of-warsman must stay. For here again comes in the object of a war-
vessel's existence. It is guns, guns ! guns ! ! Let us continually beat this
fact into every one's head. Let every one understand that in these days of
reduced crews every other department can stand a reduction, but that the guns
must be manned. As Mr. Niblack says, what is there of Coast Survey now to
be done which can for a moment compare in importance with training men for
the new navy ? What honor or gain is there for the new navy in the Fish
Commission business ? And yet the legitimate duty of the navy is suffering
for men while both these useless services have many vessels fully manned
from naval allowances.
Lack of comforts is also much to be deplored. The new ships do not com-
pare at all with old ones in that respect. An electric light is better than a
candle, and a constant stream of water is better than the old hand-pump and
draw-bucket style of flushing the heads ; but surely life on board ship is not
by any means made up of those two objects alone. The old black bag had
about twice the capacity and fifty times the cleanliness and convenience of the
present square bag and wire-locker. As far back as 1876 the Congress had far
better bag racks, more roomy, more secure, cleaner, and in every way better
than any now supplied to the new ships. These racks, as I remember, were
put up under the direction of the executive officer with the ship's force, and of
course were torn down as soon as the ship went out of commission at a navy-
yard. That seems to be the fate of all improvements put on board a ship when
in commission. And right here it is proper to say that in all the discussions on
the needs of a new navy, I have never seen what I consider the very greatest
need properly referred to. It is this : " Naval constructors should be forced
to go to sea to master the necessities of the service." It is there alone that a
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 3II
full education on matters pertaining to ships can be obtained. One hour's
experience on a trial trip has been known to do more towards putting up
weather-cloths breast-high for the protection of the officer-of-the-deck, than
three months' argument by officers of thirty years' experience. Every squadron
should have one or more constructors attached to it, who should serve at least
six months on board of each class of ships of which the squadron is composed.
They should be given the worst living rooms provided for officers, so they may
the better appreciate what life on board ship means. No one can fully com-
prehend this until he has spent three years in a room next the pantry in a hot
climate. Never a ship fits out but what the officers and the constructor are at
loggerheads, and the reason is that lack of experience at sea keeps the latter
from seeing the importance of the thousand and one seemingly little things
which experience at sea has taught the officers are all-important for future
comfort and efficiency. Can it be supposed that a constructor with experience
at sea would ever have condemned any one to live in such a place as the York-
town's wardroom ?
Too much cannot be said in praise of the idea advanced of having but one
mess for the men. As stated, that system was adopted on board the Inde-
pendence under Captain Rodgers, and the details worked out by Lieutenant
Delehanty in such a way as to leave nothing to desire. Successive captains
have but kept it up, and the system is so well grafted there that I doubt if
their people would ever be contented with any other plan. A sea-going ship
would require an officer to supervise it, and the pay department might have a
few more figures to make in regard to the ration money, but even with that
serious drawback, I think it should be adopted everywhere. In self-defense I
will say that I had fully intended putting the plan in force on board the Mohican
when ordered to command that vessel, but that about that time Lieutenant Dele-
hanty received a letter from the then Chief of the Bureau of E. and R., which
stated that that Bureau had under advisement or consideration a plan of messing
something similar to that of the Independence, which was expected to be soon
put in force. I awaited this bureau plan, and the crew lived the old way all
the cruise.
As Mr. Niblack says, it is the little things which add to or take from com-
fort, and therefore, among other little things, I would never agree to put num-
bers instead of watch-marks on the sleeves of the men's shirts. It savors too
much of the generally accepted idea of the man with the striped clothes.
" Surely the sentimental man of this day would feel degraded by it." And
what good would such a change do ? It would only be for the convenience of
the officers, who, by the exercise of the slightest bit of memory, could as
readily place the men by their faces.
But above all I wish to take issue with the general tone of the essay, which
carries with it the idea that the navy of the present and the immediate past
had in view none of the laudable objects advanced by the essayist. The essay
says : " The handling and fighting of a ship's armament is the true modern
basis of the education and training of our men." What is there modern about
this? Has not this very same thing always been the basis of the education
312 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
and training of our men ? Most assuredly it has. Any one who thinks other-
wise can certainly never have read either the Navy Regulations or the Ord-
nance Manual. Any seeming deficiency has not arisen from the absence of a
proper object ; it has not been that that the navy has had to contend against,
but the unwillingness of those in charge to carry out the excellent system of
drills laid down, for the reason that "energy should not be wasted on obsolete
things,"
It is the spirit of " laisser aller'''' (which being liberally interpreted means
"let her rip"), or anything you may choose to call it, which has of late years
crept into the service, which is accountable for any lack of efiSciency. It is the
10 A. M. boat, with morning quarters at 9.30 A. M., which has killed all military
ideas. It is the constant clamor that the drills of the ship should suit the con-
venience of some extraneous object, which even goes to hurt the new navy, by
distracting attention from military duties.
The military spirit should be fostered, for we need it; but, at the same
time, teach that it is no part of a military spirit to expect the petty officers to
do all the drudgery and drilling. Teach that the old adage, •' If you wish a
thing done, go do it, if not, send," applies to military matters also; and that
it is only that officer who takes an interest in his division and drills it properly,
who is imbued with the military spirit which will be an honor to his ship, his
service and his country. By all means teach the fundamental doctrine that
" any duty which is given, or falls, to any person, is of sufficient importance to
be well done "; and that so soon as any one looks upon his plain duty as
beneath him, so soon will that duty be neglected, and so soon will the general
body suffer. Teach, above all things, that every person on board a man-of-war
is put there for the convenience of the ship. That the ship is in no way for the
convenience of the individual, and that by constant endeavor alone can any
and every one do the duty required of him by his country.
Lieutenant Wm, F. Fullam, U, S. Navy, — The ideas underlying Mr.
Niblack's essay have been formed after close personal observation and study
of the men, of the conditions under which they serve in the new ships, and
with a keen appreciation of the demands of modern naval organization and
training. The service should be governed by ideas formed in this manner —
and formed so recently as not to be out of date.
Mr. Niblack presents an array of cold facts, gives exact dimensions and
data, neglects no detail, uncovers a hundred absurdities, and exposes the
pitiful weakness of our systems of recruiting, training, and organization, in a
manner that defies contradiction. The statements of the essayist, resting upon
a solid foundation of fact and common-sense, are not to be shaken, and the
proposed changes are so carefully and thoroughly considered as to make com-
ment, in most cases, quite unnecessary.
The complication, extravagance, and general failure of the present messing
arrangements are made laughably apparent. Imagine a hotel dining-room
with a different caterer and a different bill of fare for each table — the naval
plan ! In this, as in other instances, the essayist, after a telling criticism,
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 313
offers a sure and simple remedy. In the proposed galley plant and messing
system no detail is forgotten. That a messing system so inherently bad
should have survived so long is reason enough why officers should leave their
cabins, wardrooms and staterooms more frequently and look about the decks
for new ideas. There are important details of modern ship organization, ship
discipline, and naval training as yet unconsidered and neglected by those
whose duty it is to attend to such matters.
"The navy offers at present a respectable and inviting career to only a few
enlisted men, and to those only in such special ratings as ship's writer, yeoman,
printer, master-at-arms, and machinist." This is a simple fact. That so
many desirable men — a large percentage of the apprentices and most of the
seaman-gunners — refuse to remain long in the service, is evidence enough that
the navy is not "inviting." We hear glowing accounts of what has been
done for the blue-jacket in recent years — clothing allowance for apprentices,
seamen's savings banks, a "home" on receiving-ships, etc., — but, neverthe-
less, the best men, as a rule, do not stay. Our men, we are told, get better pay,
better food, and more comfort than foreign sailors — but, nevertheless, the
best men, as a rule, do not stay. And if they do not stay, may it not be well to
find out why it is ; and may it not be well to increase the inducements, if
possible ?
The essayist has referred to many of the harassing conditions of life on
board the modern cruiser. The American is not usually willing to submit to
these conditions for three years, in order to secure a " home " for three months
on board a receiving-ship, nor for the inestimable privilege of placing his
tremendous earnings in a naval savings bank. And so an apprentice school is
maintained and nine out of ten of the boys leave the navy before, or soon
after, they are trained. A school for seaman-gunners exists — but " the seaman-
gunners of to-day are the poorest paid, most seriously discouraged, and yet
the most important class of men in the navy." In other words, the men who
satisfy the requirements of modern seamen, citizens of the United States,
refuse to remain in the navy — simply because the systems of rating, promo-
tion, rewards, and discipline ignore national institutions and defy human nature.
These systems, judged by results — the true test — are miserable failures.
It appears to be a matter of indifference to many whether the service shall
contain citizens of the United States or not. The fact that about a dozen
nationalities may be represented in the powder division gives them no concern.
The essayist has referred to the increased importance and the manifold duties
of the powder division. Guns will be powerless without ammunition. A
rapid supply should be assured, and a heterogeneous crowd of foreigners, speak-
ing many languages, should not be trusted with such important duty.
The question of men is not considered as carefully as are matters relating
to material and armament. And yet it is the most important of all questions
affecting the efficiency of the navy. The mati is the most important part of
the mechanism of every weapon. If the man is lost as soon as he becomes
efficient, if he does not remain a reasonable time in the service, the result of
naval routine and drill is nil. Weapons and ships are worn out in drills,
314 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
show and sham, if men remain undeveloped, or if they are lost to the service
as soon as they become proficient. There must be a career for men, as well
as for officers, if the navy is to be eflScient in time of war.
The only promotion open to a blue-jacket is to the grades of petty ofificer.
One in a hundred may secure a warrant, but this is a slim chance. The fact
that petty officers have few honors and little authority in the navy is the secret
of the trouble. If the only position to which a blue-jacket may aspire amounts
to nothing, why should he remain in the navy ? The Navy Regulations fix the
status of petty officers as follows :
(i) " Petty Officers are not to exercise authority except in the department to
which they belong, and over those placed immediately under their control. . . ."
This provision limits a petty officer's authority within narrow lines.
(2) " Orderly Sergeants of Marines shall rank next after Master-at-Arms ;
all other Sergeants with Gunners' Mates, and all Corporals with Captain of
Afterguard."
A boatswain's-mate outranks a sergeant, but the latter, not the former, is
trusted in ship discipline. The gun-captains usually outrank marine corporals,
but the former are not considered worthy of responsibility in ship discipline.
Of what use is their rank ?
(3) " Non-commissioned officers of marines are not to exercise military
authority or command over those not of their corps, unless on guard or police
duty. . . ." But they are always on guard or police duty, and therefore they
do exercise military authority over blue-jackets and petty officers, while the
latter can never exercise authority over the marines, even on board ship — at
least they are never permitted to do so. Here again rank is of no use to the
petty ofiicer. It is a sham.
{4) " When serving afloat. Petty Ofiicers of the Navy shall take precedence
of non-commissioned officers of marines holding the same relative rank. . . ."
But of what earthly use is this "precedence " to the petty officer ? It is another
sham. The petty officer "takes precedence," to be sure, but the non-commis-
sioned officer takes everything else — all the honors, the responsibility in ship
discipline, the position next to the officers.
It is plain, therefore, that petty officers — petty officers of the line — have little
or no military authority. Why ? Because the marine guard is present. There
is no other reason. Petty officers cannot and never will be permitted to be
efficient in a military sense until marines are withdrawn from ships. It is
simply a question of choice — shall we have marines, or shall we have good
petty officers "i It is impossible to have both. Which is most valuable ? This
question has not been considered calmly nor logically by those who oppose the
withdrawal of marines. They regard it as a corps question, a matter of small
importance, and as an attack upon the marines. It is nothing of the sort. It
is essentially a broad service question — the most practical of all service ques-
tions — a foundation upon which to build the proper system of naval training
and discipline. No reason has ever been given to prove that petty officers
should not have the same position afloat that the non-commissioned officers
have in an army. No reason has ever been given to prove that the men who
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 315
must be trusted in battle cannot be trusted in time of peace. Every attempt
to establish such an absurdity, every argument as yet published against giving
the petty officer his proper place afloat, has been pitifully, pathetically and
poeticall}' weak. And it is remarkable that line-officers can advocate the
perpetuation of this condition of things — the condition of all others that pre-
vents the most desirable class of men from remaining in the service.
"A modern ship, being a complicated machine, requires the most intelligent
kind of men to handle and fight her effectively. On account of the cramped
living space, the number of men on each new ship must be reduced to the
lowest margin." The type of man must be intelligent and skilled with
weapons, but the number being reduced "to the lowest margin," he must be
available for general ship work. There is a vast amount of drudgery in the
new ships; it must not fall upon a few.
Compare the complements of the Philadelphia and the steam frigate
Wabash:
Deck Engineer's
Tonnage. Complement, force. force. Marines.
Wabash 4Soo 540 385 44 49
Philadelphia 4100 368 161 90 36
172 224
The deck force of the Wabash exceeded the total complement of the Phila-
delphia. The latter has no sails, to be sure, but there is much more hard work
of a disagreeable nature in her case. In work aloft there was more or less
pleasurable excitement. The Philadelphia carries 850 tons of coal — two or
three times as much as the Wabash — and she must coal ship more frequently.
And in painting, cleaning, docking and routine work there is increased
drudgery. And yet the deck force of the Philadelphia is less than that of the
Wabash by 224 men ! A considerable reduction is to be expected, but it is
evident that the number of men who are excused from general work on board
modern ships must be reduced to a minimum.
In the Philadelphia's complement of 368, the work of coaling, painting,
cleaning ship, etc., falls upon the deck force of 161 men. Of this number,
however, the following are usually excused from coaling:
Barge, gig and dinghy's crews, signal boys, sick, etc. (probably) 30
Berth-deck cooks (about) 12
Total 42
This leaves 119 men to do the coaling; and of these, 13 are gun-captains
and coxswains, who work with the coal-passers, while privates in the marine
guard sleep on the berth-deck. Here, again, the "rank" and "precedence"
of the petty officer availeth him nothing. This is a small force to handle 850
tons of coal. The difficulty experienced in coaling the Baltimore at New York
will be remembered. A few tired men were overworked, while a considerable
portion of the ship's company did nothing. Foreign nations have recognized
that the problem of quick coaling is of vital importance and very difficult of
solution. To reduce the number of idlers is a step in the right direction.
3l6 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
Of the Philadelphia's crew, the following must be excused from passing coal
(see Mr. Niblack's essay, pp. 39-40) :
Band 16
Engineer's force 90
Officers' cooks, stewards and servants 21
Dynamo machinists and oilers 4
Baymen
Engineer's yeoman
Pay yeoman
Jack-of-the-dust
Apothecary
Ship's cook
Berth-deck cooks 12
Barge, gig, dinghy, sick, signal boys, etc 30
Total excused 180
Under some circumstances, perhaps, the barge, dinghy and gig's crews
could assist, but it will be seen that the excused list is necessarily large.
Remaining we find the following who are also excused :
Watch petty officers 17
Petty officers : Master-at-arms, equipment yeoman, captain of
hold, ship's writer, barber, bugler 6
Mechanics 9
Total 32
Marines 36
Grand total 68
It is from these 68 men that additional working men must be recruited.
Consider what these 68 men are doing while coaling ship. The 32 petty officers
are not only excused from work by virtue of their "rank," but with the excep-
tion of the master-at-arms and two ship's corporals, they are not expected to
assist materially in maintaining discipline. To preserve order, therefore, 36 more
able-bodied marines are excused from all work. Because 32 petty officers are
not utilized for discipline, -^^d enlisted men must be detailed to protect the ship from
danger within and from ruin without ! Here is the rotten point in the present
system, and the remedy is plain. If petty officers are excused from work (and
if anybody is excused they should be), they should not be excused from duty in
maintaining discipline. This principle (and it is a sound one) once established,
36 enlisted men are left without a job, and may be marched into the coal
lighters and provided with shovels and baskets with which to make themselves
useful.
While coaling ship, scraping ship in dry-dock, and often in cleaning ship, the
following rules should obtain :
(i). At such times, all sentries, orderlies, corporals of the guard, quarter-
masters, etc., should stand watch and watch. This is only right. When some
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 1891. 317
men are working from 6 A. M. until midnight, with no rest except for meals,
others should not stand watch four hours and then sleep twelve. This is not an
equal division of labor. The officer-of-the-deck stands watch and watch while
coaling ship. Cannot men on guard duty do the same?
(2). All such petty officers as yeoman, ship's writer, captain of the hold,
chief quartermaster, armorers, chief gunner's-mate, etc., should drop their
pens, lockup storerooms, and report to the executive officer for duty as extra
corporals of the guard to maintain discipline.
The following should be the stations of the 32 petty officers :
WATCH PETTY OFFICERS.
No. Rate. Station.
I Chief boatswain's mate. . .Spar-deck all day.
I Boatswain's mate Attend coaling starboard all day.
1 " " " " port "
2 Gunner's mates On post where needed, standing watch and watch
as extra corporals of the guard.
1 Chief quartermaster Acting as sergeant of the guard all day.
2 Quartermasters On bridge, watch and watch.
2 Quartermasters At the gangway, corporals of the guard, watch
and watch.
6 Quarter gunners At three posts, watch and watch; the three off
duty look out for the battery.
I Ship's corporal Berth-deck all day.
1 7.. total.
PETTY OFFICERS.
I Master-at-arms Where needed all day, in charge of the guard
detail.
I Equipment yeoman "> Assist the master-at-arms all day wherever
I Ship's writer J needed.
I Captain of the hold Acting corporal of the guard below the gun-deck,
assisting ship's corporal.
I Barber Pass empty coal-baskets.
I Bugler Act as officer-of-the-deck's messenger all day.
6.. total.
MECHANICS.
I Armorer Corporal of the guard, gun-deck, all day.
I Blacksmith Pass empty coal-baskets.
I Carpenter's mate -> , . ,
c ., , , ^ > At a post, watch and watch, extra corporals.
I Sailmaker s mate J
I Painter Pass empty coal-baskets.
3 Carpenters and caulkers. .Repair stages and coal-baskets.
I Printer Pass empty coal-baskets.
9.. total. 32. .grand total.
3l8 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
This completes the station-bill for the 32 petty officers. Ten have been
assigned duty all day in certain parts of the ship, or wherever the executive
officer may need them. Fourteen have been detailed to stand watch and watch
at seven posts, making practically seventeen posts for the maintenance of
discipline. Under no circumstances would any more posts be necessary.
Only three posts of enlisted men would ever be needed at such times —
admiral's orderly, captain's orderly, and sentry over the prisoners — two men
at each post standing watch and watch, making only six enlisted men assigned
to guard duty. Every other enlisted man in the ship should be in the coal
lighters.
The duty ordinarily performed by the marines being now in the hands of
petty officers and six enlisted men, replace the 36 marines by 36 blue-jackets,
and 30 of the latter may assist with the work. Mr. Niblack's messing system
would save five more working men, and assigning tailors, printers, barbers,
painters and buglers to duty passing empty baskets saves five more, making
forty vten who cati be added to the working force of the Philadelphia — a gain of
over 30 per cent. Is this a corps question? Practical {}) officers would do
well to think about it.
When there are fewer passengers on board ship, the service will be more
" inviting " to those who do the work. When every man does his proper share
of the work there will be contentment. When petty officers and blue-jackets
are not deprived of the best swinging billets, the choice duty and the posts of
honor and responsibility, when they are permitted to stand next to their officers
at all times and are rewarded for efficiency, the proper men will remain in the
service.
A type of petty officer is needed who can control and drill the men to the
same extent as non-commissioned officers of an army, and who can look out
entirely for discipline when all enlisted men are needed for work.
A type of man is needed who can be a sentry when sentries are wanted,
and who can work when sentries are not wanted. But a blue-jacket cannot be
a seiitry ! This is funny — " funny " is the only term to apply to such a state-
ment. It requires less intelligence to be a sentry than to do any of the hun-
dred duties required of a sailor. No technical training whatever is needed.
A raw recruit who doesn't know the muzzle from the breech of a gun may be
a good sentry. Obedience and attention are needed to be a sentry ; that is all.
If the sailor lacks these qualities, he should lack them no longer.
Petty officers and blue-jackets in the navy are the victims of tradition, senti-
ment, and conservatism — these three ; and the greatest of these is conservatism.
Conservatism denies to the man-of-warsman the chance to develop, and drives
from the service the men who should be retained at all costs.
Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. Navy.— The comparison of the complements
of the Philadelphia and Chicago (p. 39, No. 57) needs several corrections. In
the engineer's force, it should read : for the Chicago, boilermakers 2, black-
smiths o. The use of the title " junior officers' steward," etc., instead of the
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 319
official designation "steerage" steward, etc., has proven offensive to several
who have forgotten their early experiences in junior grades in the navy. The
only pity is that there exists, at this late day, a necessity for such a correction.
The use of the word alien in the expression "No alien should be accepted for
either special or general service," etc., seems to have been rather unfortunate,
as I supposed that a man who had declared his intentions of becoming a
citizen could hardly, in the strict sense, be regarded as an alien. With regard
to Plate II, giving diagram of the steam-cooking plant in a space 12 feet by 12
feet, it was not intended to propose the arrangement given as a particularly
desirable one, but only to illustrate the space occupied by the different parts
of a steam plant for 560 men in the corresponding space of an ordinary ship's
galley for 400 men. It was naturally contemplated that the officers of the ship,
having their own messes, would necessarily be provided with a separate range
or galley.
With regard to the pay-table proposed, the present one was taken as a basis
and very few changes made. As it seemed so desirable to encourage seaman-
gunners, the increase of 30 per cent in the pay of those filling petty officer's
billets of the seaman class, and only 10 per cent in those of the special and
artificer classes, was calculated to operate towards both raising the status of
petty officers of the seaman class, and encouraging men to become seaman-
gunners. The pay of master-at-arms is $65.00. A seaman-gunner, filling
that position, would get $71.50. A ship's corporal should get $35.00 or $40.00.
A gun-captain, qualified, should get $45.00, A seaman-gunner, filling the
billet, would get $58.50, etc. The proposed pay-table is weak and objection-
able in many particulars, but it was hoped that more suggestions would be forth-
coming.
It may not be out of place here to summarize some of the leading points in
order to make clear the position of the writer in a specific way.
The sea-going corps of officers of the navy owe it to themselves to protest
forcibly and vigorously against the proposed quarters and accommodations for
the men they are to have under their charge, to do the work expected of them
in some of the ships now building, particularly in the cruisers of moderate
displacement and excessive horse-power. Such officers must have more to say
and do with questions affecting the health, comfort, and efficiency of the men.
Now that we are so short of men, the issue should be forced with the Coast
Siyvey and Fish Commission. The seaman-gunner is the type of man we are
after; yet no class of people in the service have one-half the grounds for
complaint that they have had until recently, and have now to a great extent.
If a circular-letter were addressed to each man who has, up to recently,
qualified as a seaman-gunner, whether now in the service or in civil life, asking
him what the grievances of this class are or were, I believe the invariable
answer would be : Inequalities and injustices in pay and ratings, and vagueness
and lack of system in training, particularly at Newport. More of the prelimi-
nary training of men must be done on shore and in training-ships, where the
process of weeding out should be facilitated, and only good men sent to sea-
going ships. These should be well paid and well looked out for. As regards
320 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
the question of marines, the marine corps will, no doubt, be able to work out
its own salvation as well as it has in past emergencies. We must secure
for our ships homogeneous crews, and uniformity in drill, routine, training and
organization. We must secure for our men improved comforts and rewards
for faithful service, and provide a career that will attract the best possible
class of men into the service. Are we doing all we can ?
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
TARGET PRACTICE AT THE NAVAL ACADEMY.
By Lieutenant-Commander C. S. Sperry, U. S. Navy.
The firing of the Cadets of the First Class in April, 1891, competing for the
marksman's medal was conducted in accordance with the following general
directions :
U. S. Naval Academy,
Annapolis, Md., April 21, 1891.
The great-gun practice of the cadets of the first class, competing for the
medal, will be plotted upon a vertical plane 64 yards long and 40 feet high, the
target being at the center of this rectangle.
The scoring will be as follows, the target being the center of each rectangle
designated. Shots striking within a rectangle :
A, 10 feet high and 16 yards long, score 12
Outside of A and within a rectangle B, 20 feet high and 32 yards long, score, 6
Outside of B and within a rectangle C, 30 feet high and 48 yards long, score, 4
Outside of C and within a rectangle D, 40 feet high and 64 yards long, score, 3
All other shots score zero.
The medal will be awarded to the cadet making the greatest percentage of
his possible maximum.
In case of a tie it will be decided by having each contestant fire one or more
groups, of 5 shots each, as may be necessary. The contestants in this case
will fire with the same gun, upon the same day, and, as near as practicable, at
the same range, which will i^ot be less than 1000 yards nor more than 1400
yards. R. L. Phythian,
Captain, U. S. N., Superintendent.
The gun, a Hotchkiss 3-pounder rapid-firing gun, was mounted in the bows
of the tug Standish. The target was the usual service triangular target of
black muslin, about six feet on the base and five feet high. The boats for the
recorders were placed 1000 yards from the target, the lines joining them to the
target making a right angle. To keep the vessel from drifting a 250-pound
kedge and light line were used. The tidal current being weak, this was quite
sufficient, and still permitted slight changes of position to be made without
the necessity of weighing. The service T was used.
The competitive firing was done only on smooth days, mainly because of the
difficulty the recorder would have in observing the fall of the shot with motion
on the boat.
Each cadet was allowed three trial shots to determine the range and adjust
the leaf, and then fired ten consecutive rounds.
322 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
The following is the score of the class, the maximum being 120 for ten shots:
First Class, 1891.
Name. Score. Name. Score.
Lane 120 Moale 102
Watt 120 Stearns 102
Macfarland 114 Richards 102
Hough 114 Ninde 100
Theall 114 Zahm 96
McLemore 114 Smith, L. G 96
Sypher 114 Preston 96
Leigh 114 Kochersperger 96
Carter 114 Evans 94
Althouse 108 Kuenzli 90
Bierer 108 Nire 90
Blount 108 Belknap 88
Brotherton 108 Caldwell 88
McKelvy 108 Smith, H. E 88
Irwin ... 102 Flowers 84
Christy 102 Pollock 84
Hartung 102 Smith, H. G 84
Senn 102 Willard 76
Williams 102 Gross 74
Gillmor 102 Blamer 70
Average score 99.7, or 83 per cent of the maximum.
To decide the tie between Cadets Watt and Lane, the boats and target being
in position, they drew lots for the order of firing. Each cadet estimated the
range for himself, was given three trial shots and then fired a string of five.
Neither was allowed to see the firing of the other, or to know the sight-bar
height used and adjustment of the leaf.
Cadet Watt won, scoring the maximum of 60 for his five shots. Cadet Lane
scored 42. t
The inner rectangle of the target is 48 feet in length, horizontally, which is
about the beam of a heavy vessel, and it was adopted for the bull's eye as
being the target presented by a vessel end on. Men must obviously be trained
to hit the least target presented by the enemy.
The experience gained in firing more than a thousand rounds with the
Hotchkiss guns leads to belief that the observation of the fall of the shot with
the service T is much more accurate than is generally supposed if smooth
weather is chosen for the practice. An error of one of the least divisions,
one-half of a degree, would mean a lateral error of 8}^ yards at a range of 1000
yards, but it is not believed that the mean error was more than half of this.
Granting that the means of scoring are not as perfect as can be desired or
as we may hope to make them, it is believed that they identify the best marks-
men with reasonable certainty and fairness.
The practice was plotted in the vertical plane with great facility by the aid
of tables of ordinates computed by Ensign Haeseler, U. S. N., and it is to be
hoped they may soon be printed for general use.
When the firing for the medal was completed, or when the water was rough,
practice was given the cadets in firing at a target while steaming rapidly, with
caliber 45 ammunition from the 3-pounder drill cartridge, and with shell from
a pair of 20-pounder M. L. Parrot rifles mounted aft.
i::
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PROFESSIONAL NOTES. 323
NAVAL MESSENGER PIGEON SERVICE.
By H. Marion, Assistant Professor U. S. Naval Academy.
The Use of "Homing Pigeons" in the French Navy.
The recent manoeuvres of the French squadron of evolution at Toulon have
again demonstrated the great usefulness of homing pigeons as messengers for
naval purposes.
During the sham attack of the port of Toulon all the trained pigeons of the
central station were distributed among the " semaphores " and the " torpilleurs
de haute mer" which were to watch the approach of the enemy's fleet. These
pigeons, liberated at short intervals, enabled the " Prefet Maritime" of Toulon
to be rapidly informed of the approach and the movements of the attacking
squadron, and to be kept in constant communication with the vessels defending
the port.
The Naval Messenger Pigeon Service was established in France several
years ago by the late Admiral Bergasse Dupetit-Thouars, and has its head-
quarters at Toulon.
Every out-going man-of-war is now provided with a number of " pigeons-
voyageurs," which are liberated at various distances according to the stage of
their respective training. They return, with few exceptions, to their home
lofts, bearers of cipher despatches attached to their wings or tails.
A cote has been established on board the artillery practice vessel St. Louis,
and the pigeons have become thoroughly accustomed to the report and smoke
of the guns, and follow the vessel on her cruise, never mistaking her for
another. Their usefulness has been especially appreciated whenever the
vessels of the squadron were beyond the range of the heliograph, as they
enabled the commander of the fleet to communicate with the shore at long
distances when no other means of communication were available.
Messenger Pigeon Service in Italy.
The February number of the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution
contains a very interesting account of experiments which took place lately in
Italy with "homing pigeons" on a " there-and-back flight" between Rome
and Civitavecchia, a distance of about 40 miles.
Let us first make a statement as to what this "there-and-back flight" con-
sists of.
As everybody knows, the ordinary service which the pigeon unconsciously
performs by carrying letters, orders, reports, and the like, is based on its natural
instinct, which constantly induces it to return to its own home, to which old
recollections, its mate, nest, food, etc., attract it. In the "there-and-back
flight," on the other hand, the task is to induce the same pigeon — which,
unless one carries it away, as a rule never forsakes its native loft — to fly to
another loft with which it has been previously made acquainted, in order to
provide itself there with its accustomed food and water, and then subsequently
to return to its proper home. In such a manner the pigeon carries a despatch
to a certain spot, with a view of obtaining food there ; the first message is then
removed, and an answer is substituted, which the winged messenger, on the
completion of its feeding, brings back to its own nest.
It is in this way possible, with a single loft containing about ten birds trained
for this special work, to keep in constant communication by messages, five or
six times a day, two places, although either, or even both, are besieged or
blockaded by the enemy. After several successful experiments, a continuous
service was established between Rome and Civitavecchia, and is now in con-
stant use.*
* The town of Civitavecchia was selected for these experiments, being the nearest port to the
capital and an important strategical point.
324 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
The following is the first official despatch sent by Captain Malagoli, of Rome,
to the Mayor of Civitavecchia, and the latter's reply :
" To his Worship the Mayor of Civitavecchia: — The marvelous instinct which
guides the homing pigeon through the air, and permits it to return to its nest
from thousands (?) of kilometers distance, and also the fidelity with which it
returns to its family, have during the last few years been the object of most
lively interest ; nor do we disdain in our day to make use of them as despatch-
bearers. Particularly in war-time is this of great and indisputable value, since
then all the ordiyiary means of communication will be defective, if not altogether
denied, and one will be forced to substitute exceptional ones in their place. For a
long time it was considered that all that could be expected from a ' homer,'
was that it should return to its home after it had been carried away some-
where by hand. However, trusting to the intelligence of this winged messenger,
we now desired to go farther, and to make it a carrier of despatches to a given
place.'^rom which it should afterwards bring back the answer. It is now pos-
sible to say 'eureka!' For several days these birds have performed their
regular service between Rome and your town, carrying despatches to and fro,
which is apparent to you ' de visu.' The journey there or back is executed
in about an hour, as the pigeons have to fly about 40 miles in a direct line
from one point to the other. Your town forms with Rome the two points in
connection. I shall esteem it as a great honor if your Worship will send me
a brief report of its arrival by the same means by which you receive this.
With kind regards, Malagoli, Captain.'''
" Captain Malagoli, Rome : — I thank you very much for the despatch sent
to me by means of a homing pigeon, which I received to-day. I shall preserve
it among the archives as a testimony of your kind thought for me, and of the
splendid results which have been obtained by your most intelligent labors
towards establishing so important a service.
I have the honor to be, sir, A. Simeoni. Mayor."
These remarkable results were obtained only by long and careful training
through different stages of experiments by which the pigeons were made to
understand what was desired of them.
The governments of France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and
of late the Dominion of Canada, maintain numerous pigeon service establish-
ments which form an important department of their military and naval organi-
zation. Several of them employ the birds in connection with the defense of
their coasts as well as on board of war and despatch vessels.
A service similar to the one described above might be established between
Washington and some other convenient place (Annapolis, for instance), and
extended to other naval stations, as suggested in our article " Proposed Naval
Messenger Pigeon Service" (Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, 1890, No. 54),
in which we said, in substance, the following :
" So far, no oi-ganized service of messenger pigeons has been established in
the United States Navy. It is to be hoped that such a service will soon be
established, as numerous experiments have proved that homing pigeons can
fly several hundred miles at sea, that birds can be bred and trained on board
ships, that they can recognize their own ship among others, that they can be
relied upon to carry news from the fleet to the shore (and under favorable
circumstances from the shore to the fleet and from one vessel to another) when
beyond the range of heliograph and electrograph.
"A service of carrier pigeons for naval purposes could not be improvised at
short notice, as the birds would require long and careful training before they
could be of any use as bearers of despatches.
" War vessels employed in defending a coast are frequently without the
means of transmitting information of the utmost importance to the mainland.
By means of trained messenger pigeons they could send communications
NATURE OF GUN.
Ft.
l.-
EC
E
r-
•£
P-A
M
H
rt _
a
oo
H
4-in. B. L. R. Mark I
4-in. R. F. Gun
5-in. B. L. R. Mark I
5-in. R. F. Gun
6-in. B. L. R. Mark I
6-in. B. L. R. Mark II
6-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 30 cals.
3380
3400
6190
7000
6 ! 10775
J-5
1-5
6-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 35 cals.
6-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 40 cals.
*8-in. B. L. R. Mark I
8-in. B. L. R. Mark II
8-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 35 cals.
8-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 40 cals.
lo-in. B. L. R, Mark I of 30 cals. .
fio-in. B. L. R. Mark I of 35 cals.
lo-in. B. L. R. Mark II of 30 cals.
lo-in. B. L. R. Mark II of 35 cals.
i2-in. B. L. R. Mark I
13-in. B. L. R. Mark I
10900
10800
1 1554
13370
27600
28800
29100
29400
34000
57500
6c66o
63100
56400
61900
101300
135500
4.9
4.8
5.2
6.0
'2.3
12.9
13.0
13.1
15.2
25.7
27.1
28.2
25-1
27.6
45-2
60.5
13-7
13-7
13-5
i7.4
15.8
16.1
16.3
18.8
21.3
21.5
21.5
25.4
28.7
27.4
30.5
27.4
31.2
36.8
40.0
25.0
255
24.0
24.0
24.0
33.8
33-8
33-8
33.8
13.0
157.29
!
13.0
157.50
18.0
150 27
16.5
191.50
21.5
176.0
21.5
180.08
20.5
>83.75
20.5
2'3.75
21.0
243.75
30.0
239.9.
30.0
239.91
28.75
290.52
28.75
3 0.52
40.0
306.26
40.0
343.76
39.0
307.26
39.0
354.91
45.0
419.20
49-0
454.46
*8-in. B. L. R.'s Nos. i and 3 are not hooped to the muzzle, whi
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
325
ashore over a distance of several hundred miles, signal the approach of the
enemy's fleet, and report rapidly all his movements. Besides these, many
other circumstances afford numerous occasions for employing homing pigeons
as messengers in times of peace or war.
" We, therefore, advocate the speedy establishment of a permanently organ-
ized system of naval messenger pigeon-lofts at the principal navy-yards and
stations along the Atlantic Coast."
NAVAL B. L. GUNS.
Dangerous Space for 20 Feet Freeboard.
Gun.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Ranges for which Gun is Elevated.
1000 Yds.
1500 Yds.
2000 Yds.
2500 Yds.
f.s.
yds.
yds.
yds.
yds.
4-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1 000
290
III
177
195
217
119
131
145
S-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
287
322
357
173
193
213
117
129
142
6-inch.
2000
2100
1000
1000
327
368
205
143
159
2200
1000
405
253
174
8-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
357
405
452
232
260
287
^5
184
204
lo-inch.
2000
2100
1000
1000
380
428
247
277
180
200
2200
1000
479
306
221
12-inch.
;>ooo
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
392
If.
318
189
209
232
13-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
399
443
449
261
291
32J
192
213
237
u.
S. NAVAL B. L.
GUNS.
i
3
In.
1
1
!
j
if
1 '
■0
i!
1
1
1
is
GROOVES.
c
HAMBER
1
■0
I
1
1
Si
si
a
1
ft
1
ii
1
J
1
REMAINING VELOCITY AT
: 1
— -
i
1
5
5
1
J
i
i
I
1
i
1
1
li 1
1
r
i
„,.
Tons.
n.
Inchts. i
30
i„=h„.
Cubic Inches.
,„.
Pounds.
Tuns.
Foo.-Secunds.
Tom.
In.
In.
33S0
3400
6,90
157.29
157.50
.5027
30.29
Zero 10
-279
-279
-485
-435
-025
.025
-05
24.74
25. .38
27.07
4-30
6-5
367
329
899
2037
1994
3326
'32-55
,2 to .4
33
60
58
,/>02
■/■O3
1/103
.65.
150.
.364
.246
9.5
4.77
13.7
'3.5
'3-0
.8.0
5iii. B. L. K. MarkI
2.8
21.0
20.75
1 in 180 to
lin30
123.20
26 to 29
2000
.697
.563
■439
'323
1
.660 8.67
6.09
Sin. K. F. Gun
5
3-1
.7.4
'6.5
191.SP
64.40
Zero 10
I in 25
30
•349
.025
32.00
\l:'^l
655
3965
168.00
28.030
50
95
I/14O
■•
2250
■847
1673
15.6
1374
■754 9-00
S-9«
6in. li.L.K.Matkl
6
I077S
4.8
'5.8
25.0
21.5
176.0'
36.65
'Tin 30°
24
.485
•435
■OS
36.85
7.0
.408
5360
■39.. 5
50
38
■ 00
,/,08
2000
'735
.6.6
.505
1402
2773| 10.27
7.S7
6
,0900
4.9
16.1
25s
21.5
180.0S
44.85
24
■■
32.73
7-5
■ 4.0
5595
■47-35
45.048
34 .0 36
./.09
2000
..
"
"
6-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 30 cals
6
roSoo
4.8
16.3
24.0
20.5
'83-75
47-26
Zero to
1 in 25
24
-4S5
.415
"
33.99
7.0
1299
5552
■ 49.76
44 to 47
33 '0 35
looL...
./.08
2000
••
"
••
»
6-in, B. L. R. Mark III of 35 cals
'
'■554
5-2
18.8
24.0
20.5
213-75
77-26
■•
24
33.99
7.0
1299
6404
.79.76
■CO....
./..6
"
2080 .807
.680
'565
.458
2990
10.86
iM
6-in. U. L, R. Mark III of 40 cals
6
13370
6.0
21-3
21.0
243-75
1
07.26
24
"
33.99
7.0
1299
7256
Z09.76
"
.00 1
■/.34
■•
2.50
.865
.737
.6.8
1507
3204J.1.38
8.39
•8-in. B. L.R.Mark I
8
''■3
21.5
33.8
30.0
239.9'
95-16
1 in 180 to
I in 30
32
.4S5
•435
"
42.05
10.5
3569
'354.
197.86
.05.01.5
So to 86
250'....
I/I.O
1/1. 5
"
2000
.S08
.719
1634 1554
6932j ■4.5^
...«,
8-in. B.L. K.Mark II
8
.9.00
.3.0
-.5
33.8
30.0
239.91
95.16
32
"
42.05
10.5
3569
■3541
.97.86
250,....
1/116
"
2000
••
.. ..
..
••
S-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 35 cals
»
=9400
'3-1
25-4
33.8
28.75
290.52
42.77
Zero to
1 in 25
-485
• 4'5
"
45-05
9-5
3176
■5548
245-47
751080
250
,/..8
2080
iSSo
■7S7
.70c ,6.5
7498
.5.6.
...JS
8-in. B. L.K.Mark III of 40 cals. ...
8
34000
15.2
28.7
33.8
28.75
30.^2
S2.77
32
'•
45.05
9-5
3^76
17564
2S5-47
..
250
./.36
..
2.50
■943
.84S
1757 1670
Son
16.10
12.9;
loin.B.L.K.MarkIof30cals.:....
■
57500
25-7
27.4
40.0
306.26
47-26
1 in 180 to
' 1135
40
.485
•435
57-'7
12.5
6880
26639
25043
.7010.90
500
'/"5
"
2000
.84S
1777
1708
1642
.3S64
.8.75 'S-St
+ .o-in.B. L.R.Mark I of 35 cals....
.0
60660
63100
2^:^
30.5
40.0
343.76
83.76
Zero to
lin25
40
-485
■ 415
57- '7
12.5
68S0
29480
2S6.93
•■
.60 to .So
500
I/. 2.
./.26
■■
2080
1922
184S
■777
.707
14996 '9-83
.6.JS
lo-in. Ji. L. K. Mark 11 of 30 cals
■ c
56400
25-1
27.4
39.0
307.26
47-26
Zero to
1 in 26.8
40
"
57- '7
'2-5
6831
26590
250.43
•
.7010190
500
■/■.3
•■
2000
.848
■777
.70S
.642
.38d,
,.„
.s*
.o-in.B.L.R.Markn„,35cals
10
61900
27.6
31.2
39-0
354-9'
94-91
. in°2S
40
•■
57.17
12.5
683'
30350
298.08
160 to 180
500
./.24
••
2,00
.940
.865
■793
1724
15=85
10.10
•<«
l2-in.B.L. R MarkI
-
101300
45-2
36.8
45-0
4,9.20
43- '2
Zero to
iin25
48
■■
74.14
MS
12043
5'355
346.06
425
.... 1850
./..9
2.00
.964
1900
•837
1777
25,85
..J...
I3in. B. L. R. Mark I
'3
.35500
60.5
40.0
49.0
454.46
70.46
"
52
■•
80.88
■5.5
15059
64857
373.58
550
.... 1,00
./.23
"
2,00
'977
.9.8
i860
.Soj
M6.7
j6.o>
•8-in. B. L.
R.'s Nos. I and 3 a
re not
hooped
lo.he
muzzle, i»h
le Nos. 2 and 4 are.
t
o-in. B. L. R. No. 3 diflers in ex
lerior from .o-in. li. L. R. No.
4, and is somewhat lighter in consctinence.
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
325
ashore over a distance of several hundred miles, signal the approach of the
enemy's fleet, and report rapidly all his movements. Besides these, many
other circumstances afford numerous occasions for employing homing pigeons
as messengers in times of peace or war.
" We, therefore, advocate the speedy establishment of a permanently organ-
ized system of naval messenger pigeon-lofts at the principal navy-yards and
stations along the Atlantic Coast."
NAVAL B. L. GUNS.
Dangerous Space for 20 Feet Freeboard.
Gun.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Ranges for which Gun is Elevated.
1000 Yds.
1500 Yds.
2000 Yds.
2500 Yds.
f. s.
yds.
yds.
yds.
yds.
4-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1 000
290
322
362
177
195
217
119
131
145
5-inch.
2000
2100
2 200
1000
1000
1000
287
322
357
^73
193
213
117
129
142
2000
1000
327
205
M3
6-inch.
2100
2200
1000
1000
368
405
22S
253
159
174
8-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
357
405
452
232
260
287
165
184
204
lo-inch.
2000
2100
1000
1000
380
428
247
277
180
200
2200
1000
479
306
221
12-inch.
P.OOO
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
392
436
489
258
318
189
209
232
2000
:ooo
399
261
192
13-inch.
2100
2200
1000
1000
443
449
291
323:
213
237
326 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
THE HARVEY ARMOR PLATE— RESULTS OF THE
RECENT TRIAL AT ANNAPOLIS.
[Reprinted by permission from the Iron Age of March 19, 1891.]
We are indebted to B. G. Clarke, the well-known iron and steel manufac-
turer, for the following data on the trials of the Harvey armor plate, in the
development of which both he and Theodore Sturges, of the Oxford Iron and
Nail Company, have taken a deep and active interest, the inventor being H. A.
Harvey, of the Harvey Steel Company, Newark, N. J. Mr. Harvey has applied
his method of treating steel to armor plate, the plate officially tested at
Annapolis on March 14 being of Schneider make, 10 inches thick and 6x8
feet.
We print facsimiles of the appearance of the Harvey plate after the second
and fifth rounds, and outline drawings showing the effect of the other rounds.
DATA FOR ALL ROUNDS.
Guns 6-inch B. L. R., No. 88 (35 calibers).
Distance from muzzle to plate 263 feet.
Charge 441^ pounds, index 90.
Muzzle velocity 2091 f. s. (measured for first round only).
Striking velocity 2065 f. s.
Weight of projectile 100 pounds.
Temperature 40° F.
Angle of plate with normal to line of fire 13° 22^
In the treatment the Harvey plate had become warped in two directions —
the face being approximately spherical with slight curvature — distance from
rear face of plate at center to chord drawn between corners of plate, 3 inches.
The plate was secured to 36 inches of oak backing in the usual manner
adopted with Schneider plates, and the backing secured to the structure used
for the compound plate in the September trials. The space left at the back of
the plate, owing to its warping, was filled in with oak fitted to its curvature.
No side plates were used.
THE FIRST ROUND.
Projectile, Holtzer A. P. No. 12. Point of impact, 2 feet from right edge,
23 inches from top. Projectile broke up into very small fragments, which
were scattered over the grounds. Very few pieces could be recovered. A
portion of the head was left in the indent so welded to the plate that when it
was knocked out by subsequent impacts it carried portions of the plate with
it, and it is impossible to give the depth of the indent with any accuracy.
The point was judged to have been between 3}^ and 4 inches below surface of
plate. The depth, including portions of plate carried away, was \yi inches ;
diameter at surface of plate, g to 9)4 inches. No fringe was raised. A
through crack 30 inches long was started downward and to right to edge of
plate. A second through crack 19 inches long upward and to the left to top
of the plate. No surface or hair cracks could be detected, and no radial
cracks. The face of the plate in the neighborhood of indent did not peel off,
but the diameter at surface of plate was greater than usual.
SECOND ROUND.
Projectile, Holtzer A. P. No. 35. Point of impact, 2 feet from top, 23 inches
from left edge. Projectile broke up badly. Portions of base recovered near
target. Portion of head left in indent, in the same manner as in round i.
Character of indent very much the same, but judged to be about y^ inch
First Round*
Third Round.
Fourth Round.
Sixth Round.
328 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
deeper. Depth, including portion of plate carried away with projectile, 5
inches. Diameter at surface, 9 to 9^ inches. No fringe. Through crack
i8)4 inches long to top of plate. Through crack 18 inches long to left edge of
plate. Partially through cracks 16 inches long joining indent with No. i, sub-
sequently opened up to wide through crack. Partially through crack 33
inches long downward and to left, subsequently opened up to wide through
crack to left edge of plate.
THIRD ROUND.
Projectile, Carpenter 208 C. Point of impact, 2 feet from bottom, 23 inches
from left edge. Shell broke up badly. About the same amount of the base
recovered as in second round. Character of indent very much the same,
except that it was possible to separate the shell from plate. Depth of indent,
4 inches. Diameter, 9 to g}{ inches. Very slight fringe about small portions
of indent. Through crack down and to right, subsequently continued to
bottom of plate, 27 inches long. Through crack up and to left to crack from
first indent, 23 inches. Surface crack 18 inches long to left edge of plate.
FOURTH ROUND.
Projectile, Carpenter 207 C. Point of impact, 2 feet from bottom, 2 feet
from right edge. Projectile broke up badly. About the same amount of base
recovered as in rounds 2 and 3. Head remained in indent, showing end of
powder chamber. Before firing this point was 7.02 inches from point of pro-
jectile. On attempting to remove the head, however, it appeared much
flattened, and was so welded to plate that it was impossible to tell how far
into the plate the point had reached. It was judged to be something less than
4 inches. Character of indent the same as in previous rounds. Diameter 9
to gl4 inches. No fringe. Four fine but apparently through cracks, one
down, one up, one to right and one to left, at about equal distances
apart. These were subsequently opened to wide through cracks; the one
down, 20 inches long to bottom of plate ; that to right, 17 inches long to edge
of plate ; the one up, 35 inches long to crack from No. i indent ; the one to
left, 15 inches long to No. 3 indent. There appears to be little difference in
the effects of the above four rounds.
FIFTH ROUND.
Projectile, Holtzer No. 38. Point of impact, ij4 inches above to left of
center of plate. Shell broke up, but head penetrated plate. Head apparently
entire. End of powder chamber 7^ inches beyond face of plate. This would
bring point 14.8 inches beyond face of plate (4.8 inches beyond rear face) and
base 2)( inches in front of face of place. The greater part of base picked up
near target. Diameter of indent at surface of plate, 7^ inches decreasing to
6j4 inches at 3 inches from face. No fringe. More of the plate scaled off in
the neighborhood of the indent than in previous rounds. Small portion of the
plate scaled off (thickness of scale ^^ inch) about 8 inches from indent.
Through crack 16 inches long to No. 2 impact. Through crack 19 inches
long to No. 4 impact. Surface crack 7 inches long to left. Surface crack 16
inches long upward and to right. Surface crack 3 inches long down. All old
cracks widened.
SIXTH ROUND.
Projectile, Carpenter 205 C. Point of impact, i^ inches above, 13 inches
to right of center of plate. Shell broke up badly. Character of the indent
much the same as in the first four rounds, but I judge the point to have
reached a less depth. Through crack 9 inches long to No. 5 indent. Partially
through crack 17 inches long, to crack from No. 1 indent. Six short radial
PROCEEDINGS U, S, NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 2.
#
The Harvey Armor Plate. Second Shot.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 2.
The Harvey Plate. Fifth Shot.
PROFESSIONAL NOTES. 329
cracks. Saw cracks 20 inches long below the indent. Old cracks much
opened.
A glance at the Harvey plate after the fifth or sixth round, and at the
Schneider steel plate, the same make without treatment, clearly shows the
effect of the latter. Its face has been thoroughly hardened, the only projectile
which actually entered the plate being that used in the fifth round. The same
impact developed peculiar flaking. This is attributed by those interested to a
blister at that particular point, which prevented the effects of the treatment
from entering as deep as usual. That it is entirely local is fully shown by the
absence of the same effect at other impacts. The trial has demonstrated that the
extremely hard face produced develops no tendency to separate from the softer
back. It is to be noted, also, that although the cracks produced were
through cracks, not one part of the plate fell to the ground.
We understand that the Secretary of the Navy has signed a contract for the
treatment by the Harvey process of the armor plate to be used for our men-of-
war, providing a further test proves satisfactory.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
UNITED SERVICE GAZETTE.
February 7, 1891. Naval notes.
"The fractured strengthening hoop on the muzzle of the iio-ton gun of the
Sans Pareil has been replaced. ... It has been ascertained that the gun
droops more and more after each firing, and also inclines to one side, this
latter defect not having been noticed in the previous guns. . . ."
"The Argentine cruiser 25 de Mayo, which was built and armed by Sir Wm,
Armstrong, Mitchell & Co., has just completed her gunnery trials off the Tyne.
Her armament consists of two 21-centimeter B. L. guns on center-pivot mount-
ings and capable of firing over an arc of training of 300 degrees, eight 4.7-inch
quick-firing guns, twelve Hotchkiss 3-pounders, and twelve Hotchkiss i-
pounder guns. Four rounds were fired from each of the 21-centimeter guns,
thirty-four rounds from the 4.7-inch, and ninety-six rounds from the smaller
guns, without the slightest hitch."
The use of electric motors in warships. The magazine rifle.
February 14. The tactical value of the electric light. Naval
notes.
" A proposal is under consideration to set apart one of the modern cruisers
for the purpose of training stokers for the navy, the necessity of such a step
having been advocated for years by naval engineers. The vessel named for
this purpose is the Iris."
Smokeless powder.
"Mr. Heideman, a German powder-maker, has produced an ammonium-
nitrate powder, possessing remarkable ballistic properties, and producing little
smoke, which speedily disperses. It yields a very much larger volume of gas
and water-vapor than either black or brown powder, and it is slower in action
than the latter. The charge required to produce equal ballistic results is less,
the chamber pressure developed is lower, but the pressures along the chase of
the gun are higher. In an ordinary dry and even in a somewhat moist atmos-
phere it has no great tendency to absorb moisture, but when the air approaches
saturation it rapidly absorbs water, and this will greatly restrict its use."
Torpedo-gunboats for the Argentine Republic.
The Resales and Espora, two torpedo-gunboats built for the Argentine
Republic by Messrs. Laird, are soon to be sent to their destination. They are
each 200 feet long, by 25 feet beam, by 13 feet 6 inches moulded depth. At a
draft of 8 feet the displacement is 520 tons, and the freeboard amidships about
5 feet. Steel is used in the construction of the hull. Two bilge-keels take the
place of a keel proper. There are 42 water-tight compartments. Considerable
protection against gun-fire is afforded by the coal-bunkers, which can carry 130
tons. The normal amount of 100 tons at 11 knots gives a radius of action of
3000 knots. The armament consists of two 14-pounder Nordenfeldt guns on
the forecastle mounted en echelon, one 8-pounder, two 3-pounders, and two
332 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Nordenfeldt revolving cannon. In the waist are four tubes for i8-inch torpe-
does ; in the stern is one fixed Whitehead torpedo-tube, also i8 inches, A mean
speed of 19.823 knots with moderate air-pressure has been obtained. At a
speed of 10.86 knots the coal burnt was 66 pounds per knot.
February 21. Attack formation. Anti-fouling experiments on
the Orontes. Liquid fuel.
February 28. Launch of the warships Royal Arthur, Royal
Sovereign, Tribune, and Spartan. Navy estimates, L
March 7. The navy estimates, IL Naval Defense Act.
The number of ships to be built under the Naval Defense Act was 70, of an
estimated displacement of 316,000 tons, and carrying 540 guns, exclusive of
machine-guns and guns of small caliber. These vessels with their armament
and equipment were to be completed and ready for commission before April
I, 1894. There is every reason to believe that, with the exception of one con-
tract-built ship, the remaining 69 will be completed before the date named.
Naval ordnance.
The total number of new breech-loading guns completed during the year
ending December 31, 1890, is 240, viz :
Nature of Gun. Number completed.
16.25-inch of 1 10 tons 2
13-5 " " 67 " II
10 " " 29 " 2
9.2 " " 22 " 12
6 .< '< 5 '. 12
6 " quick-firing 2
5 " of 40 cwt 41
4.7 " quick-firing 134
4 " of 26 cwt 24
Total 240
Tests for the rapidity with which heavy guns can be fired were made with
one of the 67-ton guns in the Trafalgar's turret at her gunnery trials. Four
rounds were fired in 9J minutes.
The most important advance made in naval ordnance during the year was
the completion of the new 6-inch lOO-pounder quick-firing gun and mounting.
As many as six rounds a minute have been fired.
March 14. Launch of the Indefatigable and the Hawke. The
navy estimates, IIL Mobilization and manning requirements of the
fleet. Battalion command.
March 21. Institution of Naval Architects. Musketry in India.
March 28. Naval notes. Official trial of the Pelayo's machinery.
With natural draft a speed of 16.2 knots was attained. The coal consump-
tion at i2-knot speed is 45 tons per 24 hours. At normal draft the Pelayo
carries 800 tons of coal, a supply sufficient with a speed of 12 knots to cover a
distance of 4500 to 5000 miles, and at lo-knot speed a distance of 7500 miles.
Naval Reserves.
April 4. Naval notes. Trials of 6-inch quick-firing gun.
Further trials of the Elswick 6-inch quick-firing gun and mounting were
made on board the Kite at Portsmouth. This time the mounting and gun
represented the conditions when used for upper-deck armament. One hundred
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 333
rounds were again fired in series each of 10 rounds, and on this occasion a
considerable number of rounds were fired with the percussion arrangement.
The change from electric to percussion, and vice versa, was effected without
any pause being necessary in the firing, and not a single missfire occurred.
Everything was found to be most successful. Two hundred and sixty rounds
have now been fired from the gun on the same mounting, and there does not
appear to be the slightest sign of wear in any of the working parts, and very
little mark of firing in the gun itself. The rapidity and ease with which one
man can elevate and train the gun and mountings, the weight of which com-
plete is seventeen tons, is surprising. Of the last series of 100 rounds, 80
cartridges were fired for the second time. With a similar 6-inch gun at Shoe-
buryness, cartridges have been fired as many as 16 times.
Successful trials of the Fiske range-finder in France and Italy.
April ii. Infantry militia officers. Naval notes.
The horse-power of torpedo-gunboats of the Sharpshooter class has been
reduced to 3500, and the steaming capabilities of the boilers increased.
April i8. Naval notes: Launch of the Wattigneis; launch of
the Falke; naval manoeuvres of the Austro-Hungarian fleet; experi-
ments with laying out submarine mines in Toulon. The Reserve
question.
April 25. Heavy guns. Coast defense. H. G. D.
JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION.
February, 1891. A proposed method of training naval stokers
and otherwise increasing the efficiency of the steam branch personnel,
by Chief Engineer J. Langmaid, R. N.
After calling attention to the present defective system of training, and that
about 600 men are recruited annually and sent to sea without any preliminary
instruction in engine-room duties, the author proposes that all newly-entered
men be sent to a central training-ship, to be trained there for three months.
This course is to be followed by three months' experience in a modern cruiser
at sea. Assuming 600 recruits annually, this would place 150 men in the
harbor ship and 150 in the cruiser. The proposed course of instruction in the
training-ship is then laid down : — i. Names and uses of principal parts of
boilers and engines, of tools used in stokeholds ; how to read pressure-gauges,
trim and fill lamps, close stop-valves, etc. 2-. Duties of a stoker in managing
fires; how to use a shovel. 3. Knotting and splicing; how to sling and lift
weights ; use and reeve off tackles, etc. 4. Boat exercise, swimming drills,
gymnastics, and miscellaneous duties of stokers.
On joining the cruiser, after the first three months' instruction, the men
might be divided into four watches. The first fortnight spent in harbor with
instructions in the uses of the various parts of the boilers and machinery,
working the pumps and auxiliary engines. The ship then to go to sea for
short trips of about four days each week, beginning at slow speed and gradu-
ally working up faster as the men become used to their work. Stations should
be changed each week, so that each man takes his turn at trimming coals,
firing, looking after the engines, main and auxiliary, sweeping tubes, repairing
defects, etc. If qualified at the end of the 6-months' cruise, the rating of
stoker to be given ; if not qualified, to be given a three months' further trial ;
to be discharged, if hopeless, at the expiration of this time.
The same cruiser might be employed as a useful school for instruction of
junior engineer officers before joining sea-going ships. Besides learning
engine-room duties, they might be taught to keep an engine-room log, engineer's
store accounts, to arrange watch and station bills, and various other duties.
334 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
The measures proposed in this able paper cannot fail to attract attention,
and the discussions evince the interest taken in a subject of such vital im-
portance. In ships of the present day, where steam has supplanted sail, and
speed is the desideratum, the necessity of an efficient force in the engine-
room is indisputable. The benefits to be derived from a course of sys-
tematic preliminary training of recruits for the fire-room are invaluable.
Steel as applied to armor-plates, by Charles W. Smith. Red
Indian warfare.
March. On the present system of enlistment and pay of our
soldiers, and its bearing on recruiting. On army cooking and mess-
ing. On the advantage of forming collections at Greenwich.
H. G. D.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL ARTILLERY INSTITUTION,
WOOLWICH.
Volume XVIII., No. 7, February. Homing pigeons, by Captain
Malagoli. Ranging a battery.
March. The R. A. mess at Woolwich. Fire discipHne. Notes
on the equipment and services of our mountain artillery, from the
Pyrennean campaign, 18 13-14, to the Abyssinian expedition, 1867-68.
Translations: The employment of artillery in siege warfare (accord-
ing to the theories of General Wiebe) ; Etudes de tactique, par le
g6neral Luzeux.
April. Imperial federation and the defense of the empire. Some
of the more recent developments and applications of explosives.
The R. A. mess at Woolwich. Translations : Transport of parks
of artillery, ammunition supply of armies ; The last days of the
Malakhoff. H. G. D.
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE UNITED SERVICE IN-
STITUTION OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
Volume II., 1890. The defense of a protected harbor, by Lieut.-
Col. Boddam (with 12 plates). Harbor defense by guard-boats, and
their duties, by Commander .Bosanquet.
Contains description of nevs^ form of protective boom-, and method of mooring.
Round about Apia, Samoa, by Captain Castle, R. N. The Austra-
lian soldier, by Captain M'Cutcheon, ist Regt. Vol. Infantry. Re-
prints: The sighting of small arms; Acclimatisation of Australian
horses in India; Smokeless powder (extract from Sir F. Abel's
address). H. G. D.
FRANKLIN INSTITUTE.
February, 1891. The Olsen testing machine.
Description of the machine, accompanied by plates, with an extract from the
report of the Committee on Science and the Arts, as follows: "The com-
mittee recognizes that the increased complexity of this machine over others
requires a more careful handling. They have not sutficient experience to say
whether a greater number of tests can be made in a given time than with other
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES, 335
machines, but their opinion is that this testing method is a long step forward
toward making such machines thorough instruments of precision, and it intro-
duces instead of the numerical the graphic record, the advantages of which
are universally admitted.
" In view of the great ingenuity displayed by the inventor in arranging the
several parts of the machine, notably in the mechanism, which produces a
graphic record of the test, similar to the indicator of a steam engine, and thus
brings to perception at a single glance the variation in the strain of a number
of specimens, as well as the work required to break such specimens, the award
of the Elliott Cresson medal is recommended."
Electricity ; its past, present and future, by Ralph W. Pope, Secre-
tary American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Some properties
of confocal ellipses and their application to mechanism, by Horace
B. Gale. High explosives in warfare, by Commander F. M. Barber,
U. S. N.
March. The system of house and underground wiring of the
Interior Conduit and Insulation Company. The continuous girder ;
variable moment of inertia; fixed points ; graphic method, by C. H.
Lindenberger. The aluminium problem, by Jos. W. Richards.
The lecturer, after reviewing the etymology of the word " aluminium," states
that of all the many problems connected with this metal, he has " singled out
the one which is, par excellence, tJie aluminium problem, and that is the extrac-
tion of aliiminitim frotn the materials in which it is found iti nature."
The lecture is divided into two parts: i. The isolation of aluminium;
2. the production of aluminium cheaply.
The first part gives an interesting history of all recorded experiments and
efforts made to bring the metal to view, covering a period of 94 years, from
the time of M. Baron in 1760, who first proved aluminium a metal, down to the
time when Deville, in 1854, succeeded in making the first button or pencil of
this metal.
The second part considers all subsequent methods of reduction, thie cheapest
raw materials to use, and the cheapest way to extract aluminium from these
materials.
Electricity as the rival of steam, by Dr. Louis Bell.
April. The progress of chemical theory ; its helps and hin-
drances, by Dr. Persifer Frazer. Riveted joints in boiler-shells, by
W. B. Le Van. Analytical discussion of the tidal volume, by L.
d'Auria. On a maximum steam-jacket efficiency, by R. H. Thurston.
Chemical section: The electrolytic method applied to rhodium ; the
electrolytic determination of mercury and gold, by E. F. Smith.
Electrical section : A note on some dangers in electric lighting ; a
new accumulator plate; a new form of megohm resistance.
May. The progress of chemical theory, by Dr. Persifer Frazer.
Riveted joints in boiler-shells, by W. B. Le Van. The law of varia-
tion, by L. d'Auria. The limits of scientific inquiry, by H. Hensoldt.
Phenomenal friction, by J. H. Cooper. Chemical section. Electrical
section: A new form of standard cell, by C. Hering. H. G. D.
THE MILITARY SERVICE INSTITUTION.
March, 1S91. Our experience in artillery administration. The
power of the Senate. Musketry. Military gymnastics. On the
336 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
increase of the number of cadets. The oath of enlistment in Ger-
many. The funeral ceremonies of Washington.
April (Extra Number). Gun-making in the United States, by
Captain R. Birnie, U. S. A.
A history, in eight chapters, of gun construction and gun trials in the United
States. It begins with the early inventions, the Rodman method of casting,
and follows the progress in gun-making in this country up to the present time,
giving descriptions of the various forms of guns and their official trials, breech
mechanisms, etc., ending up with a review of the past three years, including
short accounts of steel-producing plants and gun manufactories in the United
States.
May. Cavalry in Virginia during the war of the rebellion.
Theory of drift of rifled projectiles. Artillery difficulties during the
next war. The recent Indian craze. The new German rifle and fire
regulations. The Red river dam. H. G. D.
THE UNITED SERVICE.
March, 1891. Pulaski and Charleston. Moltke. History of
the Mormon rebellion of 1856-57, Chapter XL. Knots and miles.
April. The Indian problem. General Sherman. History of the
Mormon rebellion of 1856-57 (conclusion). The Persian army.
Old regiments of the British army. Admiral David Dixon Porter.
The difference between military and martial law. Ship-steering.
May. The measure of the strength of steel armor, by E. M.
Weaver, First Lieutenant Second Artillery, U. S. A.
From observations, it is "assumed that the resistance of a steel plate of the
quality made by Schneider Company, when attacked by projectiles whose
diameters are less than the thickness of the plate, is, for all practicable purposes,
confined to a cylindrical disk of the plate about the projectile in its passage
through the plate, the radius of this disk being about 2.5 calibers, and its
thickness the thickness of the plate itself."
The weight of such a disk of about 28 inches diameter in the nickel-steel
plate as tried at Annapolis is 3.2 tons. If now the total energy required for
perforation of the plate alone be divided by 3.2, we find the inherent resisting
capacity of the metal. A comparison of trials in which Creuzot steel plates
were attacked leads to the conclusion that the inherent resisting capacity
approximates to 1828 foot-tons per ton of the disk. Taking this as a standard,
formulas are derived for the strength of any plate, viz. E = JVC, in which
E = the energy in foot-tons required to perforate the plate, W = the weight of
the resisting disk in tons, C = 1828 ; or in another form, E = .7312 n'^eft.
n = ratio of the radius of the resisting disk to the diameter of the projectile.
d = diameter of projectile in inches.
t — thickness of plate in inches.
Formulas for the striking velocity to give perforation of the plate, or plate
and backing, are also derived.
A comparison, based upon the above formulas, is then made between plates
at various armor trials.
Coal endurance of Her Majesty's ships. For what it is worth.
Attack upon a railroad train. Du Guay-Trouin, of St. Malo.
Under the southern cross (conclusion). National legislation re-
quired on weights and measures. Recent army legislation. The
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 337
last victim of the gauntlet. Among our contemporaries. Service
salad. Military order of the Loyal Legion. Rear-Admiral T. H.
Stevens, U. S. Navy. H. G. D.
THE ELECTRICAL REVIEW.
No, 7. April ii, 1891. Tell-tale compass. Westinghouse auto-
matic circuit-breaker. Induction. Queen ammeters and voltmeters.
No. 8. April 18. A new form of megohm resistance. New
electric-light switch.
No. 9. April 25. Electric light on the Suez Canal.
No. 10. May 2. Aerial navigation. Electrolytic deposition of
nickel.
No. II, May 9. The Packard vacuum pump. Telephones on
shipboard.
No. 12. May 16. Air navigation. Improved electric-light signal.
New form of standard cell. H. G. D.
THE IRON age,
April 2, 1891. Air-compressor for U. S. monitor Terror. Alum-
inum in railroad work. Modern navies. Matchless repeating air-
rifle.
April 9. The great forge at Cleveland. Construction of boilers
for ibrced draught.
April 16. Forgings for big guns. Circulation of water in steam
boilers, II.
April 23. Quadruple expansion-engine for a tug. Armament
for the new ships. A Boston-built steel bark.
April 30. Electrical forging. Electricity as a motive-power.
May 7. An assistant cylinder for marine engines. Our battle-
ships.
Description of the ships, with illustrations of engines and deck plans, and
elevation of the Indiana, Oregon, and Massachusetts.
BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
Volume XXIII., No. i. The Great Amazon, by Courtenay De
Kalb. Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, by Rev. H. C. Hovey.
Geographical notes, by Geo. C. Hurlbut.
MILITAR WOCHENBLATT.
February ii, 1891. A new cavalry bridle. Changes in the
organizations of the Austro-Hungarian army.
February 14. Extracts from the correspondence of Frederick
the Great. Minor notices : Cordite.
" England. The manufacture of the smokeless powder, which on account of
its stringy appearance has been called Cordite, has been commenced in the
royal arsenal, but hereafter is to be continued by the powder works of Waltham
338 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Abbey. The charges for rapid-fire guns up to 6-inch calibers, as well as for the
i2-poun(ier field-pieces, have already been fixed. The general introduction of
this powder will, however, not take place for some time, awaiting tests which
will be especially directed towards discovering the effect of exposure to dif-
ferent temperatures. According to Dr. Anderson, the general director of gun
works, it has stood the chemical tests very well, but is yet to be subjected to
prolonged influence of the heat in India and the cold in Alpine regions.
According to the same authority the powder is characterized by its exceedingly
brilliant flame, and the report of explosion is stronger than that of black
powder."
Fortifications of Bucharest.
February i8. Artillery-fire Spiel. The attacks of General
Margueritte's cavalry division at the battle of Sedan.
February 21. The French reserve squadron.
In connection with the fleet manoeuvres of the French navy which take place
every summer. Admiral Krantz, Minister of Marine, has required, since 1888,
the mobilization of the ships of the reserve at Toulon. This rule has proved
successful as far as the material was concerned, as the vessels, armaments and
equipments have always been found ready for service. The fault lay with the
personnel. Small details were destined for the respective ships ; these were,
however, not kept intact, owing to constant changes being made by the chief
of the station, in consequence of which it was found that these details were
not sufficiently familiar with their vessels ; and it was even worse with the
naval reserves ordered from at large, who knew little or nothing about the
ships.
It has now been decided to fit out, early in the spring, a reserve division,
consisting of three armored vessels and two cruisers, at Toulon, under Kear-
Admiral Puech, with the Trident as flagship. A second division is to be fitted
out soon after, the two to constitute a reserve squadron under the command
of a vice-admiral. So that France will have two vice-admiral's commands
at sea. The chief of the shore station at Toulon is no longer to have authority
over the reserve vessels, as his projects and requirements would always con-
flict with the importance of having the reserves ready for service at all times.
The squadron is therefore withdrawn from his control and will form part of the
Mediterranean fleet. It is probable that the vessels will be entirely removed
from Toulon and rendezvous at the Hyeres islands, with half complements,
except in summer, when they will be fully manned to take part in the general
fleet manoeuvres.
This is an important advance in the war establishment of the French fleet.
The admiral commanding the Mediterranean fleet will have five divisions under
him, comprising 15 armored vessels, with their accompanying cruisers, avisos,
etc., thus being superior in strength to the English Mediterranean fleet of 10
battle-ships.
This step will not pass unheeded in Italy, whose exposed coast-line invites
a sudden fleet-attack in time of war; besides it has this additional importance,
that it makes the regular French Mediterranean squadron of 3 divisions avail-
able for service in other waters without leaving the southern coast of France
unprotected.
The Mediterranean squadron is constantly strengthened by the newer battle-
ships, the older ones being withdrawn and consigned to the reserve. Thus at
the end of January the armor-clad Hoche, of 10,650 tons, joined the squadron
after having completed her trial trips. Under forced draught, with 11,000
H. P. and 82 revolutions, a speed of 16 knots was attained, and under natural
draught, with 70 revolutions, she made 14 knots. The third-class cruiser
Fronde will also soon be assigned to the squadron. Of only 1880 tons, this
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 339
vessel, during a two hours' run under forced draught, reached a speed of 20.9
knots, and during a twelve hours' run under natural draught, a speed of 17.6
knots.
February 25. The yearly report on the Turkish navy, 1889 to
1890.
Contains a list of vessels of the Turkish navy, with table of dimensions,
speed, coal-capacity, armament, dates of launching, etc.
February 28. Minor notices : Prismatic powder.
The Art'iUcTy Commission {commissione permane^ite) of Italy has determined,
after prolonged experiments, that only two kinds of prismatic powder are
necessary for navy guns, that of less density to be used in the smaller calibers
up to 6-inch guns, and that of greater density for all heavier calibers (lo, 13)^
and 17-inch guns).
March 4 and 7. Infantry target-practice under warlike condi-
tions ; a contribution towards the solution of a vital question.
The writer calls attention to the necessity of a change in the present method
of target-firing, which affords no knowledge of troop-firing as would be de-
manded in battle. The importance of the present system, or precision prac-
tice, for schooling of marksmen is, however, not disparaged. It is only by this
system that the marksman is taught the handling of his weapon so as to obtain
the best results in view of the purpose for which it is designed. This famil-
iarity and education can only be obtained by firing over such distances and
against such targets as will permit the control and observation of each shot
fired ; that is, at distances up to 300 yards and at ringed targets.
The regulations governing this sc/wol-dring are the result of years of expe-
rience, and are admirable, so that it is to be questioned whether the scope of
this system can be reduced to permit the education for firing under warlike
conditions. It must be admitted that those troops which have received the
best instruction in s,:/ioo/-{iTing will do the best in the warlike-firing. It is
necessary, therefore, to adhere to a thorough course in the present system, but
it should be limited so as to allow some time and ammunition for the more
important field-firing.
It is proposed as a means towards this end to abolish in connection v/ith the
sc/iool-firing all practice at distances greater than 300 yards and employ only
the ringed targets, which, by the way, should have elliptic bull's-eyes and rings
instead of the circular ones. The number of rounds per man is to be fixed,
and an extra allowance is made for field-firing. The latter is reduced to three
forms of practice: i. skirmish-firing; 2. firing in connection with sieges; 3.
firing under conditions of operations in the field.
Under i and 2 the rules to be followed are laid down. Kanges will be from
300 to 700 yards at low targets. Instruction in estimating distances will form
part of the education. Under 2, firing at night should be practised. Some of
these rules also apply to 3, firing in the field proper, under various conditions,
and at ranges from 300 to 1200 yards. The subject has evidently received the
writer's careful attention and is exhaustively treated.
Wolfram projectiles.
March ii. Examinations for admission to the Staff College.
Minor notices: New Japanese fleet.
March 14. Observations on engagements of infantry. The
study of war histories. Minor notices : France — A submarine boat.
Austria — Wounds from bullets of the Mannlicher rifle.
340 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES,
March i8. The English fleet manoeuvres of 1890.
March 21, Proposed changes in the periods of instruction of
the infantry and thejagers.
March 25. Programme of the manoeuvres for this year of the
Austro- Hungarian armies. The Victoria torpedo.
March 28. Discussion on the article, " Infantry target-practice
under warlike conditions." Minor notices : Heavy guns for Japan.
April i. Minor notices : Visit to the powder works at Ochta.
April 4 and 8. A word on the carrying out of attacks by larger
bodies of infantry. Heligoland and the German fleet.
April ii. A word on the carrying out of attacks by larger
bodies of infantry (concluded). Minor notices.
The experiments with a newly invented smokeless powder by a French
chemist, St. Marc, have proved its superiority to the powder of Vieille used in
the Lebel cartridges. The experiments were made with a Lebel gun at dis-
tances of only 20 meters. The targets were increased in thickness during the
trials. One bullet penetrated 1.27 meters of poplar wood and was recovered
intact. The powder was exposed for 5 minutes to a water-bath, dried between
two linen cloths, and then fired, sending a bullet through 7 millimeters of
sheet-iron. Firing for accuracy at 200 meters also gave splendid results. There
is scarcely any smoke developed. The pressure is said to be very low. The
initial velocity was 700 meters. The dangers of spontaneous ignition are very
slight. The grains are cubes, sides about i millimeter long, of greenish color.
April 15. A final word on the fortification question.
April 18. The English fleet manoeuvres of 1890. Minor notices :
Filtering of drinking water ; Army manoeuvres in Russia.
April 22. New naval guns. Entrance into St. Cyr.
April 25. Officer's patrols. Increase of French cavalry.
April 29. Needs of two years' enlistment. H. G. D.
MITTHEILUNGEN AUS UEM GEBIETE DES SEEWESENS.
Volume XIX., No. i. On the law of storms in the Eastern seas,
by VV. Doberck, director of the Hong Kong observatory. The
North Baltic sea canal. Budget of the Italian navy for the year from
July I, 1890, to June 30, 1891. Budget of the Imperial German
navy, 1891 to 1892. Royal decree on the Spanish fleet material.
The Argentine cruiser 25 de Mayo. Torpedo-boats for the Argen-
tine Republic. Launch of the Maine. Triple-screw cruiser for the
United States. Harbor-defense ram for the United States. Armor
tests at low temperature. The Manchester ship canal. Lights for
lighthouses. Life-preserver with automatic inflation. The engines
of the American cruiser No. 12. The Imperial Turkish yacht.
No. 2. Practical geometric innovations (lecture b)'- Fr. Schiffer,
professor at the Naval School at Pola).
Practical method of measuring angles without a protractor. Description of
Edler's measuring sheet, and its application in obtaining trigonometric func-
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 34I
tions. Bing's sector and its application in measuring the area and circumfer-
ence of a given circle. Description of Le Bon's telestereometer.
Method of determining the center of displacement, by W. Abel,
naval constructor. The French torpedo-launching gun, system
Canet. Estimates for the United States navy, 1891 to 1892. The
protection of iron and steel ships against danger of sinking from
injury to the hull. Experiments on the application of cellulose for
stopping leaks. Hydraulic boat-hoisting apparatus. Yarrow's water
tubular boiler. The use of the aerometer on board ship for finding
the specific gravity of sea- water.
No. 3. On sea-marks. Howell torpedo. The deep-sea explora-
tions of H. M. S. Pola in 1890. Resuscitation in cases of drowning,
strangulation, freezing, or unconsciousness arising from alcoholism
or exposure to excessive heat. The French torpedo-boat No. 128.
The latest oceanographic expeditions. The Argentine gunboats
Rosales and Espora. French armored ship Jaur6guiberry. A re-
serve squadron in France. Armor of the U. S. monitor Puritan.
Use of oil at sea. Liquid fuel on board the Italian ships Castelfi-
daro and Ancona. Electric signalling apparatus of G. Conz in
Hamburg. New school for naval architects in the United States.
No. 4. Results of some tests for stability of Austrian torpedo-
boats. The automobile Buonaccorsi torpedo. On manning of
English ships of war. New electric log, invented by Granville. Eng-
lish mail steamers in the Pacific Ocean, Trials of the guns and their
installation on board the Argentine protected cruiser 25 de Mayo.
Tests of the 6-inch Armstrong R. F. gun. Graydon's dynamite gun.
Petroleum as a fuel in ships' boilers. Organization of French naval
officers for the reserve. The schiseophone. Vessel-building in
England. Tests of anti-fouling paints in England. Education and
training of stokers. Budget of the Russian navy. Fortification of
New York. American armor plates. H. G. D.
ANNALEN DER HYDROGRAPHIE UND MARITIMEN METEORO-
LOGIE.
19TH Annual Series, 1891, No. I. From Australia to the west
coast of North America and return, by L. E. Dinklage. Notices on
the Azores, especially on Ponta Delgada. Notices on Port Natal.
Soundings in the North Atlantic Ocean. Soundings in the South
Atlantic Ocean along the Brazilian coast. Corrections of chrono-
meters for temperature and temperature-coefficients. Damages by
lightning to vessels while at sea.
Enumerates fourteen cases, from 1879 to 1889, in which vessels were struck
by lightning.
Contribution towards knowledge of the Corean climate. Compila-
tion of storm-signals.
An enumeration of the storm-signals of various countries.
Minor notices: Daily weather reports; Winds in the Indian Ocean;
342 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Fresh-water supply in the Straits of Sunda; Notices on some islands
and shoals in the Bismarck Archipelago; Notice on Apalang (Gilbert
islands); Notices on some of the Marshall islands, the Island of
Jabur, and Prince William Sound.
No, II. On a new method of determining magnetic declination,
by Professor Dr. C. Borgen. From Australia to the west coast of
North America and return, by L. E. Dinklage (concluded).
Report of Captain Pliiddemann, of H. M. S. Leipzig, on the voyage
from Amboyna to Finsch Harbor. Current observations on the
Nord Hinder banks. Deep-sea soundings in the Pacific Ocean.
Mean barometric pressures between the Channel and the Cape Verde
Islands in November, .by Dr. W. Koppen (with plate). Two re-
markable night thunderstorms in the summer of 1890, by Dr. W.
Koppen (with plate). Minor notices: A remarkable light seen in
the heavens ; The east coast of Upola, Samoan islands ; The town
and island of Zanzibar.
No. III. On a new method of determining the declination of a
magnet, by Dr. C. Borgen (concluded). Report of Captain Niejahr,
of the German bark J. F. Pust, on harbors on the Brazilian coast.
Soundings in the North Pacific. Soundings in the South Pacific
Ocean about the Samoan islands. The storms along the German
coast from 1878 to 1887. Quarterly weather review, fall of 1886.
Minor notices : Storm signals along the German coasts ; Currents in
the inland sea of Japan ; Currents in Macassar Straits and saiHng
directions during SW monsoons ; Cabaret Bay, St. Domingo (with
chart). H. G. D.
DEUTSCHE HEERES ZEITUNG.
January 17, 1891. On the active military writers of the army.
The Russian strategy in the firsthalf of the Seven Years War. New
tactics in the French army. Firing tests with the Marga cartridge.
" Lieutenant Marga is the inventor of a rifle of 8-mm. caliber, wJiich possesses
some remarkable properties as to simplicity, durability, accuracy, and rapid
loading. This weapon was subjected to experimental tests at Brussels,
December 2d, 1890. Lieutenant Marga obtains an initial velocity far surpass-
ing anything heretofore reached, not by any especial construction of the
weapon, or by the employment of stronger powder, but by a better utilization
of the powder-gases in their action on the bullet. ' He obtains by this means,'
says la Belgiqtie Miliiaire, 'instead of an initial velocity of 600 to 620 meters,
one of 720 meters.'
"Lieutenant Marga directed his experiments toward obtaining an increase
in velocity without increase of pressure in the bore. This he succeeded in
doing by inventing his cartridge, which, with a pressure not exceeding 1800
atmospheres, imparts to the bullet of 14^^ grams weight an initial velocity of
750 meters (2460 feet).
"The firing tests were made against one-inch pine planks, separated from
each other by about one inch, against sheet-iron and wrought-iron plates. At
a distance of 30 meters the bullet penetrated the ninth and tenth planks, or
about 11^ inches of wood, without being in the least deformed. Against iron
the results were remarkable : 7 sheet-iron plates, each of 2 mm. thickness,
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 343
were penetrated, the bullet being reduced to powder against the backing, a
cast-iron plate of 15 to 16 mm. thickness. However, when this cast-iron plate
was placed in front of the sheet-iron plate the bullet passed clear through and
penetrated two of the sheet-iron plates behind, striking with force against the
third plate. Repeated trials always brought the same results. The firing was
also directed at a smooth rolled-iron plate, of same resistance as steel, thick-
ness 16 mm. This plate was very much indented, while through a plate of the
same material of 12 to 13 mm. thickness the bullet passed clear, making a
smooth hole."
January 21. The normal attack. On the active mihtary writers
in the army (continued). The Russian strategy in the first half of
the Seven Years War (continued).
January 24. On the development of our infantry. On the active
military writers in the army (concluded). The Russian strategy in
the first half of the Seven Years War (continued). Naval notes.
January 28. The Russian strategy in the first half of the Seven
Years War (concluded).
January 31. Mounted infantry patrols. The firing trials of the
Gruson works.
The official reports, in detail, of the trials of the 22d to 27th of September,
1890, at Tangerhiitte. The report gives the tabulated results of the various
trials, with remarks.
February 4. Our navy in the eleventh hour. The firing trials
of the Gruson works (continued). Military notes: Signalling with
Very's signals.
February 7. The firing trials of the Gruson works (continued).
Military notes: The fortification system of France.
February II. The strangers in France, French battery-guards.
The- firing trials of the Gruson works (continued),
February 14. The war of 1806 and 1S07. The firing trials of
the Gruson works (continued). Military notes : Electric signal-
lamps.
A new electric signal-lamp has been constructed by John Price Rees, in
London,. which may be useful in the army and navy. For the purpose of
signalling by flashes, an incandescent lamp of great candle-power is placed in
the axial line of a system of lenses. There is a contrivance, by means of
which the current of the battery, which is placed in a box below the lamp, can
be turned on or shut off, and a screen conceals or exposes the light. The
lamp and lens system can be trained in any direction, aided by a sighting
tube, and regulated according to the distance to which it is desired to signal.
By means of long or short flashes the Morse code can be used.
Fittings to magazine rifle,
A contrivance has been invented in Holland, which may be fitted to any
repeating rifle, and by means of which the loading from the magazine is accom-
plished without bringing the rifle down from the position of aiming until the
magazine is empty.
February 17 and 21. The firing trials of the Gruson works
(continued).
344 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
February 25. Regulations of I'Ecole d'instruction a6rostatique.
The firing trials of the Gruson works (concluded).
February 28. The fortification question. Trials with the Lebel
gun. Budget of Russian navy and army. The port of Rochefort.
March 4. The value of the captive balloon in naval warfare, its
use in coast defense and on board ship. The fortification question
(continued).
March 7. The value of the captive balloon in naval warfare
(concluded). The fortification question (continued).
March ii. The fortification question (continued). Naval notes:
Electric training and firing gear for heavy guns.
March 14. The fortification question (concluded).
March 18. Naval notes: Launch of English men-of-war. A
new patent log.
March 21. Remarks on the fighting tactics of infantry, in accord-
ance with the spirit of the times.
March 25 and 28. Our navy. Naval notes: Summer man-
oeuvres of German war vessels. Regulations concerning ceremonies
and salutes in connection with flag of governor of German East
Africa. Jurisdiction of the head of the Navy Department in Germany.
April i and 8. Heligoland and the German fleet. Garrison
drills. More firing in the attack.
April it and 15. Field mortars and field howitzers. More
firing in the attack (continued).
April 18. More firing in the attack (continued).
April 25. Military preparations of the Russian army. Krupp's
firing trials. More firing in the attack (concluded). Military notice :
Captive balloon ; present state of aerial navigation. Launch of the
Electric.
April 29. Obituary notice, General v. Moltke. Increase of
Russia's reserves. H. G. D.
NORSK TIDSSKRIFT FOR SOVAESEN.
9TH Annual Series, No. 3. How to examine a telescope. The
storms of November, 1890 (meteorological report). On spontaneous
ignition and explosion in coal-bunkers. The 12-cm. 35-caliber
length naval gun, with breech mechanism. Carriage of the 12-cm.
gun (with plates). Messes in the English navy. The first steam
life-boat. Determination of compass deviations. New cruisers for
the United States.
No. 4. The latest forms of marine compass. The first engage-
ment of the gunboat Viking.
An account of a suppositious engagement between the Norwegian gunboat
of the first-class, Viking, supported by two torpedo-boats, and an enemy's
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 345
cruiser off Lyngor, July 5, 1892. The account is followed by a discussion on
naval engagements of the future, and methods of attack and artillery fire to be
used under circumstances similar to those in the engagement above described.
New English battle-ships. Tests of armor plates in America and
Russia. The latest cruisers.
Gives data concerning the cruisers of the year 1890, of England, France,
Spain, Italy, Austria, Russia, Germany, Greece, Chili, Argentine Republic,
Japan, and the United States (with plates). H. G. D.
TEKNISK TIDSKRIFT.
Nos. I AND 2, i8gi. On harbor improvements in Buenos Ayres.
RIVISTA MARITTIMA.
February, 1891. Electric lighting on board Italian war-ships, by
Lieutenant A. Pouchain.
Part I. Rules to be followed in the selection of materials and in the estab-
lishment of plants. Tables are appended showing the proposed installation
for each vessel, with the electrical energy of each proposed plant.
The German merchant marine, by Salvatore Raineri (continued).
Study on modern naval tactics, by G. Ronca (continued). The
giroscope, by Lieutenant C. Corsi. A month in the Island of Ceylon
(continued).
March. Electric lighting on board Italian war-ships, by A.
Pouchain (continued), (18 plates). Part II. Regulation materials.
An enumeration and description of motors and dynamos, search lights and
projectors.
The German merchant marine, by Salvatore Raineri (continued).
Study on modern naval tactics, by G. Ronca (continued). The
interior of Africa, by Ettore Bravetta (continued).
May. Leads and weights used in deep-sea soundings, tried on
board the Washington. Electric lighting on board Italian war-ships,
by Lieutenant A. Pouchain (continued).
Description of the incandescent lamp, switches, resistance coils, with 12
plates showing different forms of lamps, insulation, electroliers, switches, etc.
Study on modern naval tactics, by G. Ronca (conclusion). The
non-combatant personnel on board ships of war, by Dante Parenti.
The Fiske range-finder, translated from the Engineer by F. Vergara.
Notes on the machinery of the French torpedo-boats, Normand
system. H. G. D.
RIVISTA DI ARTIGLIERIA E GENIO.
January, 1891. The relationship between war operations ashore
and afloat, by Lieutenant Felice Porta, 26th Artillery. Actual forti-
fications (general considerations, and principal requisites for a
defensive establishment, with 4 plates), by Enrico Rocchi, captain of
engineers. The Mannesmann process of constructing metallic tubes.
The hospital Mauriziano Umberto I., at Turin. H. G. D.
346 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
MEMOIRES DE LA SOCIETE DES INGENIEURS CIVILS.
January, 1891. Governors for steam engines, and contrivances
for quickly throwing shafting out of gear.
February. A new system for electric railroads. H. G. D.
LE YACHT.
January 31, 1891.
The French marine corps (Infanterie de marine) will be designated here-
after as " the colonial troops," and either will have a separate administration
or become a part of the ministry of war.
The armored battle-ship Hoche. The commercial school question.
February 7. Earlier retirement of officers in the French navy.
Plans of the first-class battle-ship Jaur6guiberry.
February 14. The law of the French mercantile navy. Private
dockyards and government contracts. The English transpacific
steam-packets; auxiliary cruisers. The London Times on armor
plates.
February 21. The iio-ton gun of the Sans-Pareil (a comparison
between gun-trials in England and in France).
February 28. The law governing the merchant marine and the
national navy ; premiums and subsidies.
March 7. British naval budget.
March 14. French yachts and French measurements. Trials of
the Marceau.
March 21. A bill to promote the better efficiency of the per-
sonnel of the French navy. State of the naval constructions on
January i, 1891. French yachts and measurements (concluded).
The English navy, from the Devastation to the Royal Sovereign.
April 4. Our new naval constructions in 1892.
April ii. English race measurements and French yachts.
April 18. The navy ; rapid-fire guns.
At the polygene of the Hoc during the trials with the quick-firing cannons,
system Canet, 9 shots were fired with the 12-cm. in 45 seconds, and 8 in i
minute with the 15-cm., whose loaded cartridge weighs 130 pounds. With the
exception of some slight imperfections, easily remedied, in the minor details,
these pieces of ordnance are very satisfactory.
A ministerial decree establishing the horse-power standard of
marine engines (75 kilogrammeters).
REVUE DU CERCLE MILITAIRE.
February i, 1891. No halts in the advance of the line of attack.
Drinkable water and hygiene in the barracks. War and navy
budgets of Germany. German military literature. Infantry fire-
discipline on the battlefield.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 347
February 8. A study of the Russian infantry. Union of the
German societies of carrier-pigeon fanciers. Tactics regulations in
the French and German armies. The Behring question.
February 22. The Graydon torpedo-launching tube. Halts in
the advance of the line of attack (an answer to the article of Feb. i),
March i. The Graydon torpedo-launching tube (ended).
March 8. The infantry attack (a sequel to kindred articles in the
preceding numbers).
March 15. The speed of vessels, and the sheathing of their
bottoms. Firing while advancing to the attack, dpropros to previous
kindred articles.
March 29. The Newfoundland question (with map). Veloci-
pedes in the army. Mixed patrols in tactical reconnoissances. The
speed of vessels, and bottom sheathing.
April 5. Military industry at the Moscow exposition. The
revolution in Chili.
In view of the actual events in Chili, the following extracts may be of some
interest. The Chilian naval budget aggregates 4,256,000 pesos (one peso being
about 92 cents). The personnel is composed of 4 rear-admirals, 8 captains, 19
commanders, 25 senior lieutenants, 14 junior lieutenants, 38 midshipmen, 16
engineers, 13 medical surgeons, 40 paymasters, 33 mechanicians, and 1888
sailors.
On the list of vessels in commission appear : 3 armored ships,* 3 cruisers,
3 corvettes, 2 gunboats, 20 torpedo-boats of the first class, 3 of the second class,
5 steamers, and 3 sailing vessels, most of which are of an antiquated type.
The Chilian government, however, has been very active of late in strengthening
the fleet by the addition of modern vessels of the most approved designs, con-
tracted for in England and France. It is in regard to the latter, the only ones
in fact that present any interest, that we will say a few words.
Towards the end of 1887 Chili sent to Europe a mission headed by Admiral
Latorre, who commanded the Cochrane at the time of the surrender of the
Huascar. Plans and specifications were furnished by several engineers, some
French, some English. Of these constructions the lion's share fell to France.
Two small gunboats (Almirante Lynch and Almirante Condell) were built by
Laird on the plans of the English Sharpshooter. The Condell finished her
trials last October, making 20 knots under 20 pounds pressure, and developing
4350 I. H. P. The Lynch has already done some good work in Chilian
waters. Capitan Prat, 100 m. long and 6905 tons displacement, has an all-
round armor belt of 30 cm. in the upper part and 20 in the lower, with a total
height of 2. TO m. A casemate with a 10 cm. armor occupies the central part
from the belt to the hurricane-deck ; it contains no battery, being only intended
to protect the bases of the funnels and the passages below. The deck armor
is from 20 to 50 mm. thick, and the supply-tubes 20 cm. All the plates are of
Creusot steel. The lower deck is partitioned out by numerous water-tight
bulkheads, insuring buoyancy in case of the upper works being shot away.
Her armament is powerful and distributed as follows :
1. In each of the four turrets, which are arranged as on the Spanish Pelago,
and have an armor of 275 mm., one 24 cm. 36-caliber gun.
2. In four cupolas symmetrically disposed two by two to the rear of the
heavy pieces, and on a level with them, 8 12-cm.
* The Almirante Cochrane, Blanco Encalada (reported sunk), and Huascar.
348 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
3. Four rapid-fire guns of 47 mm., two on the bridge and two abreast the
mainmast.
4. Four 57-mm. encircling and almost touching the 24-cm. of the center.
5. Six 37-mm., two on the gallery, two on the poop-deck, and two on the
forecastle.
6. Five Gatlings, four of which are in the tops, the other being intended for
the launch. There are, besides, four torpedo-launching tubes, one in each side
amidships, one forward and the other aft.
The Capitan Prat has two military masts with double tops. The engines,
owing to the difficulties of repairs at home (Chili), are simple in construction
and very strong, developing 12,000 indicated horse-power, with a speed of 17
and 19 knots with natural and forced draughts respectively. Three search-
lights have been placed on the gallery and on platforms halfway up each mast.
The Presidente Errazuris and Presidente Pinto have the same speed with
3500 and 5400 I. H. P., according to draught. As in the case of the Capitan
Prat, they have only military masts. They are provided each with four boilers
and sufficient coal-endurance to steam 4500 miles at 12 knots, and 2550 at 15
knots. The electric lights are placed on the bridge. They are elegantly-
built steel cruisers, 81 m. long, with a displacement of 2080 tons ; the decks
are protected with steel plates 35 to 60 mm. thick extending the whole length
of the vessel and descending 0.70 m. below the water-line. Sufficient protection
is afforded by the multicellular system of construction and cofferdams. A block-
house, 70 mm., incloses the servo-motor.
Their armaments consist, i, of four 15-cm. guns on sponsons abaft the fore-
mast ; 2, two i2-cm. on the line of the keel, one on the forecastle, the other on
the poop-deck. These pieces, like the preceding ones, are mounted on central
pivot carriages ; 3, four 47-mm., two on the lower bridge, two on the quarter-
deck above the 15-cm. aft; 4, four revolving cannons of 37 mm. in the lower
tops ; 5, one Nordenfelt in each of the upper tops ; 6, three torpedo-launching
tubes, one forward, the two others in the sides amidships.
The two cruisers were built inside of 18 months. The Capitan Prat, Presi-
dente Errazuris and Presidente Pinto have up to the present been detained by
the French government, i, as a guarantee for final payment ; 2, to prevent their
falling into the possession of a hostile third party not recognized as a
belligerent.
REVUE MARITIME ET COLONIALE.
January, 1 89 1. Eclipse of the sun — a theoretic statement. The
expediency of a general staff for the British navy in imitation of the
German army.
"Admiral Sir Geoffrey Philipp Hornby, an authority in naval matters, is of
opinion that the Bureau of Intelligence is entirely inadequate for the task set
before it, and advises the formation of a general staff, which, absorbing the
intelligence department, would be far more competent to discharge the duty of
gathering and condensing within practical limits the enormous quantity of
information at hand, which, contrary to a custom now established, should be
at all times of easy access to every officer in the service as well as to the
administrative authorities. It will not be very long before the necessity of a
similar establishment will be felt in our own navy."
The military marines of antiquity, and mediseval age (2d part). A
study of comparative naval architecture (continued).
February. Economical influence of lightness in naval construc-
tion. Regularizing the movements of engines; a regulator with an
auxiHary dynamo. Historical studies of the military marine of
France (continued).
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 349
March. Operation of raising the French colHer ship Federation.
Historical studies of the military marine of France (continued).
Notes on the bar of Kotonon (describing the surf-boats in use on the
West Coast of Africa, and the method of landing and putting off
shore). Notes on the lubrication of machinery. Foreign naval
ministries, how organized and operated. J. L.
REVISTA MARITIMA BRAZILEIRA.
Hydraulics for propelling life-saving boats.
The appliance of hydraulic power to vessels is not a new thing, for it dates
as far back as 1843. Two systems, if we may use such word, are in presence :
one, Dr. Fleischer's of Kiel, tried on board the Hydromotor in 1881, and the
other the turbine system of Admiral Sir G. Elliot, tried on board the Water-
witch. Sweden, Germany and France have also made experiments, but with
indifferent success. By far the most interesting experiments, took place on
board the life-saving boat Duke of Northumberland, of which the engineer
gave at the time a full description. The writer sees a great many advantages
in this propelling power, and recommends its adoption for the bar of the Rio
Grande and other dangerous bars on the coast of Brazil.
REVISTA MILITAR DE CHILE.
January, 1891. New trials of armor-clad cupolas.
In October, 1S90, experiments were made at Le Creusot, France, with an
armored cupola or turret, at which were present representatives from nearly
every country in Europe and from the United States. The turret, a revolving
one, has a diameter of 5.40 m. and is 0.70 m. high. In the interior are two
13-centimeter guns mounted on special carriages, fitted with hydraulic checks
acting automatically. The plates of nickel-steel are 20 cm. thick, and weigh
2580 kg. Five shots were fired from a 15-cm. caliber gun at a distance of
30 m. The projectile was a 15-cm. one, and the velocity at the impact 329 m.
The trial was very satisfactory ; still it would have been more interesting if a
gun of greater penetrating power, the Canet gun of the same caliber for
instance, had been used.
Opinion of the Attorney-General in regard to claims arising from
the Chile-Peruvian war, submitted to the President of the Republic.
A memorandum card, or handbook containing the most elementary
notions of hygiene recommended for the use of the Chilean soldier.
A regiment of artillery on the march (instruction and discipline).
Instructions in target practice. The aliment of the soldier (trans-
lated from the ¥rench Journal des sciences miliiaires) .
BOLETIM DO CLUB NAVAL.
May-July, 1890. Extraordinary meeting of the Naval Club on
the nth of June, on the occasion of the anniversary of the naval
battle of the Riachuelo. Establishment of a Sailors' Protective
Society.
"The object of the society, whose formation is due to the initiative of some
members of the Naval Club and under whose patronage it is placed, is to
obtain the necessary capital to compose a relief fund in favor of widows and
orphans of sailors who lost their lives at sea in the performance of their duty.
350 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
The ' Caixa Pia ' (benevolent fund) is derived from the following sources:
I. Original subscriptions; 2. contributions deposited in boxes set up in con-
venient places for that purpose ; 3. legacies and donations ; 4. interest on
invested capital, and contributions of all kinds to the society. Article fourth
of the b3'-laws provides that the institution shall distribute help to shipwrecked
sailors cast on the coast of Brazil. The above disposition is to be communi-
cated to foreign consuls, and reciprocity solicited on the part of their respec-
tive governments. The privilege of membership is extended to ladies. As-
sistance at sea made obligatory in cases of distress or collision. According
to the author, no punishment can be too severe for the crime of wilfully and
cruelly disregarding the duty of giving assistance to fellow-sailors in distress,
and calls for international legislation.
Casting oil on the sea to subdue the waves.
Several Chambers of Commerce, among others those of Dunkerque and Bor-
deaux, have instituted prize funds to reward the best essays written on the
subject, a special committee at the latter city having been selected to work
out a programme.
Denominations for masts of four-masted crafts. Notes on naval
construction. Formulas ot the ordinary laws of resistance of hulls.
Influence of the shape of stems and sterns (to be continued).
August and September.
"The matdrieloi our navy (Brazilian)" is the title of an article giving an out-
line of the composition of the iieet of the new republic. At the head of the
list appear the Riachuelo and Aquidaban, two armored battle-ships of recent
types, possessing all the latest improvements and quite efficient for the duty
they are expected to perform. But the writer thinks that although the pur-
chase of these vessels was justified, and they are able to meet in contest crafts
of the same type and armament, yet armored battle-ships are not the kind
wanted by Brazil in time of war. Then follow the names of nondescript ves-
sels, possessing neither speed nor defensive or offensive power ; a list of
cruisers in course of construction, or launched and finishing, afloat, among
others the Almirante Tamandare, with a speed not exceeding 17 knots and a
modern equipment. Then come the monitors Pernambuco and Maranhao, a
very desirable class of vessels. Three sea-going torpedo-boats, type Le
Coureur, are building in Europe.
Notes on naval construction (continued). Discussion on the ele-
ments of resistance ; direct resistance. A few notes to serve for an
elementary study of naval tactics. A plan for the distribution and
equipment of meteorological stations in connection with the weather
service. Naval chronicles.
BOLETIN DEL CENTRO NAVAL.
November, 1890.
"A challenge to mortal combat in mid-ocean, 1813," is the title of a very
interesting article. It does not pretend to adduce any new fact in the history
of our early struggle with the mother country. Yet the author lays a certain
stress upon the fact that in the fight between the Chesapeake and the Shan-
non, the crew of the American frigate was composed of the riffraff and foreign
elements that thronged at the time our Atlantic seaports, thus lending a new
force to the argument recently brought forth that American men-of-war should
be manned exclusively by American crews.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 351
Use of the natural sines in calculating the latitude by circumstan-
cial altitudes (see previous number).
December. Of the necessity of educating the personnel of the
navy. Promotion in the service. Submarine torpedo-boats. Our
naval armaments.
It is hardly necessary to say that this article presents more than an ordinary
interest in view of the actual events in Chile.
Speed of ocean steamers.
December. Recruiting of the personnel of the navy.
The writer expatiates upon the deplorable condition of the materiel, a con-
dition which he attributes to the absence of trained petty officers and skilled
mechanics.
Promotion in the navy. Submarine torpedo-boats.
This is a memoir upon the projected construction of a submarine boat.
Our naval armaments (Argentine).
January, 1891. Recruiting of the personnel of the navy (con-
tinued).
The voluntary service system which prevails in the Argentine Republic, the
same as in the United States, although the most onerous for the treasury, is
the most appropriate to the country and individuals, and the most conformable to
hygiene. Apropos to the latter, the writer cites a case of 415 men drafted by
lots into the Spanish navy, 230 of whom entered the hospital in two years
with affections of the heart brought on through a dislike to seafaring life and
the absence of the home from which they were ruthlessly separated.
El Capitan Prat. Submarine boats. A naval consulting board.
The Chilian artillery (the new mat6riel is almost exclusively com-
posed of Krupp guns). The navies of the Triple Alliance. The
French fleet, etc. J- L-
THE ENGINEER.
February 14, 1891. The U. S. S. Yorktown. Yarrow's new
water-tube boiler. Slide-valve gear.
March 14. Repairing a broken crank-shaft. Range of temper-
ature in steam cylinders. The trial trip of the U. S. S. Bennington.
March 28. See's extractor for purifying feed-water for marine
boilers.
April ii. The Spanish cruiser Pelayo. Results of experiments
on the strength of boilers.
THE RAILROAD AND ENGINEERING JOURNAL.
February, 1891. The Panama Canal. Our navy in time of
peace. Electricity from wind-power. The submarine mine and
torpedo in harbor-defense. The progress in construction of new
naval ships.
352 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
March. High explosives for military use. Boilers for high
pressures. United States naval progress. The preservation of iron
and steel structural work. The mechanical treatment of molding
sand. The United States Navy.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF NAVAL ENGINEERS.
Steel crank-shaft forgings.
A description of the method of manufacture of the steel crank-shafts for
the new vessels of the navy, and the tests to which the material is subjected.
Fitting up the crank-shafts of the U. S. S. Newark.
The method employed by Cramp & Co. in constructing the built-up type of
crank-shaft.
The causes of the vibration of screw steamers. An investigation of
Assistant Engineer Alderdice's " Notes on Analysis of Engine Trials,"
by Chief Engineer Isherwood. Reply to Chief Engineer Isherwood's
investigation. Register for speed trials.
A description of an apparatus designed to carry into effect Engineer-in-Chief
Melville's method of making speed trials.
The contract trial of the Concord. The contract trial of the
Newark. Experiments with the Belleville boiler for marine
machinery. J. K. B.
SCHOOL OF MINES QUARTERLY.
January, 1891. Examination of mines. Notes on the coal-fields
of Montana. The operations of the U. S. Geological Survey.
J. K. B.
THE STEVENS INDICATOR.
Volume VIII., No. i. The measurement of high temperature.
Latest developments in compressed-air motors. Marine governors.
Notes on the performance of the ferry-boat Bergen. Huge lathes
and cranes operated by electricity. J. K. B.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE TECHNICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC
COAST.
January, 1891. Accumulators and their applications. Notes on
the behavior of steel rods at the elastic limit. J. K. B.
THE STEAMSHIP.
February, 1891. The theory of propulsion and centrifugal force.
Auxiliary engines in connection with the modern marine engine.
March, 1891. The steam trial of H. M. S. Latona. Machine
stoking. Screw propellers.
April, 1891. Willis's electrical ship's telegraph. Cylindrical
boilers. J. K. B.
REVIEWERS AND TRANSLATORS.
Lieut.-Commander C. S. Sperry, Ensign C. M. Knepper,
P. A. Engineer J, K, Barton, Prof. C. R. Sanger,
Ensign H. G. Dresel, Prof. J. Leroux.
NAMES OF MEMBERS WHO JOINED SINCE
JANUARY, 1891.
LIFE MEMBERS.
Andrews, Philip, Ensign, U. S. Navy, March 19, 1891.
Carpenter, J. H,, Manager, Carpenter Steel Co., Reading, Pa., April 17, 1891.
REGULAR MEMBERS.
Althouse, Adelbert, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 27, 1891.
Belknap, Reginald R., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 22, 1891.
Bierer, Bion B., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 19, 1891.
Blamer, De Witt, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Caldwell, H. H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 19, 1891.
Carter, James F., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Christy, Harley H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Button, Arthur H., Govt, draughtsman, Bath IronWorks, Bath, Me., June i, 1891.
Emrich, Charles R., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 23, 1891.
Evans, Waldo, Naval Cadet, U.S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Gillmor, Horatio G., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Hartung, R, J., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy.
Hough, Henry H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Irwin, Noble E., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 20, 1891.
Johnson, W. W., Professor, 32 Preston St., Baltimore, Md., February 17, 1891.
Kochersperger, F. H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 23, 1891.
Lane, Rufus H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Laws, George W., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 23, 1891.
Leigh, Richard H., Naval Cadet, U. S, Navy, May 22, 1891.
Macfarland, Horace G., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
McGrann, Wm. H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
McKelvy, Wm. N., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Moale, John G. F., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Pollock, Edwin T., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Preston, Chas. F., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May I5,.i89i.
Reed, Milton E., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 20, 1891.
Richards, George, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 25, 1891.
Senn, Thomas J., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Shepard, George H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 26, 1891.
Smith, Henry Gerrish, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 23, 1891.
Stearns, Clark D., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 18, 1891.
Sypher, Jay H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
354 NAMES OF MEMBERS WHO JOINED SINCE JANUARY, 189I.
Watt, Richard M., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Willard, Arthur L., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Williams, Dion, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1S91.
Zahm, Frank B., Naval Cadet, U, S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.
Biddle, John, ist Lieutenant, Engineer Corps, U. S. Army, April 17, 1891.
Cronquist, A. Werner, M. D., Chemist, Royal Swedish Navy, Stockholm,
Sweden, April 17, 1891.
Dennison, H. B., President, Dennison Manufacturing Co., Townsend Street,
Roxbury, Mass., April 17, 1891.
de Rivas, F. R., Lieutenant, Royal Spanish Artillery, Spanish Legation, Wash-
ington, D. C, April 17, 1891.
Dewey, Frederick P., Ph. B., Metallurgist, No. 621 F St., N. W., Washington,
D. C, April 17, 1891.
Elwell, Howard P., Consulting Engineer, Gloucester, Mass., April 17, 1891.
Hemje, Charles, Draughtsman, Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md., April 17, 1891.
Langley, Gerald, Captain, Royal Navy, British Legation, Washington, D. C,
April 17, 1891.
Macpherson, Victor, Engineer, Horse Creek Coal and Coke Co., Horse Creek,
Alabama, April 17, 1891.
McMurray, R. K., Chief Inspector, Hartford Steam Boiler I. and In. Co., No.
285 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Wadsworth, J. W., Hon., M. C, Geneseo, N. Y., April 17, 1891.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 3
^^0^'
'J^
^^4^'ij
PLATE I. -METHOD OF CARRYING OUT THE MUSHROOM TEST.
THE PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Ukited States Naval Ii^^stitute.
Vol. XVII., No. 3. 1891. Whole No. 59.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL,
CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS
with emmensite, gelbite and aluminum bronze.
By Stephen H. Emmens,
Member of the U. S. N'aval Institute, Member of the Society of Chemical Industry,
Member of the American Chemical Society, Membre Fondateur of
the Societe Internationale des Electriciens, etc.
§1.
The Ballistic Theory of Explosives.
In the classical " Report upon Experiments and Investigations to
'Develop a System of Submarine Mines for Defending the Harbors
of the United States," submitted to the War Department by General
Henry L. Abbot, Engineer Corps, U. S. A., attention is drawn to the
apparent anomaly of dynamite No. i, containing 75 per cent of nitro-
glycerine, being found more effective than pure nitroglycerine itself.
This observation was commented upon by Professor C. E. Munroe,
chemist to the U. S. Naval Torpedo Corps, in the following terms
("Notes on the Literature of Explosives," Proceedings of the U. S.
Naval Institute) :
356 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
" In comparing the results obtained for pure nitroglycerine with those
for dynamite No. i, there was revealed what at first sight appears to be
a paradox.
One pound of pure nitroglycerine was found to exert only 8i per cent
of the intensity of action of three-fourths of a pound absorbed by an
inert substance which could add nothing to the heat or gases developed.
This fact, which was discovered early in the trials, was considered so
extraordinary as to require careful verification and study.
The first explanation suggested was that it was due to a possible
variation in the strength of the nitroglycerine itself, depending upon a
difference in the chemical composition of different samples.
This was tested practically with different nitroglycerines, and with
nitroglycerine and dynamite made from it ; and it was shown, beyond
question, that variations in the quality of the nitroglycerine had nothing
to do with it, and that the explanation must be sought in the physical
conditions of the problems.
General Abbot, therefore, suggests that in granulating nitroglycerine,
by absorbing it in kieselguhr, the particles of silica slightly retard
chemical action — since, in detonations, the reactions occur within the
molecules — and as the resistance opposed by water is of a slightly
yielding character, more time may be required to reach this condition
than is afforded by nitroglycerine pure and simple.
This view is confirmed by the action of certain dynamites which are
made so as to explode with exceeding rapidity, and which fall very low
in the scale,"
The foregoing quotation is cited in Lieutenant Willoughby
Walke's (2d U. S. Artillery) recent paper " On the Determination
of the Strength of Various High Explosives," appearing in the
Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XII., No, 7 ; and
with reference to its subject-matter Lieutenant Walke observes, " In
by far the majority of such cases the additional strength is derived
from the physical condition of the explosive rather than from any
inherent property of the active principle."
It will be noticed that neither General Abbot, Professor Munroe,
nor Lieutenant Walke attempts any positive solution of the curious
problem in question ; and I know of no authority upon explosives
who has hitherto done so. The suggestion that in dynamite No. i
the nitroglycerine is granulated, i. e. that it is divided into minute
masses separated from each other more or less by intervening parti-
tions of silica, is, rigorously, untenable ; for careful inspection shows
no interruption of liquid continuity in the nitroglycerine constituent
of dynamite. Moreover, the reference made by Professor Munroe
to " certain dynamites which are made so as to explode with exceed-
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 357
ing rapidity, and which fall very low in the scale," is not borne out by
the best known of such quick-action dynamites, viz., Mowbray's
" Mica Powder." No. i grade of this powder, containing only 52 per
cent of nitroglycerine, gave a force of 102 as compared with 100 for
pure nitroglycerine.
A suggestion has indeed been made which, as I understand it, is
diametrically opposed to that offered by General Abbot. It occurs
in a work entitled " Service Chemistry " (London : Whittingham,
1889), by Vivian B. Lewes, Professor of Chemistry at the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich. At page 283 of this book is the follow-
ing passage :
" The increase in explosive force gained by the rigidity of form in
these mixtures is shown by the following table, in which the work
done by equal weights of these explosives is compared with nitro-
glycerin :
Work done in a
horizontal direction Percentage
compared with of
Name of Explosive. nitro-glycerin= 100. nitro-glycerin.
Blasting gelatine 144 89
Hercules powder No. i 130 42
Dynamite No. 1 123 75
Rendrock 117 60
Hercules powder No. 2 102 42
Dynamite No. 2 102 36
Mica powder No. i 102 52
Vulcan powder No. 2 loi 35
Nitro-glycerin 100 100
Vulcan powder No. i 96 30
Electric powder No. 1 85 33
Electric powder No. 2 76 28
Mica powder No. 2 76 40
Here Professor Lewes suggests that the function of the silica in
dynamite No. i is to accelerate rather than to retard the develop-
ment of explosive force. This, at least, is what I read his words to
mean, for I suppose the expression "increase in explosive force" is
merely a lapsus calami.
Yet, after all, the problem is not really so insoluble as it has
hitherto appeared to be. If a Ballistic Theory of Explosives be
adopted, the difficulty vanishes.
Let us first consider what takes place in the explosion of nitro-
glycerine. This substance is a liquid having a specific gravity of
1.6; and 1000 grams, therefore, occupy a space of — ^ litre. The 1000
358 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
grams are made up of 158.6 grams of carbon, 22 grams of hydrogen,
185. 1 grams nitrogen, and 634.3 grams of oxygen. The explosion
of nitroglycerine simply means that its oxygen unites with its car-
bon, hydrogen, and part of the nitrogen to form carbonic anhydride,
water vapor and nitric oxide, while the remainder of the nitrogen
assumes a free state. These products being gaseous, occupy a very
much larger space than the original liquid, and are still further ex-
panded by the heat evolved by their formation. The total volume
of the gases calculated as at 0° centigrade and at atmospheric pressure
(760 mm. of mercury) is 712.5 litres. The total amount of heat
evolved (after deducting the heat absorbed by the breaking-up of the
nitroglycerine) is 1,451,877 units; and this is sufficient to raise the
temperature of the gases by 6908° C. If the gases were free to
expand, this increment of temperature would cause them to occupy
a space of f i -I- -^ — j X 712.5 = 18738.7 litres. But if the nitro-
glycerine be confined in a shell, for example, then 18738.7 litres
would be compressed within the space of — ^ litres, and therefore
would press upon the walls of the shell with a force equal to 18738.7 X
— ^ = 29981.9 atmospheres, or 196.76 tons per square inch.
Let us next consider what is meant by the pressure of a gas upon
the walls of its containing vessel. It is a mechanical force tending
to thrust the walls outwards ; and, if the kinetic theory of gases be
true, it represents the aggregate of the impacts of the gaseous mole-
cules against the walls. Hence gaseous pressure is directly propor-
tional to the vis vivd of the mean molecular movements.
But the vis vivd or " energy " of moving bodies is composed of
two factors, mass and velocity ; and, therefore, the determination of
gaseous pressure alone will still leave us in the dark as to the
character of the blows by which it is produced. It tells us nothing
as to whether the walls of the containing vessel have to withstand
the shock of heavy molecules moving with comparative slowness, or
light molecules moving at relatively high velocities. Yet this is a
matter of importance. Every artillerist is familiar with the different
effects produced by "racking" and "penetrating" blows of equal
kinetic energy. The proverbial schoolboy knows that a tallow
candle fired from a gun will dart through a deal board, whereas, if
placed on the cow-catcher of a locomotive and so moved forward
slowly, it will simply be crushed up against the board. Essentially
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 359
the same order of effects must occur whether we deal with cannon-
balls or molecules. From the physical, non-chemical point of view,
all matter is the same — it is a something that gravitates. Even a
chemist may hold that the only absolute distinction between one
elementary molecule and another is that of allotropy ; that matter
probably consists of ultimate gravity- atoms, alike in substance and
energy ; and that the greater or less number of these atoms grouped
in a molecule effects a corresponding variation of the velocity-factor
of the molecular energy, and so produces difTerences of behavior as
regards light, heat, electricity and other forces. But, be this as it
may, we know that the ballistic behavior of a cannon-ball is depend-
ent upon the mass of the projectile, and not upon whether it is made
of gold or lead ; and it is reasonable to infer the same thing of the
ballistic behavior of molecular masses. The character of the blow,
as regards the effect produced upon the body struck, must be different
in the cases of two projectiles, one of which (say a molecule of car-
bonic anhydride) weighs 22 times as much as the other (say a
molecule of hydrogen), even though the energies of the two blows
be equal. Or, to put another case, the effect of a blow struck by
four projectiles must differ from that of a blow struck by three pro-
jectiles, notwithstanding that the latter group may be moving at so
greatly increased a velocity as to make its total energy equal to that
of the former.
Hence, from the ballistic point of view, we must consider the
29981.9 atmospheres of pressure produced by the nitroglycerine
gases as consisting of two factors, viz., the mass-factor, which may be
taken as 1000, and the velocity-factor, which is 29.9819.
Turning now to the case of dynamite No. i, we find that 1000
grams contain 118.9 grams of carbon, 16.5 grams of hydrogen,
138.7 grams of nitrogen, 475.9 grams of oxygen, and 250 grams of
silica. When explosion takes place, the resulting products consist of
534.5 litres of gas (computed at o" C. and 760 mm.) and 250 grams
of silica ; and the heat evolved (after deducting what is required for
breaking up the 750 grams of nitroglycerine) amounts to 1,088,284
calories. This is sufficient to raise the temperature of the gases and
silica by 5274° C. ; and if free to expand under atmospheric pres-
sure, the heated gases would occupy 1086 1 litres, and the silica would
be expanded 20.05 cubic centimetres in excess of its original volume.
But if the explosion took place in a close vessel, the space available
for the gases would be ~ X - — .02005 = .4487 litre, and the pres-
i.b 4
360 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
sure would, therefore, be ^^-— ^= 24205.5, or 158.8 tons per square
,44«7
inch. The mass-factor of this pressure is 750 (as the dynamite gases
have but .75 of the weight of the gases produced by 1000 grams
of nitroglycerine), and the velocity-factor is "^ = 32.27.
Furthermore, as the molecules in the gases from 1000 grams of
nitroglycerine outnumber those in the gases from an equal weight of
dynamite No. i in the proportion of 4 : 3, it follows that the intensity
of the blow struck by a molecule of the former may be represented
by the expression ^^^ ^'^ = 7495.4, while the intensity of the blow
struck by a molecule of the latter is — — ^ = 8068.5. The ratio of
these intensities ^^ = .929, which is the same as that given by the
oOOo
ratio of the velocity-factors, viz., . And the product of the
32.27 ^
two ratios is .929 X .929 = .863. This value agrees fairly well with
that observed in the course of General Abbot's experiments, if allow-
ance be made for the approximate character of the constants employed
in the calculations and for the want of instantaneity in the explosives.
If, as is probably the case, the detonation of a primer imbedded in
dynamite No. i produces a more intense initial shock than when im-
bedded in nitroglycerine, the ballistic ratio of nitroglycerine to
dynamite will be lowered. On the other hand, a departure of the
containing envelop from absolute rigidity, or any appreciable solu-
tion of continuity in such envelop, will have a tendency to increase
the ballistic ratio.
The theory here advanced not only offers a solution of what I will,
by way of due consideration for the distinguished officer who first
observed it, call the Abbot effect, but it is, I believe, applicable to all
cases of explosion and explosion-stress. For example, in Lieutenant
Walke's recent experiments, dynamite No. i was found to develop
an order of strength of 81.31 as compared with 100 for nitroglycer-
ine. This sample of dynamite contained - — parts of nitroglycer-
ine made according to the U. S. Naval Torpedo Station process, and
tested immediately on completion ; and the nitroglycerine in question
was found to develop an order of strength of 92.37 as compared with
the standard article, which, while made according to the same process.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 36 1
had been kept for more than six weeks under distilled water in a
loosely-corked glass jar. The real strength of the dynamite was,
therefore, ^ — X 92.37 = 68.09 pei" cent, of the standard nitro-
glycerine. Yet the "order of strength" it developed was 81.31.
The Abbot effect was thus — '~^ — = 19.42 per cent. ; whereas
68.09 ^ t i-
the original Abbot effect was ^ = 64.61 per cent. In
^ .75 X 81 ^ K
both cases the ballistic ratio of nitroglycerine to dynamite No. i is
100
considerably less than the normal value of = 1.33, being,
respectively, .81 observed by Abbot and 1.23 observed by Walke ;
but these ratios are in themselves widely divergent. The explanation
of their divergency is to be found in the conditions of the experi-
ments. In the Abbot tests the explosives were encased in water,
extending to a vast thickness in a horizontal direction and for many
feet upward and downward. In the Walke tests the explosives
rested in a hollow on the upper surface of a steel piston supported
by a small lead cylinder, and were covered by a steel plug free to
fly upward in the air. Thus, in the Abbot apparatus, the containing
vessel was an almost incompressible and completely continuous wall,
while in the Quinan apparatus, used by Walke, it was composed of
two disconnected moieties of steel, held in place by a highly elastic
atmosphere, gravity, inertia, and, on one side, the resistance of a
piece of lead. This diflerence of envelop is fully sufficient to
account for the difference observed in the Abbot effect.
§2.
The Ballistic Theory of Explosion-Stress.
If we proceed from the consideration of the explosives and the
ballistic behavior of the gases they produce, to a study of the
effects of the molecular impacts upon the crusher-gauges, gun-walls,
or other targets, we shall find the ballistic theory still holding good,
and of service in the solution of many practical problems.
In a paper read by Mr. Fairbairn before the Institute of Naval
Architects, in London, on March 26, 1863, an account was given of
various experiments to determine the best shape of projectiles for
armor-penetration. Among those experiments was a series showing
362 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
the respective effects produced by flat and round-ended punches
when employed in the perforation of iron plates. The conclusion
arrived at was thus stated by Mr. Fairbairn :
" These figures show that the statical resistance to punching is
about the same whether the punch be flat-ended or round-ended, the
mean being in the ratio of 1000 : 1085, or Z\ per cent, greater in the
round-ended punch. It is, however, widely different when we con-
sider the depth of indentation of the flat-ended punch and compare
it with that produced by the round-ended one, which is 3^ times
greater. Hence we derive this remarkable conclusion, that while
the statical resistance of plates to punching is nearly the same what-
ever may be the form of the punch, yet the dynamic resistance or
work done in punching is twice as great with a round-ended punch
as with a flat-ended one."
In 1880 General H. L. Abbot, in his report, before referred to,
published some remarkable observations showing the influence of
time as a factor in the action of mechanical pressures or impacts upon
crusher-gauges. In some instances he found that the amount of
pressure indicated by the shortening of a lead cylinder under a
piston urged forward by a sudden blow was more than twice as great
as that indicated by the same shortening effected under slow pressure
in a testing machine.
In 1882 the Comptes Rendus des Seances de I'Academie des
Sciences contained a memoir, by MM. Sarrau and Vieille, on the
theory of crusher-gauges, in which the same view as that already
propounded by General Abbot was adopted and still further devel-
oped. In this memoir it is demonstrated that when a very rapid
pressure takes place, the shortening of the gauge becomes twice as
great in proportion to the actual force exerted as in the case of a
comparatively slow pressure ; and the governing feature of the action
is shown to be the ratio that exists in any particular case between
the total duration of the pressure from zero to a maximum ( 7"), and
its duration while at a maximum ( T^.
Now, in the case of a flat-ended punch, it is obvious that the resist-
ance experienced is constant and a maximum as compared with that
experienced by a round-ended one. And General Abbot's system
of crushing by impact was equivalent to the limiting case formulated
by Sarrau and Vieille, in which the displacement of the piston during
the development of the pressure to its maximum value may be
neglected, and in which, accordingly, the indication of the gauge is
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 363
in excess. Hence the three series of observations I have quoted
are intimately connected together and are concerned with one and
the same physical phenomenon, namely, that the opposition offered
by solid bodies to change of molecular structure is analogous to the
energy of gaseous bodies, and may be divided into a resistance-factor
and a time-factor which correspond respectively to the mass-factor
and velocity-factor discussed in the previous section of this paper.
The generalization here suggested seems to me to be of great
practical importance in the present state of the military art as regards
explosives. It shows that there is no essential difference between
the various classes of explosives, and that the regulation of the
mechanical effect to be produced by an explosion may be attained
by a modification in the conditions of application equally as well as
by a change in the explosive employed. It shows that there is no
real distinction between "explosion" and "detonation," or between
kinetic " pressure " and "shock"; and that the relations that exist
between the walls of a gun and the powder-gases within are the same
in character as those between the shot and the armor-plate.
As a practical illustration of my meaning I may refer to the expe-
riments of MM. Sarrau and Vieille with dynamite. These gentlemen
found that by simply varying the weight of the crusher-piston they
could at will produce either of the two limiting cases of pressure ;
T
that is to say, they could give an appreciable value to the ratio t^^ ,
or they could render it negligible. The dynamite was employed
under conditions of uniform gravimetric density (.30) and was ex-
ploded by uniform means. Hence there was no question of any
difference in the " explosive wave," or, to use the more generally
adopted expression, in the "order of explosion"; and yet a slight
change in the object on which the explosive force was exerted
sufficed to shift the effect produced from a " detonating " to an
"exploding" class.
Again, in the British Association's Report, in 1863, on gun-cotton,
it is stated as follows : " There is yet another peculiar feature of
gun-cotton ; it can be exploded in any quantity instantaneously.
This was once considered its great fault ; but it was only a fault
when we were ignorant of the means to make that velocity anything
we pleased. General Von Lenk has discovered the means of giving
gun-cotton any velocity of explosion that is required, by merely
varying the mechanical arrangements under which it is used. Gun-
364 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
cotton, in his hands, has any speed of explosion, from i foot per
second to i foot in ywou of a second, or to instantaneity. The
instantaneous explosion of a large quantity of gun-cotton is made
use of when it is required to produce destructive effects on the sur-
rounding material. The slow combustion is made use of when it is
required to produce manageable power, as in the case of gunnery."
These statements were quite correct ; and although the use of
Lenk's gun-cotton for artillery was subsequently abandoned, this
arose from points connected with preservation and not from any
want of manageability. Moreover, the practical use of the Schultze,
E. C, and American wood powders and of Gelbite is an example of
the gun-cotton class of " high explosives " being also available for
" low explosive " work ; and the recent introduction of the Nobel,
Abel and Maxim smokeless powders shows that even nitroglycerine
may be brought under sufficient control for use as a propellant.
As a converse illustration I may mention the case of gunpowder
being detonated. The discovery of this is usually attributed to MM.
Roux and Sarrau ; but General Piobert, in his Cours d'Artillerie,
mentions the matter as having been demonstrated by General Pel-
letier in 1826. He says that Pelletier placed four pounds of gun-
powder on a light wooden table, which was placed upon soft earth,
and ignited it ; the result being a mild explosion and a slight depres-
sion of the table. But when the experiment was varied by placing a
sheet of paper over the powder, the table was shattered to atoms.
Here is a distinct statement of a detonation-effect being produced ;
and though Pelletier's account is so worded as to imply that the
ignition was the same in both cases, it may have been that in the
second experiment the powder was fired in a manner differing from
simple ignition. At any rate, I myself failed to obtain the same
results as Pelletier when simply igniting a heap of loose gunpowder
placed on a shingle and covered with a sheet of paper ; but when I
fired a similar heap of loose gunpowder with a detonator the shingle
was broken to pieces, both with and without a paper covering to the
powder. And as a similar detonator by itself merely dashed a small
hole through the shingle, my experiment certainly proved that even
loose powder may be caused to explode with greater rapidity than
when simply ignited.
I have also measured the difference of the explosive effects here
alluded to by employing an apparatus which I term a " vimmette."
This instrument consists, first, of a thick wrought-iron bed-plate,
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 365
bolted down to a timber foundation inclined at any desired angle to
the horizon ; secondly, of a cylindrical steel stud screwed at one end
into the center of the bed-plate, and projecting therefrom at a right
angle ; and, thirdly, of a massive steel thimble which fits closely on
the stud. The bore of the thimble terminates in a hemispherical cavity
ofshghtly reduced diameter, so that an internal shoulder is formed,
which rests on the flat top of the stud when the thimble is in place for
firing. The stud is grooved on one side to admit a fuse for firing the
charge in the hemispherical cavity of the thimble. The thimble of the
vimmette I use in my test weighs 66J pounds, and when the stud is
inclined at 80° to the horizon, a charge of 6 grams of gunpowder, if
simply ignited, throws the thimble to a horizontal distance of 5 feet 7
inches from the stud; whereas, when the same amount of gunpowder is
fired by means of a detonator containing 9 grains of mercuric fulmi-
nate, a range of 1 1 feet 7 inches is obtained. The detonator by itself
just lifts the thimble about 2 inches without throwing it off^ the stud.
Here, then, we again perceive the Abbot effect. We have equal
quantities of the same explosive fired under equal conditions of
gravimetric density. Equal volumes of gas and equal quantities of
heat must therefore be produced ; and as the resistance-factor of the
gauge remains unaltered, it would seem that the work done upon the
gauge should be the same. Yet in one case the thimble is moved
with much greater energy than in the other. The explanation, of
course, is that when a detonator is employed the powder explodes
very quickly, and generates its entire volume of gas before the pro- '
jectile begins to move. Hence the thimble is urged forward by the
expansion of the whole of the gases during its whole travel on the stud.
When, however, the powder is simply ignited, the thimble is already
in motion before the whole of the powder-gases are at work : and
thus the aggregate pressure during the entire travel is much less
than in the former case, seeing that the velocity with which the gas-
molecules strike the forward end of the thimble cavity is the differ-
ence between their proper velocity and the rate of movement of the
thimble.
I have thought it worth while to dwell somewhat upon this matter,
because in no less an authority than the Treatise on the Manufacture
of Guns and Text-book of Service Ordnance, published by the
British Government in 1886, the following statement occurs (page 26) :
''Gun Construction. — In the first place, it is necessary to under-
stand the nature and intensity of the forces which act upon a gun
366 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
when fired with a heavy charge. The origin of stress is the rapid
generation of gas in a chamber of very limited size, compared with
the volume which the gas would occupy if unconfined. The evolu-
tion of gas is the work of a period of time, and its action upon the
inner surface of a gun has been proved to possess the nature of a
pressure and not that of an impulse. Instruments have been devised
for measuring this pressure in the bore, so we are able to investigate
the force according to the laws which govern the behavior of a gas."
The words pressure and imptdse are italicised in the original, and
it is evidently intended that some grave distinction shall be drawn
between them. Yet, if by "pressure " something other than stati-
cal pressure be meant — and such must certainly be the case — it is
impossible rightly to draw any such distinction. The pressure of a
gas is the general effect of the myriad individual impacts of its mole-
cules upon the walls of the containing vessel. If the gas be gene-
rated inside the vessel, it is inevitable that 2l first blow shall be struck
upon the inner surface ; and the severity of this blow will depend
upon the number, weight and velocity of the particles inflicting it.
And as the word " impulse " can only mean the effect produced by
impact, it follows that the action of a gas generated inside a vessel is,
correctly speakmg, always of an impiclsive character. If the major
portion of the exploding body take part (in the form of gaseous
products) in the first blow, a much greater shock is inflicted than in
the case of a smaller portion contributing to the salvo ; but, no
matter whether all or only some of the guns in the battery be fired
in the first instant, the action remains the same in character.
The same considerations must guide us as regards the body
receiving the blow ; that is to say, as regards the gun itself; and I
venture to think that the practice hitherto pursued, of estimating
firing strains from the point of view of statical pressures, must lead
to incomplete if not erroneous conclusions. A method more in
accordance with the facts of the case is the following :
Let the molecules composing the walls of a gun be represented as
arranged in concentric circles, shown in Fig. i.
When the gun is fired, the molecules of the explosion-gases
impinge against the inner circle of gun-molecules, and thus set up a
radial stress tending to force each gun-molecule outward. If move-
ment take place under this stress, the molecules A, B, C will assume
the positions A' , B' , C ; that is to say, they will be on the circum-
ference of a larger circle than before ; and although their angular
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
367
distance may remain the same, they will be separated from each
other by a g'reater circumferential distance. In addition, they will
be nearer io D, E, F than before.
G ff /
Now it is a law of molecular structure that the particles of any
body at rest are in a condition of equilibrium as regards their mean
distance from each other, and therefore the alteration of this distance,
whether by decrease or augmentation, requires the performance of
work. Accordingly, in the case of any single gun-molecule, B,
motion under the impact of the explosion-molecules is opposed by
two resisting forces, namely the repulsion that forbids approach to
D, E, F, and the attraction that forbids separation from A and C.
The mechanism of these forces is not as yet understood ; but it is
clear that they are modes of energy, and as such resolvable into
terms of mass and velocity. Thus the energy that resists compres-
sion may, with some degree of reason, be conceived of as analogous
to gaseous elasticity, and as dependent upon the mass and velocity
of the body's colliding molecules ; while the energy that resists
tension may be regarded as the expression of the mean impact of the
particles of the ether upon the body-molecules in one direction,
attended by an absence or diminution of such impact (owing to
inter-molecular eddies) in the opposite direction. That these views
are at least consistent with observed phenomena will appear as I
proceed with my argument.
In the case of the gun-molecules, any motion of B must obviously
be much greater in a radial than in a tangential direction. It follows,
368 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
therefore, that the work done in compression is greater than that in
tension, and that in a system composed of two rings of molecules, a
hard and comparatively brittle material is better than a tough and
comparatively soft one for withstanding the shock of internal explo-
sions.
When, however, we introduce the conception of a third ring, the
problem assumes a different aspect. The repulsion existing between
B and E may be regarded as a rod whereby if B be pushed out-
ward E moves with it. But a similar rod exists between E and H,
so that ^also has to move in accordance with B and E. If the rods
were absolutely rigid, the degree of motion produced in the system
B E Hhy the impact of an explosion-molecule would be a mere
question of the respective impelling and impelled masses and veloci-
ties. The rods, though, are not rigid ; they are elastic ; they cannot
transmit any force without first shortening and then lengthening.
This involves action in time as well as in space, and thus B and E
have for an instant to bear the full shock of the explosion-molecule
before the mass of //^can be effectively added to their own.
The limit to the movement of two molecules toward each other is
contact ; but there is no limit to a movement of separation. If, then,
B be forced outward into contact with E, the united rings would
thenceforward (in a system of two rings) offer but one kind of resist-
ance to the further movement of their particles, i. e. cohesion, or the
force that opposes tension. But this force is operative only at minute
distances (we may conceive inter-molecular eddies to disappear and
ether-pressure to become equal on every side when the molecular
interstices increase) and ceases to have any practical effect when
molecules move appreciably apart. Hence the united rings are
liable to complete and sudden disruption from the shock within.
In a compound system of rings the same results may be brought
about without any limitation of compression by contact. The radial
movement of B is shared by E and H, and therefore a shortening of
the distance between E and II\s attended by a double shortening of
the distance between B and H. Accordingly, the movement of B
in relation to H, and consequently also to A and C, is not neces-
sarily dependent upon its distance from E, and may assume any
magnitude if the number of rings in the system be sufficient; so that
a disruption of the inside ring may take place without any corre-
sponding injury to the outer circles. It follows from this that when
an elastic material is employed, no mere addition to the thickness of
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 369
the walls of a gun can possibly suffice to prevent the gun from
bursting.
Moreover, if the distance between B and E be such as in itself to
admit of a movement sufficiently great to remove B from the cohesion-
range of A and C, the inner ring may be ruptured without receiving
any succor from the third ring; for this latter can only lend its mass
and tenacity in opposition to some stress, and this stress can only be
transmitted by the second ring. If, then, the explosion-impact be so
sudden and powerful as to drive back B upon E in too short a time
to allow of the compression of the repulsion-rod between E and H^
the union of B with A and C will cease before the movement of B is
arrested by the resistance of H. And yet the actual energy of the
impact may be quite insufficient to overcome the united resistance of
the ABC cohesions and the B E and E 77 repulsions.
Analogous conclusions may be deduced in the case of plane sur-
faces exposed to pressure. A sufficiently quick pressure, such as a
blow, will force back the outer layer of molecules upon the next
layer to a greater extent than would be the case if further layers had
time to be brought into the resisting combination. And this com-
pression may exceed the elastic limit, and may produce permanent
deformation. Here, then, after pursuing an entirely independent
course of reasoning, we find ourselves once more in face of the physi-
cal fact remarked upon by Fairbairn, Abbot, and Sarrau and Vieille,
namely, that change of molecular arrangement is not, of itself, a
measure of the working force. A crusher-gauge may occasionally
be compressed to a certain extent by one-half the force required at
other times to produce the same degree of shortening, and in like
manner a gun may be burst by a pressure well within that which it is
capable of withstanding under diffisrent conditions of application.
Conversely, we may be very far from the truth in deciding that such
and such a pressure has been exerted merely because a gauge indi-
cated so and so, or because a gun of certain dimensions and material
was burst.
I may further remark that, as regards the usual method of investi-
gating explosion-stress in hollow cylinders, the fundamental formula
Strain = P^^^sure X radius
thickness
is rigorously true only in cases where the thickness is infinitesimal ;
while Barlow and Hart's derived formulae for the ratio between inner
and outer strains are based upon a comparison of the respective
370 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANXE MATERIAL.
annuli of expansion, and are therefore only applicable to cases in
which such expansion has taken place. In both the fundamental and
derived stages of the calculation a condition of equilibrium is
assumed; that is to say, an equation is established between the strain
and the resistance. But, as I have already shown, the action of an
explosive does not commence with an equilibrium. The strain is, in
most cases, a progressive one, and the resistance is always a variable
quantity. Equilibrium, therefore, can be attained only when the strain
has reached its maximum, and when the resistance has become equal
to this maximum. This is not only true of the dynamic strain repre-
sented by the radial impact of each explosion-molecule, but it also
applies to the resultant tangential strain on the whole inner surface
of the ring, represented at any point by pressure X radius. Hence,
explosive stress should, properly, be regarded as divided into the
following three stages, viz. :
I St stage. — Each internal gun-molecule is pushed back in opposi-
tion to the repulsion of the adjacent molecules in the next ring and
to the attraction exerted by the adjacent molecules in its own ring.
2d stage. — The stress is transmitted to the molecules lying imme-
diately beyond those next adjacent, and so on to others in succession,
until the whole mass represented by the thickness of the gun is
affected.
3d stage. — The total resistance called into action by the trans-
mission of the stress becomes equal to the pressure from the explo-
sive, and static equilibrium results.
The mathematical expressions now employed in solving problems
connected with gun-construction apply only to the third of the above-
mentioned stages ; and it is to be desired that analogous formulae
should be deduced for the first and second stages. But experimental
data are lacking. We know what amount of statical compression
and tension can be borne by various materials ; and in some measure
the molecular range of movement has been determined. What is
still required is to ascertain, if possible, the law of resistance to
dynamic stress and of the velocity of transmission of such stress.
Meantime it is possible, by geometrical and physical analysis, to
make some approximation to the desired formulae. As an illustra-
tion the following will perhaps suffice :
In any isosceles triangle, ABC, (Fig. 2.) extend the equal sides
to D and E and join DE. Draw BE and CG at right angles to
BC, and bisect the triangle ^^Cby the line AH.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
The triangles AHC and CGE are similar :
.'.AC: CH:.CE:EG
and AC'.2CH:.CE:2EG.
But 2CH=BC
and . 2EG = EG + DP.
■ ' .■.AC:BC..CE:EG+ BE.
371
Now, as CE is the increase of the radius ACa.nd as EG + I?E
is the increment of the chord of the angle BA C, it follows that the
distance between two molecules, B and C, on the circumference of a
circle will, when they occupy the same angular position on a larger
circle, increase in the same proportion to the increase of radius that
their original distance bore to the original radius. And as the
original distance ^C is immeasurably small, it follows that, for any
measurable radius and any measurable increase thereof, the force
■employed to enlarge the circle must be mainly absorbed in com-
pression and makes but a slight demand upon the tension-resisting
power of the metal.
AC
If we represent the constant ratio ^^ by A', the value of EG + DF
CE
will be -jjr, and for any increment dR (=/) of the original radius
R, the resolution of the pressure, />, into tension (0 and compres-
sion {c) will be
/-A
K
But the value of K is immeasurably large. Hence c is approxi-
mately equal to p ; and if molecular cohesion (J. e., the power of
resistance to /) were uniform at all distances, it would follow that a
ring of any sensible tenacity could never be suddenly burst by any
internal gaseous pressure, however great. As a matter of observa-
tion we know that rings can be thus broken ; and therefore we have
372 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
a proof that cohesive force not only decreases in some proportion to
the inter-molecular distance, but practically becomes nil within some
finite space, and so yields to the immeasurably small strain /.*
I have spoken of a ring that is suddenly burst, because it is neces-
sary to draw a distinction between the case of a ring that gives way
at some point or points of least resistance, and that of a yielding at
points of high and low resistance simultaneously ; the distinction, in
fact, between a gun " bursting " and a gun " bursting explosively "
upon which Sir William Armstrong laid such stress in his evidence
before the Select Committee on Ordnance in 1863.
The theoretical view I am here advocating is quite in harmony
with the modern system of ordnance-construction by hooping, or in
other ways (as, for example, by wire-winding) providing for a con-
dition of permanent initial strain in the walls of a gun.
Let us suppose that in the inner circle of the diagram before given
the molecules ABC are at less than their normal distance from each
other. Let us also suppose that the first and second rings are in like
manner closer together, and that DBF are further apart than when
in normal positions. The whole system is now in a state of unstable
equilibrium, and thus is weaker than before. The inner ring no longer
opposes any resistance to circumferential enlargement; the second ring
can be torn asunder by less force than before; and the repulsion-rods
between the first and second rings are already shortened. And yet
this weaker system is better adapted than before to sustain internal
impact. The range of B's movement toward B is less, and thus the
time required for transmitting pressure through E \.o His shortened ;
while, on the other hand, the range of movement within cohesion-
limits between B and A and C is increased, and thus the time for
developing danger-tension is lengthened. The enemy is further
away and the ally is nearer.
The protection thus given ceases to exist if the unstable equilibrium
of the gun-molecules should become changed into a condition of
stable equilibrium. And as the tendency of all molecular structures
is toward stable equilibrium, any sudden changes of internal strain,
or, in other words, any opportunities of movement are availed of to
alter the positions of the molecules from an abnormal arrangement.
*The argument here set forth finds an interesting illustration in the Brown
Segmental Gun now being made £or the Board of Ordnance and Fortification —
the internal compression-transmitting tube being built up of staves, and thus
having no tension-resisting power whatever.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 373
This probably is the explanation of the comparatively short lives of
the larger built-up guns. At the outset the walls are in a more or
less perfect condition of internal strain. Each shot that is fired vio-
lently disarranges the molecular arrangement of each ring of molecules
in succession, and the ring never reassumes its exact antecedent
condition. After a certain number of these shocks stable equilibrium
supervenes, and the gun no longer has the power of giving the calcu-
lated support to the innermost ring. The drooping of the muzzles
of long guns is another instance of the same phenomenon.
It may, at first sight, appear that I am but restating, though in dif-
ferent words, the generally accepted explanation of the hoop system,
and that the ballistic theory is practically the same as the statical
views set forth in all the text-books. In reality there is no such
correspondence. And the practice of modern gunnery bears strong
testimony to the value of the dynamic element on which I am insist-
ing. The artillerist who calculates the thickness and shrinkage of
his hoop upon data derived solely from the consideration of statical
pressures takes good care not to use a "quick powder," even in
quantities only theoretically sufficient to produce the very pressure
for which his gun is designed. And the ordinary statical-equilibrium
view entirely fails to elucidate three most important questions in the
consideration of explosive effects, namely, the occurrence of varying
local pressures, the diversion of pressure, and the disintegrating or
shattering action of explosion-gases.
The conception of gaseous pressure, adopted in ordinary gunnery
calculations, is that of a force exerted equally in all directions. It
corresponds, therefore, with a condition of dynamic equilibrium
within the gas, in addition to a condition of static equilibrium as
between the gas and its containing envelop. But the dynamic
equilibrium of a gas implies an equal diffusion of temperature
throughout its whole volume, a uniform diffusion of its molecules,
and an equal mean molecular velocity at all points. It is, however,
obvious that these conditions do not, nay, they cannot, obtain at the
first instant of an explosive substance flashing into gas, or until the
various stages of resolution, compounding, dissociation and reunion
shall have been gone through. Here, too, three stages of action may
be recognized ; and the equilibrium theory is concerned with the third
alone. This would be all very well if the first two stages were, for
practical purposes, negligible ; but they are not so. Every artil-
lerist is familiar with the occurrence of what, for want of a complete
374 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
theory, are shelved under the convenient name of "abnormal pres-
sures," and one of the highest authorities in such matters, viz.
Berthelot, has drawn attention to the point in words that are well
worth quotation. They occur at the conclusion of his description of
the measurement of explosive force by means of crusher-gauges
{Sur la Force des Matieres Explosives, 3d ed., pp. 52-53), and are
as follows :
" It is proper to remark here that the measurements thus obtained
correspond solely to certain tnean pressures which are susceptible of
being notably exceeded at various points. In fact, the gases sud-
denly developed by the chemical reactions represent actual whirl-
winds in which there exist strata of matter in greatly differing states
of compression and an interior fluctuation. This is shown by the
mechanical effects produced by these gases upon solid matter, and
especially upon metals, which are found indented and grooved in
many places as though they had been impressed by the contact of
an extremely hard solid body.
" The measurement of initial pressures in firearms in like manner
shows local irregularities and differences, which are frequently enor-
mous, between pressures observed simultaneously at various points
of the chamber in which the combustion of the powder takes place.
" The pressure, therefore, is not uniform, and may vary in an
almost discontinuous manner as well as the first movement of impulse
communicated to the projectile."
The phenomenon here adverted to may be observed in a striking
manner by means of what I term the mushroom test. Some lead is
cast in the form of a mushroom or the segment of a sphere, and is
suspended in the air with its flat surface downward. The explosive
to be tested is packed in a small cylindrical cartridge-case of paraf-
fined paper, and is primed with an ordinary dynamite " cap " or
detonator and fuse. The cartridge is tied to the mushroom in such
a manner that its flat end rests firmly against the flat base of the
mushroom. The apparatus when ready for firing is shown by the
accompanying plate (I), which has been prepared from a photo-
graph taken by my son, Mr. Newton W. Emmens, on the occasion
of some recent tests of emmensite at the works of the Emmensite
Explosives, Guns and Ammunition Company, near New Stanton,
Westmoreland Co., Pa. The cloth shown in the photograph was
employed merely for the purpose of catching the mushroom when
projected upward by the explosion.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 3.
PLATE IL— LEAD MUSHROOM— EASE.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 375
Plate II is a reproduction of a photograph of the base of a lead
mushroom under which a charge of 25 grams of emmensite No. 3
was exploded. The mushroom measured 2I inches in diameter, was
I inch thick in the centre, and weighed 20 ounces. The cartridge
was cylindrical and was li inches in diameter. When exploded it
produced an indentation of approximately circular area, having a
diameter of if inches and a depth of -|| inch. The character of the
indentation is well shown by the photograph. The metal is seamed
and scarred and pitted and scored in such a manner as to utterly
confute any assertion of uniformity of pressure ; and its appearance
graphically illustrates Berthelot's description above quoted. Nor
could a better exemplification of ballistic effect be desired. The
gaseous molecules are shown to have struck the lead as a veritable
charge of small shot.
A significant feature of the experiment is the fact of its having
taken place in the open air. The whirlwinds and varying strata of
pressure spoken of by Berthelot, and the abnormal pressures of artil-
lerists, may conceivably be referred to the influence of the walls of
the explosion-chamber ; but this explanation does not apply to the
case of an explosion in the open air. Ballistic action then becomes
the only efficient cause of the effects observed. Nor is it the case
that the peculiar effects in question are noticed only when the
explosive is in close proximity to the body struck. The following
instances will show that ballistic action may be manifested at con-
siderable distances :
In the fall of last year Mr. N. W. Emmens was engaged with some
men in removing tree-stumps by blasting with emmensite. One
of the stumps to be removed was nearly a complete tree, and on
a charge of emmensite being exploded in the ground beneath it
the trunk was simply split for several feet upward instead of being
blown out. To complete the split an auger was used for the purpose
of boring a hole for the insertion of a cartridge in the split about a
foot from the ground. The stem of this auger gave way and the
handle was twisted off, leaving the tool jammed fast in the split. To
extricate it a cartridge of emmensite was placed in the wide part of
the split, at about the ground level, and was exploded. After the
explosion the auger was found still sticking in the split, but about
18 inches higher up and with the stem end imbedded instead of the
bit end! It must therefore have been struck a severe blow on the
projecting portion just as the split widened to allow freedom of
movement to the bit end.
3/6 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Again, in April, 1889, the factory of the Emmensite Company,
then at Harrison, N. Y., was destroyed by fire and explosion. The
substances that exploded consisted of about 900 pounds of picric
paste in one building, and about 70 pounds of dynamite No. i and
90 pounds of nitroglycerine absorbed by magnesium carbonate in
another. The building that held the picric paste was built upon
solid gneiss rock, and after the explosion was represented by a crater
some 30 feet across and 10 feet deep — a fact that will give some idea
of the severity of the explosion. In the building, upon a shelf about
9 feet away from the cask of picric paste, was an electro-magnet con-
sisting of a stoppered iron tube 2 inches in diameter and 24 inches
long and wrapped with wire ; its weight being some 20 pounds.
After the explosion this magnet was found nearly half a mile away
on the other side of a hill. For such a fact as this, no " pressure "
theory can possibly account.
The same explosion contributed many other facts of similar sig-
nificance. For example, when the conflagration was in progress I
was sitting in my wheel-chair in the open air, having the building
containing the picric paste in my front at a distance of about 40 feet,
and, on my left, at about 10 feet, the house where the dynamite and
nitroglycerine were stored. When the explosion took place I was,
of course, thrown to the ground, but instead of being, equally " of
course," killed outright, I was comparatively uninjured. I found,
however, that half of my watch-chain had been blown away !
My papers and books were all burnt and have not yet been com-
pletely duplicated. I must, therefore, trust to my memory when I
say that in the enquiry instituted by the British Government into the
circumstances attending the great gun-cotton explosion at Stow-
market, it was found that a man standing in a field half a mile away
from the magazine that exploded was stripped stark naked by the
explosion but was personally uninjured.
I could go on multiplying instances from my own experience and
that of other " explosive-fiends "; but I am perhaps beating the air
in a double sense. The Chinese must go. The equilibrists must
restrict themselves to the tight-rope of the case of very slow-burning
gunpowder in long-chased ordnance. Pressures and crusher-gauges
and nicely adjusted hoop-tensions may there find place and utility ;
but if combinations of gun-cotton and nitroglycerine are to be the
" smokeless powders " of the future, it is high time that the theory of
explosion-stress should be studied from other points of view.
PROCEEDINGS U, S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 3.
PLATE lll.-LEAD MUSHROOM-SIDE VIEW.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 3//
Turning, now, to the question of the diversion of pressure or shock,
we find another and perhaps still more important case of the inade-
quacy of the equilibrium doctrines. General Abbot demonstrated
long ago, in his torpedo experiments, that an explosive could be made
to exert a greater effect in one direction than in another, by providing
an artificial line of least resistance. Captain Penrice, the inventor of
the " Stone-devil," as the workmen at Hawks, Crawshay & Co.,
Gateshead-on-Tyne, where I learned engineering, used to call the
tunnelling machine which the Emperor Napoleon III. wished to use
in undermining the fortifications of Sebastopol, and which afterwards
perforated the Spezia tunnel, — Captain Penrice, I say, has devised a
blasting-cartridge holder, consisting of a hollow steel cylinder closed
at both ends, and cut away on one side for the purpose of transmitting
the main shock of the explosion in any desired direction. And the
familiar spectacle of a ball being upheld in the air by a jet of water is a
striking illustration of the same principle ; for, as a similar effect may
be obtained by using a jet of steam or air, it becomes obvious that any
reasoning based upon the transmission of pressure by a liquid or gas
at rest does not necessarily apply to the same body when in motion.
Yet, in the case of a cannon-ball driven along the bore of a gun by
the impact of a column of gas, it is usually supposed that the pressure
exerted on the base of the shot is the same as that sustained by
the walls of the gun. The fallacy of this view becomes obvious if
we consider that the column of gas is, to some extent, a stream of
minute projectiles darting onward with a common movement of
translation, instead of darting hither and thither in every direction,
as in an ordinary vessel filled with gas.
Very simple and oftentimes apparently insignificant means suffice
for guiding the path of the explosion-gases. Plate IV reproduces
a photograph of the top of the lead mushroom already referred to. It
shows the line of the shock to which the lead was subjected. The
divergence from a central direction in this particular case was slight ;
but it often happens that the exfoliation is produced much to one side
of the central line. This phenomenon was for some time perplexing ;
but at length my son discovered that he could produce it at pleasure
and in any desired direction. The paraffined paper shell of the charge
is folded down at the end in the ordinary way ; that is to say, there
is a triangular space covered with only one thickness of paper, while
the rest of the end is covered with three thicknesses — the final flap,
which would increase the covering of part of the end to seven thick-
378 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
nesses, being cut away to allow of the cartridge resting flat and close
against the mushroom. This cutting away leaves an unprotected
space on one side of the centre of the cartridge, and the exfoliation
of the external surface of the mushroom will always be found on the
same side. The slight extra ctishioning provided by the one and two
layers of paraffined paper suffices to protect the lead and to divert
the main shock into another direction.
I have applied this principle in the construction of cartridges
for utilizing high explosives as propelling agents in firearms and
ordnance. The device consists essentially in lining the cartridge
with some elastic material — preferably soft wood. This lining protects
the metal of the gun against a disintegrating shock ; and by its superior
resilience enables the gaseous molecules to retain their energy in the
form of mechanical motion, and to more or less gradually join the
onflowing current along the bore of the gun. After firing, the wood
is usually found compressed to about one-half of its original thick-
ness, and rendered proportionately harder. In cartridges of this kind
emmensite and other high explosives may be fired with security and
efficiency, and make excellent "smokeless powders." The risk
arising from abnormal pressures is reduced to a minimum ; the space
occupied by the lining is more than compensated for by the diminished
volume of the charge; the heating of the gun is lessened, and the
scoring of the bore may be said to no longer take place. And, what
is perhaps still more important, the life of the gun will assuredly be
lengthened by the suppression of molecular shock, and the decreased
disturbance of the normally strained hoop structure.
I have already discussed this question of molecular shock, and
have pointed out how it may cause the inner portion of a gun to give
way without allowing the remainder to contribute any resistance.
But the question has another aspect of equal moment ; and as from
this point of view light is cast upon much fallacious equilibrium
doctrine, and especially upon the highly important and much miscon-
ceived subject of the exceptionally energetic action of mercuric fulmi-
nate, it is desirable to briefly deal with it before I conclude this theo-
retical section of my paper.
The usual explanation given of the shattering action of high
explosives is conveniently and effectively worded by Professor
Vivian B. Lewes (Service Chemistry, p. 281), as follows:
"The rapidity of detonation of nitroglycerin is very great, and
it is this which gives rise to the downward effects noticeable in all
nitroglycerin or dynamite explosions.
PROCEEDINGS U, S NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No 3.
PLATE iV.— LEAD MUSHROOM -TOP.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 379
"Six cubic inches of nitroglycerin, when exploded, would yield
about a cubic yard of gas, and would require, approximately, 4^^-5^th
of a second for conversion into the gaseous form. A square yard of
surface carries an atmospheric pressure of, roughly, nine tons, so
that the gaseous products would have to lift nine tons to the height
of one yard in ^Q^Qp th of a second, and the earth being rigid, is
broken up by the recoil from this enormous strain."
Will the Professor allow me to echo an equally distinguished
Dominie and to exclaim " Prodigious !"?
Before, however, I proceed to justify my admiration, I will quote
the reference to mercuric fulminate by two " eminent hands."
M. Berthelot, in his standard work before referred to, twice alludes
specifically to the explosive force of mercuric fulminate. At page 62
of Vol. I. he says: " For example, the density of fulminate of mer-
cury being equal to 4.42, this substance would develop a pressure of
about 27,000 kg. per square centimetre when detonating in a space
equal to its own volume ; a colossal figure and superior to that of all
the known explosives." At page 258 of Vol. II. he says: "At the
density of 4.43, that is to say, the fulminate detonating in a space
equal to its own volume, there would be [a pressure of] 28,750 kg.
according to the theoretical formula; or 27,470 according to the
crusher measurement ; values superior to those of all known explo-
sives It is the enormity of this pressure joined to its sudden
development which explains the action of fulminate of mercury as a
primer."
Professor Threlfall, in the article on Explosion in the new edition
of Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry (Vol. II., p. 535), writes:
" It will be evident that there is much difficulty in answering such
a question as ' what is the strongest explosive ?' — in fact, no answer
can be given unless the conditions of explosion are specified. We
may arrange explosives in the order of maximum pressures devel-
oped per unit mass in unit volume in a crusher-gauge, or we may
construct a table showing the pressures produced by unit masses in
their own volumes, or by equal volumes in their own volumes.
[Does the Professor really mean " equal volumes in their own
volumes"? Does he not rather mean "equal volumes in unit
volumes "?] For instance, in the case of fulminate of mercury with
an actual density of charge at the rate of 3 g. per cc, the crusher
indicates a pressure intensity of about 6000 kg. per sq. centim. for
unit density (the standard condition). For cotton-powder the figure
380 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
mounts to 10,000 kg. per sq. centim. If, however, we consider
equal masses of these substances exploding in a space just capable
of containing them, the mercuric fulminate (thanks to its specific
gravit}'' of 4.42) will produce the enormous pressure of 27,000 kg.
per sq. centim., while the number for the cotton-powder will be only
slightly increased. Now, detonators in practice consist of confined
charges in copper or tin tubes, and therefore it is clear at once why
fulminate of mercury is the detonator par excellence, even though
the energy expended per unit-mass is surpassed by other explosives.
The period of the attainment of the maximum pressure of detonating
substances, excepting nitroglycerin compounds, may be taken as
less than yirwoth of a second." At the end of the article Professor
Threlfall says : " The most powerful — i. <?. energy-liberating — explo-
sive per unit-volume is fulminate of mercury ; the most powerful per
unit-mass is blasting gelatine (92 per cent nitroglycerin and 8 per
cent nitrocellulose, the exact composition of this particular nitro-
cellulose not being stated)."
The statements here quoted represent the universal teachings of
the equilibrist school with regard to explosive shock, and may be
thus summarized :
1. High explosives shatter the surfaces on which they rest because
the weight of the atmosphere acts as a tamping.
2. Fulminate of mercury is the shatterer and shaker par excel-
lence, because {a) its pressure is so suddenly developed, and (Ji) the
amount of such pressure is greater, volume for volume, than any
other explosive.
The first of these statements may be at once disposed of by the
simple fact that the shattering effect of high explosives is noticeable
in a vacuum !
The second statement is also seen to be untenable if we consider
that, according to Threlfall, the speed of detonation of mercury ful-
minate is only one-fourth that of nitroglycerine, according to Lewes,
and that, consequently, sixty-four times the volume of nitroglycerine
(sp. gr. = 1.6) would explode in the same time compared with mer-
curic fulminate (sp. gr. = 4.2), thus developing a pressure of 64 X 1.6
= 102.4 against 4.2, even if the energies per unit-mass were equal;
but as the nitroglycerine mass-energy is greater, the superiority of the
blow struck in the same time will be greater than the ratio 102.4 • 4-2«
Moreover, if pressure per unit of surface be the efficient cause of
shock, it cannot matter whether this be produced by a volume of a
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 38 1
light explosive having high mass-energy and speed of detonation, or
by the same volume of a heavy explosive having low mass-energy
and detonation-speed. Area for area of surface attacked, the effects
produced will, according to the equilibrium theories, vary solely in
the ratio of the pressures.
And as regards the atmospheric-tamping hypothesis, it must be
remembered that so far from gases ta7nping each other they freely
diffzise into each other. The explosion gas does not find it neces-
sary to displace the atmosphere in order to have room for itself.
What really occurs is that the vast outrush of explosion molecules
entangle, as it were, and sweep away with them the atmospheric
molecules, but this sweeping away does not take place in opposition
to atmospheric pressure. It represents but a trifling amount of
work.
What, then, is the true explanation of the shattering action of high
explosives? — an action which has no tendency "downward," as sug-
gested by Professor Lewes and devoutly believed in by many an
engineer and contractor. At the Washington Navy Yard, in March,
1890, I showed an experiment in refutation of this popular error. I
suspended three iron plates in the air, two horizontally and one ver-
tically. I placed a cartridge of emmensite on the top of one of the
horizontal plates and tied a similar cartridge underneath the other.
A third cartridge was tied against the side of the vertical plate. On
explosion the three cartridges were found to have acted equally —
a hole being dashed through each plate; thus proving that the
explosive force acts with equal vigor in all directions.
The only hint at the real cause of the shattering action that I have
been able to find in the text-books occurs in Professor Threlfall's
article before quoted. At page 536 he says :
" It is a well-known fact that a small charge of fulminate of silver
fired on a card or thin sheet of glass will in general blow a hole
through the card or glass without doing other damage. The cause
of this phenomenon has been sought by several observers, the most
reasonable of whom appear to be Mach and Wentzel (Wiedemann's
Annalen [1885], 26, 628), who begin by showing that the same effect
can be observed in a vacuum. This leads them to measure the
velocity of escape of the gases formed during explosion, by ob-
serving their effect on hollow cups forming convenient portions of
a ballistic pendulum. The resulting velocity turns out to be between
3500 and 17,500 metres per second, with a probability that the lower
382 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
limit is the one most nearly approached. The authors argue that
the density of the gases evolved with this velocity must be very con-
siderable, and hence that the effect on an obstacle must be compara-
ble with the effect produced by the impact of a projectile. This
leads to the interesting question of what occurs when a soft body is
caused to penetrate a hard one in virtue of its high velocity, as when
a tallow candle or bit of soft wood is shot through a door."
Comparable with the effect produced by the impact of a projectile!
Have we not here the germ, at least, of the Ballistic Theory?
If the ballistics of mercuric fulminate be studied, a great difference
will be found as compared with the similar characteristics of other
explosives — a difference amply sufficient to explain its superior shat-
tering power.
Equal volumes of gases at equal temperatures and pressures have
equal numbers of molecules. The number of molecules in the gases
evolved by any explosive is therefore proportional to the volumes of
the gases. In the case of nitroglycerine the reduced volume of
gases from 1000 grams amounts to 712.5 litres; in the case of 1000
grams mercuric fulminate the volume is 314.8 litres. Accordingly,
there are 712.5 molecules of nitroglycerine products for every 314.8
molecules of fulminate products.
The total energies of explosion-gases are represented by the total
pressures they are capable of producing in the spaces occupied by
the explosives. In the case of nitroglycerine the total pressure is
29981.92 atmospheres, and in the case of mercuric fulminate it is
29366 atmospheres.
The energy of each nitroglycerine product-molecule is therefore
represented by -^ — '-^ = 42.08. The energy of each fulminate
product-molecule is, in like manner, ^ = 93-29.
The proportionate weights of the molecules are represented by the
total weight of the gases divided by the proportionate numbers of
the molecules. This value in the case of nitroglycerine is =
^^ 712.5
1.4035 ; in the case of mercuric fulminate it is -x =■ 3.177.
The energy of a molecule is composed of two factors, mass and
velocity. If the energy be 42.08 and the mass 1.4035, as in the case
of nitroglycerine, the velocity factor will be -^-^ — = 29.98. In the
fulminate case it is = 29.37.
3.177 ^^'
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 383
Accordingly, we have the following comparison :
Total Energy
of Molecule.
Mass
Factor.
Velocity
Nitroglycerine,
42.08
1-4035
29.98
Mercuric fulminate,
93-29
3.177
29.37
From this it is at once evident that the fulminate molecule will
strike a blow more than twice as severe as that inflicted by a nitro-
glycerine molecule, and therefore its penetrative power must be
vastly greater. It is true that, weight for weight, exploding nitro-
glycerine is more powerful than mercuric fulminate in the propor-
tion of 29981.92:29366; but this is because it projects a greater
number of molecules in the aggregate. For penetration and shat-
tering, energy must be concentrated ; an armor plate may success-
fully resist the simultaneous impact of two shot, each of which has a
striking energy of 5000 foot-tons, whereas it may readily be pierced
by a single shot having a striking energy of 10,000 foot-tons. And
where molecular disintegration is concerned we must obviously
reckon with each striking molecule individually.
I cannot myself detect any flaw in this argument, which seems to
me to conclusively account for the disintegrating and shattering
action of mercuric fulminate as compared with that of other explo-
sives, none of which project molecules having a ballistic energy at all
approaching that of the fulminate projectile.
The importance of studying explosives from this point of view may
be seen from Plates II to IV, which show three views of the lead
mushroom to which reference has already been made. It will be
observed that although the crater shows no apparent perforation of
the lead, yet the outer surface of the mushroom has been blown
away by some force proceeding from the interior. The structure of
the lead in the line of this force has become granular and disinteg-
rated — riddled through and through, as it were, by a volley of
microscopic projectiles. Whether such penetration has actually
taken place, or whether the breaking away of the outer surface has
been caused by the propagation of a shock from molecule to mole-
cule through the mushroom, thus causing the outer unsupported
molecules to fly oif like the last of a row of billiard balls, it is impos-
sible to say with certainty. Inasmuch, however, as the outer layer
of molecules on the flat side must have opened out in becoming curved
(to be subsequently fused together), interstices were undoubtedly
produced, through which the molecules of the explosion-gases may
384 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
have rushed ; so in all probability the effect observed was caused
partly by penetration and partly by the transmission of shock.
Artillerists will remember that guns have been known to burst on the
outside while the interior remained intact ; and it may well be that
the cause of this was molecular penetration and shock, instead of
being solely owing to undue hoop-tension, though this latter would
undoubtedly facilitate a rupture both by weakening the material and
by increasing its susceptibility to the propagation of shock and the
entrance of gas-molecules for crowding and wedging its own mole-
cules apart.
In concluding this rapid survey of the Ballistic Theory, I think it
right to state that I offer it tentatively as a working hypothesis that
may prove of practical service in the present state of knowledge.
My great-grandson, if such a being shall ever exist and shall take to
scientific studies, will probably smile in a superior way upon the
crudeness and imperfection of my ideas. Molecules may then be no
longer in fashion ; and some wider generalisation connecting gravity
and thought, matter and morality, may have superseded the doctrines
of Newton, Avogadro, Clausius, Mendeleeff and Hertz. The science
of to-day has the defect attributed by Lord Palmerston to Lord
Melbourne: it is "so damnably cock-sure ! " And let this be my
apology if I have ventured or may hereinafter venture to criticise or —
horror and sacrilege ! — " chaff" any scientific pope : I here and now
admit my own frailty. In an article which I wrote (in 1883, 1 think)
for the Pall Mall Gazette, on "Aerial Torpedoes," I paraded as
scientific truth the very doctrine of atmospheric tamping which,
when advocated by Professor Lewes, caused me, a few pages ago,
to exclaim "Prodigious!" Accordingly, if General Abbot, or Major
McKee, or Professor Ira Remsen, or Mr. Edison, or Professor
Munroe, or Ensign Dresel, or any other champion, shall arise in his
might and smite my Ballistic Theory hip and thigh, I will — if whole-
somely and handsomely pulverized — submissively lay me down to
sleep, and will not even dream of muttering " E pur si muovef"
§3-
The Comparison of Explosives.
Matter differs from humanity — civilized humanity at least : it does
its level best. Such is the vernacular rendering of Berthelot's thermo-
chemical law of maximum work, which, in finer language, he thus
expresses:
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 385
" Every chemical change effected without the intervention of ex-
terior energy tends toward the production of that body or that system
of bodies which disengages the most heat."
Heat is one of the protean forms of energy ; hence the name " Law of
Maximum Work."
Here, then, apart from all question of equilibrium or ballistics, we
have the keynote of the comparative study of explosives. If we de-
termine how much heat is set free by the rearrangement of the explo-
sive-molecules after deduction of the heat absorbed in breaking up the
explosive to start with, we shall obviously have an absolute measure of
the total mechanical force thus rendered available. This will enable
us to say which explosive is the strongest, and to indicate the ratio
borne by the strength of one explosive to that of another.
After this comes the question of the mode in which an explosive
develops its strength — whether by a large volume of gas at compara-
tively low temperature, or by a small volume highly heated ; or, to
adopt ballistic terms, whether the energy developed inheres in heavy
or light molecules, and whether the molecules have high or low velo-
cities. We can then form some judgment as to the particular use for
which any explosive is adapted, and can classify all explosives accord-
ingly.
To calculate the available heat-energy of an explosive we require
to know :
a. The chemical composition of the substance or mixture.
b. The amount of heat required to break it up into its elements.
c. The permanent compounds formed by its elements when re-
arranged after explosion.
d. The amount of heat disengaged by this recombination.
Requirement (a) is a matter of ordinary chemical analysis.
Requirement (3) is simplified by the fact that the amount of heat
necessary to break up a compound is the same as that set free by the
original formation of the compound. This heat of formation may be
observed by means of calorimetrical apparatus, and many physicists
have worked in this direction, so that a large amount of data is now
to be found in the text-books.
Requirement {c) is a matter of ordinary chemical analysis.
Requirement (af) is arrived at by our knowledge of {c) combined
with the experimental data accessible as to the formation-heats of
compounds.
And when we have arrived at our theoretical conclusion by
386 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
deducting (b) from (</), we may check the result by actually explod-
ing the substance in a calorimeter and thus measuring the heat disen-
gaged.
The heat-energy theoretically available cannot, in practice, be
wholly utilized. A considerable proportion must inevitably be
absorbed in heating surrounding substances instead of in expanding
the explosion-gases, or (under conditions of constant volume) in
augmenting the velocity of their molecules. But even if the avail-
able heat-energy were wholly utilized in explosive work, its effects
would vary according to the composition of the substance exploded.
In nitroglycerine, for example, the heat would all go in augmenting
gaseous energy ; whereas in dynamite No. i part would be absorbed
in expanding silica — not altogether uselessly, though, for this expan-
sion would, by diminishing the space occupied by the gases, increase
their energy.
Again, it does not follow that because equal increments oi sensible
heat produce equal degrees of expansion in all gases, equal quantities
of heat-energy will produce equal increments of sensible heat. It is,
on the contrary, found that each chemical compound requires a
different quantity of heat-energy to raise its observable temperature
by an equal number of thermometer degrees. Now, if heat be
regarded as the velocity-factor of molecular energy, it follows that
molecules of different masses will require different velocity-incre-
ments for equal augmentations of vis vivd. Hence, each kind of
molecule must have its own specific heat, or requirement of heat-
energy for a given rise in temperature ; and this specific heat (velocity-
factor) multiplied by the molecular weight (mass-factor) must give
a constant quantity (energy) for all molecules. If, then, some mole-
cule, as, for example, water, be adopted as a standard, all that is
necessary is to experimentally determine what quantity of heat-units
is necessary to raise say i gram by 1° Cent., and the specific heat of
every other substance becomes a matter of simple calculation.
But thermometers concern themselves only with a part of the heat-
energy. They tell us nothing, in a direct manner, as to latent heat,
i. e., as to heat-energy occupied in effecting changes of molecular
arrangement as between molecule and molecule, or changes of the
internal structure of individual molecules. It is found that the same
body at different temperatures requires different quantities of heat to
produce a given rise of temperature, or, in other words, that the
specific heat varies. Hence we need not be surprised to find that
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 38/
specific heats determined by experiment vary in some cases con-
siderably fi-om those theoretically deduced. And as the means of
experimenting- do not allow of tests at very high temperatures, we
are quite ignorant of the true specific heats of explosion-products at
the time of explosion, and must satisfy ourselves with such approxi-
mate values as are accessible.
So, too, with regard to the explosion-products themselves. We
know that hydrogen and oxygen do not remain combined in the
form of water molecules at high temperatures. We have reason to
suppose that carbon and oxygen behave similarly. We know that
gases lose their gaseous form and become liquefied when subjected
to very high pressures. These and similar facts render it impossible
for us to say exactly in what forms and combinations explosion-
products exist at the instant of explosion.
Fortunately, however, we can dispense with an exact knowledge
of the specific heats and forms and combinations of explosion-pro-
ducts. Berthelot's Law of Initial and Final States assures us that,
whatever may be the intermediate stages, the difference between the
initial and final states of the substances investigated is a true
measure of the energy developed. It is, in fact, the algebraic sum
of all the quantities involved — the plus quantities representing the
energies of the successive combinations and the minus quantities
those of the successive dissociations ; exception being of course
made of any endothermic combinations which absorb heat on forma-
tion and evolve it on decomposition. The wording adopted by
Berthelot in formulating the law is as follows :
" If a system of simple or compound bodies, under determinate
conditions, experience physical or chemical changes capable of
giving rise to a new state of existence, without the performance of
external work, the quantity of heat evolved or absorbed by reason
of the changes depends solely upon the initial and final states of the
system ; it remains the same whatever may be the nature and order
of the intermediate states."
This is why, in article {c) of the data required for calculating the
available heat-energy of an explosive, I specified " the permanent
compounds formed by its elements when rearranged after explosion."
We may for all practical purposes consider these as the explosion-
products at the time of explosion, even though we may believe that
they do not and cannot exist at that very instant.
And this also is why, in discussing the Ballistic Theory, I laid such
little stress upon the speed of detonation, which previous writers on
388 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
explosives have been accustomed to regard as so extremely import-
ant. Where many and complicated stages of varying specific heats,
compoundings and dissociations have to be traversed, in order to
arrive at the maximum development of force, it is idle to predicate
instanianeity of the effect thus produced; and as the most sluggish
of the high explosives develops this maximum in a period that may
be described as infinitesimal, the distinction between one high explo-
sive and another may be neglected.
When the total heat-energy, the various products and their mean
specific heat are determined, we can calculate the respective volumes
and weights of the solid and gaseous substances produced, and the
extent to which their temperature will be raised by the heat. Solid
(and liquid) substances have specific rates of expansion by heat ; but
gases are assumed to increase 2^ in volume for every 1° C. by which
their sensible temperature is raised. Hence the volume of the
produced gases (calculated at the standard of 0° C. temperature and
a pressure of 760 mm. of mercury — i. e. an atmosphere, or about
, • 1 ^ 1 • 1- J T. rise in temperature
14.7 pounds per square mch) multiplied by i A
will give either the expanded volume or the pressure in atmospheres,
according as the gases are free to expand or are confined in a space
of unit-volume. If the space in which they are confined be of less
than unit-volume, the pressure is of course increased in inverse
proportion.
We thus arrive at the total pressure capable of being generated by
the explosive; and here it is usual to stop the calculation. But
from a ballistic point of view it is necessary to determine the
molecular energy ; and this is done by dividing the total pressure
by the standard reduced volume ( V) of the gases. The quotient
thus found represents the vis vivd of -^7 molecules ; x representing
the total number of molecules. Similarly, the total weight of the
gases divided by F represents the mass of -pr molecules ; and there-
fore the molecular energy divided by this factor is the velocity
factor of -77 molecules. And as -y is constant for all explosives
(being the number of molecules in a standard volume), we have
here an absolute statement of the respective ballistic energies.
Such is the general method of calculation I have employed in
preparing the following tables :
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
389
?s
CO ro O O "^ O -TOO ro-^O OcO rot^ONOOO >00
O 00 t~> ON ro r^ rf CT\0O ^00 ^ " ■"
\0 ro ^vo ro Tt N
ON O n n ro
" 10 t^vo i^ r>.vO 00>O c^r^iOi-i r^ONO\ONO O -^N
Tj- M w ro .
Tf ON N ro Tt vo t^oo 0" -^OO i^
10 ON -^ fO fO ONO C^VOP)^00i-<O-^
iooi-iqro-^Tt-jq\
ro -^ « 00 H.
li^ -^ ro O t^ O
■ -^ ro O 00 ro <
• rovo -^co t^oo
VOll-i-lOOOOO»Orl-
+++ I +++++++++++
W M CO \0 W
1 +++++
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_ _ N w NO r^OO ■* ^ O O
cO>-iNOOcOrOrONOOON OVOt^i-i >^NO NO O O
■^Tj-O OnO O r^" -^ON io\0 un « -"^ t-^ • ' On O -^no OnoO 00 O O
O 00 ON O ON r^OO 00 i- NO NO t-^vo NO t^ "1 ■ • NO CO O fO r-.00 00 o o
I- l^l^l'il-lTri-^l'
ON moo 10 " vo 00
-i- Tl- 10 Tj- Tj- to fO
0000000
ON Tf ro N r^ t^
tj-NO VD f) M3 r^ r^
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CIS >-
•CO
:: -a o
4^T3c-e'Ofl-e — !
U :? ffi § 3h 72 •
p rt u 5 .t; y .5
ou
390
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
H 2
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m
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a\
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vO
ui o rt u
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m Ov HH fo VO f^\0
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^"G S ^
I <n rj, TT ON c) N
On Tf m 00 m m~
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M TJ- 'i- in - ON «
1 + i + T T T + +
1 1 1 1 III
•oc-Siig
t^rOi-fONN o O
00 ■<*• N \0 Tj- CO fO
iPtl
r^r^d\M»od d\ ^
d inrn in m rn in
N roONt^rOoo TT ro
oo - TT ^ m m M
vovo>^oooooo ■* "^
CO O C3N - m m N
oo|8|
w
t«
.
mcOj:
bo
ll
;-= :^
... . ^^< a
■ N oo fo • <i
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ONo N ;*
lO -<j-
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r^
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d
Sd
r^oOtOrovOTj- en r^
roin -- ro r^ q t>.
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d\o6'i-i>iNri»>) VC)
vd 1- On vd ri i-J N
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EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
391
^ •
10 r^ M
- rovo
t^ vo r-^
vOMi-.Lr)00"lC)<0<~OMCO CO
- M CO \0 ^CO ro ro t-^ M CnmD O
\0 vo lO t^ t^vO Tf rO\0 m — CO N
2 (u o •=
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as
392
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Table IV.
Thermal Effects and Gaseous Volumes.
Name of Explosive.
Explosive gelatine (a) 21125
Nitroglycerine.,
Cordite
Pyroxylin.
Gun-cotton
Dynamite No. i. . . .
Emmensite No. 259
Collodion-cotton
Cellulo-dinitrin
Picric acid
Nitro-cotton
Pebble powder
Dinitro-benzene . . . .
Mercuric fulminate.
{6).
Mean
Specific
Heat of
Products.
(Water =1).
.21508
.21016
.23806
.22429
.22888
.20634
.23874
.22980
.24294
.20224
.25652
.18004
.23244
.06760
Results per Kilogram.
Heat-units
Evolved.
(Calories).
,559.310
,570,434
,451,877
,188,096
,180,460
,103,871
,088,284
,013,016
996,535
949,112
798,134
629,058
628,144
609,367
370,000
Increase of
tempera-
ture (in
degrees C.)
7381
7302
6908
4877
5263
4879
5274
4243
4338
3907
3947
2452
3489
2621
5473
Volume of
Gases at
0° C. and
760 mm.
(litres).
703.8
715.6
712.5
883.0
826.0
862.6
534-5
744-9
869.9
973-8
878.4
1080.7
278.0
931-5
314.8
Volume of
gases at the
explosion
temperature
(if) and 760
(litres).
19734-5
19857-7
18738.7
16653.5
16751.O
16277.0
10861.0
12320.8
14692.7
14908.9
13580.0
10785.5
3830.8
9874.0
6628.0
Table V.
Pressures Developed.
Name of Explosive.
Space («)
occupied by
gaseous pro-
ducts
(litres).
Pressure =: Heated Volumi
Atmospheres.
Tons per
sq. in.
Kgs. per
sq. cm.
Explosive gelatine {a)
Nitroglycerine
Cordite
Pyroxylin
Gun-cotton
Dynamite No. i
Emmensite No. 259 . .
Collodion-cotton .....
Cellulo-dinitrin
Picric acid
Nitro-cotton
Pebble powder
Dinitro-benzene
Mercuric fulminate. . .
.6452
.6452
.6250
.6666
1. 0000
1. 0000
.4487
•7734
1. 0000
1. 0000
.7692
1. 0000
.7100
.6782
.2257
30588.5
30779-4
29981.9
24980.2
16751.0
16277.0
24205.5
15930.7
14692.7
14908.9
17654.0
10785.5
5395-5
14560.0
29366.4
200.73
201.986
196.76
163-93
109.93
106.82
158.85
104-55
96.42
97-84
115.85
70.78
35-41
95-54
192.72
31615
31811
30988
25818
17313
16823
25018
16465
15186
15409
18246
I "47
5576
15047
30351
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
393
Table VI.
Ballistic Energy.
Name of Explosive.
l^'zs viva of
— molecules
Mass-factor of
energy of ^
molecules
wt. of gases \
reduced vol ;
Velocity-factor of
energy of -^
molecules
/ energy \
Explosive gelatine (a)
Nitroglycerine ,
Cordite
Pyroxylin
Gun-cotton
Dynamite No. i
Emmensite No. 259..
Collodion-cotton
Cellulo-dinitrin
Picric acid
Nitro-cotton
Pebble powder
Dinitro-benzene
Mercuric fulminate . . .
43-46
43.01
42.08
28.29
20.28
18.87
45.29
21.39
16.89
15-31
20.10
9.98
19.41
1563
93-29
f-397
[•4035
[.1325
r.2i68
[•159
[.403
[.329
[-1495
[.027
M38
•9253
1.586
[.058
3-177
30-59
30.78
29.98
24.98
16.7s
16.28
32.27
16.09
14.69
14.91
17.65
10.78
12.24
14-77
29-37
Table VII.
Comparative Values.
(NlTROGLYCERINE= lOO
)
Name of Explosive.
Heat units
evolved.
Pressures
developed.
Ballistic
energy of
molecules.
Order of strength
as determined by
Lieut. Walke
writh Quinan's
Pressure Gauge,
Explosive gelatine («).
« {b).
Cordite
107.4
108.2
81.83
81.31
74.96
69.78
54-97
43-33
43-27
41.97
25.48 ■
101.6
102.7
83.32
55-87
80.73
53-14
58.88
35 97
18.00
48.56
97.95
103.3
102.2
67.23
48.19
107.6
50.83
47.98
23.72
46.13
37-14
221.7
106.17*
92.38!
83.12!
8f.3i
77.86§
Pyroxylin
Dynamite No. i
Emmensite No. 259. . .
Pebble powder
Dinitro-benzene
Mercuric fulminate. . . .
28. 1 311
49.91
* The sample of explosive gelatine giving this result was composed of 92
parts of nitroglycerine, 2 parts of camphor, and 6 parts of " soluble gun-cotton."
tThe "Nobel's Smokeless Powder" giving this result was composed of 50
parts of nitroglycerine, 5 parts of camphor, 100 parts of benzole, and 25 parts
of "soluble gun-cotton," stirred together until the whole became gelatinized ;
and then the benzole was evaporated on a water-bath, the mass rolled out into
a sheet and finally cut up into small cubes.
\ Stowmarket gun-cotton.
§The emmensite giving this result was composed of 5 parts of emmens
acid, 5 parts of ammonium nitrate and 6 parts of picric acid.
II "Mortar Powder" of Dupont's manufacture.
394 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
§4.
Some Remarks upon the Foregoing Tables, and upon the
Humanity of Text-books.
Table I. shows the physical constants I have adopted in my calcu-
lations. They lay no claim to exactitude (for even the best experi-
mental observations are but approximations to the truth), and simply
represent a careful selection from among the various values to be
found in the text-books. For example, I take the molecular weights
of hydrogen and oxygen as i and i6 respectively; whereas, accord-
ing to Regnault, the ratio is i : 15.962, while Rayleigh says it is
I : 15.884. The space occupied by i gram of hydrogen at 0° C. and
760 mm. I take as 11. 16 litres, which is the most generally adopted
value, although, as it depends upon gravity, it can only be exactly
true for a single locality, the whereabouts of which is unknown.
And yet I adopt .6995 litre as the space occupied by i gram of
oxygen although — '-p — = -6975. In like manner, though I take
the molecular weight of nitrogen as 14, 1 adopt .7964 litre as the space
occupied by i gram, in spite of the fact that — '- — = .79714. Little
inconsistencies like these are cheerful and pleasant to contemplate,
as reminding us that we are human after all, and that no scientist
is infallibly in the right, however much of a pope he may be in the
estimation of that philosophical church of mutual admiration which
from the serene heights of learned societies and academies looks
down with much cold scorn upon the outer barbarians of the lay
world.
Yes, yes, my worthy Professor, I remember quite well the proverb
that says the bird is an ill one that fouls its own nest. I own myself
a nestUng, but I do neither you nor the nest an ill turn by endeavor-
ing to cleanse our common abode. Our fame now and our scientific
immortality hereafter will not be injured by our being less "damnably
cock-sure."
As a noticeable illustration of my meaning I may refer to a work
entitled Chemical Arithmetic, by W. Dittmar, LL. D., F. R. S. S.,
London and Edinburgh, Professor of Chemistry in the Glasgow and
West of Scotland Technical College. This book has only just
appeared, and is an admirable specimen of sound, wholesom.e, scien-
tific work. I have nothing but praise for it. Yet it is nicely human.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 395
Confronted with the difficulty of conflicting molecular weights, the
Professor adopts the value of 16 for oxygen and i for '^Hydroge-
nium, an imaginary gas whose specific gravity and whose molecular
weight is exactly equal to one-sixteenth of that of oxygen.'' He then
gives a table of "Atomic Weights," in which O = 16, in which H =
1.0024, in which C= 12.00, and from which hydrogenium is altogether
absent. In another table, of the " Physical Constants of a Number of
Gases," he gives a column of specific gravities at "0° and near 760
mm." in which O = 16. In this table carbonic acid (COO figures as
22.128; whereas, by his own value of C, it should, of course, be
exactly 22. Here, then, we have quite a collection of amiable weak-
nesses: first, a grave assumption of an "imaginary gas"; secondly,
a noble disregard of grammar; thirdly, a use of the words molecular
and atomic as though identical in meaning; fourthly, a dismissal of
the "imaginary gas" to limbo; and fifthly, an assignment of two
values to carbon, i. e. 12 and (22.128 — i6)X2= 12.256.
Let then my Table of Physical Constants be regarded as being
simply correct enough for practical use in calculations respecting
explosives, without havirig any pretensions to absolute precision or
finality.
Table II. — ^In preparing this I made such a selection of explosive
substances as I thought would represent the most important types.
In the case of the nitro-cellulose compounds it seemed desirable to
indicate the characteristics of several, as considerable uncertainty
exists respecting the actual constitution of the materials used in "gun-
cotton," "explosive gelatine," and "smokeless powders."
The specification of the patent for cordite (U. S. No. 409,549, dated
August 20, 1889), g-ranted to Sir F. A. Abel and Professor Jas.
Dewar, covers a single claim, worded as follows: ''An explosive for
ammunition manufactured by pressing blasting-gelatine or com-
pounds thereof through holes to form wires, cutting these wires into
suitable lengths, and packing them in cartridge-cases substantially as
described"; and in the body of the specification the inventors say:
" Blasting-gelatine manufactured in the ordinaryway, but with a greater
percentage of soluble nitro-cellulose and with volatile solvent — such
as acetone or acetic ether — sufficient to give it the consistence of a
moderately thick jelly, or ordinary blasting -gelatine with the addi-
tion of soluble nitro-cellulose and solvent to bring it to a like condi-
tion, is pressed through holes," etc. No attempt is made to define
"blasting-gelatine" or "soluble nitro-cellulose."
39^ EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
In Maxim's specifications there is somewhat more distinctness. No.
411,127 (September 17, 1889) says " the invention consists in dissolv-
ing gun-cotton or nitro-ceUulose in a proper solvent which is capable
of being evaporated, adding to the dissolved nitro-cellulose nitro-
glycerine, and then evaporating the volatile solvent fi'om the mixture."
No. 430,212 (June 17, i8go) says: "Attempts have heretofore been
made to manufacture explosives from collodion obtained by the
treatment of the low grades of gun-cotton with ether and alcohol. By
the low grades of gun-cotton I mean those which are readily soluble
in ether or alcohol, or in a mixture of these substances, and which
contain but a small percentage of oxygen. These low grades of gun-
cotton are unstable, do not withstand the action of sunlight, and as
they do not contain sufficient oxygen to consume all of the vegetable
matter of which they are composed, they produce in burning a large
quantity of smoke. Now my invention comprises improved methods
or processes whereby I am enabled to manufacture pellets, grains or
other forms of powder or explosive material from the higher grades of
gun-cotton — that is to say, the highly-explosive grades thereof, which
are not soluble in ether or alcohol." No. 434,049 (August 12, 1890)
says: " In the manufacture of explosive compounds according to my
present invention, I mix dissolved gun-cotton or pyroxyline with
nitro-glycerine, nitro-gelatine or similar material, and with oil, prefer-
ably castor- oil. ... My improved explosive compound is advan-
tageously manufactured as follows, that is to say, I first dissolve gun-
cotton or trinitro-cellulose in acetone," etc.
In Prof. Threlfall's article on "Explosion" in the new edition of
Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry there occurs the passage : " The
most powerful explosive per unit mass is blasting-gelatine (92 per
cent nitroglycerine and 8 per cent nitro-cellulose [the exact com-
position of the particular nitro-cellulose is not stated])." The double
brackets are in the original.
Bloxam (my Professor when I was a student at King's College,
London — a worthy man, of unusual knowledge and ability and with
nothing of the Pope about him. Requiescat i7ipace /), in his Chem-
istry, 6th ed., p. 564, says : " Blasting-gelatine is made by dissolving
collodion-cotton in about nine times its weight of nitro-glycerine."
Prof. V. B. Lewes, in his Service Cheviistry, pp. 266, 271 and 282,
says: "Accepting the formula C6H':02(N03)3 as representing gun-
cotton The percentage of collodion-cotton present is next
determined by treating a carefully weighed sample of the gun-cotton
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 397
for some hours with a mixture of ether and alcohol, which dissolves
the collodion-cotton, but not the fully nitrated product. When fifty-
grains of the gun-cotton are treated in this way for three hours, with
frequent shaking, with four ounces of a mixture of two parts by
volume of ether to one volume of alcohol, the loss of weight due to
collodion-cotton dissolved out from it should be very small
Blasting-gelatine No. 1 consists of equal parts of gun-cotton and
collodion-cotton, saturated with nitro-glycerine, which gelatinizes
them."
Major J. P. Cundill, R, A., one of H. M. Inspectors of Explosives,
in his excellent Dictionary of Explosives, writes :
" Blasting Gelatine. — This essentially consists of a combina-
tion of nitro-glycerine and nitro-cotton Two varieties are
licensed in this country [i. e. Great Britain, Ireland, the Channel
Islands and the Isle of Man], viz., No. i, which is defined as 'nitro-
cotton ' (consisting of nitro-cellulose carefully washed and purified),
.... combined with thoroughly purified nitro-glycerine in such pro-
portions that the whole shall be of such character and consistency as
not to be liable to liquefaction or exudation. No. 2 is simply No. i
with the addition of a nitrate, with or without charcoal." And he
says, further, " the equation for the formation of gun-cotton is thus
given ....
CeH.O^sHO + sHNOa = C6H7O.23NO3.
. . . The soluble nitro-cottons used in this explosive \i. e. blasting
gelatine] contain less oxygen in proportion than gun-cotton."
In passing I may remark that in the second member of the
Major's equation there is an omission of 3H2O. Humanity again !
In an article on " Smokeless Powder " published in the Scientific
American of January 10, 1891, a " report of Krupp " is given, from
which I extract the following :
" Much as has been written so far about the effects of the new
powder, no side has touched upon the composition of its chemical
component parts. A much-wished-for light is thrown on this com-
position for the first time by the trial shooting report of Krupp.
We have taken from it, says Kuhlow, the following, which is of
general interest. For all new kinds of powder nitrited {sic') cotton
forms the basis. If cotton is treated with nitric acid and sulphuric
acid, then, according to the strength of the acid and the methods
employed three kinds of nitrated cotton arise :
398 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Trinitro-cellulose.
Binitro-cellulose.
Mononitro-cellulose.
Carbon
24.24
28.57
34.80
Hydrogen
2.36
3.18
4-34
Oxygen
59.26
57.14
54.10
Nitrogen
14.14
II. II
6.76
100.00
100.00
100.00
So far it has not always been possible for one to prepare with
certainty the one or the other combination of nitrogen mentioned
above. On the contrary, the different combinations are always
found to be mixed. If trinitro-cellulose preponderates, the product
is called gun-cotton ; if binitro-cellulose preponderates, we get collo-
dion wool. . . . The gunpowder proposed by Nobel is made of equal
parts of collodion wool and nitro-glycerine. ... To secure the sta-
bility of this powder one may add to the glycerine at the beginning
half per cent diphenylamine The new chemical formula would be:
ioC3H5(ON02) + gCeH^OsOHCONOa)^, {sic)
with a molecular weight of 4538 (sic). The decomposed products
would therefore be :
58CO + 26C02-h6iH20 + 48N, (^zV)
and all gaseous. The powder can be styled, therefore, smokeless,
because the small amount of ash which the wool contains remains
unnoticed. The products of combustion become visible by the
steam getting condensed, when leaving the inside of the gun, and
the nitrogen entering into a chemical combination with the oxygen
of the air. . . . All the statements made here have been laid down
by Krupp after a number of the minutest trials, and they are all
indubitably true."
I doubt much if Krupp ever fathered any such nonsense.
Perhaps the most authoritative statement upon the subject of
blasting gelatine and " smokeless powder " is to be found in a paper
by George McRoberts, F. R. S. E., F. C. S., F. I. C, the Manager of
the Nobel Explosives Company in Scotland. This paper, entitled
" Blasting-Gelatine, and some other Explosive Mixtures," was printed
in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry of May 31, i8go.
The following are quotations from it :
" Blasting-gelatine, properly so called, consists of from 92 per cent
to 93 per cent of nitro-glycerine and 7 per cent or 8 per cent of nitro-
cotton. The kind of nitro-cotton used is not the ordinary gun-cotton
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 399
or trinitro-cellulose, but is a mixture of mono- and binitro-cellulose.
. . . Blasting-gelatine consisting of 93 per cent of nitro-glycerine and
7 per cent of nitro-cotton is the strongest form of it. . . . It has a
specific gravity of 1.55. ... A great many inventors are in the field
with smokeless powder. Up till now there are several hundred
patents in connection with the matter, but hitherto the success of the
inventors has not been great. No powder that has yet been tried is
absolutely smokeless; but what is meant, generally, by a smokeless
powder is one in which the oxygen of the explosive combines per-
fectly with the carbon, to form carbonic acid, and with the hydrogen,
to form water. If the ingredients are mixed in chemically rational
proportions, then the amount of oxygen present will just be such
that the whole of the carbon and the hydrogen, when the explosion
takes place, will combine with it and form carbonic anhydride (CO2)
and water (H2O). There will then be no smoke, for what we usually
understand by smoke is the presence of small particles of uncom-
bined carbon in the air. [Good Mr. McRoberts must surely have
been thinking of Auld Reekie instead of a battlefield when he
penned this human passage]. . . . One of the best smokeless powders
consists of a modification of blasting-gelatine, made by mixing it
either with the ordinary gun-cotton or with collodion-cotton to such
an extent that the finished substance is dry and elastic. Nobel's
patent smokeless powder, which he calls Balistite, is formed in that
way. It usually consists of about 50 per cent of nitroglycerine and
50 percent of nitro-cotton. . . . Another variety of smokeless powder,
patented by Sir Frederick Abel and Professor Dewar, consists of
nitro-glycerine and ordinary gun-cotton or nitro-cotton, with or
without other ingredients."
This brief review will suffice to explain the general grounds upon
which I proceeded in assigning certain formulae and compositions to
the blasting-gelatines, nitro-cellulose explosives and cordite included
in Table II.
The particular grade of emmensite included was selected because
it was with this grade that the recent experiments by the Navy
Department, the Board of Ordnance and Fortification, and Major
G. W. McKee have been conducted — details of some of which will
be given in the next section of this paper.
The " pebble powder " is that employed by Nobel and Abel in
their famous experiments on " fired gunpowder."
400 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL,
Table III. — It will be noticed that in the cases of the four explo-
sives containing an excess of oxygen, viz., explosive gelatine (a),
nitro-glycerine, dynamite No. i, and emmensite No. 259, I have not
shown any free oxygen in the products. This view conflicts with
that set forth in some notable text-books. For example, Major
Cundill, in his Dictionary of Explosives, says of nitro-glycerine :
" When perfectly exploded, the resulting products are carbonic acid,
nitrogen, water and free oxygen, and may be represented thus :
2C3H5(N03)3 = 6CO2 + 5H2O + Ne + O "
— an equation which is also adopted by Berthelot.
Prof. V. B. Lewes, on the other hand, says {Service Chemistry,
p. 280) :
" When nitro-glycerin is exploded, it is instantaneously decom-
posed into gaseous products, the probable decomposition being
2C3H5CN03)3 = 6CO2 -f 5H2O -f NO + N5."
I prefer the latter equation to the former, for two reasons. First,
the " fumes " of nitro-glycerin explosives used in mining, etc., appear
to always contain nitric oxide; and, secondly, I regard the endo-
thermic formation of NO as ifiternal work done by the energy
available, and as not precluding an immediately antecedent evolution
of maximum heat. But whichever equation is the more correct, the
diff"erence is very little as regards the externally-available power of
the explosive.
In the case of the nitro-cellulose bodies I have also adopted a
view differing from what is usually taught. Cundill says : " The
products of perfecdy detonated gun-cotton may be fairly expressed
by the following equation :
2(C6H,023N03) = 9CO + 3CO2 + 7H2O + Ne."
The equation adopted by Berthelot is
C24H.2909(N03)n = I2CO2 -h I2CO + 6H2O + Hit + Nn,
gun-cotton being here considered as consisting of one molecule of
trinitro-cellulose (pyroxylin) and one of collodion-cotton ; whereas
Cundill deals with trinitro-cellulose, pure and simple.
" Sarrau and Vieille," says Bloxam {Chemistry, p. 658), "employ-
ing a gun-cotton containing three parts of cellulo-trinitrine and one
part of cellulo-dinitrine (C6Hi020H(N03)2), obtained, per gram of
gun-cotton,
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 4OI
Carbonic oxide 234 cub. cent.
Carbon dioxide 234 " "
Hydrogen .166 " "
Nitrogen 107 " "
741
At low pressures steam was also produced, together with more
carbonic oxide and less carbon dioxide."
LewesXop. czL, p. 274) says: "As the rapidity of explosion and
the pressure increase, so the products become less complex, and it is
not at all improbable that under the conditions of temperature
existing during rapid explosion in a confined space, the reaction
which takes place with fully nitrated cotton is :
C6H,02(N03)3 = 5CO2 + CO + Ht + N=,
an equation which would give 870 cc. of gas at normal temperature
and pressure, an amount in excess of that found by actual experi-
ment, which gives 750 cc, and an evolution of heat equal to 1056
thermal units. Estimations of the pressure developed by the deto-
nation of gun-cotton differ greatly in value, Berthelot placing it as
high as 24,000 atmospheres, or 160 tons per square inch ; whilst
other authorities estimated it as not much more than half this
pressure."
This reference to Berthelot is misleading unless qualified. Berthe-
lot's figure is 16,750 atmospheres at unit density, which he gives as
that of pulped and hydraulically-compressed gun-cotton. He adds
that the absolute density (unattainable and unapproachable in
practice) is about 1.5, at which value the pressure developed would
be 16,750 X 1.5 = 25,125 atmospheres.
Taken altogether, the gun-cotton question will be seen to offer a
splendid field for the humanity of text-books.
I have taken the view that the oxygen in nitro-cellulose compounds
wholly unites with carbon, and that no water is formed. Hence the
products are carbonic anhydride, carbonic oxide, free hydrogen and
nitrogen ; this corresponding with the actual experiments of Sarrau
and Vieille, and being theoretically probable under the law of
maximum work.
In the case of pebble powder I have adopted the products given
by Nobel and Abel as the mean of those found in their experiments.
They are obviously not exact, as their total is but 99.03 instead of
402 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
I GO. Moreover, they exhibit some striking (though practically un-
important) variations from the original composition of the powder.
I have been inquisitive enough to minutely calculate this out, and
the following is the result at which I arrive :
Contained before firing. Conta 
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