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SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
EDWARDSVILLE
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LIBRARY
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PROCEEDINGS
UNITED STATES
NAVAL INSTITUTE
VOLUME XVII.
EDITED BY
J. B. Briggs and H. G. Dresel.
PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY THE INSTITUTE.
ANNAPOLIS, MD.
Copyright, 1891, by H, G. Dresel,
Sec'y and Tr'as., U.S. Naval Institute.
PRESS OP ISAAC FRIKDENWALD CO.
BALTIMORE, MD.
The writers only are responsible for the contents of their respective articles.
CONTENTS.
Prize Essay for 1891. The Enlistment, Training, and Organiza-
tion OF Crews for our New Ships. By Ensign A. P. Niblack.
U. S. N., 3
Notes on an Experimental Ammunition Cart, constructed for
THE Ordnance Department. By Lieutenant W. W. Kimball,
U. S. N., 51
SiACCi's Ballistic Equations. By Prof. Wm. Woolsey Johnson, U. S.
Naval Academy, 57
On the Angle of Elevation in order, that the Trajectory in Air
SHALL pass through A GIVEN PoiNT. By Piof. Wm. Woolsey
Johnson, U. S. Naval Academy, ........ 61
Target Practice. By Lieutenent J. F. Meigs, U. S. N. With Discus-
sion, 67
Lieutenant J. C. Wilson, U. S. N., 82.— Lieutenant W. F. Fullam,
U. S. N., 83 — Lieutenant Kossuth Niles, U. S. N., 87. — Com-
mander C. M. Chester, U. S. N., 87.— Captain L. A. Beardslee,
U. S. N., 89.
Electrical Counter, and Shaft Revolution and Direction Indi-
cator. By W. D. Weaver, Assistant Engineer, U. S. N., . . 91
Professional Notes, 95
The Organization and Duties of Trial Boards for our new Cruisers.
Reviews, • ... 99
Bibliographic Notes, , . . . 100
Prize Essay Notice.
Advertisements.
The writers only are responsible for the contettts of their respective articles.
CONTENTS,
Instructions for Infantry and Artillery, United States Navy. Pre
pared under the direction of the Bureau of Navigation, Navy Depart
ment, by Commander C. M. Thomas, U. S. N., Lieutenant C. E. Colahan
U- S. N., Lieutenant W. F. Fullam, U. S. N., Ensign F. J. Haeseler
U. S. N., and First Lieutenant L. W. V. Kennon, U. S. A.
Prize Essay Notice. Advertisements.
569
The writers only are responsible for the contents of their respective articles.
CONTENTS
Disposition and Employment of the Fleet : Ship and Squadron
Drill. By Lieutenant R. C. Smith, U. S. N., 121
On a Method for Calculating the Stability of Ships. By Naval
Constructor D. W. Taylor, U. S. N., 157
High Explosives in Warfare. By Commander F. M. Barber, U. S. N. 231
Proposed Day, Night, and Fog Signals for the Navy, with Brief
Description of the Ardois Night System. By Ensign A. P. Nib-
lack, U. S. N., 253
Electro-Metallurgy. By Joseph W. Richards, A. C, Ph. D., . . 265
The Samoan Hurricane of March, 1889. By Everett Hayden, U. S. N. 283
Discussion of Prize Essay for 1891. The Enlistment, Training,
and Organization of Crews for our New Ships. By Ensign A.
P. Niblack, U. S. N 297
Commander G. H. Wadleigh, U. S. N., 297.— Lieutenant C. B. T.
Moore, U. S. N., 301.— Lieutenant R. C, Smith, U. S. N., 301.—
Lieutenant-Commander E. H. C. Leutze, U. S. N., 306. — Comman-
der J. B. CoGHLAN, U. S. N,, 308. — Lieutenant W. F. Fullam,
U. S. N., 312.— Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. N., 318.
Professional Notes 321
Target Practice at the Naval Academy. — Naval Messenger Pigeon
Service. — Naval B. L. Guns.— The Harvey Armor Plate: Results
of the Recent Trial at Annapolis.
Bibliographic Notes, 331
Names of Members who Joined since January, 1891, . . . 353
Prize Essay Notice. Advertisements.
The writers only are responsible for the contents of their respective articles.
CONTENTS.
Explosives and Ordnance Material. By Stephen H. Emmens, . 355
The Effect of Waterline Damage on the Stability of Unarmored
War-ships. By Charles Hemje, 447
Naval Reserve and Naval Militia. By Lieutenant J. C. Soley, U. S. N. 469
The Final Improvement of the Steam-Engine. By Dr. R. H. Thur-
ston 497
Professional Notes, 529
The Test of the Brown Segmental Wire Cylinder. — On Determining
the Inclinations of Non-Algebraic Curves from their Ordinates.
Bibliographic Notes 537
Prize Essay Notice. Advertisements.
NOTICE.
It has been deemed advisable to print the Prize Essay at once in the present
number of the Proceedings, and to publish the discussions thereon in the next
number, in order to allow ample time and full opportunity for the preparation
of criticisms or remarks.
It is earnestly desired that all MSS. of discussions be forwarded to the
Secretary and Treasurer not later than May 20th, 1891.
By direction of the Board of Control.
H. G. Dresel, Ensign, U. S. Navy,
Secretary and Treasurer.
Annapolis, Md., February 13, 1891.
Having carefully read the five essays submitted in competition for the prize
offered by the Institute for the year 1891, we have the honor to announce that,
in accordance with Section 2, Article XI, of the Constitution, the prize is
awarded to the essay bearing the motto "A man's a man for a' that," by
Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. Navy.
Honorable mention is accorded to the essay bearing the motto " Occasionem
cognosce," by Lieutenant R. C. Smith, U. S. Navy.
C. S. Sperry,
Lieutenant- Commander, U. S. Navy,
H. O. RiTTEN HOUSE,
Lieutenant, U. S. Navy.
R. G. Peck,
Lieuteiiant, U. S. Navy.
N. M. Terry,
Professor, U. S. Naval Academy.
J. K. Barton,
P.- Assist. Engineer, U. S. Navy.
C. M. Knepper,
Ensign, U. S. Navy.
H. G. Dresel,
Ensign, U. S. Navy,
Members, Board of Control.
THE PROCEEDINGS
OP THE
UiinTED States Kaval Iiststitute.
Vol. XYII., No. 1. 1891. Whole No. 57,
[copyrighted.]
Prize Essay for 1891.
Motto : — "^ man^s a man for a' that,^^
THE ENLISTMENT, TRAINING, AND ORGANIZATION
OF CREWS FOR OUR NEW SHIPS.
By Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. Navy.
The Navy offers at present a respectable and inviting- career to
only a few enlisted men, and to those only in such special ratings as
ship's writer, yeoman, printer, master-at-arms, and machinist. Petty
officer's billets of the seaman class are thoroughly unattractive, and
are filled throughout the service to-day by men who, however efficient
they may be as seamen, have had very little modern training in the
theory and practice of gunnery, have seldom been entrusted with the
handling or drilling of a squad of men, and have very little idea of
their duties and responsibilities as petty officers in a military sense.
This is more the fault, however, of imperfect enlistment laws and
defective methods of organization and training, than of any lack of
intelligence or capability on the part of the petty officers themselves.
A modern ship, being a complicated machine, requires the most
intelligent kind of men to handle and fight her effectively. On account
of the cramped living space, the number of men on each new ship
must be reduced to the lowest margin. Each man being thus a
most valuable unit, we must proceed on the theory of picking our men
and building up a trained nucleus of American men-of-wars-men,
4 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
capable of meeting the demands that will necessarily be made upon
each individual in our organization in case the service is suddenly
expanded to meet the exigencies of war. With the improved type
of enlisted men now demanded by modern conditions, we need new
Watch, Quarter, and Station bills, adapted to modern and improved
types of cruisers and battle-ships. To man and fight these ships
effectively, we need better methods of recruiting and training.
The holding out of a more attractive career to enlisted men is
not so much a question of increased pay and emoluments as we
would like to believe, nor are their shortcomings due as much to
want of intelligence on their part as to the lack of military purpose
in their training. Aside from this and from the evils in the system
of rating, promotion and rewards, there are positive faults in the
internal arrangements of our newer ships which will neutralize the
allurements of any pay-table that can reasonably be devised, and in
the end drive out of the service the very class of men and boys that
we are now so earnestly endeavoring to attract into it. The more
modern the ship and the greater the need for intelligence in her crew,
the more and more objectionable she seems to become in point of
quarters for the men, until we have about reached the point where it
is well to call a halt on certain disastrous tendencies in the direction
of the utter disregard of what intelligent men are capable of putting
up with. In the smaller cruisers, flesh and blood will not stand any
further sacrifice to illusive offensive power, particularly in the craze
for phenomenal speed and great battery power on small displacement.
Before taking up the consideration of the problems of recruiting,
training, and organization, it will be best to point out some changes
which are needed in the internal arrangements and discipline of our
ships, in order to secure the creature comforts to the men under
all conditions of service, and thus render the ships habitable and
attractive.
New Ships and Old Methods.
There is not a new steel ship built or designed for the navy since
1884 that can carry her full complement of men as intended, or that
has berthing arrangements and general accommodations which intel-
ligent men have a right to expect. Fortunately we give much more
attention to such matters than they do in foreign services, but that is
no reason why we should stop half-way. In the Chicago, Boston,
Atlanta, and Dolphin, designed before 1884, the berthing accom-
modations are not so bad. On the Chicago, which seems to be the
only gun-deck ship we are to have, the hammock-hooks are 14 inches
PRIZE ESSAY FOR IbQI. 5
apart, and the men swing " high and low." The rows of hammocks
dovetail in with those forward and abaft them, and this, the usual
arrangement, represents luxury compared to the newer ships. The
Boston and Atlanta have fair quarters in the superstructure, but,
commencing with the Yorktown, we find nothing but evil in the living
accommodations of the men. In the last named, below the spar-deck,
there are billets for twenty men in the bow compartments, for forty-
four on the berth-deck, for twenty-two in the passageways, and for
five in the alcoves and workshop. At sea, in any weather, the heat
is almost intolerable, and on long passages the berth-deck is barely
habitable. The men who sleep under the forecastle are not so badly
off. On the Philadelphia and Baltimore it was found necessary at the
Navy Yard, New York, to put up hammock-hooks in every available
compartment on the protective decks, to accommodate even the
reduced complement which each carries. The Charleston is admitted
to be a failure in her original berthing arrangements, but it is only
fair to state that the last four ships mentioned are built more or less
on English models. The tendency of our own constructors and their
attitude is shown by the following extract from the report of the Chief
Constructor for 1889, relative to the two 3000-ton cruisers, Cincin-
nati and Raleigh, building at New York and Norfolk respectively :
"The forward berth-deck, with the exception of the paymaster's
ofifice, dispensary and prison, is given up to the crew. There are
also roomy quarters for the men under the forecastle."
It is a good thing that the forward berth-deck is surrendered to
the men, for in the roomy space under the forecastle are located the
galley, crew's water-closets, the distiller, ice-machine, refrigerators,
the steam capstan, vegetable lockers, scuttle-butt, bitts, harness cask,
and hawser reels. This type of ship, begun in the Yorktown, is the
general style of all the newer ones with uncovered gun-deck. On
the Philadelphia, with an unusually " roomy " forecastle as far as
dimensions go, only eighteen men can billet under the forecastle.
What can we look for in cruisers Nos. 9, 10 and 11, of 2000 tons dis-
placement, where the design calls for water-closets, crew's wash-room,
the brig, capstan, galley, ice-machine, refrigerators, engineer's work-
shop, hawser reels, bitts, etc., under the forecastle ? This, of course,
means that the crew-berths are entirely below the spar-deck. In
port in a cool climate, with an inspection board pronouncing on the
fitness of such ships for distant and prolonged service as cruisers, the
air-ports are not closed, the ice-machine is not rattling away, the
blower engines are not humming, the ash-hoists are not buzzing, the
6 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
dynamos are interesting, and the distiller is temporarily out of use.
Put all these in the living spaces, add the phenomenal heat of modern
fire-rooms, and the noise, oily smell, cramped berthing space, bad
air, and consequent loss of sleep, and the picture is that of ordinary
cruising at sea. Prolong this for months and it means sickness, dis-
comfort, and inefficiency of the crew. The remedies for all this are
simple enough.
I St. Group as far as practicable all heat-producing objects and
auxiliary engines, such as blowers, dynamos, galley, ice-machine,
distillers, etc., in one compartment, or in adjacent compartments, as
remote as possible from living spaces, with carefully arranged
separate ventilation.
2d. Substitute electric motors for all auxiliary engines doing
constant work in or about living spaces and that cannot be grouped
as above.
This is only, in a measure, forestalling the inevitable substitution
of electric for auxiliary steam power. Aside from saving miles of
piping, with the inevitable leaks and the expensive water-tight joints
at each bulkhead that is pierced, there are the additional advan-
tages in the less danger of having the supply cut off in action, and of
compartments flooded with steam ; in the reduction in heating and
oily smell all over the ship ; in being able to use motors for ammuni-
tion-hoists, thereby reducing the need for so many men in the powder
division; in economy of power over present arrangements ; in ability
to splice a break readily ; in the ease with which the wires at vital
points can be protected with steel tubing ; and finally, in the reduc-
tion of the engineer's force by the number of men now required to
look out for auxiliary engines, and the substitution of seaman-gunners
to run the motors, thereby increasing the number of trained com-
batants on board by that many.
3d. Reduce the ship's- complement of men and officers to a mini-
mum, especially in small ships.
The necessity for a certain amount of entertainment by the officers
in time of peace calls for a considerable table space in a mess-room,
which should be, where practicable, separate from the living space,
and it should be made a regulation that all commissioned officers,
below the commanding officer, shall constitute one mess. In the
smaller ships of 2000 tons and under, junior and warrant officers'
quarters should be abolished, and if the exigencies of the service
really require the assignment of one or more cadets, they also
should mess in the ward-room. In larger ships the necessities for
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 7
reduction in officers' quarters are not so great, but still the tendency
must be towards " surrendering " to the men more living room, even
in the best of them.
4th. In smaller ships already built or designed, add a light spar-
deck, worked over the space between the poop and forecastle, to give
additional berthing space.
If the weights do not admit of adding the covered deck, then do
away with the auxiliary sail-power, which is of less importance than
the comfort and efficiency of the crew. The best plan is to stop
designing, and sending people to sea in small vessels of enormous
horse-power. It is a delusion and a snare to attempt to get high
speed on small displacement in cruising vessels, and expect to beguile
intelligent Americans into accepting, as a profession, life in such
sweat-boxes, with no place to stow clothes, and with every unsani-
tary condition carefully observed. There is almost a criminal side
to the case in the sacrifice of safety to speed in these so-called
cruisers. In the Yorktown, which has not phenomenal speed, a
double bottom was not possible. In the extremes of the type, like
the Serpent, we have a lesson that we should not be slow to learn.
The tendency is too much towards sheet-iron shells, light steel
frames, and linoleum bulkheads as they have abroad in such so-called
cruisers as the French Forbin, where only conscription can keep a
crew in her. The physical condition of the men, when it comes to
action or to conditions of war, is of greater moment than the one or
two knots extra about the twenties for which we are asked to
sacrifice so much. Great speed is all right on great displacement,
and is all wrong in small vessels really intended as cruisers.
More stowage room should be provided on board ship for the
men's clothing and outfit. Each man is required to haVe the follow-
ing, valued at a total of $56.35 :
2 suits of blue. $12.36 i white hat $ .33
2 white mustering suits... 5.32 i neckerchief. 1.06
3 white working suits 3.18 i pair leggings 60
2 blue undershirts 2.58 i pair blankets 4.36
2 pairs drawers 2.30 i mattress with covers.... 4.32
2 pairs socks 66 i suit oil-skins 2.20
1 pea-coat... 10.00 i pair rubber boots 2.50
2 pairs shoes 2.28
2 caps (one mustering)... 1.80 $56.35
I watch cap 50
8 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
This simply represents what a man requires to be presentable
under the conditions of service. Many men have four or five work-
ing suits, white hats, etc., and they certainly ought to be encouraged
to dress well ; but, for instance, on the Chicago the average capacity
of the forty-four wire lockers in which the same number of appren-
tices are required to stow all their belongings is 1.8 cubic feet. The
other men have lockers of about 2.2 cubic feet average capacity, but
the engineer's force are allowed an extra locker each for soiled
clothes. Considering that this ship is the roomiest and most
comfortable of the new ships, the first-class petty officers, who
usually wear white shirts, collars, cuffs, etc., should have more than
3.7 cubic feet for their clothing. The result is that rain-clothes are
stored where they deteriorate rapidly, pea-jackets are lashed in the
hammocks, the clothing all shows the result of tight packing, the
locker doors are sprung, and a premium is placed on shiftlessness.
In the newer ships the lockers are larger, but from four to six cubic
feet is reasonable. Separate lockers should be provided for rain-
clothes, with pigeon-hole subdivisions capable of holding a pair of
boots, southwester and oil-skins, to be stored by gun's crews, with
a separate locker or two for those watch petty ofiicers who require
them. Oil-skins of the prescribed pattern should be kept in the
paymaster's stores for issue, for it is useless to attempt to have a
boat's crew in uniform, a thing which is desirable and easily enough
accomplished if properly looked out for. Living out in all kinds of
weather, oil-skins are certainly an essential part of a man's outfit ;
and, as they are prescribed as a uniform, some official attempt
should be made to protect the men from the harassing unreasonable-
ness of requiring them to have everything of a uniform pattern and
then providing no place to stow the things they are required to have.
It is such policy as this that drives more men out of the service than
questions of life career, more pay, or seamen's savings banks, etc.
Ditty boxes are part of men's outfit, yet few ships go into commission
with any racks provided for their stowage. The holds of ships are
now so small that a great deal of the gear formerly stored there, such
as deck-buckets, stages, wash-deck gear, boat-gripes, sea-painters,
stage-ropes, etc., are crowded out. Places must be provided for
these, as well as for cleaning-gear for brightwork ; gun, hatch,
canopy, steering wheel, binnacle, search light, and other covers ;
boat cushions and cloths ; watch-tackles, straps, heaving-lines, lash-
ings, old canvas, steaming-covers, etc., which are required to be
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 9
handy for routine purposes. Top-chests and channel-chests cannot
be carried now, yet there is no allowance to take their place. The
regular allowance for ships should include deck-chests, boatswain's
mates' chests, and spar-deck lockers for the stowage of gear that
is in more or less constant use. Neglect to provide proper stowage-
room leads to tendencies on the part of the men to surreptitiously
stow gear in ventilators, guns, field carriage boxes, air ducts, capstan
barrels, hammock nettings, wash-rooms, and all the nooks which
supply the lucky bag with its daily haul. There is nothing so time-
honored as a lucky bag, and yet few ships have any place provided
for its stowage.
The ordinary conditions of cruising bring out, of course, many
defects which cannot be foreseen, but there are many things which
an inspection board should be charged with ascertaining, which are
considered trivial, but which make the difference between a happy
and an unhappy ship.
Proper drying-rooms for clothing should be provided, particularly
for the engineer's force. Standing, as they do, in three watches,
there is no such thing at sea as a chance to wash clothes in the morn-
ing watch, and opportunities should be given them at other times.
With practically mastless ships, the facilities for drying clothes for
all hands are not what they should be, and it would be of immense
advantage to have a large drying-room to be used in bad weather,
care being taken to locate it apart from the living space of the men,
on account of the heat it gives out.
In a sanitary way men have very little idea of the question of the
proper ventilation of a ship. Improved appliances are useless unless
properly looked out for. So much depends on it now-a-days that
it seems worth while to provide blowers that will work either way,
so as to force or exhaust as required. The direction of the wind in
steaming forms draughts through a ship independent of the currents
set up mechanically, and differences of temperature come somewhat
into play. It thus happens that a certain compartment of the ship
may, under certain circumstances, require both a force and an ex-
haust draught to clear it of foul air, while, under others, it would have
to have the forced or exhaust system only. If it is worth the expense
of putting in the elaborate appliances now provided, it is certainly
worth the while of some one to look after the subject carefully. This
will be spoken of later.
In thus calling attention to the necessity for providing increased
lO PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
comforts for the men and for improving the sanitary condition of
ships in the matter of berthing and ventilation, it is aimed to lay-
down the proposition that it is the small annoyances in life which
make the difference between happy and unhappy ships ; but there
is one other thing which is more important than even this, or than
the question of increased pay and emoluments tor faithful service, and
that is the administration of firm and even-handed justice. An idea
is prevalent that the discipline in our navy is very harsh, and, like
most popular ideas, is founded on the glaring exceptions which prove
the other rule. Fact is that, through one cause or another, the gen-
eral system of punishment has been so relaxed that for certain
offenses there is now no adequate punishment, which, coupled with
the entire lack of uniformity throughout the service, earnestly calls
for an inquiry into the subject by a board of officers with a view to
tautening up the whole system. Plenty of work, many privileges
and comforts, and rigid adherence to fixed, swift and well-graded
punishments, means good discipline and hence general contentment.
In each new ship designed the brig is given a more and more choice
location, until in cruisers 9, 10 and 11 it is under the forecastle in the
6-inch gun support. The fundamental principles of confinement in
a brig are restraint and removal from intercourse with others, and
solitary confinement becomes a farce when the prisoner can con-
stantly see his messmates passing to and fro, and where the noise
and bustle of the ship's routine work is interesting and diverting to
the prisoner. The light is generally good, the ventilation is excel-
lent, and the confinement admits of rest and recreation. If the brigs
were put below, where they were intended to go, and were kept dark
and isolated from all noise and intercourse with the crew, then five
days' solitary confinement would mean something. Non-intercourse,
restraint, and silence are the very elements of solitary confinement,
and its purpose is defeated in the new ships. In the Philadelphia
and Baltimore there are small brigs — one on each side of the berth-
deck in the 6 inch gun supports. To properly enforce a sentence of
bread and water there should be a sentry on each brig, as they are
separated by a fire-room trunk. This means eight sentries to prop-
erly enforce the sentence of two men. The Yorktown's brig is
under the forecastle. That of the Chicago is on the berth-deck for-
ward, where people are constantly passing to and fro. The punish-
ment of double irons is now no punishment at all. Not only do the
hand and leg irons now furnished ships admit of the greatest freedom
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. II
of motion, but such confinement becomes a rather welcome opportu-
nity for the idle, lazy and shiftless to escape work for five days or
so. The messmates of the prisoner do his work for him while he
eats the bread of idleness, and dozes away his time. To be a punish-
ment, confinement in irons should primarily imply retirement from
the public gaze, and should be made as irksome and uninviting as
possible. What is needed is the old-fashioned leg-iron with sliding-
rod through staples in the deck, and lilly-irons for the wrists. In the
interests of good discipline and in economy of sentries, the brig
should be located below the berth-deck, away from the temptation
and opportunities of the men to pass in food ; it should be as remote
from the noise and bustle of active life as possible ; it should be well
ventilated but not lighted ; and, in the passageway outside of it, leg-
irons should be fitted to the deck as described above for prisoners
.confined in irons as a punishment. The present style of irons is
admirable for the confinement of men for safe-keeping, but it is mani-
festly unfair to treat a man awaiting trial or sentence of a court-mar-
tial to the same punishment as a man confined in irons for an offense
of which he has been adjudged guilty. The man awaiting trial may
be acquitted as innocent, yet he is punished the same as the man
adjudged guilty of some minor oflTense. There should be a wide
distinction. With proper fittings in a ship for punishing men, and
with certain and unvarying punishment for specific offenses, with
additional penalties for repeated infractions of the same regulation, it
is possible to carry out the purpose and spirit of the navy regulations.
The whole subject needs investigation and revision by proper
authority, and it is just as important as questions of increased pay
and rewards.
In nothing so much as in the messing arrangements on board ship
is there more pressing necessity for a radical change. The interests
of the service demand the establishment of a general commissary
system, in place of the antiquated, uneconomical, and cumbersome
mess organization which we now have. Under any other arrange-
ment than that which now obtains on board sea-going ships the
ration of thirty cents a day would be ample, and the usual assess-
ment of from $1.50 to $3 per month in addition, which the caterers
of messes exact from each member, represents the correct measure
of the wastefulness, poor economy, and failure of the present system.
To exact such sums of money from apprentices getting $9 or $11
per month, or from landsmen getting $16, is nothing short of out-
12 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
rageous. Nor is this in any way the fault of the men themselves,
but simply demonstrates that the separate mess system is funda-
mentally wrong. To illustrate its workings let us examine into
details. Each mess consists of from eighteen to twenty-three mem-
bers, some more, some less. Each has its separate cook, caterer,
vegetable-locker, mess-locker and mess outfit. In the mess outfit
the government furnishes a coffee, tea and sugar-tin, molasses and
vinegar-breaker, a scouse-kettle, bread-kid and a mess-cloth. Each
mess buys in addition a coffee-kettle, knife, salt and pepper-boxes,
carving-knife and fork, knives, forks, spoons, coffee-tins, plates, butter-
dish, oil table-cloth, meat-dishes, frying-pan, and three baking-pans.
The rations as issued and the fresh provisions, not perishable, are
stored in tins, boxes, etc., in the mess-lockers. Each mess has its
slop-buckets, dish-pans, swabs, etc., for cleaning gear. Multiply
each outfit by the number of messes; crowd the cooks around a
galley ; see the lack of economy in space, the wastefulness in food,
and the character of the cooking; see the liability to confusion, diffi-
culties and conflicting interests that must bring constant trouble, and
then try and find one good reason for continuing a system that
stamps itself on its own face as a monumental failure. There are
always difficulties in getting men who are willing to serve as cooks ;
they must be paid extra money by the messes; confusion reigns
when a cook is absent on liberty, or sick, or confined as a punish-
ment; caterers abscond now and then with the mess funds; and
finally, the berth-deck cook is an unmitigated nuisance in the ship's
organization that causes more difficulties than any other class of
men in the ship's company. The remedy for all this is simple
enough.
Abolish separate messes; cook the issued rations as for one large
mess ; with the commuted ration-money purchase such extras as
with the fresh provisions issued by the pay department in port will
insure good living, reserving, however, some of the money as a sea-
store fund ; set aside a separate compartment or enclosed space as a
pantry, containing lockers and racks for storing the general mess-
gear, the stores for immediate use, and the various appliances and
gear needed in the preparation of food for cooking; locate here, also,
sinks with hot and cold fresh and salt water, with hand and steam-
pump connections for washing mess-gear ; merge all the vegetable
lockers into one general system of lockers ; and finally, set aside a
store-room and a space in the hold for the men's provisions and
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. I3
Stores. The rate of baker, abolished in 1883, should be revived, and
those of ship's steward, pantryman, messman and ship's cook's assist-
ant created. The pay of steward should depend on the class or rate
of the ship, but should be, at least, from $75 to $100 per month. He
should be a man of experience as a caterer and the very best man
that can be gotten for the money. He should select and order mess
supplies, and render bills to be paid in such way as will insure the
safety of mess money, or the protection of the mess against loss by
any method of fraud or dishonesty. The whole messing arrange-
ments should, however, be under the supervision of an officer whose
function will hereafter be described. The ship's cook should be
required to qualify as such at a naval rendezvous before transfer to
a sea-going ship, and for thus qualifying should receive increased
pay. It should be the duty of the pantryman to receive and have
charge of all stores, mess-gear, etc., in immediate use, and, assisted
by the assistant ship's cook and such messmen as may be needed, to
prepare the food in the pantry ready for cooking. It should be the
duty of the baker, under the direction of the pantryman, to prepare
and bake all bread and pastry. It should be the duty of the assist-
ant ship's cook to assist the pantryman in the preparation of food,
and the cook in such ways as may be necessary. It should be the
duty of the messmen to wash all mess-gear, spread mess-tables, help
in the preparation of food, clear up, clean and keep in order the
pantry and store-rooms, and in every way assist the pantryman,
baker and cook in their duties. It is confidently believed that eight
messmen could do the work now done by eighteen cooks, or that
six or seven could do that of from twelve to sixteen, being a clear
gain to the effective deck force of at least fifty per cent. The ship's
steward could certainly do the work of all the mess caterers not only
more economically, but with better judgment and intelligence. The
ship's cook, his assistant, and the baker could cook or bake all that
is required by a general mess much better than the ship's cook can
now alone cook for some sixteen separate messes. As for the pan-
tryman, the gain in economy and in time in the preparation of food
for a general mess, as contrasted with the go-as-you-please style of
preparing all sorts of dishes for a number of messes, is too apparent
to need practical demonstration. The number of messmen could
be reduced to the lowest limit b}' having a certain number of men
detailed for a week at a time to go below when mess-gear is piped,
to help set and serve tables from the galley or pantry. After meals
14 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
they could help clear off the tables and sling them overhead. Such
services would not be required for more than from fifteen to twenty-
minutes altogether, and need not in any way interfere with their
duties on deck. The ship's company should mess by gun's-crews
or divisions as now, excepting that apprentices should be organized
into separate messes presided over by first or second class petty
officers. Men going on watch should all be served at the same
table, thereby saving over the present arrangement of having half a
dozen tables or mess-cloths going for half an hour before each meal.
Petty officers' messes could very easily be furnished with extra dishes
through extra money paid into the mess fund, provided they wished
to live better than the regular mess. This general system here out-
lined is, with some necessary modifications, carried on for the cadets
bn the practice cruise, and is entirely feasible. On the receiving-ship
Independence at Mare Island it was inaugurated several years ago
by Captain Frederick Rodgers, U. S. N., under the supervision of
the executive officer. Lieutenant Daniel Delehanty, U. S. N., and
was described in the Naval Institute Proceedings about that time.
It certainly commends itself on every possible ground, and it is
worth at least a trial on a sea-going ship.
In the latest types of ships, cold storage and refrigerating rooms
are provided. These add very much to the efficiency of the ships
in the ability it gives them to carry fresh provisions for long periods
of time at sea, thereby reducing the necessity for such large store-
rooms below, and adding to the healthfulness and comfort of the
crew. It would certainly add to the efficiency of all ships now in
commission, to put in cold storage rooms as a compensation for the
reduction in store-room and hold space for the stowage of provi-
sions. Cruisers 9, 10 and 11 will be fitted with Allen's dense air ice
and refrigerating machine, capable of making 200 pounds of ice a
day, and of cooling a 60-gallon scuttle-butt, besides keeping a meat-
room of 350 cubic feet at a temperature below 34° F. It is a suffi-
cient commentary on our present system of having numerous messes,
to point out that with twelve to eighteen different cooks running to
a cold storage room to get out from twelve to eighteen different
pieces of meat, with the consequent confusion and the admission of
hot air to the room, the cold storage would be apt to prove a failure.
With a general mess and a large cold storage room there is no
reason why fresh provisions "should not be carried for thirty days as
in ocean steamers.
Plate I.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. I,
r-
ttniasting Oven
Inside View of Ui-n
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. I5
The liberality of the present ration, the extra dishes prepared, the
provisions purchased with commuted ration-money and by extra
assessments, the issue of fresh provisions in the pay department, all
lead to overcrowding the galleys now furnished ships, and bring
failure upon any type of range that can be adopted. There are many
pertinent reasons for abolishing the present type of galley. The
work required of one can best be performed by steam heat. In all
modern ships it is required that steam be kept up constantly on an
auxiliary boiler for the various purposes of electric lighting, distilling,
heating, pumping, etc. All roasting and boiling in large quantities
is best and most economically accomplished by using steam heat.
The steam roasting ovens and boilers are perfect in their operation,
convenient for shipboard, and possess every advantage over a range.
As for the self-feeding copper urns for making coffee and tea, noth-
ing can more highly commend itself to our consideration. The
present method of making coffee is for the berth-deck cook to drop
an uncertain amount of ground coffee into a big tin bucket and pour
a still more uncertain amount of hot water in with it. The water
may or may not be boiling, but that is hardly material. The coffee
steeps for ten or twenty minutes, and the result is an insipid drink
in which a great amount of excellent coffee has literally gone to pot.
In the steam self-feeding urns, on the contrary, the coffee is made on
the drip principle, and the water feeds in automatically. Unless the
coffee water is actually boiling, it will not feed over into the urn. A
sketch of such an apparatus is shown in Plate I, where the centre
urn is for hot water and the end ones for tea or coffee. They can,
of course, be made any size collectively or relatively. The opera-
tion of the coffee urn is shown in a section in the same plate. The
drip-basket, C, in which the coffee or tea is placed, is made of copper.
The bottom, D, is pierced with small holes, while below it is the
flannel strainer, E, which can easily be replaced. The cast-iron
vegetable boiler is also shown in section. The live steam enters at
A and passes around to B, being cut off by the partition C ; E is a
galvanized iron steam-pipe, perforated for steaming purposes ; G is
the strainer and outlet to the faucet. Galvanized iron baskets go in
the boilers to separate different things that may be boiling at the
same time, such as meats and vegetables. A small steam oven could
also be provided for keeping warm the meals of men away at meal
hours.
For baking bread or pastry, a sheet-iron bake-oven, burning coke
l6 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
or coal, should be provided. It would only be needed for a few
hours in the day, and requires very litde fuel. With such an oven
and any sort of a baker there would be no need for buying fresh
bread on shore in any of the officers' or men's messes.
For a crew of 450 men, a galley or range of the present type
furnished with all the accessories costs fully $1500. For $1200 the
following outfit, as shown in Plate II, can be placed in the same
amount of space as now occupied by a regular galley :
5 oblong seamless cast-iron steam roasting ovens with hinged
covers, each 24 inches by 33 inches, at $75 $375
3 seamless cast-iron steam vegetable, stew, meat, or soup
boilers, of 70 gallons capacity, with galvanized iron hinged
covers, at $75 each 225
One set of self-feeding copper urns on iron stands, with
gauges, faucets, strainers, etc., complete, of the following
sizes : water urn, 100 gallons ; coffee urn, 80 gallons ;
tea urn, 40 gallons 400
One sheet-iron bake-oven, 3 feet square, with three compart-
ments 200
Total $1200
The roasting ovens and boilers should be lagged with asbestos to
prevent radiation and to keep down the temperature of the galley
space in hot climates. The above outfit would easily go in a space
twelve feet by ten, with ample room to get around in. Whether it is
used for a general mess or a separate mess system, the advantages
of this outfit over the galley or range may be stated as follows :
1. To " start fires " requires turning on a valve or so, and in
twenty minutes the plant is in full operation.
2. If desired, only a part of the plant need be operated on occa-
sions when it is desired to practice economy.
3. The heat given off by such a plant in the tropics is much less
than by a galley, and the noise about it is very much less.
4. The oddest kind of shaped space can be utilized for erecting
such a plant, as remote from living spaces as possible, on account of
ability to fit any shaped space to order.
5. No immense and expensive bed-plate is required as in the case
of a galley.
6. The danger from fire is reduced to a minimum.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. I.
Plate II.
Roasting Ovens
Sealed'
STEAM PLANT FOR MAN-OF-WAR'S GALLEY.
In space 12 ft. x 12 ft,
For Crew of 560 Men.
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 17
7. Cooking by steam gives the best results in a culinary way, and
is more economical than burning coal in a range.
8. Once set up, a steam plant will outlast several galleys, as there
is little to get out of order, and can be replaced in part as it wears out.
9. Steam cooking plants are in successful operation at the general
recruiting depot of the army at David's Island, at Snug Harbor, and,
to a certain extent, in all the leading hotels in New York City.
The following named people are a few of the firms which are pre-
pared to make bids on erecting such a plant in whole or in part on
different men-of-war: John Ashcroft, No. 73 Gold street. New York ;
Duparquet, Huot and Moneuse Co., No. 43 Wooster street. New
York ; Bramhall, Deane & Co., No. 274 Front street, New York ;
Van & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.
This system of messing should be supplemented by a co-operative
bumboat system on the canteen principle. The profits of bumboat-
ing are enormous, and should properly accrue to the men themselves.
The economy of buying fruit, beer, etc., by wholesale instead of by
retail is a sufficient argument for undertaking such a system, at least
in large ships.
The general commissary and canteen system here briefly ouriined
is perfectly feasible and certainly desirable. The more minute
details will in a measure work themselves out in practice if the idea
is once adopted in the service.
In thus looking out for the physical comforts and welfare of the
men there need be no fear of coddling them. There is too much
routine work for every one aboard a modern ship to admit of men
being spoiled, in the ever-recurring necessity of overhauling, cleaning,
painting, scraping, and caring for the hull and armament of a cruiser
or battle-ship. The chief difficulty is to find sufficient time to
devote to drills and exercises without neglecting too much of that
attention to smart appearance which has always characterized the
vessels of the American Navy.
Recruiting.
Having called attention to several needed improvements in the
internal organization, arrangements, and discipline of our new ships
as affecting the comfort and best interests of the men, it is well to
now inquire into what special inducements we should offer, in the
shape of rewards and emoluments, as will not only attract into the
service more of the better class of Americans, but retain them in the
l8 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
navy for life. This we can only accomplish by excluding^ aliens from
the service, and by offering to the men advantages and rewards as
substantial relatively as those which officers now receive, and equal
to those offered by corresponding occupations in civil life. We
have in the service now, (i) a practically working continuous-service
system, providing a small longevity increase of pay for each three
years of service ; (2) a system of conduct grades with corresponding
monthly money allowance; (3) improved rations far better than
issued in any other service in the world ; (4) a good quality of
clothing of more or less uniform pattern, and small stores in variety
and at the lowest market prices ; (5) a government savings system
paying 4 per cent interest on money deposited ; (6) two pension
laws, one providing help from the Naval Pension Fund for disability
after ten years' service, on recommendation and finding of a board
of officers, and the other providing a regular pension, or, in lieu of
it, maintenance at the Naval Home, for disability after twenty
years' service ; (7) a fairly good apprentice system ; (8) an allow-
ance of $45 to apprentices on enlistment for clothing ; and (9) a
system of instruction for seaman-gunners which is not yet, but soon
will be, in thorough working order. These represent, outside of the
pay tables, the principal inducements now held out to enlisted men
to make a career in the navy. The results are not encouraging. It
is not that we do not get many good, bright, excellent men, but that
we do not seem to be able to retain them in the service longer than
one or two enlistments. To endeavor to remedy this, and to sup-
plement what has already been done towards making a life career
for men in the service, the following provisions should be enacted
by law :
I. No alien should be accepted for either special or continuous
service, excepting to fill vacancies in special service billets for the
remainder of a cruise on a foreign station.
In the matter of restricting all enlistments to Americans, some
difficulties may seem to present themselves in the case of getting
men for certain special service billets, such as stewards, cooks, ser-
vants, and bandsmen. Fact is, it is in these billets that we most of
all need Americans. The day has passed when foreign messmen
and bandsmen can be relegated to the powder division. The ques-
tion of the rapid supply of ammunition is serious enough without
complicating it with thoroughly non-combatant foreigners, unused
to manual labor and ignorant of our language. If we cannot get
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. I9
American servants for the pay allowed, then it will be time enough
to increase the pay. If we cannot get American bandsmen for the
same reason, let us put up with inferior music. As each non-effec-
tive man in a ship takes up as much room as an effective one, and as
few ships can carry their effective complement, it certainly follows
that in the matter of messmen and bandsmen we have a long way to
go to arrive at a satisfactory solution of the problem. Once pass
the law and the difficulties will in time vanish. The exception noted-
above, in the filling of vacancies in special service billets abroad by
foreigners, is a necessary one. As for general and continuous-service
men, there can be no doubt as to the wisdom of restricting enlistment
to Americans, or to those who have declared their intention of
becoming naturalized, as it is the height of folly for a rich and
powerful nation to have to rely on mercenaries and hirelings in the
exigencies of war, through neglecting in time of peace to train up a
picked body of her own citizens to bear arms for the national defense.
II. Unless having had previous naval experience, no men other
than effective, able-bodied men, between the ages of eighteen and
thirty-five, shall be enlisted.
III. The term of enlistment shall be for a period of four years.
Section 1418 of the Revised Statutes, enacted as far back as 1837,
provides that men " may be enlisted to serve for a period of not
exceeding five years, unless sooner discharged by direction of
the President." Three years has come to be the customary
service, and the laws relating to continuous service (Rev. Stat.
1426 and 1573) have been enacted on a three years' basis. This
change to four years will require corresponding changes in the
laws relating to honorable discharges, allowances for re-enlistment,
and increase of pay for each re-enlistment. A four years' enlistment
will enable ships to make full three-year cruises without having to
pay so much extra compensation to men held over after expiration
of enlistments, and, best of all, will permit of recruits being put
through some preliminary training at recruiting stations before they
are drafted off to cruising ships. Such modifications of the present
continuous-service laws as are needed are outlined in IV, V, VI and
VII, which follow.
IV. Every person re-enlisting for a period of four years within a
period of four months after having been honorably discharged, shall,
on presenting his honorable discharge, or on accounting in a satis-
factory manner for its loss, be entitled to pay during the said four
20 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
months, equal to that to which he would have been entitled had he
been employed in actual service.
V. Every person who, having been honorably discharged from the
navy, re-enlists within four months thereafter for a period of four
years, shall be further entitled, after four years' service, including his
first enlistment, to receive, for the period of four years next there-
after, two dollars per month in addition to the ordinary pay of his
rating; and for each successive period of four years of service, so
long as he shall remain continuously in the navy, a further sum of
one dollar per month ; the past continuous service of enlisted men
now in the navy, not to exceed four years, shall be taken into account,
and shall entitle such men to additional pay according to this rule.
Provided that one dollar per month shall be retained from the pay
of the re-enlisted men, of whatever rating, during the whole period
of their re-enlistment, to be paid to each man on his discharge, but to
be forfeited unless he shall have served honestly and faithfully to the
date of discharge.
VI. To the rates of pay which may from time to time be fixed
upon by the President, there shall be added, (i) in the case of men
enlisted for a period of not less than four years, for the third year of
enlistment one dollar per month, and two dollars per month for the
fourth year; and (2) to the rates of pay so fixed in the case of appren-
tices and boys, enlisted to serve until they shall arrive at the age of
twenty-four years, there shall be added for the second year of such
enlistment, after they shall have attained the age of twenty-one years,
one dollar per month, and two dollars per month for the last year of
such enlistment. But this increase in every case shall be considered
as retained pay, and shall not be paid to such enlisted person until
his discharge from the service, and shall be forfeited unless he serves
honestly and faithfully to the date of his discharge.
VII. Continuous-service men shall be entitled to one month's
leave for each year of service, to be granted at the convenience of the
Navy Department, and to be cumulative up to four months, which
may, however, be commuted in whole or in part on re-enlistment, if
leave is not desired, to cash payment of four m.onths' pay, or in
accordance with amount of leave surrendered. A continuous-service
man thus entitled to leave may, if he so elect, report on board any
convenient receiving-ship or any recruiting station, and, under such
rules as may hereafter be prescribed by the Navy Department, may
enjoy his leave of absence, with privilege of residence on board such
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 21
ship, or at such recruiting station, in the quarters provided for
enlisted men,
VIII. Boys between the ages of fourteen and eighteen shall here-
after be enlisted to serve until they shall arrive at the age of twenty-
four, instead of twenty-one as now provided.
IX. Any apprentice serving in either a training or a sea-going ship
may, at any time in the first three years of his enlistment, on the
finding of a board of three officers, be discharged for inaptitude or
undesirability for the service, but due notice shall be given the parent
or guardian of such apprentice, at the expiration of which time, with
the approval of the Navy Department, said apprentice shall be trans-
ferred to the nearest receiving-ship and there discharged. The dis-
charge of an apprentice for any cause before he shall reach the age
of twenty-four, shall work forfeiture of the $45 originally received for
outfit. Notification of the vacancy at any time created shall be
promptly sent to the commandant of the Apprentice Training Sta-
tion, in order that the total complement of apprentices shall be kept
full.
X. In the appointment of warrant officers, preference shall here-
after be given to graduated apprentices who, after having reached
majority, shall have served at least two years as a seaman, petty
officer, or special class petty officer on a sea-going ship, and shall
have subsequently qualified as a seaman-gunner.
XI. All enlisted men serving in the Coast Survey and Fish Com-
mission shall be called in by executive order, and authoritj' granted
these services to enlist their own men for their own purposes.
Under section 4397 of the Revised Statutes, "The heads of the
several executive departments shall cause to be rendered all neces-
sary and practicable aid to the Commissioner (of Fish and Fisheries)
in the prosecution of his investigation and inquiries." The navy prac-
tically furnishes the steamers of the Fish Commission with their men
and officers. That it is not " practicable " now to longer spare this
force from the naval service is sufficient grounds for the withdrawal
of it. That such service is of no military benefit to the enlisted men
is certain. That the men in it are a dead loss to the navy as men-
of-wars-men is of necessity a good reason for calling them into active
military service. Under section 4685 of the Revised Statutes, " The
President is authorized .... to employ all persons in the land or
naval service of the United States" to carry out the provisions of the
acts establishing the Coast Survey service; and under section 4687,
22 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
" Officers of the Army and Navy shall, as far as practicable, be
employed in the work of surveying the coast of the United States,
whenever and in the manner required by the Department having
charge thereof" This is subserving the military to the civil branch
of the government with a vengeance. The fact that the army has
dropped out of any share of the work under the Coast Survey, and
that the navy bears most of the drudgery and a large share of the
annual expense of the hydrographic work, is not in itself a hardship,
but from a military point of view it represents a grave mistake.
Untrained merchant and coasting sailors are the class of men from
which the crews of Coast Survey vessels are recruited, and they
are well adapted to such service. That so many man-of-war petty
officers and seamen are diverted from a military service where they
are absolutely needed, into a non-military service to furnish it with
the means of doing the only work for which it was originally created
and now has any nautical claims for existence (viz., surveying the
coast) is, to say the least, a queer state of affairs. The annual appro-
priation for the support of the Coast and Geodetic Survey is over a
half-million dollars, of which sum about $50,000 is for the expenses
of hydrographic work carried on by some ten or more vessels
manned and officered from the navy, and about $25,000 for the
maintenance and repairs of these vessels. The annual appropriation
for the publication of charts representing this hydrographic work, of
so much value to mariners, is less than $20,000. In other words, less
than one-fifth of the total appropriation goes to do the work for
which this branch of the government was organized, and for which it
gets the credit with the country at large. The merchant marine is
benefitted by all this superb work, and the annual appropriations for
the support of the Coast and Geodetic Surv'ey are cheerfully granted.
How many people in the United States know that the navy with its
officers and men do the work, and that it pays annually some
$200,000 for the salaries of the sixty officers and the men diverted
from military service to do this work for a civil branch of the gov-
ernment? This service undoubtedly enables the naval officers in
it to become familiar with our coast and harbors, and a moderate
amount of duty in the Coast Survey service may possibly be of great
value, but for enlisted men, drawn from an already depleted allow-
ance, such diversion is unjust to the navy, uneconomical, unmilitary,
and unnecessary. The sooner the enlisted men are called in, the
sooner a grave mistake will be rectified.
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 23
XII. The total number of persons who may at one time be
enlisted in the navy shall not exceed 10,000, of whom 1500 shall be
apprentices and boys.
XIII. When an enlisted man absents himself frorn his ship on the
eve of her sailing for a foreign port, and then gives himself up as a
" straggler " on board some receiving or other ship, he shall forfeit
three months' pay, and be further required to serve three months
beyond the regular expiration of his enlistment, before he can acquire
the right of discharge and the benefits of continuous service in case
of re-enlistment.
XIV. Whenever it is discovered that a person who has been dis-
honorably discharged from the navy has eluded detection and
re-enlisted, he shall be immediately discharged in the nearest avail-
able port, at home or abroad, and forfeit all pay that may be due
him on the books, excepting $10 for immediate expenses.
XV. The Navy Yard, New York, shall be designated as the
Central Recruiting Station for the Atlantic Coast, and the Navy
Yard, Mare Island, on the Pacific Coast. All recruits enlisted on
either coast at the various other recruiting stations now or hereafter
established shall be concentrated, as hereafter provided for, at these
two central stations, for instruction and preliminary training before
drafting them off for service.
The ordinary receiving ships at different points should serve
merely as conveniendy distributed posts for recruiting under special
conditions. At stated intervals a transport should make the rounds
and gather in recruits, concentrating them at New York for inspec-
tion and training, leaving, however, the continuous-service men on
the various receiving-ships, for such disposition as the bureau may
see fit. This system of inspecting recruits at the central stations
would lead to the detection of deserters and dishonorably discharged
men who might try to enlist. There shall be attached to the stations
at New York and Mare Island a corps of experienced and trained
petty officers, rated in such billets as master-at-arms, yeomen, and
gun-captains, constituting a body of what may be termed recruiting
and drill sergeants, and composed of men who had made excellent
records in the service on sea-going ships as petty officers. While
gaining valuable experience in drilHng and handling men, they would
aid in examinifig and keeping records of recruits and would become
personally acquainted with them. By this means and by a good
system of descriptive lists, in the course of a short period of years.
24 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
it would be almost impossible for a deserter or dishonorably dis-
charged man to escape detection on presenting himself at or on
being transferred to New York or Mare Island. By changing a few
commissioned and petty officers occasionally between New York and
Mare Island, it would not only contribute to uniformity in duties and
methods at the two stations, but would lessen the possibility of such
men as described changing their base of operations from one coast
to the other. It is notorious that men now desert and re-enlist, or
are dishonorably discharged and come right back into the service
by re-shipping at remote stations, and this evil should be put down
at once. Let men once understand that dishonorable discharge and
desertion mean severance with the service for good, and that
deserters will be followed up and brought to justice wherever pos-
sible, and there will be a great falling off in both. By going even
further and requiring men to bring certificates of good character
when they present themselves for enlistment, and by raising the
physical and mental standard in the requirements for enlistment, the
good effect would be shown in fewer desertions. Make it harder to
get in and recruits will not be so anxious to get out.
Coal-heavers and second-class firemen for the entire service should
only be enlisted at New York, where a uniform and rigid standard
should be established. There is no difficulty in getting plenty and
the best at this one station. It is easy enough in case of a scarcity
or extra demand to order special enlistment at other stations. The
enlistment of coal-heavers on this coast is now confined to New
York by recent orders, and the improvement in this class of men is
most marked. Of course, continuous-service or honorably discharged
coal-heavers and second-class firemen should be allowed to re-enlist
at the nearest recruiting station. In Section XII it is sought to
increase the total force of enlisted men to 10,000. This is admittedly
more men than we need just at present for our ships, but to be able
to keep a lot of men at New York or Mare Island for six months or
so in training, it is necessary to increase the total allowance. Where
the allowance is small, a sudden emergency might arise and a draft
of recruits be ordered off, to the breaking up of any systematic
attempt to drill them properly. With a larger total force, the pres-
sure would never be so great as to call for raw recruits who had never
received any instruction.
XVI. Any seaman or seaman-apprentice who shall hereafter qualify
as a seaman-gunner, or any seaman who, having heretofore qualified
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 25
as a seaman-g-unner, shall re-qualify by attaining excellence in small-
arm and great-gun target practice, and shall be able, as a leading
man aboard ship, to drill a squad of men in the usual routine drills,
shall receive in any rating as a petty officer of the seaman class an
increase of pay of 30 per cent over that provided in the regular pay
tables, as authorized by the President from time to time for such
rating, and in any rating of either the special or artificer class he
shall receive an increase of 10 per cent.
This will have the double effect of encouraging men to become
seaman-gunners, and of adding dignity and importance to billets of
the seaman class. To further improve the status of the seaman class
of petty officers, a considerable increase in their pay is both wise and
desirable. This class of petty officers bear the brunt of the routine
work about decks, of the military duties, and of the fighting in
action, and on their efficiency largely depends the character of the
discipline of the ship. It is through them that we must accomplish
some needed reforms in the organization and general discipline of
the service, yet these billets are now doubly unattractive through the
drudgery of their work and the small pay and great responsibility
of their position. This is so much the case that seaman-gunners and
graduated apprentices generally try to get the billets of ship's writer,
painter, oiler, or yeoman — anything, in fact, to keep out of a rating
of the seaman class or as a watch petty officer. This is admittedly
all wrong and a great misfortune to the service.
XVII. Cooks, stewards, servants, and ship messmen shall be
enlisted for special service, and on board the ships in which they are
to serve.
XVIII. Pensioners who become inmates of the Naval Home shall
hereafter be paid their pensions under certain restrictions, to be held
in trust by the Governor of the Home, or allotted to a wife, or child,
or parent living.
The fact that a pensioner takes advantage of the privileges of the
Naval Home is no reason why he should surrender his pension,
particularly if there are others dependent on him.
XIX. Transportation at government expense shall be furnished,
under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy, to such persons as
may be authorized to enter the Naval Home as beneficiaries, and
who shall be unable to pay for their transportation to the same.
XX. After thirty years' continuous service as an enlisted man or
as an appointed petty officer in the navy, any person shall be entitled
26 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
to retirement on three-fourths pay of the rank or rating held by him
at the date of retirement, by making application to the President ;
or, after having served thirty years, but not continuously, any person
shall be entitled to retirement on half-pay. Provided also, as in
case of enlisted men in the army and Marine Corps, under Act of Sep-
tember 30, 1890, active service, either as a volunteer or regular during
the War of the RebelHon, shall be computed as double time in com-
puting the thirty years necessary to entitle him to be retired.
XXI. Dishonorable discharge in any case shall work forfeiture of
all subsequent benefits of pay, pension, or retirement due to previous
honorable service.
XXII. Officers and enlisted men of the Marine Corps shall be
withdrawn from service afloat, and serve as a garrison for naval
stations and in the sea-coast defenses of the United States.
Section 1616 of the Revised Statutes reads: "Marines maybe
detached for service on board the armed vessels of the United States,
and the President may detach and appoint for service on such vessels
such of the officers of said corps as he may deem necessary." This
would seem to imply that when no longer necessary they should be
withdrawn. Section 1619 says : " The Marine Corps shall be liable
to do duty in the forts and garrisons of the United States, on the
sea-coast, or any other duty on shore as the President, at his discre-
tion, may direct." It is certainly in keeping with the march of
progress abroad to follow the example of foreign powers and place
our sea-coast defenses in the hands of a semi-naval branch of the
government. The record of the Marine Corps certainly merits the
confidence of the country, and in taking this step we are but follow-
ing out the dictates of wisdom in officering our sea-coast garrisons
ultimately with graduates of the Naval Academy, and for the present
with officers whose sea experience would be of the utmost value in
the defense of our coast.
As to the wisdom of withdrawing the marines from service afloat,
the subject has so recently been discussed that little argument is here
necessary. If, however, no other arguments were forthcoming, it
would be sufficient to show that it is demanded by the reduced
complements of our recent ships. The newer vessels exact such care
for their hull, armament, and machinery; the coaUng of them is such
a task, and the routine work required of the men is such that the
marine " who toils not " takes up too much valuable room. The
Yorktown has a guard of 18, the Baltimore and Philadelphia each
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1. 2^
36, the Boston and Atlanta 40, and the Chicago 56. Of course
some one has to do the poHce duty of a ship, and the marine does
the work acceptably enough, but he is not sufficiently versatile. In
a modern ship a man must be something more than a soldier ; he
must be a sailor besides, and a man with only one talent is out of
place on a man-of-war. Aside from the desirability of having the
police work done by the men themselves, it makes a ship's company
more homogeneous, and is more in keeping with the system which
requires our officers to perform a wider range of duties than any
similar body of men in the world. Primarily this demands intelli-
gence on the part of the individual, and, secondarily, thorough
training in all the qualifications which make a modern man-of-wars-
man. In adopting this system for the men we are simply taking a
step necessary to place our naval service at least theoretically ahead
of any other in the world. There are other immediate reasons for
the withdrawal of the marines from service afloat. The infusion into
our men of a proper military spirit, now believed to be so necessary
in modern training, is an impossibility as long as the marine guard
exists on board ship. It is idle to say that we cannot trust the men
themselves with police duty. If we cannot, then we have the
strongest argument that can be advanced for beginning at once to
remedy a defect that stamps any organization a failure in which the
fighting force is untrustworthy. If we are to make any progress in
increasing the respectability and sense of responsibility of enlisted
men, we must take this step as a fundamental one. Such police duty
is essentially military, and a proper spirit can never be cultivated in
the men as long as the marine guard, by its mere presence on board
ship, is a notice to the men that they are not trusted and respected ;
that they are incompetent to perform military duties, and that they
do not possess the confidence of the officers. The military spirit is
not difficult to acquire, particularly if exacted of men by the officers
themselves. Most of the average marine guard sent on board a ship
are raw recruits. One sees very few continuous-service stripes
amongst them, and in the annual report for 1890 the number of re-
enlistments is given as 85, while there were a total of 948 enlistments
and 520 desertions, and this in a total force of 1950, with five years
as a period of enlistment and with 918 of the total force serving on
board ship.
A full marine guard of the newer ships will never in the future,
even for a flagship, consist of more than forty men, of which one
28 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
will be orderly sergeant, two or three sergeants, four corporals, two
music, and about thirty men. The detail in port consists usually of
four admiral's and four cabin orderlies, and some three to five posts,
each taking some four men, or about twenty in all. Then there are two
cooks and a mail orderly. On gun-deck ships and the larger battle-
ships there would be needed four corporals for the gun or battery
deck, besides. In case the marine guard is withdrawn from service
afloat, it is here proposed to perform their present duties in the ship
as follows : We have now on board each ship a master-at-arms, a ship's
bugler, and a ship's corporal, with an additional ship's corporal for
a gun-deck ship. Add one more ship's bugler and four to six ship's
corporals to the ship's complement. On flagships have in the
commander-in-chief's complement an allowance of four men for flag
orderlies. On flagships and other than flagships, select four men for
cabin orderlies ; these and the flag orderlies to serve for three months
as such. Assign one man also to act as a mail orderly in port and
as a sentry at sea. Select from four to six men as compartment men
for the protective deck and lower compartments, to keep them clean,
to preserve order, and to be responsible for them in every way,
serving practically as sentries in the compartments to which they are
assigned. They should have important duties in connection with
closing water-tight doors, rigging hand-pumps, and opening or
closing proper valves for fire or other purposes; regulating the ven-
tilation under the general direction of an ofiicer, whose functions will
hereafter be described ; and above all, in being held strictly respon-
sible for the police of the compartments to which they are assigned.
They should sleep there, and only leave it for " all hands." Assign
the master-at-arms, corporals, orderlies, and compartment men to
the Powder Division, and the two buglers to the Navigator's Divi-
sion. Detail from the deck force each day a sufiicient number of
men to act as sentries for the three, four, or five posts which may be
necessary, just as they do in the army, where sentry duty is legiti-
mate military service. Aboard ship it might be well to make a detail
last for a week at a time, but not longer. The master-at-arms and two
corporals should make the rounds, and be on duty continuously from
"all hands" in the morning, or from daylight, to 10 P. M., alter-
nating in inspecting below, to suppress or report all infractions of the
regulations. The master-at-arms should occupy the same relation
to the entire force that the orderly sergeant does to the marine guard,
excepting that his duties should be more active in policing the ship
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 29
and less in drilling the men under him. He would of course have also
to do what constitutes his important duties at present as master-at-arms,
excepting that with a general mess system he would have no berth-
deck cooks to look after. The other three or four corporals should
be on the spar-deck in port, to assist the officer of the deck, some-
what as a corporal or sergeant at the gangway does now, in over-
hauling boats and looking out for details of discipline, etc. For a
quarterdeck guard in port where necessary, use as now certain men
off post, with the addition of one or more machine-gun's crew from
deck as needed, or detail a boat's crew from one of the boats that are
hoisted, with the coxswain as sergeant or corporal of the guard.
XXIII. The following table gives the present monthly pay and
ratings in the navy, and also the new ratings and new rates of pay
here proposed. The new ratings are in italics, and the new rates of
pay in the second columns. The old ratings to which stars are pre-
fixed should be abolished. Any man holding a certificate as a sea-
man-gunner (having qualified in target firing or gunnery) shall be
entitled to receive 30 per cent increase over any rate of pay shown
in the proposed table for a petty officer's billet of the seaman class,
and 10 per cent in a petty officer's billet of the special or artificer
class.
With regard to certain new rates here proposed it may be well to
make some explanation.
The rate of gun-captain should be established, and to qualify in
it a man should be able to drill a squad of men at any regular routine
drill, such as infantry, artillery, great guns, machine guns, etc. ; should
be required to pass an examination in the " duties of a gun-captain"
as laid down in the hand-book hereafter mentioned ; and should
have made at four successive quarterly target practices a prescribed
percentage hereafter fixed upon by the Navy Department. Gun-
captains should rank as second-class petty officers of the seaman
class. In case a man is rated as gun-captain without qualifying, he
shall receive $35 a month. A gun-captain, qualified, shall receive
$45 per month. The same explanation applies to ship's cooks and
machinists. To qualify in those rates requires that the candidate
shall have passed through the prescribed training at the central
recruiting station as hereafter described.
The rates of electrician and dynamo-tenders seem to be demanded,
as distinguishing them from the engineer's force in official designa-
tion.
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32 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
Our signal corps on board ship is inferior to what it should be.
Something must be done to bring it up to a proper standard. It is
proposed to establish the rate of signalman, with the pay of $27 per
month ; any ordinary seaman, seaman, or apprentice of correspond-
ing rates being eligible, where specially fitted for the position. A
hand-book for quartermasters and signalmen should be officially
gotten up for their instruction and to prescribe the duties of quarter-
masters and signalmen, and the rating of quartermaster should be
held out as an inducement to signalmen to become thoroughly pro-
ficient.
By the system of messing here proposed it is hoped to restore to
the deck force at least 50 per cent of the berth-deck cooks now
allowed. By having all commissioned officers (other than the com-
manding officers) in one mess, and by not assigning warrant officers
and naval cadets to small ships, we can do away with warrant and
junior officers' stewards, cooks and servants. By transferring the
marine guard to a higher sphere of usefulness on shore we can
largely increase the available working force on deck. The need of
doing this in new ships with their crowded living spaces is sufficient
warrant for hoping that sentiment will not stand in the way of com-
mon sense.
With increased pay, comforts and respectability, and with a fairly
attractive career offered to enlisted men, we can hope to attract
intelligent Americans into the navy. With more intelligent men we
can secure a wider range of duties from each individual. With good
raw material everything depends on training. The handling and
fighting of a ship's armament is the true modern basis of the educa-
tion and training of our men. We give too much importance to the
paint-pot, holy-stone, active-topman type of man on the one hand,
and leave all the military training to the marines. The modern
effective unit, the seaman artillerist, must be somewhat of both types,
and very much more than either, not only in military spirit and
exactness, but in professional attainments to a degree not as yet fully
realized. The improvement in the status of our men can and should
end only in placing our service in harmony with the spirit and pur-
poses of our republican institutions. This we can never do as long
as we widen the gap between the officers and men by exacting the
highest standard in the former and the very lowest in the latter.
The new types of ships have done much to emphasize this, but we
must train the men to the ship, not strive by conservatism to check
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 33
the development of the viaieriel simply because it involves radical
changes in methods of training.
Training.
There is neither sufficient time nor room aboard the new ships, in
the exigencies of cruising, to conduct the drilling of recruits system-
atically and thoroughly, particularly in the first few months of a com-
mission when there are so many other things to be looked after. It
would tend, moreover, to secure uniformity, continuity, and thorough-
ness in the preliminary training of men, and would result in the
greater economy in time and labor, if certain drills, up to fixed
standards of efficiency, were given recruits at the central recruiting
stations at New York and Mare Island before drafting them off to
cruising ships. The most serious faults to be contended with in our
service to-day are: first, lack of homogeneity in the crews of ships ;
second, lack of uniformity in drills, routines, etc. ; and third, the
absence of a strictly military purpose in the training of men. The
duties of commissioned and petty officers, and the routine and
details of drills should be thoroughly systematized. What we need
are hand-books on different drills, accessible to officers and men
alike, and a series of short and condensed text-books outlining the
duties of petty officers and what they should be required to know
to qualify in the ratings they hold. In the French service such books
are prepared under government supervision, and sold for a nominal
sum to the men. One gives, for instance, instruction to quarter-
masters and signalmen and all that they ought to know to qualify in
such ratings ; another, instructions to quarter-gunners and gunners'
mates, etc. The application of these books to the practical exami-
nation of candidates for ratings, or to men or boys advanced from
one rating to another, would tend to secure uniformity in the qualifi-
cations for ratings throughout the service. At present it is largely
a matter of the individual ship, and the qualifications demanded are
un-uniform, vague, and not at all thorough, except in special cases.
At the central recruiting stations the preliminary training of
recruits should include setting-up exercise, gymnastics, swimming,
school of the soldier and company, pistol and cutlass drill, single-
sticks, boxing, bayonet exercise, field artillery, machine-gun drill,
aiming and pointing, knowledge of accounts with paymaster, sewing,
care of clothing, and familiarity with routine naval and police duties.
Enclosed pistol-ranges for target practice should be erected at New
34 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
York and Mare Island, and in the preliminary drill in aiming and
pointing of small arms, air guns or parlor rifles should be used to
illustrate the principles of aiming and firing. At Sandy Hook, near
New York, and at the Mare Island Navy Yard, rifle ranges should
be erected, embodying the latest ideas and suited to the requirements
of individual, skirmish and company firings. Systematic firing over
the ranges should be carried on until the men attain a fair ability to
hit a target at various distances. Every endeavor should be made
to familiarize the men with the care, preservation, and use of the
arms they are called upon to handle aboard ship. The course of
instruction at the station should last some three months or more, and
should embrace from four to six hours a day.
Attached to the New York station should be four vessels to be
used in the training of recruits. One should be a transport, to make
the rounds of the recruiting stations at stated intervals, to gather in
the recruits and to take drafts of men to ships along the North
Atlantic coast. The second should be a small steamer of some sort,
mounting a six-inch rifle, and having a small secondary battery con-
sisting of a three- or six-pounder Hotchkiss, a revolving cannon,
and a Gatling, to be used as a gunnery training ship for target prac-
tice for recruits at the station, to cruise out to sea or in Long Island
Sound for a day or so at a time. The third should be either a
sailing vessel, like the Saratoga, or a steamer with practically full sail
power, like the Yantic, to serve as a training ship for recruits. From
time to time recruits should be transferred to her for a cruise of from
three to four months, for instruction in seamanship, alacrity, heaving
the lead, signals, compass, log, knotting and splicing, handling boats,
and the usual duties of a seaman as distinct from the military and
gunnery duties of a man-of-wars-man. The incidental routine gun-
nery drills on board should be somewhat the same as at the station
on shore, such as school of the soldier, small arms, machine-gun drill,
single-sticks, field artillery, etc., to familiarize the men with the drills
in service afloat. Great attention should be paid to boat drill as a
most valuable professional exercise and a most necessary training for
seafaring men. They should be taught to handle and bring boats
alongside in all weather under oars or sail, and to expose themselves
in bad weather in order to give them that confidence which only
comes with a great deal of experience, and with a real knowledge of
how to handle a boat under all conditions. They should be exer-
cised in righting a capsized boat, in jumping overboard to pick up
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 35
Other persons in the water, and in every way encouraged to that fear-
lessness which comes with trained courage rather than heedless
daring. It is easy to exaggerate the virtues of the old system of
training men aloft as compared with the really thorough, athletic and
professional training which men can be given in ordinary ships' boats
under intelligent guidance. It should be as important to train men
to handle a boat as to train a cavalryman to ride a horse.
The fourth ship, more or less attached to the central training
station at New York, should be some modern ship like the Mianto-
nomah or Terror, for the training of the recruits for the engineer's force.
A vessel of this kind, to have routine target practice, must needs put
to sea each quarter anyway, and it is certainly of sufficient import-
ance in the training of the engineer's recruits to justify frequent short
trips to familiarize men with their duties. As all coal-heavers for
the coast are enlisted at New York, and all second-class firemen
should also be so enlisted, it follows that a regular course of training
in steam engineering and preliminary military training should be
established for such recruits. It should go even further. A school
for machinists should be added, and all who qualify in it should
receive the increased pay provided for qualified petty officers. There
is quite as much, if not more call for improvement in the character
and training of men in the engineer's force than in the deck force,
and if we are wise we will wake up to an acknowledgment of the fact.
Another advantage of having thoroughly equipped recruiting
stations at New York and Mare Island is in the ability to provide
for drilling the naval reserve forces at stated periods.
With a large total allowance of 10,000 men in the service, there will
be no difficulty in carrying out this scheme. With a small allowance it
will be impossible, as unexpected demands will be made on the central
station, and men drafted off with little or no training to meet emergen-
cies that are always arising. There must be a wide margin to enable
men to receive proper training. With regard to whether or not'
recruits in service on shore should live in barracks or on receiving-
ships depends entirely on the efficiency of the ships, and whether or
not they can accommodate as many men as may be necessary. The
ships possess many advantages in respect to training, but in the course
of time barracks will have to be built. In that case, the life of the
recruit in barracks should be assimilated as nearly as possible to
service conditions. This whole scheme of preliminary training is
nothing more nor less than the application of the Apprentice Training
System to general service recruits.
36 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
As regards the apprentice training system itself, special efforts must
be made to enlarge and develop it. With the total allowance of
apprentices increased to 1500, and an earnest effort made to retain
the best products of the system in the service, it would become a
most important factor in Americanizing the navy. Modern guns and
appliances, and increased accommodations and facilities for training
are very much needed. The attachment of the Richmond to the
station is a great step in the right direction. The enlargement of the
course for apprentices to qualify in special and artificer class ratings
is demanded by new service conditions.
The seaman-gunners.of to-day are the poorest paid, most seriously
discouraged, and yet the most important class of men in the navy.
Right here must begin a new departure, as this class of men must
form the keystone of our organization. Not only should as many
men as possible be thoroughly trained, as seaman-gunners, but the
course of training should be constantly enlarged and improved, until
our petty officers shall be, as far as possible, recruited from men who
have first qualified in the rating of seaman-gunner.
The present custom is to send continuous-service men just after
re-enlistment to the Navy Yard, Washington, to qualify in ordnance
and gunnery, and to Newport to qualify in torpedoes and electricity.
The applicant must be a seaman or petty officer of the line, under 32
years of age, and be able to read, write and cipher. He is also
required to take out naturalization papers if not already a citizen of
the United States. The course at Newport is very far from what it
ought to be, and is irregular and unsystematic. The working force
at the station is so small that the men are too often utilized for
routine work for it to be profitable to the men in the way of general
training. Certain men make a specialty of learning printing, others
make torpedo fuzes and detonators, and still others run the electric
plant. All this is valuable in its way, but the course, to be a course,
must be uniform, thorough and systematic. More officers are needed
at the station, or else a good deal of the training now given can be
better accomplished at Washington in connection with the advance
and gunnery course. Men frequently qualify at Newport who have
had only a few hours' lecture on electricity and a most theoretical
course in torpedoes. After the men are transferred to sea-going
ships the present pay tables begin to cause mischief. One man gets
the rating of machinist at $70 a month ; three others become oilers
and get $36 ; while others become gunners' mates at $30, armorers
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 37
at $45, printers at $40, yeomen at $60, and writers at $45. The pay
of petty officers of the seaman class, from which these men are
selected or recruited, is so much smaller than that of the special and
artificer classes that the deck force receives little or no benefit from
the seaman-gunner course. The past training has had the effect of
fitting the men best for civil life, and the discouragement of the out-
look in the service has operated to the effect of driving most of them
out of the service at the expiration of their enlistments.
At the Washington Navy Yard great strides have been made
towards the establishment of a proper school for seaman-gunners.
With the target practice on board the Alarm with machine-guns and
six-inch rifle, and the establishment of a rifle range on the Bellvue
magazine reservation, we will soon have in the service a class of
seaman-gunners who are, as they should be, expert artillerists. The
standard should be high, and when a man qualifies he should receive
largely increased pay, especially in ratings of the seaman class. The
shops at the navy yard aflbrd every facility for the mechanical and
technical training needed, and the system of drills carried on by the
seaman-gunners themselves, under supervision of commissioned
officers, gives them the training they need as petty officers. The
discipline is excellent and the results are very promising. The
facilities should, however, be increased and the classes enlarged.
The whole course of instruction of seaman-gunners needs thorough
systematizing, and hand-books should be gotten out as soon as
possible, to aid in the instruction not only of those at Washington
and Newport, but those out in the service who need to freshen up
from time to time and to keep up with the improvements and
changes that are constantly being made.
The circulars of the Bureau of Navigation in relation to target
practice, money prizes, etc., leave nothing to be desired in that
respect excepting that they may be rigidly carried out in the
service. The principal extension of this practical training in prize
firing should now be in the application of the whole system to the
apprentice training squadron and station, the central recruiting
stations for recruits, and the seaman-gunner course at Washington.
Special preliminary training both of recruits and petty officers, with
a view to securing uniformity in the service and of freeing ship's
routine of the elementary drills, is earnestly demanded by modern
conditions.
38 prize essay for 189i.
Organization.
A consideration of the recent tendencies in naval construction
leads inevitably to the conclusion that sail-power cannot play an im-
portant part in the navy of the future. With twin screws which do
not uncouple and cannot trice up, the most we can look for is
auxiliary sail for storm purposes. The Newark is the only square-
rigged vessel of the more recent ships, and every tendency, as shown
by the report of the Policy Board and the plans of vessels contracted
for, is in the direction of restricting sail to a very limited area. The
Squadron of Evolution, in its recent cruise of 16,000 miles, had
every opportunity of testing the utility or futility of square sails,
and a study of the logs of the ships will furnish no grounds for a
return to the Brooklyn or Pensacola types of cruisers. It is not that
sails are obsolete, or that the training of officers and men with spars
and sails must be given up, but it is sacrificing too much to handicap
swift cruisers with sail-power that is only an incumbrance. Officers
and men should be trained aboard sailing ships or auxiliary steamers
at the Naval Academy, Newport, and at the central training stations,
but it is going backwards to put useless sails on swift cruisers for
doubtful advantages in training that can be infinitely better accom-
plished on regular training ships. Strong, reliable and not too com-
plicated engines, good accommodations for the men, strong hulls
with double bottoms, handy and roomy coal-bunkers, increased
ammunition capacity, and improved methods of handling the same —
these are questions alongside of which the importance of the question
of sail-power in a modern swift cruiser dwindles into insignificance.
Indeed, in the matter of coaling ship we have a long way to go.
The demand for water-tight compartments and the continuity of the
armored deck lead not only to most unhandy coal-bunker arrange-
ments, but to difficulties in getting out coal fast enough to maintain
high speeds for considerable runs, and, most important of all, to
utter inability to coal ships in anything like reasonable time. The
spectacle of a swift cruiser like the Philadelphia or Baltimore taking
some three or four days to coal, or even one day, is in itself startling.
If those last quarters of knots of speed which are added for cases
of emergency are worth to the country $50,000 each, at what are we
to value the hours wasted through absurd coaling arrangements at
a critical juncture, when each hour means a loss of 18 knots or so
underway ? Fact is, in any new organization we must frankly come
to it that the coal-bunkers and the means of filling them demand a
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
39
place in our new station bills under the heading " Coaling Ship," just
as " Making Sail " or " Reefing " were of importance in the past. The
coal-shovel, the ammunition-whip, and the lock-string must all have
live men on the ends of them, and alacrity is just as great a factor
as it ever was in naval discipline and efficiency — some think greater.
Probably nothing can show more clearly the tendency of modern
ships in the reduction of living space than the following comparison
of the complements of the Chicago and Philadelphia, each repre-
senting epochs in naval development, and each carrying a crew up to
the full limit of her berthing capacity. The full complement of the
Chicago is 442, and of the Philadelphia 368, both being flag-ships.
The men are distributed as follows :
Watch Petty Officers.
Chi.
Chief boatswain's mates. . . i
Chief quartermasters I
Boatswain's mates 3
Gunner's mates 2
Quartermasters 3
Quarter gunners 6
Ship's corporals 2
Phil.
I
18 17
Petty Officers and Idlers.
Masters-at-arms i
Equipment yeomen i
Engineer's yeomen 2
Paymaster's yeomen 2
Apothecaries i
Captains of hold 2
Ship's cooks I
Baymen 2
Ship's writers i
Barbers i
Jack-of-dust i
Tailors i
Buglers 2
Steward to com.-in-chief.. . i
Cook to " " ..I
Servant to ** " . . i
Cabin steward i
" cook. I
" boy I
Ward-room steward i
Ward-room cook
" " boys
Junior officers' steward. . .
" " cook
" " boys
Warrant officers' steward.
'* «' cook....
" " boy
44 35
Engineer's Force.
Machinists 8 8
Water-tenders 5 3
Oilers 12 12
Boilermakers o i
Blacksmiths 2 2
PMrst-class firemen 12 14
Second-class firemen 15 14
Coal-heavers 36 36
90 90
Deck Force.
Captains of forecastle 2 2
" " tops 4 2
Coxswains 11 9
Seamen 57 36
Ordinary seamen 54 36
Landsmen 26 36
Apprentices 43 4°
197 161
40
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
Mechanics and Dynamo Tenders.
Chi. Phil.
Armorers 2 i
Blacksmiths i i
Carpenter's mates i i
Sailmaker's mates i i
Painters 2 i
Carpenters and caulkers,. . 4 3
Dynamo machinists i i
Oilers for dynamo 3 3
Printers 1 i
16 13
Marines.
Chi. Phil.
Orderly sergeant i i
Sergeants 3 2
Corporals 4 3
Bugler I I
Drummer i i
Privates 46 28
Band
56 36
.21 16
Total 442 368
This comparison needs some explanation. In the first place, the
regular additional allowance for commander-in-chief is 34, distributed
as follows :
Seamen 6
Ordinary seamen 6
Landsmen 2
Band 16
Coxswain... i
Cook I
Steward i
Printer i
Total.
■34
On the Chicago there are 21 in the band, and an engineer's yeoman
is allowed for admiral's writer, making the total allowance 40. On
the Philadelphia, on the other hand, the allowance of six seamen and
six ordinary seamen is disallowed, and the total is only 22. On the
latter, therefore, the barge's crew comes out of the ship's complement.
The Chicago being a gun-deck ship has an extra boatswain's mate
and ship's corporal.
In the revised organization here proposed for our new ships of
from 1200 to 10,000 tons displacement, the principal change is in
basing the organization on the gun instead of on the sail power.
The parts of ship are abolished and gun divisions substituted. The
gun's crew is preserved intact in the entire watch, quarter and station
bill, and constitutes, with the machine-guns' crews of the division, a
section at artillery, a platoon at infantry, a running boat's crew, and
going in the same boat at " arm and away " and " abandon ship."
No special-duty men or excused men should come out of the gun
divisions, which last comprise the entire deck force. All special-
duty men are in the powder or navigator's division, and there are as
few such men allowed as possible, every eifort being made to have a
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 4I
large working deck force. In case the marines are not withdrawn
from service afloat, they should be reduced in numbers and regarded
as special-duty men, which means that they would constitute a divi-
sion of the powder division in the quarter bill, but otherwise be under
the command of their <ewn officer. However, it is assumed that the
marines are to be withdrawn. The important factor to be first dealt
with in adapting our organization to modern conditions is the powder
division. The character and distribution of the chains of ammuni-
tion supply make it obvious that a large number of men are required
to deliver the same to the numerous guns now constituting a modern
ship's battery. Men at the guns are more or less protected
by shields ; men in the ammunition supply are mostly on or above
the protective deck and entirely exposed, as the coal protection
is only furnished the boilers and engines, hence the principal
casualties will be in the powder division. On them will devolve also
largely the care of the wounded passed below in action, yet at all
times the rapid supply of ammunition is of vital importance. This
fact, coupled with the necessity for closing water-tight doors when
about to ram or in any danger of being rammed, just when ammuni-
tion is also most needed with rapidity, leads to the necessity for
drawing on the engineer's force for the reserve for the powder
division in action. Under ordinary circumstances the powder
division must be organized without counting in any of the engineer's
force, which should constitute the reserve, but of all things this
division must not be short-handed. The automobile torpedoes are
mostly handled in the region of the ammunition supply, and the
torpedo division is here included as a division in the powder division.
This brings us to a very important and very necessary change in
the assignment of commissioned officers to divisions.
A consideration of the burden imposed upon an executive officer
of a modern cruiser of large displacement, by the care of the hull
and below decks, and the ever-increasing duties of looking out for
the complicated needs of such a ship, leads inevitably to the con-
clusion that he should in a measure be indirectly relieved by a com-
petent assistant from some of the duties which now bear so hard
upon him. The senior watch officers, from their age and experience
in the service, are entitled to share in these duties, and it is here pro-
posed that, on first and second rates, the officer now corresponding
to senior watch officer hereafter be designated as first lieutenant, and
the executive officer as executive officer only. The first lieutenant
42 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1.
shall have charge of the powder division, but shall not keep a watch.
He shall, under the executive officer, be charged with the discipline
of the lower decks, and of the special-duty and other men who clean,
paint, and police the compartments and inside hull of the ship. He
shall have charge of the general messing system and its inspection ;
shall regulate the ventilation of the ship below decks ; shall have
charge of the water-tight doors, traps, valves, pumps, and drainage
system of the ship ; and shall have charge of the police and sentries
of the ship in the preservation of discipline and in the faithful and
efficient discharge of their duties. He shall serve as senior member
of boards of survey and inspection, summary courts-martial, board
for the examination of seamen and petty officers for ratings to higher
ratings than those held by them ; and shall have personal and direct
supervision of the instruction of landsmen, ordinary seamen, and
apprentices to fit them for higher ratings. The executive officer
shall continue to discharge the same duties as at present. The first
lieutenant is simply to be a well-qualified assistant on whose knowl-
edge and judgment, founded on experience in the service, the execu-
tive officer can rely. The work put on a modern executive officer
simply means that he does as much as flesh and blood can accom-
plish and the rest must be more or less neglected. In most cases
nothing is neglected, but the physical strain is too great and should
be shared by a competent assistant. This is the custom in other
services that might be named, and it is founded on reason and com-
mon sense.
With a modern powder division twice the size of a gun division,
with the care and manipulation of automobile torpedoes added, and
with the various chains of ammunition supply cut off from one
another by the water-tight subdivisions, not to mention the exposed
position of most of the powder division in even armored ships, it is
not too much to say that the first lieutenant should have the assist-
ance of one or more of the junior watch officers, or ensigns not
standing watch, to properly carry out the complicated duties of the
officer in charge. There being no marine officer in the ship, the
duties of such could be incidentally performed by the first lieutenant
as far as supervision and inspection of sentries, etc., is concerned.
Any officer specially qualified in torpedoes should be assigned to the
powder division as assistant in charge of the torpedo division. The
more this scheme of having an officer of rank in charge below decks
is considered, the more it will commend itself to the service at large.
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 43
It is not a new idea in any sense, but we need to adopt it. In view
of the enormous amount of clerical work required at present in the
executive and navigation departments of a ship, two writers should
be allowed, one for the executive officer as now, and the other for
the navigator and first lieutenant, between them.
With regard to the allowed complement of ships there are certain
ratings which should be increased in number. A chief gunner's
mate should be allowed each ship carrying automobile torpedoes,
whether there is a gunner aboard or not. The allowance of quarter
gunners should be one for each large gun of eight inches or over,
one for each pair of five or six inch guns, and one for the secondary
battery. The armorer should also serve with the secondary battery.
Two painters should be allowed to large ships, and the carpenter's
gang increased to six carpenters and caulkers, in addition to the
carpenter's mate, as the duties now required in the iron work and
valves, pumps, etc., are quite additional to the former work of the
gang. The commander-in-chief's additional allowance for new ships
should be as follows :
Coxswains i Cooks i
Seamen, for orderlies 4 Band 16
Landsmen 2 —
Printers i 26
Stewards i
As to the new watch, quarter, and station bill adapted to modern
cruisers and battle-ships of from 1200 to 10,000 tons displacement, a
consideration of the present allowed complements of vessels shows
that the crews are distributed about as follows :
550 to 400 men. 400 to 300 men. 300 to 200 men. 2ootoioomen.
Petty officers, mechanics
and idlers i6perct. iSperct. 22 per ct. 28perct.
Engineer's force 20 " 24 " 26 " 28 "
Marines 10 ** 10 " 10 " 10 "
Deck force 54 " 48 " 42 *' 34 "
Transferring the marines to service on shore and doing away with
as many special-duty men as possible, the new percentages should
be as follows :
44 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
550 to 400 men. 400 to 300 men. 300 to 200 men, 200 to 100 men.
Petty officers, mechanics
and idlers 22perct. 24 per ct. 28perct. 34perct.
Engineer's force 20 " 24 " 26 " 28 "
Deck force 58 " 52 " 46 " 38 "
These figures are of course approximate, but indicate at least the
relative needs of large and small ships. Special conditions will of
course call for a modification of these allowances to suit peculiar
types of ships.
As the gun divisions take the place of parts of the ship, it may be
well to first outline the changes needed in the present watch bill of our
ships. In gun-deck ships, or in turret or barbette ships also carrying
guns in an armored casemate, central citadel or superstructure, there
should be four gun divisions. In all other ships there should be
three. As these gun divisions are to constitute the parts of ship, the
watch numbers of the first division should run from loi to 200 in-
clusive, which would give for the fourth division 401 to 500 inclusive.
The numbers from i to 100 inclusive should be given to petty
officers, mechanics and idlers. Those from i to 24 inclusive should
be for petty officers, mechanics, and idlers who do not stand watch,
and should run as follows :
I. Master-at-arms, 2. Ship's steward,
3. Electrician, 4. Apothecary,
5. Equipment yeoman, 6. Pay yeoman,
7. Chief gunner's mate, 8. Engineer's yeoman,
9. Ship's writer, 10. Ship's writer,
II. Chief quartermaster. 12. Printer,
13. Captain of hold, 14. Captain of hold,
15. Bugler, 16. Bugler,
17. Painter, 18. Painter,
19. Bayman, 20. Bayman,
21. Sailmaker's mate, 22. Tailor,
23. Jack-of-the-dust, 24. Barber.
The watch numbers from 25 to 80 inclusive should embrace the
petty officers, mechanics, and idlers who stand watch at sea, or in
port, or both, as follows :
25. Chief boatswain's mate, 26. Boatswain's mate,
27. Boatswain's mate, 28. " "
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1891.
45
29. Gunner's mate,
31. Armorer,
33. Quarter gunner,
35-
37.
39. "
41.
43. Quartermaster,
45-
47. Signalman,
49.
51. Ship's corporal,
53. "
55- "
57- "
59. Dynamo tender,
61.
63. Carpenter's mate,
65. Carpenter and caulker,
67.
69.
71. Seaman, steam launch,
73. Side cleaner,
75. "
77. Messenger,
79.
30. Gunner's mate,
32, Armorer,
34. Quarter gunner,
36. "
38. "
40.
42.
44. Quartermaster,
46.
48. Signalman,
50.
52. Ship's corporal,
54- "
56. " ■ "
58. "
60. Dynamo tender,
62.
64. Carpenter and caulker,
66.
68.
70. Coxswain of steam launch,
72. Ordinary seaman, steam launch,
74. Side cleaner,
76. "
78. Messenger,
80.
The numbers from 81 to 100 should include the ship's messmen,
as follows :
81. Ship's cook,
82.
Sh:
ip's cook's assistant,
83. Pantryman,
84.
Baker,
85. Messmfen,
86.
Messmen,
87.
88.
89. "
90.
91. "
92.
93. "
94.
95. "
96.
97.
98.
...
99.
100.
...
46 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
The watch numbers from 501 to 600 inclusive should be distributed
as follows :
From 501 to 550, the marine guard, or, in case the guard is with-
drawn, those having corresponding duties should be here enrolled.
In the latter case this group should contain numbers for four flag
orderlies, four cabin orderlies, and one mail orderly. The other
numbers should be reserved for the compartment men. From 551
to 570 inclusive should be the band numbers, and from 571 to 600
inclusive the cooks, stewards and servants, exactly as in the present
watch bill.
The numbers from 600 upwards should be the engineer's force.
The quarter bill should be, in respect to names, a copy of the
watch bill for the gun divisions, with one quarter gunner added for
each division. The remainder of the crew, exclusive of the engineer's
force, should be in the powder, navigator's, or torpedo division.
There it no necessity in a modern man-of-war for a large navi-
gator's division. In action everything is now controlled from an
armored fighting-tower, and the handling of the ship is confined to
very few people. The custom now is to assign one or more machine
guns to this division. It is here proposed that the following men
compose the navigator's division : the chief boatswain's mate, chief
quartermaster, carpenter's mate, and one carpenter and caulker, four
quartermasters, four signalmen, four messengers, one ship's writer,
two buglers and an armorer, in all nineteen men as a maximum. It
will be found that these are the men most needed on the spar-deck
in emergencies likely to arise in action. The allowance of four
messengers is meant to cover the necessity in large ships for two
for the officer-of-the-deck and two for the executive officer. An
armorer should be handy in case of accident to the mechanism of
guns or gun-carriages. The carpenter's mate and assistant should
be on the spar-deck under the control of the commanding, executive,
or navigating officer, to receive directions as to trimming the ship, in
case of accident, by pumping out or letting water into certain com-
partments, under the supervision of the carpenter, who should also
be attached to the navigator's division as an aid.
The torpedo division should be incorporated in the powder divi-
sion, under the immediate control of the torpedo officer, but under
the command of the first lieutenant, as being on the protective deck.
It should consist of the following men: chief gunner's mate, one
ship's writer, two dynamo tenders, two ship's corporals, and all the
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 1 89 1. 47
special compartment men, including also the mail orderly and four
side-cleaners, in all about eighteen men. While in a special way this
division will be called upon in action, at more or less close quarters,
to manipulate torpedoes, yet their general duties at all other times
should also be to close water-tight doors, rig pumps, close air-duct
valves, etc., on signal from deck, or by order of the first lieutenant,
where necessary in cases of emergency, as best determined by those
below. This division will also act as aids to the wounded sent
below or belonging to the powder division. This implies that the
torpedo division will be scattered throughout the length of the ship
on the protective deck. That is as it should be, as by special signal
the men can be called together when about to discharge one or more
torpedoes. Men in the powder division whose stations in action are
on the protective deck should also be detailed to close water-tight
doors, etc., on special signal, as it is important that two men be
assigned to perform one duty of this kind, to decrease the chances of
failure through the absence of one or the other. In case there are no
torpedoes furnished the ship, the men here named as constituting the
torpedo division would, of course, be assigned directly to the powder
division.
The powder division should be composed of those men whose
watch numbers range fromi i to 100 and 500 to 600 not otherwise
assigned to the navigator's or torpedo division. The coal-heavers
and first and second-class firemen of one division of the engineer's
force should constitute the reserve of the powder division, to be
drawn on in case of necessity. The steam launch's crew, though
assigned to the powder division, are only nominally in it. In port
the steam launch is generally busy, and at sea and in action this
crew should be stationed in the steering-engine compartment. At
sea they should stand in three watches, to oil and tend the steam-
steering gear, and to stand by to shift from steam to hand gear in
cases of emergency. In action all three should be there for the same
purpose, with the additional duties of connecting up the preventer-
tiller ropes or relieving tackles, or in assisting to ship the spare tiller
in case of accident to both the ordinary hand and steam gear.
The engineer's division in the new watch and quarter bills should
be assigned more space than is now given in the present bills.
In relation to the fire bill, only one remark seems called for in the
arrangement and running of steam hose. The latter is kept in racks
usually some Uttle distance from the fire-plugs on the steam-main,
48 PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I.
and in the course of numerous drills the threads are stripped in
coupling up hastily. It is here suggested that the pipe leading from
the fire-main to each fire-plug be branched, with a valve on each
branch. To one fire-plug the fire-hose should always be kept
coupled and neatly made up, but handy in case of fire, with nozzle
attached ready for running. The other plug should be used for
washing decks, etc.
One boat bill should answer for " Running boats," "Arm and
away," and "Abandon ship." The same crew should go in each boat
under all three circumstances, but in other than running boats the
additional men should be indicated by watch numbers under the
sub-headings "Arm and away " and "Abandon ship." A boat's
crew should be picked from each watch of a gun division, which is
practically the same thing as assigning a gun's crew to a boat. The
steam launch and sailing launch should be manned from the powder
division. The gig's, barge's and dinghy's crews should come from
the gun divisions equally, preferably from the machine-guns' crews.
Ships should be furnished with small boats pulhng double sculls for
purposes where they readily take the place of larger boats during
drill hours and after dark. The life-rafts, etc., for abandoning ship
should belong to the navigator's, powder, and torpedo divisions.
In the organization of the battalion, the powder division should
constitute the artillery and the ammunition supply; the navigator's,
the color guard ; and the pioneer's should be taken from the
mechanics and engineer's force. Each gun division should consti-
tute a company of infantry.
In the station bill such changes in the watch numbers should be
made as to make it correspond with the new watch bill. To what
are already given in the station bill as evolutions, should be added
" Closing water-tight doors " and " Coaling ship." In coaling ship with '
the ship's company, as few should be excused from work as possible.
In summarizing what has been here proposed, it may be stated in
a general way that the object sought is to secure for our ships (i)
homogeneous crews composed of men who are Americans, or who
have declared their intention of becoming citizens of the United
States ; (2) uniformity in the organization and drills of ships, in the
training of men, and in the requirements for advancing men from one
rate to another ; (3) such improved comforts and consideration as will
increase the real efficiency of the crews, and render the service more
attractive than at present ; (4) the retention of men in the service for
life by making a career for them as men-of-wars-men.
PRIZE ESSAY FOR 189I. 49
Much remains to be done in raising the tone of first-class and other
petty officers, by weeding out and getting rid of untrustworthy and
dissolute men, and by granting to those deserving it, every privilege
consistent with the maintenance of efficiency and discipline. In the
case of second-class petty officers, their mustering uniform should be
the same as for first-class petty officers, excepting, of course, the devices
or rank marks. Men on sentry duty should wear a belt and cutlass.
This applies equally to ship's corporals at all times, and to coxswains
and quartermasters on watch. Men in the gun divisions should wear
on the sleeve, corresponding to their watch, the figures i, 2, 3, or 4, in
white, according to the number of the division they are in, and this
in place of the present white tape watch-mark. Men on the sick list
should be required to wear the white band with red cross as prescribed.
In any discussion of the needs of the service, due regard must be
had to the quiet revolution that is going on in our profession.
Whether we close our eyes or not to the inevitable, we will never have
an efficient navy until we infuse more of a military spirit into it, and
until we recognize that we must provide a career for the men, with
rewards and pensions for service as substantial relatively as those
provided for officers.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART,
CONSTRUCTED FOR THE ORDNANCE
DEPARTMENT.
By Lieutenant W. W. Kimball, U. S. Navy.
The cart was designed to illustrate an attempted solution of the
problem of " How, in these times of rapid-firing arms of precision,
shall the infantry fighting line be supplied with ammunition?"
Before discussing the device, it will be well to briefly glance at the
main limiting conditions of the problem, and incidentally at the way
they are generally met.
On the march there is, of course, no more difficulty about trans-
porting ammunition by animal draft than about moving any other
weights ; but after the fight begins, animals cannot be depended
upon to get nearer than 2000 yards to the enemy's position, while
the ammunition will be wanted well up to the front — wherever the
line may be when the regular person-borne supply begins to run out
— anywhere from 600 to 1200 yards from the hostile lines.
The Systems of the French and German armies may be quoted as
examples of the generally approved methods for supplying the
fighting lines. In these armies, apart from the ammunition regu-
larly issued to the troops, the entire field supply transported in the
battalion ammunition wagons, company baggage wagons, ammuni-
tion columns, and park reserves, amounts to 99 and 97 rounds per
man, of which 18 rounds for the French and 20 rounds for the
Germans are carried in the battalion ammunition wagons.
The German regulations provide that, " Before action is com-
menced, the ammunition wagons of a regiment are united under a
mounted officer, in a secure position about 900 yards in rear of the
fighting troops. In case of need they must be taken to the fighting
52 NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART.
line regardless of loss. The cartridges are taken to the front by
men from each company ; and supports sent on to the fighting line
should take with them cartridges for those already engaged."
In the French army the rule is, " In action the battalion ammuni-
tion wagons are grouped together not more than iioo yards to the
rear. In case of necessity they may be ordered right up to the
fighting line. Cartridge-bearers must be furnished by the companies
in reserve, and are provided with double haversacks, kept in the
wagons, and capable of containing 360 rounds. After carrying the
ammunition to the fighting line and distributing it, the bearers must
return for more."
Of these two typical systems it may be remarked that, if the line
to be supplied was up within 800 yards of the enemy, the attempt to
take animal-drawn wagons up to it in the face of the fire of fairly
good modern-armed infantry — no matter how great the need might
be that " they must be taken to the fighting line regardless of loss '
— would prove very expensive in men, animals and material, and
would result in little, if any, ammunition supply to the line.
In regard to the ammunition-bearers, it is to be noted that their
chance of arrival is better than that of the wagons, in the proportion
that the target exposed by a man is harder to strike than the one
presented by a team ; and that it requires a bearer for each 360 or
400 rounds carried from the wagons to the line.
Assuming, then, that men, not animals, must be employed within
effective ranges, the question for consideration becomes one of
advancing a given amount of ammunition from 800 to 1400 yards
across a fire-swept zone and distributing it to the line in the shortest
practicable time and with the greatest economy in the use of the
ammunition detail.
The accompanying illustrations show that the device employed in
the experimental vehicle is the using of specially constructed wheel-
barrows, capable of being coupled together to form a cart for animal-
draft on the march, and readily uncoupled for man-propulsion across
the fire-swept zone. As the barrow has but one point of contact
with the ground, it is readily passed around and between obstruc-
tions, and can be taken nearly anywhere that a loaded ammunition-
bearer can go, while it is to be borne in mind that if the barrow be
stopped by an obstacle impassable for it, but practicable for bearers,
the bearers may be used from the obstacle to the front, instead of all
the way from the train to the fighting line.
NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART. 53
In regard to economy of time and ammunition detail, it has
been found by experiment that, under ordinary service conditions of
ground, two men with a barrow can move 4000 rounds a half mile
in less time than they can carry 800 rounds the same distance.
When deep mud or very steep up-grades are encountered, the
advantage of the barrow is decreased ; on fairly firm turf, on hard
ground, and on easy down-grades, it is increased. Averaging con-
ditions of ground, the barrow has, in economy of time and men,
about 5 to I in its favor over the borne-ammunition method.
These barrows are provided with a mechanical distributing device,
by which the ammunition can be dropped at will in lots of two hun-
dred rounds for each pull on the handles, and an automatic attach-
ment by which the same distribution unit is dropped at each revolu-
tion of the wheel, so that the distribution can be made with the
barrow-men on a dead run, and their time of entire exposure to fire
decreased to a minimum.
The distributing device is a simple ratchet lever and draw-bar
arrangement which releases in succession the traps which form the
bottoms of the cells, each of which contains a unit of distribution of
200 rounds. The succession of the several releases is such that the
center of gravity of the whole barrow-load is never altered, except
by an amount due to the dropping of one unit of distribution, an
amount which is entirely corrected as the next unit falls.
The device is simple and not liable to get out of order by exposure
to v/eather, dust and mud ; still it is not wholly positive in its action,
since a return-spring is used to save the man from having to think
of a necessary movement. On the whole, the mechanical distribu-
tion, although it does save time under fire, is of doubtful utility,
because it might unexpectedly fail in its functions, and because the
use of it, no matter what may be the distribution unit employed,
demands the cellular arrangement of the barrow-caissons.
It would seem preferable to employ a light angle-steel frame
instead of the caissons, the frames arranged to receive 500 round
wooden factory boxes of the proper dimensions for use on the
barrow. In such boxes the cartridges would be collected in good
packing units for factory and depot accounting and stowage pur-
poses, in packages not too heavy for a man to pick up and carry
some distance, in convenient bulks for rail or other transport ; and
they would be always ready for quick transfer to the carts, formed
of barrows, would keep dry when so transferred for any length of
54 NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART.
time in any weather, and would never leave their factory packing
until they were delivered to the troops on the fighting line or
anywhere else.
When the boxes were placed on the carts the cover-screws would
be removed and the covers held in place by the angle-steels and
retaining bolts only ; so that, when a box was thrown off on the
line, the men could get at the cartridges without having recourse to
the always lost and much inquired-for screw-driver.
It is doubtful whether the fore-and-aft barrow-shafts are preferable
to the cross-bar arrangement shown in Plate V. The shafts allow
the barrow to pass through long, narrow spaces and separate the
barrow-men more while distributing along the line, although they
place one man directly in rear of the other in the advance to the
line; the cross-bar is simpler of construction, gives better side
support, and allows shorter turns to be made. On trial through
ordinary New England woodland there was no very noticeable
difference in the ease with which the way among the trunks and
stumps could be threaded, whether using the shafts or the bar.
As the barrows are emptied of ammunition they may be thrown
down upon the field as the detail joins the fighting line, and collected
to couple up into carts after the action. The use of the empty bar-
rows in clearing up the field reduces the stretcher detail one-half,
since with a barrow with stretchers rigged (Plate VI) a detail of two
can take two wounded to the hospital, or two dead to the trench, in
less time than it can take one on a borne stretcher. As was satis-
factorily shown on trial at Governor's Island, there is no difficulty
whatever in using the barrow with only one stretcher loaded when
collecting the wounded or dead.
The empty barrows with stretchers in place could upon occasion
be used for moving sand-bags, or fire-wood, or for any small trans-
port work about the field.
The shaft frame for animal-draft of this cart was made to take two
barrows with the folding shafts shown in the illustrations, and for
such barrows the travois-like arrangement answers the purpose
fairly well.
In a design for a trial of the barrow device abroad, a pole replaces
the shafts, the travois extension from the cross-piece is not used,
and four barrows, the two outer ones tracking with the field artillery,
are coupled to the cross-piece by eyes and bolts, and held normally
at right angles to the pole in the vertical plane by spring struts,
NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART. 55
which allow a certain amount of independent vertical motion to the
barrows, for the purpose of decreasing lateral strains when any one
of them passes over an obstruction such as a stone or a stump.
With such a battalion cart, two good horses, with the driver
mounted on the near one, can take 16,000 rounds — a 20-round
supply for a battalion 800 strong — over country impassable for a
wagon, and have the ammunition always ready for rapid distribution
by an eight-men detail.
The general design of the barrow with the large wheel, centrally
borne load and consequently small axle, was originally worked out
to provide a means for allowing a reduction in the large draft-crews
now necessary for the machine guns and one-pounders in our naval
landing parties, and for decreasing the targets presented by the
pieces in action.
Take the service one-pounder as an example. The piece, the trail
mount consisting of low support socket, pivot and recoil brace, and
100 rounds of ammunition, loaded upon a barrow, could be taken
over rougher country than is practicable for the present field carriage,
and on the march the crew of six men would be obliged to exert less
effort per man than does the present crew of double the number.
In going into action, the barrow could be rushed forward to an
ordinary shelter trench made by the advanced infantry, the piece
tripod and ammunition boxes thrown off, the barrow thrown down
on its side, the piece mounted on its low mount and served by its
crew lying down, and thus as much invisibility and cover secured
from a 22-inch shelter trench parapet as it gives to infantry.
Or the piece and mount could be placed on one very light barrow,
and the ammunition — 150 rounds — on another. On the march the
two could be coupled together, or handled separately, according to
conditions of route. In the rush forward into action, the barrows
would be manned separately with a crew of three men each, which
would allow them to arrive if each crew lost a man in the advance.
Of course, the use of barrows is applicable to any pieces which
must be gotten well forward to have them effective, and which must
expose as little target as possible in order to be able to remain well
forward. Such rifle caliber machine guns as the Maxim, the Pratt
Whitney, the Gardner, and the Nordenfelt can be handled in like
manner to that above described for the one-pounder. The Catling
and its ammunition can well be transported on the barrows, but that
gun cannot be served by a prone crew, because the mount must be
56 NOTES ON AN EXPERIMENTAL AMMUNITION CART.
waist high, and the crank-man must stand in order to be able to put
his full effort on the crank and so bring out the full power of the
piece. Although the barrow-wheel has a large diameter, the barrow
frame is so narrow that the whole device would stow better and
occupy much less available space aboard ship than does the trail-
carriage ; and the arrangement of the load is such as to allow its
separation into convenient weights for stowing in boats, or for passing
across or over streams, marshes, ditches and walls.
The system will be tried abroad, and if approved by foreign
navies, may then, possibly, be domesticated in our own service.
TITLES OF PLATES — KIMBALL AMMUNITION VEHICLE.
No. I. — "Ammunition detail to the train !" Men at the cart.
No. 2. — " Unlimber and advance to the line !" a. Unlimbering ;
d. Advancing.
No. 3. — " Obstacle ! Double the detail to pass !" a. Passing
obstacle; d. Barrow awaiting return of double detail after a has
passed obstacle.
No. 4. — " On the line and distribute !" a. Automatic distribution,
dropping 200 rounds at each revolution of the wheel ; d. Distribu-
tion at will.
No. 5. — Shafts and distributing gear carried away. " Distribute
by hand ! Forward !" a. Distributing by hand ; d. Forward.
No. 6. — After the action. " Clear up the field !" a. Barrow as
thrown down after being emptied when the detail joined the fighting
line ; d. Wounded to hospital, or dead to the trench.
SPECIAL NOTICE.
NAVAL INSTITUTE PRIZE ESSAY, 1892.
A prize of one hundred dollars, with a gold medal, is offered by the Naval
Institute for the best essay presented on any subject pertaining to the naval
profession, subject to the following rules :
1. The award for the Prize shall be made by the Board of Control, voting by
ballot and without knowledge of the names of the competitors.
2. Each competitor to send his essay in a sealed envelope to the Secretary
and Treasurer on or before January i, 1892. The name of the writer shall
not be given in this envelope, but instead thereof a motto. Accompanying the
essay a separate sealed envelope will be sent to the Secretary and Treasurer,
with the motto on the outside and writer's name and motto inside. This
envelope is not to be opened until after the decision of the Board.
3. The successful essay to be published in the Proceedings of the Institute;
and the essays of other competitors, receiving honorable mention, to be pub-
lished also, at the discretion of the Board of Control ; and no change shall be
made in the text of any competitive essay, published in the Proceedings of
the Institute, after it leaves the hands of the Board.
4. Any essay not having received honorable mention, may be published
also, at the discretion of the Board of Control, but only with the consent of
the author.
5. The essay is limited to fifty (50) printed pages of the Proceedings
of the Institute.
6. All essays submitted must be either type-written or copied in a clear and
legible hand.
7. The successful competitor will be made a Life Member of the Institute.
8. In the event of the Prize being awarded to the winner of a previous year,
a gold clasp, suitably engraved, will be given in lieu of a gold medal.
By direction of Board of Control.
H. G. Dresel,
Ensign, U. S. N., Secretary and Treasurer.
Annapolis, Md., February 13, 1891.
^ F
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
SIACCrS BALLISTIC EQUATIONS.
By Prof. Wm. Woolsey Johnson, U. S. Naval Academy.
The following is an account of the mode in which Major Siacci
derives his ballistic formulae in the second edition of " Balistica,"
published at Turin in 1888. A few changes have been made in the
notation.
It is assumed as usual that, <5 denoting the density of the air and
fl^the diameter of the projectile, the resistance of the air for similar
projectiles is proportional to Sd"^. The retardation, found by dividing
the resistance by the mass, is therefore proportional to or -^ ,
where C is the ballistic coefficient. Again, for projectiles having the
same velocity, the same diameter and weight, but different forms,
the retardations are proportional to the values of a coefficient i de-
pending upon the form of the projectile. Representing, then, the
retardation byy(z/), a function of the velocity, we may write
/Cv) = ^ F{v\
so that Fiv) is a function of v, independent of the form, weight and
dimensions of the projectile, and of the density of the air.
Now, <p denoting the inclination to the axis of x of the trajectory
at the point ix,y), the equations of motion are
d (v cos y)
di
d (v sin sp)
di
Eliminating/(z/),
-/(v) cos <p,
(I)
-f{v) sin ip -
-£■. (2)
I (v cos ?>) =
— gv cos <p di,
58 SIACCl'S BALLISTIC EQUATIONS.
and, dividing by v^ cos^ ^,
,v %m. (p _ gdt
V cos ip V cos (p
or
sec'' (p d(p ^^ — ^ sec ^ dt,
whence
gdt = — V sec f d(p. (3)
Substituting in (i), we have
gd{y cos f) =if(v')vdf, . (4)
the differential equation connecting v and ?>.
If this equation could be integrated, v would become a known
function of <p, and then / could be found from (3) by quadrature, and
in like manner x could be found from the equation
gdx = gv cos <p dt =^ — v^df, (5)
and y from
dy =. tan f dx. (6)
But, since (4) cannot be integrated, it is necessary to have recourse
to approximate integration.
First substituting in (4) the value oif{y)^ and introducing a new
variable z, such that
V cos (p = 2 COS 0, (7)
where 6 is the initial value oi <p, or "angle of projection," we have
gdz — -^ F(v)z — '- — , (8)
* C ^ ^ cos <p
and, by the change of variable from v to z, (3) and (5) become
gdt=- z cos 0 -^ , (9)
* cos^ <P
gdx = - z" cos' 0 -^ . (10)
* cos (p
The new variable ^ is a fixed multiple of the horizontal velocity,
and may be described as the component of the velocity in the direc-
tion of the initial tangent or line of projection when the other co7npo-
nent is vertical. It is known as the pseudo-velocity: its value
coincides with that of the velocity at the origin and at the point in
the descending branch where w = — 0; between these points its
value exceeds that of the velocity.
SIACCIS BALLISTIC EQUATIONS. 59
In order to reduce (8) to an integrable relation between the two
variables z and (f, Siacci puts
F(v) = ^F{^z)''-^^, (II)
^ ' ' "^ ' cos <p
in which /5, which in general has a very restricted range of variation,
is assumed to be constant. The equation thus becomes
, 5//3 cos'' 0 T-, ^ '^'"
gdz = y^ zF(2)
C ^ -^ cos'' <p
d<p _ C gdz
cos^ (p ~ dij3 cos'' 6 zF(^z) '
(12)
and, substituting in (9) and (10), we have
and
Now putting
^^- dzi3 cos OF{zy ^^^^
dx=--f._^#.. (14)
in which C is assumed constant and is called the reduced ballistic
coefficient, and denoting the integrals
_ r zdz _ r 2gdz _ dz
~ ]T(z)' ~~ ]JF(^' W)'
by
respectively, the integrals (reckoned from the origin where z =^ V)
of equations (12), (13) and (14) are
tan ^ - tan 6^ = - ^-^^ [/. - /r], (15)
i= -^AT,- Ty], (16)
cos 6 ^ •' ^
X= C'lS^-Sy-]. (17)
Moreover, multiplying (15) by the differential of (17), equation (6)
gives
^ - ^;i: tan ^ = ^^ [/, - ly] dS/,
■^ 2 cos' ^ ■- -^
and writing A, for
l^^^"., or -i^^>
6o SIACCl'S BALLISTIC EQUATIONS.
the integral of this is
or, dividing by (17),
V C
Equations (15), (16), (17J and (18), together with (7), or
cos 6 ,
v = z , (19)
COS (f -^
are the ballistic formulae expressing x,y, cc, t and v in terms of the
auxiliary variable z. They are to be used in connection with Bal-
listic Tables containing the numerical values of S, A, /and T for
all values of z.
Of these equations, which were first published in 1880 (Giornale
d'Artiglieria e Genio, P. II), the author says: "The arithmetical
operations which they require are of the most simple kind; they are
besides independent of the expressions for the resistance of the air,
and therefore will not change, however much, with the progress of
studies upon the resistance of the air, it may be necessary to change
these expressions, which in fact will influence only the numerical
values in the ballistic table. This table, indeed, may be constructed
whatever be the resistance adopted, be it expressed by a single
formula of any kind for all velocities, or by several formulae according
to the limits of the velocity itself, or even be it not expressed by any
formula, but only given numerically in correspondence with the
numerical value of the velocity."
Supposing the ballistic tables to be correct, the approximative
character of the method is due entirely to the quantity /5, whose
value, defined by equation (11), is
Fjy) cosy>
^~ F{z) cos'' 5*
It is known that the retardation varies with a power of the velocity
higher than the second, except for very high and very low velocities,
in which cases it varies simply as the square of the velocity. Hence,
K(y) is generally an increasing function of z^. Substituting, we have
since v cos <p =^ z cos d.
v^^ cos^ _ K{v)
z'Kiz) cos^ 0 - Kiz) ^^^ ^'
SIACCIS BALLISTIC EQUATIONS. 6l
At the origin ip = 6 and z = v; whence /3 = sec B, which exceeds
unity. At the vertex ^ = o and z'> v; whence /S = ^ ^ and is less
J\.\Z)
than unity. To obtain exact results we ought in each formula to
employ some mean value of /5 between the greatest and least value
which occur within the limits of the arc of the trajectory under con-
sideration. This mean value, which depends also upon the formula
used, can of course in no case be exactly obtained. Confining his
attention, however, to that which should be employed when, of the
three quantities, the range, the initial velocity and the angle of pro-
jection, two are given and one is sought, the author shows that we
may take /? = i for angles of projection less than 20° in connection
with usual initial velocities.
ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION IN ORDER THAT THE
TRAJECTORY IN AIR SHALL PASS THROUGH
A GIVEN POINT.
By Professor Wm. Woolsey Johnson.
I. Siacci's formulae for x and y, equations (17) and (18) of the
preceding resumg, are
x^ ClS,-Sy'\,
Suppose the values of x and y for a point of the trajectory, that is,
the coordinates of a point to be hit (as well as the initial velocity,
V, and the reduced ballistic coefficient, C), to be known, and let it
be required to find the value of 0. Putting s for the inclination to
the horizon of the " line of sight," or line joining {x^y') to the origin,
we have
tan s -^^ —',
X '
and the equations may be written
* n . ^' sec' 0 FA, — Ay r~\
tan ^ ~ tan . = — ^— [-;^zr3v - ^'J ' ^^^
S,:==Sy^^, (I)
62 ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION.
Denoting by a "the angle of elevation," or angle between the line
of sight and the axis of the bore at the moment the projectile leaves
the muzzle, we have
^ = -y + «; (3)
whence
tan d — tan s
tan a = — — — .
I + tan 0 tan ^
Therefore, dividing by i + tan 0 tan s, equation (2) may be written
i+tan'^ C FA, — Ay ^1 /^
^^" " = I + tan ^ tan . T [^^^^ ~ d " ^^^
Put
I + tan' 0
I + e.
I + tan 0 tan a
Subtracting unity from each member,
tan 0 (tan 0 — tan s') ^ _ ^
e = 1^^- 77- = tan 6* tan a .
I + tan 0 tan ^
If then we put
equation (4) may be written
tan a = (i + e') tan Qj, (6)
where
e = tan a tan (a + s). (7)
These formulae give the following method of computing a: By
means of the ballistic tables we find z from equation (i), and then
tan ai from equation (5). Now beginning with an approximate value
of a (say «i, since £ is small), we compute £ by (7) and then a by (6).
If the value of a so found differs considerably from the approximate
value used in computing e, this quantity may be recomputed and so
on until the value of log (i + e) is no longer changed, and (6) then
gives the true value of a. [If a table of" addition logarithms" is at
hand, the value of log (i + e) is found directly corresponding to the
argument colog e, and will be seen to vary very slowly.]
2. The angle a is always positive, hence e in (7) is positive when s
is positive, and also when ^ is negative and numerically less than a ;
in these cases therefore a is greater than a^. When s = — a, e
vanishes and a = a^; this occurs when 0 = 0, the origin then being
the vertex of the trajectory. For greater negative values of s, e is
negative and a less than Oj.
ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION. 63
When s = 0, equation (2) gives the usual formula for a given hori-
zontal range: namely, denoting the corresponding value of 6* by y,
this is
(8)
^^^^^=^'[3^r^'-^^]-
3. It has been usual to employ in the general case when s is not
zero, the hypothesis of the " rigidity of the trajectory." This hypo-
thesis consists in the assumption that if we find a for any horizontal
range, that is, when s = 0, and then keeping a constant let s increase
from o, the trajectory will be rotated about the origin without change
of form, so that the range upon the line inclined at the angle ^ will
remain unchanged. The value of a upon this hypothesis is there-
fore the same as that of ^ above, except that for x we should put the
actual distance
X= */(x' +y} = xsecs.
Denoting by Z the corresponding value of z as given by equation
(i), this angle, which we shall denote by a', is determined by
''=^'[t^'-^']-
(9)
This is a convenient approximation to a when a Range Table,
computed for the given values of C and V, is at hand. But it is to
be noticed that such a table may be used instead of the ballistic table
in connection with the exact method given above; for, comparing
equations (5) and (8), we see that
tan a^ = isin2r; (10)
hence, taking from the range table y instead of a' (that is, using the
horizontal instead of the actual distance^, we readily obtain tan a^,
and we can then proceed as before to find a from equations (6) and
(7). When this is done, y will be a better approximation than a^,
with which to commence the computation of e, when s has a positive
or a small negative value ; for (lo) shows that y is always greater
than ai, and, as will be shown below, y is less than a when s is positive,
being equal to a when s = o.
4. In order to discuss the degree of approximation of a' the result
of the rigidity hypothesis, we shall first compare a with y. Writing
equation (10) in the form
tan y = tan a^ sec^ y,
64 ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION.
and dividing (6) by this equation, we have
tan a __ I + tan a tan (a + s)
tan y ~ i + tan^ y '
whence
tan a — tan y = tan a tan y [tan (a + s') — tan y"] . (i i)
Since « and ?' are positive, tan (a + s) — tan /' and tan a — tan 7'
have the same sign, therefore y is not intermediate in value to a and
a + ^; and since in all practical cases tana tany <i, /' is nearer to
a than to a + s; that is to say, y is less than a whe?i s is positive, and
greater than a when s is negative.
Thus, if we put
a = r + ^,
5 has the same sign as s. The value of 5 when s is small is readily
obtained from equation (11). The first member becomes
tan y 4- tan '5 tan 0(1+ tan'' y)
tan a — tan /- = ; — tan r = r tt •
I — tan y tan o i — tan y tan 8
Making a similar reduction in the second member, we have
tan d ^ , , s.^ . I — tan r tan d
tan(o+.) = '^^ ^^ + '^ '^" ^-tanrtan (.- + .)'
which, putting s = o, and therefore d = o, gives the vanishing ratio
3 +
s-'--
U f .
Therefore,
when
s is small.
3(1-
tan' r)
= ^ tan'
r,
d =
^,sin'
cos
2r*
We may therefore write
a =
y + s-
sinV
(12)
cos 2;'
which is a very good approximation to a, being in fact the first two
terms of the development of a in powers of J.
5. Now since a' corresponds to the actual distance X, of which x
(to which y corresponds) is the minimum value when s varies, a' is
always greater than y except when j = o ; and if a' were developed
in powers of s, it would be of the form
a' = y + As- + etc., (13)
ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION. 65
containing no term of the first degree. Comparing this with equa-
tion (12), we see that for negative values of ^, «' is further from a than
Y is, and that when s is positive and small, a' is less than a, although
for larger values of ^ it may exceed a.
Moreover, the employment of equation (12), which in all cases gives
a close approximation, involves scarcely more labor, when a range
table is used, than the finding of a', supposing x and s to be given.
The locus for which y is constant is a vertical straight line. Equa-
tion (12) shows that a must increase and decrease with x in order
to hit points on this vertical line. Hence if a remains constant, the
abscissa of the point hit will decrease as s increases and increase as s
decreases ; that is to say, the locus of the point in which the trajec-
tory cuts the line of sight is a curve cutting the axis of x at an
obtuse angle. This is in conformity with the case of the unresisted
trajectory, for which this locus is known to be a parabola with its
axis vertical and cutting the axis of .;*: again at the origin. See Ext.
Ballistics, Meigs-Ingersoll, p. 15.
The hypothesis of the rigidity of the trajectory of course assumes
this locus for a constant value of a to be a circle whose centre is at
the origin, and it is possible that this circle may cut the true locus in
a point above the axis oi x.
6. As an illustration, I have computed the values of the angles
considered above by means of Ingersoll's Ballistic Tables for the
100-pound 6-inch shell of standard form, fired with an initial velocity
of 2000 f. s. to hit the point for which x = 3500 yards, jj/ = 500 yards,
the value of s being therefore tan~^ 1 or 8° 7' 48". The results are
as follows: Computing a by the method of §1, we find
«i = 3° 27' 42",
and using this to compute e, we find at first « = 3° 30' 16", and
recomputing s, finally
a = 3° 30' 18".
The computed value of y (which we should find directly in a
Range Table) is
r = 3° 28' 27";
the value of (5 is found to be i' 48", so that equation (12) gives
« = 3° 30' 15".
The value of a' is
a' =3° 31' 24".
66 ON THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION.
which is greater than a, a result which, as indicated above, is ren-
dered possible by the very considerable value of ^.
As a second illustration, if the sign ofy be changed, the other data
remaining the same, so that ^ = — 8° 7' 48", we have of course the
same value of «i, and computing s, we find at once
a = 3° 26' 40",
which is unchanged by a recomputation of s. The value of y is the
same as before, and d has its sign changed so that equation (12) gives '■
a = 3° 26' 39".
The value of «' is the same as before, namely,
'^' = 3° 31' 24",
which is now far out of the way.
The value of /5 in the computation was taken as unity, although
this mean value is recommended by Siacci only for the horizontal
range. We are as yet, so far as I know, without a method of cor-
recting /? when the range is not horizontal. It seems, from an inves-
tigation of these special cases, that in the first example ft should be
increased possibly to 1.008, and in the second example possibly to
1.015. The result would be to increase a at the most 40" in the first
case and i' 15" in the second case.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD,
TARGET PRACTICE.
By Lieutenant J. F. Meigs, U. S. N.
The object of target practice is to accustom men to their weapons,
and make them skilful in their use. It may be said that the ends in
view are (i) to train marksmen, and (2) to train tactical bodies of
men. The butt-firing, of which we hear so much, has for its object
the training of marksmen ; it is sought to find out to what degree of
nicety the eye and nerves of men, who have special natural skill,
can be trained by firing under conditions of great simplicity. No
one believes that the members of the rifle-teams could show anything
like the skill they exhibit if they were, with two or three other men,
crowded around a gun-port, and firing at a moving object in the
water. For such work, butt-training alone is not sufficient.
The firing of tactical bodies, such as guns' crews, ships' whole bat-
teries, ships' riflemen or boarders, companies, etc., if conducted
under circumstances which are like those which may occur in ser-
vice, will fall in accuracy far below butt-firing. But though the
firing at the butts will not alone make men good shots in the more
difficult circumstances, yet it is not useless. Indeed, in any numerous
body of men, the simpler form of firing must constitute a large part
of the training given.
Here is the right place to say that it is impossible to train men in
pure marksmanship with anything but small arms. To use guns of
the larger classes is too expensive. A round from an 8-inch B. L. R.
costs about $66, from a 6-inch about $34, from a Hotchkiss 3-pounder
$3, and from a shoulder rifle about two cents. The object then of
the great-gun quarterly allowance is not to produce marksmen, or,
to put it in a way which will be more readily accepted, this is a small
part only of its object. The men who pull the lock-string may
68 TARGET PRACTICE.
become more expert marksmen in the course of a cruise, but the
improvement will not be great. No one would be satisfied, in an
attempt to become a good shot, with some ten or eleven shots per
annum for three years. The object of the great-gun allowance is,
after drill has perfected the training of the men as much as possible,
to perfect the work of (i) the gun's crews and (2) the ship's battery.
The gun-captain should have shown some fitness for his place before
he is put there, and he and the other members of the crew should
thoroughly learn their duties in loading, pointing, and firing a gun
before they are allowed to handle it loaded.
Since skill in throwing their weights in the proper direction no
longer tells as much as formerly in gun's crews, the old drill has
lost some of its importance, or rather, it need not be so often repeated.
It is as important as ever that guns should be rapidly and surely
handled, but this end will now be attained in other ways than it was.
It is dreary work to run guns in and out every few days through a
whole commission; and as soon as a crew has learned to handle the
gun surely at top speed, the running in and out and fictitious loading
should be repeated only often enough to keep up the skill attained.
To sum this matter up, it may be said that it is a pity that all drill of
gun's crews cannot be target practice. By using sub-caliber bores
in the gun, a large part of it can be made very nearly like target
practice, and by excluding at drill everything not found necessary
when actually firing the gun, we may invest the drill with an interest
it does not always possess.
The consequences of the fact that the gun target allowance cannot
make the gun-captains marksmen are numerous. Target practice
with great guns should not be conducted without attention to the
gun's crew as a whole. If a gun is allowed to be loaded in a leis-
urely manner, and some person ordered to aim and fire it, the
mistake has been made of not attending to the gun's crew. The
drill should be enforced during target practice. For, leaving out the
matter of providing for safety, the object of the drill is to produce
rapid and effective use of the gun, and if it will not do this it should
be changed.
Here the point may be made that all tactical firing should be on
time. There can be no doubt that such firing when executed in
battle will be on time, and, therefore, it should be on time from the
beginning when preparation is going on. If a single gun's crew is
firing continuously at a target, or a body of riflemen are doing the
TARGET PRACTICE. 69
same, it is not advisable to push them into firing wildly in an attempt
to fire a great deal ; but they should be pushed to fire as fast as they
can without loss of the accuracy they can attain to in very deliberate
practice. Under ordinary circumstances, and when well mounted,
a gun of medium weight can be as well pointed, probably, in 30
seconds or less, as it can be in any greater time. One of the points
that officers should note in target practice is the degree of excitement
of the men. If they are too much excited, some steps should be
taken to restore quiet.
All tactical firing should, then, be on time, and men should be
pressed to fire as fast as they can while having a proper regard to
safety precautions in loading, and to the balance and steadiness of
the man pulling the lock-string.
Although the argument that all firing in battle will be on time, and
that our practice with tactical bodies is a direct preparation for this,
may be held to be sufficient to establish the rule that we should note
the time elapsed in all firing of tactical bodies, yet a word may be
added as to the importance of rapid fire. Sea-fights of former days
were won within point-blank range — that range for which, with the
guns and targets present, there was no need to know the range — and
it is the belief of many that sea-battles will always be fought within
point-blank. At such ranges, speed in serving the gun is of very
great importance. The gun may be kept pointed all the time, and
the lock-string pulled as often as a load can be put in. Then, too, the
volume of fire must be made as great as possible; all guns must be
fully supplied with ammunition, and the riflemen open, if the target
is at about half the point-blank range of the great guns. Guns must at
such times be worked at full speed with comparatively few men, and
those spared from the crew must aid in passing ammunition, and open
fire with rifles.
It is doubtful whether in all men-of-war of recent times as much
ammunition can be passed to the battery as can be effectively fired
at a target close aboard. It would be an interesting point to note
regarding the stationing of ships' companies at general quarters,
how great a weight of shot (from calibers of all classes) could be
kept up per man per minute for a short time. The duration of such
a trial must be made sufficient to test the supply of ammunition.
If, under such circumstances, the ammunition cannot be supplied
fast enough, measures must be taken to overcome this. There can
be no doubt that, at the very short ranges which occurred in former
70 TARGET PRACTICE.
times, the successful ship usually drove her enemies to cover — or to
a fancied cover — causing a slackening of fire, and at the short ranges
which will again occur the same thing will happen. If, as is by many
believed, the principal part of sea-conflicts will occur at short range
—ranges which, when referred to the point-blank of guns, our true
tactical unit, will not be longer than in the days of Benbow — if such
be the case, the number of bullets we fire, together with some regard
to their direction and penetrating power, will be all-important. We
might try to put a shot from a 50-ton gun through our opponent's
bottom at close range, but unless the 50-ton gun were protected much
better than is usual, it could not be reloaded under the fire of 100
J-ton guns, and its crew had better be put at some more useful work
while the range is short.
If it be true that much firing at sea will be at distances extending
not far beyond point-blank range, it follows that most of our target
practice should be similarly conducted. Under such circumstances,
the gun must be very rapidly served, everything being sacrificed to
hitting the target a large number of times.
It is essential to the success of any scheme of target practice
intended to be applied in a military organization, that, among other
things, the environment of the individuals of the organization be
carefully studied. Armies, having usually better facilities for im-
proving the skill of individual marksmen at the butts than have sea
forces, will probably always excel the latter in butt-firing with hand
rifles. We cannot in the navy, from the circumstances of our ordi-
nary peace service, pass a great deal of time in training individuals
in this way. But, as has been mentioned, this seems to be the only
way in which the marksmanship of a numerous body of men can be
materially improved, and we must, therefore, resort to it as much as
possible. An attempt is now being made to establish at each
receiving-ship a school of marksmanship depending principally upon
the use of the rifle and revolver. In order to make these thoroughly
efficient, much must be done in the way of building ranges and pro-
curing other facilities, elaborating suitable and progressive forms of
training, etc.
The great difficulty experienced on board these ships is the want
of ranges. In the case of the receiving-ship at New York, where,
from the large number of men passing through, a range is most
needed, the circumstances are most unfavorable. But this difficulty
will probably be overcome, either by the erection, at considerable
TARGET PRACTICE. 7 1
expense, of a covered range within the limits of the yard, or by-
arranging to send the men in drafts to some point where a range can
be built more cheaply. At the navy-yards in Boston, San Francisco
and Washington, at which latter place the seaman-gunners are held,
very fair ranges have been secured ; and at Norfolk, which in impor-
tance is probably second to New York, a range over which reduced
charges may be fired is in use.
Another difficulty under which the receiving-ships labor is the
very uncertain time that men are held on board them, some being
retained for a few days only. It thus becomes necessary to give men
their practice as soon as may be after coming on board, and the
embarrassment in arranging and putting into effect a good scheme
is much increased.
The details of the plans to be adopted in each receiving-ship are,
by order of the Navy Department, at present left to their com-
manding officers, it being required that they shall classify into four
classes, and being provided that men, upon transfer to cruising ves-
sels, shall receive an award diminishing from $2, according to the
class in which the man stands. It is also provided that, by an entry
in the transfer papers, the skill of each man shall be shown. The
firing is with rifles and revolvers, and the score depends upon the
results of firing with the two. This plan is now in operation. The
facilities for its convenient and efficient execution are some of them
wanting; but in its main outline it is now carried out, with the
exception of New York, where the expense which must be incurred
cannot at present be met.
Whenever proper facilities can be had at each receiving-ship, the
methods of firing can be made the same at all ; but meanwhile each
commanding officer uses the best method he can arrange with the
facilities to be had. The men then come to cruising-ships classified
in marksmanship with the rifle and revolver, having had an award
paid to them depending on the degree of their skill, and with the
same marked on their transfer papers. These marks are carried
along in each man's record for every quarter during his enlistment.
The marks and the award for each quarter are the same as already
referred to for the time of transfer from the receiving to the training
ship. The only record made or report sent forward regarding this
firing, is the entry in the man's papers. The scheme here outlined
is described at length in Order 14 of the Bureau of Navigation, of
July 20 last.
72 TARGET PRACTICE.
There is thus provided and in actual operation a plan by which
enlisted men are classified in both receiving and cruising ships, and
by which their records in shooting rifles and revolvers are carried
with them. The plan is also carried out in the training service. The '
receiving-ships, though all dividing their men into four classes — not
counting those who fail to classify at all — arrange the details of the
firing by which men reach the several classes, in the best manner
possible with what they have at command ; but cruising ships, while
having the same four classes and the same awards, to be paid quar-
terly when firing occurs, have all the same requirements for reaching
the several classes. The firing in the cruising ships is with rifles
and revolvers, and is from either a ship or a boat.
This scheme, so devised that it may be generally applied and at
the same time sufficiently elastic to allow ships whose opportunities
are very different to compete, cannot fail, if elaborated in accord
with the dictates of experience, to improve the shooting of most men
in the navy. It is true that some of our men do not remain long in
the service, but others do for considerable lengths ; and any plan,
if it serves no better purpose than to teach us that it is bad, must
result in good. The theory of naval training should contemplate
the conclusion of certain parts of men's education when they go
on board cruising ships. Our men should have some use of fire-
arms before going afloat.
One trouble is the great multiplicity of fire-arms and weapons
generally which our men must learn to handle. And when, to the
skill in caring for and using these, is added the complexity of drills
intended to provide for all cases which may arise, it appears that a
good deal is necessary. Still, there must always remain some simi-
larity in the care and use of fire-arms ; and, if the drill-manuals be
reduced to the smallest compass possible, not more, perhaps, than
most men can master will remain.
By the means now in use, the records of all enlisted men in firing
with rifles and revolvers are obtained, and are always carried with
them. At two or three of the receiving-ships, some firing with boat
guns has been undertaken; but this, because of its cost when
extended to a large number of men, must be limited in its applica-
tion. On board the Dale, where men are training for the rate of
seaman-gunner, an excellent and well-equipped range looo yards
long has been built, and here the men are required to shoot at fre-
quent intervals. When the Alarm is prepared to add to this, and to
TARGET PRACTICE. 73
the varied experience the men get in the shops in handling ordnance
material, some firing with 6-inch and 3-pounder rifles, we shall have
the ideal gunnery school. It will remain only to use the facilities to
good purpose to produce results which will commend themselves to
everybody.
In this statement of the conditions of necessities for target firing
on board the receiving-ships, the advisability of including for the men
on board them some drill should not be overlooked. All knowledge
of service drills which may be possible should be acquired by men
in receiving-ships. The men at New York, where facilities for target
practice are so unfortunately wanting, pass through very complete
schools of drill— sighting exercises, and firing with parlor rifles — and
at the Washington yard, the men training for the rate of seaman-
gunner are taught all service drills. These last, from the fact that
they have all, or nearly all, previously to their stay on board the Dale,
been petty oflicers, and because they go back to the same rates, are
very carefully taught the service drills. We need in the navy a
numerous body of men well trained in gunnery duties, and the out-
look is promising that the school at the Washington yard may be
able to furnish these in sufficient number, and with the degree of
skill and permanency of stay which we need.
The scheme of practice in marksmanship which has been described
extends to every officer and man on board ships of the navy. Four
classes of marksmen are provided, and commanding officers may
pay stated awards to persons in the several classes. Incidentally,
the history of the marksmanship of each enlisted man is obtained
and goes with him. By such a plan, if it stands the test of time, the
general skill of the navy in shooting will be improved, and the means
adopted of training men in firing their pieces immediately upon
enlistment will ensure us that all men in cruising vessels know some-
thing of the use of the weapons put in their hands. The matter of
the practice of ship and boat guns is not touched upon here. This
comes afterwards, and will be improved by the better skill of the
masses, so to speak.
Before leaving the matter of the instruction of individuals in marks-
manship, attention may be called to the fact that recruits should be
taught to handle and fire their rifles and revolvers before they spend
much time on other parts of the military drills — the stations in gun's
crews, facings, marchings, etc. The seaman side of a man-of-wars-
man is left to grow with his surroundings, and as his natural bent
74 TARGET PRACTICE.
may incline. His military training is undertaken by his divisional
officer. And certainly among the first steps in the work should be
to put a rifle into his hands, and let him learn how to use and fire it.
A man who is afraid to fire his gun is as useless as one who does not
know how to face to the right, or what to do at the order " Cast loose
and provide." It is true that, for one opportunity to let a man fire
his gun we have in the navy a thousand to tell him to face to the
right, but the plea is here made that we must get the opportunities
which do not exist.
The matter of the practice of gun's crews, riflemen, boarders — that
is, tactical firing in general — is now provided for in an order of the
Navy Department of date July 31 last. The firing of guns is marked
by cross-bearings in the horizontal plane, and of boarders and rifle-
men by counting the shot-holes in targets of stated size. Prizes are
given as commanders-in-chief of squadrons direct, and authority to
rent rifle-ranges is granted. The only limitations as to the kind of
great-gun firing selected by any ship are those necessary to secure
the possibility of recording the practice in the book of Record of
Great Gun Target Practice. It is thus possible to select in each ship
the kind of firing which will be most useful to the crew, and prizes
may be paid to gun's crews as soon after the firing as the record can
be made up. For some quarters in the years 1889 and 1890, all the
gun's crews in the navy competed for prizes under the same rules ;
the records were sent to the Navy Department, there to be made
out, and the resulting standing, together with orders awarding the
prizes, finally published. The objection to this way of doing is that
all ships, however long in commission and whatever their needs, fire
under the same circumstances, and that awards can be paid only
after the lapse of months in some cases. The plan now in use, and
the former one, have their advantages and disadvantages. Other
plans have been proposed, as laying down what a ship shall do in
each of the twelve quarters of her commission, establishing an annual
competition on the same rules, while leaving all other quarters open
to be decided by each ship, etc.
Attention may here be drawn to the danger that any scheme of
target practice may do more harm than good. They always run
the danger of becoming too refined and elaborate ; but this feature,
though causing unnecessary labor and trouble, does not prove that
a plan is a bad one. The plan is bad only when it is less good than
what would be adopted by the persons in charge if left to themselves.
TARGET PRACTICE. 75
But in order to ensure some degree of fairness and efificiency in the
use of the appropriation for gunnery exercises, now voted by Con-
gress, all ships of the navy must have certain points of resemblance
in their target practice. The great point is that they must have a
record, and that this record and the manner of getting it must be
sufficiently accurate for the purpose in view.
This brings us naturally to the matter of recording the firing of
guns. All other than that of boat and ship-guns is recorded by
observing the shot-holes in targets of stated make ; these being
either regulation targets of the army or specially designed ones.
The fall of shot from ship and boat-guns, in the case of both station-
ary and moving practice, is recorded by observing the points of fall
in the water to the nearest degree or half-degree, by observers placed
on lines which intersect at right angles at the target. The instru-
ment used by the observers is called a T-square ; and consists of an
apparatus resembling a T-square, carrying a number of vertical wires
at about 36 inches from the eye. The aperture between each
vertical wire subtends, at the observer's eye, an angle of one degree.
The most natural and in many respects the best way to record
gun-practice is to have targets sufficiently large to catch all shots we
are interested in knowing about. Thus a canvas screen representing
the broadside of a ship might be used. The T-squares fail to give
us the side-errors of guns, as will be mentioned again further on,
and this a large target would do. They would cost a good deal,
as they would frequently be broken ; but this is a matter which
probably can be provided for. The principal difficulties in the way
of the use of great-gun targets are two in number: (i) they must
be stored at certain places, and ships must go there to use them,
and (2) if made large enough to catch a large fraction of the shots
fired by a moving ship when in a seaway, they must be very high
and unwieldy. The English use a gun-target 20 feet high, but the
circumstances of the run by it while firing render the distance-
finding very simple, and the practice is consequently accurate. If a
target 20 feet high only is used, and the circumstances of the firing
are made difficult, the record of many shots will be lost.
There is no reason why the two methods should not be used : the
large canvas screen, and the observation of the points of fall in the
water. If a more accurate instrument than the T-square could be
found, a great step would be made. But the circumstances of its use
must be kept in mind. It must be held to the eye in a boat in a
^6 TARGET PRACTICE.
considerable seaway, and must give the points struck by shots as
fast as the observer can talk. The instrument must be read while
at the eye. It is necessary in some gun-practice to have a number
of guns firing, in order to cause familiarity with the noise and smoke.
The use of photography has been proposed, and some attempt to
use it been made. The T-square gives us with accuracy what we
most want — the range-error. The ammunition for the main and
secondary batteries of the Newark at her first target practice will
cost about $3000, and so large an expenditure should be made with
care.
The accuracy of the T-square is such that, admitting an error of
one degree in the observation of the point of fall, the shot is placed,
in the horizontal plane, when the observers are 1000 yards from the
target, to within 17 yards. This limit is sufficiently close so far as
the range-errors of guns go, but is wholly insufficient with regard to
side-errors, because the side-errors of guns are much less than this.
In other words, if we have observers, provided with T-squares, over
a gun which is firing at a target 1000 yards distant, and abreast of
the target and 1000 yards from it, we shall be able to place the shot
to within 17 yards of its position in range and sideways. And,
because the ordinary errors of guns afloat are in range much greater
than this and sideways much less, the accuracy of the determination
is sufficient in range, and insufficient sideways. In other words, if
the horizontal diagram is plotted by appropriate means into the
vertical plane through the target, the position of the shot-points
vertically is practically correct, while their side position has no
value. In truth it depends largely upon the liberal or illiberal
nature of the observer stationed in the plane of fire. To offset this
deficiency, the determination of the side position of the shots is not
very important, because the side-errors of guns are usually well
within the side dimensions of targets, while the reverse is true of
range-errors and the heights of targets.
Some important consequences flow from this. The desirability of
plotting gun-practice into the vertical plane becomes questionable,
because the side position on the target in this plane has no value ;
and the plan now adopted in service diagrams, of giving equal
merit to shots falling, anywhere in horizontal belts extending indefi-
nitely both ways, is justified. The complications arising in plotting
the practice of stationary guns into the vertical plane are not great ;
but if a ship moves freely about in front of a target, while firing at
TARGET PRACTICE. 77
it, the difficulty of getting the record so that the firing may be plotted
into the vertical becomes very great. And there is an objection, too,
to plotting stationary practice into the vertical plane and leaving the
moving practice in the horizontal ; this being that the diagrams made
at the two kinds of firing are not then readily comparable. The
difference between the two is that in the moving practice the range
is known and communicated only by methods which would ordinarily
be available in batUe, while in the stationary firing the range is always
known. The moving practice is always less accurate, and for this
the distance-finding arrangements are responsible.
The record of gun-fire, besides being kept in the book of Record
of Great Gun Firing, is sent to the Navy Department, where it is
plotted. The records of all ships are sent to every vessel in com-
mission ; there having been issued in this way within the last year
two pamphlets, containing 52 sheets showing the practice of main
battery guns alone, and containing, together with the names of the
gun-captains firing each shot and their average time of serving the
guns, a record of nearly 2000 shots.
The book of Record of Great Gun Target Practice is intended to
enable a ship to keep throughout her commission a record of all her
target-firing with ship and boat guns. The book is turned in to the
Navy Department when the ship goes out of commission. It was
first issued October i, 1889, and is accompanied by explanations of
its use. It consists of a series of sheets conveniently ruled, and
arranged for plotting in the horizontal and vertical plane. The scale
in the horizontal sheets is one inch to 80 yards, and in the vertical
ones one inch to 20 feet, and, to plot from the horizontal to the
vertical plane, trajectories of all the guns on board are furnished.
These are drawn on transparent paper, so that they may be super-
posed on any diagram ; and their horizontal and vertical scales are the
same respectively as those of the horizontal and vertical sheets in
the Record Book. Their coefficient of distortion is thus 12, and
this, while giving a convenient form to the trajectory, enables us in
using them, by an entirely graphical process, to plot from the hori-
zontal into the vertical plane.
There will shortly be printed a series of tables, computed by
Ensign Haeseler, which will make plotting into the vertical plane
less laborious than it now is by the use of the transparent trajectories
just described. These will enable us, by entering a table with the
reading of a T-square abreast a target, to state immediately how
much above or below the water-line of the target the shot passed.
78 TARGET PRACTICE.
Thus, by two orders of July 20 and 31 last, certain schemes
of target-firing are set in motion. The first deals with individual
rifle and revolver firing of all officers and men in the navy, both in
cruising and other vessels. This firing is recorded only in the men's
papers, and excellence in it is stimulated by the immediate payment
of an award. The second deals with gun practice, and that of rifle-
men and boarders. The reports of this are sent to the Department
on blanks issued for the purpose, and the firing of ship and boat
guns is recorded in a book retained on board the ship until the end
of the cruise. Prizes for this class of firing are paid upon the order
of commanders-in-chief of stations.
A question which arises here is whether all this firing can be com-
bined ; whether a reasonable scheme for combining firing of diflferent
kinds may be devised, so that men who exhibit skill always may be
specially rewarded. The following, for example, is a case of a man
who showed skill in several particulars :
1. In the third and fourth quarters of a certain year he qualified
first-class under the rules for individual firing with rifle and revolver.
On the first occasion only 2 men in the ship's company reached
first-class, and on the second 12.
2. In the third quarter of this year he reached a merit of 100 — the
highest possible — while firing a 37 H. R. C. at 1000 yards range.
No other gun-captain of the ship reached as high a merit on the day
in question.
3. In the competitive firing of all the first gun-captains in the navy,
in the third quarter of the same year, when firing the 60-pounder
B. L. Parrott, he reached ninth place among the 61 gun-captains
competing. On this occasion he was again the first among the gun-
captains of his own ship.
Numerous cases similar to the above might be quoted, and have
suggested that, if a plan by which each man in the navy should keep
his score, or by which the scores of men in different divisions should
be kept, a body of men skilful in the use of all kinds of fire-arms
might be developed. The difficulties in the way of getting a satis-
factory plan are many, as the weights to be assigned to accuracy in
the use of different weapons must be arbitrary at present, and must
be so even in the use of the same weapon under differing circum-
stances.
The development of good captains for the guns of ships would, of
course, be a principal object in such a scheme, but that success in
TARGET PRACTICE. 79
this respect would be reached is by no means sure; for it does not
follow that a good shot will make a good gun-captain. It appears
reasonable that, from among the men who are recognized as the
leaders in a ship's company, those who have a good record with rifles
and revolvers should first be tried as gun-captains.
The machinery which now exists provides for getting, and does
get, the record of all classes of firing in our ships, and from it may
be obtained the record of any man we please; but if this record lay
more on the surface than it does now, officers of ships would prob-
ably be aided in stationing men to the best advantage, and we
might recognize more clearly than we can now, a class of men who
are more valuable to the service than is generally believed.
On July 1, 1889, money for the payment of prizes or awards for
excellence in target practice and gunnery in the navy, first became
available by congressional appropriation; and, from the steady
pressure which the continuance of this fund will cause, it may be
expected that our plans of conducting and recording target practice
of all kinds will improve. The system now existing in the army, for
small-arm practice, has been some ten years in growing to its present
condition. In these ten years, plans of organization at posts, such as
building and equipping of ranges, appointment of officers necessary
to do the work, etc., have all been put on foot. And, in Washington,
suitable and steady appropriations of the money necessary have been
secured. Some of these details have yet to be arranged with us,
but if the officers of the navy as a body want things not now exist-
ing for the prosecution of target practice, they can get them. They
may at first be refused money which is considered necessary, or may
be unable to see how the organization of time and labor, which is
necessary, is to be reached; but all these things will come in a few
years if the matter is adhered to.
The fund for prizes and awards is more important than is at first
realized. Not only does it apply a direct stimulus to skill in marks-
manship, but, requiring as it does for its proper expenditure a record
of firing and an examination of results attained, the indirect interest
aroused is very great. The naval service expended in the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1890, about $1000 in awards for good marksman-
ship, which was at about the rate per capita of the army expenditure
during the same time. The amount of money thus put afloat, or the
money value of the badges, if these are used, is small ; but the interest
indirectly aroused in marksmanship, very great. In the navy, the
8o TARGET PRACTICE.
practice of giving awards in money has been adhered to. The usage
in military and naval services differs in this respect, some giving
money and higher rates, while others give honorary badges. The
question has hardly come up with us as yet, because, until our schemes
have further crystallized, it is better to give money, which establishes
no classes or other precedents, and thus admits of changes as deemed
expedient. In our army, badges made at the U. S. Mint are sent
to successful competitors upon a proper certificate ; while in the
English navy, money prizes are used. It may here be added that
there is much less complication caused by the use of money prizes,
particularly when the prizes are to be awarded on board ships widely
scattered.
The above has been written largely with the view of eliciting the
views of officers of the navy. Besides the various points which may
be suggested by what has been said, an expression of opinion as to
the plotting of great-gun target practice is hoped for. Should it all
be plotted into the vertical plane, should the stationary practice go
into the vertical plane and the moving remain in the horizontal
plane, or should all remain in the horizontal plane?
It is better, since the targets which we are to fire at are vertical,
to put it all in the vertical plane. But the complications which this
will require are very great, unless an approximation, presently to be
described, is adopted. If it is all left in the horizontal plane, a less
clear image than is attainable is given ; and if part is in the hori-
zontal and part in the vertical plane, the stationary and moving prac-
tices are not readily compared. When firing at looo yards range,
the two observers locate the shots in the horizontal plane to within
about 17 yards as a maximum error ; and, in the stationary firing,
the shot-points are strung out in a long line, while, in moving practice,
unless the run is directly towards or away from the target, the shot-
points are sprinkled all around the target. The position of the ship
with respect to the target must be known for every shot, both in
distance and azimuth, if we are to plot into the vertical. These
data can be obtained, but the complication will be great. There
is one way out of it. This consists in assuming that all shots in the
moving practice are line shots ; or, what is the same thing, assume
that the distance from the centre of the water-line of the target to
the point they strike is a range-error — measure the hypothenuse
erected on the range and side errors and call this the range error.
The difficulty of knowing the azimuth of the firing ship for every
TARGET PRACTICE. 8l
shot is thus got rid of; but the range, which also is necessary to
plot into the vertical, is still known imperfectly. For this the range
given the gun may be used ; but if this has been determined by esti-
mation, the diagram resulting has not much value. There can be
no doubt that the errors in distance-finding by other than good
instrumental means are considerably greater than the range errors
of guns at ordinary ranges. Thus the method of plotting just
described presents grave errors in certain cases — errors which must
be considered inadmissible. In cases where ships fire at a target
under circumstances in which they cannot themselves determine the
range by instrumental means, a boat suitably placed might deter-
mine their range at each shot.
Another point of great interest and importance, incidentally raised
by the examination of great-gun target diagrams, is the marking and
use of sight-bars. Since in some cases of firing at a moving ship
from a ship which is herself moving, the continuous motion of the
sight-bar in its sleeve, if it is kept rightly adjusted, will be visible to
the eye, it is very important to bring this matter down to its simplest
form and systematize it. The usual method is to set the bar at the
distance communicated, aim at the water-line of the target, and fire.
This, unless we presuppose some excitement or rapidity of work to
cause coarseness in the sighting, will drop one-half of the shots into
the water short of the target. The Bureau of Ordnance is now con-
sidering the fitting of a central sight on new guns, to be called a
" battle-sight." As this sight cannot be very long, the greatest
range attainable when using it will be in the neighborhood of 2000
yards ; its first mark will be at' about 800 yards — this will be its mark
when down ; and the steps by which its marks proceed will be
longer than those on the side sights.
The whole matter of the marks put on sight-bars, the steps by
which they proceed, the degree of coarseness of the sight to be
taken, and the use of the bars generally, should be as simple and
as widely understood as possible. It should also be as nearly the
same in weapons of all classes as may be. The subject is very com-
plicated, but it is suggested that, in ordinary firing at sea, the
following rules should apply :
1. The gun should always be aimed at the water-line of a target.
2. The bar shall be marked for each range, so that, when aiming
as directed in Rule i, the shot will pass five feet above the water-line
of the target.
82 TARGET PRACTICE.
3. Sight-bars shall not be capable of being lowered below (?) yards.
4. The marks on sight-bars shall proceed by large counts, as
indicated by the degree of flatness of the gun and by a target (?)feet
high.
5: All great-gun sights shall be put on coarse ; they shall be as
nearly as possible of the same pattern, and the distance between
them shall be as great as it can be made.
6. Divisional officers shall carefully watch men when firing, and
shall, at times of excitement or when the ship's motion is sharp,
lower the bars by suitable amounts.
DISCUSSION.
Lieutenant J. C. Wilson, U. S. Navy. — The paper on "Target Practice,"
by Lieutenant J. F. Meigs, offered for discussion, deals with one of the most
important matters affecting the final efficiency of war vessels.
Other things being equal between two combating vessels, success falls to
the one whose battery is served and fired with best effect. So vital a point is
target firing in the drilling of crews that too much attention cannot be paid to
it, providing, of course, that other necessary points be not neglected.
The question of rapidity and accuracy of firing the arms with which a man-
of-war is armed is the consummation of the whole ordnance question as applied
to guns. It matters not how good these may be in themselves, if they are not
served and fired with good results in time of action ; so that in bringing up
for discussion the question of how best to obtain these results, Lieutenant
Meigs has placed the service under an obligation to him.
It is a melancholy fact, known to every officer of the service, that until
recently but very little attention was given ^o target practice, which was con-
ducted on no system at all ; and it is fully time that this be changed.
There is no question but that the "recruit" should go on board a cruiser a
fairly good marksman, and to become this, opportunity for practice must be
given him. For this and other reasons I advocate a year's preliminary instruc-
tions for every "recruit " in ^a;-rac^j, where ample facilities and opportunity
could be found; such instructions to comprehend all gunnery as well as other
drills. This year should be an extra one, that is, if the regular enlistment (or
rather re-enlistment) is made four years, as it should be, the first (or recruit-
enlistment) should be made five.
Sufficient facilities for the training of men should be supplied every naval
(barrack) station. A more advanced school of instruction might be established
at Washington, for the special instruction of those considered worthy to qualify
as gun-captains, seaman-gunners, torpedo-men, etc.
Assuming that this has been provided, and systematic instruction in the use
of all arms has been given each recruit during his year of preliminary training,
he should step on board a cruising ship with a record which would show how
mcuh he was worth as a gunnery man.
TARGET PRACTICE. 83
In connection with any plan or system which may be adopted to perfect our
crews in gunnery, systematic records and incentives are of prime necessity.
Without these, no scheme would give the best results.
The method of recording must be left to those whose study and experience
in this direction have better qualified them than I feel myself or the average
naval officer to be ; but it would seem that, for purposes of comparison,
stationary and movable firing should be plotted in the same manner, and of
the two planes, the vertical would be the more graphic, or at least show the
more important errors. Accuracy in firing of course includes horizontal accu-
racy, but such errors are not nearly of as much importance as are vertical ones,
and if a practical working system to plot both cannot be devised, let us make
sure of the vertical ones at all events. It is comparatively easy to learn to
fire "in line," but not so as to elevation.
As the writer remarks, it is neither practicable nor necessary for any man to
fire enough service-charges to acquire skill as a marksman.
Sub-caliber bores are very useful in this connection, and should be used
more constantly. The greater part of the time spent by the crews at the guns
should be devoted to theoretical and practical instructions in pointing and
firing, the sub-caliber bores being used for the practical part.
Vessels on stations should rendezvous at least once a year at some con-
venient port, where suitable targets should be kept, and competitive firing
take place under the same conditions.
1 see no reason why the system of medals and money prizes should not be
combined, each medal carrying with it a certain money prize.
There might be as many medals as there are classes of arms, and in addition,
one for general excellence in firing with all classes.
There would then be :
1. Medal for excellence in revolver firing.
2. " " " small-arm rifle firing.
3. " " " secondary battery firing.
4. " " " main bjittery firing.
5. Medal for general excellence in firing with all classes of arms.
Values to be given for firing with the different classes of arms would have
to be determined, as they should not all have equal "weight" in determining
"general excellence." This last medal should carry with it a much larger
money prize than any of the others.
A more general and systematic scheme of perfecting our crews in target
firing should be adopted, and one which would not only enlist the interest both
of officers and men, but also make it a matter of honor and profit to excel in
" target firing."
Any system is better than none, as experience will suggest improvements,
and it is to be hoped that the interest Lieutenant Meigs has taken in this
important matter will lead to good results to the service.
Lieutenant W. F. Fullam, U. S. N. — The most important and practical sub-
ject within the range of naval science is that of target practice, because the
proper system of training and discipline for men-of-wars-men must be based
84 • TARGET PRACTICE.
upon the same principles that govern the development of good gun-captains
and good marksmen — the principles that win naval battles.
In demonstrating so clearly that marksmen cannot be developed by great-
gun target practice alone, owing to its necessary limitations, Lieut. Meigs calls
attention to the great importance of small-arm practice, a subject that has
been sadly neglected and underrated. Every navy-yard should have a range
— some kind of a range — where men could practice with revolvers and with
rifles, using reduced charges for the latter, if necessary. This is perfectly
possible. Even at New York a detail from the crew of the Boston fired at a
target every day for several months, and the results were excellent. Reduced
charges, a short range, and targets proportionally reduced in size, were used ;
but the principles of aiming could be taught quite as well. The cost of pro-
viding such ranges would be trifling. Thousands upon thousands of dollars
are annually expended upon objects which, in comparison with target practice,
have an insignificant bearing upon the efficiency of the navy. Ships have been
known to remain for months in port, or at a dock, and not a man has fired a
revolver or a rifle ! The most important feature of naval routine was thus
ignored.
To insure uniformity in small-arm practice, whether in the case of a single
ship or a squadron, one or more officers, with petty officers to assist, should be
appointed to superintend the practice, provide and keep the targets in order,
and do the scoring. Divisional officers should have nothing whatever to do
with such details, but should see that their men aim and pull the trigger prop-
erly, and that a spirit of rivalry is encouraged. If men never see their target
records, if no comparison of results in different divisions or in different ships
is ever made, if one bulls-eye is eight inches in diameter and another gradu-
ally grows to a diameter of sixteen inches, if when a shot strikes the paper
target four or five pasters fall off and the divisional officer selects a hole at
hap-hazard or takes the one nearest the bulls-eye in scoring, the men will lose
interest, there will be no enthusiasm, little improvement in marksmanship,
valuable opportunities will have been lost, and the only result is an expendi-
ture of time and ammunition — that is all. But if, as Lieut. Meigs advocates,
a uniform system is followed throughout the service, and records carefully
kept, compared, and published, great interest can be aroused among the men,
and they will soon be made to feel that the skillful use of weapons is the most
important requirement.
It does not always follow, by any means, that the best shot under dress
parade or peace conditions should be a gun-captain. Of two men, the one who
is the poorer marksman at target practice may be the better in action. Per-
sonal characteristics — coolness and pluck — may decide which of the two will
be most likely to hit a target that is hitting back. For this reason the man
himself, as well as his target record, must be studied before making him a gun-
captain. The qualities that enable a man to control other men will, as a rule,
be the qualities that will enable him, with proper instructions, to become a
fair if not a first-class marksman, provided he has good eyesight. A man who
is by nature a leader of men will probably be a good gun-captain and a good
marksman in action. This quality of force in handling men is very necessary
TARGET PRACTICE. 85
in great-gun practice. With small arms the man has the weapon entirely under
his own control. In the case of a great gun, however, two or three other men
assist in pointing ; the men at the elevating and training gear must be con-
trolled by the gun-captain. If the latter is a man of force who is respected by
the crew, he will inspire obedience and attention, and his chances of hitting
the target will, for this reason, be better than with one who cannot command
the respect, attention and confidence of others.
The proposition to have one man to aim the gun and another to control the
crew, is not a good one. It is perfectly possible to develop a class of men who
can do both, and thus avoid the danger of " too many cooks." A gun-captain
in the navy must be a man of force and intelligence, and a fair marksman as
well. No system should be accepted by naval officers that will not meet this
requirement.
The point made by Lieutenant Meigs, that target practice with great guns
alone must not be depended upon to develop marksmen, emphasizes the
necessity of resorting to every means of instruction that will tend to this end.
Pointing-drill is an excellent way to train marksmen. Nearly all great guns
have two sets of sights. Let the ofificer keep his eye on one set and the gun-
captain on the other. If a primer is used, the officer will know if the gun-
captain fires at the right instant. By constant practice, whenever the crew has
great-gun drill, the men will improve wonderfully in aiming. Every man in a
gun's crew should, in turn, be permitted to aim at a moving target. In this
way every man will see how necessary it is that the men stationed at the elevat-
ing and training gear should obey the gun-captain implicitly and watch him
constantly. Otherwise the gun-captain can never get his sights on the target.
If each man has personally noted this fact, he will be more careful' himself at
the training or elevating gear. This pointing-drill, using primers, will also
enable the officer to note if the gun-captain pulls the lockstring steadily, and
if he keeps his eye on the sights when he pulls. Not only will men be greatly
improved by this exercise, but it may serve to demonstrate that a man is totally
unfit to be a gun-captain. If he is nervous, excitable, and nags the crew with-
out controlling them, he is not the proper man for the place. This exercise,
better than any other, will reveal a man's strong or weak peints.
And Lieutenant Meigs is right in saying that, at target practice, men should
be taught to fire rapidly — not wildly, but rapidly. This is a rapid-firing age.
All but two or three of the heaviest guns of modern battle-ships and cruisers
are of the rapid-firing type. What is the use of a rapid-firing gun if it is not
fired rapidly? What is the use of firing rapidly unless the piece is aimed
rapidly ? And it is impossible to aim and fire rapidly if the loading is not rapid,
and this cannot be done unless the men have been taught to do it rapidly at
target practice — the only time when charges are used. Evidently the whole crew,
not the gun-captains alone, must be trained with great care. And if this result
cannot be attained at target practice alone, it must be sought in the pointing-
drill. This pointing-drill can be practiced alongside a dock or at anchor, as
well as at sea; better, in fact, because, as a rule, there are always moving
objects in sight at which to aim. In this, again, the time \w. port or at a navy-
86 TARGET PRACTICE.
yard should not be wasted. Instruction with great guns and small arms can
be kept up to great advantage.
The argument that at the first target practice after a ship is commissioned
the firing should be slow, is not sound. It displays its own weakness and the
weakness of our system of naval training — or lack of system. As Lieutenant
Meigs says, "the gun-captain should have shown some fitness for his place
before he is put there, and he and the other men in the crew should learn their
duties in loading, pointing, and firing a gun before they are allowed to handle
it loaded." "All knowledge of service-drills which may be possible should be
acquired by men in receiving-ships." " Recruits should be taught to handle
and fire their rifles and revolvers before they spend much time on other parts
of military drills." These conditions and requirements are all possible, even
now. If every man has not been taught to aim a rifle before he comes on board
a cruising ship, there has been neglect somewhere. The day after he enlists
he should be taught to aim a rifle, resting it on a sand-bag so that a petty officer
can verify his aim. After being taught, the first day to aim, the recruit should
fire at a target the second day. It has been shown that a range, for reduced
charges at least, is possible at every naval station. Thus a recruit should not
have been three days on board a receiving-ship without firing a rifle.
And before a ship has been three months in commission, before the first
target practice, every crew and gun-captain should have been thoroughly
instructed in pointing, first at fixed and then at moving targets, first deliber-
ately and then rapidly. As the day for target practice approaches, the crew
should be exercised in all the motions of firing six rounds as rapidly as possi-
ble, bringing ammunition to the gun, using primers, and the gun-captain
sighting properly. Then it would not be necessary to fire slowly at the first
target practice. The reasons for doing so are necessarily based upon the
assumption that previous instruction has been neglected, and that proper care
has not been observed in selecting gun-captains. Such objections can be
removed, and the few shots fired from great guns should be fired rapidly to
secure the best results.
The pointing-drill and rapid firing will make one thing plain to a careful
observer, that the men to handle rapid-firin'g ordnance efficiently must have
the military habits of attention, exactness and obedience, and this requirement
should govern modern naval training.
In discussing the necessity for some uniform system of target practice.
Lieutenant Meigs is right in saying that "a plan is bad only when it is less
good than would be adopted by the persons in charge if left to themselves."
It is not possible that any plan could be " less good " than no plan at all.
The idea is to establish uniformity in the navy, and arouse among officers,
petty officers, and men a spirit of rivalry by comparing the skill of different
divisions and different ships and rewarding those who win.
It is evident, however, that to reap any substantial benefit from target
practice and instruction in marksmanship, the men who have become good
gun-captains must be induced to remain in the navy for some time at least. If
instruction is to be without system or thoroughness ; if gun-captains are to be
appointed with little care ; if there is no permanency in their rates, and if they
TARGET PRACTICE. 87
leave the service soon after they become eflScient, we have, in our naval
routine, simply a wear-and-tear upon ships, a wear-and-tear upon guns, a wear-
and-tear upon the patience and zeal of ofificers and men, and no result that
tends to prepare a navy for war.
Lieutenant Kossuth Niles, U. S. Navy.— The interesting paper of Lieut.
Meigs gives assurance that the important question of target practice is
receiving a careful and systematic consideration. If much of the practice here-
tofore during a cruise has been of a perfunctory nature, it has been due, per-
haps, as much to the want of a definite system of rewards for good shots, as to
the lack of interest resulting from no uniform method of marking and keeping
permanent individual records. As the allowance for great-gun practice is
necessarily small, the few shots permitted should be made with the utmost care,
to determine not only the skill of the marksman but the efficiency of the gun
under the favorable conditions of deliberate service. To perfect the working
of the gun-crews, and at the same time afford an excellent opportunity for
improving the marksmanship, I think Mr. Meigs' suggestion as to sub-calibers
is excellent. All division gun-drill, or most of it, can be made of the nature
of target practice by using sub-caliber bores. Each gun could have its own
target; and, there being a certain number of shots allowed, the rapid service
of the piece at point-blank range would afford a practice approaching partially
the conditions of using service charges and projectiles ; the pointing would be
practically of the same nature if either the vessel or the target was moving, and
this condition should be obtained in using sub-caliber bores. The drill com-
plete should be enforced just as if service-charges were in use. It is not
likely that there will be any undue excitement during target practice, especially
with sub-calibers, and therefore a certain amount of excitement should be
encouraged, for without it there can be no vim and no definite amount of
quickness. Rapidity of fire will certainly be all-important.
The plans set forth for classifying, rewarding, and keeping the individual
records of the enlisted men, appear to be well devised under the present
facilities. As soon as the methods of firing can be made uniform at the several
stations, the value of the classification on the receiving-ships will be increased.
On cruising ships the plan ought to produce a gratifying improvement in the
marksmanship in small-arm practice.
An annual competition in tactical firing, the records to be sent to the Depart-
ment, appears to me to meet the desirability of a general competition of all
cruising ships. With regard to the plotting of great-gun practice, I think it
would be desirable to plot all shots in the vertical plane, as we obtain one
point of great value in knowing the position of the shot with reference to the
water-line although the position sideways is in error. The complications
arising from the additional labor and data required may be reduced by the use
of tables; and as the interest in the practice is increased, some better instru-
ment than the T-square may suggest itself, thus reducing the range error.
Commander C. M. Chester, U. S. Navy. — While agreeing with the lecturer
in the main on the great importance of the subject under discussion, I differ
88 TARGET PRACTICE.
with him on one or two points. Particularly would I advise against the
" time " element in a target-firing exercise. Of course, of two vessels equally
well-drilled in precision, the one firing the most shots at an enemy will do the
most injury, but it is very questionable to my mind if perfection in one of these
branches does not detract from the other. In no class of work that I know of
is the old saying of " hurry makes flurry " so applicable ; and officers will in
battle spend more energy in trying to keep the petty officers from throwing
away shot in rapid firing, than in urging the crew to quick action. The whole
tendency at such a time is for rapidity of motion, and the crew that has been
best drilled in the details of loading and firing will in the end gain the best
results.
In target practice the captain of the gun is alone to be marked. If time
enters as a part of the record, his standing depends, not upon his ability as a
marksman, but first upon the handling of the gun by the crew ; second, the
handling of the ship by the commanding officer; and, above all, upon the
handling of the vessel by the natural elements. The gun-captain has no
chance to improve his time, for, at best, he has but three or four shots during
a practice, and his mark must rest on other qualifications than his own. The
question of aiming a gun in a seaway with the ship underway is not one of
pointing in 30 seconds or less, but of laying the gun so that when the proper
moment arrives it may be fired to hit the object.
The lecturer states that " if they (the men) are too much excited, some steps
should be taken to restore quiet." What else can be done but to slow down ?
and another deduction from the score results. Furthermore, rapid firing is
too expensive. In practice it is almost impossible, where men are working on
time, to prevent shots following in quick succession, with the loss of record of
one or more shots — thus $34 or $66 and upwards is thrown away, and sometimes
the practice is at the expense of a man's life.
It has been my invariable custom, when directing practice of this kind, to
urge and insist that the captains of guns should pay no attention whatever to
the passage of time, but to fire with the greatest possible deliberation. I, of
course, knew full well that the score would be reduced by this order, but felt
that more than enough would be gained in precision to make up for it.
I also beg leave to suggest that, in my opinion, the record of target practice
should only be taken from the vertical scale. It is necessarily plotted first on
the horizontal scale, for none of the service targets are large enough to catch
but a very limited number of the shots fired. It is not a difficult matter to
transfer from the latter to the former, and the record as thus projected is
easily understood by the men who work the guns. In reading the score from
the horizontal projection, they must understand the nature of the shot's tra-
jectory for the particular gun fired, before being able to comprehend the value
of the practice.
I recall an instance in my own experience, to particularize. A shot fired
from an Vlll-inch rifle, by one of the best marksmen I ever saw, struck just
outside the 50-yard circle, giving him but 50 per cent of the maximum mark.
Another shot struck about 90 yards to the right and over the target, scoring
the same. Plotted on the vertical scale, the first shot showed close to the
TARGET PRACTICE. 89
bull's eye of the target, while the second would have entirely missed a vessel
of the size of the Galena. This latter shot was from a IX-inch S. B., and the
discrepancy is due to the difference of the trajectories of the two guns. A
third shot from a IX-inch gun struck about 50 feet from the center of the
target, and short, gaining a perfect score (100) for the captain of gun.
I would here remark that while the T-square is not inappropriate for record-
ing target practice, there are so many young officers who have had experience
in observing horizontal angles in surveying as to make a finer register of this
work practicable in most ships.
The side error should, in my opinion, always be observed, and with the
sextant. It can be done either from the ship itself, or from the observation
boats, by reading the angle from the target to the ship. If the horizontal pro-
jection is used for marking the value of the practice, it becomes necessary to
have varying areas of equal weight for each class of gun, or the rifle gun will
always be handicapped as against the old smoothbores.
Captain L. A. Eeardslee, U. S. N. — The importance of the subject so ad-
mirably treated by Lieut. Meigs will undoubtedly so commend it to the thinking
men of the navy, that there will ensue full and free expressions of views upon
several of the points presented : and of the younger men of the service, many
who have been favored with opportunity to gain personal knowledge from
practical experience with modern guns on modern ships, will contribute valu-
able opinions founded upon their facts. There remains very little for one of
the old school, whose knowledge of ordnance and cruisers is confined to a
life-long experience with old-fashioned muzzle-loaders and wooden ships,
plus the results of his study of the work of others, to justify him in entering
into the discussion ; but the references in the essay to methods and systems
on board of recruiting-ships, by which some little knowledge of gunnery is
sought to be imparted to recruits, prompts me to give a little in detail of the
method in vogue on the Vermont.
During the year ending in September last, about three thousand men had
passed into and out of my command, and our average number on board has
been about three to four hundred. Some of these men have been with us but
a few days, others for months. It seemed highly necessary that we should do
something toward carrying out the Department's views, and we did our best,
starting with obtaining a full outfit of the service-rifles and a wooden model
of an 8-inch gun, and some revolvers, with all of which we thoroughly in-
structed the men in everything but firing. Situated, as is this ship, in the
midst of a thickly populated town, it was simply impossible to fire a shotted
gun of any kind, so we had to make believe a good deal.
Then we obtained some Quackenbush air-rifles, with which, on our spar-
deck, we practiced considerably ; but such practice did not have value enough
to arouse a great deal of enthusiasm, especially as it was not considered that
records made with this little gun were fairly comparable with those made with
service-rifles of any kind. At this juncture, Lieut. Mulligan was seized with an
inspiration and invented an apparatus which, starting with his own guard, be-
9© TARGET PRACTICE,
came excessively popular and useful. As this apparatus is very simple, and
can be made and used in any ship with little trouble and expense and much
profit, I will describe " Mulligan's gun."
It consists of a cylindrical log about four inches in diameter, about 12 feet
long. At the exact corresponding position of the sights of a 6-inch and 8-inch
gun are slots, into which, when in use, sheet-brass sights, fac-similes in pro-
file to those of our service-rifles, are set when in use. A lock-string is fitted
to the rear end : the gun is mounted upon adjustable legs.
With this apparatus the men were taught to sight at a movable disk (moved
by another man and governed by signal from the firer). Each man was allowed
three shots, and the result, as shown upon a white duck-covered target, soon
developed considerable accuracy in sighting. It was noticeable that with
nearly all of the sighting the three shots formed a triangle, the length of sides
differing greatly, in accordance with the skill of the firer. To each triangle
the name of the maker was affixed, and the system grew so popular that the
men would ask for the gun when off duty, and eventually it was left standing
for them to use when they pleased, and there was hardly an hour in the day
that a group would not be found target-shooting for amusement, and the more
skilled ones instructing the others. Cards, dominos and checkers were not so
popular as Mulligan's gun.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS. MD,
ELECTRICAL COUNTER, AND SHAFT REVOLUTION
AND DIRECTION INDICATOR.
By W. D. Weaver, Assistant Engineer, U. S. Navy.
During the frequent trials of steam launches and other fast-moving
machinery at the New York Navy Yard, continual trouble was
experienced with mechanical counters, and the electrical counter, an
illustration of which accompanies this, was devised to replace the
former.
It consists essentially of an electrical escapement in combination
with a stop-timepiece. By turning the lever on the left, the time
movement is started and stopped at exactly the same instant as the
escapement, and thus we have simultaneously the time and number
of revolutions. The other two projections shown are to bring the
hands of the watch and counter respectively to zero.
The counter has proved very useful in many ways, particularly in
getting the slip of launch screws over a measured course. It could
92 ELECTRICAL COUNTER.
be arranged aboard ship to take in succession the revolutions of the
main and auxiHary engines by leading a wire from each to a switch
at the instrument, which could be placed in the most convenient
place. At the highest speed tried on a lathe, 1500 revolutions per
minute, the counter proved to be accurate, not losing a revolution in
over 10,000, as measured by a mechanical hand-counter attached
before the lathe started and read after it had b^en stopped. It is
probable that one can be made to work to several thousands of
revolutions per minute ; the present one was made from parts taken
from a scrap-heap, and its success is largely due to the mechanical
skill of Mr. J. S. Gordon of the New York Navy Yard.
The success of the counter demonstrated the feasibility of a revo-
lution indicator which the writer has long had in view, and which
has since been designed in all of its details but not yet constructed.
The accompanying diagram shows the arrangement and general
appearance of the revolution and direction indicator, and the essen-
tial principles are given in the following description : —
On each shaft of the main engines, and on as many auxiliary
engines as desired, one or more contacts are made at each revolu-
tion, each of which sends a current to any register that is open to the
circuit. On the shafts of the main engines is a simple form of com-
mutator, F, by means of which the direction' of motion of the shaft is
also shown on the register. All of the shaft circuits are led to a
clock, in connection with which is a device for changing from one
series of circuits to a second one, and vice versa, at regular intervals
of time. From the clock, circuits are led to as many registers as are
desired, the number that can be put up being practically unlimited ;
four are here shown, one of which, that in the engine-room, having
also circuits from the auxiliary machinery.
The method of working is as follows: — When a reading is desired,
it is first observed if the direction-hand, marked G, is indicating ; if
it is, it will be necessary to wait an interval of time, the maximum of
which is ten seconds, until it returns to the zero mark. When it is
at the zero mark the button A is pushed in, and after another interval,
the maximum of which is ten seconds, the revolution-hand begins to
move and stops at the figure corresponding to the number of revo-
lutions being made per minute, and remains there until B is pushed
in, when it returns to zero ready for another indication. It is thus
seen that before a reading can be taken, an interval of time between
thirty and ten seconds is required ; it is not necessary, however, to
30
PI
<
o
r
m
O
H
O
z
?
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o V
94 ELECTRICAL COUNTER.
Stand by the register, as, after the button A is pushed in, the hand will
remain at the point at which it stops until returned to zero by B.
On the register for the bridge the direction-hand is made large
and a lever C added, by means of which it may alone be kept in the
circuit and indicate continuously as long as desired. To the engine-
room register are connected in addition, by means of a switch,
circuits from the various auxiliary engines, so that their revolutions
may be taken singly or in succession when desired.
The ideal revolution indicator is, of course, one that will show at
a glance at any time the number of revolutions the engine is making,
but of all of these that the writer knows of or has imagined, none
seems to be practicable or sufficiently accurate. On the other hand,
the apparatus here described is positive in action and accurate, and,
from the simplicity of its parts, litde liable to get out of order.
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
THE ORGANIZATION AND DUTIES OF TRIAL BOARDS
FOR OUR NEW CRUISERS.
By Lieutenant J. C. Wilson, U. S. Navy.
The writer was recently ordered as a member of a trial board on one of our
new cruisers, and remembering his hazy ideas concerning what his duties
might embrace, believes that a discussion based on knowledge gained by him
in the performance of this duty might prove interesting as well as instructive
to officers who have not as yet had any such experience.
This discussion is not a description of any actual proceedings, but merely
how, in light of my experience, I think that trial boards for our new cruisers
should be organized, and how the trial should be conducted.
As thousands of dollars depend upon the result of these trials, and much
rivalry and competition exist betwe'en contractors, it becomes very important
that the results should be not only accurately determined, but that the methods
of obtaining them should be as nearly identical in all cases as circumstances
will permit. For this reason it would seem that, were a general order issued
concerning the organization and methods governing the procedure of such
boards, it would tend to uniformity of reports, and be of great assistance to the
board in conducting the trials.
The precept accompanying the orders calls attention to the most important
points to be determined, leaving the method of determining them to the discre-
tion of the board. This may seem at first thought a very simple thing to
do, but my experience convinced me that the method of conducting the trial
of a cruiser should be well considered and planned beforehand.
It is important that the board meet and organize at the earliest practicable
date, and organization and proceedings should be based on the rules governing
" Courts of Inquiry."*
The orders and precept should be read and carefully discussed, so that no
matters of detail will be left in doubt. All officers that have been connected
with the construction or fitting out of the vessel to be tried, as well as the
officers ordered to duty in anticipation of going in commission with her, should
be invited to appear before the board and give the members the benefit of their
knowledge and views concerning the vessel. The contractors, also, should be
invited to appear, or send a representative for the same purpose.
Committees should then be appointed, and the senior members instructed
that the report of their committees would be expected before the vessel-was ready
for her trial trip, in order that any serious defect or departure from contract,
etc., could be known before her trial trip. It is possible, but not probable, that
something might exist which would render it impossible to accept the vessel,
even though she proved successf.ul as to speed. It would probably be con-
venient to appoint four committees :
* Five members and a recorder (who need not be a member) would seem to be as large a board as
convenient for working purposes. As many assistants as necessary could be ordered; but not
counting work in engine-room, not more than eight officers will be required on deck; if no angles
are to be taken, six will be enough.
96 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
1. To determine whether the vessel is sufficiently strong to carr)' armament,
ammunition and all necessary stores. This committee should take charge of,
and carry on tests for strength and manoeuvring qualities, as hereinafter
described.
2. To determine whether the hull and fittings are strong and well built and
in accordance with contract, plans, drawings and specifications, and to duly
authorize changes in the same.
3. To determine whether the machinery and appurtenances are strong, etc.
(At least one member of this committee should be in the engine-rooms during
the trial.)
4. To keep a record of all expenses connected with the trial trip.
Committees Nos. 2 and 3 will find their duties very comprehensive and
requiring much attention. It involves, first, a close examination of contract,
plans, drawings and specifications, and an overhauling of all correspondence
relative to changes. The superintending naval constructor should furnish
these committees with copies of the specifications, with all authorized changes
entered, and with these for guides, the committees must find out, as far as
practicable by investigation and inspection, whether or not the vessel is strong
and well built and in accordance with contract, etc, and duly authorized
changes.
Committee No. 4 should, as soon as possible, commence enquiries concern-
ing the expenses connected with the trial trip, and to do this should require
the contractors to furnish them with a pay-roll of vessel as ready for trial.
They should ascertain how many persons are to go on the trial trip, and agree
with contractors on a rate per diem for such persons ; and no others should be
permitted on the vessel during the trip. With the pay-roll, quantity and price
of coal, list and prices of all necessary stores, rates per diem for subsistence,
allowance for bedding, linen, crockery, etc., there would be no subsequent
trouble about the expenses to be allowed. The reports of the sub-committees
having been reviewed and discussed, the board is ready to proceed with the
trial trip.*
If practicable, the vessels to take current observations should be in or near
their stations at least one day before the trial is to commence. A day's practice
in observing the currents would be beneficial. One should be anchored exactly
on the range at one end of the course, and at a previously determined distance
from the shore signal (about 100 yards inside of the line of the course), and
the other similarly on the range at the other end of the course. Two vessels
will be enough, as the steam launches of these vessels could be anchored on
the line joining the two vessels, each ten miles distant from its own vessel. I
see no reason why these launches could not be anchored in any water likely to
be found on any trial course, and in any weather favorable for a trial trip. If
the water was very deep, a wire and light grapnel could be used. The vessels
and launches should make as much black smoke as possible, so as to serve as
a guide for the vessel on trial to steer by during the run. If practicable, signals
should be erected on shore at convenient distances sufficiently close and dis-
tinct for triangulating from the vessel during the trial run. The " range
signals " should be particularly high and well defined. An accurate projection
of the course, shore line and signals, on a good working scale, should be at
hand. Three independent sets of observers should be detailed (each set con-
sisting of two members), and stationed forward, amidships and aft. One
observer of each set should observe when the vessel crosses the range lines,
and the other to observe and record the times. There should also be one
observer to keep an accurate record of the courses steered by standard com-
*It may happen that the contractors report the vessel ready before the preliminary work of the
board is completed ; but enough would have been determined to know whether the vessel could be
accepted if successful on her trial, and the details left until after this trip. As a rule, however, the
work of examination could be completed before the vessel would be ready for" trial," and as it is im-
portant that this should be so, the board should be ordered long enough in advance to make this
practically certain.
PROFESSIONAL NOTES. 97
pass, direction, force of wind, sea, etc. If the course is staked out along
the shore by signals, as suggested, there should be two observers with sextants
to angle on the signals, and so keep the course the vessel was making graphi-
cally plotted. The commander of the vessel should be cautioned to make a
long enough sweep after crossing the second range to enable him to come on
the line as near as possible where he crossed it. This is important, particu-
larly on account of current effects. Accurate observations of wind and sea
should be recorded. Each set of observers' record times of crossing ranges
from their stations and the mean of the three time-intervals (corrected for
chronometer rates) should be taken as the correct time-interval. Chronometers
should be compared before and after trial.
As soon as the trial is over the board should meet to consider data. The
length of the course has presumably been determined and officially reported
to the board. The average strength and direction of current should have been
signaled as the vessel on trial passed the current observers, so that a close
approximation for current allowance could be made immediately after the run.
It is a question whether or not allowance should be made for poor steering.
Where the increase in the length of the course, due to poor steering, can be
accurately determined, I am of the opinion that it should be allowed, as it does
not seem just that the vessel should be credited with a less speed than she is
known to have made. With care, and the course marked by the current-
observing vessels, there should be no allowance necessary on account of
broken course ; but as a broken course may be made, the question of allow-
ance should be decided by the Department and embraced in the "General
Instructions."
Correction for Current.*
a, b, c, </, zz strength of current per hour (reduced to direction of course),
observed at stations during run of vessel with current.
a\ b', c', d', ■=. same during run of vessel against current.
Then —^ — "*" '^ "'" ■=. C-=z average strength of current per hour during run
4
with current.
■=. C z=. average strength of current per hour during run
against current.
i in time running with current.
/^i^time running against current.
Zzr length of course.
t -\- l^zz. T, total elapsed time running over course.
Then t y, C r= effect of current on vessel during run with current.
^''X C''rz effect of current on vessel during run against current.
Then L — (/" X C) z=.d ■=. distance run over with current.
-^ 4" (^'' X C') r= (f^ rz distance run over against current.
d -^ d^ z=.D-=. total distance run over by vessel.
As soon as the speed has been approximately determined, the representa-
tive of the contractors should be called in and informed of the speed made,
and asked whether or not he was satisfied with the trial. If so, he should then
be informed of the nature of the tests required, and requested to be ready for
them at as early a date as possible.
In the meantime the fire and steam pumps should be tested, as well as th
water-tight doors, valves, battle-hatches, etc In fact, everything on the vessel
which can be put to a practical test.
Being ready for steering gear and engine tests, the vessel should be put to
* Having corrected the length of course for current and steering, and ascertained the correct
elapsed time, the speed equals ^ . (Corrected length of course\
'^ ^ T \ Corrected lapsed time. /
98 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
sea, aad the strength of hull, fittings, etc., be determined by inspection while
under way, the following tests being considered desirable, not only to deter-
■ ' 'he strength of hull and fittings, but to demonstrate the manoeuvring
ies of vessel.
mine the
qualiti
First Set of Tests — (Steering Wheels, Helm, etc.).
A. With steam wheel in pilot-house. Both engines going ahead full speed
( knots). Order " Hard-a-starboard." Time to put helm hard over (number
of degrees). Time to complete half-circle. Time to complete full circle.
B. Ship still turning with starboard helm (full speed). Order " Steady,"
" Hard-a-port." Time to put helm hard over (number of degrees), during
which the vessel fell off ° to port, and started to go to starboard in
seconds.
C. Steam wheel in conning tower. Going ahead with both engines full speed
( knots). Order " Hard-a-port " and " Back starboard engine." Time to
put helm hard over (number of degrees). Time for engine to commence
backing. Time to complete half-circle. Time to complete full circle.
D. Steam wheel on quarterdeck. Going ahead full speed with both engines
( knots). Order " Hard-a-starboard," " Back port engine." Time to put
helm hard over (number of degrees). Time for engine to commence backing.
Time to complete half-circle. Time to complete full circle.
E. Hand wheel on quarterdeck (number of men on wheel). Same as //, with
time to change from steam to hand gear.
F. Steam wheel in steering-room. Same as A, with time to change from
hand to steam gear.
G. Hand wheel in steering-room same as E.
Second Set of Tests.
A. Going ahead full speed with both engines ( knots). Signal " Back."
Engines commence to back. Vessel stopped ( time), in a distance
(number of yards), (distance to be ascertained by a chip-log with a very light
line, which cannot possibly interfere with working of screws if caught).
Engines backing full speed (time), (revolutions).
B. Ship backing full speed. Signal "Ahead full speed." Engines com-
mence going ahead. Ship stopped (time). Ship going ahead (time). Engine
going ahead full speed (time), (revolutions).
The trial of the vessel being over, the board should meet to discuss the
report, the proceedings being governed by the rules for " Courts of Inquiry."
The written report should give a full record of proceedings, and all data
obtained, with conclusion of board. A list of work still remaining incom-
pleted by contractors should be appended, and also the probable time neces-
sary to complete the vessel ready to be accepted by the Government.
When the latter fact has been reported to the Department by the contractors,
the board should be ordered to convene again to report whether or not the
vessel was in every particular ready for acceptance.
The work of the board being completed, they adjourn sine die to await action
of convening authority.
REVIEWS.
Almanack der Kriegs-flotten, 1891. With 134 cuts of armored vessels.
Published by Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete des Seewesens.
Part I. is devoted to tables of measures and weights, and reduction tables
for the English and metric systems.
Part II. Artillery of the different fleets. This comprises tables of the details
of all classes of great guns, projectiles, charges, initial velocities, striking
energy, and penetration, including all kinds of ordnance in use in the navies
of Europe and of the United States ; Krupp guns, their construction and bal-
listic data ; Armstrong guns of late construction ; Canet guns ; machine-guns ;
rapid-fire guns. These tables are revised and based upon the latest data.
Part III. List of vessels of the navies of the world, giving the dimensions,
horse-power, armor, armament, speed, material, dates of launching ; followed
by 134 cuts of armored vessels. H. G. D.
Domestic Steels for Naval Purposes. By Lt.-Comr. J. G. Eaton, U. S. N.
Printed in the Proceedings of the Society of Arts, 1889-1890, Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology.
The author begins with a short history of the steel manufacture in the
United States, showing the marvellous development in the manufacture of
domestic steels which has taken place within the last eight years, owing to
the impetus received when Congress authorized the construction of our four
first ships of mild steel of domestic manufacture.
A thorough account is given of the rigid inspection and various tests required
prior to acceptance of material by the Government, the author dwelling at
length upon this important feature. The use of steel in manufacture of boiler
plates and stays, engines, anchors and chains, steel rigging, and especially in
the construction of guns, is described, and the establishment of a high stand-
ard is shown to be the result of the Government inspection and requirements.
H. G. D.
Role and Organization of Sea-coast Batteries. By V. Fabre, Captain,
French Artillery. Translated by First Lieut. E. M. Weaver, 2d U. S.
Artillery. Published by Artillery School Press.
The translation appears in a 62-page pamphlet. The subject is divided into
three parts : Part I. Role and organization of sea-coast batteries, showing the
influence of altitude on batteries from defensive and offensive points of view,
and the distinction between battering and bombarding batteries. Part 11. A
general review of the development of marine armor. Part III. Defense of the
sea-coast. H. G. D.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
MITTHEILUNGEN AUS DEM GEBIETE DES SEEWESENS.
Volume XVIII, Nos. VIII and IX. Late researches in ocean-
ography (continued), by Captain C. v. Berman. Steamship com-
panies and the auxihary service.
An interesting article on the organization of an auxiliary service. The
writer, in view of the fact that in time of war fast merchant steamers will be
called into service as transports, supply-ships, and armed cruisers, dwells
upon the necessity of a thorough organization, on the importance of contracts
between the steamship companies and the Government, of the payment of
subsidies. He advocates that in the construction of merchant steamers atten-
tion be paid to details in view of the ulterior purpose for which they will be
used in time of war — armament, equipment, and supplies to be ready at all
times; officers and crews, how to be selected; steamship companies to form
auxiliary bureaus under the Government ; gstablishment of depots.
Lessons from the English fleet-manoeuvres, by Vice-Admiral C.
Mayne, R. N. Electricity on war-ships, by S. Dana Green. The
spontaneous ignition of coal cargoes, by Prof Vivian B. Lewes. On
the under-water launching of automobile torpedoes in the line of the
keel, and on some pending questions regarding torpedoes, by Julius
Heinz. The Chinese navy. Budget of the royal and imperial navy
lor 1891. Floating of the Lloyds steamship Arciduchessa Carlotta.
English protected cruiser Blenheim. Japanese cruiser Tschiyoda.
Coast defenses of the United States. The English armored sliip
Sultan. Alterations in the new cruiser-type Centaur. The Victoria
torpedo. Trials with a torpedo-cruiser of the "Turnabout " system.
Official trials of the submarine boat Peral. Libbrecht's smokeless
powder. Late trials of the Brennan torpedo. Test of the armor-
plates of the Chilian man-of-war Capitan Prat. A Swedish hydro-
graphic expedition. Steamer Oriel of the Russian volunteer fleet.
Unsuccessful attempts to fire dynamite from ordinary guns.
Volume XVIII, No. X. Late researches in oceanography (con-
clusion). Incidents and phenomena attending the release of com-
pressed air, by Dr. P. Salcher. Launching of the Austro-Hungarian
torpedo-ram Kaiserin Elisabeth. Contracts for the new armored
and protected cruisers of the United States. Trial trip of the U. S. S.
Philadelphia. Institution of torpedo companies in Russia. Tests of
Schneider plates. Introduction of semaphores on English vessels.
A new steam life-boat. On submarine vessels. Holmer's collision-
cloth for stopping leaks. Duinker's boat-hoisting device. List &
Dick's compound propeller-blade. E. Berg's engine-room signalling
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. lOI
apparatus. Alarm belt-cable for the protection of men-of-war at
anchor. The submarine boat Peral. The English torpedo-depot
vessels Vulcan and Hecla. Association technique maritime. Stipu-
lations for the delivery of steel tubes. Trials of the Sims-Edison
torpedo. Deep-sea dredge. Use of oil in smoothing the sea.
Prizes for best method of using oil in smoothing the sea. Employ-
ment of balloons in the French navy. Signal communications
between men-of-war and merchant vessels.
Volume XVIII, No. XI. On lighting of coasts, by A. Frh. v.
Koudelka. Smokeless powder.
An interesting view of the probable effect of smokeless powder on naval
warfare. Fleet engagements in which non-smokeless powder is used are
compared with those in which the smokeless powder is the agent, and the
comparative advantages and disadvantages are brought out. The importance
of concerted action, fleet tactics, and skilful manoeuvring is enhanced, mere
chance playing a minor part. The " bataille range" will be the result. The
effects on the action of torpedo-boats, combats between cruisers, and attacks
upon coast or harbor defenses are also discussed, and the whole question is
treated in such a lucid and interesting manner as to suggest vital changes in
naval battles of the future.
Tests at the steel works of F. Krupp with the 29-cm. howitzer.
Budget of the French navy for 1891. Budget of the Swedish navy
for 1 89 1. Budget of the Danish navy, 1890 to 1891. Experiences
of naval warfare, i860 to 1889. The French cruiser Le C^cile.
Firing tests against a captive balloon in Russia. Boat-davits, Rees.
Improvements in the dynamite gun. Manipulation of water-tight
doors in the United States navy. Budget of the Norwegian navy,
1890 to 1891. Boiler tests of torpedo-boats. The Giffard rifle.
Experiments with cordite. Launch of the Spanish cruiser Infanta
Maria Teresa. Experiments with a captive balloon in the German
navy. Classification and naming of the men-of-war of the United
States. Launch of the English tug Asp. Triple-screw cruiser for
the United States. Rules for ships' boilers.
Volume XVIII, No. XII. The English and French fleet man-
oeuvres, 1890, by Ferd. Attlmayr. On the requirements of ocean
steamers, especially as regards their machinery, by J. Fassl. Com-
petitive armor tests in America. Reorganization of the artillery and
torpedo bureaus in France. The defense of Paris by floating bat-
teries. The Victoria torpedo. Electric motors for rapid-firing
guns. Japanese coast-defense vessels, type Itsu Rusima. The
Chilian torpedo-gunboat Almirante Condell. About the Turkish
navy. Literary notices : The coast and courts of Asia, by Lieu-
tenant L. V. Jedina. European armies of the present times, by Her-
mann Vogt. H. G. D.
ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS,
1889-1890, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.
Biological water analysis, by Prof. W. T. Sedgwick. The history
and theory of cohesive construction as applied especially to the
I02 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Timbrel vault, by Mr. Raphael Guastavino. The kriegsspiel as
practiced in America ; its object and place in military science, and
its relations to military and naval manoeuvres, by Major W. R.
Livermore. The history and theory of cohesive construction as
applied especially to the Timbrel vault, by Mr. Raphael Guastavino.
The development of magazine-guns for army use, by Capt. A. H.
Russell, U. S. A.
A short history of magazine-guns, and enumeration of the magazine-guns in
use, with 22 cuts.
The physical properties of iron and steel at higher temperatures,
by Mr. James E. Howard. Combination voltmeter and ammeter for
electrical measurements, by Mr. Anthony White. Domestic steels
for naval purposes, by Lieut.-Comdr. J. G. Eaton, U. S. N. (400th
meeting, 1890, February 27). The application of storage batteries
to street-car propulsion, bv Col. E. Hewins. Experiments with alter-
nating currents, by Prof. Elihu Thomson.
ANNALEN DER HYDROGRAPHIE UND MARITIMEN METEOR-
OLOGIE.
i8th Annual Series, Volume I. Influence of the velocity of
the wind on dimensions of ocean waves, by Dr. C. Borgen. Deter-
mination of deviation of the compass by observations of the sun,
moon, or other heavenly bodies, without knowledge of time, latitude,
declination, variation, or even of the heavenly body observed, by F.
Sohnke. Report of Captain C. Green of the German bark Eliza-
beth, voyage from Alias Straits to Isabela, Isabela to Manila, Ma-
nila to Sunda Straits. Taudjong Priok. Exceptionally heavy squall
on southeast coast of Africa. Report of Capt. G. Schumacher of
the German bark Augustina, voyage from Newcastle, N. S.W.,
through Torres Straits to Saigon. Currents, temperatures, and spe-
cific gravity of surface water in Gulf of Aden. On currents in Chinese
waters, by Captain P. A. Polack. Wind velocities on German coast.
Minor notices: Description of a waterspout ; Current observations
in North Atlantic ocean; Remarks on the Bay of Ambrizette, west
coast of Africa ; Landmarks for Angra Pequena ; Remarks on Mon-
goli, Roumania, Black Sea; Trip of a twin-screw steamship across
the Atlantic with one screw; Bottle-post from Sophie and Nixe.
Volume II. On classification of chronometers. Sailing direc-
tions for entering Cameroon river. Extracts from the log of Captain
Deeken, schooner Sagterland ; the Roccas ; the bar of the Rio
Grande ; the harbor of Macau ; voyage from Macau to Rio Grande
do Sul ; Porto Alegre. Report of Captain Albrand of German bark
Emma Romer ; voyage from Indian ocean to Macassar. Soundings
off the west coast of Africa. Soundings in Atlantic ocean, about the
West Indies. The winds at Keitum, Island of Silt. Contributions
to the history of meteorology. Minor notices : Use of oil for quiet-
ing the sea, tried on board H. M. S. litis ; Floating buoys on west
coast of North America ; Ice on northwest coast of Alaska ; Piloting
at Sulina, Roumania. Tables.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES, IO3
Volume III. Contributions to navigation in the neighborhood of
the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, by Commander Credner. On the
approaches to the mouth of the Congo River. Extracts from the
log of Captain Hansi of the bark Levuka. Daily changes in the
deviation of the compass caused by solar heat. On the forms of
cyclones (with plate), by E. Knipping, of Tokio. Quarterly weather
review. Measurements of velocity of winds at different heights.
Minor notices : Use of oil in quieting the seas ; Sailing directions for
Port of Spain, Trinidad ; Obstructions in the Northeast Passage,
Canary Islands ; Passage of Sombok Straits ; Bottle-posts from differ-
ent vessels.
Volume IV. Remarks on the sailing directions for the China
seas, by Captain Ascher of H. M. S. litis. Remarks on navigation
in the Bismark Archipelago ; Lord Howe and Solomon Islands.
Extracts from log of Captain Reinicke of the bark Triton, on harbors
in Australia and New Zealand. The volcanic island Falcon of the
Tonga group. Sailing directions for the Bissagos Islands. Ocean-
ography, observations in the North Sea. Soundings in the Indian
Ocean, Bay of Bengal, and in the Pacific Ocean (Coral Sea). Quart-
erly weather review (continuation). Minor notices : Meteorological
reports from the log of Captain Leopold of the bark Wega ; Cur-
rents off the coast of Dalmatia and Montenegro ; Harbor improve-
ments in the island of Corfu; Depths of water in the harbor of Port
Mula, Virginia Islands; Remarks on the harbor of Santos, Brazil,
and on Ceiba, Honduras; Currents off the island of Upolu, Samoa;
Banks of Manpango, South China Sea ; Bottle-posts from different
vessels.
Volume V. Report on the new American charts, gnomonic pro-
jections, for great-circle sailing, by Dr. G. D. E. Weyer. Remarks
on the inland sea of Japan, and on Hakata-Fukuoka, Kiusiu, by Cap-
tain Ascher of H. M. S. litis. Extracts from the log of Captain
Henne of the bark Papa ; meteorologic conditions in Punta Arenas ;
the Baker Island in the Pacific Ocean. Sailing directions for north-
east coast of Emperor William's Land, for the Los Islands, and the
Dubreka River (west coast of Africa). The north coast of Alaska,
between Point Barrow and Mackenzie Bay. Rain-fall on theSamoan
Islands. Minor notices: The anchorage of Conakry, Los Islands,
Senegambia; Harbor improvements in Buenos Ayres and La Plata ;
Sailing directions for the harbor of El Portillo, Cuba; Remarks on
Makalleh, Gulf of Aden ; Anchorage at Cochin; The Paracel Islands ;
Anchorage in the harbor of Amoy.
Volume VI. Hydrographic observations on the west coast of
Africa, on a voyage of H. M. S. Hyane from Capetown to Cameroon.
Remarks on the east coast of Africa between Mafia channel and
Kipumbwe reef, from the log of H. M. S. Schwalbe, Captain Hirsh-
berg. On some ports on the coast of Costa Rica, by Captain Gille.
Sailing directions for the north coast of Emperor William's Land
(conclusion), and for the harbor of Memel. Ice in the North Atlantic
I04 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
in the spring of 1890. Quarterly weather review (10 charts). Minor
notices : On the use of oil for quieting the seas ; Currents off the
coast of Dalmatia ; On the anchorage in Valle Malaluka, Dalmatia ;
On the anchorages of the island Merak, Java ; Straits of Sunda ;
Reefs and anchorages at Sumenep, southeast coast of Madura
Island ; Sickness after eating fish. Tables and charts.
Volume VII. Studies on the effect of the moon on the weather,
by Dr. G. Meyer. On various bays and harbors of the Samoan
Islands, by Captain Herbing of H. M. S. Sophie. Report of Cap-
tain Bruhn of the ship J. Steffen, on the voyage from Guayaquil to
the Gulf of Tehuantepec, with remarks on Rosario and Guelagichi.
Description of the Kermadec Islands. Soundings in the North
Pacific Ocean, off the west coast of America. Meteorologic observa-
tions in the roadstead and harbor of Cameroon, 1888 and 1889. The
West Indian hurricane of September, 1888. Minor notices: On the
effect of oil on the seas ; Prizes for experiments with oil in smooth-
ing the seas; On currents in the Bay of Biscay; Remarks on the
Bay of Independencia and Port Permejo, Peru ; Remarks on the
islands of St. Matthew and St. Lawrence, west coast of Alaska ; On
a tedious voyage from Singapore to Anjer ; Bottle-post from different
vessels.
Volume VIII. The winds at Keitum, Island of Silt, by Dr. H.
Meyer. Remarks on the harbors of Apia, Saluafata, and Pago Pago.
The west coast of Africa between Wadi Draa and Cape Juby. Sound-
ings in the North Pacific. Report of the thirteenth series of com-
petitive tests of chronometers at the German observatory, 1889-1890.
A new method of proving storm predictions, and results of the storm
predictions on the German coast in 1889, by Dr. W. J. Van Bebber.
Quarterly weather review, spring of 1886 (conclusion). Minor notices :
On the use of oil for quieting the seas; Changes in the currents of
the Indian Ocean; Current off the southeast coast of Nipon, between
Yokohama and Oosima; Remarks on the Gulf of Patras, Ionian
Sea ; Remarks on La Guayra, Venezuela ; Harbor improvements of
Puerto de la Plata ; The harbor of Quellon, Chili ; The establish-
ment of the correct geographic positions of several places in Chili ;
The non-existence of the Wolverine bank and Vibilia rocks, between
the Tonga and Kermadec islands; Bottle-post from H. M. S. Sophie.
Volume IX. Observations of H. M. S. Sophie in the Bismarck
Archipelago. Report of Captain Fesenfeldt of the iron bark
Auguste, on his voyage from Shields to Sta. Rosalia (Lower Cali-
fornia), and to Astoria and Portland (Oregon). Remarks on the
settlement of St. Michaels, and the Stuart and Port Clarence islands,
Alaska. The Comora Islands. Navigation of the lower Seine. The
storm of April 25-26, 1890, by Dr. W. J. Van Bebber. Determina-
tion of magnetic elements at forty stations in northwestern Germany
(extract). Minor notices : Use of oil at sea ; On the locust swarms
of the Red Sea ; On the relative levels of waters bounding Europe ;
Sailing directions for Port au Prince, Cuba ; Determination of longi-
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES, IO5
tudes of Puerto Plata, Santa Ana, La Guayra ; Remarks on various
places on the west coast of Africa ; Decrease of depths in Whale
Bay, Africa ; Position of islands off west coast of Zealous Island,
Baker group, Patagonia; Remarks on islands in the Straits of
Magellan ; Haberton harbor and Beagle channel, South America ;
The roadstead of Panama ; Salaverry, Tumbez river, Buena and
Mejillones coves, in Peru ; Darwin Channel and several harbors in
the Chonos Archipelago, Chili ; The breakwater at Colombo,
Ceylon ; Cyclones on the west coast of India and in the Arabian
Sea; Swatow ; Matautu and Savai, Samoan Islands; Newly-dis-
covered islands northeast of Sunday Island, South Pacific, north-
east of New Zealand. H. G. D.
DEUTSCHE HEERES ZEITUNG.
November 15, 1890. Ammunition supply in the French army.
November ig. Ammunition supply in the French army (con-
tinued). The ballistics of the Lebel gun. Electric signalling appa-
ratus for ships.
November 22. Proposed changes in tactics. Ammunition supply
in the French army (concluded). Direction indicator for ships.
Launch of the Russian men-of-war Gangut and Hong-Hudd,
November 29. The French territorial army.
December 3. The French territorial army (continued). Budget
of the fleet, 1891 to '92.
December 6. The French territorial army (concluded). River
and air torpedoes.
December 10. Firing drill for field artillery.
The launch of the ' 25. de Mayo' at Elswick :
A speed of 21.237 knots with 9000 H. P. was attained, and 22.43 knots with
forced draft, and 13,800 H. P. developed. Coal capacity, 600 tons.
December 13-17. Krupp's firing tests. What shall we do with
Heligoland ?
December 27. The cruiser Le C6cile. The cruiser Infanta
Maria Teresa.
January i, 1891. Open letter on the fortifying of Heligoland, by
R. Wagner.
January 3. The German auxiliary cruisers.
The estimated number of auxiliary cruisers of the Triple Alliance is 32, of
which 19 belong to Germany, being vessels of the Hamburg-American Packet
Co., and of the North German Lloyd, with tonnages ranging from 4000 to
10,000, speed from 18 to 20 knots. The intended armament for each auxiliary
cruiser is eight 15 cm. guns, four 12.5 cm. guns, two 8.8 cm. guns, two 56 mm.
R. F. guns, six revolving cannon, eight Catlings. The vessels are to carry 115
rounds for the 15 cm. guns, 210 rounds for the lighter calibers, 1200 rounds for
R. F. and machine-guns, besides two torpedo-launches and eight torpedoes.
The auxiliary fleet of Italy at present consists of eight steamers, of tonnage
from 1046 to 4826, and 16 to 18 knots speed. Armament of each, two 12 cm.
and four 3.7 cm. R. F. guns.
I06 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
The torpedo-boat question.
A short review of the torpedo question, with an enumeration of the torpedo-
boats of Germany and France. German}' possesses 6 division boats (250-350
tons), 48 Schichau boats (about 37 tons), to be increased to 60 ; 8 Vulcan, 6
Weser, 2 Thornycroft boats, besides 7 others. France possesses 9 torpilleurs
de haute-mer (over 100 tons), 14 first-class torpedo-boats (60-ico tons), 83
second-class boats (40-60 tons), 41 third-class boats (20-40 tons), 6 torpedo-
launches of less than 20 tons ; total, 23 cruising or sea-boats and 130 coast-
defenders. Attention is forcibly called to the manifold advantages of torpedo
transport vessels of the English Vulcan type, of about 7000 tons, 21 knots
speed, well armed and carrying 8 second-class torpedo-boats, fully equipped
for service, which can be launched by means of steam cranes in a few minutes.
Owing to the seaworthiness and high speed of such vessels they can keep up
with the fleet at all times, in any weather, which cannot be said of the torpedo-
boats. Heretofore, when long sea-voyages have been undertaken by torpedo-
boats, there has always been more or less anxiety evinced, and their safe
arrival looked upon as an event. When carried on a large transport vessel
they are safe, and will reach their destination in greatly less time without
exhausting the crew. The Tyne accompanied four Yarrow boats on a trip
from Plymouth to Bermuda recently ; the trip took 25 days. The Vulcan, car-
rying twice the number of boats, can make the same trip in eight or nine days,
and with crews fresh and ready for action.
The tactics in action for the torpedo-depot and transport vessel will proba-
bly be to remain outside of the melee, having the boats ready, the commander
deciding when and where to attack the enemy. Rather than take part at once
in the engagement, it will be safe to await a favorable moment to make a
decisive attack, the point of attack being communicated to each boat and
everything directed from the depot-vessel ; two boats to be kept in reserve.
The objective point of attack being settled upon, the boats are sent out, with
instructions to return, if possible, after carrying out the attack. Of course,
each boat-commander has authority to take advantage of opportunities offered
for other operations, but it must be borne in mind that the operations can be
much better determined upon and directed from the torpedo-depot vessel than
from the closed boats, especially as she takes up her position outside of the
melee. The vessel is the refuge and depot of the boats. They return to her
after the action, or when their ammunition is exhausted. The two boats in
reserve are close at hand to lend aid to any hard-pressed vessel, and to pro-
tect their own vessel against an attack by one of the enemy's protected cruisers.
England is building three vessels similar to the Vulcan, liut other nations have
not yet made the experiments.
January 7. Establishment of military telephone stations. Sta-
tions of the English fleet in i8go. The present fleet of Portugal.
H. G. D.
FRANKLIN INSTITUTE JOURNAL.
December, 1890. The product of the Eureka Tempered Copper
Company. The manufacture of tin plate. A new theory of the
propagation of waves in liquids.
January, 1891. Electricity: its past, present and future. The
continuous girder.
JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
September, i8go. The electrical transmission of power.
October, 1890. Photography applied to surveying.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES, lOy
THE STEVENS INDICATOR.
October, 1890. The fabrication of 12-inch mortars. Water
analysis to determine scale-forming ingredients. Notes on the action
of lubricants. A comparison of cut-off gear and link motion. Trac-
tive force in the locomotive. J. K. B.
THE ENGINEER.
Volume XX, No. 9. Progress in aluminium. The process of
steam in its development of power. Overheated furnace-crowns.
Safety valves.
No. 10. The trial of the hydraulic-jet boat Evolution. Steel cast-
ings. Cylinder condensation. Reports of engine performance.
No. II. Yarrow's water-tube boiler. Aluminium. Lubricating
oils. Safety valves.
No. 12. Coal endurance of cruisers. Resistance of ships. Hy-
draulic tests for boilers. Triple-screw propulsion.
Volume XXI, No. i. Lubrication of steam cylinders. Errors in
boiler testing. Cylinder condensation.
No. 2. Heat transmission in boilers. Tests for olive oil. Forced
draught. J. K. B.
THE ENGINEERING AND RAILROAD JOURNAL.
October, 1890. Electrical transmission of power. The new fast
cruiser.
An illustrated description of the new swift cruiser of 7300 tons, otificially
known as No. 12.
Steam lines across the Atlantic. The development of armor. A
new variable blast nozzle.
November. The launch of the Maine. Electricity in daily life.
Friction and lubrication of journals. United States naval progress.
The Army Ordnance Notes. The submarine mine and torpedo in
harbor defense. Description, and drawings of the engines of the
triple-screw cruiser No. 12.
January, 1891. The new geodetic survey of France. The new
cruiser Tschiyoda for the Japanese navy. Our navy in time of peace.
J. K. B.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
The Research Committee on marine engine trials. The report upon
trials of three steamers, Fusi Yama, Colchester, Tartar. J. K. B.
MECHANICS.
November, 1890. Electrotechnics, a compilation of rules, tables
and data. Pumps and pumping machinery. The theory of cen-
trifugal governors.
I08 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
December. The Serve boiler tube.
A compilation of the results in a comparative trial of two boilers of same
general dimensions, one fitted with the Serve tubes and the other with the
ordinary tubes. The results show a gain in evaporative capacity of from 11.2
per cent to 16 per cent in favor of the Serve tubes. The tubes fitted were of
steel in both cases. The experiments made in France on boilers provided
with Serve tubes made of brass showed an advantage of about 20 per cent in
their favor. The apparent advantages of these tubes will probably be offset
to some extent by their increased cost as compared with the ordinary tubes,
and by the greater difficulty of cleaning dust and soot from them.
A special report of the 22d annual convention of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
An account of the business meeting and an abstract of papers read.
January, 1891. Graphic statics and its application to construc-
tion pumps and pumping machinery. J. K. B.
THE STEAMSHIP.
October, 1890. Adiabatic expansion.
A deduction of the principal formulae used in working out questions in
adiabatic expansion.
The proposed Canadian ship railway.
A method of connecting Lake Huron and Lake Ontario at Toronto by a ship
railway, thus shortening about 400 miles of lake navigation between the head
of the lakes and Montreal.
The dynamics involved in the lines and speeds of ships. Im-
proved automatic boat-detaching apparatus. The application of
electricity to welding. The dangers of coal cargoes.
A paper read before the Royal United Service Institution on the sponta-
neous combustion and explosions in coal-bunkers, with suggestions which
would tend to minimise the risk of spontaneous ignition.
November. The development of the marine engine.
A paper by Prof. Seaton before the Iron and Steel Institute of America, in
which was made a complete survey of the progress in marine engineering dur-
ing the past fifteen years.
The Serve patent ribbed boiler-tube.
January i, 1891. The theory of propulsion and centrifugal-force
propellers.
All abstract of paper read before the Institute of Marine Engineers by Mr.
Thos. Drewry.
Increased boiler pressures and increased piston speeds.
J. K. B.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING
ENGINEERS.
Volume XVIII, 1890. Notes on the manufacture of open-hearth
bridge steel. Concentration of low-grade ores. Notes on coals of
Western Canada. Electrical accumulators or storage batteries.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. IO9
The peculiar working of a blast furnace. Notes on American cannel
coal. Aluminium in the drawing press. Aluminium bronze as a
suitable material for propellers. On the use of aluminium in the
construction of instruments of precision. Some tests of the relative
strength of nitro-glycerine and other explosives. The properties of
aluminium. Notes on fuel gas. The Herault process of smelting
aluminium alloys. Phosphorus in pig-iron. Steel and iron ores.
J. K. B.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS.
Volume XI. The use of tables of the properties of steam in
engine experiments. Cost of steam and water power. Cost of
lubricating car-journals. The philosophy of the multi-cylinder or
compound engine. Flow of steam through orifices. An experi-
mental study of the errors of different types of calorimeters.
Rolling steel rails. A new recording pressure-gauge. How to use
steam expansively. Graphic analysis of reciprocating motion.
Comparison of indicators. On the influence of steam-jackets. On
the performance of a double screw ferry-boat. The theory and
design of chimneys. Report of the committee on standard tests.
Report of the committee on standard method of conducting daily
trials of pumping engines. Tests of several types of engines as
found in practice. The mechanical theory of chimney-draught.
Notes on kerosene in steam boilers. The length of an indicator
card. The effective area of screws. Steam-engine governor.
J. K. B.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF NAVAL ENGINEERS.
November, 1890. Graphic method for determining and counter-
balancing the centrifugal action of the connecting rod. Ericsson
compound engine and Belleville boiler.
Experiments made at the Delamater Iron Works in New York by Chief
Engineer Isherwood, on a non-condensing, single-acting, compound steam
engine designed by John Ericsson, and on the Belleville boiler supplying it
with steam.
New forms of evaporators. Notes on analysis of engine trials.
The contract trial of the Philadelphia. The contract trial of the San
Francisco. A continuation of the discussion on tubular boilers.
J. K. B.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE NORTH-EAST COAST INSTITUTION OF
ENGINEERS AND SHIPBUILDERS.
Volume VI, 1890. Notes on the surveying and classification of
shipping. The construction of marine boilers with a view to the
use of higher pressure. High-speed engines for cargo boats. Boiler
furnaces. Marine engines and boilers. Report of the council on
the horse-power of marine engines. The weight of machinery in
the mercantile marine. J. K. B.
no BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Volume CII, 1890. The application of electricity to welding,
stamping, and other cognate purposes, by Sir F. Bramwell. The
screw propeller, by S. W. Barnaby. Some applications of electricity
in engineering workshops, by C. F. Jenkin. Experiments made
with boiler-plate materials at the Royal College, Berlin. A new
modification of the open-hearth steel process. J. K. B.
REVUE DU CERCLE MILITAIRE.
September 21, 1890. The Annamite language and French influ-
ence in Indo-China. Fortifications of the St. Gothard, with maps
and photographic views (continued). The latest improvements in
the European navies.
September 28. Notes upon the English army: I. The question
of armament. Fortifications of the St. Gothard (ended).
October 5. French influence in Indo-China. The latest improve-
ments in the European navies (continued). Manoeuvres of the
IX German Army Corps.
October 12. The grand manoeuvres in Switzerland. The latest
improvements in the European navies (continued).
October 19. Military short-hand writing. The German man-
oeuvres in Silesia. The latest improvements in the European navies
(continued).
October 26. Notes upon the English army: II. England's offen-
sive power. Success of the Creusot plates in the United States.
November 9. A critic study of the great German manoeuvres.
The latest improvements in the European navies (continued).
November 16. The Austrian manoeuvres in Hungary. The
latest improvements in the European navies (continued).
November 23. A visit to the military exhibit in London.
November 30. The latest improvements in the European navies
(continued).
December 7. A visit to the London military exhibition : notes
and impressions (continued). The latest improvements in the Euro-
pean navies (continued).
December 14. A visit to the London military exhibition : notes
and impressions (ended).
December 21. French influence in Indo-China (continued). The
latest improvements in the European navies (continued).
December 28. French influence in Indo-China (ended).
January 4, 1891. Training of the foot-soldier in firing on the
battlefield (continued in the next numbers).
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. Ill
January i8. The latest improvements in the European navies
(continued).
In view of the interest it presents to naval people, this study is deserving of
more than a passing notice. J. L-
REVUE MARITIME ET COLONIALE.
September, 1890. The Italian navy appropriations 1890-91.
Historical studies of the military marine of France (continued). The
last operations and ruin of the fleet of Louis XIV. Approximate
solution of the problem of ballistics for marine guns. The war
navies of antiquity and mediaeval age (2d part). Studies of com-
parative naval architecture (continued). Definitive trials of the Peral,
Spanish navy.
November. The sea-fisheries in Algeria and Tunis. Notes on
the formation of incrustation in marine boilers. The war navies of
antiquity and mediaeval age (see previous number). Naval discus-
sions in regard to the English manoeuvres of 1889.
December. Elementary explanation of the influence of the
earth's rotation upon the Fleuriai's gyroscope. The sea-fisheries in
Algeria and Tunisia (ended). The war navies of antiquity and
mediaeval age. Experiments made at Meppen with a plunging fire
against ships. J. L.
TRANSACTIONS OF CANADIAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Volume IV, Part I, January-June, 1890. Discussion on Van-
couver water-works columns, by C. F. Findlay. Generation, dis-
tribution and measurement of electricity for light and power, by A.
J. Lawson, with discussion.
Introduction : Brief history of the development of dynamo electric machines
for domestic lighting purposes. Showing growth in arc and incandescent
lighting in America. Electric lighting in Canada, engines, boilers, arc light-
ing systems, wiring, dynamos, with illustrations. Brush, Thomson-Houston,
Westinghouse, Edison, Royal Electric Co.'s A. C. Dynamo. Converters,
meters : Edison's, Avon, Shallenberger. Storage batteries. Private installa-
tion. Measuring instruments. Electric railways. Street wiring.
THE UNITED SERVICE GAZETTE.
October 4, 1890.
" During the trial of smokeless powder with various types of ordnance,
which took place during the German manoeuvres, it was found that steel guns
were injured to a much greater extent by erosion of the bore than bronze guns.
A proposal has been made to use aluminum bronze for small guns and also for
liners of heavy guns. This is very likely to be soon tried practically, as Dr.
Anderson, the Director-General of Ordnance, thinks that aluminum bronze
might prove valuable for lining guns."
Naval training. Australasian defense.
October II. Controlof artillery fire inaction. Naval training, II.
112 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
October i8. Automobile torpedoes. Important artillery experi-
ments.
" Some important experiments were made at Silloth, the artillery range of
Sir W. G. Armstrong, Mitchell & Co. The trial was that of a 6-inch quick-
firing gun of 40 calibers length, on a mounting of new design. Another feature
of this trial was the use of cordite, the new smokeless gunpowder. A velocity
of 2669 f. s. was attained with a charge of cordite, with a chamber pressure
under 20 tons. Comparative tests for rapidity of firing were made with cordite
and with non-smokeless powders, at targets distant respectively 900, 1400 and
1800 yards, the results showing the advantage of the smokeless powder. A
new quick-firing gun of 2.65 inches caliber (throwing a lo-pound projectile) was
also submitted to a successful trial."
Chief petty officers. Recruiting.
October 25. Our first line of defense.
November i.
"During the recent manoeuvres of the Italian fleet in the Mediterranean,
some very successful experiments were made in the employment of carrier
pigeons for communicating with the mainland. Although the pigeons came
from the station at Piacenza, and had to fly a considerable distance inland
after reaching the coast, very few of the birds failed to return to their lofts.
On arrival at Piacenza the despatches were deciphered and their contents
telegraphed to the various signalling stations along the coast. Some carrier
pigeons from the station at Ancona were also sent to the headquarters of the
army at Montechiaro for employment during the army manoeuvres. These
birds, after returning to Ancona (190 miles), were sent on over the Apennines
to Rome, a further distance of 125 miles, and were found on the average to
cover the whole distance in ten hours, notwithstanding occasional spells of
bad weather."
Steam reserve officers.
November 8. Notes on the Aldershot auxiliary musketry school.
Captive balloons. Three new French first-class ironclads. The
protection of ships' crews.
November 15. Loss of the Serpent. Mounted infantry. Naval
notes.
"An important trial of armor-plates has just been concluded at the Govern-
ment ranges near St. Petersburg. Five shots at each range were fired from a
35-caliber 6-inch 6-ton gun with Russian Holtzer shell, weighing 91 pounds, at
350 feet ; first, two rounds with 53 pounds of powder, giving an initial velocity
of 2000 feet, and then three with 53 pounds and a velocity of 2100 feet. There
were three plates of 10 inches each, submitted by Messrs. Brown & Co.,
Messrs. Schneider, and Messrs. Vickers. The first of these, a compound
plate, resisted the first two rounds, the shell remaining embedded in the
armor, but the last three went clean through it. The Schneider hard-steel
plate broke up three shells, and only the third penetrated as far as the backing,
but the plate suffered severely, showing cracks in all corners. The Vickers
plate, of softer steel, was more deeply penetrated by the shells ;-none of which,
however, got right through, while the cracks were comparatively insignificant."
Notes on Aldershot musketry school, II.
November 22. Entry and training of naval off.cers. Loss of the
Serpent. The magazine rifle. Protection of ships' crews, 11.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. II3
November 29. Practice at balloons, I. Launch of the Edgar.
The Edgar is one of the first-class protected cruisers which are being built
under the Naval Defense Act. There are eight similar vessels under construc-
tion. They are of 7350 tons displacement, 360 feet long, 60 feet beam, and
draw 23 feet 9 inches of water. Their engines to indicate 12,000 H. P. with
forced draft, 7500 H, P. with natural draft, giving speeds of 20 and 18 knots
respectively. Coal capacity, 850 tons. Armament, two g-inch 22 ton B. L.
rifles, ten 6-inch quick-firing rifles, sixteen 6-pounder R. F. guns, three 3-
pounder and eight machine-guns. Two above-water and two submerged
torpedo-tubes. Protective deck, greatest thickness five inches. A 6-inch
steel armor protects the machinery above the water-line. The Edgar has
vertical engines and twin screws.
Yarrow torpedo-boat Bathurst.
December 6. Launch of the Naiad. Protection of our com-
merce. Trial trips of the Bellona and the Spezzia. Trials with
armor-piercing projectiles.
December 13. Fiske's range-finder. The phonograph and its
adaptation to military uses. Education and training of naval officers.
Practice at balloons, IL Aerial locomotion. Protection of com-
merce. Engine-room lieutenants. The Russian Imperial yacht
Polar Star.
December 20. Launch of the Pique and the Thetis. The
Serpent court-martial. Army and navy convalescent and training
home. Naval notes. Steel cruisers. The magazine rifle, IL Navi-
gation in the navy. Defense expenditure of the chief powers.
December 27. Army organization in India. The naval man-
oeuvres of 1890. The Serpent court-martial. The magazine rifle,
III. Naval notes. New armament and engines for the Thunderer.
The official trials of the Spanish ironclad Pelayo, with respect to the
behavior of Vavasseur-Canet carriages. Experiments on gun-steel at
low temperatures.
January 3, 1891. Naval notes: Launch of the Capitan Prat
(Chilian armor-clad) ; Launch of the Sybille ; Estimates for the
French navy for 1891 ; Forced draft; The army in 1890; Naval
retrospect, 1890.
January 10. The development of modern cavalry action. The
" Tortoise " wagon-tent. The Vitu expedition. Foreign naval
progress and construction during 1890, I. Training naval stokers
(with discussion).
January 17. Steel as applied to armor plates. Yarrow's tubulous
boilers. Coaling ships at sea. Foreign naval progress and construc-
tion during 1890, II.
January 24. Promotion from the ranks in the navy. Boat-
hoisting machinery trials.
January 31. The recruiting difficulty. Liquid fuel.
H. G. D.
114 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
LE YACHT.
September 20, 1890. The mercantile American school-ship
Saratoga. Naval technical association : reciprocal actions of rudder
and screw (A. Normand).
September 27. Trial of the Creusot plates in the United States.
Trial of the Japanese cruiser Itsuku-Shima.
October 4. Three new French armored ships. Something
about the cruiser Le C^cile, of the French navy.
October ii. A comment on the German naval manoeuvres.
Italian naval estimates for 1891. Mercantile naval schools.
October 18. The Creusot and Cammell plates' trials at An-
napolis.
October 25. Mercantile naval schools (continued). Trials of
the third-class cruiser Surcouf, of the French navy.
November i. The yacht-club of France and the America's cup.
Launching of the armored cruiser Dupuy-de-L6me. The new Ja-
panese guard-ships (Itsuku-Shima type).
November 8. More about the mercantile naval schools. The
European boards of admiralty.
November 22. Discussion of the navy budget.
November 29. The navy. The squadron of evolution and the
torpedo-boats. The committee of thirty -three.
December 6. Armored battle-ships of great displacement.
English cruisers and their armament; the weight and position of
the guns criticised. Chemical preparation of sea-water for feeding
marine boilers.
December 13. Rules governing promotion in the European
navies. A comparison between the national (French) and foreign
torpedo-boats.
December 20. Qualities indispensable to a life-boat. A com-
parison between the French and foreign torpedo-boats (continued).
December 27. Government and private dock-yards. A pro-
peller with plane and removable blades, system Margue.
January 3, 1891. A review of the navies of the world, by E.
Weyl. Engines for multiple screws.
January 10. The second-class cruisers, by E. Weyl, Board of
the French Yacht; institution of the " Cup of France"; opening
of a public subscription. Qualities required in a life-boat.
January 17. National navy: the committee of thirty-three. The
Newfoundland fisheries. The iio-ton gun of the Sans-Pareil (E.
W.). Lieut. Fiske new telemeter. J. L.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. II5
REVISTA MARITIMA BRAZILEIRA.
August, 1890. Co-operative military. Great ranges of modern
artillery. The defenses of Bahia. The Peral. A new gun- mount-
ing (with plate). Notes on naval architecture. Floating dock.
Pyrodynamics. Naval notes.
September and October. The schistofone. Pyrodynamics.
The infancy of nautical science. Notes on naval architecture.
Various notes.
REVISTA MILITAR DE CHILE.
No. 48, September, 1890. Don Federico Errazuriz Ech^urren.
The Chilian commission to Peru. Establishment of permanent staff.
Visit to the Krupp gun foundry (concluded). Instructions for
target-firing (continued). Canet guns and Chilian republic. Gar-
rison and interior service (continued). The Giffard rifle. Subsist-
ence for the soldier (continued).
No. 49, October. The artillery of our new cruisers. The Chilian
army. Garrison and interior service (continued). A new rifle.
Desertion in the field or in time of peace. Subsistence for the soldier.
No. 50, November. What constitutes the reserve of our army ?
Lieut. -Colonel Don Severo Amengual. Marksman's manual. Mili-
tary legislation of Spain. Ballistics of the Giflard rifle. Instructions
for target-firing. Subsistence for the soldier (continued).
No. 51, December. General Baquedano. Laws for promotion.
Desertions in time of peace. Records of a commission on the Chilian
campaigns. On the enlistments in the army corps. Military legis-
lation of Germany. Competitive firing-tests between Krupp and
De Bange, at Batuco. Instructions for target-firing.
REVISTA DE LA UNION MILITAR.
No. 8, August, 1890. The army. The National Guard. Armies
of the Independence. Experiments with artillery fire. Tactics of
firing with magazine rifles.
No. 9, September and October. The army : military discipline
and subordination. Tactics of firing with magazine rifles (continued).
Infantry engagements and open order. Argentine valor. Resist-
ance of air. Information on the manufacture of powder.
H. G. D.
RIVISTA UI ARTIGLIERIA E GENIO.
October, 1890. Upon the rigorous solution of the problem of
ballistics, by F. Siacci. Description of the barracks of Passalacqua
in Novara. The fortifications on the northeast frontier of France.
The Monier system of building in iron and cement.
November. The fortifications on the northeast frontier of France
(concluded). The importance of rapidity in artillery fire in action.
On lightning conductors. Supplement to the manual of the labora-
tory of precision.
Il6 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
December. Ammunition supply to field artillery. Firing with
time-fuzes. Some notes on military stables. An electric cell with
circulating fluids.
RIVISTA MARITTIMA.
October, 1890. Study on modern naval tactics, by Lieut. G.
Ronca (continued). Fire-ships and infernal machines in naval warfare
(historical), by Lieut. Ettore Bravetta (continued). River steam navi-
gation for transporting the wounded in time of war, by F. Santini and
F. Home-Rosemberg. A month in the island of Ceylon (continued).
November, 1890. The launch of the Sardegna, by I. Sigismondi.
Study on modern naval tactics, by Lieut. G. Ronca (continued).
Fire-ships and infernal machines in naval warfare (historical), by
Lieut. Ettore Bravetta (continued). On the use of fresh water on
board the royal vessels, by N. Soliani.
Gives full description of the distillers of Normandy and Kirkaldy types, with
cuts of same.
Ships and guns.
December, 1890. Fragments of naval architecture, by Guiseppa
Rota.
The author gives experiments on the resistance of ship's under-water body,
with system adopted to graphically represent the results. Elements of resist-
ance and propulsion of a vessel when the displacement and draft forward and
aft are changed, within fixed limits.
The German merchant marine, by Salvatore Raineri. Electric
search-light projectors, by L. Pasqualini. The interior of Africa, by
Ettore Bravetta. Study on modern naval tactics, by Lieut. G. Ronca
(continued).
January, 1891. Study on modern naval tactics, by Lieut. G.
Ronca (continued). The German merchant marine, by Salvatore
Raineri (continued). Electrical units, by Lieut. A. Pouchain. The
interior of Africa, by Lieut. Ettore Bravetta (continued). Upon the
origin of meteorological observations and instruments, by G. Hell-
man, translated by A. Cancani. New engines for the Sirio, Orione,
and Perseo. H. G. D.
REVISTA TECNOLOGICO INDUSTRIAL.
September, 1890. Transportation and refining of petroleum
(continued). Theory of the steam engine (continued).
October. Theory of the steam engine (concluded). History of
mills. Agricultural plantations.
JOURNAL OF THE UNITED STATES CAVALRY ASSOCIATION.
Volume HI, September, 1890, No. 10. With the reserve
brigade (second paper), by Captain Moses Harris. Troop and
company pack-trains, by Lieutenant A. A. Cabaniss. A reconnais-
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 1,17
sance with the first Maine cavalry (with map), by Brevet Maj.-Genl.
C. H. Smith, Kilpatrick's raid around Atlanta, August i8th to 22d,
1864 (with map), by Lieutenant W. S. Scott. A new lecture on the
horse's foot (with illustrations), by Lieutenant H. J. Goldman. An
unexampled ride, from the Pacific to the Baltic on a single horse, by
A. N. Kovrigin. New drill regulations for cavalry, United States
army; evolutions of the regiment ; ceremonies. Professional notes.
Book notices and exchanges.
MILITAR-WOCHENBLATT.
December 24, 1890. The French cruiser Cecile. Launch of the
Dupuy-de-L6me.
December 31. Trial trips of the French cruiser Surcouf Gun
for throwing lines.
January 3, 1891. Flight of carrier pigeons in France. Italy's
squadrons. Trial with unforged cast-steel gun-tubes in Sweden.
January 7. A new magazine rifle for the Danish troops. The
Giffard rifle. Captive balloon on board the Formidable.
January id. New armored vessels for Japan. New American
magazine rifle.
January 14. Bayonet exercises. Firing tests from armored
turrets at Creusot.
January 17. The magazine rifle in England. Launch of the
Edgar. Inquiry into the loss of the Italian torpedo-boat 105 S.
January 21. Armor tests in Russia.
" Three plates were tested at these trials, held at Ochta, Nov. 1 1, 1890 ; viz.
a Brown compound, a Schneider steel, and a Vickers mild steel plate. More
recent tests were held at Kolpino with compound plates of Wilson's patent,
which stood the tests successfully
" Tests like those of Ochta and Annapolis are scarcely decisive, because it
is improbable that deliberate firing at armor, with guns of medium caliber, at
short range and with perpendicular impact, will ever occur in action. The
deciding point in the struggle of guns against armor during action will be the
penetration of the target by a few heavy-caliber projectiles, hitting at greater
or less angle with the normal.
"The value of the above tests lies more in giving a comparison of plates
and guns than in any tactical importance. And in this regard the important
results stand forth that the compound plates of the English firm of Camniel &
Co. have been beaten by those of Schneider et Cie. of Creusot, as well as by
thos.e of the Government works in Russia; another example, particularly in
questions pertaining to war, that inactivity is equivalent to retrogression, more
apparent to-day than ever. And it must be acknowledged that Russia's efforts,
though owing to the use of foreign improvements, deserve the highest appre-
ciation, in regard to their armor-plates as well as their projectiles, the latter
behaving as well as the real Holtzers. Russia will prove a formidable oppo-
nent, and require every effort in order to cope with her on an equal footing."
January 28. New men-of-war for the Argentine Republic.
January 31. Firing tests on the island of Fano, Denmark.
February 4. Wolfram's projectiles. Use of electric power in
French fleets.
Il8 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
SUPPLEMENT TO MILITAR WOCHENBLATT.
Nos. I and 2, 1891. The battle of Mount Val6rien, January 19,
1871, by Major Kunz. Strategic views of the question of fortifications,
by Major Scheibert.
No. 3. Plans of attack and defense of Frederick the Great in the
first two Silesian wars, by A. v. Roesgler. H. G. D.
JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION.
Volume XXXIV, No. 154. The transport of the sick and
wounded in time of war. The employment of large masses of
cavalry, of movable fortifications, and of smokeless powder, as illus-
trated by German autumn manoeuvres of 1889. Spontaneous
ignition and explosion in coal-bunkers. Notes : Gruson experiments
with smokeless powder C/89. Armed strength of Russia.
Volume XXXV, No. 155. The entry and training of naval
officers, by Rear-Admiral N. Bowden-Smith.
The consensus of opinion in England seems from this discussion to be in
favor of gaining a working knowledge of the naval profession at sea in actual
service before a professional education, properly speaking, is undertaken.
That to come afterwards, though just how, is not exactly pointed out. The
idea seems to be that being an ofHcer and a gentleman he will see the value of
an education, and in some way acquire it. The question of additional mental
training would seem to be subordinated to the necessity of becoming at an
early age accustomed to the " unnatural life " of a seafaring man. Our system
of giving a professional education, combined with enough practice to illustrate,
before the actual service at sea begins, seems to be more in consonance with
the course pursued in acquiring other professions.
Translations : Belleville boilers and their applicability to ocean-
going vessels. Cruiser-war and coast-defense. Considerations on the
employment of torpedo-boats. Tactics and vertical fire.
SCHOOL OF MINES QUARTERLY.
November, 1890. Theory of stress in a granular mass. Out-
burstsofgas in metalliferous mines. Examinationof mines. Graphical
method of showing the relative annual efficiency of a steam plant.
Wind-problem in gunnery. Part II.
JOURNAL OF THE MILITARY SERVICE INSTITUTION.
January, 1891. A practical scheme for training the regular army
in field duties for war (prize essay). A proposed change in artillery
school methods. Modern Bobadilism in the marksman's method of
defeating an army. Strategy, tactics and policy. The gyroscope
and drift education of the soldier.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL ARTILLERY INSTITUTION,
WOOLWICH.
October, 1890. Ranging and range-finding. Horse artillery
progress abroad. Battle of Dettingen. Practice at a moving target
from a low site.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. II9
November. Ranging a battery.
December. Instructions for practice over sea-ranges.
January, 1891. Changes in the Royal Artillery. The origin of
our present drill-book.
UNITED SERVICE.
January, 1891. Wellington. The Harriet Lane. Modern armor.
February. The influences of small-caliber magazine rifles and
smokeless powder on tactics. Moltke, Part I. The history of the
U. S. Marine Corps. C. M. K.
AMERICAN CHEMICAL JOURNAL.
Volume XII, No. 8, November, 1890. The acquisition of
atmospheric nitrogen by plants, by W. O. Atwater and C. D. Woods.
Reviews and reports: A short account of hydrazoic acid, recently
discovered by Curtuis, who will be remembered as the discoverer of
hydrazine.
Hydrazoic acid is a gas of the formula HN3, of a fearfully penetrating odor;
soluble in water, the solution resembling hydrochloric acid; the salts are
well defined ; the silver salt AgNs having very violent explosive properties.
Volume XIII, No. i, January, 1891. Atwater and Woods con-
clude their work on the acquisition of atmospheric nitrogen by
plants. C. R. S.
REVIEWERS AND TRANSLATORS,
Lieut. -Commander C. S. Sperry, Ensign C. M. Knepper,
P. A. Engineer J. K. Barton, Prof. C. R. Sanger,
Ensign H. G. Dresel, Prof. J. Leroux.
THE PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
United States Naval Ii^stitute.
Vol. XVn., No. 2. 1891. Whole No. 58.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
Honorably Mentioned.
Motto : Occasionem cognosce.
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET
SHIP AND SQUADRON DRILL.
By Lieutenant R. C. Smith, U. S. Navy.
INTRODUCTION.
There are many considerations which influence the settlement of
a definite policy which shall comprehend the subjects in the above
title. It will not be well to limit the horizon of our view and assert
dogmatically that one thing or another is the best. Differences of
opinion are accounted for as much in the view taken of the objects
sought as in the habit of mind which decides the method. Now
there are many points of view. The politician looks at the question
in one way, the merchant in another, the seaman in a third, and the
true statesman will try to balance all these views, selecting what is
best from each, and totally rejecting what is worthless. In this
reconcilement, it is assumed that the fleet will be manned, officered,
and employed in such wise as to give the best account of itself when
called on to fight. In other words, the first object is war-efficiency.
122 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
Now, as to methods, there is more difference of opinion here than in
the objects sought. An institution long established is steeped in
conservatism — a fact which is, perhaps, not to be regretted. Con-
servatism is a balance-wheel ; it checks violent changes, but under
steady and continuous pressure it must move with the system of
which it is a part. Past experience is not to be neglected, nor is
every new idea to be hurriedly adopted. Neither are things to be
done in a certain way because they were always done that way, nor
are new ideas to be rejected simply because they are new. Merit is
to be the test, adaptability to the end. Temporary expediency must
not be overlooked in deciding these questions. Sometimes good
policy cannot be carried out for lack of means, or because other
things seem momentarily of graver necessity. The limited number
of ships and men may for some time exert an influence of this sort.
Before looking into matters of detail, perhaps it will be well to
indicate the chief duties of the fleet in peace and war, and to inquire
if service methods best enable it to perform them. If they do not, it
will then be necessary to devise a scheme which will better meet the
requirements of the case and will soonest bring the fleet to the highest
efficiency. War, we have assumed, is the ultimate object of any
armed force, whether military or naval. It is true, long intervals
may elapse when its powers are never called into play ; but when
war breaks out, that force which has the most definite notion of the
proper conduct of operations will possess an incalculable advantage
at the start. War is now a question of days and hours, and when it
arrives, it is necessary to act, and act promptly. The fleet which
waits for hostilities to begin to develop a line of action, invites grave
disaster in the very initial stages.
There is evidently, then, a state of readiness for war which it is most
important to bring about. Is there any other preparation which is
more useful for any object? Besides the war duties of the fleet,
which include the defense of the coast, the blockade and destruction
of the enemy's squadrons, attacks on his seaports, the convoy and
transportation of troops, and the destruction of hostile commerce
and protection of our own, is its purely peace employment. This
consists mainly in policing the high seas, lending aid and encour-
agement to American citizens traveling or trading abroad, protecting
our commerce and neutral rights in time of foreign war, performing
special duty, such as exploration or surveying, extending acts of
international courtesy, maintaining the national dignity in remote
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 123
parts of the world, and in inculcating respect for the country's flag.
In all of these duties, save perhaps the special scientific work, can it
be doubted that the acme of preparation is readiness for war?
Given, then, a fleet, including ships and men, it may be assumed
that the chief duty of those responsible for its care and conduct is to
prepare it to fight. With the slightest consideration this fact is
obvious, and yet it is not in many of our ships that one is impressed
with the prominence given to it. If the commanding ofiicer has a
smart-looking ship and crew, and feels that the inspection board will
be satisfied, he is apt to consider his duty finished. There is really
not much more that he can do unaided, but there is a great deal
more which ought to be done. The ship may be clean and the men
fairly efficient in all the routine drills, and at inspection they may
work like beavers, — as in fact they usually do, be it said to their
credit; still there may be something radically wrong in the efficiency
of that ship. Are the officers and men contented ; are they fond of
the service ; are the drills really such as will best prepare for fighting ;
is sufficient time given to useful drills; and is too much time given
to the mere care of the ship ? Each one of us knows the answer to
these questions.
Pass on to the executive officer. His reputation nowadays
depends almost entirely on the trimness and cleanliness of the ship.
In the days of sails and spars, organization and the skill of the crew
aloft told largely in his favor. He has still, under the captain,
mainly to do with the interior discipline of the ship ; but the state of
discipline, be it good or bad, is often not visible to outsiders.
The drills are now almost entirely in the hands of the divisional
officers, who may or may not be efficient. As a rule, they are per-
fectly capable, but if there is not a good system at the back of their
exertions, much of the effect is lost. Their reputation depends
mostly on the way they keep their watch. As our ships are not
long at sea continuously, it is their efficiency as watch-officers in port
that comes under the observation of their superiors. Be they never
so desirous to give their best efforts to what is irresistibly the first
duty of every person on board — war exercises — the opportunities
are often spasmodic, the time devoted to each drill too short, and
they themselves more or less used up with their watch. This, when
they have the desire to improve themselves and the service. As a
matter of fact, they usually feel that when their watch is finished
their day's pay is pretty well earned.
124 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
The navigator's position is an anomalous one under present con-
ditions. The third officer in command, he has next to nothing to
do with the fighting of the ship. In the old days, the first lieutenant
worked the battery, and the master handled the ship, both under the
direction of the captain. There is no place now for the executive
officer in the battery; he will probably be found in one of the fighting
positions, at a distance from but in communication with the captain.
The navigator's division is reduced to the chief boatswain's-mate,
the quartermasters, helmsmen, leadsmen, signalmen, search-light
operators, and the like ; and there is little for the navigator to do,
for the captain himself directs it all. Moreover, there seems no
reason for having the third officer on deck, where he may be killed
along with either the captain or the executive officer, but every
reason for having him below, where there is a chance of finding him
when he is wanted to take command. Even in peace times, in the
absence of the executive officer, the navigating, ordnance, and
torpedo officer, who has principally to do with scientific and war
material and scarcely comes in contact with the drill and interior
organization of the ship, seems an unsuitable person to relieve the
former officer.
Next, as to petty officers. Every person who has thought or
written on the subject in ten years acknowledges that we have none.
The rates we have, to be sure, but the men are not even leading
seamen. They have little responsibility and exercise none ; the
officers do all. When we go beyond, to the seamen and ordinary
seamen, we find they usually do after a fashion what they are made
to do, but that there is little individuality developed in the perform-
ance. The apprentices must be excepted in this statement. Here
is fine material which may be made anything of by correct methods.
It is too often wasted and returned to civil hfe, discontented in spirit,
where the example acts as a deterrent on others, who might other-
wise be attracted to the service.
It seems, then, that our way of doing duty, which is the survival
of another condition of affairs, has the effect of making every indi-
vidual, from the captain down, occupy himself largely with matters
which are not the most conducive to modern fighting efficiency.
During the years in which we had no proper materiel in which
officers and men could take a just pride, the service got into a dull
routine way of doing things, which now hangs about us like a mill-
stone. Drills were considered a hardship by three-fourths of the
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I25
service at larg;e, but mainly because it was out of the usual order to
pay much attention to them. How often was it the custom in
detached cruisers to devote not more than a half hour daily at morn-
ing quarters to a routine drill, and then dismiss the subject for
twenty-four hours !
The present system reacts painfully on the spirit and morale of the
crew. They do not feel that they are in the service for any other
object than to earn a living, and the fighting training, naturally the
most interesting, and appealing most to the average mind, does not
occupy a large enough share of their thoughts and working hours.
As long as they can drift through the day, get ashore frequently, and
draw their pay, they feel that they are doing all that is required.
How many of them love their profession ? It is somebody's fault if
many of them do not, for Americans are not lacking in patriotism
and the necessary sentiment and pride of occupation.
There can be no doubt, then, of the true object and aim of all
endt^avor. The first step must be to interest all grades of the per-
sonnel. Good work is done only by those who take pleasure and
pride in their occupation. Officers and crews must be impressed,
first, with the importance and usefulness of their work. Men will
willingly endure any amount of labor in a good cause. It is what
seems to them useless labor that irritates and becomes irksome.
Human nature must be reckoned with in every attempt. People
must be taken as they are, not as they ought to be, and their willing
work must be guided in the proper channel. It will be useless to
place them in the midst of an artificial system and say to them : " Your
duty is so and so, you are paid to do it ; if you are the right sort of
a man you will take an interest in it, and the consciousness of duty
performed is sufficient encouragement." Alas ! none of us is the
right sort of a man. With every effort to be conscientious, we per-
form best those duties which are made interesting to us, and the
utility of which we perceive.
Any plan for remedying the above state of affairs must formulate
the essential work in ship and squadron, must suggest means of
promoting the spirit and morale of the crews, and must provide for
their health, comfort, and happiness. In fact, it would not be far
wrong to place the latter considerations first ; for though fighting is
the ulterior object, no results can be accomplished until a contented
and healthful frame of mind is secured. Health can be maintained
only by systematic physical exercise. Every one knows that the
126 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
question nowadays is to supply a substitute for sails and spars. A
feasible and practical scheme is a prime requisite. With regard to
comfort, every possible consideration not inimical to fighting effi-
ciency should be strenuously insisted on. Life aboard ship is un-
natural at the best. The intelligence required for handling war
material is higher now than ever. Necessary work must be insisted
on. When that is accomplished, grant every privilege, every com-
fort, and provide every recreation that can be consistently devised.
And now, having gained a general view of the requirements, we
may take up the subject more in detail. It will be well to say at the
start that radical changes in conditions necessitate radical changes
in methods. Many officers have not as yet served in the new ships.
If they feel hurt, or of a different mind, it will be well for them to
delay judgment until they are familiar with the new conditions.
Objectors will be found to much that will be advocated ; some
because after reflection they cannot honestly endorse the views ;
others from extreme conservatism, — what was good in the past should
not be done away with recklessly ; and others again because it is
their nature to object to anything.
DISPOSITION.
Under this heading it is proposed to discuss the proper method
of distributing the available force in order to obtain from it the
maximum of efficiency at the minimum of cost. It has been for
many years our policy to maintain squadrons in the North and
South Atlantic, in the Mediterranean, in the Pacific, and on the
China Station. Their duties have been already sufficiently outlined.
In the days of sailing ships, and subsequently of steamers of limited
coal endurance, it was a matter of necessity to maintain in all parts
of the world naval forces of sufficient strength to meet any con-
tingency that might arise. The diplomatic character of the com-
mander-in-chief was also an object in the keeping up of foreign
stations. Cables and mail facilities were few ; and by having on the
spot an officer who could present his country's views, and enforce
them if necessary, much benefit might result. The ships comprising
the squadrons possessed as a rule little homogeneity, though it is
true there were fewer differences of type in the old wooden ships
than are now to be found in modern ones. They were employed
generally in cruising from port to port in furtherance of their station
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 127
duties, and were rarely combined for extensive squadron drills.
Indeed, it was not feasible to combine under ordinary circumstances,
and at the same time to perform the duties intrusted to them. An
attempt will be made later to show that squadron drills and organi-
zation are indispensable to a healthy state of efficiency. Drills
became desultory ; there was not an hour a day assigned to them
on the average, and officers and men felt hurt if more was required.
The system, therefore, does not seem to have a rational existence
under present conditions. The disadvantages are lack of homo-
geneity, isolation, loss of touch with the progressive spirit of the
day, and the absence of that valuable training which only squadron
routine supplies. With the greater part of the forces on our own
coast, fast ships could be sent where wanted in the minimum of time;
and with diplomatic representatives in all parts of the world in con-
stant communication with the home government, the necessity for
the continued presence of a naval representative seems slight. We
have no foreign possessions except the harbor of Pago Pago in the
Samoan Islands, which, in case of war, would have to be protected;
but with that exception, the proper station for the main part of the
forces is our own coast. Here the ships would be immediately
available for the defense of the sea-coast cities, or, in case an offen-
sive policy were inaugurated, for launching suddenly against the
enemy's commerce and war squadrons, or blockading and attacking
his ports. For distant cruising, flying squadrons are growing in
favor with foreign powers, all of whom have dependencies ; to a
much greater extent, then, would they seem to meet our require-
ments, who have practically none.
In the course of the current year (1891) there will be available of
the new ships, the Chicago, Boston, Atlanta, Dolphin, Yorktown,
Charleston, Petrel, Baltimore, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Newark,
Concord, Bennington, Miantonomoh, Vesuvius, Cushing. Of the
wooden ships there are still serviceable the Lancaster, Pensacola,
Omaha, Swatara, Marion, Mohican, Iroquois, Kearsarge, Alliance,
Essex, Enterprise, Tallapoosa, Thetis, Yantic, Jamestown, Ports-
mouth; and of the iron ships, the Monocacy, Alert, Ranger, Alarm,
Michigan, Pinta, Palos. Taking out those on special service — the
Lancaster and Alarm, gunnery training ships; the Thetis and
Ranger, surveying and other duty in the Pacific; the Yantic, James-
town, and Portsmouth, apprentice training ships; and the Michigan,
on the Lakes — there remain thirty-one others, distributed at the
128 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
close of 1890 as follows : North Atlantic Station, Squadron of Evolu-
tion, and awaiting commission or assignment in eastern ports, the
Chicago, Boston, Atlanta, Dolphin, Yorktown, Petrel, Philadelphia,
Newark, Concord, Bennington, Miantonomoh, Vesuvius, Cushing,
Kearsarge, Enterprise; South Atlantic Station, the Pensacola, Essex,
Tallapoosa; in the Mediterranean, the Baltimore; Pacific Station
and fitting out at Mare Island, the Charleston, San Francisco,
Swatara, Marion, Mohican, Iroquois, Alert, Pinta ; and Asiatic
Station, the Omaha, Alliance, Monocacy, Palos.
It is assumed that for reasons of temporary expediency these
stations will be kept up for at least some time to come, though
eventually, on account of changed conditions already discussed,
foreign cruising will be done principally in small flying squadrons.
The problem is now to get the old ships home as their serviceability
expires, to keep up the stations to a certain extent, and to organize
an effective drill squadron on the Atlantic coast, and eventually a
similar one on the Pacific coast. The solution seems to be to unite all
the ships on the eastern coast in a single squadron, detaching a small
number in their first year of commission to make a short cruise in
European waters, and then proceed to the South Atlantic and relieve
the ships ready to come home; later, to send out another such
squadron in the same track, the first to proceed by way of the Cape to
the China Station, sending home in turn the unserviceable ships, and
all eventually to collect in the Pacific: when the number on that coast,
comprising the above ships and those already on the station or
fitting out, became sufficient, to organize a second squadron of exer-
cise, and thenceforth to detach at intervals small flying squadrons,
proceeding in either direction, to make the tour of the world and
stop wherever their presence was needed. The above scheme is
presented only in illustration of the working of a policy that seems
desirable. The arrangement of the details is not essential, since
there is any number of ways of arriving at the same end.
Any coast-defense ships we may eventually possess, and all the
harbor torpedo-boats should, when mobilized, be assigned to the
two squadrons of exercise for such duties as they might properly
perform. As a rule, they should keep near their own ports, but they
would always form an important fighting factor in the make-up of
the squadrons. Ships in reserve should be in a similar category.
Our development of material has not yet reached a stage to make
the reserve question a pressing one. When ships become numerous
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I29
it may be necessary to keep some of them in a kind of half-com-
mission, to reduce expenses. Two classes of reserve suggest them-
selves. In the first, the ships would be in perfect condition, with coal
and all imperishable stores aboard, and with half the full complement
of officers and men attached. The crew would live aboard, and it
would only be a question of increasing the complement and pro-
visioning to get to sea in short order — say any time within a week.
In the second class the ships would be under repair or incomplete in
some particular, would have very little aboard in the way of stores
beyond enough for current use, and would have one-fourth of a full
complement attached. The crews would live aboard the receiving-
ship or at the naval barracks, and come aboard each day to clean
and care for the public property. An appropriate watch would stay
aboard at night. This class would thus take a longer time to pre-
pare for active service. It is doubtful if it will ever be policy to put
the new ships entirely out of commission. There will always be
machinery and all sorts of delicate fittings to be looked afier, and
the saving to the property will more than offset the outlay for
attendance. Moreover, it will be absolutely essential to keep up a
nucleus of men familiar with the machinery and battery, in order to
get the full complement in working trim in the shortest time after
mobilizing. Special storehouses for ships in the second class offer
many advantages. Here will be found everything not perishable
that will be needed in fitting out. Their use evidently facilitates
mobilization as well as prevents waste. It is not generally known
that they were a feature of the organization of the French marine
under Richelieu in 1634. A disposition as above would permit of
the employment of the Nival Reserve in conformity with Secretary
Tracy's recommendation in his recent annual report.
When the system begins to work smoothly, care will have to be
exercised in selecting ships fur the flying squadrons. They should
have served long enough in one or other of the squadrons of exer-
cise to be thoroughly imbued with its methods and discipline, for in
no other way will it be possible to secure uniformity. About a year
is considered a suitable time for this purpose. The intervals at which
they were sent out, and the localities visited, would depend on
circumstances. As a rule, the squadrons should make the tour of
the world, occupying about two years on the cruise. The flagships
might with propriety be armored cruisers, and the other ships
protected or partially protected cruisers. It would conduce to
130 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
efficiency if the flag-officer of these squadrons had served for a time
in the squadron of exercise as second in command. This would be
excellent duty for commodores, who now have no sea duty except
as acting rear-admirals in command of squadrons. They could still
receive such commissions when assigned to the flying squadrons,
were it deemed important.
A disposition similar to this would require a longer time of enlist-
ment than three years ; but there is reason to hope that this draw-
back will not long exist. Should a four years' period be adopted,
crews for ships about commissioning would be made up at the
receiving-ships or barracks, of men in their first year, and they would
then remain together in the ship for a full cruise. An advantage in
the method not to be lost sight of is that the discontent now preva-
lent on undesirable stations would soon come to an end. Every
officer and man would serve his time in one or other of the squad-
rons of exercise, or partly in a squadron of exercise and partly
in a flying squadron, and all would have equal opportunities. The
saving in expense would be considerable, the gain in uniformity and
efficiency incalculable.
EMPLOYMENT.
Having made what seems a suitable disposition of the available
material, what is the best method of keeping it employed ? With a
modern navy the question of coal becomes a serious one. Extensive
cruising will scarcely be undertaken except in small squadrons, as
above, or for special objects. The coal taken on board by the
Squadron of Evolution from November, 1889, to August, i8go,
amounted to 11,000 tons. The objects of the cruise were of course
various. Had the purpose been for exercise alone, it is obvious that
the coal expenditure would have been unnecessarily great, and the
time consumed in long passages from port to port would have left
too little opportunity for evolutions and gunnery practice. It is not
proposed to criticise in any way the conduct of that cruise. The
results attained in drill efficiency were, in spite of disadvantages, in
excess of anything that had been done in previous years.
On the other hand, there is nothing so detrimental to discipline
and efficiency as long stops at navy-yards. Officers and men be-
come imbued with shore-going, and the time aboard ship is reluc-
tantly spent in tiding over intervals between trips. But few drills
can be carried on at all, especially if the season is inclement, and
many things occur to render even those few unsatisfactory.
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I3I
A safe middle-ground would seem to be to assemble the squad-
rons of exercise twice a year, selecting for them localities for both
summer and winter cruising that would permit of exercises as
uninterrupted as the nature of the work required. These localities
must evidently be near at hand to avoid excessive coal expenditure.
In the intervals between the two periods of exercise, ships in full
commission could lie at anchor in the different rivers and harbors of
the coast, according to the season, and perfect themselves in all
drills that did not involve presence with the squadron. Navy-yards
should be left as far away as possible, and the ships should anchor in
the stream where boats would have to be used in going to and fro,
and where boat exercise could be carried on uninterruptedly. Rifle
ranges should be accessible, and much preliminary work at the butts
should here be accomplished.
These requirements point to a summer cruise along the New
England coast, a winter cruise in the Gulf and West Indies, and the
intervening time at anchor in such places as Newport, New London,
the Delaware River, certain parts of the Chesapeake, Beaufort,
Charleston, Port Royal. Any necessary repairing would have to be
done at the navy-yards ; and during such stay, military efficiency
might as well be left out of consideration, though an attempt should
be made to accomplish such work as seemed possible. Convenient
rifle-ranges at every yard would be a long step towards affording
useful occupation.
On the Pacific Coast, climatic changes are not so severe. Puget
Sound and the neighborhood of Monterey, Santa Barbara and San
Diego afford summer and winter cruising grounds; though the
former locality would suffice at any season of the year. The
entrances to the Sound through the Straits of Juan de Fuca and
Washington Sound are broad expanses, where squadron manoeuvres
might be carried out without limit, and the inner waters lend them-
selves to all the operations of naval war. Anchorages could be found
at, or near, all of the above localities and in San Francisco Bay and
the Columbia River.
The flying squadrons should occupy themselves in a similar way
as much as possible, carrying on all duty that does not interfere
with the objects of their cruise. The fighting drills are in nowise
to be neglected, and squadron evolutions may be practised when
possible. The ships should remain together, unless there were
imperative reasons to the contrary, both because they are more
132 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
effective in squadron in accomplishing the objects for which the
cruise is undertaken, and because drill-routine and efficiency are
thereby much more readily maintained.
We now come to the most interesting and, at the same time, the
most important part of the whole subject. Exercises are intimately
connected with interior organization ; but this latter is beyond the
scope of the present essay. It may be said, however, that organiza-
tion by parts of the ship is becoming more and more unsatisfactory,
and that many reasons suggest the battery as the basis. After the
chief boalswain's-mate, there might be division-mates and gun-
captains as the principal petty officers. However the question is
settled — and it is most important that it should be settled — there are
duties and drills applicable to any organization ; and it is now pro-
posed to present an outline of those which are considered of most
value.
The single ship is the unit of every naval force. No scheme of
squadron exercise which does not begin with ship efficiency can have
any permanently beneficial result. This, therefore, is our starting
point. While it is possible that good material may be injudiciously
arranged, it is entirely beyond reason to effect a substantial structure
of poor material, however clever the architect. And as the ship is
the unit of the squadrons, the individual is the unit in the ships.
The first object, then, is to get our units into shape.
A ship is commissioned for sea and is assigned to the squadron of
exercise. Certain preliminary drills are absolutely essential before
she can receive the full benefit of squadron routine. Battery drill is
assumed to be the first requisite. The crew must be stationed at the
guns and torpedo-tubes and exercised incessantly until a satisfactory
efficiency has been reached. Every other exercise may be tempo-
rarily put aside, and the ship may even go dirty and unpainted
preferably to neglecting this essential in any particular. It is not
supposed, however, that such an alternative will be presented. The
morning watch will afford ample time to keep the ship clean; and
two periods a day of an hour each, systematically consecrated to the
drill, will in a very brief time effect all that can be desired. It goes
without saying that a uniform system must be followed. The divi-
sional officers, presided over by the executive officer, must compare
notes frequently and suggest to each other neglected points. Uni-
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 1 33
formity must be as much sought in all drills as it has been heretofore
in the company drill. If there is a prescribed manual, it must be
followed absolutely without deviation, and the executive officer must
assure himself that this is done. If changes seem desirable, they
must be discussed by the officers as a board, sitting as above, and
a report submitted to the captain, who forwards it to the Depart-
ment with such comments as he may wish to make. What can be
more detrimental to efficiency than the diversified methods and
spasmodic attempts at drill so frequently observed in our ships?
And yet how perfectly easy it is to inaugurate a proper system !
Instruction at the battery is at present reasonably thorough. It
might be well to formulate exactly what information is to be imparted
to the gun's crew, as a whole, in such matters as weights of projec-
tiles and charges; range, penetration, and initial velocity; character
of fuses, nomenclature of guns and carriages, principles of pointing,
sights and sliding leaves, concentration of fire. The officers in each
ship, or better, the Ordnance Bureau, might prepare a pamphlet
with an outline system of this sort as an aid to the divisional officer.
The scheme should contain in a simple form only. such information
as every man at the battery should be possessed of. With the
brighter and more intelligent of them, the instructor could enlarge
to any extent thought desirable.
The crew being proficient at the battery as regards handling the
guns and understanding all the requirements, target practice is in
order. For this purpose the allowance of ammunition is ample, but
in many cases, on account of alleged more imperative service, it is
not expended. Does it not seem that in ninety or ninety-two days
two or three might be found somewhere in which to carry on this
important work ? The Bureau of Navigation lays down each quarter
rules for the practice thought most desirable. They are carefully
formulated by officers who have spent great labor in devising the
most suitable plan. They should be as consistendy followed as pos-
sible, both because competent authorities have determined the con-
ditions, and because uniformity is necessary to give weight to the
tabulation of relative merit. Has it come within the knowledge of
any of us that divisional officers have thought they knew a better
way of doing good shooting and have instructed their crews accord-
ingly ? How inconsistent and harmful 1 And yet the fault is one of
thoughtlessness and defective methods rather than of willfulness or
lack of intelligence. It will disappear when the board system for
134 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
discussing methods of drill, as above suggested, has inculcated uni-
formity.
Before leaving the subject of the battery, it will be well to call
attention to the importance of securing rapidity in the supply of
ammunition. This is primarily a question of design ; but even with
a good design it requires study and training to perfect the system.
In a modern ship, with the vast number of guns of all calibers,
requiring different kinds of ammunition, the powder division is prob-
ably the most important of all. A hitch in the supply at a critical
moment will be fatal. At the exercises tests should be made of the
rapidity. For this purpose a number of full-weight dummies should
be supplied ; for it is clearly inadvisable to make a practice of send-
ing up and down the regular charges and projectiles, both because
it uses up the passing-boxes and cases, rendering them unsafe, and
because it is dangerous to allow ammunition to collect on the upper
decks. The English use a stout brown sole-leather case to protect
the copper tanks containing heavy charges in sending them up ; and
it might be well also to furnish for the projectiles a number of
specially made iron-strapped boxes, with beckets in the end, to be
used in exercise or action as long as the supply held out. As these
boxes were emptied they would be filled again and kept on top in
the shell-rooms. To perform well all the duties of the powder divi-
sion requires a great many men : they should be commanded by an
experienced and capable officer, with one or two assistants.
A fair battery efficiency having been attained, the next most im-
portant step is to secure a complete knowledge of the manoeuvring
powers of the ship, which includes speed and turning capacity under
varying conditions. This work can be carried on conjointly with
the established ship routine of divisional drill, of which more anon.
The speed and training trials which have been conducted at New-
port in recent years are in the right direction, but do not go nearly
far enough. It is imperative to know the maximum speed in all
weathers, and the speed at different revolutions of one or both
engines. These results must be tabulated in such wise that the
speed may be estimated from the revolutions, direction and force of
the wind, state of the sea, draught, and condition of the bottom.
Next, the tactical diameters and turning circles with different helm
angles and at varying revolutions must be determined and tabu-
lated, the data to include advance, transfer, and time ; likewise the
circles with either engine stopped or backing. It is also important
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I35
to know the effect on the turning-circle of increasing or decreasing^
the speed, the helm remaining unchanged ; the effect of backing
with or without thejielm ; the time and distance to rest by stopping
and backing at different speeds, and the time and distance to gather
way from rest. There is an old movement that was called the " touch-
and-go shave," depending on a double shift of helm and pivoting on
the bow. It may be at times very useful and should be practised.
After the full speed trials have been completed by the board
appointed for the purpose, the rest of the work will be best accom-
plished by the officers of the ship. Involving as it does trials in all
conditions of weather, advantage will have to be taken of oppor-
tunities as they occur. Having obtained all the data required for
tabulation, every deck-officer should be given full opportunities of
testing for himself the ship's capabilities. Series of buoys should be
laid down and the ship required to manoeuvre amongst them at
different speeds, and semblance of ramming should be made by
passing between fixed points representing the extremities of a sup-
posed hostile ship. If any satisfactory method can be devised for
giving motion to the target at the same time, the experience will be
all the more valuable. Rafts of light construction towed by fast
launches might answer the purpose.
While these exercises have been in progress as occasion offered,
the ship routine of drill will have been established and fully entered
upon. Drills must be recognized as of three different sorts, inter-
dependent, and all absolutely necessary. The first sort are for
developing the fighting power of the ship ; they include drill of the
battery, main and secondary ; exercise with the torpedo-tubes and
search-lights ; torpedo defense and defense nets ; clearing ship for
action ; infantry and artillery drills ; duties of sentries, patrols, and
pickets ; organization of armed boats, guard and picket-boats ;
target practice with small-arms and revolvers ; exercise with the
cutlass ; instruction at signals and at the dynamo and in electrical
wiring. The second sort pertain to ship's duties, such as making
and taking in sail ; the wheel, compass, lead and log ; knotting and
splicing ; purchasing weights ; hoisting in and out boats ; boat exer-
cise under sail and oars ; carrying out anchors ; rigging jury-rudders
and sea-anchors; construction of life-rafts; collision drill ; fire drill;
abandoning ship. The third sort are purely for physical exercise
and discipline.
In the limited nature of this essay it is hardly possible more than
136 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
to enumerate the necessary drills. Additional suggestions in regard
to some of them will be found under the head of Competition. It
will be noticed that the cutlass drill has been retained. Many
officers advocate the abolition of this arm. Instances may be
imagined in which it would stand in good stead, as in boat attacks at
night, especially as in a surprise effected in cutting out a ship;
defense of artillery pieces under certain circumstances, in a hand-to-
hand attack, after emptying the revolver chambers, and in boarding
after receiving the enemy's ram, possibly the only salvation. If the
men do not carry cutlasses they will use the butts of their revolvers
after expending all the cartridges in the chambers; they will not
stop to load. Commander Prat, of the Esmeralda, would have stood
a good chance of carrying the Huascar had he been well supported
with men armed as are our boarders. They would have used the
revolvers first and then the cutlasses, and the latter arm, well handled,
would have done ample execution. The Huascar's crew was demor-
alized, according to the admission of her own commander ; and the
sight of a lot of wild fellows with pistol in one hand and cutlass in
the other would have settled the business. The moral effect of the
arme blanche, including of course the lance under similar circum-
stances, is one of its strong points, and it is the factor to which the
cavalry owes much of its importance. More mention will be made
of the cutlass when we come to speak of physical exercise.
In all of the drills of the first two sorts above mentioned, the men
should receive regular marks from their instructors. This would
involve some extra labor, but it is believed it would be labor well
expended. Merit rolls should be made out at stated intervals and
posted on the ship's bulletin. In addition to the incentive of rivalry
thus established, there should be substantial rewards for excellence,
in the way of promotion and increased pay, of which more later.
DRILL OFFICERS.
The brunt of all this work in drill and instruction will fall on the
divisional officers. Something must be done to give them more
time for it, and to make them more interested. Leaving aside for a
moment other considerations, a man of thirty-odd years will not do
as efficient work in the daytime, if he has had a four hours' watch
three nights in four, or three nights in five, even if he has spent them
in the deck-house, as if he had had a full night's rest. Drilling and
watch-keeping are therefore inimical. Which is of most importance ?
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I37
The principal duties in the latter are carrying on routine, superin-
tending cleaning, and watching over the safety of the ship ; in the
former, preparing the crew to use effectively the weapons with which
they are provided, and the ship herself to be an efficient fighting
machine. If the latter duties are not accomplished, the former are
manifestly useless. What is needed is a system that will secure
proper attention to routine and the safety of the ship, but which will
at the same time impress on every one that drilling is the first
consideration. Day's duty seems to be the solution ; all commis-
sioned line officers, except the executive officer and navigator, to
take their turn. They would have to be about in the day when
important work was going on, and also at night in bad weather.
Ordinarily they would sleep in the deck-house with their clothes on,
ready for a call. It is reported that in the Bennington the captain is
to have an " emergency " state-room near the pilot-house. In port
this would be the place for the officer-of-the-day. There should be
something of the sort in every ship. In first- and second-rates and
in flagships it might be necessary to have at times two officers on
duty together, a lieutenant and an ensign, the former to be in charge,
the latter to look out for important deck routine and official courtesies.
There is but one opinion of this method of carrying on duty in
ships in which it has been tried, and that is, that it adds to their
efficiency. It certainly trains up the quartermasters and boatswain's
mates to be petty officers in fact as well as in name. It is possible
that commanding officers will feel safer in their ships if there is
always a commissioned officer awake on deck ready for every
emergency ; but there are some who are perfectly willing to adopt
the method, in view of its advantages, provided the Department will
make the proper regulation and not put all the responsibility on
them. With such a plan, the designation " watch and division
officer " could be with advantage changed to " duty and drill officer."
The gain in efficiency by impressing on officers that their chief
duties were drill and not watch would be decided, and it would also
be an advantage in getting officers out of the idea that they were
" off" for two or three days when their tour of duty in port watches
was finished.
This seems a proper place for remedying the anomalous position
of the navigator, as stated some pages back. Instead of assigning
his duties to the third officer in line of command, assign them to the
fifth or sixth. Make him navigation, ordnance, and torpedo officer.
138 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
and give him charge of the dynamos and of the sentry details in
ships without marines. Of course there would have to be in addition
officers of the torpedo division as there are now of the gun divisions.
The above duties, including the clerical part, would be ample for
one man ; but he could perform them with the aid of a writer as now
allowed. He should be old enough to have had reasonable experi-
ence, but not too old to have retained the activity indispensable to
the proper performance of these particular duties. This arrange-
ment leaves the senior divisional officer as the relief for the executive
officer. Give him charge of the powder division, which we have
seen is the largest and most important in modern ships, and the
solution is reached. The captain and executive officer are in their
separate fighting positions ; a vigorous young officer is about the
upper deck wherever he finds a place of safety, looking out for the
lead, signals, search-lights ; and the third officer is down in the
powder division, ready to relieve the executive officer and captain
should it be unfortunately necessary. In peace times the executive
officer alternates with the officer who next to himself is most familiar
with all the drill and interior organization of the ship.
PHYSICAL EXERCISES.
In the third sort of exercises mentioned above, those for physical
training, there is scope for a wide display of ingenuity. A well-
considered plan, taking into account the difficulties, is becoming
more and more a matter of necessity. If men cooped up aboard
ship do not have something to stir their blood and harden their
muscles, they rapidly deteriorate, become discontented, and their
usefulness is at an end. Sails and spars formerly supplied this
want. Their management in the teeth of the elements gave all the
hardiness, agility, and self-reliance necessary for efficient fighting.
Granted that they are retained in the training-ships and in some of
the cruisers, they have been already much reduced ; and in ships on
which the brunt of the work must fall they will be entirely absent.
Does the steady execution of all the drills of the first two sorts,
combined with routine ship-cleaning, give the necessary physical
development? From observation it clearly does not. The men to
be found to-day in ships without or with little canvas, and markedly
the apprentice boys, are lacking in that skill, strength, and supple-
ness which characterize the ideal sailor, and which are absolutely
essential in a well-conducted and efficient service. Of the exercises
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET, 1 39
devised for physical development, the greater part will have to be
compulsory; but the men should be encouraged in every way to
practice athletics for recreation. It is only by awaking their interest
that the best results are to be obtained. In order to insure con-
tinuous effort and uniformity of practice, it is evident that the
physical training of the crew should be in the hands of some one
individual. It is doubtful if a suitable person could be found in most
of our ships as the complements are at present made up. The best
policy would be to create a rate of athletic instructor in all ships
having a complement of a hundred men or more, and to allow an
assistant if the number exceeded two hundred. The instructor
should be an appointed petty officer of the first class, and his assistant
a petty officer of the second class.
These instructors are common in other services, the French for
instance, who have a school of gymnastics near Paris, in which men
are trained in all physical exercises and then sent out as instructors.
Such a school under an able head would be of the greatest benefit.
It might be inaugurated at Newport in connection with the training
establishment. In action, the instructor should have a fighting
station, which would probably be in the powder division. A man
of his training would be of inestimable value in handling the element
usually found below decks.
And now as to the exercises. Boxing and fencing are put at the
head, the latter to include broadsword, the bayonet exercise, and
cane drill. The present single-stick drill, so-called, should be
abolished. As now carried on, it has more resemblance to broad-
swords than single-sticks. The leather guard on the weapon sup-
plied has a way of slipping around the hilt ; the men always smile
when the instructor orders " edge to the right "; and well they may,
for no one can tell the edge from the back. For sword exercise
there should be regular cutlasses, with buttons on the tips, and
masks and gloves should be supplied. A plain hickory stick is all
that is required for cane drill, with perhaps the addition of gloves
and a thick suit of clothes.
It is not claimed that actual use will be made of these accomplish-
ments for war purposes, except perhaps in the case of the cutlasg, as
previously mentioned, and of the bayonet ; but for physical training
they are unsurpassed. For developing courage, nerve, strength,
suppleness, self-reliance, a quick eye, and in fact all the qualities
necessary in fighters, they have no superior. Every soul on board
I40 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
should take part in them, officers not excepted. Squads for instruc-
tion should be formed to receive in rotation the attention of the
instructor. Four to six hours should constitute a day's work for
the latter, but an hour at a time would be long enough for the sepa-
rate squads. During a portion of this time the different individuals
in succession should receive personal instruction. Rough weather
at sea would of course put a stop to these exercises, but during the
greater part of the time there need be no hindrance. Every facility
should be suppUed in the way of gloves, masks, foils and other
appurtenances; and a suitable wash-room, with shower-bath and
tiled floor, should be set aside for the use of the crew. The larger
the ship the more feasible all this becomes ; but even in a small ship
much can be accomplished. In these exercises the officers are not
intended to be left out of consideration. They must take their share
as faithfully as the men. They are all provided with swords ; they
must know how to use them. How mortifying it should be to an
officer to admit, if only to himself, that he would appear a perfect
guy if called on to take part in an assault-at-arms ! It is undoubtedly
true that among the officers some expert swordsmen are to be found,
but their number is small. If the sword is worn merely as a symbol
of rank, it had better be abolished. Even then, sword exercise and
fencing would be most useful in physical training.
Other practicable appliances are to be found in clubs and dumb-
bells, in pulley-weights, in the horizontal and parallel bars, and in
the vaulting-horse. Men aboard ship with the writer have been
asked if they would make use of such an outfit if provided, and they
have seemed delighted at the idea. Indeed, parts of the apparatus
suggested have been procured or contrived by the men themselves
of their own volition. The necessary instruction in these appliances
would be given by the trainer, but it is to the men themselves we
must look for the main success.
To the above exercises might be added swimming, running, and
tumbling. The former exercise should be much more encouraged
than at present, weather permitting, and everybody on board should
be taught to swim. The instructor would provide slings and bands
to be used by beginners, of whom, curiously enough, there are
always some to be found in every ship. Running could be prac-
tised only in such ships as have wide, continuous decks. A track
should be laid off, so many laps to the mile, and the men encouraged
to compete. The instructor would give lessons in the proper manner
i
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 14I
of breathing, carrying the body, and using the feet and toes. It is
curious what gawks most men are in running; usually because they
forget they were once boys and try to impart dignity to the gait.
A rubber- or felt-soled shoe with spring heel would be necessary
for this purpose ; in fact, it is a growing opinion that a shoe of this
sort is the proper habitual wear for aboard ship, a heavier shoe to
be supplied for landing. Running over the masthead is splendid
exercise and requires no special outfit. All ships will have at least
a military mast. Tumbling is said to be, by its advocates, the best
of all exercises. There is evidently room for it aboard ship. In fact,
athletics is a very simple thing if we will only recognize its necessity
and go about it with a little system.
There is a certain class in the service who will undoubtedly oppose
all this. Puerile, they will call it ; impracticable ! " Men are aboard
ship to work, not to play. We cannot be bothered with such per-
formances, and there is no time for them. The ship has to be kept
clean and the drills carried on, and when that is done the men want
to rest." Let us look at these objections. It will be necessary to go
back to the beginning. What is the object of all training? Why, to
make men fighters, of course. Do we want men who are repressed
most of the time, men who are occupied in work that is of no interest
to them, who are tired out when the cleaning is done, men who
spend their leisure moments smoking and playing cards ? Evidently
not. We want men with a light, buoyant spirit, unrepressed, boyish
if you please, with a fondness for sport, who spend their spare time
in athletic occupations, and though they turn in at night tired
physically, we do not want them tired mentally.
The Concord is about to go into commission. Imagine her crew
made up from the college football-players of the country, and her
officers from those who have taken an interest in athletics. Train
them hard for six months in all man-of-war duties, and then send
them out to meet a similar ship of no matter what nation. On which
side would lie the probability of victory ? There seems but one
answer. The present encouragement of athletics at Annapolis is
grand. What naval officer did not feel his heart thrill at the news of
the Annapolis-West Point foot-ball game in November last ? It is
not claimed that there will be time and opportunity aboard ship for
a college athletic training, but all that can be accomplished will be
in the right direction. With a good system it will be worth quite
half as much for fighting as all the other drills. What we want is
142 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
manly feeling, esprit de corps; let us incite the men to generous
competition, take an interest in their sports, go in ourselves and help
them, offer prizes, have boxing matches, assaults-at-arms, feats of
strength, boat races, rewards for the best marksmen. This is a
progressive age; we must adopt the methods in vogue about us or
we shall find ourselves behind the times. The traditions of a
generation back cannot be followed exclusively. Our predecessors
undoubtedly made the best of what they could find at the time, and
if we neglected that particular, even in copying them, they would
certainly be the last to applaud us.
COMPETITION AS APPLIED TO DRILLS.
Competition and emulation are powerful means of inciting to
excellence. The old spar and sail drills were grand in their way.
The man who had to lay aloft to the topgallant or royal yard, in
sight of the ship's company, and perform his duty as quickly as the
man on the next mast, and beat him if possible, was under the influ-
ence of a mental stimulus infrequently met with in other pursuits.
The application of the principle is not so easy in our modern occu-
pations, but it may be often used to much advantage. The time
element should not enter if it appears at the expense of thorough-
ness. Where certain definite results are sought, and it is a merit to
accomplish all that is possible in a given time, then time may be
counted ; as, for instance, in trying to hit a target as often as possible
in a given interval. ' Some possible applications will now be
mentioned.
The Bureau of Navigation, in its excellent rules for target prac-
tice, ofTers prizes for all manner of proficiency in gunnery practice,
including that of small-arms and revolvers. The compilation of
relative merit rolls is a step in the same direction. Another incen-
tive might be found in keeping a record of all the targets made with
the air-gun or small-caliber rifle now usually supplied our ships.
The powder-gun seems to be the better weapon of the two. It is
easier to keep in order and is more accurate. The cartridges could
be made with spherical bullets and the charge so reduced as to sup-
press the report, ordinarily the objectionable feature. Each man
should be required to make one target a week, which on Saturdays
should be pasted in the record-book in order of merit and exhibited
on the ship's bulletin. Of course the book would soon be filled with
these targets, but it is not essential that they should be kept longer
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. I43
than a few weeks. The scores, however, should be kept perma-
nently for comparison from week to week. Some officers are
opposed to the air-gup and small-caliber rifle on the ground that
lack of recoil renders practice with them unlike service conditions.
The points to teach, however, are the principles of sighting and
steadiness of aim. A new man who has learned to make a good
target with the small gun may be surprised the first time he fires the
service rifle; but, understanding the principles, he will soon adapt
himself to the new conditions. Moreover, it is probable we shall
eventually be using a high-power rifle of a caliber very much smaller
than at present, even though we do not go as far as some conti-
nental powers, and in which reduction of recoil is one of the leading
features.
In the case of boat attack, and defense by the search-lights and
secondary battery, the principle can be applied by organizing
different parties on successive nights, sending them sometimes in
the boats, and at other times retaining them at the guns and search-
lights. The record of successes would then exhibit the relative
excellence. In the battalion the colors should go with the best
company, and the best artillery crew should occupy the right of the
battery. Distinctive marks and badges should be worn for indi-
vidual excellence in any arm ; namely, by the best great-gun, rapid-
fire, small-arm, and pistol shots, and by the best fencer and broad-
swordsman.
For proficiency in ship's duties, constituting the second variety of
drills above named, the marks given might be used in determining
the duty to be assigned to each person. Where there is a choice
among several, the more desirable duty in the same rates should be
given the man with the best marks. The marks would have to be
given regularly by the persons conducting the drills. In the matter
of ratings, a similar rule should hold, as in fact it usually does. The
most proficient men should be selected.
To promote skill in handling boats, races under sail and oars
should be encouraged on every opportunity. A board of officers,
assisted by the coxswains, should decide on the handicap allowances
to put the boats themselves on a par. Success in the races would
then depend on the skill of the crew. The winning boat should be
entitled to wear a distinctive pennant painted on the bow. For the
further encouragement of rowing, both among the officers and crew,
a light practice barge with four or six oars and outriggers, such as
144 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
may be found in any rowing club's boat-house, might find a place in
any but the smallest ships. Large ships might even carry one of
each size. In the other physical exercises, both drill and recreation,
abundant stimulus will be found in personal contests and in trials of
skill and strength. At stated periods contests should take place
under the direction of the athletic instructor, to be witnessed by the
ship's company and invited guests.
The same objections on the part of certain officers are bound to
meet these suggestions — " We have no time for such doings, and
there is no place in the ship for the contrivances advocated, espe-
cially the barges. Besides, who is going to look out for them ?
Boat races always upset discipline, and so would tournaments and
other performances." It' will be hard to impress on this class that
the spirit to be inculcated is of more importance than all the spodess
decks and shining brightwork, even if it breaks out at times in the
unruliness of exuberant spirits ; and that any little care and attention
given the necessary appliances, and sacrifice of time to the exercises,
will be repaid a hundredfold in manliness and fighting efficiency.
As a matter of fact, it is to be feared there are many people to whom
the idea of fighting efficiency is seldom present, and who are mostly
occupied in the care of the little government property they find in
their keeping, forgetful that the whole outfit is little better than
useless if not applied to its legitimate purpose.
The above class, fortunately, is not in the majority, and there is
getting to be less and less room for them each year. Even among
officers who have been zealous in the performance of all duty that
has fallen to their lot, there has not always been a clear perception of
the true calling of the officer. Our profession is arms ; not mechanics
nor engineering, not books nor philosophy, not politics nor society.
An officer, it is true, should not be ignorant of those other matters,
but he should not put them ahead of his profession. Officers should
be students, — yes ; but students of professional subjects, keeping
always at the fore the one idea that their training is to make them
fighters. They must have the physique to endure the hardships of
war, and to lead men in war. Their duties and occupations must
be such as to raise their physique, not to lower it. Their amuse-
ments should be sports and athletics, their spirit that of the men who
fought with Preble, Rodgers, and Decatur, and they should receive
substantial recognition for excellence ; if they do not, they should
keep cheerful and wait for better times. Their whole life is now far
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 145
too sedentary. Watch-standing, with attendant broken rest, fatigues
without exercising. This is beyond their control, but there are signs
of changed conditions. With a growing pride in their profession,
and a materiel in sight which will call forth all their energies, their
attention will be given more and more to those pursuits which are
par excelle7ice typical of their calling,
RECREATION.
In the matter of recreation, which is of course not properly a part
of drill routine, but which may exert a marked influence on it, the
men should be encouraged to amuse themselves aboard ship as
much as possible. It is not believed that card-playing with a lot of
dirty pasteboards is conducive to healthful amusement, even if it is
not made the cloak for gambling. The evening is the proper time
for recreation. When lying in port, the hammocks need not be
served out until just before " pipe down." The old reason for going
to hammocks just after sundown was to enable the numbers to be
read while there was yet daylight. Nowadays, by turning on the
spar-deck circuit, the numbers can be read at any time. The
men having night watches might have a separate compartment
assigned them and get their hammocks shortly after supper. The
decks could then be kept clear, tables spread, books, papers and
games got out, amateur music organized, and the men allowed
access to the gloves, foils, clubs and dumb-bells. The electric light
supplied in all our new ships would shed its rays over the scene;
and if the proper material were not attracted to the service, then
progress and self-improvement are not motives of human action.
DISCIPLINE.
Discipline also has a bearing on drills, which will be the excuse
for giving it a word in this paper. With so many people in a small
space it has to be rigid. The great points to inculcate are firmness
and consistency. Punishments do not have to be severe, but they
must be equitable and sure. Mildness in handling men when asso-
ciated with firmness loses nothing. Vituperation as a method of
discipline is a thing of the past. When an infraction is noticed, all
that is necessary is to call it to the attention of the offender and then
set in motion the train that will evolve the prescribed punishment ;
be it, in case of a first offense, only a warning. Mr. Herbert
Spencer's idea of likening punishment to the operation of the
146 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
physical law is worthy of application. A child, on putting his
finger in the flame, receives a burn, and each repetition of the
physical offense incurs a repetition of the punishment. Mind, there
is no such policy, or lack of policy, as may be illustrated by the
remark "if you do that again I will do so and so." The punish-
ment should be made as much as possible a counterpart of the
offense, as, for instance, a late hammock, to be called earlier ; slow
or inattentive on drill, extra drill. It is not necessary to go farther
in illustration; the principle may be readily carried out. Discipline
will depend, as a rule, upon the treatment of these minor offenses.
If they are effectually checked, more serious ones will not be apt to
occur. When they do occur, vigorous measures must not be
omitted. As a matter of fact, grave offenses are more readily dealt
with than light ones, as the punishment is easier of selection. It will
be in the correction of the minor infractions that all the commanding
and executive officers' tact will be required.
Aside from punishments, many other things promote discipline.
Among the most important is the holding of petty officers account-
able, and adding to their responsibilities. There is too much watching
nowadays ; everybody has to be watched. It is not only necessary
to give an order, but to send later to see if it has been executed.
In the old days, when a man was reported for not doing something
he had been told to do, the reply of the first lieutenant was, "Why
did you not see that he did it ? " This method is no longer appli-
cable. The ships are larger and more intricate in every way.
No person can occupy his time in giving numberless orders and
then going about and seeing that they are executed. There must
be a system of accountability from the captain down, be there never
so many links in the chain. In this way good petty ofiicers will be
formed, and that we should have them is a matter of the gravest
necessity.
Another point is not to try and do too many things at the same
time. Work should be portioned out and finished before other
work is taken up. Especially is this true in the case of drills.
If any absolutely necessary work is going on, omit the drill alto-
gether. Perfunctory drills should cease ; that is, drills that are
held to fill out a routine. As war efficiency is the first consideration,
very few things should be allowed to hinder the drills, and no person
should be excused from attendance. They should be sharp and
thorough, and should be progressive in their character. A division
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 147
might have the same drill for a week at a time to assure this pro-
gressive tendency, and then turn to something else. Nor should
bad weather, as a rule, interfere with quarters. The men can always
be mustered under cover and given some sort of useful instruction.
In the scheme proposed, time is too valuable to be sacrificed to such
considerations. Moreover, the men are more contented when they
have not acquired the habit of wondering if something will not
happen to interfere with the drill. The simplest policy in the end is
to make drills as regular as meals, and if only the same time is
allowed, any results may be accomplished. To get over all the
necessary ground, it is not thought that in the single ship a fixed
drill routine is advisable. There are always certain duties of more
importance than others, and there is always some one thing more
appropriate at the time than another. The executive officer should
keep a list of all the exercises it is ever intended to hold, and he
should select each day those that seem of most importance or most
fitting the occasion. He would be assisted in this work by a record
book, to be kept by the divisional officer, in which would be entered
both the sequence of drills as held in his division, and, under the dif-
ferent drill headings, the number of hours given to each, and the date.
It cannot be too much insisted on that every available person
should do something to add to the fighting power of the ship. Every
enlisted and appointed man now has some fighting station. The
firemen not on watch are usually found in the powder division.
They should be instructed, as well, in small-arm and secondary
battery work, and they should learn to pull an oar and handle a
boat. The marines cannot now be drawn up on the quarter-deck in
action. They will probably be distributed about among the main
and secondary battery crews, if retained aboard ship, and take their
rifles only when riflemen are called away. With regard to the
officers, all, except the surgeons and chaplains, who are protected
by the Geneva Cross, should understand the rifle, revolver, rapid-
fire and machine guns. The question of non-combatants is seriously
occupying foreign services, who are finding their ships too small to
sacrifice space to people who do not fight. Without discussing the
abolition of any particular corps, it is apparent that all who now find
themselves aboard ship must take their full share in the fighting
drills.
One more point intimately connected with discipline and drill
efficiency. Ships' companies should be as nearly as possible per-
148 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
manent for the cruise. Vacancies will necessarily occur, and they
will have to be filled ; but none except the gravest reasons should
authorize extensive changes. Much difficulty is met with at present
in finding suitable men for manning the new ships ; but it is hoped
that this trouble will eventually disappear. In the case of the
officers, there are as many available now in proportion to the ships
as we are ever likely to have ; and yet a ship could be mentioned in
which none of the original watch-officers was to be found fourteen
months after commissioning, and in which there had been ten watch-
officers in all in sixteen months. To mention another case, in which
the exact figures are not at hand, a ship lying, it is true, most of the
time at navy-yards, had had within three years enough officers and
men on the pay-rolls to have formed from three to four complete
crews.
In the matter of making the men comfortable, a great deal can be
done. When they know they are being looked out for in little
things, they are far more willing in all their work. The degree to
which personal comfort can be carried will depend on the ship ; and
it is left to the captain and executive officer to make the most of
what is provided. Frequent inspections of clothing and bedding, and
airing bedding as often as possible, will instill cleanliness. Mention
has already been made of a wash-room and shower-bath for the
crew. Clean water and soap are even nearer to godliness aboard
ship than they are ashore. The navy ration is excellent, and the
men appear to be satisfied with it. Better messing arrangements
seem possible, and several plans have been tried. The best one
should be determined and adopted. Meal hours are almost too
close together. It would be hard to disturb the 12 o'clock dinner;
but with the electric lights, supper could be had at 6 o'clock all the
year round ; 7.30 seems the most appropriate breakfast hour.
SQUADRON DRILLS.
We will now suppose the ship to be thoroughly drilled and dis-
ciplined. She is ready to take part in any squadron duty that may
be required. It must not be supposed, however, that this degree of
efficiency has been brought about entirely while absent from the
squadron. When the men are sufficiently instructed at the battery,
and the results of the speed and turning trials have been tabulated,
squadron duty may begin. The presence of other ships stimulates
effort to a remarkable extent; the crews sooner shake down into
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET, 149
uniform methods, and the faculties are kept more continually on a
stretch. Competition among the different ships exerts its influence
in the same beneficial way that has been already remarked in the
case of individuals. Especially is this true in such duties as sig-
naling. In fact, suitable practice in signaling is not possible except
in squadron.
But to begin: if the squadron is just formed, the sea and port
routine is the first thing to claim the admiral's attention. It is diffi-
cult at the start to co-ordinate all the different duties. The routine,
to be really serviceable, must be a growth, a development. It is the
squadron that has kept together for many months that will have
settled into the most thoroughly practical methods. For that reason,
squadrons should not be disbanded. Their experience should go
on uninterruptedly. Ships may come and go as necessary, provided
their stay is not too brief; but the squadron organization should
continue.
To illustrate this point, imagine two cases. In the first, ships
have been commissioned as they were finished and sent off to differ-
ent stations, leaving on our own coast a varying force which followed
some sort of a routine, to be sure, but which had seldom drilled as a
squadron, and in which most of the exercises were left to the
commanding officers. For some reason it becomes necessary to
organize at brief notice a strong force to operate on the coast. All
the ships at the navy-yards, fitting out and repairing, and the ships
which have been in reserve are hurried along to join the squadron.
The flag-officer and his staff have now a difficult and responsible
task. Squadron orders are issued one after the other; drills are
devised and executed ; and if time permits, the force will soon be
efficient. There is no lack of intelligence or energy in our personnel,
and they will do wonders in an emergency. With a fighting chance,
they will acquit themselves with credit.
Now for the second case. There has been for several years a
permanent squadron of exercise to which the reserve ships are
always assigned when mobilized. With gradual experience, a
scheme of drill, exercise and routine has been developed which has
been shown to produce gratifying results. All the necessary orders
and instructions are kept in pamphlet form ready to issue at once to
every new-comer, of which there may be several each year. It is
suddenly necessary to mobilize all the available force. Ships are
hurrying to join the flag. The commander-in-chief may give his
I50 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
directions almost in the language of Moltke when informed that war
existed with France: "Third portfolio on the left." That is all.
The work has been done when circumstances were favorable. There
is nothing to do now but fight. Can any one doubt which of these
two squadrons will stand the best chance with the enemy ?
The main object of routine is to regulate the kind and duration of
drills. Meal hours, times for scrubbing hammocks and clothes,
and routine signals are important, but must be subservient to neces-
sary work. The drill routine should be regulated in conformity
with the relative importance of the different exercises, as laid down
for the individual ships ; and the idea should be to bring the crews
together as much as possible, as in boats, and in landing drills. On
the occasions when combined drills are not provided for it would
be well to leave a certain freedom to the different ships, that they
may carry on individually whatever drills seem most expedient to
them at the time, as has been already explained. Port exercises
should alternate with squadron manoeuvres as opportunities offer.
In the location selected there should be facilities for great-gun and
small-arm target firing, for extended boat exercise, for landing and
encamping the naval brigade, for torpedo attack and defense, and
for the construction of booms and the laying out of mine fields. It
is not necessary to go more into the details of these exercises. They
are tolerably well understood and are often well executed. The
great thing is to have more of them. The drills of the Squadron of
Evolution at Corfu last spring are worthy of study. The situation
was almost ideal for the purposes enumerated. It was there that
the longest stop of the cruise, about three weeks, was made ; and
more was learned than in any other period of twice the length.
Competition should be brought into play in every way possible, as
in boat races, rifle matches, comparison by plotted targets of the
main and secondary battery practice of the different ships, with a
gunnery pennant, as has been the custom in the North Atlantic
squadron, for the most proficient; competitive battalion drills for the
brigade standard, which might be with propriety the admiral's flag,
and in numberless other ways that will suggest themselves whenever
the drills are carried out.
In the matter of signaling there is room for a great deal of im-
provement. The Morse code signals seem to give the most trouble
and require a great deal of practice. It is doubtful if a code that
necessitates from one to seven flag motions, or electric light flashes
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 151
for each letter or conventional sign will give sufficient rapidity for
effective work. The characters are difficult to read, for the reason
that the whole combination is not displayed to the eye at a glance,
and it requires considerable attention and memory to follow the
successive motions from beginning to end. The Morse code is cer-
tainly valuable for telegraphic use, and it is well to have people
familiar with it. Besides, it facilitates communication with the army
and coast-guard. A system can be devised that will depend on the
Morse code, but will display by day or night the whole combination
for each letter at a glance, and in which each combination will be
made by a single movement of the signalman. Experiments in this
direction would be desirable, TWe night signal system now in use
in certain foreign services, of a number of red or white lanterns in a
vertical hoist, is about to be adopted for trial in some of our ships.
It has the advantage of exhibiting the whole combination for each
"letter or sign at the same instant, but is open to the objection that it
introduces still another code.
In exercising the signal corps of the squadron, a ship could be
detailed to make a reasonably long signal through from beginning
to end without pause. It would be taken down as received by the
other ships, and the results sent aboard the flagship for comparison.
In the smoke and confusion of battle signals will be with difficulty
discerned. Those made should be as few and as simple as possible.
Lieutenant Wainwright's idea of employing small mortars to project
into the air Japanese bombs for day signals, which on explosion throw
out various shapes and combinations, might prove a very satisfactory
method.
In the execution of all squadron routine many valuable suggestions
would become available by constituting a quarterly board of three to
five officers, whose province it would be to supervise all drills and
exercises of whatever sort. They would possess no authority
except in the way of recommendations, and of reports to the com-
mander-in-chief of the efficiency observed. Their influence in pro-
moting uniformity would in itself pay for any additional labor
involved.
At sea the greater part of the time should be spent in manoeuvres.
Formations are of two sorts, for battle and for cruising. It is not
proposed here to discuss the different ones advocated. The service
is at present provided with a tentative drill-book, and it is presumed
an authoritative one will be eventually issued. What is necessary
for the squadron is to perform thoroughly all the evolutions laid
152 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
down and to accustom the officers to handle their ships. The drill
of the section of two ships will probably be the best beginning.
They should learn to act in concert, and to support each other under
varying conditions. Then they might separate and manoeuvre as if
to engage, each trying to pass within the other's turning-circle and
keep out of the danger-field. This would be delicate work, and
would have to be executed at first at low speeds and with wide
turning-circles. The Russian plan of ramming tactics with tugs
well protected with fenders and buffers is worthy of trial.
In executing squadron manoeuvres, engine revolutions and helm
angles should be made use of as indicated by the tabulated results
of the speed and turning trials. '" Too much thoroughness in this
particular cannot be insisted on. After once putting over the helm
in obeying a signal, and it is observed that the circle is too large or
too small, the error cannot be corrected. The ship is out of her
place, and it takes time to get back. What is required is to order
the proper helm angle at the start, and the ship will then keep her
station. Many people are disposed to laugh at the observation of
these exact rules and to describe them as impracticable. But they
are not impracticable ; they can be and are followed by foreign squad-
rons, notably the French, and they familiarize officers with the quali-
ties of the ships. After long experience the tables may be done away
with, but it is only because the contents have been mastered. The
officer-of-the-deck will still order the proper helm angle when a
change of course is made, and the suitable number of revolutions at
all times. If a squadron trained in this manner goes into action, it
will be prepared for any dispositions that may be ordered ; and the
tables, which have served as props in learning to walk, as it were, may
be unhesitatingly thrown aside when their assistance is no longer
needed.
Granted that free use is made of the revolution and helm angle
tables, there must still be means of correcting small variations of
speed and course when preserving a cruising or battle order for any
length of time. For this purpose, use is made ordinarily of the
sextant and dumb compass. The former only is needed in keeping
in wake of other ships, while the latter is used in maintaining
bearings. To handle these instruments, pay attention to the
steering, order the suitable revolutions, be on the lookout for
signals, regulate the speed-ball and pennant, and carry on the ship
routine, is a great deal for one officer; yet these duties must be
under a single control. The sextant is usually turned over to a
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 1 53
junior officer, and there are quartermasters and signalmen to assist
in other ways. Now there are many objections to the sextant.
Granted that it is properly handled, it is far from easy to order the
revolutions judiciously in conformity with its indications. Moreover,
the officer of the deck is never quite satisfied when he has to delegate
to another a duty which has so much to do with the proper observ-
ance of position. Nor is the sextant a very satisfactory instrument
for such use. Its indications are unnecessarily exact, and the scale,
due to the fine graduation, hard to read. The telescopes cannot be
used with any satisfaction day or night, as their field is too small.
A simpler and cheaper instrument, having a long index-arm, a
plainly marked scale, and provision for shipping a night-glass, would
be a long step in the way of simplification.
For purposes of verification and for instruction in squadron sailing,
an automatic attachment may be very easily devised in these days
of electrical appliances. To go much into detail would not be
admissible in an essay of this character. An outline of the idea is as
follows : Having set the index of the sextant, as modified above, for
the proper distance, let us connect a portable electrical card in such
wise that a variation in position of the index-arm will show on a dial
in the engine-room, by the position of a pointer, that distance is
being lost or gained. A slight change of the throttle corrects
matters, and no other signal is necessary. All the officer-of-the-deck
has to do is to assure himself that the index is properly set at the
start, and any reliable man will be able with very little practice to
follow the changes as they occur. So much for position in column.
In keeping station on a bearing, two adjustments are continually
necessary, speed and course. Two methods suggest themselves for
an automatic regulation. One is to keep the sextant connections as
above, to register in the engine-room, and thus regulate distance by
the speed, and to make a similar connection on the dumb compass
with a dial in front of the wheel for the guidance of the helmsman,
and thus regulate bearing by the helm. The other method is to
interchange these connections, regulating distance by the helm and
bearing by the speed. On a bearing of four points, either method is
applicable. At less than four points from ahead the first method
will be used ; at more than four points the second. The reason is
apparent. Thus, suppose the bearing were eight points, it is evident
that the necessity of keeping on the line regulates the speed, whereas
distance is regulated by the helm ; at zero points, or in column, the
reverse is true, and at four points, being the intermediate position,
154 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
it is a matter of indifference. This may not be the mathematical
neutral point, which will depend on the ratio between advance and
transfer at different speeds, but it is near enough for all practical
purposes.
This method of regulation was suggested by learning of a mechan-
ical device at one time in use aboard the Galena. The dumb com-
pass was mounted on the engine-room hatch, and a vertical shaft
connected the alidade with a dial in the engine-room. Electricity
is preferable, as the compass may be mounted in any desirable
position; and by combining with this attachment another for the
sextant, the whole matter is under the most simple control. It will
not be necessary or desirable to employ these devices at all times.
In each watch a great part of the time should be spent in regulating
position by the eye, giving verbal orders to the helm and engine-
room. Then at intervals the attachments could be used to check
the bearing and distance, thus giving continuous practice and instruc-
tion. Long observation of correct distances and bearings ought to
be the best possible training for the eye ; and in time of action such
experience would be invaluable. The appliances are in the same
category as the speed and helm tables. Discard them by all means
when their purpose has been subserved. As to the additional care
and attention required in keeping them in order, it is thought that
the objects to be attained are ample justification. It is true that
ships are being filled with every sort of intricate apparatus; but if
the result is better to prepare for battle, there will be no doubt of the
advisability ; and somebody will be found to assume the additional
care.
A satisfactory electrical or mechanical counter to show in the
pilot-house the engine speed at any instant without the necessity of
counting and timing, is very much needed. The ofificer-of-the-deck
not only wishes to know how many revolutions are being made at
any time, but it is very important for him to be cognizant of small
changes as they occur. Step-by-step telegraphs, or other similar
devices, should be supplied for signaling from the pilot-house or
conning-tower the desired revolutions and helm angle, the latter in
case a fighting wheel below decks is used. The dials should be
marked for number of revolutions and degrees of helm at such small
intervals as might be found necessary, and also with such legends
as a Utile faster, a little slower, meet her, steady, starboard hand-
somely, port handsomely.
One more point ; in these days of swift-moving craft, the officer-
DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET. 155
of-the-deck should have at his own hand means of instantly changing
the helm ; and of controlling the engines, stopping and reversing,
and increasing to full speed at will. When orders have to be given
to some one else and then passed by mechanical or electrical devices,
time is lost; and that time may make just the difference between
collision and escape, ramming or being rammed.
In addition to manoeuvres in order of battle and order of cruising,
the squadron should be exercised at ramming tactics and at towing.
Buoys could be laid down representing a hostile squadron in order
of battle, and a charge through ordered. The ships could then turn
and charge back, or form in different order to illustrate tactical
points. Commander Hoff's book on the subject is full of useful
hints. In towing exercises, the commander-in-chief would designate
a ship by signal as disabled and it would become the duty of a
neighbor, according to the formation, to take her in tow. The light
craft, scouts and torpedo-catchers would assist in carrying out the
lines. There can be no doubt that a little judicious practice in this
particular might result in great benefit at some critical moment.
Manoeuvring at night should come in for a share of attention. Close
order is said to be more easily maintained at night and in a fog than
open order. The English ships during foggy weather in some of
the recent manoeuvres towed buoys astern at the proper interval as
guides for their next astern. Plans of this sort suggest themselves
in practice and sometimes prove of much value.
After ample experience in all the above duties and drills, the
squadron could be separated into two parts and exercised at block-
ading and masking tactics. Extended annual manoeuvres will prove
the crucial test, short of war itself. Their importance cannot be
overstated ; any expense incurred will be amply repaid in added
efficiency. The plan must be well prepared in advance, and the
participators fully instructed. It does not matter greatly what theme
is selected ; the chief point is to do something, and keep at it con-
tinually. In no other way is the best experience to be had.
SUMMARY.
The outline of a policy has now been presented. The subject is a
wide one, and it has not been possible to go very far into detail. If
the skeleton is thought worthy of the addition of sufficient flesh and
blood to give it vitality, and the resulting system does not prove satis-
factory in all its parts, perhaps a full discussion of its faults may
156 DISPOSITION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET.
suggest a working semblance that will more fully subserve the end
proposed. After all, the great need to-day is to realize that our
methods are obsolete. Improvements must follow this realization;
for with a free expression of opinion, new ideas are bound to appear,
and it becomes then only a question of the selection of the best.
To recapitulate: the whole object of naval training is war efficiency.
Anything that promotes it is good ; that which does not is bad. To
derive the greatest benefit, a settled policy must be adopted and con-
sistently followed. The advantage of method is so great, that a poor
plan steadily adhered to conduces more to efficiency than the most
brilliant efforts if desultory and fitful. Given a naval force in which
all necessary types find their representatives, the problem is to make
that disposition which most satisfactorily and economically fulfils the
object of its creation, and makes possible a continuous and systematic
training in all war exercises. The solution arrived at is to make of
the ships available for active duty, two permanent squadrons of
exercise, one on each coast, from which at intervals small flying
squadrons of cruisers are detached to make the tour of the world. The
permanent coast-defense ships will be assigned to the squadrons of
exercise when mobilized, and will engage in whatever manoeuvres
seem appropriate. Ships not in full commission will form two orders
of reserve, and will be maintained at the navy-yards, with such of
their officers and crew attached as may be necessary to keep them in
proper condition. It will not be policy ever to put them entirely
out of commission during their period of usefulness. The squadrons
of exercise will be mobilized twice a year, in appropriate localities
near our own coast, for extended squadron drills. In the intervals,
the available ships will lie at anchor in appropriate rivers and harbors,
away from the navy-yards, and will carry on prescribed exercises.
It is to be impressed on every one that drilling is the first duty, that
unnecessary work must cease, that officers and crews are to be kept
in efficient health and spirits, that the profession of arms is their call-
ing, and that ships are to be made as comfortable and happy as
other conditions will permit.
This concludes the subject. The people are now taking a just
pride in the creation of a modern navy commensurate with the
national dignity. The reforms advocated depend for their accom-
plishment on Congress, on na\ al administration, and on naval officers.
In the words of the motto, occasionem cognosce, it is only necessary
to know and realize the occasion; and as the objects are clear,
attainment will be possible.
[COPVRIGHTKD.]
U.S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
ON A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY
OF SHIPS.
By Assistant Naval Constructor D. W. Taylor, U. S. Navy.
The word stability is commonly, though somewhat loosely, used by
naval architects to express not only the existence of a righting
tendency in a ship inclined in still water, but also the amount of such
tendency, i. e. the righting moment of the ship. The displacement
of ships being always expressed in tons, their righting moments are
naturally expressed in ton-feet.*
I propose to describe and explain a method for calculating sta-
bility ; but before taking up the method itself, shall state briefly a few
elementary facts connected with the subject.
A ship floating at rest in still water, and acted upon only by her
own weight and the buoyancy of the water, must —
1. Displace a weight of water equal to her own weight.
2. Have her center of gravity vertically above the center of
gravity of the displaced water, usually called the center of buoyancy.
When the above conditions hold, the weight of the ship, which
may be regarded as acting downward through her center of gravity,
is exactly counterbalanced by the buoyancy of the water, which may
be regarded as acting upward through the center of buoyancy.
This state of affairs is illustrated by Fig. i, which may be taken
to represent the transverse section of a ship through her center of
gravity, G, and center of buoyancy, B.
*A foot-ton is the work done in raising the weight of a ton through the
vertical height of a foot. A ton-foot is the moment exerted by the weight of
a ton acting with the horizontal leverage of a foot.
158 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Consider now Fig. 2, where the ship is shown inclined in smooth
water, at the water-line IVL, the displacement remaining- unchanged.
In this condition the weight of the ship and the equal buoyancy of
the water, while still acting in vertical lines, do not act in the same
line. There is then a couple set up, which will tend to right the
ship if the vertical through B falls outside of the vertical through G
(as in Fig. 2), and will tend to still further incline the ship if the
vertical through B falls inside of the vertical through G.
This couple is, of course, measured by the displacement multiplied
by GZ, the horizontal distance between the verticals through G and
B respectively, 6^Z is called the righting lever.
If, adopting some constant displacement, we determine values of
GZ for a number of inclinations, and plot them as ordinates of a
curve of which the inclinations are the corresponding abscissae, we
can determine from the curve the value of the righting lever corres-
ponding to any inclination at the constant displacement. Such a
curve is commonly called a curve of stability. One is shown by
Fig- 5-
The displacement being constant, a curve of righting levers is, on
a suitable scale, a curve of righting moments also, for righting
moment = displacement X righting lever.
Suppose now we give the ship a constant inclination and then
gradually immerse her, determining for each of a number of parallel
water-lines the displacement and its moment about an axis fixed in
the ship. Plotting these moments as ordinates of a curve of which
the displacements are abscissae, we have what is called the " cross
curve " of stability corresponding to the constant inclination. Fig. 4
shows a number of cross curves for a ship at intervals of 15°.
If we have cross curves for a sufficient number of inclinations, we
can take from the curve for each inclination the moment correspond-
ing to a fixed displacement, and plot a new curve for the fixed
displacement having moments for ordinates upon inclinations as
abscissae. If the center of gravity of the ship at the fixed displace-
ment falls on the axis about which the moments for the cross curves
were found, this new curve is the same as the ordinary curve of
stability explained above.
If the center of gravity of the ship does not fall on the axis, a
simple correction will be necessary in order to obtain the ordinary
curve of stability.
The center of gravity of a ship is always calculated approximately
proceedings u. s. naval institute, vol. xvii., no. 2.
Fig. 1.
OB
Fig. 2.
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A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I59
when she is designed, and is usually determined with considerable
accuracy after the ship is completed, by an " inclining experiment."
I propose to discuss a method for determining stability, on the
supposition that the position of the center of the gravity of the ship
is always known.
The explanation of the method as applied to a ship is simplified
by considering first a single section as shown in Fig. 3,
Let —go'^Pgo° denote the position of a water-line when the
section is upright. Call the point P the pole. Let A denote the
position of the axis about which the righting moment is desired.
Let r denote a radius from the pole, a subscript being used to
indicate the angle which its radius makes with the vertical. Thus
rjft denotes the radius from Px.o 90°. In the figure, radii are drawn
at intervals of 15° on each side of the vertical, as shown.
Consider now the small triangle Pa^a^, a^ and a^ denoting, in cir-
cular measure,* the angular distances of the ends of the base of the
little triangle from the vertical, as indicated.
Let
Pa^ — r-^, Pa^ = ri.
Then we have approximately,
Area oi Pa,a, = ^^±±^ X ^^^ = A, say.
Vertical moment of Pa,a, about P= A X ^ (Jl±l^ sin fL±^\
22
Suppose now a^ and a^ are very nearly equal.
Let a, — «! be denoted by da.
«1
+
0-2
2
r,
+
r^
2
Then the smaller the triangle the more nearly do we have
Area = \r"' da.
Moment = hr"^ da x \r sin a — ir* sin a da.
Evidently, then, ir' would be the element of a radial curve of
areas corresponding to the angle a, and ^r' sin a would be the cor-
responding element of a curve of moments.
♦The relation between circular measure and degrees for an angle is: —
(Circular measure) = -^-n (degrees) = .0174533 degrees.
l6o A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
By treating these elements in the ordinary manner for radial inte-
gration, we can find the area and the moment of the portion of the
section bounded by any radii. Thus, for the area and moment of
the portion between Po and P6o, we have, using the trapezoidal rule,
Area = \{^rl + r\^ + rl^ + rl^ + i^eo)
X (circular measure of interval = 15°)-
Moment =
i- i\rl sin o" + r\^ sin 15° + r|o sin 30° + rl^ sin 45° + -i- r\a sin 60")
X (circular measure of 15°).
Suppose we know the area below the water-line — Qo/'go (the
initial area, it may be called) and B^, the position of its center of
gravity. If the section is inclined 45° about /"as a fixed point, the
new water-line will be — 45/*i35, and the new vertical P^^. The
new area below the water-line is obtained by deducting from the
initial area the " emerged wedge," —90/'— 45, and adding the
" immerged wedge," goPi2,S-
i. e. Deduct
KIrigo ■\- rLti + ^ieo + i^-45) X (circular measure of 15'*).
Add i(ir^o -1- r?05 + ^m + i^L) X (circular measure of 15°).
The net result is the addition of
i {K^9o - r'_,,) + (r?„, - rL„) + (r\,, - rl.^) -f i(r?35 - rL«)|
X (circular measure of 15°).
The resulting area below the water-hne at 45° is denoted by A^^,.
Consider now the question of moments about P, with Pa^^ as the
vertical.
The moment of the area beneath the inclined water-line —45/*: 35,
is evidently to be obtained by taking the net result of the moments of —
1. The initial area beneath — 90/^90, denoted by A^.
2. The wedge of emersion, — 90P— 45.
3. The wedge of immersion, goPizS-
These moments in detail are:
1. Initial area— negative moment = —A^ X PM^
= -AoX PB, sm 45°.
2. Wedge of emersion— positive moment =
^(^risosin 135°-!- r 176 sin 120° + rieosin 105° + iri^ sin 90**)
X (circ. meas. 15").
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. l6l
3. Wedge of immersion — positive moment =
1 (I r|o sin 45° + r?05 sin 60° + r\,^ sin 75° + ^r^, sin 90°)
X (circ. meas. 15°).
Now sin 135° = sin (180° — 45**) = sin 45°.
Similarly sin 120° = sin 60°, and so on.
So the two positive moments above can be combined into a single
expression.
Positive moment =
i li (^90 + rl.o) sin 45° + (rlo, + rL,,) sin 60° +(rf,„ + rLeo) sin 75**
+ i(^i35 + ''-«) sin 90° [ X (circ. meas. 15°).
And the negative moment has been expressed as =
—A^X PB, sin 45°.
Whence the moment of the area below the 45° water-line is readily
determined about the pole P. But it is the moment about the axis
A which it is the object of our work to obtain, and for this another
step is necessary, introducing what I may call the pole correction.
Referring to Fig. 3, if B^^ is the center of gravity of the area ^«,
beneath the 45° water-line,
Moment of ^« about pole P= A^^X PN.
" axis A = A,,X AR = A,, (PN- PQ)
= ^« X PN- A,, X PA sin 45° .
Now ^45 X PN has just been found (it is the moment about the
pole), and A^^ X PA sin 45° is easily determined, since Ai^ has been
found and PA is supposed to be known.
There is one more point to be considered in connection with the
single section.
Suppose from the inclined water-line the section is sunk bodily a
short distance in the water without change of inclination. The small
increase of area acts through the center of gravity ^(see Fig. 3) of
the line —45/^135, and has the arm AS for moments about A.
Now AS= PT- PQ = PT- PA sin 45^
r^ — r"^
PA is supposed known, and PT— \ "° — =^; whence AS is
''135 + ^—46
readily determined.
The application of the methods just explained to the case of a ship
by means of a suitable number of sections is obvious.
Given the pole, the initial displacement corresponding, and the
distance below the pole of the corresponding center of buoyancy,
l62 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
we have al! the necessary data concerning the initial displacement,
which should be treated just as the initial area above.
This data may be taken directly from the displacement scale
unless the pole is at a height to which the displacement scale calcu-
lations have not extended. In such a case the calculations of the
displacement scale should be extended, at least as regards displace-
ment and the position of the center of buoyancy. We shall see that
it is desirable to extend these calculations up to complete submer-
gence of all parts of the ship that are taken into consideration when
dealing with stability.
In dealing with the moments of the wedges of immersion and
emersion of an actual ship represented by a number of sections, we
must of course take into account all the sections and the fact that we
are dealing with a solid instead of a plane area.
It will be necessary to use instead of r, r^ and r^, quantities which
I shall denote by 2>, 2V' and 2V. Zr means \ each end radius -I-
each of the intermediate radii. 2V = h the square of each end
radius + the square of each intermediate radius. A similar expres-
sion holds lor 2V\
The fact of solidity must be taken account of by the introduction
of a factor depending upon the spacing of the sections used.
It will be observed that JlV, 2'^ and Ir^ are determined by the
trapezoidal rule, which may be stated briefly to be that the area of a
curve of which a number of equidistant ordinates are known is
= {h the end ordinates -f the sum of the intermediate ordinates) X
(the interval between ordinates). I shnll discuss later the reasons
for the adoption here of the trapezoidal rule in preference to
Simpson's.
I wish now to describe and explain the forms of calculation for the
work shown in Tables I-IV inclusive.
The upper part of Table I calls for little explanation. The radial
ordinates from one pole for the various inclinations and sections are
taken from the body-plan of the ship and entered in the column
headed r. The columns headed r^ and r' are filled in from a table
of squares and cubes, and 2V, 2V^ and Ir^ obtained by addition.
Care must be taken when entering for the end ordinates at each
inclination that \ the square and \ the cube of the whole radius is
entered, and not the square and the cube of \ the radius, which is
entered under r.
When the radii are measured to the nearest tenth of a foot, the
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 163
squares and cubes should be entered to the nearest unit, as in the
example. When the radii are measured to the nearest hundredth of
a foot, the squares should be entered to the nearest tenth, and the
cubes to the nearest unit.
Taking up now the lower part of Table I, consider first the quan-
tities under the heading "legend."
The displacement factor is the quantity by which the displacement
functions, involving radii alone, should be multiplied for reduction to
tons of 35 cubic feet.*
If h denote the spacing of the sections used in feet, and a the
spacing of the radii in degrees —
Displacement factor = ^ X — X ^^-7^^ — X — = .000249333 ha.
If a = 15°, displacement factor = .00374 ^•
The polar moment factor is the quantity by which moment func-
tions must be multiplied for reduction to moments about the pole.
We have
polar moment factor = ^ X — X ^—k — X 3S = .000166222 ha.
^ 3 180 *^^
If a = 15", polar moment factor = .00249333 h.
The initial displacement corresponding to the pole and the posi-
tion of the initial C. of B. are taken from the displacement scale, as
previously explained ; the constant for initial displacement correc-
tion is their product.
In the form headed " for displacement correction," the first two
lines are filled from Table I and the third obtained by subtraction.
The "first 2 difference" is obtained by dividing by 2, The line
of "second h difference" repeats the one above, but with each entry
shifted one column to the right.
To show the object of this, let us consider the correction for an
inclination of 45°. This correction, by the way, is to be applied 7iot
to the initial displacement, but to the displacement at the preceding
angle. Then for 45** the correction desired is the difference between
the displacements at 45° and at 30*'.
For an inclination from 0° to 30° —
Immersed wedge function = \lrla + lr\^^ -f- \lr\.Q.
Emerged " " = \IrU. + i>i,5 + \Irl.^.
* As nearly as may be, 35 cubic feet of thoroughly salt sea-water weigh one
ton of 2240 pounds.
l64 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
The difference between the immersed and emerged wedges is the
addition which must be made to the initial displacement (corres-
ponding to o°) to obtain the displacement corresponding to 30°.
Subtracting, the difference of the functions = (I'r^os — I'rLu)
Similarly, for 45° the difference of the immersed and emerged
functions = (Jr^ - Jrl,,) + ( Jr?,, - Jri^o) + iCi'^L - iVi«).
Evidently the function for the correction, in proceeding from 30"
to 45**, is the difference between the functions to be added for 45"
and 30° respectively.
This difference = i(iV?,o - IrL^) + i {Irl, - JriJ.
Now in Table II, corresponding to 45*^,
First i difference = ^ CiVL - i'^i^)-
Second ^ difference = ^ (I'^uo — Ir^-e,^.
The object of the arrangement adopted is evident. Having the
displacement correction function, the displacement correction is
obtained (in tons) through multiplication by the displacement factor
found in the legend.
Considering the form for " centers of gravity of water planes," it is
evident that the radial planes in each column corresponding to the
first two lines (as at 120" and —60°, for example) form a complete
water plane, to the area of which the "sum " of the third line is pro-
portional. Also the " first h difference " in the " displacement correc-
tion " form is proportional to the moment of the water plane about the
pole. Thus, taking the planes at 120° and —60" :
First ^ difference = J {Irl^o — IrL^^.
Of course the " C. of G. from pole " (analogous to PT in Fig. 3)
is obtained from the two lines preceding it by dividing " first 2 differ-
ence" by the " sum."
The " pole correction " (analogous to PQ in Fig. 3) is the distance
of the pole below the axis into the sine of the inclination. By sub-
traction is obtained the arm of C. of G. of water plane about axis
(analogous to AS'm Fig. 3.)
In the form headed "displacement," the initial displacement is
entered opposite the inclination of o" ; and the "displacement correc-
tions" being suitably entered, as shown, and each added to the dis-
placement above, we obtain the displacements for the successive
inclinations. The " pole correction factor" is simply the distance of
the pole from the axis multiplied by the sineof the angle of inclination.
Multiplying this factor by the corresponding displacement abreast it,
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 165
we have the " pole correction for moments " which must be used to
reduce moments about the pole to moments about the axis.
In the form headed "righting moments" the I'r^ quantities are
entered and added as indicated, and the sums re-entered vertically
on the left, abreast their proper inclinations. The triangular table is
then filled by entering abreast each angle the product of its sine into
the " sum " on the same line to the left. It should be noted, how-
ever, that abreast each 90° is entered only i " sum " X sin 90°, for
this is the end ordinate, and we are using the trapezoidal rule.
The moment function sum (obtained by addition) must be multi-
plied by the polar moment factor (from the legend) to give the
moment of the wedges of immersion and emersion about the pole.
The initial displacement correction, which must now be applied, is
the " constant for initial displacement correction " X sine of inclina-
tion.
Thus is obtained the righting moment about pole. Applying the
pole correction (from the displacement form), we finally obtain the
righting moment about axis.
The righting moments obtained so far are for inclinations up to
go°. The remainder of the form is for the purpose of obtaining
displacements and corresponding righting moments for inclinations
up to 180°.
Of course the " righting moment for total displacement " (corres-
ponding to total submergence) is total displacement X distance from
axis to C. B. of total displacement X sine of inclination.
I use next the well known property of floating bodies, that if we
take for a given pole the displacement and righting moment corres-
ponding to a plane at an inclination a, and deduct them from the
total displacement and the righting moment for the total displace-
ment respectively, the remainders will be the displacement and the
righting moment corresponding to an inclination of i8o° — a.
The steps of the process are clearly indicated on the form, and
show how from displacements and righting moments up to 90° those
from 90° to 180° are obtained.
Having completed Table I for three or more poles. Table II is
filled in for the purpose of drawing the cross curves of righting
moment.
In Table II the first three lines (Z>, M, C) for each inclination at
which a curve is to be drawn are filled in at once from Table I.
The object of the next two lines is to get the inclination of each
l66 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
curve at each " spot " corresponding to an ascertained displacement
and righting moment.
Suppose the vertical through the C, of G. of a given water plane
has a leverage of / feet about the axis.
If we immerse the ship slightly without changing the inclination,
the layer of increase also has the leverage /, and one ton increase of
displacement means / tons increase of righting moment. Then the
inclination of the corresponding cross curve of righting moment at
the corresponding spot will be the angle whose tangent is /, provided
the scales for displacement and righting moment are the same.
But if, as in the case shown, the scale for righting moment is i that
for displacement, the " lever of C. of G. of water plane " ( C) must be
divided by 2 to obtain the tangent of the inclination.
Having the tangent, the corresponding inclination is taken from a
table of natural tangents and entered in its place opposite /
It should be said that for 90° inclination the displacement and
righting moment are necessarily the same for every pole. What-
ever the position of the pole, we have at 90" the same immersed
volume acting — namely, the volume on one side of the central ver-
tical longitudinal plane, called the diametral. The corresponding
displacement is of course J of the total displacement.
It is the object of the work shown in Table III to obtain two addi-
tional "spots" for the cross curve at 90". Two sections are taken
at intervals of 5' on one side of the diametral, and the area and the
position of the center of gravity of each are determined. Then the
tons per foot and ton-feet (about the axis) per foot are determined
for the two side sections, and also for the diametral. The total dis-
placement and moment of the slice between the diametral and the
outer section are readily deduced, and by addition and subtraction
to the known displacement and moment the two additional spots
desired on the 90° cross curve are obtained.
Having the data in Table II, the cross curves at 15° intervals can
be drawn. There are five known spots on each curve, corresponding
to no displacement, to the total displacement, and to the three poles
used.
For the three last spots, not only the point on the curve is known,
but also the direction of the curve at the point. The inclinations at
zero displacement and total displacement are also readily obtained
by determining from the midship section the corresponding righting
levers.
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS, 167
Fig, 4 shows the cross curves corresponding to Table II, being very
approximately those of the U.S. S. Philadelphia,
The process by which an ordinary stability curve, corresponding
to a known displacement and position of the center of gravity, is
derived, is shown in Table IV.
The displacement and position of the center of gravity used are
very nearly those of the Philadelphia when she was inclined for the
determination of her metacentric height. The righting moments
at each inclination corresponding to 5000 tons displacement are
taken directly from the cross curves. The remaining steps are
shown clearly in the table. The correction of the lever about the
axis, on account of the position of the C. of G., is, of course : Distance
from axis to C of G. X sine of inclination.
It may have been observed that much of the work in the method
of calculation which I have been explaining consists in the multiplica-
tion of numbers by sines of angles. To facilitate this work and
reduce the chances of error, I have calculated the appended tables of
products of numbers by the sines of angles. The main table extends
only to 2500, but for most purposes sufficient accuracy will be ob-
tained (when dealing with numbers above 2500) by entering the table
with the first four digits of the number being handled. For more
refined work Tables A and B have been calculated. These are six-
place multiplication tables of numbers by sines of angles extending to
one hundred. Table A is for 15° intervals. Table B for 10° intervals.
Since the sine of 30° = i, no calculations have been made for this
angle. When intending to use Table A or B, the I'r^ and I'r'
functions should be multiplied at once by the displacement and
righting moment factors respectively.
Any one familiar with stability work will have observed that the
method I have been describing is essentially a modification of
Barnes' method, the trapezoidal rule being used instead of Simpson's,
and such other changes made as are necessary in determining cross
curves. These changes have been chiefly suggested by the work of
Daymard, Elgar, and Jenkins.
The trapezoidal rule was adopted because for hollow curves, such
as are involved in determining Ir, 2V and Ir^, it is quite as reliable
as Simpson's. For the somewhat lumpy curves used in obtaining dis-
placement and righting moment, the trapezoidal rule is preferable to
Simpson's.
These curves differ radically from the parabolic curves for which
l68 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Simpson's rules give exact results. Consequently it might reason-
ably be concluded that Simpson's rules, when applied to them, give
unsatisfactory results. Comparative tests which I have made by
applying Simpson's and the trapezoidal rule to somewhat irregular
curves fully justify this conclusion, I may mention, in this connec-
tion, that it is the practice of French naval architects to employ the
trapezoidal rule in all calculations, and I am informed that this is also
the practice among our own civil engineers.
There is no doubt, however, that Simpson's rules, when applied
to curves to which they are suited, give appreciably more accurate
results than the trapezoidal, a fact quite sufficient to justify their use
in such cases when extreme accuracy is desired.
In the example of work given for the purpose of illustrating the
method I have taken no account of appendages, considering only
the main body of the ship to the upper deck. The only appendages
which would appreciably affect the result are the forecastle and the
poop. With the high freeboard of the Philadelphia, the forecastle
and poop afford buoyancy and righting moment only at large angles
of roll. When such angles are reached, the loose water which would
come on board would largely, if not entirely, neutralize any buoy-
ancy or stability afforded by poop or forecastle.
In low freeboard ships, deck erections and poops and forecastles
are of more relative importance and should be considered. The
necessary changes in the forms are simple and obvious.
In considering the accuracy to which we wish to work, it should
be remembered that a " curve of statical stability " is an entirely
imaginary thing. We cannot, by any practical appliances, exert a
twisting moment great enough to heel a large ship in still water
beyond a very small angle. When ships roll it is always in disturbed
water, and the actual righting moment at a given inclination depends
largely upon the position of the ship at the instant with respect to the
waves.
While the statical righting moment at a given inclination is a kind
of mean of all possi'ole righting moments at that inclination in dis-
turbed water, the very fact that the actual moment is liable to
material oscillations — impossible to calculate exactly — on either side
of the mean, renders it unnecessary, for any practical purpose, to aim
at minute accuracy in the determination of the mean. The method
I have been describing is most accurate for the smaller inclinations,
for which the results are practically exact. At the large inclinations,
gnijqSi^
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 169
60° and over, the results may be so much out that the righting levers
determined will differ by as much as an inch, in extreme cases, from
the exact righting levers. In the case of the Newark it was found
by careful check calculations by other methods that the righting
levers by the method just described were never in excess of the
exact levers, and that the greatest defect was about h inch.
Such an amount of inaccuracy at large angles of heel (which are
never reached in practice) is entirely negligible as regards any prac-
tical use to which curves of stability are put. I have not considered
it of sufficient importance to justify the additional work involved in
closer spacing of the radial planes, by which it could be reduced to
almost any desired extent.
The principal source of inaccuracy is the fact that the righting
moment is determined as the difference between the moment of the
wedges and the moment of the initial displacement — both much
larger quantities than their difference at large inclinations.
It would somewhat shorten the work and give smoother cross
curves for the large inclinations if a method were adopted treating
the parallel planes through equidistant poles, as the vertical sections
were treated in determining additional spots for the 90° cross curves.
I have, however, considered it preferable to obtain independent
results for each pole, leaving the method above referred to available
for fairing the cross curves if necessary. While the forms of calcu-
lation given extend beyond 90° of inclination, I have found it prefer-
able in practice to use a graphic method to obtain the cross curves
beyond this point.
Thus in Fig. 6 let 0PM he a cross curve for 60° inclination. Let
OD represent the displacement when fully submerged, and DM the
corresponding righting moment. Lay off 01/ = iOD, HC^= \DM.
Draw PCQ and lay off CQ^ equal and opposite to CP. Then Q is
a point on the cross curve for 120°, the angle supplementary to 60°.
Any number of points on the supplementary cross curve may be
thus determined and the curve for 120° drawn as shown.
Evidently the curve for 120° is simply the curve for 60° rotated
180° about an axis through C perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
It is desirable, when intending to make use of this method, to
choose the axis at the center of buoyancy of the total displacement.
If this be done, the point C in Fig. 6 is the same for every curve —
always coinciding with H.
170 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
TABLE II.
Legend, — U. S. S. Philadelphia.
Axis ig'-S above base line.
Scales for Cross Curves: I'-'mooo tons displacement,
ton-feet o£ righting moment.
Explanation of Symbols.
D denotes displacement in tons of 35 cubic feet.
M denotes righting moment in ton-feet.
C denotes lever about axis of center of gravity of water planes.
T denotes the tangent of the inclination of the cross curve.
I denotes the inclination of the cross curve.
Pole from Axis.
Inclination.
1
Ship submerged.
B
>>
CO
8'.82 below.
On.
5'.68 above.
D
1968
4439
6220
9140
M
i.>57
2089
4159
— 51
15°
C
0.02
0.71
1. 41
T
O.OI
0-355
0.705
I
0° 40''
19° 30'
35° 10'
D
2223
4549
6143
9140
M
2601
5360
7586
— 100
30°
C
0.71
1.87
0.88
T
0-3S5
0.935
0.440
I
19° 30'
43° 10'
23O50'
U
2732
4670
5895
9140
M
5014
7716
8310
— 141
45°
C
2.25
1. 01
— 0.43
T
1.125
0.505
— 0.215
I
48° 40'
26° so'
—12° 10'
D
3395
4712
5528
9140
M
6493
6910
6603
-173
60°
c
0.83
O.OI
— 0.64
T
0.415
0.005
— 0.320
I
22° 30'
o°ro'
-17° 50^
D
4010
4687
5107
9140
M
4094
3400
3014
— 193
75°
C
-0.88
— 0.68
— 0.68
T
—0.440
— 0.340
— 0.340
I
-23° 50'
-18° 50/
- 18° 50'
D
1994
4570
7146
9140
M
1898
— 100
— 2098
— 200
90°
C
0.21
— 2.14
0.21
T
0.105
— 1.070
0.105
I
6°
-47°
6°
D
5130
4453
4033
9140
M
— 4287
-3593
— 3207
— 193
105°
C
T
I
— 23° 50'
— 18° 50'
- 18° 50'
170 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
TABLE II.
Legend, — U, S. S. Philadelphia.
Axis 19^.5 above base line.
Scales for Cross Curves: I'-'mooo tons displacement,
ton-feet of righting moment.
Explanation of Symbols.
D denotes displacement in tons of 35 cubic feet.
M denotes righting moment in ton-feet.
C denotes lever about axis of center of gravity of water planes.
T denotes the tangent of the inclination of the cross curve.
I denotes the inclination of the cross curve.
Pole from Axis.
Inclination.
1
Ship submerged.
8'.82 below.
On.
5'. 68 above.
D
1968
4439
6220
9140
M
1.^.57
2089
4159
— SI
15°
C
0.02
0.71
I.41
T
O.OI
0-355
0.705
I
o°4o'
190 30'
35° 10/
D
2223
4549
1 6143
9140
M
2601
5360
7586
— 100
30°
c
0.71
1.87
0.88
T
0.355
0-935
0.440
I
19° 30'
43° 10'
23050/
D
2732
4670
5895
9140
M
5014
7716
8310
— 141
45°
C
2.25
1. 01
-0.43
T
1. 125
0.505
— 0.215
I
48° 40'
26° 50'
-12° 10^
D
3395
4712
5528
9140
M
6493
6910
6603
-173
60°
C
0.83
o.oi
— 0.64
T
0.415
0.005
— 0.320
I
22° 30'
0° 10''
— 17° 50^
D
4010
4687
5107
9140
M
4094
3400
3014
— 193
75°
C
— 0.88
— 0.68
— 0.68
T
— 0.440
— 0.340
—0.340
I
—23° 50^
-18° 50'
— 18° 50'
D
1994
4570
7146
9140
M
1898
— 100
— 2098
— 200
90°
C
0.21
— 2.14
0.21
T
0.105
— 1.070
0.105
I
6°
-47°
6°
D
5130
4453
4033
9140
M
— 4287
— 3593
— 3207
— 193
105°
C
T
I
- 23° 50'
— 18° 50'
— 18° 50'
I-I- -l-l- -l-l
'If \]:l
1 1 !i
3 1:^
dm:;
t :::
I . I . iH-l
;i; i S
Mssll =3-5
8 l:i
ill; li:]
si
-"S
,,5
i'
6.<
1
1
fas
;>£j
:^:;
:?n
51:
;iiSi
•t"
;5is
^f
:S^
•t.5
^
;3;"3
111 ' u&l
I 'If
S19.8 1 14854 358235
32646 376.3 3694 53807 ,
7480 507640 645.S
SPLACEMENT CORRECTION.
vzn
CENTRE OF GRAVITY (
00' 3(
i»=7 "SO" ;58'39
!„0 0» 3,163
'3^5
%85i!
i
198634 7S» 3S373:
3S!|91 *>=i^
9,
I
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 17]
Table II— Continued.
Inclination,
i
E
Pole from Axis.
Ship submerged.
8'.82 below.
On.
S'.68 above.
120°
D
M
C
T
I
5745
— 6666
22° 30^
4428
— 7083
0° 10'
3612
-6776
- 17° SO'
9140
— 173
135°
D
M
C
T
I
6408
-5155
48° 40^
4470
— 7857
26° 50'
3245
-8451
— 12° 10'
9140
— 141
150°
D
M
C
T
I
6917
— 2701
19° 30'
4591
— 5460
43° 10'
2997
— 7686
23° 50'
9140
— 100
165°
D
M
C
T
I
7172
— 1408
o°40^
4701
— 2140
19° 30'
2920
4210
35° 10'
9140
-SI
172 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
TABLE III.
For additional points on 90° cross curve. Sections spaced 12'. Ordinates
from 19'. 5 below axis.
Plane 5' from center.
1
Plane 10' from center.
g
Bottom.
T
op.
Bottom.
Top.
tri
Ord.
Ord.2
Ord.
Ord.2
0
Ord.
Ord.2
Ord.
Ord.2
I
0,0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
18.5
68s
18.5
685
0
0
0
0
3
17.4
303
36-4
1325
18.0
648
18.0
648
4
9-3
86
36.0
1296
24-5
600
35-9
1289
5
5-4
29
35-6
1267
14-5
210
35-5
1260
6
3-3
II
35-4
1253
8.7
76
35-3
1246
7
2.1
35-'
1232
5-4
29
35-0
1225
8
1-5
34-8
1211
3-5
12
34-8
I2I1
9
I.I
34-6
1 197
2.4
6
34.6
I 197
10
0.9
34-4
I183
1.8
3
34-4
II83
II
0.6
0
34-3
II76
1-4
2
34-2
II70
12
0-5
0
34-2
II70
I.O
I
34.1
I 163
13
0.4
0
34-1
1163
I.O
I
34-1
1 163
14
0-3
0
34-1
1 163
i.o
I
34-0
1156
15
0-3
I
34.0
1 1 56
1.0
I
33-9
I 149
16
0-3
0
34-0
II56
1. 1
I
33.9
I 149
17
0.4
0
33-9
II49
1.4
2
33.8
II42
18
0.5
0
33-9
1 149
2.0
4
33.8
1143
19
0.9
I
34-0
II56
2-9
8
33-9
II49
20
1-4
2
34-0
II56
4.2
18
33.9
I 149
21
2-4
6
34-1
1 163
5-9
P
34-0
I I 56
22
3-7
14
34-2
1170
8.0
64
34.1
I 163
23
5-5
30
34-3
1176
10.5
no
34-2
II70
24
8.0
64
34-5
II90
13-5
182
34.4
I 183
25
II. 0
121
34-7
1204
17.2
296
34.6
II97
26
14.9
222
34.9
1218
22.3
497
34-8
I2II
27
lO.O
200
17-5
612
17.5
612
17-5
612
2
120.6
1783
865.5
120.6
29976
1783
) 28193
37-84
190.8
3419
826.7
190.8
28484
3419
) 25065
39-42
Tons pe
r foot,
255-5
-7- 2
218.0
-f- 2
C. of G.
from 19'
5 line.
18.92
19-50
19.71
19.50
C, of G
above a
xis,
— 0.58
- 255-5
0.21
218.0
Ton-fee
t per foot
,
-148
46
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 173
Table III. — Continued.
Plane.
Tons per foot.
S. M.
Pro.
Central.
5' out.
10' out.
305-5
255-5
4
305-5
1022.0
218.0
1545-5
xt
Displacement of slice
2576
Plane.
Ton-feet per foot.
S.M.
Pro.
Central.
5' out.
10' out.
46
Righting m
I
4
oment of si
ce
-653
~x1
-1998
Displacement.
Righting Moment.
To center.
Slice.
10' beyond center.
10' short of "
4570
2576
7146
1994
1998
2098
TABLE IV.
Displacement
C. of G. above axis
5000 tons.
0.75 feet.
0°
15°
30°
45°
60°
75°
90°
Righting moment about axis
« lever " "
C. of G. correction
0
0
0
0
2600
0.52
0.19
0.33
6180
1.24
0.36
0.88
8000
1.60
0.53
1.07
6830
1-37
0.65
C.72
3120
0.62
0.72
— 0.10
_ 790
— 0.16
0.75
— 0.91
Righting lever about C. of G.
174 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
TABLE OF NUMBERS MULTIPLIED BY SINES OF ANGLES.
umber.
H Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15«
250
125.0
241.5
216.5
176.8
125.0
64-7
251
125-5
242.4
217.3
177.5
125.5
64-9
252
126.0
243-4
218.2
178.2
126.0
65.2
253
126.5
244.4
219.I
178.9
126.5
65.5
254
127.0
245-3
219.9
179.6
127.0
65.7
255
127.5
246.3
220.8
180.3
127.5
66.0
256
128.0
247.3
221.7
181. 0
128.0
66.2
257
128.5
248.2
222.5
181.7
128.5
66.5
258
129.0
249.2
223.4
182.4
129.0
66.8
259
129-5
250.2
224.3
1 83. 1
129.5
67.0
260
130.0
251.1
225.2
183.8
130.0
67.3
261
130-5
252.1
226.0
184.6
130-5
67.6
262
131.O
253.1
226.9
185-3
131.0
67.8
263
131-5
254.0
227.8
186.0
131.S
68.1
264
132.0
255-0
228.7
186.7
132.0
68.3
26s
132-5
256.0
229.5
187.4
132.5
68.6
266
133-0
256.9
230.4
188.1
133-0
68.9
267
133-5
257.9
231.3
188.8
133-5
69.1
268
134.0
258.9
232.1
189.5
134.0
69.4
269
134.5
259.8
233-0
190.2
134-5
69.6
270
^35-0
260.8
233-8
190.9
135-0
69-9
271
135-5
261.8
234.7
191.6
I3S-S
70.1
272
136.0
262.7
2355
192.3
136.0
70.4
273
136-5
263.7
236.4
193.0
136.5
70.7
274
137.0
264.7
237.3
193.8
137.0
70.9
275
137-5
265.6
238.1
194.5
137.5
71.2
276
138.0
266.6
239.0
195.2
138.0
71.4
277
138.5
267.6
239-9
195.9
138-5
71.7
278
139.0
268.5
240.7
196.6
139.0
71.9
279
139-5
269.5
241.6
197.3
139-5
72.2
280
140.0
270.5
242.5
198.0
140.0
72.5
281
140.5
271.4
243.4
198.7
140.5
72.7
282
141. 0
272.4
244.2
199.4
141.0
73.0
283
14I-5
273-4
245.1
200.1
141.5
73-2
284
142.0
274-3
246.0
200.8
142.0
73-5
28s
142.5
275-3
246.8
201.5
142.5
73-8
286
143.0
276.3
247.7
202.2
143.0
74.0
287
143-5
277.2
248.6
202.9
143-5
74.3
288
144.0
278.2
249.4
203.6
144.0
74.5
289
144-5
279.2
250.3
204.3
144-5
74.8
290
145.0
280.1
251.2
205.1
145.0
75-1
291
HS-5
281. 1
252.0
205.8
145-5
75.3
292
146.0
282.2
252.9
206.5
146.0
75.6
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 75
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
293
146.5
283.0
253-8
207.2
146.5
75-8
294
147.0
284.0
254.6
207.9
147.0
76.1
29s
147.S
284.9
255-5
208.6
147.5
76.3
296
148.0
285.9
256.3
209.3
148.0
76.6
297
148.S
286.9
257.2
210.0
148.5
76.9
298
149.0
287.8
258.1
215.7
149.0
77.1
299
149.5
288.8
258.9
211.4
149-5
77.4
300
150.0
289.9
259.8
212.1
150.0
77.6
301
150.5
290.7
260.6
212.8
150.5
77-9
302
151.0
291.7
261.5
213-5
151.0
78.2
303
151.5
292.7
262.4
214.2
151. 5
78.4
304
152,0
293.6
263.3
215.0
152.0
78.7
305
152.5
294.6
264.1
215.7
152.5
78.9
306
153-0
295.6
265.0
216.4
153-0
79-2
307
153-5
296.5
265.9
217.I
153-5
79-4
308
154.0
297.5
266.7
217.8
154.0
79-7
309
154.5
298.5
267.6
218.5
154-5
80.0
310
155.0
299.4
268.5
219.2
155-0
80.2
3"
155.5
300.4
269.3
219.9
155-5
80.5
312
156.0
301.4
270.2
220.6
156.0
80.7
313
156.5
302.3
271.1
221.3
156.5
81.0
3U
157.0
303-3
271.9
222.0
157.0
81.3
315
157.5
304.3
272.8
222.7
157.5
81.5
316
158.0
305.2
273.7
223.4
158.0
81.8
317
158.5
306.2
274.5
224.1
158.5
82.0
318
159.0
307.2
275-4
224.8
159.0
82.3
3>9
159.5
308.1
276.3
225.6
1 59- 5
82.6
320
160.0
309.1
277.1
226.3
160.0
82.8
321
160.5
310.1
278.0
227.0
160.5
83.1
322
161.0
311.0
278.9
227.7
161.0
833
323
161.5
312.0
279.7
228.4
161.5
83.6
324
162.0
313-0
280.6
229.1
162.0
839
325
162.5
313-9
281.5
229.8
162.5
84.1
326
163.0
3M-9
282.3
230.5
163.0
84.4
327
163.5
315-9
283.2
231.2
163.5
84.6
328
164.0
316.8
284.1
231.9
164.0
84.9
329
164.5
317.8
284.9
232.6
164.5
85.2
330
165.0
318.8
285.8
233-3
165.0
85-4
331
165.5
319-7
286.7
234.0
165-5
85-7
332
166.0
320.7
287.5
234.7
166.0
85.9
333
166.5
321.7
288.4
235.5
166.5
86.2
334
167.0
322.6
289.3
236.2
167.0
86.4
335
167.5
323.6
290.1
236.9
167.5
86.7
336
168.0
324.6
291.0
237.6
168.0
87.0
337
168.5
325.5
291.9
238.3
.68.5
87.2
176 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
338
169.0
326.5
292.7
239-0
169.0
87.5
339
169.5
327-4
293-6
239-7
169.5
87.7
340
170.0
328.4
294.5
240.4
170.0
88.0
341
170.5
329-4
295-3
241. 1
170.5
88.3
342
171.O
330-4
296.2
241.8
171.0
88.5
343
171-5
331-3
297.1
242.5
171. 5
88.8
344
172.0
332.3
297.9
243.2
172.0
89.0
345
172.5
333-2
298.8
243-9
172.S
89-3
346
173-0
334-2
299-7
244.7
173-0
89.6
347
173-5
335-2
300.5
245.4
173-5
89.8
348
174.0
336.1
301.4
246.1
174.0
90.1
349
174-5
337.1
302,2
246.8
174-S
90.3
350
175.0
338.1
303-1
247-5
175-0
90.6
351
175-5
339-0
304.0
248.2
175-5
90.8
352
176.0
340-0
304.8
248.9
176.0
91. 1
353
176.5
341.0
305-7
249.6
176.5
91.4
354
177.0
341-9
3066
250.3
177.0
91.6
355
177-5
342-9
307.4
251.0
177 5
91.9
356
178.0
343-9
308.3
251.7
178.0
92.1
357
178.5
344-8
309-2
252.4
178.5
92.4
358
179.0
345-8
310.0
253.1
179.0
92-7
359
179-5
346.8
310.9
253-8
179-S
92-9
360
180.0
347.7
31I-8
254.6
180.0
93-2
361
180.5
348.7
312.6
255-3
180.S
93-4
362
181.0
349-7
313-5
256.0
181. 0
93-7
363
181. 5
350-6
314-4
256.7
181.5
94-0
364
182.0
351-6
315.2
257.4
182.0
94.2
365
182.5
352.6
316.I
258.1
182.5
94.5
366
183.0
353-5
317.0
258.8
183.0
94.7
367
183-5
354-5
317.8
259-5
183.5
95.0
368
184.0
355-5
318.7
260.2
184.0
95-3
369
184.5
356-4
319.6
260.9
184.5
95-5
370
185.0
357-4
320.4
261.6
185.0
95-8
371
185.5
358.4
321.3
262.3
185.5
96.0
372
186,0
359-3
322.2
263.0
186.0
96.3
373
186.5
360.3
323-0
263.7
186.5
96.5
374
187.0
361-3
323.9
264.5
187.0
96.8
375
187.5
362.2
324-8
265.2
187.5
97-1
376
188.0
363-2
325-6
265.9
188.0
97-3
377
188.5
364.2
326.5
266.6
188.5
97-6
378
189.0
365-1
327-4
267.3
189.0
97.8
379
189.5
366.1,
328.2
268.0
189.5
98.1
380
190.0
367.1
329.1
268.7
190.0
98.4
381
190.5
368.0
330-0
269.4
190.5
98.6
382
191.0
369.0
330-8
270.1
191. 0
98.9
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I77
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
S.n .5°
383
191. 5
370.0
331-7
270.8
191-5
99.1
384
192.0
370.9
332.6
271.5
192.0
99.4
385
192.5
371.9
333-4
272.2
192.5
99.6
386
193.0
372.9
334.3
272.9
193.0
99.9
387
193.S
373.8
335.2
273.6
193.5 •
100.2
388
194.0
374.8
336.0
274.4
194.0
100.4
389
194.5
375.8
336.9
275.1
194.5
100.7
390
195.0
376.7
337.8
275.8
195.0
100.9
391
195-5
377.7
338.6
276.5
195-5
101.2
392
196.0
378.6
339.5
277.2
196.0
101.5
393
196.5
379-6
340.4
277.9
196.5
IOI.7
394
197.0
380.6
341.2
278.6
197.0
102.0
395
197.5
381.5
342.1
279.3
197.5
102.2
396
198.0
382.5
343.0
280.0
198.0
102.5
397
198.5
383.5
343.8
280.7
198.5
102.8
398
199.0
384-4
344.7
281.4
199.0
103.0
399
199.5
385-4
345.6
282.1
199.5
103.3
400
200.0
386.4
346.4
282.8
200.0
103.5
401
200.5
387-3
347.3
283.5
200.5
103.8
402
201.0
388.3
348.1
284.3
201.0
104.0
403
201.S
389.3
349.0
285.0
201.5
104.3
404
202.0
390.2
349.9
285.7
202.0
104.6
405
202.5
391.2
350.7
286.4
202.5
104.8
406
203.0
392.2
3SI.6
287.1
203.0
105.1
407
203.5
393.1
352-5
287.8
203.5
105.3
408
204.0
394-1
353-3
288.5
204.0
105.6
409
204.5
395.1
354-2
289.2
204.5
105.9
410
205.0
396.0
355-1
289.9
205.0
106.1
411
205.5
397.0
355-9
290.6
205.5
106.4
412
206.0
398-0
356.8
291.3
206.0
106.6
413
206.5
398.9
357.7
292.0
206.5
106.9
414
207.0
399-9
358.5
292.7
207.0
107.2
415
207.5
400.9
359-4
293-4
207.5
107.4
416
208.0
401.8
360.3
294.2
208.0
107.7
417
208.5
402.8
361.1
294.9
208.5
107.9
418
209.0
403.8
362.0
295.6
209.0
108.2
419
209.5
404-7
362.9
296.3
209.5
108.5
420
210.0
405-7
363.7
297.0
210.0
108.7
421
210.5
406.7
364.6
297.7
210.5
109.0
422
211. 0
407.6
365.5
298.4
211.0
109.2
423
211. 5
408.6
366.3
299.1
211. 5
109.5
424
212.0
409.6
367.2
299.8
212.0
109.8
425
212.5
410.6
368.1
300.5
212.5
I 10.0
426
213.0
4". 5
368.9
301.2
213.0
110.3
427
213.5
412.5
369.8
301.9
213.5
IIO.5
178 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
^iSingoO.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60O.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
428
214.0
413.4
370.7
302.6
214.0
1 10.8
429
214,5
414.4
371.5
303.3
214.5
III.O
430
215.0
415.4
372.4
304.1
215.0
III.3
431
215-5
416.3
373-3
304.8
215.5
1X1.6
432
216.0
417-3
374.1
305.5
216.0
111.8
433
216.5
418.2
375.0
306.2
216.5
1 1 2. 1
434
217.0
419.2
375.9
306.9
217.0
112.3
435
217.S
420.2
376.8
307.6
217.5
112.6
436
218.0
421.I
377.6
308.3
218.0
112.9
437
218.5
422. 1
378.5
309.0
218.5
113.1
438
219.0
423.1
379-4
3097
219.0
113.4
439
219.5
424.0
380.2
.310.4
219.5
113.6
440
220.0
425.0
38 1. 1
311. 1
220.0
1 1 3-9
441
220.5
426.0
382.0
31I.8
220.5
1 14. 1
442
221.0
426.9
382.8
312.5
221.0
114.4
443
221.5
427.9
383.7
313.2
221.5
114.7
444
222.0
428.9
384.6
313.9
222.0
114.9
445
222.5
429.8
385.4
314.7
222.5
115.2
446
223.0
430-8
386.3
315.4
223.0
115.4
447
223.5
431.8
387.1
316.I
223.5
115.7
448
224.0
432-7
388.0
316.8
224.0
116.0
449
224.5
433-7
388.9
317.5
224.5
116.2
450
225.0
434.7
389.7
318.2
225.0
116.5
45»
225.5
435-6
390.6
318.9
225.5
116.7
452
226.0
436.6
391.5
319.6
226.0
117.0
453
226.5
437-6
392.4
320.3
226.5
"7.3
454
227.0
438.5
393.2
321.0
227.0
117.5
455
227.5
439-5
394.1
321.7
227.5
117.8
456
228.0
440.5
395.0
322.4
228.0
118.0
457
228.5
441.4
395.8
323.1
228.5
118.3
458
229.0
442.4
396.7
323.9
229.0
118.6
459
229.5
443-4
397.5
324.6
229.5
118.8
460
230.0
444.3
398.4
325.3
230.0
119. 1
461
230.5
445-3
399.3
326.0
230.5
1 19-3
462
231.0
446.3
400.1
326.7
231.0
119.6
463
231-5
447-2
401.0
327.4
231.5
119.8
464
232.0
448.2
401.9
328.1
232.0
1 20. 1
46s
232.5
449.2
402.7
328.8
232.5
120.4
466
233-0
450.1
403.6
329-5
233.0
120.6
467
233.5
451-1
404.5
330-2
233-5
120.9
468
234.0
452.1
405.3
330.9
234.0
121.1
469
234.5
453-0
406.2
331.6
234.5
121.4
470
235.0
454.0
407.1
332.3
235.0
121.7
471
235-5
4S5-0
407.9
333.0
235-5
121.9
472
236.0
455.9
408.8
333.7
236.0
122.2
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 79
umber.
XSin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 51°.
473
236.5
456.9
409.6
334.5
236.5
122.4
474
237.0
457-8
410.5
335-2
237*0
122.7
475
237-5
458.8
411. 4
335-9
237.5
122.9
476
238.0
459.8
412.2
336.6
238.0
123.2
477
238.5
460.7
413-1
337.3
238.5
123-5
478
239.0
461.7
414-0
338-0
239.0
123.7
479
239-5
462.7
414-8
338-7
239.5
124.0
480
240.0
463.6
415-7
339-4
240.0
124.2
481
240.5
464.6
416.6
340-1
240.5
124.5
482
241.0
465.6
417.4
340.8
241.0
124.8
483
241.5
466.5
418.3
341-5
241.5
125.0
484
242.0
467.5
419.2
342-2
242.0
125.3
485
242.5
468.5
420.0
342.9
242.5
125-5
486
243.0
469.4
420.9
343-7
243.0
125.8
487
243-5
470.4
421.8
344-4
243-5
126.0
488
244.0
471.4
422.6
34 5-1
244.0
126.3
489
244.5
472.3
423-5
345-8
244-5
126.6
490
245.0
473-3
424.4
346. 5
245.0
126.8
491
245-5
474.3
425.2
347.2
245.5
127.1
492
246.0
475.2
426.1
347.9
246.0
127.3
493
246.5
476.2
427.0
348.6
246.5
127.6
494
247.0
477.2
427.8
349-3
247.0
127.9
495
247-5
478.1
428.7
350.0
247.5
1 28. 1
496
248.0
479.1
429.6
350.7
248.0
128.4
497
248.5
480.1
430.4
35'.4
248.5
128.6
498
249.0
481.0
431.3
352.1
249.0
128.9
499
249.5
482.0
432.1
352.8
249.5
129.2
500
250.0
483.0
433-0
353-5
250.0
129.4
SOI
250.5
483.9
433-9
354.3
250.5
129.7
502
251.0
484.9
434.7
355-0
251.0
129.9
503
251-5
485.9
435-6
355-7
251.5
130.2
504
252.0
486.8
436-5
356.4
252.0
130.5
505
252.5
487.8
437-3
357.1
252.5
130.7
506
253-0
488.8
438.2
357-8
253.0
131.0
507
253-5
489.7
439-1
358-5
253.5
131. 2
508
254.0
490.7
439.9
359-2
254.0
13^-5
509
254.5
491.7
440.8
359-9
254.5
131-7
510
255-0
492.6
441.7
360.6
255.0
132.0
5"
255.5
493-6
442.5
361-3
255-5
132-3
512
256.0
494-6
443.4
362.0
256.0
132-5
513
256.5
495-5
444-3
362.7
256-5
132.8
514
257.0
496-5
445-1
363-4
257.0
133-0
515
257.5
497-5
446.0
364.2
257-5
133-3
516
258.0
498.4
446.9
364.9
258.0
1336
517
258.5
499.4
447.7
365.6
258.5
1338
l8o A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
M Sin 90".
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
Si8
259.0
500.4
448.6
366.3
259.0
1 34. 1
519
25'9-5
501.3
449-5
367.0
259.5
134.3
520
260.0
502.3
450.3
367.7
260.0
134.6
521
260.5
503-2
451.2
368.4
260.5
134.8
522
261.0
504.2
452.1
369.1
261.0
I35.I
523
261.5
505.2
452.9
369.8
261.5
135-4
524
262.0
506.1
453-8
370.5
262.0
135-6
525
262.5
507.1
454.7
371.2
262.5
135-9
526
263.0
508.1
455-5
371.9
263.0
1 36- 1
527
263.5
509-0
456.4
372.6
263-S
136.4
528
264.0
510.0
457.3
373-4
264.0
136.7
529
264.5
511.O
458.1
374.1
264.5
136.9
530
265.0
511.9
459.0
374.8
265.0
137.2
S31
265.5
512.9
459.9
.375-5
265.5
137-4
S32
266.0
513-9
460.7
376.2
266.0
137-7
533
266.5
S14.8
461.6
376.9
266.5
138.0
534
267.0
515-8
462.5
377-6
267.0
138.2
535
267.5
516.8
463.3
378.3
267.5
138.5
536
268.0
517.7
464.2
379- 0
268.0
138.7
537
268.5
518.7
465.1
379-7
268. 5
139.0
538
269.0
519-7
465.9
380.4
269.0
139-3
539
269.5
520.6
466.8
381. 1
269.5
139.5
540
270.0
521.6
467.7
381.8
270.0
139.8
541 .
270.5
522.6
468.5
382-5
270.5
140.0
542
271.0
523-5
469.4
383-2
271.0
140.3
543
271.5
524-5
470.3
384.0
271.5
140.5
544
272.0
525.5
471. 1
384.7
272.0
140.8
545
272.5
526.4
472.0
385-4
272.5
141. 1
546
273.0
527.4
472.9
386.1
273.0
141. 3
547
273.5
528.4
473.7
386.8
273-5
141. 6
548
274.0
529.3
474-6
387.5
274.0
141.8
549
274.5
530.3
475-4
388.2
274. 5
142.1
55°
275.0
531-3
476.3
388.9
275.0
142.4
551
275-5
532-2
477.2
389.6
275.5
142.6
552
276.0
533-2
478.0
390.3
276.0
142.9
553
276.5
534.2
478.9
391.0
276.5
143-1
554
277.0
535-1
479-8
391-7
277.0
143-4
555
277.5
536.1
480.6
392.4
277.5
143-7
556
278.0
. 537.1
481.5
393-1
278.0
143.9
557
278.S
538.0
482.4
393-9
278.5
144.2
558
279.0
S39-0
483.2
394.6
279.0
144.4
559
279-5
540.0
484.1
395-3
279.5
144.7
560
280.0
540.9
485.0
396.0
280.0
144.9
561
280.5
541-9
485.8
396.7
280.5
145.2
562
281.0
542.9
486.7
397-4
281.0
M5-S
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. l8l
umber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°-
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
563
281.5
543-8
487.6
398.1
281.5
I4S-7
564
282,0
544-8
488.4
398-8
282.0
146.0
565
282.5
545-7
489-3
399-5
282.5
146.2
566
283.0
546.7
490.2
400.2
283.0
146.5
567
283.5
547-7
491.0
400.9
283.5
146.8
568
284.0
548.6
491.9
401.6
284.0
147.0
569
284.5
549.6
492.8
402.3
284.5
147.3
570
285.0
550.6
493-6
403.1
285.0
147.5
571
285.5
551.5
494-5
403.8
285.5
147.8
572
286.0
552.5
495-4
404-5
286.0
148. 1
573
286.5
553-5
496.2
405.2
286.5
148.3
574
287.0
554-4
497.1
405.9
287.0
148.6
575
287.5
555-4
498.0
406.6
287.5
148.8
576
288.0
556-4
498.8
407.3
288.0
149-1
577
288.5
557.3
499-7
408.0
288.5
M9-3
578
289.0
558.3
500.6
408.7
289.0
149.6
579
289.5
559.3
501.4
409.4
289.5
149-9
580
290.0
560.2
502.3
410.1
290.0
150.1
581
290.5
561.2
503.2
410.8
290.5
150.4
582
291.0
562.2
504.0
411. 5
291.0
150.6
583
291.5
563.1
504.9
412.2
291.5
150.9
584
292.0
564.1
505-8
412.9
292.0
151.2
585
292.5
565-1
506.6
4137
292.5
151-4
586
293.0
566.0
507.5
414.4
293.0
151-7
587
293-5
567.0
508.4
415.1
293-5
151.9
588
294.0
568.0
509.2
415.8
294.0
152.2
589
294.5
568.9
510.1
416.5
294-5
152.5
590
295.0
569-9
511-0
417.2
295.0
152-7
591
295-5
570.9
511. 8
417.9
295-5
153-0
592
296.0
571.8
512.7
418.6
296.0
153-2
593
296.5
572.8
513-6
419-3
296.5
1535
594
297.0
573.8
514.4
420.0
297.0
153-8
595
297.5
574-7
515-3
420.7
297.5
154.0
596
298.0
575-7
516.1
421.4
298.0
154.3
597
298.5
576.7
517.0
422.1
298.5
154.5
598
299.0
577.6
517-9
422.8
299.0
154.8
599
299.5
578.6
518.7
423-6
299.5
155.0
600
300.0
579-6
519.6
424.3
300.0
155-3
601
300.5
580.5
520.5
425.0
300.5
155-6
602
301.0
581.5
521.3
425-7
301.0
155.8
603
301-5
582.5
522.2
426.4
301.5
156.1
604
302.0
583-4
523.1
427.1
302.0
156.3
605
302.5
584.4
523.9
427.8
302.5
156.6
606
3030
585-3
524.8
428.5
303.0
156.9
607
303-5
586.3
525.7
429.2
303-5
157.1
l82 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
608
304.0
587.3
526.6
429.9
304.0
157.4
609
304.S
588.3
527-4
430.6
304.5
157.6
610
305.0
589.2
528.3
431-3
305.0
157.9
611
305-5
590.2
529-2
432.0
305.5
158.1
612
306.0
591.2
530.0
432.7
306.0
158.4
613
306.5
592.1
530.9
433-5
306.5
158.7
614
307.0
593-1
531-7
434.2
307.0
158.9
61S
307-5
594.1
532.6
4349
307-5
159.2
616
308.0
595.0
533-5
435-6
308.0
159.4
617
308.5
596.0
534.3
436.3
308.5
159.7
618
309.0
597.0
535-2
437.0
309.0
160.0
619
309-5
597.9
536-1
437.7
309.5
160.2
620
310.0
598.9
536.9
438.4
310.0
160.5
6zi
310.5
599-8
537.8
439.1
310.5
160.7
622
31I.O
600.8
538.7
439-8
3".o
161.0
623
3"-5
601.8
539-5
440.5
3"-5
161.2
624
312.0
602.7
540.4
441.2
312.0
161.5
62s
312.5
603.7
541.3
441.9
312.5
161.8
626
313-0
604.7
542.1
442.6
313-0
162.0
627
313-5
605.6
543.0
443.4
313-5
162.3
628
314.0
606.6
543-9
444.1
314.0
162.5
629
3145
607.6
544-7
444.8
314-5
162.8
630
31S-0
608.5
545.6
445-5
315-0
163.1
631
315-5
609.5
546.5
446.2
315-5
163.3
632
316.0
610.5
547.3
446.9
316.0
163.6
633
316.5
611.4
548.2
447.6
316.5
163.8
634
317.0
612.4
549.1
448.3
317.0
1 64. 1
635
3'7-5
613.4
549-9
449.0
317-5
164.3
636
318.0
614.3
550.8
449-7
318.0
164.6
637
318-S
615.3
551.7
450.4
318.5
164.9
638
319.0
616.3
552.5
4SI.I
319.0
165. 1
639
319-5
617.2
553-4
451-8
319.5
165.4
640
320.0
618.2
554.3
452-5
320.0
165.6
641
320.5
619.2
555-1
453-3
320.5
165.9
642
321.0
620.1
556.0
454.0
321.0
166.2
643
321.5
621.1
556.9
454-7
321.5
166.4
644
322.0
622.1
557.7
455-4
322.0
166.7
64s
322.5
623.0
558.6
456.1
322.5
166.9
646
323-0
624.0
559-5
456.8
323.0
167.2
647
323-5
625.0
560.3
457.5
323.5
167.5
648
324.0
625.9
561.2
458.2
324.0
167.7
649
324.5
626.9
562.1
458.9
324.5
168.0
650
325-0
627.9
562.9
459.6
325.0
168.2
651
325-5
628.8
563.8
460.3
325.5
168.5
652
326.0
629.8
564.7
461.0
326.0
168.8
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 83
Number.
>iSin90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
653
326.5
630.8
565-5
461.7
326.5
169.0
654
327.0
631.7
566.4
462.4
327.0
169.3
65s
327-5
632.7
567.3
463.2
327-5
169-5
656
328.0
633-6
568.1
463-9
328.0
169.8
657
328.S
634-6
569-0
464.6
328.5
170.0
658
329.0
635.6
569.9
465-3
329-0
170.3
659
329-5
636.5
570.7
466.0
329-5
170.6
660
330-0
637-5
.571-6
466.7
3300
170.8
661
330.5
638-5
572.4
467-4
330-5
171.1
662
331-0
639-4
573.3
468.1
331.0
171-3
663
331-5
640.4
574.2
468.8
331-5
171. 6
664
332.0
64T.4
57S-0
469.5
332-0
171.9
66s
332-5
642.3
575-9
470.2
332-5
172.1
666
333-0
643-3
576.8
470.9
333.0
172.4
667
333-5
644-3
577-6
471.6
333.5
172.6
668
334-0
645.2
578.5
472.3
334.0
172.9
669
334-5
646.2
579-4
473-1
334.5
173.2
670
335-0
647.2
580.2
473-8
335.0
173-4
671
335-5
648.1
581.1
474.5
335-5
173-7
672
336.0
649.1
582.0
475-2
336.0
173-9
673
336-5
650.1
582.8
4759
336-5
174.2
674
337.0
651.0
583-7
476.6
337-0
174-5
675
337.5
652.0
584.6
477-3
337.5
174.7
676
338-0
653.0
585-4
478.0
338.0
175-0
677
338-5
653-9
586.3
478.7
338.5
175.2
678
339-0
654.9
587-2
479.4
339.0
175-5
679
339-5
655-9
588.0
480.1
339-5
175-7
680
340.0
656.8
588.9
480.8
340.0
176.0
681
340.5
657-8
589.8
481.5
340.5
176.3
682
341.0
658.8
590-6
482.2
341.0
176.5
683
341-S
659.7
591-5
483.0
341.5
176.8
684
342-0
660.7
592.4
483-7
342.0
177.0
685
342-5
661.7
593-2
484.4
342.5
177.3
686
343-0
662.6
594.1
485.1
343.0
177.6
687
343-5
663.6
595-0
485.8
343-5
177-8
688
344-0
664.6
595.8
486.5
344.0
178.1
689
344-5
665.5
596-7
487.2
344.5
178.3
690
345-0
666.5
597.6
487.9
345-0
178.6
691
345-5
667.5
598-4
488.6
345-5
178.9
692
346.0
668.4
599-3
489-3
346.0
179.1
693
346.5
669.4
600.2
490.0
346.5
179.4
694
347-0
67C.4
601.0
490.7
347-0
179.6
695
347-5
671-3
601.9
491.4
347-5
179.9
696
348.0
672.3
602.8
492.1
348.0
180.1
697
348.5
673-3
603.6
492.8
348.S
180.4
184 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
umber.
>^ Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
698
349- 0
674.2
604.5
493-6
349-0
180.7
699
349-5
675.2
605.4
494-3
349.5
180.9
700
350.0
676.2
606.2
495.0
350.0
181. 2
701
350-5
677.1
607,1
495-7
350.5
181.4
702
351-0
678.1
608.0
496.4
351.0
i8i.7
703
351.5
679.1
608.8
497.1
351.5
181 9
704
352-0
680.0
609.7
497.8
352.0
182.2
70s
352.5
681.0
610.6
498- 5
352.5
182.5
706
353-0
681.9
611. 4
499.2
353-0
182.7
707
353.5
682.9
612.3
499.9
353.5
183.0
708
354.0
683.9
613.2
500.6
354.0
183.2
709
354-5
684.8
614.0
501-3
354-5
183.S
710
355-0
685.8
614.9
502.0
355-0
183.8
711
355-5
686.8
615-7
502.8
355-5
184.0
712
356.0
687.7
616.6
503.5
356.0
184.3
713
356.5
688.7
617.5
504.2
356-5
184.5
714
357.0
689.7
618.3
504.9
357.0
184.8
715
357-5
690.6
619.2
505.6
357.5
185.1
716
358.0
691.6
620.1
506.3
358.0
185.3
717
358-5
692.6
620.9
507.0
358-5
185.6
718
359-0
693-5
621.8
507.7
359-0
185.8
719
359-5
694.5
622.7
508.4
3595
186.1
720
360.0
695-5
623-S
509.1
360.0
186.3
721
360.5
696.4
624.4
509.8
360.5
186.6
722
361.0
697.4
625-3
510.5
361.0
186.9
723
361.5
698.4
626.1
511.2
361.5
187.1
724
362.0
699-3
627.0
5"-9
362.0
187.4
725
362.5
700.3
627.9
512.7
362.5
187.6
726
363.0
701.3
628.7
513-4
363.0
187.9
727
3635
702.2
629.6
514-1
363-5
188.2
728
364.0
703.2
630.5
514.8
364-0
188.4
729
364.5
704.2
631.3
515.S
364-5
188.7
730
365.0
705.1
632.2
516.2
365.0
188.9
731
365.5
706.1
633.1
516.9
365.5
189.2
732
366.0
707.1
6339
517.6
366.0
189.5
733
366.5
708.0
634.8
518.3
366.5
189.7
734
367.0
709.0
635.7
519.0
367.0
190.0
735
367.5
710.0
636.5
519.7
367.5
190.2
736
368.0
710.9
637.4
520.4
368.0
190.5
737
368.5
7 1 1.9
638-3
521. 1
368.5
190.8
738
369.0
712.9
639.1
521.8
369-0
191. 0
739
369-5
713-8
640.0
522.5
369- 5
191.3
740
370.0
714.8
640.9
523.3
370.0
191.5
741
370.5
715.8
641.7
524.0
370.5
191.8
742
371.0
716.7
642.6
524.7
371.0
192.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS,
185
umber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 150.
743
371.5
717-7
643-5
525-4
371-5
192.3
744
372.0
718.6
644-3
526.1
372.0
192.6
745
372-5
719.6
645.2
526.8
372-5
192.8
746
373.0
720.6
646.1
527-5
373.0
193- 1
747
373-5
721.5
646.9
528.2
373-5
193-3
748
374.0
722.5
647-8
528.9
374-0
193.6
749
374-5
723.5
648.7
529.6
374.5
193-9
750
375-0
724.4
649.5
530-3
375-0
194. 1
7SI
375.5
725-4
650.4
531-0
375-5
194.4
752
376.0
726.4
651.3
531-7
376.0
194.6
753
376. 5
727-3
652.1
532-5
376.5
194.9
754
377.0
728.3
653.0
533-2
377.0
195.2
755
377-5
729-3
653.8
533-9
377-5
195.4
756
378.0
730.2
654-7
534-6
378.0
I9S-7
757
378.5
731-2
655-6
535-3
378.5
195.9
758
379-0
732.2
656.4
536.0
379-0
196.2
759
379-5
733-1
657.3
536.7
379-5
196.4
760
380.0
734-1
658.2
537-4
380.0
196.7
761
380.S
735-1
659.0
538.1
380.5
197.0
762
381.0.
736.0
659.9
538.8
38T.0
197.2
•763
381-S
737-0
660.8
539-5
381-S
197-5
764
382.0
738.0
661.6
540.2
382.0
197.7
76s
382.S
738.9
662.5
540.9
382.5
198.0
766
383.0
739-9
663.4
S4I.6
383-0
198.3
767
383.5
740.9
664.2
542.4
3S3-5
198.5
768
384-0
741.8
665.1
543-1
384-0
198.8
769
384.5
742.8
666.0
543-8
384-5
199.0
770
385-0
743-8
666.8
544-5
385-0
199-3
771
385-5
744-7
667.7
545-2
385-5
199.6
772
386.0
745-7
668.6
545-9
386.0
199.8
773
386.5
746.7
669.4
546.6
386.5
200.1
774
387-0
747.6
670.3
547-3
387.0
200.3
775
387.5
748.6
671.2
548.0
387-5
200.6
776
388.0
749-6
672.0
548.7
388.0
200.8
777
388.5
750-5
672.9
549.4
388.5
201. 1
778
389-0
751-5
673.8
550.1
389-0
201.4
779
389-5
752-5
674.6
550.8
389-5
201.6
780
390.0
753-4
675-5
551-5
390.0
201.9
781
390.5
754.4
676.4
552.3
390.5
202.1
782
391.0
755-4
677.2
553-0
391.0
202.4
783
391.5
756.3
678.1
553-7
391-5
202.7
784
392.0
757-3
679.0
554-4
392.0
202.9
785
392.5
758.3
679.8
555.1
392-5
203.2
786
393-0
759-2
680.7
555-8
393-0
203.4
787
3935
760.2
681.6
556-5
393-5
2037
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
788
394.0
761.2
682.4
557-2
394.0
204.0
789
394-5
762.1
683-3
557.9
394-5
204.2
790
395-0
763.1
684.2
558.6
395-0
204.5
791
395-5
764.0
685.0
559-3
395-5
204.7
792
396.0
765.0
685.9
560.0
396-0
205.0
793
396-5
766.0
686.8
560.7
396-5
205.2
794
397.0
766.9
687.6
561.4
397-0
205.5
795
397.5
767.9
688.5
562.1
397-5
205.8
796
398.0
768.9
689.4
562.9
398-0
206.0
797
398.5
769.8
690.2
563-6
398.5
206.3
798
399-0
770.8
69.. I
564-3
399-0
206.5
799
399-5
771.8
692.0
565-0
399-5
206.8
800
400.0
772.7
692.8
565-7
400.0
207.1
801
400.5
773.7
693-7
566.4
4C0.5
207.3
802
401.0
774-7
694.6
567-1
401.0
207.6
803
401.5
775-6
695.4
567-8
401.5
207.8
804
402.0
776.6
696.3
568.5
402.0
208.1
805
402.5
777-6
697.2
569.2
402.5
208.4
806
403.0
778.5
698.0
569-9
403.0
208.6
807
403-5
779-5
698.9
570-6
403-5
208.9
808
404.0
780.5
699.7
571-3
404.0
209.1
809
404.5
781.4
700.6
572.0
404-5
209.4
810
405.0
782.4
701.5
572.8
405-0
209.6
811
405-5
783.4
702.3
573-5
405.5
209.9
812
406.0
784.3
703.2
574-2
406.0
210.2
813
406.5
785-3
704.1
574-9
406.5
210.4
814
407.0
786.3
704.9
575-6
407.0
210.7
81S
407.5
787.2
705.8
576.3
407-5
210.9
816
408.0
788.2
706.7
577.0
408.0
211. 2
817
408.5
789.2
707-5
577.7
408.5
211.5
818
409.0
790.1
708.4
578.4
409.0
211. 7
819
409.5
791-1
709.3
579.1
409.5
212.0
820
410.0
792.1
7 10. 1
579.8
410.0
212.2
821
410.5
793.0
711.0
580.5
410.5
212.5
822
411.0
794.0
711.9
581.2
411.0
212.8
823
411-5
795-0
712.7
581.9
411. 5
213.0
824
412.0
795-9
713.6
582.7
412.0
213.3
825
412.5
796.9
714.5
583-4
412.5
213-5
826
413.0
797.9
715-3
584.1
413.0
213.8
827
413.S
798.8
716.2
584.8
413-5
214.0
828
414.0
799-8
717.1
585. 5
414.0
214.3
829
414-5
800.8
717.9
586.2
414.5
214.6
830
415.0
801.7
718.8
586.9
415.0
214.8
831
415-5
802.7
719.7
587.6
415-5
215.1
832
416.0
803.7
720.5
588.3
416.0
2IS-3
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 87
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
833
416.5
804.6
721.4
589.0
416.5
215.6
834
417.0
805.6
722.3
589.7
417.0
215.9
835
417.5
806.6
723.1
590.4
417.5
216.I
836
418.0
807.S
724.0
591. 1
418.0
216.4
837
418.5
808.5
724.9
591.8
418.5
216.6
838
419.0
809.5
725.7
592.6
419.0
216.9
839
419.5
810.4
726.6
593.3
419.S
217.I
840
420.0
81I.4
727.5
594.0
420.0
217.4
841
420.5
812.3
728.3
594.7
420.5
217.7
842
421.0
813.3
729.2
595-4
421.0
218.0
843
421.5
814.3
730.1
596.1
421.5
218.2
844
422.0
815.2
730.9
596.8
422.0
218.4
845
422.5
816.2
731.8
597.5
422.5
218.7
846
423.0
817.2
732.7
598.2
423.0
219.0
847
423.5
8 18. 1
733-5
598.9
423.5
219.2
848
424.0
819.1
734.4
599-6
424.0
219.5
849
424.5
820.1
735-3
600.3
424.5
219.7
850
425.0
821.0
736.1
601.0
425.0
220.0
851
425.5
822.0
737.0
601.7
425.5
220.3
852
426.0
823.0
737.9
602.5
426.0
220.5
8S3
426.5
823.9
738.7
603.2
426.5
220.8
854
427.0
824.9
739-6
603.9
427.0
221.0
8SS
427.5
825.9
740.5
604.6
427-5
221.3
856
428.0
826.8
741-3
605-3
428.0
221.6
857
428.5
827.8
742.2
606.0
428.5
221.8
858
429.0
828.8
743.1
606.7
429.0
222.1
859
429.5
829.7
743-9
607.4
429.5
222.3
860
430.0
830.7
744.8
608.1
430.0
222.6
861
430.5
831.7
745.6
608.8
430.5
222.8
862
431.0
832.6
746.5
609.5
431.0
223.1
863
431.5
833.6
747.4
610.2
431-5
223.4
864
432.0
834.6
748.2
610.9
432.0
223.6
86s
432.5
835.5
749.1
611.6
432.5
223.9
866
433.0
836.5
750.0
612.4
433-0
224.1
867
433.5
837.5
750.8
613.1
433-5
224.4
868
434.0
838.4
751.7
613-8
434.0
224.7
869
434.5
839-4
752.6
614.5
434.5
224.9
870
435.0
840.4
753.4
615.2
435-0
225.2
871
435-5
841.3
754.3
615.9
435-5
225.4
872
436.0
842.3
755-2
616.6
436.0
225.7
873
436.5
843-3
756.0
617.3
436.5
226.0
874
437.0
844.2
756.9
618.0
437.0
226.2
875
437.5
845.2
757.8
618.7
437.5
226.5
876
438.0
846.1
758.6
619.4
438.0
226.7
877
438.5
847.1
759-5
620.1
438.5
227.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
jmber.
X Sin qo°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
878
439-0
848.1
760.4
620.8
439.0
227.3
879
439-5
849.0
761.2
621.5
439.5
227.5
880
440.0
850.0
762.1
622.3
440.0
227.8
881
440.5
851.0
763.0
623.0
440.5
228.0
882
441.0
851.9
763.8
623.7
441.0
228.3
883
441.5
852.9
764.7
624.4
441.5
228.5
884
442.0
853-9
765.6
625.1
442.0
228.8
885
442.5
854.8
766.4
625.8
442.5
229.0
886
443-0
855-8
767.3
626.5
443.0
229.3
887
443-5
856.8
768.2
627.2
443-5
229.6
888
444.0
857.7
769.0
627.9
444.0
229.8
889
444-5
858.7
769.9
628.6
444.5
230.1
890
445-0
859.7
770.8
629.3
445.0
230.3
891
445-5
860.6
771.6
630.0
445-5
230.6
892
446.0
861.6
772.5
630.7
446.0
230.9
893
446.5
862.6
773.4
631.4
446.5
231. 1
894
447.0
863.5
774.2
632.2
447.0
231.4
895
447-5
864.S
775.1
632.9
447.5
231.6
896
448.0
865.5
776.0
633.6
448.0
231.9
897
448.5
866.4
776.8
634.3
448.5
232.2
898
449-0
867.4
777.7
635.0
449.0
232.4
899
449-5
868.4
778.6
635.7
449-5
232.7
900
450.0
869.3
779-4
636.4
450.0
232.9
901
450.5
870.3
780.3
637.1
450-5
233.2
902
451.0
871.3
781.2
637.8
451.0
233.5
903
451-5
872.2
782.0
638.5
451-5
233-7
904
452.0
873-2
782.9
639.2
452.0
234.0
905
452-5
874.2
783.8
639-9
452.5
234.2
906
453-0
875.1
784.6
640.6
453-0
234.5
907
453-5
876.1
785.5
641.3
453-5
234-8
908
454-0
877.1
786.4
642.1
454.0
235.0
909
454-5
878.0
787.2
642.8
454-5
235-3
910
455-0
879.0
788.1
643.5
455-0
235-5
911
455-5
880.0
788.9
644.2
455-5
235-8
912
456.0
880.9
789.8
644.9
456.0
236.0
913
456.5
881.9
790.7
645.6
456.5
236.3
914
457-0
882.9
791.5
646.3
457.0
236.6
915
457-5
883.8
792.4
647.b
457-5
236.8
916
458.0
884.8
793-3
647.7
458.0
237.1
917
458.5
885.8
794.1
648.4
458.5
237-3
918
459.0
886.7
795.0
649.1
459-0
237.6
919
459-5
887.7
795-9
649.8
459-5
237-9
920
460.0
888.7
796-7
650.5
460.0
238.1
921
460.5
889.6
797-6
651.2
460.5
238.4
922
461.0
890.6
798-5
652.0
461.0
238.6
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 189
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°-
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
923
461.5
891.6
799-3
652.7
461.5
238-9
924
462.0
892.5
800.2
653-4
462.0
239.2
925
462.5
893- 5
801.1
654-1
462.5
239-4
926
463.0
894.5
801.9
654.8
463.0
239-7
927
463. 5
895.4
802.8
655-5
463-5
2399
928
464.0
896.4
803.7
656.2
464.0
240.2
929
464-5
■ 897.4
804.5
656.9
464-5
240.4
930
465.0
898-3
805.4
657.6
465.0
240.7
931
465.5
899-3
806.3
658.3
465-5
241.0
932
466.0
900.2
807.1
659.0
466.0
241.2
933
466.5
901.2
808.0
659.7
466.5
241-5
934
467.0
902.2
808.9
660.4
467.0
241.7
935
467.5
903.1
809.7
661.I
467-5
242.0
936
468.0
904.1
810.6
661.9
468.0
242.3
937
468.5
905.1
811.5
662.6
468.5
242.5
938
469.0
906.0
812.3
663-3
469.0
242.8
939
469.5
907.0
813.2
664.0
469.5
243.0
940
470.0
908.0
814.1
664.7
470.0
243-3
941
470.5
908.9
814.9
665.4
470.5
243.5
942
471.0
909.9
815.8
666.1
471.0
243-8
943
471.5
910.9
816.7
666.8
47I-S
244.1
944
472.0
911.8
817-5
667-5
472.0
244.3
945
472.5
912.8
818.4
668.2
472.S
244.6
946
473-0
913.8
819.3
668.9
473-0
244.8
947
473-5
914.7
820.1
669.6
473.5
245.1
948
474.0
915-7
821.0
670.3
474-0
245.4
949
474.5
916.7
821.9
671.0
474-5
245.6
950
475-0
917.6
822.7
671.8
47S-0
245-9
951
475-5
918.6
823.6
672.5
475-5
246.1
952
476.0
919.6
824.5
673.2
476.0
246.4
953
476.5
920.5
825.3
6739
476.5
246.7
954
477.0
921-5
826.2
674-6
477-0
246.9
955
477-5
922.5
827.1
675-3
477.5
247.2
956
478.0
923-4
827.9
676.0
478.0
247.4
957
478.5
924.4
828.8
676.7
478-5
247.7
958
479-0
925-4
829.6
677.4
479.0
248.0
959
479-5
926.3
830.5
678.1
479-5
248.2
960
480.0
927-3
831.4
678.8
480,0
248-5
96t
480.5
928-3
832.2
679.5
480.5
248.7
962
481.0
929.2
833-1
680.2
481.0
249.0
963
481.5
930.2
834.0
680.9
481.5
249.2
964
482.0
931.2
834-8
681.6
482.0
249.5
965
482.5
932.1
835-7
682.4
482.5
249.8
966
483-0
933-1
836.6
683.1
483.0
250.0
967
483-5
934-1
837-4
683.8
483-5
250-3
igO A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Fumber.
}i Sin 90".
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
968
484.0
935-0
838.3
684.5
484.0
250.5
969
484.5
936.0
839-2
685.2
484.5
250.8
970
485.0
936.9
840.0
685.9
485.0
251. 1
971
485.5
937-9
840.9
686.6
485. 5
251.3
972
486.0
938.9
841.8
687.3
486.0
251.6
973
486.5
939-8
842.6
688.0
486.5
251.8
974
487.0
940.8
84.3-5
688.7
487.0
252.1
975
487.5
941.8
844.4
689.4
487.5
252.3
976
488.0
942.7
845.2
690.1
488.0
252.6
977
488.5
943-7
846.1
690.8
488.S
252.9
978
489.0
944-7
847.0
691.5
489.0
253-1
979
489.5
945-6
847.8
692.3
489-5
253-4
980
490.0
946.6
848.7
693.0
490.0
253-6
981
490.5
947-6
849.6
693-7
490-5
253-9
982
491.0
948.5
850.4
694.4
491.0
254.2
983
491-5
949-5
851-3
695.1
491-5
254-4
984
492.0
950. s
852.2
695.8
492.0
254.7
985
492.5
951-4
853-0
696.5
492 5
254.9
986
493-0
952-4
853-9
697.2
493-0
255.2
987
493-5
953-4
854.8
697.9
493-5
255-5
988
494.0
954-3
855.6
698.6
494.0
255-7
989
494-5
955-3
856.5
699-3
494-5
256.0
990
495.0
956.3
857.4
700.0
495-0
256.2
991
495-5
957-2
858.2
700.7
495-5
256.5
992
496.0
958.2
859.1
701. s
496.0
256.7
993
496.5
959-2
860,0
702.2
496.5
257.0
994
497-0
960.1
860.8
702.9
497.0
257.3
995
497.5
961. 1
861.7
703.6
497-5
257-5
996
498.0
962.1
862.6
704.3
498.0
257.8
997
498-5
963.0
863.4
705.0
498.5
258.0
998
499-0
964.0
864.3
705.7
499.0
258.3
999
499-5
965.0
865.2
706.4
499-5
258.6
1000
500.0
965-9
866.0
707.1
500.0
258.8
lOOI
500.5
966.9
866.9
707.8
500.5
259.1
1002
501.0
967-9
867.8
708.5
501.0
259-3
1003
501.5
968.8
868.6
709.2
501.5
259.6
1004
502.0
969.8
869.5
709-9
502.0
259-9
1005
502.5
970.8
870.4
710.6
502.5
260.1
1006
503-0
971.7
871.2
711.4
503-0
260.4
1007
503-5
972.7
872.1
712.1
503-5
260.6
1008
504.0
973-7
873.0
712.8
504.0
260.9
1009
504.5
974-6
873-8
713-5
504-5
261.2
1010
505.0
975-6
874-7
714.2
505.0
261.4
lOII
505-5
976.6
875.6
714.9
505.5
261.7
I0I2
506.0
977.5
876.4
715.6
506.0
261.9
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I9I
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1013
506.5
978.5
877-3
716.3
S06.5
262.2
IOI4
507.0
979-5
878.2
717.0
507.0
262.4
IOI5
507-5
980.4
879.0
717.7
507-5
262.7
IO16
508.0
981.4
879-9
718.4
508.0
263.0
IOI7
508.5
982.3
880.8
719.1
508.5
263.2
IOI8
509.0
983-3
881.6
719.8
509.0
263.5
IOI9
509.5
984-3
882.5
720.5
509.5
263.8
1020
510.0
985.2
883.4
721.3
510.0
264.0
1021
510.5
986.2
884.2
722.0
510.5
264.3
1022
511. 0
987.2
885.1
722.7
511.0
264.5
1023
5"-5
988.2
885.9
723-4
5"-5
264.8
1024
512.0
989.1
886.8
724.1
512.0
265.0
1025
512.5
990.1
887.7
724.8
512.5
265.3
1026
513-0
991.0
888.5
725-5
513-0
265.6
1027
513-S
992.0
889.4
726.2
513-5
265.8
1028
514.0
993-0
890.3
726.9
514.0
266.1
1029
5M.5
993-9
891. 1
727.6
514.5
266.3
1030
51S-0
994.9
892.0
728.3
515.0
266.6
IO3I
515-5
995-9
892.9
729.0
515.5
266.8
1032
516.0
996.8
893-7
729.7
516.0
267.1
1033
516.5
997-8
894.6
730-4
516.5
267.4
1034
517-0
998.8
895.5
731-1
517.0
267.6
1035
517.5
999-7
896-3
731-9
517.5
267.9
1036
518.0
1000.7
897.2
732.6
518.0
268.1
1037
518.5
1001.7
898.1
733-3
518-5
268.4
1038
519.0
1002.6
898.9
734.0
519.0
268.7
1039
519-5
1003.6
899.8 .
734-7
519-5
268.9
1040
520.0
1004.6
900.7
735.4
520.0
269.2
I04I
520.5
1005.5
901-5
736.1
520. 5
269.4
1042
521.0
1006.5
902.4
736.8
521.0
269.7
1043
521.5
1007.5
903-3
737.5
521-5
269.9
1044
522.0
1008.4
904.1
738.2
522.0
270.2
I04S
522.S
1009.4
905.0
738.9
522.5
270.5
1046
523-0
1010.4
905-9
739-6
523.0
270.7
1047
523.5
1011.3
906.7
740.3
523-5
271.0
1048
524-0
1012.3
907.6
741.0
524-0
271.2
1049
524.5
1013-3
908.5
741-8
524.5
271. 5
1050
525.0
1014.2
909-3
742.5
525-0
271.8
1051
525-5
1015.2
910.2
743-2
525-5
272.0
1052
526.0
1016.2
911. 0
743-9
526.0
272.3
1053
526.5
1017.1
911.9
744.6
526.5
272.5
1 054
527.0
1018.1
912.8
745-3
527.0
272.8
105s
527-5
1019.1
913.7
746.0
527-5
273.1
1056
528.0
1020.0
914.5
746.7
528.0
273.3
1057
528.5
1021.0
915-4
747.4
528.5
273.6
192 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}i Sin 90°,
Sin 75°-
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
1058
529.0
1022.0
916.3
748.1
529.0
273.8
1059
529-5
1022.9
917.1
748.8
529-5
274.1
1060
530-0
1023.9
918.0
749-5
530.0
274.4
1061
530.5
1024.8
918.9
750.2
530.5
274.6
1062
531-0
1025.8
919.7
750.9
531-0
274-9
1063
531-5
1026.8
920.6
751-7
531-5
275.1
1064
532-0
1027.7
921.5
752.4
532.0
275.4
1065
532.5
1028.7
922.3
753-1
532.5
275.6
1066
533.0
1029.7
923.2
753-8
533.0
275-9
1067
533-5
1030.6
924.1
754.5
533.5
276.2
1068
534.0
1031.6
924.9
755-2
534.0
276.4
1069
534-5
1032.6
925.8
755-9
534-5
276.7
1070
535-0
1033-5
926.7
756.6
535-0
276.9
1071
535-5
1034.5
927.5
757-3
535-5
277.2
1072
536.0
1035.5
928.4
758.0
536.0
277.5
1073
536.5
1036.4
929.2
758.7
536.5
277.7
1074
537.0
1037.4
930.1
759-4
537-0
278.0
I07S
537-5
1038.4
931.0
760.1
537.5
278.2
1076
538.0
1039-3
931.8
760.8
538.0
278. 5
1077
538-5
1040.3
932.7
761.5
538.5
278.8
1078
539-0
1041.3
933-6
762.3
539-0
279.0
1079
539-5
1042.2
934.4
763.0
539-5
279-3
1080
540.0
1043.2
935-3
763.7
540.0
279.5
108 1
540.5
1044.2
936.2
764.4
540.5
279.8
1082
541.0
1045.1
937.0
765-1
541.0
280.0
1083
541.5
1046. 1
937-9
765.8
541-5
280.3
1084
542.0
1047.1
938.8
766.5
542.0
280.6
1085
542.S
1048.0
939-6
767.2
542.5
280.8
1086
543.0
1049.0
940.5
767.9
543.0
281. 1
1087
543.5
1050.0
941.4
768.6
543-5
281.3
1088
544.0
1050.9
942.2
769-3
544-0
281.6
1089
544.5
1051.9
943-1
770.0
544-5
281.9
1090
545-0
1052.9
944-0
770.8
545-0
282.1
1091
545-5
1053-8
944.8
771.5
545-5
282,4
1092
546.0
1054.8
945-7
772.2
546.0
282.6
1093
546.5
1055.8
946.6
772.9
546.5
282.9
1094
547.0
1056.7
947-4
773-6
547.0
283.1
1095
547-5
1057.7
948.3
774.3
547-5
283.4
1096
548.0
1058.7
949-2
775-0
548.0
283.7
1097
548.5
1059.6
950.0
775.7
548.5
283.9
1098
549-0
1060.6
950.9
776.4
549-0
284.2
1099
549-5
1061.6
951.8
777.1
549-5
284.4
1 100
550.0
1062.5
952.6
777.8
550.0
284.7
IIOI
550.5
1063.5
953-5
778.5
550.5
285.0
1102
551-0
1064.5
954-4
779.2
551-0
285.2
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I93
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin is°.
1 103
551-5
1065.4
955-2
779-9
551-5
285.5
1 104
552.0
1066.4
956.1
780.6
552.0
285.7
iios
552.5
1067.3
957.0
781.4
552.5
286.0
1 106
Si3-o
1068.3
957.8
782.1
553-0
286.3
II07
553-5
1069.3
958.7
782.8
553-5
286.5
1 108
554-0
1070.2
959.6
783-5
554.0
286.8
1 109
554-5
1071.2
960.4
784.2
554.5
287.0
IIIO
555-0
1072,2
961.3
784.9
555-0
287.3
nil
555-5
1073.1
962.2
785.6
555-5
287.5
III2
556.0
1074. I
963.0
786.3
556,0
287.8
III3
556-5
1075.1
963-9
787,0
556.5
288.1
III4
557-0
1076.0
964.8
787.7
557.0
288.3
HIS
557-5
1077.0
965.6
788.4
557.5
288.6
1116
558.0
1078.0
966.5
789.1
558,0
288.8
1117
558.5
1078.9
967.4
789.8
558.5
289.1
1118
559-c
1079.9
968.2
790.5
559-0
289.4
1119
559-5
1080.9
969.1
791-3
559-5
289.6
1 120
560.0
1081.8
970.0
792.0
560.0
289.9
1121
560.5
1082.8
970.8
792.7
560.5
290,1
1122
561.0
1083.8
971.7
793-4
561.0
290.4
1123
561.5
1084.7
972,5
794.1
561-5
290.7
1124
562.0
1085.7
973-4
794.8
562.0
290.9
1125
562.5
1086.7
974-3
795-5
562.5
291.2
1126
563.0
1087.6
975-1
796.2
563.0
291.4
1127
563.5
1088.6
976.0
796.9
563-5
291,7
1128
564.0
1089.6
976.9
797.6
564.0
292.0
1 129
564.5
1090.5
977.7
798.3
564-5
292,2
1 130
565.0
1091.5
978,6
799.0
565.0
292.5
1131
565-5
1092.5
979-5
799-7
565-5
292,7
1132
566.0
1093.4
980.3
800.4
566.0
293.0
"33
566.5
1094.4
981.2
801.2
566,5
293-2
"34
567.0
1095.4
982.1
801.9
567.0
293-5
"35
567-5
1096.3
982.9
802.6
567.5
293-8
"36
568.0
1097.3
983-8
803.3
568.0
294.0
"37
568.5
1098.3
984.7
804,0
568,5
294.3
"38
569.0
1099.2
985-5
804.7
569,0
294.5
"39
569.5
1 100.2
986.4
805.4
569-5
294.8
1 140
570.0
IIOI.2
987-3
806.1
570,0
295.1
1141
570.5
II02.I
988.1
806.8
570.5
295-3
1142
571.0
I 103. 1
989.0
807,5
571-0
295,6
"43
571.5
I 104. 1
989-9
808,2
571.5
295.8
"44
572.0
IIO5.O
990.7
808.9
572.0
296.1
"45
572.5
1 106.0
991,6
809.6
572.5
296.3
1 146
573-0
IIO7.O
992,5
810.3
573-0
296.7
"47
573-5
1107,9
993-3
811. 0
573-5
296.9
194 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
dumber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1148
574.0
108.9
994.2
811.8
574.0
297.1
1 149
574-5 1
109.9
995.1
812.5
574.5
297.4
1 150
575-0 1
110.8
995-9
813-2
575-0
297.6
I151
575-5 1
III.8
996.8
813.9
575-5
297.9
1152
576.0
112.7
997-7
814.6
576.0
298,2
I153
576.5 I
"3-7
998.5
815-3
576.5
298.4
"54
577.0
1 14.7
999.4
816.0
577.0
298.7
"55
577-5 1
115.6
1000.3
816.7
577.5
298.9
"56
578.0 1
116.6
1001.1
817.4
578.0
299.2
"57
578.5 1
117-6
1002.0
818.1
578.5
299.S
1158
579-0 '
118.5
1002.9
818.8
579.0
299.7
"59
579-5
119.5
1003.7
819.5
579-5
300.0
1 160
580.0 1
120.5
1004.6
820.2
580.0
300.2
1161
580.5 1
121.4
1005.5
820.9
580.5
300.5
1 162
581.0
122.4
1006.3
821.7
581.0
300.7
1 163
581.5
123.4
1007.2
822.4
581.5
301.0
1 164
582.0
124.3
1008.1
823.1
582.0
301.3
1165
582.5 1
125-3
1008.9
823.8
582.5
301.5
1 166
583.0 ]
126.3
1009.8
824.5
583-0
301.8
1 167
583.5
127.2
1010.7
825.2
583-5
302.0
1 168
584.0
128.2
1011.5
825.9
584-0
302.3
1169
584.5
129.2
1012.4
826.6
584.5
302.6
1170
585.0 ]
130.1
1013.3
827.3
585-0
302.8
1171
585.5 1
131.1
1014.1
828.0
585.5
303.1
1172
586.0
132.1
1015.0
828.7
586.0
303-3
"73
586.5
133.0
1015.8
829.4
586.5
303-6
"74
587.0
134.0
1016.7
830.1
587.0
303-9
"75
587.5 1
135.0
1017.6
830.8
587.5
304.1
1176
588.0 )
135-9
1018.4
831-6
588.0
304.4
"77
588.5
[136.9
1019.3
832.3
588.5
304.6
1178
589.0 ]
137-9
1020.2
833.0
589.0
304.9
"79
589-5
1 138.8
1021.0
833-7
5895
305-2
1 180
590.0
1139.8
1021.9
834.4
590.0
305-4
1181
590.5
1 140.8
1022.8
835.1
590.5
305-7
1182
591.0
"41-7
1023.6
835.8
591.0
305.9
"83
591.5
[142.7
1024.5
836.5
591.5
306.2
1 184
592.0
"43.7
1025.4
837.2
592-0
306.4
1185
592.5
144-6
1026.2
837-9
592-5
306.7
1 186
593.0
"45-6
1027.1
838.6
593-0
307.0
1 187
593-5
1146.6
1028.0
839.3
593-5
307.2
1 188
594-0
1 147.5
1028.8
■ 840.1
594-0
307-5
1 189
594-5
1 148.5
1029.7
840.8
594-5
307.7
1 190
595-0
1149.5
1030.6
841-5
595.0
308.0
1191
595-5
1150.4
1031.4
842.2
595.5
308.2
1 192
596.0
1151.4
1032.3
842.9
596.0
308.5
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I95
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60.°
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
"93
596.5
"52.3
1033.2
843-6
- 596.5
308.8
1 194
597.0
"53.3
1034.0
844.3
597-0
309.0
II95
597.5
1 1 54.3
1034.9
845-0
597.5
309-3
1 196
598.0
1155-2
1035.8
845.7
598.0
309-5
II97
598.5
1156.2
1036.6
846.4
598. 5
309.8
1 198
599.0
1157.2
1037.5
847.1
599-0
310.1
1 199
599-5
1158.1
1038.4
847.8
599-5
310.3
1200
600.0
1159.1
1039.2
848.5
600.0
310.6
I20I
600.5
1160.1
1040.1
849.2
600.5
310.8
1202
601.0
161.0
1041.0
849.9
601.0
3II.I
1203
601.5
1 162.0
1041.8
850.7
601.5
3".4
1204
602.0
163.0
1042.7
851.4
602.0
311. 6
1205
602.5
1163.9
1043.7
852.1
602.5
3".9
1206
603.0
[164.9
1044.4
852.8
603.0
312.1
1207
603.5
1165.9
1045-3
853.5
603-5
312.4
1208
604.0
[1 66.8
1046.3
854.2
604.0
312.7
1209
604.5
167.8
1047.0
854.9
604.5
312.9
I2I0
605 0
168.8
1047.9
855.6
605.0
313.2
I2II
605.5
1169.7
1048.8
856.3
605.5
313.4
1212
606.0
[170.7
1049.6
857.0
606.0
313.7
I2I3
606.5
171. 7
1050.5
857-7
606.5
313-9
I214
607.0
172.6
1051.4
S58.4
607.0
314.2
I215
607.5
[173.6
1052.2
859.1
607.5
3M.5
I216
608.0
[ 174.6
1053.1
859-8
608.0
314.7
I217
608.5
ti7S.5
1054.0
860.5
608.5
315.0
I218
609.0
176.5
1054.8
861.3
609.0
315.2
I2I9
609.5 '
177.5
1055.7
862.0
609.5
315.5
1220
610.0
178.4
1056.6
862.7
610.0
315-8
I22I
610.5
179.4
1057.4
863.3
610.5
316 0
1222
611. 0
180,4
1058.3
864.1
611.0
316.3
1223
611.5
181.3
1059.1
864.8
61 1.5
316.5
1224
612.0
182.3
1060.0
865.5
612.0
316.8
1225
612.5
183.3
1060.9
866.2
612.5
317.1
1226
613.0 ]
184.2
1061.7
866.9
613-0
317.3
1227
613.5
185.2
1062.6
867.6
613.5
317.6
1228
614.0 ]
186.2
1063.5
868.3
614.0
317-8
1229
614.5
187.1
1064.3
869.0
614.S
318.1
1230
615.0 I
188.1
1065.2
869.7
615,0
318.4
I23I
615.5 1
189.1
1066.1
870.4
615-5
318.6
1232
616.0 I
190.0
1066.9
871.2
616.0
318.9
"33
616.5 1
191.0
1067.8
871.9
616.5
319.1
1234
617.0 ]
192.0
1068.7
872.6
617.0
319.4
1235
617.5
192.9
1069.5
873.3
617.5
319.6
1236
618.0 I
193.9
1070.4
874.0
618.0
319-9
1237
6x8.5
194.9
1071.3
874.7
618.5
320.2
196 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
1238
1239
1240
1 241
1242
1243
1244
I24S
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1 254
I2SS
1256
1257
1258
I2S9
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272 •
1273
1274
I27S
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
H Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 450.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
619.0
II95-8
IO72.I
875-4
619.0
320.4
619.5
1 196.8
1073.0
876.1
619.5
320.7
620.0
1 197.7
1073-9
876.S
620.0
320.9
620.5
1 198.7
1074.7
877.5
620.5
321.2
621.0
1 199.7
1075.6
878.2
621.0
321.4
621.5
1200.6
1076.5
878.9
621.5
321.7
622.0
I20I.6
1677.3
8796
622.0
322.0
622.5
1202.6
1078.2
880.3
622.5
322.2
623.0
1203.5
1079. 1
881.I
623.0
322.5
623.5
1204.5
1079.9
881.8
623-5
322.7
624.0
1205.5
1080.8
882.5
624.0
323-0
624.5
1206.4
1081.7
883.2
624.5
323.3
625.0
1207.4
1082.5
883.9
625.0
323.5
625.5
1208.4
1083.4
884.6
625.5
323.8
626.0
1209.3
1084.3
885.3
626.0
324.0
626.5
1210.3
1085. 1
886.0
626.5
324-3
627.0
1211.3
1086.0
886.7
627.0
324-6
627.5
1212.2
1086.9
887.4
627.5
324.8
628.0
1213.2
1087.7
888.1
628.0
325.1
628.5
1214.2
1088.6
888.8
628.5
325-3
629.0
1215,1
1089.5
889.5
629 0
325-6
629.5
1216.1
1090.3
890.2
629.5
325-9
630.0
1217.1
1091.2
891.0
630.0
326.1
630.5
1218.0
1092. 1
891.7
630.5
326.4
631.0
1219.0
1092.9
892.4
631.0
326.6
631.5
1220.0
1093.8
893.1
63'.5
326.9
632.0
1220.9
1094.7
893.8
632.0
327.1
632.5
1221.9
1095-5
894.5
632.5
327-4
633-0
1222.9
1096.4
895.2
633-0
327-7
633-5
1223.8
1097.3
895-9
633-5
3279
634.0
1224.8
1098.1
896.6
634-0
328.2
634-5
1225.8
1099.0
897-3
634-5
328.4
635.0
1226.7
1099.9
898.0
635-0
328.7
635-5
1227.7
1 100.7
898.7
635-5
329.0
636.0
1228.7
1101.6
899.4
636.0
329.2
636.5
1229.6
1 102.4
900.2
636.5
329-5
637.0
1230.6
1103.3
900.9
637.0
329-7
637-5
1231.6
1 104.2
901.6
637-5
330-0
638.0
1232.5
1 105.0
902.3
638.0
330-3
638.5
1233-5
1105.9
903.0
638.5
330-5
639.0
1234.5
1 106.8
903-7
639-0
330-8
639-5
1235-4
1107.6
904-4
639-5
331-0
640.0
1236.4
1 108.5
905.1
640.0
331-3
640.5
1237.4
1 109.4
905.8
640.5
331-5
641.0
1238.3-
1110.2
906.5
641.0
33t.8
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. I97
lumber.
>^ Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1283
641.5
1^39-3
IIII.I
907.2
641.5
332.1
1284
642.0
1240.2
1112.0
907.9
642.0
332.3
1285
6425
I24I.2
III2.8
908.6
642.5
332.6
1286
643.0
1242.2
III3.7
909-3
643.0
332.8
1287
643-5
1 243. 1
1 114.6
910.0
643.5
333.1
1288
644.0
1 244. 1
11.5.4
910.8
644-0
333.4
1289
644.5
I245.I
1116.3
9II.5
644.5
333-6
1290
645.0
1246.0
1117.2
912.2
645-0
333-9
1291
645-5
1247.0
II18.0
912.9
645-5
334.1
1292
646.0
1248.0
11 18.9
913.6
646.0
334.4
1293
646.5
1248.9
1119.8
914-3
646.5
334.7
T294
647.0
1249.9
1120.6
915.0
647.0
334.9
1295
647.5
1250.9
1121.5
915-7
647.5
335.2
1296
648.0
1251.8
H22.4
916.4
648.0
335.4
1297
648.5
1252.8
1123.2
917.I
648.5
335.7
1298
649.0
1253-s
1124.1
917.8
649.0
336.0
1299
649-5
1254.7
1125.0
918.5
649-5
3.36.2
1300
650.0
1255.7
1125.8
919.2
650.0
336.S
1301
650.5
1256.7
1126.7
919.9
650.5
336.7
1302
651.0
1257.6
1127.7
920.7
651.0
337.0
1303
651.5
1258.6
1128.4
921.4
651.5
337.2
1304
652.0
12596
1129.3
922.1
652.0
337.5
1305
652.5
1260.5
1130.2
922.8
652.5
337.8
1306
653-0
I26I.5
113T.0
923.5
653.0
338.0
1307
653-5
1262.5
1131.9
924.2
653.S
338.3
1308
654.0
1263.4
IT32.8
924.9
654.0
338.S
13C9
654-5
1264.4
1 1 33.6
925.6
654.5
338.8
1310
655.0
1265.4
"34.5
926.3
655.0
339.1
1311
655-5
1266.3
"35.4
927.0
655.5
339.3
1312
656.0
1267.3
.136.2
927.7
656.0
339.6
1313
656.5
1268.3
1137.1
928.4
656.5
339.8
1314
657.0
1269.2
1138.0
929.1
657.0
340.1
1315
657-5
1270.2
1138.8
929.8
657.5
340.3
1316
658.0
I27I.2
1 139.7
930.6
658.0
340.6
1317
658.5
I272.I
II 40.6
931.3
658.S
340.9
1318
659.0
1 273. 1
1141.4
932.0
659.0
341. 1
1319
659.5
1 274. 1
1142.3
932.7
659.5
341.4
1320
66c.o
1275.0
1143.2
933-4
660.0
341.6
132I
660.5
1276.0
1144.0
934-1
660.5
341.9
1322
661.0
1277.0
1144.9
934-8
661.0
342.2
1323
661.5
1277.9
1145.7
935-5
661.5
342.4
1324
662.0
1278.9
1146.6
936.2
662.0
342.7
1325
662.5
1279.9
1147.5
936.9
662.5
342.9
1326
663.0
1280.8
1148.3
937.6
663.0
343.2
1327
663.5
1281.8
1149.2
938.3
663.5
343. 5
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1 341
1342
1343
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
I3SS
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°. £
sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
664.0
1282.8 1
150.1
939.0
664.0
343.7
664.5
1283.7 I
150.9
939.7
664.5
344.0
665.0
1284.7 1
1 51.8
940.5
665.0
344.2
665.5
1285.6 ]
152.7
941.2
665.5
344.5
666.0
1286.6 1
153-5
941.9
666.0
344.7
666.5
1287.6 ]
154.4
942.6
666.5
345-0
667.0
1288.5 1
155-3
943.3
667.0
345-3
667.S
1289.5 I
156.1
944.0
667.5
345.5
668.0
i2go.5 ]
157.0
944.7
668.0
345-8
668.5
1291.4 1
157-9
945.4
668.5
346.0
669.0
1292.4 ]
158.7
946.1
669.0
346.3
669.5
1293.4
159.6
946.8
669.5
346.6
670.0
1294.3 )
160.5
947.5
670.0
346.8
670.5
1295-3
ti6i.3
948.2
670.5
347.1
671.0
1296.3 1
162.2
948.9
671.0
347.3
671.5
1297.2 ]
163.1
949-6
671.5
347.6
672.0
1298.2 1
163.9
950-3
672,0
347.9
672.5
1299.2
164,8
951. 1
672.5
348.1
673.0
1 300. 1 ]
165.7
951.8
673.0
348.4
673-5
1301.1 I
166.5
952.5
673.5
348.6
674.0
1302.1 1
167.4
953-2
674.0
348.9
674.5
1303.0
168.3
953-9
674.5
349.2
675.0
1304.0
169.1
954.6
675.0
349-4
675-5
1305.0 1
170.0
955.3
675.5
349.7
676.0
1305-9
170.9
956.0
676.0
349.9
676.5
1306.9
171.7
956.7
676.5
350.2
677.0
I307-9'
172.6
957.4
677.0
350.4
677.5
1308.8
"73-5
958.1
677.5
350.7
678.0
1309.8
i 174-3
958.8
678.0
351-0
678.5
1310.8
1175-2
959.5
678.5
351-2
679.0
1311.7
[176.1
960.2
679.0
351.5
679-5
1312.7
1176.9
961.0
679.5
3SI.7
680.0
1313-7
1 1 77.8
961.7
680.0
352.0
680.5
1314-6
[178.7
962.4
680.5
352.2
681.0
1315.6
1179.5
963.1
681.0
352.5
681.5
1316.6
1180.4
963.8
681.5
352.8
682.0
1317.5
1181.3
964.5
682.0
353-0
682.5
1318.5
1182.1
965.2
682.5
353.3
683.0
1319-5
1183.0
965.9
683.0
353. 5
683.5
1320.4
1183.9
966.6
683.5
353.8
684.0
1321.4
184.7
967.3
684.0
354.1
684.5
1322.4
[185.6
968.0
684.5
354.3
685.0
1323-3
[ 186.5
968.7
685.0
354.6
685.5
1324-3
1187.3
969.4
685.5
354.8
686.0
1325-3
[ 188.2
970.2
686.0
355.1
A, METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 1 99
Number.
1373
1374
137s
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
I391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
I412
1413
1414
14IS
1416
1417
M Sin 90°.
686.5
6S7.O
687.5
688.0
688.5
689.0
689.5
690.0
690.5
691.0
691.5
692.0
692.5
693.0
693-5
694.0
694.5
695.0
695-5
696.0
696.5
697.0
697.5
698.0
698.5
699.0
699.5
700.0
700.5
701.0
701.5
702.0
702.5
703.0
703-5
704.0
704.5
705.0
705.5
706.0
706.5
707.0
707.5
708.0
708.5
Sin 75°.
1326.2
1327.2
I328.I
I329.I
I 330. I
I331.O
1332.0
1333.0
1333.9
1334.9
1335.9
1336.8
1337.8
1338.8
1339.7
1340.7
I34I.7
1342.6
1343.6
1344.6
1345.5
I 346. 5
1347.5
1348.4
1349.4
1350.4
1351.3
1352-3
1353.3
1354.2
1355.2
1356.2
1357-1
1358.1
1359.1
1360.0
1361.0
1362.0
1362.9
1363.9
1364.9
1365.8
1366.8
1367.8
1368.7
Sin 60°.
1 189. 1
1189.9
1 190.8
1191.7
1192.5
1193.4
1194.3
1195.1
I 196.0
1 196.9
1197.7
II98.6
1199.5
1200.3
I 20 1. 2
1202.0
1202.9
1203.8
1204.6
1205.5
1206.4
1207.2
1208.1
1209.0
1209.8
1210.7
1211.6
1212.4
1213.3
1214.2
1215.0
1215.9
I2I6.8
1217.6
1218.5
I2I9.4
1220.2
1221. I
1222.0
1222.8
1223.7
1224.6
1225.4
1226.3
1227.2
Sin 45°.
970.9
971.6
972.3
973.0
973-7
974.4
975.1
975.8
976.5
977-2
977.9
978.6
979.3
980.1
980.8
981.5
982.2
982.9
983.6
984.3
985.0
985.7
986.4
987.1
987.8
988.5
989.2
990.0
990.7
991.4
992.1
992.8
993.5
994.2
994.9
995.6
996.3
997.0
997-7
998.4
999.1
999-8
1000.6
1001.3
1002.0
Sin 30°.
686.5
687.0
687.5
688.0
688.5
689.0
689.5
690.0
690.5
691.0
691.5
692.0
692-5
693.0
693-5
694.0
694.5
695.0
695.5
696.0
696.5
697.0
697.5
698.0
698.5
699.0
699.5
700.0
700.5
701.0
701.5
702.0
702.5
703.0
703.5
704.0
704.5
705.0
705.5
706.0
706.5
707.0
707.5
708.0
708.5
Sin 15°.
355.4
355-6
355-9
356-1
356.4
356.7
356.9
357.2
357.4
357.7
357-9
358.2
358-5
358.7
359.0
359.2
359.5
359.8
360.0
360.3
360.5
360.8
361.1
361.3
361.6
361.8
362.1
362.4
362.6
362.9
363-1
363.4
363.6
363.9
364.2
364.4
364.7
364-9
365.2
365-5
365.7
366.0
366.2
366.5
366.8
200 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS,
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75^
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1418
709.0
1369.7
1228.0
1002.7
709.0
367.0
1419
709. s
1370.6
1228.9
1003.4
709.5
367.3
1420
710.0
1371.6
1229.8
1004.1
710.0
367.5
142I
710.S
1372.6
1230.6
1004.8
710.5
367.8
1422
711.O
1373.5
I231.5
1005.5
711.0
368.0
1423
711. 5
1374.5
1232.4
1006.2
711.5
368.3
1424
712.0
1375.5
1233.2
1006.9
712.0
368.6
1425
712.5
1376.4
1234.I
1007.6
712.5
368.8
1426
713.0
1377.4
1235.0
1008.3
713.0
369.1
1427
713.S
1378.4
1235.8
1009.0
713.5
369.3
1428
714.0
1379.3
1236.7
1009.7
714.0
369.6
1429
714.S
1380.3
1237.6
1010.5
714.5
.369.9
1430
715.0
1381.3
1238.4
IOI1.2
715.0
370.1
I43I
' 715.S
1382.2
1239.3
IOII.9
715.5
370.4
1432
716.0
1383.2
1240.2
1012.6
716.0
370.6
1433
716.S
1384.2
1241.O
1013.3
716.S
370.9
1434
717.0
1385.1
1241.9
1014.0
717.0
371. 1
1435
717.S
1386. I
1242.8
1014.7
717.5
371.4
1436
718.0
1387.I
1243.6
IOI5.4
718.0
371.7
1437
718.5
1388.0
1244.5
1016.1
718.5
371.9
1438
719.0
1389.0
1245.3
1016.8
719.0
372.2
1439
719.5
1390.0
1246.2
1017.5
719.5
372.4
1440
720.0
1390.9
1247. I
1018.2
720.0
372.7
144I
720.5
1391.9
1247.9
1018.9
720.5
373.0
1442
721.0
1392.9
1248.8
IOI9.6
721.0
373.2
1443
721.5
1393-8
1249.7
1020.4
721.5
373.5
1444
722.0
1394.8
1250.5
1021.1
722.0
373-7
1445
722.5
1395.8
1251.4
1021.8
722.5
374.0
1446
723.0
1396.7
1252.3
1022.5
723.0
374.3
1447
723.5
1397.7
1253.I
1023.2
723.5
374.5
1448
724.0
1398.7
1254.0
1023.9
724.0
374.8
1449
• 724.5
1399.6
1254.9
1024.6
724.5
375.0
1450
725.0
1400.6
1255.7
1025.3
725.0
375.3
1451
725.5
1401.6
1256.6
1026.0
725.5
375.5
1452
726.0
1402.5
1257.5
1026.7
726.0
375.8
U53
726.5
1403.5
1258.3
1027.4
726.5
376.1
1454
727.0
1404.5
1259.2
1028. 1
727.0
376.3
U5S
727.5
1405.4
I 260. I
1028.8
727.S
376.6
1456
728.0
1406.4
1260.9
1029.5
728.0 •
376.8
1457
728.5
1407.4
1261.8
1030.3
728.5
377.1
1458
729.0
1408.3
1262.7
1031.0
729.0
377.4
1459
729.5
1409.3
1263.5
1031.7
729.5
377.6
1460
730.0
1410.3
1264.4
1032.4
730.0
377.9
1461
730.5
1411.2
1265.3
1033.1
730.5
378.1
1462
731.0
1412.2
1266.1
1033.8
731.0
378.4
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 20I
Number.
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
I471
1472
1473
1474
1475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
i486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
M93
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1 501
1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
>^ Sin 90°
731-5
732.0
7325
733-0
733-5
734-0
734-5
735-0
735-5
736.0
736.5
737-0
737.5
738.0
738.5
739-0
739-5
740.0
740.5
741.0
741.5
742.0
742.5
743.0
743.5
744.0
744.5
745-0
745.5
746.0
746.5
747.0
747.5
748.0
748.5
749-0
749-5
750.0
750.5
751.0
751.5
752.0
752.5
7S3.0
753.5
Sin 7S°-
1413-2
I414.I
I415.I
I416.O
I417.O
I418.O
I418.9
I419.9
1420.9
I42I.8
1422.8
1423.8
1424.7
1425.7
1426.7
1427.6
1428.6
1429.6
1430.5
1431.5
1432.5
1433-4
1434-4
1435-4
1436-3
1437-3
1438-3
1439.2
1440.2
1441.2
1442. 1
1443- 1
1 444- 1
1445.0
1446.0
1447.0
1447.9
1448.9
1449.9
1450.8
1451.8
1452.8
1453-7
1454.7
1455-7
Sin 60°.
1267.0
1267.9
1268.7
1269.6
1270.5
1271.3
1272.2
1273.1
1273.9
1274.8
1275.7
1276.5
1277.4
1278.3
1 279. 1
1280.0
1280.9
1281.7
1282.6
1283.5
1284.3
1285.2
1 286. 1
1286.9
1287.8
1288.6
1289.5
1290.4
1291.2
1292.1
1293-0
1293.8
1294.7
1295.6
1296.4
1297.3
1298.2
1299.0
1299.9
1300.8
1301.6
1302.5
1303-4
1304.2
1305.1
Sin 45°.
1034.5
1035.2
1035-9
1036.6
1037.3
1038.0
1038.7
1039.4
1040.2
1040.9
1041.6
1042.3
1043.0
1043-7
1044.4
1045.1
1045.8
1046.5
1047.2
1047.9
1048.6
1049.3
1050.1
1050.8
1051.5
1052.2
1052.9
1053.6
1054.3
1055.0
1055.7
1056.4
1057.1
1057.8
1058.5
1059.2
1060,0
1060.7
1061.4
1062.1
1062.8
1063.5
1064.2
1064.9
1065.6
Sin 30°.
731.5
732.0
732.5
733-0
733-5
734.0
734-5
735-0
735-5
736.0
736.5
737.0
737-5
738.0
738.5
739-0
739-5
740.0
740.5
741.0
741.5
742.0
742.5
743-0
743.5
744.0
744-5
745-0
745-5
746.0
746.5
747.0
747.5
748.0
748.S
749.0
749.5
750.0
750.5
751.0
751.5
752.0
752.5
753.0
753.5
Sin 15O.
378.7
378.9
379.2
379.4
379.7
380.0
380.2
380.5
380.7
381.0
381.2
381.5
381.8
382.0
382.3
382.5
382.8
383.1
383.3
383.6
383.8
384.1
384.3
384.6
384.9
385.1
385.4
385.6
385.9
386.2
386.4
386.7
386.9
387.2
387.5
387.7
388.0
388.2
388.5
388.7
389.0
389.3
389.5
389.8
390.0
202 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75^
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1508
754.0
1456.6
1306.0
1066.3
754.0
390.3
1509
754.5
1457.6
1306.8
1067.0
754.5
390.6
1510
755-0
1458.5
1307.7
1067.7
755-0
390.8
1511
755.5
1459.S
1308.6
1068.4
755.5
391.1
1512
756.0
1460.5
1309.4
1069. 1
756.0
391.3
1513
756.5
I461.4
I3IO.3
1069.9
756.5
391.6
1514
757.0
1462.4
I31I.2
1070.6
757.0
391.9
1515
757.5
1463.4
I312.O
IO71.3
757.5
392.1
1516
758.0
1464.3
I312.9
1072.0
758.0
392.4
I517
758.5
1465.3
I3I3.8
1072.7
758.5
392.6
1518
759.0
1466.3
1314.6
1073.4
759.0
392.9
1519
759-5
1467.2
13^5.5
1074.1
759.5
.393.2
1520
760.0
1468.2
I316.4
1074.8
760.0
393.4
1521
760.5
1469.2
I317.2
1075.5
760.5
393-7
1522
761.0
1470. I
I318.I
1076.2
761.0
393.9
1523
761.5
I47I.I
I319.O
1076,9
761.5
394.2
1524
762.0
1472. 1
1 3 19.8
1077.6
762,0
394.4
1525
762.5
1473.0
1320.7
1078.3
762,5
394.7
1526
763.0
1474.0
1321.6
1079.1
763.0
395.0
1527
763.5
1475.0
1322.4
1079.8
763.5
395.2
1528
764.0
1475.9
1323.3
1080.5
764.0
395.S
1529
764.5
1476.9
1324,2
1081.2
764.5
395.7
1530
765.0
1477.9
1325.0
1081.9
765.0
396.0
1531
765.5
1478.8
1325.9
1082.6
765.5
396.2
1532
766.0
1479.8
1326.8
1083.3
766,0
396.5
1533
766.5
1480.8
1327.6
1084.0
766.5
396.8
1534
767.0
I481.7
1328.5
1084.7
767.0
397.0
1535
767.5
1482.7
1329.4
1085.4
767.5
397.3
1536
768.0
1483.7
1330.2
1086.1
768.0
397-5
1537
768.5
1484.6
I33I.I
1086,8
768.5
397.8
1538
769.0
1485.6
1331.9
1087.5
769.0
398.1
1539
769.5
1486.6
1332.8
1088.2
769.5
398.3
1540
770.0
1487.5
1333.7
1088.9
770.0
398.6
1541
770.S
1488.5
1334.5
1089.6
770.5
398.8
1542
771.0
1489.5
1335.4
1090.3
771.0
399.1
1543
771.5
1490.4
1336.3
1091.0
771.5
399.4
1544
772.0
I49I.4
1337. 1
IC9I.7
772.0
399.6
1 545
772.5
1492.4
1338.0
1092.4
772.5
399.9
1546
773.0
1493.3
1338.9
1093.1
773.0
400.1
1547
773.5
1494.3
1339.7
1093.8
773-5
400.4
1548
774.0
1495.3
1340.6
1094.5
774.0
400,7
1549
774.5
1496.2
I34I.5
1095.3
774-5
400,9
1550
775.0
1497.2
1342.3
1096.0
775-0
401.2
1551
775.5
1498.2
I343.I
1096.7
775-5
401.4
1552
776.0
1499-1
1344-0
1097.4
776.0
401.7
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 203
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1553
776.5
1500,1
1344.8
098.1
776.5
401.9
1554
777.0
1501.I
1345-7
098.8
777.0
402.2
1555
777.5
1502.0
1346.7
099.6
777.5
402.5
1556
778.0
1503.0
1347.5 1
100.3
778.0
402.7
1557
778.S
1503-9
1348.4
lOl.O
778.5
403,0
1558
779-0
1504.9
1349.3
101.7
779.0
403.2
1559
779-5
1505.9
1350. 1
102.4
779-5
403.5
1560
780.0
1506.8
1351.0 1
103.1
780.0
403.8
1561
780.5
1507.8
1351-9 1
103.8
780.5
404.0
1562
781.0
1508.8
1352.7
104.5
781.0
404.3
1563
781.5
1509.7
»353.6 1
105.2
781.5
404.5
1564
782.0
1510.7
1354.5 1
105.9
782.0
404.8
1565
782.5
15". 7
1355.3 1
106.6
782.5
405.1
1566
783.0
1512.6
1356.2
107.3
783.0
405.3
T567
783-5
1513-6
1357.1 I
108.0
783-5
405-6
1568
784.0
1514.6
1357.9 1
108.7
784.0
405.8
1569
784.5
1515-5
1358.8
109.5
784.5
406.1
1570
785.0
1516.5
1359.7 1
110.2
785.0
406.3
1571
785-5
1517-5
1360.5
110.9
785.5
406.6
1572
786.0
1518.4
1361.4
II1.6
786.0
406.9
1573
786.5
1519.4
1362.3
112.3
786.5
407.1
1574
787.0
1520.4
1363-1
113.0
787.0
407.4
1575
787.5
1521.3
1364.0
113.7
787.5
407.6
1576
788.0
1522.3
1364.9
114.4
788.0
407.9
1577
788.5
1523-3
1365.7 1
115.1
788.S
408.2
1578
789.0
1524.2
1366.6
115.8
789.0
408.4
1579
789.5
1525.2
1367.5
116.5
789-5
408.7
1580
790.0
1526.2
1368.3
117.2
790.0
408.9
1 581
790.5
1527.1
1369.2
117.9
790-5
409.2
1582
791.0
1528.1
1 370. 1
118.6
791.0
409,4
1583
791.5
1 529. 1
1370,9 I
119.4
791.5
409-7
1584
792.0
1530.0
1371.8
120.1
792.0
410.0
1585
792-5
1531.0
1372.7
120.8
792.5
410,2
1586
793.0
1532.0
1373-5
121. 5
793.0
410,5
1587
793.5
1532-9
1374.4
[122.2
793.5
410.7
1588
794-0
1533-9
1375-2
122.9
794.0
411.0
1589
794-5
1534-9
1376. 1
[I23.6
794.5
411-3
1590
795.0
I53S-8
1377-0
[I24.3
795-0
411.5
1591
795-5
1536-8
1377-8
1125.0
795-5
411.8
1592
796.0
1537.8
1378.7
[125.7
796.0
412.0
1593
796.5
1538-7
1379-6
126,4
796.5
412.3
1594
797.0
1539-7
1380.4
[I27.I
797-0
412.6
1595
797.5
1540.6
1381-3
II27.8
797-5
412.8
1596
798.0
IS4I.6
1382.2
II28.S
798.0
413.1
1597
798.5
1542.6
1383-0
[I29.2
798-5
413-3
204 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
^lumber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
1598
799.0
1543-5
1383-9
130.0
799.0
413-6
1599
799-5
1 544. 5
1384-8
130.7
799-5
4139
1600
800.0
1545-5
1385.6
131-4
800.0
414.1
1601
800.5
1546.4
1386.5
[132.I
800.5
414-4
1602
801.0
1547-4
1387-4
II32.8
801.0
414.6
1603
801.5
1548.4
1388.2
1 1.33-5
801.5
414-9
1604
802.0
1549-3
1 389. 1
1134.2
802.0
415-1
1605
802.5
1550-3
1390.0
134-9
802.5
415-4
1606
803.0
1551-3
1390.8
[ 135-6
803.0
415-7
1607
803.5
1552.2
I39I-7
1 136.3
803.5
415.9
1 608
804.0
1553-2
1392.6
[ 137.0
804.0
416.2
1609
804.5
1554.2
1393-4
"37-7
804.5
416.4
1610
805.0
1555-1
1394-3
1138.4
805.0
416.7
1611
805.5
1 556. 1
1395-2
1 39- 1
805.5
417.0
1612
806.0
1557-1
1396.0
1 139.8
806.0
417.2
1613
806.5
1558.0
1396.9
140.6
806.5
417-5
1614
807.0
1559-0
1397-8
141-3
807.0
417-7
161S
807.5
1560.0
1398.6
142.0
807.5
418.0
1616
808.0
1560.9
1399-5
[142.7
808.0
418.3
1617
808.5
1561.9
1400.4
H43-4
808.5
418.5
1618
809.0
1562.9
I4OI.2
1 44. 1
809.0
418.8
1619
809.5
1563.8
1402. 1
144.8
809.5
419.0
1620
810.0
1564.8
1403.0
145-5
810.0
419.3
1621
810.5
1565.8
1403.8
1146.2
810.5
419.5
1622
811. 0
1566.7
1404.7 ]
146.9
811.0
419.8
1623
811.S
1567.7
1405.6 I
147.6
811.5
420.1
1624
812.0
1568.7
1406.4
[ 148.3
812.0
420.3
1625
812.5
1569.6
1407.3 1
149.0
812.5
420.6
1626
813.0
1570.6
1408.2 ]
149-8
813.0
420.8
1627
813-5
1571.6
1409.0 1
150.5
813-5
421. 1
1628
814.0
1572.5
1409.9
151. 2
814.0
421.4
1629
814.5
1573-5
I4IO.8
151-9
814-5
421.6
1630
815.0
1574.5
1411.6 1
152-6
815.0
421.9
1631
815.5
1575.4
1412.5 ]
153-3
815.5
422.1
1632
816.0
1576.4
1413.4 I
154.0
816.0
422.4
1633
816.5
1577.4
1414.2
1 154-7
816.5
422.6
1634
817.0
1578.3
1415.1
155-4
817.0
422.9
1635
817.5
1579-3
I416.O 1
156.1
817.5
423.2
T636
818.0
1580.3
14 1 6.8 ]
156.8
818.0
423-4
1637
818.5
1581.2
1417.7
157-5
818.5
423-7
1638
819.0
1582.2
1418.5 1
158.2
819.0
423-9
1639
819.5
1583-2
1419.4 1
158-9
819-5
424.2
1640
820.0
1 584. 1
1420.3 1
159-7
820.0
424-5
1641
820.5
1 585. 1
1421.1 I
160.4
820.5
424.7
1642
821.0
1 586. 1
1422.0
161. 1
821.0
425.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
205
lumber.
H Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15O
1643
821.5
1587.0
1422.9
161.8
821.5
425.2
1644
822.0
1588.0
1423.7 1
162.5
822.0
425-5
1645
822.5
1588.9
1424.6
163.2
822.5
425.8
1646
823.0
I5S9.9
1425.5 1
163.9
823.0
426.0
1647
823-5
1590.9
1426.3 ]
164.6
823.5
426.3
1648
824.0
159I.8
1427.2 1
165.3
824.0
426.5
1649
824.5
1592.8
1428.1
166.0
824.5
426.8
1650
825.0
1593-8
1428.9
166.7
825.0
427.1
1651
825.5
1594-7
1429.8 ]
167.4
825.5
427-3
1652
826.0
1595-7
1430-7
[ 168.1
826.0
427.6
1653
826.5
1596.7
M3I-5
168.9
826.5
427.8
1654
827.0
1597.6
1432.4
169.6
827.0
428.1
1655
827.5
1598.6
1433-3
1 170.3
827.5
428.3
1656
828.0
1599.6
I434-I
171. 0
828.0
428.6
1657
828.5
1600.5
1435.0
171.7
828.5
428.9
1658
829.0
1601.5
1435-9
[172.4
829.0
429.1
1659
829.5
1602.5
1436.7
173-1
829.S
429.4
1660
830.0
1603.4
1437.6 1
173-8
830.0
429.6
1661
830.5
1604.4
1438-5
174.5
830.5
429.9
1662
831.0
1605.4
M39-3
175-2
831.0
430.2
1663
831.5
1606.3
1440.2
175.9
831.5
430-4
1664
832.0
1607.3
1441. 1
176.6
832.0
430.7
1665
832.5
1608.3
1441.9
177-3
832.5
430.9
1666
833-0
1609.2
1442.8
178.0
833-0
431.2
1667
833-5
1610.2
1443-7 1
178.7
833-5
431.5
1668
834.0
i6ir.2
1444.6 1
179-5
834.0
431.7
1669
834.5
1612.1
1445.4 ]
180.2
834-5
432.0
1670
835.0
1613.1
1446.3 1
180.9
835.0
432.2
1671
835-5
1614.1
1447.1
1181.6
835-5
432.5
1672
836.0
1615.0
1448.0
182.3
836.0
432.7
1673
836.5
1616.0
1448.9
[183.0
836.5
433.0
1674
837.0
1617.0
1449.7
183.7
837.0
433.3
1675
837-5
1617.9
1450.6
184.4
837.5
433-5
1676
838.0
1618.9
1451.5
185.1
838.0
433-8
1677
838.5
1619.9
1452.3
185.8
838.5
434.0
1678
839.0
1620.8
1453-2
1186.5
839.0
434-3
1679
839.5
1621.8
1454.1
187.2
839.5
434-6
1680
840.0
1622.8
1454.9
[187.9
840.0
434.8
168 1
840.5
1623.7
1455-8
1 188.6
840.5
435-1
1682
841.0
1624.7
1456.7
1189.4
841.0
435-3
1683
841.5
1625.7
1457.5 1
190.1
841.5
435-6
1684
842.0
1626.6
1458.4 ]
190.8
842.0
435-9
1685
842.5
1627.6
1459-3
191. 5
842.5
436.1
1686
843.0
1628.6
1460.1
1192.2
843.0
436.4
1687
843-5
1629.5
1461.0
1192.9
843.5
436-7
206 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
)6 Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15O.
1688
844.0
163O.S
1461.8
1193.6
844.0
436.9
1689
844.5
1631.4
1462.7
1194.3
844.5
437.2
1690
845.0
1632.4
1463-6
1195.0
845.0
437-4
1691
845.5
1633-4
1464.4
1195.7
845-5
437.7
1692
846.0
1634-3
1465-3
1196.4
846.0
437-9
1693
846.5
1635-3
1466.2
II97.I
846.5
438.2
1694
847.0
1636.3
1467.0
II97.8
847.0
438.4
1695
847.5
1637.2
1467.9
I198.5
847.5
438.7
1696
848.0
1638.2
1468.8
1199.3
848.0
439.0
1697
848.5
1639.2
1469.6
1200.0
848.5
439-2
1698
849.0
1 640. 1
1470.5
1200.7
849.0
439.5
1699
849-5
164I.I
1471-4
1201.4
849.5
439.7
1700
850.0
1642.I
1472.2
1202.1
850.0
440.0
1701
850.5
1643.0
1473-1
1202.8
850.5
440.2
1702
851.0
1644.0
1474.0
1203.5
851.0
440.5
1703
851-5
1645.0
1474-8
1204.2
851.5
440.8
1704
852.0
1645.9
1475.7
1204.9
852.0
441.0
1705
852-5
1646.9
1476.6
1205.6
852.5
441.3
1706
853.0
1647.9
1477-4
1206.3
853-0
44 1. 5
1707
853-5
1648.8
1478.3
1207.0
853.5
441.8
1708
854.0
1649.8
1479.2
1207.7
854.0
442.1
1709
854.5
1650.8
1480.0
1208.4
854-5
442.3
1710
855.0
1651.7
1480.9
1209.2
855.0
442.6
1711
855-5
1652.7
1481.8
1209.9
855-5
442.8
1712
856.0
1653.7
1482.6
1210.6
856.0
443-1
1713
856.5
1654.6
1483.5
1211.3
856.5
443-4
1714
857.0
1655.6
1484.4
1212.0
857.0
443-6
1715
857.5
1656.6
1485.2
1212.7
857.5
443-9
1716
858.0
1657.5
1486.1
1213.4
858.0
444.1
1717
858.5
1658.5
1487.0
1214.1
858.5
444.4
1718
859.0
1659-5
1487.8
I214.8
859.0
444-7
1719
859-5
1660.4
1488.7
1215.5
859.5
444.9
1720
860.0
1661.4
1489.6
1216.2
860.0
445.2
1721
860.5
1662.4
1490.4
I216.9
860.5
445-4
1722
861.0
1663.3
1491.3
1217.6
861.0
445.7
1723
861.5
1664.3
1492.2
1218.3
861.5
445.9
1724
862.0
1665.3
1493.0
1219.0
862.0
446.2
1725
862.5
1666.2
1493-9
I219.8
862.5
446.5
1726
863.0
1667.2
1494.8
1220.5
863.0
446.7
1727
863.5
1668.2
1495-6
1221.2
863.5
447.0
1728
864.0
1 669. 1
1496.5
1221.9
864.0
447.2
1729
864.5
1670.I
1497.4
1222.6
864.5
447.5
1730
865.0
1671.I
1498.2
1223.3
865.0
447.8
1731
865.5
1672.0
1499.1
1224.0
865.5
448.0
1732
866.0
1673.0
1 500.0
1224.7
866.0
448.3
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 207
Number.
H Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1733
866.5
1674.0
1500.8
1225.4
866.5
448.5
1734
867.0
1674.9
15OI.7
1226. 1
867.0
448.8
1735
867.5
1675.9
1502.6
1226.8
867.5
449.1
1736
868.0
1676.8
1503-4
1227.5
868.0
449-3
1737
868.5
1677.8
1504.3
1228.2
868.5
449.6
1738
869.0
1678.8
1505.1
1229.0
869.0
449.8
1739
869.5
1679.7
1506.0
1229.7
869.5
450.1
1740
870.0
1680.7
1506.9
1230.4
870.0
450.3
1741
870.5
1681.7
1507.7
1231.1
870.5
450.6
1742
871.0
1682.6
1508.6
1231.8
871.0
450.9
1743
871.5
1683.6
1509-5
1232.5
871-5
45I.I
1744
872.0
1684.6
151O.3
1233.2
872.0
451.4
1745
872.5
1685.5
1511.2
1233-9
872.5
451.6
1746
873.0
1686.5
1512.1
1234.6
873-0
451-9
1747
873.5
1687.5
1512.9
1235.3
873.5
452.2
1748
874-C
1688.4
1513.8
1236.0
874.0
452.4
1749
874.5
1689.4
1514.7
1236.7
874.5
452-7
1750
875.0
1690.4
1515-5
1237.4
875-0
452.9
1751
875.5
169I.3
1516.4
1238.1
875-5
453.2
1752
876.0
1692.3
I517.3
1238.9
876.0
453-4
1753
876.5
1693.3
1518.1
1239.6
876.5
453.7
1754
877.0
1694.2
1519.0
1240.3
877.0
454.0
1755
877.5
1695.2
I519.9
I241.O
877-5
454.2
1756
878.0
1696.2
1520.7
1241.7
878.0
454.5
1757
878.5
1697. 1
1521.6
1242.4
878.5
454-7
1758
879.0
I 698. I
1522.5
1243.1
879.0
455-0
1759
879.5
1699.1
1523.3
1243-8
879.5
455-3
1760
880.0
1700.0
1524.2
1244.5
880.0
455-5
1761
880.5
1701.0
1525.1
1245.2
880.5
455-8
1762
881.0
1702.0
1525.9
1245.9
881.0
456.0
1763
881.5
1702.9
1526.8
1246.6
881.5
456.3
1764
882.0
1703.9
1527.7
1247-3
882.0
456.6
1765
882. 5
1704.9
1528.5
1248.0
882.5
456.8
1766
883.0
1705.8
1529.4
1248.8
883.0
457.1
1767
883.5
1706.8
1530.3
1249.5
883.5
457-3
1768
884.0
1707.8
1531.1
1250.2
884.0
457.6
1769
884.5
1708.7
1532.0
1250.9
884.5
457-9
1770
885.0
1709.7
1532.9
1251.6
885.0
458.1
1771
885.5
1710.7
1533.7
1252.3
885.5
458.4
1772
886.0
1711.6
1534-6
1253.0
886.0
458.6
1773
886.5
1712.6
1535.5
1253.7
886.5
458.9
1774
887.0
1713.6
1536.3
1254.4
887.0
459-1
1775
887.5
1714.5
1537.2
1255.1
887.5
459-4
1776
888.0
1715.5
1538.1
1255.8
888.0
459-7
1777
888.5
1716.S
1538-9
1256.5
888.5
459-9
208 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
M Sin 90°.
Sin 7S°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15O
1778
889.0
I717.4
1539-8
1257.2
889.0
460.2
1779
889.5
1718.4
1540.7
1257.9
889.5
460.4
1780
890.0
1719-3
I54I-5
1258.7
890.0
460.7
1781
890.5
1720.3
1542.4
1259-4
890.5
461.0
1782
891.0
1721.3
1543-3
1 260. 1
891.0
461.2
1783
891-5
1722.2
1544-1
1260.8
891-5
461.5
1784
892.0
1723.2
1545.0
I261.5
892.0
461.7
1785
892.5
1724.2
1545-9
1262.2
892.5
462.0
1786
893.0
1725.I
1546.7
1262.9
893.0
462.3
1787
893-5
1726.I
1547-6
1263.6
893-5
462.5
1788
894.0
1727. 1
1548.5
1264.3
894.0
462.8
1789
894.5
1728.0
1549-3
1265.0
894-5
463.0
1790
895.0
1729.0
1550.2
1265.7
895-0
463-3
1791
895-5
1730.0
1551-1
1266.4
895-5
463-5
1792
896.0
1730.9
1551-9
1267. 1
896.0
463-8
1793.
896.5
1731-9
1552.8
1267.8
896.5
464.1
1794
897.0
1732.9
1553-7
1268.5
897.0
464-3
1795
897.5
1733-8
15S4-S
1269.3
897.5
464.6
1796
898.0
1734-8
1555-4
1270.0
898.0
464.8
1797
898.5
1735-8
1556.3
1270.7
898. 5
465.1
1798
899.0
1736.7
1557-1
1271.3
899.0
465.4
1799
899.5
1737-7
1558.0
1272.1
899.5
465.6
1800
900.0
1738.7
1558-9
1272.8
900.0
4659
1801
900.5
1739-6
1559-7
1273-5
900.5
466.1
1802
901.0
1740.6
1 560.6
1274.2
901.0
466.4
1803
901.5
1741.6
1561.4
1274.9
901.5
466.6
1804
902.0
1742.5
1562.3
1275.6
902.0
466.9
1805
902.5
1743-5
1563-2
1276.3
902.5
467.2
1806
903.0
1744-5
1564.0
1277.0
903.0
467.4
1807
903-5
1745-4
1564.9
1277.7
903-5
467.7
1808
904.0
1746.4
1565-8
1278.4
904.0
467.9
1809
904.5
1747-4
1566.6
1279.2
904.5
468.2
1810
905.0
1748.3
1567.5
1279.9
905.0
468.5
i8ii
905.5
1749-3
1568.4
1280.6
905-5
468.7
1812
906.0
1750.3
1569.2
1281.3
906.0
469.0
1813
906.5
1751.2
1570.1
1282.0
906. 5
469.2
1814
907.0
1752.2
1571.0
1282.7
907.0
469-5
1815
907.5
1753-2
1571.8
1283.4
907.5
469.8
1816
908.0
1754-1
1572.7
1284.1
908.0
470.0
1817
908.5
1755-1
15736
1284.8
908.5
470.3
1818
909.0
1756.1
1574-4
1285.5
909.0
470.5
1819
909.5
1757.0
1575-3
1286.2
909-5
470.8
1820
910.0
1758.0
1576.2
1286.9
910.0
471-1
1821
910.5
1759.0
1577.0
1287.6
910.5
471-3
1822
91 1. 0
1759-9
1577.9
1288.3
911. 0
471.6
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 209
Number.
}i Sin 90O.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°,
Sin 30°.
Sin is°
1823
911.S
1760.9
1578.8
1 289. 1
911,5
471.8
1824
912.0
1761.8
1579.6
1289,8
912,0
472.1
1825
912.S
1762.8
1580.5
1290,5
912.5
472.3
1826
913.0
1763.8
1581,4
I29I.2
913.0
472,6
1827
913-5
1764.7
1582,2
I29I.9
913-5
472.9
1828
914.0
1765-7
1583-1
1292,6
914.0
473-1
1829
914.5
1766.7
1584,0
1293-3
914.5
4734
1830
915.0
1767.6
1584.8
1294.0
915.0
473-6
1831
9155
1768.6
1585-7
1294,7
915-5
473-9
1832
916.0
1769.6
1586.6
1295,4
916.0
474.2
1833
916.5
1770.5
1587.4
1 296, 1
916.5
474-4
1834
917.0
1771.5
1588.3
1296,8
917,0
474-7
1835
917-5
1772.5
1589.2
1297.5
917.5
474-9
1836
918.0
1773-4
1590,0
1298,3
918.0
475.2
1837
918.5
1774.4
1590.9
1299,0
918,5
475-5
1838
919.0
1775-4
1591-8
1299.7
919,0
475-7
1839
919.5
1776.3
1592.6
1300,4
919.5
476.0
1840
920.0
1777.3
1593-5
I30I.I
920,0
476.2
1841
920.5
1778.3
1594.4
I3OI.8
920.5
476.5
1842
921.0
1779.2
1595.2
1302.5
921.0
476,7
1843
921.5
1780.2
1 596. 1
1303,2
921,5
477,0
1844
922.0
1781.2
1597.0
1303-9
922,0
477-3
1845
922,5
1782,1
1597.8
1304.6
922,5
477-5
1846
923.0
1783.1
1598-7
1305-3
923.0
477-8
1S47
923-5
1 784. 1
1599.6
1306.0
923.5
478.0
1848
924.0
1785.0
1600.4
1306.7
924.0
478.3
1849
924.5
1786,0
1601.3
1307-5
924.5
478.6
1850
925.0
1787,0
1602.2
1308,1
925.0
478.8
1851
925-5
1787.9
1603.0
1308,8
925-5
479.1
1852
926.0
1788.9
1603.9
1309,6
926.0
479-3
1853
926.5
1789,9
1604.7
I3IO.3
926,5
479.6
1854
927.0
1790.8
1605,6
I3II.0
927,0
479.9
185s
927.5
1791,8
1606.5
1311,7
927.5
480.1
1856
928.0
1792,8
1607,3
1312,4
928.0
480,4
1857
928.5
1793-7
1608.2
1313-I
928.5
480,6
1858
929.0
1794-7
1 609. 1
I313-8
929.0
480,9
1859
929-5
1795-7
1609.9
1314-5
929-5
481.2
i860
930.0
1796,6
1610.8
1315,2
930,0
481.4
1861
930.5
1797,6
1611.7
1315-9
930-5
481.7
1862
931.0
1798.6
1612.5
I316.6
931.0
481,9
1863
931-5
1799-5
1613.4
I317-3
931-5
482.2
1864
932.0
1800,5
1614.3
1318.0
932,0
482,4
1865
932.5
1801,5
1615.I
1318,8
932.5
482.7
1866
933.0
1802,4
1616,0
1319-5
933-0
483-0
1867
933-5
1803.4
1616,9
1320,2
933-5
483,2
2IO A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
STumber.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°-
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1868
934.0
1804.3
1617.7
1320.9
934-0
483.5
1869
934-5
1805.3
1618.6
1321.6
934-5
483.7
1870
935-0
1806.3
1619.5
1322.3
' 935-0
484.0
1871
935-5
1807.2
1620.3
1323.0
935-5
484.2
1872
936.0
1808.2
1621.2
1323-7
936.0
484-5
1873
936. 5
1809.2
1622,1
1324-4
936.5
484-8
1874
937-0
1810.I
1622.9
1325.1
937.0
485-0
1875
937-5
1811.I
1623.8
1325.8
937.5
485-3
1876
938.0
1812.I
1624.7
1326.5
938.0
485.5
1877
938.5
1813.0
1625.5
1327.2
938.5
485.8
1878
939-0
1814.O
1626.4
1327.9
939.0
486.1
1879
939-5
1815.0
1627.3
1328.7
939. 5
486.3
1880
940.0
1815.9
1628. I
1329-4
940.0
486.6
1881
940.5
1816.9
1629.0
1330.1
940.5
486,8
1882
941.0
1817.9
1629.9
1330-8
941.0
487.1
1883
941. 5
1818.8
1630,7
133I-5
941.5
487.4
1884
942.0
1819.8
1631.6
1332.2
942.0
487.6
1885
942.5
1820.8
1632.5
1332-9
942.5
487.9
1886
943.0
182I.7
1633.3
1333.6
943.0
488.1
1887
943-5
1822.7
1634.2
1334.3
943-5
488.4
1888
944.0
1823.7
1635.1
1335.0
944.0
488.7
1889
944-5
1824.6
1635.9
1335-7
944.5
488.9
1890
94S-0
1825.6
1636.8
1336-4
945-0
489.2
1891
945-5
1826.6
1637.7
1337-1
945-5
489.4
1892
946.0
1827.5
1638.5
1337-8
946.0
489-7
1893
946.5
1828.5
1639.4
1338.6
946.5
489.9
1894
947.0
1829.5
1640.3
1339-3
947.0
490.2
189s
947-5
1830.4
1641.I
1340.0
947.5
490.5
1896
948.0
1831.4
1642,0
1340.7
948.0
490.7
1897
948.5
1832.4
1642.9
1341.4
948.5
491.0
1898
949-0
1833-3
1643.7
1342.1
949.0
491.2
1899
949-5
1834.3
1644-6
1342.8
949.5
491.5
1900
950-0
1835.3
1645-4
1343-5
950.0
491.8
I901
950.5
1836.2
1646.3
1344-2
950.S
492.0
1902
9SI-0
1837.2
1647.2
1344.9
951.0
492.3
1903
951-5
1838.2
1648.0
1345.6
951.5
492.5
1904
952.0
1839. I
1648.9
1346.3
952.0
492.8
1905
952.5
1840.1
1649.8
1347.0
952.5
493.1
1906
953-0
1841.1
1650.6
1347.7
953.0
493-3
1907
953-5
1842.0
165I.5
1348.4
953.5
493-6
1908
9S4-0
1843.0
1652.4
1349.2
954.0
493-8
1909
954.5
1844.0
1653-2
1349-9
954.5
494.1
1910
955-0
1844.9
1654.1
1350.6
955.0
494-3
1911
955-5
1845.9
1655.0
I35I-3
955.5
494.6
1912
956.0
1846.8
1655-9
1352-0
956-0
494-9
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 211
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sm 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
I913
956.5
1847.8
1656.7
1352.7
956.5
495.1
I914
957.0
1848.8
1657.6
1353-4
957.0
4^5.4
1915
957.5
1849.7
1658.5
I3S4.I
957.5
495.6
I916
958.0
1850.7
1659.3
1354.8
958.0
495.9
1917
958-5
1851-7
1660.2
1355.5
958-5
496.2
1918
959.0
1852.6
1661.I
1356.2
959-0
496.4
1919
959-5
1853.6
1661.9
1356.9
959-5
496.7
1920
960.0
1854.6
1662.8
1357-6
960.0
496-9
1921
960.5
1855-5
1663.6
1358.3
960.5
497.2
1922
961.0
1856.5
1664.5
1359.1
961.0
497.4
1923
961.5
1857-5
1665.4
1359.8
961.5
497.7
1924
962.0
1858.4
1666.2
1360.5
962.0
498.0
1925
962.5
1859-4
1667.1
1361.2
962.5
498,2
1926
963.0
1860,4
1668.0
1361.9
963.0
498.5
1927
963-5
1861.3
1668.8
1362.6
963.5
498.7
1928
964.0
1862.3
1669.7
1363-3
964.0
499-0
1929
964. S
1863.3
1670.6
1364.0
964.5
499-3
1930
965.0
1864.2
1671.4
1364.7
965.0
499-5
I931
965.5
1865.2
1672,3
1365.4
965.5
499.8
1932
966.0
1866.2
1673.2
1366.1
966.0
500,0
1933
966.5
1867.1
1674.0
1366.8
966.5
500.3
1934
967.0
1868.1
1674.9
1367.5
967.0
500.6
1935
967.5
1869.1
1675.8
1368.3
967-5
500.8
1936
968.0
1870.0
1676.6
1369.0
968.0
501.1
1937
968.5
1871.0
1677.5
1369.7
968.5
501.3
1938
969.0
1872.0
1678.4
1370.4
969.0
501.6
1939
969.5
1872.9
1679.2
1371.1
969.5
501.9
1940
970.0
18739
1680.1
1371.8
970.0
502,1
I941
970.5
1874.9
1680,9
1372.5
970.5
502,4
1942
971.0
1875.8
1681.8
1373.2
971.0
502.6
1943
971.5
1876.8
1682.7
1373.9
971.5
502.9
1944
972.0
1877.8
1683,6
1374-6
972.0
503. 1
1945
972.5
1878.7
1684.4
1375-3
972-5
503-4
1946
973.0
1879.7
1685.3
1376.0
973-0
503-7
1947
973.5
1880.7
1686.2
1376.7
973-5
503.9
1948
974.0
1881.6
1687,0
1377.4
974.0
504.2
1949
974-5
1882.6
1687.9
1378.2
974.5
504,4
1950
975.0
1883.6
1688.8
1378.9
975.0
504.7
1951
975.5
1884.5
1689.6
1379.6
975-5
505.0
1952
976.0
1885.S
1690,5
1380.3
976.0
505.2
1953
976.5
1886.5
169I.3
1381.0
976,5
505-5
1954
977.0
1887.4
1692,2
1381.7
977.0
505.7
1955
977.5
1888.4
1693.1
1382.4
977-5
506.0
1956
978.0
1889.4
1693.9
1383-1
978,0
506.3
1957
978.5
1890.3
1694.8
1383.8
978.5
506.5
212 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
;^ Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
1958
979.0
189I.3
1695.7
1384-5
979.0
506.8
1959
979-5
1892.2
1696.5
1385.2
979-5
507.0
i960
980.0
1893.2
1697.4
1385-9
980.0
507-3
1961
980.5
1894.2
1698.3
1386.6
980.5
507.5
1962
981.0
1895. 1
1699. 1
1387-3
981.0
507.8
1963
981.5
1896. I
1700.0
I388.I
981.5
508.1
1964
982.0
1897-I
1700.9
1388.8
982.0
508.3
1965
982.5
1898.0
170I.7
1389-5
982.5
508.6
1966
9S3.0
1899.0
1702.6
1390.2
983.0
508.8
1967
983-5
1900.0
1703.5
1390.9
983-5
509.1
1968
984.0
1900.9
1704-3
1391.6
984.0
509.4
1969
984-5
I9OI.9
1705.2
1392.3
984-5
509.6
1970
985-0
1902.9
1 706. 1
1393-0
985.0
509.9
1971
985-5
1903.8
1707.0
1393-7
985-S
510. 1
1972
986.0
1904.8
1707.8
1394-4
986.0
510.4
1973
986.5
1905.8
1708.7
1395-I
986.5
510.6
1974
987.0
1906.7
1709.6
1395-8
987.0
510.9
1975
987-5
1907.7
1710.4
1 396. 5
987.5
511.2
1976
988.0
1908.7
171I-3
1397.2
988.0
5II.4
1977
988.S
1909.6
1712.I
1397-9
988.5
51I.7
1978
989.0
I9IO.6
1713.O
1398.7
989.0
511.9
1979
989. 5
I9II.6
I713-9
1399-4
989-5
512.2
1980
990.0
I912.5
1714.7
1400.1
990.0
512.5
1981
990.5
1913-5
1715.6
1400.8
990.5
512.7
1982
991.0
1914-5
1716.5
1401.5
991.0
513.0
1983
991-5
I915.4
1717-3
1402.2
991-5
513.2
1984
992.0
I916.4
1718.2
1402.9
992.0
513-5
1985
992.5
I917.4
1719.I
1403.6
992-5
513-8
1986
993-0
I918.3
1719.9
1404.3
993-0
514.0
1987
993.5
I919-3
1720.8
1405.0
993-5
514-3
1988
994.0
1920.3
1721.7
1405.7
994-0
514-5
1989
994-5
I92I.2
1722.5
1406.4
994-5
514.8
1990
995.0
1922.2
1723-4
1407.1
995.0
515-I
1991
995-5
1923.2
1724-3
1407.8
995-5
515-3
1992
996.0
1924. 1
1725.1
1408.6
996.0
515.6
1993
996.5
I925.I
1726.0
1409.3
996.5
515.8
1994
997-0
1926. 1
1726.9
1410.0
997.0
516.1
1995
997-5
1927.0
1727.7
1410.7
997-5
516.3
1996
998.0
1928.0
1728.6
1411.4
998.0
516.6
1997
998-5
1929.0
1729.5
1412.1
998.5
516.9
1998
999.0
1929.9
1730.3
1412.8
999-0
517.1
1999
999-5
1930.9
1731.2
1413-5
999-5
517.4
2000
1000. 0
193I-9
1732.1
1414.2
I 000.0
517.6
2001
1000.5
1932.9
1732-9
1414.9
1000.5
518.0
2002
1001. 0
1933-8
17.33-8
1415.6
lOOI.O
5,8.2
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 21 3
Number.
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
201 1
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2C23
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
. 2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
204 s
2046
2047
}i Sin 90°.
IOOI.5
1002.0
1002.5
1003.0
1003.5
1004.0
1004.5
1005.0
1005.5
1006.0
1006.5
1007.0
1007.5
1008.0
1008.5
1009.0
1009.5
lOIO.O
1010.5
1011. o
IOII.5
1012.0
1012,5
1013.0
IOI3-5
1014.0
1014.5
1015.0
1015.5
1016,0
1016.5
1017.0
1017.5
1018.0
1018.5
1019.0
1019.5
1020.0
1020.5
1021.0
1021.5
1022.0
1022.5
1023.0
1023.5
Sin 75°-
1934.8
1935-8
1936.7
1937.7
1938-7
1939.6
1940,6
1941-5
1942.5
1943-4
1944,4
1945.4
1946.3
1947.3
1948.3
1949.2
1950.2
1951-2
1952-1
1953-1
1954. 1
I9S5-0
1956.0
1957,0
1957.9
1958,9
1959.9
1960,8
1961,8
1962,8
1963.7
1964,7
1965.7
1966.6
1967.6
1968,5
1969.5
1970.5
1971-4
1972.4
1973.4
1974.3
1975-3
1976.3
1977.2
Sin 60°.
1734-6
1735-5
1736-4
1737.2
1738.1
1739-0
1739-8
1740.7
1741.6
1742.4
1743-3
1744.2
1745-0
1745.9
1746.8
1747.6
1748.5
1749.4
1750.2
1751.1
1752.0
1752.8
1753-7
1754.6
1755-4
1756.3
1757.2
1758.0
1758.9
1759-8
1760.6
1761.5
1762.4
1763.2
1764.1
1765.0
1765,8
1766.7
1767.6
1768.4
1769.3
1770,2
1771,0
1771.9
1772.8
Sin 45°.
1416.3
1417.0
1417.7
1418.5
1419.2
1419.9
1420.6
1421,3
1422.0
1422.7
1423.4
I424.I
1424.8
1425.5
1426.2
1426.9
1427.7
1428.4
1429. I
1429.8
1430.5
1431.2
1431-9
1432.6
1433-3
1434.0
1434-7
1435-4
1436.1
1436.8
1437.6
1438.3
1439.0
1439-7
1440.4
1441.1
1441.8
1442.5
1443.2
1443.9
1444.6
1445-3
1446.0
1446,7
1447.4
Sin 30°.
1001.5
1002.0
1002.5
1003.0
1003.5
1004.0
1004.5
1005.0
1005.5
1006.0
1006.5
1007.0
1007,5
1008,0
1008.5
1009,0
1009.5
lOIO.O
1010.5
1011. o
1011.5
1012.0
1012.5
1013.0
1013-5
1014.0
1014-5
1015.0
1015-5
1016.0
1016.5
1017.0
1017.5
1018.0
1018,5
1019,0
1019.5
1020,0
1020.5
1021.0
1021.5
1022.0
1022.5
1023.0
1023.5
Sin 15O.
518.4
518.7
518.9
519,2
519-S
519-7
520,0
520,2
520.5
520.7
521.0
521-3
521. 5
521.8
522.0
522.3
522.6
522.8
523-1
523-3
523-6
523-8
524.1
524.4
524.6
524.9
525-1
525-4
525.7
525.9
526.2
526.4
526.7
527.0
527.2
527-5
527-7
528.0
528.2
528.5
528.8
529.0
529-3
529-5
529.8
214 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
>i Sin 90".
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin is°.
2048
1024.0
1978.2
1773-6
1448.2
1024.0
530.1
2049 '
1024.5
1979.2
1774.5
1448.9
1024.5
530.3
2050
1025.0
1980. 1
1775-4
1449.6
1025.0
530.6
2051
1025.5
1981.1
1776.2
1450.3
1025.5
530.8
2052
1026.0
1982.1
1777.1
1451.0
1026.0
531.1
2053
1026.5
1983.0
1777.9
1451.7
1026.5
531.4
2054
1027.0
1984.0
1778.8
1452.4
1027 0
531.6
2055
1027.5
1985.0
1779.7
1453.1
1027.5
531-9
2056
1028.0
1985.9
1780.5
1453-8
1028.0
532.1
2057
1028.5
1986.9
1781.4
1454.5
1028.5
532.4
2058
1029.0
1987.9
1782.3
1455.2
1029.0
532.7
2059
1029.5
1988.8
1783.1
1455-9
1029.5
532.9
2060
1030.0
1989.8
1784.0
1456.6
1030.0
533-2
2061
1030.5
1990.8
1784.9
1457-3
1030.5
533-4
2062
IO31.O
1991.7
1785.7
1458.1
1031.0
533-7
2063
IO31.5
1992.7
1786.6
1458.8
1031.5
533.9
2064
1032.0
1993.7
1787.5
1459.5
1032.0
534-2
2065
1032.5
1994.6
1788.3
1460.2
1032.5
534.5
2066
1033.0
1995.6
1789.2
1460.9
1033.0
534.7
2067
1033-5
1996.6
1790.1
1461.6
1033.5
535-0
2068
1034.0
1997.5
1790.9
1462.3
1034.0
535-2
2069
1034.5
1998.5
1791.8
1463.0
1034.5
535-5
2070
1035.0
1999-5
1792.7
1463.7
1035.0
535-8
2071
1035-5
2000.4
1793-5
1464.4
1035.5
536.0
2072
1036.0
2001.4
1794.4
1465.1
1036.0
536.3
2073
1036.5
2002.4
1795.3
1465.8
1036.5
536.5
2074
1037.0
2003.3
1796.1
1466.5
1037.0
536.8
2075
1037.5
2004.3
1797.0
1467.2
1037-5
537-1
2076
1038.0
2005.3
1797.9
1468.0
1038.0
537.3
2077
1038.5
2006.2
1798.7
1468.7
1038.5
537.6
2078
1039.0
2007.2
1799.6
1469.4
1039.0
537.8
2079
I 039- 5
2008.2
1800.5
1470. I
1039-5
538.1
2080
1040.0
2009.1
1801.3
1470.8
1040.0
538.3
2081
1040.5
2010.1
1802.2
1471.5
1040.5
538.6
2082
1041.0
2011. I
1803.1
1472.2
1041.0
538.9
2083
1041.5
2012.0
1803.9
1472.9
1041.5
539-1
2084
1042.0
2013.0
1804.8
1473.6
1042.0
539-4
2085
1042.5
2013.9
1805.7
1474.3
1042.5
539-6
2086
1043.0
2014.9
1806.5
1475.0
1043.0
539-9
2087
I043-S
2015.9
1807.4
1475-7
1043.5
540.2
2088
1044.0
2016.8
1808.3
1476.4
1044-0
540.4
2089
1044,5
2017.8
1809.1
1477.1
1044.5
540.7
2090
1045.0
2018.8
1810.0
1477.9
1045.0
540.9
2091
1045.5
2019.7
1810.9
1478.6
1045.5
541.2
2092
1046.0
2020.7
1811.7
1479-3
1046.0
541.4
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 215
dumber.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2093
1046.5
2021.7
1812.6
1480.0
1046.5
541.7
2094
1047.0
2022,6
1813.S
1480.7
1047.0
542.0
2095
IO47.S
2023.6
1814.3
1481.4
1047.5
542.2
2096
1048.0
2024.6
1815.2
1482.1
1048.0
542.5
2097
1048.5
2025.5
1816.I
1482.8
1048.5
542.7
2098
1049.0
2026.5
1816.9
1483.5
1049.0
S43-0
2099
1049.5
2027.5
1817.8
1484.2
1049.5
543-3
2100
1050.0
2028.4
1818.7
1484.9
1050.0
543-5
2IOI
1050.5
2029.4
1819.5
1485.6
1050.5
543-8
2102
I051.O
2030.4
1820.4
1486.3
1051.0
544.0
2103
1051.5
2031.3
1821.2
1487.0
1051.5
544.3
2104
1052.0
2032.3
1822. I
1487.7
1052.0
544.6
2105
1052.5
2033.3
1823.0
1488.5
1052.5
544-8
2106
1053.0
2034.2
1823.8
1489.2
1053.0
545-1
2107
1053-5
2035.2
1824.7
1489.9
1053.5
545-3
2108
1054.0
2036.2
1825.6
1490.6
1054.0
545-6
2109
1054.5
2037.1
1826.4
1491.3
1054.5
545-8
2IIO
1055.0
2038.1
1827.3
1492.0
1055.0
546.1
2III
1055.5
2039.1
1828.2
1492.7
1055-5
546.4
2II2
1056.0
2040.0
1829.0
1493-4
1056.0
546.6
2II3
1056.5
2041.0
1829.9
1494. I
1056.5
546.9
2114
1057.0
2042.0
1830.8
1494.8
1057.0
547.1
2II5
1057.5
» 2042.9
1831.6
1495-5
1057-5
547.4
2I16
1058.0
2043.9
1832.5
1496.2
1058.0
547.7
2II7
1058.5
2044.9
1833.4
1497.0
1058.5
547.9
2I18
1059.0
2045.8
1834.2
1497.7
1059.0
548.2
2II9
1059-5
2046.8
1835.1
1498.4
1059.5
548.4
2120
1060.0
2047.8
1836.0
1499.1
1060.0
548.7
2I2I
1060.5
2048.7
1836.8
1499-8
1060,5
549.0
2122
1061.0
2049.7
1837.7
1500.5
1061.0
549-2
2123
1061.5
2050.7
1838.6
1501.2
1061.5
549-5
2124
1062.0
2051.6
1839.4
1501.9
1062.0
549-7
2125
1062.5
2052.6
1840.3
1502.6
1062.5
550.0
2126
1063.0
2053.6
1841.2
1503-3
1063.0
550.3
2127
1063.5
2054.5
1842.0
1504.0
1063.5
550.5
2128
1064.0
2055-5
1842.9
1504.7
1064.0
550.8
2129
1064.5
2056.5
1843.8
1505.4
1064.5
551.0
2130
1065.0
2057.4
1844.6
1506.1
1065.0
551-3
213I
1065.5
2058.4
1845.5
1506.8
1065.5
551-5
2132
1066.0
2059.4
1846.4
1507.6
1066.0
551.8
2133
1066.5
2060.3
1847.2
1508.3
1066.5
552.1
2134
1067.0
2061.3
1848.1
1509.0
1067,0
552.3
2135
1067.5
2062.3
1849.0
1509.7
1067.5
552.6
2136
1068.0
2063.2
1849.8
1510.4
1068.0
552.8
2137
1068.5
2064.2
1850.7
15". I
1068,5
553-1
2l6 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2138
1069.0
2065. 1
1851.6
1511.8
1069.0
553.4
2139
1069.5
2066.1
1852.4
1512.5
1069.5
553.6
2140
1070.0
2067.1
1853.3
1513.2
1070.0
553-9
2141
1070.5
2068.0
1854.2
1513-9
1070.5
554.1
2142
107 I. 0
2069.0
1855.0
I5M.6
IO71.O
554.4
2143
IO71.5
2070.0
1855-9
1515.3
1071.5
554.6
2144
1072.0
2070.9
1856.8
1516.0
1072.0
554.9
2145
1072.5
2071.9
1857.6
1516.7
1072.5
555-2
2146
1073.0
2072.9
1858.5
1517.S
1073.0
555.4
2147
I073-S
2073.8
1859.4
1518.2
IO73.S
555.7
2148
1074.0
2074.8
1860.2
1518.9 •
1074.0
555-9
2149
1074.5
2075.8
1861.I
1519.6
1074.5
556.2
2150
1075.0
2076.7
1862.0
1520.3
1075.0
556.5
2151
1075.5
2077.7
1862.8
1521.0
1075.5
556.7
2152
1076.0
2078.7
1863.7
1521.7
1076.0
557.0
2153
1076.5
2079.6
1864. 5
1522.4
1076.5
557.2
2154
1077.0
2080.6
1865.4
1523.1
1077.0
557.5
2IS5
1077.5
2081.6
1866.3
1523.8
1077.5
557.8
2156
1078.0
2082.5
1867.1
1524.5
1078.0
558.0
21 57
1078.5
2083.S
1868.0
1525.2
1078.5
558.3
2158
1079.0
2084.5
1868.9
1525.9
1079.0
558.5
2159
1079.S
2085.4
1869.7
1526.6
1079.5
558.8
2160
1080.0
2086.4
1870.6
1527.4 '
1080.0
559-1
2161
1080.5
2087.4
1871.5
1528.1
1080.5
559.3
2162
1081.0
2088.3
1872.3
1528.8
1081.0
559.6
2163
1081.5
2089.3
1873.2
1529.5
1081.5
559.8
2164
1082.0
2090.3
1874.1
1530.2
1082.0
560.1
216s
1082.5
2091.2
1874.9
1530.9
1082.5
560.3
2166
1083.0
2092.2
1875.8
1531.6
1083.0
560.6
2167
1083. 5
2093.2
1876.7
1532.3
1083.5
560.9
2168
1084.0
2094.1
1877.5
1533.0
1084.0
561. 1
2169
1084.S
2095.1
1878.4
1533.7
1084.5
561.4
2170
1085.0
2096. I
1879.3
1534.4
1085.0
561.6
2171
1085.S
2097.0
1880.1
1535.1
1085.5
561.9
2172
1086.0
2098.0
1881.0
1535.8
1086.0
562.2
2173
1086.5
2099.0
1881.9
1536.5
1086.5
562.4
2174
1087.0
2099.9
1882.7
1537.2
1087.0
562.7
2I7S
1087.5
2100.9
1883.6
1538.0
1087.S
562.9
2176
1088.0
2101.9
1884.5
1538-7
1088.0
563.2
2177
1088.5
2102.8
1885.3
1539.4
1088.5
563.5
2178
1089.0
2103.8
1886.2
1540.1
1089.0
563.7
2179
1089.5
2104.8
1887.1
1540.8
1089.5
564.0
2180
1090.0
2105.7
1887.9
1541.5
1090.0
564.2
2181
1090.5
2106.7
1888.8
1542.2
1090.5
564.5
2182
1091.0
2107.7
1889.7
1542.9
1091.0
564.7
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 217
STiimber.
}i Sin 90°.
.Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2183
IC91.5
2108.6
1890.5
1543-6
IO91.5
565-0
2184
1092.0
2109.6
1891.4
1544-3
1092.0
565-3
2185
1092. 5
2IIO.5
1892.3
1545-0
1092.5
565-5
2186
1093.0
2III.5
1893. 1
1545-7
1093.0
565-8
2187
1093- S
2112.5
1894.0
1546.4
1093-5
566.0
2188
1094.0
2II3.4
1894.9
1547.1
1094.0
566.3
21S9
1094.5
2II4.4
1895.7
1547-9
1094.5
566.6
2190
1095.0
2II5.4
1896.6
1548.6
1095.0
566.8
2191
1095-5
2I16.3
1897-5
1549-3
1095-5
567.1
2192
1096,0
.2117.3
1898.3
1550.0
1096.0
567-3
2193
1096.5
2I18.3
1899.2
1550.7
1096.5
567.6
2194
1097.0
2II9.2
1900.1
1551-4
1097.0
567.8
-2195
1097.5
2120.2
1900.9
1552.1
1097-5
568.1
2196
1098.0
2I2I.2
1901.8
1552-8
1098.0
568.4
2197
1098.5
2122. 1
1902.7
1553-5
1098.5
568.6
2198
1099.0
2I23.I
1903-5
1554-2
1099.0
568.9
2199
1099.5
2124. I
1904.4
1554.9
1099-5
569.1
2200
IIOO.O
2125.0
1905-3
1555-6
IIOO.O
569.4
2201
II00.5
2126.0
1906.1
1556-3
1100.5
569.7
2202
IIOI.O
2127.0
1907.0
1557-1
IIOI.O
570.0
2203
IIOI.5
2127.9
1907.9
1557-8
II01.5
570.2
2204
II02.0
2128.9
I90S.7
1558-5
1102.0
570.4
2205
IIO2.5
2129.9
1909.6
1559.2
1102.5
570.7
2206
1103.0
2130.8
1910.5
1559.9
1103.0
571.0
2207
"O3.5
2I3I.8
1911.3
1560.6
1103-5
571.2
2208
1 104.0
2132.8
1912.2
1561.3
1104.0
571.5
2209
II04.5
2133-7
1913.1
1562.0
1104.5
571.7
2210
1 105.0
2134-7
1913-9
1562.7
1105.0
572.0
22II
iioS-5
2135-7
1914.8
1563-4
1105.5
572.2
2212
1 106.0
2136.6 .
1915.7
1564.1
1 106.0
572.S
2213
1106.5
2137.6
1916.5
1564.8
1106.5
572.8
2214
1 107.0
2138.6
1917.4
1565-5
1107.0
573-0
22IS
1107.5
2139-5
1918.3
1566.2
1107.5
573-3
2216
1 108.0
2140.5
I919.I
1567.0
1 108.0
573-5
2217
1,08.5
2141.5
1920.0
1567.7
1108.5
573.8
:22l8
1109.0
2142.4
1920.8
1568.4
1109.0
574.1
2219
1109.5
2143-4
1921.7
1 569. 1
IIO9.5
574.3
2220
IIIO.O
2144.4
1922.6
1569.8
IIIO.O
574.6
2221
III0.5
2145-3
1923.4
1570.5
II10.5
574.8
2222
IIII.O
2146.3
1924.3
1571.2
llIl.O
575.1
2223
nil. 5
2147-3
1925.2
1571-9
nil. 5
575-4
2224
1112.0
2148.2
1926.0
1572.6
1112.0
575-6
2225
1112.5
2149.2
1926.9
1573-3
1112.5
575-9
2226
1113.0
2150.2
1927.8
1574-0
1113.0
576.1
2227
1113.S
2151.1
1928.6
1574-7
1113-5
576.4
2l8 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number. >i Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°. Sin 30°.
2228
1 1 14.0
2152.I
1929.5
1575-4
1 114.0
2229
1 1 14.5
2153-1
1930.4
1576.1
[114.5
2230
[II5.0
2154.0
1931-2
1576.9
[I15-0
2231
"iS-5
2155.0
1932. 1
1577-6
1115-5
2232
II 16.0
2155-9
1933-0
1578.3
1116.0
2233
116,5
2156.9
1933-8
1579-0
ni6.s
2234
117.0
2157-9
1934-7
1579-7
[117.0
2235
[117.5
2158.8
1935-6
1580.4
117.5
2236
tiiS.o
* 2159.8
1936.4
1581.1
[1 18.0
2237
1 18. 5
2160.8
1937-3
1581.8
118.5
2238
119.0
2161.7
1938.2
1582.5
119.0
2239
[119.5
2162.7
1939.0
1583.2
119.5
2240
120.0
2163.7
1939-9
1583.9 ]
120.0
2241
120.5
2164.6
1940.8
1584.6
[ 120.5
2242
[121.0
2165.6
1941.6
1585-3
121. 0
2243
121.5
2166.6
1942.5
1586.0
121.5
2244
U22,0
2167.5
1943-4
1586.7 ]
122.0
2245
122.5
2168.5
1944.2
1587.5
122.5
2246
[1 23.0
2169.5
I945-I
1588.2
123.0
2247
123-5
2170.4
1946.0
158S.9
123-5
2248
124.0
2171.4
1946.8
1589.6
124.0
2249 1
124.5
2172.4
1947-7
1590.3
124.5
2250
125.0
2173-3
1948.6
1591.0 ]
125.0
2251
125.5
2174-3
1949.4
1591.7 ]
125-5
2252
126.0
2175-3
1950.3
1592.4
126.0
2253
126.5
2176.2
1951.2
1593.1
126.5
2254 ]
127.0
2177.2
1952.0
1593.8
1127.0
2255
127.5
2178.2
1952.9
1594.5
1127-5
2256
128.0
2179.1
1953-8
1595.2 ]
128.0
2257
[128.5
2180. 1
1954.6
1595.9
[128.5
2258
129.0
2181. 1
^955-5
1596.6
129.0
2259
129.5
2182.0
1956.4
1597.4
129.5
2260
[1 30.0
2183.0
1957.2
1598.1
130.0
2261
130-5
2184.0
1958.1
1598.8
130.5
2262
131. 0
2184.9
1959.0
1599-5
131.0
2263
131-5
2185.9
1959.8
1600.2
131-5
2264
[132.0
2186.9
1960.7
1600.9
132.0
2265
[132.5
2187.8
1961.6
1601.6 ]
132.S
2266
1133-0
2188.8
1962.4
1602.3
[1 33-0
2267
"33-5
2189.8
1963-3
1603.0
133-5
2268
[ 134.0
2190.7
1 964. 1
1603.7
1 134.0
2269
134.5
2191.7
1965.0
1604.4 1
134.5
2270
135-0
2192.7
1965.9
1605.1 ]
135-0
2271
[135-5
2193.6
1966.7
1605.8
135.5
2272
136.0
2194.6
1967.6
1606.5 ]
136.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 219
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°
"36-5
2195.6
I968.S
1607.3
1136.5
588.3
II37.O
2196.5
1969.3
1608.0
1137.0
588.6
"37-5
2197.5
1970.2
1608.7
II37.5
588.8
1138.0
2198.4
1971.1
1609.4
1 1 38.0
589.1
1138.5
2199.4
1971.9
1610.1
1138.5
589-3
1139.0
2200.4
1972.8
1610.8
1139.0
589.6
"39-5
2201.3
1973.7
1611.5
"39-5
589.9
1140.0
2202.3
1974.5
1612.2
I 140.0
590.1
1140.S
2203.3
1975-4
1612.9
1140.5
590.4
1141.0
2204.2
1976.3
1613.6
1141.0
590. 6
1141.S
2205.2
1977.1
1614.3
1141.5
590-9
1142.0
2206.2
1978.0
1615.0
1142.0
591.1
1142.5
2207.1
1978.9
1615.7
1142.5
591.4
1 143.0
2208.1
1979-7
1616.4
1143.0
591-7
"43-5
2209.1
1980.6
1617.I
1 143-5
591.9
1 144.0
2210.0
1981.5
1617.9
1144.0
592.2
1144.S
2211.0
1982.3
1618.6
1144.5
592.4
1145.0
2212.0
1983.2
1619.3
1145.0
592.7
"45-5
2212.9
1984.1
1620.0
"45.5
5930
I 146.0
2213.9
1984.9
1620.7
1146.0
593-2
1146.S
2214.9
1985.8
1621.4
1146.5
593.5
1 147.0
2215.8
1986.7
1622.1
1147.0
593-7
1147-5
2216.8
1987.5
1622.8
1147.5
594.0
1148.0
2217.8
1988.4
1623.5
1148.0
594.3
1148.5
2218.7
1989.3
1624.2
1148.5
594. 5
1 149.0
2219.7
1 990. 1
1624.9
1149.0
594-8
II49-5
2220.7
1991.0
1625.6
1149-5
595-0
1150.0
2221.6
1991.9
1626.3
1150.0
595-3
1150.S
2222.6
1992.7
1627.0
1150.5
595-5
1151.0
2223.6
1993.6
1627.8
1151.0
595-8
1151.5
2224.5
1994.5
1628.5
1151. 5
596.1
1152.0
2225.5
1995.3
1629.2
1152.0
596.3
1152.5
2226.5
1996.2
1629.9
1152.5
596-6
1153.0
2227.4
1997.1
1630.6
1153.0
596.8
1153-5
2228.4
1997.9
1631.3
1153.5
597-1
1 1 54.0
2229.4
1998.8
1632.0
1154.0
597.4
1154.5
2230.3
1999.7
1632.7
1154.5
597.6
1155.0
2231.3
2000.5
1633.4
1155.0
597.9
1155.5
2232.3
2001.4
1634-1
"55-5
598.1
1156.0
2233.2
2002.3
1634.8
1156.0
598.4
1156.5
2234.2
2003.1
1635-S
1156.5
598-6
1157.0
2235.2
2004.0
1636.2
1157.0
598-9
1157-5
2236.1
2004.9
1637-0
1157.5
599.2
1158.0
2237.1
2005.7
1637.7
1158.0
599.4
1158.5
2238.1
2006.6
1638.4
1158-5
599-7
1159.0
2239.0
2007.4
1639.1
1159.0
599-9
220 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number. X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°. S
n30°.
2319 1
159-5
2240.0
2008.3
1639.8 1
159-5
2320 ]
160.0
2241.0
2009.2
1640.5 ]
160.0
2321 ]
160.5
2241.9
2010.0
1641.2 I
160.5
2322
161. 0
2242.9
2010.9
1641.9 ]
161.0
2323 ]
161.5
2243.9
20II.8
1642.6 ]
161. 5
2324
162.0
2244.8
2012.6
1643-3
162.0
2325
162.5
2245.8
2013.5
1644.0 1
162.5
2326
163.0
2246.7
2014.4
1644,7
163.0
2327
163.5
2247-7
2015.2
1645.4
163.5
2328
164.0
2248.7
2016.1
1646. 1
164.0
2329
164.5
2249.6
2017.0
1646.9 ]
164.5
2330
165.0
2250.6
2017.8
1647.6 ]
165.0
2331
165-5
2251.6
2018.7
1648.3
165.5
2332
166.0
2252.5
2019.6
1649.0 ]
166.0
2333
166.S
2253-5
2020.4
1649.7 ]
166.5
2334
167.0
2254.5
2021.3
1650.4
167.0
2335
167.5
2255-4
2022.2
1651.1
167.5
2336
168.0
2256.4
2023.0
1651.8
168.0
2337
168.5
2257.4
2023.9
1652.5
168.5
2338
169.0
2258.3
2024.8
1653.2
169.0
2339
169.5
2259.3
2025.6
1653-9
169.5
2340
170.0
2260.3
2026.5
1654.6
170.0
2341
170.5
2261.2
2027.4
1655-3
170.5
2342
171.0
2262.2
2028.2
1656.0
[171.O
2343
1171.5
2263.2
2029.1
1656.8
171.5
2344
[172.0
2264.1
2030.0
1657-5
[I72.O
2345
[172.5
2265.1
2030.8
1658.2
172.5
2346
[I73-0
2266.1
2031.7
1658.9
173.0
2347
[173-5
2267.0
2032.6
1659.6
173-5
2348
[174.0
2268.0
2033-4
1660.3
C174.0
2349
[174-5
2269.0
2034-3
1661.O
[174.5
2350
[175.0
2269.9
2035.2
1661.7
175.0
2351
[175-5
2270.9
2036.0
1662.4
[175-5
2352
[176.0
2271.9
2036.9
1663.1
176.0
2353
1176.5
2272.8
2037.8
1663.8
176.5
2354
1177.0
2273-8
2038.6
1664.5
177.0
2355
II77-5
2274.8
2039.5
1665.2
[177-5
2356
1178.0
2275.7
2040.4
1665.9
178.0
2357
1178.5
2276.7
2041.2
1666.6
178.5
2358
1 179.0
2277.7
2042.1
1667.4
179.0
2359
1179.5
2278.6
2043.0
1668.1
1 79. 5
2360
I 180.0
2279.6
2043.8
1668.8 ]
180.0
2361
ti8o.5
2280.6
2044.7
1669.5 ]
180.5
2362
1181.0
2281.5
2045.6
1670.2 1
181.0
2363
[181.5
2282.5
2046.4
1670.9 1
181.5
2364
[182.0
2283.5
* 2047.3
1671.6
182.0
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 221
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2365
I182.S
2284.4
2048.2
1672,3
I182.5
612.1
2366
1 183.0
2285.4
2049.0
1673.0
1183,0
612,4
2367
"83.5
2286.4
2049.9
1673-7
1183.5
612,6
2368
I184.O
2287,3
2050.7
1674.4
1184.0
612.9
2369
I184.S
2288.3
2051.6
1675.1
1184.5
613,1
2370
II85.O
2289.3
2052.5
1675.8
1185.0
613,4
2371
I185.S
2290.2
2053-3
1676.5
1185,5
613.7
2372
1 186.0
2291.2
2054.2
1677.3
1186,0
613,9
2373
I186.S
2292.2
2055.1
1678.0
1186,5
614.2
2374
I187.O
2293.1
2055.9
1678.7
1187.0
614.4
2375
I187.S
2294.1
2056,8
1679.4
1187.5
614.7
2376
I188.O
2295.0
2057.7
1680,1
1188,0
615.0
2377
I188.S
2296.0
2058.5
1680.8
1188.5
615.2
2378
I189.O
2297.0
2059,4
1681.5
1189.0
615.5
2379
1189.5
2297.9
2060.3
1682.2
I189.5
615-7
2380
1190,0
2298.9
2061.1
1682.9
1190,0
616.0
2381
1 190. 5
2299.9
2062.0
1683.6
1190,5
616.3
2382
1191.0
2300.8
2062.9
1684.3
1191.0
616.5
2383
1191.5
2301.8
2063.7
1685.0
II9I.5
616.8
2384
1192.0
2302.8
2064.6
1685.7
1192.0
617,0
2385
1192.S
2303.7
2065.5
1686,4
II92.S
617.3
2386
1193.0
2304.7
2066.3
1687,2
1193.0
617.6
2387
"93-5
2305.7
2067.2
1687,9
1193.5
617.8
2388
1194.0
2306.6
2068,1
1688.6
1194.0
618,1
2389
1194.5
2307.6
2068.9
1689.3
1194.5
618,3
2390
1 195-0
2308,6
2069,8
1690,0
1195.0
618.6
2391
II95-5
2309.5
2070,7
1690.7
1195.5
618.8
2392
1196.0
2310.5
2071.5
1691,4
1196.0
619.1
2393
1196.5
231I.5
2072.4
1692,1
1196.5
619.4
2394
1197.0
2312.4
2073-3
1692,8
1197.0
619,6
239s
1197.5
2313.4
2074.1
1693.5
"97.5
619.9
2396
1198.0
2314.4
2075.0
1694,2
1198,0
620.1
2397
1198.5
2315.3
2075.9
1694,9
1198,5
620,4
2398
1199.0
2316.3
2076.7
1695.6
1199,0
620.7
2399
1199.5
2317.3
2077-6
1696.4
"99-5
620.9
2400
1200.0
2318.2
2078.5
1697,1
1200,0
621,2
2401
1200.5
2319.2
2079.3
1697.8
1200,5
621.4
2402
1201.0
2320.2
2080.2
1698.5
1201,0
621.7
2403
1201.5
2321. I
2081,1
1699.2
1201,5
621,9
2404
1202.0
2322.1
2081.9
1699.9
1202,0
622.2
2405
1202.5
2323.1
2082,8
1700.6
1202.5
622,5
2406
1203.0
2324.0
2083,7
1701.3
1203.0
622,7
2407
1203.5
2325.0
2084.5
1702.0
1203.5
623.0
2408
1204,0
2326.0
2085.4
1702,7
1204.0
623,2
2409
1204.5
2326.9
2086.3
1703.4
1204.5
623.5
222 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
Number.
}^ Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°-
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2410
1205.0
2327.9
2087.1
1704.1
1205.0
623.8
241 1
1205.5
2328.9
2088.0
1704.8
1205.5
624.0
2412
1206.0
2329.8
2088.9
17OS-5
1206.0
624.3
2413
1206.5
.2330.8
2089.7
1706.3
1206.5
624.5
2414
1207.0
2331-8
2090.6
1707.0
1207.0
624.8
2415
1207.S
2332.7
2091.5
1707.7
1207.5
625.0
2416
1208.0
2333-7
2092.3
1708.4
1208.0
625.3
2417
1208.5
2334.7
2093.2
1709.1
1208.5
625.6
2418
1209.0
2335-6
2094.0
1709.8
1209.0
625.8
2419
1209.5
2336.6
2094.9
171O.5
1209.5
626.1
2420
1210.0
2337-6
2095.8
1711.2
1210.0
626.3
2421
121O.5
2338-5
2096.6
1711.9
1210.5
626.6
2422
I2II.0
2339-5
2097.5
1712.6
I2II.0
626.9
2423
I2II.5
2340.4
2098.4
I713-3
I2II.5
627.1
2424
I2I2.0
2341.4
2099.2
1714.0
1212.0
627.4
2425
I212.5
2342.4
2100.1
1714.7
1212.5
627.6
2426
I213.O
2343-3
2IOI.O
1715-4
1213.0
627.9
2427
1213-5
2344-3
2101.8
1716.I
1213.5
628.2
2428
1214.0
2345-3
2102.7
1716.9
1214.0
628.4
2429
1214.5
2346.2
2103.6
1717.6
I214.5
628.7
2430
I215.O
2347.2
2104.4
1718.3
I215.O
628.9
2431
I215.5
2348.2
2105.3
1719.0
1215.5
629.2
2432
1216.0
2349.1
2106.2
1719.7
1216.0
629.4
2433
1216.5
2350.1
2107.0
1720.4
I216.5
629.7
2434
1217.0
2351.1
2107.9
1721.I
1217.0
630.0
2435
1217.5
2352.0
2108.8
1721.8
1217.5
630.2
2436
1218.0
2353-0
2109.6
1722.5
I218.O
630.5
2437
1218.5
2354.0
2110.5
1723.2
1218.5
630.7
2438
1219.0
2354-9
2III.4
1723.9
I219.O
631.0
2439
I219.5
2355-9
2112.2
1724.6
1219.5
631-3
2440
122C.O
2356.9
2113.1
1725-3
1220.0
631.5
2441
1220.5
2357-8
2114.0
1726.0
1220.5
631-8
2442
1221.0
2358.8
2114.8
1726.8
1221.0
632.0
2443
1221.5
2359.8
2115.7
1727.5
1221.5
632.3
2444
1222.0
2360.7
2116.6
1728.2
1222.0
632.6
2445
1222.5
2361.7
2117.4
1728.9
1222.5
632.8
2446
1223.0
2362.7
2118.3
1729.6
1223.0
633-1
2447
1223.5
2363.6
2II9.2
1730-3
1223.5
633-3
2448
1224.0
2364.6
2120.0
1731.0
1224.0
633-6
2449
1224.5
2365-6
2120.9
1731-7
1224.5
633-9
2450
1225.0
2366.5
2121.8
1732-4
1225.0
634.1
2451
1225.5
2367.5
2122.6
1 733- 1
1225.5
634-4
2452
1226.0
2368.5
2123.5
1733-8
1226,0
634.6
2453
1226.5
2369.4
2124.4
1734-5
1226.5
634.9
2454
1227.0
2370.4
2125.2
1735.2
1227.0
635-1
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS. 223
Number.
X Sin 90°.
Sin 75°.
Sin 60°.
Sin 45°.
Sin 30°.
Sin 15°.
2455
1227.5
2371.4
21 26. I
1735.9
1227.5
635-4
2456
1228.0
2372.3
2127.0
1736.7
1228.0
635-7
2457
1228.S
2373.3
2127.8
1737.4
1228.5
635.9
2458
1229.0
2374.2
2128.7
1738.I
1229.0
636.2
2459
1229.S
2375.2
2129.6
1738.8
1229.5
636.4
2460
1230.0
2376.2
2130.4
1739.5
1230.0
636.7
2461
123O.S
2377.1
2131-3
1740.2
1230.5
637.0
2462
1231.O
2378.1
2132.2
1740.9
1231.0
637.2
2463
1231.S
2379.1
2133.0
1741.6
1231.5
637-5
2464
1232.0
2380.0
2133.9
1742.3
1232.0
637.7
2465
1232.5
2381.0
2134.8
1743.0
I232.S
638.0
2466
1233-0
2382.0
2135.6
1743.7
1233.0
638.3
2467
1233.S
2382.9
2136.5
1744.4
1233.5
638.5
2468
1234.0
2383.9
2137.3
1745.1
1234.0
638.8
2469
1234.S
2384.9
2138.2
1745.8
1234.S
639.0
2470
1235.0
2385.8
2139.I
1746.6
1235,0
639.3
2471
1235.5
2386.8
2139.9
1747.3
1235.5
639. 5
2472
1236.0
2387.8
2140.8
1748.0
1236.0
639.8
2473
1236.S
2388.7
214I.7
1748.7
1236. 5
640.1
2474
1237.0
2389.7
2142.5
1749.4
1237.0
640.3
2475
1237.5
2390.7
2143.4
175O.I
1237.5
640.6
2476
1238.0
2391.6
2144.3
1750.8
1238.0
640.8
2477
1238.5
2392.6
2145. I
1751.S
1238.5
641,1
2478
1239.0
2393.6 •
2146.0
1752,2
1239.0
641.4
2479
1239.5
2394.5
2146.9
1752.9
1239.5
641.6
2480
1240.0
2395.5
2147.7
1753.6
1240.0
641.9
2481
1240.5
2396.5
2148.6
1754.3
1240.5
642.1
2482
I241.O
2397.4
2149.5
1755.0
1241,0
642.4
2483
124I.5
2398.4
2150.3
1755.7
1241. 5
642.6
2484
1242,0
2399.4
2151.2
1756.4
1242,0
642.9
2485
1242.5
2400.3
2152,1
1757.2
1242,5
643.2
2486
1243.0
2401.3
2152.9
1757.9
1243,0
643.4
2487
1243.5
2402.3
2153.8
1758.6
1243.S
643.7
2488
1244.0
2403.2
2154.7
1759.3
1244.0
643.9
2489
1244.5
2404.2
2155.5
1760,0
1244.5
644,2
2490
1245.0
2405.2
2156,4
1760.7
1245.0
644.5
2491
1245.5
2406.1
2157.3
1761.4
1245.S
644.7
2492
1246.0
2407.1
2158,1
1762.1
1246.0
645,0
2493
1246.5
2408.1
2I59-0
1762.8
1246.5
645,2
2494
1247.0
2409.0
2159.9
1763.5
1247.0
645.5
2495
1247.5
2410.0
2160.7
1764..2
1247.5
645.8
2496
1248.0
24II.O
2161.6
1764.9
1248.0 ,
646.0
2497
1248.5
2411.9
2162.5
1765.6
1248.5
646.3
2498
1249.0
2412.9
2163.3
1766.4
1249.0
646.5
2499
1249.5
2413.9
2164,2
1767.1
1249.5
646.8
2500
1250.0
2414.8
2165. I
1767.8
1250,0
647.0
224 A METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE STABILITY OF SHIPS.
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U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
By Commander F. M. Barber, U. S. N.
[Reprinted from the Jotirnal of the Franklin Iftstitute, February, 1891.]
Members of the Institute and Ladies and Gentlemen :
In commencing my paper this evening I desire to call your atten-
tion to the fact that I am dealing with a subject which, though not
theoretical, is still hardly practical, for, as a matter of fact, high
explosives cannot be said to have yet been regularly used in warfare ;
and I hope you will pardon me if, in consequence, my statements
appear in some respects unsatisfactory and my theories unsound.
My subject, however, is no more obscure than future naval warfare
generally. All civilized nations are spending millions of money for
fighting purposes, directly in opposition to the higher feelings of the
better class of their inhabitants. The political atmosphere of Europe
is the cause of this, but its consequence is the development of theo-
retical plans of ships which are no sooner commenced than the rapid
march of mechanical, chemical and electrical science shows them to
be faulty in some particular feature, and others are laid down only
to be superseded in their turn.
None of these crafts are obsolete (to use the popular expression of
the day). All are theoretically better than any which have stood
the test of battle ; but each excels its predecessor in some particular
feature. The use of high explosives is the direct cause of the very
latest transformations in marine architecture, and is destined to work
still greater changes ; but it will require a war between the most
civilized nations of the world, and a l.ong war, to either confirm or
condemn the many theoretical machines and methods of destruction
that modern science has produced. I say a war between the most
civilized nations, since it is only they that can supply the educated
232 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
intellect that is necessary to both attack and defense. Under other
circumstances, false conclusions as to weapons and results are certain
to be drawn. At the bombardment of Alexandria, the English armor-
clads, with their rifled guns, were not nearly as efficient against the
feeble chalk fortifications as our wooden ships would have been with
smooth-bore guns ; on the other hand, I saw on shore, after the
bombardment, hundreds of torpedoes and miles of cable that the
Egyptians did not understand how to use. The French war with
China was equally unsatisfactory from a military point of view. The
Chinese at Foochow were annihilated because the French opened
fire first, and the only shell that penetrated a French ironclad was
filled with lampblack instead of powder. The national riots that we
are accustomed to hear of in South America are likewise of little
instructive value ; they buy their weapons of more civilized people,
but there is always something fatally defective about the tactics pursued
in using them. It may be said in general terms that in these days of
extreme power in fighting machines, the greater the efficiency the
less the simplicity and the more knowledge required in the care of
the weapons. When powder was merely powder, the advice of the
old adage to " trust in God and keep your powder dry " was ample
to maintain the efficiency of the powder for all purposes ; but now-
adays if you keep your powder dry you will burst your gun, and if
you keep your gun-cotton dry you are liable to blow up your ship.
It is rather difficult to-day to define what high explosives are, in
contradistinction to gunpowder. Thirty years ago we could say that
powder was a mechanical mixture and the others were chemical
compounds ; but of late years this difference has disappeared.
The dynamical difference, however, still remains : gunpowder in
its most efficient form is a slow-burning composition, which exerts a
relatively low pressure and continues it for a long time and to a great
distance; high explosives, on the contrary, in their most efficient form,
are extremely quick-burning substances, which exert an enormous
pressure within a limited radius. Ordinary black gunpowder con-
sists of a mechanical mixture of seventy-five per cent of saltpetre,
fifteen per cent of charcoal and ten per cent of sulphur. The most
important of the high explosives are formed by the action of nitric
acid upon organic substances or other hydrocarbons, the compound
radical NO 2 being substituted for a portion of the hydrogen in the
substance. The bodies thus formed are in a condition of unstable
equilibrium ; but if well made from good material, they become
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 233
Stable in their instability, very much like Prince Rupert's drops, those
little glass pellets which endure almost any amount of rough usage,
but, once cracked, fly into infinitesimal fragments.
The power exerted by these nitro-substitution products is due to
the fact that they detonate, i. e., they are instantaneously converted
into colorless gas at a very high temperature, and in addition they
have almost no solid residue. Nitro-glycerine actually leaves none
at all, while gunpowder leaves sixty-eight per cent. The first depar-
ture in gunpowder from the old-time constituents of black powder
just mentioned was for the purpose of obtaining less pressure and
slower combustion than could be produced by mere granulating or
caking; this was accomplished by using underburned charcoal,
together with sugar and about one and one-half per cent of water.
This is the brown powder most generally used at present, and with
satisfactory results ; but the abstraction of its moisture increases its
rapidity of combustion to a dangerous degree, besides which the
underburned charcoal is itself unstable.
The next change demanded is smokelessness, and to accomplish it,
recourse is had to the high-explosive field, mechanically mixing vari-
ous substances with them to reduce and regulate their rapidity of
action. Just now some form of gun-cotton is most in use, mixed with
nitrate of ammonia, camphor and other articles. The tendency of
these mixtures is to absorb moisture, and the gun-cotton in them to
decompose, and there is no smokeless powder which can to-day be
considered successful. Such a powder, however, will undoubtedly
be an accomplished fact in the near future. Military men seem to be
a great deal at variance as to its value in the field, but there can be
no doubt of its value for naval purposes ; it is a necessity forced upon
us by the development of torpedo warfare. First came the simple
torpedo at the end of an ordinary boat's spar ; then came the special
torpedo-boat with its great speed ; then the revolving cannon and
rapid-fire gun to meet the torpedo-boat. At present the possible
rapidity of fire is much greater than can be utilized on account of the
smoke; hence the necessity of smokeless powder. Smokelessness is,
however, principally a martial demand that has been made upon the
science of explosives, and has attracted public attention on that
account. The commercial demands for various other properties has
been much greater than the military, and between gunpowder near
one end of the line in point' of power, and nitro-glycerine near the
other, there are now over 350 different explosives manufactured, and
most of these have been invented within the last twenty years.
234 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
The simplest application of high explosives in warfare is in con-
nection with torpedoes, since within the same bulk a much more
efficient substance can be obtained than gunpowder, and with reason-
able care there is very little danger of premature explosions by
reason of accidental shocks.
Torpedoes were made by the Chinese many years ago ; they were
tried in our war of independence, and also by the Russians during
the Crimean war ; but the first practical and successful use of them
as a recognized weapon was during our war of secession, when thirty-
seven vessels were either sunk or seriously injured by them. Gun-
powder was used in these torpedoes, though it is stated that attempts
were made to use other substances without success. Since that time
all maritime nations have made a close study of the subject, and
have adopted various high explosives, according to the results of their
experiments. In general terms itmay bestatedthatexplosivechemical
compounds have been found more suitable than explosive mixtures,
because of the uniformity of direction in which they exert their pres-
sure, and from the fact that water does not injure them. Mixtures
may be very powerful, but they are erratic, and require tight cases.
In the United States we use dynamite for harbor mines. It is com-
posed of seventy-five per cent nitro-glycerine and twenty-five per
cent silica ; but blasting gelatine and forcite-gelatine will probably
be adopted, when they can be satisfactorily manufactured here, as
they are more powerful. The former is composed of ninety-two per
cent of nitro-glycerine and eight per cent of gun-cotton, and the
latter of ninety-five per cent of nitro-gelatine and 5 per cent un-:
nitrated cellulose.
For naval use we have adopted gun-cotton as being the most
convenient. In Europe gun-cotton is generally used for both fixed
mines and movable torpedoes ; Russia, Austria and Italy use blast-
ing gelatine also.
In actual warfare but little experience has been had; two Peruvian
vessels were sunk by dynamite in the Chile- Peruvian war; one Turk
by means of gun-cotton during the Turco-Russian war of 1877, and
two Chinese by gun-cotton in the Franco-Chinese war of 1884,
In making experiments to determine the relative strength of the
different explosives under water, very curious and puzzling results
have been obtained. Nitro-glycerine being the simplest and most
complete in its chemical decomposition, and apparently the most
powerful in air, it was natural to suppose that it would be the same
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE, 235
in submarine work; but it was found by Gen. Abbot at Willet's
Point, after repeated experiments, as shown in his report of 1881,
that it was not so powerful in its effect by twenty per cent as dyna-
mite No. I, although the dynamite contained twenty-five per cent of
an absolutely inert substance. His idea was that it was too quick in
its action, and since water is slighdy compressible, a minute frac-
tion of time is required in the development of the full force of the
explosive. Gen. Abbot's results for intensity of action per unit of
weight of the most important substances, are as follows:
Blasting gelatine 142
Forcite gelatine • 133
Dynamite No. i 100
Gun-cotton, wet 87
Nitro-glycerine 81
Gunpowder , 20 to 50
Col. Bucknill, of the Royal Engineers, in his publication of 1888,
gives the following :
Blasting gelatine 142
Forcite gelatine. 133
Dynamite No. i 100
Gun-cotton, dry 100
Gun-cotton, wet 80
Gunpowder 25
In both tables, dynamite No. i is assumed as the standard of com-
parison. Col. Bucknill states that his gun-cotton results differ from
Gen. Abbot's because he experimented with much larger quantities,
viz: 500-pound charges. Gen. Abbot's experiments led him to
believe that an instantaneous mean pressure of 6500 pounds per
square inch would give a fatal blow to the double bottom of a modern
armor-clad, and he developed a formula which gives this blow with
blasting gelatine at the following distances under water, viz :
Pounds.
At 5 feet 4
10 " 17
20 " 67
30 " 160
40 " 3"
Col. Bucknill's experiments caused him to believe that a pressure
of 12,000 pounds per square inch is required, and his formula, which
is somewhat different from Abbot's, gives widely different results at
close quarters, but they approach each other as the distance increases.
236 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
His results are as follows:
Pounds.
At sfeet 22%
10 " 75
20 " 177
30 " 274
40 " 369
Regarding the comparative effects of gunpowder and the high
explosives, I think Gen. Abbot's estimate of a varying value for
powder is more admissible than the fixed value assigned by Col.
Bucknill. Gunpowder gives a push, and detonating compounds a
shock ; as the quantities increase, the push reaches farther than the
shock. According to Gen. Abbot, 100 pounds of dynamite No. i
will have a destructive horizontal range of 16.3 feet, while the same
amount of gunpowder will only have a range of 3.3 feet. Five hun-
dred pounds of dynamite, however, will have a horizontal range of
thirty-five feet, and 500 pounds of gunpowder will have 19.5 feet;
the ratio has diminished from five to two. Whether 6500 pounds
or 12,000 pounds per square inch is necessary to crush the bottom
of an armor-clad will depend largely upon how far apart the frames
of the ship are spaced and what other bracing is supplied, as well as
many local circumstances. It is difficult to judge exactly of these
matters. Some four years ago the Italian government adopted
treble bottoms for their heaviest ships as a result of experiments with
seventy-five pounds of gun-cotton (the charge of an ordinary White-
head locomotive torpedo) against a caisson which was a fac-simile of
a portion of the proposed ships. Onl}' two of the bottoms were
broken through, and when the space between the two inner bottoms
was filled with coal, only the outer bottom was broken. According
to the formulae of either Abbot or Bucknill, there should have been
a local pressure of at least 300,000 pounds per square inch on the
outer skin, and yet judicious interior arrangements rendered it harm-
less to the target. It would not, however, be safe to conclude that
the torpedo was thus vanquished — the immediate result was simply
to create a demand for larger locomotive torpedoes for local appli-
cation, and but little light was thrown upon the results which might
be anticipated from a large mine at a greater distance, whose radius
of explosive effect would embrace a larger portion of the ship, and
especially if the ship were nearly over the torpedo. The local effect
of a detonation is different from the transmitted shock. Experiments
in England have shown that 500 pounds of gun-cotton at forty feet
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 237
below any ship will sink her, and at a horizontal distance of 100 feet,
damage to the interior pipes and machinery is to be expected.
The fact that the high explosives are so much heavier than gun-
powder has an important bearing on the size of the containing case.
Their sp. gr. is as follows :
Nitro-glycerine 1.6
Blasting gelatine 1.45
Forcite gelatine 1.42
Dynamite No. i i .34
Wet gun-cotton 1.32
Dry gun-cotton 1.06
Gunpowder 0.9
Their relative efficiency under water per cubic foot, according to
Bucknill, is as follows :
Blasting gelatine i .38
Forcite gelatine i .27
Dynamite No. i i.oo
Dry gun-cotton 66
Wet gun-cotton 66
Gunpowder 14
The wet gun-cotton has twenty-five per cent of added water.
Mines for harbor defense are of two kinds — buoyant and ground.
The buoyant are usually spherical, and contain from 400 to 500
pounds of explosives. They bring the charge near to the ship's
bottom, but are difficult to manage in a tide-way, and can be easily
found by dragging. The ground mines can be made of any size, and
are not easily found by dragging, but are of little value in very deep
water. They are either cylindrical or hemispherical in shape, and
contain from 500 to 1500 pounds of explosive in from thirty to eighty
feet of water. Mines of any kind are exceedingly difficult to render
efficient when the water is over 100 feet deep. On account of the
tendency of all high explosives to detonate by influence or sympathy,
and the liability of the cases to collapse by great exterior pressure,
harbor mines are separated at a certain distance, according as they
are buoyant or ground, and according to the nature of the explosive.
Five hundred pounds buoyant gun-cotton mines require 320 feet
spacing.
Five hundred pounds buoyant blasting gelatine mines require 450
feet spacing.
Six hundred pounds ground gun-cotton mines require 180 feet
spacing.
238 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
Six hundred pounds ground blasting gelatine mines require 230
feet spacing.
Of torpedoes, other than those described, we have several modern
varieties : submarine projectiles, submarine rockets, automobile and
controllable locomotive torpedoes. The first two varieties, though
feasible, are not developed, and have not yet advanced beyond the
experimental stage. Of the automobile, we have the Whitehead,
Swartzkopf, and Howell. The first two are propelled by means of com-
pressed air and an engine ; the last, by the stored-up energy of a heavy
fly-wheel. Generally speaking, they are cigar-shaped crafts, from
10 to 18 feet long, and 15 to 17 inches in diameter, capable of carry-
ing from 75 to 250 pounds of explosive at the rate of 25 to 30 knots
for 400 yards, at any depth at which they may be set. Of the con-
trollable locomotive torpedoes, the three representative types are the
Patrick, Sims, and Brennan. They are, in general terms, cigar-boats,
about 40 feet long and 2 feet in diameter, carrying charges of 400
pounds of explosive. The Patrick and Sims are maintained at a con-
stant depth under water by means of a float. The Brennan has
diving rudders, like a Whitehead or a Howell. The Patrick is
driven by means of carbonic-acid gas through an engine, and is con-
trolled by an electric wire from shore. The Sims is driven by elec-
tricity from a dynamo on shore, through a cable to an electric engine
in the torpedo. The Brennan is driven and controlled by means of
two fine steel wires wound on reels in the torpedo, the reels being
geared to the propeller-shafts. The wires are led to corresponding
reels on shore, and these are rapidly revolved by means of an engine.
A brake on each shore-reel controls the torpedo. The speed of
all these torpedoes is about 19 knots, and their eflective range one
mile.
A Whitehead was successfully used in the Turco-Russian war of
1877. The Turkish vessel previously mentioned was sunk by one.
Blasting gelatine, dynamite, and gun-cotton are capable of many
applications to engineering purposes on shore in time of war, and in
most cases they are better than powder. They received the serious
attention of French engineers during the siege of Paris, and were
employed in the various sorties which were made from the city, in
throwing down walls, bursting guns, etc. An explosive for such pur-
poses, and indeed for most military uses, should satisfy the following-
conditions :
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 239
(i) Very shattering in its effects.
(2) Insensible to shocks of projectiles.
(3) Plastic.
(4) Easy and safe to manipulate.
(5) Easy to insert a fuze.
(6) Great stability at all natural temperatures and when used in
wet localities.
Neither blasting gelatine, dynamite nor gun-cotton fulfill all these
conditions; but they satisfy many of them, and are more powerful
than other substances. For the destruction of walls, trees, rails,
bridges, etc., it is simply necessary to attach to them small bags of
explosive, which are ignited by means of blasters' fuze and a cap of
fulminate of mercury, or by an electric fuze.
We now come to the application of high explosives to warfare in
the shape of bursting charges for shells. This is the latest phase of
the problem, and it is undoubtedly fraught with the most important
consequences to both attack and defense. Difficult as it has been to
obtain an exact estimate of the force of different explosives under
water, the problem is far greater out of the water and under the
ordinary conditions of shell-fire ; the principal obstacle being in the
fact that it is physically impossible to control the force of large quan-
tities in order to measure it, and small quantities give irregular
results. Theoretically, the matter has been accomplished by Berthe-
lot, the head of the French Government " Commission of Explo-
sives," by calculating the volume of gas produced, heat developed,
etc. ; and this method is excellent for obtaining a fair idea of the specific
pressure of any new explosive that may be brought forward, and
determining whether it is worth while to investigate it further; but
the explosives differ so much from each other in point of sensitive-
ness, weight, physical condition, velocity of explosive wave, influence
of temperature and humidity, that we cannot determine from mere
theoretical considerations all that we would like to know. Various
methods of arriving at comparative values have been tried, but the
figures are very variable, as will be seen by the following tables.
Berthelot's commission, some ten years ago, exploded ten to thirty
grams each in 300-pound blocks of lead, and measured the increased
size of the hole thus made. The relative result was :
No. I dynamite i.
Dry gun-cotton 1.17
Nitro-glycerine 1.20
Powder blew out and could not be measured.
240 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
Mr. R. C. Williams, at the Boston Institute of Technology, in the
winter of 1888 and 1889, tried the same method, but used six grams
in forty-five-pound blocks of lead. He obtained a relative result
of—
No. I dynamite i .
Dry gun-cotton i .37
Nitro-glycerine 2.51
Explosive gelatine 2.57
Forcite gelatine 2.7
Warm nitro-glycerine 2.7
Gunpowder i
The powder gave great trouble in this case, also, by blowing out.
M. Chalon, a FrencH" engineer, obtained some years ago, with a
small mortar, firing a projectile of thirty kilos and using a charge of
ten grams of each explosive, the following ranges :
Metres.
Blasting powder 2.6
No. I dynamite 31.4
Forcite of 75 per cent N. G 43.6
Blasting gelatine 45.
Roux and Sarrau obtained, by experiments in bursting small bomb-
shells, the following comparative strengths of ranges:
Powder i .
Gun-cotton 6.5
Nitro-glycerine lo.o
In actual blasting work the results vary altogether with the nature
of the material encountered, and with the result that is desired to be
accompHshed, viz: throwing out, shattering, or mere displacement.
Chalon gives for quarrying ;
Powder i
Dynamite No. 2, containing 50 per cent nitro-glycerine 3
For open blasting :
Dynamite No. 3, containing 30 per cent N. G i.o
Dynamite No. i, containing 75 per cent N. G 2.5
Blasting gelatine 3.5
For tunneling :
Dynamite No. 3, containing 30 per cent N. G i
Dynamite No. i, containing 75 per cent N. G 3
Explosive gelatine 19
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 24I
Finally, Berthelot's theoretical calculations give a specific pres-
sure of—
Powder i
Dynamite 13
Gun-cotton 14
Nitro-glycerine 16
Blasting gelatine 17
It will be observed that the practical results vary largely from the
theoretical values, but they seem to indicate that gun-cotton and
No. I dynamite are very nearly equal to each other, and that in the
nitro-glycerine compounds, except where gun-cotton is added, the
force appears to be nearly in proportion to the nitro-glycerine con-
tained. From the foregoing it seems fair to estimate roughly the
values of bursting charges of shells as follows :
Powder i
Gun-cotton and dynamite 6 to 10
Nitro-glycerine 13 to 15
Blasting gelatine IS to 17
Attention has been turned in Europe for more than thirty years
towards firing high explosives in shells ; but it is only within very
late years that results have been reached which are claimed as satis-
factory, and it is exceedingly difficult to obtain reliable accounts even
of these. Dynamite was fired in Sweden in 1867 in small quantities,
and a few years later it was fired in France. But two difficulties soon
presented themselves. If the quantity of nitro-glycerine in the
dynamite was small it could be fired in ordinary shells, but the eifect
was no better than with gunpowder. If the dynamite was stronger
in nitro-glycerine, it took but a small quantity to burst the gun. As
early as 1864, dry gun-cotton was safely fired in shells in small
quantities, but when a sufficient quantity to fill the shell-cavity was
used, the gun burst. Some few years ago it was found that if the
gun-cotton was either wet or soaked in paraffin, it could be fired with
safety from powder-guns in ordinary shells, provided the quantity was
small in proportion to the total weight of the shell, (say) five to six
per cent ; but a new difficulty arises from the fact that it breaks the
shell up into very small pieces, and it is an unsettled question among
artillerists whether more damage is done to an enemy by breaking a
shell into comparatively large pieces and dispersing them a long
distance with a bursting charge of powder, which has a propulsive
force, or by breaking it with a detonating compound into fine pieces
242 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
which are not driven nearly so far. Wheh used against troops there
is also the objection to the high-explosive shell that it makes scarcely
any smoke in bursting, and smoke at this point is useful to the artil-
lerist in rectifying his aim. In the matter of shells for piercing
armor, however, there are no two opinions regarding the nature of
the bursting charge. To pierce modern armor at all a shell must be
made of forged steel, so thick that the capacity of the cavity for the
bursting charge is reduced to one-fourth or one-fifth of what it is in
the common shell ; the result is that a charge of powder is frequently
not powerful enough to burst the shell at all ; it simply blows the
plug out of the filling-hole in the rear. In addition it is found that
in passing through armor, the heat generated is so great that the
powder is prematurely ignited. If then we can fill the small cavity
in the shell with an explosive which will not ignite prematurely, and
yec will burst the shell properly after it has passed through the
armor, the problem will be solved. Wet or paraffined gun-cotton
can be made sluggish enough to satisfy the first condition ; but at
present the difficulty is to make it explode at all. The more sluggish
the gun-cotton, the more powerful must be the fuze -exploders to
detonate it, and such exploders are themselves liable to premature
ignition in passing through the armor. The Italians and Germans
claim to have accomplished the desired result up to a thickness of
five inches of armor; gun-cotton and fuze both working well. But
the English authorities say that no one has yet accomplished it. The
Austrians claim to have succeeded in this direction within the last
year with a new explosive called ecrastite (supposed to be blasting
gelatine combined with sulphate or hydrochlorate of ammonia, and
claimed to be one and one-half times as powerful as dynamite).
With a gun of 8.24-inch caliber and an armor-piercing shell weigh-
ing 206.6 pounds, containing a bursting charge of 15.88 pounds of
ecrastite, they are said to have perforated two plates four inches
thick, and entered a third four-inch plate where the shell exploded.
There is a weak point in this account in the fact that the powder
capacity of the shell is said to be 4.4 pounds. This amount is
approximately correct, judging from our own eight-inch armor-
piercing shell ; but if this is true, there could not have been more
than nine pounds of ecrastite in the shell, instead of sixteen, or else
there is an exceedingly small proportion of blasting gelatine in
ecrastite, and if that is the case it is not one and one-half times as
powerful as dynamite. If it is weak stuff it is probably insensitive ;
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 243
and even if it were strong, one swallow does not make a summer.
The English fired quantities of blasting gelatine from a two-inch
Nordenfeldt gun in 1884, but when they tried it in a 7-inch gun in
1885, they burst the gun at once. I have only analyzed this Austrian
case because the statement is taken from this year's annual report of
the Office of Naval Intelligence, which is an excellent authority, and
to illustrate the fact that of the thousands of accounts which we see
in foreign and domestic newspapers concerning the successful use
of high explosives in shells, fully ninety per cent are totally unre-
liable. In many cases they are in the nature of a prospectus from
the inventors of explosives or methods of firing, who are aware of the
fact that it is almost impossible to dispute any statements that they
may choose to make regarding the power of their new compounds,
and thinking, as most of them do, that power alone is required.
Referring to the qualities that I have previously cited as being
required in a high explosive for military purposes, it is sooner or
later found that nearly all the novelties proposed lack some of the
essentials, and soon disappear from the advertising world only to be
succeeded by others. The most common defect is lack of keeping
qualities. They will either absorb moisture or will evaporate; or
further chemical action will go on among the constituents, making
them dangerously sensitive or completely inert, or they will sepa-
rate mechanically according to their specific gravities.
For further clearness on the subject of the shell-charges which have
so far been discussed, the following table is added of weight and
sizes of shells for U. S. naval guns, with their bursting charges of
powder :
6-inch com. cast-steel shell 2l4. to 4 cal. long, wt. 100 lbs., charge 6 lbs.
8 « «' " " " 250 " i^yi "
10 " " " «« " 500 " 27 "
12 " " " '« " 850 " 45
ARMOR-PIERCING FORGED STEEL SHELL.
6-inch, 3 calibers long, weight 100 lbs., charge i^ lbs.
8 «' « " 250 " 3
10 " " " 500 " sVi "
12 " " " 850 " II "
The chief efficiency of small quantities of high explosives having
reduced itself to the case of armor-piercing projectiles, it next
became evident that there was an entirely new field for high explo-
244 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
sives into which powder had entered but little, and this was the intro-
duction of huge torpedo-shells which did not rely for their efficiency
upon the dispersion of the pieces of shell, but upon the devastating
force of the bursting charge itself upon everything within the radius
of its explosive effect. It is in this field that we may look for the
most remarkable results, and it is here that the absolute power of the
explosive thrown is of the utmost importance, provided that it can
be safely used. Attention was at once turned in Europe to the manu-
facture of large projectiles with great capacity for bursting charges,
and it has resulted in the production of a class of shells 4^ to 6
calibers long, with walls only .4 of an inch thick. (If they are made
thinner, they will swell and jam in the gun when fired.)
These shells are used in long guns up to 6 and 8i inches caliber,
and in mortars up to 11. 2 inch. They are made from disks of steel,
3 to 4 feet in diameter and i inch thick, and are forced into shape by
hydraulic presses. The base is usually screwed in, but some 'of the
German shell are made in two halves which screw together. The
Italians were the first in this new field of investigation, but the Ger-
mans soon followed, and after trying various materials, were at length
reasonably successful with gun-cotton soaked in paraffin. Their
8.4-inch mortar shells of 5 calibers contain 42 pounds ; those of 6
calibers contain 57 pounds; and the 11.2-inch mortar shells of 5
calibers contain no pounds.
The projectile velocity used with the mortars is about 800 f. s.
The effect of these shells against ordinary masonry and earth forti-
fications is very great. The charge of forty-two pounds has broken
through a masonry vault of three feet, four inches thick, covered with
two feet, eight inches of cement, and with three to five feet of earth
over all. The shell containing fifty-seven pounds, at a range of two
and one-half miles, broke through a similar vault covered with ten
feet of earth ; but with seventeen feet of earth the vault resisted. In
1883, experiments at Kummersdorf showed that a shell containing
the fifty-seven-pound charge would excavate in sand a crater sixteen
feet in diameter and eight feet deep, with a capacity of twenty-two
cubic yards. The Italians have had similar experiences; but it is
notable that in both Germany and Italy several guns and mortars
have burst. The velocity in the guns is not believed to exceed 1200
to 1300 f. s., and it is not thought that the quantity of gun-cotton is
as great in the gun-shells as in the mortars. I have lately been
informed on good authority that the use of gun-cotton shells has
been abandoned in the German navy as too dangerous.
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 245
The French, in their investigations in this field, found gun-cotton
too inconvenient, and decided upon melenite. This substance has
probably attracted more attention in the military world than all
others combined, on account of the fabulous qualities that have been
ascribed to it. Its composition was for a long time entirely a secret ;
but it is now thought to consist principally of picric acid, which is
formed by the action of nitric acid upon phenol or phenyllic
alcohol, a constituent of coal-tar. The actual nature of melenite is
not positively known, as the French government, after buying it
from the inventor, Turpin, are said to have added other articles and
improved it. This is probable, since French experiments in firing
against a partially armored vessel, the Bellequesne, developed an
enormous destructive effect, while the English, who afterwards
bought it, conducted similar experiments against the Resistance and
obtained no better results than with powder. The proof that the
Bellequesne experiments were deemed of great value by the French
lies in the fact that they immediately laid down a frigate — Dupuy de
Lome — in which four-inch armor is used, not only on the side, but
about the gun-stations, to protect the men; this thickness having
been found sufficient to keep out melenite shell. In most armor-
clads the armor is very heavy about the vitals, but the guns are
frequently much exposed.
The best authenticated composition for melenite consi3ts of picric
acid, gun-cotton and gum-arabic, and lately it is stated that the
French have added cresilite to it. Cresilite is another product of
coal-tar. Melenite is normally only three times as strong as gun-
powder, but it is said to owe its destructive qualities in shells to the
powerful character of the exploder which ignites it. It has been
known for some years that all explosives (including gunpowder) are
capable of two orders of explosion, according as they are merely
ignited or excited by a weak fuze, or as they are powerfully shocked
by a more vigorous excitant. Fulminate of mercury has been found
most serviceable for the latter purpose. With melenite the French
have reproduced all the results that the Germans have eflfected with
gun-cotton, and have found that a shell containing 119 pounds of it
will penetrate nearly ten feet of solid cement, but will not penetrate
armored turrets six to eight inches thick. The French claim that
melenite has an advantage over gun-cotton in not being so dangerous
to handle and being insensible to shock or friction, and they have
obtained a velocity of 1300 f. s. with the 8.8-inch mortar, and claim
246 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
to have obtained 2000 f. s. in long guns up to 6.2-inch caliber.
However this may be, they are known to have had severe accidents
at the manufactory at Belfort, and at least one 5.6-inch gun was burst
at the Bellequesne experiments in firing a sixty-six-pound shell con-
taining twenty-eight pounds of melenite. The French are said to
have large quantities of melenite shells in store, but they are not
issued to service.
Probably one reason why we have so many conflicting yet positive
accounts of great successes in Europe with torpedo-shells is because
each nation wishes its neighbors to think that it is prepared for all
eventuaHties, and they are obliged to keep on hand large quantities
of some explosive, whether they have confidence in it or not. For-
tunately we are not so situated, but, singularly enough, what we
have done in the field of high-explosive projection has been accom-
plished by private enterprise, and we have attacked the problem at
exactly the opposite point from which European nations have under-
taken it. While they have assumed that the powder-gun with its
powerful and relatively irregular pressures was a necessity, and have
endeavored to modify the explosive to suit it, we have taken the
explosive as we have found it, and have adapted the gun to the
explosive. At present the prominent weapon in this new field is
the pneumatic gun, but it is obvious that steam, carbonic acid
gas, ammonia, or any other moderate and regulatable pressure
can be used as well as compressed air ; it is merely a question of
mechanical convenience. In throwing small quantities of certain
high explosives, powder-guns can be used satisfactorily, but when
large quantities are required, the mechanical system of guns possesses
numerous advantages. All the high explosives are subject to pre-
mature detonation by shock ; each of them is supposed to have its
own peculiar shock to which it is sensitive, but what this shock may
be is at present unknown. We do know, however, that premature
explosions in guns are more liable to occur when the charge in the
shell is large than when it is small ; this is due to the fact that when
the gun is fired, the inertia of the charge in the shell is overcome by
a pressure proportional to the mass and acceleration, which pressure
is communicated to the shell-charge by the rear surface of the cavity,
and the pressure per unit of mass will vary inversely as this surface.
If then the quantity of explosive in the shell forms a large proportion
of the total weight of the shell, we approach in powder-guns a con-
dition of shock to it which is always dangerous and frequently fatal.
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 247
The pressure behind the projectile varies from twelve to fifteen tons
per square inch, but it is liable to rise to seventeen and eighteen tons,
and in the present state of the manufacture of gunpowder we cannot
in ordinary guns regulate it nearer than that. It is not a matter of
so much importance so far as the guns are concerned, when using
ordinary projectiles, as the gun will endure a pressure of from
twenty-five to thirty tons per square inch ; but with high explosives
in the shell it is a vitally serious matter. From all I can learn
regarding European practice, it appears that not only are the explo-
sives made sluggish, but the quantity seldom exceeds thirty per
cent of the weight of the shell, and the velocities, notwithstanding,
are kept very low. In the pneumatic gun the velocity is low also,
but so is the pressure in the gun. The pressure in the firing reser-
voir is kept at the relatively low figure of 1000 pounds per square
inch or less, and the air is admitted to the chamber of the gun by a
balance-valve which cuts off just the quantity of air (within a very
few pounds) that is required to make the shot. The gun is long,
and advantage is taken of the expansion of the air. In no case can
the pressure rise in the gun beyond that in the reservoir.
Up to the present time there have been no accidents in using the
most powerful explosives in their natural state, and in quantities
over fifty per cent of the weight of the projectile. I have seen pro-
jectiles weighing 950 pounds, and containing 500 pounds of explo-
sives (300 pounds of the blasting gelatine and 200 pounds of No. i
dynamite) thrown nearly a mile and exploded after disappearing
under water. According to Gen. Abbot's formula, such a projectile
would have sunk any armor-clad floating within forty-seven feet of
where it struck. Apparently there is no limit to the percentage of
explosive that can be placed in the shell, except the mechanical one
of having the walls thick enough to prevent being crushed by the
shock of discharge. In the large projectiles a transverse diaphragm
is introduced to strengthen the walls and to subdivide the charge.
The development of the pneumatic gun has been attended with
some other important discoveries which may be of interest. It is
well known that mortar fire is very inaccurate, except at fixed long
distances, in consequence of the high angle, the slowness of flight of
the projectile, the variability of the powder pressure, and the inability
to change the elevation and the charge of powder rapidly. In the
pneumatic gun, the complete control of the pressure remedies the
most important of the mortar's defects, and makes the fire accurate
248 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
from long ranges down to within a few yards of the gun. It is
obvious that the pressure can be usefully controlled in two ways :
(i) by keeping the elevation of the gun fixed, and using a valve that
can be set to cut off any quantity of air according to the range
desired; (2) by keeping the pressure in the reservoir constant,
and using a valve which will cut off the same quantity of air every
time, changing the elevation of the gun according to the distance.
Another important discovery consists in the application of sub-
calibered projectiles for obtaining increased range. The gun is
smoothbored, and a full-sized projectile is a cylinder with hemi-
spherical ends, to the rear of which is attached a shaft having metal
vanes placed at an angle, which cause the projectile to revolve round
its longer axis during flight. A sub-calibered projectile, however,
being of less diameter than the bore of the gun, has the vanes on
its exterior, and is held in the axis of the gun by means of gas-
checks which drop off as the projectile leaves the muzzle. The
shock to the explosive is, of course, greater than in the full-sized
projectile, but the increase can be calculated, and so far a dan-
gerous limit has not been reached. From the fifteen-inch gun, with
a pressure of 1000 pounds per square inch, and a velocity of about
800 f. s., a range of 4000 yards has been obtained at an elevation of
30° 20, with a ten-inch sub-calibered projectile, about eight calibers
long and weighing 500 pounds. This projectile will contain 220
pounds of blasting gelatine. With improved full-sized projectiles
weighing 1000 pounds, a range of 2500 j'^ards will doubtless be
obtained. At elevations below 15° these long projectiles are liable
to ricochet, and what is now wanted is a projectile which will stay
under water at all angles of fall, and will run parallel to the surface
like a locomotive torpedo. Such a projectile has yet to be invented ;
but I have seen a linked shell which has been experimented with
from a nine-inch powder-gun that partially meets this condition.
It is made of several sections, united by means of rope or electric
wire in lengths of 100 or 150 feet. When fired, all sections remain
together for some distance ; the rear section then first begins to
separate; then the next, and so on. It is primarily intended to
envelop an enemy's vessel, and to remedy the present uncertainty
of elevation in a gun mounted in a pitching boat ; but it is found
that when it strikes the water in its lengthened-out condition, it will
neither dive nor ricochet, but will continue for some distance just
under the surface until all momentum is lost, when it will sink. This
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 249
projectile is at present crude, and has never been tried loaded, but
it will probably be developed into something useful in time.
I have confined my remarks in the foregoing discussion principally
to such methods of using high explosives in shells as have proved
themselves successful beyond an experimental degree, and prac-
tically they reduce themselves to two, viz : using a sluggish explo-
sive in small quantities from an ordinary powder-gun, and using any
explosive from a pneumatic or other mechanical gun. Naturally,
the success of the latter method will soon induce the manufacture of
powders having an abnormally low maximum pressure. There is
undoubtedly a field for the use of such powders in connection with
an air-space in the gun to still further regulate the pressure; but
nothing of this sort has yet been attempted. Many methods of
padding the shell have been devised for reducing the shock in
powder-guns, but the variability of the powder-pressure is too great
to have yet rendered any such method successful. A method was
' patented by Gruson, in Germany, of filling a shell with the two
harmless constituents of an explosive, and having them unite and
explode by means of a fulminate fuze on striking an object. He
used for the constituents nitric acid and dinitro-benzine, and was
quite successful ; but the system has not met with favor on account of
the inconvenience. The explosive was about four times as powerful
as gunpowder.
That the advantage of using the most powerful explosives is a real
one can be easily shown. The eight-inch pneumatic gun in New
York harbor, with a projectile containing fifty pounds of blasting
gelatine and five pounds of dynamite, easily sunk a schooner at
1864 yards range, from the torpedo effect of the shell falling along-
side of it. This same shell, if filled with gunpowder, would have
contained but twenty-five pounds, and have had but one-ninth the
power.
The principal European nations are now building armored turrets
sunk in enormous masses of cement, as a result of their experiences
with gun-cotton and melenite. The fifteen-inch pneumatic projectile,
which I described as being capable of sinking an armor-clad at forty-
seven feet from where it struck, would have been capable of pene-
trating fifty feet of cement had it struck upon a fortification. It was
not only a much larger quantity of high explosive than Europeans
have experimented with, but the explosive itself is probably more
than twice as strong as their gun-cotton, and five or six times as
250 HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE.
Strong as their melenite. In the plans of Gen. Brialmont, one of the
most eminent of European engineers, he allows in his fortifications
about ten feet of cement over casements, magazines, etc. It is evident
that this is insufficient for dynamite shells such as I have described.
At Fort Wagner, a sand work built during our war, Gen. Gilmore
estimated that he threw one pound of metal for every 3.27 pounds
of sand removed. He fired over 122,230 pounds of metal, and one
night's work would have repaired the damage. The new fifteen-inch
pneumatic shell will contain 600 pounds of blasting gelatine, and
judging from the German experiments at Kummersdorf, which I have
cited, one of these fifteen-inch shells would throw out a prodigious
quantity of sand; either 500 pounds to one of shell, or 2000 pounds
to one of shell, according as the estimate of Gen. Abbot or of Capt.
Zalinski is used. The former considers that the radius of destructive
effect increases as the square root of the charge ; the latter, that the
area of destructive effect for this kind of work is directly proportional
to the charge.
The effect of the high explosives upon horizontal armor is very
great, but we have yet to learn how to make it shatter vertical
armor. No fact about high explosives is more curious than this, and
there is no theory to account for it satisfactorily. As previously
stated, the French have found that four inches of vertical armor is
ample to keep out the largest melenite shells, and experiments at
Annapolis, in 1884, showed that masses of dynamite No. i, weighing
from 75 to 100 pounds, could be detonated with impunity when hung
against a vertical target composed of a dozen one-inch iron plates
bolted together.
In conclusion, I may say that in this country we are prone to think
that the perfection of the methods of throwing high explosives in
shell is vastly in favor of an unprotected nation like ourselves, because
we could easily make it very uncomfortable for any vessels that
might attempt to bombard our sea-coast cities.
This is true as far as it goes, but unfortunately the use of high
explosives will not stop there. I lately had explained to me the
details of a system which is certainly not impossible for damaging
New York from the sea by means of dynamite balloons. The
inventor simply proposed to take advantage of the sea-breeze which
blows toward New York every summer's afternoon and evening.
Without ever coming in sight of land, he could locate his vessel in
such a position that his balloons would float directly over the city
HIGH EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE. 25!
and let fall a ton or two of dynamite by means of clock-work attach-
ment. The inventor had all the minor details very plausibly worked
out, such as locating by means of pilot balloons the air-currents at
the proper height for the large balloons, automatic arrangements for
keeping the balloon at the proper height after it was let go from the
vessel, and so on. His scheme is nothing but the idea of the drifting
or cufrent torpedo, which was so popular during our war, transferred
to the upper air. An automatic flying-machine would be one step
farther than this inventor's idea, and would be an exact parallel in
the air to the much dreaded locomotive water-torpedo of to-day.
There seems to be no limit to the possibilities of high explosives
when intelligently applied to the warfare of the future, and the
advantage will always be on the side of the nation that is best pre-
pared to use them.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, M D.
PROPOSED DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE
NAVY, WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE
ARDOIS NIGHT SYSTEM.
By Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. N.
There seems to be some probability of a large fleet being assem-
bled this summer to carry out a programme of manoeuvres on our
coast, and this may be an opportune moment to call attention to
certain deficiencies in our means of communicating between different
vessels and between the different divisions of a fleet.
Very little advance has been made in recent years in the navy in
the matter of signalling, except in the development of various
systems utilizing the electric light. Certainly, in the wig-wag code,
we have taken a step backwards in the adoption of the American
Morse alphabet. The writer is unaware of the reasons which led
originally to changing the superb Meyer one, two, wig-wag code for
the English Morse, but it is commonly credited in the service that
the English Morse was superseded by the even less desirable Amer-
ican Morse, now in use, because the signal corps of our army use
the last-named, and it seemed desirable for both services to have the
same code. If that is the case, we have crippled ourselves in con-
sideration of a very remote advantage. The American code is used
by all operators in the United States, excepting for most exceptional
purposes, and there is an evident advantage in the army signal cqrps
adopting it. With us, the space in the letters c, r, o,y and z, and in
the conjunctive "and," is undesirable in the wig-wag, awkward in
night flashing, and very difficult in fog-whistle signals. However,
we must make the most of it. We have the American Morse code,
and we must try to overcome the difficulties it presents in actual
service, although a return to the Meyer code would not be unwel-
come to the navy at large.
254 DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
The qualities to be sought in any method or device for trans-
mitting signals of any kind between ships are simplicity, rapidity,
reliability and distinctness. As we increase the distance between
the sender and the observer, we find it necessary to exaggerate the
quaHty of distinctness, at the expense not only of rapidity, but usually
of simplicity. Indeed, as between short-distance and distant sig-
nalling, different methods of transmission are found to be necessary.
For instance, our largest signal-flags are eleven feet, and, even with
them, in from three and one-half to four miles we have the limits of
distinctness, as the colors blend ; hence we must resort to some other
method of long-distance day-signalling. Similarly, where hoists ol
lights are used at night, the lights blend at not very great distances,
and we must resort to some other means. It will, indeed, be found
necessary to have for all day, night, and even fog signals, a different
device for long-distance signalling than that used at more or less
short distances.
Any system which is proposed must take into consideration the
immense differences in the rig and type of the various ships likely to
compose a squadron. For instance, as between the Miantonomoh,
Enterprise, Philadelphia, Vesuvius, and Gushing, the differences in
the rigs and sizes of the vessels must necessarily limit the usefulness
of any system apparently of great merit, judged in its applicability
to one type of vessel alone.
DAY SIGNALS.
There are four conditions of service under which a hoist system of
flags fails. One is where the flags fly edge-on to the observer;
another is in a dead calm ; a third is where the sender is in the glare
of the sun between the receiver and the sun ; and a fourth is at long
distances where the colors blend. Now, with the eleven-foot flags
it is possible at great distances to make out the shapes of the flags
in a hoist (as between square flags and pennants) without being at
all ^ble to distinguish the colors. It therefore appears possible, by
the use of various shapes in a hoist, to increase the range of visibility
very materially over the present limit of flags, which limit is from
three and one-half to four miles. This is a much-talked-of and fre-
quently suggested method of overcoming these difficulties. The
objections to using shapes are: i. They take up too much room for
stowage ; 2. they are rather unwieldy and heavy ; and 3. to be light
enough they are seldom strong enough to retain their shape in ser-
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 255
vice. They possess, however, the supreme advantage of visibihty
at very long distances, and there are conditions in time of war which
seem to demand a system of long-range day-signals such as in one
or more vessels as scouts or pickets for a fleet, or in blockading
a port or an enemy with long distances between vessels of the block-
ading squadron, etC|^ In Plate I is given an arrangement of shapes
from which a code may be selected. Figs, i, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are sug-
gested as alternates, or for code indicators, although to prevent the
multiplication of shapes it might be well to indicate a telegraphic or
geographical signal by the ist, 2d or 3d repeater hoisted over a
signal, or displayed at a yard-arm or mast-head accordingly as the
hoist is at the mast-head or yard-arm respectively. Just as satisfac-
tory a way to indicate code signals would be to have numbers added
to the general signal-book to indicate " the code to be used in reading
the signals which follow." The necessity for the use of shapes for
distant signalling might be rare, but it is an open question whether
or not they should (in smaller sizes) replace for all purposes flags as
hoist signals. In a calm, or head to a fresh breeze where the flags
appear edge-on, or in the glare of the sun, they would be visible
where the flags fail. As regards the materials of which shapes could
be made, that is a matter for experiment. Were aluminum cheaper
the solution would be easy. Paper squeezes might be made hard
enough to offer sufficient resistance to abrasion or destruction in
ordinary service. As a matter of fact, steel wire frames and canvas
coverings are most probably the best materials. The shapes should
be painted black or green, and each should be a figure formed by
the revolution of a symmetrical body about that axis which is to be
vertical in the hoist. In this way the shape presents the same appear-
ance to observers at all points of the horizon.
A revised set of hoist signal-flags is being experimented with in
the Squadron of Evolution. A yellow flag with a black ball in the
center is substituted for the old No. 2 (white), in the interests of
visibility ; the repeaters are changed slightly ; the geographical
pennant (blue) becomes an assent flag ; a negative is added ; the
despatch flag is used to replace the geographical pennant, and a new
danger flag is substituted. These changes are, however, not so
important in themselves as is the definite adoption of almost any set
of flags for all ships in the navy. Once adopted, there is little need
for change, unless to discard the whole system in favor of the use of
shapes. There is much to be said on both sides, but the balance
seems to be in favor of the shapes.
256 DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
FOG SIGNALS.
To illustrate the disadvantages of the space in some of the letters
of the American Morse code as applied to the fog-whistle, if the
syllables ele, Hi, eli, ile, sle or els occur, there is no way to distinguish
them from the simple letters o,y, r, c, z or arn^. Furthermore, as
far as there is any official order in the matter, the general call is a
sixty-second blast ; a dot lasts less than five seconds ; a dash, from
five to ten seconds ; and a long dash, front, or space, fifteen seconds.
At this rate, with expert signalmen, five minutes would be good time
in transmitting a change of compass course. It is drawing too fine
a distinction, and above all consumes too much time to grade the
lengths of the blasts as above in order to distinguish between a dot,
a dash, a long dash, a space, and a call. The following changes are
needed : Reduce the general call from sixty to thirty seconds ;
reduce the dot to one full second ; make the dash with two toots,
each a full second, but with only a half-second between them ; use
a four-second blast for a space, and a ten-second blast for the letter
/ or the numeral o. Care must be taken to distinguish between the
letter /, which is two dots (toots), and /, which is two dots or toots
with a half-second interval. To facilitate using the whistle, make fast
the whistle-cord about one foot from the end of a squeeze handle,
and work the handle as a lever, securing one end as the fulcrum, and
applying the hand as the power at the other. In this way one can
manipulate the whistle systematically. It has been suggested in the
service that squadrons should practice as in a fog at sea, by enclosing
the captain, officer of deck, and man at the wheel in a canvas screen,
so that they cannot see around at all, and exercise with whistle,
etc., as in actually steaming in a fog. It would be excellent
practice, and is needed to familiarize people with the new code and
its difficulties. The North Atlantic squadron has been about the
only one, up to recently, where much squadron cruising has been
carried on, and some years ago. with the Meyer code, no difficulties
were experienced in the least in certain forms of tactical drill in
foggy weather.
Distant signalling in a fog beyond the limits of audibihty of the
steam whistle can only be carried on by gun-fire. In this case it is
impossible to make a dash by a prolonged sound, and it should be
represented by two blasts with a full f -second interval, and a space
by three successive fires with a full |-second interval between each.
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 257
The revolving cannon seems to offer the best solution. As the con-
tinued firing of a single gun is a generally recognized international
signal of distress, the general call should be a dot, dash arrangement,
say five dots and five dashes, alternating, first one dot then a dash, etc.
NIGHT SIGNALS.
In the matter of visibility the Very's system of night signals leaves
nothing to be desired. It can be used with accuracy up to ten miles
or more under favorable conditions, and is unexcelled. There are
certain modifications that experience calls for. In the first place,
the pistols are miserably poor affairs. It has been suggested that
short double-barreled breech -loading shot-guns be issued as pro-
jectors. They have been used in the service and been found to work
admirably. In the next place, the original code, involving the
bracket in certain numerals, should be changed for a four-element
code. The bracket leads to too much embarrassment, in that, if one
of the cartridges fails to go off, it involves repeating from the begin-
ning. With a four-element code, if a cartridge fails to go off, one can
keep on trying at least for two minutes to get another one off, as the
ammunition would have to be almost worthless to cause a repetition
of the message on account of over two minutes' delay between fires.
The four-element code now used in the Squadron of Evolution
and the North Atlantic squadron should be issued for general
service. It is as follows :
General Call, G followed by rocket.
Message Call, G. (The message call is to be habitually used as a
general call when the ships are within ordinary signal distance.)
iRRRR 2GGGG
3RRRG 4GGGR
5RRGG 6GGRR
7RGGG 8GRRR
9RGGR oGRRG
Answering, G Repeat, R
Divisional point, date pennant and designating
flag G G R G
Interrogatory pennant RGRR
Affirmative or " yes " pennant R G R G
Negative or " no" pennant G R G R
Numeral pennant GRGG
258 DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
Annulling pennant R R G R
Danger or distress..., R repeated.
Telegraph flag (R G) bracketed.
Geographical pennant (R G) bracketed.
followed by rocket.
Use Navy List ...(R G) (R G)
bracketed in pairs.
While this code involves longer time to work than the original
three-element one, in the end it saves time through the non-liability
of having to repeat. The telegraphic, geographical, and navy list
designations contain brackets, but as these precede a numeral signal,
the correction of the failure of one color in a bracket is quickly
accomplished by beginning over. With a better projector than the
present pistol, and, using the four-element code, the Very's system
possesses for distant signalling the ideal qualities of visibility and
certainty. It is, however, too slow for tactical and routine squadron
signalling at moderate distances. The Squadron of Evolution is
using at present the Ardois system of night signals, and a brief
description of it may not here be out of place. The method of sling-
ing the cable containing the wires leading to the lamps, and of sus-
pending the lamps aloft, is shown in Plate II. The cable is seized at
intervals to a backstay, or a special wire-stay, to take the strain, and
the lanterns themselves are suspended on Scotchmen, which are
seized to the cable, and further supported by a distance-line from
the lantern next above. There are five lanterns, each double, as
shown in section in Plate III, and each containing two 32-candle
incandescent lamps. The outer globe, or lens, of the lantern is in
two colors, the upper half being white and the lower red, separated
on the inside by a brass diaphragm. In any display of lights only
one light in a lantern is shown, that is, the light is either red or
white, but never both red and white in the same lantern. Practi-
cally, the Ardois code admits of a display at any one time of from
one to five lights, any one of which may be red or white. The wires
of the cable lead to a box, circular in shape, and divided on its upper
face into sixty-four segments. A top view of the box is shown in
Plate III. Each segment corresponds to a certain display of lights
which is indicated on the face of the box in that segment by dots,
colored red or white to correspond. In the center of the box, and
in the same plane as the whole top disc, is the circular turn-table,
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 2.
Plate I.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 2.
PJale II.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII.. No.
Plate III.
Diaphragm rj^JJ^ ARDOIS KEY-BOARD.
(Brass).
(Rough Sketch.)
noo
Ota
1 R
1 R
0 R
» R
J R
0 W
• W
c W
« W
• W
»C
«C
« C
i C
0 C
[PROPOSED LAMP
(Sectional View.)
Proposed Key-Board tliat will accomplish all that the
Ardois will and which is adaptable to almost any other
code, such as Very's Night and English and American
Morse Code.s, etc. Scale one-half of above.
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 259
a, carrying with it the pointer, c, and the vertical cylinder, d. When
it is desired to display a letter, say A, the pointer, c, is brought
opposite the segment marked A. When the catch, b, slips into a
space abreast d, the only thing that remains to be done to make the
display (in this case red, white, red) is to turn the handle, e, through
90°. The act of turning the handle, <?, is to revolve the central ver-
tical axis in the cylinder, d, which thrusts out ten little pistons, which
make contact with such terminals as will light up the proper lamps,
so that, in this case, the lamps would show red, white, red. Dis-
plays are read from the bottom upwards. The general call is the so-
called cornet, a red and two whites. There are five code-calls which
indicate which code to use. " Gen " means the general signal-book ;
"Letters," the Ardois alphabet; "Compass," a compass signal;
" Cypher," a special code, etc. Every display of lights is answered
by the ship receiving turning on the same display, each keeping it
on until the sender turns off, which is not done by the sender until
all repeat. In case a ship is so situated as not to be able to see the
display or one or more of the lights of the sending ship, this observer
takes the signal from some other ship and repeats it. In this way
absolute certainty that a message has been accurately received is
attained. It is quite a rapid system of signalling when the fact is
taken into consideration that, through repeating back the signal,
certainty is assured, and the method can be adapted to other codes
and systems. The signals are visible, under favorable circumstances,
up to about three miles. As a summary, it may Be said that the
Ardois theoretically possesses the advantages of certainty, mobility,
rapidity, and visibility for night signalling in squadron. Practically,
there are certain mechanical defects, which, however, admit of cor-
rection. Owing to sparking and the consequent fusing or burning
of the pistons or contact-studs which are thrust out from the
cylinder, d, when the handle, e, is turned, a good deal of overhaul-
ing of the signal-box is necessary. The use of platinum contacts
would obviate this. There is a serious defect, also, in the lanterns,
in the inability to shift a lamp readily in case a filament is destroyed
by burning out or otherwise. Some change could be made in the
lantern to meet this objection, and the quality of certainty be practi-
cally as well as theoretically secured.
There are, however, some serious objections to the use of the
Ardois system in our service, i. It is ever so much too complicated
mechanically, and the same advantages which it offers can be ob-
26o DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
tained much more simply. 2. Each outfit costs about $1800, where
a much less expensive device will accomplish all that it will, and
admit of being readily overhauled in case of faulty circuits, whereas
the Ardois cable is difficult to test out or repair. 3. It introduces a
new alphabet, numerals, and signal code generally, whereas a similar
but much simpler device will admit of the use of the American
Morse alphabet and the Very's code.
The device here proposed is shown in Plates II and III, and may
be described in general terms as follows : It consists of five groups
of three lights each, the groups being spaced about five yards apart,
and each group consisting of a red, a white, and a green light. The
wires running to the lights lead through a long tube, put together
in sections, which will admit of shortening the distances between
groups for special ships, and also admit of readily overhauling the
leading wire circuits in case of the development of faults. There
are, in all, fifteen lights, which, with a common return, would give
sixteen wires in the tube. The insulation of the leading wires should
be colored red, white, or green, according to the color of the light it
operates, and marked with the proper number on a brass tag. The
inside of the tube should be coated with shellac to prevent the
grounding of any wire that might by accident be bared of its insu-
lation.
The wires should lead to a key-board, conveniently located. A
rough sketch of the plan for this is shown in Plate III. The keys
should be thos^of the ordinary kind used in turning on and off an
incandescent light or a branch circuit, and should be arranged in five
sets of three each to correspond with the lights aloft, so that the
keys for the top lights should be on the left of the key-board and in
the same order as they are aloft, viz. red, white, and green. A
switch controls the current, and it is not thrown on until the proper
keys have been turned on the board to make the desired display
aloft. Then the switch is turned and all the desired lights appear
simultaneously, and should be kept on until answered by the same
display from all ships receiving. The display should be read from
the top downwards, just as a hoist of flags would be read, and not
from the bottom up, as in the Ardois. It must be remembered that
in the last-named system the central turn-table must be revolved
each time until the pointer comes opposite the desired letter or char-
acter, then the catch, b, must be sprung, and finally the handle, e,
turned through 90°. Certainly, in the time which is taken by this
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 261
operation, a display could be made by the proposed system, for it
only requires rapidly turning certain keys and then throwing on a
switch. Above the key-board, over each set of keys, should be a
group of very small low-resistance lamps, colored the same as the
lights to which they correspond aloft, and so arranged that, as a key
is turned, its tell-tale miniature light would instantly show with its
proper color. The display above the key-board would be the index
of the correctness of the signal which is about to be displayed aloft
when the switch is thrown on. This will obviate mistakes due to
accidentally turning a wrong key, and admit of placing the key-board
well under cover where the real display is not visible to the sender
or operator.
The proposed lamp is shown in Plate III. The longer the arm,
a, the less the tube, <?, however large it may have to be, will cut off
the light from an observer who has the tube in line with the light.
The arm, a, also admits of having the lamp vertical, which helps it
to shed water. The globe, c, is red, white, or green, accordingly as
we wish, and it is open below to admit of readily shifting the lamp
in case of a broken filament. The globe is held in place by a hinged
collar, d, which tightly clamps it in place. It is a simple matter to
hoist a man in a boatswain's chair. to shift a light or replace a broken
globe, and the proposed arrangement of lamp and globe admits of
both being cleaned readily.
To make a signal according to the Very four-element code : Say
the signal is 1239. Make the message-call by showing the upper
green light until answered. Display four reds, and when all answer
with four reds, turn off; then four greens, etc.; then three reds and
a green, etc. The advantages of this system are that a signal can
thus be sent in one-fourth the time that it can be by firing the colored
lights ; and, by each ship repeating, no mistake in receiving is pos-
sible. Hence for squadron purposes at ordinary distances the gain
is an immense one. To make a bracket, display the upper red and
the second green; to make two brackets, display the upper red,
second green, fourth red, and lowest green. This will leave a space
between the brackets. To make a bracket and a rocket, use the
upper bracket, followed by white, green, and red ; in other words,
make a rocket by a display of white, green, red. It will be observed
that in this device for signalling with the Very's four-element numeral
code, we have to use only four lights at one time, and if for any
reason a light fails, and it happens to be either a red or green of
262 DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY.
either the uppermost or the lowest group of lights, we still have four
reds or greens to work with. In other words, there are two chances
in five of not being blocked temporarily by a failure of a light. In
the cases cited of uppermost or lowest red or green failing, it does
not block us in the double bracket or the bracket and rocket, for we
can always make the alphabetical signal, G. L. U. (geographical list
use), or N. L. U. (navy list use).
To use the American Morse alphabet : This grouping of lights
proposed answers admirably for the service wig-wag code and over-
comes all difficulties. No letter has more than five elements. Call
a white light a dot, a green a space, and a red a dash. It will be
observed that in the alphabet there are spaces only between dots,
hence the green light will only be displayed with whites. For
instance, jj/ would be two whites, green, and two whites; k would be
red, white, and red. Now the numeral codeof the American Morse
contains one numeral, 6, with six dots. We have provided already
for the numeral code in the Very's signals. To use it for wig-wag
numerals, display the uppermost white light over the Very four-
element numeral, and this will signify that the Very numeral, which
appears under it, is to be read as a simple numeral. An " error" is
seven dots, and this should be changed to five reds. There yet
remains one additional feature of this proposed device which must
commend itself. If any light fails so as to apparently block a signal,
we have always recourse to the other two lights of the set in which
the break occurs. For instance, if the red hght fails, display both
the green and white; if the white fails, the green and red; if the
green fails, the red and white. This is the only case in which
two lights of the same set are displayed simultaneously. At long
distances the two lights will blend, as they are only a foot apart, but
an adjacent ship seeing the break will interpret correctly. In tactical
signals speed of signalling is everything, next to certainty, and in any
case we always have the pistols or firing code to fail back on, but in
a squadron at tactical distance there would be no difficulty up to
half a mile in seeing the two lights distinctly. It must be borne in
mind that the failures of lights, here provided against, do not on the
average occur oftener than once in two or three months, but so much
importance is given to that consideration here, because the failure is
bound to occur at a critical juncture, and the remedy must be
immediate. It will be observed that the Ardois code can be as
readily transmitted by this device as by the $1800 machine furnished
DAY, NIGHT, AND FOG SIGNALS FOR THE NAVY. 263
with it, with the additional provision, as above, in case of a failure of
a light. Furthermore, by cypher codes, by changing the color of
globes, by almost any combination, we can adapt this device to
almost any desired system. It will also be observed that the time
gained in displaying all the elements of a letter in one display as
against flashing the elements successively is further increased by
non-liability to having to repeat, and certainty that the message is
received as sent.
There are many details which are omitted on account of lack of
time and space. If, in the coming season, it is desired to fit all the
ships of any squadron with this device, it can be done in a very short
time. All the materials can be purchased in the open market. Any
seaman-gunner ought to be able to run the wires and arrange the
lamps and key-board, as the lamps proposed are very simple, and
the wire is No. 16 (Birmingham gauge), .05 inch in diameter, carrying
seventeen amperes to each lamp. As only two amperes are required,
it leaves a sufficient margin of safety for weathering.
This paper has been somewhat too hastily prepared, and the
illustrations are only rough sketches. Working drawings can be
furnished, but it has been the hope that the requirements of the
device are so simple that no detailed explanation would be needed.
It seems not out of place to here again call attention to the need
for increased pay, and the rating of signalmen on board ship for
those called upon to stand signal watch.
It would be a good thing just now to undertake a thorough over-
hauling of orders relating to signals and a correction of defects in the
systems in use. Anything that can be proposed has objections that
can be cited against it, but anything is better than confusion and
lack of uniformity. Doubtless the reports from the various squad-
rons throw much light on the experiments now being conducted.
It can at least do no harm to propose the following scheme :
For I. Day, ordinary: Small shapes in a hoist.
2. Day, distant : Large shapes in a hoist.
3. Fog, ordinary : Steam whistle.
4. Fog, distant: Gun-fire with revolving cannon.
5. Night, ordinary : Five groups of lights of three colors each.
6. Night, distant : Very's night code of four elements.
We have already the international code, and the above, or any-
thing else to take its place, contains enough work to make it worth
while for us to rate our signalmen and pay them better.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVaL institute, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
By Joseph W. Richards/A. C, Ph. D.,
Instructor in Metallurgy, Mineralogy and Blow-piping, at Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pa. : Member U. S. Naval Institute.
Metallurgy is the art of extracting metals from their ores and
bringing them into that state of purity which is necessary for their
industrial application. Electro-metallurgy is that branch of the
metallurgic art in which the agency of electricity is employed. We
would then define electro-metallurgy as the art of extracting metals
from their ores or of refining them, on a commercial scale, by the
agency of the electric current.
Before going into the further classification of this subject, let us in-
quire into its history. We can hardly realize, in this age of electrical
wonders, that it is less than a century since Volta discovered current
electricity. Messrs. Nicholson and Carlisle first made known, in
1800, the chemical powers of an electric current, that it would
decompose water and certain saline solutions. Kissinger and
Berzelius, in 1S03, and Davy, in 1807, enlarged upon this subject,
the latter especially achieving renown by decomposing the fixed
alkalies by the electric current and first isolating the alkaline metals.
Faraday was the first to determine accurately the laws governing the
electric deposition of metals from solution, a phenomenon to which
he gave the term of Electrolysis. It was thus known, early in this
century, that the electric current would, if properly applied, deposit
metals from solutions of their salts in water.
In 1836, De la Rue, working with Daniell's recently-devised con-
stant-current battery, discovered that when a copper plate was elec-
266 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
trically coated with a sheet of metallic copper, and the sheet stripped
from the plate, every scratch in the plate had its counterpart in the
sheet which was deposited on it. This discovery gave rise to the
very useful art of galvano-plasty, by which fac-simile impressions are
so easily obtained, and which has its widest application in the modern
methods of electrotyping.
In 1838, Messrs. Elkington and Barratt obtained patents for pro-
cesses of electrically depositing gold, silver, platinum and zinc upon
articles, to serve as a protective plating. These were the first prac-
tical electric-plating processes, which have expanded to such a
wonderful degree at the present day.
However, there are many metals which cannot be electrically
deposited from aqueous solution, and Professor Bunsen, in 1853,
devised an extremely ingenious method of treating such cases. He
was experimenting on the electrolytic production of magnesium, and
instead of a solution in water he simply fused anhydrous magnesium
chloride by heat, in a crucible, and used the molten salt as the liquid
bath or electrolyte. This device was successful, and opened a new
field for investigation of electric action. By using a similar method,
in 1855, H. Saint-Claire Deville succeeded in first producing a bar
or stick of aluminium.
As far back as 1847, Maximilian, Duke of Leuchtenberg, proved
that when impure copper containing precious metals is used as an
anode in a copper sulphate solution, the copper deposited on the
cathode is of exceptional purity, while the precious metals are left
undissolved in a concentrated form ready for further treatment. He
foresaw that a day might come when this discovery would be of great
importance.
And now, we may well ask, what obstacle prevented the inaugura-
tion of electro-metallurgic processes? The electric current deposits
many metals from aqueous solution in a very pure state ; metals not
yielding to this method can be obtained by electrolysis of a molten
bath of their salts, and an excellent process for refining copper and
extracting its gold and silver is worked out ; yet the real art of
electro-metallurgy, as I have defined its meaning, was non-existent.
The cause is not hard to find. Until the introduction of Wilde's
magneto-electric machine, in 1865, all electrolytic operations were
conducted with the current from batteries, and it needs no explana-
tion to see that the application of this electric process to the extrac-
tion of metals from their ores, or refining them, was a commercial
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 267
impossibility. The introduction of Wilde's machine may be taken
as the starting-point of all our commercial electro-metallurgic success,
for it furnished large electric currents at a cost many times less than
the battery, and rendered financially possible several methods of
electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy, as a practised art, dates from 1865.
It will be readily seen that 1 exclude from the meaning or scope of
the term electro-metallurgy the processes of electrotyping, electro-
plating, and all electric processes which are not metallurgic, in the
true sense of that word. I confine the term simply to the extraction
of metals from their ores and their refining on a commercial scale.
Many of the so-called treatises on electro-metallurgy are really
treatises on electro-plating, etc., dismissing the metallurgic side of
the question in probably one or two short chapters. The distinction
which I have made is a real one, and has been fully appreciated by
•Dr. Gore, who, in the preface to his recently published "Electric
Separation of Metals," really a work on electro-metallurgy, says :
" This volume is written to supply a want. No book entirely devoted
to the electrolytic separation and refining of metals exists at present
(1890) in any language; those hitherto written on the subject of
electro-metallurgy are more or less devoted to eleciro -plating, the
molding or copying of works of art, etc., by electro-deposition."
A division of the subject of electro-metallurgy might be made into
the science and the art ; that is, the theoretic principles of electro-
deposition on which the art is based, and the art itself, of practically
applying those principles. The theoretical principles underlying
the art are simply those of electrolysis, common to the whole subject
of electro-deposition; their practical application to metallurgic
operations constitutes the art of electro-metallurgy. The principles
were mostly well known prior to 1865, but their commercial applica-
tion dates from that time.
Electro-metallurgy falls naturally into two divisions :
I. Extraction of metals from their ores by electricity.
II. Refining of metals by electricity.
The latter division was the first to be put into practical operation.
By its nature it must be an adjunct to some other metallurgic opera-
tion for reducing the ore to metal, and constitutes only a subsidiary
part of some ordinary metallurgic process. We will, therefore, con-
sider this latter division first, in order to clear the ground for a
discussion of processes of the first division, the true, independent
electro-metallurgic processes.
268 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
REFINING OF METALS BY ELECTRICITY.
In 1865, immediately on the introduction of Wilde's electro-
magnetic machines, Mr. Elkington of Birmingham, England, started
a plant for refining copper which has been in practical operation
ever since. It has been already explained that the possibility of this
method had been proven many years before, so that Mr. Elkington's
enterprise consisted essentially in starting on a large commercial
scale what had been done on a small scale, with the battery, almost
twenty years before. The plant was commercially successful, and
was the father of the many large copper-refining plants now scattered
through Europe and America.
The rationale of the electric copper-refining is as follows : The
metallurgy of copper has always been a rather complicated afiair.
By one or two smeltings the ore can readily be reduced to an
impure copper, but the heaviest part of the work has still to be done
in refining this to pure copper. Especially is the question made
difficult when the impure copper contains silver, which is frequently
the case. In this event, the only practical way to get out the
precious metal was to dissolve up the entire mass of copper in acid
and separate the silver chemically, by precipitation. It was at this
point that the electric method of refining stepped in. It took the
impure copper, produced by ordinary dry smelting from the ores,
and converted this at one operation into the very purest copper ;
meanwhile, at the same time, extracting all the precious metals. It
is thus seen that a very wide field was open to this art of refining,
and that the financial side of the question was materially assisted by
the high price commanded by the superior quality of copper pro-
duced. The operation of refining may be briefly described as
follows: The impure copper is cast into plates about 18 inches
square and ^ inch thick, with lugs projecting from the corners at
one end. These are connected with the positive pole of the electric
generator, and hung at intervals of four to six inches in a trough
filled with solution of sulphate of copper. Between these are hung
thin sheets of pure copper of similar shape, connected with the other
pole of the dynamo, on which the pure copper is deposited. To,
ensure success, close attention has to be given to the concentration
of the bath, its temperature, and that it has free circulation. When
working properly, only pure copper will be transferred from the
anodes to the thin sheet cathodes. The impurities in the copper
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 269
behave as follows : The iron is dissolved, goes into solution as
sulphate and accumulates in the bath, not being deposited with the
copper. When the bath contains a certain amount of iron, it can be
purified by being run out, concentrated and crystallized, the iron
sulphate crystallizing out first. Bisjtitiih, Hn and arsenic also pass
into solution, but need not be deposited with the copper if the
manager attends carefully to the various details. Gold, silver,
platimim, cuprous oxide and cvpric sulphide, with most of the
bismuth and some tiyi and arsenic, remain undissolved and fall as
mud to the bottom of the bath. This residue, therefore, contains all
the precious metals present, in a very concentrated form suitable for
further treatment by ordinary cupellation methods. The deposited
copper ought to be very nearly chemically pure.
The electric refining of copper has developed into an immense
business. There are in operation twelve works in Germany, one in
Italy, five in France, six in England, and six in the United States.
Their annual production is many thousand tons, being a consider-
able proportion of the entire production of pure copper.
The only other metal to which electric refining has been applied
on a commercial scale is lead. Metallic lead can be refined with
much more ease, by ordinary furnace methods, than impure copper,
yet it is a difficult matter to extract from it the precious metals.
These are usually removed by the ancient method of cupellation, or
by de-silverizing by zinc (Parke's process). Dr. Keith of New
York devised, in 1878, an electric method of refining argentiferous
lead, whereby the silver was extracted and a very pure lead obtained.
The process was similar in most respects to the refining of copper,
the lead anodes being, however, enclosed in thin muslin bags, which
allowed the solution to pass through them but retained all insoluble
residue. The solution consisted of acetate of soda in which sulphate
of lead was dissolved. During the operation the iron and zinc
present go into solution, but are not deposited with the lead. Anti-
mony, arsenic, copper, silver and gold remain in the residue, which
is treated in a similar manner to the residue from copper-refining.
The baths were kept at about 100° F. This process was operated
for some time on a large scale at Rome, N. Y,, but it was not suffi-
ciently economical to compete with later improvements in other
methods of de-silverizing bullion, and has been abandoned.
It is thus seen that the copper-refining is the only kind of electric
refining in practical operation, and it is rendered possible by the
270 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
difficulties of the methods of refining by the ordinary furnace pro-
cesses. The chief items of expense in a refining plant are the large
number of depositing vats needed for even a small-sized works, and
interest on the large stock of metal locked up in the anodes and
being in course of deposition. In one of the largest plants in the
United States as much as 350 tons of copper are in course of treat-
ment at one time, while the plant covers several acres. The relative
slowness of deposition by electrolytic action is the chief difficulty
with which all electric processes have to contend.
EXTRACTION OF METALS FROM THEIR ORES BY ELECTRICITY.
Metallurgically, there may be distinguished three distinct methods
of applying the electric current to the extraction of metals from their
compounds or ores :
I. Electro-deposition from aqueous solution.
II. Electro-deposition from a fused electrolyte.
III. Electro-thermal reduction.
I.
This heading includes a great number of electro-metallurgic
processes. The method has been principally applied to the metal-
lurgy of copper, silver, gold and zinc, and has developed on two
distinct lines.
ist. Preparation of a solution of the metal and electrolysis of this
by means of insoluble anodes, or anodes of a metal other than that
being deposited.
2d. The use of anodes made of the metallic compound or ore, the
solution being regenerated by the acid set free attacking these anodes
and dissolving out the metal.
Operations of the first class are particularly applicable to the iso-
lation of copper or zinc, which are easily brought into solution.
Copper exists as sulphate in many mine-waters, which need only to
be concentrated by evaporation to be ready for treatment. Many of
the ores of copper and zinc can be treated so as to convert the metal
into soluble sulphate. Thus, if copper pyrites is carefully burnt,
most of the copper will form sulphate and can be washed out of the
residue. Oxide or carbonate ores can easily be brought into solu-
tion by treatment with sulphuric acid. When a solution of copper
sulphate thus formed is electrolysed, using sheet-iron anodes and
sheet-copper cathodes, copper is deposited on the latter, while the
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 27 1
anodes are dissolved and ferrous sulphate goes into solution. When
all the copper has been deposited the solution can be evaporated to
dryness, and the sulphate of iron regained and used over in the
roasting operation, converting copper oxides into soluble sulphate.
This method of electrolysis is often performed without the aid of an
outside current, the copper and iron electrodes being simply con-
nected by wires outside of the bath, the electricity generated by this
galvanic couple being sufficient to electrolyse the solution and
deposit the copper.
Zinc ores can be treated in a very similar manner. Letrange's
process consists in taking zinc sulphide (blende), roasting it so as to
convert as much as possible into sulphate, and leaching the product.
Some zinc oxide will be formed, which, with unchanged zinc sulphide,
will remain undissolved in the residue. The sulphate solution is
electrolysed, using thin plates of zinc for cathodes and lead plates
for anodes. The lead being insoluble in sulphuric acid is unattacked
by the solution, which therefore gradually becomes more acid as the
zinc is removed and the free sulphuric acid accumulates. When the
zinc has been removed to a certain extent, the acid solution is run
out and passed over the residues left from the leaching operation.
The acid extracts the rest of the zinc from these, the solution being
at the same time replenished with zinc and its acidity taken away.
The extraction of zinc from the ore is thus practically complete, a
result far from being reached by the ordinary zinc processes.
Letrange's process has been worked in France, and the whole ques-
tion of its applicability seems to be that of cost of metal, the process
being industrially quite a success.
The use of metallic compounds for anodes affords a direct method
of extracting metal from its ore in a minimum number of operations.
These kind of electric processes were evolved from the copper-
refining processes by a natural transition. In the latter, the impure
copper used as anodes is dissolved by the acid set free by electro-
lysis, and thus the solution is regenerated. Marchesi, of Genoa, had
the idea that since cuprous sulphide is attacked by free acid, that
the impure copper might be replaced by copper matte from an
earlier stage of the ordinary smelting processes, and thus one or
more of the smelting operations be rendered unnecessary. He found
the operation somewhat more difficult than with impure copper, yet
he succeeded in making it practicable and it is now used on a large
scale. The copper matte, sometimes obtained by only a single
272
ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
smelting operation direct from the ore, is cast into slabs, which are
used in a copper sulphate solution exactly as if they were impure
copper. The reactions are similar to those in refining impure
copper; the precious metals particularly being thus very easily
separated in the residues or mud.
In Luckow's zinc process, a bath is made of solution of zinc sul-
phate ; the cathode is a thin sheet of pure zinc, and the anode is a
mixture of zinc ore and coke, finely ground and well mixed together
and held in an open-work case of wood. As zinc is removed from
solution by the electrolytic action, the free acid attacks the anode,
dissolving out the zinc ore. The carbon is placed in the anode
to conduct the electricity ; for, while impure copper and even copper
matte conduct electricity, the zinc ore is practically a non-conductor
of the current.
II.
About 1854, Bunsen made a new departure in electrolytic methods
by subjecting a fused salt to the action of the current. He placed
anhydrous magnesium chloride in a crucible, melted it at a gentle
heat, and then dipped into it two electrodes of dense carbon, such as
comes from gas-retorts. Magnesium was obtained at one electrode
and chlorine gas at the other. Soon after, Deville electrolysed in a
similar manner the anhydrous double chloride of aluminium and
sodium. In such a bath, the current decomposes only the aluminium
chloride, producing aluminium and chlorine; the sodium chloride
being a more fixed compound is not decomposd if the current is
properly regulated. In this way Deville made the first masses of
aluminium which had ever been produced. He tried hard to perfect
the process. He operated on a large scale, and tried to effect the
regeneration of the bath and stop the evolution of chlorine at the
anode by making the latter of a mixture of carbon and alumina,
made by mixing the latter with pitch, moulding into shape and
coking at a high heat. The electrolysis went on easily at 500° to
600° C, but the greatest difficulty met with was the disintegration of
the electrodes, particularly the anode. A fundamental difficulty in
the way of commercial success lay in the use of the battery to gen-
erate the current, an obstacle only overcome by the introduction of
dynamo-machines many years later.
As early as 1879 it was proposed to produce aluminium by a
method similar to Deville's, yet using dynamo-currents. In 1883,
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 27.3
Dr. Richard Gratzel of Bremen obtained patents for a similar
process, which was operated for about four years by the "Aluminium
und Magnesium Fabrik" at Hemelingen, and many thousand kilos
of aluminium made. Dr. Kleiner's process for producing aluminium
consists in fusing the mineral cryolite (a double fluoride of alumin-
ium and sodium) between two carbon electrodes which touch each
other, producing a large electric arc. When the bath is well fused
the electrodes are drawn apart, and the fused mineral is electrolysed
by the current into aluminium and fluorine (the sodium fluoride
remaining unattacked if the current is properly regulated), while the
bath is maintained in fusion by the heat generated by the passage
of the current. Mr. Hall, whose process is being operated by the
Pittsburgh Reduction Company, takes a bath of fused cryolite and
stirs into it alumina until it is saturated. On passing an electric
current through this bath, by carbon electrodes, the alumina, which
is as it were dissolved in the cryolite, is the only compound attacked
by the current, because it is the weakest of the three present, and
thus the cryolite solvent remains untouched. When the alumina is
all decomposed, the bath is regenerated by simply stirring in some
more, and thus the operation is continuous. In practice only one
electrode dips into the bath, the positive one, while the carbon
lining of the iron pot holding the bath is made the negative. The
bath is kept fluid by the heat generated by the current, which can
be regulated by the distance between the positive carbons and the
bottom of the pot. A plant of 500 horse-power is now manufac-
turing about six tons of aluminium a month by this process.
We cannot take the space even to name all the different devices
used in electrolysing fused aluminium salts ; one hundred pages
would no more than suffice to describe them all.
This method of electrolysis has also been applied to the isolation
of sodium. Jablochoff devised apparatus for decomposing sodium
chloride (common salt), which consisted of a large pot in which the
salt was fused, with arrangements to feed the bath as it was used up.
Dipping into the salt were two electrodes of carbon, encased in tubes
which also dipped under the surface of the bath. The products of
electrolysis in this case were both vapors, the sodium vapor being
led into a condenser, while the chlorine gas from the positive carbon
was led into chambers where it was utilized for making bleaching
powder.
274 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
III.
The electro-thermal processes are primarily dependent on the
utilization of the enormous temperature of the electric arc, by inter-
rupting a powerful current, by this agency bringing about chemical
reactions which would not take place at temperatures attainable by
any other means.
As far back as 1853, John Henry Johnson applied for a patent in
England for "smelting iron and other ores" by electricity. He
states that the metallic ores are to be ground, mixed with charcoal,
and dropped between the poles of large electrodes, across which a
voltaic arc is established. The ore thus treated separates into molten
metal and slag, which are run out of the reduction chamber into an
exterior vessel, where they may separate. In 1873 Werderman
claimed the process of crushing the metallic ore, mixing with car-
bonaceous matter, heating to redness, and then raising the temper-
ature to the point necessary for reduction by passing an electric
current, led into the mass by terminal electrodes of carbon or other
refractory conductor of electricity. Many advantages are thus
gained by reduction in an enclosed space, where the atmosphere is
perfectly reducing and the temperature almost unlimited. Such
apparatus have been very appropriately called " electric furnaces."
It will readily be recognized that such operations are expensive, and
could not apply profitably to the production of the common metals.
They have been used almost exclusively for reducing the most
refractory ores.
Messrs. A. & E. H. Cowles, of Cleveland, Ohio, were the first to
apply the electric furnace to the reduction of aluminium compounds
on a commercial scale. Their type of furnace consists of a horizontal
fire-brick-lined cavity, in which the mixture for reduction is placed,
and through the ends of which pass two large carbon electrodes.
The charge is carbon, alumina and a metal, usually granulated copper
or iron ; and the furnace is covered with a fire-clay slab. On passing
the current from a 300 horse-power dynamo machine, and gradually
drawing the electrodes apart, an interrupted arc of several feet in
length is produced, and, at the temperature obtained, alumina melts,
copper vaporizes, carbon crystallizes, and alumina is reduced by
carbon. The product is an aluminium alloy. If the alloying metal
is left out, no quantity of pure aluminium can be obtained, since it
partly vaporizes and obstinately sticks in thin sheets to the lumps of
carbon, refusing to run together.
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 275
H^roult's furnace for reducing alumina works on the same principle,
but is arranged differently. A large iron case is filled with carbon,
a cavity hollowed out on top, and a large carbon electrode hung so
as to dip into this cavity. On placing copper in the hole and lower-
ing the carbon, the iron case being connected with the negative pole
of the dynamo, the arc formed between the carbon rod and the
copper soon melts the latter. Then alumina is thrown in, which is
also liquefied by the arc. The operation then proceeds as if it were
the simple electrolysis of a fused bath, the copper being the negative
electrode and the alumina the electrolyte. Aluminium being set
free, the copper absorbs it and forms aluminium bronze.
Several other forms of electric furnaces for reduction have been
devised. In one, the two electrodes are made of a mixture of the
ore and carbon, and when the arc is passed between their points the
reduced material falls into a crucible beneath. In another, the
carbon electrodes are made hollow, and the material to be reduced
fed through the rods into the arc, where it is reduced. Some of
these forms may yet be made serviceable, but the Cowles and
Heroult furnaces are the only ones which have so far been success-
fully operated on a commercial scale.
CALCULATIONS.
Having briefly reviewed the various kinds of electro-metallurgical
processes, we will note, by means of a few illustrations, the method
of calculating the amount of power required to decompose com-
pounds by electrolysis, and thus obtain means of estimating the
percentage of useful effect in any process for which we have the
necessary details.
An electric current has two factors — quantity and tension ; the
former measures its absolute amount, the latter its power of over-
coming resistance. The unit of quantity is an ampere (measured on
an ampere meter), the unit of tension is a volt (measured by a volt
meter). Whether the affinities of a chemical compound will be
overcome by a given current will depend on whether the current is
of sufficient tension; when a current is of the required tension, the
amount of chemical action performed will be proportional solely to
the quantity of the current. The dynamic energy of an electric
current is proportional to the product of its quantity by its tension ;
z. e. a current of one ampere at a tension of one volt has a definite
276 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
mechanical value, and if this force is exerted in one second, the unit is
called a Watt. This unit is at the foundation of all our subsequent
calculations, and its absolute value is of first importance. The mean
of the best experimental determinations make one Watt equal to
0.00024 calories of heat or to o.i kilogrammeter of work, and there-
fore nearly i-750th of a horse-power. (French measures.)
As before stated, assuming that a current is of sufficient tension,
the chemical work which it will do depends solely on its quantity.
Some unit of chemical work per unit of electrical quantity would
seem to be needed here, and this is given in the determination that
when an electric current is decomposing water, each ampere passing
sets free 0.000010352 gramme of hydrogen. The amount of oxygen
liberated at the same time is necessarily eight times as great, and we
can therefore pass directly to the law that the amounts of different
elements liberated by a current of given quantity are proportional
to their chemical equivalents. The amount of any element set free
by one ampere is its electro-chemical equivalent, and is obtained by
multiplying the electro-chemical equivalent of hydrogen by the
chemical equivalent weight of the element.
The question of the tension necessary to decompose a compound
follows immediately the statements of the two preceding paragraphs.
We know from thermal data that to liberate 0.00001035 gramme of
hydrogen from water requires an expenditure of energy represented
by 0.00001035 X 34- 162 = 0.000358 calories. But a current of one
ampere at a tension of one volt is mechanically equivalent to only
0.00024 calories, and therefore the work being done in decomposing
the water absolutely requires that the strength of the current shall
be at least -^ ^ = 1.49 volts. This is the absolute minhnum of
0.00024
electro-motive force which will operate the decomposition of water.
The force of this reasoning may appear clearer if we were to assume,
for argument's sake, that a current with a tension of i volt could
decompose water. If so, every ampere passing represents one Watt
of energy, or 0.00024 calories ; but it sets free 0.00001035 gramme
of hydrogen, which if burnt back to water would set free 0.000358
calories. We have therefore created energy, being able to get one
and a half times as much energy from the product as were expended.
Of course we consider this an impossibility, and see at once that the
one ampere must be propelled by a tension of at least i^ volts in
order that its mechanical energy may be equal to the work which
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 277
we know that it does. The tension practically required will always
be greater than this calculated minimum, for the reason that the
transfer resistance (the resistance which the current meets in passing
from the electrodes into the electrolyte) and the conduction re-
sistance (that met by the current in passing through the electrolyte)
have to be overcome. These resistances do not result in the
accomplishment of any chemical work, but cause a proportional part
of the energy of the current to be converted into heat, which warms
up the electrolyte. These latter resistances will vary principally
with the temperature of the bath (as far as it affects the conductivity
of the electrolyte) and the distance of the electrodes apart ; the
transfer resistance is apt to be abnormally increased by the elec-
trodes becoming coated over with a layer of non-conducting gas or
liquid, a phenomenon called polarisation, and which we have time
only to mention. Among all these variable resistances, that required
for decomposition is the only one which is constant, and even it is
not absolutely so, if critically examined, but decreases slightly with
an increase in temperature of the bath.
A careful application of the principles just reviewed will enable us
to discuss any of the problems presented in electro-metallurgy. In
order for electrolysis to take place at all, it is necessary that the
electrolyte be in the fluid state and that it be, when fluid, a con-
ductor of electricity. These conditions being filled, and proper
electrodes put in place, then the current passing between the elec-
trodes must be of a certain minimum tension to accomplish decom-
position. When the anode is soluble, and is gradually dissolved by
the bath, the chemical heat of its solution may be set against the
chemical work which the current does in decomposition, thus lessen-
ing the decomposition resistance. For instance, when, as in refining
copper, metal is dissolved from the anode, the action at the anode is
just the reverse of the decomposition taking place in the electrolyte,
one oft'sets the other, and the only resistances to be overcome by the
current are those of transference, conduction and polarisation.
When, as in producing aluminium from cryolite, a metallic compound
is broken up at the anode, such as alumina, its heat of formation will
be the measure of the decomposition resistance, lessened, if the
alumina is mixed with carbon, by the heat of union of the oxygen
with carbon. We will conclude these calculations by analysing an
example of each of the four kinds of electro-metallurgic processes,
viz. refining, and the three divisions of electro-metallurgic processes
proper.
278 ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
Refining. — As before remarked, in refining, the decomposition
resistance becomes nil, and the current has only to overcome the
transfer resistances, etc. Since these latter are small, a very small
electric current will refine a large weight of copper, if the baths are
placed in series, the quantity deposited in each bath being propor-
tional to the number of amperes of current. The amount of anode
surface in each bath must be regulated according to the quantity of
the current. It is found that the purest copper deposits, and in
best condition for further handling, when about 5 ounces are depos-
ited per square foot per 24 hours (ij kilos per square meter). So,
while the conduction resistance in each bath would be lessened, and
the number of baths which could be used in a series increased by
enlarging the anode surface, yet the total anode surface per bath
will be regulated by the above principle.
At Elkington's works at Pembrey, near Swansea, an engine of 65
indicated horse-power ran a dynamo giving a current of 350 amperes
at no volts, equal to ^^^ ^ ^'^ = 5 1 i electrical horse-power. (Effi-
ciency of dynamo, 80 per cent.) This current was sent through a
series of 200 vats, each with an anode surface of 44 square feet, with
electrodes about two inches apart. The output was 4000 pounds in
24 hours. Looking into these figures, we see that a current of 350
amperes should deposit in 200 vats the following quantity of copper
per second :
Electro-chemical equivalent Chemical equivalent ^ No. of amperes No. of vats
of hydrogen ^ of copper ^ ■^
0.00001035 gramme X S^-^ X 35° X 200
equal to 22.887 grammes per second, or 1980 kilos, equal to 4355
pounds per day. There was therefore an efficiency in this regard of
92 per cent. The number of volts absorbed by each bath was
Ii^ = o.55, and the density of the current was 5^ =8 amperes per
200 44
square foot of anode surface. If a greater density had been used, in
order to produce more copper with a given anode surface, the quality
of the deposited copper would have suffered. The amount of copper
deposited by this current was about 7 ounces per square foot of
anode per day, an amount rather above the average.
Electric deposition from aqueous solution. — The case of deposition
with insoluble anodes may be illustrated by an experiment made
with Letrange's zinc process. With five vats in series, a current of 75
amperes at 13.05 volts, continued 4! hours, deposited 1.475 kilo-
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 279
grammes of zinc. Let us first investigate the efficiency of the deposi -
tion. The chemical equivalent of zinc is 32.5, so that 0.00001035 X
32.5 X 75 = o.025263gramme should have been deposited in each vat
per second, or 32.2 kilos in the 5 vats in 44 hours. The efficiency is
therefore but 4.6 per cent. The reason for this very small return is
to be found in considering the voltage required and used. The
separation of the electro-chemical equivalent of zinc from zinc sul-
phate represents a thermal value of 0.000566 calories, and the voltage
required to decompose zinc sulphate will therefore be this quantity
divided by 0.00024 calories, or 2.359 volts. But it requires only
1.49 volts to decompose water, therefore we see why only 46
per cent of the current isolated zinc, — the rest was used up in
decomposing the water of the bath into its elements. We see that
^' ^ = 2.61 volts were actually used to each vat. If 6 vats had
been used, the voltage for each would have been 2.17, and no zinc
would have been deposited at all, but all the current wasted in
decomposing water. If less than 5 vats had been used with this
current, a larger proportion of deposited zinc would have been
secured in each bath than 4.6 per cent of what the current might
deposit, that is, more zinc and less hydrogen would have been pro-
duced in each bath, but the gain in this respect would not have
made up in the sum-total for the dropping off in the number of
baths. It is thus seen that the decomposition of a salt in solution,
with insoluble anodes, is a very uneconomical proceeding if the de-
composition resistance is large enough to involve the decomposition
of the water.
If, on the other hand, a soluble anode is used, the decomposition
resistance may be greatly decreased, as has been before explained.
For instance, copper sulphate requires 1.25 volts for its decomposi-
tion ; but if an iron anode is used, the solution of the iron sets up an
auxiliary current of 2.01 volts. Therefore the iron helps the decom-
position to such an extent that outside help is unnecessary, for about
0.76 volt more than is required for decomposition is furnished,
enough to overcome all the other resistances of conduction, etc.
We therefore see why, if the iron and copper cathode are simply
connected by a wire outside the bath, the use of external currents is
unnecessary. If an outside current were used in such a case it
would, after supplying losses by conduction resistances, simply
increase the voltage above 2.01, and thus begin to deposit iron with
the copper.
28o ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
Electro- depodtioii from a fused electrolyte. — Let us take for illus-
tration the electrolysis of a bath of fused common salt, producing
sodium. In some experiments described by Mr. Rogers, of Mil-
waukee, the voltage absorbed by the bath was 12 volts, varying
with the temperature of the bath and the distance of the electrodes
apart, and with a current of 70 amperes the amount of sodium
obtained averaged 39 grammes per hour. This shows a yield of
0.000155 gramme of sodium per ampere per second. But the electro-
chemical equivalent of sodium, the amount which one ampere should
liberate, is 0.000238 gramme (0.00001035 X 23), therefore we see here
that about 65 percent of the sodium liberated by the current is prac-
tically obtained ; the other 35 per cent is really set free, but is lost
by recombination with chlorine in the bath, or oxidation or imper-
fect condensation. This cannot, however, be the only source of
loss in the process, for a current of 70 amperes at 12 volts represents
840 Watts or 0.205 calories per second, while the liberation of 39
grammes of sodium from sodium chloride (heat of formation 4.2474
calories per gramme of sodium) represents only 165.65 calories per
hour or 0.046 calories per second. The net proportion of useful
effect over all is therefore only 22.5 per cent. The cause of this
low return is to be found in the high voltage used. Calculating the
minimum electro-motive force necessary to decompose sodium
chloride, we have 0000238 X 4-2474 ^ ^^xxs.
0.00024
Since, then, only 4.2 volts out of the 12 volts absorbed by the bath
are used for actual decomposition, the percentage of the power of
the current used in this way is 35 per cent. But since only 65 per
cent of the work which this does is represented by the sodium
actually obtained, we should have a net utilisation over all of 65 per
cent of 35 per cent, or 22.75 P^r cent, which agrees with the result
before obtained.
Electro-thermal reduction. — Let us take for discussion some official
figures of the Heroult process for producing aluminium alloys.
Current, 8000 amperes at 28 volts tension. In 271 hours of actual
operation, during which time the crucible cooled several times, the
average production of aluminium was 6.8 kilos of aluminium per
hour. The electro-chemical equivalent of aluminium is 9, so that a
current of 8000 amperes can deposit, electrolytically, 0,000010352 X
9 X 8000 X 60 X 60 = 2,68 kilos of aluminium per hour. If, then,
there was actually produced 6.8 kilos per hour, and as much as 10
to 12 kilos are claimed when the furnace is working steadily and up
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 28l
to full efficiency, it is impossible that more than a fraction of the
aluminium is produced by electrolytic decomposition. As far as the
total energy of the current is concerned it is large enough to account
for all the thermal effects produced. A current of 8000 amperes at
28 volts is equal to 224,000 Watts, or 53.79 calories per second, or
193,644 per hour. This, if it could be applied to nothing but the
decomposition of alumina, would isolate ^^ ^^ =: 26.7 kilos of
aluminium per hour. But as 6.8 kilos were obtained, we see that about
25 per cent of the energy of the current is absorbed in setting free
aluminium, the other 75 per cent being converted into heat. This
source of heat, together with that added by the burning of the carbon
anodes, keeps the interior of the crucible at a temperature far above
any temperature ever reached by any other means, and at that tem-
perature the writer has not the least doubt that the alumina has its
oxygen abstracted from it by the chemical action of the carbon.
Similar calculations could be made with data from Cowles' furnace,
with similar results and conclusions.
In conclusion I would remark that copper, silver, gold, magnesium
and aluminium are the principal metals which are at present being
commercially treated by electro-metallurgy. But if ever the problem
of converting the energy contained in coal directly into electric
energy be solved, there are very few of the metals which might not
be cheapened by electrolytic methods. If the conversion could be
effected with an efficiency of only 50 per cent, it would still be 10 to
15 times as efficient as our present indirect methods of boilers,
engines and dynamos; and the possibiHties opened out for the art of
electro-metallurgy by such a cheapening of cost of the electric cur-
rent are so extensive that if we stated them they might appear
visionary. A comparison might be made with the revolution in the
mechanic arts which would be produced by such a discovery. We
have electric motors which turn nearly 90 per cent of the mechanical
energy of a current into rotatory motion, and if the current supplied
to them represented say only 50 per cent of the total energy of the
coal, we would get rotary motion with an expenditure of J of a pound
of coal per hour per efficient horse-power.
However, taking matters as they stand and being as moderate as
we may in our expectations as to cheap electricity, I think it reason-
able to conclude that this new art of Electro-Metallurgy, which had
its commencement within our lifetime, will become, perhaps, the
leading feature of Metallurgy in the Twentieth Century.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE OF MARCH, li
By Everett Hayden, U. S. N.,
Marine Meteorologist, U. S. Hydrographic Office.
An interval of more than two years has now elapsed since the news
of the g^reat hurricane at Samoa startled the whole civilized world
with its sad tidings of disaster to the American and German fleets in
the harbor of Apia. The story of that terrific struggle against the
fury of the northerly gale and heavy seas that swept into the unpro-
tected anchorage ; the desperate efforts of officers and men to save
their vessels from collision with each other and from destruction on
the sharp coral reefs ; the instant annihilation of the little Eber ; the
grounding of the Adler and Nipsic; the breathless pause of expecta-
tion when the gallant Calliope slipped her chains, and, urging on her
powerful engines with every ounce of steam that her boilers could
supply, crept inch by inch "out of the jaws of death," leaving the
Trenton (whose men gave her a ringing volley of cheers as she
passed), Olga and Vandalia to continue their life-or-death fight
against fearful odds ; the wreck of these vessels and the terrible loss
of life on their wave-swept decks and in the whirlpool between
them and the shore; the gallantry and self-sacrifice of natives and
sailors in the tremendous surf on the beach and reef — all of these
have been told and retold in the vivid words of eye-witnesses, and
have already become part of the history of mankind.
It is a very different task to attempt, quietly and as time and data
permit, to consider the general meteorologic conditions that preceded
and accompanied the storm, and, by collecting and comparing reports
from vessels and land-stations in various parts of the South Pacific,
to reach at least a few definite conclusions regarding the origin and
track of the hurricane, as well to derive some useful information
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD,
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE OF MARCH, i{
By Everett Hayden, U. S. N.,
Marine Meteorologist, U. S. Hydrographic Office.
An interval of more than two years has now elapsed since the news
of the g^reat hurricane at Samoa startled the whole civilized world
with its sad tidings of disaster to the American and German fleets in
the harbor of Apia. The story of that terrific struggle against the
fury of the northerly gale and heavy seas that swept into the unpro-
tected anchorage ; the desperate efforts of officers and men to save
their vessels from collision with each other and from destruction on
the sharp coral reefs ; the instant annihilation of the little Eber ; the
grounding of the Adler and Nipsic; the breathless pause of expecta-
tion when the gallant Calliope slipped her chains, and, urging on her
powerful engines with every ounce of steam that her boilers could
supply, crept inch by inch "out of the jaws of death," leaving the
Trenton (whose men gave her a ringing volley of cheers as she
passed), Olga and Vandalia to continue their life-or-death fight
against fearful odds ; the wreck of these vessels and the terrible loss
of life on their wave-swept decks and in the whirlpool between
them and the shore; the gallantry and self-sacrifice of natives and
sailors in the tremendous surf on the beach and reef — all of these
have been told and retold in the vivid words of eye-witnesses, and
have already become part of the history of mankind.
It is a very different task to attempt, quietly and as time and data
permit, to consider the general meteorologic conditions that preceded
and accompanied the storm, and, by collecting and comparing reports
from vessels and land-stations in various parts of the South Pacific,
to reach at least a few definite conclusions regarding the origin and
track of the hurricane, as well to derive some useful information
284 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE,
from it regarding the weather and storms of this great ocean. It is
the object of this paper to present briefly, but as clearly as the in-
formation at hand will allow, this general phase of the subject, and to
publish, in advance of an official publication by the Hydrographic
Office, such an outline of the facts as may serve to elicit discussion
and possibly result in the collection of still more complete data, for
use in the preparation of a final report. It may well be stated here,
for the information of those who are not familiar with the difficulties
incident to the collection of data on such a subject, that in spite of
our efforts to obtain information from every possible source there are
doubtless some vessels whose reports have not yet been received —
reports, too, that may contain important positive or negative evidence
regarding the history of the storm. Not only data from vessels, but
from land-stations, also, are still wanting: for instance, the Queensland
Weather Maps of Australasia and the Sydney Observatory Weather
Charts of Australia and New Zealand for March, 1889, should of
course be consulted, but although copies are nominally in the posses-
sion of the Signal Office, yet as a matter of fact they have been at the
government bindery for six months, and at date of writing (May 9,
1 891) they are still inaccessible. This should therefore be taken
into consideration by any one who honors this paper by more than a
mere superficial examination, and it will be interesting to note whether
conclusions drawn at the present time will be appreciably modified
by the missing data.
In the following discussion all dates used are east longitude dates,
following the custom of the Samoan islands. Although these islands
are between Ion. 168° and 173° W, and might therefore be expected
to use the same dates as ourselves, yet business and other relations
are so much more intimate with Australia and New Zealand that the
same dates are used, as a matter of convenience. Thus, for example,
at noon of Saturday, March 16, at Samoa, when the hurricane was at
its height and the Calliope had just steamed out of Apia harbor, it
was about 9 A. M. at Melbourne and 11 A. M. at Auckland, of the
same day of the week and month, but farther east (in what we know
as the Western Hemisphere) it was Friday, March 15 : at San Fran-
cisco, about 3.30 P. M.; Washington, 6.30 P. M. ; London, 11.30
P. M. Similarly, the first news of the hurricane, cabled from Auck-
land under date of Saturday, March 30, was published in Washing-
ton the morning of the same day, apparently, though really the
morning of the day following.
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 285
The excitement attending the receipt of news of the disaster will
long be remembered, and it is unnecessary to refer to it here further
than to quote a few lines from a long statement furnished to the
press, in reply to the demands of numerous reporters, by Lieut. G. L.
Dyer, U. S. N., Hydrographer. The lines referred to are as follows,
and they are of especial interest in this connection because, although
based upon general considerations only and without any detailed
information regarding this particular storm, they appear to agree
very well with what actually took place :
"The hurricane that struck Samoa with such furious intensity on
the 15th instant probably originated some 300 miles to the north-
eastward of the islands, about lat. 10° S, Ion. 165° W, and
moved rapidly southwestward, directly toward them. If the signs
characteristic of the approach of a hurricane were observed (long
feathery cirrus clouds, thickening cirrus veil, halos, and fiery tints
at dawn and sunset), no doubt all possible precautions were taken to
ride out the storm at anchor. The center of the hurricane, however,
must have passed directly over or very near the harbor, and in the
case of a very severe tropical cyclone, as this must have been, abso-
lutely nothing can resist its fury. In the great hurricane that crossed
the island of Cuba in 1844, for example, seventy-two vessels foundered
at their anchors in a few hours in the landlocked harbor of Havana,
a port almost unrivaled for the security of its anchorage."
The following letter from Rear-Admiral Kimberly, written only a
month and a half after the storm, may well be quoted here, giving as
it does a brief and concise statement of the facts as indicated by
observations during the hurricane, together with such slight addi-
tional information as had been received subsequently:
Apia, Samoa, April 29, 1889.
Commodore J. G. Walker, U. S. Navy, Chief of Bureau of Navigation.
Sir : — The hurricane of the i sth and i6th of March at Apia was peculiar, in the
fact of there being twolow barometers of about equal depression, with an interval
of 24 hours between. The indications preceding and accompanying the first
depression gave no cause for apprehending a gale of unusual violence, and
the local seamen of Apia gave it as their opinion that the weather indicated
rain rather than wind, and they anticipated no destructive storm.
Friday forenoon (15th), the barometer falling, we had squalls of moderate
force, and recognized the approach of the gale. The force of wind was logged
2 to 6. Steam had already been raised, and at i P. M., as a further precaution,
lower yards were sent down and topmasts housed. At 3 P. M. the barometer
commenced to rise, and it was thought the center of the storm had passed and
286 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
was receding. The wind had changed from the southward to the northward and
eastward in the meantime, and this fact confirmed the belief that the gale was
half over. No apprehension was felt for the ships, as it was thought the latter
part of the storm would be of no longer duration, and of but little, if any,
greater force than the first part had developed. The barometer continued
rising until nearly midnight, and it was believed that by morning the gale would
be broken. There had been no very heavy sea preceding or during the gale up
to this point.
At midnight, however, the barometer commenced falling again, the wind had
increased, and the sea was rising high. This was the beginning of that part
of the gale which accompanied the second barometric depression, and which
proved so violent and destructive. The barometer continued to fall, and the
gale developed its full strength rapidly. The seas also rose rapidly, and the
ships felt their violence. From early morning of the i6th, for nearly 24 hours,
the gale was a hurricane; and the catastrophes commenced at that time by
theloss of the Eber. The story of the fate of the several ships and their crews
during that day and night has been fully told, and is unnecessary to repeat
here.
It will be seen that the destructive effects were due to the second depression,
which followed and overlapped the first and which developed its strength so
rapidly in the night. It is difficult to ascertain the exact character and move-
ments of this remarkable storm, with the unsatisfactory data afforded by the
ships in the harbor, and by the meagre reports of the few vessels that were
outside, which I have been able to gather.
In the future, when more data can be collected, the storm maybe accurately
plotted, and its peculiar features explained.
In the meantime, several theories have been advanced. It has been thought
that two distinct storms passed by, following each other very closely, the
second storm being the violent hurricane. Another theory is that there was
but one storm, and that after passing Apia it recurved sharply to the south-
ward and eastward, and again brought Apia within its influence.
A third hypothesis is that the hurricane was generated directly over this
place, and acquired but little or no progressive movement for a long while, the
rotary force as the meteor developed increasing rapidly, and causing the
tremendous sea during the last half of the blow.
The unstable conditions of the storm during its formation may account for
the peculiar movements of the barometer, and for its marked irregularity during
the forenoon of the i6th.
I am disposed to accept this third theory; and the report that at the island
of Suwaroff, 500 miles to the eastward, no gale was felt, gives it further support.
I forward a copy of the Trenton's log-book covering the period of the storm.
Very respectfully,
L. A. KiMBERLY, Rear- Admiral, U.S.N.,
Commanding U. S. Naval Forces on the Pacific Station.
In accordance with the plan of co-operation agreed upon between
the Hydrographic Office and the Signal Office, all marine data are
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 287
collected by the former office and referred to the latter, for tempo-
rary use. With the original data relating to the Samoan hurricane,
referred to the ChiefSignal Officer ofthe army, March 10, iSgi.foruse
in preparing the Summary of International Meteorological Observa-
tions for March, 1889, a copy of a statement that I had prepared
was inclosed, and the conclusions drawn therein may be quoted at
some length here :
Division of Marine Meteorology,
Hydrographic Office, Navy Department,
Washington, D. C, March 10, 1891.
Lieutenant Richardson Clover, U. S. Navy, Hydrographer.
Sir : — I have the honor to report as follows upon a preliminary although
somewhat complete study of all the data at hand upon the Samoan hurricane
of March, 1889.
Unfortunately, certain data that ought to be available and that prove to be
very essential to any correct understanding of the situation have not yet
reached this office ; I refer especially to detailed observations from New Cale-
donia and New Zealand for the month of March, as well as reports from
vessels other than those from which we now have data.
To refer briefly to the leading features of the situation, I may say that the
hurricane that created the destruction at Apia seems to have originated east-
northeastward from the Samoan Islands, some 300 miles, on the 13th of March,
probably without very great severity until the 15th, when its center passed
directly over or a little to the north of Apia harbor, with a reduced barometric
pressure of 29.07, wind light and variable, from 2 to 3 P. M.; at 3 P. M. the
wind came out fresh from NE, shifting to north. On this date the storm com-
menced to recurve to the southward and southeastward, and it doubtless
increased considerably in intensity during this period ; to the fact that it
recurved at just this position, and that during its recurve it increased in
energy, must, I think, be attributed the destruction it caused in the harbor
of Apia.
The only data we have regarding the earlier history of the storm are, first,
the negative evidence from the statement that it was not felt at all at the little
island of Suwaroff, abouf 550 miles E by N from Apia, and, secondly, the very
brief report from the American schooner Equator, which vessel at noon of the
14th was in lat. 12° S, Ion. 170° 50'' W, and experienced thick, squally weather,
with winds shifting from S to SW, W and NW. The approach of the hurricane
to the harbor, and in fact its general character and severity, were doubtless less
clearly evident than they might have been, on account of the force of the south-
erly winds in its SW quadrant being lessened by the mountains on the island
of Upolu. In fact, there are even now no data at hand by which to judge the
actual strength of the winds in the advancing quadrants of the storm until
after the 15th, nor are there any details showing the velocity of cloud move-
ment, state of the sea off-shore, or other indications that are recognized in
every ocean as characteristic of the approach of a hurricane of great severity.
288 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
After the center of the storm passed the island on the 15th and the northerly
winds of its rear quadrants began to be felt, it naturally followed both that the
wind itself was felt with much greater violence than the previous southerly
winds (masked as they were by the hills on the island), and that very heavy north-
erly seas commenced to roll into the harbor. There can be no doubt but that
heavier winds and seas were normally to be expected in the rear quadrant of
the storm, under the particular conditions of the exposure of the harbor, but it
might with equal probability have been expected that they would not be so
much more severe than was indicated by the weather previously, nor of such
long duration as actually turned out to be the case, owing to the storm's
recurve.
The track of the storm to the southward of the island is readily traced by
means of a very good report from the American ship Hagarstown, and it seems
evident that the storm was central about lat. 17° S, Ion. 171° 30^ W, at local
noon of the 17th, the Hagarstown being not far from the center of the storm,
to the eastward. The barometric curve and the lowest reading indicated by
the Hagarstown's mercurial barometer are not very unlike the curve indicated
by observations at Apia during the passage of the center, although the lowest
reading is not quite so low by about two-tenths of an inch ; but she was doubt-
less at some distance from the center of the storm, which, as stated above,
seems to have increased in severity during the 15th and i6th. The following
day, the i8th, the hurricane passed over Nuie, or Savage Island, where great
damage is reported, caused by the high winds and storm-wave, which inun-
dated the island.
After the 19th we have as yet no very complete data by which to trace the
track of the storm. The American bark Fred. P. Litchfield encountered a
hurricane on the 23d, in lat. 34° 30'' S, Ion. 156° W, the wind shifting from ENE
to S and NW, and this may have been the same storm or it may not. Data
from New Zealand, and possibly from some vessel between the Eurasia and
Litchfield, might settle this question.
Farther to the SE we have no data of interest in this connection, and it is
therefore impossible to prolong the track of the storm.
It is of interest to note that at the time the hurricane was raging at
Apia there was another hurricane of equal or greater severity in about the
same latitude but 25° of longitude to the westward. The data relating to this
storm are contained in the report of the British bark Altcar, which vessel on
the i6th was in lat. 16° S, Ion. 161° 20' E ; at noon, G. M. T., of that day the
wind was E, force 12, bar. 28.98 (mercurial, corrected), and 24 hours later wind
S, force 10, bar. 29.58. The Signal Office reports from Rockhampton and
Moreton, Australia, seem to show that this hurricane did not go that way, and
the only data we have from New Caledonia (French transport Yarra) are too
vague to draw any inference from other than that it evidently was not experi-
enced there with any great severity. A letter from Staff-Commander R. A.
Edwin, R, N. (dated Lyttelton, N. Z., July 11, 1890) states that " the weather
experienced by the Altcar can be readily traced toward the East Cape"; in' the
absence of any complete data from New Zealand, however, I am not so sure but
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 289
that the storm off the East Cape may have been the Samoan hurricane itself,
which would have been felt there had it moved SSW, or even S by W, from its
position on the 19th. In this case the hurricane experienced by the Litchfield
on the 23d must have been a different storm. This is a question that it seems
impossible to settle without data not now available.
It will be noted from the report of H. M. S. Calliope that that vessel, when
she steamed out of Apia harbor on the i6th into the northerly gale, experienced
a gradual but steady rise of the barometer, as was naturally to be expected, but
that on the forenoon of the 17th there was a decided fall (about .30), followed
by a still more rapid rise (about .50). No such fall of the barometer is recorded
in the reports from the vessels at Apia, nor do the shifts of wind help us much
in accounting for it. The only hypothesis by which it can be even partially
explained is that a secondary, or storm of small size but considerable severity,
passed close to the Calliope and between her and the islands to the southward,
affecting her barometer but not the others. There is, of course, nothing very im-
probable about this (although one would expect the shifts of wind to have been
more marked), and the formation of this secondary, moving along a track about
SE by E, may be assumed to explain the recurve to the southward and south-
westward on the i8th and 19th of the Samoan hurricane itself, and its movement
towards the East Cape of New Zealand (if it did move that way). Moreover, the
weather experienced by the British steamship Richmond on the 20th, in lat. 18°
34^ S,lon. 1 53° 05'' W (wind backed to NW during the evening, blowing fresh ;
heavy SW sea, NW and W gale, with high sea the following day), may possibly
be explained by the approach and passage of this secondary, now a storm of
considerable size and severity. It can hardly be assumed to have been the
hurricane encountered by the Litchfield on the 23d, however, without assigning
to it a larger diameter than one would expect, or an unexpected southerly
curve to its track from its position on the 20th to its position on the 23d.
An earlier hurricane that occurred during March, and whose eastern quad-
rants passed over the Samoan Islands, can be traced with considerable accu-
racy from a position at noon of the 6th, about 200 miles north of the island of
Upolu, recurving W of the islands, to a position on the 8th about 150 miles
E of Tonga, near which position it was encountered by the Hagarstown, which
vessel experienced winds of hurricane force, and very low barometer, as indi-
cated by her report. It is interesting to note that the heavy swell sent out on
every side from this hurricane was noted on the 12th, to the southward of New
Caledonia, by both the Yarra and Altcar. The log of the Trenton can be con-
sulted for data regarding this storm, but it is of only incidental interest in
connection with the Samoan hurricane.
The general and permanent interest attaching to the history of this very
destructive storm renders it, in my opinion, very desirable to publish all the
data that have been collected relative thereto, with as complete a discussion
as possible and suitable illustration by means of maps, diagrams, and possibly
pictures illustrating the character of the harbor where this memorable catas-
trophe occurred. Such a publication seems called for by the efforts that we
have made to collect data on the subject and the cordial co-operation that
290 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
we have received from various offices and individuals. Moreover, the oppor-
tunity is an admirable one for the publication of other data of interest in this
connection, that is, regarding the general subject of storms in the South
Pacific. The log-books at hand in this office contain many very interesting
reports, and this whole subject is one of very great interest, more especially to
the commerce of our Pacific Coast. I find in the Quarterly Journal of the
Meteorological Society of London a very complete account by Mr. R. L.
Holmes of a severe hurricane that passed over the Fiji Islands in March, 1886,
and one of the unpublished reports in this office adds very materially to the
interest and value of this paper; a brief description of such a storm in the
South Pacific, considered in connection with the Samoan hurricane, would be
of great interest to masters of vessels.
I have the honor to request, therefore, that upon the return of these docu-
ments from the Signal Office you authorize me to complete the discussion of
this storm, adding thereto such data as are available regarding the storms of
the South Pacific. I beg to suggest, also, that you request the Chief Signal
Officer, U. S. Army, to make an effort to obtain from the government bindery
the copies of the Queensland Weather Maps of Australasia for March, 1889, and
the Weather Charts of Australia and New Zealand published by the Sydney
Observatory, both of which belong to the library of the Signal Office and are
very essential in this connection. Very respectfully,
Everett Hayden,
Maritte Meteorologist.
The accompanying chart illustrates graphically the tracks of three
hurricanes that occurred during the month, together with the tracks
of all the vessels from which reports have been received (except the
French transport Caledonien, from March 13, in lat. 44° 47' S, Ion.
158° 28' W, to March 19, lat. 50° 42' S, Ion. 130° 15' W) and a
diagram giving the barometric curves of various vessels and land-
stations. Broken lines on the chart indicate absence of detailed
information. The dots on the barometric curves are the data upon
which they are based.
Of the three hurricanes whose tracks are charted, the first was the
one that was felt with considerable severity at Apia on the 6th and
7th. It seems to have originated some 500 miles NNE from Apia
on the 5th, whence it moved in a southwesterly direction, recurving
in about the latitude of the Samoan islands but 150 to 200 miles to
the westward, and moving thence southeastward, between Tonga
and Nuie. The barometric curve of the Hagarstown, over which
vessel the center passed on the 8th, indicates that it was a hurricane
of great severity — probably quite as severe as the one that succeeded
it nine days later. The other tracks are those of the Samoan hurri-
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. ' 29I
cane itself, and the very severe storm encountered by the Altcar
in the Coral Sea, NW from New Caledonia,
Relative to the track of the Samoan hurricane itself, only a few
words need be added to what has been said above. Probably two
questions will at once occur to the reader, namely, how do you ex-
plain the two barometic depressions experienced at Apia the after-
noon of the 15th and i6th, respectively (shown on the curve of the
Trenton's barometer), and what caused the decided fall of the
Calliope's barometer the forenoon of the 17th (this vessel, it should
be remembered, steamed out of the harbor at about 10 A. M. Satur-
day, the 16th, and at noon of the 17th was in lat. 12° 52' S, long.
171° 00' W, or 60 miles NE from Apia).
Before attempting to reply to the first of these two questions, I
must confess that I think there is still room for a wide difference of
opinion, but I have drawn the track as seems to me most reasonable,
considering the fact that we have no data from positions near Apia
to the northward, southward and westward, while the conditions
indicated by the data from Apia itself can certainly be explained in
this way, at least quite as well as by any other hypothesis. My idea
is, briefly, that the first depression occurred as the storm passed on
its westward track, followed by the usual shift of wind to the north-
ward. Along this branch of its trajectory its severity was probably
not quite so great as it was later, and the force of its southerly winds
was masked by the mountains on the island of Upolu; possibly
careful observations of the rapidity of motion and the character of
the clouds, or of the state of the sea off the harbor, might have indi-
cated a severe storm, but this does not appear from the evidence at
hand, though well worth considering. During its recurve the hurri-
cane probably increased in intensity, the barometric depression at
the center deepening and thus causing the second depression ob-
served at Apia, which was slightly deeper than the first although
the center itself was really at a greater distance than on the previous
day.
A point of interest in this connection is the fact that storms may
be divided into the two following classes: First, where the barome-
tric gradients are steepest very near the center and the wind whirls
about a small central space where it is quite calm; this is the typical
hurricane of the tropics, with its central " bull's eye," or calm, clear
space. Second, where the central clear and comparatively calm area
is very much larger, and the steepest gradients and strongest winds
292 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
are found in an annular space around it, but at some distance. This
distinction holds good in the case of many storms in the West Indies
and the North Atlantic, and in the present instance the curve of the
Hagarstown's barometer on the 8th is typical of the former class,
although there is no equally good example of the latter. The second
plate, however, entitled " Barometer Diagrams from Two Typical
Hurricanes," illustrates the distinction very clearly by means of two
examples, namely, the Fiji hurricane of March 3 and 4, 1886, and
the Sable Island hurricane of December i, 1890. The Trenton's
curve is added, for comparison, and it will be seen that the indica-
tions are that theSamoan hurricane (on the 15th and i6th, at least)
was of the second type, although during the 17th and i8th it doubt-
less became more like the first. It is interesting to note on this
plate the difference between the Trenton's curve, as plotted on the
two diagrams.
From amongst the various opinions that I have heard expressed
by those who have studied this subject, I may be allowed to quote
the following: Lieut. H. M.Witzel,U. S. N., who is thoroughly familiar
with all the data, is inclined to the opinion that the second depres-
sion was caused by a storm that originated in the immediate vicinity
(possibly over the island of Savaii) after the passage of the first, and
remained almost stationary for some time. Mr. Arthur H. Dutton,
formerly an assistant in this office, who also has studied the data
relating to this storm, thinks that from its position at noon on the
15th it recurved to the W and NW, and during the following
night again recurved sharply, describing a loop north of Savaii
and then returning toward Upolu, whence it moved southward and
southeastward. It is thus evident that from the data at hand several
hypotheses can be made that will satisfy the conditions.
As regards the decided fall of the Calliope's barometer on the 17th,
we have to call to our aid, as stated above, what has been aptly
termed a " convenient secondary," or local storm — a whirl within a
whirl. In the absence of other information, however, I have refrained
from the attempt to indicate either its origin or track.
The Altcar hurricane, as it may he called, was one of great severity,
although its track, as plotted on the chart, is almost entirely hypo-
thetic, the data at hand not indicating with any certainty whence it
came or whither it went. It is of especial interest because of its
relation to, or reaction upon, the Samoan hurricane, as it seems
probable that its effect was to repel the latter and make it recurve
PROCEEDINGS U.S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVI!, NO.Z.
30.00
29.50
2aoo
2aoo -.
,^^
S. S. "Suva " (In BucaBay) was on the track of the center of the hurricane.
Delanasau (Vanua Levu), 80 miles from center.
S. S. "Zealandia" (at sea), ISO miles.
k
Barometer Diagrams from Two Typical Hurricanes,
With the record of the "Trenton's" barometer at Samoa, March 15-16, 1889.
, To face p . 232
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 293
earlier and at a sharper angle than it might otherwise have done. I
am inclined to think that its true section, as it would have been given
by a barometer at a land-station over which the center passed, was very-
different from the curve shown by the Altcar's barometer. It seems
evident from her report, although it is not expressly so stated, that she
ran before the wind and was compelled to remain in the storm so
long that her barometric curve is deceptive, unless her action be
taken into consideration and its real meaning thus explained. This
hurricane may prove to have been one of those stationary cyclones
that disappear near the region where they originate.
Although I have already exceeded the limits assigned, I must say
a few words about the general meteorologic conditions preceding and
during these three great hurricanes, likely, as they are, to be forever
memorable amongst South Pacific storms. The data, if carefully
studied, allow this to be done with considerable confidence, the
Signal Office reports from four Australian stations supplying, to some
extent, the place of the missing Australian and New Zealand weather
maps.
The normal conditions during the month of March in the South
Pacific, as indicated by one of the charts accompanying Buchan's
exhaustive Report on Atmospheric Circulation (published with the
Results of the Challenger Expedition), are as follows. The two
isobars (29.90) that inclose the equatorial belt of low pressure run
nearly due east from Manila to Colon and from Central Australia to
Peru, respectively. The western and wider part of the region thus
inclosed has its central low area (29.75) close to the northern coast
of Australia, and the isobar of 29.85 extends eastward from northern
Borneo to mid-ocean (about lat. 5° S, Ion. 137° W), and thence
about W by S to and across Australia, passing a little to the southward
of Samoa, where the normal reduced (corrected) pressure is about
29.83 during the month. Farther south, between Australia and Chile,
stretches the high-pressure belt of the temperate zone, with one very
decided anticyclonic system to the eastward, the isobar of 30.00
including a large oval area from the west coast of South America to
Ion. 140° W (pressure at center 30.25), and another similar but less
decided system to the westward, where the isobar of 30 00 extends
from Newcastle eastward to beyond New Zealand, and thence back
over Middle Island to northern Tasmania. The southeast trades
blow from this high-pressure belt toward the equatorial or low-pres-
sure region, where, during the summer months of the Southern
294 THE SAMOAN HURRICANE.
Hemisphere, tropical hurricanes originate, enormous whirlwinds
rotating clockwise (or " with the sun," as the expression is ordinarily-
used) and moving gradually away from the equator along a great
parabolic orbit, concave to the east, that half encircles the per-
manent anticyclone already referred to, west of South America.
We thus see that here, as in the North Pacific and North Atlantic —
in fact, as in every ocean — it is the western portion that is most sub-
ject to hurricanes, and they rarely occur farther east. To the south-
ward of this high-pressure belt of the temperate zone, toward and
perhaps to the South Pole itself, pressures decrease very rapidly and
uniformly, the isobar of 29,30 coinciding almost exactly with the 6oth
parallel. This is the region of almost continuous westerly gales,
varied by an occasional storm or hurricane. The normal or average
conditions are, of course, greatly modified occasionally by disturb-
ances which, although not of frequent occurrence in the tropics even
in summer, are sometimes very severe.
The conditions during the early part of March, 1889, seem to have
been about normal up to the 4th, when British Meteorological Office
reports from Suva, Fiji, and Nukalofa, Tonga, indicate that an anti-
cyclone extended southward toward New Zealand. As this system
moved slowly eastward and a cyclonic storm passed southeastward
along the south coast of Australia and Tasmania, the first of the
three hurricanes described above formed north of the Samoan
islands and an apparently feeble depression developed over the
Coral Sea. This last depression disappeared as the hurricane
moved south of Samoa on the 7th and 8th,- and a strong anticyclone
appeared over South Australia and moved slowly to the southward
and eastward with apparently increasing intensity, becoming cen-
tral on the 13th in the vicinity of Tasmania, with corrected baro-
metric pressure as high as 30.47 at Melbourne.
It was on the 12th that the very earliest signs of the hurricane's
approach were observed at Samoa. To quote from notes made by
Lieutenant R. G. Davenport, U. S. Navy, the navigator of the Nipsic,
"there was a peculiar, coppery-red sunset the evening of the 12th
and the weather was clear the first part of the 13th, but overcast
toward evening, when the barometer stood .21 below its reading the
preceding day. Calm and light southerly breezes prevailed, force o
to 2."
On the 14th the weather grew still more threatening and the
barometer continued its steady fall, now slowly, as the time of the
THE SAMOAN HURRICANE. 295
daily maximum approached, and now more rapidly, as the fall due
to the influence of the approaching storm combined with the daily
ebb of the barometric tide (always such a marked phenomenon in
the tropics). Toward evening the ships got up steam in their
boilers, that their engines might aid their anchors in keeping them
off the reefs and preventing colHsions with other vessels in the crowded
harbor. It was doubtless an anxious moment for the commanders
of the naval forces of the three great nations, responsible, as they
were, not only for lives and ships but for the prompt execution of
their instructions and the faithful guardianship of public interests
committed to their care. To most of the others on board, 'both
officers and men, free from at least some of the cares and responsi-
bilities of their superiors, the actual danger of the situation was
probably not fully evident till after the shift of wind to the north-
ward Friday evening, when the long battle with the elements com-
menced in earnest.
But to resume and to conclude : Whilst the hurricane was ap-
proaching Samoa on the 15th theTasmanian anticyclone had moved
toward New Zealand and the Altcar hurricane had probably already
formed in the Coral Sea. On the i6th both hurricanes were raging
with terrific intensity, and the Samoan, recurving and almost
doubling on its tracks, was playing havoc in the harbor of Apia. It
was on this day, Saturday, that the greatest destruction occurred,
and it was this and the following day that saw those scenes of
heroism, self-sacrifice and devotion that for months made the
wreck-strewn ledges and -beaches of Apia harbor the focus of public
attention and that must for centuries elicit the praise and admiration
of mankind.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, M D.
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 1891.
The Enlistment, Training, and Organization of Crews for
OUR New Ships.
By Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. N.
Commander G. H. Wadleigh, U. S. Navy. — While concurring in the main
with most of the views advanced in the essay, which, though perhaps not new,
are presented in a form which should attract the attention and receive the
thanks of the entire navy, there are some points on which I differ from the
essayist, also some to which I think attention has not been drawn.
That the more complicated the fighting machine called a ship, the more
intelligent and skillful should be the men to handle and fight it, is an evident
fact, and in order to obtain such men the inducements must be equal to those
offered in other occupations.
It time of war patriotism and prize-money will bring us all the men we need;
at other times the pay and opportunities for advancement will be the
motives of most of the men who enter the service, as they are of those who
enter the employ of corporations and individuals. That the pay of the seaman
class is too small is shown by the fact that many of the best seamen, those who
have been trained in the service, leave it and obtain better pay in civil life.
The pay in the navy should be more than is given in the merchant service, and
I would suggest $30 a month for seamen, and $22 for ordinary seamen ; at
present many desirable landsmen work for the rate of coal-heaver instead of
ordinary seaman, because of the greater pay of ^$3 a month which the former
receives.
The point that I consider of the highest importance, however, is that the
young American who enters the navy should feel like Napoleon's soldier,
" who carried a marshal's baton in his knapsack," that the highest rank in the
navy is within his reach if he has the ability to obtain it. It is believed that
the navy is the only service in the United States, public or private, where the
boy who commences at the foot of the ladder cannot climb to the top if he has
it in him so to do. It is admitted that he may do so in case of war, but with
wars growing less and less frequent as weapons and explosives are made more
298 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
deadl}', the chance for an admiral's commission looks very slight to the recruit
of 1891. Give every American boy or man of good character who has quali-
fied as seaman-gunner, has five years' service and is under the age of 28, the
right to apply for examination for the grade of ensign, with the knowledge
that it is the same examination given the Naval Academy graduate, and that
if he passes a commission as ensign will be the reward, and a great step will
have been taken to improve the character and skill of the men in the service.
Should all those that apply and fail to pass leave the service they will not
leave the country, and will be available in war-time. In the opinion of the
writer, every man or boy who has served creditably for three years is worth to
the country ten times what he may have cost it.
The apprentice system is good as far as it goes, but it should be extended,
and enlistments be made up to the age of 20, all to serve to the age of 24, with
the privilege of discharge at 21, if so desired, and upon refunding a certain
part of the pay, which should be reserved for that purpose. Under present
conditions few boys would care to enlist to serve until the age of 24, but with
the knowledge that they could obtain a discharge at 21 it is thought they
would enlist, and that not many would take advantage of the privilege.
There are a large number of boys or young men in the country, over 18
years of age, who have been at work for a few years, and who would make
good seamen, but who do not enlist because their chances of promotion are
even less than those of the apprentices. They are not like many of the boys,
seeking an opportunity to get out of school and away from home, but having
done so, and been obliged to work, can appreciate steady employment and a
good home. It is not to be expected that all who enter the service will remain,
nor is it desirable that they should, as in that case the service would soon be
clogged with old men, and we want a constant reinforcement of young
blood. As a matter of fact, very few boys stick to the occupation first selected ;
most of them, from choice or necessity, drift from one to another, and we
cannot expect the contrary from our recruits. Although believing in all the
comforts possible for the men, it is thought that the essayist places too much
stress upon them. The old saying might be slightly changed to read, " He
who goes to sea for comfort ought to go to for pastime "; given good pay
and prospects for advancement, and young men will cheerfully give up comfort.
Recruiting should be continuous and consistent ; desirable boys and men
always enlisted when possible to obtain them, others never, no matter what
the emergency, except in case of war, when everything must give way to " food
for powder," and an increase to 12,000 men and boys should be allowed, not
that so many are needed at all times, but in order that good men may not be
rejected because the quota is full.
The recommendation to send all recruits to one or two central stations for
examination should be adopted, and they might be retained at such station
three months, not longer, since new men will shake down much faster on
board ship among old hands than by themselves. If the navy had a large
training squadron and enough men, I should advocate passing all recruits
through such a squadron ; as we have not, and probably never shall have such
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE FSSAY, 189I. 299
advantages, all cruisers should be bark-rigged, with light spars, for training
purposes, as well as to be able to make long passages under sail and for use
in emergencies ; recruits should be put on board such cruisers and sent to
foreign stations in order to obtain a "sea-stomach," and no recruit should
make his first cruise on the home station.
Stewards and cooks should receive more pay, and they and the attendants
should be given the benefits of continuous service and honorable discharge
under proper restrictions ; desirable men for such positions are hard to find
and harder to keep, and the necessity for good men in the powder division is
evident.
The board to recommend ratings should be abolished. The commanding
officer is the responsible person, and the executive is all the board that is
desirable or necessary.
I regret that the essayist, while recognising the master-at-arms as the chief
petty officer, continues in the proposed pay-table to give him less pay than
some others, a practice that obtains nowhere else that I am aware of; the
f/«y/" petty officer should receive more pay than any other petty officer. The
name petty officer should be abolished and some such name as subordinate
officer or rated officer substituted. The v^ox^ petty is generally understood as
meaning small or trivial, and it is submitted that petty officers of a vessel
should be neither.
The remarks in regard to punishments, brig and irons, are most appropriate,
and if the whole power of the Government could be exerted "to arrest and
bring to punishment all offenders," the percentage of desertions would be
very small. At present, it may be said that a premium is almost offered for
desertion. A man is dissatisfied with his ship, or belongs to one ordered to
the tropics in hot weather ; he has two years or more to serve, and being out of
debt is allowed liberty ; he thinks the matter over somewhat in this way : If I
stay in this vessel I shall have an uncomfortable time, or perhaps get the
yellow fever ; I will go on liberty and keep out of the way for three months, after
that time I shall not be arrested on account of Circular No. 9 of March 28, 1878,
and if I should be caught within three months I shall only get one year at the
Boston Navy Yard prison, where I shall live better than on board ship, have
nothing to do but lie on my back and read, and at the end of a year, if not
sooner, get my discharge with $25 to start with. I'll take the chances. If the
man knew he would be caught sooner or later and would then spend the
remainder of his enlistment and a year or two. more in prison, at hard labor, he
would not be so likely to run.
That the executive of the large modern vessels needs an assistant is con-
ceded, but it is thought that the proper officer to fill the billet is the next in
rank, the present navigator. The latter often falls heir to the position of
executive with less knowledge of the men and routine of the ship than the
youngest watch-officer possesses. The navigator is no longer needed on deck
to look after the steering and sails; he is the ordnance officer, and is supposed
to be on board when the executive goes out of the ship. It seems apparent
that, as assistant to the executive, he would be more in the line of succession
300 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
and much better qualified to take charge in case of necessity ; he should have
the charge of the powder division, and should have a junior officer to do the
greater part of the clerical and mathematical work which now takes up so
much of his time.
In this connection it is suggested that if many of the reports and returns
now required were abolished, officers would have more time for study and
practical work. When the general storekeeper system was revived it was
supposed that returns would be condensed and reduced in number ; the prac-
tical working has been that, on board ship, most heads of departments who
formerly made one return now make two, one exception being the general
storekeeper himself. If the unnecessary returns were abolished and all money
values on board ship, outside the pay office, done away with, several of the
yeomen and writers who are now " in everybody's mess and nobody's watch "
could be dispensed with and room gained for working men.
A similar system of messing to the one proposed in the essay has been tried
for two years on board the Michigan with excellent results, more and better
food and better cooking ; how it would work away from markets is at least
doubtful, and still more doubtful the working of a canteen bumboat except for
receiving-ships. Cooking by steam was in use on board the Boston receiving-
ship in 1874 and may be now ; it worked exceedingly well at that time.
In regard to the much-discussed marine question, I am compelled to the
conclusion that the marine must be available for all work on board ship or else
remain on shore, if only to gain the space required to stow his helmet and full-
dress hat. Next to drilling, the principal work is now coaling, from which the
marine is by regulation exempt ; therefore, as excepting the non-commissioned
officers, the guard is mainly composed of recruits and men that for some reason
are not wanted in barracks, it would seem that the same number of desirable
landsmen would be more useful, always supposing that the number of men to
be allowed the navy is enough without the marines; until that time comes a
guard must be retained to help fill up the complement. It is, however, sug-
gestive that very recently, at a meeting of the Royal United Service Institution
of Great Britain, a paper was read and well supported advocating a large
increase in the number of marines on board ship. It is believed, however,
that the British marine is available for all kinds of work. The non-commis-
sioned officers of the guard are now promoted from headquarters and can only
be reduced by sentence of court-martial. This authority should rest with
commanding officers until after two terms of service as non-commissioned
officer. A man may make a fairly good non-commissioned officer in barracks
and be of little use on board ship, and still not come within reach of a court-
martial.
A modified form of the old system of ordinary men at navy-yards should be
adopted, by which the continuous-service man, after two cruises, could be en-
titled to a year or more at a yard, and after a certain number of years' service
could be permanently attached to such yard as he might elect, to live on board
the receiving-ship, and to be available for such work in the yard as he was
able to perform; he would also be a first reserve in case of war. This system,
DISCUSSION lOF PRIZE ESSAY, 1 89 1. 3OI
in part, has been often tried and as often has failed ; but, with the proposed
reform in the yards, by which politics are to give place to efificiency, may we
not hope that the day is near when the old " blue-jacket" will not be the first
to be dropped from the pay-roll of a yard in order that the emigrant of yester-
day, who will vote to-morrow, may be taken on ; for which good time coming all
who have served at a navy yard, and have the good of the service at heart, will
ever pray.
Lieutenant C, B. T. Moore, U. S. Navy. — I have read Mr. Niblack's essay
with much pleasure, and feel, as all must, greatly obliged to him for the addi-
tion he has made to the data for the solution of the problem he seeks to solve.
One point he makes seems to me to be particularly well taken ; it is worthy
of the very thoughtful consideration of all ofiScers who seek to promote the
good of the service. I refer to his classing "lack of uniformity in training"
among the evils of the service. While I believe that the full discussion of
every system of training should be not only encouraged, but invited, in view
of the changes to be made, I am convinced, by my meagre experience as a
divisional officer, that so far as individuals are concerned, the liberty of officers
should end there. How frequently an officer runs against unauthorized sys-
tems of training we all know. Our present Ordnance Instructions may not be
up to the times; Upton's Infantry Tactics may not be up to the most modern
ideas ; the new drill-book from the Bureau of Ordnance may have faults ; but
they are the authorized standards, they have been adopted "by authority."
Any other system of training, however good, rests only on the ideas of an
individual.
I think the first step towards securing the uniformity of training, which must
come before the new navy reaches its highest efficiency, is for all officers to
conform strictly to the authorized standards, confining their activity in reform
to respectful suggestions to those in authority, or to discussion such as that in
Mr. Niblack's very able essay. When this reform at the top shall have been
effected, one of the troubles of the service, and that one a source of consider-
able inconvenience to both officers and men, will be entirely removed.
Lieutenant R. C. Smith, U. S. Navy. — Having competed this year for the
Institute prize, I feel a hesitancy in offering comments on the excellent paper
of the winner. The fact that our subjects were different will be my justifica-
tion. Following the order of the essay, I should like first to make one other
recommendation looking to the surrender of more living space to the crews in
small ships. It is usually the custom to consider that ship-duty requires just
so many officers — a captain, an executive officer, a navigator, four or five watch
officers, and a quota of staff officers. Some concession has been made to lack
of space in small ships by omitting junior and warrant officers, and by reducing
to a certain extent the number of staff officers. In making assignments to the
different ships, would it not be policy to fix at once in each corps a certain
ratio of officers to number of crew ? This would reduce materially the com-
plement of officers in small ships, but it ought to leave enough for the duty.
302 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
Then, by following the essayist's suggestion of one officers' mess — other than
that of the captain — it would be possible, in single-deck ships, to quarter all
the officers under the poop and surrender the whole of the lower deck to the men.
Every one must be in sympathy with Ensign Niblack's remarks on rain-
clothes and sea-boots. It is with the greatest difficulty that the men can be
kept provided with them ; they are of all sorts and patterns, and half the oil-
skins are found "burned" when broken out after a long dry spell. This
means to the owner a loss of $2.20, according to the price-list printed. Rubber
boots are an abomination, are altogether uncomfortable and harmful, and are
unnecessary if a suitable substitute is made a part of the paymaster's issue.
Every man who has been shipped any length of time has at present about
three pairs of shoes, of various sorts, and a pair of rubber boots. I think it
would be a good plan to replace this assortment as follows : For wet weather
aboard ship and for landing drills supply a high calf-shoe coming well over
the ankle, with thick sole and low, broad heel, of natural-colored leather,
unblacked, lacing in front, the quarters overlapping the vamp, which is con-
tinued up in the form of a loose, wide tongue, stitched at each side, rendering
the shoe water-tight to the top ; a suitable water-proof dressing to be supplied
for preserving the leather. For ordinary wear aboard ship, supply a light
natural-colored leather shoe, with rubber or felt sole and spring heel. For
the tropics, white canvas would replace the leather. In either case there
should be a leather insole, thick enough to prevent sweating. Brogans should
be supplied for use in the fire-room, to be shifted for the ordinary wear before
coming on deck. On liberty, the men might be permitted to wear an ordinary
black shoe. This outfit would be less extensive than the one usually found,
would be cheaper, more serviceable, more comfortable, and would look better.
The nuisance of trying to black and shine wet shoes would be done away with,
and it would be possible to tell at a glance whether men coming from the fire-
room had changed their foot-wear. The rubber or felt sole has many charms
for ship use. It is noiseless, does not injure paint-work, keeps out ordinary
moisture, and affords an excellent foothold. The heavy shoe worn under oil-
skin trousers should keep the feet dry in any weather.
For stowing oil-skins and shoes it might be possible to assign each man a
pigeon-hole in the lower part of the hammock-nettings. It would be necessary
to arrange the nettings differently, but that would not be difficult. Many
foreign ships have already thin iron doors on each compartment in lieu of the
hammock cloth, and on the inside are found painted the numbers of the eight
or ten hammocks that stow in that compartment. In the lower part could be
fitted a separately ventilated pigeon-hole for each man, large enough for his
oil-skins and shoes. The advantages are numerous ; the articles would be
at hand when wanted, could be easily got at to sun and air, and the clothing-
lockers and lower decks would be relieved of much unpleasant odor.
There is absolutely no criticism to make on the essayist's treatment of the
questions of discipline and messing. Give the men wholesome, well-served
meals, and do it economically, and the question of discipline is already half
solved. Good meals, plenty of exercise, all the privileges admissible, and
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 303
certain punishment for offenses, make a happy ship. They are all possible.
The failure of the present messing system has been periodically pointed out
for years. Several better plans have been proposed; one of them should be
adopted.
I do not think Mr. Niblack makes enough revision of the pay-table. There
is no one thing that causes more heartburnings than the present scheme of
pay. There are no plums for the bone and sinew of the fighting force, the
seaman class of petty ofiflcers. The present rates are a survival, with slight
improvements, of a condition of affairs now absolutely passed. Seamen were
numerous. Any merchant sailor who enlisted in a man-of-war was in three
months entirely familiar with the new surroundings. The gunnery drills were
simple and easily learned. The qualifications which made him valuable were
those of the seaman pure and simple, a knowledge of ships and the sea, of
sails, masts and spars. He was not a man of education ; he was fortunate to
be able to write. The supply of such men was large; the wages offered
were sufficient to attract them. With steam came the machinist and the fire-
room force. The old rates could not secure the class of men required. Simi-
larly with the writers and yeomen found necessary to keep the system of
accounts, continually growing in complication. Education was at a premium,
and all these men demanded and received higher wages. The change still
going on has not yet forced a complete recognition. It is the change from
the wooden to the steel ship, from the smooth-bore to the high-power rifle,
from the howitzer to the Hotchkiss, from the musket to the magazine rifle,
from the spar-torpedo and the Harvey to the Whitehead and the Howell.
Will the same intelligence suffice for the attendant duties, and are the neces-
sary men to be picked up in every seaport, as easily as the stage-driver
becomes the engine-driver? No; the requirements and intelligence of the
seaman class aboard ship are higher now than ever before. It is all right to
keep the accounts straight and to see that the engines are equal to the task of
bringing the ship into action; but once in, there is something else to be done,
and the men who are to do it need a little encouragement. They need a good
deal more than they now get, if we are to have the men we want. Where do
the apprentices go, who are the best element we have in the service ? Most of
them into civil life after their training is finished. This can easily be cor-
rected at small total expense. It is the question of a few more dollars added
to the many already spent which is to make the difference between failure
and brilliant success.
I should give the chief boatswain's-mate, the chief quartermaster, and the
chief gunner's-mate the same pay as first-class petty officers of the artificer
class. They are men of fully as much value aboard ship, and require long
training added to rare natural gifts. I should give them $70. Boatswain's
mates, quartermaster's and gunner's mates are also valuable men, and should
get as much pay as, for instance, a ship's writer — $45. Quarter-gunners have
to-day much more difficult duties than formerly, and should be expert, capable
men. Their pay is at present only $27, and might be raised to that of fireman,
for instance, $35. It is needless to say that all these men should be subject to
304 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, I89I.
a very strict qualifying examination. The material is at hand, and only needs
encouragement to come to the front.
The suggestion for a special rate of signalman is well-timed. The practice
now in vogue is to detail apprentice-boys for the purpose. However intelli-
gent and capable, they are only boys after all, and are often trifling and inat-
tentive. Signaling has become with the present fast ships a matter of the
utmost importance and should be in the hands of responsible men. A special
rate seems a necessity.
In the special class, the bugler's pay of $33, which is higher than that of any
second or third-class petty ofl5cer of the seaman class except the coxswain to
the commander-in-chief, presents one of the anomalies of the service. The
marine buglers seem equally well trained, and get only $13 and a small cloth-
ing allowance. Whatever is the reason for discriminating to such an extent,
the bugler's high pay causes discouragement to the seaman class. In the
Boston, the chief boatswain's-mate and the chief quartermaster are the only
two petty oflScers of the seaman class who get higher pay, and it is only $2
higher. How different are the requirements in the two cases ! In addition to
possessing marked special aptitude, the seaman petty ofBcers must undergo
years of training, whereas any person who can whistle a tune and has lungs
can be taught to play a bugle in three months.
Coming to the artificer class, I should call the electrical machinist, who is a
first-class petty officer, chief electrician, and establish a rate of electrician,
second class, at $50, to replace the present dynamo-oiler. These men would
come from the same source, but the chief electrician would be a man of longer
experience and would be in charge, having as many of the others as assistants
as the size of the plant demanded. Next I would increase the pay of armorer.
To care for modern ordnance he should have the highest possible mechanical
training. He now gets less than either a blacksmith or a boiler-maker. I
would make him a first-class petty officer, and raise his pay from J45 to $70.
These petty officers of the artificer class are most important men at present.
Having given them adequate pay, they must be subject to rigid qualification.
They will probably have to be specially trained in government schools. There
are already courses for the seaman class, and there is talk of special training
for the fire-room force. The machinists should have regular courses in the
government shops.
If the increase of pay I have proposed seems too extensive, it is only neces-
sary to reflect that it does not concern many persons in the total complement,
but that those few set the tone of the whole system. The increase is mainly
in the seaman class, but it is only just that men of the intelligence now
demanded, and from whom we shalT expect so much in the next war, should
have some encouragement. To take a single ship, the Boston, the total
increase of pay would amount to $298 a month, a sum which dwindles into
insignificance in comparison with the gain in efficiency to be expected.
This brings us to the training and status of seaman-gunners. Mr. Niblack
strikes the keynote of a great deal of their present discontent in his analysis
of their troubles. Their highest prize is the rating of. machinist at $70, but in
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 305
each ship there is only one who gets it. There is so great a difference between
this pay and the average of the other available rates, that it is only natural
for the rest to be discouraged and seek higher wages in civil life. It seems
to me a mistake to make these men machinists at all. They have not had the
necessary training, nor anything like it. It is spoiling a very good seaman-
gunner to make an indifferent machinist. The present course comprises all
that is necessary in electricity and the handling of tools to secure good ord-
nance and torpedo work, but it does not make the men expert electricians or
expert mechanics. The increased pay that I have recommended for petty
officers of the seaman class, leaving out of consideration the ratings in the
special and artificer classes, would offer inducements to retain all of these men
in the service, and in rates for which they are specially fitted by their previous
training.
To secure good electrical machinists, or electricians as we propose to call
them, and armorers who are to be expert mechanics, will require other means.
The following plan seems feasible. In each class of seaman-gunners, as it
qualifies, select some few who have shown marked aptitude for electricity or
mechanics, and take them through a further extended course in these branches
until they shall have attained an excellence that will admit of no doubt when
they begin their duties on board ship. This will be no injustice to the remain-
der of the class, who, it has been seen, will have equally desirable positions
opened to them in the seaman class. The ordnance factory at Washington
will naturally be the place to perfect the armorers. I do not think two years
would be too long to keep them there. They would be rendering useful service
all the time, and the delay and expense would be fully justified by their
increased value aboard ship.
Next as to electricians. The government has at present no school where
they can be trained in practical electrical machinery and dynamo construction.
I think, however, the navy might eventually find it advantageous to manu-
facture its own electrical machinery of standard pattern for all ships. This
would avoid a great deal of inconvenience from diversity of types, would
facilitate repairs, and would in the end be cheaper. Such a plan could not
have been adopted in the earlier days of the science; but now that types are
becoming standardized, and the needs of the service are more apparent, it
would be entirely practicable. Indeed, I will venture to say that the officers
of the navy at present employed on electrical duty are far more competent to
design machinery adapted to ship's use and superintend its construction than
persons who are familiar with shore installations only. Instance the Wash-
ington gun factory, if a precedent is needed. The plan proposed, in addition
to vastly simplifying the present tedious method of equipping ships, would
provide a school in which officers and men could receive all the practical
training needed in handling any sort of electrical machinery.
As it would be desirable to have the armorers and electricians finish their
training at as early an age as convenient, it would be policy to begin the training
of seaman-gunners at the age of 19, selecting for the purpose such of the
apprentices as showed marked aptitude for the higher duties of the different
306 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
classes. They could then be graduated at 21 as seaman-gunners, and those
selected for the artificer class begin their special training at once.
Mr. Niblack's organization on the basis of the battery seems well thought
out. Something of the kind will, without doubt, soon be the rule. The general
idea is already followed in several of the new ships. I approve thoroughly
his suggestion of substituting the division number for the watch-mark on the
sleeve. If some way could be devised to keep officers and divisions longer
together than is now the rule, and let them feel their responsibility one to the
other, I think a great improvement in drill and esprit would result.
Lieutenant-Commander E. H. C. Leutze. — As the writer of the prize essay
advocates a new organization of a ship's company, and as many of the features
he proposes have been in force on the U. S. S. Baltimore for more than one
year, and on this vessel (U. S. S. Philadelphia) for nine months, it may not be
out of place to give an abstract of the organization of this vessel.
The basis of the entire organization is the quarter-bill. It has been found,
however, that in practice we cannot at the present time do away entirely with
the " parts of the ship," as men from the navigator's division who have special
duties in port have to be "watched" at sea. The same applies to the berth-
deck cooks. We have, therefore, forecastlemen and topmen, two parts of
each, and each part practically one gun division, one artillery section, one
company, two running boat's-crews, two armed boat's-crews, and two messes.
I am not quite decided, however, if it is best to retain the running boat's-crews
from the divisions, as it is often inconvenient, as for instance in the morning
watch, to have 13 men away from one division, the cleaning of the vessel
being so arranged that the gun's crews clean around their own guns, and
division officers are responsible for the good condition of the parts of the ship
in which their divisions are situated. Men from the divisions are also sta-
tioned to clean the compartments below their part of the vessel, and others
clean any engine situated in the neighborhood of their guns. As there are
only two captains of the forecastle and two captains of the top allowed, one of
them is assigned to each division and is generally called the "captain of the
division." He has charge of all the men of both watches in his division, and
is made to superintend the cleaning, painting, etc., on both sides. At sea, at
night, a coxswain has charge of one watch. It may be mentioned here that
the men see the tendency of this organization, for amongst themselves they
jocularly speak of the "sergeant" instead of captain of the top, he being first
sergeant of the company, and they speak of the coxswains as the "north" or
" south corporal." This plan of having one man in charge of a division is
found to work excellently, and I think it will be always necessary to have such
a man. The board of organization, the originators of the organization with
the quarter-bill as basis, recognized this fact, by proposing the rate of "divi-
sion mate." There being more than one gun-captain in any division, it would
lead to a conflict of authority if one was singled out to perform the duty of
captain of division. And here I would ask to be allowed to digress again, as
I would like to say a word in regard to the rate of " gun-captain." I think it
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 307
will be almost impossible to find men possessing all the attributes for a gun-
captain required by the author of the prize essay. My experience is and has
been that the best marksmen are generally found amongst men who have very
little or no qualification for the position of petty officer, I would establish the
rate of "marksman," and the men holding such rate would not necessarily be
tlie captain of the gun ; the latter might handle the elevating gear and see that
the orders of the marksman are instantly obeyed. I would free the marksmen
from all duties at the gun excepting aiming and firing it. The navigator's
division on board of this vessel consists of i chief boatswain's-mate, i chief
quartermaster, i coxswain of barge, 4 quartermasters, 4 signalmen, i coxswain
steam launch, 3 crew of steam launch, 4 bargemen, 4 side-cleaners, 4 dynamo
men, i armorer, 2 ship's writers, i blacksmith, i carpenter and caulker, i cap-
tain of head, i bugler, i messenger; total, 36 men. And this is not too many
to fill the stations at different steering wheels, at search lights, etc. I think
the number 19, proposed by the author, inadequate, although no guns are
manned by the navigator's division. I will add here that the steam launch's
crew stands watch in steering engine-room at sea in four watches, and one of
them has the entire care of that engine as far as cleaning is concerned. The
men stationed in the conning tower at general quarters belong to the helms-
men, of which there are eight, and go to the wheel when all hands are called
on going in or out of port.
The powder division, from which the artillery company of the battalion is
formed, is composed as follows: 12 berth-deck cooks, 4 gunner's gang, 3
carpenter's gang, i master-at-arms, i ship's corporal, i equipment yeoman,
I painter, i barber, i jack-of-dust, i captain hold, i sailmaker's mate, i printer,
5 stewards, 5 cooks, 13 servants, 24 coal-heavers; total, 75 men. The senior
watch-officer is in charge and the bandsmen are added as supernumeraries.
If the marines are to continue on duty on shipboard, I would station them in
the powder division, so as to avoid calling on any of the engineer's division.
At present it is necessary to have two-thirds of the coal-heavers in the powder
division, or in other words, two fire-room divisions. The third fire-room
division is a shifting one and takes the place of either of the others that may
be on watch at the time of quarters or drill.
In order to bring the battalion companies of this vessel to their proper
strength, we have to add some second-class firemen and coal-heavers to each
company. The fourth division generally remains on board when the battalion
is landed, though the organization is such that any other division could do so.
Although somewhat out of place, I would mention here that the engineer's
division is not required to do any cleaning outside of their own bulkheads.
I thoroughly agree with the writer that the executive officer of a large vessel
should have an officer of experience as assistant, as it is impossible for one
person to properly attend to all the duties required of the executive officer.
In conclusion I would say that to my mind the proper organization of a
modern man-of-war is that of the ancient galley; we have the sailors in the
navigator's division, the sea-soldiers in the gun divisions, and the engineer's
division takes the place of the oarsmen.
308 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
Commander J. B. Coghlan, U. S.Navy. — I must congratulate Ensign Niblack
upon his very able essay, published in the Proceedings of the Institute ; it shows
study and a knowledge of the needs of a good service. He, however, has one
very grave fault, which, in my opinion, is altogether too common even among
line officers, and that fault is, he exalts the non-combatant to the detriment of
the combatant class. I cannot understand why it is that the primary object of
a man-of-war's existence is so lost sight of, at the present time, and by the
people whom one would naturally suppose would be the very ones to uphold it.
We all know that the whole aim and object of a man-of-war is to carry guns
and to use them well.
Of late years the navy and its friends have seemed to run away with the idea
that the object of a man-of-war was to steam away from a fight ; and every
energy and every inducement has been directed towards that end. Since the
very object of a man-of-war is to carry guns and to use them effectively, and
the greatest aid to that effect is perfect discipline, why should not the principal
petty officers charged with that very necessary discipline, and those charged
with the use of the guns, be as well or even better paid than those petty officers
whose duties are merely secondary in comparison ? Suppose a vessel could
be gotten to a certain place in extraordinary time, what purpose would it sub-
serve unless her gunnery and discipline were good?
I have always maintained that the master-at-arms, the chief petty officer of
the ship, should be paid more than any other petty officer. No matter how
small the amount in excess might be, still it should be more. And, as his assist-
ants rank in authority every one but himself, and sometimes act in his stead,
they should be paid at least as much as the other appointed petty officers. The
duty of a gun-captain being much more important than that of a water-tender,
he should be paid a much higher rate of pay. We must come back to the proper
idea, that the battery is the important part of a man-of-war, to which all others
are subservient, and that the important men at the battery deserve the greatest
care in their selection, and a rate of pay which will keep good men in those
places. Until we do so, the best men will continue to gravitate to the engine
department, where they get better pay and easier times. In times of peace
our men do not have the incentive of patriotism, nor the esprit of command
which actuates the officers, to keep them in a particular branch of the service ;
and consequently, to keep the best men in the responsible deck positions, we
must make up in pay for the extra hazard and extra hard work. For the deck
work is the hardest of all on board a man-of-war.
I would, therefore, change Mr. Niblack's proposed rates of pay about as
follows, viz :
Master-at-arms, first class, $75; second class, $70.
Machinists, first class, I70 ; second class, $65.
Ship's corporals, first class, $65; second class, $60.
Yeomen, apothecaries, ship's writers, schoolmasters, first class, $60; second
class, $55.
All the above to be enlisted or appointed in the second class ; first-class
rates to serve in the first and second-rate ships, and second-class rales to serve
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 1 89 1. 309
in the third and fourth-rate ships, and all of them should be enlisted or
appointed in the same way. At present we see the yeomen and apothecaries
holding their positions by a much better tenure than do the masters-at-arms.
This, of course, tends to the latter's degradation, more or less. So I say all
sack-coat petty officers should be enlisted or appointed in the same way, and
should hold office by the same tenure. If they were enlisted in the second
class, they could then, under the present law, be disrated below that grade only
by a sentence of a court-martial.
Give the ship's corporals a uniform corresponding to that of the masters-at-
arms, and the ship's writer and schoolmaster one similar to those of yeomen.
Every executive officer knows how important it is to have a good writer, and
how very difficult it is to get such a one under the present conditions. With
proper pay and a proper uniform there would no longer be any such trouble to
contend with. Why should not the masters-at-arms have the same privilege of
becoming qualified as Mr. Niblack would hold out to the machinists? Their
duties and responsibilities are by far more important than that of machinists,
who are at all times under the eye and control of an engineer officer. Gun-
captains should be paid at least $50 per month ; those of the second class to
get $45 per month ; half the number allowed a vessel to be of the first class,
the others of the second class. But ship's corporals are the most neglected of
the deck force, and should be brought to a higher plane, by means of better
pay and a proper uniform. And since it seems to be settled that the days for
marines afloat have about gone by, and their retention on shore merely a
matter of time, ships should be allowed more ship's corporals, so there could
be one on duty, actively so I mean, at all times. At present these officers are
simply an aggravation to the men, as their poor pay and lack of uniform seem
to imply a poor-caste employe, and every one knows how the men resent their
control. Call them as now, or "assistant master-at-arms," or any other proper
title, only give them proper support by pay and uniform commensurate with
their duties.
I was struck with the force with which the idea of the utter uselessness of
sail-power was advanced, and then by the idea that the third vessel attached
to a recruiting station should be a sailing vessel upon which the recruits could
be taught "seamanship, alacrity, signals, etc." Why should they be taught
seamanship when it is so utterly useless? Why take up such valuable
time from boats, guns, etc., to give it to obsolete training? Oh, no! Do away
with that expense, as signals, lead, knotting, splicing and every other thing
except useless seamanship can as readily be taught on board a monitor.
If the days of seamanship have gone by, drop it and at once take up some
useful exercise, for we have no time to spare. As the essay says, alacrity can
as easily be taught in the boats.
In my opinion, Mr. Niblack has advanced the only really sensible ideas and
arguments in favor of keeping the marines ashore that I have ever seen in
print or heard uttered. We no longer have room for extra men, and if we
cannot trust the sailor-men now, the sooner we train them so they can be so
trusted the sooner we will be better off. Of course I only refer to such trust
3IO DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
as implies that they can do all the duties required on board ship, for when it
comes to trusting them not to desert or not to get drunk, the records show that
it is a case of " pull Dick, pull devil " between the two classes of men.
The argument of degraded feelings, etc., I look upon as very puerile, and I
cannot believe there are a half-dozen good men in the service who have ever
felt that way. Of course we all know
" No thief e'er felt the halter draw
With good opinion of the law."
Every time we take a walk ashore in a large city we meet policemen, city
marshals, constables or other oflScers of the law who are placed there for the
purpose of arresting offenders, and yet I am very positive none of us ever felt
the least degradation from having to see these men ready to arrest us should we
commit a breach of the peace. Of course this only tends to show that it is
those who fear them who feel any degradation from the presence of marines on
board ship.
But the matter of quarters is becoming a very serious question indeed.
With our extra large engine force — and it seems as though we are always to
have more than any other nation or service to do the same amount of work — we
must, with the reduced space, do away with some one, and of course the regular
man-of-warsman must stay. For here again comes in the object of a war-
vessel's existence. It is guns, guns ! guns ! ! Let us continually beat this
fact into every one's head. Let every one understand that in these days of
reduced crews every other department can stand a reduction, but that the guns
must be manned. As Mr. Niblack says, what is there of Coast Survey now to
be done which can for a moment compare in importance with training men for
the new navy ? What honor or gain is there for the new navy in the Fish
Commission business ? And yet the legitimate duty of the navy is suffering
for men while both these useless services have many vessels fully manned
from naval allowances.
Lack of comforts is also much to be deplored. The new ships do not com-
pare at all with old ones in that respect. An electric light is better than a
candle, and a constant stream of water is better than the old hand-pump and
draw-bucket style of flushing the heads ; but surely life on board ship is not
by any means made up of those two objects alone. The old black bag had
about twice the capacity and fifty times the cleanliness and convenience of the
present square bag and wire-locker. As far back as 1876 the Congress had far
better bag racks, more roomy, more secure, cleaner, and in every way better
than any now supplied to the new ships. These racks, as I remember, were
put up under the direction of the executive officer with the ship's force, and of
course were torn down as soon as the ship went out of commission at a navy-
yard. That seems to be the fate of all improvements put on board a ship when
in commission. And right here it is proper to say that in all the discussions on
the needs of a new navy, I have never seen what I consider the very greatest
need properly referred to. It is this : " Naval constructors should be forced
to go to sea to master the necessities of the service." It is there alone that a
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 3II
full education on matters pertaining to ships can be obtained. One hour's
experience on a trial trip has been known to do more towards putting up
weather-cloths breast-high for the protection of the officer-of-the-deck, than
three months' argument by officers of thirty years' experience. Every squadron
should have one or more constructors attached to it, who should serve at least
six months on board of each class of ships of which the squadron is composed.
They should be given the worst living rooms provided for officers, so they may
the better appreciate what life on board ship means. No one can fully com-
prehend this until he has spent three years in a room next the pantry in a hot
climate. Never a ship fits out but what the officers and the constructor are at
loggerheads, and the reason is that lack of experience at sea keeps the latter
from seeing the importance of the thousand and one seemingly little things
which experience at sea has taught the officers are all-important for future
comfort and efficiency. Can it be supposed that a constructor with experience
at sea would ever have condemned any one to live in such a place as the York-
town's wardroom ?
Too much cannot be said in praise of the idea advanced of having but one
mess for the men. As stated, that system was adopted on board the Inde-
pendence under Captain Rodgers, and the details worked out by Lieutenant
Delehanty in such a way as to leave nothing to desire. Successive captains
have but kept it up, and the system is so well grafted there that I doubt if
their people would ever be contented with any other plan. A sea-going ship
would require an officer to supervise it, and the pay department might have a
few more figures to make in regard to the ration money, but even with that
serious drawback, I think it should be adopted everywhere. In self-defense I
will say that I had fully intended putting the plan in force on board the Mohican
when ordered to command that vessel, but that about that time Lieutenant Dele-
hanty received a letter from the then Chief of the Bureau of E. and R., which
stated that that Bureau had under advisement or consideration a plan of messing
something similar to that of the Independence, which was expected to be soon
put in force. I awaited this bureau plan, and the crew lived the old way all
the cruise.
As Mr. Niblack says, it is the little things which add to or take from com-
fort, and therefore, among other little things, I would never agree to put num-
bers instead of watch-marks on the sleeves of the men's shirts. It savors too
much of the generally accepted idea of the man with the striped clothes.
" Surely the sentimental man of this day would feel degraded by it." And
what good would such a change do ? It would only be for the convenience of
the officers, who, by the exercise of the slightest bit of memory, could as
readily place the men by their faces.
But above all I wish to take issue with the general tone of the essay, which
carries with it the idea that the navy of the present and the immediate past
had in view none of the laudable objects advanced by the essayist. The essay
says : " The handling and fighting of a ship's armament is the true modern
basis of the education and training of our men." What is there modern about
this? Has not this very same thing always been the basis of the education
312 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
and training of our men ? Most assuredly it has. Any one who thinks other-
wise can certainly never have read either the Navy Regulations or the Ord-
nance Manual. Any seeming deficiency has not arisen from the absence of a
proper object ; it has not been that that the navy has had to contend against,
but the unwillingness of those in charge to carry out the excellent system of
drills laid down, for the reason that "energy should not be wasted on obsolete
things,"
It is the spirit of " laisser aller'''' (which being liberally interpreted means
"let her rip"), or anything you may choose to call it, which has of late years
crept into the service, which is accountable for any lack of efiSciency. It is the
10 A. M. boat, with morning quarters at 9.30 A. M., which has killed all military
ideas. It is the constant clamor that the drills of the ship should suit the con-
venience of some extraneous object, which even goes to hurt the new navy, by
distracting attention from military duties.
The military spirit should be fostered, for we need it; but, at the same
time, teach that it is no part of a military spirit to expect the petty officers to
do all the drudgery and drilling. Teach that the old adage, •' If you wish a
thing done, go do it, if not, send," applies to military matters also; and that
it is only that officer who takes an interest in his division and drills it properly,
who is imbued with the military spirit which will be an honor to his ship, his
service and his country. By all means teach the fundamental doctrine that
" any duty which is given, or falls, to any person, is of sufficient importance to
be well done "; and that so soon as any one looks upon his plain duty as
beneath him, so soon will that duty be neglected, and so soon will the general
body suffer. Teach, above all things, that every person on board a man-of-war
is put there for the convenience of the ship. That the ship is in no way for the
convenience of the individual, and that by constant endeavor alone can any
and every one do the duty required of him by his country.
Lieutenant Wm, F. Fullam, U, S. Navy, — The ideas underlying Mr.
Niblack's essay have been formed after close personal observation and study
of the men, of the conditions under which they serve in the new ships, and
with a keen appreciation of the demands of modern naval organization and
training. The service should be governed by ideas formed in this manner —
and formed so recently as not to be out of date.
Mr. Niblack presents an array of cold facts, gives exact dimensions and
data, neglects no detail, uncovers a hundred absurdities, and exposes the
pitiful weakness of our systems of recruiting, training, and organization, in a
manner that defies contradiction. The statements of the essayist, resting upon
a solid foundation of fact and common-sense, are not to be shaken, and the
proposed changes are so carefully and thoroughly considered as to make com-
ment, in most cases, quite unnecessary.
The complication, extravagance, and general failure of the present messing
arrangements are made laughably apparent. Imagine a hotel dining-room
with a different caterer and a different bill of fare for each table — the naval
plan ! In this, as in other instances, the essayist, after a telling criticism,
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 313
offers a sure and simple remedy. In the proposed galley plant and messing
system no detail is forgotten. That a messing system so inherently bad
should have survived so long is reason enough why officers should leave their
cabins, wardrooms and staterooms more frequently and look about the decks
for new ideas. There are important details of modern ship organization, ship
discipline, and naval training as yet unconsidered and neglected by those
whose duty it is to attend to such matters.
"The navy offers at present a respectable and inviting career to only a few
enlisted men, and to those only in such special ratings as ship's writer, yeoman,
printer, master-at-arms, and machinist." This is a simple fact. That so
many desirable men — a large percentage of the apprentices and most of the
seaman-gunners — refuse to remain long in the service, is evidence enough that
the navy is not "inviting." We hear glowing accounts of what has been
done for the blue-jacket in recent years — clothing allowance for apprentices,
seamen's savings banks, a "home" on receiving-ships, etc., — but, neverthe-
less, the best men, as a rule, do not stay. Our men, we are told, get better pay,
better food, and more comfort than foreign sailors — but, nevertheless, the
best men, as a rule, do not stay. And if they do not stay, may it not be well to
find out why it is ; and may it not be well to increase the inducements, if
possible ?
The essayist has referred to many of the harassing conditions of life on
board the modern cruiser. The American is not usually willing to submit to
these conditions for three years, in order to secure a " home " for three months
on board a receiving-ship, nor for the inestimable privilege of placing his
tremendous earnings in a naval savings bank. And so an apprentice school is
maintained and nine out of ten of the boys leave the navy before, or soon
after, they are trained. A school for seaman-gunners exists — but " the seaman-
gunners of to-day are the poorest paid, most seriously discouraged, and yet
the most important class of men in the navy." In other words, the men who
satisfy the requirements of modern seamen, citizens of the United States,
refuse to remain in the navy — simply because the systems of rating, promo-
tion, rewards, and discipline ignore national institutions and defy human nature.
These systems, judged by results — the true test — are miserable failures.
It appears to be a matter of indifference to many whether the service shall
contain citizens of the United States or not. The fact that about a dozen
nationalities may be represented in the powder division gives them no concern.
The essayist has referred to the increased importance and the manifold duties
of the powder division. Guns will be powerless without ammunition. A
rapid supply should be assured, and a heterogeneous crowd of foreigners, speak-
ing many languages, should not be trusted with such important duty.
The question of men is not considered as carefully as are matters relating
to material and armament. And yet it is the most important of all questions
affecting the efficiency of the navy. The mati is the most important part of
the mechanism of every weapon. If the man is lost as soon as he becomes
efficient, if he does not remain a reasonable time in the service, the result of
naval routine and drill is nil. Weapons and ships are worn out in drills,
314 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
show and sham, if men remain undeveloped, or if they are lost to the service
as soon as they become proficient. There must be a career for men, as well
as for officers, if the navy is to be eflScient in time of war.
The only promotion open to a blue-jacket is to the grades of petty ofificer.
One in a hundred may secure a warrant, but this is a slim chance. The fact
that petty officers have few honors and little authority in the navy is the secret
of the trouble. If the only position to which a blue-jacket may aspire amounts
to nothing, why should he remain in the navy ? The Navy Regulations fix the
status of petty officers as follows :
(i) " Petty Officers are not to exercise authority except in the department to
which they belong, and over those placed immediately under their control. . . ."
This provision limits a petty officer's authority within narrow lines.
(2) " Orderly Sergeants of Marines shall rank next after Master-at-Arms ;
all other Sergeants with Gunners' Mates, and all Corporals with Captain of
Afterguard."
A boatswain's-mate outranks a sergeant, but the latter, not the former, is
trusted in ship discipline. The gun-captains usually outrank marine corporals,
but the former are not considered worthy of responsibility in ship discipline.
Of what use is their rank ?
(3) " Non-commissioned officers of marines are not to exercise military
authority or command over those not of their corps, unless on guard or police
duty. . . ." But they are always on guard or police duty, and therefore they
do exercise military authority over blue-jackets and petty officers, while the
latter can never exercise authority over the marines, even on board ship — at
least they are never permitted to do so. Here again rank is of no use to the
petty ofiicer. It is a sham.
{4) " When serving afloat. Petty Ofiicers of the Navy shall take precedence
of non-commissioned officers of marines holding the same relative rank. . . ."
But of what earthly use is this "precedence " to the petty officer ? It is another
sham. The petty officer "takes precedence," to be sure, but the non-commis-
sioned officer takes everything else — all the honors, the responsibility in ship
discipline, the position next to the officers.
It is plain, therefore, that petty officers — petty officers of the line — have little
or no military authority. Why ? Because the marine guard is present. There
is no other reason. Petty officers cannot and never will be permitted to be
efficient in a military sense until marines are withdrawn from ships. It is
simply a question of choice — shall we have marines, or shall we have good
petty officers "i It is impossible to have both. Which is most valuable ? This
question has not been considered calmly nor logically by those who oppose the
withdrawal of marines. They regard it as a corps question, a matter of small
importance, and as an attack upon the marines. It is nothing of the sort. It
is essentially a broad service question — the most practical of all service ques-
tions— a foundation upon which to build the proper system of naval training
and discipline. No reason has ever been given to prove that petty officers
should not have the same position afloat that the non-commissioned officers
have in an army. No reason has ever been given to prove that the men who
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 315
must be trusted in battle cannot be trusted in time of peace. Every attempt
to establish such an absurdity, every argument as yet published against giving
the petty officer his proper place afloat, has been pitifully, pathetically and
poeticall}' weak. And it is remarkable that line-officers can advocate the
perpetuation of this condition of things — the condition of all others that pre-
vents the most desirable class of men from remaining in the service.
"A modern ship, being a complicated machine, requires the most intelligent
kind of men to handle and fight her effectively. On account of the cramped
living space, the number of men on each new ship must be reduced to the
lowest margin." The type of man must be intelligent and skilled with
weapons, but the number being reduced "to the lowest margin," he must be
available for general ship work. There is a vast amount of drudgery in the
new ships; it must not fall upon a few.
Compare the complements of the Philadelphia and the steam frigate
Wabash:
Deck Engineer's
Tonnage. Complement, force. force. Marines.
Wabash 4Soo 540 385 44 49
Philadelphia 4100 368 161 90 36
172 224
The deck force of the Wabash exceeded the total complement of the Phila-
delphia. The latter has no sails, to be sure, but there is much more hard work
of a disagreeable nature in her case. In work aloft there was more or less
pleasurable excitement. The Philadelphia carries 850 tons of coal — two or
three times as much as the Wabash — and she must coal ship more frequently.
And in painting, cleaning, docking and routine work there is increased
drudgery. And yet the deck force of the Philadelphia is less than that of the
Wabash by 224 men ! A considerable reduction is to be expected, but it is
evident that the number of men who are excused from general work on board
modern ships must be reduced to a minimum.
In the Philadelphia's complement of 368, the work of coaling, painting,
cleaning ship, etc., falls upon the deck force of 161 men. Of this number,
however, the following are usually excused from coaling:
Barge, gig and dinghy's crews, signal boys, sick, etc. (probably) 30
Berth-deck cooks (about) 12
Total 42
This leaves 119 men to do the coaling; and of these, 13 are gun-captains
and coxswains, who work with the coal-passers, while privates in the marine
guard sleep on the berth-deck. Here, again, the "rank" and "precedence"
of the petty officer availeth him nothing. This is a small force to handle 850
tons of coal. The difficulty experienced in coaling the Baltimore at New York
will be remembered. A few tired men were overworked, while a considerable
portion of the ship's company did nothing. Foreign nations have recognized
that the problem of quick coaling is of vital importance and very difficult of
solution. To reduce the number of idlers is a step in the right direction.
3l6 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
Of the Philadelphia's crew, the following must be excused from passing coal
(see Mr. Niblack's essay, pp. 39-40) :
Band 16
Engineer's force 90
Officers' cooks, stewards and servants 21
Dynamo machinists and oilers 4
Baymen
Engineer's yeoman
Pay yeoman
Jack-of-the-dust
Apothecary
Ship's cook
Berth-deck cooks 12
Barge, gig, dinghy, sick, signal boys, etc 30
Total excused 180
Under some circumstances, perhaps, the barge, dinghy and gig's crews
could assist, but it will be seen that the excused list is necessarily large.
Remaining we find the following who are also excused :
Watch petty officers 17
Petty officers : Master-at-arms, equipment yeoman, captain of
hold, ship's writer, barber, bugler 6
Mechanics 9
Total 32
Marines 36
Grand total 68
It is from these 68 men that additional working men must be recruited.
Consider what these 68 men are doing while coaling ship. The 32 petty officers
are not only excused from work by virtue of their "rank," but with the excep-
tion of the master-at-arms and two ship's corporals, they are not expected to
assist materially in maintaining discipline. To preserve order, therefore, 36 more
able-bodied marines are excused from all work. Because 32 petty officers are
not utilized for discipline, -^^d enlisted men must be detailed to protect the ship from
danger within and from ruin without ! Here is the rotten point in the present
system, and the remedy is plain. If petty officers are excused from work (and
if anybody is excused they should be), they should not be excused from duty in
maintaining discipline. This principle (and it is a sound one) once established,
36 enlisted men are left without a job, and may be marched into the coal
lighters and provided with shovels and baskets with which to make themselves
useful.
While coaling ship, scraping ship in dry-dock, and often in cleaning ship, the
following rules should obtain :
(i). At such times, all sentries, orderlies, corporals of the guard, quarter-
masters, etc., should stand watch and watch. This is only right. When some
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 1891. 317
men are working from 6 A. M. until midnight, with no rest except for meals,
others should not stand watch four hours and then sleep twelve. This is not an
equal division of labor. The officer-of-the-deck stands watch and watch while
coaling ship. Cannot men on guard duty do the same?
(2). All such petty officers as yeoman, ship's writer, captain of the hold,
chief quartermaster, armorers, chief gunner's-mate, etc., should drop their
pens, lockup storerooms, and report to the executive officer for duty as extra
corporals of the guard to maintain discipline.
The following should be the stations of the 32 petty officers :
WATCH PETTY OFFICERS.
No. Rate. Station.
I Chief boatswain's mate. . .Spar-deck all day.
I Boatswain's mate Attend coaling starboard all day.
1 " " " " port "
2 Gunner's mates On post where needed, standing watch and watch
as extra corporals of the guard.
1 Chief quartermaster Acting as sergeant of the guard all day.
2 Quartermasters On bridge, watch and watch.
2 Quartermasters At the gangway, corporals of the guard, watch
and watch.
6 Quarter gunners At three posts, watch and watch; the three off
duty look out for the battery.
I Ship's corporal Berth-deck all day.
1 7.. total.
PETTY OFFICERS.
I Master-at-arms Where needed all day, in charge of the guard
detail.
I Equipment yeoman "> Assist the master-at-arms all day wherever
I Ship's writer J needed.
I Captain of the hold Acting corporal of the guard below the gun-deck,
assisting ship's corporal.
I Barber Pass empty coal-baskets.
I Bugler Act as officer-of-the-deck's messenger all day.
6.. total.
MECHANICS.
I Armorer Corporal of the guard, gun-deck, all day.
I Blacksmith Pass empty coal-baskets.
I Carpenter's mate -> , . ,
c ., , , ^ > At a post, watch and watch, extra corporals.
I Sailmaker s mate J
I Painter Pass empty coal-baskets.
3 Carpenters and caulkers. .Repair stages and coal-baskets.
I Printer Pass empty coal-baskets.
9.. total. 32. .grand total.
3l8 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
This completes the station-bill for the 32 petty officers. Ten have been
assigned duty all day in certain parts of the ship, or wherever the executive
officer may need them. Fourteen have been detailed to stand watch and watch
at seven posts, making practically seventeen posts for the maintenance of
discipline. Under no circumstances would any more posts be necessary.
Only three posts of enlisted men would ever be needed at such times —
admiral's orderly, captain's orderly, and sentry over the prisoners — two men
at each post standing watch and watch, making only six enlisted men assigned
to guard duty. Every other enlisted man in the ship should be in the coal
lighters.
The duty ordinarily performed by the marines being now in the hands of
petty officers and six enlisted men, replace the 36 marines by 36 blue-jackets,
and 30 of the latter may assist with the work. Mr. Niblack's messing system
would save five more working men, and assigning tailors, printers, barbers,
painters and buglers to duty passing empty baskets saves five more, making
forty vten who cati be added to the working force of the Philadelphia — a gain of
over 30 per cent. Is this a corps question? Practical {}) officers would do
well to think about it.
When there are fewer passengers on board ship, the service will be more
" inviting " to those who do the work. When every man does his proper share
of the work there will be contentment. When petty officers and blue-jackets
are not deprived of the best swinging billets, the choice duty and the posts of
honor and responsibility, when they are permitted to stand next to their officers
at all times and are rewarded for efficiency, the proper men will remain in the
service.
A type of petty officer is needed who can control and drill the men to the
same extent as non-commissioned officers of an army, and who can look out
entirely for discipline when all enlisted men are needed for work.
A type of man is needed who can be a sentry when sentries are wanted,
and who can work when sentries are not wanted. But a blue-jacket cannot be
a seiitry ! This is funny — " funny " is the only term to apply to such a state-
ment. It requires less intelligence to be a sentry than to do any of the hun-
dred duties required of a sailor. No technical training whatever is needed.
A raw recruit who doesn't know the muzzle from the breech of a gun may be
a good sentry. Obedience and attention are needed to be a sentry ; that is all.
If the sailor lacks these qualities, he should lack them no longer.
Petty officers and blue-jackets in the navy are the victims of tradition, senti-
ment, and conservatism — these three ; and the greatest of these is conservatism.
Conservatism denies to the man-of-warsman the chance to develop, and drives
from the service the men who should be retained at all costs.
Ensign A. P. Niblack, U. S. Navy.— The comparison of the complements
of the Philadelphia and Chicago (p. 39, No. 57) needs several corrections. In
the engineer's force, it should read : for the Chicago, boilermakers 2, black-
smiths o. The use of the title " junior officers' steward," etc., instead of the
DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I. 319
official designation "steerage" steward, etc., has proven offensive to several
who have forgotten their early experiences in junior grades in the navy. The
only pity is that there exists, at this late day, a necessity for such a correction.
The use of the word alien in the expression "No alien should be accepted for
either special or general service," etc., seems to have been rather unfortunate,
as I supposed that a man who had declared his intentions of becoming a
citizen could hardly, in the strict sense, be regarded as an alien. With regard
to Plate II, giving diagram of the steam-cooking plant in a space 12 feet by 12
feet, it was not intended to propose the arrangement given as a particularly
desirable one, but only to illustrate the space occupied by the different parts
of a steam plant for 560 men in the corresponding space of an ordinary ship's
galley for 400 men. It was naturally contemplated that the officers of the ship,
having their own messes, would necessarily be provided with a separate range
or galley.
With regard to the pay-table proposed, the present one was taken as a basis
and very few changes made. As it seemed so desirable to encourage seaman-
gunners, the increase of 30 per cent in the pay of those filling petty officer's
billets of the seaman class, and only 10 per cent in those of the special and
artificer classes, was calculated to operate towards both raising the status of
petty officers of the seaman class, and encouraging men to become seaman-
gunners. The pay of master-at-arms is $65.00. A seaman-gunner, filling
that position, would get $71.50. A ship's corporal should get $35.00 or $40.00.
A gun-captain, qualified, should get $45.00, A seaman-gunner, filling the
billet, would get $58.50, etc. The proposed pay-table is weak and objection-
able in many particulars, but it was hoped that more suggestions would be forth-
coming.
It may not be out of place here to summarize some of the leading points in
order to make clear the position of the writer in a specific way.
The sea-going corps of officers of the navy owe it to themselves to protest
forcibly and vigorously against the proposed quarters and accommodations for
the men they are to have under their charge, to do the work expected of them
in some of the ships now building, particularly in the cruisers of moderate
displacement and excessive horse-power. Such officers must have more to say
and do with questions affecting the health, comfort, and efficiency of the men.
Now that we are so short of men, the issue should be forced with the Coast
Siyvey and Fish Commission. The seaman-gunner is the type of man we are
after; yet no class of people in the service have one-half the grounds for
complaint that they have had until recently, and have now to a great extent.
If a circular-letter were addressed to each man who has, up to recently,
qualified as a seaman-gunner, whether now in the service or in civil life, asking
him what the grievances of this class are or were, I believe the invariable
answer would be : Inequalities and injustices in pay and ratings, and vagueness
and lack of system in training, particularly at Newport. More of the prelimi-
nary training of men must be done on shore and in training-ships, where the
process of weeding out should be facilitated, and only good men sent to sea-
going ships. These should be well paid and well looked out for. As regards
320 DISCUSSION OF PRIZE ESSAY, 189I.
the question of marines, the marine corps will, no doubt, be able to work out
its own salvation as well as it has in past emergencies. We must secure
for our ships homogeneous crews, and uniformity in drill, routine, training and
organization. We must secure for our men improved comforts and rewards
for faithful service, and provide a career that will attract the best possible
class of men into the service. Are we doing all we can ?
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
TARGET PRACTICE AT THE NAVAL ACADEMY.
By Lieutenant-Commander C. S. Sperry, U. S. Navy.
The firing of the Cadets of the First Class in April, 1891, competing for the
marksman's medal was conducted in accordance with the following general
directions :
U. S. Naval Academy,
Annapolis, Md., April 21, 1891.
The great-gun practice of the cadets of the first class, competing for the
medal, will be plotted upon a vertical plane 64 yards long and 40 feet high, the
target being at the center of this rectangle.
The scoring will be as follows, the target being the center of each rectangle
designated. Shots striking within a rectangle :
A, 10 feet high and 16 yards long, score 12
Outside of A and within a rectangle B, 20 feet high and 32 yards long, score, 6
Outside of B and within a rectangle C, 30 feet high and 48 yards long, score, 4
Outside of C and within a rectangle D, 40 feet high and 64 yards long, score, 3
All other shots score zero.
The medal will be awarded to the cadet making the greatest percentage of
his possible maximum.
In case of a tie it will be decided by having each contestant fire one or more
groups, of 5 shots each, as may be necessary. The contestants in this case
will fire with the same gun, upon the same day, and, as near as practicable, at
the same range, which will i^ot be less than 1000 yards nor more than 1400
yards. R. L. Phythian,
Captain, U. S. N., Superintendent.
The gun, a Hotchkiss 3-pounder rapid-firing gun, was mounted in the bows
of the tug Standish. The target was the usual service triangular target of
black muslin, about six feet on the base and five feet high. The boats for the
recorders were placed 1000 yards from the target, the lines joining them to the
target making a right angle. To keep the vessel from drifting a 250-pound
kedge and light line were used. The tidal current being weak, this was quite
sufficient, and still permitted slight changes of position to be made without
the necessity of weighing. The service T was used.
The competitive firing was done only on smooth days, mainly because of the
difficulty the recorder would have in observing the fall of the shot with motion
on the boat.
Each cadet was allowed three trial shots to determine the range and adjust
the leaf, and then fired ten consecutive rounds.
322 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
The following is the score of the class, the maximum being 120 for ten shots:
First Class, 1891.
Name. Score. Name. Score.
Lane 120 Moale 102
Watt 120 Stearns 102
Macfarland 114 Richards 102
Hough 114 Ninde 100
Theall 114 Zahm 96
McLemore 114 Smith, L. G 96
Sypher 114 Preston 96
Leigh 114 Kochersperger 96
Carter 114 Evans 94
Althouse 108 Kuenzli 90
Bierer 108 Nire 90
Blount 108 Belknap 88
Brotherton 108 Caldwell 88
McKelvy 108 Smith, H. E 88
Irwin ... 102 Flowers 84
Christy 102 Pollock 84
Hartung 102 Smith, H. G 84
Senn 102 Willard 76
Williams 102 Gross 74
Gillmor 102 Blamer 70
Average score 99.7, or 83 per cent of the maximum.
To decide the tie between Cadets Watt and Lane, the boats and target being
in position, they drew lots for the order of firing. Each cadet estimated the
range for himself, was given three trial shots and then fired a string of five.
Neither was allowed to see the firing of the other, or to know the sight-bar
height used and adjustment of the leaf.
Cadet Watt won, scoring the maximum of 60 for his five shots. Cadet Lane
scored 42. t
The inner rectangle of the target is 48 feet in length, horizontally, which is
about the beam of a heavy vessel, and it was adopted for the bull's eye as
being the target presented by a vessel end on. Men must obviously be trained
to hit the least target presented by the enemy.
The experience gained in firing more than a thousand rounds with the
Hotchkiss guns leads to belief that the observation of the fall of the shot with
the service T is much more accurate than is generally supposed if smooth
weather is chosen for the practice. An error of one of the least divisions,
one-half of a degree, would mean a lateral error of 8}^ yards at a range of 1000
yards, but it is not believed that the mean error was more than half of this.
Granting that the means of scoring are not as perfect as can be desired or
as we may hope to make them, it is believed that they identify the best marks-
men with reasonable certainty and fairness.
The practice was plotted in the vertical plane with great facility by the aid
of tables of ordinates computed by Ensign Haeseler, U. S. N., and it is to be
hoped they may soon be printed for general use.
When the firing for the medal was completed, or when the water was rough,
practice was given the cadets in firing at a target while steaming rapidly, with
caliber 45 ammunition from the 3-pounder drill cartridge, and with shell from
a pair of 20-pounder M. L. Parrot rifles mounted aft.
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PROFESSIONAL NOTES. 323
NAVAL MESSENGER PIGEON SERVICE.
By H. Marion, Assistant Professor U. S. Naval Academy.
The Use of "Homing Pigeons" in the French Navy.
The recent manoeuvres of the French squadron of evolution at Toulon have
again demonstrated the great usefulness of homing pigeons as messengers for
naval purposes.
During the sham attack of the port of Toulon all the trained pigeons of the
central station were distributed among the " semaphores " and the " torpilleurs
de haute mer" which were to watch the approach of the enemy's fleet. These
pigeons, liberated at short intervals, enabled the " Prefet Maritime" of Toulon
to be rapidly informed of the approach and the movements of the attacking
squadron, and to be kept in constant communication with the vessels defending
the port.
The Naval Messenger Pigeon Service was established in France several
years ago by the late Admiral Bergasse Dupetit-Thouars, and has its head-
quarters at Toulon.
Every out-going man-of-war is now provided with a number of " pigeons-
voyageurs," which are liberated at various distances according to the stage of
their respective training. They return, with few exceptions, to their home
lofts, bearers of cipher despatches attached to their wings or tails.
A cote has been established on board the artillery practice vessel St. Louis,
and the pigeons have become thoroughly accustomed to the report and smoke
of the guns, and follow the vessel on her cruise, never mistaking her for
another. Their usefulness has been especially appreciated whenever the
vessels of the squadron were beyond the range of the heliograph, as they
enabled the commander of the fleet to communicate with the shore at long
distances when no other means of communication were available.
Messenger Pigeon Service in Italy.
The February number of the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution
contains a very interesting account of experiments which took place lately in
Italy with "homing pigeons" on a " there-and-back flight" between Rome
and Civitavecchia, a distance of about 40 miles.
Let us first make a statement as to what this "there-and-back flight" con-
sists of.
As everybody knows, the ordinary service which the pigeon unconsciously
performs by carrying letters, orders, reports, and the like, is based on its natural
instinct, which constantly induces it to return to its own home, to which old
recollections, its mate, nest, food, etc., attract it. In the "there-and-back
flight," on the other hand, the task is to induce the same pigeon — which,
unless one carries it away, as a rule never forsakes its native loft — to fly to
another loft with which it has been previously made acquainted, in order to
provide itself there with its accustomed food and water, and then subsequently
to return to its proper home. In such a manner the pigeon carries a despatch
to a certain spot, with a view of obtaining food there ; the first message is then
removed, and an answer is substituted, which the winged messenger, on the
completion of its feeding, brings back to its own nest.
It is in this way possible, with a single loft containing about ten birds trained
for this special work, to keep in constant communication by messages, five or
six times a day, two places, although either, or even both, are besieged or
blockaded by the enemy. After several successful experiments, a continuous
service was established between Rome and Civitavecchia, and is now in con-
stant use.*
* The town of Civitavecchia was selected for these experiments, being the nearest port to the
capital and an important strategical point.
324 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
The following is the first official despatch sent by Captain Malagoli, of Rome,
to the Mayor of Civitavecchia, and the latter's reply :
" To his Worship the Mayor of Civitavecchia: — The marvelous instinct which
guides the homing pigeon through the air, and permits it to return to its nest
from thousands (?) of kilometers distance, and also the fidelity with which it
returns to its family, have during the last few years been the object of most
lively interest ; nor do we disdain in our day to make use of them as despatch-
bearers. Particularly in war-time is this of great and indisputable value, since
then all the ordiyiary means of communication will be defective, if not altogether
denied, and one will be forced to substitute exceptional ones in their place. For a
long time it was considered that all that could be expected from a ' homer,'
was that it should return to its home after it had been carried away some-
where by hand. However, trusting to the intelligence of this winged messenger,
we now desired to go farther, and to make it a carrier of despatches to a given
place.'^rom which it should afterwards bring back the answer. It is now pos-
sible to say 'eureka!' For several days these birds have performed their
regular service between Rome and your town, carrying despatches to and fro,
which is apparent to you ' de visu.' The journey there or back is executed
in about an hour, as the pigeons have to fly about 40 miles in a direct line
from one point to the other. Your town forms with Rome the two points in
connection. I shall esteem it as a great honor if your Worship will send me
a brief report of its arrival by the same means by which you receive this.
With kind regards, Malagoli, Captain.'''
" Captain Malagoli, Rome : — I thank you very much for the despatch sent
to me by means of a homing pigeon, which I received to-day. I shall preserve
it among the archives as a testimony of your kind thought for me, and of the
splendid results which have been obtained by your most intelligent labors
towards establishing so important a service.
I have the honor to be, sir, A. Simeoni. Mayor."
These remarkable results were obtained only by long and careful training
through different stages of experiments by which the pigeons were made to
understand what was desired of them.
The governments of France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and
of late the Dominion of Canada, maintain numerous pigeon service establish-
ments which form an important department of their military and naval organi-
zation. Several of them employ the birds in connection with the defense of
their coasts as well as on board of war and despatch vessels.
A service similar to the one described above might be established between
Washington and some other convenient place (Annapolis, for instance), and
extended to other naval stations, as suggested in our article " Proposed Naval
Messenger Pigeon Service" (Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, 1890, No. 54),
in which we said, in substance, the following :
" So far, no oi-ganized service of messenger pigeons has been established in
the United States Navy. It is to be hoped that such a service will soon be
established, as numerous experiments have proved that homing pigeons can
fly several hundred miles at sea, that birds can be bred and trained on board
ships, that they can recognize their own ship among others, that they can be
relied upon to carry news from the fleet to the shore (and under favorable
circumstances from the shore to the fleet and from one vessel to another) when
beyond the range of heliograph and electrograph.
"A service of carrier pigeons for naval purposes could not be improvised at
short notice, as the birds would require long and careful training before they
could be of any use as bearers of despatches.
" War vessels employed in defending a coast are frequently without the
means of transmitting information of the utmost importance to the mainland.
By means of trained messenger pigeons they could send communications
NATURE OF GUN.
Ft.
l.-
EC
E
r-
•£
P-A
M
H
rt _
a
oo
H
4-in. B. L. R. Mark I
4-in. R. F. Gun
5-in. B. L. R. Mark I
5-in. R. F. Gun
6-in. B. L. R. Mark I
6-in. B. L. R. Mark II
6-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 30 cals.
3380
3400
6190
7000
6 ! 10775
J-5
1-5
6-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 35 cals.
6-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 40 cals.
*8-in. B. L. R. Mark I
8-in. B. L. R. Mark II
8-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 35 cals.
8-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 40 cals.
lo-in. B. L. R, Mark I of 30 cals. .
fio-in. B. L. R. Mark I of 35 cals.
lo-in. B. L. R. Mark II of 30 cals.
lo-in. B. L. R. Mark II of 35 cals.
i2-in. B. L. R. Mark I
13-in. B. L. R. Mark I
10900
10800
1 1554
13370
27600
28800
29100
29400
34000
57500
6c66o
63100
56400
61900
101300
135500
4.9
4.8
5.2
6.0
'2.3
12.9
13.0
13.1
15.2
25.7
27.1
28.2
25-1
27.6
45-2
60.5
13-7
13-7
13-5
i7.4
15.8
16.1
16.3
18.8
21.3
21.5
21.5
25.4
28.7
27.4
30.5
27.4
31.2
36.8
40.0
25.0
255
24.0
24.0
24.0
33.8
33-8
33-8
33.8
13.0
157.29
!
13.0
157.50
18.0
150 27
16.5
191.50
21.5
176.0
21.5
180.08
20.5
>83.75
20.5
2'3.75
21.0
243.75
30.0
239.9.
30.0
239.91
28.75
290.52
28.75
3 0.52
40.0
306.26
40.0
343.76
39.0
307.26
39.0
354.91
45.0
419.20
49-0
454.46
*8-in. B. L. R.'s Nos. i and 3 are not hooped to the muzzle, whi
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
325
ashore over a distance of several hundred miles, signal the approach of the
enemy's fleet, and report rapidly all his movements. Besides these, many
other circumstances afford numerous occasions for employing homing pigeons
as messengers in times of peace or war.
" We, therefore, advocate the speedy establishment of a permanently organ-
ized system of naval messenger pigeon-lofts at the principal navy-yards and
stations along the Atlantic Coast."
NAVAL B. L. GUNS.
Dangerous Space for 20 Feet Freeboard.
Gun.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Ranges for which Gun is Elevated.
1000 Yds.
1500 Yds.
2000 Yds.
2500 Yds.
f.s.
yds.
yds.
yds.
yds.
4-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1 000
290
III
177
195
217
119
131
145
S-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
287
322
357
173
193
213
117
129
142
6-inch.
2000
2100
1000
1000
327
368
205
143
159
2200
1000
405
253
174
8-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
357
405
452
232
260
287
^5
184
204
lo-inch.
2000
2100
1000
1000
380
428
247
277
180
200
2200
1000
479
306
221
12-inch.
;>ooo
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
392
If.
318
189
209
232
13-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
399
443
449
261
291
32J
192
213
237
u.
S. NAVAL B. L.
GUNS.
i
3
In.
1
1
!
j
if
1 '
■0
i!
1
1
0
1
is
GROOVES.
c
HAMBER
1
■0
I
1
1
Si
si
a
1
ft
1
ii
1
J
1
REMAINING VELOCITY AT
: 1
— -
i
1
5
5
1
J
i
i
I
1
i
1
1
li 1
1
r
i
„,.
Tons.
n.
Inchts. i
30
i„=h„.
Cubic Inches.
,„.
Pounds.
Tuns.
Foo.-Secunds.
Tom.
In.
In.
33S0
3400
6,90
157.29
157.50
.5027
30.29
Zero 10
-279
-279
-485
-435
-025
.025
-05
24.74
25. .38
27.07
4-30
6-5
367
329
899
2037
1994
3326
'32-55
,2 to .4
33
60
58
,/>02
■/■O3
1/103
.65.
150.
.364
.246
9.5
4.77
13.7
'3.5
'3-0
.8.0
5iii. B. L. K. MarkI
2.8
21.0
20.75
1 in 180 to
lin30
123.20
26 to 29
2000
.697
.563
■439
'323
1
.660 8.67
6.09
Sin. K. F. Gun
5
3-1
.7.4
'6.5
191.SP
64.40
Zero 10
I in 25
30
•349
.025
32.00
\l:'^l
655
3965
168.00
28.030
50
95
I/14O
■•
2250
■847
1673
15.6
1374
■754 9-00
S-9«
6in. li.L.K.Matkl
6
I077S
4.8
'5.8
25.0
21.5
176.0'
36.65
'Tin 30°
24
.485
•435
■OS
36.85
7.0
.408
5360
■39.. 5
50
38
■ 00
,/,08
2000
'735
.6.6
.505
1402
2773| 10.27
7.S7
6
,0900
4.9
16.1
25s
21.5
180.0S
44.85
24
■■
32.73
7-5
■ 4.0
5595
■47-35
45.048
34 .0 36
./.09
2000
..
"
"
6-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 30 cals
6
roSoo
4.8
16.3
24.0
20.5
'83-75
47-26
Zero to
1 in 25
24
-4S5
.415
"
33.99
7.0
1299
5552
■ 49.76
44 to 47
33 '0 35
looL...
./.08
2000
••
"
••
»
6-in, B. L. R. Mark III of 35 cals
'
'■554
5-2
18.8
24.0
20.5
213-75
77-26
■•
24
33.99
7.0
1299
6404
.79.76
■CO....
./..6
"
2080 .807
.680
'565
.458
2990
10.86
iM
6-in. U. L, R. Mark III of 40 cals
6
13370
6.0
21-3
21.0
243-75
1
07.26
24
"
33.99
7.0
1299
7256
Z09.76
"
.00 1
■/.34
■•
2.50
.865
.737
.6.8
1507
3204J.1.38
8.39
•8-in. B. L.R.Mark I
8
''■3
21.5
33.8
30.0
239.9'
95-16
1 in 180 to
I in 30
32
.4S5
•435
"
42.05
10.5
3569
'354.
197.86
.05.01.5
So to 86
250'....
I/I.O
1/1. 5
"
2000
.S08
.719
1634 1554
6932j ■4.5^
...«,
8-in. B.L. K.Mark II
8
.9.00
.3.0
-.5
33.8
30.0
239.91
95.16
32
"
42.05
10.5
3569
■3541
.97.86
250,....
1/116
"
2000
••
.. ..
..
••
S-in. B. L. R. Mark III of 35 cals
»
=9400
'3-1
25-4
33.8
28.75
290.52
42.77
Zero to
1 in 25
-485
• 4'5
"
45-05
9-5
3176
■5548
245-47
751080
250
,/..8
2080
iSSo
■7S7
.70c ,6.5
7498
.5.6.
...JS
8-in. B. L.K.Mark III of 40 cals. ...
8
34000
15.2
28.7
33.8
28.75
30.^2
S2.77
32
'•
45.05
9-5
3^76
17564
2S5-47
..
250
./.36
..
2.50
■943
.84S
1757 1670
Son
16.10
12.9;
loin.B.L.K.MarkIof30cals.:....
■ 0
57500
25-7
27.4
40.0
306.26
47-26
1 in 180 to
' 1135
40
.485
•435
57-'7
12.5
6880
26639
25043
.7010.90
500
'/"5
"
2000
.84S
1777
1708
1642
.3S64
.8.75 'S-St
+ .o-in.B. L.R.Mark I of 35 cals....
.0
60660
63100
2^:^
30.5
40.0
343.76
83.76
Zero to
lin25
40
-485
■ 415
57- '7
12.5
68S0
29480
2S6.93
•■
.60 to .So
500
I/. 2.
./.26
■■
2080
1922
184S
■777
.707
14996 '9-83
.6.JS
lo-in. Ji. L. K. Mark 11 of 30 cals
■ c
56400
25-1
27.4
39.0
307.26
47-26
Zero to
1 in 26.8
40
"
57- '7
'2-5
6831
26590
250.43
•
.7010190
500
■/■.3
•■
2000
.848
■777
.70S
.642
.38d,
,.„
.s*
.o-in.B.L.R.Markn„,35cals
10
61900
27.6
31.2
39-0
354-9'
94-91
. in°2S
40
•■
57.17
12.5
683'
30350
298.08
160 to 180
500
./.24
••
2,00
.940
.865
■793
1724
15=85
10.10
•<«
l2-in.B.L. R MarkI
-
101300
45-2
36.8
45-0
4,9.20
43- '2
Zero to
iin25
48
■■
74.14
MS
12043
5'355
346.06
425
.... 1850
./..9
2.00
.964
1900
•837
1777
25,85
..J...
I3in. B. L. R. Mark I
'3
.35500
60.5
40.0
49.0
454.46
70.46
"
52
■•
80.88
■5.5
15059
64857
373.58
550
.... 1,00
./.23
"
2,00
'977
.9.8
i860
.Soj
M6.7
j6.o>
•8-in. B. L.
R.'s Nos. I and 3 a
re not
hooped
lo.he
muzzle, i»h
le Nos. 2 and 4 are.
t
o-in. B. L. R. No. 3 diflers in ex
lerior from .o-in. li. L. R. No.
4, and is somewhat lighter in consctinence.
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
325
ashore over a distance of several hundred miles, signal the approach of the
enemy's fleet, and report rapidly all his movements. Besides these, many
other circumstances afford numerous occasions for employing homing pigeons
as messengers in times of peace or war.
" We, therefore, advocate the speedy establishment of a permanently organ-
ized system of naval messenger pigeon-lofts at the principal navy-yards and
stations along the Atlantic Coast."
NAVAL B. L. GUNS.
Dangerous Space for 20 Feet Freeboard.
Gun.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Ranges for which Gun is Elevated.
1000 Yds.
1500 Yds.
2000 Yds.
2500 Yds.
f. s.
yds.
yds.
yds.
yds.
4-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1 000
290
322
362
177
195
217
119
131
145
5-inch.
2000
2100
2 200
1000
1000
1000
287
322
357
^73
193
213
117
129
142
2000
1000
327
205
M3
6-inch.
2100
2200
1000
1000
368
405
22S
253
159
174
8-inch.
2000
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
357
405
452
232
260
287
165
184
204
lo-inch.
2000
2100
1000
1000
380
428
247
277
180
200
2200
1000
479
306
221
12-inch.
P.OOO
2100
2200
1000
1000
1000
392
436
489
258
318
189
209
232
2000
:ooo
399
261
192
13-inch.
2100
2200
1000
1000
443
449
291
323:
213
237
326 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
THE HARVEY ARMOR PLATE— RESULTS OF THE
RECENT TRIAL AT ANNAPOLIS.
[Reprinted by permission from the Iron Age of March 19, 1891.]
We are indebted to B. G. Clarke, the well-known iron and steel manufac-
turer, for the following data on the trials of the Harvey armor plate, in the
development of which both he and Theodore Sturges, of the Oxford Iron and
Nail Company, have taken a deep and active interest, the inventor being H. A.
Harvey, of the Harvey Steel Company, Newark, N. J. Mr. Harvey has applied
his method of treating steel to armor plate, the plate officially tested at
Annapolis on March 14 being of Schneider make, 10 inches thick and 6x8
feet.
We print facsimiles of the appearance of the Harvey plate after the second
and fifth rounds, and outline drawings showing the effect of the other rounds.
DATA FOR ALL ROUNDS.
Guns 6-inch B. L. R., No. 88 (35 calibers).
Distance from muzzle to plate 263 feet.
Charge 441^ pounds, index 90.
Muzzle velocity 2091 f. s. (measured for first round only).
Striking velocity 2065 f. s.
Weight of projectile 100 pounds.
Temperature 40° F.
Angle of plate with normal to line of fire 13° 22^
In the treatment the Harvey plate had become warped in two directions —
the face being approximately spherical with slight curvature — distance from
rear face of plate at center to chord drawn between corners of plate, 3 inches.
The plate was secured to 36 inches of oak backing in the usual manner
adopted with Schneider plates, and the backing secured to the structure used
for the compound plate in the September trials. The space left at the back of
the plate, owing to its warping, was filled in with oak fitted to its curvature.
No side plates were used.
THE FIRST ROUND.
Projectile, Holtzer A. P. No. 12. Point of impact, 2 feet from right edge,
23 inches from top. Projectile broke up into very small fragments, which
were scattered over the grounds. Very few pieces could be recovered. A
portion of the head was left in the indent so welded to the plate that when it
was knocked out by subsequent impacts it carried portions of the plate with
it, and it is impossible to give the depth of the indent with any accuracy.
The point was judged to have been between 3}^ and 4 inches below surface of
plate. The depth, including portions of plate carried away, was \yi inches ;
diameter at surface of plate, g to 9)4 inches. No fringe was raised. A
through crack 30 inches long was started downward and to right to edge of
plate. A second through crack 19 inches long upward and to the left to top
of the plate. No surface or hair cracks could be detected, and no radial
cracks. The face of the plate in the neighborhood of indent did not peel off,
but the diameter at surface of plate was greater than usual.
SECOND ROUND.
Projectile, Holtzer A. P. No. 35. Point of impact, 2 feet from top, 23 inches
from left edge. Projectile broke up badly. Portions of base recovered near
target. Portion of head left in indent, in the same manner as in round i.
Character of indent very much the same, but judged to be about y^ inch
First Round*
Third Round.
Fourth Round.
Sixth Round.
328 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
deeper. Depth, including portion of plate carried away with projectile, 5
inches. Diameter at surface, 9 to 9^ inches. No fringe. Through crack
i8)4 inches long to top of plate. Through crack 18 inches long to left edge of
plate. Partially through cracks 16 inches long joining indent with No. i, sub-
sequently opened up to wide through crack. Partially through crack 33
inches long downward and to left, subsequently opened up to wide through
crack to left edge of plate.
THIRD ROUND.
Projectile, Carpenter 208 C. Point of impact, 2 feet from bottom, 23 inches
from left edge. Shell broke up badly. About the same amount of the base
recovered as in second round. Character of indent very much the same,
except that it was possible to separate the shell from plate. Depth of indent,
4 inches. Diameter, 9 to g}{ inches. Very slight fringe about small portions
of indent. Through crack down and to right, subsequently continued to
bottom of plate, 27 inches long. Through crack up and to left to crack from
first indent, 23 inches. Surface crack 18 inches long to left edge of plate.
FOURTH ROUND.
Projectile, Carpenter 207 C. Point of impact, 2 feet from bottom, 2 feet
from right edge. Projectile broke up badly. About the same amount of base
recovered as in rounds 2 and 3. Head remained in indent, showing end of
powder chamber. Before firing this point was 7.02 inches from point of pro-
jectile. On attempting to remove the head, however, it appeared much
flattened, and was so welded to plate that it was impossible to tell how far
into the plate the point had reached. It was judged to be something less than
4 inches. Character of indent the same as in previous rounds. Diameter 9
to gl4 inches. No fringe. Four fine but apparently through cracks, one
down, one up, one to right and one to left, at about equal distances
apart. These were subsequently opened to wide through cracks; the one
down, 20 inches long to bottom of plate ; that to right, 17 inches long to edge
of plate ; the one up, 35 inches long to crack from No. i indent ; the one to
left, 15 inches long to No. 3 indent. There appears to be little difference in
the effects of the above four rounds.
FIFTH ROUND.
Projectile, Holtzer No. 38. Point of impact, ij4 inches above to left of
center of plate. Shell broke up, but head penetrated plate. Head apparently
entire. End of powder chamber 7^ inches beyond face of plate. This would
bring point 14.8 inches beyond face of plate (4.8 inches beyond rear face) and
base 2)( inches in front of face of place. The greater part of base picked up
near target. Diameter of indent at surface of plate, 7^ inches decreasing to
6j4 inches at 3 inches from face. No fringe. More of the plate scaled off in
the neighborhood of the indent than in previous rounds. Small portion of the
plate scaled off (thickness of scale ^^ inch) about 8 inches from indent.
Through crack 16 inches long to No. 2 impact. Through crack 19 inches
long to No. 4 impact. Surface crack 7 inches long to left. Surface crack 16
inches long upward and to right. Surface crack 3 inches long down. All old
cracks widened.
SIXTH ROUND.
Projectile, Carpenter 205 C. Point of impact, i^ inches above, 13 inches
to right of center of plate. Shell broke up badly. Character of the indent
much the same as in the first four rounds, but I judge the point to have
reached a less depth. Through crack 9 inches long to No. 5 indent. Partially
through crack 17 inches long, to crack from No. 1 indent. Six short radial
PROCEEDINGS U, S, NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 2.
#
The Harvey Armor Plate. Second Shot.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 2.
The Harvey Plate. Fifth Shot.
PROFESSIONAL NOTES. 329
cracks. Saw cracks 20 inches long below the indent. Old cracks much
opened.
A glance at the Harvey plate after the fifth or sixth round, and at the
Schneider steel plate, the same make without treatment, clearly shows the
effect of the latter. Its face has been thoroughly hardened, the only projectile
which actually entered the plate being that used in the fifth round. The same
impact developed peculiar flaking. This is attributed by those interested to a
blister at that particular point, which prevented the effects of the treatment
from entering as deep as usual. That it is entirely local is fully shown by the
absence of the same effect at other impacts. The trial has demonstrated that the
extremely hard face produced develops no tendency to separate from the softer
back. It is to be noted, also, that although the cracks produced were
through cracks, not one part of the plate fell to the ground.
We understand that the Secretary of the Navy has signed a contract for the
treatment by the Harvey process of the armor plate to be used for our men-of-
war, providing a further test proves satisfactory.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
UNITED SERVICE GAZETTE.
February 7, 1891. Naval notes.
"The fractured strengthening hoop on the muzzle of the iio-ton gun of the
Sans Pareil has been replaced. ... It has been ascertained that the gun
droops more and more after each firing, and also inclines to one side, this
latter defect not having been noticed in the previous guns. . . ."
"The Argentine cruiser 25 de Mayo, which was built and armed by Sir Wm,
Armstrong, Mitchell & Co., has just completed her gunnery trials off the Tyne.
Her armament consists of two 21-centimeter B. L. guns on center-pivot mount-
ings and capable of firing over an arc of training of 300 degrees, eight 4.7-inch
quick-firing guns, twelve Hotchkiss 3-pounders, and twelve Hotchkiss i-
pounder guns. Four rounds were fired from each of the 21-centimeter guns,
thirty-four rounds from the 4.7-inch, and ninety-six rounds from the smaller
guns, without the slightest hitch."
The use of electric motors in warships. The magazine rifle.
February 14. The tactical value of the electric light. Naval
notes.
" A proposal is under consideration to set apart one of the modern cruisers
for the purpose of training stokers for the navy, the necessity of such a step
having been advocated for years by naval engineers. The vessel named for
this purpose is the Iris."
Smokeless powder.
"Mr. Heideman, a German powder-maker, has produced an ammonium-
nitrate powder, possessing remarkable ballistic properties, and producing little
smoke, which speedily disperses. It yields a very much larger volume of gas
and water-vapor than either black or brown powder, and it is slower in action
than the latter. The charge required to produce equal ballistic results is less,
the chamber pressure developed is lower, but the pressures along the chase of
the gun are higher. In an ordinary dry and even in a somewhat moist atmos-
phere it has no great tendency to absorb moisture, but when the air approaches
saturation it rapidly absorbs water, and this will greatly restrict its use."
Torpedo-gunboats for the Argentine Republic.
The Resales and Espora, two torpedo-gunboats built for the Argentine
Republic by Messrs. Laird, are soon to be sent to their destination. They are
each 200 feet long, by 25 feet beam, by 13 feet 6 inches moulded depth. At a
draft of 8 feet the displacement is 520 tons, and the freeboard amidships about
5 feet. Steel is used in the construction of the hull. Two bilge-keels take the
place of a keel proper. There are 42 water-tight compartments. Considerable
protection against gun-fire is afforded by the coal-bunkers, which can carry 130
tons. The normal amount of 100 tons at 11 knots gives a radius of action of
3000 knots. The armament consists of two 14-pounder Nordenfeldt guns on
the forecastle mounted en echelon, one 8-pounder, two 3-pounders, and two
332 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Nordenfeldt revolving cannon. In the waist are four tubes for i8-inch torpe-
does ; in the stern is one fixed Whitehead torpedo-tube, also i8 inches, A mean
speed of 19.823 knots with moderate air-pressure has been obtained. At a
speed of 10.86 knots the coal burnt was 66 pounds per knot.
February 21. Attack formation. Anti-fouling experiments on
the Orontes. Liquid fuel.
February 28. Launch of the warships Royal Arthur, Royal
Sovereign, Tribune, and Spartan. Navy estimates, L
March 7. The navy estimates, IL Naval Defense Act.
The number of ships to be built under the Naval Defense Act was 70, of an
estimated displacement of 316,000 tons, and carrying 540 guns, exclusive of
machine-guns and guns of small caliber. These vessels with their armament
and equipment were to be completed and ready for commission before April
I, 1894. There is every reason to believe that, with the exception of one con-
tract-built ship, the remaining 69 will be completed before the date named.
Naval ordnance.
The total number of new breech-loading guns completed during the year
ending December 31, 1890, is 240, viz :
Nature of Gun. Number completed.
16.25-inch of 1 10 tons 2
13-5 " " 67 " II
10 " " 29 " 2
9.2 " " 22 " 12
6 .< '< 5 '. 12
6 " quick-firing 2
5 " of 40 cwt 41
4.7 " quick-firing 134
4 " of 26 cwt 24
Total 240
Tests for the rapidity with which heavy guns can be fired were made with
one of the 67-ton guns in the Trafalgar's turret at her gunnery trials. Four
rounds were fired in 9J minutes.
The most important advance made in naval ordnance during the year was
the completion of the new 6-inch lOO-pounder quick-firing gun and mounting.
As many as six rounds a minute have been fired.
March 14. Launch of the Indefatigable and the Hawke. The
navy estimates, IIL Mobilization and manning requirements of the
fleet. Battalion command.
March 21. Institution of Naval Architects. Musketry in India.
March 28. Naval notes. Official trial of the Pelayo's machinery.
With natural draft a speed of 16.2 knots was attained. The coal consump-
tion at i2-knot speed is 45 tons per 24 hours. At normal draft the Pelayo
carries 800 tons of coal, a supply sufficient with a speed of 12 knots to cover a
distance of 4500 to 5000 miles, and at lo-knot speed a distance of 7500 miles.
Naval Reserves.
April 4. Naval notes. Trials of 6-inch quick-firing gun.
Further trials of the Elswick 6-inch quick-firing gun and mounting were
made on board the Kite at Portsmouth. This time the mounting and gun
represented the conditions when used for upper-deck armament. One hundred
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 333
rounds were again fired in series each of 10 rounds, and on this occasion a
considerable number of rounds were fired with the percussion arrangement.
The change from electric to percussion, and vice versa, was effected without
any pause being necessary in the firing, and not a single missfire occurred.
Everything was found to be most successful. Two hundred and sixty rounds
have now been fired from the gun on the same mounting, and there does not
appear to be the slightest sign of wear in any of the working parts, and very
little mark of firing in the gun itself. The rapidity and ease with which one
man can elevate and train the gun and mountings, the weight of which com-
plete is seventeen tons, is surprising. Of the last series of 100 rounds, 80
cartridges were fired for the second time. With a similar 6-inch gun at Shoe-
buryness, cartridges have been fired as many as 16 times.
Successful trials of the Fiske range-finder in France and Italy.
April ii. Infantry militia officers. Naval notes.
The horse-power of torpedo-gunboats of the Sharpshooter class has been
reduced to 3500, and the steaming capabilities of the boilers increased.
April i8. Naval notes: Launch of the Wattigneis; launch of
the Falke; naval manoeuvres of the Austro-Hungarian fleet; experi-
ments with laying out submarine mines in Toulon. The Reserve
question.
April 25. Heavy guns. Coast defense. H. G. D.
JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION.
February, 1891. A proposed method of training naval stokers
and otherwise increasing the efficiency of the steam branch personnel,
by Chief Engineer J. Langmaid, R. N.
After calling attention to the present defective system of training, and that
about 600 men are recruited annually and sent to sea without any preliminary
instruction in engine-room duties, the author proposes that all newly-entered
men be sent to a central training-ship, to be trained there for three months.
This course is to be followed by three months' experience in a modern cruiser
at sea. Assuming 600 recruits annually, this would place 150 men in the
harbor ship and 150 in the cruiser. The proposed course of instruction in the
training-ship is then laid down : — i. Names and uses of principal parts of
boilers and engines, of tools used in stokeholds ; how to read pressure-gauges,
trim and fill lamps, close stop-valves, etc. 2-. Duties of a stoker in managing
fires; how to use a shovel. 3. Knotting and splicing; how to sling and lift
weights ; use and reeve off tackles, etc. 4. Boat exercise, swimming drills,
gymnastics, and miscellaneous duties of stokers.
On joining the cruiser, after the first three months' instruction, the men
might be divided into four watches. The first fortnight spent in harbor with
instructions in the uses of the various parts of the boilers and machinery,
working the pumps and auxiliary engines. The ship then to go to sea for
short trips of about four days each week, beginning at slow speed and gradu-
ally working up faster as the men become used to their work. Stations should
be changed each week, so that each man takes his turn at trimming coals,
firing, looking after the engines, main and auxiliary, sweeping tubes, repairing
defects, etc. If qualified at the end of the 6-months' cruise, the rating of
stoker to be given ; if not qualified, to be given a three months' further trial ;
to be discharged, if hopeless, at the expiration of this time.
The same cruiser might be employed as a useful school for instruction of
junior engineer officers before joining sea-going ships. Besides learning
engine-room duties, they might be taught to keep an engine-room log, engineer's
store accounts, to arrange watch and station bills, and various other duties.
334 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
The measures proposed in this able paper cannot fail to attract attention,
and the discussions evince the interest taken in a subject of such vital im-
portance. In ships of the present day, where steam has supplanted sail, and
speed is the desideratum, the necessity of an efficient force in the engine-
room is indisputable. The benefits to be derived from a course of sys-
tematic preliminary training of recruits for the fire-room are invaluable.
Steel as applied to armor-plates, by Charles W. Smith. Red
Indian warfare.
March. On the present system of enlistment and pay of our
soldiers, and its bearing on recruiting. On army cooking and mess-
ing. On the advantage of forming collections at Greenwich.
H. G. D.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL ARTILLERY INSTITUTION,
WOOLWICH.
Volume XVIII., No. 7, February. Homing pigeons, by Captain
Malagoli. Ranging a battery.
March. The R. A. mess at Woolwich. Fire discipHne. Notes
on the equipment and services of our mountain artillery, from the
Pyrennean campaign, 18 13-14, to the Abyssinian expedition, 1867-68.
Translations: The employment of artillery in siege warfare (accord-
ing to the theories of General Wiebe) ; Etudes de tactique, par le
g6neral Luzeux.
April. Imperial federation and the defense of the empire. Some
of the more recent developments and applications of explosives.
The R. A. mess at Woolwich. Translations : Transport of parks
of artillery, ammunition supply of armies ; The last days of the
Malakhoff. H. G. D.
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE UNITED SERVICE IN-
STITUTION OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
Volume II., 1890. The defense of a protected harbor, by Lieut.-
Col. Boddam (with 12 plates). Harbor defense by guard-boats, and
their duties, by Commander .Bosanquet.
Contains description of nevs^ form of protective boom-, and method of mooring.
Round about Apia, Samoa, by Captain Castle, R. N. The Austra-
lian soldier, by Captain M'Cutcheon, ist Regt. Vol. Infantry. Re-
prints: The sighting of small arms; Acclimatisation of Australian
horses in India; Smokeless powder (extract from Sir F. Abel's
address). H. G. D.
FRANKLIN INSTITUTE.
February, 1891. The Olsen testing machine.
Description of the machine, accompanied by plates, with an extract from the
report of the Committee on Science and the Arts, as follows: "The com-
mittee recognizes that the increased complexity of this machine over others
requires a more careful handling. They have not sutficient experience to say
whether a greater number of tests can be made in a given time than with other
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES, 335
machines, but their opinion is that this testing method is a long step forward
toward making such machines thorough instruments of precision, and it intro-
duces instead of the numerical the graphic record, the advantages of which
are universally admitted.
" In view of the great ingenuity displayed by the inventor in arranging the
several parts of the machine, notably in the mechanism, which produces a
graphic record of the test, similar to the indicator of a steam engine, and thus
brings to perception at a single glance the variation in the strain of a number
of specimens, as well as the work required to break such specimens, the award
of the Elliott Cresson medal is recommended."
Electricity ; its past, present and future, by Ralph W. Pope, Secre-
tary American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Some properties
of confocal ellipses and their application to mechanism, by Horace
B. Gale. High explosives in warfare, by Commander F. M. Barber,
U. S. N.
March. The system of house and underground wiring of the
Interior Conduit and Insulation Company. The continuous girder ;
variable moment of inertia; fixed points ; graphic method, by C. H.
Lindenberger. The aluminium problem, by Jos. W. Richards.
The lecturer, after reviewing the etymology of the word " aluminium," states
that of all the many problems connected with this metal, he has " singled out
the one which is, par excellence, tJie aluminium problem, and that is the extrac-
tion of aliiminitim frotn the materials in which it is found iti nature."
The lecture is divided into two parts: i. The isolation of aluminium;
2. the production of aluminium cheaply.
The first part gives an interesting history of all recorded experiments and
efforts made to bring the metal to view, covering a period of 94 years, from
the time of M. Baron in 1760, who first proved aluminium a metal, down to the
time when Deville, in 1854, succeeded in making the first button or pencil of
this metal.
The second part considers all subsequent methods of reduction, thie cheapest
raw materials to use, and the cheapest way to extract aluminium from these
materials.
Electricity as the rival of steam, by Dr. Louis Bell.
April. The progress of chemical theory ; its helps and hin-
drances, by Dr. Persifer Frazer. Riveted joints in boiler-shells, by
W. B. Le Van. Analytical discussion of the tidal volume, by L.
d'Auria. On a maximum steam-jacket efficiency, by R. H. Thurston.
Chemical section: The electrolytic method applied to rhodium ; the
electrolytic determination of mercury and gold, by E. F. Smith.
Electrical section : A note on some dangers in electric lighting ; a
new accumulator plate; a new form of megohm resistance.
May. The progress of chemical theory, by Dr. Persifer Frazer.
Riveted joints in boiler-shells, by W. B. Le Van. The law of varia-
tion, by L. d'Auria. The limits of scientific inquiry, by H. Hensoldt.
Phenomenal friction, by J. H. Cooper. Chemical section. Electrical
section: A new form of standard cell, by C. Hering. H. G. D.
THE MILITARY SERVICE INSTITUTION.
March, 1S91. Our experience in artillery administration. The
power of the Senate. Musketry. Military gymnastics. On the
336 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
increase of the number of cadets. The oath of enlistment in Ger-
many. The funeral ceremonies of Washington.
April (Extra Number). Gun-making in the United States, by
Captain R. Birnie, U. S. A.
A history, in eight chapters, of gun construction and gun trials in the United
States. It begins with the early inventions, the Rodman method of casting,
and follows the progress in gun-making in this country up to the present time,
giving descriptions of the various forms of guns and their official trials, breech
mechanisms, etc., ending up with a review of the past three years, including
short accounts of steel-producing plants and gun manufactories in the United
States.
May. Cavalry in Virginia during the war of the rebellion.
Theory of drift of rifled projectiles. Artillery difficulties during the
next war. The recent Indian craze. The new German rifle and fire
regulations. The Red river dam. H. G. D.
THE UNITED SERVICE.
March, 1891. Pulaski and Charleston. Moltke. History of
the Mormon rebellion of 1856-57, Chapter XL. Knots and miles.
April. The Indian problem. General Sherman. History of the
Mormon rebellion of 1856-57 (conclusion). The Persian army.
Old regiments of the British army. Admiral David Dixon Porter.
The difference between military and martial law. Ship-steering.
May. The measure of the strength of steel armor, by E. M.
Weaver, First Lieutenant Second Artillery, U. S. A.
From observations, it is "assumed that the resistance of a steel plate of the
quality made by Schneider Company, when attacked by projectiles whose
diameters are less than the thickness of the plate, is, for all practicable purposes,
confined to a cylindrical disk of the plate about the projectile in its passage
through the plate, the radius of this disk being about 2.5 calibers, and its
thickness the thickness of the plate itself."
The weight of such a disk of about 28 inches diameter in the nickel-steel
plate as tried at Annapolis is 3.2 tons. If now the total energy required for
perforation of the plate alone be divided by 3.2, we find the inherent resisting
capacity of the metal. A comparison of trials in which Creuzot steel plates
were attacked leads to the conclusion that the inherent resisting capacity
approximates to 1828 foot-tons per ton of the disk. Taking this as a standard,
formulas are derived for the strength of any plate, viz. E = JVC, in which
E = the energy in foot-tons required to perforate the plate, W = the weight of
the resisting disk in tons, C = 1828 ; or in another form, E = .7312 n'^eft.
n = ratio of the radius of the resisting disk to the diameter of the projectile.
d = diameter of projectile in inches.
t — thickness of plate in inches.
Formulas for the striking velocity to give perforation of the plate, or plate
and backing, are also derived.
A comparison, based upon the above formulas, is then made between plates
at various armor trials.
Coal endurance of Her Majesty's ships. For what it is worth.
Attack upon a railroad train. Du Guay-Trouin, of St. Malo.
Under the southern cross (conclusion). National legislation re-
quired on weights and measures. Recent army legislation. The
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 337
last victim of the gauntlet. Among our contemporaries. Service
salad. Military order of the Loyal Legion. Rear-Admiral T. H.
Stevens, U. S. Navy. H. G. D.
THE ELECTRICAL REVIEW.
No, 7. April ii, 1891. Tell-tale compass. Westinghouse auto-
matic circuit-breaker. Induction. Queen ammeters and voltmeters.
No. 8. April 18. A new form of megohm resistance. New
electric-light switch.
No. 9. April 25. Electric light on the Suez Canal.
No. 10. May 2. Aerial navigation. Electrolytic deposition of
nickel.
No. II, May 9. The Packard vacuum pump. Telephones on
shipboard.
No. 12. May 16. Air navigation. Improved electric-light signal.
New form of standard cell. H. G. D.
THE IRON age,
April 2, 1891. Air-compressor for U. S. monitor Terror. Alum-
inum in railroad work. Modern navies. Matchless repeating air-
rifle.
April 9. The great forge at Cleveland. Construction of boilers
for ibrced draught.
April 16. Forgings for big guns. Circulation of water in steam
boilers, II.
April 23. Quadruple expansion-engine for a tug. Armament
for the new ships. A Boston-built steel bark.
April 30. Electrical forging. Electricity as a motive-power.
May 7. An assistant cylinder for marine engines. Our battle-
ships.
Description of the ships, with illustrations of engines and deck plans, and
elevation of the Indiana, Oregon, and Massachusetts.
BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
Volume XXIII., No. i. The Great Amazon, by Courtenay De
Kalb. Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, by Rev. H. C. Hovey.
Geographical notes, by Geo. C. Hurlbut.
MILITAR WOCHENBLATT.
February ii, 1891. A new cavalry bridle. Changes in the
organizations of the Austro-Hungarian army.
February 14. Extracts from the correspondence of Frederick
the Great. Minor notices : Cordite.
" England. The manufacture of the smokeless powder, which on account of
its stringy appearance has been called Cordite, has been commenced in the
royal arsenal, but hereafter is to be continued by the powder works of Waltham
338 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Abbey. The charges for rapid-fire guns up to 6-inch calibers, as well as for the
i2-poun(ier field-pieces, have already been fixed. The general introduction of
this powder will, however, not take place for some time, awaiting tests which
will be especially directed towards discovering the effect of exposure to dif-
ferent temperatures. According to Dr. Anderson, the general director of gun
works, it has stood the chemical tests very well, but is yet to be subjected to
prolonged influence of the heat in India and the cold in Alpine regions.
According to the same authority the powder is characterized by its exceedingly
brilliant flame, and the report of explosion is stronger than that of black
powder."
Fortifications of Bucharest.
February i8. Artillery-fire Spiel. The attacks of General
Margueritte's cavalry division at the battle of Sedan.
February 21. The French reserve squadron.
In connection with the fleet manoeuvres of the French navy which take place
every summer. Admiral Krantz, Minister of Marine, has required, since 1888,
the mobilization of the ships of the reserve at Toulon. This rule has proved
successful as far as the material was concerned, as the vessels, armaments and
equipments have always been found ready for service. The fault lay with the
personnel. Small details were destined for the respective ships ; these were,
however, not kept intact, owing to constant changes being made by the chief
of the station, in consequence of which it was found that these details were
not sufficiently familiar with their vessels ; and it was even worse with the
naval reserves ordered from at large, who knew little or nothing about the
ships.
It has now been decided to fit out, early in the spring, a reserve division,
consisting of three armored vessels and two cruisers, at Toulon, under Kear-
Admiral Puech, with the Trident as flagship. A second division is to be fitted
out soon after, the two to constitute a reserve squadron under the command
of a vice-admiral. So that France will have two vice-admiral's commands
at sea. The chief of the shore station at Toulon is no longer to have authority
over the reserve vessels, as his projects and requirements would always con-
flict with the importance of having the reserves ready for service at all times.
The squadron is therefore withdrawn from his control and will form part of the
Mediterranean fleet. It is probable that the vessels will be entirely removed
from Toulon and rendezvous at the Hyeres islands, with half complements,
except in summer, when they will be fully manned to take part in the general
fleet manoeuvres.
This is an important advance in the war establishment of the French fleet.
The admiral commanding the Mediterranean fleet will have five divisions under
him, comprising 15 armored vessels, with their accompanying cruisers, avisos,
etc., thus being superior in strength to the English Mediterranean fleet of 10
battle-ships.
This step will not pass unheeded in Italy, whose exposed coast-line invites
a sudden fleet-attack in time of war; besides it has this additional importance,
that it makes the regular French Mediterranean squadron of 3 divisions avail-
able for service in other waters without leaving the southern coast of France
unprotected.
The Mediterranean squadron is constantly strengthened by the newer battle-
ships, the older ones being withdrawn and consigned to the reserve. Thus at
the end of January the armor-clad Hoche, of 10,650 tons, joined the squadron
after having completed her trial trips. Under forced draught, with 11,000
H. P. and 82 revolutions, a speed of 16 knots was attained, and under natural
draught, with 70 revolutions, she made 14 knots. The third-class cruiser
Fronde will also soon be assigned to the squadron. Of only 1880 tons, this
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 339
vessel, during a two hours' run under forced draught, reached a speed of 20.9
knots, and during a twelve hours' run under natural draught, a speed of 17.6
knots.
February 25. The yearly report on the Turkish navy, 1889 to
1890.
Contains a list of vessels of the Turkish navy, with table of dimensions,
speed, coal-capacity, armament, dates of launching, etc.
February 28. Minor notices : Prismatic powder.
The Art'iUcTy Commission {commissione permane^ite) of Italy has determined,
after prolonged experiments, that only two kinds of prismatic powder are
necessary for navy guns, that of less density to be used in the smaller calibers
up to 6-inch guns, and that of greater density for all heavier calibers (lo, 13)^
and 17-inch guns).
March 4 and 7. Infantry target-practice under warlike condi-
tions ; a contribution towards the solution of a vital question.
The writer calls attention to the necessity of a change in the present method
of target-firing, which affords no knowledge of troop-firing as would be de-
manded in battle. The importance of the present system, or precision prac-
tice, for schooling of marksmen is, however, not disparaged. It is only by this
system that the marksman is taught the handling of his weapon so as to obtain
the best results in view of the purpose for which it is designed. This famil-
iarity and education can only be obtained by firing over such distances and
against such targets as will permit the control and observation of each shot
fired ; that is, at distances up to 300 yards and at ringed targets.
The regulations governing this sc/wol-dring are the result of years of expe-
rience, and are admirable, so that it is to be questioned whether the scope of
this system can be reduced to permit the education for firing under warlike
conditions. It must be admitted that those troops which have received the
best instruction in s,:/ioo/-{iTing will do the best in the warlike-firing. It is
necessary, therefore, to adhere to a thorough course in the present system, but
it should be limited so as to allow some time and ammunition for the more
important field-firing.
It is proposed as a means towards this end to abolish in connection v/ith the
sc/iool-firing all practice at distances greater than 300 yards and employ only
the ringed targets, which, by the way, should have elliptic bull's-eyes and rings
instead of the circular ones. The number of rounds per man is to be fixed,
and an extra allowance is made for field-firing. The latter is reduced to three
forms of practice: i. skirmish-firing; 2. firing in connection with sieges; 3.
firing under conditions of operations in the field.
Under i and 2 the rules to be followed are laid down. Kanges will be from
300 to 700 yards at low targets. Instruction in estimating distances will form
part of the education. Under 2, firing at night should be practised. Some of
these rules also apply to 3, firing in the field proper, under various conditions,
and at ranges from 300 to 1200 yards. The subject has evidently received the
writer's careful attention and is exhaustively treated.
Wolfram projectiles.
March ii. Examinations for admission to the Staff College.
Minor notices: New Japanese fleet.
March 14. Observations on engagements of infantry. The
study of war histories. Minor notices : France — A submarine boat.
Austria — Wounds from bullets of the Mannlicher rifle.
340 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES,
March i8. The English fleet manoeuvres of 1890.
March 21, Proposed changes in the periods of instruction of
the infantry and thejagers.
March 25. Programme of the manoeuvres for this year of the
Austro- Hungarian armies. The Victoria torpedo.
March 28. Discussion on the article, " Infantry target-practice
under warlike conditions." Minor notices : Heavy guns for Japan.
April i. Minor notices : Visit to the powder works at Ochta.
April 4 and 8. A word on the carrying out of attacks by larger
bodies of infantry. Heligoland and the German fleet.
April ii. A word on the carrying out of attacks by larger
bodies of infantry (concluded). Minor notices.
The experiments with a newly invented smokeless powder by a French
chemist, St. Marc, have proved its superiority to the powder of Vieille used in
the Lebel cartridges. The experiments were made with a Lebel gun at dis-
tances of only 20 meters. The targets were increased in thickness during the
trials. One bullet penetrated 1.27 meters of poplar wood and was recovered
intact. The powder was exposed for 5 minutes to a water-bath, dried between
two linen cloths, and then fired, sending a bullet through 7 millimeters of
sheet-iron. Firing for accuracy at 200 meters also gave splendid results. There
is scarcely any smoke developed. The pressure is said to be very low. The
initial velocity was 700 meters. The dangers of spontaneous ignition are very
slight. The grains are cubes, sides about i millimeter long, of greenish color.
April 15. A final word on the fortification question.
April 18. The English fleet manoeuvres of 1890. Minor notices :
Filtering of drinking water ; Army manoeuvres in Russia.
April 22. New naval guns. Entrance into St. Cyr.
April 25. Officer's patrols. Increase of French cavalry.
April 29. Needs of two years' enlistment. H. G. D.
MITTHEILUNGEN AUS UEM GEBIETE DES SEEWESENS.
Volume XIX., No. i. On the law of storms in the Eastern seas,
by VV. Doberck, director of the Hong Kong observatory. The
North Baltic sea canal. Budget of the Italian navy for the year from
July I, 1890, to June 30, 1891. Budget of the Imperial German
navy, 1891 to 1892. Royal decree on the Spanish fleet material.
The Argentine cruiser 25 de Mayo. Torpedo-boats for the Argen-
tine Republic. Launch of the Maine. Triple-screw cruiser for the
United States. Harbor-defense ram for the United States. Armor
tests at low temperature. The Manchester ship canal. Lights for
lighthouses. Life-preserver with automatic inflation. The engines
of the American cruiser No. 12. The Imperial Turkish yacht.
No. 2. Practical geometric innovations (lecture b)'- Fr. Schiffer,
professor at the Naval School at Pola).
Practical method of measuring angles without a protractor. Description of
Edler's measuring sheet, and its application in obtaining trigonometric func-
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 34I
tions. Bing's sector and its application in measuring the area and circumfer-
ence of a given circle. Description of Le Bon's telestereometer.
Method of determining the center of displacement, by W. Abel,
naval constructor. The French torpedo-launching gun, system
Canet. Estimates for the United States navy, 1891 to 1892. The
protection of iron and steel ships against danger of sinking from
injury to the hull. Experiments on the application of cellulose for
stopping leaks. Hydraulic boat-hoisting apparatus. Yarrow's water
tubular boiler. The use of the aerometer on board ship for finding
the specific gravity of sea- water.
No. 3. On sea-marks. Howell torpedo. The deep-sea explora-
tions of H. M. S. Pola in 1890. Resuscitation in cases of drowning,
strangulation, freezing, or unconsciousness arising from alcoholism
or exposure to excessive heat. The French torpedo-boat No. 128.
The latest oceanographic expeditions. The Argentine gunboats
Rosales and Espora. French armored ship Jaur6guiberry. A re-
serve squadron in France. Armor of the U. S. monitor Puritan.
Use of oil at sea. Liquid fuel on board the Italian ships Castelfi-
daro and Ancona. Electric signalling apparatus of G. Conz in
Hamburg. New school for naval architects in the United States.
No. 4. Results of some tests for stability of Austrian torpedo-
boats. The automobile Buonaccorsi torpedo. On manning of
English ships of war. New electric log, invented by Granville. Eng-
lish mail steamers in the Pacific Ocean, Trials of the guns and their
installation on board the Argentine protected cruiser 25 de Mayo.
Tests of the 6-inch Armstrong R. F. gun. Graydon's dynamite gun.
Petroleum as a fuel in ships' boilers. Organization of French naval
officers for the reserve. The schiseophone. Vessel-building in
England. Tests of anti-fouling paints in England. Education and
training of stokers. Budget of the Russian navy. Fortification of
New York. American armor plates. H. G. D.
ANNALEN DER HYDROGRAPHIE UND MARITIMEN METEORO-
LOGIE.
19TH Annual Series, 1891, No. I. From Australia to the west
coast of North America and return, by L. E. Dinklage. Notices on
the Azores, especially on Ponta Delgada. Notices on Port Natal.
Soundings in the North Atlantic Ocean. Soundings in the South
Atlantic Ocean along the Brazilian coast. Corrections of chrono-
meters for temperature and temperature-coefficients. Damages by
lightning to vessels while at sea.
Enumerates fourteen cases, from 1879 to 1889, in which vessels were struck
by lightning.
Contribution towards knowledge of the Corean climate. Compila-
tion of storm-signals.
An enumeration of the storm-signals of various countries.
Minor notices: Daily weather reports; Winds in the Indian Ocean;
342 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Fresh-water supply in the Straits of Sunda; Notices on some islands
and shoals in the Bismarck Archipelago; Notice on Apalang (Gilbert
islands); Notices on some of the Marshall islands, the Island of
Jabur, and Prince William Sound.
No, II. On a new method of determining magnetic declination,
by Professor Dr. C. Borgen. From Australia to the west coast of
North America and return, by L. E. Dinklage (concluded).
Report of Captain Pliiddemann, of H. M. S. Leipzig, on the voyage
from Amboyna to Finsch Harbor. Current observations on the
Nord Hinder banks. Deep-sea soundings in the Pacific Ocean.
Mean barometric pressures between the Channel and the Cape Verde
Islands in November, .by Dr. W. Koppen (with plate). Two re-
markable night thunderstorms in the summer of 1890, by Dr. W.
Koppen (with plate). Minor notices: A remarkable light seen in
the heavens ; The east coast of Upola, Samoan islands ; The town
and island of Zanzibar.
No. III. On a new method of determining the declination of a
magnet, by Dr. C. Borgen (concluded). Report of Captain Niejahr,
of the German bark J. F. Pust, on harbors on the Brazilian coast.
Soundings in the North Pacific. Soundings in the South Pacific
Ocean about the Samoan islands. The storms along the German
coast from 1878 to 1887. Quarterly weather review, fall of 1886.
Minor notices : Storm signals along the German coasts ; Currents in
the inland sea of Japan ; Currents in Macassar Straits and saiHng
directions during SW monsoons ; Cabaret Bay, St. Domingo (with
chart). H. G. D.
DEUTSCHE HEERES ZEITUNG.
January 17, 1891. On the active military writers of the army.
The Russian strategy in the firsthalf of the Seven Years War. New
tactics in the French army. Firing tests with the Marga cartridge.
" Lieutenant Marga is the inventor of a rifle of 8-mm. caliber, wJiich possesses
some remarkable properties as to simplicity, durability, accuracy, and rapid
loading. This weapon was subjected to experimental tests at Brussels,
December 2d, 1890. Lieutenant Marga obtains an initial velocity far surpass-
ing anything heretofore reached, not by any especial construction of the
weapon, or by the employment of stronger powder, but by a better utilization
of the powder-gases in their action on the bullet. ' He obtains by this means,'
says la Belgiqtie Miliiaire, 'instead of an initial velocity of 600 to 620 meters,
one of 720 meters.'
"Lieutenant Marga directed his experiments toward obtaining an increase
in velocity without increase of pressure in the bore. This he succeeded in
doing by inventing his cartridge, which, with a pressure not exceeding 1800
atmospheres, imparts to the bullet of 14^^ grams weight an initial velocity of
750 meters (2460 feet).
"The firing tests were made against one-inch pine planks, separated from
each other by about one inch, against sheet-iron and wrought-iron plates. At
a distance of 30 meters the bullet penetrated the ninth and tenth planks, or
about 11^ inches of wood, without being in the least deformed. Against iron
the results were remarkable : 7 sheet-iron plates, each of 2 mm. thickness,
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 343
were penetrated, the bullet being reduced to powder against the backing, a
cast-iron plate of 15 to 16 mm. thickness. However, when this cast-iron plate
was placed in front of the sheet-iron plate the bullet passed clear through and
penetrated two of the sheet-iron plates behind, striking with force against the
third plate. Repeated trials always brought the same results. The firing was
also directed at a smooth rolled-iron plate, of same resistance as steel, thick-
ness 16 mm. This plate was very much indented, while through a plate of the
same material of 12 to 13 mm. thickness the bullet passed clear, making a
smooth hole."
January 21. The normal attack. On the active mihtary writers
in the army (continued). The Russian strategy in the first half of
the Seven Years War (continued).
January 24. On the development of our infantry. On the active
military writers in the army (concluded). The Russian strategy in
the first half of the Seven Years War (continued). Naval notes.
January 28. The Russian strategy in the first half of the Seven
Years War (concluded).
January 31. Mounted infantry patrols. The firing trials of the
Gruson works.
The official reports, in detail, of the trials of the 22d to 27th of September,
1890, at Tangerhiitte. The report gives the tabulated results of the various
trials, with remarks.
February 4. Our navy in the eleventh hour. The firing trials
of the Gruson works (continued). Military notes: Signalling with
Very's signals.
February 7. The firing trials of the Gruson works (continued).
Military notes: The fortification system of France.
February II. The strangers in France, French battery-guards.
The- firing trials of the Gruson works (continued),
February 14. The war of 1806 and 1S07. The firing trials of
the Gruson works (continued). Military notes : Electric signal-
lamps.
A new electric signal-lamp has been constructed by John Price Rees, in
London,. which may be useful in the army and navy. For the purpose of
signalling by flashes, an incandescent lamp of great candle-power is placed in
the axial line of a system of lenses. There is a contrivance, by means of
which the current of the battery, which is placed in a box below the lamp, can
be turned on or shut off, and a screen conceals or exposes the light. The
lamp and lens system can be trained in any direction, aided by a sighting
tube, and regulated according to the distance to which it is desired to signal.
By means of long or short flashes the Morse code can be used.
Fittings to magazine rifle,
A contrivance has been invented in Holland, which may be fitted to any
repeating rifle, and by means of which the loading from the magazine is accom-
plished without bringing the rifle down from the position of aiming until the
magazine is empty.
February 17 and 21. The firing trials of the Gruson works
(continued).
344 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
February 25. Regulations of I'Ecole d'instruction a6rostatique.
The firing trials of the Gruson works (concluded).
February 28. The fortification question. Trials with the Lebel
gun. Budget of Russian navy and army. The port of Rochefort.
March 4. The value of the captive balloon in naval warfare, its
use in coast defense and on board ship. The fortification question
(continued).
March 7. The value of the captive balloon in naval warfare
(concluded). The fortification question (continued).
March ii. The fortification question (continued). Naval notes:
Electric training and firing gear for heavy guns.
March 14. The fortification question (concluded).
March 18. Naval notes: Launch of English men-of-war. A
new patent log.
March 21. Remarks on the fighting tactics of infantry, in accord-
ance with the spirit of the times.
March 25 and 28. Our navy. Naval notes: Summer man-
oeuvres of German war vessels. Regulations concerning ceremonies
and salutes in connection with flag of governor of German East
Africa. Jurisdiction of the head of the Navy Department in Germany.
April i and 8. Heligoland and the German fleet. Garrison
drills. More firing in the attack.
April it and 15. Field mortars and field howitzers. More
firing in the attack (continued).
April 18. More firing in the attack (continued).
April 25. Military preparations of the Russian army. Krupp's
firing trials. More firing in the attack (concluded). Military notice :
Captive balloon ; present state of aerial navigation. Launch of the
Electric.
April 29. Obituary notice, General v. Moltke. Increase of
Russia's reserves. H. G. D.
NORSK TIDSSKRIFT FOR SOVAESEN.
9TH Annual Series, No. 3. How to examine a telescope. The
storms of November, 1890 (meteorological report). On spontaneous
ignition and explosion in coal-bunkers. The 12-cm. 35-caliber
length naval gun, with breech mechanism. Carriage of the 12-cm.
gun (with plates). Messes in the English navy. The first steam
life-boat. Determination of compass deviations. New cruisers for
the United States.
No. 4. The latest forms of marine compass. The first engage-
ment of the gunboat Viking.
An account of a suppositious engagement between the Norwegian gunboat
of the first-class, Viking, supported by two torpedo-boats, and an enemy's
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 345
cruiser off Lyngor, July 5, 1892. The account is followed by a discussion on
naval engagements of the future, and methods of attack and artillery fire to be
used under circumstances similar to those in the engagement above described.
New English battle-ships. Tests of armor plates in America and
Russia. The latest cruisers.
Gives data concerning the cruisers of the year 1890, of England, France,
Spain, Italy, Austria, Russia, Germany, Greece, Chili, Argentine Republic,
Japan, and the United States (with plates). H. G. D.
TEKNISK TIDSKRIFT.
Nos. I AND 2, i8gi. On harbor improvements in Buenos Ayres.
RIVISTA MARITTIMA.
February, 1891. Electric lighting on board Italian war-ships, by
Lieutenant A. Pouchain.
Part I. Rules to be followed in the selection of materials and in the estab-
lishment of plants. Tables are appended showing the proposed installation
for each vessel, with the electrical energy of each proposed plant.
The German merchant marine, by Salvatore Raineri (continued).
Study on modern naval tactics, by G. Ronca (continued). The
giroscope, by Lieutenant C. Corsi. A month in the Island of Ceylon
(continued).
March. Electric lighting on board Italian war-ships, by A.
Pouchain (continued), (18 plates). Part II. Regulation materials.
An enumeration and description of motors and dynamos, search lights and
projectors.
The German merchant marine, by Salvatore Raineri (continued).
Study on modern naval tactics, by G. Ronca (continued). The
interior of Africa, by Ettore Bravetta (continued).
May. Leads and weights used in deep-sea soundings, tried on
board the Washington. Electric lighting on board Italian war-ships,
by Lieutenant A. Pouchain (continued).
Description of the incandescent lamp, switches, resistance coils, with 12
plates showing different forms of lamps, insulation, electroliers, switches, etc.
Study on modern naval tactics, by G. Ronca (conclusion). The
non-combatant personnel on board ships of war, by Dante Parenti.
The Fiske range-finder, translated from the Engineer by F. Vergara.
Notes on the machinery of the French torpedo-boats, Normand
system. H. G. D.
RIVISTA DI ARTIGLIERIA E GENIO.
January, 1891. The relationship between war operations ashore
and afloat, by Lieutenant Felice Porta, 26th Artillery. Actual forti-
fications (general considerations, and principal requisites for a
defensive establishment, with 4 plates), by Enrico Rocchi, captain of
engineers. The Mannesmann process of constructing metallic tubes.
The hospital Mauriziano Umberto I., at Turin. H. G. D.
346 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
MEMOIRES DE LA SOCIETE DES INGENIEURS CIVILS.
January, 1891. Governors for steam engines, and contrivances
for quickly throwing shafting out of gear.
February. A new system for electric railroads. H. G. D.
LE YACHT.
January 31, 1891.
The French marine corps (Infanterie de marine) will be designated here-
after as " the colonial troops," and either will have a separate administration
or become a part of the ministry of war.
The armored battle-ship Hoche. The commercial school question.
February 7. Earlier retirement of officers in the French navy.
Plans of the first-class battle-ship Jaur6guiberry.
February 14. The law of the French mercantile navy. Private
dockyards and government contracts. The English transpacific
steam-packets; auxiliary cruisers. The London Times on armor
plates.
February 21. The iio-ton gun of the Sans-Pareil (a comparison
between gun-trials in England and in France).
February 28. The law governing the merchant marine and the
national navy ; premiums and subsidies.
March 7. British naval budget.
March 14. French yachts and French measurements. Trials of
the Marceau.
March 21. A bill to promote the better efficiency of the per-
sonnel of the French navy. State of the naval constructions on
January i, 1891. French yachts and measurements (concluded).
The English navy, from the Devastation to the Royal Sovereign.
April 4. Our new naval constructions in 1892.
April ii. English race measurements and French yachts.
April 18. The navy ; rapid-fire guns.
At the polygene of the Hoc during the trials with the quick-firing cannons,
system Canet, 9 shots were fired with the 12-cm. in 45 seconds, and 8 in i
minute with the 15-cm., whose loaded cartridge weighs 130 pounds. With the
exception of some slight imperfections, easily remedied, in the minor details,
these pieces of ordnance are very satisfactory.
A ministerial decree establishing the horse-power standard of
marine engines (75 kilogrammeters).
REVUE DU CERCLE MILITAIRE.
February i, 1891. No halts in the advance of the line of attack.
Drinkable water and hygiene in the barracks. War and navy
budgets of Germany. German military literature. Infantry fire-
discipline on the battlefield.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 347
February 8. A study of the Russian infantry. Union of the
German societies of carrier-pigeon fanciers. Tactics regulations in
the French and German armies. The Behring question.
February 22. The Graydon torpedo-launching tube. Halts in
the advance of the line of attack (an answer to the article of Feb. i),
March i. The Graydon torpedo-launching tube (ended).
March 8. The infantry attack (a sequel to kindred articles in the
preceding numbers).
March 15. The speed of vessels, and the sheathing of their
bottoms. Firing while advancing to the attack, dpropros to previous
kindred articles.
March 29. The Newfoundland question (with map). Veloci-
pedes in the army. Mixed patrols in tactical reconnoissances. The
speed of vessels, and bottom sheathing.
April 5. Military industry at the Moscow exposition. The
revolution in Chili.
In view of the actual events in Chili, the following extracts may be of some
interest. The Chilian naval budget aggregates 4,256,000 pesos (one peso being
about 92 cents). The personnel is composed of 4 rear-admirals, 8 captains, 19
commanders, 25 senior lieutenants, 14 junior lieutenants, 38 midshipmen, 16
engineers, 13 medical surgeons, 40 paymasters, 33 mechanicians, and 1888
sailors.
On the list of vessels in commission appear : 3 armored ships,* 3 cruisers,
3 corvettes, 2 gunboats, 20 torpedo-boats of the first class, 3 of the second class,
5 steamers, and 3 sailing vessels, most of which are of an antiquated type.
The Chilian government, however, has been very active of late in strengthening
the fleet by the addition of modern vessels of the most approved designs, con-
tracted for in England and France. It is in regard to the latter, the only ones
in fact that present any interest, that we will say a few words.
Towards the end of 1887 Chili sent to Europe a mission headed by Admiral
Latorre, who commanded the Cochrane at the time of the surrender of the
Huascar. Plans and specifications were furnished by several engineers, some
French, some English. Of these constructions the lion's share fell to France.
Two small gunboats (Almirante Lynch and Almirante Condell) were built by
Laird on the plans of the English Sharpshooter. The Condell finished her
trials last October, making 20 knots under 20 pounds pressure, and developing
4350 I. H. P. The Lynch has already done some good work in Chilian
waters. Capitan Prat, 100 m. long and 6905 tons displacement, has an all-
round armor belt of 30 cm. in the upper part and 20 in the lower, with a total
height of 2. TO m. A casemate with a 10 cm. armor occupies the central part
from the belt to the hurricane-deck ; it contains no battery, being only intended
to protect the bases of the funnels and the passages below. The deck armor
is from 20 to 50 mm. thick, and the supply-tubes 20 cm. All the plates are of
Creusot steel. The lower deck is partitioned out by numerous water-tight
bulkheads, insuring buoyancy in case of the upper works being shot away.
Her armament is powerful and distributed as follows :
1. In each of the four turrets, which are arranged as on the Spanish Pelago,
and have an armor of 275 mm., one 24 cm. 36-caliber gun.
2. In four cupolas symmetrically disposed two by two to the rear of the
heavy pieces, and on a level with them, 8 12-cm.
* The Almirante Cochrane, Blanco Encalada (reported sunk), and Huascar.
348 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
3. Four rapid-fire guns of 47 mm., two on the bridge and two abreast the
mainmast.
4. Four 57-mm. encircling and almost touching the 24-cm. of the center.
5. Six 37-mm., two on the gallery, two on the poop-deck, and two on the
forecastle.
6. Five Gatlings, four of which are in the tops, the other being intended for
the launch. There are, besides, four torpedo-launching tubes, one in each side
amidships, one forward and the other aft.
The Capitan Prat has two military masts with double tops. The engines,
owing to the difficulties of repairs at home (Chili), are simple in construction
and very strong, developing 12,000 indicated horse-power, with a speed of 17
and 19 knots with natural and forced draughts respectively. Three search-
lights have been placed on the gallery and on platforms halfway up each mast.
The Presidente Errazuris and Presidente Pinto have the same speed with
3500 and 5400 I. H. P., according to draught. As in the case of the Capitan
Prat, they have only military masts. They are provided each with four boilers
and sufficient coal-endurance to steam 4500 miles at 12 knots, and 2550 at 15
knots. The electric lights are placed on the bridge. They are elegantly-
built steel cruisers, 81 m. long, with a displacement of 2080 tons ; the decks
are protected with steel plates 35 to 60 mm. thick extending the whole length
of the vessel and descending 0.70 m. below the water-line. Sufficient protection
is afforded by the multicellular system of construction and cofferdams. A block-
house, 70 mm., incloses the servo-motor.
Their armaments consist, i, of four 15-cm. guns on sponsons abaft the fore-
mast ; 2, two i2-cm. on the line of the keel, one on the forecastle, the other on
the poop-deck. These pieces, like the preceding ones, are mounted on central
pivot carriages ; 3, four 47-mm., two on the lower bridge, two on the quarter-
deck above the 15-cm. aft; 4, four revolving cannons of 37 mm. in the lower
tops ; 5, one Nordenfelt in each of the upper tops ; 6, three torpedo-launching
tubes, one forward, the two others in the sides amidships.
The two cruisers were built inside of 18 months. The Capitan Prat, Presi-
dente Errazuris and Presidente Pinto have up to the present been detained by
the French government, i, as a guarantee for final payment ; 2, to prevent their
falling into the possession of a hostile third party not recognized as a
belligerent.
REVUE MARITIME ET COLONIALE.
January, 1 89 1. Eclipse of the sun — a theoretic statement. The
expediency of a general staff for the British navy in imitation of the
German army.
"Admiral Sir Geoffrey Philipp Hornby, an authority in naval matters, is of
opinion that the Bureau of Intelligence is entirely inadequate for the task set
before it, and advises the formation of a general staff, which, absorbing the
intelligence department, would be far more competent to discharge the duty of
gathering and condensing within practical limits the enormous quantity of
information at hand, which, contrary to a custom now established, should be
at all times of easy access to every officer in the service as well as to the
administrative authorities. It will not be very long before the necessity of a
similar establishment will be felt in our own navy."
The military marines of antiquity, and mediseval age (2d part). A
study of comparative naval architecture (continued).
February. Economical influence of lightness in naval construc-
tion. Regularizing the movements of engines; a regulator with an
auxiHary dynamo. Historical studies of the military marine of
France (continued).
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 349
March. Operation of raising the French colHer ship Federation.
Historical studies of the military marine of France (continued).
Notes on the bar of Kotonon (describing the surf-boats in use on the
West Coast of Africa, and the method of landing and putting off
shore). Notes on the lubrication of machinery. Foreign naval
ministries, how organized and operated. J. L.
REVISTA MARITIMA BRAZILEIRA.
Hydraulics for propelling life-saving boats.
The appliance of hydraulic power to vessels is not a new thing, for it dates
as far back as 1843. Two systems, if we may use such word, are in presence :
one, Dr. Fleischer's of Kiel, tried on board the Hydromotor in 1881, and the
other the turbine system of Admiral Sir G. Elliot, tried on board the Water-
witch. Sweden, Germany and France have also made experiments, but with
indifferent success. By far the most interesting experiments, took place on
board the life-saving boat Duke of Northumberland, of which the engineer
gave at the time a full description. The writer sees a great many advantages
in this propelling power, and recommends its adoption for the bar of the Rio
Grande and other dangerous bars on the coast of Brazil.
REVISTA MILITAR DE CHILE.
January, 1891. New trials of armor-clad cupolas.
In October, 1S90, experiments were made at Le Creusot, France, with an
armored cupola or turret, at which were present representatives from nearly
every country in Europe and from the United States. The turret, a revolving
one, has a diameter of 5.40 m. and is 0.70 m. high. In the interior are two
13-centimeter guns mounted on special carriages, fitted with hydraulic checks
acting automatically. The plates of nickel-steel are 20 cm. thick, and weigh
2580 kg. Five shots were fired from a 15-cm. caliber gun at a distance of
30 m. The projectile was a 15-cm. one, and the velocity at the impact 329 m.
The trial was very satisfactory ; still it would have been more interesting if a
gun of greater penetrating power, the Canet gun of the same caliber for
instance, had been used.
Opinion of the Attorney-General in regard to claims arising from
the Chile-Peruvian war, submitted to the President of the Republic.
A memorandum card, or handbook containing the most elementary
notions of hygiene recommended for the use of the Chilean soldier.
A regiment of artillery on the march (instruction and discipline).
Instructions in target practice. The aliment of the soldier (trans-
lated from the ¥rench Journal des sciences miliiaires) .
BOLETIM DO CLUB NAVAL.
May-July, 1890. Extraordinary meeting of the Naval Club on
the nth of June, on the occasion of the anniversary of the naval
battle of the Riachuelo. Establishment of a Sailors' Protective
Society.
"The object of the society, whose formation is due to the initiative of some
members of the Naval Club and under whose patronage it is placed, is to
obtain the necessary capital to compose a relief fund in favor of widows and
orphans of sailors who lost their lives at sea in the performance of their duty.
350 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
The ' Caixa Pia ' (benevolent fund) is derived from the following sources:
I. Original subscriptions; 2. contributions deposited in boxes set up in con-
venient places for that purpose ; 3. legacies and donations ; 4. interest on
invested capital, and contributions of all kinds to the society. Article fourth
of the b3'-laws provides that the institution shall distribute help to shipwrecked
sailors cast on the coast of Brazil. The above disposition is to be communi-
cated to foreign consuls, and reciprocity solicited on the part of their respec-
tive governments. The privilege of membership is extended to ladies. As-
sistance at sea made obligatory in cases of distress or collision. According
to the author, no punishment can be too severe for the crime of wilfully and
cruelly disregarding the duty of giving assistance to fellow-sailors in distress,
and calls for international legislation.
Casting oil on the sea to subdue the waves.
Several Chambers of Commerce, among others those of Dunkerque and Bor-
deaux, have instituted prize funds to reward the best essays written on the
subject, a special committee at the latter city having been selected to work
out a programme.
Denominations for masts of four-masted crafts. Notes on naval
construction. Formulas ot the ordinary laws of resistance of hulls.
Influence of the shape of stems and sterns (to be continued).
August and September.
"The matdrieloi our navy (Brazilian)" is the title of an article giving an out-
line of the composition of the iieet of the new republic. At the head of the
list appear the Riachuelo and Aquidaban, two armored battle-ships of recent
types, possessing all the latest improvements and quite efficient for the duty
they are expected to perform. But the writer thinks that although the pur-
chase of these vessels was justified, and they are able to meet in contest crafts
of the same type and armament, yet armored battle-ships are not the kind
wanted by Brazil in time of war. Then follow the names of nondescript ves-
sels, possessing neither speed nor defensive or offensive power ; a list of
cruisers in course of construction, or launched and finishing, afloat, among
others the Almirante Tamandare, with a speed not exceeding 17 knots and a
modern equipment. Then come the monitors Pernambuco and Maranhao, a
very desirable class of vessels. Three sea-going torpedo-boats, type Le
Coureur, are building in Europe.
Notes on naval construction (continued). Discussion on the ele-
ments of resistance ; direct resistance. A few notes to serve for an
elementary study of naval tactics. A plan for the distribution and
equipment of meteorological stations in connection with the weather
service. Naval chronicles.
BOLETIN DEL CENTRO NAVAL.
November, 1890.
"A challenge to mortal combat in mid-ocean, 1813," is the title of a very
interesting article. It does not pretend to adduce any new fact in the history
of our early struggle with the mother country. Yet the author lays a certain
stress upon the fact that in the fight between the Chesapeake and the Shan-
non, the crew of the American frigate was composed of the riffraff and foreign
elements that thronged at the time our Atlantic seaports, thus lending a new
force to the argument recently brought forth that American men-of-war should
be manned exclusively by American crews.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 351
Use of the natural sines in calculating the latitude by circumstan-
cial altitudes (see previous number).
December. Of the necessity of educating the personnel of the
navy. Promotion in the service. Submarine torpedo-boats. Our
naval armaments.
It is hardly necessary to say that this article presents more than an ordinary
interest in view of the actual events in Chile.
Speed of ocean steamers.
December. Recruiting of the personnel of the navy.
The writer expatiates upon the deplorable condition of the materiel, a con-
dition which he attributes to the absence of trained petty officers and skilled
mechanics.
Promotion in the navy. Submarine torpedo-boats.
This is a memoir upon the projected construction of a submarine boat.
Our naval armaments (Argentine).
January, 1891. Recruiting of the personnel of the navy (con-
tinued).
The voluntary service system which prevails in the Argentine Republic, the
same as in the United States, although the most onerous for the treasury, is
the most appropriate to the country and individuals, and the most conformable to
hygiene. Apropos to the latter, the writer cites a case of 415 men drafted by
lots into the Spanish navy, 230 of whom entered the hospital in two years
with affections of the heart brought on through a dislike to seafaring life and
the absence of the home from which they were ruthlessly separated.
El Capitan Prat. Submarine boats. A naval consulting board.
The Chilian artillery (the new mat6riel is almost exclusively com-
posed of Krupp guns). The navies of the Triple Alliance. The
French fleet, etc. J- L-
THE ENGINEER.
February 14, 1891. The U. S. S. Yorktown. Yarrow's new
water-tube boiler. Slide-valve gear.
March 14. Repairing a broken crank-shaft. Range of temper-
ature in steam cylinders. The trial trip of the U. S. S. Bennington.
March 28. See's extractor for purifying feed-water for marine
boilers.
April ii. The Spanish cruiser Pelayo. Results of experiments
on the strength of boilers.
THE RAILROAD AND ENGINEERING JOURNAL.
February, 1891. The Panama Canal. Our navy in time of
peace. Electricity from wind-power. The submarine mine and
torpedo in harbor-defense. The progress in construction of new
naval ships.
352 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
March. High explosives for military use. Boilers for high
pressures. United States naval progress. The preservation of iron
and steel structural work. The mechanical treatment of molding
sand. The United States Navy.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF NAVAL ENGINEERS.
Steel crank-shaft forgings.
A description of the method of manufacture of the steel crank-shafts for
the new vessels of the navy, and the tests to which the material is subjected.
Fitting up the crank-shafts of the U. S. S. Newark.
The method employed by Cramp & Co. in constructing the built-up type of
crank-shaft.
The causes of the vibration of screw steamers. An investigation of
Assistant Engineer Alderdice's " Notes on Analysis of Engine Trials,"
by Chief Engineer Isherwood. Reply to Chief Engineer Isherwood's
investigation. Register for speed trials.
A description of an apparatus designed to carry into effect Engineer-in-Chief
Melville's method of making speed trials.
The contract trial of the Concord. The contract trial of the
Newark. Experiments with the Belleville boiler for marine
machinery. J. K. B.
SCHOOL OF MINES QUARTERLY.
January, 1891. Examination of mines. Notes on the coal-fields
of Montana. The operations of the U. S. Geological Survey.
J. K. B.
THE STEVENS INDICATOR.
Volume VIII., No. i. The measurement of high temperature.
Latest developments in compressed-air motors. Marine governors.
Notes on the performance of the ferry-boat Bergen. Huge lathes
and cranes operated by electricity. J. K. B.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE TECHNICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC
COAST.
January, 1891. Accumulators and their applications. Notes on
the behavior of steel rods at the elastic limit. J. K. B.
THE STEAMSHIP.
February, 1891. The theory of propulsion and centrifugal force.
Auxiliary engines in connection with the modern marine engine.
March, 1891. The steam trial of H. M. S. Latona. Machine
stoking. Screw propellers.
April, 1891. Willis's electrical ship's telegraph. Cylindrical
boilers. J. K. B.
REVIEWERS AND TRANSLATORS.
Lieut.-Commander C. S. Sperry, Ensign C. M. Knepper,
P. A. Engineer J, K, Barton, Prof. C. R. Sanger,
Ensign H. G. Dresel, Prof. J. Leroux.
NAMES OF MEMBERS WHO JOINED SINCE
JANUARY, 1891.
LIFE MEMBERS.
Andrews, Philip, Ensign, U. S. Navy, March 19, 1891.
Carpenter, J. H,, Manager, Carpenter Steel Co., Reading, Pa., April 17, 1891.
REGULAR MEMBERS.
Althouse, Adelbert, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 27, 1891.
Belknap, Reginald R., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 22, 1891.
Bierer, Bion B., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 19, 1891.
Blamer, De Witt, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Caldwell, H. H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 19, 1891.
Carter, James F., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Christy, Harley H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Button, Arthur H., Govt, draughtsman, Bath IronWorks, Bath, Me., June i, 1891.
Emrich, Charles R., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 23, 1891.
Evans, Waldo, Naval Cadet, U.S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Gillmor, Horatio G., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Hartung, R, J., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy.
Hough, Henry H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Irwin, Noble E., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 20, 1891.
Johnson, W. W., Professor, 32 Preston St., Baltimore, Md., February 17, 1891.
Kochersperger, F. H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 23, 1891.
Lane, Rufus H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Laws, George W., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 23, 1891.
Leigh, Richard H., Naval Cadet, U. S, Navy, May 22, 1891.
Macfarland, Horace G., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
McGrann, Wm. H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
McKelvy, Wm. N., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Moale, John G. F., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Pollock, Edwin T., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Preston, Chas. F., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May I5,.i89i.
Reed, Milton E., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 20, 1891.
Richards, George, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 25, 1891.
Senn, Thomas J., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
Shepard, George H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 26, 1891.
Smith, Henry Gerrish, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 23, 1891.
Stearns, Clark D., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 18, 1891.
Sypher, Jay H., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
354 NAMES OF MEMBERS WHO JOINED SINCE JANUARY, 189I.
Watt, Richard M., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Willard, Arthur L., Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 15, 1891.
Williams, Dion, Naval Cadet, U. S. Navy, May 16, 1S91.
Zahm, Frank B., Naval Cadet, U, S. Navy, May 16, 1891.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.
Biddle, John, ist Lieutenant, Engineer Corps, U. S. Army, April 17, 1891.
Cronquist, A. Werner, M. D., Chemist, Royal Swedish Navy, Stockholm,
Sweden, April 17, 1891.
Dennison, H. B., President, Dennison Manufacturing Co., Townsend Street,
Roxbury, Mass., April 17, 1891.
de Rivas, F. R., Lieutenant, Royal Spanish Artillery, Spanish Legation, Wash-
ington, D. C, April 17, 1891.
Dewey, Frederick P., Ph. B., Metallurgist, No. 621 F St., N. W., Washington,
D. C, April 17, 1891.
Elwell, Howard P., Consulting Engineer, Gloucester, Mass., April 17, 1891.
Hemje, Charles, Draughtsman, Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md., April 17, 1891.
Langley, Gerald, Captain, Royal Navy, British Legation, Washington, D. C,
April 17, 1891.
Macpherson, Victor, Engineer, Horse Creek Coal and Coke Co., Horse Creek,
Alabama, April 17, 1891.
McMurray, R. K., Chief Inspector, Hartford Steam Boiler I. and In. Co., No.
285 Broadway, New York, N. Y.
Wadsworth, J. W., Hon., M. C, Geneseo, N. Y., April 17, 1891.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 3
^^0^'
'J^
^^4^'ij
PLATE I. -METHOD OF CARRYING OUT THE MUSHROOM TEST.
THE PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Ukited States Naval Ii^^stitute.
Vol. XVII., No. 3. 1891. Whole No. 59.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL,
CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTS
with emmensite, gelbite and aluminum bronze.
By Stephen H. Emmens,
Member of the U. S. N'aval Institute, Member of the Society of Chemical Industry,
Member of the American Chemical Society, Membre Fondateur of
the Societe Internationale des Electriciens, etc.
§1.
The Ballistic Theory of Explosives.
In the classical " Report upon Experiments and Investigations to
'Develop a System of Submarine Mines for Defending the Harbors
of the United States," submitted to the War Department by General
Henry L. Abbot, Engineer Corps, U. S. A., attention is drawn to the
apparent anomaly of dynamite No. i, containing 75 per cent of nitro-
glycerine, being found more effective than pure nitroglycerine itself.
This observation was commented upon by Professor C. E. Munroe,
chemist to the U. S. Naval Torpedo Corps, in the following terms
("Notes on the Literature of Explosives," Proceedings of the U. S.
Naval Institute) :
356 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
" In comparing the results obtained for pure nitroglycerine with those
for dynamite No. i, there was revealed what at first sight appears to be
a paradox.
One pound of pure nitroglycerine was found to exert only 8i per cent
of the intensity of action of three-fourths of a pound absorbed by an
inert substance which could add nothing to the heat or gases developed.
This fact, which was discovered early in the trials, was considered so
extraordinary as to require careful verification and study.
The first explanation suggested was that it was due to a possible
variation in the strength of the nitroglycerine itself, depending upon a
difference in the chemical composition of different samples.
This was tested practically with different nitroglycerines, and with
nitroglycerine and dynamite made from it ; and it was shown, beyond
question, that variations in the quality of the nitroglycerine had nothing
to do with it, and that the explanation must be sought in the physical
conditions of the problems.
General Abbot, therefore, suggests that in granulating nitroglycerine,
by absorbing it in kieselguhr, the particles of silica slightly retard
chemical action — since, in detonations, the reactions occur within the
molecules — and as the resistance opposed by water is of a slightly
yielding character, more time may be required to reach this condition
than is afforded by nitroglycerine pure and simple.
This view is confirmed by the action of certain dynamites which are
made so as to explode with exceeding rapidity, and which fall very low
in the scale,"
The foregoing quotation is cited in Lieutenant Willoughby
Walke's (2d U. S. Artillery) recent paper " On the Determination
of the Strength of Various High Explosives," appearing in the
Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XII., No, 7 ; and
with reference to its subject-matter Lieutenant Walke observes, " In
by far the majority of such cases the additional strength is derived
from the physical condition of the explosive rather than from any
inherent property of the active principle."
It will be noticed that neither General Abbot, Professor Munroe,
nor Lieutenant Walke attempts any positive solution of the curious
problem in question ; and I know of no authority upon explosives
who has hitherto done so. The suggestion that in dynamite No. i
the nitroglycerine is granulated, i. e. that it is divided into minute
masses separated from each other more or less by intervening parti-
tions of silica, is, rigorously, untenable ; for careful inspection shows
no interruption of liquid continuity in the nitroglycerine constituent
of dynamite. Moreover, the reference made by Professor Munroe
to " certain dynamites which are made so as to explode with exceed-
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 357
ing rapidity, and which fall very low in the scale," is not borne out by
the best known of such quick-action dynamites, viz., Mowbray's
" Mica Powder." No. i grade of this powder, containing only 52 per
cent of nitroglycerine, gave a force of 102 as compared with 100 for
pure nitroglycerine.
A suggestion has indeed been made which, as I understand it, is
diametrically opposed to that offered by General Abbot. It occurs
in a work entitled " Service Chemistry " (London : Whittingham,
1889), by Vivian B. Lewes, Professor of Chemistry at the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich. At page 283 of this book is the follow-
ing passage :
" The increase in explosive force gained by the rigidity of form in
these mixtures is shown by the following table, in which the work
done by equal weights of these explosives is compared with nitro-
glycerin :
Work done in a
horizontal direction Percentage
compared with of
Name of Explosive. nitro-glycerin= 100. nitro-glycerin.
Blasting gelatine 144 89
Hercules powder No. i 130 42
Dynamite No. 1 123 75
Rendrock 117 60
Hercules powder No. 2 102 42
Dynamite No. 2 102 36
Mica powder No. i 102 52
Vulcan powder No. 2 loi 35
Nitro-glycerin 100 100
Vulcan powder No. i 96 30
Electric powder No. 1 85 33
Electric powder No. 2 76 28
Mica powder No. 2 76 40
Here Professor Lewes suggests that the function of the silica in
dynamite No. i is to accelerate rather than to retard the develop-
ment of explosive force. This, at least, is what I read his words to
mean, for I suppose the expression "increase in explosive force" is
merely a lapsus calami.
Yet, after all, the problem is not really so insoluble as it has
hitherto appeared to be. If a Ballistic Theory of Explosives be
adopted, the difficulty vanishes.
Let us first consider what takes place in the explosion of nitro-
glycerine. This substance is a liquid having a specific gravity of
1.6; and 1000 grams, therefore, occupy a space of — ^ litre. The 1000
358 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
grams are made up of 158.6 grams of carbon, 22 grams of hydrogen,
185. 1 grams nitrogen, and 634.3 grams of oxygen. The explosion
of nitroglycerine simply means that its oxygen unites with its car-
bon, hydrogen, and part of the nitrogen to form carbonic anhydride,
water vapor and nitric oxide, while the remainder of the nitrogen
assumes a free state. These products being gaseous, occupy a very
much larger space than the original liquid, and are still further ex-
panded by the heat evolved by their formation. The total volume
of the gases calculated as at 0° centigrade and at atmospheric pressure
(760 mm. of mercury) is 712.5 litres. The total amount of heat
evolved (after deducting the heat absorbed by the breaking-up of the
nitroglycerine) is 1,451,877 units; and this is sufficient to raise the
temperature of the gases by 6908° C. If the gases were free to
expand, this increment of temperature would cause them to occupy
a space of f i -I- -^ — j X 712.5 = 18738.7 litres. But if the nitro-
glycerine be confined in a shell, for example, then 18738.7 litres
would be compressed within the space of — ^ litres, and therefore
would press upon the walls of the shell with a force equal to 18738.7 X
— ^ = 29981.9 atmospheres, or 196.76 tons per square inch.
Let us next consider what is meant by the pressure of a gas upon
the walls of its containing vessel. It is a mechanical force tending
to thrust the walls outwards ; and, if the kinetic theory of gases be
true, it represents the aggregate of the impacts of the gaseous mole-
cules against the walls. Hence gaseous pressure is directly propor-
tional to the vis vivd of the mean molecular movements.
But the vis vivd or " energy " of moving bodies is composed of
two factors, mass and velocity ; and, therefore, the determination of
gaseous pressure alone will still leave us in the dark as to the
character of the blows by which it is produced. It tells us nothing
as to whether the walls of the containing vessel have to withstand
the shock of heavy molecules moving with comparative slowness, or
light molecules moving at relatively high velocities. Yet this is a
matter of importance. Every artillerist is familiar with the different
effects produced by "racking" and "penetrating" blows of equal
kinetic energy. The proverbial schoolboy knows that a tallow
candle fired from a gun will dart through a deal board, whereas, if
placed on the cow-catcher of a locomotive and so moved forward
slowly, it will simply be crushed up against the board. Essentially
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 359
the same order of effects must occur whether we deal with cannon-
balls or molecules. From the physical, non-chemical point of view,
all matter is the same — it is a something that gravitates. Even a
chemist may hold that the only absolute distinction between one
elementary molecule and another is that of allotropy ; that matter
probably consists of ultimate gravity- atoms, alike in substance and
energy ; and that the greater or less number of these atoms grouped
in a molecule effects a corresponding variation of the velocity-factor
of the molecular energy, and so produces difTerences of behavior as
regards light, heat, electricity and other forces. But, be this as it
may, we know that the ballistic behavior of a cannon-ball is depend-
ent upon the mass of the projectile, and not upon whether it is made
of gold or lead ; and it is reasonable to infer the same thing of the
ballistic behavior of molecular masses. The character of the blow,
as regards the effect produced upon the body struck, must be different
in the cases of two projectiles, one of which (say a molecule of car-
bonic anhydride) weighs 22 times as much as the other (say a
molecule of hydrogen), even though the energies of the two blows
be equal. Or, to put another case, the effect of a blow struck by
four projectiles must differ from that of a blow struck by three pro-
jectiles, notwithstanding that the latter group may be moving at so
greatly increased a velocity as to make its total energy equal to that
of the former.
Hence, from the ballistic point of view, we must consider the
29981.9 atmospheres of pressure produced by the nitroglycerine
gases as consisting of two factors, viz., the mass-factor, which may be
taken as 1000, and the velocity-factor, which is 29.9819.
Turning now to the case of dynamite No. i, we find that 1000
grams contain 118.9 grams of carbon, 16.5 grams of hydrogen,
138.7 grams of nitrogen, 475.9 grams of oxygen, and 250 grams of
silica. When explosion takes place, the resulting products consist of
534.5 litres of gas (computed at o" C. and 760 mm.) and 250 grams
of silica ; and the heat evolved (after deducting what is required for
breaking up the 750 grams of nitroglycerine) amounts to 1,088,284
calories. This is sufficient to raise the temperature of the gases and
silica by 5274° C. ; and if free to expand under atmospheric pres-
sure, the heated gases would occupy 1086 1 litres, and the silica would
be expanded 20.05 cubic centimetres in excess of its original volume.
But if the explosion took place in a close vessel, the space available
for the gases would be ~ X - — .02005 = .4487 litre, and the pres-
i.b 4
360 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
sure would, therefore, be ^^-— ^= 24205.5, or 158.8 tons per square
,44«7
inch. The mass-factor of this pressure is 750 (as the dynamite gases
have but .75 of the weight of the gases produced by 1000 grams
of nitroglycerine), and the velocity-factor is "^ = 32.27.
Furthermore, as the molecules in the gases from 1000 grams of
nitroglycerine outnumber those in the gases from an equal weight of
dynamite No. i in the proportion of 4 : 3, it follows that the intensity
of the blow struck by a molecule of the former may be represented
by the expression ^^^ ^'^ = 7495.4, while the intensity of the blow
struck by a molecule of the latter is — — ^ = 8068.5. The ratio of
these intensities ^^ = .929, which is the same as that given by the
oOOo
ratio of the velocity-factors, viz., . And the product of the
32.27 ^
two ratios is .929 X .929 = .863. This value agrees fairly well with
that observed in the course of General Abbot's experiments, if allow-
ance be made for the approximate character of the constants employed
in the calculations and for the want of instantaneity in the explosives.
If, as is probably the case, the detonation of a primer imbedded in
dynamite No. i produces a more intense initial shock than when im-
bedded in nitroglycerine, the ballistic ratio of nitroglycerine to
dynamite will be lowered. On the other hand, a departure of the
containing envelop from absolute rigidity, or any appreciable solu-
tion of continuity in such envelop, will have a tendency to increase
the ballistic ratio.
The theory here advanced not only offers a solution of what I will,
by way of due consideration for the distinguished officer who first
observed it, call the Abbot effect, but it is, I believe, applicable to all
cases of explosion and explosion-stress. For example, in Lieutenant
Walke's recent experiments, dynamite No. i was found to develop
an order of strength of 81.31 as compared with 100 for nitroglycer-
ine. This sample of dynamite contained - — parts of nitroglycer-
ine made according to the U. S. Naval Torpedo Station process, and
tested immediately on completion ; and the nitroglycerine in question
was found to develop an order of strength of 92.37 as compared with
the standard article, which, while made according to the same process.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 36 1
had been kept for more than six weeks under distilled water in a
loosely-corked glass jar. The real strength of the dynamite was,
therefore, ^ — X 92.37 = 68.09 pei" cent, of the standard nitro-
glycerine. Yet the "order of strength" it developed was 81.31.
The Abbot effect was thus — '~^ — = 19.42 per cent. ; whereas
68.09 ^ t i-
the original Abbot effect was ^ = 64.61 per cent. In
^ .75 X 81 ^ K
both cases the ballistic ratio of nitroglycerine to dynamite No. i is
100
considerably less than the normal value of = 1.33, being,
respectively, .81 observed by Abbot and 1.23 observed by Walke ;
but these ratios are in themselves widely divergent. The explanation
of their divergency is to be found in the conditions of the experi-
ments. In the Abbot tests the explosives were encased in water,
extending to a vast thickness in a horizontal direction and for many
feet upward and downward. In the Walke tests the explosives
rested in a hollow on the upper surface of a steel piston supported
by a small lead cylinder, and were covered by a steel plug free to
fly upward in the air. Thus, in the Abbot apparatus, the containing
vessel was an almost incompressible and completely continuous wall,
while in the Quinan apparatus, used by Walke, it was composed of
two disconnected moieties of steel, held in place by a highly elastic
atmosphere, gravity, inertia, and, on one side, the resistance of a
piece of lead. This diflerence of envelop is fully sufficient to
account for the difference observed in the Abbot effect.
§2.
The Ballistic Theory of Explosion-Stress.
If we proceed from the consideration of the explosives and the
ballistic behavior of the gases they produce, to a study of the
effects of the molecular impacts upon the crusher-gauges, gun-walls,
or other targets, we shall find the ballistic theory still holding good,
and of service in the solution of many practical problems.
In a paper read by Mr. Fairbairn before the Institute of Naval
Architects, in London, on March 26, 1863, an account was given of
various experiments to determine the best shape of projectiles for
armor-penetration. Among those experiments was a series showing
362 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
the respective effects produced by flat and round-ended punches
when employed in the perforation of iron plates. The conclusion
arrived at was thus stated by Mr. Fairbairn :
" These figures show that the statical resistance to punching is
about the same whether the punch be flat-ended or round-ended, the
mean being in the ratio of 1000 : 1085, or Z\ per cent, greater in the
round-ended punch. It is, however, widely different when we con-
sider the depth of indentation of the flat-ended punch and compare
it with that produced by the round-ended one, which is 3^ times
greater. Hence we derive this remarkable conclusion, that while
the statical resistance of plates to punching is nearly the same what-
ever may be the form of the punch, yet the dynamic resistance or
work done in punching is twice as great with a round-ended punch
as with a flat-ended one."
In 1880 General H. L. Abbot, in his report, before referred to,
published some remarkable observations showing the influence of
time as a factor in the action of mechanical pressures or impacts upon
crusher-gauges. In some instances he found that the amount of
pressure indicated by the shortening of a lead cylinder under a
piston urged forward by a sudden blow was more than twice as great
as that indicated by the same shortening effected under slow pressure
in a testing machine.
In 1882 the Comptes Rendus des Seances de I'Academie des
Sciences contained a memoir, by MM. Sarrau and Vieille, on the
theory of crusher-gauges, in which the same view as that already
propounded by General Abbot was adopted and still further devel-
oped. In this memoir it is demonstrated that when a very rapid
pressure takes place, the shortening of the gauge becomes twice as
great in proportion to the actual force exerted as in the case of a
comparatively slow pressure ; and the governing feature of the action
is shown to be the ratio that exists in any particular case between
the total duration of the pressure from zero to a maximum ( 7"), and
its duration while at a maximum ( T^.
Now, in the case of a flat-ended punch, it is obvious that the resist-
ance experienced is constant and a maximum as compared with that
experienced by a round-ended one. And General Abbot's system
of crushing by impact was equivalent to the limiting case formulated
by Sarrau and Vieille, in which the displacement of the piston during
the development of the pressure to its maximum value may be
neglected, and in which, accordingly, the indication of the gauge is
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 363
in excess. Hence the three series of observations I have quoted
are intimately connected together and are concerned with one and
the same physical phenomenon, namely, that the opposition offered
by solid bodies to change of molecular structure is analogous to the
energy of gaseous bodies, and may be divided into a resistance-factor
and a time-factor which correspond respectively to the mass-factor
and velocity-factor discussed in the previous section of this paper.
The generalization here suggested seems to me to be of great
practical importance in the present state of the military art as regards
explosives. It shows that there is no essential difference between
the various classes of explosives, and that the regulation of the
mechanical effect to be produced by an explosion may be attained
by a modification in the conditions of application equally as well as
by a change in the explosive employed. It shows that there is no
real distinction between "explosion" and "detonation," or between
kinetic " pressure " and "shock"; and that the relations that exist
between the walls of a gun and the powder-gases within are the same
in character as those between the shot and the armor-plate.
As a practical illustration of my meaning I may refer to the expe-
riments of MM. Sarrau and Vieille with dynamite. These gentlemen
found that by simply varying the weight of the crusher-piston they
could at will produce either of the two limiting cases of pressure ;
T
that is to say, they could give an appreciable value to the ratio t^^ ,
or they could render it negligible. The dynamite was employed
under conditions of uniform gravimetric density (.30) and was ex-
ploded by uniform means. Hence there was no question of any
difference in the " explosive wave," or, to use the more generally
adopted expression, in the "order of explosion"; and yet a slight
change in the object on which the explosive force was exerted
sufficed to shift the effect produced from a " detonating " to an
"exploding" class.
Again, in the British Association's Report, in 1863, on gun-cotton,
it is stated as follows : " There is yet another peculiar feature of
gun-cotton ; it can be exploded in any quantity instantaneously.
This was once considered its great fault ; but it was only a fault
when we were ignorant of the means to make that velocity anything
we pleased. General Von Lenk has discovered the means of giving
gun-cotton any velocity of explosion that is required, by merely
varying the mechanical arrangements under which it is used. Gun-
364 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
cotton, in his hands, has any speed of explosion, from i foot per
second to i foot in ywou of a second, or to instantaneity. The
instantaneous explosion of a large quantity of gun-cotton is made
use of when it is required to produce destructive effects on the sur-
rounding material. The slow combustion is made use of when it is
required to produce manageable power, as in the case of gunnery."
These statements were quite correct ; and although the use of
Lenk's gun-cotton for artillery was subsequently abandoned, this
arose from points connected with preservation and not from any
want of manageability. Moreover, the practical use of the Schultze,
E. C, and American wood powders and of Gelbite is an example of
the gun-cotton class of " high explosives " being also available for
" low explosive " work ; and the recent introduction of the Nobel,
Abel and Maxim smokeless powders shows that even nitroglycerine
may be brought under sufficient control for use as a propellant.
As a converse illustration I may mention the case of gunpowder
being detonated. The discovery of this is usually attributed to MM.
Roux and Sarrau ; but General Piobert, in his Cours d'Artillerie,
mentions the matter as having been demonstrated by General Pel-
letier in 1826. He says that Pelletier placed four pounds of gun-
powder on a light wooden table, which was placed upon soft earth,
and ignited it ; the result being a mild explosion and a slight depres-
sion of the table. But when the experiment was varied by placing a
sheet of paper over the powder, the table was shattered to atoms.
Here is a distinct statement of a detonation-effect being produced ;
and though Pelletier's account is so worded as to imply that the
ignition was the same in both cases, it may have been that in the
second experiment the powder was fired in a manner differing from
simple ignition. At any rate, I myself failed to obtain the same
results as Pelletier when simply igniting a heap of loose gunpowder
placed on a shingle and covered with a sheet of paper ; but when I
fired a similar heap of loose gunpowder with a detonator the shingle
was broken to pieces, both with and without a paper covering to the
powder. And as a similar detonator by itself merely dashed a small
hole through the shingle, my experiment certainly proved that even
loose powder may be caused to explode with greater rapidity than
when simply ignited.
I have also measured the difference of the explosive effects here
alluded to by employing an apparatus which I term a " vimmette."
This instrument consists, first, of a thick wrought-iron bed-plate,
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 365
bolted down to a timber foundation inclined at any desired angle to
the horizon ; secondly, of a cylindrical steel stud screwed at one end
into the center of the bed-plate, and projecting therefrom at a right
angle ; and, thirdly, of a massive steel thimble which fits closely on
the stud. The bore of the thimble terminates in a hemispherical cavity
ofshghtly reduced diameter, so that an internal shoulder is formed,
which rests on the flat top of the stud when the thimble is in place for
firing. The stud is grooved on one side to admit a fuse for firing the
charge in the hemispherical cavity of the thimble. The thimble of the
vimmette I use in my test weighs 66J pounds, and when the stud is
inclined at 80° to the horizon, a charge of 6 grams of gunpowder, if
simply ignited, throws the thimble to a horizontal distance of 5 feet 7
inches from the stud; whereas, when the same amount of gunpowder is
fired by means of a detonator containing 9 grains of mercuric fulmi-
nate, a range of 1 1 feet 7 inches is obtained. The detonator by itself
just lifts the thimble about 2 inches without throwing it off^ the stud.
Here, then, we again perceive the Abbot effect. We have equal
quantities of the same explosive fired under equal conditions of
gravimetric density. Equal volumes of gas and equal quantities of
heat must therefore be produced ; and as the resistance-factor of the
gauge remains unaltered, it would seem that the work done upon the
gauge should be the same. Yet in one case the thimble is moved
with much greater energy than in the other. The explanation, of
course, is that when a detonator is employed the powder explodes
very quickly, and generates its entire volume of gas before the pro- '
jectile begins to move. Hence the thimble is urged forward by the
expansion of the whole of the gases during its whole travel on the stud.
When, however, the powder is simply ignited, the thimble is already
in motion before the whole of the powder-gases are at work : and
thus the aggregate pressure during the entire travel is much less
than in the former case, seeing that the velocity with which the gas-
molecules strike the forward end of the thimble cavity is the differ-
ence between their proper velocity and the rate of movement of the
thimble.
I have thought it worth while to dwell somewhat upon this matter,
because in no less an authority than the Treatise on the Manufacture
of Guns and Text-book of Service Ordnance, published by the
British Government in 1886, the following statement occurs (page 26) :
''Gun Construction. — In the first place, it is necessary to under-
stand the nature and intensity of the forces which act upon a gun
366 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
when fired with a heavy charge. The origin of stress is the rapid
generation of gas in a chamber of very limited size, compared with
the volume which the gas would occupy if unconfined. The evolu-
tion of gas is the work of a period of time, and its action upon the
inner surface of a gun has been proved to possess the nature of a
pressure and not that of an impulse. Instruments have been devised
for measuring this pressure in the bore, so we are able to investigate
the force according to the laws which govern the behavior of a gas."
The words pressure and imptdse are italicised in the original, and
it is evidently intended that some grave distinction shall be drawn
between them. Yet, if by "pressure " something other than stati-
cal pressure be meant — and such must certainly be the case — it is
impossible rightly to draw any such distinction. The pressure of a
gas is the general effect of the myriad individual impacts of its mole-
cules upon the walls of the containing vessel. If the gas be gene-
rated inside the vessel, it is inevitable that 2l first blow shall be struck
upon the inner surface ; and the severity of this blow will depend
upon the number, weight and velocity of the particles inflicting it.
And as the word " impulse " can only mean the effect produced by
impact, it follows that the action of a gas generated inside a vessel is,
correctly speakmg, always of an impiclsive character. If the major
portion of the exploding body take part (in the form of gaseous
products) in the first blow, a much greater shock is inflicted than in
the case of a smaller portion contributing to the salvo ; but, no
matter whether all or only some of the guns in the battery be fired
in the first instant, the action remains the same in character.
The same considerations must guide us as regards the body
receiving the blow ; that is to say, as regards the gun itself; and I
venture to think that the practice hitherto pursued, of estimating
firing strains from the point of view of statical pressures, must lead
to incomplete if not erroneous conclusions. A method more in
accordance with the facts of the case is the following :
Let the molecules composing the walls of a gun be represented as
arranged in concentric circles, shown in Fig. i.
When the gun is fired, the molecules of the explosion-gases
impinge against the inner circle of gun-molecules, and thus set up a
radial stress tending to force each gun-molecule outward. If move-
ment take place under this stress, the molecules A, B, C will assume
the positions A' , B' , C ; that is to say, they will be on the circum-
ference of a larger circle than before ; and although their angular
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
367
distance may remain the same, they will be separated from each
other by a g'reater circumferential distance. In addition, they will
be nearer io D, E, F than before.
G ff /
Now it is a law of molecular structure that the particles of any
body at rest are in a condition of equilibrium as regards their mean
distance from each other, and therefore the alteration of this distance,
whether by decrease or augmentation, requires the performance of
work. Accordingly, in the case of any single gun-molecule, B,
motion under the impact of the explosion-molecules is opposed by
two resisting forces, namely the repulsion that forbids approach to
D, E, F, and the attraction that forbids separation from A and C.
The mechanism of these forces is not as yet understood ; but it is
clear that they are modes of energy, and as such resolvable into
terms of mass and velocity. Thus the energy that resists compres-
sion may, with some degree of reason, be conceived of as analogous
to gaseous elasticity, and as dependent upon the mass and velocity
of the body's colliding molecules ; while the energy that resists
tension may be regarded as the expression of the mean impact of the
particles of the ether upon the body-molecules in one direction,
attended by an absence or diminution of such impact (owing to
inter-molecular eddies) in the opposite direction. That these views
are at least consistent with observed phenomena will appear as I
proceed with my argument.
In the case of the gun-molecules, any motion of B must obviously
be much greater in a radial than in a tangential direction. It follows,
368 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
therefore, that the work done in compression is greater than that in
tension, and that in a system composed of two rings of molecules, a
hard and comparatively brittle material is better than a tough and
comparatively soft one for withstanding the shock of internal explo-
sions.
When, however, we introduce the conception of a third ring, the
problem assumes a different aspect. The repulsion existing between
B and E may be regarded as a rod whereby if B be pushed out-
ward E moves with it. But a similar rod exists between E and H,
so that ^also has to move in accordance with B and E. If the rods
were absolutely rigid, the degree of motion produced in the system
B E Hhy the impact of an explosion-molecule would be a mere
question of the respective impelling and impelled masses and veloci-
ties. The rods, though, are not rigid ; they are elastic ; they cannot
transmit any force without first shortening and then lengthening.
This involves action in time as well as in space, and thus B and E
have for an instant to bear the full shock of the explosion-molecule
before the mass of //^can be effectively added to their own.
The limit to the movement of two molecules toward each other is
contact ; but there is no limit to a movement of separation. If, then,
B be forced outward into contact with E, the united rings would
thenceforward (in a system of two rings) offer but one kind of resist-
ance to the further movement of their particles, i. e. cohesion, or the
force that opposes tension. But this force is operative only at minute
distances (we may conceive inter-molecular eddies to disappear and
ether-pressure to become equal on every side when the molecular
interstices increase) and ceases to have any practical effect when
molecules move appreciably apart. Hence the united rings are
liable to complete and sudden disruption from the shock within.
In a compound system of rings the same results may be brought
about without any limitation of compression by contact. The radial
movement of B is shared by E and H, and therefore a shortening of
the distance between E and II\s attended by a double shortening of
the distance between B and H. Accordingly, the movement of B
in relation to H, and consequently also to A and C, is not neces-
sarily dependent upon its distance from E, and may assume any
magnitude if the number of rings in the system be sufficient; so that
a disruption of the inside ring may take place without any corre-
sponding injury to the outer circles. It follows from this that when
an elastic material is employed, no mere addition to the thickness of
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 369
the walls of a gun can possibly suffice to prevent the gun from
bursting.
Moreover, if the distance between B and E be such as in itself to
admit of a movement sufficiently great to remove B from the cohesion-
range of A and C, the inner ring may be ruptured without receiving
any succor from the third ring; for this latter can only lend its mass
and tenacity in opposition to some stress, and this stress can only be
transmitted by the second ring. If, then, the explosion-impact be so
sudden and powerful as to drive back B upon E in too short a time
to allow of the compression of the repulsion-rod between E and H^
the union of B with A and C will cease before the movement of B is
arrested by the resistance of H. And yet the actual energy of the
impact may be quite insufficient to overcome the united resistance of
the ABC cohesions and the B E and E 77 repulsions.
Analogous conclusions may be deduced in the case of plane sur-
faces exposed to pressure. A sufficiently quick pressure, such as a
blow, will force back the outer layer of molecules upon the next
layer to a greater extent than would be the case if further layers had
time to be brought into the resisting combination. And this com-
pression may exceed the elastic limit, and may produce permanent
deformation. Here, then, after pursuing an entirely independent
course of reasoning, we find ourselves once more in face of the physi-
cal fact remarked upon by Fairbairn, Abbot, and Sarrau and Vieille,
namely, that change of molecular arrangement is not, of itself, a
measure of the working force. A crusher-gauge may occasionally
be compressed to a certain extent by one-half the force required at
other times to produce the same degree of shortening, and in like
manner a gun may be burst by a pressure well within that which it is
capable of withstanding under diffisrent conditions of application.
Conversely, we may be very far from the truth in deciding that such
and such a pressure has been exerted merely because a gauge indi-
cated so and so, or because a gun of certain dimensions and material
was burst.
I may further remark that, as regards the usual method of investi-
gating explosion-stress in hollow cylinders, the fundamental formula
Strain = P^^^sure X radius
thickness
is rigorously true only in cases where the thickness is infinitesimal ;
while Barlow and Hart's derived formulae for the ratio between inner
and outer strains are based upon a comparison of the respective
370 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANXE MATERIAL.
annuli of expansion, and are therefore only applicable to cases in
which such expansion has taken place. In both the fundamental and
derived stages of the calculation a condition of equilibrium is
assumed; that is to say, an equation is established between the strain
and the resistance. But, as I have already shown, the action of an
explosive does not commence with an equilibrium. The strain is, in
most cases, a progressive one, and the resistance is always a variable
quantity. Equilibrium, therefore, can be attained only when the strain
has reached its maximum, and when the resistance has become equal
to this maximum. This is not only true of the dynamic strain repre-
sented by the radial impact of each explosion-molecule, but it also
applies to the resultant tangential strain on the whole inner surface
of the ring, represented at any point by pressure X radius. Hence,
explosive stress should, properly, be regarded as divided into the
following three stages, viz. :
I St stage. — Each internal gun-molecule is pushed back in opposi-
tion to the repulsion of the adjacent molecules in the next ring and
to the attraction exerted by the adjacent molecules in its own ring.
2d stage. — The stress is transmitted to the molecules lying imme-
diately beyond those next adjacent, and so on to others in succession,
until the whole mass represented by the thickness of the gun is
affected.
3d stage. — The total resistance called into action by the trans-
mission of the stress becomes equal to the pressure from the explo-
sive, and static equilibrium results.
The mathematical expressions now employed in solving problems
connected with gun-construction apply only to the third of the above-
mentioned stages ; and it is to be desired that analogous formulae
should be deduced for the first and second stages. But experimental
data are lacking. We know what amount of statical compression
and tension can be borne by various materials ; and in some measure
the molecular range of movement has been determined. What is
still required is to ascertain, if possible, the law of resistance to
dynamic stress and of the velocity of transmission of such stress.
Meantime it is possible, by geometrical and physical analysis, to
make some approximation to the desired formulae. As an illustra-
tion the following will perhaps suffice :
In any isosceles triangle, ABC, (Fig. 2.) extend the equal sides
to D and E and join DE. Draw BE and CG at right angles to
BC, and bisect the triangle ^^Cby the line AH.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
The triangles AHC and CGE are similar :
.'.AC: CH:.CE:EG
and AC'.2CH:.CE:2EG.
But 2CH=BC
and . 2EG = EG + DP.
■ ' .■.AC:BC..CE:EG+ BE.
371
Now, as CE is the increase of the radius ACa.nd as EG + I?E
is the increment of the chord of the angle BA C, it follows that the
distance between two molecules, B and C, on the circumference of a
circle will, when they occupy the same angular position on a larger
circle, increase in the same proportion to the increase of radius that
their original distance bore to the original radius. And as the
original distance ^C is immeasurably small, it follows that, for any
measurable radius and any measurable increase thereof, the force
■employed to enlarge the circle must be mainly absorbed in com-
pression and makes but a slight demand upon the tension-resisting
power of the metal.
AC
If we represent the constant ratio ^^ by A', the value of EG + DF
CE
will be -jjr, and for any increment dR (=/) of the original radius
R, the resolution of the pressure, />, into tension (0 and compres-
sion {c) will be
/-A
K
But the value of K is immeasurably large. Hence c is approxi-
mately equal to p ; and if molecular cohesion (J. e., the power of
resistance to /) were uniform at all distances, it would follow that a
ring of any sensible tenacity could never be suddenly burst by any
internal gaseous pressure, however great. As a matter of observa-
tion we know that rings can be thus broken ; and therefore we have
372 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
a proof that cohesive force not only decreases in some proportion to
the inter-molecular distance, but practically becomes nil within some
finite space, and so yields to the immeasurably small strain /.*
I have spoken of a ring that is suddenly burst, because it is neces-
sary to draw a distinction between the case of a ring that gives way
at some point or points of least resistance, and that of a yielding at
points of high and low resistance simultaneously ; the distinction, in
fact, between a gun " bursting " and a gun " bursting explosively "
upon which Sir William Armstrong laid such stress in his evidence
before the Select Committee on Ordnance in 1863.
The theoretical view I am here advocating is quite in harmony
with the modern system of ordnance-construction by hooping, or in
other ways (as, for example, by wire-winding) providing for a con-
dition of permanent initial strain in the walls of a gun.
Let us suppose that in the inner circle of the diagram before given
the molecules ABC are at less than their normal distance from each
other. Let us also suppose that the first and second rings are in like
manner closer together, and that DBF are further apart than when
in normal positions. The whole system is now in a state of unstable
equilibrium, and thus is weaker than before. The inner ring no longer
opposes any resistance to circumferential enlargement; the second ring
can be torn asunder by less force than before; and the repulsion-rods
between the first and second rings are already shortened. And yet
this weaker system is better adapted than before to sustain internal
impact. The range of B's movement toward B is less, and thus the
time required for transmitting pressure through E \.o His shortened ;
while, on the other hand, the range of movement within cohesion-
limits between B and A and C is increased, and thus the time for
developing danger-tension is lengthened. The enemy is further
away and the ally is nearer.
The protection thus given ceases to exist if the unstable equilibrium
of the gun-molecules should become changed into a condition of
stable equilibrium. And as the tendency of all molecular structures
is toward stable equilibrium, any sudden changes of internal strain,
or, in other words, any opportunities of movement are availed of to
alter the positions of the molecules from an abnormal arrangement.
*The argument here set forth finds an interesting illustration in the Brown
Segmental Gun now being made £or the Board of Ordnance and Fortification —
the internal compression-transmitting tube being built up of staves, and thus
having no tension-resisting power whatever.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 373
This probably is the explanation of the comparatively short lives of
the larger built-up guns. At the outset the walls are in a more or
less perfect condition of internal strain. Each shot that is fired vio-
lently disarranges the molecular arrangement of each ring of molecules
in succession, and the ring never reassumes its exact antecedent
condition. After a certain number of these shocks stable equilibrium
supervenes, and the gun no longer has the power of giving the calcu-
lated support to the innermost ring. The drooping of the muzzles
of long guns is another instance of the same phenomenon.
It may, at first sight, appear that I am but restating, though in dif-
ferent words, the generally accepted explanation of the hoop system,
and that the ballistic theory is practically the same as the statical
views set forth in all the text-books. In reality there is no such
correspondence. And the practice of modern gunnery bears strong
testimony to the value of the dynamic element on which I am insist-
ing. The artillerist who calculates the thickness and shrinkage of
his hoop upon data derived solely from the consideration of statical
pressures takes good care not to use a "quick powder," even in
quantities only theoretically sufficient to produce the very pressure
for which his gun is designed. And the ordinary statical-equilibrium
view entirely fails to elucidate three most important questions in the
consideration of explosive effects, namely, the occurrence of varying
local pressures, the diversion of pressure, and the disintegrating or
shattering action of explosion-gases.
The conception of gaseous pressure, adopted in ordinary gunnery
calculations, is that of a force exerted equally in all directions. It
corresponds, therefore, with a condition of dynamic equilibrium
within the gas, in addition to a condition of static equilibrium as
between the gas and its containing envelop. But the dynamic
equilibrium of a gas implies an equal diffusion of temperature
throughout its whole volume, a uniform diffusion of its molecules,
and an equal mean molecular velocity at all points. It is, however,
obvious that these conditions do not, nay, they cannot, obtain at the
first instant of an explosive substance flashing into gas, or until the
various stages of resolution, compounding, dissociation and reunion
shall have been gone through. Here, too, three stages of action may
be recognized ; and the equilibrium theory is concerned with the third
alone. This would be all very well if the first two stages were, for
practical purposes, negligible ; but they are not so. Every artil-
lerist is familiar with the occurrence of what, for want of a complete
374 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
theory, are shelved under the convenient name of "abnormal pres-
sures," and one of the highest authorities in such matters, viz.
Berthelot, has drawn attention to the point in words that are well
worth quotation. They occur at the conclusion of his description of
the measurement of explosive force by means of crusher-gauges
{Sur la Force des Matieres Explosives, 3d ed., pp. 52-53), and are
as follows :
" It is proper to remark here that the measurements thus obtained
correspond solely to certain tnean pressures which are susceptible of
being notably exceeded at various points. In fact, the gases sud-
denly developed by the chemical reactions represent actual whirl-
winds in which there exist strata of matter in greatly differing states
of compression and an interior fluctuation. This is shown by the
mechanical effects produced by these gases upon solid matter, and
especially upon metals, which are found indented and grooved in
many places as though they had been impressed by the contact of
an extremely hard solid body.
" The measurement of initial pressures in firearms in like manner
shows local irregularities and differences, which are frequently enor-
mous, between pressures observed simultaneously at various points
of the chamber in which the combustion of the powder takes place.
" The pressure, therefore, is not uniform, and may vary in an
almost discontinuous manner as well as the first movement of impulse
communicated to the projectile."
The phenomenon here adverted to may be observed in a striking
manner by means of what I term the mushroom test. Some lead is
cast in the form of a mushroom or the segment of a sphere, and is
suspended in the air with its flat surface downward. The explosive
to be tested is packed in a small cylindrical cartridge-case of paraf-
fined paper, and is primed with an ordinary dynamite " cap " or
detonator and fuse. The cartridge is tied to the mushroom in such
a manner that its flat end rests firmly against the flat base of the
mushroom. The apparatus when ready for firing is shown by the
accompanying plate (I), which has been prepared from a photo-
graph taken by my son, Mr. Newton W. Emmens, on the occasion
of some recent tests of emmensite at the works of the Emmensite
Explosives, Guns and Ammunition Company, near New Stanton,
Westmoreland Co., Pa. The cloth shown in the photograph was
employed merely for the purpose of catching the mushroom when
projected upward by the explosion.
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 3.
PLATE IL— LEAD MUSHROOM— EASE.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 375
Plate II is a reproduction of a photograph of the base of a lead
mushroom under which a charge of 25 grams of emmensite No. 3
was exploded. The mushroom measured 2I inches in diameter, was
I inch thick in the centre, and weighed 20 ounces. The cartridge
was cylindrical and was li inches in diameter. When exploded it
produced an indentation of approximately circular area, having a
diameter of if inches and a depth of -|| inch. The character of the
indentation is well shown by the photograph. The metal is seamed
and scarred and pitted and scored in such a manner as to utterly
confute any assertion of uniformity of pressure ; and its appearance
graphically illustrates Berthelot's description above quoted. Nor
could a better exemplification of ballistic effect be desired. The
gaseous molecules are shown to have struck the lead as a veritable
charge of small shot.
A significant feature of the experiment is the fact of its having
taken place in the open air. The whirlwinds and varying strata of
pressure spoken of by Berthelot, and the abnormal pressures of artil-
lerists, may conceivably be referred to the influence of the walls of
the explosion-chamber ; but this explanation does not apply to the
case of an explosion in the open air. Ballistic action then becomes
the only efficient cause of the effects observed. Nor is it the case
that the peculiar effects in question are noticed only when the
explosive is in close proximity to the body struck. The following
instances will show that ballistic action may be manifested at con-
siderable distances :
In the fall of last year Mr. N. W. Emmens was engaged with some
men in removing tree-stumps by blasting with emmensite. One
of the stumps to be removed was nearly a complete tree, and on
a charge of emmensite being exploded in the ground beneath it
the trunk was simply split for several feet upward instead of being
blown out. To complete the split an auger was used for the purpose
of boring a hole for the insertion of a cartridge in the split about a
foot from the ground. The stem of this auger gave way and the
handle was twisted off, leaving the tool jammed fast in the split. To
extricate it a cartridge of emmensite was placed in the wide part of
the split, at about the ground level, and was exploded. After the
explosion the auger was found still sticking in the split, but about
18 inches higher up and with the stem end imbedded instead of the
bit end! It must therefore have been struck a severe blow on the
projecting portion just as the split widened to allow freedom of
movement to the bit end.
3/6 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Again, in April, 1889, the factory of the Emmensite Company,
then at Harrison, N. Y., was destroyed by fire and explosion. The
substances that exploded consisted of about 900 pounds of picric
paste in one building, and about 70 pounds of dynamite No. i and
90 pounds of nitroglycerine absorbed by magnesium carbonate in
another. The building that held the picric paste was built upon
solid gneiss rock, and after the explosion was represented by a crater
some 30 feet across and 10 feet deep — a fact that will give some idea
of the severity of the explosion. In the building, upon a shelf about
9 feet away from the cask of picric paste, was an electro-magnet con-
sisting of a stoppered iron tube 2 inches in diameter and 24 inches
long and wrapped with wire ; its weight being some 20 pounds.
After the explosion this magnet was found nearly half a mile away
on the other side of a hill. For such a fact as this, no " pressure "
theory can possibly account.
The same explosion contributed many other facts of similar sig-
nificance. For example, when the conflagration was in progress I
was sitting in my wheel-chair in the open air, having the building
containing the picric paste in my front at a distance of about 40 feet,
and, on my left, at about 10 feet, the house where the dynamite and
nitroglycerine were stored. When the explosion took place I was,
of course, thrown to the ground, but instead of being, equally " of
course," killed outright, I was comparatively uninjured. I found,
however, that half of my watch-chain had been blown away !
My papers and books were all burnt and have not yet been com-
pletely duplicated. I must, therefore, trust to my memory when I
say that in the enquiry instituted by the British Government into the
circumstances attending the great gun-cotton explosion at Stow-
market, it was found that a man standing in a field half a mile away
from the magazine that exploded was stripped stark naked by the
explosion but was personally uninjured.
I could go on multiplying instances from my own experience and
that of other " explosive-fiends "; but I am perhaps beating the air
in a double sense. The Chinese must go. The equilibrists must
restrict themselves to the tight-rope of the case of very slow-burning
gunpowder in long-chased ordnance. Pressures and crusher-gauges
and nicely adjusted hoop-tensions may there find place and utility ;
but if combinations of gun-cotton and nitroglycerine are to be the
" smokeless powders " of the future, it is high time that the theory of
explosion-stress should be studied from other points of view.
PROCEEDINGS U, S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 3.
PLATE lll.-LEAD MUSHROOM-SIDE VIEW.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 3//
Turning, now, to the question of the diversion of pressure or shock,
we find another and perhaps still more important case of the inade-
quacy of the equilibrium doctrines. General Abbot demonstrated
long ago, in his torpedo experiments, that an explosive could be made
to exert a greater effect in one direction than in another, by providing
an artificial line of least resistance. Captain Penrice, the inventor of
the " Stone-devil," as the workmen at Hawks, Crawshay & Co.,
Gateshead-on-Tyne, where I learned engineering, used to call the
tunnelling machine which the Emperor Napoleon III. wished to use
in undermining the fortifications of Sebastopol, and which afterwards
perforated the Spezia tunnel, — Captain Penrice, I say, has devised a
blasting-cartridge holder, consisting of a hollow steel cylinder closed
at both ends, and cut away on one side for the purpose of transmitting
the main shock of the explosion in any desired direction. And the
familiar spectacle of a ball being upheld in the air by a jet of water is a
striking illustration of the same principle ; for, as a similar effect may
be obtained by using a jet of steam or air, it becomes obvious that any
reasoning based upon the transmission of pressure by a liquid or gas
at rest does not necessarily apply to the same body when in motion.
Yet, in the case of a cannon-ball driven along the bore of a gun by
the impact of a column of gas, it is usually supposed that the pressure
exerted on the base of the shot is the same as that sustained by
the walls of the gun. The fallacy of this view becomes obvious if
we consider that the column of gas is, to some extent, a stream of
minute projectiles darting onward with a common movement of
translation, instead of darting hither and thither in every direction,
as in an ordinary vessel filled with gas.
Very simple and oftentimes apparently insignificant means suffice
for guiding the path of the explosion-gases. Plate IV reproduces
a photograph of the top of the lead mushroom already referred to. It
shows the line of the shock to which the lead was subjected. The
divergence from a central direction in this particular case was slight ;
but it often happens that the exfoliation is produced much to one side
of the central line. This phenomenon was for some time perplexing ;
but at length my son discovered that he could produce it at pleasure
and in any desired direction. The paraffined paper shell of the charge
is folded down at the end in the ordinary way ; that is to say, there
is a triangular space covered with only one thickness of paper, while
the rest of the end is covered with three thicknesses — the final flap,
which would increase the covering of part of the end to seven thick-
378 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
nesses, being cut away to allow of the cartridge resting flat and close
against the mushroom. This cutting away leaves an unprotected
space on one side of the centre of the cartridge, and the exfoliation
of the external surface of the mushroom will always be found on the
same side. The slight extra ctishioning provided by the one and two
layers of paraffined paper suffices to protect the lead and to divert
the main shock into another direction.
I have applied this principle in the construction of cartridges
for utilizing high explosives as propelling agents in firearms and
ordnance. The device consists essentially in lining the cartridge
with some elastic material — preferably soft wood. This lining protects
the metal of the gun against a disintegrating shock ; and by its superior
resilience enables the gaseous molecules to retain their energy in the
form of mechanical motion, and to more or less gradually join the
onflowing current along the bore of the gun. After firing, the wood
is usually found compressed to about one-half of its original thick-
ness, and rendered proportionately harder. In cartridges of this kind
emmensite and other high explosives may be fired with security and
efficiency, and make excellent "smokeless powders." The risk
arising from abnormal pressures is reduced to a minimum ; the space
occupied by the lining is more than compensated for by the diminished
volume of the charge; the heating of the gun is lessened, and the
scoring of the bore may be said to no longer take place. And, what
is perhaps still more important, the life of the gun will assuredly be
lengthened by the suppression of molecular shock, and the decreased
disturbance of the normally strained hoop structure.
I have already discussed this question of molecular shock, and
have pointed out how it may cause the inner portion of a gun to give
way without allowing the remainder to contribute any resistance.
But the question has another aspect of equal moment ; and as from
this point of view light is cast upon much fallacious equilibrium
doctrine, and especially upon the highly important and much miscon-
ceived subject of the exceptionally energetic action of mercuric fulmi-
nate, it is desirable to briefly deal with it before I conclude this theo-
retical section of my paper.
The usual explanation given of the shattering action of high
explosives is conveniently and effectively worded by Professor
Vivian B. Lewes (Service Chemistry, p. 281), as follows:
"The rapidity of detonation of nitroglycerin is very great, and
it is this which gives rise to the downward effects noticeable in all
nitroglycerin or dynamite explosions.
PROCEEDINGS U, S NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No 3.
PLATE iV.— LEAD MUSHROOM -TOP.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 379
"Six cubic inches of nitroglycerin, when exploded, would yield
about a cubic yard of gas, and would require, approximately, 4^^-5^th
of a second for conversion into the gaseous form. A square yard of
surface carries an atmospheric pressure of, roughly, nine tons, so
that the gaseous products would have to lift nine tons to the height
of one yard in ^Q^Qpth of a second, and the earth being rigid, is
broken up by the recoil from this enormous strain."
Will the Professor allow me to echo an equally distinguished
Dominie and to exclaim " Prodigious !"?
Before, however, I proceed to justify my admiration, I will quote
the reference to mercuric fulminate by two " eminent hands."
M. Berthelot, in his standard work before referred to, twice alludes
specifically to the explosive force of mercuric fulminate. At page 62
of Vol. I. he says: " For example, the density of fulminate of mer-
cury being equal to 4.42, this substance would develop a pressure of
about 27,000 kg. per square centimetre when detonating in a space
equal to its own volume ; a colossal figure and superior to that of all
the known explosives." At page 258 of Vol. II. he says: "At the
density of 4.43, that is to say, the fulminate detonating in a space
equal to its own volume, there would be [a pressure of] 28,750 kg.
according to the theoretical formula; or 27,470 according to the
crusher measurement ; values superior to those of all known explo-
sives It is the enormity of this pressure joined to its sudden
development which explains the action of fulminate of mercury as a
primer."
Professor Threlfall, in the article on Explosion in the new edition
of Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry (Vol. II., p. 535), writes:
" It will be evident that there is much difficulty in answering such
a question as ' what is the strongest explosive ?' — in fact, no answer
can be given unless the conditions of explosion are specified. We
may arrange explosives in the order of maximum pressures devel-
oped per unit mass in unit volume in a crusher-gauge, or we may
construct a table showing the pressures produced by unit masses in
their own volumes, or by equal volumes in their own volumes.
[Does the Professor really mean " equal volumes in their own
volumes"? Does he not rather mean "equal volumes in unit
volumes "?] For instance, in the case of fulminate of mercury with
an actual density of charge at the rate of 3 g. per cc, the crusher
indicates a pressure intensity of about 6000 kg. per sq. centim. for
unit density (the standard condition). For cotton-powder the figure
380 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
mounts to 10,000 kg. per sq. centim. If, however, we consider
equal masses of these substances exploding in a space just capable
of containing them, the mercuric fulminate (thanks to its specific
gravit}'' of 4.42) will produce the enormous pressure of 27,000 kg.
per sq. centim., while the number for the cotton-powder will be only
slightly increased. Now, detonators in practice consist of confined
charges in copper or tin tubes, and therefore it is clear at once why
fulminate of mercury is the detonator par excellence, even though
the energy expended per unit-mass is surpassed by other explosives.
The period of the attainment of the maximum pressure of detonating
substances, excepting nitroglycerin compounds, may be taken as
less than yirwoth of a second." At the end of the article Professor
Threlfall says : " The most powerful — i. <?. energy-liberating — explo-
sive per unit-volume is fulminate of mercury ; the most powerful per
unit-mass is blasting gelatine (92 per cent nitroglycerin and 8 per
cent nitrocellulose, the exact composition of this particular nitro-
cellulose not being stated)."
The statements here quoted represent the universal teachings of
the equilibrist school with regard to explosive shock, and may be
thus summarized :
1. High explosives shatter the surfaces on which they rest because
the weight of the atmosphere acts as a tamping.
2. Fulminate of mercury is the shatterer and shaker par excel-
lence, because {a) its pressure is so suddenly developed, and (Ji) the
amount of such pressure is greater, volume for volume, than any
other explosive.
The first of these statements may be at once disposed of by the
simple fact that the shattering effect of high explosives is noticeable
in a vacuum !
The second statement is also seen to be untenable if we consider
that, according to Threlfall, the speed of detonation of mercury ful-
minate is only one-fourth that of nitroglycerine, according to Lewes,
and that, consequently, sixty-four times the volume of nitroglycerine
(sp. gr. = 1.6) would explode in the same time compared with mer-
curic fulminate (sp. gr. = 4.2), thus developing a pressure of 64 X 1.6
= 102.4 against 4.2, even if the energies per unit-mass were equal;
but as the nitroglycerine mass-energy is greater, the superiority of the
blow struck in the same time will be greater than the ratio 102.4 • 4-2«
Moreover, if pressure per unit of surface be the efficient cause of
shock, it cannot matter whether this be produced by a volume of a
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 38 1
light explosive having high mass-energy and speed of detonation, or
by the same volume of a heavy explosive having low mass-energy
and detonation-speed. Area for area of surface attacked, the effects
produced will, according to the equilibrium theories, vary solely in
the ratio of the pressures.
And as regards the atmospheric-tamping hypothesis, it must be
remembered that so far from gases ta7nping each other they freely
diffzise into each other. The explosion gas does not find it neces-
sary to displace the atmosphere in order to have room for itself.
What really occurs is that the vast outrush of explosion molecules
entangle, as it were, and sweep away with them the atmospheric
molecules, but this sweeping away does not take place in opposition
to atmospheric pressure. It represents but a trifling amount of
work.
What, then, is the true explanation of the shattering action of high
explosives? — an action which has no tendency "downward," as sug-
gested by Professor Lewes and devoutly believed in by many an
engineer and contractor. At the Washington Navy Yard, in March,
1890, I showed an experiment in refutation of this popular error. I
suspended three iron plates in the air, two horizontally and one ver-
tically. I placed a cartridge of emmensite on the top of one of the
horizontal plates and tied a similar cartridge underneath the other.
A third cartridge was tied against the side of the vertical plate. On
explosion the three cartridges were found to have acted equally —
a hole being dashed through each plate; thus proving that the
explosive force acts with equal vigor in all directions.
The only hint at the real cause of the shattering action that I have
been able to find in the text-books occurs in Professor Threlfall's
article before quoted. At page 536 he says :
" It is a well-known fact that a small charge of fulminate of silver
fired on a card or thin sheet of glass will in general blow a hole
through the card or glass without doing other damage. The cause
of this phenomenon has been sought by several observers, the most
reasonable of whom appear to be Mach and Wentzel (Wiedemann's
Annalen [1885], 26, 628), who begin by showing that the same effect
can be observed in a vacuum. This leads them to measure the
velocity of escape of the gases formed during explosion, by ob-
serving their effect on hollow cups forming convenient portions of
a ballistic pendulum. The resulting velocity turns out to be between
3500 and 17,500 metres per second, with a probability that the lower
382 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
limit is the one most nearly approached. The authors argue that
the density of the gases evolved with this velocity must be very con-
siderable, and hence that the effect on an obstacle must be compara-
ble with the effect produced by the impact of a projectile. This
leads to the interesting question of what occurs when a soft body is
caused to penetrate a hard one in virtue of its high velocity, as when
a tallow candle or bit of soft wood is shot through a door."
Comparable with the effect produced by the impact of a projectile!
Have we not here the germ, at least, of the Ballistic Theory?
If the ballistics of mercuric fulminate be studied, a great difference
will be found as compared with the similar characteristics of other
explosives — a difference amply sufficient to explain its superior shat-
tering power.
Equal volumes of gases at equal temperatures and pressures have
equal numbers of molecules. The number of molecules in the gases
evolved by any explosive is therefore proportional to the volumes of
the gases. In the case of nitroglycerine the reduced volume of
gases from 1000 grams amounts to 712.5 litres; in the case of 1000
grams mercuric fulminate the volume is 314.8 litres. Accordingly,
there are 712.5 molecules of nitroglycerine products for every 314.8
molecules of fulminate products.
The total energies of explosion-gases are represented by the total
pressures they are capable of producing in the spaces occupied by
the explosives. In the case of nitroglycerine the total pressure is
29981.92 atmospheres, and in the case of mercuric fulminate it is
29366 atmospheres.
The energy of each nitroglycerine product-molecule is therefore
represented by -^ — '-^ = 42.08. The energy of each fulminate
product-molecule is, in like manner, ^ = 93-29.
The proportionate weights of the molecules are represented by the
total weight of the gases divided by the proportionate numbers of
the molecules. This value in the case of nitroglycerine is =
^^ 712.5
1.4035 ; in the case of mercuric fulminate it is -x =■ 3.177.
The energy of a molecule is composed of two factors, mass and
velocity. If the energy be 42.08 and the mass 1.4035, as in the case
of nitroglycerine, the velocity factor will be -^-^ — = 29.98. In the
fulminate case it is = 29.37.
3.177 ^^'
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 383
Accordingly, we have the following comparison :
Total Energy
of Molecule.
Mass
Factor.
Velocity
Nitroglycerine,
42.08
1-4035
29.98
Mercuric fulminate,
93-29
3.177
29.37
From this it is at once evident that the fulminate molecule will
strike a blow more than twice as severe as that inflicted by a nitro-
glycerine molecule, and therefore its penetrative power must be
vastly greater. It is true that, weight for weight, exploding nitro-
glycerine is more powerful than mercuric fulminate in the propor-
tion of 29981.92:29366; but this is because it projects a greater
number of molecules in the aggregate. For penetration and shat-
tering, energy must be concentrated ; an armor plate may success-
fully resist the simultaneous impact of two shot, each of which has a
striking energy of 5000 foot-tons, whereas it may readily be pierced
by a single shot having a striking energy of 10,000 foot-tons. And
where molecular disintegration is concerned we must obviously
reckon with each striking molecule individually.
I cannot myself detect any flaw in this argument, which seems to
me to conclusively account for the disintegrating and shattering
action of mercuric fulminate as compared with that of other explo-
sives, none of which project molecules having a ballistic energy at all
approaching that of the fulminate projectile.
The importance of studying explosives from this point of view may
be seen from Plates II to IV, which show three views of the lead
mushroom to which reference has already been made. It will be
observed that although the crater shows no apparent perforation of
the lead, yet the outer surface of the mushroom has been blown
away by some force proceeding from the interior. The structure of
the lead in the line of this force has become granular and disinteg-
rated— riddled through and through, as it were, by a volley of
microscopic projectiles. Whether such penetration has actually
taken place, or whether the breaking away of the outer surface has
been caused by the propagation of a shock from molecule to mole-
cule through the mushroom, thus causing the outer unsupported
molecules to fly oif like the last of a row of billiard balls, it is impos-
sible to say with certainty. Inasmuch, however, as the outer layer
of molecules on the flat side must have opened out in becoming curved
(to be subsequently fused together), interstices were undoubtedly
produced, through which the molecules of the explosion-gases may
384 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
have rushed ; so in all probability the effect observed was caused
partly by penetration and partly by the transmission of shock.
Artillerists will remember that guns have been known to burst on the
outside while the interior remained intact ; and it may well be that
the cause of this was molecular penetration and shock, instead of
being solely owing to undue hoop-tension, though this latter would
undoubtedly facilitate a rupture both by weakening the material and
by increasing its susceptibility to the propagation of shock and the
entrance of gas-molecules for crowding and wedging its own mole-
cules apart.
In concluding this rapid survey of the Ballistic Theory, I think it
right to state that I offer it tentatively as a working hypothesis that
may prove of practical service in the present state of knowledge.
My great-grandson, if such a being shall ever exist and shall take to
scientific studies, will probably smile in a superior way upon the
crudeness and imperfection of my ideas. Molecules may then be no
longer in fashion ; and some wider generalisation connecting gravity
and thought, matter and morality, may have superseded the doctrines
of Newton, Avogadro, Clausius, Mendeleeff and Hertz. The science
of to-day has the defect attributed by Lord Palmerston to Lord
Melbourne: it is "so damnably cock-sure ! " And let this be my
apology if I have ventured or may hereinafter venture to criticise or —
horror and sacrilege ! — " chaff" any scientific pope : I here and now
admit my own frailty. In an article which I wrote (in 1883, 1 think)
for the Pall Mall Gazette, on "Aerial Torpedoes," I paraded as
scientific truth the very doctrine of atmospheric tamping which,
when advocated by Professor Lewes, caused me, a few pages ago,
to exclaim "Prodigious!" Accordingly, if General Abbot, or Major
McKee, or Professor Ira Remsen, or Mr. Edison, or Professor
Munroe, or Ensign Dresel, or any other champion, shall arise in his
might and smite my Ballistic Theory hip and thigh, I will — if whole-
somely and handsomely pulverized — submissively lay me down to
sleep, and will not even dream of muttering " E pur si muovef"
§3-
The Comparison of Explosives.
Matter differs from humanity — civilized humanity at least : it does
its level best. Such is the vernacular rendering of Berthelot's thermo-
chemical law of maximum work, which, in finer language, he thus
expresses:
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 385
" Every chemical change effected without the intervention of ex-
terior energy tends toward the production of that body or that system
of bodies which disengages the most heat."
Heat is one of the protean forms of energy ; hence the name " Law of
Maximum Work."
Here, then, apart from all question of equilibrium or ballistics, we
have the keynote of the comparative study of explosives. If we de-
termine how much heat is set free by the rearrangement of the explo-
sive-molecules after deduction of the heat absorbed in breaking up the
explosive to start with, we shall obviously have an absolute measure of
the total mechanical force thus rendered available. This will enable
us to say which explosive is the strongest, and to indicate the ratio
borne by the strength of one explosive to that of another.
After this comes the question of the mode in which an explosive
develops its strength — whether by a large volume of gas at compara-
tively low temperature, or by a small volume highly heated ; or, to
adopt ballistic terms, whether the energy developed inheres in heavy
or light molecules, and whether the molecules have high or low velo-
cities. We can then form some judgment as to the particular use for
which any explosive is adapted, and can classify all explosives accord-
ingly.
To calculate the available heat-energy of an explosive we require
to know :
a. The chemical composition of the substance or mixture.
b. The amount of heat required to break it up into its elements.
c. The permanent compounds formed by its elements when re-
arranged after explosion.
d. The amount of heat disengaged by this recombination.
Requirement (a) is a matter of ordinary chemical analysis.
Requirement (3) is simplified by the fact that the amount of heat
necessary to break up a compound is the same as that set free by the
original formation of the compound. This heat of formation may be
observed by means of calorimetrical apparatus, and many physicists
have worked in this direction, so that a large amount of data is now
to be found in the text-books.
Requirement {c) is a matter of ordinary chemical analysis.
Requirement (af) is arrived at by our knowledge of {c) combined
with the experimental data accessible as to the formation-heats of
compounds.
And when we have arrived at our theoretical conclusion by
386 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
deducting (b) from (</), we may check the result by actually explod-
ing the substance in a calorimeter and thus measuring the heat disen-
gaged.
The heat-energy theoretically available cannot, in practice, be
wholly utilized. A considerable proportion must inevitably be
absorbed in heating surrounding substances instead of in expanding
the explosion-gases, or (under conditions of constant volume) in
augmenting the velocity of their molecules. But even if the avail-
able heat-energy were wholly utilized in explosive work, its effects
would vary according to the composition of the substance exploded.
In nitroglycerine, for example, the heat would all go in augmenting
gaseous energy ; whereas in dynamite No. i part would be absorbed
in expanding silica — not altogether uselessly, though, for this expan-
sion would, by diminishing the space occupied by the gases, increase
their energy.
Again, it does not follow that because equal increments oi sensible
heat produce equal degrees of expansion in all gases, equal quantities
of heat-energy will produce equal increments of sensible heat. It is,
on the contrary, found that each chemical compound requires a
different quantity of heat-energy to raise its observable temperature
by an equal number of thermometer degrees. Now, if heat be
regarded as the velocity-factor of molecular energy, it follows that
molecules of different masses will require different velocity-incre-
ments for equal augmentations of vis vivd. Hence, each kind of
molecule must have its own specific heat, or requirement of heat-
energy for a given rise in temperature ; and this specific heat (velocity-
factor) multiplied by the molecular weight (mass-factor) must give
a constant quantity (energy) for all molecules. If, then, some mole-
cule, as, for example, water, be adopted as a standard, all that is
necessary is to experimentally determine what quantity of heat-units
is necessary to raise say i gram by 1° Cent., and the specific heat of
every other substance becomes a matter of simple calculation.
But thermometers concern themselves only with a part of the heat-
energy. They tell us nothing, in a direct manner, as to latent heat,
i. e., as to heat-energy occupied in effecting changes of molecular
arrangement as between molecule and molecule, or changes of the
internal structure of individual molecules. It is found that the same
body at different temperatures requires different quantities of heat to
produce a given rise of temperature, or, in other words, that the
specific heat varies. Hence we need not be surprised to find that
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 38/
specific heats determined by experiment vary in some cases con-
siderably fi-om those theoretically deduced. And as the means of
experimenting- do not allow of tests at very high temperatures, we
are quite ignorant of the true specific heats of explosion-products at
the time of explosion, and must satisfy ourselves with such approxi-
mate values as are accessible.
So, too, with regard to the explosion-products themselves. We
know that hydrogen and oxygen do not remain combined in the
form of water molecules at high temperatures. We have reason to
suppose that carbon and oxygen behave similarly. We know that
gases lose their gaseous form and become liquefied when subjected
to very high pressures. These and similar facts render it impossible
for us to say exactly in what forms and combinations explosion-
products exist at the instant of explosion.
Fortunately, however, we can dispense with an exact knowledge
of the specific heats and forms and combinations of explosion-pro-
ducts. Berthelot's Law of Initial and Final States assures us that,
whatever may be the intermediate stages, the difference between the
initial and final states of the substances investigated is a true
measure of the energy developed. It is, in fact, the algebraic sum
of all the quantities involved — the plus quantities representing the
energies of the successive combinations and the minus quantities
those of the successive dissociations ; exception being of course
made of any endothermic combinations which absorb heat on forma-
tion and evolve it on decomposition. The wording adopted by
Berthelot in formulating the law is as follows :
" If a system of simple or compound bodies, under determinate
conditions, experience physical or chemical changes capable of
giving rise to a new state of existence, without the performance of
external work, the quantity of heat evolved or absorbed by reason
of the changes depends solely upon the initial and final states of the
system ; it remains the same whatever may be the nature and order
of the intermediate states."
This is why, in article {c) of the data required for calculating the
available heat-energy of an explosive, I specified " the permanent
compounds formed by its elements when rearranged after explosion."
We may for all practical purposes consider these as the explosion-
products at the time of explosion, even though we may believe that
they do not and cannot exist at that very instant.
And this also is why, in discussing the Ballistic Theory, I laid such
little stress upon the speed of detonation, which previous writers on
388 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
explosives have been accustomed to regard as so extremely import-
ant. Where many and complicated stages of varying specific heats,
compoundings and dissociations have to be traversed, in order to
arrive at the maximum development of force, it is idle to predicate
instanianeity of the effect thus produced; and as the most sluggish
of the high explosives develops this maximum in a period that may
be described as infinitesimal, the distinction between one high explo-
sive and another may be neglected.
When the total heat-energy, the various products and their mean
specific heat are determined, we can calculate the respective volumes
and weights of the solid and gaseous substances produced, and the
extent to which their temperature will be raised by the heat. Solid
(and liquid) substances have specific rates of expansion by heat ; but
gases are assumed to increase 2^ in volume for every 1° C. by which
their sensible temperature is raised. Hence the volume of the
produced gases (calculated at the standard of 0° C. temperature and
a pressure of 760 mm. of mercury — i. e. an atmosphere, or about
, • 1 ^ 1 • 1- J T. rise in temperature
14.7 pounds per square mch) multiplied by i A
will give either the expanded volume or the pressure in atmospheres,
according as the gases are free to expand or are confined in a space
of unit-volume. If the space in which they are confined be of less
than unit-volume, the pressure is of course increased in inverse
proportion.
We thus arrive at the total pressure capable of being generated by
the explosive; and here it is usual to stop the calculation. But
from a ballistic point of view it is necessary to determine the
molecular energy ; and this is done by dividing the total pressure
by the standard reduced volume ( V) of the gases. The quotient
thus found represents the vis vivd of -^7 molecules ; x representing
the total number of molecules. Similarly, the total weight of the
gases divided by F represents the mass of -pr molecules ; and there-
fore the molecular energy divided by this factor is the velocity
factor of -77 molecules. And as -y is constant for all explosives
(being the number of molecules in a standard volume), we have
here an absolute statement of the respective ballistic energies.
Such is the general method of calculation I have employed in
preparing the following tables :
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
389
?s
CO ro O O "^ O -TOO ro-^O OcO rot^ONOOO >00
O 00 t~> ON ro r^ rf CT\0O ^00 ^ " ■"
\0 ro ^vo ro Tt N
ON O n n ro
" 10 t^vo i^ r>.vO 00>O c^r^iOi-i r^ONO\ONO O -^N
Tj- M w ro .
Tf ON N ro Tt vo t^oo 0 0 0" -^OO i^
10 ON -^ fO fO ONO C^VOP)^00i-<O-^
iooi-iqro-^Tt-jq\
ro -^ « 00 H.
li^ -^ ro O t^ O
■ -^ ro O 00 ro <
• rovo -^co t^oo
VOll-i-lOOOOO»Orl-
+++ I +++++++++++
W M CO \0 W
1 +++++
O 00 VO rOOO On On O O
_ _ N w NO r^OO ■* ^ O O
cO>-iNOOcOrOrONOOON OVOt^i-i >^NO NO O O
■^Tj-O OnO O r^" -^ON io\0 un « -"^ t-^ • ' On O -^no OnoO 00 O O
O 00 ON O ON r^OO 00 i- NO NO t-^vo NO t^ "1 ■ • NO CO O fO r-.00 00 o o
I- l^l^l'il-lTri-^l'
ON moo 10 " vo 00
-i- Tl- 10 Tj- Tj- to fO
0000000
ON Tf ro N r^ t^
tj-NO VD f) M3 r^ r^
O O 1- O O O O
CIS >-
•CO
:: -a o
4^T3c-e'Ofl-e — !
U :? ffi § 3h 72 •
p rt u 5 .t; y .5
ou
390
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
H 2
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m
Jo « ,
a\
o >,.£ c
vO
ui o rt u
o iriMovooo a\ -tf
m Ov HH fo VO f^\0
«g = |S
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-^ ro ^ ON rC. N f5
^"G S ^
I <n rj, TT ON c) N
On Tf m 00 m m~
-0-5
M TJ- 'i- in - ON «
1 + i + T T T + +
1 1 1 1 III
•oc-Siig
t^rOi-fONN o O
00 ■<*• N \0 Tj- CO fO
iPtl
r^r^d\M»od d\ ^
d inrn in m rn in
N roONt^rOoo TT ro
oo - TT ^ m m M
vovo>^oooooo ■* "^
CO O C3N - m m N
oo|8|
w
t«
.
mcOj:
bo
ll
;-= :^
... . ^^< a
■ N oo fo • <i
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O N
ONo N ;*
lO -<j-
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r^
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Sd
r^oOtOrovOTj- en r^
roin -- ro r^ q t>.
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d\o6'i-i>iNri»>) VC)
vd 1- On vd ri i-J N
N NroONO\cO t^ w^
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\0 VOVOIJ-IVOIO Tl- lO
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cnr^ TT 00 N VO m
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moo - « M N 00
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'^■^'^■^^■^■^O'^'^'^'^'s i^
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r 1
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EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
391
^ •
10 r^ M
- rovo
t^ vo r-^
vOMi-.Lr)00"lC)<0<~OMCO CO
- M CO \0 ^CO ro ro t-^ M CnmD O
\0 vo lO t^ t^vO Tf rO\0 m — CO N
2 (u o •=
(U -o ^ u T ^
-s, i^-p ?
as
392
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Table IV.
Thermal Effects and Gaseous Volumes.
Name of Explosive.
Explosive gelatine (a) 21125
Nitroglycerine.,
Cordite
Pyroxylin.
Gun-cotton
Dynamite No. i. . . .
Emmensite No. 259
Collodion-cotton
Cellulo-dinitrin
Picric acid
Nitro-cotton
Pebble powder
Dinitro-benzene . . . .
Mercuric fulminate.
{6).
Mean
Specific
Heat of
Products.
(Water =1).
.21508
.21016
.23806
.22429
.22888
.20634
.23874
.22980
.24294
.20224
.25652
.18004
.23244
.06760
Results per Kilogram.
Heat-units
Evolved.
(Calories).
,559.310
,570,434
,451,877
,188,096
,180,460
,103,871
,088,284
,013,016
996,535
949,112
798,134
629,058
628,144
609,367
370,000
Increase of
tempera-
ture (in
degrees C.)
7381
7302
6908
4877
5263
4879
5274
4243
4338
3907
3947
2452
3489
2621
5473
Volume of
Gases at
0° C. and
760 mm.
(litres).
703.8
715.6
712.5
883.0
826.0
862.6
534-5
744-9
869.9
973-8
878.4
1080.7
278.0
931-5
314.8
Volume of
gases at the
explosion
temperature
(if) and 760
(litres).
19734-5
19857-7
18738.7
16653.5
16751.O
16277.0
10861.0
12320.8
14692.7
14908.9
13580.0
10785.5
3830.8
9874.0
6628.0
Table V.
Pressures Developed.
Name of Explosive.
Space («)
occupied by
gaseous pro-
ducts
(litres).
Pressure =: Heated Volumi
Atmospheres.
Tons per
sq. in.
Kgs. per
sq. cm.
Explosive gelatine {a)
Nitroglycerine
Cordite
Pyroxylin
Gun-cotton
Dynamite No. i
Emmensite No. 259 . .
Collodion-cotton .....
Cellulo-dinitrin
Picric acid
Nitro-cotton
Pebble powder
Dinitro-benzene
Mercuric fulminate. . .
.6452
.6452
.6250
.6666
1. 0000
1. 0000
.4487
•7734
1. 0000
1. 0000
.7692
1. 0000
.7100
.6782
.2257
30588.5
30779-4
29981.9
24980.2
16751.0
16277.0
24205.5
15930.7
14692.7
14908.9
17654.0
10785.5
5395-5
14560.0
29366.4
200.73
201.986
196.76
163-93
109.93
106.82
158.85
104-55
96.42
97-84
115.85
70.78
35-41
95-54
192.72
31615
31811
30988
25818
17313
16823
25018
16465
15186
15409
18246
I "47
5576
15047
30351
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
393
Table VI.
Ballistic Energy.
Name of Explosive.
l^'zs viva of
— molecules
Mass-factor of
energy of ^
molecules
wt. of gases \
reduced vol ;
Velocity-factor of
energy of -^
molecules
/ energy \
Explosive gelatine (a)
Nitroglycerine ,
Cordite
Pyroxylin
Gun-cotton
Dynamite No. i
Emmensite No. 259..
Collodion-cotton
Cellulo-dinitrin
Picric acid
Nitro-cotton
Pebble powder
Dinitro-benzene
Mercuric fulminate . . .
43-46
43.01
42.08
28.29
20.28
18.87
45.29
21.39
16.89
15-31
20.10
9.98
19.41
1563
93-29
f-397
[•4035
[.1325
r.2i68
[•159
[.403
[.329
[-1495
[.027
M38
•9253
1.586
[.058
3-177
30-59
30.78
29.98
24.98
16.7s
16.28
32.27
16.09
14.69
14.91
17.65
10.78
12.24
14-77
29-37
Table VII.
Comparative Values.
(NlTROGLYCERINE= lOO
)
Name of Explosive.
Heat units
evolved.
Pressures
developed.
Ballistic
energy of
molecules.
Order of strength
as determined by
Lieut. Walke
writh Quinan's
Pressure Gauge,
Explosive gelatine («).
« {b).
Cordite
107.4
108.2
81.83
81.31
74.96
69.78
54-97
43-33
43-27
41.97
25.48 ■
101.6
102.7
83.32
55-87
80.73
53-14
58.88
35 97
18.00
48.56
97.95
103.3
102.2
67.23
48.19
107.6
50.83
47.98
23.72
46.13
37-14
221.7
106.17*
92.38!
83.12!
8f.3i
77.86§
Pyroxylin
Dynamite No. i
Emmensite No. 259. . .
Pebble powder
Dinitro-benzene
Mercuric fulminate. . . .
28. 1 311
49.91
* The sample of explosive gelatine giving this result was composed of 92
parts of nitroglycerine, 2 parts of camphor, and 6 parts of " soluble gun-cotton."
tThe "Nobel's Smokeless Powder" giving this result was composed of 50
parts of nitroglycerine, 5 parts of camphor, 100 parts of benzole, and 25 parts
of "soluble gun-cotton," stirred together until the whole became gelatinized ;
and then the benzole was evaporated on a water-bath, the mass rolled out into
a sheet and finally cut up into small cubes.
\ Stowmarket gun-cotton.
§The emmensite giving this result was composed of 5 parts of emmens
acid, 5 parts of ammonium nitrate and 6 parts of picric acid.
II "Mortar Powder" of Dupont's manufacture.
394 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
§4.
Some Remarks upon the Foregoing Tables, and upon the
Humanity of Text-books.
Table I. shows the physical constants I have adopted in my calcu-
lations. They lay no claim to exactitude (for even the best experi-
mental observations are but approximations to the truth), and simply
represent a careful selection from among the various values to be
found in the text-books. For example, I take the molecular weights
of hydrogen and oxygen as i and i6 respectively; whereas, accord-
ing to Regnault, the ratio is i : 15.962, while Rayleigh says it is
I : 15.884. The space occupied by i gram of hydrogen at 0° C. and
760 mm. I take as 11. 16 litres, which is the most generally adopted
value, although, as it depends upon gravity, it can only be exactly
true for a single locality, the whereabouts of which is unknown.
And yet I adopt .6995 litre as the space occupied by i gram of
oxygen although — '-p — = -6975. In like manner, though I take
the molecular weight of nitrogen as 14, 1 adopt .7964 litre as the space
occupied by i gram, in spite of the fact that — '- — = .79714. Little
inconsistencies like these are cheerful and pleasant to contemplate,
as reminding us that we are human after all, and that no scientist
is infallibly in the right, however much of a pope he may be in the
estimation of that philosophical church of mutual admiration which
from the serene heights of learned societies and academies looks
down with much cold scorn upon the outer barbarians of the lay
world.
Yes, yes, my worthy Professor, I remember quite well the proverb
that says the bird is an ill one that fouls its own nest. I own myself
a nestUng, but I do neither you nor the nest an ill turn by endeavor-
ing to cleanse our common abode. Our fame now and our scientific
immortality hereafter will not be injured by our being less "damnably
cock-sure."
As a noticeable illustration of my meaning I may refer to a work
entitled Chemical Arithmetic, by W. Dittmar, LL. D., F. R. S. S.,
London and Edinburgh, Professor of Chemistry in the Glasgow and
West of Scotland Technical College. This book has only just
appeared, and is an admirable specimen of sound, wholesom.e, scien-
tific work. I have nothing but praise for it. Yet it is nicely human.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 395
Confronted with the difficulty of conflicting molecular weights, the
Professor adopts the value of 16 for oxygen and i for '^Hydroge-
nium, an imaginary gas whose specific gravity and whose molecular
weight is exactly equal to one-sixteenth of that of oxygen.'' He then
gives a table of "Atomic Weights," in which O = 16, in which H =
1.0024, in which C= 12.00, and from which hydrogenium is altogether
absent. In another table, of the " Physical Constants of a Number of
Gases," he gives a column of specific gravities at "0° and near 760
mm." in which O = 16. In this table carbonic acid (COO figures as
22.128; whereas, by his own value of C, it should, of course, be
exactly 22. Here, then, we have quite a collection of amiable weak-
nesses: first, a grave assumption of an "imaginary gas"; secondly,
a noble disregard of grammar; thirdly, a use of the words molecular
and atomic as though identical in meaning; fourthly, a dismissal of
the "imaginary gas" to limbo; and fifthly, an assignment of two
values to carbon, i. e. 12 and (22.128 — i6)X2= 12.256.
Let then my Table of Physical Constants be regarded as being
simply correct enough for practical use in calculations respecting
explosives, without havirig any pretensions to absolute precision or
finality.
Table II. — ^In preparing this I made such a selection of explosive
substances as I thought would represent the most important types.
In the case of the nitro-cellulose compounds it seemed desirable to
indicate the characteristics of several, as considerable uncertainty
exists respecting the actual constitution of the materials used in "gun-
cotton," "explosive gelatine," and "smokeless powders."
The specification of the patent for cordite (U. S. No. 409,549, dated
August 20, 1889), g-ranted to Sir F. A. Abel and Professor Jas.
Dewar, covers a single claim, worded as follows: ''An explosive for
ammunition manufactured by pressing blasting-gelatine or com-
pounds thereof through holes to form wires, cutting these wires into
suitable lengths, and packing them in cartridge-cases substantially as
described"; and in the body of the specification the inventors say:
" Blasting-gelatine manufactured in the ordinaryway, but with a greater
percentage of soluble nitro-cellulose and with volatile solvent — such
as acetone or acetic ether — sufficient to give it the consistence of a
moderately thick jelly, or ordinary blasting -gelatine with the addi-
tion of soluble nitro-cellulose and solvent to bring it to a like condi-
tion, is pressed through holes," etc. No attempt is made to define
"blasting-gelatine" or "soluble nitro-cellulose."
39^ EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
In Maxim's specifications there is somewhat more distinctness. No.
411,127 (September 17, 1889) says " the invention consists in dissolv-
ing gun-cotton or nitro-ceUulose in a proper solvent which is capable
of being evaporated, adding to the dissolved nitro-cellulose nitro-
glycerine, and then evaporating the volatile solvent fi'om the mixture."
No. 430,212 (June 17, i8go) says: "Attempts have heretofore been
made to manufacture explosives from collodion obtained by the
treatment of the low grades of gun-cotton with ether and alcohol. By
the low grades of gun-cotton I mean those which are readily soluble
in ether or alcohol, or in a mixture of these substances, and which
contain but a small percentage of oxygen. These low grades of gun-
cotton are unstable, do not withstand the action of sunlight, and as
they do not contain sufficient oxygen to consume all of the vegetable
matter of which they are composed, they produce in burning a large
quantity of smoke. Now my invention comprises improved methods
or processes whereby I am enabled to manufacture pellets, grains or
other forms of powder or explosive material from the higher grades of
gun-cotton — that is to say, the highly-explosive grades thereof, which
are not soluble in ether or alcohol." No. 434,049 (August 12, 1890)
says: " In the manufacture of explosive compounds according to my
present invention, I mix dissolved gun-cotton or pyroxyline with
nitro-glycerine, nitro-gelatine or similar material, and with oil, prefer-
ably castor- oil. ... My improved explosive compound is advan-
tageously manufactured as follows, that is to say, I first dissolve gun-
cotton or trinitro-cellulose in acetone," etc.
In Prof. Threlfall's article on "Explosion" in the new edition of
Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry there occurs the passage : " The
most powerful explosive per unit mass is blasting-gelatine (92 per
cent nitroglycerine and 8 per cent nitro-cellulose [the exact com-
position of the particular nitro-cellulose is not stated])." The double
brackets are in the original.
Bloxam (my Professor when I was a student at King's College,
London — a worthy man, of unusual knowledge and ability and with
nothing of the Pope about him. Requiescat i7ipace /), in his Chem-
istry, 6th ed., p. 564, says : " Blasting-gelatine is made by dissolving
collodion-cotton in about nine times its weight of nitro-glycerine."
Prof. V. B. Lewes, in his Service Cheviistry, pp. 266, 271 and 282,
says: "Accepting the formula C6H':02(N03)3 as representing gun-
cotton The percentage of collodion-cotton present is next
determined by treating a carefully weighed sample of the gun-cotton
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 397
for some hours with a mixture of ether and alcohol, which dissolves
the collodion-cotton, but not the fully nitrated product. When fifty-
grains of the gun-cotton are treated in this way for three hours, with
frequent shaking, with four ounces of a mixture of two parts by
volume of ether to one volume of alcohol, the loss of weight due to
collodion-cotton dissolved out from it should be very small
Blasting-gelatine No. 1 consists of equal parts of gun-cotton and
collodion-cotton, saturated with nitro-glycerine, which gelatinizes
them."
Major J. P. Cundill, R, A., one of H. M. Inspectors of Explosives,
in his excellent Dictionary of Explosives, writes :
" Blasting Gelatine. — This essentially consists of a combina-
tion of nitro-glycerine and nitro-cotton Two varieties are
licensed in this country [i. e. Great Britain, Ireland, the Channel
Islands and the Isle of Man], viz., No. i, which is defined as 'nitro-
cotton ' (consisting of nitro-cellulose carefully washed and purified),
.... combined with thoroughly purified nitro-glycerine in such pro-
portions that the whole shall be of such character and consistency as
not to be liable to liquefaction or exudation. No. 2 is simply No. i
with the addition of a nitrate, with or without charcoal." And he
says, further, " the equation for the formation of gun-cotton is thus
given ....
CeH.O^sHO + sHNOa = C6H7O.23NO3.
. . . The soluble nitro-cottons used in this explosive \i. e. blasting
gelatine] contain less oxygen in proportion than gun-cotton."
In passing I may remark that in the second member of the
Major's equation there is an omission of 3H2O. Humanity again !
In an article on " Smokeless Powder " published in the Scientific
American of January 10, 1891, a " report of Krupp " is given, from
which I extract the following :
" Much as has been written so far about the effects of the new
powder, no side has touched upon the composition of its chemical
component parts. A much-wished-for light is thrown on this com-
position for the first time by the trial shooting report of Krupp.
We have taken from it, says Kuhlow, the following, which is of
general interest. For all new kinds of powder nitrited {sic') cotton
forms the basis. If cotton is treated with nitric acid and sulphuric
acid, then, according to the strength of the acid and the methods
employed three kinds of nitrated cotton arise :
398 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Trinitro-cellulose.
Binitro-cellulose.
Mononitro-cellulose.
Carbon
24.24
28.57
34.80
Hydrogen
2.36
3.18
4-34
Oxygen
59.26
57.14
54.10
Nitrogen
14.14
II. II
6.76
100.00
100.00
100.00
So far it has not always been possible for one to prepare with
certainty the one or the other combination of nitrogen mentioned
above. On the contrary, the different combinations are always
found to be mixed. If trinitro-cellulose preponderates, the product
is called gun-cotton ; if binitro-cellulose preponderates, we get collo-
dion wool. . . . The gunpowder proposed by Nobel is made of equal
parts of collodion wool and nitro-glycerine. ... To secure the sta-
bility of this powder one may add to the glycerine at the beginning
half per cent diphenylamine The new chemical formula would be:
ioC3H5(ON02) + gCeH^OsOHCONOa)^, {sic)
with a molecular weight of 4538 (sic). The decomposed products
would therefore be :
58CO + 26C02-h6iH20 + 48N, (^zV)
and all gaseous. The powder can be styled, therefore, smokeless,
because the small amount of ash which the wool contains remains
unnoticed. The products of combustion become visible by the
steam getting condensed, when leaving the inside of the gun, and
the nitrogen entering into a chemical combination with the oxygen
of the air. . . . All the statements made here have been laid down
by Krupp after a number of the minutest trials, and they are all
indubitably true."
I doubt much if Krupp ever fathered any such nonsense.
Perhaps the most authoritative statement upon the subject of
blasting gelatine and " smokeless powder " is to be found in a paper
by George McRoberts, F. R. S. E., F. C. S., F. I. C, the Manager of
the Nobel Explosives Company in Scotland. This paper, entitled
" Blasting-Gelatine, and some other Explosive Mixtures," was printed
in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry of May 31, i8go.
The following are quotations from it :
" Blasting-gelatine, properly so called, consists of from 92 per cent
to 93 per cent of nitro-glycerine and 7 per cent or 8 per cent of nitro-
cotton. The kind of nitro-cotton used is not the ordinary gun-cotton
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 399
or trinitro-cellulose, but is a mixture of mono- and binitro-cellulose.
. . . Blasting-gelatine consisting of 93 per cent of nitro-glycerine and
7 per cent of nitro-cotton is the strongest form of it. . . . It has a
specific gravity of 1.55. ... A great many inventors are in the field
with smokeless powder. Up till now there are several hundred
patents in connection with the matter, but hitherto the success of the
inventors has not been great. No powder that has yet been tried is
absolutely smokeless; but what is meant, generally, by a smokeless
powder is one in which the oxygen of the explosive combines per-
fectly with the carbon, to form carbonic acid, and with the hydrogen,
to form water. If the ingredients are mixed in chemically rational
proportions, then the amount of oxygen present will just be such
that the whole of the carbon and the hydrogen, when the explosion
takes place, will combine with it and form carbonic anhydride (CO2)
and water (H2O). There will then be no smoke, for what we usually
understand by smoke is the presence of small particles of uncom-
bined carbon in the air. [Good Mr. McRoberts must surely have
been thinking of Auld Reekie instead of a battlefield when he
penned this human passage]. . . . One of the best smokeless powders
consists of a modification of blasting-gelatine, made by mixing it
either with the ordinary gun-cotton or with collodion-cotton to such
an extent that the finished substance is dry and elastic. Nobel's
patent smokeless powder, which he calls Balistite, is formed in that
way. It usually consists of about 50 per cent of nitroglycerine and
50 percent of nitro-cotton. . . . Another variety of smokeless powder,
patented by Sir Frederick Abel and Professor Dewar, consists of
nitro-glycerine and ordinary gun-cotton or nitro-cotton, with or
without other ingredients."
This brief review will suffice to explain the general grounds upon
which I proceeded in assigning certain formulae and compositions to
the blasting-gelatines, nitro-cellulose explosives and cordite included
in Table II.
The particular grade of emmensite included was selected because
it was with this grade that the recent experiments by the Navy
Department, the Board of Ordnance and Fortification, and Major
G. W. McKee have been conducted — details of some of which will
be given in the next section of this paper.
The " pebble powder " is that employed by Nobel and Abel in
their famous experiments on " fired gunpowder."
400 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL,
Table III. — It will be noticed that in the cases of the four explo-
sives containing an excess of oxygen, viz., explosive gelatine (a),
nitro-glycerine, dynamite No. i, and emmensite No. 259, I have not
shown any free oxygen in the products. This view conflicts with
that set forth in some notable text-books. For example, Major
Cundill, in his Dictionary of Explosives, says of nitro-glycerine :
" When perfectly exploded, the resulting products are carbonic acid,
nitrogen, water and free oxygen, and may be represented thus :
2C3H5(N03)3 = 6CO2 + 5H2O + Ne + O "
— an equation which is also adopted by Berthelot.
Prof. V. B. Lewes, on the other hand, says {Service Chemistry,
p. 280) :
" When nitro-glycerin is exploded, it is instantaneously decom-
posed into gaseous products, the probable decomposition being
2C3H5CN03)3 = 6CO2 -f 5H2O -f NO + N5."
I prefer the latter equation to the former, for two reasons. First,
the " fumes " of nitro-glycerin explosives used in mining, etc., appear
to always contain nitric oxide; and, secondly, I regard the endo-
thermic formation of NO as ifiternal work done by the energy
available, and as not precluding an immediately antecedent evolution
of maximum heat. But whichever equation is the more correct, the
diff"erence is very little as regards the externally-available power of
the explosive.
In the case of the nitro-cellulose bodies I have also adopted a
view differing from what is usually taught. Cundill says : " The
products of perfecdy detonated gun-cotton may be fairly expressed
by the following equation :
2(C6H,023N03) = 9CO + 3CO2 + 7H2O + Ne."
The equation adopted by Berthelot is
C24H.2909(N03)n = I2CO2 -h I2CO + 6H2O + Hit + Nn,
gun-cotton being here considered as consisting of one molecule of
trinitro-cellulose (pyroxylin) and one of collodion-cotton ; whereas
Cundill deals with trinitro-cellulose, pure and simple.
" Sarrau and Vieille," says Bloxam {Chemistry, p. 658), "employ-
ing a gun-cotton containing three parts of cellulo-trinitrine and one
part of cellulo-dinitrine (C6Hi020H(N03)2), obtained, per gram of
gun-cotton,
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 4OI
Carbonic oxide 234 cub. cent.
Carbon dioxide 234 " "
Hydrogen .166 " "
Nitrogen 107 " "
741
At low pressures steam was also produced, together with more
carbonic oxide and less carbon dioxide."
LewesXop. czL, p. 274) says: "As the rapidity of explosion and
the pressure increase, so the products become less complex, and it is
not at all improbable that under the conditions of temperature
existing during rapid explosion in a confined space, the reaction
which takes place with fully nitrated cotton is :
C6H,02(N03)3 = 5CO2 + CO + Ht + N=,
an equation which would give 870 cc. of gas at normal temperature
and pressure, an amount in excess of that found by actual experi-
ment, which gives 750 cc, and an evolution of heat equal to 1056
thermal units. Estimations of the pressure developed by the deto-
nation of gun-cotton differ greatly in value, Berthelot placing it as
high as 24,000 atmospheres, or 160 tons per square inch ; whilst
other authorities estimated it as not much more than half this
pressure."
This reference to Berthelot is misleading unless qualified. Berthe-
lot's figure is 16,750 atmospheres at unit density, which he gives as
that of pulped and hydraulically-compressed gun-cotton. He adds
that the absolute density (unattainable and unapproachable in
practice) is about 1.5, at which value the pressure developed would
be 16,750 X 1.5 = 25,125 atmospheres.
Taken altogether, the gun-cotton question will be seen to offer a
splendid field for the humanity of text-books.
I have taken the view that the oxygen in nitro-cellulose compounds
wholly unites with carbon, and that no water is formed. Hence the
products are carbonic anhydride, carbonic oxide, free hydrogen and
nitrogen ; this corresponding with the actual experiments of Sarrau
and Vieille, and being theoretically probable under the law of
maximum work.
In the case of pebble powder I have adopted the products given
by Nobel and Abel as the mean of those found in their experiments.
They are obviously not exact, as their total is but 99.03 instead of
402 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
I GO. Moreover, they exhibit some striking (though practically un-
important) variations from the original composition of the powder.
I have been inquisitive enough to minutely calculate this out, and
the following is the result at which I arrive :
Contained before firing. Contained after firing.
Potassium 28.92040 29.127655
Sulphur 10.08653 9.87 1 140
Carbon 12.12 12.330730
Hydrogen 53 .146527
Nitrogen 10.34 11.282768
Ash 23 .001300
Oxygen.. 3777307 36.269880
100.00000 99.030000
These discrepancies are, of course, partly the result of unavoidable
experimental error, but are also probably attributable in some
measure to sheer carelessness of calculation. What ! — scandalum
magnatum ? Yes ; I am conscious of my temerity, but I am obsti-
nate enough to believe the charge is a true one. If any reader of
this paper deem the matter important enough to be looked into, let
him turn to page 27 of the copy of Nobel and Abel's papers on fired
gunpowder, reprinted at the U. S. Artillery School Press in 1888
from the original in the Proceedings of the Royal Society. He will
there find the components of pebble powder given as follows :
Saltpetre c 74-67
Potassium sulphate 09
Sulphur 10.07
f Carbon, 12.12"^
Charcoal^ ^y^^^g^"' ^-^H 14.22
1 Oxygen, T.45 [ ^
LAsh, .23 J
Water 95
Let him from this analysis calculate the percentage of the various
elementary substances, and then let him compare his calculation with
the same work as performed by the authors of the paper. The
results /find are the following:
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 4O3
Percentase according to
Nobel and Abel's computation
Percentage according sec forth at page 51 of
to my computation. the reprint.
Potassium 2S.92040 28.86
Sulphur 10.08653 10.07
Carbon 12.12 12.12
Hydrogen 53 .52
Nitrogen 10.34 10.78
Ash 23 .23
Oxygen Z1-112P1 37-42
100.00000 100.00
Now, if we take the case of sulphur alone, the original analysis
gives free sulphur 10.07 ; but it also gives .09 of potassium sulphate.
Hence the contained percentage of sulphur must be more than
10.07. ^^ ^^^^ disce omnes.
The products of the fired gunpowder are given at pp. 186-7 of
the reprint ; and I may mention that the mean weights of the
gaseous and solid products are there given as 4409 and 5496 respec-
tively, instead of 4408 and 5495, which are the correct totals of the
products in detail.
Table IV. — I have in all cases calculated the specific heat as at
cojistant volume, though (to take but one instance from human text-
books) Bloxam, in his well-known demonstration of the force of gun-
powder {Chemistry, p. 452), calculates it as at constant pressure, in
which case the explosion-products would develop no external force
at all beyond the original one atmosphere.
In calculating the heat-units evolved I have adopted values for
CO and CO2 based upon the observed heat of combination of solid
carbon with oxygen. These values are probably too low in the case
of high explosives (as distinguished from gunpowder and explosives
containing charcoal), where the carbon is presumably gaseous when
free to combine, and certainly so in the case of nitro-glycerine, where
the explosive compound is liquid even before dissociation. On the
supposition that the carbon-form is gaseous, the heat evolved by the
formation of one gram of CO and CO 2 would be 2403 and 3058
calories respectively, instead of 1028 and 2200, as adopted in Table
I, The changes that this alteration would necessitate in estimates of
explosive force may be judged of by the following table, which shows
the increased heat-evolution and increments of temperature corres-
ponding to the higher values of CO and CO2.
404
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Table VIII.
Thermal Values corresponding to Gaseous Carbon.
Name of Explosive.
Heat-units
Evolved by
Increment op Temper-
ONE Kilogram.
ature IN Degrees C.
Solid
Gaseous
Solid
Gaseous
Carbon.
Carbon.
Carbon.
Carbon.
1. 559.318
2,088,438
7381
9886
1,570,434
2,104,314
7302
9784
I45I>877
1,950,707
6908
9282
1,188,096
1,937,669
4877
8139
1,180,460
1,949,650
5263
8692
1,103,871
1,864,780
4879
8147
1,088,284
1,462,304
5274
7087
1,013,016
1,298,566
4243
5439
996,535
1,804,211
4338
7851
949,112
1,856,970
3907
7644
798,134
1,803,650
3947
8918
629,058
1.639,255
2452
6395
628,144
628,144
3489
3489
609,367
1,626,064
2621
6991
370,000
641,144
5473
9484
Explosive gelatin {a).
Nitro-glycerin
Cordite
Pyroxylin
Gun-cotton
Dynamite No. i
Emmensite No. 259..
Collodionrcotton
Cellulo-dinitrin
Picric acid
Nitro-cotton
Pebble powder*
Dinitro-benzene
Mercuric fulminate. . ,
* The carbon herein being in the form of charcoal, gaseity cannot be admitted.
Table V. — I have adopted unit densities — /. <?., a specific gravity
of I as compared with water — for the nitro-celluloses ; deeming their
absolute density of 1.5 out of all practical question. In cases where
solid bodies exist among the explosion-products {i. e., silica in dyna-
mite, sodium carbonate in emmensite No. 259, carbon in dinitro-
benzene, and various substances in gunpowder) I have allowed for
the restriction of space they occasion ; but I have not made any
allowance for the liquefaction of gases. Subject to these observations
and to the somewhat higher thermic values I adopt for CO and CO^
{solid carbon), as compared with those used by Berthelot, the pres-
sures I have computed agree fairly well with those computed by
Berthelot and other authorities.
Table VI. — This, presenting as it does a new method of com-
paring explosives, is independent of the text-books.
Table VII. — Theoretical pressures represent the maximum
amount of work capable of being accomplished under conditions
admitting of the conversion of the total energy into mechanical work.
In practice these conditions never obtain ; and the question arises as
to what percentage of the theoretical energy is capable of actual utili-
zation, and as to whether the factor of efficiency differs for different
explosives.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
405
In Mr. McRoberts' paper, already quoted, a table is given showing
the foot-pounds of work performed by 10 grams of various explosives,
the measurement having been made by observing the recoil of a
mortar suspended by arms 10 feet in length from a rigid framework.
The results thus attained as compared with theoretical values are set
forth in the following table :
Table IX.
Theoretical and Practical Energies.
Foot-pounds per lo grams.
Name of Explosive.
Theoretical— calcu-
lated from heat-
units evolved as per
Table IV.
Practical— as deter
mined by Mr.
McRoberts' mortar-
tests.
Factor of Effect.
Explosive gelatine (^)
48141.I
44509-9
33363-1
31056.4
29096.7
19^57.0
14IO*
1266
920
S8ot
550
44ot
-0293
.0284,
.0276.
Dynamite No. i
Emmensite No. 259
Cellulo-dinitrin
.0283
,0189
.0228
Pebble powder . . .
*This result was given by a blasting-gelatine composed of 92 per cent of
nitroglycerine and 8 per cent of nitro-cotton.
f The compound tested by Mr. McRoberts consisted of 69.43 parts of ammo-
nium nitrate and 30.57 of picric acid.
JThe gunpowder tested by Mr. McRoberts is simply described as "Gun-
powder (for cannon)."
This table shows the very small percentage of total energy that
was utilized by the mortar-tests. It also shows the totally unreliable.
character of the tests. Nobel and Abel have pointed out that the
factor of effect in ordnance rises to upwards of .90 of the total work
that gunpowder is capable of performing. And the fact of McRoberts'
factor of effect being virtually the same for all explosives is an addi-
tional proof of the conditions of his experiments being unsuited to
show the practical power of explosives when better confined — as, for
example, in bore-holes.
§5.
Emmensite.
The history of emmensite is briefly as follows :
In 1871 Dr. Herman Sprengel, F. R. S., patented an invention,
covering the whole ground of explosives prepared at the time of use, or
406 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
just before, by the admixture of an oxidizing with a combustible agent.
,A general description of the explosives thus formed was given by
Dr. Sprengel in a paper published in the Journal of the Chemical
Society (England), August and September, 1873. Among the
suitable mixtures therein indicated were:
1. Chlorate of potash and nitro-benzene (/. e. Rackarock).
2. Nitro-benzene and nitric acid (t. e. Hellhoffiie).
3. Picric acid and nitric acid (i. e, Oxonite).
Somewhere about the same time, a volunteer captain named
Punshon, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, a noted rifle-shot, suggested the
addition of sugar to gun-cotton to moderate the quickness of
explosion, and produced an explosive which he called " cotton-
powder." This formed a good " smokeless powder," and was at first
viewed with such favor that a company was formed to work the
invention, and Punshon made money. Subsequently, the idea of
using cotton-powder for military and sporting purposes was aban-
doned ; barium nitrate was substituted for sugar, and the explosive
was introduced as a blasting agent, under the name of Tonite. It still
exists, and is used to a limited extent — its best known performance
being in the construction of the tunnel under the Mersey between
Birkenhead and Liverpool. Its factory is at Faversham, Kent, where
Mr. George Trench has had the management for many years, and
where at one time the well-known C. A. Faure, of electric fame,
carried out many of his researches in conjunction with Mr. E. Ken-
nard Mitting, now of Chicago.
Captain Punshon's connection with the Cotton Powder Company
having ceased, he came forward with one of the mixtures Dr.
Sprengel had described — viz., picric acid and nitric acid — and intro-
duced it as a new explosive, under the name of Glonoinite. Some
experiments were carried out with this at various places, and finally
Punshon took it to the Cotton Powder Company at Faversham,
where he and Mr. Trench succeeded in prematurely exploding a
cartridge, owing to the nitric acid coming into contact with the mix-
ture of mercuric fulminate and chlorate of potash in the detonator.
The result was that Mr. Trench lost an eye and Punshon was more
or less cut and scratched.
Punshon next conceived (in conjunction with a Mr. Vizer, who is, I
think, the London representative of Gruson, the German manufac-
turer of chi!Ied-iron rolls and iron turrets, etc., lor fortifications) the
idea of filling glass capsules with nitric acid and placing these in
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 4O7
cartridges filled with picric acid, so that when the cartridge thus
prepared was placed in a bore-hole, the glass capsule could be broken
and the mixture of the ingredients effected. This idea, he claimed,
did for the picric-nitric acid explosive what Nobel's employment of
an absorbent did for nitro-glycerine, viz., it rendered the explosive
available for practical use. Thereupon he dubbed the explosive
Oxonite, and introduced it to a dealer in picric acid in London,
named Beckles, as certain to prove the means of greatly extending
the sale of that material. Mr. Beckles had commenced his business
career as my secretary, and when he received Punshon's pro-
posal he consulted me upon the subject. I was of opinion that if
properly handled the explosive would prove successful, and I so
reported. Punshon and Beckles accordingly organized a corpora-
tion under the name of, I think, "The Patent Oxonite Company,
Limited." Vigorous steps were taken to introduce the explosive
into general use ; but an obstacle was soon encountered. The
authorities at the Home Office interfered, and claimed that although
certain substances might be non-explosive per se, and might only
become explosive when mixed together in a bore-hole, yet the act of
admixture was tantamount to a manufacture of an explosive, and
required licensing under the Explosives Acts. It was even gravely
claimed that a separate factory license would be necessary for every
bore-hole ! I never had the pleasure of personally meeting Colonel
Majendie, the chief of H. M. Inspectors of Explosives ; but as I was
professionally consulted by the Oxonite Company with reference to
the correspondence with the Home Office, I had an excellent oppor-
tunity of observing the effect of red tape upon the human mind, and
it seemed to me that the worthy Colonel's condition could be easily
diagnosed — general ossification.
Just at this time the company's agent in America strongly advised
the sending over of an expert familiar with the nature and handling
of the explosive; and I was requested to undertake the mission.
This led to my arrival in this country in February, 18S6, Soon
afterwards I learned that Punshon's tide to sell the oxonite patent to
the company was disputed by a Mr. Anderson, who (though he had
been cognizant of all Punshon's dealings with the company and had
been silent during the sale) suddenly exhibited an assignment signed
by Punshon prior to the sale to the company. The stockholders,
when consulted by the directors, declined to provide funds for
defending the lawsuit instituted by Anderson, and the whole enter-
prise collapsed some months after I had resigned my appointment.
408 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Now it had so happened that during my investigation of oxonite I
had made a careful study of the action of nitric acid on picric acid.
On one occasion I had employed some nitric acid of exceptionally
high specific gravity and had gently warmed the mixture of this with
picric acid for some hours. The mixture was then set aside, and,
owing to an excess of professional work, was forgotten for some
weeks. Finally, my son called my attention to some peculiar crys-
tals that had made their appearance in the liquid, and on examining
these I found them differing markedly from picric acid. I also found
that they made an excellent " combustible " ingredient for explosive
mixtures. Accordingly, when I arrived in this country, I filed an
application at the U. S. Patent Office for a patent in respect of the
new acid and the explosive compounds prepared by its employment.
The examiners were loth to admit the existence of a new acid.
They maintained that the substance I had discovered was an isomeric
form of picric acid, and, as such, not new. Finally, the matter was
submitted to Dr. Henry Wurtz, of New York, who made compara-
tive analyses of my acid and picric acid, and reported thereupon to
the Patent Office, giving a mass of facts and observations that com-
pletely established my discovery ; and I at length was granted
Patent No, 376,145 on January 10, 1888.
The new substance in question is the " Emmens acid" referred to
in Lieutenant Walke's paper already quoted. When carefully pre-
pared it forms fine, transparent, prismatic crystals of a greenish-yellow
color, entirely unlike the flakes in which picric acid occurs. The
new acid also, when dried at a temperature above 100° C, contains
a greater proportion of hydrogen than does picric acid, and yields,
on combustion with oxide of copper, about one-half more water. It,
furthermore, melts at several degrees lower temperature than picric
acid and is less soluble in cold water.
The formula provisionally assigned by Dr. Wurtz to the new acid
is CH2Hi2H6(N02)602H20. The percentage composition, according
to Dr. Wurtz's analysis, and as compared with picric acid, is
Eacid.
Picric acid.
Carbon
31.84
31-44
Hydrogen
2.04
1.31
Nitrogen
17.14
18-34
Oxygen
48.98
48.91
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 4O9
I have not heard of this acid having been formally recognized in
chemical circles ; but it has several times been reported upon by-
chemical experts and has produced some singular mental reactions.
Perhaps the most " eminent hand " employed to investigate the
matter was Professor Ira Remsen of the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore. He reported that my eacid was merely very pure picric
acid, the effect of the treatment with nitric acid having been to make
the picric acid specially pure. When this report was shown me I
opined from its wording that it was a mere hasty, perfunctory per-
formance, and I therefore wrote the Professor, sending him a copy
of Dr. Wurtz's statement to the Patent Office and other information
calculated to induce a reconsideration of his opinion. I received
what I considered an evasive reply, whereupon I applied a lighted
match to the magazine, in the shape of an argumentative criticism as
cool and keen as I could make it, without a single word to imply
that I knew I was treading on sacred ground or that I was addressing
a Cardinal of the Church. A furious explosion followed. I laughed,
and was preparing to complete the correspondence and then publish
it, when I experienced another kind of explosion. My factory and
house, with books, papers and human correspondence expeditiously
disappeared, and by some chance — whether happy or unhappy, I
don't yet know — left me alone with my memories.
Incident upon this a prominent manufacturer of Pittsburgh sub-
mitted the question to Prof. Otto Wuth of that city. He reported
as follows: "At your request, and after reading the letter of Dr.
Emmens addressed to Prof. Remsen, I have made comparative tests
of what you call evic (sic) acid and the chemically pure picric acids
of TrommsdorfFand Merck. The two last named are identically the
same. In regard to their chemical composition, their solubility in
water and alcohol, and their behavior when heated, as suggested by
Dr. Emmens, they are altogether different from your evic acid,
although the reactions for picric acid as given by text and handbooks
are the same. I am positive that your evic acid is not identical with
pure picric acid. There are, as Dr. Emmens says, no pure and
specially pure picric acids." This latter sentence referred to a dis-
tinction thoughtlessly endeavored to be made by Prof Remsen.
Prof Lieut. J. P. Wisser, ist Artillery, of the U. S. Military
Academy, West Point, reported as follows: "The physical tests
alone, which were performed by Dr. Emmens himself at his labora-
tory at Harrison, New York, indicated a difference in the constitution
410 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
of the two bodies emmens acid and picric acid. The chemical tests,
however, have convinced me that the emmens acid is simply picric acid
which has mechanically absorbed some nitric acid. This mechanically
absorbed nitric acid also accounts for the difference in behavior when
melted. The escaping nitric acid causes the effervescence, the brown
fumes and the change of color. In the chemical tests the absorbed
nitric acid also accounts for the slightly higher experimental than
theoretical acidity of the emmens or picric acid. I am, therefore,
of opinion that emmens acid or eacid is picric acid which has
mechanically absorbed, probably in crystallizing, the fumes of nitric
acid or the acid itself."
The German Patent Office, after sundry conflicting suggestions as
to the new acid, finally granted a patent for it.
A London expert (I forget his name) employed by Mr. Anderson
in (unsuccessfully) opposing my application for a British Patent
made a voluminous report to the effect that eacid was only an
impitre form of picric acid.
Prof. G, Miiller, chemist of the Rothweil Powder Works in Ger-
many, reported that eacid was " only a purer picric acid than the
original commercial," and he added, with reference to some practical
trials ofemmensite made at Rothweil," It is probably due to the greater
purity of the picric acid or emmens acid when used to produce the
new explosive that 50 per cent greater power was obtained as com-
pared with such explosive which, for the sake of comparison, was
made with commercial picric acid instead of emmens acid, though
the quantities of material were probably the same."
The suggestion that a little further purification of a fairly pure
article may make a difference of 50 per cent in explosive force is
deliciously human. Indeed, the conflict of authorities above set forth
and the obvious guess-work indulged in are quite instructive. Prof.
Wisser,for example, might surely have definitely ascertained whether
nitric acid was or was not present in the sample ; and Prof. Remsen
might have readily made an analysis and either confirmed or refuted
Dr. Wurtz. And as the latter gentleman, of all the experts, was the
only one who made an analysis of the substance in dispute, I am
justified in adopting his report in preference to vague opinions, and
in regarding eacid as an acid which, until I produced it, had remained
unknown.
I subsequently discovered that instead of treating picric acid with
liquid nitric acid, I could produce what were apparently analogous
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 4II
changes by fusing picric acid with various nitrates. This led me to
further experiments with other bodies, and finally I was able to gen-
eralize, as it were, a new and distinct type of explosives, to which the
denomination Emmensite was given. Two further patents became
necessary to cover the ground thus explored, and these were granted
to me by the U. S. Patent Office on March 4, 1890, their numbers
being 422,514 and 422,515.
In the specification of No. 422,514, the generalization above referred
to and the method of manufacturing emmensite are set forth as
follows :
"The object of my invention is to produce explosive compounds
of a new type.
"Explosives as hitherto prepared may be classed as follows:
" First. Chemical compounds, or bodies in which the combustible
and oxidizing molecules are all in close chemical contact, and are all
rendered simultaneously active when detonation takes place. Nitro-
glycerine, gun-cotton and picric acid are examples of this class.
[The word ' simultaneously' is here to be understood in a compara-
tive sense and not as implying absolute instantaneity.]
"Second. Mechanical aggregations, or bodies in which the com-
bustible and oxidizing molecules are in the close vicinity of each
other without being in chemical contact, and in which, therefore, the
act of combustion is progressive from layer to layer of adjacent
molecules. Gunpowder is an example of this class.
" Third. Detonating mixtures, or bodies in which the combustible
and oxidizing ingredients are mechanically aggregated, but are in
themselves chemical compounds capable of detonation. [The
wording of this sentence is humanly defective. Mea culpa ! I do
not mean that nitrate of potash, for example, is a detonating com-
pound. I mean that the combustible ingredients — i. e., picric acid,
nitro-glycerine, dinitro-benzene, the chloro-nitro bodies, etc. — are
capable of detonation in themselves.] The various picric powders,
many dynamites, the roburites and the bellites are of this class.
"If, now, a chemically-compounded detonating combustible
ingredient be brought into chemical contact with a chemically-com-
pounded oxidizing ingredient, we shall have a fourth type of explo-
sive bodies — that is to say, a che^nical aggregation as distinguished
from a chemical compound, or from a mere mixhire, whether simple
or detonating. This fourth type, I have discovered, can be formed
by operating under certain conditions upon certain materials.
412 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANXE MATERIAL.
" The materials I employ are such hydrocarbon substitution
derivatives as are capable of fusion by heat without decomposition,
and as are also capable, when fused, of dissolving the nitrates of soda,
potash and ammonia, which are the preferred oxidants. The most
suitable hydrocarbons for the purpose, so far as I have discovered,
are the trinitro-phenols, the trinitro-cresols, and (if the working
temperatures do not exceed 120° C.) the new acid patented to me
January 10, 1888 (United States Patent No. 376,145).
" The conditions under which the new type of explosive is pro-
duced consist in the employment of a sufficient degree of heat and
in continuing this heat until actual liquefaction of the mixture is
attained.
" The manner in which I carry out my new process of manufac-
turing explosives is as follows : I take two open vessels, both heated
by steam-jackets or by any other convenient method to the same
temperature. In one of these I place the trinitro-phenol or other
combustible, and in the other I place the nitrate of soda or other
oxidant in a finely-pulverized and dried condition. When the com-
bustible is entirely fused, I add thereto the heated oxidant in small
quantities at a time, and I stir the mixture thoroughly. I then
gently raise the heat until the oxidant becomes fully liquefied, or so
combined with the combustible as to form a semi-fluid homogeneous
mass. The mixture is then removed from the vessel and allowed to
cool for use.
" Having thus described the said improvement, I claim as my
invention and desire to patent under this specification —
" The process of manufacturing explosives consisting in fusing a
suitable hydrocarbon substitution derivative, as trinitro-phenol,
adding thereto a suitable alkaline nitrate, as nitrate of soda, continu-
ing a sufficient degree of heat until actual liquefaction of the mixture
is attained, and then allowing the same to cool, substantially as here-
inbefore specified."
Patent No. 422,515 applies to but one group of the new type
("emmensite") of explosives, viz., to the group in which eacid is
used as the chief combustible ingredient. Its nature and scope will
be sufficiendy indicated by the following extract from the specifica-
tion :
" The object of the present invention is the production of an im-
proved type or class of detonating explosive compounds having as a
base or main element the new crystalline acid compound, or 'crystal-
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 4I3
line acid,' as it is hereinafter termed, crystallized from the liquid
product of the action of heated fuming nitric acid on picric acid in
excess, set forth in my specification forming- part of said United
States Letters Patent No. 376,145. I have discovered that by fusing
the said new crystalline acid, and by adding to such fused acid a
nitrate or nitrates of the alkalies or alkaline earths, powerful ex-
plosives of great technical utility and value may be formed. If,
however, the operation be incautiously conducted, and the tempera-
ture be allowed to rise above fusion point, a chemical decomposition
of the acid takes place, and there is a considerable loss of nitrous
gas, thereby lessening the explosive power of the substance. It,
therefore, becomes a matter of importance to lower the fusion-point,
and this, I have discovered, can be effected by an admixture of allied
nitro-hydrocarbons with the said new crystalline acid. The bodies
that I have found most suitable for this purpose are trinitro-cresylic
acid, dinitroxylene, dinitro-naphthalene, dinitro-benzene, and such
samples of the so-called ' picric acid ' of commerce as begin to fuse
at a temperature of 116° C. or under. The substances here named
are practically the equivalents of each other— that is to say, they all
form with the said new acid admixtures having a fusion tempera-
ture lower than 116° C, and capable of explosion when incorporated
with nitrates of the alkalies or alkaline earths."
In practice I have found that the whole field of technical require-
ments may be sufficiently covered by the employment, in different
combinations and quantities, of the following six ingredients, viz.,
commercial picric acid, dinitro-benzene, sodium nitrate, ammonium
nitrate, flour and charcoal. It is not necessary (except on rare
occasions, where an exceptional grade of strength is required) to
incur the expense of manufacturing eacid by the action of fuming
nitric acid upon picric acid ; although, as a matter of fact, it would
be difficult to prepare any grade of emmensite without eacid — seeing
that the very fusion of picric acid with a nitrate produces that sub-
stance. Chemists of the cardinal order will open their eyes at this
statement, and will, if kind-hearted and not quite ossified, gently
shrug their shoulders; but even the chemical Pope himself, whoever
he may be, if he were to stand beside one of my emmensite kettles
in full operation, would notice changes and fumes and odors (these
distincdy redolent oi homology) suggestive of there being more things
in heaven and earth than had been dreamt of in his philosophy.
Picric acid requires special handling. I have never yet had two
414 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
samples exactly alike; not even when I have purchased "chemically-
pure " acid. It appears to vary with the carbolic acid from which it
is prepared. It occurs in commerce in two forms, viz., as "crystals"
and as " paste." The crystalline form is usually fairly pure ; but I
find it necessary to subject it to a special treatment by which it is
divided into what, in our factory, we know as "fraction A" and
" fraction B " — the former being used for emmensite and the latter
for gelbite. Fraction A may be fused and mixed without practical
danger, but I " hae ma doots " of fraction B. As for " picric paste "
let every one beware of adulteration. The sample that exploded at
Harrison, and, by destroying my human archives, put off the dies
IRAl I had looked forward to, was wofully bad. It had been bought
of Read, HoUiday & Sons, and, after setting our mixing house on
fire, had been discovered to contain some 25 per cent of salt and
had been condemned as unsafe. Yet there is. of course, no reason
why " picric paste " should not be as good an article for explosive-
making as picric acid crystals. It is the first form in which the
picric acid is separated, and consists of crystals microscopically
minute. These are washed and recrystallized, and then form ordi-
nary picric acid.
The possible grades of emmensite are, of course, without number.
The highest. No. i, is composed of eacid and nitrate of ammonia,
and its products are therefore entirely gaseous. But this is rarely
required. In practice I find it sufficient to make only three grades,
viz.. No. 35 (picric acid, with sodium nitrate and ammonium nitrate)
for ordinary blasting purposes, No. 259 (picric acid and dinitro-
benzene, with sodium nitrate and ammonium nitrate) for naval and
military use, and No. 5 (picric acid, sodium nitrate, and charcoal or
flour) as a substitute for gunpowder in fire-arms and ordnance.
The characteristics of emmensite are now widely known and need
not be dwelt upon here at any length. It will be sufficient to say
that the various grades are distinguished by non-explosibility when
subjected to concussion or ignition, by great chemical stability, by a
high degree of explosive power, and by extreme safety and sim-
plicity of manufacture and immunity from danger in transport and
storage. There is, indeed, no practical absurdity in the suggestion
that the manufacture of emmensite could be carried out on board of
a man-of-war — so that the stock of high explosives for shells and
torpedoes might be normally in the state of harmless raw materials
capable of being rapidly and safely converted jnto explosive mixtures
whenever required.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 415
The power of emmensile varies with the composition and factor of
effect of each grade. A sample in which the oxidant was principally
ammonium nitrate was tested at Willet's Point early in 1890, and
was found to develop an intensity of action amounting to 11 1 as
against 100 for dynamite No. i, 87 for gun-cotton, and 117 for
explosive gelatine. These experiments were, I understand, carried
out by means of General Abbot's ring apparatus, and the above-
quoted results were those corresponding to the effects produced
upon the crusher-gauges in a horizontal direction under water.
They correspond closely with the results of Vimmette tests by Prof.
H. J. Williams of the St. Louis Sampling and Testing Works, and
Mr. Eben E. Olcott, M. E., at the Emmensite Company's factory in
November, 1889, on which occasion, by-the-bye, Prof. Williams
stoutly contested the accuracy of the provisional formula suggested
by Dr. Wurtz for eacid, though he finally admitted that he did not
regard the determination of the precise theoretical formation of
eacid as being essential to the investigation of emmensite or to the
validity of the eacid patent. The point is, of course, of no real
importance; and I mention it because it illustrates the tendency to
mere pedantry which leads so many "experts" (even in the cases
of men of real and deserved eminence like Prof. Ira Remsen) to
concentrate their attention on the esoteric subtleties of science rather
than on the practical phases of the subjects they investigate. They
seem to think that their clients will have no confidence in them if
they do not "talk shop"; just as many a physician feels compelled
to administer a succession of nauseous doses in order to induce a
respectful appreciation of his ability to cure — or kill.
To the readers of these Proceedings the chief interest possessed by
emmensite must lie in the question of whether it does or does not
constitute a solution of a problem of vital importance — i. e., whether
any high explosive exists which in addition to being available for
torpedo work can also be safely employed as a charge for shells fired
from high-powered guns.
Commodore Folger of the Naval Bureau of Ordnance— ya^zY^
princeps — has long taken a leading part in the investigation of
modern explosives and their adaptability to the requirements of
warfare. His experiments with dynamite at the Annapolis Naval
Proving Ground some years ago threw much light upon the sub-
ject ; and within the past year the painstaking and ably-devised
tests he has caused to be made of emmensite at both Newport and
4l6 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Annapolis have paved the way to its final elucidation. I do not
deem myself at liberty to make public any such details of the tests
as may have come to my knowledge ; but I will quote the following
from Commodore Folger's printed report to the Secretary of the
Navy, made in October last :
"During the year the Bureau has had numerous experiments
carried on simultaneously at the Torpedo Station and at the Naval
Ordnance Proving Ground with emmensite, a high explosive invented
by Prof. S. H. Emmens.
"The reports from both stations have shown that this material has
an explosive force about equal to that of gun-cotton. It is insensi-
tive to friction and impact of projectiles, and only locally ignited by
flame, the combustion ceasing when the flame is removed. It is
practically unaflected by large changes of temperature, is uninjured
by freezing and thawing, and loses but little strength, even after
repeated saturations with water and drying. It is capa ble of explosion
by a gunpowder fuse when strongly confined, giving an explosion
which approaches detonation.
"A high explosive which can be detonated without the use of
fulminate would be peculiarly valuable for ordnance purposes, and
the Bureau will therefore continue the experimental investigation and
trial of emmensite."
In addition to these statements, some public notices have appeared
announcing the fact that at the Naval Ordnance Proving Ground
shells charged with emmensite have been successfully fired through
steel plates, and exploded in the rear of the plates. It is also under-
stood that a rifled mortar is now being completed at the Washington
Navy Yard, with which shells containing very large charges of
emmensite will be fired during the coming summer.
In October last a test of emmensite was made by the Board of
Ordnance and Fortification at Fort Hamilton, New York harbor.
It consisted in charging shells with emmensite, burying them some
6 feet underground, and then firing them — the object being to
determine the explosive effect of the powder by measuring the
crater formed. Three shells were fired, producing craters of about
9 feet diameter. I am informed that these trials will be followed by
a test of emmensite in shells fired from high-power guns at Sandy
Hook.
In the summer of last year, with the sanction of General Ben6t,
the then Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A., an interesting series of experi-
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 417
ments was carried out on the grounds of the Emmensite Co., near
New Stanton, Westmoreland Co., Pa., by Major G. W. McKee,
Ordnance Department, U. S. A., who was then commandant of the
Allegheny Arsenal, Pittsburgh. Two guns were employed, one a
muzzle-loading brass James rifle of 3.8 inches caliber, and the other
a 20-pdr. Parrott; while the shells were cast-iron relics ("James" and
"Parrott") of the late war-time. The range was 1050 feet, and the
target a rocky bluff on the side of the Big Sewickley Creek. The
following is a record of the experiments :
1. Two wooden chambers were built, each 8 feet square and 6
feet high. In one of these a James 3.8-inch shell was placed with its
base on a board on the ground. The shell was charged with mortar
powder, and was primed with an electric "Victor " fuse containing
15 grains of mercuric fulminate. In the other chamber a similar
shell, similarly primed, was placed, but the bursting charge was
emmensite No. 259. The shells were then exploded by an electric
current, and the number of hits observable on the interior of the
walls and roofs of the chambers was counted. In the chamber where
stood the gunpowder-charged shell we found 35 hits, of which 13
were complete perforations of the boards. In the case of the
emmensite shell, the hits were so numerous that we counted them
merely on one wall. They amounted to 142, of which 90 were com-
plete perforations. The four walls and the roof were riddled with
tolerable uniformity, so that the total number of hits may be taken
as 700, against 35 for the gunpowder shell. We collected as many
of the fragments of each shell as we could, and the difference was
very marked. The gunpowder-shell fragments were large, and the
fractured surfaces of ordinary appearance. The emmensite-shell
fragments were small — ranging mostly from the size of a rifle-bullet
to that of a pea — and the fractured surfaces presented much the same
disintegrated appearance that characterizes the interior of the lead
mushroom on the line of shock as shown in Plates Nos. 3 and 4.
Hence it would seem that a projectile having a cavity of say i inch
diameter, and charged with emmensite, would form an excellent sub-
stitute for shrapnel, especially if the cavity were of hexagonal or
octagonal section, and if the outer surface of the projectile were hori-
zontally grooved — so as to produce a comparative uniformity of
fracture.
2. Three rounds were fired from the Parrott gun, to test the range
and the fuses — these latter (ordinary Parrott percussion) and their
41 8 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
caps being ancient, though the powder priming had been renewed.
One only of the three shells burst. A second shell, when recovered,
was found to be cracked longitudinally and to have the nose of its
fuse much crushed. The third shell was in a sufficiently uninjured
condition to allow of the fuse being opened. It then appeared that
the cap had been heavily struck, but the fulminate had not exploded.
3. A round was fired from the James rifle to test whether
emmensite would by itself stand the shock of firing. No attempt
was made to cushion the charge (which consisted of ^i oz. of
emmensite No. 259) ; and no transverse diaphragms were employed
to avoid friction from rotation. The charge was simply rammed in
with a loading stick, and no fuse was inserted, the nozzle of the shell
being closed with an ordinary fuse-plug. The gun was loaded with
I J pounds of cannon-powder. When fired the shell was seen to
strike the hillside to the right of the wooden target aimed at. No
explosion took place.
4. A similar experiment was tried with the 20-pdr. Parrott gun.
The shell contained i lb. 3 oz. of emmensite No. 259 and was not
fused. The firing charge was 2 lbs. of cannon-powder. When fired
the shell struck the target fairly, passing end-on through the wood,
then through the stump of a tree, then through about one foot of
earth, and finally struck the solid rock. It was found broken to
pieces, but no explosion took place, and portions of the charge were
found adhering to the fragments. The ability of emmensite to
resist the shock of firing and concussion on impact was thus clearly
established.
5. A round similar to the preceding was fired, with a similar
result.
6. Emmensite-charged shells were fired from the James and Parrott
guns. They were this time fitted with fuses — the James shell having
an ordinary Hotchkiss percussion fuse, and the Parrott shell having
an ordinary Parrott percussion fuse ; both fuses having a gunpowder
priming. In both cases the shell passed end-on through the target,
and struck the solid rock behind without exploding.
7. We now desired to explode the shell on striking, and for this
purpose I recommended the use of an ordinary detonator, such as is
employed in everyday blasting. It was doubtful whether this would
stand the shock of firing, so Major McKee decided to partly fill a shell
with sand and then put in a small quantity of gunpowder with the
detonator. By this means we should know if the detonator exploded,
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 4I9
as the shell would just break up in the gun without danger. In trying
•this experiment we plugged the detonator with gelbite and wrapped
it in one thickness of paraffined paper with the top open. It was
then put loosely in amongst the powder, and the nose of the shell (a
Parrott 20-pdr,) was plugged with a screw top. On firing, the shell
missed the target and struck the hillside without explosion.
8. A similar round was fired, but a complete Parrott percussion
fuse was used in addition to the detonator in the powder. The shell
passed end-on through the target into the hillside without explosion.
9. The plunger of a Parrott fuse was removed and replaced by a
brass tube containing a detonator plugged with gelbite and fitted
snugly to the tube by means of a wrapping of paraffined paper. On
firing the shell passed through the target into the hillside without
any explosion.
10. The 3.8-inch James shell used in experiment No. 6 having
been recovered intact, it was resolved to break it open and ascertain
whether the Hotchkiss fuse had acted or not. The shell was accord-
ingly placed on the ground and an 8-ounce cartridge of emmensite
was laid longitudinally upon it, covered with pieces of rock, and
exploded. This cracked the shell. Another cartridge (6-oz.) was
exploded on it in like manner and cracked the shell still further.
A third cartridge (6-oz.) broke it up. The charge of emmensite
inside the shell was found intact, and on examination the leaden
plug at the base of the fuse was found to be absent — the inference
being that the fuse had acted but had neither ignited nor exploded
the charge of emmensite. Moreover, as the breaking open of the
shell by the tremendous concussions of three cartridges of emmensite
had not exploded the charge, it became evident that we were dealing
with an exceptionally safe high-explosive. Incidentally, also, it
showed the splendid character of the cast-iron used in the old James
shells.
11. Five Parrott (20-pdr.) shells were charged with emmensite
No. 259 and were fused as follows :
No. I. — A regulation Springfield cartridge, loaded, buUeted
and primed, was fitted as a plunger in a Parrott percussion
fuse-tube.
No. 2. — A 32-caliber pistol cartridge-shell filled with emmensite
was fitted in the front end of a hollow lead plunger in a Parrott
fuse-tube ; the nose-plug of the fuse having a pointed screw-
head in its base to explode the primer of the cartridge-shell.
420 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
and the lead plunger extending backward sufficiently to allow
of a forward movement on impact without being withdrawn
entirely from the bursting charge of the shell. The cavity of
the plunger was filled with emmensite.
No. 3. — A fuse similar to the preceding, but having the cart-
ridge-shell filled with gelbite and having in the cavity of the
plunger a detonator plugged with gelbite and fitted to the
cavity by a wrapping of paraffined paper.
No. 4. — Similar to No. 3.
No. 5.— Ditto.
The five shells were then fired from the Parrott rifle, in the
above order, with a firing charge of two pounds of cannon
powder.
Results : —
Round No. i. — The shell exploded on impact, being broken
into large fragments.
Rounds Nos. 2 and 3. — No explosion on impact. On the shells
being recovered and opened it was found that the rear por-
tions of the lead plungers had been torn off and that the
primers of the cartridges had not exploded, although struck.
Presumably the pointed screw-heads in the bases of the nose-
plugs had not been sharp enough to fire the primers. The
detonators were fo.und intact.
Round No. 4. — A fair explosion on impact. The shell was
found broken into large fragments and not much scattered —
similar to what occurred in Round No. i.
Round No. 5. — No explosion was observed on impact — the
shell striking soft earth ; but on digging down about four feet,
a handful of comminuted shell fragments was recovered. Pre-
sumably the emmensite had exploded, for the underlying rock
in the vicinity of the fragments was found quite pulverized.
12. The lead plunger-tubes in the preceding experiments were
closed at their rear ends, and it was thought probable that this
casing of lead had cushioned the shock of the detonator in Round 4,
and so had prevented a full explosion of the charge. To test this,
in the shell recovered from Round 3 there was placed, after removal
of the fuse, a detonator with a piece of ordinary safety-fuse attached.
The shell was then placed under some rocks and the fuse ignited.
Presently a terrific explosion took place, the shell was pulverized and
the rocks were broken and scattered in every direction. Another
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 421
shell was then filled with emmensite, and in this was placed a hollow
lead plunger (similar to those used in Rounds 2 to 5) containing
a detonator with a piece of safety-fijse attached. On firing, the
detonator alone exploded and simply ignited the emmensite, which
burned away harmlessly.
13. A detonator was placed in a hollow lead plunger and fired.
It tore the plunger into small fi-agments.
14. In a cartridge of emmensite No. 259 was placed a hollow lead
plunger containing a detonator. On firing the latter the plunger
was torn into small pieces without exploding the emmensite.
15. A Parrott shell was charged with emmensite and primed with
a gelbite fuse (i. e. a Parrott fuse-tube having a hollow plunger with
a 32-caliber pistol cartridge-shell plugged with gelbite at its forward
end, and having the nose-plug of the fuse fitted with a blunt-pointed
internal screw-head) holding a detonator — the rear of the plunger
being cut off so as to allow contact between the base of the detonator
and the emmensite. No explosion took place on impact. The shell
was recovered whole, and on the fuse being removed the primer of
the cartridge-shell was found to have been struck. The cartridge-
shell was still full of gelbite and the detonator was intact. The
cartridge-shell was then taken out, emptied of its gelbite and heated.
The primer exploded sharply, thus proving that the blow on impact
had been insufficient ; owing, presumably, to the head of the striker
being too blunt.
16. A Parrott shell was charged with emmensite and primed with
a gelbite fuse — a detonator being placed in the charge behind the
fuse. On impact, a complete explosion took place, large fragments of
rock being hurled high into the air, some pieces of either rock or
shell falling to the ground in rear of the firing platform — i. e. some
400 yards in front of the target.
17. A Parrott shell was charged with emmensite and primed with
an ordinary Parrott fuse, a detonator being placed in the emmensite
behind the fuse. On impact a complete explosion took place similar
to that in experiment 16.
18. A Parrott shell was charged with emmensite and primed with
an emmensite fuse — i.e. a Parrott fuse-tube with hollow plunger open
in the rear, and fitted in front with a 32-caliber pistol cartridge-shell,
both the cartridge-shell and plunger being filled with emmensite.
No detonator was used, and care was taken to have a sharp striker.
On firing, a good burst was observed on impact ; the explosion
422 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
being severe, but not quite of the first order. Three fragments of
shell were found, one of which had some unexploded emmensite
adhering to it. A distinctly delayed action was noticed.
19. A Parrott shell was charged with mortar-powder and primed
with a Parrott fuse fitted with a new musket-cap, the intention being to
compare a gunpowder burst with the fine results of experiments Nos.
16 and 17. No burst, however, took place, as the shell struck a soft
place on the hillside. It was recovered and opened, when the cap
was found loose on the nipple of the fuse. The fulminate had been
shaken out and was lying loose in the fuse cavity. That it was really
the fulminate was proved by collecting it and then detonating it by
ignition.
20. Four Parrott 20-pdr. shells were respectively charged with
a. 24 ounces of dynamite (50 per cent nitro-glycerine and dope of
sodium nitrate and wood-pulp).
b. 19 ounces of emmensite No. 259.
c. About 6 ounces of gelbite.
d. About 15 ounces of mortar-powder.
Each of these shells was placed in a hole 24 inches deep in soft
ground — the gelbite shell, however, being 30 inches deep. Each
shell was also primed with a Victor electric fuse (double strength)
containing 18 grains of fulminate, and was plugged with a time-fuse
socket. The four shells were fired simultaneously by means of an
electric current.
Result. — The gunpowder-charged shell made a crater about 8 inches
deep (much of the earth having fallen back) and somewhat elliptical,
measuring 60 inches across one way and 64 inches the other. This
compares fairly well with the Walsrode experiment recorded on page
573 of Vol. XII. of these Proceedings, in which a 15-cm. (6 inches)
shell charged with 2100 grams (4.63 pounds) of ordinary cannon
powder was buried i metre (say 39 inches) in light earth, and pro-
duced a crater 50 cm. (19.68 inches) deep, and of elliptical dimen-
sions, 2 m. (say 78 inches) by ij m. (say 60 inches).
The gelbite shell made a crater somewhat deeper but somewhat less
in area than the preceding, but some of the gelbite was found unex-
ploded.
The dynamite shell made a crater of circular area, 66 inches in
diameter and 25 inches deep. In this case the hole had been nearly
full of water, thus giving the dynamite the advantage of tamping;
the other shells having been in open holes.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 423
The emmensite shell made a crater slightly elliptical, 76 and 84
inches across and 25 inches deep. This compares favorably with
the Walsrode experiments above referred to, in which a 15-cm. (6
inches) shell filled with granulated gun-cotton, and buried i m. (39
inches) deep in light ground, made a crater 60 cm. (24 inches) deep
and 2 m. (78 inches) in diameter.
The conclusion deducible from this experiment is that, weight for
weight, a bursting charge of emmensite will be much more effective
against earthworks than either gunpowder, gun-cotton or dynamite.
21. Eleven shells were fired from the 20-pdr. Parrott rifle. These
were a different parcel from those previously fired, having been sent
on from another arsenal. The results were as follows :
Round No. i. — Firing charge, 2 pounds of mortar powder.
Bursting charge, 15 ounces of mortar powder.
Gelbite fuse, nipple type, i. e., cap on nipple instead of pistol
cartridge-shell.
The shell either broke up in the gun without explosion or broke
up on leaving the muzzle. A fragment was picked up show-
ing the impression of the lands and grooves of the gun (which
should have been observable only on the sabot), and showing
the thickness of metal to be unequal at different parts of the
wall. A comparison of the fragment in question with a frag-
ment of one of the shells previously fired showed a diminu-
tion of thickness of nearly -^ inch. This fact, taken in con-
nection with the rifling marks, made it probable that under
the stress of a firing charge of two pounds of somewhat
brisant powder the shell became slightly upset and finally
broke up on leaving the muzzle, being projected in fragments
without explosion.
Round No. 2. — Firing charge, 2 lbs. of mortar powder. Burst-
ing charge, 19 oz. of emmensite No. 259. Fuse, gelbite type,
but primed with emmensite No. 35. A good burst was
observed on the shell striking the rock.
Round No. 3. — Firing charge, 2 lbs. of mortar powder. Burst-
ing charge, 19 oz. of emmensite No. 259. Fuse, Parrott holder
with Springfield cartridge charged with emmensite No. 35.
The shell broke up in the gun without explosion. No fragment
was recovered.
Rounds Nos. 4 to 7. — These were fired empty to test the shells
per se, three being merely plugged and the fourth having a
gelbite fuse and detonator.
424i EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Results. — The first shell struck the hillside and there appeared
to break up. The second shell presumably broke up in the
gun, as no strike was observed on the hillside, and the sound
of the discharge was similar to that observed on the previous
two occasions of a shell breaking in the gun. The third shell
struck the hillside, and on the following day was recovered
intact, except that the plug had been forced inside. The
fourth shell (z. e., with the gelbite fuse and detonator) struck
the hillside and there sharply exploded. It thus became
evident that the breaking up was not due either to the bursting
charge or the fuse, but was solely attributable to the shells
themselves being of variable strength.
Round No. 8. — Firing charge, li lbs. of mortar powder.
Bursting charge, 19 oz. of emmensite No. 259. Gelbite fuse
with detonator.
No burst. The shell was recovered intact the next day, and on
being opened the Parrott fuse-holder was found to have
broken off at the internal shoulder, thus allowing the rear
portion and the plunger to fall back and become inoperative.
The deto7iaior in the plunger was found unexploded, although
its copper tube above the fulminate was broken, bent and
twisted into a spiral. This is a striking example of the pro-
tection afforded to the detonator by the construction of the
fuse. The incident also shows that the holder ought to be of
some material tougher than Babbitt metal.
Round No. 9. — A repetition of No. 8. A good burst on impact.
Round No. 10. — A repetition of Nos. 8 and 9. The shell struck
the hillside, but no burst was observed. Presumably the fuse-
holder broke up, as in No. 8.
Round No. 11. — Firing charge, 2 lbs. of mortar powder.
Bursting charge, 19 oz. of emmensite No. 259. Gelbite fuse
nipple variety, with detonator.
The shell passed cleanly through a wooden screen, was deflected
downward, ricocheted from the ground, and appeared to
burst on striking the hillside.
22. A Parrott shell charged with emmensite No. 259, and having
a gelbite fuse charged with emmensite No. 35, was fired, and struck
the hillside without exploding.
23. A Parrott shell charged with gelbite and having a gelbite
fuse with detonator was fired, and broke up. A large quantity of the
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 425
gelbite, unconsumed, was picked up from the ground for some
distance in front of the gun. In view of the quick inflammability of
this substance it seems certain that it could not have been exposed
to the flash of the firing charge. Hence it seems equally certain
that the shell broke apart on leaving the muzzle, having been previ-
ously upset a little in the gun.
The available supply of shells was now exhausted and the con-
tinuation of the experiments was adjourned for the season.
The results of the experiments may be thus summarized :
1. The total number of emmensite-charged shells fired was 26.
The total number of shells fired with a gelbite fuse was 18. The
total number of shells fired with detonators inside was 18.
2. No premahire explosion ever took place ; for although four
shells (gunpowder, emmensite, gelbite, and empty, respectively)
broke up in the gun, or on leaving the muzzle, the charges were
not exploded.
3. It would seem, therefore, that the safety of emmensite as a
bursting charge, and of gelbite fuses and detonators as igniters, is
firmly established,
4. Round No. i, of Experiment No. 11, in which a loaded Spring-
field cartridge was adopted as the plunger of the fuse, showed the
possibility of securing a good burst by means of a non-detonating
fuse — barring the broth of a bhoy in the shape of the little primer in
the base of the cartridge. This bears out the view, before quoted,
advanced by Commodore Folger in his report to the Secretary of
the Navy ; and if, on further experiment, it be found that an explo-
sion of the first order can be secured without the use of a consider-
able amount of fulminate, emmensite will have solved yet another
problem. But even if a good dose of fulminate remain necessary,
the problem is not insuperable. Commodore Folger has himself
designed a most ingenious fuse which will probably " fill the bill ";
and the performance of my gelbite fuse in the above-recorded
experiments was satisfactory enough for percussion purposes, while
a simple modification renders it available for time-firing, and both
the percussion and time forms can be readily adapted to the base of
a shell.
In concluding the subject of emmensite it is desirable to say a few
words respecting its relations to melinite.
In Sir Frederick Abel's address to the British Association last
year he made extended mention of melinite. His statements may
be thus condensed :
426 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
1. The precise nature of melinite is still known only to the French-
authorities.
2. It is asserted to be a mixture of picric acid with some material
imparting to it greater power.
3. Accounts of accidents in the handling of shells charged with
melinite appear to show that in point of safety or stability melinite
is decidedly inferior to simple picric acid.
4. Picric acid has been made the subject of experiment by the
British military authorities, and its position has been well established
as a thoroughly stable explosive agent, easily manufactured, com-
paratively safe to deal with, and very destructive when the conditions
essential for its detonation are complied with.
5. The supposition that melinite contains picric acid is based upon
the large purchases of picric acid by the French government.
To these statements by Sir Frederick Abel I will add the following
remarks :
1. The French authorities have also purchased large supplies of
sulphuric ether ; and it is therefore supposed that melinite contains-
some form of nitro-cellulose in addition to picric acid.
2. It is supposed that the presence of some unstable form of gun-
cotton has occasioned the accidents that have occurred with melinite..
3. It is understood that the French shells are charged partly with
cresilite and partly with melinite ; and that cresilite is a compound
of one or more of the nitro-cresylic acids.
4. A French naval officer (a Captain Davin, if I remember aright)
was sent by his government to New York in the latter part of 1887
to enquire into explosives, etc. He called upon me, and I showed
him emmensite and gave him a sample of eacid. I have been since
informed that he made a report thereupon to the French govern-
ment, and that shordy afterwards the authorities made a change in.
the " picric acid " they were using.
5. The inventor of melinite is, admittedly, M. Eugene Turpin.
His French patent. No. 167,512, bears date February 7, 1885, and
claims the use of " picric acid alone, without the addition of any
oxidant," for civil and military purposes. Hence, if Sir F. Abel be
correct in stating that melinite is " a mixture of picric acid with some
material imparting to it greater power," it follows that melinite is
something different from that patented by M. Turpin.
It will be seen from the foregoing that the question of melinite still
remains pretty much in the dark. As a matter oimference, though,.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 42/
it seems to me probable that the present form of melinite is neither
more nor less than emmensite ; its picric acid component, however,
being in the form of eacid prepared ad hoc, instead of in the fraction-
ated form I now employ. I base this inference upon three premises,
viz., first, Captain Davin's visit tome; secondly, the subsequent alter-
ation in the picric acid used for melinite ; and thirdly, the occurrence
of the Belfort and other accidents, which must have led to a change
in the composition of the explosive. I may add to these premises
the absence, of late, of newspaper stories as to the undesirable char-
acter of the gases from exploded melinite, and the consequent prob-
ability that the picric acid is now compounded with an oxidant, and
thus no longer pours forth a poisonous torrent of carbonic oxide.
In saying this I am not foolish enough, or, I hope, illnatured
enough to wish to detract from the credit justly due to M. Turpin.
That gendeman for some twenty years has labored in the field of ex-
plosives and has done good work. I had the pleasure of making his
personal acquaintance in, I think, 1883, when the British Home Office
authorities interfered to prevent his introduction of panclastite in
much the same manner and with the same legal disregard of common-
sense that was afterwards displayed in the case of oxonite. Panclas-
tite was a "Sprengel" mixture of liquid peroxide of nitrogen with
combustible bodies, and was intended to provide an explosive capable
of being kept in the form of two non-explosive ingredients that could
be rapidly mixed together at the place of use. M. Turpin came to
me to make a supply of peroxide for him ; but my friend and col-
league, Mr. E. Kennard Mitting, having been nearly killed in the
operation, and the British Government, in the person of Colonel
Majendie, having declared that a factory license would be required
for every bore-hole — poor M. Turpin being actually arrested for
landing at Dover with some materials for panclastite — the matter fell
through. M. Turpin then turned his attention to picric acid, and the
stone that the builders rejected became the head of the corner. His
melinite success was well deserved.
It was due to M. Turpin that I should make this explanation. It
is also due to him that I should say a few words upon a matter of
very great importance to all artillerists. I allude to the problem
attacked in the experiments of both Commodore Folger and Major
McKee with emmensite — viz. the possibility of obtaining an explo-
sion of the first order with a fuse having no fulminating detonator.
In January, 1886, a " Certificat d" addition^ ^ was granted by the
428 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
French Patent Office to M. Turpin, in respect of a supplement to his
original patent No. 167,512. In the specification annexed to this
certificate, certain statements are made which, coming from M.
Turpin, deserve attention, but which, so far as I have noticed, have
not yet been published. These statements are as follows:
"I have discovered that the use of fulminate may be dispensed
with in producing explosions of the first order from high explosives,
such as picric acid, gun-cotton, dynamite both gelatinized and of
other grades, and nitro-glycerine. Numerous experiments have shown
me that all explosive powders when simply ignited are able to pro-
duce this phenomenon without fulminate, if enclosed in an envelop
sufficiently resisting to produce by its rupture a pressure or shock
equal in violence to that of fulminate. It is, however, essential that
the powder shall itself be capable of an explosion of the second
order, or of detonation by ignition in a closed vessel.
"The quantity of explosive thus designed to serve as a detonator
must be greater in proportion to the slowness of the powder. So also
as to the envelop, which must be more resisting in like proportion.
Twenty grams of chlorate powder of my composition enclosed in an
envelop of moderate strength suffice to detonate, in a closed vessel, a
charge of fused picric acid ; the powder being simply ignited by a fuse
without the intervention of a supplementary detonator of fulminate.
"The accompanying drawing (Plate XII) shows a special arrange-
ment adapted for shells.
" In the chamber D of the obturator B is placed the powder,
which may be chlorated or simple sporting gunpowder, but as quick-
burning as possible. It is ignited merely by the flame of an ordinary
fuse, and by its combustion causes the explosive bursting of the
envelop, and this in its turn causes an explosion of the first order
of the charge. The same arrangement may be employed to bring
about the explosion of the charge in the shell, by means of powdered
picric acid; but in this case the fuse must be provided with a fulmi-
nate detonator, as picric acid gives no explosion of the second order;
that is to say, it is not explosible by flame alone, as is the case with
ordinary gunpowder. The obturator must be of strong but brittle
metal, such as cast iron or steel.
" The importance of this discovery will at once be obvious if atten-
tion be given to the inconveniences attendant upon enclosing in a
shell a strong detonator of fulminate, which may be caused to ex-
plode by the mere shock of firing, and may thus cause the gun to
burst."
i^t g
\:^C!taV!]
L
428 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
French Patent Office to M. Turpin, in respect of a supplement to his
original patent No. 167,512. In the specification annexed to this
certificate, certain statements are made which, coming fi-om M.
Turpin, deserve attention, but which, so far as I have noticed, have
not yet been published. These statements are as follows:
"I have discovered that the use of fulminate may be dispensed
with in producing explosions of the first order from high explosives,
such as picric acid, gun-cotton, dynamite both gelatinized and of
other grades, and nitro-glycerine. Numerous experiments have shown
me that all explosive powders when simply ignited are able to pro-
duce this phenomenon without fulminate, if enclosed in an envelop
sufficiently resisting to produce by its rupture a pressure or shock
equal in violence to that of fulminate. It is, however, essential that
the powder shall itself be capable of an explosion of the second
order, or of detonation by ignition in a closed vessel.
"The quantity of explosive thus designed to serve as a detonator
must be greater in proportion to the slowness of the powder. So also
as to the envelop, which must be more resisting in like proportion.
Twenty grams of chlorate powder of my composition enclosed in an
envelop of moderate strength suffice to detonate, in a closed vessel, a
charge of fused picric acid ; the powder being simply ignited by a fuse
without the intervention of a supplementary detonator of fulminate.
"The accompanying drawing (Plate XII) shows a special arrange-
ment adapted for shells.
" In the chamber D of the obturator B is placed the powder,
which may be chlorated or simple sporting gunpowder, but as quick-
burning as possible. It is ignited merely by the flame of an ordinary
fuse, and by its combustion causes the explosive bursting of the
envelop, and this in its turn causes an explosion of the first order
of the charge. The same arrangement may be employed to bring
about the explosion of the charge in the shell, by means of powdered
picric acid; but in this case the fuse must be provided with a fulmi-
nate detonator, as picric acid gives no explosion of the second order;
that is to say, it is not explosible by flame alone, as is the case with
ordinary gunpowder. The obturator must be of strong but brittle
metal, such as cast iron or steel.
" The importance of this discovery will at once be obvious if atten-
tion be given to the inconveniences attendant upon enclosing in a
shell a strong detonator of fulminate, which may be caused to ex-
plode by the mere shock of firing, and may thus cause the gun to
burst."
iu^\nt iurpiri
tL^x/f Oi c/f (oet^f Srrr/^l^t %tufHot4,z^x^€la avte^ ctA. ^a^r^
^.
reeetctr d»mj (a /^trmtt JJ mjrt.
fax tljtattd^i^ fixtr k U -piue*. t^
d„ mat kru, f^t Lm ntftt jMt.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 429
In addition to the foregoing, the specification states that picric acid
may by the above-described means be exploded under water, and
that, while retaining its capability of being thus exploded, may be
rendered less sensitive by mixture with sulphur or by being worked
into a paste with from 5 to 10 per cent of oil, grease, paraffin, petro-
leum, etc. M. Turpin says, furthermore, that an addition of gela-
tinized collodion {le collodion en gelee) forms a very suitable agglom-
erating agent for picric acid, and may form an excellent method of
employing that explosive, as it forms a slightly elastic mixture which
has not lost its sensitiveness to too great an extent, and which is
almost completely insoluble.
§6.
Gelbite.
Gelbite is defined in the claim of the specification forming part of
U. S. Letters Patent No. 423,230, issued to me on March 11, 1890,
as being
" An explosive substance, consisting of paper, or paper-stock, con-
verted into a nitro-compound and impregnated with ammonia and
picric acid." •
It thus belongs to the nitro-cellulose class of explosives. Its ordi-
nary form is that of paper, rather than paper-stock, and it may, of
course, be prepared from any kind of paper. I have sometimes
taken a sheet of the New York Herald and have converted it into
gelbite, after which process I have found the editorials of that illus-
trious journal so cogent and forcible as to be capable of driving a
bullet through an iron plate.
Ordinary paper is, however, as a rule, too heavily loaded with
various mineral fillings to' make good raw material for nitrating;
but many papers are specially prepared for this purpose, for use by
celluloid-mak'ers, etc., and no difficulty is experienced in obtaining
suitable grades. The treatment is simple. The paper, cut into
sheets of convenient size, is immersed in a mixture of sulphuric and
nitric acids for about two minutes. It is then removed, washed in
water, and neutralized in a solution of carbonate of ammonia. After
this it is heated in an aqueous solution of picric acid. The result is
a sheet of nitro-cellulose, impregnated with picrate of ammonia,
picric acid, nitrate of ammonia, and sulphate of ammonia, the latter
bodies existing in very small proportions if the treatment in the
picric acid bath has been prolonged. When dry, gelbite presents
430 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
the appearance of slightly yellowish paper (whence its name, Gelb
being the German for " yellow " ), which assumes a deeper tint if
allowed to become moist.
If properly made it burns with a quick flame, without smoke, and
leaves no more residue than is left by good gun-cotton.
Its use has hitherto been confined to pistols, rifles, and shot-guns.
In these weapons it gives good results, the discharge being almost
smokeless, the recoil light, the muzzle velocity high, and the initial
pressure moderate. No precise determinations of these points have
as yet been made, and I therefore desire to be understood as merely
speaking in general terms. Every one is naturally tempted to think
his own swan the whitest; but I take it that true philosophy teaches
us to be on our guard against all such temptations and to refuse
them the privilege of leading us by the nose.
A preliminary trial was made of gelbite at the Springfield Armory
in February, 1890, for the purpose of determining whether any and
what modifications were necessary to adapt it for military use. Two
series of rounds were fired, one for the purpose of determining the
size qf the strip of gelbite that would give the allowable initial pres-
sure, and the other to ascertain the muzzle velocity. The results
were as follows :
Pressure Tests.
Size of Gelbite Strip.
No. of Round.
Length.
Breadth.
Pressure p«r sq
I
2.37 in.
1.6 in.
8,000
2
4.75 "
1.6 "
22,500
3
7.12 "
1.6 "
46.500
4
5-9 "
1.6 •'
36,000
5
5-9 "
1.6 "
45,000
6
5-4 "
1.6 "
28,500
Velocity Tests.
•
Size
of Gelbite Strip.
0. of Round.
Length.
Breadth.
Weight.
Vel,
acity.
I
5-4
in.
1.6 in.
7.8 grains.
1028 ft,
, per sec.
2
5-4
"
1.6 "
7.8 "
980 "
"
3
5-4
"
1.6 "
7.8 "
lOIO "
"
4
5-4
"
i.b "
7.8 "
See "
"
The pressures were estimated by means of the length of cut made
by a curved knife-edge (fitted to a plunger actuated by the powder-
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 43 1
gases through a perforation in the barrel) upon a block of copper.
Gauges of this kind have always seemed to me unreliable, for reasons
set forth in the theoretical sections of this paper. They may be
expected to give very variable readings, as in the case of rounds 4
and 5 of the above table of pressure tests ; and quite an extended
series of shots would be necessary in order to arrive at an approxi-
mately correct judgment of the pressure actually developed. In the
experiments in question, if the pressures recorded be divided by the
number of square inches in the various strips, we ought to obtain a
series of quotients very gradually increasing in proportion to the
diminution of air-spacing. In point of fact the quotients come out
as 2109, 2960, 4082 (and 3814 for the same-sized strip) and 3299.
These variations are not consistent with the degree of uniformity
shown in the four velocity tests.
But, be this as it may, the preliminary tests showed that either the
gelbite itself or the mode of making up the charge required modify-
ing in order to enable it to comply with the requirements formulated
at Springfield, viz., an initial pressure not exceeding 30,000 lbs. per
square inch and a muzzle velocity of from 1800 to 2000 feet per
second. Up to the time of the trial, Maxim's nitro-gelatine powder
had given the best results, i. e., 1800 ft. with a pressure of 40,000 lbs.,
which, however, was deemed inadmissible. It is therefore with some
surprise that I have of late read in the newspapers a statement that
the smokeless powder with which it has been decided to conduct
the forthcoming magazine-gun trials, is the Belgian Wetteren powder,
which is said to give a pressure of from 50,000 to 55,000 lbs. for a
velocity of 1800 f. s., while another newspaper statement says that
satisfactory results have been obtained by the army ordnance officials
with a powder giving a pressure 0(^6,000 lbs. for a velocity of 2000 ft.
I have spoken of the mode of making up the charge of gelbite.
The plan I adopt is to cut the paper into a strip, the width of which
is just equal to the length of the powder-space in the cartridge to be
loaded. This strip, of any length deemed suitable, is then coiled up
into a hollow cylindrical form, and is pushed into the cartridge-shell,
and the bullet is seated thereon. The charge thus forms a lining, as
it were, to the cartridge-shell, and has a central air-space into which
the flash of the primer is projected. It is obvious that by lengthen-
ing or shortening this air-space, or by enlarging or diminishing its
diameter, the duration of the explosion and the character of the initial
shock may be controlled with great nicety. All this is a matter of
tedious experimenting, and as yet I have not had the requisite time
432 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
and appliances at my disposal to determine the precise forms and
sizes of the various charges required for diiferent rifles.
The stability of gelbite seems to me beyond question. Cartridges
loaded more than a year ago are to-day in as good condition and
work as well as when they were first prepared. Sheets of gelbite
lying promiscuously about in my office and laboratory (a sad con-
fession of human depravity) prove themselves entirely indifferent to
changes of temperature, etc. ; and if they be wetted they are none
the worse for the experience when once they are dried again. I am
disposed to regard this feature as of exceptional importance in view
of the great probability that the recently-adopted compounds of
nitro-cellulose and nitro-glycerine will be found wanting in stability,
in addition to being from time to time productive of the " abnormal
pressures " so dear to the mind of every director-general of artillery.
§7-
Aluminum Bronze and Ferro-nickel.
In the discussion of materials for the construction of ordnance,
great importance is attached to the elastic limits, tensile strengths
and elongations shown by ordinary testing machines. But, for
reasons already set forth in the theoretical sections of this paper,
there is reason to doubt whether such tests correspond to the condi-
tions of stress obtaining when a gun is fired, and whether, therefore,
the records obtained by the machines in question are of the para-
mount value usually assigned to them. Mr, W. F. Durfee's interesting
paper on " Iron and Steel and the Mitis Process," printed in Vol. XIII.
of these Proceedings, pointed out, in a very clear manner, the differ-
ence of behavior and rupture exhibited by iron and steel when sub-
jected to a "jerk " or sudden stress, as compared with their behavior
and rupture when slowly strained. Now the stresses produced in a
gun when fired are partly in the nature of a longitudinal jerk, arising
from the sudden thrust developed between the base of the projectile
and the breech-block, and partly in the nature of ballistic impact sus-
tained by the walls of the gun. The jerk has to be borne, as guns are
now constructed, mainly by the longitudinal tension-resisting strength
of the lining tube, and the impact of the powder-gases has to be borne
by the elastic force of the material of the tube, aided by such reinforc-
ing strain as may be set up by the compressing hoops outside.
It has accordingly seemed to me desirable in testing the fitness
of any material for ordnance construction to adopt some method of
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 3.
■^^-^■
PLATE V.-METHOD OF CARRYING OUT THE CYLINDER TEST.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 433
testing that shall show the behavior of the material under conditions
of sudden stress, and as I have recently made some experiments in
this direction with various grades of aluminum bronze, a record of
the same will doubtless prove of interest to the readers of these Pro-
ceedings.
The materials tested were samples of aluminum bronze specially-
prepared by the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, of Pittsburgh, Pa.
This company, under the able presidency of Captain Alfred E. Hunt
(of the firm of Messrs. Hunt & Clapp), has brought into successful
operation the Hall process of manufacturing aluminum by the elec-
trolysis of alumina dissolved in fused cryolite or other suitable com-
pound fluoride of aluminum. The metal thus produced is exception-
ally pure, and when melted with a good grade of copper forms bronze
of high quality. Reference may be made to the paper on "Alumi-
num Bronze for Heavy Guns," by the Messrs. Cowles (Proceedings
of the U. S. Naval Institute, Vols. XHI and XIV), and to the
animated and conflicting discussion thereupon, for an account of the
various characteristics of aluminum bronze, an account which has
been enlarged and supplemented in many important respects by two
further papers, viz., one on " The Properties of Aluminum, with
some information relating to the metal," contributed by Messrs.
Alfred E. Hunt, John W. Langley and Charles M. Hall to the Trans-
actions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and the other
on "The Properties, Uses, and Processes of Production of Alumi-
num," read by Captain A. E. Hunt before the Boston Society of
Arts on February 12, 1891, and published in Engineering News of
February 28, 1891.
Three grades of aluminum bronze were supplied to me, viz., a
grade containing 5 per cent of aluminum, a second containing 7J
per cent, and a third containing 10 per cent. The copper was over-
poled Lake Superior, and the aluminum was the No. i quality of the
Pittsburgh Reduction Company, the average composition of which
may be taken as
Aluminum 98.52
Silicon, combined 42
" graphitic 72
Iron 05
Copper 06
Lead 04
Undetermined 19
434 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
the constitution of the bronze, therefore, comparing fairly well with
that of the bronze referred to in Messrs. Cowles' paper.
The specimens were in the form of cylinders 5 J inches in diameter
and 8 J inches high. These were cast cored, and the central i^-inch
bore was clean-drilled to a depth of 6 inches. The castings were sound
and good, and the bores were fairly regular and uniform. The ten-
sile strength, elastic limit and elongation of each of the bronzes were
to have been ascertained and communicated to me by Captain Hunt,
but this information has not yet reached me. In all probability the
respective figures were similar to those given in the above-mentioned
papers of the Messrs. Cowles and Messrs. Hunt, Langley and Hall,
viz.:
Tensile strength.
Grade of Bronze.
Elastic limit,
pounds per square
inch.
pounds per square inch
of original section.
Elongation,
per cent.
10 per cent.
74,821
111,276
2.00
7i "
22,750
68,900
25-50
5
31.145
72,660
not stated.
I say, "in all probability" in a mere spirit of etiquette. An
inspection of the above table inspires grave doubts as to its accuracy.
The figures are means of those given in the two papers referred
to, and as the original numbers comprise some really violent fluctu-
ations, I fail to perceive their reliability. For example, in Table H
of the Cowles paper seven tests of the tensile strengths of 10 per
cent bronze are quoted, the results ranging from 95,366 to 128,000;
while the elongations are given as nt'l for four samples, 0.5 for two,
and 4.5 for one. In the case of the 5 per cent bronze (taken from
the Hunt-Langley-Hall paper) there are four tests recorded, the
elastic limits varying from 20,880 to 41,250, and the tensile strengths
from 69,520 to 79,270. The 7 J per cent observations (Cowles paper)
are two in number, giving 21,500 and 24,000 for elastic limits, 68,000
and 69,800 for tensile strengths, and 18.2 and 32.8 for elongations.
But the case becomes worse if we refer to the tests made at the
Watertown Laboratory by Chief Engineer Wm. H. Harris, U. S. N.,
in December, 1887, and quoted (in the second Cowles paper) at
page 238 of Vol. XIV of these Proceedings. The 10 per cent bronze
is there credited with an elastic limit of 27,000 pounds, with a tensile
strength of 66,000, and with an elongation of 3.8 ; while the figures
of two tests of 74 per cent bronze are 18,000 and 24,000 for elastic
limit, 60,700 and 67,600 for tensile strength, and 13.00 and 23.2 for
elongation.
PROCEEDINGS U. S, NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVil., No
PLATE VI.— CYLINDER OF 5 PER CENT ALUMINUM BRONZE
AFTER RUPTURE.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 435
This summary of recorded observations would make it appear that
aluminum bronze is as variable and uncertain as cast iron itself; but
as no such variability occurs in practical experience with the mate-
rial, it may reasonably be doubted whether the test conditions of the
observations under criticism were suited to ensure accuracy.
The method of testing adopted in my experiments was as follows :
A steel plug of circular section and square ends was provided for
each cylinder, and was carefully turned to fit the bore as closely as
possible. On the side of the plug was chiseled a small groove to
receive a fuse. The cylinder to be tested was then measured as to
the capacity of its bore, by filling the same with water from a glass
graduated in cubic centimeters. The bore was then dried and a
charge of powder inserted, followed by two cardboard wads nicked
on the side. A priming of powder was next placed on the nick, and
the plug, with a piece of ordinary safety-fuse in its groove, was pushed
down upon the charge. The plug was long enough to project from
the bore, and therefore could, if desired, be loaded with a super-
imposed weight in the shape of plate and pig iron. The apparatus
was then placed on the ground between two posts carrying some
transverse bulks of timber and was fired. After each round the
bore of the cylinder was carefully washed out, dried, examined and
measured. Plate No. V is a photograph of a cylinder in position
just before firing.
The tests were carried out under my supervision by my son, Mr.
Newton W. Emmens, at the works of the Emmens Metal Company,
near New Stanton, Westmoreland Co., Pa., in March last, and the
following is a record of the results attained:
Table X.
Tests of 5 per cent Aluminum Bronze.
Size of cylinder, 5^ in. diameter, 8^ in. high.
Size of bore, i^ in. diameter, 6i in. deep, with conical cavity at
bottom caused by the drill.
Capacity of bore, 183 cubic centimeters. (N. B. — The bore was
not quite true and left a slight windage.)
Weight of steel plug turned to fit the bore, 3 lbs. 2 oz.
Length of bore occupied by 25 grams of cannon powder, lightly
compressed, f inch.
Ditto 50 grams, if inch.
436
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Capacity
of Bore
No. of
after firing.
Round.
Charge.
Load.
cubic cent.
I
25 grams
of
cannon powder.
The plug.
183
2
50
"
"
"
'83
3
50
"
"
Plug + 5 lbs.
185
4
50
"
"
Plug +10 lbs.
190
5
50
"
"
"
192
6
50
"
"
"
192
7
50
"
"
"
192
8
50
"
"
. "
193
9
50
"
"
"
193
lO
50
"
"
"
193
II
50
"
"
"
193
12
5°
"
"
" '
194
13
SO
"
"
"
194
14
50
"
"
"
194
15
lOO
"
"
Plug-|- 100 lbs.
220
16
100
"
«
"
220
17
100
"
«
"
222
18
100
"
"
"
223
19
100
"
"
"
223
20
^2%
grams
of gelbite.
"
226
21
'
"
"
227
22
"
"
229
23
'
"
"
229
24
'
"
"
230
25
25 grams
of
emmensite No. 35.
The plug.
252
26
25
"
« «
"
259
27
25
"
" "
"
262
28
25
"
" "
«
266
29
25
"
" "
"
266
30
25
"
" "
"
270
31
25
"
" "
«
272
32
25
"
« «
"
274
33
25
"
" "
"
277
34
25
"
" "
"
277
35
zr/z
"
" "
«
286
36
50
"
« «
«<
286
37
50
"
" "
"
310
38
50
"
" "
"
327
39
50
"
" "
A wooden plug driven tight.
329
40
50
"
" "
I wad and sand tamping.
354
41
50
"
" "
•< « «
382
42
50
"
" "
« << «
409
43
75
"
" "
" " "
451
44
75
"
" "
" " "
496
45
75
"
" "
" " "
536
46
100
"
« '<
« « «
656
47
100
"
" «'
" " "
712
48
100
"
« <«
« « <t
794
49
125
"
" •'
" " "
Rupture
PROCEEDINGS U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVIL, No. 3.
PLATE Vli.-CYLINDER OF 7J2 PER CENT ALUMINUM BRONZE
AFTER RUPTURE.
explosives and ordnance material. 437
Observations.
The explosion of the gelbite and emmensite charges was effected
by means of a single-strength Victor electric fuse. The charges of
cannon powder were simply ignited.
Round 15. — After this a number of small cracks were observed
on the internal surface of the bore which previously had remained
intact.
Round 19. — After this the diameter of the bore at the top was
it inch.
Rounds 20 to 24. — In these rounds the plug was not blown out —
a fact utterly at variance with the usual theory of pressure. Some
diversion of the explosion-molecules must have taken place; occa-
sioned, it may be, by the central air-space being large enough to
act as an eddy-former and thus to give time for the gases to find out
the windage.
Round 27. — A slight chambering became observable at the lower
portion of the bore.
Round 35.-— The chamber was seen to be considerably enlarged,
and a i^sf] external cracks became visible on the cylinder.
Round 36. — The charge only partly exploded, a portion of it
simply burning.
Round 38. — After this the diameter of the top of the bore was
if inch.
Round 40. — The bore was found to be considerably smoothed and
swaged out, owing, doubtless, to the action of the rapidly moving
column of sand.
Round 44. — The external cracks were notably increased.
Round 49. — The cylinder, as burst open, is shown in Plate No. VI,
reproduced from a photograph taken by my son.
Table XI.
Tests of 7^ per cent Aluminum Bronze.
Size of cylinder, 5^ in. diameter and 8 J in. high.
Size of bore, \\ in. diameter and 6 in. deep.
Capacity of bore, 174 cubic centimeters.
Length of bore occupied by 25 grams of cannon powder, lightly
compressed, I inch.
Length of bore occupied by 50 grams of cannon powder, lightly
compressed, i\\ inches.
Weight of steel plug, 3 lbs. 2 oz.
438 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
Capacity
of Bore
No. of
after firing.
Round.
Charge.
Load.
cubic cent.
I
25 grams
of cannon
powder.
The plug.
174
2
5°
•'
"
"
I7S
3
50
«
«'
Plug + 5 lbs.
176
4
50
«
"
The plug.
176
S
50
"
"
"
176
6
SO
"
"
Plug+5lbs.
176
7
50
"
"
"
177
8
50
«•
<(
"
177
9
50
<(
«
"
177
10
5°
"
«
"
177
II
50
"
«
"
178
12
. 50
"
"
"
179
13
50
"
"
"
179
14
TOO
"
"
Plug+ 100 lbs.
19s
15
100
"
"
"
19s
16
100
"
"
"
200
17
100
"
"
"
200
18
100
"
M
«
201
19
I2i i
jrams of gelbite.
«
205
20
I2i"
' "
"
«
206
21
I2i
«
"
««
206
22
I2i
"
"
•<
206
23
I2i
"
"
«
206
24
25 g
rams
of emmensite No. 35.
The plug.
233
25
25
"
"
"
24s
26
25
"
"
"
251
27
25
"
"
"
256
28
25
"
"
«•
259
29
25
"
"
«
262
30
25
"
"
'•
26s
31
25
"
'*
"
269
32
25
"
"
"
270
33
25
"
"
*'
272
34
37J
"
"
"
279
^3^
37
50
SO
50
"
"
"
301
325
tight. 340
"
«
Wooden plug driven
38
50
"
"
I wad and sand tamping. 351
39
50
"
"
'•
382
40
SO
*'
"
"
407
41
75
"
"
«
Rupture.
Observations.
Round 18. — After this a number of small internal cracks were ob-
served, and the diameter of the top of the bore was i^-^ inches.
Rounds 19-23. — The plug was not blown out.
Round 24. — The bore was chambered considerably and cracked
round the bottom. There were also a few external cracks.
Round 36. — After this the diameter of the top of the bore was if
inches.
Round 41. — The appearance of the cylinder after rupture is shown
in Plate No. VII.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
439
Table XII.
Tests of io per cent Aluminum Bronze.
Size of cylinder, 5^ in. diameter and 8 J in. high.
Size of bore, i^ in. diameter and 6^^ in. deep (slightly irregular).
Capacity of bore, 178 cubic centimeters.
Length of bore occupied by 25 grams of cannon powder, if inch.
Length of bore occupied by 50 grams of cannon powder, if inches.
Length of bore occupied by 100 grams of cannon powder, 2I inches.
Weight of steel plug, 2 lbs. 14^ oz.
Capacity
of Bore
No. of
after firing.
Round.
Charge.
Load.
cubic cent.
I
25 grams
of cannon powder.
The plug.
178
2
50
"
"
"
178
3
50
"
"
Plug+5lbs.
178
4
SO
"
"
Plug + 10 lbs.
178
5
50
"
"
"
178
6
50
"
"
"
178
7
5°
"
"
"
178
8
50
"
«'
«
178
9
50
•'
"
"
178
ID
II
50
50
!.'
«
'!
178
178
12
50
"
"
Plug+slbs.
178
13
50
"
"
Plug+ 10 lbs.
178
14
50
"
"
"
178
15
100
(<
"
<«
178
16
100 •
»
"
i<
178
17
100
"
"
i<
178
18
100
"
"
«
178
19
100
"
"
«'
178
20
25
"
"
Plug+ 100 lbs.
178
21
25
<«
<<
"
178
22
SO
"
"
"
178
23
SO
<(
"
"
178
24
100
"
"
«
178
25
100
"
<'
««
178
26
ICO
"
"
"
178
27
100
a
<(
'*
178
28
100
<<
««
"
178
29
100
•«
«
(*
178
30
100
«
"
"
178
31
100
<(
"
«
178
32
100
"
"
"
179
33
100
"
C(
"
179
34
TOO
««
"
Pl"g+ 500 lbs.
179
35
12J grams of gelbite.
The plug.
180
36
12J
"
"
"
181
37
12
12.
•'
"
"
181
38
♦'
•*
181
39
I2i
♦'
"
"
181
40
25 grams
of emmensite No. 35.
<i
190
41
25
"
«
"
191
42
25
"
"
u
Rupture.
440 explosives and ordnance material.
Observations.
Round 12. — In this round part of the superimposed weight (lolbs.)
fell off while the fuse was burning.
Round 36. — After this the inside of the upper portion of the bore
was observed to be slightly pitted.
Round 42. — The appearance after rupture is shown by Plate No.
VIII.
During the course of the cylinder tests it was desired to ascertain
their respective degrees of general hardness. For this purpose they
were laid on their sides and their bases fired at with a Springfield
rifle and regulation charge from a distance of 20 measured yards.
The indentations in the cases of the 5 and 7 J per cent bronze were
about equal, being some -^ inch in depth. In the case of the 10
per cent bronze, the indentation was very shght, about -j-jir inch.
Plate No. IX shows the effects produced.
Finally it was determined to submit the three bronzes to the mush-
room test, as described in §2 of this paper. After the rupture of the
cylinders, pieces were sawn off, melted and cast into mushroom
shape and tested with charges of 25 grams of emmensite No. 35,
made up into cartridges ij inches in diameter, and having the last
fold of the paraffined paper at the base cut off. Four shots were
fired beneath the 7^ per cent sample; external cracks becoming
visible on the third shot. Six shots were fired beneath the 10 per
cent mushroom, and external cracks became noticeable only on the
sixth shot. The 5 per cent mushroom was not caught by the cover-
ing cloth and was lost.
The craters formed on the flat sides were filled with sand, struck
even, and this sand filling was weighed, thus giving approximately
the size of the indentation.
The particulars thus ascertained in comparison with the similar
testing of a lead mushroom are shown in the following table :
Table XIII.
Mushroom Tests of Aluminum Bronze and Lead,
Metal.
Diameter
of
Mushroom.
Central
thickness
of
Mushroom.
Weight
of
Mushroom.
Weight of
sand filling
of crater.
Lead,
zyi inches.
I inch.
20 ounces.
16.2 grains.
7^ per cent Al. Bronze,
2H "
I "
I2>^ "
9.8 ■'
10 " " "
2H "
\\ "
12 "
2.8 "
^^ £
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 44 1
The appearances presented by the bases and tops of the mush-
rooms are shown in Plates X and XI. No exfoliation took place,
but the interior of the cracks shows a disintegrated fracture, and the
exterior of the curved surfaces of the mushrooms is mottled, as it
were, by slight flattenings, similar to what are more distinctly seen
in the case of lead mushrooms. The cause of this appearance is, I
presume, the transmission of vibrations or shocks from the flat to the
curved surface, and a consequent nodal development of stress.
The conclusions I deduce from this series of experiments are as
follows:
I. The 10 per cent cylinder was ruptured by the explosion of 25
grams of emmensite after having twice withstood the same shock.
Its ultimate strength to resist rupture was therefore about equal to
the force developed by the explosion of the emmensite, and inspec-
tion of Plate VIII shows that the cylinder was split into two halves,
and that the base was torn off with tolerable uniformity. The total
area of the fractured surfaces may be taken at 52 square inches.
Now the force of the charge was exerted upon an area equal to the
area of the bottom of the bore added to the area of the longitudinal
section of the bore, or say 12 square inches in all, and the maximum
theoretical force of the grade of emmensite employed may be taken
at 100 tons per square inch. Hence we have apparently a maximum
force of 1200 tons available for rupture; but as the volume of the
whole bore was about seven times that of the charge, it seems unlikely
that the rupturing force, if even of maximum value, could have ex-
ceeded 1200H-7 =171 tons. This divided by the ruptured area gives
171-^-52 = 3.3 tons per square inch, which is obviously too small for the
work if the power of the bronze to resist sudden stress be any con-
siderable proportion of its tensile strength under gradually applied
stress, such tensile strength being recorded by testing machines as
from 30 to 60 tons. Hence one of two things seems evident : either
the whole of the ruptured area did not come simultaneously into
resistance, or the force actually exerted was greatly in excess of 3.3
tons per square inch. If we assume that the full explosive force was
exerted for an instant before any movement of the tamping, we may,
without practical error, estimate it at 100 tons per square inch ex-
erted over the area of the base added to the area of the longitudinal
section of 4-th of the bore, or, say, 3 square inches in all, which would
give 300 tons total. The rupture to be effected by this force would
extend over the annular area of the fracture between the base and the
442 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
walls and |th of the fracture of the walls, or, say, 32 inches in all.
Even this would give less than 10 tons per square inch of fractured
surface. The inference, therefore, seems irresistible that a portion
only of the thickness of the metal came into play at any one time,
and that the rupture was progressive, much in the same way that
cloth yields when a comparatively small force is applied to tear it
apart by a stress commencing at the edge and maintained as thread
after thread breaks apart.
2. This view seems to be confirmed by what took place with the j^
and 5 per cent bronzes. These withstood a vastly superior stress,
and when they did give way they showed an entirely distinct kind
of rupture — ^a rupture in which the explosive force had done much
work in stretching and tearing and deforming almost the whole mass
of the cylinder, instead of producing a minimum number of clean
fractures. Their metal was susceptible of elongation, and so enabled
inner layers of molecules to bring their strength into operation be-
fore the layers nearest the charge had quite given way ; whereas
the ID per cent bronze has but a trifling capability of elongation
before rupture.
3. Yet the 10 per cent bronze showed no enlargement of bore
under the influence of shocks which had permanently strained and
deformed the bores of the other cylinders. This can hardly have
been due to its tensile elasticity, for this, as I have before shown,
plays but a subordinate part in the resistance of the first shock. I
am disposed to attribute it rather to the compressive elasticity of the
material being very high as compared with the like quality in 7 J
and 5 per cent bronzes.
4. It would seem that the 7J and 5 per cent bronzes are unfit for
gun-construction if used alone, inasmuch as they are unable to with-
stand the sudden compression set up by the explosion of the firing
charge. The 10 per cent bronze, on the other hand, while capable
of withstanding this mode of stress, is liable to progressive, com-
plete and explosive rupture by reason of its inability to withstand a
sudden tensile strain. If, however, a gun were built up of two
tubes, the inner one of 10 per cent bronze and the outer of 7J per
cent bronze, a very satisfactory weapon might be produced. The
surfaces of contact should, of course, be slightly coned, and the tubes
fitted together under hydraulic pressure. Such a gun would have
the many advantages of a cast-metal product, while its metal would
be free from the want of homogeneity, the cavities and the flaws that
have hitherto rendered cast-steel unsuitable for heavy ordnance.
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 443
5. Whether such a gun would endure much firing without a hning
tube of some harder material is a matter of doubt. Even the 10
per cent bronze cannot resist the impact of a leaden bullet traveling
with a velocity vastly below that of the gases produced by the ex-
plosion of gunpowder. Interior swaging might possibly do some-
thing to ensure a greater degree of resistance to erosion, but prob-
ably it will be found necessary to adopt a lining. In that case the
harder and thinner the material the better; consistently, of course,
with the strength necessary to resist the sudden pull of the projec-
tile as it takes up angular velocity from the rifling. Perhaps the best
material for the purpose will be found to be the ferro-nickel-carbide
now being made by the Emmens Metal Company. This, as its
name implies, is a compound of iron, nickel and carbon, and while
being so hard as to strip a file, is of remarkable toughness. It makes
sound and homogeneous castings, thus facilitating the manufacture
of lining tubes.
6, As a parting word I venture to express the hope that in future
the recorded tests of metals and alloys will give their behavior under
conditions of sudden tension and compression in addition to the
ordinary figures of elastic limit, tensile strength, compression
strength, elongation and reduction of area.
Addendum.
" Things do happen !" as the venerable naval officer said when he
received promotion. And, since the foregoing paper was written,
some incidents have occurred that necessitate a brief postscript.
On July 22d the Board of Ordnance and Fortification made a
further test of emmensite at Sandy Hook. The object of the test
was to ascertain whether the explosive would stand the shock of dis-
charge and rotation when fired from a large gun. To this end three
shells were charged with emmensite and fired from a 7-inch Ames
rifle at 11° elevation. The figures were as follows :
Round I. — Firing charge, 23 lbs. of hexagonal powder. Weight
of shell, 127 lbs. Charge of emmensite, 8.35 lbs.
Round 2. — Firing charge, 23 lbs. of hexagonal powder. Weight
of shell, 128 lbs. Charge of emmensite, 7.6 lbs.
Round 3. — Firing charge, 25 lbs. of hexagonal powder. Weight
of shell, 127.8 lbs. Charge of emmensite, 7.4 lbs.
The shells were, of course, not fused ; and they struck the sea at
distances of from 2000 to 3000 yards without exploding.
444 EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL.
I have received from Captain A. E. Hunt the promised informa-
tion with respect to the aluminum bronze tested as described in the
foregoing paper. He reports as follows :
Tensile Strength.
Elastic Limit. Pounds per square inch Elongation
Grade. Pounds per square inch. of original section. Percent.
5 per cent. Not reported. 22,920 21.50
yi " " 15.050 Not reported.
10 " 40,910 52,690 2.75
and he writes : " The results sent you were from pieces of metal cut
from the castings which you used and cast into squares i'm.X 12 in.
The castings were not exactly regular in section and were not turned
up. Had steel been similarly cast, the results would not have been
as good, comparatively, as the aluminum bronze, as steel is more
susceptible to the influences of manipulation than aluminum bronze.
This same bronze, showing only 52,000 pounds tensile strength, we
shall have cast into bars and pulled. It may be that we can have
some of the same specimens which were pulled before hammered
into smaller sections and then pulled. We believe this will increase
the tensile strength fully 50 per cent." In another letter he men-
tions that the cylinders I experimented with " were made from
bronze that had been first mixed and then re-melted."
It would seem, therefore, that the criticisms I ventured upon in
the body of the foregoing paper, when alluding to the recorded
observations respecting the physical characteristics of aluminum
bronze, were not very wide of the mark; and I would say as much
for the conclusions I deduced from the behavior of the 10 per cent
bronze in my experiments, were I not debarred from doing so by an
irrepressible instinct of modesty which I inherit from the Irish side
of my family.
It will be noticed that both in Captain Hunt's figures and in the
recorded observations the tensile strength of yi per cent bronze is
lower than that of the 5 per cent bronze ; and my firing tests appear
to confirm this.
Altogether, therefore, it appears to me that, so far as our present
knowledge goes, the anomalies and variations of aluminum bronze
per se render it unsuitable as a material for firearms and ordnance.
I have, accordingly, for some time past been experimenting with a
view to its modification in the desired direction. The best results,
I find, are obtainable by the addition of nickel under certain con-
EXPLOSIVES AND ORDNANCE MATERIAL. 445
ditions ; and I hope in an early number of these Proceedings to
communicate some facts of interest to their readers. Meantime I
may mention that the alloys in question, under the names of Nick-
alum Gunmetal, Nickalum Bronze, Nickalum Brass and Nickalum
Silver, are now being regularly produced and are entering into
industrial use. They are characterized by great strength, freedom
from oxidation and tarnishing whether by air or sea-water, fine
color and polish, and exceptional resistance to wear. In this last
respect a very severe test has recently been applied. I am told by
Messrs, Barry and McTighe, the eminent electrical engineers of 52
William Street, New York, that a nickalum bronze trolley-wheel
(attached to an electric street-car), after running 800 miles on an
overhead wire, was not found to show any considerable sign of wear.
Those persons who are familiar with the quick cutting of ordinary
bronze or gun-metal wheels under similar treatment will at once
perceive the important part that nickel may be expected to play in
the composition of analogous alloys for the future.
[COPYRIGHTED.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD
THE EFFECT OF WATERLINE DAMAGE ON THE
STABILITY OF UNARMORED WAR-SHIPS.
By Charles Hemje.
The purpose of this paper is to show by computation and graphic
representation the dangers to which modern ships are subject from
loss of stabiHty through injury at the waterline.
In setting forth my views and deductions I will be justified in
assuming what is already admitted, viz., that in all ships that are not
completely armored at the waterline, there will be great damage at
least from small shot, and, therefore, considerable inflow of water
above the slopes of the protective deck. Argument would hardly
avail against this assumption, for the adoption of the protective deck
is confessedly based on the proposition that the projectiles shall
perforate the outside of the ship, but shall not pierce the protective
deck so as to endanger her vitals.
This paper is in no sense an argument against the protective deck;
the claim that it protects buoyancy is accepted, but it is desired to
call attention more directly to the fact that in using the protective
deck to protect buoyancy, we are doing it at the possible expense of
stability.
The alternative is one that may readily be accepted, but it is the
purpose of this paper to show that it entails the necessity of under-
standing the conditions of stability of ships in the damaged condi-
tion; the necessity, in fact, of studying stability.
It is manifest that even some naval officers confuse the quality of
steadiness in a ship with that of stiffness ; yet a commanding officer
who fails to discriminate between these two qualities is very likely to lose
his ship in the event of waterline damage, — a claim which will become
clear later. Such an officer, reasoning from the steadiness of his ship
in a seaway and from the assumed value of coal as protection, would
448 THE EFFECT OF WATERLINE DAMAGE
doubtless reserve the coal above the protective deck until forced to
use it, ignoring the conditions of stability of his particular ship,
whereas the aggregate risk might be much less under different con-
ditions of coal stowage. All would depend on the conditions of
stability for that particular ship.
It is claimed by the highest authorities that, for good behavior in
a seaway and for steadiness as a gun-platform, a ship should have a
metacentric height of from 3 to 3J feet, and that this should even be
exceeded in ships liable to waterline damage in action. Armored
ships have, without exception, barring mistakes in their calculations,
been constructed on this principle, and as an example we will quote
from the official description of the U. S. armored cruiser Maine:
" The vital parts are protected from shot and shell by a belt of
armor, sufficient in length to insure stability even if the ends are
riddled above the underwater protective decks, extending from the
ends of the belt to the extremities of the vessel. Her metacentric
height is 3.45 feet."
It is a well-known fact that underwater protective decks constitute
a great danger to a ship's stability and safety in case of waterline
damage, and this stands acknowledged by the fact that special pro-
vision is made in heavily armored ships for a sufficiently large meta-
centric height, so that any waterline damage above the underwater
decks will not endanger their safety.
But if it is of vital importance that such provisions against damage
to stability should be adopted in ships partially protected by heavy
armor, with much more force do similar provisions apply to a class
of ships which have no waterline protection whatever, and which are
likely to be riddled from stem to stern by the projectiles of rapid-
firing guns. It seems, therefore, that such ships ought to have a
comparatively larger metacentric height, so as to be able to endure
at least some waterline punishment; but, as this would produce
increased rolling and a diminution of their steadiness as a gun-plat-
form while in intact condition, an increase in their metacentric height
over that of the armored ships would probably not be advisable, and
other means should be devised to partially protect their stability.
But, on the other hand, no valid reason can be advanced why such
totally unprotected ships should have a smaller metacentric height
than those that are heavily armored.
In order to secure certain qualities for these ships, viz., speed, coal
endurance, etc., they have not only been left entirely unprotected
ON THE STABILITY OF UNARMORED WAR-SHIPS. 449
against waterline damage, but to attain the former the proportion of
beam to length has been decreased, and the waterlines have been
made so sharp that their metacentric height has not only been
reduced to a minimum for intact condition, but cases have occurred
where such ships, after having been completed, had to be provided
with ballast in their double bottoms to enable them to go to sea.
Stability should never be subordinated to speed in a fighting ship,
and if she has not sufficient natural stability due to properly propor-
tioned dimensions and form, it is simply the fault of the designer.
Too much importance seems to be attached to coal protection.
There is no doubt that coal, and especially patent fuel, will add some-
what to the resistance which is offered, but it is absurd to regard the
ship's fuel, which is carried for the express purpose of being con-
sumed for the ship's propulsion, as a great feature of her protection.
Coal used is no longer protective, and since it is likely to be used
from the bunkers above the protective deck, in fact oftentimes must
be used, its protective character not only fluctuates, but in some
cases vanishes altogether.
It appears doubtful whether the advocates of coal protection have
given the subject that consideration which its importance demands;
judging from the methods and appliances in use for trimming coal
from the upper to the lower bunkers, they have not.
Fig. I represents the coaling arrangements of the protected-cruiser
class. In time of peace this may work well ; but in action when the
sides of the ship are riddled it cannot be used. In damaged condi-
tion the water will not only enter the bunkers above the protective
deck up to the height of the still-water level, but on account of
accumulation due to rolling, etc., will rise above it; and as the lower
edge of the sliding door (which is used for trimming the coal below)
is several feet below the still-water level, it will be impossible to open
the door without getting a continuous rush of water into the lower
bunkers and fire-rooms. Leak-stoppers and mats will not avail to
check the inflow of water, they cannot be adjusted under the fire of
machine and rapid-firing guns, and if they could, would in turn be
riddled and become useless. It has been argued that there is no
necessity for trimming coal during action, as actions now will be
short and decisive ; but it may have to be trimmed below before the
action commences, in which case what has become of its protective
quality ?
450
THE EFFECT OF WATERLINE DAMAGE
The necessity of chasing an enemy may arise after a ship has been
riddled, and if the coal cannot be trimmed below — andit cannotuith
the present appliances — the chase has not only to be abandoned, but
the ship is herself disabled for want of coal. Or, if chased in damaged
condition, the ship would fall an easy prey to the enemy if her coal
could not be trimmed below.
Conclusioyi : it is evidetit that coal cannot be made to serve the two
purposes of protection and propulsion simultaneously, and is at best
only a partial protection for stability. The apparent rcm,edy is to
slightly reduce the surplus coal supply, and to substitute for the weight
and space so saved a better protection to stability in the form of
properly constructed water-excluding belts. This being done, it may
be possible to trim coal from the upper to the lower bunkers during
action.
ON THE STABILITY OF UNARMORED WAR-SHIPS. 45 1
In considering the entrance of comparatively small quantities of
water above the slopes of the protective deck, it is apparent that
popular opinion regards the case only as one in which a small loss of
buoyancy is the worst result ; whereas the danger is likely to be
critical, not from loss of buoyancy, but from the effects of the small
quantity of water on the stability.
A most important question in the design of unarmored ships of
war is that of protection to their stability; and a remedy lies in the
application of suitable belts of light water-excluding material along
the ship's sides.
Whatever this material may be — whether it be cellulose, woodite,
or something not yet known or heard of — it is certain that the adop-
tion of any such material is well worthy of consideration; and if a
suitable material can be found which will even partially fulfill the
conditions of a water-excluder, it will be certain to greatly prolong
the life of an unarmored ship in action, and be of far greater value
for ships with unprotected waterlines than the most minute sub-
division of the waterline region into compartments, all of which may
speedily be riddled by the small shot of rapid-firing guns.
Doubtless the next naval war will open our eyes to some important
points, and upset many accepted theories in ship-designing, and it is
to be presumed that this question of unprotected waterline in steel
ships will be the most important and pressing one which the test of
battle will bring before us.
Considering the unavoidable loss of stability of unarmored ships
in action, their dimensions should be so proportioned as to give the
largest possible metacentric height consistent with good behavior in
a seaway and steadiness as a gun-platform, and it is certainly aston-
ishing that in notable cases prudence has been violated, and that
dimensions and other properties have been adopted which give a
calculated metacentric height of only 2.10 or 2.20 feet, while in reality,
through mistakes made in the calculations, it may fall short con-
siderably. As it is the object of this paper to investigate the stability
of " protected cruisers " in damaged condition, we are justified in
adopting for the demonstrations a ship of foreign design, the meta-
centric height of which is officially given as 2.10 feet.
The official data for this ship, while meager, are sufficient for the
purpose of the demonstrations for damaged condition.
The dimensions, etc., are as follows:
452 THE EFFECT OF WATERLINE DAMAGE
Length on waterline 327 feet.
Beam, extreme 48 " 6 inches.
Mean draught 19 " 6 "
Displacement, 4400 tons 154,000 cubic feet.
Tons per inch 25.70
Normal coal supply 400 tons.
Metacentric height (calculated) 2.10 feet.
From the tons per inch we find the area of the load waterline
= 25.70 X 420= 10794 square feet, and coefficient of fineness of the
WL = -^^%- = .68o6.
327 X 48.5
The position of the center of buoyancy below the waterline not
being given, we have to approximate to it, and by assuming it to be
j^ of the mean draught below the waterline, we have its position
below the latter,
19.50 X .41 = 8.C0 feet.
(It may here be stated, that the absolute correct position of the
center of buoyancy is not required for the purpose of the following
demonstrations, the metacentric heights under the various conditions
of coal stowage, etc., being the important qualities with which we
have to deal.)
Length on waterline, beam and coefficient of fineness of waterline
being given, we have no difficulty in calculating the transverse
moment of inertia, by substituting for the coefficient of fineness of the
waterline its corresponding coefficient of stability (m), which in this
case is =.3212 ; consequently we have the moment of inertia =
2jy^-^=»^f— j z. =.3212 X (24.25)^x327 = 1497816,
and dividing this by the displacement expressed in cubic feet, we have
the height of metacenter above the center of buoyancy,
1497816-=- 154000 = 9.72 feet.
The height of metacenter above the waterline is therefore 9.72 —
8.00 = 1.72 feet, and the center of gravity of the ship = 1.72 — 2. 10 =
— .38 foot, or .38 foot below the load waterline.
In the normal condition of the ship, the coal (400 tons) is assumed
to be stowed in the wing and athwartship bunkers below the protec-
tive deck, as shown in Fig. 2, representing the half midship section
of the ship, showing also the position of the various centers to each
other as calculated above.
ON THE STABILITY OF UNARMORED WAR-SHIPS. 453
From the above the metacentric height and other properties for
the ship with full coal supply are easily calculated ; the additional
450 tons of coal stowed on the slopes of the protective deck natu-
rally raise the ship's center of gravity, and the metacentric height is
reduced to about 1.72 feet, a loss of 4I inches. Fig. 3 represents the
ship in the condition of full coal supply.
Again from this the metacentric height and other properties of the
ship when the 400 tons of coal from the bunkers below the protec-
tive deck have been consumed, are easily ascertained. The con-
sumption of this coal, with its center of gravity below that of the ship,
must necessarily reduce the metacentric height, which is found to be
1. 1 2 feet only, a loss of .98 foot from that of the normal condition.
This condition is represented by Fig. 4.
We will now proceed to demonstrate the effect of waterline damage
for the three conditions of coal supply and stowage as shown in
Figs. 2, 3 and 4.
In every case, except one, we will assume that the waterline
damage is the same, and it will not be an exaggerated one if, in view
of the fact that the ship is liable to be riddled from stem to stern,
we assume that nine (9) compartments amidships, each of a length
of twelve (12) feet, a total length of 108 feet, or less than one-third of
the length of the ship, have been penetrated and laid open to the sea
at or near the waterline.
We will first assume that the damage is confined to one side of the
ship only, and that the fore and aft coal-bunker bulkhead has not
been damaged in such a manner as to allow the water to pass
through it.
Turning to Fig. 5, we find that the loss of buoyancy on account of
water admitted into the bunkers on one side is equal to the area of the
triangle abc multiplied by the length of the damaged compartments,
which is 16 square feet X 108 feet = 1728 cubic feet or 49.37 tons,
which would, if we imagine the ship to be held in upright position by
some external force, occasion an increase in mean draught of
j49i37 =2.10 inches, the tons per inch having changed from 25.70
23.64
to 23.64 on account of the loss of waterline area of 8 X 108 = 864
square feet. But there has also been a loss of moment of inertia.
Had the entire waterline area for the length of 108 feet been lost, the
loss in moment of inertia would have been y X t X 108, and as the
mean half-breadth for the length of the 108 feet amidships is some-
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. s.— One Side Damaged,
456 THE EFFECT OF WATERLINE DAMAGE
what less than the greatest half-breadth of the ship, it can be taken as
23.70 feet approximately, so that the loss of moment of inertia would be
(23.70)' X § X 108 = 958647-
But that portion of the waterline area between the longitudinal
coal-bunker bulkheads has remained intact, and, as the half-breadth
between them is 13.75 feet, the moment of inertia of the intact middle
P^'^'^ (13.75)^x1x108=187172,
so that the loss for both sides lying outside of these bulkheads will be
958467-187172 = 771295,
and for one side, 385647. The available moment of inertia is there-
°^^ 1497816 — 385647=1112169,
and the metacenter above the center of buoyancy,
III2169 _ r .
= 7.22 feet.
154000
The increase in mean draught being = 2.10 inches or .17 foot, the
center of buoyancy below the new 19.67 feet waterline will be 8.08
feet, consequently the metacenter below the new waterline is
8.08 — 7.22 = .86 foot.
As the increase in draught is .17 foot, the center of gravity of the
ship, which before was .38 foot below the original waterline, is now
= .38 + .17 = .55 foot below the new waterline, so that the center of
gravity is .86 — .55 = .31 foot above the metacenter, consequently
the ship is in unstable equilibrium.
Co7iclusion: the fact that the comparatively small loss of btioyancy
of about 50 tons, probably not m-ore than i \ per cent of the reserve
buoyancy, will capsize the ship, proves the danger of even compara-
tively small waterline damage associated with small metacentric
height. With a metacentric height such as allowed for armored
ships, the equilibrium wotild still have been stable, although accom-
panied by considerable heel.
Having shown that the penetration of the ship's side at or near
the waterline for less than one-third of her length amidships makes
the ship unstable, it is not necessary to consider the damage for both
sides in detail ; it suffices to state that if damaged on both sides for
the length assumed, the ship would have a negative metacentric
height of 2.72 feet, as shown in Fig. 6.
ON THE STABILITY OF UNARMORED WAR-SHIPS. 45/
Conclusion : that even such a metacentric height as allowed
armored ships would not save the ship from capsizing under the
assumed damage and 7iormal coal stipply, and that the metacentric
height should be assisted by special provisions for the protection of
stability to insure the ship's safety even under the most moderate con-
dition of gun-punishment.
From the case represented in Fig. 5 it is evident that less than
one-half of the assumed damage on one side would partially or
totally disable the ship, and assuming now that five (5) compart-
ments of a length of 60 feet have been laid open to the sea, or five-
ninths of the previously assumed damage, we have:
Loss of buoyancy, 49.37 X f .-- 27.41 tons.
Increase in draught, .17 X f 09 foot.
Centre of buoyancy below WL 8.04 feet.
Shift of CB laterally (ship supposed upright) ... .134
Loss of moment of inertia, 385647 Xf 214248
Available moment of inertia, 1497816 — 214248.. 1283568
Metacenter above CB = ^^3568 g f^g^^
154000
Metacenter above WL = 8.33 — 8.04 29 foot.
CG below new waterline, .38 + .09 47 "
Metacentric height, .47 + .29 .76 "
Shift of CG of waterhne towards intact side 477
Then the approximate angle of heel, expressed in degrees, is :
WY,d
_ 27.41 X (21.59 +.477)
4400 X .76
0 = 10° 15' 10", as shown in Fig. 7.
Conclusion : that the admission of only 27 tons of water {about
i per cent of the reserve buoyancy^ on the slope of the protective deck
will incline the ship more than twice the angle of depression of her
guns, thereby making them useless on the intact side, whereas with an
original metacejitric height of 2)-S f^^i instead of 2.1 feet, the angle
of heel wotild have been about 3° 35' 10" 07ily, thus showing the great
danger of too small a metacentric height for ships liable to waterline
damage.
If, for the ship with full coal supply of 850 tons, we assume the
same waterline damage of 108 feet on one side, the water admitted
Fig. 7. — One Side Damaged for 60 Feet in Length.
Fig. 9. — Both Sides Damaged.
460 THE EFFECT OF WATERLINE DAMAGE
into the bunkers (when empty) would be equal to the area of the
triangle def, Fig. 8, multiplied by the length of the damaged com-
partments, or 2385 cubic feet = 81 tons; but as five-eighths (I) of the
space is occupied by coal, it will be only about 30 tons. But the loss
in waterline area is 10.5 X 108 X I = 425 square feet, leaving an avail-
able area of 10794 — 425 = 10369 square feet, so that the tons per
inch is now 24.69. The increase in draught will therefore be ',
^ ^ ^ 24.69
= 1.21 inches or .10 foot, making the new draught 20.96 -[-.10 =
21.06 feet, and the center of buoyancy below the new waterline about
8.70 feet. The loss of moment of inertia for each side, provided the
bunkers are empty, would be the same as for Fig. 5, or 385647; but
this is reduced to three-eighths (f), or 144618, on account of the
coal, leaving the available moment of inertia =
1497816 - 144618 = 1353198,
and this divided by the displacement of 4850 tons or 169750 cubic
feet, gives a height of metacenter above the center of buoyancy
= 1353198-^169750 = 7.97 feet, so that the metacenter below the
new waterline is 8.70 — 7.97 = .73 foot. The center of gravity of the
ship, relatively to the new waterline, having been lowered .10 foot,
due to the increased draught, is now i.55-l-.io= 1.65 feet below the
new waterline, giving a metacentric height of 1.65 — .73 = .92 foot, as
shown in Fig. 8. As the ship in this condition is still in stable equi-
librium, we will ascertain the heel due to the damage assumed.
Moments in the following calculation are taken about the middle
line.
Change of CG of waterline towards the intact side :
Original waterline area = 10794X 0.00= .00
Lost " " 425X19.00 = 8075.00
Remaining waterline area = 10369 10369)8075.00
.778 from middle line.
Therefore we have the approximate angle of heel:
^ 30 X (20.5 -^ .778)
4850 X .92
^ = 8° 8' 30".
ON THE STABILITY OF UNARMORED WAR-SHIPS. 46 1
Had the original metacentric height of the ship been equal to that
advocated for armored ships, or about 1.40 feet more, the approxi-
mate heel would have been
Wxd
'^"§^ ' = n-xGM
^ 30 X (20.5 + .778)
4850 X (.92+ 1.40)
6 = 3° 14^ 50".
If we now suppose that both sides of the ship had been damaged
to the same extent, the lost waterline area will be 850 square feet,
leaving an available area of 10794 — 850 = 9944 square feet, and tons
per inch = ^ = 23.676. The lost buoyancy being twice that
for one side is now 60 tons, giving an increase in draught o^
z-z-= 2.53 inches or .21 foot, and the center of buoyancy below
the new waterline = 8.75 feet as shown in Fig. 9.
The loss in moment of inertia will be 144618 X 2 = 289236, leav-
ing an available moment of 1497816— 289236 = 1208580, and this
divided by the displacement of 4850 tons or 169750 cubic feet, gives
the height of metacenter above the center of buoyancy = -~p — ^ —
= y.i2 feet, so that the metacenter below the new waterline is now
8.75 — 7.12 = 1.63 feet.
The center of gravity of the ship, relatively to the new waterline,
has been lowered the same as the additional sinkage or .21 foot, and
is therefore 1.55 + .21 = 1.76 feet below the new waterline, giving a
metacentric height of 1.76 — 1.63 = .13 foot only.
Conc/uston: comparison of the restdts for Figs. 5, 6 and 7 with
those for Figs. 8 and 9 shows that coal in the bunkers above the pro-
tective deck is of some value as a partial protection to stability as long
as the bunkers remain completely filled, but unless the coal protection
is associated with the largest possible metacentric height consistent
with good behavior at sea ayid steadiness as a gun-platform, the heel,
due to even a comparatively small waterline damage and loss of buoy-
ancy, is certain to disable the guns on the intact side of the ship.
The coal conditions for Fig. 10 are the same as those for Fig. 4.
Assuming the same damage to be done to one side of the ship as in
the previous cases, the water admitted into the bunkers, supposing
them to be empty, will be equal to the area of the triangle ghi
462
THE EFFECT OF WATERLINE DAMAGE
(Fig. 10) multiplied by the length of the damaged compartments or
1 803 cubic feet =5 1. 5 2 tons; but as five-eighths of the space is occupied
by coal, it will be reduced to 19.32 tons. The loss of waterline area
is 8.5 X 108 X I = 344 square feet, leaving an intact area of 10794 —
10450
420
344 = 10450 square feet, which gives the tons per inch
24.
The increase in draught will therefore be ^'^ — .776 inch.
or .06 foot, making the new draught 19.66 + .06 = 19.72 feet, and the
center of buoyancy below the new waterline = 8.10 feet.
Fig. 10. — One Side Damaged.
The loss in moment of inertia would be three-eighths (I) of that
for Fig. 5, or 385647 X f = 144617, leaving an available moment of
1497816 — 144617 = 1353199, and this divided by the displacement
of 4450 tons, or 155750 cubic feet, gives the height of metacenter
above the center of buoyancy = ^ = 8.69 feet, so that we have
155750
ON THE STABILITY OF UNARMORED WAR-SHIPS. 463
the metacenter above the new 19.72 feet waterline = 8.69 — 8.10 = .59
foot. The center of gravity of the ship, which in the intact condition
was .41 foot above the 19,66 feet waterline, is now .41 — .06 — .35 foot
above the new 19.72 feet wateriine; and as the metacenter is .59 foot
above it, we have a metacentric height of .59 — .35 = .24 foot only.
The approximate heel of the ship in this condition will be about
19" 56', as shown in Fig. 10.
If we now suppose that both sides of the ship have been damaged
to a like extent, we can assume (without going into detailed calcu-
lations) that she has lost twice as much buoyancy, that her draught
has been increased to 19.66 + .12 = 19.78 feet, and that the center
of buoyancy is 8.13 feet below the new waterline. The loss of
moment of inertia is 144617X2 = 289234, leaving the available
moment =: 1497816 — 289234=1208572, giving a height of meta-
center above the center of buoyancy of ^^ = 7-76 feet, or the
155750 '
metacenter below the new waterline = 8.13 — 7.76 = .37 foot. The
center of gravity, which in the intact condition was .41 foot above
the 19.66 feet waterline, is now, on account of the sinkage of the ship
= .41 —.12 = .29 foot above the new 19.78 feet waterline; and as the
metacenter is = .37 foot below the same, we have a negative meta-
centric height of .29 + .37 = .66 foot, or the ship in unstable equilib-
rium as shown in Fig. 1 1.
Had the ship possessed an original metacentric height of 3.50 feet,
the heel, if damaged on one side as assumed, would have been only
about 3 degrees instead of nearly 20 degrees, and under the assumed
damage for both sides would still have had a safe margin of stability.
Conclusion : that the advocated policy of using all the coal from
the lower bunkers, and preserving that in the upper bunkers for pro-
tection against the danger of waterline damage, is not applicable alike
to all ships ; in ships with a small metacentric height, hi normal con-
dition, it is out of the question, and should only be attempted when the
ship has a large metacentric height.
Let us now consider the usefulness of stability belts of water-exclud-
ing material. In Fig. 12 we have the conditions of coal stowage and
displacement, etc., exactly the same as in Figs. 2 and 5. If we now
suppose the ship to be fitted with a vertical stability belt of 5 feet in
thickness, as indicated by the letters a, b, c, d (Fig. 12), and assume
the waterline damaged for the same length as before (108 feet), con-
fined to one side of the ship only, the loss of buoyancy will be equal
Fig. 12. — One Side Damaged.
ON THE STABILITY OF UNARMORED WAR-SHIPS. 465
to the area of the triangle dh^, multiplied by the length of the
damaged compartments, or 2.25 square feet X 108 = 243 cubic feet
= 6.94 tons; the reduction in waterline area will be 3 X 108 = 324
square feet, leaving an intact waterline area of 10794 — 324 = 10470
square feet, corresponding to a tons per inch of — ^^ = 24.93, giv-
ing an increase in draught of — '-^—- ,27 inch, so small that it may
be neglected for all practical purposes.
The loss of moment of inertia being confined to the waterline strip
gh, is therefore = 324 X 17'^ = 95852, leaving the available moment
= 1497816 — 95852 = 1401964, and this divided by the displacement
of 154000 cubic feet gives the height of metacenter above the center
of buoyancy = 9.10 feet, a loss of .62 foot, which, on account of the
ship's center of gravity remaining practically the same, reduces the
metacentric height from 2.10 feet to 1.48 feet. The water admitted
being 6.94 tons and its distance from the center of gravity of the
damaged waterline about 17.70 feet, we have the approximate angle
of heel,
Wy.d
^^"^' = 27x^717
__ 6.94 X 17-70
4400 X 1.48
<?= i°4'5o".
Comparing this with the results for Fig. 5, where the conditions as
to displacement, etc., were exactly the same, but without the belt,
which gave a negative metacentric height of .30 foot, the value of
belts of water-excluding material is fully established.
However, we find that a proper disposition of the water-excluding
material also plays a very important part. If we now, instead of the
vertical belt, take an inclined belt bounded by the inclined bulkhead
fg, as shown in Fig. 13, we find the amount of water-excluding
material about the same in quantity as in the vertical belt, but on
account of the more suitable disposition of the material there is no
loss of buoyancy, waterline area and metacentric height. Inasmuch
as all weights in modern ships must be kept down to a minimum,
stability or water-excluding belts should be so constructed as to get
the greatest possible benefit from the smallest possible quantity of
material.
466
THE EFFECT OF WATERLINE DAMAGE
Fig. 13. — One Side Damaged.
Speed alone seems to have been the great desideratum of late
years for the protected-cruiser type of ships, and thus it has hap-
pened that ships of nearly the same dimensions and displacement
have gradually been made sharper in the waterlines, until the limit of
metacentric height for good behavior at sea and steadiness as a gun-
platform has been reduced nearly one-half in many cases.
Thus, it has happened that it was found necessary to constantly
carry water-ballast in the double bottom, and in some cases both pig
iron and water ballast had to be resorted to in order to give the
ship the necessary metacentric height.
There are two ways to increase the metacentric height of a com-
pleted ship found wanting in stability :
1. By ballast.
2. By hipping the sides in the waterline region.
The action of the two remedies is in opposite directions ; the first
lowers the center of gravity, the second raises the metacenter.
ON THE STABILITY OF UNARMORED WAR-SHIPS. 46/
Which one of the two gives the best result depends on the
particular ship.
But as the center of gravity in the protected-cruiser type is gen-
erally near the waterline, the lowering of the center of gravity by
means of ballast is apt to create a dipping motion during the rolling,
which aggravates the latter. Furthermore, the displacement, draught
of water, and the wetted surface are increased ; decrease in speed is
the consequence, and the longitudinal metacentric height is dimin-
ished in about the same proportion as the displacement is increased,
and the pitching of the ship is consequently aggravated.
Hipping the sides between the protective and berth decks has no
influence on the center of gravity of the ship, as the added weight
has its center of gravity in about the same horizontal plane with the
center of gravity of the ship ; the draught of water remains practi-
cally the same, the rolling motion is not aggravated, the wetted
surface is not perceptibly increased, the increase in displacement is
comparatively small, the decrease in speed is less, the longitudinal
metacentric height is increased and the pitching is thereby lessened.
Furthermore, hipping or sheathing the sides with wood greatly
strengthens the sides of the ship, and it has the great advantage that
projectiles do not tear open the sides as much as is the case with the
thin steel sides only, and in many cases it will admit of such tempo-
rary repairs during or immediately after the action as cannot be made
in ships with their unarmored sides only.
Summing up the results of the demonstrations we find :
1. That coal cannot well be made to serve the two purposes of
protection and propulsion. If it is to be used for protection, it is not
available for propulsion, and the practical coal endurance is lowered
accordingly ; if actually used for the latter, it ceases to be the former.
2. If propulsion is the principal object for which coal in the upper
bunkers is carried, and protection is merely incidental, then we lack
a means of trimming coal from the upper into the lower bunkers in
the condition of flooded bunkers.
3. If protection is aimed at, with use of coal in the upper bunkers
as incidental, the protection is a very poor one, and one-half of its
weight in armor or one-sixth of its weight in water-excluding
material would be much more effective as a protection to stability.
4. That with a comparatively small metacentric height in normal
condition, the advocated policy of using the coal from the lower
bunkers and reserving that in the upper bunkers for protection may
endanger the ship's safety even under very small waterline damage.
468 THE EFFECT OF WATERLINE DAMAGE.
5. That the danger arising from waterline damage is not due so
much to the amount of lost buoyancy as to the position of the
admitted water, viz., on the slope of the protective deck, and the
consequent loss of stability ; and that it is of the utmost importance
that suitable means should be devised to counteract any heel due to
such waterline damage, so as not to interfere with the proper working
of the guns.
6. That all unarmored ships should be designed to have the largest
possible metacentric height consistent with good behavior in a seaway
and steadiness as a gun-platform, so as to be capable of standing at
least some waterline punishment without disabling her guns.
7. That all coal bunkers on the protective deck should be so
arranged that the coal can be trimmed into the lower bunkers under
any condition of waterline damage.
8. That stability belts of water-excluding or buoyant material will
greatly prolong the life of an unarmored ship in action, and that
they should be arranged in such a manner as to get the best possible
results for protection to stability from the smallest possible quantity
of material.
9. That for ships found lacking in stability when completed, ballast
should not be employed to increase their metacentric height, as it is
detrimental to the ship's speed and good behavior, and more suitable
means should be employed to cure the evil.
Note. — The problems for this article have been taken in part from
a pamphlet on the " Calculations of Displacement, etc., the Influence
of the General Dimensions on Stability, the Comparative Stability of
Ships of the same Dimensions and Displacement, and the Effect of
Underwater and Waterline Damage on the Buoyancy, Trim and
Stability of Ships," prepared jointly by the author and Lieutenant
C. B. T. Moore, U. S. N.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
By Lieutenant J. C. Soley, U. S. N.
When I was stationed at Paris as Naval Attach6 of our Legation,
one of the principal subjects that I was directed to study was the
Maritime Inscription, under which head are included the systems of
manning the French navy and of providing a reserve in case of a
sudden mobilization. The investigation which this study required
first turned my attention to this subject. When, a year later, circum-
stances compelled me to retire from active service and engage in
business pursuits, I found that my thoughts and ideas were always
wandering back to the service, which till then had been my whole
life, had included my whole future, and had been the embodiment of
all my aspirations. Then, for the first time, I realized how the Navy
had drifted away from all touch with the great body of the people of
the country; that it was merely considered a necessary appendage
to administration, not because of what it was but because of what it
had been. Its glorious traditions were preserved, its past services
were appreciated, but at that time, 1883, when it attracted any atten-
tion, it was when some individual interests were concerned, but rarely
when any gallant service was to be chronicled. The vessels were
•known to be rapidly deteriorating ; naval administration, particu-
larly in the navy-yards, was a synonym for some of the worst political
methods, and it was a condition to make sore the heart of any one
who had a pride in his commission or who had the good of the service
at heart. Such was the state of affairs when the first Advisory Board
was appointed. From their work came the first squadron worthy
of the name, which the Navy had possessed since the war, and with
the appearance of this squadron popular interest in the Navy com-
menced to revive. At that time it was my constant endeavor to
470 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
Stimulate this revival among the business men of Boston, and the
success of the efforts of my friends in and out of the Navy was
evidenced in the universal enthusiasm with which the White Squad-
ron was welcomed on its visit to Boston. The first signs of growing
interest recalled me to my old studies, and determined me to take
steps towards the creation of a naval reserve force which should be
modeled after that of England or of France. At the same time
officers of the Department had formulated a plan which bore fruit in
a measure being introduced into Congress for the creation of a Naval
Reserve. This measure failed of passage primarily because it had
been saddled with another measure, that of subsidy, which brought
it into the domain of politics, and that too during a period of high
political excitement. During this time the Dorchester Yacht Club,
a small club in Boston harbor, by some peculiar combination of
events which I have never been able to understand, took a decided
interest in the subject, and that interest was the first encouragement
which I had to work on ; and I may remark here, in passing, that the
club has steadily given that same encouragement without stint, and
has done more than any other individual or organization to create a
decided interest in all naval matters among the people of Massachu-
setts. Its endeavors in this direction have attracted attention to it,
and now it has grown into the Massachusetts Yacht Club, the most
important organization of its kind in New England waters, with a
squadron of 130 yachts, and it has furnished at least 50 men to the
Naval Battalion.
While these events were occurring I was engaged in making a more
thorough study of the subject, with the view to formulating a plan of
practical application which could be put into operation in Massa-
chusetts. Naturally the militia laws of the commonwealth were the
first to be consulted, and there I encountered some obstacles which
convinced me that the reserve of the Navy could not be a volunteer
organization at all, but that it was quite possible to organize a State
force which would be the initial movement in the creation of a National
Reserve. By another peculiar coincidence I found that the consti-
tution of the State had contemplated such a force, by making the
Governor " Captain-General, Commander-in-Chief and Admiral of
the land and sea forces of the State." So it appeared that while it
was almost impossible to secure any Congressional legislation for the
establishment of a reserve, it might be possible to create a sea force
in the State under the State laws, which should bear the same rela-
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 4/1
tion to the Navy as the land militia does to the Army. This would
certainly be better than nothing. It would be a step in the right
direction; and if other States joined in the movement, it would result
in having a trained body of seamen distributed along the whole coast
of the United States. So it seemed to be the best plan to separate
Naval Reserve and Naval Militia as two distinct forces, and to go
ahead with the organization of the Naval Militia.
The subject of Naval Militia is one that should be of intense
importance to those whose mercantile pursuits have created vast
interests either afloat or in our seabord cities. Our naval forces are
not maintained for purposes of offense, but to give protection to our
citizens, to their property, and to their interests all over the world. A
small navy in proportion to our population is all that is needed, but
such a force must include all the best elements both in ships and
men. Having arrived at such a point of perfection, however, we
cannot afford to sit still. The peace establishment is only valuable
as such. But in these days, when the air is full of stories of warlike
preparation, in order to command that respect which is the first
essential element of defense it is necessary to have a scheme of mobil-
ization and expansion, so that the small navy which fills all our needs
in time of peace can be readily increased to a war footing. To meet
such contingencies all the great naval powers of Europe have made
the most complete arrangements for a sudden increase of their naval
establishments. In this country we have, consistently, with our repub-
lican principles, reduced our navy to a very small footing ; but at the
same time, lulled into a state of fancied security by our isolated posi-
tion, we have neglected the most important lesson which should have
been learned from the last war, and have made absolutely no provi-
sion for a sudden increase in our force.
The crying need of our navy to-day is a reserve from which to
draw meh. Our merchant marine has fallen off so much that it does
not fill its proper duty as a source of supply, and for some reason,
probably innate ambition, Americans do not care to enlist in the
lower grades of the service. Without attempting to go into the
causes, the fact remains that we are obliged to seek in the foreign-
born element of our population for enough seamen to man our ships,
while the element of nationality is supplied by the training squadron,
a most important factor, but at the same time wholly inadequate to
meet the needs of the service in the case of sudden expansion.
During the last great war we found ourselves called upon to in-
4/2 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
crease the navy from 90 vessels to 700, and from 5000 men to 25,000;
but as there was no provision for the separate enrollment of those
citizens who followed aquatic pursuits, the quotas of the several
States were drafted into the army, and the navy was almost para-
lysed at a time when the service of every man was imperatively
needed. To obtain the bounties, seamen were induced to enter a
service where they were useless in comparison with the advantage of
having their services on board ship at a time when the ocean was
swarming with an enemy's privateers. The difficulty was partially
remedied at the time, when Congress passed a law that all seamen
who had entered the land service might be drafted into the navy.
Even at the present day there are no means of providing the navy
with a single trained seaman beyond the number prescribed by law
for the peace establishment, and that number would be hardly suffi-
cient for the defense of a single large harbor in case of war. The
possibility of rapid mobilization of ships and men is the first essen-
tial of an effective navy, and that essential is absolutely wanting in
our navy. It may be said that we can rely upon the patriotism of
our seafaring population, which amounts, in round numbers, to
about 300,000. But it must be remembered that the man of-war of
to-day is a complex machine, requiring thorough technical instruc-
tion for its crew, who must at the same time be men who are accus-
tomed to a life on the water. However able the seaman may be as
such, to be useful on board a ship of war his qualifications as a
sailor must be supplemented by a fair technical understanding of the
manipulation of heavy guns and torpedoes.
The action of the other great naval powers of the world in this
direction is worthy of consideration. In Great Britain we find the
first steps in this direction were taken in 1798, when a reserve force
was established, which was gradually increased until, in 1810, it
numbered 23,000 men. This force underwent many changes, and
in 1859 the Royal Naval Reserve was established, which to-day num-
bers 270 officers and 18,000 enlisted men. These men are required
to attend drill for 28 days in each year, and the total cost of this
establishment for the year 1889 amounted to over |i,ooo,ooo. In
addition to the force already described the British Government has
established another, known as the Royal Naval Artillery Volun-
teers, which is local in organization and composed of men not pro-
fessionally seafaring, but with a taste for and a certain familiarity
with nautical pursuits. It has shown itself an efficient body of in-
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITLA.. 473
fantry on shore and of naval artillery afloat, and although many of
the men are well up in the social scale, it has proven the willingness
and facility with which men not bred to a sailor's life can be trans-
formed into efficient man-of-war's-men, performing all duties except
those of an advanced technical nature. In 1888 this force numbered
about 2000 men and officers. Again there is another force called
the Coast Guard, which numbers 4000. and the Seamen Pensioner
Reserve and Marine Pensioner Reserve, numbering 2000. The
Coast Guard patrols the coast and mans the revenue vessels and is
liable to be sent to vessels of the fleet. The Pensioner Reserves are
composed of men who have served their time in the Royal Navy
and have retired with good-conduct pensions.
In France the active reserve is maintained by the Maritime In-
scription, in which 160,000 seafaring men are enrolled. Every sea-
man is obliged to do one year's service in reserve on board ship,
which maintains a constant reserve of 10,000 men, and another force
which may be embarked at any time is the Marine Artillery and
Marine Infantry, numbering 20,000 men.
In Germany the organization of trained reserves has been consid-
ered with the same thoroughness which characterizes their whole
military administration, and the classes of reserve comprise the Sea
Wehr, the Sea Battalion and Dock- Yard Battalions and the Marine
Artillery, capable of supplying a force of 20,000 men.
In Italy the system is the same as in France, the men of the
reserve having complete charge of the coast defenses and number-
ing about 20,000.
Russia, Austria, Spain, Sweden, Holland, Denmark, Portugal,
Greece, Turkey and Japan all have complete systems of reserves to
meet any emergencies.
The necessity for such a reserve has been ever present to the
minds of thinking men connected with our naval service from the
earliest days of the Republic, and in 1805 President Jefferson drafted
a bill which would have given about 50,000 men to be enrolled.
This bill proposed that every able-bodied citizen whose occupation
was on the high sea or on the tide-water of the United States should
be enrolled in the militia for naval service and exempt from service
in the land militia. This excellent measure met with the same fate
as have so many other measures relating to the efficiency of the navy,
which have been thoughtfully elaborated but have failed to become
law for the want of sufficient public interest ; after this the subject
474 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
received but little attention, until when the war came and found us
totally unprepared for expansion, and even with a law which forced
all sailors into the army. At that time everything had to be done
in a haphazard way, which is always sure to be the concomitant of
such a condition of absence of preparation, and measures had to be
passed not of general utility but only such as seemed to meet the
emergency. From that time there came another period of inaction,
when everything belonging to the navy was considered as connected
with a necessary evil, until the time when the navy had reached such
a condition that something in the way of rehabilitation had to be
done and done quickly. Measures were accordingly taken which
resulted in the construction of our new fleet, and the navy began to
receive the consideration which this most important arm of national
defense merited. But with this increase of the navy came the ques-
tion of manning these vessels, and nearly ten years ago the then
Secretary of the Navy advocated a plan which contemplated the
consolidation under the naval administration of the Revenue Marine,
the Lighthouse and Coast Survey and Life-saving services, with
the increase of the training squadron. This plan failed of accomp-
lishment at the time, but it has borne fruit.
In this country our peculiar federal relations necessitate an arrange-
ment which is somewhat different to those which I have described
as being in use in other countries, and these relations involve the
creation of two distinct forces — one of "the Naval Reserve, under the
control of the General Government, and one of Naval Militia, under
the control of the several States. It is necessary that these distinc-
tions should be carefully observed, because the conditions governing
the two bodies are so utterly different. The essential idea of a
reserve is the principle of thorough training and the possibility of
immediate mobilization. This is incompatible with the existence of
the State force, because the men of the militia cannot be taken out
of their State, and because it is recruited from those whose occupa-
tions only permit them to devote a limited space of time to training.
Again, the Reserve should be under complete governmental control
through its officers; but this is out of the question in this militia,
because the constitution grants to the States the right to elect their
own officers. The Reserve should draw its support from the govern-
ment and be subject to its legislation, while the militia is supported
by the separate States and under their control.
In view of these considerations the distinction must be plainly
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 475
drawn on these lines. To the Reserve belong those who by enlist-
ment, by previous education and benefits, or on account of special
protection, owe their service primarily to the general government.
To the Naval Militia belong those who, while following their ordin-
ary pursuits for a livehhood, are willing to give a certain amount of
time to the preparation for the defense of their homes, and who,
while they contribute their time without pay, are still willing to give
that service to their own State, but at the same time retaining all
their privileges. One is an enforced service, the other is a voluntary
one.
The necessity for distinction between these two forces lies in the
peculiarity of our federal relations, which place us on a different
footing to any other nation in the world. The Constitution of the
United States accords to the several States the right to elect their
own officers, and the State laws provide that their military forces
shall not be obliged to serve outside the limits of their own State, and
also give to the members of any command of the State forces the right
to restrict their membership. At the same time it must be remem-
bered that the service is purely voluntary, but at the same time it
requires six days' service in training, and the liability of being called
out on requisition by certain officers of the State, city or town.
These restrictions are totally at variance with all the principles of
military service under the general government, and they absolutely
enforce the principle that any volunteer organization must be con-
trolled by State laws, if for no other reason than for this simple one,
that the men would not volunteer their services for any greater
length of time or to be bound by any other restrictions.
As the Naval Militia has already been started, I propose to consider
that branch of the service first. Laws creating naval militia have
been passed by the States of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connec-
ticut, New York, and California, Texas and Mississippi will also
probably pass the necessary laws at the next session of their Legis-
latures. Massachusetts is the only one which has a force enrolled
according to the laws and mustered into the service, but it is confi-
dently expected that the other States mentioned will have completed
their organization by the first of July, When so organized, the Naval
Mihtia will be a force resembling the Naval Artillery Volunteers of
Great Britain, It will be under the laws governing the mihtia of the
States and subject to the same laws, privileges and duties. In case
of necessity it could be called into the service of the United States
476 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
in the same manner as the land miHtia, and it will form an excellent
school to supply officers and men when they are needed.
In 1887 the Massachusetts Yacht Club, as I have already stated,
took the matter in hand and appointed a committee to present a bill
to the State Legislature. This bill was passed in the spring of 1888,
and as it is a model of brevity I insert it.
Section i. There shall be allowed, in addition to the companies of
the militia provided in section 22 of chapter 411 of the acts of 1877,
not more than four companies of naval militia, which shall consti-
tute a battalion, to be known as the Naval Battalion of the Volun-
teer Militia.
Section 2. The officers of this battalion shall consist of a lieutenant-
commander, whose rank and pay shall assimilate to that of a major
of infantry, and a staff, to consist of one adjutant, one ordnance
officer, one paymaster who shall be the mustering officer, and one
surgeon, each with rank of lieutenant, junior grade. They shall be
paid the same as the battalion staffs in the militia. There shall also
be attached to the staff the following petty officers : One master-at-
arms, two yeomen, one hospital steward, one chief bugler, who shall
receive the same pay as the non-commissioned staff of a battalion of
infantry.
Section 3. To each company there shall be one lieutenant (com-
manding), two lieutenants (junior grade), two ensigns, to receive the
same pay as captains, first and second lieutenants, respectively, of
infantry ; two boatswain's mates, two gunner's mates, two cox-
swains, two quartermasters, and forty-four seamen. All enlisted
men of companies shall receive the pay of enlisted men of companies
of infantry of the militia.
Section 4. The Naval Battalion shall be uniformed as the com-
mander-in-chief shall direct, out of any existing appropriations lor
uniforms or supplies for the militia ; and shall be instructed as he
may direct, and be subject to the laws and regulations governing the
militia. The duty required by law may be performed afloat.
Section 5. The companies comprising the Naval Battalion may be
raised as provided by law, when the United States government is
ready to furnish arms and equipments and a vessel of war for per-
formance of duty required by law.
The bill became a law immediately, but it remained inoperative,
under the provisions of the last section, until the spring of 1890,
when by the kindness of the present Secretary these provisions were
complied with and organization became possible.
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 47/
The delays and discouragements have been many and various
since the passage of the original law, but those who had the matter
in hand have persevered with a calm determination to carry out their
intentions, and have received enthusiastic assistance from many whose
predilection for a service of this peculiar nature has kept them stead-
fast from the beginning. There have been many changes in the
names of subscribers since the first list was started, and it is but fair
to say that to the kind assistance of Adjutant-General Dalton a
large proportion of our success is due. With the progressive spirit
which has always characterized his administration and made our
militia force second to none, he early recognized the value of the
new element which this force would infuse in the State militia, and
has given kind and valuable assistance and encouragement when
things looked most hopeless. So, after two years of alternate hope
and discouragement, we met at the State House on the 28th of Feb-
ruary, 1890, and in one evening mustered into the service four com-
panies of 43 men each after a very rigid inspection.
The fact that 4 companies, 172 men, were mustered in on one
evening was remarkable in itself, as it is the largest number that has
been mustered into the service of the State at any one time since the
Civil War. But as a matter of history the date was still more
important, for on that day we took the first step to create the force
which must in the future become a connecting link between the navy
and the people, and form an additional safeguard for our homes and
firesides. Composed of those who are born and bred on the sea-
shore, accustomed more or less to aquatic sports or to a life on the
water, of young men who are the children of the land, with the
greatest stake in the country, such a force behind the navy must
make it doubly strong. And we to-day are the pioneers of such a
force for the defense of the littoral, and as time goes on this force
will grow until it numbers 10,000 men, and covers the whole coast
of the United States, east, west, north and south.
As the organization in Massachusetts is the only one in practical
operation, the details of organization are explained, although there
is very little to explain, as the organization is almost exactly that of
any vessel in commission. _ In order to acquire certain benefits which
are granted by general laws, the primary organization is that of a
battalion. The only permanent officer not found in the ship organi-
zation is the adjutant, but that rank is always made a special detail
in the landing bill. Moreover, the battalion organization leaves less
478 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
to be explained to new men, and they begin with something that they
understand. The quarter bill, naval brigade and boat bills are made
out and hung in the hall of the armory, so that the quarter bill
really has become the basis of organization, and the companies have
become the divisions, and petty officers first and second captains
of guns.
The battalion is quartered in the South Armory, and one end of the
building is devoted entirely to the command, giving a good room for
each division, with lockers for clothing for each man. The four rooms
open into the guard hall, where the Officer of the Day is stationed
with his guard, and which serves as a quarterdeck in a ship, being
the point where officers meet and from which orders are issued.
Then comes a large hall called the Boat Hall, in which is a frigate's
launch mounted on a cradle, which is equipped with a torpedo-spar
on one side, a howitzer forward, and a gatling aft. Still another
hall, called the Battery Hall, contains an exact model of the side of a
modern vessel, with a sponson battery in the middle carrying a 6-inch
rifle, with armor shield and muzzle pivoting guns on broadside. The
6-inch and its carriage are made of wood, both on account of expense
and weight, but they are fairly good working models. In the different
halls are also placed the racks for small-arms, cutlasses, pistols and
single-sticks, while the drill hall, the use of which we share with the
First Regiment, is 300 feet long and 150 feet wide. During the winter
the drills take place on Tuesday evenings from 8 to 10, and each
evening is divided up so as to give about 10 minutes for quarters for
muster and inspection, 15 minutes for ceremonies, 30 minutes for
divisional drill, 20 minutes for naval brigade drill or fighting exercise
on shore, with intervals for rest or change of clothing. By this system
it is surprising what an amount of instruction can be given, and it has
the great advantage of variety, so that the men are never mentally
fatigued, but their minds are always in a responsive condition, only
made brighter by the mental food that is given in combination with
active bodily exercises at arms, which is always particularly attrac-
tive to a young man. These armory exercises continue from the
first of October to the first of May, In May the drill period changes
from Tuesday night to Saturday afternoon, and the scene of exercise
changes to the river. Here we have four cutters and two launches
moored, and they have one hour of operations on the river, with
howitzers and torpedoes and gatlings, and one hour of exercise at
street-fighting or manoeuvring on shore.
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 479
On the 7th of July the command goes on board the Wabash for
its five days' tour of duty. The log of last year's tour will be found
in the appendix ; from it any one can see that no time was wasted.
The old frigates are about the only vessels in the service that can
take on board 250 men and 25 officers without interfering with any
of the internal arrangements of the ship. The men can be berthed
and messed there with comparative comfort, which would be quite
impossible on board of a small ship. The frigate becomes the
headquarters where much of the instruction is given in ship routine
and nomenclature, although no attempt is made to drill with the
smoothbore guns, except for practice in sighting. Opportunities
are excellent for boat exercise, field and torpedo exercise, and last
year an opportunity was afforded, by the presence of the Petrel at
the yard, for exercise with heavy guns, Hotchkiss rifles. In the fall
the command went by train to Marblehead, embarked in the boats
and proceeded to Salem Willows, where they went through the
various drills incident to landing under fire and the attack of Fort
Lee.
Now a word as to the personnel. Of the staff, the adjutant has
served three years in the infantry and is a fine sailor. The ordnance
officer is a graduate of the Naval Academy, the paymaster was an
officer of the volunteer navy, and the surgeon resigned from the navy
only a few years ago. The lieutenants commanding divisions are
all graduates of the Academy, and, of the other officers, four have
gone through part of the course. Some have held commissions in
other militia organizations, and others have attained their rank on
election and examination. By the State law the general officers and
commanders of regiments and battalions form a Board of Examina-
tion, and every officer on election is obliged to present himself before
the board and be examined professionally, and also as to his occu-
pation and his financial ability to meet the expense of his office.
The professional examination is generally conducted by the com-
manding officer of the battalion to which he belongs, this leaving
largely upon the commanding officer the responsibility for his
officers. At the same time any officer who has become lax in his
performance of duty, or has subjected himself to opprobrium in any
way, may be ordered before the board, and if his examination is not
satisfactory his commission may be vacated. The system of elec-
tion is the weakest part of the system in some ways, particularly
when political methods are followed, but it has some advantages, and
480 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
SO far it has generally worked well, and it will work well with a good
class of men who are professionally enthusiastic, and a good balance
is kept in the hands of the commanding officer by the examination.
Petty officers are nominated by the commanding officers of divisions,
after having passed a satisfactory examination before a board of the
commissioned officers of the division, in which examination the
principal points are attention to drill, habits of command, profes-
sional knowledge and military etiquette. No nomination for petty
officers is considered unless the candidate has qualified as marksman.
The nominations are made to the commanding officer of battalion,
who confirms them in his discretion and issues a warrant for the
grade. The members of the command are recruited from all ranks
of life, but generally from the same class as the officers, and in this
respect the organization stands high in the State service. A large
number are yachtsmen, and there are about 30 men who have
honorable discharges from the service, and the rest are men engaged
in business who have a preference for exercises afloat. The mem-
bers have the right to discretion as to membership, and this is exer-
cised by having an admission committee in each division. Appli-
cants are obliged to sign a printed form, giving their personal
history, sponsors and references. In the case of emplo3'es the
approval of their employer is desired. After the applicant has
passed the committee, his name is submitted to the lieutenant com-
manding the division, and, if he approves, the applicant may be
mustered in when a vacancy occurs. There are 44 seamen and 8
petty officers to each company or division, but the State law also
permits to each company 15 " recruits," who are enrolled but not
enlisted. These form a waiting list, and give the lieutenant of the
division a chance to form an opinion as to their desirability. All
those who are enlisted or enrolled are required to pay an entrance
fee of five dollars and a monthly assessment of fifty cents. Those
who are enlisted are supplied by the State with a uniform, consisting
of blue cap, coat and trousers, white Jersey, white hat and working
suit, white helmet, leggings, canteen, haversack and peajacket.
The officers supply their own uniforms and side-arms. Their full
dress is a blue suit resembling the navy blouse suit, but sufficiently
diflferent to prevent one from being mistaken for the other. They
also have a white serge suit and helmet and blue overcoat with cape,
which is made of mackintosh cloth. The State had no arms to
supply for our peculiar drills, but the Department has kindly loaned
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 48 1
such as were necessary until the appropriation became available.
As nearly all of our young men pass through the public schools
where they receive military instruction, it has not been necessary to
devote any time to preliminary drills. In fact I have rather tried to
make them unlearn some things, so as to get rid of the stiffness which
would interfere with their efficiency at drill in the boats or on board
ship. Special attention is given to promoting efficiency in rifle
practice, and military exercises are confined to those which may be
called fighting exercises. Each division is required to contribute
$25 a month to the battalion fund, and this fund is administered by
the council, which is composed of commanding officer and adjutant
and paymaster and one commissioned officer and one enlisted man
from each division, who are elected annually. The State allows pay
to each officer and each enlisted man while on duty ; the pay of
officers averages about $4 per day, and that of the men is $2 per
day without regard to rating. All pay received from the State is
assigned to lieutenants commanding divisions and by them turned
into the battalion fund. The paymaster makes contracts subject to
the approval of the commanding officer for feeding officers and men
while on service, and it costs for the men $1.50 per day and for the
officers $2.50 per day. The table is excellent, and as nearly as
possible the food is such as the men are accustomed to have at home.
I have been freely criticised by persons in and out of the Navy for
not requiring the men to live on ship's rations while on board ship,
but my reason for not doing so is that they are not accustomed to
such food, and if it was attempted their stomachs would be so upset
that they would not be capable of doing nearly as much work. At
the same time I have found them ready to submit to necessary pri-
vation, and they have always responded readily when called upon
for any extraordinary exertion.
So much for the Naval Militia. But this force, it must be remem-
bered, can only operate in the waters of its own State. In time of
war it would have to be mustered in the naval service. Something
more than this is necessary to make it possible for the Navy to
respond efficiently on a sudden call to arms ; it must have a reserve
force subject to the control of the Navy Department which is more
thoroughly trained and more easily mobilized. The subject of a
naval reserve is one which I approach with diffidence, as I do not
speak from experience. My suggestions are merely the result of my
own thoughts and reading, and I advance them because it has seemed
482 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
to me that the plans which have already been presented have failed to
have the practical element which is necessary to success. Another
reason that I have for submitting them is, that I know that however
crude my propositions may be, some one else will have his thoughts
turned in that direction, and will evolve something which will be
thoroughly practical. Reserve is the real power of a military service.
The actual fighting force is of but little consequence, unless it has the
support of a force, latent perhaps, but which is known to exist. Our
country commands respect as one of the great powers of the world,
not because of its little army of 25,000 men, but because there are five
millions of men more or less trained to arms behind that standing
army. So it should be with the Navy. Our 8000 seamen would only
give about one man for every mile of seacoast. I need not say to
you how much more than ever technical training is necessary for a
man-of-war's-man, and there is no source open now from which to
draw the trained men required. A large proportion of the men in
our fishing fleet come fi'om the Provinces, and would be of no use for
manning the fleet. The crews of the coasters are a nondescript lot,
their lives are full of hardships, and they would be of but little value.
There is now no American merchant fleet, which in old times was
the nursery of seamen. The largest and best class from which we
could draw is that of inshore fishermen, who are more largely native
Americans, and who own their homes and have an interest in the
country. It is well known to us all how much the active force of the
Navy is depleted by the crews of Receiving Ships, Naval Academy,
Coast Survey ships, which must all be maintained, and this number
will be largely increased when the Revenue Marine, Lighthouse and
Life-saving services are consolidated with the Navy.
The Naval Academy each year sends into civil life a number of
young men who have received a magnificent education at the expense
of the government, and who would become officers if there were
places for them. The training squadron does the same work for the
enlisted men, and each year there are numbers of those who drop
out after having received a thorough training. Now it would seem
as if these two classes owed still some service to the ilation which has
educated them and given them a good start in life, and they ought
to be willing to render some service, and the country ought to be
willing to pay for it.
The masters and men of the merchant service who sail under the
flag and those who are engaged in fisheries receive protection from
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 483
the government through its navy, and the government is entitled to
their services also. Whether good or bad, they are the seafaring
class, hardy and accustomed to privations and to a life on the sea.
Novir, of these three classes we could create the naval reserve, all
of them directly belonging to the government which maintains them
or which has educated them or which protects them. The first
necessity would be their enrollment, so that the number would be
known and they could be called upon in an emergency and pro-
vision made for drilling them. Pay should be given for their services,
not only when performing actual duty, but to retain the right to their
services, and, most important of all, the reserve should be perman-
ently under the command of a flag-officer with a staff, whose entire
duty would be the maintenance of this force.
To carry out this idea I propose a plan which I acknowledge to be
crude, but which I hope to see abler men take up and elaborate. To
divide the coast into reserve districts, with the receiving-ship for the
district headquarters, the captain of the receiving-ship being captain
of the reserve for that district, and under the direct command of the
flag-officer commanding the reserve. The reserve to be divided into
three classes in each district. The first class to include the crew of
the district ship and all men belonging now to the Revenue Marine,
Life-Saving Service and Coast Survey. The second class to include
all those who have passed through the Naval Academy and the
training squadron, who may be resident in the district. The third
class to include all the masters and crews of the merchant vessels
and all the fishermen who belong to the ports of that district. The
men of the different classes should be so disposed that they would
assemble on board the district ship at certain periods, and when those
periods arrived a squadron should be on hand to take them on board
for a period of days for drill with the modern weapons of war. They
should all be supplied with a suit of uniform, and the officers should
have a certain rank. The principal work, except the service afloat,
would fall on the staff of the receiving or district ship, which v»ould
have to take care of the enrollment and keep account of the move-
ments of all the men belonging to the different classes. Such
measures as I have outlined would first require national legislation
and then the reserve vi'ould have to be placed in the hands of those
who were in sympathy with such a movement. There would be a
great deal of work to be done in the beginning, but system would
make that work very simple. In France, where bureau methods are
484 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
more perfect in detail than in any other country, this system has
been carried out so thoroughly that the Commissary of the Mari-
time Inscription can tell at any time the whereabouts of every man in
his district not only in the active service but also in the reserve. The
French system of classes is more paternal in its relations to the men
and is more perfect in its results than the English system, and it
brings the navy into closer relations with the people, and the men of
the fleet are very closely identified with local interests.
The necessity of bringing the navy into close relations with the
people is of paramount importance, and I have realized it more and
more since I have been one of the people myself. Our country is
so big and our navy so small that this is difficult under present con-
ditions. Probably, as time goes on, the number of officers and men
in service will have to be increased, but it will never be really strong
until we have a strong reserve force behind it, binding it now closely
to the people by ties of kindred, of sympathy and of interest.
By the organization of these two bodies, the naval reserve and the
naval militia, we shall obtain powerful allies for the navy, compelling
respect for it abroad and commanding affection at home. Each
branch may be counted on to supply 10,000 additional men, and will
allow to the peace establishment the services of every man on the
rolls. What I have suggested for the reserve may be considered
chimerical, for nothing has been done. But I believe the establish-
ment of the Massachusetts Naval Militia will be only the beginning
of the creation of a magnificent force which will bring in incalculable
strength to the navy. The naval militia is no longer an experiment.
In one short year our naval battalion has become a corps (V elite both
in character of the men and in their professional attainments. It is
the only force in the State to-day, regular or volunteer, which knows
how to drill with heavy rifled guns or with torpedoes. Filled with
enthusiasm for the naval service, inspired by high aspirations, com-
posed of the flower of our young men, the naval battalion of Massa-
chusetts mihtia is the advance-guard of a mighty force which will in
time form a belt of trained seamen around the whole coast of the
United States, to stand in the same relation to the navy that the land
militia does to the army, a band of brothers emulating their devotion
and discipline, ready to live with them, to fight with them, and, if
need be, to die with them.
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 485
APPENDIX.
A.
REPORT OF LIEUT. SOLEY TO THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL, 1890.
Headquarters Naval Battalion, M. V. M., South Armory,
Boston, December i, 189c.
Major-General Dalton, Adjutant-General of Massachusetts.
General: — I have the honor to submit my report of the operations of the
Naval Battalion during the past year.
In the latter part of February those who desired to be enrolled in this
organization were directed to meet at the State House, and the four companies,
allowed by law were mustered into the service of the State. On the comple-
tion of the South Armory, quarters were assigned in that building, and drills
commenced in June. From that time until August the time was devoted to
preliminary instruction in infantry exercises, cutlass drill, bayonet fencing,
and duties aboard ship, as far as they could be explained in the armory.
The command was ordered to perform the five days' duty required by law
on board the frigate Wabash at the Navy Yard, for which permission had
been granted by the Navy Department. The command reported on board the
United States steamship Wabash, Captain Matthews, United States Navy,,
commanding, at noon on Monday, the 19th of August. The first day was
devoted to general instruction with the broadside battery. Catling gun and
breech-loading rifles ; the second day to practice with the six-inch breech-
loading rifles and Hotchkiss rapid-fire guns on board the United States steam-
ship Petrel, Commander Brownson commanding, which vessel happened to be
in the dry-dock undergoing repairs ; the third day was devoted to exercises
afloat in the launches and cutters, with boat howitzers; the fourth day was.
principally occupied with inspection by his Excellency the Governor.
In addition to the drills, which formed the principal feature of each day, the
command was disembarked every morning at 6.30 for exercises of the naval,
brigade, and in the afternoon for the military ceremonies of parade. The
pioneers were instructed in making igniters and fusees, and in improvising^
torpedoes, afloat; in mining, telegraph lines, in making bridges, in throwing.
up breastworks and in laying mines and countermines, ashore. At the same
time the routine of a man-of-war was observed, as far as possible under our
peculiar circumstances, to give some idea of routine etiquette and discipline
as carried out on board a vessel of the navy. Practical instruction was also
given in night exercises at the battery or on fire-alarm.
The duties on board ship were performed under considerable difficulty; but.
the cordial co-operation of Captain Matthews, Lieutenant-Commander Merry
and of the other officers of the Wabash smoothed the way as far as was pos-
sible, and contributed immeasurably to the success of the first tour of duty.
Much time was necessarily lost in transporting the command from the ship to
the shore for the land exercises. The arrangements for messing the men left
486 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
something to be desired ; but, at the same time, they were carried out with a
-success that exceeded my warmest expectations.
The day of duty required in the autumn was assigned for September 23.
On that day the command was organized as a naval brigade, was transported
ito Marblehead by train, there embarked in launches and cutters, and towed
to Salem harbor. Arriving opposite the point of attack, line was formed, the
torpedo corps, under cover of the fire of the launches, exploded a countermine
to remove torpedoes supposed to have been placed in the channel, and then
the whole force was landed on the beach. After landing, tactical movements
had to be temporarily abandoned, because the crowd of sightseers, though
very good-natured, was very large and curious. As soon as the command
could be extricated from the crowd, the tactical movement was continued.
The objective point was an old earthwork about half a mile from the landing
place. A mine was placed and exploded, and the boat guns, placed in impro-
vised earthworjcs, bombarded the fort, and the command charged up to the top
of the paraj)et. This being the first drill of such a nature, there was no attempt
at having an opposing force, the whole exercise being considered in the light
of drill which should lead up to detailed instruction in the winter.
During the fall and winter the command has been drilled in cutlass and
bayonet fencing, naval brigade exercise, aiming drill, Gatling and boat how-
itzer drill, skirmish drill, street fighting and boat exercise at the Navy Yard.
Although other drills occupied such a large portion of the time that it was
almost impossible to devote any time to instruction in target practice, the
requirement that all gun-captains should qualify as marksmen has had a good
effect, and thirty-six officers and men have qualified as marksmen for this year.
I am very proud of the work done by the command during the few months
of its existence. The men were called upon to do harder and more continuous
work during the tour of duty on board the Wabash than I have ever before
required of men under instruction. They responded heartily, did their work
well in good sailor fashion, and showed an earnest desire to learn. The suc-
cess of my efforts was due to the able assistance of the commanding officers
of divisions, and to this same earnest zeal on the part of the men. While
comparatively little attention has been paid to perfecting the men in the minor
details of an infantry drill, which are sometimes considered all-important by
those who have made a specialty of that arm of the service, it has been my
endeavor, in the short time since the command was organized, to perfect it in
the fighting exercises; and, while the drill may not be all that can be desired
on dress parade, I think I can safely say that the command is ready to do any
duty that it may be called upon to perform, either afloat or ashore.
I respectfully call attention to the fact that up to. this time our arms and
equipments have been of the simplest description, and what improvements
have been made, or equipments obtained, have been at the expense of private
individuals. Generous contributions have enabled us to purchase a ten-barrel
Gatling and its equipments. If sufficient funds are obtained, it is proposed
to purchase a Hotchkiss revolving cannon. Arrangements are in progress for
mounting in the armory a full-size model six-inch breech-loading rifle, in a
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 48/
barbette turret with armor shield, and a ship's launch fitted for mounting a
rapid-fire gun, a Catling, and a howitzer, with proper torpedo appliances.
I respectfully recommend the purchase of a gun-cotton torpedo outfit, as the
use of gunpowder for this purpose is obsolete.
As electricity plays such an important part in any school of application, I
recommend that the Legislature be requested to authorize the enlistment of
another company, to be a torpedo company ; that the enlistments in this com-
pany be confined to men who can pass as practical electricians or machinists ;
that permission be obtained for a certain number of this company to attend at
the torpedo station for practical instruction ; and that the Navy Department
be requested to detail officers to give practical instruction in this branch during
the winter.
The cordial support received from the Navy Department and from officers
of the navy shows how favorably this new organization is regarded by the
regular service. Special thanks are due to Captain Matthews and Lieutenant-
Commander Merry of the Wabash, to Commander Brownson, Lieutenant
Mason and Ensigns Tillman and Chambers of the Petrel, for valuable assist-
ance. I remain, General, very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
John C. Soley, Lieutenant-Commander.
B.
ADMIRAL WALKER'S ROUTINE ORDER.
The following programme of exercises on board the fleet, as directed by
Admiral Walker, was carried out exactly for the summer drill of 1891 :
Monday, July 6.
The Naval Militia will join the Wabash for five days.
Tuesday, July 7.
At 9 A. M. — The Militia Battalion will report on board the ships of the
squadron as follows: First division on the Chicago, second division on the
Newark, third division on the Boston, fourth division on the Atlanta, a crew of
officers on the Yorktown.
Each division will be in charge of its commanding officer, and will be divided
into four guns' crews of 12 men each. These crews will be assigned to the
gun divisions of the ship in numerical order.
At 9.30 — The ship's company will be inspected at quarters, and will be
drilled at great guns until 10.15, ^^^ militia guns' crews looking on.
At 10.30 — The militia guns' crews will be calledto quarters andbe instructed
and drilled at great guns by the divisional officers of the ship until 11.30.
At 1. 15— The first and second militia guns' crews will be stationed at the
guns of the secondary battery, and will be instructed and drilled at them by the
divisional officers of the ship for one hour.
The third and fourth militia guns' crews will be assigned to the powder divi-
sions, and will be instructed by the divisional officers of the ship in the ammu-
nition and its service for one hour.
4^8 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
At 2.30 — The first and third and the second and fourth militia guns' crews
will change places and be instructed and drilled as for the last period.
At 4.30 — The militia divisions will return to the Wabash.
Wednesday, July 8.
At 9 A. M. — The militia divisions will report on board as on the previous
day, and each crew will be assigned to replace one of the regular crews of the
division to which it belongs.
At 9.30 — The squadron will, on signal from the flagship, go to general
quarters and be exercised without powder until 10.15, the militia guns' crews
participating.
At 10.30 — The militia will be called to quarters and be drilled at great guns
by their own officers for one hour.
At 1. 15 P. M. — The militia division will be stationed at the secondary battery,
and be drilled at those guns by the ships' officers for one hour.
At 2.30 — The naval militia will be assigned to boats to replace a part of each
crew, and will be instructed by the officers and crews of the boats in their
duties at "Away all boats armed and equipped."
At 3.30 — Upon signal from the flagship, all boats of the squadron will be
armed and equipped for distant service, the militia replacing the regular mem-
bers of the boats' crews as previously detailed.
At 4.30 — The militia divisions will return to the Wabash.
Thursday, July 9.
At 9 A. M. — The militia division will report and be assigned to divisions as
on the previous day.
At 9.30 — Regular quarters and inspection, the militia guns' crews partici-
pating.
At 10.30 — The squadron will get under way and stand out the harbor to the
place selected for target practice with the main and secondary batteries.
The target will be placed at the apex of a triangle, whose sides will be 1500
yards, and the end of the base occupied by observing boats to plot the fall
of the shot.
At 12.30 — The squadron being in column, the ships will pass along the base
of the triangle, and each militia crew at its station at the main battery, will, in
passing, fire two shots at the target.
The squadron will then countermarch, and each militia crew at its station at
the secondary battery, will, in passing, fire five shots at the target.
At 3.30 P. M. — The squadron will return to its anchorage, and on arrival the
militia divisions will return to the Wabash.
9 to 10 P. M. — The squadron will be supposed to be an enemy's squadron at
anchor in the harbor, but not protected by torpedo-nets or guard-boats.
The naval militia will attempt to destroy one or more of the ships by torpe-
does improvised as it may devise.
The squadron will defend itself with search lights and the secondary battery.
Rules and umpires for this attack to be arranged hereafter.
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 489
Friday, July 10.
At 8.30 A. M. — The militia divisions will report as on Tuesday.
At 9 — His Excellency the Governor of Massachusetts will be received by the
squadron and will go on board of the Chicago.
At 9.30 — The squadron will get under way and proceed to an anchorage off
Deer Island.
At 10.30 A. M.— The squadron's Naval Brigade and the Militia Battalion will
make a landing on Deer Island, supposed to be in the possession of an enemy.
At 12.30 P. M.— The squadron will return to its anchorage, and on arrival
the militia divisions will return to the "Wabash.
Saturday, July ii.
At II A. M.— The Naval Militia Battalion will leave the Wabash, and
accompanied by the Squadron Naval Brigade will return to its armory.
c.
UNIFORM ORDER.
Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
Adjutant-General's Office, Boston, May 23, 1890.
General Orders, )
No. 10. j
The following bill of dress is hereby adopted for the Naval Battalion of the
M. V. M. :
COATS.
Full dress for officers: A blouse of dark navy-blue cloth, shaped to the
figure, to descend to top of inseam of trousers ; a slit over each hip extending
on the right side five inches from the bottom of the coat, and on the left side
as high as the position of the lower edge of the sword-belt; single-breasted, with
a " fly " front fitted with plain, flat, black gutta-percha buttons and a standing
collar. The collar, edges of the coat, side seams of the back from the shoulder
to the lower edge of the skirt, and edges of the hip slits to five inches from
bottom of coat shall be trimmed with lustrous black mohair braid one and one-
fourth inches wide laid on flat, beside which, at a distance of one-eighth of an
inch, with an overhand turn three-eighths of an inch in diameter at each change
of direction, a narrow, black silk braid one-eighth of an inch wide shall be
placed. On each side of the collar shall be embroidered in high relief, one
inch in width, the grade devices. The grade marks on the sleeve will be of
gold lace.
In warm weather a similar coat made of white linen duck, trimmed with white
linen braid, and with the sleeve ornaments of white braid of the same character
as prescribed in gold lace for the blue coat, and without collar devices.
For enlisted men : Dark navy-blue cloth shaped to the figure, to descend to
the top of the inseam of the trousers, single-breasted, with five small, State
buttons, and around the collar of the coat two stripes of white tape three-
sixteenths of an inch wide and three-sixteenths of an inch apart, the outer
490 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITLA..
Stripe to be one-quarter of an inch from the edge, the stripes to extend down
in front to bottom of opening. In each corner of the collar there should be
worked in white a star three-quarters of an inch in diameter.
Around the cuffs of the coat two stripes of white tape three-sixteenths of an
inch wide, one-quarter of an inch apart, the middle line of the space between
the stripes to come over the middle of the cuff.
TROUSERS.
For all commissioned officers : Dark navy-blue cloth, having a strip of black
mohair braid one and one-fourth inches wide down their outer seam.
For all enlisted men : Dark blue cloth.
WORKING DRESS — ENLISTED MEN.
Suit of unbleached cotton cloth, the same as now issued to United States
Nav)', and, in addition, a white Jersey as per pattern in Adjutant-General's
office.
OVERCOAT.
For all commissioned officers: Same as now prescribed by United States
Navy regulations.
For all enlisted men: Heavy, dark navy-blue cloth lined with dark-blue
flannel, the bottom of the skirt to reach the tips of fingers, arm hanging by
the side in its natural position, double-breasted, made to button to the neck,
with rolling collar, same material as the coat, and broad enough to protect the
ears when turned up. Five large-size State buttons on each front, the lower
buttons to be placed on a line with the opening of the horizontal pocket, the
others to be equally spaced up to the throat. An outside pocket in each breast,
the openings to be up and down, and the lower part of the opening to be level
with the elbow.
A horizontal pocket, with flap cover, shall be placed in each front below the
line of the waist. Overcoat to be worn completely buttoned.
Buttons same as now prescribed for the militia.
CRAVAT.
Same as now prescribed for militia,
GLOVES.
Same as prescribed for militia.
CAP — FULL DRESS.
The cap for all officers shall be of dark navy-blue cloth, the diameter at the
top to be slightly more than at the base, the quarters not less than one and
one-fourth or more than one and one-half inches high, and of the same height
in front and at the back. The seam around the top shall be made without a
welt, and neatly stitched on each side. The band shall be one and one-half
inches wide with a welt one-eighth of an inch in diameter at the top and bottom.
The bottom welt shall be one-eighth of an inch from the base of the cap. A
band of lustrous black mohair braid, similar to that used for the trimmings of
the service coat, shall be worn between upper and lower welts. The visor shall
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 49I
be molded to shape, and covered with the same cloth as used for the cap.
The visor shall slope downward not less than sixty degrees from the horizontal.
The inside band shall be of leather and shall extend from the base of the cap
to within one inch of the top. The sweat lining shall be of morocco. Four
black metal eyelets, two on each side, shall be placed above the band in the
quarters for ventilation, A small-sized State button shall be placed on each
side beyond the ends of the visor, the eye of the button immediately above
the lower welt.
For all officers: A strap of mohair cord doubled with two sliding knots.
For all enlisted men : Dark navy-blue cloth of the same shape as for officers ;
band, lustrous black mohair; visor, leather covered with cloth; chin-strap,
black patent leather one-half inch wide fastened at the side with two small
gilt State buttons and provided with two leather slides. Two small eyelet
ventilating holes in each side of quarters.
HAT (canvas).
For all enlisted men : 8 oz. cotton duck, well shrunk before cutting, and with
no sweat leather. Hat ribbon of black silk, one and one-fourth inches wide,
with the letters M. V. M. woven in gilt thread through the center of the ribbon.
SWORD, SWORD BELT AND SWORD KNOT.
For all officers: The same as prescribed for use in the United States Navy.
For petty officers of battalion staff: Same as for non-commissioned staff of
infantry.
CAP ORNAMENTS.
For all commissioned officers: The ornament shall be embroidered on dark-
blue cloth in high relief, and attached to the front of the cap, with its center
over the upper welt. The device shall be a silver shield emblazoned with the
arms and crest of Massachusetts placed upon two crossed fouled anchors em-
broidered in gold. Around the visor a strip of one-half inch gold lace shall
be sewed flat. The lieutenant-commander will have, in addition, gold braid
one-eighth inch wide sewed above the gold lace in small overhand knots.
For all enlisted men : The ornament will be two crossed anchors of gilt metal
surmounted by the letter of their company.
HELMET.
For all officers and men : The helmet shall be made of cork or other suitable
material, covered with white duck, the crown to measure (in the curve), from
the lower edge of the outside band below the strap buttons to the center of
the ventilator on top of the crown, not less than six nor more than six and
three-fourths inches. The brim at the front shall not be less than two and
one-fourth nor more than two and one-half inches wide, and shall diminish in
width to one inch on each side at the middle of the crown; the brim at the
back shall be three-eighths of an inch wider than that in front, and diminish
to the same width on the sides as the front brim.
492 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
INSIGNIA OF RANK ON COLLAR.
Collar devices shall be embroidered in high relief upon each side of the
collar of the service coat. They shall be one inch in height, with other dimen-
sions proportionate, and shall be placed vertically or horizontally with refer-
ence to the upper edge of the collar.
The rank device shall commence three-quarters of an inch from the front
edge of the collar. The corps device shall be placed three-quarters of an
inch in rear of the rear edge of the rank device.
Where two bars are worn the distance between them shall be the width of a
bar. The bar shall always be placed at right angles to the upper edge of the
collar.
The anchor shall be placed with the shank parallel to the upper edge of the
collar, and the crown to the front.
Devices shall be as follows :
For lieutenant-commander : A gold oak leaf and a gold foul anchor.
For lieutenants : Two gold bars and a gold foul anchor.
For lieutenants, ju7iior grade : One gold bar and a gold foul anchor.
For ensigns: A gold foul anchor.
The adjutant will wear an aiguillette of black silk braid.
INSIGNIA OF RANK ON THE SLEEVE.
For lieutenant- commander : Two strips of one-half inch gold lace with one
strip of one-fourth inch gold lace between each, one-quarter of an inch apart.
Lieutenants : Two strips of one-half inch gold lace, one-quarter of an inch
apart.
Lieutenants, junior grade : One strip of one-half inch gold lace with one strip
of one-fourth inch gold lace, one-quarter of an inch above it.
Ensigns : One strip of one-half inch gold lace.
The lower edge of the lace in each case shall be two inches from the edge of
the sleeve.
The surgeon will wear dark maroon velvet between the stripes, and the
paymaster white cloth between the stripes.
All officers will wear a star of five rays, embroidered in gold, one inch in
diameter, on the outer side of each sleeve, and midway between the seams,
with one of the rays pointing directly downwards, and the point one-fourth of
an inch from the upper edge of the upper strip of lace.
CHEVRONS AND INSIGNIA OF PETTY OFFICERS.
All chevrons shall be made of red cloth, same size as now issued by the
Navy Department, the rating-badge over chevrons to be worked in white silk.
In the interior angle of the chevron the specialty mark of the wearer shall be
placed, worked in white silk.
All chevrons shall be worn on both sleeves of the uniform coat.
Master-at-arms : Three bars and arch of three bars with eagle and star.
Yeo7nan of ordnance : Three bars with eagle and bomb.
Yeoman of stores: Three bars with eagle and cross-keys.
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA. 493
Bugler ; Three bars with eagle and bugle.
Hospital steward: Three bars with eagle and caduceus.
First boatswain's mate: Three bars with eagle and crossed anchors over
lozenge.
For all other boatswain's mates and gtmner's mates : Three bars with eagle
and crossed anchors,
Coxswai?is and quartermasters : Two bars with eagle and crossed anchors.
By order of the Commander-in-Chief,
Samuel Dalton, Adjutant-General.
Headquarters Brigade, M, V, M.
Boston, 1890.
Official :
Headquarters | rbgiment ) M. V. M.
( BATTALION (
1890.
Official:
Adjutant.
D.
BY-LAWS, NAVAL BATTALION, M. V. M.
No. I. An assessment of twenty-five dollars ($25.00) per month shall be
levied on each company, to be paid to the Paymaster, to constitute a Battalion
Fund.
No. 2. There shall be a Council, consisting of the commanding ofificer of the
battalion, and the Paymaster, who shall be treasurer, and one commissioned
officer and one enlisted man from each company.
The members of the Council shall be elected annually by ballot in each
company, and their term of office shall begin at the expiration of the annual
meeting on the first Tuesday in May.
No payments can be made from the Battalion Fund except by the Pay-
master, and by him only when authorized by a majority vote of the Council.
The commanding officer shall have the casting vote in case of a tie.
No. 3. The Paymaster shall present a statement of the financial condition of
the battalion at the annual meeting of the battalion in May of each year.
No. 4. There shall be a quarterly meeting of the battalion held in the
armory, for discussion and instruction, notice of the dates of said meetings to
be given in published orders.
A quorum for business shall consist of ten members from each company.
No. 5. These By-Laws may be altered or amended by a majority vote, pre-
vious printed notice of two weeks having been given.
494 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
E.
STATION BILLET, NAVAL BATTALION, M. V. M.
Name..
Rating.
Part of Ship. . .
Watch No
Mess No
Hammock No .
Locker No
Station at General Quarters.
Division No Gun No
Powder Division
Navigator's Division
Engineer's Division
Torpedo Division
Division,
Stations at ■ Quarters.
II I 2 12
No. at Gun
Duties of Numbers.
I— ist Captain Boarder. f*
2— 2d Captain 2d Rifleman. =
3— ist Elevator 2d Rifleman. =
4— 2d Elevator Boarder. f*
5 — ist Loader Boarder. f*
6— 2d Loader ist Rifleman. '
7 — ist Trainer, Pumpman ist Rifleman. ^
8— 2d Trainer, Fireman 2d Rifleman. '^
9— ist Shellman Port Guard. ^
ID— 2d Shellman Port Guard. "
II— ist Powderman 2d Rifleman. ^
12 — 2d Powderman ist Rifleman. '
13— 3d Shellman ist Rifleman. ^
14— 4th Shellman 1st Rifleman. "
15— 3d Powderman ist Rifleman. '
2.C "^ 16— 4th Powderman ist Rifleman. «
17— 3d Trainer Port Guard. '
18— 4th Trainer Port Guard. '
Arms : f Cutlass, * Revolver, ° Rifle.
NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
Boat Stations.
Boat
Oar.,
Duties under Sail.
495
Provide, in fitting out.
Station..
Provide.
Fire Quarters.
Alarm Call.
Call Telephone .
Address
Call Telephone .
Address
Call Telephone.
Address
Call Telephone.
Address
Howitzer
Stations
MUZZLE LOADER.
BREECH LOADER.
Man Drags.
In Battery.
Man Drags.
In Battery.
20
i8
i6
19
IS
^W^
20
18
16
19
IS
4/
14
12
13
II
I
14
12
13
II
il^
10
8
9
7
10
8
9
7
'1
-^i
2^
/
r-
6J*S
7 8
6^5
7 8
4T3
Q. G.
4T3
Q. G.
Q. G.
9 to 20
Q. G.
9 to 20
duties at howitze
I — ist Captain.
2 — 2d Captain.
3 — Loader.
4 — Sponger.
5 — Wheelman.
6 — Wheelman.
7 — Ammunition passer.
8 — Ammunition passer.
9 to 20 — Dragmen.
Infantry.
Company.
Rating.. . ,
496 NAVAL RESERVE AND NAVAL MILITIA.
F.
DRILL ROUTINE.
8 P. M. — Assembly and inspection,
8.10 P. M.— RecalL
8.15 P. M. — Dress parade or review.
8.25 P. M.— Recall. Shift to white.
8.30 P. M.— Drill call.
1st Division
2d "
3d "
4th "
9.10 P. M.— Recall.
9.15 P. M.— Drill call. Naval Brigade.
9.40 P. M.— Recall.
9.50 P. M. — Tattoo.
10 P. M. Taps.
By order of Lieut. -Comdr, Soley.
C. L. Perrin, Adjutant.
G.
ORDER FOR EXAMINATION OF PETTY OFFICERS.
The commissioned officers of each division will be formed into a board of
examination, the commanding officer of the division being chairman of the
board. When vacancies occur in the grades of petty officers, candidates will
be examined by the board as to their general qualifications, taking into account
attendance at drills, military etiquette, professional attainments and habits of
command. Commanding officers in making nominations for warrants will
state that the nominees have passed a satisfactory examination. No nomina-
tion will be considered unless the candidate has qualified as 3d class
marksman.
By order of Lieut. -Comdr. Soley.
C. L. Perrin, Adjutant.
[copyrighted.]
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
By Dr. R. H. Thurston.
The progress of the steam-engine in the century since the days
of Watt and its application by him and his contemporaries to the
innumerable purposes of modern life, has been mainly one, as the
writer has often remarked, rather in the direction of refinement upon
the construction of that great engineer than of introduction of any
very great and novel inventions, or of radical changes in methods of
operation. A study of the history of this progress during this period
will show that no one really new principal invention has been made
in the whole century. The simple and the compound engine were
known at the beginning of the century; and modern development
has merely increased the number of the cylinders employed in series,
and adapted the various modifications of the original to the now
tolerably well-ascertained conditions of their best employment. The
economical expansion of steam was a device of Watt; and Corliss
and his thousand successors and imitators have only improved upon
the mechanism of application of that principle as proposed by the
pioneer inventor. The details of construction have been, by the
steady application of brightest minds of the century in that depart-
ment of human activity, given symmetry, precise adaptation in forms,
proportions and strength, to their special purposes ; the machine as
a whole has been given best proportions for use in stationary, loco-
motive and marine engineering, and more and more perfectly suited
to the advances constantly in progress in increasing steam-pressures,
engine-speeds and ratios of expansion. In its principal features, the
steam-engine of to-day is the engine of James Watt, brought, by the
refinements of design and construction and the use of the new
improvements in tools and the trades, to a perfection of construction
498 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
and accuracy of apportionment to its work that was undreamed of in
Watt's time.
So much of improvement as has been effected in the economical
operation of the machine, in the improvement of its technically
so-called " efficiency," has come in the increase of steam-pressure,
with its concomitant increase in ratio of expansion and in engine-
speed, reducing the thermodynamic wastes, the internal losses by
cylinder-condensation, and the percentage of work wasted by friction
of the machine itself. Every fact and principle of the modern engine
would be perfectly familiar to Watt, were he to return to inspect the
work of his disciples. So effectively have these improvements been
applied to the development of the better class of modern engines,
however, that the real is approaching wonderfully near the ideal in
its highest efficiency, and the margin left for further gain has been
brought down to a small fraction. When, with pressure of from 100
to 150 pounds of steam, the weight of feed-water per horse-power
per hour is brought down to from 13 to 15 pounds, the inventor and
the designer alike feel that their occupations are losing their attrac-
tiveness.* It becomes, however, especially interesting and important
to ascertain what is the extent and the character of the wastes
remaining to be reduced or exterminated. A careful study of the
case shows that, with the best engines, this total waste, apart from
the distinctively thermodynamic and, so far as known, unavoidable
rejected heat, the energy lost consists of three principal parts :
(i) heat lost by conduction and radiation externally; (2) heat wasted
by conduction through the action of the metal of the cylinder inter-
nally ; and (3) the waste work of friction of engine. Of these the
first is already reduced, in all good constructions, to an insignificant
amount, rarely exceeding five per cent ; the last has been brought
down to five per cent in non-condensing engines, in some cases to
less than five per cent, and in condensing to ten, and will, when the
oil-bath system of lubrication has been perfected and applied to such
engines, be made much smaller still; and thus the main and only
large waste to be still fought against is the second kind, the waste
by alternate storage of heat in the metal of the cylinder and its
later re-transfer to the rejected fluid passing into the condenser or
out into the atmosphere.
* Engines designed by Mr. Edwin Reynolds have certainly fallen within the
smaller of these figures. See report by Mr, Henthorn presented at the last
meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, on the tests of
engines of the Narragansett Electric Lighting Company.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 499
It has now become well understood that the recognized advan-
tages of jacketing, of superheating, and of compounding engines are
due to their effectiveness in the reduction of this waste. It has also
become a familiar fact that neither of these expedients is more than a
system of alleviation of an evil which neither can completely cure.
Of the three methods that of superheating is considered by the
majority of writers on the subject, and probably also by better
authorities, the practitioners, to be that which promises, if it can be
successfully applied, highest success. Unfortunately, up to the
present time at least, every attempt to take advantage of the prom-
ised improvement in efficiency by this method has resulted unsatis-
factorily in consequence of the ill-effect of the highly heated steam
upon the lubricants and the rubbing surfaces of the cylinder. It has
not been, and is not now, practically useful. Jacketing and com-
pounding, separately and in conjunction, have proved more satisfac-
tory ; but there remains, in the very best of engines, a considerable
margin for further improvement. Some other system must appa-
rently be tried if we are to see the range between the real and the
ideal engine narrowed much more, or rendered unimportant.
The one as yet unsuccessful but obviously correct method of
annulling cylinder-condensation is the reduction of the heat-storing
power of the walls of the cylinder. Reduction of the heat-trans-
ferring power of the steam would answer the same purpose; but
that means superheating, apparently, and this is as yet impracticable;
though it is to be hoped that it may not always remain so. The
reduction of the heat-storing power of the cylinder-wall may come
of reduction of its conductivity, or of its specific heat, or of the
reduction of both these quantities. Many attempts have been made
for a century past to accomplish this patent and simple result. But
these attempts have been, thus far, as unsuccessful as those made in
the other line.
Snieaton began this series of experiments on the old Newcomen
engine of his time, and lined its piston surfaces and cylinder-heads
with wood. But wood is too unsubstantial and too easily destroyed
by the high temperatures of modern engines to be likely to prove
very useful or permanently utilizable. Emery, many years later,
tried Hning the interior of his engines with glass and porcelain ; but
that class of materials is too brittle and falls to pieces under the
alternations of temperature and pressure of the steam. Babcock
and others have proposed and tried, in some cases, the use of bis-
muth and other metals of low conductivity and small specific heat ;
500 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
but they have proved treacherous, and their flow when hot, hke lead
on a roof, has defeated all attempts at increasing efficiency by their
use. Finally, the writer has proposed the scheme of making the
surfaces of the cyhnder-walls, so far as possible, incapable of storing
heat by special treatment in such manner as to produce a veneer or
varnish integral, if the term may be used in that connection, with the
metal of the casting itself. It is to describe this possibly impracticable
notion that this article is written, and to show what has been the
result, up to date, of experiments made with this end in view. Many
experiments have now been made to determine the effect of the treat-
ment proposed by the writer upon the conductivity and heat-trans-
mitting power of iron ; but it has only been within a few weeks that
we have had any even tentative results of application to the engine.
Smeaton's experiments were the first in this field, and he seems to
have made it a practice, in the later years of his work, to cover the
sides of the piston and the heads of the cylinders with wood, for the
purpose, following Watt, of reducing the wastes due to the conduc-
tivity of the material of which the cylinders were composed. James
Watt had in his models a number of cylinders of wood, adopting
that substance for the same reason. Smeaton and Watt were con-
temporary, and it is impossible to say which is to be considered
the pioneer ; but Smeaton was experimenting on the Newcomen
engine with a view to improving its proportions and increasing its
economy as early as 1767, and was in the full tide of success in
erecting them in 1775. It seems likely that he may have been aware
of Watt's work in 1765; but, though of later date, his own work on
the engine itself was the first actual construction of engines with non-
conducting interior walls. James Watt enunciated the principle;
John Smeaton put it in most direct use.*
Mr. Charles Emery, in 1866, while engaged in the U. S. N. experi-
ments at the Novelty Works, New York City, found that three
cylinders, each 18 inches long, and i^ inches internal diameter, one
of iron, one of glass, and one of iron enameled on its interior surfaces,
and all carefuUy clothed with non-conductors, charged and exhausted
like the engine-cylinder, received volumes of the steam in varying
proportions. The glass being taken as unity, these proportions were
2, I, and I J, nearly ; proving that, in that case, the iron demanded, in
consequence of the action now technically known as "cylinder con-
* History of the Steam Engine ; Thurston, pp. 67-78.
fXransactions Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., Vol. VII, 1885-6, p. 375.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 5OI
densation," as much steam for condensation as was measured by its
own volume, while the enameled cylinder was subject to only half as
much waste, if it is assumed that the condensation in the glass cylinder
may be neglected as unimportant. In another series of experiments,.
Mr. Emery found that at the same pressures, about 20 pounds by
gauge, where the steam was dried before entering the tubes, the
difference was even greater by several per cent.
Mr. Emery next undertook to determine the effect of this treat-
ment upon the engine itself, and constructed a pair of engines of 8.
inches diameter of piston and equal stroke, which had their parts in.
exact duplication. One of these was enameled on the sides of the
piston, the cylinder-heads and the interior of port passages, -as well,
as of the cylinder itself, the bore being reground to secure a tight-
working piston. Comparing the performance of the two engines, it.
was found that a saving of 27 per cent was effected at a steam pres-
sure of 75 pounds and a cut-off of 0.3. With 40 pounds steam, at a.
cut-off of 0.15, the saving was the same ; at 25 pounds pressure and
a cut-off at 0.36, the gain was 30 per cent and over. Reboring
the cylinder and thus removing the enamel from the cylindrical
surfaces, the gain was reduced to about one-half that previously
observed. This latter experiment was subsequendy repeated by
Mr. Westinghouse on his high-speed engines, but without important,
result; which fact is interpreted by Mr. Emery to be due to the
high speed of the engine, reducing the wastes so greatly that the
further gain by the partial protection adopted became insignificant.
So far as the writer has observed, these are the only records of
experiments of this kind published until very recently. It will be.
remembered that Watt found that his model Newcomen engine used
four times its own volume of steam at each stroke, wasting, in this,
sense, three-fourths of all that entered it. This waste was mainly
saved in the wooden model. No record exists, so far as known to
the writer, of the saving effected by Smeaton on the large engines,
constructed by him with non-conducting interior surfaces. He
reports the average duty of 57 engines near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in
1767, as giving a maximum duty of 7.44 millions foot-pounds per
bushel (84 pounds) of coals, the average being about 6 millions for the
larger engines. His own engine at Long Benton, 52 inches diameter
of cylinder and 7 feet stroke of piston, at 12 strokes per minute, gave
a duty on the same basis of 9.5 millions.* Possibly of this difference^
*History of the Steam Engine ; Thurston, p. 69. Smeaton, Vol. I.
502 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
of two millions, or about 30 per cent on the smaller duty of the older
engines, a considerable fraction may be attributable to the ingeni-
ous expedient by which Smeaton reduced the then enormous interior
wastes.
In modern engines, these wastes are greatly lessened by the vari-
ous familiar expedients and improved conditions, giving immensely
increased efficiency as compared with the older machines; but daily
experiments show that we still lose from one-fourth to one-third in
the best of engines, and often a very much larger proportion of the
steam supplied, by this same persistent method of interior waste. Its
elimination remains, as formerly, the great unsolved problem chal-
lenging the engineer, whose duty it is to design and construct engines
of high efficiency ; and the financial advantage promised by its
extinction is even greater to-day than in the time of Smeaton and
Watt. We cannot, however, use wood in the presence of the steam
of our day ; enameling is found to be attended with practical difficul-
ties that probably preclude its adoption, and the employment of it
is obviously out of the question. It seems necessary to find some
new expedient which shall evade the objections inherent in the plans
proposed or practiced previously. If the cylinder cannot be con-
structed of a non-conducting material, and if a superficial veneering
or coating separately made and applied will not answer, possibly a
way may be found of giving the interior surfaces of the cylinder walls
non-conductivity and low specific heat by other and unobjectionable
methods. As the condensing action of the cylinder is known to be
due to an exceedingly thin layer, very superficial treatment, if perma-
nent, will suffice.
The plan adopted by the writer for reducing the heat-wasting power
of the interior walls of the engine-cylinder was suggested by the curi-
ous effect of slow oxidation upon cast iron, as illustrated in the corro-
sion of the " channel ways " and other parts of the engine in the
neighborhood of condenser and air-pump, where jet-condensation is
employed; the current of hot water, mingled with grease and hold-
ing air in solution, after months of working, sometimes dissolves out
the iron for a depth of a half-inch, or even an inch, leaving a plum-
bago-like mass which may be cut with a knife as easily as the lead of
a pencil. Many years ago, when pursuing his studies at Brown Uni-
versity, and when the Hon. Senator Hill, now of Colorado, then a
young and promising chemist, had charge of the laboratory of that
institution, that now distinguished and opulent statesman was kind
enough to examine this altered substance for the writer, and found it
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 503
to consist of a mass of iron oxide and graphitic carbon, encaged in a
sponge or comb of metallic iron, and with its specific gravity and
specific heat, as well as its conductivity, reduced to a fraction of the
same quantities in the original mass. It seemed therefore possible,
that if this process and result could be utilized in the reduction, in a
similar manner, of the heat-storing and transmitting power of the
inner walls of the engine-cylinder, a surface could be obtained that
would be ideal in this respect; while being integral with the metal of
the cylinder, it would not be subject to injury by changes of temper-
ature or accidental separation from the iron by flaking off. It was
further apparent that this spongy mass might possibly be saturated
with resin, or other and more permanent material having still higher
value as non-conductor, and thus practically do away with the waste
by heat-storage on all areas to which the process might be safely
applied. It would be impracticable to use such a process upon the
rubbing surfaces of the cylinder and the piston-rings ; but, fortunately
for our purpose, the wastes taking place in this manner occur mainly
on heads and in the ports, and a comparatively small proportion
takes place on the rubbing surfaces. These are also smoothed and
polished by the action of the engine, and thus probably are rendered
less capable of taking up or yielding heat to be so wasted. Nearly
half the total internal surface of the average engine and a much
higher proportion of the waste may be reached by this system if it
prove practicable.
The first, and the most successful to date, of the now many attempts
to effect artificially this conversion of the mass of cast iron into the
desired non-conducting substance, was made by Mr. W. E. Partridge,
who brought to the writer, as the outcome of his experiment, a piece
of stove-plate completely altered into what looked like a mass of
hard rubber, black, smooth and of low density, and precisely what was
sought. This was made by immersion several days in a vat of
common foundry "pickle"; but, curiously enough, this first result has
never yet been reproduced by any process or any solution that has
been tried, aiming at its duplication.
A series of experiments was very carefully made by Mr. P. M.
Chamberlain, in the early part of the year 1890, and reported to the
American Society of Civil Engineers at their July meeting.* The
results were interesting as showing, mainly, the effect of the prelimi-
*Transactions, Vol. XXIII, No. 444, 1890, "A Practical Method for Reducing
the Wastes of the Steam Engine."
504 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
nary solution, and incidentally as illustrating the fact that the slightest
coating of non-conducting substance may have an important effect
upon heat-transmission. The method of investigation was to treat
a specially made head for one of the "experimental engines" of the
laboratories of Sibley College, measuring the change in quantity of
heat transmitted through the head to the exterior, and thus measuring
the conductivity of the head, originally and after treatment. The
calorimeter used for this purpose was carefully calibrated, and the
data obtained are thought to be accurate. The following are the
figures reported as above :
The outer face was smoothly polished, as is usual; the inside was
simply smoothly faced-off in the lathe with the ordinary finishing
cut. The inner face was tested under conditions described as follows:
No. Test. Condition of Inner Surface.
I. As finished ; greasy.
As finished ; greasy.
Same ; washed clean with benzene and dried.
Oiled with lubricating oil.
Washed clean with benzene.
After exposure to nitric acid sixteen hours; then oiled
with linseed oil.
Similarly treated with hydrochloric acid, and oiled after
twelve hours' exposure.
Sulphuric acid, i; water, 2; for forty-eight hours; then
oiled, and allowed to dry twenty-four hours.
Rankine's formula was employed in making comparisons:*
f -t
Q = —, ;
^ a + (T + px
in which /' and / are the temperatures of fluid on each side the plate,
</ and <7 are the resistances to heat-transmission through those
surfaces, and p is the coefficient of internal thermal resistance, and
which may be neglected as insensible here. The equation gives y
the quantity of heat, in B. T. U., transmitted per square foot per hour.
Let Q = total heat transmitted, then for the case in hand,
g=-^ -^ = 8.772 Q.
^ 2 0.171
* Steam Engine, p. 25S.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
505
The value of Q varied from about 5550 B. T. U. in cases i and 2
to 3000 and 3100 in cases 15 and 16, as shown in the table which
follows :
:s "a
^.■■■■'■■■%
£ c
cfl <u
a J3
'-i s ^ 1
.- ^ . c - - - - =0
« Bl-S •a^'-O
C 0-0 Nii^
U 0 0 0 ^ -3
s^ § :s ji -g
1 3 3 rt
1 .i= r='==i
^ 1= 5.=:.=!
<= = = = 0 <' ' ' >
s ^>^
a >- 0 ,
--III
0 ON tri 0\ N OSOO Mm n 0 -vo ■^c'lr^
^00.
^^^.i
" • ■- V.
S5 o-s 00
U U-. 0 U
X x-o
+
■^TfTl-COOOO N 0 -\0 0 N lOlOONfO
rr t-~ "^ 0 - r^vo tt l/^oo "i « oo m r-» o
CO CO 00 fO TTOO OM^CO N OCO ONVO M "^
b
T^^■<l-li^u^Tr•<J■Tr'*•"^-;J-■^rr tj-co oo
+
0
0
\
6
0 000 -00 Tf OM^r.»vo t^vo coiofovo
1
. v£5 CO 00 On CJWO ^ f^ ^vd i>i un tJ- ro lo lO
J
CO >0 MfOfOrorocOOrorOfOcOfON N
NNNNNNNNMNNNNNNM
0\ '^ N fOOO 0 fO -^O ONt>^CO "^ «- 0\
Oj
dvO ■^CT\»>irO'fd '^- ON- t^H." d ri-
wio -:l■ro"^N tj-n - O moo rf ti- n o
iri lO -t- „ 0 •J^ '^VO i^" -^u-irot^o "
u^u^lJ^"^<J^^')"^>^"^"^''l"^u^u^fo^o
• ^
M N fO -"T >^\0 r-»cO ON 0 « « ro •* lovo
1^
506 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
In the first four runs the gradual increase in resistance noted was
attributed to the gathering of rust on the exterior surface, no oil
being used to protect it from the water, and to the gradual loss of
greasiness on the interior. In Nos. 3, 4, 5 no sensible change
appears other than the gradual alteration just noted ; nor is any-
notable result attained until the last pair of data are reached. It
then becomes evident that treatment with drying oil, even after so
short a period of exposure to acid and so short a time allowed for
drying, has an exceedingly important effect in reducing conductivity
and preventing heat storage and transmission.
Thus, by even a superficial treatment with acid and oil, the saving
of heat is 40 per cent.
8500 — 5000 1
8500 -040, nearly.
The last column in the above table was computed subsequently by
Professor Carpenter, when comparing his results, as given below,
with those of Mr. Chamberlain. Incidentally the interesting fact
will be observed that Chamberlain's finished plates gave 50 per cent
higher conductivity than Carpenter's plates with " skin " left as taken
from the foundery flask.
Carpenter's method of determining the extent to which conduct-
ivity could be reduced by this system of treatment, as reported to the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, was as follows :*
In making the experiments a set of cast-iron plates was obtained
all cast at the same heat and from the same pattern, each measuring
8.4 inches by 5.4 inches by .45 inch thick.
Concentrated nitric acid was used and two solutions in rain-water
were made — the first containing i per cent of nitric acid by measure-
ment, the second 5 per cent of nitric acid. In each of these solutions
three of the plates were placed in a horizontal position, and separated
from each other by small blocks at the corners, so as to permit a free
action of the acid. The solution was shaken and left for some time
in an inclined position to permit any air beneath the plates to escape.
The plates were left in these solutions, respectively, 9 days, 18 days,
and 40 days, at which time a test of the relative conducting power
was made. A test was also made of the relative conducting power
of a plate of cast iron of the same dimensions and not treated, and
also of pine wood of same dimensions as the plates.
* Transactions, Vol. XII, 1890, No. CCCXXI, p. 174.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
507
The following method of testing the relative conducting power of
the plates was adopted. A box, shown in section in Fig. i, was
made of boards an inch thick, with internal dimensions 8.5 by 5.5
inches and 6.5 inches deep. Near the center of the box and extend-
ing completely around on the inside, a strip of wood I by J inch was
rabbeted in place, as shown in the sketch. The top of this strip,
marked D, was made accurately parallel to the top of the box, and
neatly fitted in place. A gasket of rubber packing was fitted to the
projecting top of this strip. Two frames, made of hard wood, with
a horizontal piece about one inch square, were securely fastened to
the box, as shown in Figs, i and 2. From the horizontal piece, G,
Fig. I. Fig. 2.
of each frame, two braces, HH, were set with the lower ends resting
on the plates to be tested. These braces were cut of such a length
that by forcing them into nearly a vertical position, a strong pressure
was made to act on the corners of the plate to be tested, and no
difficulty was found in producing a steam-tight joint. The plate to
be tested was introduced in the box as shown in the sketch, thus
forming a horizontal partition, DD. Into the portion of the box
below the plate a one-quarter-inch pipe, E, was introduced, termi-
nating near the center of the box ; this pipe was connected by a
rubber hose to a steam supply ; on the opposite side and near the
bottom of the box was inserted a one-half-inch nipple, F, for the
508 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
discharge of the condensed steam. A thermometer, BD, was inserted
in the steam chamber as shown, and maintained in the same position
during all the tests. Water was put in the box above the plate, and
the heat transmitted through the plate was measured by the increase in
temperature of this water. To measure the temperature of the water
a thermometer, shown at A, was held in position by a cross-piece of
one of the frames, the thermometer being kept with its bulb immersed
and in the same position throughout all the tests by maintaining a
mark on the stem opposite the lower edge of the cross-piece.
In making a test, the plate was first put in position, the box
leveled, and steam turned on in the pipe E, with pipe F closed,
until it was ascertained that there were no steam-leaks around the
edge of the plate. Steam was then turned off in pipe E, pipe F
opened, the water was added in the chamber above the plate until it
passed off in the overflow pipe L. Steam was then admitted through
the pipe E, and as soon as the water above the plate reached a tem-
perature of about 70°, readings of both thermometers were taken,
and continued each minute until the water attained a temperature of
about 150°. The temperature in the steam chamber could not be
maintained quite uniform, as shown by the readings of the ther-
mometer B. There was also a slight variation in the degree of
temperature at the beginning and ends of the different tests, but not
enough to make any material difference in the results attained. The
process used being exactly duplicated for each plate tested, gives
the comparative transmission of heat for each plate, but does not
give with exactness the number of thermal units transmitted, because
of our ignorance of the currents existing in the water chamber.
Assuming no horizontal currents to exist, which is probably true,
the average number of thermal units transmitted per inch of surface
is equal to the weight of the water, 3.125 lbs., divided by the exposed
surface of the plate, 38,7 square inches, multiplied by the rise in
temperature ; or .0807, multiphed by the rise in temperature of the
water.
This can be reduced to thermal units transmitted per square foot
per hour as follows, neglecting the coefficient of the internal thermal
resistance. Letting
K represent the number of thermal units transmitted per hour
for each degree that temperature of steam chamber exceeds
that of the water chamber,
T represent the average temperature of the steam chamber,
t' represent the average temperature of the water receiving heat.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
509
a represent the effective area of the plate in square feet = .27
sq. ft.
w^= weight in pounds of the water heated = 3.125 lbs.,
G^ = average gain of temperature of w. per minute,
g = average gain of temperature of w. per hour = 60 w.
Then {r — r') alC = gw =:^ 6oGw ,
K=
60 Gz
{r-r')a
694.4
694.4
The results of these experiments are, in brief, as follows :
Transmission of Heat through Cast-Iron Plates.
j
1
2
1
e
H „•
•ll
0
1
I
B
H
S s si
r :
1-
Relative number of ther-
mal units for each de-
gree T — t' per square
foot per hour.
I
2
3
4
1:;;::::
Average
I
2
3
Average
I
2
3
Average
I
2
3
Average
I
2
3
Average
12.6
15.0
13.6
14.7
I4.I
13-7
115.5
120.2
123.6
123.4
120.5
126.0
88." 2
84.4
86.4
88.8
83.2
107. 5
114.8
II3-4
I18.5
IIO.O
115.2
II3.2
97.6
91.8
103.9
97-7
79.24
S3.00
78.C/0
80.08
73-S
80.3
79-7
77.8
88.17
87.S
85.2
87.0
Clean cast-iron plate.
i< ft ((
n.6
10.4
12.6
127.5
128.2
127.0
81.5
Plate pickled 9 days in if^ solution nitric acid.
9.8
10.2
9-7
9-7
9-4
9.4
10.
9.6
9-7
9.4
10.7
9-93
118. 7
123-3
118.9
83.7
83.6
86.0
Plate pickled 18 days in 1% solution nitric acid.
128.2
121. 9
88.4
80.8
87.1
Plate pickled 40 days in ifo solution nitric acid.
128.7
130.0
121.
80.3
74.6
86.5
Plate pickled 9 days in 5^ solution nitric acid.
Plate pickled 18 days in 5^ solution nitric acid.
3
not differ much from 80.0 thermal units.
Average
I
2
Average
10.9
II. 2
9.8
10.6
117.9
119.2
120.5
92.6
80.3
75-7
76.3
77.4
Plate pickled in 5^ solution nitric acid 40 days.
510
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
Comparing the data thus obtained, it is seen that the work of both
these investigators gives evidence that the simple alteration of the
surfaces, as proposed by the writer, may reduce their conductivity
and heat-receiving power as much as 40 per cent, and to that extent,
presumably, reduce the interior wastes of the engines on so large a
portion of the cylinder-walls as it may be practicable to treat in this
manner ; while it is also seen that the application of a single coating
of varnish to a surface less completely altered, as in the first series,
may produce reduction of conductivity to about the same extent.
The combination of effective treatment, as originally proposed by
the writer, uniting both methods, and making the alteration of the
metal a foundation for treatment with a non-conducting substance
penetrating the sponge so formed, should still further improve the
engine. The test of this proposition was made by Mr. Daniel Royse
and reported to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
recendy.* The following is an abstract of the paper :
Fig. 3.
The calorimeter used in making the comparisons is shown in sec-
tion in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 3). The lower part is a
pine box 4.5 X 7.5 inches and 4.5 inches deep inside measurements,
* Transactions, Vol. XII, No. CCCCXLVIII, June, 1891.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 5 II
the plate through which the heat is to be transmitted forming the
top. The upper portion consists of a frame or bottomless box 4.5 X
7.5 inches inside and 3! inches deep which is placed above the plate,
and covered with a lid as shown. *
The lower compartment is supplied with steam through a i-inch
pipe, c, and is drained through the pipe d. In one side a ther-
mometer T' is inserted — making an angle of 45° with the vertical —
so that the bulb is near the center of the box. Above the plate,
water enters through a pipe, a, placed in the lid, its temperature
being taken by the thermometer, t, and flows over the plate and out
at the pipe, b, the thermometer, t\ registering the temperature at
which it leaves ; / is a tin baffle-plate.
The method pursued was to turn on the steam and water, and after
the temperatures as indicated by the thermometers became constant,
note the time and weigh the water which flowed through in half an
hour, reading the three thermometers at intervals of a minute.
Experiments were made upon nineteen plates, six prepared by
Professor Carpenter, which were immersed in different acid solutions
of various strengths for different lengths of time. Of these, ten were
rough, and nine planed on both sides. Two others planed on one
side only were also used.
The depth to which any plate was attacked by the acid may be ap-
proximately computed by knowing its loss of weight and the extent of
surface exposed to the acid. Each plate was 5.5 inches by 8.5 inches,
and the thickness was one-quarter inch or one-half inch, planed or
rough, and the area of each was about 106 square inches. Since a cubic
inch of cast iron weighs .26 pound, a loss of weight of .01 pound
means that it has been attacked to a depth of [.oiX -j\-^ 106 =
.00036 inch.
All plates prepared by Mr. Royse were immersed in a vertical
position, there being 11 pounds of the solution to 318 square inches
of surface of iron. From the atomic weights of the elements involved
it was computed that in the 5-per cent and lo-per cent solutions only
about one-third of the acid was consumed in attacking the iron. In
all cases the effect of the treatment was to form a coating or scale,
black in color, upon the surface of the plate. This, presumably
carbon, or in the case of rough plates a mixture of carbon and silicates,
was quite adhesive, but easily removed with a knife. Plates attacked
by nitric acid, when removed were black in color, while those which
512 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
had been treated with hydrochloric or sulphuric acids were quite
rusty when removed.
The loss of weight of the plates when immersed in the latter acids
was about twice as much as when a nitric solution of the same
strength was used.
It will be noted that the heat transmitted through untreated planed
plates varies from 278.0 to 232.1 B. T. U. per square foot per hour
per degree difference of temperature of the bounding fluids. Mr.
Royse attributes this variation to some plates being rougher than
others ; to the rust which accumulated on the surface exposed to the
water ; and also to a different amount of the water of condensation
clinging to the surface exposed to the steam during different experi-
ments. In computing, all planed plates are compared with No. i,
which transmitted 278.0 B. T. U. Similarly rough plates are compared
with No. 9, which transmitted 240.8 B.T. U.
Table I. gives the heat transmitted by each plate in percentages of
that transmitted by plates i and 9, as before explained. It is neces-
sary to make the comparisons by percentages because the calori-
meters used by Professor Carpenter and Mr. Royse do not admit of
direct comparisons of the quantity q, it being in one case 278.0 and
in the other under other conditions 113.2 B.T.U.
From the data given in Table I., the curves shown were plotted
with percentages of heat transmitted as ordinates and days of immer-
sion as abscissae ; cases No. i and No. 9, the untreated plates, being
taken as unity.
In these curves, Fig. 4, the only striking discrepancy is No. III.,
which is given by the planed plates in i per cent nitric acid. A
minimum of heat transmitted is seen to be reached in these cases
after about 20 days' immersion in a 5 percent or 10 per cent solution,
when nitric acid is the attacking agent.
With the other two acids nearly the same result was achieved with
a 5 per cent solution and 15 days' immersion, as with a 5 per cent
nitric acid solution and 10 days' immersion.
When both sides of the plates were varnished it is shown that, on
an average, but 33 per cent as much heat was transmitted as when
the plate was untreated. The reduction was practically the same
with planed as with rough plates, but the varnish adhered much
better to the rough plates, and especially if they had been treated
before applying the varnish.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 513
0 U> CO ^
Fig. 4. — Heat Transmission.
I't must be borne in mind that the percentages given in Table I.
are for plates having both sides attacked by the acid. The probable
effect with one side only treated may be found as follows ;
Assume each surface to present the same resistance to the transfer
of heat through it and denote by x the fraction stopped by the first
surface, then the second surface will stop the same fraction of what
passed through the first, or x{\ — x) of the whole. Denote by jy
the fraction of the heat whioii passes through the plates, then we
have the equation :
X + x(i — j;)= I —y,
or ;tr = I — /^y.
514
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
Table I.
Heat-Transmission through Cast-Iron Plates.
1
i
i
B
2
S
i
Solution in which im-
mersed.
Remarks.
1
s
3
c
s
s
0
1
lOO.O
0
Untreated.
Xi
8i.o
10
10 per cent nitric.
X2
76.7
20
<i «
[■ Curve I.
X3
79.0
30
"
.
I
85-9
10
5 per cent nitric.
1
2
71.4
20
u u
[ Curve II.
3
71.6
30
" "
J
6
85.6
10
I per cent nitric.
) Curve in.
7
94.0
20
" "
V Peculiar results, but believed to be
8
103.9
30
" "
) accurate.
9
100.0
0
Untreated.
9
87.0
10
10 per cent nitric.
II
73-4
20
« «
Curve IV.
12
77.9
30
" "
N
K
P
76.8
70.0
68.5
18
40
5 per cent nitric.
1 Curve V. From Prof. Carpenter's
j results.
E
B
F
86.3
70.7
68.7
9
iS
40
1 percent nitric.
1 Curve VI. From Prof. Carpenter's
j results.
N
102.0
91
5 per cent nitric.
I Curve VII.
; f After removing rust
K
91.0
•18
" "
P
81.8
40
« <<
~E
100. 0 9
I per cent nitric.
\ as explained.
B
96.7 18
" "
Curve VIIL
F
90.6 4C
" "
13
I
87-9 ! 15
85-9115
5 per cent hydrochloric.
Rough. ^
Both sides planed. I Marked by num-
6
86.8
85-5
15
15
5 per cent sulphuric.
,, , r bered points on
B„°"h^Lesp,a„.d.i '""-' —
7
33-8
9
31-7
35-0
■
Both sides painted with coach varnish.
12
32.6
,
2
46.2
One side varnished.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 515
Consider plate No. 2 after being pickled in 5 per cent nitric acid
20 days: y equals .714, hence ;r= i — ^-714= i —-845 = .155.
Next the side exposed to steam was varnished. It must be noted
that the effect of the varnish is not superposed upon that of the acid,
but that when it is applied the result is independent of any previous
treatment which the surface may have undergone. This is seen in
the results obtained from the varnished plates. Also Mr. P. M.
Chamberlain found that varnish applied to one side of a plate other-
wise untreated reduced the heat transmitted 41.9 per cent, which, as
we will see, agrees very closely with the results shown below.
Let the effect of the varnish be to intercept a fraction z of the heat,
then for No. 2 we have
2 + .155 (I -2-)= I -.4617;
hence, ^ = .454, or the single coating of varnish intercepts 45.4 per
cent of the heat.
Apply the equation ;f = i — V^ to the results obtained from the
four plates varnished on both sides, and we have for the reduction
of heat transferred, which would occur were one side only varnished
and the other left untreated, the following values :
For No. 7, 41.9 per cent.
9. 43-7
11,40.9
12, 43.0
Mean, 42.4 per cent.
It is expected that when this treatment is applied to the surfaces
bounding the clearance spaces of a steam-cylinder, the extent to
which the iron, so treated, will store and restore heat, introduced into
the engine by the steam, will be diminished at least 40 per cent, and
thus some practically useful reduction of the internal wastes will be
effected. In the engine the varnish is relied upon to retard this
interchange of heat, and the alteration of surface produced by the
action of the acid is expected to render the varnish more adhesive
and permanent.
These figures are perhaps sufficient to give some idea of the
progress made, to date, in the attempt to apply this process to the
augmentation of the efficiency of the steam-engine by reduction of
its internal wastes ; so far as these direct experiments on the varia-
tion of conductivity can throw any light on the subject. Incidentally,
5l6 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
when investigating the causes of boiler explosions, it was found that
simply oiling the surface of the plate where it was slightly rusty
reduced the heat-transmitting power ten per cent. It is thus appa-
rently easy to produce sensible improvement in the character of the
cylinder-walls in such ways as have been described ; that this is
actually the result of such treatment as is referred to in the last
remark is shown by the experiments of Hirn and Hallauer in the
introduction of suet into engines; a noticeable gain being thus
secured, though at some expense.
But a single set of experiments has been made upon an engine
treated in the manner above described. These were performed
upon the engine employed in the experiments of Mr. Chamberlain.
The method of treatment was that which had been found to give
reduction of heat-transmitting power, as already described, of from
40 per cent, when acid only was used, to 60 and 70 per cent when
the introduction of the solution of a non-conductor was effected.
The engine was first carefully overhauled, valves and piston were
seen to be perfecdy tight and the engine otherwise in good order.
A very careful trial of the machine was then made and it was found
to be in perfect order, and the results of the test — which will be pres-
endy given — showed that it was in a condition of higher efficiency
than at any previous period in its history, so far as the records could
be followed. The surfaces of the cylinder and heads, so far as prac-
ticable, /. e. where not exposed to the rubbing action of piston and
rings, were next treated by Mr. Royse in the manner shown by the
previous investigation, as above reported, to be best and most effec-
tive in securing the desired alteration of the surface. The surfaces
thus treated were then given a coat of drying oil and allowed one
day only for its oxidation and the formation of a varnish, the engine
being required for other work.* A second trial was then made' and
the difference in efficiency noted, a difference, as will be seen pres-
ently, of considerable importance, and corresponding very closely
with that previously anticipated and computed as probable.
The engine employed was built at the request of the writer as an
" experimental engine " for the Sibley College Laboratory of Steam
*Thi8 was not at all satisfactory or what was desired, and it is much to be
regretted that time did not permit the application of a number of coats, with
complete drying of each. Repeated application, it is probable, would insure
the complete saturation of the superficial sponge and maximum reduction of
heat-storing power.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 517
Engineering, with a view to the investigation mainly of questions
relating to the action of the plain three-ported slide-valve, and was
fitted up with a considerable number and variety of valves for this
purpose. The steam-cylinder is 6 inches in diameter and the stroke
of piston 8 inches. Regulation is effected by a throttling governor,
and various adjustments, unimportant to this investigation, are pro-
vided. The engine is in regular use for purposes of class-instruction,
and the necessity of subordinating this work to the regular work of
the college compelled its cessation earlier than would otherwise have
been chosen. Following are the logs obtained as registered on the
usual forms of the laboratory for routine testing. The first of these
logs is that obtained before, the second that given after the engine
had been treated, as already described. The steam was measured
by employing a Wheeler surface-condenser; thus, incidentally, con-
verting the engine into a condensing-engine. This condenser was
that in regular use for the purposes of the laboratory and was tight
and efficient.
A study of these logs indicates that the engine, for some unex-
plained reason, probably in consequence of differences in effectiveness
of lubrication, ran a trifle faster on the second day than on the first ; the
engine having meantime, however, been taken apart and reassembled
after a considerable time, required for its treatment. It was very prob-
ably slightly altered in the process. This is also indicated by the differ-
ences between indicated and dynamometric power. These amounted
to 0.9 H. P. the first day and 0.6 the second ; the total being highest
for the indicated power the first day and for brake-power the second.
The engine, after being overhauled, was thus less subject to friction
losses. These differences, however, are small and probably unim-
portant. The condenser was carried a little colder the second day,
and this would tend to correspondingly exaggerate cylinder-conden-
sation. On the whole, the conditions were practically the same, so
far as they affect the matter in hand, and the comparison a fair one.
The indicator diagrams taken are substantialiy alike on both days,
and the following facsimiles exhibit their form and characteristics-
Those taken from the end next to the crank are marked C and the
others H. Those taken before treatment are given first ; and their
slightly smoother form is due, in part at least, to the slightly higher
speed at which the engine happened to be moving at the moment.
The principal points in the cycle, those at which the observations
for Hirn's analysis were taken, are marked on each. For a plain
5i:
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
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THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
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Diagrams from Payne Engine.
No. 5. — April 13, 1891.
Revs. 197. I. H. P. 6.863. Steam pres. 84.36 abs.
L,^
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No. 4. — May i, 1891.
Revs. 205. I. H. P. 6.617. Steam pres. 86.3 abs.
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THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 52 1
slide-valve engine, these diagrams are remarkably good. It will
also be noted that the power was well distributed between the two
ends of the cylinder ; the mean pressures differing but two pounds.
The steam-line is good ; the expansion-line shows, by its sustained
terminal portion, considerable re-evaporation, a proof of initial conden-
sation of considerable amount ; the exhaust-period is symmetrically
disposed at the two ends, and gives a good back-pressure line termina-
ting with equally symmetrically arranged compression of consider-
able amount. The slight recurvature at the termination of the
compression is well shown, and as the engine was known to be tight,
probably measures the condensation of compressed steam, when
reaching the point at which the temperature of the steam rose above
that of the cylinder walls with which it was at the moment in contact.
This is a common, though seldom noticed feature. The lead of the
valve is again seen to be well disposed by the manner in which the
steam enters at the termination of the compression period. As a
sample of good setting, this set of diagrams may be taken as
admirable.
The investigation, in each case, was made by the system now
coming to be familiar to engineers as that of Hirn ; though largely
due to the patient study of Hallauer and the talent in algebraic rep-
resentation of Dwelshauvers-Dery. This process consists in the
measurement of the quantity of heat-energy brought to the engine by
the steam ; the quality of the fluid at entrance into the steam-chest ;
the same quantities and the dynamic energy developed and its dis-
tribution, as the engine passes through a complete cycle ; the mean,
however, being usually taken for a considerable number of such
cycles or revolutions. Thus it becomes possible to determine just
what is the method of variation of the proportions of steam and water
in the mixture entering the engine and step by step as it passes on
into the condenser; to ascertain the quantities of heat converted into
work, the amount wasted by external conduction and radiation, and
the quantity lost by the process of cylinder-condensation ; and the
comparison of the power shown by the indicator with that measured
by the Prony brake gives the amount of dynamic energy lost by
friction in the engine. The whole history of the energy supplied,
as it streams through the engine and is distributed in its various
forms of thermal and dynamic, and of useful and wasted power or
energy, is thus given, and thus tracing it and its disposition, the
characteristic differences of engines, or of the same engine under
522 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
differing conditions, may be ascertained for the purposes of either
scientific or technical investigation. This method was first introduced
by its European proposers in the now celebrated work of Hirn and
Hallauer, and has since come into use, to a limited extent, in the
steam-engineering laboratories of the great technical schools. Mr.
J. G. Mair was the first, in regular engineering work, to adopt this
system.* His application of the system to trials of pumping engines
has furnished some exceptionally valuable data. Where the
technical schools are supplied with experimental engines, this method
is usually taught as a part of the scheme of instruction of students.
The following data were recorded on blanks of the form taken as on
the whole most convenient in such instruction in the steam-engineer-
ing laboratory of Sibley College, Cornell University. The symbols
are sufficiendy explained by the accompanying memorandum in each
line. By following the course of the work as recorded, it is easy to
see precisely how the heat and the steam performed the work and,
at the same time, were either usefully transformed or wasted, from
first to last, from entrance into the engine to their discharge from the
condenser.
The first set of figures recorded are the reduced observations from
the logs. It has not been thought necessary to present the details
of the computations ; they may be made from the original data by
simple and familiar processes. The two sets of figures which here
follow are very similar, as it was intended they should be, and the
effort to secure similar action of the engine at both trials was evi-
dently very successful.
Application of Hirn's Analysis.
April 13, 1 89 1.
Data and Results.
Test of steam-engine made by Daniel Royse, at Sibley College, C. U.
Kind of engine, slide valve, throttling. Diameter cylinder, 6^Ao6. Length
stroke, 8^^. Diameter piston rod, I'^xV Volume cylinder, crank end, .12921.
Volume head end, .13354.
Volume clearance, cu. ft,, head, .01744 Clearance in per cent, of stroke.. 13.06
" " " crank, .01616 " " " " ..12.51
Pressure by gauge, steam chest, 64.80 Barometer 2^/'2-j6
*See Minutes Proceedings Brit. Inst. C. E., Vols. LXX and LXXIX; for
Hirn and Hallauer's papers, see the Bulletin de la Societe Industrielle de
Mulhouse, 1877-81 ; also Peabody's Thermodynamics.
THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
523
Pressure, absolute, steam chest, 79.155 Boiling temperature, atmosphere
Revolutions per hour 11890.20 pressure 210.70
Quality of steam in steam pipe. Steam used during run, pounds,7i6.4240
Quality of steam in compression, 1.0205 Quality of steam in steam chest, .9941
Weight of condensed steam per Quality of steam in exhaust 9021
hour 259.92
Pounds of wet steam per stroke. Head 0109707. Crank 0109383
Temperatures condensed steam I03°.475 ^= Sg + 32
Temperatures condensing water, cold 42°-75S ^= Si + 32
" hot 92°.2i9 = Sk+32
Pounds of condensing water, per hour 5044.878 ; per stroke, -j ^ ' [212274
Symbols.
To denote different portions of the stroke, the following subscripts are
used :
Admission [a) ; expansion [i) ; exhaust (<;) ; compression {d).
To denote different events of the stroke, the following sub-numbers are
used: Cut-off (i) ; release {2); compression, beginning of (3); admission,
beginning of (0) ; in exhaust (5).
Quality of steam denoted by X.
Cut-off, crank end per cent, of
stroke 20, 544
Cut-off, head end per cent, of
stroke 18.963
Compression, crank end per
cent, of stroke 52.341
Compression, head end percent.
of stroke 39-77°
I.H.P,
fH,3.3i;
IC, 3.30J
5.6206
3-3152 -t
3-3054 i "■■
Brake horse power 4.7100
Release, crank end 93-95^
Release, head end 94-971
Pounds of steam per I. H. P 39-35''
Pounds of steam per brake H.P. 55-314
Afay I, 1891.
Data and Results.
Test of steam-engine made by Daniel Royse, at Sibley College, C. U.
Kind of engine, slide valve, throttling. Diameter cylinder, 6''''.o6. Length
stroke, S''''. Diameter piston rod, I'^yV Volume cylinder, crank end, .12921.
Volume head end, .13354.
Volume clearance, cu. ft. head, .01744 Clearance in per cent of stroke, 13.06
" " " crank, .01616 " " " 12.51
Pressure by gauge, steam chest, 69.40 Barometer 29''''.t32
" absolute, " 83.700 Boiling temperature, atmosphere
Revolutions per hour 12393.60 pressure 210°. 62
Quality of steam in steam pipe, Steam usedduringrun, pounds, 586. 7041
Quality of steam in compression, 1.020 Quality of steam in steam chest, .9799
Quality of steam in exhaust.. .86209
Weight of condensed steam per hour 234.000
Pounds of wet steam per stroke. Head 0091623. Crank 0097722
524 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
Temperatures condensed steam 95°. 060 =: Sg + 32
Temperatures condensing water, cold 52°.o65 rz Si -f- 32
" hot 87°.5SS=:Sk+32
Pounds of condensing water, per hour 6091.62; per stroke, i 7?' •^37ii4
Symbols.
To denote different portions of the stroke, the following subscripts are
used :
Admission (a); expansion (^); exhaust (c); compression («?).
To denote different events of the stroke, the following sub-numbers are
used: Cut-off (i); release (2); compression, beginning of (3); admission,
beginning of (0); in exhaust (5),
Quality of steam denoted by X.
Cut-off, crank end per cent of j jj p f H, 3.17631 | 6 CI138
stroke 21.843 ' ' "^C, 3.33507/
Cut-off, head end per cent of Brake horse power 4.90943
stroke 19.143 Release, crank end 94-977
Compression, crank end per Release, head end 95-714
cent of stroke 52.153 Pounds of steam per I. H. P... 36.0413
Compression, head end per Pounds of steam per brake
cent, of stroke 37.714 H. P 47.8022
The summary of data and the results, shown in the second of these
last tables, constitute a most interesting study apart from their rela-
tion to the problem here sought to be solved by their use. The
whole table is one of percentages of the total heat, steam and energy
entering the engine from the boiler. It is seen that on both occasions
this steam was practically dry, the water constituting but one and a
half to two per cent of the whole mass. At the point of cut-off, how-
ever, this figure becomes immensely altered and we find from forty
to nearly fifty per cent condensed at that point, a quantity measuring
the waste by " cylinder-condensation," occurring as the steam enters
the comparatively cold engine, and the heat thus surrendered to the
metal, supplying the place of that given out by the cylinder-walls
during the immediately preceding period of exposure to the cooling
influence of expansion, exhaust and liquefaction in the condenser.
At the point of release a portion of this heat has been restored to the
steam, as it expanded to lower pressures and temperatures, becom-
ing, in turn, cooler than the adjacent cylinder walls. This heat aids,
to a limited extent, the transformation of heat into work ; but, evi-
dently, not to the same extent as that which was transformed from
the maximum, initial temperature. Ten to fifteen per cent is seen to
have been thus returned by the metal of the cylinder before the
exhaust-valve opens and release begins.
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THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 527
At the commencement of the compression we note that the
" quahty " of the steam has risen, by the re-evaporation or separa-
tion of the water contained in the charge, to about 75 per cent in the
first trial and to 95 in the second ; and here we begin to see the effect
of our treatment of the interior surfaces of the cylinder. The varia-
tions between head and crank end, and possibly a part of the greater
differences between the same ends on the two days, may probably
be largely due to the difference in the quantities of water collected
in various hollows and in the drops adhering to the inner surfaces of
the engine. The carbonized and varnished surfaces would evidently
not permit as ready adherence as the untreated metal. The quality
of this same steam, however, after compression is completed, is raised
by absorption of the heat of compression, and perhaps in part by
absorption from the cylinder walls, to 102, which means some super-
heating. This unlooked-for result is given both by the measure-
ments of the diagrams, but also by the use of a calorimeter, ingeni-
ously contrived to sample and test the steam at any desired point in
the stroke. Both methods give precisely the same figure. The
steam passing into the condenser is seen to contain ten per cent
moisture before and about fourteen after treatment, a result which is
not easily explained, but possibly may indicate that the engine in the
first case sent out all its steam as part of a comparatively homo-
geneous mixture, while in the second trial it may have carried all its
water in suspension and uniformly.
The heat utilized by transformation into dynamic energy for the
performance of work, as shown by the indicator, was 5.5 per cent the
first day and 6 per cent the second, showing a gain of nearly 10
per cent in efficiency of engine, and quantity of heat and steam and
fuel consumed. The computed thermodynamic efficiency of the
perfect engine working within the same extreme limits of temperature
would have been 20 per cent, and the real engine thus gave but 28
per cent of the ideal figure the first day as untreated, and about 35
per cent the second day after treatment. The economic result of
the application of this process, in this instance, is thus seen to be a
gain of about 10 per cent. Had the time for complete application
been allowed, and the surfaces been given its full benefit, increasing
their useful action from the observed 40 per cent to 70, it is pre-
sumed that the gain would have been correspondingly greater.
Just how far this increased advantage is attainable must be deter-
mined by further investigation.
528 THE FINAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
The figures as obtained by the tests above described, on a basis of
2.25 pounds of steam for the ideal engine at efficiency unity, corres-
pond to an expenditure of 40 and of 36 pounds of steam per horse-
power per hour for the two cases, respectively, engine as originally
operated and as treated, or to about 4J and 4 pounds of coal
with economical evaporation. This corresponds to a saving of
about three-quarters of a ton of coal per annum per horse-power,
of say three dollars a year per horse-power, the interest at 6 per
cent of fifty dollars per horse-power, while the cost of treatment
might average, time included, one dollar on small engines and a few
cents on very large powers. It still remains to be determined, by
experiment and by extended experience, to what extent this scheme
may be made more effective, and whether it is likely to be satisfac-
torily permanent. Should it require renewal, like the cleaning of
boilers, it will become a question to settle in every case, how thor-
oughly and how frequently it will pay to take that trouble and go to
that expense. The economical aspect of the problem will very
likely require much careful observation and experimentation for
settlement. All that can be said at present is that it is undoubtedly
the one direction in which engineers are to look in future for great
or for rapid improvement in steam-engine economy, and enough has
been learned to show that it is well worth while to prosecute this
investigation with the utmost diligence and care.
PROCEEDINGS U. S, NAVAL INSTITUTE, VOL. XVII., No. 3.
TEST CYLINDER.
Working Model, No. 2, Successfully Tested at Readins
and Fort Wadsworth.
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
THE TEST OF THE BROWN SEGMENTAL WIRE
CYLINDER.
By First-Lieut. G. N. Whistler, 5TH Artillery.
In the spring of 1890, soon after the test of the i-inch model of the Brown
segmental wire gun, it was determined by the promoters of that system of gun-
construction to build a 5-inch high-powered breech-loading rifle. In order,
however, to determine whether there were any mechanical difficulties in the
way of construction, as well as to test the circumferential strength of the cyl-
inder and the accuracy of the formulae used, it was determined first to con-
struct a short cylinder of the same radial dimensions as the chamber of the
5-inch gun.
The construction of the cylinder was begun about the middle of November,
1890, and was completed February 16, 1891. Prior to beginning the work on
the cylinder, some four or five months were spent upon experiments in setting
up special elasticity in steel. The steel finally determined upon was a grade
of crucible chrome steel made at the Carpenter Steel Works, Reading, Pa.
This remarkable grade of steel gave the following physical conditions as
shown by tests of free specimens :
In its annealed state —
Tensile strength 120,859 pounds per square inch.
Elastic limit 70,860 pounds per square inch.
Elongation in 5 centimeters 26 per cent.
Oil-hardened and annealed —
Tensile strength 156,900 pounds per square inch.
Elastic limit 102,300 pounds per square inch.
Elongation in 5 centimeters 18.5 per cent.
After having been made up into segments for the cylinder and treated by a
special process including cold work, it showed the following physical con-
ditions :
Tensile strength 176,000 pounds per square inch.
Elastic limit 126,000 pounds per square inch.
Elongation in 5 centimeters 12 per cent.
It is manifest that with such high elastic conditions an extremely high
initial tension might be produced by wire-winding without any fear of exceed--
ing the elastic limit for compression of the segmental tube.
The segmental tube consisted of 72 segments 20 inches long, the angle of
the bevel being, of course, 5°, so as to be able to assemble them into a cyl-
inder. In order to assimilate as near as might be to the conditions of the gun,
these segments were rolled in 18-foot pieces and then cut up. The segments
were assembled precisely as it is intended to assemble the gun, and a breech
and muzzle nut shrunk on, with the proper degree of shrinkage, after which
the cylinder was wound with wire under a tension which would produce a com-
pression at the surface of the bore of 50 tons (112,000 pounds) per square
530 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
inch. The wire used was made by Wolfe, of New York, and was o'''.o7
square, having the following physical conditions :
Tensile strength 262,000 pounds, 117 tons per square inch.
Elastic limit 230,000 pounds, 103 tons per square inch.
Elongation in 10 inches 3 per cent.
The dimensions of the cylinder were as follows :
Total length 20 inches.
Exterior diameter 15 inches.
Exterior diameter segmental tube 11 inches.
Diameter of bore 5 inches.
Length of powder chamber 6.5 inches.
In order to determine what powder-pressure this cylinder should stand be-
fore the compression between the segments would be reduced to zero, we will
use Birnie's formulae. Considering the cylinder to be a compound cylinder of
two parts, the segmental tube and the wire jacket, we have,
Pin - 3(A-?-^§)(eo + C)
0 - (4^-2 + 2AI) - 6^f X /
P n - 4(^?-Al)po
The notation differs from Birnie's only in the substitution of C for its
equivalent po in the first equation.
/"o =: maximum safe pressure.
Ji^ -^z exterior radius of segmental tube.
Jig ■=. radius of bore.
^^2 or iV„ z= exterior radius of cylinder.
0 inelastic limit of metal for extension per square inch of segmental tube.
Po=: elastic limit of metal for compression per square inch of segmental
tube.
Cr= compression at surface of bore per square inch.
Now, when the modulus of elasticity of the wire and segments are the same,
as it was in this case, we have,
in this case jz zz 2, and we have
A^lA'l-A'g)'
substituting this value of / in the foregoing equations, we obtain
0,1, _ 3(^i-^§Xg+eo)
^0 - 4iVi + 2A'g
It is manifest that so long as C is not greater than pp, the first value of Pq
will always be the smaller ; we, therefore, need only consider this first value,
which also is evidently the value of Pq that reduces the compression at the
surface of the bore to zero, the second value being that which overcomes the
elastic limit for compression of the metal of the segmental tube.
Now, as the segmental tube is made up of segments it has no circumferen-
tial strength, and, therefore, 00 = 0; making this substitution, we have,
_3(^i-^§)C.
^0- 4A'2 + 2A'g '
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
53^
substituting the proper values, we have
_ 3 (56.25— 6.25) 50 _
31.5 tons per sq. inch.
<' 225.00 -|- 12.50
From which it is evident that it should require a powder-pressure of 70,560
pounds per square inch to reduce the compression between the segments to
zero and, therefore, to cause them to begin to open.
In order to test the strength of the cylinder, that is, its elastic strength, it
was fitted with two plugs, one in each end. Through one plug was drilled a
vent 0^^.20 in diameter, it being the intention to fill the powder-chamber with
powder and fire it, permitting the gas to escape through the vent.
The first test was made at Reading, Pa., February 18 and 19, 1891, with the
results given in the following table.
No mechanical difficulties were found in the process of construction. The
process of cold-rolling was found to produce a far more perfect fit of the seg-
ments than could possibly be obtained by planing.
Mr. Brown's tension machine acted most admirably, the wire being wound
on under a tension of 760 pounds upon the wire, without jump or perceptible
tremor, that is, without a tremor perceptible to the eye or ear. A slight
tremor could be detected by placing the hand upon the instrument.
Every process of construction was most satisfactory.
Charge of
Powder.
Pressures
lbs.
per square
inch.
Measurement of Diameter of Bore.
No. of
Discharge.
On Diameter A.
On Diameter B.
Bottom
of Bore.
Middle
of Bore.
Top
of Bore,
Bottom
of Bore.
Middle
of Bore.
Top
of Bore.
Before firing.
Lbs. Oz.
0 ■■ 8
1 8
No record.
,..600
26,100
36,000
Inches.
5013
S-OI3
5.012
5.012
5.010
Inches.
S012
5.012
5.0II
5.010
5.007
Inches.
5-012
5.0I2
5-OI2
5012
5.0I0
Inches.
5.011
5.011
5.011
5.012
5.0.2
Inches.
5 on
5.010
son
5011
5.010
Inches.
S.014
S.014
S.°i4
5.014
5.014
2d
3d
^,h .
At the fourth discharge the gas-check failed, and the gas escaping about the
plug sealed it so fast that it was found impossible to unscrew it. The cylinder
was taken to the shop and the plug bored out; the interior of the bore was
found uninjured except from scoring at the point where the gas passed by the
gas-check.
It had been originally intended to test the tube in both a lined and unlined
condition, and as the boring out and rethreading the cylinder for a new plug
involved a great loss of time, it was deemed wise to take advantage of this
opportunity to line the chamber.
The value of F^ for the cylinder lined, when the liner is inserted under com-
pression, may be determined by the following formulae :
z,(i, _ 3(^f-^g)(eo + Po)
4(^f-7?g)po
n which R^ is the exterior radius of the liner.
Substituting for / its value, remembering that « zz 3 , and reducing, we have
3(^i-^g)(9o + Po)
4A'i + 2RI
4(^1 -^g)Po
^'^' = .
/>(i)
PW
i,R\-2R\
532
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
from which may be seen that as ^^ does not enter into either equation, the value
of Fq is independent of the thickness of the liner.
In order to test extreme conditions the liner was made only one-quarter inch
thick and was inserted so that Czz 50 tons per square inch.
The chamber was bored and the liner turned on a taper and inserted by
hydraulic pressure. Pressure 100 tons.
The cylinder was then tested as before ; the results are shown in the follow-
ing table :
Charge of
Powder.
Pressure
lbs. per
square inch.
Measurement of Diameter of Bore.
No. of
Discharge.
On Diameter A.
On Diameter B.
Bottom
of Bore.
Middle
of Bore.
Top of
Bore.
Bottom Middle Top of
ofBore. |of Bore. Bore.
I
Before firing.
Lbs. Oz.
1 0
1 8
2 0
2 8
3 4
No record.
18,200
24,520
29,7fo
38,530
54.500
57,220
Inches.
5 000
5.0CO
5.000
5.OC0
5 oco
5.000
Inches.
S.ooo
5OC0
5.000
5.0CO
5000
5.000
Inches.
S.002
5.002
5.002
5.002
S.002
S CO2
Inches. Inches. Inches.
5.000 1 5.000 . 5.0C2
S.ooo 1 5.000 , 5.002
5.000 1 5.000 5002
5.C00 5000 1 5.002
5.OCO 1 5.000 ' 5002
s.ooo s.coo ' s.002
,d
.fh
jth
6th
5.C00 j t;.co2 1 s.ooo s.ooo =.002
7th
S.ooo
5.002
5.000 5 000 5 002
In all these tests two crusher gauges were used and the pressures giren in
the table are the means of the two.
At the last discharge the plug was unscrewed with ease and, as shown by
the table, not the slightest enlargement of the bore was discovered.
The cylinder was then taken to Fort Wadsworth for a public test, the results
of which were as follows :
Charge of
Powder.
Pressure per
square inch.
Measurement cf Diameter of Bore.
No. of
Discharge.
Bottom of Bore.
Middle of Bore.
Top of Bore.
Diam.
A
Diam.
B
Diam.
A
Diam.
B
Diam.
A
Diam.
B
Before firing.
Lbs. Oz.
41.520
57,400
Inches.
5.0024
Inches.
5.0024
Inches.
5 0013
5. 0020
5.0041
Inches.
5 0028
5.0028
5.C028
Inches.
5.0034
50033
5.0036
Inches.
S0034
50033
5.0018
ad
5 0026 1 S.0021
At the second discharge the gas escaped about the plugs and again sealed
them so that they could not be opened. The cylinder was taken to the shop
and the plug bored out.
Three holes were found through the liner ; from one of these holes a crack
extended to the top of the liner. The other two holes were entirely isolated.
The position of the holes was about the middle of the chamber on diameter B.
The powder had forced its way through these holes and thence around the
liner, and out and about the plugs. These three holes were undoubtedly small
blow-holes, which had not been noticed when examining the liner, probably
mere pin-holes. The various discharges had gradually increased their depth
until at the 13th discharge the gas forced its way through.
It will be noted that the diameter on B at the middle cf the bore was only
5.0013 inches, whereas the average diameter of the remainder of the chamber
was about 5.0025 inches. At the previous test the measuring instruments used
PROFESSIONAL NOTES. 533
were not sensitive enough to note this small difference. It is probable that the
reduction in diameter at this point was due to the giving way of the metal to
the pressure from without, due to the presence of these flaws.
The enlargement at this point from 5.0013 inches to 5.0020 inches being less
than o.ooi inch, was attributed to error of calipering, but was probably due
to the presence of the flaws. At the last discharge this increased to 5.0041
inches, making thus a depression of 0.0013 inch at this point. Of course
this small enlargement is practically nothing.
It will also be noticed that at the top, due to the gas cutting away metal in
the crack, diameter B dropped from 5.0033 inches to 5.0018 inches.
As all of these changes are less than o.ooi inch, we may practically say
that there was no variation in the dimensions of the bore. Below the holes no
enlargement was perceptible.
One point is, however, important to be noted : while the strength of a system
to resist powder pressure is independent of the thickness of the liner when
introduced with full initial compression, yet it is not safe to make a liner so
thin that there is any danger of minute and imperceptible blow-holes extending
far enough through to weaken the metal.
The test as a whole was exceedingly satisfactory. It is demonstrated
beyond question that so far as circumferential strength is concerned, a gun
constructed upon this principle will sustain a pressure of 57,000 pounds per
square inch without any danger of enlargement of the bore.
The working pressure of the 5-inch gun will be placed at 50,000 pounds per
square inch, and as the bore is 44 calibers long, this will give a muzzle velocity
of about 2500 foot-seconds.
The trustees are now at work turning out as rapidly as possible the experi-
mental 5-inch gun.
ON DETERMINING THE INCLINATIONS OF NON-ALGE-
BRAIC CURVES FROM THEIR ORDINATES.
By D. W. Taylor, Naval Constructor, U. S. Navy.
The curves with which the naval architect has to deal, such as ship's lines,
speed curves, curves derived from experiments, etc., can seldom be expressed
by means of an equation. This being the case, neither their areas nor their
inclinations at given points can be determined with mathematical accuracy.
Areas of such curves can be satisfactorily determined by the use of mechani-
cal integrators or by the judicious application of Simpson's Rules or the
Trapezoidal Rule to ordinates measured at known intervals. With inclina-
tions, however, the case is different. They cannot be determined mechanically.
If tangents are drawn in by eye and their inclinations measured directly, large
and irregular errors will occur. So far as I am aware, there is no generally
accepted semi-empirical rule for determining inclinations analogous to
Simpson's Rules or the Trapezoidal Rule for areas. In seeking such a rule
one naturally replaces the actual curve being dealt with by an algebraic curve
having so many common points with the first as to closely follow it in the
neighborhood of the point at which the inclination is desired.
Consider the parabolic curve
}' = a-{-l>x-{-cx'^-\-dxS^ . .. +mx^\ (i)
Here are 2«+ i arbitrary constants, a,b, c, . . . m, and hence the curve rep-
resented by (i) can be made to pass through 2« -f- i successive points of the
non-algebraic curve. Take the origin at the foot of the ordinate from the
point at which we wish the inclination. Take n known points at equal inter-
vals in the direction of x positive and « more in the direction of x negative.
We shall have then, on substituting in succession the known values of x and
jK, 2«-f I equations for the determination of the 2n-\- i arbitrary constants.
534 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
At any point x of the curve denoted by (i) we have
Tangent of inclination -zz -£^ zz b + 2cx -\- 3</x + . . . 2«. »i/''"\ (2)
For the origin where xz=.o,
^]='- '3)
Now denote the ordinate corresponding to ^ = — 3 by ^_3, corresponding
to xzz — 2 by _y_ 2 , and so on. Also let
J)'3— Jf-3= Yz,
y^ — y-^zz. F2, and so on.
Then giving to n the successive values i, 2, 3, 4 corresponding to parabolic
curves of the 2d, 4th, 6th and 8th degrees, and substituting the known ordinates
in the parabolic equations, we can by elimination determine b, which by equa-
tion (3) is the tangent of the desired inclination. The details of the elimination
are given in the appendix, and the results are as below :
n—\, bzz\Y^, (A)
«=2, b~\Y^-^^Y^, (B)
« = 3, b-\Y,-i^Y^-\-i^Y,, (C)
« = 4. b-%Y,-\Y^^ ^%-^Y,-^\^Y,. (D)
The greater the value of n, i. e. the more ordinates used on each side of the
point at which we wish the inclination, the more complicated the formula and
the greater the work involved in its use. There is nothing a /r/cr? to show
which formula will give, with the least amount of work, the necessary and
sufficient amount of accuracy. This can be determined by applying the for-
mulae to typical curves and comparing the results they give with exact results.
In Table I is given the results of the application of each formula to a curve
of sines, the unit interval between ordinates being 10°. It appears that in
this case formula (A) is not sufficiently approximate, but that (B) is practically
exact and as good as the more complicated formulae (C) and (D). These
conclusions are confirmed by the results of the application of the formulae to
other known curves.
In Table I the percentages of error resulting from the use of formulae (A)
and (B) are contrasted with the percentages of error made by two accurate
and careful draughtsmen, who drew the curve of sines and the tangents at the
selected points and then measured the inclinations of the latter. The results
speak for themselves, and show clearly why " graphic differentiation " is found
to be difficult and inaccurate.
For practical use formula (B) can be put in a more convenient form. If T
denote the tangent of the inclination, we have by (B)
Now if >'„_2, jj'n-i.^'n, Vn+i>j>'n+2 deuote five successive ordinates of any
curve, and T^ the tangent of the inclination at ^„ the middle ordinate, we have
^'n = f (jn + 1 — jl'n-l) — TJ (> +2 — >'«-2)
= TZ [8 (j»'n + l— 7»-l) — Crn + S— >'»-2)]-
The above is for unit interval between ordinates. If the interval is some
other length denoted by /the formula becomes
-2-jr„_2)].
I find that this formula will always give satisfactory results when applied to
any curve whose shape suits it to the determination of its area by Simpson's
PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
535
Rules. Also the spacing of ordinates, etc., that should be adopted is such as
would be adopted for an application of Simpson's Rules.
Table II shows the application of formula (B) to a portion of a waterline
of a ship.
TABLE I.
Equation jt' zz sin d.
dv ^ dB
Tangent = ^zz cos 0^^
For X 1=1, 6—10°.
— — g- cos 6= .17453 cos
t
.1 ,
dy
-dl
Tangents by Formula.
Errors by Formulae.
Errors Expressed as
Percentages.
1
'
B
c
D
A
^
C
D
A
B
X
o°j 0
.I74S3
.I7S6S
•17453
•17454
■17453
— .00088
0
+.CO001
0
— 0.5J
-0.42
+ 3-94
10° .17365 ..7188
.17101
.17187
.17187.17.88
— .00087
— . OOOOI
.OCOOI
0
-0.51
—0.006
p\
+ ^•79
20° .34202 .16400
.16318
.16400
.16400 .16400
—.00082
0
0
0
—0.50
0
4- ••o?
3o°| .500001.15115
•15039
.15114
.I5IIS .15115
— .00076' .COOOI
0
0
-0.50
—0.006
+ 1.23
+ i^3o
40°; .642791.13370
.13302
.issb9
•13370 .13370
—.00068 —.00001
0
0
^•Si
-0.007
- 0.75
50°j .76604.11219
.11162
.11219
.112191.11219
—.00057 0
0
0
—0.51
0
-1.29
— 4.41
60°! .86603
.08727
.08683
.08727
.08727 08728
—.00044' 0
0
+ .00001
-^.51
0
4-1.67
4- 5.00
7o°| .93969
.05969
.05939
.05969
.05969 .05969
—.000301 0
°
0
—0.51
0
+248
4- 7^I2
80°! .98481
.03031
.0301b
.03030
.03030 .03031
— .00015 — .00001
—.00001
0
— o.so
-0.03
+35°
4-18.1S
90° 1. 00000
0
0
0
0 0
0 1 0
°
°
°
0
0
TABLE II.
Number of Station . .
y
yn+i
yn--i
DiflFerence (to deduct). .
J" + 1
yn-\
DiflFerence
Difference X 8
To deduct
Difference
Difference -H 12
Spacing of stations . . . .
Tangent of inclination,
Inclination ,
Number of Station. .
y
^'" + 2
yn-i
DiflFerence (to deduct) ,
jy-'+'i
yn-\
Difference.
Difference X 8
To deduct
Difference
Difference -5- 12 ,
Spacing of stations. . . .
Tangent of inclination
Inclination
■
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0..3
^•542
4.260
6.073
7^979
9.88s
"111
13.771
7-979
0.948
9.885
11.823
13.771
15.688
17.542
2.542
4.260
6.073
7-979
9-885
7.031
7-343
7.663
7.698
7.709
7-^57
6.073
7.979
9.885
11.823
i3^77i
15.688
2.542
4^260
6.073
7 979
9lll
11.823
3531
3-719
3.812
3.844
3.886
3.865
28.248
29.752
30.496
30.752
31.088
30.920
7°3i
7-343
7.663
7.698
7.709
7.657
21.217
22.409
22.833
23.054
23.379
23263
1.7681
1.8674
'2668
1.9028
7
.2718
I 9212
1.9499
.2786
1.9386
2769
^.2S26
.2745
14° II'
14° 56'
15° 12'
15° 21'
15° 34'
15° 29'
15.688
19.333
11.823
7.510
17.542
13.771
3.771
30.168
7.510
22.658
7
.2697
15° 06'
10
-
12
'3
I
4
15
16
^7.
17.542
19-333
21.021
22.615
24.104
25-458
1^21
27.750
24.104
25^458
26
677
27.750
28.666
13 771
15-688
17.542
19.333
21
021
22.615
24.104
7.250
6.927
6.562
5
656
5-I3S
4.562
19-333
22.615
24.104
25
458
26.677
27750
15.688
17-542
19 333
21.021
22
615
24.104
25458
3^645
3.479
3.282
3.083
2
84^
2.573
2 292
29.160
27-832
26.256
24.664
22
744
20584
18.336
7.250
6.927
6.562
6.125
5
656
S.'35
4^562
21.910
20.905
19694
18.539
17
088
15-449
13^774
1.8258
1. 7421
1.6412
1-5449
I
4240
1.2874
1. 1478
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
.2608
.2489
•2345
.2207
-2034
.1839
..639
14° 37'
13" 59'
.3'^ .2'
12° 27'
IlO
30'
10° 25'
9°i9'
536 PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
APPENDIX.
The equation of the parabola of the 8th degree is
j> = a+3x -]-cx-'-]-dx^-\- ex* +/r5 +^x^ + /ix' + kx^ ( i )
x = -{-t,yt=a+l>t-\-ct'-\- dt^ + et* -{-/{' -\-gt^ -\- hf + kfi, (2)
x — — t,yt—a—bt-^cfi — dfi^ et* —ffi +gt^ — kf + kt\ (3)
Deducting (3) from (2),
y,-y_,-Y,-2t{b+ df^ -\-ffi + ht% (4)«
t — \, Fi = 8^ +1280' +20487+32768//, (s)
/=3, F3 = 63+ 54^+ 486/+ ^y^^h, (6)
t—2, Y^ — i,b-\- 16^ + 64/+ 256/J, (7)
t—\, Y, — zb^ 2d+ 2/+ 2/^. (8)
Eliminating d between equation (8) and equations (5), (6) and (7) succes-
sively, we have the following three equations :
64 Fi — F4 — I20i5 — 1920/— 32640/^, (9)
27 Fi — Fj =: 48^ — 432/— 4320/4, (10)
8F1— F2=: 12b— 48/— 240/5. (II)
Eliminating/between equation (11) and equations (9) and (10) successively,
we have the following two equations :
256 Fi — 40F2 + F4 3: 360^ + 23040/^, (12)
45F, _ 9F2+F3= 60b -\- 2160/^. (13)
Finally, eliminating A between (12) and (13), we have
672 Fi — 168 F2 + 32 F3 — 3 F4 =: 840/5, ( 14)
or
/J = |F,-iF, + 3^^F3-^^F4. (15)
Equation (15) is the same as formula (D). Formula (A) follows from (8)
by supposing ^,/ and ,4 =: 0. Formula (B) follows from (11) by supposing
y and Az= o. Formula (C) follows from (13) by supposing /i =z o,
♦Equation (4), expressing Vt in a general form, was suggested by Lt. -Commander J. P.
Merrell, U. S. N,
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
UNITED SERVICE GAZETTE.
May i6, 1891. Launch of the Sappho. Trial trip of the Swift-
sure.
May 23. Masts and sails as a means of training. Military small-
arms. Quick-firing gun trials.
At the range at Dartford, Kent, some excellent results have been obtained
with 6-pounder Maxim-Nordenfelt quick-firing guns, fired with uncharged
shells against a 4-inch all-steel plate which had been manufactured by Messrs.
Vickers for experimental purposes. The plate, which measured four feet
square, was erected, without backing, at a distance of 100 yards from the muzzle
of the gun, and five rounds were fired at it, as follows :
„ . _ -n J Muzzle Velocity in
Round. Gun. Powder. foot-seconds.
Black hexagonal,
3 lb. I oz.
1 Mark A, 6pdr.
„ . , , Black hexagonal, o/-,
2 Service D-pdr. ,, i c oz
,, ^ , Maxim smokeless, ,„,„
3 6-pdr. j^^^^_ 1930
4 «' 6-pdr. Maxim^sm^okeless, ^^^^
c « 6-pdr. ^^^'"^ smokeless, ^200
^ ^ 13 oz.
In round one the nose of the projectile barely penetrated through the
plate, and the projectile, which "set up" somewhat, rebounded 150 feet. In
round two the extent of penetration was three inches and the projectile
broke up. On the back of the plate there was a half-inch bulge without
cracks. In round three the penetration was such that the point of the shell
caused a pinhole aperture at the back of the plate, raising a half-inch bulge.
Ift round four the nose of the shell penetrated completely, and the projectile,
breaking up, left a ring of itself, with part of the driving bands in the hole.
In round five there was absolute penetration, estimated to be equal to a pene-
tration of 5J^ inches of wrought iron.
May 30. The history of projectiles. The personnel of the French
fleet. Armor-plate trials. The blowing up of the Blanco Encalada.
June 6, Volunteer mounted infantry. Sounding machines.
June 13. Napoleon on Waterloo. The handicraft of navigation.
Naval notes.
There has just been tried at Portsmouth, on board the Nettle, a io>^-
inch all-steel armor-plate, made by Vickers, Sons & Co., of Sheffield. The
shots were fired from a 6inch gun, with a charge of 48 pounds of powder,
and there were three Holtzer armor-piercing projectiles and two Palliser pro-
jectiles, weighing each 100 pounds. The plate stopped all the projectiles.
538 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Of the Holtzer projectiles the first remained in the plate, the second rebounded
broken, and the third rebounded unbroken. The two Palliser shells were
broken up. There were no cracks in the plate beyond fine ones extending
radially not more than five inches from the inner edge of the fringe raised by
the impact of the shots.
Military notices.
From the very successful experiments which for some little time past have
been carried out in France, it seems probable that the strong homing instincts
possessed by swallows will soon lead to their being regularly trained for mili-
tary purposes. M. Jean Desbourne,of Roubaix, who has devoted much atten-
tion to the subject, has already succeeded in training swallows to fly from Paris
back to their homes in Roubaix, a distance of 140 miles. When matched
against carrier pigeons, the swallows were found to fly their distance in 45
minutes less time than was taken by the pigeons.
June 20. The melinite scandal, II. Naval notes : Canet gun
trials.
June 27. The navy and imperial defense. Naval notes : Launch
of the Isly. Increase in the Russian navy. The composition of the
French fleet. Launch of the Intrepid and the Brilliant.
July 4. General program of the 1891 manoeuvres. Mobilization
of the French fleet.
July ii. The training of our recruits. The explosion on board
the Cordelia.
July 18. The training of garrison artillery. Musketry practice.
Naval notes : Kelway's range-finding watch. Aluminium bronze for
naval and military purposes ; The French naval manoeuvres. The
naval manoeuvres.
July 25. Launch of the Endymion. The naval manoeuvres.
War vessels past and present.
August I. Organization of the Russian army, I. Launch of the
Hood. The naval manoeuvres.
August 8. Organization of the Russian army, II. The training
of garrison artillery, II. The visit of the French fleet. The reor-
ganization of the steam reserves. The naval manoeuvres. The cav-
alry manoeuvres. H. G. D.
JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION.
May, 1891. Navigation and pilotage of Her Majesty's ships, by
Lord Brassey, K. C. B. Some recent continental ideas upon tactics,
by Captain J. M. Grierson, R. A. The education and training of
infantry militia officers. The navy and its exhibition. Balloons for
naval purposes (translation from- the German, by Captain T. F.
Daniell, R. M. L. I.)
The French, since the first trials with captive balloons aboard ship, July,
1888, have continued the experiments under various circumstances and have
added many improvements.
The gas for the balloons is no longer made on board ship as required, but
is kept all ready stored up in steel cylinders, each holding four cubic meters of
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 539
hydrogen under a pressure of 120 atmospheres, and weighing only 30 kilo-
grams. As many of such cylinders as are required can be simultaneously
opened into an exhauster connected with them by an india-rubber tube, and
the balloon can thus be filled in a very short time. The gas is manufactured
and compressed into the cylinders on land.
On account of the small weight and volume of these cylinders, eighty of
which are needed to fill a balloon with a cubical contents of 920 cubic meters
and weigh 2400 kilograms, a ship with a balloon can easily take enough to fill
it several times.
Another very important improvement consists in the fact that in the experi-
ments made last year the balloon was not, as had hitherto been the practice,
triced up directly from the windlass on deck, in which case both the balloon
and the cable, when the ship was in motion and there was any wind, were very
liable to be injured by the masts and other parts of the ship. The idea had
been thought of to fasten the cable to the highest part of the ship itself,
namely, the mast, whilst the windlass remained on deck.
By the help of a very simple arrangement of leading blocks, the balloon
can be brought from the after-part of the deck straight up and down the mast,
while the cable runs over a hanging spindle or roller. This arrangement can
naturally only be employed on board large ships which have very heavy spars
and masts ; on board small vessels, such as torpedo-boats, the balloon can more
easily be made fast to the deck, and without the danger which has been pre-
viously referred to, of coming into collision with the spars.
It appears, moreover, that the employment of a silken anchoring cable has
been given up and a steel cable adopted instead. • . .
In the first half of September the exercises commenced on board the armor-
clad St. Louis, which was lying near the islands of Hyeres. The balloon was
towed from the harbor of Toulon to the St. Louis by the torpedo-boat L'Auda-
cieux, and transferred from the latter to the ship. During the return of the
St. Louis to Toulon several captive ascents were made, and thirty officers of
all ranks went up. The captain of the ship for a time carried on the com-
mand from the balloon at a height of 250 meters, transmitting his orders by
telephone. Finally, Lieutenant Serpette cast off the cable at a height of 200
meters, to make a free ascent. The balloon rose to the height of 1800 meters,
and came down in the open sea, using the sea-anchor, without the car touch-
ing the surface of the water. The torpedo-boat which went after the balloon
took it in tow and brought it back uninjured to the St. Louis. The signal
stations, where the cause of the ascent of the balloon to such a height was
not known, had signalled that the cable had broken.
The trials were then continued on board the flagship Formidable. The
position of the balloon was fixed, and the balloon filled behind the armored
turret on the aft-deck. From here it was hauled by means of blocks to the
mizzen-top, and was hoisted up by a running block ; the cable was led down to
the windlass on deck, so the balloon could be manipulated from the deck.
Several officers of the ship again made ascents and ascertained that in
clear weather all the details of the coast from Marseilles to the extreme point
of the islands of Hyeres were plainly visible, and that no building nor ship
for 30 to 40 kilometers round could escape the notice of an observer in a bal-
loon. They also verified the fact, which all aeronauts have noticed, of the
transparency of the water when looked at vertically downwards. The bottom
of the sea, at a depth of 25 meters, was clearly distinguishable, and the move-
ments of a shark were watched with interest.
The behavior of the balloon throughout these exercises was all that could
be wished ; it withstood at times very strong winds, and could be towed along
by a ship going at full speed, with 50 meters of cable, without suffering any
damage. Thus, on September 6th, the torpedo-boat L'Audacieux, with the
balloon attached to it, steamed in two hours 21 miles, from the roadstead at
Toulon to the place where the St. Louis was anchored in Hyeres roads, keep-
540 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
ing the balloon at a height of 50 meters. The conclusion was, however, come
to that in case of having to carry a filled balloon, it was better to do so on an
armor-clad vessel fastened to the deck from its equatorial line. Under these
circumstances it could better resist the strength of the wind, especially if it
were protected by a sail stretched round it. . . .
There is no doubt that captive balloons can be employed for naval pur-
poses, but their employment is much more influenced by meteorological con-
siderations than is the case on land. If, therefore, it is the opinion of naval
men that reconnaissance by means of balloons from a ship is desirable or neces-
sary, the fact must be faced that for this purpose a special sort of balloon
apparatus must be made, and also that, when possible, the ships which are to
be equipped with a balloon should have special arrangements both for the
speedy filling and the security of the anchored balloon.
On the high seas the importance of the reconnaissance from a ship of a
squadron under way by the aid of a captive balloon will be of so little
importance that it could hardly be worth while to burden a ship with all the
apparatus of a captive balloon, which in spite of every improvement must
always be unwieldy, for in clear weather all that is necessary can very well be
seen from the lookout station at the masthead, and in thick weather the bal-
loon offers no advantages over the latter place. It is in the case of a blockade
or an attack on a fortified coast place that the balloon can play an important
part.
Its capabilities and opportunities are in such circumstances almost the
same as on land. By means of it all the arrangements of the besieged force, all
their works and important buildings can be observed, and the fire of the guns
of the attack can be directed from the balloon, and all the counter measures of
the besieged force can be rendered useless by timely warning of them being
furnished. Consequently it would be well worth while to attach a captive
balloon to a squadron undertaking operations of this nature, and would very
much facilitate the successful carrying out of the operation.
June. I. The ranks compared with civihan working-class Hfe ;
II. Recruiting difficulties ; III. The condition of the army reserve,
by Col. F. J. Graves, 20th Hussars. Heavy guns and heavy shells
versus light guns and light shells, with some remarks on the arma-
ment of H. M.'s ships Victoria, Sans Pareil, and Benbow, by George
Quick, Fleet Engineer. The use of railways for coast and harbor
defense. The late Royal Military Exhibition and its value from a
military point of view. The Yeomanry and its future. The Russian
naval manoeuvres of 1890 (translation).
July. Military small-arms, by Lt.-Col. G. V. Forsbery, V. C.
Masts and sails as a means of training. Sounding machines for the
prevention of strandings. The mounted infantry question in its
relation to the volunteer force of Great Britain. The handicraft of
navigation and nautical surveying.
August. Principles of retirement in the service, by Rear- Admiral
P. H. Colomb. The supremacy of the navy for imperial defense, by
Lt.-Genl. Sir W. F. Drummond Jervis. The German manoeuvres.
Considerations regarding a method of fighting for the infantry suited
to the present conditions. New regulations for promotion by selec-
tion in the Italian infantry and cavalry. H. G. D.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 541
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL ARTILLERY ASSOCIATION.
May, 1891. Franco-German war, by T. M. Maguire. Memoir
of General Sir John St. George, G. C. B., R. A. Recent armor-
plate trials, by Captain G. J. F. Talbot, R. A. Translation : Etudes
de Tactique, etc., par le General Luzeux, Part II.
June. Foreign views upon question of siege and fortress warfare,
compiled by Major J. Wolfe Murray, R. A. The R. A. mess at
Woolwich. Memoir of General Sir John Henry Lefroy, K. C. M. G.,
C. B., F. R. S. Mounted infantry detachments. Translations: Etudes
de Tactique, etc., par le G6neral Luzeux, Part III. Italian time-
fuses.
July. Some notes on the armed strength of Russia. Proceed-
ings of the 54th annual general meeting of the R. A. Institution.
Having regard to recent improvements in material, could the training
of the personnel of the garrison artillery be further perfected to
insure greater efficiency? (silver medal prize essay, 1891). Competi-
tive practice for field artillery. Translation : The artillery combat in
siege warfare.
THE UNITED SERVICE.
July. The efficiency of the army. A summer at Fort Columbia.
Suggestions on the reorganization of the personnel of the navy
(concluded). History of the United States frigate Constitution.
Army reorganization. The intercontinental railway. Chronicles of
Carter barracks. Among our contemporaries : General R. B.
Hayes, commander-in-chief of the military order of the Loyal
Legion of the United States.
August. The defense of the eastern approach to New York
city, by E. M. Weaver, First Lieutenant Second Artillery. Uncle
Man. The Barrundia case again. The British army in 1891. Run-
ning the gauntlet of rebel batteries, by F. A. Roe, Rear-Admiral
U. S. Navy, History of the United States frigate Constitution (con-
tinued). Lost in the bush. Among our contemporaries ; Colonel
W. B. Remey, U. S. M. C, Judge- Advocate General U. S. Navy.
H. G. D.
JOURNAL OF THE MILITARY SERVICE INSTITUTION.
July, 1891. Artillery in the Rebellion. Evolution of hospitals.
Centralization in army affairs. The Summary Court. Range and
position finding. A chapter of American history. Military penology.
Comment and criticism : The gyroscope and drift ; Artillery difficul-
ties during the next war ; Theory of drift of rifled projectiles ; Bullets
versus snow. Reprints and translations : Modern cavalry in the
field ; Two brigades; Letters on artillery, XVI ; Decisive days before
Leipsic; Field artillery material. Military notes: Bullets versus
snow ; SkobelefT's opinion of the lance. The fifth regiment of cavalry.
542 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
JOURNAL OF THE U. S. CAVALRY ASSOCIATION.
March, 1891, No. 12. With the reserve brigade (fourth and
concluding paper). The latest regulations for the government of the
German cavalry in screening and reconnoitering duties (part II), by
a German staff officer. The Ninth U. S. cavalry in the Sioux cam-
paign of 1890. Michigan cavalry at Gettysburg (with maps).
Mountain cannon. New drill regulations for cavalry, U. S. Army.
Professional notes : The British cavalry at Aldershot, September,
1890; Prince Hohenlohe's sixteenth letter on cavalry; An easily
constructed canvas boat ; Memorandum of the views of the division
commander in regard to operations in the field against hostiles.
June, No. 13. The cavalry at Chancellorsville, May, 1863. The
proper employment of cavalry in time of war. The effect of small
caliber arms and smokeless powder upon cavalry operations of the
future. Further remarks on the cavalry fight on the right flank at
Gettysburg. Firing at breastworks of snow with the Berdan rifle.
In the months of January and February the grenadier battalion of H.I. H.
Grand Uuke Peter went out to the Ochta polygon (firing-ground) to test firing
at snow breastworks, in order to obtain data from which to determine the
thickness of snow breastworks to resist bullets.
In pursuance of this it was necessary to construct breastworks of different
thicknesses ; they also differed in the quality of the snow, which was either in a
melting, a dry or a frozen state, due to varying conditions. The firing distance
varied between 150 and 600 steps (one step n twenty-eight inches).
In making a general resume we may come to the conclusion that a breast-
work six feet thick, constructed of melting snow (directly from the shovel) can
be considered as satisfying all requirements. If the breastwork be made of
the same quality of snow but pressed with the feet and shovels, then such an
embankment of five feet thickness can be considered satisfactory. A work
constructed of the same snow frozen at the top can also be considered satis-
factory even with a thickness of four feet. A breastwork three and one-half
feet thick (watered from the top), with an ice crust at the top at least two
inches thick, can also be considered satisfactory.
The tests showed that glacis are the best for the firing from different dis-
tances. Some of the bullets striking the exterior slopes ricochet, leaving only
shallow furrows, and pass over the embankment; others, however, passing
through the crust, soon lose their velocity and penetrate an insignificant dis-
tance. It was observed in firing at the glacis that all the bullets were more
or less deformed ; in the four and eight foot breastworks the bullets were also
flattened, but not to such an extent as in the first case. For the above tests
three hundred and three cartridges were employed.
Some thoughts on equipment. Letters on cavalry. The Stone-
man raid of 1865. A Confederate cavalry officer's views on American
practice and foreign theory. Professional notes : Description of a
field sketching-board: The wounds caused by small-caliber bullets.
H.G.D.
MILITAR-WOCHENBLATT.
May 2, 1891. Increase in the Italian navy. Snow intrenchments.
May 6. Winter manoeuvres with ball cartridges of a Russian
infantry regiment.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 543
May 9. Admiral Symonds on the English navy. On the article
entitled " New naval guns."
A comparison between the English and Krupp 15-cm. rapid-fire gun.
The English gun, 40 calibers long, fires a 100-pound or 4S-3-kg. projectile,
■with a charge of 34 pounds or 15.3 kg. of powder. Weight of gun 52.2 metric
tons.
The Krupp i5-cm. gun, 35 calibers long, fires a projectile of 45.5 kg. weight,
with a charge of 7.55 kg. of smokeless powder. Weight of gun 47.7 metric
tons. Initial velocity attained was 651 meters per second.
The English gun fired on an average 5 shots a minute, the best result being
10 shots in I minute 30 seconds. The Krupp gun fired on an average 7 shots
a minute, the best result being 5 shots in 32 seconds. Nothing was mentioned
in the paper concerning the accuracy of the English gun. The Krupp gun, in
a rapid-fire test, placed all of 9 shots in a target 5 meters square at a distance
of 2500 meters. In a test not made for rapidity of fire 12 shots were lodged
in a target 1.6 meters high and 1.65 meters broad at a distance of 2500 meters.
The same results are obtainable from the Krupp fieldpiece at icoo meters.
New head-covering for French troops. A newly invented jointed
lance.
May 13. Forced marches in Italy.
May 16. Establishment of aeronautical corps in the Russian army.
May 20. The normal attack.
May 23. System of schooling riders. Position of Amsterdam.
Tir r^duit with fieldpieces.
A new French firing-tube was used with good results, the tube being cen-
tered in the bore of the fieldpieces and reduced charges used. The results
at ranges of 200 to 250 meters were eminently satisfactory.
May 27. German life-saving society. Trials with laying tor-
pedoes at Toulon.
The trials were conducted with 16 torpedoes or submarine mines, and the
mines were placed and connected up with the firing stations on shore in three
hours' time. The trials proved that a day would sufiice to plant the whole
field of mines deemed necessary for the defense of Toulon harbor.
June 3. Annuaire de I'arm^e franfaise pour 1891. Minor notices.
The Russian government has ordered 10,000 tons of armor-plates for the
battle-ship Georgij Pabjedonoscz, building at Sebastopol, from the firm of
Schneider et Cie., Creusot. The order is based on the results of the competi-
tive tests of armor-plates at Ochta, November 11, 1890, in which the Creusot
plates came out victorious. The plates for the Russian battle-ship are to have
a thickness of from 20 to 40 cm.
June 6. The growth of the French navy in the past twenty years.
On the military boot.
June io. Firing trials of the Krupp works.
On October 2 and 3, 1890, firing trials of guns from the Krupp works took
place at the proving-grounds at Meppen in the presence of many artillery
representatives.
Of greatest interest are the experiments with smokeless powder. In the
short period of one year a wonderful progress has been made in this direction.
544
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
,
u,
>x
Muzzle Energy.
ss
1
3
?n^
taO
o.ci
•^.
Size of
g
-H
•og>
1"
cubical
pellet,
mm.
J.
Absolute,
mt.
Per kg.
charge,
mt.
Per kg.
of
weight
of gun,
mt.
Ill
I
10.5
35
I 200
16
2.7
5
650
344-5
127.6
285
2345
2
10.5
35
1,200
12
2.7
5
750
344.0
127.4
285
2365
3
12
35
i.goo
20
35
7-5
688
482.5
1379
254
2TS6
4
>5
35
4.770
40
15, 15,7.5*
757
1168
97.36
245
^I'S
S
24
40
31,000
215
42
15
bq8
5339
127.1
172.2
2830
6
24
40
S'.coo
160
45
15
804
5272
117 170.1
*The pellet is of semi-cubical form.
Comparison of present results with those published last year shows that the
highest initial velocity (at that time 710 meters) has been surpassed by nearly
100 meters (804 meters). The former was obtained with a projectile of 108
kg. fired from a 21 cm. gun 35 calibers in length, the latter with a projectile of
160 kg. from a 24 cm. gun 40 calibers in length. The work done by the pow-
der in the latter case is nearly double that in the former. This example again
plainly shows that in increasing the charge (from 23.5 to 45 kg.) it merely re-
quires increase in the size of the grain (10 mm. side-length to 15 mm.) in order
to adapt the smokeless powder C/89 to a heavier gun. There are cubes from
2 to 15 mm. length of sides ; these are the only differences in the powder for
different calibers. It may be consequently assumed that a pellet of 30 mm.
length of side may suffice for the charge of the 40 cm. gun of 35 calibers length.
The 10.5 cm. gun has been lengthened from 30 calibers to 35. The charge
has, in consequence, been increased from 2.15 to 2.7 kg., raising the initial
velocity from 615 m. to 650 m. The progress of the 12 cm. gun is even more
noticeable. The former tests were made with a 24 caliber length ; the projec-
tile of 16.4 kg. had an initial velocity of 599 m. In the latest trials a gun 35
calibers in length was used; the projectile was increased in weight to 20 kg.,
and the initial velocity of 688 m. was attained. The simultaneous increase of
weight of projectile and initial velocity is remarkable. The muzzle energy was
increased from 300 to 482 meter-tons, an increase of 60 per cent, correspond-
ing to an increase of 33 per cent in the weight of the gun (from 1420 to igoo
kg.) If the energies at greater distances of the two projectiles be compared,
the result will be even more in favor of the heavier projectile, as the energy is
less rapidly decreased by the resistance of the air than in case of the lighter
projectile.
This superiority of the heavier projectile is very plainly seen in the 24 cm.
gun. The energy in meter-tons is as follows :
At muzzle. At
1000 m.
At 2000 m.
At 3000 n
4587
4322
3919
3509
3339
2854
410
II.7
48s
17.0
For a projectile of 215 kg 5339
« " " 160 " 5272
Difference in favor of heavier projec-
tile 67 265
In per cent of the performance of the
lighter projectile 1.8 6.1
The growth of the French navy in the past twenty years (conclu-
sion).
A list gives the number of available battle-ships as 29, arranged according
to tonnage (No, i. Formidable, 11,440 tons, to No. 29, Thetis, of 3620 tons),
with dates of launching. Besides there are 7 battle-ships under construction
and 3 designed.
The history of the progress in the cruisers is interesting, showing the con-
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 545
stant aim at obtaining increase of speed, and following the improvements
since 1870, step by step. The Rene, 1900 tons, launched in 1870, made 15
knots; the Dupuy de Lome, 6300 tons, launched 1890, made 20 knots.
Interesting comparisons are made between the vessels of the Forbin class,
launched 1888, and the sister ships Rene and Seignelay, built 1870, in which
speed was first made an important factor. " The Forbin has 1850 tons displace-
ment against 1900 tons of the Seignelay, and a speed of 19.5 against 15 knots.
Most remarkable is the advance in regard to ratio of length to beam. These
dimensions in the old vessels were 255 and 36 feet respectively, but in the new
ones have been changed to 312 and 31 feet, or a ratio of 10 to i. With vessels
of so small displacement this is remarkable, and it remains to be seen whether
they are seaworthy. The armament is very light, consisting of two 14 cm. and
rapid-fire guns."
The article ends with a list of cruisers built since 1870 of more than 1000
tons, 24 being available, 11 building. Also a list of torpedo-boats.
Establishment of army corps in Switzerland.
June 13. The artillery war game. Armor-tests in the United
States.
June 17. The fortification of Bucharest. The arms of the French
chasseurs. Minor notices.
In the current fiscal year an Italian reserve squadron is to be established for
the first time, composed of two divisions which include the armor-clads Italia,
Lepanto, Doria, Lauria, Dandolo, Duilio, San Martino,and the rams Fieramosca,
Vesuvio and Piemonte. For this purpose there are to be one rear-admiral and
six post-captains more added to the list.
June 20. Yearly report on the changes and progress in military
matters for 1890.
June 24. Diseases of army horses. Learning foreign languages
for use in France. Defenses of France.
June 27. The action at Colombey. Diseases of army horses
(concluded). Military matters in Switzerland. Armored coast-
defense tower at Spezzia.
The test of this revolving tower, erected on the island Palmaria for defense
of the harbor of Spezzia, took place in May. The turret was begun three
years ago, the foundations of masonry were built by the Italian engineers, the
turret and carriages were from the Gruson works, the two 40 cm. guns of 120
tons each were from the Krupp works, and the machinery for turning the tower
and guns was furnished by Armstrong. The tests were satisfactory. Eleva-
tion of 13° and depression of 5° was obtained. To test the machinery recoil
system series of rounds were fired, first with reduced charges, gradually
increased to full charges from both guns. The test was ended by a series of
rounds for initial velocity and accuracy. The projectile weighed 900 kg., and
charges of 330, 340 and 345 kg. of Fossano powder were used. The initial
velocity varied from 530 to 560 m., and the range from 370 to 9600 meters.
Trials with Sims-Edison torpedo in France. Tests of new model
small-arm in Sweden. Supplement : Journal of military literature.
July i. Military changes in Russia since 1889, and mobilization
of its reserves. Military riding exhibitions in France.
July 4. The army supply system in time of war. Military
changes in Russia since 1889 (concluded). Mobilization of the
French fleet.
546 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
July 8. Army supply system in time of war (continued). Review
of the ten years' service of the Russian minister of war.
July ii. Army supply system in time of war (concluded).
Target-firing of the English artillery. Transporting field artillery
over snow in Austro-Hungary.
July 15 and 18. Tactics of the future, and the Wedell brigade at
Mars-la-Tour. Shoeing of horses.
July 22. Tactics of the future (concluded). The chasseurs in
time of war. Horses and transportation in Russia. The 13th
French regiment of dragoons. Competitive marches in Italy.
July 25. The chasseurs in time of war (concluded). A French
opinion on the normal attack of infantry. France: Tiralleurs
Haoussas ; Entrance to St. Cyr. Russia : Winter occupations of
officers.
July 27. On cooking in the field. Remarks on the ten years'
service of the Russian minister of war. France : Fighting man-
oeuvres; Naval forces in Indo-China. Italy: Changes in officers'
outfits.
August i. The connection between the hussars of to-day with
those of the army of Frederick the Great. Italy: Permanent
squadron.
August 5. On non-shoeing of military horses. Graydon's
dynamite gun.
August 8. Optical firing on board ironclads.
La France Militaire reports on this new form o£ aiming as follows : " In
consequence of the good results obtained during the tests of the ' tir optique '
on board the Hoche and the Courbet, the minister has ordered a vessel placed
at the disposal of the inventor, Captain Bonnin de Freyssaix, French navy, for
the introduction of his new aiming system for every form of gun on board.
The method consists in aiming through an orifice of lo cm., securing mathe-
matical accuracy to the fire, besides offering to the crew the complete protec-
tion behind the shields. The most unpracticed gunner may at the first trial
arrive at perfect accuracy. Every shot hits the target. The optical firing
consists simply in transferring the picture or view of the target to a center
point, viz., upon a white screen behind the gun, where the captain of the gun
observes it at pleasure."
Compulsory racing of officers in Russia. H. G. D.
DEUTSCHE HEERES ZEITUNG.
May 2. Personnel of the French army. Launchof the Watignies.
New electric signal light.
May 6. Military notices : Electric signal lamp ; Snow breastworks
in Russia.
May 9. The Heligoland question. Horses and shoeing. Pecu-
liarities of Asiatic warfare.
May 13. Personnel of the French navy. The Italian reserve
squadron.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 54/
May i6. The destruction of the Blanco Encalada.
May 23. .The sea-defenses of Great Britain and her colonies.
Aluminium bronze for military and naval uses. Launch of the
Etruria and Umbria.
May 27, Naval notes.
On the first of May the efficiency of cellulose as a protection against pene-
trating projectiles was tested in Denmark. The latest man-of-war, the cruiser
Hecla, was subjected to a crucial test. The Hecla, built of steel and pro-
vided with numerous watertight compartments, was fitted with a belt of
cellulose three feet in thickness. The Hecla was anchored in the Sound, and
a second man-of-war, the Absalom, approached to within a distance of 30 to 35
meters, and fired a shot from a 5-inch gun into a parallelogram marked out
on the port side of the Hecla, near the bows. The projectile penetrated both
sides of the ship, making smooth holes through the steel plates of both port
and starboard sides. Immediately after the shot the Hecla weighed anchor,
and steamed about for three hours at a speed of 16 knots an hour. During
the trip the shot-holes were submerged under the water thrown up by the
bows. The effect of the cellulose, which expanded as the water entered, was
very satisfactory, as only 60 centimeters of water was found in the closed
compartment at the end of the three hours' trip. The Hecla is now being
repaired.
May 30. Krupp's gun-trials at Meppen.
These trials took place at Meppen, Oct. 2 and 3, 1890, and included naval,
coast-defense, siege and field guns, howitzers, mortars and rapid-fire guns.
The most interesting features of the trials were the increase in initial velocity,
muzzle energy and accuracy due to the use of smokeless powder ; also, increase
in rapidity of loading and ease of handling heavy guns, due to improved con-
struction of mountings.
A 24 cm. (9.4 in.) gun of 40 calibers length and 31,000 kg. weight, mounted
on a center-pivot coast-defense carriage of 26,800 kg., allowing 20° elevation
and 4° depression, was employed to show the difference in initial velocity and
smoke-cloud due to use of brown prismatic powder and smokeless powder.
A battering shell of 215 kg. was fired with a charge of 115 kg. brown pris-
matic powder (35.5 to 40 mm.), and a similar projectile with a charge of 42 kg.
smokeless powder P. C. 89 of 15 mm. ; also a battering shell of 160 kg, was
fired with 45 kg. of the same smokeless powder. The initial velocities of
these three shots were respectively 633, 698 and 804 m. (2077, 2290, 2637 ft.),
and the muzzle energies 4391, 5339, 5272 mt. (14,169, 17,229, and 16,812 foot-
tons), with mean pressures of 2550, 2840, 2880 atmospheres.
The heavy projectile of 215 kg. with the above energies is capable of pene-
trating at the muzzle 35 inches of iron or 23 inches of steel, at 1000 meters 31
inches of iron or 20.8 inches of steel, at 2000 meters 27^ inches of iron or 18^
inches of steel.
Naval rapid-fire guns of 8.4, 10.5, 12 and 15 cm. caliber were submitted to
trial for accuracy.
With the 8.4 cm. R. F, gun 5 aimed shots were fired in 15 seconds. The
mean deviation from the center of the target, 2000 meters range, was .41 m.
vertical and 1.16 m. lateral. The 10^ cm. gun fired 5 aimed shots in 23
seconds; deviation from center of target at 1500 meters was .58 m. vertical
and .52 m. lateral. The 12 cm. gun fired 5 aimed shots in 22 seconds ; devia-
tion from center of target at 2000 meters was .62 m. vertical, .58 m. lateral.
The 15 cm. gun fired 5 aimed shots in 32 seconds ; deviation from center of
target at 2500 meters was 1.06 m. vertical, 1.25 m. lateral. The breech mechan-
ism worked without a hitch, and the ejection of the long cartridge cases worked
to perfection.
548 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
The automatic firing of the 7.5 cm. rapid-fire gun of 25 calibers length,
designed for forts, was most satisfactory. This gun fires shell, shrapnel and
canister, weight of projectile 6 kg., weight of charge 0.6 kg. of smokeless pow-
der, imparting an initial velocity of 1667 feet per second. 10 loaded shell were
fired in 17 seconds, or at the rate of 35 rounds per minute.
Launch of the Empress of India,
June 3. Naval notes : France : Trial of the Sims-Edison tor-
pedo. England : Launch of the Sappho. Japan : Launch of the
Hashidate Kan.
June 6. On the best rifling and bullets for small-arms. Military
schools in Japan.
June io. Naval notes.
At Wilhelmshaven experiments were made with a captive balloon. In calm
weather satisfactory results were obtained, and a height of 440 yards was easily
reached ; but at sea with a fresh breeze no satisfactory experiments could be
made. The material of the balloon and its network were not heavy enough to
resist damage to which they are exposed in bad weather at sea. The trials
are to be continued at Heligoland. The balloon park consists of a wagon
with the balloon and utensils, two transportable stoves for making the gas, a
reel for wire hawser, and the chemicals carried in tin cases.
June 13. The fortification question. Range finding.
Colonel Erie, of the Austrian army, has invented a field range-finder which
has stood satisfactory trials. Details are wanting, but it is stated that the
measurements of a series of three distances require only i^ minutes, and can
be made on uneven ground.
New tent. Pay of French army ofiicers. Fieldpieces as range-
finders in Russia.
June 17 and 20. Supplement to register of German navy. Sink-
ing of the Blanco Encalada. The French artillery. Attempted
improvements in Swiss army materials. Description of Forster's
smokeless powder works.
June 27. Organization of the Swiss army. Depots for horses.
Belgian fortifications and boundary defenses.
July i and 4. Introduction of bicycle into Swiss army. Ten
years' services of the Russian minister of war. Italian armored
cruiser Sicilia.
July 8. Canet guns. The melinite scandal. Defenses of Paris.
Naval notes : Launch of ironclad D.
On June 30 the ironclad D, the Kurfurst Friedrich Wilhelm, was launched
at Wilhelmshaven, It is built entirely of German steel, being one of four
sister ships, A, B, C and D. The first keel-plate was laid March 24, 1890, or
15 months prior to date of launching. The displacement is 10,000 tons, extreme
length 380 feet, greatest beam 64 feet, draft 24 feet 3 inches, height of upper
deck above water-line 19 feet. The vessel is built on the longitudinal system,
with double bottom and numerous 'thwartship bulkheads, making 120 water-
tight compartments. The protection is furnished by an all-around belt of 15^
in'ches compound armor with 8 inches of teak backing, and a 2^ inch strongly-
arched steel protective deck. The armament is to consist of six ii-inch guns,
placed in pairs in revolving turrets, six 4-inch and eight 3.4-inch rapid-firing
guns, besides a torpedo outfit, machine-guns for military tops, etc. There are
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 549
two triple-expansion engines in separate engine-rooms, each driving a three-
bladed screw, 12 cylindrical boilers with 753 square feet of grate surface and
25,080 square feet of heating surface, the steam to be carried at iSo lbs. pres-
sure. Total developed horse-power 9000.
July ii. Krupp gun-trials.
Trials of TZTp^d-loadtf/g guns of 12 and 15 cm. caliber, to test new mounts and
different kinds of smokeless powder.
Faults in the Swiss rifle. Velocipedes for military use in Russia;
July 15. On the position of the center of gravity of a projectile.
New ranges near Aldershot. Defensive organization in Roumania.
The Italian line-of-battle ship Sicilia.
July 18 and 22. Military taxes in Germany and France. The
German navy New Austrian army saddle-bags. The fortification
question.
July 25. Stenography, its use in military service. Towards
increasing our military strength. Patrol service. Firing at a captive
balloon in Russia. Launch of the Isly.
July 29. Exercising cavalry against real opponents. Towards
increasing our military strength (continued). Germany : Launch
of ironclad G.
August i. Summer manoeuvres of Russian troops. Towards
increasing our military strength (continued). Austria : Bronzing of
officers' sword-scabbards. Italy : Promotion in the army. England :
Invention for detecting leaks in ship's bottom when in dry-dock.
August 5. Summer manoeuvres of Russian troops (concluded).
Towards increasing our military strength (continued). England :
Ammonite. France : Rubber heels for military boots. The French
naval manoeuvres.
August 8. Towards increasing our military strength (continued).
Germany : Marksmanship. Trials of latest models of field, siege
and coast-defense guns in Russia. Increase of Russian reserves.
Launch of the Frithjof and of the Endymion. H. G. D.
RIVISTA MARITTIMA.
May, 1891. The German merchant marine, by Salvatore Raineri
(continued). Notes on naval architecture, by Giuseppi Rota. A
month in the island of Ceylon (continued). The interior of Africa,
by Ettore Bravetta (continued). Electric lighting systems on board
war-vessels of the United States.
June. Use of distilled water on board the royal vessels, by N.
SoHani. The German merchant marine, by Salvatore Raineri (con-
tinued). Electric lighting on board Italian war-ships, by A. Pon-
chain (continued).
Part III. Organization of the service. Regulations with regard to electric
plants on board royal ships. Forms of registers, log-books and journals
required. Descriptions of plants. Rules for management and care of electric
materials and stores.
550 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Two military maritime ordinances of Count Verde (year 1366), by
E. Prasca. Vocabulary of powder and explosives, by Lieutenant F.
Salvati.
The vocabulary is arranged alphabetically, giving short descriptions, compo-
sition, chemical formulae and ingredients of special importance of explo-
sives. In the compilation of the vocabulary the author makes use of the
works of P. F. Chalon and J. P. Cundill, of monographs, journals and papers
of well-known authorities. In cases of explosives whose compositions are
kept secret, such as cordite, lyddite, melinite, Sebert's mixture, etc., the author
has gathered information from all published descriptions and opinions,
accounts of tests and important facts, from grouping and examination of which
he arrives at the composition by induction which cannot be far from the truth.
An alphabetical arrangement has been chosen to facilitate reference.
July and August. The German merchant marine, by Salvatore
Raineri (continued). Naval schools in foreign countries and in
Italy, by Dante Parenti. Electric lighting on board Italian war-
ships, by A. Ponchain (continued). Naval architecture, by Giuseppi
Rota. Naval duels, by F. Moro-Lin. The naval battle between
Turks and Venetians, and the taking of Scio (February, 1695). A
centenarian admiral. Vocabulary of powders and explosives, by
Lieut. F. Salvati (continued). H. G. D.
RIVISTA DI ARTIGLIERIA E GENIO.
February, 1891. The laws of the resistance of the air and
problems in trajectories, by F. Siacci. Correction of a ballistic for-
mula, by F. Siacci. Expeditive fortification, by Spaccameia Pio.
Old and new drill regulations, by C. Siracusa. Notes on a draw-
bridge at Poncelet (with 2 plates), by Luigi Figari. Miscellaneous
notes.
March. Aluminium and its alloys, by E. Stassano. The employ-
ment of street locomotives in fortified places (3 plates), by P. Miran-
doli. Old and new drill regulations, by C. Siracusa (concluded).
Miscellaneous notes.
April. Notes on recent mechanical appliances used in the prepa-
ration of oxygen for industrial uses (with 6 plates), by C. Marzocchi.
New formula for exactly calculating strength of beams, deduced from
the mathematical theory of elasticity (with 2 plates), by A. Chiarle.
The prospectograph (with 2 plates), by G. Bottero. Old truths and
new paradoxes (with 2 plates), by E. Barone. Miscellaneous notes.
May. On the stability conditions of the masonry of dry-docks
(with 3 plates), by C. Caveglia. Considerations upon the battery of
7 cm. guns, by E. Gonella. Some documents relating to the origin
of bastioned fortifications (with 2 plates), by E. Rocchi. Smokeless
powder from a technical chemical aspect. Miscellaneous notes.
June. On the stability conditions of the masonry of dry-docks,
by C. Caveglia (conclusion). Projectiles loaded with powerful
explosives for field artillery. Magazine rifles (with 7 plates), by G.
Freddi. German establishment at Turin. Miscellaneous notes.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 551
July. Experiments on the resistance of stone against crushing
(with tables and 2 plates), by Federico Falangola. H. G. D.
NORSK TIDSSKRIFT FOR SOVAESEN.
Ninth Annual Series, Nos. 5 and 6. On the examination for
mates. Naval batdes in the Baltic and North Seas, 1870 to 1871.
The new Norwegian steel bark Peter Ugland. Torpedo-cruiser No.
I for the American mvy. Exercises for petty officers on board
third-class gunboats. Navigation in the merchant marine. Tests
of armor-plates at low temperature. The armor-clad Le Hoche. The
Sans Pareil's no-ton guns. Strandings and shipwrecks. English
pilot laws. H. G. D.
MITTHEILUNGEN AUS DEM GEBIETE DES SEEWESENS.
Volume XIX, No. 5. Yachting, by F. V. Prenschen. On the
geometrical alignment of shafting in screw steamers, by Chief En-
gineer J. Fassel. Progress in photo-grametry, by F. Schiffner. On
electric plants on board ships.
Engineers Milton and Allison, in their report on electric plants on board
ships, have made researches into the dangers arising therefrom, and suggested
the best means of avoiding same. These dangers are of two kinds, viz. i. the
influence upon the compass of the field magnets of the dynamos and of the
currents in the leads; 2. danger of fire to which an improper system exposes
the ship.
1. The field magnets of the dynamo, surrounded as they are by a powerful
magnetic field, act not only directly upon the compass, but induce magnetism
in the neighboring iron masses of the ship, which affects the compass indi-
rectly. The only remedy is to remove the dynamo as far as possible from the
binnacles.
The effect of the current in the leading wires can be eliminated in practice
by means of double leads, placed close together, and not too near the compass.
The currents flowing in opposite directions near each other exert little or no
influence. In the single-lead system, where the body of the ship serves as
return lead, the influence of the current upon the compass is a considerable
one, and the wire must be removed from the binnacles as far as possible, and
it is even necessary in the single-lead system to have double wires for the direct
and return currents in the neighborhood of the compass.
To meet these effects the authors deem it necessary, in addition to the usual
determination of the compass deviations, to make a second determination
while the dynamos are running at full speed. To find the effect of the field
magnets alone, the currents may be shut off from the leading wires in the
neighborhood of the compass.
2. Defective insulation, diminution in the cross-section of the leading wires,
partial or total, breaks in the latter cause overheating; danger from fire to the
ship results. The laws governing the flow of electric currents through wires
and their general effects are considered. The comparative merits of the double
and single-lead systems are dwelt upon as well as the subject of insulation.
The introduction into the circuit of lead fuses for safety is the usual remedy,
in case where the current becomes suddenly excessive due to short circuit or
other causes ; but the fuses do not eliminate the overheating due to partial cor-
rosion or cases where the two ends of broken wires are close enough in contact
to form an arc.
A system has been devised to overcome these dangers, in which the direct
552 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
current from the dynamo passes through an insulated copper wire, which forms
the heart of an iron outer shell for the return current. These iron tubes for the
return current are not insulated from the ship's body.
It is claimed that this system not only affords better protection to the copper
wire, but in case of corrosion or break of the latter, the short circuit immedi-
ately established secures the working of the safety fuses.
In petroleum vessels a source of danger exists not found on ordinary ves-
sels. In switching a lamp on or off there is always a small spark in the
switch. This might be sufficient to ignite the inflammable gases accumulated
below the decks in a petroleum vessel. The same danger might arise by the
sudden breaking of a lighted lamp. To guard against this the lamp-switches
should be on deck in the open air or in safe places; the lamps in the holds
should have double glass casings.
The paper closes with a set of directions to be followed in the introduction
and use of electric lights on board ships.
Budget of the English navy for 1891 to 1892. Japanese lacquer
for ships' bottoms. Armor trials in the United States. New Rus-
sian torpedo-cruisers. Electric boat for the English navy. Cruiser
Falke of the German navy. Danger of fire with various lighting
systems.
No. 6. Yachting (concluded). On the construction of boilers
for forced draft, by A. F. Yarrow. The International Marine
Conference in Washington, The 12 cm. Hotchkiss rapid-fire gun
(illustrated). Budget of the Italian navy for 1891 to 1892. Budget
of the French navy for 1892. Trials of Canet rapid-fire guns in
France.
A 12 cm. and a 15 cm. gun were submitted to trial. The former fired 9 shots
in 45 seconds, the latter 8 shots in one minute. The loaded shell of the 15 cm.
gun weighed 65 kg. The breech-closing apparatus worked satisfactorily, and
the recoil system utilizes the energy of recoil to return the gun to the firing
position.
Cost of English guns. New standing lights. The French cruiser
Wattignies. The electrolyseur, apparatus for disinfecting bilge water.
Episodes of the Chilian war. Distilling apparatus in the French
navy. Classification of engine performances in the French navy.
No. 7. American war vessels (illustrated). Meat as a nourish-
ment on board ships.
The chemical analyses of ordinary meats are tabulated. Cattle diseases are
described. Kales are formulated for shipping and feeding live cattle, for
slaughtering, for purchasing fresh meat and its preparation. The methods of
preserving meat either canned, salted or fresh are described at length.
The French coast-defense vessels. The Portuguese submarine
boat. The English torpedo-vessel Vulcan. The Spanish armored
ship Emperador Carlo V. Episodes of the Chilian war. A new
sounding machine with steel wire line, by E. Belloc. Unwelded steel
cables. Test of cellulose in Denmark. Test of night signalling ap-
paratus in the United States navy. Amount of salt in sea- water.
H. G. D.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 553
BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
Volume XXIII, No. 2. Orkneys and Shetland, by Prof. C. S.
Smith. Proposed exploration of North Greenland, by R. E. Peary,
U. S. N. Journeys on the inland ice. Dr. John Rae's Arctic explora-
tions. Geographical notes, by Geo. C. Hurlbut: International con-
gress of Americanists in 1892; Guanahani ; Recent charts of the
Hydrographic Office; Recession of Niagara Falls; Prof. Heilprin's
measurements of height ; The volcano of Poks ; The explosion in
Rome ; Explorations of the Black Sea ; A fresh-water lake near the
Aral Sea ; Eastern Egypt ; Dwarf races of Africa ; West-central
Australia ; The Tanna volcano in the New Hebrides. The party
and the outfit for the Greenland journey, by R. E. Peary, U. S. N.
H. G. D.
MITTHEILUNGEN DES VEREINS FUR ERDKUNDE, 1890.
Annual reports of the Institution for 1890. Meetings and pro-
ceedings: January 17, geographic determinations, by Dr. Peters;
The delta of the Amu-Darja; January 25, Mexican snow mountains,
by Dr. Lenk ; February 5, travels in Kilimanjero and Ugueno, by
Dr. Meyers; February 21, formation of coral islands; March 8, the
German Plankton expedition ; May 3, terraces and beach-lines of
Norwegian fjords ; October 25, review of summer's work ; The Wal-
lachians of southwestern Turkey and northern Greece ; November
15, lecture on the trip across Greenland in 1888, by Dr. F. Nansen ;
December 13, expedition to Bolivia and Peru for researches after
Inca relics, by Dr. Hettner. List of members. Persia, a historical
sketch, by Dr. Karl Prellberg. H. G. D.
ANNALEN DER HYDROGRAPHIE UND MARITIMEN METEORO-
LOGIE.
Nineteenth Annual Series, 1891, No. IV, Formation of bot-
tom-ice. Hydrographic notices on Lopez bay and the islands of San
Thom6, Anno Bom Princess and Fernando Po, west coast of Africa.
Report of Captain O. Tack on his passage through Torres Straits,
July, 1890. Deep-sea explorations in the Black Sea. Unfriendliness
of the natives of the island of Tobi (Lord North Island); extract from
the report of the master of the German sailing-ship Columbus. On
the date boundaries in the Pacific Ocean. Meteorological observa-
tions in the roads and harbor of Cameroon. Quarterly weather review
of the German naval observatory, fall of 1886 (conclusion). Minor
notices: Sailing directions for Santorin, Aegean Sea; Sailing direc-
tions for Diego Garcia, Chagos Islands ; Tampico, New Orleans ;
Remarks on the approaches to the Yung river, east coast of China ;
Bottle-post.
No. V. The climate of Heligoland. From the log of Captain J.
Friidden of the German bark Parnass. Paranagua and Antonia on
the coast of Brazil. Soundings in the Arctic Sea and in Behrings
554 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Sea, Winds and currents on the way from Manta to Punt Arenas
in February, 1890. The changes in atmospheric pressure during a
total eclipse of the sun, by A. S. Steen. A storm resembling a hurri-
cane in the south Indian Ocean, May 9 to 11, 1888. Minor notices:
Bottle-posts from various vessels.
No. VI. The climate of Heligoland (concluded). Extracts from
the report of Captain F. Niejahr of the German bark J. F. Pust.
The port for salt exportation at Cape de Gata, south coast of Spain.
Sailing directions for the west coast of Nowaja Semlja. Port des
Galets, Reunion Islands. The value of star occultations for regu-
lating chronometers at sea, by Dr. F. Bolte. Wind and weather in
the Adria. Typhoon of August 22, 1889, north of Formosa. Minor
notices: Use of oil in quieting the seas; Anchorage at Bordj el Ksar
on the Kerkenah Island, Tunis ; Remarks on weather conditions on
the coast of South Dalmatia and Montenegro, Adriatic Sea ; Notices
on the currents in the China Sea ; Notice on the Gilbert Islands.
No. VII. The storms along the German coast in October, 1890.
Tidal observations in Finsch harbor. Compass deflections due to
local magnetic disturbances in Northwest Australia. Ice conditions
in the Bay of Danzig. Report on the fourteenth competitive test of
chronometers held at the German naval observatory in the winter of
1890-91. Quarterly weather review of the German naval observa-
tory, winter of 1886-87. Minor notices: Earthquakes felt at sea;
The harbor of Catania; Opening of the Straits of Sdrelaz, Dalmatia;
Currents on the west coast of Hindostan ; Landing at Cape Horn ;
Bottle-post. H. G. D.
THE ELECTRICAL REVIEW.
May 30, 1891. The practical aspects of electric welding.
June 6. The tools of modern warfare.
Mr. Hiram S. Maxim, during a lecture on the above subject, fired in a parlor
several hundred shots from his automatic machine-gun at the rate of 10 shots
a second.
June 13. The future of the aluminium problem from the chemical
standpoint. Discussion on the practical aspects of electric welding.
Electricity in the production of aluminium.
June 20. The polar diagram of alternate currents and its appli-
cation to inductive resistances. Some notes on the electrolytic
quantitative separation of metals.
June 27. The telephone in our signal service. A thermo-electric
method of studying cylinder condensation in the steam-engine
cylinders.
July 4. Elektron marine installment.
July ii. Electrical measurements of power. Life of submarine
cables.
July 18. The incandescent lamp. Electrical evaporation.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 555
July 25. The incandescent lamp (concluded).
August 8. The electric transmission of power. Notes on per-
manent magnets. Mr. John T. Sprague on the ether theory of
transfer of electric energy.
August 22. Electric forging. Franklin's kite experiments.
REVUE MARITIME ET COLONIALE.
April, 1891. Foreign naval ministries; how organized and oper-
ated ; Italy ; Russia ; Austria. Political and commercial situation of
Borneo.
In the course of a few years this large and important island will form another
addition to the already vast colonies of England. The latter's protectorate
over the states of Northern Borneo, established in 1888, was but the first step
to that end.
The hurricanes of the West Indies (translated froni the Spanish).
Notes upon a traverse of evolutions — second contribution to the
geometry of naval tactics. The fleets of the Ancient and the Middle
Ages (continued).
June. The German naval constructions as per program of 1889.
The Black River and the upper western Tonkin. On the organi-
zation of modern flotillas. House-tax of officers of the different
branches of the naval service. Historical studies of the military
marine of France: The unveiling of the statue of Chevalier J. C.
de Borda (1733-1799).
The Chevalier de Borda was at one time commandant of the naval school at
Brest, and so remarkable and efficient were his services to that institution that
the ship assigned to the school has always borne since the name of Borda.
July. A study of the electric-light plant on board the armored
batde-ship Marceau. An abstract of the English navy budget for
1891-92. Historical studies of the military marine of France: The
French navy during the Regency and Maurepas' administration
(continued). The naval defense act (England). Mobilization of
the ships of the reserve. A report upon the landing of a gun of 14
cm., model 1881, upon a raft built with the only means found on
board the ship. J. L.
REVUE DU CERCLE MILITAIRE.
April 26, 1891. The great commercial highways of Tonkin.
One word in regard to the position of outposts.
May 3. Opinion of General Skobeleff on the use of the lance in
the cavalry. Wounds from small-caliber bullets (continued in the
next numbers).
May 24. The r61e of the infantry on reconnaissance duty. Ap-
preciation of distances by means of sound. The great commercial
highways of Tonkin (ended).
May 31. Armament of the cavalry apropos to the article on the
55^ BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
opinion of General Skobeleff. Contagious diseases in the army.
Infantry marching formations.
June 7. Marching formations. After the battle of Le Mans (a
historical stud)'-), (continued in the next numbers).
June 28. A new army shoe. Contagious diseases in the army ;
eruptive fevers (ended).
July 5. Night marches and operations of infantry.
July 12. One word more in regard to infantry attack.
July 19. An exploration of the Ivory Coast. Night marches
and operations of infantry.
July 26. The Swiss repeating rifle, model of 1889 (with cuts).
August 2. The navy of the United States.
LE YACHT.
May 2, 1 89 1. The naval budget committee. The Canet gun of
32 cm. 40-caliber for the barbette turrets of the Japanese coast-guard
battle-ships, with cuts.
May 9. The Sims-Edison torpedo.
May 23. Collapse of the tops of furnaces in marine boilers.
May 30. The stranding of the Seignelay. The R. F. guns in
connection with the smokeless powder frauds. The importance of
sheathing ships' bottoms with regard to speed.
June 6. Naval warfare in Chili.
June 13. England and the Dreibund from a naval point of view.
June 27. Naval mobilizations. The launching of the first-class
cruiser Isly at Brest.
July 4. Modification of the torpedo-boats of 35 meters.
July 18. The great French naval manoeuvres.
July 25. Lessons taught by the great manoeuvres.
Of the " reservistes " called out and suddenly distributed among the fleet
many were temporarily incapacitated for duty owing to their long disuse of the
sea, and the inexperience of firemen on board some of the vessels caused the
speed of the latter to fall far below the mean, showing conclusively how unad-
visable it would be in actual war to place upon torpedo-boats and other light
vessels drafted men unfamiliar with the sea. In regard to the materiel,
although the small cruisers met with no serious mishaps, still not a few expe-
rienced little delays on account of leakage, tubes requiring plugging, hot
bearings, etc. Their boilers are too weak, their seaworthiness indifferent, and
there is but one voice among navy people in favor of large cruisers of the
Tage and Cecille types. As to torpedo-boats, experience shows that they are
more an obstacle than an aid to the movements of a fleet, and the construction
of the torpedo-boat transports should be advanced as speedily as possible.
August i. Mr. Brisson's naval poHcy, by E. Weyl.
BOLETIN DEL CENTRO NAVAL.
February, 1891. Recruiting of the subordinate personnel of
the navy (Argentine). Promotions of midshipmen. Modern fleets
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 557
and the wars of the future. Organization of the squadron. The
modern rifle. Foreign chronicles.
March. Armor-plates. Trials of armor-plates in England and
the United States. Armored battle-ships. Organization of the
squadron. The most advantageous spot for the establishment of a
fortified dock-yard and arsenal. J. L.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF NAVAL ENGINEERS.
Volume III, No. 2. Trial trips and the lessons to be learned
from them. The preservation of marine boilers.
A paper showing the sources of the deterioration in the different parts of the
boiler, and the care that should be taken to check the causes.
Engine room signals. Contractor's full power forced draft trial of
the U. S. S. Bennington. Economic marine propulsion. Notes on
the progress in the construction of the machinery for the new vessels
building for the navy. J. K. B.
THE IRON AGE.
Volume XLVII, No. 20, May 14, i8gi. High-pressure steam
boilers. A new storage battery. Ordnance and projectiles for coast
defense.
No. 21, May 21. The vessels under construction.
There are at present under construction at private shipyards i6 vessels,
including three tugs, for the navy, and at navy-yards three more, making i6
ships in various stages of building. This does not include the Concord,
Bennington, and Monterey, the former two fitting for sea at New York and the
latter recently launched at San Francisco. The New York, for which the
Cramps are to receive $2,985,000, will be launched in about three months.
She is more than half completed, although after she gets into the water there
will remain a good deal to do on her, just as there has been on the Maine.
The reports from the government officers at the Union Iron Works make a
good showing for the work on Cruiser No. 6, whose keel has been laid and
whose frames are in course of erection. The keel of the coast-line battle-
ship Oregon, also building at the Union Works, has not yet been laid.
Cruisers 9 and 10, identical in plan and cost, are well advanced at the Colum-
bia Iron Works, and it is expected that they will be launched in about four
months. Cruiser No. 11, which Harrison Loring of Boston is under contract
to build for $674,000, is a sister ship of the Columbia people's 9 and 10, and
although the contracts were entered into at the same time, the Boston firm has
not pushed the work on its vessel as the Baltimore contractors have on theirs.
The keel of No. 11 has been laid and the frames are partly in position. The
vessel will be launched in about ten months. Loring is also building three
steam-tugs, of which the navy stands in great need. These craft are in frames
and are being plated, and will be launched in about six months. The Bath,
Maine, Iron Works is making satisfactory progress with the two gunboats,
which are in frames and being plated and are expected to be ready for launch-
ing in six months. The Ammen ram, the contract for which was recently
awarded to the Bath Company, has its keel laid, and a good deal of the mate-
rial is ia the ship-yard. The Cramps are slightly ahead of the Union Iron
Works in the work on the other two battle-ships, the Indiana and Massachu-
setts. The keels are being laid and numerous frames bent. The keel of
55^ BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
Protected Cruiser No. 12, which the Cramps are also building, has been laid,
the frames erected and the plating begun. Of the vessels now being con-
structed at navy-yards, all are well advanced. The Cincinnati, or No. 7, at
the New York Yard, will be launched in about six months, by which time the
Raleigh, or No. 8, is expected to be in the water. The Texas, whose con-
struction has been impeded so much by discussions among the constructors,
will be launched in about nine months. All the work in the hands of con-
tractors will be completed within the contract time, so far as one may judge
from reports received at the Department.
No. 22, May 28. The Midvale Steel Company and the Holtzer
process. Basic Bessemer, the Pottstown Iron Company. Testing
the guns of the Vesuvius.
No. 23, June 4. American armor, trial of the first American
plate (illustrated^. New form of marine engine. Protected cruiser
No. 13.
No. 24, June ii. Power-press for straightening heavy shafting.
Record of lake steamers. The practical aspects of electric welding.
No, 25, June 18. The Ammen defense ram. Expert opinion
on the guns of the Vesuvius. The twelve-inch gun. Fast torpedo-
boats.
An eminently successful trial of a torpedo-boat just completed by Messrs.
Thornycroft & Co. for the government of the United States of Brazil took
place in the estuary of the Thames on the 2d inst. The new vessel is 150 feet
long by 14 feet 6 inches beam, there being four torpedo-guns suited for the 14-
inch Whitehead torpedo. Two of these torpedo-tubes are mounted on racers
on deck and two under deck in the bows, arranged not in the ordinary way, but
with gear enabling them to be protruded through doors in the skin of the boat.
The machinery consists of two sets of triple compound engines, supplied with
steam by two Thornycroft water-tube boilers. The trial consisted of two parts :
I. a series of six runs on the measured mile with a load of 19 tons on board,
during which a speed of 25 knots was guaranteed by the builders; and, 2. a
continuous run of two hours' duration during which a speed of 24 knots was
guaranteed. The results of the six runs were as follows :
Mean revolutions
Knots. per knot.
First run, with tide 27.692 1065.5
Second run, against tide 23.529 12S9
Third run, with tide 28.346 1064
Fourth run, against tide 23.377 1290.5
Fifth run, with tide 28.346 1062,5
Sixth run, against tide 23.829 1282.5
The mean of these speeds, computed by the Admiralty method, being 25.858
knots, Messrs. Thornycroft's guarantee was more than fulfilled. The mean
number of revolutions required to do a knot was found to be 1 165.4. At 1.18
P. M. the vessel was put upon her two hours' run, and at 3.18 it was found that
the mean number of revolutions of the screws amounted to 59,174, which, being
divided by 1 165.4, the number required to complete a knot in still water, gives
a distance of 50.775 nautical miles, or 58.4 statute miles, covered in the two
hours. This showed an average speed of 25.387 knots, which, it is claimed, is
the greatest distance ever run and highest speed maintained by any vessel in
the time. During the rim steam was blowing off from both boilers, and the
pressure of 210 pounds per square inch was maintained with ease, there being
an air-pressure in the stokehold of only i^ inches of water.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
559
No. 26, June 25. Wright triple expansion engine. Manganese
steel. Steel castings.
Volume XLVJII, No. i, July 2. Variations of the open-hearth
steel process. The new Westinghouse compound-engine governor
(illustrated). The Perry steam-engine indicator (illustrated).
No. 2, July 9. Carriages for the 12-inch mortars. Organization
of a torpedo service. The Canet armored turret (illustrated).
No. 3, July 16. Bids for building great guns. War-ships, under
construction. Harvey plates uninjured.
The Naval Ordnance Bureau has had another test of Harvey-treated armor-
plates. As in the former test, the plates used were of steel 3 inches in thick-
ness. They carried 0.25 per cent of carbon. The plates used at the previous
trials were of a higher carbon, and were found to have cracked during the
assault; the present test, however, showed no such weakness. This time 14
rounds were fired at each of the three plates, a six-pounder rapid-fire gun of
1800 feet velocity being used, aiid the projectiles being of a superior quality,
capable of penetrating under similar circumstances 4 inches of ordinary steel.
The plates were uninjured, the points of impact being indicated by slight
indentations, or surface scars, left by the projectiles, which in every instance
were broken into fragments. There were no cracks, and the ordnance experts
who witnessed the trial say the results were as good as those shown by the
nickel plate.
The next subject to which the Naval Ordnance people will turn their atten-
tion, now that so effective an armor has been produced, will be the acquire-
ment of projectiles which can do something besides scratch the surface and
shatter themselves in the contact. Orders have been given to the Carpenter
Steel Company for a trial lot of specially-formed armor-piercing projectiles.
The intention is to use them in experimental attacks on the Harvey-treated
plates. They are to be fitted with a blunt head, the present cigar-shaped tip
having proved too pointed to affect the surface of Harvey targets.
The recent tests of the 3-inch plates have demonstrated the usefulness of
the rapid-fire guns of the navy, and an order for the manufacture of 75 Driggs-
Schroeder and 50 Hotchkiss 6-pounder guns has been signed by Secretary
Tracy. It may not be long before the navy has ordnance of this type of its
own, for preliminary trials have just been completed of two 6-pounder rapid-
fire guns, Hotchkiss ammunition being used. They were made at the Wash-
ington Navy Yard, one on the Driggs principle, the other the invention of an
attache oi the ordnance shops, named Lynch. They are shorter than the rapid-
fire guns already in service, and take a smaller charge of powder.
No. 4, July 23. A fast steam launch. The lake shipbuilders.
Model 1 89 1 reloading tool.
No. 5, July 30. Armor-plate tests.
A comparative armor test to ascertain the relative qualities of all-steel
plates and nickel-steel plates for use in arming the protective decks of naval
vessels has been had at the Naval Ordnance Proving Ground at Indian Head.
The object of the test was to obtain data to be used in determining whether
the protective deck of armored cruiser No. 2, the New York, being built by
Cramp & Sons, should be made of ordinary tough steel plates or ef nickel-
steel.
Two pairs of plat-es were tested. Those of all steel were furnished by
Cramp & Sons, and were each ij^ inches thick and had 80,000 pounds tensile
strength. The nickel-steel plates were from Carnegie, Phipps & Co. of Pitts-
burgh, and had 92,000 and 102,000 pounds tensile strength. Each pair of
560
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
plates was bolted to substantial live-oak supports, one plate being placed di-
rectly on top of the other. This gave the all-steel target a thickness of 2;^
inches and the nickel-steel a thickness of 3 inches. The plates were inclined
at an angle of 22° to the line of fire, that being the angle at which deflective
decks are inclined. The gun used was a 6-inch breech-loading rifle, firing cast-
iron ogival-headed projectiles weighted with sand to 100 pounds. Against the
inclined armor, where the shoulder of the projectile strikes, instead of the
point, these projectiles would have substantially as great an effect as an armor-
piercing projectile. The striking velocity was fixed at 1515 feet per second,
that being about the velocity at which a 6-inch shell fired with the service
charge would strike at a range of 2000 yards.
At the short range on the proving ground but 27 14 pounds of powder were
required to give that velocity. On the first day of the firing the all-steel plates
were tested. The first shot was fired at a spot 26 inches from the top of the
target and 19 inches from the right-hand edge. It struck the mark square, and
bent the plates downward, forming a dish or depression elliptical in form, with
its apex 3 inches below the normal surface of the plates, and with its longest
axis in the direction of the line of fire. The surface of the plate in this de-
pression was smooth and covered with copper from the rotating-band of the
projectile. There were no cracks and no bolts were broken. The projectile
broke up, as did all the others fired during the trial, and the fragments were
deflected onward through a back-stop of heavy timbers, placed with a wrought-
iron plate, and were stopped by a pile of sandbags built up behind this.
The second shot struck the target 26 inches from the top and 22 inches from
the left edge, and was in effect an exact repetition of the first. The third shot
was aimed at the center of the plates, but an almost imperceptible error in
pointing the gun was so magnified by the inclination of the plates that the
shot was too high, and struck just between the two previous ones. This made
a row of three shots directly across the upper part of the plate, and subjected
it to a very severe test. The two previous depressions were connected by this
one, which bent the plates down to 7 inches below the normal, and the center
bolt, which was just ahead of the point of impact, was driven down through
its hole. Both plates were cracked from the center of their upper edge through
the bolt hole, and in the upper plate the crack extended in a curve to the rear
of the first point of impact.
The fourth shot struck at a point 21 inches from the bottom of the target and
19 inches from the right edge, and was in effect a repetition of the first two
shots, as was also the fifth and last shot, which struck 21 inches from the bot-
tom and 22 inches from the left edge. The target had stood the trial admir-
ably, and, though cracked by the third shot, nothing had gone through it. The
nickel plates were then put in place and were fired at. The first shot was at
a point 28 inches from the top and 16 inches from the right edge, and it made
a depression but ij^ inches below the normal surface. The ridges formed on
the surface of the plate by the mill scale were slightly smoothed and were
polished and coated with copper by the force of the blow, but no other effect
on the target was visible. The second shot was at a point 36 inches from the
top and 17 inches from the left edge, and it made a depression 1^% inches deep.
The third struck in the exact center of the plate, and was in effect an exact
repetition of the first. The fourth struck 22 inches from the top and 18 inches
from the right edge, and made a depression i j^^ inches below the normal, as
did also the fifth, which struck 32 inches from the bottom and 14 inches from
the left edge. The greater apparent depth of the depression caused by the
last two shots was due to the fact that the plates were made longer than was
expected, and there was no room under the target structure for putting nuts on
the lower bolts, which were merely driven in, and allowed the bottom edge of
the plates to curl. It is thought that the normal depression in both these in-
stances was about i j-% inches.
The wonderful toughness and strength of nickel-steel was again demon-
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 56 1
strated by this test, and making allowance for the extra thickness of the nickel-
steel target, it showed decided superiority over the all-steel, and it is highly
probable that the result will be that nickel-steel will be extensively used for
protective deck plating. One point of interest in connection with the test was
the low angle at which the shells were deflected, none of them rising to over 5°
above the plane of the plate, indicating that if the armor were on board a ship
the fragments would probably have been stopped in the coal bunkers.
1 2-inch breech-loading rifle (illustrated).
No. 6, August 6. Bidding for heavy guns. The Canet gun-
carriage (illustrated). Making chain links.
No. 7, August 13. Rebuilding the navy. The lake trade
reviving.
No. 8, August 20. The whale-back boat. Power of 1 10 ton gun.
The Maine's engines.
THE BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL ASSOCI-
ATION.
June 3, 1891. War material in the United States.
June id. The manufacture of big guns.
July i. A new armor-plate mill.
July 8 and 15. The gigantic steam hammer of the Bethlehem
Iron Company.
The hammer was designed after that of Schneider & Cie., of Le Creusot,
France, which next to this one is the second largest in the world. It has a
stroke of 125 tons, while the Schneider hammer is only capable of striking a
100-ton blow. The hammer will be used for forging ingots into armor plates.
These ingots will be cast of metal weighing from 100 to 150 tons, and by this
stupendous piece of mechanism will be forged into the desired sizes by 125-ton
blows.
The hammer stands in the center of a very large building, and over a year
has been spent in its construction. A pit 58 by 62 feet was dug for the founda-
tion, and on walls 30 feet high the anvil stands. To give the foundation a cer-
tain elasticity a layer of 20 steel slabs on top of Ohio white-oak timbers was
made and the surface was rendered perfectly smooth. It was, of course,
entirely out of the question to cast in a single piece the iron required, and the
anvil was built by depositing on top of the steel slabs and their timbers 22
blocks of solid cast iron. The average weight of these blocks is 70 tons, and
the entire weight of the mass of iron and steel forming the anvil and founda-
tion is nearly iSoo tons. The anvil foundation and the hammer foundation are
entirely separate and independent of each other and in no way interlaced.
The hammer itself is a majestic-looking structure, superimposed over the
Cyclopean mass of iron forming the anvil — huge, substantial and powerful, ris-
ing to a height of 90 feet. The housings composing the first section form a
large arch, curving gracefully over the anvil. These housings are each com-
posed of a single 120-ton casting. The longitudinal width of the hammer (that
is, looking at it from either the east or west) is 42 feet. The housings, whose
bases are 10 feet by 8, are firmly clamped into the foundation-walls at each
side, and are fastened to washers lying beneath the walls at a depth of 33 feet.
Around the entire periphery of the hammer, to the height of the first section,
15 feet, is a platform of levers controlling the working of the machine. Above
is another arch of housings, which weigh 80 tons apiece. This arch is capped
by a steam chest, a casting of 65 tons. Here, at the height of some 70 feet,
562 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
is another platform. On the top of this steam chest, and in the center of this
platform, is superadded the huge cylinder, 24 feet high, with an internal diam-
eter of 76 inches. In the exact zenith of the arch is the large tup or ram of the
hammer, an enormous piece of metal about 19^ feet long, 10 feet wide and
four feet thick, the weight of which is almost 100 tons. It is this which forms
the principal bulk of the enormous weight of the hammer and gives power to its
heavy blows. Connected to this is the piston rod, a splendid specimen of
perfectly wrought steel, 40 feet long and 16 inches in diameter. At the bottom
of the trip and keyed to it is the die hammer. This is a large, square block
of iron, faced with steel, and is the piece which will strike the metal that is
being forged. The piston-rod has a play of 16^ feet, and the weight of trip,
piston-rod and piston aggregates 125 tons, which, multiplied by the full stroke,
is the power of the hammer's stupendous blows. The whole thing is indeed a
contrivance unparalleled in the history of mechanism.
August 5. Nickel in New Caledonia.
THE JOURNAL OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE.
June, 1891. The progress of chemical theory; its helps and
hindrances, by Dr. Persifer Frazer. Possibilities of applied science,
by Oberlin Smith. New alloys and their engineering applications,
by F. Lynwood Garrison. Riveted joints in boiler-shells, note by
Committee. Chemical section. Electrical section: A rough-and-
ready dynamometer for small motors ; The value of oil as an insulator
for high-voltage currents.
July. Reports of Committee Science and Arts : Vanclain's com-
pound locomotive and forged car-wheel. Possibilities of applied
science, by Oberlin Smith. The utilization of the power of Niagara
Falls and notes on engineering progress, by Coleman Sellers. New
alloys and their engineering applications.
August. Induction of electric currents and induction coils, by
Prof. E. Thomson. The range of tide in rivers and estuaries, by
E. A. Gieseler, New alloys and their engineering applications,
by F. Lynwood Garrison. Conflagrations in cities. Chemical sec-
tion : Prof. Lippmann's heliochromy ; Composition of boiler scale
and the composition of feed-water from Galveston, Tex. Electrical
section: Ewing's theory of induced magnetism, by Prof. Henry Crew.
THE LONDON ENGINEER.
May I, 1891. Her Majesty's ship Victory; her history and con-
struction. The Naval Exhibition: 4.5-inch quick-fire gun ; H. M. S.
Victoria; Elswick pneumatic gun-mounting. Water-tube boilers.
Sailing-ship construction. Toughening steel plates.
May 8. Steam-pipes. The naval operations in Chili. Explosives.
May 15. The French cruiser Le Tage. Holden's process of
burning petroleum. On tests for steel used in the manufacture of
artillery.
May 22. The United States cruiser Charleston.
July 3. Heating feed-water by live steam. Explosives in Bel-
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 5^3
gium. Mending a big shaft at sea (illustrated). Armor-plates in
the United States.
July id. Bursting of a gun on board H. M. S. Cordelia. En-
gineers in the navy.
July 17. Experiments with ammonite. Screw propellers.
July 24. Ships-of-war building or refitting at Chatham dock-
yard. Whitworth mounting for high-angle fire (illustrated). Un-
sinkable steel boat.
July 31. Sir Nathaniel Barnaby on recent progress in war-ships.
A review of marine engineering during the past decade.
August 7. The Whitehead torpedo (illustrated). Modern shell
fire.
THE ENGINEER.
July 18, 189 1. The Newark. How to run engines and boilers.
Rapid-fire guns. Removing scale from boilers.
August i. How to run engines and boilers. The light on Dia-
mond shoal.
August 15. Engines of the protected cruiser No. 12. How to
run engines and boilers. The economical use of steam in engines.
Feed-water heating.
ENGINEERING.
May I, 1 89 1. H. M. S. Vulcan. Engines and boilers of S. S.
Indra (illustrated).
May 8. Report upon the trials of the engines of S. S. lona.
May 15. The German military rifle (illustrated). Railways for
coast defense. Steel for artillery.
May 22, War material in the United States, by W. H. Jaques.
Air and circulating pumps for the U. S. battle-ship Maine (illus-
trated). Babcock and Wilcox water-tube marine boilers (illustrated).
Artillery steel.
May 29. Test of the Stanley marine boiler. The destruction of
the Blanco Encalada.
July 3. The next naval manoeuvres. A chronological history of
electricity.
July id. Bursting of the Cordelia's gun.
July 17. The Royal Naval Exhibition (illustrated). The Princess
Alice. A chronological history of electricity (continued).
July 24. The Royal Naval Exhibition (continued). The new
South African mail steamer Scot. H. M. S. Endymion. The French
navy, No. XII, the cruiser Cecille (illustrated). A chronological
history of electricity (continued).
July 31. The Royal Naval Exhibition; The Armstrong gallery
564
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
(illustrated). List of war-ships built by Sir W. G. Armstrong
Mitchell & Co. The Institution of Naval Architects. The American
whale-back.
August 7. Willey's boat-disengaging apparatus (illustrated).
The French navy, No. XIII, the Marceau. Ammunition-hoist for
the 25th de Mayo. H. G. D.
THE MANUFACTURER.
July 20, 1891. New steel cuirass. A great gun. Ammonite, a
new safety explosive.
This new explosive, experiments in the usage of which were carried
out at the works of the Miners' Safety Explosives Company, Stanford-le-hope,
Essex, on the 9th inst., consists of pure ammonium nitrate and nitronaph-
thaline, which in themselves are quite inexplosive, but become highly explo-
sive when intimately incorporated. The ingredients are separately dried and
ground, and are afterwards mixed in edge-runner mills under a moderate heat,
the resultant compound being a yellowish powder, which is afterwards sifted
and sealed in metallic cartridges of different sizes. It is practically impossible
to explode this compound by the direct aid of either flame, heat or concussion,
as was amply proved in the presence of those who had been invited to attend
the trials ; and being entirely free from chlorate mixtures, the chance of spon-
taneous decomposition is avoided. Freedom from picric acid and chlorinated
derivatives of hydrocarbons does away with the injurious after-fumes to which
such grave exception is taken in the case of such explosives as roburite, etc.
Ammonite differs from all explosives of the nitro-glycerine class in its entire
freedom from any liquid ingredient, so that exudation is impossible, and all
danger of freezing avoided. An experiment showed that even the most exces-
sive changes of temperature had no appreciable effect upon its character and
explosive power. After a series of tests as to the comparative strength of
ammonite and other well-known explosives, which demonstrated that the new
compound, whilst possessing none of the objectionable characters of roburite,
yet quite equals it in explosive force, an experiment was made in order to
show that it was practically impossible to explode it by percussive action ; in
the result, whilst carbonite, tonite, gelignite, gunpowder, dynamite, guncotton,
blasting gelatine, and ardeerite, all exploded loudly, ammonite failed to explode,
even when the weight was allowed to fall 23 feet. A cartridge of ammonite
was next cut into two pieces, one of which was exploded by means of a deto-
nator, whilst the remaining portion was thrown into a brazier of red-hot coke
without exploding. Nor was it in any way affected by the concussion arising
from the impact of a stream of bullets fired into the cartridges, nor from the
effects of a i-lb. case of gunpowder exploded amongst them. Further experi-
ments were made in order to show its enormous explosive strength when
properly fired. Two wrought-iron plates of ^ in. and j( in. thickness respec-
tively, were completely shattered by a 6 oz cartridge, whilst the destruction
of an extemporized section of a railway by four 6 oz. cartridges, and the cut-
ting down of two stockades of sleepers 4 in. thick and embedded two feet in
the ground, proved that ammonite must be placed in the front rank of explo-
sives. A bundle of six cartridges was afterwards fired under water by a
submarine. fuse, and to show the instantaneous detonation and the continuity
of the explosive wave through unbroken cartridges, a line of cartridges 80 ft.
in length was fired by a single detonator. Little or no residue is left after
ammonite is fired, and every railway company in the country consents to carry
it. Numerous experiments have been made with ammonite in some of the
most fiery collieries in England, and in no instance has the coal gas and dust
l)een exploded, although, in some cases, only two inches of tamping has been
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 565
employed. The unanimous opinion of those present and competent to judge,
is that in ammonite an absolutely safe, innocuous and certain explosive has
been found, of the greatest possible use and benefit under the most diverse
conditions.
THE STEAMSHIP.
May, 1891. The action of sails. Electric lighting on shipboard.
The cost of the generation and distribution of electrical energy.
June. Boiler deposits. Thwaite's tubular boiler. The research
committee on engine trials. Report upon trials of the S. S. lona.
J. K. B.
July. Bolton's patent electric winch for ships. Feathering pro-
pellers. Boat-lowering apparatus at Royal Naval Exhibition : Pirn's
improved raft; Duinker's, Mill's, and Bowring's apparatus (illus-
trated). Launch of the Endymion.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
January, 1891. On different kinds of gas furnaces. The mechan-
ical treatment of moulding sand.
March. Fourth report of research committee on friction: Ex-
periments on the friction of a pivot-bearing. J. K. B.
THE STEVENS INDICATOR.
Volume VIII, No. 2. Drawing-room practice. An abstract of
a lecture in the department of engineering. Practice on the method
of designing-room instruction. Oils used in lubrication. Experi-
ments made on a hot-air engine. The influence of the receiver jacket
on indicator cards. J. K. B.
No. 3. The machine-shop. Oils used in lubrication. Railway-
car lighting. Annual meeting of the Alumni Association. Com-
mencement week exercises.
TRANSACTIONS OF CANADIAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Volume IV, Part II, October to December, 1890. Develop-
ments in telegraphy, by D. H. Keeley. The errors of levels and
leveling, by Prof. C. H. McLeod. Cable railways, by P. H. Mid-
dleton.
TRANSACTIONS OF AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Volume XXIV, No. 3. On the permanent effect of strain in
metals. District steam system. Worthen on steam-heating.
No. 4. Determination of the stresses in elastic systems by the
method of least work.
No. 5. The beginnings of engineering. Valves and other appa-
ratus of National Water Works Company of Kansas City.
No. 6. The nozzle as an accurate water-meter. Wiirtell on false
ellipse.
566 BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES.
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. PROCEEDINGS.
Volume CIV. Auxiliary engines in connection with the modern
marine engine.
A discussion on the machinery employed to drive the air and circulating
pumps, the reversing gear, the fans for forced draft, and that for electric
lighting, as usually employed in modern vessels in the navy and the merchant
marine, with suggestions tending to effect a further efficiency in this group of
auxiliary machinery.
Machine-Stoking.
A brief sketch of the history of machine-stoking, together with a full illus-
trated description of the Vicar's machine-stoker and the Benne's sprinkler
stoker, together with the actual results of the application of machine-stoking,
showing the advantages resulting from its adoption (i) as to the prevention of
smoke, (2) economy of fuel, (3) economy of labor, and (4) increased evapor-
ative efficiency.
Electric mining machinery, with special reference to the application
of electricity to coal-cutting, pumping and rock-drilling. On the
application of governor and fly-wheel to marine engines. Investiga-
tions on the influence of heat on the strength of iron. J. K. B.
MEMOIRES ET COMPTE RENDU DES TRAVAUX DE LA SOCIETE
DES INGENIEURS CIVILS.
April, 1891. Seaports and communications, canals, rivers, and
railroads. The metallurgy of aluminium. Aluminium and its alloys.
May. Notes on ore process. Transmission of power by elec-
tricity. Electric transmission. Electric transmission in the mines of
Faria (Brazil).
June. Transactions of the Society. General method of calcula-
tion for beams and girders. H. G. D.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF
MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
Part XXXIX. Experiments with explosives used in mines.
The economical working of steam-boilers at collieries. J. K. B.
THE RAILROAD AND ENGINEERING JOURNAL.
May, 1 89 1. The armored Spanish cruiser Pelayo. The navy in
time of peace. Submarine mine and harbor defense. Progress in
the U. S. navy.
June. Lacquer as a protection for steel ships. The U, S. navy.
Foreign naval notes. Water-power and electrical transmission.
August. Recent experiments with armor-plates, II. The safe
high explosives. A lightship with electric lights. J. K. B.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
Volume XXIX, No. 135.
JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES,
Volume X, Nos. 6 and 7.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES. 56/
TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING
ENGINEERS.
Notes on the Bessemer process ; aluminium steel.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, Volume I, No. 2.
FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
REVISTA TECNOLOGICO INDUSTRIAL, June, 1891.
TEKNISK TIDSKRIFT.
OUTING.
THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL JOURNAL, May and June, 1891.
THE COLLIERY ENGINEER.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
Captain Blake. By Captain Chas. King, U. S. A.
Identification of Sir Francis Drake's Anchorage on the Coast of
California in the Year 1579. By Prof. George Davidson, Ph. D.
Time Reckoning for the Twentieth Century. By Sanford Fleming.
REVIEWERS AND TRANSLATORS.
P. A. Engineer J. K. Barton, Ensign C. M. Knepper,
Ensign H. G. Dresel, Prof. C. R. Sanger,
Prof. J. Leroux.
THE PROCEEDINGS
OP THE
U:n'ited States Naval Institute.
Vol. XVII., No. 4. 1891. Whole No. 60.
U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE, ANNAPOLIS, MD.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
UNITED STATES NAVY.*
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, NAVV
DEPARTMENT, BY
Commander C. M. Thomas, U. S. N.,
Lieutenant C. E. Colahan, U. S. N.,
Lieutenant W. F. Fullam, U. S. N.,
Ensign F. J. Haeseler, U. S. N.,
AND
First Lieutenant L. W. V. Kennon, U. S. A.
Bureau of Navigation, Navy Department,
Washington, D. C ,July 15, 1891.
The following instructions for Infantry and Artillery exercises are
issued for the use of the Navy.
Officers are requested to suggest such changes as experience may
dictate. F. M. Ramsay,
Chief of Bureau.
* Published by authority of the Chief of the Bureau of Navigation, Naty
Department.
570 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
DEFINITIONS.
Alignment. — A straight line, upon which several men or bodies of
troops are formed, or are to be formed.
Base. — The unit on which a movement is regulated ; as, base file,
company, or battalion.
Column. — A formation in which the elements are placed one behind
another.
Deploy. — To extend the front ; as, to pass from column into line.
Depth. — The space from head to rear of any formation, including
the leading and rear elements.
Disposition. — The distribution and formations of the fractions of a
body of troops, for the accomplishment of some special object.
Distance. — Space measured perpendicular to the front. The dis-
tance between ranks in the same unit is measured from the
breast of the man in rear to the back of the man in front.
The distance between two subdivisions in column is measured
in like manner from guide to guide.
Between two commands in column, one in rear of the other,
each comprising several fractions, the distance is measured from
the rear guide of the command in front to the leading guide of
the one in rear.
Echelon. — A formation in which subdivisions are placed stair-wise,
so that each unmasks those in rear, either wholly or in part.
In battle formation this term is also employed to designate
the different elements or lines in the direction of depth.
Example: The first echelon, the. Jiring line; the second
echelon, the support, etc.
Evolution. — A movement by which troops are enabled to pass
from one formation to another.
File. — Two men, a front-rank man and the corresponding man of
the rear rank, whether placed one behind the other or side by
side.
File-leader, the front-rank man of a file.
A file is said to be blank when it has no rear-rank man.
File-Closers. — Officers or petty officers posted in rear of the line,
to rectify mistakes and to insure steadiness and promptness in
the ranks.
Flank. — The right or left of a command in line or column; also the
element on the right or left of a line.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 571
Flankers. — Men posted or inarched so as to protect the flank of a
column.
Flank March. — A march, whatever the formation, by which troops
move along the front of the enemy's position.
Formation. — The arrangement of the elements of a command.
Front. — The space occupied by a command in width, either in line
or column.
Front also denotes the direction of the enemy.
Guide. — An officer, petty officer, or man upon whom the command
regulates its march.
Interval. — Space measured between elements of the same line.
The interval between two men is measured from elbow to
elbow; between two companies, squads, etc., from the left
elbow of the left man or guide of the group on the right, to the
right elbow of the right man or guide of the group on the left.
Line. — A formation in which the different elements are abreast of
each other ; when the elements are in column, the formation is
called a line of columns.
Manoeuvre. — The practical application of the movements pre-
scribed in the drill-book, taken in connection with the nature of
the ground, the position and movements of an enemy.
Order. —
Close. — The normal formation in which men are habitually
arranged in line or column.
Extended. — The formation in which the men, or the subdivi-
sions, or both, are separated by intervals greater than in close
order.
Pace. — Thirty inches.
Ploy. — To diminish front, as to pass from line into column.
Point of Rest. — The point at which a formation begins.
Rank. — A line of men placed side by side.
Scouts. — Men detailed to precede a command on the march and
when forming for battle, to gather and report information con-
cerning the enemy and the nature of the ground.
Successive Formation. — An evolution in which the several sub-
divisions successively arrive in their places.
Tactics. — The art of handling troops in the presence of an enemy.
Turning Movement. — An extended movement around the enemy's
flank to threaten or attack his flank or rear.
Wing. — The portion of a command between the center and the flank;,
the battalion is the smallest body which is divided into wings.
572 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
GENERAL REGULATIONS.
1. Each ship and squadron will have a permanently organized
landing force composed of infantry and artillery. The proportion
of infantry to artillery in a naval brigade varies with the nature of
the service to be performed.
2. When practicable, captains or commanders will act as chief of
brigade; lieutenant-commanders as chiefs of battalion; lieutenants
as brigade-adjutants, chiefs of company, chiefs of platoon (artillery),
quartermasters, and ordnance officers ; junior-line officers as bat-
talion-adjutants, chiefs of section, and signal officers ; paymasters
will act as commissaries.
3. The brigade staff consists of a brigade-adjutant, quartermaster,
commissary, ordnance officer, medical officer, signal officer, and two
aides.
4. The battalion staff consists of an adjutant, commissary, and
medical officer.
5. The section, consisting of one officer, two petty officers, and
sixteen men, is the unit of organization. All sections are drilled
both as infantry and artillery.
6. When acting as infantry, two sections form a company ; four
companies a battalion ; two or more battalions a brigade. Com-
panies and battalions will, as far as practicable, be composed of
sections from the same ship.
7. When acting as artillery, two sections form a platoon ; two
platoons a battery ; two or more batteries a battalion. If necessary,
two or more additional sections may be detailed to aid the dragmen
or to manoeuvre the limber.
8. The marines of a squadron will be posted on the right of the
line.
9. One set of colors only will be carried by any landing force. In
a mixed force, the colors will be carried by the infantry.
10. The pioneers, consisting of a detail of one man for every sec-
tion landed, are under the direction of the quartermaster. They
will, preferably, be mechanics.
11. The ammunition party, consisting ordinarily of a detail of one
man for every two sections landed, is under the direction of the
ordnance officer.
12. One mess-man is detailed as cook for every two sections
landed.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 573
13. The ambulance party, consisting of a detail of one man for
every two sections landed, is under the direction of the medical
officer.
14. The necessary number of signal men accompany the landing
force.
15. A petty officer is detailed to assist battalion-adjutants, and if
the landing force is so large as to make it necessary, a petty officer
is also detailed to assist brigade commissaries and quartermasters.
16. Two boat keepers will be detailed for each cutter or smaller
boat, and four for each launch or large boat. A junior officer will
be sent in charge of the boats and their keepers.
17. When fully equipped, each man will carry packed knapsack
and haversack, rubber-blanket, webbing belt, filled canteen, and
leggings ; when lightly equipped, filled canteen, webbing belt, and
leggings.*
Pioneers will also carry intrenching tools.
One stretcher will be carried by every two men of the ambulance
party.
Signal apparatus is carried by the signal party.
18. Infantry sections will be armed with the service rifle.
19. In the artillery sections, the petty officers and numbers I to
8, inclusive, will be armed with the revolver only, the remainder of
the section will be armed as infantry. On parades, when a long
march may be expected, artillery sections may be armed with the
revolver only.
20. Battalion staff petty officers will be armed with the cutlass and
revolver; color-bearers, guidons, and buglers are armed with the
revolver only.
21. When a landing is contemplated, the commander-in-chief
indicates the character of the landing party from each ship, the
number of sections, and the number and kind of pieces of artillery.
22. When the brigade is to be landed for parade or drill onshore,
*The haversack is worn in rear of the left hip ; canteen in rear of right hip,
with cartridge belt over both haversack slings and the rear sling of the canteen.
If officers carry the revolver, the sword belt is worn outside the blouse, the
cartridge box in front, and to the right of the belt buckle. The revolver is
worn slightly in rear of the right hip. The canteen is carried on the right side
in rear of the revolver, with its rear sling under the sword belt.
When overcoats are worn, officers will wear their scabbards outside of the
coat, the long sling passing through the rear slit, and the short sling through
the side slit of the coat.
574 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
the landing force of each ship will proceed, when the signal is made,
directly to the point of landing. If the landing is likely to be
opposed, the boats will be signaled from the flagship to form in
accordance with the proposed plan of attack.
23. The infantry boats and those containing light machine guns,
will form on the general line of battle.
The boats carrying artillery and powerful machine guns take
station in rear of the general line. If necessary, they may be assem-
bled at the extremities and in the center of the line, to cross their
fire in front of the flotilla and to protect the flanks.
24. Fast-pulling boats, containing the medical officers with assist-
ants and proper outfits, will be stationed in rear of the main line.
They will be designated by the hospital flag, and the ambulance
party will form their crews.
25. The landing force will not be embarked in the steam launches
except when absolutely necessary. These boats will be used to
cover the landing or re-embarkation. Should the distance to the
point of landing be considerable, they may be used for towing.
26. The beach having been sufficiently cleared by artillery, a por-
tion of the infantry is landed and at once deployed. It is followed
by the main body. A part of the artillery is held back until it is
apparent that the force is well established.
27. The landing efiected, measures will be taken to render the
position secure, and outposts and guards established at once.
28. If a march into the interior be necessary, the column will be
formed with advance and rear guards. Halts of about ten minutes
will be made every hour.
29. A front attack will not be made when a movement on a flank
is practicable, and men must not be exposed in masses to the fire of
the enemy. Positions when carried will immediately be made secure.
30. Artillery fire will generally be concentrated upon the position
to be attacked, sweeping it, if possible, with a cross fire, up to the
last moment.
Artillery will not be moved oftener than necessary, as change of
position entails loss of range and interruption of fire. As a general
rule, guns will not be disturbed as long as they are doing good ser-
vice ; they will not, however, remain in a position where their fire is
ineffective. Protection will be sought in undulations of the ground,
breastworks, logs, etc.; advantages of position and ability to move
quickly will not, however, be sacrificed to security.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 575
31. Men of the artillery sections, not working the pieces, will
extend upon the flanks with their rifles, to keep off" the enemy's
sharpshooters.
32. As soon as the landing force has left the boats, the latter will
be hauled off to their anchors, with stern lines to the beach. Each
artillery boat will be made ready to mount its gun in the stern.
33. The beach-master will examine the beach with a view of
selecting the best position for covering the re-embarkation, and will
employ such means as lie in his power to render the position defen-
sible in case of necessity.
34. In re-embarking, the artillery is first embarked, and is then
used to cover the embarkation of the infantry.
DRILL REGULATIONS FOR INFANTRY.
INFANTRY,
General Rules.
35. All details, detachments, and other bodies of troops will
habitually be formed in double rank.
36. Movements which may be executed toward either flank, are
explained as toward but one flank, it being necessary to substitute
the word left for right, or the reverse, to have the command and
explanation of the corresponding movement toward the other flank.
37. In movements where the guide may be either right or left, it
is indicated in the command thus : Gtdde right (or left~).
38. All movements, not specially excepted, may be executed
either from a halt or when marching. The statement, at the begin-
ning of a paragraph, of the formation from which a movement is
executed, excepts all others, and the movement prescribed is executed
from the specified formation only.
39. All movements, not specially excepted, may be executed in
double time. If from a halt, or if marching in quick time, the com-
mand double time precedes the command march; if marching in
double time, the command doicble time is omitted.
40. Preparatory commands, such as forward^ are those which
indicate the movement to be executed.
Commands of execution, such as March, Halt, or Arms, are
those which cause the execution of the movement.
Preparatory commands are distinguished by italics^ commands of
execution by small capitals.
5/6 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
A command of execution should be given in a more energetic and
elevated tone than the preparatory command which precedes it.
41. The signals and bugle calls must be frequently used in the
instruction, in order that officers and men may readily recognize
them.
42. In the text, the posts of the officers and petty officers are
specified, but as instructors they go wherever their presence is
necessary.
SCHOOL OF THE SQUAD.
43. The object of this school is the instruction of the individual
recruit, and afterward that of the squad.
44. The instructor explains each movement in as few words as
possible, at the same time executing it himself.
He avoids keeping recruits too long at the same movement,
although each should be understood before passing to another.
He exacts by degrees the desired precision and uniformity.
45. As the instruction progresses the recruits will be grouped
according to proficiency, in order that all may advance as rapidly as
their abilities permit. Those who lack aptitude and quickness will
be separated from the others, and placed under experienced drill-
masters.
46. If the instructor wishes to begin a movement anew for the
purpose of correcting it, he commands: As you were, at which the
former position is resumed.
Individual instruction 7vithout arms.
47. For this instruction, a few recruits, usually not exceeding four,
are placed in a single rank, facing to the front and according to
height from right to left, the tallest man on the right.
When the recruits have learned how to take their places, they are
required to do so without assistance from the instructor, at the com-
mand/a// z«.
Position of aite?iiion.
48. Heels on the same line, and as near each other as the con-
formation of the man permits.
Feet turned out equally, and forming with each other an angle of
about sixty degrees.
Knees straight, without stiffiiess.
Body erect on the hips, inclining a little forward, shoulders falling
equally.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 5/7
Arms and hands hanging naturally, backs of the hands outward,
little finger opposite the seams of the trousers, elbows near the body.
Head erect and square to the front ; chin slightly drawn in, with-
out constraint ; eyes straight to the front.
The rests.
49. Being at a halt, to rest the men, the instructor commands :
I. Fall out, or Rest, or Stand at ease.
At the command fall out, the men may leave the ranks but will
remain in the immediate vicinity. At the command fall in, they
resume their former places.
At the command rest, the men keep the left heel in place, but are
not required to preserve silence or immobility.
At the command stand at ease, the men keep the left heel in place,
and preserve silence, but not immobility.
To resume the attention : i. Squad, 2. Attention.
50. To give the men rest, imposing both steadiness of position and
silence: i. Parade, 2. Rest.
Carry the right foot six inches straight to the rear, the left knee
slightly bent ; clasp the hands in front of the center of the body, the
left hand uppermost, the left thumb clasped by the thumb and fingers
of the right hand.
To resume the attention: i. Sgtiad, 2. Attention.
To dismiss the squad.
51. Being in line at a halt : Dismissed.
Facings.
52. To the right or left : i. Right (or left), 2. Face.
Raise the right heel and left toe and face to the right, turning on
the left heel ; place the right foot by the side of the left.
The facings to the left are also executed upon the left heel.
53. To the rear: i. About, 2. Face.
Raise the left heel and right toe and face to the rear, turning to
the right on the right heel and the ball of the left foot ; place the left
foot beside the right.
Salute with the hand.
54. Being at attention: i. Hand, 2. Salute.
Bring the right forefinger to the lower part of the head-dress above
the right eye, thumb and fingers extended and joined, palm to the
578 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
left, forearm inclined at about forty-five degrees, hand and wrist
straight. The salute being returned, drop the arm by the side.
SETTING UP.
55. The following movements should be taught to a few recruits at
a time, placed in single rank, two paces apart, and without arms.
As the importance of setting up cannot be overestimated, the fol-
lowing exercises should be frequently practiced at first, and con-
tinued occasionally after the men are thoroughly drilled.
Each exercise may be continued as long as desired by a repetition
of the commands as described, and concluded with the command
Halt, when the position of attention is resumed.
FIRST EXERCISE.
Neck.
56. Exercise: Place the hands on the hips, fingers to the front,
thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Front : Incline the head forward, looking down.
Straight: Raise the head to its natural position.
Rear : Throw the head back as far as possible.
Straight : Raise the head to its natural position.
second exercise.
Rotation of the head.
57. Exercise : Place the hands on the hips, fingers to the front,
thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Rear : Throw the head back as far as possible.
Right : Carry the head to the right and down.
Front : Carry the head to the front and down.
Left : Raise and carry the head well to the left.
third exercise.
Elbows to the front and rear.
58. Exercise : Place the hands on the hips, fingers to the front,
thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Front : Bring the elbows forward, in line with the hips.
Rear : Throw the elbows back until the shoulder blades meet,
expand the chest, small of the back in, head erect.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 5/9
FOURTH EXERCISE.
Arms.
59. Up : Raise the arms laterally until horizontal, palms of the
hands upward, fingers extended, chest well out.
Down : Gradually lower the arms to the sides.
FIFTH EXERCISE.
Extension of the arms.
60. Raise: Place the closed fists against the breast, knuckles
down, thumbs out, elbows well to the rear.
Front: Extend the arms horizontally and briskly forward.
Back : Resume the first position.
Up: Raise the arms vertically, knuckles to the front.
Down: Force the arms obliquely back, and gradually let them
fall to the sides.
SIXTH EXERCISE.
Arms in circle.
61. Exercise: Raisethe arms laterally until horizontal, fists closed,
knuckles down, thumbs out.
Circle : Swing the arms circularly, upward and backward, from
front to rear, body erect, arms not to pass in front of the line of the
breast.
seventh exercise.
Arms over head.
62. Exercise : Raise the arms laterally until horizontal, palms of
the hands upward.
Head : Raise the arms circularly over the head, tips of fingers
touching top of head, backs of fingers touching their full length,
thumbs pointing to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Up: Extend the arms vertically, palms to the front.
Down : Force the arms obliquely back, and gradually let them
fall to the sides.
EIGHTH exercise.
Arms alternately to the front,
63. Exercise : Close the fists.
Right : Raise the right fist and thrust briskly forward to the full
extent of the arm, knuckles to the front; at the same time raise the
left fist to the left breast, elbow close to and well to the rear of the
body.
580 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Left: Thrust the left fist briskly forward, and bring the right
fist to the right breast.
Down: Drop both arms by the sides.
NINTH EXERCISE.
Swijighig the arms to the froyit and rear.
64. Exercise : Raise the arms laterally until horizontal, palms of
the hands up.
Front : Swing the arms, extended, horizontally to the front, palms
touching.
Rear : Swing the arms, extended, well to the rear, inclining them
slightly downward, raising the body on the toes.
Down : Drop both arms by the sides.
TENTH EXERCISE.
Chest
65. Exercise : Place the hands on the hips, fingers to the front,
thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Up : Raise the upper part of the body from the hips, inflate the
chest and throw it well forward, the small of the back in, shoulders
square, head erect without straining the cords of the neck.
Down : Gradually lower the upper part of the body on the hips.
eleventh exercise.
Hips.
66. Exercise : Place the hands on the hips, fingers to the front,
thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Right : Bend the body to the right ; turn the head to the left,
looking up; chest out, shoulders square.
Straight : Place the body erect on the hips.
Left : Bend the body to the left ; turn the head to the right, look-
ing up ; chest out, shoulders square.
twelfth exercise.
Bending the body forward and back.
67. Exercise : Place the hands on the hips, fingers to the front,
thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Front: Bend the body forward, raise and press the elbows back,
chest out, head erect, eyes to the front.
Rear : Raise the body and bend back, chest out.
Straight : Place the body erect on the hips.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 58 1
THIRTEENTH EXERCISE.
Rotation of the hips.
68. Exercise: Place the hands on the hips, fingers to the front,
thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Front: Bend the body forward, raise and press the elbows back,
chest out, head erect, eyes to the front.
Left : Bend the body to the left ; turn the head to the right, look-
ing up ; chest out, shoulders square.
Rear: Raise the body and bend back, chest out.
Right : Bend the body to the right ; turn the head to the left,
looking up; chest out, shoulders square.
Straight: Place the body erect on the hips.
fourteenth exercise.
Full swing.
69. Exercise : Raise the arms laterally until horizontal, palms of
the hands up, fingers extended.
Right: Bend the body to the right; turn the head to the left,
looking up ; chest out, shoulders square ; gradually drop the right
arm to the side, raise the left arm up vertically.
Left: Reverse the motion.
Straight: Place the body erect on the hips.
fifteenth exercise.
Arms and hips.
70. Exercise: Raise the arms laterally until horizontal, fists
closed, knuckles down.
Up: Raise the arms vertically over the shoulders, nails to the
front, knuckles up.
Front : Bend the body forward until the knuckles touch the
floor, legs straight, feet square on the floor.
Straight: Raise quickly the body, the arms being kept verti-
cally over the shoulders, body erect on the hips.
Down : Force the arms obliquely back^ and gradually let them
fall to the sides.
sixteenth exercise.
Legs.
71. Exercise: Place the hands on the hips, fingers to the front,
thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
582 INSTRUCTJONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Down : Lower the body slowly by bending the legs, raise on the
toes, heels together, forcing the knees outward, trunk erect.
Up : Raise the body slowly, knees together, lower the heels.
SEVENTEENTH EXERCISE.
Calves.
Ti. Exercise : Place the hands on the hips, fingers to the front,
thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Up : Raise the body upon the toes, force the calves back, heels
and knees together, body erect, shoulders square.
Down: Gradually lower the heels until they touch the floor,
calves well back.
EIGHTEENTH EXERCISE.
Trunk, legs, and arms.
73. Exercise: Half face to the left, feet at right angles, right toe
square to the front.
Forward: Raise and extend the right arm its full length, hand
about six inches above the shoulder, fist closed, nails up, and at the
same time extend quickly the left leg ; carry the right foot forward
about thirty -six inches, toe to the front, foot grazing the floor, knee
outward and vertically over the right foot, body erect, head thrown
back, left arm extended to the rear and about three inches from the
thigh, fingers extended and joined.
Backward: Raise the body, bring the right foot back against the
left, heels together, drop both hands by the sides.
This exercise may be practiced with the left foot to the front by
making the half face to the right, and reversing the motions as
described.
THE STEPS.
74. The length of the full step in quick time is thirty inches,
measured from heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of one
hundred and twenty steps per minute.
75. The instructor places himself eight or ten paces in front of the
recruits, and facing toward them executes the step slowly, at the
same time explaining its principles; he then commands: i. For-
ward, 2. March.
At the first command, throw the weight of the body upon the
right leg without bending the left knee.
At the second command, carry the left foot straight forward thirty
UNITED STATES NAVY. 583
inches from the right, measuring from heel to heel, the sole near the
ground, the knee straight and slightly turned out ; at the same time
throw the weight of the body forward, and plant the foot without
shock, the weight of the body resting upon it; then advance and
plant the right foot, and, in like manner, continue the march. The
instructor indicates the cadence of the step from time to time by call-
ing one, two, three, four, or left, right, the instant the left and right
foot, respectively, should be planted.
The cadence is at first slow, and is gradually increased to quick
time.
76. To arrest the march: i. Squad, 2. Halt.
At the second command, given the instant either foot is brought to
the ground, the foot in rear is brought up and planted without shock
by the side of the other.
Double time.
77. The length of the full step in double time is thirty-six inches;
the cadence is at the rate of one hundred and eighty steps per
minute.
78. To march in double time: i. Forward, 2. Double time, 3.
March.
At the first command, throw the weight of the body on the right
leg; at the second command, raise the hands until the forearms are
horizontal, fingers closed, nails toward the body, elbows to the rear ;
at the third command, carry forward the left foot, and plant it thirty-
six inches from the right; then advance and plant the right foot,
and, in like manner, continue the march, throwing the weight of the
body forward and allowing a natural swinging motion to the arms.
In marching in double ti^ne, and in running, the men breathe as
much as possible through the nose, keeping the mouth closed.
Short step.
79. Being in march: i. Short step, 2. March.
The step is shortened to fifteen inches. The full step is resumed
at the command : i. Forward, 2. March.
The length of the short step in double time is eighteen inches.
Side step.
80. Being at a halt: i. Right (or left') step, 2. March.
Carry the right foot six inches to the right ; as soon as the right
584 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
foot is planted, bring the left foot beside it; continue the movement,
observing the cadence as explained for the direct step.
The side step is executed in quick time only.
Back step.
81. Being at a halt: i. Backward, 2. March.
Step back with the left foot fifteen inches to the rear, measuring
from heel to heel, then with the right, and so on.
At the command hall, bring back the foot in front to the side of the
one in rear. The back step is used for short distances, and in quick
time only.
82. The short step, side step, and back step may be executed from
mark lime, and conversely.
To mark time.
83. Being in march : i. Mark time, 2. March.
At the second command, given the instant either foot is coming to
the ground, mark the cadence without gaining ground, by alter-
nately advancing each foot about half its length, and bringing it back
on a line with the other.
To resume the full step: i. Forward, 2. March.
Change step.
84. Being in march: i. Change step, 2. March.
At the second command, given as the right foot comes to the
ground, advance and plant the left foot ; bring the right foot near the
heel of the left, and step off again with the left.
The change on the right foot is similarly executed, the second
command being given as the left foot strikes the ground.
Close order.
85. In this instruction, the movements are first executed in a
single rank, and without arms. Afterward the recruits will be
formed in squads of eight men each, in double rank and with arms.
The explanations are given for the squad in the latter formation.
86. In the calculation of distances and intervals, the depth of a
man is assumed to be twelve inches, and his front in ranks twenty-
four inches.
87. In line, facing distance, or the distance between ranks from
back to breast, is assumed to be twelve inches ; when the knapsack
UNITED STATES NAVV. '585
is worn the distance is increased by the depth of the knapsack ; on
rough ground, and when marching in double time, it is increased to
thirty-six inches ; the rear rank closes to facing distance upon halt-
ing, or on resuming quick time.
88. When the guide is announced in a command, the man on the
flank designated conducts the march. In their first drills the places
of the recruits will frequently be changed.
To form the squad.
89. The petty officer places himself in front of where the center of
the squad is to be when formed, and commands: Fall in, or makes
the signal for the assembly.
The men form in double rank, from right to left, with arms at the
order.
Alignments.
go. The alignments are first taught by requiring the recruits to
align themselves, man by man, upon two files established as a base.
Being at the order: i. Two files from the right (or leff), three
paces to the front, 2. March, 3. Next, 4. Front.
At the second command the two files on the right step three paces
to the front, halt, and turn the head and eyes slightly to the right;
the instructor aligns them, sees that the rear-rank men cover, and
then causes the remaining files to move up successively on this
alignment, by the command next^zX. which the succeeding file leader
steps three paces to the front, shortening the last step so as to find
himself about six inches in rear of the new alignment, which must
never be passed ; he then turns his head and eyes slightly to the
right, and, taking steps of two or three inches, moves up, placing his
elbow lightly against that of the man on his right, and so that his
eyes and shoulders shall beinhnewith those of the men on his right.
The rear-rank man conforms to the movement of his file leader.
When the last file has arrived on the line, the instructor verifies
the alignment from the right flank, and orders up or back such men
as may be in rear or in advance of the line; only the men designated
move up or back.
At the command/r^;z/, given when the ranks are aligned, the men
look to the front, and all movement in the ranks ceases.
91. The recruits having learned to align themselves man by man,
the instructor establishes the base files and aligns the squad by the
commands: i. Right {ox lefi), 2. Dress, 3. Front.
586 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
At the second command, the men simultaneously move forward
and dress up to the line, as previously explained.
92. Alignments to the rear are executed on the same principles by
the commands: i. Right (or leff) backward, 2. Dress, 3. Front.
The men step backward, halt a little in rear of the line of the base
files, and immediately dress up by steps of two or three inches.
93. To execute the alignments, using the side step, the instructor
establishes the base files a few paces from the flank, in line with the
ranks, and commands: i. Right (or left) step, 2. Right (or leff), 3.
Dress, 4. Front.
At the third command, the men execute the side step, close toward
the base files ; when closed they halt and dress, as already explained.
94. When the squad has learned to dress quickly and well, the
guide alone is first established, the two or three files on the flank
are accurately aligned as promptly as possible, to afford a base for
the remainder of the squad.
MARCHING.S.
To march in line,
95. Being in line, at a halt: i. Forward, 2. Guide {right or /<?//),
3. March.
The squad steps off, the guide marching straight to the front ;
the rear-rank men cover their file leaders, and follow them at facing
distance.
The instructor will see that the men yield to pressure from the side
of the guide, and resist pressure from the opposite direction; that
they gradually recover the alignment, if lost, by slightly shortening
or lengthening the step ; and that while habitually keeping the head
direct to the front, they occasionally glance toward the side of the
guide to assure themselves of the alignment.
To change the guide : Guide {left or right).
To halt the squad: i. Squad, 2. Halt.
To march backward.
96. Being at a halt: i. Backward, 2. Gtiide (right or left), 3.
March.
To march to the rear.
97. Being in march, in quick time : i.
Guide {right or left).
UNITED STATES XAVV. 58/
At the second command, given as the right foot strikes the ground,
advance and plant the left foot ; turn on the balls of both feet, face to
the right about and immediately step off with the left foot.
To march by the flank.
98. Being in line, at a halt: i. Right (or left), 2. Face, 3. Forward,
4. March.
Being in march : i. By the right (or left^ flank, 2. March.
At the second command, given as the right foot strikes the ground,
advance and plant the left foot, face to the right in marching, and
step off with the right foot.
99. Marching in column of files, to march in line : i. By the right
(or left) flank, 2, March, 3. Guide right (or left).
To change direction in column of files.
100. Being in march: i. Cohimn right (or left); or, i. Cohimn
half right (or half left), 2. March.
At the second command, the leading file wheels to the right, or
half right, the pivot man shortening two or three steps and moving
over a quarter or an eighth of a circle whose radius is about twenty-
four inches ; the other files follow the first and wheel on the same
ground.
If at a halt: i. Forward, 2. Columii right (or left); or, 2. Col-
umn half right (or half left), 3. March.
The oblique march.
loi. Being in line, at a halt or in march : i. Right (or left) oblique,
2. March.
At the second command, each man half faces to the right, and
steps off in the new direction. He preserves his relative position,
keeping his shoulders parallel to those of the man next on his right,
and so regulates his step as to make the head of this man conceal
the heads of the other men in the rank ; the ranks remain parallel
to their original front.
Each rear-rank man marches so as to cover his file leader upon
resuming the original direction.
At the command halt, the men halt, facing to the front.
To resume the original direction : i. Forward, 2. March, 3. Guide
right (or left).
The men half face to the left in marching and continue to the
588 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
front. If marking time while obliquing, the oblique march is resumed
by the command: i. Obligjie, 2. March.
The short step will not be used in the oblique march, and the
guide is always, without indication, on the side toward which the
oblique is made.
The column of files obliques by the same command.
To march in double time.
102. Being in line, at a halt : i. Forward, 2. Guide right (or leff),
3, Double time, 4. March.
To pass from quick to double time, and the reverse.
103. Marching in quick time : i. Double time, 2. March.
At the second command, given as the left foot strikes the ground,
advance the right foot in quick time, and step off with the left foot in
double ti7ne.
To resume the quick time : i. Quick time, 2. March.
At the second command, given as either foot is coming to the
ground, the squad resumes the quick time.
TURNINGS.
To turn and halt.
104. Marching in line: i. Sqtiad, right (or left), 2. March,
3. Front.
At the second command, the right, or pivot file, halts, and faces
to the right; the other files half face to the right in marching, and
without changing the length or cadence of the step, place them-
selves successively upon the alignment established by the right file;
all dress to the right without command. The instructor verifies the
alignment from the pivot flank and commands : Front.
The rear-rank men conform to the movements of their file leaders.
If at a halt, the movement is executed in similar manner ; if at the
order, and the movement is executed in quick time, the pieces are
held at the /r«z7 while in' motion.
Squad half right or half left is executed in the same manner,
except that the pivot makes a half face to the right.
To turn and advance.
105. Being in line : i. Right (or left) turn, 2. March, 3. Forward,
4. March, 5, Guide right (or left).
UNITED STATES NAVY.
589
At the second command, the man on the right marches by the
right flank, and takes the short step without changing the cadence ;
the other men half face to the right in marching, and, moving by the
shortest line, successively place themselves on the new line, when
they take the short step.
The rear-rank inen conform to the movements of their file leaders.
As soon as the last man has arrived on the new line, the fourth
command is given, when all resume the full step.
Right (or left) half turn is executed in similar manner, except that
the guide makes a half face to the right.
Should the command halt be given during the execution of the
movement, the men already on the line halt ; the others halt on
arriving on the line ; all dress to the right without command. The
instructor verifies the alignment from the pivot flank, and commands :
Front.
THE MANUAL OF ARMS.
106. When fair progress has been made in the individual instruc-
tion of recruits, they will be taught the manual of arms, instruction
with and without arrns alternating. A part of each drill with arms
will be devoted to marching.
107. The manual of arms is explained for double rank, but for
instruction, recruits are first placed in single rank.
108. The instructor will, at first, cause the men to execute the
movements by themselves, without command, until they understand
the details; after this he will require them to execute the movements
together, at command.
109. The cadence of the motions is the same as that of quick
thne.
The movements relative to the cartridge, the fixing and unfixing
of the bayonet, the adjusting of sights, and the breaking and form-
ing of stacks, are executed with promptness and regularity but not
in cadence.
no. Being at a halt, the movements may, for the purpose of
instruction, be divided into motions and executed in detail; in this
case, the command of execution determines the prompt performance
of the first motion, and the command, two, that of the last motion.
III. To execute movements in detail, the instructor first cautions:
By the numbers ; all movements divided into two motions are then
executed as above explained until he cautions : Without the numbers.
590 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
112. The piece is habitually carried at halfcock or with the bolt
locked,
113. The recruit being in the position of attention, the instructor
first causes him to place his piece carefully in the
Position of order arms.
The butt rests evenly on the ground, arms hanging naturally,
elbows near the body, the right hand holding the piece between the
thumb and fingers, first two fingers in front, the others in rear, and
opposite the seam of the trousers ; the barrel to the rear and inclined
forward, the toe of the piece about one inch to the right and two
inches to the rear of the right toe.
When falling in, recruits habitually take their places in ranks with
pieces at the order.
114. Being at the order: i. Present^ 2. Arms.
Raise the piece vertically with the right hand, carrying it in front
of the center of the body, at the same time grasping it with the left
hand at the sight, thumb along the barrel, left forearm horizontal ;
seize the small of the stock with the right hand.
115. Being at the present: i. Order, 2. Arms.
Seize the piece with the right hand above the left and lower it
gently to the ground, taking the position oi order atms.
116. Being at the order : i. Slope, 2. Arms.
Raise the piece vertically with the right hand, carry it to the left
shoulder, right hand above the chin and place the left under the
butt, thumb across the heel ; slope the piece to the rear, on the left
shoulder, at an angle of about 45 degrees, barrel up, the muzzle in
rear of the right shoulder, guard or magazine near the shoulder ;
drop the right hand by the side.
117. Being at the slope : i. Order, 2. Arms.
Lower the piece to a vertical position with the left hand, at the
same time grasping it with the right hand above the sight, and take
the position oi order arms.
118. Being at the order: i. Shoidder, 2. Arms.
Raise the piece vertically with the right hand ; grasp it with the
left at the balance,* embrace the butt with the right hand, the toe
* The balance is the part of the piece near the center of gravity. The
shoulder and slope are interchangeable. All movements will be executed in
one continuous motion, except when taking the positions of shoulder and slope,
when the dropping of the right (or left) hand shall constitute the second
motion.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 59 1
between the first two fingers, the other fingers under the butt; at
the same time raise the piece and place it on the right shoulder, the
bolt handle or lock plate up, the muzzle elevated and inclined to the
left, so that, viewed firom the fi-ont, the line of stock from the toe to
the guard shall appear nearly vertical ; slip the left hand down to
the bolt or lock plate ; drop the left hand by the side.
119. Being at the shoulder : i. Order, 2. Arms.
Lower the piece with the right hand to a vertical position, seizing
it with the left hand at the height of the chin ; grasp the barrel with
the right hand above the left and take the position oi order arms.
120. Being at the order : i. Port, 2. Arms.
Raise and throw the piece diagonally across the body, barrel up ;
grasp it with both hands, the left with the palm up and the thumb
clasping the barrel above the sight, and the right at the small of the
stock, the right forearm horizontal. The piece slopes to the left and
is opposite the left shoulder.
The position oi port arms will be used in making the marching
salute.
121. Being at the port : i. Order, 2. Arms.
Same as from present to order.
122. Being at the shoulder: i. Port, 2. Arms.
Lower the piece and bring it to the front with the right hand,
seizing it with the left and then with the right in the position oiport
arms, in one motion.
In the same manner Xhe present, the ready, and charge bayonet are
taken from the shoulder.
123. Being at the port : i. Shoulder, 2. Arms.
Change the right hand to the butt, carrying the piece to the posi-
tion of shoulder, slipping the left hand down to the bolt or lock plate ;
drop the left hand by the side.
In the same manner the shoulder may be taken from present,
charge bayonet, and ready, the piece being half cocked in the latter
case at the first command.
124. Being at the slope : i. Port, 2. Arms.
Lower the piece and bring it to the front with the left hand, seizing
it with the right hand at the small of the stock, and then with the
left in the position oiport arms.
In the same manner the present, the ready, and charge bayonet ^.xo.
taken from the slope.
125. Being at the port: i. Slope, 2. Arms.
592 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Change the left hand to the butt, carrying the piece to the position
of slope, the right hand remaining at the small of the stock ; drop
the right hand by the side.
In the same manner the slope may be taken from the present,
charge bayo7iet, and ready, the piece being half cocked in the latter
case at the first command.
125. The positions oi port, ready, present, and charge bayonet
being practically the same, so far as the position of the hands is con-
cerned, they may be taken one from the othfr, by simply assuming
the required position at the command, and, when necessary, changing
the position of the left hand.
127. Fall out, Rest, and Stand at ease are executed as without
arms. On resuming the attention, the position oi order arms is taken.
128. Being at the order: i. Parade, 2. Rest.
Carry the right foot six inches straight to the rear, the left knee
slightly bent ; carry the muzzle in front of the center of the body,,
the barrel to the left ; grasp the piece with the left hand above and
with the right hand at the upper band.
To resume the order: i. Squad, 2. Attention.
129. To dismiss the squad, with arms : i. Port, 2. Arms, 3. Dis-
missed.
130. Being at the port: i. Fix, 2. Bayonet.
Let go with the right hand, slip the left hand slightly up the barrel,
and carry the piece with the left hand to the left side, barrel to the
front, the butt striking the ground on a line with the heels, the piece
inclined to the front, the left wrist pressing the bayonet scabbard
against the thigh ; carry the right hand to the shank of the bayonet ;
draw the bayonet ; fix it on the barrel ; drop the right hand by the
side.
131. Being at fix bayonet : i. Po7't, 2. Arms.
Raise the piece with the left hand, seize it with the right hand at
the small of the stock, bringing it diagonally across the body, slipping
the left hand down ; take the position oi port arms.
132. Being at the port: i. Unfix, 2. Bayonet.
Carry the piece to the left side as in fix bayonet; unclasp the
^bayonet ; grasp it by the shank, wrest it from the barrel, and,,
glancing at the scabbard, return the bayonet, the hand falling by the
right side.
The port arms is executed as {torn fix bayonet.
133. Bayonets are fixed and unfixed from the order, by the same
UNITED STATES NAVY. 593
commands as from the port, the piece being shifted from the right to
the left side.
To return to the order : i. Order, 2. Arms.
In fixing and unfixing bayonet from the order, and in returning to
that position, the hands change in front of the center of the body,
the left hand grasping the piece above the right.
134. If marching, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed as is most
convenient.
135. Being at the order: i. Charge, 2. Bayonet.
Raise the piece with the right hand, dropping the muzzle to the
front, the point of the bayonet at the height of the eye ; grasp the
piece with the left hand, the thumb across the barrel in front of the
sfght, the right grasping the small of the stock and supporting it
firmly against the hip, body inclining slightly forward ; at the same
time half face to the right, carry the right heel six inches to the rear
and three inches to the right of the left, turning the toes of both feet
slightly inward.
136. Being at charge bayonet : i. Order, 2. Arms.
Face to the front, and resume the order as from i\\t. present.
i2)T. Being at any position : i. Rifle, 2. Salute.
Carry the piece to the right shoulder, the barrel nearly vertical
and resting in the hollow of the shoulder, the guard to the front; the
right arm near the body, and hanging nearly at full length ; the hand
clasping the stock at the guard plate, the thumb and forefinger in
front, the remaining fingers closed and in rear of the stock. Then
carry the left hand briskly to the hollow of the right shoulder, fore-
arm horizontal, palm of the hand down, thumb and fingers extended
and joined, forefinger against the shoulder. The salute being
returned, drop the left hand by the side and carry the piece to the
former position.
- 138. The following positions of the piece are intended mainly lor
use in extended order and route marches. Whenever any of these
positions are ordered, the piece will be shifted in the most convenient
manner.
I. Trail, 2. Arms.
The piece is grasped with the right hand, at the balance, barrel up,'
muzzle slightly inclined to the front; a similar position in the left
hand may also be used.
594 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I. Secure, 2. Arms.
The piece is carried under the right arm, muzzle down, barrel up;
the right hand grasps the piece at the balance and is in front of the
hip, the back of the stock resting against the arm pit.
I. Sling, 2. Arms,
The right arm is passed between the rifle and the sling, which
rests upon the shoulder, piece in rear of the shoulder and nearly-
vertical, muzzle up ; right hand steadying the piece.
On route marches, the piece may be slung on the left shoulder.
139. Proficiency in marching and in manual of arms having been
attained, the following general rules govern :
First. If at the order bring the piece to the shoulder at the pre-
paratory command for marching.
Second. A disengaged hand in double time is held as when without
arms.
Third. Whenever the command halt is given, the pieces are
brought to the order, the order and halt being executed simul-
taneously.
Fonrth. When the facings, side step, back step, and alignments
are executed at the order, raise the piece with the right hand so that
the butt will just clear the ground, keeping the piece vertical while
in motion, and resume the order on halting.
Stack arms.
140. When the bayonet is unfixed, the stacking swivel is used ;
when the bayonet is fixed, it is used in making the stack.
Three pieces only are used in making a stack ; pieces which are
not so used are termed loose pieces.
Preparatory to stacking arms the squad will count fours.
With the stacking swivel.
141. Being in line and at the order : i. Stack, 2. Arms.
At the first command, each even number of the front rank raises
his piece with the right hand, grasps it with the left at the upper
band, and rests the butt between his feet, barrel to the front, muzzle
inclining slightly to the front, and opposite the center of the interval
on his right, the thumb and forefinger raising the stacking swivel ;
each number of the rear rank then passes his piece, barrel to the
rear, to his file leader, who grasps it between the bands with his
UNITED STATES NAVY. 595
right hand and throws the butt twenty-eight inches in advance of his
own and opposite the middle of the interval, the right hand slipping
to the upper band, the thumb and forefinger raising the stacking
swivel, which he engages with that of his own piece; each odd
number of the front rank raises his piece with the right hand, barrel
to the front, the left hand guiding the stacking swivel, which he holds
near the stacking swivel of the other pieces.
At the second command, each odd number of the front rank
engages the lower hook of his swivel with the free hook of the swivel
of the even number of the rear rank ; he then turns the barrel outward
and downward, into the angle formed by the other two pieces, and
rests the butt between his feet.
The stack being formed, the pieces of the odd numbers in the
rear rank are passed to the even numbers in the front rank, who lay
them on the stacks. The pieces of the guides and file closers are
laid on the stacks at the same time.
The men having quit their pieces, take the position of attention.
The instructor may then rest or dismiss the squad, leaving the
arms stacked.
On assembling, the men take their places in rear of the stacks.
To resume arms.
142. Arms being stacked : i. Take, 2. Arms.
At the first command, the loose pieces are returned ; each even
number of the front rank then grasps his own piece with the left
hand, the piece of his rear-rank man with the right hand, grasping
both between the bands ; each odd number of the front rank grasps
his piece in the same way with the right hand. At the second com-
mand, each odd number of the front rank disengages his own piece
by turning it to the right ; each even number of the front rank dis-
engages his piece by turning it to the left ; the butts are then raised
from the ground, each even number of the front rank passes the piece
of his rear-rank man to him, and all resume the order.
With the bayonet.
143. Being in line and at the order: i. Stack, 2. Arms.
At the first command, each even number of the front rank raises
his piece with the right hand and grasps it with the left between the
bands and holds the butt six inches above the space between his
feet, barrel to the rear, muzzle inclining slightly to the front and
59^ INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
opposite the center of the interval on his right ; each even number
of the rear rank then passes his piece, barrel to the right, to his file
leader, who grasps it between the bands with his right hand and
places the shank of the bayonet upon that of his own ; each odd
number of the front rank raises his piece with the right hand, barrel
to the front, and places the shank of his bayonet in the angle formed
by the bayonets of the other two pieces; the butts of all the pieces
are about six inches from the ground.
At the second command, each even number of the front rank, with
his right hand, passes the butt of the piece of his rear-rank man
twenty-eight inches in advance of his own and opposite the middle
of the interval, passing it between the butts of the other pieces; the
stack is then lowered, the odd and even numbers of the front rank
resting the butts of their pieces between their feet.
The stacks being formed, the pieces of the odd numbers of the
rear rank are passed to the even numbers of the front rank, who lay
them on the stacks. The pieces of the guides and file closers are laid
on the stacks at the same time.
The men having quit their pieces, take the position of attention.
To resume arms.
144. Arms being stacked: i. Take, 2. Arms.
At the first command, the loose pieces are returned ; each even
number of the front rank then grasps his own with the left hand, the
piece of his rear-rank man with his right hand, both between the
bands; each odd number of the front rank grasps his own piece in
the same way with the right hand. At the second command, raise
the butts from the ground and disengage the pieces, each even
number of the front rank passes the piece of his rear-rank man to
him, and all resume the order.
145. Being in single rank, arms are stacked, and taken, on the
same principles as in double rank. At the preparatory command,
number three steps back and covers number two ; numbers two and
three execute what has been explained for the even numbers of the
front and rear rank, respectively ; number three then resumes his
place ; number one uses his piece as explained for the odd number
of the front rank. The piece of number four is passed as explained
for the odd number of the rear rank.
Inspection of arms.
146. Being at the order: i. Inspectioyi, 2. Arms.
UNITED STATES NAVV. 597
At the second command, bayonets are fixed. The inspection
begins on the right.
Each man, as the inspector approaches him, executes />£?r/ arms
and open chamber.
The inspector takes the piece (the man dropping the hands by the
sides), inspects and hands it back to the man, who receives it with
the left hand at the balance, resumes the port, closes chamber, half
cocks the piece, unfixes bayonet, and returns to the order.
As the inspector returns the piece, the next man executes inspec-
tion arms, and so on through the squad.
Should the piece be inspected without handling, the man closes
chamber, halfcocks the piece, unfixes bayonet, and resumes the
order after the inspector passes ; the next man immediately brings
up his piece.
To unsling and sling knapsacks.
147, Arms being stacked : i. U7isling, 2. Knapsack.
At the first command, the front rank moves back one step to clear
the stacks, and faces about; the rear rank at the same time moves
back three steps ; all the men unhook the right-hand strap.
At the second command, remove the knapsack, the four men whose
pieces are in the same stack leaning their knapsacks, flaps outward,
one against another in the form of a square.
The knapsacks of the guides and file closers are placed against the
nearest pile.
To sling knapsacks: i. Sling, 2. Knapsack.
At the first command, each man takes his knapsack and, standing
erect, holds it by the straps, the flap next to the knees. At the
second command, the knapsack is placed on the back, the front rank
facing about and stepping up to the stacks, the rear rank closing to
facing distance.
Note, — The word knapsack will be used in the commands for all
patterns of packs,
THE FIRINGS.
To load.
148. Being in line, with the pieces in any position : i. Squad, 2.
Load,
Both ranks half face to the right, each man carrying the right heel
six inches to the rear and three inches to the right of the left, turning
598 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY.
the toes of both feet slightly inward; at the same time bring the piece
into the left hand at the sight, thumb along the barrel, muzzle at the
height of the chin, left elbow against the body, the small of the stock
at the waist ; if the piece be at halfcock, full cock it, carry the right
hand to the breech bolt handle, back of the hand down and the fingers
closed, turn the handle upright, draw the bolt to the rear and carry
the right hand to the cartridge belt ; take a cartridge from the belt,
place it in the chamber, and carry the right hand to the bolt handle,
seizing it with the back of the hand up, the palm of the hand inclosing
the knob of the handle ; press forward the bolt and turn down the
handle to the right with one continuous movement, then carry the
hand to the small of the stock. The piece is now at the position of
ready.
To set the sight.
149. Being at the ready ; steady the piece with pressure of right
elbow, raise the sight bar slightly with the right hand and place the
sliding leaf at the proper step or mark, then raise the bar to a ver-
tical position if necessary ; grasp the small of the stock with the
right hand.
Before coming to any other position except aim, the sight bar is
placed at point-blank at the first command.
To halfcock the piece.
150. Being at the ready, look toward the firing bolt; grasp the
small of the stock with the last three fingers of the right hand, the
second joint of the thumb across the end of the firing pin, forward
of the cocking piece, and the forefinger on the trigger ; press directly
down on the firing pin, release the trigger, and remove the forefinger
from within the guard ; ease the firing pin gently down to halfcock ;
shift the right hand to the small of the stock.
151. To ascertain if any of the pieces are loaded, the instructor
causes them to be brought to the ^cr/, and commands: i. Open,
2. Chamber.
Full cock the piece, open chamber, and return the hand to the
small of the stock. Each man, as soon as his piece is examined,
closes chamber with the right hand, halfcocks the piece, and resumes
the order.
If the instructor does not examine the pieces, chambers are closed
by the commands : i. Close, 2. Chamber ; at which the pieces are
halfcocked and the order resumed.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 599
152. To preveyit accidents, the chmnbers will be opeyied ivhenever
the sgziad is formed, and again just before being dismissed.
153. Being in any position, pieces loaded, to draw the cartridge :
I. Draw, 2. Cartridge.
Executed as prescribed for loading, except that the cartridge is
withdrawn and returned to the belt, the piece halfcocked, and the
order resumed. With the bolt gun, the bolt should be drawn back
gently so as not to throw out the cartridge. ,
To aim and f re.
154. Being at the ready : Aim.
Raise the piece with both hands and support the butt firmly against
the hollow of the right shoulder, right thumb extended along the
stock, barrel horizontal ; slip the left hand back to the guard, the
left elbow resting against the body and as far to the right as it can
be placed with ease, right elbow as high as the shoulder; incline the
head slightly forward and a little to the right, the cheek resting
against the stock, left eye closed, the right eye looking through the
notch of the rear sight so as to perceive the top of the front
sight ; the second joint of the forefinger resting lightly against the
front of the trigger, but not pressing it.
The front-rank men lower the right elbow slightly in order to
facilitate the aim of the rear-rank men.
Each rear-rank man carries the right foot about eight inches to
the right, inclining the upper part of the body forward, and slightly
bending the right knee.
155. Being at aim : Fire.
Press the finger against the trigger, and fire without deranging the
aim ; hold the piece in the position of aim for an instant after firing,
and then reload it without command.
The firings may be executed by a double rank with the men
standing. Firing when lying down in double rank is prohibited.
156. Being in the position oiaim,to resume the position of ready,
without firing : i. Recover, 2. Arms.
At the first command, withdraw the finger from the trigger; at
the second command, take the position oi ready.
157. When the recruits are thoroughly instructed in the adjust-
ments of the sights and the principles of aiming, they will be required
to aim, using different lines of sight. For this purpose the instructor
commands : \. At {so many^ yards, 2. Ready, 3. Aim.
600 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
At the first command, adjust the sight with the right hand; at the
second command, cock the piece.
The instructor assures himself by careful inspection that each man
sets his sight at the range indicated ; he will then exercise the men
in aiming at designated objects by the commands : i. At {such an
objecf), 2. At (so many) yards, 3. Ready, 4. Aim,
At the first command, fix the eyes on the object indicated ; at the
second command, adjust the sight, and immediately fix the eyes
upon the object again.
The distance announced in the command must be as nearly as
possible the true distance of the objective.
158. The recruits are at first taught to load and fire without
using cartridges ; afterward they will use dummy cartridges, and,
when well instructed, the drill may close with a i^^fj rounds of blank
cartridge.
No cartridges will be used, except when indicated in the first com-
mand, thus : I. With dutnmy {blank or hair) cartridge, 2. Load.
To enter a7id withdraw magazine,
159. Being at any position, marching or at a halt: i. Magazine,
2. In.
At the first command, bring the piece to the position for loading
and halfcock the piece. At the second command, carry the piece to
the right side, the barrel resting against the right shoulder, inclining
a little to the rear, the right hand at the height of and well forward
on the hip, and grasping the piece with the forefinger below the
guard, the firing-bolt head between the third and little fingers, the
thumb is closed along the forefinger.
,Take a magazine from the pouch with the thumb and first two
fingers of the left hand, enter it in the port, and set it smartly home,
resuming the former position.
160. Being at any position, marching or at a halt: i. Magazine,
2. Out.
Halfcock the piece ; at the second command, throw the piece into
the position taken in the second motion of magazine in, except that
the right thumb is placed upon the magazine catch.
Press the magazine catch, withdraw the magazine from the piece
with the left hand, and replace it in the magazine pouch, resuming
the former position.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 60I
To charge and uncharge magazine.
i6i. Being at the order : i. Magazine^ 2. Charge.
Take the magazine from the pouch with the left hand, and with
the right fill it with cartridges from the belt, allowing the barrel of
the piece to fall into the hollow of the right arm. Fill the maga-
zines, returning each to the pouch as it is filled. Resume the order,
162. Being at the order : i. Magazine, 2. Uncharge.
Take the magazine from the pouch with the left hand, and with the
right remove the cartridges and place them in the belt. Uncharge
all the magazines, or as many as may be directed, returning each to
the pouch as it is emptied. Resume the order.
163. In firing, the instructor places himself where he can best lead
his squad and at the same time observe the effect of the fire ; the
objective should be in plain view and so designated as to be easily
distinguished by all.
Volley firiyig.
164. The squad being in line, and fronting the object to be fired
upon : I. Fire by squad, 2. At {such an objecf), 3. At (so many)
yards, 4. Ready, 5. Aim, 6. Fire.
To fire another volley at the same objective with the same line of
sight: I. Squad, 2. Aim, 3. Fire.
To fire another volley at the same objective, but with a new line
of sight : \. At {so viayiy) yards, 2. Aim, 3. Fire.
To fire another volley at a new objective, and with a new line of
sight : I. At {such a?i object), 2. At {so many) yards, 3. Aim, 4. Fire.
The objective and range will always be indicated in the first pre-
paratory command for firing.
To cease firing.
165. The instructor commands : Cease firing.
The men draw cartridge or eject empty shell, halfcock the piece,
lower the sight leaf, and take the position ol order arms.
The command (or signal) cease firing is always used to stop the
firing, and may be given at any time after the first preparatory com-
mand for firing, whether the firing has actually commenced or not.
I. Cease firing, 2. Load.
The firing will stop, and the second command will be executed as
prescribed ; such pieces as are already loaded will be brought at
once to the position oi ready.
These commands are intended to interrupt the firing in order to
steady the men, or to change to another method of firing.
602 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
To fire at will.
i66. The instructor commands : i. Fire at will, 2. At {such an
object), 3. At {so many) yards, 4. Ready, 5. Commence firing.
At the fifth command, each man, independently of the others,
takes a careful aim at the object, fires, loads, and continues the firing
as rapidly as is consistent with taking careful aim at each shot. The
men should be taught to load rapidly and to aim deliberately.
Magazine fire.
167. The magazine being entered: i. Magazine fire, 2. At {such
an object), 3. At {so many) yards, 4. Commence firing.
At the fourth command, each man independently aims at the
object, fires, exhausts the magazine, replaces it with another, and
continues firing rapidly until the order cease firing is given.
168. Whether the magazine be hi or out, the command may be
given: i. Three {or so majiy) rounds, 2. At {such an object), 3. At
{so many) yards, 4. Commence firing.
The men cease firing after completing the specified number of
rounds.
BAYONET EXERCISE.
To take i7iiervals.
169. Being in line, at a halt: i. To the right {ox left) take inter-
vals, 2. March, 3. Squad, 4. Halt.
At the first command, the rear rank steps back four paces ; at the
second command, both ranks face to the right, and the men on the
right step off, followed by the others in succession at the proper
interval ; at the fourth command, given when the last men have their
intervals, the men halt and face to the front.
The normal interval and distance are four paces.
To assemble: i. To the right (or left) assetjible, 2. March.
The front-rank man on the right stands fast ; the other men close
to their proper places.
To take distance.
170. Being in line, at a halt, and having counted fours : 1. To the
front, take distance, 2. March, 3. Squad, 4. Halt.
At the second command, number one of each four of the front
rank moves straight to the front; number two moves off as soon as
number one has advanced four paces; numbers three and four move
UNITED STATES NAVY. ^3
off in succession in like manner. The rear rank executes the same
movement, number one moving off as soon as number four, front
rank, has his distance.
The fourth command is given when the last man has his distance.
To assemble: i. Assemble^ 2. March.
Number one of the front rank stands fast; the other men move
forward and close to their proper places.
171. If executed from the order, the pieces are held at the trail in
taking intervals and distances, and in assembling.
The exercise.
172. Intervals or distances having been taken, and the squad being
at the order, with bayonets fixed, the instructor commands : i . Bayonet
exercise, 2. Guard.
At the first command, pieces are brought to the port; at the
second command, half face to the right, carry back and place the
right foot about twice its length to the rear and three inches to the
right, the feet at a little less than a right angle, the right toe pointing
to the right, both knees bent slightly, body erect on the hips, the
weight thrown a little more on the right leg than on the left; at the
same time throw the point of the bayonet to the front, at the height
of the chin, barrel to the left, the small of the stock directly in
front of the center of the body below the belt, the left hand under
the sight with the thumb along the barrel, both arms free from the
body, without constraint, and hanging naturally.
173. Being at guard: i. Order, 2. Arms.
Resume the order as from charge bayonet.
I. Step, 2. Front.
174. Move the left foot quickly forward eight inches; follow with
the right foot the same distance.
I. Step, 2. Rear.
175. Move the right foot quickly to the rear eight inches; follow
with the left foot the same distance.
I. Step, 2. Right.
176. Move the right foot quickly to the right eight inches; follow
with the left foot to its relative position in front.
604 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I. Step, 2. Left.
177. Move the left foot quickly to the left eight inches; follow
with the right foot to its relative position in rear.
I. Double, 2. Front.
178. Advance the right foot quickly eight inches in front of the
left, keeping the right toe to the right; advance the left foot to its
relative position in front.
I. Double, 2. Rear.
179. Carry the left foot quickly eight inches to the rear of the
right; place the right foot in its relative position in rear.
I. Face, 2. Right (or Left).
180. At the first command, bring the piece quickly to theporl; at
the second command, face to the right, turning on the ball of the left
foot, at the same time carry the right foot quickly to its relative posi-
tion in rear and resume the guard.
I. Face about, 2. Right (or Left).
181. Similarly executed, facing about on the ball of the left foot.
182. The foregoing movements are first executed without arms.
Parries.
183. In the preliminary drills, after the parries and points, the
position of guard is resumed, by the command Giiard, after each
movement.
I. Right (or leff), 2. Parry.
184. Move the point of the bayonet about six inches to the right.
I . Right low, 2. Parry.
185. Raise the butt outside the right forearm, the right hand at
the height of the breast; at the same time describe a semicircle from
left to right with the point of the bayonet until it is at the height of,
and a little to the right of, the right knee; barrel to the left.
I. Left low, 2. Parry.
186. Lower the point of the bayonet and describe a semicircle by
carrying the piece to the left, covering the left side of the body, the
barrel down, the left forearm behind the piece, the point of the
bayonet at the height of, and to the left of, the left knee; the right
forearm above the eyes, hand well to the left.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 605
I. High, 2. Parry.
187. Raise the piece quickly with both hands, the right hand
three inches in front of and four inches above the head, the barrel
down and supported between the thumb and forefinger of the left
hand, forward of the sight, the piece directed to the front with the
point of the bayonet opposite the left shoulder ; at the same time
bend both knees slightly more than in the position oi guard.
I. High right (or leff), 2. Parry.
188. Executed in the same manner as the high parry , except that
the left shoulder is advanced and the point of the bayonet directed
to the right.
In the different parries the piece should be so held as to cover
the point attacked.
When the men have become proficient, they will be instructed to
resume the guard without command.
I. Straight, 2. Thrust.
189. Carry the upper part of the body forward, advance the right
shoulder, straighten the right leg and bend the left knee; at the
same time thrust the piece directly to the front to the full length of
the right arm, slipping it through the left hand, barrel up, the
bayonet and the butt at the height of the chin.
The straight thrust should be executed frequently in order to
strengthen the wrist. It may be executed directly from the guard,
or from any of the parries, and the guard should be resumed
promptly to keep control of the piece.
I. Straight, 2. Lunge.
190. Executed in the same manner as the straight thrust, except
that the left foot is carried forward about twice its length.
In thrusting and lunging, the piece must be held so as to cover
the point most exposed to the enemy's attack.
191. The thrusts and lunges from the different parries are made
as follows :
I. Right (or left^, 2. Parry, 3. Thrust (or lunge), 4. Guard.
Execute the straight thrtist or the straight lunge.
I. Right low, 2. Parry, 3. Thrust (or lunge), 4. Guard.
Thrust with the barrel to the left, lowering the butt to the height
of the belt, except when the straight thrust is specified in the com-
mand.
6o6 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I. Left low, 2. Parry, 3. Thrust (or lunge), 4. Guard.
Thrust with the barrel down, lowering the butt to the height of the
belt, except when the straight thrust is specified in the command.
I. High (or right or left^, 2. Parry, 3. Thrust (or lunge),
4. Guard.
Thrust in the designated direction, barrel down, right hand above
and in fi"ont of the head, except when the straight thrust is specified
in the command.
The command for the point quickly follows \he parry.
192. In the same manner a thrust or lunge (or straight thrust or
straight lunge') may be executed directly from the position oi guard,.
in the direction of any /arrj/, by one command: i. High, 2. Thrust,
3. Guard; or, i. Right low, 2. Thrust (or lunge), 3. Guard, etc.
I. Low right, 2. Short.
193. Throw the body backward, straighten the left leg and bend
the right knee; at the same time draw the piece back quickly to the
full length of the right arm, lowering the butt about six inches below
the right hip, slipping the left hand above the upper band, barrel
up, left hand at the height of the hip, right hand at the small of the
stock.
I. Low right, 2. Short, 3. Thrust (or straight thrust).
194. Throw the body forward on the hips, straighten the right
leg and bend the left knee ; at the same time thrust the piece for-
ward quickly to the full length of the left arm without moving the
hands, barrel up.
Should the adversary retreat, the straight thrust must be used.
Being at low right short, to parry, move the point of the bayonet
as in right or left parry, without moving the hands.
I. Change guard, 2. Rear.
195. Turn to the right on both heels, raising the toes, and face
quickly to the rear ; at the same time raise the point of the bayonet
in a semicircle, and throw the piece to the rear, releasing it for an
instant with both hands and then grasp it again with the hands inter-
changed, the right hand under the sight and the left at the small of
the stock, the barrel to the right in the position oi guard.
The parries and thrusts may then be executed according to the
foregoing principles.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 607
To resume the original front, the commands are the same and the
movement is executed in a similar manner.
196. When the recruits are thoroughly familiar with the different
steps, parries, and points, the instructor combines several of them
by giving the commands in quick succession, increasing the rapidity
and number of movements in combination as the men acquire skill :
I. Step Front, High Parry and Lunge.
I. Double Front, Right Parry and Thrust, Face Left,
High Parry and Lunge, etc.
The guard is resumed without command.
197. Every movement to the front should be followed by 2^ point ;
every movement to the rear by 2^ parry.
The cautionary command attack may be used preceding a com-
bination of movements.
To repeat a combination, the numerals one, two, three, etc., may
be used instead of repeating the commands.
It is intended merely to prescribe the manner of executing the
movements laid down, but not to restrict the number of movements,
leaving to the discretion of chiefs of companies and the ingenuity of
instructors the selection of such other exercises as accord with the
object of the drill.
As soon as the movements are executed accurately, the com-
mands are given rapidly, expertness in the bayonet exercise
depending mostly on quickness of motion.
The setting-up drill and the bayonet exercise were prepared by Mr. A. J.
Corbesier, Sword Master, U. S. Naval Academy.
SCHOOL OF THE COMPANY.
Post of officers, petty officers, and field music.
198. The post of the chief of company is two paces in front of the
center of the company.
The post of a chief of section is two paces in rear of the center
of his section.
The first petty officer is in the front rank on the right of the first
section; he is the right guide of this section and also of the company.
The second petty officer is in the front rank on the left of the
second section ; he is the left guide of this section and also of the
company.
The third petty officer is two paces in rear of the left of the first
section ; he is the left guide of the first section.
6o8 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
The fourth petty officer is two paces in rear of the right of the
second section; he is the right guide of the second section.
Petty officers having occasion to change position when the com-
pany is at an order will carry their pieces at a trail.
The field music, when not united in the battalion, is in the line of
file closers, on the right of the chief of the first section, and conforms
to all movements of the file closers. On the march, when required
to play, its position is at the head of the column.
Absent officers and petty officers are usually replaced by those
next in rank or grade.
199. Whenever the flank becomes the center, the first and second
petty officers take posts in the line of file closers prescribed for the
third and fourth petty officers, each with his own section ; the third
and fourth petty officers take the posts prescribed for the first and
second petty officers.
To form the company.
200. At the sounding of the assembly, the first petty officer, in
front of and facing the position to be occupied by the center of the
company, commands : Fall in, at which the men form in two ranks
by sections with arms at the order, the tallest men being on the right
of the first section, and on the left of the second section. The signal
having ceased, the first petty officer brings the company to shoulder
arms and calls the roll, each man answering " Here," and coming to
order arjns as his name is called. The first petty officer then com-
mands: I. Count, 2. Fours.
Beginning on the right, the men of both ranks count 07ie, twojhree,
four ; one, two, three, four, and so on to the left.
If the left four contains three men or less, they are ordered into
the line of file closers ; if it contains four men, they are placed in the
front rank, and numbers one and four covered by two men from the
rear rank of the four next on the right ; if it contains five men, the
front rank is completed, numbers one and four covered, one man
being taken from the rear rank of the four next on the right ; if it
contains six men, the front rank is completed, the other two men
cover numbers one and four ; with seven men, number three is a
blank file.
The company being formed, and at the order, the first petty officer
faces to the front, salutes the chief of company, reports the result of
the roll call, and then takes his post.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 609
201. In all formations under arms the men fall in with bayonets
unfixed. Previous to ceremonies, bayonets are fixed by command
of the first petty officer.
202. Chiefs of section take their posts and draw swords as soon as
the petty officer's report is made.
Alignments.
203. The alignments are executed as prescribed in the " School of
the Squad."
In all alignments in the "School of the Company," the chief of
company steps back two paces in prolongation of the line before
giving his commands.
Guides marking an alignment, stand at the order ; at the command
front, they take their posts, if not already there.
To open ranks.
204. Being in line at a halt: i. Ope^i ranks, 2. March, 3. Front.
At the first command, the right and left guides step briskly three
paces to the rear to mark the new position of the rear rank ; the
chief of the first section places himself on the right of the front rank,
the chief of the second section on the left of the front rank ; the chief
of company goes to the right flank and sees that the guides are on a
line parallel to the front rank ; he then places himself facing to the
left, three paces in front of the right file, and commands : March ;
at this command, the chiefs of section place themselves opposite to,
and three paces in front of, the centers of their sections.
The front-rank men dress to the right ; the rear-rank men turn
their heads and eyes to the right, step backward, halt a little in rear
of the line established by the guides, and then dress to the right on
the line so marked. The file closers step backward, and, placing
themselves three paces from the rear rank, dress to the right.
The chief of company aligns the officers and the front rank ; the
right guide aligns the rear rank ; the chief of company verifies the
alignment of the rear rank, also of the file closers ; officers and file
closers look to the front as soon as their alignment is verified.
At the comm-Ax\A front, the guides resume their places in the front
rank, and the men look to the front ; the chief of company places
himself three paces in front of the right guide, facing to the front.
To close ranks.
205. Being in open ranks: i. Close ranks, 2. March.
6lO INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
At the second command, the chiefs of section face about and
resume their posts in Hne ; the rear rank closes to facing distance,
the file closers to two paces from the rear rank ; the chief of com-
pany takes his post.
To dismiss the company.
206. Being in line at a halt, the chief of company directs the first
petty officer : Dismiss the company. The officers fall out ; the first
petty officer salutes, steps two paces to the front, faces to the left, and
commands: i. Port, 2. Arms, 3. Dismissed.
General rules.
207. The company executes the halt, rests, facings, steps, march-
ings, turnings, manual of arms, and firings as prescribed in the
" School of the Squad," substituting in the commands the word
company for squad, whenever the latter occurs.
The same movements may be executed by other units, detach-
ments, details, etc., substituting their designation for the word squad
in the commands.
While marching, the arms swing naturally.
In executing the turn and halt, the chief of company goes to the
pivot flank of his company; the guide at the pivot halts or stands
fast, resuming his post at the command front.
After the command cease firing, the chief of company returns to
his post in line.
File closers do not load and fire.
Guides and file closers execute the manual of arms during the
drill, unless otherwise directed ; in the latter case, they remain at the
order, and correct mistakes that may be made by the men. During
ceremonies they execute all movements.
To form colujnn of fours and march by the flank.
208. Being in line : i. Fours right (or leff), 2. March.
The front rank of each four wheels ninety degrees to the right on
a fixed pivot ; the pivot man turns strictly in his place ; the man on
the marching flank maintains the full step, moving on the arc of a
circle with the pivot man as the center ; the men dress on the
marching flank, shortening the step according to their distance from
it. The rear-rank men conform to the movements of their file
leaders, shortening the step until they have their proper distance.
The distance between ranks in column of fours is thirty-six inches.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 6ll
Upon the completion of the wheel each four takes the full step,
and, dressing toward the side of the leading guide, marches on a line
parallel to the former front of the company ; the right guide places
himself thirty-six inches in front of the left file of the leading four ;
the left guide places himself thirty-six inches in rear of the right file
of the rear four.
The post of the chief of company in column of fours or twos is by
the side of the leading guide on the flank opposite the file closers;
he takes his position at the command march.
The posts of the leading and rear guides in column of fours or
twos are in front and rear, respectively, of the leading and rear files,
the leading guide on the side opposite the file closers, and the rear
guide on the same side as the file closers.
The man in rear of the leading guide follows him at a distance of
thirty-six inches. The file closers march two paces from the flank of
the column, and see that all the fours accurately maintain their
distances.
All wheels by fours, except in changing direction, are executed on
a fixed pivot.
To change direction.
209. Marching in column of fours : i. Column right {ox left), 2.
March.
The leading four wheels to the right, the pivot taking steps often
inches, if in quick time, or twelve inches if in double time, and
describing the arc of a circle, the radius of which is forty-eight
inches; the wheel completed, the leading four takes the full step;
the other fours move forward and wheel in similar manner on the
same ground.
To march to the front in column of fours.
210. Being in line: i. Right (or left), forward, 2. Fours right
(or left), 3. March.
At the third command, the right guide places himself in front of
theleft file ofthe right four; the right four moves straight to the
front, shortening the first three or four steps, the rear rank falling
back to thirty-six inches ; the other fours wheel to the right ; the
second four, when its wheel is two- thirds completed, wheels to the
left on a movable pivot, and follows the first four ; the other fours
having wheeled to the right, move forward and wheel to the left on
a movable pivot on the same ground as the second.
6l2 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
To change the file closers from 07ie flank to the other.
211. Being in column of fours : i. File closers on left (or right),
flank, 2. March.
At the first command, the file closers move in toward the flank of
the column, and at the second command, pass through it. The chief
of company and guides change to their proper posts.
To march to the rear.
212. Being in line or column of fours: i. Fours right {or left) about,
2. March.
The fours wheel one hundred and eighty degrees to the right and
march to the rear ; the man on the marching flank of the rear rank
of each four preserves his distance, the man on the pivot flank closes
up to his file leader, and on the completion of the wheel falls back to
his proper distance.
If in column, the file closers gain the space to the right or left
necessary to preserve their interval from the flank, without passing
through the column.
If in line, the command for the guide is given as the fours unite
in line ; the file closers pass through the nearest intervals.
To form line frotn column of fours.
213. To the right or left: i. Fours right (or left), 2. March,
3. Guide right (or left), or, 3. Company, 4. Halt.
At the second command, the fours wheel to the right. If march-
ing in qtiick time the rear rank of each four closes to facing distance
during the wheel ; if in double time,\\. takes the distance of thirty-
six inches, should the line advance on the completion of the wheel.
The guide is announced, or the command halt is given, the instant
the fours unite in line.
If the line be formed toward the side of the file closers, they move
in toward the flank of the column at the first command, and at the
second pass through the column, between the rear rank of one four
and the front rank of the next succeeding four.
214. To the front: i. Right (or left) front into line, 2. March,
3. Company, 4. Halt, 5. Front.
At the second command, the leading four moves straight to the
front, dressing to the left ; the leading guide places himself on its
left ; the other fours oblique to the right till opposite their places in
line, when each marches to the front.
UNITED STATES NAVY. • 613
At the command halt, given when the leading four has advanced
company distance, it halts and dresses to the left ; the other fours
halt and dress to the left upon arriving in line ; the rear rank of each
four closes to facing distance upon halting ; the guide in rear places
himself on the right of the front rank upon the arrival of the last
four in line ; the command front is given when the last four com-
pletes its dressing.
If the movement be made toward the side of the file closers, they
pass through the column as the oblique commences.
If marching in double time, or in quick time and the command be
dotible time, the chief of company commands: guide left, immedi-
ately after the command march ; the leading four moves to the front
in quick time, its rear rank closing to facing distance ; the other fours
oblique in double tiine, each taking the quick time and dressing to
the left upon arriving in line ; the rear rank of each four closes to
facing distance on arriving in line.
Column of twos.
215. Column of twos may be formed Irom line, and line may be
formed from column of twos to the right or left, in the same manner
as the column of fours, numbers one and three being the pivot files
in all wheels to the right, and numbers two and four in all wheels to
the left.
Changes of direction in column of twos are executed as pre-
scribed in paragraph loo.
The column of twos is used only in passing defiles.
Movements by sections.
216. Sections are numbered from right to left when in line, and
from head to rear when in column ; these designations change when,
by facing about, the right becomes the left of the line or the head
becomes the rear of the column.
The company having been formed, the right may become the left ;
the flanks the center, and the reverse.
217. In movements by sections, each chief of section repeats
such commands as are to be immediately executed by his section.
218. Whenever the company is formed in column of sections or
lines of sections in column of fours, the third and fourth petty
officers take their places as guides of their sections ; they return to
their posts in the line of file closers when the company unites in line
or column of fours, unless they mark an alignment.
6l4 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
219. When a subdivision in column is dressed, its chief, after veri-
fying the alignment, commands fro ?if, and places himself two paces in
front of its center ; in movements where the subdivisions are not
dressed, he takes this position as soon as the column is formed.
To form column of sections to the right or left.
220. Being in line : i. Sections right (or leff), 2. March.
Each section turns to the right and halts, its alignment being veri-
fied by its chief.
The column of sections marches, halts, obliques, and resumes the
direct march by the same commands as the company in line.
To form colwnn of sections to the right or left without halting.
221. Being in line: i. Sections right (or leff) turn, 2. March,
3. Forward, 4. March, 5. Gtiide right (or leff).
Each section turns to the right ; the guide of the second section
carefully preserves the trace, step, and distance.
To form cohimn of sections to the front.
2^22. Being in line at a halt : i. Right (or leff) by sections, 2. March,
3. Guide left (or right).
At the first command, the chiefs of section pass in double time to
their posts in front of the sections, the chief of the right section
commands: Forward; the chief of the left section commands:
Right obliqtie.
At the command march, repeated by the chief of the right sec-
tion, the section moves forward, the chief repeating, guide left. The
chief of the left section commands: March, the instant his section
is disengaged ; at which the section obliques to the right, the chief
commanding: i. Forward, in time to add: 2. March, 3. Guide
left, the instant the left guide arrives in the trace of the guide of the
leading section.
If marching, the chief of the right section repeats the command
for the guide; the chief of the left section commands: \. Second
section, 2. Mark time, repeats the command march, adding right
oblique in time to give the command march, the instant his section
is disengaged ; the movement is completed as from a halt.
To reform the company in line.
223. Being in column of sections at a halt : i. Form company,
2. Right (or leff) oblique, 3. March, 4. Front.
UNITED STATES NAVY. '6 1 5
At the second command, the chief of the first section commands:
1. Forward, 2. Guide left; the chief of the second section commands:
Right oblique. Guides of sections remain in line during the move-
ment, and return to their posts when the sections unite in line. [See
paragraphs 198 and 218.]
At the third command, repeated by the chiefs, the first section
advances section distance, when its chief commands : i. Section,
2. Halt, 3. Left, 4. Dress, and returns to his post, passing around
the left flank. The second section obliques to the right, its chief
commanding : i. Forward, in time to add : 2. March, 3. Guide left,
the instant the section is opposite its place in line ; on arriving at
three paces from the line, the chief halts the section and commands :
1, Left, 2. Dress, and then returns to his post, passing around the
right flank.
The chief of company superintends the alignment from the left
flank, and gives the fourth command upon its completion.
If marching in quick time, the chief of the leading section com-
mands : Guide left, and the movement is completed as just ex-
plained.
If marching in quick time, and the command be double time, the
chief of company commands : Guide left (or righl) immediately
after the command march; the chief of the leading section cautions
it to advance in quick time, and repeats the command for the guide ;
the chief of the second section repeats the command double time ;
when the section is about to arrive in line, commands : i. Quick
time, in time to add : 2. March, the instant it is abreast of the leading
section ; the sections having united, the chiefs return to their posts,
passing around the flanks.
If marching in double time, the chief of the first section, at the first
command by the chief of company, commands: Quick time, repeats
the command, march, also the command for the guide.
To change direction.
224. Marching in column of sections : i. Column right (or leff),
2. March.
At the first command, the chief of the first section commands :
Right turn; at the second command the section turns to the right,
its chief adding: i. Forward, 2. March, on the completion of the turn.
The second section marches up to the turning point, and then
changes direction by the same commands as the first.
6l6 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Column half right or half left is similarly executed; each chief
gives the preparatory command : Right (or left) half turn.
To march to the rear.
225. Being in column of sections : i. Fours right (or leff) about,
2. March, 3. Guide right (or leff).
To form line to the right or left, and halt.
226. Being in column of sections, the guide on the side toward
which the movement is to be executed : i. Sections right (or left),
2. March, 3, Front.
At the second command, each section executes section right. The
chiefs take their posts in line.
The chief of company verifies the alignment and commands y>'<7«/.
To form line to the right or left, and continue the march.
227. Being in column of sections : i. Sections right (or left) turn,
2. March, 3. Forward, 4. March, 5. Gtiide right (or left).
At the second command, each section executes right turn; the
chiefs take their posts in line.
To form column of fours.
228. Being in column of sections : i. Sectiotis, 2. Right (or left)
forward, 3. Fo7irs right (or left), 4. March.
The chiefs take their posts as the sections are about to unite in
column of fours.
To form column of sections.
229. Being in column of fours : i. Sections, 2. Right (or left)
front into line, 3. March, 4. Company, 5. Halt.
At the second command, each chief places himself near the head
of his section.
At the third command, each section executes right front into line.
The command halt is given when the leading four of each section
has advanced section distance.
Each chief of section commands yVc'w/, when his last four com-
pletes its dressing.
If marching in double time, or in quick time, and the command be
double time, the chief of company commands : Guide left (or right)
immediately after the command march.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 617
Route step.
230. Being in march: i. Route step, 2. March.
At the second command, the men carry their pieces at will, keep-
ing the muzzle elevated ; they are not required to preserve silence
nor keep the step, but will cover and preserve the distance of thirty-
six inches between ranks. The leading guide must be careful to
maintain a steady, uniform gait of about three miles an hour; file
closers will require the ranks to maintain their distances.
Being at a halt: i. Forzvard, 2. Route step, 3. March.
To resume the cadenced step : i. Compayiy, 2. Attention.
At the second command, the pieces are brought to the shoulder,
and the cadenced step in quick time is resumed.
231. The column of fours is the usual column of route.
If marching in line, or in column of sections, the rear rank falls
back to thirty-six inches.
The company marching in route step changes direction by the
same commands as when in the cadenced step.
If halted while marching in route step, the men come to the rest at
order arjns.
To march at ease.
232. Being in march: i. At ease, 2. March.
At the second command, the company marches as in the rozite
step, except that silence is preserved.
The march at ease will be frequently used during drills, and all the
foregoing movements may be practiced.
Being at a halt: i. Forward, 2. At ease, 3. March.
To resume the cadenced step: i. Company, 2. Attention.
If halted while marching at ease, the men stand at ease at order
arms.
SCHOOL OF THE BATTALION.
233. Chiefs of company give or repeat such commands as are to
be immediately executed by their companies, lis forward, fours right,
march, halt, etc. ; they do not repeat the commands for executing the
manual, nor those commands which are not essential to the execu-
tion of a movement by their companies.
234. When the formation will admit of the simultaneous execution
of movements by companies, the chief of battalion may have them
execute movements prescribed in the "School of the Company" by
prefixing the command companies, or sections, to the commands
6l8 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
therein prescribed ; e.g., i. Companies, 2. Right forward,fours right,
3. March.
235. The chief of battalion adds the necessary commands for the
guide, when the battaUon or its subdivisions are formed in column,
in line, or in line of columns.
Formation of the battalion.
236. Companies are arranged in sequence from right to left accord-
ing to the rank of their chiefs.
In whatever direction the battalion faces, the companies are desig-
nated numerically from right to left when in line or inline of columns,
and from head to rear when in column.
The companies to the right of the center when in hne, constitute
the right wing; those to the left, the left wing.
When the number of companies is odd, the original right wing
contains the odd company. The left company, right wing, and the
right company, left wing, are designated respectively right and left
center companies.
When a new formation necessitates a change of designation, the
change takes effect upon the completion of the movement.
The color guard.
237. The color guard consists of four petty officers. The senior
carries the national color; the next in rank the squadron color;
they are relieved when necessary by the other members of the guard.
The original right-center company is the color company. In line
the color bearers are on the left of the front rank of the color com-
pany ; the other members of the guard cover them in the rear rank.
The guide of the company is on the left of the color guard.
If the company is formed in column of fours, the color guard is
formed in one rank, the color bearers being in the center.
238. The colors, kept at the quarters of the commanding officer, are
escorted by the color guard, marching in one rank, the color bearers
in the center, to the color company on its parade ground ; it is
returned in like manner.
The color guard, by command of the senior color \>^2X^x, presents
arms on receiving and on parting with the colors.
Posts of officers and petty officers.
239. When practicable, the field and staff officers are mounted.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 6I9
240. In line, or in line of columns, the post of the chief of battalion
is twelve paces in front of the center of the battalion ; the adjutant
and chief petty officer are opposite the right and left of the battalion,
six paces in rear of the file closers.
In column, the post of the chief of battalion is on the side of the
guide, twelve paces from, and opposite the center.
The adjutant and chief petty officer are on the side of the guide,
and six paces from the head and rear of column, each in his own
wing. Whenever the guide is changed, unless otherwise directed,
they pass by the most convenient line to the opposite flank.
In line of columns, the adjutant and chief petty officer are abreast
of and six paces outside of the leading guides.
Post of the band and field music.
241. The band is formed in two or more ranks, with sufficient
intervals between the men, and distances between the ranks, to permit
a free use of the instruments.
The drum major is two paces in front of the center of the front
rank.
The buglers, if not with their companies, form in rear of band.
When the band is not present, the buglers may be united, in which
case their posts and movements are the same as prescribed for the
band.
242. The band is posted twelve paces from the right of the bat-
talion. In column, it marches twenty paces in front or in rear of the
battalion, according as the battalion is facing. In line of columns, the
band marches abreast of the leading guides.
243. When the signals for the drum major are not used, the band
is marched as explained for a squad, the word band being substituted
for squad.
When the battalion wheels about by fours, the band executes the
countermarch. (See paragraph 581.)
The several ranks of the band always dress to the right.
To form, the battalion.
244. The companies being formed on their parade grounds, adju-
tant's call is sounded, at which the adjutant proceeds to the point
where the company first established is to form ; the chief petty officer
reports to him and is posted on the line, facing the adjutant at nearly
company distance; the adjutant and chief petty officer then draw
swords.
620 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
The right-center company is the first established, and is conducted
so as to arrive from the rear, parallel to the line ; the right and left
guides of the company precede it on the line, taking post facing
each other at the order, under the direction of the adjutant and chief
petty officer.
The line is prolonged in the right wing by the right guides, who
precede their companies on the line and establish themselves facing
the guides first posted, at company distance apart; the adjutant
assures the position of the guides, placing himself in their rear as
they successively arrive. The line is similarly prolonged in the left
wing by the left guides, the chief petty officer assuring them in their
positions, placing himself in their rear.
When the right-center company arrives near the line, its chief halts
it, places himself, facing to the front, near the left guide, and dresses
the company to the left on the line established by the guides. The
companies of the right wing similarly and successively form from left
to right, and are dressed to the left ; the companies of the left wing
form successively from right to left and are dressed to the right.
The chiefs of company, when dressing their companies in line,
place themselves on the line, on the flank toward which they dress,
facing to the front, the guide, for the time being, stepping into the
rear rank.
Each chief of company, after dressing his company, commands:
Front, and takes his post.
Before sounding the adjuianfs call, the band takes a position
designated by the adjutant, and marches to its post in line at the
same time as the companies.
The adjutant having assured the position of the guide of the right
company, places himself two paces to the front, facing to the left, and,
when the last company is dressed, commands : i. Guides, 2. Posts.
At this command, the chief petty officer and guides take their posts
in line.
The adjutant goes by the shortest line to a point midway between
the chief of battalion and the center of the battalion, faces the latter
and halts, brings the battalion to \h^& present, faces about, salutes, and
reports : Sir, the battalion is formed.
The chief of battalion returns the salute with the right hand, directs
the adjutant : Take yozir post, Sir, draws his sword, and brings the
battalion to the order.
The adjutant faces about and returns to his post.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 621
To Open ranks.
245. Being in line at a halt: i. Open ranks, 2. March, 3. Front.
At the first command, the chief of battalion goes to the right of the
battalion. The adjutant places himself, facing to the left, three paces
in rear of the front rank, opposite the right of the battalion. The
right guide of each company and the guide on the left of the bat-
talion place themselves three paces in rear of the front rank, opposite
their places in Hne, in order to mark the new alignment of the rear
rank; they are aligned by the adjutant on the left guide of the
battalion.
The chiefs of section take post as in open ranks in the " School of
the Company."
At the second command, the officers place themselves opposite
their posts in line, three paces in front of the front rank, and dress to
the right, looking to the front as soon as their alignment is verified.
The front rank dresses to the right ; the men in the rear rank step
back a litde in rear of the line, halt, and dress forward on the
right guides, who verify the alignment of the men of their respective
companies.
The file closers step back three paces from the rear rank, dressing
to the right; the adjutant verifies their alignment on the left file
closer, who places himself accurately three paces from the rear rank.
The chief petty officer posts himself one pace to the left of the
front rank.
The chief of the battalion verifies the alignment of the officers and
the front rank.
The band takes three paces between ranks, the alignment being
verified by the drum major or leader of the band.
At the command/r<7/i/, given as soon as the ranks are aligned, the
adjutant takes post three paces to the right of the battalion on line
with the company officers; the guides return to their places in line,
the drum major places himself three paces in front of the center of
the band, and the chief of the battalion places himself, facing to the
front, twelve paces in front of the line of officers and opposite the
center.
Should the battalion have wheeled about by fours, the chief petty
officer performs the duty of adjutant.
To close ranks.
246. Being in open ranks: i. Close ranks, 2. March.
622 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
The officers face about and return to their places in line ; the rear
rank closes to facing distance; the file closers to two paces from the
rear rank ; the band closes its ranks.
Manual of arms.
247. The color guard does not execute loading and firing. In
rendering honors and on drill they execute all the movements in the
manual except when specially excused.
The fire by company.
248. Being in line at a halt: i. At {such an objecf), 2. Fire by
compaiiy, 3. 07ie, {two, or three') volley, 4. Commence Firing.
At the first command, the chiefs of company post themselves in
rear of their companies. At the third command, the chiefs of the
odd-numbered companies command: i. {SucJi) company, 2. At{s2ich,
an object), 3. At {so many) yards, 4. Ready, and, when the chief of
battalion gives the fourth command, 5. Aim, 6. Fire.
When the chief of each even-numbered company sees the pieces
in the company on his right in the position of load, he gives the same
commands. The chiefs of the odd-numbered companies conform to
the same rule with regard to the even-numbered companies on their
left.
After firing ceases, the chief of battalion commands: Posts, when
the chiefs of company return to their posts in line.
249. The7?r<? by battalion and Xh^fire at will are executed by the
same commands and means as in the squad, substituting in the com-
mands the word battalion for squad.
Rests.
250. To rest the battalion, stand at ease, to stack and take arms^
iofall out, and to resume attention, the commands and means are
the same as prescribed for the company, substituting in the com-
mands the word battalioji for company.
To dismiss the battalion.
251. The chief of battalion commands: Dismiss the companies.
Each chief of company conducts his company to its parade ground
and dismisses it.
To march in line.
252. Being in line at a halt: i. Forward, 2. Guide center, 3.
March.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 623
The left guide of the right-center company is the guide, and regu-
lates the step and direction.
At the second command, chiefs of company caution guide left or
right, according as they are in the right or left wing.
The march in line will be used for short distances only. If the
battalion be required to march a considerable distance, it will habitu-
ally advance in line of columns.
To halt the battalion: i. Battalion, 2. Halt.
To march the battalion to the rear.
253. Being in line or column: i. Fours right (or left) about, 2.
March.
If the battalion be not halted on the completion of the movement,
its chief will announce the guide as the fours unite in line.
Whenever a battalion in line wheels about by fours, the adjutant
and chief petty officer pass around the flanks.
To align the battalion.
254. Being at a halt, to rectify the ahgnment: Chiefs of company,
rectify the alignment.
The chiefs of company in the right wing dress their companies
successively to the left, each as soon as the chief of the company
next on his left commands/r(??^^; the chiefs of company in the left
wing dress their companies similarly to the right. The center com-
panies are dressed first, without waiting for each other.
To give the battalion a general alignment.
255. The new line being determined, the chief of battalion com-
mands: I. Guides {such company) on the line, 2. Guides on the line,
3. Battalion, 4. Dress, 5. Guides, 6. Posts.
At the first command, the designated guides place themselves on
the line, facing the chief of battalion.
At the second command, the guides of the other companies post
themselves as in forming the battalion.
At the fourth command, the base company, if an interior company,
dresses to the left or right according as it is in the right or left wing ;
if on a flank, it dresses toward its outer flank ; the others dress toward
the base company.
At the sixth command the guides return to their posts.
624 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
To pass obstacles.
256. If obstacles are encountered in front of one or more compa-
nies, the chiefs of such companies will so conduct them as most
easily to pass the obstacles, without command from the chief of the
battalion. The original formation will be resumed as soon as the
obstacle is passed.
To form columns of fours by the flank.
257. Being in line : i. Fours right (or leff), 2. March.
Guides maintain the distance of thirty-six inches from the rear
rank of the next preceding company.
To change the file closers from one flank to the other.
258. Being in column of fours : i. File closers on left (or rigki)
flank, 2. March.
The chiefs of company, adjutant, chief petty officer, and file closers
change to the opposite flank.
259. The battalion being in line, or in column of fours, is halted
and put in march, obliques, changes direction, marches by the flank
and to the rear, forms column of twos, and reforms in columii of
fours by the same commands as for a company, substituting the
word battalion for company.
To form line to the right or left.
260. Being in column of fours : i. Fours right {ox left), 2. March.
If the battalion be not halted on the completion of the movement,
the guide is announced as the fours unite in line.
Geyieral rules for successive formations.
■2(i\. In all successive formations into line the adjutant establishes
the two guides of the company first to arrive. The guides face toward
\\\& point of rest ; if the formation be central, they are placed on the
line in front of the leading company, facing each other. If the chief
petty officer be nearest the point of rest he will establish the guides.
262. In all formations from a halt, the guides are established at
the preparatory command indicating the direction in which the line
is to extend; if marching, they hasten toward xk^o. point of rest 2X
the preparatory command, and are established at the command
march.
In forming front into line, the guides are established company
distance in front of the head of the column.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 625
In deployments, they are established in front of the head of the
column.
The line is prolonged as in forming the battalion, though, when
well instructed, guides may be required to post themselves.
The chief of battalion commands : i. Guides, 2. Posts, at the
completion of all successive formations.
To form front into line.
263. Being in column of fours : i. Right (or left~) front into line,
2. March.
The first company executes right fro7it into line in double time,
and is halted and dressed on the line established by the guides ; the
second company changes direction to the right, and, when opposite
the left of its place in line, again to the left, and forms fro7it into line,
in double time, when at company distance from the line.
The other companies, changing direction to the half right, are
conducted to a point at twice company distance in rear of the left of
their places in line, change direction half left, and, when at company
distance from the line, conform to what is explained for the second
company.
To form column of companies to the right or left, and halt,
264. Being in line : i. Companies right (or leff), 2. March.
Each company executes company right.
To form column of companies without halting.
265. Being in line : i. Companies right (or left^ turn, 2. March,
3. Guide right (or leff).
Each company turns to the right.
In column, the guide of the leading subdivision is charged with
the direction ; the guides in rear preserve the trace, step and dis-
tance.
Whenever a guide is forced out of the direction, he recovers it
gradually ; the guides in rear conform successively to his movements.
To march in column.
266. The chief of battalion indicates the direction of march to the
leading guide and commands : i. Forward, 2. Guide right (or left),
3. March.
To change slightly the direction of the march : Incliyie to the right
(or left).
626 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
To change direction.
267. Marching in column : i. Column right (or leff), 2. March.
The leading subdivision turns to the right at the command of its
chief.
The other subdivisions march squarely up to the turning point,
when each turns on the same ground as the first.
To put the column in 7tiarch, and change direction at the same time,
268. Being at a halt: i. Forward, 2. Guide right (or left), 3. Col-
umn right (or left) ; or, 3. Column half right (or half left), 4.
March.
To form the column to the right or left into line.
269. The guides being on the side toward which the movement is
to be made : i. Companies right (or left), 2. March, 3. Guides,
4. Posts.
Each chief of company places himself facing to the front on the
right of his company, and verifies the alignment.
At the fourth command, the guides return to their posts in line.
270. Being in column at a halt, if the guides do not cover or have
not their proper distance, the chief of battalion establishes the guide
of the leading company and the guide next in rear in the desired
direction, and commands : i. Right (or left) guides, 2. Cover.
The right guides cover the first two at the proper distance; the
chief of battalion commands : i. Right (or left), 2. Dress.
Each chief of company aligns his company and commands : Front.
To form front into line from column of companies.
271. Being at a halt: i. Right (or left) front into liyie, 2. March.
The first company moves forward with the guide left, and is halted
and dressed on the line established by the guides.
The second company executes right forward, fours right ; when
near the line, column right, and, when opposite its place, forms line
to the left.
The other companies execute fours right, column half left, and,
on nearing the line, cohimn half right, and complete the movement
as prescribed for the second company.
If marching, the same commands are given, and the movement is
similarly executed. The leading company approaches with the
guide toward \\\& point of rest, the guide being changed by the chief
of the company, if necessary, at the preparatory command.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 627
To change froyit.
272. Being in line, the change of front is effected by wheeHng the
battahon by fours and forming/V^'w/ into line.
To advance in line of cohimns.
273. Being in line : i. Companies, 2. Right (or left) forward,
3. Fotirs right (or left), 4. March, 5. Guide right {left or center').
The guides of companies preserve the intervals necessary to form
front into line, and dress on the guide indicated.
274. The line of columns is put in inarch, halted, marched to the
rear, and marched at the oblique by the same commands and means
as the battalion in line.
To change direction.
275. Being in line of columns: i. Change direction to the right (or
left), 2. March, 3. Battalion, 4. Halt; or, 2. Double time, 3. March,
4. Guide right {left or center).
At the second command, the first company changes direction to
the right ; the other companies are conducted by the shortest line to
their places abreast of the first.
If marching in double time or in quick time and the command be
double time, the first company marches in quick time ; the other
companies execute the movement in double time, resuming the quick
time on arriving abreast of the first company.
To form line.
276. Marching in line of columns: i. Co7}ipa?iies, 2. Right {or left)
froyit into line, 3. March, 4. Battalion, 5. Halt.
The fifth command is given when the leading fours have advanced
company distance.
If executed in double time, the guide is immediately announced
after the command march.
To form front into line of columns.
277. Marching in columns of fours: i. Right (or left) front into
line of columns, 2. March.
The first company having advanced company distance, is halted ;
when the other companies gain their intervals by change of direction
half right, they execute cokaim half left, and halt abreast of the first
company.
To form at close intervals, the chief of battalion adds the com-
mand : At close intervals, to the first command.
628 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
If marching in double time or in quick time and the command be
double ti77ie, the first company marches in quick time ; the other
companies march in double time until abreast of the first company,
when they take the quick time.
To march in column of compatiies to the right or left.
278. Marching in line of columns: i. Fours right (or left), 2.
March, 3. Gzdde right (or left).
To m,arch in line of colum.ns to the right or left.
279. Being in column of companies: i. Fours right (or left), 2.
. March, 3. Guide right {left or center).
To march in liyie of columns to the right or left, and march again
i?i columns of fours.
280. Marching in column of fours : i. Companies, 2. Column
right (or left), 3. March, 4. Guide right {left or center).
To march again in column of fours: i. Companies, 2. Column right
(or left), 3. March.
To form, column of fours, and to form, again in column of companies.
281. Being in column of companies : i. Companies, 2. Right (or
left) forward, 3. Fours right (or left), 4. March.
To reform into column of companies: i. Companies, 2. Right (or
left) fro7it into line, 3. March, 4. Battalion, 5. Halt ; or, 4. Guide
left (or ?'ighf).
To close and extend intervals.
282. Advancing in line of columns : \. On {such) company to {so
many) yards close (or extend) intervals, 2. March, 3. Battalion, 4.
Halt ; or, 3. Guide right {left or center).
The designated company moves forward until the fourth command
is given, when it halts ; the other companies incline toward or from
it until they have the specified interval, when they march to the front,
and halt on arriving abreast of the designated company.
If marching in double time, or in quicklime, and the command be
double time, the designated company moves forward in quick time;
the other companies move in double time, and take the quick time
when they arrive abreast of the designated company.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 629
To close or extend intervals without gainhig ground to the front.
283. Being in line of columns, the battalion is wheeled by fours
to the right or left, and the column is closed or extended as in para-
graphs 285 and 286, after which the battalion is wheeled by fours to
the left or right.
Formation in close column.
284. The distance in close column is six paces.
In close column, the file closers move up to one pace from the rear
rank, falling back to two paces whenever the full distance is again
taken.
To form in close column.
285. Being in column of companies at a halt: i. Close column, 2.
Guide right (or /<?/>), 3. March.
The first company stands fast; the other companies move forward,
each being halted when it arrives at six paces from the one preceding.
If marching, the chief of battalion omits the command for the
guide, and the first company is halted at the command march.
If marching in quick time, and the command be double time, the
first company advances in gtiick time ; the other companies take the
quick time upon closing to six paces.
If marching in double time, the movement is executed in the same
manner, except that the first company takes the quick time at the
first command.
To arrest the march during the execution of the movement: i.
Battalion, 2. Halt.
Only those companies halt which have closed to six paces ; the
other companies halt successively by command of their chiefs, upon
closing to six paces.
To take full distance.
286. Being in close column at a halt: i. Full distance, 2. Guide
right (or left), 3. March.
At the third command, the first company moves forward.
Each of the other companies moves forward when at full distance.
If marching, the chief of battalion omits the command for the
guide.
If marching in quick time, the companies in rear of the first are
halted at the command march, moving forward when at full distance.
If marching in quick time, and the command be double time, the
first company advances in double time ; the other companies con-
630 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
tinue the quick time, and successively take the double time when at
full distance.
If marching in double time, the first company continues to advance
in double time; the other companies take the quick time at the first
command of the chief of battaUon, and successively take the double
time when at full distance.
To form line to the right or left, the chief of battalion first causes
the column to take full distance.
To ploy into close column.
1Z1. Close column is always ployed with the designated company
in front.
The adjutant places himself in front of the leading guide, and
assures the position of the other guides.
288. Being in line at a halt: i. Close column, 2. Fours right, 3.
March.
At the third command, the first company advances eight paces to
the front, is halted and dressed to the left; the other companies
execute/(7?/r^ right.
The chief of the second company halts in rear of the left of the
first, and when his rear four passes him, forms his company in line to
the left, halts it, establishes his left guide six paces in rear of the left
guide of the first, and dresses his company to the left.
The other companies incline to the right, and each marches by
the shortest line to a point six paces in rear of the left guide of the
preceding company, inclines to the left, and executes what has been
prescribed for the second company.
The close column is formed on the fourth company in similar
manner by the commands: i. Close cohimn, 2. Fours left, 3. March.
The companies are dressed to the right.
To form column of fours.
289. Being in close column at a halt: i. Column of fours, 2. First
company, 3. Right (or left) forward, 4. Fours right (or left), 5.
March.
At the fifth command, the first company executes right forward,
fours right.
Each of the other companies executes the same movement in time
to follow the one preceding.
290. Column of fours may also be formed by the commands: i.
Column of fours, 2. First co7npa7iy, 3. Fours right (or left), 4.
March.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 63 1
At the fourth command, the designated company executes /<?z^r^
right
Each of the other companies executes right forward, fours right,
in time to unite with and follow the preceding one.
To march in close column.
291. A close column is p^ct in march and halted, obligties, changes
direction, marches by the flank, and resumes the march in column
and marches to the rear, by the same commands as a column at full
distance.
To deploy the close cohwm.
292. Being at a halt: i. Deploy column, 2. Fours right (or left),
3, March.
The first company is dressed to the left ; the other companies
ex&cw\.e fours right, each chief of company halts when opposite the
right of the preceding company, and as the rear four of his company
passes him, forms his company in line to the left, halts it, and dresses
it to the left.
If marching, the first company is halted at the third command; the
movement is executed as before.
Movements by section.
293. The chief of battalion may form the battalion in column of
sections to the right or left, form line from cohimn of sections to the
right or left, for^n column of sections to the front from column of
companies, form column of fours from column of sections, and the
reverse, by the commands and means prescribed in the " School of
the Company."
The column of sections is formed /r<3w^ i^ito line by the same com-
mands and means as a column of companies. Each chief of com-
pany dresses his company when both of his sections have arrived in
line.
To march in route step and at ease.
294. The march in route step and the march at ease are executed
as prescribed in the "School of the Company." When marching in
column of subdivisions, the guides maintain the trace and distance.
In route marches, the chief of battalion, adjutant, and chief petty
officer march at the head of the column ; the surgeon and apothecary
at the rear of the column; the other staff officers and staff petty
officers wherever the chief of battalion directs; the band in front of
the leading company. The chiefs of company at the head or rear of
their companies, as directed by the chief of battalion.
632 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
EVOLUTIONS OF THE BRIGADE.
General rules,
295. Chiefs of battalion, unless otherwise directed, repeat all the
commands of the chief of brigade, and add such commands and
execute such movements in their battalions as may be necessary
before the general movement.
296. When the formation will admit of the simultaneous execution
of movements by battalions, movements prescribed in the "School
of the Battalion" may be ordered by prefixing in the command the
word battalions, cotnpanies, or sections, or by substituting the word
battalion for company. The chief of brigade adds the commands for
the guide when necessary.
The chief of brigade may preface the commands for each move-
ment by the command : i. Battalions, 2. Attention.
Whenever necessary, commands are communicated by staff officers.
297. For evolutions, the interval between the battalions is twelve
paces.
Battalions are designated from the right when in line, and from
the head when in Q.o\wvcvXi, first battaiion, second battalion, and so on.
If in two lines, the battalions of the first line are designated from the
x\^\., first and second ; those of the second line from the right, Mzr^
^.nd fourth. If in two columns, the battalions in the right column
are designated first and second ; the others, third and fourth.
These designations change whenever, in facing to the rear, the left
of the line becomes the right, and the rear the head of column.
298. The battalion movements incident to the commencement and
completion of brigade evolutions, and all movements in dotible time,
are executed in the cadenced step, with pieces at the shotclder.
Otherwise, battalions habitually march in the route step.
299. The brigade is formed on the principles of successive forma-
tions, and is presented to the chief of brigade by the brigade adju-
tant, as explained for the battalion adjutant, chiefs of battalion
repeating commands. The chief of brigade takes post, facing the
line, about fifty paces in front of its center.
Posts of the pioneers and band.
300. At ceremonies, the pioneers are posted twelve paces to the
right of the first battalion, the band twelve paces from the right of
the pioneers. In evolutions, the band takes any position prescribed
on the parade ground.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 633
The ammunition party, ambulance party, and signal men, if with
the brigade, form in the sequence named from right to left, twelve
paces in rear of the center of the brigade.
Posts of the chief of brigade and staff.
301. In column, the chief of brigade is at the head of his brigade,
and is attended by his personal staff; the brigade adjutant riding on
his left, his aides in the rear, the senior on the right. On the march,
the remaining members of his staff march according to rank in rear
of the aides, the senior of each rank on the right.
To advance in line.
302. I. The second {or such), the battalion of direction, 2. Forward,
3. March.
The advance in line is intended for short distances only ; if the
distance be great, the advance is made in line of columns.
To give a general alignment to the brigade.
303. Being at a halt: i. Guides {such) company, {such) battalion,
on the line, 2. Guides on the line, 3. Battalions, 4. Dress, 5. Guides,
6. Posts.
At the second command, the right guides of the right wing and the
left guides of the left wing of each battalion are established on the
line, facing the centers of their respective battalions.
Each battalion is dressed on its center as prescribed in the " School
of the Battalion."
304. To open and close raiiks, to rest, to march to the rear, to halt,
and to march by the flank are executed as prescribed for the battalion.
305. The brigade being in column of fours, sections, or companies,
is halted, put in march, obliques, changes direction, and marches to
the rear in the same manner as a battalion, substituting in the com-
mands battalions for battalion.
To form in two lines to the right or left.
306. Being in column of fours: i. To the right {or left) in two
lines, at {so many) paces distance, 2. March.
The first and second battalions wheel by fours to the right and
halt.
The third and fourth battalions incline to the left till they gain the
specified distance, when they resume the original direction, the third
battalion forming line behind the first, the fourth behind the second.
634 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
The chief of brigade may direct the third and fourth battalions to
incline to the right and form line in front of the first and second.
General rules for successive formations.
307. In successive formations the line is determined by the bat-
talion adjutants, who are posted by a brigade staff officer; at the pre-
paratory command of the chief of brigade the first is posted at the
point of res* for the first battalion, facing in the direction in which
the line is to extend; the second facing the first, at Xh^ point of rest
for the second battalion ; the third covering the other two, at the
point of rest for the third battalion, and so on.
If the formation be central, the points of rest are marked in both
directions from the battalion first on the line.
In successive formations, in which the subdivisions of each bat-
talion arrive successively on the line, the adjutant or petty officer at
the head of the battalion always precedes it on the line and assures the
positions of the guides.
Each chief of battalion commands : i. Guides, 2. Posts, as soon
as the guides of the next succeeding battalion have been assured in
their positions.
In all successive formations, ployments, and other brigade evolu-
tions which are not executed simultaneously by battalions, each bat-
talion is brought to a rest upon the completion of its movements.
To form on the right or left into liiie.
308. Being in column : i. On right (or leff) into line, 2. March.
The first battalion forms line to the right, advances company dis-
tance, and halts.
The other battalions continue the march, each executing the same
movement when its rear four, or subdivision, has passed twelve paces
beyond the left of the battalion preceding.
To form front into line.
309. Being in column: i. Right (or left) front into line, 2. March.
The movement is executed on the principles prescribed in the.
"School of the Battalion," the chiefs of battalion taking care to pre-
serve the interval of twelve paces.
To form front into line, in two lines.
310. Being in column: i. In two lines, at (so many) paces distance,
2. On first and third battalions, 3. Right (or left) front into line, 4.
March.
UNITED STATES NAVY. . 635
The first and second battalions form front into line ; the third bat-
tahon forms front into hne when at the prescribed distance from the
first line ; the fourth battalion forms front into line on the right of the
third.
311. Being in line, to advance in line of columns ; to change direc-
tion when marching in line of columns ; marching in line of columns,
to form line; marching in column of fours, to form front into line
of columns; marching in line of columns, to march in column of
companies to the right or left; beijig in column of companies, to
march in line of columns to the right or left ; marching in column
of fours, to march in li7ie of cobimns to the right or left, and to march
again in colum7i of fours; marching in column of companies, to form
column of fours, and to foi^m again in cohimn of companies ; march-
ing in line of columns, to close and extend intervals: executed by
the same commands and means as prescribed in the " School of the
Battalion," care being taken to preserve the proper intervals between
battalions.
312. Close column of companies is formed from column of compa-
nies at full distance, from line or from column of fours, and the
reverse, and the close column of companies is manoeuvred as pre-
scribed in the "School of the Battalion."
EXTENDED ORDER.
General principles.
313. The squad is the basis of extended order movements ; men
will be taught to regard it as the unit from which they ought never
to become separated ; if, however, it should unavoidably be broken
up, they join the nearest squad, and remain with it as if it were their
own. Officers and petty officers will give especial attention to pre-
serving squads in effective strength and condition.
314. Instruction in extended order movements will be given as
soon as the recruits have had a few drills in close order. The move-
ments are first taug-ht on the drill ground, with every attention to
detail ; afterward they are executed on varied ground, observing so
far as possible the conditions of batde. Every drill in extended
order will be followed by a close order movement, in which precision
of execution will be exacted. When movements are well understood,
they will be executed by signals.
315. In the text, the enemy is said to be imaginary when his posi-
636 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
tion and force are merely assumed ; outlined, when these are indi-
cated by a few men only ; and rep7-esenied, when a body of troops,
acting as an enemy, has his force and position.
SCHOOL OF THE SQUAD.
General rules.
316. The squad is deployed forward when it is in rear of the line
to be occupied, and by the flank when it is already on that line.
The normal interval between skirmishers is one pace; when a
greater or less interval is desired, it will be stated in the preparatory
command.
The deployment as skirmishers is made on the file leader of the
second file from the right, who is the base file.
The rear-rank men place themselves on the right of their file
leaders as soon as they arrive on the line.
If the squad is to kneel or lie down upon halting, the petty officer
before giving the commands for deploying designates the position;
this position will be taken at each halt until a change is directed.
As instructor, the petty officer remains standing.
To deploy as skirmishers.
317. Marching in line: i. As skirmishers, 2. March.
The base file moves in the direction indicated by the petty officer.
The other men oblique quickly to the right or left, according as
they are on the right or left of the base file, each resuming the
direction when at his interval and on the line.
To halt the squad: i. Skirmishers, 2. Halt.
Upon halting, men in extended order face to the front, whether in
squads or as individual skirmishers, and stand or march at ease.
Being in line at a halt : i. As skirmishers, 2. March.
The base file stands fast ; the other men move to the right or left,
according as they are on his right or left, each man halting on the
line when he has gained his interval.
To increase and diminish intervals.
318. Being deployed as skirmishers: i. To {so many) paces,
extend (or close') intervals, 2. March.
The skirmishers open from, or close toward, the base file,
according as the interval is to be increased or diminished. If march-
ing, the movement is executed by obliquing and quickening the gait.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 637
Marchings.
319. The squad in extended order marches to the front, to the rear,
by the fiank, and changes direction, by the same commands and in
the same manner as in close order, except that skirmishers take the
direction and intervals from the base file.
If marching to the rear, to march again to the front : i. Forward,
2. March.
The men face about individually and march toward the front.
In extended order, \.\iefro7it'\s always in the direction of the enemy.
To rally and deploy.
320. The rally may be made either on the line or in advance of it.
At the command rally, the men run toward the petty officer and
group themselves in single or double rank, in such formation as he
directs, and fix bayonet.
If the petty officer continues to advance, the men form in rear of
him and follow him, fixing bayonet.
To deploy : Deploy.
The skirmishers unfix bayonet and return to their places in
extended order.
The assembly.
321. Being deployed or rallied : Assemble.
The men move toward the petty officer and form in their proper
places in close order.
If the petty officer continues to advance, the men form and follow
him.
Assembling when faced or marching to the rear is prohibited.
Riiles for firing.
322. The following rules will be impressed upon the men :
1. Never load until the moment of firing.
2. Never fire except when ordered, and then only the number of
cartridges indicated.
3. Never fire after the command or signal cease firing.
4. Never fire except at the designated objective.
5. Never fail to adjust the sight at the range named.
6. Always aim at the feet of the enemy, or at the lower Hne of the
smoke if he is hidden from view.
7. Never put the magazine into the piece until directed.
It is allowable, however, especially for scouts, to fire under the
following circumstances :
638 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
1. When necessary to give the alarm.
2. When a good opportunity occurs to fire upon a leader of the
enemy.
3. In self-defense.
Individual men who may be acting beyond the immediate control
of leaders may fire at distances not greater than —
400 yards, at a man lying down.
500 yards, at a man kneeling.
600 yards, at a man standing.
700 yards, at a horseman.
800 yards, at a small squad of men or a line of skirmishers.
Sharpshooters may, when permitted by an officer, fire at a distance
not greater than 1,000 yards.
Volleys by squads may be employed against troops in close order,
at distances not greater than —
800 yards, at a line equal to the front of a squad.
1,000 yards, at a line equal to the front of a section.
1,200 yards, at a line equal to the front of a company.
These limits are not invariable ; they may be exceeded under
favorable conditions when the range is accurately known, but should
be reduced when the men are tired or out of breath, the range uncer-
tain, the enemy under cover, or the conditions of wind and light
unfavorable.
323. When the available supply of ammunition is ample and the
enemy is in large bodies, volleys may be fired at extreme ranges.
The^re at will2XiA ihejire with counted cartridges are employed
at distances ranging from 800 to 400 yards.
The rapid fire is employed at short ranges, and may also be used
at any range when the enemy affords a good target by exposing
himself in considerable numbers.
The magazine fire is used at the decisive moment of the action.
324. The ranges are classified as follows:
o to 300 yards, short ranges.
300 to 600 yards, mid ranges.
600 to 1,400 yards, long ranges.
1,400 yards and upward, extreme ranges.
Firings.
325. The instructor will exact the most rigid fire discipline.
If the squad is marching, it halts at the preparatory command for
firing ; loads, and kneels or lies down if so specified in the command.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 639
Volleys may be used when the front is not too extended to be con-
trolled by the words of command ; the same commands and means
are employed as in close order.
To fire at will.
326. I. Fire at will ; or, i. Fire at will, kneeling (or lying down),
2. At {such an object), 3. At {so many) yards, 4, Commence firing.
At the fourth command, those skirmishers only who can see the
enemy aim deliberately, fire, load, and continue the firing until the
command cease firing.
The petty officer may permit a few men only, usually the best
shots, to fire ; for this purpose he calls the men by name and then
gives the same commands as before.
To fire a specified number of rounds.
327. I. Fire 07ie {two or three) rounds, 2. At {such an object),
3. At {so many) yards, 4. Commence firing.
At the fourth command, those skirmishers only who can see the
enemy open fire. Each man, after firing the specified number of
cartridges, ceases firing.
The instructor will see that no man fires more than the number of
cartridges specified.
Rapid or magazine fire.
328. In the rapid or magazine fire the number of cartridges is not
limited, the objective is not indicated ; when used in advancing to
the attack, the instructor will first order fix bayonet, and then com-
mand : I. Rapid (or magazine) fire, 2, At {so many) yards, 3. Com-
mence firing.
At the first command, the magazines are entered ; at the third
command, the men open fire and continue to fire until the command
cease firing.
Instruction on varied ground.
329. The instruction is at first given to individual recruits. The
movements will afterward be executed by the entire squad. The
drill ground will be selected with reference to the movements to be
executed. The location should be frequently changed ; movements
at variance with the accidents of the ground will be avoided.
The instructor first calls attention to the features of the ground
and the different military purposes to which they are adapted.
640 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Use of cover.
330. The instructor impresses upon the men that the first consid-
eration in selecting a position is the effective use of the rifle ; that
cover and entrenchments are of secondary importance, and that they
must avoid positions from which they cannot see and fire upon the
enemy.
The best kind of cover is that which masks the skirmishers from
the sight and fire of the enemy, and at the same time permits a good
view of the ground toward him, and oifers favorable conditions for
firing, and for readily advancing and retiring.
In order to make the best possible use of cover, and at the same
time obtain a rest for the rifle while aiming, the men will take post
preferably behind the right extremity of a wall, rock, tree, heap of
stone or earth, and in the windows and doorways of the houses on
the left side of a street.
Behind embankments of earth, in ditches and furrows, they will
kneel or lie down, and rise slightly to fire; and lie down in rear of a
crest or the edge of a plateau, exposing themselves as little as pos-
sible, but always keeping in view the slope toward the enemy.
At the edge of the wood, where there is no ditch nor bank of earth,
they remain a little back from the edge, under the cover of the first
trees, so as to avoid the fragments of artillery projectiles, and still be
able to have a good view of the ground in front.
The instructor explains how to prepare a wall for defense, and
how to pierce loopholes, or construct platforms when it is too high
to fire over.
The instructor explains the circumstances under which cover
would be valuable, and how to use it, both in its original condition
and by modifying it, against an enemy supposed to be in a certain
direction.
A few men are then required to occupy the cover; the instructor
makes corrections and explanations, and causes the movements to
be repeated until properly executed and understood by the recruits.
The recruits are then required to post themselves in succession at
points indicated by the instructor, so that, when all are posted, the
squad is in position to open fire upon a previously designated point,
not more than 600 yards distant.
When the whole squad has been posted, the instructor examines
the recruits to see that they have taken their positions intelligently,
have the best rests for their rifles, have an unobstructed view of the
UNITED STATES NAVY. 64 1
objective, and have set their sights at the range indicated. The
exercise is repeated until properly executed, when the squad is
assembled and a new locality selected.
A well instructed man or petty officer is now placed in the posi-
tion of the enemy, and required to advance upon the skirmishers;
the latter will carefully observe the movements of the adversary and
aim at him whenever he exposes himself, adjusting the sight to agree
with the range.
When the recruits have learned to post themselves at points indi-
cated by the instructor, they are exercised in advancing from cover
to cover. For this purpose the instructor designates some object, at
a distance of about 600 yards, and sends there a man to represent
the enemy; a recruit is then directed to advance upon him. In
order to keep out of sight of the adversary the skirmishers must
make the best use of the cover, but must not deviate too much from
his direction ; he must stoop or even creep or crawl, but, if possible,
must never lose sight of the enemy for an instant; open ground
exposed to the fire of the enemy should be crossed at a run by
rushes of about 50 yards, then taking the lying position and raising
the head in order to see the enemy.
The rushes should not, as a rule, exceed 50 yards, else the skirm-
isher will be out of breath, and unable to aim accurately.
In this manner the recruits should advance to within 300 or 200
yards of the enemy, or nearer, if the character of the ground permits.
The man representing the enemy may be provided with blank
cartridges, and required to fire whenever the advancing skirmisher
exposes himself sufficiently to afford a target.
When the recruits, individually, are well instructed in the use of
cover, the movements are executed by squad.
The instructor points out the position of the enemy, at least 600
yards distant, and states clearly the object of the movement. The
petty officer, as squad leader, gives the necessary commands.
Battle exercises.
331. The squad executes on varied ground all the movements
prescribed for close and extended order.
Those skirmishers who cannot hear or see the petty officer regulate
themselves upon the nearest men, who may transmit commands to
them in a low tone.
When the squad is proficient in the movements in extended
642 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
order, the enemy is either outlined or represented ; the instructor
directs both detachments.
In general, the fire is simulated ; however, to define clearly the
position of both parties it is sometimes necessary to use blank
cartridges.
Both parties cease firing when within 50 yards of each other ; if
deployed as skirmishers, the attacking party may be ordered to
charge ; the men in each squad pass through the intervals in the
other; both squads halt at the command of the instructor. The
exercise may then be continued, the squads exchanging position.
SCHOOL OF THE COMPANY.
332. The instructor designates the base squad, and names the
point of direction to its leader.
Chiefs of section place themselves in rear of their base squads at
the preparatory command for extending.
In forming line of squads, petty officers take post in front of their
squads ; in deploying as skirmishers, they take post in rear of their
squads.
Line of squads.
333. In line of squads, the normal interval between squads is
twelve paces ; when a greater or less interval is used, it will be
stated in the commands.
To form line of squads.
334. Being in line : i. Line of squads, 2. On (such) squad,
3. March, 4. Company, 5. Halt.
The petty officer of the base squad leads it in the indicated direc-
tion ; the petty officers to the right of the base move their squads
obliquely to the right ; those to the left, obliquely to the left ; each
squad moves to the front when at its interval from the squad next
toward the base.
The fourth and fifth commands are given when the base squad
arrives on the line ; the base squad halts; the others halt when they
arrive on the line.
If marching in double time, or in quick time and the command be
double time, the base squad advances in quick time ; the other
squads move in double time, and take the quick time when they
arrive on the line. The fourth and fifth commands are omitted.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 643
If at a halt, the base squad stands fast, the squads to the right
face to the right, and those to the left face to the left, and move off;
each petty officer halts his squad when it has gained its interval.
To form line of sgtiads to the front.
335. Being in columns of fours : i. Right (or left) front into line of
squads, 2. March, 3. Compayiy, 4. Halt.
At the first command, the chiefs of section place themselves abreast
of their leading squads.
The company forms front into liiie of squads, the petty officers
leading their squads to their proper places.
To deploy as skirmishers.
336. Being in the line of squads: i. As skirmishers, 2. March.
Each squad deploys. The development may be made at any time
after the commencement of the movement to form line of squads;
squads having their intervals deploy at once ; the others as soon as
they gain their intervals.
To deploy the company as skirmishers.
337. The company being in line : i. As skirmishers on {such)
squad, 2. March.
The deployment is made as in the squad, on the base file of the
base squad, to the front if marching, by the flank if at a halt; squad
leaders see that the men of their squads take their proper places.
To increase and diminish intervals.
338. I. On {such) squad y to {so many) paces extend (or close)
intervals, 2. March.
If in line of squads, the squads open from, or close toward, the
base squad, according as the interval is to be increased or diminished.
If marching, the movement is executed obliquely ; if at a halt, by
the flank.
If deployed as skirmishers, those to the right and left of the base
file of the base squad extend from or close toward him.
To assemble.
339. The chief of company takes post where it should form and
commands: Assemble.
The squads move promptly toward him and reform in close order.
To assemble by squads : 1. By squads, 2. Assemble.
644 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Each squad individually assembles. The chief of company may
order the squads to take any formation he deems necessary.
Marchings.
340. Being- in line of squads or skirmishers, and the direction indi-
cated : I. Forward, 2, Guide right {left or center'), 3. March.
The base squad marches in the given direction ; the other squads
march abreast of it, keeping their intervals.
To march to the rear.
341. I. To the rear, 2. March, 3. Guide right {left or center).
The chief of company indicates the direction to the leader of the
base squad, after giving the commands.
To change direction.
342. The new direction being indicated: i. Change direction to
the right (or left), 2. March.
The right squad changes direction as if it were alone, and halts ;
the other squads conform to the new alignment.
The company in line of squads or skirmishers is marched by the
flank by the same commands and means prescribed for the squad.
To deploy by sections.
343. The normal interval between sections is about twenty-four
paces.
The company forms line of sections, marches in this formation,
increases and diminishes intervals between sections as explained for
squads, substituting in the commands the word section for squad.
The section forms line of squads or skirmishers, rallies, assembles,
executes the firings, and all other movements in deployed order as
explained for the company.
Firings.
344. The company and section, whether closed or extended,
execute the firings as explained for the squad.
Volley firing may be used when the front is not too extended to
be controlled by the voice.
To fire volleys by sectioji or squad.
345. The chief of company commands: i. Fire by section (or
UNITED STATES NAVY. 645
squad), 2. {So 7nany) volleys, then indicates the objective and range
when desirable, and adds the command : 3, Commence firing.
Each section or squad executes the firing as if alone.
To reinforce the firing line.
346. When there are intervals in the firing line, either on the outer
flanks or between the groups, the reinforcement is placed in these
intervals. This method will be used when practicable.
If under cover, the firing line may diminish intervals toward one
flank; the support deploys and moves up into the space thus made
vacant.
Under fire, the line may be reinforced by deploying the support
on the march, the men of the support placing themselves on the line
between the skirmishers ; the line thus reinforced forms itself into
groups under the nearest leaders ; officers and petty officers take charge
of their proportional part of the front, and the action progresses as if no
mixing had taken place ; this method should be used only when the
emergency demands a prompt reinforcement above all other consid-
erations.
To rally.
347. The chief of company moves rapidly to the squad or place
selected as a rallying point, and commands : Rally.
The rally is executed as explained for the squad. The support
approaches and selects a position from which it can render the most
effective assistance.
To rally by sections, the chief of company commands : Rally by
SECTIONS, and then joins one of the sections.
The chiefs of section place themselves in the center of their sections,
signal, and repeat the command.
In the rally by squads, the squad leaders make the signal, the
chiefs of section joining the nearest squads.
When, as a result of reinforcement, the sections and squads are
mixed, each group rallies on the chief who commands it at the time.
Battle formation.
348. The battle formation of the company, when forming part of a
battalion or when acting alone, consists of a firing line and a support.
In extended order, the front of a company in battahon should not
exceed twice its front in close order.
The distance between echelons varies with the nature of the ground
646 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
and the effectiveness of the enemy's fire, but is normally about 150
yards.
As a rule, the right section in line, or the leading section in column,
is designated for the firing line.
Positions and dtdies of officers.
349. The chief of company, with a musician, takes post between
the firing line and the support. He directs the action of the whole
company, controls the reinforcement of the firing line, and keeps up the
supply of ammunition, regulating distribution and expenditure. His
orders, given by word of command, signals, or delivered by orderlies,
are directed to the commanders of the firing line and support.
The commander of the firing line is in rear, and the commander
of the support in front, of the centers of their respective echelons.
The commanders of echelons give the commands necessary for
the execution of the orders of the chief of company; they give their
special attention to the control and direction of the fire, and to main-
taining cohesion and concert of action.
The company in battalion on the offensive.
350. The company advances until the artillery fire becomes effec-
tive, or about 2500 yards from the enemy.
The chief of company then orders scouts sent forward, and desig-
nates a petty officer to command them, pointing out the objective to
him, and to the chiefs of section. The scouts hasten forward.
The chief of company then designates one section for the firing
line and the other for the support ; when the scouts have gained
about 150 yards to the front, he commands: i. Form for attack, 2.
March.
The section designated for the firing line moves forward ; the
support is halted until the leading section has advanced about 150
yards, when it follows in its rear.
At about 1200 yards, the leading section forms line of squads and
continues to move forward.
At about 900 yards, it deploys as skirmishers, forming the firing
line.
To delay mixing of sections and squads, each should keep within
the deploying limit of its proper front, and as casualties occur the
men will close toward the center of the base squad, and the reinforc-
ing squad or squads will be thrown upon the flanks to preserve the
strength of the firing line.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 64/
The scouts advance until they find it necessary to halt, and await
the arrival of the firing line.
Firing will be delayed as long as possible, though the chief of com-
pany may order volleys to be fired upon exposed bodies of the
enemy; individual sharpshooters may be directed to fire. When
the advance can no longer be continued without firing, the chief
directs the number of rounds to be fired at each halt.
The commander of the firing line superintends the firing ; he must
never exceed the number of rounds ordered by the chief of company.
The squad leaders assist in maintaining the strictest fire discipHne.
The firing line may advance from cover to cover by rushes
executed by the whole line.
The support draws nearer the firing line without waiting for
orders, taking any formation most favorable for advancing rapidly
and keeping covered.
As soon as it becomes necessary to increase the intensity of the
fire, the support reinforces the firing line. It advances rapidly and
joins in the forward rush.
The arrival of supports upon the firing hne should invariably be
the signal for a rush.
Having attained a favorable position from which to make the
assault, the chief of company commands: Rapid fire.
Chiefs of section order bayonets fixed, caution the men to lay
down the sights, and command: i. Rapid fire, kneeling, 2. Com-
mence FIRING.
If any of the supports have not been brought up, they join the line
when the rapid fire is ordered.
The charge having been ordered, the company ceases firing and
moves to the front in double time, the officers commanding. For-
ward.
Having driven him from his position, the company fires upon the
retreating enemy, or is disposed for resisting a counter attack.
The assembly, or, if necessary, the rally, will be sounded as soon
as practicable.
On drill, the instructors will tell off certain numbers as casualties
in each squad, from time to time as the line advances, to illustrate
the method of closing intervals and reinforcing the firing line. The
men designated as casualties will rejoin their companies when the
assembly is sounded.
648 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Relieving the firing line.
351. In the exceptional case of relieving the firing line, it will be
notified by the commander, who gives the necessary orders to the
force which is to replace it.
The relieving force deploys so as to complete its movements in the
rear of the line, which, as soon as relieved, is marched to the rear
and assembled.
The company acting independently.
352. As soon as the enemy is signaled, the chief of company recon-
noiters and determines upon the direction and character of the attack;
he indicates the rallying point in case of repulse.
The attack is conducted on the principles explained for the com-
pany in battalion. The firing line makes the attack ; the support
reconnoiters and protects the flanks, and supports the firing line.
Having driven the enemy from his position, the company should
pursue him, unless pursuit be impracticable.
The company in battalion on the defensive.
353. The company is conducted to the line selected for defense ;
scouts are sent forward to connect with those from the adjacent com-
panies; the chief of company reconnoiters the position and indicates
to each subdivision the place it is to occupy, and superintends the
construction of such defensive works as may be required. The dis-
position of the company is, in general, the same as on the ofifensive.
To secure superiority of fire, a company may have three squads in
the firing line and one in the support, from the beginning of the
action.
The scouts give the chief of company information concerning the
enemy's force, disposition, and movements; they should endeavor
to cause the enemy to deploy and disclose his intentions. On his
approach the chief of company completes his dispositions, and orders
the battle formation.
Fire is opened as soon as it can be made effective ; its intensity is
regulated according to the distance, importance of the objectives,
and the available supply of ammunition.
Certain subdivisions may be designated to fire upon the enemy's
supports and reserves, while the others reply to his skirmishers.
When the enemy arrives at about 500 yards from the position
held, the support is habitually absorbed in the firing line, and the
UNITED STATES NAVY. 649
defense is continued with the assistance of the companies of the
battalion reserve.
If the enemy be repulsed, the company takes the offensive. If the
enemy succeed, the company rallies in the position designated by
the chief of battalion.
The company acting independently.
354. The firing line is established on the position to be defended ;
the support is placed under cover ; scouts are sent out in front and
upon the flanks to reconnoiter.
If on the march, the advance guard halts, and the scouts are sent
forward, the remainder of the company being placed out of sight of
the enemy.
The chief of company reconnoiters and disposes the company as
in battalion, the support being placed so as best to protect the flanks
of the firing line.
From the beginning of the engagement the firing line should be
strong enough to secure superiority of fire, and it should have a
front at least equal to that of the attack.
If opportunity offers, the chief of company will make energetic
counter attacks upon the weak points of the enemy's line ; when the
attack is repulsed, the enemy should be damaged as much as pos-
sible by increased energy of fire, and should be pursued, unless
pursuit be impracticable.
When necessary to retreat, the company retires from position to
position; it is assembled and placed in column of route as soon as
out of range of the enemy.
Unless ordered to the contrary, a position will never be aban-
doned except in the last extremity, and after the most stubborn
defense of which the troops are capable.
Action against cavalry.
355. The advance of an attacking force of infantry will not be
checked by the appearance of cavalry. The latter will be kept at a
distance by means of volleys executed by squads designated for this
purpose.
If in line, and cavalry attack in front, the company will receive the
charge without changing its formation.
If the attack be made against one of the flanks, the company, or
a part of it, on the threatened flank, changes front to face the attack.
650 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
If in battle formation, and the cavalry unexpectedly appear and
attack as foragers, or in mass, the attack is received at a halt.
Such dispositions only are made as will most quickl)'^ develop the
greatest intensity of fire.
If the attack be directed against the front, the firing line opens
fire ; the support fires upon the horsemen who may envelop the
flanks.
If the attack be directed against a flank, the support faces toward
it and protects the threatened flank by its fire.
If the charge be made by echelons, the fire will not be directed
upon a fraction already repulsed, but upon the one following it.
In a personal encounter, a man on foot should gain the left flank of
the horseman.
Defense and attack of artillery.
356. The duties of an infantry support for artillery are to protect
the flanks and rear of the batteries, and to oppose the enemy's
infantry or cavalry acting against them. It is usually posted on the
flanks.
In attacking artillery, the firing line is deployed at a greater dis-
tance than in the attack of a position occupied by infantry, and the
front may be more extended.
Against artillery in motion, the fire is directed preferably upon the
horses.
SCHOOL OF THE BATTALION.
357. The battalion is formed for battle in three echelons, a firing
line, a line of supports, and a reserve.
The firing line and supports are termed the fighting line ; it may
be composed of one, two, or even three companies.
Deployment.
358. Whatever be the formation of the battalion, its chief desig-
nates the company or companies to form the fighting line, and those
for the reserve ; he indicates the direction, the object of the move-
ment, and the formation to be adopted by the firing line, and com-
mands : I. Form for attack, 2. March.
The companies of the fighting line advance in the given direction,
and take the battle formation.
There should be an interval between companies in hne of about
twelve paces, which should be correspondingly increased if in line
of columns ; these intervals should be preserved during the advance.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 65 I
The reserve is held about 250 yards in rear of the hne of sup-
ports.
In extended order, the front of a battalion in brigade should not
exceed one and one-half times its front in close order.
The chief of battalion posts himself usually between the line of
supports and reserve, but he will go where he can best observe and
direct the progress of the action.
When the reserve companies are united and in close order, the
senior officer with them takes command.
Mounted officers dismount when the battalion opens fire ; the
horses are taken back to the brigade reserve.
When the colors of a brigade are with a battalion which takes the
battle formation, the color guard will join the brigade reserve, whose
commander either directs it to join a certain company, or detaches
a squad as guard to remain with the colors during the action.
The advance.
359. A general alignment is kept on the directing squad, which
keeps the direction under the supervision of its squad leader and
chief of section.
The supports and reserve conform to the movements of the firing
line.
It is important that the direction should be correctly determined
before taking up the advance ; if, however, changes of direction are
necessary, they are made gradually by slightly changing the direc-
tion of the base squad from time to time, the other squads conform-
ing to the movement.
360. The firing line is relieved and reinforced on the principles
explained for the company.
Assembling and rallying.
361. The battalion is assembled, and one or more, or even all the
companies in the firing line, may rally as prescribed for the com-
pany.
The reserve approaches and selects a favorable position for sup-
porting the companies that have rallied.
THE BATTALION IN ACTION.
General rules.
362. The chief of battalion regulates the progress and direction
■of the action, hastens or delays the reinforcement by the support,
652 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
and disposes his reserve so as to guard against surprise ; leaving the
execution of details to his subordinates, he exercises a general con-
trol, and endeavors constantly to increase the energy of the action
up to the decisive moment.
When necessary, he indicates what measures are to be taken to
assure the occupation of the position.
363. Each chief of company in the fighting line regulates the
march of the line within the limits assigned him, determines the dis-
tances to be passed over in rushes, and brings his support upon the
firing line, pursuant to orders, or without orders, if the necessities of
the moment require ; he directs the fire and regulates its intensity,
under the general instructions of the chief of battalion.
The battalion in brigade {offensive').
364. The chief of battalion sends scouts forward to examine the
ground, and, if necessary, to drive in the scouts of the enemy; gives
his instructions for the deployment, and commands : i. Form for
attack, 2. March.
The reserve takes any formation that may be deemed advisable,
and, without waiting for orders, gradually draws nearer to the fight-
ing Hne, to replace the support when the latter has been absorbed ;
the reserve companies take the battle formation.
The attack is made as prescribed for the company. When the
firing line is about 500 yards from the enemy's position, the leading
sections of the reserve should be about 150 yards, and the other
sections 250 to 300 yards in rear of the firing line.
As soon as the chief of battalion thinks necessary, he places one
or more sections of the reserve in the firing line. At about 200
yards from the enemy bayonets are fixed, and the rapid or viagazine
fire is opened; the last fractions of the reserve, at the point where
the main effort is to be made, hold themselves in readiness to rein-
force the line.
The battalion in the second line of the brigade draws nearer, so as
to replace the battalion reserve, if necessary, and take part in the
final struggle.
If the rapid fire does not shake the enemy, the remainder of the
battalion reserve is quickly brought up, and another rush made,
followed by the rapid fire ; the battalion of the second line reinforces
the firing line, and, at the signal from the chief of brigade, the field
music sounds the charge, and the whole line rushes upon the enemy.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 653
The position being carried, the firing is continued ; the fractions
of the reserve not in the firing line hold themselves in readiness to
pursue the enemy or resist a counter attack.
The first opportunity is taken to assemble the companies on the
captured position. The chief of battalion forms the battalion, and
disposes his command so as to secure the position, or to pursue the
enemy if ordered.
If the attack fails, the line rallies under the protection of the
reserve.
365. When the struggle is not to be pushed to the point of assault,
as in assisting a turning movement, the chief of battalion makes his
dispositions and regulates the mode of action according to the pur-
pose in view, and must maintain his position until the appointed time.
The battalioii acting independently.
366. The action is conducted on the general principles explained
for the battalion in brigade; the front maybe more extended, but
the chief of battalion must be able to direct the struggle and secure
the increasing power of the successive efforts. If the strength of his
command warrants it, he may attack both in front and flank. He
must cover his flanks and secure his line of communication.
The advance guard having located the general position of the
enemy, the chief of battalion reconnoiters, and disposes his command
for attack.
If the attack succeeds, the battalion takes position and fires upon
the enemy, as explained for the battalion in brigade, and, if prac-
ticable, will pursue him.
If the attack fails, the rally is protected by the fractions of the
reserve that have not been engaged.
The battalion in brigade {defensive').
367. The reconnoissance and occupation of the position are made
on the principles explained for the company acting independently,
under the protection of patrols commanded by one or more officers;
these patrols endeavor to discover the enemy's position and direc-
tion of attack, and also keep his scouts and reconnoitering parties at
a distance.
As a rule, the battle formation is the same as on the offensive.
When it is desirable to have an extended and dense firing Hne from
the start, the two companies in the fighting line may be directed to
654 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
keep but one squad each in support ; or three companies may be
placed in the fighting line, each having a section in support.
The line of defense is in general determined by the configuration
of the ground ; it is not necessary that it should be equall)' manned
at all points. The points that command a clear field of fire in front
and afford cover against the enemy's fire should usually be strongly
occupied. The different parts of the front should be able to assist
each other, and under no circumstances should they be separated by
impassable obstacles.
If time and circumstances permit, the position is strengthened by
hastily-constructed entrenchments or fieldworks.
The strong points of the position may be connected by shelter
trenches, intervals being left to facilitate counter attacks and passing
from the defensive to the offensive.
Tiers of fire should be used only when there is no danger of those
in rear injuring those in front ; fractions in rear should use volleys
only.
The disposition of the rear echelons of the battalion depends upon
the movements of the assailants ; the defender uses every means to
overwhelm by fire such bodies of the enemy as remain in close
order ; the supports are placed in the firing line as may be required.
When all the supports are engaged, and the enemy probably within
500 yards of the position, a part of the reserve reinforces the line if
necessary ; the other part is held ready either to add the effect of
its fire, or to assist in the counter attack when the offensive is taken.
In the last stage of the struggle, the firing line may, if necessary,
be reinforced by the entire reserve.
If, notwithstanding a resistance to the last extremity, retreat
becomes inevitable, the troops in the second line take position and
protect the battalion while rallying, or, by an energetic counter
attack, endeavor to gain the ascendency.
When, in obedience to orders, resistance is not to be carried to
the last extremity, the retreat is executed by echelons from position
to position.
The battalion acting i7idependently.
368. The general principles given for the company acting inde-
pendently apply to the battalion.
The battalion should not deploy before the enemy's position is
known, but should be concentrated under cover.
In forming to receive the attack, the front must be sufficiently
UNITED STATES NAVY. 655
occupied from the beginning of the action, usually by two compa-
nies in the fighting line ; the other two companies are held in reserve
in rear of the supports, covering the flanks and extending beyond
them.
As soon as the supports have been absorbed in the firing line they
are replaced by the reser\*e companies, which are disposed so as to
protect the flanks.
When the front of the position is very strong, a relatively greater
part of the command may be placed in the reserve to insure more
decisive effect in counter attacks.
A battalion operating on the flank of a line which may be used to
secure the flank, to envelop the enemy's flank, or to engage the
enemy at one point, while the brigade prepares and executes the
principal attack at another. The chief of battalion makes the dispo-
sitions best adapted to accomplish the special object in view.
The battalion as advance guard of a brigade.
369. The advance guard acts offensively or defensively according
to circumstances. Its action is subordinate to that of the main
body ; it should carefully avoid becoming so engaged as to compel
the latter to depart from its original purpose. The battalion, as
advance guard, acts on the offensive as prescribed for the battalion
acting independently ; on the defensive, it may take the battle forma-
tion with three or even four companies at the first indication of the
presence of the enemy ; the strong points are occupied and the front
extended as much as necessary to prevent being outflanked.
If the enemy, without attacking, shows himself in force, the
battalion occupies the strong points and holds itself in readiness.
The battalion as rear guard of a brigade.
370. The object of the rear guard is to retard the enemy so as to
enable the main body to gain time ; it acts chiefly on the defensive.
If the battalion, as rear guard, be attacked, it will not carry its
resistance so far as to allow it to be cut off" from the main body.
Advantage is taken of any want of precaution on the part of the
enemy, to draw him into ambush or to make sudden, short, and
energetic offensive returns.
The rear guard may sometimes take the offensive, for example :
when it is guarding a defile during the passage of the main body, or
when opposing the egress of the enemy from a defile.
656 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
As a rule, the rear guard should not fight to extremity, but it must
never hesitate to sacrifice itself if necessary to secure the safe retreat
of the main body.
371. The principles given for the action of a company against
cavalry apply to the battalion.
The chief of battalion places himself where he considers his pres-
ence most necessary.
Defense and attack of artillery.
372. The principles given for the action of the company in defense
or attack of artillery apply to the battalion.
The distribution of the companies along the front and on the flanks
of the guns depends upon the character of the ground and other
circumstances. The different units should be posted so as not to
hinder the fire of the artillery ; they should be in a state of readiness,
and take the battle formation when the enemy attacks.
Infantry should not hesitate to attack an artillery line, especially
in the beginning of an action.
The battalion is disposed as for the attack of a position ; the frac-
tions in close order advance in echelon ; the advance is led on as
rapidly as possible, and the attack precipitated when within a short
distance of the guns.
The attack is directed against a flank, if possible.
If the batteries be supported by infantry, the chief of battalion
employs a sufficient force to drive it back and silence its fire, and
directs the remainder of his battalion against the artillery.
Night operations.
373. To be successful, a night attack should be a surprise ; it should
be prepared secretly, avoiding indications that might attract the
attention of the enemy.
Once engaged, it is necessary to act vigorously and promptly. It
is essential to operate over ground known in advance. It is equally
important that the leaders of the different units be carefully instructed
as to the parts they are to perform, the field assigned thehi, the
rallying points, and the line of retreat in case of failure.
On the offensive, operations are usually made in compact forma-
tion so as to be kept in hand, and to prevent misunderstandings.
Under cover of darkness the assailant approaches in silence as
near as possible to the enemy's position; he then assaults resolutely,
UNITED STATES NAVY. 65/
without replying to the fire, and comes as quickly as possible to the
hand-to-hand encounter.
On the defensive, when a night attack is expected, the position is
reinforced by troops, or strengthened by obstacles or hastily-con-
structed entrenchments ; the points to be occupied by the different
units are indicated beforehand.
After the opening of the action, all movements likely to produce
disorder and confusion are to be avoided.
The fire is directed particularly upon the approaches to the posi-
tion occupied.
THE BRIGADE IN BATTLE FORMATION.
374. The brigade is normally formed for battle in two lines, termed
the Jirs^ and secofid lines of battle. The battalions composing the
first line are designated by the chief of brigade, and are deployed as
described in the "School of the Battalion."
The intervals between battalions in extended order should not be
more than twenty-four paces. The battalions of the second line are
held in close order, in line, or in line of columns, from 300 to 600
yards in rear of the reserves of the fighting line.
In forming the brigade for action, its chief will be governed by the
circumstances of the case. On the ofiensive, the second line should
be at least as strong as the first ; on the defensive, the first line may
be made the stronger.
The action is begun and continued on the same principles as pre-
scribed for the battalion. It is the duty of the first line to open the fight,
and, if possible, push it to a successful issue. The second line secures
the flanks of the first line, supports the attack, and, if necessary,
reinforces the first line in the charge, or engages in the pursuit.
The chief of the brigade should not allow the whole of the second
hne to become engaged, except it be absolutely necessary to ensure
success.
FORMATION FOR STREET RIOTS.
General rules.
375. Each chief of company, battalion, and brigade should have a
map showing all the principal streets, squares, parks, and open places
where a force may be rallied.
Civilian scouts, or men disguised in civilians' clothing, will keep
the commanding officer informed as to the situation of affairs in the
city.
658 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
A few pioneers with picks, crowbars, shovels, and axes will accom-
pany the command.
Squads may advance along the housetops whenever practicable
and necessary to secure a flanking position against a barricade, or to
command the windows of the houses opposite.
Pieces will be carried with the bayonets fixed, and habitually at
port arms.
It is essential that perfect control of the fire be maintained to pre-
vent unnecessary loss of life. A few selected marksmen should be
ready at all times, under the direction of the oflicers, to pick off the
leaders of the mob.
To protect the flanks.
376. Being in column of companies: i. Twos a7id fours, rear
rank, as flankers, 2. March.
The numbers designated place themselves on the flanks ; those of
the right section on the right flank, and those of the left section on
the left flank, at equal intervals between their own company and the
one next in rear. The third petty officer of each company controls
its right flankers, and the fourth officer its left flankers ; the former
watches the windows and houses on the left side of the street, the
latter those on the right side. The flankers of the rear company
form a semicircle in its rear, facing about whenever necessary to
fire. Scouts may be detailed, under the command of a commissioned
or petty officer, to precede the column.
At the commands: i. Flankers, 2. Posts, the flankers resume
their places in the rear rank.
To form battalion square.
377. Being in column of companies : i. Form square, 2. March.
, If at a halt, the leading company stands fast; the right sections of
interior companies execute right forward, fours right, and the left
sections left forward, fours left ; the rear company closes up to form
the rear of the square.
To widen the square : i. Widen square, 2. March.
The leading sets of fours of the flank sections form in line with the
leading company, the other sections and companies conforming to
the movement to preserve the square.
378. To reform in column, the square being faced in the proper
direction : i. Column of companies, 2. Right and left front into line,
3. March.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 659
The flank sections form front into line.
379. The square may also be formed by causing the right sections
to turn to the right, and the left sections to the left ; the rear com-
pany closes and faces about.
Marching in column of companies, to protect fianks at street
crossings.
380. The flankers of the leading company being ordered into
ranks, and the first company having reached the fence or building
line: i. First company, 2. Sections right and left, 3. Double time,
4. March,
At the fourth command, the right section turns to the right, the
left section to the left, the rear ranks oblique to the left and right,
respectively, joining on the flanks of their respective front ranks to
extend the line across the side street. During this movement, the
charge bayonet will be taken, if necessary to force back the mob.
The rear companies continue the march. The single ranks may be
advanced along the side street, if necessary to clear it. Returning,
they form as the rear company of the column. If the street does not
cross, but ends at the one through which the column is marching,
the whole of the first company turns to the right or lefts
To reform the cotnpany in colum.n.
381. The sections being in line across the side street: i. Form
coynpany, 2. March, 3. Forward, 4. March.
At the first command, the sections are quickly formed in double
rank facing by the flank ; at the second command, the first section
executes column left, the second section column right ; as the heads
of the sections are about to unite, the commands three and four are
given, at which the sections execute right or left flank, and the com-
pany advances as the rear company of the column.
To form company square.
382. Being in column of sections, marching or at a halt : i. Form
square, 2. March.
The front rank of the first section continues the march or stands
fast ; the rear rank faces about, and turns to the left ; the front rank
of the second section turns to the left ; the rear rank, second section,
continues the march or faces about. Officers and petty officers may
be inside or outside the square. The first and second petty officers
have charge of the front ranks, and the third and fourth petty
660 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
officers of the rear ranks of their respective sections. One or more
men may be detailed from each side of the square to act as scouts
and flankers.
The square may march to \h.& front or rear or by ihejlank.
383. Company being in line, marching or at a halt: i. Form
sgua7-e, 2. March.
The front rank of the first section continues the march or stands
fast ; the rear rank faces about, turns to the left and continues the
march, or halts ; the front rank of the second section faces about,
turns to the left, and continues the march, or faces about and halts ;
the rear rank of the second section faces about, obliques to the left
to its position in the square, faces about and continues the march, or
halts.
To form for clearing a street.
384. Marching in company square: i. Fla7ikers right a7id left
front into line, 2. March.
Intervals are taken from the center, if necessary to reach across
the street ; the rear side of the square remains in its place to protect
the flanks and rear.
385. To reform the square: i. Form square, 2. March.
The flankers face about, and turn to the right and left into their
places.
386. Company being in line, marching or at a halt : i. Right
flankers i?ito line, 2. March.
The company continues the march, or stands fast ; the rear rank,
first section, faces to the right and the men successively place them-
selves on the line of the front rank, in double time ; the rear rank,
second section, faces about, obliques to its position in rear of the
center, and then faces about and continues the march, or halts.
To form line from formation for clearing a street.
387. Company being deployed : i. Form company, 2. March.
The right flankers face to the left and successively resume their
places in line, in double time ; the rear rank, second section, obliques
to its position in line.
To form colum^i of sections from company square.
388. The square being first faced in the proper direction : i. Form
column of sectiojis, 2. March.
' The flankers face inward and turn into their places.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 66 1
Company squares may be used to clear parallel streets, each of
which may be occupied by a company square.
To form line from com,pany sqtiare.
389. Being at a halt : i. Form company, 2. March.
Each rank turns or obliques to its place in line.
Artillery.
390. Should artillery be detailed with a battalion for service in
city streets, it will be assigned where its presence may be most
needed. If necessary, squads of riflemen may be detailed from the
infantry companies for its support.
CEREMONIES.
391. When present at parades and inspections of a battalion, its
field and staff are dismounted; they are also dismounted at review,
unless the reviewing officer be mounted.
In line, they are posted at one pace apart, and six paces to the
right and on a line with the front rank, and in the order of rank, the
senior on the right.
In column, they form similarly six paces in front of the chief of the
leading company, on a line equal to the front of the column.
Staff petty officers, except the chief petty officer, are similarly
posted on the left of the battalion when in line, and six paces in rear
of the file closers of the rear subdivision when in column.
DRESS PARADE OF A BATTALION.
392. At the assembly, the companies form under arms on their
respective parade grounds, and are inspected by their chiefs; the
inspection being completed, adjutant's call is sounded, at which the
line is formed on the battalion parade ground.
The commanding officer takes his post at a convenient distance in
front of the center, facing the line.
The adjutant having commanded guides posts, directs the first
chief of company to bring his company to parade rest. The chiefs
of company, commencing on the right, successively face about and
command: i. (_Such) company, 2. Parade, 3. Rest; resume their
front and take position oi parade rest. The adjutant then takes his
post, three paces to the right of the front rank, and commands:
Sound off, and takes the position oi parade rest. The chief petty
officer takes post three paces to the left of the front rank.
662 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
The band, commencing- on the right, plays in quick time, passing
in front of the chiefs of company, to the left of the line, and back to
its post on the right; at evening parade, after the strain is finished,
retreat is sounded by the buglers or field music. The adjutant then
steps two paces to the front, faces to the left, and commands:
I, Battalion, 2. Attention, 3. Opeji ranks.
Having aligned the guides for the rear rank, the adjutant steps
three paces to the front of the front rank, faces to the left, and com-
mands:
4. March.
At which the ranks are opened.
The adjutant having verified the alignment of the officers, the
ranks, and the file closers, returns to the right of the front rank, faces
to the left, and commands: Front, and then passes by the shortest
line to a point midway between the center of the battalion and the
commanding officer, when he halts, faces the battalion, and com-
mands :
I. Prese?it, 2. Arms.
At the second command, the officers and men present arms. The
adjutant then faces about, salutes the commanding officer, and
reports: Sir, the parade is formed. The commanding officer returns
the salute with the right hand, and directs the adjutant: Take your
post, Sir. The adjutant takes his post three paces to the left and
one pace to the rear of the commanding officer, passing by his right
and rear.
The commanding officer, while the band is playing, stands at
parade rest, with his arms folded, in which position he continues till
arms are about to be presented, when he comes to attention. The
adjutant having taken his post, the commanding officer draws his
sword, and gives such exercise in the manual of arfns as he may
desire, concluding with order arms. He then directs the adjutant to
receive the reports, and returns his sword.
The adjutant passes by the right of the commanding officer,
advances toward the line, halts midway between him and the line of
officers, and commands:
I. Petty officers, 2. To the front and center, 3. March (or double
ii7ne, March).
At the second command, the first petty officers step two paces to
the front and face toward the center ; the drum major or bandmaster
UNITED STATES NAVY. 663
at the same time faces to the left ; at the third command, they bring
their pieces to the trail, and march to the center and successively
face to the front ; the adjutant then commands :
Report.
The drum major and first petty officers, commencing on the right,
successively salute and report ; the drum major or bandmaster, Band
and buglers {ox field music) present or accoimted for (or, so many —
abse^if) ; the first petty officers, First (or such) company present or
accounted for (or, so viany — absent).
The reports made, the adjutant commands :
I. Petty officers, 2. To your posts, 3. March (or double time,
March).
At the third command, the first petty officers and drum major or
bandmaster face outward, and return to their places ; the first petty
officers pass through their intervals a pace to the rear, face about,
step into the front rank, and then order arms.
The adjutant now faces about, salutes the commanding officer, and
reports : Sir, all are present or accounted for ; or, {so many) officers
and men are absent.
The commanding officer acknowledges his salute, and directs :
Publish the orders, Sir ; at which the adjutant faces about and com-
mands :
Attention to orders.
He then reads the orders, after which he faces about, salutes the
commanding officer, and reports : Sir, the orders are published.
The commander acknowledges the salute, and directs : Dismiss the
parade. Sir ; at which the adjutant faces about and commands :
Parade is dismissed.
All the officers return their swords and face toward the center ;
then step off" at the same time with the adjutant, close upon the
center, and successively face to the front; the two officers nearest the
center preserve an interval for the adjutant, who passes through it a
pace to the rear, when he halts and faces about ; all the officers having
faced to the front, the adjutant steps into his place and commands :
I. Officers, 2. Forward, 3. Gjiide center, 4. March.
At the fourth command, they march to the front, dressing on the
center, the band playing ; on approaching the commanding officer,
the adjutant commands :
664 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY
I. Officers, 2. Halt.
At the second command, given at six paces from the commanding
officer, the music ceases, the officers halt, and salute with the hand.
The hands remain at the visor till the salute is acknowledged, and
drop at the same time with the hand of the commanding officer,
which concludes the ceremony.
The officers and chief petty officer then disperse, and the music
is resumed ; the first petty officers step to the front and close the
ranks of their companies ; the third petty officer of each company
places himself on the right of the front rank ; the first petty officers
march their companies to the company parade grounds and dismiss
them, the band continuing to play till the companies clear the bat-
talion parade ground.
When the line at parade is very short, the band, when sounding
off, may play in common time.
393. At parade and other forms of ceremony, a petty officer, in
command of his company, places himself on its right at the com-
mand guides posts.
At parade, before bringing his company to parade rest, he steps
two paces to the front, and faces to the left ; having given his com-
mands, he faces to the left, passes through his interval a pace to the
rear, faces about, steps into his place, and then comes to parade rest.
394. At formations for drill, a petty officer in command of his
company, at the comm3iX\d guides posts, places himself on the right
of his company, and, as soon as arms have been presented to the
commanding officer and brought to an order, he takes the post pre-
scribed for the chief of company. At inspection, when the ranks are
open, his place is on the right of the front rank.
UNDRESS PARADE.
395. In bad weather, undress parade takes the place of dress
parade. The companies fall in without arms on their respective
parade grounds; the first petty officer, having reported the result of
the roll call, places himself on the right of the front rank ; the chief
of company, or officer superintending the roll call, dresses the com-
pany to the right, then places himself two paces in front of its center,
faces to the rear, and commands :
I. Parade, 2. REST ;
resumes his front, and comes io parade rest. If a petty officer is in
charge of a company, he stands on the right of the front rank.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 665
The band, without instruments, falls in on its own parade ground.
The adjutant assigns the buglers or field music a position, and
when all the companies have come to parade rest, he commands :
Sound off; at which the retreat \s sounded, the adjutant standing
3X parade rest.
The retreat being sounded, the officer In charge of each company
faces about, calls the company to attention, and directs the first petty
officer to dismiss it.
When orders are to be published at undress parade, the companies
close in, and are dressed by the officers in command of them, on a
company previously designated.
The band takes post on the right of the line, the buglers or field
music in its rear.
The line being formed, the adjutant in front of the center and
facing the line commands :
I. Parade, 2. Rest, 3. Sound off.
At the second command, the buglers or field music, remaining in
place, sound the retreat. The adjutant then calls the battalion to
attention, publishes the orders, and commands:
Dismiss your companies.
The officers retire, and the first petty officers march their com-
panies to their respective parade grounds, and then dismiss them.
At all established roll calls, except dress parade, after the com-
panies are dismissed, each officer superintending the company roll
call reports to the adjutant or other officer designated the result of
the roll call; the adjutant or officer designated reports the result of
the roll call to the commanding officer.
REVIEW OF A BATTALION.
396. The reviewing officer takes his post in front of the center of
the battalion, the point being indicated by a camp color previously
established by the adjutant; the adjutant also marks with camp colors
the points where the column will have to change direction in order
that the right flank in passing shall be six or eight paces from the
reviewing officer.
The battalion being in line, the chief of battalion, in front of and
facing the center, commands :
666 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I. Prepare for review, 2. Open ranks, 3. March.
At the third command, the ranks are opened ; the chief of battalion
superintends the alignment of the company officers and the front
rank ; the adjutant the rear rank and the line of file closers. The
chief of battalion, seeing the ranks aligned, returns to the right of the
hne of company officers, faces to the left, and commands: Front,
and, passing in front of the company officers to the center, places
himself, facing to the front, twenty paces in front of and opposite the
center of the battalion. The reviewing officer now approaches a few
paces toward the chief of battalion and halts, when the latter faces
about and commands :
I. Present, 2. Arms.
At the second command, the officers and men present arms ; the
color also salutes, should the rank of the reviewing officer entitle him
to it, in which case the band, buglers, or field music, sound a march,
flourishes, or ruffles, according to his rank ; arms having been pre-
sented, the chief of battalion faces about and salutes.
The reviewing officer acknowledges the salute by touching or
raising his hat, after which the chief of battalion faces about and
brings the battalion to order arms.
The chief of battalion then joins the reviewing officer, who pro-
ceeds to the right of the band, and passing in front of the company
officers to the left of the line, returns to the right, passing in rear of
the file closers.
When the reviewing officer is going around the battalion, the band
plays, ceasing when he leaves the right of the band to return to his
station ; the chief of battalion returns to his post in front of the center,
and commands:
I. Close ranks, 2. March.
At the second command, the company officers return to their
places in line ; the staff and petty staff remain in their places.
The reviewing officer having taken his position, the chief of
battalion commands:
I. Companies right, 2. March.
At the second command, the battalion breaks into column of com-
panies ; the staff, excepting the adjutant, take their posts in column,
the adjutant on a line with the leading company, the chief petty
officer on a line with the rear company, each six paces from the left
flank of the column; the petty staff, excepting the chief petty officer,
UNITED STATES NAVY. 66"]
take their posts in column ; the band turns to the right and takes
post ten paces in front of the staff.
The chief of battahon then commands:
I. Pass i7i review, 2. Forward, 3. Guide right, 4. March.
At the fourth command, the column steps off, the officers remaining
in the positions above described, the band playing; the column
changes direction, without command, at the points indicated, the
chief of battalion taking his place six paces in front of the staff
immediately after the second change; the band, after passing the
reviewing officer, turns to the left out of column and takes post in
front of and facing the reviewing officer, where it remains till the
rear of the column has passed, when it countermarches and returns
to its place before the review, ceasing to play as the battalion
approaches its original position.
The chief of battalion and staff, except the adjutant, salute together
when the chief of battalion is at six paces from the reviewing officer,
and return to the carry together when he has marched six paces
beyond him. The other officers and the petty staff salute and
return to the carry at the points prescribed for the chief of battalion.
In saluting, all officers turn the head and look toward the reviewing
officer. Petty officers in command of subdivisions salute with the
rifle salute. The battalion will be brought to the position of /(?r/
arms after the completion of the second change of direction, and will
resume the shoulder by command of the chief of battalion when the
rear company has passed the reviewing officer. If entitled to a
salute from the color, the color salutes when at six paces from the
reviewing officer, and is raised when six paces beyond him ; as the
colors salute, the buglers or field music sound a march, flourishes, or
ruffles, according to his rank, the band continuing to play.
The reviewing officer acknowledges only the salute of the chief of
battalion and the color.
The chief of battalion having saluted, places himself on the right
of the reviewing officer, where he remains until the rear of the
battalion has passed, when he rejoins his command. The head of
the column having executed a second change of direction to the left,
after having passed the reviewing officer, the chief of battalion com-
mands: Guide left; and when it arrives on the original ground,
forms line to the left, opens ranks as in the previous case, presents
arms, and salutes ; the acknowledgment of the salute by the reviewing
officer terminates the review.
668 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Should it be desirable to march past the reviewing officer again,
and in double time, instead of changing the guide and forming line
as above, the chief of battalion commands :
I. Double time, 2. March ;
and at the second change of direction places himself at the head of
the column. The band, previously notified, remains in position
opposite the reviewing officer and plays in double time.
In passing in review in double time there is no saluting ; the chief
of battalion having passed the reviewing officer, places himself on
his right, and the review is concluded as already explained.
After the review, the chief of battalion causes the battalion to
perform such manoeuvres as the reviewing officer may direct.
When a battalion is reviewed before an inspector junior in rank to
the commanding officer, the latter will receive the review, and will
be accompanied by the inspector.
INSPECTION OF A BATTALION.
397. The battalion being in line, the chief of battalion causes it to
break into column of companies, right in front, and commands:
I. Open ranks, 2. March.
At the first command, the right and left guides of each company
step three paces to the rear to mark the alignment for the rear rank.
Each chief of company hastens to the right, verifies the positions of
the guides, and then places himself, facing to the left, three paces in
front of the right file. The adjutant places himself on the left of the
color guard, and commands :
I. Forward, 2. Guide left.
At the command march, the ranks are opened in each company ;
the adjutant conducts the color guard to the head of the column,
posts it twelve paces in front of the center of the leading company,
and opens its ranks. The drum major conducts the band, passing
by the right flank of the battalion, to the rear of the column, and
posts it twelve paces in rear of the rear company.
The chief of battalion next commands :
I. Staff to the front, 2. March.
The commissioned officers thus designated form in the order of
rank from right to left, on a line equal to the front of the column.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 669
six paces in front of the colors; the petty staff form in a similar
manner, three paces in rear of the staff officers. The chief of bat-
talion, seeing the movement executed, takes post on the right of the
line of staff officers, and awaits the approach of the inspecting officer.
Such officers as are superior in rank to the inspector do not take
post in front of the column, but accompany the inspecting officer.
After inspecting the staff, the inspector, accompanied by the com-
manding officer, passes down the open column, looking at every
rank, front and rear. The staff return their swords as soon as
inspected.
The chief of battalion now commands :
Rest ;
when the inspector, commencing at the head of the column, proceeds
to make a minute inspection of the petty staff and color guard, and
the several companies in succession.
The adjutant gives the necessary commands for the inspection of
the color guard.
The petty staff and color guard may be dismissed as soon as
inspected.
As the inspector successively approaches each company, its chief
commands :
I. Company, 2. Attention, 3. Inspection^ 4. Arms.
The chief of company, as soon as inspected, returns his sword and
accompanies the inspecting officer ; the chiefs of section, when the
inspector begins the inspection of the front rank, face about and
stand at rest ; the arms, accoutrements, and dress of each man
having been minutely inspected, the chief of company closes ranks,
stacks arms, and commands :
I. Unsling, 2. Knapsack, 3. Open, 4. Knapsack.
At the fourth command, the flaps are opened, the men then stand
at attention.
The inspector having inspected the knapsacks, the chief of com-
pany commands :
I. Repack, 2. Knapsack.
At the second command, each man repacks and fastens his knap-
sack, leaving it in the same position as before opening it, and then
stands at attention.
The chief of company then commands:
670 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I. Sling, 2, Knapsack.
In a long column, some of the rearmost companies, after the
inspection of dress and general appearance, may be permitted to
stack arms and fall out until just before the inspector approaches
them, when they take arms, and resume their position.
The band plays during the inspection of the companies, ceasing
when the rear company has been inspected. Its ranks are opened
by the drum major or bandmaster at the approach of the inspector.
Each man, as the inspector approaches him, raises his instrument
and reverses it so as to show both sides, and then returns it to its
former position.
The first inspection of dress and general appearance may be dis-
pensed with.
At inspection of quarters, the inspecting officer is accompanied by
all the officers, or by such of them as he may designate ; the men
stand covered in front of their bunks ; in camp, in front of their tents;
the senior petty officer, upon the approach of the inspector, com-
mands: Attention.
DRESS PARADE OF A BRIGADE.
398. The brigade is usually formed for parade in the same manner
as a battalion ; if, however, the line be very long, each battalion may
be formed in two lines ; the distance between lines and the interval
between battalions are twelve paces. In each battalion, the right
wing is in the first line, the lines being formed as explained in the
" Evolutions of the Brigade." The brigade is formed on the right
battalion ; the brigade adjutant indicates the poi7it of rest and the
direction of the line to its adjutant.
The battalions are formed and the companies dressed to the right
in the same manner as in the battalion in single line.
The chief of each battalion, as soon as it is dressed, posts himself
twelve paces in front of the center of his command ; the adjutant is
three paces on the right of the front rank of the first line; the chief
petty officer is three paces to the left of the front rank of the rear
line; the staff, except the adjutant, is abreast of the first line and six
paces to the right of the front rank; the petty staff is six paces in
rear of the center of the second line and one pace apart.
The brigade band is twelve paces to the right of the staff of the
first battalion.
UNITED STATES NAVY. ,671
The brigade adjutant is three paces to the right of the staff of the
first battalion.
The chief of brigade takes post facing the line, fifty paces in front
of its center ; his statf, except the brigade adjutant, in single rank six
paces in his rear; the orderlies three paces in rear of the staff.
The brigade adjutant having commanded guides posts, the chiefs
of battalion, beginning on the right, successively face about, bring
their battalions to parade rest, and then face to the front ; the band
then plays, marching in front of the line of chiefs of battalion to the
left of the brigade, and back to its post on the right.
The music having ceased, the brigade adjutant moves six paces to
the front, turns to the left, halts, and commands:
I. Battalions, 2. Attention.
The brigade adjutant then passes by the shortest line to a point
midway between the line of the chiefs of battalion and the chief of
brigade, faces the brigade, and commands :
I. Present, 2. Arms.
The arms being presented, the brigade adjutant faces about,
salutes, and reports: Sir, the parade is formed ; the chief of brigade
acknowledges the salute with the right hand, and directs the brigade
adjutant: Take your post, Sir; the brigade adjutant takes his post
three paces to the left and one pace to the rear of the chief of brigade,
passing by his right and rear.
The brigade adjutant having taken his post, the chief of brigade
and his staff draw swords; the chief of brigade then gives such exer-
cise in the ma?iual of arms as he may desire, concluding with order
arms. The chiefs of battalion, unless otherwise ordered, repeat the
commands.
The chief of brigade then directs the brigade adjutant to receive
the reports, and returns his sword ; the staff return swords at the
same time.
The brigade adjutant passes around the right of the chief of
brigade, advances toward the line, halts midway between the chief of
brigade and the line of chiefs of battalion, and commands:
I. Adjutants to the front and center, 2. March.
At the first command, the adjutants advance to the front and face
toward the center; at the second command, they march to the
672 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
center, passing in rear of the line of chiefs of battalion, and succes-
sively face to the front.
The brigade adjutant then commands : Report, when the adju-
tants, commencing on the right, salute and report: (^Such') battalion
present or accounted for ; or, {SucJi) battalion {so many) officers, or
men, are absent.
The brigade adjutant then commands :
I. Adjutants to your posts, 2. March.
At the second command, the adjutants return to their posts ; the
brigade adjutant then faces about, salutes, and reports : Sir, all are
present or accounted for ; or, Sir, {so many) officers and men are
absent.
The chief of brigade acknowledges the salute, and directs the
brigade adjutant: Dismiss the parade, Sir.
The brigade adjutant faces about, and commands: Parade is dis-
missed; when the chiefs of battalion return their swords and face
toward the center.
The brigade adjutant having returned his sword, the chiefs of bat-
talion close upon the center, and successively face to the front ; the
two nearest the center preserve an interval for the brigade adjutant,
who passes through it and three paces to the rear, when he faces
about and halts ; the chiefs of battalion having faced to the front, the
brigade adjutant moves up to his place and commands :
I. Officers, 2. Forward, 3. Guide center, 4. March.
On approaching the chief of brigade, the brigade adjutant com-
mands :
I. Officers, 2. Halt.
At the second command, given at six paces from the chief of
brigade, the officers halt and salute with the right hand ; the chief of
brigade returns the salute, and gives such instructions as he may
deem necessary. The chiefs of battalion then return to their bat-
talions, which they conduct to their parade grounds and dismiss.
399. Reviews and inspections of brigades are conducted in the
same manner as prescribed for the battalion.
GUARD MOUNTING.
400. At the assembly of guard details, the men warned for duty
fall in on their company parade grounds in two ranks, facing to the
UNITED STATES NAVY. 673
right, petty officers and supernumeraries falling in as file closers ;
each first petty officer then faces his detail to the left, verifies it,
fixes bayonets, opens ranks, inspects the dress and general appear-
ance, replaces by a supernumerary any man whose condition makes
him unfit to march on guard, and then closes ranks.
The buglers or field music take post on the general parade so that
the left of their front rank shall be twelve paces to the right of the
front rank of the guard when the latter is formed.
At adjutant's call ihe adjutant and chief petty officer march to the
general parade, the chief petty officer on the left ; the details are con-
ducted to the parade by the first petty officers, the buglers playing
in quick or double time.
Upon arriving on the parade ground, the chief petty officer takes
post facing to the left, twelve paces to the left of the front rank of the
buglers ; the adjutant takes post so as to be twelve paces in front of
and facing the center of the guard when formed.
The detail which arrives first is so conducted to the line that, upon
halting, the breast of right front-rank man shall be near to and
opposite the left arm of the chief petty officer. The first petty officer
having halted his detail, places himself in front of and facing the
chief petty officer, at a distance equal to or a little greater than the
front of his detail ; he then commands :
I. Open ranks, 2. March.
At the second command, the ranks are opened, the front rank
dresses up to the line of the chief petty officer and first petty officer,
the right front-rank man placing his breast against the left arm of
the chief petty officer; the rear rank steps back and halts three
paces in rear of the front rank ; the petty officers three paces in rear
of the rear rank ; the supernumeraries three paces in rear of the
petty officers.
Seeing the ranks opened, the first petty officer commands : Front ;
salutes the chief petty officer and reports : The detail is correct ; or,
{So many) petty officers, or men, are absent. He then passes by
the right of the guard, and places himself three paces in rear of his
supernumeraries.
The other details, as they arrive, form in a similar manner on
the left of the first ; each first petty officer places himself opposite
the left of his detail, faces the chief petty officer, opens ranks,
salutes, reports, and places himself in rear of his supernumeraries,
6/4 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
as already prescribed ; the rear rank, the petty officers, and super-
numeraries of each detail dress on the rear rank, the petty officers
and supernumeraries of the detail next preceding ; the rear rank
closes to the right.
The company details alternate in taking the right of the line. The
chief petty officer returns the salute with the right hand, draws his
sword, verifies the details, causes the guard to count fours, and com-
pletes the left four as in the "School of the Company"; after which
he commands :
I. Right, 2. Dress.
He verifies the alignment of the ranks, file closers, supernumera-
ries, and first petty officers, and then returns to the right of the
front rank, faces to the left, and commands : 3. Front, passes to the
center of the guard, turns to the right, halts midway to the adjutant,
salutes, and reports :
Sir, the details are correct ; or,
Sir, (so many) petty officers, or men, are absent.
At the command: Take your post, the chief petty officer faces
about, approaches to within two paces of the cen,ter of the guard,
and, turning to the right, places himself facing to the front, three
paces to the left of the front rank.
The chief petty officer having reported, the officers of the guard
post themselves facing to the front, three paces in front of the front
rank, and draw swords, the senior opposite the center of the right
half of the guard, the junior opposite the center of the left half; if
there be but one officer, he places himself in front of the center of
the guard.
The adjutant superintends the formation, returns the salute of the
chief petty officer with the right hand, draws his sword, and com-
mands :
I. Officers and petty officers to the froiit a7id center, 2. March.
At the second command, the officers of the guard advance, closing
toward each other, and halt at three paces from the adjutant ; the
petty officers come to a trail, and, passing by the flanks, form in the
order of rank from right to left, three paces in rear of the officers.
The adjutant then assigns their places in the guard according to
rank, as follows : senior officer, commander of the guard ; jiaiior
officer ; senior petty officer, right guide ; second petty officer, left
guide ; the remaining petty officers, file closers.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 6/5
The adjutant then commands :
I. Officers and petty officers, 2. To your posts, 3. March.
At the third command, the junior officer of the guard and the
petty officers take the posts assigned them, the junior officer placing
himself three paces in front of the center of the left half of the
guard, the petty officers passing around the flanks.
If there be but one officer of the guard, the adjutant commands :
I. Petty officers, 2. To your posts, 3. March.
The senior petty officer takes his post in the line of file closers,
opposite the center of the left half of the guard.
The officers and petty officers having taken their posts, the adju-
tant directs the commander of the guard : Inspect your g^iard, Sir ;
at which he faces about, and commands:
I. Inspection, 2. Arms;
returns his sword and inspects the guard.
The adjutant, during the inspection, returns his sword, observes
the general condition of the guard, and replaces any man who does
not present a creditable appearance by a supernumerary from his
company. He also, when so directed, selects as orderly for the
commanding officer the man who is neatest in general appearance,
and notifies the officer of the guard of his selection.
When there are two officers of the guard, the junior may, at the
discretion of the senior, inspect the rear rank.
If there be no officers of the guard, the adjutant inspects ; the
senior petty officer who commands the guard places himself on the
right of the front rank and is covered by the right guide in the rear
rank.
The inspection ended, the adjutant places himself about thirty
paces in front of and facing the center of the guard, and draws sword ;
the officers of the guard resume their posts and draw swords ; at the
same time the officers of the day take post in front of and facing the
guard, about thirty paces or more from the adjutant, the old officer
of the day three paces to the right and one pace to the rear of the
new officer of the day.
The adjutant then commands:
I. Close ranks, 2. March, 3. Present, 4. Arms;
faces to the new officer of the day, salutes, and reports : Sir, the
6/6 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
guard is formed. The new officer of the day, after acknowledging
the salute with the right hand, directs the adjutant ; March the guard
to its post, Sir. The adjutant faces about, brings the guard to a
shoulder, and then commands :
I. Guard to its post, 2. Fours right, 3. March
(or, double time, March).
At the second command, the senior ofiftcer places himself, facing
to the right, two paces in front of the right guide. At the third com-
mand, the guard wheels by fours to the right, the buglers or field
music place themselves in its front ; the senior officer takes command
and places himself on the left of the leading guide ; the adjutant and
chief petty officer return swords and retire, and the first petty officers
march off their supernumeraries ; the officers of the day face toward
each other and salute, the old officer of the day giving the standing
orders to his successor.
As the new guard approaches the guardhouse, the old guard is
formed in line, with the buglers or field music two paces on its right,
and, when the buglers or field music of the new guard arrive oppo-
site its left, the commander of the old guard commands :
I. Present, 2. Arms.
The new guard having passed, he commands :
I. Order, 2. Arms.
The new guard marches in quick time past the old guard, arms at
a shoulder, officers saluting.
The buglers, having marched three paces beyond the buglers or
field music of the old guard, change direction to the right, and,
followed by the guard, change direction to the left when on a line
with the file closers of the old guard. The change of direction is
without command ; the senior officer of the guard halts on the line
of the front rank of the old guard, allows his guard to march past
him, and, when its rear approaches, wheels it by fours tt) the left,
halts it, establishes the left guide three paces to the right of the
buglers or field music of the old guard, and on a line with its front
rank, and then dresses his guard to the left ; the buglers or field
music of the new guard are two paces to the right of its front rank.
The new guard being dressed, the commander of each guard in
front of and facing its center, commands:
UNITED STATES NAVY. '^TJ
I. Present, 2. Arms;
resumes his front and salutes. The officers, having saluted, face
their guards, and command :
I. Order, 2. Arms.
Should the guards be commanded by petty officers, they present
with their guards, standing on the right or left of the front rank,
according as they command the old or new guard. If one guard
is commanded by an officer, the other by a petty officer, the latter
stands on the flank of his guard and salutes with it.
During the time of relieving the sentinels and of calling in the
small posts, the two guards stand at ease.
The detachment and sentinels of the old guard having been
relieved by members of the new guard, form on the left of the old
guard ; the senior officer of the old guard then marches it at the
shoulder, with ihe guide right, six paces to the front, when he com-
mands :
I. Fours right, 2. March.
At the second command, the guard wheels by fours to the right,
the buglers or field music begin to play, and the guard marches in
quick time past the new guard, which stands 2i\. prese7it arms, of^cers
of both guards saluting.
The commander of the new guard, if an officer, stands two paces
in front of its center while the old guard is passing ; if a petty officer,
he stands on the right of the front rank.
The new guard is brought to an order as soon as the old guard
has passed, and, when the latter has marched about fifty paces from
the post of the guard, the commander of the new guard orders his
men to stack arms, or to place them in the gun racks.
Upon arriving on the general parade, the officer of the old guard
forms it in line and halts it, orders the company details composing it
two paces to the front and sends them, under charge of petty officers,
to their respective companies.
When the details return to their companies, the chiefs of squad
examine the arms and accoutrements of their men and cause them
to be put away in good order.
When a small detachment is mounted for guard the officer mount-
ing it causes it to open ranks, and, after having inspected it, closes
ranks, and, without presenting (unless there be an officer of the day),
marches it direct to its post by the commands :
6/8 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I. Guard to its post, 2. Right, 3. Face, 4. Forward, 5. March.
The petty officer commanding the guard, during the mounting,
stands on the right of the front rank. In conducting the guard to
its post he marches near its left and rear, where he can see its move-
ments. A file closer, if there be one, takes his place as guide.
The same honors are rendered at the guardhouse as already
explained.
DRILL REGULATIONS FOR ARTILLERY.
ARTILLERY.
General rules.
401. When the pieces are cast loose for action, they are said to be
in battery.
402. ThQ front, when the drag is manned, is toward the leaders ;
in battery it is the direction in which the guns are pointed.
403. The right and left are the right and left of the actual front.
404. The dress, when the drag is manned, is on the leaders ; and
when in battery, on the axles of the pieces.
405. The men of an artillery section are numbered from i to 16,
inclusive; the second petty officer has charge of the ammunition
and boxes, and carries the haversack containing armorer's tools and
necessary spare articles.
406. Numbers i to 8, inclusive, and the second petty officer, will
be armed with the revolver only ; the remainder of the crew and the
first petty officer will be armed as infantr)\
407. When the limber is used, an extra crew will be required to
manoeuvre it. The crew and limber, when not hooked up, being
regarded as a section, forming the second section of a platoon, the
crew and piece being the first section. When the limber is hooked
up to the piece, the drag of the limber may be hitched to the drag
of the piece, the former in front, or the two drags may be hooked to
the trail of the piece, side by side; the short drag will be hooked in
rear of the limber.
408. The limber crew will be armed the same as the crew for the
piece, and when hi battery, numbers i to 8, inclusive, with the second
petty officer, will remain with the limber to remove it when required,
and they will also fill any vacancies that may occur in the crew of
UNITED STATES NAVY. 6/9
the piece. Numbers 9 to 16, inclusive, with the first petty officer,
will form one squad of the riflemen support, the same as from the
crew of a piece, the entire support of a battery being in charge of
the junior officer of the battery.
SCHOOL OF THE SECTION,
Sling arms for dragmen.
409. The pieces being in any position, marching or at a halt:
I. Slijig, 2. Arms.
At the second command, loosen the sling ; support the piece with
the right hand at the small of the stock, barrel to the rear, the left
hand holding the sling in front of and at the height of the chin ;
place the sling over the head, change the left hand to the small of
the stock to steady the piece, slip the right arm through the sling,
press the butt to the rear with the right hand, and drop both hands
by the side.
The piece is slung on the right shoulder in the same manner, sub-
stituting right for left, and vice versa.
The odd-numbered men sling arms whh the shng resting on the
left shoulder, and the even-numbered men with the sling resting on
the right shoulder, so that the butts will be on the off side from the
drag and the muzzles pointing toward the drag.
To unsling arms.
410. Arms being slung, marching or at a halt : i. Unsling, 2.
Arms.
At the second command, bring the butt forward with the right
hand and seize the piece at the small of the stock with the left ; slip
the right arm out of the sling and seize the small of the stock with
the right hand, changing the left hand to the sling ; lift the sling over
the head with the left hand.
If at a halt, take the position of order arms ; if marching, the
position will be designated.
The piece is unslung from the right shoulder in the same manner,
substituting right for left, and vice versa.
411. Dragmen may be permitted to use the infantry sling, hanging
their pieces on the shoulder farthest from the drag. They may also
carry their pieces in the free hand, or at the shoulder or slope, accord-
ing as they are on the right or left of the drag. Such positions will
be convenient when knapsacks are worn.
680 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
To form the crew.
412. The first petty officer commands : Fall in at the drag.
Arms are siung ; i and 2 man the guide ropes ; 3 and 4 man the
short drag in rear of the piece ; 5 and 6 man the first toggle ; 7 and
8 the second, and so on to 15 and 16, who man the end toggle, and
are designated the leaders. Odd-numbered men are on the right of
the drag, and even-numbered men on the left. The post of the
first petty officer is on the left of the even-numbered leader ; that of
the second petty officer in rear of the muzzle.
The muster is now held, and, when concluded, the first petty officer
reports the result to the chief of section, who then takes command.
Should it be desirable to form the crew as a section of infantry
before the muster, the first petty officer commands: i. Fall in,
2. Crew to the front ; or, 2. Crew to the rear, at which the men fall
in as directed, the odd-numbered men being in the front rank, the
even-numbered men in the rear rank, i and 2 on the right, and the
second petty officer two paces in rear of the center of the crew.
The muster being held and reported, the chief of section commands:
1. Maji the drag, 2. March, at which the men take their stations as
prescribed.
To form crew to the front,
413. The drag being manned : i. Crew to the front, 2. March.
At the first command, the men drop the toggles and drags, and
unsling arms ; i and 2 step one pace to the right and left, respec-
tively ; 3 and 4 then take position ahead of i and 2, second petty
officer in rear of i, and all the numbers close on the leaders 15 and
16 in double time, pieces at the trail. At the second command, the
leaders change direction to the left, followed by the other numbers;
the first petty officer stands fast. The command halt is given by the
first petty officer when i arrives abreast of him ; he then steps two
paces to the front, faces to the left, and gives the command : i. Rights
2. Face, and dresses the crew to the right, taking post in the front
rank on the right of i ; the second petty officer takes post two paces
in rear of the center of the crew.
To man the drag.
414. Crew being to the front : i. Man the drag, 2. March.
At the first command, the first petty officer steps two paces to the
front and faces about ; the crew faces to the right. At the second
command, the crew changes direction to the right in double time.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 68 1
pieces at the trail, and the men halt at their stations, sh'ng arms,
pick up their toggles, and face to the front ; the petty officers take
their posts.
To form crew to the rear.
415. The drag being manned : i. Crew to the rear, 2. March.
At the first command, the men drop the toggles and drags, unsling
arms, and those numbers in front of 5 and 6 face about, close on
them in double time, pieces at the trail, and face to the front again
when closed up ; 3 and 4 place themselves ahead of i and 2, and the
first petty officer places himself on the left of the leaders 15 and 16.
At the second command, he faces to the right and stands fast ; the
leaders change direction to the right, followed by the other numbers.
The command halt is given by the first petty officer when i arrives
abreast of him ; he then gives the command : i. Right, 2, Face, and
dresses the crew to the right, taking post in the front rank on the
right of I ; the second petty officer takes post two paces in rear of
the center of the crew.
To man the drag.
416. Crew being to the rear: i. Man the drag, 2. March.
At the first command, the first petty officer steps one pace to the
right and faces about ; the crew faces to the right. At the second
command, the crew changes direction to the right in double iime^
pieces at the trail, and the men halt at their stations, sling arms, pick
up their toggles, i and 2 at the guide ropes, 3 and 4 at the short
drag, all facing to the front ; the petty officers take their posts.
417. If there be an extra crew present with the limber when hooked
up, in forming crew to \.\\& front or rear, it will form upon the leaders
of the crew for the piece, so that when the formation is completed
the limber crew will be on the left of the crew for the piece. When
the limber is manoeuvred separately, the crew will form to the front
or rear the same as if a regular section.
418. When the crews are formed to the front or rear, and the
command present arms is given, the men armed with the revolver
stand at attention.
To prepare the piece for action to the front.
419. The drag being manned: i. To the front iyi battery ,2. March.
At the second command, all drop the drag except 16, who gathers
up the rope and places it behind the ammunition boxes after they
are carried to the rear; 2 unhooks the long drag and unbolts trail
682 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
wheel or unhooks the trail from the limber ; i, 2, 3, and 4 turn the
piece to the right about, and 3 unhooks the short drag, placing it
near the piece ; 5 and 7, 6 and 8 take off the ammunition boxes, the
one carried by 5 and 7 being placed one pace to the left and rear of
the trail ; the other is carried twenty paces to the rear, behind cover
if possible, hinges toward the piece; 9 to 16, inclusive, unsling arms
and form two paces in rear of the rear box, in single line, and lie
down ; the drag leaders on the flanks, the other numbers in same
relative positions as when the drag is manned ; 9 is designated as
the base file of the squad, which is now manoeuvred as a support to
the piece, in charge of the first petty officer; the second petty officer
opens the boxes, and superintends the issue of ammunition.
The limber is manoeuvred by the extra crew of dragmen, who
move it six paces to rear of the ammunition boxes, or to cover at
hand ; the men then unsling arms and form in two ranks, two paces
in rear of the limber, those armed with rifles being used as an addi-
tional support to the piece ; the whole support being in charge of
the junior officer of the detachment.
To prepare the piece for action to the rear.
420. The drag being manned : i. To the rear in battery, 2. March.
Executed the same as to the front, except that the piece is not
turned to the right about.
3-INCH B. L. R.
Special duties of numbers at the command : In battery.
421. I commands ; places sight.
2 prepares primers and lanyards.
3 takes sponge ; unhooks left guide rope and hooks it to the wheel
lug.
4 takes oflf sponge bucket and places it in rear of piece ; unhooks
right guide rope and hooks it to wheel lug ; sees wiper in his pouch.
When the piece is prepared for action, the men take their stations
in battery, all facing to the front :
1 left of trail.
2 right of trail.
3 left of breech, holding sponge diagonally across the body, ram-
mer head opposite left shoulder.
4 right of breech,
5 left of trail in rear of i.
6 right of trail in rear of 2.
7 and 8, ammunition passers at the rear box.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 683
Sponge.
422. 2 seizes grip of plug with left hand and unclutches catch ;
with right hand grasps lever handle and throws it up; with left
hand draws the plug to the rear and turns it to the right ; examines
and wipes off nose plate, screw box and gas-check ring after gun has
been sponged ; returns wiper to 4.
3, as soon as breech is opened, passes sponge handle through the
bore, sponge head to the rear, until the rammer head projects from
muzzle ; receives projectile from 5.
4 seizes rammer head with the right hand, draws it through until
mark on handle shows sponge head to be in chamber, turns it twice,
draws it through and returns to right of breech ; dips sponge in bucket
and stands holding sponge diagonally across the body, rammer head
opposite left shoulder.
Load.
423. 2 closes breech after charge is inserted by 3.
3 places projectile and charge in the chamber ; 7 or 8 returns to
ammunition box in rear.
4 passes sponge to 3 as soon as 2 has closed the breech.
5 sets up left brake.
6 sets up right brake.
Point
424. I adjusts sight; falls back to end of trail and kneels on right
knee; works trail, and stands clear when ready.
2 tends elevating screw, kneeling in rear of piece ; puts in primer
and hooks lanyard; steps clear of recoil, lanyard in hand.
3 two paces to left.
4 two paces to right.
Fire,
425. I points and commands.
2 pulls lanyard.
5 and 6 run piece forward if it recoils.
7 and 8 supply ammunition from the rear box to the one near the
piece.
Cease firing.
426. 2 removes primer.
After the command <r<?a^^7?n«^, the loaded piece is discharged
by special direction, or the load is withdrawn. The piece must not
be limbered or started on the march when loaded.
684 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I -POUNDER HOTCHKISS.
Special duties of numbers at the command : In battery.
427. I commands; places sight, ships gun stock, tests breech
mechanism, examines bore, sees in place gear and implements for
service of gun.
2 sees trunnion and pivot clamps. in working order, adjusts seat,
and disconnects securing rod from breech of piece.
3 provides wet swab ; receives and gets ammunition ready for
loading ; unhooks left guide rope and hooks it to left wheel lug.
4 takes off bucket and places it in rear of piece ; unhooks right
guide rope and hooks it to wheel lug ; chocks wheels.
When the piece is prepared for action, the men take their stations
in battery, all facing to the front ;
1 sitting on trail seat.
2 on right of breech.
3 on left of breech.
4 at box, ready to pass ammunition to 3.
5 left of trail.
6 right of trail.
7 and 8, ammunition passers at the rear box.
Load.
428. I places shoulder to stock, seizing directing handle with left
hand ; as soon as gun is undamped, lays muzzle in proper direction.
2 assists I ; unclamps pivot and trunnion clamps as soon as i has
his shoulder to the stock ; grasps and throws back small breech-
block lever, opening breech, and after cartridge is inserted closes
breech by smart movement of the lever.
3 takes cartridge from 4 as soon as breech is open, points the
shell fairly, and then enters it smartly in the gun, pushing it until the
cartridge head takes against the extractor, and, when necessary,
takes sponge from right bracket and cleans bore of gun.
4 passes cartridge to 3.
5 sets up left brake.
6 sets up right brake.
Point.
429. I steadies the gun with left arm and shoulder ; seizes pistol
grip, finger on trigger, and with eyes ranging over sights, brings the
piece on the object.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 685
Fire.
430. I rectifies aim and fires.
When the ammunition box near the piece is nearly exhausted, 7
and 8 bring up the other box, take the empty one back, and refill
it ft-om the limber, keeping it in rear, and repeat the operation as
often as required.
Cease firing.
431. I removes hand ft-om pistol grip, steadying the gun until
pivot and trunnion clamps are tightened.
2 tightens trunnion and pivot clamps.
After the command cease firing, the loaded piece is discharged by
special direction, or the load is withdrawn. The piece must not be
limbered or started on the march when loaded.
CATLING.
Special duties of numbers at the command : In battery.
432. I commands; places sight, tests breech mechanism, sees in
place gear and implements for the service of the gun.
2 sees gun clear for feed ; adjusts seat.
3 sees crank clear ; revolves box rest.
4 chocks wheels ; ships trail handspike, if used.
When the piece is prepared for action, the men take their stations
i7i battery, all facing to the front :
1 sitting on trail seat.
2 on right of breech.
3 on left of breech.
4 at box, ready to pass ammunition to 3.
5 left of trail.
6 right of trail.
7 and 8, ammunition passers at the rear box.
Load.
433. 3 receives ammunition from 4, and places it on piece.
4 passes ammunition to 3.
6 stands by to relieve other numbers.
Point.
434. I adjusts sight and works elevating apparatus.
5 tends trail.
Fire.
435. I points and commands.
2 turns crank.
686 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
3 tends feed.
4 supplies ammunition to 3.
5 tends trail.
7 and 8 supply ammunition from the rear when needed, and refill
feed cases.
Cease firing.
436. 2 secures crank and places firing pin out of action.
3 steps back from feeder.
After the command cease firing, the loaded piece is discharged by
special direction, or the load is withdrawn. The piece must not be
limbered or started on the march when loaded.
To form crew to the rear.
4.^7. Being in battery : i. Crew to the rear, 2. March.
At the first command, 5 and 6 place themselves two paces in the
rear of trail, facing to the rear, followed by 3 and 4, i and 2 ; the other
numbers close on 5 and 6 in their proper order, in double time,
pieces at the trail, all facing to the rear ; the first petty officer places
himself on the left of leaders 15 and 16. At the second command,
he faces to the right and stands fast ; the leaders change direction to
the right, followed by the other numbers. The command halt is given
by the first petty officer when i arrives abreast of him ; he then gives
the command: i. Right, 2. Face, and dresses the crew to the right,
taking post in the front rank on the right of i ; the second petty officer
takes post two paces in rear of the center of the crew.
To resume stations in battery.
438. Crew being to the rear : i. Stations, 2. March.
At the first command, the crew faces to the right ; at the second
command, all return to stations iji battery in double time.
To secure the piece.
439. Being in battery : Secure.
Each number returns or secures the articles which he removed or
cast loose ; 2 hooks the drag, and 16 leads it out ; the crew falls in
as at crew to the rear ; the limber is hooked in place if not man-
oeuvred separately, otherwise it is run into the line of pieces.
To man the drag.
440. Being in battery: i. Man the drag, 2. March.
At the second command, each number secures the articles he cast
UNITED STATES NAVY. 68/
loose, slings arms, falls in at his drag station, and picks up his
toggle ; the petty officers take their posts.
To fire to the rear, right, or left.
441. Being in battery : i. Fire to the rear {right or leff), 2. March.
The piece is turned in the new direction; if to the rear, it is turned
to the right about; the ammunition is taken to the new rear, 5 and 6
carry the box near the piece, and 7 and 8 the rear box. The men
will not pass in front of the muzzle. If the piece is to be moved
some distance, one or both boxes may be placed on the piece, and
5, 6, 7, and 8 help with the short drag. The limber, if there be one,
is moved to its new position in rear of the piece.
To march to the front.
442. The drag being manned : i. Forward, 2. March.
All step off to the front ; the first petty officer on the left of the
leaders guides the march.
To march to the rear.
443. The drag being manned : i. Right (or leff) about, 2. March.
The leaders, followed by the other numbers, turn sharp to the
right until they change direction 180 degrees, when they move
forward. The men near the piece turn it on its right (or left)
wheel as a pivot, if the limber is not hooked up.
To move the piece a short distance to the rear.
444. The drag being manned : i. Rear by hand, 2. March.
All numbers face to the rear, those at the piece pushing and
hauling it backward until the order halt is given, when all face to the
front ; 5, 6, 7, and 8 may be directed to assist at the piece.
To halt.
445. Being in march : Halt.
All halt; i, 2, 3, and 4 checking the piece with short drag and
guide ropes.
The rests.
446. Being at a halt, to rest the men: i. Fall out, or Rest, or
Stand at ease.
The same instructions are followed as are given in the " Drill
Regulations for Infantry," paragraph 49.
688 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
To change direction.
447. Being in march: i. Right (or leff) turn (or half turn),
2. March.
At the second command, the leaders move to the right or half
right, followed by the other numbers.
To make a slight change of direction.
448. Being in march : Incline io ike right (or left').
The guide takes the new direction as indicated, and is followed by
the other numbers.
To ascend or descend a steep incline.
449. Upon reaching the foot of a steep incline, 3 and 4 and the
petty officers assist at the drag.
Upon reaching the brow of a steep incline the command is given:
I. Right (or left) about, 2. March, 3. Rear by hand, 4. March.
At the second command, the crew and piece are turned to the
rear; at the fourth command, the piece is allowed to run down the
incline, held back by the numbers at the drag, and guided by i, 2,
3, and 4. If the limber is hooked up, it will be unhooked and
manoeuvred separately.
Disabled wheel.
450. If a wheel be broken: Shift right (or left) wheel.
I, 2, 3, and 4 raise the axle ; 3 and 4 take off the broken wheel ;
5 and 6 bring up the spare wheel, or one from off the limber. A
spar may be lashed under the axle of the limber, one end on the
ground, in place of the removed wheel.
To dismount the piece.
451. The drag being manned: i. Prepare io dismount, 2. Dis-
mount.
3-INCH B. L. R.
At the first command, i and 2 take out elevating screw.
3 and 4 throw back cap-squares.
5, 6, 7, and 8 take off ammunition boxes and place them on the
ground to right and left of the piece.
5 and 6 stand by wheels and get them ready to come off.
At the second command, i, 2, 3, and 4 raise the piece on its muzzle
and lower it to the ground, breech to the rear.
5, 6, 7, and 8 run carriage three paces to the rear ; 5 and 6 take off
UNITED STATES NAVY. 689
wheels, lower to ground, upper portion falling outward ; carriage
lowered with axles resting on wheels.
9 and 10 assist at carriage.
I-POUNDER HOTCHKISS.
452. At the first command, i removes pin at upper end of securing
rod; sees clamps set.
2 pulls out the locking yoke, securing pivot in socket.
5, 6, 7, and 8 take off ammunition boxes and place them on the
ground to the right and left of the piece.
5 and 6 stand by wheels, and get them ready to come off.
At the second command, i, 2, 3, and 4 raise the piece clear of
pivot socket and lower it to the ground, breech to the rear.
5, 6, 7, and 8 run carriage three paces to the rear; 5 and 6 take
off wheels, lower to ground, upper portion falling outward; carriage
lowered with axles resting on wheels.
9 and 10 assist at carriage.
CATLING.
453. At the first command, i and 2 see elevating gear and sight
clear.
3 and 4 throw back cap-squares.
5, 6, 7, and 8 take off ammunition boxes and place them on the
ground to right and left of the piece.
5 and 6 stand by wheels and get them ready to come off.
At the second command, i, 2, 3, and 4 raise the piece clear of
carriage and lower it to the ground, breech to the rear.
5, 6, 7, and 8 run carriage three paces to the rear; 5 and 6 take
off wheels, lower to ground, upper portion falling outward; carriage
lowered with axles resting on wheels.
9 and 10 assist at carriage.
To mount the piece.
454. The piece being dismounted: i. Prepare to mount, 2. Mount.
3-INCH B. L. R.
At the first command, i, 2, 3, and 4 get the piece on its muzzle;
5. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 raise the carriage and put on the wheels.
At the second command, the carriage is run up, the piece mounted,
ammunition boxes returned to place, and the drag manned.
690 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I-POUNDER HOTCHKISS.
455. At the first command, i, 2, 3, and 4 lift the piece ready for
mounting'.
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 raise the carriage and put on the wheels.
At the second command, the carriage is run up, the piece mounted,
ammunition boxes returned to place, and the drag manned.
CATLING.
456. At the first command, i, 2, 3, and 4 get the piece on its
muzzle ; 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 raise the carriage and put on the wheels.
At the second command, the carriage is run up, the piece mounted,
ammunition boxes returned to place, and the drag manned.
457. On the march the piece is dismounted to pass an obstacle or
narrow defile ; i, 2, 3, and 4 carry the gun through, 5 and 6 the
wheels, and 7, 8, 9, and 10 the carriage ; the other numbers carry the
ammunition boxes.
458. Being in battery, to protect the piece and carriage from a
superior fire, the piece may be dismounted by the same orders;
the men lie down after dismounting, and rise at the command
prepare to mount.
To disable the piece.
459. Carry off or hide the breechplug or a portion of the breech
mechanism, bend the barrels of Gatling, or break wheels.
To disable the piece temporarily, the chief of section commands :
Disperse; the men disperse, carrying off all movable parts, includ-
ing wheels and ammunition boxes.
This order is usually given after dismounting.
To assemble.
460. Crew being dispersed : Assemble.
The men return to the piece with the articles they carried off,
replace them, and take position iox piece dismounted.
To dismiss the section.
461. The piece being parked or housed, the crew is formed to the
front or rear; the chief of section then inspects the piece and crew,
and commands : Dismissed.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 69 1
SERVICE OF THE PIECE IN BOATS.
462. If all the numbers be required at the oars, i has the port
forward oar, 2 the starboard forward oar, and so on aft, the two
higher numbers being stroke oarsmen.
The officer of the boat commands: Man the piece.
3-INCH B. L. R.
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 trail oars.
1 to left and rear of gun ; superintends ; sees elevator and sight-
bar in order for firing.
2 on right and rear of gun ; puts on haversack containing boring
bit, branch vent wrench, lanyards, and friction primers.
3 left of breech ; moist sponge in hand.
4 right of breech; sees breech closure clear; places wiper at hand.
5 in rear of gun to receive ammunition from 6 and pass to 3; hooks
trail rope, if used.
6 between oars to pass ammunition from aft.
If the gun be not out, it must be run out by the crew, 4 tending
recoil check, and setting it up when gun is out.
The ammunition box should be kept in the stern of the boat.
Sponge.
463. 2 seizes grip of plug with left hand, unclutches catch ; with
right hand grasps lever handle and throws it up; with left hand
draws the plug to the rear and turns it to the right. After gun has
been sponged, examines and wipes off nose plate, screw box, and
gas-check ring, then returns wiper to bucket.
3, as soon as breech is open, passes sponge handle through the
bore, sponge head to the rear, until the rammer head projects from
muzzle ; receives charge from 5.
4 moves quickly to the right of muzzle, seizes rammer head with
right hand, draws it through until mark on handle shows sponge
head to be in chamber, turns it twice, draws it through and returns
it to right of breech; wets sponge and places it by side of gun, then
wets wiper.
Second petty officer takes round of ammunition from box and
hands it to 6, who, if shell or shrapnel is used, takes it to officer of
the piece for adjustment of fuze.
5 and 6 pass ammunition.
692 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Load.
464. 3 places projectile and charge in chamber, and closes breech.
4 passes sponge over to 3, who places it ready for use on left side
of gun ; sees recoil check set.
Point
465. 2 having ready the lanyard, unhooked to primer, inserts latter
in vent, and hands lanyard to i ; attends elevator.
I, with eye on line of sight and lanyard hand taut, waits to bring
the sights on the target, using the helm to assist him.
Fire.
466. I immediately pulls the lanyard. After firing, removes from
the vent any pieces of primer that may remain; coils lanyard and
hands it to 2.
If the gun has recoiled the crew run it out, 4 tending recoil check
and setting it when gun is out.
Cease firing.
467. 2 removes primer from gun, if one be in.
I -POUNDER HOTCHKISS.
Man the piece.
468. I, 2, 3, and 4 trail oars.
1 to left of gun; removes cover, places sight, tests breech
mechanism, examines bore, and sees in place implements for service
of gun.
2 on right of breech and facing it ; examines reserve box contain-
ing the accessories and spare parts ; provides a clean swab ; sees
trunnion and pivot clamps in working order.
3 on left of breech and facing it ; brings ammunition from aft and
places it in rear of gun ; provides wet swab.
4 in rear of gun, by ammunition; assists in providing charges.
The ammunition box may be brought forward, near the piece.
Load.
469. I places shoulder to stock; seizes directing bar with left
hand, and, as soon as undamped, lays the muzzle toward the target;
plants feet firmly to resist motion of the boat.
2 unclamps pivot and trunnion clamps as soon as i has his
shoulder to the stock; grasps and throws back smartly the breech-
UNITED STATES NAVY. 693
block lever, opening breech ; after 3 has inserted cartridge, closes
breech; performs duties of 3 while the latter is providing ammu-
nition.
3 takes cartridge from 4, and, when breech is open, enters the
shell in the gun, pushing it until the cartridge head takes against the
extractor.
4 passes cartridge to 3.
Point.
470. I steadies the gun with left arm and shoulder ; seizes pistol
grip, finger on trigger ; with eye ranging over the sights, brings the
piece upon the target.
2 adjusts sight ; attends trunnion and pivot clamps.
Fire.
471. I rectifies aim and fires ; and, if ordered, after reloading, again
aims and fires, and so on.
2 tends sight and clamps ; throws back the lever when gun is fired,
and forward again when cartridge is inserted.
3 loads after each discharge.
4 supplies ammunition.
Cease Jiring.
472. I removes his hand from the pistol grip ; steadies the gun
until the clamps are tightened by 2.
CATLING.
Man the piece.
473. I, 2, 3, and 4 trail oars.
This gun is not intended to be generally used in the boat, but if it
be so employed, the shore drill will be followed.
The ammunition box may be brought forward, near the piece.
474. After the command cease Jiring, the loaded piece is dis-
charged by special direction, or the load is withdrawn.
Disembarkation of the piece.
475. The officer of the boat commands : Trail bow and stroke
OARS.
If the crew be not already at the gun, i, 2, 3, and 4, and the
stroke oarsmen trail their oars.
694 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
3-INCH B. L. R.
The second petty officer places one round each in the pouches
carried by 5, 6, 7, and 8, and passes them to the men, who sHng the
pouches short, over the right shoulder ; 2 shortens the strap of his
haversack ; the second petty officer gives each of them two primers.
4 puts on the wiper pouch.
7's round may be put in the loading pouch, if used.
I, 2, 3, and 4 pass the shifting spar fore and aft over the gun, far
enough forward to slip the grommet over the muzzle ; then draw
the spar back until grommet fits just forward of trunnions; i and 2
pass the spar lashing around the gun, just abaft the trunnions ; 3
and 4 unkey and throw back cap-squares ; 2 pulls out elevator pin,
removes head of elevator, and replaces pin ; stroke oarsmen hook
and mouse drag rope to the trail of field carriage; second petty
officer prepares ammunition to go on shore.
Trail.
/^jG. The boat having been brought to the beach, with anchor out
astern if advisable, the men trail oars and jump to their stations for
landing. The second petty officer and stroke oarsmen clear the
field carriage for launching over the quarter.
Land.
477. 9 and 10 jump overboard with end of drag rope ; i, 2, 3, and
4 jump over the bows, two of them placing their shoulders under
forward end of spar, the other two stand by to take the heel after
the gun has passed them ; i, 2, 3, and 4 on the beach and 5, 6, 7,
and 8 in the boat raise the spar and gun, which is now carried ashore
by 1,2, 3, and 4.
In the meantime the numbers not otherwise employed launch the
field carriage overboard from the quarter without its boxes, and 9,
ID, II, and 12, assisted by others, if necessary, drag it ashore; boxes
are carried from the boat by 5, 6, 7, and 8.
The piece and boxes are mounted as soon as landed, or placed in
battery, as circumstances may require.
I -POUNDER HOTCHKISS.
Trail bow and stroke oars.
478. I, 2, 3, and 4 make preparations for dismounting; 2 pulls
out locking yoke ; stroke oarsmen hook and mouse drag rope to
UNITED STATES NAVY. 695
the trail of field carriage ; second petty officer prepares ammunition
to go on shore.
Trail.
479. The boat having been brought to the beach, with anchor out
astern if advisable, the men trail oars and jump to their stations for
landing. The second petty officer and stroke oarsmen clear the field
carriage for launching over the quarter.
Land.
480. 9 and 10 jump overboard with end of drag rope; i, 2, 3, and
4 dismount gun from carriage, jump over the bows and carry gun
ashore. The field carriage is landed from the quarter by 9, 10, 11,
and 12, without boxes, and by them dragged to the beach. Ammu-
nition boxes are carried by 5, 6, 7, and 8.
The piece and boxes are mounted as soon as landed, or placed in
battery, as circumstances may require.
GATLING.
Trail bow and stroke oars.
481. 3 and 4 throw back cap-squares ; stroke oarsmen hook and
mouse drag rope to the trail of field carriage ; second petty officer
prepares ammunition to go on shore.
Trail.
482. The boat having been brought to the beach, with anchor out
astern if advisable, the men trail oars and jump to their stations for
landing. The second petty officer and stroke oarsmen clear the field
carriage for launching over the quarter.
Land.
483. 9 and 10 jump overboard with end of drag rope; i, 2, 3, and 4
dismount gun from carriage, jump over the bows and carry gun
ashore. The field carriage is landed from the quarter by 9, 10, 11,
and 12, without boxes, and by them dragged to the beach. Ammu-
nition boxes are carried by 5, 6, 7, and 8.
The piece and boxes are mounted as soon as landed, or placed in
battery, as circumstances may require.
696 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
SCHOOL OF THE BATTERY.
General rules.
484. The first petty officer is the guide of his section.
485. The guide of a battery, or of a platoon in column, is the guide
of the section on its right or left.
486. The guidon, a petty officer, who carries the battery camp
color, will habitually indicate the position of the guide.
487. In manoeuvring the battery, officers and guides whose posts
are changed go by the shortest route to their new posts.
488. The normal interval between sections in all formations is
equal to the length of the piece, drag, and limber, if there be one,
plus two paces.
489. In all changes of direction, when in line or in column of
platoons, intervals are preserved from the pivot.
490. In successive formations, the subdivisions are moved by
command of their respective chiefs.
491. In whatever direction the battery may be facing, the sections
and platoons are designated numerically from right to left in line,
and from head to rear in column. The first and second sections
form the first platoon, the third and fourth sections the second
platoon.
492. One bugler is detailed for each battery.
Posts of officers and petty officers in line.
493. The chief of battery is six paces in front of the center of the
battery.
Each chief of platoon is midway between his leaders and in line
with them.
Each chief of section is on the left of the guide of his section.
The gunner, with the armorer on his left, is two paces in rear of
the center of the line.
The guidon, before leaving the park, and at inspections and
reviews, is three paces from the right of the battery, in line with the
leaders ; when manoeuvring, he is by the right or left guide of the
battery and on his left.
The bugler, at inspections and reviews, is in line with the leaders,
to the right of and three paces from the guidon; when manoeuvring,
he is near the chief of battery and in his rear.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 69/
Posts of officers arid petty officers in column.
494. The chief of battery is six paces from the left flank of the
column, and opposite its center; during manoeuvres he goes
wherever his presence is most required.
Each chief of platoon, in column of platoons, is midway between
his leaders, and in line with them ; in column of sections, opposite
the center of his platoon, and three paces from the left flank.
Each chief of section is on the left of the guide of his piece, or with
the guidon.
The gunner, with the armorer on his left, is opposite the center of
and two paces from the right flank of the column.
The guidon, in column of platoons, is by the side of the right or
left guide of the leading platoon, and on his left ; in column of sec-
tions, he is in a similar position with respect to the leading guide.
The bugler, except when marching in review, is near the chief of
battery, and in his rear.
Posts of officers and petty officers in battery.
495. The chief of battery is opposite the center of the battery, half
way between the line of pieces and ammunition boxes, but goes
wherever his presence is required.
Each chief of platoon is habitually opposite the center of his
platoon, half way between the line of pieces and the ammunition
boxes.
Each chief of section is on the left of and near his piece.
The gunner, with the armorer, is two paces in rear of ammunition
boxes, opposite the center of the line. In action, the gunner goes
wherever he can best oversee the supplj' of ammunition to the guns.
The guidon is on the flank of the line of ammunition boxes nearest
his position at the time of going in battery.
To form the battery.
496. At the assembly, the sections are formed crew to the rear, as
described in the " School of the Section "; the chiefs of section
report to the chief of platoon, who inspects his platoon. At the
adjutant's call, the drags are manned and the line formed ; chiefs of
platoon then report in succession from right to left : (^Such) platoon
in order, Sir ; but if anything be missing or out of order, they will
state it.
To align the battery.
497. The chief of battery causes one of the flank sections to move
698 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
forward about three paces, and commands : i. Right (or lef{)^
2. Dress, 3. Front.
The chiefs of platoon repeat the first and second commands. At
the second command, the other sections move forward, preserving
their intervals ; the leaders turn their heads and eyes to the right
and dress on the leaders of the piece already established.
The chief of battery places himself on the right flank in line with
the leaders, and, facing to the left, superintends the alignment. At
the third command, given when the battery is aligned, the chief of
battery takes his post.
Instead of establishing a section as a basis, the chief of battery,
having seen that the piece on the flank toward which he wishes to
dress is in proper position, may give the same commands as before ;
the leaders dress as just explained, moving forward or back so as to
put themselves in line.
To form crews to the front.
498. Being in line : i. Crews to the front, 2. March,
The evolution is executed as prescribed in paragraph 413, " School
of the Section." The chiefs of section take post one pace in front of
the center of their respective sections ; the chiefs of platoon two paces
in front of the line of chiefs of section, and opposite the center of the
interval between them.
The drags are manned as prescribed in paragraph 414, "School
of the Section."
To form column of sectioyis to the right or left.
499. Being in line : i. Sections, 2. Right (or leff) turn, 3. March.
Chiefs of section repeat the second and third commands ; at the
latter, each section turns to the right, and the march is continued
unless the command halt be given when the column is formed.
To form column of platoons to the right or left.
500. Being in line: i. Platoo7ts, 2. Right {or left) turn, 3. March,
4. Guide right (or leff) ; or, 4. Halt.
The chiefs of platoon repeat the second and third commands ; at
the latter, each platoon turns to the right, the section opposite the
pivot describing a quarter circle, so that when the turn is completed
the prescribed interval between sections will be preserved.
7!? march to the front in column of sectioyis.
501. Being in line: i. Right (or leff) by sections, 2. March.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 699
At the first command, the chief of the right section commands :
Forzvard. At the second command, which he repeats, the right
section marches straight to the front, the guide selecting points on
which to direct himself. The chiefs of the other sections command
in succession: i. Forward, 2. March ; each section, after advancing
a few paces, inclines to the right and enters the column by the
shortest line, so as to follow the preceding section. The guide of
the leading section is the guide of the column. The chiefs of
platoon superintend the march of their sections, but do not repeat
the commands.
To march to the front in column of platoons.
502. Being in line: i. Right (or left) by platoons, 2. March,
3. Guide right (or leff).
At the first command, the chief of the right platoon commands:
Forward. At the second command, which he repeats, the right
platoon marches straight to the front, with the guide as directed.
The chief of the left platoon commands : i. Forward, 2. March,
and after advancing a few paces, inclines to the right and enters the
column by the shortest line, so as to follow the preceding platoon.
To put the column of sections in march and change direction.
503. Being at a halt : i. Forward, 2. Column right (or left), or
column half right (or half leff), 3. March.
At the second command, the chief of the leading section com-
mands : Right turn, or right half turn, and repeats the command
march, at which the leading section turns to the right or half right,
as prescribed in the "School of the Section," paragraph 447; the
march being taken up at the same time by the column, and each
section successively turns upon the same ground as the first.
If the column be in march, the first command is omitted.
The chief of the first platoon indicates to the guide the points to
be selected in order to maintain the proper direction.
To put the column of platoons iri march and change direction.
504. Being at a halt : i. Forward, 2. Column right (or left), or
column half right (or half left), 3. March, 4. Guide right (or left).
At the second command, the chief of the leading platoon com-
mands : Right turn, or right half turn. At the third command,
repeated by this chief, his pivot section changes direction to the
700 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
right or half right, his other section increases the pace and moves
over a quarter circle, so as to preserve its interval and conform to
the movement of the pivot section ; on the completion of the turn or
half turn it resumes the cadenced step. The rear platoon moves
forward until it arrives on the ground where the leading platoon
began to turn, when it executes the same movement.
If marching, to change direction, the first and fourth commands
are omitted.
To viake a slight change of direction.
505. Being in column and marching : Incline to the right (or left).
The guide takes the new direction as indicated, followed by the
other subdivisions, each changing direction in succession upon the
same ground as the first.
To form column of platoons from column of sections.
506. Being at a halt : i. Form platoons, 2. Left (or right) oblique,
3. March.
At the second command, the chief of the leading section of each
platoon commands : Forward ; the chief of the rear section repeats
the second command.
At the third command, repeated by the chiefs of platoon and sec-
tion, the leading section of each platoon moves forward, and the rear
section inclines to the left until the proper interval is obtained, then
moves forward and halts when in line with the first section of its own
platoon. The leading section of the leading platoon halts when it
has advanced five paces, and the leading section of the rear platoon
halts when it has its distance.
If marching in double time, or in quick time, and the command be
double time, the leading sections continue the march in quick time,
the rear sections taking the double time until in line with their leading
sections, when quick time is resumed.
The guidon is always on the left of the guide. Whenever the
guide is announced, the guidon, if not already there, goes at once by
the shortest route to the position of the guide.
The column of platoons is the habitual column formation of
manoeuvre.
To form column of sections from colwmi of platoons.
507. Being at a halt : i. Right (or left) by sections, 2. March.
At the first command, the chief of the right section of each platoon
UNITED STATES NAVY. 70I
commands : Forward. At the second command, repeated by the
chiefs of platoon, the right section of each platoon moves forward;
the left section remains halted until its leaders are passed by the
wheels of the piece of the right section, when it inclines to the right
and enters the column, following the right section.
If marching in quick time, the right sections continue the march
and the left sections halt by command of their chiefs ; the movement
is then executed as prescribed.
If marching in double time, the left sections take the quick time at
the command march, and resum^e the double time when in column of
sections.
To halt the column, and to put it in march.
508. Being in column of platoons : i. Battery, 2. Halt.
To resume the march: i. Forward, 2. March, 3. Guide right
(or leff).
The guide maintains the direction, the sections preserving the
interval and distance.
Being in column of sections, the battery is halted by the same
commands as for the column of platoons, but to resume the march
the command for the guide is omitted.
509. To insure the execution of the halt by all the carriages at the
same time, whenever the chief of battery gives the command : Halt,
he raises his arm and sword to the full extent ; the chiefs of platoon
do the same ; if the sword is not drawn, the motion is made with the
right arm.
The about.
510. Being in line or column, marching or at a halt : i. Right (or
leff) about, 2. March.
Both commands are repeated by the chiefs of section. At the
second command, the sections execute the about simultaneously.
If marching in column of platoons or in line, the order for the
guide is given; if at halt, and in line, the order for the dress is given.
To oblique.
511. Being in line or column : i. Right (or left) oblique, 2. March.
Both commands are repeated by the chiefs of section. At the
second command, each section obliques to the right, all marching on
parallel lines ; if in line, the guide of the right section is the guide
of the battery; if in column of platoons, the guide of the right sec-
tion of the leading platoon is the guide of the battery; and if in
column of sections, he is the guide of the leading section.
702 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
To resume the direct march.
512. Being in the oblique march : i. Forward, 2. March, 3. Guide
right (or leff).
At the second command, each section moves in the original direc-
tion. The third command is omitted if the formation be the column
of sections.
To close or extend intervals.
513. Being in line or column of platoons, at a halt or marching :
I. On {such) section, 2. To (so majiy) paces close (or extend) hiterval^
3. March.
At the third command, the designated section moves forward or
continues the march ; the other sections obtain the required interval
by increasing the pace and inclining to the right or left, then
resuming the original direction and pace, each by command of its
own chief.
The proper intervals being obtained, the battery is halted by
command, or the march continued without command.
To close or extend distances.
514. Being in column: i. On the first section {ox platoon), 2. To
{so many) paces extend (or close) distance, 3. March.
At the third command, the first subdivision continues the march;
the others halt until the distance is gained, then resume the march in
succession. In closing distance, they increase the pace until the
required distance is taken, then successively resume the cadenced
step.
To tjiarch by the flank.
515. Being in line or column, and wishing to gain ground to the
right or left : i. Sections, 2. Right (or left) turn, 3. March. "
Chiefs of section repeat the second and third commands, and at
the latter each section turns to the right. The desired distance being
gained, the original direction is resumed by the commands : i. Sec-
tions, 2. Left (or right) turn, 3. March.
From column, to form line to the front.
516. Being at a halt: i. Left {ox right) front into line, 2. March.
At the first command, the chief of the first subdivision commands:
Forward ; and repeats the second command, at which he advances
subdivision distance and halts, dressing to the right. The chiefs of
the other subdivisions move their commands by column half left.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 7O3
and when opposite their position in line by coluvin half right, then
halt and dress on the first subdivision.
If marching in qidck time, the chief of the first subdivision cautions
contiyiue the march ; the other subdivisions increase the pace until
the line is formed.
If marching in double time, the first subdivision takes the quick
time until the line is formed, when the double time is resumed.
From, column, to form li7ie to the right or left.
517. Being in march or at a halt : i. Sections {or platoons), 2. Right
turn, 3. March, 4. Guide right (or left), or, 4. Hai.t, 5. Right (or
left), 6. Dress.
If in columns of platoons, the second and third commands are
repeated by the chiefs of platoon ; if in column of sections, by the
chiefs of section.
At the third command, the platoons or sections form line by
turning to the right, the interval being carefully preserved.
To change direction.
518. Being in line, marching or at a halt: i. Battery, 2. Right
(or left) turn, 3. March, 4. Guide right (or left), or, 4. Halt,
5. Right (or left), 6. Dress.
At the third command, the pivot guide describes an arc of a circle
whose radius is equal to the length of the piece and the drag. The
sections toward the marching flank accelerate their step in succession,
so that the section opposite the pivot moves in double time. If the
battery be in double time, previous to the change of direction, the
pivot section takes the quick time at the commencement of the
movement.
Passage of obstacles.
519. If, during the march in line, any obstacle presents itself in
front of a platoon, its chief, without waiting for orders, gives the
necessary commands according to the nature of the obstacle, either
to break the platoon into column of sections, to close the interval, or
to halt and form it in column behind the adjoining platoon.
As soon as the obstacle is passed, the platoon takes its place in
line by increasing the pace, its chief habitually reversing the move-
ment by which it left its place in line.
From line, to form in battery.
520. To fire to the front: i. To the front in battery, 2. March.
704 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
To fire to the rear : \. To the rear in battery, 2. March.
The sections form in battery to the front or rear as prescribed in
the "School of the Section."
To change the fire to the right (or lef{) by the front.
521. Being in battery: i. Fh'e to the right (or leff), 2. Change
front forward on the right (or left) piece, 3. March.
If the ground be favorable, the battery may be wheeled by hand ;
if not, the drags of the left (or right) platoon will be manned to the
front, the pivot platoon being moved by hand.
On the completion of the change of front, the chiefs of section turn
their pieces so as to point in the required direction.
To change the fire to the right (or leff) by the rear.
522. Being in battery: i. Fire to the right (or left), 2, Change
front by the rear on the left (or right) piece, 3. March.
This movement may be executed by hand, if the nature of the
ground will permit, or the drags of the right (or left) platoon may
be manned.
To change the fire to the right (or left) on the center.
523. Being in battery: i. Fire to the right {or left), 2. Change
front 071 the right center (or left center) piece, 3. March.
This movement is executed by hand, and is a combination of the
two movements prescribed in paragraphs 521 and 522.
To fire by section.
524. Being in battery: i. Fire by section, 2. Commence firing.
At the second command, the right piece is fired, followed by the
next, and so on in succession ; each piece is loaded as soon as fired.
After the first fire the firing is kept up at will.
The firing continues until the command or signal cease firing.
To fire by platoon.
525. Being in battery: i. Fire by platoon, 2. Commence firing.
At the second command, the chief of the first platoon commands :
I. Fire, 2. Load ; followed by the next chief of platoon. After the
first fire, the chiefs of platoon continue the firing, alternating, until
the command or signal cease firing.
To fire by battery.
526. Being in battery : i. Fire by battery^ 2. Fire, 3. Load.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 7O5
If it be desirable, after the first fire, to continue the firing at willy
the following commands will be added : 4, Fire at will, 5. Com-
mence FIRING, when each section will fire and load as rapidly as
possible, consistent with deliberate aim, until the command or signal
cease firing.
To open fire at will : i. Battery, 2. Fire at will, 3. Commence
FIRING.
527. While in action, the battery may be advanced or retired short
distances by the commands : i. Cease firing, 2. Front {or rear) by
hand, 3. March, 4. Halt, 5. Commence firing.
Intervals may also be extended or closed, as previously explained,
the drags being manned if necessary.
Echelon:
528. Movements in echelon for firing are extremely useful, as the
battery is then in position to change front quickly in any direction.
When going in battery in echelon, or changing front in echelon, great
care must be taken by the second petty officers to keep the boxes of
their respective sections continually in rear of the piece, and not to
cross the line of fire in moving them.
To form echelon to the front.
529. Being in battery ; or in line, marching or at a halt : i. By
section (or platoon), from the right (or left) front into echelon, 2.
March.
If in line: at the second command, the right section (or platoon)
moves forward ; the next section (or platoon) moves forward when
the axles of the right piece (or pieces of the right platoon) arrive on
a line with its leaders, and the other subdivisions commence the
movement, in succession, as prescribed for the second.
If in battery : the pieces may be moved forward by hand, the
ground being favorable ; otherwise, the drags of the pieces to the
right of the center will be manned.
To form echelon to the rear.
530. Echelon will be formed to the rear whenever it is desirable
to avoid gaining ground to the front.
Being in battery ; or in line, marching or at a halt : i. By section (or
platoon), from the right (or left) to the rear into echelon, 2. March.
If in hne : at the second command, the right section (or platoon)
706 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
Stands fast ; the other subdivisions come to the about and march to
the rear, the one next to the right subdivision halting at echelon
distance, and coming to the about a second time, the leaders finding
themselves on a line with the axle or axles of the right subdivision.
The other subdivisions perform in succession the movements pre-
scribed for the second.
If in battery : the pieces may be moved to the rear by hand, the
ground being favorable ; otherwise the drags of the pieces to the
left of the center will be manned.
From echelo7i, to form line to the front.
531. Being in echelon : i. Front into line, 2. March.
If marching in quick time : at the second command, the advanced
subdivision continues the march, the others are moved into line in
double time, taking the quick ti77ie and the guide on arriving in line.
If the battery be moving forward in echelon in double time, the
advanced subdivision takes the qziick time ; the others do the same
on arriving in line, and when the rear subdivision has reached its
position the double time is resumed.
If at a halt : the advanced subdivision stands fast ; the others halt
on arriving in line and dress to the right (or left).
If in battery : the advanced subdivision stands fast ; the others are
moved forward by hand, or the drags of the rear subdivisions are
manned and the pieces hauled into line.
From echelon^ to form line to the rear.
532. Being in echelon: i. Rear into line, 2. March.
This movement is executed from in battery only.
The rear subdivision stands fast, the others form line to the rear,
being moved by hand, or the drags are manned, according to the
nature of the ground.
533. Being in echelon of sections, the pieces may be fired to the
right or left, or in both directions, by giving the order to certain sec-
tions or platoons to fire to the right or left.
534. The supports of the battery are manoeuvred as infantry,
being deployed on the line of pieces, or on one or both flanks; the
whole in command of the junior officer of the battery.
Route marches.
535. The column of sections is the habitual column of route, though
the column of platoons may be taken when that formation can be
maintained.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 'JO^
To march in the route step': i. Route step, 2. March.
To resume the cadenced step : i. Battery, 2. Attention.
The chiefs of platoon command : Platoon, at the first command,
and repeat the second.
In the route march, the chief of battery is usually at the head of
the column, in advance of the leaders of the first section ; he is fol-
lowed by the bugler, who marches in rear of him. To avoid dust,
the chief of battery may direct the officers and petty officers to
change to the right flank of the column, if it be to windward.
To rest the battery.
536. Being at a halt : i. Battery, 2. Fall out, or Rest, or Stand
AT ease.
To resume attention : i. Battery, 2. Attention.
To dismiss the battery.
537. As soon as the pieces are parked or housed, each chief of
section makes a minute inspection of his section, and reports all
losses or injuries to his chief of platoon. The chiefs of platoon
report in succession : {Sudi) platoon in order. Sir ; but if anything
be missing or out of order, they will state it. All reports having
been made, the chief of battery gives such instructions as may be
necessary, and commands : Dismiss the sections ; each chief of
section dismisses his section.
INSPECTION OF A BATTERY.
538. The battery being in line, the chief of battery commands:
I. Prepare for itispection, 2. To the front in battery, 3. March,
4. Crews to the rear, 5. March, 6. Open ranks, 7. March, 8. Right,
9. Dress, 10. Front.
At the third command, the pieces and ammunition boxes will be
accurately aligned, both boxes being taken to the rear. At the fifth
command, the chiefs of section take post one pace in front of the
center of their crews, the chiefs of platoon two paces in front of the
line of muzzles, midway between their pieces. After the ranks are
dressed, the chief of battery takes post three paces in front of the
line of chiefs of platoon, midway between them, faces the battery,
and commands :
I. Present, 2. Arms.
He then faces about, salutes, and when the salute is returned by
the inspecting officer, again faces the battery and commands :
708 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I. Order, 2. Arms, 3. Petty officers take post.
At the third command, the first petty officer of each section takes
position by the piece on the right of the breech, and opens the
breech. The second petty officer proceeds to the ammunition boxes
and opens their hds, and then stands between the boxes. The
breeches and boxes are closed when the inspector has passed to the
next section, and the petty officers then return to their posts with the
crew.
The inspecting officer inspects the chief of battery, then the chiefs
of platoon, beginning on the right ; passing around the battery, he
inspects the ammunition boxes ; then commencing again on the
right, he inspects each piece and crew. Each crew, by order of its
chief of section, executes inspection arms just before the inspector
reaches it, and resumes the order^ by command, when the inspector
passes to the next section.
The chief of battery, as soon as inspected, returns sword and
accompanies the inspector ; each chief of platoon accompanies the
inspector during the inspection of his platoon, and then returns to
his post, faces to the rear, and stands at ease.
The inspection being completed, the chief of battery, upon an
intimation from the inspector, secures the battery, forms line, marches
to the park, and dismisses it.
SCHOOL OF THE BATTALION.
General rules.
539. A battalion of artillery consists of two or more batteries.
During the exercises, the chiefs of battery repeat such of the
instructor's commands as are to be immediately executed by their
batteries.
540. In successive movements, each chief of battery gives the
commands necessary to insure the execution of the movement by
his own battery at the proper time.
541. In field practice and in actual service, the extent of ground
occupied by the battalion will present obstacles which will prevent
exact conformity to the means prescribed for the execution of the
various manoeuvres. In such cases, the normal methods prescribed
in the drill regulations should be followed as closely as possible, each
chief of battery conducting his command by the simplest means,
and by the shortest practicable route, to its place in the new forma-
tion.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 709
542. Batteries will take their places in line from right to left accord-
ing- to the rank of their chiefs. In the field, this order may be
changed at the discretion of the commanding officer.
543. In whatever direction the battalion faces, the batteries are
designated numerically — from right to left in line, and from head to
rear in column— Jirsf battery, second battery, and so on.
544. The normal interval between batteries in line is equal to the
normal interval between sections plus five paces.
Posts of officers, petty officers, and field music in line.
545. The chief of battalion is twelve paces in front of the center
of the battalion.
The chiefs of battery are six paces in front of the center of their
batteries.
The chiefs of platoon are midway between their sections and in
line with the leaders.
The chiefs of section are on the left of their respective guides, in
line with the leaders.
The gunner of each battery, with the armorer on his left, is oppo-
site the center and in rear of his battery, two paces from the line of
muzzles.
The guidon of each battery is in line with the leaders and three
paces from the right flank of his own battery.
The adjutant of the battalion is in line with the leaders, and one
pace to the right of the guidon of the first battery.
The chief petty officer of the battalion is in line with the leaders,
and four paces to the left of the left flank of the battalion.
The staff officers are in line with the leaders, arranged in close
order according to rank, the senior being on the right, and the junior
on the left, three paces from the adjutant. When manoeuvring, the
staff officers accompany the chief of battalion.
The buglers of all the batteries are united in one group, in one
rank, and are posted in line with the leaders, three paces to the right
of the staff officers.
Posts of officers, petty officers, and field music in columii.
546. The chief of battalion is twelve paces from the left flank of
the column and opposite its center.
The chiefs of battery are six paces from the left flank of the column
and opposite the center of their batteries, if in column of platoons
7IO INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
or sections ; but if in column of batteries, their posts are the same as
when the battalion is in line.
The chiefs of platoon, chiefs of section, gunner, and guidon have
the same posts as are prescribed for them in the " School of the
Battery."
The adjutant of the battalion is on the left flank, in line with and
six paces from the leaders of the leading subdivision.
The chief petty officer is similarly posted in reference to the rear
subdivision.
The staff officers, in one rank, are six paces in rear of the column,
except at ceremonies, when they take post six paces in front of the
leading subdivision.
The field music, in one rank, is twelve paces in front of the leading
subdivision.
In the route march, the chief of battalion is at the head of. the
column and twelve paces in advance of the leading subdivision, the
adjutant one pace on his left, the staff officers in rear of the chief of
battalion and adjutant, the chief petty officer and field music in rear
of the staff.
To form the battalion.
547. The batteries being formed on their parade grounds, adjutant's
call is sounded, at which the adjutant proceeds to the point where
the battery first established is to form ; the chief petty officer reports
to him and is posted on the line, facing the adjutant, at battery dis-
tance; the adjutant and chief petty officer then draw swords.
The right-center battery is the first established, and is conducted
so as to arrive from the rear, parallel to the line established by the
adjutant and chief petty officer. The chief of this battery halts it
two paces from the line, then places himself, facing to the front, near
the chief petty officer, and dresses the leaders of the several sections
composing his battery to the left, on the line between the adjutant
and chief petty officer.
The right-center battery being established, the adjutant and chief
petty officer face about, move battery distance in prolongation of the
hne, then face about again, thus marking the line for the next suc-
ceeding battery in each wing, and continue the prolongation of the
line in like manner until the last battery has arrived in position.
The batteries of the right wing similarly and successively form
from left to right, and are dressed to the left ; the batteries of the
left wing form successively from right to left, and are dressed to the
right.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 7I I
The chiefs of battery, when dressing their batteries in hne, place
themselves on the line, on the flank toward which they dress, facing
to the front.
Each chief of battery, after dressing his battery, commands :
Front, and takes his post.
When the flank batteries have been aligned, the adjutant and chief
petty officer take their posts.
The field music takes its post in line.
The line being formed, the chief of battalion takes post, facmg
it, about the distance of half-battalion front from the center.
The adjutant proceeds by the shortest line to a point midway
between the chief of battalion and the center of the battalion, faces
the latter and halts ; then commands :
I. Present, 2. Arms;
faces about, salutes, and reports :
Sir, the battalion is formed.
The chief of battalion returns the salute with the right hand, directs
the adjutant :
Take your post, Sir,
and draws his sword. The adjutant faces about and returns to his
post.
The color guard.
548. The color guard consists of four petty officers. The senior
carries the national color; the next in rank the squadron color ; they
are relieved when necessary by the other members of the guard.
The two color bearers will form the front rank of the guard, the
other two petty officers the rear rank, the latter being armed with
rifles.
The original right-center battery is the color battery. In line, the
color guard is posted midway between the right and left center bat-
teries, its front rank on a line with the leaders ; in column of batteries,
midway between the two platoons of its battery ; in column of pla-
toons, midway between the sections of the original left platoon of its
battery; in column of sections, in rear of the original left section of
its battery. When in column of platoons or sections, and the about
is made, the color guard will remain with its own platoon or section.
In changing position the guard will be manoeuvred by command
of the senior color bearer.
712 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
549. The color, kept at the quarters of the commanding officer, is
escorted by the color guard to the color battery on its parade ground;
it is returned in like manner.
The color guard, by command of the senior color bearer, presents
arms on receiving and on parting with the color.
To align the battalion.
550. Being at a halt, to rectify the alignment ; Chiefs of battery,
rectify the alignment.
The chiefs of battery in the right wing dress their batteries succes-
sively to the left, each as soon as the chief of battery next on his left
commands front. The chiefs of battery in the left wing dress their
batteries similarly to the right.
The center batteries are dressed first, without waiting for each
other.
To give the battalion a general alignment.
551. The new line being determined, the chief of battalion directs
one of the batteries to advance, and sees it established in the new
direction, and then commands: i. By battery, 2. Right (left or
center^), 3. Dress.
At the third command, the chief of the adjoining battery commands :
1. Forward, 2. March, 3. Guide right (or left).
When his battery is two paces from the new line he halts it, and,
placing himself on the right (or left), commands: i. Right (or left),
2. Dress, 3. Front, and takes his post.
Each chief of battery will execute the same movement in succession,
but will not give the command march until the preceding battery is
halted.
If the base battery be an interior one, the batteries on its flanks will
advance simultaneously, the others in succession, and will dress to
the left or right, according as they are on the right or left of the base
battery.
To make a simultaneous alignment after the base battery is estab-
lished, the chief of battalion commands: i. Battalion, 2. Right (left
or center), 3. Dress.
At the third command, the chiefs of the other batteries advance
them simultaneously to within two paces of the new line, and then dress
them as prescribed for a successive alignment.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 7I3
To march in line.
552. Beings in line, at a halt : i. The second (or sucJi) the battery of
direction, 2. Forward, 3. March.
At the first command, the points of direction are indicated to the
chief of the battery of direction. Each chief of battery repeats the
second and third commands.
At the third command, the batteries move forward, regulating their
alignment and intervals on the battery of direction.
If the battery of direction be the right-center one, its chief com-
mands : Gnide left ; if it be any other interior battery, the guide is
on the flank nearest the center of the battalion; if it be a flank bat-
tery, the guide is on the outer flank. The chiefs of the other batteries
announce the guide on the flank nearest the battery of direction.
553. Being in line or column, the battalion \s pzit zVz march, halted,
obliqued, brought to the about, or marched by the flank; from line,
the coliann of sectio?is or platoons is formed to the right or left, or
the battalion is marched to the front in column of sections or platoons ;
in column of platoons, intervals are closed or extended ; in column of
sections or platoons, the direction is changed, distances closed or
exteyided, and the column of platoons is formed from the column of
sections, and the reverse, by the same commands and means as pre-
scribed in the " School of the Battery," except that the word battalion
is substituted for battery wherever the latter occurs.
To close or extend the intervals betzveen batteries in line.
554. Being in march or at a halt: i. On {sucli) battery, 2. To (so
many') paces close (or extend') intervals, 3. March.
At the third command, the designated battery moves straight to
the front, the others, increasing the pace, oblique toward or from it,
and move forward when they have attained the prescribed interval.
To close or extend intervals between the sections of a battalion
in line.
555. Being in march or at a halt : i.On (such) section, (such) battery,
2. To (so many) paces close (or extend) intervals, 3. March.
At the second command, the chiefs of battery on the right of the
one designated command : Left obliqtie, and those on the left com-
mand : Right oblique. At the third command, the movement is
executed in the designated battery as prescribed in the "School of
the Battery," the other batteries taking the oblique march at the
714 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
same time, each section moving to the front when the proper interval
is obtained.
If at a halt, the designated section advances to the front at the
third command, and the movement is executed as above prescribed.
The march is continued unless the chief of battalion gives the
command halt.
From line, to form column of batteries to the right or left.
556. Being in line : i. Batteries, 2. Right(or left') turn, 3. March,
4. Guide right (or leff); or, 4. Halt.
Each battery executes the movement prescribed in paragraph 518,
"School of the Battery,"
To march to the front in column of batteries.
557. Being in line: i. Right (or leff) by batteries^ 2. March,
3. Guide right (or left).
At the first command, the chief of the right battery commands:
Forward. At the second command, which he repeats, the right
battery marches to the front, the guide selecting points on which to
direct himself.
The chiefs of the other batteries move their batteries by the right
oblique into column, increasing the pace when necessary to obtain
battery distance, marching to the front when the guide covers those
of the preceding batteries.
To put the column of batteries in march and change direction.
558. Being at a halt: i. Forward, 2. Column right (or left), or
column half right (or half left), 3. March, 4. Gttide right (or
left).
At the second command, the chief of the leading battery com-
mands: Right turn, or, Right half tiirn. At the third command,
repeated by this chief, the leading battery executes the change of
direction as prescribed in paragraph 518, "School of the Battery";
the other batteries move forward and change direction on the same
ground as the first.
If marching, to change direction, the first and fourth commands
are omitted.
559. When marching in column, and the direction is to be changed
to the right (or left); at the preparatory command, the guidon of
the first battery places himself on the left and abreast of the leaders
UNITED STATES NAVY. 71$
of the first section, if in column of sections, or abreast of the leaders
of the left section of the leading subdivision, if in column of pla-
toons or batteries, and one pace from them. At the command march,
the leading subdivision changes direction, the guidon halts, faces the
new direction, and remains in this position until his battery has
passed, when he is relieved by the guidon of the succeeding battery,
and returns to his post in double time. The other batteries march
squarely up to the guidon before changing direction.
From column, to form line to the right or left.
560. Being in column : i. Sections (^platoons or batteries), 2. Right
(or left) turn, 3. March, 4. The second (or such), the battery of
direction; or, 4. Battalioyi, 5. Halt, 6. Right {left or center),
7. Dress.
In forming line to the right or left, great care will be observed in
maintaining the proper intervals between sections and batteries.
From column, to form on the right or left into line.
561. Being at a halt: i. On right (or left) into line, 2. March,
3. Guide right (or left).
At the first command, the chiefs of batteries in rear of the first
command : Forward, and repeat the second and third commands.
At the second command, the first battery forms line to the right,
marches battery distance to the front, halts, and dresses to the right.
The other batteries march beyond the first, each chief in succession
forming line to the right when his battery is opposite its place in
line.
If marching, the chief of battalion orders the guide to the flank
toward which the movement is to be executed, and gives the com-
mands as before ; the chiefs of the rear batteries omit the command
forward.
If it be desirable to open fire at once, the chief of battalion will
command : In battery, when the first battery arrives in line, and
then commands: Commence firing. The other batteries imme-
diately take the double time, and, when in line, go ^>^ battery and
commence firing at will, in succession, by command of their respec-
tive chiefs.
From column, to form line to the front.
562. Being at a halt: i. Right {ox left) front into line, 2. March.
If in column of sections or platoons, the chief of the first battery
7l6 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
repeats both commands. At the first command, the chief of the
second battery commands : i. Forward, 2. Column right; the other
chiefs of battery command: i. Forward, 2. Column half right ; and
all repeat the command march, at which the first battery executes
right front into line, and dresses toward \\ie point of rest ; the chiefs
of the other batteries conduct them opposite the left of their places
in line, then command: i. Column left (or half leff), 2. March,
and, when near the line, command : i. Right front into line,
2. March, and dress to the left in succession.
If in column of batteries: at the first command, the chief of the
first battery commands : Forward ; the chiefs of the other batteries
command : Right (or left) oblique. All the chiefs of battery repeat
the second command, at which the leading battery marches to the
front half battery distance with the guide left, and is then halted, the
guide section being advanced two paces and the battery dressed to
the left. The other batteries are obliqued to the right until opposite
their places in line, when they are advanced to the front and halted
two paces in rear of the line, then dressed to the left in succession.
If marching, the coxiwrnwdi forward is omitted.
The batteries may be formed iji battery, in succession, and fire
opened as prescribed in paragraph 561.
Echelon.
563. Being in line, at a halt, to advance by echelon : i. Batteries
from the right (or left), 2. At {so many) paces distance, 3. Front into
echelon, 4. March.
At the fourth command, the right battery moves forward with
guide to the right ; when it has advanced the specified distance, the
chief of the second battery puts his battery in march with the guide
to the right, and so on to the left of the line. The guidon of each
rear battery marches on a line with the leaders, battery interval to
the right of them, and directly in rear of the left section of the battery
preceding.
If marching, the right battery continues the march ; the other
batteries are halted by their chiefs and the march is resumed when
at the specified distance.
Marching in echelon, the leading battery is always the battery of
direction.
564. The pieces are placed in battery in echelon by the same
commands and means as prescribed in the " School of the Battery."
UNITED STATES NAVY. 7 17
The firing maybe executed by battery, by section, or by platoon in
each battery, or at will.
565. The squads of riflemen composing the support are man-
oeuvred as in the " School of the Battery."
To dismiss the battalion.
566. The chief of battalion commands: Dismiss the batteries.
Each chief of battery marches his command to its parade ground
and dismisses it.
REVIEW OF A BATTALION.
567. The reviewing officer takes his post in front of the center of
the battalion, the point being indicated by a camp color previously
established by the adjutant; the adjutant also marks with camp
colors the points where the column will have to change direction in
order that the right flank in passing shall be six or eight paces from
the reviewing officer.
The battalion being in line, the chief of battalion, in front of and
facing the center, commands :
I. Prepare for review, 2. To the front in battery, 3, March, 4. Crews
to the rear, 5. March, 6. Open ranks, 7. March.
At the third command, the pieces and ammunition boxes, with lids
opened, will be accurately aligned under the supervision of each chief
of battery. At the fifth command, the chiefs of platoon take post
two paces in front of the line of muzzles, midway between their
pieces ; the chiefs of section one pace in front of the center of their
crews; the chiefs of battery three paces in front of the chiefs of
platoon, midway between them.
At the seventh command, the ranks are opened ; the chief of bat-
talion superintends the alignment of the battery officers and the front
rank; the adjutant the rear rank, the line of file closers, and verifies
the alignment of ammunition boxes, calling upon any second petty
officer to rectify the position of the boxes of his section, if necessary.
The chief of battalion, seeing the ranks, pieces, and boxes aligned,
returns to the right of the line of chiefs of battery, faces to the left,
and commands: Front; and, passing in front of the' chiefs of bat-
tery to the center, places himself, facing to the front, twenty paces in
front of and opposite the center of the battalion. The reviewing
officer now approaches a few paces toward the chief of battalion and
halts, when the latter faces about and commands :
7l8 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
I. Present, 2. Arms.
At the second command, the officers and those numbers armed
with r\?iQs present arms ; the color also salutes, should the rank of
the reviewing officer entitle him to it, in which case the band, buglers,
or field music sound a march, flourishes, or ruffles, according to his
rank; arms having been presented, the chief of battalion faces about
and salutes.
The reviewing officer acknowledges the salute by touching or
raising his hat, after which the chief of battalion faces about and
brings the battalion to order arms.
The chief of battalion then joins the reviewing officer, who pro-
ceeds to the right of the music, and, passing in front of the chiefs of
battery to the left of the line, returns to the right, passing in rear of
the ammunition boxes, inspecting their condition.
When the reviewing officer is going around the battalion, the band
plays, ceasing when he leaves the right of the band to return to his
station ; the chief of battalion returns to his post in front of the center,
and commands:
I. Close ranks, 2. March, 3. Man the drags, 4. March, 5. Sections
right about, 6. March.
The battalion now being in line, drags manned, facing to the front,
the chief of battalion commands:
I. Platoons right turn, 2. March, 3. Battalion, 4. Halt.
At the second command, the battalion breaks into column of
platoons ; at the fourth command, the chiefs of battery place them-
selves at the head of their batteries, three paces in front of the chief
of the first platoon. The adjutant and chief petty officer take post
six paces from the left flank of the column, the former abreast of the
leaders of the first platoon of the first battery, the latter abreast of
the leaders of the second platoon of the rear battery. The staff
officers take post six paces in front of the leading platoon, at equal
intervals apart, the senior ahead of the leaders of the first section, the
junior ahead of the leaders of the second section. The band takes
post ten paces in front of the staffi
The chief of battalion then commands:
I. Pass in review, 2. Forward, 3. Guide right, 4. March.
At.the fourth command, the column steps off, the officers remaining
in the positions above described, the band playing; the column
UNITED STATES NAVY. 7^9
changes direction, without command, at the points indicated, the
chief of battahon taking his place six paces in front of the staff
immediately after the second change; the band, after passing the
reviewing officer, turns to the left out of column, and takes post in
front of and facing the reviewing officer, where it remains till the rear
of the column has passed, when it countermarches and returns to its
place before the review, ceasing to play as the battalion approaches
its original position.
The chief of battalion and staff, except the adjutant, salute together
when the chief of battalion is at six paces from the reviewing officer,
and return to the carry together when he has marched six paces
beyond him. The other officers and the chief petty officer salute
and return to the carry at the points prescribed for the chief of bat-
talion. In saluting, all officers turn the head and look toward the
reviewing officer.
If entitled to a salute from the color, the color salutes when at six
paces from the reviewing officer, and is raised when six paces beyond
him ; as the colors salute, the buglers or field music sound a march,
flourishes, or ruffles, according to his rank, the band continuing to
play. The guidons salute by lowering and raising their flags at the
points prescribed for the colors.
The reviewing officer acknowledges only the salute of the chief of
battalion and the color.
The chief of battalion having saluted, places himself on the right
of the reviewing officer, where he remains until the rear of the bat-
tahon has passed, when he rejoins his command. The head of
column having executed a second change of direction to the left,
after having passed the reviewing officer, the chief of battalion com-
mands : Guide left; and when it arrives on the original ground, forms
line to the left, dresses to the right, and commands :
I. Present, 2. Swords.
He then faces about and salutes the reviewing officer; the
acknowledgment of the salute by the reviewing officer terminates
the review.
Should it be desirable to march past the reviewing officer again,
and in double time, instead of changing the guide and forming line as
above, the chief of battalion commstnds:
I. Double time, 2. March;
and, at the second change of direction, places himself at the head of
720 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
the column. The band, previously notified, remains in position
opposite the reviewing officer, and plays in double time.
In passing in review in double time, there is no saluting ; the chief
of battalion having passed the reviewing officer, places himself on his
right, and the review is concluded as already explained.
After the review, the chief of battalion causes the battalion to per-
form such manoeuvres as the reviewing officer may direct.
When a battalion is reviewed before an inspector junior in rank to
the commanding officer, the latter will receive the review, and will be
accompanied by the inspector.
568. When artillery is reviewed in line with infantry, the axles of
the pieces are dressed on the front rank of the infantry; the chiefs of
platoon place themselves on the line of company officers, the chiefs
of battery on the line of field officers. In line, the infantry is on the
right, and on the march its position is at the head of the column.
569. The formation of batteries without pieces is precisely the
same as for a battalion of infantry, the platoons taking the place of
companies.
Parades, reviews, and inspections of batteries or battalions of artil-
lery, without pieces, are the same as prescribed for a battalion of
infantry. The parades are always without pieces.
MANUAL OF THE SWORD.
570. The sword being sheathed: i. Draw, 2. Swords.
At the first command, grasp the scabbard with the left hand at
the upper band, seize the grip with the right hand, and draw the
blade six inches out of the scabbard, pressing the scabbard against
the thigh with the left hand. At the second command, draw the
sword quickly, raising the arm to its full extent, at an angle of about
forty-five degrees, the sword in a straight line with the arm ; hook
up the scabbard with the thumb and the first two fingers of the
left hand, thumb through the upper ring, fingers supporting it,
and drop the left hand by the side ; at the same time bring the
back of the blade against the shoulder, the blade vertical, back of the
grip to the rear, the arm nearly extended, the thumb and forefinger
embracing the grip, the thumb against the thigh, the other fingers
extended and joined in the rear of the grip. This is the position of
carry.
^"ji. Officers unhook the sword before mounting, and, in the first
UNITED STATES NAVY. 7'2I
motion of draw swords, reach with the right hand over the bridle
hand, and, without the aid of the bridle hand, draw the sword as
before ; the right hand, in the position of carry, rests on the right
thigh.
When the sword knot is worn, the right wrist may be placed in it
before grasping the grip.
572. Being at the carry or order: i. Present, 2. Swords.
At the first command, carry the sword to the front, point up, rais-
ing the hand as high as the neck, and six inches in front of it, the
thumb on the back of the grip, back of the grip to the right, elbow
close to the body, the blade inclined slightly to the front.
At the second command, drop the point of the sword by extending
the arm, so that the right hand may be brought to the side of the
right thigh, the back of the hand down, the blade inclining down-
ward and to the front.
Officers and petty officers will not execute the />r^j<?w/ except when
arms are presented as a salute.
573. When arms are ordered, officers and petty staff officers drop
the points of their swords, the back of the hand up. At parade rest,
they clasp the hands in front of the body, the left hand uppermost,
the point of the sword between the feet. When the men's pieces
are brought from the order ox present \.o any other position in the
manual, swords are held at the carry.
574. In marching in double time, the sword is carried diagonally
across the breast, edge to the front, the point in front of and at the
height of the left shoulder ; the left hand steadies the scabbard.
575. At funeral ceremonies, the sword is reversed under the right
arm, the left hand clasping the blade behind the back.
576. Officers on all duties under arms draw and return sword with-
out waiting for any command. All commands to men under arms
are given with the sword drawn.
In route marches, the sword is carried in the scabbard.
577. Staff petty officers, with swords drawn, salute by executing
the first motion oipreseiit swords, as explained for officers.
This position is taken at inspection, and the wrist turned outward
to show the flat of the sword toward the face.
578. Being at the carry : i. Return, 2. Swords.
At the first command, take the position of the first motion of
present swords ; at the same time unhook and lower the scabbard
with the left hand, and grasp it at the upper band. At the second
722 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
command, carry the right hand opposite and six inches from the left
shoulder; lower the blade and pass it across and along the left arm,
the point to the rear; turn the head slightly to the left, fixing the
eyes on the opening of the scabbard, insert and return the blade in
the scabbard ; free the wrist from the sword knot, if worn, look to the
front, and drop the right hand by the side; at the same time hook
up the sword with the left hand, turning the sword toward the body,
the guard to the rear, and drop the left hand by the side.
Mounted officers return swords without using the left hand ; the
sword is hooked up on dismounting.
COLOR SALUTE.
579. The heel of the lance is supported at the right hip ; the right
hand grasps the staff at the height of the shoulder.
To salute : Slip the right hand along the staff to the height of the
eye ; incline the staff to the front by straightening the arm to its
full extent ; then bring it back to its habitual position.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE DRUM MAJOR.
■ 580. The position of the drum major is two paces in front of the
band or field music, opposite its center.
Position of the staff.
The staff is held in the right hand, below the chin, the back of the
hand to the front, the head of the staff near the hand, the ferrule
pointing upward and to the right. After each signal, the staff is
restored to this position.
Signals of the drum major.
581. To play : Face toward the music, and extend the right arm
to its full length in the direction of the staff.
To cease playing : Extend the right arm to its full length in the
direction of the staff.
To march : Turn the wrist and bring the staff to the front, the
ferrule pointing upward and to the front ; extend the arm to its full
length in the direction of the staff.
To halt: Reverse the staff and hold it horizontally above the
head with both hands, the arms extended; lower the staff with both
hands to a horizontal position at the height of the hips.
UNITED STATES NAVY. 723
To countermarch : Face the band and give the signal to march.
The countermarch is executed by the file leaders to the right of
the drum major wheeling individually about to the right, those to
the left to the left; the other men of each file follow their file leaders.
The drum major passes through the center.
To oblique : Bring the staff to a horizontal position, the head
opposite the neck, the ferrule pointing in the direction the oblique is
to be made ; extend the arm to its full length in the direction of the
staff.
To march by the right flank : Extend the arm to the right, the
staff vertical, the ferrule upward, the back of the hand to the rear.
To march by the left flank : Extend the arm to the left, the staff
vertical, the ferrule upward, the back of the hand to the front.
To diminish front : Let the ferrule fall into the left hand at the
height of the eyes, the right hand at the height of the hip.
To increase front : Let the ferrule fall into the left hand at the
height of the hip, the right hand at the height of the neck.
The general : Bring the staff to a vertical position, the hand oppo-
site the neck, the back of the hand to the front, the ferrule pointing
upward.
The assembly : Bring the staff to a horizontal position, the hand
opposite the neck, the back of the hand down, the ferrule pointing
to the front.
To the color : Bring the staff to a horizontal position at the height
of the neck, the back of the hand to the rear, the ferrule pointing to
the left.
In marching, the drum major beats the time with his staff and
supports the left hand at the hip, fingers in front, thumb to the rear.
The drum major, before making his report at parade, salutes by
bringing his staff to a vertical position, the head of the staff up and
opposite the left shoulder.
The drum major marching in review, passes the staff between the
right arm and the body, the head to the front, and then salutes with
the left hand.
In opening ranks, each rank of the band takes the distance of
three paces from the rank next in front.
When the field music is by itself, the buglers are in front ; in the
field music of a company, the bugler is on the right of the drummer.
724 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
SIGNALS.
582. The following signals are used alone, or in conjunction with
verbal commands or bugle calls. The whistle call, to fix the atten-
tion, may precede the signal.
In making the signals, the sword, rifle, or head dress may be held
in the hand ; when the sword is so used, it is in prolongation of the
arm.
Forward : Raise the arm until horizontal, extended to the front;
at the same time move to the front.
Right oblique : Raise the arm until horizontal, extended obliquely
to the right ; at the same time move in that direction.
Left oblique : Same to the left.
By the right flank : Raise the arm until horizontal, extended to
the right ; at the same time move to the right.
By the left flank : Same to the left.
To the rear : Face to the rear, raise the arm until horizontal,
extended to the rear ; at the same time move to the rear.
Cha7ige direction to the right or left : Raise the arm until hori-
zontal, extended toward the marching flank ; carry the arm hori-
zontally to the front and right or left, at the same time facing and
moving in the direction to be taken.
To extend : Raise both arms until horizontal ; extend laterally.
Halt : Raise the arm vertically to its full extent.
Assemble : Raise the arm vertically to its full extent and slowly
describe small horizontal circles.
Rally : Raise the arm vertically to its full extent and circle it very
rapidly.
Cease firing : A whistle call. This signal is also used to fix the
attention.
HONORS.
583. The President is saluted with the highest honors, all standards
and colors drooping, officers and men saluting, bands, buglers, or field
music sounding the national air.
The Vice-President, members of the Cabinet, theChief Justice, the
Speaker of the House of Representatives, and Governors within their
respective States and Territories are received with standards and
colors drooping, officers and men saluting; buglers sounding four
flourishes, or drums beating four ruffles, then the band playing a
march.
UNITED STATES NAVY, ^2$
An Admiral is received with the same honors as are paid to the
Vice-President.
A Vice- Admiral is received with the same honors as are paid to an
Admiral, except that the number of flourishes or ruffles shall be
three.
A Rear-Admiral is received with the same honors as are paid to a
Vice-Admiral, except that the number of flourishes or ruffles shall
be two.
A Commodore is received with the same honors as are paid to a
Rear-Admiral, except that the number of flourishes or ruffles shall
be one.
584. Officers of the Army, Marine Corps, Volunteers, and Militia
in the service of the United States, and officers of foreign services, are
received with the honors due to their corresponding rank.
585. No honors are paid when on route marches.
Officers under arms salute with the sword or hand, according as
the sword is drawn or sheathed.
Officers salute with the sword or hand in making and receiving
official reports, the junior making the first salute.
586. A petty officer or man in command of a detachment brings
his detachment to attention and salutes all officers with the hand, if
unarmed ; with the rt/Ie salute, if armed.
No salutes are rendered when marching in double lime.
Petty officers or men armed with the rifle, when out of ranks and
not file closers, salute with the rifle salute.
A petty officer or man, being seated and without particular occu-
pation, rises on the approach of an officer, faces toward him and
salutes; if standing, he faces toward the officer for the same purpose.
If the parties remain in the same place or on the same ground, such
compliments need not be repeated.
If actually at work, men do not cease their occupation to salute an
officer unless addressed by him.
A petty officer or man, with rifle or drawn sword, makes the pre-
scribed salute with the rifle or sword before addressing an officer ;
he also makes the same salute after receiving the reply. A petty
officer or man, with sword or bayonet in the scabbard, and when
unarmed, salutes with the hand.
587. An officer mounted dismounts before addressing a superior
officer not mounted.
588. When an officer enters a room where there are men, attention
726 INSTRUCTIONS FOR INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY,
is called by some one who perceives him, when all rise, remain
standing in the position of attention, and preserve silence until the
officer leaves the room ; if at meals, they will not rise.
589. Men at all times, and in all situations, pay the same compli-
ments to ( fficers of the Army, Navy, and Marines, and to all officers
of the Volunteers and Militia in the service of the United States, as to
officers of the command to which they belono^.
590. Officers in civilians' dress are saluted in the same manner as
when in uniform.
591. Officers will at all times acknowledge the courtesies of enlisted
men.
BUGLE SIGNALS.
592. The assembly of buglers is the signal for the buglers to
assemble ; it precedes reveille, retreat, and tattoo by such interval as
may be prescribed by the commanding officer ; it is also the first
signal for all ceremonies.
When there is to be dress parade or guard mounting, the signal
for dress parade or guard mounting'vs, sounded immediately after the
asse?nbly of buglers.
The assembly is the signal for forming the company in ranks and
calling the roll ; it is usually sounded five minutes after the termina-
tion of reveille, drill call, and tattoo. It is also sounded after the
signal for such other duties as require company roll call.
In large camps, marches are played in the streets, or in front of the
quarters between the assembly oj buglers and the reveille and tattoo.
When marches are played before the reveille O-nd. tattoo, the assembly
may be sounded immediately after the reveille and tattoo.
The assembly precedes the retreat, the interval between them being
only that required for formation and roll call, except when there is
dress parade.
Assembly of guard details is the signal for the details to form in
ranks on their company parade grounds.
Adjutant" s call is the signal for companies and guard details to
assemble on the camp parade ground.
The general is the signal for packing up effects, striking tents,
and loading wagons, preparatory to marching.
To arins is the signal for men to turn out under arms, with the
least practicable delay, on their company parade grounds.
Assembly, reveille, retreat, tattoo, adjutant's call, to the color, the
UNITED STATES NAVY, 72/
flourishes, and the marches are sounded by all the buglers united ;
the other camp calls, as a general rule, are sounded by the bugler of
the guard.
The signals for drill movements include both the preparatory
commands and the commands of execution.
The drill signals are taught in succession, a few at a time, until all
the officers and men are thoroughly familiar with them, some drills
being specially devoted to this purpose.
When a command is given by the bugle, the chiefs of subdivision
give the proper commands orally. In the evolutions of large bodies
of troops the subordinate commanders cause their buglers to repeat
the signals of the chief bugler, who accompanies the commanding
officer.
The memorizing of these signals will be facilitated by observing
that all movements to the right are on the ascending chord, that the
corresponding movements to the left are corresponding signals on
the descending chord ; and that the changes of gait are all upon the
same note.
BUGLE SIGNALS.
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BUGLE SIGNALS.
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739
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6S4. Forward.
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BUGLE SIGNALS.
625. Hatt.
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626. Quick time.
Slow. ^
627. Double time.
Slow.
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628. Cliarge.
Repeat at will.
ffl'9. Guide Eight.
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BUGLE SIGNALS.
741
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639. Left Oblique.
Slow.
640. Bight Front into Line.
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BUGLE SIGNALS.
641. Left Front into Line.
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743
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BUGLE SIGNALS.
656. Lie Down.
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662. In Battery.
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Definitions
General Regulations.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
S70
572
INFANTRY.
General Rules 575
School of the Squad.
Individual instruction without arms 576
Position of attention ' 576
The rests 577
To dismiss the squad 577
Facings 577
Salute with the hand 577
Setting up (eighteen exercises) 578
The steps 582
Close order 584
To form the squad , 585
Alignments 585
Marchings 586
Turnings 588
Manual of arms 589
The firings 597
Bayonet exercise „ 602
School of the Company.
Posts of officers, petty officers, and field music 607
To form the company , 608
Alignments 609
To open ranks , 609
To close ranks 609
To dismiss the company 610
General rules 610
To form column of fours and march by the flank 610
To change direction 611
To march to the front in column of fours 611
To change the file closers from one flank to the other 612
To march to the rear 612
To form line from column of fours 612
Column of twos 613
Movements by sections 613
Route step 617
To march at ease 617
746 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
School of the Battalion. Page
Formation of the battalion 618
The color guard 6i8
Posts of officers and petty officers 618
Post of the band and field music 619
To form the battalion 619
To open ranks 621
To close ranks 621
To fire by company 622
The rests 622
To dismiss the battalion 622
To march in line 622
To march the battalion to the rear 623
To align the battalion 623
To give the battalion a general alignment 623
To pass obstacles 624
To form column of fours by the flank 624
To change the file closers from one flank to the other 624
To form line to the right or left 624
General rules for successive formations 624
To form front into line 625
To form column of companies to the right or left, and halt 625
To form column of companies without halting 625
To march in column of companies 625
To change direction in column of companies 626
To put the column in march and change direction at the same time.. . 626
To form the column of companies to the right or left into line 626
To form front into line from column of companies 626
To change front 627
To advance in line of columns 627
To change direction in line of columns -. 627
To form line from line of columns 627
To form front into line of columns from column of fours 627
Marching in line of columns, to march in column of companies to the
right or left 628
To march in line of columns to the right or left from column of
companies.
628
Marching in column of fours, to march in line of columns to the right
or left, and march again in column of fours 628
From column of companies, to form column of fours, and to form
again in column of companies 628
Advancing in line of columns, to close or extend intervals 628
In line of columns, to close or extend intervals without gaining
ground to the front 629
Formation in close column 629
In close column, to take full distance 629
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 747
School of the Battalion — continued. Page
From line, to ploy into close column 630
In close column, to form column of fours 630
To march in close column 631
To deploy the close column 631
Movements by section 631
To march in route step and at ease 631
Evolutions of the Brigade.
General rules 632
Posts of the pioneers and band 632
Posts of the chief of brigade and staff 633
To advance in line 633
To give a general alignment to the brigade 633
To form in two lines to the right or left from column of fours 633
General rules for successive formations 634
To form on the right or left into line from column 634
To form front into line from column 634
To form front into line, in two lines, from column 634
EXTENDED ORDER.
General Principles 635
School of the Squad.
General rules 636
To deploy as skirmishers 636
To increase or diminish intervals between skirmishers 636
Marchings 637
To rally and deploy 637
The assembly 637
Rules for firing 637
Firings 638
Instruction on varied ground 639
Use of cover 640
Battle exercises 641
School of the Company.
Line of squads • 642
From line, to form line of squads 642
From column of fours, to form line of squads 643
In line of squads, to deploy as skirmishers 643
From line, to deploy the company as skirmishers 643
To increase or diminish intervals between squads 643
To assemble 643
Marchings, in line of squads or skirmishers 644
To change direction in line of squads 644
To deploy by sections °44
Firings ^44
To fire volleys by section or squad 644
748 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
School of the Company — continued. Page
To reinforce the firing line 645
To rally 645
Battle formation 645
Positions and duties of officers 646
The company in battalion on the offensive 646
Relieving the firing line 648
The company acting independently, offensive 648 .
The company in battalion on the defensive 648
The company acting independently, defensive 649
Action against cavalry 649
Defense and attack of artillery 650
School of the Battalion.
Deployment 650
The advance 651
Assemblying and rallying 651
General rules 651
The battalion in brigade, offensive 652
The battalion acting independently, offensive 653
The battalion in brigade, defensive 653
The battalion acting independently, defensive 654
The battalion as advance guard of a brigade 655
The battalion as rear guard of a brigade 655
Defense and attack of artillery 656
Night operations 656
The Brigade in Battle Formation 657
FORMATION FOR STREET RIOTS.
General rules 657
To protect the flanks 658
To form battalion square : 658
Marching in column of companies, to protect flanks at street crossings, 659
To reform the company in column 659
From column of sections, to form company square 659
Marching in company square, to form for clearing a street 660
To form line from formation for clearing a street 660
From company square, to form column of sections , 660
From company square, to form line 661
Artillery 661
CEREMONIES.
Dress parade of a battalion 661
Undress parade 664
Review of a battalion 665
Inspection of a battalion 668
Dress parade of a brigade 670
Guard mounting 672
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 749
ARTILLERY. Page
General Rules 678
School of the Section.
To sling and unsling arms for dragmen 679
To form the crew 680
To form crew to the front, drag being manned 680
To man the drag, from crew to the front 680
To form crew to the rear, drag being manned 681
To man the drag, from crew to the rear 681
To prepare the piece for action to the front 681
To prepare the piece for action to the rear 682
Special duties of numbers when in battery, 3-inch B. L, R 682
Special duties of numbers when in battery, i-pounder Hotchkiss .... 684
Special duties of numbers when in battery, Gatling 685
To form crew to the rear when in battery 686
To resume stations in battery, from crew to the rear 686
To secure the piece when in battery 686
To man the drag when in battery 686
To fire to the rear, right, or left when in battery 687
To march to the front or to the rear 687
To move the piece a short distance to the rear 687
To halt 687
The rests 687
To change direction 688
To make a slight change of direction 688
To ascend or descend a steep incline 688
Disabled wheel 688
To dismount the piece 688
To mount the piece 689
To disable the piece 690
To disperse the crew, and to assemble 690
To dismiss the section 690
Service of the piece in boats, 3-inch B. L. R 691
Service of the piece in boats, i-pounder Hotchkiss 692
Service of the piece in boats, Gatling 693
Disembarkation of the piece, 3-inch B. L. R 694
Disembarkation of the piece, i -pounder Hotchkiss 694
Disembarkation of the piece, Gatling 695
School of the Battery.
General rules 696
Posts of officers and petty officers in line 696
Posts of of6cers and petty officers in column 697
Posts of officers and petty officers in battery 697
To form the battery 697
To align the battery 697
750 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
School of the Battery — continued. Page
To form crews to the front 698
To form column of sections to the right or left 698
To form column of platoons to the right or left 698
To march to the front in column of sections from line 698
To march to the front in column of platoons from line 699
To put the column of sections in march and change direction 699
To put the column of platoons in march and change direction 699
To make a slight change of direction -. 700
To form column of platoons from column of sections 700
To form column of sections from column of platoons 700
To halt the column and put it in march 701
The about 701
To oblique 701
To resume the direct march 702
To close or extend intervals and distances 702
To march by the flank 702
From column, to form line to the front, right, or left 703
From line, to change direction 703
Passage of obstacles 703
From line, to form in battery 703
To change the fire to the right or left by the front or rear 704
To change the fire to the right or left on the center 704
To fire by section, platoon, or battery 704
To form echelon to the front or rear 705
From echelon, to form line to the front or rear 706
Koute marches 706
To rest the battery 707
To dismiss the battery 707
Inspection of a Battery 707
School of the Battalion.
General rules 708
Posts of officers, petty officers, and field music in line 709
Posts of officers, petty officers, and field music in column 709
To form the battalion 710
The color guard 711
To align the battalion, or give it a general alignment 712
To march in line 713
To close or extend intervals between batteries in line 713
To close or extend intervals between the sections of a battalion inline 713
From line, to form column of batteries to the right or left 714
From line, to march to the front in column of batteries 714
To put the column of batteries in march and change direction 714
From column, to form line to the right or left ' 715
From column, to form on the right or left into line 715
From column, to form line to the front 715
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 751
School of the Battai^xon— continued. Page
Echelon 716
To dismiss the battalion ^ . . . . 717
Review of a Battalion 717
Manual of the Sword 720
Color Salute 722
Instructions for the Drum Major 722
Signals ." 724
Honors 724
Bugle Signals 726
SPECIAL NOTICE.
NAVAL INSTITUTE PRIZE ESSAY, 1892.
A prize of one hundred dollars, with a gold medal, is offered by the Naval
Institute for the best essay presented on any subject pertaining to the naval
profession, subject to the following rules :
1. The award for the Prize shall be made by the Board of Control, voting by
ballot and without knowledge of the names of the competitors.
2. Each competitor to send his essay in a sealed envelope to the Secretary
and Treasurer on or before January i, 1892. The name of the writer shall
not be given in this envelope, but instead thereof a motto. Accompanying the
essay a separate sealed envelope will be sent to the Secretary and Treasurer,
with the motto on the outside and writer's name and motto inside. This
envelope is not to be opened until after the decision of the Board.
3. The successful essay to be published in the Proceedings of the Institute;
and the essays of other competitors, receiving honorable mention, to be pub-
lished also, at the discretion of the Board of Control ; and no change shall be
made in the text of any competitive essay, published in the Proceedings of
the Institute, after it leaves the hands of the Board.
4. Any essay not having received honorable mention, may be published
also, at the discretion of the Board of Control, but only with the consent of
the author.
5. The essay is limited to fifty (50) printed pages of the Proceedings
of the Institute.
6. All essays submitted must be either type-written or copied in a clear and
legible hand.
7. The successful competitor will be made a Life Member of the Institute.
8. In the event of the Prize being awarded to the winner of a previous year,
a gold clasp, suitably engraved, will be given in lieu of a gold medal.
By direction of 5oard of Control.
H. G. Dresel,
Ensign, U. S. N., Secretary and Treasurer,
Annapolis, Md., February 13, 1891.
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